Full text of The Merchants' Magazine and Commercial Review : March 1845, Vol. XII, No. III

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THE

MERCHANTS’ MAGAZINE,
E s ta b lis lie d J u l y , 1 8 3 9 ,

BY FREEMAN HUNT, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR,
VOLUME XII.

MARCH,

CONTENTS

1845.

N U M BER III.

O F NO. I l l , V OL. X I I .
ARTI CLES.

ART.

I.

II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.

PAOE.

The Consular System o f the United States— Origin and Objects o f the Consular
System— Present System, and its E vils, etc. A Letter to the Editor. By C.
E dwards L ester, United States Consul at Genoa,............................................... 211
The Iron Trade. By E. A. J., Merchant, of New Y ork,.................................. 224
Resources o f Pennsylvania........................................................................................... 237
Wheaton's Law o f Nations.,....................................................................................... 255
Reciprocity Treaties, and Commercial Intercourse with the British Colonies. By
H enry G. R ice, Merchant, of Massachusetts,.................................................... 262
Mercantile Biography : Jacob Leisler, the New York Merchant. By E rnest
E lfenstein, ..................................................
266

M E R C A N T I L E LAW D E P A R T M E N T .
Policy of Insurance—Owners and Underwriters,............................................................ 273
Promissory Notes—Insolvent Law of Massachusetts,..................................................... 276

MONTHLY C O MME R CI A L C H R O N I C L E ,
imbracing a financial and commercial review of the united states, etc., illustrated
with tables, as follows :

Export Cotton Goods, and Price in Great Britain of Power Loom Cloth, W ater Twist,
and Upland Cotton, in Liveipool,..................................................................................
Import of Goods, (monthly,) and Duties collected at the Port of New York, in 1844,
Specie in the Vaults, and Loans of New York City Banks, from 1843 to 1845,....
Debts of each State, with the Revenue, Expenditure, etc., in 1844............................
Public Debt of Pennsylvania,..............................................................................................
Financial Affairs of Illinois, in 1844,.................................................................................
Currency and Circulation of Indiana,................................................................................
Prices and Value of the Loading Stocks in the New York market,............................
Prices and Value of United States, State, and City Stocks, in 1844............................
Prices and Value of Railroad and other Stocks, in 1844,...............................................
Prices and Value of Bank Stocks, each month of 1844,...............................................
Insurance Stocks—Prices and Value each month of 1844,...........................................
VOL. X I I .----N O . I I I .




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277
278
278
279
280
281
281
282
283
284
285
285

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Table o f Contents,
PAGB.

MERCANTILE MISCELLANIES.
Mercantile Library Company of Philadelphia,.................................................................. 287
The Upright Business Man,................................................................................................ 288

COMMERCIAL REGULATIONS.
Treaty of Wang-Heya, between China and the United States,..................................... 288

R A I L R O A D AND S T E A M B O A T S T A T I S T I C S .
Steamboat3 built in Cincinnati, in 1843 and 1844,.......................................................... 290
Statistics of the Boston and Lowell Railroad,.................................................................. 291
English and American Railways,....................................................................................... 293

COMMERCIAL STATISTICS.
Exports of Sugar, Coffee, Tobacco, Honey, Beeswax, and Spirits, from Havana, in
each year, from 1833 to 1844,.........................................................................................
Commercial Navigation of Havana, in 1843 and 1844,.................................................
Imports of New York, in each quarter of 1844,..............................................................
Commerce, Debt, and Resources of Texas,......................................................................
Imports and Exports to and from Texas, from 1837 to 1843,......................................
Imports of Cotton into the United States from Texas, from 1836 to 1843,.................
Commerce of Galveston, from 1843 to 1844,..................................................................
Foreign Commerce of Mobile, in 1844,.............................................................................
Imports of Merchandise from Foreign Ports into Mobile, in 1844,.............................
Export of Tea from China to Great Britain, from July 1, 1843, to June 30, 1844,..
Manufacturing Dividends in New England,....................................................................
Mackerel Fishery of Massachusetts, from 1831 to 1844,...............................................
Imports of Iron and Steel into the United States, from 1828 to 1844,........................
Anthracite Coal sent to market, from 1820 to 1844,........................................................
Number and Product of Iron-Works in Pennsylvania, in 1842,..................................
Iron of every description shipped at offices in Pennsylvania, in 1843 and 1844,.......
Coal imported into the United States, from 1821 to 1842,.............................................

294
295
295
296
296
296
297
298
298
299
299
300
236
244
246
247
252

T H E BOOK T R A D E .
Izard’s Correspondence—Hood’s Whimsicalities,............................................................
Child’s (Mrs.) Flowers for Children—Juvenile Books,...................................................
Cobb’s New North American Reader,...............................................................................
Bacon’s Sacred Flora—Chapin’s Hours of Communion,...............................................
Barrington’s Irish Nation—M’Donald’s (Mrs.) Fanny Herbert,....................................
Jarvis’s Chronological History of the Church,..................................................................
Turner’s Essays on the “ Real Presence,”.......................................................................
Lanman’s Letters from a Landscape Painter,...................................................................
Lamb’s Mrs. Leicester’s School,..........................................................................................
Gillespie’s Rome—Pycroft’s Course of English Reading,..............................................
Works of Charlotte Elizabeth—Reformers before the Reformation, etc., etc.,...........




301
301
302
302
302
303
303
303
303
304
304

HU N T ’S

MERCHANTS’ MAGAZINE.
M ARCH,

1845.

Aet. I.—the consular system of the united states .
ORIGIN AND OBJECTS OF THE CONSULAR SYSTEM— THE PRESENT SYSTEM AND ITS EYILS, ETC.

As one of the citizens of the United States, participating in its privi­
leges, and jealous of its fame, I cannot express the regret I experienced,
when I learned that Congress had adjourned without enacting into a law,
the bill introduced in the Senate of the United States, by the Hon. James
Semple, to remodel our consular establishment. The abuses of the
present system are so glaring, the subject has been so often and so ably
discussed, facts in such abundance have been collected, the conviction,
that some change ought to take place is so universal, and above all the
whole commercial system of America so imperiously demands a change,
that I can discover no reason to justify Congress in their insensibility
and inaction. A reason undoubtedly exists, and I fear will exist for some
time to come, to the prejudice of our commerce in every part of the world.
I shall endeavor to make this appear, by a statement of a few facts, which
have fallen under my personal observation ; for it is quite impossible, in
the limits of a single letter, to crowd all the considerations which natural­
ly arise in treating of a subject interwoven with all the interests of modern
commerce. And I beg that in the facts I state, and the suggestions they
give rise to, I may not be misunderstood. For after reading Mr. Semple’s
luminous exposition of this matter before the Senate, I should be guilty
of unpardonable presumption, in even hoping to cast any new light upon
the subject. I only wish to illustrate the propositions of the bill, by a few
considerations, which have been the result of my consular experience.
At the same time, I make my apology, for speaking often of myself, in the
words of Sheridan—“ in stating the result of my own experience, I must
often allude to myself.” I ought also to state, that although I now hold a
consulship under our government, I do not seek a reform in the consular
system, with the hope of deriving any advantage from it directly myself,
for no emolument, of a foreign office, could ever make me, for any
length of time, even a voluntary exile from my country. My birth, edu­
cation, tastes and sympathies are American ; and in the luxury, the arts, the




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literature of Europe, I can find no adequate compensation for the associ­
ations of early friendships, and for the consciousness of living under the
shelter of perfect liberty. But I do feel deeply the duty of every man
under a free government, where liberty of thought, and freedom of action,
universally exist, to illuminate every question of public interest with the
lights of his own experience. And who would question even the right of
consuls to complain of the abuses of the system under which they suffer,
in the service of their government, although they sought a change for
their own advantage. As public servants, they feel that they too are en­
titled to their share of the fruits of a free government—at least all those
feel it, who honor their country by their representation. But whatever
inay be the opinions of others, let each man speak his own sentiments.
Let us contemplate—
I. The origin and object of the consular system. We have derived
this term from the ancient Romans. When the Tarquin tyrants were
driven out of Rome, and the commonwealth was founded, the government
of the state was committed to two consuls, who represented the power
and the dignity of the nation, and they were regarded with the greatest
reverence by the people and foreign princes. They were chosen anually by a general election, and for a long period the office w'as filled by the
purest and most illustrious names in Rome. No one could aspire to the
consulship with any hope of success, who had not rendered some signal
service to the state. They held correspondence with kings, and gave au­
dience to foreign ambassadors. Their insignia (with the exception of the
crown) was like that of kings. They had control of the Roman armies,
and led them out to battle. They were the guardians of the public honor,
and public safety, at home and abroad, and so faithfully did they execute
their trust, that it was under their administration, Rome made her name
feared throughout the world. In the latter periods of the republic, consuls
were frequently placed over the government of the provinces, and this
custom prevailed, even under the Empire, until its final downfall. Some
of the most distinguished historians have attributed the glory of Rome to
her consular office, and they tell us that she would sooner have lost her
provinces, but for their administration. The consular office was nearly
or quite blotted out, when the ancient civilization of the Empire was lost,
and during the long night of barbarism, which covered Europe, science,
liberty and commerce were extinguished. But light began to break over
Europe, when the crusades began. Genoa and Venice, in the 12th cen­
tury, divided the commerce of the world. The Ligurian Republic had
been able to resist the rush of barbarians from the north, and had even,
in the 9th century, nearly destroyed the Saracen Empire, in Africa.
More deeply fired with the spirit of maritime adventure than any other
state in the world, she led the way in the commerce of the East, and
closed her magnificent career of discovery with the New World. She
had opened a flourishing commerce with the East before the time of Peter
the Hermit, and she was present at the conquest of Antioch and of Jeru­
salem. The chivalric leaders of those bold enterprises well knew how
much they owed to her valor and commercial power, and the red cross, in
the white field, (the ensign of the Ligurian Republic,) was planted on the
towers of Antioch, and on the walls of Jerusalem. Godfrey, of Bouillon,
and Geoffrey, ordered the following inscription to be placed over the Holy
Sepulchre, “ S trong ho ld of t h e G e n o e s e . ” A s she was in advance of




The Consular System o f the United States.

213

every other maritime power, it is more than probable, she first establish­
ed the consular system of modern Europe. It is quite certain, that before
the first crusade, she had her consuls all over the Mediterranean. For
many ages previous, the only commerce of Europe was a system of freebootery and private plunder. Might made right whenever rivals met,
and this system had not yet entirely disappeared in the 12th century.
The exigencies of her commerce, particularly in the East, demanded the
protection and surveillance of public commercial agents at all the ports
visited by her vessels ; and so essential was the aid derived from resident
consuls, that to them is to be attributed, in no small degree, the rapid ex­
tension of Genoese and Venetian commerce, which at last became so in­
credible. The office of a consul, in those times, was no inconsiderable
matter. No man was thought worthy of so important a trust, who did not
perfectly understand commerce and diplomacy; for to them, treaties of
commerce and international negotiation, involving every question of di­
plomacy, were continually intrusted. They represented the government
that sent them in all its authority and dignity. They were sent to their
destination in public vessels, and maintained at the public expense, and
it became a proverb in the middle ages, throughout the shores of the
Mediterranean, that the Italian consuls were princes. They were pro­
hibited from engaging in speculations or commerce, that they might devote
all their time to their official duties, and be swayed by no private interest
in their negotiations. The early Genoese and Venetian writers tell us
that the consular office was guarded with the utmost jealousy, and looked
upon as the greatest support of their commerce with foreign nations.
And even at a later period, when the rising powers of Europe began to
offer a powerful rivalry to these two states which had so long held sway,
and they sent their ambassadors to foreign courts, they gave them the
most imperious commands to watch over the commerce of their country,
and to concede to other princes nothing that could impair their commer­
cial power or prosperity. The indolent loungers around the courts of
princes were busy in the tricks of courtiers, and negotiations of marriage.
The Genoese and Venetian ambassadors were occupied principally in
promoting their commercial power. And what was the consequence ?
Venice, which had been founded by a few old men and children, who had
fled to a marshy island in the Adriatic, to escape the rage and devastation
of the Northern Barbarians, who were then overrunning Italy, in a few
centuries came to be one of the first powers of Europe. Genoa, which
stands at the head of the Ligurian Sea, hemmed in by overhanging
mountains, the Appenines and the Maritime Alps, which she could not
cross, could hardly get her bread from the barren and rocky hill-sides, and
she was driven out upon the Mediterranean. In the eighth century, she
had reached such a pitch of grandeur and power, that the Pontiff of Rome
appealed to her to undertake a crusade to Corsica, to hurl a blow against
the dreaded power of the Saracens, who, advancing from the African
coast, had already gained a foothold upon the continent of Europe, and
threatened to sweep over it with devastation. The Pontiff'alleged, as
the reason of his demand, that Genoa was more adequate to the enter­
prise than any power in Europe. The event justified bis confidence.
The little city of Genoa drove the Saracens from their hold on the con­
tinent, to the island of Corsica, from Corsica she chased them to Sar.
dinia, from Sardinia she drove them out upon the open sea, and at last




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foil upon the seat of their power in Africa, and laid the capital in the
dust—seized uncounted millions of their treasures, liberated all the Chris­
tian captives they had taken in all their wars, and dragged their dreaded
chief to a prison in Italy. At last the Northern States of Europe began
to feel the maritime enthusiasm of the age, and went forth upon the seas
for discovery and adventure. They finally adopted the commercial sys­
tem of Italy, and in the seventeenth century it became general all over
Europe. But although essential service has been derived from the sys­
tem adopted by England, France and the Germanic States, it was without
a question vastly inferior to that of the Italian Republics. But to it, such
as it has been, and still is, we must attribute no inconsiderable share of
the commercial prosperity of modern states.
The objects contemplated by the modern consular system are nothing
less than the advancement of the prosperity and power of nations. And
in modern times,when commerce has become the great question of govern­
ments, and its prosperity, or decline, an index of the advancement or de­
cadence of nations, it is surely worthy of some consideration from the
government of a Republic, like our own, which to surpass the power and
the civilization of all other nations, needs only to.be guarded by wisdom.
The consul to a foreign nation is sent to be the guardian of all the interests
of his country, and sacred is his trust. This is, or ought to be, his busi­
ness. No pains should be spared, and no exertion or fatigue considered,
which can in any manner result in good to his country. He should fully
understand the structure, the spirit, and the policy of the nation he repre­
sents, and the nation to which he is accredited. He should know their
past commercial history and relations, the origin and progress of their
commerce, and the causes of its advancement or decline. He should
make himself perfectly familiar with the agricultural, the mechanical,
and the maritime power of the country to which he is sent—all its
branches of industry, and all its resources of wealth—how the great sys­
tem of reciprocal barter and exchange is carried on, and how it may be
extended—the defects of commercial treaties, and how they may be
remedied—the branches of commerce, which are sustained by the essential
wants and abundance of the two nations, and have, therefore, a basis for
permanent prosperity, and those which depend upon exaggerated and
ephemeral speculations—what new articles of luxury, or convenience,
may be exchanged—what encouragements given to new fields of industry
and adventure—what new improvements in agriculture, in manufactures,
in science and all the mechanic arts—how the ingenuity of man, in one
country, may administer to the economy of life, in another, and finally,
what fruit can be gathered by his country from the experiments of men
and governments in past ages.
Xhese are the absolute and indespensable objects contemplated by the
consulships, and I have thus far limited them to the bare necessity of the
office. Let us go a step farther, for the consul must not limit himself to
this field.
He is the protector of his countrymen as well as their general interests.
Wherever American consuls are found, there will be found his fellow-citi­
zens, in the pursuit of gain, or intelligence, or pleasure, or they may be
cast upon his charities from the arms of misfortune. It is wasting words
to say, that the consul, who does his duty, will protect his fellow-citizens,
when they appeal to him for defence in a foreign country. He will do




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215

something more if he be a man worthy of his station; he will see that
they travel or live in a foreign country with the same security and peace,
and are treated with all that respect, and allowed to enjoy all that liberty
which the more favored of their own subjects enjoy. Owing to their ig­
norance of the laws, the language, the customs of the country, mistakes
may often arise, which, without explanation or interference, may involve,
them in serious difficulties, expense and dangers ; or it may frequently
happen that the mistakes, the corruption, the insolence or injustice of civil
officers may expose them to a violation of those rights which are secured
by international law, or the courtesy of civilized nations. If there be no
consul on the spot, or he be a dilatory, or ignorant, or selfish man, or if
his influence be small with the government where he lives, or he be dis­
qualified by any circumstance from exercising his consular trusts with
fidelity, wisdom and success, it is certain his countrymen can never reside,
or even travel through that country, with safety.
But he may feel all this, and in a measure do his prescribed duty, yet
his work will be poorly done, unless he inspire respect for his government,
his countrymen and himself, in the country where he dwells. Men, and
particularly civil officers, always presume upon those for whom their supe­
riors do not manifest respect; and the consul, whose ignorance, or ill
breeding, or immorality, or indiscretion, or dishonor, have lost for him
that regard, so essential to his success in all public undertakings, will find
that the power of his government, or the prosperity of its commerce, or
the respectability of his fellow-citizens, will neither save him, or them,
from a thousand abuses and insults they never would have presumed on,
had he been a different man. I am quite certain, the fair character and
high standing of the consul abroad, unaided by an ambassador or commer­
cial treaty, can do more for his country and its interests, if he be the right
man, than ambassadors, or treaties, or stipulations can ever effect alone.
In fact, I am somewhat skeptical on the point of commercial treaties,
especially such as we have generally entered into within a few years. I
■am well persuaded they have injured our commerce. We have given to
other nations more than they have given us in return, or they can ever
give us ; and although private individuals may “ give, without hoping for
a return,” yet the folly of this policy will sooner or later appear to the
prejudice of every nation which adopts it. A good consul, on the spot,
is worth to the commerce of a country more than all the treaties in the
world. His vigilance is constant, his care unwearied, and by fidelity and
wise management, he may win, even from half civilized and barbarous
governments, by private influence, what would never have been conceded
by treaty. Macchiavelle declared “ il vero amhascialore e il consoled’ The
consul is the real ambassador, and unless the consul, by a fixed residence
in a foreign country, comes to understand its real policy and interests
better than the newly appointed ambassador can understand them, he has
failed in his duty. Almost every difficulty that finally ruptures the peace
of nations, begins in some commercial question under the immediate in­
spection of the consul; this is particularly true in modern times, where,
in the language of Carlyle, “ commerce is king.” “ I fear no war,” said
■Guizot, a few days ago, in the Chamber of Deputies, “ except one that
will grow out of commerce.” England and France have within a few days
adjusted, the papers tell us, the Tahaite and Morocco affairs, which less
than twenty-five years ago would have kindled a fire that would have set




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The Consular System o f the United Stales.

the world in a blaze. Why? “ We have about come to the conclusion,”
says a London Ministerial Journal, “ that a little spurious honor is worth
less than a good many thousand bales of cotton.” “Parbleu,” says a French
Gazette, “ do you think you can stuff it down our throats, as the Rouen
Fabricants do la garevse, that Mr. Pritchard, if we had him, would be
worth a single cargo of Lyons silks.”
There is more in all this than words; the Times and le Journal de
Debats, speak put the voice of universal civilization. Nations will hereafter
fight for “ the commerce king,” and not for a whim of a starched, corsetted,
perfumed Louis XIV. An ambassador returning from the Sublime Porte,
dined with me the other day. “ I thought,” said he, “ I should have my
hands full at Constantinople, but the consul there has made me a mere
‘ hanger on I had nothing to do but to go away off any where, to jour­
ney over Europe, and live on my pay, and let the consul do my duty, for
he knows ten times as much about the business as I do.” I ought to say,
that he was not an American ambassador. As long ago as Mazzarin’s
time, he declared : “ No man could be a useful ambassador, who had not
been a good consul, and no man could be a very bad ambassador, except
the man who was ignorant of commerce.” Who were Napoleon’s con­
suls ? One of them told me that, when Napoleon was in the height of his
power, he applied to him for a consulate in a foreign country. “ What
do you know about the duty of a consul ?” asked Napoleon. “ I know he
can do more than an ambassador,” said the young man, boldly, in reply.
“ Eh bien,” said the great captain, “ you know your duty, let us see if you
will do i t ; take the office, and ten thousand francs extra pay for the first
year.” The same man afterwards told General Bertrand, that Napoleon
ought not to undertake the expedition to Russia, alleging his reasons.
Napoleon heard he had said so : “ I’ll show him he’s mistaken,” said Napo­
leon—we all know the result. Well, while Napoleon was at St. Helena,
this consul visited the Emperor, at his request. “ You,” said he, when he
took his hand, in his confinement on that lonely island, “ would have been
too good a counsellor for me—my evil destiny made you consul, when I
ought to have made you my bon genie."
We have now glanced at the origin and object of the consular office :
let us speak of-—
II. The present system and its evils.
In a few words, an American consul is often a foreigner, almost always
a merchant, never paid by government, can’t live on his fees, nor even
pay the necessary expenses of his office ; is scolded and cursed by almost
anybody that has anything to do with him, and is expected to entertain his
countrymen, not only with hospitality, but with a considerable degree of
luxury. Says an American consul, who writes me on this subject, “ he
must not only find out his countryman in town, but call at, his hotel, in­
vite him to dinner, sending a carriage for him, get him, in Italy, a box at
the opera, (free of course,) spin street yarn with him for one day, or more,
as it may be, showing him the lions of the city, with as much gusto as
though he had not already seen them a thousand times, and be his humble
servant for a week or ten days, taking drives out into the neighboring
country, &c. ; and when he comes to go away, he is expected to vise his
passport, gratis, and send it to his lodgings. If he does charge his $2,
why, “ that man must be turned out.” The master of a vessel expects to
call on his consul, get legal advice, commercial information, defences




The Consular System, o f the United States.

217

before tribunals of commerce, help in difficulty; he stays two weeks, and
when he goes away, leaves two or three destitute seamen, the consul is
bound to support, by the laws of the country. The government commands
him to aid those men, and yet refuses to pay him the disbursements he
has made in doing i t ; and finally, when the captain weighs anchor, he
comes up to the consulate, and refuses to pay anything more than $4,
“ for receiving and delivering papers,” and he thinks even this an unrea­
sonable charge. He’s a hopeful subject, you say—yes, he is, particularly
as he lets you pay the boatman of the port a franc to row you and him
(the captain) out to his own ship, to see him off'; often he has dined with
you at no trifling expense, saying nothing of some few empty Madeira and
Port and Champagne bottles. He continues—“ Well, next comes the
government at home. Once in a few months comes out a circular, (which
would be useless, if consuls did their duty,) calling for particular or mi­
nute information in regard to the productions and condition of the country,
its foreign commerce, and domestic manufactures, prices of labor in every
department of industry, exports and imports &c. &c. W ell! the next
day comes back a letter from the 5th auditor of the treasury, informing
you that your draft (sent with proper vouchers) for #125 53 1-2 cts., for sums
disbursed for distressed seamen during the past year, or six months as it
may be, has been protested. ‘You are authorized by law to reimburse
only the sum of 20 cents a day (Federal money) for distressed seamen.’
The man is discharged from a vessel, sick—he goes to a hospital—is des­
titute and naked—he must have a pair of pantaloons, a jacket and at least
one flannel shirt, and like one of Mr. Squeer’s subjects go to bed, while
as a Paddy would say, ‘ he washes his own shirt,’ and the old tar must
have a little tobacco, ‘ or do worse,’ and then he must eat (but drink water,
which wont hurt him, as he is certain to have swallowed his full share of
the ‘ cretur’ in his time) and what not. Twenty cents per diem, Federal
money, is a pretty large allowance for all this. Oh, yes! Well, the go­
vernment have been known to protest consuls drafts even for the twenty
cents a day, Federal money, for shipwrecked seamen, taken off the shoals
and reefs by fishermen—and the consul recalled for—God knows what
—and to cap the climax, a foreigner appointed to his place.”
My correspondent may be guilty of a shade of extravagance, but this is
pretty nearly what Cotton Mather called “ the living, royal truth,” without
exception ! “ Oh 1 no,” he goes on to say : “ Now and then it’s true, the
traveller says it’s really shameful, the government don’t pay our consuls
like other nations, and he lays down an eagle on your table and says,
consul take that, if you will do me the favor—and in spite of your plea­
sure, in seeing the eagle, that first plumed his wings in Fanueil Hall, ere
he took his flight over a thousand hills, (Webster,) and that’s a grateful
sight to the real American, in a far off land, but he loves the strangers
generosity better than his money, and he says : ‘ No sir, I take only my
fee.’ ‘ But do me the favor.’ Well, he takes it and gives it to his wife,
to keep for his boy, as the gift of the generous stranger. This does some­
times happen—but truth against the whole world—I have oftener received
a letter from the next town, telling me I should be turned out for that
enormous and unjust charge of #2,—when even the consuls .of the princely
and tyrannical governments of Europe (who, he might have said, have
prince’s pay) ‘ never charge but four, or at most five francs.’ He is rabid,
‘ and you will be turned out, when I get back to America.’ Now and




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The Consular System o f the United States.

then, too, a generous captain comes along,—‘ Consul, I’m coming up,’
says he, to-morrow, to take some of your grub.’ ‘ Well done, captain, come
on.’ You give him a good dinner, he’s a generous fellow ; before he sails,
you, and it may be, your wife, are invited aboard, the ship’s boat is at
the pier for you, before the time—there’s a cushion in it, too, and it’s all
nice and clean, there is a very nice little piece of bunting, too, hanging
over the tiller, with thirteen red and white stripes, and as many white
stars in a field of blue, the oars strike handsomely in the water, and dip
like a man of war’s men’s. As you approach the merchantman, you see
through the forest of masts an ensign floating, you have seen before, the
boat comes along side, the captain comes down the ladder in his Sunday’s
best, and in a moment a chair is lowered by a tackle, and in goes the consuless, and up goes the chair. Well, the dinner is plain, but great cheer,
such as hungry men call good ; the captain is a gallant for the hour—you
think, after all, a good American captain ‘is the goodest of all men’—we
are again in the boat, captain at the tiller, this time—what you got there,
captain ? Oh, there’s a half a dozen smoked hams, and a keg of molasses,
and a barrel of buckwheat flour, and the buckwheat flour is good, any how,
for it comes from ‘ down east,’ where the way we eat it is a caution to
all hungry men, and I shall be much obleeged to you, if you’ll let my men
take it up to your house. Rare fellows, they do sometimes come over the
consul’s vision like ‘ naves rares gurgiteur,’ &c. But out agaip with the
truth. The chance is, that the captain asks you if you’ll have the good­
ness to send the bill of port-charges and consular fees on board—Oh ! yes.
Well, more than once my vice consul has received just as much of the bill
as the captain pleased to pry, and then been told to leave the deck and
tell the consul, his d------m bill of port-charges, and consular extortions, he
would pay him under his bow-sprit.* Well, sometimes the government,
through a powerful friend, makes a consul a charge d’affairs, after he has
served several years faithfully in the quality of consul. This is almost
invariably the case with other governments, who, by the by, seem to un­
derstand their own interests a good deal better than we, but more com­
monly after the consul has gone to all the expense of establishing himself
in a foreign country, and has just commenced a successful business, some
broken down merchant goes to Washington, and the consul is told he is
no longer consul, (postage on the valuable document unpaid.”)
Now, let us ask any reasonable man, what sort of a consular system
are we likely to have, under these circumstances ? He will answer,
without a moment’s reflection,—“ the very worst in the world”—and
facts bear him out in his answer.
It is quite certain, there are not ten American consulates in the world,
that will support a consul, even with the greatest economy ; and, the
great proportion of them, do not even support themselves—their total re­
ceipts will not re-imburse the expense of office-rent and stationary, to say
nothing of a clerk, and the incidental expenses of the consulate. The
evils that naturally spring out of such a system are more numerous, and
more serious, than any man supposes, who has not been a consul:
I. The office of a consul is, generally, held either by American mer­
chants or foreigners ; for, with a few exceptions, no American, who is
qualified for such a station, will ask for, or except an office, which is only
* This is quite a common trick, I have heard from many consuls.




The Consular System o f the United Slates.

219

■a bill of expense. Some go abroad, with exaggerated ideas of the emolu­
ments of a consulship, and, finding out their mistake, leave very soon.
Those whose private fortunes are adequate to their aupport, will not con­
fine themselves, for any great length of time, to the grudgery of a con­
sulship ; and they, who are so rich they care not for the fees, are rich
enough to travel, and they generally fling up their commissions. Some
consuls, who supposed their offices would, at least with strict economy,
support them, and, perhaps, spent their all in getting to their stations, are,
sometimes, too poor even to go home—like some of Carlyle’s chartists,
who are “ too lean to rebel,” and they stay, and get all out of their office
they can, and exceed their lawful fees—they must do it or starve. They
are not the only men, whom the State makes dishonest! Endless diffi­
culties and disputes, between masters and commercial houses, and the
consul, arise ; the consul is complained of, and turned out, perhaps; well,
he deserves it, for “ he broke the consular law ;” and, after all, the same
man may have been much purer, and better, and nearer right, than the
law itself. This poor consul is the slave of an unjust and unwise
system!
Edward Livingston, in 1833, while Secretary of State, called the atten­
tion of Congress to a reform in our consular system in an able report, which,
after all, seems to have had very little effect. He says : “ In many, per­
haps the greater number of cases, the office is sought for, chiefly, for tho
advantages, and the influence it will give to extend the commercial af­
fairs of the officer. Can it be believed this influence will always be pro­
perly exercised 1 When it is, will not contrary suspicions be entertained ?
This must create jealousy, detraction, and all the arts that rivalship will
exercise and provoke, amidst which, the dignity of the public officer is
degraded, and his influence with the foreign functionaries lost.”
There is more truth in these words, of that singulary clear-sighted
statesman, than appears. It is almost certain, that a merchant can never
make a good consul ; he may perform, with the utmost fidelity, all the
details of his official functions; he may be, as most of our American
merchants are, a man of high and pure honor, and unspotted integrity;
all pecuniary interests committed to him may be safe, and he may watch,
with great vigilance, over all the interests of the commerce of his coun­
try, (conceed all you wish, and we have such consuls,) it is, still, almost
certain, that man cannot be a good consul, and, for many reasons—his time
is, and must be, devoted principally to his own affairs, and, it must be a
very obscure, and a very insignificant consulate, which does not demand
that very same time for official duty. True, a ship’s papers may.be signed
and delivered, and the vessel sent to sea, in one hour; a passport may be
signed in five minutes, or less, and registered ; but, writing his name and
affixing the consular seal, is a pretty small part of a consul’s duty. If he
cherish the views and feelings we have before mentioned, of his country
and his office, he will find it is enough to be a consul, without spending
eight or ten hours a day in his counting-room. But, there is no little
danger that, in spite of himself, his own interests, or prejudices, or rela­
tions, will sway his judgment in all his official conduct. A ship enters
the port, with a cargo of, no matter w hat; his own interests are to bo af­
fected by the sale or consignment of that cargo, (it must be so, if he be a
merchant, for commerce is competition for gain between man and man,)
is it likely he will give the captain such information, or advice, as will
most directly prejudice his own interests ?




220

The Consular System o f the United States.

The captain has a difficulty with a merchant, and the case is carried
to arbitration, or a judicial tribunal—is it likely the consul will give any
advice, or take any measure, calculated to injure the interests, or excite
the animosity, of the merchants, or the local authorities of the country
where he resides 1 His success in business, is, in a great measure, de­
pendant upon the good will of the authorities and the people, and it is
perfectly certain, that, sooner or later, disputes and difficulties will arise,
when he will fail in his official duty, or take part with the captain, at the
expense of his own personal popularity and influence ; and, in the name
of reason, how is he to act, when he, as a consignee, has a difficulty with
his captain ? Has he two identities ?—a consular, and a mercantile one ?
N o ! the judge, the jury, the council, the witness, the merchant, and the
consul, sit in the same chair—he can administer the oath to himself—ex­
amine, and cross examine himself—why, the very idea is enough to dis­
turb the gravity of an Esquimaux Indian !
But what security have you, that your consul-merchant is to be so
pure, high-minded, and honorable a man ? there are such, I know, and I
well know they are few. More than one consul has been appointed,
who had failed in business at home, and left no very dubious character,
as a sinking fund for his creditors. They hope, in a foreign country, to
begin anew to court fortune—finally get consignments, and, at last, be­
come rich—some do. I might state facts which have fallen under my
own personal observation, in different European countries, in regard to
our consular system, but my motives, for so doing, would be misunder­
stood. Many of our merchant-consuls, however, are our best consuls ; I
might speak of Mr. Sprague, of Gibraltar; Mr. Payson, of Messina;
Mr. Edwards, of Buenos Ayres ; and others. Under our present consular
system, perhaps, we cannot have better m en; but the odds, on the other
side, are fearful; it is more commonly the case that the merchant-consul
utterly neglects his official duty to attend to his own affairs.
But it is perfectly certain the consul-merchant will, generally, have lit­
tle influence with the government, to which he is accredited. By enter­
ing into business, he, voluntarily, gives up the station he might otherwise
occupy; other things being equal, commerce is more than respectable, it
is everywhere honorable ; but, in nearly all countries, although the mer­
chant, as a merchant, may often be received in polite society, yet, he
does not expect to move in so select a circle as an official character. The
consul-merchant will find that he loses his standing, by entering into
business, and this will appear whenever the experiment is made. Why
not allow ambassadors, and charges d’affaires, to carry on business ? an
ambassador could, undoubtedly, make money, owning ships ; and a very
insignificant charge could keep a very good shop of Yankee notions, which
would, most likely, sell very well ; but he would, at least, seem to be an
odd charge, and, probably, his customers would laugh at him when he
rode by, in his lace, chapeau, and sword, to go to court; and yet it is re­
spectable to buy and sell goods ! “ Oh, yes ! commerce is the great humanizer of mankind, the agent of civilization !” “ Y es! all th at; but
one thing at a time, if ye care after well done things.” A consul is not
clothed with diplomatic power. True—but his office partakes more or
less of the diplomatic character, and he is often obliged to conduct the
most important international affairs ; his relative position to a charge
d’affaires, is the same the charge bears to the ambassador, and, very fre-




The Consular System o f the United States.

221

qucntly, the consulship is vastly more important than the legation, and
the consul may often be called on, by the ministry of the government to
which he ik, for information, for correspondence, for an audience with a
sovereign, (such things often happen,) and, in all such cases, the differ­
ence between the consul, who maintains his station with dignity, and is
known to be a man of letters and polite education, and the common con­
sul-merchant, will be found to be just great enough, to secure for one, all
the respect paid to a diplomatist, and the other, all the attention a busi­
ness man receives from the courtier. Although the former makes no
more pretensions, yet, he is, a 'priori, supposed to be a man of more ele­
vated and liberal views, more polite education, more finished address, and
more extended and richer learning. In all European countries, where
such wide distinctions and ranks exist, and where no merchant is admit­
ted to the society of the first class, the consul who would, otherwise, na­
turally be found there, voluntarially cuts himself off from such society, by
assuming the garb of an inferior class ; and the effect of it will appear,
when an important crises arises, and great interests are committed to his
hands. I need not enlarge here, every intelligent man understands this,
nor need I disclaim any fondness for European aristocracy; I have too
long been committed to the American people, on this subject, to be mis­
understood—the whole thing is said in two words. The consul-merchant
will be treated, by everybody, from the king to the boatman, as a mer­
chant, in all his applications, relations, and intercourse ; the consul, in the
high sense of the term, will be treated as the representative of his coun­
try. Let us look at the policy of other great nations—they understand
this matter. None of the other great powers, and only two or three of
the smaller ones, suffer their consuls to have anything to do in any com­
mercial speculations ; they know the myriad evils which flow from a sys­
tem we cling to so tenaciously, and they are careful to avoid them ; they
universally pay their consuls salaries adequate, in all instances, and often
much better than our charges d’affaires ; all fees go to the government,
and all causes of dispute and difficulty are taken away. The office of
a consul becomes a desirable post, and is sought for by able, well edu­
cated, cultivated, and experienced men. The consequence is a natural
one—they are abler, and more respectably represented than ourselves ;
their consuls are treated with more honor, and their citizens with more
respect; their governmemt receives privileges, and concessions, and fa­
vors, which are utterly denied to our own. “ As is the priest, so is the
people.” With them, a consulship is regarded as a necessary step to a
higher diplomatic station ; and the man who discharges the duties of the
one, with ability and honor, is sure to be rewarded by the other. Their
consuls cannot be appointed without some special qualification, and they
are rarely recalled, unless guilty of maladministration ; they are familiar
with their official duty, and few changes take place.
Take a single illustration. No place in Europe, of the same amount of
commerce, has so splendid a consular representation as Genoa; the con­
suls of most of the leading powers here are noblemen, and many of them
have been charges d’affairs, or secretaries of legations ; their salaries vary
from $5,000 to $20,000 a year. Only one nation in the world has more
commerce with Genoa than our own, and yet the fees of this consulate
will not support a clerk, and pay the incidental expense of the office!




222

The Consular System o f the United States.

Is it any wonder that, within four years, we have had five consuls here,,
and three of them foreigners ?
Another evil, and, perhaps, a greater one still in our present consular
system, is the appointment of foreigners to office. General Jackson in­
troduced a reform in this matter, Mr. Van Buren prosecuted it, and Mr.
Tyler has done more than all our former presidents, put together; but,
still, a very large number of our consuls are foreigners—I do think it re­
quires no argument to prove that] no foreigner, under any circumstances,
should ever hold an office under our government. By a foreigner, I mean
a man who owes allegiance to a foreign government. Set a wolf to
watch the fold, but, in God’s name, don’t commit republicanism to the
keeping of foreigners, and, last of all, to Englishmen. I received a letter
from an American consul, (a foreigner,) not long ago, addressed to “ His
Lordship, the American Consul General of the United States, at Genoa,”
and signed “ ---------, Consul General of the United States and its Depen­
dencies.” This is a fair sample of the intelligence of foreigners in our
institutions and affairs. Who ever heard of Great Britain asking a fo­
reigner to hold an affice for her ? John Bull ask another dog to watch
his fold 1 Not he ! This is one of the good things of the exclusiveness
and pride of England ! this is the spirit which has brought her to the top
of the world! and what is her consular system ? In the most distant port,
of the most barbarous nation, where no American would except the office
of a consul, the English send an intelligent, experienced man, and main­
tain him, too, with a handsome salary, and he is backed by all the autho­
rity of the government. This is one of the reasons why that tremendous
power is so universally dreaded. She is everywhere present, and no man
or nation can tread upon the folds of her mantle, without finding cause to
repent of it afterwards ; and Mr. Pritchard, an obscure consul, in a port of
Otahaite, can treat a gallant French admiral with insolence, and Parlia­
ment make a great noise about it, and all the world is likely to get into a
flame that will burn around the globe, and, at last, to give satisfaction to
the consul, the French admiral is disgraced. Very well, John Bull, I
like you for i t ; your pride sticks to you, like life to the adder’s tail, and
it will make you glorious, like Rome, even in your decay. It has made
you what you are—it makes you very disagreeable, but it makes you
very great.
It is humiliating to contrast our consular system with even that of halfcivilized nations ; but I have written longer than I intended to, and will
soon close; I have not mentioned a tenth part of the evils of our present
system, nor said half what I had intended to.
What shall be done ?
Adopt one of the plans submitted to Congress, by those who have
sought a reform in the consular system, and you will do well. Mr. Liv­
ingston’s, of 1833, is a good one—it provided that thirty-six of our princi­
pal consuls, should be paid salaries, averaging $2,000=$72,000;
one hundred and twenty-six vice consuls, and commercial agents, average
salary, $1,000=f>126,000; total expense, $198,000. Consuls were,
by the provisions of his bill, I think, prohibited from engaging in
commerce.
It is thus seen, that, for a trifling expense, an able and respectable con­
sular corps could be maintained, that would reflect honor upon our na­
tion ; and, “ I take the responsibility” of saying, that, after the experiment




The Consular System o f the United Stales.

223

was fairly tried, not a man, could be found who would advocate a return
to the old system. Three grand provisions should be made, in whatever
new system is adopted :—1st. Consuls and vice consuls should be paid a
proper salary, like all other officers of the government, and all fees should
go to the United States. 2d. They should be prohibited from engaging
in commerce. 3d. No foreigner should be appointed, under any circum­
stances. In the Merchants’ Magazine, for April, 1842, there is a valua­
ble paper on the “ Consular System of the United States,” and the sug­
gestions of the writer are worthy the most earnest attention of the Ameri­
can government.*
Any system which embraces the above-mentioned provisions, will be
better than the present. A great advantage would, also, be experienced
by adopting the commercial agency system of Great Britain. Mr. J. G.
Harris, of Tennessee, who was sent, in 1843, to Europe, as tobacco
agent, and collected a good deal of valuable information for the govern­
ment, told me, that, at the great meeting of the Talserin, there were thir­
teen commercial agents of Great Britain there ! He was there by accident,
and, I think, at the time, he was the only commercial agent of the United
States in Europe !! Is it to be supposed our Congress is to be well in­
formed of the commercial condition, and relations of European countries,
when no more pains are taken to gather commercial information?
They mnst be close students, indeed, to know much about the real state
of our commercial interests in Europe, to get full and accurate informa­
tion, from our newspapers, or commercial treaties, or books of travel.
My own observation has convinced me that, upon commercial information
gathered in that way, very little reliance can be placed. The price of
stocks, and the fluctuations of trade, may be pretty accurately known
from such sources ; but, what has the American government to do with
such things, in directing its foreign policy ? That kind of information
the statesman wants for his guidance in public deliberations, is more im­
port ant, and more extended, and is not to be gained from published docu­
ments, or acquired without labor and careful examination on the spot.
But I fear, after all this, that the great argument always brought
against such beneficent changes, will still prevail, and the present system
of inaction, inefficiency, and abuse continue. The government can ap­
propriate millions to any purpose under heavens, that meets with tho ac­
clamation of demagogues and voters; and it can extinguish lighthouses
along our coast, to save a few gallons of oil; twenty millions are voted,
with acclamation, for hunting down Seminole Indians, through the
* I cannot suffer this opportunity to pass without paying my humble tribute of respect
to your noble journal. Mr. Guizot, a few months ago, said to an American gentleman of
my acquaintance, that, in his opinion, it was the most valuable commercial work in the
world. I have heard Lord Brougham express the same opinion. It is a pity it could not
be placed in the hands of every American master—I doubt not, every ship owner in
America would “ make a speculation” to buy a copy of it for every captain he sends to
sea, and compel him to read it. A very intelligent sea captain told me, last summer, he
should be afraid to enter a foreign port, if he had not H unt’s Magazine with him—he con­
sidered it, on shore, as necessery, as Bowdicth, at sea. In the summer of 1842, the chief
partner of a large house in New York told me, he did not doubt that book had saved
him a thousand dollars a year. For myself, I consider it “ the consul’s own guide”—
I have rarely found a consular, or commercial exigency, for which it did not provide—in
some very difficult and trying exigencies, I have had recourse to it, when, in my instruc­
tions, I could find no directions, and, in every instance, I believe, my decisions have
been confirmed by the supreme courts, and the government at home.
e. e. l .




224

The Iron Trade.

swamps of Florida; and the merchantman is left without a protector,
when she goes loaded with her precious cargo to the distant port, The
party in power, no matter who they are, can pay $50,000 a year more
than is necessary, to a public printer, for documents that are carted into
the lumber rooms of the capital, to be eaten by worms, but it cannot
spend half the sum to adorn the same noble edifice with the most valua
ble library for sale in Europe, and the petty German prince takes it
away, while Congress is voting that it would be of very little use to
America, as most of the books are in foreign languages ! ! and, in that
congregrated mass of wisdom, John Quincy Adams, the papers say, was
the only man who told them that was just the reason why it should be
had. But better days will come !
c. e . l .
United States Consulate, Genoa, 30th of August, 1844.

Akt. II— t h e i r o n t r a d e .
T h e manufacture of iron indicates, perhaps, more than any other, the

march of civilization, and its progress is coeval with those arts which ele­
vate a nation, and constitute the best evidence of its wealth. And as it
is essential to every department of human industry, directly or indirectly,
and to a country’s independence, it becomes an interesting object of in­
vestigation to trace its progress and survey its condition. The war de­
clared by Congress against Great Britain, in 1812, and the events con­
nected therewith, gave a great stimulus to manufactures, in this country,
and induced the diversion of capital from commerce and agriculture, to be
invested in mills, workshops and factories. Every encouragement was
given to mechanics, who were instructed in a knowledge of machinery,
and in Pennsylvania, admitted freeholders on the day of their arrival.
High duties were imposed on the foreign raw material, while the imple­
ments, tools, and even furniture of the immigrant mechanics, were admit­
ted free of duty. Metallurgy became an object of study ; and the vast
resources of the country brought more prominently to view, and its inex­
haustible supplies of fuel and mineral ore elaborated to the production
of iron.
In 1790, Colonel Hamilton remarks that the manufactures of iron had
grown up with surprising rapidity, and proposes on them a duty of 10 per
cent, ad valorem ; but it is not till 1810, that we have the earliest authen­
tic accounts of the quantity of iron produced in the United States ; when,
according to Adam Seybert, (who collects from official documents,) from
153 furnaces, were made 53,908 tons pig iron; from 330 forges, were
made 24,541 tons bar iron ; from 410 naileries, were made 15,727,914
lbs. nails; and there were 316 trip-hammers, and 34 rolling and slittingmills, which required 6,500 tons of iron ; and the total value of the man­
ufactures of iron was $14,364,526; and 19,000 muskets were annually
made at the two public armories of Springfield and Harper’s Ferry. In
this stage of its manufacture, the elevation given to the price, by the re­
strictive legislation, operated onerously on the consumer, and tended to
repress industry, and diminish consumption. The duty was—
On bar iron, rolled,..per ton
“
hammered,.. . .
On pig iron,..........................




In 1818.

In 1824.

In 1828.

$30 00
15 00

$30 00
18 00

10 00

10 00

$37 00
22 40
12 50

225

The Iron Trade.

but, even under this high protection, the production did not exceed, in
twenty years, 191,536 tons of pig iron, from 239 furnaces, according to
the statement of the committee appointed to report on iron, by Congress,
in 1830. There were then made 112,866 tons of bar iron, and 25,520
tons castings; in the manufacture of which, 25,254 men were employed.
The extreme dissatisfaction of the South, at the fiscal regulations rela­
tive to foreign commerce, and the threats held out of nullifioation, led to
the enactment, by Congress, of the compromise act of 1832 ; and it may be
curious to notice the votes which were given on that memorable occasion :
T a r if f B il l .
States.

Ayes.

New England,................................................
Middle States, including New Y ork,...
Southern,................................................
Western,.........................................................

Noes.

16
32
67
37

34
52
1
13

Total,...............................................
152
100
By the operation of this tariff, the duty on English bars was gradually
reduced from $30 per ton, in 1832, to $27 in 1834, $24 in 1836, $21 in
1838, $18 in 1840, $14 in the first six months of 1842; and, finally, to
$7 50 per ton, in July and August of 1842, and on other kinds in similar
proportion ; and the effect had upon the importation may be seen in the
table which we give at the close of this article.
The iron district, which spreads through New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
Maryland, and Western Virginia, traverses regions exuberant with coal,
and abounding in water-power; and, travelling further west, we find in
Ohio, Kentucky, and particularly in Missouri, immense stores of metal­
liferous wealth, adjacent to the most fertile agricultural districts. It is to
Pennsylvania, however, we must chiefly direct our attention, where twofiflhs of all the iron in the United States is made. The United States
contain 80,000 square miles of coal, which is about sixteen times as great
as the coal measures of Europe. A single one of these gigantic masses
runs from Pennsylvania to Alabama, and must embrace, itself, 50,000
square miles. Out of fifty-four counties of Pennsylvania, no less than
thirty have coal and iron in them ; and, out of the 46,000 square miles of
Pennsylvania, which form its superficies, there are 10,000 miles of coal
and iron ; while all Great Britain and Ireland have only 2,000—so that
Pennsylvania, alone, has an area of coal and iron five times as great as
that of Great Britain. The quality of the coal and iron is as rich as that
of Great Britain, and they have the advantage of lying near the waterlevel ; while those of the latter country are sometimes more than one
thousand feet below the surface, and are excavated through subterranean
passages.
The coal frontiers, forming an amphitheatre, intersected at intervals
with streams of water, are accessible through ravines, to which they con­
verge ; thus inviting the labor of the miner, by the facility of access and
transportation. The coal of Wyoming lies conveniently for the supply of
the lake frontier, and the whole of the northern part of New Y ork; and
the Lehigh, Schuylkill, Wilkesbarre, and Cumberland coal-fields, for the
supply of the Atlantic border, and the domestic and manufacturing pur­
poses of the interior.
VOL. XU.— NO. III.




14

226

The Iron Trade.

Since 1820, when the trade commenced, the quantity of anthracite coal
which left the different regions for market, has increased from 365 tons, to
1,631,670 tons, last year.
With these materials and resources so profusely prepared for the en­
terprise of man, we must look for the causes which retarded this manu­
facture, so as, the ten years past, to require an importation of more than
forty millioifs dollars of iron and steel.
The principal portion of the pig and wrought iron was made in the
United States with charcoal, and in England and Scotland with mineral
coal. The latter was vastly cheaper, and became scarcer every year ;
and here we may remark that, in the whole of Europe, charcoal is used
for the reduction of the ore, with the exception of some furnaces in France
and the Netherlands. If the ore he smelted, and the iron puddled with
bituminous coal, it requires an average of about six tons of coal for every
ton of bar iron. If the iron be smelted with charcoal, and puddled with
bituminous coal, (the mode in use here at the period to which we allude,)
then a little less than two tons of bituminous coal was required. The
average price of the bituminous coal, at the works in England, which is
in close proximity to the iron ore, is not more than $1J per ton. The
same coal costs, when we get it to our works, situated at some distance
from the ore, from $7 to $9 per ton ; and the cost of transportation, and
the difference in the value of the charcoal used here for smelting, and the
coal used there, was very greatly in favor of England. England, too,
has the advantage of priority in improvement in the manufacture, in the
concentration of capital, and the cheapness of labor, which forms 75 per
cent of the cost, as well as the economy of fuel; and the most striking
proof of the advancement in this branch is, that her furnaces produce
3,500 tons annually each, on the average, of pig or cast iron ; while here
they do not annually produce 1,000 tons each, on the average.
Another impediment was the great indisposition existing amongst capi­
talists, in our cities, to advance money to carry on works situated in the
far interior, (where the bituminous coal and iron ore may be found,)
which they could not overlook, and the want of cheap inland communi­
cation with the markets on the seaboard. This last consideration, which
we shall again allude to, is of importance, as the costly transportation,
itself, acts as a bounty on the foreign iron introduced to the Atlantic
ports, and far exceeds the freight from England and Scotland.
Before entering on the present condition of the trade here, we will take
a brief review of the progress in Great Britain.
In 1740, there were in that country but 59 furnaces, yielding 17,350
tons cast iron, or 294 tons per furnace. They were heated with charcoal,
and the blast given from leather bellows. The establishments did not
flourish, as loud complaints were made of the destruction of her woods,
from the use of the charcoal. Indeed, an act was passed for the importa­
tion of pig iron, (1750,) from the American colonies, to reduce the con­
sumption of wood in smelting; but, in 1783, Mr. Cort obtained a patent
for making iron in a reverbatory, or air-furnace, heated by common raw
pit coal; and another for manufacturing the iron, when malleable, into
bars, bolts, &c., by passing it, in a welding heat, through rollers with
grooves, instead of working it under forge-hammers, the mode before em­
ployed, by which the scori* were separated. By this improvement, fifteen
tons of iron were obtained in twelve hours ; while, in the same time, only




227

The Iron Trade.

one ton was drawn from the hammer; and this may be considered the era
from which to date the growth of the present valuable element of the na­
tional prosperity of England. Then came the introduction of the coke
refinery, which brought the balling and puddling furnace into general use,
with the addition of rollers instead of hammers. In 1788, the make was
68,300 tons, from 85 furnaces, or 804 tons per furnace; and in 1796,
125,079 tons, from 121 furnaces, or 1,033 tons per furnace ; having nearly
doubled itself in eight years. It then rapidly extended itselfj at the se­
veral periods mentioned below, to the present enormous production of
1,578,260 tons.
Years.
Annual make,
Furnaces in
Pig iron, per annum.
per furnace.
blast.
1806,...............
1,528 tons.
258,206 tons.
169
1820................
• • • • 44
400,000 Cl
••••
1823................
1,907 44
237
452,066 u
2,244 44
1825,...............
581,367 44
259
1828,...............
2,529 44
278
703,184 44
44
3,087 44
1830,...............
678,417
333
1839,...............
3,303 44
378
1,248,781 ( 4
1844,...............
2,498 44
451
1,578,260 44
Which is thus distributed :—
South Wales,.......................
132 furnaces in blast.
565,700 tons.
44
Forest of Dean,. . . .
7
27,000 “
44
Staffordshire, South,.
370,000 “
120
44
“
North,.
30,400 “
12
44
Shropshire,..............
110,600 “
34
44
Yorkshire,...............
112,000 “
41
44
Derbyshire,..............
17
• 47,560 “
44
North Wales,...........
16
43,000 “
44
Newcastle-on-Tyne,
17,000 “
7
44
Scotland,..................
255,000 “
65
44
Total,..........
1,578,260 “
451
About three-tenths of the quantity made, is used in the state of pig or
cast iron, and is consumed principally in Great Britain and Ireland; and
the other seven-tenths are converted into wrought iron, being formed into
bars, bolts, rods, sheets, & c .; and her exports increased, according to
parliamentary returns, in periods of four years, from 104,726 tons in 1827,
139,577 tons in 1831, 219,203 tons in 1835, 269,088 tons in 1839, to
448,879 tons in 1843, viz :—
Bar iron,..............................................................................tons
176,148
Bolt and rod,.............................................................................
22,625
154,770
P ig .............................................................................................
H oop,........................................................................................
14,590
Old,...........................................................................................
5,924
Iron wire,.................................................................................
1,508
Anchors, grapnels, &c.,................................................. ..
3,058
N a ils,.......................................................................................
6,020
Unwrought steel,.......................................................................
3,199
All other sorts, except ordnance,.............................................
44,577

Total,




tons

448,879

228

The Iron Trade.

In the same year, she imported only about 15,000 tons ; 11,000 tons
of which was from Sweden, to be converted into steel. Previous to 1786,
she imported 70,000 tons iron, from Sweden and Russia, per annum—her
export last year was considerably beyond 448,00 tons ; for the Miner’s
Journal states that, for the year ending 5th September, 1844, the amount
of iron and steel, of copper, brass, and tin, was i l l, 106,984, against, in
same time, 1843, £3,405,568; being an increase of £731,416 in one
year, of the export in these metals. The largest blast-furnace in South
Wales is 18 feet diameter in the boshes, 9 to 10 feet in the filling place,
the height 40 feet; so that the capacity is equal to 7,000 cubic feet; and,
when at work, must contain 150 tons of ignited materials for smelting.
At the Plymouth iron-works, are 7 furnaces, blown with cold air, which
produce each about 5,300 tons cast iron, per annum.
Larger and better-formed furnaces, improved blast, superior knowledge
in its application—in the preparation of the materials, and the working
of the furnaces, have contributed to the extraordinary increase in the
yield; and those furnaces in Staffordshire, which make the best work, as
to yield and quality, do not exceed 11} to 12 feet in the boshes. The
furnaces in the United States are generally not more than 8 to 9 feet in the
boshes, to which circumstance is mainly to be attributed the comparatively
smaller product.
Such has been the effect of combined economy, skill, and intelligence,
applied to this manufacture, that pig iron, which sold in 1803 to 1815 for
£6 a £ 7 10 per ton, was reduced to £ 3 per ton in Wales, and some con­
tracts were made in Scotland at £ 2 , last year; and bar iron, which sold
in the same period at £12 a £16 per ton, was reduced to £ 4 15 per ton,
last year.
As Mr. Cort’s process for converting refined metal, or pig iron, into
malleable iron, became better understood, various meliorations were
adopted ; one of which was, replacing sand with iron bottoms, in the fur­
nace. Mr. Cort’s object in refining the ore with coke, previous to pud­
dling it in a reverbatory furnace, was to decarburate the iron ; and, by
substituting the drawing cylinders for the extension under the hammer,
and subjecting the puddled iron to a second heating, he materially ad­
vanced the manufacture of bar iron. At first, there was a waste of 30
to 35 cwt. of iron ; afterwards, one ton of bars resulted from only 20 to
26 cwt. of iron, including the waste in the refinery.
It is not our design to expatiate on the minutim of this manufacture,
but to attempt to describe the progress of an art, the importance of which,
is making, every day, stronger claims on our acknowledgment, and take
a general view of its extent, the elaborations of which, form the elements
of all industrial pursuits, are becoming appropriated to the uses of
commerce, as well as science and agriculture. We cannot, therefore,
omit to notice an innovation, producing the most signal alteration in the
fabrication of this metal—the invention of hot for cold blast, or, the sub­
stitution in the furnace, of air heated to a very high temperature, instead
of common atmospheric air.
Mr. Neilson, manager of the gas works, at Glasgow, took out a patent, in
1828, and succeeded in producing cast iron by the hot blast. When in
operation, the economical result was very apparent, for, whereas, previ­
ously, it required 8 tons of coal for 1 ton of pig iron, by the cold air, 21-4
tons of coal was now an adequate supply. This method acquired gene­




The Iron Trade.

229

ral use in Scotland, and was afterwards introduced in this country. Mr.
Mushet, in his papers on iron and steel, (1S39,) says : “ Instead of 20 or
30 cwt. of limestone, formerly used, the blackband, (or ironstone,) now
required only 6 or 8 cwt. to the production of a ton. This arises from
the extreme richness of the ore, when roasted, and from the small quan­
tity of earthy matter it contains, which renders the operation of smelting
the blackband, with hot blast, more like the melting of iron, than the
smelting of an ore. When properly roasted, its richness ranges from 60 to
70 per cen t; so, little more than 1 1-2 ton is required to make a ton of pig
iron, and, as 1 ton of coal will smelt 1 ton of roasted ore, it is evident,
when the blackband is used alone, 1 3-4 ton of our coal will suffice to the
production of 1 ton of good grey pig iron.”
About 20,000 tons of this pig iron is annually imported into the United
States, being chiefly used, for its softness and fluidity, to mix with the
harder qualities of American pig iron, in the formation of castings and
hollow-ware.
Notwithstanding that an increase in the quantity of one-fourth followed
this mode of operation, the hot blast meets with much prejudice in Wales,
where the chea pness of the fuel does not render its reduced consumption
so much an object, and the cold blast there generally prevails. In 1740
the smelting of iron ores, in England, was executed entirely with char­
coal, and the ores employed, were principally brown and red hematites.
Earthy iron ores were also smelted, but the sole smelting material of the
present day, is the argillaceous carbonate of iron, or the clay iron stone,
and, so admirably adapted are some locations for ferrugineous productions,
that, in Dudley, in Staffordshire, the iron ore, the limestone for flues, and
the fire clay for constructing the brick-work of the furnace, are found as­
sociated together.
One-third of the mineral basin of South Wales is a formation of an­
thracite coal, and Mr. Crane, in 1837, succeeded in smelting iron from
anthracite coal, from 27 cwt. from which he obtained 1 ton of iron. In
Mr. Crane’s furnace, the consumption of the coal was diminished onethird, and the yield of iron increased 50 per cent more, by the anthracite
coal and hot blast, than ever before by coke from coal and the cold blast.
Mr. W. Lyman first put in successful operation, at Pottsville, Pennsyl­
vania, in 1839, a furnace for smelting iron by anthracite coal and the hot
blast. In 1840, Messrs. Biddle, Chambers & Co. erected extensive works in
Dansville, Pa., on the same principle, and Messrs. Reeves & Whitaker
changed their furnace, at Phoenixville, Pa., from the use of charcoal to
anthracite coal.
Mr. Lyman’s furnace yielded 35 tons of cast iron per week, but Mr.
Thomas, the agent of Mr. Crane, superintended some works, erected
about the same time, by the Lehigh Coal Company, at Allentown, Pa.,
called “ Crane Works,” from which were obtained, when first in blast, 60
tons per week ; and now, in that state, 17 furnaces, employing anthracite
coal and hot blast, producing 47,000 tons per annum. In that state,
anthracite coal is always used in smelting with hot air, and in puddling, in
most instances, the process undertaken is the ignited gas, on the prin­
ciple of Detmold’s patent, obtained in England. In Maryland, bituminous
coal is used in puddling, in New York, charcoal—the “ black diamond”
not being one of the constituents of the mineral wealth of the Empire




230

The Iron Trade.

State. And west of the Alleghany ridge, we find only the bituminous
formation, except in the Cumberland region.
At Brady’s Bend Iron Works, are two blast furnaces, capable of pro­
ducing 5,000 tons cast iron per annum, each ; a rolling-mill, which has
12 puddling furnaces, from the whole of which could be obtained 8,500
tons iron per annum; 1 scrap, and 3 balling furnaces, for merchant mill,
or finishing rolls ; and a nail factory, capable of manufacturing three tons
per day, of assorted nails; besides works for sheet and boiler plate, &c. ;
and the manager of these works, P. Raymond, Esq., solicits orders for the
heavy H, T, and V rails, at even lower rates, it is stated by Niles’ Regis­
ter, than the Mount Savage Works. At these latter works, situated in
Maryland, at the foot of Mount Savage, nine miles from Cumberland, is
erected a rolling-mill, calculated to produce weekly 150 tons iron, inclu­
ding boiler, plate, sheet, hoop, band, and railroad iron, xvhere the heavy
edge rail is offered to be made for $59 a $60 per ton.
In New Jersey, are 12 furnaces, yielding 12,000 tons pig iron per an­
num ; and in Bergen and Morris counties 65 forges, which make annually
3.000 tons bloomery bar iron ; and this last description of iron, which is
made by a single operation from the ore, without the intervention of the
blast furnace, technically called “ blooming,” is prosecuted to some ex­
tent in Connecticut, Vermont, New York, and Pennsylvania, as well as
East Jersey. New Jersey obtains her coal by the Morris canal, from
Pennsylvania, and supplies even that state with pig iron, reduced from
her rich ores. In New York, in Clinton county, the legislature has de­
termined on constructing a prison where convict labor may be employed
in manufacturing iron in the Catalan forge ; and the heat, which has here­
tofore been suffered to escape, is now availed of, by a system of conduc­
tion, to generate steam, which drives the trip-hammers while melting the
ore. As this operation is performed at the mouth of the mine, without
the cost of transportation of the ore and coal to a distant water-power,
the preparation of the ore, and its conversion through the various stages
of manufacture, can be conducted by the convicts in the prison-yard, at a
very reduced cost.
In 1810, 11,000 tons bar iron only were made in Pennsylvania, when
there were 44 blast furnaces, 78 forges, and 175 naileries.
In 1840, in the United States, it appears from the report of the com­
mittee appointed by the New York State Home League, the trade had
so far progressed that we had 450 blast furnaces, yielding 347,700 tons
pig iron, being 772 tons per furnace ; and 795 bloomeries, forges, rollingmills, &c., yieldidg 208,440 tons wrought iron. The number of furnaces
differ from the census of that year, which was manifestly exaggerated.
At the present moment there are 13,000 tons bar iron made in the
state of New York, chiefly in Essex and Clinton counties. Near Balti­
more city, 20 furnaces are in operation, giving 20,000 tons per annum ;
and so great has been the impetus given to the iron trade, that in every
direction new furnaces are being constructed, and those out of blast again
becoming active, in Pennsylvania. In the vicinity of Danville 40,000 or
50.000 tons of coal have illumined the hearths of the furnaces in that
region last year. The Montour Iron Company have 3 of the largest fur­
naces in the country, the product of which is about 4,000 cast iron, each,
per annum.




The Iron Trade.

231

The trade, at present, is in a very flourishing condition ; and this year,
no doubt, there will be a considerable addition to the yield, in the great
seat of this manufacture. We have taken great pains to arrive at an ap­
proximate enumeration of the iron works now in that state, and the an­
nual quantity of iron producing from each, and we now give the result:
235 furnaces, yielding 211,500 tons pig iron; 187 forges, rolling and
slitting-mills, bloomeries, &c., converting the above pig iron into 105,000
tons bar, bloom, boiler sheet, nail, nail plate, rod iron, &c. ; and the ra­
pid increment of these works is very perceptible, as by the governor’s
message it appears there were transported, by the several state lines of im­
provement, for the fiscal year, ending Nov. 30, 1844, 71,406 tons iron;
against the same time, 1843, 38,022 tons. In 1843, however, there was
not much activity in the iron trade. A more particular account of the
iron works in Pennsylvania, appeared in the Philadephia Commercial
List, for the year 1841, the sum of which is, that there were then 210
furnaces, and 170 forges, rolling-mills, &c., and 7 foundries, which pro­
duced 4,580 tons castings, 300 tons iron, (description unknown,) 103,450
tons pig iron, and 70,040 tons bar and bloom iron.
It has been well observed that, “ of all the metallurgic arts, that by
which iron is prepared from the ores, demanded the greatest degree of
practical skill, and is the most difficult to bring to perfection ; although
ages have elapsed since it first became an object of human industry, its
manipulation and preparation are yet receiving improvements, whilst
those of other ancient metals seem hardly susceptible of modification or
advancement. Copper, and its alloys, tin, lead, and mercury, were as
well known, and as cheaply prepared, by the ancients, as by the
moderns.”
This is strikingly illustrated by a recent surprising discovery in the
conversion of cast into malleable iron. The difficulty the iron-master has
hitherto had to contend with, has been the extirpation of thercarbon, and
other noxious elements, associated in the metal. At Codner Park, in
Derbyshire, are works, on Mr. Wall’s patent, now in successful opera­
tion, which is on the principle, that when a compound is subjected to an
electrical current, its negative and positive elements are detached from
each other. Iron is electro positive—the elements it contains when
crude—the carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, arsenic, oxygen, and silicon, are
electro negative. By the application of a stream of electricity to the
iron, in a state of fusion, when in the furnace, these impurities are dis­
lodged, and bars, of the purest metal, and strongest fibre, can be at once
drawn out, without any re-heating, piling, or fagoting, thereby effecting a
saving of from $5 to $10 per ton. This new and ingenious process lias
not yet found its way to the United States.
From all the information we can obtain, we believe the following to be
nearly a correct statement of the whole product of the United States:—
540 blast furnaces, yielding 486,000 tons pig iron ; 954 bloomeries, forges,
rolling and slitting-mills, &c., yielding 291,600 tons bar, hoop, and sheet
boiler, and other wrought iron, 30,000 tons blooms, and 121,500 tons
castings, such as machinery and stove plates, hollow-ware, &c., which,
at their present market value, would stand thus :—




232

The Iron Trade.

291,600tons wrought iron, at $80 per ton,...............................................
121,500 “ castings, at $75 per ton,.......................................................
30.000 “ bloomery iron, at $50 per ton,............................................

$23,328,000
9,112,500
1,500,000

To which must be added the quantity imported, say—
46.000 tons bar iron, rolled, at $60 per ton,.........................................
17,500 “
“
hammered, at $80 per ton,.................................
26,050 “ pig iron, converted into castings, at $75 per ton,............
5,570 “ scrap iron, at $35 per ton.....................................................
4,157 “ sheet hoop, &c., at $130 per ton,.......................................
2,800 “ steel, at $335 per ton,...........................................................

2,760,000
1,400,000
1,953,750
201,950
540,410
938,000

102,277 tons.
443,100 “
545,377 tons.

Consumption,..................

$41,734,610

So that the consumption of iron in the United States, in nearly the
crude state, approximates $42,000,000 per annum, nearly equal to the
whole value bf raw cotton produced in the United States at present prices.
We are rapidly outstripping the continental countries in the growth of
this great sinew of national power, for, according to Mr. Virlet, France,
Sweden, Russia, and all the civilized powers on the continent, only pro­
duce about 700,000 tons per annum.
To follow out the uses to which iron and steel are applied, in their
transformation to machines, implements, tools, &c., in their variety of
shapes, or the multiplied value they assume, under the hands of the machanic and manufacturer, would be a difficult task. The articles into
which they are converted are as various as the wants and occupation of
man. Without them, the soldier would be harmless, the artizan useless,
the farmer pursuing a fruitless avocation, and a nation destitute of inde­
pendence. It is important, therefore, (hat a commodity of such great ne­
cessity, and universal use, should be abundant and cheap. The present
duties, on the quantity imported, which has averaged about 100,000 tons
per annum, for five years, excluding 1843, amount to from 50 to 150 per ct.
on the first cost; and it is evident that so large a proportion of the consump­
tion would not be taken from abroad, if our domestic iron-masters were
prepared to supply the demand. Under these circumstances, we consider
such exorbitant imposts, onerous and impolitic. For, whether it be true
or not, that the higher the duty the higher the price, it is certainly true,
the lower the duty the lower the price, where the domestic and foreign
articles come fairly into competition. The effect of a moderate reduction
would be, to compel the domestic manufacturer of iron to accede to lower
terms, in order to rival in sales the foreign article, and the consumer
would be benefited. The present price of American bars is, from $75
to $80 per ton. We know they can be laid down here for $57 50, and
the rapid increase in the number of works, in Pennsylvania, is ample tes­
timony to the remunerative character of the business.
The consumption will increase with the diminution of price ; and now
that the appropriations of this metal are becoming more multiform, it is
unwise to keep it up to a fictitious level, by exclusive legislation. It is
not only being used in the construction of houses in England, but exten­
sively in ship building, steam frigates, and the commercial marine, made
of this material, are preferred for their durability, lightness of draft, and
economy. There is one steamboat building in New York, we understand,




233

The Iron Trade.

for tbo North River, of iron ; and when she has performed a few trips,
we predict that not many more will he made of wood.
What would tend more, however, perhaps, than any other circumstance
Co make iron cheaper, and extend the consumption of both domestic and
foreign, would bo the increase of facility in communication with the in­
terior by railroads. M. de Villefosse properly remarks : “ What they
call, in France, the question of the price of iron, is, properly speaking,
the question of the price of wood, and the question of the means of inte­
rior communications by means of roads, streams, rivers and canals.” The
cheap and rapid communication of railways, is what so bulky an article
requires; and the only point to consider is, whether it would be more ad­
vantageous to wait until this country can make it, or import it from Great
Britain. The manufacture of the heavy-edge rail, calls for such a large
outlay of capital, so much more experience and manipulation, than any
other species of fabrication, that it would retard the progress of the coun­
try too seriously, we apprehend, to stand still till the bantling attained
maturity.
It has been stated that the heavy-edge rail can be made here, in Mary­
land, for $60 per ton, which is about the cost of bars laid down at the
seaboard. It appears, from English invoices, the heavy T rail has always
cost $7 25 per ton more than the common bar, and that, too, where the
m anufacture is b ro u g h t to perfection.

Years.
1831,..........
1832,..........
1833,..........
1831,..........
1835...........
1836,
.
1837,
.

Av. price of
raerch. bar,
per ton.
JL‘5 5
5 0
6 0

6 in
5 15
io n
8 15

Av. price of
rails, p. ton.
X'G 17 6
(i 15 0
7 10 0
S 0 0
7 10 0
11 15 0
10 0 0

Y ears.
1838,.........
1839..........
1840,........
1841,..........
1842,..........
1843,..........

Av. price of
merch. bar,
per ton.
X8 15

9 0
8 0
6 10
6 00
5 00

Av. price of
rails, p. ton.
X I0 10 0
10 10 0

9 12 6
8 0 0
7 15 0

6 10 0

We cannot, therefore, understand how it can be made near the price of
common bars here. In consequence of the great demand for railways, in
Great Britain and t ie Continent, the price, in England, now, of the T
rail is £7 10 per ton, or $36 per ton, to which add $8 for freight, insur­
ance, commission, &c., makes the cost of importat ion $44 per ton.
As the edge rail will replace the flat bar, in this country, on 2,500
miles, or say 250,000 tons, the difference between $44 and $70, the pre­
sent price, is $6,500,000. The sum the country would save, if the present
duty of $25 per ton were abolished.
The importation of 90,000 tons of bar and pig iron per annum, (com­
paratively crude articles,) shows that the country is not yet prepared for
the manufacture of the more complicated and expensive edge ra il; and,
at present, until the avenues of transit have placed the existing works in
more complete communication with the various markets, we think a high
duty on rails highly inexpedient; besides, the railroads would not only
facilitate the progress of the manufacture, by placing the ore, the fuel,
and the flux, the furnace, the forge, and the rolling-mill, now in many
sections of the country, at some distance from each other, by giving be­
tween each a cheaper and easier communication, but they would furnish
considerable employment in the making of locomotives, cars, and all
kinds of work connected with railways. Many of the richest portions of




234

The Iron Trade.

the Union remain undeveloped for want of the means of transportation.
Professor Shephard, of Yale College, says, that in many parts of Missouri
the iron ore is so devoid of foreign materials, as scarcely to require the
preliminary process of roasting, to dissipate the volatile ingredients, or
the subsequent addition of large doses of flux, to effect the withdrawal of
other impurities ; and, that a mountain exists there, whose circuit is two
miles, and whose elevation is 350 feet, consisting of specular iron, so pure
that only a few solitary crystals of feldspar can be discovered, which
would yield 70 per cent of pure iron, and the region is amply supplied
with charcoal.
Unlike the precious metals, which, when once separated from the ore,
cease to contribute to the productive industry of the country, iron, through
its various transformations, from the ore to the finished utensil, acquires an
accession of value, calls for additional mechanical labor, and gives occu­
pation and reward to different avocations. This dormant treasure lies
imbedded to an inexhaustible amount, through a vastly extended region;
and we will take a rapid glance at its richness and variety. The most
valuable—the magnetic oxide of iron—characterises the stratified pri­
mary rocks of New England, and is prolonged across New York, New
Jersey, and Pennsylvania, to a remarkable degree. It occurs abundantly
at Winchester and Franconia, in New Hampshire ; at Cumberland, Rhode
Island, whence it is taken to Massachusetts to be smelted ; at Somerset, in
a range of talc slate, twenty miles north of Massachusetts ; at Ilawles
and Bernardstown, in Massachusetts. In New York, it occurs in the
northern primary district in abundance, especially near the valley of Ausable river. In the Highlands, and in the neighborhood of Ringwood,
thick beds, averaging ten feet of solid ore, are seen—in Morris county.
New Jersey, near Succasunny, and at intervals as far as the Delaware
river, and on the northern side of Berks and Lancaster counties, Penn­
sylvania. Its average thickness is from five to twelve feet, and it yields
65 per cent of metallic iron.
In Pennsylvania, where the various ores are profusely distributed, be­
sides the magnetic or oxydulated iron ore, the brown and yellowish ar­
gillaceous or hematite ore is found principally along the borders of the
lime-stone valleys, containing from 45 to 55 per cent of metallic iron ;
the fosseliferous ore, from the variegated shale formation, containing from
40 to 60 per cent of metallic iron; and the ore of the coal region, simi­
lar in character to the clay iron-stone of England and Wales, yielding
from 30 to 50 per cent of metallic iron, and is highly useful from its gene­
ral dissemination through those districts where the other ores are not en­
countered.
Here is a vast field for future operations ; and no means would tend
more efficiently to develop its teeming resources than the construction of
railways. Railways would not only cheapen the manufactured article by
affording a quick and economical vehicle of conveyance, but open new
markets to the iron-master, and widen consumption. From the difficul­
ties of transit, the north and west branches of the Susquehanna, and of
Clinton and Essex counties, New York, would consider $60 per ton for
bars a poor compensation, but with railways would be able to compete
more successfully with foreign supplies. The rolling-mill at Mount Sa­
vage owes its existence to the Baltimore and Ohio railway of imported
iron. So that, independent of the considerations attached to railways as




The Iron Trade.

235

a means of national defence and a bond of union, the interest^ of the ironmanufacturer seem to demand the free admission of railroad iron. The
two establishments now in existence for the manufacture of this branch,
cannot possibly supply the demand that will exist for this method of loco­
motion and conveyance ; for it appears that not only will 250,000 tons
be required at once of heavy rails to replace the worn out flat rails, but
4,378 miles are undertaken for railroads, besides those already in use
throughout the United States.
Agriculture, into which the consumption of iron so extensively enters,
and which forms the preponderating interests of the country, has sacri­
ficed much to support the protective policy, in the high prices created
thereby. The price of most of the products of agriculture is at present
depressed, and it would materially relieve its burdens if the. duty were in
some measure relaxed on all descriptions of iron ; and we do not believe,
under the existing profitable rates, any moderate reduction would injure
a single manufactory within the influence of foreign importations. Be­
sides, the quantity which comes in collision with foreign iron is but a
minor proportion of our whole production. Of 300,000 tons wrought iron
made in the United States, only one-third, or 100,000 tons is calculated
to reach the seaboard; the other two-thirds, or 200,000 tons being de­
spatched to the western markets.
In England the duty on bar iron, in 1826, was $7 25, on pigs $2 40,
it is now $4 80 per ton on bars and S i 20 per ton on pigs ; and their
liberal policy exercised towards an article entering into such general con­
sumption, is worthy of imitation. Whatever arguments might have been
adduced in favor of protection, to bring into existence, and foster in its
infancy, a manufacture, lose much of their cogency when that manu­
facture has attained maturity sufficient to compete with foreign products,
which has surrounded itself with the capital and skill of an intelligent
community, and summoned to its growth all the modern improvements
of arts and science—as is the case here with common bar, hoop, sheet,
and rod iron now.
We do not advocate any extravagant or sudden abatement of duties,
but it is not just to the interests of the other states, nor the large con­
suming mass, that any particular branch of national industry should be
protected beyond the requisitions of government, for efficient public ser­
vice or what is necessary to counteract the regulations of foreign nations.
In effecting any modification of the tariff, a due regard should be preserved
to the manufacturers who have invested capital on the faith of a contin­
uance of a protective policy, and who cannot sustain themselves at first
without it ; but it is expecting too much from the people to suppose that they
will submit to a perpetuity of the system, when the temporary and inci­
dental protection has enabled the domestic to vie with the foreign manu­
facturer in his own market, and the revenue raised by this means is no
longer necessary for the administration. The effect of this abatement
would be that the manufacturer would be obliged to reduce his profits in
the price lest he should be undersold by the foreign article ; and the con­
sumer would reap the benefit of the competition.
We now subjoin the table before alluded to :—•




A r t ic l e s .

1828-29.

Exp. val. Tons. Exp. val

Tons

Total iron, . . .
S te e l,....................

from

1828-29, to 18-13-44, inclusive, ending on the 30th September cf each year.

1830-31.

1831-32.

1832-33.

Tons. Exp. val.

Tons. Exp. val.

Tons. Exp. val.

1833-34.

1834-35.

Tons. Exp. val. Tons. Exp. val.

|

1835-36.
Tons.

Exp. val.

3,329

$119,326 6,449

$226,330 17,245

$541,664 20,387

$701,549 28,028 $1,002,750 28,896 $1,187,236 28,410 $1,050,152 4G-G75 $2,131,828

29,489

1,884,0641 30.693
28 811 1,129
89,057 1,038

1,730,375 23 308
25,664 6,448
59,822 2,532

1,260,166 38.35(1
160,681 ](>,151
151,900 2,853

i
1,929,493 36 124; ],S37,47: 31.784
217,008 11.113
222,303 9.330
245,846 2,214
382,559 3,350

1,089
75

6.164
234

97
14

—
—

u

_

3,641,355 32,937
289,771 8541
133,631 3 643

•
1,891,214
272,978
325,676

5,945
784

217
10 J

13.600
4;585

233
56

13.727
2,063

221'
95

, 32,834
6,080

132i
a

10,017
77

ii.U

7,428
2T

240
HI

21.764
1,301

8.1

1C
—

72
—

3
—

176
—

12‘
998

2.0G2
24,035

3
1,617

230
S3,243

1-20
640

f
io,con

1-8
1,846

5
28.224

3,133,215 93,342
576.888 2 878

4,672,990
GS6.141

—

35.114 $2,127 661 311,421
1 2£u
289,931 1,223

1,742,883 31.524
270.325 12,295
390,237 2,009

2.049-007
291,957

49,864 $2,135,728 71,833
1,710
399.035 2,146

3,051,870 78,158 3,348.751 75,759
645,510 2,131
523,11G 2,431

3,434,248 74.9S2
554,150 2,605

Tot. i on and steel, . 36.314 $2,417,592 40.644 $2,340,964 51 571 $2 535 363 73 979 $3,697,380 80.289 $3 871.867 78,190 $3,988,398 77.597 $3,710,103 96,220 $5,359,131

I mport of I ron and S tee l
A r t ic l e s .

1836-37.
Tons.

Exp. val.

1837-38.

1838-39.

Tons.' Exp. val. Tons.

into the

U nited S tates , etc.— Continued.

1839-40.

Exp. val. Tons. Exp. val.

1840-4).
Tons.

Exp. val.

1841-49.

1849-13.

Tons. ! Exp. val. Tons. Exp. val.

■
Bar and bolt iron, rolled. 47,839 $2,573,367 36,174 $1,825,121 60,285 $3,181,180 32,825 $1,707,G50 63,055 $2 172,278 6J,600[ $3,053,453 20.230
Bar and bolt iron, hammered, or otherwise manufactured,................... 31,325 2,017.346 21 319 1,166,196 35,557 2,051,094 28.819 1,6S9,831 29.605 1.614,420 19,5121 1,041.410 8.440
422 929 12 192
285,300 5.516
223.288 18,694 J 295 284 6.472
Pit; i r o n . ........................ 14,128
319,099 12,507
114,562, 12.267
504 473 2 531
376,075 3,560
296,679! 1,522
Hoop and sheet iron, . . 5,041
218,192 3;309
354,933 2,469
235,809 3,646
B la ze r’s rods, 3-16 a
4 7 7S9.
530
37,767! 212
164
12 843
201
21.762
142
10,618
381
27,942
8 16, inclusive, . . .
193
10
38
8601
11
£
13V
613
Nail and spike rods, slit..
32
94
36
2,291
24
Band, scroll or casement
22
1,023
16
36
15
15
M61
rods, slit or hammered,
5.7
2,712
886
983
15
i
C85;
8,207
169
783
10,537
430
Old or scrap iron, . . .
18,391
7,56i
589
10,161
707
766
15,749
Total iron, . . . . 99.300
Steel...........................

5,558.366 72.855 S3,549 629 112,679
804 817 1 907
487,334 2,958

5,910,787 70 544
771,803 2,225

3,812.370 109,548
528,716 2,563

4.411,215 104,621
609,201 2,771

3,734.683 37,071
597.3 i7 1,334

$637,617

1843-44.*
Tons.

Exp. val.

46,000 $1,825,121

450,317 17,500
76 858 26 050
154,638 3,600

855,220
349,600
280,360

15,309
730

470

10,648
1,890

3 612
4,424

60
5,770

G.5G0
152160

1.341.565 99 477
324.086 2,800

3,481.499
487,334

Total iron and steel . 102 866 $6,363,183 74.762 S4 036.9631 U5.637; S6.693.59f 72.7091 $4,341,086 112,111 $5,020,416 107,392 SI 332,000 38.405 $1,665.65! 102,277 $3,968,833




The Iron Trade.

The last quarter of 1844 only estimated in part.

Bar and bolt iron, rolled
Bar and bolt iron, ham
mered, or otherwise ma
nufactured, . . . .
Pi" i r o n , ....................
Hoop and sheet iron, .
Brazier’s rods, 3 16 t
8 16, inclusive, . .
Nail and spike rods, slit,
Band, scroll, or casemen
rods, slit or hammered
Old or scrap iron, . .

1829-30.

238

I mport of Ikon and Steel into the United States,

Resources o f Pennsylvania.

237

Ap.t. III.—RESOURCES OF PENNSYLVANIA*
T h e native resources o f Pennsylvania, are, doubtless, more abundant
than those of any other state in the Union. With a territorial domain
embracing forty-seven thousand square miles, it possesses extraordinary
advantages for the successful prosecution of agriculture, mining, manufac­
tures, commerce, and the mechanic arts. Its fertile soil stretches out a
broad expanse, from the banks of the Delaware, westward, to the shore
of Lake Erie, and the Ohio, and is eminently productive of those crops
which are yielded in the northern and the western states. Its hill sides
contain inexhaustible beds of coal and iron, lying in those precise po­
sitions where they are most required, and which are slid down almost
into the very yards where they are worked up for manufacturing purposes.
Quaries of the purest white marble are found in the vicinity of its promi­
nent cities, and are used for the adornment of their principle edifices and
streets. Upon its eastern side, it possesses the first city in architectural
elegance, and the second in population, of the nation ; its interior supports
the most considerable inland town, and, upon its extreme western point,
Pittsburgh echoes with the sound of the hammer, and blackens the sky
with a hundred forges, like a city of the Cyclops. In mining, it stands
the first in the nation, yielding much the greater portion of mineral pro­
ducts ; it produces one-sixth part of the grain, and in manufactures, it
stands the third. The most populous portion of its surface is traversed by
railways, canals, and costly turnpike roads. Its exports find their way,
by water, upon three sides, namely : through the chain of the northwest­
ern lakes, by the way of Erie, down the Mississippi, through the Ohio,
and by the Delaware, either coastwise, or to foreign ports, by the sea.
Its wide surface exhibits the picturesque contrast of the cultivated farm
and the winding river, the smiling village and the dense forest, the calm
valley and the blue mountain; audit, moreover, possesses a population of
about eighteen hundred thousand, consisting of some of the most enter­
prising, industrious, and moral of our countrymen. It is our object, in
the present paper, to exhibit, in a compendious form, the resources of this
great state, so far as they appear, from published statistical data, and oral
information, as well as from a sojourn in the counties of the interior.
In the southeastern portion of the state, the surface of the soil is varied
and undulating, although not hilly; and, indeed, but few extensive level
tracts are found within its boundary. Occasional ridges of trap rock may
be descried here, but the South Mountain, extending to the Maryland line,
is the first range of any considerable altitude in this section ; and, next to
this, the Blue mountain stretches its long and level crest line of summit,
to the height of about twelve hundred feet. The anthracite coal is found
in the mountainous region, between the Lehigh and Susquehanna, and
north of the Blue mountain. High ridges extend along, east of the Sus­
quehanna ; and the valley of Wyoming, so famed for its picturesque
beauty and historic interest, courses through the territory, bordered by a
lofty chain of mountains. The chain, running through the Blue and the
Alleghany, is denominated the Appalachian chain, and possesses between
* For a full and elaborate article, on the “ Trade and Commerce of Pennsylvania,”

see Merchants’ Magazine, for April, 1844, vol. x., no. iv., page 308 to 326.—[Ed. Mer­
chants’ Magazine.




238

Resources o f Pennsylvania.

them, valleys sometimes twenty miles in breadth. West of the Susque­
hanna, are numerous other mountains, whose names we shall not designate. The Alleghany extends across nearly the whole state, and is first
perceptible upon the north branch of the Susquehanna, thirty miles above
Wilkesbarre, it then ranges westward, through the county of Luzerne, al­
though, at this point, called by a different name, and inclining to the
southwest, it enters the state of Maryland. West of the Alleghany, is a
high ridge, that all who have crossed these mountains must have noticed,
termed Laurel Hills, and, still beyond, is Chesnut ridge. That portion
of the state, lying west of the Alleghany mountains, is hilly, and the
whole region is intersected by deep channels and valleys, bordered byrugged hill sides, which appear to have been worn by the action of
the water, and it is not unusual to perceive a coal seam, high up on the
rocky steep, with its counter part upon the other side, thus indicating the
wearing of that element.
The surface of the state is watered by streams which fertilize the soil,
while they adorn the scenery with innumerable picturesque prospests. Tho
most prominent of those rivers are, the Delaware, the Susquehanna, and
the Ohio, and, through their channels, the waters of every spring and
brook, within its bounds, find their way to the ocean. The former of
those rivers rise in the state of New York, and, flowing southeastward,
and thence southwestward between Pennsylvania and New Jersey, passes
through the Blue mountain at the Delaware water-gap, where it exhibits
a panorama of sublime and beautiful scenery. Here the mountain rises,
on each side, about twelve hundred feet, and rugged precipices rear their
summits from the edge of the river, while the prominent peaks command
a view of the wooded hills and cultivated valleys, not only of Pennsylvania,
but also of the adjoining state of New Jersey; and the silver Delaware
winds its way through the landscape as far as the eye can reach. The
next river to which we have alluded, and the largest in the state, is the
Susquehanna, which fertilizes tracts rich in natural beauty, and empties
into the Chesapeake bay, below Havre de Grace. The breadth of this
river, varies from a mile to a quarter of a mile, its shores present rich
tracts of scenery, its bosom is diversified by numerous beautiful little
islets, while the navigation is obstructed by rocky rapids, excepting at
high water. During those periods, large quantities of lumber descend in
rafts, besides numerous “ arks,” laden with grain, flour, iron, and other
products of the interior. The portion of the state, west of the Alleghany
mountains, is drained by the Ohio, the two main branches of which, the
Alleghany and the Monongahela form a junction, at the thriving manufac­
turing settlement, to which we have before alluded, the city of Pittsburgh,
where it constitutes a most valuable channel of exportation.
The valleys and hill sides of Pennsylvania are very fertile, and, indeed,
the greater portion of the soil is productive. Although the limestone val­
leys yield the most abundantly, yet, the entire surface of the settled por­
tion, presents wide expanses of cultivated fields, which yield adequate re­
turns to the labor of the husbandman. Agriculture is prosecuted here
upon a large scale, and with a success that is not exceeded by that of any
other portion of the country. While, as has been before remarked, the
greater portion of the soil is fertile, those tracts, less favored by nature,
are tilled by the farmers, with equal profit, by the application of skill and
industry, and barren plains and hill sides have been converted into luxu­




Resources o f Pennsylvania.

239

riant fields of the grapes and the grains. In the older and more settled
portions of the state, the use of lime, and other approved means of fertili­
zation, as well as improved implements of husbandry, among which the
plough holds the most important place, together with the proper rotation
of crops, have advanced Pennsylvania to the first rank, as an agricultural
state. Here the traveller, in a journey through the interior, beholds, in
the abundant harvests, in the neat and substantial appearance of the farm­
houses, in the well constructed fences, and in the large barns, either en­
tirely, or in part, built of stone, some of which are fiom sixty to one hun­
dred and twenty feet in length, and provided with all the appliances of
stables, threshing-floors, and granaries, the most undoubted evidences of
thrifty and profitable husbandry. A good degree of attention is, moreover,
paid to stock: the breed of milch cattle has become much improved, as
well as that of the sheep and swine. Horses have been, also, improved,
but the enterprise of the farmers has been directed to those suited to the
draft and the plough, rather than to the race-course, and no state exhibits
more powerful animals, for that purpose, or of larger size. The farmers
of this state, indeed, exhibit favorable examples of the benefits of agricul­
tural enterprise. Owners, for the most part, of the soil which they culti­
vate, with all the means of necessary subsistence at hand, their profits, if
not large, are certain, and they enjoy all that sober independence, free
from vexatious and harassing cares, which naturally spring from rural
life. We here subjoin a table, exhibiting the number and average value
of the live stock of the state, according to an authoritative computation :—
Horses and mules,.........................
N eat cattle,....................................
Sheep,............................................
Sw ine,...........................................
Poultry,..........................................

365,129 at $60 00
1,172,665 at 15 00
1,767,620 at
2 50
1,503,964 at
3 50
(estimated value,)

$21,907,740
17,589,975
4,419,050
5,263,874
685,801

We also add a table of the principal agricultural products annually yield­
ed by the soil:—
13,213,077 H ay,........................
6,613,873 Flax and hemp,.....
14,240,022 Hops,.......................
20,641,819 W ax,......................
Buckwheat,. ....
2,113,742 Tobacco,.................
209,893
Potatoes,.............
9,535,663 Sugar,.....................
Wool,..................
3,048,564 W ine,.....................
Value of the products of the dairy,....................................................................
“
“
the orchard and gardens,...,....................................

W heat,................
R ye,....................
Indian corn,.......

1,311,643
2,650
49,481
33,107
325,018
7,262
2,265,755
14,328
$3,187,292
901,218

The population of a state may be considered a part of its resources ;
for it is they who give a direction to its industry, and mark the soil with
the impression of their character, in the public and individual improve­
ments. Pennsylvania derives its population from various sources, al­
though the distinctive shades of character that distinguished the early
emigrants, are fast melting away, under the influence of common interests,
and frequent and friendly association. The shores of the Delaware, that
were first colonized by the Swedes and Dutch, before the arrival of Wm.
Penn, are now cultivated by their descendants; in the southeastern coun­
ties, which were first settled by the English followers of Penn, we now
see their respectable successors, of the same race ; and a small, but in­
dustrious body of emigrants, from Wales, planted themselves near the




240

Resources o f Pennsylvania.

Schuylkill, in the counties of Montgomery and Chester ; Lancaster, Berks,
and Northampton, were settled by the palatine Germans, who emigrated
to this country about the year 1727, and settled upon some of the most
fertile lands in that region. The population of the state, has, moreover,
received some considerable accessions from Ireland. Many of the early
settlers of that nation scattering themselves through the counties of Lan­
caster, York, and Cumberland, and as their numbers swelled by new ac­
cessions, they spread themselves westward, across the mountains. These
several sorts of emigrants, although now presenting the distinctive cha­
racteristics of the nations from which they sprang, maintain friendly rela­
tions with each other, and are associated in ordinary enterprises relating
to the common prosperity.
In order to exhibit the advance of population, throughout the state, we
subjoin the following table, showing its increase from 1684 to 1840 :—
Year.
1684,........................ '................
1701.......................... .................
1763.......................... .................
1790,..........................................
1800,......................... .................

Pop.
7,000
20,000
280,000
434,000
602,545

Y ear.
1810,...........................................
1820,..........................................
1830,..........................................
1840,..........................................

Pop.
810,091
1,049,313
1,347,672
1,724,033

In presenting these few remarks respecting the population of Pennsyl­
vania, we have alluded to that portion who are now settled in the interior
of the state. There are, besides those that we have mentioned, a few
emigrants from New England, scattered through Luzerne and the adjoin­
ing counties, and the large cities present a mingled mass of persons, from
various quarters of the globe. In the city of Philadelphia, may be noticed,
not only the plain and neat descendants of William Penn, and represent­
atives from the other nations that we have enumerated, but emigrants of
Spain and Italy', and the successors of many of the French Huguenots,
protestants, who escaped from France during the religious persecutions
of that country ; so, also, a considerable number of the French, who left
St. Domingo during the revolt of that island, in 1792, have made this city
their permanent home, together with more recent emigrants from those
nations.
We now direct our attention to the productions of its mines, for, in this
respect, the state stands pre-eminent, and we will first examine its re­
sources in coal and iron, those two most powerful agents of modern me­
chanical and commercial enterprise. The production, in great abund­
ance, of mineral products, situated in convenient positions for use, have,
naturally, caused the erection of numerous forges, in parts of the state
where iron is wrought, and cast into various forms, and it has, also, fur­
nished a stimulus for the industry of the interior, in mining, and in trans­
porting its products to market. The quantity of limestone and marble,
yielded by the quarries, is, also, of great value, not only in fertilizing the
soil, and in furnishing facilities for mining, but also in supplying materials
for the adornments of architecture.
There are two different species of coal in the state—the anthracite and
the bituminous. Coal fields, possessing the same geological features, yet
separated by rocky lines of elevation, contain the great bulk of the an­
thracite coal of Pennsylvania. There are some of them, in turn, divided
into minor basins, bounded by the same sort of elevations, although
smaller. The basins of coal, intermingled in strata, with slates, shales,




Resources o f Pennsylvania.

241

and sand-stone, appear generally in the form of a trough, shaped like a
canoe ; and the coal beds vary in thickness, from one toot to thirty, al­
though they are sometimes found even fifty feet thick. It is found more
productive, in mining, to work those beds that are from five to twelve feet
thick, inasmuch as they are more accessible, while those that are of the
depth of thirty or forty, must be worked in chambers, pillars of coal being
left to support the roof. In the less thick beds, the whole mass may be
taken out, and the roof can be supported by single props. The seams of
coal are exposed, in many places, upon the walls of precipices, deep ra­
vines, and the channels of streams, running through the hills.
The ordinary mode of mining coal is to run a tunnel, or drift, into the
hill, to the coal bed, above the water level. This drift is wide enough to
admit the passage of a railroad car, and also serves as a drain for the
water of the mine. The bed is then worked upward toward the surface,
the coal being thrown or slid down the drift. Here it is loaded in cars,
and drawn to the mouth of the mine, and thence conveyed to the canal
boats, in which it is transported. If the coal bed, above the drift, is ex­
hausted, the miners then work the bed downward, below the water level,
and the coal and water, from the mine, are raised by the agency of steam
engines. It is not uncommon to find several coal beds in the same hill,
some being separated only by a short distance, while others are several
hundred feet apart.
The four mining districts, into which the southern coal field of Penn­
sylvania is divided, are the Lehigh, the Schuylkill, the Swatara, and the
Susquehanna ; and the former is owned by the Lehigh Coal and Naviga­
tion Company. The summit mines, which are situated on a high ridge,
at a place called the Mauch Chunk Landing, possess remarkable advan­
tages for mining, which has long been extensively prosecuted here. The
coal bed, that is worked at this place, is somewhat extraordinary in its
character, consisting of a mass, lying in a horizontal position, about fifty
feet thick, and appearing to be constituted by the junction of numerous
veins. This bed is worked by removing a mass of earth and loose stones,
to the depth of about twenty feet, when the surface of the bed appears,
and the coal is quarried, not in subterranean darkness, and by the glim­
mering of a lamp, but the light of day. North of these, beds of from five
to thirty feet thick, have also been opened. From those mines, railroads
have been constructed to the river, near Mauch Chunk, and immense
quantities are carried to the Delaware canal, at Easton, whence they are
transported to Philadelphia, New York, Boston, and other places, not only
upon the coast, but also in the interior.
That portion of the southern coal field, lying upon the branches of the
Schuylkill, is denominated the Schuylkill district, and it is very extensive,
including the Tamqua, Little Schuylkill, Pottsville, Mine Hill, as well as
other collieries, which transport their coal from the mines to the river,
communicating with the Schuylkill navigation, or the Philadelphia, Read­
ing, and Pottsville railroad. The greater portion of those mines is conducted
by individual enterprise, while a few are held by mining companies, pos­
sessing special privileges. The coal, quarried in those several mines, is,
moreover, various in quality, some being hard, and emitting intense heat,
another species softer, burning more easily, and depositing red ashes,
while there are other kinds, possessing qualities peculiar to themselves.
The Swatara coal district, lying upon the waters of that river, produces
15
V O L. X I I . ---- N O . I I I .




242

Resources o f Pennsylvania.

coal, of less compactness, and burning more freely than some of the harder
kinds, to which we have alluded; and that which is here mined, is sent
from the vicinity of Pine Grove, through the channels of the Union Canal
Company, either to the Susquehanna canal, or toward the Schuylkill.
There are, also, extensive beds, varying from three to thirty feet in thick­
ness, which, being broken by the passage of numerous streams through
them, afford special facilities for mining, which are situated in the Sharp,
Red, Coal, Little Lick, an I Big Lick mountains.
The Susquehanna district embraces the western terminations of the
southern coal field, branching out, in two divisions, toward the Susque­
hanna. The Southern, or Stony Creek coal region, contains valuable
beds, which appear to possess a bituminous character, but no mining
operations, of any importance, have been undertaken here, in consequence
of the want of the means of transportation of its products to market. The
Bear Valley coal beds, communicate with the Susquehanna, by a railroad
to Millersburgh. Those mines have been long worked, and yielded coal
of a good quality, although but a few of them have been opened, while
preparations have been made for the opening of other beds as soon as the
means of transportation shall be provided.
The middle coal field, constituted of many basins of minor size, em­
braces, on its eastern end, the mining districts of Beaver meadow and
Hazleton, near the. middle, the Mahanoy, and toward the western end, the
Shamokin, the field being situated north of the Broad mountain. The
quality of the coal, here mined, is similar to that of the southern coal
field, some beds yielding white and others red ashes, and yet, various in
quality, a portion being hard, shining, and compact, and emitting an in­
tense heat, yet burning slowly, while, in other points, is produced a coal
more brittle, lighter, less solid, and more easy of combustion. At Hazle­
ton, Beaver meadow, and other mines in this vicinity, the collieries are
worked by incorporated companies, which transport the products of their
mines, by the agency of railroads, to the Delaware canal, through the
Lehigh navigation. Mines are, also, opened in the Mahanoy district,
near the Pottsville and Danville railroad, near Girardville ; and, from that
point the coal can bo sent to the Schuylkill, and may soon be transported
to the Susquehanna. A number of mines are also now in operation at
Shamokin, which produce coal of various qualities, which is transported
down the Susquehanna canal, as well to the towns upon the bank of the
river, as to the city of Baltimore. But a small portion of the coal fields,
in this vicinity, have, however, as yet been mined, from the want of the
means of transportation of its products to market; and it is only when its
wild and mountainous recesses shall have been penetrated by railroads
and canals, that its value will be fully appreciated.
The northern, or Wyoming and Lackawana coal field, is about sixty
miles in length, and from one to six in breadth, and is of equal extent
with the others that have been described. Beds of coal, varying from one
to thirty feet thick, which are exposed among the hills by deep channels
and ravines, are worked, almost entirely, by individual enterprise. Col­
lieries are carried on, with some considerable profit, in the vicinity of
Wilkesbarre, as well as in Nanticoke and Plymouth, near the river. The
Baltimore Company works a mine, three miles above Wilkesbarre, where
a deep bed of coal has been opened, there being other beds in the valley
where the coal is thirty-two feet thick. The coal field, to which we have




Resources o f Pennsylvania.

243

alluded, extends up the valley of the Lackawana to Carbondale. Here
are carried on the mines belonging to the Hudson and Delaware Canal
Company, who convey no coal excepting that which is mined by them­
selves, and which transports annually large quantities to markets in New
York, Albany, and other places, by their own railroad and canal to Rondout, upon the Hudson river. The northern coal field also presents
marked advantages over the middle and southern, in the circumstance
that, while the latter possesses only a thin and sterile soil, this spreads
out a fertile agricultural valley, whose surface may be enriched by the
most luxuriant crops, while its subterranean recesses pour forth from be­
low its mineral products, and furnish exhaustless storehouses of wealth,
illumined only by the glimmering and solitary lamp of the miner.
It has been estimated that these three fields of anthracite coal embrace
about 975 square miles ; and as each cubic yard of coal in the ground
yields a ton when mined, we can hardly estimate the enormous quantity
of this useful product which is embeded in the soil. The actual amount
of coal recently mined may be ascertained from statistical data. It ap­
pears that the coal trade is yet in its infancy ; for in 1820, only 365 tons
were sent to market; in 1830, 174,737 tons ; and in 1840, 865,414. The
quantity produced from each of the mining districts during each year,
now exceeds 1,000,000 tons, more than 800,000 of which are conveyed
to other states. The following table, showing the amount produced in
1841 and 1842, we here subjoin :*—
C oal P koduced.

Lehigh, Beaver Meadow, A c .,..........
Schuylkill,.............................................
Sw atara,................................................
Lyken Valley,........................................
Shamokin,..............................................
Wyoming,...............................................
Lackawana,...........................................

1841.
142,821
584,692
17,653
4,379
21,463
53,315
192,270

1842.
272,126
540,892
32,381
4,864
10,000
47,346
205,253

Total,.....................................

1,016,593

1,112,862

* We subjoin statements exhibiting the amount of the transportation of coal to the city
of Philadelphia, down to the 12th of December, 1844 ; the amount transported from the
Schuylkill and Lehigh districts, by the various tributary companies; and the total amount
of the two districts, down to the same period.
The Schuylkill Canal Company have transported, up "to Thursday, Dec. 12th, 279,465
tons; from Schuylkill Haven, 63,353 ; and from Port Clinton, 56,669 ; being a total of
399,487 tons for the past season, as per official report of the different collectors.
The Reading Railroad Company, up to Thursday, Dec. 12th, inclusive, have passed
over the road the aggregate amount of 424,075.03 tons.
These are the two great arteries of communication from the Schuylkill coal region to
this city, through which medium 823,562.03 tons have found their way to tide-water,
from January 1st to December 12th, 1844. Among the various tributary companies to
the business of the Schuylkill region, we notice the transportation by the following com­
panies, viz:—
Tons.
Tons.
Mine Hill and Schuylkill H aven,. 324,688 Pine Grove, (last dates,)................ 34,223
Mount Carbon railroad,................. 195,630 Swatara,
“
................ 16,447
Little Schuylkill railroad,............. 56,696
The Schuylkill canal is closed for the season ; but the Reading Company intend trans­
porting through from Pottsville, as far as practicable, during the whole of the winter. If
the Little Schuylkill Company’s bridge be finished by the time anticipated, so as to enable
their road to connect at Port Clinton, that company will also bring down coal, during the
winter, from Tamaqua.




S c h u y l k il l .

Canal.

6,500
16,776
31,360
47,284
79,973
89,984
81,853
209,271
252,971
226,692
339,508
432,045
523,152
433,875
442,603
452,291
584,692
491,602
447,058
398,443

Railroad.

49,290
230,237
441,491

O t h e r R e g io n s .

L e h ig h .

Total.

6,500
16,776
31,360
47,284
79,973
89,984
81,853
209,271
252,971
226,692
339,508
432,045
523,152
433,874
442,608
452,291
584,692
540,872
677,295
839,934

Total.
365
1,073
2,240
5,523
9,451
28,393
31,280
32,074
39,232
25,110
■ 41,750
40,966
70,000
123,000
106,244
131,250
146,522
225,937
214,211
221,850
225,288
142,841
272,129
267,734
377,821

Pine
Grove. Shamokin.

17,009
13,000
20,639
23,860
17,653
32,381
22,905
34,916

11,930
15,505
21,463
10,000
10,000
13,087

Lackawan a.

Wilkesbarre.

7,000 '
43,009
54,000
84,600
111,777
43,700
90,000
103.561
115,387
. 78,207
122,300
148,470
192,270
205,253
47.346
58,000
227,605
114,906
251,005

Annual
-Aggregate, increase.
365
1,073
708
2,240
1,167
5,623
3,588
3,718
9,541
25,352
34,593
13,154
48,047
63.434
15,837
77,516
14,082
34,567
112,088
62,651
174,734
2,086
176,520
363,871 187.051
487,748 123,877
376,638 Decrease.
560,758 184,122
682,428 121,670
881,476 199,048
739,293 Decrease.
80,034
819,327
46,087
865,444
93,485
958,899
1,108,001 149,102
1,263,539 155,538
1,631,669 368,130

'

Unsold Sold on
Consumption. April 1. canal.

177,000
298,871
none.
431,986
65,000
415,186 117,762
635,935
70,212
632,428
4,035
680.441
54,035
788,968 255,070
867,000 205,395
973,136 157,622
958,899 100,000
1,158,001 100,000
50,000
1,213,537
50,000

3,154
3,372
3,332
5,321
6,150
10,048
13,429
19,429
18,571
17,863
21,749
28,775
30,390
28,924
41,223
40,584
34,619
60,000
90,000

T otal,. 5,587,930 721,018 6,308,948 2,773,654 185,354 81,985 1,875,435 220,252 11,445,628
In 1820, only 365 tons were sent to market. In 1830, the quantity had reached 174,737 tons ; in 1840, 865,414 ; and in 1844, 1,631,699 tons.
this statement, it will be observed that the trade has nearly doubled within the last four years.




By

Resources of

Years.
1820,.......
1821,.......
1822,.......
1823.........
1824,.......
1825,.......
1826,........
1827,.......
1828,.......
1829,.......
1830,.......
1831,.......
1832,.......
1833,.......
1834.........
1835,.......
1836,.......
1837,.......
1833,.......
1839,.......
1840,.......
1841,.......
1842,.......
1843,.......
1844,.......

244

A n t h r a c it e C o a l T r a d e .

The following table exhibits the quantity of anthracite coal sent to market from the different regions in Pennsylvania, from the commencement of the
trade, in 1820, to 1814, inclusive, with the annual increase, consumption, &c.

Resources o f Pennsylvania.

245

The other species of coal abouhding in the state is the bituminous, the
region of which is situated mainly west of the Alleghany mountains, its
area in the limits of Pennsylvania having been estimated as extending a
distance of 21,000 square miles. There bituminous coal fields are found,
stretching through the hills in horizontal planes, or with occasional un­
dulations, there being, according to a recent estimate, not less than ten
separate beds of coal from three to ten feet thick, and most favorable
for mining. Those who have journeyed through western Pennsylvania,
as it has been our good fortune to do, could hardly fail to have noticed
the approach to the bituminous coal region of that portion of the state.
The numerous channels cut upon the mountain sides, the multiplication
of manufacturing establishments of various sorts where coal is used as a
propelling power, the numerous furnaces, rolling-mills, and iron-works,
which there abound, the smoky atmosphere produced by innumerable
fires, (for almost every man has vast quantities poured down from the
hills to his very door, where it supplies the place of other fuel,) all evince
the influence that has been produced by the cheapness and abundance of
this simple mineral product. More than 8,000,000 bushels are consumed
in the opulent city of Pittsburgh, and nearly the same quantity in the
salt-works that are situated upon the neighboring streams; 2,000,000
bushels are supposed to be consumed in the city of Cincinnati, and the
diminution of wood upon the western waters will, doubtless, greatly in­
crease its consumption, both upon the Ohio and the Mississippi. The es­
timate is believed to be judicious, that 2,000,000 tons of bituminous coal
are annually mined in Pennsylvania, 200,000 tons of which are conveyed
down the Ohio, and nine-tenths consumed in the state, both for manufac­
turing and domestic purposes.
Another of the most prominent enterprises of Pennsylvania is the
mining and manufacture of iron. It is, doubtless, well known that this is
the great iron state of the Union, and its soil yields that most valuable
metallic product in abundance. The iron ores which are scattered over
its surface are various in quality. For example, the magnetic oxide of
iron, found in the south mountain between the Delaware and Susque­
hanna, yields from 60 to 70 per cent metallic iron, while brown and yel­
lowish argillaceous, or hermatite and pipe ores, which are extensively
worked along the borders of most of the limestone valleys, contain from
45 to 60 per cent. The fossiliferous ore, that is excavated near Danville,
in the county of Columbia, and in other places in Union, Juniate, Hunt­
ingdon, Bedford, and other parts of the state, contains from 40 to 60 per
cent of metallic iron. The iron ores are also most extensively found in
the, anthracite and bituminous coal region, and of the same character
with the clay iron-stone that is used for the manufacture of iron both in
England and Wales. It yields from 30 to 50 per cent; and, from the fact
that it is produced in very large quantities in those parts of the state
where the other iron is not found, it has become highly prized. That
species termed bog iron ore, is excavated in almost every county of the
state, and its best species are found to yield from 40 to 55 per cent of
metallic iron.
The great abundance of iron and coal, which are scattered throughout
the soil of Pennsylvania, has naturally induced the construction of numer­
ous iron-works ; for, as before remarked, iron is one of the great staples of
the state. Almost every county in the state possesses its furnaces, forges,




246

Resources o f Pennsylvania.

foundries, and smitheries, where iron is wrought from a crude state into
bars and pigs, and moulded into steam engines, as well as the numerous
smaller sorts of manufactured implements, such as scythes, nails, cutlery
and the various kinds of utensils of husbandry. Is has, indeed, been es
timated that the value of iron produced throughout the state, and the ad­
ditional value given to it by its manufacture, amounts to $21,000,000 an­
nually, and that there is consumed in this manufacture during each year
about 188,000 tons of anthracite and bitumious coal. It has also been
estimated, from authentic sources, that there are employed in the various
branches of the manufacture of iron throughout the state 20,000 workmen,
and that a population of 120,000 persons are here depending for their
support upon the different departments of the iron business. A consider­
able portion of the iron that is used by the cupalo furnaces of Philadel­
phia, besides that which is produced by the state, is the iron of New Jer­
sey and other states, while the rolling-mills of Pittsburgh work large
quantities of blooms from Ohio, Kentucky, and Virginia. The exact
quantity of iron mined and smelted throughout the state has been pretty ac­
curately ascertained byr returns made by the county commissioners to the
secretary of the commonwealth in 1889, by which it appears that there
were mined in 699 townships that made returns 334,151 tons, and adding to
that number the remaining 361 townships, according to the same ratio of
production, there is in the 213 furnaces of the state the following quantity
produced :—
Iron ore mined in 699 townships,......................................... tons 334,151
Estimated for the remaining 361 townships,............................... 172,573
Total,..........................................................................tons 506,724
It has been, moreover, estimated that the average amount of iron
yielded by ore in the furnace is about 37 1-2 per cent, which produces
one ton of metal to two and two-thirds of a ton of ore. To yield 190,000
tons of iron, which is the estimated annual product of the state, requires
508,666 tons of iron ore. In order to exhibit in a tabular form the
amount of the iron-works throughout the state, independent of the manu­
facture of iron, and their influence upon the measure of its industry, we
subjoin the following table, prepared by a committee appointed to obtain
statistical reports of the iron interests of Pennsylvania :—
N u m b e r a n d P r o d u c t o f t h e I r o n W o r k s i n P e n n s y l v a n ia , i n

Product.
rolling-mills, produeingBar iron,.........................
Boiler iron,.....................
Sheet iron,......................
Nails,...............................
Nail-plate iron,..............
forges, producing—
Blooms,...................tons 17,725
Less—ded’ct bl’ms manuf. into boiler, sheet,
nails, nail-plate,....... 14,960
Hammered bar,..............
furnaces, producing—
Castings,...........................
Pig iron,................. tons 80,305




Tons. Val. ton. Aggregate.

1842.

Tot. val.

Hands
emp’d.

20,800
2,400
1,200
8,960
2,400

$85

110
130
110
90

$1,768,000
264,000
156,000
985,660
216,000

$3,389,600

1,678

2,765
4,105

60
90

165,900
369,450

535,350

1,666

4,580

65

297,700

Resources o f Pennsylvania.
Less— ded’ct42,620tns.
bar iron and blooms
manuf’d from pigs, allowing 25 cwt. pigs to
the ton, is................. 53,287
7 foundries, producing—

247

...

27,018'
300

172 works—total pig iron,................. '74,528
131 fur., est produce,...tons 109,695
Less—deduct m anuf’d
into bars and blooms, 32,262 76,433
84 forges, rolling-mills, &c., estimated to produce..................... 27,410

30
90

30
75

1,108,240
27,000

5,063
31

5,060,190

8,438

2,292,990

6,856

Bar and bloom. 2,055,750

1,370

810,540

Pig iron

387 works in Penn’a., producing....... 178,371

9,408,930 16,664

We give below a statement derived from the official report of the canal
commissioners of Pennsylvania :—
Statement showing the quantity o f Iron, o f every description, shipped at the following
offices, in the years 1843 and 1844, and the increase or decrease at each office.
No. lbs. of iron No. lbs. of iron
Increase.
Decrease
shipped in 1843. shipped in 1814.
Collector's office.
367,148
1,375,595
1,742,741
Philadelphia,................
2,908,392
6,932,681
4,024,289
Paoli,............................
757,548
602,384
1,359,932
Parkesburg,.................
2,033,439
2,680,103
7,000,081
6,254,149
745,932
Columbia,.....................
7,086,592
1,246,620
8,363,212
Portsmouth,.................
3,488,180
6,679.601
10,167,781
Harrisburgh..................
476,166
1,468,982
Newport,......................
992,816
936,303
5,429,925
Lewistown,..................
4,493,622
4,773,567
2,335,878
Huntingdon,.................
7,109,445
5,995,906
Hollidaysburgh,...........
13,253,611
19,249,517
7,958,000
*Johnstown,.................
531,473
Blairs ville,....................
446,612
981,085
52,900
Freeport,.......................
7,600
60,500
Pittsburgh,...................
3,425,008
418,129
3,873,137
4,317,216
4,242,916
74,300
Berwick,.......................
8,016,863
2,662,288
Dunnsburgh,................
5,354,575
443,790
141,724
Williamsport,...............
302,066
22,445,040
10,298,303
Northumberland,.........
12,146,737
255,256
Liverpool,....................
149,863
405,119
133,152
1,876,116
Junction,......................
1,742,964
8,363,219
14,8.39,723
Bridgewater,...............
6,476,504
10,457,148
Easton,.........................
20,750,595
10,293,407
New H ope,.................
84,404
130,816
215,250
3,105,599
1,576,889
Bristol,.........................
1,529,710
Total lbs.,..........
157,948,580
2,914,853
67,635,314
85,170,119
Whole amount of toll received on iron of every description, transported on the several
lines of improvement, during the fiscal year, ending November 39,1844, $64,378 39.

We have alluded to the marble and limestone abounding in the state
as rich sources of its mineral wealth, and we would first describe
more particularly its marble. There are in the vicinity of Downington
numerous quarries of white marble, from which large quantities have
been transported from time to time to Philadelphia. Other quarries of
white, dark, blue, and variegated marble, as well as that possessing va­
rious shades of color, have, moreover, been opened east of the Schuylkill*




* No return from this office for 1843.

248

Resources o f Pennsylvania.

river, from which large masses have been transported to Philadelphia,
and other cities in this quarter; and that species called Potomac marble,
has been found in large quantities in various parts of the state. The
abundance of this beautiful material for building and other architectural
purposes, is a source of great wealth to the cities in the immediate vici­
nity of which the quarries are opened. It tends, in a greater degree than
perhaps any other material, to supply the most elegant adornments to do­
mestic architecture, and to contribute to the elegance of public edifices
and streets, as well as all sorts of ornamental work.
Even of larger value than the marble which abounds in the state, is
the quantity of limestone which is diffused through its greater part—con­
stituting the most fertilizing element in the soil, it is employed in building
bridges, houses, barns, canal locks, and other edifices. Burned into lime,
it yields a most valuable mortar, which is used extensively in the plaster­
ing of houses, in white-washing, in the smelting of ores, and various other
objects ; but, more especially, in its use for agricultural purposes, it is of
greater value than gold or silver mines ; for a quarry of this mineral pro­
duct, in the vicinity of the most barren land, will, with very little expense,
cause it to be highly productive, and it has already become an important
article of transportation in the interior. In the vicinity of the limestone
quarries there is also found a rock producing hydraulic cement, and it has
been pretty extensively used in the construction of canal locks. In ad­
dition to these products, are many kinds of potter’s clay diffused throughout
the state, and also those particular varieties used for the making of bricks.
Slate quarries have also been opened somewhat extensively in that part
of the state stretching along the southeastern side of the Blue mountain,
and large quantities of roofing slate, and that which is employed in
schools, is produced below the Delaware Water Gap, in the county of
Northampton. To these mineral products may be added zinc, copper,
and lead ores, which, however, have not been yielded in sufficient quan­
tities to warrant their being worked.
It has been estimated that two-thirds of the entire surface of Pennsyl­
vania are now covered with timber, and yet the productions of the forest
constitute an inconsiderable item in the sum of its available worth. Among
those productions, we may specify the quantity of fuel that is used for the
numerous purposes required by a large population, both for manufacturing
and domestic objects ; the charcoal employed in the foundries, forges,
furnaces, and smith-shops ; the logs that are sawed into boards, shingles,
and various sorts of lumber, both for building and mechanical objects;
the wood for farming utensils; the lumber for ship and boat building, and
those other implements required in manufactures and the machanic arts,
the greater portion of which may be supplied by the Pennsylvanian fo­
rests. From 5,389 saw-mills, 400,000 feet of lumber are annually pro­
duced, and about $500,000 worth of shingles, staves, and unsawed tim­
ber, are annually sent to market.* Besides this amount, there is to be
taken into the calculation a considerable quantity which is used for home
consumption, and the timber that is employed for other objects. Among*
* W e deem it our duty to allude, in connection ■with the subject of the present article, to
a work of which we have availed ourselves largely, the Geography of the State of Penn­
sylvania, bv Mr. Charles Jl. Trego, which has recently been published. It is comprehen­
sive, minute, and practical, and is the most satisfactory work of the kind that has been
issued in this country ; it may be considered in fact a model of this species of compilation.




Resources o f Pennsylvania.

249

the products of the forest of the state, may be mentioned, moreover, 2,000
barrels of tar, pitch, turpentine, and rosin ; 300 tons of pot and pearl
ashes ; and about 2,000,000 pounds of maple sugar.
It has been remarked that Pennsylvania stands among the three first
states of the Union in the amount of its manufactures. There is provided
by nature, in its vast beds of coal and iron, as well as in the great extent
of its water power, ample resources for manufacturing enterprise. It is
estimated, indeed, that upon the Susquehanna and its hundred branches,
as well as upon the Delaware and the Schuylkill, and their tributaries,
and the numerous streams that make up the Alleghany and Monongahela,
there is a power of this sort capable of performing the labor of 400,000,000
men, without calculating the material embodied in its vast anthracite
coal fields, and its 10,000 square miles of bituminous coal lands.
The operations of the various kinds of manufactures throughout the
state, employ a great number of individuals, both in the interior and in
the principal cities upon the borders ; and we will first consider the
amount of the manufacture of iron. The largest amount of iron produced
is in the counties of Northampton, Lehigh, Berks, Lancaster, York, Cum­
berland, Franklin, Bedford, Huntingdon, Centre, Columbia, Armstrong,
Clarion, and Venango, although, in other counties, a considerable quan­
tity of this metal is yielded from furnaces and forges. There are air and
cupola furnaces, rolling mills, steam engine factories, nail factories, scythe
and sickle factories, axe and edge tool factories, cutlery factories, facto­
ries for shovels, spades, and forks ; gun factories, car, carriage, and wag­
gon factories, plough factories, and sheet-iron factories. We here annex,
from the journal of the coal and iron interests of Pennsylvania, a table,
exhibiting the annual value of the manufactures of iron, based upon the
amount produced in 1842 :—*
M a nu factures of I ron .

87,241 tons made into bars, additional value,.............................................. .
71.000 tons castings,
“
45.000 tons rolled iron,
“
Iron in 270 steam-engines,
“
7,017 tons nails,
«
Scythes and sickles,
“
Edge tools,
“
Cutlery,
“
Shovels, spades, and forks,
“
Guns,
«
Cars, and other vehicles,
“
Ploughs, iron,
“
Sheet iron manufactures,
“
Articles made by blacksmiths,
“
Total,........................................................................................................

$3,489,760
5,000,000
1,937,339
700,000
253,110
15,000
110,000
25,000
30,000
185,074
900,000
107,000
100,000
5,000,000
$21,254,133

According to the census of 1840, Pennsylvania had 213 furnaces for
the manufacture of pig iron and castings, which produced 100,000 tons;
169 forges, bloomeries, and rolling mills, which annually manufactured
87,254 tons of bar, rod, sheet, and boiler iron, and nail plates. The capi­
tal invested in iron works is about eight millions, employing twelve thou* W e have derived much valuable information respecting the coal and iron interests
of Pennsylvania, from a semi-monthly magazine, devoted to the coal, iron manufactory,
and agricultural interests of Pennsylvania, edited by Henry R. Strong, Esq., and published
in Harrisburgh in 1842. The work has, we believe, been discontinued.




250

Resources o f Pennsylvania.

sand persons, who, with their families, would number about one hundred
thousand. It had 736 flour mills, manufacturing, annually, 1,193,405 bar­
rels of flour ; 2,554 grist mills, 5,389 saw mills, 166 oil mills; the total
value of these several branches of manufacture being $9,424,955, giving
employment to about eight thousand men, and about eight million dollars
of capital. It had 105 cotton factories, forty establishments for the dying
and printing of cottons ; 235 woollen manufactories, producing woollen
goods to the amount of $2,319,061 annually, and affording employment
to about three thousand persons; besides a vast amount of capital invest­
ed in various other branches of manufactures, and producing manufactur­
ed articles, of various kinds, to a very great value. Indeed, the total
amount invested in manufactures throughout the state, is returned at
$31,815,105. In order to establish the total value of manufactured pro­
ducts throughout the state, we here subjoin a table derived from an au­
thentic source :—
S u m m a ry o r a l l A n n u a l P rod ucts.

Value of 113,395 tons pig iron, at $ 3 0 ,........................................................
“
additional, by various manufactures,..............................................
“
anthracite coal mined,.......................................................................
“
bituminous coal mined,.....................................................................
“
agricultural products,.........................................................................
“
manufactures, except iron,...............................................................

$3,401,850
17,852,283
5,000,000
4,000,000
126,620,617
43,151,843

Annual products of the state.......................................................

$200,026,593

The state of Pennsylvania, possessing as it does, such vast resources in
the agricultural and mineral treasures of her soil, has established a sys­
tem of internal communication, in the improvement of navigable rivers,
the construction of railroads, canals, turnpike roads and bridges, calcula­
ted, in a great degree, to develop them. It is doubted, indeed, whether
the scale upon which the plan of internal improvement has been framed,
is not much too large for its requirements and its present means. The
plan of internal improvements early commenced, has been carried out to
a considerable extent, and a chain of public works has been constructed,
which, although attended with great expense, has contributed to the
wealth of the state in a much greater degree than the amount of their
cost. The expenditure of money upon those public works, has now in­
volved the state in some pecuniary embarrassment, of which it will re­
quire a few years to relieve itself. The canals and railroads that have
been built, connecting the most populous and productive parts of the
state by convenient lines of transportation, have doubtless added vast
value to the property of the state, and also to its trade. The long lines,
extending from its eastern to its western boundaries, furnish the most im­
portant avenues through which the products of the west maybe transport,
ed to eastern markets ; and the cargoes of foreign goods received in east­
ern ports may be, in turn, sent to their most remote places of sale in the
interior. Besides the construction of the larger works, by the state or
by individuals, there have been numerous shorter lines of railroads and
canals, connected with coal or iron mines, carried out by private enter­
prise, and we are writing within sight of long trains of its cars, composed
of sections of canal boats, taken from the waters of the Susquehannah,
divided into fragments, and despatched as cars to the city of Philadelphia
upon the wheels of a railroad. But the particular in which the state ex-







252

Resources o f Pennsylvania.
C oal T r a n s p o r t e d o n t e e S t a t e C a n a l s .

1841.

Mining Districts.
W yoming,.............................
Shamokin,.............................
Swatara,.................................
Lykens Valley,......................
Lehigh,..................................
W est Branch,........................
Juniata....................................
Kiskiminetas,........................

Tons.
53,315
21,463
17,653
4,908
142,158
*8.115
17,314
1,467

1842,
Tolls.
$33,804
6,692
1,408
1,014
48,063
3,597
12,836
287

Tons.
90,000
40,000
50,000
6,000
350,000
30,000
25,000
2,000

(estimated.)
Tolls.
§65,000
22,000
5,000
2,000
140,000
20,000
21,000
400

266,393
§107,701
593,000
§275,400
Total,........................
* 2,122 tons used on the Philadelphia and Columbia railroad, and paid no toll.

In conclusion, with the subject of the coal trade upon the state canals,
we would adduce other facts, bearing in a more practical manner upon
this interest, for there is little doubt that its coal resources will, for a long
time to come, attract to itself the industry and enterprise of its population.
Although this trade is still in its infancy, yet the demand for that product
is rapidly increasing, and will continue to increase with the advance of
the nation. It is fast taking the place of wood for domestic purposes in
the Atlantic cities, and in propelling the steamboats of the eastern waters.
It is also supplying the place of other agents for propelling all sorts of
machinery, as well as for the making of iron. But Pennsylvania alone
does not possess this useful mineral. Virginia and Maryland own mines
upon the Potomoc, and we perceive that in a lecture upon the geology of
the United States, recently delivered by Mr. Lyell, the eminent geologist,
he states that the Ohio coal field extends for a length of seven hundred
miles, and that of Illinois embraces an extent of surface even larger than
the whole of England. In those fields the coal is formed in workable
beds, and, in one instance, there is a bed of coal forty feet thick, which
comes up to the surface, and is quarried like stone. Although we possess
such vast bodies of coal within our own soil, it has been found profitable
for the British to import it in considerable quantity to this country.
Hardly a month passes without the arrival of coal from England ; but the
circumstances, which would at first appear strange, require some expla­
nation. The British coal mines, it may not be generally known, are
upon the coast, and near the place of export, while the nearest anthracite
mines of this republic are one hundred miles from the seaboard, and the
nearest bituminous mines are nearly two hundred, so that the difference
in the cost of transportation, together with the price of labor of our own,
is nearly the same as the export of that article to us, the inferior cost of
their own labor almost counteracting the duties. In order to show the
relative amount of British coal imported into the United States from 1821
to 1842, inclusive, in tons of 2,240 pounds, and the amount of Pennsylva­
nia anthracite sent from the mines to the cities upon the tide water, we
subjoin a table, which will exhibit, in a condensed form, the comparative
extent of the British import of that product.
The following comparative table, derived from the Miners’ Journal,
will show the quantity of coal imported into this country from 1821 to
1812, both years inclusive ; also, the quantity of bituminous coal mined
and shipped at Richmond, Virginia, and the anthracite coal trade of the
United States for the same periods. The importation of foreign coal is
official—from the Register of the Treasury :—




Resources o f Pennsylvania.
Year.
1821,......
1822,......
1823,......
1824,......
1825,......
1826,......
1827.......
1828,......
1829,......
1830,......
1831,......

Foreign.
Tons.
22,122
34,523
30,433
27,228
25,645
35,605
40,257
32,302
45,393
58,136
36,509

Virginia.
Tons.
48,214
39,255
59,857
59,571
79,144
75,643
89,357
83,357
91,785
93,143

Penn’a.
Tons.
1,073
2,240
5,823
9,541
34,893
48,047
63,434
77.516
112,083
174,734
176,520

Year.
1832,....
1833,....
1834.....
1835,....
1836,....
1837,....
1838,....
1839,....
1840,....
1841,....
1842,....

253

Foreign.
Tons.
.
72,987
.
92,432
.
91,626
.
49,969
. 108,432
. 152,450
. 129,083
. 181,551
. 162,867
. 155,394
. 103,247

Virginia.
Penn’a.
Tons.
Tons.
363,871
117,878
487,748
142,587
376,636
110,714
96,428
560,758
682,428
110,714
100,000
881,476
96,428
739,293
85,714
819,327
78,571
865,414
71,071
958,899
68,750 1,108,001

The mining of coal will, in future time, when the exhaustion of the
woodlands, and the increase of the population shall increase the demand,
become a prominent enterprise of capital and industry. The construction
of new railroads leading to valuable mines, the application of this material to new purposes, and the opening of additional markets, will greatly
multiply the motives for working mines of this sort, as well as the demands for its product. There are various expenses connected with the
working of collieries that are now not known to the public, and with a
view to present these prominent facts in a compendious form, we annex
the following table, procured from an authentic source, and relating to
this subject in the state of Pennsylvania.
The following table exhibits the several items of expense of mining
and transporting to market, a ton of 2,240 pounds of mineral coal, from
those mining districts whose tonnage passes over any portion of the
public works; and, also, the number of miles of railroads and canals from
the several mines to market :*
A n t h r a c it e .
W n iT K A s h .
R ed A sh .

Miles of railroad............................
“
State c a n a l,...................
“
Tide canal, . . . . ,
“
Union canal, . . . .
“
Lehigh canal, . . . .

Wyo- Le- Shamo
ming. high. kin.
2
9
20
148
60
84
45
45

B it u m in o u s .

Swatara.
8
17
45
52

Swatara.
5
17
45
52

Lyken.
16
55
45

Juni- W ’st Mer*
ata. Br’nch. cer.
—
— *
12
174
155
90
45
45

116

231

200

90

4«i

••

Total miles to market, . . .

195

1164

149

122

119

Rent or interest on coal land, . .
Opening veins, gangways, faults
and buildings,............................
Mining, timber, mine-wagons and
to o ls ,...........................................
Hauling out, skreening, and load­
ing cars, ......................................
Transportation to the canal, . .
Transhipment and cost of land'gs,
Depreciation from small coal and
w a s t e , ......................................
Toll on the State canal, . . . .
Freight on the State canal, . . .
Toll on the Tide canal, . . , .
Freight on the Tide canal, . . .

25

25

25

25

25

25

25

25

25

25

25

25

25

25

25

25

25

25

62

62

62

62

62

62

62

62

62

• 25
15

25
72
15

25
60
15

25
36
15

25
30
15

25
87
15

25
60
15

25
38
15

25
15
15

30
95
1 29
29
39

20
40
52

33
54
73
29
39

20
11
14
29
39
40
46
28
—
—
10

33
11
14
29
39
40
46
28
—
—
10

50
35
49
29
39

10
92
1 53
29
39

10
82
1 35
29
39
..

10
48
68

—
—
10

—
—
10

—
—
10

__
—
10

Freight on the Union canal, .
Extra for Union canal boat, .
Toll on the Lehigh canal, . .
Freight on the Lehigh canal, .
Oost of unloading boat, . . . .

.
.
.
.

10

Cost of coal in market, . . $4 74

58
40
10

io

..

$4 35 $4 50 $4 25 $4 22 $4 51 $5 45

84 95 $3 00

* A considerable reduction on the prices of transportation of coal has, we understand,
been made since this table was prepared.




254

Resources o f Pennsylvania.

We have thus gone through a compendious account of the resources of
the state of Pennsylvania, and it is easily seen that they are enormous.
It has been estimated that the great western bituminous coal fields of the
state, contains three hundred thousand millions of tons ; and when we look
at the immense amount of the manufacturing interest, the extent of its
iron works, and its wide surface of fertile soil, the existing and rapidly in­
creasing amount of its agricultural products, it must be apparent that it is
destined to a high career of prosperity. The present embarrassment in
the financial affairs of Pennsylvania, so far as it induces increased taxation,
is, to say least, at this time somewhat inconvenient. The state
debt is now larger than that of any other state in the Union, amounting to
$36,331,005, but it must be remembered that the value of this debt has
been realized to the state, not only in the encouragement of the industry
of its people, but also in the public works already constructed, adding to
the value of property, and contributing to the public convenience to the
full amount of their cost. The total value of the property of the commonwealth has been judiciously estimated at two billions one hundred millions
of dollars, and with the resources at her command, there is but little doubt
that she can, with the exercise of more economy and prudence,
soon relieve herself from debt. Indeed, the increase of the population of
the interior, each prominent iron mine and colliery furnishing a nucleus
for a future village, will tend to aid that object. The position of the state
is as extraordinary as its resources are opulent and its energies powerful.
It occupies a central situation, a sort of truce ground between the north,
the south, the east, and the west. No narrow local prejudices and nation­
al jealousies can here flourish. Its commercial ports touch the eastern
waters as well as those of the great lakes, and the Ohio. Its territory
stretches along the eastern frontier, and at the same time rests in the val­
ley of the Mississippi. It spreads out in its western part, the primeval
solitude of the forest, and on its eastern side, all the blandishments of me­
tropolitan life. It exhibits the strong contrast of frontier habitudes and
the most polished manners of the eastern cities. Its wilderness casts its
mighty shades as shelters for the bear and the wolf, which it has done
-ever since the creation, while on the eastern border, Philadelphia, with its
symmetrical squares, its magnificent edifices for public objects, its splen­
did piles erected for charitable purposes, its elegant shops and its nume­
rous blocks of private mansions, bound in pure white marble, as if they had
been chiseled from banks of snow, attest elegant taste and the benificent
spirit of the second city in the Union in population. In the character of
the people of the state, there are presented traits which afford an earnest
of its future prosperity ; although they are, in a considerable measure, de­
rived from different nations, they maintain a harmony which is the mark
of patriotism and the harbinger of good. They are prudent and industri­
ous, and the means of improvement which have been elsewhere experi­
enced have here worked out the most beneficial results. No true patri­
ot, from any quarter of the Union, can regard the resources and prosperity
of this great state with other feelings than those of honest exultation that
it forms a part of his country.




Wheaton''s Law o f Nations.
A rt.

255

IV.—W H E A T O N ’S L A W OF N A TIO N S*

Wheaton, the American minister to the Court of Berlin, has
recently introduced to the public a history of the law of nations, in Eu­
rope and America, from the earliest times to the treaty of Washington in
1842. It was originally written and published in the French language,
as a memoir, in answer to a prize question, proposed by the Academy of
Moral and Political Sciences, in the Institute of France, but has been
considerably enlarged, on rendering the work into the English language,
as the author informs us in the preface.
The work appears in four parts, with an Introduction and Conclusion.
The learned author is an American by birth and allegiance, and was edu­
cated at one of our universities ; in early life pursued the profession of
law in the city of New York; was connected with the judiciary of the
United States, as a reporter of decisions, for a period of twelve years ; and
in the year 1827, appointed Charge des Affairs of the United States
to the Court of Denmark ; and thence has been transferred, by the
government, as minister at the Court of Berlin, where he has continued
to be the accredited representative of the United States to the present
time. While Mr. Wheaton was reporter, he was a favorite of the pro­
fession, in our country, as well as of the tribunal which he attended, both as
counsel and reporter ; and his twelve volumes of reports bear ample testi­
mony to his fidelity, legal learning, and general knowledge of historical and
commercial law. Besides being a reporter to the highest judicial tribu­
nal in America, he was selected as one of the revisers of the statutory code
of the State of New York; and he entered, in the year 18j25, upon the
duties of this intricate enterprise, and continued as one of tho revisers un­
til he was sent abroad in a diplomatic character. The work before us is
understood to have been mostly compiled since he left his native country,
in his diplomatic employments ; and it shows that he has been familiar
with the state of various great questions of national law. which have
arisen in Europe and America, while he has been a sojourner in foreign
lands.
We regard Mr. Wheaton’s work, as one which will shed a broad
stream of light to the philanthropist and statesman, in their endeavors
to calm the angry passions of nations and people, when excited to acts of
hostility, either by love of power, feelings of revenge, or avarice. Mr.
Wheaton is a public benefactor, and his work will give him a high rank
amongst the most distinguished writers on the law of nations.
The work, though historical in its details, brings the law of nations
down to the most recent decisions; and, to the diplomatist and states­
man, will be what the life of an advocate is to the public—an application
of the doctrine of legal science to the intercourse of men.
Every person who has occasion to look into the law of nations, should
first consult Mr. Wheaton’s book ; in this he will find the latest decisions
and discussions on the subject of national law ; and when he has read
this work, he may turn to the pages of Vattel, Grotius, Binkershoek and
Me.

* History of the Law of Nations, in Europe and America, from the earliest times, to the
treaty of Washington, 1842, by Henry Wheaton, LL. D., minister of the United States
to the Court of Berlin, corresponding member of the Academy of Moral and Political
Sciences, in the Institute of France: New York, Gould, Banks & Co.




256

Wheaton's Law o f Nations.

the ancient authors, with a double facility to acquire the true interpreta­
tions of their doctrines. The work evinces much research ; and the la­
bors of the compilation have compelled our author to spend many an eve­
ning in searching the archives of States, and the diplomatic writers in
Europe—the dusty tomes of German universities, while his brethren in
the diplomatic circles have been paying their devotions to Fashion at the
shrines of Courts.
We would gladly make many extracts fronVthis book, for the benefit of
our readers, but our limits will not permit. We will first refer to that
portion of Mr. Wheaton’s work, more recent in its date—coeval with our
time. We mean the discussion of certain great questions of international
law, which occurred between Mr. Webster and Lord Ashburton, as pre­
liminary to the signing of the treaty between Great Britain and the
United States, in 1842, called the treaty of Washington.
The question discussed by these two distinguished negotiators, which
was not definitely settled by the treaty, was that of the African slave trade, and the right claimed by Great Britain to search all suspected ves­
sels on the high seas, which were supposed to be connected with this in­
human traffic, as well as the security of American vessels, when meeting
with disasters in passing between the United States and the Bahama
Islands, and driven by such disasters into British ports.
The letter to which we refer, is dated August 1st, 1842, Department of
State, Washington, and is from Mr. Webster, secretary of foreign affairs,
to Lord Ashburton, the British minister, and was written for the purpose
of apprizing the British government of the claims, which the United
States government made in the case of the Creole, an American vessel car­
ried into the port of Nassau, in the same year, by persons who had been
slaves in Virginia ; and who, while they were on a transportation from
Norfolk, by sea, to New Orleans, had risen upon the master and
officers of the vessel, put them to death, and escaped to the British Island,
and had there been treated as free persons, by the Colonial government.
This letter is long, and exceedingly able, and one of the best di­
dactic discussions we have ever seen put forth by the great mind of Mr.
Webster. It discusses the rights which appertain to the vessels of na­
tions, when on the high sea, in regard to the jurisdiction of the nation
to which they belong. This right is shown, on the part of the Ameri­
can secretary, to be exclusive; he says :—
“ A vessel on the high seas, beyond the distance of a marine league from the
shore, is regarded as a part of the territory of the nation to which she belongs;
and subjected, exclusively, to the jurisdiction of that nation. If, against the will
of her master or owner, she be driven or carried nearer to land, or even into port,
those who have, or who ought to have, control over her, struggling all the while
to keep her upon the high seas, she remains in the exclusive jurisdiction of her
own government. What reason or justice is there in creating a distinction be­
tween her rights and immunities in a position thus the result of absolute necessity,
and the same rights and immunities before superior power had forced her out of
her voluntary course ?”
This argument embodies the law of nations on this subject, as
acknowledged by the best writers on national law for the last century.
Indeed, a private merchant vessel, or a public armed vessel of war,
when driven into the ports of a neutral country, by stress of weather, for
shelter or repairs, or when driven by pursuit of pirates or of their ene­
mies, are entitled to protection. Mr. Webster further says :—




i

Wheaton’s Law o f Nations.

257

“ If a ship be driven, by stress of weather, into a prohibited port, or into an open
port with prohibited articles on board, in neither case is any forfeiture incurred.
>So, if a vessel be driven by necessity into a port strictly blockaded, this necessity
is good defence, and exempts her from penalty. That the rules of law and
comity of nations allow merchant vessels, coming into any open port of another
country, voluntarily, for purposes of lawful trade, to bring with her, and keep over
her, to a very considerable extent, the jurisdiction and authority of the laws of
her own country; excluding to this extent, by consequence, the jurisdiction of the
local laws. A ship at anch or in a foreign friendly port preserves its own national
laws. So, if a murder be committed on board of an American vessel, by one of the
crew or passengers, upon another of the crew or passengers, while such vessel is
lying in a port within the jurisdiction of a foreign state, or sovreignty, the offence
is cognizable by the proper court of the United States, in the same manner as if
such offence had been committed on board the vessel on the high seas. But this
jurisdiction of a nation over a vessel belonging to it, while lying in the port of
another, is not necessarily wholly exclusive.
“ We do not so consider, or so assert it. For any unlawful acts done by her,
while thus lying in port, and for all contracts entered into, while there, by her
master or owners, she and they must, doubtlessly, be answerable to the laws of
the place. Nor if her master or crew, while on board in such port, break the
peace of the community by the commission of crimes, can exemption be claimed
for them.
“ The jurisdiction and laws of a nation accompany her ships, not only over the
high seas, but into ports and harbors, or wheresoever else they may be water­
borne, for the general pui’pose of governing and regulating the rights, duties, and
obligations, of those on board thereof; and that, to the extent of the exercise »f
this jurisdiction, they are considered as parts of the territory of the nation herself.
And if a vessel be driven by stress of weather, perils of the sea, into the ports of
another state, the laws of that state would not so attach to the vessel.as to effect
existing rights of property between persons on board, whether arising from con­
tract, or otherwise. The local laws would not operate to make the goods of one
man to become the goods of another man.”
And Mr. Webster, in his argument, asserts that it ought not to effect
their personal obligations, or existing relations between themselves.
This latter argument applied to the case of the slaves on board of the
Creole, which escaped from the vessel, and then were held freed, by the
British authorites, from any obligations to their former masters. He says :
“ By the comity of the law of nations, and the practice of modem times, mer­
chant vessels entering open ports of other nations, for the purposes of trade, are
presumed to be allowed to bring with them, and to retain, for their protection and
government, the jurisdiction and laws of their own country. Because the ports
are open—because trade is invited—and because, under these circumstancecs,
such permission, or allowance, is according to general usage. It is not denied
that all this may be refused—that on the arrival of a foreign vessel in its ports,
all shipping articles, and all indentures of apprenticeship, between her crew and
her owners, or masters, should cease to be binding. The nation has the power to
do so, but they are not presumed to do so. It is competent for a nation, by ex­
press edict, or statute, to declare that no foreign jurisdiction, of any kind, should
exist in, or over, a vessel after its arrival voluntarily into her ports; and so she
might close her ports to the ships of all nations.”
Mr. Webster further observes:—
“ A state may also declare, in the absence of treaty stipulations, that foreigners
shall not sue in her courts, nor travel in her territories, nor carry away funds or
goods received for debts. The power of a state to make such laws is unquestion­
able ; but, in the absence of direct and positive enactments to that effect, the pre­
sumption is, that the opposite of these things exist. While har ports are open to
foreign trade, it is to be presumed that she expects foriegn ships to enter them,
von. xir.

no . i i i .




i

16

258

Wheaton’s Law o f Nations.

bringing with them the jurisdiction of their own government, and the protection
of its laws, to the same extent that her ships, and the ships of other commercial
states, carry with them the jurisdiction of their respective governments, into the'
open ports of the world.
“ A merchant vessel enters the port of a friendly state, and emoys, while there,
the protection of her own laws, and is under the jurisdiction of her own govern­
ment ; not in derogation of the sovereignty of the place, but by the presumed al­
lowance, or permission, of that sovereignty. This permission, or allowance, is
founded on the comity of nations; and this comity is part, and a most important
and valuable part, of the law of nations, to which all nations are presumed to as­
sent, until they make their dissent known.
“ Vessels which are compelled to seek the port of a friendly nation, by an over­
ruling necessity, may place their claim for exemption from interference on still
higher principles—that is to say, principles held in more sacred regard by the
comity—the country, or indeed, the common sense of justice of all civilized
states.
“ The presumption of law is stronger in regard to vessels driven into foreign
ports by necessity, and seeking only a temporary refuge, than in regard to those
which enter them voluntarily, and for purposes of trade, that they will not be in­
terfered with, and that, unless they commit, while in port, some act against the
law's of the place, they will be permitted to receive supplies, to repair damages,
and to depart unmolested.
Vessels of the United States driven by necessity into British ports, and stay­
ing there no longer than such necessity exists, violating no law, nor having in­
tent to violate any law, will claim, and there will be claimed for them, protection
\id security, freedom from molestation, and from all interference with the cha­
racter or condition of persons or things on board. In the opinion of the govern­
ment of the United States, such vessels, so driven, and so detained, by necessity,
in a frierdly port, ought to be regarded as still pursuing their original voyage,
and turned cut of their direct course only by disaster or wrongful violence ; and
they ought to receive all assistance necessary to enable them to resume their di­
rect route; and that interference and molestation by the local authorities, where
the whole voyage is lawful, both in act and intent, is ground for just and grave
complaint.”
W e have not referred to this letter, to discuss the law of nations grow­
ing out of the Creole case ; for we are of the opinion, that the law on
this question has never yet been settled in the code of any nation, and
we may presume that generations will come and pass away before any
definite rules will be acknowledged for a similar case. But we do
not remember ever to have seen the law and rights, appertaining to
merchant vessels, while lying in the ports of a foreign and friendly na­
tion, so fully and clearly expounded by any writer on national law, as in
the letter of Mr Webster, from which we have made the above extracts.
This letter could have found no more appropriate repository than in Mr.
Wheaton’s work; and he has had the sagacity, throughout his book, to
collect, from numberless sources, as well as from the ancient, ponderous
tomes of the writers on national law—the good and practical parts of
them, while he has cast the rubbish away.
The British minister did not undertake to answer Mr. Webster’s letter
at length ; for he came embassador to the United States without instruc­
tions from his government to enter into a formal stipulation for the secu­
rity of vessels of the United States, when driven by disasters into British
ports.
The next letter, to which we would call the attention of our readers, in
Mr. Wheaton’s jook, is found at page 737, and is also from Mr. Web­
ster to the British minister, under date of August 8, 1842. This last let­




Wheaton’s Law o f Nations.

259

ter is upon the subject of the impressment of seamen out of American
vessels, while on the high seas and in foreign ports, by British authority.
This letter, like the preceding one, is a profound and able vindication of
the law, on this subject, as claimed by the government of the United
States.
The British minister, in his reply, states that the laws of England and
America, maintain opposite principles respecting allegiance to the sove­
reign. America, receiving every year by thousands emigrants from Eu­
rope, maintains the doctrine, suitable to her condition, of the right of
transferring allegiance at will. The laws of Great Britain have main­
tained, from all time, the opposite doctrines : the duties of allegiance are
held to be indefeasible ; and it is believed, says the British minister, that
this doctrine, under various modifications, prevails in most, if not in all,
civilized states of Europe.
Our readers are aware that Great Britain claims the right to visit and
take out of American vessels, while on a voyage, all persons found on
board, whether composing the crow or not, who are British-born sub­
jects, although they have renounced their allegiance to their native
country, and become naturalized American citizens. The United States
government hold that a person can expatriate himself at will, and be­
come the citizen of a country foreign to that of his birth. And at the
present day, France, by her political code, has conceded the same, right
of expatriation to her native-born citizens.
At page 740 of Mr. Wheaton’s work, Mr. Webster, in his reply to
Lord Ashburton, says :—
“ England acknowledges herself overburdened with population of the poorer
classes. Every instance of the emigration of such persons is regarded by
her as a benefit. England, therefore, encourages emigration. Means are no­
toriously supplied to emigrants, to assist their conveyance, from public funds ;
and the new world, and most especially these United States, receive the many
thousands of her subjects thus ejected from the bosom of their native land by
the necessities of their condition. They come away from poverty and distress
in over-crowded cities, to seek employment, comfort, and new homes, in a
country of free institutions, possessed by their kindred race, speaking their
own language, and having laws and usages in many respects like those to
which they have been accustomed—and a country which, upon the whole, is
found to possess more attractions for persons of their character and condition
than any other on the face of the globe. It is stated that in the quarter of
the year, ending with June last, more than 26,000 emigrants left the single
port of Liverpool for the United States; being four or five times as many as
left the same port within the same period for British colonies, and all other
parts of the world. Of these crowds of emigrants, many arrive in our cities
in circumstances of great destitution; and the charities of the country, both
public and private, are generally taxed to relieve their immediate wants. In
time they mingle with the new community in which they find themselves,
and seek means of living. Some find employment in the cities, others go to
the frontiers to cultivate lands reclaimed from the forest; and a greater or
less number of the residue, becoming in time naturalized citizens, enter into
the merchant service under a flag of their adopted country.”
Mr. Webster argues the question with Lord Ashburfon thus:—
“ Now, my lord, if war should break out between England and a European
power, can anything be more unjust, anything more irreconcilable to the gene­
ral sentiments of mankind, than that England should seek out these per­
sons, thus encouraged by her, and compelled by their own condition, to leave




260

Wheaton’s Law o f Nations.

their own native homes, tear them away from their new employments, their
new political relations, and their domestic connections, and force them to un­
dergo the dangers and hardships of military service for a country, which has
thus ceased to be their own country ? Certainly, certainly, my lord, there can
be but one answer to this question!”
By perusing Mr. Webster’s letters, the reader will find that the just
rights of the United States, in regard to the impressment of seamen from
her ships, are fully vindicated ; and he will also learn the state of the
question, as it now remains undecided by two great nations, who are
urging, each against the other, their conflicting rules of international
law. The work of Mr. Wheaton is of that practical nature, that gives it
a claim to perusal by the mercantile reader on both sides of the Atlantic.
And every person who wishes to fit himself for business in the daily com­
mercial intercourse of the world, should purchase and read this book; he
will not only find in it a history of the law of nations, but also the law as
applicable to most questions which arise between nations in their politi­
cal and commercial character. The right of visitation and search of
American vessels on the high seas, suspected of being engaged in the
slave trade, is also discussed by Mr. Webster, in a letter to Mr. Everett,
our minister to the Court of London, under date of March 28, 1843. This
letter is an able vindication of the American side of the question; and
the British side is not supported or justified, according to Mr. IVhe at on,
by a single passage of any institutional writer on public law. It
leads, according to Lord Stowell, to gigantic mischief and universal war.
Mr. Wheafon has taken care, in his work, to vindicate the rights of our
republic whenever he can do so in accordance with the law of nations.
Mr. Webster, in his dispatch to Mr. Everett, page 718 of the work before
us, denies, in the fullest manner, the right of British cruisers to detain an
American merchant vessel either for a visit or search. The government
of the United States does not admit that, by the law and practice of na­
tions, there is any such thing as a right of visit distinguished from the
right of search. It does not admit, a visit of American merchant vessels
by British cruisers is founded on any right. A vessel cannot be called
upon to show even her papers, while on the high seas, in times of peace.
Her rights are equal to the rights of any other vessel, whether private or
public, and no vessel has a right to molest her. The use of papers is, in
times of peace and war, to show her national character, and the lawful­
ness of her V03_age in those ports of other countries to which she may
proceed for purposes of trade ; and to prove her nationality when visited
by belligerent cruisers in time of war. The historical accounts and dis­
cussions of the right of visit and search take up more than one hundred
pages of Mr. Wheaton’s work ; and he has fully shown the immunity of
merchant vessels in time of peace to be either visited or searched on the
high seas. At page 308 Mr. Wheaton has also collected the law rela­
tive to rights of nations to participate in the navigation of great rivers
which pass through the territory of one nation on the sea coast, to that of
another above, rs^in the case of the navigation of the Mississippi, page
508, he says :—
“ The right of the United States to participate with Spain in the naviga­
tion of the river Mississippi previous to the cession of Louisiana, was rested
by the American government on the sentiment written in deep characters on
the heart of m?n, that the ocean is free to all men, and its rivers to all ri­
parian inhabitants.”




Wheaton’s Law o f Nations.

261

This natural right was found to be acknowledged and protected in all
tracts of country united under the same political society, by laying the
navigable rivers open to all the inhabitants on their banks. When these
rivers enter the limits of another society, if the right of the upper inhabit,
ants to descend the stream be in any case obstructed, it is an act of
force by a stronger society against a weaker, and condemned by the
judgment of mankind.
At page 134, of the work, the subject of contraband, and the confisca­
tion of the vehicle carrying contraband, and of innocent, with unlawful
articles found on board, is discussed. The French marine ordinances of
1681, subjected the contraband articles to confiscation, but innocent goods
and the ships were free. Some nations have settled between themselves,
by treaty, what shall be considered articles of contraband. In the nature
of things there appears to be two kinds or species of contraband goods :
1st, contraband of war; 2d, contraband of the treasury. The first are
goods carried by a neutral, into an enemy’s ports, or designed for them,
in time of war, between two belligerent nations. The second, are goods
imported, or intended to be imported, into a country, either in time of
war or peace, contrary to the regulations of the revenue laws of the coun­
try. In either case, the goods are subjected to seizure and coindemnation, but whether the vessel that transports the goods, shall be liable to
condemnation, is often a question of municipal custom, or regulations, but
much more frequently, of international law. The laws of nations on the
subject of contraband, as in other cases, is not to be drawn from any
other source, than reason and usage, unless there has been some positive
treaty, or regulation, on the subject. Reason commands us to be equally
friendly to two of our neighbors, or friends, who are enemies to each
other ; and, hence it follows that, I am not to prefer either in war, or to
give either aid and comfort, by selling, or carrying to either, articles,
which are known as munitions of war. These articles are often enumerated in treaties, and consist usually of powder, ammunition, fire-arms,
weapons of war, all war-like accoutrements, military dress and clothing,
cannons, muskets, ships, sheet copper, wrought iron, spikes, sails, hemp,
tar, pitch, rosin, timber, cordage, and whatever serves for the equipment
of ships, and vessels of war. By the ancient Roman law, a vessel was
condemned, or acquitted, which carried contraband of the treasury, accord­
ing to the fact, whether the owners knew of the contraband being shipped.
There was a wide distinction, in case of goods, whether the contraband
goods, and the innocent goods, belonged to one owner, in regard to the
condemnation of the whole cargo—the whole might have been condemn­
ed if they belonged to one owner, but, if the innocent goods belonged to
another owner, they were not involved in the confiscation. The early
practice of the English admiralty courts, was to condemn both ship and
cargo, when contraband was found on board, and so is the practice, with
many nations, at the present day ; but, after the contraband cargo has
been discharged, and the vessel is found on the high seas, or has cleared
from the port of discharge, we believe that no nation, at the present day,
condemns the guilty vessel. The English rule was subsequently relaxed,
so as to limit the confiscation of the ship, and the innocent parts of the
cargo, to cases where they belonged to the owners of the contraband, or
where the shipment of the contraband is attempted to be concealed under
false papers and false destination.




262

Reciprocity Treaties and Commercial

Mr. Wheaton’s work is, truly, what it claims to be—a history of the
law of nations; and, as such, may be consulted by every person who
cares for the rights of his nation, on the seas, or on land, either in times
of peace or war. The work is extended through some 790 pages, and
brings down the law of nations to our own times. We hope that the
learned author will abridge the work into a reasonable compass, so that
it may be used, to advantage, as a text book, in our law shools, and uni­
versities. The introduction to the work, consists of 67 pages, and notes,
and begins with the international law of the ancient states of Greece and
Italy; it also treats of the influence of the Roman law, in forming the
modern law of nations, and many other subjects, too numerous for us to
recapitulate—while the general authors, mentioned therein, are recom­
mended to us, with a biographical history of each, besides an ample re­
ference to the despatches, negotiations, treaties, and official communica­
tions, of diplomatic agents, of the European and American nations, from
the earliest times to the present day. Indeed, Mr. Wheaton appears to have
consulted the diplomatic codes of all nations, and drawn from them the
principles which illustrate the law of nations, at the present time ; nor
have the judicial decisions of our own country been overlooked, or those
of England ; and he has done his duty, faithfully, to the work, by reference
to reports and decisions, on questions of international law, which have
often been adjudicated, in the tribunals of different European countries.
The work, as a literary production, is respectable, and will meet the requirementsjof the public in this respect, though we noticed an inaccuracy
of sentiment, in the introduction, like the following :—
“ The laws and customs, by which the mutual intercourse of Europe, and of
European nations, was regulated, previous to the introduction of Christianity,
were founded on the prejudices which regarded the different races of men as
natural enemies.”
We are far from believing, or acknowledging, that the inhabitants of
Europe were originally made up of different races. Indeed, the more we
investigate this subject, the better satisfied we are, that God has made, of
one blood, all the nations of the earth ; they have all, essentially, the same
elements to compose their language, the same principles and customs, on
which to found their laws, and when they shall have been educated and
enlightened, by religion, and a just system of municipal, and international
law, peace shall reign triumphant throughout the world, and all will be
of one mind, to the praise of their Creator.

A rt.

V.—REC IPR O C IT Y T R E A T IE S AND COM M ERCIAL IN T E R C O U R SE
W IT H B R IT ISH COLON IES.

T h e only great department of the industry of the country, which is not
at present in a flourishing state, is the shipping interest. It is not at­
tended with loss, but it is by no means prosecuted with the success
which for many years has attended it. It is highly important, that the
mercantile class should at once make an effort to restore the navigation
of the United States, to the position it occupied a few years since. A
joint effort, from those interested in the shipping interest, in various parts
of the country, to change the measures of the federal government in re­
lation to it, would undoubtedly produce a favorable effect. All parties at




Intercourse with British Colonies.

263

Washington appear to entertain the conviction, that the reciprocal treaties,
and the convention with Great Britain in relation to her West India colo­
nies, are adverse to American navigation. Then, why not legislate and
restore the former state of our commercial relations? Mr. Webster,
when Secretary of State, expressed the opinion that they operated unfa­
vorably to American interests. Mr. Upshur expressed the same opinion
in his report to the Senate of the United States, in 1843. During the
session of Congress, in 1842, the committee of commerce, of which J. P.
Kennedy was chairman, made a voluminous report upon these subjects.
The committee reported bills requesting the president to give notice to
Denmark, Sweden, the Hansiatic republic, Prussia, Austria, and Russia,
that the reciprocal treaties would terminate in one year; also to request
the president to give notice to the British government that the convention
for trade with the British colonies would cease in one year. The com­
mittee also reported bills for placing the commerce, with these nations,
upon a just and equal footing; but they were not passed, owing to the
great excitement existing at the time.
We propose, therefore, with a view to bring the subject before the
mercantile community, to give some of the remarks of Mr. Webster, Mr.
Upshur, the committee of commerce of the House of Representatives, and
some of the statements of the increase of foreign tonnage in comparison
with our own. By these statements it will appear that the British ton­
nage has increased under this convention ; for trade with the British
colonies from 3,002 tons, in 1832, to 387,947 tons, in 1840 ; that instead
of having a greater part of the tonnage with nations under reciprocal
treaties, it is reversed, and instead of two-thirds, we have only one-third.
The whole foreign tonnage is increased, from 133,436 tons, in .1830, to
741,632 tons, in 1840. Can we be surprised that freights are low, when
foreign tonnage has increased 500 per cent in ten years? Mr. Webster
expresses himself in his speech at Baltimore as follows :—
“I do, gentlemen, entertain the strongest belief that the principle of reciprocity,
acted upon by the government, is wrong, a mistake from the beginning, and inju­
rious to the great interests of the country. What is it ?
“ By every reciprocity treaty, we agree to give to every nation, with which it
is concluded, a right to trade between us and other nations on the same terms as
we trade ourselves, is to give to the Hanse towns, and the other states of the same
class, the right to fetch and carrry between us and all the nations of the world on
the same terms as we do, and practically they can do it much more profitably.
“ In my opinion, the true principle, the philosophy of politics on the subject, is
exhibited in the old navigation law of England, introduced by some of the odd
geniuses of Cromwell’s time, and acted upon ever since.
“ The principle is this, the rule is this, any nation may bring commodities to
her in her own vessels, and carry our corn to her ports—we having the like privi­
lege—but no nation shall bring the products of a third nation, or carry between us
and that nation. It has been said, by a very distinguished person, and now living,
that the rule of the navigation law had its foundation in this idea, England sought
in her arrangements to secure as much of the carrying trade of the world as she
could, and what she could not get herself, she sought to divide among other nations.
“ In one sense, this is, doubtless, a selfish policy, so far as it indicates a dispo­
sition to obtain all she could, but this is not an extraordinary selfishness ; in other
respects the operation is most just, the wisest and most beneficial that could be
desired. We may test this in a variety of ways. It does tend, to a certain ex­
tent, to increase the means of that state which has the greatest mercantile ma­
rine, and can afford to sell cheapest; but, at the same time, it does give to all




264

Reciprocity Treaties and Commercial

o th e r s t h e a d v a n ta g e o f c a r r y in g t h e i r o w n g o o d s. S u p p o s e E n g la n d c a n c a r r y
c h e a p e r t h a n a n y o th e r n a tio n in th e w o rld , a n d s u p p o s e a ll t h e n a tio n s o f th e
w o rld s h o u ld a d o p t f re e tr a d e p r in c ip le s , a n d o p e n t h e i r p o r ts to a ll t h a t c h o s e to
e n t e r ; a t o n c e t h e g r e a t n a tio n t h a t c o u ld c a r r y c h e a p e s t w o u ld g o , s te p b y s te p ,
till p r e s e n tly s h e m o n o p o liz e d t h e w h o le c a r r y in g tr a d e o f t h e w o rld . D o e s n o t
e v e r y o n e s e e t h a t s u c h a s t a te m u s t b e c o m e m a s te r o f t h e w h o le w o rld ? o r, s u p ­
p o s e th e r e w e r e tw o g r e a t n a tio n s , lik e G r e a t B r ita in a n d t h e U n ite d S ta te s ,
fo u n d to b e th e c h e a p e s t c a r r ie r s ?
“ W e o u g h t to g iv e to e v e r y n a tio n t h e r i g h t o f b r in g in g h e r c a r g o h e r e in h e r
s h ip s , i t 's h e g iv e s th e lik e p riv ile g e ; b u t b y th e r e c ip r o c ity tr e a tie s , to g iv e , fo r
t h e c a r r y in g o f a n a tio n lik e B r e m e n , w h ic h h a s b u t o n e p o rt, a ll t h e p o r ts a lo n g
a c o a s t o f 1 ,5 0 0 m ile s , w ith 1 7 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 o f p e o p le , w h e n s h e h a s s c a r c e ly 2 0 0 ,0 0 0
o f h e r o w n — p r a y , w h a t s o r t o f r e c ip r o c ity is th is ? I t is v e r y m u c h lik e t h e
h o r s e a n d th e c o c k w h o w e r e w a lk in g to g e th e r . T h e c o c k th o u g h t to m a k e a
r e c ip r o c a l t r e a t y w ith th e h o r s e — ‘ 1 w ill n o t t r e a d o n y o u , i f y o u w ill n o t tr e a d
o n m e .’
“ H e r e to f o re , i n B a ltim o r e w e a ll k n o w , b e fo re 1 8 2 7 , t h e tr a d e w a s c a r r ie d o n
in A m e r ic a n v e s s e ls , w ith t h e H a n s e to w n s , a n d s u s ta in e d a b o u t e ig h ty v e s s e ls
r e g u la r ly , m a in ly to B r e m e n a n d H a m b u r g h . I n 1 8 2 7 a n e w t r e a t y w a s fo rm e d
w ith t h e H a n s e a t i c r e p u b lic , a n d b y t h e f ir s t a r tic le o f t h a t t r e a ty , i t w a s a g r e e d
u p o n , t h a t a r tic le s m ig h t b e im p o rte d in to t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , fro m a n y p a r t o f th e
w o rld , in a v e s s e l o f t h e H a n s e a t i c p o w e r s , a n d i t w a s f u r t h e r a g r e e d t h a t a n y
v e s s e l m ig h t b e r e g a r d e d a v e s s e l o f o n e o r t h e o th e r o f t h e H a n s e a t i c re p u b lic s ,
w h ic h w a s o w n e d b y c itiz e n s o f th o s e r e p u b lic s . O u r g o v e r n m e n t, w h e n i t e n ­
te r e d in to t h a t s tip u la tio n , s h o u ld h a v e b e e n m o re c a u tio u s , a s i t h a d th e e x a m p le
o f E n g la n d in m a k in g a t r e a t y w i t h th e s a m e r e p u b lic in 1 8 2 5 , s tip u la te d t h a t n o
v e s s e ls slm u ld p a s s a s H a n s e a tic w h ic h w e r e n o t b u ilt in t h a t re p u b lic ; a v e ry
im p o r ta n t'c o n s id e r a tio n , a t t h a t tim e , fo r n o n e o f t h e r e p u b lic s w e r e e n g a g e d in
s h ip b u ild in g , t h o u g h s in c e t h a t tim e th e y h a v e b u ilt m a n y g o o d v e s s e ls .
“ A n d w h a t w a s t h e p r a c tic a l r e s u l t o f th is a c t o f lib e r a lity ? I h a v e s a id b e fo re
t h a t p r e v io u s to 1 8 2 7 t h e n u m b e r o f A m e r ic a n v e s s e ls e n g a g e d i n tr a d e w ith t h e
r e p u b lic s in B a ltim o r e w a s e i g h ty d u r in g t h e y e a r . I t fe ll in a f e w y e a r s to
tw e n ty -fiv e , a n d i n r e g a r d to t h e ^ rn n a g e o f t h e tw o c o u n tr ie s fro m 1 8 3 1 to 1 8 3 6 ,
th r e e - s e v e n th s o f i t w a s i n A m e r ic a n v e s s e ls , a n d fo u r- s e v e n th s in B r e m e n v e s ­
s e ls . I n 1 8 4 4 th e r e e n te r e d fro m th e H a n s e to w n s 1 3 6 fo re ig n v e s s e ls , a n d 4 4
A m e r ic a n v e s s e ls .”

Mr. Upshur, Secretary of State, in Nov. 21, 1843, made a report to the
Senate of the United States upon this subject. He says :—
“ T h e c o n d itio n o f o u r n a v ig a tio n a n d s h ip p in g i n t e r e s t s d e m a n d s a t t h i s tim e
p a r t i c u l a r a tte n tio n fro m g o v e r n m e n t.
T h e g r e a t a n d c o n s ta n tly i n c r e a s in g
a m o u n t o f f o re ig n s h ip p in g , i n o u r p o rts , s h o w s t h e n e c e s s ity o f p ro m p t l e g is la tio n ,
f o r t h e p r o te c tio n a n d e n l a r g e m e n t o f o u r c o m m e r c ia l m a r in e . T h e r e is r e a s o n
t o a p p r e h e n d th a t, i f t h e b e s t a d v is a b le m e a s u r e s b e n o t p r e s e n tly t a k e n , A m e r i­
c a n c o m m e r c e Will b e so o n e n g r o s s e d b y t h e s h ip s a n d s e a m e n o f E u r o p e . T h e r e
c a n b e n o d o u b t t h a t t h e c o u r s e o f t h is g r e a t e v il is to b e fo u n d in th e s tip u la tio n s
o f o u r c o m m e r c ia l tr e a tie s , w h ic h p la c e th e s h ip p in g o f fo re ig n n a tio n s o n a n
e q u a lity w ith t h a t o f t h e U n ite d S ta te s , in t h e in d ir e c t tr a d e , a s w e ll a s d ir e c t
t r a d e .”

This necessity operates to the advantage of those nations which build
and navigate their vessels at the least cost.
“ It is well known that most of the nations with which we have concluded
such treaties, especially those of the north of Europe, have a dec ided advantage
over us in these particulars: nearly all the materials of ship building are much
more costly in the United States; the wages we pay our seamen are near'y dou­
ble ; and the general scale of living, on ship-board, is much better, and conse­
quently much more expensive. The consequence of all this is, that our ship­
owners, before they can find employment for their vessels, are obliged to wait in
their ports until the Swedish, Danish, and Hanseatic, lias taken off as m u c h




Intercourse with British Colonies.

265

f r e g h t a s i t c a n c a r r y ; y e t w e p e r s u a d e o u r s e lv e s t h a t o u r tr e a t i e s w ith a ll th r e e
p o w e r s h a v e p la c e d o u r c o m m e rc e u p o n a fo o tin g o f r e c ip r o c ity .
“ T h e r e m e d y is , c o n s e q u e n tly , in o u r o w n h a n d s , a n d w e h a v e o n ly to r e t r a c e
o u r s te p s , a n d m a k e k n o w n t h e d e te r m in a tio n o f th is g o v e r n m e n t to r e g u la te fo­
r e ig n tr a d e , in f u tu r e , u p o n s u c h p r in c ip le s o f r e c ip r o c ity a s s h a ll n o t e x te n d b e ­
y o n d d ir e c t im p o rta tio n tr a d e , in t h e p ro d u c e a n d m a n u f a c tu r e s of t h e c o n tr a c tin g
p a r t i e s .”

The committee of commerce in the House of Representatives made a
report, in which it was stated that the British tonnage, under the conven­
tion of the free trade with the British colonies, had risen from 4,002 tons,
in 1830, 387,947 tons, in 1840.
“ F r o m th e s e f a c ts t h e c o m m itte e f e e l ju s tif ie d in a s s u m in g t h e p o s itio n th a t , in
o r d e r to e s ta b lis h a j u s t a n d a c tu a l r e c ip r o c ity in t h e e m p lo y m e n t o f t h e n a v ig a ­
tio n o f t h e tw o c o u n tr ie s , t h r o w in g o u t o f v ie w a n y q u e s tio n r e l a t i n g t o r e c ip ro c ity
in tr a d e w ith G r e a t B r ita in , in r e g a r d to w h ic h t h e m o s t s tr ik in g a n d o p p re s s iv e
in e q u a litie s e x is t, a s w e h a v e a lr e a d y s ta te d , i t is e s s e n tia l— 1 st. T h a t a l l t h e
p p r ts o f th e B r itis h c o lo n ie s s h o u ld b e o p e n t o th e a d m is s io n o f A m e r ic a n v e s s e ls ,
o n t h e s a m e te r m s t h a t B r itis h v e s s e ls a r e a d m itte d in to o u r p o rts : a n d , 2 d . T h a t
A m e r ic a n v e s s e ls s h a ll h a v e t h e p riv ile g e o f c o n v e y in g fre e ly fro m th e B r itis h c o lo ­
n i e s to t h e m o th e r c o u n tr y , to a ll o th e r B r itis h c o lo n ie s , a n d to a ll f o re ig n c o u n t r ie s , a ll c o m m o d itie s o f t h e s a m e e la s s o r d e s c rip tio n a s th o s e w h ic h a r e o r d in a ­
rily im p o rte d by th e B r itis h c o lo n ie s fro m t h e U n ite d S ta te s , o n t h e s a m e te r m s a s
B r itis h v e s s e ls c a r r y th e m .
“ T h e s e c o n d itio n s a r e n o m o re t h a n a r e n o w s u b s ta n tia lly p e r m itte d b y o u r
la w to B r itis h v e s s e ls ; a n d it is q u ite o b v io u s to y o u r c o m m itte e , t h a t th e r e c a n
b e n o f a ir r e c ip r o c a tio n w ith o u t th e a llo w a n c e o f th e m to o u r tr a d e . T h e a r ­
r a n g e m e n t fo r s u c h a p riv ile g e m ig h t e a s ily b e m a d e b y t h e d e s ig n a tio n o f a l is t
o f a r tic le s o f t h e g r o w th , p ro d u c e , o r m a n u f a c tu r e o f t h e U n ite d S ta te s , u s u a l­
l y im p o rte d in to C a n a d a , N e w B r u n s w ic k , N o v a S c o tia , a n d o th e r B r itis h p r o ­
v in c e s , w h ic h l i s t s h o u ld fo rm t h e s ta p le o f a c a r r y in g tr a d e , o p e n to v e s s e ls o f
t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . ”

From the statements which have been made, and from the opinions ex­
pressed by two Secretaries of State, and the committee of commerce of the
House of Representatives, it is evident that the subject was fully understood
at Washington. All that is now required, is a general and great effort
of the large body of merchants to annul the reciprocal treaties and the
colonial convention with Great Britain, by which our navigation has suf­
fered so severely.
After the forcible and eloquent extracts from the public documents upon
the subject, it is unnecessary for the writer to enlarge upon the subject.
The only defence of the convention for trade with the British colonies,
which we know, was made by Mr. Woodbury, in the Senate of the
United States. As he was in the cabinet at the time it was made, it was
in a great degree the justification of his own political course. His prin­
cipal argument was, that the custom-house returns, at Eastport, exhibited
a fallacious view of the increase of foreign tonnage, from the frequent re­
turns of British vessels, and the shortness of the voyages. This effects
the general -esult in a limited manner, as the great increase of British
tonnage has been at southern ports, principally at New Orleans. This
has arisen from the great advantage which British vessels possess in making
what is called a triangular voyage. They leave England with cargoes
suited to the markets in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, or the West India
colonies, which, if the markets at those points are not favorable, are
brought to the United States. In this respect they have a decided ad-




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vantage over American ships, of which the great increase of British ships,
at the southern ports, particularly New Orleans, is the result. By the
latest accounts from Savannah, a place of limited trade, there were 20
foreign ships waiting for cargoes ; at New Orleans, there were 50 Bre­
men and British ships of the largest class, about one-third of the tonnage
in port. This is evidently an increase upon the custom-house returns
in 1840.
With the general reduction of the British tariff last year, the duties
were reduced in the colonies; but the discrimination is still sufficient to
give them the carrying trade : they have lowered the duties, but their
own ships still have the advantage. It is this uniform and constant re­
gard to the protection of her navigation, which has advanced England to
a commercial prosperity beyond any nation of ancient or modern times.
The great increase of our productions, particularly of cotton, has di­
minished the effect of these treaties, and the convention for trade with the
British colonies. The navigation of the United States would have been
in a very depressed and embarrassed situation, if the production of cotton
had not reached a point beyond all rational calculation. This, however,
is temporary, and connot continue. In the meantime, every year in­
creases foreign tonnage in comparison with our own. It only remains
for the mercantile community to make a direct and earnest appeal to
Congress, to protect, by just and equal legislation, the great commercial
marine of the country from embarrassment and ruin.

A r t . VI.—M E R C A N TIL E BIOGRAPHY.
JA CO B 1 E IS L E R , T H E N EW Y O K E M ER C H A N T.

A n amazed back-woodsman, who had come to witness the wonders of
New York, with its immense and never-ceasing improvements, remarked:
“ New York will be a fine city when it is done.” The whimsical idea
might apply with an equal degree of precision to society. Ever since
the day when Lot entreated for Sodom, men have talked of the principles
of conservation, and of the possibility of perfection ; and yet the experi­
ence of every period finds society still in that most uncomfortable state of
transition. The heterogeneous materials commingle and separate—seem
even on the point of crystallization, when suddenly the infusion of some
new element drives the whole mass asunder.
The period marked by the career of Jacob Leisler, the “ martyr mer­
chant of New York,” was one of peculiar confusion and uncertainty.
The minds of men were turbulent with wild adventures, and a restless
speculation upon the principles of religion and legislation, while as yet
opinions were crude and fluctuating.
They had but recently broken away the enerustings of long established
forms in religion; the turmoil of political revolution had scarcely sub­
sided in the English mind, while the germ of republicanism, not dead,
was but laid aside to await elsewhere a sober and more healthful vitality.
The supporters of protestantism beheld everywhere the stirring of popery,
and (not without cause) dreaded the operations of plot and intrigue, that
might, at some time, plunge both people and government into violence and
bloodshed.




Jacob Leisler.

267

The middling classes of society, amongst whom were to be found the
staunch advocates for free institutions, were ever on the alert for oppor­
tunities to advance their favorite views. Added to this, the laws of mari­
time and national intercourse were but imperfectly comprehended, and
acts, which now would be considered violations of neutrality and national
honor, were too frequently to be the subject of comment, at a time when
the tendency of all nautical enterprise was to merge itself in the lawless
career of the freebooter.
In proof of these things, we have only to consider the manner in which
Charles II. coolly appropriates to the English crown the territory of a
people amongst whom he had sought shelter in his days of exile and mis­
fortune, granting to his papist brother, the Duke of York, the title to a
colony owned and sustained by an independent government, and this in
requiture for the hospitality with which he had been entertained by that
very people.
There is something really affecting in the letters of the gallant Stuyvesant, at this gloomy period of the New York colonial history; when
disheartened by the insufficiency of his means of defence, and the inert­
ness of the people, he was compelled to yield to superior force, and see
the province so dear to his heart pass into the hands of a foreign power.
His hearty and indignant remonstrance at this unjust usurpation, is ex­
pressed with the earnest faith of a man not blind to national justice, and
who cannot believe that such flagrant outrage will be tolerated.
But it is vain to dwell upon this part of our history, however dear to a
generous mind, since the pen of the wit has determined that it ought of
right to be ridiculous; and though we may recoil at the bad taste of a
laugh at the expense of sturdy patriotism, the general voice is against us,
and we will leave the affecting picture of a scanty population with its
poor resources, and brave, true-hearted defenders, without means, and
doomed to an ignoble surrender of their rights to those who, better than
ourselves, conceive the whole affair to be exquisitely funny.
! But the times were times of usurpation—of stirring questionings in
men’s minds, which as yet returned no response ; and they, in the hurry
of action!, failed to perceive that the oracle was mute.
The colony of New Amsterdam is thus an appendage of the British
crown : it is first lawlessly seized upon, and then, by a treaty of peace,
in 1667, is formally bartered away— Surinam for New Netherlands,
which becomes New York, in honor of the king’s brother. Like most of
the other colonies of the time, it is regarded more as a trading station, a
commercial experiment, than as the foundation of a province hereafter to
be the source of a national pride. It was here that men, troublesome to
the country abroad, might be sent, and made innoxious, at least to their
commissioners. Here the broken-down courtiers of the times, disaffect­
ed papists, and adventurers of every kind, found an asylum in the admin­
istration of the colony.
In order to judge correctly of the circumstances in the career of Leis­
ler, we must keep these things steadily in view. We must picture to
ourselves, not a great and prosperous country, well protected by the pow­
erful government, amenable to just laws, and the people bound to each
other by similar views and interests, speaking the same language, and
swayed by the same religious faith, but as a station for trade, with but a
handful of occupants scattered over an immense tract of country, the gov-




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ernment consigned to incompetent hands, while the king is too busy with
the disturbances and wars of Europe to attend much to what is going on
in America, and the jealousies of protestants and papists, the dissimilar
views of French, German, and English residents, create continued dis­
trust and uneasiness.
We must picture to ourselves the rivalries of conflicting interests, the
rich landed proprietors opposed by the enterprising merchant, with his
expansive views and limited means of operation ; when the whole carry­
ing trade of the province was carried on through fifteen vessels of a hun­
dred tons each, and but six of these belonged to the colony. Compare
this with the shipping of New York now, when her sails whiten every
sea.
Added to these disheartenments to the country, all the fluctuations of
European policy found, in some shape or other, a reflex here. The co­
lony, thus unjustly usurped, bartered for Surinam, and neglected, and
struggling, is yet often uninformed as to what is going on abroad, till
some blow is struck upon itself; and it was actually re-captured by the
Dutch, in 1665, who held possession of the country six months, when the
English took the ball once more into their own hands.
The people had no test, no shibboleth, by which a right to their im­
munities should be judged. They did not come hither to found a sect,
but to establish a hearth-stone, and they had, therefore, no such plea as
the Puritan fathers assumed when they expelled from amongst them all
whom they found obnoxious to their views.
Incongruous as were the materials constituting the mass of society here,
there did still grow up amongst them a class of men who identified them­
selves with the soil, who had the public interest at heart, sturdy, honest
thinkers, who looked upon this land as their rightful heritage, to be cared
for, and to be bequeathed to their children. Amid such as these, grew
up Jacob Leisler, a thrifty merchant, following his vocation, nor inter­
meddling much with public affairs, till the people—the people of the soil
began to feel the need of a leader. Then it was that, with one voice,
they turned simultaneously to one who was of themselves, and would
have their interest at heart. It was an instinctive expression of patriot­
ism, thus early exhibited, notwithstanding the unpromising soil in which
it had taken root.
“ Magna est veritas et preualebit.,” however true in the abstract, will
hardly apply to individual experience ; hence it is that party interest, the
prejudices of rank and religion, and the dull mantle of time, which covers
what it cannot repair, have all conspired to place the character of Leisler
in a false light upon the page of history.
It will be seen that he was a man of the soil ; unlettered, but intelli­
gent, and of a clear, manly understanding, although tinctured with the
credulity of the age, and the strong prejudices against popery. A man
who obtained wealth by hardy enterprise ; and influence, not by the arts
of the demagogue, but by the practice of bene volence, courage, and integ­
rity, and those social virtues that always commend themselves to the ge­
nerous heart. A man whose sturdy republicanism made him peculiarly ob­
noxious to the rich landed proprietors, who had ruled the province pre­
vious to the possession of the English, such as the Livingstons, the Phil­
ipses, Schuylers, and Rensselaers.




Jacob Leisler.

269

It may easily be conceived how such a man, however well-meaning
and patriotic he might be, unsustained, except by the voice of popular fa­
vor, unaccustomed to authortiy, governed by a few easily comprehended
principles of action, which he supposed to be as obvious to the minds of
others as they were to his own, and as equally binding ; namely, loyalty
to his prince and integrit}' to his country—it will be perceived how such a
man might become entangled in the snares of the designing, and at length
fall a victim to their malice.
This portion of the actual history of New York is so often passed over
as the mere accident of a popular out-break, or an ebullition of individual
ambition, that it is next to impossible to reach the truth as it really ex­
isted. Few are willing to perceive the indications of free principles
amongst a people who thus chose their ruler by acclamation, and few are
willing to see in Leisler himself the single-minded patriot he really was.
Immediately upon the abdication of James, rumors were afloat that an
armed force would appear to hold the colony in behalf of the ex-monarch,
and hence arose the cry of popery. The French were inciting the sav­
ages to acts of violence, while they were already tampering with our
frontier ; the old, rich landholders were supposed to be on the alert to re­
cover the power they had lost; pirates were upon the coast, and the
whole colony seemed ready to be plunged into violence and disorder. It
was at this crisis that the people turned their eyes upon Leisler. In the
animated language of the biographer : “ They would seize upon the fort,
they would place their most valued citizen, the oldest captain of their
train-bands at their heads, and he should lead them on to the citadel.
‘ Tot Leisler! tot Leisler! tot he^ huys von Leisler!’ To Leisler! to
the house of Leisler! was the cry ; and, clashing their arms as they rushed
through the streets, the thronged multitude were soon pressing around
the house of the merchant. The door was thrown open, and the light
from within fell first upon the features of a few grave citizens, who, sur­
rounded by the rabble, stood there cap in hand to address him. But even
as he uttered his refusal to share in a movement so tumultuous, the tramp
of the free companies, who marched in the rear of the multitude, was
heard approaching, and, silent as was their tread, the gleam of corslet
and harquebuss gave a sterner animation to the scene. Leisler with­
drew to arm himself, and within the hour received the keys of the fort, of
which his townsmen had meanwhile taken posession.”
The first act of the “ loyal and noble Captain Leisler,” (as he is styled
by the New England deputation in their congratulatory address,) was to
proclaim the Prince of Orange King by the sound of the trumpet, thus
forestalling the tardy and scheming men, who hesitated while the power
was in their hands to perform this act of loyalty.
The next act of Leisler was to write a private letter to the king with
his own hand, giving an account of everything that had been done, de­
scribing the present state of affairs and the future prospects of the colony,
stating the repairs he had deemed necessary to commence in the fortifica­
tion of the city, and detailing the consequent expenditures of the public
money. Among other things, he told the king that (foreseeing the war
with France) that must ensue from William’s accession to the throne of
England, he had, for the protection of the harbor against the enemy’s
cruisers, erected a new battery of six guns to the south of the fort. And




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thus the noble promenade, still called the Battery of New York, incident­
ally owes its existence to the merchant Leisler.
This letter of Leisler, by those who delight to denounce him as an
usurper, has been sneered at for some defects in its English phraseology.
The manly openness, the business-like directness, and truthful accounta­
bility of the writer are wholly overlooked ; his Dutch honesty is forgot­
ten in his Dutch idioms.
It is curious, amid the excitements of those troublesome times, to trace
everywhere the fidelity of the five nations to the people of the province,
while the marchings and countermarchings of Schuyler, and his trusty
Mohawks, would afford a harvest for the novelist. The generous mag­
nanimity of Leisler, often exercised in behalf of his enemies, might have
been worthy of a more chivalric age. The gallant Col. Milburn, too,
the son-in-law of Leisler, seemed well to merit the confidence of his
leader ; while the last words of the unfortunate merchant upon the scaf­
fold fully rebut the scandal of their enemies, that “ Leisler was but the
tool of Milburn.”
“ We now behold the province of New York thrown upon her own re­
sources, with a governor, the choice of her own people, at the head of af­
fairs ; and Leisler, in the teeth of a virulent opposition, which stopped at
nothing to thwart his plans, began to exhibit an energy in the conduct of his
administration, which was equally new and startling to those whose ideas
of a provincial executive were derived only from the broken-down cour­
tiers, who had hitherto been sent from England to rule over them.
“ The French had already made a bold attempt upon Albany. They
had penetrated from Canada to the Miohawk, at mid-winter, after nearly
a month’s march of almost indescribable hardships, through wild and con­
tinuous forests, and through mountain defiles, blocked by the snows of a
northern winter; they surprised Schenectady, destroyed the fort and sol­
diery, fired almost every dwelling in the place, and made indiscriminate
slaughter of the inhabitants. The whole province was aghast with con­
sternation ; but the moment it recovered from its bewilderment, they,
whose political dissensions were the cause of the frontier being left un­
guarded, were the first to cry out against Leisler ; they charged the blame
of that horrid massacre upon the governor, whose rule they had refused to
acknowledge, and whose efforts to unite the people against the common
foe, they themselves had spared no pains.
“ The blow struck at Schenectady was properly regarded by Leisler
as only the precursor of some more formidable invasion, the object of
which would be to wrest New York from the British crown ; an invasion
such as that attempted by Frontenac, about two years afterwards, when
he poured battalion after battalion, of the veteran troops of Louis XIV.,
into the western wilds of New York. The remedy o f Leisler was none
other than the conquest o f Canada itself—to strike at the root of the mis­
chief, by expelling the French from the continent.”
In the meanwhile, an “ English stranger” had been appointed governor
of the province ; but a year elapsed, and he did not make his appearance,
nor had Leisler been informed of the fact. Parcels designed for the
regulation of public affairs, had been addressed—“ To Francis Nicholson,
E sq .; or, in his absence, (the ex-governor was in England, plotting
against the people’s man,) to such as, for the time being, takes care for
preserving the peace, and administering the laws”—which was a virtual
recognition of Leisler; but his manly letter to the king remained unan-




Jacob Leisler.

271

swered ; and it was rumored that the dull monarch was jealous, “ that
what the governor had done for the province was more for the love of
protestantism, than loyalty to h i ms e l f a n d , therefore, he was silent in
his behalf.
It is melancholy to see, at this time, how the net gathers around the
brave Leisler—drawn by enemies at home, and foes abroad. Whatever
may have been his errors, they now sprung from dilemmas it was impos­
sible for him to escape, with the fearful opposition against him ; yet,
everywhere, like a silver thread, guiding his steps, we detect a nice ad­
herence to the principles by which he professed to be governed—fidelity
to the people, and loyalty to the protestant succession to the crown of
England.
At length, the new governor made his appearance; and, notwithstand­
ing the assumptive and insolent manner of this poor degraded official, that
might have provoked outrage from a man less true to principle than
Leisler, we find him, after a proper and dignified assertion of the re­
quisite preliminaries, resigning his authority into his hands. However the
malignity of his enemies may have prompted them to apply abusive epi­
thets upon the man, the straight-forward candor, and open manliness of
his language, in the documents possessed at this time, are the best pos­
sible refutation.
But all his integrity, and honest public service, were of no avail. The
next day beheld him a prisoner, and nine others, charged with high treason.
Would that a veil could be drawn over the closing scene of blood and
outrage ! What though a tardy prince at length acknowledged the loyal
services of his devoted subject, his faithfulness had been already7 sealed
with his blood ? Though a parliament subsequently reversed the act of
attainder, the injustice Had been done, the true heart blighted, and a stain
affixed to his memory, which time nor grief cannot wash away. What
though public honors were awarded the friend of the people when he was
no more, and his lifeless ashes were taken from their dishonored grave,
and, amid civil and military honors, carried in triumph through the city
he had loved, and amidst the people he had served; yet, what were these
things when the noble heart had been wronged and outraged, and the
honored head swept to the earth ? Alas, for human greatness ! if it were
not that things like these become the seal affixed by blood to high and
holy principle, it were a mockery indeed !
We must give the last scene in the vivid language of Mr. Hoffman.
After detailing the means by which the death-warrant was secured, the
writer continues:—
“ The carouse went on ; a cold storm of sleet and rain, such as often
makes a May day miserable in our climate, raged without. But though
those charged with the fatal missive had slipped away from the revel as
quietly as possible, and conveyed it to the sheriff; yet the soldiers of Ingoldsby, who were drawn up to overawe the populace, gave note to them
of the dreadful act about to be consummated. They thronged around the
place of execution, which, I may remark, was at the lower end of what
has since been called the Park, where the spray of the fountain has suc­
ceeded the blood-stain of the martyr.
“ Leisler and Milburne stood there upon the scaffold together; and
there, too, within hearing of their voices, stood more than one of those
who had brought them to this pass. The high spirit of Milburn could




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hardly brook the presence of men to whom he owed this fate of ignominy;
and, turning to one gentleman whom he deemed personally hostile to
himself, he exclaimed: ‘ Robert Livingston, I will implead thee at the
bar of heaven for this deed.’
“ Leisler, however, seems to have been more moved by the untimely
fate of his son-in-law than his own, while utterly indifferent to the gaze of
those who stood there as if to triumph over his dying moments. ‘ Why
must you die ?’ said he to Milburn ; ‘ you have been but as a servant do­
ing my w ill; and, as a dying man, I declare before God that what I have
done was for King William and Queen Mary, the defence of the Protest­
ant religion, and the good of the country.’
“ He then submits and prostrates himself in hope before his Redeemer.
He doubts not that he has committed errors ; some through ignorance ;
some through jealous fear, that disaffected persons would act against the
government; some through misinformation, and misconstruction of peo­
ple’s intentions ; and some through rashness of passion. For every of­
fence he asks pardon, first of God, and nex; of all persons oll'ended. He
prays that all malice may be buried in his grave, and forgives the most
inveterate of his enemies. He repeats, ‘Father, forgive them; they know
not what they do ;’ and, as his last words declares that as to the matter
for which he is condemned, his purpose was for the good of his fellowcreatures, according to the best of his understanding and ability which
God had given him.”
A prayer for the good of the province, and one “ for the family to
which he did belong,” concluded the dying devotions of Leisler; and,
turning to the sheriff, he exclaimed, “ I am ready—I am ready !” At
that moment the tempest, which had for a while suspended its fury, burst
upon the multitude in redoubled wrath. The sky grew dark, as if scowling
upon the expiring agonies of a martyr. Witnesses of the scene, whose
written details we are now quoting, tell of the torrents of rain that in­
stantly descended, as if to wash away the blood of the sacrifice. “ The
faintings and screams of the women,” says one writer, “ were seen and
heard in every direction.” “ The shrieks of the people were dreadful,”
says another. “ Some were carried away lifeless ; and some, rushing
forwards, almost ere the life of their beloved ruler was extinct, cut off
pieces of his garments, as precious relics ; and his hair was divided, out
of great veneration, as for a martyr.”
And thus perished Jacob Leisler, the most renowned of the early New
York merchants; in fact, the earliest founder of its maritime wealth.
After public demonstrations of respect and approval, his remains were
deposited in the old South Dutch Church. Subsequent to the great fire,
in 1835, this burial-ground was broken up, and it would now be impossi­
ble to identity his grave ; and not so much as a tablet exists, to testify to
the virtue and public service of Jacob Leisler.*
* W e are indebted to an eloquent and discriminating biography of Jacob Leisler, from
the pen of Charles F . Hoffman, for the above abstract of his life ; from which work, also,
we have largely quoted. (Sec Sparks’s American Biography, 2d series, Vol. 3. Boston:
Little & Brown. 1844.)




Mercantile Law Cases.

MERCANTILE

LAW

273

DEPARTMENT.

POLICY OF INSURANCE----OWNERS AND UNDERWRITERS.

[We give below an accurate report of the case of Peters and aZ., vs. the United States
Insurance office, decided in the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts, December,
1844. The charge of the Chief Justice, which embraces points of great importance to
owners and underwriters, is given at length by G. W . D ehon, Esq.]
John Peters and aZ., vs. United States Insurance Company. This cause has been sub­
mitted to three successive juries who have been unable to agree upon a verdict, and was
submitted to a fourth jury on Saturday last, who brought in a verdict for the defendants.
The cause occupied a week in the trial, and has excited great interest, from the extraor­
dinary conflict of evidence which it exhibited, and from its having been so frequently
before the Court, and it involved some questions of insurance law of great importance to
ship owners and insurers.
The action was brought on the 28th May, 1840, on a policy of insurance made in De­
cember, 1833, by which the defendants insured $8,000 on the bark Olive, to Sumatra,
from thence to port or ports in Europe, and thence to the United States.
The plaintiffs proved that the barque was newly coppered in November, 1832, with the
best of English copper, and went a voyage to the coast of Sumatra, for pepper, and re­
turned in November, 1833. T hat on her return, the copper was examined as far down
as she was left* by the tide, at the end of the Arcli wharf, in Boston, and her copper ap­
peared to be in good order and condition, and she appeared to need no repairs. T hat she
sailed for Sumatra, on the voyage insured, in December, 1833, and arrived on the coast of
Sumatra some time in April, 1834. That during the passage out, and while on the coast,
she experienced some very severe weather, but none that occasioned any particular dam­
age. T hat while on the coast where she lay about four months, she began to leak badly,
and that the leak gradually increased. T hat she left the coast of Sumatra in September,
1834, and sailed for St. Helena, where she remained three or four days ; and left there
for Gibraltar, where she arrived in January, 1835. T hat during the voyage to St. Helena,
and thence to Gibraltar, she leaked so badly as to keep the crew at the pumps night and
day. T hat on her arrival at Gibraltar, the crew refused to go further until she was re­
paired. That a survey was then had which reported that her copper was off’ in several
places on her bottom ; that it was off both sides of her bow and stern, and that it was
worn all along the water line. That the fore foot was broken and wormeaten, the false
keel much wormeaten, and damaged in several places, and the stern-post shaken. T hat
the planks at the bows where the copper was off, were much wormeaten, and that the
leak appeared to be principally where the planks were eaten by worm s; and recommend­
ed re-coppering, and other repairs, to the amount of $6,000, to recover which this action
was brought.
Some six years after the surveys were made, the depositions of one of the surveyors
and of the consul were taken, and they testified that the damage to the vessel appeared
to have been owing to the united effects of hard service and severe w eather; and the
consul added, striking on the rocks ; and the others that she appeared to have been aground,
and the surveyor also testified that the copper did not appear to have been originally of
the best quality. The captain, in a deposition given about six years after his return, tes­
tified that he examined the bottom of the vessel at Gibraltar, and that it looked as if she
had been aground; but that no such fact had ever been reported to him, nor had he ever
hoard that she had struck during the voyage.
The plaintiffs also produced two of the crew who were in the Olive on the voyage in­
sured, and also on the previous voyage ; who testified that on the first voyage, while on
the coast of Sumatra, in a gale of wind, the Olive lost her three cables and anchors, but
sustained no other damage. T hat on the second voyage, after laying on the coast about
two months, the cables were slipped by order of the second mate, then in command, the
master being ashore, to run for safe anchorage in a gale of w in d ; that soon after the
cables were slipped, the vessel struck a reef or sand bar twice, once at the bow, and once
at the stern, so as to make her tremble, and shake them from their feet That the copper
on the vessel’s bows was in good condition on the coast, and they saw and heard of no
defect in it. That she began to leak afterwards, one stating it to be about eight days
after, and the other about the last of her being on the coast. T hat she leaked so badly,
the crew at St. Helena refused to do duty, unless the master would obtain extra hands

VOL. XII.--- NO. III.




17

274

Mercantile Law Cases,

there, which he consented to d o ; and that again at Gibraltar they refused to go to sea in the
barque, till repaired. On cross-examination, they testified that they had never mentioned
to the captain or any other person the circumstances that she struck, until they told Mr.
John Peters of it in 1842, and had never been asked concerning it, till he asked them in
1842, if she struck on the voyage.
The plaintiffs also put in an affidavit of Mr. Pieters, made in 1842, that the log-book
was lost; and further proved that it was usual to send a vessel to the E ast Indies and
Sumatra, two voyages, on the same copper.
The defendants proved by General Tyler, that on the return of the vessel, 6th July,
1834, the protest, surveys, bills of expenses, and log-book, were placed in his hands by
the plaintiffs to adjust the loss; that he made a written report that the loss appeared to
have arisen from worms, and from the wearing out of the copper ; and that there was no
evidence of the vessel ever having struck the bottom, in any of the documents submitted,
and that in his opinion the insurers were not liable. T hat this opinion was communi­
cated to both parties, and that it was not then asserted by any one that the vessel had struck
anywhere during the voyage.. T hat this opinion was apparently acquiesced in by the
plaintiffs; and he heard no more of the claim till the writ was brought, 28th May, 1840.
The defendants then produced the second mate, and one of the crew of the barque Olive,
on the voyage insured, who testified that the mate was in command of the barque when
she slipped her cable on the coast; that they recollected the occasion perfectly, and that
they were positive the vessel did not strike a reef or bar, a t that, or any other time during
the voyage ; and that they never heard any intimation of her having struck,. till they heard
about two years since that two of the crew had so testified. T hat they knew shortly
before the arrival of the barque on the coast, that her copper was off in places on the bows,
and that they had seen it when they were out on the bowsprit; and the mate testified he
had told the captain of it, and that it was common deck talk that she was running
off her copper. The mate also testified that he had charge of the log-book at the time the
vessel was said to have struck, but that no such entry had been made therein ; and the sea­
men testified that he had stated these facts before he knew what the other members of the
crew had stated to any one. The defendant also proved by several ship-masters and
others expert in such matters, that though the ordinary duration of copper was from two
to three years, it not unfrequently wore out in from twelve to twenty months ; and would
then be found in places extremely thin, in other places honey-combed, and in others good.
T hat it generally wore first at the bows and along the water line, but was often found
off at the stern when it appeared good amidships. That? there was no test by which to
discover the quality of copper but by its w e ar; and that frequently copper from the same
lot, and on the same vessel, wore very differently. T hat they knew of no difference in
the wear of American, English, and other foreign copper. That in their opinion the
facts set forth in the surveys and captain’s deposition, indicated the copper was worn outThe defendants further proved that the false keel and the lower part of the fore-foot
which are never coppered, are always wormeaten after a voyage to the coast of Sum atra;
and that in that condition, if the vessel when loaded, rested on any hard substance, she
would very likely damage her false keel, and the lower part of the fore-foot. And that
it was not uncommon to see those parts bruised and broken, where they were wormeaten.
Defendants proved further that this vessel brought in a load of pepper to Arch wharf in
November, 1833, from her first voyage, and there drew from 15 to 16 feet of w ater; that
when unloaded she drew 12 feet; and that the depth of water, at Arch wharf, at low
water, was only 10 to 11 feet, and that the bottom is what is called a “ hard bottom.”
Chief Justice Shaw charged the jury that the case before them was one of great interest,,
that there had been several trials at great expense to parties, and it was of great impor­
tance that a verdict should be obtained. T hat the contract on which the claim was made,
was one extremely beneficial, if not essential, to the commercial world.
T hat it was important that the law should be administered in reference to it, in accord­
ance with well settled .rules.
T hat the insurers were not bound for all losses, and to make good all repairs; other­
wise, sooner or later, they must pay for every vessel; and in consequence, either the busi­
ness of insurance would be destroyed, or the premium would be so enhanced, that mer­
chants could not avail themselves of insurance.
T hat the insurers undertake to insure only against dangers out of the common and ordi­
nary course ; not for such as occur by ordinary wear and tear, or which can be foreseen and
provided against. T hat the owner was bound to have his ship sea-worthy ; equipped in
all respects suitably for the voyage, before the insurers became liable at all under their pol­
icy. T hat this obligation on the part of owners extended to the whole voyage ; so that
the vessel must be fitted at the outset, in a manner to endure the service of the entire voy­
age, proportioned to its length, and the nature of the maritime enterprise on which the




Mercantile Law Cases,

275

vessel is employed. T hat if a ship is to be sent into a .sea which worms are known to
infest, she must be not only apparently, but actually protected against them, in a manner
to preserve her from their ravages during the whole time she is exposed to'them ; and
that if she be not so protected, whether the owner knew it or not, insurers are not liable
if loss ensues in consequence. T hat a loss occasioned by worms ordinarily is not a peril
of the sea, within the meaning of the policy, but is an ordinary, common, foreseen and
certain danger, against which the owner is bound to provide, and is in the nature of wear
and tear.
That the protection against worms by copper or other means, is a condition to be per­
formed by the owner ; and if he does not perform it, then the contract of the insurer is
void; just as if such a condition had been inserted in terms in the policy ; and the pre­
mium, if paid, may be recovered back by the owner.
T hat a vessel might be seaworthy for a short summer voyage with less equipment than
for a long and wintry voyage; that it therefore depended much on the duration and na­
ture of the maritime enterprise, whether a vessel was seaworthy.
The question in this case is whether the examination and repairs at Gribraltar were
rendered necessary by an extraordinary peril incurred on the voyage insured. Both par­
ties admit that the great cause of the leak was worms, and that independently of that
there would not have been occasion for the examination and repairs at Gibraltar. But
plaintiffs say that though the cause of the leak was worms, yet that the copper came off
in consequence of her striking, and thereby the worms gained access. Now, in regard to
this, if the jury are of opinion that the copper w as' removed by striking on this voyage,
and the worms got in before the loss of copper could be discovered and repaired, then the
striking would be the actual and immediate cause of the loss, and the insurers would be liable.
But if the jury are of opinion that the striking did not occur on this voyage, or if it did,
that the copper was not removed thereby, but that it came off from decay, and the worms
thereby got in, then the insurers are not liable ; for the worms would be the proximate
cause of the loss, and for losses by worms, in such case, the insurers are not liable.
The presumption of law is that if on examination at the outset of the voyage, the ves­
sel appears in good condition as to copper and otherwise, she was seaworthy. This pre­
sumption, however, is slight, and may be rebutted by any evidence, to show she was not
in such condition.
If a vessel sail apparently in good order, and is never heard from, the circumstance is
so out of the common course of things, that she is presumed to have perished by peril of
the sea. But if she be lost and the crew be saved, then no such presumption arises, be­
cause the captain and crew must be able to state facts enough to enable a jury to deter­
mine whether the ships were lost by peril of the sea or in consequence of want of sea­
worthiness. And in this case the rule claimed by the plaintffs, and usually applied to a
missing vessel, does not apply ; they are bound to satisfy you reasonably that the loss of
copper and leak were caused by a sea peril incurred on the voyage insured; and if
defendants have put in evidence tending to show that there was no such peril incurred,
adequate to cause the los3, then it is for the jury to say on the whole evidence whether
the loss did arise form a peril insured against and on this voyage or not.
The great questions then are— 1st, whether the copper was sufficient for the second
voyage ; or 2d, whether the vessel struck, and if so, in a manner to remove the copper
in season to let in the worms, so as to produce the leak testified to.
A s to the first question, the jury have the testimony of persons of skill and experience
in the manufacture, use, and wear of copper, who have given much valuable information
on this subject.
Copper is proved to be of very uncertain duration, and portions from the same lot some­
times wear very differently. It is proved generally to wear first at the bows and along
the water line ; that on the stern is less exposed to wear, but is not necessarily found on
there, if off at the bows, as the witnesses state that it is put on thinner there to equal­
ize the wear. Defendant’s evidence, on this matter, could come only from experts, and
they have produced experienced and skilful persons, entitled to confidence from their
knowledge and experience on these subjects— and it is for the jury to weigh this evidence.
If the eopper was off in several places on the bottom and on the water line, and the stern
and bow, the natural presumption would seem to be that it came off by wear and decay;
and so if it came off early in the second voyage.
In this connection, the time the leak commenced is important, because the copper in
part must have come off before the worms could get in ; they must have some time to
work to make her leak badly.
The evidence on this point is conflicting. Two witnesses swear the copper was off the
bows shortly before she reached the coast, and that they told of i t ; and two, that they
never saw or heard of i t The jury will judge which of the four are to be believed. The




Mercantile Law Cases.

276

jury will consider their manner of testifying, and which best conforms to the other facts
proved, the previous wear of the copper and its appearance (and condition at Gibraltar ;
and decide upon the whole evidence in reference to the copper.
The other question is whether she struck ; and if so, whether in such a manner, and at
such time as to remove the copper in season for worms to get in. Two witnesses swear
she did strike, and two that she did net, with apparently equal opportunity for observation.
The captain says he did not know it, and that he never heard of it, and it is alleged to
have occurred in his absence. The log is not produced, but defendants produce the mate,
who kept it, and he says no such thing occurred or was recorded. The protest is usually
made up from the log, and no such fact is mentioned in the protest at Gibraltar, or in the
surveys. Here, too, the jury will compare the witnesses. The time of the leak, if it
could be fixed, might go far in effect to settle the question.
The witnesses differ. The captain fixes the leak about two months after being on the
coast, and so does another of plaintiffs’ witnesses. The third fixes it at the last part of
the time. The defendants’ witnesses say it was about three weeks before leaving the
coast of Sumatra, and tell to what places the vessel subsequently went.
I f this fact of the time of the leak is fixed by any other circumstances, you will then
be able to judge whether they confirm or contradict the witnesses of defendants or the
plaintiffs, and which of them coincide with the general tenor of the testimony in the cause.
And you can then judge what caused the removal of the copper, and whether the worms
got in, in consequence of its being taken off’ by striking or wearing out.
The burthen of proof on the whole evidence is on the plaintiffs to prove the copper was
removed by peril of the sea, and if not reasonably satisfied on the weight of the evidence
that it was so removed, you must find in that particular a verdict for defendants.
If the vessel leaked considerably shortly before leaving the coast, and it takes any time
for worms to eat in so as to make a vessel leak badly, then the striking, if it occurred,
would not account for the lea k ; and if she struck so as to injure only the fore-foot and
false keel, without causing the removal of the copper elsewhere, as some witnesses say
it would not, so as to let in the worms, then it would not account for the leak.
Some of the witnesses say the bottom looked as if she had struck ; others that it looked
as if she had touched or been aground ; and defendants do not deny she had been aground,
but contend it was when loaded at the end of Arch wharf, which they say would break
and damage a false keel and the lower part of the fore-foot, when wormeaten, as it is
testified these must have been on the first voyage, those parts never being coppered.
The question for the jury is, wThether the appearances she presented, wrould be caused
by striking a reef or bar, or by settling down on a bottom. Shortly before sailing on this
second voyage, she drew 14 to 1G feet of water, and the depth of water was 11 to 12
where she lay loaded, so that she might ground on the bottom. The jury are to judge
whether this would produce the appearances exhibited at Gibraltar, or whether, taking all
the evidence together, they conclude it must have been caused by striking.
The questions are peculiarly questions of fact for the jury, and they are to judge upon
the whole evidence, recollecting that the plaintiffs are bound to prove to the reasonable
satisfaction of the jury, that the injury was the direct consequence of perils incurred on
the voyage insured. And all material fact3 on which the plaintiffs rely, and from which
inferences are to be drawn to make out their case, must be proved to the reasonable satis­
faction of the jury.
PROMISSORY NOTES— INSOLVENT LAW OF MASSACHUSETTS.

In the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts, an action brought by Inglis Sc
Scott, merchants of New York, vs. Baker, of Boston, to recover the amount of three pro­
missory notes. The defence was a discharge under the insolvent law of Massachusetts.
The plaintiffs contended as matter of law, that these notes were not released by that dis­
charge, on the ground that such a discharge cannot affect contracts made with the resi­
dents of other states ; and evidence was offered to show, that the firm of Inglis Sc Scott,
of New York, was composed of William Inglis and D. G. Scott, neither of whom ever
resided in Massachusetts. The defendant then offered evidence to show, that the goods
for which these notes were given, were purchased of a house in Boston, doing business
under the style of Inglis &c Scott, and that John Inglis, then of Boston, was a member
of the firm, and carried on the business. The legal point was reserved. The only ques­
tion left the jury was, whether John Inglis was a member of the Boston firm of Inglis
Sc Scott, or whether that firm was a branch of the New York firm of the same name,
and carried on by John Inglis as the agent of the New York house. The jury were in­
structed that if they believed that John Inglis was a member of the Boston firm, and re­
sided here, then the notes being given to that firm for goods purchased of them, the ver­
dict ought to be for the defendant. The jury returned a verdict for the defendant.




Monthly Commercial Chronicle,

277

MONTHLY COMMERCIAL CHRONICLE.
MONEY AND OTHER MARKETS— EXPORT OF COTTON GOODS FROM GREAT BRITAIN, AND AVERAGE
PRICE OF CLOTH, YARN, AND COTTON WOOL— LOANS AND SPECIE OF NEW YORK CITY BANKS---DEBTS OF THE STATES, THEIR REVENUE, EXPENDITURE, ETC., 1844----PUBLIC DERT OF PENN­
SYLVANIA— FINANCES OF ILLINOIS, INDIANA, ETC.— PRICES OF STOCKS IN NEW YORK, 1844.

T he markets have presented very little actual change during the month, although there
is every appearance that the stringency which the money market has evinced for some
months, will now be relaxed, and the rate of discount become less. The operation of
the government funds, in being withdrawn from the market, has ceased to affect the dis­
counts of the banks unfavorably; and the state of affairs in Europe, by the last advices,
is such as to warrant the belief that prices of the raw materials, especially cotton, are
once more in the ascendant; and that, while the imports into this country are likely to
be less, the enhanced value of our exports will probably exceed that of last year. The
price of cotton, in England, has undoubtedly seen its lowest point; and, at our latest
dates, had already considerably advanced in prices. During the past six months of the
cotton year, it has been undoubtedly true that cotton has ruled at rates so low’, as to yield
no profit to the planters. This fact, alone, (so important an item in our general trade,
internal and external, is cotton,) is sufficient to produce that derangement which the pre­
sent state of business presents, and which will be remedied by the progressive advance
of cotton. The export cotton trade of England is larger and more profitable than it has
been for years previously—that is to say, greater money-values have been exported in
former years, but the quantity of cotton now worked up is greater than ever befoie, and
at a larger margin of profit to the manufacturers, notwithstanding 'that the money-value
of goods is less than in some former years. This arises from the fact that the^raw’ mate­
rial, and cost of production, is lower than e v er; while the price of goods has advanced
from the low point of depression to which they reached last summer. The following
shows the value of cotton goods exported from Great Britain, with the average price of
cloth, yarn, and upland fair cotton, in each year :—
E x p o r t C o t t o n G ood s , a n d P r ic e o f 4 0 i n P o w e r L o o m C l o t h , W a t e r T w i s t , a n d U p ­
l a n d F a ir C o t t o n , i n L iv e r p o o l .

L’mcTths, 40 Water
Cotton Goods.
Yarn.
Total.
66 reed. Twist. Cotton.
d.
£
£
jE
s. d.
d.
1836,....-........
18,511,692
6,120,366
24,632,058
16 9
164
10|
6,955,942
20,596,140
14 0
1837,..............
13.640,188
64
124
1838,.............
16,715.857
7,431,869
24.147,726
13 6
111
64
24,561,375
1839,.............
17,692,182
6,858,193
12 10
12
8
1840,.............
7,101,398
24,668,618
11 8
lC f
17,567,310
5}
7,266,968
1841...............
16,232 510
23,499,478
10 3
10}
64
1842,.............
21,662,754
7,752,670
9 1
13,910,084
51
94
1843,.............
7,191,870
23,440,629
84
16,248,759
8 104
4}
1844, 10 mo.,
9
9 54
15,930,072
6,157,439
22,087,511
4f
It will be observed that the exports of 1843 were of a higher value, while the price cf
goods was less .than in the previous y ear; showing a large excess in the quantities ex­
ported. During the past ten months, the exports are still larger, at improved prices. It
is also observable that the price of the raw material bears a less proportion to the price of
the goods and yarn, than in former years. The year 1838 was one of the most prosper­
ous to manufacturers, because of the low price of cotton, as compared to cloths. During
the past year, the same proportionate prices have existed, while a great reduction in the
cost of production has been effected. The home trade of England is also rapidly impro­
ving, on similar terms. At the same time, the low prices cf the raw material having, on
Years.




Monthly Commercial Chronicle.

278

this side, been productive of great derangement, has resulted in efforts to reduce the
supply, which cannot but have a beneficial effect upon the prices, even although no posi­
tive diminution in the crop should be effected. The mere checking of the increase will
be sufficient to advance the rates in the present promising state of the markets.
In the meantime, from causes alluded to in former numbers, the money market of New
York is undergoing considerable pressure, consequent upon the difficulty of making col­
lections in the interior, on sales of goods made on credit last year. The import of goods,
and the duties, during the past year, have been, monthly, as follows, with the duty:—
M o n t h l y I m p o r t o f G o od s , a n d D u t i e s c o l l e c t e d a t t h e P o r t o f N e w Y o r k .

January,................
February,..............
March,...................
April,.....................
May,......................
June,.....................
July,......................
August,..................
September,...........
October,................
November,...........
December,...........

Dut. Goods.
$6,194,657
6,023,768
4,641,334
5,638,873
4,667,950
5,229,941
7,182,196
9,970,572
7,227,664
3,846,889
1,640,150
2,657,274

Free Goods.
$415,993
548,326
537,883
1,754,237
1,913,774
529,042
666,595
1,187,836
817,108
711,240
345,827
288,729

Specie.
$73,204
55,417
53,008
70.573
243,424
64,297
157,121
100,388
62,945
55,079
40,300
130,608

Total.
$6,683,854
6,627,511
5,237,225
7,463,683
6,825,148
5,823,280
8,005,912
11,258,796
8,107,715
4,613,208
2,026,277
3,076,011

Duties.
$1,852,577
2,131,926
1,641,140
1,805,706
1,793,824
1,882,984
2,189,428
3,085,352
2,432,751
1,260,203
557,490
834,445

Total, 1844,. $64,921,268 $9,715,590 $1,106,364 $76,748,620 $21,467,826
1,687,024
5,581,544
728,618
37,011
6,347,173
Jan., 1845,...
These values are, of course, the foreign cost; and the market value is constituted of
the cost and charges, and duty added. These are as follows:—
Dutiable goods, cost,.................. .......................................
Free
“ ................................................................

$64,921,288
9,716,588

Total foreign cost,...............................................
Expenses and charges, 10 per cent,..................

$74,637,876
7,463,787

Total cost,............................................................................................
44 duties,.......................................................................................

$82,101,663
21,457,830

Total market value of imports,...........................................

$103,559,493

A very large portion of this has been cash, paid out of the New York capital employed
in commerce—the duties are so, altogether. This large amount could not be sold for
cash. On the other hand, full $30,000,000 has been sold on long credits ; and to collect
which, great difficulty has been experienced—leaving a greatly reduced amount of capital
in the city, and consequently an enhanced demand for discounts, and an improvement in
the rate of money- This has been enhanced by the movement of the government depo­
sits, proceeding from the customs. The deposit banks, in the fore part of the year, were
enabled to extend their loans to a considerable degree,, involving a corresponding contrac­
tion when those deposits were withdrawn. The specie in the vaults, and the loans of the
New York city banks, have been as follows:—
S p e c ie .

L oan s.

Gov. banks. 18oth. bks. Tot., 22 bks. Gov. banks. 18 other bks.
Total.
Jan’ry, 1843, $2,927,891 $4,116,114 $7,044,005 $9,285,973 $19,061,758 $28,347,731
August, “
5,845,515 6,753,666 12,599,181 12,630,123 21,460,076 34,090,219
3,563,936 6,580,085 10,144,021 12,313,222 22,041,273 33,454,495
Nov’r,
“
Feb’y, 1844, 3,445,286 5,781,987 9,227,373 13,345,519 25,518,939 38,864,458
May,
“
3,335,045 4,923,586 8,258,631 15,018,793 25,020,142 40,038,935
August, “
4,337,634 4,650,858 8,988,492 15,747,228 25,929,123 41,676,351
Nov’r, “
3,493,323 4,383,606 7,876,929 14,863,298 25,156,399 40,019,697
Feb’y, 1845, 1,927,175 3,844,169 5,771,344 11,869,515 25,006,616 36,875,131




279

Monthly Commercial Chronicle•

During the year ending February, 1845, the eighteen banks have varied their line of
discounts to a very small extent, only— the difference is within one million—while the
government banks increased their loans $2,400,000 in the six months ending in August,
and contracted them nearly $4,000,000 in the last six m onths; adding much to the pres­
sure at a time when, from causes above indicated, private capital had become absorbed to
a considerable extent, in selling goods on credit The low point of the contraction is now,
in all probability, reached; and any movement on their part will probably be one of ex­
pansion, more especially as restored credit, consequent upon the resumption of their divi­
dends by some of the delinquent states, will probably be followed by increased investment
of British capital on this side of the water. The current rate of money, here, being 7
per cent, against 2 per cent in London, money will, like every other commodity, seek
the point where it is most valuable.
The month of February, 1845, has been marked by the resumption of her dividends
by the great state of Pennsylvania, whose debt is the largest of any of the states of the
Union, but whose means of paying are ample. H er failure was owing neither to a want
of ability, nor to a want of means to pay. It grew entirely out of a bad financial sys­
tem, which induced the contraction of large loans for the construction of public works,
depending entirely upon the success of those works for the means of paying the interest
and principal of the debt. The only safe rule, in making public loans, is to provide
means, by taxation, for the payment of the interest, and discharge of the principal, at the
time the loan is made. There is then no danger of failure. On the other hand, it has
been the case that this necessary rule was always neglected by the delinquent states.
They borrowed money to enter into speculations; and, at the moment of distress and
chagrin consequent upon the failure of their speculations, they were called upon to submit
to taxes for the repayment of money they knew to have been squandered, and from which
but little good is to be derived. W e believe there is no nation on the earth, except our
own, which would have voluntarily paid taxes for such a purpose, under such circum­
stances. W hen public works are projected, and money is to be spent, and sanguine hopes
are generally entertained that the enterprise will be successful, is the fitting moment to
levy the taxes. It has, however, proved to be the case, that, notwithstanding all the blun­
ders and false steps of the several legislatures, the people have at last consented to be
taxed, and have paid enough to redeem the honor of Pennsylvania. This movement will
be followed by the resumption of several others of the delinquent states. The following
is a table of the debts of the states in January, 1845, according to official reports made to
the legislatures of this session:—
D e b t s o f t h e S t a t e s , w i t h t h e i r R e v e n u e , a n d E x p e n d i t u r e f o r o r d in a r y p u r p o s e s ,
f o r 1844.
1

States.
Louisiana,*........
Alabama,.............
Arkansas,*..........
Tennessee,..........
K entucky,..........
Georgia,.............
South Carolina,..
Missouri,.... ........
Illinois,'*.............
Indiana,*..... ..
Ohio,...................
Maryland,*.........
Maine..................
Massachusetts,...
New York...........
Pennsylvania,*...




Direct debt.
$1,600,000
9,232,555
3,500,000
3,260,416
4,269,000
1,725,138
3,182.992
922,261
11,454,669
12,218,000
17,028,683
15,094,334
1,590,921
1,022,339
26,348,412
36,250,493

Indirect debt.
$15,350,000
4,200,000
150,000

3,179,200
2,227,500
2,248,069
92,401
141,166
6,250,000
1,920,000
4,453,373

Total.
$16,850,000
13,432,555
3,500,000
3,260,416
4,419,000
1,725,138
3,182.992
922,261
14,633,869
14,445,500
19,276,751
15,186,785
1,732,097
7,272,339
28,268,412
40,703,866

Revenue.
$972,177
243,650
288,415
271,823
392,422
307,917
306,831
217,654
145.645
41,000
277,157
272,119
368,090
447,736
795,051
1,167,440

Expend.
$616,684
120,098
163,005
261,416
366,379
295,999
347,704
193,307
190,000
98,037
194,374
490,000
289,087
462,844
1,003,753
858,315

280

Monthly Commercial Chronicle.
D e b t s o f t h e S t a t e s , w i t h t h e i h R e v e n u e s , e t c . —Continued.

States.
Michigan,...........
Virginia,.............
Mississippi,*.......
Florida,*_...........

Direct debt.
$3,171,332
5,968,047
2,500,000
3,900,000

Indirect debt.
$905,785
1,392,884
6,000,000
950,000

Total,.......... $164,239,652
U. S. Governm’t,
19,076,188

Total.
$4,077,177
7,360,932
7,600,000
4,850,000

Revenue.
$405,824
810,366
150,000
98,000

Expend.
$455,189
884,293
140,000
100,000

$49,460,378 $212,700,090 $7,979,317 $7,530,484
..................
19,076,188 30,381,700 32,958,827

This gives the whole present debts of the several states; of which eight, with the ter­
ritory of Florida making nine, (marked *,) have failed, and Pennsylvania has again
resumed. The debt of Pennsylvania is composed as follows:—
P ublic D ebt

of

P ennsylvania.

Funded.
$4,370,916 21
34,721,534 46
200,000 00

Relief loan.
$1,175,000 00
171,636 00
91,542 00

Total.
$5,545,916 21
34,893,170 46
.........................

$39,292,450 67
Due domestic creditors,.........................................

$1,438,178 00
104,384 00

$40,439,086 67
104,384 93

Total debt,.................. ..................................................................
Annual interest payable Bank of Pennsylvania,...................................
Due in February,........................................................
$873,515 06
“ August,...........................................................
873,515 06

$40,543,471 60
1,747,030 12

6 per cent stocks................
5
“
“
..............
4J
“
“
..............

Interest upon interest certificates,.
Total annual interest,

1,747,030 12
195,761 68
$1,942,791 80

In order to show the progress of taxation more particularly, we take the amount levied
and collected in each year, the tolls of public works, and the money expended for pur­
poses of education:—
Total taxes
Education
Years.
Levy.
Collected.
Tolls.
and tolls.
expense.
1841, ....
$416,794
$33,292
$1,079,896
$1,113,188
$365,766
1842, ...
659,512
486,635
920,499
1,407,134
315,372
1843, ...
945,000
553,911
1,019,401
1,573,312
408,694
1844, ...
945,000
751,210
1,164,325
1,915,535
290,917
The two mill levy of last year yielded this year 40 per cent more money, under present
regulation. Now, by the above table, it appears that the means of the state, applicable to
interest, have increased $615,629 over last year, without any additional taxation.
The late treasurer estimated the means for 1845 as follows:—
Receipts for the year ending Nov. 30, 1845,.........................................
Balance Nov. 30, 1844,.............................................................................
“
in canal treasury,.........................................................................

$3,005,100 00
663,851 88
39,497 00

Total,...............................................................................................
Expenditures, including interest,............................... ................ .............

$3,708,448 88
3,061,013 56

Balance, Nov., 1845,................................................ „ .................

$647,435 32

These means depend upon the vigor with which the taxes are collected under the new
law, and no doubt is entertained but that they will be ample—the more so, that the credit
of a new administration is now involved in maintaining the payments. The state of
Michigan will be the next to resume her payments upon her acknowledged debt. This
will take place in January, 1846, on the interest accruing for six months, from July, 1845.
The acknowledged debt is small, as indicated in the foregoing table ; the interest falling




Monthly Commercial Chronicle.

231

due January, 1846, amounting to $50,000, but may be raised to $90,000, including the
interest due on the bonds issued to the late United States Bank. To meet these pay­
ments, the law of 1843 pledged so much of the proceeds of the Central and Southern
railroads, after paying for the iron of the former to Marshall, and of the latter to Hills­
dale, as would be necessary. Hence, there is but little doubt but that the payments will
be made, the railroad receipts being already sufficient for that purpose.
The affairs of Illinois next present themselves in a favorable train. W e have, in former
numbers, alluded to the position of the canal law, authorizing the borrowing of $1,600,000,
to complete the great canal, on pledge of that work, and the lands belonging to it. After
a long period of delay, the bondholders here, and in Europe, have finally subscribed the
whole amount, on condition that the state pays, by a small tax, part of the interest on the
whole debt. Simultaneously with this agreement, a bill has been introduced into the
Illinois legislature, levying a tax for the payment of 1 per cent on the whole debt, with
the exception of the bonds known as the “ M’Alister and Stebbins b o n d s t h e first
payment to take place on the 1st July, 1846, and to be continued thereafter. This law
is that which is required to perfect the arrangement with the bondholders; and as soon
as it is approved, the board of trustees will be appointed—one by the “ Boston commit­
tee,” on behalf of the London creditors; one by the New York creditors, and one by
the governor. The prosecution of the canal will then progress. The cost of that mag­
nificent work, when finished, will be as follows:—
Sum actually disbursed,...................................................................................
Inabilities of the canal,......................................................................................

$5,039,248
1,063,945

Cost of the canal at this time,............................................................
Sum required to complete it,...............................................................

$6,103,193
1,600,000

Cost when complete, under the new law,.....................................

$7,703,193

The present debt of the canal is composed as follows:—
Scrip and interest to Dec. 1st, 1844,...........................................................
Debt not bearing interest,..............................................................................
Ninety day checks,........................................................................................
Due contractors,.............................................................................................
Damages on private property,......................................................................
Scrip issued by Gov. Ford, in payment of damages to contractors,........
Interest due upon the same to Nov. 1st, 1844,..........................................
Total,..................................................................................................

$411,046
301,678
316
86,692
23,587
226,353
14,000

57
70
00
37
96
72
00

$1,063,675 32

The completion of this work will add to the resources of the people of Illinois, while
the sale of the lands along its border will more than discharge the debt incurred for its
completion, and leave the nett revenues of the noble avenue to discharge the improve­
ment debt, and ultimately relieve the people from taxation.
Indiana, during the past session, has done nothing towards paying her debts. The
state is dreadfully embarrassed by the circulation of an unconstitutional state paper, which
circulates as money. The quantity of this stuff is as follows:—
Outstanding
Redeemed.
Nov. 1,1844.
Issued.
$535,450
$164,530
$669,980
Scrip,......................................
1,500,000
872,665
633,755
Treasury notes, 6 per cent,.
511,910
722,640
210,730
Bank scrip,...........................
T otal,........................

$2,892,620

$1,247,925

$1,681,115

While this depreciated paper fills the channels of circulation, and forms the medium in
which taxes are paid, no effectual movement can be made towards the payment of the
state interest. The creditors have, however, intimated that they would be glad to receive




282

Monthly Commercial Chronicle.

a payment of even a small part now, as an earnest of paying the whole by and by. This
intimation was misrepresented, by a designing agent, to signify that the creditors would
consent -to take a payment of 3 per cent, in full of 5 per cent due them. The disap­
pointment attending the discovery of this trick, prevented any bona fide movement at the
present session. There is but little doubt, however, but that, at the next session, a small
tax will be laid to commence the payments, and the deficit be funded, bearing interest,
up to some future year, when the whole will be resumed. This is the more likely, that
theie is every probability of a grant of land from Congress, sufficient to complete the
White W ater canal -connection with the Wabash and Erie, forming a noble work, that
must, sooner or later., yield a large revenue towards the state expenses.
In Maryland, no effective steps have been taken towards redeeming her honor; but
there is every hope that something may be done. In Louisiana, Arkansas, and Florida,
the money for which the governments are responsible was borrowed for the purpose of
being constituted the capital of banking institutions. These banks were what are called
property banks, from the mode of their organization. The bonds of the state were issued
to the banks, and the stockholders were required to deposit mortgages of their plantations
to double the amount The bonds were then endorsed by the banks, and sold mostly in
London. The proceeds were divided among the stockholders, pro rata, as loans, on
pledge of the mortgages. The banks then issued circulating bills, and received deposits
to make regular discounts. All these institutions failed, of course, and the state govern­
ments have done nothing towards the payment of the bonds; which must depend, in a
great measure, upon what can be realized from the property held by the banks.
It is, however, very apparent that the period for a return of all these states to their pay­
ments is rapidly approaching; and that time will be hastened by the great desire apparent
among European capitalists to renew their confidence and investments, whenever they
can receive any encouragement to do so. The Joan made to the state of Illinois is a
remarkable evidence of this, and evinces a great change in public opinion from the fall
of 1841, when an agent of the United States federal government in vain sought to bor­
row a few millions in Europe. That loan was afterwards made at home, and has since
been paid, principal and interest. It was not, however, from any supposition that the
United States was not good for the loan ; but from the idea that the mortification attend­
ing such a loss of credit would operate upon the states, and induce payments. It has
now become pretty well understood that the want of ability, and of a proper organization
of the state finances, is a greater obstacle than any supposed want of will to the payments.

P r ic e s a n d V a l u e s o f L e a d in g S t o c k s i n t h e N e w Y o r k M a r k e t .

Annexed, are very accurate tables, in relation to the prices and actual values of the
leading stocks sold upon the New York stock exchange. They are compiled and calcu­
lated for the Merchants’ Magazine, by J. F. Entz, Esq., a gentleman whose statistical
works have frequently been before the public, and reflect great credit on his skill and
accuracy. His management of the complicated accounts of the New York Life and
Trust, since its disasters, has contributed greatly to its rapid recovery, and the resumption
of its dividends. The tables embrace the United States, and New York state and city
stocks ; showing their present value to command 5 per cent interest per annum, and their
monthly market prices during the past year. Also, the leading railroad, the bank, and
insurance stocks; showing the rate of dividends declared by those companies, and the
•months in which they are paid.




U N IT E D S T A T E S , S T A T E , A N D C IT Y STO C K S.

Prices o f Stocks offered at the New York Stock Exchange, at or near the end o f each month, during the year 1844.

1 1 1 .8 6

112.81
106.14
106.40
107.27
100.04
100.13
1 0 0 .2 0

100.33
100.39
100.43
97.92
93.91
105.71
113.76
120.15
100.39
100.43
100.56
100.54

*1134

1154

*1 0 2 4

1034

*1074
*1074
*105
*106
*108
*103
*1034
*103
* 99

108
108
107

*100
*1004
*1014
*1 0 1 4
*101

*
*

110

119
1044
1044

104
1004
1004
101

1024
1024
1024

1124
1014

106
106
IO64
108
107

110
100

99|
99

*1144
*1004

114

1164

1J3

1044

*106
*107
*1044
*107

1084

102
1064

1094
109
1094

1024
1024
1024

104
104
103

994

* 994

100

*100
*1004
*1004
*1004
*101

1004

100
100
100
100
100

June.

1024

*1064
*1024
*1024
*1024

974
*102
*110

May.

110

100
102
1024
102

1074
108
109
1074
1024

1034
1024
100
100
100
1004
1004
101

* 92
*
101

100

107
113

108

*1004

100
100

*1004
*100

100

994

110

984
984
974
100

*103
*109

103
109

*1 1 2 4
*100
*1004
*100

110
1004
1004
1004

*

July.

August. Sept’r. Oct’ber.

115
1034

*115
*103|
*1084
*1084
*1 0 8 4

116
1044
1094
109
109

1—
t

112.25
100.
107.47
109.95
108.40

April.

O
CD
i.*-*

United States Loan 6 , 1862,.......
Cl
“ 5, 1853,.......
ft
New York
7, 1848,.......
if
7, 1849,.......
if
6 , 1854,.......
1C
Cl
6 , 1860,.......
Cl
Cl
6 , 1862,.......
Cl
54,1860,.......
Cl
54,1861,.......
Cl
54,1865,.......
Cl
5, 1845,.......
Cl
ft
5, 1848,.......
If
5, 1850,.......
It
ft
5, 1855,.......
“
5, 1858,.......
5, 1860,.......
ft
ft
44,1849,.......
ft
ft
44,1864,.......
N. Y. City
“
7, 1847,.......
ft
Cl
7, 1852,.......
ft
ft
7, 1857,.......
“
W a t f t 5, 1858,.......
If
“ 5, 1860,.......
ft
Cl
5, 1870,.......
Cl
Fire
5, 1868,.......

Feb’yy. March.

*109

110
1104

I I 04

*110

*
*
*

119
106

116
1044
IO84
1094

*1084

*109

Dec’r.

1134
1034

106
1064

*

*112
*1124

112

105
1054
106

101

* 101 |
*

102
1024

*1024

104
1044
1044
97J
90

100
101
101

*1054
*106

104
104

*

*101

*
*

*103
*103
*
*

1084

113
1014
1014

1014
100

1014
1014
1014
1034
1024

101
1014
1014

96
95

95
95

1014

*1004

102

*109
*113

108
114

*100
*1004
*100

101
101
1014

*

/

*106
*1054
*
*
*
103
110
102
101
1014
1014

*
*
*109
*115

*102
*1014
*1014

*

103
1034
103
98
90
110
1024
102
102

The asterisk shows in

283

N. B.—The first column gives the value of the stock, so as to yield an interest of 5 per cent, accumulated every 6 months.
which month the interest or dividend is paid.




Nov’r.

Prices o f United States, State, and City Stocks.

S tocks.

Present
Value, to
realize 5 Jan’ry.
per cent.

284

RAILROADS, &c— STOCKS.

Prices of Slocks, <Sfc., at the New York Exchange, at or near the end o f each month, during the -year 1844.
Railroads.

Auburn and Rochester,.............
Long Island,...............................
Paterson,.....................................
Providence and Stonington,__
Norwich and Worcester,...........
New Haven and Hartford,.......
Reading,......................................
W estern,......................................
Ohio, Gper cent, 1856,............
“ 7
“
domestic,.......
Kentucky, 6 per cent, 1841,....
“
5 p. c., pay. in N . Y.,
Illinois bds., 6 per cent, special,
Indiana bds., doll., 5 per cent,..
Pennsylvania, 5 per cent,.........
Alabama,
5
“
.........
Tennessee,
6
44 ........

Feb’ry.

March.

154
514
434
119
114
110
994
75
72
93
724
334
344-

23
57
51
1214
1134

15
56|
62J
1214

474
* 9G
*1044
*1014
* 85
40|
37
65
80
*100

1044
75
74
944
814
364
364
70
49
59
97|
105
1034
90
434
394
*70
844
105

April.

10
71
764
124
116

1124
1034
75
71#
934
79
36
36
70
434
59

105
75
74
944
814
47
574
77
45
66

934
103
1004

954
104
1024

39|
354
624
82
100

434
40
734
84
102

N. B.—The * shows in which month interest or dividend is paid.




May.

274
74
83
128
117
1074
824
87
96
87
524
68
87
56
75
994
104J
1054
90
51J
46|
794
*79
1034

June.

19
GO

72J
129
117

July.

22
63
724
1264
120

107
75
80
944
80
43
534
83
50
724

10G|

954
102
101
86
49
44f
744

*97
*104
*1024
* 87
49
44|

102

784
82
434
574
89
494
784

80
*103

August.

24
60
68
1274
116
in
107
80
814
924
80
43 '
62
86
494
85
974
104
1014
85
454
44
*714

Sept’r.

October.

Nov’r.

24
62
734
129

324
66
724

304
544
64
130

110
1084
85
83
93
85
454
724
86
52
87

1194
111
1104
90
824
95
844
514
834
89
54
894

99
1054
1024
88
434
43
714
80
102

1024
1044
1044
924
45
444
73|
81
105

112
107
744
934
78
404
G94

85
414
984
1024
1024
36|
35
674
*75
104

Dec’r.

274
584
64
130

116
1074
90
75
934
784
39
664
57
434
90
96
103
1034
874
36
344
734
724
100

The dividends of the Railroad Oo.’a are not given, not being obtained in time.

Prices o f Railroad Stocks, etc.

New York and Erie Railroad,.
Mohawk,.....................................
H arlem ,.......................................
Utica and Schenectady,.............

January.

BANK STOCKS;

Prices of Stocks offered at the New York Stock Exchange, at or near the end o f each month, during the year 1S44.
Banks.

Dividends, p. c. Jan’ry.

4

4

34
34
4
3
34
3
3A
Tradesman’s,........ .................... ■ 5
Fulton,.........................................
5
Del. and Hudson Canal Co......
4

34
34
4
3
3
3

3A
3i
3
34
3$

4
34
3
34
34
2A
24
3

Merchants’ Exchange,..............




24
3
34
24
44

3

34
3
44
3

118
85
105
1064
115
99
105
92
104
1174
1124
111
65
*104
102
1004
104*
*1044
76"
894
97
984
96
85
114
*88

120£
884
105
107
114
96
104
90
104
117
105
112
104
103
101*
105*
105
874
85*
97
97
93
834
115
85

115
884
106j
104
113
97
1034
89
102
107
112
25
] 04
102
*93
104
103
85
86
98
98
85
115
84

May.

June.

July.

*

1184
91
*1064
1054
114
97
1074
95
106
117
112
*117J
70
100
100

934
109
*105
*114
100
*

96}
105
113
*111
124
72
108
*100
97
107
106
91£
*87
1014
100

......

*88
*117
91

108
1064
84
98
99
*94
84
113
89

August.

Sept’r.

118
924
107
107
1114
*97
1054
*914
*103
*117
112
117

1204
944
106
107
1174
974
108
914
104
117
116
117

123
93
109
109J
1184
984
108
924
104
117
110
117

106
103i
95
*103
1064
*90
854
*984
98
974
854
118
90

*106
100
984
1034

110
100

N. B.—The asterisk shows in which month the dividend is .paid.

*

90
844
974
974
974
844
115
*88

1044
104
90
85
98
98
974
864
90

Oct’r.

94
1004
106
114
1004
106
95
106
112
no
122
65
*100
1064
91
86
99
994
994
84
114
90

Nov’r.

Dec’r.

*118
91
106
*106
*1144
100
*105
90
105
117
*1114
123

117
90
*1064
105
1144
97
105
89

108
*100
99
1064
103
90
*834
99J
99
*81
*114
89

120
112
*118
40
110
99
107
103
83
994
984
*96
81|
116
874

285

State Bank of N. Y.,................
Bank of Commerce, full,.........
“
“
scrip,......
Mech. Bank. Association,.........
American Exchange,.................
New York Gas Light Co.,.......
Manhattan
“
........

5
5
4

117
80
105
105
113
*96
103
*904
*100
*117
112
109
45
1074
102'
100
*106J
106
*1
86
*964
974
91
834
1164
91

April.

Prices o f Bank Sloclcs.

Manhattan bank,........................
Merchants’, ................................
Mechanics’,.................................
Union,..........................................
Bank of America,......................
City,.............................................
Phoenix,.......................................

Feb’ry. March.

4

286

INSURANCE STOCKS.

Prices o f Stocks offered at the New Yoi'k Stock Exchange, at or near the end o f each month, during the year 1844.
Companies.

Equitable,....................................
Firemen’s....................................

5

4

10

10

113

5
34

5

101

1084

34

80

6

6'

71
*99

100

102

4
5

3
5

106

108

106

107
126
106

*102
112

*119
109
93
105
131
99

120

8

8

10

10

Manhattan,.................................. ' 10

3
5

Mutual F ire,..............................
New York Bowery,..................
“
Contributionship,...
“
F ire ,.......................
North American,........................
North River,................................
Trust Fire,...................................
United States,............................

4
5
10
10
10
5
5
6
34
6




.
34
.

105

*

4
10

105
130

34

4
5
5

974

*m

92

104
1124

108
70

*103

104'
79
105

*106
116
103
*
104

*100

1024

102

102

103

103

109

1124

104 J
* 110 '
130
*108

no
133

94

12

1 04

294

344

32}

31}
*944

.
•

1084

100
136

138
97
97
*1004

10

65
1094

118

101

39
96

5
34

102 }

92

106
71
109
384
90

105
70

June.

111

34

*100

May.

112

112

8

April.

104

*
100

5

H ei
CO

5
N . Y . Life In. and Trust Co.,.
Farmers’ Loan and Trust Co.,.
Ohio Lite Ins. and Trust Co.,..
Merchants’ Exchange Co.,.......
Canton Co.,.................................

March.

96
*108$
63
105
72
106
42
96
19
45

100110

*98
*130

*100
1024

100*

July.

103
*115
104
*

103
974

*
130
103
95
104

110

110

109
80

104
*85

*

i n

no

524
994

72

31
64

384
97
22
344

1054

83
104
1044
*104

104
117
107
80

90
111
404
*954

24

374

N. B.—The asterisk shows in which month the dividend is paid.

Oct’r.

Nov’r.

infi

105

Dec'r.

118
*100

101

96

1054
100

75
106
*974

105

10*4

inr»

115
*120

120

128

117
125

115

114
97

117

100

*

100

100

100

1014

100

103

133'
1054
*90
104
984
114
76

138

ho
104

130

90
106

94
1074
98

*130
*90
90

no
130

*94

*

August. Sept’r.

89
110
39
954
23
37}

113i
75
105

*110
76
105

1064

974

102

96
103

sit
lio
*95

*1064
*90
107i
sit

*

*112
424

964
244
45}

120
444
994

115
36}
974

25
48

2 04

44}

117
35}
98
20}
43}

Prices o f Insurance Stocks.

City,.............................................
Eagie,...........................................

Dividends, p. c. Jan’ry. Feb’ry.

Mercantile Miscellanies.

287

MERCANTILE MISCELLANIES.
M E R C A N T IL E LIBRARY COM PANY O F P H IL A D E L P H IA .
W e have received the twenty-second annual report of the directors of the Mercantile
Library Company of Philadelphia, presented at a meeting of the stockholders, January
14th, 1845. It exhibits the affairs of the company in a prosperous condition. Its thronged
rooms, (says the report,) during the whole of the past year, while they attest the great
interest which the mercantile young men of the city feel in its welfare, indicates also the
extent to which its usefulness has attained. The mental feast which it spreads nightly
before its visiters, has not been proffered in vain ; and the cause of sound morals has
been promoted, refinement augmented, and intelligence visibly increased, by the wide
range of action which is now embraced by the institution—results highly gratifying to
the Christian, patriot, and the statesman. In the treasurer’s report, the income of the
present year is estimated at $1,920, and the current expenses, for the same period, at
$1,650; showing a surplus of $270. It is further stated, in the report, that the society
had suffered greatly, from its commencement, for the want of appropriate apartments.
For many years past, the board kept before the members and the public the necessity for
better accommodations; and in last year’s report they made an earnest appeal for the ne­
cessary funds to enable them to erect an edifice which should be creditable alike to the
association and the community. Their call, it seems, has been promptly responded to ;
and a sum was subscribed, in a few days, by the members and the public, amounting to
$14,000 ; enabling the board (with the building fund which had already accrued) to close
the purchase of a lot of ground, and to undertake, successfully, the erection of a chaste
edifice, which has arisen, an honor and an ornament to the city of Philadelphia. The
building, wrhich‘is spoken of as eliciting universal admiration for its beautiful proportions,,
and the ample accommodations it affords, has cost about $18,000. The library of the
association has been increased 221 volumes during the past year, and 10,938 volumes
have been taken out for home perusal. The number of active members, at present, is
814; being an increase over last year of 117. It has been computed that there are at
present on its shelves more works of a desirable character for every young man to peruse,
than each could read, in the hours not necessarily devoted to business, in an entire cen­
tury. W ith our hearty good wishes for the continued prosperity of this valuable institu­
tion, and a single extract from the report, we close our brief summary of its condition:—
“ This valuable collection is constantly augmented by the purchase of such new works
as the rapid press throws off from day to day. With such attractions, it is no less natural
than gratifying, that its quiet rooms should win and retain large numbers of the know­
ledge-seeking young men of our city. And well may they be presumed to know the
value of intellectual power. To the merchant, it is, next to probity and virtue, his most
essential capital. In the counting-room, its superiority is greatly manifested; and in the
intercourse of trader with trader, whether by personal, or through the medium' of episto­
lary communion, its value is beyond all praise. W hen the duties of the day are thrown
aside, it charms the domestic and social circle by its refining influence; but, above all,
when the period for retirement from active business pursuits has arrived, it enables the
merchant, in his now comparative solitude, to find dear friends in the enlivening compa­
nionship of books which he had learned to love in his youth. W ithout possessing a
taste for reading, let no one delude himself with the hope of a happy old age. W hen the
6oul looks dimly on the outward world, if no radiant light shine inward, in vain, alas ! are
wealth and its appliances to produce consolation and contentment And if our institution
serve the double purpose of tending to preserve the young from those pursuits in which
honor and happiness are forever wrecked,, and of brightening their manhood and old age
with intelligence, virtue, and contentment, then does it eminently merit universal favor
and protection-”




238

Commercial Regulations.
T H E U P R IG H T B U SIN E SS MAN.

Ail eloquent writer somewhere says:—“ There is no being in the world for whom I
feel a higher moral respect and admiration, than for the upright man of business. No—
not for the philanthropist, the missionary, or the martyr. I feel that I could more easily
be a martyr, than a man of that lofty moral uprightness. And let me say, yet more dis­
tinctly, that it is not for the generous man I feel that kind of respect. Generosity seems
to me a low quality—a mere impulse— compared with the lofty virtue I speak of. It is
not for the man who distributes extensive charities—who bestows magnificent donations.
That may all be very well. I speak not to disparage it. I wish there wyere more of i t ;
and yet it may all exist -with a want of the true, lofty, unbending uprightness. T hat is
not the man, then, of whom I speak ; but it is he who stands, amidst all the exigencies
of trade, firm, calm, disinterested, and upright. It is the man who can see another man’s
distress, as well as his own. It is the man whose mind his own advantage does not blind
nor cloud for an instant; who could sit as judge upon a question between himself and his
neighbor, just as safely as the purest magistrate upon the bench of justice. A h! how
much richer than ermine—how far nobler than the train of magisterial authority, how
more awful than the guarded pomp of majestic tru th ! Yes, it is the man who is true—
•true to himself, his neighbor, and his G od; true to his right, true to his conscience, and
who feels that the slightest suggestion of that conscience is more to him than the chance
of acquiring a hundred estates.

COMMERCIAL REGULATIONS.
T R E A T Y O F W A N G -H E Y A , B E T W E E N CHIN A AND T H E U. ST A T E S.
T h e following is the official abstract of the “ Treaty of W ang-Heya,” between the
United States and China. Articles 21st and 25th are given at length.'
The preamble sets forth that the United States of America, and the T a Tsing empire,
desiring to establish firm, lasting, and sincere friendship between the two nations, have
resolved to fix, in a manner clear and positive, by means of a treaty, or general conven­
tion of peace, amity, and commerce, the rules which shall in future be mutually observed
in the intercourse of their respective countries ; for which desirable object, the President
of the United States has conferred full powers on their Commissioner, Caleb Cushing,
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of the United States to China, and the
August Sovereign of the T a Tsing empire on his Minister and Commissioner Extraor­
dinary, Tsiyeng, of the Imperial House, a Vice-Guardian to the Heir-Apparent, Governor
General of the Two Kwangs, and Superintendent General of the Trade and Foreign
Intercourse of the Five Ports.

Art. 1. Provides that there shall be a perfect and universal peace, and a sincere and
cordial amity, between the United States of America and the T a Tsing empire.
Art. 2. Provides that citizens of the United States resorting to China for the purposes
of commerce, will pay the duties of import and export prescribed in the tariff annexed to
the treaty, and no other duties or charges whatever; and that the United States shall
participate in any future concession granted to other nations by China.
Art. 3. Provides for the admission of citizens of the United States at the five ports of
Kwang-chow, Hiya-men, Fa-chow, Ning-po, and Shang-hai.
Art. 4. Provides for citizens of the United States to import and sell, or buy and export,
all manner of merchandise at the five ports.
Art. 6. Limits the tonnage duty on American ships to 5 mace per ton, if over 150 tons
registered burden, and 1 mace per ton, if of 150 tons, or less. Also, provides that such
vessel, having paid tonnage at one of the five ports, shall not be subject to pay a second
tonnage duty at any other of said five ports.
Art. 7. Boats for the conveyance of passengers, &c., exempts, &c., from the payment
of tonnage duty.




Commercial Regulations.

289

Art. 8. Provides for authorizing citizens of the United States in China to employ
pilots, servants, linguists, laborers, seamen, and packers, for whatever necessary service.
Art. 9. Provides for the employment and duties of custom-house guards for merchant
vessels of the United States in China.
Art. 10. Provides that securities of vessels shall deposit their ships’ papers with the
consul, and make a report, &c., within forty-eight hours after the arrival in p ort; forbids
the discharge of goods without a perm it; and authorizes the vessel to discharge the whole
or a part only of the cargo, at discretion, or to depart without breaking bulk.
Art. 11. Prescribes the mode of examining goods, in order to the estimation of the
duty chargeable thereon.
A rt 12. Provides for regularity and uniformity of weights and measures at the
five ports.
Art. 13. Provides for the time and mode of paying duties; tonnage duties being pay­
able on the admittance of the vessel to entry; and
Art. 14. Forbids the transhipment of goods from vessel to vessel in port, without a
permit for the same.
Art. 15. Abolishes the hong, and other monopolies and restrictions on trade in China.
Art. 16. Provides for the collection of debts due from Chinese to Americans, or from
Americans to Chinese, through the tribunals of the respective countries.
A rt 17. Provides for the residence of citizens of the United States; the construction
by them of dwellings, store-houses, churches, cemeteries, and hospitals, and regulates the
limits of residence,------and trade permitted to citizens of the United States at the five
ports, and th e ------appertaining thereto.
Art. 18. Empowers citizens of the United States freely to employ teachers, and other
literary assistants, and to purchase books in China.
Art. 19. Provides for the means of assuring the personal security of citizens of the
United States in China.
Art. 20. Provides that citizens of the United States, having paid duties on goods at
either of the said ports, may at pleasure export the same to any other of the five ports,
without paying duty on the same a second time.
Art. 21. Subjects of China, who may be guilty of any criminal act towards citizens of
the United States, shall be arrested and punished by the Chinese authorities according tc
the laws of C hina; and citizens of the United States, who may commit any crime ir
China, shall be subject to be tried and punished only by the consul, or other public func
tionary of the United States thereto authorized, according to the laws of the United States.
And, in order to the prevention of all controversy and disaffection, justice shall be equi
tably and impartially administered on both sides.
Art. 22. Provides that the merchant vessels may freely carry between the five portand any country with which China may happen to be at war.
A rt 23. Provides for reports to be made, by consuls of the United States, of the com*
merce of their country in China.
Art. 24. Provides for the mode in which complaints or petitions may be made by citi
zens of the United States to the Chinese government, and by subjects of China to the
officers of the United States, and controversies between them adjusted.
Art. 25. All questions in regard to the rights, whether of property or persons, arising
between citizens of the United States in China, shall be subject to the jurisdiction, ano
regulated by the authorities of their own government. And all controversies occurring
in China, between citizens of the United States and the subjects of any other govern­
ment, shall be regulated by the treaties existing between the United States and such go­
vernments respectively, without interference on the part of China.
Art. 26. Provides for the police and security of merchant vessels of the United States in
the* waters of China, and the pursuit of and punishment of piracies on the same, bj
subjects of China.
Art. 27. Provides for the safety and protection of vessels or citizens of the United
States wrecked on the coast, or driven by stress of weather, or otherwise, into any of the
ports of China.
Art. 28. Provides that citizens of the United States, their vessels and property, shall not
be subject to any embargo, detention, or other molestation in China.
Art. 29. Provides for the apprehension in China of mutineers or deserters from the
vessels of the United S tates; the delivering up of Chinese criminals taking refuge in
the houses or vessels of the Americans; and the mutual prevention of acts of disorder
and violence ; and that the merchants, seamen, and other citizens of the United States in
China, shall be under the superintendence of the appropriate officers of their own go­
vernment.
vol. x ii .— no .




m.

18

Railroad and Steamboat Statistics.

290

Art. 30. Prescribes the mode and style of correspondence between the officers and
private individuals, respectively, of the two nations.
Art. 31. Provides for the transmission of communications from the government of the
United States to the imperial court.
Art. 32. Provides that ships of war of the United States, and the officers of the same,
shall be hospitably received and entertained at each of the five ports.
Art. 33. Provides that citizens of the United States engaged in contraband trade, or
trading clandestinely with such of the ports of China as are not open to foreign com­
merce, shall not be countenanced or protected by their government
A rt 34. Provides that the treaty shall be in force for twelve years,' or longer, at the
option of the two governments; and that the ratifications shall be exchanged within
eighteen months from the date of the signatures thereof.
The treaty purports to be signed and sealed by the respective plenipotentiaries at Wang
Heya, the 3d of July, 1844, and is signed—
C . C u s h in g .
T s iy e n g , (in Manchu.)

R A I L R O A D AMD S T E A M B O A T S T A T I S T I C S .
STEA M BO A TS B U IL T IN C IN C IN N A T I, IN 1843-44.
The Cincinnati Gazette furnishes a complete list of the steamboats built and fitted out
at that port during the year 1844, with a statement of the cost and tonnage of eaeh. The
whole number, it will be seen, is 38. The number built in 1843, was 36. In the state­
ment of either year, the boats built at other points within the Cincinnati district, are not
included. The lists embrace only those built at Cincinnati.
Tonn’ge Cost.
1844.
Name.
Name.
Tonn’ge Cost.
1844.
Pearl River,.......
January. Louis Philippe,... 296 $19,000 Sept’r.
71
3,000
(C
58
3,000 October. Batesville,..........
Olive,...................
178 12,500
44
Rodolph,............. 213 15,000
“
Enterprise.........
106
7,500
February. Swiftsure, No. 3, 199 15,000
“
Meteor,..............
165 12,000
“
Albatross,..........
298 22,000
March. Maria,................. 692 44,000
44
Irene,..................
76
4,000 Nov’mb’r. Pike, No. 7,...... 481 30,000
it
Lynx,................... 125 10,000
“
Arkansas, No. 4,
281 22,500
44
“
Warrior,............
Mendota,............ 158 10,000
224 15,000
113
Laurel,.................
6,500
“
Isaac Shelby,....
April.
159 11,000
536
“
Fort
W
ayne,......
Superb,................
28,000
244 20,000
May.
Daniel
Boone,....
170
10,000
“
Lady
Madison,..
June.
148 11,500
(i
B. F r’nklin,No. 7, 239 21,000
“
L uda,.................
286 20,000
Simon Kenton,... 190 12,000
“
Panola,...............
July.
120 10,000
(4
388 30,000
183 13.000
(4
Blue Ridge,......... 128
“
York town,__ ...
8,000
337 30.000
“
St. Mary,............
August. Mail,.................... 211 14,000
163 13,000
44
Paul Pry,............. 136
7,000
“
L evant,..............
225 15,000
Sept’r. M. B .H am er,.... 198 15.000
44
Carolina,............. 272 18.000 Aggregate tonnage,........... 8,248
44
Gazelle,...............
82
4,000 Whole cost,.........................
$568,000
44
Lam a,..................
79
4,500 Total number of boats,.......
38
The aggregate tonnage of these thirty-eight boats, (custom-house measurement,) is
8,248 tons, and the aggregate cost $568,000. Of the thirty-six boats built in 1843, the
aggregate custom-house measurement was 8,415 tons, and the aggregate cost $605,250.
Of the boats built in Cincinnati in 1844, the average size is 219 tons, and the average
cost $14,947. Of those built there in 1843, the average size was 236 tons, and the
average cost $16,812. The cost per ton of the boats built in Cincinnati in 1844, was
$68 87J ; the cost per ton of those built there in 1843, was $71 94. These are inte­
resting facts; and, for the purpose of presenting them more directly to the eye at a glance,
we construct the following table:—
Years.
843,
844,

Tonnage,
...
...




8 ,4 1 5
8 ,2 4 8

Cost.
$605,250
568,000

Av. size.
236 tons.
217

“

Av. cost.
$16,812
14,947

Cost per ton.
$71 94
68 87J

291

Railroad and Steamboat Statistics.

Although, as this table shows, the average size of the steamboats built in Cincinnati
the last year was smaller than that of those built there in 1843, yet several of those built
in 1844 were considerably larger than any built the previous year. The five largest built
•
in each of the two years, were as follows:—
1843.
Harry of the W est,......... ....... tons
Concordia,....................... .............
Congress,.......................... ..............
..............
Champion,........................ .............

1844.
490
470
334
328
321

Maria,............
Superb,...........
Pike, No. 7,...

...........

536

............

388

Yorktown,....,.

Total,..................... .............. 1,943
Total,...
............ 2,434
The boats generally built in Cincinnati the past year, have been remarkable for their
strength, their exterior beauty, and the taste and comfort of their interior finish and
fitting up.
BOSTO N AN D L O W E L L RAILROAD.
The directors of the Boston and Lowell railroad have made the fourteenth annual
report of their receipts, expenditures, &c., under their act of incorporation. The distance
from Boston to Lowell, by this road, is 26 miles. The total amount of capital paid in, is
$1,800,000. The amount of profits divided during the year 1844, was $144,000, in
two dividends, of 4 per cent each, on a capital of $1,800;000. The amount of freight
during the year has been much greater than in any preceding period, amounting to. 151,731
tons. The freight and passenger tariff has been reduced since the last annual report. It
was formerly $ 1 for passengers, in first-class cars; it is now, in first-class cars, for pas­
sengers, from Boston to Lowell, 75 cents; and 50 cents in second-class cars. Merchan­
dise, generally, at $ 1 5 0 per ton—if in cargoes, landed on the railroad wharves at $1 25
per ton, without any charge for wharfage. 45/120 tons were carried over this road for
the factories, during the past year; and the company have a special bargain with the
Lowell factories. They are charged $ 1 25 for all cotton, wool, and goods made of those
articles, and $ 1 per ton for all other articles. The stockholders of the W estern Branch
railroad, incorpoiated in 1843, have transferred their rights and privileges to the Boston
and Lowell company. This road begins 7 miles from the depot of the'Lowell and Bos­
ton, out of the latter city. The road has a single track, with a heavy T rail, of 56 pounds
to the yard, upon chesnut sleepers, 7 feet long, and 6 inches in depth, .2 feet 7 inches
apart, resting upon a bed of clear gravel, 2 feet deep. The rails are in lengths of 18 feet,
and the joints are secured by a clasp chain of 20 pounds weight.
The whole cost of the Boston and Lowell railroad, with its depots, cars, engines, and
appurtenances, and about.58 miles of single track, amounts to$1,902,555 67; of which__
Land for tracks and land damages,...............................................................
Depot lands and buildings,................................. .............................................
Engines and cars,.............................................................. ..............................
Iron rails, bolts and chairs,.............................................................................
Bridges (66 in number) and culverts,...... ..................... .............................
Road, excavation and embankment, trench walls, stone blocks and sleep­
ers, laying rails, branch tracks at Lowell, superintendence, engineer­
ing, &c.,................................................................................................... .
Woburn branch railroad,....................................................................... .

$73,909
276,079
127,238
282,833
196,831

48
48
43
95
58

910,222 06
35,440 68

Total,.................................................................................................... $1,902,555 67
W e give below, from the directors’ report, a tabular statement, showing the capital,
income, and expenses of the road, from its opening, on the 24th of June, 1835, to Novem­
ber 30th, 1844 ; by which it appears that the surplus on hand on the.30th of November,




Railroad and Steamboat Statistics,

292

1844, after paying tlie dividends of that year, amounts to $18,433 3G, which is the whole
surplus remaining undivided, after nine or ten years operations. The amount on hand in
the year 1841, when it was largest, more than half of which was derived from withhold­
ing the winter dividend of 183G, (in which year only 2 per cent was divided,) has been
absorbed by the necessary expense of taking up and relaying the first track, on which too
light a rail had originally been laid, as has been more fully stated in former reports. The
cost of this work was $121,558 84, and is spread over the three years 1841-42-43.
C a p i t a l A c c o u n t , f r o m 1835 t o 1844.
Statement o f capital paid in at date, charged and credited to construction, and whole
cost o f construction at the end o f each year, from 1835 to 1844, inclusive.
Nov. 30,
Charged to conCredited to conWhole cost of
Cap. paid in at
of the
struction in that
struction in that
construe, at the
that date.
years
year.
end of the year.
year.
1835,............
$1,200,000
$1,312,239 54
1836',.............
1,440,000
$193,405 69
1,505,645 33
1,500,000
2,749 52
1,508,394 75
1837,.............
1,500,000
1833,.............
67,268 75
1,575,663 50
1,650,000
1,698,476 21
1839,.............
32,812 71
1840,.............
1,800,000
120,796 38
1,729,242 59
1,800,000
105,650 48
1,834,893 07
1841,.............
1842,............
1,800,000
143,393 02
1,978,286 09
$31,638 24*
1,800,000
1,863,746 16
10,743 10
20,886 07+
1843,.............
72,758 72+
1,800,000
1,902,555 67
68,809 51
30,000 00||
1844..............
I n c o m e a n d E x p e n s e A c c o u n t , f r o m 1835 t o 1844.
Statement o f the Receipts, Expenses, Dividends, Profits, Surplus, fyc., in each year,
from 1835 to 1844.
Gross rec. fm.
Div. of Rate Surplus of Defic. of
Expenses.
all sources.
Nett profits.
the yr. the year.
Years.
thatyr. pr. ct.
D o lla r s .

1840,
1841,
1842,

64,654 39
165,124 30
180,770 04
191,778 57
241,219 94
§9,160 63
231,575 27
§14,132 51
267,541 34
278,310 68

1843,

277,315 06

1844,

316,909 58

1835,
1836,
1837,
1838,
1839,

D o lla r s .

19,125
75,326
78,508
75,597

36
11
17
94

D o lla r s .

45,529
87,798
102,261
116,180

D o lla r s .

D o lla r s .

03
19
87
63

45,000
30,000
105,000
105,000

3J
2
7
7

529 03
59,798 19

92,151 44

158,229 13

132,000

8

26,229 13

91,400 17
119,469 32
165,174 79
+20,886 07
109,366 88
+72,758 72
139,293 88

154,307 61
148,072 02
113,135 89

138,000 8
144,000 8
144,000 8

16,307 61
4,072 02

74,303 29

144,000

8

147,615 70

144,000

8

2,238,492 31 1,059,058 95 1,149,433 36 1,131,000

.

D o lla r s .

2,738 13
11,180 63

30,864 11
69,696 71
3,615 70

The cost of a share on the 30th November, 1835, when the first annual settlement of
accounts was made, after the opening of the road, including interest, at 6 per cent on
the assessments from the time when they were laid, and deducting the dividend paid for
the fraction of that year, amounted to $540 75, or almost exactly 8 per cent on the par
value. Since then, in the nine years which have followed, the dividends have averaged
7 1-9 per cent on the par value of the shares.*§
* Cash received for old rail iron sold.
t Balance of interest account charged to expenses.
t Cost of rail iron for repairs, originally charged with rail iron for construction, and
now transferred to its proper head.
|| Depreciation in value of engines and cars.
§ Advance on 600 shares new stock sold at auction, for account of the corporation.




Railroad and Steamboat Statistics.

293

E N G L ISH AND AM ERICA N RAILW AYS.
The American Railroad Journal is now issued weekly, by D. K. Minor, in an improved
form. This work has been published since 1831. It was then, and continues to be,
the only Railroad Journal in this country, and was in advance of any in Europe. Now,
there are four Journals published in London, alone, dedicated entirely to the railway and
mining interests, with ample support. The two principal, Herapath and the Railway
Times, have a large circulation. In this country, we have already upwards of $125,000,000
invested in railways, that yield a very inadequate support to one, although containing
much valuable information. We avail ourselves of the published tables of 84 American,
and 43 English railways, to present the following interesting summary, in part prepared
to our hands.
Five of the principal railways in England, extending over 563 miles, cost 20,456,3021.
sterling, equal to $102,281,510. These roads, compared with eight of our principal and
most profitable works, in length 540 miles, it would appear, have cost $15,353,220, and
produce the following results:—
E n g l is h R a il w a y s .

Name.
Grand Junction,...................................
Great Western, and branches,...........
Liverpool and Manchester,................
London and Birmingham,.................
London and Southwestern,................
Total,...................................... .

Miles.
104
222
32
112
93

Cost.
£2,453,169
7,272,539
1,739,835
6,393,468
2,596,291

563

£20,455,302

Share.
100
75
100
100
41

Val.
210
138
203
218
73

The annual dividends of these roads, for a number of years, varies from 7 to 10 per
cent, principally the latter rate. This is about 2 per cent greater than the average of the
following American railways, arising from the dense population of England, and the fact
that the stockholders in the above-named roads have been enabled to borrow from onethird to one-fourth the cost of their roads, at from 3^ to 4J per cent; these investments
being now considered among the best in the country.
A m e r ic a n R a i l w a y s .

Name.
Boston and Worcester,....... ..................
Boston and Lowell,.............. ..................
Boston and Providence,....... ..................
Boston and Maine,................................
Eastern,................................. .................
Utica and Schenectady,....... ..................
Syracuse and Utica,............. ...................
Auburn and Rochester,..........................

Miles.
48
28
41
109
105
78
53
78

Cost.
$2,885,200
1,863,746
1,900,000
1,384.050
2,388,631
2,124,013
1,080,219
1,727,361

Share.
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

Val.
119
117
109
110
108
131
119
110

Total,........................
$15,353,220
The average cost, per mile, of these eight roads, is..
$28,000
“
«
(.
the five English railways, is .,.,...........
181,670
W e find in the list two railways—the London and Blackwall, and the London and
Greenwich, each 3 | miles in length, which have cost £2,356,570, equal to $11,782,850,
or $1,533,270 per mile.
The cost of 1,784 miles of railways in Great Britain, has been.........
£62,287,900
There are 2,000 miles projected, and in the course of construction,
estimated to cost.....................................................................................
50,000,000
Total,...................................................................
$561,439,500 = £112,287,900
The tables show that, taking 1,774 miles in New England, New York, New Jersey ;
the Philadelphia and Baltimore, the Baltimore and Washington, and the Georgia Central
railways, the aggregate cost is $54,416,335, or about $30,500 per mile ; being one-third




Commercial Statistics.

294

less in this country than in England. This arises principally from land damages, the ex­
travagant parliamentary expenses to obtain charters, &c., &c. These, on the Great
W estern railroad, were—$8,500 per mile, for procuring charter ; engineering, $6,500
per mile ; land drainage, $35,500 per mile ; grading, $159,600 ; superstructure, $47,500;
motive power, $25,500; incidental, $3,300. Total, $284,000 per mile. The table of
American railways is still incomplete, there being several .blanks to fill up. The table
already exceeds 4,200 miles, and the cost above $110,000,000. The aggregate number
of miles of .railways in use in this country is 5,000, and the cost $125,000,000, or
$25,000 per mile. In proportion to territory, these American roads do not equal the
English, although we greatly exceed them in proportion to population. The great facili­
ties presented by the English web of railways to the government, is the true secret of
R. Hill’s success in introducing his “ penny system,” and at a rate per mile, per annum,
at an average of three times the prices paid by our government; who, with others, are
loud in their denunciation of these “ monopolies” as “ extortionate,” &c., &c. They do
not take into consideration that the average actual cost of running a train in this country,
with one locomotive, and two or three cars, is full 75 cents per train per mile. This
would give, for 365 days* $273 75 per mile, per annum ; a rate about double the average
allowed by the postmaster-general—to wit: $143. On the principal railways in Great
Britain, the government allows from $400 to $800 per mile per annum, to carry her mails.
Unless railways are fairly tested, and patronized by the government at rates that will
aid them to pay off the debt with which they are generally encumbered, their necessi­
ties, and the necessties of some of the states in which they are located, may induce them
to farm out the cars to private enterprise. Already the governor of New Jersey boasts
that “ the railway pays $60,000 per annum into the state treasury, a sum equal to the
expenses of the state,” for the privilege of passing through New Jersey. Pennsylvania,
with her $40,000,000 of debt, may tax the government for the transit of the mails east
and west, over her Columbia and Portage railways; while Maryland may also find it
convenient to follow the example of New Jersey, and collect a bonus for the use of her
railways, by an indirect tax, and thus induce her state incorporations to exact extravagant
terms of the United States government. Cheap postage, the people will and must have.
It can only be accomplished by railways, liberally aided by the general government, to
complete the main seaboard line, with the several cross or branch railways, over the Al­
leghany ridge, to the valley of the Ohio, that are now languishing in the states of New
York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, although so important to the post-office department,
and for general defence.

COMMERCIAL STATISTICS.
COM M ERCE O F HAVANA, FO R T H E L A ST T W E L V E YEARS.
Comparative Statement o f the Exports of Sugar, Coffee, Tobacco, Honey, Beeswax, and
Spirits, from Havana, in each year, from 1833 to 1844, a period o f twelve years.

1839.

1834.

1835.

1836.

1837.

1838.

Sugar,..........................boxes 269.277 292,207 300,218 313,978 321,657 344,493
Coffee,..................... arrobas 1,857,125 915,601 793,302 839,9561,409,789 864,490
Tobacco, man.,— millares 117,450 116,442
64,733
94,564 143,705 171,413
“
raw,................lbs. 401,376 540,357 660,9151,293,803 1,119,1851,528,125
H oney,Purga............... .jars 39,696
39,283
42,355 44,778
43,278
56,451
“
tcs.
984
1,444
1,403
1,340
1,399
1,173
Beeswax,................. arrobas 24,516
22,271
23,303
20,489
35,414 20,251
Spirits,.........................pipes
2,073
2,479
3,583
3,009
2,497
3,976




Commercial Statistics,

295

183 9 .
1840.
1841.
1842.
184 3 .
184 4 .
Sugar,.............
330,624 447,578 346,890 427,947
461,3074 534,582*
Coffee,............ •arrobas 1,174,996 1,272,892 742,570 1,081,4684 773,043
579,248
Tobacco, man., ... .mill. 153,370 137,067 159,450 130,727
152,0094 149,5834
“
raw,.
359,029 1,025,262 1,452,989 1,018,990* 2,138,802* 1,286,242*
Honey, Purga, .....jars
47,006
51,902
42,909
37,4594
33,8124
35,711
a
2,113
1,526
1,974
2,643
2,198
1,9634
Beeswax,....... arrobas
28,315
29,351
29,535
24,447
37,0484
31,7594
Spirits,............
6,670
8,472
8,753
6,785
6,223
4,066

Commercial N avigation of H avana.
Statement o f the number o f vessels entered into and sailed from the Port o f Havana,
during the years 1843 and 1844.
1843.
Entered.
S’led.
135
116
120
116
165
160
172
184
165
200
11
137
82
140
95
79
71
70
92
97
108
100
113
87

Months.
January,..........
February,........
March,.............
April,..............
M ay,................
July,................
August,............
September,.....
October,...........
November,.....
December,......
Total,.

1,455

1,459

Months.
January,.....................
February,..................
March,......................
April,.......................
May,..........................
July............................
August,......................
September,...............
October,....................
November,...............
December,................
Total,..............

184 4 .
Entered.
SIM.
138
120
177
120
188
181
183
217
188
196
120
153
87
124
93
96
72
71
122
68
141
144
169
148
1,678

1,638

IM PO R T S O F N E W YORK, IN 1844.
The following is a quarterly statement of the imports and duties received at the port
of New York, from January 1st to December 31st, 1844, distinguishing merchandise du­
tiable, free of duty, and specie and bullion:—
Dutiable
Free Mer­ Specie and
chandise.
Mdze.
bullion.
Tolal.
Duties.
$6,194,657
$415,993
January,........
$73,204
$6,683,354
$1,852,577 19
February,......
6,023,763
548,326
55,417
6,627,511
2,131,926 99
March,...........
4,641,334
537,883
58,008
5,237,225
1,641,140 24
1st qr., 1844,.

$16,859,754 $1,502,202

$186,629

$18,548,090

$5,625,644 42

April,.............
May,...............
Ju n e ,..............

$5,638,873 $1,754,237
4,667,950
1,913,774
5,229,941
529,042

$70,573
243,424
64,297

$7,463,683
6,825,148
5,823,280

$1,805,706 06
1,793,824 77
1,882,984 24

2d qr., 1844,..

$15,536,764 $4,197,053

$378,294

$20,112,111

$5,482,515 07

$666,595
1,187,836
817,106

$157,121
100,388
62,945

$8,005,912
11,258,796
8,107,715

$2,189,428 77
3,085,352 27
2,422,751 06

$24,380,432 $2,671,537

$320,454

$27,372,423

$7,697,532 10

July,...............
A ugust,.........
September,....
3d qr., 1844,..

$7,182,196
9,970,572
7,227,664

October,.........
November,....
December,.....

$3,846,889
1,640,150
2,657,274

$711,240
345,827
288,729

$55,079
40,300
130,608

$4,613,208
2,026,277
3,076,611

$1,260,203 01
557,490 30
834,445 84

4th qr., 1844,.

$8,144,313 $1,345,796

$225,987

$9,716,096

$2,652,139 15

$64,921,263 $9,716,588 $1,111,364

$75,748,720

$21,457,830 74

Total,...




Commercial Statistics,

296

COM M ERCE, DEBT, AND RESOU RCES OF TEXAS.
W e are indebted partly to T. P. Kettell, Esq., the able commercial and financial editor
of the “ Morning News,” for the following statement of the commerce, debt, and re­
sources of Texas. Everything relating to the Texian Republic is, at the present time, a
matter of great interest. The following is an official table, made public in 1841, of the
amount of the original debt then in existence; since which time, no new stock has been
issued—the credit of the country having been, fortunately, too dilapidated to admit
of loans:—

P ublic Debt of T exas.
Funded act of 1837,......... ........
“
1840,........
Bonds pledged,....................
Issued for navy,...........................
Bonds at 8 per cent,...........
Treasury notes,...................
Land receipts,......................
Floating debt,.....................

1841
1842

Total debt,...............

$750,000
800,000
500,000
690,000
100,000
2,250,000
1,500,000
500,000

$335,000
240,000
170,000
302,000
32,000

$1,085,000
1,040,000
670,000
992,000
132,000
2,250,000
1,500,000
500,000

$7,090,000

$1,079,000

$8,169,000

This is, no doubt, very near the actual amount of the liabilities of Texas. General
Hamilton, a few years since, visited Europe, for the purpose of obtaining a loan on pledge
of Texas land, but was unsuccessful. According to a congressional report of 1839, the
quantity of government land was as follows:—
Extent of the Texian Republic,....................................................................
Granted by Mexico, and confirmed by Texas..................
53,311,267
Texas grants, since her independence,...............................
5,597,356
Military bounty lands,...........................................................
4,393,074
Land scrip issues,...................................................................
1,500,000
---------------

203,420,000

Unappropriated balance, acres,..........................................................

138,618,203

64,801,797

The imports and exports of the U. States, to and from Texas, have been as follows:—

I mports and E xports to and from T exas.
Exports to Texas.
Dora. Goods.
For. Goods.
$797,312
$210,616
1,028,818
219,062
1,379,016
308,017
937,073
281,199
516,255
292,041
278,978
127,951
705,240
37,713

Years.
1837, ...............
1838, ...............
1839, ...............
1840, ...............
1841....................
1842, ...............
1843, ...............

Total.
$1,007,928
1,247,880
1,687,082
1,218,271
808,296
406,929
142,753

Imports.
$163,384
165,718
318,116
303,847
395,026
480,892
445,399

The largest exports to Texas were in 1839, and consisted mostly of clothing, furniture,
lumber, and dry-goods, of which over $250,000 was domestic cottons. A large portion
ot their exports consisted, undoubtedly, of the property of emigrants ; but they seem now
to supply themselves from other quarters, the United States having lost the trade. In the
meantime, the exports of Texas, consisting of cotton almost altogether, have rapidly
increased. The quantity and value brought into the United States, in each year, has
been as follows:—

Imports of Cotton into the United States, from T exas.
Years.
1836,.......
1837.........
1838,.......
1839.........

Pounds.
1,473,133
1,082,466
1,491,293
1,890,052

Years.
Value.
Pounds.
1840,
...................
$223,182
2,669,655
1841,
...................
276,315
3,128,776
1842,........
5,255,142
406,943
1843,.......
379,750
7,593,107
This evinces a regular and steady increase of business, apparently largely in favor of
Texas. The imports and duties of the port of Galveston, for the year ending November
1, are as follows:—




Value.
$232,336
144,587
156,242
240,130

297

Commercial Statistics.
Imports,.
Duties,...

1842.

1844.

$368,532
89,042

$510,399
158,815

$161,867
69,773

This increasing trade, and the economical manner in which the government has been
administered, is evinced in the late message of President Houston, who states that, during
the three years he has been in office, the revenue and expenditure have been as follows:—
Revenue,................................................................................................................
$466,158
Expenses,..............................................................................................................
460,209
Excess revenue,.......................................................................................
$5,949
The country is now rapidly filling with emigrants, who arrive from Europe, direct, in
large numbers, and immediately occupy the prolific soil.
Since the above was prepared, we have received an abstract of the “ Annual Report
of the Treasury Department, to the ninth Congress of the Republic of Texas,” dated
“ Washington, December 1st, 1844,” and signed “ J. B. Miller, Secretary of the Trea­
sury
which enables us to give a summary account of the commerce of Texas, for the
year ending on the 31st July, 1844, as follows:—
130 vessels were entered from foreign ports, or with cargoes subject to duty.
Amount of merchandise imported,..............................................................
$686,503 03
Total gross amounts of revenue,...................................
$201,413 30
Expenses of collection,.................................................
23,551 45
N ett amount of revenue,..................................
$177,861 85
The sum of the merchandise imported was introduced in the amounts below, from the
following countries:—From the United States of America, $593,525 14; Great Britain
and Ireland, $51,059 89 ; British W est Indies, $3,624 10; Spanish W est Indies,
$148 87; France, $5,584 58; Hanse Towns, $27,494 54; the Austrian Adriatic do­
minions, $1,185 86 ; Yucatan, $663 57. Total, $686,503 03.
The rate of per centage which the gross amount of impost duties bears to the total
amount of merchandise imported, is a minute fraction over 26 9-16 per cent. As, how.
ever, nearly six-sevenths of the merchandise was imported in foreign vessels, of the class
whose cargoes are subject to the 5 per cent augmentation, 5 per cent on six-sevenths of
the merchandise may be deducted from the total of duties, to show what the average im ­
post rate would* have been, had all the effects been imported in Texian, British, French,
Dutch, or American vessels.

Commerce of G alveston.
W e also annex an official statement of revenue collected at the custom-house, port of
Galveston, for the year commencing Nov. 1, 1843, and ending Oct. 31, 1844:—
Imports.
Total amount subject to specific duty,.........................................................
“
“
ad valorem duty,..................................................
Free duties,......................................................................................................

$130,847 88
378,225 95
1,325 54

Total imports,......................................................................................

$510,399 37

Total amount of duties on the above,..........................................................
Tonnage,.........................................................................................................
Permits, blank and vessel fees,....................................................................
Storage on goods,..........................................................................................
Fines and forfeitures,.....................................................................................

$142,672 98
13,399 99
1,793 63
4 5 2 63
296 24

Total revenues,..........................................

,615 47

The above amount paid thus:—
$83,345 36 exchequer bills, at different rates,..
Amount paid in par funds....................................

$74,027 89
84,587 58

Total....................................................*.............................................




$158,615 47

298

Commercial Statistics.

The following are the expenses at the custom-honse, Galveston, from 31st October,
1843,-to 31st October, 1844, inclusive:—
Salaries of
Conting'nt
expenses.
officers.
Quarter ending 31st January, 1844,.
$3,301 75
$934 57
“
30th April, 1844,...
486 32
2,252 16
“
31st July, 1844,....
2,250 50
542 28
“ '
31st October, 1844,.
2,256 00
224 88
$2,188 05
9,060 41

$9,060 41
Add salaries of officers,.

$11,248 46
From which deduct amount charged for services of officers disconnected with
their respective offices, to w it:—For permits,..........................
$469 60
For blanks,............................
798 83
For vessel’s fe e s,................
524 70
--------- 1,793 13
$9,455 33

Total expenses,,

FO R E IG N COM M ERCE O F M O BILE, IN 1844.
The Mobile Register has made the following abstract from the returns of the custom­
house at Mobile, for the respective quarters of the year 1844:—

I mports of Merchandise from F oreisn Ports, into the Pout of Mobile.
1st quarter, 1844—By Foreign vessels,.............................
By American “ ............................
2d quarter, 1844—By Foreign vessels,............................
By American “
3d quarter, 1844—By Foreign vessels,............................
By American “
4th quarter, 1844—By Foreign vessels,.............................
By American “ ...............................

$84,075
60,277
2,524
27,107
39
8,329
13,448
46,544

00
00= $144,352
00
00=
29,631
00
00=
8,368
00
00=
59,992

09
00
00
00

Value of imports paying duty,.................................................................$242,343 00
“
free of duty,.................................................................
156,938 00
Total foreign imports for 1844,............................................................

$399,281 00

Amount of merchandise paying specific duties,.............................................
“
“
“
ad valorem duties,.......................................
“
44
free of duty,...............................................................

$173,060 00
69,283 00
156,938 00

Total,......................................................................................................

$399,281 00

A modnt of Duties received in 1844.
1st quarier—By Foreign vessels,......................................
By American “ ........................................
2d quarter—By Foreign vessels,......................................
By American “ ........................................
3d quarter—By Foreign vessels,.......................................
By American “
4thquarter—By Foreign vessels,............... ........................
By American “

$36,622
24,314
1,743
11,681
8
2,630
6,374
17,081

42
9 4 = $60,937 36
04
27=
13,424 41
05
28=
2,638 33
26
17=
23,455 43

Total amount of duties for 1844,........................................................

$100,455 53

Amount of specific duties,................................................................................
“
ad valorem duties.........................................................................

$81,894 43
18,561 10

Total,.................................................... ................................................

$100,455 52




Commercial Statistics,

299

EX PO RT O F TEA. FROM CH IN A TO G R E A T B R IT A IN ,
BETWEEN 1ST JOLT, 1843, AND 30tHJONE-, 1844, IN 96 SHIPS.

The Friend of China, and Hong-IIong Gazette, furnishes us with the following tabular
statement of the exports of every description of tea, in each month, from July 1, 1843,
to June 30, 1844, in % ships:—
Blk.lf.PeSouchong koe and H. Flow’ry
Orange
Pekos.
Pekoe.
Date.
Caper. and Campoi. Muey.
Congou.
Bohea;
34,100
42,550
44,402
.......
1,409,868
1,610
July,.........
August,....
8,018
367,106
Sept’r,......
755,020
6,200
........
October,...
118,189
94,929
5,079 182,291
3,935,545
18,387
80,429
275,841
260,253
64,112
NoVr........
29,531
5,968,774
41,188
232,849
Dec’r,.......
172,224
20,082
4,725,895
80,842
January,...
17,686
84,552
124,311
64,985
5,234,968
46,311
February,..
299,252
38,762
19,145
232,244
127,900
4,155,958
M arch,....
23,599
36,884
9,540
114,294
3,866
3,207,845 104,667
April,.......
40,586
5,693
1,653
104,235
9,749
2,929,938
19,074
M ay,.........
9,500
4,059,905
62,715
334,308
67,192
14,253
57,750
Ju n e ,........
1,565,996
7,028
8,195
.......
Total,...

11,193

38,316,818

498,065

E xports

Date.
July,...........
August,.......
September,.
October,......
November,...
December,..
January,.....
February,....
March,........
April,..........
M ay,........... .......
June,........... .........

8,208
2,216
21,783
4,208
13,565
1,100

Total,.........

56,728

Sort.

453
5,195

42,276,581

Total,.......

of

453,277

1,104,070

Y. Hyson.
222,655

H. Skin.
12,336
6,115

50,951
29,793
45,882
107,408
392,790
208,974
346,754
26,252
19,442

236,296
307,771
151,483
70,039
176,764
155,741
51,551
33,220
23,734

20,232
16,582
96,948
102,823
199,147
51,145
23,537
31,520

1,267,807

1,429,254

560,385

1,562,603

273,827

T ea- -Continued.

Black.
1,532,530
375,124
761,220
4,354,873
6,684,135
5,273,080
5,581,021
4,875,477
3,522,478
3,115,136
4,561,438
1,640,069

E xpoets

Date.
July,...................
August,.............
►September,........
October,............
November,.........
December,........
January,............
February,..........
March, .............
April,.................
May,...................
June,..................

of

Hyson.
39,555

T ea— C ontinued.

Green.
788,225
6,115

Twankay.
410,430

Imperial.
41,365

294,745
113,748
134,823
280,042
1,064,887
521,480
470,273
340,631
391,323

48,764
19,097
63,227
109,554
170,677
45,209
23,012
37,314
34,318

106,121
62,436
141,407
275,171
298,634
93,690
95,905
96,501
63,138

757,109
532,845
553,404
939,162
2,206,575
1,224,241
1,038,640
557,455
563,481

Total.
2,320,755
381,239
761,220
5,111,9827,216,980
5,826,484
6,520,183
7,082,002
4,746,719
4,153,770
5,118,898
2,203,544

4,022,382

592,537

1,294,887

9,167,252

51,443,833

Gunpowder.
61,884

M A NUFACTURING D IV ID E N D S IN N E W ENGLAND.
The following table, interesting to all purchasers and dealers in stocks on both sides
of the Atlantic, is from Willis & Company’s Bank Note List for October, 1844.
We are indebted to the treasurers of the respective corporations, who politely gave us
every information required, for the accuracy of the following table, which first appeared •




Commercial Statistics.

300

in the Boston Morning Post of October last, it is believed. [The table, notwithstanding,
has, through more exact inquiry, been rectified in several particulars since its original
appearance.}

Merrimack,.......
c Hamilton,.........
73 Appleton,.........
............
I Lowell,
Suffolk,..............
5- Middlesex, b.......
.........
£o Tremont,
Lawrence,........
H
H Boot,
...............
Massachusetts,...
6 Cabot,..............
B f Chickop.,
..........
a Dwight,e..........
z,
Perkins,....................
w
Thomd.,...................
i -i Palmer,.....................
c
Otis,...........................
VI
Amosk.,...................
o
O
York...........................
•B .Nashua,....................
o

Total,.............

1839. 1840.
11

f

5
5a

n
ii
10

n

6

9
5
5
0

1841. 1842.
12
8
8
8
6
11
11
10

4c

7

8

2
2

4

11

8

3

7

t

0

3
9

1843. 1844.
16

20

6

6
7

6

11

3

ii

3
6

9
5
9
10

.

5

5

20

8

9
16
10

6
9

4

7

12
0

7

6

8

3

6

139

69

146

65

159

9

9

3
6
11
10

28
27
55

16

33

10
16
15
11
14
10

4

3
.
.

76
26

7

6
4d
6
7
5

3
3
5

Total.

50
44
45
21
44
15
22
35
33
69
20
35

3
8

10
14
16
10
9

$
i

17

10

8

|

77
35

237

M A C K E R EL F IS H E R Y O F M A SSA CH U SETTS.
W e give, below, the annual return of the number of barrels of mackerel inspected in
Massachusetts, from January 1st, 1844, to December 31st, 1844; including barrels, halves,
quarters, and eighths of barrels. Annexed, will be found the total number of barrels in­
spected in each year, from 1831 to 1843, which shows the falling off in this branch of
commercial industry.
I nspection op 1844.
Towns.
Bbls. No. 1. Bbls. No. 2. Bbls. No. 3.
Yarmouth,..................
832f
The quantity inspect1,333
545
Wellfleet,....................
ed in Massachusetts for
2,458}
4,223
3,0884
2,042
thirteen years, was as
Truro,.........................
1,7074
9044
follows:—
Scituate,.....................
1404
283
2284
Rockport,....................
831*
5994
491}
Years.
Barrels.
1,841
Provincetown,............
1,077|
9554
1843,.......
64,451
2,8424
Newburyport,.............
1,329}
2,837
1842,........
75,543
Hingham ,...................
4,9434
. 2,6294
1,798
1841,.......
55,537
Gloucester,.................
6,0534
6,6754
4.727J
1840,........
50,992
Dennis,.......................
8 16|
1,8044
889J
1839,.......
73,018
109
1514
Chatham,....................
138
1838,.......
108,538
Cohasset,...................
4,266
1,775|
1,8174
1837,........
138,157
Beverly,......................
2
12
7
1836,.......
176,931
1,090
Barnstable,..................
6574
5314
1835,.......
194,454
3,032}
Boston,........................
2,564f
1,858}
1834,........
252,884
English, re-inspected,
2,8574
574
4,678
212.946
1833,.......
212,452
1832,.......
Total,..................
29,828} 22,142}
35,081}
383,559
1831,.......
t Dividend in new shares.
t Not in full operation.
a Further dividend in new shares.
b Not in operation as a distinct corporation till 1841.
c The cotton-mill stopped from July, 1842, to July, 1843.
d Extra dividend of 25 per cent of accumulated profits on manufacturing, sales of land,
and rents to increase the capital from $600,000 to $750,000.
,
e Not in operation till 1842.




The Book Trade.

301

T H E BOOK T R A D E .
1. — Correspondence o f M r. Ralph Izard, o f South Carolina, from 1774 to 1804. W ith
a short Memoir. Vol. 1. New Y ork: Charles S. Francis & Co.
The correspondence in the present volume embraces a period of four years—1774-77
—an eventful and an important epoch in the history of this country. From the brief me­
moir, introductory to the correspondence, prepared by the compiler, Ann Izard Deas, a
daughter of Mr. Izard, we learn that his ancestors were English—came to America in
the reign of Queen Anne, and settled in South Carolina. H e was educated in England,
but returned to America, and passed the winters in Carolina, and the summers in New
York. H e was married in 1767; and a few years after, (1771,) went to England, and
settled in London. His high and independent spirit was evinced, as appears from the
memoir and correspondence, long before the revolutionary war took place; as it seems,
while in England, he declined the honor of being presented at Court, as it would have
been necessary for him to bow the knee, which he said he never would do to mortal man.
Several important trusts were reposed in him by the colonial government; and, after the
establishment of Congress, he represented South Carolina in the Senate of the United
States. The work is mainly valuable as a contribution to the revolutionary history of the
country, and discovers facts and circumstances which will, no doubt, surprise many.

2. —Flowers far Children.

By L. Maria Child, author of “ The Mother’s Book,”
“ New York Letters,” etc. Vol. 2. For Children six years old.
3. —Kate and L iz z ie ; or, S ix Months Out o f School. By Anne W. Abbott, author
of “ Willie Rogers,” etc.
4. — The Robins; or, Domestic L ife among the Birds. W ith Anecdotes o f other A n i­
mals. By Mrs. T rimmer.
5. — Turns o f Fortune, and other Tales. By Mrs. S. C. H all . New Y ork: Charles
S. Francis & Co.
These four volumes form part of a series, for young people of all ages, by some of the
most popular writers for children, uniformly bound, now in course of publication by Fran­
cis & Co., names familiar to all readers of juvenile literature. They are little books;
but will, we predict, fill a large place in the reading of that large po -tion of the commu­
nity whom we call children ; some of whom may be pretty old, if we can judge from the
pleasure we ourselves have taken in looking over these volumes. Their authors are well
know n; and that alone has found, or will find for them, a reception in most families.
They deserve it of all families. Besides, we think them deserving of a great deal more
attention than many more pretending volumes. They are written with larger sympathies,
a great deal more spirit, freshness, and talent W e are sick of the solemn trash with
which our press continually teems, under the general class of popular and practical books
—full of feeble common-place and solemn dullness—bringing down the most important
subjects into shallow compends, which give only the most superficial knowledge—serving
as a substitute for all thinking on the part of readers, and ministering none of that quick­
ening impulse and culture to the fancy, the imagination, and the heart, without which,
mere knowledge in the head, even if thorough, is sapless and lifeless; but, being shallow,
is full of cold-hearted, self-complacent conceit.
6. — Whimsicalities; a Periodical Gathering. By T homas H ood, author of the “ Comic
Annual,” “ Whims and Oddities,” etc. Philadelphia: Lea & Blanchard.
A collection of the humorous papers that were published, from time to time, in the
London M agazine; which, although mainly designed to amuse, or excite the humor of
the cranium, are not devoid of the morale. Those who have read and admired (and who
has not?) Hood’s “ Song of the Shirt,” and other articles of like tendency, from the same
pen, will, we are sure, avail themselves of these inklings of harmless, if not beneficent
recreation.




302

The Book Trade.

7.—Cobb's New North American Reader; or, F ifth Reading Book. By Lyman Cobb,
A. M. New Y ork: Caleb Bartlett.
This reading book, in some respects, at least, at seems to us, is superior to any other
book of reading lessons for the highest classes in schools, that has fallen under our ob­
servation. The selections are chiefly from approved American w riters; whereas the
book which, we are told, is most generally used in the schools of our country, does not
contain a single piece or paragraph from,the pen of an American citizen. This is a ma­
nifest mistake, which Mr. Cobb has sought, in the present compilation, to remedy. , Cer­
tainly, as he truly remarks in the preface, pride for the literary reputation of our country,
if not patriotism and good policy, should dictate the propriety of giving in our school
books specimens of our own literature. W e have civil and political institutions of our
ow n; and how can they be sustained unless the children and youth of our country are
early made to understand them? In the courae of an introductory chapter, the author
gives a series of just rules and observations on the principles of good reading ; and at the
head of each reading lesson is a series of definitions, in which every new word in the
reading lesson, is spelled, pronounced, accented, and defined; and the part o f speech
noted. .As he proceeds, new words are presented, such as he has not seen before; and
his progress through the book is a series of triumphs over difficulties for which he is duly
prepared. W e might refer to various other improvements, but enough has been said to
call the attention of parents and teachers to the w ork; which has, within a few days,
. been adopted, together with Mr. Cobb’s whole series of school books, by the Board of
Control of the Public Schools in Philadelphia.
8 . — The Sacred Flora; or, Flowers from the Grave o f a Child. By H enry Bacon.
Boston: A. Tompkins.
9. —Hours o f Communion. By E dwin H . Charin. Boston: A. Tompkins.
Two pretty miniature volumes, the productions of congenial minds and kindred spirits.
The author of the first, says, that he selected the name of ■“ Sacred Flora,” because the
sentiments which he wished to express, springing as they did around the grave of a pre­
cious child, seemed to him well symbolized by such memorial flowers as those to which
allusion has been made in the volume. Thus gathered, they will be found truly the flow­
ers of Christian thought and sentiment. “ Hours o f Communion" consists of several
fragmentary pieces, enforcing, with love and gentleness, “ that spiritual culture, that
growth in individual goodness, which is the great end of all reading, and the chief result
of all religion.” Both works are .unsectarian, and eminently practical; and, as such,
may be commended to the good and .true of all sects.
10. —Rise and Fall o f the F ish Nation. By Sir Jonah Barrington, LL. D., K. C,t
Member of the late Irish Parliament, for the cities of Fream and Clogher. New
Y ork: D. & J. Sadlier.
T he misgovernment and oppression of England towards as brave, cheerful, witty,
warm-hearted, and hospitable a race of men as ever inhabited our globe, are pourtrayed
in this volume with the characteristic power and eloquence of one of Ireland’s ablest and
most patriotic statesmen. The work was first published in Paris, in 1833; and its repro­
duction, now that the repeal movement is agitating not only the Irish nation, but the
friends of civil and religious liberty everywhere, is well-timed, and will prove a most
acceptable offering to the sons of Erin, scattered over Christendom. The volume is
handsomely printed and bound, and is illustrated with numerous portraits of eminent Irish
patriots, statesmen, noblemen, etc.
11. — Fanny Herbert, and Other Tales. A Holiday Gift. By Mrs. Mary N. M’Donald.
New Y ork: Henry M. Onderdonk.
The exterior of this volume is handsome enough for a “ holiday gift,” and it possesses
interior qualities that impart to it a perennial value. One who can write so well, should
write more.




303

The Book Trade.

12. — A Chronological Introduction to the History o f the Church; being a New Inquiry
into the True Dates o f the Birth and Death o f our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ,
and containing an Original Harmony o f the Four Gospels, now first arranged in the
order o f the Time. 'By Rev. Samuel Farmer Jarvis, D. D., LL. D., Historigrapher
of-the Church. 8vo., pp. 618. New Y ork: Harper & Brothers.
This is the first volume of a series, to which the learned author has been appointed
as historigrapher to prepare, under the sanction of the Bishops of the Episcopal Church
in the United States. It has been examined by a committee of the House of Bishops,
consisting of Bishops Doane, Hopkins, and Whittingham, and pronounced by them to
be a thorough and comprehensive analysis of all the evidence extant, whether sacred or
profancjj upon the most difficult and important points in ecclesiastical chronology, in regard
to the birth and death of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. Dr. Jarvis enjoys a high
reputation for deep and accurate learning, and this volume exhibits “ extraordinary re­
search and exact f i d e l i t y a n d is hailed as a production calculated to reflect honor upon
himself, and the clergy to which he belongs. ■It is, moreover, a highly creditable specimen
of American typography.
13. — Essays on our Lord's Discourse at Capernaum, recorded in the Sixth Chapter o f
St. John. By Samuel T urner, D. D., &c., See. New Y ork: Harper & Brothers.
This is an attempt to confute the Roman Catholic doctrine of the “ Real Presence.,”
as advocated by Dr. Wiseman, a learned divine of that church. It of course presents the
Protestant view of the subject, with all the skill, clearness, and learning, for which the
author is distinguished. The arguments adduced will, of course, be as perfectly satisfac­
tory to the Protestant, as they will be unsatisfactory to the Catholic Who shall decide,
when learned Doctors disagree ?

14.

—Proverbs, arranged in Alphabetical Order. In Two Parts. Adapted to all ages
and classes o f People, but more especially designed for the Young, and the use o f
Schools. By William H. Porter. Boston: Jam es Munroe & C o.
The wise sayings, comprehensive sentences, proverbs, or maxims, the common-sense
inspiration of different ages and nations, here collected, and commented upon or concisely
explained, are “ worthy of particular notice, of being treasured up in the mind, and may
be of great practical use.” The author says the work cost him considerable attention
and labor, and is expressly written, and peculiarly .adapted to afford useful instruction, to
refresh the memory,, to store the mind, and to qualify persons of all classes to be more
entertaining and agreeable companions, or members of society. “ Next to a good friend,
is a good book,” is the initiatory proverb of the collection ; and the highest compliment
that we can bestow upon the author is our opinion that he has succeeded in giving a
practical illustration of the last words of that proverb.
15. — Letters from a Landscape Painter. By the author of “ Essays for Summer Hours.”
Boston: James Munroe & Co.
Mr. Charles Lanman, the author of these pleasant and agreeable miscellanies, is a pro­
fessional landscape painter, and of course views nature through the medium of a painter’s
eye. He has rambled through various portions of our wide domain, in search of the pic­
turesque, and ‘‘jotted down” his impressions, not only of rural scenes, but of men and
things in general; and, to quote his own language, we find him “ at one moment scram­
bling through a mountain gorge, and the next on the margin of the boundless sea,” or in
communion with kindred spirits. The volume furnishes a fine specimen of Boston book­
making.
16. —Mrs. Leicester's School; or, The History o f several Young Ladies, related by
themselves. By Charles Lamb and Sister. N ow York: Henry M. Onderdonk.
The publisher of this admirable selection, from the works of Charles Lamb, has done
good service to society, in thus reproducing here a real gem of English literature. It
Bhould be in the hands of every young lady, whether commencing or “ finishing” her
education, either at a boarding-school or at home.




t

304

The Book Trade.

17. —Home, as seen by a New Yorker, in 1843-44. New Y ork: Wiley & Putnam.
Mr. Gillespie, who is understood to be the writer of these pleasant, and, we should
think, faithful sketches, informs us, in the preface, that he has selected from his notes
such subjects, scenes, and incidents, as have seemed to him best adapted to convey to an
American the most vivid and correct notions of Rome, and presented them to the mental
eye of the reader in the precise order, and with the characteristic peculiarities, which
would strike his mental vision if the realities were substituted for descriptions, and were
seen by the reader, as by the writer, with the ideas, prepossessions, and prejudices of an
American and a New Yorker.

18.

— A Course o f English Reading, adapted to every Taste and Capacity; with Anec­
dotes o f Men o f Genius. By the Rev. James P ycroft, B. A., Trinity College, Ox­
ford. W ith Additions. By G. Coggswell. New Y ork: Wiley & Putnam.
W e concur with the American editor of this admirable treatise, that the title of a “ Plan,”
instead of a “ Course of Reading,” would have designated its purpose more definitely.
Such, in fact, it i s ; and a better one could not easily be devised. It appears to be just
such a work as should be put into the hands of every one, young or old, who desire to
pursue a course of reading, in order to derive the greatest advantage in the attainment of
a thorough knowledge of any of the various subjects of human investigation. Dr. Coggswell has made such additions to the work, particularly in regard to American history, as
it seemed to require.
19. — The Works o f Charlotte Elizabeth. Falsehood and Truth— Passing Thoughts—
Conformity. New Y o rk : John S. Taylor.
This little volume is deeply imbued with the Protestant spirit, and opposed to what its
author considers the “ insidious poison of Popery.” Controversy, she considers an indis­
pensable branch of a Christian education in our time ; and hence, whether in the form of
an essay, tale, or poem, she gives utterance to her vigorous mind, a blow is aimed at the
Roman Catholic faith, in all its forms and phases.
20. — The Reformers before the Reformation. The Fifteenth Century, John Huss, and
the Council o f Constance. By E mile De Bonnechose, Librarian to the King of France,
author of “ Histoire de France,” “ Histoire Sacree,” etc. Translated from the French.
By Campbell Mackenzie, B. A., Trinity College, Dublin. Complete in one volume.
8vo., pp. 199/ New York: Harper & Brothers. [The tract of time embraced in this
volume is one of the most interesting and important in the annals of ecclesiastical his­
tory, the period just before the Reformation. W e have, moreover, in this volume, a
particular account of the connection of John Huss with the Church of Rome, resulting
in his ultimate martyrdom. The author, in his preface, says—“ No creed will be pre­
sented here as the only creed ; no particular formula will be advanced, as the sole real
expression of the truth, out of which there is nothing but error and falsehood; for we
believe that it is, before all things, important to serve the Universal Church—and there
is one religion in our eyes higher than all particular forms of worship—above Roman
Catholicism as above Protestanism—and that religion is Christianity.”]
21. —Flowers o f Fable; embracing Original Translations and Selections from La Fon­
taine, Croxall, Gay, Cowper, Pope, Moore, Merrick, Denis, Herder, Lessing, Pignotti,
and others. Intended for Youth. Illustrated with one hundred engravings. New
Y ork: Wilson & Co. [An excellent collection of fables, selected from a great variety
of sources, and free from objectionable expressions.]
22. —Dunigan’s Illustrated Edition o f the Holy Bible, according to the Douay and Rheimish Versions. New York: Edward Dunigan. [We have received the twenty-second
part of this beautiful edition of the Catholic Bible. Two parts more make the work
complete.]
23. —Library o f Select Novels, No. 45. The Regent’s Daughter. Translated from the
Frensh of Alexander Dumas. By Charles T own. New York: Harper & Brothers.
24. —Library o f Select Novels, No. 46. The M aid o f Honor; or. The Massacre o f St.
Bartholomew. A Tale o f the Sixteenth Century. New Y ork: Harper & Brothers.
25. —Lawrie Todd; or, The Settlers in the Woods. By John Galt, Esq. Revised and
corrected, with a new Introduction, Notes, &c., by the author. W ith an original Pre­
face, by Grant T horburn. New Y ork: Farmer & Daggers.