Full text of The Merchants' Magazine and Commercial Review : July 1843, Vol. IX, No. I

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THE

MERCHANTS’ MAGAZINE,
E s ta b lis h e d J u l y , 1 8 3 9 ,

BY FREEMAN HUNT, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
ORIGINAL PAP E R S .
ART.

_

''

PA GE.

I.

The Sandwich or Hawaiian Islands; with a Eeview o f the Past and Present
Condition o f the Polynesian groups generally in connection with their rela­
tions to Commerce and Christianity. By J a m e s J a c k s o n J a r v is , author of
the “ History of the Hawaiian Islands,” etc.,........................................... .........
II. Internal Trade o f the United States. No. 3. By J. W . S c o t t , of O hio,....
III. Progress o f Population and Wealth in the United States in F ifty Years, as
exhibited by the Decennial Census taken in that period. Chapters XVII
and XVIII—Distribution of the Industrious Classes—Education. By Pro­
fessor G e o r g e T u c k e r , of the University of Virginia,......................................
IV. The Protective System, its Expediency and Necessity. No. 2. By the Hon.
C h a r l e s H u d s o n , member of Congress from Massachusetts,..........................

15
31

47
58

MO N T H L Y C O M M E R C I A L C H R O N I C L E ,
EMBRACING A FINANCIAL AND COMMERCIAL REVIEW OF THE UNITED STATES, ETC., ILLUSTRATED
W ITH TABLES, AS FOLLOWS t

Pounds of Cotton imported into England, and value of Cotton Goods exported an­
nually from 1838 to 1843,...............................................................................................
Price of Cotton on the 1st of May in 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842, and 1843,................
Tonnage entered France, United States, and Great Britain in each year from 1815
to 1842...............................................................................................................................
Duties on the Materials consumed in building a ship of five hundred tons, not cop­
per fastened,....................................................
Comparative Duties in Great Britain and the United States in 1819 and 1843,.......

81
81
82
83
84

COMMERCIAL S T A T I S T I C S .
Value of Exports of the United States for fifty-one years, from 1791 to 1841..........
Domestic Exports of the United States in each year, from 1803 to 1841...................
VOL. IX .----NO. I .




2

85
85

Table o f Contents.

14

PAGE.

Rice Trade of the United States,......................................................................................
Exports of Rice from the United States for fifty-one years, from 1791 to 1841,......
Products of the Sea—Quantity of Fish exported from the United States from 1791
to 1841,.............................................................................................................................
Export of American manufactured Cotton Goods from 1826 to 1842,.......................
Exports and Imports of Monte Video and Buenos Ayres from 1838 to 1842,...........
Quantity and Value of Flour and W heat exported from the United States to differ.
ent countries,......................................................................................................................
Trade of New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, with Liverpool,............
Rio Janeiro Imports of Flour and Exports of Coffee,...................................................

86
87
87
88
90
91
92
92

NAUTICAL IN T E L L I G E N C E .
Latitudes and Longitudes of Lighthouses on the Coast of the United States, by F.
R. H asslek, .......................................................................................................................
New York Hospital Money,................................................................................................
Reef off the Western Islands discovered,.........................................................................

93
94
94

R A I L R O A D , CANAL, AN D S T E A M B O A T S T A T I S T I C S .
Progress of Railroads in the United States,................................................................... 95
Illinois and Michigan Canal,................................................................................................ 96
Navigation of the Hudson—The Troy and Empire, of the Morning Line of steamers, 97
Statistics of the Concord (Massachusetts) Railway,....................................................... 97

MERCANTILE MISCELLANIES.
Manufacture, etc., of Western Hemp,................................................................................ 98
Navigation of the Mississippi and its Tributaries,......................................................... 99
Yucatan Currency,........................................................................
Mineral Resources,.............................................................................................................. 100
Mousselines de Laines,........................................................................................................ 100

T H E BOOK T R A D E .
Newman’s Parochial Sermons—Carleton’s Purchase, etc.,.......................................... 101
McCulloch’s Universal Gazetteer—Webster’s Papers,................................................... 102
Moore’s History of Ireland—New York State Register for 1843,............................. 103
Epitome of Homoeopathic Practice,.................................................................................... 103
Adventures of Hernan Cortes—Milton’s Poetical W orks,............................................ 104
Mary Howitt’s Works—Hector O’Halloran,.................................................................... 104
Bankrupt Stories : The Haunted Merchant,.................................................................... 104
Loudon’s Gardening for Ladies, and Companion to the Flower Garden,.................. 105
Whittier’s Poems—Street’s Burning of Schenectady, etc.,.......................................... 105
Classical Studies—Stephens’ Critical and Miscellaneous Essays,............................... 106
Murray’s Encyclopsedia of Geography—Monod’s Lucilla,. /S':................................... 106
Norman’s Rambles in Yucatan—Putnam’s American Book Circular,....................... 106
James’s False Heir—Bremer’s “ Neighbors” and “ Home,” ......................................... 107
Alison’s History of Europe—Brande’s Encyclopaedia, etc.,.......................................... 107
Dickens’s Chuzzlewit—Cotton’s Keys of the Kingdom of Heaven............................ 107
Days of Queen Mary—Neale’s Lost Ship,.................................................................... 108
Froissart’s Chronicles of France, England, Spain, etc.,................................................ 108
Family of Bethany—Bickersteth’s Treatise on the Lord’s Supper,............................ 108
Works of Lord Byron—Retrospect,................................................................................ 108




H U N T ’S

MERCHANTS’ MAGAZINE.

JULY,

1843.

A rt. I.—T H E SANDW ICH OR H A W A IIA N ISLANDS;
W ITH A REVIEW OF THE PAST AND PRESENT CONDITION OF THE POLYNESIAN GROUPS GENERAL­
LY, IN CONNEXION W ITH THEIR RELATIONS TO COMMERCE AND CHRISTIANITY.

T h i s group has very generally, until within a recent period, retained
the appellation bestowed upon it by its re-discoverer, Captain Cook. But
of late, its true and more euphonious title, the Hawaiian islands, or “ H a ­
w a ii n e i ,” pronounced, according to English idiom, Harwhyee neigh, is
becoming more common, not only in standard works, but in maps and in
charts. It is certainly desirable that the aboriginal appellation of coun­
tries new to the civilized world should be retained, if for no other reason,
than that the indigenous population, after they may have disappeared be­
fore, or become absorbed in, the tide of modern civilization, should still
yield a trace of their former existence, though it be but a name. The
Hawaiian Court and Hawaiian Government are terms now well known
in diplomacy ; and during the present year a Hawaiian embassy has been
received and acknowledged by the government of the United States, and
the courts of England, France, and Belgium. It has been discovered
that, unexpected by any one, except those zealous friends who have dili­
gently watched and nurtured its growth, a nation, though occupying as it
were but a speck upon the waters, asserts its claims, upon legitimate
grounds, to the rights, titles, and immunities of the civilized world—that
it has not only the desire, but the capacity to shroud itself beneath the
folds of international law, and to rest its merits upon that palladium of
national liberty. So successfiil has the embassy fulfilled the designs of its
mission, that the United States, England, France, and Belgium, have
either acknowledged their unconditional independence, or have engaged
so to do. Diplomatic agents are to be appointed from each of those
countries, to reside at the Hawaiian court; and in every respect are the
Hawaiians, though but just emerging from the swaddling bands of child­
hood, to be respected as a free member of the community of nations.




16

The Sandwich or Hawaiian Islands.

Much of this good fortune is owing to their rapid advance in the arts of
civilized life, their just and honorable course to all people who have vis­
ited their shores, and partly to their isolated and advantageous position in
the North Pacific, which renders them the inn-keepers of that vast ocean.
Under any one of the great naval powers, their situation would make
them the law-givers and regulators of all commerce in their vicinity; but
in neutral hands, the vessels of all nations meet in harmony upon common
ground, with common privileges, and common interests. Consequently
sound policy, as well as justice, dictated that they should remain independ­
ent, and that no one nation should there enjoy a monopoly of power or
hospitality.
That a people who so lately were classed as heathen of the worst cast;
who were charged with barbarously murdering England’s celebrated nav­
igator ; with being pirates, and even cannibals; naked, barbarous in the
extreme, and warlike, should, within so few years, cast aside their idols
and their iniquities, and envelop themselves in clothing, and worship the
one Jehovah, spurning and disgorging the vices and crimes of the past,
and grasping and pressing forward to the virtues and progress which
Christianity presented to their view, is indeed wonderful. It presents, in
a strong view, the claim of man upon man—the savage upon the civilized
— brethren all, though they differ in their gifts. Love has been found
more cogent than force; and benevolence has accomplished brighter
results in a short space of time, than centuries of warfare can exhibit.
Commerce and Christianity have united in the good work— antagonistic
in a few points, but often, despite of themselves, co-operating for mutual
good. The history of our race hereafter will treat more of principles and
their progress—of the advancement or retrogation of mankind as one fam­
ily, or members of a social community united by common interests, than
of the squabbles of ambitious men, or disputes of boundary lines. W hat­
ever adds to the well-being of the world at large, the expansion of com­
merce, and the regulation of trade, annually becomes of deeper interest.
A railroad or canal, an opening of a new channel to mercantile prosper­
ity or Christian benevolence, now awaken a deeper and more genuine
sympathy than ever did the lordly baron, in his call for chivalrous or quix­
otic exploit. A steamboat or locomotive are the knight-errants of the
present day. Whatever will serve to aid this progress of good, deserves
perpetuation. Experience useful for the future, is to be gleaned from the
past. The civil and moral revolution which has been silently but rapidly
going on throughout Polynesia, is deserving not only of regard, but of
study. In the present article, I shall endeavor to illustrate the general
result of the action of civilization upon barbarism in that quarter of the
globe, and also trace the various effects to their respective causes. In a
succeeding one, it is my design to show the present commercial condition
of the Hawaiian islands, their statistics, resources, prospects, &c. But
no one can properly appreciate the change which twenty years has pro­
duced, without rightly comprehending the original condition of the South
Sea groups generally, and the varied causes which have been in opera­
tion since, to effect this change.
Every writer, of late years, who has treated on this subject, has thought
it necessary to dwell upon the enmity either existing or supposed to exist
between missionaries and those more particularly engaged in commerce.
If his tastes and connexions led him to favor the missionaries, his pages




The Sandwich or Hawaiian Islands.

17

were filled with eulogiums on their zeal, disinterestedness, wisdom, and
purity, and with diatribes against the vice, selfishness, and violence of their
opponents. If, on the contrary, he formed his ideas from intercourse with
the residents abroad, he lauded in equally strong terms their liberality,
enterprise, and intelligence, while he accused the missionaries of bigotry,
worldliness, ambition, and many other bad qualities. Now in these, as
in all partisan accounts, there is a mixture of truth and e rro r; and the
latter is particularly conspicuous in the high coloring which is given to
the animosity which prevails between the two classes.
To present this subject in a proper view, I must draw the attention of
my readers to the actual condition of the savages of Polynesia, before
their character became modified by intercourse with foreigners. Then,
by showing what causes have operated to effect the many changes which
have since occurred, resulting in their present state of semi-civilization,
we shall be able to judge how much of this can be attributed to com­
merce. It will also be necessary to advert to the missionary operations,
and their results.
All the early navigators found the natives disposed to treachery and
plunder; characteristics which have been repeatedly experienced, even
to this day, by those whose duties or interests have led them to visit groups
either wholly or partially unknown. When exceptions occur, they appear
to be rather the results of fear and cupidity, than of a friendly spirit. A
supreme selfishness dominated in the breasts of these savages, affording a
painful contrast to the hospitality which the American Indian exercises
towards those whose necessities are greater than his own. Tasman and
Marion were attacked at New Zealand, Wallis at Tahiti, La Perouse at
the Navigators, and Lieut. Hergest, of the Dedalus, with Mr. Gooch, the
astronomer, were massacred at Oahu. Captain Broughton, of the Prov­
idence, lost several marines at Niihau in 1795—murdered from cupidity.
As late as 1840, two of the officers of the United States Exploring Expedi­
tion were treacherously cut off at the Fijiis, evidently done with no other
motive than to possess themselves of their arms and clothing. There is
scarcely a group of islands which has not been the scene of some deplo­
rable cruelty, at the commencement of intercourse with the whites. The
first impulse of the natives, at the sight of a ship, appears to have been
to surprise and capture i t ; and it has been only by repeated defeats, or
prompt and efficient punishment, that they have been taught their own
weakness. In a few instances, they regarded their first white visiters as
gods, and as such revered them. While this opinion obtained, they were
civil, obsequious, and hospitable. But this deportment was the result of
their fear of disastrous consequences to themselves, should they offend the
deified strangers, and continued no longer than their belief. They were
kind or cruel, as their immediate selfish interests might direct. Even at
this day, the Fijii islander considers the shipwrecked mariner and his
property as lawful prizes—the, one to grace his cannibal feast, and the
other to gratify his vanity. No other right than that of the strongest or
most artful is acknowledged. This spirit is not shown alone in their rela­
tions to foreigners. Selfish and cruel as these savages are towards stran­
gers, they are none the less so to their own race. Navigators differ
somewhat in their respective accounts of the various tribes they have
visited, but not more so than would naturally arise from the different cir­
cumstances under which their acquaintance was made. No one can
2*




18

The Sandwich or Hawaiian Islands.

peruse their pages without being convinced that the savages of Polynesia
were, at the date of their discovery, a desperately wicked and sensual
race. Incest and sensuality were universal, and produced no shame.
Lying was not considered a fault. Child-murder was common, and not
regarded as a crime. Human sacrifices were required by law. Canni­
balism extensively prevailed. None were superior to theft. Cruelty was
the boast of the warrior, and not even the ties of kindred were proof
against treachery. Intoxicating, or rather stupifying drinks, were in daily
use. Always at war, their vilest passions were ever dominant. Their
chiefs practised the most grinding tyranny, and the common people had
all the meanness and cunning of slaves. Their most attractive quality—
it cannot be called a virtue—was a kind of easy and listless good nature,
never to be depended upon, when any of their passions were called into
play. If, indeed, a better disposition was sometimes displayed, and their
dark characters occasionally enlivened by touches of humanity, they were
sufficient only to redeem their claim to that title. And when we meet
with individuals enabled by the force of their natural talents to rise supe­
rior to the common vices of their race, it marks but more strongly the
degradation of the remainder.
If such, then, in plain reality, is their character, it must be worse than
heathen corruption that could add anything to their vileness. Still, much
has been said of the sad results which followed from the introduction of
the vices and mal-practices of civilized nations among the simple inhab­
itants of these secluded isles— these guileless children of nature—but
until some proof is adduced more cogent than the sighs of poetic senti­
mentality, the correctness of such an opinion must be doubted. In fact,
so far from any deterioration having resulted from foreign intercourse,
there is strong ground for believing that its influence has been decidedly
beneficial.
The navigators who first became acquainted with the islanders, were
generally men of character, seeking fortune and reputations by their ad­
venturous voyages. Many were commanders of national expeditions.
Policy, interest, and humanity, alike prompted them to secure the good­
will of the natives ; and an exception to such a course is rarely to be
met with. The names of Wallis, Vancouver, La Perouse, and Wilson,
need not be mentioned to confirm this assertion. At times, indeed, un­
provoked and treacherous attacks compelled them to severe but necessary
measures of retaliation ; but they were conducted in such a manner as to
subserve at once the design of justice, and to forcibly impress upon the
natives the power of their visiters, and their promptness to punish any
aggressions. The difference in warfare, the distinction made between
the guilty and innocent, the forbearance shown to the helpless non-com­
batants, and the care taken of the wounded, could not but produce favor­
able results in their minds. Useful advice for their future conduct was
also freely given, presents judiciously bestowed, and the natural resources
of their countries enhanced by the introduction of valuable plants and
animals. A desire for foreign productions was awakened, which could
be gratified only through those whose intellectual superiority they were
thus unconsciously acknowledging. In this manner, they acquired the
principles of a new policy, and learned that their true interest lay in main­
taining a fair commerce with the strangers. The vessels flocked to their
shores, and articles of foreign manufacture were exchanged for the pro­




The Sandwich or Hawaiian Islands.

19

ducts of their soil. Newly awakened wants were gratified, and instead
of meeting the white man as a foe, they greeted him as a friend. Such
was their first step towards civilization.
After a short time, some few adventurers, attracted by the love of li­
cense, and the natural pleasantness of the climate, left their ships, and
took up their residence on shore, where they exercised an important influ­
ence over the natives. They were, indeed, generally of the lowest class
—in the words of Byron,
“ Men without country, who, too long estranged,
Had found no native home, or found it changed ;
, And, half uncivilized, preferred the cave
Of some soft savage, to the uncertain wave.”

Almost any person born and educated in a civilized country, however low
he may be sunk in vice and ignorance, would be superior to these sav­
ages, both in moral sentiments and cultivation. Probably few, if any
white men, ever banded among them, who did not feel and express a hor
ror of the customs of human sacrifice, child-murder, cannibalism, and
other atrocities practised by the natives. The most frequent charge
brought against them, is their unbounded licentiousness. But it should be
remembered that the natives were, in this respect, already sunk to the
lowest depths of degradation ; and though these men might conform to the
customs of the country, they could add nothing to the prevalent vice.
Indeed, we may suppose its grossest forms would soon disgust them ; and
we rarely find one so utterly lost to the associations of early life, as not,
by his conduct, to at least set a better example in this respect.
The lowest class exercised at first the most influence over the natives,
because in habits and propensities they were so nearly on a level with
them. Consequently, the latter would be more forcibly impressed by
their remonstrances. The whites, moreover, generally attached them­
selves to some powerful chief, of an energetic character, who, by their
assistance, made himself master of the group ; and thus, of course, put
a natural end to savage warfare, with all its horrid results. From the
mechanics, the natives would gradually become acquainted with the sim­
plest of the arts, which the chiefs, for their own profit, would require them
to learn and practice. A gradual but perceptible improvement in their
dwellings, culture of lands, and clothing, took place. This constituted
the second step in their progress towards civilization.
When it was once known that life and property were safe in any island,
and that it afforded an opportunity of acquiring wealth, adventurers of a
higher rank, men of education and character, made their appearance.
The natives began to acquire a notion of the manners, stylo of living, and
employments of enlightened nations. The chiefs were always the first
to feel the influence of this example, and to adopt new customs ; and from
them the taste spread among the common people. The latter, moreover,
perceiving that their chiefs were treated by the foreigners with a kind of
careless superiority, gradually lost much of that slavish awe of them which
was one of the principal obstacles to their improvement. A general de
sire became developed for a better form of government, and for an educa
tion which might raise them to an equality with their visiters.
At New Zealand, the worst features of barbarism, as well as the great,
est advance in civilization of any of the Southern islands, exists. Many




20

The Sandwich or Hawaiian Islands.

tribes retain their primitive habits, but they are such only as are farthest
removed from foreign influence ; while those in the vicinity of the settle­
ments have not only discontinued their savage rites, but have adopted the
customs of the whites. Their wars are far less frequent and bloody, can­
nibalism has generally ceased, and their enterprise is now directed towards
the acquisition of property. The settlers employ them to cultivate their
lands, and as body servants ; while many drive a lucrative trade, by sup­
plying the markets and shipping from the produce of their farms. Some
become sailors ; others are employed as artisans. The money which they
derive from these services is spent for articles of foreign manufacture.
The external forms of Christianity are recognized, and they are about
being united under one general government. Yet New Zealand affords
one of the worst pictures of the influence of foreigners; for those who
first settled there, were generally of the most abandoned character— con­
victs escaped from New South Wales, runaways from vessels, and others of
equally unequivocal caste. These men brought all their vices with them, and
spent their time and earnings in scenes of the grossest debauchery. Some
may have compared, in vileness and crime, with the debased savages around
them. Nevertheless, that their general influence tended to produce a fa­
vorable change in their barbarous associates, is evident from the fact that
men of better character were soon attracted thith er; and, bringing their
families, became denizens of the country where, but a short period before,
it would have been unsafe to land. Many benevolent persons declaim
with much earnestness against the settlement of whites on lands held by
savages, and draw a lamentable picture of the condition of the native
tribes in case of such an event. They conjure up scenes of past felicity
and innocence, when the children of the soil, untrammelled by the arti­
ficial restraints of civilization, roamed in unrestrained freedom over the
land, and all was mirth and gladness. Their readers have presented to
them a scene of Arcadian bliss. This they contrast with the toil and
drudgery of laboring for the whites, of their utter denationilization, loss
of language, and rapid passing away from the soil where repose the bones
of their ancestors. All this powerfully appeals to the sympathies ; and
without further reflection, we should come to the conclusion that the con­
tact of the two races brought nothing but misery, disease, and death, to
the weaker. How far this is the case, it may be well to examine before
leaving the subject; but for the present I shall confine myself to the ques­
tion of colonization.
That the whites found the savages a cruel and sensual race, has already
been shown. The great mass of the people being mere slaves, and al­
ways at war to gratify the base passions of their chiefs, could have but
little attachment to the soil, and nothing of the spirit of patriotism. Fear
was with them the most cogent motive, and almost the only principle
which entered into their government or religion. Any change would be
an improvement; and we find that after an amicable intercourse has been
once opened by the whites, they are eager to enter their service. The
chiefs would at first freely alienate their lands to acquire foreign luxuries,
or the means of adding to their power, through the superior knowledge
of their visiters. Thus the first exchanges of lands, goods, and services,
were simply acts of trade, by which both parties were benefited. As the
whites increased, the chiefs would naturally become more jealous ; as the
body of the people would reap many benefits from their intercourse, and




The Sandwich or Hawaiian Islands.

21

lose much of the debasing subserviency so natural to despotism. But it
is needless to trace the progress of all the changes which result from this
system. The effect is simply this : the natives are benefited just in that
proportion as the settlers are superior to them in virtue and intelligence.
A few of the rulers might regret the days of violence and tyranny, when
their breath was la w ; but this could arise only from a reprehensible
selfishness. At those islands in the Pacific at the present day, where
whites are numerous, or the intercourse with them has been frequent, we
find good order established; laws and government suitable to the condi­
tion of the people, by which the rights of trade and property are respected;
commerce and agriculture flourishing ; the Christian religion recognized;
in short, the elements of incipient prosperity.
Who would change this spectacle for that which formerly everywhere
prevailed, even though every island in the Pacific might be densely pop­
ulated by the aborigines 1 Had purer causes been brought to operate
upon them, more good would have been accomplished. Much of this
revolution has been brought about through force and bloodshed. Ambi­
tion, licentiousness, and avarice, have swayed the minds of many. Still,
such are the effects; and men and manners must be viewed as they actu­
ally exist. There is something melancholy in witnessing the gradual
disappearance of a race of men from the earth, and in beholding their
hearths and altars occupied by another. Yet it seems a fiat of the Cre­
ator, that by death all shall live. By storms and lightning, by the earth­
quake’s shock, the avalanche, and all the terrible machinery of the
Almighty’s arm, equally as with the constant recurrence of seasons, the
quiet growth of vegetation, and renewal of life, the physical world is
kept in order for man’s abode. Pestilence, war, and famine, are no less
powerful agents under His guidance, for the moral world. Who shall
question the designs of Providence, or attempt to improve them ? If we
but view the human race simply, as Christianity teaches us, as one fam­
ily, and not permit our sympathies to be confined by boundary lines, treat­
ies, and all the artificial distinctions which separate men on earth, we
shall see at a glance that this gradual extinction and blending of races
follows laws as immutable and as necessary as those which regulate the
physical world. Death itself is but a result of this arrangement. In no
way is this truth brought more forcibly to our perception, than in the des­
tinies of nations. Separate the distinction of color and language from
our minds, and we view them all as one people, and their gradual inter­
mingling and passing away as a succession of generations. And this is
their true state. On a certain island, one portion of the human family is
found sunk into the lowest depths of degradation ; on another, the highest
in intellect and advancement. They come in contact. Those of the
former capable of receiving the cultivation of the latter, become assim­
ilated to and amalgamated with them— consequently, the power, wealth,
and government, passes into their hands. Those of the latter who are
too vile and indolent to improve, gradually decay, and are swallowed up
in the mass of the former. As soon as the change is completed, we have
a better and more numerous race of men, civilized and enlightened, to
inhabit an island where all was heathenism before. Should another race,
superior to this, follow, the same results would ensue. All this is in strict
accordance with the plan of universal benevolence by which this world
is governed; and the operations of such causes are as inevitable as they
are permanent.




22

The Sandwich or Hawaiian Islands.

The vices and enormities too commonly practised by a lawless portion
of the foreign population in the Pacific, are frequently so prominent as to
entirely fill up the foreground of the picture, and justly to draw forth the
most severe condemnation. Still, those who indulge in such censures are
apt to lose sight of the original character of the heathen, and to occupy
themselves too much with the present contrast between such countries
and the most civilized— a comparison as unjust as it is erroneous. They
liould remember that these men, so far from being capable of adding to
the natural depravity of the natives, actually suffer by contact with them.
The restraints of law, domestic affections, and religion, which operate to
a greater or less extent in a civilized community, to restrain their pas­
sions, do not exist h e re ; while every allurement to sin is temptingly
spread before them. Yet, instances of whites becoming complete savages,
in minds and habits, are rare indeed ; and the odium in which such indi­
viduals are held, shows how deep is the abhorrence of such degradation.
Outlawed alike by all nations, they most commonly meet with a violent
death from the hands of their savage associates.
The greatest benefit which has occurred to savages through foreign in­
fluences, has been the introduction of Christianity. In many instances,
its success can be traced to the previous impressions made by visiters,
whom interest or adventure led to their islands. Even those who were
personally unfriendly to its progress, have indirectly afforded it aid, by
keeping up in the natives the desire for improvement. The most hostile,
in precept and example, likewise contributed, though unintentionally, to
its advancement; for the obvious distinction between their conduct, and
the deportment of those who are swayed by humane and generous feel­
ings, would inevitably prepossess them in favor of upright and honest
dealings. The punishments which follow crimes among the whites, so
frequently witnessed by them, would confirm this impression, and conse­
quently their minds become more susceptible to moral distinctions. Such
has often been the experience of missionaries. Those who came out be­
fore the islands were frequented by ships, were uniformly unsuccessful.
At the Marquesas, their lives were endangered, and they were obliged to
flee: at the Friendly islands, four of them were m urdered; and at the
Society group they protracted their labors unsuccessfully for sixteen years,
until other influences, such as we have been treating of, were brought to
the aid of their cause. If Pomare had not, chiefly by the assistance of
foreigners, been enabled to make himself sovereign of Tahiti, who can
say how long the favorable result might have been delayed ?
Neither is it a matter of astonishment that the first reception of mis­
sionaries was hostile and unfriendly. How could savages, possessing
characters so sensual and selfish as wre have seen they displayed alike to
strangers and the nearest of kin, conceive of a benevolence which would
lead men to exile themselves for the benefit of others. The property they
brought with them would also be a strong temptation to plunder; and,
indeed, we find that they invariably suffered in this respect. Yet the
savages treated them no worse than they would have treated their own
flesh and blood, had the temptation been the same. And there is no fact
more indisputable than that commerce first taught them to fear and re­
spect the white man, and also made them dependent upon him for the very
necessaries of life ; and by this means they first learned to appreciate the
character of a missionary. First, unchecked avarice governed them—




The Sandwich or Hawaiian Islands.

23

this punished, then fear, and finally interest, taught them to treat the palefaced strangers as their friends. Of late, little of this difficulty has been
experienced. The islanders are almost always eager to receive and cher­
ish their teachers—a change which is in a great measure to be attributed
to the new perceptions they have acquired from foreigners.
Next to New Zealand, Tahiti, of all the Southern islands, is most fre­
quented by foreigners. Missionaries have resided there upwards of forty
years, and have finally succeeded in introducing all the outward forms of
Christianity— of indeed converting the natives from heathenism; and al­
though their efforts have not been attended with so foil and brilliant suc­
cess as at some other points, yet this is to be attributed to the unfavorable
circumstances that always attend a first experiment. The Tahitians were
a nation luxurious and licentious above all others in the Pacific; and these
qualities will never be entirely eradicated. They form as much a part of
the nation as their color and language ; and we have it from the mission­
aries themselves, that these vices have rather changed their forms than
diminished their degrees. True it is that it is disguised ; and so much
improvement has taken place, that a semblance of outward decency is
preserved. In other respects, the Tahitians are infinitely changed for the
better. The Sabbath is observed, schools attended, the grinding tyranny
of the chiefs abolished, laws respected, and tolerably regular government
established. All that missionaries can well do without the assistance of
foreigners, has been done, and quite as successfully as could have been
anticipated. They have even attempted to introduce some of the arts of
civilized life ; and their zeal for encouraging agriculture, and the attempt
to form an export for the islands, deserves much praise. Partial success
has rewarded their labors in these particulars, but full as much as would
naturally arise, from circumstances which necessarily render these con­
siderations of a secondary nature. With a missionary, moral efforts are
the great primary object; and his attention can only be devoted to the
improvement of the physical condition of the people, as auxiliary to the
former—consequently, it can be but partially successful. But with the
merchant, the case is reversed. All his time, energies, and capital, are
devoted towards the accumulation of property, and the labors of others is
necessary to effect this. He cannot succeed in' any honorable traffic,
without benefiting others ; and thus, through a law of benevolence, the
good of one is made conducive to the welfare of all. Tahiti has been
heretofore mostly under missionary influence ; and by Christianizing the
inhabitants, it is slowly becoming a desirable residence for the capitalist
and merchant. They now begin to flock thither, and their enterprise will
find employment for the natives. By the combination of these influences,
each neutralizing in a great measure the defects of the other, a much
better state of affairs will result, than if either altogether predominated.
A charge frequently brought against foreigners, has been their supply­
ing natives with fire-arms, and otherwise encouraging them in their wars.
This is true, but its results have generally been beneficial. We find that
wars have ceased as soon as one leading chief secured the ascendancy;
and his power has been frequently established through the assistance of
whites. They would naturally prefer the service of the most energetic
and capable man, as he would best appreciate their assistance; and we
rarely hear of their joining indiscriminately both parties, and aiding and
protracting a long and bloody warfare. At the Sandwich islands, the




24

The Sandwich or Hawaiian Islands.

Society, and indeed others, the way was opened for Christianity through
these very means. When missionaries have succeeded in establishing
themselves before this has occurred, wars have resulted between the advocates of the new religion and the adherents of the old. The Christian
party has finally triumphed, but by the aid of fire-arms, and the superior
knowledge derived from more immediate contact with the whites.
Missionaries have been established for several years at the Samoa and
Friendly group, and the natives have made rapid advances in Christian­
ity. These islands having no foreign population, and being but an occa­
sional resort for shipping, show conclusively how much can be accom­
plished by missionaries, undisturbed or unaided by other influences. Their
remarkable success in turning the people from their idols, and the great
moral reform which has followed their labors, are unanswerable argu­
ments in favor of missions ; for no like changes have occurred where they
have not been established. Still they raise a people but to a certain point,
when they either remain stationary, or retrograde ; unless, indeed, by im­
itating the Jesuits in Paraguay, and becoming their rulers, remodel their
polity, introducing the customs, laws, and manufactures of Europe, and
thus force them, as it were, to be civilized. This may appear to be an
uncharitable conclusion, but it is far otherwise ; and in making it, no cen­
sure is intended. However faithfully they may devote themselves to their
work as missionaries, this will be the inevitable result. The reason is
obvious. By their own inclinations, and characters as preachers of the
gospel, they must necessarily confine themselves to moral and doctrinal
teachings. Their hearers are engaged in every work of vice and crime,
and even all their games and amusements partake of sensuality. In proportion as they become influenced by the new religion, they discontinue
their old customs, and the whole government must be revolutionized.
Despotism must be abolished, as inconsistent with their new belief; wars
cease ; and those sports whose only merit consisted in their manly activ­
ity, while they depraved and corrupted the mind, are necessarily forsaken.
Industry is inculcated, both by precept and example, by their teachers ;
and every advice and direction for culture of the earth, instruction in sim­
ple trades, and engaging in new avocations, given. But until some more
powerful motive than the mere desire to be industrious is presented, or
there is a demand for labor, men will not become so. Hope of reward
is necessary to stimulate them. At Samoa, the manners of the natives
are rapidly becoming revolutionized. But the novelty of this change will
soon wear aw ay; and unless something occurs to employ their time prof­
itably to themselves, a moral reaction will necessarily take place. Their
natures remain much the same. At present, the desire for learning, at­
tending meetings, and other sources of missionary instruction, which are
necessarily multiplied in order to keep the minds of the natives alive to
these subjects, will occupy them. But the experience of missions show
that this soon palls ; and unless something else is brought forward, they
will do those things in secret which their new laws may forbid, but which
have been sanctioned by usage with them from time immemorial. The
guilt, in their view, will lay more in detection, than in any criminal act
itself. The brightest conversions among the natives are those the most
engaged in regular occupations.
A nation may change its religion; and by so doing, those sources of
activity by which its energies (however wrongfully directed) were tried,




The Sandwich or Hawaiian Islands.

25

and hopes stimulated, are dried up, because in direct opposition to the
spirit of the new. Something must now intervene, (for in these islands
the mere labor for subsistence occupies but a small portion of time,) or
else the nation will perish, or return to their former practices. Agricul­
ture, trade, and commerce, are now the reso rt; and as missionaries can­
not engage profitably in them, and retain their original character, men
whose business these are, should be encouraged to settle. In this way,
the dormant industry of the country will be awakened, its natural resources
developed, and the natives provided with the means of becoming civilized,
without which it is vain to think of keeping them Christianized.
The Roman Catholic missionaries at the Gambier islands have been
eminently successful in converting the people to their faith; but in this
they have been aided by many incidental circumstances. The islands are
small, and contain but 2,200 inhabitants. They are far separated from
other islands, little or no shipping touching there, and the people conse­
quently were without any previous bias ; and, undisturbed by conflicting
doctrines, have no temptation to forsake their present faith. The pop­
ulation is now on the increase—the men are employed in shelling, while
all the women learn to spin. The poverty of the island compels the na­
tives to labor for their subsistence, and the various arts which are taught
keep them industrious.
Before closing this article, it will be worth our attention'to take a view
o f those islands which are wholly without missionary influence, but par­
tially under that of foreigners. Their condition will go far to refute or
confirm the assertions which I have before made. A few teachers of the
Methodist persuasion have settled at the Fijii group. As their labors,
though indefatigable in their cause, cannot be said to have produced a
sincere convert, and the islands are so populous and extensive, I shall
class them among those to which we now refer. Their white population
was originally the same as that which first frequented New Zealand; but
the barbarous habits of the savages seem to have had a favorable effect
upon them, by strengthening the sense of their own moral superiority,
which has secured to them a deserved respect among their heathen asso­
ciates. This influence has been sufficiently powerful, in places where
they have settled in any numbers, to put an end to cannibalism, and to
associate with it a feeling of horror and disgust— certainly a great step
towards changing the manners of so ferocious a race. In other respects,
their example has been decidedly beneficial; particularly in regulating the
intercourse with vessels that touch for trade and refreshments, and secu­
ring them from any treacherous attacks. Of late, they are even desirous
to secure a missionary to reside with them, for the purpose of instructing
their children ; and the most favorable points for the introduction of
Christianity are said to be where they reside.
Next in importance to these islands is the King’s Mill group, and others
in the immediate vicinity. A few stragglers from civilization are said to
reside on them, but so little is known of their history, that I cannot speak
of their condition with any certainty. Of some, rumor says they are in
character pirates, being runaways from vessels in which they experienced
ill treatment, and are now determined to revenge themselves on any
whites whom misfortune or want of prudence may put into their power.
Even if this is the case, the savages will soon perceive that such visiters
are an injury alike to them and their own race ; and the penalty which
VOL. i x . — n o . i .
3




26

The Sandwich or Hawaiian Islands.

such crimes so richly deserve must sooner or later overtake them. The
savages will not fail to contrast their conduct with those who treat them
justly, and the reaction of sentiment will be much in favor of the latter.
A few years since, the captain and crew of a shipwrecked whaler were
massacred at the group. Some time afterward, the captain of another
vessel, hearing of this circumstance, sailed for the place, and opened a
destructive fire upon their villages, which, of course, from its mere wan­
tonness and injustice, only exasperated the savages, and rendered it still
more dangerous for other vessels to approach their islands. In cutting oft'
the crew of the whaler, they had acted according to the dictates of their
own natural feelings and customs, and were unconscious of having com­
mitted any criminal offence. They should have been punished severely ;
but to have produced a good effect, it should have been with judgment,
and not in a spirit of revenge. The distinction between the innocent and
guilty should have been made as far as practicable, and the power and
justice of the whites at the same time firmly impressed upon their minds.
But, in this instance, they could perceive that {he whites acted precisely
as they would have done themselves in a similar case ; and thus an op­
portunity of forcibly impressing upon them the moral as well as physical
superiority of their civilized foes, which would have tended strongly to
have prevented a recurrence of the like treachery, was lost. That kind
treatment will conciliate even the lowest of savages, is evident from the
following fact, which was related to me by the master of a vessel, who
has had much experience with the South Sea tribes. Not long after the
catastrophe above mentioned, he sailed for the same group. Upon making
them, his vessel was surrounded with canoes filled with warriors, who
immediately commenced an attack. A few balls were then fired through
several of their canoes, which sunk them, and the crews of the remainder
made for the shore in great trepidation. The succeeding day, they came
alongside in a peaceful manner, and gave up all their weapons, which
were at once destroyed. They were then admitted on board the ship,
and presents distributed among them, and every method attempted to con­
ciliate, and at the same time to impress upon their minds the power of
the strangers. This treatment had the desired effect; and every time
that vessel appears, the natives flock to her with gifts of fruits and vegeta­
bles, and with every demonstration of joy. And this is simply the effect
of making them dread the power, and at the same time see it is for their
interests to receive their visiters kindly.
It is a lamentable fact that unprovoked aggressions have been made
upon natives of the South Seas, but they are now of rare occurrence.
Some, it seems, have fired upon them, out of mere abuse of superior power
—to amuse themselves at the surprise and terror of the ignorant islanders.
Others, in revenge for some real or fancied injury, have lowered themselves
to the level of the most cruel of the savages themselves. These cases are
to be deplored ; and while they lessen the amount of benefit received, they
do not disprove the general fact of the utility of a commercial intercourse
with the aborigines. Indeed, they are to be viewed only as exceptions to
a general rule. On many islands, it is well known white men are held
prisoners, and the strictest caution used to prevent their escape, so impor­
tant are their services to the inhabitants. Even those unfortunate indi­
viduals who resided on Lord North’s island, although suffering every pri­
vation themselves, yet, when they were released, cheerfully acknowledged




The Sandwich or Hawaiian Islands.

27

their indebtedness to the miserable beings they had been among, as hav­
ing treated them well, according to their ideas, and preserved their lives.
They rewarded them to the best of their ability, and no doubt left a most
favorable impression among them of the honor and justice of the paletaced race ; and any person whom misfortune may hereafter drive upon
those shores, will have reason to be thankful for the lesson. The inhab­
itants of Rotuma and Ascension have become, through the civilizing influ­
ences of commerce, tractable and hospitable. The former are frequently
employed as sailors by whaling and other vessels, and bear a high char­
acter for industry and honesty. At the latter, property is safe, and trade
with foreigners eagerly desired. They both offer great encouragements
as missionary stations, and will probably before long be occupied. The
inhabitants of Pitcairn’s island are a remarkable instance of purity and
simplicity of manner, the result of the instructions of an ignorant but
simple-minded foreigner.
In the preceding remarks I have endeavored to show that commerce,
even in intercourse with the most savage of the human race, has pro­
duced decidedly beneficial effects. If, however, the following description,
from the pages of a popular author of the last century, is correct, I am
altogether in the wrong ; and happy would it have been for the “ spotless
minds” of these children of an earthly paradise, had the white man never
visited their favored land. The missionary could bring no glad tidings to
a sinless race, nor commerce benefit them—their happiness was complete.
“ Is it not enough that European avarice and ambition disturb the repose
of distant nations ?—why should their vices and diseases taint the spotless
mind or the uncontaminated frame ? O ! why were you ever drawn from
your primeval obscurity, ye once happy natives of Otaheite ? W e have
only taught you to feel wants which cannot be gratified, we have planted
ills which never can be cured. Such are the blessings that the civilized
confer on savages.”
Similar opinions were entertained by many of the great and good of
the past age, and are not altogether eradicated from the present. But the
belief which most generally prevails at the present day among a numerous
class, and one which some authors seem particularly desirous of extend­
ing, is, that the influence of commerce is necessarily prejudicial to the
aborigines of a country, and an antagonist to the precepts of the gospel.
This is a sophism, dangerous alike to both causes, and calculated to
strengthen the enmity of feeling which unfortunately exists between the
partial advocates of either view. No one will attempt to argue that it
would have been better for humanity or civilization that the islands of the
South Seas had never been visited, though some may contend that the
latter has spread itself at the extent of the former. Unfortunately, the
criminal conduct of many voyagers and traders, in their intercourse with
the natives, gives room for the assertion. Who has not read of frequent
acts of barbarity, committed through mere wantonness of power, by men
whose boasts were of such deeds, and who themselves were savages in all
but a white skin ; of duplicity in trading, diseases introduced, and of the
many wrongs and outrages which cause us to blush for our race ? The
guileless trader and innocent voyager have, in many instances, suffered
by the retribution which should have been doubly visited upon the guilty.
Such men are a pest to mankind ; their deeds are the plague-spots of
history; savage or civilized man are alike injured.




28

The Sandwich or Hawaiian Islands.

If we but look (as too many do) only upon the dark side of history, our
hearts sicken at the view—the bad always appears the most prominent.
Death, disease, crime, and suffering, are always in bold relief, and strike
us forcibly; while the many acts of benevolence which alleviate, of gen­
erosity which cheers, and counsels that soothes or builds anew the shat­
tered frame of man or state, the example that operates almost impercep­
tibly—all these, emanating from the better feelings of man, spread over
the world like oil upon water, so noiselessly, that we rarely detect them
but in their effects.
The South Sea islanders, upon their discovery, were made the special
objects of the benevolence of the great of Europe. They had been rep­
resented in the most glowing colors, and were looked upon almost as chil­
dren of a new and fairer creation. Unlike the Indians of America, their
lands were respected— no mines of gold brought a cruel and avaricious
conqueror to their shores to exterminate, or the priest, with cross or fag­
got, to proselyte. Gifts were showered down upon them ; all strove to
impart to them the knowledge and resources of civilization. Some of
this-was done with more zeal than discretion. The Duchess of Choiseul,
in 1769, “ ordered a considerable sum to be expended in seeds, implements
of husbandry, and other articles, for the improvement of the island of
Tahiti.”
The noble and disinterested conduct of Vancouver, in endeavoring to
pacify the hostile parties of the Sandwich islands, is familiar to all read­
ers—also the expense incurred in introducing cattle, various fruits and
vegetables, and, in short, everything which could be useful to the natives,
or enable them to support a traffic with foreigners. Instances of this na­
ture might be indefinitely multiplied. England was the most famous in
this active benevolence, and by it she is justly entitled to the good will of
the islanders. When we look at them in their original state, we see tribes
of naked or but half-clad natives, filthy in their habits, and with little
call for industry to support them ; their lives being mostly spent in sen­
suality, the rites of a bloody and debasing theology, or in a cruel and
never-ending warfare. Their fruits, vegetables, and animals, were few
in variety— of the natural resources of their soil, they knew nothing.
Months were spent in manufacturing articles of domestic use, which half
a day’s labor for the whites would have purchased. Riches lay every­
where around them, and yet they knew it not. They were children in
knowledge, but adepts in all that was brutal and sensual. The white
man came—their eyes were opened, and they saw their own nakedness.
To him they were indebted for the cow, the horse, the goat, and mule ;
in short, for all those appendages to civilization, without which, the most
fertile country is but a wilderness. Articles of but little value to them
were exchanged for those which, to savages, are always inestimable.
Commerce gave a value to the sandal-wood, biche le mar, tortoise­
shell, and other articles, which, without it, are as useless as the sands on
the sea-shore. Commerce made it for their interest to cease warring—
if the stranger could not be protected, their wants could not be supplied ;
nor without labor and industry could they collect the articles necessary
for exchange. Commerce clothes them, and gives them the means of
subsistence. It has taught them the value of the gifts of Providence—to
extract sugar from the cane, to rear the tender silk-worm, to gather cof­
fee, plant corn, and is constantly opening to their view the inexhaustible




The Sandwich or Hawaiian Islands.

29

resources of agriculture. By its means, settlers have established their
home upon their shores, bringing with them the arts and refinements of
civilization. Many intermarry, and thus raise them in character and
respectability; and*all are interested in promoting and preserving good
order, in abolishing bad habits and laws, and in every way improving
their adopted country. Knowledge is communicated by daily intercourse,
and every resident is a missionary as far as his example for good goes.
The manners and usages of civilized nations are taught them by visiters,
while families show them the advantages of well-regulated households,
and the virtues and enjoyments of domestic life. Commerce offers a pre­
mium to morality and intelligence, as it pays those best who possess those
qualities in the highest degree. Commerce has made them sailors, artizans, and traders—it teaches them the value of property, and indirectly
the rights of man. It has remodelled their polity, freed their labor, and
is rapidly teaching the chiefs that, if they would have their own rights
respected, they must respect the rights of others ; that oppression and
enterprise cannot flourish in unison ; and that, if they would retain their
authority, they must exert themselves to keep pace with the advance of
mind and general improvement about them. Commerce keeps the springs
of enterprise in motion, awakens new ideas, liberalizes their governments,
and brings the arts and improvements of other lands to theirs. It would
have carried them far in advance of their present condition, had they but
seconded her efforts by the enaction of suitable laws to encourage the
settlement of respectable whites, of securing apprentices to trades, and
other means by which the interests of all are protected in more advanced
countries. Commerce is an all-active principle. All that cannot float
on its current, is lost in its depths. Commerce has, in all ages, been the
friend of the common people. Commercial countries are always the
most free ; and well may the natives remember the day, with gratitude,
when they first beheld the “ floating island,” as they deemed the ships
approaching their shores. True, it contained not “ gods
but it was a
harbinger of the gifts of a bountiful Providence, to raise them from their
degradation, and free them from the most sensual of all slavery.
In conclusion, we shall revert in general terms to the labors of mis­
sionaries at the Sandwich islands, and their influence in developing prin­
ciples of civilization and Christianity.
On their arrival, they found the islanders victims to most cruel and
debasing superstitions. These, the untiring efforts of years have uprooted,
to a great extent, with their accompanying vices and crimes, and planted
in their stead the worship of the one Jehovah. Religious instruction oc­
cupied their attention mostly, at first; but as soon as the mass of the
people had become familiar with the doctrines of the Bible, schools and
seminaries were established, in which all the common branches of edu­
cation were taught. But before this could be done, the language was to
be reduced to writing, and books translated—a work of labor little ap­
preciated, but arduous in the extreme. The translation of the Bible is
in itself a monument, of industry. The missionaries have always fur­
nished gratuitous medical advice and medicine to the natives, and have
endeavored to destroy their barbarous customs of treating diseases, by
the dissemination of correct knowledge upon this subject. Too little
credit has been given them for the attempt to teach the mechanical arts,
and introduce agricultural improvements. A farmer and his family were
3*




so

The Sandwich or Hawaiian Islands.

among the first body of missionaries that arrived at H aw aii; but, owing
to the indifference of the chiefs, were obliged to suspend their labors,
and return home.
Many of the native mechanics were instructed by the missionaries.
They have also established manual-labor schools, and their precepts and
examples tend directly to the encouragement of industry, and the intro­
duction of the trades and manufactures of civilized life. In the female
seminary at Waileiku au Mani, the girls are taught to sew, spin, braid,
and knit, and other employments suitable to their sex. In all the other
schools, these branches are taught as far as practicable. Every assist­
ance and encouragement has been given to the natives, to enable them
to find a profitable market for their produce, and to create exports for the
purchase of foreign goods. As far as missionaries, without compromising
their character as such, can go in effecting these desirable changes, they
have done so ; but their success depends more upon individual wants and
interests, and requires the co-operation of the merchant and agriculturist.
The missionary has endeavored to civilize the natives, by inducing them
to live in better houses, and forsake their old habits. It is by examining
into the minutiae of daily life, that we can rightly judge of what has been
accomplished. But it is needless to descend further into particulars. The
labors of the missionary have been directly employed in Christianizing
the natives, and indirectly in civilizing. That they have done this, and
that the results are gratifying in the extreme, none can deny. They have
also introduced the same system of free schools which has raised New
England to her high station of intellectual power. Originating from the
freest and most enlightened country, and educated in the bosom of a dem­
ocratic church, their influence has been to extend human liberty and
thought, and to introduce those institutions which have crowned their
native land with so much honor. They have laid a broad foundation for
national happiness and greatness ; and their influence, whether upon na­
tives or whites, will cease only with the end of all things. Their char­
acter, like that of the Puritans, will leave its impress upon after ages ;
and there are few of the present who do not award that sect the just
praise of sowing those seeds of individual and national freedom, which
have operated so powerfully in rendering America what she is. To say
that their system is faultless, would be erroneous ; or that what has been
done, in some instances, might not have been done better. The same
truth holds good of all other human means— imperfection and decay are
but too closely united with humanity.
The two principles of Christianity and civilization, modifying each
other, give knowledge and freedom to the world. They are the choicest
gifts of Providence to man. and bis greatest happiness lies in their proper
union. For their advancement, distinct professions are necessary, though
each is essential to the healthy existence of the other. Mankind have
moral and intellectual wants, as well as physical. Let not the profes­
sors of either narrow down their views to the horizon of their selfish
interests, but look about upon the world as the common field of their la­
bors—its improvement as their common end. Their pursuits are all
necessary, all noble; and should expand the soul, and make it grasp at
brighter things than the mere possession of some trifling gratification, or
petty triumph to particular opinions or designs,
j. j. j .




Internal Trade o f the United- States.
A rt.

31

II.—IN T E R N A L TRADE OF T H E U N ITE D ST A T E S.
NUMBER

in.

T h e increasing tendency to reside in towns and cities which is mani­
fested by the inhabitants of all countries, as they make progress in the
arts and refinements of civilization, is sufficiently obvious to most men
who think on the subject. But it is not so apparent to those whose atten­
tion has not been particularly turned to the matter, that the improvements
of the last century have so much strengthened that tendency as almost to
make it seem like a new principle of society, growing out of the combin­
ed agency of steam power and machinery. Mr. Hume, who had as clear
apprehension of the relations of the various conditions of society, and the
operation of the causes modifying them, as any man of his time, expresses
the opinion that no city of antiquity probably ever contained more inhab­
itants than London, which, at the time he wrote, near one hundred years
ago, was estimated at 800,000. He thought there were internal and in­
herent causes to check and stop the growth of the most favorably situated
cities when they reached that size. Taking the then existing condition
of society as the basis of his reasoning, it seems probable that he judged
correctly. Neither the spinning jenny, nor the power loom, nor the steam
engine, nor the canal, nor the McAdam road, nor the railway, had then
been brought into use ; nor had the productive power of the soil, aided
by science and art, been, at that time, tasked to its utmost to bring forth
human sustenance. Mr. Hume looked with the eye of a philosopher on
the past and the present; but, in predicting of the future, his mistakes
were nearly as numerous as his vaticinations. To judge of the future by the
past may seem safe and philosophic to those who believe not in the cer­
tain advance of mankind towards a more perfect condition and nature.
So to judge was in accordance with the sceptical mind of Mr. Hume.
Let us avoid, so far as we may, his mistake ; though to us it seems not
practicable to avoid falling into some degree of error of the same sort,
when we undertake to foretell future conditions and events, in a rapidly
progressive community.
What has been the effect of the improvements, physical and moral, of
the past century, on the growth of towns ? and what is likely to be their
future effect, aided by other and probably greater improvements, on the
growth of towns, during the hundred years to come? W'e define town to
mean any place numbering 2,000 or more inhabitants. It is to Great
Britain we are to look for the main evidences of the effects of the laborsaving improvements of the last century. The first canal was commenced
in that country by the Duke of Bridgewater, no longer ago than 1760.
The invention of the spinning jenny, by Hargreaves, followed seven years
after. Not long after this, the spinning frame was contrived by the in­
genuity of Arkwright. In 1775, Mr. Crompton produced the machine
called the mule, a combination of the two preceding. Some time after­
wards, Mr. Cartwright invented the power loom, but it was not until after
1820 that it was brought into general use. The steam engine, the mov­
ing power of all this machinery, was so improved by Watt, in 1785, as
to entitle him to claim, for all important practical purposes, being its in­
ventor. At the same time that these great inventions we re being brought
into use, the nation was making rapid progress in the construction of ca­




32

Internal Trade o f the United States.

nals and roads, and the duplication of her agricultural products. Indeed,
great part of her works to cheapen and facilitate internal trade, including
her canals, her McAdam roads, and her railways, have been constructed
within the last thirty years. The effect of these, in building up towns, is
exemplified by the following facts. Mr. Slaney, M. P., stated in the house
of commons, in May, 1830, that, “ in England, those engaged in manu­
facturing and mechanical occupations, as compared with the agricultural
class, were 6 to 5, in 1801; they were as 8 to 5, in 1821; and 2 to 1, in
1830. In Scotland, the increase had been still more extraordinary. In
that country they were as 5 to 6, in 1801; as 9 to 6, in 1821; and, in
1830, as 2 to 1. The increase of the general population for the preced­
ing twenty years, had been 30 per c e n t; in the manufacturing population
it had been 40 per c e n t; in Manchester, Liverpool, Coventry, and Bir­
mingham, the increase had been 50 per c e n t; in Leeds, it had been 54
per c e n t; in Glasgow, it had been 100 percent.” The increase of popu­
lation in England and Wales, from 1821 to 1831, was 16 percent. This
increase was nearly all absorbed in towns and their suburbs, as the pro­
portion of people engaged in agriculture has decreased decidedly with
every census. More scientific modes of culture, and more perfect ma­
chines and implements, combined with other causes, have rendered an
increased amount of human labor unnecessary in the production of a
greatly augmented amount of food. In 1831, but one-third of the people
of England were employed in the labors of agriculture. In 1841, verylittle more than one-fourth were so employed. In Scotland, seven of the
best agricultural counties decreased in population, from 1831 to 1841, from
1 to 5 per c e n t; whereas, the counties, in which were her principal towns,
increased during the same period from 15 per cent to 34.8 per c e n t; the
latter being the increase of the county of Lanark, in which Glasgow is
situated. The average increase of all Scotland for those ten years, was
11.1 percent. According to Marshall, the increase of population in E ng­
land for the ten years preceding 1831, was 30 percent in the mining dis­
tricts; 254 in the manufacturing; and 19 in the metropolitan, (Middlesex
county;) while, in the inland towns and villages, it was only 7J per cent.
The railways, which now traverse England in every quarter, and bring
into near neighborhood its most distant points, have been nearly all con­
structed since 1830. Their effect, in aid of the other works, in augment­
ing the present great centers of population, will, obviously, be very con­
siderable ; how great, remains to be developed by the future. London,
with its suburbs, has now about 2,000,000 of inhabitants ; but she is prob­
ably far below the culminating point of her greatness. The kingdom of
which she is the commercial heart, doubles its population in forty-two
years. It is reasonable, then, to suppose that, within the next fifty years,
London and the other great fo ci of human beings, in that kingdom, will
have more than twice their present numbers; for it is proved that nearly
the whole increase in England is monopolized by the large commercial
and manufacturing towns with their suburbs.
Will similar causes produce like effects in the United States ? In the
States of Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, the improve­
ments of the age operated to some extent on their leading towns from
1830 to 1840. Massachusetts had little benefit from canals, railways, or
steam pow er; but her towns felt the beneficent influence of her laborsaving machinery moved by water power, and her improved agriculture




Internal Trade o f the United States.

33

and common roads. The increase of her nine principal towns, commenc­
ing with Boston and ending with Cambridge, from 1830 to 1840, was
66,373, equal to 53 per c e n t; being more than half the entire increase
of the state, which was but 128,000, or less than 21 per cent. The in­
crease, leaving out those towns, was but 11 per cent. Of this 11 per
cent, great part, if not all, must have been in the towns not included in
our list.
The growth of the towns in the State of New York, during the same
period, is mainly due to her canals. That of the fourteen largest, from
New York to Seneca, inclusive, was 204,507, or 64f per cen t; whereas,
the increase in the whole state was less than 27 per cent, and of the
state, exclusive of these towns, but 19 per cent. Of this, it is certain,
that nearly all is due to the other towns not in the list of the fourteen
largest.
Pennsylvania has canals, railways, and other improvements, that should
give a rapid growth to her towns. These works, however, had not time,
after their completion, to produce their proper effects, before the crash of
her monetary system nearly paralyzed every branch of her industry, ex­
cept agriculture and the coal business. Nine of her largest towns, from
Philadelphia to Erie, inclusive, exhibit a gain, from 1830 to 1840, of
84,642, being at the rate of 39-’- per cent. This list does not include
Pottsville, or any other mining town. The increase of the whole state
was but 21f per cent.
Ohio has great natural facilities for trade, in her lake and river coasts ;
the former having become available only since the opening of the Erie
canal, in 1826, and that to little purpose before 1830. She has also ca­
nals, which have been constructing and coming gradually into use since
1830. These now amount to about 760 miles. For the last five years,
she has also constructed an extent of McAdam roads exceeding any oth­
er state, and amounting to hundreds of miles. H er railways, which are
of small extent, have not been in operation long enough to have produced
much effect. From this review of the state, it will not be expected to ex­
hibit as great increase in town population, from 1830 to 1840, as will dis­
tinguish it hereafter. The effects of her public improvements, however,
will be clearly seen in the following exhibit. Eighteen of her largest
towns, and the same number of medium size and average increase, con­
tained, in 1830,58,310, which had augmented, in 1840, to 138,916 ; show­
ing an increase of 138 per cent. The increase of the whole state, dur­
ing the same period, was 62 per cent. The northwest quarter of the
state has no towns of any magnitude, and has but begun to be settled.
This quarter had but 12,671 inhabitants in 1830 and 92,050, in 1840.
The increase of the twenty largest towns of the United States, from
New York to St. Louis, inclusive, from 1830 to 1840, was 55 per cent,
while that of the whole country was less than 34 per cent. If the slave­
holding states were left out, the result of the calculation would be still
more favorable to the towns.
The foregoing facts clearly show the strong tendency of modern im­
provements to build towns. Our country has just begun its career ; but
as its progress in population is in a geometrical ratio, and its improve­
ments more rapidly progressive than its population, we are startled at the
results to which we are brought, by the application of these principles to
the century into which our inquiry now leads us.




34

Internal Trade o f the United States.

In 1840, the United States had a population of 17,068,666. Allowing
its future increase to be at the rate of 33 j per cent, for each succeeding
period of ten years, we shall number, in 1940, 303,101,641. Past expe­
rience warrants us to expect this great increase. In 1790, our number
was 3,927,827. Supposing it to have increased each decade, in the ratio
of 33^ per cent, it would, in 1840, have amounted to 16,560,256; being
more than half a million less than our actual number, as shown by the
census. With 300,000,000, we should have less than 150 to the square
mile for our whole territory, and but 220 to the square mile for our or­
ganized states and territories. England has 300 to the square mile. It
does not, then, seem probable that our progressive increase will be ma­
terially checked within the one hundred years under consideration. At
the end of that period, Canada will probably number at least 20,000,000.
If we suppose the portion of our country, east and south of the Appalachian
chain of mountains, known as the Atlantic slope, to possess at that time
40.000. 000, or near five times its present number, there will be left
260.000. 000 for the great central region between the Appalachian and
Rocky mountains, and between the Gulf of Mexico and Canada, and for
the country west of the Rocky mountains. Allowing the Oregon T erri­
tory 10,000,000, there will be left 250,000,000 for that portion of the
American states lying in the basins of the Mobile, Mississippi, and St.
Lawrence. If, to these, we add 20,000,000 for Canada, we have
270.000. 000 as the probable number that will inhabit the North American
valley at the end of the one hundred years, commencing in 1840. If we
suppose one-third, or 90,000,000 of this number to reside in the country
as cultivators and artisans, there will be 180,000,000 left for the towns—
enough to people 360, each containing half a million. This does not seem
so incredible as that the valley of the Nile, scarcely 12 miles broad,
should have once, as historians tell us, contained 20,000 cities.
But, lest one hundred years seem too long to be relied on, in a calcula­
tion having so many elements, let us see how matters will stand fifty years
from 1840, or forty-seven years from this time. The ratio of increase we
have adopted cannot be objected to as extravagant for this period. In
1890, according to that ratio, our number will be 72,000,000. Of these,
22.000. 000 will be a fair allowance for the Atlantic slope. Of the re­
maining 50,000,000, 2,000,000 may reside west of the Rocky mountains,
leaving 48,000,000 for the great valley within the states. If, to these,
we add 5,000,000 as the population of Canada, we have an aggregate of
53.000. 000 for the North American valley. One-third, or say 18,000,000,
being set down as farming laborers and rural artisans, there will remain
35.000. 000 for the towns, which might be seventy in number, having each
half a million of souls. It can scarcely be doubted that, within the fortyseven years, our agriculture will be so improved, as to require less than
one-third to furnish food and raw materials for manufacture for the whole
population. Good judges have said that we are not now more than twen­
ty or thirty years behind England in our husbandry. It is certain that
we are rapidly adopting her improvements in this branch of industry;
and it is not to be doubted, that very many new improvements will be
brought out, both in Europe and America, which will tend to lessen the
labor necessary in the production of food and raw materials.
The tendency to bring to reside in towns all not engaged in agricul­
ture that machinery and improved ways of intercourse have created, has




Internal Trade o f the United States.

35

already been illustrated by the example of England and some of our older
states. Up to this time, our North American valley has exhibited few
striking evidences of this tendency. Its population is about 10,500,000;
but, with the exception of New Orleans, Cincinnati, and Montreal, it has
no large towns. As a whole, it has been too sparsely settled to build up
many. Too intent on drawing out the resources of our exuberantly rich
soil, we have neglected the introduction of those manufactures and me­
chanic arts that give agricultural productions their chief value, by furnish­
ing an accessible market. This mistake is, however, rapidly bringing
about its own remedy. In Ohio, the oldest (not in time but in maturity)
of our western states, the arts of manufacture have commenced their ap­
propriate business of building towns. Cincinnati, with its suburbs, has
upwards of 50,000 inhabitants ; a larger proportion of whom are engaged
in manufactures and trades, than of either of the sixteen principal towns
of the Union, except Lowell. The average proportion so engaged in
all these towns, is 1 to 8.79. In Cincinnati, it is 1 to 4.50. Indeed, our
interior capital has but two towns (New York and Philadelphia) before
her, in number of persons, engaged in manufactures and trades. Our
smaller towns, Dayton, Zanesville, Columbus, and Steubenville, having
each about 6,000 inhabitants, have nearly an equal proportion engaged
in the same occupation.
These examples are valuable only as indicating the direction to which
the industry of our people tends, in those portions of the west, where pop­
ulation has attained a considerable degree of density. Of the ten and a
half millions now inhabiting this valley, little more than half a million
live in tow ns; leaving about ten millions employed in making farms out
of the wilds, and producing human food and materials for manufactures.
When, in 1890, our number reaches 53,000,000, according to our esti­
mate, there will be but one-third of this number (to wit, 18,000,000)
employed in agriculture and rural trades. Of the increase up to that
time, (being 42,500,000,) 8,000,000 will go into rural occupations, and
34,500,000 into towns. This would people sixty-nine towns, with each
half a million.
Should we, yielding to the opinion of those who may believe that more
than one-third of our people will be required for agriculture and rural
trades, make the estimate on the supposition that one-half the population
of our valley, forty-seven years hereafter, will live on farms, and in villages
below the rank of towns, the account will stand thus: 26,500,000 (being the
one-half of 53,000,000 in the valley) will be the amount of the rural po­
pulation; so that it must receive 16,500,000 in addition to the 10,000,000
it now has. The towns, in the same time, will have an increase of
26,000,000, in addition to the 500,000 now in them. Where will these
towns be, and in what proportion will they possess the 26,500,000 inhab­
itants ?
These are interesting questions, and not so impracticable of an ap­
proximately correct solution, as, at first blush, they may seem.
One of them will be either St. Louis or Alton. Everybody will be
ready to admit that. Still more beyond the reach of doubt or cavil, is
Cincinnati. We might name also Pittsburg and Louisville ; but we trust
that our readers, who have followed us through our former articles, are
ready to concur in the opinion that the greatest city of the Mississippi
basin will be either Cincinnati or the town near the mouth of the Mis­




36

Internal Trade o f the United States.

souri, be it Alton or St. Louis. W ithin our period of forty-seven years, we
have no doubt it will be Cincinnati. She is now in the midst of a population
so great and so thriving; and, on the completion of the Miami canal,
which will be within two years, she will so monopolize the exchange com­
merce at that end of the canal between the river and lake regions, that it
is not reasonable to expect she can be overtaken by her xvestern rival for
half a century.
But such has been the influx of settlers within the last few years to the
lake region, and so decided has become the tendency of the productions
of the upper and middle regions of the great valley to seek a market at
and through the lakes, that we can no longer withstand the conviction
that, even within the short period of forty-seven years, a town will grow up
on the lake border greater than Cincinnati. The folloxving facts, it is
believed, will force the same conviction to our readers :
The states of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, are bordered by both lake
and river. All have large river accommodation, but Illinois has it to an
unrivalled extent; whereas it has but one lake port.
Now let us see what has been the relative and positive growth of the
river region and lake region of these states, from 1830 to 1840. South­
ern Ohio, including all south of the national road, and the counties north
of that road which touch the Ohio river, had, in 1830, 550,000 inhabit­
ants, and in 1840 730,000; showing an increase of 180,000—equal to
33£ per cent. Northern Ohio, in 1830, numbered but 390,000, which in
1840 had increased to 805,000 ; exhibiting an increase of 413,000, or
105 per cent. In 1830, Southern Ohio had 160,000 more than Northern
O hio; whereas, in 1840, the latter excelled the former 75,000. This
preponderance of the lake region has not been owing to the superiority
of its soil, or the beauty of its surface ; for, in these respects, it is inferior
to its southern rival.
Let us now see how the river and lake regions of Indiana compare, in
1830 and 1840. The national road is the dividing line.
Southern Indiana had, in 1830, 252,000
Northern Indiana “
“
89,000
Southern Indiana had, in 1840, 397,000
Northern Indiana “
“
278,000
Southern Indiana, in
1830, 252,000 ) ,, .
,a
«
«
«
1840j 397,000 ( Gam 145’000>or 58 Pr- ctl
Northern Indiana had, in 1830,
89,000 i Showing a gain of 189,000,
«
“
“ “ 1840,278,000 $ or 212 per cent.
Such has been the rapidity of settlement of the northern counties of
Indiana, for the three years since the census xvas taken, that we cannot doubt
that the north has nearly overtaken, in positive numbers, the south half.
Illinois exhibits the preference given to the lake region, in a still more
striking manner. A line drawn along the north boundaries of Edgar and
Coles counties, and thence direct to the town of Quincy, on the Missis­
sippi, will divide the state into two nearly equal parts. The three counties,
Morgan, Sangamon, and Macon, we divide equally, and give two-thirds
of Adams to the north, and one-third to the south.
Southern Illinois had, in 1830,................................................... 122,732
Northern Illinois “
“ .................................................... 33,852
Southern Illinois had, in 1840,................................................... 242,873
Northern Illinois “
“ .................................................... 232,222




Internal Trade o f the United States.

37

Southern Illinois,
in 1830, 122,732 > Showing a gain of 120,141,
“
“
1840, 242,873 $ equal to 97 per cent.
Northern Illinois had, in 1830, 33,852 ) Showing a gain of 198,370,
“
“
1840, 232,222 $ equal to 586 per cent.
There can be no doubt, with those who know the course of immigra­
tion, that Northern Illinois, at this time, contains many thousands more
than Southern Illinois.
It may be said that the lake region of these states, being of more recent
settlement, and having more vacant land, has, chiefly on that account, in­
creased more than the river region. This might account for a higher ratio,
but it would not account for a greater amount of increase. For instance:
the state of New York, between 1820 and 1830, had a greater amount of
increase than any western state, though most of them increased in a far
higher ratio. So, by the census of 1840, it appears that the amount of
increase of Ohio, for the ten years previous, was about three times as great
as that of Michigan, although the ratio of increase of Michigan was more
than nine times as high as that of Ohio.
Let us compare, then, the amount o f increase of the lake and river
regions of these states.
f Northern Ohio,.......... . . . . . 413,000
Increase from 1830 to 1840 of <
“
Indiana,.................. 189,000
f
“
Illinois,................... 198,370
800,370
{ Southern Ohio,...................... 180,000
Increase from 1830 to 1840 of <
“
Indiana,................. 145,000
(
“
Illinois..................... 120,141
445,141
Arkansas and Michigan, were it not that the latter has the advantage
of not holding slaves, would afford almost a perfect illustration of the
preference given to the lake region over the river country. Each has
extraordinary advantages of navigation, of its peculiar kind. No state in
the valley has as extensive river navigation as Arkansas, and no state can
claim to rival Michigan in extent of navigable lake coast.
In 1830, Michigan had a population o f................................. ... 32,538
“ Arkansas “
“
...................................... 30,388
In 1840, Michigan num bered...................................................... 212,276
“ Arkansas
“
....................................................... 97,578
These facts exhibit the difference in favor of the lake country sufficient
to satisfy the candid inquirer that there must be potent causes in operation
to produce such results. Some of these causes are apparent, and others
have been little understood or appreciated. The staple exports, wheat
and flour, have for years so notoriously found their best markets at the
lake towns, that every cultivator, who reasons at all, has come to know
the advantage of having his farm as near as possible to lake navigation.
This has, for some years past, brought immigrants to the lake country from
the river region of these states, and from the states of Pennsylvania, Ma­
ryland, and Virginia, which formerly sent their immigrants mostly to the
river borders. The river region, too, not being able to compete with its
VOL. IX . --- NO. I .
4




38

Internal Trade o f the United States.

northern neighbor in the production of wheat, and being well adapted to
the growth of stock, has of late gone more into this department of hus­
bandry. This business, in some portions, almost brings the inhabitants to
a purely pastoral state of society, in which large bodies of land are of
necessity used by a small number of inhabitants. These causes are ob­
viously calculated to give a dense population to the lake country, and a
comparatively sparse settlement to the river country. There are other
causes not so obvious, but not less potent or enduring. Of these, the
superior accessibility of the lake country from the great northern hives of
emigration, New England and New York, is first deserving attention.
By means of the Erie canal to Oswego and Buffalo, and the railway from
Boston to Buffalo, with its radiating branches, these states are brought
within a few hours’ ride of our great central lake ; and at an expense of
time and money so small, as to offer but slight impediment to the removal
of home, and household gods. The lakes, too, are about being traversed
by a class of vessels, to be propelled by steam and wind, called Ericson
propellers, which will carry immigrants with certainty and safety, and at
greatly reduced expense.
European emigration hither, which first was counted by its annual
thousands, then by its tens of thousands, has at length swelled to its hun­
dred thousands, in the ports of New York and Quebec. These are both
but appropriate doors to the lake country. It is clear, then, that the lake
portion will be more populous than the river division of the great valley.
This is one reason why the former should build up and sustain larger
towns than the latter.
It has been proved that an extensive and increasing portion of the river
region seeks an outlet for its surplus productions through the lakes. In
addition to the proof given on that subject, we will compare the exports,
in bread-stuffs and provisions, of New Orleans and Cleveland—the former
for the year beginning 1st September, 1841, and ending 31st August,
1842; and the latter for the season of canal navigation, in 1842. All
the receipts of Cleveland, by canal, are estimated as exports; as there is
no doubt that she receives, coastwise and by wagon, more than enough to
feed her people. The exports from New Orleans of the enumerated arti­
cles, and their price, are as stated in No. 4, vol. 7, of this magazine. Of
the articles, then, of flour, pork, bacon, lard, beef, whiskey, corn, and
wheat—■
New Orleans exported to the value o f................................. $4,446,989
Cleveland
“
“
.................................. 4,431,739
The other articles of bread-stuffs and provisions received at New Or­
leans during that year, from the interior, are of small amount, and obvi­
ously not sufficient for the consumption of the city. Not so with Cleveland.
The other articles of grain and provision, shipped last year from this port,
added to the above, will throw the balance decidedly in her favor. If we
suppose, what cannot but be true, that all the other ports of the upper lakes
sent eastward as much as Cleveland, we have the startling fact that this
lake country, but yesterday brought under our notice, already sends abroad
more than twice the amount of human food that is shipped from the great
exporting city of New Orleans, the once-vaunted sole outlet of the Mis­
sissippi valley. Another striking fact, in favor of the position that on the
lakes are to be the leading commercial cities of our valley, is the growth




Internal Trade o f the United States.

39

of Cleveland, compared with Portsmouth. When the Ohio canal was
completed, that portion of the state traversed by it, lying nearest to Ports­
mouth, was superior, in population and productiveness, to that which was
nearest Cleveland. Portsmouth is at the river end of the canal, and Cleve­
land at the lake end.
Portsmouth, including the township in which it is situated, num­
bered, in 1830,.............................................................................. 1,464
In 1840,............................................................................................... 1,844
Increase of Portsmouth, including the township, in ten years,. .

380

Cleveland village numbered, in1830,............................................ 1,076
“
city, including Ohio* city, in 1840................................. 7,648
Increase of Cleveland in ten years,.....................................................6,572
The case of Alton and Chicago is calculated to illustrate the same po­
sition. The former is so finely situated on the Mississippi, just above the
entrance of the turbulent Missouri, at the best point for concentrating the.
river trade on all sides, and doing the business of one of the finest and
best settled portions of Illinois, that we have thought it might yet excel
St. Louis, and perhaps rival Cincinnati. The country in its rear was
settled long before that lying back of Chicago ; and Alton, in consequence,
sooner became an important commercial point. How many inhabitants
it had in 1830, we have at hand no means of ascertaining. Certain it is
that, at that time, it was far more populous than Chicago.
In 1840, Alton numbered..................................................................2,340
“ Chicago “
..................................................................4,470
Two short canals— one of about one hundred miles, connecting the Il­
linois canal with the Mississippi, at or near the mouth of Rock river; and
the other of about one hundred and seventy-five miles, connecting the
southern termination of the Wabash and Erie canal, at Terre Haute, with
the Mississippi, at Alton— would, with the canals already finished or in
progress, secure to the lakes not less, probably, than three-fourths of all
the external trade of the river valley. With the Wabash and Erie, and
the Miami canal, brought fairly into operation, the lakes will make a
heavy draft on the trade of the river valley; and every canal, and rail­
road, and good highway, carried from the lakes, or lake improvements,
into that valley, will add to the draft. The lake towns will then not only
have a denser population in the region immediately about them, and mo­
nopolize all the trade of that region, but they will have at least half the
trade of the river region. They will be nearer and more accessible to
the great marts of trade and commerce of the old states and the old world;
and this advantage will be growing, in consequence of the progressive
removal of impediments to navigation between the lakes and the ocean.
The facts we have adduced, taken altogether, seem conclusive in favor
of the lake towns. As a body, they come out of the investigation deci­
dedly triumphant. But how shall we decide on their relative merits ?
There are several, whose citizens would claim pre-eminence for each—
* Ohio city is separated from Cleveland only by a narrow stream, and has grown since
1830.




40

Internal Trade o f the United States.

Oswego, Buffalo, Cleveland, the Maumee town, (be it Maumee city or
Toledo,) Detroit, and Chicago. Unless we have failed in our opening
article, New Orleans, Montreal, and Quebec, although destined greatly to
increase in size and wealth, may be left out of the contest.
Oswego has a fine position, as a point of shipment, between the lakes
and the eastern states; and on the completion of the enlarged Welland
canal, she will probably gain rapidly on Buffalo, in amount of goods for­
warded west, and produce of the lakes sent to the Hudson. H er water­
power will enable her to compete successfully with Rochester, in the
manufacture of flour; and it must, before many years, be used extensively
in other manufactures. As a point for the wholesale or jobbing of goods,
she will be inferior to Buffalo. But both towns are too near, and too con­
venient to New York and Boston, to become great marts for the sale of
European and eastern manufactures. Buffalo, in her suburb of Blackrock, has an almost exhaustless water-power, which, long within the pe­
riod of forty-seven years, will make her a considerable manufacturing
town. If the Erie canal enlargement should be delayed many years after
the completion of the Welland canal, it would not surprise us to see Os­
wego overtake Buffalo, in size and business.
Buffalo has a cramped harbor; and, like Oswego, she has but a small
country in her rear, to sustain her trade. H er position for carrying on
foreign trade, after the enlargement of the Welland canal, will be less
favorable than Cleveland, Maumee, Detroit, or Chicago. But before en­
tering on the comparison of Buffalo and Cleveland, it will be well to lay
down some principles that may be reasonably supposed to control or influ­
ence their future growth. And first, it may be asserted that a position
favorable to an interchange of productions of a large country lying about
it, is more advantageous than a situation which merely favors the passage
of a great amount of productions through it. Boston and Charleston will
illustrate this principle. The former exchanges, in her own market, the
productions gathered into it from the coast, from the interior, and from
foreign countries. Charleston is far less a gathering point of commod­
ities, but she has a much larger value passing through the hands of her
merchants.
Boston, between 1830 and 1840, increased................................33,611
Charleston, “
“
“ decreased................................ 1,628
Other causes, no doubt, aided in this result; but that under considera­
tion we believe to have been the chief.
Second. While a country is new, the first exchanges will be of agricul­
tural products of one climate for those of a different climate, and of agri­
cultural products for manufactured articles of first necessity. As society
progresses in wealth, in addition to these articles finer fabrics, and of
greater variety, become the subjects of exchange ; so that when its con­
dition approximates that of England, much of its exchangeable capital
comes to be composed of the highly wrought productions of the various
cities— each mainly engaged in its own peculiar production, and therefore
dependent on all the others for all its articles of consumption, except the
one article of its own fabrication.
Let us apply these principles. Buffalo has the advantage of a greater
transit of produce and goods. In the former, however, she is not very
much in advance, and Cleveland is rapidly gaining upon her. In propor­




Internal Trade o f the United States.

41

tion to her population, Cleveland is already far ahead. As to goods passing to the upper lakes from the old states and Europe, Buffalo will divide
chiefly with Oswego the advantages of their receipt and shipment up the
lakes. Hers, for some time to come, will be the lion’s share— at least
until the completion of the Canadian improvements. But these goods,
though of great value, will employ no great amount of tonnage, especially
when sugar, molasses, cotton, rice, and tobacco, shall be sent to the lakes
by the Miami and Illinois canals, as will soon be the case.
Long within the period under consideration, the position of Cleveland
will be much more favorable for concentrating the business of the sur­
rounding country than that of Buffalo. Canada will, before that time,
form a part of our commercial community, whether she be associated with
us in the government, or not. She will then have about five millions of
people. The American shores of the lakes lying above the latitude of
Cleveland will be still more populous.
Cleveland is the lake port for the great manufacturing hive at the head
of the Ohio river— so made by the Mahoning canal, which connects her
with Pittsburg. She commands, and she will long command, by means
of her five hundred miles of canal and slackwater navigation, the trade of
a part of western Pennsylvania, most of western Virginia, and nearly all
the east half of the state of Ohio, in the intercourse of their inhabitants
with the lake coasts, the eastern states, Canada, and Europe. Her posi­
tion is handsome ; and although her water-power is small, the low price
of coal will enable her to sustain herself as a respectable manufacturing
town.. Her harbor, like that of Buffalo, though easy of entrance, is not
sufficiently capacious. If coal should not be found on Lake Huron, more
accessible to navigation than the beds on the canal, south of Cleveland,
this article will greatly increase her trade with the other lake ports. It
is now sold on her wharves at eight cents per bushel.
A glance at a map of the country will suffice to show that Buffalo is
not well situated to be a place for the exchange of agricultural productions
of the cold regions for those of the warm regions of the valley. In that
respect Cleveland, though not unrivalled, is clearly in a better position
than Buffalo. As a point for exchanging the products o f the field for
manufactured goods, Buffalo will not probably, for any long time, have
the advantage of Cleveland. Such traders as live within the influence of
the canals and rivers that pour their surplus products into Cleveland, and
stop short of New York and Boston, will, it seems to us, be more likely
to purchase in Cleveland than in Buffalo. Not every man who supplies
a neighborhood with store-goods relishes a voyage on the sometimes tem­
pest-tost waters of the lake ; and, as we before remarked, Buffalo now
being but a few hours’ ride from New York or Boston, by a pleasant and
safe conveyance, will hardly stop many purchasers of goods from those
great markets. On the completion of the Canadian canals, Cleveland
will have the advantage of Buffalo, in foreign trade, for the following
reasons :— H er articles of export will be cheaper; and by that time, as
we believe, more abundant. Byvmeans of her canals and roads, Cleve­
land is a primary gathering-point of these articles. Not so Buffalo. To
arrive at her store-houses, these products must be shipped from the store­
houses of other ports up the lakes, where they must be presumed to bear
nearly the same price as at Cleveland. The cost of this shipment, to­
gether with a profit on it, will then be added; and, by so much, enhance
4*




42

Internal Trade o f the United Stotts.

their price in Buffalo. A vessel entering Lake Erie by the Welland ca­
nal, seeking a cargo for a foreign port, would therefore clearly prefer
going to the head of the market, where it could be bought at the cheap­
est rate. If the difference in price of exportable products, between the
market at Buffalo and the market at Cleveland, is such as to warrant the
payment of a freight to Buffalo, and the cost of a transhipment there to
the foreign vessel, there can be no doubt of its being the interest of the
foreign vessel to proceed directly to Cleveland for her cargo ; and so to
any other considerable market on Lake Erie, and probably the lakes above.
It seems likely, therefore, that within our allotted period of forty-seven
years, Cleveland will be larger than Buffalo or Oswego.
Is it probable that, within the period under consideration, Cleveland
will have a successful rival in Maumee, Detroit, or Chicago 1 It will be
proper, on account of its comparative obscurity, and the peculiarity of its
position, for us to explain in regard to Maumee.
The estuary of the Maumee river receives the tide of Lake Erie, and
the waters of the river, at a point thirteen miles above its mouth. This
estuary forms a harbor of Lake Erie, thirteen miles long, with a naviga­
ble channel of about one hundred rods. Its depth, in a low stage of the
lake, is from six and a half to twenty-four feet. It is entered by a wide
channel through the bay, having in its shoalest part 8.25 feet, when the
lake is in its lowest stage. On the southwest end of this harbor, Maumee
city and Perrysburg are situated; the former on the north, and the latter
on the south bank. Both are on the same plane, sixty-three feet above
the harbor. Eight miles below, on the north bank, is Toledo, most of it
on a plane about forty-five feet h ig h ; and three or four miles below To­
ledo, is Manhattan, elevated in its highest part about twenty-five feet
above the water. Their population, respectively, including the civil town­
ship, was, according to the census of 1840— Maumee city, 1,290; Per­
rysburg, 1,065 ; Toledo, 2,053 ; Manhattan, 282. Each of these places
has access to the canal by a side-cut, and flight of locks. It is not our
purpose to decide on their relative merits ; but for convenience, and be­
cause that is the name of the harbor, we will call the successful point
Maumee.
The contest is now fairly narrowed down to Cleveland, Maumee, Detroit, and Chicago. Which of these will be greatest in 1890 ? We have
shown, in a previous article, (No. 2 of this series,) that the Miami canal
route will command the eastern and European trade of Kentucky, most
of Tennessee, large portions of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, and small
portions of Missouri, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Alabama. So long, then,
as this easteni and European trade shall continue of paramount impor.
tance to the great country embraced by the description above, as con­
trolled by the Miami canal, so long must the point most favorably situated
at its lake termination have the advantage of the other lake towns. W e
have also shown, in the same article, that the interior exchanges, the ex­
clusively home-trade of the North American valley, between the lake
regions of the north and the river rejjffons of the south, will be chiefly
carried on through the same Miami canal. Of the towns now under com­
parison, Maumee is the smallest, and Detroit the largest. This, in the
minds of the superficial, will be taken as conclusive in favor of the latter.
The claim in favor of a town just emerging from the forest, to rival, at a
future time, an already populous city, is usually met by ridicule from such




Internal Trade o f the United States.

43

persons ; and, in general, is treated with little attention or respect by any
class. We dare say that when the people of the city of old and renown,
ed York were informed that, in the wilds of America, some settlers had
named their collection of rude houses New York, they felt no other emo­
tion than contempt, and treated the presumptuous ambition of the settlers
with derision. It is probable that the inhabitants of old Boston held in
like contempt the assumption of the name of their town by those who
planted the capital of New England. Who, forty-seven years ago, would
not have ridiculed the opinion, if any one had been visionary enough to
express it, that, within that time, there would grow up, in the valley of
the Ohio, a city containing fifty thousand inhabitants ; and that, within the
same period, that part of the northwestern territory, now composing the
state of Ohio, would contain nearly two millions of people 1 We then
had, as a basis of increase, but four millions; whereas it is now over
eighteen millions ;—and, including Canada, near twenty millions. For
the past forty-seven years, our growth has been from four millions to near
twenty millions. During the next forty-seven years it will be, according
to our estimate, from near twenty millions, to seventy-seven millions; or,
according to the more elaborate and probably more correct estimate of
Professor Tucker, fifty-five millions. This increase will certainly make it
necessary that many towns, now small, should become g reat; and sensible
men, when contemplating their probable destiny for half a century in ad­
vance, will look at the natural and artificial advantages of our lake
towns, rather than at the few thousands, more or less, of present popula­
tion. The towns under consideration are all destined to become large.
The leading advantages of Cleveland have been already stated. Detroit
has a pleasant site, and a noble harbor. A few McAdam roads, leading
north, northwest, and west, into the interior, would give her the direct
trade of a large and fertile portion of Michigan. Until such roads, or
some reasonably good substitute, are made, the railways leading north
and west will, at least while they are new and in good order, make the
chief gathering points of trade at their interior terminations, and at con­
venient points on their line. Pontiac, Ypsilanti, Ann Arbor, and other
towns west, will cut off from Detroit, and centre in themselves the direct
trade with the farmers, which, with good wagon-roads, without the rail­
ways, would have centered in Detroit. One train of cars will now bring
to her warehouses what would have been brought to her stores by one
hundred wagons. These wagons would have carried back store-goods
and the products of Detroit mechanics, whereas these will now be bought
in the interior towns. Most of the money borrowed by Michigan, and for
which she is so largely in debt, has been expended with a view to center
the trade of the state mainly in Detroit and Monroe ; but we much doubt
whether the effect of the railways constructed for that purpose will not
be the reverse of what is anticipated by their projectors. The effect of
the Erie and Kalamazoo railway, from Toledo to Adrian, has been to con­
vert a small cluster of houses at the latter place into a flourishing town of
near two thousand inhabitants ; while at Toledo, its effect has been mainly
perceptible in the filling a few warehouses with produce and goods, and
leaving its business-street nearly deserted of wagons, and its hotels almost
destitute of any but minute-men travellers. We do not believe that ma­
chines so expensive, and so complicated in their construction and operation
as railways, can be sustained in an agricultural country, so new and




44

Internal Trade o f the United States.

sparsely settled as Michigan. But whether this is a correct view or not,
matters little to Detroit, if, as we suppose, her railways will but substitute
trains of cars, passing through to her warehouses, for the throng of wag­
ons that, but for her railways, would have crowded her broad avenue.
The extent of country that will find in Detroit its most convenient point
of exchanges, is not very g re a t; yet sufficient, when well settled and im­
proved, to sustain her in a considerable advance beyond her present size
and business.
If we now narrow down our comparison by leaving out Detroit, we
trust we shall be justified by our impartial readers.
Cleveland, Maumee, and Chicago, only remain to contest the prize.
Of these, Maumee alone has a harbor capacious enough to accommodate
the commerce of a great city. Good harbors may be made, without a
very heavy cost, at Cleveland and Chicago, either by excavating the low
grounds bordering their present harbors, or by break-waters and piers in
the lakes outside. Some expenditure will also be needed to deepen the
entrance into the Maumee harbor, and to remove obstructions within it.
In water-power, Maumee has greatly the advantage over her rivals. Chi­
cago has, and she can have none. Cleveland has but a small amount;
whereas Maumee has it to an extent unrivalled by any town on the lake
borders, above Buffalo—and it is so placed as to possess the utmost avail­
ability. Along her harbor, for thirteen miles, the canal passes on the
margin of the high bank that overlooks it. This canal—a magnificent
mill-race, averaging near seven feet deep, and seventy feet wide at the
water-line—is fed from the Maumee river, seventeen miles above the head
of the harbor, and is carried down on the level of low water in the river
above, for twenty-two miles, to a point two miles below the head of the
harbor ; where it stands on a table-land, sixty-three feet above the harbor.
Descending, then, by a lock seven feet, the next level is two miles long,
and stands fifty-six feet above the harbor. Descending again, by a lock,
seven feet, the level below is three and a half miles long, and stands fortynine feet above the harbor. Again descending, within the city of Toledo,
by four locks, thirty-four feet, the next and last level is nearly five miles
long, and stands fifteen feet above the harbor. At many points of these
thirteen miles, the water may be used conveniently from the canal to the
harbor ; and at most of these points, it may be used directly on the harbor.
The Board of public works, in their last report, say :— “ From the expe­
rience the Board have had, as to the quantity of water required to propel
one pair of four and a half feet mill-stones, with all the labor-saving machinery necessary for the manufacture of superfine flour, they are fully of
opinion that there will be power sufficient, that can be used on these levels, to propel two hundred and twenty-five pairs of stone.” The lowest
estimate for the dryest season, allows it this amount of power. At other
times, the amount is so great, that for all practical purposes, for many
years to come, it may be set down as without limit. The current occa­
sioned by the use of the great power estimated by the Board, would not
be one mile an hour. If more should be used, so as to occasion a current
of one mile and a half an hour, the obstruction to navigation would be
rather nominal than real. The down-freights, for many years, will be
three or four times as heavy as the up-freights. The current, then, would
aid the movement of three or four tons, where it would hinder the move­
ment of one ton. If, at some future day, the wrater furnished during the




Internal Trade o f the United States.

45

dry seasons should not be sufficient for the machinery then needed at this
point, steam may be used temporarily, during the lowest stage of water.
Coal will be afforded at ten cents per bushel; and wood, for many years,
will not cost more than $1 50 to $2 00 per cord. Will this be a good
point for the use of water-power ? This will depend on its facilities for
procuring raw materials, and distributing the manufactured articles to con­
sumers. As to facilities for procuring wheat for the manufacture of flour,
there can be, as all will admit who know the country within reach of the
canals, no better point in the states. Sheep are so rapidly multiplying in
Indiana and Illinois, and are already so abundant in the Miami country of
Ohio, that a supply of wool to an extent beyond any probable demand for
its manufacture, may be safely anticipated. As to cotton, it has been
proved that the Miami canal is the best channel for its import to the lakes.
From Florence, in Alabama, it may be brought to the factory on the Mau­
mee by a course three hundred miles shorter than its usual route to New
Orleans. Should the Tennessee river fail to furnish enough cotton, the
Arkansas, and the Mississippi above the mouth of the Arkansas, will be
able to supply any additional demand. For the distribution of the manu­
factured goods, the whole west is easily accessible by means of lakes,
canals, and rivers.
As a point for manufacturers and mechanics, the aids and facilities abovementioned give Maumee an incontestible superiority over Cleveland and
Chicago. Let us now compare their commercial advantages. Those of
Cleveland have been already set forth to some extent, in comparing her
claims with those of Buffalo. In the exchange of agricultural products of
a warm and of a cold climate, Cleveland, by her canals and her connexion
with the Ohio, can claim south, as against the Miami canal, no farther than
western Virginia and eastern Kentucky. Maumee will supply the towns
on the lakes Erie, Huron, and probably Ontario, with cotton, sugar, mo­
lasses, rum, (may its quantity be small,) rice, tobacco, hemp, (perhaps,)
oranges, lemons, figs, and, at some future day, such naval stores as come
from the pitch-pine regions of Tennessee, Mississippi, and Louisiana.
Chicago will furnish a supply of the same articles to Lake Michigan,
Lake Superior, when that lake becomes accessible to her navigation, and
perhaps the northern portion of Lake Huron. How important these com­
modities are in modern commerce, need not be enlarged on in a magazine
whose readers are mostly intelligent merchants. During the forty-seven
years under consideration, the countries to be supplied with these articles
from Maumee will continue to be more populous than those depending on
Chicago for their supply. This position seems too obvious to need proof.
It is clear, then, that as a point of exchange of agricultural products of dif­
ferent climates, Maumee has advantages over Chicago—the only place on
the lakes that can set up any pretension of rivalry in this branch of trade.
W hat are the relative merits of these towns for the exchange of agri­
cultural products for the manufactures of Europe and the eastern states?
The claims of Cleveland, in this respect, have already been considered;
and to some extent, also, those of Maumee. The control of Cleveland,
south and southeast, embraces a country of about 40,000 square miles ;
being a quarter larger than Ireland. For early spring supplies, and light
goods, this domain may be invaded from Philadelphia and Baltimore ; but
for the shipments east, and the bulk of goods from New York and Europe,
it belongs legitimately to Cleveland.




46

Internal Trade o f the United Stales.

Maumee will hare in this trade the chief control of not less than 100,000
square miles— say 12,000 in Ohio, 30,000 in Kentucky, 30,000 in Indiana,
10,000 in Illinois, 13,000 in Tennessee, 5,000 in Mississippi and Alabama,
and 5,000 in Michigan—to say nothing of her claim on small portions of
Missouri and Arkansas. This domain is half as large as the kingdom of
France, and twice as fertile. The Miami canal, connecting Maumee
with Cincinnati, will, with that part of the Wabash and Erie which forms
the common trunk after their junction, be two hundred and thirty-five
miles long. The Wabash and Erie canal, from Maumee to Terre Haute,
will be three hundred miles long. Of this, all but thirty-six miles, at its
northern extremity, will be in operation the present season. By means
of these canals, and the rivers with which they communicate, great part
of this extensive region will enjoy the advantage of a cheap water trans­
port for its rapidly increasing surplus.
Chicago, on the completion of the Illinois canal, may command, in its
exchange of agricultural for manufactured products, an extent of territory
as large as that controlled by Maumee. Admitting it to be larger, and of
this our readers must judge for themselves, it does not seem to us probable
that within forty-seven years it can even approximate, in population or
wealth, to the comparatively old and well-peopled territory that comes
within the range of the commercial influence of Maumee. We have not
sufficient data on which to calculate the extent of country that will come
under the future commercial power of Chicago. That it is to be very
great, seems probable, from the fine position of that port in reference to
the lake, and an almost interminable country southwest, west, and north,
west of it. An extension of the Illinois canal, to the mouth of Rock river,
seems destined to give her the control of the eastern trade throughout the
whole extent of the upper Mississippi, except what she now has by means
of the Illinois river. She will also probably participate with Maumee in
the lake trade with the Missouri river and St. Louis. On the whole, we
deem Chicago alone, of all the lake towns, entitled to dispute future pre­
eminence with Maumee. The time may come, after the period under
consideration, when the extent and high improvement of the country
making Chicago its mart for commercial operations, may enable it at least
to sustain the second place among the great towns of the North American
valley, if not to dispute pre-eminence with the first.
When we properly consider the future populousness of our great valley;
the tendency of modern improvements to build up large tow ns; the great
and increasing inclination of population and trade to and through the
lakes, and the decided advantages which Maumee possesses over any other
lake port, we need not fear being over sanguine in anticipating for the
leading town on that port a growth unrivalled by any city whose history
has been recorded.
The conclusions to which we have come, in this and the preceding a r­
ticles on internal trade, are not expected to be universally or generally
acceptable. Many of them run counter to the hopes and preconceived
opinions of too many persons for us to expect that they will be considered
with candor, or judged with impartiality. The facts therein contained
will be encountered with loss alacrity. On these we rely. For these
we ask a dispassionate and fair examination. If other and different con­
clusions are deducible from them than those we have drawn, it would give
us pleasure to acknowledge our error, and correct it. But if, after a




Progress o f Population and Wealth, etc.

47

thorough examination of the subject, we have gone beyond the anticipa­
tions of men, who, with more ability, have bestowed much less thought
on it, let them not condemn merely because our conclusions seem to them
extravagant; but let them examine for themselves, or, if they will not do
that, let them hesitate before they pass a hasty judgment on what we
have investigated with the utmost care, and with an earnest desire to ar­
rive at the truth.
J . w . s.

A rt . III.—PROGRESS OF POPULATION AND W E A L T H IN T H E UN ITED
ST A T E S, IN F IF T Y YEARS.
AS EXHIBITED BY THE DECENNIAD CENSUS TAKEN IN THAT PERIOD.

CHA PTER XVII.
DISTRIBUTION OF TH E INDUSTRIOUS CLASSES.

I n 1820, for the first time, the census took an account of the number
of persons who were severally employed in agriculture, commerce, and
manufactures. In the succeeding census, no notice was taken of the oc­
cupations of the people ; but that of 1840 gave a fuller enumeration of
the industrious classes, distinguishing them under the several heads of
mining, agriculture, commerce, manufactures, navigating the ocean, in­
ternal navigation, and the learned professions. The result of each cen­
sus may be seen in the following tab les:—
T able I.
Showing the number o f persons engaged in Agriculture, Commerce, and Manufactures
in the several States, according to the census o f 1820.
S T A T E S AND
T E R R IT O R IE S .

M aine,............
New Hampshire,.
Vermont,........
Massachusetts,...
Rhode Island,....
Connecticut,...

Agricul­
ture.

55,031
52,384
50,951
63,460
12,559
50,518

Com­ Manufac­
merce.
tures.

4,297
1,068
776
13,301
1,162
3,581

New England S., 284,903 24,185
247,648
New Y ork,....
40,812
New Jersey,...
140,801
Pennsylvania,.
13,259
Delaware,.......
79,135
Maryland,.......
853
Dist.of Columbia,

9,113
1,830
7,083
533
4,771
312

Middle States,... 522,508 23,842
Virginia,.............
North Carolina,.

276,422
174,196

4,509
2,551

S T A T E S AND
T E R R IT O R IE S .

ISouth Carolina,.
(Georgia,.............
Southern States,
6,091
17,541 Alabama,...........
Mississippi,.......
81,922 Louisiana,.........
Tennessee,........
60,038 Arkansas,..........
15,941
60,215 Southwestern S.
2,821
18,640 Kentucky,.........
2,184 Ohio....................
Indiana,............
159,839 Illinois,...............
Missouri,...........
Michigan,..........
Northwestern S.

Total of United States,..


http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/
Federal
Reserve Bank of St. Louis
.

Agriculture.

Com-

merce.

Manufac-

tures.

2,684
2,139

6,747
3,557

718,510 11,883

54,484

30,642
22,033
53,941
101,919
3,613

452
294
6,251
882
79

1,412
650
6,041
7,860
179

212,148

7,958

16,142

132,161
110,991
61,315
12,395
14,247
1,468

1,617
1,459
429
233
495
392

11,779
18,956
3,229
1,007
1,952
196

332,577

4,625

37,110

166,707
101,185

2,070,646 72,493 349,506

Progress o f Population and Wealth in the

48

T able II.
Showing the number o f persons engaged in M ining, Agriculture, Commerce, Manufac­
tures, Navigating the Ocean, Internal Navigation, and the Learned Professions,
according to the census o f 1840.
S T A T E S AND
T E R R IT O R IE S .

Mining.

Agricul­

ture.

Com­
merce.

2,921
1,379
1,303
8,063
1,348
2,743

Internal Learned
Manufac­ Naviga­
the naviga­ profes­
tures. ting
Ocean.
tion.
sions.

21,879
17,826
13,174
85,176!
21,271
27,932

10,091
452
41
27,153
1,717
2,700

Total.

M aine,..................
New Hampshire,.
V erm ont,.............
Massachusetts,....
Rhode Isla n d ,....
Connecticut,.........

36
13
77
499
35
151

101,630
77,949
73,150
87,837
16,617
56,955

New England S.,.

811

414,138

17,757 187,258 42,154

New York,...........
New Jersey,........
Pennsylvania,......
Delaware,.............
Maryland,.............
Dist. of Columbia,

1,898
266
4,603
5
320

455,954
56,701
207,533
16,015
72,046
384

28,468 173,193
2,283 27,004
15,338 105,883
467
4,060
3,281 21,529
240
2,278

5,511 10,167 14,111
1,143 1,625 1,627
1,815 3,951 6,706
401
235
199
717 1,528 1,666
126
80
203

Middle States,....

7,092

808,633

50,077 333,947

9,713 17,586 24,512 1,251,580

Virginia,................
North Carolina,...
South Carolina,...
Georgia,................
Florida,.................

1,995
589
51
574
1

318,771
217,095
198,363
209,383
12,117

6,361
1,734
1,958
2,428
481

54,147
14,322
10,325
7,984
1,177

582
327
381
262
435

2,952
379
348
352
118

3,866
1,086
1,481
1,250
204

Southern States,..

3,210

955,729

12,962

87,955

1,987

4,149

7,887 1,073,879

Alabama,..............
Mississippi,...........
Louisiana,.............
A rkansas,.............
Tennessee,...........

96
14
1
41
103

177,439
139,724
79,289
26,355
227,739

2,212
1,303
8,549
215
2,217

7,195
4,151
7,565
1,173
17,815

256
33
1,322
3
55

758
100
662
39
302

1,514
1,506
1,018
301
2,042

Southwestern S.,.

255

650,546

14,496

37,899

1,669

1,861

6,381

M issouri,.............
Kentucky,.............
Ohio,.....................
Indiana,................
Michigan,.............
W isconsin,...........
Io w a ,....................

742
331
704
233
782
40
794
217

92,408
197,738
272,579
148,806
105,337
56^521
7,047
10,469

2,522
3,448
9,201
3,076
2,506
728
479
355

11,100
23,217
66,265
20,590
13,185
6,890
1,814
1,629

39
44
212
89
63
24
14
13

1,885 1,469
968 2,487
3,323 5,663
627 2,257
310 2 021
166
904
209
259
78
365

Northwestern S.,.

3,843

890,905

22,315 144,690

498

7,566 15,425 1,085,242

539
198
146
372
228
431

1,889
1,640
1,563
3,804
457
1,697

1,914 11,050

675,082

713,107

Total,........... 15,211 3,719,951 117,607 791,749 56,021 33,076 65,255 4,798,870




United States, in Fifty Years.

49

T able III.
Comparative View o f the number o f persons employed in Agriculture, Commerce, and
Manufactures, in the fine great divisions o f the United States, in 1820 and 1840,
and the relative proportions o f each class.
Number of persons employed in
Agriculture.

New England S.,.
Middle States,.......
Southern States,...
Southwestern S.,..
Northwestern S.,..
Total U. States,

$ 1820
1840
1820
184C
1820
1840
1820
1840
.1820
1840

Centesimal proportions.
Total.

G E O G R A P H IC A L D IV IS IO N S .

Commerce.

Manufactures.

Agricul- Com- Manuture.
merce. factures.

284,903 24,185 81,922 391,010
414,138 17,757 187,258 619,153
522,508 23,842 159,839 706,189
808,633 50,077 333,947 1,192,657
718,510 11,883 54,484 784,877
955,729 12,962 87,955 1,056,646
212,148
7,958 16,142 236,248
650,546 14,496 37,899 702,941
332,577
4,625 37,119 364,321
890,905 22,315 144,690 1,057,910

72.8
66.9
74.
67.8
91.6
90.5
89.8
92.5
88.5
84.2

6.2
2.9
3.4
4.2
1.5

1.3

1 0 .2

2 .2

13.6

1820 2,070,646 72,493 349,506 2,483,645
1840 3,719,951 117,607 791,749 4,629,307

83.4
80.4

2.9
2.5

13.7
17.1

1 .2

3.4
2 .1

21.

30.2
2 2 .6

28.
6.9
8.3
6.8
5.4

T able IV.
Showing the proportions in which the several industrious classes o f the Union, according to the census o f 1840, are distributed among its great geographical divisions.
Per centage of persons employed in—
G E O G R A P H IC A L D IV IS IO N S .

Mining.

New England States,........
Middle States,....................
Southern States,.................
Southwestern States,.........
Northwestern States,........

5.3
46.7
21.1
1.6
25.3
100.

Com­ Manu­ Naviga­ Internal Learn­
Agrithe naviga­ ed pro
culture. merce. factures. ting
Ocean. tion. fessions.

n .i
21.7
24.8
18.5
23.9
100.

15.1
42.6
11.
12.3
19.
100.

23.6
42.2
11.1
4.8
18.3
100.

75.3
17.3
3.5
3.
.9
100.

5.8
53.2
5.6
12.5
22.9
100.

16.9
37.6
12.1
9.8
23.6
100.

Total.

14.1
26.1
22.3
14.9
22.6
100.

T able V.
Showing the ratio which the number o f persons in the several industrious classes of
each great geographical division o f the States bears to the whole population o f such
division, according to the census o f 1840.
Number of persons employed in—
G E O G R A P H IC A L D IV IS IO N S .

New England States,........
Middle States,...................
Southern States,.................
Southwestern States,.........
Northwestern States,........

VOL. IX.--- NO. I.




Whole
laboring
Naviga­ Internal Learn­ class,
Com­
AgriManu­
Mining,
ed pro­ as 1 to
merce, factures, ting the naviga­
as 1 to culture,
tion, fessions,
as 1 to as 1 to as 1 to Ocean,
a s l to as 1 to as 1 to

2755
723
1038
8806
1075

5.4
6.3
3.5
3.4
4.6

1122

4.58

126
102
257
155
185

12.
15.3
37.9
56.6
28.5

53
528
1677
1345
8336

1161
291
802
1206
546

202
209
422
351
267

3.31
4.08
3.01
3.14
3.8

145

21.5

304

516

261

3.55

5

50

Progress o f Population and Wealth in the

It seems, by the preceding tables, that the whole number of persons
employed in agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, bears nearly the
same proportion to the whole population in both enumerations. In
1820, these classes, amounting to 2,483,645 persons, in a population of
9,638,131, were 25.7 per cent of the whole number; and, in 1840, the
same classes amounted to 4,629,307 persons in a population of 17,069,453,
which is 27.1 per cent. If the four classes, then added, be taken into
the estimate, the proportion will be 28 per cent. This proportion must
be regarded as a very large one, when it is recollected that the three
classes in question comprehend a very small number of females, and that
one-half, or very nearly half of the males, are under seventeen years of
age.
The proportion of adult males, in the industrious classes of Great
Britain, seems to be nearly the same as in the United States, so far as
we can compare them by means of the very different plans adopted in
the two countries of enumerating those classes by the census. There,
only the males of twenty years of age and upwards are reckoned; whilst
here, all persons employed in the several branches of industry are count­
ed, without distinction of age, sex, or condition.
In 1831, the whole number of males in Great Britain, twenty years of
age and upwards, was 3,944,511, who were thus distributed, according to
the census:—
Employed in agriculture, as occupiers or laborers,....... 1,243,057, equal to 31.5 p. cent.
“
manufactures,
. . . . . . .-v.J.T'..'.,......... 404,317 / „
39.7
“
“
in retail trade p p b d m lie raf,..{ .b .V /V .. 1,159,867 %
Laborers, employed in labof.hot agricultural,
..CA. 608,712')
Servants,............................( 5r:;....,................ :1i f ..j. . 7 8 , 6 6 9 i „
28.8
“
Capitalists, professional anck other educated men,........ 214,390 j
Other males,......................... .............................................. 235,499 J
Total,.................................... ............................. 3,944,511

100.

From this enumeration, it appears that, exclusive of the two last men­
tioned classes, amounting to 449,889 persons, there were 3,494,622 males
above the age of twenty who were engaged in profitable, and, for the
most part, manual occupations ; and, consequently, according to Mr. G.
R. Porter, one of the most accurate statistical writers of that country, the
residue, who were not thus engaged, constitute 114 out of every 1,000
males of twenty years of age ; and if the males included in the army
and navy, and as seamen in registered vessels, be added to the whole
population, the number will be reduced to 106 of every 1,000, or 10.6
per cent.
To ascertain the number of the industrious class in the United States,
correspondent to that in the British enumeration, we must deduct, from
the whole number returned by the census of 1840, the slaves compre­
hended under that class, the free colored persons, the white females, the
white males under twenty years of age, and the professional men, for
none of which deductions, except the last, have we any data at once pre­
cise and authentic. The following conjectural estimate, however, is
probably not wide of the truth. 1. The slaves. As in this part of the
population, both women and children are employed in field labor, espe­
cially in the cotton growing states, we are led to assign to the laboring
class a far greater proportion of the whole number than is usual; but, on
the other hand, that proportion must be greatly reduced when we recol­




United States, in Fifty Years.

51

lect that nearly 34 per cent of the whole number are under ten years of
age ; and that much the larger part of the females, as well as a consider­
able number of the males, both adults and boys, are employed as house­
hold servants, who were not reckoned in this part of the census. When,
to these deductions, we make a fair allowance for the infirm and super­
annuated, two-fifths of the whole number would seem to be a liberal es­
timate for the slave labor comprehended in the census; and this rough
estimate receives confirmation from a carefid inspection of the returns,
and a comparison between the number of productive laborers in the slave­
holding and other states. 2. The occupations of the free colored being
nearly the same as those of the slaves, we will also deduct two-fifths of
their whole number. 3. The white females. These are rarely employ­
ed in any branch of industry noted in the census, except in the manufac­
tories of cotton, and other woven fabrics. The whole number thus em­
ployed, in doors and out of doors, was, according to the census of 1840,
109,612. If, in some of these establishments, the females are the most
numerous, in others, there are few or none. We will, therefore, suppose
one-half of the whole number to be females. 4. The white males under
txcenty years o f age. In the absence of all other data, let us suppose that
the number of this description is equal to the whole number of white
males between fifteen and twenty years of age, (756,022,) after deduct­
ing the scholars attending the colleges and grammar schools, (180,503.)
This would make the boys, comprehended in the industrious classes,
575,519, though the number can scarcely be so great.
If the several deductions be made, in conformity with the preceding
views, the result will be as follows :—
In all the departments of industry,........................................................... persons
Deduct, for two-fifths of the colored population,.............................. 1,149,598
“
the white females employed in manufactures.................
54,806
“
white males under 20 years of age,.................................
575,519
“
professional men,................................................................
65,255
-----------T he whole number of white males above 20 years of age employed in trade
and manual labor,..................................................................................................

4,798,870

1,845,178
-----------2,953,692

Now, the whole number of free white males over twenty years of age,
was, by the census of 1840, 3,318,837 ; from which, if the above number
of 2,953,692 be deducted, the difference, which is 365,145, and which
comprehends the professional, the superannuated, and the idle classes, is
equivalent to 110 adult males out of 1,000, or 11 per cent. If, however,
two-fifths bo too large a proportion for the working slaves reckoned in
the census, as many will think, a reduction of their number will, to the
same extent, increase the number of white male laborers, and diminish
the number of the professional and unproductive class. But the propor­
tion of this class is not likely to differ much in the two countries ; for, in
truth, nineteen-twentieths of the men in every country are compelled to
work by their hands or their wits for the means of subsistence, suited to
their habits and tastes, and the difference between different countries is
not so much in the quantity of the labor performed, as in its quality and
efficiency.
Whilst all civilized countries are so much alike as to the amount of la­
bor put in requisition to satisfy human wants, they differ very greatly as
to the distribution of that labor among the three principal branches of in­
dustry ; and the difference is very great in this respect, not only between




52

Progress o f Population and Wealth in the

the several states, but in the whole United States, in 1820 and 1840. It
is seen by Table III, that the proportion of labor employed in agriculture
and commerce had diminished; while that employed in manufactures had,
in twenty years, increased from 13.7 per cent to 17.1 per cent of the
whole. The positive increase in that time was from 349,506 persons
employed in 1820, to 791,749 employed in 1840.
This increase was greatest in the New England states, whose manu­
facturing population had enlarged from 21 per cent, in 1820, to 30.2 per
cent, in 1840; in which time the same class of population had nearly
trebled in Massachusetts, and more than trebled in Rhode Island. In the
southwestern states, alone, the proportion of agriculture had increased;
in all the others it had diminished. In the middle and northwestern, the
proportion employed in commerce experienced a small increase. In sev­
eral of the states, not only was the proportion less in 1840 than it had
been in 1820, but the number of persons actually employed in commerce
was less. This was the case in Maine, Massachusetts, Connecticut,
Maryland, and, to a smaller extent, in Delaware, North Carolina, and
South Carolina. Is this falling off to be attributed solely to the loss of
our legitimate share of the West India trade since 1830, or in part, also,
to some difference in the mode of taking the census, by which a part of
the seamen, who, in 1840, were separately numbered, were, in 1820,
reckoned among the persons employed in commerce 1 The first cause
seems quite adequate to the effect produced.
If we suppose that the whole labor of Great Britain is distributed
among the several departments of industry in the same proportions as
the labor of the males above twenty years of age, the difference of dis­
tribution in that country and this is very striking. In that country, agri­
cultural labor is but 31.5 per cent of the whole ; here, it is 77.5 per
cent. In that country, manufactures and trade employ 28.8 per cent of
the whole labor; here, they employ but 18.9 per cent. Each country
employs its industry in that way which is most profitable and best suited
to its circumstances.
Table IV shows how the different departments of productive in­
dustry are distributed among the five great divisions of the states, in cen­
tesimal proportions. Two-thirds of the mining labor is in the middle and
southern states. The southern states stand foremost in agricultural labor,
though they hold but the third rank in population. The middle states
employ the least labor in agriculture, in proportion to their numbers. In
commerce, however, they employ the most, and next to them, the New
England states. The same two divisions take the lead in manufactures,
they contributing nearly two-thirds of the labor employed in this branch
of industry. Three-fourths of the seamen are furnished by New Eng­
land, of which nine-tenths belong to Massachusetts and Maine. More
than half the labor employed in inland navigation is in the middle states,
and, next to them, are the northwestern states.
Of that department of industry which comprehends the learned profes­
sions, and which is at once the best fruit of civilization, and the most
powerful agent of its further advancement, the New England and middle
states have the largest proportion, though there is less diversity in this
than in the other industrious classes.
Of the individual states, New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia em­
ploy the greatest number in mining ; in agriculture, New York, Virginia,




United States, in Fifty Years.

53

and O hio; in commerce, New York, Pennsylvania, Louisiana, and Mas­
sachusetts ; in ocean navigation, next to Massachusetts and Maine, but
far behind, is New York; in internal navigation, New York, Pennsyl­
vania, Ohio, and Virginia furnish 20,000 out of the 30,000 employed.
In Table V, we see the various ratios which the persons employ­
ed in the several branches of industry bear to the whole population in the
several divisions of the states. According to this table, without regard­
ing local diversities, taking the whole United States together, the great
classes of occupation range themselves in the following order, v iz:—
agriculture is............................
manufactures is........................
commerce i s ............................
the learned professions is ......
navigating the ocean..............
internal navigation,.................
m ining,....................................

it
it
tt
tt
t«
tt

4*

214
145
261
304
516
1122

Taking all the employments together, the number engaged is 355 out
of every 1,000 of the whole population ; which implies, on the grounds
already stated, that there can be but a very small proportion of males
who are not occupied in some mode of profitable industry.
C H A PT ER XVIII.
ED U C A TIO N .

I n addition to the new subjects already mentioned, the census of 1840,
also, for the first time, embraced the statistics of education. For this
purpose, all schools for the instruction of youth were divided into three
classes, viz : 1. Universities or colleges. 2. Academies and grammar
schools. 3. Primary schools; and the number of each description, to­
gether with the number of scholars attending each, in the several states,
were given. It also enumerated the scholars educated at the public
charge in each state, and the number of white persons over twenty years
of age who could not read and write.
Of the many substantial benefits of educating the people, it is scarcely
necessary now to speak ; since, wherever the experiment has been made,
it has been found to favor industry, prudence, temperance, and honesty,
and thus eminently to conduce to the respectability and happiness of a
people. But the motives for giving knowledge a wide diffusion are pe­
culiarly strong in this country, where the people, being the sole source
of political power, all legislation and measures of public policy must, in
a greater or less degree, reflect the opinions and feelings of the great
mass of the community, and be wise and liberal, or weak and narrow­
minded, according to the character of those by whose suffrages authority
is given and is taken away. If the body of the people be not instructed
and intelligent, how can they understand their true interests— how distin­
guish the honest purposes of the patriot from the smooth pretences of the
hypocrite—how feel the paramount obligations of law, order, justice, and
public faith ?
5*




Progress o f Population and Wealth in the

54

Table showing the number of Universities or Colleges, of Academies and Grammar
Schools, of Primary and Common Schools, in the United States, with the number o f
Scholars of each description, the number o f Scholars at public charge, and the num­
ber of W hite Persons over 20 years of age who cannot read and writey according to
the census o f 1840.

ST A T E S
AND T E R R IT O R IE S .

Univer­
Acade­
Scholars
sities
Primary
Stu­ mies &
at
dents. Gram’ar Scholars. Schools. Scholars. public Illiterate.
and
colleges.
Schools.
charge.

Maine,.......................
New Hampshire,....
Vermont,...................
Massachusetts,.........
Rhode Island,..........
Connecticut,..............

4
2
3
4
2
4

266
433
233
769
324
832

86
68
46
251
52
127

8,477 3,385
5,799 2,127
4,113 2,402
16,746 3,362
3,664
434
4,865 1,619

164,477
83,632
82,817
160,257
17,355
65,739

New England States,

19

2,857

630

43,664 13,329

574,277 262,640

13,041

New Y ork,...............
New Jersey,.............
Pennsylvania,...........
Delaware,..................
Maryland,.................
District of Columbia,

12
3
20
1
12
2

1,285
443
2,034
23
813
224

505
66
290
20
133
26

34,715 10,593
3,027 1,207
15,970 4,978
764
152
4,289
565
1,389
29

502,367 27,075
52,583 7,128
179,989 73,908
6,924 1,571
16,851 6,624
851
482

44,452
6,385
33,940
4,832
11,817
1,033

Middle S ta te s,.........

50

4,822 1,040

60,154 17,514

741,565 116,788 102,459

Virginia,....................
North Carolina,........
South Carolina,........
Georgia,.....................
Florida,.....................

13
2
1
11

1,097
158
168
622

382
141
117
176
18

11,083
4,398
4,326
7,878
732

1,561
632
566
601
51

35,331
14,937
12,520
15,561
925

Southern States,......

27

2,045

834

28,417

3,411

79,274 14,786 168,031

Alabam a,..................
Mississippi,................
Louisiana,.................

2
7
12

152
454
989

Tennessee,................

8

492

114
71
52
8
152

5,018
2,553
1,995
300
5,539

639
382
179
113
983

Southwestern States,

29

2,087

397

Missouri,...................
Kentucky,.................
Ohio,..........................
Indiana,.....................
Illinois,.....................
Michigan,.................

6
10
18
4
5
5

495
1,419
1,717
322
311
158

47
116
73
54
42
12
2
1

Northwestern States,
Total,.................




48

4,222

347

15,405 2,296
1,926
4,906
4,310
2,946
1,967
485
25

642
952
5,186
1,521
1,241
975
77
63

16,630 10,657

16,243
8,236
3,573
2,614
25,090

60,212
7,715
14,701
158,351
10,749
10,912

9,791
124
3,524
1,333
14

3,213
107
1,190
6,907

3,241
942
2,276
4,448
1,614
52 G

58,787
56,609
20,615
30,717
1,303

22,592
8,360
4,861
6 567
58,531

55,756 11,417 100,911
16,788
526
24,641
429
218,609 51,812
48,189 6,929
34,876 1,683
29,701
998
1,937
315
1,500

19,457
40,018
35,394
38,100
27,502
2,173
1 701
1,118

376,241 62,692 165,463

173 16,233 3,248 164,270 47,207 1,845,113 468,323 I 549,905

United States, in Fifty Years.

55

Table showing the Ratio which the number o f College Students, of Scholars in the
Grammar Schools and in the Primary Schools, and the number o f the Illiterate in
each State bear to the white population of such State.
Rat. to white pop. of sch. in

Rat. to white pop. of sch. in
S T A T E S AND
T E R R IT O R IE S .

Gram. Primary
Col­
leges. Schools. Schools.

Ratio to
Illiter’e.

Col­
Gram. Primary
leges. Schools. Schools.
As 1 to As 1 to As 1 to As 1 to

As 1 to As 1 to As 1 to As 1 to

N. Hamp.,..
Vermont,....
Massachus.,.
R. Island,...
Connecticut,

1883
656
1250
948
326
362

59.
48.8
70.8
43.5
28.8
62.6

3.
3.4
3.5
4.5
6.
4.6

N. Engl’d S.

774

50.6

3.8

1851
793
825
D elaw a re,... 2546
Maryland,... 391
Dist. of Col., 136

68.5
116.
105.
76.6
74.3
2.2

4.7
6.7
9.3
8.4
16.9
36.6

N e w Y o rk ,.

New Jersey,
Pennsylvan.

Ratio to
Illiter’e.

S T A T E S AND
T E R R IT O R IE S .

154.
38.1
300.
128. Southern S., 939
67.5
164.
65.4 Alabama,.... 2205
66.8
Mississippi,. 394
70.1
574.
79 4
160
169.6
258.
Tennessee,. 1302 115.
53.5
55.
S’western S. 666
90.2
49.4
12.1 Missouri,.... 654 168.
26.9 Kentucky,.. 416 120.
874 348.
29.6 Ohio,...........
2107

M iddles.,...
Virginia, —

998

678
3662
S. Carolina,. 1542
655
Georgia, ....

80.

6.5

60.9
110.
59.9
51.7

20.9
32.4
20.7
26.2

233

Illinois,....... 1518 24o!
Michigan,... 1382 436.
12.6 W isconsin,.
473.
8.5
1717.
12.5
13,2 N ’west’n S,
912 231.

47.

|

T otal,....

874

86.37

30.2

21.4

24.2

11.4

20.6
21.7
44 3
29.6
25.5

14.8
21.4
32 6
11.8
10.9

24.9

13.7

19.3
23.9
6.8
14
13.5
7.1
15.9
28.6

16.6
14.7
42.4

10.2

23.3

1 7 ft

17.1
97.3
18.
38.4

7.69 25.27

The preceding table shows that the number of college students amounts
to somewhat more than a nine-hundreth part of the white population;
that the scholars of the academies and grammar schools are ten times as
numerous as the college students ; that the scholars of the primary schools
are near twelve times as numerous as the la st; and that the scholars of
every description are equal to just one-seventh of the white population.
The relative numbers, distributed in centesimal proportions, would be as
follows:—
College students,............................................................................................
Scholars in grammar schools,......................................................................
“
primary schools,.........................................................................

0.8 per cent.
8.1
“
91.1
“

100.

If the free colored be added to the white population, in consideration
of that class furnishing a proportion of the scholars in the primary schools,
the proportion which each description of scholars bears to the free popu­
lation would be thus reduced, viz: college students, as 1 to 8.98; scho­
lars in grammar schools, as 1 to 88.T7¥ ; scholars in primary schools, as
1 to 7.t\ ; and the scholars of every description, as 1 to 7 JJ-.
The diversity among the states, as to the proportion of scholars, is prin­
cipally in those of the primary schools. In the number of college stu­
dents, no division of the states has greatly above or below the average
of 1 to 874 of the white population; and in the scholars of the gram­
mar schools, the northwestern states differ widely from the other divisions.




56

Progress o f Population and Wealth in the

But in the primary, or elementary schools, the proportion in New Eng­
land is nearly double that of the middle states, nearly three times that
of the northwestern states, and between six and seven times as great as
those of the southern and southwestern states. The difference as to the
number of illiterate, is yet greater. If the other divisions be compared
with New England, the number who cannot read and write is three and
a half times as great in the middle states; seven times as great in the
northwestern states; twelve times in the southwestern states ; and near­
ly fifteen times in the southern states.
These diversities are attributable to several causes, but principally to
the difference in density of numbers, and in the proportion of town popu­
lation. In a thinly-peopled country, it is very difficult for a poor man to ob­
tain schooling for his children, either by his own means, or by any means
that the state is likely to provide ; but where the population is dense, and
especially in towns, it is quite practicable to give to every child the rudi­
ments of education without onerously taxing the community. This is al­
most literally true in all the New England states and New York, and is
said to be the case in the kingdom of Prussia. It is true that, in the
northwestern states, and particularly those which are exempt from slaves,
the number of their elementary schools is much greater than that of the
southern or southwestern states, although their population is not much
more dense ; but, besides that, the settlers of those states, who were mostly from New England or New York, brought with them a deep sense of
the value and importance of the schools for the people ; they were better
able to provide such schools, in consequence of their making their settle­
ments, as had been done in their parent states, in townships and villages.
We thus see that Michigan, which has but a thin population even in the
settled parts of the state, has schools for nearly one-seventh of its popu­
lation. The wise policy pursued first in New England, and since by the
states settled principally by their emigrants, of laying off their territory
into townships and of selling all the lands of a portion before those of
other townships are brought into market, has afforded their first settlers
the benefits of social intercourse and of co-operation. In this way, they
were at once provided with places of worship, and with schools adapted
to their circumstances.
The census also shows a great difference among the states, as to the
number of scholars at public charge ; but this difference is owing princi­
pally to the different modes in which they have severally provided for
popular instruction. In some, the primary schools are supported by a
tax, as Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont; in others,
by a large public fund, as in Connecticut, Virginia, and some others ; and
others, again, partly by the public treasury, and partly by private contri­
b u tio n 's in New York. In both the last cases, the children are not con­
sidered as educated at the public expense, though the difference between
them and the first class of cases is essentially the same, so far as regards
the public bounty.
Of the three descriptions of schools, the elementary, by their great
number, seem to be far the most deserving of consideration, if we look
merely to their direct influence on individuals ; but if we regard the po­
litical and general effects of each, it is not easy to say which contributes
most to the well-being of the community. The primary schools give in­
struction and improvement to the bulk of the voters, the great reservoir




United States, in F ifty Years.

57

of political power. The grammar schools educate that class whose views
and feelings mainly constitute public opinion on all questions of national
policy, legislation, and morals, and who thus give political power its par­
ticular directions. It is from the least numerous class—the collegiate—
that the most efficient legislators, statesmen, and other public function­
aries are drawn, as well as those professional men who take care of the
health, the rights, and the consciences of men.
There is another important class of instructors of which the census
takes no separate notice, that is, the ministers of religion, who, once a
week or oftener, besides performing the rites of worship, each according
to the modes of his sect, indoctrinate large congregations in articles of
faith, and inculcate man’s religious and moral duties. The number of
ministers of every denomination was computed to exceed 20,000, at the
taking of the last census, and the deeply interesting character of the top­
ics on which they treat gives to this class of teachers a most powerful in­
fluence over the minds of men ; but fortunately it is so divided by the mu­
tual counteractions of rival sects, that it can no longer upheave the foun­
dations of civil society, or seriously affect the public peace ; yet the influ­
ence of the ministers over their respective followers is rather enhanced
than diminished by the rivalry of different sects, and the more as they are
all improving in information and oratorical talent. They now bear away
the palm of eloquence, both from the bar and the deliberative assemblies.
If this vast moral power spends its force yet oftener on speculative subtilties, than on awakening emotion or influencing conduct; if it aims, in a word,
more to teach men what to think, than how to feel or to act, this cir­
cumstance affords, perhaps, as much matter of congratulation as regret,
when we recollect how easy the pure, mild, and healthy influence which
religion might exert, and which we sometimes see it exert, could be con­
verted into bitter intolerance and the excesses of wild fanaticism.
There is yet another source of popular instruction—the periodical press
— which is noticed by the census as a branch of manufacturing industry,
and which is exclusively occupied, not only with worldly affairs, but with
the events of the passing hour. It keeps every part of the country in­
formed of all that has occurred in every other, that is likely to touch men’s
interests or their sympathies—volcanoes, earthquakes, tempests, conflagra­
tions, and explosions. Nor, in attending to the vast, does it overlook the
minute. No form of human suffering escapes its notice, from the miseries
of war, pestilence, and famine, to the failure of a merchant, or the loss of
a pocket-book. Every discovery in science or art, every improvement in
husbandry or household economy, in medicine or cosmetics, real or sup­
posed, is immediately proclaimed, as are all achievements in any pursuit
of life, whether in catching whales or shooting squirrels, or in riding, run­
ning, jumping, or walking. There scarcely can be an overgrown ox or
hog make its appearance on a farm, or even an extraordinary apple or
turnip, but their fame is heralded through the land. Here we learn every
legislative measure, from that which establishes a tariff to that which gives
a pension— every election or appointment, from a president to a postmas­
ter—the state of the market, the crops, and the weather. Not a snow is
suffered to fall, or a very hot or very cold day to appear, without being
recorded. We may here learn what every man in every city pays for his
loaf or his beefsteak, and what he gives, in fact, for almost all he eats,
drinks, and wears. Here, deaths and marriages, crimes and follies, fash­




58

The Protective System,

ions and amusements, exhibit the busy, ever-changing drama of human life.
Here, too, we meet with the speculations of wisdom and science, the effu­
sions of sentiment, and the sallies of w it; and it is not too much to say,
that the jest that has been uttered in Boston or Louisville, is, in little more
than a week, repeated in every town in the United States: or that the
wisdom or the pleasantry, the ribaldry or the coarseness, exhibited in one
of the halls of Congress, is made by the periodical press to give pleasure
or distaste to one hundred thousand readers.
Nor is its agency limited to our own concerns. It has eyes to see, and ears
to hear, all that is said and done in every part of the globe—and the most
secluded hermit, if he only takes a newspaper, sees, as in a telescope, and
often as in a mirror, everything that is transacted in the most distant re­
gions ; nor can any thing memorable befall any considerable part of our
species, that it is not forthwith communicated, with the speed of steam, to
the whole civilized world.
The newspaper press is thus a most potent engine, both for good and
evil. It too often ministers to some of our worst passions, and lends new
force to party intolerance and party injustice.
Incenditque animum dictis, atque aggeratiras.

But its benefits are incalculably greater. By communicating all that is
passing in the bustling world around us, whether it be little or great, virtue
or crime, useful or pernicious, pleasurable or painful, without those exag­
gerations and forced congruities which we meet with in other forms of lit­
erature, it imparts much of the same just knowledge of men and things as
experience and observation. Its novelties give zest to life. It affords oc­
cupation to the idle, and recreation to the industrious. It saves one man
from torpor, and relieves another from care. Even in its errors, it uncon­
sciously renders a homage to virtue, by imputing guilt to those it attacks, and
praising none to whom it does not impute merit and moral excellence.
Let us hope that it will, in time, without losing any of its usefulness, less
often offend against good taste and good manners, and show more fairness
in political controversy.
According to the census of 1840, there were then in the United States
138 daily newspapers, 1,142 issued weekly, and 125 twice or thrice a
week, besides 227 other periodical publications. Such a diffusion of intel­
ligence and information as there numbers, has never existed in any other
country or age.

A r t . IV.—T H E PRO TECTIVE SYSTEM .
NUMBER II.

ITS EXPEDIENCY AND NECESSITY.

I n our first number, we attempted to show that the doctrine of protec­
tion was designed not so much for the rich, as for the poor—not for the
capitalist, but for the laborer ; and that this doctrine was interwoven with
our institutions, so that the object for which our government was formed
could not be secured without its exercise. We also attempted to show,
and we think succeeded in showing, that this doctrine was free from all
constitutional objections. It was there seen that the power to “ lay du­
ties” was restrained by nothing but the “ general welfare” of the coun­




Its Expediency and Necessity.

59

try, and that this general welfare required the exercise of the protective
principle. It was also clearly shown that the phrase, “ to regulate com­
merce,” engrafted upon the constitution, was understood by the people to
include the power “ to encourage manufactures”—that this meaning of
the phrase was settled by the usage of all nations, and particularly by the
usage of the states under the confederation ; and that, when this power
was granted to Congress, it was understood by the framers of the consti­
tution, and by the people who ratified it, that the commercial power thus
granted included the power to foster our own industry, and protect our
manufacturing interests. It was further shown that the first Congress
which assembled under the constitution, composed of many of the distintinguished statesmen who framed the constitution, and who were members
of the state conventions where that instrument was ratified—that this
Congress were unanimous in the opinion that the constitution gave fiill
power in the premises; and that they passed a protective tariff bill, set­
ting forth, in the preamble, that duties were imposed “ for the discharge
of the debt of the United States, an d /o r the encouragement and pi-oiection
o f manufactures.” It was likewise shown that this cotemporaneous con­
struction of the constitution, given by its authors, had been acquiesced in
by all departments of the government, for more than half a century; that
every President and every Congress had given it their support; and that
there had never been a moment, since the passage of the first tariff by
the first Congress, when protection had not been the law of the land.
From this view of the argument, I think it will be seen that whatever
may be thought of the expediency, there can be no doubt of the constitu­
tionality of protection.
The propriety of sustaining our own interests, and fostering our own
industry, is so obvious, that little need be said upon the subject, further
than to answer some of the principal objections which have been made
against this policy. But before we consider these objections, it may be
well to take a passing notice of the doctrine of “ free trade,” which is
put forth at the present day with some degree of confidence. And what
is this boasted doctrine of free trade 1 If it means anything which is in­
telligible, it means that all duties on imports should be removed; and that
all laws and treaties which secure any advantage to our own commerce
and shipping, over that of other nations, should be annulled. In a word,
this doctrine goes on the ground that an American Congress shoulrj^»^j>,
to legislate for the American people, and legislate for the world,
not say that the advocates of free trade avow this, or that this is their
design; but I do say that their principles involve this idea—and if they
were carried out to their full extent, such would be the practical result.
The doctrine of free trade also implies “ direct taxation ;” and the advo­
cate of it must, to be consistent, maintain that all the burdens of the gov­
ernment should be borne by a direct tax upon the people.
Now who is prepared for this ? Who is willing that all restrictions
should be removed from our commerce, and that no preference should be
given to American, over foreign productions 1 The most numerous class
of free trade men will probably be found among our merchants, and those
engaged in. the navigating interest. They maintain that all restrictive
tariffs impair our commerce, and hence should be removed. But while
they are pleading for free trade for others, they are enjoying protection for
themselves. From the establishment of the government to the present




60

The Protective System,

time, a preference has been given to American shipping. A duty on
tonnage, for the express purpose of securing our own carrying trade to
our own shipping, was imposed by the first Congress ; and other provis­
ions have been added, from time to time, seeking the same end. We are
far from objecting to these provisions ; we contend that they are wise and
proper—that, in our navigation and coasting trade, there should be a
preference given to American bottoms. But it is totally inconsistent for
those who are enjoying this protection to advocate free trade. It would
seem, however, that, like many other theorists, they hate the doctrine
for others—not for themselves. Great Britain, since the days of Adam
Smith, has been for free trade in theory; but whenever she has been
called upon to carry this doctrine into practical effect, she has always felt
herself “ free” to adopt such regulations as were the most productive of
her own interests, regardless of the interests of other nations. And so
of our commercial men, who advocate free trade. They demand protec­
tion for themselves, but deny it to others. Is it not so ? Are those con­
cerned in navigation willing that all laws imposing duties on foreign
tonnage should be repealed, and that foreigners be permitted to compete
with them for our carrying and coasting trade ? Are the ship-builders
disposed to yield the protection which is extended to them? Until they
are disposed to give up the advantages which they derive from our legis­
lation, the cry of “ free trade” comes from them with an ill grace.
There is another class of free trade men, who shrink from the neces­
sary corollary, direct taxation. They would have all duties on imports
repealed, and hence all revenue from that source cut off; but, at the same
time, they would not consent to impose a direct tax upon the people ! Now
I should like to know what such men would have ? If they are in favor
of free trade, let them come up to the work like men, and provide the
means for carrying on the government by a direct tax. But they tell u's
that they are in favor of a tariff for revenue ; that they go for a 20 per
cent horizontal rate of duty. But what can be more absurd than this ?
Opposed to all restrictions upon commerce, and at the same time in favor
of a duty of 20 per cent upon all articles! This is as far removed from
free trade, as our present system. During the last commercial year, the
free articles imported into the country exceeded $66,000,000—being but
a traction short of one-half of our foreign imports ; and if to these xve
articles paying less than 20 per cent, it would amount to considtffude more than one-half of our entire imports. Now, according to
this notion of unrestricted commerce, one-half of all our imports which
are now free, or nearly so, are to be embarrassed by a duty of 20 per
c e n t; and this is called “ free trade !”
I mention these things, to show the extremes into which the advocates
of free trade are compelled to go. Beginning with a system which is
totally impracticable, they are compelled to have recourse to almost every
subterfuge to defend it. The fact is, free trade is impossible in the nature
of things; and an attempt to adopt it would be destructive of our best
interests.
Suppose we should at once repeal our tariff of duties, and blot from our
statute-book every act which gives a preference to American shipping—
would this constitute free trade ? Take our commerce with England for
example. We open all our ports to her, and receive her commodities
free of duty. W hat treatment do we receive from her in return ? Does




Its Expediency and Necessity.

61

she open her ports, and admit our staples free of duty ? No—in her re­
vised tariff of 1842, she imposes a duty which, if carried out ad valorem,
would amount to the following rates :— Salted beef, 59 per c e n t; bacon,
109 per cent; butter, 70 per cent; Indian corn, average, 30 per cent;
flour, average, 30 per cen t; rosin, 75 per c e n t; sperm oil, 33 per ce n t;
sperm candles, 33 per cen t; tobacco, unmanufactured, 1,000 per c e n t;
tobacco, manufactured, 1,200 per c e n t; salted pork, 33 per c e n t; soap,
200 per c e n t; spirits from grain, 500 per c e n t; spirits from molasses,
1,600 per cent.
Here is the free trade which Great Britain extends to us. She imposes
such duties as her own interest requires. It is an absurdity to talk of
free trade, unless it is reciprocated. Opening our ports to Great Britain,
and admitting her commodities duty free, while she pursues her present
policy, is far from constituting what can with any propriety be called free
reciprocal commerce. But there is a sort of looseness in the phrase,
“ free trade,” which renders this discussion embarrassing. The advocates
of this doctrine do not tell us with sufficient precision what they mean by
the phrase. If they mean that we should take off all restrictions from
commerce, whether other nations do or not, it is one thing; but if they
mean that we should do it towards those nations which will reciprocate
the favor, is quite another thing. But the phrase must imply a trade
which ite mutually beneficial, or it must not. If it does not imply a trade
thht isxAutually unrestricted Sjnd Imjutusjlly bengficijilj that i,s a gosd.rqaison
.•Jw 're j^ in g it. I have notemads sufficient proficiency;.in,the,science of
political;! non-resistance, to advocate , a, system of .trade which enriches
other1nations by impoverishing us.,'--I ijann,ot consent to open our ports,
:-'duty free, to those nations which throw every embarrassment in the way
our commerce. My political creed does i>ot.-require me to love other
nations better than my own. But if free Gadp implies a trade mutually
advantageous, I am willing to adopt i t ; but this can never be done by
taking off all commercial restrictions. If the trade is to be mutually ben­
eficial, it must not only imply a reciprocity in commercial regulations, but
a similarity in condition. The position of one nation may give her such an
advantage, that the removal of all commercial restrictions would enable
her to swallow up all others. Great Britain has, in her manufactures, “ so
got the start of the majestic world,” that she is able “ to bear the palm
alone.” The same rate of duty which she requires to protect her manufac­
tures, would be no protection to us. She has other advantages, besides the
perfection of her manufactures. As compared with us, she is densely pop­
ulated ; the capital there employed is not worth more than two-thirds as
much as it is in this country, and labor can be had there for one-third of
what it costs here. Now, under these circumstances, a removal of all com­
mercial restrictions would operate to her advantage, and to our injury. The
English manufacturer, owing to the low price of iron for his machinery, the
reduced rate of interest, the cheapness of labor, and other causes, can prepare
his mill for operation some twenty per cent less than the manufacturer in this
country; and after it is in operation, his labor will cost him less than half the
sum the American manufacturer would be compelled to give. The mutual
repeal of all duties on manufactured goods, would be the ruin of our manu­
factures ; and, in fact, bring labor in this country down to the low price given
in Europe. And the same would be true of our shipping interest. Remove
the protection given to this interest, and England would do our carrying and
VOL. xx.—

no.

i.




6

62

The Protective System,

coasting business for us, at the ruin of our shipping interest. Unrestrained
trade between us and Great Britain would be like free intercourse between
the wolf and the lamb. In both cases, the stronger would devour the other.
And what is true of Great Britain, is substantially true of France and
Germany. The low rate of interest, and the cheapness of labor, give them
a decided advantage over us in their manufactures ; and unrestrained com­
merce between them and us would redound to their advantage, and to our
injury. We, as a nation, are peculiarly situated. We are separated from
the old world by distance, and by the nature of our institutions. Our lead­
ing characteristic is, that our citizens are freemen, and are laborers. The
nature of our institutions tends to elevate the working classes, and to secure
to the laborer an ample remuneration for his toil. This raises the price of
labor—it makes the laborer a man. So long as we maintain this, our na­
tional characteristic, by protecting our own industry, our country will be
prosperous. But let the pleasing but delusive doctrine of free trade obtain
in our land—let that policy under which we have grown up and prospered,
be abandoned, and let us open our ports to the fabrics of those nations
whose hardy laborers can obtain but a shilling a day, and board themselves,
and it requires no spirit of prophecy to predict the embarrassment and distress which would ensue. When our navigators are driven from the ocean,
and our manufacturers and mechanics from their mills and their work­
shops, and all are compelled to cultivate the soil, the beauties of free trade
would Jse realize^.;' JWfe njight'haye agjiou'turaJ products, but we should
havV liainfafkaf.f .jBjeing#0epepi!lejij ,t?ppft other nations for many of the
comforts "of 1ife, a rid atj;he same time deprived of a market for our produce,
we should be tpifnpejlqd'tdttoil fori a '/pore pittance, and should, like Tan­
talus in the fafittf, {)driSn‘in tke midst of agricultural plenty.
But it seems unnecessary, t£ depict the evils of free trade, as there is not
the least prospect of h i b,eing, adopted, unless we blindly open our ports to
those nations which close theirs against us. The new tariff of Great Bri­
tain, which has been hailed as an approach to free trade, does not prac­
tically make the same amount of reduction that has generally been supposed.
We have already noticed the duties she imposes upon some of our staples.
The rate of duty on the articles we have mentioned, would average more
than 350 per cent, ad valorem. She has made considerable reductions in
her new tariff, but many of them are of but little practical consequence.
Some articles which were formerly prohibited, she now admits, but on a
duty so nearly prohibitory, that they can never come in, except in extreme
cases. Another large class of articles on which she has made liberal re­
ductions, consists of raw materials used in her manufactures; and such
reductions render her policy more protective. On manufactured articles,
her duty is generally low, for the plain reason that she fears no competition
on such fabrics. But when she comes to any article where other nations
are in advance of her, she is careful to impose a duty sufficient to protect
her own interests. Take silk, for example. Fearing the competition of
France, Italy, Ac., she imposes an average duty of about 30 per cent on
imported silks, which is much higher, under the circumstances, than we
impose upon the same article. Our duty upon silks will average about 33
per cent, being nominally 3 per cent higher than that of Great Britain.
But when we take the situation of the two nations into view, her duty is
much higher in effect—much more protective than ours. Labor and cap­
ital, the two great elements which go into all manufactured articles, are




Its Expediency and Necessity.

63

nearly as cheap in Great Britain as on the continent; and in skill she may
be considered as their equal. Under these circumstances, a duty of 30 per
cent is a high duty. But with us the case is different. Our capital costs
us one-third more, and our labor three times as much as it would in France
and Italy. This, to all practical purposes, brings our duty on silks down to
one-half of the rate imposed by Great Britain. In her situation, 30 per
cent is as protective as 60 per cent would be in ours. If Great Britain
can protect herself against those nations which are her equals or inferiors
in the art of manufactures, by a duty of 30 per cent, it by no means fol­
lows that the same rate of duty is sufficient for us, who are England’s infe­
rior in these manufactures ; and especially when our capital and labor are
much dearer than hers. If England is to be our model, let us impose du­
ties as protective in our case, as her duties are in hers. The new tariff
of Great Britain, which has been hailed as the harbinger of the free trade
millenium, is, after all, strictly protective ; and the great falling off in her
revenue from imposts, during the past year, is a guarantee against further
reductions.
And even the reductions which England has adopted, have been induced,
not by her love of free trade, but by the fact that Russia, France, and the
Prussian Commercial Union, had adopted, or were about to adopt new
tariffs, retaliatory upon her. Sir Robert Peel saw that manufactures were
springing up upon the continent, and that these nations were about to pro­
tect them by la w ; and his sagacity enabled him to perceive, at once, that
it was for the interest of Great Britain to reduce her scale of duties, hoping
thereby to prevent the continuation, or the adoption of measures upon the
continent, which would operate to the exclusion or diminution of her fabrics
in those countries. And if we look nearer home, we shall find the pro­
tective policy strictly adhered to on the western continent. Mexico, a
neighboring republic, has, within the last year, adopted a tariff which is
absolutely prohibitory upon all articles which she can grow or manufacture.
Among the prohibited articles, are some of our staples, viz : Rice, flour
from wheat, except from Yucatan ; raw cotton, cotton-yarn and thread,
coarse cottons, hogs’ lard, tallow, tobacco, &c.
Now, does the policy of other nations afford us any encouragement to
relax our policy on the subject of discriminating, protective duties ? Within
the last eighteen months, Russia, Prussia, France, and Mexico, have revised
and increased their duties ; and Great Britain, though she has reduced her
tariff, still retains her protective policy, and with these reductions can safely
compete with us or any other nation. Such is the policy of the nations
with which we have our principal commercial intercourse ; and it seems to
be no time for us to relax, when they are becoming more restrictive. Un­
der these circumstances, it would be madness; it would be suicidal in us
to abandon our protective system ; and how any true friend of American
interests can advocate such a policy, is more than I can comprehend.
But we have already devoted more space to this branch of the subject
than we intended. We will now adduce some considerations in favor of
the protective policy, and notice some objections which have been urged
against it.
In the first place, there is a class of manufactures, necessary to national
defence, which our government ought to protect. No nation has a right
to expect perpetual peace; and it is a maxim, venerable for age, “ in
peace prepare for w ar.” Some articles, such as arms and ammunition,




64

The Protective System,

are essential to the defence of the country; and unless we have the means
of supplying them ourselves, we might, in case of war, be reduced to the
greatest extremity. The fact that we are thus dependent upon foreign na­
tions for the munitions of war, would naturally invite aggression, and might
prove the cause of involving us in hostilities. Arms, ammunition, and
clothing, are indispensable in war. Every man who knows how much we
suffered in our revolutionary struggle for the want of these, will readily ap­
preciate the weight of this argument. And even in our late war with
Great Britain, some of these evils were severely felt. In looking over the
expenses of that war, one is forcibly struck with the large amount, and
the high prices paid for blankets, and other articles of woollen, for the
clothing of the army and navy. These expenses would have been greatly
reduced, if the manufacture of woollens had enjoyed the protection of the
government prior to that period. We would pursue this branch of the
argument farther, but most of the advocates for free trade allow that, so
far as national defence is concerned, it is the duty of the government to
protect manufactures.
Now this admission, on the part of the friends of free trade, yields the
very principle for which we contend. It is an admission which will cover
the whole ground of the protective policy. The articles necessary for
national defence are very numerous, and extend to almost every depart­
ment of manufactures ; and the same principle which will justify the pro­
tection of these, will justify all the protection for which we plead. The
various manufactures of iron for cannon, mortars, muskets, pistols, swords,
gun-carriages, camp utensils, chains, cables, anchors, spikes, bolts, tools
for ship-building, intrenching, and constructing works and bridges ; ma­
chinery for steamships and steam-batteries— of hemp for sails, cordage,
and tents—of leather for shoes, cartridge-boxes, belts, and harnesses— of
salt for the preservation of provisions—of clothing of all kinds— of pow­
der ;—these, and a great variety of other articles of manufacture, are
necessary for the defence of the country. Soldiers must have shoes, as
well as arm s; and clothing is as essential to a successful campaign as am­
munition. But national defence implies something more than mere mil­
itary operations. It has been justly said that “ money is the sinew of
w a r a n d in order to carry on military operations, the people must have
the ability to supply the means. It is as much the duty of the government
to aid the people in supplying the means to carry on a war, as it is to aid
the soldier, by supplying him with arms. The people, especially in this
country, are the source of all power—upon them, the government are de­
pendent for men and for money. And if it is wise in the government to
protect certain manufactures, that thereby they may save themselves some
thousands of dollars in time of war, it is certainly as wise in the govern­
ment to protect other manufactures, that millions may be saved to the peo­
ple, and thereby the people rendered more able to supply the means for
prosecuting the war. If we were involved in a war with such a nation as
England or France, and had no manufactures, the extra expense for man­
ufactured articles, which would be thrown upon the people, would be a
hundred fold greater than the extra expense which would be thrown upon
the government. And shall we be told, in this day of boasted political
light, that this paramount interest of the people should be neglected, and
the minor, the paltry interest of the government, guarded ? Is the interest
of the people to be sacrificed on the altar of the government 1 The dis­




Its Expediency and Necessity.

65

tinction which the friends of free trade make between the people and the
government, when they admit that the government should protect certain
articles for the benefit of the government, but should not protect other ar­
ticles for the benefit of the people, is entirely at variance with our free
institutions. It is the language of other countries, the doctrine of despots—
which is well enough when applied to some foreign governments, but totally
repugnant to the institutions of a free people. The fathers of the republic
repudiated the idea that our government had an interest distinct from the
people. But it seems that the friends of free trade, in their zeal to carry
out what they denominate democratic principles, are disposed to revive some
of the old, exploded, and odious doctrines of despotisms. We admit no such
distinctions. The government are the people, and the people are the gov­
ernment. The government has no right to protect any article, unless that
protection will subserve the interests of the people ; and the interests of the
people are no greater in war than in peace. If the government protect
certain manufactures to promote the interest of the nation in times of war,
they are equally bound to protect others to promote the interests of the
people in times of peace. Thus it will be seen that the admission of the
friends of free trade, that government should protect articles necessary in
war, yields the whole principle, and furnishes us with an argument in sup­
port of the general system for which we contend; and that this conclusion
cannot be avoided, unless we adopt the maxim of despots—that the people
were created for the government, and not the government for the people.
But if it be said in answer to this, that the protection necessary to national
defence is for the benefit of the people, and not of the government, we
reply that the interests of the people, in time of peace, are as important as
in time of >var; and it is as much the duty of the government to protect us
against tie pauper labor, as the hired soldiers of the old world. It is cer­
tainly a' essential to the nation that its millions of laborers should be pros­
pered. as that its hundreds of soldiers should be successful in battle. The
same reasons which would urge us to protect our troops, would urge us to
protect our laborers.
Another argument in support of the protective system, is drawn from the
yolicy of other nations. We have already seen that each nation guards its
own particular interests ; and that, by the operation of this foreign policy,
our great staples, flour, pork, bacon, &c., are in a measure excluded from
the principal markets of Europe. Now self-defence, that first law of na­
ture, applicable alike to nations and to individuals, requires us to adopt some
measures to counteract the influence of these restrictions upon our com­
merce. This principle is so self-evident, that the advocates of free trade,
from Adam Smith downward, have generally admitted the propriety of
countervailing duties, at least in all cases where this measure would tend
to produce a relaxation of foreign policy, or would secure 1 1 s against the
evil effects of that policy. Here, again, our opponents yield us the whole
for which we contend. Our protective system is, in its general principles,
countervailing; and the success with which it has been attended shows
conclusively that it comes within that class of cases in which countervailing
duties can be wisely imposed. England and France impose heavy duties
upon our flour and pork— we, in return, impose protective duties upon their
manufactures ; and if we do not induce them to take our flour and pork, we
do that which is practically the same thing—we create a market for them at
home. These duties build up manufactures in our own country; and, by
6*




66

The Protective System,

taking a portion of our labor from agriculture, we diminish the quantity of
beef and pork; and, as the manufacturers must have meat and bread, they
take what foreign nations exclude, and so a market is created for these sta­
ples. This one example will illustrate our whole protective policy, and
show conclusively its propriety and wisdom. We allow that this policy
may be unwisely exercised; but the abuse of a principle is no argument
against the principle itself.
Here, then, we take our stand ; and we are happy in being supported by
intelligent free trade men, themselves. It is the duty of our government to
adopt measures to counteract the injurious effects which the policy o f foreign
nations is calculated to have upon our commerce. If Great Britain or France,
or any other nation, should enact a law to-morrow, imposing new and se­
vere restrictions upon our commerce, there is scarcely a free trade man in
the land who would not cry out for some countervailing measure on the
part of our own government. W hat we should ask of foreign nations, in
such a case, would be, that there should be a reciprocity of interest—a fair
and equitable competition between our own and foreign labor. If this com­
petition was destroyed by the special act of a foreign government, we should
protest against it. Now it matters not from what cause this inequality
arises—whether from a single act of foreign legislation, or from their gen­
eral policy—if a fair competition is destroyed, it is the duty of the govern­
ment to throw her protecting shield around her citizens, and prevent their
being driven from their fields and their workshops by tie degraded labor
of foreign countries. If the manufacturers of Great Britain can destroy
the manufactures of this country, I care not whether thii. ability arises
from an order in Council or an act of Parliament—whether it is the result
of one law, or fifty—whether the policy was introduced last joar or last
centyry— its effects upon our citizens are the same, and the duty of the
government is in no degree altered. The advantages which the foreign
manufacturer has over our own, arise, in a great degree, from causeswhich,
if they are not produced by any one act of legislation, grow out of the gen­
eral policy which their government have adopted. But whether it arises
from their general policy, or from one special provision, the case is equally
injurious. For example : Great Britain pays a bounty upon glass which
is sent to this country. This gives the British manufacturer an advantage
over our own. Those who are engaged in this species of manufacture here,
find themselves undersold at their own doors. This competition, which is
so ruinous to the glass-manufacturer in this country, arises, in this case,
partly from the direct action of the British government. But there are
other causes in this, and especially in some other cases—such as the low
price of the raw material, the cheap rate of interest, a dense population,
and consequent low price of wages—which give the foreign manufacturer
a decided advantage over our own. The cheapness of capital and labor
gives the foreigner his principal advantage ; and we have the same right
to come in, and by legislation counteract the influence of these causes, as
we have to pass countervailing duties in any other case whatever.
Let the advocates for countervailing duties show us any difference, in
principle, between protecting our citizens against a single enactment of a
foreign nation, and that low price of wages which grows out of their gen­
eral policy or local condition. In the one case, they ask the interference
of the government—they complain that we are injured—that fair compe­
tition is destroyed. But no statute can be more ruinous to fair competi­




Its Expediency and Necessity.

67

tion than the low price of money and labor in foreign countries; and,
though this may not arise from any one act of the government, it is, in a
great measure, to be ascribed to the general and long-cherished policy of
those nations. Foreign manufacturers can obtain their capital for about
two-thirds, and their labor for from one-third to one-quarter of what it
costs the manufacturer in this country. The idea of anything like fair
competition, under these circumstances, is altogether out of the question.
Our manufacturers, therefore, must abandon their business altogether, or
the price of labor must come down to the European standard. Is this
desirable ? Do the free trade men wish to see the hardy laborers of this
country reduced to the necessity of toiling fourteen or sixteen hours per
day, for the paltry sum of one shilling, exclusive of board 1 This is the
European rate of wages, as appears from a report made to the English
parliament in 1840. We will give a brief statement of the price of wages,
as gathered from that report:—
Average prices per week o f the hand.loom weavers in Europe, including the weavers of
silk, cotton, linen, and woollen, in all their varieties, exclusive o f board.

Great Britain,............................................................. 8s. 0d. per week.
France,........................................................................ 7s. 0d.
Switzerland,............................................................... 5s. 7d.
Belgium,..................................................................... 6s. 0d.
Austria,....................................................................... 3s. 0d.
Saxony,....................................................................... 2s. Id.
These are the average prices given for adult male laborers, female
labor being from 30 to 80 per cent less. Here is a picture of foreign labor
in 1840. But as low as these prices are, it appears by a report made to
Parliament in 1841, that the prices had fallen at least 10 or 12 per cent
from the preceding year. We ask, again, whether the friends of free
trade, who profess to be the friends of the people, are desirous of seeing
the free, independent laborers of this country, brought down to the Eu­
ropean standard—to the miserable pittance of eight or ten pence per day ?
A greater evil could not be inflicted on our citizens—a more withering
calamity could not befall our country. The wealth of a nation consists
principally in the labor of its citizens ; and, as a general thing, there can
be no surer test of national prosperity than the price that labor will com­
mand.
It will be seen that we deduce the necessity of protective duties from
the disparity there is between the price of capital and labor in this coun­
try and Europe. The argument from this source deserves great consid­
eration ; for, unless we are prepared to have the price of labor in this
country reduced to six or eight shillings per week, we must protect it
against foreign competition. I am aware that this argument has been
regarded, by some free trade men, as deserving of no consideration ; and
that it has been said that the low price of capital and labor abroad fur­
nish an argument against protection, as that policy deprives us of the ben­
efits of their cheap capital and labor, which we might otherwise enjoy.*
This objection to our argument for protection, drawn from the low price
of labor in foreign countries, is founded on the principle that sound polit­
ical economy requires that a nation should, at all times, and under all cir­
cumstances, allow its citizens to buy where they can buy cheapest, and
* See Article II, June number of Merchants’ Magazine for 1841, pp. 523, 524.




68

The Protective System,

sell where they can obtain the highest price. But plausible as this doc­
trine may appear, it is far from being sound. In time of war, when our
commerce is obstructed, a citizen might buy cheapest of the enemy, and
in return dispose of his products to them at the highest price. But even
the advocates of free trade would not contend for this. They would admit
that such a trade should be restrained for public considerations—-for pur­
poses o f state. Now the very principle which would justify restraint in this
case, will justify a protective tariff. Public considerations justify the one
as much as the other. If it be proper, in time of war, to interdict a trade
which might prove profitable to some of our citizens, it may be equally
proper in time of peace. Our government is instituted for the benefit of
the people in peace as much as in w a r; and public consideration should
have a controlling influence at one period as much as at another.
Again, this doctrine would be as fatal to our shipping as to our manu­
facturing interest. If it be wise at all times to purchase at the cheapest
market, it would also be wise to employ the cheapest carriers. Now it
is a notorious fact that foreigners can build ships, as well as factories,
cheaper than we can ; and the low rate of wages enables them to navi­
gate their ships, as well as run their factories, at less cost than we can do
it. One fact, drawn from an official source, will illustrate the effect of a
trade comparatively free. In our commercial intercourse with the Hanse­
atic cities, established by treaty in 1828, we adopted the bases of equality
of duties on navigation and commerce in the direct and indirect trade.
“ The liberality of the United States,” says the Secretary of State, “ ex­
tended to the Hanse towns under treaty, in allowing all ships owned, in­
stead, as in the case of the English convention with those towns, all ships
built within their dominions, to enjoy the privileges of the flag, has nearly
shut American vessels out from the carriage in the German trade ; and,
as it respects the port of Bremen, (concerning the commerce of which,
the department is placed in possession of more official information than
that of Hamburg,) has thrown almost the entire carrying trade be­
tween that port and the United States into the hands of the Bremen ship­
owners. By an official statement of the number of vessels arriving at that
port during the year 1840, from this country, it appears that there were
ninety-nine— of which number seventy-five were Bremen, twenty United
States, and four belonged to other German ports.
“ In order to show the numerical proportion of arrivals from the United
States, and their comparative increase, it may be stated that they were, on
an average, from the years 1826 to 1830, inclusive, five-sevenths Amer­
ican, and two-sevenths Bremen ; from 1831 to 1835, inclusive, three-sev­
enths American, and four-sevenths Bremen; and from 1836 to 1840,
inclusive, one-fifth American, and four-fifths Bremen. From this estimate,
drawn from official statements, the rapid increase of the Bremen shipping
in the trade with the United States, and the proportionate diminution of our
own, since the treaty between the two countries in December, 1828, must
be obvious.”*
Here is the practical effect of free trade upon our shipping interest;
and what is true of our commerce with the Hanse towns, would be sub­
stantially true of our commerce with the other European powers. I will
* See the elaborate and able report of the Secretary of State, Mr. Webster, to the
House of Representatives, March, 1842, pp. 42, 43, House Document No. 163, 2d ses.
sion, 27th Congress.




Its Expediency and Necessity.

69

give another example illustrative of this point. Up to 1830, there were
restrictions upon the trade of the United States with the British American
possessions. On that year, an act was passed by Congress, opening our
ports, without any restrictions, to all British vessels from these colonies,
provided these colonial ports should be opened on the same terms to us.
By this arrangement, a trade perfectly free, so far as shipping was con­
cerned, was opened between the United States and the British colonies in
America; and this arrangement has proved highly detrimental to our nav­
igation. This will be seen by the fact that, since that period, the British
tonnage entering our ports has increased 500 per cent, while our own
tonnage entering our ports has increased only about 50 per cen t; and by
the further fact that, in the districts of Passamaquoddy, Portland, &c., sit­
uated near the British provinces, they have monopolized almost the whole
trade. Every view we can take of this subject, leads to the same result.
The cheapness of foreign capital and labor would enable them not only
to drive our laborers from their workshops, but our ships and mariners
from the ocean. This is the result to which the argument before us would
lead ; for, if we ought to buy in the cheapest market, we ought also to em­
ploy the cheapest carriers. We ought to avail ourselves of the boasted
advantages of the cheapness of foreign labor, in the latter case, as much
as in the former. But the friends of free trade will probably say that our
navigating interest requires protection, and that public policy calls upon
us to support our commercial marine. But why should this interest be
protected more than any other ? According to the late census, there were
but 56,000 persons engaged in navigation, while there were 791,000 en­
gaged in manufactures; and we demand on what principle the claims of
56,000, employed on the ocean, are greater than fourteen times that num­
ber, employed upon the land? The same principles of public policy
which call for the protection of our commercial marine, call for the pro­
tection of our industry at home ; the latter being as essential to national
independence as the former.
Thus we see that the soundness of the position that we should avail our­
selves of the cheapest market, is admitted by the friends of free trade to fail
in time of war, and with reference to our navigating interest. Nor are
these the only cases in which that principle will fail. It is far from being
a sound principle in political economy, always to buy at the cheapest
market. It is not sound in the case before us. Such a policy, if adopted
here, would turn 850,000 manufacturers and mariners out of employment;
and this would inflict an evil upon the country greater than all the blessings
to be derived from cheap purchases. Again—if the foreign market is the
cheapest at the present time, there is no certainty that it would continue so.
When, by their low prices, they have destroyed all our manufactures, and
driven our ships from the ocean, we should be entirely at their mercy. By
the monopoly they would have thus acquired, they could dictate to us such
prices as their own interest might suggest. All that would be necessary to
bring about such a state of things, is to have some two or three of the great
powers of Europe combine; and they could dictate to us on the subject of
commercial regulations and prices, as effectually as they did to the Grand
Sultan, in relation to Greece and Egypt.
It is with a nation as it is with an individual—the market where he can
buy cheapest is not always the best, even in a pecuniary point of view.
It may be good policy in an individual to buy at the dearest market— it




70

The Protective System,

may be nearest at hand, or it may be the best market at which to sell his
products. The cheapest market for purchase may require payment in
specie, while a dearer market may receive other commodities in payment.
The cotton manufacturers at the north might purchase their cotton in In­
dia, as they undoubtedly would, to some extent, if the duty on cotton were
taken off; an,d they might find it profitable to themselves, especially as
they could buy cheaper, and at the same time open to some extent a new
market for their fabrics ; but, as this would injure the home market for the
cotton-grower at the south, the injury inflicted upon the planting states
would be greater than the benefits obtained by the northern manufacturer.
For reasons of state, a preference should be given to domestic cotton. The
northern manufacturer who consumes one hundred bales of cotton grown in
this country, not only gives employ indirectly to those who labor to produce
that article, but he gives employ to those who raise the meat and grain
which the laborer consumes while raising the cotton ; whereas the manu­
facturer who consumes one hundred bales of cotton raised in India, en­
courages foreign, instead of domestic industry. In the former case, the
profits of the entire business are kept in the country ; while, in the latter,
half of the profits accrue to foreigners. The same remarks may be made
upon other manufactured articles. He who patronizes domestic manufac­
tures, creates a home market, and so encourages our own industry. The
people of Tennessee, for example, by wearing American cottons, even if
they should cost them a trifle more than the foreign fabric, would thereby
not only promote the interest of the country, but their own. By patron­
izing the domestic manufacture, they not only prevent a greater compe­
tition in the production of their great staples, corn and wheat, but, by
sustaining the manufacturer, they increase the demand for their own pro­
ducts. The southern planter, while growing his cotton, and the northern
manufacturer, while converting it into cloth, are both living upon the corn
and wheat of Tennessee ; or, which is practically the same thing, on
the corn and wheat of some other state, whose bread-stuff comes in com­
petition with their own. But if they wear the fabrics of British looms,,
made of cotton grown in India, they lose all these advantages. The in­
terest of the country, and the ultimate interest of the individual there,
would be promoted by the purchase of the domestic fabric. If the first
cost were higher, the individual advantages which would result from such
a policy would more than balance the difference in price.
The idea that we must purchase abroad, rather than manufacture at
home, is a dangerous one ; and whenever it has been generally adopted
by a people, their home industry, and consequently their prosperity, de­
clines. There may be articles not adapted to our climate, such as tea, the
spices, &c., which we must purchase abroad ; and in such cases it is desi­
rable that we raise some other article which we can exchange for them.
But when we can produce the articles which we need, in our own coun­
try, and this exchange can be carried on between different sections of the
United States, where the business cannot be disturbed by foreign legisla­
tion, it is the dictate of wisdom and of prudence to seek supplies at home,
and thus be independent of foreign nations. If we adopt the policy of
procuring everything abroad, because it can be obtained cheaper, we
shall in a short time find our industry paralyzed, and our resources so
reduced, that even cheap articles will be beyond our reach. Ask the in­
dustrious mechanics, and the hard-working farmers in the interior—those




Its Expediency and Necessity.

71

whose means are limited, and who are compelled to husband their re­
sources— and they will tell you the advantages of exchanging the products
of their labor for the articles they purchase—“ of getting things in their
own line, without paying money,” as the phrase is. This homely expres­
sion embodies more true political economy than the more elegant one,
“ of purchasing in the cheapest market.” If the farmers who cultivate
the rugged soil of New England, should neglect to raise their own bread­
stuff and pork, because these articles could be produced cheaper at the
west, they would soon find that, cheap as western grain and pork were,
they would not have the means of purchasing them. And the same is
true of the country. If we employ foreign manufacturers and carriers,
and turn 850,000 of our own out of their present employ, they will seek
employment in agriculture ; and instead of being 850,000 consumers of
agricultural products, as at present, they would become 850,000 producers
—making a difference of 1,700,000 ; a number equal to more than onethird of all employed in agriculture at the present time. The effect of
this upon the agriculture of the country, must be obvious. The products
of the soil, which are now so abundant that they would be almost value­
less were it not for the market found in manufacturing districts, would
become more abundant. And where would they be disposed of? Not in
the domestic market, for that would be in a great measure destroyed ; not
in a foreign market, for the policy of other nations excludes them. With
this increased production, and loss of the home market, agriculture, that
parent calling, which employs more of our people than all others put to­
gether, would receive a severe blow. Wages would fall, industry would
be paralyzed; and foreign fabrics would, to all practical purposes, become
dear, for the plainest of all reasons, that we should have nothing compar­
atively to purchase with.
The protective system is as important to the agriculturist as to the man­
ufacturer. Though the enemies of this system have represented it as
hostile to the farmer, I am fully persuaded that this is a great mistake.
In the first place, agricultural products enjoy as high a protection as man­
ufactures, to say the least. I will give a few articles as a specimen, and
will resolve the duty into an ad valorem rate, founded on the price current
at Boston, six months after the present tariff went into operation.
Cotton, duty 3 cents per lb.,............. equal to 40 per cent ad valorem.
“
44
«
«
Wool, 30 per cent, and 3 cts. per lb.,
Beef, 2 cents per lb.,...........................
“
62
“
“
Pork, 2 cents per lb.,.........................
“
55
“
“
Ham and bacon, 3 cents per lb.,.........
“
50
“
“
Cheese, 9 cents per lb .,.....................
“
175
“
“
«
44
“
«
Butter, 5 cents per lb.,.........................
“
44
“
«
Lard, 3 cents per lb.,.........................
Potatoes, 9 cents per bushel,.............
“
30
“
“
«
2 7
<i
it
Flour, $1 25 per bbl.,.......................
“
28
“
«
Wheat, 25 cents per bushel,...............
Here we have a list of eleven articles of agricultural products, and they
average 54 per cent protection—a rate much higher than is enjoyed by
manufactured articles. Neither have we, in this estimate, adopted the
doctrine of anti-tariff men, and supposed that the duty increased the price
to the amount of the duty. If we had adopted that mode of estimating




72

The Protective System,

prices, we should have swelled the per cent of protection much higher.
I know it is said that these duties are unavailing, as these articles need no
protection; but this is a great mistake. These articles have been im­
ported into the country, on an average, for the last five years, to the amount
of nearly $2,000,000 annually.
There is an identity of interest between the manufacturer and the ag­
riculturist. They are not enemies, nor even rivals, but intimate friends.
Viewed on a large and liberal scale, manufactures and agriculture are
only different departments of the same great system of national industry ;
and whatever tends to give prosperity to the one, will give prosperity to
the other. They both need the fostering care of the government. The
case of wool and woollens is an example in point. The wool-growing
interest has become an important one, and is more widely diffused over
the whole country than almost any other. The annual product may safely
be estimated at $>16,000,000. Withdraw protection from wool, and this
great interest would languish—withdraw protection from the woollen man­
ufactures, and the influx of foreign woollens would destroy the wool-grow­
ing interest. This example illustrates the immediate connexion there is
between agriculture and manufactures. We have already seen that the
destruction of manufactures would drive those now engaged in that busi­
ness into agriculture ; and by the loss of the home market, and by the
increased competition in agriculture, the prices of the products of the for­
mer would decline to a ruinous extent.
The farmer has as direct an interest in the protective policy as the
manufacturer. In the first place, he enjoys as much protection upon his
products as the manufacturer does upon his fabrics. But the great advan­
tage to the farmer arises from the home market which manufactures cre­
ate. The great importance of a market is too often overlooked. How
is it that wheat is worth $1 20 in one part of the country, and 12 1-2 cents
in another 1 That an acre of land will, for agricultural purposes, sell for
$300 in one place, and for but $2 in another ? Every man knows that
this is the fa c t; and why is it so ? Simply because the one is near a
market, and the other remote. I hesitate not to say, that the capital now
invested in manufactures has augmented the value of real estate in the
country to an amount vastly greater than the whole sum invested in man­
ufactures. The value of the home market, created in a great degree by
manufactures, will be seen by the fact that Massachusetts alone consumes
as much of the beef, pork, ham, and lard of her sister states, as the xvhole
amount that is exported to all foreign nations; and that she consumes a
larger amount of the flour and grain of other states, than the average
which has been exported to England and her provinces for the last six
years. Take the whole country, and the amount of agricultural products
consumed by manufacturers is infinitely greater than the amount sent
abroad.
Compared xvith the foreign, the home market is the most valuable, in
every respect. A market in a manufacturing district, at home, is always
more sure than any foreign market. The demand is constant, and may
always be relied upon; whereas the foreign market is always uncertain.
Suppose that one of the western states had 100,000 barrels of flour to
dispose of annually, and they looked to Great Britain for a market. That
market would depend upon the crops in Europe. When the crop was
good upon the continent, England would take but 50,000 barrels; and




Its Expediency and Necessity.

T .i

when the crop was short, she would want 150,000 barrels. Though her
annual demand would amount to 100,000 barrels, on an average, yet it
would fluctuate from 50,000 to 150,000. Under these circumstances, the
farmer could make no calculations how much wheat to sow. This uncer­
tainty, depending upon contingencies which he could not possibly foresee,
would hang like an incubus upon him, and paralyze his efforts. But let
the same state depend upon the home market created by manufactures,
and the farmer can calculate with great certainty. He knows that there
are 100,000 persons employed in manufactures, and that they will want a
barrel of flour each ; and he knows that the crops on the eastern conti­
nent will have little or no connexion with the demand here. Under these
circumstances, he knows, with a good degree of certainty, how much to
sow ; and, being sure of a market, his industry will redouble, and he will
realize a greater profit from his labor. Every practical man knows that
much depends upon the certainty of a m arket; and, from this glance at
the subject, it must be seen, at once, that the home market is more sure
than the foreign. But this difference between the foreign and home
market would be still greater in time of war. In case of hostilities with
a great maritime power, like Great Britain, whether our commerce were
with her or with any other foreign nation, it would be in a great degree
cut off, so that the foreign market would fail. These considerations show
conclusively that the home market must, after all, be the farmer’s chief
dependence—his best market in peace, and his only reliance in war.
From the view we have taken of this subject, I trust it will appear that
the farmers have as deep an interest in the protective system as the man­
ufacturers ; and that the hardy tillers of the soil, who did so much to obtain
our independence, will be the last to abandon a policy which preserves us
a free people.
But it is said that protection is injurious to commerce. No objection
can be more fallacious than this. W e have already seen that our com­
merce drew its first breath in the protective system, and that its last respi­
ration is to be ascribed to the same policy. And it is a strange position,
that the very policy which first created, and still sustains commerce, is in­
jurious to it. But if it be said that the protection which is extended to
manufactures injures commerce, we reply that, according to the late cen­
sus, there are 791,000 persons engaged in manufactures, while there are
but 117,000 engaged in commerce ; and we know of no good reason why
the many should be sacrificed to the few—why the interests of 800,000
should not be regarded as well as the interests of 117,000. But is the
protection afforded to manufactures injurious to commerce 1 We think
not. Our imports will be according to our ability to purchase, and our
exports according to what we produce ; and as the protective system stim­
ulates our industry, and so increases our productions and ability to pur­
chase, it will benefit rather than injure commerce. That general pros­
perity, which protection is calculated to produce, is the life of commercial
enterprize ; and whatever drives the plough or the machinery, tends, at
the same time, to spread the sail. This consideration is of itself a suffi­
cient reply to the objection that protection is detrimental to commerce.
But there are other considerations which show the weakness of this ob­
jection. Many of the articles consumed in manufactures are brought
from abroad; and as the raw materials are more bulky and heavy than
the manufactured articles, more shipping is employed in supplying the
7
VOL. IX . --- NO. I .




74

The Protective System,

raw materials than would be necessary to supply the article manufactured.
This principle is illustrated in the case of refined sugar. Without pro­
tective duties, a large portion of our sugar would be imported in its refined
state; but the duty of six cents per pound upon refined sugar, induces the
sugar-refiners to import the brown sugar, which they manufacture into loaf.
Now it must be manifest that more shipping is employed in bringing to
our refiners the raw sugar, than would be requisite to bring the lesser
quantity of the refined, to supply the wants of the people. Our manufac­
tures, by increasing the business connexion between different portions of
the country, increase the coasting trade and the internal commerce. Add
to this the amount of manufactured products which are shipped to foreign
countries, and I think it will appear that our commerce is not injured by
stimulating the industry, and developing the resources of the country. The
manufactured articles, the fruit of protection, which are sent to every part
of the world, amounted the last year to about $11,000,000— being more
than one-tenth of our entire export of domestic productions. The advan­
tages resulting to our commerce from this source, must be manifest. On
many of these articles, our shipping have a double employment. The
refined sugar to which we have referred, is an instance in point. We have
already said that more shipping is required to import the raw sugar, than
would be requisite to bring in the refined sugar which we consume. But
this is not all—the brown sugar imported is, after it is manufactured into
the loaf, exported to the amount of nearly a million and a half of dollars
annually. Thus do our manufactures give life and energy to our com­
merce ; and hence the protective system, which fosters the one, cannot
be detrimental to the other.
But the great objection to the protective system is, that it enhances the
price of all articles to the amount of the duty, and so imposes a heavy tax
upon the consumers. This objection, specious as it is, is far from holding
good to the extent that is pretended. That it is not true in all cases, ap­
pears from the fact that many articles, as coarse cottons, nails, &c., have
been selling for years at a price less than the duty. We admit that duties,
self-considered, have a tendency to increase prices for the time being ; but
to what extent, and for what length of time, must depend upon many con­
siderations. Prices depend mainly upon supply and demand. It will also
be found true, that a small deficiency in the supply will raise the price of
the whole commodity in the market far above the value of the deficit;
and, on the other hand, a surplus, though small, will reduce the price of
the wrhole commodity in the market far beyond the value of the surplus.
A surplus of $10,000 will frequently produce an aggregate reduction of
the whole quantity of the commodity in the market, to the amount of
$50,000. This principle is so important to a right understanding of this
part of the subject, that I trust I shall be pardoned by the reader if I at­
tempt a more full illustration. We will suppose that there are ten shops
in a village, owned by as many individuals, and that $100 per quarter is
a fair rent for each of them ; but the number of traders wishing to occupy
these shops is but nine, thereby leaving a surplus of one shop. Now what
will be the practical result of this state of things ? Nine shops will be
occupied, and one will be vacant. The owner of the vacant shop, seeing
all his neighbors enjoying an income of $100 per quarter, while he re­
ceives nothing, offers his shop for $90, on the wise principle that he had
better take that sum than nothing. This offer induces one of the traders,




Its Expediency and Necessity.

75

who is paying $100, to quit the shop he occupies, and to take the one he
can have for $90. This change leaves another shop empty, and this in­
duces its owner to put that at $90 per quarter. This induces another to
remove, and take a shop at $90 ; and so they will go through with each
shop, till all are brought down to $90. Here has been a reduction of
$10 on each shop, making an aggregate of $100, being just equal to the
value of the surplus. And how stands the matter now ? Why, there is
one empty shop, as at the beginning; and the same process of reduction
will go on, till the price is brought down so low as to induce some person
to embark in trade, who, under other circumstances, would not think of
engaging in this kind of business.
This principle, which every practical man will readily acknowledge,
enters largely into our commerce, both foreign and domestic, and has an
all-important bearing upon prices. Keeping this principle in view, let us
inquire into the effect of a tariff upon prices. Suppose an article now
paying 20 per cent, be subjected to a duty of 20 per cent more. Accord­
ing to the free trade theory, the price will rise 20 per cent in our market.
But, in fact, this will not be the case. The American merchant, who has
been in the habit of taking this article of an English house to the amount
of $2,000, writes to his correspondent in Great Britain, that, in consid­
eration of the increase of duty, and consequently the diminished sale
which he anticipates, he can now take but $1,000 worth of the article,
unless the manufacturer will reduce his price. The British manufacturer,
knowing full well that if $1,000 worth of this fabric be thrown into his
home market, it will reduce the price, and lessen the value of his whole
stock on hand, immediately reduces his price, and so supplies his old cus­
tomer with the usual quantity of the article. The amount of reduction
will depend upon the state of the market— sometimes it will be more, and
sometimes it will be less. The average, perhaps, would be one-half of
the increased duty. The foreign manufacturer paying one-half of the
additional duty, the actual duty paid by the importer would be 30 per cent,
instead of 40. This would raise the price in our market only 10 per
cent. But, as the increased duty would protect our manufacturers, they
would embark with Yankee zeal in this species of manufacture. This
would produce competition at home, and the increased quantity of the
article thrown into our market would have a tendency to produce a sur­
plus, and this would serve to keep down the price. Here would be a
double competition—a competition between the foreign and the domestic
manufacturers, and a competition between the domestic manufacturers
themselves. The natural tendency of this would be to reduce the price.
Its operation would be more or less sudden, according to the character of
the manufacture. If it were a costly kind of manufacture, or one which
required great skill, it would take longer to bring about this reduction.
But if the manufacture were of such a nature as to require but little cap­
ital or little experience, the competition, and consequent reduction, would
be more immediate. After making all due allowances for fluctuations,
from various causes, we lay it down as a principle which will hold good,
that where duties are judiciously laid upon articles, the manufacture of
which is suited to our condition, the tendency is ultimately to reduce,
rather than increase the price. To this, of course, there are exceptions ;
but the case of coarse cottons, and many articles of hardware, clearly
show the truth of our position.




76

The Protective System,

Let any man compare the prices now with what they were twenty years
ago, and he will see that there has been a great reduction in the price of
almost every manufactured article. But this statement is met by saying
that competition has produced labor-saving machines, and the great im­
provements in machinery have had the effect to reduce the prices of man­
ufactured articles. W e admit this, to its fullest extent. But what has
caused this improvement in machinery ? Protection created a competi­
tion, and competition has been the efficient cause of these improvements.
That inventive power which has been exerted in perfecting machinery,
would have slumbered for ages to come, as it has for ages past, had not
manufactures been prosecuted under such brisk competition, that neces­
sity, which is the mother of invention, demanded the employment of laborsaving machines. It is to protection that we owe competition, and to
competition we owe those improvements in machinery, which have con­
tributed to reduce prices. So that, after all, this reduction is to be ascribed
to protection, to the industry which it stimulates, and to the genius which
it excites.
The remarks which have been offered upon prices, brief as they are,
are deemed sufficient to show that no objection can be made to the pro­
tective system on the ground of its raising the price of the fabrics pro­
tected. In some instances, it will not raise the price at all—in others,
only for a short period ; and if, in other cases, it does produce a permanent
increase of price, that is more than compensated for in the stimulus which
this syrstem gives to industry, in the home market which it creates, and in
the general prosperity which it produces. There are some species of
manufactures which give employment to women and children, whereby
they are enabled to support themselves, when, without this employ, they
would be a public charge. Every consideration of this sort is to be taken
into the account, in estimating the profit and loss of the system we advo­
cate. Suppose that the system which we advocate does increase the price
of a few articles, so that the poor man has to pay some five or six dollars
in a year more than it would otherwise cost him ; this policy, by increas­
ing business, creates a demand for his labor, and enables him to earn one
or two dollars per month more than he could otherwise earn. Instead of
suffering, he is actually a gainer by this system.
But, in answer to our reasoning above, it may be said that if protective
duties do not increase prices, they afford no protection to the manufacturer.
By recurring to what we have said, it will be seen that we do not take the
ground that protective duties do not, in any case, increase the price of the
article in our market. Our position is th is : that a protective duty laid
upon articles which we can manufacture with propriety in this country,
would not ultimately increase the price, but would frequently reduce it.
If the duty be laid upon articles which we do not manufacture, or cannot
manufacture or grow with propriety, the tendency would be to increase
the p rice; though, even in such a case, the price is rarely increased to
the amount of the duty. But a duty, in a given case, may protect the
manufacturer, and at the same time produce an ultimate reduction in the
price of that article. I will illustrate this principle by a familiar case.
An article, now free of duty, is selling in our market for 81 20. The el­
ements which make up this price, are these : cost in foreign market, 81 ;
cost of importation, ten cents; importer’s profits, ten cents—making 81 20.
At this price, the article can be manufactured and sold in this country.




Its Expediency and Necessity.

77

Now, let one of our citizens go into the manufacture of this article, and
what will be the result ? Why, the foreign manufacturer, who has here­
tofore enjoyed the monopoly of our market, and who is enjoying large
profits, will immediately put the article at ninety cents to the American
importer—this being the cost of the article. He will willingly forego all
profit for the time being, for the purpose of crushing the infant establish­
ments in this country; and the importer will give up one-half of his prof­
its, rather than lose this portion of his business. This will reduce the
price of the article fifteen cents, bringing it down to $1 05. The Amer­
ican manufacturer immediately finds the article in the market at this
reduced price, which is, in fact, less than he can manufacture the article
for. He must, therefore, abandon his business, give up his establishment
at a great sacrifice, and yield the market to the foreign manufacturer, who,
finding his new rival destroyed, will immediately demand the old price, and
put his article at $1 ; and the consumer in this country will be compelled
to pay $1 20, or perhaps $1 25, to make up the loss which the importer
and foreign manufacturer sustained during the period of competition. This
is the result when the article is free of duty.
Now, we will take the same article, at the same price, both in Europe
and America, with protective duties. A duty of fifteen cents is imposed
upon the article, to encourage domestic manufactures. This, added to the
former price, $1 20, would bring the article up to $1 35. The foreign
manufacturer fears that he shall lose the American m arket; and conse­
quently, to prevent a surplus in his own home market, and to create a
surplus here, he will at once put his article at cost, ninety cents; the im­
porter will forego half his profits, and take off five cents, which will bring
the article down to §1 20, the very price which the article brought before
the duty was imposed. In the mean time, the American manufacturer
produces the article, which he can sell for the same price. Here, then, the
manufacturer is protected, and the consumer has no additional price to pay.
The importation will not be materially checked; and this, with the domes­
tic production, will create a surplus, which will tend to a reduction of the
price. A sharp competition will ensue ; and necessity, that mother of in­
vention, will bring out improvements in machinery, so that the article can
be produced at a cheap rate. The skill, also, which is acquired, will enable
the manufacturer to turn off the article at less expense, and so afford it to the
consumer at a reduced price. Thus will discriminating duties protect the
manufacturer, and at the same time cheapen the article. Is it not so ? Does
not experience justify this position ? Without a duty, the foreign manufac­
turer sells at the maximum price—with the duty, he sells at the minimum.
Without the duty, he could profitably reduce his price to destroy our man­
ufacturer—with the duty, he must come down to the lowest price to com­
pete with him.
It has often been objected to the protective system, that it operated un­
equally ; that its benefits were enjoyed by the north, and that its burdens
fell upon the south. The injustice of this objection will appear from the
fact that there is scarcely a northern interest, as such, which is protected;
while there are several southern interests which have always enjoyed pro­
tection. Sugar, cotton, rice, and tobacco, are southern articles, and cannot
be cultivated in the northern section of the country. Coal and lead are
highly protected, but they are hardly found in the northern states. Hemp
is among the protected articles, but is cultivated not in the northern and
7*




78

The Protective System,

eastern, but in the southwestern states. The articles of wool, salt, and
iron, are the product of almost every section of the country, and pertain
to the southern as much as to the northern states. Many of the articles
mentioned above are southern, and cannot be produced at the north—all
the advantages, then, of their protection, must accrue to other sections of
the country. But it will be said that the cotton, woollen, paper, glass,
and many other species of manufactures, which enjoy protection, are lo­
cated at the north, and hence they enjoy peculiar benefits from the tariff.
But why are these manufactures located at the north ? There is noth­
ing in the acts of Congress which gives them any particular location.
When the tariff of 1816 was passed, there were but few manufactures in
the northern states; and if that law held out any great inducements to
go into manufactures, why did not the south avail themselves of the ben­
efits ? Cotton can be manufactured at the south as well as at the north.
The south could save the transportation of the raw material. They could
raise the cotton, and manufacture it in the same neighborhood. And
there is nothing in the woollen, glass, or paper manufacture, which ex­
cludes it from the southern states. They have water-power sufficient to
drive machinery enough to manufacture for the world ; and if they have
not availed themselves of the privileges they enjoy, the fault is not charge,
able to the northern states. The fact is, the northern states were in a
great degree commercial, and they were compelled to go into manufac­
tures by southern policy. The sterility of their soil forbade the idea of
competing with the more fertile sections of the country; and, rather than
leave the graves of their fathers, they embarked in this new species of
industry. And is it to be charged to them as a crime, that they have
been more enterprising and industrious than their southern friends, and
have made greater proficiency in the arts of manufactures ?
As to the burdens of the tariff, they fall upon the middle and northern
states more than upon the southern. Every one who knows the character
of southern society, knows that the dutiable articles are there used princi­
pally by a select class of the population ; while, at the north, they are used
by almost the entire population. Let the revenue from customs be aban­
doned, and let the burdens of the government fall upon the states accord­
ing to federal numbers, and the south would see at once that her present
complaints are unfounded. We have no disposition to excite local jeal­
ousies—we would rather strive to allay them. W e have no disposition to
build up one section of the Union at the expense of another— hence we
are in favor of a tariff which shall protect every interest, and encourage
enterprise and industry, in whatever business it may be employed, or in
whatever part of the country it may be located.
But we are told that protection diminishes importations, and that our
exports must correspond with our imports, and a tariff is a tax upon the
exportation of cotton. We have no disposition, at this time, to go at
length into this subject; but will content ourselves with observing that,
if this argument be sound, the planting states are more clamorous for pro­
tection than any other section of the country. For they" ask the govern­
ment to shape their policy so as to meet their interest alone—to repeal
those restrictions upon commerce which every nation has found necessary
for national prosperity, and even national independence, that they may
reap all the advantages in the sale of their great staple. But, suppose
their request were granted, it would, on their own theory, operate in the




Its Expediency and Necessity.

79

end to their own disadvantage. A repeal of discriminating duties would
destroy our manufactures, and paralyze our industry, so as to render us
unable to purchase foreign fabrics. Importations, then, would in a meas­
ure cease ; and as imports and exports must correspond with each other,
the export of cotton would be diminished. But we have no room to pur­
sue this subject.
We are in favor of the protective system, because we believe it is cal­
culated to promote the interest of our country, and our whole country.
We believe that there is no one question of national policy in which the
people have so deep an interest, as the one we have been considering.
We are in favor of it, because it will promote the interest of the manu­
facturers, and save from ruin the $300,000,000 of capital invested in that
useful department of human industry. We are in favor of it, because we
believe that it is productive of the commercial interests. We are in favor
of it, because we regard it as essential to agriculture, that great and para­
mount interest, which is the foundation of every other. But, above all,
we are in favor of the protective system, because it promotes the interest
of the laborers of the country. This, after all, is the interest which re­
quires the most protection. The rich man can rely upon his money for his
support. If the tirries are hard, his money becomes more valuable, as it
will command a better interest, and furnish him more of the comforts and
luxuries of life. But to the poor man, the laborer, who has no capital
but his ability to toil—to such a one, a prostration of business is absolute
ruin. Now, as the protective policy is calculated to revive business, and
give to the laborer the due reward of his toil, we regard it as the poor
man’s system— as his rightfid inheritance.
This system has already done much for the poor man. There is no ar­
ticle of clothing which goes into the consumption of the poor man’s fam­
ily so extensively as cottons, in their various forms; and this policy has
reduced the price of common cotton cloth more than three-quarters.
Those shirtings, which in 1816 would cost some thirty cents per yard,
can now be purchased for six cents ; and other cottons have fallen nearly
in the same proportion. We commend this to the special consideration
of those who eat their bread in the sweat of their brow, who constitute the
great mass of the people.
We say, in conclusion, that Congress not only possesses the power to
lay protective duties, but the good of the country demands the exercise of
this power. So thought the “ Father of his country”—so thought the
patriots and sages of the revolution. And shall the mere theorists of this
day, with their refined closet-dreams, lead us from the paths which our
fathers have trod, and which experience has shown us to be the paths of
wisdom and of prosperity? Every feeling of national honor, every dic­
tate of patriotism, every interest in the country, cries out against it.

T he skill of the merchant or tradesman is exhibited in the combination
of the greatest profit with the least expense ; and he will make the most
money who calmly looks from the “ beginning to the end,” rather than
to be attracted by any intermediate point, however profitable it may
appear.




Monthly Commercial Chronicle.

80

MONTHLY COMMERCIAL CHRONICLE.
T he abundance of money, which has so long been a marked feature of our financial
affairs, continues unabated, and the value of money is perhaps lower than for twenty
years. Trust funds, and other large amounts of money, have been freely offered to the
large brokers’ houses at call at less than 4 per cent per annum, and in some cases loans
have been made at rates as low as 2£ per cent. The banking institutions, especially
those with large capitals, were under the imperative necessity of employing their funds
even in stock loans, in order to maintain their dividends. W e pointed out this, in former
numbers, as the cause of the very rapid rise in stocks which has taken place within the
last ninety days. Subsequent to the publication of our June number, prices rose several
per cent higher than the rates then quoted. United States 6 per cent rose to 116; New
York 7, to 109 ; Ohio 6’s, to 94; Kentucky 6’s, to par; and Illinois, to 41. By that
time, however, the quantity held by the banks as collateral, and for investment, was very
large. Prices had reached very high figures, and those who had purchased the stocks,
and pledged them with the banks, and were paying the interest to carry them, became
desirous of realizing, and the upward tendency was checked. The steamer of the 19th,
from Liverpool, then arrived, bringing accounts that were, although not unfavorable to
American interests generally, less so as to stock operations, inasmuch as the rate of
money in London had risen, under the effective demand for business purposes, from I f
to 2 per cent, without any disposition to invest in American stockshaving been produced
by the previous inability to employ money to advantage. The plenteousness of money
there, had long been confidently depended upon as likely, sooner or later, to overcome
the prejudices against American securities—when, therefore, money again began to rise
in value there, without having produced that effect, some disappointment was felt. The
banks, however, continue to loan on the dividend-paying stocks, at 4 per cent, reserving
a margin of 10 per cent. The great decrease in general business dependent upon bank,
ing facilities, leaves the institutions no resource but to invest in stocks, or to diminish
their dividends. The imports into New York alone, for the year 1842, fell off $25,000,000,
as compared with the previous year. This, with the diminished trade of the interior,
added to the growth of the cash method of doing business, must have made a difference
of at least $75,000,000 in the amount of business-paper offered at the banks. There are
twenty-four banks in the city of New York, whose means of investment on the 1st Jan­
uary, 1843, consisting of capital, circulation, deposits, &c., amounted to $55,000,000. A
diminution of $75,000,000 in the means of employing this amount, must have a very mark­
ed effect upon their profits; and it is only those of small capitals, and a popularity that pro­
cures them a large proportion of deposits, that can make good their usual dividends.
In our April number, we gave a table of prices of agricultural produce at the west,
showing a great decline from July to March, during the contraction and liquidation of
the banks. W e then pointed out the indications that the funds which had so long been
accumulating on the Atlantic border would soon effect a rise in prices, and consequently
seek the west, and supply the depleted channels of circulation. Since the opening of
the spring navigation, that process has been going on ; and the lake trade, even at this
early period of the season, presents a scene of activity seldom witnessed. Money is, at
the leading lake ports, hourly becoming more plenty, and the buoyancy of the markets is
steadily increasing. The success of the Ohio loan has had a great effect upon the people
of that state; and the money distributed among them, followed by an effective demand
for produce, gives a great impulse to business. In Illinois, the same features are appa­
rent. A t the extreme west, the same price for wheat, and other produce, affords a far
greater margin to the producers than in the mere easterly states—that is to say, sixty
cents at Chicago is better for the Illinois farmer, than the same price at Cleveland is for
him of Ohio. In the southern states, the price of cotton governs the prosperity of the
section. For the last year, this has been low, on account of the great abundance of the
crop, and the depressed state of the English markets. This latter circumstance has a
powerful effect upon the condition of trade throughout the Union. The mere multipli­
cation or diminution of banks and their paper, in the United States, has very little ulti­
mate effect upon the real value of cotton; although, for the moment, by facilitating the
movements of speculators, a competition is engendered, by which prices have been main­
tained in former years, at the south, uniformly higher than contemporaneous prices in
Liverpool. Such a state of things is unhealthy, and dependent upon a continued rise in
prices to avoid disaster. The effective demand in England, and the prices there actually




Monthly Commercial Chronicle.

81

obtained, is that which governs the value of the cotton crop. For years, the English
consumption of cotton has been rapidly on the increase. The enterprise and vigor of
its government, in constantly procuring and extending new markets for the manufactured
goods, has sustained the demand even in those years when the failure of the wheat crop,
operating upon an impoverished people, wonderfully diminished the home consumption
for cotton goods. In order to observe the progress of the cotton trade, we will take from
parliamentary tables the pounds of raw cotton imported annually into England, and the
value of cotton goods exported, as follows :—

1818.
Import cotton,...lbs. 507,850,577
Exp. cot. goods,.. . £ 24,147,726
U. States crop,.bales
1,360,532

18S9.

1840.

1841.

1842.

389,396,559 592,488,010 437,093,631 487,143,200
24,530,375 24,668,618 23,499,478 21,662,760
2,177,835 1,634,945 1,683,574 2,220,000

The markets of the north of Europe have been developed but in a small degree ; as
the progress of the continental manufactures has, backed by the increasing tariffs, check­
ed the increased import, although they do not appear to have diminished the consump­
tion of British goods. It is in the Brazils and the British colonies, particularly the East
Indies, that the greatest increase is perceptible. The latter trade has more than doubled
within four years, and now is equal to 25 per cent of the whole exports, while the set­
tlement of the late difficulties leaves a far broader field for exertion. The exports to the
United States show the greatest diminution during the descending scale of the duties un­
der the compromise act. The total quantity exported from England, it appears, has
doubled in the period embraced within the above table, while the aggregate value increased
but 22 per cent; showing a depreciation in money-value to that extent. In 1840,
60,000,000 yards more cotton cloth were given for the same money than in 1839. A t the
same time, the price of the raw material, on the first of May each year, was as follows:—

1841.

1842.

1841.

1840.

1819.

Mid . Fair. G’d. Mid. Fair. G’d. Mid. Fair. G’d. Mid. Fair. G’d.

Sea Isl’d,
Up. Bow.
N. Or!.,.
Mobile, .

9d lOd lbd
4
44 54
4 | 4f 6
4 4 44 54

10d 1U d 16rf 15d 16d 20(1
4} 54
64 64 6 | 74
7 64 7 74
4 | 5f
64 64 64 74
41 5 f

134d 15 d
64
54
6f
54
64
54

184d
64
7
6i

Mid.

Fair. G’d.

22 id 244d
8§
84
8|
84
81
84

29 d
9f
94

94
Thus the cost of the raw material has been diminishing, and the cost of the manufac­
tured article falling in the same degree. A cheap supply, with the renovation of trade
under the present superfluity of money, will enhance the consumption, and all the con­
nected interest rise on the ascending scale.
The past year has been one of greater depression in England than for many previous
ones—at the same time, the production of the United States cotton has exceeded the
average of the two previous crops by 470,000 bales, or 30 per cent. The consequence
was very low prices. For the coming year, the reverse is likely to be the case. Money,
from being 6 per cent, as at this period last year, has, for several months, been as low as
I f a 2 per cent, in London—a position of affairs which we illustrated in our May num­
ber. By the last steamer, advices were received that the rate of money had advanced
to 2 per cent under the improved demand, caused by increasing trade. Prices of pro­
visions, which are the great element of the prosperity of the English internal trade, were
very low, at the same time that money was very abundant. The effect wras a marked
improvement in the cotton trade of Lancashire, leading to a rise in the raw material,
notwithstanding that the full extent of the crop—2,220,000 bales—was known. These
are elements of American prosperity far more durable and beneficial than any improve­
ment of stocks, unaccompanied by such indications. As yet, it is far too early to judge
of the appearance of the cotton crops; but the probability is, that it will not be so large
as last year. Should it, however, run as high, the opening of the East India markets
for goods, and of the Chinese market for East India cotton, are combined causes likely
to add at least $10,000,000 to the money-value of our great staple. A rise of two cents
per pound in a crop of the extent of the present one, makes a difference of $18,000,000
in the means of the planters to purchase supplies, and forms the real basis of our national
prosperity. A sustained rise in cotton, with a proportionate rise in money-value of the
agricultural surplus produce, is the groundwork of the whole trade of the country. A
rise in cotton and tobacco has afar greater effect on trade than on other produce, because
nearly the whole quantity raised is sold abroad; while, in other produce, ouly the sur­
plus, after the wants of the producer are satisfied, is affected by the money-value. If a
farmer raises no more than he consumes, the market price is of no consequence to him—




82

Monthly Commercial Chronicle.

as soon as he has a surplus, it becomes of first consequence to him. W ith the cotton
and tobacco planter, the whole quantity raised is sold, and mostly abroad. Hence, the
higher the cash price in Liverpool, the more he, as well as the nation, becomes enriched.
T hat cash value abroad depends upon the state of the currency, and the proportion which
supply bears to consumption. For the last year, the currency has been very dear, and
the supply in excess of consumption. For the coming year, the currency will be very
cheap, and consumption increased on a diminished supply. Another circumstance is also
likely to favor the planter. The English duty on cotton is 7 per cen t; and the ex-chan­
cellor, Sir F. Baring, in a recent debate, proposed a reduction of that duty, with a view
to “ renovate England’s drooping trade.”
The whole policy of England seems now to favor that system of commercial reciprocity
to which the world has been advancing, by slow degrees, since the conclusion of peace,
in 1815; when, for the first time, for a period of one hundred and seventy years, during
which the navigation act of England had been in full operation, its provisions were mod­
ified in favor of the United States. The navigation act provided that no goods should
be imported into England, in other than English ships, except from E urope; and goods
coming from Europe, in vessels belonging to the country of their production, were sub­
ject to high discriminating duties. In 1815, by mutual convention between the United
States and Great Britain, the vessels of both countries were admitted into the ports of
each nation on the same footing, without discrimination. The commerce of Great Britain
has hitherto regulated that of the world, because of its extent and importance. Great
Britain, under the old system of universal restriction, rose to be the wealthiest nation by
the force of its physical situation, in spite of governmental restrictions. The release of the
United States from her control, in 1776, started into life a new and powerful nation, whose
liberal principles caused her to grow with unparalleled rapidity. At the end of the bloody
wars, terminating in 1815, it was found that a new departure was to be taken, and liberal
principles alone could sustain the position of England. This, the deep sagacity of Mr. Pitt
had discovered at the close of the last century. That great statesman labored long and
hard to liberate the colonies; to grant to the United States a free trade with the whole em­
pire of Great Britain, and to open a commerce with France on terms of the most extensive
reciprocity. He was ably seconded by Mr. Jefferson, on this side, in his report of March,
1792, in which a broad plan of commercial reciprocity was ably projected. The long and
bloody wars which succeeded, frustrated these designs; but the moment peace returned, the
navigation act was virtually abolished in regard to the United States. In 1822, the trade
of the colonies became comparatively free. In 1824 to 1826, most of the countries of
Europe obtained a modification of the navigation laws on terms similar to the United
States. Scarcely a year passed thereafter, but the people of England have obtained some
important concessions from the aristocracy. The tariff has been reduced until it is
scarcely a skeleton of what it was. We will here look back at the navigation of Great
Britain and the United States since 1815, and France since 1820, although the English
treaty with France was not concluded until 1826, admitting French ships into English
ports on terms of reciprocity. In order the better to compare the tonnage of the three
nations, we take the national and foreign tons entered in each year.

T onnage entered the three nations of F rance, United States, and Great Britain.
Years.

1815,...... ..
1816........ ..
1817........ ..
1818........ ..
1819,...... ..
1820,...... ..
1821,...... ..
1822,...... ..
1823,...... ..
1824,...... ..
1825........ ..
1826,...... ..
1827........ ..
1828,...... ..
1829,...... ..
1830,...... ..
1831,...... ..

Entered the United Kingdom.

Entered the U. States.

Entered France.

B r itis h .

F o r e ig n .

A m e r ic a n .

F o r e ig n .

F rench.

F o r e ig n .

1,372,108
1,415,723
1,625,121
1,886,394
1,809,128
1,668,060
1,599,274
1,664,186
1,740,859
1,797,320
2,144,598
1,950,630
2,806,898
2,094,357
2,184,525
2,180,042
2,367,322

746,985
379,465
465,011
762,457
542,648
447,611
396,256
469,151
582,996
759,441
958,132
694,116
751,864
634,620
710,303
758,828
874,605

700,000
807,462
780,136
755,101
783,579
801,253
765,098
787,961
775,271
850,033
880,754
942,206
908,861
863,381
872,949
967,227
922,952

217,413
259,142
212,166
161,414
85,898
78,859
82,915
112,407
117,297
89,481
94,836
120,716
137,562
147,006
130,098
136,440
217,656

335,942
316,243
285,560
229,129
316,480
329,735
355,756
353,102
346,591
331,049
340,171
333,216

354,550
367,092
423,044
423,162
438,005
414,670
544,682
475,509
527,639
581,755
669,283
461,194




Monthly Commercial Chronicle.
T onnage

Years.
1832,...... ..
1833,...... ..
1834,...... ..
1835,...... ..
1836,...... ..
1637,...... ..
1838..........
1839,...... ..
1840,...... ..
1841,...... ..
1842,...... ..

entered

F rance,

the

U nited S tates,

Entered the United Kingdom.
B r itis h .

2,185,980
2,183,844
2,298,263
2,442,734
2,505,473
2,616,166
2,785,387
3,101,650
3,197,501
2,900,749
2,680,838

G reat B ritain — C ontinued.

Entered the U. States.

F o r e ig n .

639,979
762,085
833,905
866,990
988,899
1,005,940
1,211,666
1,331,365
1,460,294
1,081,380
974,768

and

A m e r ic a n .

949,622
1,111,441
1,074,670
1,352,653
1,255,384
1,299,720
1,302,974
1,490,279
1,576,946
1,631,909

83

Entered France.

F o r e ig n .

F rench.

421,667
520,874
568,052
641,310
680,213
765,703
592,110
624,814
712,363
736,444

399,948
358,157
394,486
407,999
550,121
592,124
620,140
642,130
665,178
630,071

F o r e ig n .

714,638
622,735
736,918
766,033
889,345
910,111
915,000
924,220
1,076,737
1,193,289

The policy of Great Britain, since 1815, has been consistent, and constantly increasing
in liberality. She has taken the sure method of encouraging her navigation—that is, by
continually reducing the duties on the materials of ship-building, she has enabled her
ships to compete with those of all the world. The policy of the United States, on the
contrary, has been the most absurd and contradictory imaginable. A government allow­
ance has been made to 70 a 80,000 tons employed in fishing, to encourage the growth of
a naval marine. By laws and treaties, all discriminating duties on the ships of most of
the countries of Europe have been abolished ; all nations have had the privilege of im­
porting the produce of any country, direct or otherwise, without exacting alien duties.
Everything has been done to clear the paths of the ocean to the ships of all nations; yet
our own ships, staggering under the weight of the competition thus brought against them,
have been crushed by the onerous taxes laid upon the materials for ship-building, under
pretence of protecting the producers of those materials. It has been the policy to
enlarge the intercourse with all the world for empty ships of the most expensive construc­
tion. The only encouragement or protection which American shipping wants, is a prompt
repeal of duties upon iron, hemp, sail cloth, &c. Railroads have been protected by re­
funding the duty; yet the mariner, the right arm of our defence, has been obliged to carry
the load. In the above table of American tonnage, the ratio of foreign to American, in
1815, was 30 per cent. It gradually fell, until, in 1822, it was less than 9 per cent. In 1828,
it had risen to 15 per cent. Under the enormous tariff of that year, it rose to 50 percent
in 1832, and 60 per cent in 1828. This was the tonnage in the foreign trade. The
coasting tonnage from 1828 to 1836, eight years, did not increase at all. In the latter
year, it was 984,328 tons. In 1841, it had risen to 1,284,940 tons, under the falling
rates of the compromise tariff. In order to show the burden actually imposed upon Amer­
ican navigation, as compared with that of Great Britain, in 1828, we give the following
table:—

Duties on the Materials consumed in building a Ship of five hundred tons, not
COPPER FASTENED.

British duty.

American duty.

7 tons Swedish iron, a t ................ $ 6 66 equal $46 66; at $22 40 equal $156 80
13 “ English “
................
None.
37 00 i t
481 00
20,160 lbs. chain cables, 9 tons,... 6 66
“
60 00; “
03 t t
604 80
It
4,600 lbs. anchors,........................................
02 i t
92 00
62 pieces heavy duck, 2,356 yards
20 “ light
“
760 “
3,116 “ at 7i d
15 tons cordage, 12 tons hemp, at $20 74

“
“

432 67; “
248 88; “

tt
it

389 50
720 00

British tax on a ship of 500 tons,......................... $788 21 ; American tax,
British tax,....

2,444 10
788 21

12J
60 00

Premium on British ships of 500 tons,.............\ ............................................... $1,655 91
Now the British ship, costing so much money, has been allowed the same privileges
as the American vessels since 1828, when this duty was imposed. In this, we have the
undoubted cause of the rapid increase of British tonnage in our waters. The American
policy has been, as we have said, to extend navigation for ships, and to leave the ships




84

Monthly Commercial Chronicle.

nothing to carry. We will compare the duties of 1819 with the present English and
American duties on leading articles.

Comparative Duties in Great Britain and the United States.
British Duties.

1819.
Flax,............ ton
Hemp,......... “
Indigo,...........lb.
Iron b a r,... .ton
Pig iron,...... “
Lead,........... “
Olive oil,— gal.
Raw silk,...... lb.
Thrown silk,. “
Wool, I s ........ “
“ over Is. “
Goods, cotton,..
Calicoes,............
Goods, wool,__
“
flax,.......
“
iron,......
Iron rods,... .ton
Glass,.................
L ead,..................
S ilk ,....................
Sail cloth,__ yd.
Sails,...................
W heat,................
Grain,.................
Salt,........... bush.
Clothing,.............
China ware,.......
Earthen w are,...

1843.

American Duties.

1819.

1843.

$ 2 96
$20 00
$20 00
20 00
45 93
$16 94
40 00
2
9
05
8a9
17 00
35 18
4 80
3 88
1 20
4a5
9 00
60 00
20 00
4 80
22 a 40
20
34
15
10
1 22
2
15 p. cent.
50
2 00
3 26
24
15
“
5 p. cent.
11
1
Free.
2
3 cts. & 30
“
11
50 a 75 p. cent.
10 p. cent.
60 a 150 p. cent.
15 p. cent.
prohibited.
15
“
50 p. cent.
15
“
40 & 10 “
1724
“
20
“
15
“
25
“
5U “
15
“
15
“
30
“
174 “
$88 88
20 cts.
224 “
80
“
25 cts.
50
“
5 “
15 a 30
30 “
25 p. cent.
prohibited
15 p. cent. lb. $ 2 50
17 cts.
6 cts.
7 cts.
15
“
104 p. cent.
15 “
15
“
prohib. und. 80s. 3 to 50 p. cent.
15
“
bush. 25 cts.
“
“
3 to 50
“
25 “
15
“
free.
8 “
$ 4 44
50 p. cent.
15
“
15
“
50 p. cent.
20
“
75
“
174 “
30
“
10 “
30
“
75
“
174 “

This table presents the practical effects of the systems of the two countries. England has
immensely reduced her duties, while the United States have as greatly augmented theirs.
The statement of British duties shows the result of the changes which have taken place
since the war. Each successive innovation on the ancient restrictive policy raised a
clamor from parties who supposed themselves injured. Capitalists were alarmed to see
the raw material of manufactures imported and exported, and at the same time astonish­
ed to see that the export and consumption of British manufactures increased in propor­
tion. New channels of trade were opened, old ones enlarged, and imports increased ;
and yet the dreaded bankruptcy was further off than ever. The emancipation of the
colonies, so far from ruining the shipping interests, as they predicted, and destroying the
naval power of Britain, caused British navigation to increase in all its channels faster
than ever, and the colonial markets swelled in proportion. For four centuries, French
silks had been prohibited in E ngland; yet Parliament, amidst a tempest of opposition,
substituted a duty of 30 per cent in 1824. Instead of the utter ruin which the manufac­
turers had made up their minds to encounter in consequence, the consumption of raw
silk in England increased as follows :—
Consumption in 1814, duty, per pound, 14s. I d ......................................... lbs.
“
1824,
“
“
“
1828, duty from 1824, per pound, 5s.,............................. “

2,086,341
“ 2,432,286
4,544,564

There was very little increase for the ten years ending in 1824; but, under the low duty
in four successive years, the manufacture of silk nearly doubled. Every branch of British
manufacture presents the same results.
Taking these facts into consideration, it would seem that the policy of the United
States is alone the obstacle to a system of reciprocity which, instead of confining Amer­
ican industry within the limits of our own country, would throw open the markets of the
world to their enterprise.




Commercial Statistics.

85

COMMERCIAL STATISTICS.
VALUE OF EXPORTS OF T H E U N ITED ST A T E S FOR FIFTY -O N E
YEA RS.

T he following table, which we have compiled from official sources, exhibits the value
of all the exports in each year from 1790 to 1841, and the value of those of domestic
and foreign origin since 1803 :—•
To
Sept.
30.

Val. of Exp. Val. of Exp.
of Domestic of Foreign
Origin.
Origin.
D o lla rs .

1791,
1792,
1793,
1794,
1795,
1796,
1797,
1798,
1799,
1800,
1801,
1802,
1803,
1804,
1805,
1806,
1807,
1808,
1809,
1810,
1811,
1812,
1813,
1814,
1815,
1816,

42,205,961
41,467,477
42,387,002
41,253,727
48,699,592
9,433,546
31,405,702
42,366,675
45,294,043
30,032,109
25,008,152
6,782,272
45,974,403
64,781,896

D o lla rs .

13,594,072
36,231,597
53,179,019
60,283,234
59,643,558
12,997,414
20,797,531
24,391,295
16,022,790
8,495,127
2,847,845
0,145,169
6,583,350
17,138,555

Total
Value of
Exports.

To
Sept.
30.

D o lla rs .

Vat. of Exp. Val. of Exp.
of Domestic of Foreign
Origin.
Origin.
D o lla rs .

19,012,041 1817, 68.313.500
20,753,098 1818, 73,854,437
26,109,572 1819, 50,976,838
33.026.233 1820, 51,683,640
47,989,472 1821, 43,671,894
67.064.097 1822, 49,874,079
56,850,206 1823, 47,155,408
61.527.097 1824, 50.649.500
78,665,522 1825, 66,944,745
70,971,780 1826, 53,055,710
94,115,925 1827, 58,921,691
72,483,160 1828, 50,669,669
55,800,033 1829, 55,700,193
77,699,074 1830, 59,462,029
95,566,021 1831, 61,277,057
101,536,963 1832, 63,137,470
108,343,150 1833, 70,317,698
22,430,960 1834, 81,024,162
52.203.233 1835, 101,189,082
66,757,970 1836, 106,916,680
61,316,833 1837, 95,564,414
38,527,236 1838, 96,033,821
27,855,997] 1839, 103,533,891
6,927,441 1840, 113,895,634
52,557,753 1841, 106,382,722
81,920,452

D o lla rs .

19,358,069
19,426,696
19,165,683
18,008,029
21,302,488
22,286,202
27,543,622
25,337,157
32,590,643
24,539,612
23,403,136
21,595,017
16.658.478
14.387.479
20,033,526
24,039,473
19,822,735
23,312,811
20,504,495
21,746,360
21,854,962
12,452,795
17,494,525
18,190,312
15,469,081

Total
Value of
Exports.
D ollars.

87,671,569
93,281,133
70,142,521
69,691,669
64,974,382
72,160,281
74,699,030
75,986,657
99,535,388
77,595,322
82,324,829
72,264,686
72,358,671
73,849,508
81,310,583
87,176,943
90,140,433
104,336,973
121,693,577
128,663,040
117,419,376
108,486,616
121,028,416
132,085,946
121,851,803

DOMESTIC EXPORTS OF T H E U N ITED ST A T E S FROM 1803 TO 1841.
The following table, compiled with great care from official documents, exhibits the
value of the products of the Sea, of the Forest, of Agriculture and of Manufactures
exported in each year, from 1803 to 1841, a period of nearly 40 years. It shows, at a
glance, the proportion of each general description of our productive industry :—

Years.
1803,....
1804,....
1805.....
1806,....
1807,....
1808,....
1809,....
1810,....
1811,....
1812,....
1813,....
1814,....
1815,....

Of the Sea.
$2,635,000
3,420,000
2,884,000
3,116,000
2,804,000
832,000
1,710,000
1.481.000
1.413.000
935,000
304,000
188,000
912,000
VOL. IX.--- NO. I.




the Forest.
$4,850,000
4,630,000
5,261,000
4,861,000
5,476,000
1,399,000
4,583,000
4,978,000
5,286,000
2,701,000
1,107,000
570,000
3,910,000
8

Of

Of Agriculture.
$32,995,000
30,890,000
31,562,000
30,125,000
37,832,000
1,746,000
23,234,000
33,502,000
35,556,000
24,555,000
23,119,000
5,613,000
38,910,000

Of Manufactures.

$1,355,000
2,100,000
2.300,000
2,707,009
2,120,000
344,000
1,506,000
1.907.000
2.376.000
1,355,000
399,000
246,300
1,553,000

Commercial Statistics.

86
D omestic E xports

1816,.......
1817,.......
1818,.......
1819,.......
1820,.......
1821,.......
1822,.......
1823,.......
1824,.......
1825,.......
1826........
1827,.......
1828,.......
1829,.......
1830,.......
1831,.......
1832,.......
1833........
1834,.......
1835,.......
1836,.......
1837,.......
1838,.......
1839,.......
1840,.......
1841,.......

of the

Of the Sea.
$1,331,000
1,671,000
2.187.000
2.024.000
2,251,000
1,499,188
1,384,589
1,658,224
1,610,990
1,595,065
1,473,388
1,575,332
1,693,980
1,817,100
1,725,270
1,889,472
2,558,538
2,402,469
2,071,493
2,174,524
2,666,058
2,711,452
3,175,576
1,917,969
3,198,370
2,846,851

U nited S tates

from

Of the Forest.
$7,293,000
1,484,000
5,691,000
4,927,000
5,304,000
3,794,341
3,815,542
4,498,911
4,889,646
4,938,949
3,951,250
3,343,970
3,889,611
3,681,759
4,192,004
4,263,477
4,347,794
4,906,339
4.457,997
5,397,004
5,361,740
4,711,007
5,200,499
5,764,559
5,323,085
6,264,852

1803

to

1841— C ontinued.

Of Agriculture.
$53,354,000
57,222,000
62,987,000
41,452,000
41,485,000
35,407,992
41,272,379
37,646,726
38,995,198
54,237,751
41,253,001
47,065,143
38,610,924
43,954,584
46,977,332
47,261,433
49,416,183
55,343,421
67,380,787
85,049,964
91,625,924
78,385,281
78,194,447
84,923,834
93,125,339
81,747,947

Of Manufactures.
$1,755,000
2,551,000
2,777,000
2,245,000
2,342,000
2,754,631
3,121,030
3,139,598
4,841,383
5,729,797
6,100,985
6,680,225
6,241,391
6,025,200
6,258,131
7,147,364
6,461,774
6,923,922
7,113,885
8,567,590
7,261,186
8,995,368
9,463,299
10,927,529
12,868,840
13,523,072

RICE TRADE OF T H E U N ITED STATES.

E xtorts of R ice for F ifty-one Y ears—1791 to 1841.
W e have compiled, from official documents, the following table, showing the quantity
of rice exported from the United States in each year, from 1791 to 1841; also, the value
of the same, from 1803 to 1841:—
The culture of this valuable and most nutritious vegetable was introduced into South
Carolina about the year 1694.* Different accounts have been given as to the manner of
its first introduction. The account given by Dr. Ramsay, in his valuable history of South
Carolina, published in 1809, is probably the most correct, and which we shall give in
his own words.
“ Landgrave Thomas Smith, who was governor of the province in 1693, had been at
Madagascar before he settled in Carolina. There he observed that rice was planted and
grew in low and moist ground. Having such ground at the western extremity of his
garden, attached to his dwelling-house in East Bay-street, he was persuaded that rice
would grow therein, if seed could be obtained. About this time a vessel from Mada­
gascar, being in distress, came to anchor near Sullivan’s island. The master of the ves­
sel inquired for Mr. Smith as an old acquaintance. An interview took place. In the
course of conversation Mr. Smith expressed a wish to obtain some seed.rice to plant in
his garden, by way of experiment. The cook being called, said he had a small bag of
rice suitable for that purpose. This was presented to Mr. Smith, who sowed it in a low
spot in his garden, which now forms a part of Longitude-lane. It grew luxuriantly.
The little crop was distributed by Mr. Smith among his planting friends. From this
small beginning the first staple of South Carolina took its rise. It soon after became the
chief support of the colony.”




* Pitkin’s Statistics.

87

Commercial Statistics,

Its introduction contributed much to the prosperity of that part of North America.
It became valuable, not only for consumption at home, but as an article for exportation.
By an Act of Parliament, of 3 and 4 of Anne, (1706,) rice was placed among the enu.
merated commodities, and could only be shipped directly to Great B ritain; but after­
wards, in the year 1730, it was permitted to be carried, under certain limitations and
restrictions, to the ports of Europe lying south of Cape Finisterre. Its culture had so
increased, that, as early as 1724, eighteen thousand barrels of it were exported; and
from November, 1760, to September, 1761, no less than one hundred thousand barrels
were shipped from South Carolina.*
In 1770, the value of this article exported, being in quantity about one hundred and
sixty thousand barrels, amounted to $1,530,000.
Years.

1791,...........
1792^...........
1793j...........
1794,'...........
1795,...........
1796,'...........
1797'...........
1798j...........
1799’...........
1800’...........
1801j...........
18021...........
1803,...........
1804,...........
1805............
1806,...........
1807,...........
1808,...........
1809,...........
181 0 ,..........
1811,...........
1812............
1813............
1814,...........
1815,
.
1816,
.

Tierces.

Value.

96,980
141,762
134,611
116,486
138,526
131,039
60,111
125^243
110*599
112^056
94^866
79*822
81,838
78,385
56,830
102,627
94,692
9,228
116,907
131,341
119,356
77,190
120,843
11,476
129,248
137,843

$2,455,000
2,350,000
1,705,000
2.617.000
2.367.000
221,000
2,104,000
2,626,000
2,387,000
1,544,000
3,021,000
230,000
2.785.000
3.555.000

Years.

1817,...........
1818j...........
1819j...........
1820*...........
182lj...........
1822,...........
1823j...........
1824’...........
1825j...........
1826j...........
1827j...........
1828’...........
1829;...........
1830,...........
1831,...........
1832............
1833,
.
1834,
.
1835,...........
1836,...........
1837,...........
1838,
.
1839,
..
1840,...........
1841,...........

Tierces.

Value.

79,296
881181
76;523
7i;663
881221
87*089
101,365
113;229
97;015
lli;0 6 3
133;518
175;019
171^636
130,697
116,517
120,327
144,166
121,886
110,851
212,983
106,084
71,048
93,320
101,660
101,617

2,378,880
3,262,697
2,142,644
1.714.923
1.494.923
1,553,482
1,820,985
1,882,982
1,925,245
1,917,445
2,343,908
2,620,696
2,514,370
1,986,824
2,016,267
2,152,631
2,774,418
2,122,272
2,210,331
2,548,750
2,309,279
1,721,819
2,460,198
1,942,076
2,010,107

PRODUCTS OF T H E SEA.

F ish E xported from the United States.
The following table, compiled from official documents, exhibits the quantity of pickled
and dried fish, in quintals, barrels, and kegs, exported from the United States for fiftyone years, from 1791 to 1841; also, the value of the same in each year, from 1803 to

1841
Years.
1791,............
1792.............
1793,............
1794..............
1795..............
1796..............
1797..............
1798..............
1799,............

Dried Fish.

Dried Fish.

Pickled Fish.

Q u i n t a ls .

V a lu e .

B a r r e ls .

383,237
364,898
372,825
436,907
400,818
377,713
406,016
411,175
428,495




57,426
48,277
45,440
36,929
55,999
84,558
69,782
66,827
63,542

* Macpherson’s Annals of Commerce.

Pickled Fish. Pickled Fish.
K egs.

5,256
7,351
6,220

15,993

V a lu e .

Commercial Statistics.

88

F ish E xported

from the

U nited S tates— Continued.

Years.

Dried Fish.

Dried Fish.

Pickled Fish.

Q u i n t a ls .

V a lu e .

B a r r e ls .

K egs.

V a lu e .

1800,...........
1801,............
1802,...........
1803,............
1804,............
..
1805,
1806,
..
1807,............
1808.............
1809,............
1810.............
1811,............
1812,............
1813,...........
1814.............
1815,...........
1816,............
1817,............
1818.............
1819.............
1820,...........
1821,............
1822,............
1823,............
1824.............
1825.............
1826.............
1827,............
1828,............
1829,
..
1830,
..
1831.............
1832,............
1833,............
1834.............
1835,............
1836,...........
1837,............
1838.............
1839,...........
1840,............
1841.............

392,726
410,948
440,925
461,870
567,828
514,549
537,457
473,924
155,808
345,648
280,864
214,387
169,019
63,616
31,310
103,251
219,991
267,514
308,747
280,555
321,419
267,305
241,228
262,766
310,189
300,857
260,803
247,321
265,217
294,761
229,796
230,577
250,544
249,689
253,132
287,721
240,769
188,943
206,028
208,720
211,425
252,199

50,388
85,935
75,819
76,831
89,482
56,670
64,615
57,621
18,957
54,777
34,674
44,716
23,636
13,833
8,436
36,232
33,228
44,426
55,119
66,563
87,916
76,429
69,127
75,728
72,559
70,572
85,445
66,123
63,928
61,629
66,113
91,787
102,770
86,442
61,638
51,661
48,182
40,516
41,699
23,831
42,274
36,508

12,403
10,424
13,229
11,565
13,045
7,207
10,155
13,743
3,036
9,380
5,964
9,393
3,143
568
87
3,062
6,983
15,551
7,400
6,746
7,309
4,162
7,191
8,349
12,911
10,636
11,459
7,446
4,205
3,207
6,723
8,594
4,030
3,636
2,344
3,487
3,575
3,430
2,667
3,975
2,252
3,349

$560,000
640,000
348,000
366,000
302,000
98,000
282,000
214,000
305,000
146,000
81,000
50,000
218,000
221,000
325,000
317,000
409,000
538,000
264,000
249,108
270,776
263,019
248,417
257,180
240,276
246,737
220,527
225,987
304,441
308,812
277,973
223,290
224,639
221,426
181,334
192,758
141,320
179,106
148,973

$1,620,000
2,400,000
2,058,000
2,150,000
1,896,000
623,000
1,123,000
913,000
757,000
592,000
210,000
128,000
494,000
935,000
1,003,000
1,081,000
1,052,000
964,000
708,778
666,730
734,024
873,685
830,356
667,742
747,171
819,926
747,541
530,690
625,393
749,909
713,317
630,384
783,895
746,464
588,506
626,245
709,218
541,058
602,810

Pickled Fish. Pickled Fish.

EXPO RT OF AM ERICAN M ANUFACTURED COTTON GOODS FROM
1826 TO 1842.
Considerable attention having lately been attracted to the circumstance of a large
shipment of domestic cottons from Boston for China, the editor of the United States
Gazette has been induced to investigate a little the subject of the exportation of domes­
tic manufactures, especially those of cotton, and has formed the following table from the
annual reports of the Treasury since 1826—that being the first year in which the returns
are furnished. It appears by the Boston memorial, presented at the last session of Con­
gress, that the manufacture of cotton, as an important branch of American industry, may
be considered as having commenced in 1816, and was confined to white goods until
1825, when that of printed goods commenced. In that year they estimate the consump­
tion of cotton at 100,000 bales, and in 1842 at 300,000 bales, or 120,000,000 pounds ;




Commercial Statistics.

89

that the present consumption is equal to the whole export of the United States up to
1820, or the whole consumption of American cotton in Great Britain to the same period,
and exceeds our export to France previous to 1840. In 1842 they estimate 150,000,000
yards to be printed annually, valued at $16,000,000, and employing a capital of
$25,000,000. They estimate January, 1842, as follows:—
101,300 pieces of 30 yards per week each, is, per annum..............yards
150,000,000 yards at an average of 11 cents, is..........................................

158,028,000
$16,500,000

Capital required for manufacturing the above quantity of cloth,................
“
printing it,.......................................................................

$17,500,000
7,500,000

T otal,.........................................................................................

$25,000,000

It appears by the table, that, in 1826, the printed and colored cottons exported amount,
ed to $68,884, and in 1842 to $385,040 ; and that the exports of white cottons in 1826
amounted to $821,629 ; in 1838, to $3,250,130; and in 1842, to $2,302,815. Of nan.
keens, which amounted in 1826 to $8,903, the export entirely ceased in 1841. The
export of twist, yarn, and thread has increased from $11,135, in 1826, to $37,325 in
1842; and all other manufactures of cotton from $227,574 to $250,361.
The total export of cotton manufactures in 1826 was $1,138,125 ; in 1833 it exceed,
cd $2,500,000, and in 1838 amounted to $3,758,755 ; and has averaged over $3,000,000
up to 1842, inclusive, which is the latest account received, and for which year we are
indebted to the Treasury Department.
In the last column of the table we have placed the annual amount of export of all
American manufactures, from 1826 to 1841—by comparing which with the preceding
column, may be ascertained the relative proportion which the manufactures of cotton
exported bear to the whole export of American manufactured goods of all materials. It
varies from about one-sixth to one-third.
It appears that, in 1842, there was a small decrease in the amount of American cot­
tons exported.
Table, showing the Value o f Domestic Manufactures o f Cotton exported from the
United States from 1826 to 1842.
Years.

P IE C E GOODS.

Printed &
Colored.

White.

Twist
yarn and
Nankeens. thread.

All other
manufact.
of cotton.

Total value
Total value of exports of
American
of cotton
manufactures manufact. of
exported.
ail materials.

1826,. ... $68,884 $821,629 $8,903 $11,135 $227,574 $1,138,125 $6,100,985
1827,. ...
45,120
951,001 14,750
11,165
137,368
1,159,414
6,680,225
1828,. ...
76,012
887,628
5,149
12,570
28,873
1,010,232
6,241,391
1829,. ... 145,024
6,025,206
981,370
1,878
3,849
127,336
1,259,457
1830,. ...
61,800
964,196
24,744
1,318,183
6,258,131
1,093
266,350
1831,. ...
96,931
947,932
17,221
61,832
1,126,313
7,147,364
2,397
1832,. ... 104,870 1,052,891
12,618
58,854
1,229,574
6,461,774
341
1833,. ... 421,721 1,802,116
2,054 104,335
202,291
2,532,517
6,923,922
1834,. ... 188,619 1,756,136
51,802
2,085,994
1,061
88,376
6,648,393.
1835,. ... 397,412 2,355,202
2,858,681
400
7,859
8,023,674
97,808
1836,. ... 256,625 1,950,795
14,912
2,255,734
637
32,765
6,453,266
1837,. ... 549,801 2,043,115
1,815
175,040
2,831,473
8,425,559
61,702
1838,. ... 252,044 3,250,130
82,543
3,758,755
6,017 168,021
8,875,538
1839,. ... 412,661 2,525,301
1,492
18,114
17,465
2,975,033 10,233,440
1840,. ... 398,977 2,925,257
1,200
192,728
31,445
3,549,607 12,108,535,
1841,. .. 450,503 2,324,839
43,503
303,701
3,122,546 12,699,506,
1842,. ... 385,040 2,302,815
... . . . .
37,325
250,361
2,975,541 ............................




8*-

Commercial Statistics.

90

EXPORTS AND IM PORTS OF MONTEVIDEO AND BUENOS AYRES,
FROM 1838 TO 1842 INCLUSIVE.

Statement of Sundry Exports from Buenos A yres and Montevideo in the follow­
ing years.
Years.

Dry and Salted ox
and cow hides.

Horse hides.

Horse hair.

N u m b er.

N u m b er.

A rrobas.

1838,...............
1839,..............
1840,..............
1841................
1842,...............

1,218,101
1,262,468
1,318,827
3,552,938
2,930,040

64,596
49,798
48,804
177,508
140,355

80,536
49,832
61,101
177,095
115,811

Years.

Sheep skins.

Nutria skins.

Tallow and
soap stuff.

D ozens.

D ozens.

1838,...............
...............
1839,
1840,...............
1841,...............
1842,...............

58,965
16,804
10,351
211,694
102,424

71,745
21,839
12,540
97,904
97,523

A rrobas.

314,253
407,392
375,474
1,222,086
511,735

Wool.

A rrobas■
199,059
75,062
96,611
959,067
516,798

Horns.
N u m b er.

1.030.000
1.199.000
1,142,036
2,637,972
2,183,919

W hereof to the United Stales:—
Years.

1838................
1839................
1840,...............
1841,...............
1842,...............
Years.

Dry and Salted ox
and cow hides.

Horse hides.

Horse hair.

N u m b er.

N u m b er.

A rrobas.

4,684
7,352
3,258
23,319
6,939

5,976
17,872
6,452
25,152
13,217

178,514
213,393
97,222
627,776
392,489
Sheep skins.
D ozens.

1838,...............
1839................
1840,..............
1841,...............
1842................

33,258
15,280
5,633
83,601
18,320

Nutria skins.
D ozens.

626
13,125
492
20,808
13,216

Tallow and
soap stuff.
A rrobas.

108,736
126,105
35,551
77,172
5,659

Wool.
A rrobas.

88,629
59,410
30,795
482,764
168,895
Horns.
N u m b er.

159,000
246,000
158,590
438,300
585,354

Exports from the Port o f Montevideo during the year 1842.
649,281 salted ox and cow hides at $ 3 50,..................................................... $2,272,48B
703,759 dry
“
“
$ 2 50,..........................................
1,759,397
54,253 salted horse hides at 13 reals,.............................................................
88,161
3,330 dry
“
10 “ .............................. ..............................
4,162
433,810 quintals jerked beef at $ 2 0 0 ,........... . ...........................................
867,620
87,330 arrobas grease at 13 reals,................. ..................................................
141,911
25,654
“
tallow at 15 “ ..................... . ............................ .............
48,101
7,659 quintals horse hair at $14 00,................. . ......................................
107,226
973,966 horns at $30 00,...................................
29,219
2,535 bales wool at $30 00,..........................................................................
76,050
22,890 colt skins at 3 reals,................................................. . . . . .....................
8,584
2,580 arrobas mares’ oil at 9 reals,................................................................
2,902
97,033 calf skins at 3 reals,....... ........................................... ........................
36,387
2,591 dozen sheep skins at $ 2 OO,................. ..............................................
5,182
9,044 quintals hide cuttings at $ 2 00,..........................................................
18,088
4,375 tons bones at $ 6 00,.............................................................................
26,250
2,024 dozen nutria skins at $ 2 50,...............................................................
5,060
2,011 pounds ostrich feathers at 2 reals,............................. .........................
503
Deer skins, bone ashes, tallow candles, mules, seal oil and skins,..............
75,932
T otal,.......... ................................................................................. $5,573,218
American vessels arrived during the same y e a r,........,............. ....................
112




Commercial Statistics,

91

EXPORT OF FLOUR AND W H EAT.
T he United States have treaties of commerce that admit our grain into sixty-one for­
eign governments and colonies. The markets to which our flour and wheat were ex­
ported last year, as given in the report of the Secretary of the Treasury, furnished for the
use of the United States Senate, were as follows :—
Dollars.
Whither exported.
Flour.
Sweden and Norway,.................................................... barrels
9
48
Swedish West Indies,...................................................
80,199
15,624
42,394
217,475
Danish W est Indies,......................................................
Hanse Towns,................................................................
665
3,227
250
1,414
Holland,..........................................................................
7,841
40,219
Dutch East Indies,...................... .................................
14,932
80,891
“
West Indies,.......................................................
1,502
8,320
“
Guiana,.................................................................
984,555
205,154
England,..........................................................................
3,830
18,910
Scotland,.........................................................................
19,229
95,417
Gibraltar,.........................................................................
100
513
M alta,.............................................................................
11,357
59,239
British East Indies,........................................................
7,416
38,199
Australia,.........................................................................
246,465
1,235,850
British W est Indies,.......................................................
17,385
95,602
“
Guiana,................................................................
3,570
18,662
Cape of Good Hope,.....................................................
4,699
26,112
Honduras,................................ .......................................
377,806
1,860,659
British American Colonies,..........................................
1,140
5,928
France on the Atlantic,.................................................
200
“
“
Mediterranean,......................................
1,000
4,739
23,478
French W est Indies,.....................................................
659
3,853
“
Guiana,...............................................................
104
440
Spain on the Atlantic,................................................. .
458
2,487
“
“
M editerranean........................................
3,425
21,213
Manilla and Philippine islands,....................................
69,337
336,028
Cuba,...............................................................................
15,566
82,302
Other Spanish W est India islands,.............................
5,408
24,746
Madeira,..........................................................................
1,324
7,133
Cape de Verde islands,.................................................
259
1,275
Italy,................................................................................
646
3,271
Turkey, Levant, &c.,....................................................
36,456
188,173
Hayti,...............................................................................
6,401
Texas,..............................................................................
29,547
19,602
M exico,...........................................................................
90,464
469
2,542
Central Republic of America,......................................
28,796
Venezuela,.......................................................................
157,173
282,406
Brazil,..............................................................................
1,597,423
13,327
64,265
Cisplatine Republic,.......................................................
6,478
Chili,................................................................................
39,567
22,132
Argentine Republic,......................................................
120,804
2,764
New G renada,...............................................................
13,768
1,626
8,601
W est Indies generally,..................................................
1,950
South America generally,.............................................
10,881
China generally,.............................................................
220
1,247
763
Asia generally,...............................................................
4,388
Africa generally,............................................................
3,728
21,170
South seas and Sandwich islands,...............................
5,307
27,928
Total,.
It appears that the number of barrels exported was..
Bushels of wheat 868,585—in barrels of flour.........
Total barrels exported last year,..




1,516,817

$7,759,646
1,516,817
175,600
1,691,417

Commercial Statistics.

92

E xport of F lour and W heat—Continued.
Wheat exported—

Bushels.

To England,................................
British W est Indies,............
“
American'Colonies,
Mani la ,................................
Mexit o,.................................
Brazil.......................... ..........
River La P late,...................

Dollars.

119,854
35,622
695,389
1,200
20
16,457
43

129,309
41,116
629,938
1,387
20
21,028
88

Total,...............................

868,585

$822,881

TRADE OF N E W YORK, BOSTON, PH ILA D ELPH IA , AND BALTIM ORE,
W IT H LIVERPOOL.
The Baltimore American publishes a statement of exports from Liverpool to New
York, Boston, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, for the spring trade of 1842 and 1843. The
table embraces the articles of cotton stuffs, worsted stuffs, woollen stuffs, linen cloth,
cotton thread, cotton hose, and blankets. The whole number of packages received of
these descriptions of goods, was as follows —
From
Oct. 1 to Feb. 10,

1842.

A t New York,.

24,436

1843.

Decrease
this year.

From
Oct. 1 to Feb. 10,

1842.

17,692

At Baltimore,..

1,105

6,744
i Ron
L114

Decrease
this year.

1843.

492

613

1 700

5^072
3^958
Philadelphia
Total,......... 34,205 10,240 23,965
The following table will show the aggregate importation of the several articles at the
ports nam ed:—
From
Oct. 1 to Feb. 10,

1842.

1843.

Cotton stuffs,...
Worsted stu ffs,.
Woollen stuffs,.
Linen cloth,....
Cotton thread,.

17,028
2,684
5,199
7,669
1,005

3,343
846
2,235
3,478
253

Decrease
this year.

From
Oct. 1 to Feb. 10,

1842.

13,685 Cotton hose,....
1,838 Blankets,..........
2,964
4,185
T otal,........
752

1843.

Decrease
this vear.

244
382

16
69

228
313

34,205

10,240

23,965

RIO JANEIRO IM PORTS OF FLOUR, AND EXPO RTS OF COFFEE.
The following is a comparative statement of Rio Janeiro imports of flour, and exports
of coffee, during the years 1841 and 1842 :—
Coflee exported in—

New Orleans,........................
New York,............................

i«
tt

Philadelphia,.........................
Charleston,............................
Boston, & c.,......................... .

ti

tt

it

1841.
126,865
125,419
120,462
30,199
3,500
24,271

1842.
112,798
106,617
92,562
19,660
8,130
23,513

Total,....................
Europe,..................................

it

430,716
569,500

363,280
793,690

Grand total,..........

it

1,000,216

1,156,970

Flour imported in 1841, 236,488 barrels ; exported, 81,571 barrels.
“
“
1842, 157,185
“
“
61,796
“
Our monthly consumption is about 10,000 barrels, and there arrived last month 31,303
barrels, making the stock now on hand 49,742 barrels.




Nautical Intelligence.

93

NAUTICAL INTELLIGENCE.
LATITUD ES AND LONGITUDES OF LIGHTHOUSES ON T H E COAST
OF T H E U N ITE D STA TES.
A L ist of L atitudes and L ongitudes of L ighthouses on the Coast of the United

States, as determined from the preliminary calculations of the Coast Survey,
ey F . R. H assler.
Direction Long. W. from
Longitude counted from
east Greenwich obNames of States and
Latitude.
N e w York City Hall.
or
servatory, EnPlaces.
gland, in degs.
I n t im e .
I n degrees.
west.
H. M. s.
0 0 0

D,, M.

S.

40 42 40,9

0

0

41 21 35
41 18 09
41 13 24

0 10 06,1
0 08 35,6
0 09 43,5

2 31 31
2 08 54
2 25 53

E.

71 29 25
71 52 03
71 35 04

41
41
41
41
41
41
41
41
41
41
40

19
18
18
16
12
14
09
09
02
08
58

34
54
55
13
38
52
02
42
50
27
52

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

08
08
07
06
05
04
03
03
02
03
01

24,3
04,2
40,1
40,0
24,7
24,6
36,7
36,6
20,8
09,7
31,8

2
2
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0

06
01
55
39
21
06
54
54
35
47
22

05
03
01
50
10
09
11
09
13
25
57

II
(i
(t
ti
tt

71
71
72
72
72
72
73
73
73
73
73

54
59
05
20
39
54
06
06
25
13
37

52
54
56
59
46
47
46
47
43
31
59

Throg’s Point,........
Sands’
“ ........
Raton Neck,...........
Oldfield,.................
Plumb Island,.........
Gull Island,............
M ontauk,................
Fire Island,............
Prince’s Bay,.................
Narrows,................................

40
40
40
40
41
41
41
40
40
40

48
51
57
58
10
12
04
37
31)
35

15
52
09
33
21
18
10
46
22
57

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

00
01
02
03
07
07
08
03
00
00

51,7
06,4
26,6
33,0
10,5
36,0
36,0
09,3
49,8
11,5

0
0
0
0
1
1
2
0
0
0

12
16
36
53
47
54
08
47
12
02

55
36
38
15
42
00
58
19
27
53

73
73
73
73
72
72
71
73
74
74

48
44
24
07
13
06
51
13
13
03

01
21
18
41
14
57
58
38
24
50

Robin’s Reef,.................

40 39 21

0 00 14,3

0 03 34

40
40
39
38
39
39

27
23
45
55
10
20

37
40
54
45
28
15

0
0
0
0
0
0

00
00
00
03
04
05

01,0
04,9
24,0
50,4
32,0
25,0

0
0
0
0
1
1

00
01
05
57
07
21

15
14
59
36
59
15

39
39
39
39
38
38
38
38

43
29
21
10
56
46
47
47

12
57
43
13
34
35
21
50

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

06
06
06
05
05
04
04
04

03,5
15,1
01,1
34,7
13,8
18,7
19,1
24,4

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

30
33
30
23
18
04
04
06

53
47
17
41
27
41
47
06

D.

N. York City Hall,

M.

S.

0

D.

M.

s.

74 00 56,7

RIIODE ISLAND.

Point Judith,...........
Watchhill,...............
Block Island,.........

tt
tt

CONNECTICUT.

Stonington,.............
Mystic,....................
New London,........
Saybrook,...............
Faulkner’s Island,.
New Haven,..........
Stratford,.................
“
Beacon,...
Sheffield,................
Black Rock,...........
Captain Island,......

“

(I
it
it

“

NEW YORK.
it

«*
ti

“
it
it
“
**

w.
it

“

74 04 30

NEW JERSEY.

Sandy H ook,.........
Neversink, ........................
Barnegat, .............................
Cape May,.............
Egg Island,........................
Cohansey,............................

E.
it

W.
ti
“

ti

74
73
74
74
75
75

00
59
06
58
08
22

42
42
56
33
56
12

75
75
75
75
75
75
75
75

31
34
31
24
19
05
05
07

50
44
13
38
24
37
44
03

DELAWARE.

Christiana, ........................
Reedy Island,................
Bombay Hook,......
Mahons,.................................
Mispillion,.........................
Cape Henlopen,....
“ Beacon, ................
“ Breakwater, .

it
tt
tt
tt
“
“

tt
tt

MARYLAND.

39 32 30

Havre-de-Grace,....

0 08 19,7

2 04 46

* Built since the survey of the harbor was made.




tt

76 05 42

94

Nautical Intelligence.

The foregoing determinations are deduced, for the latitudes, from observations made
at various stations of the coast survey; and the longitudes, from the three solar eclipses
of 1834, ’36, and ’38, observed at different stations of the survey—all being reduced to
the City Hall of New York, by the results of the main triangulation, to make that point
the starting point of the longitudes ; and thence the positions of the lighthouses are again
deduced, by the results of the proper ulterior operations of the survey; all which are
referred to Greenwich by the difference of longitude, determined, as stated, for the City
Hall of New York.
The foregoing exhibits a number of determinations of lighthouses by their geographic
latitudes, and their longitudes referred to New York city, and to the observatory of
Greenwich, E ngland; as from the latter longitudes are generally calculated by English
navigators.
The addition of 2 deg. 20 min. 24 sec. difference of longitude between Greenwich
and Paris, would reduce the longitudes to the meridian of P aris; and the subtraction of
17 deg. 30 min. 36 sec. would refer them to the meridian of the Island of Ferro, accept­
ed for the common maps, as dividing meridian between the two plani-globes.
These results are, as stated in the superscription to the list, obtained from the prelim­
inary calculations, taken to the nearest second in the arc, (so called,) omitting decimals,
which may answer all the purposes of navigation, at the same time that, in the language
of the sciences, it is indicating the state of the data, and the limits of their corrections,
if any, by the fully finished operations of the survey.
N E W YORK HO SPITA L MONEY.
Extract from chapter xiv, title iv, of the Revised Statutes of the State of New York,
entitled “ Of the Public Health.”
Sec. 7. The health commissioner shall demand, and be entitled to receive, and in case
of neglect or refusal to pay, shall sue for and recover, in his name of office, the follow­
ing sums, from the master of every vessel that shall arrive in the port of New York,
namely:—
1. From the master of every vessel from a foreign port, for each cabin passenger, one
dollar and fifty cents ; for each steerage passenger, one dollar.
2. From the master of each coasting vessel, for each passenger on board, twenty-five
c en ts; but no coasting vessel from the states of New Jersey, Connecticut, and Rhode
Island, shall pay for more than one voyage in each month, computing from the first
voyage in each year.
Sec. 9. Each master paying hospital monies shall be entitled to demand and recover,
from each person for whom they shall be paid, the sum paid on his account.
Sec. 10. Every master of a coasting vessel shall pay to the health commissioner, at his
office, in the city of New York, within twenty-four hours after the arrival of his vessel
in the port, such hospital monies as shall then be demandable from him, under the pro­
visions of this title ; and every master, for each omission of such duty, shall forfeit the
sum of one hundred dollars.
R E E F OFF T H E W E S T E R N ISLANDS DISCOVERED.
A late Bermuda paper contains the following letter from R. H. Laise :—
“ Sir—I beg leave to send you an intimation which I have received from the Court
of Directors of a newly discovered reef of the Western islands, laying in the track of
ships homeward bound, who should deem it necessary to shape their course between
Flores and Fayal. And that it may be generally known—together with so many ships
going home hence—I am sure you will give it every publicity in your journal, and I
trust your services in pointing it out may be the means of keeping ships clear of it. The
following is its description, and named Ferreira’s Reef, and partly above water : extent,
Ion. 10 n. and s. 5 e. and w .; lat. 38 deg. 27 min. n., Ion. 30 25 w., true bearings;
variation, 2 points w. Body of Flores, n. n. w. ^ w . ; Peak of Pico, e. First seen,
August 3d, 1840.




Railroad, Canal, and Steamboat Statistics.

95

R A I L R OA D , CANAL, AND S T E A M B O A T S T A T I S T I C S .
T H E PROGRESS OF RAILROADS IN T H E U N ITED STA TES.
The history of railroads in the United States presents one of the most remarkable in­
stances of the rapid progress of invention which has ever been recorded. A few years
since, the advocates of railroads were ranked among visionaries and schemers; but so
rapid has been the growth of the system among us, that the small beginning and its re­
cent date are generally forgotten. The history of this journal will afford evidence upon
this point, which may suggest useful reflections. Eleven years ago, the first number of
the American Railroad Journal was issued at New York, by Mr. D. K. Miner. This
number contains a list of works already in construction, and partly finished. As nearly
as can be ascertained, the following list contains the whole amount of railroads then in
use :—
Baltimore and Ohio,........................................... 60 miles
Charleston and Hamburg,................................. 20
Albany and Schenectady,...............
12
Mauch Chunk,.................................................... 9
Quincy, near Boston,......................................... 6

completed and in use.
44
44
44
“
“
44
44
44
44
44
44
44

Thus there were but 92 miles in use upon any of the main lines of railroads. So little,
indeed, was then known, and so little could there be said on the subject, that the editor
announced that a part only of the Journal would be devoted to the subject of internal
communication ; that the larger part would be occupied with literary and miscellaneous
matter, as prepared for the New York American. But small as the quantity of matter
was, several vigorous articles might even now be read with profit; and, among these,
we might mention those relative to the comparative merits of railroads and canals. Al­
though for nearly one hundred and fifty years tram-roads had been used for the trans­
portation of the heaviest articles, such as coal, ore, and stone, it was suddenly disco­
vered that railroads might, indeed, be profitably employed in transporting passengers
and light parcels; but that, beyond this, they were not able to do anything. The ar­
guments which were then used, and which have since been urged with so much force
from time to time, have not been without effect.
An idea of the small amount of business connected with railroads at the time of the
commencement of the Journal, may be formed from the fact that throughout the first
volume but three advertisements (excepting notices to contractors) are to be found.
The first of these was by Mr. H . Burden, of Troy ; another by Messrs. A. & G. Rals­
ton, of Philadelphia; and another by Townsend & Durfee, Palmyra, New York—the
first two of which, in some shape or other, have been continued, and are yet to be found
upon our cover.
The editor also thought it necessary to refer to several gentlemen of the city as
guaranties for the continuance of the work. Before many numbers had been issued,
information from all quarters poured in, and a very lively interest was felt in the under­
taking. The demand for railroads throughout the country increased, and popular as
well as scientific information was in request.
Let us now compare the present state of affairs with this humble commencement.
There are now between four and five thousand miles of railroad in use in the United
States, built by the expenditure of nearly one hundred millions of dollars. Eleven
years ago, there were but about one hundred miles in use.
There are now probably more than five hundred locomotive engines in use, nearly all
of them made in this country. Eleven years ago, the few engines in use were imported




96

Railroad, Canal, and Steamboat Statistics.

from England, and were of the oldest patterns. Since then, fifty or more American
engines have been sent abroad—some to Russia, some to Austria, and several to Eng­
land. Had this fact been predicted, even in the most indirect manner, in the first num­
ber of the Railroad Journal, it would have sealed its doom.
Eleven years ago, a dead level was, by many, deemed necessary on a railroad, (see
p. 68, vol. 1,) and grades of 30 feet to the mile were hardly thought admissable. Now,
engines are in daily use which surmount grades of 60 and 80 feet to the mile.
Eleven years ago, inclined planes with stationary power were considered the ne plus
ultra of engineering science. Now, they are discarded as expensive, inconvenient,
and incompatible with the free use of a railroad.
Eleven years ago it was thought that railroads could not compete with canals in car­
rying heavy freight; and even much more recently statements to this effect have been
put forth by authority. Now, we know that the most profitable of the eastern railroads
derives one-half its income from bulky freight, and that coal can be carried more cheaply
upon a railroad than in canals.
Eleven years ago, the profitableness of railroads was not established ; and, discoura­
ged by the vast expenditure in several cases of experiment in an untried field, many
predicted that they would be unprofitable. Now, it is already demonstrated, by de­
clared dividends, that well-constructed railroads, when divested of extraneous incum­
brances, are the most profitable investments in our country. The New England rail­
roads have paid, since their completion, 6 to 8 per c e n t; several other roads, 6 and 1
per cent. The Hudson and Mohawk (of fifteen and a half miles, costing about one
million one hundred thousand dollars) paid, in 1840, 7 per cent on that enormous out­
lay. The Utica and Schenectady, and Syracuse and Utica, pay 10 to 12 per cent. The
stock of the Utica and Schenectady railroad has never been down to par since opera­
tions were commenced in 1836, and has maintained its stand, without fluctuation, at a
higher rate than any other species of stock during all our commercial revolutions.
Eleven years ago, there were but six miles of railroad in use in the vicinity of Boston.
Now, Boston has direct connexion with a web of railways one thousand two hundred
and three miles in length ; all of which, except about twenty-four miles, are actually in
use—being a greater length of railroad than there was in the whole world eleven years
ago.— Railroad Journal.
T H E ILLINO IS AN D MICHIGAN CANAL.
The Illinois and Michigan canal is one hundred miles in length, sixty feet wide, and
six feet deep ; it has fifteen locks, each one hundred and ten feet in length, and eighteen
feet in width. The canal will be navigable for boats carrying from one hundred to one
hundred and fifty tons. $5,000,000 have already been expended upon it, and $1,600,000
are required to complete it. It connects the navigable waters of the Illinois river, one
of the main tributaries of the Mississippi, with Lake Michigan.
The security offered to the subscribers to the new loan consists of the following
property:—
The canal itself, which has cost....................................................................... $5,000,000
230,476 acres of canal land, valued at $10 per acre,..................................
2,304,670
Lots in Chicago, valued at................................................................................
350,000
44 Lockport, valued at...............................................................................
300,000
“ Ottawa, valued at....................................................................................
350,000
“ La Salle, valued at................................................................................
500,000
44 Juliet and Du Page, valued at.............................................................
300,000
Coal beds and stone quarries, valued at...........................................................
100,000




Railroad, Canal, and Steamboat Statistics,

97

Besides the above property, the subscribers to the new loan are to have all the revenue
arising from the leasing of water-power, and the tolls upon the canal. W hen the canal
is in operation, there will be water-power created upon canal property sufficient to drive
two hundred and twenty millstones of four and a half feet in diameter. If the water­
power should rent at the usual rate, as in other states, viz., $500 per run per annum, it
would yield an annual revenue of $66,000, a sum sufficient to pay the interest upon
$1,100,000 of the canal debt.
The precise amount that will be received for tolls after the canal is completed, cannot
be now stated. It has been variously estimated from $100,000 to $500,000. It seems
but reasonable to expect that this canal will do a large amount of business, connecting
as it does the great chain of lakes with the Mississippi, the east with the west, the manu­
facturing with the agricultural states, the Gulf of Mexico with the St. Lawrence.
NA VIGA TION OF T H E HUDSON.
THE TROY AND EMPIRE, OF THE MORNING LINE OF STEAMERS.

These beautiful boats now form the morning line between New York and Albany,
leaving either place at seven o’clock. The Troy was built in 1840, is two hundred and
ninety-four feet long, with twenty-eight feet breadth of beam, or sixty-one feet extreme
breadth, and measures seven hundred and fifty tons burthen. She has two of William
A. Lighthall’s patent horizontal steam engines, low pressure, and is fitted up exclusively
for a day boat. She is under the command of Captain A. Gorham, formerly of the
steamer Champlain. Captain G. is well known for his uniform kind attention to the
traveller, and the prompt and quiet performance of his duties as an officer.
The Empire was completed this year, (1843,) is three hundred and thirty feet in
length, thirty-one feet breadth of beam, or sixty-two feet extreme breadth, with a meas­
urement of one thousand and twelve tons. She is fitted up as a day or night boat, and
has fifty state-rooms, a saloon two hundred feet long and seventeen feet wide on her
promenade deck, with two of Lighthall’s patent horizontal half beam low-pressure en­
gines. Her commander, S. R. Roe, late of the De W itt Clinton, is one of the most
experienced steam navigators on the Hudson, and while in command of that boat ac­
quired an enviable reputation as a courteous and attentive officer, deserving, as he has
received, the command of one of the finest boats on the river.
The Troy and Empire are built on the most approved model, in the most substantial
manner, and of the best materials. They are propelled by powerful low-pressure steam
engines. Although appointed in a neat and plain style of finish, they are surpassed by
none, either for comfort or convenience. The cabins, saloons, and rooms, without the
accompaniment of gaudy lithographs or barber-shop ornaments, are spacious, airy, chaste,
and comfortable.
The subordinate officers are courteous, efficient, and attentive; the crews active in
their duties, and obliging to the traveller; the servants neat, civil, and attentive; and
the stewards’ department will bear as favorable comparison with other parts of those
floating palaces as any other in the United States, and that is to say with any in the
world.
CONCORD (MASS.) RAILW AY.
From the Reports of the Treasurer and Auditors, we learn that the capital expended
in the construction of this road was $706,320 29 ; on hand not expended, $18,729 71;
making the whole amount received on stock $725,050. Earnings of road for the last
eight months, $70,912 36 ; expenses for operating road same time, $27,183 50; leav­
ing as net profits, the sum of $43,728 86. After deducting the appropriation of $35,000
for the dividend of 5 per cent declared, the balance, $8,728 86, was carried to the
reserved fund.
VOL. IX .---- NO. I.




9

98

Mercantile Miscellanies.

MERCANTILE

MISCELLANIES.

W E S T E R N HEMP.
B y a joint resolution of Congress, passed at the last session, agents are to be appointed,

to reside in Kentucky and Missouri, for the purpose of purchasing water-rotted hem p;
and the said agents are restricted, by the resolution, in their operations, so far as regards
price and quality, that the article is not to cost government any more than the same
quality may he bought fo r in seaport towns. “ The quantity,” says Lyford’s Commer­
cial Journal, “ will probably depend upon the wants of government, expressed in the
form of requisitions at irregular periods, in the shape of proposals to supply the demand
required at named points.”
The ability of the western states to furnish may be inferred from the fact that, in 1840,
according to the report of the marshals appointed to take the census, Kentucky returned
9,992 tons of hemp and flax, and Missouri 18,010 tons. The manufactures in the for­
mer, from flax, are put down in valuation at $7,519; and of cordage, at $1,292,276.
In the latter, there are no manufactures from flax, but of cordage, to the amount of
$98,490—total value of cordage, (which, we presume, means principally bale rope,)
$1,393,760. A small portion, only, of flax could have been included in the return of
Kentucky, from the proportion the manufactures appear to bear towards that of hemp.
In addition to the foregoing, we learn from an article in a Kentucky paper, now be­
fore us, that there were grown in that state, last year, 14,000 tons, equal to 28,000,000
pounds of hemp. From this amount, it is estimated there will be manufactured this
year, (1843,) 6,500,000 yards of bagging, and 7,000,000 pounds of bale rope. Of the
bagging, 2,000,000 yards will be made by steam factories, and the remaining 4,500,000
by hand looms, there being about 300 of the latter in the state, each of which will weave
15,000 yards. The counties which produced hemp, are—
Jefferson,.....................................tons
500 Fayette,.................................... tons 3,000
1,000 Mason,........................................ 44 2,500
Shelby,.......................................... “
W oodford,.................................... “
2,000 Jessamine,.................................. 44 1,500
Franklin,....................................... 44
500 Mercer and Boyle,.................... 44
500
Scott,............................................. 14 1,000 All others,................................... 44 2,000
The 300 looms are distributed—Woodford county, 60; Fayette county, 80; Franklin
county, 30; Scott county, 30; Jessamine county, 30; Mason county, 20; all other
counties, 50.
W e have now before us a copy of the proceedings of the St. Louis Chamber of Com­
merce, of last year, in which is embodied a report on the subject of hemp, which is de­
nominated one of the staples of that section, that 44is fast becoming a leading article of
trade in that city.” The report then proceeds :—44There are already two large manu­
factories of bagging and bale rope here, and several ropewalks, and there are a number
of establishments in various parts of the state. A gentleman, engaged in the trade,
states the amount of hemp manufactured and exported last year at 1,460 tons, and adds :
41 would say the quantity grown in this state was 1500 or 1600 tons, of which 380 were
shipped to Kentucky, 20 to New Orleans, and the balance manufactured in this state.
This was done in 1841, of the growth of 1840. The crop of 1841, from the best infor­
mation I can obtain, will be more than double that of the preceding year; and the crop
of 1842, judging from preparations now making, will not be less than 10,000 tons. In
this last estimate I include the state of Illinois, the people of which are now turning
their attention to the culture of hemp.’ The hemp, in a raw state, (continues the re­
port,) would be worth about $200,000; but manufactured, as most of it was, and ship­
ped to the south, where it is used, the value may fairly be set down at double that sum.”




Mercantile Miscellanies.

99

NAVIGATION OF T H E M ISSISSIPPI AND IT S TRIBU TA RIES.
Before the introduction of steam navigation, (which dates, upon the waters of the
Mississippi, about 1817,) the trade of the upper Mississippi and Missouri scarcely ex.
isted, and the whole upward commerce of New Orleans was conveyed in about
twenty barges, carrying each about one hundred tons, and making but one trip a year;
so that each navigation was, in those days, about equivalent to what an East India or a
China voyage now is. On the upper Ohio, about one hundred and fifty keelboats were
employed, each of the burden of about thirty tons, and making the trip to and fro, of
Pittsburgh and Louisville, about three times a year. The entire tonnage of the boats
moving in the Ohio and lower Mississippi, was then about six thousand five hundred
tons. In 1834, the steam navigation of the Mississippi had risen to two hundred and
thirty boats and a tonnage of thirty-nine thousand tons, while about ninety thousand per­
sons were estimated to be employed in the trade, either as crews, builders, woodcutters,
or loaders of the vessels. In 1842, the navigation was as follows:—There were four
hundred and fifty steamers, averaging each two hundred tons, and making an aggregate
tonnage of ninety thousand, so that it has a good deal more than doubled in eight years.
Valued at $80 the ton, they cost above $7,000,000, and are navigated by nearly sixteen
thousand persons, at thirty-five to each. Beside these steamers, there are about four
thousand flatboats, which cost each $105, are managed by five hands apiece, (or twen­
ty thousand persons,) and make an annual expense of $1,380,000. The estimated an­
nual expense of the steam navigation, including 15 per cent for insurance, and 20 per
cent for wear and tear, is $13,618,000. If, in 1834, they employed an aggregate of
ninety thousand persons, they must now occupy at least one hundred and eighty thous­
and. The boats, ever in motion when the state of the waters in which they ply per­
mits, probably average each some twenty trips in the year. Those running from New
Orleans to the more distant points of the river, make from eight to fifteen trips in the
y ear; while those carrying the great trade from Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and Louisville,
to St. Louis, perform some thirty annual trips. Others run between still nearer ports,
and make more frequent voyages. But at twenty each, and carrying burdens far beyond
their mere admeasurement of tonnage, their collective annual freight would be one thous­
and eight hundred tons; to which, if that of four thousand flatboats (each seventy-five
tons) be added, w7e have a total freight, for the entire annual navigation of the Missis­
sippi, of about two million tons. The commerce which they convey (omitting the great
number of passengers whom they waft in some nine thousand trips) is of two sorts: that
of the export trade to New Orleans, and that of supply and interchange between the
different regions lying on the Mississippi and its tributaries. The latter is well ascer­
tained to be considerably greater, as naturally happens in the internal trade of all wide
and commercial countries, whose dealings with foreign lands never fail to fall far short
of their exchanges with each other. The statistics collected at the two main points
where the best means of information can be commanded, (St. Louis and Cincinnati,)
estimate this internal traffic of the productions of the country itself at not less than
$70,000,000 annually; while those commodities shipped to New Orleans for exporta­
tion, are found to be fifty millions more. The downward trade may thus be stated at
$120,000,000 ; the upward, or return trade of foreign goods, or of those brought up the
river from other parts of the Union, is reckoned at about $100,000,000. Thus, the en­
tire amount of commodities conveyed upon the waters of the Mississippi does not, upon
the best estimates, fall short of $220,000,000 annually, which is but $30,000,000 less
than the entire value of the foreign trade of the United States exports and imports in
1841.




100

Mercantile Miscellanies.
YU CATAN CURRENCY.

Stevens, in his travels in Yucatan, say s: “ There is no copper money in Yucatan,
nor any coin whatever under a medio, or six and a quarter cents, and this deficiency is
supplyed by these grains of cacao. The medio is divided into twenty parts ; generally
of five grains each, but the number is increased or decreased according to the quantity
of the article in the market, and its real value. As the earnings of the Indians are small,
and the articles they purchase are the mere necessaries of life, which are very cheap,
these grains of cacao, or fractional parts of a medio, are the coin in most common use
among them. The currency has always a real value, and is regulated by the quantity
of cacao in the market, and the only inconvenience, economically speaking, that it has
is the loss of a certain public wealth by the destruction of the cacao, as in the case of
bank notes. But these grains have an interest independent of all questions of political
economy, for they indicate or illustrate a page in the history of this unknown and mys­
terious people. W hen the Spaniards first made their way into the interior of Yucatan,
they found no circulating medium, either of gold, or silver, or any other species of matal,
but only grains of cacao: and it seems a strange circumstance, that while the manners
and customs of the Indians have undergone an immense change, while their cities have
been destroyed, their religion dishonored, their princes swept away, and their whole
their

Tfra quantity^pr coal which was taken from the mines oftfie United-States in the year
1839TacrCOfdlng to the report of the officers who made the returns Of UKS sixth census,
was 863,480 tons anthracite, and 27,603,101 bushels, or about 1,000,000 tons, of bitu­
minous. The anthracite was nearly all the produce of the State of Pennsylvania, and
the bituminous of the States of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Ohio. The quantity import­
ed the same year was 3,614,320 bushels, making the consumption of the year 2,000,000
tons. To compare this produce and consumption with that of two European countries,
we are enabled t& state from an official document, lately published, that the amount of
coal which was received in the year 1838, in the kingdom of Belgium, amounted to
3,260,271 tons, of which 2,415,909 tons were the produce of the province of Hainault,
which is on the borders of France. The quantity which was received in France in the
same year was 3,113,000 tons. The consumption in France in 1838 was 4,305,000 tons,
1,192,000 tons having been imported from Belgium, England, and Prussia. In 1841 the
consumption in France was 4,500,000 tons, of which near 1,000,000 were imported from
Belgium.
M OUSSELINES DE LAINES.
On the 1st day of February a new pattern of mousselines de laines arrived at New
York, and was offered by the importer at fourteen cents per yard by the case. The
agent of a Rhode Island calico-printing establishment forwarded a piece of the new style
of goods to Providence the day after their arrival, and in sixteen days he had the same
style of goods, and of equal fabric, in New York, selling at ten cents per yard. The
manufacturer had but twelve days to engrave the new pattern on a copper cylinder, from
which the engraving was raised on a steel cylinder, then hardened and made ready for
impression ; the compound of ingredients for color diccovered by chemical experiments ;
the cloth printed, dried, and cased for market.




The Book Trade.

THE

101

BOOK TRADE.

1. — Parochial Sermons. By J ohn H enry N ewman, B. D., Vicar of St. Mary the Vir­
gin’s, Oxford, and Fellow of Oriel College. 2 vols. 8vo. New Y ork: D. Appleton
& Co. 1843.
The English copy of this work forms six volumes, and cannot be furnished to pur­
chasers at a less price than eighteen dollars—the edition before us is beautifully printed
on fine paper, and forms two splendid octavo volumes of more than thirteen hundred
pages, embracing one hundred and fifty-five sermons, and is afforded at $ 2 50 per vol­
ume. As any opinion we might express of their value would probably have little weight
with that branch of the church whose views of Christian duty and doctrine are here so
ably and eloquently set forth, we have concluded, in justice to the publishers, to give
the opinion of the Right Rev. George W . Doane, the Bishop of New Jersey, in a letter
addressed to them on their commencement of the present edition. He says :—
“ Much as I have been gratified by your republication of many excellent books, the
heirlooms which the Church of England has derived from ancient piety and learning, or
the production of the vigorous minds and fervent hearts that now adorn while they de­
fend her altars, I have looked and longed for an edition of these sermons as your noblest
contribution to the sacred literature of the times. Mr. Newman’s sermons are of an
order by themselves. There is a naturalness, a pressure towards the point proposed,
an ever-salient freshness about them, which will attract a class of readers to whom ser­
mons are not ordinarily attractive. Again, they are of a wonderful comprehension.
While they are not above the level of the plainest readers, they will interest and satisfy
the highest and most accomplished minds. W ith the most intellectual persons, they
will win their way, I am sure, as no modern productions of this sort have done. But all
these are but incidentals to their sterling and imperishable worth, as expositions of the
truth of Holy Scripture, and exhortations to the duties of the Christian life, urged to the
heart with an earnestness and unction scarcely paralleled ; above all, carrying with them
a force beyond all argument, beyond all eloquence, in the living power of holiness with
which they are instinct, to rouse the careless, to steady the wavering, to sober the world­
ly, to animate and elevate the humble seeker of the kingdom of God and its righteous­
ness, and to imbue the age with what it needs the most, humility and heavenly-mindedness. I shall welcome your proposed volumes as powerful auxiliaries* to my exertions
to set forth the gospel in the church ; and devoutly pray that God may bless them to the
edification of many souls, and to the advancement of the pure and peaceful kingdom of
His blessed Son.”
Bishops Onderdonk of New York, Ives of North Carolina, and Whittingham of Ma­
ryland, are equally decided in the expression of their opinions as to the merit of these
discourses.
2. — The Purchase; or Seven and a H a lf Years in the Far West. By R obert Carl­
ton, Esq. 2 vols. 12mo. New York : D. Appleton & Co. 1843.
Two very interesting volumes, embracing a minute account of all that befel the author
in his sojourn to the far west, and all that happened to him while residing there, togeth­
er with a variety of anecdote, illustrative of the manners, customs, and character of the
settlers. Mr. Carlton, alias a clergyman, whose name we have not been able to learn,
evidently has a large “ bump” in the region of humor, as his descriptions are at once
graphic and amusing. Some of his delineations would perhaps be cons dered rather un­
clerical, and might lead a phrenologist to surmise that the organ of ideality predomina­
ted over that of reverence. Those who read and admired “ A New Home, who’ll Fol­
low,” &c., by Mrs. Clavers, alias Mrs. Kirtland, will, we have no doubt, relish the
present work, as it is written in very much the same vein, and under similar circum­
stances. It is, on the whole, a very clever book—cleverly printed, by very clever pub­
lishers.




9*

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3. —McCulloch's Universal Gazetteer; a Dictionary Geographical, Statistical, and
Historical, o f the various countries, places, and principal natural objects in the world.
By J. R. M cC ulloch, Esq. In which the Articles relating to the United States have
been greatly multiplied and extended, and adapted to the present condition of the
country, and to the wants of its citizens. By D aniel H askel, A. M., late President
of the University of Vermont. Illustrated wiih seven large Maps. To be completed
in eighteen parts, at twenty-five cents each. New Y ork: Harper & Brothers.
Such a work is greatly needed in the United States at the present time. The exist­
ing Gazetteers are generally old, and to a degree antiquated. Geography is a science
which in its own nature is, beyond most others, progressive. Changes are constantly
taking place in the condition of the world and of its inhabitants; the various parts of
the earth are continually more extensively explored; and to exhibit its changes, and the
new and valuable information which is perpetually developed, requires new works on
this subject. The English language has never been adorned by a more valuable work
of this kind than the new and splendid work of McCulloch. The fulness with which
each article is written,, the clearness of the arrangements throughout, and the vast sur­
face traversed under each head, and in every department of inquiry essential to the un­
dertaking, contribute to the production of the most luminous body of information con­
cerning geography, statistics, and history, and all matters necessary to their elucidation,
that has ever been brought together in a shape so perspicuous and accessible. Such a
publication—which can be referred to, on the instant, for any subject embraced in its
pages—is indispensable to all libraries, and must completely supersede every previous
attempt to popularize and reduce within convenient limits these various classes of
information.
4. —A Collection o f Papers on Political, Literary, and Moral Subjects. By N oah
W ebster , LL. D. New Y ork: W ebster & Clark. 1843.
The present collection of papers was made by Dr. W ebster a short time before his
death. The paper on English Philology is exceedingly valuable, and should be publish­
ed in a distinct form, that it may obtain a wider circulation among students. The whole
work, however, deserves a place in every public or private library where the English
language is read or spoken. The volume (of three hundred and seventy-five pages) con­
tains twenty articles, as follows:—The Revolution of France—The Rights of Neutral
Nations—Dissertation on the supposed change of Temperature in modern Winters—
Origin of the first Bank in the United States—Letter from General Washington to Mr.
Webster—Correspondence with Mr. Madison, respecting the origin of the present Con­
stitution—Origin of the Copyright Laws of the United States—Vindication of the Treaty
with Great Britain in 1795— Origin of Amherst College—Address on Agriculture—Let­
ter to Daniel Webster—Answer of the House of Representatives of Massachusetts to
the Governor’s Address—Letter to Dr. Lee—Reply to a Letter of David McClure—
Letter to a Young Gentleman commencing his Education—Form of Association for
Young Men—Modes of Teaching the English Language—Origin of the Hartford Con­
vention in 1814—History of Political Parties—State of English Philology, or results of
many years’ researches. These papers were written at different periods of the author’s
life. That on the rights of neutral nations is considered, we believe, the best essay that
has appeared upon the subject. In it the learned and laborious author traces out the
practice of nations in regard to neutral commerce from the earliest periods of maritime
commercial intercourse, showing that no system of rules was ever adopted by general
consent of nations to regulate trade, but that all the modern regulations and principles
have sprung from special ordinances of princes, prescribed by arbitrary will, and forcibly
imposed by the strong upon the weak, or were originally founded on particular treaties
and conventions; nor was the obligation of these restraints in their origin ever referred
to the law of nature or nations.




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5. _The History o f Ireland, commencing with its earliest period, to the great Expe.
dition against Scotland in 1545. Philadelphia : Lea & Blanchard. 1843.
The present position of Ireland, and the active sympathy evinced by the friends of
civil and religious liberty, and her sons the adopted citizens of the United States, scat­
tered over our wide-spread Union, render the re-publication of this work at the present
period quite opportune. The history commences as far back as one thousand years be­
fore Christ, with the Celtic origin of the Irish, (of which there can be no doubt, as the
language, the numerous monuments she still retains of that most ancient superstition
which the first tribes who poured from Asia into Europe are known to have carried with
them wherever they went, sufficiently attest the true origin of her people,) and is brought
down to the great expedition against Scotland in 1545. The volume before us contains
all that the author has written and published; and as it may be a long time before it is'
concluded, the publishers present this portion, embracing the three volumes of the Lon­
don edition, with a promise of furnishing the remainder in the same style when publish­
ed by the author. The work has been favorably noticed by the reviewers in England,
and affords conclusive evidence of the author’s power as a chaste and graceful prose
writer. The analytical and chronological table of each chapter is very copious, and adds
greatly to its value for reference.
6. —The New York State Register, fo r 1843 ; containing an Almanac, Civil Divisions,
and Census of the State : W ith Political, Statistical, and other information, relating
to the State of New York and the United States. Also, a full list of County Officers,
Attorneys, &c. Edited by 0 . L. H olley . Albany : J. Disturnell. New Y o rk : C. J.
Folsom.
The present volume is on the plan of Williams’ Register, which was commenced in
1830, and continued annually, with two or three interruptions, down to 1840. Its revival
in the present form, uniform with that, but considerably enlarged, and apparently im­
proved by the addition of a greater variety of useful and important statistical and other
information, will, we are persuaded, secure for it a wider and more extensive circulation
among our mercantile and business community. The design of the publication is well
and ably accomplished. It furnishes a comprehensive and detailed account of the actual
condition of the state; embracing its civil divisions, population, productions, trade and
resources ; its public works, its means of general culture, and its principal local improve­
ments ; its wealth, revenue, and expenditure; the organization of its government, with a
view of the persons to whom the administration of that government, throughout its va­
rious departments, is committed; the general scope and character of its legislature, as
exemplified and illustrated by its various institutions and methods for the promotion of
education, morals, and religion—for the protection and relief of the destitute, infirm, and
helpless—for the encouragement of enterprise, industry, science, and the a rts; in short,
a picture of the long-acting, growing commonwealth, with the manifold means and agen­
cies by which its affairs are conducted, its resources unfolded, and the business of its
people transacted.
7. —An Epitome o f Homoeopathic Practice; compiled chiefly from Jahn, Ruchert,
Beauvais, Bonennenghausen, etc. By J. T . C urtis, M. D., and J. L illie , M. D.
New Y ork: William Radde. 1843.
This little volume, of one hundred and fifty-three pages, was prepared by two of the
earliest disciples of Hahnemann in New York, in the belief that a work more compact,
comprehensive, and clear than any that has yet appeared in our language was much
wanted for the novice in Homoeopathic practice. It is “ respectfully inscribed by the
editors” to “ Federal Vanderburgh, M. D., whose untiring zeal, great professional sa­
gacity, and brilliant success, have mainly contributed to the present flattering position of
HomcEopathy in the United States.”




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The Book Trade.

8. — The Adventures o f Hernan Cortes, the Conqueror o f Mexico. By the author of
“ Uncle Philip’s Conversations.” New Y ork: D. Appleton & Co.
The present volume is the fourth of a series of books in course of publication, under
the general title of “ A Library for my Young Countrymen.” The three preceding vol­
umes, viz: “ The Life of Henry Hudson,” “ Adventures of Captain John Smith,” and
“ Dawnings of Genius,” noticed in former numbers of this Magazine, were all prepared
expressly for the present series, which is intended to comprise sketches of the lives, ad­
ventures, and discoveries of the early founders of Am erica; lives of distinguished men
connected with American history of more modern date, and approved works of English
authors, re-edited, with additions and explanatory notes, by the author of “ Uncle Phil­
ip’s Whale Fishery,” “ Lost Greenland,” etc. The selection of subjects, thus far, has
been judicious; and we are persuaded that the careful and discriminating publishers will
not permit the introduction of any work of doubtful tendency into the series.

9. — The Complete Poetical Works o f John Milton, with Explanatory Notes and a
L ife o f the Author. By H. S tebbing, A. M. To which is prefixed, Dr. C hanning’s
Essay on the Poetical Genius of Milton. New York : D. Appleton & Co. 1843.
W e noticed, in a former number of this Magazine, the appearance, from the same
enterprising publishers, of a beautiful edition of the complete poetical works of Cowper
and Burns. The present volume is of uniform size and style, and is to be followed with
the poetical works of Scott. The Appleton edition of these great poets is altogether
the most beautiful and perfect that has ever been published in this country, and is not
surpassed by any that has fallen under our notice from the British press. The incom­
parable essay of Channing, on the genius of Milton, forms a very appropriate introduc­
tion to the reading of the immortal bard. We earnestly hope that an enterprise so cred­
itable to the liberality and taste of the publishers may meet with a corresponding liber­
ality on the part of the public.
10.—No Sense like Common Sense, or some Passages in the L ife o f Charles Middleton, Esq. By M ary H owitt . New York : D. Appleton & Co.
11. —Alice Franklin. A Tale. Another part of “ Sowing and Reaping.” By M ary
H owitt . New Y ork: D. Appleton & Co. 1843.
In noticing the writings of Mary Howitt, one of the purest and most delightful in­
structors of our time, we have no fear of incurring the charge of being extravagant in
our appreciation of the varied excellence which characterizes all the productions of her
pen. The present series of tales, although designed for children, are read with equal
profit and pleasure by persons of all ages. H er delineations of domestic life—its joys
and its sorrows—are instinct with every-day lessons of a true life. She breathes,
through the guise of attractive narrative, the gospel of a pure, living, active goodness.
Faithfully is she fulfilling her mission; blessed may—will be its close.
12. — The Fortunes o f Hector O'Halloran, and his man Mark Antony O'Toole. By
W . H. M axwell , author of “ Stories of Waterloo,” “ The Life of the Duke of W el­
lington,” “ The Bivouac,” etc. New Y ork: D. Appleton & Co. 1843.
Those who read for mirth and amusement, and delight in rich Irish wit, humor, &c.,
will find, if they have not already, an inexhaustible fund of material spread before them
in the four hundred pages of this neatly-printed volume. The twenty-three illustrations
on copper are capital.
13. —Bankrupt Stories, edited by H arry F ranco. The Haunted Merchant. 8vo.
New Y ork: John Allen. 1843.
Two numbers of this interesting tale have been issued, which, from the slight notice
we have been able to take of it, we should consider well worthy of the graphic pen of
the celebrated author of the Polygon papers of the Knickerbocker Magazine. The
numbers contain about 80 pages each, and are neatly printed on good paper, and sold
for 18f cents.




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14. —Gardening for Ladies, and Companion to the Flower Garden. By Mrs. L oudon.
First American, from the third London edition. Edited by A ndrew J ackson D owning , author of “ A Treatise on Landscape Gardening,” “ Cottage Residences,” etc.
12mo. pp. 348. New Y ork: Wiley & Putnam. 1843.
In these works, “ Gardening for Ladies,” and the “ Companion to the Flower Gar­
den,” the simplicity and clearness with which every branch of gardening is explain­
ed, attract at once the novice and the amateur who have had little practical expe­
rience, and who would be little interested in a less sprightly and more scientific
work. It is truly said by Mr. Downing, in introducing the present work to our fair
countrywomen, that most of the English works on horticulture being addressed to those
comparatively familiar with everything in the common routine of garden operations, a
considerable degree of previous knowledge of the subject is supposed. W ith us, on the
contrary, there are few who do not “ begin at the beginning” for themselves, and who,
therefore, desire earnestly those simple and elementary instructions which more learned
and elaborate treatises have deemed it superfluous to give. Mrs. Loudon’s works are
intended especially for lady gardeners, a numerous class in England; and we cordially
unite with the American editor in the hope that the dissemination, in this country, of
works like the present volume may increase, among the women of America, the taste
for those delightful occupations in the open air, which are so conducive to their own
health, and to the beauty and interests of our homes. Mr. Downing has added to the
“ Companion” a number of notes, rendered necessary by differences resulting from our
climate, &c.
15. —Lays o f my Home, and other Poems. By J ohn G. W hittier . Boston : Wm. D.
Ticknor. 1843.
W e heartily thank the publishers for sending us this delightful volume of poetry. No
one unites in a more eminent degree the true poet, philanthropist, or lover of Christian,
democratic freedom, than Whittier. There is no sickly sentimentality in the lines that
flow from his ready pen—all are manly, pure, and elevated in thought and expression.
He worships at the temple of Nature, and the lips of his muse have been touched with
live coals from her altar. Every thought breathes of the inspiration of goodness—of a
higher hope, and a more full and perfect love. Would to heaven that wre had a few
more kindred spirits, to utter in the same manly vein the same great truths of a higher
and holier life—to teach us the lesson and practice of the Christianity, not of the church
or the world, but of Christ—the divine ideal of perfected, glorified humanity. Those
who have read “ Lines written on reading several pamphlets published by Clergymen
against the Abolition of the Gallows,” “ Democracy,” “ The Human Sacrifice,” “ The
Reformers of England,” and others in the present volume, will, we are persuaded, con­
cur with us in our perhaps too enthusiastic appreciation of the author as a true poet, and,
what is of far higher value, a true man.
Ifi-— The Burning of Schenectady, and other Poems. By A lfred B. S treet . A lb an y :
Weare C. Little. 1843.
The leading poem in this volume occupies about sixty pages. It is principally de­
scriptive, with a slight thread of narrative, and a few incidents interwoven, illustrating
the rude period of the event designated by the title. The author has endeavored, through­
out, to draw the scenes in keeping with the characters and customs of frontier life.
Based upon a well-known occurrence, the poem does not aim at the continuous interest
of a tale, but consists merely of a collection of sketches drawn around, but generally
connected with, the principal event. Some of the descriptions are quite graphic, and
the versification is generally easy and graceful. The volume contains, besides, nine
shorter poems of unequal merit, but chaste in style and pure in thought; and several of
them would do credit to poets of higher pretensions. It is neatly printed, and, on the
whole, creditable to all concerned.




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17. —Classical Studies, by E dwards, S ears, and F elton. Boston : Gould, Kendall, &.
Lincoln. 1840.
Three men, whose names stand in the foremost rank of American scholars, have
thrown together their united efforts, and the result is this book. It is a long while since
so solid a work has appeared from the American press. On reading it, we have expe­
rienced no other feelings than regret for time wasted, and golden opportunities neglect­
ed. The authors carry the reader along with them over the classical soil of Greece and
Rome. On reading the correspondence of the great Dutch and German scholars, you
see how those men, by immense labor, and untiring perseverance, accomplished their
giant works—you see them in their studies, in the professional chair, and in their fam­
ilies. If we are not mistaken, it will prove a rich stimulus to young students; and,
should a series of such works be issued, we prophesy that they would give an impulse
to classical learning, such as was never before felt in the new world.
18. —Critical and Miscellaneous Essays. By J ames S tephen . Philadelphia : Carey &.
Hart. 1843.
This is another of the series of the “ Modern British Essayists,” thus far comprising
the miscellaneous writings of Walter Scott, T. Bablington Macaulay, Professor Wilson,
Thomas Noon Talfourd, and the present volume, which forms the twelfth of the series.
The critical essays or papers comprised in this volume were all written and published ill
the Edinburgh Review, since 1838, where they excited an interest scarcely second to
those of M acauley; and although they have not the same elaborate finish of that writer,
they excel in Anglo-Saxon strength of diction, and in depth of philosophy. The volume
is entitled to a place in every well-selected library, public or private.
19. —M urray's Encyclopedia o f Geography. Philadelphia : Lea & Blanchard.
W e have received the ninth number of this comprehensive work on the geography,
&c., of the world. It will be completed in twenty-four, and, altogether, embrace nearly
2,000 royal octavo pages. It has been carefully revised, and many additions, particu­
larly relating to this country, have been made by Thomas G. Bradford, the American
editor, who has distinguished himself by his judicious labors in this department of useful
literature.
20. —Lucilla; or, the Reading o f the Bible. By A dolphe M onod. Translated from
the French. New Y o rk : Robert Carter. 1843.
This work, we are informed by the translator, is the production of a protestant minis­
ter of deep piety, pre-eminent talent, and ardent zeal in the cause of Christianity. His
design is, to prove the inspiration and divine authority of the scriptures; and “ that it is
at once the privilege and duty of all people to read them with a reference to their per­
sonal salvation.”
21. —Norman's Rambles in Yucatan.
J. &. H. G. Langley have published a neat and cheap edition of this work. The first
edition, noticed in a former number of this Magazine, was published in one octavo vol­
ume, at $ 2 per copy ; the present edition is in two numbers, at 50 cents each, just one
half the price of the first edition.
22. — The American Book Circular, with Notes and Statistics. London : Wiley &
Putnam. 1843.
W e have received a pamphlet of sixty-four octavo pages, printed in London, and prepa­
red, we presume, by Mr. Putnam, who manages the London branch of the house of Wiley
& Putnam. It embraces a classified list of 1,172 original American works, in all 2,474
volumes. Mr. Putnam has collected a variety of statistical information touching the book
trade of the United States, and has some very just but courteous strictures on the article
in the “ Foreign Quarterly,” concerning the newspaper press of the United States.




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23. — The False H e ir: a Novel. By the author of “ Richelieu,’* “ Morley Ernstein,”
“ Forest Days,” &c. Harper & Brothers.
Mr. James is the most prolific writer of the present day. Scarcely fifteen years have
elapsed since his dehut on the stage of authorship, and yet there have been published
twenty-five novels from his pen, besides a half dozen or more of standard historical
works. One would almost think that by this time he had “ written out,” as the phrase
goes ; but he who takes up his latest novel under this supposition, will be disappointed.
The story is invested with much interest, is laid in France prior to the French Revolu­
tion, and very strikingly displays the manners and habits of the French people at that
period, and is characterized by that excellence of all Mr. James’s writings—chasteness
of sentiment. This novel forms a part of the “ Library of Select Novels,” and is sold
at twelve and a half cents.
24. — The Neighbors : a Story of Everyday Life. By F rederika B remer. Translated
from the Swedish, by M ary H owitt . Harper & Brothers.
25. — The H om e; or, Family Cares and Family Joys. Same author, translator, and pub­
lishers.
The gratitude of the reading world is due to Mrs. Howitt for the introduction thereto
of the charming works of Miss Bremer, the “ Miss Austen of Sweden,” as she has been
styled. “ The Neighbors” has been published but a very few months, but has already
given the author a name second to few that have been before the public. There is a
simplicity of style, a beauty of sentiment, and a knowledge of human nature, displayed
in it, which at once secures attention, and produces delight. “ The Home” is a story of
similar character to the other, to which it is at least not inferior. Both works are pub­
lished in the “ Library of Select Novels,” at twelve and a half cents.
26. —History o f Europe, from the commencement of the French Revolution, in 1789, to
the Restoration o f the Bourbons, in 1815. By A rchibald A lison. Harper &,
Brothers.
27.—A n Encyclopedia o f Science, Literature, and A r t : comprising the History, Bescription, and Scientific Principles of every Branch o f Human Knowledge. General
Editor, W illiam T. B rande, assisted by several eminent literary and scientific gentle­
men. Harper & Brothers.
We have heretofore expressed highly favorable opinions of these standard works, and
a repetition is needless. Numbers 9 and 10 of the former work, and Numbers 7 and 8
of the latter, are published. “ Alison” is to be completed in sixteen numbers, and
“ Brande” in twelve numbers, at twenty-five cents each.
28. — The Life and Adventures o f Martin Chuzzlewit. By “ Boz.” Harper & Brothers.
Part II. is published, comprising Numbers 4, 5, and 6, of the English edition. Every­
thing by “ Boz” has been readable and popular, and the present work is as much so as
any of his former ones. The present edition is beautiful and cheap. It is well printed,
and each number will contain two illustrations from the English designs, and three num­
bers of the English edition. Price, six and a quarter cents per part.
29. — The Keys o f the Kingdom of Heaven, and power thereof, according to the Word
o f God. By that learned and judicious divine, Mr. J ohn C otton, Teacher of the
Church at Boston, in New England, tending to reconcile some present differences
about Discipline. London, 1644. 12mo. pp. 107. Boston: Reprinted by Tappan
& Dennet. 1843.
The Boston publishers have preserved throughout this volume the ancient spelling,
punctuation, and style, as a curiosity, and from “ a conviction that the readers would
desire to see these ancient worthies in their Puritanic dress and armor.” The design
of the author, in this essay, was to systematize and defend Congregationalism. If pub­
lic patronage afford suitable encouragement, it is the intention of the publishers to issue
other reprints and original works of a similar character.




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The Book Trade.

30. — The Days of Queen Mary. New Y ork: Harper & Brothers. 1843.
A reprint, without alteration or abridgment, of a work prepared by the “ London
Religious Tract Society.” It opens with a brief account of the reign of Edward the
Vlth, from 1547 to 1553, and then goes on to detail, in glowing colors, the horrid scenes
of persecution that were enacted under the reign of the “ bloody Mary.” The cuts, or
engraved illustrations, are execrable; if possible, more horridly executed than were the
deeds recorded in its pages. It belongs, however, to the cheap literature of the d a y ;
i. e., two hundred and eighty-five duodecimo pages, in paper covers, are sold for twentyfive cents.
31. — The Lost Ship; or, the Atlantic Steamer. By the author of “ Cavendish,” “ The
Flying Dutchman,” &c. Harper & Brothers.
This novel is founded upon the melancholy fate of the President steamer, although no
real personages are introduced. It is a story of intense interest, wrought up with great
power and ingenuity; and though some of the incidents are improbable, yet the reader
is irresistibly attracted, and his attention engaged through the book. The author, Captain
Neale, R. N., is favorably known as a writer of sea-novels. Price, twenty-five cents.
•32.— Sir John Froissart’s Chronicles o f England, France, Spain, and the adjoining
countries. New Y ork: J. Winchester. 1843.
The Chronicles of Froissart extend from 1325 to 1400, and comprehend every con­
siderable affair which happened during that period in France,. England, Scotland, Ire­
land, and Flanders. They include, also, a number of particulars relating to the affairs
of Rome and Avignon, of Spain, Germany, Italy, Prussia, Hungary, Turkey, Africa,—
in short, of almost the whole known world. The language in this, the first American
edition, is so modernized that it will be understood by all readers. The style is quaint,
simple, and almost scriptural. The present edition is equal, in typography, style, &c.,
to the English, and is to be published in numbers of 62 super-royal octavo pages, double
columns, and completed in ten numbers at 25 cents each, or $ 2 for the entire work.
The price of the English edition is $12.
33. — The Family of Bethany ; or, Meditatious on the Eleventh Chapter o f the Gospel
according to St. John. By L. B urnet , late one of the Chaplains of the French Church
in London. New York: John S. Taylor & Co., and Robert Carter.
It may perhaps be taken as evidence of the popularity of these meditations, that two
publishing houses have simultaneously reprinted editions of the work—the first Amer­
ican, from the eighth London. Introductory to the meditations, is an essay by the Rev.
Hugh White, author of “ Meditations on Prayer,” &c.
34. —Bickersteth’s Treatise on the Lord’s Supper; adapted to the Service o f the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States. With an Introduction, Notes, and
an Essay. By G. T. B edell, D. D., Rector of St. Andrew’s Church, Philadelphia.
New Y ork: Robert Carter. 1843.
The best evidence of the popularity of this treatise may be inferred from the fact, that
the present is the fifth edition published since 1824.
Carey & Hart, of Philadelphia, have commenced the publication of a beautiful edition
of the complete works of Lord Byron, edited by Thomas Moore, Esq. It is to be com­
pleted in twelve weekly parts, at twenty-five cents each, illustrated by six elegant steel
engravings, and printed with larger type, on whiter paper, similar to the edition formerly
published at ten dollars—the whole forming four large volumes, over 2,200 pages. A
remittance of $ 5 to the publishers will pay for two copies.
35. — The Retrospect; or, Review of Providential Mercies. W ith anecdotes of various
characters. By A liquis, formerly a Lieutenant in the Royal Navy, and now a Min­
ister of the Established Church. New Y ork: Robert Carter. 1843.
As an evidence of the popularity of this work, it is only necessary to state that it is
the third American from the seventeenth London edition.