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t iie
MERCHANTS’ MAGAZINE,
E sta b lish e d . J u l y , 18 39,.
BY FREEMAN HUNT, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR.
C O N TEN TS
'
O F N O . I, V O L .
XI.
ARTI CLES.
ART.
PAGE.
I. Skips and Ship-Building o f the Ancients. By W . S. M ayo, M. D.,.......... 25
II. Sketches o f Commercial Legislation, No. 3,..................................................... 27
III. Commerce of Bio Janeiro,...................................................................................... 33
IV. Cities and Towns in the United States. Increase of Cities and Towns o f Five
Thousand, and less than Ten Thousand Inhabitants. By Jesse C kickering,
M. D., of Massachusetts,......................................................
38
V. Commercial Systeyn o f the United States. By James II. L anman, author of
the “ History of Michigan,” .............................................................................. 47
VI. Commerce o f the United States with China........... ....................................... .
54
VII. Mercantile Biography: Memoir o f Jacob Lorillard. By W illiam Ber
57
rien, D. D.,.........
VIII. The Gold Mines o f North Carolina,................................................................. 62
IX. Annals o f American Commerce, No. 1,............................................................... 65
X. Art and Science A.pplied to Commerce. Embracing, 1st. Chinese Adultera
tion of Green Teas. 2d. Chemical History of Sugar. 3d. Improved Pa
per-Hangings. 4th. Buttons from Clay. 5th. New Method of Importing
Quicksilver. 6th. Improved Sugar from Beet-Root. 7th. Ascetic Acid
from Cane-Sugar,................................................................................................. 73
MONTHLY
COMMERCIAL
CHRONICLE,
EMBRACING A FINANCIAL AND COMMERCIAL REVIEW OF THE UNITED STATES, ETC., ILLUSTRATED
WITH TABLES, AS FOLLOWS :
Cotton Crop of the United States, from Sept 1, 1842, to June 12,1844,..................
Receipts on Public Works in the United States, in 1843 and 1844,............................
Prices of Produce in New York, from December, 1841, to June, 1844,.....................
Returns of Banks nearest to January, 1841 and 1844,.................................................
Imports and Exports of the Precious Metals to and from Cuba,..................................
Actual Currency of England, with the Action of the New System,...........................
VOL. XI.----NO. I,
2
76
76
77
77
79
79
Table o f Contents.
10
PAGE.
MERCANTILE LAW DEPARTMENT.
Masters of Ships: Seamen’s Wages— Ship Rigby Grove,...........................................
Seamen’s Wages— The Two Sisters—The Reliance,...................................................
Salvage: The Queen vs. the Caroline,............................................................................
Claim for Salvage Services—The Ann,.........................................................................
Charter-Party: Charter-Party of Affreightment,............................................................
Special Paper— Stringer vs. Campbell,............................................................................
Provisions for Emigrants— British Court of Exchequer,................................................
Tariff in United States—Worsted Goods,.......................................................................
81
82
82
82
83
84
85
85
COMMERCIAL REGULATIONS.
Compend of the Tariff of Cuba, with Tares and Allowances made at Havana,.......
Custom-House Rules for Vessels arriving at Havana,...................................................
Harbor Regulations of the Port of Havana,...................................................................
Police Regulations of Havana,...................................... ..................................................
United States Tariff— Duty on Cocoa-Nuts,......... !............. .......................... .............
COMMERCIAL
86
87
89
91
92
STATISTICS.
Imports of Cotton into Trieste, annually, from 1815 to 1839,.....................................
Average Prices of Cotton at Trieste, annually, from 1815 to 1839,............................
Exports from Great Britain to the Brazils, from 1841 to 1843,...................................
Prices of Sundry Articles of Iron at Philadelphia, annually, from 1841 to 1844,.......
Prices of Molasses at Boston and New York, from 1795 to 1843,................................
Prices of Salt at Boston, from 1795 to 1843,..................................................................
Prices of Different Articles of Iron at New York, from 1840 to 1844,......................
Prices of Glassware at Boston and New York, from 1841 to 1843,...........................
Commerce of Honolulu, in 1843,....................................................................................
93
94
94
95
95
95
96
96
96
NAUTICAL I NTELLI GENCE.
Invention of Navigation and Marine Implements, in 1843,..........................................
Port of Dunkerque, France,............................................................................................
Law of New York respecting Hospital Money,............................................................
97
97
97
T H E B OOK T R A D E .
Durbin’s Travels in France and Great Britain— Schiller’s Ballads and Poems,..........
M’Auley’s Essays— Graves’s (Mrs.) Girlhood and Womanhood,..................................
Mason’s Government of the United States—Verplanck’s Shakspeare’s Plays,...........
Martineau’s (Mrs.) Life in the Sick-Room—Bush’s Notes on Joshua,.......................
Hildreth’s Theory of Morals— Chandler’s Criminal Trials,.........................................
Spalding’s Review of D ’Aubigne’s History of the Reformation,.................................
Marsh’s Goths in New England—Ellis’s (Mrs.) Brother and Sister, etc......................
Ogilby’s Catholic Church— Ellis’s (Mrs.) Irish Girl, and other Poems,........................
Smith’s Word for Every One— Dumas’s Balance of Organic Nature..........................
Child’s (Mrs.) Mother’s Book— Winslow’s Christian Doctrines,......................... 102,
Day’s Maxims—Dick’s Christian Philosopher,...............................................................
Bridgman’s Gardener’s Assistant—Harrison’s Tongue of Tim e,.................................
Goodrich’s Pictorial History of the United States—Widow’s Jewels,.........................
Dana’s (Mrs.) Young Sailor— Sears’s Ciceronian,..........................................................
Seatsfield’s Life in the New World— Colquhoun’s World’s Religion,.........................
99
99
100
100
101
101
101
102
102
103
103
103
104
104
104
H U N T ’S
MERCHANTS’ MAGAZINE.
/
JULY,
A
rt.
1844.
I.— SHIPS AND SHIP-BUILDING OF THE A N C IE N TS.
I f we allow the correctness o f that historical theory, which supposes,
that the true principles o f science were best understood in the earliest
ages of the w orld ; that, before the deluge, the laws o f nature, and the
most recondite properties o f matter, were comprehended in a far clearer
light than they have been since ; and that all our science is but an attempt at the re-discovery o f certain facts and principles, a knowledge of
which has been lost, during intervening degenerate ages, nothing can be
more absurd than the inquiries and disputes, concerning the invention and
origin o f navigation, which have occupied so much o f the time of our
older antiquaries. This theory, to which we allude, has many and able
advocates. Setting it aside, however, and supposing that the antediluvians
lived in the infancy o f science, as well as o f society, there is still no
ground for maintaining, as some have, that the art of navigation was en
tirely unknown to the inhabitants o f the world before the flood. From
the very nature o f things they must have made some progress in it.
There were then, as now, rivers to cross, transmarine countries to visit;
and the relations between water, and substances capable o f floating, must
have been as apparent as in the present day. An inference may also be
drawn in favor of this view from the fact, that, in the account o f the con
struction of the greatest vessel ever built— the ark— no circumstance is
mentioned which would indicate it to have been the first o f its kind. It
was novel in its size, perhaps in its model, and certainly in its object, but
no new principle seems to have been developed; and it was probably
looked upon by the wondering and curious antediluvians as something ex
traordinary in marine architecture, but not as the first experiment in a
new art. A tradition has even been preserved, that the antediluvians had
boats previous to the deluge, but that they were insufficient to weather
the waves and gales that then swept the earth, and were lost, with their
unlucky owners, in that mighty commotion o f the elements. T o this ef-
12
Ships and Ship-Building o f the A ncients.
feet, Plato* has been cited ; and Ovid,f in his account o f the flood. The
question, however, is o f so little interest or importance, that it would be
an idle waste o f words to consider it at any length.
The first vessel o f which we have any authentic account— the first,
not only in point o f time, but in size, and the purpose for which it was in
tended, is the ark. The more we consider the dimensions, proportions
and arrangement, o f this wonderful vessel, as given in the simple, but
comprehensive directions for its construction, recorded by Moses, the
more are we struck with admiration o f it, as a work o f art, and as a very
perfect adaptation o f a means to an end. It has been objected, that, large
as it was, it could not have contained all the animals that were directed
to be gathered into it. The futility o f this objection has been fully ex
posed, by numerous distinguished commentators upon Holy Writ. Taking
the cubit at eighteen inches, the ark must have been four hundred and
fifty feet in length, or more than twice the length o f our heaviest line-ofbattle ships ; seventy-five feet in breadth, or from twenty-five to thirty feet
wider than any two-decker; and forty-five feet in depth. Her tonnage,
as estimated by Dr. Hales, amounted to 42,413 tons, equal to about eigh
teen ships o f the line. That she was “ broad at both ends, like a chest,
and perfectly flat on the bottom,” is, o f course, a mere conjecture o f our
biblical commentators, but one, which, as she was not intended for sailing,
may not be far from the truth. In such case, it is evident, that her ca
pacity for stowage would be much increased in proportion to her tonnage,
and that the number o f tons would not indicate the real burden that she
could carry. Two hundred and fifty pairs o f quadrupeds, it has been es
timated, were all that was necessary to perpetuate every known species ;
these, with the other animals, and their food for a twelvemonth, could not
have overtasked the powers o f such a ship. Internally, she was divided
into three stories or deck s; her timbers and planking were o f gopher
wood, thought to be cypress ; and she was pitched within and without
with a kind o f bitumen, which now, as then, abounds in the country
where she is supposed to have been built. It will be observed, that the
ratio of the length to the breadth, is greater than generally obtains in
modern times, except in some o f our American vessels. The depth o f
hold, however, is considerably less. Long, but low, with a flat floor, no
top-hamper, and requiring no ballast, the ark must have floated, during
that awful tempest o f divine wrath, a seaboat, that, for safety and comfort,
could not, most probably, have been improved, in any particular, by the
boasted skill o f the present day.
Notwithstanding, however, that the recollection, at least, o f this splen
did specimen o f naval architecture, must have been preserved for some
time, by the descendants o f Noah, the people o f the earth, soon after the
deluge, appear to have lost nearly all knowledge o f the art, and a host o f
names are mentioned by ancient writers to whom is attributed the honor
o f its invention or re-discovery: Neptune, Minerva, Danaus, Atlas, Her
cules, Jason, Erythroeus and others, the mythic representatives o f real
persons, who each, at different times, and in different countries, contribu
ted to the improvement o f the rude modes and materials o f navigation in
use among their countrymen. It has been, o f course, impossible to as
certain, from conflicting testimony and imperfect accounts, the merit or
* Liber III., de legit.
t Metam., Lib. I., fol. 7.
Ships and Ship-B uilding o f the A ncients.
13
the exact state o f the art at the times in which they lived. Certain it
is, however, that, for many centuries, its principles were but little under
stood and its practice but little attended to, and that the progress o f no
art has been characterized by slower and more numerous steps.
Usous, a Phoenician, the brother o f Hypsauranius, is represented to
have been the first who ventured to sea in a canoe hollowed from the
trunk o f a tree by fire. Before his day, however, a much more rude and
inartificial kind o f vessel had been for some time in use. It consisted
merely o f a float, or raft o f logs, lashed together by ropes, o f skin or bark,
and moved by both sail and oar. In its most simple form, a single log
only was used, on which the adventurous voyager sat astride, and pro
pelled himself by his paddle. These vessels were denominated rates, and
corresponded precisely to the catamarans* that are now used in the East
Indies, on the coast o f South America and in other parts o f the world.
W e are told by Strabof and Pliny,^ that these rates were the first kind
o f vessels invented by the ancients. Father Montfaucon§ quotes Isidore
to the same effect, and the statement is so probable, that we can readily
give it credit. On these rude, but, when properly constructed, safe ves
sels, there is reason for believing that the ancients, particularly the Phoe
nicians, made voyages o f considerable length.
The invention o f Usous, who is thought by some learned men|| to have
been identical with Esau, the brother o f Jacob, is an improvement, so
obvious, that the only wonder is, that it should have been left for him to
make. The idea o f hollowing the trunks o f trees must, at any rate, have
been at once adopted, as we have abundance o f evidence that such ves
sels were in common use at a very early date. These, first log boats,
corresponding precisely to our well known “ dug-outs,” were termed monoxyla by the Greeks, and soon came to be o f all sizes, from the small
canoe, carrying but a single person, up to the large piratical craft, con
taining thirty men. These last are mentioned by Pliny, and his account
is quoted by Montfaucon, with expressions o f surprise. The learned fa
ther, was probably unacquainted with the still larger war canoes of the
aborigines o f this country, and o f the islands o f the Pacific. The cotton
wood tree of the West Indies, will sometimes make a canoe that will
carry a hundred men. The term alvei, was also sometimes used for the
same kind o f boats by the Romans. It was an alveus, according to Ovid,
in which Romulus and Remus were exposed. They were also known
by the name o f traburice, as being constructed o f one piece o f timber or
beam, and were in general use throughout all the countries o f the Medi
terranean, and in Portugal and Spain.
A variety of small craft were soon invented, adapted to the wants and
means o f different nations. T o the rates, were added bulwarks o f osier
twigs, o f which kind was the vessel o f Ulysses.IT The monoxyla were *§
* The catamaran, consists simply of a few logs lashed together, and so arranged, that
the middle ones project further ahead than those at the outside. In the centre one, is
stepped the mast, to which is attiched a shoulder-of-mutton sail. With a slight frame
work for a seat, and a basket, securely lashed, to hold his prey, the South American fish
erman ventures far out of sight of land, and safely braves the roughest waves. These
kind of craft hold their wind well and sail very fast.
t Lib. XVI.
t Lib. VII., chap 56.
§ Antiquitatae Expliquee, Lib. VII. Rates primum et antiquessimum genus navigii
e rudibus lignis asseribusque consertum.
|| Scheffer.
V Odyssey, Lib. V.
14
.Ships and Ship-B uilding o f the A ncients.
doubled, upon the plan o f the double canoes, used by the aborigines' of
some parts o f the continent. The East Indians, constructed boats o f
canes, called canna, from which, it has been suggested, that the word
canoe has been derived. The hollow cane* was split in two, o f a suffi
cient length; a bow and stern fitted to the bamboo trough, thus made, of
cloth, covered with wax and gum, and sometimes, probably, as is now
practiced, by the application of pieces o f the same cane, the section o f
which is made obliquely to the axis, and, when fitted and secured, pre
sents a bow and stern rising at an angle o f about forty-five degrees.
These boats were frequently constructed o f several canes, and in such a
manner, that they could readily be taken to pieces and put together again,
as Scheffer gathers from the assertions o f Diodorus, and the agreement
with them o f the words of Quintius Curtius, who says : “ He (Alexander)
gave orders to advance to the Indus, and to construct vessels to carry his
army over to the other side. Those who were intrusted with the execu
tion of this order, knowing that several rivers would be encountered, built
their boats in such away that they could be transported by being taken to
pieces, and afterwards put together again when occasion required.”
Another kind of boats, was the sabcean, made o f hides. Caesar found
them among the ancient Britons, where they were constructed with a
light keel o f wood and a framework o f reeds, over which the hides were
stretched. They were also used in other countries, and corresponded
nearly to the skin skiffs o f the present Ivamschatkians, and other inhabit
ants o f the frigid zone, with the exception, that the latter have frequently
ribs of whalebone, and are furnished with a kind o f diaphragm, or skin
midriff, which, when drawn closely about the person of the boatman,
decks in his skiff from the waves. This kind o f boat, made o f willow
and skin, are mentioned by L ucan:
“ The bending willow into barks they twine,
Then line the work with skins of slaughtered kine ;
.Such are the floats Venetian fishers know',
Where, in dull marshes, stands the settling P o ;
Or such, to neighboring Gaul, allured by gain,
The nobler Britons cross the swelling main;
Like these, when fruitful Egypt lies afloat,
The Memphian artist builds his reedy boat.”
Row’s L ucan .
A peculiar kind o f hide boat, were the plicatiles, so called, because
they could be folded up. They were used by the Ethiopians, or inhabit
ants o f Nubia and Abyssinia, who, when they visited Egypt, came in their
plicatiles as far as the cataracts o f the Nile, when they folded them up,
carried them round upon their shoulders and again launched them upon
the surface of the stream. These boats are sometimes made o f leather,
or india-rubber cloth, for particular purposes in the present day. A boat,
* “ Diodorus takes notice of these boats, but does not altogether agree with other au
thors. He says, in India there is a great quantity of canes, so thick, that a man can
hardly embrace one of them with both arms. Of these, they make boats which are nev
er attacked by the worms, and last a long time. But when this author says that a man
can scarce clasp one with both arms, he seems far from intimating that one was large
enough to make twrn boats, but rather, that several were employed to make one boat.”—
M ontfaucon . The learned antiquary, whose words are hero quoted, probably litttle knew
how small a craft could be used. Pliny says, these boats were able to carry three men.
Now a canoe, made from a cane of a sufficient length, and six feet in circumference,
would be abundantly able to do that.
Ships and Ship-Building o f the A ncients.
15
somewhat after this fashion, is described by Herodotus.* He says, that,
“ the most curious thing that he saw in Babylonia, next to the great city
itself, were the boats which came down the Euphrates bearing the pro
duce o f Armenia. They were constructed with willows, and on the out
side covered with skin. Their form was round, in the shape o f a shield,
and without any distinction o f bow or stern. They were rowed by two
men, one pushing, the other pulling. Probably, they were indebted more
to the current, than to their own exertions, and needed the oars only to
steer clear o f the rocks and shoals. Some of these boats were o f a very
large size, and capable o f carrying a very valuable freight, o f which, the
principal article was generally palm-wine in casks. Into each boat was
placed an ass, and into the largest ones, two or three ; and upon arriving
at Babylon everything was sold, even to the ribs o f the boat, excepting
the outside covering o f hide, which was folded up, placed upon the asses
and carried back, by land, to Armenia. There, a new frame was made
for it, when it again descended the Euphrates.”
The Egyptians used boats made o f the papyrus. The broad leaves of
this plant were sewn together, attached to a light keel, and gathered to
gether at the two ends and tied. They were then coated with pitch.
Montfaucon says, that this material continued to be used down to the ninth
or tenth century, and that it was exported to different parts o f the world :
“ Hence, it was, that the tyrant Firmus, boasted that he had enough o f it
to subsist his whole arm y; which passage, some have interpreted, as if
the papyrus were something edible, whereas, it means, as Casaubon says,
no more than that he had enough, when sold, to furnish him with money
for the subsistence o f his army.” It may be doubted, from this, whether
Montfaucon intends to intimate that the papyrus was used so late in the
construction o f boats, and still more, that it was exported to other coun
tries for that purpose. At any rate, its consumption in that way must
have been small, in comparison with its more important use in the manu
facture o f paper. Plutarch relates, that the crocodiles o f the Nile made
the navigation o f that stream, in other kinds o f small craft, exceedingly
dangerous, but that they never troubled the boats made o f papyrus ; the
reason o f which was, according to the traditions o f the Egyptians, that
the goddess Isis had used them in some of her voyagings, and had thus
rendered them sacred in the eyes o f those scrupulous monsters.
Strabo, Diodorus and Pliny, all speak of boats made from the shells o f
tortoises. They are authors o f undoubted veracity, and we must credit
the fact, although we are not furnished with any very definite idea of the
manner in which they were built. The sea-turtle is sometimes found of
a sufficient size to make a small boat from his single shell, but the Egyp
tians could have known nothing o f such monsters. They must have used
the land-tortoise, and, most probably, had the art of welding together
pieces o f shell by means o f heat.
Boats were also made o f baked clay. These were attributed to the
Agathyrsi, a people o f Egypt, who are described as rowing their earthen
vessels with painted oars. Pontanus, as quoted by Scheffer, mentions
boats made o f bark. They were used by the Pitzorienses, a people of
India, and were, it is probable, similar in their construction to the birchen
canoes o f our aborigines.
* Clio, paragraph 94.
16
Ships and Ship-Building o f the A ncients.
Thus, many different kinds o f boats, composed o f a great variety of
materials, were known to the earliest nations o f antiquity. Most o f them,
probably, were invented long before the art o f building a boat entirely o f
pieces of wood was understood. This, however, must have been discover
ed at a very early date, and have rapidly developed itself, in both rowing
and sailing vessels o f a large size. The framed wooden boats, must also
have soon superseded all other kinds, except where the nature o f other
materials was best adapted to the exigencies o f the navigation, or where
the timber or skill was wanting to construct them, as in the plecatiles of
the Ethiopians, the Sabasan boats o f the Venetian fishermen, or the canna
o f the East Indies. They were also used in the construction o f bridges,
both permanent and temporary. Every one is familiar with the account
o f the celebrated bridge o f Xerxes, across the Hellespont. The Romans
had floating, or boat bridges, ovor the streams in some parts of their nu
merous provinces ; and an important part o f the material o f their armies
was a train o f wagons, bearing boats, with which a temporary bridge
could be rapidly formed. This invention, which seems for a good many
centuries to have been lost or neglected, was justly deemed, upon its re
vival, as one o f the most useful improvements in military art.
For boats, or undecked vessels, of a small size, the ancients had a va
riety of names. The cymba, a small boat invented by the Phoenicians;
the celox, of the Rhodians ; the lembus and the myaparo.
Those small boats which were rowed with oars, were termed celoces;
while those in which sculls, pulled by one man, were used, were named
ampheres. O f such, was Charon’s boat, the fern-man o f the Styx. Boats
were also named frequently from the number o f oars, as, for instance, the
boats of two oars, were sometimes called biremes ; o f three, trirem es; a
fact, which must be recollected, to avoid the confounding of these small
boats with those large ships, which afterwards, and more generally, de
rived the same names from the number o f ranks or banks o f oars with
which they were furnished.
The origin o f ships or large vessels, constructed by framing together
pieces of timber and planks, is involved in almost as much uncertainty as
that o f the smaller craft o f which we have been speaking. The reason
able supposition is, that several nations invented, at a very early date, in
dependently of each other, ships, differing merely in some particulars as
to model, size, & c., and that hence has arisen the discrepancy in the ac
counts o f ancient writers. Some say, that Semiramis was the first to use
galleys in her invasion o f India. The circumstances o f the invasion,
supposing the accounts o f it to be authentic in other particulars, show,
however, that the vessels that she employed were nothing but boats, and
differed very much from the vessels afterwards in use. By the Egyptians,
the invention o f the galley was attributed to Sesostris; by some, it is as
cribed to Atlas ; by others, to Jason ; and, by others, with still greater
probability, to the Phoenicians.
The first general division o f the ships o f the ancients, was into naves
onerariee, and naves longer.; the one for carrying merchandise, the other
for the purposes o f war. The naves onerarice, being intended only as
ships of burden, had a much greater breadth o f beam, in proportion to
their length, and a much rounder bottom, with, consequently, an increas
ed capacity for stowage. Their crews were, o f course, smaller, and they
depended generally upon their sails. A proportion o f such ships, formed
Ships and Ship-Building o f the A ncients.
17
a very essential part o f the ancient fleets, which they invariably accom
panied upon any distant expedition as storeships, bearing provisions, in
struments and munitions o f war.
They were frequently called round
ships, from their shape. They are so called in Athenaeus, from whom
Montfaucon quotes a witticism of a certain joker named Stratonicus, who,
when asked which ships, the long or round, he thought the safest, replied
“ those which come safe to land.”
The naves longce were, at first, a kind o f galley, o f a single bank or
row o f oars. Such was the Argo, the ship in which Jason and his com
panions performed their expedition in search o f the golden fleece. It is
said that this vessel took her name from the Phoenician word Arco, signi
fying long, which was generally applied by that maritime nation to their
naves longce, in contradistinction to the Gaulus or round vessel.* Jason’s
ship, was thus called Arco or Arco Navis, from being the first ship o f the
kind in use among the Greeks. She was at least sixty-five feet in length,
and manned by fifty-four Argonaut®, all o f whom are supposed to have
been rowers. The poet, Serenus, laughs at Hercules, and calls him
semiremex, half oarsman or “ lubber,” for his awkward manner o f hand
ling his oars ; and we know that there were as many oars as men, or
even more, if the allusion o f Theocritus to thirty scalmi or tholepins, on
a side, is correct. Generally, the Argo is styled, by ancient writers, a
penticontorus, or vessel o f fifty oars.
The naves longce, with one rank o f oars, were generally constructed
without any deck, or, at most, with only small stages in the bow and
stern, upon which the soldiers were stationed in battle. These vessels
were called from this circumstance, aphractce by the Greeks, and apertce
by the Romans, to distinguish them from the cataphractce or closely deck
ed ships. For a long time, the aphractce were the only ship in use, as
the cataphractce were not invented until some time afterwards. These
last, however, superseded the apertce for the purposes o f war, and the lat
ter were devoted almost entirely to piracy, or as sentinels, couriers and
tenders o f the fleets. One class o f them were called actuarial, and a
smaller size, actuariolce. These varied in size, from twenty to forty oars,
and were seldom or never furnished with rostra or beaks.
Some time later, a revolution seems to have taken place in the con
struction and adaptation o f vessels for military purposes, somewhat similar
to that which has occurred in modern times. From the time that the At
lantic became the scene o f strife between contending powers, in the com
mencement o f the fifteenth century, the object o f the marine architects,
was, to increase the size o f their ships to the utmost possible extent, until
it was proved, by repeated and severe experiments, that there was a limit,
beyond which, it was useless and dangerous to venture. The huge three
and four-deckers, with their high towering stern and forecastles, o f the
Spanish navy, were found unable to cope with the smaller, lighter and
more manageable vessels o f the English. In like manner, the cata
phractce, o f the ancients, which gradually grew to an enormous size, were,
at length, found to have exceeded their proper limits. They were suc
cessfully encountered by a smaller class, as at the battle o f Acteum ; and
the cataphractce o f five, six and seven ranks o f oars, were, at length, al
most entirely displaced by the liburnce, o f only one. The term liburnce,
Bochart’s Geog., Lib. II., chap. 2.
18
Ships and Sliip-B uilding o f the A ncients.
is differently applied by different writers. By some it is given to a small
boat used by the Liburni, a people o f Illyria, and rowed with only two
oars. It is evident, that this craft could be of no very great service in a
naval fight.* It is probable that the Liburnian galleys, that did Augustus
such good service, were mostly half-decked, o f considerable size, and fur
nished with rostra, with which, by reason o f their lightness, and superior
manageablity, they were more than a match for the heavy and unwieldy
triremes and quadriremes of Antony and Cleopatra. When first adopted
by the Romans, as vessels o f war, their size seldom exceeded that o f a
single bank o f oars ; j but soon they began to make them o f two, and
even three ranks, and the term liburnae was generally used for all men o f
war that did not exceed these rates. The huge vessels were, however,
as we have said, generally laid aside. Even the triremes were but very
seldom used; and, except for the purposes o f show and ostentation, the
liburnae, o f one and two banks, or ordines, were found to be the most de
sirable, and the only ones with which, in later days, the line-of-battle
could be advantageously formed. They seem, by all accounts, to have
been, not only smaller, but more compact, stronger and swifter, than the
old vessels, and o f nearly the same mould as the galleys o f the Venetians,
Genoese, French and other nations o f the Mediterranean.
Before this revolution in the construction o f ships o f war, by which the
liburnaj came into general use, the ancients rated and named their ships
according to the number o f ordines or banks o f oars. There was the
majoris and minoris form a:, or first and second class. In the second class
or form, were included the uniremes, o f one bank, the biremes, triremes
and quadriremes, o f two, three and four banks, or ordines remorum. In
the first class, were the higher ordines, as the quinquiremes, & c. J Among
the Greeks, the number o f ordines were, at last, increased to an almost
incredible extent. They had ships o f ten, fifteen, twenty, and, in some
instances, even thirty and forty banks o f oars. Alexander built one o f
twelve, Ptolemy Soter, one o f fifteen; and Plutarch, in his life o f Deme
trius, describes one built by that prince o f thirty banks. Ptolemy Philadelphius extended the number to forty; and Ptolemy Philopater is said to
have built a huge unwieldy craft o f fifty rows o f oars.
The biremes, it is asserted by Pliny, were first invented about three
hundred years after the Trojan war by the Erythrse. The triremes were
invented, according to Thucidides, by Amenocles, a ship-builder o f C o
rinth, who built four of that class o f vessels for the Samians. T o Aris
totle, o f Carthage, and Nesichton, o f Salamis, is attributed the honor of
constructing the first quadriremes and quinquiremes. The Athenians,
afterwards so powerful at sea, were, for a long time, far behind several
other states in naval affairs. It was not, says Thucidides, until later
times, when they had a war with the iEginetee, and were also expecting
an attack from the Persians, that, persuaded by Themistocles, they built
those ships with which they so successfully opposed the barbarians.
In those vessels o f more than one bank o f oars, the rowers were divi
* They were used, however, as scout-boats, and for the purpose of communicating be
tween the vessels of the fleet. Augustus went through his fleet in one of these skiffs,
before the battle of Acteum commenced, exhorting and encouraging his men.
+ Vegetus, cited by Montfaucon.
f By the Greeks, these vessels were called moneres, or one bank; dieres, trieres, penteres, hepteres, &c., two, three, five, or seven banks, &c.
Ships and Ship-Building o f the A ncients.
19
ded into classes. The lowest, or those that sat next to the water, and
rowed with the shortest oars, were called Thalamites, the middle rank
were termed Zygites, and those upon the upper deck Thranites. These
last received higher pay, in consequence of the greater labor required in
moving the longer and heavier oars o f the highest bank; and hence has
been deduced a strong argument in favor o f the opinion, that, in the an
cient vessels, only one man was stationed at an o a r : for, if several men
were stationed at each o f the upper oars, in proportion to its weight, their
labor could not have been considered harder than that o f the Thalamites,
who, we know, had each one his oar, and who would, therefore, have
been deserving o f equal pay. This is one o f the arguments o f Scheffer,
who, in conjunction with Scaliger and some other learned antiquaries,
maintained this opinion. The opposite side o f the question, seems, how
ever, to have been successfully espoused by Fabreti, who shows the ab
surdity o f supposing that an oar o f fifty feet in length could be managed
by a single man. We must not forget, however, the expedient, that we
know, in some instances, was resorted to, o f running lead into the handles
o f the oars, whereby they, might have been better and more easily bal
anced ; but even allowing them such an aid, the objection o f Fabreti has
no little force. He shows, too, that a quotation from Silius Italicus, upon
which Scheffer relies, has no application to the question; and he might,
says Montfaucon, have gone still further, and have shown that the very
words o f Silius convey the idea that there were more men than oars.
Fabreti, also, produces a very conclusive passage from the Tactics o f Leo,
to the effect, that, in a vessel o f two banks, there ought to be fifty men at
the lower row, and one hundred and fifty men at the upper, all armed for
fighting. Montfaucon, after enumerating Scheffer’s and Fabreti’s argu
ments, takes a middle ground, which is, most probably, nearest the truth.
He says : “ As to my opinion, I believe, that, in the biremes and triremes,
in the higher and lower ranks, there was but one man to an o a r ; but as
to the quadriremes and quinquiremes, I do not dare to say whether there
was more than one man to an oar or not. But this much, we must al
low, it is hard to conceive how one man, in the higher ranks o f the lar
gest vessels, could move one o f those big oars by himself.” It is not at
all improbable that a great diversity o f practice, in this particular, obtain
ed among the ancients, not only as respected different classes o f ships,
but also in vessels o f the same rate, that, while in the largest ships the
Thranitae were generally superior, in numbers, to the Thalamitae, in ves
sels o f an inferior class they were sometimes superior and sometimes
equal.
Another question,* equally obscure, and which has been debated at still
greater length, is, as to the arrangement o f the different banks o f oars,
especially in vessels o f the highest class. Some maintain, that the oars
were all in one tier or deck. These found their opinion upon the appa
rent impossibility of managing the higher oars, if the ordines are supposed
* It might be supposed that many obscure questions, in relation to ancient shipping,
would be solved by the images of vessels which have been left to us. But the difficulty
is, that most of the plates that the antiquarians have given us, are from the reliefs of coins
and triumphal monuments— as the column of Trajan, at Rome, where all the material
parts are sacrificed to the personal. Not the slightest attention is paid to proportion. The
men on board of a ship, are sometimes, apparently, as large as the ship itself; and are
represented as rowing with oars half as long as their arms.
20
Ships and Ship-Building o f the A ncients.
to be one over the other, and also upon the assertion o f an old commen
tator upon Aristophanes, who says that the Thranitse, are those who row
in the stern ; the Zygitse, in the middle ; and the Thalamitse, in the prow.
T o these are opposed Scaliger, Scheffer, Palmerius, Fabreti and others,
who show that this commentator could have known nothing o f the sub
ject, inasmuch as he must have lived at a time when the old ships o f several banks had been completely superseded by the liburnce. Zosimus, the
historian o f the Greek emperors, expressly says, that, in his day, the be
ginning o f the fifth century, no triremes had been seen for a long time ;
and the Scoliastis, supposed to have written at a still later date. B e
sides, his testimony is refuted by the assertion o f a much earlier commen
tator upon the same poet, who clearly arranges the rowers in three ranks
from below upward. But it needs no words to expose the ignorance of
the latter writer, not only o f the ancient vessels, but even o f those o f his
own time. No vessel ever had oars placed directly in the bow and stern ;
and writers have accumulated abundance o f testimony to the fact, that the
ordines were arranged one above the other. Two passages, from the
number that have been collected, will be sufficiently conclusive.
Silius Italicus speaks o f a vessel that took fire upon the upper deck,
xvhere it raged for some time, driving the men away from their oars, be
fore the Thalamitae, or rowers o f the lower rank, were informed o f it.
On the other hand, Appian describes a case, in which one ship was run
into by the rostra of another, and broken down to the k e e l; xvhen, the
water rushing in, drowned the Thalamitas, while the Thranitm saved
themselves by swimming. In the one instance, the upper rowers desert
their oars while the lower ranks are yet ignorant o f the fire ; and, in the
other, the lower rowers are drowned before they can get on deck, while
those in the higher ranks escape. These, and numerous other clear and
distinct passages, clearly establish, although they are very far from ex
plaining the fact, that the ancients had ships in which the rowers were
divided into numerous banks, one higher than the other.
The question, then, occurs, xvhat was the relative position o f the men
composing the ordines ? T o this, no perfectly satisfactory answer has as
yet been given. It has been maintained, that the rowers were placed
directly over each other; but such an arrangement is evidently impossi
ble. W e cannot suppose, at the least, less than three feet and a half o f
space between each man, which would elevate the highest oars o f a ves
sel, o f sixteen banks, more than fifty-six feet above the surface o f the wa
ter ; and, in the huge craft o f Ptolemy Philopater, more than one hundred
and seventy, feet. That arrangement, is also contrary to the images o f
triremes and biremes, which have been preserved, where the oars are
clearly placed obliquely or checkenvise. This last, was, undoubtedly, the
general arrangement; but it is nevertheless attended with many, and al
most insuperable objections, when applied to some o f the larger ships. It
has been supposed that, in such cases, there were but few men in the
lower bank, leaving a largo interval or space between each row er; and
that, between them, and almost on the same level, came the second bank,
the oars increasing in number, the higher the bank. It is impossible to
conceive any advantage in this arrangement, as it is well understood, that
the lower the oar, the more effectually is its power applied; and the only
reason we can suppose for it, is a foolish emulation as to the number of
banks. That such monstrous craft were intended more for show than
Ships and Ship-Building o f the A ncients.
21
use, we have the evidence o f Plutarch, who says, that Ptolemy’s great
ship could not be moved without great difficulty and danger, and was
nearly as stationary as a structure on land. Hiero’s great ship, o f twenty
oars, was towed to Alexandria, where she was publicly moored as a spec
tacle ; and a large ship of sixteen banks, built by Philip, o f Macedon, is
said, by Livy, to have been nearly useless and unmanageable from her
bulk.
The learned Vossius, who wrote a dissertation upon the construction o f
the triremes and liburnae, has given a very different, and certainly a very
ingenious solution o f this difficulty. He says, that there never were any
ships o f more than seven banks, or ordines remorum; and, in order to
make this out, he goes into a long and minute calculation o f the propor
tions and parts o f Ptolemy’s ship. He says, it is evident, that the men
must have been placed in oblique parallelograms ; that, in the lowest rank
or ordo, there was but one man to an o a r ; but that, as they increased in
height, that part o f the oar within board, measuring from the scalmus or
tholepin, increased in length, and to it was stationed a greater number o f
rowers. The second ordo, had two men ; the third, four; the fourth, six ;
the fifth, eight; the sixth, ten. These men were disposed upon ju ga or
benches, to which the term ordines. Vossius contends, has reference, and
not to the number o f tiers or banks. These juga ascended with a dou
ble obliquity, both lengthwise and in-board, towards what was called the
forum o f the ship. Having thus disposed o f thirty-one ordines, upon six
benches, Vossius places ten more men to each oar o f another row, the
scalmi, which were no higher than those o f the sixth, but were placed
further out upon the traustra or beams that ran across the vessel and pro
jected from the sides. Forty-one ordines are thus accounted for, to every
seven oars, counting from below upward. Now, we know, that, in each
row, reckoning lengthwise, there were fifty oars, which, multiplied by
seven, gives three hundred and fifty a side, or seven hundred in a ll; and,
if to every seven oars, there were forty-one men, the whole number re
quired four thousand one hundred, which corresponds to the number as
stated by Athenseus.
After all, however, the question may be considered o f but very little
interest or importance, inasmuch as it relates only to those huge products
o f despotic fancy, called by the ancients, Cyclades, from the resemblance
to islands, and which were evidently neither adapted or intended for ser
vice at sea. In the vessels in ordinary use, we have sufficient evidence
to warrant the belief, that their oars were always arranged obliquely or
checkerwise— the rowers o f the second rank, sitting a little above, and
between the rowers o f the f i r s t a nd that, in the uniremes and biremes,
there was but one man to an oar ; in the triremes, sometimes two ; and,
in the higher banks o f the quadriremes, quinquiremes, & c., always two
or more.
The materials used by the ancients in ship-building, were, in general,
nearly similar to those employed in the present day. O f the woods, the
Ilex, a species o f o a k ; the orntis, or ash ; the wood o f Dodona, by some,
supposed to be the beech, and by others, with more probability, a kind o f
o a k ; the pinus, the alnus and the cedar, were in most repute. T ree
nails, or pegs o f wood, were used for fastening on the planks, mixed with
a due proportion o f iron, or, what was esteemed preferable, brazen bolts.
The express testimony o f Vegitius, in favor o f brass over iron, has been
22
Ships and Ship-B uilding o f the A ncients.
frequently cited ; and we are informed that Hiero, of Syracuse, built a
ship o f the largest size, which was brass-fastened throughout. For caulk
ing, stuppa or tow was commonly employed, but sometimes a kind o f rush
called Spartum;* the seams were then payed with wax, and sometimes
with rosin and pitch. This wax was frequently applied in a heated state
to the whole surface ; and when ornamental painting was employed, the
colors were mixed with wax, and after being burnt in, (a mode o f paint
ing, called by the Greeks encaustic,) were varnished and polished, and
rendered capable o f withstanding the effects o f air and moisture for a
long time. The sails were made sometimes o f matting, like the sails o f
the modern Chinese junks. This kind o f sail was, however, most proba
bly confined to the Egyptian and Venetian vessels in the Red sea and
Indian ocean. In the Mediterranean, the sails were made sometimes of
linen, and sometimes o f silk, and, in some instances o f leather and hides.
W e know from the words o f Ezekiel, that luxury and prodigality in the
construction and fitting up o f ships had made great progress at a very
early date. “ Take up a lamentation for Tyrus,” said the Lord to his
prophet, “ and say unto that merchant o f the people for many isles, thy
builders have perfected thy beauty. They have made all thy ship-boards
(deck-planks) o f fir-trees o f Senir : they have taken cedars from Lebanon
to make masts for thee. O f the oaks of Bashan have they made thine
oars; the company o f the Ashurites have made thy benches o f ivory,
brought out o f the isle o f Chittim. Fine linen with broidered work from
Egypt was that which thou spreadest forth to be thy sail; blue and pur
ple from the isles o f Elishah was that which covered thee. The inhabi
tants o f Zidon and Arvad were thy mariners : thy wise men, oh Tyrus,
that were in thee, were thy pilots. The ancients o f Gebal and the wise
men thereof were in thee thy caulkers : all the ships o f the sea with their
mariners were in thee to occupy thy merchandise.”
The fir-trees o f Senir must have answered very well for the decks, but
it may be questioned whether the oaks o f Bashan were the most appro
priate for oars. The oak, it is hardly probable, was the tree intended by
the prophet. The benches o f ivory, Newcome supposes to have been
seats in the cabins o f the royal galleys. Lowth, however, much more
reasonably maintains, that they were the benches upon which were seated
the row ers; and this interpretation gives a much better idea o f Tyrian
extravagance, and is fully warranted by what we know o f other instances
o f similar prodigality. The celebrated visit o f Cleopatra to Antony, is
familiar to all. In a galley gilt all over, beneath purple sails, and a can
opy o f cloth o f gold, the voluptuous queen, with her attendant beauties o f
both sexes, reclined, enjoying the fragrance o f the most precious incense
which threw its perfume far over the sea, and listening to the strains of
the softest music re-echoing from the neighboring hills, and blending, in
the sweetest harmony, with the splashing o f her silver oars.
Her predecessor, however, Ptolemy Philopater, seems to have far excelled all other potentates, with the exception, perhaps, o f Hiero, king o f
Syracuse, in the ostentation o f ship-building. The dimensions o f his
great ship, as given by Athenaeus, are truly astonishing.* In breadth
-----------------------— ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 9
* This is the Spanish broom, which still grows so extensively in the province of Mur
cia. The plains around Carthagena, were formerly called Campus Spartarius, from this
production.
t Montfaucon.
Ships and Ship-Building o f the A ncients.
23
she was fifty-seven feet, or about the size o f our largest ships o f w a r; in
length, she was four hundred and twenty feet, or full twice as long as the
heaviest two-decker; and seventy-nine feet in height, from the water to
the top o f the acrostolecon or highest ornament o f the stern. Four thou
sand men propelled this huge mass by means of oars, the longest o f which
was fifty-seven feet in length; and which, notwithstanding their size and
weight, were, it is said, rendered manageable by lead run into the han
dles. These oars were beautifully ornamented with paintings, and the
most elaborate carvings o f vine and ivy leaves. Tw o prows, seven ros
tra or beaks, and colossal figures o f animals, at the head and stern, aided
in exciting the admiration o f the spectators. Besides her rowers, she
carried four hundred sailors and two thousand eight hundred and fifty sol
diers. The ordinary way o f launching vessels, which was to drag and
push them by main strength into the water, would not answer in her case,
and they had to construct a machine for the purpose, in which was em
ployed as much timber as would build fifty large ships. By the help of
this, she was forced into the stream, amid the flourish o f trumpets and the
acclamations o f the people, and to the great delight, no doubt, o f the
royal parricide, matricide, fratricide and debauchee.
Not content with this specimen o f useless extravagance, the same Ptole
my resolved to build another vessel o f nearly equal size for the Nile. O f
this ship, Montfaucon and other antiquaries, give us, from Athenaeus, a
particular, although not always a very clear account. She was called
Thalamegus, from being provided with bed-rooms, and was, in length, one
hundred and twenty-five paces; in breadth, forty-five feet; and, in height,
including a kind o f tent constructed upon deck, sixty feet. She had a
double prow and double stern, and was surrounded on the inside by a gal
lery o f two stories, the lower, supported by pillars like a peristyle, the
upper enclosed, and furnished with windows on both sides. Communi
cating with this gallery, in the bow, was a kind o f porch beautifully or
namented with ivory and precious woods. Connected with this porch,
was a covered ante-chamber, with windows opening to the left and right,
and a passage opening into the great hall. In this apartment was exhib
ited the heighth o f luxury. The columns surrounding the room, were o f
cypress wood, with Corinthian capitals o f ivory and gold. The architrave
was all gold, and the frieze elaborately ornamented with numerous figures
in ivory. The doors, twenty in number, were richly inlaid with precious
woods and metals, and also adorned with sculptures in ivory, which were
not, however, so much remarkable for their elegance as for their number.
Upon the ceiling, composed o f panels o f cypress, were profusely displayed
sculptures, covered with gold. Adjoining this hall was a bed-chamber,
with seven beds ; and beyond that, separated by a narrow passage, was
an apartment, equally rich with the first, for the women. Here was a
dining-room capable o f holding nine couches, ornamented in the most
costly style, and communicating with another bed-chamber for five beds.
All these rooms, passages and galleries, were upon the lower deck. From
this, a flight o f stairs led up to the second gallery, where there were other and still more sumptuous apartments. The first was a dining-room,
with five tables, adjoining which, was a magnificent arched temple of
Venus, in which stood a marble statue o f that goddess. Opposite this,
was another saloon adorned with columns o f Indian stone. Farther to
wards the bow, was a noble hall dedicated to Bacchus. Symbolical
24
Ships and Ship-Building o f the A ncients.
sculptures and paintings loaded the entablature, which rested upon the
gilded capitals o f Corinthian columns. T o the right, there was a cave
tilled with Mosaic work, and the images of the Ptolemy family sculptured
in a kind of stone called lychnites. Above the principal room o f this
story, there was another dining saloon, covered by a kind o f tent held to
gether by cords, and near to which was a large open space for air and
exercise. From this place, a winding flight o f stairs went up to a cov
ered gallery, and to a dining-room o f nine tables. Round this, were
placed fluted columns, the flutings being alternately white and black, with
capitals, adorned with roses and the flowers o f the lotus and palm. Nu
merous other rich and convenient apartments, served to accommodate the
crowd with which she was peopled.
The same authority, gives account o f a wonderful vessel built by Hiero,
king o f Syracuse, which, as we have had occasion several times to allude
to it, we will here shortly describe. Ambitious o f renown, Hiero re
solved to build a ship which should far eclipse the fame o f the machine
o f Diocledes, the funeral pile o f Timccus, the lamp o f Polycletus, or the
chariot o f Hieronymus. For this purpose, he gave orders to collect ma
terials and men, and appointed Archias, of Corinth, as master-builder.
Three hundred ship-carpenters, besides other artificers, were employed.
From Mount /Etna was obtained timber, sufficient to have built sixty
large triremes, and from Italy and Sicily, was collected a vast quantity o f
wood for decks, tree-nails, A c . The masts were rather more difficult to
obtain, particularly the mainmast; but at last, however, a tree was found
in the mountains o f Bruttiorun, in the south o f Italy, large enough for the
purpose. The ship was sufficiently finished in six months for launching,
which was effected by means o f a machine invented by the celebrated
Archimedes. She was completely copper-fastened throughout. Many o f
her bolts, weighing ten pounds and upwards, were inserted in holes bored
by trcbrcc or augurs, and prevented from slipping or drawing by wrapping
them in waxed cloth and fastening them with lead. Three grand galle
ries or saloons, ran fore and aft the ship, from which branched off num
berless apartments. In the lower, was the hatchway that led to the hold ;
in the middle, branching off at right and left, were thirty rooms, in each
o f which were four beds; in the upper story, there was a gymnasium,
and places for walking and exercise. There were also extensive gardens,
watered by leaden tubes, and shaded by arbors o f ivy and vine. The
ceilings, windows and doors, o f all the rooms, were ornamented with the
most,exquisite and elaborate art. One saloon was dedicated to Venus.
It was furnished with three beds, and paved with agate and the most cost
ly stones that could be found in Sicily. In fact, all the apartments were
paved in Mosaic, and among the subjects represented in this manner,
were a complete series o f scenes from the Iliad o f Horner. Next to the
temple o f Venus, came a room called the scholastericon, in which was an
extensive and valuable library. The walls and windows o f this room,
were made o f carved box-wood. The bathing-room contained three beds,
three large-kettles of brass, and a bathing-tub o f one single tauromentian
stone. Besides all these, and the innumerable rooms for the accommo
dation o f the sailors and soldiers, there were on each side o f the ship ten
stables, with places for the provision of the horses and for the accommo
dation o f the horsemen.and grooms. In the bow, there was an immense
reservoir o f water, and near it a large fish-tank made o f planks and sheets
Ships and Ship-B uilding o f the A ncients.
25
o f lead. On the outside o f the ship, supported by timbers projecting from
the side, were placed piles o f wood, ovens, mills for grinding corn and
other conveniences, and all round the bulwarks were placed, at equal
distances, huge statues o f Atlas, by which was supported the upper deck.
Innumerable paintings adorned every part, aided by the richest sculpture
and gilding. Eight lofty towers, with battlements, from which missiles
could be thrown at an enemy, added to the imposing, but, according to
our notions, not very ship-shape appearance o f this floating city. Va
rious machines, one o f which, invented by Archimedes, could throw a
stone weighing three hundred pounds a distance o f two hundred and fifty
paces, protected the bulwarks, while long timbers, suspended in chains of
Irrass, heavy iron crows to grapple the enemy and machines in the tops,
loaded with stones and balls o f lead, completed her terrible defences.
Twelve hundred soldiers manned the sides, besides an equal number sta
tioned in-board, around the masts and in the tops, and the sailors and
rowers who moved the oars o f her twenty banks. From the great depth
o f hold, it was necessary to invent a new machine for drawing off the
water. This was effected by Archimedes, by means o f an apparatus
which, most probably, was the cochlion, commonly called Archimedes
screw, and generally attributed to that illustrious engineer.
When completed, Hiero found that there was no port in Sicily where
she could lie in security, and he resolved to make a present o f her to
Ptolemy. She was accordingly towed to Alexandria, accompanied by a
whole fleet o f vessels laden with corn and fish, and moored in that port,
from whence, it is supposed, that she was never afterwards removed.
But, although useless to her royal constructor, or to the Egyptian king,
she proved o f no little service to an Athenian poet named Archimelus,
who composed some verses in honor o f the ship and her builder. Hiero
sent him in return six thousand sexlarii o f grain.
A very important part o f an ancient ship o f war, was the rostrum,
which, it is said, was invented by Aristo, a Corinthian, but which, it is
most probable, he merely shortened and placed lower down. Acting upon
his advice, the Syracusians were enabled to gain a signal advantage over
the Athenians. Some ships were furnished with more than one rostrum.
Ptolemy’s big ship, we are informed, had seven. Generally, however,
there was but one, and it consisted o f a stout timber or timbers, projecting
directly from the bow, upon a level with the surface o f the water or a lit
tle below. It was always well fortified with iron or brass, and was es
teemed one o f the most essential and powerful means o f offence. One
o f the chief objects in all naval battles, was to pierce, with these beaks,
the sides o f the enemy’s vessel. One blow, fairly and fortunately given,
frequently sank a vessel instantaneously, as in the instance we have men
tioned, where the water rushed in with so much rapidity that many o f the
rowers were drowned ; or, as in the celebrated battle o f Salamis, when,
as Herodotus relates, Queen Artemisia, who fought on the side o f the Per
sians, finding herself pursued by a Grecian ship, resorted to a curious
stratagem to escape. Suddenly tacking ship, she rushed upon one o f the
Persian galleys,* and sunk it with one blow. The Athenians supposed
* The ship she destroyed was a Calyndian, and had on board Damasithymus, a Calyndian prince.
vol.
xx.—
yo. 1.
4
26
Ships and Ship-B uilding o f the A ncients,
from this, that her ship was either a Grecian vessel, or one that had de
serted from the Persians.*
Another powerful means o f offence, were the towers, o f which, as we
have seen in the case o f Hiero’s big ship, there were as many as eight.
Generally, however, there were either two or four. As they took up a
good deal o f room, and interfered much with the ordinary working o f the
vessel, they were in general only temporary, and were so constructed as
to be taken to pieces and put together again as occasion required. From
these towers, were projected missiles o f all kinds— stones, darts, balls o f
lead and burning arrows, covered with tow, and smeared with pitch, oil
and other combustible substances.
As our space will not permit us to go very minutely into this branch o f
the subject, we will merely mention one other offensive weapon— the
asser— which was considered particularly effective. It was, according to
the Vegetius, a beam, armed with iron at both ends, and slung like a yard
in the middle to the mast, and when whirled about, swept the enemy from
their decks, and sometimes even stove in the ship. How such a machine
could be conveniently used, and without about as much danger to friends
as foes, it is hard to conceive ; and we suspect, that, despite the opinions
o f the ancients, it was but a clumsy affair. A variety o f inflammable
compositions were made use o f with considerable effect. They were pro
jected from tubes to a considerable distance, but whether by their own ex
pansion or by an extraneous force does not so clearly appear.
O f the terms applied to the spars, rigging, & c., it would be easy to
collect a long list, especially from the Antiquiti Romanorum, R ossini; but
in general their meaning is so uncertain that it would not be worth the
space. Funes, was the common term for all the ropes ; and o f these, the
rudentes appear to have been the lifts, the pedes the sheets, the cerunchus
a brace, and the protones the shrouds, which ran up and were secured
just below the corbes or tops. The anchoralia were cables, to which
were fastened the anchors o f stone or wood, with lead run into them, or
baskets filled with pebbles, and later, o f iron, with one and two flukes,
and of a shape nearly resembling those in use at the present day. It is
a little curious, that, what is justly considered one o f the greatest improve
ments in ground-tackle, the introduction o f chain cables, should be as old
as the times o f Caesar, who takes notice o f them among the Venetians.f
But thus it is with many o f our most important improvements in science.
A full history o f ancient art would probably show that what we call in
ventions, are frequently but rediscoveries o f what was well known to the
artists and mechanics o f Greece and Rome. How much might we, per
haps, learn, as to the application o f the mechanical powers, if we knew
precisely the construction o f the machines which raised to their lofty sites
the massive stones o f the pyramids, or o f that wonderful combination o f
machinery, invented by Archimedes, by which, one man was able to pro
ject into her proper element the largest ship with safety and ease.
* “ Artemisia, thus, not only saved herself, but won great favor from Xerxes: for, as
she was bearing down for the shock, the attention of Xerxes was attracted to her prow
ess. He inquired if that was her ship ; and was assured, fay those who knew her figure
head, that it was; at the same time, he and all around him supposed that the Calyndian
vessel was a Grecian. The latter was sunk so quickly, that not one of her crew survived
to contradict the belief. Upon this occasion, Xerxes is said to have observed— ‘ The men
conduct themselves like women, the women like men.’ ”— Herod., Lib. VIII., Urania,
tap- 88.
f Fostroke, Encyclopedia o f Antiquities,
Sketches o f Com mercial L egislation.
27
A rt. II.— SKETCHES OF COM M ERCIAL LEGISLATION.
NUMBER III.
F R E E T R A D E VS. P R O T E C T I O N -----D E B A T E I N T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S S E N A T E .*
M r . B e n t o n next obtained the floor, and the subject was laid on the
table to be called up at his request when ready to proceed. Owing, how
ever, to the accident on board the Princeton, from the effects o f which
Mr. Benton was confined some weeks, the question did not again come
under discussion till Monday, the 25th o f March, when, and on the two
succeeding days, he addressed the Senate, occupying altogether its atten
tion for about five hours. As Mr. Benton takes a middle ground, and
consequently presents new views o f the subject, a digest o f his speech,
somewhat in detail, is deemed necessary, and will probably be highly ac
ceptable to moderate men who feel opposed to the extremes o f the pro
tective and free trade doctrines.
He sets out with a contrast o f the two systems o f duties— that o f duties
imposed wholly for revenue, and that o f duties imposed for the mixed ob
jects o f protection and revenue. In this contrast, he divides the half cen
tury during which our government has existed, into two periods o f twentyfive years each; the tariff laws o f the first period, having revenue for the
object, protection being the incident; and those o f the second period,
having protection for the object, revenue being the incident. A striking
difference, he points out in those two systems ; first, in the amount o f duty
imposed, and next, in the mode o f assessing or computing it. Before the
late war, the rate o f duty, whether ad valorem or specific, was always
moderate, never prohibitory, and uniformly laid on with a view to the pro
duction o f revenue. Since the war, duties have often been exorbitant or
prohibitory, and rendered still more exorbitant by the mode o f computing
them on the assumption o f fictitious values.
During the first o f these periods, harmony and happiness prevailed
among the industrial classes ; the career o f labor, in all its branches, was
progressively prosperous; the word tariff, was never heard o f ; the inci
dental protection, afforded by the absolute wants o f the government, was
quietly and silently encouraging the growth o f manufactures as fast and
as steadily as could be justified by the wants o f the community; and the
great mass of the people was in the happy condition of Moliere’s country
gentleman, who had talked prose all his life time without knowing it. T o
those good old times, Mr. Benton wished to return; to the object and
structure o f those good old laws, and to the enjoyment o f their happy con
sequences. He disapproves o f the horizontal principle o f the compromise
act, and is not, therefore, in favor o f recreating that law ; he avows him
self in favor o f discriminating between articles o f luxury and necessity,
making luxuries pay highest; he is for discriminating between articles
made at home, and those not made at home, putting the highest duties on
the foreign rivals o f our own products ; but he insists on some limitation,
in effect, that no duty, whether ad valorem or specific, shall exceed 30 or
33J per cent. This discrimination and incidental protection he had al
ways advocated. It was admitted by good free trade authorities, as was
* Debate continued from the Merchants’ Magazine for May, 1844, Vol. X., No. 5, p.
421, and June, Vol. X., No. 6, p. 536.
28
Sketches o f Com mercial L egislation.
proved by the South Carolina legislative report o f 1828, by the Philadel
phia free trade address o f 1831, and by the Virginia democratic address
of 1839. In a word, he was for returning to the system which had work
ed so well anterior to the late war, when the specific duties rarely ex
ceeded a fourth, or at most a third o f the value, and when the ad valorem
duties ranged only from 5 to 15 per cent. The specific duty o f 3 3 j per
cent, to which he is willing to go for protection, is, in effect, he argues,
50 per cen t: for, the expenses o f importation being 7| per cent, and the
importing merchant’s profits and charges 12| per cent, these sums, be
sides the 331 per cent duty, have to be added to the first cost abroad, be
fore the imported article can come, into our market in competition with
the home-made article. Gentlemen who preceded him in debate, had
pointed out the enormous and prohibitory duties imposed by the act o f
1842. Here, then, the two systems stood contrasted, the old against the
new ; and on this issue, he and his friends are willing to go to trial before
the country. Besides a good cause and good arguments, it was necessary
to have the right issues, and they could not be made on the compromise
act, which disregarded the necessary distinction between luxuries and ne
cessities, and between articles competing and not competing with home
industry; but the true issue was, between the old system o f duties for
revenue affording incidental protection, and duties for protection affording
incidental revenue. “ W e are not,” observes Mr. Benton, “ to make war
upon manufacturers. They were once as popular in the south as in the
north, and may become so again. The abuses o f the high protective
system have destroyed their popularity in the south; eradicate the abuse,
and they will again be popular in every part o f the Union. Manufac
tures are among, not only the useful and ornamental, but the noblest arts
o f the country. Every statesman will cherish them, and honor the skill
and industry which perfects them, if left free to follow his own inclina
tion. Abuse only (the conduct o f politicians and millionary capitalists)
have made them enemies. Separate the real manufacturers from these
two classes, be content with ample incidental protection, and universal
good-will will again attend them, greatly enlarging the extent o f their
market and the list o f their customers.”
In making the issue of the old system against the new, Mr. Benton
fakes three propositions as indisputable : first, that the income from cus
toms was larger, population considered, and more free from fluctuation,
under the low duty system before the war, than under the high duty since ;
second, the superiority of low duties over high ones, in relation to their
effect upon agriculture and foreign com m erce; third, the prosperity o f
manufactures before the late war and before protection was invented.
In arguing upon these propositions, Mr. Benton proceeds, first, in rela
tion to revenue, to analyse the income o f the treasury from customs, com
mencing with 1789 and coming down to 1808, when the British orders
in council, the decrees o f the French emperor and our own embargo,
broke up our commerce and destroyed and deranged our income from that
source. He leaves out the time o f the embargo and o f the war with
Great Britain, as belonging to neither system. From 1789 to 1808, the
revenue from customs shows a progressive range o f from $4,500,000 to
$16,500,000 ; our population keeping pace, from 4,000,000 to 7,000,000.
The revenue, then, commenced with $1,000,000 to 1,000,000 o f people ;
and rose gradually to near $2,500,000 for every 1,000,000 o f people.
F ree Trade versus Protection,
29
So much for the first period— now for the second: beginning with 1817,
the first year under the operation o f the new system, and the revenue,
commencing with $26,000,000, falls to $10,000,000; rises again to
$30,000,000, falls to $12,000,000, $13,000,000, and, last year, to
$17,500,000 for a population o f 18,000,000. At the present time, the
ratio o f revenue for population is only the same as it was, fifty years ago,
while duties average more than 50 per cent, though the duties in Wash
ington’s time averaged only a fourth o f that sum. The ratio is now twofifths o f what it was in Mr. Jefferson’s administration, when the average
o f duties was only a third o f what it is now. The wars o f the French
revolution had no influence on our revenue ; they increased importations
but not consumption, and duties were only paid on what remained after
re-exportation. In support o f his assertions, with regard to the compara
tive revenue o f the two periods, Mr. Benton submitted the following ta
bles :—
T a b l e I.—Low Revenue Duties, from 1791 to 1808.
Population.
Income.
Years.
Population.
Years.
4,000,000
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1791........
1792,
1793,
1794,
.1795,.......
1796,
1797,
1798,
1799,
$4,309,473
3,443,070
4,225,306
4,801,065
5,588,461
6,567,987
7,549,640
7,106,061
6,610,449
T
T
able
Years.
1817,
1818,
1819,
1820,
1821,
1822,
1823,
1824,
1825,
1826,
1827,
1828,
1829,
1830,
1831,
1832,
1833,
1834,
1835,
1836,
1837,
1838,
1839,
1840,
1841,
1842,
1843,
II.— High Protective Duties,
from 1817 to 1843.
Population.
9,000,000
9,638,000
12,866,000
17,000,000
18,500,000
Income.
$26,283,348
17,176,385
20,283,608
15,005,612
13,004,447
17,559,761
19,088,433
17,878,325
20,098,713
23,341,331
19,712,283
23,205,523
22,681,965
21,922,391
24,224,441
28,405,237
21,488,753
14,797,782
13,458,111
21,552,272
26,325,839
13,315,129
15,373,238
20,560,439
10,159,339
15,789,173
17,500,000
1800,.......
1801........
1802,.......
1803,......
1804,......
1805,.......
1806,.......
1807,.......
1808,.......
5,300,000
7,000,000
Income.
$9,080,932
10,750,778
12,438,235
10,479,417
11,098,505
12,936,487
16,667,698
15,845,522
16,363,550
III.— Showing what ought to have been
received from Customs, under the Protective
System, to have been equal to the receipt under the Revenue System.
able
Population.
9,000,000
9,638,000
11,000,000
12,866,000
15,000,000
17,000,000
18,500,000
Actual receipts.
$26,283,348
17,176,385
20,283,608
15,005,612
13,004,447
17,559,761
19,088,433
17,878,325
20,098,713
23,341,331
19,712,283
23,205,523
22,681,965
21,922,391
24,224,441
28,405,237
21,488,753
14,797,782
13,458,111
21,552,272
26,325,839
13,315,129
15,373,238
20,660,439
10,159,339
15,789,173
17,500,000
Should have
been
$22,500,000
24,000,000
25,000,000
27,000,000
31,500,000
37,500,000
42,500,000
43,000,000
46,250,000
30
Sketches o f Com mercial Legislation.
The third table shows that the same ratio o f revenue for population
which existed in Mr. Jefferson’s time, would, in the present day, yield an
income for the treasury o f $46,250,000. Mr. Benton says : “ These ta
bles speak a language which cannot be misunderstood, and they place in
the strongest contrast the working o f the two systems during the two pe
riods ; the beauty and advantages o f one, and the deformities o f the other,
standing out in the boldest relief. In the first period, amplitude o f amount,
steadiness o f the product and regularity o f the increase, strike every be
holder. In the second period, all this is reversed; confusion and mad
ness seem to reign in our treasury. Sometimes, millions too much— then
not half enough. Sometimes, surpluses to be distributed— then deficits to
be supplied. Giving away, one day— begging or borrowing, the next.
Always a feast, or a famine— never the right thing. Our poor treasury
become a balloon— sometimes soaring above the clouds— then dragging
in the mud— now bursting with distension— now collapsing from deple
tion.”
Again, after quoting Mr. Jefferson’s last annual message to Congress,
showing the prosperous condition o f the treasury at that time, Mr. Benton
says : “ Such was the working o f the low duty system— ample and steady
revenue— no loans, no taxes, no paper-money— $33,500,000 o f public debt
paid in eight years— a surplus o f $14,000,000 left in the treasury— the
result, not o f lands exchanged for paper, but the regular result o f steady
revenue, strict economy and hard money. How different from the state
o f things under the high duties o f the present d a y ! Instead o f paying
above $30,000,000 o f public debt in eight years, we have created near
$30,000,000 in four years; instead o f a surplus in the treasury, there is a
deficit; loans and taxes are the order o f the d a y ; and, to crown all, we
have an illegal and fraudulent issue o f federal paper-money currency, is
sued by executive power, and sustained by bank alliances. Such is the
difference between the working o f the two systems after twenty-five years
trial o f ea ch !”
With regard to the second proposition, that o f the superiority o f low
duties over high duties, in relation to their effect upon agriculture and
commerce, Mr. Benton takes the ground, that these two interests go to
gether, the state o f the one being an index to the other. The exports
make the imports, and agriculture is at the bottom o f the whole. He
contrasts the exports o f the two periods— that before the late xvar, and
that succeeding the war— with a view o f showing that, in consequence o f
the high duty system, with a population o f 18,000,000, in 1842, we exported less than we did in 1807, with a population o f 7,000,000, under the
low duty system. In support o f this, he adduces the following tables :—
T
a b le of
Years.
F o r e ig n
and
D
o m e st ic
Exports.
1791,......
$19,012,041
1792,......
20,753,096
1793,.......
26,109,572
1794,.......
33,026,233
1795,......
47,080,472
1796,.......
67,064,097
56,850,206
1797,
.................
1798,
.................
61,527,097
78,665,522
1799,......
E
x p o r t s from t h e
U
n it e d
Population.
Years.
4,000,000
1800,......
1801,.......
1802,.......
1803,.......
1804........
1805,.......
1806,.......
1807,......
1808,.......
S tates,
from
1791 t o 1807.
Exports.
Population.
$70,971,780
94,115,925
72,483,160
55,800,033
77,699,074
95,566,021
101,536,963
108,343,150
5,300,000
Embargo.
7,000,000
F ree T rade versus P rotection .
T
a b l e of
F o k e is n
and
D
o m e st ic
Years.
Exports.
$87,671,569
1817,.......
1818........
93,281,133
70,142,521
1819,.......
69,691,669
1820,.......
1821,.......
64,974,382
1822,.......
72,160,281
1823,......
74,699,030
1824,......
75,886,657
1825,.......
99,535,388
1826,.......
77,595,322
82,324,829
1827,.......
1828,.......
72,264,680
1829,
.................
72,358,671
1830,
.................
73,840,508
E
x po r ts from t h e
Population.
9,000,000
3,638,000
U
n it e d
Years.
1831,
1832,
1833,.......
1834,.......
1835,.......
1836,.......
1837,.....
1838,.......
1839,.......
1840,.......
1841,.......
1842,
1843,
S tates,
91
from
Exports.
.................
$81,310,583
.................
87,176,943
90,140,433
104,336,973
121,693,577
128,663,040
117,419,373
108,486,616
121,028,416
133,685,946
121,851,803
.................
104,691,534
.................
1817 t o 1843.
Population.
......
17,000,009
18,500,000
12,866,000
As there is, in making out tables o f this kind, an apparent intricacy,
so far as regards re-exportations, it is proper to give Mr. Benton’s expla
nation, that, in comparing the two periods, it makes no difference whether
the re-exports are included or not. He says: “ I fully understand the
nature o f our neutral position during the wars o f the French revolution,
and the. effect which that neutrality had in promoting imports for re
exportation. W e re-exported much from 1791 to 1807, and have re
exported exactly as much from 1817 to 1844! Mexico, South America
and the West Indies, have opened new markets for our re-exportations;
and it is a fact, proved by the custom-house returns to be the same.
$520,000,000 are, as near as I can ascertain from the most careful re
search, the amount o f re-exportations for each period; so that, in a com
parison o f the foreign trade in each period, they may either be both omit
ted or both included, as the speaker pleases. Finding them included in
the tables, I choose to use them in that way. The table o f revenue has
already settled the question in favor o f the large amount o f foreign goods
which remained in the country for consumption. Duties were only paid on
the amount so remaining; and a revenue o f $16,000,000or $17,000,000
from customs, with the low duties then paid, show that the importations
for home consumption were greater then than now.”
Assuming the average exports o f the present day to be $100,000,000,
Mr. Benton says, take from this sum the article o f cotton, now forming
two-thirds of our exports, and contrast the balance with that o f the ex
ports o f 1807, when cotton formed an inconsiderable item, and an im
mense falling off will be apparent in our exports o f agricultural products.
Had our exports not been checked by the high duty system, affecting im
ports, and had they been allowed to increase, in the ratio o f the increase
o f population, to that increase would have been superadded the item o f
cotton; so that, when all this is considered, Mr. Benton says, “ the de
cline o f agriculture, and o f the foreign commerce founded upon it, be
comes appalling. Leaving out cotton, and the agricultural exports are
less now than they were in 1808. They then amounted to $48,000,000;
they only amount to about $100,000,000 now, o f which, cotton is near
two-thirds.”
In relation to imports, Mr. Benton says: “ After this exposition o f our
exports under the protective system, it is hardly necessary to trouble the
Senate with any detailed view o f our imports during the same period.
T h e y are obliged to partake o f the same character, and such is the fact.
32
Sketches o f Com mercial L egislation.
They have risen as high as $190,000,000; they have fallen as low as
$64,000,000 ; and they have plunged and floundered backwards and for
wards at all amounts between these two wide extremes. They are now
at about $100,000,000, which is less than they were at thirty years ago.”
Mr. Benton next proceeds to his third proposition— that manufacturers
were flourishing and prosperous before the late w a r; and would, under
the old system o f duties, have so continued. T o show their standing at
the close o f his first period o f twenty-five years, he refers to the census
o f 1810 ; in which, however, he states, many imperfections occur, which
induced Congress to pass a joint resolution on the 19th of March, 1812,
directing the secretary o f the treasury, Mr. Gallatin, to have the returns
digested and perfected. For this purpose, Mr. Gallatin employed Mr.
Tench Coxe, o f Philadelphia, an eminent advocate o f manufactures and
a writer o f twenty-seven years standing. He took two years to verify
his statements, and after great labor and care presented them. From his
report, Mr. Benton read several passages, in which it appears that the
manufactures o f the United States, in 1813, with a population o f 8,000,000,
amounted to $200,000,000, advancing at the rate o f 20 per cent per an
num. Here, says Mr. Benton, are two striking facts: that manufactures
had been advancing at the rate of 20 per cent, and that they amounted to
$200,000,000 in a population o f 8,000,000. Population was only ad
vancing at the rate o f 3 percent per annum ; foreign commerce was only
increasing at a moderate rate ; agriculture was steadily but moderately
advancing; but manufactures were going ahead o f all other interests,
advancing 20 percent per annum, before protection was invented and be
forepoliticians had taken it into their heads to become their patrons. Mr.
Coxe, too, in his report, compares the condition o f manufactures, at that
time, with their condition in England at the nearest approximate period
o f time in which its population was at the same standard; and the result
is, that England proper, in 1787, having a population o f 8,500,000, had
manufactures, after taking five hundred years to bring them to the perfec
tion they then had attained, amounting to $266,000,000. Here was a
striking fact: that manufactures in the United States, under low duties,
affording but incidental protection, within thirty years after the country
had achieved its independence, had nearly overtaken England which re
quired five hundred years to reach the same goal. Mr. Coxe’s work
further proves that cotton factories were well established and able to
stand alone, in 1810, in Rhode Island, Connecticut and Massachusetts ;
so it was with regard to all other branches of manufactures, with respect
to which, the statistical details gleaned by Mr. Coxe are most abundant.
From his report, Mr. Benton quotes very copiously in support o f his gen
eral proposition. T w o passages, italicised, Mr. Benton thinks deserves
marked attention. They are as follows :—
“ The fa cility o f retaining and steadily extending this valuable branch
( the manufacturing) o f the national industry, is manifested by its very early
and spontaneous commencement in every county and township, and by its
nearly spontaneous and costless growth, with such aids only as have not occa
sioned any material expense or sacrifice to agriculture or commerce, since
they were chiefly incidental to necessary revenue, or resulted from our dis
tance from the foreign consumers o f our productions and manufactures o f
our supplies.” — Page 50. “ Such are the principal fa cts, which occur to
recollection at this time, evincing the benefits, to owners and cultivators o f
33
Commerce o f R io Janeiro.
Ihe soil, from the manufactures which have arisen unforced in the United
States. Their principal protection hy duties, is incidental. Those duties
were imposed to raise the necessary revenue, but greatly favored the manu
fa ctu res.” — Page 29, Introduction.
“ Such,” exclaims Mr. Benton, “ were the causes o f the growth o f
manufactures among us.
They grew up o f themselves, without the
knowledge o f politicians, and without any aid from federal legislation, ex
cept the incidental assistance from the imposition o f revenue duties.
Their growth was natural— without injury to commerce or agriculture—
without injury to revenue ; and, what is not to bo forgotten, not only with
out a word o f discontent or dissatisfaction in any part o f the Union, but
with the absolute approbation o f all.” Mr. Benton then dwells upon the
fact, that Mr. Coxe, looking to the future, says not one word about a ta
riff ; the word tariff, is not once mentioned in his book. He speaks only
o f a safe, cheap, benevolent and infallible method o f promoting manufac
tures, by the diffusion o f skill, multiplication o f machinery, adoption o f
new improvements, the application o f steam-power, the education o f the
operatives and the cultivation o f good feelings in every part o f the Union ;
“ but not a word,” adds Mr. Benton, “ about protective duties and minimums— not a word about the tariff”
Mr. Benton next adverts to the present condition o f manufactures, ta
king the census o f 1840 for reference. He adduces the statistics o f pro
ducts, contrasted with the capital invested in each branch o f manufac
tures, with a view’ o f showing that they are in various instances from 100
to 300 per cent— enormously beyond the yield o f products from capital
invested in agriculture or other pursuits. He adverts to the large semi
annual dividends, acknowledged by manufacturers under the protective
system, and supposes these are not half the reality, if the reserved sur
pluses were brought to light. He argues, that manufacturers are in no
need o f such enormous protection as the act o f 1842 gives them ; and
that, to persist longer in requiring more than 30 or 331 per cent for a
maximum, must be suicidal to themselves, as they will rouse the indigna
tion o f the mass o f the people, who are already aware that they have
been “ most magnificently humbugged and bamboozled.” Under the
good old system, which he recommends a return to, the manufacturers
would thrive as they did in 1810, harmony would prevail, and, above all
things, stability would be secured to them.
Mr. Simmons, of Rhode Island, next obtained the floor, and on the 27th
and 28th o f March, addressed the Senate, occupying its attention for about
four hours.
A rt. III.— COMMERCE OF RIO JANEIRO.
R io d e J a n e i r o , the capital o f Brazil, contained in 1830, according to
M ‘Culloch, a population o f about 160,000,** and is beautifully situated on
the western side o f a small bay, forming one of the most magnificent
natural harbors in the world, both as respects capaciousness and security,
for all sorts o f vessels. The entrance to the harbor is marked by a remarkable hill in the form o f a sugar-loaf, nine hundred feet high, close to
* It probably contains now about 200,000 inhabitants.
VOL. X I.— NO. T.
5
*
34
Commerce o f R io Janeiro.
its west side. The city lies about four miles from the entrance to the
hay. T o the right, on entering, is the fort o f Santa Cruz, within hail o f
which, all vessels going into the harbor are required to pass, in order to
answer any question that may be put to them.
Vessels bound for Rio, coming from the north, should, after rounding
Cape Frio, steer due west, keeping about three leagues from the coast,
until they come within five or six miles o f the Ilha Raza, or Flat Island,
lying almost due south from the mouth o f the harbor, at the distance o f
about three leagues. A light-house, the lantern o f which is said to be
elevated nearly three hundred feet above the level of the sea, was erected
on this island in 1829. The light is a revolving one, finishing its revo
lution in three minutes, and exhibiting alternately a red and a white light.
There is also a light-house in the fort o f Santa Cruz, the light o f which
is fixed, and elevated about fifty feet above the level o f the sea.* Hav
ing reached within five or six miles o f the Ilha Raza, ships may enter, by
day or night, the dotted line in the cut, marking the fair-way into the har
bor. There are no pilots to be met with ; and as there are no hidden
dangers o f any kind, their services are unnecessary. After answering
any questions that may be put to them from Fort Santa Cruz, they pro
ceed to Fort Vilganhon, below, or opposite to which, they must bring-to,
or come to anchor, allowing no boats to come alongside, but those o f the
government, until they have received pratique, when they will be permit
ted to proceed to the usual place o f anchorage for the merchant shipping.
The trade o f Rio is extensive, and has increased rapidly o f late years.
It is the seat of more than one-half o f the foreign commerce o f B razil;
and it has, likewise, a very extensive inland trade, particularly with the
provinces of Minas Geraes, Goyaz and Matto Grosso. It is the key to
the mining districts, furnishing all their supplies, and receiving all their
produce for shipment or other disposal. Until 1830, slaves formed one
of the principal articles o f import into Rio and other Brazilian ports; so
many as 45,000 having been imported in one year, of which, according
to M‘ Culloch, Rio received the greater proportion. But according to a
convention entered into with Great Britain, this inhuman, infamous traffic,
should have ceased in February, 1830.
It appears by a statement made by Stockmeyer, Gracie & Co., dated
Rio de Janeiro, 4th of January, 1833, who state that they derived the de
tails from the manuscripts o f the vessels clearing the custom-house, that
the following quantity o f coffee, sugar and hides, were exported from Rio
during the six years ending with December, 1832 :—
Y ears.
1827,
1828,
1829,
Coffee.
Bags.
350,900
369,147
375,107
Sugar.
Cases.
19,644
19,035
18,864
Hides. 1[ Years.
Number.
329,320
1830,
207,268
1831,
351,893
1832,
Coffee.
Bags.
391,785
448,249
478,950
Sugar.
Cases.
22,488
22,004
16,645
Hides.
Number.
266,719
342,385
263,657
The value o f foreign goods imported into Rio, in 1836, according to a
statement given in the Journal de Commercio, was £3,839,379; o f which,
from Great Britain, £2,005,543 ; France, £581 ,5 7 1 ; Portugal and her
possessions, £281,885; United States, £225,3 5 3 ; Hanseatic States,
£239,384; Uraguay, £ 9 6 ,8 5 7 ; Belgium, £ 7 3 ,7 8 9 ; Spain, £ 6 1 ,2 7 0 ;
Sardinia, £56,223 ; Argentine republic, £44,284 ; Holland and her colo
nies, £37,046; Sicily, £ 3 3 ,2 1 9 ; Sweden, £ 3 1 ,5 8 9 ; Chili, £ 2 6 ,1 3 5 ;
* Coulier sur lee Phares, 2d edition.
35
Commerce o f R io Janeiro.
Austria, £14,067; sundries, £31,164. These imports are exclusive o f
negroes, o f whom, according to Waterston, vast numbers continue to be
brought from Africa to Rio or the neighboring coast.
The following table, from official sources, indicates the description of
articles, with their several quantities, imported to Rio for two years, with
the relative proportion of each, drawn from the United States and from
Great Britain in the year. 1842 :—
I mports
of th e
L eading A r ticles into R io J an eiro , in 1841 and
from G r e a t B r ita in and th e U n ited S t a t e s in
Articles.
Ale and porter,..................
Arms,..................................
Brandy,..............................
Butter,.................................
Candles, tallow,..................
“
comp, and sp.,.....
Cheese,...............................
Coals,..................................
Codfish,..............................
Copper,..............................
“
..............................
tt
a
.sheets, &c.
Cordage, Coir,....................
“
Russian, &c.,.....
Deals,..................................
Drugs,................................
Flour,.................................
Gin,.....................................
((
((
te
Hams,.................... .............
tt
Hardware, &c.,.................
Hats,..................................
Iron,....................................
((
H
“ hoops,..........................
((
a
Lead, bar,...........................
“ sheet,.......................
Leather, curried,................
“
wrought,..............
Linseed oil,........................
1C
....jugs, &c.
Manufactures:—
Cotton,........................... .
Linen,.......................«...
Linen and cotton,...........
Silk,................................
Silk and cotton,..............
Silk and worsted,...........
Woollen,.........................
Woollen and cotton,......
Mess beef and pork,...........
Nails,.................................
Olive oil,............................
a
Paints and colors,..............
1841.
17,382
1,277
1,548
23,352
16,239
6,838
4,683
9,525
36,530
678
2,030
54
432
2,930
3,372
13,456
4.020
231,989
28
16,376
10,000
2,818
680
11,685
5,814
1,095
1,061
76,999
3,797
76
2,847
2,600
320
1,081
1,436
178
286
36,667
3,798
593
1,505
15
68
5,601
190
1,277
5,914
1,047
3,898
4,066
1842,
1842.
w it h q u an tities
1842.
C. Britain. U. States.
23,835
24,600
40
320
1,880
962
38
20
17,558
192
24,566
125
10,553
150
7,119
4,637
643
2,932
17,127
19,245
32,222
33,641
202
463
497
29
1,528
1,385
143
76
40
116
159
220
67
3,765 )
4,491
281
3,472 $
14,876
5,841
1,539
447
149,118
5
12J
174
7,270
650
600
1,971
529
62
35
10,323
400
8,985
7,040
5,481
966
141
1,490
1.490
32,013
4,509
3,631
2,059
67
67
2,601
2,707
1,216
1,771
5,405
80
46
762
198
1,376
453
232
272
833
171
22,482
2,040
134
1,181
173 >
57 \
4,972
236
2,312
8,471
1,354
4,699
8,025
14,059
1,663
96
315
5,337
59
74
27
4,490
192
180
4,983
78
7,818
6
1,154
397
36
Commerce o f Rio Janeiro.
I mports of Leading A rticles into Rio Janeiro, in 1841 and 1842, etc.—Continued.
Articles.
Paper,................................
Parasols and umbrellas,......
Pepper, black,....................
Pitch,.................................
Raisins, &c.,.......................
Raven’s duck,......................
Rosin,................................ ......... bbls.
Sail-cloth,...........................
Salt,................................... _alqueires
Saltpetre............... ............. -kegs, &c.
Shot,...................................
Soap,..................................
Steel,.................................
Tar,...................................
Tea,...................................
Tin plates,..........................
Tobacco,.............................
Turpentine,........................
Vermicelli,.........................
Vinegar,.............................
Wheat,...............................
1841.
5,646
368
749
1,897
28,270
3,893
7,456
3,747
717,040
2,044
2,932
42,898
1.528
2,910
2,602
2,137
1,128
79
8,690
1,599
8,554
1,307
7,413
9,593
15,077
3,519
White lead,............... ..........
Window glass,.....................
Wine, Portugal,...................
“
Mediterranean, &e.,..
“
Bordeaux,.................
1842.
13,341
345
1,159
507
28,362
2,513
6,183
2,689
384,177
3,355
4,708
49,955
352
2,808
2,922
2,020
840
148
7,996
1,049
21,777
826
3,037
3,877
9,322
1,830
G. Britain. U. States
149
18
134
690
446
35
110
3,119
500
1,092
6,893
40
1,006
1,043
1,288
640
2,705
3,564
499
47,188
218
290
301
1,929
1,895
769
48
47
100
.....
427
20
29
This return is for the current year, ending 31st December, and does
not agree with the United States return, ending 30th September, the
quantities being less. The number o f bids, o f flour exported from the
United States to Brazil, was 198,317, while the above return shows a
gross import o f 149,118. It is observable, however, that the proportion
o f cotton goods received from the United States, in 1842, greatly exceed
ed that o f former years. A revolution will probably be effected in the
trade o f the Brazils, in the adjustment o f the new tariff, and the adoption
o f a new treaty in place o f the one with England, which expires in N o
vember next.
The flour trade o f Rio, with the United States, is on the increase. The
stock at Rio, on the 1st o f January, 1844, amounted to 48,536 b b ls.; o f
which, 26,319 were in first hands.
The quantity imported, exceeded that o f 1842, 49,530 b b ls.; and, in
the months o f November and December alone, were received upwards o f
71,000 bbls., independently o f 3,000 bbls., in wheat, in December.
The annexed tables, will show the monthly position o f the market, and
the first, last and extreme pi'ices o f each description during the y ea r:—
M
ovem ent of the
F
lour
B arrels.
Months.
-January,...............
February,............
March,.................
April,................... .......
May,.....................
June,....................
July,.................... .......
Imported.
18,060
6,5844
14,010
18,542
M
a r k e t in
1843.
Sales monthly, o f each kind.
B arrels.
-
Sold.
Exported. Richm’nd. Balt., &c. South’ n.
22,977
2,338
16,204
6,773
14,556
2,332
10,887
3,669
11,542
4,223
2.497
4,749
4,296
17,838
7,623
14,218
3,540
10,880
10,616
4,804
5,054
17,128
2,086
6,530
8,148
150
14,0384
5,407
2,2964 10,710
113
37
Commerce o f R io Janeiro.
M
o vem ent of th e
F lottr M
arket
ra 1843— Continued.
Sales monthly, o f each kind.
B arrels.
B arrels.
------------ ------------- \ -----------------------\
r
Months.
August,.........................
September,...................
October,.......................
November....................
December,...................
Total, 1843,.........
“ 1842,.........
“
1841,.........
t
Imported.
19,231 J
20,567
15,442
34,8314
36,1934
216,017
156,487
242,377
Sold.
Exported.
10,955
11,1174
11,7954
4,009
18,351
3,931
14,578
2,678
35,217 16,5404
199,856
160,308
190,492
72,900
63,048
82,103
of P rices in 1843.
First.
Highest.
16$250
19$500
16$250
19$250
17$000a 18$000
15$000
17$400
17$000
18$000
14$600
17$500
14$800
18.$250
18$000
21$250
16$500 16$500
14$500
14$500
Kichm’d. Balt., &c. South’n,
995
6,402
2,270
1,405
5,0864 5,252
6,345
10,796
210
6,206
6,617
1,305
15,7154 15.983
2,7004
88,103 87,5274 16,2934
67,725 84,270
3,150
45,113 111,606
13,203
R ange
Quality.
Gallego,.......................................
Haxall,.........................................
Richmond City,............................
Baltimore,....................................
“
super...........................
Philadelphia,................................
Southern, &c.,.............................
European, 1st quality,..........
“
2d
“
Chilian,........................................
Lowest.
16$000
15$500
16$250
12$000&
16$000
13$250
13.$250
17$000
12$500o
12$200
Last.
16$500
16$500
16$250
13$000
17$000
13$250
14$000
17$000
13$500
12$200
Tho market opened with some animation, in January, and the stock in
first hands became reduced to the extent o f 10,000 bbls. A moderate
importation, until July, aided by a steady demand for consumption and re
export, caused prices gradually to advance about 2$500 per bbl.,the high
est, $19, having been paid from June to August for about 10,000 bbls.
Richmond, and 19$500 for small lots, whilst one cargo Baltimore, for
export, sold in May, at a price equal to 17$400 for consumption, a cargo
at 17$100 and 168000 to 17$000 having, until August, been the current
quotations for regular brands.
In September, the supplies were abundant, new Richmond was re
ceived, exportation was limited, the market began to be less buoyant, and
dealers declined to purchase largely in the expectation o f a considerable
decline.
New, both Richmond and Baltimore, were general in October, when
prices gave way, and old Gallego was sold at $17, new, at 18$500, Bal
timore old, at $14, new, at $15. 23,000 bbls. were received from 16th
to 20th November, and during the month, 35,000, when prices declined
materially. Gallego, sold early in the month at 18$500 ; later, Haxall,
at 17$500 to $16, with a correspondent decline in Baltimore.
Early in December, several cargoes arrived, and about 7,000 bbls.
Baltimore and southern were taken for export; but the market did not
revive, and nearly 8,000 bbls. o f Richmond and Baltimore were taken
at the lowest quotations o f the year. The receipts continued excessive
from the United States, tho stock was further increased by the arrival o f
4,700 sacks, principally in wheat, from Valparaiso, and prices became
nominal. No disposition to purchase, was shown, except at a reduction
in prices; but holders were firm, and a tone was given to the market, on
the 23d, by the purchase o f 2,000 bbls. Gallego, at 16$300, and towards
a Cash,
b Inferior.
38
C ities and Towns in the United States.
the close o f the year several parcels Richmond changed hands, at 16$500.
Baltimore, influenced by the Chili wheat, realized only $13, and 13$500
for small parcels.
With so extraordinary an importation during two successive months,
together, upwards o f 74,000 bids., the market was well sustained at the
close o f the year, when the unsold stock consisted o f 10,230 bbls. Gallego, 4,052 Haxall, 642 Rutherford, 16,553 Baltimore, 300 Richmond
country, 2,930 Southern, 200 Brandywine ; in all, 34,907 bbls.
M edium P rices .
January
to June.
17$245
15$729
15$649
Richmond,...
Baltimore,....
Philadelphia,,
July to
Dec.
17$223
14$818
15j§936
S u m m a r y or
th e
T
Southern,...................
European, 1st qual.,..
“
2d « ..
ransactions in
January
to June.
14.$954
17$731
16$500
July to
Dec.
15$029
19$>140
14$454
1843.
Barrels.
Stock in all hands, 1st January, 1843,.............................................
Imported direct,................................................................................
“
coastwise,..........................................................................
48,536
214,940
1,077
216,017
264,553
Shipped coastwise,
Re-exported,.........
32,9434
39,9564
---------
Imported in wheat,................................................................................................
72,900
194,653
4,732
199,385
Stock in first hands, 30th Dec., 1843,................................................
“
second “
“
1843,................................................
34,907
33,728
----------
68,635
Consumption in 1843,........................... ............................... ....................
127,750
A
rt.
IV.—CITIES AND TOW NS IN T H E U N ITED STATES.
INCREASE OF CITIES AND TOWNS OF FIVE THOUSAND, AND LESS THAN TEN THOUSAND INHABITANTS.
I n the number o f the Merchants’ Magazine, for May, 1844, I gave
some account o f the increase o f the thirty-six principal cities and towns
in the United States, containing each, 10,000 inhabitants and upwards,
according to the censuses o f 1830 and 1840. In Table III., 1840, in
the 7th column, should be 1830; and under the caption, proportion o f
population o f cities and towns to that o f the states, per cent, insert 1830
in the 11th column, and 1840 in the 12th column. Inadvertently, in
that article, the population o f Louisville, Kentucky, in 1830, was stated
at 12,564, while it should have been 10,341; and its increase in ten
years should have been 10,869, instead o f 8,646, and 105T0, instead o f
68'81 per cent, making it the fourth city in the order o f increase. In
consequence of this error, the following corrections should be made in
the lines, as indicated by the captions o f the columns:—
39
C ities and Towns in the United States.
Census
o f 1830.
Increase
in 10 yrs.
Increase
per cent.
Louisville, Kv., (Table I.,)............
10,869
10,341
Total in 15 cities,
“
396,961
........ . .....
737,967
Total in 16 cities,
“
............ .....
768,256
375,933
Total in 16 cities, (Table II.,)........ ......
768,256
375,933
Total in 36 cities and towns, (Tab. II.,)
491,442
932,279
Total U. S., exc. 36 cit. & t’ns,
£t
11,933,741 3,711,991
Total population of U. States,
{t
4,203,433
105.10
53.79
51.53
51.53
52.71
31.94
15 states, and D. of Col., (Tab. III.,)
16 states, and D. of Col.,
“
Total, of the U. States,
“
Census of
cities and
towns in
1830.
Increase
in 10 yrs.
Incr. pr.
cent.
901,990
932,279
932,279
492,470
491,442
491,442
54.59
52.71
52.71
Census o f
1840.
15,645,732
17,069,453
Cens. o f
cit. and
t’ wns in
1840.
.......
Proportion
o f pop. of
cit. & tn’ s
to that of
the states,
p. ct.,1830.
9.49
9.24
7.24
In the present number, it is proposed to extend the tables so as to em
brace all the towns containing 5,000 inhabitants. The first table con
tains all the cities and towns, with from 5,000 to 10,000 inhabitants, in
1840, together with the census o f 1830, and the increase in the ten pre
ceding years.
T
able
V.— C ities
M ain e .
Bangor,..................................................
Bath,..................................................
Thomaston,.....................: .................
Augusta,............................................
Gardiner,........................................... .
and
T
ow ns .
Cen. of 1830. Inc. in10 yrs.
Inc. p. ct. Cen. of J840.
2,867
3,773
4,214
3,980
3,709
5,760
1,368
2,013
1,334
1,333
200.91
36.25
47.76
33.51
35.93
8,627
5,141
6,227
5,314
5,042
8,026
5,449
2,414
Loss, 139
1,009
3,640
1.73
18.51
150.78
7,887
6,458
6,054
6,072
5,247
6,1.38
5,149
4,228
4,530
2,337
3,842
3,229
426
792
677
38.48
73.22
52.60
8.27
18.73
14.94
7,510
6,042
5,008
6,375
4,173
4,758
4,158
7,202
1,490
1
1,603
77
786
3,324
523
2,580
1,810
26.53
1.53
12.32
79.65
10.99
62.04
25.13
8,409
9,089
9,367
5,575
5,020
5,207
$ 6,350
•
| 2,650
7,645
5,085
7,161
7,497
5,281
6,738
9,012
6,857
3,675
8,010
5,529
2,677
1,550
323
1,197
39.04
42.17
4.03
21.64
9,534
5,225
8,333
6,726
7,074
4,335
2,394
1,184
33.84
27.31
5,018
555
11.06
9,468
5,519
. 3,417
] 974
1 1,182
6,082
68
1.11
3,730
1,735
46.51
N e w H am pshire .
Portsmouth,........................................
Dover,................................................
Nashua,..............................................
M assachusetts .
Cambridge,.......................................
Roxbury,..............................................................
Lynn,..................................................................
Marblehead,.......................................
Danvers,.................................... ..........................
Andover,.............................................................
Gloucester,...................................................... i
Rockport...........................................<
Taunton,..............................................................
Middleborough,..................................
Newburyport,.....................................
Worcester,.........................................
Plymouth,..........................................
Fall River,.........................................
Nantucket,.........................................
V
19.84
R hode I slan d .
Smithfieid,.......................................... %
Cumberland,.......................................
Newport,............................................
Warwick,...........................................
C onnecticut .
Hartford city,....................................
New London city,............................
Saybrook,........................................ j1
Chester............................................. /
Westbrook,...................................... '
N ew Y
ork.
Bethlehem,.......................................\
!
New Scotland,................................ (
Chenango,....... ..................................
, 3,238
|
2,912
5,465
40
C ities and Towns in the United States.
N ew Y ork— Continued.
Auburn,.............................................
Sempronius....................................... '
Monrovia.......................................... !
Niles,............................................... '
Plattsburg,.........................................
Johnstown,.......................................j )
Bleecker........................................... !
Mohawk........................................... ;
Sparta,........ .......................................
Lenox,................................................
Watertown,........................................
Ellisburg,...........................................
Canajoharie,.......................................
Florida,..............................................
Amsterdam,.................................... \
Perth,.............................................. $
Lockport,...........................................
Rome,.................................................
Whitestown,.-...................................
Boonville............................................
Onondaga,..........................................
Manlius,........................................... )
Dewitt.............................................. 1
Canandaigua,................................
Phelps,................................................
Seneca,..............................................
Barre,..................................................
Schenectady,......................................
Schoharie,..........................................
Oswegatchie........................................
O w ego,..............................................
Ithaca,................................................
Hector,............................................... .
Pryden...............................................
Catskill,...............................................
Kingston.......................................
Saugerties,....................................
New Paltz,.........................................
Hudson city,................................
Mount Pleasant,...........................
Cortlandt,.....................................
Southampton,................. ..............
Huntington,.......................................
Brookhaven, ...............................
Williamsburg,,........................... )
B u s h w ic k ................................... \
Hempstead,........................................
Oyster Bay,.........................................
Newtown,...........................................
Newbury,.............................................
Minisink,........ ....................................
Warwick,............................................
N ew Jersey.
Bergen,................................................
Aquackenonk................................... £
Pequannock,.......................................
North Brunswick,...............................
Answell,...........................................}
D e la w a r e ................................... >
S a r i t a n , .................................... )
Cen. of 1830.
4,486
Inc. in lOyrs.
1,140
Inc. p. ct. Cen. o f JS40.
25.41
5,626
C 1,304
5,705
Loss, 157
2.75
{ 2,010
( 2,234
4,913
1,505
30.59
6,416
5,409
J 346
( 3,112
5,841
5,440
5 472
5,027
5,349
5,146
5,214
1 5,333
> 737
9,125
5,680
5,156
5,519
5,658
5 5.509
) 2,802
5.652
5,563
7,073
5,539
6,784
5,534
5,719
5,340
5,650
5.652
5,446
5,339
5,824
6,216
5,408
5,672
7,307
5,592
6,205
6,562
7,050
5 5,094
l 1,295
7,609
5.865
5,054
8,933
5,093
5,113
c
7,700
1,167
15.15
3,777
5,039
2,873
4,768
5,292
4,347
2,851
2,064
401
2,599
259
57
799
2,363
54.64
7.95
90.46
5.43
1.07
18.38
82.82
3,356
2,714
80.87
3,823
4,360
4,410
2,746
5,668
5,302
1,320
746
2,773
Loss, 10
138.68
30.27
16.91
100.98
.17
7,375
936
12.69
5,162
4,876
6,207
4,768
4,268
5,157
3,993
3,076
5,270
5,212
5,206
4,861
4,170
3,747
4,973
5,392
4,932
3,840
4,850
5,582
6,095
490
687
866
771
2,516
377
1,726
2,264
380
440
240
478
1,654
2,469
435
280
2,375
1,752
1,355
980
955
9.47
14.08
13.95
16.17
58.95
7.50
43.22
73.60
7.21
8.44
4.61
9.83
39.66
65.89
8.74
5.19
48.15
45.62
27.93
17.55
15.66
1,620
" 4,769
294.38
6,215
5,348
2,610
6,424
4,979
5,009
1,394
517
2,444
2,509
114
22.42
9.66
93.63
39.05
2.28
2.07
.
101
4,651
604
12.98
7,710
2,369
30.72
4,551
5,274
639
592
14.04
7,385
501
6.78
11.22
5,255
< 7,596
l 2,483
5,190
5.866
1 3,071
4 2,305
( 2,510
Cities and Towns in the United States.
41
T able V.— Continued.
N ew Jersey—C ontinued.
Nottingham,........................................
Middletown,........................................
Upper Freehold,.................................
Shrewsbury,.........................................
Freehold,.............................................
Northampton,.....................................
Evesham,.............................................
Cen. o f 1830. Inc. in 10 vrs.
Inc. p. c. Cen. o f 1840.
3,900
5,128
4,826
4,700
5,481
5,516
4,239
1,209
935
200
1,217
822
1,302
821
31.00
18.23
4.14
25.89
14.99
23.60
19.36
5,856
4,312
2,554
1,668
43.61
38.68
6,058
Loss, 353
5.82
7,704
3,924
713
2,078
9.25
52.95
5,980
i 3,982
\ 1,723
8,417
6,002
6,628
1,739
25.84
8,367
4,427
755
17.05
5,182
5,221
4,630
2,664
1,765
51.02
38.12
7,885
6,395
6.696
Loss, 293
4.37
6,403
5,566
1,363
24.48
6,929
6,026
971
16.04
6,997
1,076
2,435
3,356
2,937
2,950
4,995
3,613
2,893
2,266
3,117
464.21
148.37
86.20
77.15
105.66
6,071
6,048
6,249
5,203
6,067
2,222
6,880
309.63
9,102
8,441 Loss, 1,129
8,241
218
164,583
....... Loss, 2,081
540,730
162,503
13.37
2.64
7,312
8,459
30.05
703,232
5,109
6,063
5,026
5,917
6,303
6,818
5,060
P e n n s y l v a n ia .
Borough of Reading,.........................
Harrisburg,..........................................
Earl,................................................ )
IVcst Earl....................................... ^
Lancaster city......................................
Pitt,.................
D elaware.
Wilmington city,.................................
M
aryland.
Fredericktown,...................................
V
ir g in ia .
Wheeling city,...................................
Lynchburg,..........................................
G
e o r g ia .
Augusta city,........................................
T
8,410
e nn e sse e .
Nashville,.............................................
K entucky .
Lexington,...........................................
Oino.
Cleveland city,,...................................
Columbus city,.....................................
Mill Creek,..........................................
Steubenville,.......................................
Dayton,................................................
M
ic h ig a n .
City of Detroit,...................................
D
is t r ic t o f
C o l u m b ia .
Georgetown,.......................................
Alexandria city,..................................
109 cities and towns,.................
The town o f Dunstable, New Hampshire, in 1830, has since been
changed to that o f Nashua.
In order to show the increase o f the population in ten years, I have
put down in the first column, not only the names of the towns such as
they stood in 1830, but also those o f the towns which have been set off
from them, during this period, as far as I could ascertain them. Rockport, in Massachusetts, was set off from Gloucester, July 27,1840. Ches
ter, Connecticut, was set off from Saybrook, in May, 1836 ; and West
brook is a parish in Saybrook, and its population, in 1830, included in
that o f Saybrook. New Scotland, New York, was set off as a separate
town from Bethlehem, April 25, 1832. Morovia and Niles were set off
from Sempronius, March 20, 1833. Bleeker was set off, April 4, 1831,
and Mohawk, April 4, 1837, from Johnstown. Perth was set off from
Amsterdam, April 18,1838. Part o f Onondaga was annexed to Camillus,
May 1, 1834, but what portion, I have no means o f ascertaining. D e
witt was set off from Manlius, March 12, 1835.
VOL. X I.---- NO. I .
6
42
Cities and Towns in the United States.
In the census of 1830, Williamsburgh and Bushwick are put together,
and in 1840, they are separate, Williamsburgh having been set off from
Bushwick, and incorporated March 20, 1840. Paterson, New Jersey,
was set off from Aquackanonck, and incorporated January 27, 1831 ; the
aggregate o f these two towns was 10,079, in 1840. Delaware and Rari
tan were set off from Amwell, and incorporated February 23, 1838.
Earl, in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, is presumed to have embraced
West Earl, in 1830.
In the census o f 1830, Middletown and city are put together, with a
population o f 6,892, o f which, 2,965 belonged to the city, and 3,927 to
the tow n; and, in that o f 1840, the city contained 3,511, and the town
3,699. They are omitted in the above table.
The population o f Wilmington, Delaware, o f Savannah and Augusta,
Georgia, and St. Louis, Missouri, is not specified in the census of 1830,
and the number is derived from other sources.
St. Louis township, in St. Louis county, Missouri, is not specified in
the census o f 1830, and in 1840, contained a population o f 8,116, and is
not included in the above table.
The city o f Natchez, Mississippi, with a population o f 2,789, in 1830,
is not specified in the census o f 1840, but in the Compend, its population
was 4,800, in 1840.
In the census o f 1840, Hagerstown, Maryland is not specified, but in
the Compend, it is put down among the principal towns, with 7,179 in
habitants; which is 3,808 more than 3,371, in the census o f 1830, and
226 more than the increase o f the whole o f Washington county, in which
it is situated. It is omitted in our list. Also, Portsmouth, Virginia, with
a population o f 6,477, is put down in the census o f 1840, as a county,
while it should have joined to Norfolk county, to which it belongs, as in
the Compend, where it is placed among the principal tow ns; but it is not
found in the census o f 1830, and, therefore, is not inserted in our list.
The five towns, namely, Saybrook, Connecticut, Bethlehem and Sempronius, New York, Amwell, New Jersey, and Earl, Pennsylvania, con
tained over 5,000 inhabitants each, in the census o f 1830, but in 1840,
they had less than 5,000, though they were included in the above table ;
so that, instead o f 109 towns o f this class, there were only 104, to which
we may add St. Louis township, in St. Louis county, Missouri, Hagers
town, Maryland, and Portsmouth, Virginia, making 107 towns o f this class.
The number o f cities and towns with over 20,000 inhabitants, in 1830,
was 8, and 16, in 1840; the number, with between 10,000 and 20,000,
was 11, in 1830, and 20, in 1840 ; and the number, with between 5,000
and 10,000, was 66, in 1830, and 107, in 1840; total, 85, in 1830, and
143, in 1840. After deducting the 5 towns which had less than 5,000
inhabitants, in 1840, the difference between the remaining 80 and 143,
will be 63 towns, which have risen in the ten years to the rank o f hav
ing 5,000 inhabitants.
The increase o f the number o f the cities and towns o f over 20,000 in
habitants, in 1840, in the table, in the ten years, was 100 per cent; o f
those between 10,000 and 20,000, 81*81 p ercen t; o f those between 5,000
and 10,000, 65*15 per cent; and o f the whole number, 70*58 per cent.
The next table shows the increase of the population o f the three classes o f
cities and towns, during the ten years, and their aggregate, together with
the proportion, per cent, which their aggregate bears to that o f the states
respectively, and the difference, marked — , when there has been a loss.
T able VI.
3,101,117
13,213
29.46
2.27
13,659,780
594,398
15
South Carolina,.........
10,558,663
581,185
11,139,848
3,114,330
27.95
14,254,178
16
tates.
Inc.
per ct.
25.61
5.66
20.85
11.96
4.13
26.59
16.35
27.87
1.74
5.14
2.34
33.77
90.85
63.35
21.60
13.36
62.00
173.18
570.90
9.73
1
No. of
Pop. of cities
cit. in
and
1840. towns.
i
Inc.
per ct.
46,313
6,338
68.24
37.65
114,179
23,171
4
37,054
12,584
i
151,456
60.24
402,855
7
1
77,787
38.61
279,152
1
10,180
55,952
10,953
2,801
2,780 27.30
35,974 64.29
6,337 57.85
7,288 260.19
21,693
4,093
26.90
25.48
102,313
20,153
2
1
1
18,136
7,303
3,194
3,920 21.61
3,911 53.55
9,478 296.74
52,367 105.09
102,193
10,869 105.10
21,507 86.61
21,210
46,338
i
5,852
10,617 181.42
4,533
24.10
23,364
396,961
737,967
30,289 Loss, 1,028
53.79
3.39
1,134,928
29,261
20
395,933
51.53
1,164,189
20
768,256
Pop. of
cit. and
t’ns in
1830.
12,598
Inc. in
10 yrs.
164,023
Inc. in Inc.
10 yrs. per c t .
2,620 20.79
33.96
Cities and Towns in the United Slates.
Maine,........................
New Hampshire,.......
Massachusetts,...........
Rhode Island,............
Connecticut,..............
New York,.................
New Jersey,..............
Pennsylvania,............
Delaware,..................
Maryland,..................
Virginia,.....................
Georgia,....... ....... .
Alabama,...................
Louisiana,.................
Tennessee,................
Kentucky,..................
Ohio,.........................
Missouri,...................
Michigan,..................
District of Columbia,
S
Inc. in
10 yrs.
102,338
15,246
127,291
11,631
12,303
510,313
52,483
375,800
1,337
22,979
28,392
174,569
281,229
136,672
147,306
91,911
581,564
243,247
180,628
3,878
Pop. of
Census No. of
cit. in
of 1S40. cities.
1830.
501,793
284,574
737,699
67,866
2
108,830
1
16,833
309,978
2,428,921
4
251,399
373,306
2
1.724,033
201,365
78,085
470,019
i
80,620
16,060
1,239,797
1
691,392
• «.
590,756
352,411
49,826
i
829,210
779,828
i
10,341
i
24,831
1,519,467
383,702
212,267
18,826
43,712
l
Census
of 1831).
399,455
269,328
610,408
97,199
297,675
1,918,608
320,823
1,348,233
76,748
447,040
1,211,405
516,823
309,527
215,739
681,904
687,917
937,903
140,455
31,639
39,834
95,509 58.22
zc
T
S
tates.
49,638
12,960
91,926
17,290
10,089
22,056
11,214
12,672
able
Inc.
pr. ct.
63.67
28.38
30.67
23.87
25.15
27.78
17.69
23.91
25.84
17.05
44.96
4.37
1
1
5
5,566
6,026
12,754
1,363 24.48
971 16.04
16,884 132.37
i
2,222
6,880 309.63
5.46
16,682 Los3,911
16,469
.......
2
V I.—Continued.
Total
Pop. of No. of
cit. and cities
t’ns in
and
1810.
t’ns.
30,351
6
3
20,399
20
100,086
29,818
5
20,560
4
290,263
59
74,572
13
34,514
8
8,367
1
5,182
2
14,280
5
6,403
2
1
1
6,929
1
6,997
2
6
29,638
1
9,102
1
3
15,771
144
1
South Carolina,........
259,532 109 540,730 162,502 33.05 703,232
Population of other places in the United States,
Total,.........
Naval service,.....
Total population of the United States,..
145
Pop. of
cit. and
t’ ns in
1830.
31,141
15,889
181,510
40,904
26,607
534,494
74.314
232,020
6,628
85,047
44,047
13,999
3,194
49,826
5,566
16,367
37,585
5,852
2,222
35,508
Prop., p. c. of
this pop. of
cit. and t’ns
to that of the
states, in Differ1840. ence.
1830.
1.29
9.08
7.79
1.27
5.89
7.16
5.94
29.73 35.67
6.61
42.08 48.69
1.88
8.93 10.81
4.47
27.85 32.32
23.16 24.60
1.44
1.59
17.20 18.79
2.08
8.63 10.71
4.06
19.02 23.08
.92
3.63
4.55
2.70
2.54 — .16
1.11
1.03
2.14
23.09 23.99
5.90
.20
.81
1.01
1.34
2.37
3.61
1.00
4.00
5.00
.13
4.16
4.29
7.02
4.28 — 2.74
.40
89.13 89.53
Inc. in
10 yrs.
14,428
4,510
82,393
12,085
6,913
250,550
17,548
91,735
1,739
22,448
12,442
3,618
9,478
52,367
1,363
11,840
38,391
10,617
6,880
3,627
Inc. p.
cent.
46.33
28.33
45.39
29.54
25.98
46.87
23.61
39.53
25,84
26.39
28.24
25.84
296.74
105.09
24.48
72.34
102.14
181.42
309.63
10.21
Pop. of
cit. and
t’ns in
1340.
45,569
20,399
263,903
52,989
33,520
785,044
91,862
323,755
8,367
107,495
56,489
17,617
12,672
102,193
6,929
28,207
75.976
16,469
9,102
39,135
1,442,720
654,972
30,289 Loss, 1,028
45.39
3.39
2,097,692
29,261
13.66
5.21
1.69
15.35
4.92 — .29
13.22
14.92
1.70
11.44
12.46
1.02
1,473,009
11,387,693
653,944
3,548,707
44.39
31.16
2,126,953
:14,936,400
12,860,702
5,318
4,202,651
782
32.67
14.70
:17,063,353
6,100
12,866,020
4,203,433
32.62
:17,069,453
Cities and Towns in the United States,
Maine,......................
New Hampshire,....
Massachusetts,...........
Rhode Island,...........
Connecticut,..............
New York,.............. .
New Jersey,..............
Pennsylvania,.......... .
Delaware,.................
Maryland,................
Virginia,.................... .
Georgia,.................... .
Alabama,..................
Louisiana,................
Tennessee,............... .
Kentucky,................
Ohio,......... ..............
Missouri,...................
Michigan..................
District of Columbia,)
Pop. of
cit. and
t’ns in
1340.
15,218
No.
of Pop. of
cit. cit. and
and t’ns in
Inc. in
t’ns. 1830.
10 yrs.
5
18,543
11,808
3
15,889
4,510
23,496
14
76,590
4
5,747
24,071
4,133
16,427
3
48 227,143
63,120
12
63,361
11,211
6,660
5
27,854
1,739
6,628
1
755
1
4,427
4,429
2
9,851
1
6,696 Loss, 293
Cities and Towns in the United States.
45
The next table is added, in order to show, separately, the increase o f
the population of those states and territories which are not included in
Table VI.
T
able
VII.
Census o f
1830.
Increase
in 10 vrs.
Vermont,........................................
North Carolina,...."........................
Mississippi,....................................
Indiana,.........................................
Illinois,..........................................
Arkansas,......................................
Florida Territory,.........................
280,652
737,987
136,621
343,031
157,445
30,388
34,730
11,296
15,432
239,030
342,835
318,738
67,186
19,747
30,945
43,112
4.02
2.09
174.95
99.94
202.44
221.09
56.85
291,948
753,419
375,651
685,866
476,183
97,574
54,477
30,945
43,112
9 states and territories,..................
20 states, and Dist. of Columbia,
1,720,854
11,139,848
1,088,321
3,114,330
63.24
27.95
2,809,175
14,254,178
30 states and territories,...............
Naval service,................................
12,860,702
5,318
4,202,651
782
32.67
14.70
17,063,353
6,100
Total pop. of the United States,...
12,866,020
4,203,433
32.62
17,069,453
States and Territories.
Increase
per cent.
Census o f
1840.
I f we deduct from the population o f these nine states and territories,
that o f Vermont and North Carolina, whose increase was small, we shall
find that the average increase o f the seven remaining ones, was over
151 per cent, as follows :—
Census of
1830.
Increase in
10 years.
Increase
per cent.
Census of
1840.
9 states and territories,.................
Vermont and North Carolina,......
1,720,854
1,018,639
1,088,321
26,728
63.24
2.62
2,809,175
1,045,367
7 states and territories,.................
702,215
1,061,593
151.17
1,763,808
It will be perceived that there was a difference in the increase, not
only o f the several states and territories, but also o f the several cities and
towns, o f 5,000 inhabitants and upwards, during the ten years from 1830
to 1840. In respect to the states, while the increase o f Delaware was
less than 2 per cent, that o f Michigan was over 57 per cent. Generally,
the increase was much larger in the new, than in the old states. A few
o f the cities and towns lost inhabitants, and some o f these by an actual
decrease o f population, their limits remaining the same ; as Charleston,
South Carolina, and Georgetown, District o f Columbia, while the rest
lost, it is presumed, generally, in consequence o f setting off' portions o f
their territory as separate towns, or by annexing them to other towns.
It will be perceived that, in 1840, considerably more than half (54’ 73
per cent) o f the population o f these cities and towns, belonged to those
o f the first class, containing over 200,000 inhabitants each ; and that only
about one-eighth (12‘20 per cent) to those o f the second class, while a
little less than one-third (3 3 ‘06 per cent) belonged to the third class.
The increase of the first two classes o f cities and towns, was nearly
twice that o f the third class, while the average increase o f their aggre
gate, was about one and a half times that o f the aggregate o f the states
to which they belong, making their proportional increase 1'70 per cent
greater than during the ten years.
There is also a marked difference in the proportional increase o f the
aggregate o f the population o f the cities and towns in the several states.
46
Cities and Towns in the United States.
It varies from 309 per cent, in Michigan, to 10 per cent, in the Dis
trict of Columbia, while there is a loss o f 3'39 per cent, in South Caro
lina, or over 1 per cent more than the increase o f the population in the
state.
As we look upon the proportion percent, o f the population o f the cities
and towns, to that o f the several states, we see that the proportion is very
various in these states, both in 1830 and in 1840. In the District o f Co
lumbia, which is very peculiarly situated, consisting o f the three cities
mentioned in the table, and the country part o f Washington and Alexandria, the cities contained over 89 per cent o f the whole population o f the
district, while the proportion in Tennessee was less than 1 per cent, in
1830, and they were but little, changed in 1840.
In looking over the differences, in the proportion, in the several states,
in 1830 and in 1840, it will be perceived that there has been an increase
per cent, in all, except Georgia, Michigan and South Carolina. As to
Georgia, whose increase was more than the average o f that of the Uni
ted States, and in which, while one o f the cities (Savannah) was among
the first in point o f increase, among these cities and towns, and Augusta
city lost population, it is not surprising that the proportion in this agricul
tural state should be less in 1840, than in 1830. As there was only one
city o f 5,000 inhabitants, in Michigan, in 1840, and as the increase of
that state was so enormous in consequence o f emigrants settling the
country, we need expect anything but a decrease o f the proportion o f this
class in these ten years. But in South Carolina, whose whole increase
was only 2'27 per cent, and exclusive o f its capital, only 2*58 per c e n t:
and whose population are, to a great degree, agricultural, there being
only one city (Charleston) with 5,000 inhabitants, and that city having
lost 1,028 o f its population in the ten years, the proportion must, o f course,
be less, in 1840, than in 1830.
The population o f nearly all o f the 145 cities and towns (only a few
o f them being generally engaged in agricultural pursuits) are engaged
in commerce and manufactures, in other words, commerce and manufac
tures are what mainly have built up, sustained and increased these cit
ies and towns. This is the case, particularly with the 36 cities and
towns o f over 10,000 inhabitants, in which the increase was 52-71 per
cent, and nearly twice that o f the aggregate o f the states to which they
belong.
It seems as a general inference to be drawn from the above tables,
that, with the exception o f the District o f Columbia, perhaps, the propor
tion o f the population who are directly and indirectly employed in, and
dependent upon, for a living, in the twenty-one states, and in all the states
and territories, manufactures and commerce, may be considered as repre
sented by the proportion, per cent, o f the populat ion o f the cities and towns
to that of the states, respectively and collectively, in 1830 and 1840; and
also its increase and decrease, by the differences during the ten }rears, from
1830 to 1840, as shown in the last three columns o f Table VI. Thus, over
and above the increase of the aggregate population of the twenty-one
states, that of these classes was about 1'70 per cent; and over and above
that o f the whole population o f the thirty states and territories, that of
these classes was about 1 per cent, during these ten years. Thus, also,
in the last column, supposed to represent the increase o f these classes
over that o f the whole population, the increase has been the greatest in
The Commercial System o f the United States.
47
Rhode Island, next in Massachusetts, next in Alabama, next in Maryland,
& c., while there has been a decrease in only three out o f the twenty,
one states, and this decrease may be accounted for by the suggestions
above respecting these three states.
j. c.
A rt. V.— TH E COMMERCIAL SYSTEM OF TH E UNITED STATES.
h e commerce of the country, we hardly require to be told, at the
present time, has grown to enormous magnitude. The ports o f the seacoast and the rivers o f the west, from the mouth o f the Penobscot to the
harbor of Charleston, and from Chicago to New Orleans, are crowded
with its hulks and cordage ; and its sails every where dot the ocean and
the lakes. It is the design o f the present article to unfold, in a condensed
form, those general laws which have been established by the government,
bearing upon the shipping continually entering and departing from the
United States.
It is obvious, that, in order to ensure the safety o f the persons and
property ever afloat upon the sea, in merchant ships, as well as to pro
vide adequate revenue to the government, there must be established cer
tain laws for the prosecution of commerce. The policy o f every civil
ized government has uniformly enacted commercial regulations for the
protection o f its own shipping and seamen ; and we shall first point out
the mode in which our own government ascertains the precise character
o f its vessels, as well as those which enter its ports from abroad.
During the first administration o f President Washington, in 1792, the
policy o f protecting our own commerce, was adopted, by the passing o f
acts regulating those vessels which are employed in the foreign trade, the
coasting trade and the fisheries o f the country. These have continued
down to the present time, with but few important modifications. Under
those acts, the various vessels engaged in our commerce, are divided into
five different classes. The first, embraces those o f our own ships that are
employed in foreign trade, which are entitled to be registered. The sec
ond, ships o f the United States that are employed in the coasting trade,
or fisheries, which are entitled to be enrolled and licensed. The third,
ships built out o f the United States, but owned by citizens, which are en
titled to a certificate o f ownership. The fourth, ships built in the United
States, but owned, wholly or partly, by foreigners, which are entitled to
be recorded. The fifth, ships built out o f the United States and owned
by foreigners, which are deemed alien vessels. Each o f these different
classes o f vessels we shall consider in their proper order.
The vessels which are registered, and also those duly qualified to carry
on the coasting trade and the fisheries, are alone deemed vessels o f the
United States, entitled to all the privileges granted to such vessels ; those
privileges, continuing only as long as such vessels are wholly owned by
citizens,-and commanded by a citizen or citizens o f the country. Those
ships which are entitled to be enrolled, are vessels o f twenty tons or up
wards, possessing the same qualifications as are required for registered
ships, namely : that they be built within the United States and be wholly
owned by citizens ; and if under twenty tons they are entitled to a license.
T
48
The Commercial System o f the United States.
It has been remarked, that ships built within the United States, and be
longing wholly or in part to foreigners, are entitled to be recorded, for the
encouragement o f ship-building; and ships built out o f the United States,
but owned by citizens, are entitled to a certificate o f ownership; while
vessels built out o f the United States and owned by foreigners, are deem
ed alien vessels. The place o f registry, is the collector’s district where
the vessel belongs at the time o f the registry, which is deemed the plaGe,
or nearest to the place, where the actual owner or the acting owner usu
ally resides ; and the registry must be made out by the collector o f the
district. By a law of the United States, all vessels, either registered, en
rolled or licensed, must have their names, and the ports to which they be
long, painted upon their sterns.
Our own commercial system, it is, perhaps, well known, is based upon
a reciprocal policy. The first navigation act o f the United States, which
may be regarded as the foundation o f the navigation laws subsequently
established, tenders reciprocity to all nations, and retaliation to those
powers that are disposed to enact illiberal commercial regulations regard
ing us. The design o f our navigation laws, like those o f every other
country, doubtless, has been to protect our own shipping and our own
seamen; but, where a liberal intercourse has been established with us,
by other nations, we have ever been disposed to put our own commercial
laws upon the same footing.* For the purpose o f protecting commerce,
the first act to which we have alluded, prohibits foreign vessels from im
porting into the United States, under penalty o f forfeiture o f the vessel
and cargo, any merchandise, except of the growth, production or manu
facture, o f the country where such vessel belongs— extending the act,
however, to those nations that have a similar regulation. So, also, for
eign vessels are prohibited from transporting merchandise from one port
to another of our own country, although they are permitted to carry, from
one port to another, the cargoes originally imported into the country, pro
vided that they have not been unladened. In our various treaties with
the principal commercial nations, to which our commerce is extended, a
reciprocal policy has been uniformly recognized.
The most useful and important agencies in the superintendence of the
commerce of the country, are the custom-houses that are established at
the principal ports o f the scacoast, as well as those o f the lakes. With
a view to the organization of the custom-houses, the seacoast o f the Uni
ted States is divided into three great coasting districts. These are divi
ded into smaller collection districts, in each o f which a collector is ap
pointed for the purpose o f enforcing the execution o f the revenue laws.
By the act of 1799, that may be considered the basis o f the revenue sys
tem, it is provided, that collectors, naval officers and surveyors, shall be
appointed in the various collection districts o f the country. Naval offi
cers and surveyors are required in the larger districts, to aid the collec
tor in the execution o f his duties. So also appraisers, weighers, measur
ers and guagers, are appointed to perform certain prescribed duties, but
* We here subjoin a list of the documents which are necessary for American vessels,
on leaving the ports of the United States. 1. The Passport 9. The Sea Letter, (in some
cases.) 3. The Register, or proof of property. 4. The List of Crew. 5. The Charter
Party, (when given.) 6. The Bill of Lading. 7. The Invoices. 8. The Log Book. 9.
The BUI of Health. 10. The General Clearance. 11. The Clearing Manifest.
On entering. 1. Manifest 2. last of Passengers.
The Commercial System o f the United States.
49
they are all subordinate to the collector. Returns must be made by the
collector, every three months, to the treasury department, as well as to
the secretary o f state. T o the register o f the treasury, he makes quar
terly returns o f the state o f commerce between our own and foreign
countries, o f the amount o f the tonnage in his district, and the certificates
granted by him under the acts for the enrolling and the registering of
vessels. T o the secretary o f state, he transmits lists o f seamen register
ed within his district, and an account of any impressments made from
American vessels that are reported to him. From the various returns
transmitted to him, by the custom-houses o f the country, the annual re
ports are issued from the office o f the secretary o f the treasury. The
duties o f the separate officers o f the custom-houses, are clearly prescribed
by law. The design of the establishment o f these several custom-houses,
is, to execute the laws regulating the commerce o f the country, and to
collect the revenues accruing from its commercial regulations.
W e have remarked, that our own vessels enjoy certain privileges under
th{f navigation laws o f the United States. Among those privileges, are
the exemption from the payment of “ light-money,” a duty o f fifty cents
per ton upon every foreign vessel not possessing the privilege o f a vessel
o f the United States. Those American vessels that have three-fourths o f
the crew Americans, and officered by Americans, pay no tonnage duty;
nor do foreign vessels, entitled to the privileges o f American vessels ; but
all other vessels pay fifty cents per ton, which, in addition to the “ lightmoney,” likewise o f fifty cents per ton, required to be paid by foreign
vessels, makes one dollar per ton.
The increase of navigation upon the western waters, renders it a sub
ject o f interest to the people. British vessels, rafts and other vehicles o f
commerce, upon the lakes between the United States and Canada, pay,
in our ports, the same custom-house charges and duties as are levied upon
American vessels in the Canadian ports. So, also, no duty is levied on
the importation o f peltries, nor on the goods o f Indians passing the boun
dary line o f the United States, unless these goods be in bales, or large
packages unusual among Indians, which are not exempted from duty, be
ing deemed articles o f commerce. By an act, passed in March, 1799,
British subjects, as well as Indians, were permitted to pass, either by land
or inland navigation, both into and from the territories o f the United
States, and navigate all its lakes, rivers and waters ; but British vessels,
from the sea, are not admitted into the rivers o f the United States beyond
the highest ports o f entry for foreign vessels.*
The fisheries, are another subject that has received the attention o f
Congress. The enterprise that has been directed to this important
branch o f commercial industry, has long rendered it a source o f consid
erable profit to those who are engaged in it, as well as to the prosperity
o f the nation. In order to encourage the prosecution o f this enterprise,
a bounty has been granted on all pickled fish o f the fisheries o f the Uni* A law formerly existing, permitted a credit upon those duties, to be paid by impor
ters on the following terms. Upon all goods, excepting woollens, the credit commenced
at the time the vessel made her entry at the custom-house, and one-half was required to
be paid in three, and the other half in six months. The duties on goods, in the whole or
in part of wool, when not exceeding $200, were required to be paid in cash, upon the
terms we have stated. According to Mr. Clay’s compromise bill, all duties were required
to be paid in cash, after June 30th, 1842.
VOL. X I.— NO. I.
7
50
The Commercial System o f the United States.
ted States, exported from the country, o f twenty cents a barrel, provided
the fish thus exported, is cured with foreign salt. So, also, a bounty is
is granted to the owner or agent o f every vessel, which is employed four
months o f the fishing season, in the bank or cod fishery. These bounties
are paid by the collector o f the district, from which the fish are exported,
or to which the vessel belongs. Thejwunties are,jmwever,restricted to
vessels, whose officers, and at least ..three-fourths •ofqVhose crews, are
proved to be citizens o f the United!SbttteW
vet\
By an act o f Congress, that was passed during theSession o f 1797,
certain vessels, termed revenue cutth'S, were authorized to be built, as
aids to the collectors o f the ports in the execution o f the revenue laws.
The officers o f these vessels, are appointed by the president o f the United
States; and, being deemed officers o f the customs, they are subject to the
direction o f the collectors o f the revenue within the several districts. It
is their duty to board all vessels that arrive within the United States, or
within four leagues o f the coast, if they are bound for the United States,
to examine them, to receive the manifests, to secure them in a proper
manner and to remain on board until they arrive at the place o f destina
tion. They are also required to make a weekly return, to the collector
o f the district in which they are placed, o f all the vessels which they have
boarded, and o f all those facts proper to be known by the collector for
the exercise o f the duties o f his office. They may also perform such
other duties, for the collection o f the revenue, as may be directed by the
secretary o f the treasury in conformity to the law. The revenue cutters,
W’hen ordered by the president o f the United States, must co-operate with
the navy; at which time they are under the direction o f the secretary of
the navy, their expenses being defrayed by the agents o f the navy depart
ment. These vessels are known by a certain flag, composed o f horizon
tal stripes, which, all whom they hail upon the sea, are bound to respect.
In addition to the sailing vessels, which have heretofore been employed
in the revenue service, there have been recently constructed a number of
steamships for the same purpose.
The most important commercial agents o f the United States, in foreign
ports, are consuls ; and, indeed, by the custom o f all maritime nations,
those officers are appointed for all the principal ports to which their com
merce extends. Those which are appointed by the United States, are
invested with certain privileges and duties, by virtue o f their office, as
they represent the commercial interests o f their respective governments,
in the places where they are stationed. They have the right to receive
the protests and other declarations, o f captains or other citizens o f the
United States, and o f those foreigners as may choose to make them, re
lating to the personal interests o f any citizens o f the United States; and
the copies o f such acts, under the seal o f the consulate, have the same
authority as the originals w'ould possess in a court o f law'. It is, more
over, their duty to take possession o f the personal estate, left by any citi
zen o f the United States, (excepting a seaman belonging to any vessel,
who may die within their consulate, who leaves there no legal represen
tative or person to take charge o f his effects,) to adjust his affairs, and
transmit the balance o f his estate, if any be left, to the treasury o f the
United States for the benefit o f the legal claimants. It is, moreover, the
duty o f the consul or vice consul, to notify the death o f a citizen deceased,
in one o f the gazettes published in the consulate, and to give notice to
The Commercial System o f the United States.
51
the secretary o f state, in order that the fact may be notified in the state
in which the deceased belongs, and to transmit to the secretary o f state
an inventory o f the effects o f the deceased. They must also take meas
ures, for saving the vessels and cargoes stranded upon the coasts o f their
consulates, (if the master, owner or consignee, is not present,) and to de
liver them to the owners. Persons owning goods, subject to an ad valo
rem duty, who live out o f the United States, must make oath, before a
consul, that the goods thus imported, are o f the same price, at the place
o f manufacturers they are charged in the invoice, and whether they are
the manufacturers, in the whole or in part, or they cannot be entered at
the custom-house. They must provide sustenance for the mariners of
their own country, found destitute within their districts, and a passage
home at the public expense ; and when a seaman is discharged in a for
eign port, the master must obtain the consent o f the consul, in writing,
under his official seal. The ship register, sea-letter and Mediterranean
passport, must be deposited with an American consul, on an American
vessel arriving in a foreign port, and they must be kept until the master
produces a regular demand. There are also other duties devolving upon
the consuls, growing out o f their particular appointment or special treaty.*
W e now direct our attention, to the consideration of those agents, who
are usually employed in the commercial operations of our country. The
principal agents o f this sort', are factors, brokers, commercial agents, su
percargoes and ship’s husbands. A factor, is the individual residing
abroad, who is usually employed in the purchase or sale o f goods; while
a broker, who unites in his person the office o f a factor, is engaged most
generally in the money transactions o f merchants and masters o f ships,
relating to shipping. Commercial agents, are those whose duty it is made
to settle the affairs o f merchants or other persons, dying or failing, either
at home or abroad; and their particular agency, for the faithful per
formance o f which, they often give bonds, terminates, when the business
has been performed. Supercargoes are persons employed, either by com
mercial companies or by private merchants, to take charge o f the car
goes which they export to foreign countries, to sell them, and to purchase
other cargoes, with which they return in the same ship. Ship’s husbands
are agents in our seaports, whose duty it is, to purchase ship stores for
their voyages, to procure cargoes on freight, obtain insurance policies,
receive the amount o f freight, pay the captain or master what is his due,
and make out accounts of these transactions for the owners of the ships,
performing the same offices on land, as the steward o f a ship while at sea.
Each o f these agents is bound to perform certain prescribed acts, and is
invested with those obligations which lie within the province o f their
separate agencies.
In order to secure the safety o f property, as well as the vessels that
may be wrecked upon any part o f our coast, there are certain statutory
regulations, in the several states, providing for the custody o f such wrecks
or cargoes. These several statutory enactments, however, vary in the
several states, but they all have one common object. A wise forecast
has also been exercised, by the government o f the several states, in the
* For a particular account of the custom-house laws, we would refer our readers
to Blunt’s Commercial Digest, to which we have been greatly indebted in preparing,
this article.
52
The Commercial System o f the United States.
establishment o f quarantine regulations. The liability of the numerous
vessels, that are continually arriving in our own ports from various parts
o f the world, to introduce contagious or infectious disorders, has rendered
it necessary to pass certain regulations requiring all ships to remain a
prescribed period, at a distance from the port, until their condition can be
ascertained and all causes o f conveying disease removed. For that pur
pose, proper grounds are marked out, where all vessels subject to quaran
tine, are to remain anchored until they are permitted to enter the port.
In order to insure the safe navigation o f ships into port, it is customary
and necessary to employ pilots. The assistance o f this valuable body o f
men, is frequently called in, where vessels are to be guided through in
tricate and unknown channels, near dangerous sand bars, or into roads or
harbors. Under such circumstances, the masters o f vessels, confiding in
the skill and experience o f individuals acquainted with such unknown
passages, rather than in their own, entrust to them the guidance o f their
ships, until these intricate places have been passed. There are certain
points where it is customary to employ pilots ; and a failure to engage
them, will, in case o f damage o f an insured ship, consequent upon this
neglect, discharge the insurers from paying the amount of the damage.
The duty o f regulating the acts o f pilots, and the circumstances o f pilot
age, falls within the province o f Congress ; .but as the local details ne
cessary to form a proper general pilot law, could not easily be known,
that body has left the establishment o f the pilot law, so far as the licensing
o f pilots and fixing the rates o f pilotage are concerned, to the several
states. Each o f the states, therefore, now possesses its own pilot laws,
those which have been passed since 1789, and before 1837, being recog
nized as valid. The regulations o f the several states, respecting pilots
and pilotage, however, prescribe the same general duties.
The welfare o f that large body o f men, who are from time to time,
afloat upon the ocean, as passengers in vessels, has also been made the
subject o f national legislation. It is enacted by a law o f Congress, passed
on the 2d o f March, 1819, that no master shall take on board his vessel,
at any foreign port, or convey into the United States from any foreign
port, or transport from the United States to any foreign port, more than
two persons for every five tons o f such vessel, under a penalty to the mas
ter, as well as to the owner, each, o f the sum o f one hundred and fifty
dollars for each passenger thus taken on board ; and if the number of
such passengers exceed the said proportion by the number o f twenty in
the whole, every such vessel is forfeited to the United States. For the
further security o f those on shipboard, it is also provided, that every ves
sel bound from the United States to any port on the continent o f Europe,
must have on board sixty gallons o f water, one hundred pounds o f salted
provisions, one gallon o f vinegar and one hundred pounds o f wholesome
ship bread, for every passenger on board, over and above what each pas
senger has provided for himself, and in the same proportion for shorter
voyages ; and if the passengers on board a vessel, in which such provision
has not been made, be put on short allowance, the master and owner o f
such vessel must pay to each passenger the sum o f three dollars for every
day that they have been kept on such short allowance. The master o f
every vessel, arriving in the United States from any foreign place, must
also deliver to the collector, a .list o f the passengers on board his vessel,
their names, sex and occupations, the countries to which they belong, and
The Commercial. System o f the United States.
53
those o f which they design to become inhabitants. Returns o f these
must be made quarterly to the secretary o f state, and statements o f the
same, are made by him to Congress during each session. There are
also other laws, enacted by the states, requiring that reports be made to
the municipal authorities, o f all alien passengers entering the several
ports, and also requiring security that these shall not be made a public
charge ; the last requisition, being, however, sometimes subject to com
mutation.
Besides these general laws for the protection o f navigation, there are
also certain particular commercial regulations that have been made in the
principal seaports, regarding vessels entering their harbors. It is evident,
that, from the large amount o f shipping continually entering the ports o f
the United States, certain clearly defined and well established regulations
have become necessary. It happens, accordingly, that those regulations
have been enacted for the principal harbors o f the country, and their di
rect influence has been, to promote security to lives and property, as well
as safety to the shipping.
VVe have given a brief sketch o f the commercial system o f the United
States, established for the protection o f commerce in its various depart
ments, designedly avoiding an exhibition o f that vast body o f complex
rules, relating to insurance and the rights and duties o f seamen, falling
within the province o f general maritime law. W e have confined our re
marks to the local and statutory law o f the country, because that is the
distinctive feature which marks our own policy as Americans. It may
be remarked, that our commercial legislation has been, in the main, clear
sighted and judicious ; yet it could hardly be expected, that a nation, whose
commerce has grown up within a very recent period, should, at all times,
possess the forecast and judgment o f our own country, when its head shall
have been frosted with the experience o f a thousand years.
With the growth o f our commerce, and a more accurate knowledge of
the commercial systems o f other nations, our own commercial policy will
become more firmly fixed, and be established upon a more advantageous
and solid basis. The intimate commercial relations that we have estab
lished with the principal nations of Europe, through the agency o f steamnavigation, as well as the large body of our shipping ploughing every sea,
render a liberal, yet fixed commercial policy, in every way desirable.
The first step has already been taken by the government, in their causing
to be embodied, the regulations o f those nations with which we have in
tercourse, in an accessible form, and in the collation o f statistical facts,
regarding the agricultural, mineral and manufactured productions o f the
country, in order that we may know what products we require from abroad,
and what surplus we produce for export to other countries. The com
merce o f the United States, has ever been a source o f individual wealth,
as well as of national revenue. It will, doubtless, in future time, as it
has before done, call into action a considerable portion o f our most vigor
ous enterprise, as well as the most upright and elevated character. T o
insure its successful prosecution, we require only equitable laws and an
enlightened policy.
54
Commerce o f the United States with China.
A r t . VI.— COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES W ITH CH IN A*
T h e new commercial relations, that seem to be opening between our
own government and the empire o f China, perhaps warrant us in devoting
a brief space to the' consideration o f the progress o f our commerce with
that country. Whatever might have been the grounds o f the recent attack, by the British, upon their frontiers, (and we certainly shall not here
discuss the question,) the result, doubtless, has been to induce, on their
part, a more amicable and liberal commercial intercourse with foreign
nations, and it is reasonable to presume that our own will share a portion
o f these opening advantages.
The commerce o f our country with China, although not o f very long
standing, has still been a source o f great profit to individuals engaged in
the China trade. That singular people, heretofore isolated in their hab
its as a nation, and opposing around their entire frontier an almost im
passable barrier to the ingress o f strangers, has, for a long period, it is
well known, carried on a large amount o f commerce with the principal
commercial nations o f Europe, especially with the British empire ; but
this trade has been restricted to the frontier, and has been prosecuted
without the walls of cities. Much the larger amount o f foreign tonnage
has, indeed, at all times, been moored without the harbor o f Canton, her
principal seaport. Containing a most dense population, scattered over
her territory, remarkable for their industrious habits, China has been en
abled to export abroad a large, amount o f the products o f its own labor,
by which, broad streams o f wealth have been poured into various por
tions o f that empire.
The principal exports to China from our own country, within the last
few years, it is, perhaps, well known, have consisted o f white and printed
cottons, the most prominent article o f export, as well as ginsing, skins
and furs, and various other commercial products o f minor value. The
import trade wdth the Chinese empire, has been comprized mainly, o f
silks, teas, Nankeens, Chinaware and other articles less in amount. The
remarkable industry o f the population o f that empire, W’ill doubtless in
crease the number o f the various articles o f the exports o f the country,
as well as their aggregate quantity.
Since the principal commercial depot o f the empire o f China, is the
city o f Canton, we would devote a brief space to the consideration o f its
commerce. Notwithstanding the recent attack o f the British navy upon
the empire, tending to interrupt its ordinary pursuits, it appears from docu
ments before us, that, in 1843, the entries into the port o f Canton were
430 ships, with 178,478 tons, and that the “ sailings” were 364 ships,
with 149,744 tons. The principal countries carrying on commerce with
Canton, at that time, were Great Britain, which had 131 ships, with
56,943 tons, while other states in Europe, had in the port 14 ships, with
3,262 tons. There were at that time, 37 ships belonging to the United
States, with an aggregate o f 17,342 tons; and other states in America,
had 15 ships, with an aggregate o f 5,539 tons There was also one ship
from Africa, carrying on commerce with that country. In Asia, 366
ships, belonging to British India, were engaged in the Canton trade,
* For an elaborate account of the commerce of China, see Merchants’ Magazine for
December, 1840, Vol. III., No. 6, pp. 465 to 481.
Commerce o f the United States with China.
55
which possessed an aggregate o f 164,356 tons; Spanish India had 191
ships, with a tonnage o f 34,600; Dutch India had 31 ships, with a ton
nage o f 9,434 ; and Portuguese India, 16 ships, with a tonnage o f 2,361.
There were 2 ships, belonging to Siam, in the Canton trade ; 41, belong
ing to northern China; and 35 ships o f Oceanica, N ew Zealand and the
Sandwich Isles, with an aggregate o f 13,216 tons. W e have thus given
a condensed statement, o f the shipping engaged in the Canton trade, for
the purpose o f exhibiting the general character o f the foreign commerce
o f China, from its most prominent port.
In order to exhibit the progress o f the commerce o f the United States
with China, for a series o f years, we subjoin the following tables showing
the direct China trade, from the year 1821 to 1842, a period o f twenty,
one years:—
V alu e
of
E
xports fro m th e
U n it e d S t a t e s
to
C
h in a d ir e c t
;
and
I m ports
from
C h in a .
Years.
Dora. Pro
duce, &c.
Foreign mer
chandise, &c.
Tot. Exports.
Imports.
1821,...........
1822,...........
1823,
..
1824,
.
1825............
1826,...........
1827,...........
182$,...........
1829............
1830,...........
1831,...........
1832,...........
1833............
1834,
.
1835,
..
1836,...........
1837............
1838,...........
1839,...........
1840,...........
1841,...........
$388,535
439,230
288,375
330,466
160,059
242,451
290,962
230,385
260,759
156,290
244,790
336,162
537,774
255,756
335,368
341,563
318,973
655,581
430,464
409,186
715,322
$3,902,025
5,506,138
4,347,686
4,970,705
5,410,456
2,324,093
3,573,543
1,252,417
1,094,103
585,903
1,048,045
924,360
895,985
754,727
1,532,712
852,701
311,618
961,021
1,103,137
540,780
485,494
$4,290,560
5,935,368
4,636.061
5,301,171
5,575,515
2,466,644
3,864,405
1,482,802
1,354,862
742,193
1,290,835
1,580,522
1,433,759
1,010,483
1,868,580
1,194,264
600,594
1,516,602
1,533,601
1,006,966
1,200,816
$3,111,951
5,212,536
5,511,425
5,568,502
7,533,115
7,422,186
3,617,183
5,339,108
4,680,847
3,878,141
3,083,205
5,344,907
7,541,570
7,892,327
5,987,187
7,324,816
8,965,337
4,764,536
3,678,509
6,640,829
3,095,388
The chief articles o f import and export, in these years, were as follow s:—
E x p o r t s t o C h in a — C o t t o n s .
Years.
1821,...............
1822,...............
1823,..............
1824,..............
1825,..............
1826,..............
1827,..............
1828,..............
1829,.............
1830...............
1831,..............
1832,..............
1833,.............
1834,..............
1835,............
1836,..............
1837,....... ......
1838,.............
1839,..............
1840,..............
1841,.............
Printed.
$154
64,881
2.552
15,351
11,997
11,280
6,360
White.
$14,777
9,388
10,981
25,943
52,080
49,256
86,580
127,813
146,881
170,175
70,395
189,255
507,560
255,975
361,995
357,332
Twist.
$85
3,764
15,941
2,378
2,514
13,257
14,478
14,264
I m p o r t s f r o m C h in a .
Nankeens.
Silks.
$298,079
758,371
595,681
177,015
310,548
274,970
172,668
304.674
452,873
176,739
87,184
95,972
30,339
46,845
6,433
28,348
35,990
27,049
2,379
$1,317,846
2,389,210
3,122,186
2,430,856
3,060,148
2,746,754
1,333,227
2,234,190
1,616,693
971,670
1,306,322
2,027,503
1,363,082
1,010,158
927,017
1,297,770
2,104,981
965,572
978,183
779,629
285,773
1,100
217
Commerce o f the United States with China.
56
It is quite probable, that the new relations o f the Chinese empire with
foreign countries, may so change the habits o f the people, as to call for
an additional amount o f importations, as well as an additional variety to
the articles imported. That a very marked change will be produced, by
the opening o f the Chinese empire to foreign commerce, there is but little
doubt. Heretofore, our exports have been restricted to those articles, re
quired by a people, who have scarcely advanced beyond the first stages
o f civilization, and they have been inconsiderable in amount. Subjoined,
is a table, showing the various subjects o f export to China, from our own
country, in 1842, as well as the imports during the same period :—
E xports
to the
Articles.
Candles,.....................................
Masts and spars,........................
Naval stores,............................
Skins and furs,..........................
Ginseng,...................................
Beef,..........................................
Pork, bacon, & c.,....... ,...........
Butter and cheese,...................
Tobacco,...................................
Turpentine,..............................
Cordage,....................................
Copper,.....................................
Cotton manufactures,...............
Fire engines,.............................
Books and maps,.....................
Other manufactures,................
Flour,.........................................
Ship bread.................................
I mports
Articles.
into the
U nited S tates f r o m C hina ,
Articles.
Value.
$1,708
200
272
18,000
63,000
2,847
1,789
306
2,518
283
882
2,730
337,470
1,179
589
1,548
1,612
5,154
in
1842.
Value.
Cotton,................
Furniture,.................................
Hats...............
Saddlery,..................................
Porter, ale, and cider,..............
Candles and soap,....................
Lead,.........................................
Iron,..........................................
“ manufactured,...................
Drugs,........................................
Twist, yarn, & c.,.....................
Presses and types,...................
Gold and coin,.........................
$67,695
764
2,830
260
580
4,476
163,642
524
12,400
596
18,255
783
18,000
Total value of exports for
the year,.........................
In American vessels,...............
In foreign vessels,....................
$737,509
703,506
34,203
U nited S tates
from
C hina ,
in
1842.
Value.
Teas,................................................................................................................
Coffee,.............................................................................................................
All other articles,..........................................................................................
$4,367,101
1,968
4,421,666
Total value of imports......................................................................
$8,790,735
It will, perhaps, be somewhat interesting, to notice briefly, the relative
importance o f the British and American trade, at Canton, o f late years.
For this purpose, we subjoin a statement, exhibiting the imported and ex
ported values, in British and American ships, which are cited from docu
ments made up from the declarations o f the “ linguists.” W e are in
duced to add this table, because it is calculated to show the relative im
portance o f the trade o f the two nations, that are destined to become the
most prominent rivals in the Chinese ports, as well as the decrease o f the
trade during the late disturbances. The various amounts are calculated
in pounds sterling. The aggregate value o f imports and exports, at Can
ton, were, in round numbers sterling, in
1837, about............................ £17,600,000: 1841, val. of Brit, exports,....
1841, only...........................
9,200,000 1837, val. of Am. imp., about
“
“
exp.,..........
1827, val. of Brit, imp., about
7,540,000
“
“
exp.,.........
6,516,000 1841,
“
imp.,.........
1841,
“
imp.,.........
4,600,000
“
“
exp.,..........
2,849,000
1,612,000
1,734,000
440,000
1,210,000
W e have it, moreover, from an authoritative source, that the British
trade to China has, very recently, been much increased, and that eighty
Mercantile Biography.
57
vessels, with full cargoes, have left the London docks since the month o f
March last, for the port o f Canton.
W e have thus exhibited, in a brief form, the most prominent features o f
our commerce with China, which, from the recent transactions in that
empire, are destined to present some o f the most interesting relations
from the peculiar circumstances o f the nation. The character o f that
people is but partially known, and the influence o f commerce will doubt
less be effective in opening to light its internal condition. It is reasona
ble to suppose, that favorable treaties may be negotiated by our own gov
ernment, with the empire o f China, through the agency of the diplomatic
representative o f the United States who is now there resident. No diffi
culties have heretofore existed between us. There are valuable com
mercial staples o f China, used to a considerable extent in our market;
and, on our part, we produce a large amount o f those very products, es
pecially cotton goods, that are required by its dense population. The di
plomatic agent o f this government, Mr. Cushing, it is understood, has ad
vanced to P ekin; and those who are more especially interested in the
subject, are awaiting with anxiety the returns that he may make o f a suc
cessful negotiation. It appears from tables reported for the public jour
nals, that, in 1843, there were twenty-four arrivals in the more northern
ports o f the United States, from Canton, and thirty-two clearances during
the same period. With the more firm establishment o f our commercial
relations with the Chinese empire, there is no doubt that the number will
be greatly increased, and that a new and profitable channel o f inter
course will be opened with that extraordinary people.
A rt. VII.— M ERCA N TILE BIOGRAPHY.
MEMOIR OF JACOB L O R IL L A R D .*
J a c o b L o r il l a r d , who, on his father’s side, was o f French, and on
his mother’s, o f German descent, was born in the city o f New York, in
1774. He appears to have commenced life without the advantages even
o f an ordinary education, and to have been, in a great measure, selftaught and self-made ; but at a very early period he exhibited that energy
o f character and firmness o f purpose which marked every stage o f his
subsequent course, and struggled manfully with the difficulties which be
set his path. At the usual age, he was indentured as an apprentice to
the business in which the greater part o f his life was spent. In a situa
tion so unfavorable to the improvement o f his mind, he nevertheless at
tempted it, and after the laborious occupations o f the day, instead o f seek
ing recreation and repose, he passed his evenings in the patient study o f
the very elements o f knowledge which are usually learned in childhood.
But when he had, in some degree, supplied the deficiencies o f his imper
fect education, and acquired what was essential for the practical purposes
o f his calling in life, he was not satisfied with this measure o f improve
* The present beautiful tribute to the memory of a good man, from the pen of the Rev.
William Berrian, D. D., was originally published in the Churchman. It is now published,
with a few slight alterations, as one of our series of mercantile biographies.— [ E d . M e r
ch ants’
M
a g a z in e .]
V O L . X I . ----- N O . I .
8
58
Mercantile Biography.
ment. He mastered, in the same way, the French language, as he afierterwards did the German, endeared to him, perhaps, from the circumstance
o f his descent, and thus obtained a better acquaintance with the princi
ples o f his own. His active and aspiring mind still aimed at something
higher, and the way in which he gratified his love o f general reading,
was at once a proof o f his industry and ambition. At the close o f his
wearisome days, he would engage at night in a fresh occupation at the
establishment o f his brothers, for which he received a suitable, though
trifling compensation; and when these hard-earned gains had sufficiently
accumulated, they were uniformly spent in the purchase of books, which,
procured with so much difficulty, were read with profit and delight. Many
o f these are still in the possession o f the family, and, as memorials o f his
patient industry and enlarged and liberal views, may well be regarded
with pleasure and pride.
The modesty o f his nature, and the diffidence he felt in these private
acquisitions, prevented even many o f his friends from knowing the extent
to which his reading was carried. But it is said to have been a passion
with him, and that, after the labors o f the day, or the fatigues of a jour
ney, he was never so weary as not to find it a recreation and solace ; and
in order to indulge it with an entire freedom from interruption and care,
it was one o f his favorite plans to withdraw from business as soon as he
should have obtained a moderate competency, and to pass the remainder
o f his days in rural retirement. But his relations with the world, which
had branched out in so many directions, and the restless activity o f his
mind, prevented the accomplishment o f this scheme till his life itself was
drawing to a close, and even then this day-dream was dissolved : for per
plexities and cares broke in upon his repose, and left him no prospect o f
rest but that which remaineth to the people o f God.
He entered upon business with a capital o f a thousand dollars, increased
by a loan from his brothers of double that amount, and from the skill, the
foresight and the diligence, with which it was conducted, and from some
adventitious advantages, his own part o f it was eventually multiplied more
than a thousand-fold. The foundation o f his prosperity, was undoubtedly
laid in his moral worth. His untiring industry, his uniform caution and
constant vigilance, his purity o f mind, which influenced all his aversions
and desires, his thoughts and actions, his incorruptible integrity, which
was never impeached nor questioned through the whole course o f his life,
his firmness and perseverance in carrying through the schemes which he
had prudently devised and carefully matured— all these things were calcu
lated to inspire a general confidence in him, in the minds o f men, and to
further his welfare and success.
But there was one other cause of his wealth, to which he himself oc
casionally referred. It was a favorite remark o f his, and well worthy of
note, that his prosperity arose from not having made haste to be rich.
Simple in all his tastes and habits, well regulated in his affections and
appetites, free from vanity, ostentation and pride, he had no extravagant
desires either to urge him on in the eager pursuit o f wealth, or to make
him squander, in prodigality, the fruits o f iniquity and fraud. Instead,
therefore, o f unduly extending his business, and in haste to enrich himself,
being careless about the interests and claims o f others ; instead o f running
out into wild and visionary schemes, which are so tempting to the cupid
ity o f men, and staking the laborious acquisitions o f a life upon the
Memoir o f Jacob Lorillard.
59
chances o f a day, he was contented to follow the prudent methods o f bet
ter times, to avoid unnecessary anxiety for the morrow, to keep innocency,
and take heed to the thing that is right in regard to his neighbor, and to
insure himself peace at the last. Whenever, therefore, the profits o f his
business were not needed for the enlargement o f his capital, he was in
the habit o f investing them in real estate, selected very often in obscure
and retired places, which would be unattractive to the speculator, and
with greater regard to the security o f the property than thp immediate
prospect o f gain. But, in most cases, this very moderation and prudence
turned to a better account than the grasping calculations o f avarice it
self—his own possessions increasing in value, securely and steadily, while
those o f others were often swept away by their extravagance and folly.
The sagacity, foresight and diligence, with which he managed his af
fairs, and the fair and honorable means by which he acquired his riches,
would have been less worthy o f admiration, had they not also been ac
companied by liberal views and benevolent designs. His wealth, his in
fluence and talents, were all directed, in an eminent degree, to the good
o f men and the glory o f God. He had a high sense o f his stewardship,
and the kind impulses o f his heart urged him on to the cheerful perform
ance o f his duty.
He took a particular delight in countenancing, in helping and advising
young men o f merit in the outset o f life. He was quick in penetrating
into the character o f those around him, and nice in his observation o f
their course ; and when, from their industry, their prudence and capacity,
he saw fit to select them for the exercise o f his favor, he was inflexible in
' his attachment to them, and unfailing in his kindness. The details, re
ceived by the writer o f this sketch, from one who loved him as a friend,
■ ancf revered him as a father, and whose heart was poured out like water,
on the news o f his death, represented him in a light so amiable, so confidrnig, so overflowing in generosity and kindness, that no one could hear
them without admiration and emotion. And this, it was remarked, was
.only an instance o f that favor and goodness o f which many besides him
- h^fl been partakers.
i . . v Another manifestation o f the exercise o f his benevolent feelings to
wards young beginners, who were needy and friendless, was peculiarly
interesting. When a director o f that institution, o f which he was twice
the president, he would frequently take a parcel o f the small notes which
were offered for discount by poor mechanics, who were obscure and un
known, and which, therefore, for the most part, would have been rejected,
and make diligent inquiry, in person, as to their character and standing ;
and if he found that, with a proper regard to the interests o f the bank, he
could commend them to favor and confidence, he felt that he was abun
dantly rewarded for all his pains.
On one occasion, a person whose note had been refused where it was
offered for discount, and who, it appears, had no peculiar claims on his
kindness and influence, though possessing his confidence, called on him
for a line of recommendation, which would be sure to procure the desired
accommodation. He at once, as it seemed, complied with the desired
request; instead of being a line of recommendation, however, it was af
terwards discovered to be a note o f Mr. Lorillard for the amount which
was needed. The person immediately returned, and pointed out the mis
60
Mercantile Biography.
take ; never mind, said Mr. Lorillard, if they will not discount your note,
see whether they will not mine.
Another instance is related o f his kind consideration for the interests
o f others. He was appointed an executor to an estate in which the widow
had a life-interest, but where each of the children was to receive a thou
sand dollars on coming to age. When, in the first case, this period had
arrived, one of the sons called on him for the amount o f this bequest; and
what, he said, do you wish to do with it 1 T o purchase stock with it in a
particular bank. At what is it now selling 1 A hundred and ten. Have
you any objections to leave the money with me on interest till the 1st of
May, and then I will let you have the stock at the same rate ? In the
meantime, it fell, as he anticipated, to eighty-four. When this change
took place, the young man was greatly depressed. He called at the time
appointed to fulfil the engagement. The stock is ready for you, Mr.
Lorillard playfully remarked ; however, if you prefer it, I will release you
from the contract, and the money may remain where it is. It may easily
be conceived that the young man left him grateful and rejoicing.
But there is one noble act o f generosity and kindness, which stands
out so prominently, and is at the same time so creditable both to the
agent and object, that it is hoped the notice o f it will not be deemed a
violation o f delicacy. One who had been the companion of his youth,
and the friend o f his age, and who, like him, had been blessed with pros
perity and honor, was suddenly overtaken by calamity and threatened
with ruin. When he received the news, he was affected even to tears.
This shall not be, said he, if I can sustain him, I will mortgage my prop
erty first; and he did so. He immediately assumed all the debts o f his
friend to a particular institution, which were heavy. When creditors,
knowing the intimacy which subsisted between them, crowded around him
to ascertain the truth or falsehood o f the rumored failure, he simply re
plied, “ Bring me the notes which are due to you, and on the usual guar
antee I will pay them.” He did do it, to a large amount; and by the aid
which he rendered, and the confidence he inspired, he not only sustained
and re-established his friend, but the whole profits o f the operation for the
risk which he incurred were entirely devoted to charity.
These are not merely a few solitary instances o f kindness scattered
throughout a long tract of time, but an illustration o f the habits o f his
life. There are scarcely any o f that numerous class, who were engaged
in the same business with him, w'ho have not some personal and grateful
recollection o f it, a striking proof o f which, is to be found in a circum
stance that occurred when he partially withdrew from the active duties of
life, and retired to his retreat in the neighborhood o f the city. The whole
fraternity spontaneously met to express, in the deepest and most heartfelt
manner, their sense o f his kindness and worth, and to present to him a
beautiful memorial o f their attachment and respect.
His benevolence, was not, however, confined to a narrow channel, but
was as expansive as the misery and want which cried to him for aid.
What is known o f it, excites admiration ; but there is reason to believe
that more o f it is hidden, except from the objects o f his bounty and the
all-seeing eye o f God. The silence which was imposed by his wishes,
on the lips of many, during his life, has been broken since his death.
His acts o f charity to the sick, the needy and the stranger, were exer
cised da )y and hourly at his home, and amidst the engagements o f busi
Memoir o f Jacob Lorillard.
61
ness, in a spirit o f kindness which was never chilled, and with a patience
that was more remarkable than his alms. But he did not merely wait for
the appeals o f the distressed to touch his feelings, but from the considerate
kindness o f his own heart, often committed large sums to a confidential
agent, with an injunction that his name should be concealed, to be dis
tributed among those persons, whose office, it was, to minister to the
wants o f the hungry and naked. In the way o f loans to students, who
were in need o f all things— to clergymen, who were straitened in their
means— to kinsmen and friends, whose misfortunes and necessities called
for relief, his benevolence took a wider range : for, in many instances, he
he never intended to reclaim them, and in others, he was aware that
there was no reasonable prospect they could ever be repaid. With re
spect to servants, he considered that he held a kind o f paternal relation
to them ; and when they had served him long and faithfully, he was in
the habit, on their leaving him, o f giving them an outfit, and following
them through life with his countenance and favor.
In addition to the sums which were dispensed by him in the everflowing stream o f his bounty, it was a settled rule with him, upon which
he acted through life, to devote all the monies which came to him, either
in a way that was unexpected, or from debts which had been considered
as lost, to pious and charitable purposes. He was a little peculiar and
fanciful in some of his benevolent feelings and habits. The scarfs which
he received in attending funerals, were always regarded as the perqui
site o f the p oor; and he was thought, by many, to be too free and undis
criminating in the exercise1of:his bounty,,f o r e v e n his failings leaned to
virtue’s side.” O f one, occasion,; in the depth of; win ter, a w a u a n whom
he had often relieved, called upon him for a little assistance to procure
some wood. Having some doubts o f he<r ^worthiness, he said that he
would inquire about her, ancfr dismissed hejrwithfmt'any relief. A short
time after, he left his office in company with a gentleman who had been
present at the interview, and observing ,a cartman with a load o f wood on
his cart, he asked the price o f it, and directed him to take it to a certain
street and number, which was the place where the disappointed petitioner
resided. His companion remarked, with some surprise, “ Didyou not say
that you intended to make some inquiry about her V’ “ While I should
have been inquiring about the matter, the poor woman might have frozen
to death.” Indeed, the benignity o f his countenance, the kindness o f his
manner, and the ease and cheerfulness with which he rendered assistance,
gave additional grace to his acts o f charity.
But there is one important circumstance, in reference to this point,
which ought not to pass unnoticed. The plainness and simplicity o f his
habits, in dress, in furniture and his whole mode o f living— his separation
from the pomps and vanities o f the world, and his entire freedom from all
ostentatious and expensive tastes, left him an ample fund for the free and
liberal indulgence o f those benevolent feelings which God had inspired,
thus furnishing a happy exemplification o f those beautiful lines :—
“ For what his charity impairs,
He saves by prudence in affairs.”
The union o f so many excellences o f character, with strong natural
powers and much acquired knowledge, will easily account for the great
consideration and influence which he obtained in society. Such was the
62
The Gold M ines o f North Carolina.
confidence, both in his integrity and judgment, that he was absolutely op
pressed by the weight o f his public and private trusts. He was connected
with a great number o f mercantile, literary, benevolent and religious in
stitutions in all o f which he was active and useful, and in some enjoyed
an undisputed pre-eminence. He was a member o f the New York Ly
ceum and Horticultural Society, a trustee o f the General Theological
Seminary, a warden o f St. Andrew’s Church, Harlaem, a vestryman o f
Trinity Church, New York, president o f the German Society, the Me
chanics’ Society and the Mechanics’ Bank. T o the interests o f the last
institution, he applied the whole energies o f his mind, and with so much
effect, as to have twice delivered it from serious embarrassments, if not
from greater evils; but, alas ! it is to be feared, at the expense o f health
and the abridgment o f his days.
But the highest distinction o f this excellent man, was his deep and un
affected piety. At the early age of seventeen years, he consecrated at
the altar, his body and soul to the service o f G o d ; and neither the en
gagements o f business, nor the temptations o f prosperity, ever diverted
him from it, but he lived and died in the Lord. In his personal character,
as well as in the purity and benevolence o f his life, he was a faithful fol
lower o f his meek and lowly Master. In the bosom o f his family, he
was an instructer, example and guide. Each morning and evening, all
were gathered around him in family prayer; and on the Lord’s day, he
uniformly devoted a portion o f it to the religious instruction o f his chil
dren by a simple and familiar exposition o f the scriptures.
It may well be supposed, that such'•a prfd and '■.yell-spent life would
have a Wrenb rfrid 'peaceful cldse. .When bd perceived that his death
was approaching, 'Which"‘he had not expected until it was near at hand,
there was no agitatbtfn ?i<?r fear but he Vas calm, submissive and resigned.
Like the patriarch Of-old. he-callaS his children around him, and, begin
ning with the youngest, he gave, jn the most affecting and impressive
manner, to each one o f the'n,'according to their respective dispositions,
characters and habits, the admonition, counsel or encouragement, which
was appropriate to the case ; and shortly after, with a hope full o f immor
tality, he sank away easily and gently, and slept in the Lord.
The old friends and neighbors, with whom he had been so long asso
ciated in business, immediately met together to express their deep and
unaffected grief at his loss, and to testify their profound respect for his
memory, and they gave a touching instance o f it, by resolving forthwith,
in a body, to close their offices and stores. In this feeling, in a greater
or less degree, thousands participated : “ Blessed are the dead who die in
the Lord, for their works do follow them.”
A rt. V III— T H E GOLD M INES OF N O RTH CAROLINA.
T h e first mine discovered in North Carolina was Reid’s, in the south
east part o f Cabarrus county, in 1801 or 1802. Parker’s mine, in Mont
gomery county, (which adjoins Cabarrus,) was discovered in 1815, on the
same stream, (Meadow creek.) In 1818, Dunn’s mine was discovered
in Mecklenburg, about eight miles northwest o f Charlotte. The mines
Burke county were discovered in 1828. From these periods, down to the
The Gold Mines o f North Carolina.
63
present time, new mines, of more or less value, have been discovered.
These mines are of two kinds, viz : 1. alluvial deposites, or surface mines ;
and 2. vein mines. The first class occupied the early attention of miners,
and is still extensively carried on in Burke, Rutherford and other aurifer
ous regions o f the western part o f North Carolina. The precious metal
o f these mines, is obtained by washing among the sand, or pebbles o f
quartz, and is a simple process. The vein mines, constitute, principally,
the mines in the vicinity o f Charlotte, where the gold is found by exca
vating, and is not distinguishable by the eye, in the ore. In the early
workings o f these mines, the gold was found in small pieces, from the size
o f a pennyweight down to particles o f extreme minuteness. In 1803, at
Reid’s mine, a negro found one lump that weighed twenty-eight pounds,
avoirdupois. This was worth $8,000. Jameson, in his “ Mineralogy,”
says, the largest piece o f gold found in Europe only weighed twenty-two
ounces. This was found at Micklow, in Ireland. Professor Olmsted,
now o f Yale College, but formerly a professor o f chemistry and mineral
ogy, in the University o f North Carolina, states, that Mr. Reid found at
his mine a mass o f white flint (quartz) having a projecting point o f gold
o f the size o f a pins’s head. On breaking it open, a brilliant display o f
green and yellow colors was presented, which was described as being
exceedingly beautiful. The gold weighed twelve pennyweights. W e
regret that these earlier and splendid specimens of the mineral wealth o f
the county, were carried abroad to decorate the museums and cabinets o f
other nations. They should have found a safe depository at home. W e
rejoice, however, to know, that our government now affords, at the mother
mint, in Philadelphia, a proper deposit for them ; and interest, if not pat
riotism, will, we trust, dictate to those in the region o f the gold mines,
who may hereafter find these specimens, not to destroy them. The
amount o f gold coined at Philadelphia, from North Carolina, up to 1843,
was $2,939,737. The amount coined at the branch, in Charlotte, North
Carolina, from the establishment o f the mint, in 1838, to 1843, was
$953,035. One merchant in North Carolina, states, that his purchases
o f gold, from 1828 to 1839, was nearly $300,000, as copied from his bul
lion accounts; and three-fourths o f it went to New York, and was there
assayed and sold. Another states, that his purchases, since 1828, have
averaged $6,000 per annum; and that he carried nearly all to New York,
and from thence it was sent to Europe. The reason assigned by these
gentlemen, for carrying their gold to New York, was, that the assayers
in New York gave an additional value, above the mint, for the purposes
o f commerce. The addition o f the premium, probably.
In 1830, in a report to the legislature o f North Carolina, it is stated,
that the product o f the mines, in that year, was $500,000. This state
ment was probably correct at the time, as we find, by the official report,
that the mint at Philadelphia coined from the bullion o f North Carolina,
in 1832, $458,000 ; in 1833, $475,000 ; and, in 1834, $380,000. Colo
nel J. T . Avery, in 1840, in a letter to Mr. Wheeler, o f the mint in
Charlotte, estimates the total product o f Burke and Rutherford, alone, to
be $6,000,000 ; while, he adds, “ Mr. Forney and others, who lived among
the mines, estimated the gross amount at $12,000,000.” This is doubt
less, too high ; and the estimate o f Mr. Avery is probably nearer the
truth. The products of the mines have been gradually diminishing since
1835, when the high price of cotton drew off the greater portion o f the
64
The Gold Mines o f North Carolina.
force to the southwest. Mr. Wheeler, the gentleman before alluded to,
estimates the products o f the mines, in North Carolina, at $10,000,000
since their discovery; and their annual product, up to 1840, at $400,000.
It is not generally known, we believe, in the eastern states, that there
is a private manufactory o f coin in North Carolina. W e have seen some
o f the pieces, struck at the mint o f a Mr. Bechtler, o f Rutherford, North
Carolina, who has coined a large portion o f the gold produced in the
counties o f Burke and Rutherford. Mr. Bechtler states, that from Jan
uary, 1831, to February, 1840, he coined $2,241,840 50 ; and fluxed, (or
melted in bars,) 1,729,998 pennyweights. Much o f this bullion may have
been coined at Philadelphia ; but as it answered the purposes o f trade, at
the south, and the community having a just confidence in the purity of the
metal, much o f it is carried by travellers, emigrants, traders and others,
into Kentucky, Tennessee and elsewhere, that probably never found its
way to the United States mint. Mr. John K. Wheeler, the superintend
ent of the United States branch mint, at Charlotte, North Carolina, says,
but little o f it has been recoined at that mint, not over $500. Much o f
it is believed to be still extant among the farmers, not only in Tennessee
and Kentucky, but North Carolina, laid up, with prudent foresight, for fu
ture use.
The following statement, as to Bechtler’s coinage, is extracted from his
books, and may therefore be relied on as correct:—
C o in e d .
From
“
“
“
“
Jan.,
Dec.,
Dec.,
Aug.,
May,
1831,
1834,
1835,
1836,
1838,
to
to
to
to
to
Dec.,
Dec.,
Aug.,
May,
Feb.,
1834,
1835,
1836,
1838,
1840,
$109,732
695,896
471,322
770,239
194,560
F lu x e d .
50
00
50
50
00
$2,241,840 50
395,804 dwts.
711,583 U
397,410 (t
201,141 u
24,060 u
1,729,998
u
This, including a period o f nine years, would give an average o f
$250,000 a year, coined. If, to the coinage, is added the amount o f bul
lion fluxed, or melted by him, (1,730,000 pennyweights, at eighty cents
per pennyweight, which is its average assay here, equal to $1,384,000,)
it would show, that there passed through his hands alone, within this pe
riod, $3,625,840 o f gold bullion, the products o f the mines o f that region,
which would show an average o f more than $400,000 annually.
Mr. Wheeler gives the following tables, as the data, upon which the
opinion, we quoted above, is founded, “ that the total amount of gold bul
lion found in the gold region o f North Carolina, from the discovery of the
mines, amounts to $10,000,000 ; and the annual product, up to 1840, at
$400,000.”
Coined at the United States mints, to 31st Dec., 1 8 3 9 ,..
Amount of bullion passed through Mr. Bechtler’s hands,.
Bullion sold to manufacturers, sent to Europe, carried in
bars to the west, & c., & c .,.......................................
$3,000,000
3,625,000
3,375,000
$ 10,000,000
Data upon which the opinion is founded, “ that the annual product o f
the mines, at this time, is $400,000
65
Annals o f American Commerce.
Coined in 1839, at Charlotte branch m int,.....................
“
“
Philadelphia, (estimated,)..................
“
“
Bechtler’s, estimated from his books,
Bullion sold to manufacturers, sent to Europe, carried
west, & c., & c .,........................................................
$162,767 50
50,000 00
150,000 00
37,232 50
$400,000 00
Many o f the mines o f North Carolina, in their most productive state,
belonged to foreigners, or were leased by them ; the agents or managers,
were also foreigners, and the capital was from abroad. The agents, then,
often made prompt returns, by remitting the bullion direct to Europe.
This was the case with the Chevalier Revifinoli.
Mr. Rothe, a miner and mineralogist, from Saxony, in some notes on
the gold mines o f North Carolina, published in Silliman’s Journal, states,
that “ veins o f two feet in thickness, in other mining countries, have been
followed 2,000 feet deep with little or no variation.” He states, that the
veins in these mines are from two to four feet in thickness ; and, after a
careful examination, he concludes that these ores will compare with any
in Europe, and richer than those in Brazil. The greatest depth that any
shaft had been sunk in these mines, to 1840, was 175 feet, (the Charlotte
mine ;) the Capps mine to 163 feet.
A kt. IX.—AN N ALS OF AM ERIC AN CO M M ERC E*
NUMBER I.
1609. Voyage o f Hudson.— Henry Hudson, an Englishman, in the
service o f the Dutch, left Texel in the beginning o f this year, with a de
sign of penetrating to the East Indies by sailing a northwest course. Hav
ing attempted, in vain, he followed the track which the Cabots had mark
ed for him above a century before. He sailed into the river Manhattan,
and departed in October for England. The Dutch sent ships, the next
year, to open a trade with the natives.
1616. Tobacco, was about this time, first cultivated by the English in
Virginia.
Ships sent to New England.— Four ships sailed from London, and four
from Plymouth, (England,) to New England, whence they carried great
quantities o f fish and oil, which were sold advantageously in Spain and
the Canary islands.
1618. Virginia Exports.— The only commodities exported from V ir
ginia, at this time, were tobacco and sassafras ; the labor o f the planter
was diminished, and the agricultural interest advanced, by the introduc
tion o f the plough.
* In the compilation of these Annals of American Commerce, we have consulted only
the best and most authoritative sources, so numerous, that we have thought best to omit
them altogether, as they would only serve to encumber our pages with a repetition of
names and titles, and occupy almost as much space as the facts selected for publication,
which embrace brief notices of almost everything to be found touching the history and
progress of trade and commerce, in this country, during its colonial dependence on Great
Britain, and since the establishment of a republican form of government.— [ E d . M e r
c h a n ts’
M
a g a z in e .]
VOL. X I.— NO. I .
9
06
Annals o f American Commerce.
1619. Tobacco.— King James prohibited the sale o f tobacco, in gross
or retail, either in England or Ireland, until the custom should be paid
and the royal seal affixed. Twenty thousand pounds o f tobacco were
exported this year, from Virginia' to England, the whole crop o f the pre
ceding year.
1621. Parliamentary Acts respecting Tobacco.— The English parliament resolved, “ that all foreign tobacco shall be barred, but that o f V ir
ginia, or any o f the king’s dominions, shall not be held foreign.” A bill,
for the restraint o f the inordinate use o f tobacco, was soon after brought
in, which, after various amendments, passed in May. Its requisitions are
very remarkable. No tobacco was to be imported after the 1st o f Octo
ber, 1621, but from Virginia and the Somers isles, and, after that day,
none was to be planted in England. There was to be paid to the king,
for custom, sixpence a pound, in consideration o f the loss he might sustain
in his revenue. None was to be sold by the merchant for more than
eight shillings the pound, but they who should sell tobacco by the pipe,
might make the most they could. This is the first instance, which occurs,
o f the modern policy o f promoting the importation o f the colonies in
preference to the production o f foreign nations.
1622. Wine and Tobacco.— The tobacco exported from Virginia to
England, on an average, for seven years previous to 1622, was 142,085
pounds a year. W ine, made in Virginia, and a specimen o f it sent to
England.
Fishery.— Thirty-five ships sailed this year from the west o f England,
and two from London, to fish on the New England coasts, and made profit
able voyages.
Restraint on the Trade to New England.— The Plymouth company
having complained to King James o f the encroachments and injuries
o f interlopers on their American commerce and possessions, and ap
plied to him for relief, the king issued a proclamation, commanding that
none should frequent the coasts o f New England, but the adventurers and
planters, or traffic with the Indians, otherwise than by the license o f the
council o f Plymouth. “ This remarkable edict,” says Chalmers, “ far
from proving beneficial to the company, really brought on its dissolution.”
1624. Fishing.— About fifty English ships, came in the spring o f this
year, to fish on the coasts o f New England.
1626. Newfoundland Fishery.— The coast o f Newfoundland, for most
o f the late years, was frequented by two hundred and fifty sail o f English
vessels, estimated at 15,000 tons, employing 5,000 persons, and an annual
profit o f about £135,000 sterling.
1627. Trade o f Plymouth Colony.— The governor and others, hired
the trade o f the colony for six years ; and for this privilege, together with
the shallop and the pinnace built at Monamet, undertook to pay £1,800
and all other debts o f the planters; to bring over to them £ 5 0 a year, in
hoes, shoes, and sell them for corn at six shillings a bushel; and, at the
end o f the term, return the trade to the colony.
1628. Dutch Trade with Plymouth.— A Dutch bark, from Manhattan,
arrived at Plymouth. The people o f Plymouth bought various goods.
After this commencement o f trade, the Dutch often sent goods to the same
place, and a traffic was continued for several years. The Plymouth colo
nists, sold much tobacco for linens, stuffs and other articles, and derived
Annals o f American Commerce.
67
great advantage from this commerce until the Virginians found out the
Dutch colony.
1631. Com made a Legal Tender.— In Massachusetts colony, the
court of assistants ordered, that corn should pass for payment o f all debts
at the usual rate for which it was sold, unless money or bearer were ex
pressly named.
1633. Trade in Connecticut.— Several vessels went into the Connec
ticut river, in the course o f the year, to trade.
1639. Act to Encourage the Fishery.— The legislature o f Massachu
setts passed an act, to free from all duties and public taxes, all estates em
ployed in catching, making or transporting fish.
1641. Trading House at Narraganset.— Richard Smith purchased o f
the sachems, a tract o f land in the Narraganset country, remote from the
English settlements, erected a house of trade, and gave full entertainment
to all travellers.
1642. Traaing House at the Delaware.— The people o f New Haven,
intending to make a plantation at Delaware, sent agents, who purchased
o f the natives several tracts o f land on both sides o f Delaware bay or
river, and erected a trading house. Kreft, the Dutch governor at New
Netherlands, without any legal protest or warning, sent armed men to the
Delaware, who burned the trading house and seized the goods.
Iroquois Trade with the Dutch.— The Iroquois entered into a consider
able commerce with the Dutch, at New Netherlands, to whom they dis
posed o f their peltry, and who, in return, furnished them with firearms,
by which means they obtained a decided superiority over the Hurons.
1645. Impost on Wines, dfc.— The general court o f Massachusetts,
levied an impost on wines and strong liquors, for the support o f govern
ment, the maintenance o f fortifications and the protection o f the harbors.
Iron Works at Lynn.— The general court o f Massachusetts, this year,
granted liberty to make iron. A work was set up in Lynn, and, for a
considerable time, was carried on with spirit, but, at length, through
some fault, failed.
Virginia Currency.— The legislature o f Virginia, prohibited dealing
by barter, and established the Spanish piece o f eight, at six shillings, as
the standard currency for that colony.
1646. Impost on Exports from Connecticut.— In an agreement made
in 1644, between George Fenwick and agents of the colony o f Connec
ticut, it was stipulated, that a certain duty on corn, biscuit, beaver and
cattle, which should be exported from the river’s mouth, should be paid to
Fenwick for the space o f ten years. This agreement was confirmed, the
succeeding year, by the legislature, which, at the same time, passed an
act imposing a duty o f twopence per bushel on all grain, sixpence on
every hundred weight o f biscuit, and a small duty on all beaver exported
from the mouth o f the river during the same period.
Commercial Ordinance.— By an ordinance o f the lords and commons o f
England, all merchandise, goods and necessaries, for the American plan
tations, were exempted from duty for three years, on condition that no
ship or vessel, in any o f the colonial ports, be suffered to land any goods,
o f the growth o f the plantations, and carry them to foreign ports, except
ing in English bottoms. This was the foundation o f those subsequent
navigation acts, which have been termed “ the Commercial Palladium o f
England.”
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Annals o f American Commerce.
1647.
Trade with the West Indies.— A trade was opened this year,
between New England and Barbadoes, and other islands in the West Indies, which was profitable to the colonists and helped them to discharge
their engagements with England.
1651. Navigation Act.— The parliament o f England passed the fa
mous navigation act. England now turned its attention towards the most
effectual mode o f retaining the colonies in dependence on the parent state,
and o f securing to it the benefits o f their increasing commerce. With
these views, the parliament enacted— “ That no merchandise, either o f
Asia, Africa, or America, including also the English plantation there,
should be imported into England, in any but English built ships, and be
longing either to England, or English plantation subjects, navigated also
by an English commander, and three-fourths o f the sailors to be English
men, excepting such merchandise as should be imported directly from the
original place o f their growth or manufacture, in Europe, solely; and
that no fish should, thenceforward, be imported into England or Ireland,
nor exported thence to foreign ports, nor even from one o f their own
home ports, but what should be caught by their own fisheries only.” This
act, was evaded at first by New England, which still traded in all ports,
and enjoyed a privilege peculiar to themselves, o f importing their goods
into England, free o f customs. It was afterwards a source o f difficulty
to the colony.
1652. First Mint in Massachusetts.— The first mint was erected in
N ew England for coining money. The money coined, was in shillings,
sixpences and threepences. The law enacted, that “ Massachusetts” and
a tree in the centre, be on one side, and “ New England” and the year
o f our Lord, and the figures XII., V I., III., according to the value o f each
piece, be on the other side. The several coins had N. E . on one side,
and the number, with the year 1652, on the other. This date was never
altered, though more coin was stamped annually for thirty years.
1655. Change in the Virginia Currency.— The Virginia legislature
changed the Spanish piece o f eight from six shillings, and established it
five shillings sterling, as the standard o f its currency.
1660. Navigation Act Altered and Confirmed.— The celebrated navi
gation act o f 1651, continued, with additions. It enacted, that no sugar,
tobacco, ginger, indigo, cotton, fustic, dying-woods, o f the growth o f the
English territories in America, Asia or Africa, shall be transported thence
to any other country, than those belonging to the crown o f England, un
der the penalty o f forfeiture; and all vessels sailing to the plantations
were to give bonds to bring said commodities to England. The most
submissive colonists considered the act as grievous, and contrived various
methods to evade it. While the parliament restrained the colonial trade
to England, it conferred the privilege o f the sole production o f tobacco
to the plantations.
1662. Law Establishing a Mint in Maryland.— The assembly o f Mary
land besought the proprietary to take order for setting up a mint, and a
law was passed for that purpose. “ The great hindrance to the colony,
in trade, for the want o f money,” is assigned as the reason for the meas
ure. It was enacted, that the money coined, shall be o f as good silver
as English sterling; that every shilling, and so in proportion for other
pieces, shall weigh above ninepence in such silver; and that the proprie
tary shall accept o f it in payment o f his rents and other debts. This
Annals o f American Commerce.
69
eoin, being afterwards circulated, the present law was confirmed among
the perpetual laws of Maryland, in 1676. This is the only law for coin
ing money, which occurs in colonial history, previous to the American
revolution, excepting the ordinance o f Massachusetts, in 1652.
1663. Act o f Parliament, Engrossing the Colonial Trade.— An act o f
parliament was passed, to monopolize the colonial trade for England. It
prohibited the importation, into any o f the English colonies, in Asia, Af
rica or America, of any commodities o f the growth, production or manu
facture, o f Europe, except they were laden or shipped in England, Wales
or the town o f Berwick upon Tweed, and in English built shipping, and
which were to be carried directly to the said colonies, with an exception
o f salt for the fisheries, wines from Madeira and Azores, and all sorts o f
victuals from Scotland and Ireland. By this act, the British colonist could
obtain no European goods, but through the ports in England. A draw
back o f the duties, however, was generally allowed on the exportation o f
those goods to the colonies.
1665. Massachusetts Shipping.— The number o f its ships and vessels,
was about eighty, from twenty to forty tons; about forty, from forty to
one hundred tons; and about twelve ships, above one hundred tons.
1669. Hudson’s Bay Company.— Charles II. gave to Prince Rupert,
and several lords, knights and merchants, associated with him, a charter,
under the title of “ The governor and company o f adventurers, o f England, trading into Hudson’s Bay.” The charter ceded to the company,
the whole trade o f the waters within the entrance o f Hudson’s straits, and
o f the adjacent territories. The entire sum which constitutes the original
funds of the company, amounts to £10,500 sterling. The general opin
ion, in Forster’s time, was, that the proprietors o f this stock, who were
not then ninety in number, gained about 2,000 per cent.
1671. Commissioners o f Trade and Plantations.— A board o f commis
sioners o f trade, & c., was established at London. The first thing done,
was to settle the form o f a circular letter to the governors o f all his maj
esty’s plantations and territories, in the West Indies and islands belong
ing to them. What the board most insisted on, was, to know the condi
tion o f New England, whose spirit o f liberty, with her power and influ
ence, seem already to have excited the jealousy o f the parent country.
Evelyn, himself, one of the board, says : “ What we most insisted on, was
to know the condition o f New England, which, appearing to be very in
dependent as to their regard to England or his majesty, rich and strong
as thej- now were, there were great debates in what style to write them,
for the condition o f that colony was such, that they were able to contest
with all other plantations about them, and there was a fear o f their break
ing from all dependence on this nation.”
1672. Duties laid by Parliament on the Colonies.— The commerce o f
the American colonies had already been regulated and restrained by the
parliament o f England. The parliament, considering the colonies as
proper objects o f taxation, enacted, that, if any vessel, which by law may
trade in the plantations, shall take on board any commodities, and a bond
with sufficient security, shall not have been given to unlade them in Eng
land, there shall be rendered to his majesty, for sugars, tobacco, ginger,
cocoa-nut, indigo, logwood, fustic, cotton, wool, the several duties men
tioned in the law. The duties o f tonnage and poundage had been im
posed, and extended to every dominion of the crown, at the restoration;
70
Annals o f American Commerce.
but this was the first act which imposed customs on the colonies alone, to
be regularly collected by colonial revenue officers.
1676. Custom o f Tobacco in Virginia.— The whole custom o f tobacco
from Virginia, collected in England this year, was £135,000 sterling.
Maryland was probably included.
1678. New York Exports and Imports.— Its annual exports, besides
peas, beef, pork, tobacco and peltry, were about 60,000 bushels o f wheat.
Its annual imports were to the value o f about £50,000.
1681. Commerce and Customs o f Portsmouth.— During the year, end
ing with April, 1681, there were entered at Portsmouth, New Hampshire,
forty-nine vessels, from ten to one hundred and fifty tons burden. The
amount of the provincial customs, levied at that port during the same year,
arising from taxes on wines and liquors, and one penny a pound o f the
value on the first cost imported, was £61 3s. Id. This was money o f
the province, which was o f less value than sterling, thirty-three and onethird per cent.
1682. Trade o f Pennsylvania.— The regulation and improvement o f
trade and commerce, in Pennsylvania, already engaged attention. A
publication appeared this year, entitled : “ The Articles o f the Free So
ciety o f Traders in Pennsylvania, agreed upon by divers Merchants, for
the better Improvement and Government o f Trade in that Province.”
1683. Carolina.— T o remedy the distress felt, by want o f a common
measure o f commerce, the parliament o f Carolina “ raised the value o f
foreign coins,” and suspended all prosecution for foreign debts. The first
o f these acts, gave rise to the currency o f Carolina, which afterward b e
came extremely depreciated. The second, though at first confirmed by
the proprietaries, was afterward dissented from, “ because it was contrary
to the king’s honor, since it was, in effect, to stop the course o f justice ;
because the parliament had no power to enact a law so contrary to those
o f England.” They also issued orders, “ that all officers should be dis
placed who had promoted it.”
1686. New York.— The city incorporated by a charter. The ship
ping belonging to the city o f New York, had increased to nine or ten
three-mast vessels, o f about eighty or ninety tons ; two hundred ketches
or barks, o f about forty tons; and about twenty sloops, o f twenty.five
tons.
1690. First Paper Money in the Colonies.— The government o f Mas
sachusetts, issued bills o f credit as a substitute for money, and these were
the first issued in the American colonies.
1694. Annapolis made a Port Town.— The town o f Severn, Ann
county, in Maryland, was made a port town, and the residence o f a col
lector and naval officer, and received the name o f Annapolis.
1695. Rice in Carolina.— The planting of rice was introduced, about
this time, into Carolina.
1696. Shipping o f New York.— The shipping o f New York, at this
time, consisted of forty ships, sixty-two sloops and sixty boats.
Board o f Trade and Plantations.— King William erected a new and
standing council, for commerce and plantations, styled, the lords, commis
sioners for trade and plantations. With this board, the governors o f the
American colonies were obliged to hold a constant correspondence, for
the improvement o f their respective governments ; and to this board, they
Annals o f American Commerce.
71
transmitted the journals o f their councils and assemblies, the accounts o f
the collectors of customs and naval officers, &c.
1699. Wool Manufactures o f America.— Complaints being made in
England, that the wool and woollen manufactures o f North American
plantations began to be exported to foreign markets, formerly supplied by
England, a law was made, by which no person might export, in ships, or
carry, by horses, into any other place or colony out o f the king’s domin
ions, any wool or woollen manufactures o f the English plantations in
America, under forfeiture o f ships and cargoes, and also o f £50 0 penalty.
This is the first mention, in the English statute book, o f woollen manu
factures in the American colonies.
1700. Population o f Boston.— Boston, at this time, contained about
1,000 houses and above 7,000 souls.
1701. Duty Imposed by Carolina.— The assembly o f Carolina, impos
ed a duty o f three-farthings a skin, exported by residents, but double, if
sent out in English vessels.
Newfoundland Fishery, employed this year, one hundred and twentyone vessels, collectively, amounting to nearly 6,000 tons burden.
1702. First Paper Currency o f Carolina.— A bill, passed by the pro
vincial assembly, for stamping bills o f credit which were to be sunk in
three years by a duty laid upon liquors, skins and furs. This was the
first paper money, issued in Carolina. For five or six years after its
emission, it passed in the country at the same value and rate with the
sterling money o f England.
1703. Culture o f Silk in Carolina.— Sir Nathaniel Johnson, about this
time, introduced the raising o f silk into Carolina, but the planters fixed
on rice for their staple commodity.
1704. Rhode Island Tonnage Duty.— The legislature o f Rhode Island,
imposed a tonnage duty on all vessels not wholly owned by the inhabi
tants o f that colony.
Regulation o f Coins.— The American colonies, experiencing great in
conveniences from the difference in the value o f the same coin, Queen
Anne, to remedy the evil by a general medium, published a proclamation
“ for settling and ascertaining the current rates o f foreign coin, in her
majesty’s plantations, in America.”
1712. Bank Bills Issued.— South Carolina established a public bank,
and issued £48,000 in bills o f credit, called bank bills, to be lent out at
interest on landed, or personal security, and to be sunk gradually, by
£4,000 a year. Hewatt, says : “ Soon after the emission o f these bills,
the rate o f exchange and the price o f produce, rose, and in the first year,
advanced 150, in the second, 200 per cent.”
1713. Connecticut.— But one clothier in the colony. It had scarcely
any foreign commerce. Its principal trade was with Boston, New York
and the West Indies.
1714. The First Schooner is said to have been built about this time,
at Cape Ann, by Captain Andrew Robinson.
1715. Boston Lighthouse.— The legislature o f Massachusetts, passed
an act for erecting a lighthouse on Beacon Island, at the entrance o f Bos
ton harbor.
P ig and Bar Iron, began, about this time, to be made in Virginia.
1716. Exports from Mississippi.— Tw o ships went to France, richly
72
Annals o f American Commerce.
laden, from the river Mississippi; and these were the first which carried
over any merchandise from the Louisiana colony since its settlement.
Fish from Newfoundland.— From the Newfoundland fishery, there were
exported to Spain, Portugal and Italy, 106,952 quintals o f fish.
1717. New Orleans Founded.— In expectation o f great advantages
from the trade and commerce o f Louisiana, the French were zealous to
support this new settlement; and this year, accordingly, the foundation o f
N ew Orleans was laid.
The Trade o f Massachusetts, employed 3,493 sailors and 492 ships,
making 25,406 tons.
1718. Import Bill o f Massachusetts.— An import bill was passed by
the legislature o f Massachusetts, which laid a duty, not only on West In
dia goods and wines, but also on English manufactures, and a duty o f
tonnage on English ships. The duty on English goods, was 1 per cent.
Before the session in May, the next year, the governor received instruc
tions from the king to give all encouragement to the manufactures o f
Great Britain; and afterward received a reprimand from the lords jus
tices, the king being absent, for consenting to the duty on English goods,
& c. The court, on receiving official notice o f this reprimand, “ readily
acknowledged the exceptions taken to that clause in the bill, were just
and reasonable.”
1719. Lotteries Suppressed.— The legislature o f Massachusetts passed
an act for the suppression o f lotteries.
1720. Trade with the French Prohibited.— An act was passed, for
prohibiting the sale o f Indian goods to the French.
Tea began to be used in New England about this time.
Northwest Passage Attempted.— The Hudson Bay Company sent out
Captains Dwight and Barlow, with a ship and a sloop, for the purpose o f
making discoveries o f a passage to China, by the northwest parts o f
America, but they were never heard o f afterwards.
1722. Trading-House Erected at Oswego.— Governor Burnett, o f
N ew York, well acquainted with the geography o f the interior o f the
country, in order to get command o f Lake Ontario, as well for the bene
fit o f the trade and the security o f the friendship o f the Six Nations, .as
to frustrate the designs o f the French, erected a trading-house at Oswego,
in the country o f the Senecas.
1723. Pennsylvania Paper Currency.— This province made its first
experiment o f paper currency. It issued, in March, £15,000. It made
no loans, but on land security, or plate, deposited in the loan office ; oblig
ed the borrower to pay 5 per cent for the sums they took ; made its bills
a tender in all payments, on pain o f confiscating the debt, or forfeiting
the commodity ; imposed penalties on all persons, who presumed to make
any bargain or sale, on cheaper terms, in case o f being paid in gold or
silver; and provided for the gradual reduction o f the bills, by enacting
that one-eighth o f the principal, as well as the whole interest, should be
annually paid. The advantage o f this emission, together with the in
sufficiency o f the sum, induced the government, in the latter end o f the
year, to emit £30,000 more on the same terms.
1724. Trade o f Carolina.— There were, this year, imported into
South Carolina, four hundred and ninety-three slaves ; also, British goods
and manufactures, to the amount o f between £50,000 and £60,000
sterling.
A rt and Science A pplied to Commerce.
73
A rt . x — a r t a n d s c ie n c e a p p l ie d t o c o m m e r c e .
NUMBER I.
T he intimate connection o f art and science, with commerce, is too well
understood, at this period, to require apology for introducing to our readers,
under the above general head, as we propose to do from time to time, such
statements and facts as bear upon the improvements and discoveries made
in the manufacture o f the various articles known in commerce. W e pro
pose, therefore, to lay before our readers every advance made in art to
produce new articles, or improve the quality or manufacture o f those al
ready forming the almost unnumbered commodities o f trade in the com
mercial world. The facts, however, derived from recent and authentic
sources, as collected and arranged below, will best illustrate our design.
I.— CHINESE ADULTERATION OF GREEN TEAS.
Mr. R. Warington read before the Chemical Society, as we learn from the London
Athenaeum, some observations on the green teas of commerce. On submitting a sample
of green tea, supposed to be spurious, and which had been seized by the excise, to micro
scopic investigation, the author found that the variation of tints, which had led him to this
mode of examination, was dependent on adventitious substances, mechanically attached
or dusted on the surface of the curled leaves. The principal part of this powder was of a
white color, interspersed with particles of an orange, and of a bright blue. From the
abraded dust of this sample, obtained by agitation, some of these latter were separated,
and proved on examination to be Prussian blue. The orange portion was apparently some
vegetable color; and the white, and principal part, was found to contain silica, alumina, a
little lime and magnesia, and was probably kaolin, or powdered agalmahalite, more par
ticularly from the rubbed and prominent parts of the tea assuming a polished appearance.
A great variety of other samples of teas were submitted to examination, but in all cases
they were found to be faced with various substances to give to them the bloom and color
which is so distinct a characteristic of the green teas of commerce. The unglazed vari
eties appear to have had no blueing material applied. Very high qualities of glazed teas
have this facing, apparently tinted of a uniform pale blue before application ; while others,
still of high quality, and embracing the greater part of the samples examined, have both
the white and blue particles very distinct, the latter varying in its quantity in the low qual
ities, as twankay, being pretty thickly powdered. When this facing was removed, the
tea was found to be of a black color, but without the corrugated aspect presented by black
teas ordinarily, and which evidently arises from the higher temperature to which they are
subjected during the process of curing or drying. The substances separated from these
green teas were sulphate of lime, a material analogous to kaolin, and Prussian blue, to
gether with some yellow vegetable coloring body. It is evident that the whole of these
teas come to thi3 country in a dressed or adulterated state, and the onus of this should fall
on the right shoulders. The author concluded by quoting various opinions and observa
tions of persons long resident in China, by which his investigations are satisfactorily con
firmed.
II.—
CHEMICAL HISTORY OF SUGAR.
The following facts are derived from a paper recently read before the Royal Institution,
London, by Mr. T ownes, on the chemical history of sugar, as given in the London Athe
naeum :— Under the general term “ sugars,” a number of sweet vegetable principles are
included, more or less definite in their nature, and easily distinguished by their physical
and chemical characters. The chief of these are the following:—Cane sugar, the ordinary
VOL. X I.---- NO. I .
10
74
A rt and Science Applied to Commerce.
sugar of commerce ; grape sugar, the sweet principle of fruits; crystallizkble sugar, from
ergot of rye; mannite, or manna sugar; glycerrhizin, the sweet principle of liquorice root, &c. The chemical composition of mannite differs from that of the sugars proper,
inasmuch as it does not contain oxygen and hydrogen in the proportions to form water.
It i3 generally supposed that the sugar-cane was originally an inhabitant of the tropical
east—it was cultivated in Sicily before the time of the crusades. About 1420, it was car
ried by the Portuguese to Madeira. Its introduction to the West Indies and the Brazils
took place subsequently; and its cultivation has spread over nearly the whole of the re
gion of the tropics where the soil and climate are at all suitable. In the islands of the
British West Indies, the ripe canes are crushed by powerful machinery, consisting of a
set of three rollers, connected by cog-wheels; the juice is received into a large pan, mixed
with a little “ temper,” usually hydrate of lime, and rapidly heated to near the boiling
point The liquor is thus clarified, and the albumen always present separated in an inso
luble form. It is then rapidly boiled down to the crystallizing consistence, in a series of
open pans, heated by naked fires, and afterwards transferred to coolers to solidify. It is
lastly drained from the uncrystallizable portion, or molasses, and exported.
Professor Mitscherlich communicated to the Berlin Academy of Sciences, in 1841, a
beautiful experiment of Trommer, for the purpose of distinguishing between the two chief
varieties of sugar, and other bodies of the same class. It reposes on the fact that grape
sugar completely reduces the hydrated oxide of copper to suboxide, when heated with that
substance in contact with excess of alkali, which is not the case with cane sugar. It is
proposed to assay different samples of sugar in this manner—by dissolving a given weight
in water, mixing it with solution of sulphate of copper, and excess of caustic potash, and
heating the deep blue solution to the boiling point The quantity of red suboxide pro
duced might possibly then indicate the proportion of grape sugar present A series of spe
cimens of sugars of different qualities, thus treated, were upon the table, and the increasing
proportion of red oxide with the coarseness of the article was very evident. The wilful
adulteration of raw sugar by pale-colored, but comparatively worthless grape-sugar, made
for the purpose on a large scale, from potato-starch, was lastly mentioned, and condemn
ed as a cruel fraud, pressing heavily upon the poor.
III.---- IMPROVED PAPER-HANGINGS.
The Secretary of the Society of Arts, in London, recently read a short paper on his
proposition for rendering paper-hangings intellectually useful, by introducing historical,
biographical, chronological, and other information, in such way as to form part of the
pattern; or where required especially for use, without regard to ornament, the writing to
be inserted in panelled patterns. Several designs were hung up in the room, to illustrate
the subject Mr. Whishaw proposes three different ways of effecting this desirable object:
First, by cutting the inscriptions (likely to be extensively used) on wooden blocks, as the
ordinary patterns. Secondly, by introducing moveable types, inserted into a frame, so ar
ranged as to form a substitute for one of the numerous blocks usually required. Thirdly,
to print all the pattern in the ordinary way, excepting such spaces as are required for the
inscriptions, which may be inserted by hand, to suit the particular taste of individuals.
IV.— BUTTONS FROM CLAY.
It is stated in Chambers’ Edinburgh Journal, that the principle of forming Mosaic tes
serae by the pressure of dry powder, has been applied to the manufacture of various kinds
o f buttons. They are called agate buttons, and are made of kaolin, or China clay,
brought from the neighborhood of St Austell, in Cornwall. This kaolin is the same as
the celebrated pottery clay of the Chinese, which is obtained from disintegrated granite.
The buttons are pretty and clear in appearance, and very hard. They are manufactured
Monthly Commercial Chronicle .
75
in all shapes and sizes, plain and ornamented; and, as compared with the cost of motherof-pearl, are said to be about one-third the price.
•
V.---- NEW METHOD OF IMPORTING QUICKSILVER.
A specimen has been shown, in Edinburgh, of the convenient and economical manner
in which quicksilver is imported from China. It i9 poured into a piece of bamboo, about
a foot long, and three inches thick, and each end is closed with rosin. This rude fonn of
package is quite as serviceable as the iron bottle in which the metal is usually brought.
VI.---- IMPROVED SUGAR FROM BEET-ROOT.
W e learn, from the London Athenaeum, that M. Dumas recently gave a sketch of an
improvement in the method of extracting sugar from beet-root, suggested and employed
at Valenciennes by M. Schuzenbach. He did not feel himself a3 yet authorized to di
vulge the details of the .process; he therefore merely touched upon it generally, showing
that, by a new process, the whole (within a hundredth part) of the crystallizable sugar held
in solution in beet-root juice, can be converted directly into double-refined sugar. From
the variety of sugar called bonne quatrieme, eighty, and sometimes ninety per cent, of
double-refined, is produced—in short, the method is as efficient as the most careful che
mical analysis. The products, however, of the manufactory conducted on M. Schuzenbaclr s principles, are only two— loaf sugar, perfectly white, and molasses so thick as to be
fit only for distillation. All the intermediate qualities have disappeared.
VII.---- ACETIC ACID FROM CANE SUGAR.
M. Blondeau de Carolles announces an experiment which has proved to him that cane
sugar may be directly transformed into acetic acid, under the influence of caseum, with
out losing or gaining anything, solely by a new molecular arrangement. This conversion
of sugar and cheese into acetic acid, by merely mixing them in certain proportions, and
allowing them to remain for a certain time, is so easy, that possibly the process may be
adopted in the arts, and especially as acetic acid may be thus produced at a much cheaper
rate than wine-vinegar.
MONTHLY COMMERCIAL
CHRONICLE.
T he spring business has been brought nearly to a close, and has, thus far, been a very
successful one. Prices of manufactured and imported produce have been well maintain
ed, at rates higher than for some time previous. Money, which had risen temporarily in
value under the pressure of business, the speculations in stocks, and the efforts of banks
to obtain higher rates of interest, has gradually been becoming cheaper, as the spring
business approached its close, and the business paper maturing exceeded that created and
offered for discount Good paper is now discounted as low as 3 £ a 4 per cent. The
market has, in some degree, been affected by the condition of the cotton market. In
former numbers, we noticed the great rise in price which had been effected under the
great speculations going on in that article, on the strength of a short crop. Those high
prices, without a corresponding advance in the value of manufactured goods, produced a
combination abroad to reduce the quantity of the raw material taken for consumption— a
circumstance which, in connection with the continued large receipts, proved effectual in
breaking speculation; and prices have fallen heavily, up to the arrival of the steamer of
June 4th. Many failures occurred in consequence of this revulsion, but very unimpor
tant when compared with the disasters which attended similar speculations in former
years, when a large portion of the business turned on bank credits. Many cotton bills
76
Monthly Commercial Chronicle.
were returned, and some degree of distrust was created among remitters; many of whom
preferred specie at a higher cost, although good bills could be had at 9 per cent, while
city-drawn bills commanded 9J per cent premium. Some considerable amounts of specie
were shipped to Europe, and sums equally as large have come forward from the south.
There seems now to be a feeling prevalent, that cotton has touched its lowest point The
condition of the market in England is exceedingly healthy, and the stock here has been
rapidly reduced of late, both in consequence of foreign demand, and that for home con
sumption ; for which latter purpose, unusually large quantities have been taken. The pro
gress of the crop for three years, from Sept 1st, to June 12th, has been as follows:—
C o t t o n C hop
of t h e
U
n it e d
S tates,
S ept.
fhom
1,
1842 .
to
Ju ne
12.
1841.
1844 .
Stock, Sept. 1,................................ ........
Receipts,.................................................
Bales.
72,479
1,622,998
Bales.
31,807
2,289,951
Bales.
94,486
1,932,331
Supply,....................................................
Export,....................................................
1,695,477
1,302,040
2,321,758
1,851,108
2-,026,817
1,395,385
Balance,...................................................
Deduct stock, June 12,..........................
393,437
157,736
470,650
203,385
631,432
296,736
Consumed in United States,....
235,701
267,265
334,696
It has been stated that the bales this year are about 10 per cent heavier than last year,
which would give an immense home consumption. A great quantity has also been taken
by the manufacturers direct from plantation, which has not appeared in the receipts at the
seaports. Should the manufacturers buy in the same proportion to the close of the year
as they have thus far, their consumption will be 407,000 bales, against 325,000 bales last
year— an increase of 25 per cent. The increased consumption in England has actually
been large; although, from circumstances above alluded to, the quantity purchased in the
last few months, by the Manchester spinners, has been less than last year. The home
market of England, consequent upon low prices of food and abundance of money, has
been very active, and the export trade greater than ever. Under these circumstances, the
stocks of yarns and goods in the hands of manufacturers must have become greatly re
duced ; while the export of the raw material, from the United States to Great Britain, has
been 330,000 bales, or 25 per cent less than last year, and the stock in this market is only
93,000 bales less than last year. In the absence of speculation, therefore, the prospects
for the planters were never more promising; more especially that prices of supplies in
this country, with all other articles that enter into the cost of production, are so cheap.
This position of the cotton market is producing a very favorable impression upon the face
of the markets generally; because fair profits, derived from the important staple of cot
ton, are always evinced in the stimulus given thereby to every branch of industry through
out the Union.
All branches of industry, throughout the Union, are thriving in an eminent degree— a
fact which is apparent in the returns of public works, as seen in the following table:—
R e c e ip t s
on
P u b l ic W
Western Railroad, January to June 1,
Schen’dy and Troy, April 1 to June 1,
Tonawanda, January to June 1,.........
Reading, January to June 1,...............
New York and Erie,...........................
Norwich and Worcester, Jan. to June,
Pennsylvania Canal, Del. Div., March
to June,.............................................
orks in t h e
U
n it e d
S tates.
1841.
1844 .
$173,959
2,387
12,261
43,875
10,483
45,563
$230,903
5,464
28,660
114,122
17,804
76,286
9,330
20,384
Increase.
$56,994 or 32 per ct.
“
3,077 125
it
16,503 133
((
70,246 172
4,321
33
4(
30,722
75
11,053
120
U
Monthly Commercial Chronicle .
R
eceipts o f
P u b l ic W
orks in th e
U
n it e d
S t a t e s .—Continued.
1841.
Ohio Canals, November to May,........
Erie Canal, 53 days,............................
Georga Central Railroad, August 1 to
March 1,...........................................
77
1844 .
$88,729
548,251
$172,659
670,690
116,420
197,176
Increase.
1,929
95 per ct.
25
122,438
80,756
75
“
This large increase in the amount of money received, has been in the face of important
reductions in the rates of fare, and is illustrative of the enormous quantities of produce
pouring through the channels of communication to market, producing a great fall in the
prices on the Atlantic border. The following is a comparative table of prices of agricul
tural produce, for several periods, in the New York market:—
P rices
Dec.,
Cotton, upland, fair,
9 a
Beef, mess,............ $7 50 a
Beef, prime,............ 4 50 a
Pork, mess,............ 9 25 a
Pork, prime............ 7 00 a
Lard,......................
64 a
Butter,............
15
a
Cheese,...................
64 a
Hams, marked,.......
6 a
Flour, canal,.......... 6 2 5 a
Wheat,............ 130 a
135
Rye,.................
80
a
Corn,Northern,....
68 a
W ool, f. blood Mer.,
35 a
Tobacco, Kentucky,
5 a
Rice,....................... 3 25 a
of
P r o du ce
in
N
ew
Y
ork.
1841.
July, 1842.
Dec., 1842.
June, 1843.
June, 18449£
8 a
9
8 a
8£
74 a
7J
7£ a
7%
$8 25 $7 00 a $7 50 $6 00 a $6 50 $7 50 a $8 00 $5 00 a $5 25
5 25 2 50 a 3 50 2 75 a 3 25 5 50 a 6 00
3 00 a 3 25
10 00 7 75 a 9 00 8 50 a 9 00 9 25 a 10 50 8 50 a 8 56
8 00 5 25 a 6 50 5 50 a 6 50 7 50 a 7 62 6 50 a 6 56
8
64 a
74
64 a
7
54 a
6
54 a
64
17
10 a
11
10 a
13
7 a
9
8 a 12£
7£
64a
7£
6 a
7
5 a
6
3a
6
9
4a
5
7 a
9£
6 a
7
3£a
7
...
5 94 a 6 00 4 88 a 500 4 75 a 4 81 437 a 4 50
1 25 a 128
90 a 100
90 a
95
95 a 1 03
82
67 a
63
64 a
65
58 a
60
67 a 67J
70
53 a
60
50 a
54
53 a
55
50 a ..
38
28 a
37
27 a
30
27 a
30
38 a 40
9
3 a
6&
24 a
5
24 a
5
2a
6
3 37 2 50 a 3 00 2 50 a 3 25 2 12 a 2 30 2 75 a 3 25
This gives a very low level for prices as compared with the year 1841, which was com
paratively a year of considerable prosperity. It is probably true that, from the extensive
supply of produce consequent upon the more prolific yield of the western country, the
general money-value of produce should be less than formerly. It has usually been sup
posed by writers that wheat forms a much better standard of value than most other arti
cles, because the quantity which a given amount of labor will produce will vary less, in a
long run of years, than that of most other articles. That calculation, we apprehend, was
based upon the nature of the soil of Europe; which, being old, and much worked, and
of uniform richness, did not vary more in its yield than the fluctuating character of sea
sons would warrant When those lands, however, are exposed to the competition of the
prolific soil of our western states, the greater abundance of better grain yielded by the
latter, to the labor of the farmer, must reduce the general level of the money-value of
food, in the same manner that the discovery of the prolific mines of Potosi reduced the
value of silver throughout the world. This effect is the more marked when we conside.
the restricted nature of the currency of this country, as compared with former years.
The following is a table of the currency of most of the states, at the latest returns, and at
the corresponding period of the preceding year:—
R eturn
of
B anks
n ea r e st to
January, 1841
Circulation. Deposits.
Specie.
Georgia,..............
New Orleans,...•
South Carolina,. •
Ohio,...................
Indiana,...............
Illinois,................
Virginia,.............
Maine,..................
New York,..........
Massachusetts, - ••
Connecticut,.........
Pennsylvania,....
New Jersey.........
$5-518,822
6,443,785
3,008,514
3,584,341
2,865,568
3,105,415
6,852,485
1,754,390
15,235,056
9,112,882
2,724,721
7,080,120
2,099,069
$1,986,413
3,094,730
1,712,745
1,938,682
472,748
109,545
2,754,630
733,834
17,053,279
7,257,410
8,873,927
5,340,200
1,074,843
51,300,694
3,162,243
1,608,537
1,052,767
1,076,551
529,640
2,318,791
269,792
5,429,622
2,991,804
454,298
2,100,000
436,049
January.
January, 1844.
Circulation.
$3,672 470
1,4 s6.034
3,902,064
2,234 420
2,115,225
none.
4,875,239
3,606,663
16,335,401
9,219,267
3,628,569
6,022,268
1,578,635
Deposits.
$1,416,198
5,564,685
1,672,539
602,377
200,248
Specie.
$1,545,106
7,871,334
709,803
778,348
969,306
2,374*862
7,927,498
29,026,435
30.213 887
2,169,359
223,769
10.086,542
7,298,815
455,430
6,389,520
516,710
0
990,238
9,794 671
1,190,880
Monthly Commercial Chronicle .
78
R
e t u r n of
B anks
n ea r e st to
J a n u a r y .— Continued.
January, 1841.
Circulation. Deposils.
Specie.
Maryland.......... .
D. o f Columbia,...
Bank of Mobile,...
Bank o f Missouri,.
Bank of Kentucky,
Total,.........
$2,529,843
121,975
36,073
347,530
1,918,461
$74,332,050
$3,J36,979
653,386
961,569
332,909
394,564
$57,081,393
$1,556,026
245,629
303,048
509,527
481,530
$25,8126,547
January, 1844.
Circulation. Deposits.
Specie.
$1,647,559
557,239
124,031
1,073,090
1,796,300
$3,652,973
963,223
554,911
1,220,589
675,137
$44,806,414 $88,303,631
74,332,050 57,081,393
Increase,.....................................................................................................
Decrease,............................................................................
$29,526,636
$3,529,265
1,053,359
613,729
1,505,257
893,998
$46,910,650
25,826,547
$31,222,238 $21,084,103
.......................................
In 1841, the circulation was as three to one, of specie on hand. It is now less than dol
lar for dollar, showing that the currency now is actually less abundant than if there wrere
no bank issues. Notwithstanding which, it is very plenty in all the channel? of business,
showing that the import of $23,000,000 of specie was redundant; and that, as soon as it
becomes fairly active, a portion of it must again go abroad. The degree of activity pos
sessed by a currency determines, in a great measure, the quantity which is required for
the transaction of business. After a great expansion of paper money, and consequent re
vulsion, a degree of stagnation takes place in all the channels of business, and an indis
position on the part of those who have money, to spend it, that greatly diminishes the
active quantity in the market, necessary for the fulfilment of contracts as they mature. In
this state of affairs, money is brought into the country in large quantities, as last year, and
remains dormant for a length of time, until reviving confidence restores the animation of
the markets, calls money from it3 places of deposit, and gives an impetus to its circula
tion, which soon exhibits itself in an excess of quantity, that flows off to other countries.
When this operation is assisted by the emission of paper money in swelling quantities, the
effect produced is immensely greater. The evils arising from this action of paper money
have been so great, as to call for a thorough change even in England, the hot-bed of the
credit system.
In a former number, we made some remarks on the approaching renewal of the charter
of the bank of England. The project of the government for its renewal has been pro
mulgated by Sir Robert Peel, and it perfects a most important change in the state of af
fairs. The circuit tion of England, for many years, was of this description:— the issues
of the bank of England being a legal tender, and redeemable in gold, and the issues of
the private bankers, who were obliged to redeem only in the notes of the Bank of Eng
land. In 1826, joint stock banks were authorized; and in 1830, additional privileges
were given them. In the progress of events, the private banks were gradually merged in
joint stock banks. The issues of these latter soon began to influence the circulation to
an extent which took from the bank of England, in some degree, its power of influencing
the exchanges ; or, in other words, of reducing the currency when the export of bullion
showed the inflation to be too great. It was found that when, from a diminution of coin,
it became necessary for the bank to diminish its issues, the volume of the currency was
not thereby diminished, because the country banks eagerly availed themselves of the de
mand for money, occasioned by the contractions of the bank, to extend their issues; and
the export of coin w-as accelerated, until the bank was on the verge of bankruptcy. The
swelling volume of the paper, raising prices above the level c f those of countries with
which commercial intercourse is carried on, checks exports, and promotes imports, to an
extent which requires a balance to be paid in specie. Where the currency is simply spe
cie, the export of a portion diminishes the volume of the whole, and restores the equili
brium. This is the case with the island of Cuba; and the excess of import or of export
is so small, that no perceptible fluctuation in the island currency ever takes place. In our
number for October last, in an article on the commerce of Cuba, we gave a table of the
imports and exports of specie, as follows:—
Monthly Commercial Chronicle .
I m ports
and
E
x p o r t s of t h e
P re ciou s M
79
e t a l s to a nd from
C uba.
Imports.
Coined gold,...............
“
silver,.............
Coined gold,....... ........
“
silver,.............
Excess of imports,....
“
exports,....
1819.
1840 .
1841.
1842.
$1,497,408
709,770
$908,108
454,118
$595,780
185,859
$792,124
366,646
$2,207,178
$1,362,226
$781,639
$1,158,770
Exports.
$526,322
$850,858
874,945
526,778
$326,842
765,829
$154,055
1,136,605
$1,092,671
$1,290,661
311,032
131,891
$1,725,803
481,375
$1,053,100
209,126
.......
This import and export expresses all the fluctuation which takes place in the currency
of the island. The reverse has been the case in England; because, as fast as the bullion
goes abroad, paper is pushed out to take its place.
The government of England, in renewing the charter of the bank, has attempted to
approximate this result. The currency of the bank of England is now about £21,000,000,
and the issues of the English private and joint stock banks about £8,000,000. All these
banks issue, without reference to any fixed rule, upon their credit only. The capital of
the bank of England consists of near £11,000,000, due to it from the government. The
government, therefore, proposes that the bank shall be divided into two departments—one
of issue, and the other for the conduct of the regular business of banking; all the bullion
of the concern to be placed with the issue department, which shall place to the credit of
the banking department an amount of bills equal to the capital of £11,000,000, and se
cured by it, and also of £3,000,000 secured by exchequer bills; making £14,000,000
issued on securities, for the profit of the bank. Beyond this, the bank cannot issue bills
for its own profit, except to the amount of the bullion on hand. The private banks are
restricted to the issue of an amount of their notes equal to the average of their emissions
for the last few years, which would give a circulation equal to £7,000,000. The currency
will then be a fixed circulation of £21,000,000, and a fluctuating currency equal to the
bullion which may be in the bank of England. In order to illustrate this movement, we
will take a table of the circulation of the bank of England and the joint stock banks,
with the amount of bullion in the bank, and showing what would have been the state of
affairs had the new system been in operation in 1833:—
A
ctual
C urrency
of
E
n g l a n d , w i t h t h e a c t io n o f t h e
C ir c u l a t io n .
April, 1834,.
July, 1836,..
Jan, 1837,...
Dec., 1838,...
Dec., 1839,...
March, 1844,
N
ew
S ystem .
C ir c u l a t io n u n d e r N e w L a w .
B’ k o f Eng. County Bk’s.
Total.
Bullion. Fluctuating.
Fixed.
Total.
£19,091,000 £10,191,104 £29,388,104 £9,948,000 £9,948,000 £21,000,000 £30,948,000
17,899.000 12,202,196
30,101,196
7,362,000
7,362,000 21,000,000 28,362,000
17,422,000 12,011,697
29,433,697
4,287,000
4,287,000 21,000,000 23,287,000
18,469,000 12,225,488
30,694,488
9,362,000
9,362,000 21,000,000 30,362,000
16,732,000 11,422,445
28,154,445
2,887,000 2,887,000 21,000,000 23,887,000
21,471,000
8,459,889
29,930,889 16,011,000 16,011,000 21,000,000 37,011,000
This table embraces all the important fluctuations since 1833. In 1834-35-36, the cur
rency swelled to an extent which raised prices, on an average, 35 per cent; and, although
the harvest was good, produced an export of bullion that reduced the amount on hand
from near £10,000,000, in 1834, to about £4,000,000, in 1837. In that period, the bank
of England, aware of the danger, had reduced its currency about £2,000,000, or 10 per
cent. As that currency was withdrawn, the newly constituted joint stock banks expand
ed theirs to the same amount of bills, being 20 per cent of their circulation. Hence, there
was £150,000 more paper in circulation in 1837, after the immense contraction of the
bank, than there had been in 1834, when that contraction commenced. The drain of
80
Monthly Commercial Chronicle .
coin was unchecked, and the bank was obliged to denounce the American trade, precipi
tating the disasters which overtook this country in that year. It will be observed that,
had the new plan been in operation, the volume of the currency would have been re
duced from about .£31,000,000 to £25,287,000; a positive reduction of £6,000,000, or
20 per cent of the whole currency. It is evident, however, that this could not have taken
place ; because, before so large a reduction had taken place, the export of coin would
have been checked. As that was not the case, the bank resorted to the most destructive
measures to save itself; and the violence of its movement brought back the coin to its
vault, to be again carried away by a short harvest. In order to observe the practical
operation of the currency upon prices, we will take from Porter’s tables a statement,
showing the state of the currency, with the comparative prices of wheat, and of fifty ar
ticles of commerce, during the period of expansion. The rise in the value is calculated
per cent, upon the actual price of eftcli article in 1834, as follows:—
Years.
1833, ............
1834, ............
1835, ............
1836, ............
1836, July,....
1837, July,....
Currency.
£27,436,120
29.288,104
28,671,828
28,396,414
30,203,196
29,074,437
Bullion.
£8,983,000
9,948,000
6,741,000
7,076,000
7,362,000
4,750,000
Price Wheat. Price 50 art’les.
1.000
1.000
.916
1.099
.760
1.150
.666
1.255
.930
1.346
1.112
1.133
The prices of both wheat, and the fifty other articles, in 1833, are assumed as unity.
The harvests in those years were very abundant, and the price of wheat fell gradually,
until, in 1836, it was 66 per cent only of its price in 1833; being a fall of 24 per cent.
Fifty other articles, in the same time, had risen 25 per cent, and continued to advance to
35 per cent, in July, 1836. The bank, being at that time seriously alarmed, stopped the
credits of the three famous W .’s in the American trade, and curtailed vigorously. The
result was a general fall in prices, of 21 per cent, to the July of 1837. Wheat had, in
the meantime, advanced considerably, under the influence of a short harvest. The bul
lion in the bank, then, as seen in the first table, continued to advance up to December,
1838, and the circulation had again increased. The short harvest had then caused a de
mand for gold, which, in eight months, brought the concern to the verge of bankruptcy.
The distress created by the violent action of the bank to save itself, at that time, has now
scarcely passed away. The degree of distress is manifest in the low state of the country
circulation. These violent fluctuations, under the new law, will not occur; because its
action upon the currency will be so prompt and gradual, that the evil cannot reach any
great length before it is corrected;— whereas, under the old plan, the bank is forced to
the verge of ruin ; and then, to save itself, is obliged to bankrupt half the community, and
compel people to sell an immense quantity of goods for comparatively a small sum in coin.
During the past two years, it forced prices so low, that double the quantity of goods has
been given for £13,000,000 of bullion which it has acquired, than would have been the
case had prices been undisturbed by an unnatural action of paper credits. The necessity
for these violent contractions has arisen from the sudden demand for specie, to export in
payment of corn, at a time when the regular exports of goods, in consequence of high
prices, are scarcely sufficient to maintain the exchanges. The new scheme is intended,
by preventing any unnatural advance in prices, to maintain a proper degree of export.
Hence, in 1834-37, when the bank of England withdrew £2,000,000 of its circulation,
the vacuum was immediately filled by country issues. This cannot now be done. The
maximum of the country circulation is fixed at the average of the last few years of low
currency. When, therefore, the volume of the circulating medium is diminished by the
export of coin, the country banks will have no powder to counteract the movement. The
import and export of the precious metals will alone influence the amount of the currency;
thus establishing, in fact, a specie currency at the centre of the world’s commerce
Mercantile Law Cases .
61
MERCANTI LE LAW DEPARTMENT.
MERCANTILE
LAW
CASES.
M A S T E R S O F S H IP S .
master of a ship is the person entrusted with the care and management of it His
power and authority are so great, and the trust reposed in him is of so important a nature,
that the greatest care and circumspection ought to be used by the owners in the choice
and appointment of him. It appears, by the language of the ancient sea-laws and ordi
nances, that the master was formerly, in almost every instance, a part-owner of the ship, and
consequently interested, in a two-fold character, in the faithful discharge of his duty. At
present, it frequently happens that he has no property in the ship. The law of some coun
tries requires a previous examination of the person to be appointed to this important of
fice, in order to ascertain his nautical experience and skill; in other countries, he is liable
to be punished as a criminal if, having undertaken the charge, he is found incompetent to
the performance of it. In this country, the owners are left to their own discretion, as to
the skill and honesty of the master; and, although he is bound to make good any damage
that may happen to the ship or cargo by his negligence or unskilfulness, if he is of ability
to do so, yet he cannot be punished as a criminal for mere incompetence.— Abbott.
T he
seam en ’s
WAGES— SHIP RIGBY GROVE.
In the British Admiralty Court, (London,) February 21, 1843. In this case, the vessel
sailed from Hull, on the Greenland whale fishery, on the 6th of March, 1838, and on the
27th of June was jammed in the ice, and ultimately lost A portion of the cargo was
salved by the exertions of the mariners, and two other vessels. This was a suit by one of
the mariners to recover wages, and an allowance of Is. 9d. per tun of oil, as per contract.
The defence o f the owners was, that as no part of the ship had been salved, and no
freight had been rec^ved, there was no fund out of which the mariner could be paid, and
that he had had advances, to the full amount of his wages, simply, for three months. Dr.
Lushington said this was a case of importance as regarded the jurisdiction of the court,
and he should take time to consider his decision; and accordingly, on March 2, 1843, de
livered his judgment in this case. The vessel sailed from Hull, on the Greenland whale
fishery, on the 6th of March, 1838, and on the 27th of June was jammed in the ice, and
ultimately lost. A portion of the cargo was salved by the exertions of the mariners, and
two other vessels, carried to Holland, and sold. This was a suit by one of the mariners
to recover wages, and an allowance of Is. 9d. per tun of oil, as per contract. The de
fence of the owners was, that, as no part of the ship had been salved, and no freight had
been received, there was no fund out of which the mariner could be paid. The learned
judge observed that two questions arose in this case—first, whether the wages were due ;
secondly, whether this court had jurisdiction to entertain the suit, and decide upon the
claim. With regard to the latter and more important point, the result of the cases and of
*he law, as laid down by Lord Tenterden, was, that where there was a special contract,
the jurisdiction of the court of admiralty was ousted. What was or was not a special
contract, had not been clearly defined. In the Sydney Cove, Lord Stowell had rejected
an additional article, in a suit for wages, in which a contract was pleaded of a special
character; and, comparing the contract in that case with that in the present, he was of
opinion that this was a case in which this court had no jurisdiction. First, it was a spe
cial contract, which, as laid down by Lord Tenterden, ousted the jurisdiction of this court;
secondly, the principle had been acted upon by Lord Stowell; and thirdly, this being a
case of partnership, he (the learned judge) felt the difficulty to be this— that this court had
not the means of doing justice between all the parties.
82
Mercantile Law Cases .
seam en’s
WAGES— THE TWO SISTERS.
In the British Admiralty Court, (London,) August 2, 1843. Dr. Lushington gave sen
tence in this case, which was argued on the 7th of June, 1843. It was a suit by the mate
of the Tw o Sisters, to recover the balance of his wages, amounting to 28Z., which was
refused on the ground that he had forfeited the wages by deserting the ship, when homeward-bound, at Swansea, where she had touched on her voyage from Belize to London.
The learned judge was of opinion that, upon the evidence produced by the owners, he
could not pronounce that there had been a total, or even a partial desertion; and, although
he was of opinion that the seaman had acted with extreme impropriety, yet he could not
refuse to pronounce for the wages sued for, and, of course, with the costs.
se a m e n ’s
WAGES— THE RELIANCE.
In the British Admiralty Court, (London,) May 26, 1843. In this case, an objection
was offered to the admission of the summary petition of the widow of a seaman who was
lost in the Reliance, and for whose wages she now sued the wreck. Dr. Lushington held
that the wages were a lien upon the wreck, and that the widow was entitled to sue.
SALVAGE.
Salvage is an allowance made for saving a ship or goods, or both, from the dangers of
the sea, fire, pirates, or enemies; and it is also sometimes used to signify the thing itself
which is saved; but it is in the former sense only in which we are at present to consider
it. The propriety and justice of such an allowance must be evident to every one ; for
nothing can be more reasonable than that he who has recovered the property of another
from imminent danger by great labor, or perhaps at the hazard of his life, should be re
warded by him who has been so materially benefited by that labor. Accordingly, all mari
time states, from the Rhodians down to the present time, have made certain regulations,
fixing the rate of salvage in some instances, and leaving it in others to depend upon par
ticular circumstances.— Park.
*
SALVAGE---- TIIE QUEEN
VS
. THE
CAROLINE.
In the British Admiralty Court, June 7, 1843. The Caroline, a brig of three hundred
tons burthen, with a valuable cargo of general merchandise, (value with the ship upwards
of 15,000Z.,) left Liverpool on the 16th of January, on a voyage to the Cape of Good Hope.
The master, in his protest, stated that, from that day to the 20th, they had moderate
breezes from the south and southwest; that at half past four o’clock on the 20th, they
struck on a sandbank to the east of Wicklow Head; and at nine o’clock, finding that she
had seven feet six inches water in her hold, the master and crew, who had got into the
skiff and jolly-boat, left her in a sinking state, landing near Wicklow. On the following
morning, the vessel was discovered drifting in the Irish Channel by the Emily, a small
schooner of seventy-four tons, with a crew of six persons, bound from Liverpool to Terceira, and boarded. The hatches of the Caroline were open, the rudder was loose, the
lashing of the binnacle was cut, the binnacle was lying in the gangway, and some bottles
of spirits were on the deck ; but they found only two or three feet water in the hold. The
master of the Emily placed three of his five men on board the derelict, and accompanied
her to Holyhead in the Emily. Dr. Haggard and Dr. Twiss, for the salvors, asked for
a very liberal reward, on the ground of the large property salved, and the loss sustained
by the owners of the Emily, through her inability to fulfil the charter-party. Dr. Addams
and Dr. Harding, for the owners of the Caroline, admitted the value of the service; but
contended that it was not a case of exalted merit on the part of the salvors, by reason of
risk, labor, or skill. Dr. Lushington said, that as to the cause of the accident to the Caro_
line, the court had no information; but, if he took the account given by the master, the
property was in the most imminent danger, which was the reason assigned by the master
for quitting her. He must say that the salvors were entitled to very considerable credit
Mercantile Law Cases,
83
for the preservation of this valuable ship and cargo, if the vessel was in the state in which
she was represented to have been by those who abandoned her; and it was an arduous
undertaking for three men to navigate a vessel of three hundred tons in that state. If the
weather had become tempestuous, their lives might have been lost, as well as the vessel
and cargo. It so happened, that no very great labor or time sufficed to place the vessel in
a port of safety. She was a derelict; and, though the rule formerly was to give the salvors
in such a case a moiety of the property salved, this rule had been properly abandoned, and
the sum allotted depended upon the circumstances of the case; and, taking these into
consideration, he should allot 1,800/. to the salvors, apportioning it as follows:— 600Z. to
the owners, (including their losses,) 400/. to the master, 250/. to the mate, and 550/. to tie
three men and a boy.
CLAIM FOR SALVAGE SERVICES— THE ANN.
In the British Admiralty Court, July 25th, 1843. This was a claim by the owners,
masters and crews of the Marshal Bennett and Cyrus, two whalers, and also by the
owners, master and crew of the Australian Packet, against five thousand chests of tea,
and ninety bales of silk, part of the cargo of the bark Ann, for salvage sendees rendered
to that vessel, under the following circumstances:—The bark being on her voyage from
China to London, on the 14th of June, 1842, got upon a coral reef, near Samboangan, on
the southwest coast of the island of Mindanao, one of the Philippines. In this state, she
received assistance from the Marshal Bennett, and two boats from the Cyrus, whereby she
get off the reef, and was brought into Samboangan roads. The Spanish authorities evin
cing an unfriendly disposition, and refusing to allow the Ann to repair at that place, the
master agreed with the masters of the Marshal Bennett and the Australian Packet, (bound
to Sydney,) to convey her to the straits of Macassar, whence she might get to Sourabaya
or Java to repair. Accordingly, on the 23d of June, the three vessels sailed in company to
the straits of Macassar, where they arrived on the 14th July, and thence the Ann found
her way to Sourabaya, where she wa3 condemned, and her cargo was transhipped, and
sent to this country, where it was arrested in a cause of salvage. The value of the prop
erty was 30,000/. Dr. Addam3 and Dr. Bayford were heard for the two whalers; the
Queen’s Advocate and Dr. White for the Australian Packet; and Dr. Haggard and Dr.
R. Phillimore for the consignees of the cargo. Dr. Lushington allotted 1,200/. to the
Marshal Bennett, 300/. to the Australian Packet, and 200/. to the Cyrus.
C H ARTER -PARTY .
The term charter-party is generally understood to be a corruption of the Latin w’ords
charta partita; the two parts of this and other instruments being usually written, in
former times, on one piece of parchment, which was afterwards divided by a straight line
cut through some word or figure, so that one part should fit and tally with the other, as
evidence of their original agreement and correspondence, and to prevent the fraudulent
substitution of a fictitious instrument for the real deed of the parties. With the same de
sign, indentation was afterwards introduced; and deeds of more than one part thereby
acquired among English lawyers the name of indenture. This practice of division, howrever, has long been disused, and that of indentation is become a mere form. This instru
ment, when the ship is let at the place of the owners’ residence, is generally executed by
them, or some of them, (and frequently by the master, also,) and by the merchant or his
agent In a foreign port it must, of necessity, if it be by deed under seal, be executed
by the master only, and the merchant or his agent, unless the parties have an agent
resident in such port authorized to this purpose by deed, or letter of attorney under seal.-*Abbott.
CHARTER-PARTY OF AFFREIGHTMENT.
In the Court of Common Pleas, (British,) July 6th, 1843. Sittings at Nisi Prius, at Guild
hall, before Mr. Justice Maule, and a special jury. Miln and others vs. Little. This wras
an action upon a charter-party of affreightment, for neglecting to provide a full and com
84
Mercantile Law Cases.
p!ete cargo of East India dry-goods for the ship Amelia, over and above her provisions,
tackle, and furniture. The defence on the record was, that a full and complete cargo was
provided for the vessel. The plaintiffs are the owners of the Amelia, a vessel of two
hundred and forty-four tons burthen, per register, which the defendant chartered in the
year 1841. The Amelia made her outward voyage from London with three hundred and
sixty-three tons of coal on board; and, though she drew fifteen feet of water, she behaved
well during the voyage, and arrived quite safe in the port of Calcutta in the month of July,
1841. After she had cleared out, the captain sent to the consignees of the vessel, the
agents of the defendant at Calcutta, for a cargo to take back to London, and accordingly
about three hundred and forty tons weight of tallow and skins were placed in her hold.
The captain informed the agents that the Amelia would carry more ; but they replied that
the Amelia was already loaded so as to draw fourteen feet three inches of water, and that
if he persisted in taking in more cargo, the surveyors for Lloyd’s would not permit him
to sail except under protest, and that the insurance offices in Calcutta would probably not
accept the risk of the voyage. Under these circumstances, the captain sailed from Cal
cutta to London, the Amelia drawing fourteen feet four and a half inches; and, having
communicated with his owners, an action was brought for the breach of the charter-party.
Two gentlemen who were called for the plaintiffs gave it as their opinion that the Amelia
could have carried thirty tons more of heavy tons than actually composed her cargo;
while, for the defendant, it was stated by Captain Oakes, who surveyed the vessel before
she left Calcutta, in August, 1841, that if she had been more deeply laden than she was
at the time of her departure, she would in all probability have been obliged to put back
to Calcutta in a leaky state. Mr. Justice Maule left it to the jury to say whether, under
the circumstances, a greater tonnage of cargo could have been put on board than was ac
tually stowed in the hold of the Amelia when she left Calcutta. It was arranged between
the counsel that the damages, if the jury found for the plaintiffs, should be settled by the
parties themselves, or their professional representatives. The jury retired to consider their
verdict, and on their return stated that they found for the plaintiffs. Damages 125/., (at
the rate of 6/. 5s.) for 20 tons.
SPECIAL PAPER.
In the British Court of Exchequer, June 7, 1843. (Sittings in Banco.) Stringer us.
Campbell. Mr. Erie appeared for the defendant in this case, which was a special one,
arising out of an action on a charter-party; and from the statements of the learned coun
sel it appeared that his clients were the owners of a ship called the Marmion, and had
entered into a charter-party with the defendant for a voyage to Canton, just before the
troubles broke out between Captain Elliott and the representatives of his Celestial Majes
ty. On the arrival of the vessel at Hong-Kong, its further progress was delayed by the
well-known order or caution of the plenipotentiary, to the effect that no ship should pro
ceed up the river. Under these circumstances, after several weeks’ delay, the captain
came to an arrangement with the agent of the defendant at Hong-Kong, and delivered his
cargo at that place. The question of law, arising out of these facts, being whether the
defendant was answerable, under the usual clause for demurrage, for the loss of time
which had been so occasioned, Mr. Erie contended in the affirmative, and submitted that,
however unforeseen or uncontrollable the cause of that delay might have been, still its
consequences ought to fall on the charterer, who, by his contract, had bound himself to
make it good. The Attorney-General appeared on the other side, but was stopped in
his address by Lord Abinger, who, with the concurrence of the whole bench, gave judg
ment at once in favor of the defendant, it being their lordships’ opinion that no charterer
could be made responsible for any delay which might arise from a state of things such as
that relied on by the plaintiff. Judgment for the defendant accordingly.
85
Mercantile Law Cases.
PROVISIONS FO R EM IGRANTS.'
In the British Court of Exchequer, February 16, 1843. (Sittings at Nisi Prius, before
Mr. Baron Gurney, at Guildhall, London.) Morgan vs. Brynes.
The plaintiff is the captain and owner of the Robert Bruce, and the defendant is an
emigration agent, against whom this action was brought to recover divers sums of money,
expended by the plaintiff on behalf of the defendant. It appears that the defendant char
tered a portion of the Robert Bruce, for the conveyance of two hundred and sixty-seven
emigrants to New York in last year, it being part of the contract that the defendant should
find the emigrants in provisions. By the emigration act, parties so situated are bound to
see that the passengers are provided with certain quantities of provisions, calculated to
last for ten weeks, as the outside limit of the voyage; and, according to the same act, an
officer attended on board the ship before sailing from Liverpool, to exqjnme whether the
act had been complied with. The provisions were then examined, and passed as suffi
cient, while the plaintiff himself produced and signed a certificate that the requisite quan
tity of provisions was on board. Soon after this, the Robert Bruce left the port, and made
the best of her way across the Atlantic; but, meeting with bad weather, she had a very
long passage; and, after having been out nearly six weeks, it was found that the emi
grants were nearly starving, their provisions being all exhausted. Under this emergency,
the plaintiff put into Halifax, where he expended 451. in supplying the emigrants with
food, and there and at Boston incurred divers minor expenses on their account, to which
he now alleged the defendant was liable, under the charter-party. The defendant now
paid 201. into court on account of a portion of the latter items, and the questions now
raised were whether, in point of law, the defendant was liable to make good the outlay
for the goods at Halifax, and the balance of the claim brought against him. Mr. Baron
Gurney was of opinion that the defendant was liable, but reserved leave to move, and af
terwards left it to the jury to say whether the proper quantity of provisions had been ship
ped in the first instance, as required by law. If the jury should think that had been the
case, they would find for the defendant; but, as the provisions had all been expended
before six weeks, which ought to have lasted four more, it was difficult to say how that
could have been. As to the residue of the claim, that was not within the terms of the
contract, and the plaintiff could not recover for it. In conclusion, the learned judge ob
served that it was highly necessary, in such cases, that the public officers should discharge
the duty of examining into the state of the provisions with the utmost nicety; as, without
any intention, perhaps, to do wrong, it was clear that the greatest cruelty and hardship
might be inflicted, as in this case, on the emigrants; who, if left to themselves, might
often be tempted to go on board without proper supplies. He hoped, therefore, that this
case would be a warning for the future to all such parties. The jury, after a moment’s
deliberation, found a verdict for the plaintiff. Damages, 451.
T A R IF F —W O RSTED GOODS.
In the United States Circuit Court, New York, May, 1844.
Paton & Stewart vs. Ed
ward Curtis.
This was an action to recover back duty. The plaintiffs imported window cords, com
posed of worsted over twine, and some mohair goods, on which duty was charged, as
being woollens; it being contended, on the part of the United States, that if these goods
were not woollens, they were bindings, and that one of the articles was a manufacture of
hemp and tow, subject to duty. But the plaintiffs showed that the articles were well
known in trade as worsted goods, and not as woollen or bindings, or as a manufacture of
hemp and tow. Verdict for plaintiffs, for amount claimed.
Commercial Regulations.
88
COMMERCI AL R E GUL A T I ONS .
COMPEND OF TH E T A R IF F OF CUBA.
T he rates of duties in the following compend of the tariff are those imposed on impor
tations, in vessels other than Spanish, from the United States. The manner of ascertain
ing the amount to be paid, is as follows:—
Beef is valued at $9 per barrel.
100 barrels, at $ 9 ,.......................................................................
$900 00
3 0 } per cent on this amount,.......................... .................................................
One-seventh,........................................................................................................
One per cent,......................................................................................................
$276 75
39 53
2 77
Total amount of duty,.
$319 05
Importations from other than Spanish ports, in Spanish vessels, pay 6 per cent less duty
than quoted in this work, on the same valuations.
All liquors pay, over and above the duty quoted, 50 cents per pipe, 25 cents per half
pipe, and 12^ cents per demijohn, or dozen bottles, for the Orphan Asylum.
No Spanish vessel under sixty tons, or foreign vessel under eighty tons register burthen,
can import goods “ in deposit.”
Foreign products that have paid an import duty can be exported free. All vessels can
load with molasses at any of the outports of the island, if they first enter at an open port,
the consignee giving a bond that they will return to clear.
No allowance will be made on jerked beef, for damage, over and above 6 per cent if
from the United States, or 14 per cent if from South America, unless the beef.is so much
damaged as to be worthless, in which case it must be thrown into the sea, and duty paid
on the actual quantity imported.
A C
o m p e nd o f t h e
T
a r if f o f
C
Articles.
Ale, cask,...................
“ bottles,...............
Apples,....................... ........... bbl.
Asses, male,..............
U
“ female,...........
it
Barrels,......................
B eef,.......................... ........... bbl.
“ jerked,..............
“ smoked,............
Beans,........................
it
Beer, cask,.................
“ bottles,..............
Biscuit, box,............... ........ 6 lbs.
“
keg,..............
Bread.......................... ........... bbl.
Boards,......................
Bricks,........................ ............ M.
Butter,.......................
ii
Candles, tallow,.........
“
sperm,......... ...... “
((
Cheese,......................
a
Coal,..........................
u
Cocoa, Caraccas,.......
a
“
all other,....... .
tt
Codfish,......................
u
Cordage,....................
a
“
Manilla,......
tt
Cotton,.......................
u ba, w it h
T
Valuation.
$1
3
3
82
55
50
00
00
50
00
50
9 00
2 00
7 00
75
1 50
3 00
50
8 33
8 00
20 00
12 00
15 00
ares and
A
12 00
30}
24}
24}
30}
24}
24}
3 50
fixed.
5 00
13 50
24}
$ 7 12 J
30}
24}
H
avana.
Tares and Allowances.
30}
30}
24}
24}
24}
24}
30}
30}
30}
30}
30}
30}
30}
30}
30}
24}
30}
24}
32 00
11 00
12J
16 00
6 00
l lo w an ces m ade a t
Hate o f duty.
Custom-house allowances
for breakage, 6 per cent
on invoice.
This is on American jerked beef.
Tare, actual.
Breakage. 6 per cent.
Tare, 20 lbs. per barrel.
5 per ct. allowed for splits.
From the United States.
Tare, 16 per cent.
*
Tare, 10 per cent.
Commercial Regulations.
87
A C o m f e n d or THE T a r if f o f C u b a , w i t h T a r e s a n d A l l o w a n c e s , etc.— Continued.
Tares and Allowances.
Articles.
Valuation. Rate of duty.
Breakage, 6 per cent.
Cider, bottles,.............
30}
3 00
30}
Chairs of wood,................. “
20 00
“
of wood in shook,
not painted,........ “
30}
15 00
“
with cane seat3, and
p’nted and gilded, u
30}
31 00
“
with cushion seat3,. "
ad val.
30}
“
Mahog’y, with cane
((
seats,...........
30}
50 00
((
30}
“
rocking,.........
25 00
30}
4 00
Figs,.........................
fixed.
$10 00
Flour,......................... ........... bbl.
Gin, cask,..................
30}
62 50
“ jugs and bottles,,
2 25
30}
Breakage, 6 per cent.
24}
Grindstones,..............
1 50
Hams,........................
10 00
30}
Tare on canvassed hams,
75
30}
2 lbs. each.
Herring,............boxes of 100 fish
fixed.
$
6
00
H ogs,.........................
((
24}
2 00
Hhds. or casks,.........
30 00
24}
Hoops,....................... .............M.
150 00
30}
Horses, geldings,.......
Stallions and mares, free.
12 00
30}
Lard,................. .........
Tare, 16 per cent.
«
3 50
30}
Mackerel,...................
5 00
30}
Meal, Indian,............. ........... bbl.
24}
25 00
Tare, 12 per cent.
Nails, copper,............
((
7 00
24}
“ iron,................
Tare, 12 per cent.
6 25
24}
Oars,..........................
24}
8 00
Oil, sperm and whale,...quintals
Tare, 20 per cent.
4 00
24}
Onions,..................... 100 strings
2 50
30}
Paper, writing,.........
<«
30}
50
“
wrapping,.......
3 00
24}
Pitch,......................... ........... bbl.
14 00
30}
Pork,..:......................
10 00
24}
“ sides..................
1 50
30}
Porter, bbls.,..............
3 00
30}
Breakage, 6 per cent.
“
bottles,..........
2
50
24}
Potatoes,....................
6
00
30}
Custom-house
allows 11
Rice,..........................
fixed.
$ 2 50
Salt,...........................
per cent on tierces, and
3 75
24}
2 lbs. on sacks for tare.
Shingles,................... .............M.
15 00
30}
Purchasers are allowed
Shoes.........................
87i
24}
70 lbs. per tierce, and
Shooks, box,..............
U
1 00
24}
. nothing on sacks.
“
hhd.,............
10 00
30}
Soap, bar,.................
25 00
24}
Staves,......................
9 00
24}
Tallow,.....................
3 00
24}
Tar,...........................
87}
24}
Tea,...........................
25 00
24}
Tile........................... ..............M.
30}
18 00
Tobacco, chewing,...
(t
7 00
24}
Tongues, smoked,....
CUSTOM-HOUSE
RULES
AND
REGULATIONS,
FOR THE GOVERNMENT OF ALL VESSELS ARRIVING AT HAVANA.
All captains or supercargoes, the moment their vessel comes to anchor, must deliver,
immediately upon being visited by the custom-house boat, a manifest declaring his name,
that of the vessel, her tonnage, whence she comes, the number of bales, packages, and
every other article he has on board, or of which his cargo is composed, with their re
spective marks, numbers, and consignees. Twelve hours after delivery of the above mani
88
Commercial Regulations.
fest, no alteration or addition whatever can be made in the same—the said twelve hours
to run from six in the morning until seven in the evening, every day of the year, without
exception of festivals.
The captain or supercargo is required, before twenty-four hours have elapsed after the
delivery of the manifest, to present himself at the custom-house, and there take oath, in
presence of the collector and interpreter, declaring that what he has manifested is a true
and correct account of his cargo.
In case the captain does not present the manifest, and swear within the time abovementioned, he will incur a fine of one thousand dollars.
In case the captain or supercargo is unable to make out a manifest, or take oath, this
will be the duty of the consignee, or one of his clerks.
The twelve hours prescribed in the first regulation having elapsed, all packages which
have been omitted in the manifest will be confiscated, and the captain fined in double the
value of the same, according to the valuation prescribed by the tariff, well understood
that their value does not exceed one thousand dollars. In case their value should exceed
the above sum, and belong to the owner of the vessel, the captain, or the supercargo, the
vessel, freight, and all other profits, shall be confiscated.
Neither before nor after the delivery of the manifest, can anything whatever be dis
charged from the vessel without the permission of the custom-house. Should anything
be discharged, although it be of little value, or free of duty, the captain or supercargo will
incur a fine of one thousand dollars, with the confiscation of the goods thus discharged.
In case goods of one vessel lying in the harbor are transported on board of another
without the permission of the collector, the captain who has received them, and all those
who have assisted to transport them, will be fined in treble their value, and the goods
themselves will be confiscated, with the vessel or vessels in which they have been found,
together with the boats, launches, and all other things which have been employed in the
transportation of the same. ■
All goods that have been fraudulently disembarked, and seized by the custom-house
officers, will not only be confiscated, and fined according to the sixth rule, but will be im
mediately appraised by the custom-house appraisee; and if their value, at the highest
market price, exceed four hundred dollars, the vessel, with all her appurtenances, shall be
included in the penalty of confiscation.
I f any goods manifested for transit be discharged or introduced fraudulently, they will
not only be confiscated, but also the vessel, together with the boats and launches employed
in discharging the same.
Should a vessel discharge merchandise, be the quantity small or large, at a non-lieensed
port, said merchandise, as also the vessel and all her appurtenances, shall incur the penal
ty of confiscation.
All stores must be manifested, and if they appear to be disproportionately abundant,
such excess shall pay duty. All baggage, likewise, must be manifested; and, should fraud
be detected in them, they shall be subject to penalty, and those implicated in such fraud
shall pay thrice the value of the article.
Permission being obtained, the discharge of the vessel is to begin at dawn of day, at
the wharf, or any other place pointed out for that purpose. Goods requiring to be exam
ined, weighed, or measured, shall not be removed to any other wharf or place, without
permission from the collector, under pain of confiscation.
If, on the conclusion of the discharge, there should be found one or more packages
short of the quantity manifested, without an invoice of such packages having been pre
sented, and consequently without their contents being known, and the name of the con
signee, it will be understood that the captain or supercargo of the vessel has committed
fraud against the custom-house, and shall be fined two hundred dollars for each package
missing.
Commercial Regulations .
89
In the outward despatch, as soon as the vessel shall have finished loading, she shall be
visited and examined; and if merchandise be found on board exceeding the quantity
cleared, or fraudulently shipped, and without the knowledge of the custom-house, such
merchandise shall be confiscated, and the captain fined in thrice its value. But, should it
consist of gold, silver, tobacco, or cigars, of more than the value of four hundred dollars
the vessel and all her apparel shall be confiscated. All goods detected in the act of being
fraudulently shipped, shall likewise be confiscated.
No consignee shall despatch a vessel outward without her being first visited and exam
ined, under a penalty of one thousand dollars, which shall be exacted in the first instance ;
and for a second dr future infringements, an action shall be brought against him.
Should the captain or supercargo not have wherewith to satisfy such fines imposed on
him, and costs, the vessel shall be seized for the purpose, unless the consignee comes for
ward as security.
On and after the 1st day of January, 1844, the following regulations will be observed
in all the custom-houses of the island of Cuba:—
1st. Every box of sugar, exported in a Spanish vessel, shall pay 5 rials, (G2£ cents;)
and in a foreign vessel 6 rial*, (75 cent?,) export duty.
2d. Every quintal of cotfee, exported in a Spanish vessel, for a Spanish port, shall pay
3 rials, (37£ cents;) in a Spanish vessel, for a foreign port, 4 rials, (50 cents;) and in a
foreign vessel, for a foreign port, 4£ rials, (5G^ cents,) export duty.
3d. Molasses and rum shall pay no export duty.
4th. Vessels that take a full cargo of molasses, shall pay no tonnage duty.
5th. Foreign vessels that take more than 1,000 boxes of sugar, shall pay but G rials (75
cents) per ton, as tonnage dues. Spanish vessels, but 2£ rials, (31^ cents.)
6th. The same advantage, as named in the fifth article, shall be enjoyed by vessels that
take more than 2,000 bags coffee, or 300 pipes pure rum.
This is a very important movement as regards shipping; as it virtually reduces the ton
nage duty, formerly $1 50 per ton, to 75 cents per ton, on all vessels carrying more than
1,000 boxes, or on nearly all American shipping that comes to this port.
H ARBOR REGULATIONS OF TH E PORT OF HAVANA.
1. No vessel shall haul from one point to another without first obtaining permission from
the captain of the port; and the hauling must be done between sunset and nine o’clock
of the next morning, under the penalty of fifty dollars, it being understood that this rule
has no reference to vessels arriving, which shall be governed by rule 2,13, and 14. Nei
ther shall any vessel pass the shoals into the inner part of the harbor without a pilot—if
so done, pilotage shall be paid the same as if she took one.
2. As soon as the vessel is anchored, and her sails furled, she shall haul over to the
eastern shore, in order to leave the channel free—hauling by the other vessels until she
arrives at her anchorage. This ride is more urgent in case the vessel, from scant wind,
has anchored in the narrowest part of the channel; in which case, she must be removed
at once— and any captain who shall not do so upon being ordered, shall pay the pilot and
his crew for hauling the vessel to her anchorage. The captain, on landing, must present
himself to the captain of the port.
3. The captain of any vessel bringing powder, shall report the amount to the captain
of the port for the order of deposit; and any one that shall make any concealment shall
pay a fine of eighty dollars— it being observed that some captains, in order to improve
opportunities of hauling to the wharf, and others under pretence of having but a small
quantity, neglect to do so. Neither shall any one fire cannon, or discharge fire-arms in
the port, without the knowledge of the captain of the port, and permission from the com
mandant-general of the station.
VOL. X I.
•XO. I.
12
90
Commercial Regulations .
4. All vessels will put out their caboose fires at sunset, be they at the wharf or in the
stream. The cabin light may be maintained until gun fire.
5. No vessel shall receive or discharge ballast without written permission from the cap
tain of the port; neither shall any straw, sand, or dirt, be thrown into the water, under
penalty of fifty dollars; neither shall any tar, pitch, or other combustible substance, be
heated on board any vessel, under penalty of one hundred dollars.
6. All orders communicated to captains of vessels by the pilots must be obeyed, as they
emanate from the captain of the port.
7. In case any vessel should break adrift, and be in danger of stranding, or being lost
or injured through bad weather, or other accident, it is incumbent upon the masters of all
other vessels to render all assistance in their power ; and in case of refusal, such master
shall pay for all damage caused by his neglect.
8. It is necessary that masters of vessels, on anchoring, should take particular care not
to overlay the chains or anchors of another vessel, otherwise he shall be responsible for
all damage caused by his carelessness.
9. No vessel shall sail from the port before sunrise, nor after sunset, as it is necessary
that they should be visited on departing.
10. In case any vessel requires to be caulked, careened, or smoked, before being done,
permission must be obtained from the captain of the port; and in no case must it be done
at the wharf, as there are several places proper for these purposes, where vessels can be
repaired without prejudice to the port, and the master can select that which best pleases him.
11. No vessel will haul to the wharf without permission from the collector, and in no
case will they make fast to those already alongside the wharf, under penalty of fifty dol
lars, and paying for all damage that may be occasioned by being so fast, especially in case
of bad weather or fire, when it may be necessary to haul out from the wharf, and be de
layed in consequence of vessels being fast to them. Before hauling to the wharf, all ves
sels shall strike their top-gallant yards and masts, top the fore and main yards, run in the
main and jib booms, and cockbill the anchors, so as to avoid damaging other vessels. Every
vessel must be at least a foot and a half from others. With these precautions, vessels will
be able to haul out, in case of fire, without those accidents so often noted; and in case of
bad weather will not injure one another.
12. No vessel will moor alongside the wharf, but along the shore of Casa Blanca, leav
ing clear the space from the north corner of Marti’s wharf to the northwest angle of the
royal stores at Casa Blanca, for the passage to and from the Cabana, avoiding to anchor
nearer to the men-of-war than a cable’s length.
13. No vessel shall make fast to any of the buoys that are placed on the shoals in the
harbor, under penalty of one hundred dollars, and all damages and expenses that may be
caused by displacing the buoy.
14. In case of fire on board any vessel in the harbor, all masters are required to repair
to the burning vessel with their boats, provided with warps, buckets, and everything that
they may judge serviceable, and also water-engines, such as may have them, in order to
assist to extinguish the flames. The captain of the port trusts that this article will be
faithfully attended to.
15. Should any master of a vessel need a launch, he can procure such as may suit him,
but he will advise the captain of the port, in order that she may be examined, as prescribed
by law ; and any one that shall load a launch without leaving two inches of the wales out
of water, shall incur a penalty of twenty dollars.
16. In case of disorder on board any vessel among the seamen, late at night, the mas
ter can apply to the guard-ship for assistance until morning, when he will apply to his
consul for a written request to the captain of the port, for the imprisonment of the delin
quents. No vessel shall discharge a seaman without permission from the consul.
Commercial Regulations.
91
17. The day before leaving port, masters will call at the captain of the port’s office,
where they will receive an order for their powder, in case they had any deposited.
18. It i3 prohibited to sail about the harbor, in boats, after the eight o’clock gun; and
any person arrested for violating this law will be taken on board the flag-ship, where he
will remain at the disposition of the admiral.*
19. As a protection against desertion, and to impede the decoying of men from one
ship to another, a shipping master has been appointed for the port, who only is authorized
to take cognizance of the shipping of men on board of vessels in this port T o this ship
ping master it is prohibited to ship any man, until he is well assured that such man has
been legally discharged from the vessel in which he arrived at this port, and with the
knowledge and consent of the consul of the nation to which such vessel belongs. Mas
ters of vessels can make their own contracts with seamen that have been legally dis
charged ; but on no pretext, whatever, shall any seaman be employed on board any vessel
in this harbor, unless he has been legitimately shipped before said shipping master, and it
has been made known by the shipping master, and the captain of the vessel, to the consul
of the nation to which such vessel belongs. If any master of a vessel shall receive or
employ any seaman, in contravention of the foregoing regulations, he shall incur a penalty
of fifty dollars for every seaman so received on board, which penalty shall be duplicated
in every case of finding men illegally on board a vessel, after having been cleared at the
custom-house.
It is the duty of the shipping master, Mr. Daniel Warren, to observe these rules, and
to report any infraction thereof to the captain of the port, for the enforcing of the penalty.
20. The carrying of concealed arms being prohibited by the laws of the country, under
pain of six years imprisonment, the penalty will be enforced on any one that may be
found on shore with pointed knives, pistols, or other prohibited arms; and it is charged
upon all masters of vessels that they observe that their men respect this law.
21. Every master of a vessel will hoist his national flag when the flag-ship hoists hers,
whether it be for a festival or other cause ; and on leaving his vessel, will leave it charged
upon his officers.
22. Masters of vessels will receive a copy of these rules from the boarding adjutant.
N o t e .—Vessels touching at this port in ballast., or with cargo, to try the market, or pro
cure supplies, will be quarantined if the bill of health is not certified by the Spanish con
sul at the port of departure ; but they can communicate with the city by letter, which will
be taken by the health officer, and answers returned by the same conveyance ; and can
receive their supplies and clear while in quarantine. If they do not break bulk, the charge
for tonnage dues will not be incurred, and the total expense will not amount to more than
$110, for a vessel of 200 tons; the charge of I f rials per ton, for the mud machine, being
the principal expense. Vessels in ballast can clear, and remain in port as long as they
please afterwards ; and, should they then take cargo, the expense for re-entry is very light.
POLICE REGULATIO NS OF HAVANA.
No one will be allowed to disembark on the island without a passport, except in case
of inevitable loss of papers by shipwreck, capture, or other similar cause, and the presen
tation of a bondsman, who will answer to the authorities for the term of one year, and
present him, should he be demanded.
Passengers from foreign ports should have their passports certified by the Spanish
consul.
No master of a vessel will receive on board any passenger, to convey from one point t)
another, without a passport, under penalty of twenty-five dollars.
* The limit in the eighteenth rule, respecting boats in the harbor after night-fall, has
been extended by the commandant of marines until eleven o’clock.
VOL. X I.---- NO. I .
13
92
Commercial Regulations.
Any person that receives a slave on board any vessel, to he conveyed from one point to
another, without permission from the master of a slave, shall incur a penalty of fifty dol
lars, without prejudice to any action at law that may he brought against him therefor.
No master of a vessel will receive on board any deserting soldier or sailor, under the
pains and penalties prescribed in the military code.
All colored persons, slaves or free, that arrive from foreign countries, shall be sent im
mediately to a deposit, prepared by the government for that purpose, where they shall
remain until the moment of leaving the island ; or they can remain on board the vessel,
provided the consignee will give a bond for one thousand dollars, to be forfeited in case
they .cave her, which bond shall not be cancelled until the return of the boarding officer,
on the departure of the vessel.
Purchases made from slaves or servants shall he forfeited, and the purchaser punished
as he may deserve. The same is understood of purchases of soldiers, unless it be Feme
article of their own manufacture, or made with the intervention of an officer.
No person shall make, sell, purchase, or carry, under the penalties assigned by law, any
of the following weapons:— Pistols o f all classes; muskets or carbines, less than four
palms in the barrel; gun or pistol-canes, of any kind; sword-canes, nor any cane with a
concealed blade of any kind; dirks or daggers of any kind less than four hands in the
blade; knives with spring backs, or any other contrivance to fix the blade when open;
bayonet, without the gun ; nor any pointed knife, great or small, of any kind.
Much complaint having been made of the injury sustained from the owners of eating
and liquor shops, who, together with their assistants, insidiously entice and entrap the
crews of foreign vessels, on the plea of being their countrymen, and the identity of lan
guage, which induces them to join their meetings, where they suggest to them the idea
of leaving their vessels, as also of claiming the wages they suppose due, holding out to
them the prospect of new and more lucrative voyages, these inveiglers having no other
interest than to make the sailors pass the night at their houses, causing them a daily ex
pense on trust, which is increased by fraud and intoxication, in order to be claimed after
wards of the masters or consignees of the vessels to which they belong—it is ordered that
the owners of such establishments, and boarding-house keepers, shall not admit them into
their houses, nor give them any thing on trust, much less allow them to pass the night
there, without written consent of the masters of their respective vessels, under pain of
forfeiture of what they may supply them, and all damages that may arise from the con
cealment and detention of mariners.
[This law has been amended by the imposition of a fine of twenty-four dollars on any
boarding-house keeper that shall keep a sailor over night without permission, over and
above the forfeiture above named.]
T A R IF F — D U T Y ON COCOA NUTS.
J. W. M’Cullcch, comptroller at the treasury department, has addressed a letter to the
collector of customs for the district of New York, under date “ Treasury Department,
Comptroller’s Office, April 15th, 1844,” as follows:—
“
— It has been represented to this office that upon an importation of cocoa nuts at
your district, duty has been charged at the rate of 20 per cent ad valorem ; but, as upon
this article, like other nuts not used in dyeing, duty should be charged at the rate of one
cent per lb., you will in future collect that rate of duty upon it, under the second clause of
the eighth section of the tariff.* The weight of cocoa nuts upon which duty should be
levied, must include the shell, but not that of the husks, or outer covering.”
* The words are these:— “ On all nuts not specified, except those used for dyeing, one
cent per pound.”
Commercial Statistics.
COMMERCIAL
93
STATISTICS.
COTTON TR A D E OF TR IE STE , AUSTRIA.
I m p o r t a t io n s
of
C otton,
and
A
verag e
P rice s
at
T
r ie s t e .
T he American cotton imported into Trieste is mostly consumed in the interior of Aus
tria. Some, however, is sent to Switzerland, and likewise to Venetian Lombardy ; but
probably, before long, the importations for the supply of Venetian Lombardy and of Swit
zerland will be made direct to Venice from the United States, by a commercial company,
which has been lately established at Venice, under the authority of the Austrian govern
ment. The direct importations of cotton from the United States into Trieste, during 1842,
were much interfered with by importations of nearly an equal amount from Liverpool,
Havre, and Marseilles. 29,400 bales were, however, disposed of between the commence
ment of the year and the 21st of November, at which period the stock on hand of Ameri
can cotton was 21,000 bales, with an extremely dull market. The usual quality of the
Mako cotton is considered superior to the American, with the exception of Sea Island,
and the finest Louisiana. There is a superior quality of Mako cotton, which ranks be
tween the finest Louisiana and the Sea Island. Much of the Egyptian cotton, for the
manufactures of the interior of Germany, not only of Austria, but of Zoll-Verein, is sup
plied from Trieste. Large quantities are also sent to Switzerland. So long as the mo
nopoly on tobacco continues, there is but one principal article of the produce of the United
States (viz: cotton) which can enter into a direct commerce with Trieste. In 1835, cot
ton first become an article of importation, and 322 bales were received at Trieste, from
the United States. The quantity imported from the United States has continued to in
crease, as will be seen from the table below, compiled from authentic tabular statements
politely furnished the editor of this Magazine, by J. George Harris, Esq., late of the United.
States Tobacco Agency in Europe:—
Years.
1815,
1816,
1817,
1818,
1819,......
1820........
1821,.......
1822........
1820,.......
1824,......
1825,.......
182S,......
1827,.......
1828,.......
1829,......
1830........
1831,......
1832,.......
1833,.......
1834,.......
1835,.......
1836,.......
1837,.......
1838,.......
1839,.......
Total,..
I mports of C otton into T rieste ., from 1815 t o 1839, INCLUSIVE.
Bales from Bales from Bales from Bales from Bales from Bales from
IT. 8.
Brazil.
India.
Egypt. Malta & Sicily. Levant.
322
.................
.................
434
.................
1,973
217
.................
737
431
679
838
1,550
144
170
3.271
3,802
4,078
17,748
7,111
7,729
6,762
4,940
13,478
17,892
23,450
20,871
20,702
18,030
177,359
431
1,066
1,057
518
1,268
439
1,186
1,306
3,934
207
60
49
46
912
2,7S5
1,121
30
754
129
48
2,065
552
545
2,217
780
205
143
200
437
5,742
6,760
6,089
3,307
3,803
2,437
3,761
2,414
876
2,576
6,175
56,037
Tot. bales.
1,056
1,687
797
13
224
1,333
3,541
758
2,834
3,189
3,148
4,320
6,843
13,569
17,798
9.312
18,206
16.916
26,985
5,203
23,470
47,529
49,980
43,166
17,855
30,443
48,807
48,944
54,701
19,535
390
1,867
1,590
1,684
2,728
4,693
2,236
1,126
1,552
1,247
3,632
1,651
932
807
240
69
47
1,165
3,689
780
2,293
2,494
912
89
1,785
12,036
26,814
13.947
6,559
12,627
12,864
15,337
20,894
12,026
7,698
17,301
8,015
7,570
7,338
9,289
4,232
9,997
28,634
9,340
19.957
25,231
48,046
23,137
29,976
39,971
14,572
33,773
19,371
12,724
23,334
22,696
23,788
31,761
32,760
27,094
30,463
33,256
29,972
40,090
40,439
42,422
66,196
.89,991
64,938
54,537
80,67 6
126,898
95,537
108,05 7
85,720
16,170
518,415
33,748
428,936
1,231,065
....
94
Commercial Statistics.
A
Years.
1815,...
1816,...
1817,...
1818,...
1819,...
1820,...
1821,...
1822,...
1823,...
1824,...
1825,...
1826,...
1827,...
1828,...
1829,...
1830,...
1831,...
1832,...
1833,...
1834,...
1835,...
1836,...
1837,...
1838,...
1839,...
verage
P rice s
U. S t a t e s .
Florins.
... a
95 a lio
86 a 98
95 a
86 a
62 a 68
55 a 62
37 a 56
39 a 56
38 a 44
... a
41 a 42
35 a 39
34 a 40
31 a 36
33 a 37
32 a 34
33 a 37
38 a 54
44 a 54
50 a 63
42 a 65
31 a 54
32 a 39
37 a 50
of
C o tto n
B r a z il ,
Florins.
120 a 155
128 a 155
105 a 136
112 a 135
88 a 130
75 a 96
65 a 80
60 a 70
52 a 70
50 a 56
... a
55 a
48 a
42 a 48
37 a 43
37 a 42
33 a 39
33 a 42
42 a 65
46 a 65
43 a 72J
58 a 65
37 a 48
35 a 50
36 a 51
at
T
r ie s t e , f r o m
I n d ia .
Florins.
81 a 140
80 a 85
55 a 65
55 a 65
32 a 65
32 a 42
29 a 36
28 a 31
27 a 31
27 a 28
... a
29 a 35
28 a 34
24 a 34
22 a 28
22 a 30
27 a 28
21 a 22
24 a 25
28 a 30
41 a 44
40 a 44
24 a 30
21 a 26
22 a 28
1815
L evant.
Florins.
79 a 96
74 a 96
64 a 85
60 a 90
47 a 88
34 a 56
34 a 57
30 a 52
28 a 46
27 a 43
34 a 75
35 a 47
30 a 42
26 a 39
27 a 38
28 a 36
27 a 34
25 a 32
28 a 50
32 a 47
36 a 53
31 a 50
20 a 42
20 a 32
18 a 30
1839.
to
M a lta and
S ic il y .
E gypt.
Florins.
65 a 88
54 a 82
51 a 60
40 a 55
26 a 43
25 a 33
25 a 34
28 a 36
26 a 35
23 a 33
27 a 60
25 a 44
26 a 31
26 a 30
27 a 39
26 a 28
37 a 28
23 a 25
36 a ...
34 a 37
36 a 47
36 a 38
... a ...
... a ...
... a ...
Florins.
... a
65 a 115
56 a 111
50 a 115
57 a 115
57 a 62
52 a 62
38 a 55
40 a 52
42 a 55
46 a 90
42 a 59
33 a 40
34 a 36
35 a 38
34 a 36
35 a 36
35 a 36
35 a 60
41 a 51
42 a 63
43 a 55
31 a 47
33 a 35
34 a 45
The foregoing prices are quoted in florins, and for 100 lbs. o f Austria, equal to 123£
lbs. avoirdupois. The florin is worth 48£ cents, United States currency.
Mr. Harris says that Brazilian cotton, which formerly commanded in the Austrian mar
ket one-third more than American, now sells at the same price ; the only sort that brings a
better price than our common qualities being a small proportion of the very finest of the
Egyptian, which stands to the main crop in a relation similar to that which the Sea Island
etands to the crop of the United States. The current commercial tables of Trieste, annu
ally published, (and for which we are indebted to Mr. Harris for a series,) show a gradual
and increased demand for our cotton, together with a corresponding increase of compara
tive prices, while there has been a slow and constant decline in the demand and price for
that of other countries. In 1843, a larger quantity, however, of the Egyptian cotton,
found a market at Trieste, than in any one year previous; but, under existing circum
stances, this is no indication of the active demand; “ for it is,” adds Mr. Harris, « a well
known fact there, that the crop of the previous year was forced into market by the Pacha,
at numerical prices, in consequence of the severe pressure which he experienced in money
matters.”
EXPORTS FROM G R E A T BRITAIN TO TH E BRAZILS.
The gross amount of English and Irish produce exported to the Brazils, was—
In 1841,.........................
1842,......................... .......
In 1843,........................... ...
£2,140,127
1,756,805
In the latter year, the leading articles exported were as follows :—
Cotton goods,................
Hardware,............... ..
Iron and copper,........... .......
.......
Glass,......................—
Silks,.............................
80,070
36,815
20,282
27,637
Linens,............................. ...
Woollens,........................
Arms,................................
Leather goods,.................
Tin, & c.,..........................
£154,323
18,155
46,611
23,309
95
Commercial Statistics,
PRICES OF SUNDRY ARTICLES OF IRON A T PHILADELPHIA.
1841.
January.
List of Articles.
20 per cent.
Iron screws............
Sad irons,...............
5$ cents.
$15 to $16
Axes,.....................
Grass scythes,........
9 50
Com scythes,.........
13 00
Cut nails,...............
5 25
Shovels and spades,
6 to 7 50
Hollow-ware,........
67 50
Mill saws,..............
70 cents.
Cross-cut saws,....
38J “
Cast steel,.............. 164 & 17 “
Shear steel,............ 144 to 17 “
Eng. common iron,
$75 to $80
Eng. refined iron,..
85 to 90
5£
to 6 cents.
Amer. boiler iron,.
Pig iron ,............... $30 to $32 50
1841
January.
224per cent.
5 cents.
$14 to $16
9 50
13 00
5 00
6 to 7 50
62 50
70 cents.
384 “
17
“
15 to 17
“
$65 to $70
80 to 85
5^ to 6 cents.
$30 to $324
1841
1844.
January.
January.
274 per cent.
30 per cent.
cents.
3£ cents.
$12 to $14
$11 to $13
8 to
9
8 to
9
11 to 12
11 to 12
4 00
4 to 4 25
5 50 to 7 50
5 to 7 25
57 50
55 00
70 cents.
65 cents.
35J “
384 “
16 to 17
“
15
“
14 to 15
“
14 to 17
“
$60 to $65 $60 to $62 50
75 to 80 72 50 to 77 50
5 to 5£ cents. 5 to 5£ cents.
$26 to $28
$24 to $26
PRICES OF MOLASSES A T BOSTON AND N EW YORK,
1795 t o 1843, in c l u s iv e .
Y ear.
Price
52 cts.
1812, per gall.
it
1813,
75
it
85
1814,
ii
1815,
75
it
1816,
57
tt
53
1817,
it
1818,
54
ii
50
1819,
ii
1820,
34
If
1821,
28
it
32
1822,
it
28
1823,
ti
1824,
27
it
28
1825,
ii
28
1826,
ii
33
1827,
from
V ear.
1795, per gall.
it
1796,
if
1797,
it
1798,
It
1799,
It
1800,
it
1801,
It
1802,
It
1803,
It
1804,
It
1805,
it
1806,
It
1807,
it
1808,
it
1809,
if
1810,
it
1811,
Year.
1795,.......
1796,.......
1797,.......
1798,.......
1799,......
1800,......
1801,.......
1802,.......
1803........
1804,......
1805,.......
1806,......
1807,.......
1808........
1809,......
1810,......
1811,.......
Price.
60 cts.
62
68
56
50
48
56
36
42
51
40
38
41
50
52
48
54
Year.
1828, per gall.
ii
1829,
ft
1830,
ti
1831,
ii
1832,
it
1833,
it
1834,
tt
1835,
ti
1836,
it
1837,
it
1838,
tt
1839,
tt
1840,
tt
1841,
tt
1842,
tt
1843,
P R I C E S OF S A L T A T B O S T O
FROM1795 TO 1843, INCLUSIVE, ter bushel.
' Price.
Price.
Year.
61 cts.
1812........
77 cts.
1813,.......
66
56
72
1814,.......
47
79
1815,.......
69
70
1816,.......
61
56
61
1817,.......
58
1818,.......
75
1819,.......
64
64
1820,.......
58
56
1821,.......
52
78
1822,.......
58
72
1823,.......
54
57
1824,.......
50
64
1825,.......
50
68
1826,.......
44
50
44
1827,.......
47
57
Price.
30 cts
30
25
27
27
32
31
38
38
35
37
34
26
25
18
23
N,
Year.
1828,......
1829,......
1830,.......
1831,.......
1832,......
1833,......
1834,.......
1835,.......
1836,.......
1837,.......
1838,......
1839,......
1840,......
1841........
1842,......
1843,......
Price.
48 cts.
50
44
46
51
38
32
34
36
38
37
36
34
35
28
23
Commercial Statistics.
96
PRICES OF D IFFEREN T ARTICLES OF IRON, A T N E W YORK,
EROM THE YEAR 1840 TO 1844, INCLUSIVE.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
1840.
1841.
1842.
1843.
1844.
Articles.
Iron anvils, per lb.,................................... cents
84
91
94
84
84
$764 $714 $524 $ 5 3 4 $ 5 3 4
Bars, common English rolled,..............per ton
93J
Bars, refined English rolled,............................
874
674
674
764
90
85
Bars, American refined,................. '................
774
65
674
864
Bars, Swedes hammered,.................................
77^
724
914
814
60
524
50
524
Blooms, American,...........................................
474
1414
113
Hoops, from £ to 3 inches wide,.....................
113
IO84
105
Nails, wrought, per lb.,............................ cents
104
9
9
114
114
Nails, cut, per lb.,.............................................
54
•74
54
34
44
Nail rods, slit,....................................... per ton $115 $ H i 4 $1064 $95
$95
354
324
Pigs,..................................................................
31
25
274
107
131
Brazier’s rods, of 3-16 to 8-16 of an inch,......
107
824
874
5
Sheets, average thickness, per lb.,...........cents
5
54
54
44
Scythes,............................................. per dozen
$13
$1.84 $ 1 2 4
$9
$9
10
94
Shovels,.............................................................
9
74
74
122
994
Rolled for bands, from |-XJ to 4X4,....per ton
994
77i
824
Spikes, per lb.,...........................................cents
8
64
64
6
6
Tacks, 2 4 to 16 oz. to the >1.,.........................
5
74
74
74
44
Tacks, exceeding 16 oz. to the M .,...............
15
15
15
10
10
13
Brads, from ^ to 2 inches, per M....................
13
13
7
7
Wire, not exceeding No. 14, per lb.,...............
8
64
74
74
«4
184
Wire, exceeding No. 14, per lb.,.....................
18f
174
12
12
Axes, heavy,......................................per dozen
$174
$18
$15| $134 $13
PRICES OF GLASSW ARE, A T BOSTON AND N E W YORK,
AT TIIE PRICES MENTIONED BELOW.
Dec. 1841.
$ 2 25 doz.
1 12
1 25
1 35
1 35
80
1 20
2 00
2 00
2 25
90
3 25
1 68
00
52
1 80
40
60
1 20
1 58
1 00
6 75
Aug. 1842.
$ 2 00 doz.
1 no
1 25
1 35
1 35
68
1 12
1 80
1 80
2 00
90
O 00
68
' 1 00
52
1 80
40
60
1 12
1 50
1 00
6 75
Dec. 1842.
$2 00 doz.
1 00
1 12
1 12
1 35
68
1 00
1 80
1 80
2 00
90
2 00
58
90
50
1 80
38
58
90
1 35
90
6 00
Aug. 1843. Dec. 1843.
$1 80
$1 58
75
58
90
81
1 00
95
1 12
1 00
51
50
90
68
1 68
1 35
1 70
1 40
1 80
1 35
90
68
1 80
1 68
58
45
68
53
45
38
1 70
1 35
36
36
52
52
90
81
1 20
1 12
80
72
4 50
3 60
Article.
Pint 8 flute tumblers.
Gill 6
Pillar 4 pt. tumblers.
Taper bar
“
9 flute
“
Pillar gill
«
^ pt. 8 flute
“
^ pt. 6 flute “
£ pt. 8 flute “
Tulip salt.
Sqr. salt.
7 in. dish.
Gothic salt.
6 flute salt.
Dish salt.
Lam p------ .
4 oz. tumbler.
G oz.
“
8 oz. flint tumbler.
Night lamp.
Peg lamp.
Sqr. sugar.
COMMERCE OF HONOLULU, IN 1843.
The imports into Honolulu, (Sandwich Islands,) for year ending Dec. 31,1843, were—
Imports in American vessels,.. .. $158,106 Duty paid on imp. in Amer. vessels, $4,743
ii
ii
“
“
English
...
43,627
English “
1,308'
ii
if
it
“
French
15,062
French
"
451
ti
ti
it
,e
Spanish
4,559
Spanish “
136
ti
ti
a
2,626
“
German
German “
60
Total,.
Total
Nautical Intelligence .
97
NAUTICAL I NT EL L I GEN CE.
INVENTION OF N AVIG ATIO N AND M ARINE IM PLEM ENTS, IN 1843.
A p pe n de d to the annual report of Mr. Ellsworth, the commissioner of patents, is a list
of patents granted in the year 1843, with the names of patentees, residence, &c., together
with a list of patents expired in 1843. The list of patents is arranged under twenty-two
distinct classifications. The seventh comes under the head of “ Navigation and Maritime
Implements,” comprising all vessels for conveyance on water, their construction, rigging,
and propulsion; diving dresses, life-preservers, &c. W e give the list under this head for
the benefit of those of our readers engaged in navigation and maritime a fairs, as fol
lows :— 1. Constructing canal-boats, so that they can be transported on railroad cars ;
patented by John Dougherty, of Philadelphia, Pa. 2. Constructing steamboats, &c., to
prevent them from sinking when coming in collision; by Horace D. Forbes, New York
city. 3. Fender to protect boats against injury from snags and sawyers ; by Joseph W .
Kirk, Philadelphia, Pa. 4. Life-boats; by Lewis Raymond, New York city. 5. Lifepreservers, for the use of steamboats, &,c.; by Michael Pearson, Newburyport, *Mass. 6.
Propelling boats; by James H. Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 7. Propelling vessels bt the
buoyancy of air, & c.; by Sylvester W. Hall, of Troy, N. Y . 8. Propelling vessels by
means of continuous streams of water; by Robert S. Schuyler, of New York city. 9.
Propelling vessels, paddles, endless chain; by Beriali Douglass, Albany, N. Y . 10. Pro
pelling vessels by steam, horizontal shifting paddle ; by Horace Everett, of Windsor, Vt.
11. Steamboats— bail wheel for raising water from the hold o f ; by Horace D. Forbes, of
New York city. 12. Steamboats— preventing from sinking; by Samuel G. Muckles, of
New York city. 13. Representation of tide3 and currents; by Benjamin F. Watts, of
Fort Gaines, Ga. 14. Vessels— ascertaining centre of gravity, & c.; by John Hebday, of
Portsmouth, Va. 15. Connecting tiller with the rudder-head of vessels.
PORT OF DUNKERQUE, FRANCE.
Salomer, Senior, ship-broker, and' translator of the English language at Dunkerque, has
published the following note for the purpose of dissipating the fears which the American
shipmasters might have felt, who should be disposed to visit that port, which is now, and
by just title, considered one of the principal ports of France, from the great number of
American vessels which arrive there, and the progressive increase of the custom duties;
which, in 1839, amounted to 10,090,000 francs. The correctness of the statement is cer
tified to by the masters of six American ships:—
“ From the report of all the American masters who know Dunquerke, it seems that the
general opinion in the United States is, that this port is considered as a small place for
fishermen, and incapable of admitting with safety any large vessels. As a ship-broker, i
deem it my duty to eradicate this erroneous opinion, and to signalize the^eal importance
o f Dunquerke. The 1st of May, 1839, it was ascertained by a commission, composed of
the sub-prefect, of the mayor, of the chief engineer, of the master pilot, and of the mem
bers of the chamber of commerce, that, since the extension of the moles to low’ water
mark, there is nowr 15 feet inside, in the sti' water, and 20 feet outside, in the rough wa
ter, French measure—say about 22 feet, English. Dunkerque has a fine basin, where,
before 1814, and when it was a naval port, the frigates of the royal navy w^ere alone ad
mitted. This basin is now open to merchantmen. The length of the moles is about two
miles, (say two-thirds of a league.) There is a light-house, several ship-yards, a pontoon,
a careening place, and a stone quay, of 5,500 feet in length. A pilot-boat cruises con
stantly off Gravelines. 30,000 souls of population.”
The following particulars of the port of Dunkerque emanate from the Bureau of Mes
sieurs the officers of the port:—
“ 1,500 to 2,000 vessels enter annually in the port of Dunkerque. At full moon, they
measure at the bar 7 metres (22f feet) of water, and at quarter moon 5 metres, (16£ feet)
Nautical Intelligence .
98
At Havre, they measure only 5 metres and 50 or 60 centimetres— about 15 to 17 feet
The entrance at our port is easier than at Havre, where, when a vessel touches, she is al
most invariably lost The same tide carries a ship, with a favorable wind, to the Naval
basin, (Bassin de la Marine,) and out again to sea, when she wishes to sail. It is thus
that American vessels, loaded, and drawing from 17 to 19 feet, enter the basin. In all
seasons, two pilot-boats lie in the stream, and furnish pilots to the ships entering the
harbor.”
A captain of the merchant service, of thirty years’ sailing, says:—
“ There is provided for our port three pilot-boats, well manned. Two cruise, without
intermission, to the north of the country, for all ships coming from the main sea ; the third
cniises to the west of the port, and is nearly always found off Gravelines, outside the
banks. Every vessel, of no matter what draught of water, can approach to find her,
without the least apprehension. A ship of 600 or 700 tons, drawing even 14 and 15£
feet of water, can enter into our port two days before the new or full moon, and three
days after the new or full moon. There is wanted for that, the wind from the W. N. W.,
which is necessary to come from the English channel. If, for example, the wind was N.
E., or even E., it would make, perhaps, less depth, but there would be then more sea;
for with those winds the sea runs higher, which does not happen when the wind is W.,
and W. S. W. The situation of our port finds itself N. N. W . and S. S. E. Once near, the
entrance is easy; once headed in, you immediately find there the means to make fast the
vessel’s entering; yawls well manned to carry the tow-lines, and always haulers, in case
the*wind should refuse an entrance. The channel is straight, and very deep, bottom mud
dy. If a ship cannot enter into the basin with the same tide, which might happen from
high winds from the W . and S. W., there are found places for standing or berths by the
quay, in front of the Bureau of Inspection, (the deepest part of the harbor, with soft,
muddy bottom,) or in front of the Rue des Arbres, (Free street,) where every vessel can
lie without the least strain.”
L A W OF N E W YO R K RESPECTING HOSPITAL MONEY.
following is an authentic copy of an act passed by the legislature of New York,
May 7th, 1844, entitled “ An act to amend the Revised Statutes in relation to the Marine
Hospital and its Funds,” passed April 1, 1843:—
Sec. 1. The first section of the act entitled “ An act to amend the Revised Statutes in
relation to the Marine Hospital and its Funds,” passed April 18th, 1843, is hereby amend
ed, so as to read as follows:— From the master of every vessel from a foreign port, for
himself, one dollar and fifty cents; and for every cabin passenger, two dollars; for each
steerage passenger, fifty cents ; and for each mate and sailor, fifty cents.
Sec. 2. Whenever the health commissioner shall collect and receive any money under pro
test or notice on the part of the payer of an intention to contest the right of the state to such
moneys, it shall be his duty to pay the moneys so received into the treasury of this state,
making, at the same time, and delivering to the treasurer, a written statement of the cir
cumstances under which the same was received, and the objections made by the payer.
Sec. 3. It shall be the duty of the comptroller, whenever it is ascertained and estab
lished, by the judgment and decree of a competent court, that the moneys so received into
the treasury, under protest, have been illegally collected, and do not belong to the state, to
draw his warrant on the treasurer for such moneys, in favor of the party entitled thereto.
Sec. 4. The health commissioner who shall pay into the treasury of this state public mo
neys collected by him under protest, shall be saved harmless against the consequences of
any action brought against him for the recovery of moneys so received and paid: Provided,
That such health commissioner shall, within five days, give notice to the comptroller and
attorney general of any suit brought against him for the recovery of moneys paid under
protest, and shall submit the management of the suit to the attorney general; and all costs
and charges connected with the defence of said suit shall be paid from the treasury, in the
same manner as if the suit was against the people of the state.
Sec. 5. The moneys collected by the late commissioner, under protest, shall be paid into
the treasury; and the two preceding sections shall apply to him and the moneys thus paid
into the treasury.
Sec. 6. Title one, of part one, of chapter fourteen, section twelve, of the Revised Sta
tutes, is hereby amended, so as to read as follows:— The resident physician shall receive
an annual salary of twelve hundred and fifty dollars, to be paid out of the moneys appro
priated to the use of the marine hospital.
Sec. 7. The health officer shall, annually, on or before the 1st of January, report to the
comptroller, under oath, the receipts and expenditures of the marine hospital; together
with all the receipts and perquisites of his office, and the items connected therewith.
T
he
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T HE BOOK T R A D E .
1. — O b se rv a tio n s, P r i n c i p a l l y i n F r a n c e a n d G r e a t B r ita in . By J o h n P. D u r b i n , D.
D., President of Dickinson College. 2 vols. l2mo., pp. 308 and 312. New York :
Harper & Brothers.
These volumes furnish an interesting and well written account of the author’s tour in
Europe, with some notices of the most prominent topics of interest at present attracting
the attention of the world. The opinions expressed on several important subjects differ
from those that are current among us; and Dr. Durbin confesses that they are at variance
with those he entertained before he visited the old world. This was very natural, and is
an evidence of a candid and unprejudiced mind. A portion of the second volume is oc
cupied with an account of Wesleyan Methodism in England. Methodists will not, of
course, object to it ; and others, who take an interest in the progress of religion and of
human society, will not be unwilling to learn something of so powerful an agency. The
observations on the evils and abuses that forced themselves upon the attention of Dr. D.,
are made in a liberal and catholic spirit, with a truly American feeling; without, how
ever, being either anti-French or anti-English.
2. —T h e P o e m s a n d B a lla d s o f S ch iller. Translated b y Sir E d w a r d L y t t o n B u l w e r ,
Bart With a Brief Sketch of the Author’s Life. 12mo., pp. 424. New York: Har
per & Brothers.
There have been many translations of detached poems by Schiller. This, however,
with very “ trivial exceptions,” includes the whole collection, so remarkable for the rich
variety it embraces, and the noble mind it reflects. The reader is here invited to a sur
vey of the whole of those poems in which Schiller has developed the flower of every fa
culty he possessed— the fruit of every study he pursued. The object of the translator
has been to adhere with as much fidelity to the original as the necessity of construing po
etry into poetry will permit; and, as a whole, he believes that there are few translations
of poems, equally numerous and diversified, in which loyalty and allegiance to the sense
of the original have been so sedulously rendered. The poems are introduced by a compre
hensive outline of the life of Schiller, which is replete with interest and instruction.
3. — C r itic a l a n d M is c e lla n e o u s E s s a y s . By T. B a b in g t o n M a c a u l a y . Vol. V. Phi
ladelphia : Carey & Hart.
The present volume, just issued from the Philadelphia press, is printed and bound to
match the four volumes previously published. It contains eight of the author’s masterly
essays, which have appeared at intervals in the Edinburgh Review, from 1829 to 1843 ;
and embraces critical notices of the life and writings of Madame d’Arblay, Addison, Barere’s Memoirs, Montgomery’s Poems, Civil Disabilities of the Jews, Mills’s Essay on
Government, &c. Macaulay is regarded as the first critical and historical essayist of our
time. “ His style is classical,” says Horne, in his New Spirit of the Age, “ because it ia
correct; and it is popular, because it must be intelligible to every educated understand
ing.” No scholar’s library can be complete without these “ Miscellanies.”
4. — G ir lh o o d a n d W o m a n h o o d ; o r , S k e tc h e s o f m y S ch oolm a tes. By Mrs. A. G. G r a v e s ,
author of “ Woman in America.” Boston: T. H. Carter & Co.
The schoolmates of the author, under the various shades of character and circumstances
while at school, and in all the after events of domestic life, seem to be sketched with
fidelity. Its pictures are drawn from human nature as it is found, and not from any ideal
representation of what it may become. It exhibits different varieties of female character,
as seen in girlhood, following them to their full development in womanhood, in order to
prove the natural connection that exists between these important periods. “ As the girl
is, the woman will be, unless some powerful counteraction has intervened,” is the great
truth it illustrates.
100
The Bocls Trade .
5.— A n
E le m e n ta r y T r e a tis e o n th e S tr u c tu r e a n d O p e r a tio n s o f th e N a tio n a l a n d S ta te
G o v ern m en ts o f th e U n ite d S ta tes.
By C h a r l e s M a s o n , A. M., C o u n se llo r at Law.
Boston: James M unfoe & Co.
W e have never met with a work so well adapted to the object for which it was design
ed. It exhibits, in a clear and comprehensive form, a summary account of the forms andmodes of administration of our national and state governments, that must render it useful
for schools, academies, and indeed for all classes of society. Avoiding all general dis
quisition, Mr. Mason presents an exact statement of the actual construction of our politi
cal and civil institutions, in all their various branches, and of the processes and means
by which they are, in fact, conducted and sustained. It, in short, contains information
upon matters relating to government and civil polity, with which every person, living un
der a free government, ought to have at least some general acquaintance. W e consider
it, on the whole, the best work of the land ever published in this country. The work, we
perceive, has the unqualified recommendation of Judge Story, Di. Wayland, and other
distinguished men, fully competent to form a correct estimate of its value.
6.— S h a k s p e a r e 's P l a y s . Edited by G u l i a n C. V e r p l a n c e . The Illustrations design
ed, selected, and arranged by R o b e r t W . W e ir . New York: II. W . Hewett.
Mr. Hewett has already acquired a wide reputation as the publisher of one of the most
elegantly illustrated and printed copies of the Common Prayer-Book of the Protestant
Episcopal Church, in this country; and the present seriel edition of the plays of the Bard
of Avon has been pronounced the most magnificent ever published. Seven numbers of it
have already appeared, embracing Hamlet, and a part of Macbeth. Mr. Verplanck, the
American editor, after a careful collection of the texts, and an examination of the edi
tions, for which, from his varied attainments, he is so well qualified, has selected the text
of Mr. Collier’s recent edition, to place in the printer’s hands as the basis of the present
impression. He has, however, departed from Collier’s text in more than twenty places,
chiefly by restoring the old folio readings where Mr. C. preferred those of the quartos. All
the various readings affecting the sense will, however, be found in the notes.
7. — L i f e in th e S ic k -R o o m . E s s a y s , by H a r r i e t M a r t in e a u . With an Introduction to
the American edition. By E l iz a L. F o l l e n . Boston: Leonard C. Bowles.
This work, “ which cannot fail,” says Mrs. Follen, “ to be a blessing to humanity,” had
no name attached to it ; yet every line of it so proclaimed its author, that the effort to be
lost in the subject was vain. Such was Harriet Martineau’s earnest desire to do what
she could for her fellow-sufferers, by giving them the results of her painful but precious
experience, through a hopeless illness of five years, that she was irresistibly compelled to
utter herself to the world once more ; but her reluctance to the self-exposure was so great,
that she threw what veil she could over her words, by withholding nor name. Not even
her nearest and dearest friends knew that she had written such a book, till the grateful
public declared that no one but her could have written “ Life in a Sick-Room.” Sym
pathy, nature, life, and death to the invalid— the temper, the perils and pains, and the
griefs and sweets of invalidism, all pass in review before one, of whomr4t-vn»4)eaaitifully
said, by an appreciating friend—
/iC - •' 1 1 i
f
“ Thou must endure, yet loving all the whiles
Alive, yet never sep’rate from thy kind*;
i
Meet every frailty with a tender smile, \
/ / J
Though to no possible depth of evil biindv”
"
-'
/
8.
— N o te s , C r itic a l a n d P r a c t i c a l , or. th e B ook o f Joshua. B e s i g n e d 'a r r n 4 & n e r f d f je .l p
to B ib lic a l R e a d i n g a n d I n s t r u c tio n . By G eor k B ush, Professor of Hebrew and Ori
ental Literature, New- York City University. New York: Saxton & Miles.Dr. Bush deservedly ranks among the first Hebrew scholars of our time. His interpre
tations of the prophecies of the Old Testament have attracted the attention of eminent
Biblical scholars in Europe and America, and his critical and practical notes are generally
considered, by popular theologians, as sound and orthodox.
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9. — T h e o r y
o f M o r a ls . A n I n q u ir y c o n c e r n in g th e L a i c o f M o r a l D is tin c t io n s , a n d th e
V a r ia tio n s a n d C o n tr a d ic tio n s o f E th ic a l C od es. By R ic h a r d H il d r e t h . Boston :
Charles C. Little and James Brown.
The present volume is the first of six treatises which Mr. Hildreth proposes to produce,
under the general title of “ Rudiments of the Science of Man.” ri hey are to ho published
in the following order:— 1. Theory of Morals; 2. Theory of Politics; 3. Theory of
Wealth; 4. Theory of Taste; 5. Theory of Knowledge; 6. Theory of Education. The
peculiarity of this series, we are informed, in the introduction to the present work, will
consist in an attempt to apply, vigorously and systematically, to the several subjects, tlie
inductive method of investigation— a method which, in physical science, has proved suc
cessful beyond expectation ; but which, hitherto, lias been very partially employed, and, in
consequence, with very small results, upon the yet nobler and more important science of
man. M •. il. claims the merit of an earnest, honest, thoughtful, laborious endeavor after
truth.
By P e l e g W . C h a n d l e r , Member of the American An
tiquarian Society, &c. Vol. II. Boston: Timothy H. Carter &, Co.
The first volume of this work was published more than two years ago, and proved emi
nently successful. The two extend over a period of more than one hundred and fifty
years, and contain accounts of the most important and interesting criminal trials that have
taken place in this country, from the first establishment of judicial tribunals here, till after
the adoption of the constitution of the United States. In the form of abridged narrations,
divested of the technicalities of legal proceedings, they will be interesting to the general
reader; and, as illustrations of the morals and manners, the religious and political history
of that period, valuable to the philosophical inquirer.
10. — A m e r ic a n C rim in a l T ria ls.
11. — D 'A u b i g n e 's “ H i s t o r y o f th e D e fo r m a tio n in G e r m a n y a n d S w it z e r la n d ” D e v ie v 'e d ; o r, th e D e fo r m a tio n in G e r m a n y E x a m in e d in its I n s tr u m e n ts , C a u s e s , a n d M a n
n e r , a n d in i t s I n flu e n c e on D e l i g i o n , G o v e r n m e n t, L i t e r a t u r e , a n d G e n e r a l C iv iliz a
tion.
By M. J. S p a l d in g , 1). D. Baltimore: John Murphy.
This work is designed by the author to point out what he conceives to be M. D'Aubigne’s t: numerous omissions, blunders, and misrepresentations.” He considers that work
a “ tissue of miserable cant and misrepresentation, from beginning to end.” This he hopes
to make appear by undeniable evidence, consisting of facts taken from original documents,
and other authentic sources. The volume before us, a duodecimo of nearly four hundred
pages, embraces an extended and connected essay on the Protestant Reformation in Ger
many, examining that revolution in the character of the men who brought it about, in its
causes and manner, and in its influences on religion, on free government, on literature,
and on general civilization. The impartial investigator of truth who has read D'Aubigne,
will feel it his duty, doubtless, to examine the review of Mr. Spalding.
12.
— T h e G o th s in H e w E n g l a n d : A D is c o u r s e d e liv e r e d a t th e A n n iv e r s a r y o f th e
P h ilo m a th e s ia n S o c ie ty o f M i d d l e b u r y C o lle g e , A v g u s t , 1843.. By G eorge P. M a r sh .
W e have read this excellent discourse with great interest. The subject is ably dis
cussed; and every page and paragraph hears the impress of the deep thinker and accom
plished scholar. Mr. Marsh now worthily represents Vermont, his native state, in Con
gress. He is yet a young man, and we predict for him an honorable and brilliant career
in statesmanship and political science.
13. — T h e B r o th e r a n d S is t e r , a n d o th e r T a les . By Mrs. E l l i s , author of “ The Irish
Girl, and other Poems,” “ Mothers of England,” “ Poetry of Life,” etc., etc. New
Y ork : H. G. Langley.
This little volume contains thirteen tales, selected from the Juvenile Scrap-Book of
Mrs. Ellis. Inculcating, like all the writings of the author, moral truths in connection
with the happy recollections of fireside enjoyments, and pleasant narrative, they will find
readers in all family circles, of every age, capacity, and condition.
102
The Boole Trade .
— T h e C a th olic C h u rch , in E n g l a n d a n d A m e r ic a . By J o h n D . O g i l b y , D . D . , Pro
fessor of Ecclesiastical History in the General Theological Seminary of the Protestant
Episcopal Church, &c. 12mo., pp. 208. New York: D. Appleton & Co.
This volume contains three lectures on the “ Church in England and America, Apos
tolic and Catholic;” the “ Course of the English R e fo r m a t io n “ Its Character and Re
sults.” They were prepared for delivery to a popular audience, in a course of lectures
on the distinctive principles of the Church. The writer maintains the claims of his Church
to the title of “ Protestant” and “ Episcopal,” which has been awarded to it by the R o
mish Church on the one hand, and the dissenting congregations on the other. It is printed
in the uniformly beautiful style of the valuable collection of standard works embraced in
the “ Churchman’s Library.”
14.
15. — Ir is h G ir l , a n d o th e r P o e m s . By S a r a h E l l i s , author of “ Women of England,”
“ Poetry of Life,” etc. New Y ork: H. G. Langley.
The universal and deserved popularity of Mrs. Ellis’s prose productions induced the
American publisher to collect her fugitive pieces in verse, under the very natural impres
sion that they would prove acceptable to the public, more especially since they have never
before appeared in a collected form. Although they can scarcely lay claim to an equal
degree of literary excellence with the best poetic productions of the day, they certainly are
not destitute of that distinguishing charm of domestic interest which characterises the nu
merous prose works of this esteemed author, on the morals of social life. The volume
is, however, by no means destitute of merit— all the pieces are in good taste, and several
which grace the collection might challenge poetical criticism with impunity.
16. — T h e B o o k th a t W i l l S u it Y o u ; o r, A W o r d f o r E v e r y O n e. By the Rev. J a m e s
S m i t h , author of the “ Believer’s Daily Remembrancer,” etc. New Y ork: M. W. Dodd.
This neatly printed little book is intended by the author “ to lay on the table in the
drawing-room, parlor, hall, kitchen, or cottage, that the visiter who is waiting for an in
terview, or the servant who is waiting for a message, or the neighbor who comes in to sit
down for a few minutes, may take it up, and read a portion.” It consists of laconic illus
trations of text3 of Scripture, conveyed in language the meaning of which cannot be
mistaken.
1 7 . — T h e C h em ica l a n d P h y s io lo g ic a l B a la n c e o f O r g a n ic N a tu r e .
A n E ssa y.
By M.
J. D u m a s and M. J. B. B o u s s o n g a u l t , Member of the Institute of France. Edited by
D. P. G a r d i n e r , M. D., Lecturer on Agricultural Chemistry, &c. New York: Saxton
& Miles.
This excellent little work presents a variety of new views, calculated to supply general
physiology, medicine, and agriculture, with grounds upon which the study of the chemical
phenomena that take place in organized beings may be advantageously pursued. The
doctrines of Dumas and Boussingault, as here expressed, are prefatory to a more detailed
practical treatise.
18. — T h e M o t h e r 's B o o k . By L. M a r i a C h i l d , author of the “ Frugal Housewife,” the
“ Girl’s Own Book,” “ Philothea,” “ Letters from New York,” etc. New York: C.
S. Francis.
Few works of this class have had a more extensive circulation, either in England or
America; and we are under great obligations to the New York publisher for producing a
sixth edition, with corrections and additions by the author. It is replete with sensible and
judicious hints, remarks, and suggestions; and, if it is not already, should be in the hands
of every mother in America.
1 J.— T h e G ir l's M a n u a l, c o m p r is in g a S u m m a r y V ie w o f F e m a le A c c o m p lis h m e n ts , a n d
P r in c ip le s o f C on d u ct.
B o y 's M a n u a l, c o m p i l i n g a S u m m a ry V ie w o f th e S tu d ie s , A c c o m p lis h m e n ts ,
a n d P r in c ip le s o f C o n d u c t b est s u ite d f o r p r o m o t in g R e s p e c t a b ilit y , a n d S u c c e s s in
L ife.
New York: D. Appleton & Co.
20.— T h e
Excellent manuals, replete with sound and judicious hints for the guidance of boys and
girls, in all the circumstances and relations of life.
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103
21. — T h e
C h ristia n D o c tr in e s .
By Rev. H u b e r d W i n s l o w , author of “ Young Man’s
Aid,” “ Doctrine of the Trinity,” etc., etc. Boston : Crocker & Brewster.
In this volume, we have a series of discourses delivered by the author, in the ordinary
course of his ministerial duties. The subjects classified are— the Existence, Natural and
Moral Attributes of G od; Creation; Powers and Depravity of Man; the Doctrines of the
Atonement, Election, Regeneration, Justification, Adoption, Perseverance, the Punish
ment of the Wicked, and the Reward of the Righteous, &c. Mr. Winslow is a Calvinistic Congregationalist, and asserts and maintains the various doctrines of Christianity, as
they are understood by the popular theologians of the day, with his usual force and
clearness.
22. — T h e M a x im s ,
E x p e r ie n c e s , a n d O b se rv a tio n s o f A g a g o s . By C h a r l e s W i l l i a m Day,
author of “ Hints on Etiquette.” Boston: Otis, Broaders & Co.
Although this little volume was written in England, for the English, it will doubtless,
as human nature is pretty much the same the world over, be found to contain much that
is useful or suggestive to the new society into which the author has entered. “ Those
whom it touches not,” says Mr. Day, “ can exclaim, with Hamlet, ‘ Let the galled jade
wince— our withers are u n w r u n g ” whilst, to such as feel goaded by the spur of con
science, all .he would say is, “ Go, and sin no more.” It contains many excellent max
ims, and piquant remarks.
23.
— T h e C h ristia n P h i l o s o p h e r ; o r , T h e C o n n ectio n o f S c ie n c e a n d P h ilo s o p h y w ith
R e lig io n .
Illustrated with engravings. By T h o m a s D ic k , LL. D. Philadelphia: Ed
ward C. Biddle.
The present is a reprint of a work that has passed through eight large editions in Great
Britain, and several stereotype editions in this country, in the East and West Indies, and
on the continent of Europe. The author has availed himself of the progress made in
the art3 and sciences since the second edition was published, so as to embrace the latest
improvements and discoveries in the different departments to which its diversified subjects
refer. The additions amount to about one hundred and thirty pages, and between twenty
and thirty additional engravings.
24.
— T h e Y o u n g G a r d e n e r ’s A s s is t a n t , in T h r e e P a r t s ; c o n ta in in g C a ta lo g u e s o f G a r
d e n a n d F l o w e r S ee d , w ith P r a c t i c a l D ir e c tio n s u n d e r e a ch h e a d , f o r th e C u ltiv a tio n
o f C u lin a r y V e g e t a b le s a n d F lo w e r s .
A ls o , D ir e c tio n s f o r C u ltiv a t in g F r u i t T r e e s ,
th e G r a p e V in e , fyc.
T o w h ic h is a d d e d , A C a len d a r to e a ch P a r t , s h o w in g th e w o r k
n e c e s s a r y to be d on e in th e v a r io u s d e p a r tm e n ts , ea c h m o n th o f th e y e a r . A d a p t e d to
th e C lim a te o f th e U n ite d S ta te s.
B y T h o m a s B r id g m a n , Gardener, Seedsman, and
Florist.
The design of this work is so copiously stated in the title-page, which we have quoted
entire, that it is unnecessary to say more on that head. A work, too, which has passed
through nine editions prior to the present, which is the tenth, and of which more than
fourteen thousand copies have been sold, and which is recommended by all the agricultu
ral Journals in the country, scarcely requires any encomium on its merits from us, were
we competent to pronounce it. W e will, therefore, only add that the present edition is
handsomely printed by Mr. A. Hanford.
25. — T h e T o n g u e o f T i m e ; o r, T h e L a n g u a g e o f a C lock . By W illia m H ar riso n , A.
M., of Basenore College, Oxford, &c. From the second London edition. Boston:
Saxton, Peirce & Co.
This is certainly a unique little volume. At the head of each chapter is the face Gf a
watch, with the hand pointing at the time, from one to twelve ; and under the picture, a
passage from Scripture, containing just as many words as the hand of the watch points
at. It commences at “ one o’clock” with the word “ Watch;” then “ two,” with the
words “ Fear G od;” “ three, “ Honor all men;” and so on to twelve. Each hour, and
passage of holy writ, are illustrated with appropriate reflections, designed to enforce some
moral or religious truth.
104
The Book Trade .
2G.— A P ic t o r ia l H i s t o r y o f th e U n ite d S ta te s , w it h N o t i c e s o f o th e r P o r t io n s o f A m e
By S. G. G oodrich , author of “ Peter Parley’s Tales.” Philadelphia: Sanruel
Agnew.
The main purpose of this work is to furnish a full, accurate, ai^cl just history of the
western continent, which will attract the young, and render the subject a common school
study throughout the land. The interest of the reader is kept alive by continuous narra
tive, anecdotes, perspicuous arrangement, and simplicity of style. It is copiously illus
trated with engravings of scenes and incidents, portraits, plans and maps, designed to con
vey correct ideas of men and things.
r ic a .
27. — T h e W i d o w ’s J e w els. In T w o S to r ies . By a Lady. Boston: Waite, Pierce &. Co.
Simple and affecting stories, designed to interest and improve the young mind and
heart.
28. —
T h e Y i m g S ailor. A N a r r a tiv e F o u n d e d on F a c t.
By Mrs. Mary S. B. Dana,
author of the “ Parted Family,” “ Charles Morton,” etc. New York: Harper
Brothers.
Th< main incidents of this narrative are derived from a manuscript belonging to the
individual to whom these incidents, somewhat embellished, occurred. It is interesting and
instructive.
29.
— T h e C ic e r o n ia n ; o r , T h e P r u s s ia n M e th o d o f T e a c h in g th e E le m e n ts o f th e L a t in
L anguage.
A d a p t e d to th e U se o f A m e r ic a n S ch ools. By B. S e a r s . Boston: Gould,
Kendall & Lincoln.
The Prussian system of education is universally admitted to be the most thorough and
complete ; and this little manual, adopted in the schools of that country, has been adapted
to the condition of our American schools by one cf the finest classical scholars in the
United States. It is considered, by those best able to form an opinion of its merits, as
the best work of its class in use.
30. — L i f e
in th e N e w W o r l d ; o r, S tretch es o f A m e r ic a n S o c ie ty . By S e a t s f ie l d . Trans
lated from the German. By A u g u s t u s C. H e b b e , LL. D., and J a m e s M acjkay , M. A.
New Y ork: J. Winchester.
This completes the first volume >f the series of Seatsfield’s works, and forms a hand
somely bound volume of about three hundred and fifty pages octavo, embracing the Court
ship of George Howard, Esquire; the Courtship of Ralph Doughby, Esquire, in the Life
of a Planter; Scenes in the Southwest; and the Squatter Chief, or the first American in
Texas.
31. —
T h e W o r l d ’ s R e l i g i o n , a s C o n tr a s te d w ith C h ristia n ity .
By L a d y C o l q u iio u n ,
Daughter of the Hon. John Sinclair. New York: John S. Taylor & Co.
Fiishionable Christianity is here brought in contrast with what the writer deems genu
ine scriptural Christianity; and the poverty of the former is contrasted with the blessed
ness of the latter, by a fervent and devout heart.
32. — T h e R e p u b lic .
This new daily has now been continued about four months, and is unquestionably one
of the ablest Journals in the United States. It is neutral in politics, but pursues a digni
fied and independent course in the discussion of the great questions that agitate the coun
try. Its reports of speeches, and the proceedings of public meetings, arc generally accu
rate and impartial. Mr. Kettell, the gentleman who prepares the money and commercial
articles, is perhaps the best informed writer, on financial matters, in the United States ;
and hi? views are received in Great Britain with marked consideration and respect. The
leading editorial? of Mr. Ryan, the principal editor, are well considered and judicious.
W e, of course, do not wish to be understood as endorsing all the views entertained by
the editor, or put forth in the columns of this Journal.
@FedFRASER