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THE MERCHANTS’ MAGAZINE, Established Ju ly, 1839, BY FREEMAN HUNT, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR. V O L U M E X II. JUNE, CONTENTS OF 1845. NO. N U M B E R V I. V I., VOL. XII. ARTICLES. ART. I. P A GE . Commercial Associations o f France and England. Translated from the French " Revu des du M ond es” with Remarks and Notes. II. By H e n r y C . C a r e y , o f Pennsylvania,................................................................................. O regon: The Claim o f Great Britain. By G eorge S. B o u t w e l l , o f Mass.,.. 520 III. British Commercial Policy. By T hom as P. K e t t e l l , o f N ew Y ork,............... 538 IV. W eights and Measures o f the United States. B y H e n r y G . R ice , of Mass.,. 549 V . Copper Smelting in the United States, embracing a letter to the Editor, from G eorge D itso n , Vice-Consul at Nuevitas,............................................................. V I. 551 The Gold Sands o f Siberia,....................................................................................... 554 MONTHLY COMMERCIAL CHRONICLE, EMBRACING A FINANCIAL AND COMMERCIAL REVIEW OF THE UNITED STATES, ETC., ILLUSTRATE* WITH TABLES, AS FOLLOWS : Quarterly Customs and Revenues o f the United States, from 1842 to 1845,............. 557 Debt o f the State o f N ew Y o rk ,......................................................................................... Railroad Movement, Commercial Affairs, etc.,................................................................. COMMERCIAL 558 559 STATISTICS. Commerce and Navigation o f the United States, embracing full Statements from the Annual Report o f the Secretary o f the Treasury, for the year ending June 30,1844, 561 Domestic Exports o f the United States to different countries, 1844,................... ......... 562 Value o f the Domestic Exports o f the United States, 1844,........................................... 563 Foreign Merchandise exported from the United States, in 1844,.................................. 564 Imports o f the United States from each Foreign country, in 1844,................................. 565 American and Foreign Vessels cleared from the United States, in 1844,.................... 566 American and Foreign Vessels entered the United States, 1844,................................... 567 Statistical V iew o f the Commerce o f the United States, exhibiting the value o f im ports from, and exports to, each foreign country, in 1844,............................................ 569 American and Foreign Vessels arriving from, and departing to, each foreign country, in 1844................................................................................................................................... 570 V O L. X I I .---- NO. V I . 31 » 500 498 Table o f Contents. PAGE. Exports and Imports o f each State and Territory, in 1844,............................................ 572 Tonnage cleared from each State and Territory o f the United States, in 1844,......... 573 Tonnage entered into each State and Territory o f the United States, in 1844,......... 574 Condensed V iew o f the Tonnage o f the several Districts o f the U. States, in 1844, 576 Number and Class o f Vessels built, and their Tonnage, in each State and Territory in the United States, in 1844,........................................................................................... 577 Havre Cotton Trade for ten years, from 1835 to 1844,.................................................... 577 Statistics o f American Cheese,.............................................................................................. 577 Manufactured Goods shipped from Liverpool to N ew Y ork, from 1843 to 1845,........ 578 Imports and Exports o f Egypt, in 1844,.............................................................................. 578 T ea imported into the United States from China, from 1842 to 1844,......................... 579 Emigration from the United Kingdom to Foreign Countries and British Colonies, from 1825 to 1844,............................................................................................................... 579 Buildings erected in N ew Y ork, in 1844,........................................................................... 579 C ANA L AND R A I L R O A D S T A T I S T I C S . Delaware and Hudson Canal Report, for 1844,................................................................. 580 Articles transported on the Delaware and Hudson Canal, in 1844,............................... 580 T olls received on the Delaware and Hudson Canal and Railroad, in each year, from 1830 to 1844......................................................................................................................... 580 Rates o f Freights on the Erie Canal,................................................................................... 581 COMMERCIAL REGULATIONS. Instructions to the Collectors o f the Customs relative to the act passed at the last session o f Congress, allowing drawback on goods exported to the territories ad joining the United States,.................................................................................................. 581 Canada Custom-House Duties Circular,............................................................................... 582 China N ew Regulation for Vessels,...................................................................................... 583 Masters o f Vessels Trading to Turk’s Island,.................................................................... 583 MERCANTILE MISCELLANIES. Comparative Tables o f the Mineral Productions o f U. States and G. Britain,. 584, 585 Scotch Pig-Iron Trade,..................................................... 585 N e w W ork on the Statistics o f Coal,.................................................................................. 586 Y ou n g M en’s Association o f Albany,................................................................................... 587 T he Intellectual in Trade— Morals o f Trade,.................................................................... 587 T HE BOOK T R A D E . Greenhow’s History o f Oregon and California,.................................................................. 588 Hunt’s Library o f Commerce— Putnam’s American Facts,............................................. 588 W iley & Putnam’s Library o f Choice Reading,............................................................... 589 Kidder’s Residence in Brazil— Smith’s Secret Corresponding Vocabulary,.................. 589 Frost’s B ook o f the Navy— Allen’s Stable Econom y,..................................................... 590 Burdett’s Never T o o Late— Braithwaite’s Retrospect o f Medicine, etc.,...................... 590 Hoguer’s Comparative Anatomy— Daunt’s Catechism o f Ireland,. ............................... 590 Barnes’s Notes on the Ephesians— Plato Against the Atheists,...................................... 591 Gray’s Botanical T ext-B ook— Apocryphal N ew Testament,.......................................... 591 Brackett’s Midnight Hours— Edgeworth’s Moral Tales,................................................... 591 Cruden’s Concordance— Frost’s Pictorial History o f the W orld,....................... ........... 592 Upham’s Catharine Adorna— Harris’s M iscellanies,......................................................... 592 Everest’s Snow-Drop— Green on Gambling,...................................................................... 592 LardnePs Lectures on Science and A rt,............................................................................... 592 Farnham’s History o f Oregon— Books published by the Harpers,.................................. 592 HUNT’S M E R C H A N T S ’ MAGAZINE. JUNE, 1845. A rt. I.— C O M M E R C IA L A S S O C IA T IO N S O F F R A N C E A N D E N G L A N D .* IV. with the sight o f our exceeding inferiority in this respect, many men, otherwise enlightened, have been disposed to conclude that the habit o f association was not consistent with the tendencies o f the French people ; that French commerce was deficient in the instinct ne cessary for its production ; that its power was not appreciated ; and that, consequently, its want was unfelt. How strange is this mode o f regard ing the character and tendencies o f a nation ! and yet, with this assumption as a basis, these persons have come before the world as teachers, and have undertaken to read lectures to the merchants, with a view to their instruction. Instead o f bestowing upon trade and traders their very use less lessons, they might advantageously turn to those who make laws, and invite them, not to establish companies, nor even to favor the habit o f association, by any encouragement, which would 'be superfluous where so many individual interests are tending constantly to its production, but sim ply to remove the restraints and prohibitions by which natural tendencies are counteracted. It was long since proved that French commerce was not inferior, in this respect, to that o f other nations, when let alone, and that for the production o f the institutions that are needed, nothing was ne cessary but the grant to the French people o f a little o f the same liberty that is enjoyed by the English and the Americans. W e have not far to seek for proofs that such is the case, having had but lately most disastrous evidence o f the fact. The errors and abuses remarked in the recent formation and conduct o f limited partnerships, in transferable shares, afford striking evidence, first, o f the tendency o f capi tal in the direction o f commercial •association, and second, o f the defects, in the law. They had their origin in the efforts made by the spirit o f association to enlarge its sphere o f action, and to relieve itself from the legislative restraints by which it was overpowered and smothered. It was A f f l ic t e d * Conclusion o f the article, commenced in the May number of this Magazine. 500 Commercial Associations o f F rance and E ngland. not the spirit that was wanted. That was exhibited in all directions, but the law did not permit its development, and it was held captive, notwith standing all its struggles for freedom. In the effort it turned and twisted the law by which it felt itself to be opposed and oppressed. Everything was done to make the law bend to its desires, and from this unfortunate warfare between the spirit o f association seeking a field for the exertion o f its powers, and the spirit o f regulation seeking its repression within the prescribed limits, have arisen the many disorders and abuses that are complained of. In looking at the picture presented to us by the events o f the last few years, that which first strikes us is the great importance which the system o f limited partnership has acquired, both for the number o f the associa tions, and from the magnitude o f the operations which they have attempt ed. I f the reader has fully understood what we have already said in re ference to this species o f association, he must be satisfied that it was not intended for such extensive undertakings; and yet so great has been the tendency in that direction, that there has been a disposition to apply it to everything, and no enterprise has been thought too great to be brought within its domain. W hence has arisen the almost exclusive pre dominance o f this particular form ? It has been produced by the necessity o f the case, as the reader must already have seen. The common partner ship not being, by reason o f its numerous requirements, susceptible o f ap plication to extensive operations, and there being no power to form the societes anonymes, the limited partnership has been the sole outlet by means o f which the spirit ,of association could find employment on a large scale for its energies, and every one that has desired to invoke its aid in sup port of a project o f any importance, has availed himself o f that form, not as the best, but as the only possible one. The capitalist, willing to se cure to himself some o f the advantages likely to result from co-operation with his fellow men, and to benefit' by the chances offered by extensive enterprises, has been obliged to resort to the companies formed on this principle, not as to those which offered the most satisfactory securities, but as being those to which alone large operations seemed to belong. Projectors and capitalists, have resorted thereto, without reflection or enquiry, for enquiry is useless when there is no freedom o f choice, and thus has the limited partnership become, notwithstanding its great de fects, almost the only species o f commercial association. It has been said, and truly, that most o f the limited partnerships, recent ly formed, have been a sort o f disguised societes anonymes, usurping the place that should be occupied by that species o f association. A man, not remarkable for steadiness, or for the possession o f any remarkable talent, and having neither an establishment of his own, nor the means to form one, presented himself: he called around him persons who had capital to invest: and as soon as he had succeeded in forming an association with a sufficient capital, he constituted himself the acting partner. At other times, capitalists came together spontaneously, and with reference to some determinate object, and having assessed themselves for the creation o f a joint capital, they then invited the co-operation o f other persons like themselves. In both o f these cases, we see the elements o f the societe anonyme. As the shareholders had alone contributed to the formation o f the capital, they were the true founders o f the company— or rather they were the company itself; and the acting partner, whether he opened the Commmercial Associations o f F rance and E ngland. 501 subscription lists, or was subsequently called in, was but a secondary part o f the machine, easy to replace if necessary. The association existed neither in nor by him, because he could at any time retire without alter ing the conditions o f its existence : nor did its future action depend in any measure upon him, because he had contributed nothing that was essential to its success. The shareholders had done all, and were all. It was in them alone that the supreme control should have rested, while the acting partner, the man o f their selection, and the work o f their hands, should have exercised only a limited power, under their direction, and liable to revo cation ; and yet we see in how many cases, by the mere fact o f selecting such a person, the mass o f the shareholders have found themselves deprived o f all influence, while he, to whom the association owed nothing, installed himself as master, invested with irrevocable power, uncontrolled and unlimited. This change o f position between the two descriptions o f partners, was, in itself, a serious evil. We are not disposed to say that it was always the result o f improper intentions on the side of the acting partners; on the contrary, we see that it was forced upon them by the state o f the commer cial law, which prevented the formation o f compagnes anonymes. But for this, it cannot be supposed that the shareholders would have been so de void o f sense as to abdicate all control, and thus deprive themselves o f all security, when both could so readily have been retained; or, that the managers, whether proprietors or not, would have dared to propose such a course. It is to the law, therefore, and to the law alone, that we must look for the cause o f this deviation from true principle, in itself a great error, and to become, upon occasion, the germ o f others. Let us suppose, and happily the case is not rare, an entire good faith on the part of the shareholders, the special partners, and the acting part ners ; and yet, even here, we shall find that the unnatural adoption o f the limited partnership brings with it inconvenience o f more kinds than one. In the first place, it may happen that the person chosen for acting part ner, although irreproachably correct, may prove unfitted for the business with which he is charged. And this will frequently happen; for in a new concern, sometimes devoted to a new kind o f trade, it is difficult to be cer tain o f the correctness o f a first choice. Even without any such occur rence, it is still an evil that the parties interested should be deprived o f all control, because there is no man so honest, or so capable, as not at times to require that his actions should be subjected to some supervision, when charged with the management o f the affairs of others. Even honesty it self sometimes gives way, and the most active may be tempted to loiter when the spur is unfelt, thereby omitting to avail himself to the full extent o f the means placed at his command. In the societe anonyme, supreme authority is in the hands of the shareholders ; the true proprietors ; and the managers are their agents, responsible to them, and liable to be changed at their pleasure ; and in the desire to avoid the danger o f dis missal will be found the greatest possible stimulus to exertion. What is there o f this in the limited partnership ? The special partner may pre tend to inspect and advise, as is sometimes done ; but where is his au thority? Unless the acting partner be guilty o f acts that are sufficiently culpable to warrant bringing him before a court, a state o f things to which we do not here refer, they have no right but that o f remonstrance, and however good may be their intentions, they are powerless when op 502 Commercial A ssociations o f F rance and England. posing themselves to the unlimited and irrevocable authority o f the part ner of their selection. What is the value o f such inspection, deprived as it is o f all power o f action ? Our readers will understand that what we have here said, does not ap ply in the cases o f limited partnerships, founded on true principles, and which are distinguished by the following characters : first, that of having at their head a person well known to possess the peculiar talent that was required; and second, that the undertaking is in some measure his own property, from the extent o f his investment, and his interest in its success — a state o f things affording the security for attention and good manage ment that warrants dispensing with the responsibility o f the special part ner ; whereas, in the bastard limited partnerships that have been founded in such numbers within a few years, negligence and mismanagement have been o f ordinary, and frequently fatal, occurrence. Another consequence, too, is that this mismanagement is always the most highly paid. It is almost impossible to keep the salary o f an acting partner within the modest limits prescribed for that o f manager o f a societe anonyme. The last being simply an elected officer, and liable to be discharged, is subject to the control, direct or indirect, o f his constituents, and must content himself with a compensation proportioned to the duties to be performed. As he does not represent the association, which dis penses with the use o f his name, and as he is under no responsibility for its debts, he gives only his time, activity, and intelligence, for which he is to be paid. With the acting partner there are other circumstances to be considered. Without referring now to the enormous sums which some o f these persons have been permitted to fix as the measure o f their com pensation, it is obvious that there are important considerations by which he is distinguished from the manager o f a societe anonyme. Being invest ed with supreme authority, his salary must be proportioned to the power which he exercises. He represents the association, which is known by his name alone. It is identified with him, and all its faculties become in some sort his own. Could he, under these circumstances, content him self with the moderate compensation suited to a mere manager, who is subject to the direction o f others, and removable at their pleasure ? Would it be reasonable that he should do so ? His responsibility would o f itself entitle him to an increased allowance, although it is perfectly well under stood that in a majority o f cases it is only nominal, the acting partner of fering in himself no security whatever for the faithful compliance with contracts : certainly none at all proportioned to the magnitude o f the en terprise in which he is engaged. This responsibility is nothing but a de ception required by the state o f the law. It adds nothing to the credit o f the company, and is only a false and worthless apology for security as re gards those who trade with it, yet, while thus benefitting no one, it is not the less a burthen to those who are forced to avail themselves o f it in their transactions with the public. Useless to all the world, it yet weighs heavily upon those who have to pay for it, and the more so, as the ex pense is disproportioned 1o their means. It helps to break them down by diminishing their present resources, while involving them in liabilities for the future to an extent difficult to be defined ; a false position produced by the state of the law, in which expenditure is caused without object, and sacrifices are made without result. The labor that demands compensa tion, and will have it, is that of the acting partner. Profitable or not to Com mercial A ssociations o f F rance and E ngland. 503 those who are compelled to require him, he is to be paid for, not at the price he is worth, but that at which he values himself, and that is most highly. W e can now readily understand the reasons for the exaggeration, by act ing partners, o f the advantages likely to be derived from the formation o f many o f the associations we have seen : the motives for the gratuitous distri bution o f stock under the name o f actions industrielles— working shares : the enormous salaries : the allowances, premiums, & c. & c.,— all o f which have been very burthensome to the companies, and have tended greatly to endanger the success o f undertakings the best planned. They are the natural and inevitable results of the substitution o f the limited partnership for the sociele anonyme. W e find all these difficulties in considering the proceedings o f associa tions formed with the most honorable intentions, and administered in the most faithful manner ; but it is far worse when we look to those o f the fraudulent ones to which the forced adoption o f this form o f association has given birth. The reader can readily see how great is the facility offered by the situation o f acting partner, for the performance o f tricks, and how much, both before and after the formation o f the company, this form tends to facilitate the manoeuvres o f sharpers and speculators. It is in the nature o f this association that the acting partner assembles around him, not true associates, men equal to himself, but merely persons who supply capital; and it is a part of his business to prepare, in advance, and without their assistance, the conditions of the undertaking, which he takes care to make to suit himself. The agreement, thus prepared, and the com pany thus far formed, he seeks for associates. Such are the requisitions o f the law, which recognizes neither existence nor authority, except that o f the acting partner. Those who desire shares can subscribe for them, and in doing so they give in their adhesion to an agreement prepared without their assistance, and o f the tenor o f which they are frequently ig norant ; thus placing themselves at the mercy o f those who invoke their aid— a condition o f things that generally continues during the existence o f the association. W e shall not attempt to furnish a finished picture o f the disorders to which such a course o f proceeding has given birth. There are enough who could speak upon this sorrowful subject, having been abundantly en lightened in regard to it. It suffices to us to have traced these disorders to their true source, and to have shown that the law, by its unfortunate adoption o f a system o f regulations and restrictions, the effect o f which is not understood, prevents among us the honest and profitable use o f the great principle o f association, while leaving ample room for abuses o f every kind. That the reader may more fully understand the scope o f the preceding remarks, we propose now to offer some observations upon the example set in a neighboring state. It is by pursuing a course directly the reverse o f ours, that England has placed herself so far in advance o f us, as regards the great principle o f commercial association. An examinatien o f her system will show, that if not exempt from defects, it is at least free from many o f those to which we have had occasion to invite the reader’ s atten tion. 504 Com mercial A ssociations o f F rance and E ngland. V. It is always useful to compare the laws o f different countries, but in so doing it is necessary to be very careful to avoid being misled by false analogies. T oo often, in studying foreign legislation, we seize upon some prominent parts o f the system, analogous to those which exist among ourselves, and adjust and arrange them according to some preconceived notions, thus producing an imaginary state o f things, upon which we pro ceed to reason as if it were true— a mode o f proceeding far more likely to mislead than to enlighten. Instead o f tending to the rejection of false principles o f legislation that have existed among us, it enables those who are interested in the perpetuation o f abuses, to adduce the authority o f others in aid thereof, and thus, perhaps, to diminish the little light previous ly obtained. Such has been, we think, the effect o f the comparisons that have at different times been instituted between the systems o f England and France, in this matter o f commercial association. Examining the English system with French ideas, by aid o f certain vague and general indications, and regarding it as a sort o f counterpart o f our own, in which are found the various forms o f association known among us, except that o f limited partnership, it is forthwith concluded that all that would be required to produce a perfect equality, in this respect, be tween the two nations, and to render the two systems almost identical with each other, would be the abolition o f that mode o f association. Such, in fact, was the reasoning o f a minister o f France, when, in 1838, he pro posed to the Chambers the entire abolition o f the limited partnership by means o f shares, stating that it would leave France then in possession o f a better system than that o f any country in the world— better than that o f England herself, because there would remain not only all the forms o f association there recognized, but the limited partnership in addition, which there was not tolerated. This was a strange error, and one that the most careless examination o f well-known facts would have sufficed to dissipate. W ere the limited partnership, by means o f shares, suppressed in France, what would remain o f association on a large scale ! Nothing but a few compagnies anonymes, any increase o f whose number is likely to be ex ceedingly limited, because o f the excessive strictness o f the conditions imposed upon their formation; and, therefore, with this suppression would disappear all hope o f the undertaking o f extensive operations o f any kind, as it is this form alone that enjoys anything like freedom, and the consequent power o f application on a large scale. On the other hand, we see that even in the existing state o f her legislation, England pos sesses, in addition to her incorporated companies, which maybe compared with our societes anonymes, a prodigious number o f companies, with trans ferable stock, as imposing by the extent o f the association, as by that o f their capital, and which are yet mere ordinary partnerships. In presence o f this fact, so universally known, the ministerial theory falls to the ground. W e look in vain to the legislation o f England for our division o f asso ciations into three forms, and are forced to believe that it is a conception peculiar to France ; one, o f which England has no idea. In general, it does not enter the mind o f the English legislator that the transactions o f individuals can be subjected to a systematic classification, and still less that they must be carried on in accordance with certain invariable for- Commercial A ssociations o f F rance and E ngland. 505 mute. His foresight is not exhibited in tracing a circle for the limitation o f individual action ; in regulating all its movements, and establishing the bounds beyond which it shall not be permitted to exert itself. Whatever may be its other defects, and they are numerous, the English law is in so far wise, that it leaves some opportunity for the exercise of individual en ergy and prudence, and that it respects the freedom o f contracts too much to attempt to prescribe regulations for their formation. In no part o f it do we find any one form o f association to have a preference, or to be recognized to the prejudice o f any other. It foresees none, while it recog. nizes all, disposed to accept every combination to which the mind can give birth, provided it contains in it nothing contrary to public order, or prejudicial to the rights o f third parties. It is certainly true that English associations are divided into two classes, perfectly distinct; ordinary asso ciations, or partnerships, and corporations, or incorporated bodies. This distinction has, however, an entirely different sense from that which we should attribute to it, judging it by analogy to the French system. It is not in this case a question o f the particular forms o f association, for or dinary partnership has no invariable form : they are institutions o f differ ent orders. The fact which establishes between them a fundamental dis tinction, is, that ordinary partnerships are governed by the commercial or civil law, and fall within the domain o f private jurisdiction, while the oth ers have relation to the sovereign authority from which they emanate, and are within the elevated sphere o f the public law.* In France, where the soil has been, in a measure, levelled by the Revo lution, and where all traces o f ancient institutions are effaced, there ex ists but one law— one jurisdiction ; the ordinary law and the ordinary ju risdiction. The public jurisdiction has disappeared with public institu tions. This expression, even o f “ public jurisdiction,” would no longer have any sense or value with us, if a new public jurisdiction had not sprung up in the constitutional sphere. Henceforth, it is there only that it is to be found. In England, on the contrary, where a great number o f institutions, the remains o f past ages, have been perpetuated to our day, we find still subsisting a public jurisdiction o f a very complicated charac ter, not confining itself to the constitutional sphere, but extending itself over all those institutions o f the second order, which are spread over the surface o f the soil. It comprehends, in general, everything o f a political character or value ; everything which has escaped the common la w ; everything which does not fall within the immediate impression o f the civil jurisdiction— from the king and the parliament, down to municipal corporations and churchwardens. Connected with it, in fact, are almost all privileges ; for privileges are not always in England, as in France, mere exceptions from the common law. They are clothed with the cha racter o f institutions, and thus are allies to the mass o f facts which the public law includes. It is within this very order o f facts that incorporated * It will be obvious to the reader that the author has in this and subsequent portions o f this paper, attributed to the English corporations a higher position than they are entitled to occupy. The railroad and canal companies o f England are private corporations, sub ject to the common law, like our own. In some cases, in both countries, they enjoy mo nopolies, as in those o f the Camden and Amboy Railroad Company, and the Bank o f Eng land ; but, in general, the right o f suing and being sued as a corporation, and exemption from liability o f the shareholders, are the chief differences between them and private part nerships.— [ Translator. 506 Com mercial A ssociations o f F rance and E ngland. societies are comprehended. One thus understands readily that they are rather public institutions than commercial associations. Ordinary part nerships are commercial in the strictest sense o f the term : that is to say, they enjoy no privileges, but are in all respects subject to the rules o f the common law, and it is therein that they are distinguished from the corpo rations ; but they are subjected to none o f those restrictions that are found in our code. This appellation is not applied to any particular form o f association, but to all, whatever their form and character, formed between individuals, under the operation o f the common law. For the present, we will leave the incorporated companies, o f which we shall have, hereafter, much to say. In their form, as well as in the exemption from liability o f their members, they resemble our societes anonymes, but by reason o f the principles upon which they are based, the power they enjoy, the authority with which they are invested, and still more, the character o f the institutions themselves, they occupy a much more elevated sphere o f action. It is by this title o f public institutions that they partake o f the sovereign power, of which they are an emana tion. Leaving out o f view establishments like these, exceptional in their character, we shall see that the common partnerships constitute in them selves a complete system. Nothing can be more simple than the law in relation to them. Far different from ours, in which the various classes o f associations are di vided from each other, and strictly defined, and by which each is subject ed to regulations peculiar to itself, accompanied with endless formalities, the English law makes no distinctions. All are subject to the same law, which is free from complication. So perfect is its simplicity that we can scarcely offer an analysis o f it, and we can do little more than submit to our readers a view o f the manner in which it is carried into practice, with some remarks upon it, as opposed to the more complex system o f France.* Strictly speaking, there is no law in England for the regulation o f commercial association. It is there regarded as a contract, free in its nature, with the form o f which the law has nothing to d o ; and here they differ widely from us, who are accustomed to feel ourselves constantly obliged to follow blindly in the path marked out by the legislator, always directed and restrained by the regulations which he has imposed. Never theless, we have, even now, a shadowing out o f the same system, weak it is true, but sufficiently true to the original, in our societes enparticipation, which enjoy perfect freedom, without, to our knowledge, the smallest dis advantage resulting therefrom. In England, an association is formed and established as soon as the contracting parties have come to an agreement. Their consent, be it ex pressed as it may, is sufficient. The moment that two or more persons have come to an understanding as to the conditions o f the association, have distributed the parts, and have arranged the course o f action, the * T he author seems not to be aware o f the difficulties that have attended the attempt to apply the partnership laws to the joint-stock system o f banking. They have been so great as to have rendered parliamentary interference absolutely necessary. W hen the same person combines in his person the two characters o f partner, creditor and debtor, the relations become very complex. It is impossible to look at the various complications o f the English system without a feeling o f surprise that the simple form, so universal in N ew England, by which all such difficulties are avoided, should not be adopted.— [Trans lator. Commercial Associations o f F rance and E ngland. 507 business may begin, as the parties have done all that is required o f them. There is no forced publication o f the names for the information o f the public ; no proclamation o f the terms ; nor even, perhaps, o f the existence o f the contract. I f they suppose that publication will be useful to them selves, by enabling the association to avail itself o f their joint credit, it rests with them to determine the fact, and it is not to be doubted, that in a multi tude o f cases publicity will be sought by them with that view ; but as it is entirely voluntary, there is nothing to prevent them from dispensing with it wrhen they see fit so to do. As a consequence o f this, there exist constantly in England associations for the purposes o f trade, the forma tion o f which has been so quiet, and their course so unattended with noise, that the public are likely to, and very frequently do, remain igno rant o f their existence during its whole period. Established without useless ceremony, and without expense, there is, nevertheless, no difficulty in proving their existence. Every species o f evidence tending thereto is receivable in a court o f justice, from the sealed contract to the letters, the books, and even verbal testimony; and here we may remark that the law o f England generally leaves to the par ties concerned the choice o f the mode o f proving the facts that it imports them to establish, requiring only that they be fully proved, without re gard to the kind o f evidence, whereas the French law requires, except in affairs o f the most insignificant character, the most formal and regular documentary proofs. The same facilities exist in relation to the division o f the capital into shares. In France this is permitted to the societe anonyme and the limit•ed partnership, while denied to the common partnership ; whereas, in E ng land, it is allowed in any case, the law being silent in regard to it. It is regarded as the exercise o f a natural right, derived from that o f associa tion, and, therefore, not requiring to be referred to. Whenever one or more persons unite for the transaction o f any species o f business on joint account, it rests with them to determine the amount which each is to fur nish, and the relation that the several parts are to bear to each other and to the whole. Here we have the division o f capital, from which point to a division into transferable shares is but a step, and no principle o f law marks the interval. W hy, for example, instead o f receiving the unequal and irregular contributions which it may please the several parties to bring into the concern, should they not have a right to determine, a priori, upon a division o f the capital into aliquot parts, o f which each member should be at liberty to take such number as he might deem ad vantageous? W e can see in this nothing but a different, and a better, mode o f proportioning the contributions. It is far more convenient, as the contributors can more readily understand their relations to each other, and those o f each to the whole mass; an advantage by no means unim portant, when it is desired to interest a large number o f persons o f differ ent conditions o f life. While it thus simplifies the relation o f the parties, it diminishes labor by facilitating the division o f profit and the transfer o f shares; but be the advantages what they may, it is difficult to see with what reason the law can undertake to interfere with so natural a pro ceeding. Fully considered, the system o f shares is nothing but the adoption o f a unit in the formation o f a large trading capital, and the advantage which results from it, in this case, is similar to that we derive from the adoption 508 Com mercial Associations o f F rance and E ngland. o f a unit o f weight, or o f measure ; o f the metre for distances, the kilo gramme for weights, and the fran c for money. Useless when applied on a small scale, it is almost indispensable for large associations. What then is there in it that should require the interference o f the legislator ? Cer tainly nothing ! Such has been the sagacious conclusion o f the legisla tors o f England, who have regarded joint-stock companies as only an ex tension of the ordinary partnership, and if they have at times promulgated any regulations in regard to them, they have had less reference to the di vision o f the capital than to the number o f partners associated.* There yet remain to be considered, in regard to the action o f these as sociations, several questions o f a different kind : as, for instance, the title by which the shares should be held, and the mode o f transfer ; whether they should be in the names o f the several partners, and transferable on the books o f the company, or held by the bearer, and transferable by de livery ; but these are not fundamental matters. In regard to these, we think it could readily be shown that the best course would be, to leave to the associations themselves the most perfect freedom of action, contenting ourselves with the punishment o f fraud when it shall be proved to exist. W hile thus regardless o f forms, we find the English law in an equal degree strict and rigorous in regard to all that concerns the duties o f the association towards third parties. In that, as elsewhere, there is but a single principle, applicable to all trading associations— that o f the un limited liability o f all the members. From the moment that a man be comes interested in the advantages to be derived from an undertaking, he becomes responsible, body and goods, for the payment o f all the debts; and this, although his participation in the profits is limited to the same proportion which his contribution bore to the whole capital— though he takes no part o f the management o f its affairs— and though his name is entirely unknown to any o f the parties trading with the company. I f it be proved by his acts, or by oral testimony— by the books, or the corres pondence— that he has been entitled to any share of the profit, however minute, it is sufficient to involve him in an unlimited responsibility. Here the English law appears to us not only rigorous, but unjust. It violates one o f the first principles o f law, which is, “ that no man shall be held liable beyond his contract.” The French law, which says that in the case o f a limited partnership the special partner shall not be held lia ble beyond the amount o f capital that he engaged to contribute, estab lishes no exception in his favor, but is only a provision for the execution of the contract according to its terms, and is, therefore, in perfect harmony with the principles o f law, while nothing can be more opposed thereto than the English system. This condition of unlimited liability has reference only to third parties, and can be invoked by them only in the single case o f a dissolution o f the company, in consequence o f bankruptcy and ruin, as up to that time it is * T he system o f England has not been always quite so liberal. Until recently there could be no association for Marine Insurance, as all policies effected by underwriters, having a joint interest, were void, and the sum so underwritten forfeited. The object o f this restriction was to secure to certain incorporate companies a monopoly of the busi ness. During a large portion o f the last century, the formation of joint-stock companies, for any purpose, was prohibited, and the reason alleged therefor, was the same as now in France, the necessity for guarding the people against being seduced into unprofitable operations.— [ Translator. Com mercial A ssociations o f F rance and E ngland. 509 the association itself that is answerable for the performance o f its engage ments, to the entire exclusion o f the members. This prospective liability does not prevent shareholders from making such arrangements among themselves as appear expedient: limiting the amount o f the several con tributions, as well as their share o f the profits : excluding from all partici pation in the management the great mass o f the associates: confiding to one, two, or three o f their own number, the direction o f its affairs, and the formation o f its contracts: or, even abandoning this direction to agents, whether members or n o t : in one word, to give it that form which it seems to them best to adopt. I f the principle o f general liability should at some future time be invoked by third parties ; if the association should unfortunately fa il; so be i t : but, in the meantime, it may constitute itself in such manner as best accords with the views and the intents o f those concerned in its formation. The risk of bankruptcy might be, in a certain degree, prevented by the parties themselves. It would be sufficient to stipulate that the association should be dissolved, and should discharge its debts, before its capital should be absorbed by losses ; and it is by aid o f such a clause, frequently resorted to in England, that the principle o f unlimited responsibility is in some degree neutralized, and the parties protected from risk exceeding that o f their subscribed capital. Coupled with such a provision, it is diffi cult to see what form such an association may not take, what description o f combination shall be interdicted to it, or what difficulty can attend the formation o f a limited partnership. Thus, a merchant, finding himself en gaged in a business that he would wish to increase by aid o f additional capital, applies to capitalists, or perhaps to other merchants, and induces them to take an interest in it. I f he desired that they should associate their credit and their names with his own, and unite with him actively in the management o f the concern, it would be a common partnership that he would establish, but such is not the case. All that he requires from them is the control o f a certain amount o f capital, in return for which he offers them a share o f the profits o f the operation, retaining himself the exclusive management. He alone is known to the creditor and the pub lic, the. others being only dormant partners. Can we see in this anything but a limited partnership ? Is not the mode o f proceeding identical there with, and are not the positions o f the several parties precisely the same, with the exception o f an ultimate liability which has no effect as regards the present time ? Such associations are very common in England, for though the further responsibility to which the partner is subject, is, in some respects, an obstacle, the facility which they afford in the formation o f contracts, and which accords so well with the spirit o f trade, is a pow erful inducement to their formation. The persons who thus supply capi tal are called in England sleeping partners, a term quite as expressive as that o f commanditaire, and possessing the advantage o f being perfectly comprehensible to all the w orld; whereat, the other has no sense in our language other than that given to it by the law. The proceedings in the case o f formation o f a societe anonyme, are equally simple. A certain number o f merchants, or capitalists, come to gether, and arrange to unite with each other in the prosecution o f an en terprise. They contribute, according to their respective means, or incli nations, to the formation o f a joint capital. That done, the company re ceives a name designating the object o f the association, excluding all 510 Commercial A ssociations o f F rance and E ngland. those o f the associates; and agents are elected who are charged with its management. The directors, as well as most o f the subordinate officers, are usually taken from among the shareholders, and even from among those who are most largely interested ; but this is not obligatory upon the members, who are induced to this course chiefly by a desire to give them selves that additional guarantee for careful management. In most in stances, the directors and officers are liable to change at will, although it is not unfrequently the case that after the election o f the first board o f di rectors, vacancies are filled by the directors themselves, and the mass o f the shareholders exercise a further control. Even here, however, it is not the law that limits the power o f the mass, but the contract o f partner ship which stands for law among the partners themselves, everything be ing left to their own arrangement. What further is required to place them in the same rank with our societes anonymes ? They are known in England as joint-stock companies, which may be translated by societes a fonds reunis, and this appellation carries with it a perfect idea o f the cha racter o f the association. It would apply well to our societes anonymes, which are truly associations o f capitalists, and equally well to the incor porated companies o f England, if the latter did not derive their name of corporation from the semi-political character which the law attributes to them. In fact, the joint-stock companies, the societes anonymes, and the corporations o f England, with some privileges more or less, are in effect the same form o f association, so true is it that the condition o f limited or unlimited responsibility does not necessarily alter the nature o f social combination. W e see, then, that in the existing state o f her legislation, England prac tices, with a facility unknown to us, all the possible forms o f association. Leaving out o f view here incorporated companies,* more numerous and more powerful than our societe anonymes, there are found, among the or dinary associations, all the elements that we possess, and freedom o f ac tion, in addition. The three species recognized by the French law are there fully in use, and as their formation requires no intervention o f the public authorities, it is attended with but little trouble or expense, and, consequently, associations o f all descriptions are readily formed, tq be dis solved when the necessity to which they owe their birth shall have ceased to exist. Can we be surprised to see this great principle attaining there a degree o f development so far exceeding what is observed among our selves ? VI. W e propose now to resume the consideration o f the prohibition im posed upon the formation o f societes anonymes without the previous sanc tion o f the government. Having shown its disadvantages, we have now to enquire into the reasons alleged in its support. * T he number o f incorporated companies formed for the sole purpose o f works o f pub lic utility, was, in the beginning o f 1836, eighty-three for the improving the navigation o f rivers; one hundred and twenty-one for the construction o f canals, and eighty for rail roads ; a number far greater than that o f all the societes anonymes that existed at that time in France. W hat would it be i f we were to add the numerous other companies formed for special objects, as the Bank o f England, the East India Company, the South Sea Company, the famous Trinity House Corporation, the D ock Companies, the Insu rance Companies, & c. A s to banks, they are all, except those o f England, Ireland, and Scotland, on the footing o f joint-stock companies. Com mercial A ssociations o f F rance and E ngland. 511 It is generally supposed that some such restriction is required, because o f the absence o f personal responsibility in the members o f such an asso ciation, although a perusal o f the discussions which preceded the adop tion o f the code, would satisfy the reader that this idea scarcely entered the thoughts o f the legislator. The real reasons were— first, that it was a mode o f association that was n ovel; second, that fraud might arise in the issuing o f stock ; and lastly, that there was no good reason why such companies should be better treated than banks had been. It is not the first time that, novelty o f form in an institution, trading or oth er, has served as an argument against i t ; whereas, another that has on its side age and the sanction o f time, obtains, if for that reason alone, protection and toleration from the legislator. In the absence o f merits o f its own, or o f any advantages likely to result from its continuance, he is content to look to its old titles, and its acquired rights, and it suffices to him to find them consecrated by immemorial possession, to induce him to be come an advocate for their continuance; whereas, modern institutions, and more especially those o f our own day, are objects o f suspicion, sim ply because o f their novelty, and he magnifies their disadvantages without giving himself an opportunity to understand and appreciate the benefits which may result from them. He is, therefore, always their opponent, and if he cannot absolutely prevent their establishment, he endeavors to suffocate them under the weight o f the securities required. Such has been, in France, the fate o f the admirable institution o f banks, the com mercial wonder o f modern times; o f that o f the societes anonymes; as well as o f numerous other useful innovations, moral and material. It is in the nature o f political power to resist the introduction o f those improvements which time brings with it, and in proportion as the society by which they are surrounded is enabled to act more or less strongly upon those by whom it is exercised, do they show themselves more or less imbued with the stationary or retrograde spirit, always, however, less disposed to se cond the hopes o f the future, than to attach themselves to the relics o f the past. All, therefore, that can be hoped from a government, after having es tablished security in the enjoyment o f person and property, in itself a vast service, and perhaps the only one that it should be called on to perform, is that it shall have some regard to the tendencies o f society; that it shall accept the progress that is made, and conform its laws thereto; that it shall permit civilization to advance. It is this natural antipathy o f power to all innovation, and to progress, that is the chief cause o f the rigor with which the societe anonyme has been treated. Its novelty has been its principal, if not its sole fault, the reasons that have been alleged against it, being, as we shall now proceed to show, entirely unworthy o f the consideration that is given to them. Perfect freedom in the establishment o f societes anonymes might, say the authors o f the code', afford opportunity for the fraudulent emission o f stock : that is, shares might be created in companies formed with a view to the deception of the public. Nothing is more true ; but o f what description o f trading associations might not the same be said ? or which is it that affords less room for the issuing o f engagements o f doubtful character, whether in the form o f bills, shares, or whatsoever other might be select ed ? On a careful examination, we shall see that abuses o f this kind are much more readily prevented, or detected, in the proceedings o f a large association, whose actions are public, than in those o f individuals, which 512 Com mercial Associations o f F rance and E ngland. are o f smaller amount and therefore escape attention, and which, being always secret, can scarcely be reached by the action o f the la w ; yet the restrictions upon the establishment o f such institutions, it is attempted to justify by reasons that could not be deemed sufficient to warrant any in terposition whatsoever in the case of individuals. There is, as we see, no attempt at limiting to the latter the use o f credit, because there may exist doubts as to the solvency o f many o f those who issue their bills in exchange for either goods or m oney; yet the liability o f the public to fraud, in this case, is far greater than in the other. It is, however, said that individual traders are liable in their persons for the payment o f their debts, while both managers and associates o f a compagnie anonyme are exempt from all liability. There is much error in this view, for if the managers be not liable for debts contracted in the name o f the association, they are very seriously so as regards the correct ness o f their proceedings in the issue o f certificates o f stock; and there is, perhaps, equal responsibility in the two cases, if it be not even greatest in the case o f the societe anonyme. After the shares are apportioned, and the certificates issued according to the rules o f the association, there may be trickery employed with a view to give them a fictitious value ; the usual manoeuvres o f stock jobbers may be resorted t o ; but this is an abuse that the law cannot reach, and with which it can have no claim to interfere ; one too, to which every species o f merchandise is liable, as well as the shares o f compagnies anonymes. Stock-jobbing is a species o f leprosy which attaches itself to all descriptions o f mercantile property, but more especially to those which, being new, have not yet acquired a fixed value; and thus it is that we see stock-jobbers almost universally seizing upon the shares o f companies at their first emission. It is not pe culiar to them : it is a general e v il: and those who would proscribe everything that might afford occasion for it, would proscribe very many things, beginning with the government stocks. The previous authoriza tion required in the case o f these associations, appears to be a singular remedy against such an evil, and we find it difficult to conceive how it can tend to its prevention. I f the motive alleged by the authors o f the code, and by which they allowed themselves to be misled, was thus trivial in its character, those that are now brought forward in support o f the continuance o f this restric tion, are not o f greater weight. It is necessary, say they, that the interests o f third parties should be protected, and the societe anonyme offering to those who trade with it no personal responsibility, it is right and just that the law should secure to them some sufficient guarantee, by thus requiring a previous enquiry and authorization. In all this, we can see only a confusion o f ideas, and an abuse o f words. Let us remark, in the first place, that this absence o f individual respon sibility, which is one o f the characteristics o f the societe anonyme is not, whatever may be said to the contrary, by various writers, a privilege, or favor o f the law, but a natural consequence o f the formation o f the asso ciation, and a just application o f the true principles o f law. The societe anonyme is an artificial person, personified in no individual, but repre sented in all its transactions with third parties, by agents o f its selection. That these agents should be exempt from all responsibility in regard to third persons, and not liable to be compelled to pay with their own Com mercial Associations o f F rance and E ngland. 513 means, debts contracted in good faith for account o f the association, is only a simple application o f the law o f principal and agent. By what right should they be held responsible by the holder o f a note ? They have promised to pay him the amount o f the notes, and if they have done so, they have performed their promise, and what more can be required o f them ? Suppose them, however, not to have been paid. Have the cre ditors any right to complain that the persons o f the associates have es caped them, when they have not contracted with, nor had any regard to, those persons ? They have traded with a collective being, called a com pany, and it is against that being that they have rights to exercise, and provided the law gives them their remedy against it, they have no claim for anything more. In this case, then, the irresponsibility o f the parties results from the nature o f things, and is but a just application o f the prin ciples o f equity, which cannot be appealed to in justification o f the reser vations and restrictions o f the law. W e will now inquire if the practice under this rule is attended with the disadvantages apprehended from it. That the societe anonyme offers to those who deal with it only a gua rantee o f capital, is perfectly true ; but can we find, throughout the whole realm o f trade, any person or persons, individual or associated, offering creditors any other, or better, guarantee 1 It is said, and constantly in sisted upon, that the members o f' an ordinary partnership are personally liable ; that the acting partner in a limited partnership, is equally s o ; that the same responsibility rests on every person trading for his private advantage; and that the members o f the societe anonyme alone escape from it. Here is the great argument; but those who use it, deceive them, selves strangely as to the value o f the responsibility appealed to, and do not see that it is really nothing but an idle word. What is it that the creditor demands o f his debtor 1 Nothing but the payment o f what is due to him. He wants his money, and not his person. I f in trading with him, he looks to his credit, his capacity, his morals, and his other personal qualities, he regards them simply as affording reason to believe that he will be paid, and thus it is at last only the money that he has in view. As to the debtor’s body, he expects nothing from it, and if the law grants him, in case o f non-payment, a right to pursue the person, it is assuredly not because he would desire as compensation for the loss o f his debt a right o f property therein, by means o f which he should be permitted to pay himself in default o f other modes o f payment. When he has even taken the body, he is not permitted to retain it in prison, if the debtor is insolvent. What, then, is the object o f the personal action that is permitted to him 1 It has no other than that o f enabling him to reach the property o f the party, when he would conceal it. It is to force an obstinate or dis honest debtor in his last entrenchments, to prevent him from withdraw ing his property from the pursuit o f his creditors, and to compel him to appropriate his whole means to the discharge o f his debts, that the law has created the personal action which permits the arrest of the body. That is all, and this responsibility, about which so much is said, means no thing more. It is found in the societe anonyme, as well as elsewhere, and here even more perfect than in the case o f the individual trader, for if the latter is liable to arrest when he conceals his property from his creditors, then a far more severe punishment awaits the manager o f a company who conceals from the creditors any portion o f its property. While the first is looked upon only as an obstinate debtor, for whom some apology may V O L. xir.— no. vi. 31 514 Commercial A ssociations o f F rance and England. perhaps be formed, the second is treated, and justly too, as a sharper and a scoundrel. Laying aside all preconceived notions on the subject, and forgetting mere words, let us examine things as they are, and compare carefully these different situations. In doing so, we shall find that all trading establishments, in whatever manner constituted, and by whomsoever conduct ed, represent only, so far as third parties are concerned, a certain capital, and that in this respect the analogy between the societe anonyme and all other trading associations is complete. Nevertheless, this capital maybe, according to circumstances, subject to very different conditions as regards third parties, being more or less accurately known to them, and more or less readily reached, or seized. W e shall now see that in these respects all the advantages are on the side o f the societe anonyme. In the case of an individual trader, whose capital consists o f his private fortune, no means are ordinarily afforded to ascertain what are its ele ments, or what is its extent, for he is not obliged to furnish any statement thereof, except in case o f bankruptcy, the law requiring o f him only that he shall keep an account o f his daily operations. He may magnify it to the world, if he will, and he will find none that can contradict his asser tions. The capital o f the company is, on the contrary, known to the pub lic, and the amount paid in on account o f it recorded in the books. It does not always happen that the whole amount o f the nominal capital is taken up; but, in such cases, the number o f shares issued is regis tered, and is usually published; and even were the directors desirous o f concealing it, they must still keep a record o f what is done, and facts so recorded make their way to the public by a variety o f channels. Thus, while third parties who trade with individuals scarcely ever know, except by approximation, and that even most vague and uncertain, what is the amount o f capital responsible for the performance o f contracts made with them, those who trade with a societe anonyme can obtain full information if they seek it, and perform their operations with a feeling of' confidence that cannot exist in the other case. Again, nothing is easier than for an individual trader to conceal the ex tent of his engagements, as no one can know it certainly but himself. His confidential clerk, even, may be ignorant o f it, as the loans he finds himself compelled to make may not all be o f a character to require that they be entered in his day-book. It is a secret confined to himself; one which transpires rarely, and always slow ly; one which is unveiled only when the catastrophe has occurred. On the contrary, the societe anonyme neither can nor ought to borrow, without the fact becoming known to all the world— directors, clerks, shareholders, and the public. Its operations partake, in some respects, o f the nature o f those o f governments. The light of day penetrates in every direction, and there can be no secrets from those who seek for information. Thus all is fixed, recorded, known, o f the capital and debts in the case o f the societe anonyme, while all is uncertain and unknown in the case of the individual trader. W hich o f the two, we would ask the reader, pre sents the most favorable aspect, or the surest guarantee, to the view o f those who trade with them ? Again, availing himself o f the obscurity in which his affairs are shroud ed, and which he desires to increase, the private trader is enabled, so long as his business appears prosperous, to produce impressions in regard Commercial A ssociations o f F rance and E ngland. 515 to his means far exceeding the reality, and thus to establish a credit not justified by those means. When losses occur and he sees himself threat ened with bankruptcy, the world is still ignorant o f his condition, and he finds himself enabled to contract debts far beyond the possibility o f pay ment. The fatal day arrives, and the creditors find a debt much greater than had been anticipated, while the means o f payment are as much less. Even this is not all. The same obscurity which has served him so well thus far, when desiring to magnify his capital and increase his credit, now affords him the opportunity o f placing a part o f that capital beyond the reach o f his creditors. It becomes diminished, if not annihilated. It hides itself, and not even legal remedies, nor the activity o f creditors can bring it forth from the dark corners in which it is placed ; and thus are the parties doubly deceived. Our readers can readily determine for them selves, if practices o f this kind are equally easy in the case o f the societe anonyme. W e do not doubt that such things are possible, but we think they will agree with us that from its nature, its organization, and the ne cessary publicity that attends all its actions, the liability to such occur rences is very greatly diminished. View it in what light we may, we see, then, that the societe anonyme offers to the parties who trade with it, securities incomparably greater than those o f individual traders, or o f any other species o f partnership. One objection, and one only, can be made to it, which is, that the fortunes o f the managers not being so directly connected with its success, they are less interested in exercising the circumspection and prudence that are re quired for the avoidance o f losses ; but this is a vice inherent to associa tions, and one to which we took pains to invite the attention o f the reader, when offering to him our views o f the advantages to be derived from the principle o f association. It is one, however, in the consideration o f which the creditors are much less interested than the partners, or share holders, and it rests with the latter to weigh it against the advantages which association offers to them. If, however, the managers are less interested in exerting themselves to avoid loss, they have, on the other hand, less in terest in pushing matters to the last extremity when the concern is found to be in danger, and endeavoring, by ruinous expedients, to postpone the catastrophe or, in case o f bankruptcy, in diminishing, by fraudulent prac tices, the property o f the creditors. The results to which we have thus been conducted by reasoning, are fully confirmed by those o f experience. The failures o f associations have rarely been fatal to third parties; they have rarely ruined their creditors, although during the long series o f disasters o f which we have so recently seen the sorrowful spectacle, we have seen abundant evidence o f their power to ruin shareholders and acting partners. All this is equally true o f the societes anonymes, the limited partnerships, and even o f those bas tard associations, so ill conceived and so badly managed, o f which we have before spoken. In the nature o f things, it must be so, and the only ques tion is between the different species o f association. W e think the reader will agree with us, that in the security afforded to creditors, the societe anonyme stands first. W e now repeat, and we do so under the strongest conviction o f its truth, that the societe anonyme has been looked at with eyes distorted by prejudice. The novelty o f the institution has been its crime. It is that which has induced the legislator to look upon it with suspicion, and to see 516 Com mercial Associations o f F rance and E ngland. in its constitution disadvantages that have no existence. Give it age— were that possible : make it too old for our age, were it possible that it could ever become so : and all the doubt that it now awakens, will be re moved : all the prejudices against it will be dissipated: and those even by whom it is now held in a sort o f legal suspicion, will find themselves at a loss adequately to express their opinion o f the perfect security which it offers, or sufficiently to magnify the advantages to result from its extensive adoption. In comparing the systems o f England and France, we find in each defects and advantages that are wanting in the other. The last is cer tainly most in accordance with the principles o f equity, but the former is more liberal, and far better adapted to satisfy the wants o f trade. It is impossible to define more accurately than is done in the French law, the rights and duties o f the several classes o f associates, or the parts which they may be required to perform. The English law, on the contrary, ap pears to us, in this respect, inconsiderate and unjust; imposing, as it does, similar duties upon those who do not enjoy similar rights, and creating obligations that would not naturally result from the acts o f the parties themselves. It sanctions, in cases o f bankruptcy, the most scandalous proceedings, such as no principle o f equity would justify; and thus it is a matter o f common occurrence, in England, to see creditors, like a pack o f hungry hounds, put themselves on the track o f a sleeping partner, to worry him, although they have never known him in the business, and avail themselves o f commercial relations, o f the existence o f which they have been entirely ignorant, to create a responsibility to them upon which they never relied when making the contract— a proceeding opposed to every principle o f equity and justice, and to the last degree immoral in its tendency. On the other hand, the law o f England grants to those desiring to associate themselves together, great freedom in making their contract, and all possible facilities for the commencement and promotion o f their enterprise; while, under that o f France, they find themselves encumbered by useless forms, and suffocated under a weight o f restric tions. Looking at their respective merits and defects, which should we select ? I f we are to judge by the results, this is certainly a question, the answer to which'need not long remain in doubt; for, notwithstanding the great defects we have pointed out, the principle o f association prospers in England, and its development is as regular as it is great; whereas it merely vegetates in France, and the occasional efforts that have been made to raise it from its state o f languor, have always been attended with serious disorders. The violation o f the true principles o f law, in the one case, is an evil less serious than the excess o f precaution in the other. It would seem as if the French law had been made by lawyers, clever men in their way, and rigorously observant o f the principles o f law, but too much disposed to insist upon the observance o f forms, to which they had themselves been too long accustomed to be fully sensible o f their w eight; while that o f England has come from the hands o f statesmen, or men of business, less scrupulous as to the principles o f law, but looking more to practical results. It is not difficult to conceive o f a system that should unite the merits of both, while exempt from the defects o f either. Its principles may readily be deduced from what we have already submitted to the reader. They Commercial Associations o f F rance and E ngland. 517 were established long since, in the Rota o f Genoa, whence it would be easy to take them. When an association is formed under the name o f one or more o f its members, those alone whose names are used, should answer to the de mands o f third persons; because it is with them alone that contracts have been made. The rest is a domestic affair, with which third parties have nothing to do. W hich o f the members should thus give their names and their respon sibility ? This is the business o f the parties themselves to arrange, and it is one with which the public have nothing to do. It rests with the as sociation to determine if the credit o f one, combined with the capital of all, will suffice for the accomplishment o f the end in v ie w ; or whether their united capital will be required. I f they be o f the latter opinion, we may safely rely upon their attention to making the fact known to the pub lic. In the first case, as it is the single partner that gives name to the association, it is to him alone that third parties should apply, leaving him to make his own arrangements with his partners, in reference to the responsibility which he thus assumes. I f no persons be named, the third parties are perfectly aware that they are dealing with an abstract capital; and all that the law can reasonably require in such case is that the extent o f that capital shall be fairly made known, and that, when called for, it shall be honestly produced. Such are the principles— simple, but eternally just and true— to which, sooner or later, we must come. C h . C oquelin . The subject o f association, as it exists in the United States, having been only slightly adverted to in the preceding pages, we think it may not be amiss to call the attention o f the reader to the great differences, in this respect, that are observed in the different parts o f the Union. N o where is association so little trammeled by regulations as in New England; the consequence o f which is, that it is carried to a greater ex tent there, and particularly in Massachusetts and Rhode Island, than in any other part o f the world. In those states, the soil is covered with compagnies anonymes— chartered companies— for alnjpst every conceivable purpose. Every town is a corporation for the management o f its roads, bridges, and schools ; which are, therefore, under the direct control o f those who pay for them, and are, consequently, well managed. Academies and churches, lyceums and libraries, saving fund societies and trust companies, exist in numbers proportioned to the wants o f the people, and all are cor porations. Every little district has its local bank, o f a size to suit its wants, the stock o f which is owned by the small capitalists o f the neighborhood,* and managed by themselves ; the consequence o f which is, that, in no part o f the world, is the system of banking so perfect— so little liable to vibra tion in the amount of loans— the necessary effect o f which is, that in none is the value o f property so little affected by changes in the amount or value o f the currency resulting from the movements o f their own banking institu * In the banking laws o f both Massachusetts and Rhode Island, there are provisions in relation to a liability o f the shareholders for the payment o f their notes, in case of bankruptcy; but they are o f such a character as to be o f scarcely any importance, whatever. It is nearly impossible that they should ever become operative, and consequently they do little injury. 518 Commercial A ssociations o f F rance and E ngland. tions.* In the two states to which we have particularly referred, they are almost two hundred in number. Massachusetts, alone, offers to our view fifty-three insurance offices, o f various forms, scattered throughout the state, and all incorporated. Factories are incorporated, and are owned in shares ; and every one that has any part in the management o f their concerns, from the purchase of the raw material to the sale o f the manu factured article, is a part ow n er; while every one employed in them has a prospect o f becoming one, by the use o f prudence, exertion, and eco nomy. All are, therefore, interested in the success o f the con cern ; the consequence o f which is, that the manufactures o f New England are gradually superseding those o f Great Britain, in the markets o f the world. Charitable associations exist in large numbers, and all are incorporated. Fishing vessels are owned in shares by those who navigate them ; and the sailors o f a whaling ship depend, in a great degree, if not altogether, upon the success o f the voyage, for their compensation. Every master o f a vessel, trading in the Southern ocean, is a part ow n er; and the in terest he possesses is a strong inducement to exertion and econom y; by aid o f which, the people o f N ew England are rapidly driving out the competition o f other nations for the trade o f that part o f the world.f Wherever settled, they exhibit the same tendency to combination o f * The following statement o f one o f their banks shows the manner in which the small institutions o f N ew England are ow n ed :— Females,.............................. . 2,438 shares. Mariners,................... U Merchants,................ .......... M echanics,......................... 673 2,038 “ a Farmers and laborers,....... . 1,245 191 “ Traders,.................... .......... it Savings banks,................... . 1,013 Lawyers,.................... «( Guardians,.......................... 336 “ 630 Physicians,................ ......... a 307 220 “ Estates................................ Clergymen,............... ......... Charitable institutions,...... 548 « Corporations and state,...... 157 Total,............. M Government officers,......... 438 It would be difficult to imagine anyth ng more democratic. t In a recent work o f Governor Grey, o f South Australia, is the following passage:— “ N o fact which I have met with has so much surprised me as the extraordinary diffu sion o f the American commerce, and the great spirit o f enterprise manifested by them. In many places, where the British merchants can find no commerce apparently worth their attention, the Americans carry on a lucrative and prosperous trade; and, in halfcivilized countries, where the largest profits are always realized, the Americans are so eminently successful, that the British merchant cannot attempt to compete with them. “ This appears to arise from the following c i r c u m s t a n c e T h e masters o f the American vessels engaged in this kind o f trade are,, in many instances, whole, and, in all other in stances, part, owners o f the vessel and cargo ; whereas masters o f English vessels have frequently little or no interest in the vessel and cargo; and are, moreover, frequently tied down by directions from the firm for whom they a ct T he difference between these two cases is very great. T he American can turn every circumstance that occurs to account; he can instantly enter into any speculation that holds out a prospect o f success ; and can act with rapidity and decision, on his own responsibility. T he English master, on the contrary, has usually a prescribed line o f duty to fulfil, from which he cannotvary.” * * * “ W hile this port (Mombas, on the east coast o f Africa,) was in the possession o f the English, but one British merchant vessel arrived there, yet three American vessels enter ed the harbor. T he master o f the English vessel was not a part owner— the Americans were all part owners, and carried on a lucrative trade, shipping a large quantity o f iv ory ; whereas the English master was placed in a very unpleasant position; for, owing to the orders he had received from his owners, he had not been able to ship a cargo suited to the market o f M om bas; and if L ieut Emery had not kindly cashed a bill for him, the specu lation would have been a total failure.” — (Journal o f Expeditions in South Australia, by Captain G. Grey, Vol. 1, p. 279.) Commercial A ssociations o f F rance and E ngland. 519 action. In New York, they are the chief owners of the lines o f packet ships, which are divided into shares, owned by the ship-builders, the mer chants, the master, and the mates; which last generally acquire the means o f becoming themselves masters, and to this is due their great success. The system is the most perfectly democratic o f any in the world. It affords to every laborer, every sailor, every operative, male or female, the prospect o f advancement; and its results are precisely such as we should have reason to expect. In no part o f the world are talent, industry, and prudence, so certain to be largely rewarded. In New York, which borrows its institutions mainly from New Eng land, because o f its proximity thereto, and o f the vast number of Yankees among its citizens, there is much o f the same tendency. There is a general banking law, but the right o f associating, for the purposes of banking, has been fettered by restrictions, to which may fairly be traced the ruin o f many o f the institutions trading under it.* A general act of incorporation for manufacturing establishments exists, o f which individuals avail themselves, whenever they deem it advantageous so to do. The system o f limited partnership is found there, as well as in New England and Pennsylvania, and it has worked well everywhere. In Pennsylvania, the I'ight to trade in the form o f the compagnie anonyme, or corporation, has been regarded as a privilege to be paid for ; and bo nuses have been demanded for charters, while special taxes have been imposed upon the dividends o f all chartered companies. There has been no steadiness o f action. Charters for small banks have been refused to flourishing towns and important sections o f country, while granted in other cases for banks o f a size disproportioned to the wants o f the people — to the extent o f five, and even thirty-five millions— whereas, in Massa chusetts, scarcely any o f them exceed a million ; and they are large or small, in different parts o f the state, as the wants o f trade require. The results have been what might have been looked for from the course o f action. In no part o f the Union has banking been so much mismanaged. In none, has it been productive o f less advantage to the shareholders, to whom the monopoly has been granted— or to the public. Manufacturing establishments exist, but generally on a small scale ; because individual capital is not sufficient for the creation o f large ones, and the legislature and the courts deny to individuals the right o f contracting with the public as to the manner in which they will trade with each other. Manufac tures, therefore, do not flourish, although the state abounds in iron and coal, and should be one o f the greatest manufacturing districts in the world. With every step we take, in passing south and southwest, we find a diminishing tendency to association on the part o f the people, and an in creasing tendency to the imposition o f restrictions upon the exercise o f the right o f association, and upon the freedom o f contracts. States bor row money with which to create large banks, and banking is made a mo nopoly for the supposed benefit o f the whole people, instead o f being thrown open to individuals, whose prudence and economy could render it profitable to themselves, and useful to the community. M. Coquelin has * The general banking law o f N ew Y ork occupies twenty.seven closely printed pages, full o f regulations. One page would contain all that is good ; the remaining twenty-six being calculated only to do harm, and to render the system less advantageous to the com munity, by rendering it less free. 520 O regon : T he Claim, o f G reat B ritain. pointed out the disadvantage to a large company o f the absence o f the master’s eye ; and, if this exist in an association o f one or two hundred persons, how much greater must be its extent— how infinitely greater must be the opportunity for mismanagement, negligence and fraud— when the owners are numbered by hundreds o f thousands, if not millions ? All this is fully exhibited in the course o f the banks o f Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana, where the attempt has resulted in almost universal ruin to the borrowers, and the loss to the states o f a large portion o f the capital. Throughout the south and southwest, factories are owned by individual capitalists, as in England; and those employed in them have no interest in their success, as they see no prospect o f advancement. A careful examination o f the systems o f the several states can scarcely, we think, fail to result in convincing the reader o f the advantage resulting from permit ting men to determine among themselves the terms upon which they will associate, and allowing the associations that may be formed to contract with the public as to the terms upon which they will trade together, whether o f the limited or unlimited liability o f the partners. The great est evidence o f advancing civilization is to be found in the constantly in creasing power o f individuals over their own actions, and the constantly diminishing tendency to interference on the part o f the state. A rt. II.— O R E G O N : T H E C L A IM OF G R E A T B R IT A IN . T he object o f this paper is to examine the claim o f Great Britain to that part o f the American continent known as Oregon territory. It will be necessary for the present to omit all examination o f the rights o f the United States ; and we shall confine ourselves to a short exhibition o f the character and value o f the country in dispute, and then proceed to exam ine the grounds o f the British claim. Oregon extends from 42° to 50° 40' north latitude. It is bound ed north by the Russian possessions on the coast, and the British pos sessions in the interior; on the east by the Rocky mountains, which separate it from the acknowledged territory o f the United States ; on the south by Mexico, and on the west by the Pacific ocean. It is estimated that it contains 350,000 square miles, equal to 224,000,000 acres. On the coast, for about 130 miles inland, the climate is mild and equal. There is seldom any snow or severe frosts, and farmers plough and sow in the winter. The nights are. excessively cold, but otherwise the tem perature resembles that o f the middle states o f the Union. It is rare to have any rain in June, July, or August, and but little from April to Octo ber. During the winter, rains are frequent. In 1833, the coldest win ter known, for thirteen days in January, the thermometer averaged nine teen degrees above zero. The climate between the California and Blue Mountains more nearly resembles that o f New England ; there is, however, much less snow, and cattle are usually able to graze the whole season. Even in this region, by the tenth o f March, spring has so far advanced, that flowers are in blossom, and vegetation is full six weeks earlier than in the Atlantic states. The quantity o f rain is much less than on the coast. The least desirable part of the country lies betwixt the Blue and Rocky mountains. O regon : The Claim o f G reat B ritain . 521 It is from 200 to 250 miles in width, and extends the whole length o f the Oregon territory. The atmosphere is extremely d ry; theft; being no dew, except in the vicinity o f the mountains, and but little rain during a few days in the spring. The temperature is variable. The nights are cold, the days warm. The thermometer at sunrise is sometimes 18 de grees, and before evening at 80 or 90 degrees above zero.— (Mr. W y eth’s Memoir.) One general remark will apply to the whole, which is, that in each region, the mildness o f the seasons is infinitely greater than in the corresponding latitudes and elevations in the valley o f the Missis sippi, or in the Atlantic states. In the mountain region even, when the highest peaks are covered with perpetual snows, the valleys at their feet are comparatively mild.— (Pilcher’s Narrative.) Although the climate cannot be considered desirable as a whole, there is nothing which will materially retard its settlement, or prevent its becoming the rival o f the Atlantic states. The soil o f Oregon is not uniform. The whole country is marked with volcanic action. The region between the California mountains and the Pacific, is best adapted to agriculture. The productions are wheat, bar ley, oats, rye, peas, and potatoes. C om does not succeed, and with few exceptions, is an unprofitable crop. Some portions o f the country are very fertile, and rival the best lands o f the Mississippi valley ; but these tracts are limited to the banks o f the rivers. The second division o f Oregon, between the California and Blue ridges, is not well adapted for agricultural purposes; but as it is suited for graz ing, it must become an important part o f the country. With a moderate number o f inhabitants, it will produce a great quantity o f pork, beef, tal low, and hides, for export or domestic use. It is supposed that sheep will flourish as well here as in any part o f the world. From the extreme healthiness o f the climate, and the pursuits which the people will adopt, we may anticipate that it will become a distinguished portion o f the coun try for intelligence, virtue, and political independence. Our knowledge o f the region between the Rocky and Blue mountains, is not favorable to its speedy settlement, or its value for any o f the principal pursuits o f our citizens. The soil is so strongly impregnated with salts that it must re main for many centuries unfit for cultivation. A salt lake, called Youta, is situated in the south part o f this valley, near the junction o f the Snowy and Rocky mountains. Mr. Pilcher spent a year in the region o f the Multonomah, Lewis and Clark’s rivers, and found the valleys covered with the richest grasses. White clover, red clover, timothy and blue grass, were common, and among the spontaneous productions. Though the soil upon these rivers does not equal that o f the Mississippi, it is superior to the cultivated parts o f the Atlantic states. Notwithstanding the many disadvantages o f soil and climate, Oregon possesses commercial and manufacturing abilities far superior to those o f any other section o f the country. It is universally conceded that the water-power o f the territory is unlimited. The rivers which rise in the Rocky Mountains, at an elevation o f 5,000 to 10,000 feet above the sea, find their way across the country with extreme rapidity and power to the Pa cific ocean. On all these streams, labor, enterprise and wealth, will establish various kinds o f manufactures. Coal has been found, and mine rals are supposed to be buried in the mountains. A large portion o f the country, particularly on the coast, is covered with heavy and valuable tim 522 O regon : The Claim o f G reat B ritain. ber. The pine, live oak, and white oak, grow to an extraordinary size, far surpassing any o f the species in North America. This timber is not only valuable for fuel, but will be extensively used in building ships, houses, and for export to the countries washed by the Pacific. The commercial advantages o f this territory constitute its principal value. On the north and north-west are the Russian possessions, both o f America and Asia, extending over 90 degrees o f longitude, and from 10 to 20 degrees o f latitude ; on the south are California, Mexico, and the ex tensive coast of South A m erica; on the west, and comparatively near, are China and the populous regions known as the East Indies. When Oregon is settled, as it will be, by American citizens, her ships will visit all these ports for commercial purposes. Among her commercial re sources are furs, lumber, beef, hides, tallow and grain, to omit entirely those articles o f traffic which American enterprise and ingenuity will ulti mately produce in great quantities. Furs always meet a ready sale in China and many parts o f the E a st; lumber sells at a high price in the islands o f the Pacific, and in various sections o f Asia and America ; flour, beef, hides and tallow, can be sent to almost any section o f the world. Many o f these articles commanded a high price last year. On the Willamet river, b eef was worth $6 00 per hundred, flour $ 4 00 per bbl., pork $12 50 per bbl., lard, butter and cheese, 20 cents per pound.— (Letter from an emigrant.) A century will be sufficient to place the commerce o f Oregon in a respectable position. Should the jurisdiction o f the United States be extended over the territory west o f the Rocky mountains, emi gration will be encouraged, and the authority o f the government will es sentially aid in rendering the Pacific the rival o f the Atlantic. The great difficulty, in a commercial aspect, is the want of good har bors. The mouth o f the Columbia river affords a tolerable shelter fo r vessels, but the entrance is difficult and dangerous. When Capt. Gray discovered the river, he was unable to enter it for nine days, though he made great exertions to do so. Various plans for the improvement o f the harbor have been made, and the settlement o f the country will lead to a partial or complete removal o f the difficulties. As the Columbia has its head in the remote parts o f the territory, and, for a long time, at least, must be the principal channel o f communication with the coast, it is im portant that every obstacle should be overcome. There are no harbors o f any value south o f the Columbia. North o f the Columbia are Bull finch or Gray’s harbor, Nootka sound, and numerous bays, sounds and in lets, upon the strait o f Fuca, Princess Royal, and Queen Charlotte’s islands, which will afford secure shelters for vessels o f any size. Hence the importance o f securing this portion o f the coast in the adjustment o f the boundary with Great Britain. The possession of Oregon will enable the United States to increase and strengthen their naval as well as commercial power. There are few places which will afford greater facilities for ship building, than the coasts o f this country. The pines o f the Columbia rival the sycamores o f the Mississippi, while the live and white oak are superior to the same species in the Atlantic states. O f course, one o f the first measures o f our govern ment should be to establish a naval station, for the repair o f trading ves sels, as well as those employed in the protection o f our commerce. The mouth o f the Columbia could easily be made the depot for the trade o f the whole Eastern continent. After the establishment; o f a naval station, the- O regon : The Claim o f G reat B ritain. 523 next essential requisite is a safe and expeditious mode o f communication betwixt the Pacific and the valley o f the Mississippi. By this arrangement, our merchants would obtain information from all parts of the Pacific coast in advance o f those o f any other nation. A knowledge o f the European markets could be conveyed more expeditiously via the United States to China, than by any other route. So, on the other hand, we should obtain the earliest information, as well from all Asia and the eastern coast o f South America, as from China and Oregon. Our trading vessels fitted out at the Columbia, could traverse the ocean in every direction, and search for new markets and new articles o f traffic at every post on both continents from Beering’s strait to cape Horn. In the absence o f the means o f transporting heavy merchandise across the conti nent, vessels would ply regularly between the extremities o f the Ameri can territory. The possession o f Oregon secures to the United States the control o f the commerce o f the world, and enables them to contend, even-handed, with Great Britain for the supremacy o f the seas. This territory is necessary to the United States, as it furnishes both se curity at home and power abroad, while it will add neither power nor strength to our rival. But, whatever m aybe the advantages or disadvan tages o f the territory to either party, the controversy should be settled upon principles which will commend themselves to the civilized world. Oregon would be o f little value, if acquired at the expense o f honor, o f justice, or o f national faith. But the examination we have made, has most fully convinced us o f the injustice o f the British claim. England sustains her claim to Oregon in three forms. 1. Francis Drake discovered and took possession o f it in 1579. 2. Captain Cook visited and took possession o f Nootka Sound in 1778. 3. Spain surrendered Nootka Sound to England by the Convention signed at the Escurial, in October, 1790. The validity of the English title, as derived from the discoveries o f Francis Drake, will first be considered. He sailed from Plymouth, England, on the 30th o f December, 1577, and returned on the 16th o f September, 1586. The expedition was openly planned for a voyage to Egypt, but secretly and truly as a piratical crusade against the Spanish upon the eastern and western coasts o f South America. The principal object was plunder; discovery, exploration and settlement, were no part o f the original plan. Neither Drake’s nor Cavendish’s voyage was intended for making any useful settlements in those remote parts for the benefit o f commerce, as most certainly they might easily have done; but their principal aim was privateering against, and pillaging the Spaniards, together with some transient commerce.— (Anderson. Holmn’s Annals, I, 107.) This is apparent from the journal o f the voyage. Drake sacked the city o f St. Jago, and took a Spanish prize. The booty amounted to 37,000 Spanish ducats. At Tarapaxa, a party o f his men robbed a sleeping Spaniard o f 18 bars o f silver, valued at 4,000 Spanish ducats. The journalist says, “ they did not see fit to disturb the Spaniard’s repose, but taking the silver, let him take out his nap.” “ Not far from hence, going ashore for water, they met a Spaniard driving eight Peruvian sheep, having two leather bags (containing about fifty pounds each) on his back. They delivered the poor animals from their unknown burdens, and lodged the bags in their own ships.” — (Harris Voyages. I. 17.) At Lima, he robbed twelve 524 Oregon : T he Claim o f G reat B ritain. ships o f great quantities o f gold and silver. Soon after, he took the Cacafrego, which had on board thirteen chests full o f rials o f plate, eighty pounds o f pure gold, a good quantity o f jewels, and twenty-six tons o f sil ver bars.— (Harris’s Voyages.) These facts sufficiently demonstrate the character o f Drake, and the ob ject o f the expedition. The estimated fruits o f the voyage were sufficient to exempt the nation from taxes for seven years. On his return, he was styled the master thief o f the unknown world.— (Harris.) Queen Elizabeth hesitated to adopt Drake and his voyage. The Spanish agent, Mendoza, remonstrated with the British government upon the illegality and injustice o f the whole affair, but was silenced from time to time by partial returns o f the wealth which Drake had accumulated. A portion o f the people were sensible o f the enormities o f his crimes, and apprehensive that the Spanish government would seek redress by retalia tion upon British merchants in Spain. They contended, that, as there was no war proclaimed against Spain, it was a dangerous thing to own such an adventurer, as the public might pay dear for the prizes he had taken. As their merchants had great effects in Spain, the Spanish gov ernment might make good Drake’s depredations with their effects.— (Har ris.) From the admitted fact that Elizabeth did make some restitution to Spain for Drake’s outrages upon her rights and the laws o f nations, we are at liberty to infer that the restitution was deemed satisfactory, and that Elizabeth shared the plunder with the thief o f the unknown world. Without having followed Drake to the field o f his pretended discove ries, we may well object to the doctrine which England now for the first time advances, that she can base a claim to a continent upon the act o f a pirate, who, for his own safety avoided the abodes o f civilized men. After this claim has been in abeyance for two centuries, we must the more earnestly object, in behalf o f civilization and Christianity against Eng land adopting an enterprise which she dare not defend in the lifetime o f its author. And if it could be proved that Spain was conciliated, neither the United States nor any other government is bound to listen to preten sions which are based upon the violation o f national laws and moral ob ligations. Our government would be justified in declaring to Great Bri tain that she must relieve Sir Francis Drake from the charge o f piracy, before any claim resulting from his discoveries will be admitted by us. There is, however, no danger in allowing every possible advantage she can derive from the voyage o f Drake. After the outrages to which we have referred, a sense o f guilt and dan ger seems to have seized the desperado, and he determined to reach Eng land by the Molucca islands, rather than trust himself in the path o f the Spaniards. Leaving the region o f the equator, he sailed north in search o f a favorable wind for his voyage across the Pacific. The first account o f the voyage, published in 1589, states that Drake sailed north 600 leagues, which was all the way they made from April 16, to June 3 ; but Rev. Francis Fletcher, chaplain, says that between the same dates they sailed 1,400 leagues, and reched the 42d degree o f latitude. He further says that from June 3d to June 5th, they sailed from 42° to 48°, but were forced by contrary winds to run in with the shore, and cast anchor in a bad bay in latitude 48°.— (Harris’s Voyages.) They left this harbor on the same day, June 5th, and on the 17th o f the same month, came to anchor in a fit harbor, in latitude 38° 30'. Oregon : The Claim o f G reat B ritain. 525 (Harris’s Voyages, II. 196.) Now, according to this story, Drake made six degrees, with contrary winds, in ten days, while with favorable winds on his return, he made but nine degrees and thirty minutes in twelve days. This statement contains the evidence o f its own falsity, and were it not for other circumstances, we might resort to the charitable inference that the writer was deceived by imperfect instruments and the uncertainty o f observations made at sea. The account by Hakluyt is very different. “ June 5, being got into 43° o f north latitude, they found the air excessively cold ; and the further they went, the severity o f the weather was more in tolerable ; upon which score they made toward the land, till they came into 38° north latitude, under which height o f the pole they found a very good bay, and had a favorable wind to enter the same.” No further evi dence is needed to show the entire inaccuracy o f the chaplain’s narra tive, yet we feel justified in referring to another part o f it. He represents the cold in the month o f June, at latitude 38° north, as so great that “ the poor birds and fowls, not daring (as we had great experience to observe) so much as once to rise from their nests after the first egg laid, till it, with all the rest be hatched, and brought to some strength o f nature able to help itself; only this recompense has nature afforded them, that the heat o f their own bodies being exceeding great, it perfecteth the creature with great expedition, and in shorter time than is to be found in any other places. Some o f our mariners in this voyage had formerly been at Wardhouse, in 72° o f north latitude, who yet affirmed that they felt no such nip. ping cold there in the end o f summer, when they departed thence, as they did in those hottest months o f June and July.” This story is so entirely at variance with the known facts, that the author o f The Discoveries and and Settlements o f the English in America,* directly impeaches it, though it is the basis o f the claim which England now makes to the territory o f Oregon. This writer says that in the original account o f Candish’s [Cavendish’s] expedition in 1587, not one word is said o f its being cold. Again, in Sir Francis Drake’s voyage, printed by Hakluit, it is only said, “ that in the latitude o f 42° the men were extremely pinched with the cold.” Yet the truth o f the matter is, that the Spaniards had, thirty-seven years before, sailed along this coast to the height o f 44°, as far as cape Mendocino ; and that they afterward discovered cape Blanco, beyond that, which is a plain proof that the cold is not so in tolerable as Mr. Fletcher would make it. Father Charlevoix makes no scruple o f calling it a fabulous country, and from hence takes occasion to make some reflections upon Sir Francis Drake, which that gentle man did not at all deserve.— (Harris’s Voyages, II. 197.) Mr. Fletcher’s narrative is here very properly discredited by one o f his own country men ; and nothing but a determination to secure Oregon, would give currency to a statement which is not only destitute o f probability and consistency, but is directly opposed to the first English account ever pub lished. W hen we see Rev. Francis Fletcher discredited in this way, and the English government relying upon him to sustain their claim to a por tion o f American soil, it is impossible to avoid the conclusion that they are sensible of their own weakness, and seek to sustain themselves amid the uncertainty in which their own writers have involved the affair. * Harris’s Voyages, 1 . 197. 526 O regon : T he Claim o f G reat B ritain. After the chaplain’s friends have impeached his veracity, it requires a great deal o f assurance to ask credit for those who served in other ca pacities. If, however, any satisfactory conclusion can be drawn from the E ng lish writers, it is this. That Drake sailed as far north as the forty-second or forty-third degree; that, from contrary winds and the danger o f an un known coast, he turned to the south, and came to anchor in a good har bor, about latitude 38° north. This was either port Bedega, or port San Francisco, then both well known to the Spaniards. The American Atlas, from surveys by Holland and others, published by direction o f Parliament, at London, in 1776, has this significant note. “ In lat. 38°, port Sir Francis Drake, not St. Francisco.” Monterey is placed on this map in latitude 36° north, and the route o f Drake is represented as seven degrees farther north. Cape Fortune, 41° north; the Cabo de Fortunas o f Ferrelo, is put down as discovered in 1542. O f course, this was a Spanish discovery, as the English do not pretend to have visited the coast for nearly forty years after this date. It may be well to remark that the atlas from Holland, and others, was pub lished about the time o f the departure o f Captain Cook on his famous voy age o f exploration and discovery, and doubtless contained the most au thentic information in the possession o f the English. Hence we esteem the statement that Drake’s voyage terminated in latitude forty-three, as extremely valuable in refuting the pretension now made, that he pene trated to latitude forty-eight. An old copy o f Harris’s Voyages also contains a map by Gman Bowen, geographer to his majesty, upon which the termination o f Drake’s voyage is fixed at latitude forty-three. The author o f Drake’s voyages, published in Harris’s compilation o f 1744, in estimating its advantages, says : “ He proceeded farther north in America than the Spaniards themselves had done ; that is, to the height o f 38° north latitude, beyond which we know nothing with certainty to this day.” The opinion that he proceeded farther north than the Spaniards had done, is distinctly refuted by the best authorities, and particularly by “ An account o f the European Settlements in America,” published in two vo lumes, at London, in 1757. In the description of New Mexico, the writer* says, “ the famous peninsula o f California is part, and far from an incon siderable part o f this country. It is a place finely situated for trade, and has a pearl fishery o f great value. It was first discovered by the great conqueror o f Mexico, Hernando Cortez. Our famous admiral and navi gator, Sir Francis Drake landed there, and took possession o f it in 1578; and he not only took possession, but obtained the best right in the world to the possession ; the principal king having formally invested him with his principality. However, I do not find that we have thought o f assert ing that right since his time ; but it may probably employ in some future time, the pens o f those lawyers who dispute with words, what can only be de cided by the sword, and will afford large matter upon the right o f disco very, occupancy and settlement.” (V ol. I. 238-39.) W hile the writer argues with sufficient force the validity o f the English title, he also ad mits with great clearness that the country visited by Drake was discover * This work was published anonymously. A note on the title page o f a copy in the Massachusetts Library, states that it was written by Burke. O regon : T he Claim o f G reat B ritain. 527 ed by the Spaniards. Now it is a well established principle o f national law, that the cession o f territory by its aboriginal occupants, cannot operate against the original discoverers; but if the cession be made to them, it confirms and strengthens their title. The various writers who contend that Drake discovered the coast in latitude 48°, appear to derive their au thority from Rev. Francis Fletcher; while the inconsistencies o f this writer, as well as the more authentic account o f Hakluyt unite in fixing the termination o f Drake’s voyage at latitude 43°, and the point o f his settlement in latitude 38°. Although we are bound to deny that any act o f Drake entitled the Brit ish government to sovereignty at any point between the thirty-first and forty-third degrees, there is no danger in asserting that the claim should be urged against Mexico, which, by the treaty o f 1818 with Spain, is in possession o f the territory south o f the forty-second degree, and not against the United States. But if it be contended that Fletcher’s account is au thentic, the British government must admit the whole o f i t ; for it would be manifest injustice to admit a portion, and reject or impeach the re mainder. Fletcher, in his narrative, from which we have made extracts, makes this statement in relation to the harbor in latitude 38° 30'. “ And that the north and northwest winds are here constant in June and July, as the north wind is alone in August and September, we not only found it by our experience, but were fully confirmed in the opinion thereof, by continual observations o f the Spaniards.” From this, it is certain that the Spaniards had made continual observations at the place where Drake then was, and this they could not have done had they not fre quently visited it. It therefore follows, that the English can derive no benefit from the single and chance visit o f Drake to a country which was so well known to the Spaniards that they had made continual ob servations which were considered authentic by Fletcher himself. Thus it appears that the latitude o f the bay is immaterial, as it was frequented by the Spaniards, and o f course the English can make no claim against the United States or Mexico, the representatives o f Spain in this matter. In whatever view we place the voyage o f Sir Francis Drake, it affords no ground for the claim which England now makes ; on the other hand, the vigor and skill with which she urges it, lead to the conclusion that our rival feels the weakness o f her position, and seeks support in a mea sure which she would otherwise scorn. That the accounts o f Drake’s voyage, and particularly that o f Rev. Francis Fletcher, are in a great degree fabulous, seems to be generally admitted. When Drake found that his piracies had involved the govern ment in difficulty with Spain, it became neeessary for him to conciliate queen Elizabeth. This he did partly by large contributions from his illgot gains, and partly by representations that he had made important dis coveries which would greatly benefit his country, and enable her to rival Spain in wealth, dominion, and naval power. Hence we have the par ticulars, by both Hakluyt and Fletcher, o f the transfer by the Indians o f all the territory between 38° and 43°. They state that the natives de sired to make Drake king, and that the chief actually took “ the illustrious crown of feathers from his own head,” and placed it upon that o f the ad miral. It is further said that “ the admiral accepted o f the new offered dignity, as her majesty’s representative, in her name and for her use ; it being probable that from this donation, whether made in jest or earnest, 528 O regon : The Claim o f G reat B ritain. by these Indians, some real advantage might hereafter redound to the English nation and interests in those parts.” It will be observed that the dignity was accepted in the name and for the use o f her majesty, but the writer seems to be doubtful whether the Indians were in jest or earnest. The acquisition o f such a territory was acceptable to Elizabeth, and hence her efforts to appease Spain, and save Drake from the condemnation o f his countrymen. But it should be remembered in estimating the importance o f this af fair,— admitting the account to be true,— that Drake was a pirate, and could not be such a representative o f any civilized nation as to acquire territory or sovereignty. I f England choose to employ banditti as her agents, she can do so ; but neither Spain nor the United States is bound by their acts. Nor does the acquisition o f an Indian title give any right o f territory or sovereignty against the claims of a third party. This principle has been universally adopted in the affairs o f America. Should the United States purchase an Indian title in the valley o f Hudson’s Bay, Great Bri tain would not for one moment admit it. As we have seen by the ac count o f Fletcher, the Spaniards were in possession, and o f course an In dian title was o f no value to any other nation. It will be remembered that the voyage o f Drake was commenced in 1577, and he probably visit ed the American coast in the spring o f 1579. The purpose is now to show in addition to the admissions o f English writers already quoted, that the Spaniards had visited all that part o f the coast which was really seen by Drake. In 1541, an exploring party under the direction of An tonio de Mendoza, viceroy o f Mexico, went up the Colorado river, and from thence penetrated the country near the coast to the fortieth degree o f latitude. In 1542, Cabrillo, a distinguished Portuguese navigator, in the service o f Spain, examined the coast as far as the fortieth degree. Cabrillo died in the small island o f San Bernardo in the thirty-fourth degree o f latitude, and Bartoleme Ferrer or Ferrelo succeeded to the command o f the expedition. He directed his course northward, and by the first o f March, 1543, reached the forty-fourth degree o f latitude. Na varette found from an examination o f the journals o f the voyage, that it terminated in latitude 43° north.— (Greenhow.) These expeditions, by land and sea, performed long before Drake saw the shores o f Mexico, are o f such a nature as to supersede entirely the claim o f England. Nor can it be urged that because Spain neglected to establish permanent settle ments in those regions, that she lost the rights acquired by discovery; for Great Britain did nothing more than Spain had before done, and it is a plain principle that the title o f discovery is perfect and complete until it is impaired by actual possession and settlement. Spain was the real dis coverer, and as England made no settlement, the title o f Spain was not invalidated by the temporary residence of Drake. From these conside rations, it seems proper to conclude that the voyage o f Drake does not confer upon Great Britain any rights in Oregon; but, on the other hand, that the title o f Spain as discoverer, is original and perfect. It will ap pear, that all the rights o f Spain have been transferred to the United States, and that upon the point o f early discovery, our claim is perfect as against Great Britain. The success o f Drake stimulated similar adventurers, the principal o f whom was Sir Thomas Cavendish. He followed the course o f Drake O regon : T he Claim o f G reat B ritain. 529 with equal success; but his expedition is principally valuable as confirming the story of a Greek, Quan de Fuca, who stated to Michael Lock, English consul at Aleppo, that while in the service o f Spain, he visited and explored the strait which bears his name. It is situated between the forty-eighth and forty-ninth degrees, and separates Juadra, or Vancouver’s Island, from the main land. Lock states that he met the Greek at Venice, in April, 1596, and received from him the following declaration. That he was a native o f Cephalonia, a mariner by profession, and for forty years a pilot in the service o f Spain. That Spain was alarmed at the efforts o f England to discover a north passage to the Pacific ocean, and sent three small vessels from Mexico to anticipate its rivals. The crimes o f the captain defeated the object o f the expedition. But in 1592, two small vessels, o f which Fuca was pilot, sailed from Mexico in search o f the straits of Arrian, which were then believed to connect the two seas. Between the forty-seventh and forty-eighth degrees o f latitude, they en tered a strait, and sailed therein more than twenty days, and found the land trending still sometimes northwest, and northeast, and north, and also east and southeastward, and very much broader sea there was at the said entrance, and that he passed by divers islands in that sailing.— (Cush ing’s Report.) This account was for a long time disbelieved, but subse quent voyages have so far confirmed it, as to leave no doubt that the pilot visited the waters which he describes. Fuca also states that he was robbed at Cape California by Captain Candish, Englishman, o f sixty thou sand ducats. Cavendish* mentions that a Greek pilot was found on board one o f the Spanish ships.— (North American Review, Jan., 1839.) Fuca says that he passed through this strait to the open sea, so that he must have reached the fifty-first parallel o f latitude. The Greek’s story is so well confirmed by Cavendish, and the observations o f modern mariners, that its authenticity is generally admitted. The close o f the sixteenth century found the western coast o f America entirely in the possession o f Spain, England having failed to reach a single degree o f latitude which had not before been visited. There is abundant proof, that, during the first part o f the seventeenth century, England did not consider the western coast o f America a part o f her territory.' There is, however, one exception— the colonial charters — and these in due time will be considered. A map o f the British em pire in North America, by Samuel Dunn, mathematician, improved, from the surveys o f Captain Carver, claims nothing west of the Mississippi. The sweeping clause asserts the right o f Great Britain to the “ re served lands which contain all the countries comprehended between Apulaches, Ohio, and Mississippi. A map o f North America, by Eman Bowen, prepared in conformity with the definitive treaty concluded at Paris, 10th o f February, 1763, claims nothing west o f the Mississippi. A line is drawn near the fortyninth degree o f latitude, and marked “ the southern boundary o f Hud son’s Bay Company’s territories, settled by commissioners after the treaty o f Utrecht.” This line extends betwixt the eightieth and the one hun dred and second degrees o f west longitude. On the copy o f this map in the Massachusetts library, a red line has been drawn over the river which connects Rainy Lake with the Lake o f the Woods, and red stars * The pronunciation according to Hon. C. Cushing, is Candish. V O L . X I I .— NO. V I . . 32 O regon : The Claim o f G reat B ritain. 530 mark a line through the Lake o f the Woods to its northern point, thence a straight red line, upon parallel 49° 15' to the Mississippi river. It was not until many years after the treaty o f 1765, that it was found that the Mississippi was not intersected by the forty.ninth parallel. Whether the forty-ninth degree was established as the boundary between the E ng lish and French possessions, agreeably to the treaty o f Utrecht, cannot be determined. Bowen’s map certainly authorizes the opinion that com missioners were appointed, and that they executed their trust. This opin ion seems to have been general, and was entertained by the parties to the treaty o f 1783 between Great Britain and the United States. Mr. Cushing* expresses the conviction that the commissioners appoint ed under the third article o f the treaty o f Utrecht “ adopted the forty, ninth parallel o f latitude as the line o f demarcation between the pos sessions o f England and France, in that quarter, and west o f the Missippi,” but Mr. Greenhow is clear that the treaty, in this respect, was not fulfilled. A French map, by M. Philippe, published in 1769, shows that no line had then been adopted, which was regarded as fixing the limits o f the French and English territories in America. But it is well known that commissioners were appointed to settle the boundaries o f Nova Scotia, or Acadia, agreeably to the twelfth article o f the treaty o f Utrecht.— (North west Coast o f North America, 216.) The “ Account o f the European Settlements in America,” from which an extract has already been made, thus describes the American posses sions of England, Spain, France and Portugal. “ All America is in the hands o f four nations. The Spaniards, who, as they first discovered it, have the largest and richest share. All that part o f North America which comprises the isthmus o f Mexico, and what lies beyond that towards the river Mississippi on the east, the Pacific ocean to the west and north west ; and they possess all South America, excepting Brazil, which lies between the mouth o f the river Amazon and that o f Plata, along the Atlantic ocean ; this belongs to Portugal. That part o f North America which the Spaniards have not, is divided between the English and French. The English have all the countries which encircle Hudson’s Bay, and thence in a line, all along the eastern shore, to the thirtieth degree o f north latitude. France claims all the country which lies between this and the Spanish settlements to the west, and secures an intercourse with them by the mouths o f the Mississippi, the Mobile, and o f the river St. Lawrence, which are the only avenues o f navigation to this very exten sive country.” — (I. 199.) Had a line been established under the treaty o f Utrecht, it is hardly possible that it should have escaped the notice of this writer. One point, however, is well established. In 1757, E ng land acknowledged the soverignty o f Spain to all the country between the Pacific ocean on the west and northwest, and the Mississippi river on the east. Nearly two centuries had elapsed since the voyage o f Drake, and if England acquired any rights through that navigator, she was more tardy in asserting them, than was common in an age when the maritime nations of Europe were extending their jurisdiction by every means in their power. W e come now to consider the charter, or great patent o f New E ng. * House Documents. 101. 3d session, 25th Congress. Oregon : T he Claim o f G reat B ritain. 531 land, and to determine how far it impairs the claim o f Great Britain to Oregon. The boundaries o f New England are thus defined by king James. W e, therefore, o f our special grace, mere motion, and certain know ledge, by the advice o f the lords and others o f our privy council, have, for us, our heirs and successors, granted, ordained and established, and in, and by these presents, do, for us, our heirs and successors, grant, ordain and establish, that all that circuit, continent, precincts, and limits, in Ame rica, lying and being in breadth from forty degrees o f northerly latitude from the equinoctial line, to forty-eight degrees of the said northerly lati tude, and in length, by all the breadth aforesaid, throughout the main land, from sea to sea, with all the seas, rivers, islands, creeks, inlets, ports and havens, within the degrees, precincts, and limits o f the said latitude and longitude, shall be the limits and bounds, and precincts o f the said second colony.” — (Charter and Laws o f the Colony ofN ew Plymouth, p. 3.) This charter is the most extraordinary to be found in American annals, and conferred upon forty persons the entire control o f all the territory be tween the Atlantic and the Pacific, included within the fortieth and fortyeighth degrees o f latitude. It comprises nearly all the inhabited British possessions to the north o f the United States, all N ew England, New York, half o f New Jersey, nearly all Pennsylvania, and the whole o f the country to the west o f these states.— (Bancroft’s History, I. 272.) It will be seen from this extract, as well as from some o f the other colonial charters, that at the commencement o f the seventeenth century, Great Britain asserted her authority to settle and govern the country on the Pa cific, including a large portion o f what is now known as Oregon territory. It is immaterial to the present inquiry whether this claim can be justified or n o t; neither shall we stop to examine the probable grounds upon which it was based. England cannot now plead that she had no rights on the Pacific. I f she did wrong, she cannot now urge it, to save herself from any injury, or to exclude us from our rights. The United States could not urge this act against the claims o f a third party, but they may urge it against Great Britain, without admitting or denying her original right to the territory included in the patent of New England. It being then established by the highest authority known to the British constitu tion, the act o f the king himself, that in 1620 Great Britain claimed juris diction over that part o f Oregon included betwixt the fortieth and fortyeighth degrees o f latitude, it is proper to inquire whether she had exer cised, or in any manner disposed o f her sovereignty. The most im portant evidence upon this point is found in the seventh article o f the de finitive treaty o f peace concluded between England and France, at Paris, February 10, 1763. “ In order to re-establish peace on solid and durable foundations, and to remove forever all subjects o f dispute with regard to the limits o f the British and French territories on the continent o f America, it is agreed, that for the future, the confines between the dominions o f his Britannic Majesty and those o f his most Christian Majesty, in that part o f the world, shall be fixed irrevocably, by a line drawn along the middle o f the river Mississippi from its source to the river Iberville, and from thence, by a line drawn along the middle of this river and the lakes Maurepas and Ponchartrain to the sea ; and for this purpose the most Christian King, cedes in full right, and guarantees to his Britannic Majesty, the river and 532 O regon : T he Claim o f G reat B ritain. port o f Mobile,” & c. It is clear, from this article, that the king o f Great Britain relinquished to the French king all his claim to territory on the west side o f the Mississippi, and the question arises, What was the claim o f Great Britain ? She cannot complain if we resort to her own acts for an answer. W e find that in 1620, and at other times, she claimed to the Pacific ocean, and hence by ceding her claim to France, she relin quished all her title, whether o f any value or not, to the country be tween the Mississippi and the Pacific. If she did not cede this to France, what did she cede ? She had no better title to the country between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains, than to that between the Rocky Mountains and the ocean. If, then, the Mississippi was a line between the territories o f the two governments, it was in this sense ; that England should occupy be tween the Atlantic and the Mississippi, and the French between the Mis sissippi and the Pacific. The article was also a virtual agreement that neither would molest the other in the exercise o f sovereign power within the territory respectively relinquished. It is certain that Great Britain so considered the mutual obligations o f the parties ; for in the treaty o f 1783, she followed the boundary defined in the treaty o f 1763, reserving nothing to herself on the west side o f the Mississippi, which she would have done, had she supposed that her territory extended beyond that limit. Nor can it be contended, that as Spain was in possession o f the Pacific coast, that Great Britain could not relinquish it to France. For if it were in possession o f Spain, no aid whatever is afforded to Great Britain, for the United States are the representative o f Spain as well as France. I f the controversy were between Spain and the United States, we could not urge with much force the cession by England to France ; for the ques tion would arise whether England had a right to make the transfer; but in a controversy with Great Britain, it is to be presumed that she did only what she had a right to do. Neither nations nor individuals can take advantage o f their own wrong. By the treaty o f 1803 with France, the United States possess all the right o f that country on this continent; and Great Britain is bound to treat us as she would treat France, were that nation in possession o f the coun try west o f the Mississippi. Tw o points appear to be well established. Great Britain claimed Oregon in 1620, and relinquished in 1763. Has she acquired any rights in that territory since the treaty o f 1763 ? She claims that she has. First, by the voyage o f Captain Cook, and second, by the convention o f 1790 with Spain. Before considering whether Cook’s discoveries were such as entitle the discoverer to possession, it will be well to determine whether the coast o f Oregon was open to England for any purpose whatever. T o be sure, England was entirely unacquainted with the country or its value in 1763, yet it was as competent for her to relinquish it, as it would have been to have ceded any o f her colonies on the Atlantic. In that act she disquali fied herself for acquiring any territory west o f the Mississippi. With equal justice she might have sent an expedition into the vast regions b e twixt the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains, and obtained them for her self. This, it is seen, would have been a flagrant violation o f her faith pledged to F rance; and was it less so when she claimed the Columbia valley ? Or, after the treaty o f peace with the United States, she might have explored the country around lake Superior; but would this act have Oregon : The Claim, o f G reat B ritain. 533 given her any claim against her own treaty? There is, then, no injustice in maintaining that England could make no discovery west o f the Missis sippi, which would entitle her to sovereignty. If she have any rights in that region, she has acquired them by treaty. As, however, England claims by discovery, we are bound to examine her title. The voyage of Captain Cook in 1776 is regarded as furnishing the ba sis o f the English claims in this particular. This navigator sailed from Plymouth on the 12th o f July, 1776, under directions to fall in with the coast o f New Albion, in the forty-fifth degree o f latitude. Then to sail nortward along the coast to the sixty-fifth degree, where he was to begin his examination in search o f a passage to Baffin’s or Buffin’s bay. He was also instructed, “ with the consent o f the natives, to take possession in the name o f the king o f Great Britain, o f convenient situations in such countries as he might discover, that had not been already discovered or visited by any other European Power.” He was also particularly instructed to avoid giving any offence to Spain. In this voyage Cook saw cape Blanco and cape Flattery. The mouth o f the Columbia, and the entrance to strait o f Fuca, were passed unnoticed. At no time did he set foot upon, or in any proper manner take possession of, any part o f Oregon. Near the parallel 49° 30' he entered a spacious bay, to which he first gave the name o f King George’s Sound, but afterwards changed it to Nootka Sound. This bay is situated on the west side o f Quadra, or Vancouver’s Island, and Cook felt justified in claiming the discovery o f it for Great Britain. Admitting, for the moment, that Cook was the discoverer o f this bay, it is worth while to consider how far it gives to Great Bri tain a claim to the region in dispute. If our previous conclusions are Correct, that Great Britain relinquished the right o f discovery to the country west o f the Mississippi, by the treaty o f 1763, the possession o f Nootka Sound would give no right to the territory south o f 48°. It is difficult to determine by bounds the right o f discovery. It is usual ly conceded that possession o f the mouth o f a river gives a title to all the country drained by the stream and its tributaries. When settlements are made in an unoccupied country by two nations, it is customary to make the boundary midway. This rule was adopted by the United States and Russia in 1824. The occupation o f the main land usually gives a title to the islands upon the coast. But if the discovery o f Quadra or Vancou ver’s island gives a title to the main land, a new rule has certainly been introduced, which should be considered, before it is placed amongst the laws o f nations. N ow it is upon this absurd law, if law it can be called, that England claims the vast territory o f Oregon as the fruit o f the dis covery o f Quadra— an island separated by navigable waters from the main land. If it shall appear that Cook discovered Quadra, let England possess it, but it is our duty to steadily maintain that there is no resulting right to the continent. It would indeed be surprising, if the discoverer o f an island but'little more than one hundred miles in length, should be en titled to a tract o f the continent exceeding 350,000 square miles in ex tent. But it appears that the Spanish have asserted, with great justice, that Captain Cook cannot maintain his claim to the discovery o f Nootka, as not only the island, but the continent, both south and north, had been previously examined by their own navigators. Don Juan Parez sailed from San Bias, in January, 1774, in a corvette called the Santiago, un der instructions to examine the coast from Monterey to the sixtieth de- 534 O regon : T he Claim o f G reat B ritain. gree o f latitude. In August, o f the same year, he anchored in Nootka Sound, called by him San Lorenzo. Perez was the first European who visited this bay,* and it was not until four years after that Cook bestowed upon it its present name.-)' In 1775, an expedition sailed from San Bias, under the direction o f Heceta, as commander, and Perez as ensign. They explored the coast to the fifty-eighth degree o f latitude, and discovered the bay at the mouth of Columbia river. They called this bay Enpada de Heceta. Bodega and Maurelle proceeded in a schooner, against the opinion o f Heceta, and having landed at port Remedios, in the fiftyseventh degree o f north latitude, on the nineteenth o f August, took formal possession o f the country, in the name and for the use o f the Spanish sovereign. They also examined the coast for many degrees with great minuteness. The visit o f Perez to Nootka Sound is well authenticated ; and Cook himself seems to have had a suspicion, before he took possession o f the country, that the Spaniards had preceded him. He says that he saw spoons o f Spanish manufacture, but indulged in the supposition that they had been transferred from those Indians who resided near the settle ments. The natives exhibited other evidence o f their acquaintance with the products and manners o f Europeans. All this was more apparent, when Colnet, commander o f the English ship Argonaut, attempted to take possession o f Nootka, in 1789. Upon his entrance into the sound, the Argonaut was boarded by a Spanish offi cer, and Colnet was informed that Martinez had already taken possession o f the place in the name o f Spain. Colnet was invited to present his papers, and in consequence o f some difficulty, he was arrested by the Spanish commander, and immediately became insane. The vessel and crew were sent to San Bias, in Mexico. This act o f Martinez, was the germ o f a series o f difficulties and negotiations, which resulted in the remarkable convention o f 1790 between England and Spain. As, how ever, it is no part o f the present purpose to give a history o f transac tions, except so far as they affect the title o f the United States, we pass over these circumstances with great brevity. W e only pause here long enough to draw attention to the fact that Perez, a Spanish navigator, dis covered Nootka nearly four years before it was visited by C o o k ; that Spain followed the discovery by taking possession o f it in 1789 ; and that it was not until the July following, that Colnet, as the representative o f England, first appeared in these waters. The expedition o f Cook fails in three important particulars to confer on Great Britain any title to Oregon. 1. By the treaty o f 1763 with France, Great Britain relinquished all claim to territory west o f the Mississippi, and o f course waived the right o f discovery in that region. 2. Nootka Sound is within an island, and its discovery could give no title to the continent from which it is separated by navigable waters. 3. The Spanish navigator, Don Juan Perez, discovered Nootka in Au gust, 1774, and Captain Cook did not visit it until March, 1778. The last and most important point is to be considered; the rights o f * It is probable that he saw and entered the straits o f Fuca. t The American Atlas, from surveys by Holland and others, London, 1776, has this note. In latitude 4 9 °, “ Coast seen by the Spaniards in 1774.” In latitude 5 5 °, “ Here the Spaniards saw several white and fair Indians, in 1774.” O regon : T he Claim o f G reat B ritain. 535 Great Britain under the convention o f 1790. It is necessary to under stand the causes which led to this arrangement betwixt England and Spain. It has already been remarked, that the two countries were rivals for the possession o f Nootka Sound, and that Spain was successful, both as prior discoverer and occupant. However unpleasant this might have been to the English government, there was not one word o f complaint on this point. The correspondence on the part o f England does not contain an intimation that the right o f sovereignty belonged to her. As has been stated, Don Martinez, under the authority o f Spain, took possession o f Nootka Sound in 1789. And he also took into his custody two trading vessels, the Iphegenia and Northwest America, besides those sent under Colnet to take possession o f Nootka Sound. Martinez un doubtedly acted upon the exploded doctrine, that not only the sovereignty, but the right o f navigation and trade upon the coast o f America, belonged to Spain, as well in those places which she had not visited as in those she had. This idea was derived from a treaty between Spain and Portugal, in 1495, by which Spain surrendered the right to visit India by the east ern route, and in return, was to possess exclusive control o f every western passage. As will be seen, England claimed the right to navigate and trade in all those waters, and to occupy in her sovereign right any terri tory not previously in the possession of any other power. In the Nootka controversy, England demanded the right o f trade and navigation, the right to make settlements in regions not occupied by Spain, and atone ment for the insult which her flag had received at the hand o f Martinez. The king, in his communication to both houses o f parliament, May 25th, 1790, says, “ complaints were also made [by Spain] o f the fisheries car ried on by his majesty’s subjects in the seas adjoining the Spanish conti nent, as being contrary to the rights o f the crown o f Spain. In conse quence o f this communication, a demand was immediately made, by his majesty’s order, for adequate satisfaction, and for the restitution o f the vessel, previous to any other discussion.” — (Annual Register, 32, 285.) “ This memorial* explains, in general, the grounds that gave rise to the present contest with Spain; but the precise point, to be determined be fore peace can be finally settled, is still involved in some obscurity. That some of the ships were seized, and others suffered to proceed to trade un molested, is not easily to be accounted for on the principles of tfce trea ties that now subsist between the two countries. By the last treaty o f peace with Spain, a free trade and no search, was the sine qua non on which it was concluded.” — (Annual Register, 32, 287.) The British government, in its answer to Spain, says that it shall not act “ against the just and acknowledged rights o f Spain, but that they cannot at present accede to the pretensions o f absolute sovereignty, com merce and navigation, which appeared to be the principal object o f the memorials o f the ambassador ; and that the king o f England considers it is a duty incumbent upon him to protect his subjects in the enjoyment o f the right o f continuing their fishery in the Pacific ocean.” — (Annual Register, 32, 297.) In this there is no obscurity. England protested against the preten sion o f Spain to absolute sovereignty— not at Nootka Sound— but upon the coast o f America. The king o f England does not say that he considered it his duty to maintain his sovereignty at Nootka, but “ to protect his sub* The memorial o f Lieutenant Mears to the Right Hon. W . W yndham Grenville. 536 O regon : T he Claim o f G reat B ritain. jects in the enjoyment of the right o f continuing their fishery in the Pacific ocean.” The answer o f the English ambassador to the memorial of the Florida Blanca sets forth, in plain language, the claims o f his government. “ The restitution o f the vessels— a full indemnification for the losses sus tained by the parties injured— and, finally, satisfaction to the sovereign for the insult offered to his flag. So that it is evident that the actual demands o f my court, far from containing any thing to prejudice the rights or the dignity o f his catholic majesty, amount to no more, in fact, than what is constantly done by Great Britain herself, as well as every other mari time power, in similar circumstances.” — (Annual Register, 32, 298.) These extracts, the tenor o f the correspondence between the govern ments, as well as the neglect o f England to claim any right o f sovereignty at Nootka, sufficiently prove that the controversy was confined to the pre tensions o f Spain to the exclusive navigation, trade and possession o f the sea, coast and territory o f the western part o f North America. It may be well here to remark, that as England claims Nootka by vir tue o f the convention o f 1790, she necessarily relinquishes every prior claim. For if Nootka belonged to Britain previous to 1790, Spain could not cede it either to Britain or any other nation in 1790. It now remains to be seen, whether the convention between England and Spain, signed at the Escurial, in October, 1790, was confined to the points noticed, or whether it gave to England the sovereignty o f Nootka. It should be observed that a treaty which transfers territory must be plain and specific. There must be no ambiguity, no doubt; otherwise it is to be construed in favor of the grantor. No just rule, either o f civil or na tional law, permits the transfer o f rights, unless it be done in a direct and clear manner. Nothing is left to construction or inference. Now, if England acquired the sovereignty o f Nootka Sound by the convention, she is bound to show a clear, specific and direct transfer o f it. In this she fails— utterly and entirely fails. The convention o f 1790 is silent upon the point. There is not even an intimation that the sovereignty ofNootka was in controversy. W ere it not for cotemporaneous history, we might as well conjecture that the difficulties had occurred in San Francisco as in Nootka. But in fairness, it must be inferred, from the convention itself, that Spain did not surrender Nootka. The first article shows what was restored by Spain, and to whom it was restored ; and there can be no doubt, either from a cursory or critical reading, that Great Britain did not receive either territory or sovereignty. “ It is agreed that the buildings and tracts o f land situated on the north west coast o f the continent o f North America, or on islands adjacent to that continent, o f which the subjects o f his Britannic Majesty were dispos sessed, about the month o f April, 1789, by a Spanish officer, shall be re stored to the said British subjects.” — (Annual Register, 32, 304.) Build ings and tracts o f land, o f which British subjects had been dispossessed, were to be restored to British subjects. It is a maxim that the sove reignty is in the king, and had this been restored or ceded, it is hardly probable that it would have been to British subjects. Nor is it claimed that the king had been dispossessed o f jurisdiction, lands or buildings, but that the subjects o f his Britannic Majesty had been dispossessed o f “ build ings and tracts o f land.” But it is sufficient that the restoration was to subjects, and this precludes the idea that jurisdiction was among the things O regon : The Claim o f G reat B ritain. 537 restored. It is worthy o f notice that the article is confined to the restora tion, and that there is no cession, either to king or subject. The fact that the restoration o f buildings and tracts o f land to British subjects was provided for in the convention, proves that England neither had jurisdiction, nor acquired it in the instrument itself, for she would have had the power to have done justice to her subjects without the con sent o f Spain. Should a Spanish officer dispossess a British subject in Jamaica of his land, Great Britain might seek redress o f Spain for the outrage, but she would hardly ask her consent to the restoration o f the land. So, from the fact o f restoration “ to British subjects,” we infer that Spain, both before and after the convention, in right, exercised jurisdic tion at Nootka. From the statement o f Mears o f the transactions at Nootka, we learn that he purchased a spot o f ground of Maquilla, a chief, and built a temporary habitation upon it.* These, in plain English, were to be restored to Mears. The second article o f the convention provided that, in case the subjects o f either o f the contracting parties had been forcibly dispossessed o f lands, buildings, vessels, merchandise, or other property, subsequent to the month o f April, 1789, the same should be restored, or a just compensation made therefor. Martinez arrived at Nootka in May, 1789, and, o f course, it was optional with Spain to make restoration o f the property, or to com pensate the sufferers. The idea that England would have bartered her sovereignty at Nootka for a just compensation, is eminently absurd ; and had Spain chosen this alternative, she might have entirely excluded the subjects o f Great Britain, and yet maintained her faith inviolate. The third article provided that the respective subjects o f the contracting parties should not be disturbed or molested, either in navigation or carry ing on their fisheries in the Pacific ocean, or in the South seas, or in landing on the coasts o f those seas, in places not already occupied, for the purpose o f carrying on their commerce with the natives o f the country, or o f making settlements there ; the whole subject to the provisions o f the three following articles. As Spain had previously claimed the exclusive right o f settlement, navigation, fishing and trade in those parts o f the world, this article opened those seas to the enterprise o f Britain; but there is no- transfer o f territory, but only the acknowledgment o f a right to make settlements in parts not already occupied. Nootka had been oc cupied by Spain more than a year. The fourth article contained an agreement that England would not per mit the navigation and fishery o f its subjects to become a pretence for il licit commerce with the Spanish settlements ; and hence they were not to navigate or fish within ten leagues o f coasts already occupied by Spain. The fifth article permitted free trade with those settlements which had been made since April, 1789. Spain took possession o f Nootka in May, 1789, and, o f course, England acquired the right to trade at this place. It may then bo assertod, that the convention contains no intimation of any cession o f jurisdiction. The treaty o f 1495, between Spain and Por tugal, under a papal bull o f the preceding year, by which Spain had the exclusive right o f settlement, navigation, trade and territory on the wes tern coast o f America, was annulled. * Maquilla denied having sold any land to Mears. Mears had no house.— (Greenhow, 214.) Ingraham and Gray say that 538 B ritish Commercial P olicy. The acquisitions o f England were :— 1st. A right to make temporary settlements in the unoccupied parts o f the Spanish territory. 2d. Free navigation. 3d. Free trade with all Spanish settlements made subsequent to April, 1789. 4th. The right o f fishery at all parts o f the sea not within ten leagues o f the Spanish settlements. 5th. Restoration o f the property taken by Martinez, or a just compen sation therefor. Such seems to have been the views o f the administration when the Nootka convention was considered in Parliament. Lord Grenville, the secretary to whom Mears’s memorial was addressed, claimed great advan tage for the fisheries and fur trade, but said not one word of extended ju risdiction. Mr. Pitt said: “ W e had before a right to the southern whale fishery, and a right to navigate and carry on fisheries in the Pacific ocean, and to trade on the coast o f any part o f North America. But that right had not only been acknowledged, but disputed and resisted; whereas, by the con vention it was secured to us.” — (Par. Debates, 47.) Quadra and Vancouver, commissoners o f Spain and England, met at Nootka, in 1792; and, for the first time, the position was taken, that the first article o f the convention o f 1790 required the surrender o f the whole island. The commisioners separated without agreement. Spain never made any formal surrender o f any part o f the island to Great Britain. As the object o f this paper was to examine the pretension o f Great Bri tain, the grounds upon which our own claim is based, have been almost entirely neglected. The pretensions o f Great Britain seem to have no limit, but those natural obstacles which neither the power nor ingenuity o f man has yet overcome. They are well illustrated by the statement o f John Henry Pelly, Esq., chairman o f the Hudson’s Bay Company, before a committee o f Parliament, in 1837. He said that the power o f the com pany extended “ all the way from the boundaries o f Lower and Upper Canada, away to the North Pole, as far as the land goes, and from the Labrador coast all the way to the Pacific ocean.” — (Report from the Se lect Committee on Aborigines, with the minutes o f evidence, & c.) A rt. I I I .— B R IT IS H C O M M E R C IA L P O L IC Y . P e r h a p s , in a commercial point o f view, one o f the most important events that have taken place since the peace o f 1815, has been the devel opment o f the permanent policy of the British government in relation to its commerce, as manifest in the modifications o f the tariff proposed by the Premier in Parliament, on the 14th o f March, last. Almost one o f the first acts o f the government, on the declaration o f peace, was the modifi cation o f the famous “ navigation act” — an act under which British com merce had struggled since the reign o f the Stuarts— of whose oppressive government it formed a memento. The reciprocal treaty with the United States led to the extending o f British trade, on favorable terms, with most o f the nations o f Europe. From that time to the present, the tendency B ritish Commercial P olicy. 539 o f British commercial policy has been to free trade. W hile other nations have sought in those old restraints, restrictions and special privileges, with which Britain formerly bound the enterprise o f her people, the supposed causes o f her greatness, English statesmen have silently sought to retain their supremacy, by removing shackles from trade, and, by so doing, to give the largest scope to the enterprise o f her citizens. This course has been forced upon the government, in consequence o f the great competition with which England has had to contend, since the field o f Waterloo re leased the “ bone and sinew” o f Europe from warlike occupations, and supplanted martial glory with commercial ambition. When the French emperor, in 1812, rigorously excluded British goods from Europe, united under his sway, in order to cripple England, by destroying her commerce and trade, who would have anticipated that the bank, chartered by Napolean in 1805, would become the sole prop o f British credit in 1839 ? Yet, such was the fact. In 1805, the bank o f France, by indiscreet movements, had become embarrassed, when Napolean, leaving the half gathered glories o f Austerlitz, hastened to Paris, and, re-organizing the bank, gave it a charter which not only carried it through all succeeding revolutions, but, when disease shook the commercial world, and the United States banking system having gone down in disgrace, the whole paper system o f England tottered to its base, she could, in 1839, spare £4,000,000 to the bank o f England, to carry her through the crisis. Thus the emperor, while wholly absorbed in the means o f ruining E ng lish commerce, was providing the very means by which, in after years, through the influence o f the common interests o f all nations in each other’s welfare, the mighty fabric alone should be sustained. A stronger instance o f the unseen, all-pervading progress o f the great principles o f “ free trade,” in spite o f the narrow prejudices, wire drawn theories, and impudent assumptions o f selfish men, cannot be adduced. Almost the whole o f the enormous expenditure o f the British government, during the twenty years ending in 1815, was borne by the consumers o f goods, ra ther than by the holders o f property. Thus, o f £71,372,515 raised by taxation in the year 1815, £21,618,123 only was obtained from direct taxes ; whereas, in 1841, out o f £48,895,863 paid into the exchequer, only £1,174,099 was the produce o f assessed taxes. The whole expense o f the enormous debt, wantonly contracted to oppose France, as well as the outlay o f an expensive government, with its machinery to sustain an un productive colonial system, have, during a period o f forty-two years, been borne, not by the possessors o f property, but by the laboring many, who constitute the consumers o f goods. The direct effect o f this system has been to diminish the value o f labor and to enhance that o f money. The effect of the immense debt o f £800,000,000, which existed at the close o f the last war, has been to draw directly from the laboring many £30,000,000 per annum into the hands o f 290,000 holders o f the stock. This, with the large sums drawn from the same sources, and applied to the support o f the government, has been a direct draft upon the produce o f labol, for the profit o f capital. The working classes, out o f their small earnings, have been obliged to give a large share to the government, at the same time that the money value o f their labor has been continually diminishing under the constant competition from other nations. The only manner in which England has been enabled to maintain the markets for her goods in Europe, with the nations o f which she stands on equal terms 540 B ritish Commercial P olicy. in relation to the raw material, has been by cheapening her labor. This would scarcely have afforded a sufficient outlet for goods, but that the ex tension o f her colonial markets has hitherto kept pace with her increased v home productions. In 1792, England had twenty-two colonies, in 1820, thirty-four, and they had increased to forty-five in number in 1845 ; in ad dition to which, the forcing o f the China trade has still further extended her field o f action. It has been only by continually furnishing more labor for the same amount o f money, that the market could be maintained, at the same time that the proceeds o f that labor were taxed to support the whole debt and government. The amount o f the drafts upon industrious earnings was not lessened, although the amount o f those earnings was diminished through the necessity o f cheapening the cost o f goods to ex port. Another severe tax upon the earnings o f industry, consisted in the protective duties on articles o f necessity, more particularly corn, where by the prices o f the articles consumed were enhanced to the consumer for the benefit o f the landlords. The taxes, per head, o f the population o f England, are about £ 2 , or $9 68, amounting, for a family o f five, to $47 80, as the actual amount o f money paid to the government. The value o f the corn and food consumed by such a family is enhanced £ 2 0 , or $96 80, making, together, $144 60 per annum. This burden, up to 1842, was in no wise diminished, while the money value o f labor had fallen some 40 per cent. The extent to which this depreciation o f labor has progressed, may be approximated by comparing the official with the de clared value o f exports from Great Britain for a series o f years. The of ficial value was fixed in the seventeenth century, while the declared value is that o f the actual invoices. Hence, the former displays simply quanti ties, while the latter gives the real value. The difference indicates the depreciation in money value which the products have undergone. E x p o r ts of B r it is h G oods i n o f f ic ia l a n d de c la re d v a l u e s , a n d t h e y e a r l y a v e r a g e p r ic e s of W h e a t . A v. price of wheat Years. 1815,........ 1816,....... 1817,........ 1818,....... 1819,........ 1820,........ 1821,........ 1822,........ 1823,........ 1824,........ 1825,........ 1826......... 1827,........ 1828,........ 1829,........ 1830,........ 1831,........ 1832......... 1833,....... 1834......... 1835,........ 1836,........ 1837,........ Official. £42,875,996 35,717,070 40,111,427 42,700,521 33,534,176 38,395,625 40,831,744 44,236,533 43,804,372 48,735,551 47,166,020 40,965,735 52,219,280 52,797,455 56,213,041 61,140,864 60,683,933 65,026,702 69,989,339 73,831,550 78,376,731 85,229,837 72,548,047 Declared. £51,603,028 41,657,873 41,761,132 46,603,249 35,208,321 36,424,652 36,659,630 36,968,964 35,458,048 38,396,300 38,877,388 31,536,723 37,181,355 36,812,756 35,842,623 38,271,597 37,164,372 36,450,594 39,667,347 41,649,191 47,372,270 53,368,571 42,069,245 Excess declared . Exc’s official. £8,727,032 5,940,863 1,649,705 3,902,728 1,674,145 £1,970,973 4,172,114 7,267,569 8,346,324 10,349,251 8,288,632 9,429,012 15,007.925 15,984,699 20,370,418 22,869,267 23,519,561 28,576,108 30,321,992 32,182,359 31,004,461 31,861,266 30,478,802 per qr. 63 8 76 2 94 0 83 8 72 3 65 10 54 5 43 3 51 9 62 0 66 6 56 11 56 9 60 5 66 3 64 3 66 4 58 8 52 11 46 2 39 4 48 6 55 10 541 B ritish Commercial P olicy. E x p o k t s of B r it is h G oods, e tc .—-Continued. Years. 1838,........ 1839......... 1840,........ 1841,........ 1842,........ A v. price o f wheat Excess declared. Exc’s official. per qr. Official. Declared. £92,459,631 97,402,726 102,705,372 102,180,517 100,260,101 £50,060,970 53,233,580 51,406,430 51,634,623 47,381,023 ............... £42,398,261 64 70 ............... ............... ............... 66 51,298,942 50,545,894 52,879,078 64 60 7 8 4 4 2 The quantities exported, it appears, increased 150 per cent, while the value increased but 33 per cent. At the same money value as in 1815, the exports o f 1842 should have been worth £91,061,640. Hence, the depreciation was near 50 per cent. The manner o f this depreciation may be observed in any one article, say cotton yarn, as follows :— Years. Cotton yarn, lbs. exp’ ted. Official value. Declared value. 1814,.... 1828,.... 12,782,354 50,505,751 £1,119,850 4,485,641 £2,791,247 3,595,405 Incr.,. Deer., 37,723,397 £3,365,791 £804,158 Wages. s. d. 13 0 1 7i 11 3J Price per lb. yarn. s. d. 4 4 1 5 Bowed cotton. s. d. 2 6 74 2 11 1 114 It will be observed that the official value is £ 1 0 per cwt. The decline o f money value is very great, being one shilling per pound o f yarn more than the decline in the raw material. This decline o f one shilling, is nearly all in the labor. The wages quoted are for weaving twelve yards o f sixty reed 6-4th cambrics. Out o f their wages as much had to be paid for food, and as much for taxes in 1828 as in 1814. It may be remarked, however, that the quotations for 1814 are in a depreciated paper currency, which was corrected by the act o f 1819, commonly called “ Peel’s Bills.” It was at that period that the excess of exports changed from the official to the declared value, showing that prices then receded to their natural level, from which they had been artificially raised by the extended irre deemable paper currency which prevailed during the war. The restora tion o f the currency was a wise and necessary act to preserve the trade o f England, when the return o f peace brought her prices in competition with the specie rates o f the continent. The reduction in prices which has since taken place, has, by a certain class, been attributed to the resto ration o f the currency, when in fact it was the necessary result o f the ac tive competition to which British industry was exposed, through the ad vancing prosperity o f continental manufactures. The same cause has produced a continued decline in money prices, notwithstanding that the British currency has occasionally been inflated to a dangerous extent. This decline has partly grown out o f diminished prices o f the raw mate rials, but mostly from grinding down the wages o f industry until the pit tance they earn will not suffice to pay for food, and sustain the govern ment and its debt. Year by year the artizan, the miner, and the manu facturer has been compelled to give more labor for the same money, while the amount o f money exacted o f him has in no way been diminished. On the other hand, the property o f the state creditors, the nobility, and the government officials, has been constantly increasing, in the same propor tion. Every succeeding year, the amount o f labor and the quantity o f the products o f industry, which they could command for the sum o f their divi 542 B ritish Com mercial P olicy. dends, have increased. In 1814, the price o f 3 per cent consols was 58. They are now over par—'an advance o f 70 per cent on the then invest ment. Thus a person who invested £10,000 in consols in 1815, would have had a capital worth now £17,250, and his income o f £300, mea sured in any product o f industry, will present a much greater rise. Say bar iron in Liverpool, in 1814, was worth £ 1 3 p e r to n ; consequently, the dividend o f £300 was then equal to twenty-three tons, and it is now equal to 60 tons, an advance o f 130 per cent. It requires nearly as much labor now to produce a ton o f iron as then. The demand o f the govern ment, and o f the protected interests upon the laborer for money, has been such that he has been compelled to give a great deal o f labor to obtain it. The individuals who have received these enormous sums annually, have not been compelled to part with much o f it to the government, and it has accumulated in their hands to an immense extent, indicated in the high prices o f stocks. The whole wealth o f the kingdom appears, under the pernicious sys tem o f indirect taxes, to have passed into the hands o f a very few per sons ; and so closely have the demands o f government pressed upon the means o f the greater proportion o f the people, that an advance in the prices o f the necessaries o f life has been at once followed by a serious falling off in the indirect taxes, caused by the popular inability to purchase the taxed articles. This state o f the country involved an annual deficiency in the government for six years, ending in 1843, as follows:— E xcess of B r it is h E x p e n d it u r e o v e r R eve n u e s . 1837............................................ 1838, ................................. 1839, ................................ £1,428,000 430,000 1,457,000 1840, 1841, 1842, ................................ ................................ ................................ £1,851,000 2,334,000 2,570,000 This was a regular and increasing deficit for ten years, amounting to £10,072,000. This was produced, not by a diminution o f taxes, but by diminished revenues arising from a smaller consumption of taxed articles. In order to supply this deficit, the government in 1840 levied a tax of 5 per cent additional to the existing customs and excise duties. The result o f this was as follow s:— Produce o f customs and excise for 1839,......................................................... Estimated 5 per cent addition,................................................................ .......... £37,911,506 1,895,575 Total estimated yield,.............................................................................. Actual revenue,........................................................................................ £39,807,081 38,118,221 Actual increase, £ per cent, instead o f 5 per cent,...................... . $206,715 Almost every consumable article was subject to taxes; and from this result it appears that no article would bear an increase o f the levy. Un der these circumstances, it became evident, as a mere matter o f finance, that the system o f the government should be changed, that property hitherto untouched, should bear its share o f the government burdens ; and it became indispensable to revive the income tax. This was done in the case o f England and Scotland, but Ireland being without the necessary machinery for its collection, a duty upon stamps and spirits, as an equiva lent, was imposed, and also an export duty upon English coals. The esti mated revenues, and their application, were as follows:— 543 B ritish Commercial P olicy. I ncreased R e v e n u e . A p p l ic a t io n . Income tax,............ ................ Stamp duties,....... ............... ................ Coal “ ........ ................ £3,700,000 160,000 250,000 200^000 Yearly deficit,............... Taxes reduced,............. T otal,........ ................ £4,310,000 Total,.............. ........ 770,000 Export and coach do.,.. The balance was appropriated to the increased India expenses. The results have more than borne out the estimates o f the minister. The pro duct o f the tax has exceeded his estimates, and the removals o f duties from articles o f consumption have come greatly in aid o f returning activity in trade, and including the income tax o f £5,200,000, there is now a surplus revenue o f £3,409,000. That is to say, the remissions o f duties amount ing to £1,210,000, have so far improved the general revenues, as to have reduced, independent o f the income tax, the annual deficit, from £2,570,000, to £1,791,000 ; or, in other words, without the income tax, the deficit would now be £1,791,000, showing that a reduction o f indirect taxes raised the revenue £2,000,000. The most important changes which took place in duties at that time were the reductions in corn and provisions ; the removal o f all prohibitory duties ; the classification o f the tariff under twenty heads; the announcement o f the following as maximum duties; 5 per cent on raw materials, 12 per cent on articles partly manufactured, and 20 per cent on manufactured articles; a reduc tion o f duties on seven hundred and fifty articles, among which corn and provisions formed very important items. The reduced scale o f the rates on provisions has led to a steadily increasing trade, from the United States, not only through Canada, but direct from the Atlantic ports. The reduction in the duties on corn has, for the first time, produced a perma nent import trade o f corn into England, even at a time o f good harvests and low prices. In order to observe the progress o f the English corn trade, we annex a table o f the quarters o f wheat imported into England from 1814 to 1845, with the yearly average o f the prices, which regulate the duties, and the scale o f duties during each o f the three periods embraced in the table. V a riou s T a r if f s . Year. Quarters. 1815, ..... ..... 1816, 1817, ..... 1818.............. ..... 1819, 1820, ..... 1821, ..... 1822, ..... 1823, ..... 1824, ..... 1825, ..... 1826, ..... 1827, ..... 1828, ..... 384,475 332,491 1,020,949 1,593,518 122,123 34,274 2 ....... 12,137 15,777 525,231 315,892 572,733 842,052 1843,............. 920,800 T a r if f of 1 8 2 8 . Price. s. d. 63 76 94 83 72 68 54 43 51 62 66 56 56 60 8 2 0 8 3 10 5 3 9 0 6 11 9 5 T a r if f 54 The tariff o f 1842, as compared tions :— Years. Quarters. Price. 1829, ...... 1830, ...... 1831, ...... 1832, ...... ...... 1833, 1834, ...... ...... 1835, 1836, ...... 1837, ...... 1838, ...... 1839, ................ 1840, ...... 1841, ...... 1842, ...... 1,364,220 1,701,885 1,491,631 325,435 82,346 64,653 28,483 30,544 244,619 1,853,048 2,700,131 2,022,100 2,772,560 2,759,265 66 3 64 3 66 4 58 8 52 11 46 2 39 4 48 6 55 10 64 7 70 8 69 4 69 0 68 1 1,068,570 52 f 1842. 1 1844,................ 7 1828, made the following reduc- 544 B ritish Com mercial P olicy. E n glish C ohn D u tie s . Duties. 1828. 8. d. s. 72 73 71 70 a 73,......... and over,.. a 72,......... a 71,......... 2 1 6 10 8 0 8 8 Reduct’n. Duties. 1842. 1828. 8. d. 8. d. 2 1 0 8 3 8 8 3 4 0 0 0 0 6 s. 69 a 66 a 65 a 64 a 70,....... . 69,........ . 66 ......... . 65,........ . Reduct’n. 1642. 8. d. 8. d. 13 16 8 8 8 8 5 20 21 6 7 8 0 0 0 0 S. d. 8 8 10 8 13 8 13 8 The tariff o f 1815 was framed as a protection to the fanners, under the supposition that it would sustain prices at the high level current during the war, and farm leases were entered into with this supposition. The three years ending with 1818, were o f unusual scarcity, and prices rose to an extraordinary height. This was followed by plenteous harvests and a general level o f prices, so low as to produce extreme distress among those farmers who had leased at high rents, depending upon the fallacy o f government protection. In the year 1828, the government was forced into a modification of the duties, which continued up to 1842, and its practical results are seen in the following table o f the imports and rates o f duty paid by wheat and wheat flour during the thirteen years. I m p o r t of W h e a t a n d W h e a t F l o u r in t o E n g l a n d , J u l y , 1838, to J a n u a r y , 1843. Rates o f duty. Is . 0 d. 2 6 10 13 16 20 8 8 8 8 8 8 Various higher rates. Total,............. Price. over 73s. 72 a 73 71 a 72 70 a 71 69 a 70 66 a 69 65 a 66 Qrs. wheat. 3,907,981 2,788,277 1,994,102 783,281 584,348 298,677 377,667 588,752 11,322,085 Cwts. wheat flour. 1,276,731 835,406 518,897 238,592 466,492 213,707 96,538 122,032 3,768,335 Nearly eight-tenths o f this quantity was admitted when the price was over 70 shillings. The reduction from the previous tariff was, therefore, equal to 10 shillings per quarter on the price at which corn could be ad mitted. The tariff o f 1842 has made a still farther reduction, and the , 2,738,277 quarters that paid 2 shillings and 8 pence duty, would now, at the same price, pay but 2 shillings, a reduction o f 25 per cent. Near 2,000,000 quarters were, at a price o f 71 shillings per quarter, admitted at a duty o f 6 shillings and 8 pence. The price would now require to rise only to 66 shillings to admit the same quanties at the same duty, being a reduction o f 5 shillings per quarter in the actual price. Again, 800,000 quarters were introduced at 10 shillings and 8 pence duty, the price being 70 shillings per quarter. Corn may now be admitted at 60 shillings to pay the same duty. When we consider the organization o f the British social relations, and that the trade in corn has hitherto been one o f specie, we become struck with the boldness o f a minister who, after the experi ence o f 1839, when the large imports had drained the bank o f its bullion, and sent it suppliant to the bank o f France for the means to sustain itself, could deliberately take measures to extend that trade in corn which so lately had shaken the very existence o f the government. A wise un derstanding o f the real nature o f the trade, however, and the necessity o f making it gradually free, were the guides by which the government acted. It was self-evident, that the danger to the corn trade existed in the necessity o f paying for it in specie. That necessity arose from the 545 B ritish Com mercial P olicy. fact that, under the exclusive system o f protection, the demand for foreign corn was incidental upon the state o f the harvests. W hen the crops were short, corn must be had ; as, however, no corresponding and urgent demand for English goods in payment existed, specie became the only remittance. In all other trades, a reciprocal exchange o f goods existed. T o create the same demand for British goods in exchange for corn, the import o f the latter, into England, must be regular. Hence, by modifying the duties still further, the greatest dangers o f the trade were obviated. The event justified the minister. The corn imports continued to an ex tent greater than ever, but specie ceased to be a means o f payment; a return trade in goods sprung up, and not only paid for the corn, but brought specie back to the vaults o f the bank o f England. The progress o f affairs is described in the following table :— I m p o s t s of W h e a t a n d W h e a t F l o u r in to G r e a t B r it a in , a n d B u ll io n in t h e B a n k , AT THE CLOSE OF EACH YEAR. F oreign . Years. 1838,........ 1839,........ 1840,........ 1841,........ 1842,........ 1 8 4 3 ,* .... 18 44,*.... Wheat. Qrs. 1,044,225 2,790,345 2 ,022,100 2,772,560 2,759,265 920,800 1,068,570 C olonial . Flour. Cwts. 351,495 743,245 1,121,320 632,730 562,135 98,100 306,000 Wheat. Qrs. Flour. Cwts. 50,330 43,800 392,100 701,815 548,910 294,180 774,800 30 4,600 65,726 38,300 19,630 44,470 P r ic e . Ann. 8. 64 70 69 69 69 54 52 av. d. 7 3 4 0 1 1 7 Bullion in bk. £9,362,000 2,887,000 3,557,000 5,031,000 11,054,000 13,933,000 13,776,000 The large imports o f 1841-2 caused no drain o f bullion, which con stantly increased in the bank vaults. With the operation o f the new ta riff, the prices were decidedly reduced ; notwithstanding which, the im port o f corn continued. This trade has now become permanent and in creasing. The following shows the average annual import since about the period when England ceased to be an exporting country :— I m p o r t of W h e a t in t o E n g l a n d . 1761 1771 1781 1791 1810 to to to to to 1770, average ann. imp., It (( 1780, (( It 1790, II It 1800, tl It 1818,' Quarters. 94,089 111,372 143,292 470,342 555,959 1811 1821 1831 1841 to to to to Quarters. 1820, average ann. imp., 429,076 ft 1830, “ 534,762 it 1840, “ 908,118 It 1844, “ 1,922,330 This increase in the last period, has been almost entirely the effect o f the last reduction in duties, coming in aid o f the import o f corn at a time o f good harvests and low prices. Intimately connected with this opera tion o f the corn trade, was the currency o f England, which, at the expiration o f the charter o f the bank, underwent a salutary change in contin uation o f the policy o f the bill o f 1819, which compelled a return to specie payments, after a lapse o f nearly one-quarter o f a century. The large expenditures o f the war, involving, as they did, heavy taxes, as well as extensive loans, could not have been met in a specie currency, because the very existence o f the war caused an absorption o f the precious metals, for the military chests o f Europe, as well as for the hoards o f timid indi viduals. A n unrestricted issue o f paper money, made a legal tender, and received for all government wants, furnished ample means to pay taxes, accompanied, as it was, by a rise in prices corresponding with its extent. * N ew tariff. V O L. X I I .---- NO. V I . 33 546 B ritish Com mercial P olicy. For this paper money, the government absorbed a large proportion o f the industry o f the people, and the proceeds, in the shape o f munitions o f war, were distributed throughout Europe. When these demands o f the government closed with the war, and commercial intercourse with the world re-commenced, England was surrounded with nations whose currency was specie, and whose prices were at a corresponding level. Her own cur rency was highly inflated, and her commodities too high to admit o f sale. These necessarily began to fa ll; and, with the decline, the real distress occasioned by the long wars began. The resumption o f specie payments, according to the bill o f 181Q, made the currency, as furnished by the bank o f England, convertible, but still allowed o f great expansions, by issuing notes, in a proportion o f three to one o f specie. The evil o f this system, as operated upon by the corn laws, was, that in a season o f good har vest, when no import took place, coin accumulated in the bank; which, by pushing out its paper, raised prices, and, by so doing, checked exports and promoted imports. Now, it would inevitably happen, that a short harvest would overtake the market when prices o f goods were highest, exports at the lowest, and imports o f foreign products were the most con siderable. This afforded an additional reason why corn must be paid for in specie ; and, by so doing, sap the whole fabric o f prices, and involve in ruin all who had obligations outstanding. At the expiration o f the bank charter, in August last, an important step was taken towards reme dying this evil, by preventing any expansion o f the currency beyond that which is naturally created by the influx o f coin, following the course o f trade. T o arrive at this desirable object, the issues o f the country banks were fixed at an amount below the highest at which they were ac customed to stand. The issues o f the bank o f England were fixed at a sum o f £14,000,000, to be secured upon the debt due to the bank by the government, and over that amount no issues could take place, except in exchange for an equal amount o f specie brought into the bank ; as this amount secured upon stock was far below the lowest point o f the bank circulation, it followed, that the fluctuation which could take place in the currency, would be, by the actual increase or decrease o f gold and silver within the country. Under this law, the movement has been as follows : C ir c u l a t io n a n d B u l l io n of t h e B a n k of E n g l a n d , u n d er it s n e w C h a r t e r . September 7,........ “ 14,........ “ 2 1 ,........ “ 28......... October 5 ,........ “ 1 2 ,........ “ 19,........ “ 2 6 ,........ November 2 ,........ “ 9 ,........ “ 16,........ “ 2 3 ,....... “ 3 0 ,....... Decemb’r l 4 ,........ “ 2 1 ,....... “ 28 ,........ 1 8 4 5 .J a n .ll,........ “ 25......... Issues. £28,351,295 28,500,880 28,582,705 28,362,830 28,082,905 27,838,085 27,731,910 27,545,730 27,498,580 27,400,995 27,507,795 27,528,875 27,786,190 28,003,705 28,151,730 28,200,165 28,163,130 28,128,310 Notes on hand. £8,175,025 8,620,220 8,964,545 8,460,705 7,930,010 7,610,025 6,648,665 6,244,845 6,678,715 6,844,275 6,927,045 7,410,400 7,943,850 8,745,540 8,959,630 9,076,800 7,772,930 7,418,075 Nett circulation. £20,186,070 19,880,660 19,610,160 19,902,125 20,152,895 20,228,060 21,083,245 21,300,885 20,820,865 20,556,720 20,580,750 20,118,475 20,843,340 19,258,165 19,192,100 19,124,365 30,390,200 20,710,235 Bullion. £15,209,060 15,197,771 15,378,964 15,022,256 14,702,307 14,455,034 14,190,082 14,096,828 14,033,751 14,115,649 14,221,252 14,365,590 14,558,336 14,884,294 14,943,147 14,878,416 14,775,839 14,819,872 From this movement, it is very evident that the principle on which the 547 B ritish Com mercial P olicy. new charter was organized comes not into action, and for an obvious rea son. The issues on stocks to the amount o f £14,000,000, added to the unusual amount o f bullion on hand, forms a sum far in excess o f the amount o f bills which can be kept in circulation. The excess remains in bills on hand, consequently, the volume o f the currency furnished, va ries, not as intended, according to the movements o f specie, but with the amount o f notes on hand. This must continue to be the case until the amount o f bullion shall have sunk below the sum o f the notes on hand; when they are exhausted, the only fluctuation which can take place in the floating currency, will be according to the vacillations o f the specie, and the banking department will cease to have any influence upon the supply o f money. The currency o f the kingdom will then have become virtually metallic. Up to this time, the movements o f the Scotch and Irish banks have not been interfered with by the government, the restrictions adopt ed upon the expiration o f the bank o f England charter applying only to that institution, and to the English country banks ; the government has, however, given notice that restrictions, similar to those imposed upon the latter, will be applied to those o f Ireland and Scotland. It is obvious, that to confine the English currency within a certain limit, and allow that o f the sister kingdoms to expand at pleasure, must produce an uneven action, detrimental to the interests o f trade. The object to be obtained, by thus making the supply o f currency depend solely upon the movement o f the precious metals, is to avoid those expansions by which a fictitious rise in prices is created, and which contains the seeds o f inevitable revul sion. T o prevent a redundancy o f the British currency, and, conse quently, to ensure a steadiness o f low prices, is one great branch of that policy which has governed the modification o f the tariff, the es sence o f which is to produce cheap, sell low, not by means o f reducing the wages o f labor, but by diminishing the cost o f the raw materials, and, at the same time, by relinquishing a part o f the tax imposed upon the wages o f labor for the support o f the government, to improve, to that extent, the condition o f the laborer, who is further benefited by the reduced price o f food under the modified corn law. The amount o f tax removed by the latter enactment, is equal to £16,000,000 per annum in the last year ; as thus, the consumption o f wheat is estimated at 16,000,000 quarters per annum, and the reduction in price has been near £ 1 per quarter in the last year. These combined movements, since the accession o f the present government to power, have restored the revenues o f the government, and given it a surplus o f £3,409,000, which the minister proposes to appropriate as follows :— .................... £1,300,000 390.000 188.000 680,000 250.000 640.000 320.000 ----------------- £3,409,000 Excess,.............................................................................................. £71,000 Surplus revenue,..................................... Reduction on sugar,................................. “ 430 articles made free,... Removal o f export duty on coal,.......... “ customs duty on cotton,... “ “ “ auctions, “ “ “ glass,.... “ “ “ staves,... 3,338,000 With respect to sugar, it is proposed to reduce the duties as follows, (discriminating between brown and white clayed,) viz :— 548 B ritish Com mercial P olicy. From Br. colonies, to.............. “ imp’g sugar, Foreign, (free labor,).............. Jluscovadn, etc. W h. cl’d. 14s. Ud. 16s. Ad. 18 8 21 9 23 4 28 0 In lieu of 24s. per c w t, and 5 per cent. 32 “ “ 34 “ “ Thus continuing the principle o f excluding slave-labor sugar, unless un der treaty. Single and double refined are also proposed to be admitted from the privileged British colonies at 18s. 8d. and 21s. per cwt. respec tively. The removal o f duty upon four hundred and thirty articles is a weeding out o f the tariff, o f vexatious restrictions on trade. Most o f the articles enter into the cost o f production o f goods; but to a great extent they are products of the articles which will be greatly benefited by the movement. Among the articles on which the duties are abolished, may be cited, ashes, bark, hemp, hides, lard-oil, oilseed-cakes, flaxseed, rosin, skins and furs, tar, turpentine, and beeswax. The coal duty was an imposition on an important English staple ex port, the removal o f which, at the earliest day, was politic. The duty on cotton, at present low prices, amounted to 12i percent ad valorem, and its removal is o f vast consequence, not only to the English manufacturers and consumers, but to the southern producers. The heavy duty upon glass manufactured in England, we believe was never claimed to be a “ protec tive” duty, and its removal as soon as the revenue could spare the amount, was certainly a wise measure. The auction duty was one o f peculiar hardship, inasmuch as that it fell mostly on those whose goods were compelled to be sold in that manner by process o f law. In all other cases, goods were, according to the statements o f the minister, offered at auction, only as a means o f ascertaining their value. I f bought in, they do not pay the duty. When property was offered at auction, the officers o f the excise were compelled to examine and keep an account; but the duty was not paid unless actually sold. The result was as follows :— Value o f property offered at auction, 1841,....................... ........................... Amount which paid duty,................................................................................. £45,232,000 8,760,000 Amount exposed, and not sold,........................................................... £36,472,000 The expense o f examining and keeping account o f this enormous amount, was entirely thrown away, as well as was the vast expense o f in specting the glass manufacturer. The repeal of the duty on staves was directly to benefit the English coopers, with whom U. States staves are a fa vorite article. The repeal o f these duties was contingent upon the reten tion o f the income, or property tax, for three years more, which has been acceded to, although the minister very distinctly intimated that further reduction in duties on goods might become requisite, at the ex piration of that time. It is worthy o f remark in contemplating these very gratifying evidences o f increasing liberality in commercial legislation, that one very important principle which was maintained on the occasion o f the modification o f the tariff o f 1842, has been entirely abandoned on this occasion ; we allude to that o f not reducing the duty upon an article o f import, without first ne gotiating with the country o f its growth for a corresponding reduction upon articles o f British manufacture. In 1842, the article o f sugar was exempted from the reduction on the ground o f negotiations with the Bra zils for the admission o f English goods into that market, at a corres ponding modification o f duties. What is the course now pursued ? Why, W eights and M easures o f the United States. 549 notwithstanding that the United States have enacted almost prohibitory duties upon British goods, avowedly to exclude them from this market, she has absolutely repealed the duties upon four-fifths o f our exports; that is, out o f a value o f $54,000,000 o f produce sent to England in 1840, $44,000,000 will now be free o f duty. It is said that she has done so “ to benefit her own people.” Most undoubtedly that is the ca se; and it is matter o f great satisfaction to friends o f commercial freedom and human liberty throughout the world, that at last the leading government has re cognised import duties as burdens upon their own citizens, and that they are so considered here. The triumph o f principle is a great one, and may soon lead to a relaxation o f similar burdens upon the citizens o f the United States. As we have remarked, the English government have abandoned the principle o f negotiating for the reduction o f burdens on the citizens o f other countries, because they are about to remove burdens on their own. In preparing for the great race o f commercial prosperity, and taking the weights off their own steed, they do not see that his speed will be improved by negotiating a removal o f those upon his competitor; on the other hand, his chances in the strife will be improved by a continuance o f the latter. Great complaint has been raised in this country because of the high duties imposed in England on breadstuff's and tobacco. During the great modification in England of duties which we have pointed out, our own duties on English goods have been raised from 20 per cent, to, in many cases, 180 per cent. England does not object to the latter, because it is a burden upon Americans. The former she is removing as fast as the state o f her finances will permit. She is yearly widening her mar ket for the sale o f foreign produce, on the avowed principle o f promo ting consumption among the masses o f the people. The demands for wheat are already 16,000,000 bushels per annum. The United States may compete with her colonies and with Europe in supplying that de mand. But which will become the most successful? Clearly that country to which the proceeds o f the wheat sales can return with the best advantage. I f the United States refuse any product o f English in dustry in payment, and Russia will take anything in payment, Russia will supply the English markets; or, in other words, if a Russian may send £100,000 o f wheat to England, and the proceeds returns to him with out tax, he will have an infinite advantage over the United States farmer, from the proceeds o f whose sales 36 and 50 per cent is deducted by the government for “ protective duties.” That country which taxes her own citizens the least will obtain the trade. t. p. k . A rt IV.— W E I G H T S A N D M E A S U R E S O F T H E U N IT E D S T A T E S . B y the constitution o f the United States, the power o f regulating the standard o f weights and measures, was granted to the Federal Govern ment. It was never exercised until recently, except in our uniform reg ulations relative to custom houses. The exercise o f this power which has so long been deferred, and which is so important, was brought about in the following manner. The stand ard of weights and measures in Massachusetts had become inaccurate, and the banks in their payments o f gold to individuals out o f the state, and to the Uniied States, ascertained that their weights did not agree 550 W eights and M easures o f the United States. with those o f other states. In consequence o f this embarrassment, a re solve was passed by the legislature o f Massachusetts, to authorize the executive to appoint commissioners to correct and regulate the standard o f weights and measures. In the performance o f this duty, the commis sioners became strongly impressed with the great importance o f the ex ercise o f this power by the Federal Government, to regulate the standard. Upon inquiry, it was ascertained that the state o f New York had adopted a standard o f its own, varying in some respects from that o f the United States. Some o f the southern states retained the same standards which they had used since their existence as colonies, which had become very inaccurate. The United States had adopted the standard o f weights and measures o f Great Britain. The Troy pound o f Great Britain is the standard for the coinage o f the United States. The great advantage of having adopted the English standard is, that they are now used in a much greater part of the commercial world, than any other. It is com paratively o f little consequence, what the standard is, provided it is uni form and in general use. For the purpose o f accomplishing this object, the exercise o f this power to regulate the standard o f weights and measures, one o f the commission ers visited Washington in 1836. By the assistance o f Abbot Lawrence, a member o f the House o f Representatives, and John Davis, a member o f the Senate, bills were introduced into both branches, relating to this subject. It was received with so much favor in the Senate that Mr. Davis was enabled to press the bill through all its stages in one day. The law directed the Secretary o f the Treasury to construct and supply standards o f weights, o f length, and o f capacity o f the United States, to the executives o f the different states o f the Union, the governors o f territories, and the custom houses. It is a subject o f some surprise, that this important subject should have been delayed so long. It displays, in a very striking manner, the jealousy o f the Federal Government, because, it could arise from no other cause. It was one o f the great objects o f the constitution to have a perfect uniform ity o f weights and measures. Though the subject had been several times before Congress, no action had ever been taken upon the subject. The power was now exercised from necessity to prevent general embarrass ment. The only objects o f the Germanic Confederation, called the ZollVerine, were uniformity o f weights and measures, and uniformity o f duties. The celebrated report o f John Quincy Adams, upon weights and mea sures in the year 1821, appears to have been acted upon, in most o f its details, as much as if the law had been passed at the time the report was made. Mr. Adams gave the preference to the standards o f Great Britain, over those o f France, probably from the fact that they were generally in use in the United States. Any great change in weights and measures sim ilar to that introduced in France, o f the same decimal principle, would have been attended with great embarrassment in this country. Even in France, the law was twice altered, to conform in some degree to the ancient customs o f the country. The theory o f decimals in weights and measures, however superior, was not fully carried out. The French standard o f linear measure was declared to be “ an ali quot part o f the circumference o f the globe,” to be ascertained by the admeasurement o f the meridian from Dunkirk to Barcelona, being be tween nine and ten degrees o f latitude. The English standard was Copper Sm elting in the ^United States. 55 L ascertained by the length o f a pendulum, vibrating a certain number of seconds in twenty-four hours. “ In the English system, the standard o f linear measure is connected with the weight, by the specific gravity o f spring water, o f which one measure o f one cubic foot contains one thousand ounces avourdupois. “ In the French system, the standard o f linear measure, is connected with the weights and measures o f capacity, by the specific gravity o f distilled water, at the greatest density, one cubic decemeter o f such water being the weight o f a kilogram, and filling the measure o f a litre.” The manufacture o f these standards o f weights and measures was en trusted to F. H . Hasler, who had been so long employed in the trigonomet rical survey o f the United States. They are all completed and delivered to the different states o f the Union. These standards for future time are as perfect as skill and science can make them. Mr. Hasler died during the last year, having been employed nearly thirty years in the trigonometrical survey o f the United States. It was but partially completed, and was undoubtedly delayed by ill health and want o f appropriations. All bear testimony to the skill and science with which it has been conducted. The city o f New York owes a tribute o f respect to his memory, as this survey ascertained the existence o f a deeper channel to the harbour ofthe city. The new channel discovered is o f sufficient depth for ships o f war ofthe largest class. The channel which has been heretofore used is not o f sufficient depth. The frigate United States, during the last war with England, being heavily loaded for a long cruise, grounded in the channel, and lost her false k e e l; this impeded her sailing so much that she was immediately attacked by three British frigates and captured. A rt. V.— C O P P E R S M E L T IN G IN T H E U N IT E D S T A T E S . publish below a letter from George Ditson, Esq., our vice consul at Nuevitas, (Cuba,) on the subject o f establishing smelting works in the United States, for the rich ores o f Cuba. Mr. Ditson is interested in several valuable mines in that island, and his experience in the mining business, gives, o f course, authority to his views in regard to so important a branch o f commercial enterprise. W e F reeman H unt , E sq., D ear S i r :— W h ile I have the satisfaction o f believing that by your aid I have su cceed ed in arousing som ewhat the attention o f the public to the important sub je c t o f sm elting copper in the United States, I am con sciou s o f having only partly accom plished the great design w h ich has in its fulfilment, in England, yielded su ch im portant service to the com m erce and governm ent o f that country. O u r transatlantic friends, the sm elters, the capitalists, the political econom ist, are n o w m aking strenuous efforts to sustain this undertaking, (in w h ich E n g land lon g a g o should have had A m e rica as a rival,) to the entire exclu sion o f all other countries, it having produced, besides vast w ealth to m any individuals, an enorm ous revenue to the crow n— a sufficient inducem ent to m ake extraordi nary exertions not to have it wrested from them by those, w h o, in enterprise only, claim to be chips o f the old block, em ulating the w orthy and creditable designs o f their sterling fathers, o f getting what they can, and keep ing w hat they get. G reat Britain has had, to this day, the entire control o f all the great copp er m arkets o f the w orld, through the p ow er o f h er Sw an sea F u rn a ces, w h ile A m eri ca , from north to south, has been the great producer o f the ores, n eg lectin g to tak e advantage o f its ow n capabilities, and reap the rich harvest due to its ow n products and natural resources. 552 Copper Smellirtg in the United States. T h e article w h ich I w rote som e time a g o for your m agazine, startled the atten tion o f the British subjects to su ch a degree, that it was easy for any ordinary ob server to see that they at on ce discovered the plausibility o f our reasoning, and apprehended an im mediate revolution in the copper trade, through the proverbial en erg y and alertness o f the Y an k ees, w h ile it w as also strongly urged on their part, that som ething m ust be done to prevent the su ccess o f a p roject w h ich w ou ld eventually prove so ruinous to them in this valuable business. M eetin gs w ere held in various places, and several m em orials presented to governm ent, not withstanding it had been clearly proved by S ir Charles L em on , and others, at a m eeting in T ru ro in February last, and sustained by the admirable argum ents o f the editor o f the M in in g Journal in his review o f the m em orial o f the “ L iverp ool cliqu e,” that “ the idea that B oston (and probably any other p lace in the U nited S tates) dependent ( ! ) as it w as on E nglan d for fuel, w as likely to rival them in the sm elting o f ores, w as the w ildest dream any m an cou ld utter.” T h e fa ct is as clear as noon-day, (and the Sw an sea capitalists w ou ld be blind indeed i f they did not see it,) that i f E nglan d continues the present h igh duty on copper ores, our governm ent adm itting it free and putting a duty on foreign m an ufactured copper, the furnaces w h ich m ight be erected at som e favorable point, Philadelphia for instance, w ould com m and all the ores from cape Skalatskoi to cap e H orn, and consequently the copp er trade o f a great portion o f the com m er cial w orld, w ou ld show er upon our m erchants and our coun try at large benefits alm ost beyond estimation. A n d i f w e m ay rest on the opinions expressed by the chairm an o f the “ m eeting o f the lords, adventurers and others,” above referred to, there is no prospect o f there bein g any chan ge in the present tariff o f E ngland, a s respects copper, for he says, “ H e thought that no governm ent w ou ld sanction th e entire abolition, or reduction o f the duties, in the fa ce o f the fact, that in the y ea r 1844, the quantity o f foreign copp er ore sold, w as greater than the ore sold in C ornw all, and the value o f the foreign ore had equalled the British.” T h e only objections w h ich I have heard made against the subject before us, are, the price o f coals, o f labor and transportation, com pared w ith those o f E u rope. N ow , supposing w e allow that these costs are thrice as great as they are there, w e im m ediately overcom e this difficulty by bein g able to p ay thrice as m u ch for sm elting, on accou n t o f our not having to pay duty on the ore, and about o n eh a lf less for the freight o f it. B u t fortunately, this great treble bugbear w e shall not have to contend with. W e are not so dull as not to learn som ething from the experien ce o f others ; and w hen all other m eans fail us, having plenty o f w ood in this country, w e w ill sm elt with charcoal as they do in S w eden, at a cost o f 7 s. 6 d. p er ton, or w e w ill im port our coals as they do at the A lten works in N orw ay , w h ere, even w ith this draw back, they sm elt for $ 7 50 per ton. Should this b e beyond our m eans, w e w ill then send a com m issary to the H im m aleh m ountains, and learn o f the poor and unlettered H in doo h ow to d ig and profitably sm elt c o p per ore. B ut extravagances aside, m u ch w ill depend on the ju d iciou s arran g e m ent o f our furnaces, w ithout w hich our efforts w ill prove unavailing, and w e shall be forced to believe that the p roject is im practicable. F o r one, I am w ell con v in ced that it is not im practicable, w h en all the ordinary advantages o f our coun try are m ade use o f ; and I am perfectly w ell con vin ced that it is not on ly practicable, but that it w ill prove extraordinarily profitable to those engaged in it, besides bein g, w h en o n ce established, a pearl o f great price to the nation. I have expressed above, that the position o f our furnaces w ill be the pivot on w h ich w e shall tu rn 'to good or bad results, for in this w ill consist our ability to ov ercom e the objections to that su ccess, w h ich appears to the old coun try people, as did the first railroad project, so like a “ w ild dream .” N ow , if the statement m ade by S ir Charles L em on w ere true, that our coalpits are at least 150 m iles from the c o a s t ; that B oston is dependent on E nglan d for fu el, and the price o f coals in N ew Y o rk is $ 6 50 besides the freight, and w e w e re obliged to put up our furnaces at on e o f these places, there w ou ld then be m ore ground for the hints throw n out on the other side, that persons w h o advocate the sm elting o f ores in the United States have m ore ignoran ce, brass, irony and deception in their com position than is usu ally necessary for mankind to possess. B ut su ch is not the case ; B oston is not dependent on E ngland for fuel. C oals can be had in N e w Y o rk at $ 4 50 per ton, Copper Sm elting in the United States. 553 and in H avre de G race, on the C hesapeake, at $ 3 . B ut not even at these prices shall w e talk o f coals for sm elting ores. W e have advantages y et to be named. I am w ell aw are that to accom p lish the great object o f w h ich w e treat, it is o f the utmost im portance, it being a n e w enterprise, that the first steps taken he those w h ich w ill never have to be retraced, and, i f possible, never im proved on. F irst, then, the fu rn aces m ust be built at the very m outh o f som e productive, inex haustible co a l m ine, from w h ich the fine coals, useful in sm elting, bu t hardly w orth the cost o f transport, ca n be had for about the m ere expense o f draw ing them to the surface. S econ d ly, this co a l m ine m ust be the nearest to the sea board that can be found, or have at least the cheapest m ode possible o f transport in g the ores from the p lace o f their disem barcation. T hirdly, p ra ctical sm elters m ust be obtained, (the Germ ans should be prefered) m en o f honor and respecta bility, w h o ca n be trusted, or otherw ise w e m ight possibly hire m en w h o had been by interested parties, bribed to spoil our first essays, and thus bring our un dertaking into disrepute. Fourthly, the furnace m ust be o f the m ost approved construction . F ifthly, a large am ount o f capital m ust be at com m and, and i f sufficient, the controlling am ount o f stock o f som e o f the rich St. Ja go or B ayataro m ines obtained, by w h ich a constant supply o f ores m ight alw ays be depended on in case the other sou rces should at an y time fail. I f I have been correctly inform ed, Pottsville, P a., on ly ninety m iles from the coast, possesses all the advantages m entioned above as required, so far as regards ch ea p coals and cheap transit. A t Pottsville, I am told that coals can be had at the mouth o f the m ines for less than $ 1 per ton, and that there is a cheap m eans o f con v ey an ce by the railw ay from the very w h arf in Philadelphia to the m ines at P ottsville. T h is, then, is the important point at w h ich our first experim ent should be tried, and i f g ood practical sm elters ca n be had, the su ccess cannot be doubt fu l. A m o n g other prom inent reasons for establishing the fu rn aces at the m ines, are these— that the quantity o f coals used in the present m ethod o f sm elting, com pared w ith the ore, is as forty to twenty-five, m aking a m uch less bulk o f ores to ca rry up to the m ines than w ould be required o f coals to be brought dow n, in c ase the fu rn aces w ere on the coast. A nd, again, as the cars have plenty to bring d ow n , w h ich w ill pay a profit at $ 2 per ton, they can w ell afford to take b a ck a load in their otherw ise em pty cars, at h a lf p rice. A gainst this it is argued, that as the anthracite co a l contains m uch m ore carbon than the bitum inous, and that as it w ou ld be used in C ooper’s n ew patent blast furnace, (a m ost admirable, c om p act and pow erful affair,) and be c alcin ed in the open air, a great saving w ill be m ade in the quantity o f coais, so m u ch so that it m ay be cheaper to bring them to the ores. A supply o f ores for the furnaces can, w ithout doubt, be secured by m akin g contracts w ith the m ine ow n ers o f C uba and S outh A m e r ic a ; I say, w ithout doubt, becau se w e ca n afford to pay m ore than ca n be realised for them in E nglan d, in consideration o f the high duty, freight, & c . chargeable there. A n E nglish vessel w as recen tly loading in N uevitas for Sw an sea at £ 4 per ton freight. T h e ores w ou ld produce over 2 0 per cent, and consequently w ould have to pay £ 6 duty per ton o f copper, besides £ 2 15s. per ton for sm elting. T h is ca rg o w ou ld have been carried to the U nited States for only $ 6 per ton, and give at that, fair freight to an A m erican vessel. It could have been entered free o f duty, and I believe, sm elted as cheap as in Sw ansea. T h e vast difference in the am ount o f profit a c cru in g to the ow n er w ou ld be the only inducem ent w e could w ish to offer him , to ca u se him to ship forever after to the United States. T h e district o f B ayatavo, with N uevitas for its port, on the northern coa st o f C uba, abounds in lodes and deposits o f copper ore. T h e m ines already op ened , i f they produce accord in g to their present rich indications, m ay be depended on for alm ost any am ount o f m ineral required to supply our m arket. T h e y are, how ever, yet in their infancy, and to w ork them to the m ost ben eficial results, large com panies should be formed, and all the m odern im provem ents in m ining adopted. I f it w ou ld not appear too m u ch like se lf interest, I w ou ld here urge the A m erican capitalists to enter at on ce into this vast field o f w ealth, extract their o w n ores and smelt them on their ow n a cco u n t, stay the hasty footsteps o f the E nglish already abroad in that province, and gather the golden c oin offered by these n ew enterprises. 554 The Gold Sands o f Siberia. In m y form er article on the subject o f sm elting, I referred to the w astage on ores shipped via N e w Y ork . T h e L ondon review er takes exception to this, and says, that “ it is the first tim e he has ever found it asserted that w astage w as effected by the length o f the v o y a g e .” I should ju d ge from this that he w as not aw are that there w as any other w ay o f sending ores to E ngland, except direct. S o far from this, I have alw ays found it cheaper to send by w ay o f N ew Y ork , and suffer the loss o f considerable ore from its bein g three or fou r tim es handled over, and I assert as I did before, that the w astage is w ith m e an im portant c o n sideration, and is one o f the reasons w h y I should w ish the ore to be sm elted here. It is true, I m ight ship d irect to S w an sea, but h igh freight w ou ld m ore than equal the loss sustained by w astage in ch an g in g the ore from vessel to v es sel. In con clu sion , allow m e to rem ark, that w h ile I resp ect the spirit and ener g y w ith w h ich the review er o f the late L iverpool m em orial, m y letters and oth ers, have sustained the interests o f the hom e m iner, I cann ot see the force, the utility, or the pith o f a ttackin g the private ch aracter o f the very respectable m e m orialists, for I cann ot discover that a sin gle argum ent advanced by them has been thus w eaken ed or refuted. R esp ectfu lly yours, G eokge D itson. A kt. VI.—T H E G OLD S A N D S OF S IB E R IA . is, in a late volume o f the Annales des Mines, an article from the Gazette du Commerce, o f St. Petersburgh, giving a detailed, and ap parently an authentic account o f the history and product o f the lately dis covered beds o f gold, producing sands, in Siberia. As this is a subject which has excited some interest, from its supposed relation to the univer sal currency, we give a b rief summary o f the information contained in this article. It was not until a period considerably later than that in which gold sands had been discovered in beds lying on the sides o f the Ural moun tains, that riches o f a similar kind were found in Siberia. Researches had been made, by two enterprizing merchants o f the name o f Popoff, in different parts of the country, without success; and it was not until the year 1829, that one o f these brothers discovered, at the foot o f the Altai mountains, in the government o f Jomsk, on the borders o f the Birikoulka, some indications o f gold. The quantity, however, was very small, and the ore containing a larger proportion than usual o f silver ; the doubts o f finding rich beds of gold sand in Siberia were confirmed. But in the year 1830, the Altai mines, which had, up to that period, belonged to the Imperial cabinet, were, with a view to unite all establish ments o f the kind under one administration, put under the direction o f the minister of finances. More regular researches under this direction were more successful than former ones had been ; and in the course o f the same year, a considerable bed o f golden sand was discovered, to which the name o f Yegorievsky (St. George) was given. This discovery changed entirely the opinion which had been formed o f the unproductiveness o f the soil o f Siberia, and became the signal at which the enterprise o f individuals was aroused. As the region o f the district o f Kolyvan belonged to the government, attention was at first di rected to the chain o f neighboring mountains, between the Tom and the Yenessei, where the first discoveries had been made by Popoff. In 1832, the rich layer, designated Voskressensky, was discovered, on the borders o f the Kondoustouyoule ; and at this point the labors o f those interested T here The Gold Sands o f S iberia. 555 were directed for several years. In 1836, they began to extend their re searches further, in an eastern direction, and carried them quite to the frontiers o f the government o f Irkoustk. In that inhospitable country, bristling with rocks, and almost inaccessible, a succession o f very rich layers o f auriferous sands was discovered on the borders o f the Birouzka. The numbers o f explorers increasing however constantly, the researches were pushed still further north; and, in the course of the years 1840 and 1841, between the rivers bearing the names o f upper and lower Toungouzka, a great number o f auriferous sand beds was found, equally re markable for their extent and richness, and surpassing all former discove ries in the immensity o f treasure. More recent researches have been pushed beyond this region, toward the north and east, and they are still going on, and will, probably, before long, be carried beyond the chain o f mountains which separates the sources o f the Yenessei from the basin of the Lena. The establishments for washing, organized in the district o f the govern ment mines, in the district between the Obi and the Tom, produce annu ally from 30 to 35 puds o f gold, without counting an almost equal quantity contained in the silver drawn from the mines, so that the gold found in this district amounts, in a year, to 60 or 70 p /Is. In the district between the Tom and the Yenessei are several rich beds, the most important o f which is that o f Voskressensky, belonging to the merchants Rozanoff and Balandure, situated in the basin o f Kiy, on the banks o f the Kondoustouyoule. This bed is celebrated for its rich ness, the produce o f gold being, when it was first discovered, not less than 5 zolotnicks o f gold for 100 puds o f sand. It has produced, since its discovery in 1832, to 1942, 330 puds o f gold, equal in value to 4,200,000 rix dollars. Its produce, in 1842, was 40 puds. The sands at present worked, do not afford over 2| zolotnicks o f gold to 100 puds o f sand. In this district is the bed worked by the Popoff Company, as well as a num ber o f others by other companies. In the bed worked by the Popoff Company, a lump o f the native gold has been recently found, weighing 24^ pounds ; it was enclosed in a frag ment o f quartz, o f which it had penetrated every part. The produce o f all the auriferous sand beds in the government o f Tomsk and Yenesseik, wrought by individuals, in the year 1842, was 107 puds o f gold. In the Kirghisan steppes, gold beds have also been discovered, and worked with good success. The work is done almost exclusively by the Kirghises, under contract with the undertakers ; and they are, by degrees, withdrawn from the wandering life o f nomades, to a life bordering on civ ilization. The produce o f these mines, in 1842, did not exceed 8 puds. The most extensive and richest beds o f gold sands are found in the more distant countries, between the Yenesei and the Lena. Among the most remarkable o f these, is the Vliko-Nicolaievsky, on the banks o f the Khouna, belonging to the merchant Tolkatcheff. This mine produced, in 1842, 78 puds o f gold. Another, on the banks o f the same river, call ed the Velico-Nikolskoi, produced, in 1842, 25 puds. Several other beds, on the left o f the river Biriowza, produced, together, in 1842, 115 puds of gold'. In another region, on the banks of the Pekine, is the bed which belongs to the merchant Nikita Miasnikoff, from which were taken, in 1842, more than 100 puds o f gold. The proprietor o f this mine has become one o f the richest merchants in Russia. 556 T he G old Sands o f S iberia. On the banks o f the same river, is the bed o f Nicholas Miasnikoff, which produced, in 1842, more than 28 puds o f gold, and on the Schaorgane, is one, belonging to a company, which produced 36 puds. In the basin o f the Mouroschna, is one which produced, in the same year, over 44 puds, and another which produced 4 puds. In the basin o f the Pita, are three, which produced 141, 3 4 i, and 16 puds each. In the basin o f the Toungouzka, are three beds, which produced, last year, 4 puds, 6 puds, and 21 puds respectively. The whole o f the establish ments for washing, beyond the upper Toungouzko, produced, together, in 1842, over 364 puds o f gold. Adding to these quantities the metal produced from mines or sand beds worked for account o f the crown, Siberia produced, in the course o f the year 1842, in round numbers, the following quantities :— By means o f washing, from beds o f sand belonging to the 632 puds. crown, together with those worked by individuals,................ Gold extracted from silver taken from the mines o f Kolyvan,......................................................................................... 30 From gold producing sand beds in the Ural mountains, 310 T o ta l,......................................................................................... 972 puds. The same volume o f the Annales des Mines, from which the above facts are taken, contains a letter from M. Koucharoff, an officer in the Imperial Corps of Mining Engineers, to Mr. Humboldt, describing the mass (pepite) o f gold recently discovered in the Ural. He says this mass is the largest known in the world. It was found in the auriferous sands o f Miask, not far from the famous mines o f Tzarevo-Nikolaefsk, in the south ern Ural. This mine, and a neighboring one, which had been visited by Mr. Humboldt, have yielded, up to the last year, nearly 400 puds, 6,555 kilograms o f gold, and very remarkable pepites or masses have been found in them. This monster pepite was discovered October 26,1842; it weighed 2 puds 7 pounds and 92 zolotnicks (36 kilograms .020768.) This pepite was lying on a stratum o f diorite of the bed o f auriferous sand, at a depth o f 4| archines (3 metres) from the surface o f the soil, and under the corner o f the works. This lump has been taken to St. Petersburg, and placed in the Museum o f the Mining Engineers. The following note o f Mr. Humboldt is appended to the letter containing the above description :— The largest piece o f platina found as yet at Nijni Jageuleg weighs 20 pounds Russian, 34 zolotnicks. The lump o f gold found at Miask in 1826,................. 10 kils. 118 Lump found in Anson county, North Carolina, United 21 “ 70 States, 1821,......................................................................... Grano de oro, found in the Rio Hayna, and dropped to the bottom o f the sea, (see my critical examination o f the Geography o f the Continent, vol. iii., p. 330.) 14 “ 500 Monster lump o f Miask, found in 1842,........................ 36 “ 020 According to the letter o f the Count Cancrine, o f the 3d o f December, 1842, Siberia, east o f the Ural, produced, in 1842, the quantity o f 479 puds o f gold, equal to 7,846 kilograms, and all Russia, probably, 970 puds o f gold, equal to 15,889 kilograms. 557 M onthly Com m ercial Chronicle. MONTHLY COMMERCIAL CHRONICLE. CONDITION OF COMMERCIAL AFFAIRS— CUSTOMS REVENUES OF THE UNITED STATES— NEW YORK STATE DEBT, RAILROAD MOVEMENT, ETC., ETC. S ince the date o f our last number, the money and general markets have been greatly agitated through political causes, in a manner to check the otherwise generally advancing prosperity o f affairs. T he state o f the Texas question operated to prevent any increase o f confidence among capitalists, who are usually the most sensitive class o f citizens; and the stock-market became gradually depressed, under the action of weak sellers. In this state o f affairs, accounts were received from England, o f a nature to excite surprise ; inasmuch as that certain expressions in the inaugural o f the chief magistrate, relative to Oregon, had been skilfully used by the English ministry to cover, by a show o f nationali ty, the passage o f an obnoxious bill through Parliament, and intended to conciliate Ireland. This at first bore the appearance o f menace, until reflection convinced the public mind that Britain is not prepared to hazard empire on so small a stake as her shadowy claim to that distant and almost tenantless territory. In the meantime, advices from M exico brought unexpectedly indications o f a moderate tone on the Texas affair. T he real dan ger o f collision in that quarter, which consisted in an outburst of passion, before reason and reflection should cause M exican rulers to remember that eight years o f independence, de fa cto , on the part o f Texas, and o f commercial and diplomatic intercourse with the nations o f the earth, were sufficient to neutralize, in a great degree, her claim over that sovereignty. T he governments o f France and England, through their agents, were ex ceedingly active in preventing the consummation o f this measure; but the interests o f the world will not allow its peace to be broken for the indulgence o f impotent rage. The markets, therefore, relieved from these apprehensions, again became animated, and a disposition to speculate began, at the close o f the month, to manifest itself. abundance o f money greatly assisted this disposition to operate. T he increased T he liabilities o f the N ew Y ork banks had, during the quarter ending May 1st, been considerably curtailed, and the amount o f specie on hand increased— a natural result o f the continued large ex ports o f produce, with advanced prices in the interior, and diminished imports. T he pro gress o f the latter is indicated in the following return o f the United States customs revenues, for several successive quarters:— Q u a r t e r l y C u sto m s R eve n u e s of t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . Years. 1842, 1843, 1844, 1845, ...... ...... ...... ...... Qr. ending March 31. $1,840,721 2,940,804 7,675,366 6,375,575 Qr. ending June 30. $6,138,390 4,106,039 8,471,000 6,608,380 Qr. ending Sept. 30. $6,281,659 6,132,272 10,750,000 ................ Qr. ending Dec. 31. $3,927,137 3,904,933 4,100,360 ................. T he revenues for the quarter ending June 30, 1845, are estimated on the fact that tile actual customs o f the six weeks ending M ay 15, are 22 per cent less than for the corres ponding period o f the previous year. Hence the decrease o f customs, for the six months ending June 30, 1845, as compared with June 30, 1844, is $3,162,411; which, at the usual average o f the duties, is equal to $10,000,000 worth o f dutiable goods. There is a great diminution in the demand for bills at this season o f the year, when the supply is usually the smallest. T he demand for bills, as compared with last fall, is further dimin ished by the fact that a portion o f the N ew Y ork state debt, which falls due July, 1845, was anticipated by the comptroller, and paid last fall. Y ork is held as follow s:— Thus, the debt o f the state o f N ew 558 M onthly Com m ercial Chronicle. Held in the state o f N ew Y o rk ,.................................................................... “ other states,..................... Held by foreigners,......................................................................................... $14,038,540 15 1,126,758 20 10,833,776 09 Total...................................................................................................... $25,999,074 44 O f this debt, the following sums fall due:— July, 1845,......................................................................................................... After 1845, (January, 1846,)........................................................................ During 1846,.................................................................................................... $1,380,090 35 2,362,535 66 572,384 00 Total,.................................................................................................... $4,315,010 01 O f this amount, $3,256,000 is held by foreigners. T he sum which falls due in July next, is the last instalment o f the Erie and Champlain canal debt, and releases the con stitutional pledges in regard to the payment o f the debts. A n amount sufficient to meet the payment falling due July, 1845, was last year on hand; and, in consequence, the com missioners o f the canal fund sent notices to the holders, offering to redeem the stock in advance, at a small premium. In consequence o f this, $333,000 was redeemed before September, 1844. O f the stock which falls due January, 1846, over $600,000 is in the hands o f the sinking fund. Hence, up to January, 1846, there is but little to be paid or remitted ; while, on the other hand, the final acceptation, on the part o f the London cre ditors o f Illinois, o f the law passed at the last session o f that state, amendatory o f the Illinois and Michigan canal law o f 1843, places $1,600,000 at the disposal o f the trus tees, for the construction o f the canal. O f this amount, over $1,000,000 will be drawn from London, for expenditure in Illinois. It is, however, true, that the remittances on account o f the Pennsylvania interest, due in August, will, this year, produce an influence which, last year, did not exist. T he probability is, that the whole amount will not be paid in cash in August, in consequence o f the revenues o f the state amounting to much less than was anticipated. A ccording to a late law, however, all the money in the trea sury, on the 1st o f August, will be divided, pro rata, among the creditors, and the deficit met by checks, payable out o f the first receipts into the treasury, any time within four months. T he city o f Detroit, which has been delinquent for some four years, has this year most honorably redeemed its credit, and discharged its arrears o f interest in full. A ll these favorable influences have produced a good feeling in the markets, and some considerable disposition to speculate, particularly in stocks. The latter circumstance may, however, bo traced more directly to the increased abundance o f money, and its fall in price. T he returns o f the banks o f N ew Y ork, for the M ay quarter, show a considerable increase o f specie over that o f the February return, and also a larger amount o f individual deposits, with every prospect o f a still further increase up to August. At this season o f the year, the amount o f payments to N ew Y ork is generally in excess o f those due from i t ; and more particularly so this year, as compared with the last, by reason o f the small amount o f imports, as above indicated, as well as in consequence o f the enhanced moneyvalue o f farm produce, whereby the means o f consumers o f goods to pay, have consider ably increased. T he general condition o f the whole Union was perhaps never more prosperous than n o w ; inasmuch as that the products o f the soil, as well as o f skilful in dustry, were never so abundant, in proportion to the inhabitants, nor more equally dis tributed than at present; while, with the exception o f cotton, which continues low in price, under the weight o f a larger crop than was ever before sent to market, the moneyvalue o f produce has been generally improving, under the influence of an increasing external trade, and the improved means o f transportation, by which those products are made more available. The fever for railroads, which has raged to such an extent in E ng land, and, in some degree, proportionate in the N ew England states, has at last com menced its influence in the state o f N ew Y ork. T he city o f N ew Y ork, although the 559 M onthly Com m ercial C hronicle. commercial centre o f the Union, has long been without a railroad connection with the interior; and, during five months in the year, is cut o ff from western N ew Y ork by reason o f the closing o f the river navigation. This has arisen, not from any want o f a proper appreciation o f the importance o f such works by the citizens o f the state, but in consequence o f too great a dependence upon the assistance o f the government, rather than upon the enterprise o f individuals. A t the last session o f the N ew Y ork legislature, several important bills were passed, authorizing the construction o f railroads. Am ong these, the extension o f the Harlem railroad to Albany was the most important. That work now runs to W hite Plains, and the new privileges granted to it will enable it to connect with the Housatonic railroad, and open a communication to Albany, by the clo sing o f the navigation next fa ll; so that N ew Y ork will not again be cut oflf from the interior trade, while Boston enjoys an uninterrupted intercourse. A bill releasing the Erie railroad from the state lien o f $3,000,000, upon certain conditions, and granting new privileges to that important work, has also become a law. These haye given a great impulse to railroad stocks, and will doubtless prove the precursors to extended speculation in that direction. W hile, however, the state o f N ew Y ork has thus encouraged the ex penditure o f private capital in the construction o f works o f internal communication, the policy o f 1842, in regard to the employment o f state funds for that purpose, has been ad hered to— that is to say, although, by the conservative votes o f a portion o f the democratic party, a bill actually passed the legislature for a resumption o f the state works, in contra vention o f the spirit o f the law o f 1842, which suspended further loans, and imposed the mill tax, to meet any possible deficit in means to meet the state interest, as well as to establish a sinking fund for the payment o f the debt, it met with the prompt veto o f the governor. A bill intimately connected with this subject also became a law, authorizing the submission to the people, at the November election, the question o f a state convention, for the amendment o f the constitution. T he principal amendment sought to be engrafted on that instrument is, to restrict the power o f the legislature in the use o f the state credit. T his measure has been suggested by the disastrous results which, in other states, have attended the too free use o f government promises. Pending this question, it was obvi ously improper to recommence, as was proposed by the vetoed bill, that system o f loans for public works, which, once more resumed, could not, without loss, be abandoned, should the people in convention so determine. Neither could the markets, burdened as they are with large quantities o f stock, unabsorbed for private investment, sustain any considera ble further amounts o f state issues. It has thus become certain that, at least for the coming year,- the new issues o f stock in N ew Y ork will be confined to the $3,000,000 demanded by the Erie railroad, and the sum required to extend the Harlem to Albany. T h e latter city will probably issue $1,000,000 o f bonds, in aid of the work. The citizens o f Dutchess county are able, and it is understood willing, to go on immediately with forty miles o f the ro a d ; so that a good road w ill speedily be in operation, connecting the cities o f Albany and N ew York. T he proposal for a bridge over the Hudson river, at Albany, has been rejected in the legislature by the interests o f T r o y ; which, it is supposed, will be injured by allowing the vast land travel and trade, which crosses the river at Albany, a direct passage across the river. As it is, however, the great desideratum o f an open communication to N ew Y ork, by which supplies o f produce may constantly find their way to market through the winter months, and the early supplies o f new goods return to meet the wants o f the interior, is secured. A s the veto message o f the governor o f N ew Y ork involves a starting point, from which the future financial policy o f the state may be indicated, it may be well, here, to record its leading points. Under the policy which existed prior to 1842, the debt o f the state was rapidly accumulated, and had already be come an annual charge in excess o f the means o f the state to meet, from its regular resources. In consequence o f this, the legislature decided upon the severe measure o f 560 M onthly Com mercial Chronicle. stopping all the public works, and ceasing to issue any more stock than was absolutely necessary to pay floating debts, and satisfy the contractors. For these latter purposes, a 7 per cent stock was created, and a mill tax levied upon the citizens to meet the interest. A t the same time, a sinking fund was created, for the purpose o f redeeming the whole state debt in 22J years. T he first section o f that law provides as follow s:— “ The surplus canal revenue, after paying all just canal current expenses, and the in terest on the canal debt, and the payment aforesaid to the general fund, shall, to an amount at least equal to one-third o f the interest o f the canal debt remaining unpaid, be sacredly devoted and applied as a sinking fund to the redemption o f the canal debt now existing, and authorized by this a ct; and shall not be diverted from that object to any other pur pose whatsoever.” T he state debt, at the date o f this law, was $20,710,335, bearing an actual annual interest o f $1,127,728. One-third this amount, $375,909, is the fixed sum which the law requires annually to be appropriated to the sinking fund. These annual contribu tions, with the interest that accumulates upon them, will, in twenty-two and a half years, discharge the whole debt. If, however, the annual contributions are suffered to be de ficient, it is clear that the purpose o f the law cannot be fulfilled. N ow , the whole surplus o f the canal revenues, after paying all current expenses, did not, for the years 1842-43, amount to the required sum. $2 55,762 09. For 1842, the surplus was only $68,504 6 1 ; and in 1843, F or the year 1844, the excess was as follow s:— Revenues o f canal fund,.................................................................................. Current expenses,.............................................................................................. $3,250,615 94 1,778,970 59 Surplus,.................................................................................................. $572,645 35 This exceeds the one-third required by the contribution o f the current year $196,736 ; but, as the contribution to the sinking fund, for the two previous years, was deficient to more than this amount, there was no actual surplus under the law. T he sinking fund, as proposed by the law, and as it actually exists, is as follow s:— Years. 1842.................. 1843, ............. 1844, ............. Contribution req’ d. Int’st added. $375,909 $375,909 375,909 394,704 375,909 414,439 T o ta l,.... Actual fund. $68,504 61 255,762 09 572,645 35 $1,185,052 Interest added. $68,504 61 258,187 09 585,550 35 $912,242 05 Thus, after carrying the whole surplus o f last year to the sinking fund, there remains still a deficit, as required by the law, o f $172,810, instead o f an assumed surplus o f $197,000. N ow , on the assumption o f this surplus, which did not exist, and if it had, is now solemnly pledged, on the state faith, to other purposes, the legislature passed a law appropriating it to the general resumption o f the vast unfinished state w orks; to complete which involves an expenditure o f at least $40,000,000. The clause o f the law throwing the door open to these general expenditures, is as follow s:— 4. “ A nd fo r the purpose o f completing the construction o f such portions o f the unfinish ed work on the said canal as the canal commissioners shall be o f opinion will be the most economical fo r the interest o f the s t a t e — “ Twenty thousand dollars to be expended upon the Black River canal, south o f Boonville, fo r the same objects as those specified in relation to the Genesee Valley canal; and twenty thousand dollars to be expended upon the Black River canal, north o f Boonville, fo r the same objects.” This law appropriating money which did not exist, in violation o f a solemn pledge o f the state faith, was promptly vetoed by the governor; thus settling the policy o f the state in relation to new loans, or the resumption o f state works, until the present debt shall have been discharged. 561 Commercial Statistics. COMMERCIAL STATISTICS. C O M M E R C E A N D N A V IG A T IO N O F T H E U N IT E D S T A T E S . S t a t e m e n t of t h e C om merce a n d N a v ig a t io n of t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , f o r t h e t e a r e n d in g J une 30, 1844. W e have at length received the annual statement o f the commerce and navigation of the United States, for the year ending June 30th, 1844. It was communicated to Con gress on the 20th o f February, 1845, by George M . Bibb, then Secretary o f the Trea sury ; and on the 22d, two days after, ordered to be printed— so that only about ten weeks* has elapsed, since the manuscript was put into the hands o f the printer. Either our suggestions, made in former numbers o f this Magazine, have had the desired effect, or the present administration has voluntarily caused the printing o f the document to be expedited. Heretofore, instead o f little more than two months, six or eight have elapsed, after the document was put into the hands o f the printer, before it made its appearance. N ow if Mr. W alker, who has the reputation o f great energy and efficiency o f character, will take measures to have the statement for the year ending June 30th, 1845, ready at the opening o f the next session o f Congress, in December, it can be printed, and laid on the table o f members o f Congress early in February, 1846, long before Congress adjourns. It appears, from the statement, that the exports during the year ending on the 30th of June, 1844, have amounted to $111,200,046; o f which $99,715,179 were o f domestic, and $11,484,867 o f foreign articles. O f domestic articles, $69,706,375 were exported in American vessels, and $30,008,804 in foreign vessels. O f the foreign articles, $8,744,154 were exported in American vessels, and $2,740,713 in foreign vessels. The imports during the year ending on the 30th June, 1844, have amounted to $108,435,035; o f which there were imported in American vessels $9 4,174,673; and in foreign vessels $14,260,362. 1,977,438 tons o f American shipping entered, and 2,010,924 tons cleared, from the ports o f the United States; 916,992 tons o f foreign shipping entered, and 906,814 tons cleared, during the same period. T he registered tonnage, as corrected at this office, is stated at................ T h e enrolled and licensed tonnage, at........................................................... A n d fishing vessels, at...................................................................................... 1,068,764.91 1,173,537.38 37,792.68 T on s,...................................................................................................... 2,280,095.07 O f registered and enrolled tonnage,amounting, as before stated, to......... There were employed in the whale fishery,............................................. 2,280,095.07 168,293.63 T h e total tonnage o f shipping built in the United States, during the year ending on the 30th June, 1844, was— Registered,............................... E nrolled,.................................................................................................................. 38,921.18 64,616.11 Tons,.......................................................................................................... 103,537.29 In accordance with our custom, we now proceed to lay before our readers the tables derived from the official statement, which furnish a very full view o f the commerce and navigation o f the United States, for the year ending June 30th, 1844. W e thought it best to give complete statements, in a compressed form, although occupying so much space, and to the exclusion o f other matters, prepared for this number, as the tables would be more convenient for present and future reference, than i f scattered over two or three numbers o f the Magazine. * Received M ay 6th, 1845. V O L , X I I .---- N O. VI, 35 562 Com mercial Statistics, D omestic E xports of the U nited S tates to each F oreign C o u n tr y , in 1844. T he following table exhibits the value o f merchandise, etc., o f the growth, produce, and manufacture o f the United States, exported to each foreign country, designating the value to each country, and to the dominions o f each power— also, the value exported in American and foreign vessels. V a l u e of D om estic E x p o r t s of t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , f o r t h e y e a r ending J une 3 0 , 1 8 4 4 . W h it h e r exported. R u s s i a ,..................................................... P r u s s ia ,.................................... ............... S w e d e n a n d N o r w a y ,...................... S w e d is h W e s t I n d ie s ,...................... D a n is h W e s t I n d ie s ,........................ H a n s e T o w n s ,..................................... H o lla n d ,.................................................. D u t c h E a s t I n d ie s ,........................... D u tc h G u ia n a ,..................................... B e lg i u m ,................................................. E n g la n d ................................................... S c o t la n d ,................................................. I r e la n d ,............... ................................... G ib r a lta r ,................................................ M a l t a ,...................................................... B ritis h E a s t I n d ie s ,........................... C a p e o f G o o d H o p e ........................... A u s t r a lia ,................................................ H o n d u r a s ,............................................... B ritish G u ia n a ,.................................... B ritis h W e s t I n d i e s ,........................ B ritis h A m e r ic a n c o lo n ie s ,........... F r a n c e o n the A t la n t ic ,.................... F r a n c e o n the M e d it e r r a n e a n ,... F r e n c h W e s t I n d ie s ,........................ F r e n c h G u ia n a ,................................... M iq u e lo n a n d F r e n c h fis h e r ie s ,. B o u r b o n , & c . , ...................................... S p a in o n the A t la n t ic ,...................... S p a in o n th e M e d it e r r a n e a n ,___ T e n e r if f e , an d o th e r C a n a r ie s ,... M a n illa , an d P h ilip p in e is la n d s ,. C u b a .......................................................... O th e r S p a n is h W e s t I n d ie s ,......... P o r t u g a l................................................... M a d e i r a ,................................................. F a y a l, a n d oth er A z o r e s ,............... C a p e d e V e r d is la n d s ,...................... I t a l y ,......................................................... S a r d in ia ,................................................. S ic il y ,....................................................... T r ie s t e , & c . , ......................................... T u r k e y , L e v a n t, & c . , ...................... H a y t i,........................................................ T e x a s ,...................................................... M e x i c o ,.................................................... C en tra l R e p u b lic o f A m e r ic a ,.... N e w G r a n a d a ,..................................... V e n e z u e la ,............................................. B r a z il,....................................................... C isp latin e R e p u b lic ,........................... A r g e n tin e R e p u b lic ,.......................... C h ili.......................................................... In A m e r ic a n v e s s e ls . In F oreign v e s s e ls . T o e a ch c o u n tr y . T o e a ch pow er. $289,345 10,385 6,756 58,202 19,259 776,456 614,546 1,575,294 98,313 303,438 66,980 759,326 28,372,818 699,784 5,461 440,481 9,752 338,413 82,938 29,667 189,582 217,541 3,376,399 2,543,761 10,588,074 1,187,653 518,447 56,006 3,484 16,967 568,999 15,766 13,257 91,769 4,101,523 623,114 97,547 41,808 19,246 65,238 256,806 73,818 11,376 958,755 186,139 1,072,911 149,002 1,249,376 89,947 71,773 405,816 2,324,397 365,642 221,153 856,645 $125,537 184,221 211,114 5,682 81,600 6,736 2,559,937 942,627 $414,882 194,606 217,870 63,884 100,859 783,192 3,174,483 2,517,921 98,313 „ 303,438 68',980 J 1,852,571 45,814,942' 1,936,591 42,591 502,462 9,752 338,413 82,938 29,667 197,495 307,052 4,114,218 5,361,186 J 11,861,4191 1,204,793 581,568 . 56,006 3,484 16,967. 569,6311 15,766 14,493 . 91,769 4,305,062 636,962. 99,5531 44,763 19,246 65,238 318,566 92,522 75,624 1,257,285 186,139 1,082,807 196,447 1,292,752 103,377 75,621 442,491 2,409,418 394,266 245,339 856,645 $414,882 194,606 1,093,245 17,442,124 1,236,807 37,130 61,981 7,913 89,511 737,819 2,817,425 1,273,345 17,140 63,121 632 1,236 202,539 13,848 2,006 2,955 61,760 18,704 64,248 298,530 9,896 47,445 43,376 13,430 3,848 36,675 85,021 28,624 24,186 9ft1 754. ftfti 051 3,174,483 9 QftO 0 5 9 1,852,571 13 794 937 5 0 3 9 Oft3 99ft ROft 318,566 92,522 75,624 1,257,285 186,139 1,082,807 196,447 1,292,752 103,377 75,621 442,491 2,409,418 394,266 245,339 856,645 563 Commercial Statistics. V alue oe D omestic E xports of the U nited S t at e s , etc.— Continued. Peru,............................................... China,............................................. W est Indies, generally,................ South America, generally............ Europe, generally,......................... Asia, generally,............................. Africa, generally,........................... South Seas and Pacific Ocean,.. $14,053 1,110,023 173,460 125,938 28,700 173,021 586,476 307,353 ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ $54,830 ........ $14,053 1,110,023 173,460 125,938 28,700 173,021 641,306 307,353 $14,053 1,110,023 173,460 125,938 28,700 173,021 641,306 307,353 Total................................... $69,706,375 $30,008,804 $99,715,179 $99,715,179 S t a t e m e n t of t h e V a l u e of t h e E x p o r t s of t h e G r o w t h , P roduce , a n d M a n u f a c t u r e o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , f o r t h e y e a r en d in g on t h e 3 0 t h d a y o f J u n e . 1 8 4 4 . The Sea. Fisheries:— Dried fish, or cod,................ Pickled fish, or river fish eries, (herring, mackerel, salmon, shad,)................. W hale and other fish oil,... Spermaceti oil,.................... W halebone,.......................... Spermaceti candles,............ $699,836 197,179 1,464,968 344,930 463,096 180,492 $3,350,501 The Forest. Skins and furs,......................... G in sen g,.................................. Product o f w o o d :— Staves, shingles, boards, etc. Other lumber,...................... Masts and spars,.................. Oak bark, and other dye,... A ll manufac. o f wood,........ Naval stores— tar, pitch, ro sin, and turpentine,........ Ashes, pot and pearl,......... $742,196 95,008 1,672,279 326,945 23,274 70,370 919,100 818,692 1,140,848 $5,808,712 Agriculture. Product o f animals:— Beef, tallow, hides, horned cattle,................................ Butter and cheese,.............. Pork, (pickled,) bacon, lard, live hogs,.......................... Horses and mules,.............. Sheep,................................... Vegetable fo o d :— W h ea t,.................................. F lour,.................................... Indian corn.......................... Indian meal,......................... Rye meal,............................. Rye, oats, and other grain, Biscuit, or ship-bread,........ Potatoes,............................... Apples,.................................. R ice...................................... $1,810,551 758,829 3,236,479 315,696 27,824 500,400 6,759,488 404,008 641,029 104,391 133,477 388,603 74,108 51,465 2,182,468 $17,388,816 Agriculture— Continued. T obacco,................................... $8,397,255 Cotton,...................................... 54,063,501 A ll oth. agric’ral products:— Flaxseed,.............................. 23,749 Hops,..................................... 51,550 Brown sugar,....................... 12,363 1,176 Indigo,................................... $62,549,594 Manufactures. Soap and tallow candles,........ Leather, boots and sh oes,.... Household furniture,.............. Coaches, and other carriages, Hats,.......................................... Saddlery,................................... W ax,.......................................... Spirits from grain,.................. Beer, ale, porter, and cider,... Snuff and tobacco,.................. Lead,......................................... Linseed oil, and sp. turp...... Cordage,.................................... Iron— bar, pig, and n a ils,.... “ Castings,...................... “ A ll manufactures o f,... Spirits from molasses,............. Sugar, refined,......................... Chocolate,................................. Gunpowder,...... ...................... Copper and brass,.................... Medicinal drugs,..................... $619,544 204,000 327,938 63,931 75,649 34,552 278,039 56,697 59,312 536,600 595,238 68,476 49,242 133,522 54,598 528,212 241,604 128,594 2,150 130,923 91,446 166,805 $ 4 ,4 4 7 ,0 7 2 Cotton piece goods:— Printed and colored............ W hite...................... '............ Twist, yarn, and thread,... A ll manufactures of,........... $385,403 2,298,800 44,421 170,156 $2,898,780 Flax and hemp— bags, and all manufactures of,.................. W earing apparel,.................... Combs and buttons,................. Brushes,.................................... Billiard tables and apparatus,. $311 117,570 30,778 5,962 2,534 564 Com m ercial Statistics. S tatement of the V alue Manufactures— Continued. Umbrellas and parasols,......... Leather and morocco skins, not sold per pound,............. Printing-presses and typ e ,.... Musical instruments,.............. Books and maps,...................... Paper and stationery,.............. Paints and varnish,.................. Vinegar,.................................... Earthen and stone-ware,........ Manuf. o f glass,...................... “ tin,........................... “ pewter and lead,. “ marble and stone, “ gold & silver, and gold leaf,......... of $6,514 39,197 36,243 17,050 42,432 83,108 44,060 8,315 4,884 77,860 6,421 10,018 19,135 2,638 E xports , etc.— Continued. M anufactures—Continued. 183,405 Gold and silver coin ,............. Artificial flowers and jew elry, 6,761 Molasses,................................... 3,922 Trunks,..................................... 7,481 12,833 Bricks and lime,...................... Domestic salt,.......................... 47,755 $3,715,967 Articles not enumerated:— Manufactured,..................... Other articles,....*............... $1,600,090 854,427 $2,454,517 Grand total o f exports,.... $99,715,179 R ecapit T he Sea,........................ T he Forest,.......................... Agriculture,.......................... Vegetable food,..................... $3,350,501 5,808,712 6,149,379 11,239,437 Tobacco,............................... Cotton,.................................. Other agricul. products,.... Manufactures,...................... $8,397,255 54,063,501 88,838 10,617,556 F or e ig n M erchandise e x p o r t e d f r o m t h e U. S t a t e s to each F or e ig n C o u n t r y , in 1844. T he following table exhibits the value o f foreign merchandise exported from the Uni ted States to each country, in American and foreign vessels; showing also the value free o f duty, paying duties ad valorem, and specific duties. Free o f Pay’gdut. Paving In Amer. In foreign duty. ad val. spec. dut. Total. Whither exported. vessels. vessels. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. 97,737 8,498 34,297 140.532 119,448 Russia,............................... 21,084 23,968 Prussia,.............................. 23,968 23,968 749 Sweden and N orw ay,.... 1,353 10,129 12,231 1,715 10,516 Swedish W est Indies,.... 1,360 1,360 1,360 869 752 10,354 11,975 4,288 Denmark,.......................... 7,687 29,281 Danish W est Indies,....... 30,576 27,273 87,130 84,647 2,483 Hanse T ow ns,................. 98,719 161,955 131,530 392,204 60,551 331,653 68,396 15,562 H olland,............................ 97,065 181,023 102,382 78,641 3,002 249,010 261,070 261,070 Dutch East Indies,......... 9,058 5,978 Dutch W est Indies,......... 5,953 7,917 19,848 19,848 Dutch Guiana,.................. 1,507 3,285 4,792 4,792 19,761 21,718 151,230 40,705 110,525 Belgium,............................ 109,751 England,............................ 267,438 214,942 642,834 1,125,214 108,642 1,016,572 4.929 Scotland,.......................... 8,383 16,882 3,570 2,710 14,172 Gibraltar,....................... .. 2,880 59,688 77,421 74,921 14,853 2,500 2,330 355 4,561 7,246 Malta,................................ 7.246 British East Indies,......... 312,493 15,955 9,105 337,553 337,553 8,036 Honduras,.......................... 20,962 12,526 41,524 41,524 98 British Guiana,................. 2,086 2,184 1,956 228 British W est Indies,........ 5,989 1,991 13.848 21,828 5,225 16,603 Brit. American colonies,. 1,241,507 60,406 1,354,717 11,048,592 306,125 52,804 France on the Atlantic,.. 2,091,188 69,748 126,148 2,287,084 J>,060,119 226,965 France on the Mediter.,. 71,386 7.171 6,547 85,104 85,104 French W est Indies,........ 12,051 1,216 22,711 35,978 14,193 21,785 French Guiana,................ 322 711 1,033 1,033 Spain on the Atlantic,,... 17,743 6,065 23,808 23,808 Spain on the Mediter.,... 23,340 23,340 23,340 Teneriffe &oth. Canaries, 412 600 1,042 1,042 Manilla, and Phil, islands, 129,335 1,893 131,228 131,228 C uba,................................. 602,298 126,057 206,178 934,533 928,187 6,346 Other Span. W est Indies, 981 492 3,704 5,177 5,177 Portugal,............................ 1,628 1,937 3,565 3,565 565 Com mercial Statistics. F oreign M erchandise exported from the U nited S t a t e s , etc .— Continued. Whither exported. M adeira,............................ Fayal, and other Azores, Cape de Verd islands,.... Italy.................................... Sicily,................................. Trieste, & c .,.................... Turkey, & c .,.................... Havti,................................. T ex a s,............................... M e x ico ,............................. Cent. Republic o f Amer., N ew Granada,.................. Venezuela,......................... Brazil,................................ Cisplatine Republic,........ Argentine Republic,........ C h ili,.................................. Peru,................................... China,................................ W est Indies, generally,... Asia, generally,................ Africa, generally,............. South Seas, and P. ocean, N. W . Coast o f America, Free of Pay’gdut. Pay’s: speduty. ad val. cific duties. Total. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. 7,168 355 7,523 2,476 793 3,714 6,983 964 4,335 5,299 129,062 42,642 86,553 258,257 52,230 75,522 150,940 278,692 81,046 20,449 67,240 168,735 93,856 112 3,277 97,245 7,938 28,534 9,077 45,549 22,097 33,657 25,347 81,101 25,713 307,125 169,243 502,081 1,609 33,619 11,671 46,899 4,416 27,824 16,985 49,225 15,776 19,091 88,741 53,874 50,883 100,053 257,898 408,834 8,335 45,064 14,511 67,910 14,509 184,514 59,927 258,950 7,521 153,620 87,435 248,576 2,754 2,754 606,267 9,162 31,489 646,918 7,918 70 7,988 251,169 31,455 7,017 289,641 16,683 28,327 68,938 23,928 7,389 16,803 17,834 42,026 262 465 1,451 2,178 In Amer. In for. vessels. vessels. Dollars. Dollars. 7,523 6,983 5,299 123,633 134,624 278,692 94,512 74,223 97,245 45,549 57,318 23,783 7,998 494,083 43,931 2,968 49,225 84,121 4,620 404,770 4,064 67,110 800 248,235 10,715 248,576 2,754 646,918 7,988 289,641 68,565 373 42,026 2,178 T ota l,..i.................. 7,522,359 1,706,206 2,256,302 11,484,867 8,744,1542,740,713 Entitled to drawback,........................ 1,412,200 2,107,560 3,519,760 1,977,800 1,541,960 N ot entitled to drawback, 7,522,359 294,006 148,742 7,965,107 6,766,3541,198,753 I m p o r ts of t h e U n ite d S t a t e s f r o m e ach F oreig n C o u n t r y , f o r t h e y e a r end ing 3 0 t h of J u n e , 1844. T he following statement o f the value o f the merchandise, etc., o f the growth, produce, and manufacture o f foreign countries, imported, distinguishes the same admitted free, and paying specific and ad valorem duties. Also, the value in American and in foreign vessels. W hence imp’ d. Free o f duty. Dollars. 109,390 Russia,.................. Prussia,................ Swed. & Norway, 123 Swed. W . Indies,. 22,559 Danish W . Indies, 173,020 Denmark,............. Hanse T o w n s ,.... 91,074 Holland,................ 594,429 Dutch E. Indies,. 663,044 Dutch W . Indies, 101,909 Dutch G u iana,.... 59 Belgium,............... 37,283 England,............... 2,267,482 Scotland,.............. 10,300 Ireland,.................. 258 Gibraltar,.............. 14,275 M alta,.................. Brit. East Indies,. 181,196 Brit. W est Indies, 438,222 Brit. Am. colonies, 710,924 Brit. Honduras,... 150,546 Brit Cuiana,......... 8,681 Pay’g dut. Paying speIn American In foreign ad valorem. cific dut. Total. vessels. vessels. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. 293,584 656,445 1,059,419 1,036,596 22,823 7,657 4,952 12,609 12,417 192 16,705 405,006 39,382 421,834 382,452 212 948 23,719 23,719 116,054 335,373 622,945 624,447 1,502 273 5,790 6,063 5,790 273 1,865,291 120,021 2,136,386 88,310 2,048.076 333,670 860,001 381,982 1,310,081 450,080 138,076 134,864 935,984 935,984 158,740 125,634 386,283 386,283 19 49,066 49,144 49,144 554,460 634,777 43,034 430,574 204,203 33,212,979 5,995,620 41,476,081 35,173,564 6,302,517 335,560 181,379 527,239 245,731 281,508 44,979 42,847 88,084 4,236 83,848 10,414 19,585 44,274 44,274 15 15 15 462,410 239,186 882,792 882,792 70,719 178,965 687,906 463,304 224,602 309,613 445,178 1,465,715 938,174 527,541 30,366 67,431 248,343 245,153 3,190 64 640 9,385 9,001 384 566 Commercial Statistics. from each F oreign C ountry , etc. —Continued. Pay’g dut. Pay’g spec. In Amer. In for’gn W hence imported. ad val. duties. Total. vessels. vessels. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Cape o f G. Hope, 431 29,166 11,790 20,675 17,376 Australia,.............. 122 122 122 Fr’nce on A tl’ntic, 438,231 766,868 7,621,803 7,557,494 15,946,16615,507,935 France on Medit., 265,541 795,460 542,317 447,657 1,603,318 1,155,661 French Guiana,... 2,167 23,365 28,233 2,701 28,233 French W . Indies, 257,012 112,476 343,248 31,447 5,207 374,695 Spain on Atlantic, 189,863 6,805 55,459 214,294 37,833 252,127 Spain on M edit.,. 32,056 308,189 58,746 40,992 322,491 381,237 Teneriffe,.............. 9,758 9,603 51,895 61,653 52,050 Manilla,................ 69,488 79,064 576,259 724,811 724,811 C u b a,.................... 1,661,291 9,930,421 9,823,521 106,900 652,498 7,616,632 72,974 30,017 Other S p .W . Ind., 45,654 2,306,574 2,425,202 2,395,185 Portugal,............... 16,082 4,428 179,195 187,805 11,900 199,705 1,645 2,532 M adeira,............... 18,727 22,904 22,904 F ayal,................... 8,074 18,828 26,342 3,228 2,668 29,570 Cape de Verds,... 3,200 600 1,036 4,836 4,836 302,933 97,085 707,248 292,593 1,096,926 793,993 Italy,...................... 72,122 140,112 S icily,................... 286,871 103,780 462,773 322,661 Trieste,.................. 81,378 40,777 43,325 232,089 147,987 150,711 ......... ...... T u rk ey, 196,587 113,858 52,955 136,324 385,866 272,008 M orocco,.............. 1,176 4,700 5,876 5,876 H ayti,................... 1,242,976 15,984 179,723 18,545 1,441,244 1,425,260 T e x a s,.................. 11,066 35,918 20,406 647,079 678,551 642,633 345,942 68,526 M e x ico ,................ 2,000,096 40,964 2,387,002 2,318,476 Cen. Rep. o f A m ., 56,418 114,583 10,628 52,407 223,408 212,780 N ew Granada,.... 89,146 189,616 84,803 15,667 189,616 833,461 Venezuela,............ 299,429 302,589 112,763 1,435,479 1,322,716 Brazil,................... 5,856,558 187,369 839,879 6,883,806 5,523,738 1,360,068 Cisplatine Repub., 22,088 122,630 45 122,703 22,060 144,763 Argentine Repub., 1,052 1,356,474 179,496 63,666 1,421,192 1,241,696 Chili,..................... 582,915 137,733 29,722 750,370 750,370 Peru,...................... 47,810 68,064 68,550 184,424 184,424 China,................... 4,124,086 325,291 55,111 481,878 4,931,255 4,876,144 Asia, generally,... 16,051 373 18,484 34,908 34,908 Africa, generally,.. 35,383 295,863 148,996 14,378 459,237 423,854 South Seas,.......... 1,910 37,969 1,625 41,504 41,504 I mports of the U nited S tates Free o f duty. Dollars. 8,060 Total,........24,766,881 52,315,29131,352,863 108,435,035 94,174,673 14,260,362 S t a t e m e n t e x h ib it in g t h e N u m be r of A m e ric an a n d F or e ig n V essels , w i t h t h e ir T on n a g e , WHICH CLEARED FROM THE UNITED STATES FOR FOREIGN COUNTRIES, FROM THE 1ST J u l y , 1843, to t h e 3 0 t h J u n e , 1844. For Russia,.................................. Prussia,................................. ......... Sweden,............................... Swedish W est Indies,................... Denm ark,............................. Danish W est Indies,.......... ......... H olland,............................... Dutch East Indies,............ ......... Dutch W est Indies,........... ......... ......... Belgium,'.............................. Hanse T ow ns,..................... ......... England,............................... ......... Scotland,............................... ......... Ireland,................................. Gibraltar,............................. .......... Malta,.................................... American. Tons. No. 6,308 1 164 11 154 12 43 38 32 547 20 60 1,478 481 24,548 23,786 4,656 4,981 7,363 8,148 12,749 311,746 7,849 191 13,873 611 Foreign. Tons. No. 6 1,981 21 5,009 4,629 20 1 141 13 2,567 3 363 61 16,589 1 251 1 89 59 139 350 30 2 12 18,339 50,656 192,583 13,418 786 2,573 Tot. Am. and For. Tons. No. 26 8,289 5,173 22 4,629 20 1,619 12 3,048 15 157 24,911 40,375 126 4,907 13 5,070 44 7,363 38 26^487 80 63,405 171 504,329 897 21,297 50 977 3 16,446 72 611 a 567 Com m ercial Statistics, A merican a nd F oreign V essels cleared from U . S t ates , etc.— Continued. American. Foreign. Tons. No. No. Tons. 24 10,479 1 129 1 127 1 415 3 683 Cape o f Good Hope,.................... 5 1,689 British W est Indies,.................... 779 123,501 252 26,854 British Guiana,............................. 74 10,470 2,868 27 Honduras,...................................... 57 7,914 4 307 Canada,.......................................... 2,664 665,852 1,902 312,377 N ew Brunswick, & c.,................. 220 31,013 2,361 203,854 France on the Atlantic,............... 219 109,327 15,989 43 France on the Mediterranean,... 58 17,868 2 656 French W est Indies,................... 236 37,375 9 2,253 15 2,322 Miquelon and French fisheries,. 37 4,105 576 7 French African ports,................... 862 7 H ayti,............................................. 215 26,710 3 649 Spain on the Atlantic,................. 36 10,427 135 1 Spain on the Mediterranean,__ 865 4 Teneriffe, and other Canaries,... 4 861 1 148 Manilla, and Philippine islands,. 6,233 13 C uba,.............................................. 1,254 224,618 7,588 42 Other Spanish W est Indies,...... 28,143 180 683 4 Portugal,......................................... 5,743 29 172 1 Madeira,........................................ 2,404 122 12 1 Fayal, and the other A zores,.... 1,115 7 Cape de Verd islands,.................. 1,697 11 2 382 8 2,340 941 Italy,............................................... 4 S icily,............................................. 1,045 4 3,286 14 Sardinia,......................................... 15 4,395 6 1,581 T rieste,......- .................................. 28 10,597 14 3,918 T urkey,.......................................... 12 2,773 Texas,............................................. 82 20,065 15 1,779 M e x ic o ,.......................................... 166 22,636 1,804 21 Central America,.......................... 15 120 2,251 1 Venezuela,..................................... 64 1,839 8,835 12 N ew Granada,............................... 12 1,691 Brazil,............................................. 1,816 225 46,250 8 Argentine Republic,.................... 566 19 4,833 3 Cispladne Republic,.................... 12,519 54 5 1,159 Chili,............................................... 20 7,247 Peru,............................................... 2 404 China,............................................. 27 11,262 Europe, generally,....................... 3 604 Asia, generally,............................. 15 4,542 Africa, generally,.......................... 51 9,878 2 257 W est Indies, generally,............... 128 15,425 2 168 Sandwich islands,......................... 7 1,972 Atlantic Ocean,............................ 38 6,787 South Seas,.................................... 161 51,620 1 400 Northwest Coast o f A m erica,.... 2 667 For British East Indies,...................... British African ports,................... Australia,........................................ Total,................................. . 8,343 2,010,924 5,500 906,814 Tot. Am. and For. No. Tons. 24 10,479 2 256 1 415 3 683 5 1,689 1,031 150,355 101 13,338 61 8,221 4,566 978,229 2,581 234,867 262 125,316 60 18,524 245 39,628 15 2,322 4'681 44 7 862 218 27,359 37 10,562 4 865 5 1,009 13 6,233 1,296 232,206 184 28,826 30 5,915 13 2,526 7 1,115 13 2,079 12 3,281 18 4,331 21 5,976 42 14,515 12 2,773 97 21,844 187 24,440 (1 6 2,371 76 10,674 12 1,691 233 48,066 22 5,399 59 13,678 20 7,247 2 404 27 11,262 3 604 15 4,542 53 10,135 130 15,593 7 1,972 38 6,787 162 52,020 2 667 13,843 2,9177738 N u m b e r of A m e r ic a n a n d F oreig n V essels , w i t h t h e ir T onnage , w h ic h e n t e r e d in t o t h e U . S t a t e s f r o m F oreig n C o u n t rie s , f r o m J u l y 1 , 1 8 4 3 , t o J u n e 3 0 , 1 8 4 4 From Russia,...................................... Prussia,..................................... Sweden,.................................... Swedish W est Indies,............ Denm ark,............................... American. Tons. No. 14,656 442 1,180 6 763 228 Foreign. No. Tons. 2 736 9 2,148 40 11,212 1 172 Tot. Am. and For. No. Tons. 47 15,392 11 2,590 45 12,392 6 763 2 400 568 Commercial Statistics. A merican and F oreign V essels entered the U . S t ates , etc.— Continued. American. No. For Danish W est Indies,................... 157 72 Holland,.......................................... 9 Dutch East Indies,...................... 122 Dutch W est Indies,...................... 34 Dutch Guiana,............................... 51 Belgium,......................................... 63 Hanse T ow ns,............................... England,........................................ 524 18 Scotland,......................................... 3 Ireland,........................................... 14 Gibraltar,........................................ 1 M alta,............................................. 16 British East Indies,...................... British African ports,.................... 3 Australia,........................................ I Cape o f Good H op e,................... British W est Indies,.................... 498 British Guiana,.............................. 34 Honduras,...................................... 41 Canada,.......................................... 2 ,7 0 9 N ew Brunswick, & c.,.................. 256 Other British colonies,................ 1 France on the Atlantic,............... 224 France on the Mediterranean,... 52 French W est Indies,.,................ 154 9 French Guiana,............................. Miquelon, and French fisheries,. 5 Hayti,.............................................. 237 Spain on the Atlantic,................. 39 Spain on the Mediterranean,.... 40 Teneriffe, and other Canaries,... 13 Manilla, and Philippine islands,. 16 Cuba,............................................... 1 ,2 5 2 Other Spanish W est Indies,........ 339 Portugal,......................................... 22 4 Fayal, and the other A zo re s,.... 6 Cape de Verd islands,.................. 4 21 Italy,............................................... 56 S icily,............................................. 7 Sardinia,......................................... Trieste,........................................... 15 12 T u rk ey ,......................................... 78 Texas,............................................. M ex ico,.......................................... 185 Central America,........................ . 16 Venezuela,..................................... 86 14 N ew Granada,............................... 225 Brazil,............................................. . 50 Argentine Republic,.................... Cisplatine Republic,..................... 2 Chili,............................................... 8 2 Peru,............................................... 1 South America, generally,........ China,............................................. 32 Asia, generally,............................ 2 Africa, generally,........................ 48 Sandwich islands,....................... 4 Atlantic Ocean,........................... . 32 South Seas,................................... .. 149 Northwest Coast o f America,... 1 Total,.................................. 8 ,1 4 8 Tons. 2 3 ,7 8 9 2 7 ,5 7 7 3 .3 4 1 1 7 ,5 3 0 6 ,6 0 2 1 8 ,8 8 2 2 0 ,7 2 9 2 9 2 ,3 3 0 7 ,8 3 8 1 ,3 4 7 4 ,0 3 6 396 7 ,1 4 0 Foreign. Tons. No. Tons. 10 23 2 ,4 8 2 5 ,2 4 0 1 662 18 121 371 38 48 6 1 5 ,5 8 7 4 3 ,5 6 6 1 9 7 ,4 6 5 1 8 ,8 7 6 2 3 ,9 3 9 2 ,4 1 3 410 167 95 9 123 34 69 184 895 56 51 20 2 16 2 3 2 814 71 45 4 ,6 4 2 2 ,5 1 6 1 249 65 190 11 5 239 46 57 15 16 1 ,2 8 9 342 30 32 149 1 2 6 ,2 7 1 3 2 ,8 1 7 3 ,3 4 1 1 8 ,1 9 2 6 ,6 0 2 2 4 ,4 6 9 6 4 ,2 9 5 4 8 9 ,7 9 5 2 6 ,7 1 4 2 5 ,2 8 6 6 ,4 4 9 806 7 ,1 4 0 458 986 463 1 1 7 ,2 7 1 1 1 ,7 0 5 6 ,5 4 9 9 9 7 ,2 9 6 1 9 9 ,8 8 8 325 1 1 8 ,0 4 6 2 2 ,0 6 6 3 5 ,5 6 9 1 ,5 3 5 580 3 0 ,4 8 9 1 5 ,5 1 1 1 3 ,3 7 6 2 ,6 0 8 636 2 1 4 ,5 2 7 5 1 ,3 1 8 7 ,5 9 2 914 1 ,2 2 1 764 7 ,2 0 8 2 1 ,1 6 5 3 ,4 5 8 6 ,4 7 0 3 ,8 9 4 2 0 ,8 9 5 2 9 ,1 0 4 2 ,6 6 6 1 3 ,0 9 9 2 ,1 4 6 6 3 ,3 5 2 1 3 ,6 7 6 1 ,0 6 0 3 ,2 0 6 551 95 1 5 ,3 9 9 591 1 0 ,6 0 1 1 ,2 4 5 5 ,1 2 1 4 7 ,7 2 3 298 1 3 ,7 2 5 2 ,8 9 4 ,4 3 0 2 986 213 i 7 6 ,3 1 5 316 4 ,8 4 5 37 5 ,9 9 1 4 6 8 9 ,3 5 5 1 ,9 3 3 3 3 ,9 0 7 2 ,2 6 0 325 1 0 9 ,0 6 6 25 1 8 ,1 3 3 13 36 2 4 ,6 4 5 2 1 ,3 1 3 580 3 0 ,1 8 2 2 1 3 ,4 1 3 7 8 ,5 4 2 17 2 ,3 0 6 2 6 ,6 3 6 2 0 9 ,3 2 2 37 5 0 ,8 0 7 3 5 ,1 2 1 8 914 1 ,1 1 9 1 1 659 5 ,2 4 5 7 1 4 ,1 6 1 26 2 ,5 3 6 4 5 ,4 6 4 3 5 2 ,8 0 3 1 9 ,0 1 9 15 2 4 ,9 3 4 30 1 2 ,5 4 7 1 1 ,6 0 1 10 2 ,1 4 6 4 8 ,5 5 0 61 1 1 ,6 6 8 8 445 3 3 ,2 0 6 551 95 1 5 ,0 3 5 1 591 8 ,9 5 3 7 1 ,2 4 5 5 ,1 2 1 4 7 ,7 2 3 298 1 ,9 7 7 ,4 3 8 Total Am. and For. No. 5 ,5 7 7 458 250 4 0 ,9 5 6 6 ,8 6 0 558 3 0 7 ,9 4 1 1 6 5 ,9 8 1 8 ,9 8 0 3 ,9 3 3 1 0 ,9 2 4 222 307 2 ,0 9 8 4 ,8 3 4 302 5 ,2 0 5 511 2 ,4 7 1 4 102 105 1 ,9 6 3 7 ,0 0 4 922 1 ,0 0 6 1 ,0 9 1 1 ,8 7 6 4 ,1 7 0 119 1 ,4 9 8 1 4 ,8 0 2 2 ,0 0 8 615 364 1 ,6 4 8 7 5 28 82 11 18 17 93 215 17 96 14 286 58 5 8 2 1 33 2 55 4 9 1 6 ,9 9 2 Commercial Statistics. 569 N ational C haracter of the V essels entered and cleared the U nited S t a t e s , in 1844. Entered. National Character. Austrian,.............. ................... B elgian ,................................... British,..................................... French,.................................... Spanish,................................... Hanseatic,.............................. Hanoverian,............................ Russian,.................................... Prussian,................................. Swedish,..................... . ........... Norwegian,............................. D utch,...................................... Portuguese,............................. Neapolitan,.............................. Sicilian,....................... ............ Sardinian,................................ Texan,..................................... M exican ,................................. Colombian,....... ...................... Venezuelan,............................ Buenos Ayrean,..................... Danish,................................... Total................ ........... No. 3 7 5 ,0 3 0 55 46 155 10 5 21 110 26 13 1 2 16 6 12 15 1 11 Cleared. Tons. No. Tons. 565 2 ,8 6 7 7 5 6 ,6 6 9 1 7 ,8 6 3 7 ,1 0 5 5 3 ,8 1 4 1 ,7 2 4 2 ,6 7 5 5 ,1 5 5 3 3 ,0 9 7 5 ,8 8 5 1 ,8 3 5 2 9 4 ,9 5 3 54 47 156 9 31 1 ,0 3 3 2 ,2 0 9 7 6 6 ,7 4 7 1 7 ,2 5 7 6 ,9 7 4 5 2 ,6 6 9 2 ,0 2 7 1 ,8 2 4 5 ,5 2 6 3 4 ,7 0 6 7 ,0 7 6 2 ,5 0 1 102 445 3 ,8 5 0 1 ,3 1 7 1 ,4 2 6 1 ,4 9 3 49 1 ,5 5 9 306 5 ,8 9 6 36 668 4 ,1 3 9 945 1 ,7 7 9 1 ,1 4 6 109 1 ,5 3 9 306 6 ,9 2 9 5 ,5 7 7 916,992 5 ,5 0 0 9 0 6 ,8 1 4 1 8 21 108 20 10 3 17 5 15 13 2 11 1 S t a t is t ic a l V ie w of t iie C om m erce of t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , e x h ib it in g t h e V alue of Im ports from , and E x p o r t s to , each F or e ig n C o u n t r y , f r o m t h e 1 s t of J u l y , 1 8 4 3 , to t h e 3 0 t h of J une , 1 8 4 4 . Value o f Exports. Countries. Dorn, produce. For. produce. Russia,....................................... $414,882 $140,532 Prussia,........................................ 194,606 23,968 217,870 12,231 Sweden and N o rw a y ,........... Swedish W est Indies,.............. 63,884 1,360 100,859 Denmark,.................................... 11,975 87,130 Danish W est Indies,................ 783,192 2,517,921 H olland,...................................... 181,023 Dutch East Indies,.................... 98,313 261,070 Dutch W est Indies,.................. 303,438 19,848 Dutch Guiana,........................... 66,980 4,792 Belgium ....................................... 1,852,571 151,230 Hanse T ow ns,............................ 3,174,483 392,204 England,...................................... 45,814,942 1,125,214 1,936,591 Scotland,..................................... 16,882 Ireland,........................................ 42,591 Gibraltar,..................................... 502,462 77,421 M alta,......................... 9,752 7,246 British East Indies,.................. 338,413 337,553 British African ports,................ Australia,..................................... 29,667 Mauritius,.................................... Cape o f Good H op e,............. . 82,938 4,114,218 British W est Indies,.............. 21,828 British Guiana,............... 307,052 2,184 Honduras,.................................... 197,495 41,524 British American colonies,. . . . 5,361,186 [1,354,717 Other British colonies,............. France on the Atlantic,............ 11,861,419 2,287,084 1,204,793 85,104 France on the Mediterranean,. French West Indies,................ 581,568 35,978 French Guiana,.......................... 56,006 1,033 Total. $555,414 218,574 230,101 65,244 112,834 870,322 2,698,944 359,383 323,286 71,772 2,003,801 3,566,687 46,940,156 1,953,473 42,591 579,883 16,998 675,966 Value o f imports. $1,059,419 12,609 421,834 23,719 6,063 604,447 1,310,081 935,984 386,283 49,144 634,777 2,136,386 41,476,081 527,239 88,084 44,274 15 882,792 29,667 122 82,938 4,136,046 309,236 239,019 6,715,903 29,166 687,906 9,385 248,343 1,465,715 14,148,503 1,289,897 617,546 57,039 15,946,166 1,603,318 374,695 28,233 570 Com mercial Statistics. S tatistical V ie w of t h e C ommerce of the U nited S t ates , Countries. Miquelon, and French fisheries, Bourbon,...................................... French African ports,................ Spain on the Atlantic,.............. Spain on the Mediterranean,.. Teneriffe, and other Canaries,. Manilla, and Philippine islands, C u b a ,.......................................... Other Spanish W est Indies,... Portugal,...................................... Madeira,...................................... Fayal, and the other Azores,... Cape de Verd islands,............... Italy............................................. S icily ,.......................................... Sardinia,..................................... T rieste,........................................ Turkey,........................................ T exas,.......................................... M exico,........................................ Central America,........................ Venezuela,................................... N ew Granada,........................... Brazil,.......................................... Argentine Republic................... Cisplatine Republic,.................. Chili,............................................ Peru,............................................ South America, generally,........ Hayti............................................ China,.......................................... Europe, generally,.................... Asia, generally,.......................... Africa, generally,...................... M orocco,..................................... W est Indies, generally,............ Sandwich islands,...................... Atlantic Ocean,.......................... South Seas,................................ Northwest Coast o f America,.. Total,...................... .. Value o f Exports. Dom. produce. For. produce. $3,484 16,967 etc.—Continued. Total. $3 ,484 16,967 569,631 15,766 14,493 91,769 4,304,062 636,962 99,553 44,763 19,246 65,238 318,566 75,624 92,522 1,257,285 186,139 196,447 1,292,752 103,377 442,491 75,621 2,409,418 245,339 394,266 856,645 14,053 125,938 1,082,807 1,110,023 28,700 173,021 641,306 $23,808 23,340 1,042 131,228 934,533 5,177 3,565 7,523 6,983 5,299 258,257 278,692 289,641 68,938 593,439 39,106 15,535 222,997 5,238,595 642,139 103,118 52,286 26,229 70,537 576,823 354,316 92,522 . 1,426,020 283,384 277,548 1,794,833 150,276 , 531,232 124,846 2,818,252 504,289 462,176 1,105,221 16,807 125,938 1,128,356 1,756,941 28,700 462,662 710,244 173,460 7,988 181,448 307,353 42,026 2,178 349,379 2,178 168,735 97,245 81,101 502,081 46,899 88,741 49,225 408,834 258,950 67,910 248,576 2,754 45,549 646,918 Value of imports. $252,127 381,237 61,653 724,811 9,930,421 2,425,202 199,705 22,904 29,570 4,836 1,096,926 462,773 232,089 385,866 678,551 2,387,002 223,408 1,435,479 189,616 6,883,806 1,421,192 144,763 750,370 184,424 1,441,244 4,931,255 34,908 459,237 5,876 41,504 $99,715,179 $11,484,867 $111,200,046 $108,435,035 S t a t is t ic a l V i e w of t h e N a v ig a t io n of t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , e x h ib it in g t h e T o n n ag e of A m e r ic a n a n d F or e ig n V essels arriving from , a n d d e p a r t in g t o , each F oreig n C ou n t r y , FROM THE 1 s t OF JU LY, 1 8 4 3 , TO THE 3 0 t H OF JUNE, 1 8 4 4 . Countries. Russia,......................................... Prussia,........................................ Sweden and Norway,............... Swedish W est Indies,.............. Denmark,.................................... Danish W est Indies,................ Holland........................................ Dutch East Indies,................... Dutch W est Indies,.................. Dutch Guiana,........................... Belgium,...................................... Hanse T o w n s,........................... England,........................... .......... American Tonnage. Cl d from Entered U. States. U. States. 6,308 14,656 164 442 1,180 1,478 763 481 228 24,548 23,789 23,786 27,577 4,656 3,341 4,981 17,530 7,363 6,602 8,148 18,882 12,749 20,729 311,746 292,330 Foreign Tonnage. Cl’d from Entered U. States. U. States. 1,981 736 5,009 2,148 11,212 4,629 141 172 2,567 363 2,482 5,240 16,589 251 662 89 18,339 50,656 192,583 5,587 43,566 197,46& 571 Commercial Statistics. S tat istic al V ie w op the N avigation of the U nited S t at e s , etc.— Continued. Countries. Scotland....................................... Ireland,........................................ Gibraltar,..................................... M alta,.......................................... British East Indies,.................. British African ports.................. Australia,..................................... Cape o f Good H ope,................ British W est Indies,.................. British Guiana,........................... Honduras,.................................... British American colonies,........ Other British colonies,.............. France on the Atlantic,............ France on the Mediterranean, French W est Indies,................. French Guiana,.......................... Miquelon, and French fisheries, Bourbon,...................................... French African ports,................. Spain on the Atlantic,.............. Spain on the Mediterranean,... Teneriffe, and other Canaries,. Manilla, and Philippine islands, C uba,........................................... Other Spanish W est Indies,... Portugal,...................................... Madeira,..................................... Fayal, and the other Azores,... Cape de Verd islands,............... Italy,............................................. S icily ,.......................................... Sardinia,...................................... Trieste,........................................ T urkey,....................................... Texas,.......................................... M ex ico ,....................................... Central A m erica,...................... Venezuela,................................... N ew Granada,............................ Brazil,.......................................... Argentine Republic,.................. Cisplatine Republic,.................. Chili,............................................ Peru,............................................ South America, generally,...... H ayti,........................................... China,.......................................... Europe, generally,.................... Africa, generally,...................... M orocco,..................................... W est Indies, generally,............ Sandwich islands,...................... Atlantic Ocean,........................... South Seas,................................ Northwest Coast o f America,.. Total........................... American Tonnage. Entered Cl’d from U. States. U. States. 7,849 7,838 191 1,347 13,873 4,036 611 396 10,479 7,140 129 986 415 683 213 1,689 123,501 76,315 10,470 4,845 7,914 5,991 696,865 723,262 325 109,327 109,066 17,868 18,133 37,375 24,645 2,322 1,313 4,105 580 10,427 865 861 6,233 224,618 28,143* 5,743 2,404 ' 1,115 1,697 2,340 1,045 4,395 10,597 2,773 20,065 22,636 2,251 8,835 1,691 46,250 4,833 12,519 7,247 404 26,710 11,262 13,413 8,542 2,306 6,636 209,322 50,807 5,121 914 1,119 659 5,245 14,161 2,536 5,464 2,803 19,019 24,934 2,547 11,601 2,146 48,550 11,668 445 3,206 551 95 30,182 15,035 4,542 9,878 591 8,953 15,425 1,972 6,787 51,620 667 1,245 5,121 47.723 298 2,010,924 1,977,438 Foreign Tonnage. Entered C l’d from U. States. U. States. 18,876 13,418 23,939 786 2,413 2,573 410 127 458 26,854 2,868 307 516,231 250 40,356 6,860 558 473,922 15,989 656 2,253 8,980 3,933 10,924 222 576 862 135 148 7,588 683 172 122 2,098 4,834 302 5,205 511 2,471 1,779 1,804 120 1,839 102 105 1,963 7,004 922 1,006 1,091 1,876 4,170 119 1,498 1,816 566 1,159 14,802 2,008 615 649 307 364 382 941 3,286 1,581 3,918 604 257 1,648 168 400 906,814 916,992 , 572 E xports a nd I mports of each S t a t e , etc ., in 1844. , Statement o f the Commerce o f each State and Territory from the ls£ o f July, 1843, to the 3 0 th o f June 1844. VALU E OF EXPORTS. S tates and T erritories . DOMESTIC PRODUCE. In American vessels. M aine,,... N . Hamps Vermont,.. FOREIGN PRODUCE. Total. $1,031,281 4,040 196,574 5,734,949 202,608 745,773 20,378,600 13,889 3,032,598 125,771 3,837,106 410,515 2,594,394 263,440 3,202,386 1,708,782 4,970,470 20,324,093 1,004,844 139,783 328,844 34,961 4,227,199 2,575,023 4,935,755 9,118,641 $1,164,964 5,994 196,574 6,371,836 257,602 798,725 26,009,177 13,889 3,265,027 125,771 4,841,950 550,298 2,923,238 298,401 7,429,585 4,283,805 9,906,195 29,442,734 97,954 445,902 543,856 293,901 537,281 454,376 293,901 991,657 $133,683 1,954 636,887 54,994 52,952 5,630,577 232,429 In American vessels. In foreign vessels. Total. $2 46 662 216,793 2,371,973 3,175 1,291 5,194,108 4,300 251,491 406 263,822 6,061 19,041 1,658,255 871 2,826 3,697 409,761 1,459 645,812 1,459 1,055,573 $10,925 28 352,477 18,798 27,394 3,193 $11,171 690 216,793 2,724,450 3,175 1,291 6,852,363 4,300 270,229 406 291,216 9,254 19,041 Total o f domes tic and foreign In American vessels. produce. $1,176,135 6,684 413,367 9,096,286 260,777 800,016 32,861,540 18,189 3,535,256 126,177 5,133,166 559,552 2,942,279 298,401 7,433,282 4,283,805 9,907,654 30,498,307 543,856 153 19,606 19,759 293,901 1,011,416 $500,242 27,185 97,183 15,444,060 265,825 317,135 58,315,222 6,833,300 8,093 3,659,794 44,385 226,328 196,227 792,560 213,701 246,955 6,693,573 25,627 31,510 19,379 120,673 95,716 In foreign vessels. $70,582 31,235 4,851,947 3,612 6,164 6,764,294 17,670 383,967 257,956 21,243 41,326 12,915 338,955 91,933 195,863 1,133,216 4,505 59,979 Total. $5 70,824 31,420 97,183 20,296,007 269,437 323,299 65,079,516 17,670 7,217,267 8,093 3,917,750 65,628 267,654 209,142 1,131,515 305,634 442,818 7,826,789 25,627 36,015 19,379 120,673 155,695 $69,706,375 $30,008,804 $99,715,179 $8,744,154 $2,740,713 $11,484,867 $111,200,046 $94,174,673 $14,260,362 $108,435,035 Commercial Statistics. Connecticut,... N ew Y ork ,.... N ew Jersey,... Pennsylvania,.. Delaware,....... Maryland,....... Dis. o f C ol...... Virginia,.......... N . Carolina,... S. Carolina,.... G eorgia,......... Alabama,......... Louisiana,....... Mississippi, T en n essee,.... Missouri,......... Ohio,................ Kentucky,....... M ichigan,........ Florida Terr’y, In foreign vessels. VALUE OF IMPORTS. T onnage C leared from each S t a t e , etc ., of the U nited S t ates . Statement o f the Tonnage Cleared from each State and Territory, from the 1st o f July, 1843, to the 30th o f June, 1844. T otal A merican F oreign. A merican. S tates and T erritories . Men. 3,756 9 1,745 11>78 986 2,070 53^664 26 3,223 193 3,167 415 1,867 1,724 2,110 949 1,766 9^097 33 2,653 Florida Territory,.... 1 98 Total,................ 8,343 N ew Y o r k ,................ Pennsylvania,........... Dis. o f Columbia,... North Carolina,........ South Carolina,........ Louisiana,................. No. Tons. Boys. Men. 174 1 564 85 53 189 1,696 Boys. 61,929 .4,515 3,409 202 38 1,291 8 40 2,213 105,118 1,782 4,780 414,625 6,580 76 253 31,515 1 588 59 8,267 443 71 111 24 29 30 159 75 86 289 21,205 3^983 7,343 4,068 48,926 38,901 53,933 10lj056 1,211 197 333 229 1,839 1,363 1,918 4^306 132 144 14,162 18 10,247 4 619 60 38 2,010,924 99,300 5,500 11 2 51 9 3,108 Boys. Men. 754 90 270 3 Tons. 457 86 236 293 397 168 220 1,001 152,949 4,716 56,336 334,399 19,253 38,161 1,393,438 609 79,277 3,882 91,039 13^284 51,443 39,544 98,727 62,475 101,035 338,235 7,165 211 1,745 18^358 1,062 2,323 85,179 26 3,666 193 4,378 612 2,200 1,953 3,949 2,312 3,684 13,403 645 177 16,815 777 5,757 6,099 281 275 61 136 5,775 16,346 285 895 906,814 55,075 13,843 2,917,738 154,375 7 258 1 964 1,257 92 340 2,356 101 193 5,792 2 453 212 1 564 86 53 189 2,284 341 3 18 2 309 10 4,072 573 91,020 201 56,336 229^281 17,471 33^381 978^813 609 70,650 3,882 69,834 9,301 44,100 35^476 49,801 23,574 47,097 237^179 No. Commercial Statistics. 503 2 340 1,065 93 153 3,579 2 394 25 346 62 207 263 238 93 134 712 Massachusetts,......... F oreign. Crews. T ors. No. Maine,....................... N ew Hampshire,.... and 574 T onnage E ntered into each S t a t e , etc ., op the U nited S t ates . , , Statement o f the Tonnage Entered into each State and Teiritory, from the ls£ o f July 1843, to the 3 0 th o f June 1844. A merican. S tates and T erritories . Crews. No. No. 2,046 192 1,738 12,785 890 1,544 57,708 377 12 298 24 94 196 163 58 102 730 76,795 1,957 61,469 4)360 18,552 25,814 28,604 9,274 27,095 21R656 3,299 122 2,622 197 832 1.281 1,318 480 1,085 8)426 30 2,691 Florida Territory,.. 3 114 129 11,490 Total,............. 8,148 1,977,438 Massachusetts,......... Rhode Island,......... N ew Y ork ,............... Pennsylvania,........... Dis. o f Columbia,... North Carolina,...... South Carolina,........ L ouisiana,............... Men. 102 10 Men. Boys. 758 94 61,608 4,758 3,387 214 36 1,294 8 45 2,331 3 71 104,545 1,021 5,378 433)742 297 12,738 6,782 55 277 32,418 14 600 1 111 22 21 27 152 73 86 281 21,344 3,430 4,702 3)529 47,239 37,004 53,676 99)705 1,116 173 220 203 1,805 1,368 ' 1,903 4,321 134 88 8,570 358 6 754 75 37 7,149 6)557 397 5,577 916,992 55,948 97,459) 546 474 31 90 1,781 305 1 3 8 37 33 3,421 Tons. No. 579 104 7 271 6 ........ 337 1,004 Boys. 406 1,738 19)567 945 1,821 90,126 14 3,899 122 3,738 370 1,052 1,484 3,123 1,848 2,988 1,011 113,623 10,950 55,495 378,388 18,767 31,643 1,499,738 297 89,533 1,957 82,813 7,790 23,254 29)343 75,843 46,278 80)771 311,361 118 11,261 492 78 151 7,278 18)047 343 1,151 13,725 2,894,430 153,407 1,026 108 348 2,509 102 164 6,220 3 448 12 409 46 115 223 315 131 188 5,4 33 12)747 138 10 546 475 31 90 2,360 409 1 10 8 308 39 4,425 Commercial Statistics, 52,015 6,192 55,495 273,843 17,746 26,265 1,065,996 F oreign. Crews. Tons. Boys. 268 14 348 1,215 94 119 3,889 and Crews. Tons. Men. M aine,....................... N ew Hampshire,,... T otal A merican F oreign. 575 Com mercial Statistics. A C ondensed V ie w op the T onnage of the several D istricts op the U nited S t at e s , on THE 3 0 t h OF J une, 1 8 4 4 . ♦ Districts. Passamaquoddy, M aine,................ it Machias, it Frenchman’s Bay, it Penobscot, < 4 Belfast, tl Waldoborough, ll Wiscasset, if Bath, it Portland, fi Saco, a Kennebunk, n Y ork, Vermont,.............. Burlington, N . Hampshire,......... Portsmouth, Massachusetts,.......... Newburyport, tt Ipswich, «t Gloucester, a Salem, a Marblehead, ts Boston, u Plymouth, tt Fall River, it N ew Bedford, it Barnstable, ft Edgartown, tt Nantucket, Providence, Rhode Island,.......... (( Bristol, tt Newport, Middletown, Connecticut,......... it N ew London, tl Stonington, it N ew Haven, it Fairfield, ■Champlain, N ew Y o r k ,......... ft Sackett’s Harbor, il Oswego, tt Niagara, ti Genesee, it Oswegatchie, if Buffalo Creek, it Sag Harbor, it N ew York, it Cape Vincent, Perth Amboy, N ew Jersey,......... ft Bridgetown, if Burlington, if Camden, it Newark, it Little E gg Harbor ................ Great E gg Harbor, “ Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,......... tl Presqu’isle, a Pittsburgh, Delaware,........... Wilmington, tt Newcastle, Baltimore, Maryland,............ 41 Oxford, Registered tonnage. 3 ,2 9 8 1 ,0 3 7 1 ,7 1 4 5 ,5 2 1 1 1 ,1 3 4 1 8 ,6 2 1 5 ,3 4 2 3 8 ,9 3 8 4 0 ,8 4 5 1 ,5 4 4 4 ,8 8 2 15 94 58 31 73 68 58 85 89 35 80 1 4 ,6 4 5 7 4 1 6 ,1 6 2 6 5 2 ,6 8 1 2 1 ,9 3 1 1 ,5 2 6 1 7 5 ,3 3 0 6 ,8 2 5 2 ,7 1 6 9 4 ,7 4 7 5 ,9 9 5 6 ,9 5 6 2 7 ,7 4 9 1 6 ,4 7 6 1 2 ,4 5 4 6 ,4 4 7 1 ,0 8 2 2 8 ,1 2 5 6 ,0 1 2 5 ,1 5 2 713 76 74 47 52 74 22 26 25 52 39 63 81 00 58 68 80 39 93 1 9 ,6 1 8 5 9 2 5 3 ,8 8 8 2 3 2 1 8 09 227 30 5 5 2 86 4 0 ,2 9 5 59 2 ,2 0 9 63 4 1 ,5 4 1 4 0 Enrolled and licensed tpnnage. Tons and 95 ths. 5 ,8 7 8 1 3 ,0 5 7 1 7 ,9 0 4 2 1 ,9 5 9 2 4 ,2 5 3 3 8 ,7 3 5 9 ,5 5 8 1 8 ,8 9 1 1 6 ,5 0 1 2 ,1 7 6 2 ,3 7 4 1 ,1 5 5 2 ,7 6 2 8 ,2 7 9 4 ,9 1 0 2 ,0 5 1 1 3 ,1 6 1 1 2 ,3 2 2 8 ,0 9 9 3 5 ,5 5 4 9 ,0 3 9 4 ,9 5 4 9 ,3 8 1 3 4 ,2 1 2 1 ,1 3 1 3 ,7 6 5 5 ,5 1 5 2 ,4 8 2 4 ,7 9 5 9 ,5 3 9 9 ,6 4 0 4 ,8 3 0 6 ,2 8 3 1 0 ,7 9 3 3 ,1 9 2 3 ,0 5 5 9 ,3 8 7 12 235 1 ,0 2 2 2 0 ,8 2 2 6 ,0 6 8 2 7 1 ,2 7 3 2 ,7 2 0 1 9 ,5 3 8 1 0 ,4 4 9 4 ,1 0 4 5 ,4 2 9 1 3 ,0 1 5 4 ,7 3 8 1 0 ,4 0 9 7 4 ,5 9 9 4 ,2 1 3 9 ,2 3 2 3 ,8 7 8 4 ,8 2 4 3 4 ,9 6 1 9 ,8 6 1 16 40 74 39 79 81 82 02 88 67 11 72 86 50 55 56 91 32 81 47 30 00 02 38 37 15 54 14 94 31 39 30 17 30 34 23 89 49 05 03 23 32 75 51 50 59 66 28 01 89 53 24 46 71 39 16 72 28 Total ton nage of each dist. 9 ,1 7 6 1 4 ,0 9 5 1 9 ,6 1 9 2 7 ,4 8 0 3 5 ,3 8 8 5 7 ,3 5 7 1 4 ,9 0 1 5 7 ,8 2 9 5 7 ,3 4 7 3 ,7 2 1 7 ,2 5 6 1 ,1 5 5 2 ,7 6 2 2 2 ,9 2 5 2 1 ,0 7 3 2 ,0 5 1 1 5 ,8 4 3 3 4 ,2 5 4 9 ,6 2 6 2 1 0 ,8 8 5 1 5 ,8 6 5 7 ,6 7 0 1 0 4 ,1 2 8 4 0 ,2 0 7 8 ,0 8 7 3 1 ,5 1 4 2 1 ,9 9 2 1 4 ,9 3 7 1 1 ,2 4 2 1 0 ,6 2 1 3 7 ,7 6 6 1 0 ,8 4 3 1 1 ,4 3 5 1 1 ,5 0 7 3 ,1 9 2 3 ,0 5 5 9 ,3 8 7 12 235 1 ,0 2 2 2 0 ,8 2 2 2 5 ,6 8 6 5 2 5 ,1 6 2 2 ,7 2 0 1 9 ,7 5 6 1 0 ,6 7 6 4 ,1 0 4 5 ,4 2 9 1 3 ,5 6 7 4 ,7 3 8 1 0 ,4 0 9 1 1 4 ,8 9 4 4 ,2 1 3 9 ,2 3 2 6 ,0 8 8 4 ,8 2 4 7 6 ,5 0 3 9 ,8 6 1 31 39 37 70 57 54 45 87 82 07 91 72 86 29 25 56 72 11 33 04 09 22 28 63 89 54 22 00 94 89 12 15 56 28 34 23 89 49 05 03 23 91 03 51 59 89 66 28 87 89 53 83 46 71 07 16 17 28 576 Commercial Statistics. A C ondensed V i e w oe t h e T onnage of t h e several D ist r ic t s of t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , on the 3 0 t h of J u n e , Districts. Vienna, Snow Hill, St. Mary’s, T ow n Creek, Annapolis, Georgetown, Alexandria, Norfolk, Petersburg, Richmond, Yorktown, East River, Tappahannock, Folly Landing, Y ecom ico, Cherrystone, W heeling, Wilmington, Newbern, Washington, Edenton, Camden, Beaufort, Plymouth, Ocracoke, Charleston, Beaufort, Georgetown, Savannah, Maryland,............ ft (I Cf ft Dist. o f Columbia,___ (i Virginia,.............. U tt it it it «« it ti it North Carolina,...... it (( ft it ii ti it South C arolina,,..... ti ii Georgia,.............. 1844—Continued. Enrolled and Registered licensed tonnage. tonnage. Tons and 95ths. 337 75 12,178 55 6,313 50 1,778 66 1,574 16 2,492 19 2,633 68 6,367 11 6,591 48 3,945 48 8,515 46 19,034 84 698 39 948 76 4,536 88 3,514 47 2,001 35 3,219 52 4,383 46 406 93 2,931 50 3,227 27 1,495 37 1,340 18 11,222 54 3,504 65 2,416 31 1,558 90 2,215 02 1,267 12 1,060 77 158 03 802 64 8,173 92 1,401 49 254 80 898 14 1,015 83 1,088 45 9,864 15 9,445 87 329 92 566 44 941 68 8,132 17 6,492 41 Total tonnage of each dist. 12,516 6,313 1,778 1,574 2,492 9,000 10,537 18,550 1,647 8,051 2,001 3,219 4,790 2,931 3,227 1,495 1,340 14,727 3,975 3,482 1,218 8,976 1,656 1,914 1,088 19,310 329 1,508 14,624 35 50 66 16 19 79 02 35 20 40 35 52 44 50 27 37 18 24 26 14 80 61 34 02 45 07 92 17 58 ft Brunswick, if 698 07 779 66 1,477 73 ti St. Mary's, Pensacola, St. Augustine, Apalachicola, St. Mark’s, St. John’s, K ey W est, Mobile, Pearl River, N ew Orleans, Teche, Nashville, Louisville, Cuyahoga, Sandusky, Cincinnati, Miami, Detroit, Miehilimackinac, St. Louis, Total,. ft Florida,............... ti 765 52 1,066 67 396 62 tt it ti ft Alabama,............. Mississippi,........... Louisiana,............ n 2,443 82 3,827 33 55,620 88 Tennessee,........... K entucky,........... Ohio,.................. it tt u M ichigan,............ tt Missouri,............. 1,068,764 91 237 866 212 3,090 142 309 1,049 11,387 1,341 105,422 726 5,688 7,114 14,196 2,407 13,139 2,371 14,901 498 16,664 30 89 46 24 18 13 15 11 10 04 01 78 44 84 22 39 52 17 75 53 1,211,330 11 1,002 1,933 609 3,090 142 309 3,493 15,214 1,341 161,042 726 5,688 7,114 14,196 2,407 13,139 2,371 14,901 498 16,664 82 61 13 24 18 13 02 44 10 92 01 78 44 84 22 39 52 17 75 53 2,280,095 0 7 577 Commercial Statistics, T he N umber and C lass of V essels bu ilt , and the T onnage thereof , in each S tate T er rito ry of the U . S tates , for the ye a r ending 30 th J une, 1844. States. M aine,.............. N. Hampshire,. Verm ont,......... Massachusetts,.. Rhode Island,. Connecticut,.... N ew Y ork ...... N ew Jersey,.... Pennsylvania,.. Delaware,......... Maryland,......... Dis. of Colum., Virginia,........... N. Carolina,..... S. Carolina,___ Georgia,............ Florida,............. Alabama,.......... Mississippi,...... Louisiana,........ Missouri,........... Tennessee,....... Kentucky,......... O h io ,................ Michigan,......... Total,........ Ships. 27 1 Brigs. 15 18 5 1 11 5 2 ii 4 3 1 6 6 Sl’psand Steamcanal-b’ts. boats. 2 Schrs. 52 2 19 i 8 27 10 2 4 42 9 116 10 96 3 1 31 2 3 1 1 7 16 1 36 4 1 2 9 2 35 43 4 279 163 4 9 4 4 2 i i 73 8 2 1 4 8 47 204 ,, ,, Total. 96 3 and Tons. 95ths. 20,200 17 754 88 43 7 25 181 21 141 8 55 31 10 12 7 1 1 9,584 2,813 2,914 21,518 1,332 13,075 585 5,417 850 717 587 583 72 72 75 76 12 79 84 68 87 81 13 30 18 59 11 22 is 9 2 35 49 14 668 2,567 271 7,165 9,498 2,284 89 08 21 11 39 87 766 103,537 29 HAVRE COTTON TRAD E, FOR TEN YEARS. S tatement _____ Years. 1844,.bales 1843,......... 1842,......... 1841,......... 1840,......... 1839,......... 1838,......... 1837,......... 1836,......... 1835,......... of I mports , D eliveries, and Stock 1st January. T7 A 11 U. States. All kinds. 100,000 88,200 110,000 101,400 90,000 84,000 75,000 80,000 57,000 . 48,400 30,500 33,700 33,000 28,800 34,300 45,500 12,200 18,800 19,700 22,000 from J a n . 1, to D ec. 31, for 10 year s . Imports. Deliveries. TT ,l„ ft All l.:_ -1_ U. States. AA llll kinds. U. States. All kinds. 266,515 279,095 306,415 326,095 303,327 325,297 312,038 330,373 341,516 369,197 324,116 349,197 341,463 357,383 332,463 347,383 362,045 375,643 335,445 352,642 227,778 264,168 209,888 240,868 294,520 273,864 272,164 293.820 248,859 226,817 261,359 221,317 260,286 226,370 204,270 233,586 195,555 188,055 214,509 217,700 S tocks, A M E R IC A N C H E E S E . The rapid increase o f this important item o f the dairy, at the west, is astonishing. Last year, the aggregate value o f the amount that passed through the canals and the Hudson river, was over one million and a half dollars. W e gather the following statis tics in relation to cheese, from the canal office records at A lbany:— A 1834,..................................lbs. 1835......................................... 1836, ............................... 1837, ............................... 1838.......................................... 18 39,........................................ VOX.. X I I .---- NO. V I . rrived a t the 6.340.000 9.586.000 14.060.000 15.560.000 13.810.000 14.530.000 H udson R iver . 1840, 1841, 1842, 1843, 1844, 36 18,820,000 14.170.000 19.004.000 23.334.000 26,674,500 578 Com mercial Statistics. T he shipments to foreign nations have averaged, for the last ten years, about 3,000,000 lbs. annually. This went to forty-two countries. Within the two past years, the market in England has been gradually gaining; and there was exported there— In 1843,.............................................................................................. lbs. 1844, (estimated,)............................................................................. 2,253,416 5,000,000 M A N U F A C T U R E S S H IP P E D F R O M L IV E R P O O L T O N E W Y O R K . T he quantity o f manufactured goods shipped from Liverpool to N ew Y ork, from O c tober, 1844, to March, 1845, inclusive, was about 9,500 packages less than during the same period the previous season. T he duties at the custom-house have been propor- tionably less. N umber of P ackages of M anufactured G oods W oollen s. Cases. Blankets. Bales. shipped from L iverpool to N ew Y ork . Worsted s tu ffs . Cottons. Linens. Silks. Hosiery, etc. Tot. 1844— October, N ov’r,... D ec’r ,. . 1845— Jan’r y ,. Febr’y , . M arch,.. 21 22 9 66 70 399 109 128 300 303 429 319 87 182 427 499 256 151 246 549 1,269 1,212 698 160 3D9 863 2,015 1,803 1,149 290 801 901 2,068 1,798 1,294 734 14 3 119 8 15 2 325 412 490 535 575 409 1,906 3,060 6,695 6,224 4,486 2,464 T otal,............ 587 1,588 1,602 4,134 6,429 7,596 161 2,746 24,835 1843— October, N ov’r,... D ec’r ,. . 1844— Jan’ry,... Feb’ry ,. M arch,. 67 55 83 286 45 364 219 538 374 522 287 402 101 413 778 736 380 304 305 808 1,684 1,548 730 690 472 2,920 3,003 2,547 1,102 661 916 1,436 1,530 2,238 1,337 1,608 7 72 126 91 32 8 341 746 744 966 402 246 2,428 6,088 8,322 8,934 4,315 4,283 Total,............ 900 2,342 2,712 5,765 10,705 9,065 336 3,445 34,370 IM P O R T S A N D E X P O R T S O F E G Y P T , IN 1844. A statement has been drawn up and printed by an employee o f the British Consulate at Alexandria, showing the amount o f imports and exports to and from Egypt, in the year 1844. T he total value o f imports, o f all descriptions, to Egypt, from different coun tries, is computed at £1,131,000. T he total imports from Great Britain amount to £352,000 sterling; o f which are, among other articles, the follow in g:— C oal,........................................tons Cotton twist,.........................bdls. In d ig o,...—............................ tons Manufactured cotton goods,. . ps. 20,000, valued at £30,000 sterling. 47,800 “ 15,000 “ 40 “ 15,000 « 670,000 “ 254,000 “ T he total number o f merchant ships o f all nations arrived in Alexandria, in 1844, amounted to 3,177, o f which 211 were English, o f the burthen o f 48,000 tons. T he total value o f exports, o f all descriptions, from Egypt, to different countries, is £1,302,000 sterling; o f which, to Great Britain and Malta, the amount is £452,000 sterling, com prising, among other articles— W heat,.........................quarters Beans,........................................ Linseed,..................................... Flax,....................................tons Cotton,....................................... 130,000, valued at £120,000 sterling. 177,000 « 113,000 “ 15,000 « 17,000 « 2,600 “ 41,000 “ 3,435 “ 115,000 “ T he total number o f merchant ships sailed from Alexandria amounts to 1,318, o f which 203 are English, o f the burthen o f 42,000 tons. 579 Commercial Statistics, IM P O R T O F T E A IN T O T H E U N IT E D S T A T E S . In the Merchants’ Magazine, for March, 1845, we published full and official tables of the export o f tea into Great Britain from China. W e now annex the comparative import o f teas into the United States during seasons commencing July 1, 1842-43, and ending July 1,1 8 4 3 -4 4 — 1 8 4 2 -4 3 . 86,052 chests. *4 15,759 (( 25,223 U 10,725 a 8,806 u 44,450 t< 10,502 u 1,063 «( 1,390 Y oung Hyson,... H yson,................ Twankey and Skin,................... Gunpowder,...... Im perial,........... Congou and Souchong,............... Powchong,......... P ecco,................. O olong,.............. 1 8 4 3 -4 4 . 77,099 chests 8,068 “ 26,138 “ 6,001 “ 4,841 “ 44,133 “ 13,469 “ 1,243 “ 1,380 « ct Totals, 1st July,................ 203,970 Total number o f pounds,. ................... ..................... ............ 182,372 14,357,264 « E M IG R A T IO N F R O M T H E U N IT E D K IN G D O M TO FOREIGN COUNTRIES AND BRITISH COLONIES. Emigration from the United Kingdom during the twenty years, from 1825 to 1844, inclusive. Australia and U. States. N. A. colonies. Years New Zealand. All other places. Total. 485 8,741 5,551 114 1825,.......... 14,891 7,063 903 12,818 116 1 8 2 6 ,......... 20,900 14,526 715 12,618 1827,.......... 114 28,003 1,056 12,817 12,084 1828,.......... 135 26,092 2,016 13,307 15,678 1829,.......... 197 31,198 24,887 1,242 30,574 204 1830,.......... 56,907 1,561 58,067 23,418 114 1831,.......... 83,160 30,872 3,733 66,339 196 1832,.......... 103,140 28,808 29,109 4,093 517 1 8 3 3 ,......... 62,527 40,060 33,074 2,800 288 1834,.......... 76,222 1,860 15,573 26,720 325 1835,.......... 44,478 34,226 37,774 3,124 293 1836,.......... 75,417 29,884 36,770 5,054 326 1837,................ 72,031 14,332 14,021 4,577 292 1838,.......... 33,222 33,536 15,786 12,658 227 1839,.......... 62,207 40,642 32,293 15,850 1,958 1840,.......... 90,743 45,017 32,625 38,164 2,786 1841,.......... 118,592 63,852 8,534 54,123 1,835 128,344 1842,.......... 28,335 3,478 23,518 1,881 1843,.......... 57,212 2,229 22,924 43,660 1,873 1844,.......... 70,686 569,633 551,386 121,165 13,791 T ota l,. Average annual emigration from U. Kingdom, for last twenty years,.... 1,255,975 62,799 B U IL D IN G S E R E C T E D IN N E W Y O R K , IN 1844. 2d “ 3d “ 4th “ 5th « 6th “ 7th “ 8th “ 9th “ ' .......... .......... ......... .......... .......... .......... .......................... . .......... .......................... ......... 47 ......... 16 ......... 40 ......... 12 ......... 34 ......... 22 ......... 55 ......... 48 ......... 136 10 th ward,.. llt h “ .. 12th “ .. 13th “ .. 14th “ .. 15th “ .. 16th “ .. 17th “ .. ... ... . . .................. 49 .................. 87 .................. 16 ................... 49 .................. 26 .................. 149 .................. 292 .................. 136 580 Canal and R ailroad Statistics. C A N A L A ND R A I L R O A D S T A T I S T I C S . DELAW ARE AND HUDSON CANAL REPORT. T he capital o f this company consists o f 20,000 shares, o f $ 1 0 0 each, amounting to $2,000,000. The amount o f the debt, guaranteed by the state o f N ew Y ork, amounts to $8 00 ,0 0 0 ; making a total o f $2,800,000. T he amount o f profits for the year ending March 1, 1845, was $250,984 36— equal to 13 per cent on the capital stock. Amount of dividends declared during the year 1844, 10 per cent S tatement of A rticles transported on the the ye a r Merchandise,..........................tons Plaster,............................................ Cem ent,.,........................................ Tanners’ bark,............................... Leather,.......................................... Stone, brick, and lime,................ Millstones,...................................... Staves, hoop-poles,and lath,. . . 8,414 922 5,835 311 1,250 1,425 447 442 D elaw are and H udson C an al , Manufactures o f w ood,................ Glass and glass-ware,.................. Coal, screened, & c., up canal,. . Charcoal,........................................ Sundries, posts, rails, & c............. 1,373 751 392 299 681 Total tons,........................... 22,547 Cords o f w ood,................................................. Number o f shingles, pine,.............................. “ “ hemlock,....................... Ship timber, in cubic feet,.............................. Hard-wood lumber, in board measure,. Pine “ “ “ Hem lock “ “ “ S tatement of the B usiness T o coal on hand Mar. 1,1844, mining coal,...................... railroad transp’n and rep., freight o f coal to Rondout, canal rep. and superinten., labor and exp. at Rondout, interest bn state stocks,. . rents, salaries, current ex penses, &c., N . Y . , . . . Balance,............................. 2,718 25,400 129,000 35,440 1,984,311 2,228,832 3,196,769 D ela w ar e and H udson C an al C ompany' , YEAR ENDING MARCH 1 . 1 8 4 5 . of the $71,054 132,364 117,543 242,872 77,756 22,417 38,325 25 13 90 70 18 77 00 during 1844. for the By sales o f coal...................... $864,107 31 canal and railroad tolls,. 33,525 61 interest received,............ 15,458 91 73,452 55 coal on hand,.................. Total,........................... $986,544 38 By balance,................. -$258,948 36 25,262 09 258,948 36 Total,.......................... $9 86,544 38 C ost of the W P roperty of the D ela w ar e and H udson C an al C ompany , AND AVAILABLE FUNDS, ON the 1 s t of M arch , 1 8 4 5 . orks and 108 miles o f canal,............ 16 miles o f railroad,........ Canal boat, barges, and steamboat,....................... Real estate........................... S tatement of $2,406,977 89 503,579 95 Coal on hand, and cash funds, etc........................ $307,157 06 125,060 05 120,911 39 T otal,,................... $3,463,686 34 T olls received on the D elaw are and H udson C anal EACH YEAR, FROM THE COMPLETION OF THE WORK. 1830, ......................... 1831, ......................... 1832, ........................ ’1833.................................... 1834 ........................ 1835 ........................ 1836, ........................ 1837, ........................ $16,42 2 20,554 28,717 37,004 36,946 41,976 45,154 44,832 44 64 51 58 07 82 73 42 $271,609 21 Carried over.............. 1838............................ 1839,........................... 1840,........................... 1841............................ 1842,........................... 1843,........................... 1844,........................... Total, and R ailroad , in $271,609 21 33,894 93 30,996 53 $ 5 2 5 ,2 8 8 5 7 Com mercial R egulations. 581 R A T E S O F F R E IG H T O N T H E E R IE C A N A L . T he forwarders on the Erie canal have opened the campaign with lower rates o f freight than ever before known. They advertise to carry flour from Buffalo to Albany for 55 cents per barrel; and, as 35 cents o f this amount goes to the state for toll, they receiv# only 22 cents for carrying a barrel o f flour 363 miles. road, they would receive only 45 cents, including tolls. are reduced 20 per cent. charge only 8 cents. A t the rate o f the Western rail On the Hudson, also, the rates Last year, they carried flour for 10 cents per barrel; now, they There was a combination among the forwarders in 1844, to keep up the p rice; now, they combine to reduce it T he charge, during the past season, was 87J cents per barrel o f flour, from Buffalo to N ew Y o r k ; now ,it is 53 cents, (45-f-8,) or 24J cents per barrel less. COMMERCIAL REGULATIONS. IN S T R U C T IO N S T O T H E C O L L E C T O R S O F T H E C U S TO M S , RELATIVE TO THE ACT PASSED AT THE LAST SESSION OF CONGRESS, ALLOWING DRAWBACK ON GOODS EXPORTED TO THE TERRITORIES ADJOINING THE UNITED STATES. T he following circular instructions to collectors o f the customs, dated Treasury Depart ment, April 10th, 1845, are explanatory o f the act o f Congress, approved March 3d, 1845 ; which will be found in the Merchants’ Magazine, for May, 1845, No. V., Vol. X II., page 487. Herewith you will receive an act entitled “ A n act allowing drawback upon foreign merchandise exported in the original packages to Chihuahua and Santa F e, in M exico, and to the British North American provinces adjoining the United States,” approved the 3d o f March, 1845, accompanied with forms and instructions for carrying the same into execution. The first six sections o f the act apply to the exportation o f merchandise " in the ori ginal packages as imported,” to Chihuahua, in M exico, or Santa Fe, in N ew M exico, either by the route o f the Arkansas river, through Van Buren, or by the route o f Red river, through Fulton, or by the route o f the Missouri river, through Independence. Con sequently, foreign imported merchandise exported or conveyed to the places in M exico or N ew M exico, mentioned, by any other routes than those indicated in the act, will not be entitled to a drawback o f the import duties. It is also to be remarked, that the exporta tion o f merchandise by the routes and to the places before mentioned, can only be made from the original port o f importation. In pursuance o f the authority vested in the Secretary o f the Treasury, by the 11th sec tion o f the act, the following rules, regulations, and forms, are prescribed, and are to be strictly enforced. F irst.— In regard to the exportation o f merchandise to Chihuahua and Santa F e :— On first giving twenty-four hours notice at the custom-house, o f intention to export, the exporter must make due entry, and for that purpose must produce the invoice required by the 2d section o f the act. Said entry must recite the invoice in detail; and, in addition, give a particular description o f the merchandise, whence and by whom imported, the name o f the vessel, and the time o f importation, with the original invoice value o f the goods ; and also state the destination, and the route which the merchandise is to be trans ported. The entry must, in all cases, be verified by the oath or affirmation of the person making the same, together with the oath or affirmation o f the first importer, with that o f any person through whose hands the merchandise may have passed, declaring the same to be in the original package or packages, and that the duties have been paid or secured. Inspection o f the packages should also be carefully made by a proper officer o f the cus toms, at the time o f making the entry. T he bond required by the 5th section o f the act must be given by the exporter. In consideration o f the large inland transportation, and the consequent risk o f injury, and defacing the marks on the packages, thereby rendering it difficult to identify them, it is deemed proper, for the more effectual security o f the revenue, to require that each package shall be enclosed in a strong wooden box or covering, on which the same marks and numbers are to be placed as those on the inner package. T he inner package is to be secured with a strong cord or rope, with the custom-house seal attached. 582 Com mercial R egulations, Forms o f entry, invoice ceitificates, and oaths, are herewith transmitted, marked from A to D, inclusive. Second.— T he remaining sections o f the act apply to the exportation of merchandise for benefit o f drawback to the British North American provinces adjoining the United ^States, and enumerating certain ports, “ declared ports from which foreign goods, wares, and merchandise, on which the import duty has been paid, or secured to be paid, may be exported to ports in the adjoining British provinces, and to which ports foreign goods, wares, and merchandise, may be transported, inland or by water, from the port o f original importation, under existing provisions o f law, to be thence exported for the benefit of drawback.” T he course to be pursued in the transportation, inland, o f foreign merchandise, in the original packages as imported, to the designated ports o f exportation enumerated in the 7th section o f the act, is to be similar to that prescribed in the 79th section of the general collection act o f 2d March, 1799 ; and all the legal requirements and forms o f law must be strictly pursued, in cases arising under this act. In the exportation by sea to ports in the adjoining British provinces, all the existing requisitions o f law, regulating the exportation o f merchandise to foreign ports, for the benefit o f drawback, must be fully complied with. On the arrival o f merchandise transported inland, at either o f the enumerated ports of exportation, a strict and thorough examination o f the same must be made by an officer of the customs, to see that the goods are identical with those described in the accompanying transportation certificate, granted by the collector o f the port from whence they may have been originally transported. In the event o f any detention o f the merchandise, at the port o f exportation, for any cause, said merchandise must be deposited either in the custom-house, or in some secure store-house, to be selected by the collector, the keys o f which must be lodged in his hands. A ny expense for storage must be defrayed by the owner or consignee o f the goods. Before exporting the goods to their destined port in the adjoining British pro*vinces, entry must be made according to the forms herewith marked E and F. On the return o f the manifest with the certificate thereon, in due form, to the collector o f the port o f exportation, it must be immediately transmitted to the collector o f the district and port from whence the goods were originally transported, in order that the drawback o f the duties may be duly paid by the collector o f said port. It is to be specially noted, that the law contemplating the probable retention o f the original manifest at the foreign custom-house, requires a duplicate, or certified copy o f the same, to be granted at the time o f exportation, on which is to be endorsed the cer tificate o f the foreign collector, and also the oath or affirmation of the master. C A N A D A C U S T O M -H O U S E D U T IE S C IR C U L A R . T he following circular, dated “ Inspector-General’s Office, Montreal, April 7, 1845,” addressed to the collectors o f customs at the different ports in that province, and signed Jos. Carey, Deputy Inspector-General, refers to the act o f Congress allowing drawback on goods exported to the territories adjoining the United States:— S ir:— W ith reference to a recent act o f the Congress o f the United States, allowing drawback on merchandise exported to the British provinces in North America, which, no doubt, has come under your notice, I have the honor to remind you that articles so exported from the United States, into this province, will be liable to the payment o f the duties imposed by the acts o f the provincial legislature, and also to the duties under the imperial act 5 and 6 Victoria, cap. 49, whether such goods are originally the growth, pro duction, or manufacture o f the United Kingdom, or o f any o f the British possessions in America, & c., or otherwise. On this point, your attention is requested to the 27th section o f the imperial act 3 and 4 William IV ., cap. 59, which enacts “ that no goods shall, upon importation into any of the British possessions in America, be deemed to be o f the growth, production, or manu facture o f the United Kingdom, or o f any British possessions in America, unless imported from the United Kingdom, or from some British possessions in America.” Consequently, all articles imported into this province, from or through the United States, are deemed foreign, although any o f such articles may be the growth, production, or manufacture o f the United K ingdom ; which, when so imported, must be held to be liable to duty as foreign g oods; that is, to the duties in full imposed both by the acts o f the imperial Par liament, and o f the provincial legislature, imposing duties o f customs, now in force, v iz : Imperial A ct 5 and 6 Victoria, cap. 49, and Provincial A ct 8 Victoria, cap. 3, and 6 V ic toria, cap. 31, the one in addition to the other.” Com mercial R egulations . 583 C H IN A N E W R E G U L A T IO N S F O R V E S S E L S . A circular has been published by the government o f Macao, intimating that all vessels in the Typa would, after the 26th December, 1844, be subject to new regulations. It is reported that many o f them will remove in consequence, and take up their anchorage at Nine Islands. T he Royal Senate o f Macao, under the superintendence o f the governor, and the as sistance o f the judge, makes known to the public, that, after this date, the vessels that enter the inner harbor, outside, and Typa, will be subject to the regulations o f the police o f the port, and custom-house; paying, besides the duties on the goods, as per tariff, the anchorage o f five mace per ton, without further fees. Vessels that wish for a pilot, are requested to apply for the same to the Patrao-mor; for whose service, they are to pay five taels on coming in, and other five on going ou t; and, for the information o f all, the present edict is fixed on its customary places. The Royal Senate o f Macao, under the superintendence o f the governor, and the as sistance o f the judge, makes known to the public— First— That are admitted to the deposit at the custom-house of this city, cotton, and all other goods, and articles from Europe and America, imported by any vessels from the ports, in and out o f the Cape o f Good Hope, paying the deposit duties o f 1 per cent on the value o f the goods, as stated in the tariff; and, in the like manner, the go-down rent and coolie hire, as established at the custom-house. Such goods as have no valuations levied on them in the tariff, will be subject to the duties, according to the value o f their original invoices, regulating exchange as per sketch at the said department. Second— T he deposit is thus understood:— Six months for all manufactured goods from Europe and America, and three months for cotton; beginning to count ten days from the first landing o f the goods at the custom-house. Third— All such goods as remain to be cleared at the expiration of the time allowed in the section foregoing, are from thence subject to be cleared for consumption, paying their duties in full, with the privilege o f being re-exported, should parties wish so. Fourth— Cotton can be deposited at private go-downs, out o f the custom-house, paying, on there being landed, the duties corresponding to the deposit. Shippers, proprietors, or agents, are to sign, and find security, to be answerable for the excess o f the duties in full, in default o f not clearing at the expiration o f the time above alluded to for their de posit— also, for the fees o f the custom-house officer who assists the verification, and the weighing, &c. F ifth— Shippers, proprietors, or agents, will communicate at the department o f the custom-house when they ship o ff their goods on deposit, as per section foregoing, in order that they may not be liable to the penalty marked in the third section. Sixth— T he goods, after being cleared for deposit, can be shipped off by vessels landing in the harbor or roads, China boats from Canton, as also Portuguese lorchas, having a license or passport from the governor for the port o f H ong-Kong, or for the ports o f China, opened for foreigners. M A S T E R S O F V E S S E L S T R A D IN G T O T U R K ’S IS L A N D . Masters o f such vessels, when spoken by pilot-boats, should always take a p ilot; as, when spoken, they are compelled by law to pay pilotage, whether they take one or n o t ; and, i f not decided at which island they intend to load, it will be better to lay o ff and on until they get necessary information as to the state o f the two markets, by which advice they save an additional charge o f half anchorage for removal, as it very frequently hap pens, there being four different places o f anchorage at which vessels load. This informa tion cannot be obtained from the pilots. They are compelled to anchor the vessels w h e n ever the captain directs, charging only for such anchorage or removal. There is always a supply o f salt at Salt Cay, as well as Grand Cay. Vessels falling to the southward and eastward o f the islands, as sometimes happens, instead o f beating round to the eastward, may run between the two Southern Cays, giving the southern end o f Salt Cay about a mile and a half berth; saving, perhaps, two days unnecessary sailing, and avoiding the dangerous N. E. reef o f Grand Cay. 584 M ercantile M iscellanies . MERCANTILE COMPARATIVE MISCELLANIES. STATISTIC AL TABLES OF THE ANNUAL MINERAL PRODUCTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES AND GREAT BRITAIN, Compiled and with the remarks by, Dr. L ew is Feuchtwanger, o f the city o f N ew York. G old .— This metal i3 found in the United States in Virginia, U. S tates . G r . B r it . North and South Carolina, and Georgia, and at the value, Value. Value, as per official account,................................................................ $529,605 ................ Gold is found in Cornwall, Scotland, (W ick low ,) and Ire land ; and forty years ago they found to the amount o f £5 ,000 , but now merely show specimens. S il v e r .* — This metal does not exist in the United States in its native state, but is mostly contained in the argentiferous lead ores, from which it might be extracted, and an equal quantity as that obtained in Great Britain might be pro cured, provided the plan were pursued as described below. T he silver is found in Great Britain in Cornwall, W ales, Yorkshire, Alster Moore, Cumberland, Isle o f Man, and Ireland.t It is particularly extracted from the lead ores, and also from argentiferous veins, and the annual product is 10,000 lbs. troy,................................................................................................ £3,000 C opper .— This metal is found in great abundance in Missouri, W isconsin, Iowa, North Carolina, Virginia, Pennsylvania, N ew Jersey, Connecticut, Michigan, and other places. T he amount produced is 200,000 lbs...................................... 5,000 ................. Copper is found in Great Britain in Cornwall, Devonshire, North W ales, Anglesea, Lancashire, Cumberland, and Ire land, but mostly in Cornwall. Its annual product is 13,000 tons.......................................................................................................................... 1,200,000 T in .— This metal is found in this country but in small speci mens. In Great Britain, it is found in Cornwall and De vonshire. Its annual product is 4,000 tons.......................................................... 32,000 L ead .— It is found in great quantities in Wisconsin, Virginia, N ew Y ork, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, North Carolina, and N ew Hampshire, and the annual product is 4,000,000 lbs. 1,200,000 ................ Lead is found in Cornwall, Devonshire, N. and S. W ales, Derbyshire, Yorkshire, Alston Moore, Lanarkshire, Isle o f Man, and Ireland. T he principal localities, however, are at Alston M oore, comprising part o f Cumberland, Durham, and Northumberland. Annual product, 46,000 tons................................... 92,000 M anganese.— It is found in Vermont, Virginia, and Pennsyl vania, and is now exported to Great Britain, from whence it was formerly brought. T he annual product is 2,000 lbs. 5,000 ................. Manganese is found in Cornwall and Devonshire.......................................... trifling. C obalt .— It is but rarely found in the United States. It is found in Cornwall................................................................................................. trifling. * On silver.— A very interesting and remarkable mode o f extracting the silver, how ever small the quantity may be, contained in large quantities o f lead, has been lately discovered by Mr. Pattinson, which is briefly the following:— T he argentiferous lead is melted in cast-iron p ots; and, when perfectly fluid, the fire is removed, and the draughtholes closed tight. After a little while, the lead mass is stirred by means o f an iron bar. T he lead is now forming into small crystals, which are all gradually removed by means o f a ladle. This operation is continued till two-thirds o f the lead, according to the quan tity o f silver contained in the mixture, has been taken away. The silver is now remain ing, and may be refined by the cupelling operation. T he lead thus drawn off contains but traces o f silver, mechanically adhering to the crystals o f lead. For this proof o f ob taining all and any quantity o f silver contained in the lead, the loss o f the latter is but 2 per cent + It has recently been discovered in Davidson county, North Carolina. M ercantile M iscellanies . 585 C omparative S tatistical T ables , etc.— Continued. Z inc .* — A considerable quantity o f this metal is found in U. S tates . Pennsylvania, N ew Jersey, and other places; and, owing Value. to the expenses o f distilling and refining, is thrown about, without drawing any benefit— but it might find a useful application as paint. Zinc is found in Great Britain in Yorkshire, North o f England ; and, although in large quan tities, yet no use has been made o f it, probably owing to the cheapness o f the Silesian metal. I ron .— This metal is found in immense quantities in N ew Y ork, N ew Jersey, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Maryland, T en nessee, Indiana, Maine, Michigan, and other states. The aggregate amount is 500,000 tons........................................... $15,000,000 Iron is found in Great Britain in Glamorganshire, M on mouthshire, Staffordshire, Shropshire, Lancashire, Y ork shire, near Glasgow, and Ireland, and the amount wrought is 900,000 tons..................................................................................................... C oal .— In the United States, the quantity o f anthracite coal is yearly increasing; whereas the bituminous coal is now brought to light less than ever, (from 1,000,000 to 68,750 tons reduced, and anthracite coal from 863,409 to 1,008,001 tons increased.) The aggregate amoui^ is 1,176,751 tons. 4,000,000 Coal is found in Great Britain, in all those places mention ed as localities for iron, and also in Durham, North o f Ire land ; and the aggregate production is 25,000,000 tons.............................. L ignite .— This mineral is found in Maryland, where it is employed in the manufacture o f alum. Lignite is found in Great Britain in Heathfield, Devonshire, Yorkshire, and Sutherlandshire, and has a local application.......................... unknown. S a l t .— It is manufactured in the United States in nineteen out o f twenty-eight states, but the largest quantity is made in N ew York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Massachusetts, Ken tucky, Ohio, & c .; and the production is 6,179,174 bush els. Salt is manufactured in Great Britain in Worcester shire and Cheshire, and is largely exported. Tons, 300,000......................... A lum .— In Great Britain, it is found at W hitley, in Y ork shire. Tons, 1,500............................................................................................. C hrome .— In the United States, it is found in Maryland. Tons, 1,500....................... ......................................................... 20,000 G r . B r it * Value, £ ................ 7,500,000 ................. 8,500,000 unknown. 300,000 3,000 ................. G ran ite , M ar b le , F reestone, S oapstone, G neiss, S yenite . — These minerals are found in Maine, N ew Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, N ew York, Pennsylvania, and other places. T he aggregate value is . Total,, 5,000,000 ............. $30,000,000 £20,000,000 S C O T C H P IG IR O N T R A D E . W e learn, from a Glasgow correspondent, that the total produce in 1844 was 346,200 tons; exported from Scotland direct to foreign ports, 39,200 tons ; exported from Liver pool to foreign ports, 33,000 ; stock on hand here, 31st December, about 55,000; used for home consumption, 219,000. Total, 346,200 tons. months was £ 2 16s. per ton, delivered here. T he average price for the twelve The lowest number o f furnaces in opera tion, at any period during the year, was 51, and the greatest 7 0 ; being the number at present in blast. * On Zinc.— T he zinc ores, or the black and yellow bleade, which is so abundant in Pennsylvania, and other states, where it is not yet used for the distillation of the metallic zinc, I will recommend its application for a very permanent paint. It is fire-proof, mixes well with oil, or with any other c o lo r; and gives by itself a good, substantial color, with a good body. The bleade may be ground quite fine ; levigated, and either used by itself, or mixed with linseed oil, and fits itself extraordinary well for fences, wails, and houses. T he cost cannot be more than one cent a pound. 586 M ercantile M iscellanies, N E W W O R K O N T H E S T A T IS T IC S O F C O A L . PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION, AND COMMERCIAL DISTRIBUTION OF COAL. R ichard C owling T a y l o r , Esq., o f Philadelphia, Fellow o f the Royal Geological So ciety o f London, Member o f the American Philosophical Society, etc., has issued propo sals for publishing a work on “ The Geographical and Geological Distribution o f M ineral Combustibles, or Fossil F u e l; ranging from the True Coal up to the Tertiary Lignites, and Peaty or T u r f; including Notices and Localities o f most o f the M ineral Bitumi nous Substances employed in A rts and M anufactures ; embracing, from Official Reports o f the Coal-Producing Countries, the respective amounts o f their Production, Consump tion, and Commercial Distribution, together with their Prices, Tariffs, Currency, Duties, and International R egulations” It will be seen, from the title o f the proposed work, that it embraces the whole subject. Mr. Taylor has been several years collecting mate rials for his work, in the persuasion that others, as well as himself, desired to possess, in a concentrated form, the characteristic details o f one o f the most valuable departments o f mineral statistics. W e quote a few passages from Mr. Taylor’s prospectus, setting forth the general features o f his plan:— MOne part o f our plan, requiring no inconsiderable labor, is the rendering into familiar denominations the measures, weights, prices, Aid currency o f those commercial countries to which we refer. W e have adopted for our standards those o f Great Britain, France, and the United States. Our plan embraces a wider range than the consideration o f bitu minous coal alone. W e could riot, in all cases, distinguish the nature of substances that have been announced as true coal by unscientific persons. Anthracites, o f course, form an important feature, especially in the United States. T he lignites, too, in their various modifications and conditions, constitute a class o f fuel too valuable, particularly to conti nental Europe, to be omitted. T he nature o f some o f the solid bitumens has, not unfrequently, been mistaken. Even the fluid bitumens, the naptha and petroleum; and, more over, the asphaltes, and the mineral resins, possess claims to notice. Finally, in treating o f a certain class o f combustibles, we are led to note that o f turf or peat; a substance entitled to much higher consideration than it has always enjoyed. In the three hundred tables o f coal statistics, we have brought down the returns to the latest practicable period. In the thousand tables o f coal analysis, we have inserted none without the sanction o f The highest scientific authority. In these, our classification has been partly mineralogical, and partly geographical. F or our authorities in geology, we have an extensive catalogue. So much as results from our own observations will, o f course, be judged by its own mer its. In regard to the general arrangement o f the wrork, the geographical method is adopted, as the most convenient. From our European friends, we have received many details, which are not in general knowledge here. In return, we would convey to them others, o f which they have been heretofore but imperfectly informed. Admitting the occasional and unavoidable scantiness o f desirable facts, we are, nevertheless, reminded by the bulk o f those already on hand, that a portion o f their utility might be lost by their postponement— in fact, that we have reached a point at which we may venture to consign them to our publishers. It will be seen, from this outline, that we seek not to address ourselves to one set o f readers, here or elsewhere. On the contrary, it has been our desire to furnish information, and the facilities o f easy reference, to several classes. Am ong these, might be named the commercial, the manufacturing, and the scientific; and with them the producer, the operative, and the political econom ist W e will only add, for ourselves, that, in drawing up the foregoing notice, our aim has been to sketch the subject matter o f the proposed volume ; bearing in mind, nevertheless, the danger o f promising too much.” T he work is ready for the press; but, as it is designed for a somewhat limited class of readers, it is necessary to ascertain i f a sale can be effected adequate to insure the pub lisher from loss. “ A s soon, therefore,” says Mr. Taylor, “ as a sufficient number of names are obtained to justify the risk, the work will be put to press.” It will be com prised in a royal octavo volume, o f about 750 pages, illustrated with maps, printed in the best manner, on fine paper, and handsomely done up in embossed cloth, and furnished to subscribers at five dollars per copy. It will afford us much pleasure to receive, at an early day, the names o f all who may be interested in the publication of the work. M ercantile M iscellanies. 587 Y O U N G M E N ’S A S S O C IA T IO N O F A L B A N Y . W e are indebted to F ranklin T ownsend , Esq., o f Albany, for a copy o f the report made at the twelfth annual meeting o f this association. It is, we are informed, the first o f its character incorporated in the state o f N ew Y ork. It has, on its roll o f members, 841 names; 293 o f which have been added since the last annual meeting. T he receipts for the last official year amounted to $2,334 0 4 ; the expenditures, during the same pe riod, have been $1,542 84— leaving a balance, in the hands o f the treasurer, o f $791 20. T he property o f the association, embracing the library, o f 3,323 volumes, fixtures, and cash on hand, amounts to $5,666 20. and 68 newspapers. weekly. T he association is in the receipt o f 18 periodicals, O f the latter, 26 are daily, 3 tri-weekly, 5 semi-weekly, and 34 T he expense o f sustaining the reading-room, amounts to $600 per annum. T he report o f the President o f the Association, C harles H . S tanton , Esq., is a sensible, business-like document; presenting a clear and comprehensive view of the condition and prospects o f the association. W e subjoin a single extract, as indicative o f the spirit that seems to characterise its management In alluding to a suggestion to increase the dues o f membership, the President remarks :— “ I cannot unite in recommending such an increase ; as it would, in my opinion, tend to defeat the great object o f the founders o f the society— the diffusion of knowledge among the masses. On the contrary, I believe it would be good policy to decrease them. I would put them so low that every individual o f the community could enjoy the advan tages o f this institution— the poorest as well as the richest. Here the rich and the poor, the learned and the unlearned, the mechanic, the merchant, and the professional man, should assemble, and pass their hours o f relaxation in acquiring and in imparting lessons o f wisdom and virtue to each other. Here should all classes of society associate together, and endeavor to break down those artificial barriers created by wealth, which are a curse to every community. Here nature and her laws should be studied, not for the sake of power or influence, not for the sake o f wealth, but for a higher and a nobler purpose— to benefit man. Such was the aim o f the founders o f the association, and such should be ours.” T H E I N T E L L E C T U A L , IN T R A D E . Cast a look on the natural and artificial productions o f all the regions o f the earth— consider how they have become one here, another there, articles o f necessity for men. H ow pleasant and how intellectual a task is it to calculate, at any moment, what is most required, and yet what is wanting or hard to find ; to procure for each, easily and soon, what he demands; to lay in your stock prudently beforehand, and then to enjoy the profit o f every pulse in that mighty circulation. This, it appears to me, is what no man that has a head can attend to without pleasure. Visit one or two great trading towns, ob serve how many men are busied, whence so many things have come, whither they are going, you will see the smallest piece o f ware in connection with the whole mercantile concern; and for that very reason you will reckon nothing paltry, because everything augments the circulation by which you yourself are supported. M ORALS OF TRADE. T he Philadelphia Ledger lately published a sketch o f a discourse by the Rev. Mr. Clark, o f the Episcopal Church, in that city, from which we make the subjoined extract, touching honesty o f dealing between man and man. It would be difficult to gainsay the principle laid d o w n ; and yet, practically, we fear, it has too little part in the morals o f trade. “ N o one who is a Christian, or professes to be one, should take an undue advantage over his neighbor. For instance, i f I should be making a sale with some person, and I knew more about the worthlessness o f the article than he was aware of, and if I did not tell him o f it, and were to receive his money, I would be doing a dishonest act. But if it was merely my own conjecture or opinion that to-morrow the article would fall in value, it would not be dishonesty on my part; for he would have his eyes as much open ed as my o w n ; and, after all, I might be mistaken. It is where one man takes the ad vantage over the other, that it becomes dishonesty.” T he B ook Trade, 588 THE BOOK T R A D E . 1. — The H istory o f Oregon and California , and other Territories on the Northwest Coast o f N orth America, accompanied by a Geographical View and Map o f those Countries , and a number o f Documents as P roofs and Illustrations o f the H istory. By R o b e r t G r e e n h o w , Translator and Librarian to the Department of State of the United States ; author o f “ A Memoir, Historical and Political, on the Northwest Coast of America,” published in 1840, by direction of the Senate o f the United States. Seeond edition. Revised, corrected,and enlarged. Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown. The present volume is devoted principally to the description and history o f the portion o f North America bordering on the Pacific ocean, between the 40th and the 54th parallels o f latitude, which is traversed, and in a great measure drained, by the river Columbia, and to which the name o f Oregon is now usually applied. Almost equal attention, however, has been bestowed on the regions embraced under the general appellation o f California. The fact that two o f the most powerful nations on the globe have an unsettled claim as to the ownership o f this part of the North American continent, ren ders the publication of a work of so high authority, at the present time, at once interesting and im portant. Mr. Greenhow is a most faithful and laborious student, and seems to have made the best use o f the extraordinary facilities afforded him, as Librarian to the State Department, in the prepara tion o f the present work. He has sifted every reliable authority, and presented as full and succinct a history o f Oregon and California, as the varied and scattered materials would permit. In the geo graphical view, he has collected, compared, and arranged in order, what appeared to him the most exact and striking details, presented by the numerous travellers who have visited the countries in question. The map, we are informed, has been compiled, as far as possible, from original authorities, and being intended for the illustration o f the history, it embraces a very large portion o f the globe. This edition contains “ the answer to the strictures of Mr. Thomas Falconer, o f Lincoln’ s Inn,” on Mr. Greenhow’ s “ History of Oregon and California,” which appeared soon after the publication o f the work in London. 2. — The Library o f Commerce: Practical, Theoretical, and H istorical. Vol. 1, pp. 356. By F r e e m a n H u n t , Editor of the “ Merchants’ Magazine,” etc., etc. New York. The design o f the present series o f publications is to supply a desideratum, which, it is believed, exists, in the absence o f anything like a collection of works on this subject. The works embraced in the series will be more elaborate, o f course, than the articles of the Merchants’ Magazine ; and, although not intended to supersede the monthly, it may be considered as a sort o f companion to that work. Besides containing original and elaborately written works o f an historical, theoretical, and practical character, by some of the most able writers of our own country, the Library o f Com merce will include the most recent, and best selected productions on these subjects, from the com mercial literature o f Europe, some o f which will be translated expressly for the work. Relying on the same liberal support which has been extended to the Merchants’ Magazine, the editor trusts it will be found, at least, not inferior in its claims to the notice of his subscribers ; and, in the full confidence of such approval, he now ventures to submit the first volume to their inspection. Vol. I. contains three distinct works:— 1. H i s t o r y o f t h e C o m m e r c ia l I n t e r c o u r s e of t h e W o r l d w i t h C h in a . 2. H i s t o r y of t h e B r it is h C orn L a w s , and th e Corn T rade. 3. M e m o ir s of Com mer ; embracing historical sketches of the M is s i s s ip p i S c h e m e , and the S o u t h S e a B u b b l e . I f the demand warrants it, we shall publish two or three volumes a year, at intervals o f four or six months. The first volume is handsomely printed on fine paper, and neatly bound. The succeeding volumes will correspond in appearance, so as to form a uniform Library, varying in size from 350 to 400 pages. Subscription price, one dollar per volume. c ia l D e l u s io n s 3.—American Facts, Notes, and Statistics, relative to the Government, Resources, Engagem ents , M anufactures, Commerce, Religion, Education, Literature, Fine A rts, M anners and Customs o f the United States o f America. By G e o r g e P a l m e r P u t n a m . London: Wiley & Putnam. Mr. Putnam has collected a variety of facts and figures in relation to this country for the English market, which is very w e ll; as our neighbors across the water have been “ cock o f the walk” for so long a time, that it is difficult to impress them with the idea that there is any other nation on the globe that has much of anything “ to speak of.” But we think the remarks and criticisms o f the author in bad taste. The facts are all that can be of any service in enlightening John Bull in regard to Brother Jonathan. W e hope, if Mr. P. publishes another edition o f his work, he will omit the miserable “ parody” copied from the North American Review, and supply its place with more facts; and, in giving credit for such as he may select from the volumes o f this Magazine, designate the work by its legitimate title, v iz : “ Hunt’ s Merchants’ Magazine and not, as in the volume before us, convey the impression that many o f the selections have been made from some half dozen different periodicals; as, “ New York Magazine,” “ Hunt’ s Magazine,” “ American Merchants’ Magazine,” etc., etc. The work is, on the whole, an interesting one ; and Mr. Putnam is a most intelligent book seller, and deserves the thanks of his countrymen for his efforts to diffuse abroad a correct knowledge o f our commercial strength and general resources. T he Boole Trade. 589 4.—Library o f Choice Reading , New York: W iley & Putnam. 1.— E othen; or, Tales o f Travel Brought Home from the East. ------2. M ary Schweidler, the Amber- W itch ; the M ost Interesting Trial fo r W itchcraft E ver Known. Printed from an imperfect Manuscript by her Father, A b r a h a m S c h w e id l e r , the Pastor of Coserow, in the [sland o f Usedtim. Edited by W . M e in h o l d , D. o f F., etc. Translated from the German. By Lady D uff G o r d o n .------3. Undine, and Sintram and his Companions. From the German of F r e d e r i c k D e L a M o t t e F o q u e .----- 4. Imagination and F ancy; or. Selections fro m the English Poets, illustrative o f the first requisites o f their A r t ; with M arkings o f the B est Passages, Critical N otices o f the W riters, and an E ssay in answer to the Question, “ What is Poetry ?” By L e ig h H u n t .----- 5. So Much o f the D ia r y o f Lady Willoughby as relates to her Domestic H istory, and to the E ven tful Period o f the Reign o f Charles the First. ------6. Table T a lk : Opinions on Books, M en, and Manners. By W il l ia m H a z l e t t .------7. Head long H all, and N ightm are Abbey.------8. Concert M oral Tales. W e have placed at the head o f this notice the title-page, entire, o f each number o f this new series of “ books which are books,” in the order in which they have appeared, for the purpose o f introducing the plan of the Library to our readers. A description, or anything like a review o f each work, would occupy more space than we can spare ; although each volume, from its varied and extensive literary excellence, is worthy of an elaborate critique/ The views o f the intelligent and enterprising publishers are clearly expressed in the announcement appended to the first number, as follows:— “ The so-called *cheap literature,’ while it has failed to supply good and sound reading, and has been attended with many publishing defects, has, in some degree, prepared the way for the new demand. It has shown the extent of the reading public in the country, and the policy o f supplying that public with books at low prices proportioned to the extent. Books in the United States must hereafter be cheap. To reconcile the utmost possible cheapness with a proper attention to the literary and mechanical execution of the works published, will be the aim o f the publishers o f the present series. The book form, a legible type, good paper, careful proof reading, faithful editorial labor, are some of the elements which the publishers hold indispensable in the publication o f a cheap book. The cheapness of a book lies in the value o f the book, as well as in the low price. W iley & Putnam’s Library of Choice Reading is issued at convenient intervals, in a novel and agreeable book form. Each volume includes the matter of an ordinary English octavo, and is published at prices varying from twenty-five to fifty cents. For copyright works, and any o f unusual size, a proportion ate charge will be made. The staple of the series will be the best books o f travels, biographies, works o f classic fiction—where the moral is superior to the mere story, without any sacrifice o f the interest—occasional choice volumes of poetry, essays, criticism, contributions to history, and gen erally such single volumes written by men o f genius, as will equally delight the scholar and the general reader. The works published will be new and old, drawn from the best contemporary writers, and from the ample store houses o f our English literature. An American copyright series, published uniformly with the others, will form an important part of the undertaking.'’ The uniform favor with which the works, thus far, comprising a part o f the series, have been received, is the best evidence that can be given of their value. 5. — Sketches o f Residence in Brazil, embracing Historical and Geographical N otices o f the Empire, and its several Provinces . By D a n ie l P. K i d d e r . In two volumes, with illustrations. Philadel phia : Lorin & Ball. This is, we believe, the first work exclusively devoted to the Brazilian empire, issued from the American press. The volumes before us embrace the reminiscences o f nearly two and a haif year’s residence and travels in Brazil, in connection with historical and geographical sketches o f the country. Although his attention as a Christian missionary was primarily devoted to the important subjects o f morality, education, and religion, he has introduced a variety of incidents connected with his resi dence and travel, not omitting to furnish apparently faithful sketches o f the manners, customs, and institutions, civil and political. Having spent some time, as we are informed, in each of the principal maritime cities and provinces, he necessarily became acquainted with the present state o f things in Brazil, such as it has become through the repeated and extreme changes o f government through which that country has passed, within the last thirty years. The work is written in an easy and agreeable style, and every page bears the marks o f an observing and truthful spirit, anxious to convey to the mind of the reader, as briefly as possible, all the distinguishing and peculiar features o f the country, the people, and its institutions. W e shall, in a future number of this Magazine, endeavor to group, in a few pages, such facts and statements as bear upon the commerce o f the country, and the com mercial spirit of the people. 6. — The Secret Corresponding Vocabulary, adapted f o r Use to M orse's Electro-M agnetic Telegraph and also in Conducting W ritten Correspondence, transmitted by M ails , or otherwise. By F r a n c is O. J. S m i t h , Esq. This compilation is designed to facilitate correspondence through the medium o f Morse’s ElectroMagnetic Telegraph, and also secret correspondence, when written for conveyance by mails, or other wise. By means of it, a correspondence can pass between two individuals with the most perfect secresy ; so that no third person can, by any possibility, decipher the writer’s meaning. It is a very ingenious compilation, and will, of course, become an indispensable hand-book to all who may wish to avail themselves o f the magnetic telegraph, or who find it desirable or necessary to carry on a secret correspondence. Mr. Smith, the learned compiler, has explained its use, in a few clear and compre hensive rules. W e shall refer to the subject again, and endeavor to give some explanation o f Mr Smith’s system. The volume is dedicated to Professor Morse, and, of course, has his approval. 590 7. The Book Trade. — The Book o f the N a v y ; comprising a General M ilitary H istory o f the United States, from the Period o f the Revolution to the Present Time. With Particular Accounts o f all the most Celebrated Battles. Compiled from the best authorities. By J o h n F r o s t , LL. D., Professor o f Belles Lettres in the High School of Philadelphia. New York : D. Appleton & Co. The success o f the “ Book of the Army” induced the author to prepare the present volume. The two volumes form a history o f our national defence, from the period o f the declaration o f independ ence to the present time. W e suppose that a large majority of the people are entertained by works o f this class; but there is in our mind something so abhorrent in the butchery and barbarism o f war, that we cannot find it in our heart to commend any work calculated to foster so foul a spirit; although, to quote from Dr. Frost’s preface, “ it tends to preserve the national spirit, and to excite emulation among those upon whom the national defence will hereafter devolve.” The time is fast approaching, we trust, when the pruning knife and the plough-share will take the place o f the sword, and other in struments o f destruction. It is well, perhaps, as matter o f history, to preserve and publish these relics o f human depravity ; and the author, publishers, and artists, have contrived to make a v ery attractive book of it. By the help o f Mr. Darley’s designs o f the great battles, and the masterly engravings o f Lossing, Illman, etc., the volume goes forth embellished in a beautiful style o f art. 8.— Stable Economy : A Treatise on the Management o f H orses , in relation to Stabling , Grooming , Feeding , W atering, and W orking. By J o h n S t e w a r t , Veterinaiy Surgeon, Professor o f Veterinary Medicine in the Andersonian University, Glasgow. From the third English edition, with Notes and Additions, adapting it to American Food and Climate. By A. B. A l l e n , Editor o f the “ Agricul turalist.” New York : D. Appleton & Co. W e regard this as a very thorough and complete treatise on the management o f the horse, con siderably improved by the American editor. The horse, both theoretically and practically, has been a favorite study with Mr. Allen, from childhood ; and, for the past ten years, he has been more or less engaged in breeding and rearing them on the farm, and in breaking and fitting them for market. It is a manual that should be in the hands o f every one who has occasion to own or use this noble animal. 9. —N ever Too Late. By C h a r l e s B u r d e t t , author o f “ Emma, or the Lost Found,” etc. New York : D. Appleton & Co. The former volumes of Mr. Burdett were designed to inculcate “ the necessity o f early piety;” the present is intended to show, by practical illustrations, drawn from every day life, that it is never too late to come to God ; never too late to repent.” Aside from the inaccuracies o f language, and careless ness in style, owing probably to the habit o f hurriedly reporting for a daily Journal, the narrative pos sesses considerable merit; and its influence for good will perhaps counteract, in some degree, the immoralities of the author’s earlier fictions, written to order for one of our daily Journals. 10. — The Retrospect o f Practical Medicine and S u rgery; being a H alf-Y early Journal, containing a Retrospective View o f every D iscovery and Practical Improvement in the Medical Sciences. Edited W . B r a i t h w a i t e , Surgeon to the Leeds General Eye and Ear Infirmary, and Lecturer on Mid wifery, and the Diseases of Women and Children, in the Leeds School o f Medicine. New York : Daniel Adee. The first semi-annual number or part o f this work, made its appearance in England in July, 1840 ; and a uniform, fac simile edition, was shortly after announced in this country; eight numbers o f which, bound in two large octavo volumes, o f about six hundred pages each, are now before us. A part of the work appears half yearly, one in July, and another in January, so as to form one annual volume, constituting a condensed register of medical facts and observations for the past year, besides a complete retrospect of all that is valuable and worth preserving respecting the treatment o f disease, gleaned from the British and foreign medical Journals, and the transactions o f the different societies and associations, and presented to the reader in as condensed a form as possible, and generally in the words o f the different authors. Aside from its value to the profession, we should think, judging from our own experience of the pleasure derived from its perusal, that it would be acceptable to individuals o f liberal tastes, fond o f acquiring information on subjects of so much importance to the race generally. by 11. —Elements o f the Comparative Anatomy o f the Vertebrate Animals. By R u d o l p h H o o u k r . Trans lated and edited by A l f r e d T u l k . New York : J. S. Redfield. T h e advances made in modern times, in the various portions of physical science, are among the most evident improvements in beneficial knowledge. Students o f anatomy will discover in this vo lume a luminous and methodical arrangement o f the subject discussed, both by comparison and con trast. The value o f this compend, which includes the essential theories, and the condensed informa tion o f the large and very expensive works o f other authors, combined with the profound practical acquaintance both o f the author and editor with physiology and comparative anatomy, render this volume the best introductory work upon the subject now extant. 12. —A Catechism o f the H istory o f Ireland . Ancient and M odem . By W i l b u r n J. O ’ N e i l l D a u n t , Esq., author o f “ Saints and Sinners.” Boston : Patrick Donahoe. This little volume furnishes us with a condensed sketch of all the most prominent events in Irish history, from the earliest period, down to the present time. “ Its brevity,” says Mr. M’ Gee, the American editor, “ omits nothing o f importance which could be thus glanced a t; while the admi rable connection o f the whole charms the memory from the forgetfulness o f any portion o f its contents.” T he B ook T rade. 591 13. —N otes Explanatory o f the Epistles o f Paul to the Ephesians^Philippians, aud Colossians. By A l b e r t Ba r n e s New Y ork: Harper & Brothers. The system of interpreting the letters of Paul, recommended and adopted by Locke, is undoubtedly the only true one of coming to anything like a clear understanding o f the writer’s meaning. They are to be regarded simply as letters, addressed to churches or individuals, which the reader in our time will comprehend just in proportion to his knowledge o f the situation and circumstances o f the persons to whom they were addressed. How far Mr. Barnes has adopted this course in his commen tary o f these epistles, we are unable to say. His reputation as a scholar, learned in biblical lore, would lead us, however, to suppose that he had pursued, in some measure, a course in accordance with the dictates o f reason and common sense. The comments, or explanations, are very elaborate, but the practical deductions seem to us altogether too apparent and diffuse. It strikes us that if com mentators would confine their labors to critical illustrations o f the sacred text, explaining, as far as may be, the idiom o f the original language, and the manners and customs, etc., o f the time in which the epistles were written, the drawing of the morale might be safely left to the devout student. The explanations are, of course, in accordance with the prevailing orthodox theology o f the day. — Plato A gainst the A th eists: or, The Tenth Book o f the D ialogue on Laws , accompanied with Critical N otes , and followed by Extended D issertations on some o f the Main Points o f the Platonic Philosophy and Theology, especially as compared with the H oly Scriptures. By T a y l o r L e w i s , 14. D. D., Professor o f Greek Language and Literature in the University of the city o f New York. New York : Harper &. Brothers. This work is designed for students. The essay o f Plato is in the Greek language, with an intro duction and copious notes, occupying more space than the text, in English. The high and holy theme o f the heathen philosopher is worthy of being studied by all men; and our only regret is, that the learned commentator did not furnish us, side by side, a translation, that the unlearned might enjoy the benefit of this great teacher o f a philosophy that possesses so many features in common with the higher revelations o f Christianity. — The Botanical Text-Book, fo r Colleges, Schools, and Private Students: comprising, P art I. A n Introduction to Structural and Physiological Botany . Part II. The Principles o f Systematic B o tany, with an account o f the C h ief N atural Families o f the Vegetable Kingdom , and N otices o f the Principal Useful Plants. Second edition, illustrated with more than a thousand engravings on 15. wood. By A s a G r a y , M. D., Professor o f Natural History in Harvard University. New York: W iley & Putnam. The present compendious treatise is designed to furnish classes in our schools and colleges with a suitable text-book, and private students with a convenient introductory manual, adapted to the present condition o f botanical science. Since the publication o f the first edition, the work, we are informed, has been almost entirely re-written, and the number o f pages increased by about one quarter, and the illustrative wood engravings doubled. It forms a handsomely printed duodecimo, o f more than five hundred pages. 16.— The Apocryphal N ew Testam ent; being all the Gospels, Epistles , and other Pieces now extant, attributed in the First Four Centuries to Jesus Christ and. his Companions, and not included in the N ew Testament by its Compilers. Translated, and now first collected into one volume, with Prefaces and Tables, and Revises, Notes, and References. New Y ork: H. Daggers. The English translator of the writings comprised in this volume, says—“ He who possesses this and the New Testament, has, in the two volumes, a collection o f all the historical records relative to Christ and his apostles, now in existence, and considered sacred by Christians during the first four centuries.” The work has excited considerable attention abroad; and its republication here, we are informed, was undertaken from a persuasion that it can do no harm to any reader to see those portions o f the Scriptures which were rejected as apocryphal by the Fathers o f the early Christian Church. 17. — M idnight H o u r s; or, L eisure Moments o f an A rtist. By E. A. Bracket . Boston: Freeman & Belles. The author o f these poems, though quite young, has acquired an enviable reputation as a sculptor. The principal part of the book, he informs us, in his very modest preface, was written during the year 1844, in those intervals from study and labor which fall to the lot of every artist, and with no expec tation that it would be read beyond his own fireside. The enthusiasm which every artist brings to his profession, not unfrequently finds vent in other things. Those ouibreakings may be termed his waste thoughts, and he should be thankful that they take no worse direction than that o f writing verse. The volume, we are informed, was printed (not published) for private circulation among the author’ s friends. It is not surprising to find a true artist no mean poet, as all who fall in with the volume will readily admit. — M oral Tales. By M a r ia E d g e w o r t h . 3 volumes. Embellished with numerous original d e signs, by Darley. Philadelphia: George S. Appleton. The generally acknowledged excellence, and universal popularity of Miss Edgeworth’ s tales, ren ders any praise that we can bestow perfectly useless. The present edition is “ got up” in a very beau tiful style, and the illustrations of Darley are capital. They should form a part o f every family library, irrespective o f sect or party, as they are purely moral, and very happily blend amusement and instruction. 18. 592 T he B ook T rade. 19. —A Complete Concordance o f the H oly Scriptures. By A lexander Cruden, M. A. A New and Complete Edition. With an Introduction. By the Rev. David Kino, LL . D. Boston: Gould, Kendall & Lincoln. Cruden’s Concordance has stood without an equal in the English language, for more than a cen tury. The original is, however, too voluminous for general use; and the abridgments heretofore made1have been too meagre to answer the purpose o f a concordance. The present edition seems to embody all that constituted the excellence o f the original work, omitting the Bible Dictionary, which has been depreciated by works of later date, containing recent discoveries, facts, and opinions, un known to Cruden. The condensation o f the quotations o f Scripture, arranged under their most obvious heads, while it diminishes the bulk o f the work, greatly facilitates the finding o f any re quired passage. It forms a volume o f nearly 600 three-column pages, printed on nonpareil type. 20. — Pictorial H istory o f the World. By J o h n F r o s t , LL. D., author o f a “ Pictorial History of the United States,” etc. Philadelphia: Benjamin Walker. The chief excellence of this work consists in the elegance o f its typography, and the beauty o f its embellishments. The two numbers before us are really the most splendid specimens o f the art o f book-making, that have fallen under our observation. When finished, it will be comprised in three royal octavo volumes, each complete in itself, embracing three epochs in the world’s history— as, Ancient, the Middle Ages, and Modern History, to the present time. It is to be illustrated with upwards o f five hundred engravings; and if, as we are assured, those to follow correspond in style with the two first numbers, we should consider the “ pictorials” an ample remuneration for the outlay. 21. — L ife o f Madame Catharine A dorna; including some Leading Facts and Traits in her R eligious ■ Experience, together with Explanations and Remarks, tending to illustrate the D octrine o f Holi ness. Boston : Waite, Pearce & Co. W e are informed by the author o f this little volume that the subject o f it was so strong in faith, and in that holy love o f which faith is the true parent; whose life was so coincident with what the Gospel requires, and with what Christ personally set forth as an example to be followed, that she was regarded as an embodiment of the highest ideal o f Christian holiness. 22. — M iscellanies: consisting principally o f Sermons and Essays. By J o h n H a r r i s , D. D., author o f “ Mammon,” the “ Great Teacher,” the “ Great Commission,” etc., etc. With an Introduction and Notes. By J o s e p h B e l c h e r , D. D. Boston: Qould, Kendall & Lincoln. Aside from the religious bearing of the various works o f Dr. Harris, one o f the most eminent divine* o f the Baptist denomination in England, he has ever commanded the respect o f intellectual men o f all religious sects for his fine and highly cultivated mind, and for the force and purity o f his style, as well as the truly catholic spirit infused into his writings. 23. — The Snow-Drop. A G ift f o r a Friend. Edited by C. W . E v e r e s t . New Y ork: J. S. Redfield. This elegant little gift book is composed wholly of original contributions ; and, although its general character resembles an annual, its value is perennial. 24. —A n Exposure o f the A r ts and M iseries o f Gambling, designed especially as a W arning to the Youth f u l and Inexperienced , against the E vils o f that Odious and D estructive Vice. By J. II. G r e e n e . Second edition, improved. 25. — Gambling Unmasked: or, The Personal Experience o f the Reformed Gambler, J. II. Greene. Written by himself. New York: Judd & Taylor. The iniquity o f gambling, in all its forms, is exhibited in these two volumes by one whose depth o f experience enables him to speak with a force and directness that demand a hearing. 26. — Popular Lectures on Astronomy. By M. A r a g o . W ith Additions and Corrections. By D i o n y s i u s LL. D. New York: Greeley & M’ EIrath. — Popular Lectures on Science and A rt, delivered in the Principal Cities and Towns_ in the United States. By D i o n y s i u s L a r d n e r , Doctor o f Civil Law, Fellow of the Royal SocietJJ^Bf London and Edinburgh, etc., etc. New York: Greeley & M’ EIrath. [Publishing in par^pf-sibout 101) pages each, and to form, when completed, two large octavo volumes, handsomely-panted. The .-subjects included embrace a variety of topics in the astronomical and physical science's, and thpir, application to the arts o f life.] ."t. \* ^ 28. — H istory o f Oregon T errito ry ; it being a Demonstration o f the Title o f the United Stqtes o f N orth America to the same. With a Map. By T h o m a s J. F a r n h a m , Esq. ¥hrk ; William Taylor. [A clear and comprehensive view o f the whole subject.] The same .tymlishe<. has ddpHnted the pamphlet o f T. Falconer’s statement of the British claims to the OreaojjUrt bppositidffao what he terms “ the pretensions o f the government o f the United States.” Tfla.fir$t&)*oWs the.American, and the latter the British “ pretensions.” J «£., ’ ? / 29. — Z o c ; the H istory o f Two L iv es. By G e r a l d i n e E n d s o r J e w s b A s s t , being No. 52 o f the L i brary of Select Novels.— Charles T y r r e ll; or. The B itter Blood. By fe. J a ^ e s . Two vols. in one ; being No. 8 of the Pocket Edition of Select Novels.— Mount Sore^^or. The H eiress o f the D e Veres. By the author o f “ The T w o Old Men’s Tales.” — A n Encyclopedia o f Domestic Economy , comprising such subjects as are most intimately connected with H ousekeeping; as, The Construction o f Domestic Edifices, with the Modes o f Warming, Ventilating, and L ighting them ; L ardner, 27. D escription o f the Various A rticles o f Furn iture; the Preservation o f Health ; Domestic Medi cine, etc., illustrated with nearly One Thousand E ngravings. [To be completed in twelve parts, o f a about 150 pages each, at 25 cents per part ] Harper &, Brothers. Errata to Article on the Corn Trade o f the United States, in the last number o f this Magazine.—Page 423, line 23 from the top, for “ considerable,” read “ inconsiderable.” commencing below the table, for “ 136,679,000,” read “ 13,679,000.” 0 Page 424, line 7 from the top,
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