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H U N T ’S
M E R C H A N T S ’ M A G A Z IN E .
M A R C H ,
1842.
A kt . I.— M E D IT E R R A N E A N C O M M E R C E W I T H IN D IA .
T he commerce o f the Indies has already been the theme o f able and
interesting articles in the preceding numbers o f the Merchants’ Magazine.
Those articles, however, related chiefly, i f not exclusively, to the trade o f
the English and other East India Companies o f modern origin, carried on
by marine voyages, mostly around the Cape o f Good Hope. Prior to the
discovery o f this grand commercial route, the whole European traffic with
India was conducted, through first or second hands, by w ay o f the Medi
terranean and Black Seas ; whether by the medium o f Arabia and the
Red Sea, or by w ay o f Persia, the Euphrates and Syria, or by the still
more northern route o f Turkestan and the Caspian Sea. Such was the
commerce which built up the ancient Palmyra and Damascus, T y re and
A lexandria; which gave new importance to the more modern Cairo,
Aleppo, and Constantinople ; and which ultimately led to bitter rivalry
between V enice and Genoa, until it was at length diverted into its present
more circuitous channel. A rapid sketch o f this oriental commerce, from
the earliest times to the present day, will, it is believed, fill an evident
chasm in our current mercantile literature.
Whether the ancient Assyrians maintained any intercourse with the
further East, is a point on which the few remaining fragments o f ancient
history contain no information. The student who seeks to examine the
progress and polity o f the earlier ages, and who recurs for this purpose to
the fountain head o f all historical knowledge, the most ancient writings
themselves, w ill soon find how little survives, except mere shreds and
patches, to make known to us the grand events and mighty influences o f
the past, on which we mentally gaze, as it were on a few scattered stars
breaking through the clouds before the dawn o f morning. These remarks
apply particularly to our present subject, aside from its own peculiar
difficulties. “ It is a cruel mortification,” observes the learned Dr.
Robertson, “ in searching for what is instructive in the history o f past
times, to find the exploits o f conquerors who have desolated the earth, and
the freaks o f tyrants who have rendered nations unhappy, recorded with
VOL. v i.— NO. III.
_
26
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minute, and often disgusting accuracy, while the discovery o f useful arts,
and the progress o f the most beneficial branches o f commerce, are passed
over in silence, and suffered to sink in oblivion.”
The earliest trade with the Indies, o f which we have an authentic in
timation, was that carried on by the Sabaeans, or inhabitants o f Saba, the
Sheba o f the Sacred Scriptures. O ccupying the extreme southern part of
Arabia, now known as the province o f Yemen, in Arabia Felix, and being
a hardy, adventurous race, the Sabaeans gradually extended their voyages
eastward, as well as southward, until they established a lucrative trade
not only with the adjacent coasts o f A frica, but with the western coast o f
Hindoostan, and the fertile regions o f the Indies. O f this commerce we
have an interesting account in the history o f Persia and Phoenicia by
Agatharchides, as quoted by Photius; and his account is corroborated by
some notices in the Periplus o f the Erythrean Sea, (circumnavigation of
the Red Sea,) generally attributed to Arrian. W e here perceive the
source o f the immense riches o f the Queen o f Sheba, as instanced in her
splendid presents to Solom on; “ an hundred and twenty talents o f gold,
and o f spices very great store : there came no more such abundance of
spices as those which the Queen o f Sheba gave to King Solomon.”
Some
writers have supposed the kingdom o f Sheba to have been the modern
E thiopia; and it did probably include a portion o f A frica, contiguous to
Arabia, as do the Arabian domains at the present day. But its capital
was doubtless the city o f Saba, or Mareb, afterward called Arabia Felix,
and so named from Saba, one o f its ancient kings.
It seems a doubtful question whether the ancient Egyptians ever carried
on any direct commerce with India, or whether they only procured their
supplies from the Arabians and Phoenicians. Diodorus Siculus indeed
states that Sesostris, the Egyptian conqueror, fitted out a fleet o f four
hundred ships in the Arabian Gulf, which conquered all the countries
stretching along the coast o f the Erythrean Sea to India ; while at the
same time his army marched by land beyond the Ganges to the Indian
Ocean. But his account is not confirmed by Herodotus, and it is rejected
by Strabo ; who observes, on the other hand, that the first kings o f Egypt
were contented with the produce o f their own country, neglecting foreign
merchandise, and even forbidding the fleets o f strangers to approach their
coast. This, it may be said, applies to a still earlier period : but certain
it is that we have no other account o f any Egyptian ships or fleets until
after the Grecian conquest; and hence, admitting that caravans traded to
Egypt in the days o f Joseph, we still strongly doubt whether the ancient
Egyptians ever made any commercial voyages to India. I f they did, they
had ceased to make them in the days o f Herodotus and the earlier Greek
historians, as we shall have further occasion to observe.
A part o f the East Indian commerce appears to have been carried on,
from an early period, by the w ay o f the river Euphrates, and thence by
caravans to the Mediterranean: but this commerce appears also to have
been in the hands o f the Arabians, until the Phoenicians, profiting by their
skill in navigation, succeeded in fitting out ships o f their. own, from the
Red Sea or the Persian Gulf, to trade directly with the eastern climes.
Before the time o f Solomon, they obtained possession o f Ezion-geber, (or
Asion-gaber,) a port at the head o f the Elamitic Gulf, east o f Mt. Sinai,
and at the north end o f the Red Sea. T h ey also acquired the port o f Rhinocolura, (or Rhinocorura,) the modern E l Arisch, on the southeastern
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203
coast o f the Mediterranean ; and thus their land-carriage was reduced to
the interval between these two ports. In this trade it appears that Solo
mon, aided by the friendly offices o f Hiram, king o f T yre, participated.
He visited Ezion-geber in person, constructed ships there, and,received
others from King Hiram ; who “ sent in the navy his servants, sbipmen
that had knowledge o f the sea, with the servants o f Solomon. And they
came to Ophir, and fetched from thence gold, four hundred and twenty
talents, and brought it to King Solomon. And the servants also o f Hiram,
[Huram,] and the servants o f Solomon, which brought gold from Ophir,
brought algum-trees, and precious stones. For the king’s ships went to
Tarshish with the servants o f Hiram, [Huram :] every three years once
came the ships o f Tarshish, bringing gold, and silver, ivory, and apes,
and peacocks.”
Some writers suppose Ophir to have been situated on
the eastern coast o f A fr ic a ; and Cal met places it at the sources o f the
Euphrates and Tigris : but the time required for the voyage, as w ell as
the articles procured, rather corroborate the opinion that it was a region
o f the East Indies, perhaps the island o f Ceylon, having Tarshish for its
capital.
*
The Phoenicians appear also to have availed themselves o f the route to
India by way o f the Euphrates, which, considering their more northern loca
tion, afforded some peculiar advantages. The fact that Solomon built the
city o f Tadm or in the Wilderness, affords a strong presumption that he par
ticipated also in the traffic by this route. Tadm or was undoubtedly the
city afterward called Palmyra by the R om an s; its Syriac, as w ell as its
Latin name, alike signifying the City o f Palms. Josephus states that it is
one day’s journey from the Euphrates, two from Upper Syria, and six
from B a bylon ; and he mentions that Solomon took possession o f it on ac
count o f its affording a supply o f water. This water could have been
needed only for caravans crossing the desert; and hence it was probably
used as a watering station long before the time o f Solomon, and valuable
to him as securing his intercourse with the east. The city which he
built, was long since totally destroyed; and the magnificent ruins extant
on its site, as described by Mr. W ood, are o f Grecian and Roman origin,
buildings erected in much later times.
Palm yra was subjugated by
Alexander the Great, 331 B. C., and it submitted to the Romans, A . D.
130 ; but still continued to be an interstation for the commerce o f the
east. It again became independent under O udenatus; but his surviving
queen, Zenobia, was subjugated by Aurelian, A . D. 275 ; and the city
was finally sacked by the Saracens in 744. Damascus was on the direct
route from Palm yra to T y re, and doubtless owed much o f its wealth to its
oriental commerce. In this trade the Persians also took pa rt; and we
are told by Herodotus that Darius Hystaspes, after having crossed the
Indus in person, sent S cylax o f Caryanda to explore that river and the
countries bordering upon it. S cylax sailed down the Indus from Caspatyrus, and coasting the Arabian Sea arrived, after two years and a half,
in the Red S e a ; when he gave so favorable an account o f the regions
which he had visited, that Darius was induced to extend his conquests
eastward, about 500 B. C.
The commerce o f the Indies received a new impulse from the conquests
o f Alexander the Great. Realizing the value o f this trade, from the
wealth and strength o f T y re, which had so long sustained itself against
his attacks, no sooner did he become master o f E gypt than he built the
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famous city o f Alexandria, as an entrepot, through which his own coun
trymen might most easily obtain the luxuries o f the east. T h e site o f this
city was chosen by Alexander himself, 333 B. C. ; and he is said to have
traced the plan o f it, in the absence o f proper instruments, by strewing
meal along the lines on which the w alls were to be erected. It was laid
out with straight and parallel streets, crossing each other at right an g les;
one o f which, called the Arrow , was 200 feet wide, and ran the whole
length o f the city, from the gate o f the sea on the west to the gate o f Ca
nopus on the east, a distance o f five miles. This was crossed by another
street o f the same breadth, forming a central square at their junction, a
mile and a h alf in perimeter. On these two principal streets, the noblest
in the world, stood the magnificent temples, palaces, public buildings, and
obelisks o f marble, sienite, and porphyry, the ruins o f which still attest
the munificence o f Alexander and his Egyptian successors. The harbor
o f Alexandria was a deep and secure bay, sheltered on the north by the
island o f Pharos, with which the city was connected by a mole or pier a
mile in length, and on which was the celebrated lighthouse, reckoned as
one o f the seven wonders o f the world. The first inhabitants o f the new
city were a mixture o f Egyptians and Greeks, but many Jews were sub
sequently attracted thither by the facilities o f trade and the free toleration
atforded to their religion.
Having founded this great emporium, Alexander proceeded to complete
the conquest o f Persia, and then performed his Indian expedition, in which
he advanced beyond the Indus, as far as the river Plyphasis, the modern
Beyali, and would have reached the Ganges had not his exhausted troops
refused to go any further. Returning to the Indus, he collected a large
fleet, which sailed down that river, while a part o f the army kept pace
with it by land. Having reached itS'mouth, Alexander returned with the
arm y by land to P ersia; but the fleet, under Nearchus and Onesicritus,
proceeded around by sea to the Euphrates. Nearchus afterward gave an
account o f the regions which he had visited, and thus greatly extended
the information which the Europeans then possessed concerning India.
Seleucus, succeeding Alexander in the east, also invaded India with suc
cess ; but being compelled to return, to defend his domains against Antigonus, he made peace with Sandracottus, and sent Megasthenes as his
ambassador to Palibothra, the capital o f the Prasii, which D r. Robertson
supposes to be the modern Allahabad, on the Ganges. Megasthenes pub
lished still more extended accounts o f India, though not unmingled with
the m arvellous: and Arrian, Strabo, and Diodorus Siculus appear to have
almost literally transcribed his descriptions in their historical and geo
graphical works.
Meanwhile Ptolemy, after the death o f Alexander, having acquired the
sovereignty o f Egypt, used e v eiy means o f compulsion and encouragement,
to draw aw ay the trade from the Phoenicians to Alexandria, until at length
this city supplied not only Egypt, but a large portion o f the other Medi
terranean coasts with the produce and manufactures o f the east. They
were chiefly procured in Arabia, and landed on the west coast o f the Red
S e a ; then carried by camels across the desert, and floated down the Nile,
which, with the help o f a canal communication, conveyed them to A lex
andria. Thus, Theophrastus, who was contemporary with the first Ptolemy,
informs us that vessels sailed from Heroopolis, a port at the head
o f the northwest branch o f the Red Sea, to Sabsea, where they pur
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205
chased frankincense, myrrh, cassia, cinnamon, and other oriental commo
dities. But as the navigation o f the extreme northern part o f the Red Sea
was found to be very dangerous, Ptolemy Philadelphus built the city o f
Berenice, on the western shore, a little to the north o f the tropic; and
established caravansaries or Watering stations at short intervals from thence
to Coptos on the N ile, a distance o f 258 Roman miles, which was traversed
by caravans in one week. It is contended by some writers that the
Egyptians traded directly to India in their own vessels; and that Ptolemy
Philadelphus sent Dionysius, a mathematician, to make researches in the
Indies. Strabo indeed reports, upon the credit o f Posidonius, that under
Ptolemy Euergetes II., about 140 B. C. a famished Indian was found in a
vessel in the Arabian Gulf, who had lost his reckoning, and whose ship
mates had perished o f hunger ; and that he piloted the Egyptians sent to
the Indies with presents, from whence they brought back spices and pre
cious stones. But this statement, i f credited, would bring the commence
ment o f this commerce to a later age than those writers assign ; and we
shall soon offer further reasons for doubting whether the Egyptians car
ried on a direct trade with India, before the Roman conquest.
The Phoenicians, though harassed by the Egyptians upon the Red Sea,
still kept up their intercourse with the Indies by w ay o f the Euphrates ;
and the Greeks themselves, emboldened by the explorations o f Alexander
as far north as the Oxus or Gihon river, engaged in the transportation o f
goods down that river from the Indus, and thence by the w ay o f the Black
Sea and Byzantium to their own country. According to Strabo, the goods
were collected at Patala, the present Tatna, near the mouth o f the Indus,
and thence carried up this river as far as it was then navigable ; after
which they were transported by caravans to the Oxus. From the Oxus
to the Black Sea there were three different routes. One was down this
river to the Sea o f A r a l; thence to the northern part o f the Caspian Sea,
and by the rivers Rha (the W olg a,) and Tanais (the Don,) to the Sea o f
Azoph. But the more common route was from the Oxus river to the
Ochus, now the Tedjen, which falls into the Caspian towards the south;
and thence by the rivers Cyrus and Phasis, now the Kur and Rioni, di
rectly to the Black Sea. The third route, coinciding in part with the last
mentioned, was from the Caspian to the Black Sea over the Caucasian
mountains, to the north o f the Cyrus and Phasis, and involving a greater
extent o f land transportation. W e are not able to learn that any o f these
routes were in use before the time o f Alexander, but they appear to have
been so not long after it.
It was not until Egypt had been conquered by the Romans, 31 B. C.,
that the. merchants o f Alexandria, profiting by their new facilities for
trade, ventured to send their own ships to India, instead o f obtaining their
goods at second-hand from the Arabians. This is evident from Strabo,
who visited Egypt, 21 B. C., and afterward observes in his Geography,
that, as the vessels o f Alexandria now sail even as far as India, many things
respecting distant countries are much better known than they were for
merly. H e .himself saw 120 vessels, small ones o f course, sail from
Myos Hormos, ,\ port o f the Red Sea, to India ; and he elsewhere observes
that formerly there were not twenty vessels that ventured beyond the en
trance o f the Arabian G u lf; but now large fleets sail as far as India and
the furthest coasts o f Ethiopia, from which the most precious articles o f
merchandise are brought to Egypt. Arrian also, in his Periplus o f the
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Mediterranean Commerce with India.
Erythrean Sea, before alluded to, informs us that the city o f Arabia Fe
lix, a port o f Sabasa, probably the present Aden, was called the Happy,
because, when as yet no person sailed from India to Egypt, they proceeded
only to that city, which was a mart for the merchandise o f both these
..countries. Arrian adds that the passage from Egypt to India was begun
by coasting with small ships; and that the pilot Hippalus was the first
that traversed this great sea. D r. R-obertson states that Hippalus was the
commander o f a ship engaged in the India trade ; and that having observed
the regularity o f the monsoons, he ventured, about eighty years after the
Roman conquest o f Egypt, to stretch boldly across the Indian Ocean to
Musiris, which he thus reached by a shorter route. In honor o f this dis
covery, the southwest monsoon was afterward called by his name.
This important improvement in navigation enabled the Alexandrians to
use larger vessels, and visit more distant ports; so much did these peri
odical winds expedite their voyages and increase their safety. Sailing
from Berenice, about the middle o f the summer, they touched at O cellis or
Arabia Felix, and thence sailed directly to Musiris, now Merjee, or to
Barace, south o f it, both centrally situated on the western coast o f Hindoostan. Thence they usually coasted northward to Baragyza at thd
mouth o f the Nerbuddah, and to Patala, near the mouth o f the Indus; and
they returned from India with the northeast monsoon, about the time o f the
winter solstice, thus completing the voyage within the year. According
to Pliny, the island o f Taprobana or Ceylon was first visited accidentally
by the ships o f Annius Ploeamus, which were driven upon it by a tempest.
Ceylon thereupon sent ambassadors to Rome, who gave an account o f
their own commerce with the Seres, or Chinese. In the time o f Strabo,
however, a few Egyptian vessels had sailed as far as the G an ges; and
they afterward ascended that river to Palibothra, which was either the
modern Patna or Allahabad. The Chinese historians, according to M.
De Guignes, relate that An-toun, king o f the people o f the Western Ocean,
sent an embassy to Oanti, the emperor o f China, for commercial purposes.
This is understood to refer to the emperor M. A . Antoninus, who began
to reign A . D. 1 6 1 ; but the whole account requires corroboration. Ammianus Marcellinus speaks o f great fairs held at Batne, in Mesopotamia,
in the reign o f Constantius, to which goods were brought from India and
Seris, or China.
Arrian, the reputed author o f the Periplus o f the Erythrean Sea, is sup
posed by Dr. Vincent to have been an earlier writer than Arrian the phi
losopher, and to have flourished about the middle o f the first century of
our era. His Periplus gives us some minute and interesting particulars
concerning the cargoes o f the ships then employed in the Indian trade.
T o Patala they exported woollen cloth o f a slight fabric, linen in checker
work, some precious stones and some aromatics unknown in India, together
with storax, coral, glass vessels, and some wrought silver, money and
wine. In return for these, they obtained spices o f various kinds, sap
phires, and other gems, silk stuffs and silk thread, cotton clolhs, and black
pepper. T o Baragyza they also exported brass, tin, lead, girdles or
sashes, melilot, white glass, arsenic, and black-lead, receiving in return
the onyx and other gems, ivory, myrrh, various kinds o f cotton goods,
both plain and ornamented, and long pepper. The exports from Musiris
were still more rare and valuable, including pearls in great abundance
and o f great beauty, various silk stuffs, rich perfumes, tortoise shell, vari
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207
ous transparent gems, especially diamonds, and pepper in large quantities
and o f the best quality. - This was the commerce which so enriched A le x
andria that Firmus, a merchant o f that city towards the end o f the third
century o f our era, not only possessed a whole fleet o f merchant ships
trading in the east, but he was able to maintain an army, and made him
self master o f Alexandria until he was defeated and slain by the emperor
Aurelian.
In the reign o f the emperor Justinian, Cosmas, an Egyptian merchant,
who had traded to India, and thence acquired the appellation o f Indicopleustes, retired to a convent and wrote a work entitled Christian T opog
raphy ; from which we lean that the Persians having overturned the em
pire o f the Parthians, were then carrying on a trade with India, by the
Persian G u lf and its tributary rivers. He says, however, that the mer
chants only visited India, and not eastern Asia, trading no further than at
Serendib, now Ceylon, for the spices and silks o f the east. It is he who
states that the Persians monopolized the silk trade, until two Persian monks
visited China, and observed the labors o f the silkworm and the mode o f
manufacturing silk, o f all which they informed Justinian, A . D. 553. By
him they were induced to return to China, and to bring away clandes
tinely the eggs o f the silkworm, concealed in hollow canes. These were
hatched by the heat o f a dunghill, fed with the leaves o f the wild mulbery tree, and thenceforward the manufacture o f silk became established
in Greece. Thence it was soon extended to Sicily, and, in the time o f the
crusades, to Venice. Craufurd, however, in his Indian Researches, de
nies that silk was raised only in China, quoting the Institutes o f Menu to
prove that it was produced also in Hindoostan. He adds, upon the author
ity o f Sir W illiam Jones, that both silk and indigo were produced there
from the earliest period.
The great mass o f the com m erce with India continued to be carried on
by w ay o f the Red Sea, until the conquest o f Egypt by the Saracens ;
when a large portion o f it was transferred to the Black Sea and Constan
tinople. But the Arabians soon resumed their ancient rank as the first
commercial people in the world, while the gloom o f the dark ages gathered
over the nations o f Europe. Their conquests gave them many harbors in
the Mediterranean Sea, as well as the entire command o f the Indian
O cea n ; and enabled them to establish factories, and extend their voyages
beyond the excursions o f their predecessors, who had gone no further than
the G u lf o f Siam. T h ey became acquainted with Sumatra, and the other
islands o f the Indian A rch ipelago; and advanced as far as the city o f
Canton in China, where they became so numerous that the emperor per
mitted them to have a cadi, who judged them according to their own
Mohammedan laws. The Caliph Omar, a few years after the conquest
o f Persia, founder^the city o f Bassora, to command the Euphrates and the
T ig ris; and it soon became a place o f trade scarcely inferior to A lexan
dria. The removal o f the Mohammedan capital from Cufa to Damascus,
A . D. 673, and from thence to Bagdad, after the building o f that city by
the Caliph Almansor in 762, gave increased importance to the route up the
Euphrates ; though the building o f Cairo, A . D. 984, by Moaz Ladinallah,
the Fatimite conqueror o f Egypt, and the subsequent policy o f the sul
tans o f Cairo secured eventually to Egypt a large portion o f the Indian
trade.
Meanwhile the city o f Venice was rising from the isles o f the A driatic;
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Mediterranean Commerce with India.
and as early as the eighth century it became the great European mart for
oriental g ood s; as its merchants, driven to seek employment abroad, be
cam e the ch ief traders to Alexandria, Constantinople, and the cities o f the
Levant. Their career, both o f successes and reverses, it is unnecessary
here to follow, as it has formed the subject o f an able and eloquent article
in a recent number o f this magazine. The commerce o f the east, we
m ay simply remark, was the life-blood o f Venice. For this it gained the
friendship and alliance o f the Mameluke sultans o f Egypt and the Greek
emperors at Constantinople ; for this it waged long wars with Genoa and
Pisa, and afterward with the Greek emperors themselves, when they
favored the Genoese ; for this it embarked in the crusades, and fitted out
vast fleets to the H oly Land, as the price o f commercial privileges there
secured to i t : and with the wealth thus obtained it made conquests o f the
neighboring coasts, while robing itself in splendor, and weaving its gem
like islands into a gorgeous crown, as sovereign o f the sea.
The crusades gave a new stimulus to oriental commerce, by making
the rich productions o f the Indies more extensively known to the inhabit
ants o f W estern Europe. After the expulsion o f the crusaders from
Jerusalem, A . D. 1187, A cre, (St. Jean d’A cre ,) reconquered by them in
1191, became their ch ief residence, and was for some time the principal
emporium o f the Mediterranean ; the Christian merchants o f Italy resort
ing thither to trade with the Mohammedan merchants o f the east. But
the disturbances produced by the crusades, as w ell as the unsettled
state o f Egypt and Syria, had greatly increased the trade to India by way
o f the Caspian and A z o f seas, through Samarcand and Astrachan from Con
stantinople. The capture o f Constantinople in 1204, during the fourth
crusade, in which the crusaders were aided by the Venetians, secured to
the latter the ch ief commerce o f this city, under the reign o f Baldwin and
his immediate successors. T h e Venetians made Tana or A zof, near the
mouth o f the Don, their ch ief entrepot for the com m erce o f the Black and
Caspian seas ; while they acquired extensive domains in Greece, and
other parts o f the empire. But in 1261, the Genoese aided the Greek
emperors to regain their throne, in return for which assistance they re
ceived Pcra, (or Galata,) a suburb o f Constantinople, which they strongly
fortified, and continued to hold until the Turkish conquest in 1453. They
soon expelled the Venetians from the Crimea, or Tau ric Chersonesus, and
there established Kafla (or Caffa,) on the ruins o f the ancient Theodosia,
as the ch ief seat o f their trade with the east. This city was wrested from
them by the Turks, in 1474.
The Venetians, thus deprived o f the Indian trade by w ay o f the Black
Sea, resorted to Damascus and Alexandria for supplies, and succeeded in
propitiating the Mameluke sovereign o f Egypt. Galvano, in his Chronol
ogy o f Discoveries, states that in the year 1300, the Soldan o f Cairo gave
orders that the merchandise o f India should be carried through that coun
try, as it had been in previous ages. A t this period Sanuto, (Sanudo or
Sanuti,) a Venetian nobleman, states that articles o f small bulk and high
value, as cloves, nutmegs, mace, gems, pearls, & c., were carried by way
o f Bassora and Bagdad, to some port on the Mediterranean; but all more
bulky goods, as pepper, ginger, cinnamon, & c ., with a part o f the more
valuable articles, were conveyed by w ay o f the Red Sea and the Nile, to
Alexandria ; this latter route being much the safest. In a speech o f Mocenigo, Duke o f Venice, about the year 1420, we are informed that the
>
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209
Venetians sent annually to Egypt and Syria 500,000 ducats in money,
besides merchandise, part o f which consisted o f woollen goods received
from Florence.* Th ey had 3,345 vessels, carrying 36,000 seamen ; and
16,000 carpenters were constantly employed in their dockyards.
At length arrived the epoch o f a mighty change in the Mediterranean
commerce with India; when Vasco da Gama, with a Portuguese fleet o f
three small vessels, after doubling the Cape o f Good Hope, reached the
haven o f Calicut, on the 22d day o f M ay, in the year 1498. The sover
eign o f Calicut, called the Zamorin, appears to have had a kind o f impe
rial authority over several neighboring kings ; this city being then the
chief seat o f commerce on the western coast o f Hindoostan. The M o
hammedans o f Arabia were the principal traders, and contributed largely,
by their duties or customs, to the Zamorin’s income. T h ey were much
alarmed at the arrival o f the Portuguese, their enemies in religion, and
their rivals in trad e; and they so far prevailed against them with the
Zamorin as to induce him to imprison D a Gama, who had come on shore
by invitation, and whom they represented as a pirate banished from his
native country. A t length Gama was released, and after several roman
tic incidents returned with two ships to Portugal, but without having
formed any permanent establishment in Hindoostan. That task was re
served for Cabral, who sailed from Portugal with thirteen ships and fifteen
hundred men, and after discovering Brazil on the way, arrived with only
six ships at Calicut, in August, 1500. Cabral triumphed over all the in
trigues o f the Mohammedans ; and upon their exciting an insurrection
against the Portuguese in Calicut, he attacked and destroyed ten o f their
largest ships, slew, it is said, six hundred o f their men, and made slaves
o f the remainder.
The Portuguese soon obtained a firm foothold in India, notwithstanding
repeated attempts to dislodge them. The Venetians, roused to fury by
the rapid decline o f their trade, stirred up the Mameluke Soldan o f Cairo,
whose interests also suffered from the same cause, first to demand o f Pope
Julius II. and King Emanuel, that the Portuguese should retire from India;
and on failing in this demand, to attempt to expel them by force. He
fitted out a fleet o f twelve ships o f war at Suez, procuring the timber from
the forests o f Dalmatia, owned by the Venetians, who also supplied arti
sans to direct the building and equipment. This fleet, manned by the
Mamelukes, was met and defeated by the Portuguese under Almeyda, in
1508; and Egypt was soon after subjugated by the Turks. Butin 1538,
Solyman the Magnificent, actuated by the same motives, fitted out another
more powerful fleet in the Red Sea, under a confidential officer, with such
a body o f Janizaries as he deemed sufficient not only to drive out all the
Portuguese from India, hut to seize upon some commodious station in that
quarter, and thence extend his conquests. This expedition also was re
pulsed, by splendid efforts o f valor and constancy, and driven back with
ignominy into the Arabian harbors. Thus the Mohammedan commerce
with India was greatly restricted, while Portugal, Spain, Holland, France,
' * In those days England exported some woollen cloth, but much more wool in a raw
state ; and though the Venetians imported into England a vast variety o f spices and
other expensive articles, the balance o f trade was in favor o f the English, to the amount
o f 100,000 ducats annually.
210
Mediterranean Commerce with India.
and Great Britain, successively bore away the prize, not without oppres
sion and slaughter o f the unhappy natives.
A t the period o f the Portuguese conquests, according to Barros, their own
historian, M alacca, owing to its central situation, was the great emporium
o f the native commerce o f India. Thither were carried the cloves, nut
megs, and mace o f the M olucca and Banda islands, the sandal wood of
Tim or, the camphor o f Borneo, the gold and silver o f Lugonia, and the
pepper, drugs, dyestuffs, perfumes, rich silks, porcelains, & c., o f Java,
Siam, and China, to be exchanged for the merchandise o f Hindoostan.
T h e cities o f Calicut and Cambay on the western coast o f Hindoostan,
Ormus in the Persian Gulf, and Aden on the south coast o f Arabia, were
particularly enriched by the trade with M alacca ; and they also traded to
Pegu for rubies and lacker, to Bengal and the D eccan for cloths, muslins,
and chintzes, to Cachemire for shawls, to Kilkare (Calicare or Karical)
for pearls, to Narsinga and Golconda for diamonds, to Ceylon for cinna
mon and rubies, and to the coast o f Malabar for pepper, ginger, and many
Other spices. From Ormust, the oriental goods were carried to Bassora,
and thence, by the Euphrates and by caravans, to Armenia, to Trebizond
on the Black Sea, and to Aleppo, Damascus, and Beyruth, where they
were sold to the Venetians, Genoese, and Catalonians. From'Aden, goods
were transported up the Red Sea to T or or Suez, and thence in three days
to Cairo, where caravans were supplied for the interior o f A frica. The
remainder, with the ivory and gold o f A frica, was carried down the Nile
to Alexandria. Some India goods were also carried entirely overland,
by the w ay o f Cashgar and Balk, even as far as Russia and the coasts of
the Baltic Sea.
The immediate effect o f the Portuguese commerce with India was to
cause a great reduction in the prices o f oriental commodities. The Vene
tians still sent their ships to the great mart o f Antwerp, but they could no
longer compete with the merchants o f Lisbon, although the latter bought
at high prices from the king’s warehouses, owing to the royal monopoly.
A s a last attempt, they made a proposal, in 1521, to buy all the spice im
ported by the king o f Portugal, at a stipulated price ; a proposal which
was o f course rejected. The fate o f V enice was sealed ; the fountain of
her wealth was not exhausted, but the current was chiefly turned into
another channel, in which the oriental commerce o f Europe has continued
to flow, varying only in the recipients o f its golden tide, down to the pres
ent day. The Mohammedan cities o f the Mediterranean still maintain
some intercourse with India, but it is chiefly for the purpose o f supplying
themselves with the luxuries o f the east, and not as the carriers o f Chris
tendom, which they w ere before the voyage o f Da Gama. Damascus still
sends forth its annual caravans, as when, in 1432, Brocquiere described
them as composed o f 3,000 camels ; and they still number from 100,000
to 200,000 souls; but it is to perform their annual pilgrimage to Mecca,
and there to trade with the similar annual caravans from Cairo, for the mer
chandise o f A frica. Alexandria is mostly in ruins, Bassora and Bagdad
have much declined ; and the commerce o f the Ottoman empire alone sus
tains its remaining cities in a comparatively moderate state o f opulence
and splendor.
Great efforts have been made by the Russian government, ever since
the light o f civilization dawned upon it, to secure an adequate portion o f
the commerce with India. The conquests o f John Basilowitz, and the ex
Mediterranean Commerce with India.
211
pedition o f Peter the Great to the Black Sea, opened the way, by which
their successors have duly profited. The internal navigation from the
White and the Baltic to the Black and Caspian seas has been improved,
by canals and other extensive works ; and new facilities have been afford
ed to the intercourse between the southern territories o f Russia and the
Persian Gulf, the Indies, and the frontiers o f China. The Russians were
formerly permitted to send an annual caravan directly to Pekin for the
purposes o f trade ; it being stipulated that the number o f persons in each
caravan should not exceed two hundred, and that they should be secluded,
at Pekin, in a caravansary allotted for their use. But the Chinese gov
ernment became jealous o f these visiters, and after various negotiations it
was finally agreed that the trade should be carried on at two small contigu
ous towns, one on the frontiers o f each country. Kiachta in Siberia and
Maimatchin in Chinese Tartary, south o f Lake Baikal, were selected for
the purpose ; and there the metals, furs, leather, cloth, glass, & c., o f Russia
are exchanged for the tea, silk, cotton, porcelain, toys, & c., o f China. The
annual value o f this trade is supposed to amount to about 2 , 000,000
dollars.
The application o f steam to oceanic navigation as well as to extensive
land-carriage, may yet restore the European commerce o f India to its for
mer channels by the Red Sea and the Euphrates. In consequence o f
resolutions passed by a committee o f the house o f commons in 1834, the
East India Company, early in 1836, commenced running a line o f steam
packets from Suez to Bombay, by which the British mails have since been
transported to India. The vessels employed for this purpose were the
Hugh Lindsay, built in 1829, and the Atalanta, Berenice, and Semiramis,
built in 1836 ; all o f which, we believe, are still in service, as mentioned
in this Magazine, V ol. 5, p. 185, where further particulars are given con
cerning them. The route by w ay o f the Euphrates has also been recently
examined, and found to be more feasible than was anticipated. Col. Chesney, who was sent by the British ministry in 1835, ascertained that the
river Orontes is navigable as far as Latakia, the ancient A n tioch ; and
that a road might easily be constructed from thence to Belis, on the E u
phrates, a distance o f forty-five leagues. In 1840, we are informed that
the East India Company sent a vessel with two iron stearqboats, which as
cended the Euphrates to Belis, 1100 miles from its mouth, and found
that it was easily navigable, except where it was obstructed towards its
mouth by the remains o f ancient water-wheels, which could readily be
removed. It is stated also that coal and iron are found in abundance at
the foot o f Mt. Taurus, in the midst o f extensive oak forests. I f this be all
true, it would seem to be a slight task for British enterprise to construct a
railroad from Belis to Latakia, or to Scanderoon, (Alexandretta,) and thus
connect the navigation o f the Euphrates with that o f the Mediterranean.
This would be the shortest route between England and India ; and it is
supposed that the journey from Bombay to Liverpool might be made in
thirty-three days : viz, sixteen days from Bombay to Belis, two from Belis
to Scanderoon, and fifteen days from thence to L iverp ool; which would
be a material abridgment o f the time now employed. W e wish all suc
cess to the enterprise ; regarding all such improvements in the means o f
intercourse between distant regions, as among the most powerful agents
for civilizing and evangelizing the whole human race.
212
The Equation o f Payments.
A
rt.
II.— T H E E Q U A T IO N O F P A Y M E N T S .
T he ordinary process,for the equation o f payments produces an equita
ble result, but at great expense o f time and labor; and it is unquestionably
a desideratum to simplify the process and expedite the result without com
promising its accuracy. But there are questions involved in the interpreta
tion o f the statute for the computation o f interest which require consideration
before a legal equation can be obtained. This is the language o f the statute:
“ F or the purpose o f calculating interest, a month shall be' considered as
the twelfth part o f a year, and as consisting o f thirty days ; and interest
for any number o f days less than a month shall be estimated by the pro
portion which such- a number o f days shall bear to thirty.
“ W henever in any statute, act, deed, written or verbal contract, in any
public or private instrument whatever, any certain rate o f interest is or
shall be mentioned, and no period o f time is stated for which such rate is
to be calculated, interest shall be calculated at the rate mentioned by the
year in the same manner as i f the words per annum or by the year had
been added to such rate.”
This latter clause determines the manner o f computing interest for any
rate to be the same as for seven per cent. Now, it must be evident that
the average date o f an account or the mean time must be that date or time
on which, i f interest were computed before and after it, there would be no
balance ; and in order therefore to obtain a legal mean, we must compute
interest according to the provision o f the law. It may here be observed
that those who average accounts by the usual formula, must in consistency
advocate the estimate o f interest on that construction o f the law which
considers each day as the one 360th part o f the year.
There are fo u r distinct methods o f computation in use, and as they produce
varieties o f result, so they may produce various means when applied to the
equation o f payments. It is, as we have stated, usage with many to estimate
interest by calendar months and days, considering each calendar month as
the one twelfth part o f a year, (or thirty days and five twelfths o f a day,)
and the day as the one thirtieth part o f the month ; by this method the day
will actually yield yt-^th o f the rate for the year, and the inequalities
in the length o f the calendar months w ill strictly create a different rate of
interest for each class o f months; and the combination o f these various
rates w ill produce results utterly at variance with equity and the probable
intention o f the law. W e are informed that it is customary to compute
interest on accounts in suit, judgments, & c., by calendar months and days,
not so much because this is supposed to be the intention o f the law, as be
cause it is believed to be the construction least liable to contest, and may
claim the support o f general usage. W e are not aware o f any interpre
tation o f the statute by our courts which settles its principle definitively.
W e beg attention to the various results o f this general application o f the
law, and its manifest violation o f equity. The actual effect o f the legal
provision as generally applied is not to establish a uniform rate o f interest,
but to create a diversity o f rates, and utterly to fail o f any wise intention.
The evil is o f far greater magnitude than is at first view apparent; and
it demands attention and remedy. For instance, the time from any day
in January to the same day in February is considered one month or 30T%
days, while in truth the time is 31 d a ys; instead therefore o f obtaining
The Equation o f Payments.
213
interest for this time at the rate o f seven per cent for the year o f 365 days,
we obtain it only at the rate o f seven per cent for 372 days, less than
6t8/ o Per cent Per annum : again, the time from any day in February to
the same day in March being considered one month, we obtain interest
for this time at the rate o f seven per cent for 336 days, or more than 7 T%per cent per annum ; during leap year w e obtain interest for this time at
the rate o f seven per cent for 348 days, or more than 71 per cent per annum : again, the time from any day in April to the same day in M ay be
ing considered one month, we obtain interest at the rate o f seven per cent
for 360 days, or nearly 7 tl per cent per annum ; and in short, for no
time less than a year is it possible, by this construction, to obtain interest
at the rate o f seven per cent for the year o f 365 days, but interest w ill be
obtained o f as many rates as these combinations o f seven per cent for 336
days, for 348 days, 360 days, and 372 days, w ill furnish, in fact at a rate
ranging from 6 Ty „ per cent per annum to 7 /J y per cent per annum—
nearly 1 per cent. Many o f the estimates by this method must be deemed
usurious, or inequitable, and the slightest consideration o f the unequal
operation o f this construction will justify its immediate abandonment. It
affords no argument in favor o f this usage that the average o f the rates is
an equitable average ; i f the method o f computation, whatever it be, should
produce any inequitable results, there is sufficient ground for its condem
nation and rejection ; an equitable method can be applied, and i f it con
flict with the statute book, the legal provisions should be am ended: yet
when a law exists, it should govern ; and till the amendment o f an in
equitable law, the first proper question to be discussed is, what is the in
tention o f that law ? The authority o f the law is independent o f its equita
ble provisions, and till amended it should be enforced and obeyed in all its
imperfection. The strict enforcement and obedience o f the unjust law is
the surest pledge o f its remedy and correction. Legislation is surely com
petent to the enactment o f an inequitable law, and every ununiform rate
of interest must be deemed inequitable. A n opinion prevails that a uni
form rate yielding a given per centage in more or less than precisely one
year is inequitable and erroneous; but in truth, it is the necessity o f the
equitable legal rate that it be uniform ; there is no injustice in a rate
yielding a given per centage for any given number o f days.
The second method o f computation alluded to estimates by calendar
months and by days, considering each day as the -ji^th part o f the year.
This method approximates to equity more nearly than the other ; yet we
cannot percieve that any possible construction can be given to the law
which will support this u sa g e; for, whatever time may be determined to
constitute a legal month, this determination cannot affect the fact that the
law recognises each day less than thirty as the 3^„th part o f the year.
Decisions, it is possible, may have been had in our courts establishing
that each and every day shall not be considered as the -gi^th Pal"t ° f a
year, but there exists scarcely a probability that these decisions are in
tended to apply to any number o f days less than thirty. The statute we
have quoted contains all the authority we need examine, for former con
flicting laws are abrogated by its passage, and such a decision as that sup
posed would be the most flagrant and palpable violation o f the letter o f this
la w ; we therefore hesitate not to say that the law distinctly and unequivo
cally recognises each day less than thirty as the -ji^th part o f a year.
The third method considers each day as the 3-Jjth part o f a year, and
VOL. v i.— NO. III.
27
214
The Equation o f Payments.
certainly has a great preference over either o f the former— it is equitable
in three o f every four y ea rs; but it produces in leap year results which
are too large by the , J-g-th part. This is a slight objection to its adoption.
There is, however, a strong reason why the method should not be adopted.
It can by no possibility be reconciled with the law ; and however equal it
m ay be in its rate, it is illegal and cannot be sustained. There prevails
with many an opinion that this method must be the legal intention, because
it is uniform in its rate and exact in its results. Many subject themselves
to needless labor, adopting tedious processes o f computation, because they
would advocate and establish a method based upon strict justice, and de
stroy diversities o f usage. The spirit which prompts them is commenda
ble, but the remedy must be found in the amendment o f the law. T ill the
law is amended, diversity o f practice will prevail, and the unscrupulous
w ill not hesitate to adopt that method which will most promote their inter
est, urging law and usage as may best fit their purposes. T h e methods
given in the December number were predicated upon 360 days to the year,
instead o f 365 d a y s ; we believe the estimate o f 360 days to be legal, but
those methods will easily furnish equitable interest in the following man
ner. From the balance or amount o f interest on an account at seven per
cent, as ascertained by those methods, deduct the T'? d part, and the result will
be the same as i f the interest had been estimated on each amount separately
by the equitable process. A writer in this Magazine for January suggests
a method o f estimate for equitable interest at seven per cent similar to that
in use for six per cent, i. e. multiplying the dollars o f the principal by the
days, and dividing by a common divisor. In many cases this method
would obtain results sufficiently accurate, but it w ill be found that the
divisor obtained has an interminable decimal, which would occasionally
seriously affect its usefulness. The same objection may be urged against
th eu seof “ Burritt’s Universal Multipliers.” The theory upon which they
are constructed v 7ould be valuable, if the multipliers could be brought to
an immediate decimal termination ; as they cannot, the theory is worthless.
The multiplier for one day at seven per cent for 365 days for instance,
instead o f being 19, is 1 9 .1 7 8 0 8 2 ; and so on, repeating this series to infinity.
The worthlessness o f the theory can easily be established by a comparison
o f results obtained by the use o f these multipliers for various sums and
times, w'here the product o f the multiplication o f the sums by the times is
the sa m e; for instance, it must be apparent that the interest on $ 1,000
for 8 days is the same as $8,000 for 1 day, or $2,000 for 4 days, or $4,000
for 2 d a y s ; because the multiplication o f the sums by the times yields the
same product. N ow , by the use o f Burritt’s Multipliers, we produce, as
the interest o f $1,000 for 8 days, at 7 per cent for 365 days . $1.53
Also, the interest o f $2,000 for 4 d a y s .............................. 1.54
Also, the interest o f $4,000 for 2 d a y s .............................. 1.52
And the interest o f $8,000 for 1 d a y .................................... 1.52
The first result only is correct. The exact answer would be 1,53.424657 ;
and so on, repeating the eight terminating decimals ad infin. This result
can be obtained neither by the use o f multipliers nor divisors. W e repeat
that the spirit o f those wrho object to the estimates predicated upon 360
days to the year is most commendable, and it was far from our desire to
attempt a justification o f an illegal or inequitable usage among merchants,
on the plea o f a saving o f time or labor in making computations. The
law is ambiguous and needs amendment, and should be so amended as to
The Equation o f Payments.
215
secure each o f the three following objects:— 1st. The establishment o f an
invariable rate o f interest; 2d. (and some concessions should be made to
promote this object,) The rate should admit o f ease and rapidity o f esti
mate; and, 3d. The simplicity and distinctness o f the law should f o r
bid its misconstruction or misapplication. W ith such a law, all diversi
ties would vanish, and much litigation be prevented. There needs no
legislation as heretofore as to the method o f estimate— the rate only needs
to be distinctly determined. Suppose it to be seven per cent for 365 days,
seven per cent for 364 days, or seven per cent for 360 days, and there is
no possibility o f misconstruction; the day is a definite, uniform term o f
time, the month or year is not. Out o f the indeterminate length o f the
month or year arises the only ambiguity o f the present statute. T h e
remedy is simple, and i f the rate o f 364 days were adopted, w e could
easily multiply the amount o f the dollars o f the principal by the days, and
divide by 52 to obtain our results ; or i f the rate o f 360 days were estab
lished, the formulas treated o f in the Decem ber number o f this Magazine
would enable us to obtain our results with the greatest possible speed and
accuracy. This latter rate has a preference over the other for its ready
applicability to a variety o f percentages.
The fourth method considers each day as the 3-Jjth part o f the year,
and is, we believe, the legal method, unless a computation by calendar
months was intended by the words, “ a month shall be considered as the
twelfth part o f a yea r.”
This, however, can scarcely be deemed their
intention, for immediately there follow as a qualification the words, “ and
as consisting o f thirty days.”
But we do not intend to discuss the inter
pretation o f the law ; our intention has been to point out the varieties o f
methods o f estimate, and to show that the equitable may not be the legal
method. W e shall now proceed to our more immediate subject o f Equa
tions, and the equalization o f terms o f credit.
W e have said that the average date o f an account must be that date or
time on which no balance o f interest would be created; and unless the
construction o f the law be that each and every day is to be considered as
the j| 7th part o f the year, the usual method o f average is manifestly ille
gal. W e have most undeniably no right to average one account with an
other, i f we either increase or diminish the interest on the items o f that ac
count when made up to a given time. The results o f the estimate o f in
terest on each item from its respective maturity on the one hand, and on
the total amount from the mean maturity on the other, up to any given
date, must correspond, or the process o f average is erroneous. Now, i f it
be considered the intention o f the law to compute interest by calendar
months and days, and an account embraces a period o f several calendar
months, it is manifest that there may arise considerable discrepancy be
tween the equitable and the legal average. W e shall apply the formulas
heretofore alluded to, for the purpose o f ascertaining an average date both
equitably and legally. Suppose it be required to average the following
items o f an account, v i z :
jDollars.
Int. 6 per cent.
January 1, . . 520
4 days .
.24
“
5, . . 363 .
“
10 ,
. 427 .
.64
9 “
1310
. 88— Carried forw ard.
216
The Equation o f Payments.
Dollars.
Brought forw ard—
u
16,
(C
19,
.
u
23, . .
((
25,
(C
27,
u
28,
. .
.
. .
. .
. .
1310
928
623
330
262
561
986
$5,000
Int. 6 per cent.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.88
15 days
18 “
. 2.32
. 1.87
1.21
22
“
.
24
26
27
“
“
“
. 1.05
. 2.43
. 4.44
17
“
14.20— Average 18th Jan.
W e have ascertained the number o f days from the first date to each
subsequent date, and computed the interest on the respective amounts;
the total amount o f interest is the amount which would accrue on the total
amount o f the account from the first date to the average date. The ordi
nary method is the multiplication o f the respective sums by the days after
the first date, and the subsequent division o f the total o f these products by
the total amount o f the a ccou n t; the method we here adopt is in fact the
multiplication o f the respective sums by one sixtieth o f the time, and a sub
sequent division by one sixtieth o f the total am ount; the result, it is appa
rent, must be the same in either case. And it may be observed, that an
equitable average can be obtained by using aliquot or decimal parts, either
o f the sums or times, or both, as multipliers and divisors. T h e columns
o f days and amounts o f interest may in general be inserted in the accountbook in a narrow margin, by which the labor and danger o f transcribing
may be prevented; and the amounts o f interest, when ascertained, may
be set down immediately in the column appropriated to that purpose. The
method here employed requires but from one eighth to one quarter the
ordinary labor, its result is exact, and its liability to error is proportionably
diminished. It must be obvious that the result o f an average by the
means o f interest will be unaffected by the rate o f interest, provided only
that that rate be uniform.
It is usual to average the times o f payment, and not the times o f sales
or the dates o f the transactions, when the term o f credit is uniform ; the
labor and time occupied in ascertaining the times o f payment may be
prevented, by an average o f the times o f sales or dates o f entry, and our
result materially accelerated.
Let it now be granted that the estimate o f interest by calendar months
and days is legal, and let us suppose a legal average o f the following items
o f an account to be required, viz :
Dollars.
M arch 10,
U
26,
April
4,
U
20 ,
May
8,
U
23,
June 15,
U
28,
12 ,
July
U
18,
Aug.
10,
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
830
424
315
720
536
912
648
137
796
478
204
6,000
Time.
Interest.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
16 ds.
25 U
lm o. 10 U
1 “ 28 a
2 “ 13 (6
5 (C
3 “
18 ((
3 “
4 “
2 ce
4 “
8 u
5 “
.
2 “
8
6C
.
.
.
.
.
.
1.13
1.31
4.80
5.18
11.10
10.26
2.47
16.18
10.20
5.10
.
67.73 Average 18th May
217
The Equation o f Payments.
W e ascertain the interest b y calendar months and days at 6 per cent,
estimating the months as twelfth parts o f the year, and days by the pro
portion they bear to thirty, and we find the legal average to be 18th M ay ;
the equitable average is one day later. It m ay here be suggested that in
case an account contains many items and embraces a considerable extent
o f time, and the method o f average above illustrated be adopted, we may
compute the interest on the respective items for the number o f the days o f
the month opposite to them, and add the interest by months on the whole
amount included in each month : for instance;
Let us suppose the time on an amount due the first o f a month to be five
months and one day ; (b y taking the last day o f the month preceding the
date o f tlie first item as the starting point, the excess o f days w ill always
be the days o f the month,) then to each succeeding amount during that
month the time would be five months and a number o f days less than
thirty ; and the computation would be much simplified.
Required the interest o f the following sums, viz :
Interest for days.
Jan. 1,
“ 3,
“ 8,
“ 12 ,
« 15,
“ 18,
“ 20 ,
“ 22 ,
“ 24,
.
420 dolls. 5 months 1 day
it
641 a
5
3 days
a
330 a
5
8 “
a 12 “
913 a
5
a 15 «
624 a
5
a
360 a
5
18 “
a 20 “
180 a
5
a
450 a
5
22 “
a 24 “
282 a
5
On 4,200 add 5 months
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.07
.32
.44
1.83
1.56
1.08
.60
1.65
1.13
105.00
Total interest $113.68
Instances like the above w ill often occu r in an account o f sales, and i f
the principle o f estimate above applied, be adopted, it w ill be found that
our calculations m ay be made with increased rapidity and probability o f
accuracy.
In cases where both sides o f an account current are to be averaged, and
the time o f payment o f the balance o f the account without interest ascer
tained, we shall, by the use o f the formulas for estimating interest, be
enabled to solve the problem readily.
Suppose the debit o f the account to be 3600 dollars, average due 10th
Sept.— and the credit o f the account to be 3000 dollars, average due 31st
August—
------W hen w ill the balance o f 600 dollars be due ?
The interest on the credit 3000 dollars to 10th September w ill be $5 .0 0
credit; and that amount w ill yield 50 days interest on the balance o f the
account, 600 dollars; so that the balance w ill be due 50 days after 10th
September— viz, 30th O ctober; i. e. the amounts 3000 dollars due 31st
August, and 600 dollars due 30th October, will average 3600 dollars
due 10th September.
A g a in : Suppose the debit o f an account to be $3600 due 31st August,
and the credit to be
3000 due 10th Sept.
W h en w ill the balance o f $600 be due ?
27*
218
The Equation o f Payments.
The interest or discount on 3000 dollars from 31st August w ill be $5.00
dehit; and, as before, that amount yields 50 days interest on the balance,
600 dollars; so that the balance w ill be due 50 days prior to 31st A u g.—
viz, 12th J u ly ; i. e. the amounts 600 dollars due 12th July, and 3000
dollars due 10th September, w ill average 3600 dollars due 31st August.
The debit and credit amounts m ay be transposed, and the problem solved
by the same method. This, it w ill be seen, is the equitable solution.
Again : I f we supposed a debit balance o f interest made up to a specified
time, and a debit, or credit balance o f account, we can antedate or extend
the payment as the case may dem and; and the reverse supposition admits
o f as ready an adjustment.
In the case o f a computation o f interest beyond a given day, on both
sides o f an account, with a view to equate the payment, it must be evi
dent that there exists no necessity o f equating either side, because the
balance o f interest w ill extend the payment o f the balance o f the account
beyond the given day, or antedate it, as it shall be found to be on the
larger or smaller side o f the accoun t; i. e. adding to the smaller side o f
the account the balance o f account, it must be so dated that, interest being
computed beyond the given day, the amounts accruing upon the two sides
w ill balance ; or in other words, each side being equated, the day o f pay
ment would be the same.
These methods have a peculiar applicability to the equation o f accounts
o f sales, and, because o f their rapidity and exactness, deserve considera
tion.
W e proceed then in the first place to equate the sales in the manner
already illustrated ; and, i f the term o f credit be uniform, we equate the
times o f sales instead o f the times o f maturity, thereby, at the very out
set, saving ourselves no inconsiderable labor. W e are aware that a slight
objection may be urged to this method, and to those who urge it we have
only to commend the old and more tedious process. The method we pro
pose is exact enough for all practical purposes, especially i f legal interest
should be calculated by calendar months and days. Having obtained the
mean time o f sale, we easily ascertain the mean time o f paym ent; and,
were all charges upon the sales payable, as the charge o f guarantee is, at
the mean maturity o f the sale, our labor would already be com pleted;
but, we have now to adjust the charges so that the payment o f the nett
proceeds shall be legal or equitable. Usage, we believe, has established
that neither the charge o f guarantee nor that o f commission shall be con
sidered as earned or due till the maturity o f the sa les; and yet it is a
custom with some, in discounting sales, to deduct discount on the gross
sales from the nett proceeds ; this method however is too manifestly unjust
to receive any notice but the most unqualified censure and condemnation.
In order to arrange the charges, let us make a statement o f account, and
it w ill be obvious that the methods before alluded to w ill afford the means
o f its immediate adjustment.
Suppose the gross sales to amount to 3050 dollars, and to be due by
average 8 th September; and the outlay for freight, drayage, labor, ad
vertising, insurance, and all other cash expenses to be 50 dollars, and the
average time o f payment to be 1st Janu ary; and the charges for com
mission and guarantee to be 5 per cent.— i. e. $1 52 .5 0— the nett oroceeds
o f the sales being $2847 50:
The Equation o f Payments.
This w ill be the statement o f accou n t:
A B in account with C D—
B y amount o f gross sales due 8th Sept.
219
Cr.
$3050
Dr.
T o cash paid charges, averaging 1st January .
.
. $50 00
T o commission and guarantee on sales due 8 th Sept.
. $ 1 52 50
I f we omit in our statement those items which cancel each other, we
shall have the following, v i z :
A B in account with C D —
Cr.
B y amount o f gross sales, deducting commission and
guarantee, due by average 8th Sept.
.
.
. $289 7 50
Dr.
T o cash paid charges averaging 1st January
.
.
$50 00
Now, by the method given, estimating interest at 6 per cent on 50
dollars from 1st January to 8th September, (let us adopt the computation
by months and days,) we have 8 months and 7 days interest on 50
dollars— say $2 .0 6 , which we find equivalent to 4 days interest on
$2847 50 ; from which it is established that the nett proceeds should
average due 12th September.
It may be remarked that the application o f this principle will be found
fully to repay the attention and consideration it may requ ire; and we
would repeat, that though we would not adopt a false method on the plea
of expedition, we should steadily aim at an abridgment o f labor, and the
use o f any means which, while they promote this object, do not compromise
law or equity.
It w ill be seen that the process o f equation we have illustrated is appli
cable only to sales having a uniform term o f credit; but, there is a
speedy method for the equalization o f terms o f credit, which will admit
of its application to every variety o f instance. There is, let it be allowed,
a general term o f credit— admitting this, we proceed to equate the limes
o f sales, and in our process arrive at an amount o f interest which would
accrue on the gross sales after the first date to the time o f average ; from
this amount, on the one hand, we deduct, on those amounts sold on shorter
time than the general term o f credit, interest for that difference in tim e;
and to this amount, on the other hand, we add, on those amounts sold on
longer time than the general term o f credit, interest for that difference in
time. The result it is evident is accurate, or nearly enough so to serve
practical purposes. Suppose 1058 dollars o f an account o f sales to have
been sold at six months credit, instead o f eight months; (the credit o f the
rest o f the account,) from the total o f interest at 6 per cent, accruing from
the date o f the first sale to each subsequent date on the respective amounts,
we deduct two months interest on 1058 dollars, or $10.58, and proceed
as before illustrated. I f any portion o f the account be sold on a longer
term than the general term, interest is to be added ; and indeed scarcely
any delay is suffered, even by quite a variety o f terms o f credit in the
same account.
In conclusion, w e would suggest that the readiest examination o f an
equation is the estimate o f interest b y the formulas given in the Decem ber
number o f this Magazine, on amounts both prior and subsequent to the
average date— the two totals o f interest, i f the equation be exact, w ill
balance— and the formulas alluded to are applicable to any construction
.
.
.
220
F ree Trade fa ir ly Reciprocated.
o f the la w : and again w e repeat, that we are not content, while w e sup
pose ourselves in possession o f useful knowledge, to retain it unshared
with others; i f it has been valuable to us, it may be to them also, and its
usefulness to us is unaffected by its becoming common property.
A rt. III.— F R E E T R A D E F A I R L Y R E C IP R O C A T E D :
OR COUNTERVAILING PROTECTION TO OUR HOME INTERESTS.*
T he costly experiments in political economy and the disastrous effects
o f super-legislation, incidental to our free and theorizing republic, and
perhaps necessary to its lusty and mature growth, are at this time strongly
evidenced in our national concerns. The government and the people,
each charging faults upon the other, find themselves confused and dis
tressed, without much prospect, w e fear, o f a speedy improvement in
their condition. But knowing the tenacity with which a youthful consti
tution clings to life when even despaired o f by the most skilful physicians,
w e still have hope that all may yet be w ell, and that light w ill eventually
burst upon us, the more glorious for the morning clouds which now obscure
our ascendency.
E v ery Am erican who feels a proper solicitude for the welfare o f his
country, in the present trying crisis, may do something towards benefiting
her condition, as w ell as his own. Is he a party-man ?— H e may give up
his party as the good o f the commonwealth requires it. Is he a northern
man, or a southern, “ from the Orient or the drooping W est,” a farmer,
planter, merchant, or manufacturer; is he dependent upon the labor o f his
own hands or those o f others for his support, operating with his intellect, his
skill, his capital, his industry or influence in any w ay ?— Let him now come
forth nobly and resign his selfish prejudices forthe weal o f the whole Union.
Much may be done by concession; more, by confidence in one another.
T h e reaction o f excessive impulse in our national growth has now nearly
destroyed the momentum necessary to our onward career. Confidence,
concert, and a united effort will soon, however, dispel imaginary fears
and remedy many o f the actual evils that betide us. W e have only to
recollect that
“ W e are a world by ourselves and disdain a division
and then we need not fear, even i f “ the Philistines be upon us.”
Thus much is premised to prepare the w ay for a temperate discussion
o f the important subject placed at the head o f this article, and upon which,
until lately, there has been much difference o f opinion among our ablest
political writers. A late number o f this journal contained an attempt, on
* The articles referred to in the discussion o f this subject, are,
1st. Impolicy o f Countervailing Duties, by Condy Raguet, Esq. in the Merchants’
Magazine, Vol. 6, N o. 1.
2d. Address o f the Hom e League to the people o f the United States.
3d. Speeches o f the Honorable Messrs. Hudson and Winthrop, o f Massachusetts, on
referring the subject o f the Tariff to the Committee on Manufactures.
F ree Trade fa ir ly Reciprocated.
221
the part o f a once popular writer on free trade and finance, to prove the
impolicy o f countervailing duties.
W ith all personal respect for the
author we must be allowed to say, we think this the feeblest o f his pro
ductions, and are therefore emboldened to attempt its refutation.
W e shall not, in the onset, arm ourselves, as he does, with a scripture
quotation from the First Book o f Kings. W e certainly do not “ hate him,”
nor dislike the truth. But modesty bids us ask “ what is truth 1”
Is it
not our interest, as much as his, to seek it faithfully ? And shall we not
claim the same right to declare what we conscientiously and practically
find it^to be, as he does, however gifted he may be in the conviction o f his
own infallibility 1 W ere he not a victim to the monomania o f political
economy in the abstract, we should, perhaps, feel ourselves bound to yield
up our opinions to this venerable gentleman, announced as the president
o f the Chamber o f Commerce o f Philadelphia— one o f those learned philoso
phers who denounce practical men, as pretending to understand what they
teach, and who do not scruple to charge those who differ from them with
“ ignorance and quackery.”
But even the name o f Condy Raguet, Esq.,
vaunted as the champion o f free trade in this country, can no longer sanc
tion such presumption, nor can his waning influence be restored, however
lofty his position, or lucrative his talents.
W e profess ourselves to be among the practical men who think and xoork,
and not o f that class o f philosophers who are too impracticable to work as
they profess to think. W e respect practical economists more than political.
W e verily believe the delusive theory o f free trade, as contended f o r by
our political writers on the subject, has cost this country more than all the
wars we have ever been engaged in. Perpetual motion was never more
visionary.
These abstractionists, after ten years trial o f a compromise between
nullification on one side and protection to Am erican interests on the other,
are again in the field, marshalled under the baton o f philosophy, and
armed with the cry o f intolerance and persecution against the productive
and commercial classes. A new adjustment o f these conflicting opinions
is soon to be made, and who is there that is not sick enough o f wrangling
discussions, long speeches, and vascillating legislation, not to wish that it
may be judicious and lasting ? I f our future prosperity and peace be
steadily desired, the subject ought to be now canvassed and settled, with
out threats from any quarter, and least o f all from that party whose very
existence is involved in the result o f any compromise that may be made.
W e deplore the compromising taint in our constitution; but it is inherent,
and we fear must be hereditary. Our fathers had to make the best o f i t ;
so let their sons ; and i f antagonistic elements are mixed up in our national
composition, so at war, that it requires all the wisdom, virtue, and patriot
ism o f a united family to prevent the dreaded rupture which would be fatal
to our Union, let us all aim at the high renown o f so conducting, that
centuries may yet elapse before our onward career w ill be arrested, and
the invidious hopes o f foreign despots be gratified.
The crisis in regard to the tariff which is now agitating the country,
like every thing that affects the national purse, is one o f no easy manage
ment. The discussions alluded to at the commencement o f this article,
and various others o f great merit by practical and theoretic thinkers, ren
der it unnecessary for us to enter largely into a statistical or financial
examination o f the subject. The leading topic we wish to discuss, is the
222
Free Trade fa ir ly Reciprocated.
u n i o n o f f r e e trade fa ir ly reciprocated, ivith such a discriminating tariff as
will faithfully and permanently protect our home interests, without, disparaging
any one branch o f them%whether commercial, agricultural, planting, or manufactorin g. A s to the protection o f our revenue, that seems to be conceded
on all hands. T h e maintenance o f a sound currency, too, i f we are ever
to have one, is involved in the question o f countervailing duties f o r the
benefit o f the whole country, without any supposed sectional protection or
preference o f any part. This branch o f protection, consequently, seems
also to be conceded by those who object to any special favors to the me
chanic or manufacturing classes. T o resent aggression, is a more natural
feeling in some sections o f the country, than the encouragement o f home
industry, free labor, or even free trade. But duties, whether for revenue,
countervailing, or protective, must in some w ay be levied; and what we
now design to prove is that they will, in no w ay, militate with the princi
ples o f free trade as practised by any nation with which we have commer
cial intercourse.
B y free trade, w e mean f a i r t r a d e ; such as exists or should exist be
tween independent nations; not that which is proffered by w ily diplo
matists, nor such as professors o f political econom y would have, i f their
Utopian schemes could be realized. W e cannot go back to the days of
Adam and E ve. The knowledge o f good and evil was their choice, and is
now our birthright. W ith this came labor, and whether labor is to be
considered as a blessing or a curse, it is our inheritance and must be pro
tected. For ourselves, we cherish it as a boon. It w ill not do to mourn
over it as a curse. T o the freeman, it is not so. T o those, alas ! to whom
knowledge o f moral and mental good is denied, and only ill is given, exist
ence even m ay be a doubtful blessing; but even servile property must be
protected, or our free constitution is violated.
T h e protection o f Am erican labor, therefore, and the promotion o f re
ciprocal commerce, is the starting point in our discussion. W e are
indebted for this creed to the Home League, formed in N ew Y ork by a
convention o f citizens from all parts o f the country, without sectional dis
tinction and above party bias ; and what Am erican is there that does not
respond to its principles ? Is it asserted that this creed contains a declara
tion contradictory and impracticable ? Those who would so have it, may
make it so to seem ; but, fairly considered, we cannot perceive that there
is, or can be, any thing antagonistic between a fair, free trade with all the
world, and a due protection to our home industry. The perpetual mistake
made by the philosophers in political economy is, that there is such a thing
as free trade practised between nations, where an exchange o f equivalents
is given and taken honestly. There is none, and can be none. The
selfish, cunning nature o f man is incapable o f such a commerce. A con
federacy o f all the sovereigns o f the earth could not maintain it. I f form
ed, it would be only a rope o f sand— a smoke wreath, which the first breath
o f conflicting wind would dissipate. Those who profess its adoption,
chuckle at their success when they find others duped by it. Russia,
once caught in the toils o f English sophistry in this way, bitterly bewailed
her error, soon abandoned it, and confessed to the world her folly. W e
Americans have also played the same selfish game, when we have conde
scended to make treaties w ith the poor Indians. Talk, and f r e e trade, have
robbed them o f their homes. A few miserable trinkets were the equiva
lents for which these unprotected savages have bartered away their con
F ree Trade fa ir ly Reciprocated.
223
tinent. England’s practical free trade goes to a still greater length in her
boasted Indian empire. Let her conquests there not be mentioned, nor
her vassal population, but is she not now forcing free trade on the defence
less Chinese, bribing them with smuggled opium, and nullifying the tem
perance edict o f the Celestial Emperor ? W h o is not heart-sick at such
abominable impositions ?
But we come now to analyze the theory, that free trade is opposed to
the protection o f our home interests, and to deny the im policy o f counter
vailing duties. Our readers need not be apprehensive that we shall
launch into a dry discussion o f the tariff. W e are neither inclined nor
prepared to handle that perplexing subject. It is one o f no easy adjust
ment. But our political relations with foreign countries, the war in dis
guise, which is now carried on against our commerce, as w ell as manufac
tures and agriculture, and the preparations f o r annihilating our planting
interests, are subjects o f much graver import.
N o commerce nor trade between nations is entitled to be termed free,
unless prosecuted upon principles o f reciprocal benefit. A n y nation that
will tolerate the exclusion o f its products, or such prohibitory duties levied
on them as will exceed the amount levied on the goods o f the same
country in exchange, ceases to be independent and actually becomes
tributary. Had international trade been commenced and carried on upon
the exchange o f strictly reciprocal equivalents, or could it be so carried
on, a possibility which, having never yet occurred, we are at liberty to
deny, then protective duties to be reciprocal would have to be strictly
equal everywhere. But now we must take things as we find them. A
young country like ours cannot o f course afford to set the example o f
keeping open house as it were, when all those we traffic with charge us
for our intercourse with them. Such liberality we should deem rather
transcendental; and yet, i f we understand the theorists o f Mr. Raguet’s
school, to this extent they invite us to lead o ff in the dance o f free trade.
That protection o f their own interests which we accord to others, shall we
not imitate in regard to ourselves ? A re tobacco, rice, flour, provisions, and
almost every thing we produce, to be enormously taxed by foreign govern
ments, and all that we manufacture excluded from interference with those
establishments, whilst we throw our ports open for the free admission o f
what they produce ? Is the servile and pauper labor o f foreign countries,
and the aggrandizement o f moneyed monopolies abroad, dearer to us than
the protection o f our own national independence and home industry ? E very
free Am erican must revolt at such vassalage.
W e define free trade then as it exists, to be no other than a commerce
between nations, more or less protective, according to existing treaties, and
that we therefore have an undoubted right to protect our own concerns
without violating any o f its principles; and it is equally our interest and
honor so to protect them. The liberties, now taken by England alone in
undermining our commerce by her colonial policy, in contravening our
agricultural, manufacturing, and financial prosperity, by prohibitory re
strictions on our exports, and overwhelming this country with imports,
poured upon us at any sacrifice, and without reckoning the cost o f the
ammunition, so long as it is effective, is as much a direct declaration o f hos
tility, and as ruinous an attack on our independence, as the capturing our
vessels, or the battering down o f our cities. Tam ely to submit to this, out
o f compliment to the infallible professors o f free trade, is worse than re
224
Free Trade fa ir ly Reciprocated.
turning to provincial bondage. A fair free trade or none, is our motto;
and i f fair, we have proved that it cannot be opposed to the protection o f
our home interests. W e do not say that if England or any other foreign
governments should take o ff all the protective duties with which success
has been secured to them, by which their establishments have been built
up and their capital accumulated at the expense o f reducing the wages o f
labor, that we should at once repeal all our duties for protection and rev
enue, and throw open our ports for the admission o f all goods free. This
we know would not be fair, nor any thing like a reciprocity o f equivalents,
and therefore could not be termed free trade. Give us the same advan
tages, and we need not fear competition with any nation. But not to be
cajoled into any one-sided bargain by a trick o f abstract diplomacy is one
o f the inherent rights o f reciprocal commerce, and to this let us adhere in
practice as well as in argument. One o f the labors o f H ercules consisted
in strangling the snakes that infested his cradle, and it w ill be well for us
to bear in mind, that i f our young republic is to possess a giant’ s life, it
must be sustained by gigantic efforts.
Having now, as we trust, proved satisfactorily that there is nothing in
congruous in the union o f a judicious protection to our home interests, and
a fair free trade or reciprocal commerce with foreign countries, and that
the former is absolutely essential to the preservation o f the latter, we shall
next endeavor to show conclusively the right and policy o f countervailing
duties, whenever any government violates the true principles on which
free trade can alone be prosecuted. Self-defence, it w ill be admitted, is as
much the right o f nations as o f individuals. Selfishness is the motive
principle with a l l ; and however Christian or laudable it may be to feed
our enemies, and to do good to those who despitefully use us, we do not
believe that the wise founder o f our religion ever intended to sanction a
perpetual invasion o f our rights, or the abandonment o f our essential privi
leges. W hat but the enjoyment o f these inalienable attributes o f sover
eignty at first induced the glorious founders o f our republic to sever the
galling bonds o f colonial vassalage, and afterward to unite in a confed
eracy, where free trade and a perfectly unobstructed intercourse were
solemnly guarantied to all its members ? N o compact like this is, or ever
can he, established with foreign states. W e shall never know the value
o f our own favored country in this respect, until we assert and maintain
its true dignity, and cherish our domestic advantages. A m ong ourselves
com m erce can, and ought to be, unshackled, and must necessarily be re
ciprocally beneficial. The good o f the whole must conserve the good o f
every part, and it is idle for any section o f the country to clam or for fr e e
trade with all the world, when its proffered blessings among ourselves are
considered unworthy o f encouragement.
But to recur to Mr. Raguet’s essay: we there see it stated that “ if
ninety-nine out o f a hundred nations adopt the restrictive system, it is the
true policy o f the remaining one to adhere to the principles o ff r e e trade.”
That is to say, the principles o f free trade demand that we should export
nothing, i f other .nations choose to restrict us, and import every thing they
choose to send us, duty free. A re our farmers, planters, and manufac
turers prepared to w elcom e such a free trade ? Let us see how a theory,
the correctness o f which he is so confident of, that i f he fails in proving
it true, he offers to burn all the books on political economy, is attempted
to be substantiated. H e instances the trade existing between the United
F ree Trade fa ir ly Reciprocated.
225
States and Buenos Ayres. These countries, 7000 miles apart, and o f
course subject to a heavy expense in trafficking with each other, carry
on a commerce in flour and hides, which each could produce, but find
it advantageous to barter.
Mr. Raguet may be mistaken in saying
that cattle are cultivated in Buenos A y r e s ; we think they are caught
wild far the sake o f their hides, horns, & c. Labor, therefore, is not
much concerned in the prosecution or loss o f this trade, but this does
not affect our argument much. W e admit the case cited as a fair illus
tration o f the usual intercourse between commercial nations, an exchange
o f equivalents, and we take Mr. Raguet’s estimates and positions as cor
rect: viz, 300,000 hides exchanged by Buenos A yres for 100,000 barrels
of American flour. The former we will value at $ 2.00 cost, and $1 .00
profit o f trade, freight, & c .; and the flour at $6 .00 per barrel, and $3 .00
do.— being 50 per cent on the cost at the place o f export. W e wish also
to suppose each country to possess a moneyed capital o f say a million o f
dollars each, to provide for any balance o f trade.
Now to make out a clear case o f free trade, or an exchange o f equiva
lents, between these two countries, no notice should be taken o f their
intercourse or traffic with other countries. W e wish them to represent
the whole commerce o f the world, and let us try fairly and considerately
the bearings which the anti-pi’otective, and the countervailing or true free
trade policy will have, in fa ct, divested o f any inferential or speculative
laws, as they are designated in the theoretical political economy. W e
will try for once to make our learned friends o f this school stand to their
position, and not to fly off in a tangent through the vast regions o f fancy,
where it would be as hard to follow them as it would be one o f H erschell’s
comets at the extremity o f its aphelion.
Free trade then, between the flour-exporting United States and the hideproducing country o f Buenos Ayres, is commenced without any duty on
either side, and is assumed to be sufficiently beneficial to both nations,
although each could produce the product o f the other, to maintain a third
interest, which we shall call the carrying trade, equally participated in
by both.
The traffic between them consists in the exchange o f—
100.000 barrels o f flour from the United States,
valued at $ 6.00 per barrel .
.
.
.
$600,000
Expenses o f freight, interest, insurance, and
profits o f trade
.
.
.
.
.
300,000
--------- $ 000,000
300.000 hides from Buenos A yres, at $ 2.00
Expenses, & c ., as above
.
.
.
.
. $600,000
300,000
----------- $900,000
with a specie capital in each country to regulate any balance o f trade
equal to a million o f dollars.
This we shall designate fair free trade, to which no one can object.
Thus far we agree.
Our author next assumes that Buenos A yres imposes a duty o f 20 per
cent on the American flour. V ery w ell. This may be invidious, or a
matter o f necessity or internal policy. In either case it disturbs the equi
librium o f reciprocity, and should be resisted. The United States lev y a
countervailing duty on the hides o f an equal amount. Is the trade less free ?
Do the relative prices or equivalent returns vary in any respect ? Is
VOL. v i.— NO. III.
28
226
F ree Trade fa ir ly Reciprocated.
either nation poorer or richer for the enhanced value o f its imports ? Each
government collects a revenue, estimated at 20 per cent, which at the
place o f importation makes—
On the flour, worth before $900,000
Say 180,000
----------- equal to $1,080,000
and on the hides, worth before $900,000
D uty 20 per cent, 180,000
----------- equal to $1,080,000
T h e prices to the consumers, or exporters, are advanced accordingly,
each faring alike. Is not this trade still free ?
But high prices, says Mr. Raguet, reduce consumption and amount of
imports, and consequently o f exports. This depends on the manner the
duties are disposed of, and other circumstances. I f taxes had to be paid
before by the consumers in specie, equal in amount to the 20 per cent now
levied on the goods, and should they be taken off, and the expenses of
the country be paid by this revenue, consumption would still go on with
out loss to the consumers or to the government.
Again : i f the duty be levied and disbursed among the people for im
provements by which they would be gainers in their trades or estates,
such as railroads, canals, machinery, and other useful arts, the benefit
o f which would be equivalent to the 20 per cent advance on the articles
consumed, would any loss ultimately accrue to either country? But on
the contrary would there not be a permanent gain after the first cost was
reimbursed ? I f cattle in Buenos A yres could be caught and marketed
cheaper by means o f the outlay o f $180,000 duty, and flour could be
ground and transported cheaper in the same proportion in the United
States, would not prices ultimately fall, the quantity be largely increased
by these new facilities, and trade be likely to be carried on, perhaps more
extensively, and as free as before ?
But if, on the contrary, the amount o f the duty levied, in addition to
former burdens, should be squandered in useless projects, lost in unprofit
able wars, or thrown away in disgraceful tribute to foreign and rapacious
rivals, then the suffering country would have to feel the new tax imposed;
reduced consumption o f imports, and consequent decreased exchange o f
exports, or a diminution o f the profits o f trade would have to follow.
Should like circumstances, however, take place in both countries, the re
lative exchanges and traffic, though reduced, would be equal and free as
between themselves, though in contrast with their former situation, or
with other nations, they would each be relatively poorer. Every new
levy o f imposts thus wasted, would make them still poorer, until finally
ruin or a revolution would ensue.
But should one country only be exposed to these wasteful exactions, and
the other have its revenues judiciously appropriated, then a wide difference
would soon be manifest in their relative condition. The provident would
soon consume or abandon the improvident, after despoiling her o f her
money reserved for a balance o f trade ; and being able to produce what
she had formerly imported, as well as exported, by a wise distribution and
protection o f labor, she would eventually become rich and independent.
H er foreign carrying trade might be diminished, but her domestic exchanges
and intercourse would increase. She would at least have some trade,
which, i f she imported every thing, say all the hides, reduced ultimately
F ree Trade fa ir ly Reciprocated.
227
to nothing by Mr. Raguet’s supposed foolish imposts, and exported nothing
for nothing, she would indeed be bankrupted in every thing.
But there is still another view o f the case. It is admitted, by our op
ponent, that Buenos A yres levies the first duty on our trade, an injury to
us as well as to her, but he insists we should only make it greater by re
senting it. How is this ? Between individuals, is not any attempt at over
reaching without an equivalent a fraud in law ? And should we not consider
it a contemptible policy in any nation tamely to submit to the first insult
on her honor, whether by fraud or force. The champion o f free trade, how
ever, is for taking it philosophically, and turns both cheeks to be smitten
under the plea o f benefiting ourselves by the folly o f our adversary. W e
doubt if such an abstraction is o f Am erican origin. It appeared not in our
Declaration o f Independence, and forms no part o f our free Constitution.
If Buenos A yres has the right o f imposing a restriction, we have a like
right; and honor as well as interest bids us retaliate. I f she resolves to
destroy her exporters o f hides to raise a revenue, or to build up flour-mills,
our farmers should be protected in the raising o f cattle to supply the
diminution o f the flour business. It is idle to stand still and have duty
after duty levied on our declining trade, and bounty after bounty bestow
ed by foreign governments, to supersede us in the production o f our
agricultural and manufacturing staples, as has been the case with indigo,
and may soon be with cotton, and for us to still keep our ports open for
the free admission o f these articles out o f courtesy to any country.
But there is still another fallacy in Mr. Raguet’s argument, that we must
now make appear. H e asserts that duties imposed by us in retaliation,
are a dead burden upon the people ; whether 20, 40, or 100 per cent, only
aggravates the evil inflicted on us by foreign imposts. Is this so? What
becomes o f the revenue, we would ask ? Is it collected in specie only to
be thrown away ? Or is it used for the necessary support o f government,
the maintenance o f a navy for the protection o f commerce, and o f our
army to secure peace within our borders? Is not the expenditure for the
public offices and post-roads, for the establishment o f internal improvements,
widening the sphere o f support to our laborers and artisans, o f some ad
vantage to the nation— and are not these vast blessings paid for by the
revenue? It is not true that nothing is to be gained by a countervailing
policy but the “ cutting off o f our own fingers,” as Mr. Raguet politely
assumes. Nations are not all independent o f the necessaries and luxuries
we have to part with, and people are not such idiots, as he supposes, to
stand still and do without them, i f we resist their anti-reciprocal encroach
ments. A tax on tea, indomitably resisted by a handful o f freemen, con
vulsed the world in its consequences. It gave birth to the true principles
o f free trade ; the only kind, indeed, that a free and honorable nation can
encourage. The “ let alone and take what we can g e t” policy, advoca
ted by Mr. Raguet and his southern friends, is not Am erican in any shape
false philosophy may place it.
Protection to all the interests o f the country includes free trade. T h ey
are, and o f right ought to be, inseparable. W e are not pledged to the
manufacturers merely, nor can we tolerate any system that is not national
and reciprocal. Our agriculturists, first and foremost, free as the soil
they cultivate, must be protected. A foreign market, i f possible, but at
all events a home one, must be secured for them. Our planting producers
must not be interfered with, we will not say protected, for that is not per
mitted by them as constitutional. But to our mechanics, laborers, artists,
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Free Trade fa ir ly Reciprocated.
and manufacturers, no doubtful or temporary protection must be given.
Let them thrive, and then commerce, cherished daughter o f all other pur
suits, w ill thrive with them.
W hat then shall prevent the union and advancement o f all these co-relative
interests ? Happy are we if we would only know and preserve our own
privileges! But we are too free and too visionary to act in harmony, and
have been lamentably unfortunate o f late years in putting our faith in
princes o f high pretensions and broken fortun 3, who have all but ruined
our self-respect. Let our working, thinking men, rouse then to the
rescue.
,
The world is getting skeptical concerning the efficacy o f governments
o f any sort in bringing about human perfectability. Our own “ last found
and ever new delight ” already exhibits symptoms o f fallibility, and people
begin to find out that they may depend too much on being governed by
fixed laws in perpetually changing circumstances. Legislation, and too
much o f it, plods on behind the age, whilst speculation hurries us away
ahead o f it. Implicit faith, therefore, can neither be placed in constituted
forms nor in fallible theories, constantly demanding “ a change o f times
and states.”
Much depends upon coincidences that no human sagacity
can predict or avert. There is scarcely a nation to which wealth, pow
er, and glory have not occasionally been given, or the same taken away,
unexpectedly. W hether in monarchies the most absolute, or republics
where scarcely a phantom o f law exists to guide them, the mass o f the
people have appeared to be the playthings o f chance, rather than the
architects o f their own fortunes. Still, how many there are among us who
profess to understand exactly how to set every thing at rights, and to gov
ern the world precisely as it ought to be governed !
Am ong these, political economists take the lead. One gives us, “ The
W ealth o f N ations;” another, “ A Sound C u rren cy ;” a third, “ Free
Trade with all the w orld ;” a fourth, “ The im policy o f countervailing
d u ties;” — and such wise conceits have been so often put forth to gratify a
heated fancy, and gather homage from the ignorant, that the due respect
which is usually granted to wisdom, learning, and virtue, among men, is
now no longer cheerfully accorded to philosophy, found fallible. Success
obtains the crown o f merit, and time and chance happen to all. But it is
time for us Americans to learn, that even success is not always to be ob
tained by the aid o f princes or philosophers— nor by the people who wor
ship them, or are worshipped by them. Humbler pretensions on all sides,
with a steady aim at human improvement, should be inculcated. The
world w ill go on probably as o f yore, and we shall find that there will
ever be a mixture o f good and evil in all things : that the selfish principle
in man is not yet matured ; that the millennium will not dawn until all
the Jews are called h om e; nor until these things are accomplished can a
universal free trade be established, nor the hopes o f Christians and phi
losophers be consummated. Under these conditions, therefore, the govern
ing principle best adapted to our nature, and likely to be most successful
with that nation that follows it, is a prudent confidence, under Providence,
in our own moral exertions, steady industry and economy, increasing
knowledge and virtue, and respect for such laws and rulers as will faith
fu lly protect those who yield obedience to, in order to be protected by,
them.
Those who contend against this order o f things in our country, are pro
bably not aware o f the mischiefs they produce among us. Their imprae-
F ree Trade fa ir ly Reciprocated.
229
ticable theories have already led us into a thousand foolish experiments,
and almost to a dissolution o f the Union. Under the plea that trade
governs the world, they are perpetually seeking to array one section o f the
country against another; the merchant against the manufacturer, and the
producers against the consumers, as i f we were not naturally bound together
in one common interest. Th ey do not, or pretend not, to see that the laws
of trade are fluctuating and conventional, and subject to the control o f wise
legislation or arbitrary despotism. T o submit to them, therefore, in all
cases, may neither be wise nor politic. W h o is there that will now con
tend that the slave trade was ever just, or that the British orders in coun
cil, and the French decrees, which excluded our commerce with every
port from Bayonne to Libau, ought ever to have been tolerated ? W h o is
there that now sees any advantage in impoverishing and demoralizing our
country with a flood o f champagne, or the costly silks and gewgaws o f
France ; or the excessive imports o f articles which we can make ourselves,
from England, merely to encourage commerce, or benefit an unreciproca
ted trade, falsely called free ? Or who is there, except Mr. Raguet and
his infatuated adherents, who will say it is for the advantage o f two countries
like Buenos A yres and the United States, both capable o f produciug wheat
and hides for their own use, to exchange these articles with each other,
merely to maintain a carrying trade o f seven thousand miles, when the
whole expense o f freight and charges could be saved by supplying their
wants at home ? W hat prudent father would beggar his son by preventing
his learning every useful trade necessary for his support, or desert him
when just entering into business, a victim to an overreaching, jealous rival ?
Or what paternal government will refuse to patronise the useful arts, and
to foster the manufacturing establishments necessary to its security and
independence ? And yet there are those who constantly decry such a
nolicy to be absurd, because “ trade governs the w orld.”
W h y ! Is not
England, our greatest rival, doing precisely as we should do, now ? Has
not this always been her policy ? Let those who think otherwise study
the following account o f her meditated overthrow o f our cotton trade.
Not merely the south, but our whole country is interested in its conse
quences. There are those among us who are jealous o f the forced indus
try o f our cheap state-prison convicts, as an interference with the labor
of honest American mechanics. W ill they be content to foster the cheaper
labor o f their Bombay rivals ?
THE EAST INDIA COTTON TRADE.
The N ew Orleans Advertiser, o f recent date, contains extracts from a
letter written from Bombay, to a gentleman in N ew Orleans. The writer
had resided in Hindoostan for fifteen years. H e gives it as his opinion,
that in less than five years the India product w ill supplant American cot
ton in the English markets.
Nothing but the unsettled state o f many districts, the high rates o f
transportation, the rude mode o f culture and o f separating the seed from
the wool, and the rapacity and extortion o f the East India Company, have
prevented a competition long since.
But now, it is added, the absolute
submission o f the hostile and rebellious rajahs, the decline o f the opium
trade, the war with China, and the introduction o f the saw-gin, have
brought about a new state o f things, and every district in the country is
now engaged in the culture o f cotton.
28 *
230
F ree Trade fa ir ly Reciprocated.
The shipments o f cotton from India to England for the current year,
are estimated at 450,000 b a les: it is believed that during the next season
at least 600,000 bales will be shipped.
T o these facts, the writer adds other items which are worthy o f notice:
“ The government at home has left no stone unturned to free Great
Britain from dependence on you for the raw material. The use o f the
saw-gin in two years time w ill be universal. Orders have been sent to
the United States for a supply o f the best Mississippi. Labor is low—
from three to six cents a day. The average product per acre is 200
pounds o f clean cotton. Our cane-brakes and low lands, as with you,
yield immensely, while the hilly districts do quite as well as those in
Mississippi. Even now, where the saw-gin is used, cotton is delivered in
this city (Bom bay) at two cents a pound.
“ The substratum o f our soil varies. It is either granite or volcanic, ac
cording to the position, and though we may not be able to produce as good
a staple as you can, yet I am sure we shall soon be able to drive out o f
the English market all your low priced cottons.
“ Even in Sea Island cottons we are making headway. T h ey are in
digenous to Ceylon and the Coromandel coast.
“ Y ou r planters must look to the cultivation o f the better qualities, if
they would keep the East India cottons out o f the European markets.
A s to the English markets, they w ill not have them long, for the home
government has it in contemplation to lay a heavy duty on American cottons.”
T o this statement the Baltimore Am erican adds :
“ The advocates o f free importations at the south will, in all probability,
have an opportunity very speedily o f enjoying the blessings o f that sort o f
‘ free trade ’ which the other portions o f the Union have been made to
experience. The price o f cotton is already affected by the introduction
o f the India article into the British market. W hen the Government o f
Great Britain shall 1lay a heavy duty on American cotton,’ will it be un
constitutional then to insist upon reciprocity o f trade? W ill countervail
ing duties be impolitic, or a tariff oppressive ?
“ W e alluded some days ago to the history o f the Indigo culture in
Hindoostan. The results o f that undertaking speak in a language too plain
for misconception. I f it is proper for this government to take any steps in
view o f the present designs o f Great Britain in India, the time has surely
arrived for doing something. It is, however, for the South to judge, in so
far as their staple constitutes the basis o f our national interest. The mid
dle, western, and eastern States, whose interests have been already affect
ed by the restrictive policy o f England and other European nations, are
preparing to move. It would be better for all i f a harmonious and con
certed system o f action could be agreed upon, which, while it embraced
every interest, should bear oppressively upon none.”
In addition to the above, we quote the following extract from a recent
report to the British parliament, showing the intended appropriation of
British capital, and a system o f bounties in order to encourage the culture
o f cotton in India, and secure a supply o f that necessary staple for their
domestic use, without being dependent on foreign nations for it,— a hint to
our growers o f the article to encourage manufacturers at home to use up
what the planting interest cannot export when superseded by their India
competitors. A home demand from numerous customers is more secure
than any foreign one from a large monopolizing rival, whose custom de
pends upon caprice, or an uncertain continuation o f peace.
Free Trade fa ir ly Reciprocated.
231
[From the Boston Atlas.}
EVIDENCE RESPECTING THE EAST INDIA COTTON TRAD E.
“ The minutes made by Lord Auckland, the Governor General, on this
subject, contains the plans which he wishes to have adopted, and the in
formation which gave rise to them.
“ 1st. That there be an alteration in the rate and mode o f taxing cotton
lands: the rate being erroneously supposed to be a maximum one, and the
amount often taken in kind, thereby inducing the grower to produce quan
tity or weight, without regard to quality or cleanliness.
“ 2d. That encouragement, or reasonable inducement, be afforded to the
influx o f capital,— and to its application to this particular cultivation. A
special mode o f encouragement is indicated in the offer o f a fitting bounty,
either by reducing the assessment on the lands on which foreign cotton
seed is grown, or by stimulating industry by large grants or prizes.
“ 3d. That experimental farms be instituted, and rewards given, for im
proved produce, or for improved machines for cleaning cotton— this, last
being the great desideratum, especially as regards the cotton o f Bom bay.
Seeds to also be procured o f the best foreign cottons, and distributed.
“ 4th. That the transport o f produce be facilitated by the formation o f
roads, and its preservation and shipment by the erection o f warehouses at
the ports o f shipment.”
W e will give one further illustration o f the value o f foreign friendly
feeling towards Am erican interests. Governor Cass, our envoy in France,
in a late report to the government, states, “ that two thirds o f all the im
portations into the United States from France were duty free. N ot one
article imported into France from the United States is exempt from duty.
Cotton pays a duty there o f between fo u r and jive per cent on its value more
than Egyptian, thus far operating as a bounty in favor o f the latter.”
Do our cotton growers see no m ischief in ibis preference for the foreign
cultivators o f their staple, or must a narrow jealousy o f their brethren at
home, who are their natural customers, forever blind them against per
ceiving the invidious policy o f others ?
W e will suppose now that in five years, England not only supplies her
self with cotton, but our other customers for the article are supplied by
her, or from some other cheap-labor countries. W ill the south then sub
scribe to the “ im policy o f protective duties,” or consent to be the one
Nation, shut out by the restrictive policy o f the ninety-nine ? O r w ill she
then consent to see her best interests preserved by encouraging domestic
consumption? W ill she not then discover that there is no natural hos
tility, but a reciprocal amity between the interests o f the northern manufac
turers and the southern producers; that they are all, in short, producers,
capitalists, traders, and fellow-laborers ? W ill she not then admit
the unity o f one consecutive and conservative operation between the la
borers in every department o f the product raised— First, the sower o f tlic
seed and planter with his hoe ; next, the mechanic who gins the cotton from
the pod; then the trader who buys and transports it to the market where
it is manufactured, and from the manufacturer back again to the producer,
or to other consumers who furnish in return the articles o f luxury or ne
cessity which he wants ? Is not all this a confederate and desirable union
o f interests, worthy o f liberal protection ? W ill commerce be the sufferer ?
W e have the experience o f the past to assure us that i f the home market
for manufactures is secure from foreign interference and domestic monop
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Free Trade fa ir ly Reciprocated.
oly, competition will cheapen prices low enough for export. W e well
remember the cry o f oppression raised by the Salem merchants, in 1816,
that i f the tariff was then increased ruin would seize their India trade.
Then northern merchants, now many o f them manufacturers, were the
opponents o f protection, and the southern planters, a la s! still planters, its
advocates! W hat has been the result so far as commerce has been con
cerned ? Then what was the cost o f m e cargo o f cotton cloth from India,
would now produce fo u r o f better quality sent to India ! Four freights for
one is the balance in favor o f our commerce, and the fabric produced at
home is had at one fourth o f the cost to the exporter and consum er! And
this is not all. Specie was required to fit out every Indiaman enough to
build one cotton-mill then, and four cotton-mills, o f the same size, n ow !
W e are stating facts that we know, and defy a denial o f them. But to
make them more apparent, we repeat, that such has been the wonderful
skill and enterprise o f our machinists, iron founders, and handicraftsmen,
that-the machinery for a cotton factory, complete, which in 1820 cost over
forty-eight dollars per spindle, now costs less than twelve dollars ! Is it
wonderful that we should be the exporters o f the article, or that Russia,
Germany, and even England should send to us orders for steam frigates
and engines ? Is it wonderful that our countrymen should prefer to be
machinists and manufacturers under a government that knows how to
prize them, rather than to turn all farmers and carriers, the hewers of
wood and drawers o f water, for other nations ? Do our citizens generally
know the fact that the relative ratio o f agricultural and artisan labor in
all countries is as 12a36, showing an advantage in favor o f the latter o f 200
per cent ? N o wonder that Great Britain was able to cope with all the
world, and is able to arm and govern so great a part o f it with the small
army o f machinists she possesses. It is not her cheap labor at home the
world has to fear, but her vast overgrown capital and skill, which may set
in motion her cheaper vassal labor abroad, and which, if permitted, w ill crush
the rising enterprise o f other countries. O f this, and not any superiority
in her enterprise or skill, have we Am ericans much now to be afraid.
But if a steady judicious tariff, o f a wisely discriminating and strictly pro
tective character be adopted, on the true principles o f encouraging a fair
reciprocal trade with all the world, and o f securing a salutary protection
to our home industry and skill, so that Am erican labor shall not be inter
fered with in our home markets, by the monopolizing and jealous capital
ists o f Europe, nor be depressed by labor o f a pauper or servile character,
then our country need not fear but her high destiny w ill be accomplished.
But it is time now to bring this article to a close, even without some
statistical references which we had intended to offer. T h ey may appear
in a future number. W e have only a few words to say in parting to our
esteemed friends, whom Mr. Raguet says, are “ reviled individuals, whose
views are thought to have no practical bearing, and whose opinions belong
to the closet, and not to the counting-house or workshop.”
W e shall not
apologize for our presumption in differing with them. W hether from ob
tuse vision in ourselves or an excess o f light in them, we take a widely
different view o f things. W e think and feel that we are right; they are
as sure that we are not. Let our readers decide. W e shall not insist on
Mr. Raguet’s burning all his books, i f he is convinced o f his error, as he
offered to do, but we can heartily join him in wishing to propagate truth,
without boasting or reproach. Th eory without practice, or practice with-
Merchants and Mercantile Law.
233
out theory, have no right to be intolerant. He has the advantage o f a
distinguished name. W e rely solely on the merit o f our cause ; but con
fess ourselves deeply interested in the success o f the Home League, with
which we have been associated from its commencement, and which we
have the pleasure to see is now widely extending itself throughout the
country, particularly at the south and west. With political economy in
the abstract, we do not boast o f much acquaintance, and have but little
time or inclination to put forth in writing our opinions, although we have
had some practical experience in its results. W e have designed, however,
in this essay, to express fully our real sentiments, without fear or reward,
and to contend for principles which we believe salutary f o r the country—
t h e w h o l e COUNTRY.
Let others, if they please, favor foreign dogmas,
foreign philosophy, or foreign fabrics. W e deplore the fashionable ten
dency to lean towards everything cis-Atlantic, particularly i f it be extrav
agant. A fa ls e f r e e trade is one o f these costly notions ; but our citizens
begin to suspect they have had enough o f it. T h ey will soon perceive
there is no use in pulling each other to pieces for the sake o f building up
our foreign rivals ; but abandoning this heathenish propensity o f running
after strange gods, they will unite in promoting a true constitutional f r e e
trade among themselves. Then the south, no longer jealous o f the north,
shall see her own interest best advanced by encouraging the productions o f
American skill and industry, and will actually find them cheaper by all
the saving o f freight, than they could now be imported, duty free, from
abroad; and the north and the east, uniting cordially in sustaining the
south and the west in all their constitutional privileges, w ill be blended
together with them in a genuine love o f our common cou n try ; when all
will unite in maintaining our glorious banner, undisturbed by “ base re
volting stars” consenting to our self-destruction; and we shall all under
stand that our true prosperity consists in a fraternal and patriotic interest,
“ UNUM ET COMMUNE PERICULUM, UNA SALUS OMNIBUS.”
A rt. IV .— M E R C H A N T S A N D M E R C A N T IL E L A W .
I t was related o f the late Chief Justice Parsons o f Massachusetts, that
while he was at the bar and engaged in very extensive and lucrative
practice, an eminent merchant invited him to dine with him under circum
stances a little unexpected. A t the dinner-table the merchant took some
pains to draw the conversation out upon some legal questions, and hav
ing a case o f great importance and delicacy o f his own, concerning which
he was anxious to get the opinion o f Mr. Parsons, (without paying him
the customary fee,) he supposed a case precisely parallel to his own—
stating all the particulars with minuteness; and to close with, said to his
guest, Now what course would it be prudent for a person to adopt under
such circumstances ? “ Consult a law yer by all means,” answered Mr.
Parsons.
Who shall say this was not a very just and valuable answer ? In all
legal points arising in business o f serious importance and difficulty, it is
certainly judicious to consult our legal adviser, and to do it before a fatal
step is taken, or liabilities are ignorantly incurred.
But there is a large amount o f legal knowledge daily required in the
234
Merchants and Mercantile Law.
transactions o f the merchant, and which should make a part o f his busi
ness information and education. This consists in understanding the great
leading principles wdiich govern sales, agency, negotiable paper, surety
ship, and the like. The mere man o f business need not be learned in all
the minute distinctions and doubtful points: these belong to the learning
o f the legal profession, who can and will give the time and research
necessary to a proper understanding o f them. The amount o f legal
knowledge necessary to be understood as a part o f business education,
embraces, generally speaking, the leading, well-settled and well-defined
principles o f every-day application. Hitherto no suitable manuals o f fa
miliarly written, yet authoritatively correct mercantile law, have been
prepared for the merchant. Hence he has been under a sort o f necessity
o f having his legal adviser to apply to for every point however easily un
derstood, but about which, from the importance o f results, he is unwilling
to act under a shadow o f doubt.
The advantages connected with a merchant’s position and information,
for understanding legal principles and applying them correctly to mer
cantile questions, is not often duly appreciated by themselves.
In order to understand a principle o f law and its application to the
business affairs o f men, it is not enough that we have read the legal
treatises and decisions on the subject. A n acquaintance with business
transactions, arising from observation and experience, are also necessary.
And this observation and experience the merchant possesses in relation
to his own line o f trade, far better than the legal profession generally.
Not intending to disparage the intelligence o f the legal profession, yet it is
certainly too much to expect o f those who have the largest share o f gen
eral business information, that they can be as w ell informed as merchants
about the commodities they respectively deal in, or the usages o f trade
applicable to them. Hence, when a merchant consults his legal adviser,
he often has to commence by instructing him largely about his business
before his counsel can turn about and inform him in relation to the legal
principles applicable to his case. Hence too, and for this reason among
others, merchants select their lawyer, and repose confidence in him and
give him instructions about their business ; and when he gets so as to un
derstand it, they are loth to part with him. T h ey rely on him to do up
their legal thinking. He is to them like the old family physician, who
from having long attended in the family, understands their constitutions
and all their chronic diseases and idiosyncrasies.
But, after all, would it not be better for merchants to give the subject
o f mercantile law, at an early period o f life, that degree o f serious atten
tion which they are taught to bestow on the practical part o f their pro
fession ? It would, as a mental discipline, tend much to induce to accurate
habits o f thinking, and open up to mercantile pursuits a new and rich field
o f mental occupation. W hile the details o f business give scope to the
faculties o f observation, the legal principles would give exercise to deep
reflection and comprehensiveness o f thought.
W e hardly need say that by these remarks we do not recommend that
every man should become his own lawyer. More, far more, is embraced
in that expression than people unacquainted with legal jurisprudence in its
voluminous details are aware of. But we would be understood as recom
mending that every one, who seeks to be regarded as a well-informed and
intelligent citizen and merchant, should have so much acquaintance with
law as, all must concede, belongs to a general and a business education.
Law o f Sales.
235
From the success which has attended this journal, and the prevailing
eagerness o f merchants to read on subjects connected with their profession,
we mistake much if these views w ill not meet a cordial response from
those whom we address. T h ey are no hasty opinions taken up by our
selves recently, and for the purpose o f shaping an article. But we began
some eight or nine years since to prepare a work, which should do some
thing to supply the want. Circumstances, and not inclination, have de
layed its completion until the present time.* And having treated some
what at large o f contracts generally, and sales in particular, as also
negotiable paper, we have, at the request o f the editor o f this Magazine,
prepared the remarks which follow on sales. T h ey may tend to illustrate
the views put forth in this introduction.
L A W OF SALES.
The contract o f sale is one o f immense interest to the whole community.
In a moral point o f view it involves many nice questions which have often
been discussed by writers on ethics. But when we reflect that buying and
selling is one o f the three great interests o f all civilized countries— that
the business o f the other two interests is managed extensively through its
instrumentality, and that all classes are largely buyers for their daily
necessities, comforts, and luxuries, the subject rises to its just dimensions.
It is indeed, as we have elsewhere said, by trade that the life-blood o f a
business community circulates, and its great emporium is the heart o f the
system. Its importance has greatly increased within the last fifty years,
and its progress is co-extensive with the spread o f civilization, the im
provements in mechanical skill, the extension o f the facilities o f inter
course, division o f labor, and the general advancement o f the race in
knowledge, taste, morals, and religion.
The contract o f sale is based upon the existence o f a common measure
of value or circulating medium. Hence when a sale is effected it is for
a price agreed in money. Though less primitive than a direct exchange
of one commodity for another, it is as ancient as the invention o f money.
One of the earliest sales we read o f is recorded in Genesis, in the case o f
the transfer o f the field o f Machpelah, for the price o f four hundred shekels
of silver, “ current money with the m e r c h a n t— Gen. chap. 23.
The
difference in amount and importance o f sales is such that we might as
well compare the structure o f a polypus to that o f a man, as the purchase
of the whistle by young Franklin to that o f Louisiana by Mr. Jefferson.
In generalizing our remarks, w e obviously neither intend those o f the one
extreme or the oth er; but those multiplied and daily business transactions
which are the result o f the wants o f the whole community.
Trade being the direct occupation o f one large class o f the community,
it is carried forward for gain. Y et good faith is essential to a transaction
requiring mutual engagements and reciprocal acts. And often something
better than simply cold calculating gain by driving a hard bargain, takes
place between buyer and seller. There often grows out o f a course o f
trade a high and honorable confidence between a trader and his customers.
And it is this which lends the brightest coloring to the mercantile pro
* More than four years o f this time were exclusively devoted to a field o f labor in this
city, connected with one o f its public institutions dear to the affections o f us all.— E d.
236
Law ' o f Sales.
fession. It is this which at once m orally elevates the merchant above the
trickish, petty chapman, and imparts to him the dignity which belongs to
those professions where the confidence o f the community necessarily so
largely reposes. There is something higher than mere considerations of
gain in the daily operations o f the merchant o f thirty or forty years’ stand
ing, still at stated periods supplying more or less o f the customers whose
acquaintance he formed in his youth.
The law o f sales has grown most rapidly within a few years past, and
the modern decisions m erely digested, would make a volume o f no small
size. The elementary treatises compiled for the profession are numerous.
Am ong the best o f these we may mention Long on Sales, (R and’s edition;)
Pothier, elegantly translated by the learned and accomplished editor o f the
Jurist; Ross on Purchasers and V en d ers; Brown on Sales, and Hil
liard on Sales. In the 2 d volume o f Kent’ s Com. on Am erican Law,
there is a very long title in which the various learning on the subject is
elaborately collected. Am ong all these there are none prepared for the
practical business man. W e shall in this article allude to two leading
considerations only, as indicating to the business man the method in which
the subject may be presented.
Perhaps there is no principle o f law applicable to the contract o f sales
o f more importance to be rightly understood than that which is indicated
by the familiar Latin cautionary phrase, caveat emptor— Take care, pur
chaser.
The principle when fully expressed, with all its limitations and qualifi
cations, is as follow s:
“ I f there be no warranty, and the goods be present to the parties, and
no fraudulent representations be made by the vender, the purchaser will
have no remedy after executing the contract, i f the goods turn out to be
o f a bad quality, unsound, or o f a different kind and denomination from
what they were thought to be by the parties.”
This is the common law
rule, and differs from the rule o f the civil law. A t times the courts in
this country and in England have been induced, from the special circum
stances o f some particular cases, to relax the rule. But the recent de
cisions have fu lly restored the old doctrine. And they have done so
mainly from the extreme difficulty o f framing any other that can be ap
plied successfully to practice. This rule is calculated to insure caution,
vigilance, and deliberation on the part o f purchasers, and it avoids the
temptation to subsequent litigation, when circumstances and feelings have
changed, and the purchase is less advantageous than was anticipated— an
occurrence which not unfrequently happens. The doctrine above stated
was laid down in the celebrated case o f Seixas vs. Wood, 2 Cains. 48,
and it has never been questioned, though the soundness o f its application
to that case lias often been canvassed.
Let us examine the limitations to the rule.
1. There must be no warranty.
2 . The goods must ba present to be inspected by the purchaser, and if
connected with other goods, they must be designated or laid out.
3. There must be no fraudulent representations made by the vender.
4. The contract must be executed.
In the first place, i f the purchaser have any doubt o f his own judgment,
i f he cannot spend time to make full inspection, i f the nature o f the article
be such that there is intrinsic difficulty in determining as to its quality or
Law o f Sales.
237
kind— in any o f these cases it is very easy to insist upon a warranty. A
warranty is a contract, the nature o f which is to guard the purchaser and
protect him from possible mistake or misapprehension, and to quiet his
fears.
2 . I f the goods be where there is no moral possibility o f examining
them, as when they have not arrived at the wharf, or are in hold, or at
some distant place, in these cases the vender must represent the kind,
quality, and soundness o f the goods truly, or else he w ill be responsible.
The purchaser reposes confidence from necessity, and i f upon actual sub
sequent inspection they do not answer the description, they may be reject
ed, or taken at a fair deduction o f price. I f the purchaser go into the
store o f the seller, and order goods without laying them out, in this case
there is a confidence placed, and the seller must furnish merchantable
goods o f the kind ordered.
3. I f the seller in his representations states what he knows to be false,
and uses any fraudulent practices to check inspection, this w ill vacate the
contract. T h e law abhors fraud, and whatever it enters into w ill be
vitiated by it.
4. Again : the rule applies only to executed contracts; that is, to con
tracts o f sale where the title has passed and possession has changed, so that
the goods m ay not be returned.
The case o f Seixas vs. W ood, decided in 1804, in N ew York, was cer
tainly a hard one. The sale was o f valuable wood called Brazilletto, and
the article delivered was peachum wood, o f little value. It had been ad
vertised as Brazilletto. The invoice shown to the plaintiff called it s o ;
and it was called so in the bill o f parcels. Y et there being neither express
warranty nor fraud, the sale was held to be good. The plaintiff’s agent
who examined it did not discover that it was not Brazilletto, nor did the
defendant know it was not the article described, until he had occasion to
use it. The only ground on which this decision has been complained of,
was, that the article being described as Brazilletto in the bill o f parcels,
it ought to be regarded as an implied warranty that it was that kind o f
article. The article was different in kind. But in fact the article which
the purchaser received was the same that was inspected at the s a le ; and
the great point is, that when the purchaser makes inspection o f the thing,
he is bound by the result. There was no deceit, for the seller was under
the same mistake. And where there is inspection, and no deceit or war
ranty, and the transaction is completed, the purchaser must pocket his
loss, and look out better next time.
In a recent case o f Hart vs. Wright, 17 W endell, Judge Cowan very
ably reviews all the cases, and among others recognises the case o f
Seixas vs. W ood, and says he thinks o f no exception except that in case o f
the sale o f food for mankind. In that case there is a warranty that the
article is fit to be eaten. Therefore, i f a man should, without warranty,
sell tainted meat, measled pork, or poisoned cheese, though he did not
know in either case it was so, and though the purchaser should examine
it, and not discover it was so, he would be liable. This rests upon
principles distinct from those which govern ordinary sales— viz, those
o f public policy.
Another case founded also on principles o f public policy may be men
tioned. It is where the parties stand in a peculiar and confidential relation
to each other: as for instance, the relation o f client and attorney, physician
VOL. vi.— n o . in.
29
238
Law o f Sales.
and patient, principal and agent, principal and surety, guardian and ward,
trustee and cestui que trust, partners and part owners. In any o f the above
cases, if there be any misapprehension o f any material or essential facts,
or any just suspicion o f artifice or undue influence, it will be fatal to the
validity o f the transaction. The policy o f law on this point is but the
echo o f enlightened moral sentiment. And when in times like these,
scarcely a week passes but some glaring case o f breach o f confidence of
some kind occurs, it is time for courts and moralists to speak out. The
rule in this case is not confined to the seller, but applies equally to the
buyer. And, “ wherever there is the relation o f em ployer and agent
existing in situations in which o f necessity much confidence must be
placed by the employer in the agent, then the case arises for watchfulness
on the part o f the court, that confidence shall not be abused.”
Dent vs.
Bennett, 7 Simons.
W e have as much as said already, that where there was a mere con
tract to sell, or a sale o f an indeterminate thing, the rule caveat einplor did
not apply.
The cases embraced under this head, are—
1 . W here goods o f a certain description are ordered, and not laid out
and selected by the purchaser.
2 . W here a thing is contracted for and is not manufactured, but is en
gaged to be manufactured.
3. W here articles are ordered for a particular purpose— as where a
man orders a garment for himself.
4. So i f one send his child or servant with an order for goods.
In each o f these cases there is confidence reposed in the seller, and
no examination o f the article by the purchaser. In all these cases there
is a chance to reject the article as soon as it comes to hand and is inspect
ed ; and the vender is bound to furnish a merchantable article— and in
the case o f its being ordered for a particular purpose, it may be rejected
i f it do not answer. The rule o f the civil law caveat venditer applies.
T h e seller must look out to supply an article which will answer. Thus
i f a purchaser apply personally for an article for any particular use, the
vender is bound either to supply one fitted to the purpose, or to decline the
application. I f one apply for a carriage horse, or one fit to carry a lady
or a timid and feeble rider, the seller who knows the quality o f his horses,
is bound to select one suitable for these purposes. And i f he recommend
one as suitable, he is bound by his recommendation. See Lon g on Sales.
But in regard to horses, it is now the universal practice to require a war
ranty, either general or qualified.
But there is another branch o f the rule caveat venditer w ell understood
by the trading community, which we m ay be excused in alluding to,
m ainly upon moral considerations. It applies to cases where the pur
chaser has important knowledge affecting the price or value o f the com
modity, and o f which he knows the seller to be ignorant. In the case of
Fox vs. Mackrith, Lord Thurlow stated the opinion, that “ in negotiating
for an estate, the purchaser would not be bound to disclose to the seller his
knowledge o f the existence o f a mine on the land, o f which he knew the
seller was ignorant. I f the estate was purchased for a price o f which the
mine formed no ingredient, he held that a court o f equity could not set
aside the sale, because there was no fraud in the c a s e ; and the rule of
nice honor must not be drawn so strictly as to affect the general transac
Law o f Sales.
239
tions o f mankind.”
Upon this the learned commentator upon American
law remarks, that the laws are not so perfect as the dictates o f conscience;
and the sphere o f morality is more enlarged than the limits o f civil juris
diction.
If, however, a word be dropped during the negotiation calculated to
mislead the vender, it w ill make a case o f artifice and fraud, against which
the courts will relieve. This was the view taken by the court in T urner
vs. Harvy. Pothier remarks, in conformity with the general doctrine, that
though misrepresentation or fraud w ill invalidate the contract o f sale, the
mere concealment o f material knowledge, which the one party has touch
ing the things sold, and which the other does not possess, may affect the
conscience, but will not destroy the contract, for that would unduly restrict
the freedom o f commerce ; and parties must at their own risk inform
themselves o f the value o f the commodity they deal in. The language
used here would apply to the seller as well as the buyer. But in the
this must, as it regards him, be taken with limitation. For it was decided
sale o f a ship which had a latent defect, known to the seller, and
which the buyer could not, by any attention, possibly discover, the seller
was held to he bound to disclose it, and the concealment was justly con
sidered to be a breach o f honesty and good faith. So in another case it
was stated that i f a man sells wine, knowing it to be corrupt, an action
of deceit lies against him, though there be no warranty.
In both the above cases the defects were not open to inspection. Had
they been, the law would not require the vender to aid and assist the obser
vation o f the vendee. Buyers must not go to sellers to take lessons in the
science o f observation. T h ey w ill prove too dear teachers.
But a case occurred soon after the late war, in N ew Orleans, which
illustrates how far a man may, in purchasing, avail him self o f the earlier
and superior information he may possess. It was the case o f Laidlaw vs.
Organ, eventually decided in the Supreme Court o f the United States, in
February, 1 8 1 7 ; and is notorious from its having given rise to a treatise
on the doctrine o f contracts, by Gulian C. Verplanck. The facts as they
appear on the record transmitted from the district court o f Louisiana dis
trict to the supreme court, were as follow s: 1ft the night o f the 18th o f
February, 1815, three persons brought to N ew Orleans, from the British
fleet, the hews o f the signing o f the treaty o f peace at Ghent. Mr. White,
one o f these persons, published this news in a handbill on the next morn
ing, being S u n d ay ; and it was made public by 8 o ’clock on the morning
of that day. This news was communicated on Sunday morning, by one
of the three gentlemen who brought it, to Mr. Organ, the plaintiff in the
suit below, and purchaser o f the tobacco in question. Mr. Organ called
on Francis Gerault, a partner in the firm o f Laidlaw & Co., soon after
sunrise on Sunday morning, before F . G. had heard the news. F . G.
asked him if there was any news which was calculated to enhance the
price or value o f the article about to he purchased ? The buyer was silent.
The purchase was made— the bill o f parcels delivered between 8 and 9
o clock— and the article immediately rose from thirty to fifty per cent.
The next day Francis Gerault was applied to for an invoice o f the to
bacco, when he made no objection to the sale, but promised to deliver the
invoice in the course o f the day. It also appeared that the parties had
been bargaining for this tobacco the preceding evening.
240
Tobacco Trade o f the United States.
N ow , bating the fact that this took place on Sunday morning, a thing
o f which the seller had no reason to complain, for he was equally a
Sabbath-breaker; I say, bating this fact, I think the feeling o f every in
telligent merchant would be, that Mr. Organ was justified in closing the
bargain as he did. And after all, he ran some risk, for the news might
have turned out to be a hoax. It seems that the defendant’s own moral
sense did not, when called on to complete the transaction, suggest to him
that he had been w ronged; he thought it an ordinary chance o f trade
which had turned against him. So thought the court. Hear what the
court saith:
“ The question in this case is, whether the intelligence o f extrinsic cir
cumstances which might influence the price o f the commodity, and which
was exclusively in the knowledge o f the vendee, ought to have been com
municated by him to the vendor ? The court is o f opinion that he was not
bound to communicate it. It would be difficult to circum scribe the con
trary doctrine within proper limits, where the means o f intelligence are
accessible to both parties. But at the same time each party must take care
not to say or do any thing tending to impose upon the other.”
A r t . V .— T O B A C C O T R A D E
O F T H E U N IT E D S T A T E S .
T h e tobacco plant, which is a native o f our country, and early con
sumed by the Indians, was, it is generally known, first carried to England
in 1584, by Sir W alter Raleigh. A s it soon came to be an important
commercial staple, it was made the subject not only o f royal proclamation,
but repeated acts o f parliament. In 1622, the annual import o f tobacco
into England from the United States, for the ten previous years, was
142,085 pounds. In 1624 it became a royal monopoly, and for the pur
pose o f encouraging its growth in our American colonies, its cultivation
was prohibited in England. A s early as 1615,* the fields, gardens, streets,
and public squares o f Jamestown, in Virginia,| were planted with tobacco;
which was used as a currency in that as w ell as many other o f the
southern states, and during our colonial dependence it formed a prominent
staple o f export to the parent country ; the yearly exports o f tobacco
from A m erica for the ten years preceding 1709, averaging about
28,858,666 pounds, o f which 11,260,659 pounds were annually consumed
in Great Britain, and 17,598,007 pounds in the countries o f Europe. In
1747, and the ten previous years, there were annually exported to Eng
land from the American colonies 40,000,000 pounds o f tobacco, 7,000,000
o f which was consumed in England. The annual revenue was about
4,500,000. In 1775 the annual export o f tobacco from the United States
* In 1620, ninety young women were sent over from England to America, and sold to
the planters for tobacco, at one hundred and twenty pounds each. The price at first was
one hundred pounds, which gradually increased to one hundred and fifty pounds.
t i n 1669 the crimes o f adultery and fornication were punished in Virginia by a fine
o f from 500 to 1,000 pounds o f tobacco.
241
Tobacco Trade o f the United States.
for the four preceding years was 1,000,000 pounds; for the thirty preced
ing it averaged 40,000,000, o f which 7,000,000 were consumed in great
Britain, and 33,000,000 in the European nations. In 1782, the annual
export o f tobacco during the seven preceding years o f our revolutionary
war had been 12,378,504 pounds. O f the total seven years’ exportation,
33,974.949 pounds were captured by the British. In 1789, the quantity
exported from the United States, together with the two previous years,
averaged about 90,000,000 pounds.
In 1834, the value o f tobacco used in the United States was estimated
at $10,000,000, o f which $9,000,000 were supposed to have been for
smoking Spanish cigars ; $6,500,000 for smoking Am erican tobacco and
chewing; and $500,000 for snuff; in 1838 the consumption o f tobacco
had increased to 1, 000,000 pounds, valued at $ 20 ,000,000 cost to the con
sumers, being seven pounds to each individual o f the whole popula
tion.
An error extensively prevails that the climate o f the southern states
alone is favorable to the cultivation o f the tobacco plant. This mistake is
apparent in the fact that it is not only produced in the south, but is culti
vated with success in most o f the more northern states, either at the east
or west. For the purpose o f exhibiting the extent o f the production o f to
bacco in the several states and territories, w’e subjoin a statistical account
of the production o f tobacco in the various parts o f the country, derived
from the last census, taken by the authority o f the federal govern
ment.
POUNDS OF TOBACCO GATHERED IN EACH STATE AND TERRITORY IN
Maine . . . .
New Hampshire
Massachusetts
Rhode Island .
Connecticut
.
Vermont
New York . .
New Jersey
Pennsylvania .
Delaware .
Maryland . .
Virginia
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia
Alabama
. .
.
. .
.
. .
. ,.
.
. .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. .
Pounds.
. .
30
. .
115
.
64,955
. .
347
. 471,655
. .
585
. .
744
. . 1,922
. 325,008
. .
272
24,816,012
75,347,106
16,772,359
.
51,519
. 162,894
. 273,302
Mississippi . . . .
Louisiana . . . .
Tennessee .
Kentucky . . . .
Ohio . . .
In d ia n a ........................
I l l i n o i s ........................
Missouri
. . . .
Arkansas . . . .
Michigan
. . . .
F l o r i d a ........................
Wiskonsin . . . .
I o w a ........................
District o f Columbia .
1839.
Pounds.
.
83,471
. 119,824
29,550.432
53,436,909
8,942,275
1,820,306
. 564,326
9,067,913
. 148,439
1,602
75,274
. .
115
8,075
55,550
Total in the U. States, 219,163,319
Tobacco constituting one o f the principal agricultural staples that is
exported, we exhibit the following tables o f the tobacco trade, showing the
amount o f exports from the United States annually, from 1821 to 1840 in
clusive, as w ell as the principal ports to which it is shipped, for which we
are indebted to H azard’s R egister:
29 *
242
Tobacco Trade o f the United States.
Statement o f the Tobacco, Snuff, and Manufactured Tobacco, exported from the United
States, annually, from 1821 to 1840, inclusive.
Years.
Hogs.
heads.
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
66,858
83,169
99,009
77,883
75,984
64,098
100,025
96,278
77,131
83,810
10 yrs.
824,245
1831
1832
1833
1834
1835
1836
1837
1838
1839
1840
86,718
106,806
83,153
87,979
94,353
109,442
100,232
100,593
78,995
119,484
10 yrs.
967,755
Value.
Av'age
Pounds of Value of
Value Pounds Manufac Snuff and Total Value
of Tobacco
per of Snuff. tured
ManufacVd
Trade.
Hhd.
Tobacco. Tobacco.
$5,648,962 $84.49
6,222,838 74.82
6.282,672 63.46
4,855,566 62.34
6,115,623 80.48
5,347,208 83.42
6,577,123 65.75
5,269,960 54.73
4,982,974 64.60
5,586,365 66.65
44,552
44,602
36,684
45,174
53,920
61,801
45,812
35,655
19,509
29,425
1,332,949
1,414,424
1,987,507
2,477,990
1,871,368
2,179,774
2,730,255
2,637,411
2,619,399
3,199,151
$149,083
157,182
154,055
203,789
172,353
210,154
239,024
210,747
202,396
246,747
$5,798,045
6,380,020
6,437,627
5,059,355
6,287,976
5,557,342
6,816,147
5,480,707
5,185,370
5,833,112
$56,889,291 $69.11 417,134 22,450,228 $1,946,410
$58,835,701
$4,892,388 $56.40
5,999,769 56.18
5,755,968 69.29
6,595,305 74.96
8,250,577 87.01
10,058,640 91.54
5,795,647 57.82
7,392,029 73.48
9,832,943 124.47
9,883,957 81.05
27,967
31,175
13,453
57,826
36,471
46,018
40,883
75,083
42,467
3,639,856
3,456,071
3,790,31C
3,956,579
3,817,854
3,246,675
3,615,591
5,008,147
4,214,943
$292,475
245,771
288,973
328,409
357,611
435,464
427,836
577,420
616,212
$5,184,863
6,295,540
6,044,941
6,923,714
8,608,188
10,494,104
6,223,483
7,969,449
10,449,155
$74,457,223 $76.83 371,343 34,746,026 $3,620,171
$68,193,437
T otal , 1,792,000 $131,346,514 $73.21 788,477 57,196,254 $5,566,581 $127,029,138
Statement showing to what Countries the Larger Portion o f the Tobacco is exported.
Y ea rs.
E n g la n d .
H h d s.
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
19,695
26,740
31,999
19,418
22,293
25,854
28,918
25,176
21,916
19,910
10 yrs.
1831
1832
1833
1834
1835
1836
1837
1838
1839
1840 .
F ra n ce.
H h d s.
H o lla n d .
H hds.
G erm a n y.
H h d s.
3,478
4,665
7,661
4,469
6,096
10,739
8,963
5,909
6,835
7,007
13,216
23,584
30,390
23,159
21,998
15,465
25,553
21,216
21,522
22,576
10,472
11,757
15,259
12,808
12,051
7,523
19,420
23,949
10,958
15,318
19,997
16,423
13,700
18,029
13,546
4,517
17,171
20,028
15,900
18,999
66,858
83,169
99,009
77,883
75,984
64,098
100,025
96,278
77,131
83,810
241,919
65,822
218,679
139,515
158,310
824,245
26,372
36,176
23,772
30,658
27,563
36,822
20,723
24,312
30,068
26,255
1,673
5,779
4,782
4,775
6,312
7,856
9,110
15,511
9,574
15,640
23,917
24,006
19,022
19,101
17,730
19,148
22,739
17,558
12,273
29,534
19,833
27,930
21,408
20,611
27,989
22,246
28,863
25,571
14,303
25,649
14,923
12,915
14,169
12,834
14,759
23,370
18,797
17,641
12,777
22,406
86,718
106,806
83,153
87,979
94,353
109,442
100,232
100,593
78,995
119,484
O th e r C o u n t r ie s
H h d s.
T o ta l H h d s.
10 yrs.
282,721
81,012
205,028
234,403
164,591
967,755
T
524,640
146,834
423,707
373,918
322,901
1,792,000
o tal ,
Tobacco Trade o f the United States.
243
The Hon. W illiam D. Merrick, United States Senator from Maryland,
communicated to the National Intelligencer, on the 25th o f January last, an
address to the tobacco planters o f the United States, forwarded to this coun
try by Joshua Dodge, Esq., from the city o f London, in November, 1840.
Mr. Dodge was appointed by the President o f the United States, at the
express and unanimous desire o f the select committee o f the house o f repre
sentatives on the tobacco trade, and o f the general convention o f tobacco
planters, held at Washington, in May, 1840, as a special agent to attend
to the interests o f the tobacco trade o f the United States with Europe. He
soon after embarked from N ew York, and proceeded, via England, to his
destination in Germ any. As the address o f Mr. D. contains suggestions
and information both interesting and useful to those interested in this
branch o f commerce and production, we have concluded to lay it before
our readers.
“ The following w ill show the actual consumption o f our tobacco in
Europe, and the estimated amount o f revenue derived by each govern
ment from the sa m e:
Russia
.
.
.
Holland
.
.
.
.
.
Belgium .
.
.
.
.
Great Britain
.
.
.
.
France
.
.
.
.
.
Spain
.
.
.
.
.
Portugal .
.
.
.
.
Italy, say Sardinia
.
.
.
Parma
.
.
.
Tuscany
.
.
.
Roman States
Naples
.
.
.
Austria and its dominions
Germany, (not including Austria,)
Sweden and N orw ay .
.
.
Denmark .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Hogsheads.
Revenue.
358
3,300
4,000
18,000
$64,000
5,200
10,000
3,000
363
1,2007
130
425
300
400 j
4,000
38,000
1,800
1,100
12,000
17,275,000
5,500,000
5,000,000
540,000
2 ,000,000
3,400,000
1, 200,000
70,000
5,620
86,396
$35,071,820
“ The annual average exportations o f our tobacco from the United
States from the 1st October, 1835, to 30th September, 1838, according to
the statistical statement which I had the honor o f addressing to the Hon.
Mr. Jenifer, under date o f April 27, 1840, was 103,422 hogsheads, cost
ing in the United States $7,748,772 ; o f which 97,651, costing $7,267,794,
were exported to Europe. The difference between the 97,651 hogsheads
and the quantity mentioned above as consumed, say 86,396 hogsheads,
(after deducting the small quantity consumed in Gibraltar and Malta, free
ports,) has unquestionably been smuggled from those countries o f Europe
where a low duty is charged into those countries where a different policy
is pursued, say into England, France, Spain, Portugal, and I t a ly ; and
there is also no doubt but that a large proportion o f that which I have
mentioned as consumed in Germany is smuggled into the great German
Union o f Customs, and also into Austria, from the other states where the
duty is low. However, one thing is certain, that on 86,396 hogsheads o f
American tobacco, costing in the United States $6,450,820, and legally in-
244
Tobacco Trade o f the United States.
troduced into Europe, a revenue is derived o f about $35,000,000, being
nearly six times more than its original cost.
“ T o bring this question home to each individual planter, the following
w ill show to what extent each one, according to the quantity he grows for
exportation, contributes to the revenue o f Europe.
“ Supposing, in round numbers, our exportations to Europe to be
100,000 hogsheads, and the revenue derived therefrom to be $35,000,000—
“ A n A m erican who raises 5 hogsheads contributes
$1,750
66
66
66
66
10
3,500
66
66
66
66
25
8,750
66
66
66
66
50
17,500
66
66
66
66
75
26,280
66 .
66
66
66
100
35,000
“ N ow , can it be supposed by any reasonable man that you will any
longer submit to such a state o f things ? The legislation of, and the duties
levied, and monopolies existing in Europe on our tobacco, appear to have
the double object o f obtaining an immense revenue from the smallest pos
sible quantity o f material, and is consequently deeply injurious to the pros
perity o f our agricultural interests, by preventing a greater quantity from
being cultivated. These high rates o f duties and monopolies in Europe
cripple your industry, preventing you from usefully and profitably extend
ing the cultivation o f your lands, which a bountiful Providence has, with
a most liberal hand, provided for you.
“ The following w ill show what would be the probable consumption of
Am erican tobacco in Europe if those high duties and monopolies were
abolished:
“ Taking the population o f the United States at 17,000,000, and its con
sumption at 75,000 hogsheads, (which, I believe, is far below the quantity,)
as the. criterion o f what the consumption would be in Europe, and consid
ering its population (not including European T u rk ey ) at 220,000,000, this
would make the consumption o f tobacco in Europe,
Hhds.
.
. 970,588
s a y .....................................................................................
“ From which the following should be deducted :
1 . The quantity grown in Europe, estimated from correct
sources, as follo w s:
Russia
.
.
.
.
.
. lbs. 21 , 000,000
Denmark .
.
.
225,000
Holland
.
.
.
.
.
5,800,000
Belgium
.
.
.
.
.
1,140,000
France
.
.
.
.
.
26,000,000
Germ any, not including Austria
40,000,000
Austria and its dominions
35,000,000
Island o f Sardinia
378,000
(Ionian States
.
.
.
.
1,215,000
Naples
. ' .
1,125,000
Switzerland
.
.
.
.
297,000
W allach ia .
.
.
.
.
1,350,000
Poland
.
.
.
.
.
3,150,000
136,680,000
245
Tobacco Trade of the United States.
Which, at 1,200 pounds per hogshead, would
be
.
.
. hhds. 113,900
2. I estimate the growth o f Cuba at lbs. 10,764,000
Porto R ico at
.
.
.
3,700,000
South Am erica at
3,000,000
lbs. 17,464,000
Equal, at 1,200 lbs. to the hhd., to 14,553 hhds. o f
which the greatest proportion is probably sent to
Europe, say
.
.
.
.
.
hhds.
12,000
-----------
125,900
Making the possible consumption o f Am erican tobacco in
Europe
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
844,688
“ But, taking into consideration the want o f means among the popula
tion o f many o f the countries o f Europe to purchase our tobacco, I will
suppose that the probable consumption o f Am erican tobacco in Europe
would be only about one h alf o f the above mentioned quantity, say
422,344 h h ds.; this would be more than four times our actual exporta
tions to the various countries o f Europe, and would require at least 300,000
tons o f extra shipping to carry it to market, and would increase the pecu
niary means o f our country more than twenty millions o f dollars annually,
adding an increased value to the state and other stocks o f our country in
foreign markets, and greatly augmenting the revenues o f our government
by affording us the means o f greater importations, and consequently a low
tariff, if the revenue should be found to be more than sufficient for the
economical wants o f our government.
“ The annual average importations into the United States from the va
rious countries o f Europe, from 1st o f October, 1835, to 30th September,
1838, amounted to $ 9 7 ,2 5 1 ,3 3 9 ; o f which $42,653,867, equal to 44 per
cent on the total average importations, were admitted free o f d u ty ; and,
as the average exportations o f our domestic produce o f all kinds to the
same countries o f Europe, during the same period amounted to $79,201,860,
it will be seen that we have admitted, free o f duty from Europe, an amount
of its produce more than equal to one h a lf o f the exports o f our domestic
produce to the same countries.
“ The average amount imported into the United States from Europe,
during the above mentioned period, which was subject to duty, was
$54,597,477 ; and as the total average amount o f revenue obtained by the
American government, for the two years ending 31st December, 1838, by
the importations from all parts o f the world, was $16,866,017, it may
safely be estimated that, as a large proportion o f the articles coming from
Europe were admitted free o f duty, the revenue which the United States
has derived from the importations from Europe has not exceeded ten m il
lions o f dollars an n u a lly ; so that i f this revenue should be equalized on
the total average importations from Europe, say $97,251,334, it would
only amount to a duty o f about 10 per cent, whilst Europe is obtaining
a revenue o f at least thirty-five millions o f dollars from 86,396 hhds. o f
our tobacco, costing, in the United States, $6,450,820.
“ Fellow-citizens, is this the reciprocity, is this the evenhanded justice,
we have a right to look for, and to expect from foreign countries, whose
industry, whose prosperity, and, it may also be said, whose tranquillity
246
Tobacco Trade o f the United States.
depend upon our great and annually increasing markets for the sale of
their produce ?
“ Let me, therefore, respectfully recommend to you to be firm in your
determination, and united in your efforts, to obtain justice, and you will
certainly succeed in every country o f Europe in obtaining a diminution of
the high duties, and the abolishing o f the shameful monopolies which exist
on your industry.”
W . G. Lvford, Esq., the editor o f the Baltimore Commercial Journal,
has republished in his valuable paper the foregoing address o f Mr. Dodge,
which he conceives to be essentially at variance with the official state
ments o f the secretary o f the treasury, transmitted to congress, under date
o f M arch 2 , 1841, and other data with which he has been furnished by
commercial friends, corroborative o f the ground he takes in opposition to
Mr. D odge’s report. W e quote from the Journal the remarks o f Mr.
L yford on this su b ject:
“ The annual imports o f tobacco into Russia, Mr. Dodge puts down at
358 hhds. The imports have been on an average annually o f 2000 hhds.,
besides 1000 hhds. o f Stems. Holland must consume much more than
3300 hhds. Last year 22000 hhds. were imported, o f which, probably
more than one half was consumed in the country. France has imported
about 15000 hhds. per annum ; in 1840, about 16000 hhds. The im
portation into Spain must be underrated. Austria may be a little over
rated. The statement that the duty there amounts to $850 per hhd. is en
tirely erroneous; and the revenue o f $3,400,000 includes no doubt the
profits on inland tobacco sold by the regie. The estimates o f the quantity
grown in Europe are equally incorrect. The cultivation in France is
nearly abandoned, and cannot be any thing near 26,000,000 lbs. The
estimate for Germany and Austria is too low . H ungary alone has pro
duced in one year 60,000,000 lbs.
“ A dear article never takes the place o f a cheap one. The tobacco
raised in Russia, Holland, Germany, Austria, Poland, & c., though mostly
o f inferior quality, is cheaper than American tobacco would be, i f imported
there free o f duty ; and the consumption in these countries could not he
much increased.
‘ •The estimate o f the production o f Cuba, the W est Indies, and South
Am erica, is much underrated. Porto R ico has exported to Germany alone
60,000.000 lbs. in a single y e a r ; and other important islands are lost
sight o f altogether. St. Domingo, for instance, raises large quantities of
tobacco, o f which upwards o f 20,000 bales were exported last year to
Germany.
“ The consumption o f the United States is probably much overrated, say
about one half, and comparatively a small portion is consumed by smokers
— by far the bulk is manufactured into ‘ chewing tobacco.’
O f the
growth' o f Maryland and Ohio, which is not fit for that purpose, only about
1,000 hhds. are annually consumed in the United States ; and taking this
as the basis, which the consumption in Europe ought to be, the actual ex
ports show an excess o f two thirds. The Europeans might jwssibly he
induced to consume more by smoking or snuffing, but thev would protest
against an extensive introduction o f chewing.
“ The interest o f the tobacco growers in the United States might, prob
ably, have been better represented, had Mr. Dodge attended the European
markets, noticed the samples as presented, and the condition o f the tobacco
Measurement o f Ships f o r Tonnage.
247
when uncased, and advised owners and planters o f the facts which exist
to their prejudice, as set forth in a letter received by a commercial house
in this city, o f which an extract follows. W e truly regret that a cause
existed for such a letter ; but our dealers should profit by it, and an in
vestigation take place where it porperly belongs.”
“ B r e m e n , D ec. 28, 1841.
“ W e shall hardly be able to effect any further sales b y your samples ;
as, much to our regret, we have convinced ourselves that several lots have
turned out much inferior when re-drawn here, and we shall have to make
some allow-ance in order to satisfy our customers. There is a difference
of 1«2 grots per lb. in several hbds. o f ------- ’s mark ; and among mark
-------, there are 10 hhds. which are on an average 2 grots per lb. inferior,
and hardly resemble your samples. W e are very sorry at such occu r
rences, as it must prejudice our buyers against these sales by Am erican
samples, which, under other circumstances, were very desirable on ac
count o f the saving in expenses.”
A rt. V I.— T H E M E A S U R E M E N T O F SHIPS F O R
TONNAGE.
A t the time our present rule o f measurement for the tonnage o f ships
was adopted, it undoubtedly gave a near result to their actual c a p a city ;
all vessels at that time being modelled more alike— shorter, wider, and
of less depth than they now are. But as it at present exists it is full o f
error, and is unfair and unequal in its application. It is as fo llo w s:
“ Length on deck from the forepart o f the stem to the after part o f the
stern post; width outside at the broadest part above the m ainw ales; depth
from the under side o f the upper deck to the ceiling o f the hold. Then
from the length subtract three fifths o f the width— this sum multiply by
the width and depth, and divide the product by 9 5 : the quotient gives the
register tonnage o f a single-decked vessel. But i f the vessel be double
decked, h alf the breadth o f beam is to be taken as the depth o f the hold,
(its real depth not being measured,) and the same process as before gives
the tonnage.”
Under this rule it w ill be seen that the same vessel m ay measure
more as single than as doubled decked, that a “ kettle bottom” w ill carry
three times as many barrels to a ton as a “ Baltimore c l i p p e r a n d that
in fact the registered tonnage o f a vessel without other knowledge is no
guide to her capacity.
As most shipping charges depend on the tonnage, a temptation has exist
ed to build vessels o f a form unsuited for sailing or working, ungainly in
appearance, and unsafe as seaboats, in order to obtain the greatest amount
o f capacity with the least o f measurem ent; and' thus evading a part o f
duties and expenses in our own as in foreign ports, as well as rendering
the introduction o f improvements in the models o f our ships slow and diffi
cult. Since our tonnage duties were taken off, and the English and other
foreign nations have adopted measurements differing from ours, the cases
are not so strong, but still the reasons exist. Yet fortunately for the credit o f
our country, the experience and good sense o f many o f our shipowners,
especially in the city o f N ew York, have taught them that to sacrifice
248
Measurement o f Ships f o r Tonnage.
every thing to the carrying qualities o f a ship is bad econom y— that extra
ballast, obtained, trimmed, and got rid o f with much labor and cost, also
costs extra power o f men, sails, and rigging to sail i t ; that a deep full
ship goes only on her side, will not carry sail when necessary, sails dull
and steers badly, is unsafe to run before the wind, and cannot be depended
on to ware or stay in em ergency; while on such vessels the underwriters
are most frequently called upon to make up loss and damage.
The measurement o f the cubic contents o f a ship’s hold is a complicated
and difficult problem ; at best but an approximate result can be obtained
by any rule which could be generally applied; it is highly desirable that
some system should be adopted, simple and uniform in its operation, not
likely to be misunderstood or misapplied, and which should give an answer
near enough to be a sufficient guide to the carpenter, merchant, and sailor
in the construction, freighting, and management o f a ship, whatever her
form m ay be.
The present English rule seems to answer this requisition, its accuracy
has been tested by complicated mathematical calculations, and the results
have proved that it gives the comparative capacity o f all ships, however
built, with tolerable accuracy. There appears no good reason why we
should not adopt it just as it stands. Our law was taken from their old
one ; its only merit is its simplicity, and even this is affected by the provision in favor o f double-decked vessels. The English have changed this
law because it has proved bad ; nor is it likely that the aid o f the best
mathematicians has been wanting to make the new one as correct and
simple as possible.
Extract from the statute 5 and 6 W illiam IV . cap. 56 :— “ Divide the
length o f the upper deck between after part o f stem and forepart o f stem
post into six equal parts; measure the depths at the foremost, at the mid
dle, and at the aftermost o f these points o f division, in feet and decimal
parts o f a foot, from the under side o f the upper deck to the ceiling at the
limber strake ; (in case o f a break in the upper deck, the depths are to be
measured from a line stretched in continuation o f the upper deck.) Divide
each o f these three depths into five equal parts, and measure the inside
breadths at the following points, v i z : at one fifth and at four fifths from
the upper deck o f the foremost and aftermost depths, and at two fifths and
at four fifths from the upper deck o f the midship depth ; at h alf the mid
ship depth measure the length from the afterpart o f the stem to the fore
part o f the stern post.
“ Then to twice the midship depth add the foremost and the aftermost
depths for the sum o f the depths: add together the upper and lower
breadths at the foremost division, three times the upper and the lower at
the midship division, and the upper and twice the lower at the aftermost
division, for the sum o f the breadths.
“ M ultiply the sum o f the depths by the sum o f the breadths, this product
b y the length, and divide the final product by 3 5 0 0 : the quotient will be
the number o f tons for register.
“ I f the vessel have a poop or h a lf deck or a break in the upper deck,
measure the inside mean length, breadth, and height o f such part thereof
as may be included within the bulkheads; multiply these three measure
ments together and divide the product by 92.4 : the quotient w ill be the
number o f tons to be added to the result first found.
“ In steam-vessels, after applying the same rule, the tonnage due to the
Measurement o f Ships f o r Tonnage.
249
cubical contents o f the engine room is deducted from the result, determined
as follows, v i z : measure the inside length o f the engine room in feet and
decimals from the foremost to the aftermost bulkhead ; multiply the said
length by the depth at the midship division as aforesaid, and this product
by the inside width at the same division at two fifths o f the depth from the
deck taken as aforesaid ; divide the last product by 92.4 ; and the quotient
shall be deemed the tonnage due to the cubical contents o f the engine
room.
“ For ascertaining the tonnage (temporarily) when laden, measure length
on upper deck as before; inside breadth on under side o f upper deck at
middle point o f length ; depth from under side o f upper deck down the
pump-well to the sk in : multiply these three measurements together and
divide the product by 130 ; the quotient gives the tonnage.
“ The various dimensions are set forth in the register, and the tonnage
carved on the main beam in figures at least three inches in length,” & c.
In Holland the dimensions o f all vessels are taken in eight or ten differ
ent places, and the burden calculated on the same principles.
In order to illustrate the foregoing remarks, the following descriptions
o f vessels have been selected as examples, their various dimensions having
been ascertained by models and drawings, and in some cases from actual
measurement.
First, A N ew Y ork modelled ship, calculated for a southern packet,
with large accommodations for passengers on deck, o f light draft o f water,
requiring but little ballast, and combining all other good qualities as far
as our improvements have gone. Dimensions: Length on deck 106 feet
6 inches; width o f beam 26 feet 4 inches; and depth o f hold 15 feet.
. 15.8 feet.
Depth at foremost division
Do. midship
.
.
.
.
. 15
Do. after
.
.
.
.
. 15.2
. 22.4
Width at one-fifth from deck, forward
. 14.5
Do.
four-fifths
do.
do.
Do. at one-fifth, aft
. 22.4
Do. at four-fifths, aft .
. 12.4
. 23.6
Do. at two-fifths, midship
Do. at four-fifths, do.
.
.
.
. 20.7
Length at h alf midship depth
.
.
.103
(Sum o f the depths 61 X sum o f the breadths 175.6 X length 103'r'3500
=315.22)— measuring as double-decked 330 tons, or as single-decked
377 tons, (having partner beams, but not a full deck below, which has
often caused questions,) by the foregoing rule will measure 315 tons with
out poop deck, which would add thirty or forty more, will actually stow
3600 barrels o f flour under deck, which is equal to 11 barrels to the ton,
government measure, or 11.6 to the ton by the rule.
Second, A vessel o f the class known as “ high-decked,” flat bottom and
shallow hold, and stiff with many kinds o f cargo without ballast. Length
91 feet; breadth 24 feet 4 inches; depth 11 feet 4 inches— gives gov
ernment tonnage 2 2 1 ; by the English rule 182 tons— will carry 2100
barrels— equal to 9.5 per ton government, or 11.5 by the rule.
Third, A sharp-built “ Baltimore clipper,” o f the class w ell known as
the fastest sailers in the world. In such vessels, the stern and especially
the stern-post, rake very much— the dead rise is five or six inches to the
foot; the deck oval-shaped, wide amidships and narrow at the stern, and
VOL. vi.— n o . in.
30
250
Russian Law o f Co-partnery in Trade.
draught o f water two or three feet more aft than forward. Say length 91
feet; breadth 26 feet; depth 13 feet. Government measure 268 tons,
while the foregoing rule gives but 161. Stows 1750 barrels, which is
6 i to the ton, government, or 11 by the rule.
Fourth, The antipode to the last: a ship o f the kind such as were built
several years since, mostly at our eastern ports, for the freighting business,
called “ kettle-bottoms.” T h ey were calculated expressly to “ cheat the
tonnage ” as much as possible, but fortunately are in bad repute and fast
going out o f fashion. O f great length in proportion to the width— beam
measuring several feet more below water than at the deck, and preserving
the same width very far forward and aft. Stem very little, and stern no
rake. Floor long and flat, without dead rising ; very full bows and stern,
and very deep hold. Say length 120 fe e t; breadth 25 feet, (28 feet 6
inches below w ater;) depth 21 feet. Gives government measure 335
tons— by the rule 568 tons. Such a vessel would probably stow 6500
barrels or more, equal to 19.5 barrels to the ton, government, or three
times as many as the clip p er; while by the foregoing rule her rate would
be 11.6 barrels to the ton.
It needs but to call attention to this subject to demonstrate the unequal
bearing o f the present rule. It is evident that by substituting a better mode,
the improvements in shipbuilding, which are so hard to introduce, will
become general, and a new impulse given to invention, while it is con
ceived that no interests can be injuriously affected by the change.
A rt. V II.— R U SS IA N L A W O F C O -P A R T N E R Y IN T R A D E .
0
F rom the explanation o f the regulations about guilds, in the Merchants’
Magazine for January, 1842, it appeared that every merchant carrying
on trade in Russia, whether a Russian subject or a foreign guest, must
belong to a guild, and be possessed o f a proper license, by which his priv
ileges, immunities, and obligations are determined. The substance o f the
laws regulating matters o f co-partnery and the responsibility o f merchants
trading in partnership, is as follow s:—
1 . Parents with their children, trading in one firm, are considered
natural partners, with one joint capital, and require only one license, in
which the parent and his children are named, paying only one single an
nual ra te; the father, or i f he be dead the mother, being responsible with
the whole property o f the family that shares the concern, and is accord
ingly amenable to law. Brothers, trading in one firm, with a joint capital,
also require one license only, with payment o f a single rate, and are
jointly responsible and amenable to law.
2 . Merchants’ widows, but not merchants’ daughters, are allowed to
carry on trade in their own names. Sons o f merchants, not separated
from their fathers’ or mothers’ concerns, nor trading on licenses o f their
own, are not allowed to contract debts, or enter into liabilities by signing
bills, contracts or bonds, except by special full powers from their parents,
registered by local authorities; nor can they contract private debts in
their own names, without the consent o f their parents.
Russian Law o f Co-partnery in Trade.
251
3 . A merchant’s wife’ s property, unless she be declared her husband’s
partner in trade with that property, is not responsible for the debts and lia
bilities o f her husband, and it cannot be touched by creditors no more than
that o f children separated from their parents’ concern, whether they be in
trade or not. A father is, however, for himself, entitled to take aw ay and
dispose o f the property o f his son, although the latter be trading for him
self ; the father being for life considered the natural guardian o f his son’s
conduct and property. These regulations refer both to Russian subjects
and foreign guests.
4. W hen there is co-partnery between any two or more merchants, not
related to one another in the first degree, each, though they be trading
jointly, must be provided with, and pay the full rate of, a license for him
self, provided he be a full partner o f the con cern ; but the possession o f a
license is not required o f a mere shareholder or “ sleeping partner,” who
confines himself to the contribution o f a certain capital on condition o f hav
ing a share in the profits; but foreign guests have to sign a declaration
that they have no secret partners residing in Russia. The Russian law
thus distinguishes two capacities o f partnership, namely— 1st, full part
nership ; and 2d, partnership in trust, or mere shareholding. Merchants
only, that is to say holders o f licenses, can be full partners, while individ
uals o f any rank or class o f society may be shareholders in a company,
with or without licenses o f their o w n ; the partnership in trust being em
bodied in the full partnerships.
5. A full co-partnery, composed o f two or more individual merchants,
agreeing by contract to carry on business together, under a firm, in which
their names are joined, is called a commercial house. It must be founded
on a regular contract, registered by a public notary, containing the terms
and the endurance o f terms agreed upon, and such contract enjoys validity
equal to that o f promulgated laws relative to the reciprocal obligations o f
the contracting parties among themselves, as well as their responsibility
towards the public. The agreements o f foreign guests between themselves
and their friends at home, are not required to be registered in Russia, such
individuals having barely to procure licenses and to sign declarations that
they have no secret partners residing in Russia.
6 . The declared full partners o f a commercial house are responsible
“ in soli’dum,” to the extent o f the whole o f their moveable and immove
able property and profits, for all debts, obligations, and liabilities contracted
by the concern. The full co-partner o f one commercial house is not, at
the same time, allowed to be the full co-partner o f another, although he
may be a shareholder in other concerns, as an investment o f property be
longing to him.
7. A commercial house or full co-partnery cannot be opened, nor have
legal commercial existence without having been regularly announced to
the public by circular letters, and by a corresponding declaration made
thereof at the town-house where the parties are resident; such declaration
setting forth the nature o f the co-partnership, whether full, or in trust from
shareholders, or both ; who the responsible partners are, by their christ
ened and surnames ; the amount o f capital contributed by each, and the
signature and seals o f such full partners as are intrusted with the manage
ment o f the business and the representation o f the firm ; together with the
amount o f capital derived from shareholders in trust, i f any. It is not re
252
M orals o f Trade.
quired that the latter be named in said declaration, they being comprised
in the addition o f “ and company” to the firm.
8 . The town-house reports to the ministry o f finances on every estab
lishment formed, with such particulars, as the declaration made, sets forth,
as well as to the customhouse and commercial court.
9. The shareholders in trust o f a co-partnery are only responsible to
the public for the debts o f the house, to the extent o f the capital contributed
by them, consequently they cannot reclaim it, or appear as creditors for
it, i f the firm become insolvent, nor withdraw the capital contributed be
fore the expiration o f the contract, or some time therein stipulated. Money,
lent at mere interest, does not constitute a shareholder, and qualifies a
mere creditor o f the concern. Shareholders in trust, unless they be de
clared managers by full power from the responsible partners, or their firm,
cannot, as mere shareholders in trust, transact business, or contract lia
bilities with anybody in the name, and for account o f the firm.
10 . The law also admits o f joint-stock companies, under an anonymous
firm, composed o f a number o f shareholders, one or more o f them becom
ing permanent or elective managers o f the establishment, without being
subject to the regulations concerning full co-partners; but managing the
concern according to the provisions o f the contract, chartered to such com
pany by government, and published in official papers at full length.
11. The number o f such joint-stock companies is now very considerable
in Russia and increasing continually. The principal establishments o f
this kind are— the Fire Insurance, Life Insurance, Steam Navigation,
Gas-lighting, Cotton Spinning, Am erican Trading. Railroad, W ater Conduct
ing, etc., Companies at St. Petersburg; the Maritime Insurance Company
at O dessa; the Silk Raising, Sheep Raising, Asiatic Trading, Linen and
Hemp Manufacturing, Beet Root Sugar Refining, Havana Sugar Refining,
Steam Navigation, and other companies in different parts o f the empire.
12 . There is also a regular system o f granting patents for new inven
tions, and the introduction into the country o f inventions patented in other
countries.
A rt. V III.— M O R A L S O F T R A D E .
NUMBER FOUR.
T here are mooted questions relating to trade, some o f which we pro
pose, in the course o f these papers, to discuss. Am ong these none is more
worthy o f consideration than, whether one who has failed in business, and
afterward reinstated himself in point o f properly and credit, is bound by the
laws o f honor to pay his old debts ; debts from which he received a dis
charge by giving up all his property— o f course he is free from any legal
liability.
W e take the position, for the sake o f the argument, that he is not under
any obligation to pay these old debts. And in order to reach the right o f this
question, we must examine the mutual relations o f buyer and seller, of
borrower and lender. A purchases goods o f B, or borrows money o f him,
for which he gives his note payable in six months. A has often obtained
and fulfilled such credit, and B is glad to sell to him or lend him money
Morals o f Trade.
253
to any amount. A s long as business goes on prosperously, B feels himself
to be the obliged party. But some unforeseen accident happens in mercan
tile affairs; the currency is deranged; there is a war or an epidem ic;
business is at a stand. A cannot meet his demands. H e fails and relin
quishes all his property for the use o f his creditors. W hen he created
this indebtedness he did it in good faith, and, accident apart, B would have
reaped great benefit from his dealings with A . N ow the question occurs,
upon whom the weight o f the accident shall fall. Here is a contract
mutually advantageous to two individuals, the buyer and se lle r ; the dark
days come— must A bear all the burden, and spend the remainder o f his
life in saving B from any possible loss in a case over which he had no
control ? W hen A borrowed o f B, w hy did he agree to pay him seven per
cent for his money ? W a s it not to cover the risk as w ell as the use ?
Or, when he purchased the goods, did he not allow B a handsome profit
upon them ? How can it be, we would ask, that B, who considers him
self the obliged party, as long as things go on smoothly, the moment any
difficulty occurs, refuses to bear his share o f the loss ?
The whole difficulty o f this question consists in the erroneous idea that
the seller or lender is the obliging party. The fact that he gives credit to
the buyer and enables him to conduct his business, is considered a matter
of so great accommodation, that he must be paid for it at any cost. But
it is not so. The country merchant, the city retailer, are the agents, in
one sense, o f the importer. Th ey buy o f him to distribute again, and his
profit must come from the consumer. H e is as much interested to sell as
they are to buy. He is receiving benefit in the main from such operations,
and he must bear his share o f the risk. Is it not true, besides, that the
importer or jobber holds out inducements to the country merchant to buy
when he esteems his credit good ; and often forces upon him more goods
than he can prudently carry to his market ? A ll these matters must be
considered in settling this question ; and besides, it must be kept in mind
that the seller walks with his eyes open. H e can select his own agents;
give or refuse cred it; easily learn the state o f him to whom he intrusts his
property. Moreover, the obligation is not on one side ; it is a mutual risk.
The retailer hopes to prosper and to be able to take up his notes in due time.
He is rational in his expectations, prudent and economical in his expenses.
But he may fail. H e does not control the currency, the government, the
trade o f the nation. Property falls ; money is scarce ; the crops are cut
o ff; acting in good faith, supported by experience, still his hopes are dis
appointed, and his goods are sold under the hammer, and he has not a
shilling in the world.
This is no unusual case. But the energy o f a man is left to him. He
has a family to support, and he struggles on in spite o f his losses. H e
succeeds not only in gaining a support, but enjoys his accustomed luxury.
Is he to blame because he does not cancel his old debts, under the view
we have taken o f the relations o f buyer and seller ? W e think not.
But still another difficulty lies in the w ay o f a true view o f our ques
tion, which we have decided in the negative, with the understanding that
there has been no fraud, no misrepresentation, no carelessness, no extrav
agance. And this difficulty is, that they who argue against us, take it
for granted that misfortunes in business, some how or other, involve some
laxity o f principle, or, at least, some culpable carelessness. Far be it
from the writer to assert that every man must not make amends for all his
30 *
254
M orals o f Trade.
neglects. Show a case where failure is the consequence o f wilful fault,
and our argument does not apply. W e then shall take the other side, and
say that the law o f honor requires payment to the last farthing.
The newspapers were lately lauding a man who worked at day-labor
for twenty years or more to pay his endorsement on notes which he had
given to oblige a friend, and from which he had never reaped a cent o f
benefit. This was h e ro ic; and yet we must confess it looks a little
Quixotic. This case is a kind o f infatuation o f honesty. It looks too
much like praying in the market-place. Still, let us not judge the man
harshly. It may be he imprudently became security for his friend ;
without sufficient examination, without reflection. He endorsed those
notes, perhaps, as people often endorse paper, for the sake o f a like accom
modation to himself. In this view he did perfectly right in slaving him
self to pay. He did but an act o f bare justice, unusual and extravagant
as it m ay seem. W hat we object to is the calling o f the act by a wrong
name. W e believe it was noticed as a case o f “ remarkable honesty
as i f all men are bound to do likewise according to the laws o f trade, the
morals o f trade— a position to which we object. The man had a perfect
right to do this act. I f his conscience demanded the sacrifice, he is a hero.
But nevertheless this instance must not operate as a silent rebuke upon
those who under the principles w e have endeavored to establish do not the
same.
A story is also current among business men, o f a merchant who, failing
in trade, left his country, in poverty, and, after an absence o f many years,
returned- He made a great entertainment and invited all his creditors,
to whom he had before this paid as much as he could ; and under the
plate o f each one was found a check for the full amount o f the debts from
which they had long ago discharged him, with interest to the very day.
This was a fine act— the luxury o f honesty. Such a man never could
have failed by any fraud. But we appeal to our readers i f these cases
are instances upon which principles are to be established for the regula
tion o f trade.
Not one in a hundred is able to do this, even i f he have all the will in
the w o rld ; and must he, who cannot do it, consistently with the claims o f
his children to support and education, feel that a stigma rests upon his
nam e? Not s o ; all the laws o f justice'forbid it ; equity and the law of
the land do not require it, nor does religion make the demand.
It is questionable i f such anecdotes do not work harm to public morals.
T h ey do aw ay nice distinctions, and for the substance and principles of
justice and fairness, they substitute a wild heroism o f action which in
grasping at one noble act tramples in the dust some humble virtues. Let
us suppose, to illustrate our meaning, that the day-laborer, first noticed,
in putting before his mind this exciting object, this practical satire upon
public honesty, neglected his health, his home, his children ; gave nothing
to schools, to religion, to public improvements. Absorbed in this one ob
ject, every thing else was forgotten, and his duties as a husband, a father,
a citizen, a being dependent upon God, were made to yield to this chival
rous act o f honesty. W e sSy in such a case the infatuation o f the man
is an object o f pity, and we must think better o f his heart than o f his
head.
And so, too, o f the second case we have noticed, i f we may suppose cir
cumstances about it, is it not possible that great sacrifices o f important
M orals o f Trade.
255
principles may have enabled the man to do this great thing ? M ay not a
love o f reputation, o f superiority, o f notariety, had as much to do with the
act as duty ? The fact is, it was not d u ty ; or rather, it was only duty to
this very man, because he thought it to be so, and his conscience demand
ed it. In this case too we must think better o f the impulses o f the man
than o f his reasoning powers.
It is certainly important to come to a right understanding upon this
point.
The position we have assumed to advocate, looks paradoxical upon a
superficial view ; and yet it really rests upon common sense and argu
ment. The safety o f commercial enterprise depends upon it. W e suc
ceed by experiment in science ; by seeking we find. There are uncer
tainties in trade, experiments which may be made with reasonable hope
o f success. A man is under obligation to use prudence, but the best hu
man wisdom is not certain in its attempts. I f misfortune overtake a man,
in enterprises in which the public are interested almost as much as him
self, is this mill-stone o f debt to weigh upon his conscience and cramp his
energies, destroy his self-respect and his happiness, from some ultra notions
about honesty ? The projector o f some great work which does honor to
the country; widens commerce ; adorns cities ; connects by easy travel
distant places ; which gives employment to hundreds o f needy persons,
may fail. Such a man often fails because he has been so much occupied
with the public interest that he has lost sight o f his o w n ; and must he be
forever bowed down by this weight o f debt ? Must he who has performed
such services for the public be a slave while others are free in the very
enjoyment o f means his enterprise planned ? Is the public interest, na
tional prosperity, to fatten upon the vitals o f such a man ?
Let us be satisfied in asking for justice, a justice decided upon a full
view o f the whole matter, and not that impulsive justice, which, like indis
criminate charity, often creates the very wants it would, in a blind enthu
siasm, relieve. B y asking too much there is danger o f losing all. B y
laying down impracticable rules as principles, we may weaken the sense
of moral obligation ; because it is almost certain that these rules w ill be
broken and evaded, and with them other regulations o f vital importance,
[f it be true that governments may legislate too much ; that too many laws
and enactments take away the soul, the elasticity, the moral spring o f a
people, and end in brutal revolution and rivers o f b lood ; it is also true in
trade, and in all those smaller conventional governments, which divide a
country into little principalities, over which public sentiment reigns as
dictator, the mechanics, the merchants, the professions, that the principles
they profess by being too strict, leaving little or nothing to the individual,
which he may do or not do, as he pleases, w ill produce anarchy and con
fusion.
T o apply this reasoning to the question under discussion, we believe
fewer instances would be found in which old debts would be left unpaid,
by allowing the merchant who had failed to consult his conscience upon
the matter, rather than an exacting rule. If, on the contrary, any stain
remained upon him i f he did not pay, when perhaps he would not do so,
from circumstances about which the public could have no means o f know
ing, it would rob him o f peace and happiness, and put it out o f his power
to give that attention to his business necessary to his success. Besides, a
wrong public sentiment would palsy his efforts to restore himself to a con
256
Laics relative to Debtor and Creditor.
dition in which he might satisfy the claims o f his creditors. Therefore it
is that we contend that no stigma should rest upon a man who does not
deprive himself o f every thing to pay claims from which he has been dis
charged.
A rt. IX .— L A W S
R E L A T IV E
TO
D E B T O R A N D C R E D IT O R .
NUMBER X V .
W IS K O N SIN T E R R IT O R Y .
ORGANIZATION AND JURISDICTION OF THE COURTS.
T he supreme court is the highest judicial tribunal in the territory, and
exercises an appellate jurisdiction, only, from the district courts.
It
is composed o f three judges, each o f whom holds a district court twice in
every year in the counties composing his respective district. The district
courts have original jurisdiction within their respective districts in all civil
actions in law or in equity, and appellate jurisdiction in all cases in their
several districts from the probate court and decisions o f justices o f the
peace. The said courts in term time, or the judges thereof in vacation,
have power to award throughout the territory, returnable in the proper
county, writs o f injunction, ne exeat, and all other writs and process
which may be necessary to the due execution o f the powers with which
they are invested; and the said courts respectively have power to hear
and determine all cases o f crimes and misdemeanors committed within
their districts. The supreme court holds its session, annually, at Madi
son, the seat o f government, commencing on the first Monday o f July.
The following are the ju d g e s:
Hon. Charles D unn, Chief Justice, and Presiding Judge, 1st District.
“ D avid Irvin , Associate “
“
“
2 d.
“
“ A ndrew G. M iller,
“
“
“
3d.
“
Reporter o f Decisions o f the Supreme Court— Hon. Jonathan E . Arnold.
United States District Attorney— Thomas W . Sutherland, Esq.
Attorney General f o r the Territory— Mortimer M. Jackson, Esq.
In the territory o f Wiskonsin all writs and process are in the name of
the United States. Suits for the collection o f debts are commenced, either,
1st. B y summons, or original w rit; or,
2d. By capias ad respondendum; or,
3d. B y declaration ; or,
4th. B y attachment.
B y a summons, which is issued b y the clerk o f the court, on a prcecipe
being filed by the attorney, the defendant is m erely commanded to appear
and answer the complaint o f the plaintiff on the first day o f the term.
A capias ad respondendum is issued in any action o f debt, assumpsit, or
in any action founded upon contract, upon the plaintiff", his agent, or attor
ney, making affidavit before some supreme court commission, or district
judge, stating that the defendant is indebted to him, and in what sum, and
as he verily believes, either,
1st. That such defendant is a non-resident o f the territory, and that the
debt was contracted therein; or,
2 d. That he is about to remove his residence from the territory, with
intent to defraud his creditors : or.
Laws relative to Debtor and Creditor.
257
3d. That he has removed his property out o f the territory for the pur
pose o f defrauding his creditors.
When the defendant is arrested under the writ o f capias ad responden
dum, he must either give bail in the penal sum o f double the amount
sworn to be due, with two sureties, at least, each o f whom shall make af
fidavit that he is worth the amount stated in the bond over and above all
his debts, or he must be committed to prison for the want o f such bail.
He can, however, be discharged from custody upon application to a judge
of the district court, supreme court commissioner, or justice o f the peace,
and giving notice o f such application to the person at whose suit the arrest
was made, and rendering a schedule o f all property, money, and effects
within the territory, and delivering the property over to the proper officer
to satisfy the plaintiff or plaintiffs, or a sufficient amount to satisfy the
debt, and taking and subscribing an oath that such schedule is correct.
A suit is commenced by declaration, by filing in the office o f the clerk o f
the proper county a declaration, entering a rule in the minutes kept by such
clerk, requiring the defendant to plead to such declaration within twenty
days after service o f a copy o f such declaration and notice o f such rule,
and serving a copy o f such declaration and notice o f such rule personally
on the defendant, which service may be made by the attorney o f record,
or by any officer competent to serve process in the district courts o f the
territory. W henever a suit is commenced by declaration, such declara
tion is considered the first process in the cause.
An attachment suit may be commenced in the territory when any cred
itor, his agent, or attorney, shall make oath in writing before any proper
officer, that his debtor has absconded, as he verily believes, or shall satisfy
such officer that such debtor is about to abscond, to the injury o f his cred
itors, or that such debtor is not a resident o f the territory, or that he so
conceals him self as to avoid the service o f process, or that such debtor is
about to remove his property or effects out o f the territory, or is about
fraudulently to remove, convey, or dispose o f the same, so as to hinder or
delay his creditors, and shall file the same with the clerk o f the district
court, such clerk shall issue a writ o f attachment. This attachment
reaches all the lands, tenements, goods, chattels, rights, credits, moneys,
and effects o f the creditor, except such as are exempt from execution,
wheresoever the same may be found. N o attachment issued under the
provisions o f the statute, at the suit o f any person who is not a freeholder,
or a resident o f the county, shall be served by the said officer, unless the
same shall be endorsed by some freeholder o f the county as security for
costs.
If the plaintiff, or other credible person, shall make oath that he has
good reason to, and verily does believe, that any person (naming him)
has property (describing the same) in his possession belonging to the de
fendant in the attachment, such person shall be summoned as a garnishee
to appear at court and answer under oath all questions put to him touch
ing the property and effects o f the defendant in his possession, or within
his knowledge, and such garnishee shall stand liable to the plaintiff in the
attachment from the day o f service. And a suit o f capias ad responden
dum may be instituted against such garnishee, who shall be held to special
bail, on the plaintiff, or other credible person, making and filing oath that
he has good reason to, and verily does believe, that such garnishee w ill
abscond before judgment and execution can be had against him.
258
Laws relative to Debtor and Creditor.
The first and second term after the issuing o f the writ o f attachment, the
defendant is called and his default entered; at or before which second
term the said plaintiff, and every other creditor o f the defendant, may file
their declarations setting forth in a proper manner their cause o f action.
After judgment for the plaintiff in the attachment, the property attached
shall he sold, and the proceeds thereof, after discharging the judgment of
the first attaching creditor, shall be divided among the other creditors in
proportion to the amount o f their respective judgments.
Creditors whose demands amount to not more than fifty dollars, and not
less than five dollars, may sue their debtors by attachment, before a justice
o f the peace in the following cases :—
1st. W hen the debtor is not a resident o f the territory.
2d. W hen the debtor has absconded or concealed himself, so that the
ordinary process o f law cannot be served upon him.
3. W hen the debtor is about to abscond, or remove his property out of
the territory, so as to hinder and delay his creditors.
4th. W hen there is good reason to believe that the debtor is about fraud
ulently to convey or dispose o f his property or effects, so as to hinder or
delay his creditors.
E very action instituted by attachment must be brought before some
justice o f the county wherein the property o f the defendant may be found.
BILLS OF EXCHANGE AND PKOMISSOEY NOTES.
A ll bills o f exchange which may be drawn within the territory, upon
any person or persons, body politic or corporate, out o f the United
States, or territories thereof, and which shall be protested for non-accept
ance or non-payment, the drawer or endorser o f such bills shall pay them
with legal interest, according to their tenor, and twenty per cent damages
in addition, together with the costs and charges o f protest. The damages
on all bills o f exchange drawn on some person or persons, body politic or
corporate, out o f the territory, but within some state or territory adjoining
the territory o f Wiskonsin, are five per cent, but when drawn on some
person or persons, body politic or corporate, out o f the territory, but not
within a state or territory which adjoins the territory o f Wiskonsin, the
damages are ten per cent.
A ll promissory notes in writing made and signed by any person, or by
a factor, or agent o f any merchant or trader usually intrusted therewith,
whereby such person, or any merchant or trader, by such factor or agent,
shall promise to pay to any other person, body politic or corporate, his or
their order, or unto bearer, any sum o f money therein mentioned, shall by
virtue thereof be taken and construed to be due and payable as therein
expressed, and shall have the same effect and be negotiable in like man
ner as inland bills o f exchange, according to the custom o f merchants ;
and the payees or endorsees o f every such note payable to them, or their
order, shall and may maintain their action for such sum o f money, against
the makers and endorsers o f the same respectively, in like manner as in
cases o f inland bills o f exchange, and not otherwise.
JUDGMENTS.
A ll judgments in the district court o f the territory have the operation of,
and are liens upon, the real estate o f the person or persons against whom
such judgments may be rendered, from the day o f the rendition thereof, in
Laws relative to Debtor and Creditor.
259
the county within which such judgment may be rendered, and the county
or counties thereto attached for judicial purposes. It is made the duty o f
the clerk o f any court in which such judgments have been rendered, when
applied to for the purpose, to make out an attested copy o f the record o f
such judgment, authenticated by the seal o f the court, which attested copy
may be filed in the office o f the clerk o f any district court within the terri
tory, and when so filed it shall operate as a lien upon the real estate o f
the person or persons against whom such judgment may have been ren
dered, situate in the county in which the same may have been as afore
said filed and entered, in the same manner and to the same legal extent
that the same would have done had such judgment been originally in the
district court o f the said county. N o judgment can operate as a lien on,
or bind real estate, after the lapse o f ten years from and after the date o f
the rendition thereof, unless the same be renewed and revived by scire
facias against the judgment debtor, his heirs, or devisees, or terre tenants.
EXECUTIONS.
Real estate sold under execution in the territory, or any distinct part or
parcel, may be redeemed within two years from the date o f the sale o f the
same. The terms and manner o f redeeming real estate are by the pay
ment to the purchaser, his personal representatives, attorney or assigns, or
to the officer who made such sale, for the use o f such purchaser, o f the
sum o f money which was bid on the sale o f such real estate, together with
interest on that sum from the time o f sale at the rate o f twelve per cent
per annum. The following property is exempt from sale and levy under
execution:— A ll spinning-wheels, weaving-looms or stoves, put up, or
kept for use in any dwelling-house. The family bible, family pictures, and
school books used by or in the fam ily o f such person, and books, not exceed
ing in value one hundred dollars, which are kept and used as part o f the
family library. A seat or pew occupied by such person or his family in
any house or place o f public worship. A ll sheep to the number o f ten, with
their fleeces, and the yarn or cloth manufactured from the same ; one cow,
five swine, the necessary food for all o f them, all pork, beef, fish, flour, and
vegetables actually provided for fam ily use and necessary for six months’
support, and necessary fuel for the family for one year. A ll wearing
apparel, beds, bedsteads, rocking cradle, and bedding provided for the use
of such person and his family, necessary cooking utensils, one table, six
chairs, six knives and forks, six plates, six teacups and saucers, one sugardish, one milk-pot, one tea-pot and six spoons, one crane and its append
ages, one pair o f andirons, and a shovel and tongs ; other household
furniture necessary for the debtor and his family not exceeding fifty dol
lars in value. The tools and implements o f any mechanic or miner ne
cessary to the carrying on o f his trade, not exceeding one hundred dollars
in value. The uniform o f an officer, non-commissioned officer or private
in the militia, and the arms and accoutrements required by law to be kept
by him. Rights o f burial and tombs, whilst in use, as repositories for the
dead. A ll necessary farming utensils not exceeding in value forty dol
lars, and one work horse not exceeding in value sixty dollars, or one yoke
of oxen, are exempt from execution where the principal occupation o f
the debtor is farming. The libraries o f lawyers, physicians, and clergy
men, and surgical instruments are exempt from execution, not exceeding
two hundred dollars in value.
260
Laws relative to Debtor and Creditor.
CONVEYANCES.
A ll deeds or other conveyances o f any lands, tenements, or heredita
ments lying in the territory, signed, sealed and delivered by the parties
granting the same, and signed by two or more witnesses, and acknow
ledged by the party or parties executing the same, or proved by one or
more o f the subscribing witnesses, before one o f the judges or commis
sioners o f the supreme court, a notary public, or a justice o f the peace of
any county within the territory, and a certificate o f such acknowledgment
or proof being endorsed thereon, and recorded in the office o f register o f deeds
for the county where such lands, & c., are situate, are good and valid to
pass the same lands, tenements, or hereditaments, to the grantee or gran
tees, without any other act or ceremony in law whatever.
A ll deeds and conveyances o f lands, tenements, or hereditaments situate,
lying, and being within the territory o f Wiskonsin, which may be made
and executed in any other state, territory, or country, whereby such lands,
tenements, or hereditaments, shall be conveyed in whole or in part, shall
be acknowledged or proved and certified according to, and in conformity
with the laws and usage o f the territory, state, or country, in which such
deeds and conveyances were acknowledged and proved; and all such
deeds and conveyances are effectual and valid in law to all intents and
purposes, as though the same acknowledgments had been taken or proof
o f execution made within the territory, and in pursuance o f the laws there
o f ; and such deeds and conveyances so acknowledged or proved as afore
said, may be recorded in the respective counties in which such lands, tene
ments, or hereditaments may lie.
INTEREST.
A n y rate o f interest which persons may agree upon, not exceeding
twelve per cent per annum, is legal and valid. Upon all bills o f exchange,
promissory notes, contracts, debts, or demands, wherein the rate o f interest
is not specified, it is computed at seven per cent per annum.
PARTNERSHIP.
W henever, in any action, the plaintiffs in their declaration, or the defend
ants in their plea or notice, aver that the plaintiffs or defendants, or third
persons were partners at any particular time ; or that as such partners
they used any particular partnership name or style under which business
was don e; such averments are taken to be true, unless expressly denied
by the affidavit o f the opposite party, or some one in his behalf, within the
usual time o f pleading.
SACREDN ESS OF DEBTS.
Property purchased on crdeit is a deposit placed in your hands, which
it would be fraudulent for you to use in any manner so as to endanger the
interests o f your creditors. Flattering prospects o f gain in this way some
times o c c u r ; but they too often prove delusive, and leave the rash adven
turer under an insupportable load o f responsibility. Debts are sacred,
and every honest man will do every thing in his power to discharge his
obligations, with punctuality and honor.
Sketches o f Distinguished Merchants.
261
A rt. X .— S K E T C H E S O F D IS T IN G U IS H E D M E R C H A N T S .
NUMBER IV.
B E N JA M IN B U S S E Y , OF R O X B U R Y , M A SS .
T he papers have recently announced to us, says the Boston D aily Ad
vertiser, the decease o f Benjamin Bussey, Esq., o f R oxbury, and his char
acter and liberality make it proper that he should not be permitted to pass
away unnoticed.
He was'born in that part o f Stoughton now included in Canton, in the
county o f Norfolk, in this state, March 1st, 1757. His father, Benjamin
Bussey, was the son o f an English farmer, but was born in Canton. The
subject o f this notice was blessed with religious, industrious, and energetic
parents. His mother was a daughter o f Deacon Joseph Hartwell, o f
Stoughton, one o f the best farmers in Massachusetts. He had two sons
and three daughters; besides the mother o f Mr. Bussey, one daughter was
the wife o f the celebrated Roger Sherman, and the third was the wife o f
Mr. Ingraham, a grandson o f whom is the Hon. Ruel W illiam s, Senator
of the United States from Maine.
For several years after his birth, Mr. Bussey resided with his maternal
grandfather. His father was a master-mariner, and often absent at sea ;
but abandoned that employment in 1763, purchased an estate in Canton,
and became a country merchant. Mr. B .’s mother died o f the small-pox,
at the age o f thirty-nine. His father afterward married again, and lived
to be eighty years old ; but had no child by the second marriage. His
widow died at an advanced age, A . D. 1839, in Canton, where she had
been supported and supplied by Mr. Bussey with every comfort for many
years. After Mr. B ussey’s father purchased his estate in Canton, his son,
Benjamin, resided with him constantly, attending school during several
winters, and afterward devoting his time partly to business in his father’s
store and partly to the cultivation o f the farm.
At the commencement o f our revolution, Mr. B. was about eighteen
years old, and his father then gave him the residue o f his minority, and
relinquished all interest in his future earnings. H e immediately joined a
military company, whose first enterprise was the seizure o f the cattle and
sheep on the islands in Boston harbor, for the use o f the patriots. In 1776
Mr. Bussey had the small-pox severely. After his restoration to health,
he enlisted as a private soldier in the company o f Capt. Stow, and went to
Ticonderoga, where his talents and good conduct were soon rewarded by
the office o f quartermaster o f a regiment, at the early age o f nineteen.
The term o f his enlistment expiring in Decem ber, 1776, he returned home
and remained there until the next year, when he was appointed quarter
master in Col. G ill’s regiment, and joined the troops who marched to ar
rest the progress o f Gen. Burgoyne. His regiment formed part o f Gen.
W arner’s brigade, which was assembled near Skeenesboro’ , and was in
cluded in the division o f Major General Lincoln. Mr. Bussey was in the
battles o f Saratoga and Bemus heights, and was present at the surrender
o f Gen. Burgoyne. Soon afterward he returned home, and there passed
the winter o f ’ 77 and ’ 78, which he always regarded as lost time, saying,
that in the army he had acquired habits o f idleness and expense, in which
he then indulged. But this state o f things could not endure long with one
VOL. vi.— no. m.
31
262
Sketches o f Distinguished Merchants.
o f his character and temperament. H e saw other young men actively em
ployed, and it was not in his nature quietly to see others doing more, or
doing better than himself.
In the spring o f ’ 78 he resolved to go into business. But he had no
capital. His father had lost m uch o f his small property by bad debts,
and by a bad currency during the revolution, and could not give his son
much assistance. He gave him a very small amount o f paper money,
accompanied with advice to be always diligent,— to spend less than he
earned,— and never to deceive or disappoint any one. From his grand
father Hartwell he obtained fifty dollars in silver. H e then concluded an
arrangement in business with a Prussian, who had come to this country
with the Hessian troops, and was a skilful silversmith. Having pur
chased the necessary tools, he had only ten dollars left as his whole capi
tal, and owed fifty dollars borrowed money. But he possessed an iron
constitution— principles o f strict integrity, and a spirit o f perseverance
which nothing could subdue or tire. In one year he made himself ac
quainted with all the details o f his business as a working silversm ith; he
had acquired some capital,— and his success had been equal to his expec
tations. Articles o f gold and silver wrought by his own hands may be
seen in and near Boston. In two years he purchased tire real estate on
which was his store— and he owned this property at his decease. For a
long time it has been occupied by a widow, to whom he gave the use o f it
for her life.
In August, 1780, he married Miss Judith G ay, o f Dedham, with whom
he lived happily until his decease. This connection was most fortunate.
Now here could he have found one more prudent, industrious, and atten
tive to his interests, than the lady to whom he thus allied himself and his
fortunes. After marriage he did not neglect his business, nor squander
his earnings in costly furniture, nor indulge in idle expenses. But he and
his wife continued in the same habits o f thrift and industry which he had
previously practised.
H e soon dissolved his connection with the Prussian, but continued in the
business o f a silversmith, and added to his stock many o f the articles
usually found in the store o f a country trader.
He remained in Dedham till the year 1 7 9 2 : during the last ten years
he had been very successful. His stock o f goods was large ; and he owed
very little, as his dealings were generally for cash or in barter. He very
seldom gave or took credit.
He supplied many traders in Providence, Newport, and other places
with most o f their goods. Pie was just and liberal in his dealings, and
was never accused o f oppressing a debtor. T o show the skill and enter
prise with which he conducted his affairs, we m ay mention that, at the
end o f each business season, while he was in Dedham, he was in the habit
o f intrusting to his agents most o f his stock then remaining unsold, which
they would carry to distant places, and there retail at private sale for cash.
Thus he was never troubled with an old stock o f goods. H e also pur
chased large quantities o f furs, shipped them to England, and received the
proceeds in merchandise, which he afterward sold at Dedham.
In the year 1792, he removed to Boston, and opened a store in Statestreet. H ere his course was marked by the same industry, economy,
vigilance, and integrity, as at Dedham. There was no merchant whose
credit stood higher. His business rapidly increased— he became deeply
Sketches o f Distinguished Merchants.
263
concerned in commerce— dealt largely with England, France, and H ol
land— owned several large vessels, and was engaged in heavy and distant
mercantile adventures. But they were all legitimate business transac
tions. He never was a speculator, and he always regarded the character
of one with contempt. He continued to be an active merchant in Boston
for about fourteen years, when ill-health compelled him to retire from
business.
He purchased a part o f his beautiful estate in Roxbury in the year 1806,
and made large additions to it afterward. There he built his mansionhouse about the year 1815, in which he resided until his decease.
Being a man o f active mind and habits, he could not be idle. After he
ceased to be a merchant, he became a farmer and a manufacturer. His
farm is one o f the best in the state, and contains more than 300 acres o f
excellent land.
He established extensive woollen factories in Dedham, in which some
of the most important improvements in machinery, for that department o f
manufactures, were first invented and used. H e owned a large property
in different parts o f the state o f Maine, where his liberality, and his nu
merous benefactions, w ill long be remembered.
Mr. Bussey was a gentleman o f the old school— dignified, courteous,
and hospitable. N o honest man, who approached him, had reason to say
he was proud and overbearing. H e was kind to every one. H e neither
spoke ill o f others, nor received any satisfaction in listening to slander.
He harbored no envy or malignant feeling. There was not a human be
ing, who ever injured him by word or deed, who could provoke him to
seek revenge, or whom he would not serve, i f he had an opportunity.
In religion he was a Unitarian; but he had a catholic spirit, and was
liberal to all sects— holding that every man is accountable for his religious
opinions to God alone. It would not be easy to name a sect, to which he
has not given evidence o f his munificence. He deemed religion so essen
tial to the .welfare o f man and the well-being o f society, that he often said
that every religious society should be encouraged— for any religion was
better than none.
He was a man o f quick observation, rapid decision, sound judgment,
and great perseverance. Frank, and high-minded, he could not endure
falsehood, deception, or meanness in others.
He had a right view o f the true uses o f property. H e did not look upon
it as his to hoard. He regarded it m erely as trust property— and himself
as Heaven’s almoner, bound to dispose o f it wisely for the good o f God’s
creatures, and accountable at his bar for the disposition he might make
o f it.
He was always ready to contribute liberally to objects o f a useful and
public character; and no poor or distressed person was turned away, un
relieved, from the door o f this rich man.
In his youth the means o f acquiring education in our common schools
were sm a ll; but, by diligent reading, and by always keeping good society,
he became familiar with history, biography, polemical learning, the prin
ciples o f agriculture, and the history and principles o f commerce and
manufactures. On these subjects he was not a learned man ; but his ac
quirements and knowledge were very respectable.
After he retired to the country, his health was almost uniformly good.
He was not confined to his house by his last illness more than six w eeks;
264
Sketches o f Distinguished Merchants.
and he expired with little pain, January 13th, 1842. Had he lived to the
first day o f March next, he would then have completed his 85th year.
H e died with Christian firmness and resignation. A few days before his
decease, he said to a friend, that God had ever ordered all things wisely
and kindly for h im ; and he could see it to be so even then, and in what,
to many, might appear grievous affliction. “ H ow much better is it,” said
he, “ that I should be called away now, than be permitted to live a few
years longer, when m y faculties might become impaired, and life cease
to be a blessing. I am resigned to m y M aker’s w ill.”
Mr. Bussey had several children, but neither o f them survived him.
H e left a widow, one grandchild, and several great-grandchildren. His
disposition o f his large estate places him among the greatest benefactors
o f Harvard University, o f its schools o f divinity and law, and w ill cause
him to be remembered with gratitude and respect by every farmer in the
United States.
B y his will, he first makes liberal provision for his widow, grandchild,
great-grandchildren and others. H e gives, through trustees, to his widow
and two others (now living) respectively, and in succession, the use o f his
extensive farm in Roxbury, with the mansion-house, & c. for life. At the
decease o f the survivor o f them, and subject to the payment o f any annui
ties then existing, he gives all his property to Harvard University for the
following purposes: The estate in Roxbury is to be held forever as a
Seminary for “ instruction in practical agriculture, in useful and orna
mental gardening, in botany, and in such other branches o f natural science,
as may tend to promote a knowledge o f practical agriculture, and the
various arts subservient thereto and connected therewith.”
The Govern
ment o f the University is also “ to cause such courses o f lectures to be
delivered there, at such seasons o f the year and under such regulations
as they may think best adapted to promote the ends designed; and also to
furnish gratuitous aid, i f they shall think it expedient, to such meritorious
persons as may resort there for instruction.”
One h alf o f the nett income
o f his property is to be appropriated to maintain that institution ; and the
residue o f the income is to be divided equally between the divinity school
and the law school o f the University.
W h en it is considered that his property w ill probably amount to not
less than three hundred and fifty thousand dollars, we cannot be mistaken
in placing Mr. Bussey in the front rank o f public benefactors.
The example o f his life should not be lost. It teaches young men the
value o f a capital consisting o f integrity, economy, and persevering in
dustry. It is not without a moral for the r ic h : they should learn from
his example to aid in all good works— to relieve the poor and distressed—
to treat those, less fortunate than themselves, with kindness; remembering
that, in a few short years, the grave w ill make their fortunes equal— that
society expects them to use their riches w isely and lib e ra lly ; that an
avaricious rich man is at least as useless to society as a spendthrift, and
entitled to little more respect; and that good deeds, done to others, are the
foundation o f happiness and respect in this life, and o f the gratitude o f man
and the rewards o f Heaven after our decease.
M ay the benevolent intentions and liberal provisions, expressed in the
w ill o f the deceased, be carefully and wisely executed— so that all the
good which he proposed m ay be fu lly and forever realized by the com
munity.
Mercantile Miscellanies.
265
ME RCA NT I L E MI SCELL ANI ES.
M E R C A N T IL E L IB R A R Y A S S O C IA T IO N OF N E W Y O R K .
It gives us great pleasure to present to our readers the following interesting annual
report o f the Mercantile Library Association o f N ew York. It exhibits a clear and
comprehensive view o f the condition and prospects o f that noble institution. W e are
gratified to perceive that in both these respects it is highly flourishing.
Its library,
which is constantly increasing, already affords the most ample range for the student, and
lovers o f varied literature, presenting a vast variety o f valuable works upon every sub
ject within the wide compass o f human knowledge. Its reading rooms are well filled
with magazines and reviews, emanating from various portions o f the eastern and western
continents. That the members o f this association enjoy almost unequalled advantages
for the acquisition o f varied and useful learning there can be no doubt, and that they
improve these advantages during the many leisure hours they possess, it gives us much
pleasure to state. The efforts o f the officers and directors o f this institution for the past
year to elevate and advance its reputation and usefulness, have been eminently success
ful, and the efficient manner in which they have managed its various interests is deserv
ing of the highest praise. W ith every succeeding year its wealth and stores o f know
ledge have increased, while the number o f its members has advanced in proportion.
The influence it now exerts upon the mercantile portion o f our citizens is o f the most
salutary character; and that which it is destined to wield hereafter, is, we predict, o f in
calculable importance.
W e are happy to perceive that in most o f the considerable cities o f our Union, insti
tutions o f a like character already exist, or are rapidly springing into being. Deeming
them, as we do, o f immeasurable value to the welfare and success o f our young and
rising generation o f merchants, we ardently wish for them su ccess; and when all
throughout our land flourish like that whose twenty-first annual report we now proceed
to lay before our readers, their onward career to usefulness and fame will be no less
certain than brilliant and honorable.
THE TWENTY-FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE
BOARD
OF DIRECTORS OF THE MERCANTILE
LIBRARY ASSOCIATION.
I n renewing our annual retrospect o f the affairs o f this institution, we cannot but con
gratulate you upon your happy experience o f the fact that it is nobly accomplishing the
objects for which it was established. The elevation and expansion o f mind, by the ac
quisition o f substantial and various knowledge, and the development of pure and gen
erous feelings, by the cultivation o f a refined and liberal taste for polished literature, are
among the most exalted aims o f life, and the most ennobling achievements of our nature.
All observation teaches us to regard them as the chief means o f that intellectual advance
ment which is the distinguished prerogative o f our species, and which has rescued civil
ized man from the semi-brutal intransitiveness o f the savage. And, we may add, that,
even in the highest state o f general civilization, superior knowledge and refinement, with
the concomitant moral excellence which usually glows around them, still constitute pre
eminent individual distinction. A s sources o f personal, domestic, arid social happiness,
we have all felt them to be the sweetest and most prolific that the world offers for our
enjoyment; and, unlike those o f any other description, they are neither alloyed by
regret nor transitory in their duration. It is the intrinsic and peculiar quality o f mental
treasures, that, once acquired, they are ever after deemed sacred. N o mind is so de
based that it would, were jthe barter practicable, with the revolting condition o f future
ignorance annexed to the bargain, exchange its humblest store o f humanizing knowledge
for all the massive heaps o f golden ore that have been wrought from the mines. Such
a deprivation would be shrunk from with horror, as a sacrilege upon the sanctuary ot
mind ; and the pangs which follow the treachery o f memory to her intellectual trust,
acute as they often are, would be intolerable, but for the hope which, to the young, at
least, is ever ready with the promise o f reparation. I f knowledge be thus precious in
31*
266
Mercantile Miscellanies.
possession, how highly privileged are we who have such unusual and abundant means
for its acquisition!
The records o f our Library, during the past year, afford the gratifying evidence that it
has not been resorted to, by any great proportion o f its readers, as a source o f mere
amusement, or o f superficial information. They indicate a prouder elevation o f purpose
and pursuit. They demonstrate, more fully than at any prior period, that the members
o f this Association worthily estimate our revered repository o f learning, in reference to
its highest objects and advantages. They bear honorable testimony that you have come
up to it as to a temple o f invaluable and enduring wisdom, and that you have indus
triously, eagerly, and emulously explored it, for works o f solid and extensive instruction.
Science, history, philosophy, and subjects o f robust and manly disquisition, all tending to
endow the mind with priceless opulence, to invigorate and empower it, and to call forth
its full capacity in walks o f future greatness— have evidently acquired, in your respect
and attention, their just supremacy over emasculating works o f fiction and vapid import.
For, without wishing to degrade publications o f this class below the very humble rank
which they already occupy in the graduated standard o f literature, we may be permitted
to aver, that, with a few remarkable exceptions, they are enervating in their influence
and meretricious in their pretensions— occupying time, which, in early years especially,
is o f incalculable value, with artificial views o f life and character rarely found in real
existence, and serving only to excite and pamper idle reveries which, from the luxurious
ease with which they can be indulged, not unfrequently disqualify the mind for a health
ful and profitable application o f its powers. This effect has been felt and acknowledged,
even by men whose habits o f affluent study had long been formed, and whose minds
were enriched with the confluent wealth o f ages. H ow banefully, then, must it operate
upon young men who have scarely tasted “ the Pierian spring,” who are unfortified by
previous habits o f masculine inquiry, and to whom the vast and storied edifice o f know
ledge, with portals grand, free, and eloquent o f reward, is a shadowy mystery ! Indeed,
it may be questioned whether even improvement in our vernacular tongue, which is
commonly urged as an excuse for the mental dissipation o f inordinate novel reading, be
not deplorably marred and impeded by this mistaken means. Our language is nearly
the youngest in the w orld ; scarcely a few centuries o ld ; still in a formative state, and
requiring the authoritative guidance o f the learned fathers o f philology. Under the ca
pricious culture o f the comparatively illiterate writers o f novels, it frequently runs wild
from every authentic rule ; becomes estranged, both in verbal meaning and in construc
tion, from all its legitimate characteristics, and impregnated with so corrupt a license,
that, were it not rendered too hybrid for extensive propagation, its every natural form
and feature would become metamorphosed and disappear.
It is, therefore, creditable to the judgment and taste o f the members of this Associa
tion, that they evince a decided preference for a higher order o f reading, in which the
purest and most elegant specimens o f our language are consecrated to substantial uses;
in which the processional grandeur o f the historic narrative is made the medium of
memorable facts; and in which the Anglican directness, precision and force o f our native
tongue, constantly enriched with judiciously affiliated additions from learned sources, are
employed to convey the inestimable treasures o f science and the arts. This laudable
aspiration for great attainments, is also an evidence that, as republican students, we
practically deny an aristocracy o f learning in the republic o f letters. It is an evidence
that we will strive with the strongest in the career o f intellect, and that to none will we
concede superior knowledge as an exclusive privilege.
The Library.— A t the period o f the last report, the library contained
v o l u m e s , .......................................................................................
22,296
A dded during the year by p u r c h a s e ,................................................ 1,059
do.
do.
do.
d o n a t i o n , .................................................77
-------1,136
Making the present n u m b e r , ....................................................................
23,432
For a particular knowledge o f the books added for the year, the members are referred
to the current catalogue, and especially to the works themselves. Care has been taken
to supply works o f permanent value, and at the same time o f attractive character, service
able to all readers, and worthy o f careful preservation.
T he exemption from duties which the government allows to books imported by lite
rary institutions, has enabled the board to make this addition to the library at a compara
tively moderate co st; and the facility and frequency o f our present intercourse with
Europe, afford opportunities for procuring the latest publications with a regularity and
Mercantile Miscellanies .
267
despatch altogether unprecedented, and which are, therefore, too important to the at
tractiveness and prosperity o f the institution to be pretermitted.
While, however, the board have paid due attention to the advantages under which
they could procure foreign publications, they have purchased American works, and shown
a preference to American editions o f English ones, commensurate with the demand for
them, and with their reputed interest and value. Vacancies in the library o f works
enumerated in the catalogue, occasioned by dilapidations or abstractions, have been, in
all practicable instances, carefully filled, and this duty, together with a vigilant guard
over every work in the valuable collection, we would recommend to be unremitted.
Select works in the French and other foreign languages, for which there is an increasing
demand among the members, have been added, as far as possible, to supply i t ; but they
will doubless be hereafter needed to a much greater extent.
Our acknowledgments are due to the following gentlemen for the donation o f books,
viz: Messrs. John Johnson, J. T . R ockw ood, A . Bell, W m . S. S. Russell, John Loines,
Hon. A . Van Santvoord, R. N . Eagle, A . Brisbane, R. L . Porter, Josiah Quincy,
Thomas Eddy, S. Miller, jr., D. Olmsted, Charles Anthon, L. L. D., G. N. Stebbins,
Common Council o f the city o f N ew Y ork, H. P. Marshall, Thomas Lownds, John H.
Redfield, W m . Bates, John S. Sumner, Samuel Sloane, Charles Serruys, Chargd
d’Affaires from Belgium, D. Lardner, L. L. D., Henry Howe, Jacob P. Gerard, jr.,
Richard Hale, W m . W . Snowden, Dr. H. H. Sherwood, Joseph Corning, J. D. Bemis,
John L. O’Sullivan, Joseph N . Ely, Rt. Rev. G. W . Doane, Bishop o f N ew Jersey,
Major Delafield, U. S. A ., N. Y . Society Library, and Dr. Kidd, Librarian o f Radcliffe
Library, Oxford, Eng., also to Mr. Joseph Steele, for a set o f apparatus for teaching the
science o f mechanics, illustrating gravity, friction, motion, the mechanical power, etc.
In the course o f the year, 1,603 volumes, chiefly standard works, have been rebound,
in a durable manner, and placed upon the shelves. T he number is greater than in any
previous year, (excepting the year 1839,) and has, consequently, caused a more than
usual outlay. O f the present catalogue, 400 copies remain on hand unbound, and 50
copies bound.
The number o f members announced in the last annual report, was .
. 3,586
Added during the year,
................................................ 627
Deduct w i t h d r a w a l s , .......................................................... 345
Clear addition o f m e m b e r s , .......................................— -----------282
Making the whole number o f members on the 1st o f January, 1842, 3,868
Of these there are members paying annually at the rate o f $2.00 .
. 3,370
Do.
do.
do.
do.
5.00 .
.
58
Stockholders o f Clinton Hall A s s o c i a t i o n , ................................................ 292
Honorary members,
.
...............................................................148
3,868
In the early part o f the past year, Mr. John G . Barker, our former librarian, resigned
that situation, and Mr. Edward Cahoone, his assistant, was appointed by the board to
fill the vacancy thus created. Mr. James H. Brady, the second assistant librarian, hav
ing been appointed a cadet in the United States service, resigned on the first of May
last, and it became necessary for the board to fill the two assistant librarianships vacated.
Mr. S. M. Richardson, and Mr. J. S. Ferry, were accordingly selected from among
numerous applicants.
It will be recollected that in the month o f January, 1838, the members, at their annual
meeting, instructed the board o f directors to appoint a committee o f ten members to
erect a tablet to the memory o f J ohn W . S tebbins , formerly president o f the association.
This work o f art, now completed, is placed in the library, and it is regarded as one o f
the most beautiful pieces of sculpture that ever adorned a public institution. The board,
therefore, beg to present their warmest thanks to the committee intrusted with this task,
for the able and faithful manner in which they have discharged their duty.
Audubon's American Ornithology.— Among the works added to the library during
the past year, that monument o f perseverance, fortitude, and talent, A udubon’ s B irds of
A merica, is o f too great importance to be passed without particular and emphatic notice.
The members and friends o f this association, aided by a contribution o f $100 from the
trustees o f the Clinton Hall Association, having subscribed a sum sufficient to secure
this magnificent prize, it is now in our reading-room, and it is the only copy o f this
transcendent work accessible to the public in this city ! But may that zealous disciple
and venerable apostle o f nature, the immortal author, yet live to see his countrymen pay
268
Mercantile Miscellanies.
a warmer degree o f respect to his unimaginable labors! for, without this, not all their
wealth could adequately reward them. Let us hope that American pride will be awak.
ened in behalf o f a work, the most original and valuable that our country has yet pro.
duced, peculiarly its own, and one which does it imperishable honor in the eyes of all
enlightened nations, while its author yet lives to reap the first fruits o f the tardy
harvest.
The Reading Rooms.— Entirely renovated and greatly improved, since the last report,
the reading rooms are now equal, in every respect, to the best in the country. The
number o f members who visit them, attest their usefulness, convenience, and comfort,
and that they are held in increasing estimation. Arrangements have been made for the
supply o f French periodicals, o f which it is manifest the Association has many readers.
T hey now contain—
Foreign p e r io d ic a ls ,..............................................................................
.
61
American,
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
44
............................................................................. 10
Newspaper#,
W hole number o f publications 115
Hunt's Merchants' Magazine.— Am ong the periodicals that are procured for our
reading rooms, there is none which the board considers so highly entitled to the favor
o f the members o f this Association, and indeed to that o f the mercantile community in
general, as the “ Merchants’ Magazine,” edited and published by Mr. Freeman Hunt
o f this city. It is constantly filled with able and elaborate articles o f incalculable value
to the merchants and statesmen o f our country, and conveying information on all the
branches o f trade and commerce which can scarcely be obtained from any other single
publication. It is conducted in a manner which demands for Mr. Huni extraordinary
commendation, and which cannot fail to ensure him an unusual degree o f reputation.
Lectures.— The strong impetus which has been given to the practice o f public lectur
ing in this city, by the prolific example o f this Association— and it has the honor o f being
the first to introduce, in a serial form, a mode o f popular instruction than which none,
perhaps, has been so generally useful and approved— created too great a division of
public curiosity, and probably presented too obvious considerations o f local convenience,
to warrant the expectation that our Institution would continue to be the sole object of
attraction during the lecture season. The present board, therefore, deemed it expedient
to reduce the number o f lectures to one in each w e e k ; and they are happy to state that
the alteration has been attended with such entire success as to induce them to recom
mend it for adoption in future. They, however, think it proper to add that the bright
array o f eminent talent which has distinguished the programme, would, o f itself, account
for the cordial favor with which it has been received.
The surplus o f the lecture fund which remained in the hands o f the treasurer at the
date o f the last report, amounting to $630, has been permanently added, by a vote of
the board o f directors, to the general fund o f the Association. T he balance remaining
from the course o f 1839 and 1840, together with that accruing during the present season,
will be handed to our successors for their disposal.
The Classes.— It is with regret the board announce that this branch o f our Institution
has not received that degree o f patronage which it unquestionably merits, and which its
liberal recompense to the members that might sustain it seems calculated to command.
T he fine opportunity it offers for the acquisition o f the modern languages, by a facile
and complete method o f instruction, under highly accomplished and competent teachers,
and at charges far below those which are elsewhere required for tuition in nowise supe
rior, would seem to be irresistible. A nd the board entertain the hope that the members
need only to be thus reminded o f the rare advantages it offers, to regard it with emulous
interest, and widely extend its capability o f usefulness.
T he French Class, under the care o f Mons. Bekeart, consists o f 34 pupils, who have
expressed the utmost confidence in his ability.
The Spanish Class, under Don Carlos Rabadan, is composed o f 19 pupils, who speak
o f his qualifications as a teacher in the highest terms o f respect.
The Penmanship Class, under the skilful direction o f Mr. A . H. W heeler, and the
class in book-keeping, under the tuition o f Mr. C. C. Marsh, meet at the teacher’s rooms,
at hours most convenient to themselves. O f the ability o f these gentlemen, as preceptors
in their respective branches o f a mercantile education, it is unnecessary for the board to
speak, since the reputation o f both is firmly established by extensive experience.
The Scholarships.— T he two scholarships granted to this Association, in the year
Mercantile Miscellanies.
269
1830, by that venerable seat o f learning and revered mother o f illustrious men, C olumbia
C ollege, are now filled by Mr. John Sym, and Mr. Charles Reynolds.
The Gallery o f Arts.— Although the board have had no means o f making any additions
to the gallery o f arts during the year that has just expired, they would, nevertheless,
warmly commend it to the solicitude o f their successors, who may possibly feel equal
concern for its improvement under more favorable auspices. A s an embellishment o f
our institution, independently o f its intrinsic importance as a distinctive object, it is
worthy o f sedulous attention; and, in proportion as it is estimated by our own members,
it is likely to be enriched by the donations o f artists and patrons o f the fine arts.
The Museum and Cabinet.— Donations o f interest and value continue to be contribu
ted to this collection, and it will doubtless steadily advance to an enviable magnitude and
variety. T he members o f the association may do much toward its improvement, by
commending it to the consideration o f their mercantile and maritime friends, who, in
their visits to distant countries, may have many opportunities o f culling curiosities in an
tiquity and natural history, wherewith to enhance it. The board would recommend to
the consideration o f their successors, that a suitable case be prepared for geological
specimens and fossils, as there is not at present any room in the cases now in use, that
can be taken for that important department.
The cabinet contains 350 specimens in mineralogy, and 450 specimens in conchology, with fossils and other objects in natural history.
The minerals are arranged after the national system o f Mohs, as improved by Dana,
in his mineralogy. The Latin nomenclature o f Dana is also followed.
The shells are arranged after the system proposed by Lamarck in his History o f Invertebrated Anim als; his order is, however, reversed, for the purpose o f bringing the
arrangement nearer to that o f Cuvier, commencing with shells whose animals possess a
more complex organization, and descending gradually to those whose structure is either
more simple or less understood.
For the judicious arrangement o f the cabinet, the board beg leave to acknowledge
their obligations to Mr. Charles M. Wheatley.
The board acknowledge donations from the following gentlem en: Messrs. Samuel
Sloane, Thomas Eddy, Rev. Charles Fox, E. Elmendorf, jun., Charles M. Wheatley,
W . H. Pease, R. N. Eagle, G. A . Brett, E. C. Bramhall, and Mr. Newberry.
Clinton Hall Association.— The board would be guilty o f apathy bordering upon in
gratitude, were they not to renew their acknowledgments to the Clinton Hall Associa
tion, for the prompt beneficence and cordial courtesy which have distinguished its past,
and which are continued in its present relations with this association.
The Treasury.— The board have sincere pleasure in announcing, on the authority o f
the treasurer’s report, herewith submitted, that the association is entirely free from debt.
It has now no demands, whatever against it, unless there be some trivial running ac
counts for periodicals and newspapers. It will be seen from the report o f the treasurer,
that our finances are in so improved and prosperous a condition that the board have
been enabled greatly to extend the usefulness o f the institution by disbursements for
books, binding, and other improvements, which were last year suspended by the press
ure of pecuniary liabilities. For the past year, ending Dec. 31, 1841—
The receipts w e r e , ..............................................................................$6,935 30
The e x p e n d it u r e s ,.............................................................................
6,356 57
Leaving a balance in the treasury, on that day, o f 578 73
For the details o f the receipts and expenditures, we refer you to the treasurer’s re
port.
The Anniversary.— The 9th o f November last, being the 21st anniversary o f the ex
istence o f the Mercantile Library Association, it was appropriately, and for the first
time, celebrated by the members. The occasion was honored by an eloquent, intellec
tual, and inspiring address from the Hon. William Inglis, in which he gave a succinct
and luminous history o f the rise and progress o f the association, urged its objects, and
expatiated upon the benignity o f its influence. And the masterly oration was received
with spontaneous expressions o f applause. T he audience was further gratified by the
recitation o f a poem, entitled “ Truth,” written for the occasion by Mr. William Cutter.
It was a meritorious production, both in sentiment and composition, and was heard with
manifest pleasure and approbation.
Conclusion.— In conclusion, the board cannot but express their full and delightful con
fidence, founded not a little upon the auspicious indications to which they introductorily
adverted, that this association is energetically ascending to a lofty destiny. T o what an
270
Mercantile Miscellanies .
attitude o f literary eminence it may eventually arrive, can be conjectured only from its
inherently noble capacity and tendency, and from the gradations o f its present advance,
ment. It will not be forgotten, however, that as the character o f a physical aggregate
is composed o f the qualities o f its component parts, so will the true dignity and greatness
o f every association depend upon the intelligence and virtue o f its individual members.
IN D U S T R Y A N D C O M M ERCE.
T he Rev. Dr. Channing, in his lecture before the Mercantile Library Company of
Philadelphia, “ On the tendency o f the Age to Universality,” thus speaks o f commer
cial industry as indicative o f that tendency :— “ H ow numberless are the forms which
industry takes! Into how many channels is human labor pouring itself! How widely
spread is the passion for acquisition, not for simple means o f subsistence, but for wealth!
W hat enterprises agitate the com m unity! W hat a rush into all the departments of
trade! H ow next to universal the insanity o f speculation ! W hat new arts spring up !
Industry pierces the forest, and startles with her axe the everlasting silence ! Commerce
is the commanding interest; and this has limits but by the habitable w orld ! It no
longer creeps along the shore, or lingers in accustomed tracks, but penetrates into every
inlet; plunges into the heart o f uncivilized lands, sends its steamships up unexplored
rivers, girdles the earth with railroads, and thus breaks down the estrangement o f na
tions. Commerce is a noble calling. It mediates between distant nations, and makes
men’s wants, not as formerly, stimulants to war, but bonds o f peace.
Universal intel
lectual activity is due, in no small degree, to commerce, which spreads the thoughts,
inventions, and writings o f great men over the earth, and gathers scientific and literary
men everywhere into an intellectual republic. So it carries abroad the missionary, the
Bible, the cross, and is giving universality to true religion.”
IM P O R T A T IO N OF W H E A T IN T O G R E A T B R IT A IN .
1. Since the year 1790 there have been only two years in which the imports o f wheat
have not exceeded the exports; these two years were 1792 and 1808. 2. The excess
o f imports o f wheat above exports has been, in the ten years ending 1800, 4,266,963
qrs.; in the ten years ending 1810, 5,996,352 qrs.; in the nine years ending 1820,
5,481,994 q rs.; in the ten years ending 1830, 9,413,459 q rs.; in the ten years ending
1840, 14,953,419 qrs. 3. During the peninsular war the importation was never inter
rupted ; there was no one year in which there was not more or less o f wheat imported.
In 1800, 1801, 1805, and 1810, there were imported 1,264,520 qrs., 1,424,765 qrs.,
920,834 qrs., and 1,567,126 qrs., respectively.
4. The total amount o f wheat entered
for home consumption, from 1815 to 1828 (both inclusive) has been 5,452,190 qrs.,
giving an annual average o f 389,442 qrs. T he total amount o f wheat entered for home
consumption, from 1829 to 1840, both inclusive, (i. e., under the operation o f the present
corn law,) is 12,303,005 qrs., giving an annual average o f 1,025,250 qrs.
T H E BOOK T R A D E .
A ccording to Professor Park, the total number o f the different books printed, down to
the present date, is estimated at 1,000,000 volumes in the German language, 800,000 in
French, 600,000 in English (including 25,000 American,) and 600,000 in all other lan
guages ; making a total o f 3,000,000 different volumes, or say 2,000,000 different works.
Allowing only 1,200 copies o f each work to have been printed, and supposing all the vol
umes to be o f an average size, they would form a solid pile, larger than the largest Egyptian
pyramid, although it is 500 feet high and 690 feet square at the base, covering 11 acres of
ground. T he annual number o f new publications in Germany is said to be 7,000; in
France it is probably 5,000; in Great Britain 3,000 ; and in the United States about
500 works or 700 volumes, o f which about three fifths are original American productions.
271
Mercantile Miscellanies .
D E C R E A SE OF T H E PRECIOUS M E T A L S .
It is well known that pure metal cannot be obtained, except from the purest ores,
without the use o f quicksilver ; consequently, the quantity o f the precious metals is de
pendent upon the supply o f quicksilver, and the price at which it is held. The only
mines o f quicksilver in the world that are worked to any extent, are those in Spain and
Germany. Those in Spain have been, till within the last eight years, worked by the
government, and the price o f quicksilver was kept at about 40 dollars per quintal. Since
then, they have been in the possession o f Mr. Rothschild, and the price o f the quicksilver
has been raised to 120 dollars per quintal, which is treble its former price. The pro
prietor o f the mines in Germany, probably through the influence o f Mr. Rothschild, sim
ultaneously raised the price o f the article there. The effect o f these measures has, it is
estimated, reduced the supply o f the precious metals in Europe during the last eight
years, no less than twenty millions sterling. It is stated in the Bankers’ Circular that
the yearly produce o f silver alone from the mines in America, formerly Spanish, while
quicksilver was supplied at a cheap rate by the Spanish government, was sixty-three
millions o f hard dollars. But at present, thousands o f tons o f silver ore dug out o f the
mines o f M exico are thrown aside, because they contain too little silver to admit o f
profit when working them with, quicksilver at its present high price.
A t its former
price, every pound o f this ore would have been worked to bring forth the silver con
tained in it. The exports o f quicksilver from Liverpool to M exico, Peru, & c., in 1837,
and three following years, were as follow s:
1837.
1838.
14,573
Bottles,............14,800
1839.
10,811
1840.
11,093
If the supply o f the two latter years were increased thirty per cent it would be brought
to the level o f the two former years; and if the price were reduced to the old rate o f 40
dollars per quintal, it would be o f vast importance to the commercial world. A t the
present price, Rothschild is said to make a clear profit by working the mines, o f £80,000
per annum.
C O M P A R A T IV E R A T E OF IN T E R E S T IN E N G L A N D .
The rate o f interest in England generally was first regulated in 1545 by act of parlia
ment, in the reign o f Henry V III., which fixed it at 10 per ce n t; before that period the
rates had usually been much higher. In 1552 an act was passed prohibiting the taking
of any interest whatever for money loaned, but in 1571 this was repealed, and the former
act of 1545 revived. In 1625, in the reign o f James I., the rate o f interest was reduced
to 8 per cent. In 1651, the “ Rump Parliament” reduced it to 6 per cent, which was
confirmed after the restoration. In 1714, during the reign o f Anne, the legal rate o f
interest was fixed at 5 per cent. The current rates o f interest paid in Great Britain at
different periods previous to 1714, were as follows :—
On £100.
Per ct. per
In 1255,.......................... ... .£5 0 00s.
1265,2 d. a week for $ 1 , or 43 06
1270 to 1307,............ ........45
00
1422 to 1470,........... ........15
00
1545, restricted to..... ....... 10
00
1553 to 1558,........... ....... 12
00
1571, restricted to..... ........10
00
Per ct. per an
an.
On £100.
0 d. In 1574 to 1604, about.. ....... 9
16s. 0 d
1625, reduced to........ ....... 8
00 0
8
0
1645 to 1660,............. .........6
00 0
1660 to 1690............... ....... 7
06 6
0
00 0
0
1690 to 1697,............. ....... 8
0
00 0
1697 to 1706,............. ....... 6
1714, reduced to........ ........5
00 0
0
The Bank o f England was established in 1694, when the legal rate o f interest was 8
per cent, and the whole capital o f the bank, £1,200,000, was loaned to the government
at that rate. Since the year 1714, the bank has only been authorized to charge 5 per
cent interest, the legal rate, until an act o f parliament was passed, within the last few
years, making an alteration in the then existing laws.
272
Mercantile Miscellanies.
E S P Y ’ S T H E O R Y OF S T O R M S.
A t a lecture in Philadelphia on Wednesday, the 22d o f Dec., 1841, Mr. Espy stated
that although it was then clear and nearly calm, and had been so all day, a storm of
some violence had been in existence to the westward all that day, probably not more
than seven or eight hundred miles o f f ; and that if the wind sprung up to the eastward
next morning, then the storm would reach Philadelphia within thirty-six hours. The
phenomena occurred as had been predicted. T he method o f calculating storms of a
similar character can be found in “ Espy’s Philosophy o f Storms,” page 289. This gen
tleman, we are glad to learn, is about proceeding to Washington, to solicit the aid of
congress in promoting those inquiries for which the means o f a single unaided individual
would not suffice. Could he obtain the situation o f meteorologist in one o f the depart
ments at Washington, or receive in any shape the patronage o f the general government,
his theory could be thoroughly tested in all points, and valuable results obtained, if not
for the confirmation o f his views, then for the establishment o f sound and universal
principles on a subject o f such vast importance and primary interest to mankind.
S A L T T R A D E OF N E W Y O R K .
T he N ew Y ork Canal Board have determined to allow a liberal drawback o f duties
and tolls upon all salt manufactured at the state springs, and sent out o f the state. It
also appears by an official letter addressed to Mr. Farnham, canal collector, that the
canal board o f this state have been met in a spirit o f corresponding liberality by the
board o f public works o f Ohio— that body having authorized a drawback o f twenty pir
cent on tolls charged for salt carried upon the Ohio canal, from Cleveland to Portsmouth,
and which shall be carried from the latter place to other points on the Ohio river. The
aggregate drawbacks allowed by this state and Ohio will not fall far short o f 75 cents on
every barrel o f Onondaga salt delivered on the Ohio below Portsmouth. A bounty to
such an extent, by cheapening the article in a corresponding degree, cannot fail to extend
immensely the consumption o f N ew Y ork salt in the valley o f the Mississippi.
It appears by the report o f the inspector o f salt, that the quantity inspected during
the year 1840, was— at Salina, 1,107,825 bushels; Syracuse, 524,461 d o .; Liverpool,
802,954 d o .; Geddes, 187,064 do ; making an aggregate o f 2,622,336 bushels.
O R IG IN OF T H E W O R D “ SCHOONER.”
Cotton Tufts says— “ Being at Gloucester, Sept. 8, 1790, I was informed (and com
mitted the same to writing) that the kind o f vessel called schooners, derived their name
from this circumstance, v iz :— Mr. Andrew Robinson o f that place having constructed a
vessel which he masted and rigged in the same manner as schooners are at this day, on
her going off the stocks into the water, a bystander cried out, ‘ Oh, how she scoons !’
Robinson instantly replied, ‘ A schooner let her be.’ From which time vessels thus
masted and rigged have gone by the name o f schooners, before which vessels of*this de
scription were not known in Europe or America. This account was confirmed to me
by a great number o f persons in Gloucester. I made particular inquiry o f an aged sea
captain, who informed me that he had not, in any o f his voyages to Europe or in Ame
rica, seen any o f those vessels prior to Robinson’s construction.” — Hist. Collections, <$pc.
M E R C A N T IL E L IB R A R Y A S S O C IA T IO N OF B A L T IM O R E .
W e have received a copy o f the second annual report o f the board o f directors o f the
Mercantile Library Association o f Baltimore. It furnishes gratifying evidence of the
onward progress o f that noble institution.
number.
W e hope to find room for it in our next
273
Statistics o f Papulation.
S T A T I S T I C S OF P O P U L A T I O N ,
P O P U L A T IO N OF T H E U N IT E D S T A T E S ,
ACCORDING TO THE SIX ENUMERATIONS 5 FROM THE OFFICIAL REVISION.
1790.
S ta tes.
Maine,........................
New Hampshire,.......
Vermont,....................
Massachusetts,..........
Rhode Island,..........
Connecticut,...............
New Y ork,.................
New Jersey,...............
Pennsylvania,............
Delaware,...................
Maryland,...................
Virginia,.....................
North Carolina,.........
South Carolina,.........
Georgia,......................
Alabama,....................
Mississippi,.................
Louisiana,......... .........
Arkansas,...................
Tennessee................
Kentucky....................
Ohio,...........................
Michigan,...................
Indiana,......................
Illinois,.......................
Missouri,.....................
District o f Columbia,,
Florida....... ................
Wiskonsin,.................
Iowa,..........................
T
96,540
141,899
85.416
378,717
69,110
238,141
340,120
184,139
434,373
59,098
319,728
748,308
393,751
249,073
82,548
1800.
151,7191
183,7 (12
154,465
423,245
69,122
251,002
586,756
211,949
602,365
64,273
341,548
880,200
478,103
345,591
162,101
8,850
35,791
73,077
105,602
220,955
45,365
4,875
14,093
1810.
1820.
1830.
1840.
228,705 298,^35
501,793
399,955
214,360 244,161
269,328
284,574
217,713 235,764
291,948
280,652
472,040 523,287
610,408
737,699
77,031
83,059
97,199
108,830
262,042 275,202
297,665
309,978
959,949 1,372,812 1,918,608 2,428,921
249,555 277,575
320.823
373,306
810,091 1,043,458 1,348,233 1,724,033
72,749
72,674
76,748
78,085
380,546 407,350
447,040
469,232
974,622 1,065,379 1,211,405 1,239,797
555,500 638,829
753,419
737,987
415,115 502,741
581,185
594,398
516.823
252,433 340,987
691,392
20,845 127,901
309,527
590,756
75,448
40,352
136,621
375,651
76,556 153,407
352,411
215,739
14,273
30,388
97,574
681,904
261,727 422,813
829,210
406,511 564,317
779,828
687,917
937,903 1,519,467
230,760 581,434
4,762
31,639
8,896
212,267
24,520 147,178
685,866
343,031
12,282
55,211
157,455
476,183
20,845
66,586
140,445
383,702
33,039
24,023
39,834
43,712
34,730
54,477
30,945
43,112
3,929.827 5,305,925 7,239,814 9,638,131 12,866,920 17,062,566
o t a l ,.
CENSUS OF T H E U N IT E D S T A T E S , F O R 1840.
W e have embodied in the succeeding pages an epitome o f the whole population o f the
states and territories o f the United States, exhibiting the general aggregate amount o f
each description o f persons, as compiled from the official returns o f the marshals o f the
several states and territories, as received at the Department o f State under the law for
taking the sixth decennial census.
1. Number o f free white males, o f different ages, in each state and territory.
2. Number o f free white females, o f different ages, in each state and territory.
3. Number o f free colored males and females in each state and territory.
4. Number o f colored male and female slaves in each state and territory.
5. Number o f persons in each state, employed in mining, agriculture, commerce, navi
gation o f the ocean, navigation o f canals, lakes and rivers, learned professions, and en.
gineers in each state and territory.
6. Number o f pensioners, for revolutionary or military services, in each state, &c.
7. Number o f deaf and dumb, blind and insane persons, white and colored, in each
state and territory.
8. Number o f universities or colleges, students, academies and grammar schools,
scholars, o f scholars at public charge, and number o f while persons, over twenty years
of age, who cannot read and write.
VOI,. V I.— NO. III.
32
F R E E
M aine,................
New Hamsphire,
Massachusetts,...
Rhode Is'and,...
Connecticut,......
Vermont,............
New Y o r k ,........
New Je-rsey,.....
Pennsylvania,....
Delaware,...........
Maryland,..........
Virginia,.............
North Carolina,..
South Carolina,.
Georgia,.............
Alabam a,...........
Mississippi,.........
Louisiana,..........
Tennessee,.........
Kentucky,..........
O h io,........ .........
Indiana,..............
Illinois,...............
Missouri,............
Arkansas,...........
Michigan,...........
Florida,...............
Wiskonsin,.........
42,266
27,740
31,691
40,532
35,671
22,170
15,663
18,435
17,300
16,929
76,285
37,069
40,296
37,971
47,313
9,878
5,659
5,969
7,121
5,947
16,718
26,097
17,270
19,021
17,420
23,006
16,999
19,069
17,551
21,786
187,730 158,107 139,752 130,094 230,981
31,052
19,308
21,951
28,827
23,809
89,825 152,624
149,480 117,351 101,522
5,722
3,104
3,957
3,581
4,939
16,218
30,028
20,573
18,351
26,921
63,465
45,822
38,263
69,308
53,485
38,756
31,473
24,819
46,413
37,011
13,719
22,489
24,828
19,360
16,621
34,696
27,136
20,897
33,899
43,759
16,222
31,455
28,215
36,611
22,819
8,662
20,084
19,542
14,164
11,475
7,218
20,795
10,736
7,848
13,835
51,112
67,182
53,821
44,489
34,218
46,242
39,190
32,611
53,265
59,290
144,582 115,832
96,697
81,431 138,755
60,002
70,468
57,457
46,129
36,599
31,062
52,580
48,363
37,278
24,876
33,772
34,597
26,054
21,222
16,784
8,532
6,331
5,077
3,861
8,607
10,887
19,484
16,054
12,83£
22,759
4,388
2,455
1,947
1,520
1,305
2,627
1,793
1,303
1,344
6,328
3 138
2 475
2 179
4 380
6 207
D. o f Columbia,..
2,354
L764
l'728
2^891
17755
T o t a l , ........ 1,270,790 1,024,072
879,499 756,022 1,322,441
W H IT E
M A L E S .
50 and
60 and 70 anrZi80 and
15 and 20 and, 30 and 40 and
5 and
10 and
Under 5.
under 10. under 15. under 20. under 30. under 40. under 50. under 60. under 70. und. 80 und. 90 05 s
29,864
16,781
52,283
6,798
19,056
17,596
158,194
21,553
99,421
3,549
20,732
41,141
24,254
13,774
22,196
19,340
11,995
16,304
31,323
32,206
85,944
37,565
31,428
20,568
5,129
16,025
2,801
3,348
3,310
1,953
866,431
19,948
12,915
30,161
4,452
13,355
12,817
97,542
13,949
64,366
2,117
12,626
27,465
16,799
9,132
13,886
11,783
6,001
7,940
19,369
19,958
54,992
21,678
15,809
11,384
2,751
8,276
1,193
1,191
1,512
12,551
8,690
19,270
2,799
9,121
7,982
54,975
8,526
37,933
1,270
7,258
16,670
10,432
5,615
7,623
6,024
3,289
3,309
12,755
11,809
30,298
13,789
8,755
5,620
1,194
4,442
530
554
698
1,201
724
536,5681 314,505
7,408 4,152 1,041
5,485 3,447 1,084
11,432 6,473 1,914
1,570
862
287
5,727 3,381 1,034
5,454 3,137
884
30,869 14,694 3,984
4,887 2,459
660
20,268 9,224 2,453
682
268
61
3,899 1,533
417
9,673 4,458 1,241
6,365 2,830
741
3,059 1,418
409
4,240 1,641
455
2,886
997
273
1,430
466
130
1,206
410
102
7,140 3,039
855
6,639 3,092
860
18,182 6,778 1,617
6,195 2,258
551
3,660 1,119
257
2,439
814
183
523
162
35
1,903
623
88
220
7£
20
201
55
10
27$
1c
12
312
21
115
174,226 80,051 21,679
120
103
195
20
92
84
379
67
240
5
64
196
125
50
87
47
14
26
109
130
200
68
35
28
4
12
3
2
o '®
3 S*
5
2
17
252,989
139,004
360,679
51,362
8 148,300
13 146,378
56 1,207,357
7 177,055
63 844,770
4
29,259
16 158,636
26 371,223
29 240,047
22 130,496
19 210,534
20 176,692
4
97.256
18
89,747
22 325,434
31 305,323
52 775,360
14 352,773
13 255,235
5 173,470
3
42,211
3 113,395
16,456
1
1
18,757
24 256
2
2
14^822
2,507 476 7,249,266
■Number of Free White Males, o f Different Ages , in each State and Territory of
the United States, in 1840.
STATES AND TER-
FREE
STATES AND TER
RITORIES.
M aine,................
New Hamsphire,
Massachusetts,...
Elhode Island,...
Connecticut,......
Vermont,............
New Y o r k ,........
New Jersey,.....
Pennsylvania,....
Delaware,...........
Maryland,..........
Virginia,.............
North Carolina,..
South Carolina,.
Georgia,.............
Alabam a,...........
Mississippi,.........
Louisiana,..........
Tennessee,.........
Kentucky,..........
O h io ,...................
Indiana,..............
Illinois,...............
Missouri,............
Arkansas,...........
Michigan,...........
Florida,...............
Wiskonsin,.........
U n d er
5.
5
and
u n d er
10.
38,185
34,458
17.959
16,693
45,313
40,115
5,812
6,504
18,353
16,889
20,379
18,877
180,769 154,525
27,505
23,161
141,786 115,570
4,751
3,859
25,680
19,978
65,286
52,264
43,637
35,221
23,639
18,741
40,579
32,080
26,804
33,917
13,328
18,235
13,718
10,395
62,684
51,013
55,419
44,022
137,725 110,949
66,397
53,805
44,775
34,913
32,600
24,321
8,108
5,853
18,401
15,089
2,241
1,761
2,528
1,692
2
Ofi‘2
4 082
D. o f Columbia,..
2,294
1*771
T otal , ........ 1,203,349 986,921
10
15
and
u n d er
15.
20 a n d
20. u n d e r 30.
and
u n d er
30,044
15,689
36,832
5,710
15,964
16,677
134,977
20,362
97,972
3,404
17,560
43,996
29,646
15,822
25,993
21,786
10,919
7,760
42,327
37,298
91,294
42,890
28,496
19,679
4,869
11,798
1,448
1,289
27,940
15,457
40,360
6,030
16,476
15,744
137,414
19,701
96,692
3,337
18,349
42,475
26,965
14,69)
22,395
17,911
8,911
7,947
35,965
33,207
84,872
36,904
24,078
16,952
3,911
10,819
1,322
1,200
42,165
24,679
74,250
10,833
27,120
24,225
227,137
31,514
153,803
5,707
31,021
65,797
43,132
22,392
31,705
25,574
14,464
13,602
51,907
47,970
127,730
55,176
38,823
26,330
5,881
18,706
2,220
2,713
2 188
2 004
3 780
1,899
24)77
836,588,
W H I T E
30
$8
F E M A L E S .
1 40 a n d
50 a n d
60 a n d 70 a n d 80 a n d
40 . u n d e r 50. u n d e r 60. u n d e r 70. u u d . 80 u n d . 90
and
u n d er
i
20,024
14,183
33,109
4,891
14,863
12,807
90,163
14,009
60,838
2,173
12,477
26,928
18,114
9,145
12,300
9,184
4,284
4,099
19,198
18,050
48,588
19,967
12,712
8,580
1,715
6,109
704
612
3 ’030
29,046
18,269
49,324
7,138
20,110
18,163
143,882
20,530
92,864
3,469
19,343
40,082
25,906
13,471
19,603
15,152
7,847
7,907
30,597
28,608
75,799
32,708
22,676
14,889
3,317
11,864
1,219
1,423
1 RH5
2^026
792,168 1,253,395
779,097
* 1
°
o
*—i
s
7,703 4,122
6,702 4,000
14,645 8,387
2,176 1,196
7,220 4,274
5,423 2,875
30,190 14,281
5,253 2,769
21,007 9,783
837
320
4,376 1,801
9,986 4,468
6,754 2,943
3,168 1,443
3,679 1,485
2,407
847
1,075
381
323
891
6,465 2,617
6,029 2,525
14,636 5,592
5,035 1,780
2,941
866
634
2,019
113
357
1,441
451
49
151
128
37
187
51
149
413
1,274
1,388
2,955
444
1,436
951
4,152
803
2,725
92
534
1,256
962
430
443
205
96
81
732
735
1,345
436
184
131
30
80
10
7
6
41
174
181
375
59
153
100
522
82
316
9
95
202
150
74
79
45
22
19
126
137
173
59
39
21
3
11
2
2
1,338
12,304
9,824
22,684
3,430
10,792
8,612
53,496
8,841
37,965
1,341
7,859
16,865
11,374
5,551
6,795
4,647
2,250
1,967
11,535
10,907
28,037
10,759
6,514
4,259
805
3,394
354
360
404
795
502,143
304,8101
173,299 80,562j 23,964
3,231
1
TOTAL.
3
10 247,449
8 145,032
2 368,351
ft
ft
2
54,225
4 153,556
7 144,840
ft
25 1,171,533
3 174,533 •&
-5
3
24 831,345
&
3
29,302
8 159,081
40 369,745
19 244,823 co t?
21 128,588
25 197,161
14 158,493
6
81,818
i
68,710 r 1?
27 315,193
23 284,930
22 726,762
9 325,925
2 217,019
3 150,418
34,963
1
2
98,165
1
11,487
s
1
11,992
3
1
J8,66£
1
15^835
I
Co
a
§*r
315 6,939,842
sa*
S'1
-i
Ol
FREE COLORED M ALES.
F R E E COLO R E D F E M A L E S .
TORIES.
Under
10.
M aine,..................
New Hampshire,..
Massachusetts,....
Rhode Island,.....
Connecticut,.........
N ew Y ork ,...........
N ew Jersey,.........
Pennsylvania,.....
D elaw are,............
M aryland,............
Virginia,...............
North Carolina,...
South Carolina,...
Georgia,...............
Alabam a,.............
Mississippi,...........
Louisiana,............
Tennessee,...........
K entucky,............
O h io ,....................
Indiana,................
Illinois,.................
Missouri,..............
Arkansas,.............
Dist. o f Columbia,
T
o t a l , ..........
36 and * $ g
10 and
24 and
under 24. under 36. under 55. too a2 ° ©
—f
149
57
908
355
935
91
6,008
3,019
6,245
2,740
9,460
7,958
3,962
1,403
427
301
228
4,015
973
1,048
2,560
1,258
548
193
77
93
108
16
20
1,168
231
68
1,119
388
1,165
99
6,370
3,429
6,192
2,679
7,727
7,165
3,593
1,105
375
296
168
3,207
772
786
2,688
1,119
568
195
56
103
125
32
31
948
135
42
1,444
319
710
7^
5,711
1,978
5,182
1,392
4,772
3,898
1,665
677
232
170
125
2,014
372
534
1,719
620
377
266
62
119
87
28
22
562
56,323
52,799
35,308
137
48
871
242
746
60
4,221
1,639
3,697
1,163
4,670
3,135
1,255
405
195
152
114
1,581
379
754
1,175
497
265
154
34
62
49
19
14
525
28,258
TOTAL.
a
67
1
33
306
6
109
331
4
2
38
1,476
23
711
4
1,400
36
645
7
2,494
50
1,652
20
734
18
262
12
137
8
107
4
76
4
683 26
294
6
629
10
579
19
229
8
117
1
74
1
16
3
16
29
6
6
237
13
13,493 286
720
248
4,654
1,413
3,891
364
23,809
10,780
22,752
8,626
29,173
20,094
11,227
3,864
1,374
1,030
718
11,526
2,796
3,761
8,740
3,731
1,876
883
248
393
398
101
93
3,453
186,467
Under
10.
147
50
899
318
967
76
6,032
2,834
6,264
2,618
9,134
7,899
3,704
1,392
375
271
181
4,163
881
936
2,630
1,112
536
152
67
80
108
21
14
1,208
55,069
10 and | 24 and | 36 and * ^ g
R ® © a,
under 24 } under 36. under 55. i>0
o
—i a
1
195
66
1,058
489
1,238
106
6,951
3,106
7,426
2,457
8,626
7,616
3,475
1,272
381
313
151
3,679
742
800
2,784
1,100
570
159
60
98
123
27
39
1,455
56,562
TOTAL.
i
128
54
868
425
860
65
6,809
2,079
6,071
1,415
6,686
4,871
2,043
858
229
188
133
2,971
445
536
1,640
592
311
152
35
76
78
20
8
1,027
41,673
109
61
771
360
715
76
4,454
1,485
3,806
1,127
5,423
3,556
1,454
545
192
124
122
2,164
367
680
1,053
413
201
133
32
46
75
12
16
813
30,385
54
2
56
2
417
2
232
1
433
1
43
1,928
44
748
12
1,505
30
662
14
2,902
76
2,046
36
801
28
338
7
178
24
104
9
59
5
986
13
285
8
593
11
487
8
215
2
102
2
89
6
21
2
1
13
35
4
2
15
390
15,728 361
635
289
4,014
1,825
4,214
366
26,218
10,264
25,102
8,293
32,847
26,024
11,505
4,412
1,379
1,009
651
13,976
2,728
3,556
8,602
3,434
l,-722
691
217
314
419
84
79
4,908
199,778
■Number o f Free Colored Persons, Male and Female, in each State and Territory
o f the United States, in 1840.
STATES AND TERRI
iO
C2
MALE SLAVES.
STATES AND
TERRITORIES.
Under
10.
32*
M aine,............
N. Hampshire,
Massachus’ tts,
Rhode Island,
Connecticut,...
Vermont,........
N ew Y ork ,...
N ew Jersey,..
Pennsylvania,.
Delaware,......
M aryland,.....
Virginia,.........
N . Carolina,...
S. Carolina,...
G eorgia,.........
Alabama,........
Mississippi,....
Louisiana,.....
Tennessee,....
Kentucky,.....
O hio,..............
Indiana,..........
Illinois,...........
M issouri,........
Arkansas,......
Michigan,......
F lorida,..........
Wiskonsin, ...
Iowa,..............
Dis. o f Colura.
Under
TOTAL.
10 and 1 24 and
36 and
55 and
under 24 .under 36. under 55. und. 100.
1
10.
Ql&'> s©
§
5
1
3
$
|
*1
TOTAL.
!
i
l
1
8
1
i
4
9
3
8
i
1
1
12
442
14,996
76,847
44,854
52,642
48,933
43,767
31,736
22,703
31,115
32,531
1
20
676
15,440
68,751
38,419
46,137
43,630
41,293
31,564
23,572
30,883
31,627
53
10,873
3,450
63
10,718
3,514
4,044
1
1
598
T otal,...| 422,599
FEMALE SLAVES.
^ C
o
10 and
24 and
36 and 55 and
under 24. under 36. under 55. und. 100. S
7
137
170
7,725
40,194
19,636
30,373
24,953
25,812
22,008
24,717
15,068
15,095
1
30
4,269
2,069
53
5,218
30,380
14,053
20,751
16,319
12,802
10,120
12,699
8,665
9,054
1
1
15
2,329
890
4,070
3
3
747
2,907
1,496
1
338
1
275
96
391,131
235,373
145,264
51,288
157
3
30
2,522
58
12,398
91
6,512
72
8,650 125
5,374 126
3,626
60
2,537
38
2,769
69
29
2,717
2,657
40
303
35
1,371
45,959
228,861
123,546
158,678
139,335
127,360
98,003
86,529
91,477
91,004
2
1
lfift
28,742
10,119
2
4
168
194
7,537
38,372
20,292
31,589
27,557
26,491
21,670
22,373
15,635
15,058
76
4,732
27,781
13,374
22,403
16,265
12,023
9,019
9,441
9,021
9,645
20
4,887
1,930
94
2,558
849
7
644
174
440
1
8
158
3
63
10,479
3,302
8
551
14,383
65,814
37,910
48,251
44,348
40,818
32,358
24,804
30,356
30,818
1
2
5Q
10,926
3,558
13,038
4
6
2,058
3,992
2
1
630
4,120
1
5
977
2,673
1
3
498
1,446
2
1
370
753 1,246,408
421,470
390,075
239,787
139,201
6
536
182
u
17
14
512
9
4
8
375
14,551
75,703
44,190
54,527
48,445
43,663
31,972
23,158
33,705
32,713
1
2
190
11
1
37
i
2,297
36
12,636 120
6,421
84
8,506 84
4,922
72
3,130
47
2,162 27
2,114
33
2,832 33
2,998 22
7
1
4
3
£
4
371
29 C j H
1,234 5 R43,536 5 8 j
ft. 2
220,326
122,271
168,360
141,609
126,172
—Co
97,208 00 «*.
a
81,923
91,582
91,254
1
to
2
lfi3
29,498
9,816
12,679
7
10
2,636
49,692 580 1,240,805
CO
a
^3
$5
i*
1
to
278
Statistics o f Population.
GRAND TOTAL OF THE POPULATION OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES,
ACCORDING TO TABLES 1, 2, 3, AND 4.
501,793 Mississippi,.................................
Maine,.................
375,651
N ew Hampshire,.
352,411
284,574 Louisiana,...................................
Massachusetts,....
737,699 T ennessee,..................................
829,210
Rhode Island,....
108,833 Kentucky,....................................
779,828
Connecticut,.......
309,978 Ohio,............................................
1,519,467
291,948 Indiana,........................................
685,866
Vermont,.............
2,428,921 Illinois,.........................................
N ew Y ork,.........
476,183
373,336 Missouri,......................................
383,702
N ew Jersey,.......
97,574
Pennsylvania,....
1,724,033 Arkansas,.....................................
212,267
78,085 Michigan,.....................................
Delaware,............
469,232 Florida,........................................
54,477
Maryland,...........
Virginia...............
1,239,797 W iskonsin,............. ...................
30,945
43,112
North Carolina,..
753,419 Iow a,............................................
43,712
South Carolina,...
594,398 District o f Columbia,..................
G eorgia,..............
691,392
Alabama,............
590,756 | G rand T otal of the U. S ..... *17,062,566
* Total number o f persons on board o f vessels o f war in the United States naval ser
vice, June 1, 1840, 6,100 ; making the total aggregate o f the population o f the United
States, 17,068,666.
5 .—
N u m b er
and
o f
P erson s
e m p lo y e d
T ra d e s, N a v ig a tio n
o f
th e
in
M in in g
,
A g r ic u ltu r e , C o m m erce, M a n u fa c tu r e s
O cea n , N a v ig a tio n
o f
C a n a ls,
L a kes
and
U. S
o f th e
e »' £
O cean .
T ra d es.
N a v ig a V n
tu r es a n d
M a n u fa c
m erce.
|C om
tu r e .
A g r icu l
STATES AND TERRI
TORIES.
M in in g .
L e a r n e d P r o fe s s io n s , a n d E n g in e e r s in e a c h S ta te a n d T e r r ito r y o f th e
•Spj
s s
.,
R iv e r s ,
it .
1840.
«0
Os
8
5 «o ^ S
~
~ .{2
^
a £io
101,630
77,949
87,837
16,617
56,955
73,150
455,954
56,701
207,533
16,015
69,851
318,771
217,095
198,363
209,383
177,439
139,724
79,289
227,739
197,738
272,579
148,806
105,337
92.408
26,355
56,521
12,117
7,047
10,469
*
384
2,921
1,379
8,063
1,348
2,743
1,303
28,468
2,283
15,338
467
3,249
6,361
1,734
1,958
2,428
2,212
1,303
8,549
2,217
3,448
9.201
3,076
2,506
2,522
215
728
481
479
355
240
21,879 10,091
17,826
452
85,176 27,153
21,271
1,717
27,932 2,700
13,174
41
173,193 5,511
27,004 1,143
105,883 1,815
4,060
401
21,325
721
54,147
582
14,322
327
10,325
381
7,984
262
7,195
256
4,151
33
7,565 1,322
17,815
55
23,217
44
66,265
212
20,590
69
13,185
63
11,100
39
1,173
3
6,890
24
1,177
435
1,814
14
1,629
13
2,278
126
539
198
372
228
431
146
10,167
1,625
3,951
235
1,519
2,952
379
348
352
758
100
662
302
968
3,32S
627
31C
1,885
39
166
118
209
78
80
1,889
1,640
3,804
457
1,697
1,563
14,111
1,627
6,706
199
1,647
3,866
1,086
1,481
1,250
1,514
1,506
1,018
2,042
2,487
5,663
2,257
2,021
1,469
301
904
204
259
365
203
T o tal , ............. 15,203 3,717,756
117,575
791,545 56,025
33,067
65,236
M aine,.......................
N ew Hampshire,....
Massachusetts,.........
Rhode Island,..........
Connecticut,.............
Vermont,..................
N ew Y o r k ,..............
N ew Jersey,.............
Pennsylvania,...........
Delaware,.................
M aryland,................
Virginia.....................
North Carolina,.......
South Carolina,........
Georgia,....................
A labam a,.................
Mississippi,...............
36
13
499
35
151
77
1,898
266
4,603
5
313
1,995
589
51
574
96
14
Tennessee,...............
K entucky,................
O h io ,.........................
Indiana......................
Illinois,......................
Missouri,..................
Arkansas,.................
Michigan,.................
F lorida,....................
W iskonsin,...............
Iow a ,.........................
Dist. o f Columbia,...
103
331
704
233
782
742
41
40
1
794
217
Statistics o f Population.
279
6.— Number o f Pensioners, for Revolutionary and Military Services, in each State and
Territory o f the United States, in 1840.
Maine,.......................
New Hampshire,....
Massachusetts,.........
Rhode Island,..........
Connecticut,.............
Vermont,..................
New Y ork,..............
New Jersey,............
Pennsylvania,..........
Delaware,..................
Maryland,................
1,409
1,408
2,462
601
1,666
1,320
4,089
472
1,251
4
94
Virginia,....................
North Carolina,........
South Carolina,........
G eorgia,....................
Alabama,..................
Mississippi,...............
Louisiana,................
Tennessee,...............
Kentucky,................
Ohio,..........................
Indiana,.....................
993
609
318
325
192
63
12
895
886
875
380
Illinois,......................
Missouri,...................
Arkansas,.................
Michigan,.................
Florida,......................
Wiskonsin,...............
Iow a ,.........................
District of Columbia,
T
otal ,.....
195
122
24
90
16
9
2
15
.20,797
7.— Number o f Deaf and Dumb, Blind, and Insane ( White and Colored) Persons, in
each State and Territory in the United Slates, in 1840.
DEAF AND DUMB, BLIND, AND INSANE
DEAF, DUMB, BLIND, AND
WHITE PERSONS.
INSANE COLORED PERSONS.
INSANE AND
DEAF AND DUMB.
IDIOTS.
EAF,
DUMB, INSANE AND
AND BLIND.
IDIOTS.
D. of Columbia,
T
o t a l , ..........
1,919
2,056
207
180
471
117
114
144
683
144
469
22
133
317
152
91
51
39
14
6
103
305
363
110
36
42
9
2
1
1
5
2
180
153
308
63
143
101
875
126
540
15
165
426
223
133
136
113
43
37
255
236
372
135
86
82
26
25
9
9
3
6
2,707
5,024
4,329
108
89
408
102
331
12
77
209
118
59
53
48
23
11
96
152
194
94
53
46
11
15
4
2
i
At Public
Charge.
102
97
154
34
At Private
Charge.
Maine,..............
N. Hampshire,..
Massachusetts,.
Rhode Island,...
Connecticut,....
Vermont,..........
New Y o rk ,.....
New Jersey,....
Pennsylvania,...
Delaware,.........
Maryland,.........
Virginia,...........
North Carolina,
South Carolina,
Georgia,............
Alabama,..........
Mississippi,......
Louisiana,.........
Tennessee,......
Kentucky,.........
Ohio,.................
Indiana,............
Illinois,.............
Missouri,..........
Arkansas,.........
Michigan,........
BLIND.
At Public
Charge.
OF THE
UNITED STATES.
38
11
173
5
24
4
56
27
55
7
42
58
29
16
26
25
16
7
28
48
62
28
14
18
8
5
3
9
56
8
27
8
20
9
138
46
132
21
99
326
192
121
108
100
66
38
124
132
103
47
65
50
13
21
12
3
4
4
10,179 977 1,892
2,093
833
330
13
396
9
600
17
86
3
384
8
254
2
1,463
68
225
15
1,477
51
30
8
254
66
731 150
428
74
285
78
243
64
193 53
102 28
49
17
596
67
490 77
832 33
377
15
177 24
160 27
36
2
37
2
9
2
7
5
4
13
4
Blind.
25 and upwards.
73
41
63
25
141
19
362
29
225
15
58
111
80
41
62
53
16
17
93
128
198
91
48
32
11
9
4
4
2
5
TERRITORIES
D eaf and Dumb.
14 and under 25.
47
43
56
15
60
27
269
33
225
18
43
133
82
40
78
72
25
14
102
120
167
112
54
48
18
7
6
1
3
i
AND
At Private
Charge.
Under 14.
STATES
10
3
22
1
13
2
91
26
96
18
91
466
167
156
151
96
69
36
99
141
33
19
10
42
8
4
10
3
280
Commercial Regulations.
COMMERCI AL REGULAT I ONS.
R U S S IA N
P O R T S —ST .
PETERSBURG,
& c.
INFORMATION FOR SHIPMASTERS.
I. Ships arriving must stop before reaching the outer Guard-ship, at which the ship’s
papers have to be produced, and the bills o f lading presented in duplo. The proper officer
signs the ship’s papers, and seals up the bills o f lading in a cover, returning both to the
master.
The hatchways are at the same time sealed up, and the ship receives a pilot
from the Guard-ship, after which she proceeds onwards to the inward Guard-ship, sta
tioned before the harbor.
•
2. Before entering the harbor, the master, with all his papers, has to appear on board
o f the inward Guard-ship, and in the Harbour-Master’s Office, at the mole head, leaving
with the latter the cover containing the bills o f lading. After this, the ship is searched
for the first ti ne.
3. All letters for parties on shore must be delivered up to the Harbor-master on arrival.
Russian bank notes found on board when the vessel is searched, are seized without re
demption. Bills o f health obtained at Elsinore must be produced.
4. Within 24 hours after arrival, the master has to appear at the Cronstadt Custom
house, and within 48 hours to make his declaration, which is taken down in writing, and
signed by him. After signing, he is allowed 24 hours more for final correction o f errors
and omissions; at the expiration o f these 24 hours, the second searching o f the ship
takes place, and errors may still be corrected before the officers have set about their
duty.
5. In the declaration, the master must give an account o f his crew, by name, and a
note o f the names and professions o f his passengers, their luggage and goods, each pas
senger being bound to furnish a note o f the contents o f every parcel belonging to him,
without which particulars the declaration is not received at the Custom-house.
He must
further reproduce his ship’s pass, bill o f health and register, a list o f his ship’s stores and
provisions, and declare his cargo in conformity with the contents o f his bills o f lading.
6. Goods brought to order, if contraband, and the owner on shore not to be found, are
considered as belonging to the master, who is liable for them accordingly.
7. Masters o f ships, and their crews, as well as passengers, may bring goods o f their
own for sale without bills o f lading, and dispose o f them on shore after making entry and
paying duty.
8. Under the denomination o f “ ship’ s provisions,” all ships arriving from beyond the
Sound are allowed" to bring duty free, for every man on board, including the master, 2
ankers spirits, 1 anker wine, 3 ankers malt liquor, 10 lb. coffee, 1£ lb. tea, and 1 pood
o f sugar, Russian w eight; any excess, if on board, must be entered for re-exportation.
Ships coming from within the Sound are only allowed half the specified quantities.
9. The Custom-house takes charge o f the ship’s provisions, leaving a certain quantity
only on board, and giving out more by degrees, as wanted.
10. It is necessary for every master, with an inward cargo, to make a protest on his
arrival, and to remark this in his declaration. The protest has to be noted within 24
hours, to be extended and sworn to within seven days after arrival.
I I . T o prevent the Custom-house officers from boarding ships unnecessarily, it is de
sired that for the first search the flag be hoisted on the mainmast, and for the second or
final search, on the foremast.
12.
In the harbor a ship can neither be moved nor moored without leave obtained at
the Molehead, and never without the attendance o f a pilot.
Commercial Regulations.
281
13. From Cronstadt no ship can proceed up to St. P etersburg without leave, and a
pass obtained from the Custom-house, nor without having the hatchways sealed up first.
14. In all cases o f sea damage o f the goods, surveys must be held, and immediate no
tice thereof given to the consul or vice consul o f the nation to which the vessel belongs,
who will then appoint a person to attend the survey in behalf o f the consignees o f the
goods.
15. For obtaining ballast prams, the master has to apply to the Captain o f the inward
Guard-ship.
16. The proper Yerliks' or permits to take on board fresh provisions are issued by the
Custom-house, and have to be applied for.
17. N o goods from St. Petersburgh can be taken on board from shore or craft, with
out the proper permits or Yerliks accompanying them, as issued by the Custom-house
at St. Petersburgh.
18. No ships arriving from or going to sea, are allowed to anchor in the roads between
the Man-of-war’s Corner, the East end o f the Cronstadt Island, and the W est corner of
the Cronslot fort, unless obliged to do so by necessity.
19. Non-conformation to these rules incurs fines and penalties. Consuls’ clerks are
in constant attendance at the mole head to give advice to shipmasters, besides providing
them with a printed copy o f the detailed Regulations o f the Port to be attended to.
BILLS OF L A D IN G F O R T H E R U S S IA N T R A D E .
1. The Custom-house regulations in Russia require the production o f regular Bills o f
Lading in duplo relative to all goods a ship brings, excepting only the ship’s provisions,
passengers’ effects, and goods belonging to the ship-master himself, which he may declare
and enter for sale without having presented Bills o f Lading.
2. The particulars which Bills o f Lading are required to set forth in order to be deemed
regular documents, are :— (1) T he port o f shipment and the shipper, with the name o f
the ship and her master, and where bound ; (2) The consignee or receiver o f the goods,
or in lieu thereof “ to order,” at the port o f destination ; (3) A designation o f the goods
by the marks and numbers, and the number o f packages, parcels, pieces, or casks, as
invoiced, with the denomination o f kind and quality, so as to identify the contents;
(4) The aggregate o f the foreign weight or measure or number o f pieces o f every parcel
of the same kind and quality o f goods. T he number o f packages, parcels, or pieces
should be written out, if possible, in words, and the denominations o f kind and quality
be stated conformably with the classification adopted in the Russian Tariff, which is par
ticularly essential with reference to manufactures.
The weight or measure per Invoice
must be distinctly denoted, and the denominations clearly added to the ciphers.
3. In some cases the gross weight only, and in others the nett weight only, is required.
The following list will afford a practical illustration o f the aforesaid, namely— to tarable
colonials and drugs give the mark and numbers and the number o f boxes, chests, casks,
bags, bales, baskets, or bundles o f raw Havana, Rio Janeiro, Pernambuco, East Indian, or
West Indian Sugar; Coffee; R ice; Cassia Lignea; Cinnamon; Cinger; C ocoa; Almonds.
Tin in v a rs; Banca Tin ; T in p lates; Shumac ; Safflower; Shellac ; A rgol; Quercitron
Bark; Gums Senegal, Arabic, Benjamin, Olibanum, Lac in granis and the like ; refined
Borax ; raw Borax ; Aloes ; Sago ; cleaned Whalebone ; uncleaned Whalebone ; Cream
of Tartar, or Chrystal Tartari; M anganese; Galangal R o o t; British Salam oniac;
Egyptian Salamoniac; M adders; Antimony Crude ; Yellow or Red Ochre ; O rchil;
Pumice Stone ; Raisins; Currants; F ig s; Indigo, if in serons; Cochineal; Cudbear ;
white Cotton Y arn; dyed Cotton Yarn ; Cotton W o o l ; Raw, Organizine, or Trammed
Silk ; W oollen Yarn ; refined Camphire ; Cardamoms; M a ce ; Nutm egs; Cloves; Pep
per ; Pim ento; India Rubber, in bottles or shoes; Radix Sarsaparilla ; Saffron; T or
282
Commercial Regulations .
toise Shell; Senna L eaves; Cinnabar ; Cheese ; Verditer ; Annato ; Orange or Lemon
P e e l; Tobacco in leaves with stem s; Tobacco in leaves without stems ; Tobacco stems;
Segars; A lu m ; R aw Brimstone; Flowers o f Brimstone; White L ea d ; Red Lead;
Litharge ; Olive O il; C orkw ood; for all these articles under the exact denominations of
kind and quality as above given, it is not only sufficient, but also more expedient to insert the gross weight only, by stating distinctly
T on s.
44weighing— gross
00
C w t.
qr.
lb.
00
00
00.”
I f any o f the words— “ gross, tons, cwt., qrs., or lb.,” be omitted, or any thing blotted
out, erased, and altered, or left blank, the B. L. is deemed irregular, and a fine is incurred for every omission or irregularity.
4.
For these, and the like articles, the gross weight is sufficient, because the regula
tions allow the following fixed tares, after deduction o f which, the remainder is deemed
nett weight, paying duty, nam ely:—
On Olive Oil, in casks,.......................................................................................... per cent
On Raw Sugar, if imported direct from theHavana,............................................
“
do. do.from Rio Janeiro or Pernambuco,....................................................
“
do. do.
from Bahia,......................................................................................
44
But if the same be imported from any other quarter, the real tare is ascertained by
17
11£
16£
12
start
ing and weighing out.
On
“
“
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
4
44
44
44
44
Cotton Twist, in bales,...................................................................................per cent
6
do.
in casks or chests,..................................................................
“
15
Alum, in casks or chests,..................................................................................
“
8
Red Lead, in do.
do........................................................................................
44
8
Cochineal, which is taken out o f the cask, and weighed for duty writh the bags only,
For a bag o f 4 to 7 poods (about 1 1-4 to 2 1-3 cw t.)......................... pounds
2
For a bag o f 2 to 3 1-2 poods (about 2-3 to 1 1-10 cw t.)........................... 44 1
Indigo, in serons o f 5 1-2 to 7 poods (about 1 3-4 to 2 1-6 cw t.)...lbs. per seron 34
do. in £ serons o f 2 1-2 to 4 poods (about 3-4 to 1 1-4 cw t.)...lbs. per £ seron 20
do. Guatemala, in casks or chests,
per cent 20
do. East Indian, the real tare is ascertained by starting and weighing out.
Tin, in casks,....................................................................................................per cent
6
Quicksilver, in leather bags,......................................................................
449
Earthenware, in casks;.......................................................................................
44 20
44
12
do.
in baskets,................................................................................
Gum lacs,
in casks,......................................................................................
44 15
do.
in chests,.........................................................................................
44
25
Sheepswool, in bales,.......................................................................................
44
3
On the other articles :— I f
If
If
If
If
If
If
in
in
in
in
in
in
in
chests, boxes, or wooden vessels,................... per cent
earthen or glass vessels,.......................................
44
single hempen, or linen bags or sacks,..........
44
double hempen, or linen bags or sacks,........
44
bast or mat bags,...................................................
44
both hempen or linen and mat bags,.................
44
baskets,...................................................................
44
10
20
2
4
3
5
5
But if the receiver o f the goods think that the real tare be heavier than the fixed rate allows,
he may require the goods being started, and the exact weight o f the tare ascertained.
5.
With regard to untarable goods, or such from which the vessels holding them can
not conveniently be separated— for instance, quicksilver in cast-iron bottles, preserves,
pomatum, perfumes, and the like, as specified in the tariff—it is required to insert the
weight, inclusive o f the bottles or vessels which pay duty along with the merchandise.
Thus 20 bottles o f quicksilver had to pay duty for 51| poods, including the weight o f the
iron bottles, while the invoiced nett weight was only equal to 42 poods 12£ lb.
The fo
reign weight inserted in the bill o f lading was equal to 51£ poods, neither the gross
weight o f the cask holding the 20 bottles, nor the actual nett wreight o f the quicksilver
by itself being required.
Commercial Regulations .
283
6. T o goods shipped in bulk, or by pieces, besides marks and numbers, if any, insert:—
to raw Brimstone, tons, cwt., qrs., and lb .; to Lead in pigs, Lead in sheets or rolls;
L ogw ood; Red St. Martin’s, Nicaragua, Lima and Sapan wood, the number o f pigs,
rolls or pieces, and the weight by tons, cwt., qrs., and l b .; to Mahogany wood, the
number o f logs, and the aggregate weight in tons, cwt., qrs., and l b .; to white refined,
or Rock Liverpool Salt, the weight by tons, cwt., qrs. and lb .; to coals, (duty free,) the
number o f chaldrons shipped.
7. T o salted herrings, insert the number o f barrels with the marks and numbers, weight
not required, unless exceeding 9 poods gross per barrel, by which weight the duty is re
gulated.
8. T o W ines and Spirits, besides the marks and numbers, insert:— to Rum, the num
ber of puncheons, adding the contents by gallons; to Port wine, Madeira, and Benecarlo,
the number o f pipes, half and quarter pipes, if in such— or o f bottles, if in bottles; to Por
ter, the number o f hogsheads, if in such— or o f bottles, if in such. I f shipped in any other
vessels than the legally determined standards o f pipes, hogsheads, or bottles, then the
measure by imperial gallons must be added.
9. T o Lemons and Oranges, besides the marks and numbers, the number of boxes o f
each kind is required; the duty is levied on whatever quantity is found to be sound on
delivery.
10. T o Skins and Furs, W oollen, Cotton, Linen and Silk manufactures, paying duty
by the nett weight, inclusive o f any inside boards and thin paper wrappers, that cannot
be easily separated without injuring the stuff in handling the pieces, insert the outside
marks and numbers, with the number o f bales or cases ; specify the contents o f each kind
or quality by the term o f the material o f which it is manufactured ; for instance— W ool
len, Cotton, Linen or Silk goods, denoting the mixture if composed o f any two or more
materials ; for instance— W oollen mixed with Cotton : W oollen mixed with Silk : and
add the nett weight o f each description o f goods, separately, including the inside boards,
and inside paper wrappers, if any ; further particulars as to color, transparency, or nontransparency, must be specified in the invoices, with the nett weight o f each description,
separately, as being required for making a correct entry. The variety o f articles o f this
description being very great, no preciser rules to suit every case can here be given. In
doubtful cases shippers will do well to apply to their St. Petersburgh correspondents for
special information as to the particulars to be given, so as to avoid difficulties in making
entry. O f new articles, patterns should be sent along with the inquiry. It is also advisable
and expedient to accompany a parcel o f manufactures by the patterns thereof in a separate packet, directed to the consignee, and superscribed as containing patterns.
11. The Bill o f Entry, given in at the Custom-house by the receiver, sets forth the
contents o f the Bill o f Lading, with a reduction o f the British or other foreign weight or
measure into Russian weight and measure. This reduced Russian weight and measure is
required to correspond with what is actually weighed or measured out after landing,
within a scope o f 8 per cent below or above what the entry shows ; if the difference turn
out to be above 8 per cent either way, no damage appearing, the Bill o f Lading and En
try are deemed irregular, and the consequence by law is payment o f duty for any under
weight, or confiscation o f any overweight found. This regulation does not refer to waste
by leakage and evaporation.
12. The receiver’s or consignee’s entry at the Custom-house must be made within 14
days after arrival o f the ship at Cronstadt; if made later, a fine is incurred, and such is
also imposed for every other omission or irregularity, as above stated.
13. The remission o f fines imposed cannot be obtained otherwise than by petitioning
the Department, or Board o f Foreign Trade, explaining the causes o f the irregularity, and
284
Commercial Regulations.
adducing proofs that no fraud was intended. In cases where the circumstances are any
ways favorable to the petitioner, the Department generally obtains leave from the Min
ister o f Finance to remit the fine imposed, and always gives a speedy decision.
14. The shipmasters have to be provided with three sets o f bills o f lading o f each par
cel o f goods, two sets having to be delivered at the outer Guard-ship in the roads, where
they are sealed up in a cover and directed to the Custom-house at Cronstadt, and the
third set is wanted by the master himself for encashing his freight money.
15. In the course o f eight months (the term fixed for payment after arrival,) consignees
are at liberty to abandon the goods to the Custom-house, in lieu o f duties, if damaged,
or not o f sufficient value in the market to bear the duty due thereon. In such cases the
Custom-house makes the most o f the goods by public sale.
R A T E S OF T O L L C H A R G E A B L E ON T H E P E N N S Y L V A N IA C A N A LS
A N D R A I L W A Y S , F O R 1842.
The following are the rates o f toll to be charged on the Pennsylvania State Canal and
railroads, after January 25,1842.
CANAL.
R A IL W A Y .
,
CANAL.
RAILWAY.
P er Mile. Per Mile.
Per Mile. Per Mile.
per 1000 lbs.
per 1000 lbs.
cts. 771. cts. 77i.
cts. m. cts. 777.
5
0
8 Iron, roll, and ham. sh’ t, 0
7
0
Ashes, pot and pearl,.. 0
8
5
do. pig and scrap,..... 0
4
Bacon,.......................... 0
4
0
0
6
Bark, ground,.............. 0
8 Lard,.............................. 0
5
0
3
0
6
6 Leather,....................... 1
Beef, salted,................. 0
3
0
0
5
l
0
5 Lead,............................ 0
2
Boards and sawed lim. 0
4
0
5
Butter,.......................... 0
8
4
0
6 Liquors, foreign,........... 0
1
2
Burr blocks,................. 0
3
0
8 Nails and Spikes,....... 0
8
0
1
3 Oats,.............................. 0
5
Coal, mineral,............. 0
0
0
7
24
0 Oil, (except Castor,).. 0
Coffee,.......................... 0
5
1
5
1
0
0
7 Paints and Dyestuffs,... 1
0
5
Corn, Indian,.............. 0
5
1
5 Pork,............................ 0
3
5
Cotton,......................... 0
2
0
0
5 Queen’s ware &. China 0
1
5
1
2
Drugs and Medicines,. 1
0
1
5 Rags,.............................. 0
0
Drygoods,.............. .
1
0
5
1
6 Rosin and Pitch,........ 0
0
Earthenware,.............. 0
4
0
5
1
6 R y e ,............................. 0
0
0
7
Fish, salted,................. 0
3
5
1
0
Flour,*......................... 0
4
0
7 Salt,............................... 0
5
6
Furs and Peltry, (exT allow ,........................ 0
3
0
8
0
cept deer & buffalo,) °
Tar,............................... 0
5
1
5
Glassware,................... 0
1
2 T obacco, manufactu’d, 0
8
1
8
6
Groceries,..........'......... 1
do.
not,.............. 0
3
0
0
1
5
8
0
Gypsum,....................... 0
3
0
S
5 W heat,......................... 0
6
5
0
Hardware,.................... 0
5
1
5 W hiskey,..................... 0
2
3
1
H em p,.......................
3
0
6 W indow Glass,........... 0
0
8
Hides, raw,.................. 0
5
0
8
1
2 W o o l,........................... 0
Iron, castings and bl’m , 0
0
5
7
* Resolved, That the collector o f Philadelphia be directed to allow upon the presenta
tion o f the proper certificate, a drawback o f twenty cents per barrel, on each and eveiy
1
barrel o f flour arriving at his office, which shall have been cleared at Pittsburgh, and
passed on the state improvements thence to Philadelphia. The said drawback to be
credited to the transporter o f such flour, on subsequent tolls accruing at the office.
N E W R U S S IA N T A R IF F .
The following is a table o f the new tariff, which gives a statement o f the new import
duties to be imposed by the Russian government upon the various articles mentioned be
low, and which came into operation the 1st o f January, 1842.
tariff, for the sake o f comparison :—
W e also annex the old
285
Steamboat, Railroad, and Canal Statistics.
Old Duty.
Cup.
jRub.
Coffee, per pood,*.. . ... 6
....
0
Cotton w o o l,..........
Cotton yarn,........... .... 5
Cochineal,............... .. 11
Indigo,..................... . ... 4
Quercitron Bark,.... .... 0
Tin, in blocks,....... .... 0
Olive Oil,................. .... I
R ice,........................ .... 0
Salt,......................... . ... 0
Sugar,...................... .... 3
12
25
73
47
59
86
25
72
45
40
21
Old Duty.
Bub. Cop.
New
Bub. Cop
6
0
6
13
5
1
1.2
0
1.8
1
2.10 0
1-6
0
3-10 3
7.8
3-4
1-2
New.
Hub. C.
15 Brazil, Nicaragua, Santa Martha, Lima, Ja25
pan and Logwood, per
00
berko,..................... . ... i 72 1-8
50
80 Fustic,...................... .... i 14 3-4
00 Lead, in pigs,.......... . ... 0 25 1-2
60 Cloth, half-cloth, kerseymere, ladies’
85
cloth, tricot, o f black, dark blue,
dark green, white, and bluish white
60
color, also with small white spots,
40
hitherto prohibited,..........per pound
89
2
1
0
00
3
50
40
10
ity will not be paid further, except on the
N. B.— The quarantine and additional
36 pounds English.
S T E A MB O A T , RAI L ROAD, AND
CANAL
STATISTICS.
P A SS A G E S OF T H E C U N A R D R O Y A L M A IL S T E A M E R S .
It seems, by the Boston Transcript, that the royal mail steamers have, during the
year, performed their trips agreeably to advertisements, without any interruption what
ever, and consequently carried out the original plan o f the line with the greatest success.
The following table shows the time o f arrival at Boston, and the length o f the passage,
(without deducting the time o f detention at Halifax,) o f each steamer, since the line
commenced running, just a year and a half ago. It will be seen that they have made
twenty-nine voyages, and the average time occupied in these passages is fourteen days
and twenty-three hours.
Steamer.
Britannia,..
Acadia,....
Britannia,..
Caledonia,.
Acadia,....
Britannia,..
Caledonia,.
Acadia,—
Columbia,.
Britannia,..
Caledonia,.
Acadia,....
Columbia,.
Britannia,..
Caledonia,.
Arrived.
Dys. Hrs.
.July 18, 1840,
.August 17, “
.Sept. 17,
“
.Oct. 2,
“
.Oct. 17,
“
.N ov. 3,
“
.N ov. 19,
“
.Dec. 21,
“
.Jan. 21, 1841,
.Feb. 22,
“
.March 20, “
-April 7,
“
.April 21, “
•May 6 ,
“
•M ay 19,
“
in
in
in
in
in
in
in
in
in
in
in
in
in
in
in
14
12
13
13
12
13
14
16
16
17
15
18
15
15
14
8
12
12
00
12
12
22
22
15
12
20
12
00
10
12
Steamer.
A cadia,....
Columbia,.
Britannia,..
Caledonia,.
A cad ia,....
Columbia,.
Britannia,..
Caledonia,.
A cadia,....
Columbia,.
Britannia,..
Caledonia,.
A cad ia,....
Columbia,.
Arrived.
..Tune 2, 1841,
.June 17, “
•July 3,
“
•July 17,
“
•August 2, “
.August 19, “
•Sept. 2,
“
•Sept. 18, “
.Oct. 5,
“
.Oct. 21,
“
.Nov. 7,
“
•Nov. 18,
“
•Dec. 7,
“
•Dec. 21,
“
Dys. Hrs.
in
in
in
in
in
in
in
in
in
in
in
in
in
in
13
12
13
13
12
14
13
13
16
15
17
14
18
16
C LOSIN G OF T H E E R IE C A N A L , F R O M 1824 T O 1841.
In 1824, it closed December 4th.
it
1825,
December 5th.
it
1826,
December 13th,
it
1827,
December 18th.
1828,
1829,
1830,
1831,
1832,
((
it
it
tt
tt
VOL. v i . — NO. III.
In 1833, it closed December 12th.
tt
1834,
December 12th.
it
1835,
November 30th.
it
1836,
November 26th.
it
1837,
December 9th.
it
1838,
November 25th
it
1839,
December 16th.
it
1840,
about Dec. 1st.
it
1841,
November 28th.
December 20th.
December 17 th.
December 17th.
December 1st.
December 21st.
33
12
02
12
01
14
18
14
18
03
18
00
06
02
. 21
286
Steamboat, Railroad, and Canal Statistics.
W E S T IN D IA S T E A M P A C K E T S .
T he new line o f British mail steam packets between Great Britain, the W est India
Islands, South America, and the United States, is now in operation, as appears by the
follow in g:—
The British steamship Forth, Lieut. Fayrer, R .N ., Com., arrived at Havana on the
12th Jan. from Southampton, via St. Thomas, in 25 days from the former, and 5 days
from the latter port, and would leave again on the 16th for the Belize, Mississippi River,
Tam pico, and Vera Cruz.
T he Barbadoes Gazette o f the 6 th Jan. announces the arrival o f the Solway from
Southampton, being one o f four that left that port, for different points, on the same day
as the Forth, the arrival o f which at Havana we have already noticed.
T he following is the arrangement from Havana to the North American ports :—
Havana and North American Stations, starting from Havana at 2
when the month has 30 days.
Distance
in Geo
graphical
Miles.
STARTING PORT OR PLACE.
M. o f the 1th,
Time on Stoppages
Voyage. for Mails, etc.
Knots
per
Hour.
Hours.
360
10
460
10
|
46
85
9
|
10
610
84
;
72
520
84
|
61
520
84
|
61
610
84
72
85
9
10
460
9
51
360
9
38
4,050
89
Hours.
36
8
5
6
2
96
32
6
5
6
Stop at Havana,.....................................
T
o t a l , .................................
75
457
263
R A IL R O A D S T E R M IN A T IN G A T A T L A N T IC PO R TS .
T he following statement, prepared by Edwin Williams, shows the number o f contin.
nous miles o f railroad, now in operation in the United States, terminating at the differ
ent Atlantic ports:—
Miles.
N ew York,....
Piermont,......
Jersey City,...
A m b o y ,.........
Brooklyn,......
Miles.
Miles.
Miles.
.... 12 Boston,..........
...... 162
.... 46 Providence,...
— 369 Charleston..... ...... 312
....119 Stoninffton,...
....3 00 Savannah,... ......137
. ... 61 N orw ich,....... .... 5 8 N orfolk,......... ... 78
.... 40 N ew Haven,.
It will be seen from the above how much remains to be done in N ew York, to place
the city on an equality with other Atlantic cities, with regard to railroads. The New
Y ork and Erie railroads will, when completed, connect with a chain o f railroads, most
Commercial Statistics.
287
o f which are now in progress, through Ohio to Cincinnati, making a continuous line of
nearly 900 miles, as follow s:—
Miles.
New Y ork and Erie Railroad, Piermont to Dunkirk,.................................................. 446
Dunkirk to E rie ,................................................................................................................... 45
Erie to Cleveland,................................................................................................................. 90
Cleveland to Cincinnati, by several lines o f railroad,..................................................... 300
T otal , Hudson River to Cincinnati,.......................................... 881
COMMERCI AL S T A T I ST I CS .
C O M M E R C IA L R ESOU RCES OF T H E U N IT E D S T A T E S .
MINES — AGRICULTURE---- COMMERCE— PRODUCTS OF THE FOREST---- FISHERIES---- MANUFACTURES---VALUE OF MANUFACTURED GOODS, ETC.
W e have made arrangements for the tabular statements o f the products o f the United
States, according to the census o f 1840, which we shall publish in detail in future num
bers o f the Merchants' Magazine. T he following summary from them, which gives the
total results, and which will convey to readers generally a better view than the tables
themselves, was compiled by the industrious editor o f Hazard’s United States Statistical
Register.
MINES.
Iron— Cast— Number o f furnaces,........................................................................
864
Tons produced,.....................................................................
286,903
Bar— Number o f bloomeries, forges, and rolling mills,.........................
795
Tons produced,................................................
197,233
Tons o f fuel consumed,....................................................................
1,528,110
Number o f men employed, including mining operations,..................................30,497
Capital invested,................................................................................. $20,432,131
Lead— Number o f smelting houses, counting each fire one,...........................
120
Number o f pounds produced,................................................................... 31,239,453
Number o f men employed,.......................................................................
1,017
Capital invested,......................................................................................... $1,346,756
Gold— Number o f smelting houses,......................................................................
157
Value produced,..........................................................................................
$529,605
Number o f men employed,........................................................................
1,046
Capital invested,..........................................................................................
$234,325
Other Metals— Value produced,...........................................................................
$370,614
Number o f men employed,........................................................
728
Capital invested,..........................................................................
$238,980
Coal— Anthracite— Tons raised, (28 bushels each,).........................................
863,489
Number o f men employed,................................................
3,043
Capital invested,....,............................................................ $4,355,602
Bituminous— Number o f bushels raised,................................................. 27,603,191
Men employed,....................................................................
3,768
Capital invested,...........................
$1,868,862
Domestic Salt— Number o f bushels produced,..................................................
6,179,174
M en employed,...........................................................................
2,365
Capital invested,......................................................................... $6,998,045
Granite, Marble, and other Stone— Value produced,...................................... $3,695,884
Number o f men employed,....................
7,859
Capital invested,....................................... $2,540,159
AGRICULTURE.
Live Stock— Horses and M ules,...........................................................................
4,335,669
Neat Cattle,....................................................................................... 14,971,586
Sheep,................................................................................................. 19,311,374
Swine,............ .................................................................................. 26,301,293
Poultry o f all kinds— estimated value,......................................... $9,344,410
288
Commercial Statistics.
Cereal Grains— Number o f bushels o f W heat,.........................................
“
“
Barley,..........................................
“
“
Oats,..............................................
“
“
R y e ,...............................................
“
“
Buckwheat,..................................
“
“
Indian Corn,...............................
Various Crops— Number o f pounds o f W o o l,...........................................
“
“
H ops,.............................................
“
“
W a x ,.............................................
Bushels o f Potatoes,........................................................
T ons o f H ay,....................................................................
“
Hemp and F la x ,...............................................
Tobacco, Cotton, Sugar, <)-c.— Pounds o f T obacco gathered,...............
“
R ice,............................... ......
“
Cotton gathered,..................
“
Silk Cocoons,.........................
*•
S ugarm ad e..........................
Cords o f W o o d sold,..............................
Value o f the Produce o f the Dairy,...,
“
“
Orchard,
Gallons o f W ine made,........... >............
Value o f home made or family goods,.
Horticulture— Value o f produce o f Market Gardeners,.........................
“
“
Nurseries and Florists,.................
Number o f men employed,...............................................
Capital invested,..................................................................
. 84,823,272
• 4,161,504
. 123,071,341
. 18,645,567
.
7,291,743
. 377,531,875
. 35,802,114
.
1,238,502
628,3034
. 108,298,060
. 10,248,108}
95,251}
. 219,163,319
. 80,841,422
. 790,479,275
61,552}
. 155,100,809
.
5,088,891
. $33,787,008
. $7,256,904
124,734
. $29,023,380
. $2,601,196
.
$593,534
8,553
.. $2,945,774
COMMERCE.
Number o f commercial houses in foreign trade,..............
“
“
“
commission business,,
Capital invested,....................................................................
Retail dry goods, grocery, and other stores,....................
Capital invested,....................................................................
Lumber yards and trade,.....................................................
Capital invested,....................................................................
Number o f men employed,..................................................
Internal transportation— Number o f men em ployed,.....
Butchers, packers, & c.— Number o f men employed,.....
Capital invested,....................................................................
1,108
2,881
$119,295,367
57,565
$250,301,799
1,793
$9,848,307
35,963
17,594
4,808
$11,526,950
FISHERIES.
Number o f Quintals smoked or dried fish,...........................
“
Barrels pickled fish,.............................................
“
Gallons spermaceti oil,........................................
“
“
whale and other fish o il,......................
Value o f Whalebone and other Productions o f Fisheries,.
Number o f men employed,.....................................................
Capital invested,........................................................................
.
.
.
.
773,947
472,3594
4,764,708
7,536,778
$1,153,234
36,584
$16,429,620
PRODUCTS OF THE FOREST.
Value o f Lumber produced,.....................................................
Barrels o f Tar, Pitch, Turpentine, Rosin,............................
T ons o f Pot and Pearl A sh es,...............................................
Skins and Furs— Value produced,.........................................
Ginseng, and all other Productions o f the Forest— Value,,
Number o f men employed,......................................................
. $12,943,507
619,106
15,9354
. $1,065,869
.
$526,580
22,042
MANUFACTURES.
Machinery— Value o f Machinery manufactured,...............
Number o f men employed,........M .................
Hardware, Cutlery, if-c.— Value o f manufactured,............
Number o f men employed,......
Cannon and Small Arms— Number o f Cannon cast,..........
Small Arms made.....................
M en em ployed,........................
Frecious Metals— Value manufactured,..............................
Number o f men employed,...................
. $10,980,581
13,001
. $6,451,967
5,492
274
88,073
1,744
. $4,734,960
1,556
Commercial Statistics.
Various Metals— Value manufactured,.............................................................
289
$9,779,442
Number o f men employed,...................................................
6,677
Granite, Marble, $-c.— Value manufactured,................................................... $2,442,950
3,734
Number o f men employed,........................................
Bricks and Lime— Value manufactured,........................................................... $9,736,945
Number o f men employed,................................................
22,807
Capital invested in the preceding manufactures,........................................... $20,620,869
Wool— Number o f fulling mills,..........................................................................
2,585
“
woollen manufactories,......................................................
1,420
Value o f manufactured goods,.................................................................$20,696,999
Number o f persons employed,...............................................................
21,342
Capital invested,........................................................................................$15,765,124
Cotton— Number o f cotton manufactories,........................................................
1,240
“
spindles,...............................................................................
2,284,631
“
dyeing and printing establishments,..............................
129
Value o f manufactured articles,............................................................ $46,350,453
Number o f persons employed,...................
72,119
Capital invested,......................................................................................$51,102,359
15,745$
Silk— Number o f pounds reeled, thrown, or other silk m ade,....................
Value o f the same,.....................................................................................
$119,814
Number o f males employed,.....................................................................
246
“
females and children,.............................................................
521
Capital invested,.........................................................................................
$274,374
Flax— Value o f manufactures o f flax,................................................................
$322,205
Number o f persons em ployed,................................................................
1,628
Capital invested,.........................................................................................
$208,087
Mixed Manufactures— Value o f produce,....................................................... $6,545,503
Number o f persons employed,...................................
15,905
Capital invested,.......................................................... $4,368,991
Tobacco— Value o f manufactured articles,........................................................ $5,819,568
Number o f persons employed,...........................................................
8,384
Capital invested,.................................................................................. $3,437,191
Hats, Caps, Bonnets, cj-c.— Value o f hats and caps manufactured,............ $8,704,342
“
straw bonnets manufactured,............ $1,476,505
Number o f persons employed,..........................
20,176
Capital invested,................................................... $4,485,300
Leather, Tanneries, Saddleries, tf-c.— Number o f tanneries,........................
8,229
Sides o f sole leather tanned,...........
3,463,611
“
upper do.
do................
3,781,868
Number o f men employed,.............
26,018
Capital invested,.................................$15,650,929
A ll other manufactures o f leather, }
17 i qn
*
saddleries, & c ............................... \
Value o f manufactured articles,..... $33,134,403
Capital invested,.................................$12,881,262
Soap and Candles— Number o f pounds o f soap,...........................
49,820,497
“
pounds o f tallow candles,.............................. 17,904,507
2,936,951
“
pounds o f spermaceti and wax candles,......
“
men employed,...............................................
5,641
Capital invested,................................................................. $2,757,273
Distilled and Fermented Liquors— Number o f distilleries............................
10,306
“
gallons produced,............... 41,402,627
“
breweries,............................
406
“
gallons produced,............... 23,267,730
“
men employed,..................
12,223
Capital invested,.................................... $9,147,368
Powder Mills— Number o f powder mills,.........................................................
137
Pounds o f gunpowder,...............................................
8,977,348
Number o f men employed,..............
496
Capital invested,........................................................................
$875,875
Drugs, Medicines, Paints, and Dyes— Value o f medicinal drugs, paints, & c. $4,151,899
“ turp’ ne and varnish produced,
$660,827
Number o f men employed,................
1,848
33 *
290
Commercial Statistics.
Drugs , Medicines, Paints, and Dyes— Capital invested,................................
Glass, Earthenware, tyc.— Number o f glass houses,.....................................
$4,507,675
81
34
3,236
<n>0 QQn ono
Number o f cutting establishments,.....................
“ men employed,............................................
Value o f manufactured articles, includ’g look- )
ing glasses,...................................................... \
Capital invested,....................................................
$2,084,100
Number o f potteries,....................................
659
Value o f manufactured articles,.........................
$1,104,825
Number o f men employed,..................................
1,612
Capital invested,....................................................
$551,431
Sugar Refineries, Chocolate, <J-c.— N umber o f sugar refineries,.................
43
Value o f produce,...................................
$3,250,700
$79,900
“
chocolate manufactured,......
“
confectionary made,..............
$1,143,965
Number o f men employed,..................
1,355
Capital invested,......................................
$1,769,571
426
Paper— Number o f paper manufactories,..........................................................
Value o f produce,....................................................................................
$5,641,495
u
all other manufactures o f paper, playing cards, & c ........
$511,597
Number o f men employed,...................................................................
4,726
Capital invested,.....................................................................................
$4,745,239
Printing and Binding— Number o f printing offices,......................................
1.552
“
binderies,.............................................
447
“
daily newspapers,......................................
138
“ weekly newspapers,...................................
1,141
“ semi and tri-weekly newspapers,.................
125
“
periodicals,............................................
227
Men em ployed,.........................................................
11,523
Capital invested,........................................................
$5,873,815
Cordage— Number o f rope walks,......................................................................
388
Value o f produce,................................................................................
$4,078,306
Number o f men employed,...............................................................
4,464
Capital invested,..................................................................................
$2,465,577
Musical Instruments—Value produced,...........................................................
$923,924
Number o f men em ployed,........................................
908
Capital invested,...........................................................
$734,370
Carriages and Wagons— Value produced,....................................................... $10,897,887
Number o f men employed,....................................
21,994
Capital invested,.......................................................
$5,551,632
Mills— Number o f flouring mills,.......................................................................
4,364
“
barrels o f flour manufactured,................................................
7,404,562
“
grist mills,.................................................................
23,661
“
saw mills,.............................................................................
31,650
“
oil mills,................................................................................
843
Value o f manufactures,........................................................................... $76,545,246
Number o f men employed,.....................................................................
60,788
Capital invested,................................
$65,858,470
Ships— Value o f ships and vessels built,............................................................
$7,016,094
Furniture— Value o f furniture made,................................................................
$7,555,405
Number o f men employed,.........................
18,003
Capital invested,......................... .....................................................
$6,989,971
Houses— Number o f brick and stone houses built,.........................................
8,429
“
wooden houses built,.......................................................
45,684
Men em ployed,.....................................................................................
85,501
Value o f constructing or building,..................................................... $41,917,401
All Other Manufactures Not Enumerated— Value,....................................... $34,785,353
Capital invested,..................... $25,019,726
Total capital invested in manufactures,.................................................$267,726,579
From the foregoing, we have formed the following table, showing, as far as practica
ble, the amount o f capital invested in various branches o f business, which, it appears, is
$716,089,256. T he capital employed in agriculture is not given ; neither is it in some
other branches. A t best it must be considered as incomplete, and probaby inaccurate,
291
Nautical Intelligence.
as this is a subject o f inquiry, on which few persons feel disposed to furnish correct information, It is therefore, probably, only an approximation to the true amount o f active
capital employed.
$20,432,131 Hats, caps, and bonnets,.......... 4,485,300
In Iron business,
1,346,756 Leather tanneries,...................... 15,650,929
Lead
“
234,325
“ manufact’d and saddles, 12,881,262
Gold
“
.
238,980 Soap and candles,...................... 2,757,273
Other metals,.
Distilleries and breweries,........ 9,147,368
Coal business—
875,875
Powder mills,.............................
Anthracite,..........$4,355,602
Bituminous,........ 1,868,862
Drugs, medic’s, paints, and dyes, 4,507,675
----------------- 6,224,464 Glass,........................................... 2,084,100
Salt,.............................................. 6,998,045 Earthenware, & c .......................
551,431
Granite, Marble, and Stone,... 2,540,159 Sugar refineries and chocolate, 1,769,571
Nurseries,.................................... 2,945,774 Paper making,............................ 4,745,239
Commer. and commis. houses, 119,295,367 Printing and binding,................ 5,873,815
Retail drygood and groc’y, & c. 250,301,799 Cordage,....................................... 2,465,577
Lumber yards and trade,.......... 9,848,307 Making musical instruments,...
734,370
“
carriages and wagons, 5,551,632
Butchers, packers, & c .............. 11,526,950
Fisheries,..................................... 16,429,620 Mills,............................................ 65,858,470
Various manufactures,.............. 20,620,869 Making furniture,...................... 6,989,971
W oollen
do.......................... 15,765,124 A ll other manufactures,............ 25,019,726
Cotton
do.......................... 51,102,359 Total capital invested in manu
Silk
do..........................
274,374
factures, ..........$267,726,579
Flax
do..........................
208,087
Total capital invested,...$716,089,256
Mixed
do.......................... 4,368,991
Tobacco
do.......................... 3,437,191
There is great reason to believe that much inaccuracy exists in the whole returns o f
the census, but such as it is, it affords gratifying evidence o f the resources of our country.
NAUTICAL
INTELLIGENCE.
D IS A S T E R S A T S E A D U R IN G T H E Y E A R 1841.
W e copy from the Sailors’ Magazine the following summary o f shipwrecks, & c., for
1841. Some o f the vessels put down as “ missing” were afterwards heard from, having
been prematurely reported as such.
A record has been kept at the office o f the American Seamen’s Friend Society, dur
ing the year just closed, o f disasters at sea, so far as they could be ascertained, which
resulted in a “ total loss” o f the Vessel. T he greater part o f them were wrecked on the
coast o f the United States, and the most o f them were American vessels.
T he follow
ing is the result:— T he whole number o f vessels lost was 557— Of these there were—
Ships,........................................................ 68 Schooners,................................................ 246
Barks,........................................................ 47 Sloops,................................
21
Brigs,......................................................... 130 Steamboats,..............................................
5
Unknown,................................................... 40
Added to the above entire and known losses, there have been reported twenty-eight
missing vessels ‘during the year, which, with their crews, have most probably been en
tirely lost. Six hundred and fifty lives have been reported as lost, but the loss o f life is
undoubtedly much greater than this, as many vessels were reported as abandoned, or
bottom up, where the crews were missing, and no intelligence has been received from
them. T he above facts speak a language concerning the perils o f the sea, not to be
misunderstood. T he following statement exhibits the number o f vessels and lives lost;
also o f missing vessels for five years preceding :—
Vessels Lost.
In 1840,.........................
1839,.........................
1838,.........................
1837,.........................
1836,.........................
521
442
427
493
316
Lives Lost.
.................... 684
..................... 537
.................... 756
..................... 1295
..................... 826
Missing Vessels.
....................
.....................
.....................
....................
.....................
39
37
27
30
12
292
Nautical Intelligence.
S A L V A G E T O T H E F L O R ID A W R E C K E R S .
T he following is an account o f the salvage decreed to the Florida wreckers during
the year 1841:—
March 16.— Brig Florida and cargo, appraised at $18,25 2...................................... $3,650
351
March 25.— Cargo, & c., brig Candine, amount o f sales, $ 9 8 6 ..............................
April 5.— Materials, A c ., o f ship Manchester, amount o f sales, $ 1 ,300................
576
781
May 19.— Cargo, & c., brig Affleck, amount o f sales, $2 ,374................................
May 20.— Brig Leander and cargo, amount o f sales, $19,360............................
6,831
M ay 31.— Ship Mississippi and cargo appraised at $100,058................................. 14,698
June 1.— Ship Ganges and cargo, estimated at $49,008.......................................... 15,894
October 30.— Brig Ada Eliza and cargo, appraised at $1 2,00 2.............................
5,400
2,935
November 2.— Cargo, & c., o f schooner Columbia, amount o f sales, $ 8 ,3 8 6 .......
Bark Theodore Korner and cargo, decided at Savannah, appraised at $19,000
5,000
December 11.— Schr. Boston Packet and cargo, amount o f sales, $ 2 ,3 9 8 ............
857
Amount decreed,........................................................... $56,973
T o this add cases arbitrated :—
Brig Louise, nett sales, $1 ,984....................................................................
$820
Schooner Coral and cargo, estimated $ 2 ,6 0 0 ...........................................
1,040
Schooner January and cargo, estimated $1,800......................................
600
Bark Henry W oolley and cargo, estimated value after paying duties
9,696
and expenses, $34,631............................................................................
Brig Primavera and cargo, estimated at $ 8 ,5 0 0 ......................................
850
Brig Jasper and cargo, appraised at $ 5 ,5 0 0 .............................................
2,000
Amount awarded by arbitrators,................................. $15,006
T he following exhibits the annual amount
ten years preceding:—
1831,................................................... $39,487
1832................................................... 46,555
1833, ............................................. 38,128
1834, ............................................. 32,042
1835, ............................................. 87,249
1836, ............................................ 174,132
T o tal ................................................ $71,979
o f salvages decided at Key W est, for the
1837................................................... 107,495
1838,
.......................................... 34,578
1839,
.......................................... 90,797
1840,
.......................................... 85,113
1841,
.......................................... 56,973
The above amounts are not entirely correct in all cases, salvages being sometimes
given in kind, so as to allow only an approximation1 to their money value; they are
generally, however, not far out o f the way.
The salvages for the years 1839, 1840,
and 1841, were decreed by our present ju d g e ; prior to 1839, they were decreed by
Judge W ebb.
O B S E R V A T IO N S O N T H E R IS E A N D F A L L OF L A K E ERIE.
T he Buffalo Commercial Advertiser gives the following observations on the rise and
fall o f Lake Erie, at Fairport, Ohio, from 1838.
Greatest depression o f the lake or lowest stage o f water is in February, and the
greatest height about the 6th o f July o f each year.
T he highest water known was in 1838, measured in February, from which the follow
ing heights are taken:—
February 6, 1840, measured and found the lake had fallen since February,
1838, two years,..............'..................................................................................... 26 inches.
Rising from that date same year to July 6,........................................................... 20 “
Falling from July 6 to August 6,...................................................
3J inches.
“
“
to September 28,...........................................
6i “
“
“
to February 22, 1841,..................................
16
“
26 “
“
“
6 inches lower to add,..........................................................
6 “
or 32 inches.
The Book Trade.
293
February 22, 1841, found the lake had fallen 6 inches in the last year, as above, since
1838, a period o f three years.
Rising from February to April 1,................................
6 inches.
44
“
to July 6 , ................................... 10 “ — 16 inches.
And falling from July 6 to August 6 ,............................
4 inches.
“
.“
to September 6,.......................
4 “
44
44
October 6,..................................
5 “
44
44
November 6 , .............................
3 44
“
44
December 6 ,..............................
0 44
44
44
January 6,.................................
0 44 — 16 inches,
or winter level, — 32 inches.
It is now judged to be from 12 to 18 inches above the lowest water mark, by the
oldest residents o f Buffalo.
THE
1.
BOOK T R A D E .
On the Beauties, Harmonies, and Sublimities of Nature ; with Notes, Commentaries, and
Illustrations. By C h a r l e s B u c k e , author o f 44Ruined Cities,” &c. &c. (Vol. 145 Har
pers’ Family Library.)
W e have seldom read a book in which the pleasing and the useful were so admirably
blended and combined as in this volume. The author has brought to the illustration of his
subject, facts the most curious, entertaining and varied, collected from every quarter, and
has embellished the whole with the creations o f a lively fancy, rich classical allusions, and
moral inferences no less just than beautiful. The beauties and sublimities o f nature are
presented in their most impressive features, in points o f view singularly striking and novel,
and in connection with associations that impart to them new interest, and additional power
to instruct and gratify. The concluding article, on a future state of being, as the grand
result distinctly indicated by all that is witnessed around us, is particularly fine.
2. —Essays on Property and Labor, as connected loith Natural Law and the Constitution of
Society. By F r a n c is L i e b e r . (Vol. 146 Harpers’ Family Library.)
A just estimation o f the principles regulating the rights o f property and labor in their va
rious relations is at the foundation o f morals no less than o f legislation. The subject is,
therefore, one o f very great importance, and we are the more gratified to see a writer so
competent as Dr. Lieber devoting himself to its consideration, from the conviction that very
erroneous views are somewhat extensively entertained in relation to this subject at the
present day. There is much in this treatise that is calculated to set us right where we
have been led away from first principles by delusive theories, and to establish those princi
ples more firmly where they are already admitted and correctly understood.
3 . —Ahasuerus; a Poem. By A V i r g i n i a n . New Y ork: Harper & Brothers. 1842.
W e have been agreeably disappointed in this artless versification of a well-known legend
—that o f the accursed Jew who spat upon Jesus on the cross, and received from him the
sentence 44Tarry till I com e.” There are many beautiful thoughts, many sweet verses,
many original and gorgeous figures, many true and holy sentiments. The epical form and
prosy measure which the author has chosen, no less than the subject itself, have interposed
obstacles in the way o f his complete success. Still there is unequivocal merit in it, no or
dinary power o f fancy, and no common ability at description. I f 44Ahasuerus” cannot take
its place in the highest walk o f the divine art, it never sinks to the lowest, and may content
itself with bearing on its fair pages pleasure, instruction, and comfort to a discerning and
candid public.
4. —Norway and the Nonoegians ; or, Feats on the F iord: a tale. By H a r r i e t M a r t i n e a u ,
author o f “ The Peasant and the Prince,” 44Settlers at Home,” &c. 18mo. pp. 180.
New York : D. Appleton & Co. 1842.
5. — Which is the Wiser ? or, People Abroad : a tale for youth. By M a r y H o w i t t , author
of 44Strive and Thrive,” 44Hope On, Hope Ever,” 44 Sowing and Reaping,” 44W ho
shall be Greatest 1” & c. 18mo. pp. 184. New York : D. Appleton & Co. 1842.
These two volumes form the 14th and 15th o f Appleton’s admirable collection o f 44Tales
for the People and their Children,” a series o f juvenile books which we cannot too highly
commend.
294
The Book Trade .
6. — An Introduction to Legal Science ; being a Concise and Familiar Treatise on such Le
gal Subjects as are earliest read by the Law Student; should be generally taught in the
higher Seminaries o f Learning, and understood by every Citizen, as a part of a General
and Business Education. T o which is added, A Concise Dictionary of Law Terms and
Phrases. By S i l a s J o n e s , Counsellor at Law. New York : John S. Voorhies. 1842.
The copious titlepage quoted furnishes a very good idea o f the comprehensive treatise
before us. The object o f the author in preparing this work, as we are informed in his pre
face, was to produce a book which could be both read and studied, not merely for those
destined for the legal profession, but by those also who, without the stimulus of professional
predilections, have simply the desire to give such attention to the leading topics of law as
belong to general and business education. The author has relieved the subject o f its dry
ness, not by shunning its technicalites o f language, but by using and defining them in such
connections as will enable general readers to understand them. The work is written in a
plain, perspicuous, and spirited style; its subject matter judiciously selected and wellarranged ; and treated in a manner at once interesting and instructive. The dictionary
appended to the work is not the least valuable portion o f i t ; and, containing as it does, a
brief but pertinent dictionary o f most o f the legal terms and phrases in ordinary use, it will
be found exceedingly valuable to the general reader.
7. — Laws of the State o f New York, o f a General Nature, passed from 1828 to 1841, inclusive ;
all acts relating to the same subject classified and brought together under their appro
priate heads. Selected and arranged, with references to judicial decisions. By A C oun
sellor a t L a w .
Rochester, N. Y . : Thomas IJ. Hyatt. 1841.
This work is particularly valuable to the lawyer, and one which we think few will fail
to purchase. His library may contain the entire volumes o f statutes passed during the
years comprised in the book before us, and yet this will be useful to him from the fact that
containing as it does, all the laws o f general application or interest, together with a copious
and well-arranged index, he is enabled to find any act with much more ease and facility
than he would if compelled to search through the pages o f a dozen volumes. And to those
who cannot well afford to buy all the statutes passed during the period we have mentioned,
we need hardly say that this work, the cost o f which is but trifling, is invaluable. The
only objection existing against it is, that courts, we suppose, will not receive it as evidence
o f statutes it contains, from the fact that they are not compiled and published under the
sanction o f the state legislature. But this is one comparatively trifling, for it is equally
valuable as a book o f reference—equally useful to the lawyer in his office. Its mechanical
execution is g o o d ; and as it is a work perfectly novel in its plan, and really o f great value
to the bar, and to those who may sometimes find it necessary to refer to some among the
multitude o f laws with which our statute books are crowded, we recommend it as deserv
ing o f an extensive sale.
— Pei'sonal Recollections. By C h a r l o t t e E l i z a e e t h . From the London edition. 12mo.
pp. 303. New York: John S. Taylor & Co. 1842.
The writings o f Charlotte Elizabeth consist principally o f religious tales, which have ob
tained an extensive circulation among a large class o f Christians o f the popular creed,
both in England and Am erica; and these autobiographical notices o f her life and opinions
will enable her numerous readers to gain an insight into the peculiarities o f her character,
and will be read with interest by her admirers.
8.
9. — Grandfather’s Chair ; A History for Youth. 18mo. pp. 139.
10. — Famous Old People; being the Second Epoch o f “ Grandfather’s Chair.”
18mo.
pp. 158.
11. — Liberty Tree; with the Last W ords o f “ Grandfather’s Chair.” 18mo. pp. 156. Bos
ton : Tappan & Dennet. 1842.
Nathaniel Hawthorne, the author o f these “ ponderous tomes,’ ’describes the eminent
characters and remarkable events o f our New England early annals, in a form and style
that cannot fail to attract the attention o f the young, and make them acquainted with them
o f their own accord. W hile, therefore, ostensibly relating the adventures o f a chair, he
keeps a distinct and unbroken thread o f authentic history. Setting aside grandfather and
his auditors, and excepting the adventures o f the chair, which form the machinery o f the
books, and the license o f filling up the outline o f history with details from imaginative au
thority, they contain nothing that will violate or give a false coloring to the truth o f history.
295
The Book Trade .
—Discourses on Human Life. By O r v i l l e D e w e y , Pastor o f the Church of the Messiah,
New York. New Y o rk : David Felt & Co. 1841.
12.
This series o f sermons, presented by a pastor to his people on account o f his separation
from them by ill health, is remarkable on a great many accounts. In the first place, be
cause of their catholicity o f sentiment and doctrine: there is not a word in this volume
which would not receive the hearty “ A m en!” o f every good person o f every sect. Much
he venerated might be absent; but nothing could be found to disturb a Sabbath hour, or
strike the jarring note o f theological controversy. In the second place, these discourses
treat of topics never hardly considered in the pulpit—never before discussed in a similar
way—and yet lying at the foundation o f all practical Christianity. The seventh sermon,
“ The School o f Life,” affords one o f the happiest specimens o f this distinguished preacher’s
style ; and, at the same time, novel as its form is, stands impregnable in its general propo
sition upon the unassailable reasoning o f Butler. Again, these sermons are remarkable,
and cannot fail o f awakening an unusual interest for productions of the class, in casting
aside all the usual modes o f pulpit address; all the mechanical forms of sermonizing; all
the shackles which have bound down to a Samson’s prison-floor so many rich minds, and
sustaining a lofty, profound, and original course o f eloquent argument upon some o f the
most interesting themes o f thought and most important walks o f duty.
13. —An Offering o f Sympathy to the Afflicted, especially to Parents bereaved o f their Chil
dren. Boston: James Munroe & Co.
The number o f editions this work has passed through in this country and in England
6how that it has met a living want. The circumstances o f its first publication are exceed
ingly interesting: the infant child o f a venerable Boston clergyman was allowed by its
nurse to encounter a death o f extreme agony. In the distress occasioned by this affliction,
the happy thought occurred of ministering through his own experience to the consolations
of others; and this volume was collected from various devotional works, and from the
pulpit efforts o f the neighboring clergy. Channing, Walker, Greenwood, Furness, Pea
body, and others o f the most distinguished in the ranks o f “ liberal Christianity,” have made
rich offerings, both in prose and verse, on this altar o f sympathy; and from some knowledge
of the comfort it has afforded to the bereaved, we cordially recommend this work as one
of the best o f the kind—one deserving a cordial welcome to every house and every heart.
The variety o f thought and expression, and yet the perfect harmony of tone and feeling
which marks this spiritual wreath for a Christian cemetery, will make it live and bloom as
long as sorrow is known.
14. —jFamiliar Dialogues and Discussions ; for Exhibition in Schools and Academies o f either
Sex, and for the Amusement o f Social Parties. By W i l l i a m B. F o w l e , teacher of a
young ladies’ school in Boston. 12mo. pp. 286. Boston : Tappan & Dennet. 1841.
Aside from the value o f this excellent collection o f dialogues for schools and academies,
we have been agreeably entertained with the perusal o f several o f the discussions, most o f
which are original. “ The Town Meeting for the Discussion o f Slavery,” and “ The Meet
ing of Ladies to Discuss the Rights o f W om an,” are admirable hits at the times, and popu
lar assemblies the world over.
15. —Robin Hood, and his Merry Foresters. By S t e p h e n P e r c y , author o f “ Tales of the
Kings o f England.” 16mo. New York : J. & H. G. Langley. 1842.
W ho has not read this famous old ballad 1 This is the first time, however, that an at
tempt has been made to adapt the legend to the popular taste by rendering it intelligible to
youth. The adventures and exploits o f this renowned hero are presented in the narrative
form, introducing portions o f the original ballad, and that o f Robin Hood and the Ranger,
the whole being illustrated by eight colored drawings.
16 — Tales of Shipwrecks and other Disasters at Sea.
ries about Dogs,” & c. 18mo. pp. 224.
By T
homas
B in q l e y ,
author of “ Sto
This little volume contains the adventures o f Falconer; the wreck of the Yryheid, the
Albion, and the Medusa; mutiny o f the Bounty; loss o f the Kent, the Winterton, East
.ndiamen, the Royal George, & c .; related by “ Uucle Thomas,” after the attractive man
ner of Peter Parley.
296
The Book Trade.
17. — Twice-Told Tales. By N a t h a n i e l H a w t h o r n e . 2 vols. Boston : J. Munroe & Co.
1842.
Nathaniel Hawthorne needs no praise o f ours; in the light and brief sketches which are
his chief delight, he has no peer; in the successful portraiture of the finer traits of charac
ter, as in the “ Gentle Boy,” his masterpiece, he fears no rival. His tales renew the joy
o f our youth over the delightful sketches o f Irving; and like them, touch the better feel
ings, and lead us on to the love o f virtue for Virtue’s self. Hardly one o f his pieces but has
some rich lesson hidden among its sweet flowers; not one but breathes a wholesome and
healing moral atmosphere. Yet, more graceful, modest, and delicate utterances of holy
sentiment were never made. It is like the heart o f a sister or mother exhaling a blessed
atmosphere around us. The first o f these volumes has been for some time before the pub
lic ; but the second is new in its collective capacity, and deserves a resting place on every
family bookshelf, and in every true and pure heart throughout the land. Four o f its pieces
are legends connected with the early history of the country, simple in themselves, but no
way unworthy o f the highest artistical genius.
18. — Sketches o f New England ; or, Memoirs o f the Country. By J o h n C a r v e r , Esq., Juso f the Peace and Quorum. 12mo. pp. 286. New York : E. French. 1842.
These sketches are from the pen o f a legitimate son o f New England, who boasts his de
scent direct from one o f those stern old Puritans who chartered the Mayflower. Born on
the banks o f one o f her beautiful rivers, and nurtured among her mountains, and residing
in each o f her states, his opportunities o f knowing her inhabitants w'ere certainly neither
few nor small. His description o f manners is therefore o f what he has seen, and his de
lineations o f character are drawn from life. The volume contains fifteen sketches, five of
which were originally published in the Knickerbocker, where they gained high and de
served encomiums from the editors o f public journals, and met with a favorable reception
from the community.
19. — Annals o f the Poor. By the Rev.
H. G. Langley.
L
egh
R
ic h m o n d .
12mo. pp. 238. New Y ork: J. &
The popularity o f this little work has been scarcely inferior to that o f Bunyan’s “ Pil
grim’s Progress.” The narratives, which are founded in fact, possess a deep and thrilling
interest, so that whether for entertainment merely, or as a vehicle of religious instruction,
it would be difficult, perhaps, to find its superior.
20. — Beauties o f Rev. John Wesley, A .M . ; containing the most interesting passages, selected
from his whole works: with a memoir o f his life, and the particulars of his will. 18mo.
pp. 212. New Y o rk : J. S. Redfield. 1842.
21. — The Golden Grove ; A Choice Manual, cpntaining what is to be Believed, Practised,
and Desired, or Prayed fo r ; the prayers being fitted for the several days o f the week.
T o which is added, A Guide lor the Penitent, or A Model drawn up for the Help o f
Devout Souls wounded with Sin: also, Festival Hymns, &c. 18mo. pp. 155. New
Y ork: D. Appleton & Co. 1842.
22. — The Jacquerie; a Novel. By G. P. R . J a m e s , Esq., author o f “ The Gipsey,” “ The
Ancient Regime,” “ The Gentleman o f the Old School,” & c. 2 vols. 12mo. New Y ork:
Harper & Brothers.
23. — The Benevolent Merchant; or, The Dealings o f God in Providence and Grace. A nar
rative intended to guide young disciples in forming a right judgment of the Divine pur
pose in the various events o f human life. By M. N. 18mo. pp. 220. New Y o rk : Dayton & Saxton. Boston: Saxton & Pierce. 1842.
24. — A National Bank or No Bahks ; an Appeal to the People of the United States, espe
cially o f the Laboring Classes. By J o h n R . H ord . 8 v o pp. 104. New Y ork: W . E.
Dean and Dean & Trevett.
25. — The Library of Commerce; Practical, Theoretical, and Historical. By F r e e m a n H u n t ,
Editor Merchants’ Magazine. Vol. I.—Part 1:—Sketch o f the Commercial Intercourse
o f the W orld with China. 12mo. pp. 108. New Y o rk : Office of the Merchants’ Maga
zine. 1842.
@FedFRASER