Full text of The Merchants' Magazine and Commercial Review : February 1862, Vol. XLVI, No. II

The full text on this page is automatically extracted from the file linked above and may contain errors and inconsistencies.

THE

MERCHANTS’ MAGAZINE
AND

COMMERCIAL REVIEW.
F E B R U A R Y , 1 862.

I

NATIONAL

CURRENCY

AND

BANKING

SYSTEM.

T h e plan proposed by Secretary C hase involves consequences so vast,
that it should only be entered upon with the greatest deliberation. No
incidental benefit to the Treasury should modify, in the least degree, the
construction of a system which is to control the interests of a generation
of business men. As a means of opening a new demand for government
bonds, its legitimate effect could, at the most, only be moderate and
gradual. And if that effect were forced by taxation upon existing cur­
rency, the derangement would be so great as to more than defeat the
end. Such a plan would be feeble for present wants, while it might be
potent for future mischief. The financial expedients adopted for the
exigencies of war, whether an issue of demand Treasury notes, or what­
ever else they may be, should stand by themselves, like martial law, justi­
fied by the imperious needs of the hour, and to pass away with the return
of peace. As war knows no law but necessity, the main question is,
“ What will most surely and promptly meet its demands with least future
damage ?” Not so is it with a system which is to reach on to the time
when the peaceful industries of the nation shall again require the energiz­
ing influences of a sound currency. Better, far better, that the whole
plan should be postponed to the calm consideration of a day of peace,
than that one point of strength should be sacrificed to present conve­
nience.
This country has never yet had a banking system that could stand the
test, either of a general panic, or an adverse balance of trade. And when
we see, as in the case of Illinois, the disastrous and wide-spread effects of
the failure of local systems, how immeasurably important that, in laying
VOL.

x l v i .—

HO. II.




9

114

A N ational Currency and Banking System.

[February,

the foundations of a national organization, we dig deeper and build broader
than we have ever done before. Let us look, then, for some solid foun­
dation-stones that have been wanting in the fallen structures of the past.
To prepare the way for minor propositions, we would first deny one
fundamental error, and affirm its opposite truth. The error is, “ That
accumulations of specie are so much unproductive capital;” the denial of
which lies in the fact, that if specie is represented by only an equal
amount of paper taken for it, it is not dormant, but is circulating, and
performing all the offices of currency by proxy, which it could not do if
it did not exist. The truth we would affirm is, that of all the machine­
ries of national industry, whether shipping, or canals, or rail-roads, or tele­
graphs, an indestructible currency is the cheapest, measured either by the
work it performs, or the ruin which is caused by its loss. It is the mo­
tive-power which drives all the others. A good currency cannot cost
too much.
In the light of this essential truth I shall endeavor to establish the
following propositions, as of vital importance to the formation of either a
State or National currency and banking system:
I. Specie is the only adequate basis of that portion of the whole paper
currency which may, under any condition of panic or of adverse
exchanges, be returned for payment.
II. The specie which is held for the security and redemption of the
bank-note circulation, should be aggregated at the commercial and finan­
cial centres of the country.
III. The average aggregate of specie so held, should bear such a pro­
portion to the total trade of the country that it could pay any possible
foreign balances against it without exhaustion, and always leave enough
remaining to sustain the currency and credits at home.
IY. The most effective general safeguard is, not any inflexible and
hampering law, but intelligence in the public, and constant accountability
on the part of the banks, through weekly published statements.
1. As all debts are made payable in money, as money is named in all
contracts, and is the representative of all values, nothing but money can
satisfy the demand which arises in those periods of distrust when all
faith in promises is gone. The sale of public stocks will, of course, pro­
duce money at some rate, but, at such times, the market is soon glutted,
and the securities, however good, depreciate and fail as a reliance. A
vital fact in this question is, that the forcing of securities upon a panicstricken market aggravates the panic beyond all other causes. The better
the securities are, the more complete and universal is the destruction of
market values, by the forced sale and consequent depreciation of them.
If you have two hundred millions of bank-note circulation, secured by
United States bonds, and in a sudden panic you throw ten millions of these
upon the market, and they fall to 50, all other market values simulta­
neously fall in the same proportion.
This occurred in 1857, when, in a sound state of the trade of the
country, mere panic sales forced New-York State stocks from 110 down
to 70, and the State security system was totally broken down. A sus­
pension of specie payments quickly followed, and the deposit banks of
New-York came to the rescue of the country banks of circulation so




1862 .]

A N ational Currency and Banking System.

115

promptly, by taking their notes on credit, that the fact that the system
had failed and demonstrated its own imperfection, was hardly recognised.
It, nevertheless, was a fact, and a momentous one in its bearing on the
mode of organizing a national currency. For if the market could not
take enough of New-York State stocks (unsurpassed in real value) to
redeem the limited bank-note currency secured by them, what would be
the result when the stock security of a national circulation of $200,000,000
should be thrown upon the same market?
The conclusion, then, is, that neither bonds and mortgages, nor State
stocks, nor government bonds, nor British consols, nor any other form of
property, can be safely made the security for the bank-note circulation,
except for that portion of it which neither panics nor balances of trade
can ever drive home for redemption, and which, therefore, (although
nominally payable on demand,) may be regarded as a permanent loan
from the people.
To this conclusion more than a century of experiments and failures
have driven the statesmen of England, and it is now fully recognised and
embodied in the organization of the Bank of England, and established
by its successful working.
To this conclusion our own history and failures impel us, and will, till
we accept it.
2. The specie or money which is held for the security and redemption
of the bank-note currency should be aggregated at the commercial and
financial centres of the country.
This is and has been the case in the actual working of all the existing
banking systems of the States. The country banks of New-England, of
New-York and of the whole interior, rest upon their deposits in the city
banks, as the means of redeeming their circulating notes. Most of their
redemptions, (perhaps 99-100,) are actually made by drafts upon those
city bank deposits, and as those deposits rest upon the specie in the city
banks, that specie, at these centres of trade, is practically the real basis of
the bank-note circulation of the whole country.
The modicum of coin which is kept in the country banks serves to
furnish change to the people, and, occasionally, for the redemption of
notes; but its relation to the security and redemption of the paper cur­
rency is of trifling importance.
It follows, therefore, that any law requiring the country banks of cir­
culation to hold fixed per centages of specie would be contrary to the
teachings of experience. Such a law would be evaded by the unsound
banks. In the case of the sound banks, it would place the specie where
it would be comparatively useless and unavailable. The specie is not
wanted in the banks of the interior; and if it were, to compel them
always to hold it, would be to forbid its use. Such a law would dispense
with the heart, and require the hands and the feet to keep their separate
supplies of stagnant blood.
We repeat, then, that the specie basis of the paper currency should be
held—subject to actual use— at the centres of commerce and finance.
3. The average aggregate of specie which should be held at the com­
mercial centre should bear such a proportion to our whole trade that it
could pay any probable foreign debit balances without exhaustion, and
always leave enough remaining to sustain the currency and credits at
home.




116

A N ational Currency and Banking System.

[February,

The non-recognition of this principle cost the nation the terrible expe­
rience of almost universal bankruptcy, and the long and painful struggle
which followed the collapse of 1836. Previous to that year the country
had run up balances of trade more than four times greater in amount
than all the specie held by all the banks in the United States.
Again, so lately as 1857, the banks of New-York, holding about
§12,000,000 of coin, which was then nearly their average stock, were
able to bear a reduction of only about $3,000,000, being about one per
cent, of the trade of the country each way, before they were driven to
suspension. From that and many previous experiences, they have wisely
adopted a much larger specie-basis, and by the strength thus attained,
they have supported the confidence of the nation and the finances of the
government through a crisis which, in former years, would have plunged
it into bankruptcy.
The value of a stock of specie proportioned to the trade of the coun­
try, is strikingly shown in the action of the Bank of England, which has
repeatedly paid foreign balances of twenty-five or thirty millions of dol­
lars, with scarcely a rise in the rate of interest, or any disturbance of the
course of credits and business.
In view of the foregoing principles, the following plan for a national
currency and banking system is suggested:
1st. All future bank-note currency in the United States shall be issued
in the manner following: The United States treasurer (or banking de­
partment) shall furnish to banks or bankers circulating notes equal in
amount to ninety per cent, of the market value of United States bonds,
which such banks shall deposit as security for such bank notes, and such
banks shall keep their notes secured by an average excess of ten per
cent, in United States bonds, at their market value.
2d. The aggregate amount of bank notes which may be so issued by
the United States banking department shall not exceed an amount which,
added to the amount in circulation under State laws, would be equal to,
say $200,000,000, that being about the average amount which experience
shows that the country will hold.
3d. The bank department shall hold, in sub-treasury or in special de­
posit, in specie, an average sum equal to twenty per cent, of the bank
notes issued to the banks upon the pledge of United States stocks.
4th. First, the bank department may, at the discretion of the Secretary
of the Treasury, use any portion of the twenty per cent, provided for in
section second, or any specie in the treasury, to buy from the banks the
United States bonds pledged with him by the banks, at ten per cent., or
more, below the price at which such bonds were pledged; (that is, when
the margin of security is exhausted;) and, second, may also sell again
the bonds so purchased whenever they shall be saleable at ten per cent,
more than cost.
5th. In addition to the notes which may be issued on the pledge of
United States stocks, the bank department may issue to the banks bank­
notes equal to the amount of specie which may be pledged with it as
security therefor, such specie to belong to the banks, and to be held
apart from the twenty per cent, provided for in section third, and such
issue, so secured, may be independent of the limitation in section second.




1862.]

A N ational Currency and Banking System.

11Y

6th. All the banks in the United States, whether under State or na­
tional laws, shall make and publish “ weekly statements,” as is now done
by the New-York city banks.
Upon the above suggestions we would add the following
NOTES.
In 1854, under a sudden drain of specie, a violent and ruinous panic
occurred, and a suspension of the banks seemed imminent. At the
urgent solicitation of the bankers and merchants, the Secretary of the
Treasury resorted to every lawful means to release the coin locked up in
the sub-treasury, and, by a happy liberality of construction, several mil­
lions of its own bonds were purchased by the government with coin, and
at a very large premium. The specie was released, and the banks and
the community were saved. What wrought so beneficially then, it is
now proposed, in section fourth, to incorporate, as a conservative princi­
ple, in the proposed national banking system. This outside and ulti­
mate reserve is wanting in the Bank of England, nor could it be intro­
duced there without a fundamental change. The funds of the govern­
ment are already deposited with i t ; consequently, the government has
no resource upon which it can draw to aid the bank by the purchase of
consols from it when its specie reserves are exhausted. So far from this,
the drafts of the government in times of pressure only aggravate the dif­
ficulty. With us, on the other hand, the machinery for the occasional
purchase of government bonds in aid of the banks and the public, is
already so organized in our admirable sub-treasury, that it has “ gone
itself.”
The fifth section, authorizing the banks to receive bank notes equal to
the specie deposited as security therefor, turns what has been a point of
weakness in all the State systems into one of strength. The banks have
excused themselves from keeping a full supply of coin on the plea that
their notes were already secured by State stocks, and that they could
not afford to secure it again by holding unproductive coin. This pro­
vision relieves them from carrying so much dead capital, and invites the
increase of their specie by giving them its equivalent in bank notes;
while at the same time it multiplies the power of the specie as a basis of
credits and confidence by aggregating it in the bank department, where
it may be measured and known, and where it may be always available.
It is believed that a system embracing the above principles, including,
of course, all the best details of the New-York State system, such as
redemption at the commercial capital, &c., would have at once more
strength and more flexibility than even the Bank of England.
The Bank of England may be considered absolutely secure as a bank
of issue and circulation, and, so far, a safe model; but it is also, on a
great scale, a bank of deposit. But here, as before intimated, it is weak.
Having nearly its whole capital in the government bonds, its chief resort
for any heavy and sudden demand upon its deposits (after its reserve of
notes is exhausted) is in its bills receivable. If these are called in too
rapidly, the distress produced is so great that the government must inter­
fere, or the merchants or the banks must fail. This has occurred at seve­
ral periods since Sir R obert P e e l ’s charter of 1844 was adopted.
In the United States, however, we have in New-York alone a strong




118

A N ational Currency and Banking System.

[February,

body of deposit banks, with a paid up capital of seventy millions, and a
separate and large supply of coin. Supplement these by well fortified
banks of issue, resting independently on their own specie and securities,
and we have an unequalled system.
And from this last statement there is one important inference. The
government should not imitate the error of England, and weaken its own
system, by using the banks of circulation as banks of deposit. If any
departure is made from the most solid thing in all our building, the sub­
treasury, the funds of the government should be placed only in the
legitimate deposit banks of the great cities, whose heavy capitals alone
could afford a reasonable guarantee for them. But even then they would
be an element of weakness and danger.
The money belonging to the government, and wanted for its expendi­
tures, is not a legitimate basis of banking. Government deposits are a
disturbing element in the affairs of the banks and of the people. If
placed in the banks, they, of course, go to swell the loans, and then the
apprehension of sudden and heavy drafts introduces fear and trembling
into our daily business. These drafts always come heaviest and most
imperative when they can least be borne. When trade languishes and
imports decline, then, of course, the revenues fall off; then it is that
government wants, and must have, its reserved funds; but then, also,
business is depressed, and merchants are “ short,” and are most distressed
by the calling in of loans. In a word, government deposits stimulate
trade and credits when they already tend to excess, and fa ll on them like
a millstone when they are depressed. If they were forced upon us by
some malignant power, they would justly be regarded as a curse. How
different the effect when, as of late years, in times of distress, the govern­
ment, with paternal hand, unlocks its solid reserves of coin, and makes
its heaviest disbursements just in the crisis of the people’s sorest need.
As an exceptional act, and as a measure of reciprocal service, nothing
could be more just than that the government, having borrowed nearly all
the capital of the deposit banks of the three chief cities, should leave with
them a large deposit, to aid them in carrying on profitably their ordinary
business of discounting mercantile paper. But that should be done with
a clear purpose to make the deposit permanent until the banks are
relieved of their patriotic burden. And to that end, large reserves
should be kept in the sub-treasury; or, if government paper is resorted
to, the disbursements should be so managed as to leave, as nearly as
practicable, a uniform balance in the banks.
New-York, January, 1862.

A GOVERNMENT

BANK.

It is now a well-known historical fact, that in the infancy of our Re­
public, we were but little respected by foreign nations, and by some
scarcely acknowledged, until we had established a sound and efficient
national system of finance. The Bank of the United States, exhibiting
the profound wisdom of its projectors, tended greatly to establish, not
only stability of character at home, but to command respect abroad.




1862.]

A National Authenticated Currency.

119

A NATIONAL AUTHENTICATED CURRENCY.
T he P la n S tated —A dv a n ta g es to t h e G ov ern m ent —A dv antag es to t h e P eo ple — A
U n iform C ircu la tin g M ed iu m —N a tu ra l E xch ang es —R egu la tio n o f t h e E xch ang es —
S ecurity fo r th e B a n k N otes—S afer than those o f th e B an k o f E ng la nd —A d v a n t a ­
ges to the B an k s —S o lv en t B a n k s protected a g a in st th e I nsolvent —T h e C urrency
MADE LESS FLUCTUATING—THE BANKS MADE MORE SECURE—OBJECTIONS TO THE PLAN— IN­
OPPORTUNE—I ts B a sis not P erm anent —T a k es C a p it a l out o f T rad e —A lleged T am per ­
ing w it h t h e C urrency —Con clu sion .

T h e Secretary of the Treasury, in his report made to Congress a t the
commencement of the present session, proposes a plan which, in his
opinion, will secure to the people of the United States a uniform currency,
obviate many defects of the present system of State Bank issues, and, a t
the same time, afford assistance to the general government. It is as fol­
lows:
“First. A circulation of notes bearing a common impression, and
authenticated by a common authority.
“ Second. The redemption of these notes by the associations and in­
stitutions to which they are delivered for issue.
“ Third. The security of that redemption by the pledge of United
States stocks, and an adequate provision of specie.”
This plan commends itself to our favorable regards by its simplicity
and evident feasibility; but will it answer the expectations of the Secre­
tary ? Is it expedient ? These questions we propose to consider.
In carrying out this plan, if we understand the matter aright, the na­
tional treasury will furnish notes of various denominations, “ authenti­
cated” by the certificate of the department, that the same are secured by
a deposit of United States bonds. These notes will be made with cer­
tain blanks, which the banks receiving them can fill out, making them­
selves responsible for the payment over the signatures of their officers.
In order to obtain these “ authenticated notes,” the banks must deposit
an equal amount of bonds with the government, to ensure final payment,
if they fail to redeem them at their own counters.
For example, if we suppose the Merchants’ Bank, Boston, has a usual
circulation of $400,000, and now wishes to come into the new system, it
must, for that purpose, purchase $400,000 of United States bonds, pledge
the same at the treasury office, and receive $400,000 of the authenticated
notes for circulation.
These it will loan to its customers just as it previously did its own notes.
The bank drawing interest on its United States bonds, of course, and
also the interest on its circulation, and the income it derives from both
these sources goes to swell the dividends of its stockholders.
The condition of the Merchants’ Bank is now, in no essential respect,
different from what it was before the change, except that it has loaned
the government $400,000, instead of loaning the same amount to its ordi­
nary customers; and the operation cannot affect the profits of the bank,
unless it actually got a higher net rate of interest from its customers than
the government pays on its bonds.
If this be true, can the Merchants’ Bank, or any other placed on the
same footing, have any objection to the change ?




120

A N ational Authenticated Currency.

[February

It may be insisted that the bank could obtain, at least at times, if not
always, a higher rate of interest, by charging exchanges on loans to cus­
tomers, than the interest the government allows. But if the fluctuations
in the currency are to be as frequent and violent in future as in the past,
as, without some change, they must be, will the average net amount, for a
series of years, be greater than what the government bonds will pay ?
We think not, because the banks often make heavy losses from the bank­
ruptcy of their customers, occasioned by the periodical explosions of the
currency.
A D V A N T A G E TO T H E G O V E R N M E N T .

While the plan, then, in nowise, as we believe, injures the banks of the
country, by curtailing their profits, it will confer great advantages on the
government.
For, first. If the circulation of the country is to be based entirely on
national stocks, then there will be, of course, a demand for those stocks
created equal to the whole of that circulation; say from $150,000,000 to
$200,000,000. This will aid the government so far—a circumstance of
much importance in this great crisis of difficulty and danger.
Secondly. The connection which will be thus created between the
banking institutions and the government will strengthen both. It was a
grand stroke of policy when the British Parliament authorized the sav­
ings institutions of the empire to invest their funds, on advantageous
terms, in the national stocks. Before that time the holders of the public
debt amounted, if we remember aright, to less than three hundred thou­
sand ; now, by the investments of the savings banks in government secu­
rities, the virtual holders of the public stocks amount to nearer three
millions. What better calculated to assure the final payment of the pub­
lic debt? What better adapted to prevent internal commotions that
might overthrow the government ?
So would it be here. By the arrangement proposed, an immense
number of persons, in all parts of the country, and in all the various
relations of civil and social life, would be interested in the preservation
of the public credit. This is a circumstance which, in the present and
prospective condition of the nation, ought not to be disregarded.
By this plan, then, the government gets assistance and sympathy.
A U N IF O R M

C IR C U L A T IN G M E D IU M .

What do the people gain ?
1st. They are insured a uniform circulating medium, the soundness of
which will be known and admitted everywhere, and which, as it is
receivable for all government dues, except customs, will be current in all
parts of the country.
The bills of the banks of Maine will be current in Missouri; those of
Iowa in Vermont. Standing on the same level, all will pass equally well
everywhere. This alone will be an incalculable advantage, and secure a
wide circulation for this kind of currency. With these notes, no matter *
where issued, a person will be able to travel in all parts of the nation,
and purchase property or discharge contracts.
NATURAL EX CH AN G ES.

2d. As a consequence of this, all those exorbitant and uncertain rates
of exchange that have heretofore existed, will be done away with. Th




1862.]

A National Authenticated Currency.

121

will relieve the productive classes of an immense burden, though it will
doubtless very much reduce the incomes of those who have heretofore
dealt in uncurrent bank notes.
The natural exchanges of the country will still exist, as they ought,
and these authenticated notes will, at certain places and under certain
circumstances, be at a small discount. But, then, they will as often be
above par, for gold, as below it. All domestic exchange, under this sys­
tem, would be merely the real natural difference between the value of funds
in different localities, under the varying circumstances of trade ; but the
high rates we have been familiar with, of five, ten or twenty per cent.,
would be hereafter entirely unknown. They can never be greater than
the expense of transporting the gold, while the banks maintain specie
payments.
R E G U L A T IO N

OF EX CH AN G ES.

3d. This system of currency will accomplish what, by many people,
has been thought a great object, viz.: it will “ regulate the exchanges” of
the country. More properly speaking, however, it will regulate the cur­
rency, and that is all that is, or ever has been, wanted. To talk of
“ regulating exchanges” is as sensible as to talk of regulating the rising
and setting of the sun, or the ebbing and flowing of the tide. Exchanges
exist by the laws of trade; they indicate where the balance of trade is,
and that is a point of great importance to all business men; and hence
exchanges should never be interfered with by government or banking
institutions. It was one of the greatest objections that could have been
brought against the late United States Bank, that when it was at the
zenith of its power, it did literally “ regulate exchanges,” that is, it
established artificial ones everywhere, and thus not only imposed a great
tax on the business community, but destroyed the true index of the
balance of trade.
For example, it would charge two and a half per cent., perhaps, at
Boston, for a check on New-Orleans, and, at the same moment, charge
at New-Orleans the same rate of exchange for a check on Boston. Now
every intelligent man knows that these two exchanges could not co-exist,
that one or the other was fictitious.
Ever since the closing of the national bank, exchanges have regulated
themselves most satisfactorily and economically, except when disturbed by
the depreciated currencies. The authenticated currency will remove all
danger of depreciation, and, therefore, will insure universally satisfactory
exchanges.
S E C U R IT Y F O R

T H E C IR C U L A T IO N .

4th. Not only will the question of exchange be placed on a proper
basis, but all danger from holding bank notes will be obviated. There
will be a well-deserved confidence placed in this kind of currency. The
losses which have, in times past, been sustained by bill-holders, have
been immense, and have fallen mainly on the poorer classes. It has
«been satisfactorily ascertained, by careful examination, that the people
have suffered to the amount of more than one hundred millions of dol­
lars by broken bank notes, since our present system came into being.
Under the proposed arrangements there can be no such losses; and
after a short time, when the public have become accustomed to this kind
of currency, and tested its solvency by their experience, these notes will




122

A National Authenticated Currency.

not only secure a free and universal circulation, but they will be hoarded;
that is, laid by for future use, with as much confidence as the specie itself.
This will increase the amount of specie that may be deposited in the
banks.
S A F E R TH A N T H E BA N K O F EN G L A N D .

One of the best features of the Bank of England is, that the govern­
ment is always indebted to it for an amount which, added to the specie
in its vaults, at any given time, will be at least equal to its whole circu­
lation. The bank holds £14,000,000 of the government securities as a
permanent investment. By the act of 1 844, (known as Sir R obert P e e l ’s
act,) the bank is allowed to issue this amount of its own notes for circula­
tion, without any specie wherewith to redeem them ; but for all over that
amount it must hold an equal amount of specie or bullion in its vaults.
This is, of course, well known to all, and has the effect of giving the
British public, as well as the whole commercial world, great confidence
in the Bank of England. Even prior to the act just mentioned, the fact
that the government was indebted to the national bank for an amount
equal to its whole capital, has been conducive to the high credit which
the bank has been able to maintain.
“ As good as the Bank of England” is an old adage with which we are
all familiar. Now, if we can establish a currency which shall, before the
whole world, be upon as safe a basis as the notes of this celebrated bank,
we shall have accomplished a most desirable object. The plan of the
Secretary will do more than that. It will make the currency of the
United States more absolutely secure than that of the British bank, be­
cause, in our case, the government stocks, which we assume to be as good
as the British national debt, and as likely to be paid, are absolutely pledged
for the payment of the notes of our banks, while the public stocks held
by the Bank of England are not specifically held for the payment of its
notes, but for the discharge of all its liabilities ; and its deposits are often,
perhaps generally, as large as its circulation. The government stocks of
the Bank of England are only a part of its assets, but, by the plan of
Secretary C h a s e , the stocks of the American government are held in
absolute pledge for the redemption of these notes, and no other purpose,
and are no part of the assets of the government or the banks. They are
the bona fide property of the bill-holders until the notes are paid in full.
As matters now are, the weakest and least solvent banks (as intimated
in the Secretary’s report) issue the greatest amount of circulating notes.
They make it their chief business, in fact, to manufacture and put out as
large an amount as they can, by any contrivance, keep in circulation—
5, 10, 20, 40 dollars for one dollar in specie! The Illinois banks had,
for example, on the first January, 1860, a circulation of $8,981,'123;
specie on hand only $223,812, or forty dollars to one, to say nothing of
$697,037 they owed besides for deposits.
Such a currency, whether forty to one or ten to one, is clearly incon­
vertible, notwithstanding the assumption of its being “ redeemable on
demand, and therefore as good as specie.” Experience, sad and oftrepeated, has taught us that the notes of such banks are really incon­
vertible. They may, indeed, be gradually withdrawn from circulation,
if sufficient time is allowed therefor; they may be taken into bank in
payment of notes due from individuals, and thus cancelled ; but if they




1862.]

A N ational Authenticated Currency.

123

arc returned faster than the hank can thus dispose of them, it must sus­
pend ; such has always been the case, and as soon as the suspension takes
place the hill-holders are liable to suffer.
Under the proposed system this danger of loss is obviated; for,
although the bank may have actually become insolvent, no one need
make a sacrifice on its notes, because the government holds collateral
security for them, and is, moreover, pledged to receive them at par for
all dues, except customs.
These considerations go to show that this “ authenticated currency”
will be the most reliable of any mixed currency in the world. This will
elevate our banking system, not only to a level with the best banks of
other countries, but above them.
A D V A N T A G E TO T H E B A N K S.

By the proposed arrangement, solvent and well-conditioned banks will
be relieved of a great and vexatious responsibility, which has heretofore
been imposed on them by the weak and ill-conducted ones, whose circu­
lation they have felt compelled to sustain, for fear that if it were dis­
honored a panic would be created, and a general run upon all the banks.
The banks of New-York, Boston and other large cities are but too pain­
fully familiar with cases of this sort.
Another advantage will be, that the new system will prevent the crea­
tion, in future, of merely fictitious banks. Many banks have heretofore,
as already intimated, been got up without any real capital whatever. If
required, as a condition of issuing circulating notes, (which is the princi­
pal object of such banks,) they are obliged to deposit United States
stocks to an equal amount, in advance, such banks could not be estab­
lished, for nothing but real money would purchase the necessary stocks,
and thus the easy multiplication of banks without capital would be
prevented.
This would make the whole system more profitable and safe; a result
which all sound banking institutions will look upon with much favor.
C IR C U L A T IO N L E S S F L U C T U A T IN G .

Again, by the new policy, the circulation of the banks will be rendered
more uniform ; that is, less fluctuating.
The Secretary proposes that all the banks that receive the authenticated
notes shall keep “ an adequate provision of specie.”
At present no regulation exists in regard to this matter in most of the
States; and in all, except three or four, the banks can issue their notes
without any regard whatever to the specie in their vaults. This has
ever been the great cause of the frequent and disastrous fluctuations
which have inflicted such manifold calamities upon the people. The
New-York city banks have become so satisfied of this, that they have
entered into a mutual agreement, which compels them to keep at least
twenty-live per cent, of specie for all their immediate liabilities. This
measure on the part of the metropolitan banks is a wise one, but neces­
sarily too limited in its operation to affect the greatness of the circulating
medium of the country; but a suitable regulation made by Congress
would, of course, effect the desired object, and place the whole currency
of the nation on a comparatively safe and reliable basis. We say com­
paratively safe and reliable, because we cannot reasonably expect that




124

A N ational Authenticated Currency.

[February,

our currency will be reformed to such an extent, especially when the
nation is making a great struggle for its existence, as to make the circu­
lating medium perfectly sound and unfluctuating. That could only be
done by compelling the banks to keep a larger amount of specie, in pro­
portion to all their immediate liabilities.
It is no sufficient objection, that even under the system proposed the
banks might extend their operations so far as to be obliged, ultimately,
to suspend specie payments. That may be true, but that is no more
than they are now liable to do, as we know by oft-experience; besides,
as we have before shown, they will be far less likely to run into excesses
under the new than the old system.
The condition of all the banks of the Union, on the 1st day of January,
1860, was as follows :*
Circulation,.........................................................
Deposits,............................................................

$ 207,102,477
253,802,129

Total,...................................................... $ 460,904,606
Specie held by the banks at same tim e,..........
83,594,537
Equal to about twenty cents on the dollar.
Now we do not deny, that although the whole circulation were secured
by United States stocks, and those stocks were at par, the banks might
be compelled temporarily to suspend, if they had no larger proportion of
specie to meet immediate liabilities than indicated above, because it
would obviously be impossible to meet the redemption of their notes
with specie, to say nothing of a still larger amount of deposits, which,
in the view of all business men and bankers, are as truly currency as the
circulation, and for which the demand for specie will be more instanta­
neous and pressing.
It is with banks as with individuals : if they owe five or ten times as
much on demand as they have the immediate means of discharging, they
may be obliged to suspend payment, though they have the ultimate
ability of paying three times as much as they owe. But the liability of
suspension will be just in inverse proportion to specie on hand; the
greater the specie basis the less the danger.
However desirable it might be, that the amount of specie in banking
institutions should be so large as to prevent all possible danger of sus­
pension, the present is certainly not the time to attempt such a reform.
In time of war, credit money, in one form or another, must be resorted to.
Wars, in modern times, are carried on by credit. They cannot be con­
ducted otherwise. So enormously expensive are they, so rapidly do
they consume the wealth of a nation, they would be brought to a speedy
close if governments were obliged to pay as they go.
This has been the case ever since the accession of W illiam and M art
to the throne of England. The Revolution of 1688 was a great finan­
cial, as well as political revolution. W illiam introduced fu nding
p a p e r money and ind irect taxation ; and, by these instrumentali­
ties, the wars of Christendom have been mainly supported ever since.
The American Revolution was carried on by “ continental paper money.”




M erchants’ M agazine,

vol. 43,

p. 336.

1862.]

A N ational Authenticated Currency.

125

The wars of the French Revolution had been impossible, without
“ assignats , mandates,” &c., &c., and, to enable England to cope with
N apoleon , her national bank went into suspension of specie payments,
for more than twenty years.
The present is not the time, therefore, to dispense with credit money,
however great an evil, in its nature, it may be. It is rather the only
exigency in which the use of such money is at all defensible.
C redit honey is w ar money . It originated in war, and has no utili­
ty, except as a temporary necessity of a state of war. We cannot, then,
attempt a reform, that could only be successfully carried out in a time of
profound peace and by a gradual process. We must use it, and make
the best and the most of it, until peace has been restored. If so, is not
the plan we have been considering the best above all others that have
been proposed; the most eligible and most easily carried into opera­
tion ?
The Secretary of the Treasury is certainly not responsible for our
present banking system. He does not even indorse it. He says, “ I f a
credit circulation, in any form, is desirable, it is most desirable in this.”
That is the point; and we cannot but think that all intelligent men will
concur in this opinion. It is certainly possible to improve and strengthen
a weak and imperfect system, and th^t is just what is now proposed.
objection s to t iie pla n considered .

We will conclude, by briefly noticing certain objections to the plan
of the Secretary:
1st. “ That the present time is inopportune.” We think nothing can
be further from the truth. The writer has been familiar with all the
phases of the currency and money market for the last thirty years, and
has never seen a time more favorable than the present.
In 1842 there was a period when the condition of the currency and
the country was such a& to make a change like that now proposed
quite feasible ; but, with that exception, there has been no time which,
on all accounts, presented so favorable a concurrence of circumstances as
the present.
Our banks have an unusually large amount of specie, and there is also
a large amount in the country held outside the banks. Money for all
commercial purposes is very plenty, and likely to remain so. Owing to
the financial necessities of the government, growing out of the war, it
has become expedient that the banks should suspend specie payment,
but that circumstance, instead of being an argument against, is, in truth,
a valid reason in favor of the measure ; because the final payment of all
the circulation being guaranteed, a very extensive credit to bank notes
will be secured, a thing greatly to be desired, under present circum­
stances, for the banks need the best of credit, as well as the govern­
ment.
Besides, if the plan of the Secretary be not adopted, is it not certain
that a new crop of fictitious banks will spring up all over the Western
States, as unreliable as the last; and the country be exposed to greater
disasters than those of 1859-’60? Will not the land be flooded with
worthless paper money ?




126

A N ational Authenticated Currency.

[February,

N O T P E R M A N E N T IN IT S B A SIS.

Another objection made is, that “ the new currency, being based
on the government debt, it cannot be permanent, as the debt will be
some time or other paid off, and then the system must be changed.”
But this seems an idle objection. If the war closes by next July, an
event more to be desired than expected, the country will be left with a
debt of over five hundred million dollars.
In addition to that debt will be an immense amount of claims on the
government, not included in the Secretary’s report, but which will inevi­
tably be made on the treasury at the close of a war so extended as the
present.
A large pension list, created by the war, will also be for a long period
a heavy charge on the national treasury. And it is as certain as any
thing can be, that instead of a standing army of ten to fifteen thousand,
as formerly, we shall have one of fifty or a hundred thousand, with naval
armaments in proportion.
In addition to all these changes we must meet the ordinary expenses
of government, which can hardly fail to be greatly enhanced, and also
the annual interest on the national debt.
With this immense aggregate of expenditures, and a revenue contracted
by the limited consumption of foreign merchandise, which the impover­
ished condition of the country must occasion, how soon shall we find
ourselves out of debt 2 In thirty years ? If so, we shall be very fortu­
nate ; and until that time arrives we shall not be wanting in national stocks
on which to base the security of our circulation.
Besides, if we suppose a much shorter time, could not a provision be
made for a change of securities, on a gradual relinquishment of the sys­
tem, if that was deemed expedient?
If the “ authenticated currency” is not interrupted until the United
States is again out of debt, the present generation need give itself little
uneasiness in regard to the matter.
TA K E S C A P IT A L O UT O P T R A D E .

Again, it may be objected that this plan takes bank capital out of the
hands of the business community and puts it into the public treasury.
Granted; but will that be any disadvantage ? Recollect, the govern­
ment m u s t have the money, the use of the capital, from some quarter.
That is not a matter of choice. Why not take a part of it from the
banks ?
We think there are many cogent reasons in favor of such a course. A
given amount of capital in the banks will increase the general credit of
the country more than three times as much as that amount in private
hands.
In 1860 we had 1,562 banks, with an aggregate capital of $421,880,095.
All these were competing for the bankable paper of the country. What
must be the natural consequence of such a state of things ? Evidently
just such an insane extension of credit as we have witnessed. These
banks had, at the time mentioned, extended their own credits above their
available means three hundred and seventy-seven millions of dollars.
What could result from this but a reckless extension of all other credits,




1862.]

A National Authenticated Currency.

127

until they became so unwieldy as to break down by their own weight.
This stimulus of ordinary credits by the influence of bank credits is the
bane of the business world. That is everywhere admitted, and this is
caused by the faults of our banking system, which allows the banks not
only to loan their legitimate capital, but an immense amount of mere
credit besides. The larger the capital of the banks, then, the more ex­
tended will be the general credits of the country.
Any term of credit on merchandise over four months, is a damage alike
to buyer, seller and consumer ; yet it is well known that our credits are
extended to six, nine, twelve and eighteen months. This is absurd in the
highest degree.
The tendency, then, of withdrawing capital from the banks would be to
shorten mercantile and general credits; and is not that a consummation
greatly to be desired ?
There is still another reason why capital may be advantageously taken
from the banks by the government, and that is, that owing to the distur­
bances of trade, which a state of war occasions, there must be, for years
to come, less necessity for bank capital for business purposes. At the
present moment there is a surplus of it, and such would certainly be the
case for a long time to come, were it not for the pecuniary wants of the
government, by which the banks are enabled to make large and profitable
loans.
In view, then, of the foregoing consideration, the force and justice of
which, we think, business men and capitalists will admit, the objection
that the withdrawal from the banks of a part of the capital or funds
which the government must have from some quarter, injures the public,
will fall to the ground; besides, it is undoubtedly true, that if the
banks can employ any more capital to advantage, it w'ill readily be put
into those now existing, or new ones will be created.
A L L E G E D T A M P E R IN G WUTII T IIE

CURRENCY.

Lastly, it is sometimes asked, in the way of objection, “ why tamper
with the currency at the present time, and when the country is in such
distress and peril t”
We reply to this, that the plan of the Secretary is no “ tampering with
the currency” (a favorite cant phrase) at all. It does not change its
generic character in the least, or necessarily restrict or increase the circu­
lation of the banks. It hampers them in no way, nor gives the govern­
ment any power over them wdiatever. Congress simply makes a general
enactment to which the banks must conform, but it gives no man, or
body of men, any control over their operations.
It merely asks them to loan the public treasury a given sum, instead
of loaning the same amount to individuals, and upon the strength of that
loan to base the security of their own circulation. It provides a u n i f o r m
N A T IO N A L C U R R E N C Y , N A T U R A L E X C H A N G E S a n d S E C U R IT Y TO B IL L -H O L D E R S .

This it does in a most unobjectionable manner, interfering with no
moneyed interest or industrial pursuit.
C O N C L U S IO N .

The foregoing remarks are offered with great deference to the opinions
of others, and with a sincere desire to promote the best interests of the
government, the people and the banks.




128

A N ational Authenticated Currency.

[February,

To the latter institutions the writer feels under high obligations, as a
citizen, for the prompt and patriotic manner in which they have responded
to the calls of the government in its hour of need. They certainly de­
serve the gratitude of the public, and all the legal protection and favor
which the welfare of the country and their own true interests may de­
mand. We hope they will receive it. If the plan of the Secretary is
open to objections, which the writer has not discovered, he earnestly hopes
they will be stated by those having the ability to do so. The question
should be fully and frankly discussed, and with the most anxious desire
to secure the best interests of all concerned in the important measure
proposed by the Secretary of the Treasury.
There are three parties, but there is only one interest. That which is
truly most advantageous for one, must be, in the long run, most desirable
for all. It is no time for wrangling about theories, or making doubtful
experiments, but it is a time when the nation is called upon to test its
utmost financial capabilities; and the great question is, how can that be
most efficiently done ?

G old and S il v e r .—Mr. L ow ndes , in his report on the Bank of the
United States, said, in 1819: “ The great object of the government, in
chartering the bank, was to provide a currency which should have that
degree of stability and uniformity in its value which is required by the
interests both of our commerce and revenue. A currency equally valua­
ble at every place and every time, cannot be provided by human wisdom.
The nearest approach to this object has been generally supposed to be
afforded by the employment of gold and silver as the measures of
value.”

N ational C urren cy .—Mr. M cD u f f ie , in his “ Report of the Com­
mittee of Ways and Means,” April, 1830, says: “ The power to coin
money and fix the value thereof, is expressly and exclusively vested in
Congress. This grant was evidently intended to invest Congress with
the power of regulating the circulating medium. Coin was regarded,
at the period of framing the Constitution, as synonymous with cur­
rency, as it was then generally believed that bank notes could only
be maintained in circulation by being the true representative of the pre­
cious metals.”

Mr. M adison , in his annual message of December, 1816 , concedes the
right of Congress to control the issues of paper money : “ But,” says he,
“ for the interest of the community at large, as well as for the purpose
of the treasury, it is essential that the nation should possess a currency
of equal value, credit and use, wherever it may circulate. The Constitu­
tion has intrusted Congress, exclusively, with the power of creating and
regulating a currency of that description. The Bank of the United
States, under auspices the most favorable, cannot fail to be an important
auxiliary.”




1862 .]

International General Average.

129

INTERNATIONAL GENERAL AVERAGE.
I. A u tho rity in L a w u sually , b u t n o t absolutely , a test of correctness . II. A w id b
ran ge o f P reced en ts necessary in M erca n tile L a w . III. I nconsistencies n o w ex ist in g
IN T H E P R E 8 E N T G E N E R A L A V E R A G E P R A C T IC E O F D IF F E R E N T C O M M E R C IA L N A T IO N S . IV. P R O ­
P O S E D R emoval o f t h ese I nco nsistencies by th e A ssociation fo r t h e P romotion o f S ocia l
S cien c e . Y. W h a t steps th ey h a v e t a k e n a n d w h a t they pro pose to do . YI. D i f f i ­
cu lties in th e w a y . YII. R eform not n eed ed in A m erican P ractice . YIII. O ur C ustoms
in T i n s R espect based upo n a w id e f ie l d o f P reced en ts . IX. T iie N a tu re o f E n g lish
E x ception s an d th e A rguments upo n wmcii th ey a r e fo u n d ed . X. A m erica n R easonings
UPON THE SAME POINTS, AND THE AUTHORITIES WHICH SUPPORT THEM. X I. CAUSE OF TIIE IN­
CONSISTENCIES in E n g lish P ractice . X I I . D an ger o f L ik e C a u ses pr o d u c in g a S im ila r
E ff ec t in T nis City to g reat d etr im en t o f C om mercial E n t e r p r is e .

“ A ll erroneous opinion is inconsistent, and all ungrounded opinion
transitory,” says Mr. R uskin , in the first chapter of his work on Modern
Painters; “ so that,” he continues, “ while the fancies and feelings which
deny deserved honor, and award what is undue, have neither root nor
strength sufficient to maintain consistent testimony for a length of time,
the opinions formed upon right grounds, by those few who are really
competent judges, being necessarily stable, communicate themselves
gradually from mind to mind, descending lower as they extend wider,
until they leaven the whole lump, and rule by absolute authority, even
where the grounds and reasons for them cannot be understood.” What
is here said of art will apply equally well to law. Decisions sanctioned
by time are entitled to respect, but only because they are presumed to
be, and generally are, the decisions of wise men, capable of forming a
correct opinion of the points in dispute. When generation after gene­
ration have admitted them to be sound, and the practice of different
countries, influenced by various social customs, and affected by conflict­
ing habits of thought, unanimously confirm them, the presumption of
their justice is greatly increased. And when, in addition to this, they
are shown to be in conformity with the dictates of reason and common
sense, these decisions must be admitted to be absolutely true. Individ­
uals, however great their intelligence or extended their learning may be,
are still liable to err, and if one unjust decision should remain unques­
tioned for a length of time, and should be blindly followed by a host of
judges, still an occasion will inevitably arise when some one, more acute
or more careful than the rest, will detect the error, and arrive at a differ­
ent conclusion ; this in turn will be supported by subsequent decisions,
until the erroneous judgment shall altogether cease to be quoted as
authority. Thus we see that the more ancient any doctrine is in the law,
the greater the probability of its correctness; but it does not by any
means follow, that every doctrine is absolutely true fhat is supported by
time-honored authority.
Chancellor K ent says of G rotius , that he searched the writings of the
wise and learned men of all ages—philosophers, divines, historians, poets;
and that when he found that “ many men, at different times and places,
unanimously affirmed the same thing for truth,” he concluded that “ it
ought to be ascribed to some universal cause.” Maritime law, like the
VOL. X L v i.— NO.




II.

9

130

International General Average.

[February,

law of nations, cannot, by tbe nature of things, be based upon the tra­
ditions of any particular people ; but must be founded upon principles
which are held in common by all nations. These principles, in the ab­
stract, are plain enough, but in their application to particular cases their
various interpreters have caused much confusion to arise. Thus the doc­
trine of general average is plain enough in theory, and the principle that
“ contribution is the price of safety,” and that what is saved contributes
to a general loss, seems broad enough to cover every case that could
arise. But when we come to compare the practice of different nations,
we find discrepancies so great and contradictions so decided, that it is
hardly possible to believe that interpretations so various could ever be
traced to a common origin. If it be true of the law in general, that its
doctrines should be based upon the opinions of the wise and learned of
the past, it is especially true of that branch of it which relates to mari­
time affairs. The opinion of many men, at different times and places, is
the sole guide to truth ; and we must rise above the influence of local
custom and tradition, and refer to principles which have the unanimous
sanction of authority and reason, if we wish to substitute uniformity for
the present conflicting practice.
An attempt has lately been made in England to collect and compare
the opinions of the commercial world upon several disputed points in
the present general average practice, with a view of reconciling its incon­
sistencies, and of introducing greater uniformity in its present conflicting
customs. A body of men in England, known as the “ Society for the
Promotion of Social Science,” have recently drawn up a “ Synopsis of
General Average Practice in England, America, France, Belgium, Hol­
land and Germany,” and have sent copies of it to the various commercial
cities of Europe and of this country, with the view of eliciting new sug­
gestions, and of then framing a bill for the British Parliament, which
will reconcile the inconsistencies now existing, and definitely settle the
principles on which the law depends. This synopsis was received by the
various commercial cities alluded to, and has been returned by them to
the society with suggestions, as requested. In September, 1860, the
association met again, and passed certain resolutions, embracing rules
which they considered would be desirable amendments to the present
practice, to be adopted under a uniform system. They also drew up a
second synopsis, embracing the various suggestions received, and distrib­
uted this second document for consideration, in the same manner as the
first one. This latter document was drawn up by Mr. P. Id. R athbone,
the deputy chairman of the Liverpool Association for the Protection of
Commercial Interests, as respects wrecked and damaged property. “ The
English practice,” says the preface, “ is chiefly extracted from Mr. B ailey ’s
valuable work upon general average, and has been revised by Mr.
B ailey . The United States’ practice is given upon the authority of
“ The Law of Insurance,” by P h il l ip s , fourth edition, and has been
amended, for their respective ports, by the Board of Underwriters of
Boston, the Chamber of Commerce of Charleston, and the Chamber of
Commerce and Board of Underwriters of Mobile. The French practice
has been extracted from the ninth edition of R ogron’s “ Code de Com­
merce Explique.” The practice at Bordeaux was obtained through Mr.
W. M. Moss ; and that of Brest and Boulogne, of Amsterdam, Hamburgh
and Belgium, through the committee for managing the affairs of L loyds .




1862.]

International General Average.

131

To the active and courteous aid of this committee and to their agents, is
due the completeness of this record of continental practice.
That this uniformity of practice would greatly facilitate and simplify
commercial intercourse, cannot he denied ; but whether it is possible to
accomplish it in the manner proposed, is a matter of reasonable doubt.
Customs of law are the slow growth of ages; each point, as it arises,
must be settled by learned arguments, and by reference to authorities.
And it is almost too much to suppose, that individuals in different coun­
tries, affected, as they necessarily must be, by local traditions and preju­
dices, will be content to submit their disputes, on so vexed a question as
that of general average, to the arbitrary rules of society. At the same
time, it is a great step towards the establishment of this uniformity of
practice, at some future time, that an opportunity should be offered, of
a t least collecting and comparing these discordant opinions. Should the
society succeed in passing a bill through the Parliament of England, a
greater step will be taken, and in that case it is only reasonable to sup­
pose that the example will be followed by other nations, and the desired
uniformity be thus attained. But the passage of such a bill has been,
attempted before in England without success, and it is possible that this,
second attempt may meet with a similar fate. Mr. S tev ens , in the pre^
face to his work on average, uses the following language on the subject:
“ Much has boon said in favor of establishing a code of insurance laws,
similar to those promulgated in foreign countries ; but it is apprehended,
that few persons of experience at L loyds ’ will, on consideration, be dis­
posed to recommend such a measure. It would, perhaps, be extremely
difficult, if not wholly impossible, to make positive laws to, suit every
case; and it is doubtful whether, if such were made, they would be found
to answer the purpose of preventing litigation. An attempt was indeed
made in the year 1747, to procure an act of Parliament for the better regu­
lating of assurances on ships, and on goods laden thereon, and preventing
frauds therein. Leave was given and a committee appointed to bring in
the bill; but it is almost unnecessary to observe, that it did not pass into
a law.”
It is not a little singular that the country from, which this reform in
general average practice is proposed, is the one of all others which needs,
it the most. The English practice departs more widely from general
principles, and is more inconsistent with itself, than that of any other
nation. And it is not too much to assert, that if a uniform practice shall
ever be arrived at, it will be because the customs in Great Britain are
made to conform to those of other countries, rather than that these are
altered to agree with theirs. On the other hand, it is asserted by Judge
P arsons , that where our maritime law differs from that of England, it
follows the decisions “ of the successive codes of continental Europe,,
which, in successive ages, have defined, that jurisdiction and built up.
that law, and is based upon the opinions of the many learned men who.
have illustrated both.” Admitting this to be true, American maritime
jurisprudence, with the weight of continental authority on its side, may
fairly claim to be considered as a model, even for adoption by the mother
country, where a narrower standard appears to prevail. And a general
average practice, resting upon the precedents of universal law, may cer­
tainly be considered superior to ope whose principles are confessedly
limited by the custom o f L loyd’s,..




132

International General Average.

[February,

Admitting, then, that the general average practice of the United States
is based upon the widest possible basis; and that it has laid the wisdom
of the world under contribution for its principles; and, moreover, that it
has not, as yet, “ been curtailed of its fair proportions, like that of Eng­
land, in a succession of ages, by the attacks of rival and victorious
courts ( P arsons , p. 1V;) nor been limited by the customs of a power­
ful institution; admitting these things, it will not be deemed presump­
tuous to state, that in the following examination of the “ Synopsis of
General Average Practice,” it is proposed to take the American interpre­
tation of the doctrine as a basis for the remarks, and rather to compare
the practice of other nations with ours than ours with theirs.
As far as regards the general principles of the subject, it would seem
that the ideas of all nations are very nearly uniform. Where there ap­
pear to be discrepancies, they will be found, on examination, to be rather
in the text of the writers than in the ideas themselves. Thus, Mr. B ai­
ley ’s assertion, that, in order to constitute a general average act, “ there
must be a moral certainty of total loss,” appears to differ from Mr. A r nould ’s language, “ that the act must be justified by an apparently immi­
nent peril.” But when we read Mr. B ailey ’s definition of “ moral cer­
tainty” as that which “ must happen if circumstances which may possibly
change do not alter,” we find that exactly the same idea is conveyed by
the one definition as the other. It appears, therefore, that all maritime
nations are agreed, that in order to constitute a general average there
must be “ common i n t e r e s t t h a t the act must be a “ voluntary and
deliberate o n e t h a t it must be justified by an “ apparently imminent
danger;” that it must be “ judicious.” A successful result is not abso­
lutely necessary, in England and America, but in France, Belgium, Hol­
land and Germany, if the safety of the ship is not accomplished, no con­
tribution need be made; and, moreover, by the customs of Amsterdam,
“ not even what is actually saved must contribute.” All arc agreed that
the loss must be the “ immediate and necessary consequence” of the
general average act, and that the article sacrificed must not be itself the
cause of danger; and also, that the sacrifice or expense incurred must be
extraordinary, and not included in the ordinary duties and expenses of
navigation, which come under the head of wear and tear, and which
must be borne by the owner as a means of earning freight. In France,
Belgium, Holland and Germany, the old practice of requiring the master
to consult with the crew previous to the commission of the act, is still
maintained; but in England and in the United States it is not considered
necessary. Indeed, in most cases it would be impossible, since sudden
emergencies hardly allow time for reflection, still less for consultation;
and the class of men who generally compose the crews of these countries
are, in most cases, incompetent to give advice if asked for. Where it is
customary, even, it is probably a mere matter of form, for, according to
the old law, which is probably still in force wherever the custom now
prevails, if the master’s opinion differed from that of the crew, his judg­
ment was still allowed to prevail. E m erigon , describing the formalities
necessary in such cases, quotes the Consolato del Mare to this effect:
“ When the master finds himself under the necessity of making jettison,
he is to say to the merchants, in the presence of the crew, ‘ Messieurs,
we are in great danger of perishing; the only way to save ourselves, the
vessel and part of the cargo, is to make a jettison.’ If the merchant




International General Averaae.

133

shippers consent, the jettison may be made; if they refuse consent, the
master is still, says the Jugement d' Oleron, to throw overboard as much
as he deems necessary, himself and a third of his crew taking an oath on
the holy gospels that they have made the jettison to save their lives and
the ship, and the other property on board.”
One of our eminent writers on insurance law (Mr. W illard P h il l ips )
has compared a general average contribution to what is known in law as
salvage; and this idea, that it is always the “ price of safety,” and “ what
is saved contributes,” although condemned by some as unsound and in­
complete, will be found upon examination to be correct; and, if it is ad­
mitted, will serve to render clear some points at present in dispute. Add
to this that the immediate, but not the remote, cause of the act is to be
considered, and that the consequences of the act are equally subjects of
contribution with the act itself, and we have established all the prece­
dents upon which the American doctrine of general average depends, and
from which our practice is in all cases logically deduced.
These principles are admitted in Europe, and in England also, to be
correct; but in the latter country they are often practically set aside.
Thus, among the consequences of a jettison, damage done to cargo, by
disturbing the stowage to perform that act, is not contributed for.
Neither is the damage to copper, by wreck of mast cut away before it is
finally released from the vessel. In regard to the second of these excep­
tions, an English writer on average, Mr. M anly H o pk in s , thus expresses
himself: “ When masts have been cut away, and, in falling, injure the
deck, destroy rails and bulwarks, and do other damage, the repairs of
such damage belong to general average. And if, after the mastage has
fallen into the water, it strikes against the ship’s sides and knocks off or
injures the metal sheathing, it may well be supposed that this damage is
likewise claimable as general average. But here the present custom is
inconsistent with itself, for it is held that the injury thus sustained by the
sides and sheathing does not form an item for general contribution, but
falls upon the ship alone. There can be little doubt that, as a matter of
principle, this practice is erroneous ; for it seems illogical in a progress­
ive series of consequences, clearly dependent on and traceable to one
cause, to classify a certain number of the links in the chain in one cate­
gory, and to make a new rule for the succeeding link.”
It is, however, in apportioning the expenses that arise when a vessel is
obliged to make a port of distress to repair damages occasioned by sea
perils, that the most marked discrepancies between our practice and that
of England are seen. In this country all the expenses of entering and
clearing from the port, including the wages and provisions of the crew from
the time the vessel bore away for the port of distress until she is again
ready for sea, are subjects of general contribution. So, also, are all
charges for unloading, storing and reloading the cargo, in fact, all the ex­
penses incurred, except the actual repairs to the ship itself; and even
these latter, should it happen that they are only temporary in their nature,
and of no permanent value to the ship. And also, if the repairs to the
ship are exorbitantly high, owing to the difficulty of making them at the
port sought, this excess over the average price is to be Contributed for.
But in England, according to the synopsis, the following exceptions are
made :
The inward port charges are general average, but not the extra wages




134

International General Average.

[February,

and provisions of the crew, either while making the port or while detained
there. The discharging of the cargo by ordinary means is also general
average, but not “ the hire of lighters to avoid discharging cargo.” As
soon as the cargo is out of the ship, all subsequent charges for storing,
watching the property, &c., are charged to that interest alone. For ex­
ample, cutting timber in order to reship it, airing and cooling cargo, ex­
pense of coopering casks, as far as rendered necessary by discharging,
expense resulting to cargo from leaving a portion of it behind. And,
finally, the expenses of reloading and outward port charges, are borne by
the freight. The reasoning upon which these exceptions arc based is as
follows: When a ship is disabled by a storm at sea, and cannot with
safety prosecute her voyage, common interest would dictate that a port
of refuge should be sought, and the putting into port, being for the benefit
of all concerned, is a general average a c t; but when the port is reached
the danger ceases, and each interest must then take care of itself. This
is, in substance, the language of Mr. B en eck e on the subject. He says:
“ As soon as the object of putting the vessel and cargo in safety is ac­
complished, the cause for contribution ceases; for whatever is subse­
quently done is not a sacrifice for the benefit of the whole, or for averting
an imminent danger, but is the mere necessary consequence of a casual
misfortune. If, owing to the injury sustained by the vessel, the cargo
must be landed to prevent its being more damaged, the charges of un­
loading, housing, insuring against fire, reloading, &o., very properly fall
upon the proprietor of the cargo. For the landing is a necessary conse­
quence of the misfortune that had occurred, and cannot be said to be re­
sorted to for the purpose of enabling the vessel to proceed upon her
voyage when repaired, since the goods would have been landed also if
the voyage could not have been prosecuted. The vessel, therefore, ought
not to be charged with a part of those expenses which were not inten­
tionally incurred for her benefit, but which only incidentally became use­
ful to lier. Even if the unloading were resorted to merely for the purpose
of repairing the vessel, still, it being the natural consequence of a particu­
lar average, and taking place after the ship and cargo are in safety, it can­
not be a general average.* If the damaged vessel after unloading is re­
paired, the object of this measure is to restore the ship to her former
condition, and to enable her to carry the cargo to its port of destination.
The repair of the vessel, by itse lf J is evidently not an object which con­
cerns the shipper, and to which ho can be obliged to contribute. Inas­
much as it tends to forward the voyage, the repair of the vessel certainly
concerns the shipper, and he has a right to demand it without being un­
der an obligation of contributing to the expense, for, by virtue of the
contract of affreightment, the ship-owner is bound to forward the cargo
to the port of its destination, and, from the fulfilment of this contract,
nothing short of impossibility can excuse him. To repair the damage
accidentally sustained by the vessel, if it admits of being repaired, is,
therefore, a duty incumbent on the ship-owner by the contract of affreight* Thus, where Mr. A. ships a thousand barrels of flour, and Mr. B. a like quantity,
and when the ship puts into a port of distress, the former only is landed, or light­
ered, or damaged by such transfer, the loss, by the English law, falls upon himself
or the underwriter, and is not a subject of general average; although the loss is
sustained clearly in consequence of the endeavor to put the vessel, the property of
B., and the whole cargo, again in a seaworthy condition. Here such loss would seem
to be a loss chargeable to general average.—Ed.




1862.]

International General Average.

135

ment, and it is counterbalanced by the merchant’s obligation of eitheT
waiting for the repairs at the intermediate port, or paying full freight;
consequently, the expenses thus incurred, although they may exceed what
the same repairs would have cost at another port, as well as the main­
tenance and wages of the sailors during the time of repairs, fall upon the
owners.”
It will be seen that this reasoning of Mr. B en eck e ’s , while admitting
that the consequences of a general average act, or of a casual misfortune,
are to be considered equally with the act or the accident themselves,
denies what we consider a fundamental maxim, that the immediate (and
not the remote) cause of the act is to he considered. If putting into
port to repair damages caused by a storm is only a general average act
while the danger lasts, and when that ceases, all subsequent charges are
to be deemed the results of an accident, it will be impossible ever to es­
tablish any general average act. If the masts had been cut away to avoid
wreck, and the vessel, thereby disabled, had to seek the port, everything
must be contributed for. But was not the violence of the elements the
remote cause for cutting away the masts, in the same manner as it was
the remote cause of putting into port ? On the other hand, it may be ar­
gued that the contract of affreightment only obliges the ship-owner to carry
the goods, the perils of the sea excepted. If the master attempts to
carry out this contract, he will probably wreck his ship and destroy the
goods. In that case the shipper loses his goods and the owner his
freight; both, therefore, have an interest in seeking the port. Arrived
there, the goods must be discharged, not, certainly, for their own benefit,
nor for the exclusive benefit of the ship-owner, for, as we have seen, it is
not merely to repair his ship that the expense is incurred, but to save
the cargo from destruction, which would have been its fate if the port
had not been sought. The storing, watching and reloading are all results
of this act done for the common benefit, and there is no reason why the
freight should be burdened by this latter, or by the maintenance and
wages of the crew while making port and during repairs. For the con­
tract is waived by the impending peril, to avoid which the port was
sought. Admitting the English reasoning to be correct, it is a little
singular that they do not allow wages and provisions while making the
port, since they admit this to be a general average act, and they allow a
part of the expense, the port charges inwards. It is clear, then, that
this argument is inconsistent and unsound, and we can only add, that it is
impolitic, for a general average, however heavy, is always less than a
total loss; and masters, knowing how heavy an expense they are bringing
upon their owners, since the maintenance and wages of the crew, the
reloading, &c., are likely to amount to more than the charges for storing
and watching the cargo, rvould naturally be inclined to run great risks
rather than incur so expensive a remedy. And if it is urged that the
cargo is generally much more valuable than the vessel, and has, there­
fore, a larger proportion to bear of average expenses, we can only answer
that this is the price of its safety. That this reasoning is supported by
authority, the following quotations will show:
B icard , Negoce d’Amsterdam, p. 280, writes: “ Where a vessel is
forced by storm to make a port, in order to repair the damage sustained,
being unable to prosecute her voyage without risk of being totally lost,
the wages and maintenance of the crew, from the day on which it was




136

International General Average.

[February,

determined to seek a port for repairing the vessel to the day of departure
from that port, are considered general average ; also the charges of land­
ing, reloading, pilotage, and other dues and charges occasioned by that
measure.”
B alpa ssero n i , an Italian writer, states, “ that he never heard it dis­
puted, that the charges of entering the nearest port, and the repairs of
damage incurred to prevent shipwreck, belong to general average, but
that a difference of opinion often prevails as to the cause and nature of
the damage; that when it arises from a natural cause, it is usual to bring
to the account of general average that part only which has been added
to the damage for the joint benefit; and to the account of particular
average that damage, the cause of which is special, (not having reference
to the joint benefit,) or the repairs by which, without necessity, the ship’s
value has been improved; but that all the expense of making a port for
the general benefit, and all the consequences resulting from that step,
have always been considered as subjects of a general contribution.”
E m e rig on , a celebrated French authority, says : “ A vessel which had
considerably suffered by storm, so as not to be able to proceed on her
voyage without a risk of being lost, goes into a port for repairs. The
charges of unloading and reloading, the maintenance and wages of the
crew during the time which is spent there, are all placed to general ave­
rage. The charges of repair, however, the cost of masts and sails, and
other apparel purchased, are excluded from general average. But should
it be necessary to pay exorbitantly for these articles, owing to a scarcity
of laborers or the high price of materials, that part which is paid above
the common value would be brought into general average.”
Lord E llenborougii held language to the same effect, in the case of
P lummer vs. W ildman , w hich shows that even in England there are pre­
cedents for the doctrine. He says : “ If the return to port was necessary
for the general safety, it seems that the expenses unavoidably incurred by
such necessity may be considered as general average. It is not so much
a question whether the first cause of the damage was owing to this or
that accident, as whether the effect produced was such as to incapacitate
the ship, without endangering the whole concern, from further prosecuting
her voyage.”
We have thus endeavored to show that the American interpretation of
this doctrine is founded in reason, and, further, that it is supported by
authority ; and we will now proceed to consider the question of voluntary
stranding, a point about which the English practice is equally inconsist­
ent and illogical.
“ When the ship is voluntarily run ashore to avoid capture, foundering,
or shipwreck, and is afterwards recovered so as to be able to perform her
voyage, the loss resulting from the stranding,” says Mr. A rnould , “ is to
be made good by general average contribution.” “ Where, however,
the ship is lost in consequence of the stranding,” continues the same
authority, “ but the cargo saved, does that which is so saved contribute
in general average for that which is lost ?” In this country it does, but
in England it does not. “ The reasons put forward to satisfy us that this
damage is not of the nature of general average,” says Mr. M anly H op ­
k in s , “ are, first, the indefiniteness of the injuries to the ship purposely
entered upon by running ashore; and, second, that in the case of a ship
about to founder, her impending fate was not probable, but absolutely




1862.]

International General Average.

137

certain. Had she been left at sea she must have sunk, and’the driving her
ashore was a mere ‘ sauve qui p e u t and that, consequently, any damage
so incurred must be individually borne by the sufferers, and not made
good by contribution.” The fallacy of the first argument is evident, for
in all cases of sacrifice the amount of damage may exceed the limits cal­
culated upon ; and, as to the second, it would seem that the greater the
danger avoided, the more reason for contributing to the expense of it.
In the one case Mr. H opkins says, “ it is like a person assisting a needy
friend, not by giving him a certain fixed sum out of his purse, but by
placing the whole purse at his disposal, to take what is necessaryand, to
illustrate the weakness of the second argument, he adds: “ If I give my
hearty thanks to the man who saves me from drowning, by snatching me
out of shallow water, into which I have just fallen, are not my gratitude
and rewards due in a yet higher degree to him who brings me on shore
out of deep water, when my life was on the very verge of extinction ?”
The question has been entirely set at rest in this country by the argu­
ments of Mr. Justice S tory , in the case of the C olumbian I nsurance
C ompany vs . A shby . In reference to which decision, Mr. A rnould
remarks that, “ the point has never presented itself for judicial decision
in this country, (England.) Should it arise, the principles established in
this judgment would, no doubt, have their due weight in determining
the mind of the court.”
After showing how the doubts upon this subject arise from a misinter­
pretation of the Roman law, and the application of a principle which is
only correct as far as jettison is concerned, and which was originally only
intended to be applied to a jettison, Mr. S tory goes on to say, that
E m erigon stands alone among the foreign authorities in maintaining the
qualification that it is necessary to a general average that the ship should
be got afloat again after stranding. “ The analogy between the two
cases,” he continues, “ is neither so clear nor so close as E m erigon has
supposed. In the case of jettison, to avoid foundering or shipwreck, if the
calamity occurs, the object is not attained. But in the case of the strand­
ing, whatever is saved is saved by the sacrifice to the ship, although the
damage to her may have been greater than was expected. Surely the
question of contribution cannot depend upon the amount of the damage
sustained by the sacrifice, for this would be to say, that if a man lost all
his property for the common benefit, he should receive nothing ; but if
ho lost a part only, he should receive full compensation. No such prin­
ciple is applied to the total loss of goods for the common safety, as, for
instance, in the case of a jettison of a whole cargo, why, then, should it
be applied to the total loss of a ship for the like purpose ?” * * *
He then quotes from the Consolato del Mare, Roccus’ Treatise de
Navibus et Naut., V in c in n es ’ Commentary on the Rhodian Law ; B ynk e r sh o ek , C leira c and M ag en s , to the same effect.
He further states
that J acobsen , B en ec k e and S tev en s all admit this to be the result of
foreign jurisprudence and ordinances, and says, that the latter author,
(S tev ens ,) notwithstanding his own opposition to the rule, admits that it
“ appears to have been the practice at L loyd ’s , as far back as the time of
Mr. W estcott ; and that recent opinions of eminent counsel in England
fully admit and confirm it.”
It would thus appear, that our interpretation of the doctrine of volun­
tary stranding, and our practice, when a vessel is compelled to seek a port




138

International General Average.

[February,

of distress to repair damage done by a storm, are alike founded in rea­
son and supported by authority. And it would also appear, that where
the English practice differs from ours, the arguments used to support
it are both illogical and inconsistent, and are, besides, at variance with
the principles laid down in the older codes. It is evident, then, that no
alteration is necessary in our practice, and, least of all, such a change as
would cause it to conform to that of England; and therefore, although
we may be pleased at the effort which has published to all the world the
soundness of our system, we can neither gather from the synopsis any
hints for its improvement, or indeed any suggestions for its alteration.
Still less is it to be expected, that much importance will be attached to
any rules that the society may pass upon. For, apart from the difficulty
of settling, by arbitrary rules, disputes that can only be satisfactorily
adjusted by the learned arguments of counsel on the particular point in
dispute, it can hardly be expected that rules formed in England, by an
association in which English influences necessarily predominate, will not
be influenced by English customs and made to conform to English ideas.
It is for these reasons, probably, that so little interest has been taken in
the subject by the merchants and underwriters in our city. Upon the
receipt of the first synopsis, and in conformity with the request of the
association, delegates were sent from this city and from Boston, and other
places, to meet the society at Glasgow. But the second synopsis has
been quietly laid aside, and, excepting this attempt at an analysis of it,
no mention of the matter has ever been made in print, and no action
upon the subject has been proposed by any of our commercial associa­
tions.
In conclusion we will remark, that the inconsistency of the English
practice is admitted to be owing to the influence of a powerful institu­
tion which is able to settle arbitrarily all points in dispute. Mr. J ames
C addow , one of the delegates to the society, remarked, during the debate
upon the adoption of this proposed uniform system of general average,
“ that it seems to be the genius of the custom at L loyd ’s , that no loss
which could be charged to a particular interest should be recognised as
general average.” That this practice is hurtful in the extreme to the in­
terests of the merchant is easily seen, for not only is there less induce­
ment held out to a master to save his ship by putting into port to repair,
or by running ashore in a safer place to avoid a more certain destruction ;
but many of the charges resulting from the first of these acts are not
merely excluded from general contribution, but are thrown upon the ship­
owner exclusively, without being allowed by the insurers as a particular
average. The decisions of our own courts have so clearly settled our law
upon this subject that it seems hardly possible to suppose that any simi­
lar influence here could ever set aside these decisions. But still it must
be remembered, that monopolies, of whatever kind, are always injurious
to commercial enterprise. And there is undoubtedly danger that in
the effort to obtain greater security, as it is supposed, by building up
powerful corporations, our merchants will find in the end, that like the
magician in the fable, they have raised a spirit which they cannot con­
trol. Should it ever happen that the insurance business of this city is
monopolized by one or two overgrown companies, we may expect to see
the same process repeated here that has already taken place in England;
and the insurer will find that his rights are encroached upon, one by one,




1862.]

Cosmetics.

139

until insurance is no longer aiA indemnity. It is true that the expense
of management would be greatly lessened by consolidating our present
marine companies into one or tw o powerful institutions. But by this
process competition would be destroyed, and the underwriters, instead of
being merely the agents of the nlerchants for distributing their losses
among each other, would be able wo dictate what terms they pleased, and
would in the end mate insurance 1 so expensive and so limited, that it
would become a burden upon, insteiyl of an assistance to commerce. On
the other hand, it is easy to see th a t by encouraging the formation of
new companies within reasonable limits, insurance rates would be at once
reduced to the lowest remunerative Ypoint, and the greatest liberality
would prevail in the settlement of loases. Nor would the security be
lessened ; for if a small company apportions its lines to the amount of its
capital, it is able to offer as great a security for this limited amount as a
large company is for a greater one.

COSMETICS]
P erson al A dornm ent .—A n c ie n t U se o f C o sm e tic s ; t h I sir com position a n d p r e p a r a t io n ;
I m itation s an d C o u n t er feit s .—B lancs , P o w ders , K ouI g es , F a rd s , M il k s , P omades , H a ir D yes , D e p il a t o r ie s , etc ., a n d th e d a ngers o f t iiir usn.—T ootii P ow ders an d S o a ps .—
T o ilet S o a ps , n o w m a de , an d t h e sig n ific a n c e o f t iie ii ® nam es .—T rick s o f th e T rad e .

U nder this heading may be comprehended Vill substances or prepara­
tions employed for the purpose of preserving or yestoring beauty. Their
purpose is to change the appearance of the skinAthe hair and the teeth.
The variety of substances which are and have lbeen used from time to
time under the names of paints, powders, pastes, ylyes, pomades, halms,
soaps, creams, oils, essences, vinegars, aromatic wawers, <fec., is almost in­
numerable ; yet the bases of these preparations depbend upon the known
properties of a comparatively small number of substances, which may be
generally identified with but little difficulty.
Personal adornment by means of cosmetics has bJfeeu practiced from
most ancient times. Classical writers inform us that th y dames of Greece
and Rome derived the custom of using cosmetics froryi the Egyptians.
And to C atharine de M ed ic is is awarded the honor lo f having intro
duced the same custom into France. She is said to hyve derived her
knowledge of their use from the Italians. Yet the use o* cosmetics did
not become general in France until about the end of tlae seventeenth
century. About this period of time, M. D aguin , counsellor and first
physician to the king of France, and M. de B leg n ey , couyisellor in or­
dinary to his majesty, and director of the Royal Society «>f Medicine,
translated from ancient writings the “ Secrets eoncernant la. Jmcaute et la
sanU," which was printed in two volumes. A copy of this yvork is still
preserved in the Imperial library of France. In the second\volume of
the Secrets, are numerous ancient formula; for the preparatioyi of cele­
brated cosmetics, and the manner of applying them.
Le blanc de perles and L'huile de perles derived their names Ifrom the
costly material which originally entered into- their composition. jL e blanc
was made by reducing pearls to powder; and l'huile by dissolving them




140

Cosmetics.

[February,

in vinegar. These preparations were saJM to possess most marvellous
properties in the restoration of youth an/l beauty, while from their great
costliness they were almost exclusively /limited to the toilet of the royal
household. But ere long it came to i/ass that these royal preparations
had many counterfeits. Pearls, it is wfell known, were esteemed of great
value in' ancient times. Principiumf culmenque omnium rerum pretii,
margaritae tenent. (Plin. Hist. Nat. I lib. 9, c. 35.)
The Shah of Persia possesses a po/irl bought by T a v ern ier , at Catifa,
in Arabia, a fishery famous in P l/ ny ’s time, for the enormous sum of
ten thousand pounds sterling. ItI is pear-shaped, from two to three
inches long, and over half an inc/u in diameter, and without a blemish.
Small or defective pearls were c/f much less esteem, yet they were of
considerable value, and were, therefore, too costly to be manufactured into
lime, even in ever so small quar/tities. Hence it is not surprising, that
those who would imitate the fashions of the court were under the neces­
sity of adopting the less costly/ though identical material of the humble
oyster, by the use of its outpidc gear, and yet have genuine Mane de
perles. The “ pearl powders/’ of modern cosmeticists, at least, have far
less right to the name, for tlnfcse modern preparations generally consist of
white oxide of bismuth, or /qua! parts of this substance, with common
chalk and oxide of zinc. fL e blanc de perles has, indeed, long since
ceased to indicate the origii/ of the substance so called. And “ le blanc
de Troyes'' “ le blanc de Mjendon" “ le blanc de JEspagne," Ac., now, like
le blanc de perles, only indicate des blancs, that is to say, white cosmetics,
substances and compound/s of very different properties. The same may
be said of “ I'huile de pefles," “ le la.it virginal," “ la creme de beaute,"
“ Veau de Ninon," “ le tfresor de la bouche," “ la pomade des Sultanes,"
tllefarde d'Aspaisie," lf le creme Parisienne epilatoire," “ le poudre depilatoire parfumee," &</., Ac. They indicate substances of the most di­
verse character, while /the name has been diverted from its original pur­
pose, and now more g/enerally points to the use that is to be made of the
compound.
As nothing is mo/re flattering than the art of preserving beauty and
adorning the extender of our persons, it is not surprising that the use of
cosmetics is one off the most universal practices of civilized nations. In­
deed, nearly allied! to the use of cosmetics among civilized communities
are the practices/ of uncivilized people, in scarifying and grotesquely
painting their c/ountenances for the same purpose. Perfumery, too,
enters into the i/ategory, for the sense of smell seeks gratification scarcely
less than the s/ense of sight. It is plain, therefore, that a description
of all the var/ous substances used in the manufacture of cosmetics,
would very miuch exceed the limits of this paper; indeed, such a purpose
would require a volume.
We propose to show, however, that strong acids and alkalies, the salts
of lead, mer/:ury and silver, and preparations of arsenic, change not their
properties l/inder the disguise of fancy names. And that although they
may for a /tim e soften the skin, give gloss to the hair, and tint to the
cheek and/ the lip, the time is but hastened w’hen the lily and the rose
give placS to a leaden hue, and the lips of carmine to a livid blue.
To be/powdered and scented is among the first conditions of infantile
refinement. And when we take into consideration the extent of this
practical we begin to have some conception of the amount of material




1862.]

Cosmetics.

141

thus used ; and wc also cease to wonder at the continuance of a practice
in advanced years, which, in our childhood, we are taught to consider as
one of the chief conditions of the toilet. Many tons weight of toilet
powders are doubtless used annually in this country for the infantile
toilet alone. These are generally composed of various starches, prepared
from wheat, rice, arrow-root, and various nuts mixed with different pro­
portions of powdered talc, oxide o£ bismuth and oxide of zinc, scented
with various aromatics.
P erle P ow der , according to the common acceptation of the term,
consists of equal parts of oxide of bismuth and oxide of zinc, with six­
teen parts of French chalk. French, hlanc is levigated talc passed
through a silk sieve. This when well prepared is probably the best
face powder made, inasmuch as it dcies not discolor from cutaneous
exhalation or an impure atmosphere. Calcined talc is also extensively
used under various names, and is unobjectionable ; but it is less unctuous
to the feel, and more likely to be seen th^n genuine French blanc.
R ouges are usually made by mixing coloring matter with either of
the above-named powders. The finest kind^ are made by mixing carmine
with French blanc, in different proportions, say one part of carmine to
from eight to twenty parts of blanc, in ordei\ to produce different shades
of color, for different complexions, from blonde to brunette. Rouges are
prepared and sold in the form of powder, caka, and paste or pomade; in
the last form, the compound generally contaims a minute proportion of
tragacanth, or other gum, and is put up in pots. In some instances the
rouge is spread upon fine card paper, and carefully dried, when it assumes
a beautiful greenish tint, and loses the appearantce of rouge. The same
effect is also sometimes observed in “ pink saucers,” and in what is known
as Chinese book rouge. Such rouges are generally of fine quality, and
when moistened with a piece of cotton and applied! to the lips or cheeks,
the color assumes a beautiful rosy hue. Common p\ink saucers are made
by washing safflower ( Carthamus tinctorius) in wa\ter until the coloring
matter is removed, and then dissolving out the carnhamine, or coloring
principle, by a weak solution of carbonate of soda, 'who coloring is then
precipitated into the saucers by the addition of sulrahuric acid to the
solution. Spanish wool and Crepon rouge are made! by the same pro­
cess. Other common rouges obtain their coloring byxthe admixture of
Brazil wood or santal; and ignorant or careless personas sometimes use
cinnabar—the red sulplmret of mercury. It makes a Very fine-looking
rouge, but it causes a diseased condition of the parts to» which it is ap­
plied, and, being liable to absorption, may poison the constitution and
even destroy life.
Various other paints, or what the French commonly\ denominate
fards , are chiefly made for theatrical use ; but they are, nevertheless, ex­
tensively used by private individuals. Unfortunately, most oil these have
for a basis white lead. They are soft and unctuous to the t<\uch, easily
adherent and persistent; they appear to give pliability to the!skin, ren­
dering it soft and smooth as fine kid. These are the chief comVnendable
qualities of highly deleterious and extensively-used compouiVds, sold
under various names, to be used as cosmetics. White lead, thus applied,
is readily absorbed, and exercises a most injurious effect upon the »ystem.
It acts insidiously, but gradually and constantly undermines the iconstitution, and lays the foundation of the most incurable and dangerouks dis­




142

Cosmetics.

[February,

eases. It perverts tlie vitality of the sldn, paralizes the perspiratory
functions, and diminishes or destroys the#capillary circulation. The sldn
appears tarnished and shrivelled, or talles on a deadened hue; and the
countenance assumes the appearance <mt dissipated habits or premature
old age. The morbid products of thje circulation, ■which were destined
to be eliminated by the functions of /the skin, are retained in the blood,
or devolved upon the functions of otlier organs. All the secretions be­
come more or less deranged. Digesftion is seriously interrupted or sus­
pended, violent colics ensue, and t/lie food which is necessary for the
nourishment of the system fails ini its purpose, is loathed or rejected.
This general perturbation of the fifmctions reflects upon the nervous cen­
tres, and the fatal symptoms of a/ softened spinal marrow or brain at last
leave no hope for relief but in ifleath. This is no over-wrought picture.
In France, where the conservators of public health constitute an intelli­
gent portion of every municipality, prosecutions for selling fatally dele­
terious fards are far from being uncommon. And it has been clearly
proven by some of the most scientific men of France, that the health and
lives of many distinguished / artistes and women of fashion have been
sacrificed by the use of poisonous cosmetics. In this country, where
there are no checks upon ih e ignorant or the base who prepare these
things for the multitude, examination into the causes will clearly demon­
strate the conclusion, that lfnany of our own artistes and leaders of fashion
owe their premature loss J >f excellence much more to the use of poison­
ous cosmetics, than to, whjat is too commonly supposed, dissipated habits.
M ilks and E mulsions fare nearly allied to paints. Everybody knows
that many seeds and nulls, when divested of their outside covering, and
reduced to a pulpy mails by being thoroughly rubbed up with water,
may be made to resenable milk. This appearance is due to the minute
mechanical division oft the oil of the nuts thus treated. But all such
substances arc exceedingly liable to decomposition, and, unless fixed by
the addition of otherl matter, they quickly spoil. They can generally be
fixed for a short ti«ne by the addition of a small proportion of alcohol
and aromatic oils; fend these additions, if well proportioned, may serve
to render such conlpounds desirable and innocent cosmetics. It is too
often the case, liojivevcr, that the maker and vender of these compounds
regards his purse! more than the health of his patrons. Arsenic, corro­
sive sublimate a i d prussic acid are known to possess antiseptic proper­
ties, that is to la y , they are preservatives against decomposition. In
milks and emulsions, the most highly commended for the preservation of
health and beafeity, it is no uncommon thing to find, upon analysis, these
deadly poisonm, arsenic, corrosive sublimate and prussic acid !
P omades frequently contain the acetate and carbonate of lead, corro­
sive sublimajRe and cinnabar; in which case they contain all the injurious
qualities peltaining to the same poisons in fards, as above described.
H air D # es and D e pil a t o r ie s .—The use of this class of cosmetics is,
perhaps, fiur more ancient and extensive than that of any other. A recent
traveler* # states that, among other curiosities found in the Egyptian
tombs o f# Sahara, was a piece of reed, containing a quantity of powder
such a s # is used even at this day by the Egyptian women to color the
eyelashes. It is supposed to be the same custom as that referred to by




* Dr. Shaw.

1862.]

Cosmetics.

143

the prophet J er em ia h , when he writes that, “ Though thou rentest thy
face (or thine eyes) with painting, in vain shalt thou make thyself fair.”
So far as known, however, the hair dyes of the ancients were wholly ob­
tained from certain juices and gums of aromatic plants. L an eer er
informs us, that at Constantinople certain Armenians devote themselves
to the preparation of cosmetics, and among the most celebrated of these,
is a black dye for the hair, termed Raslikopetra or Rastick-Yuzi. The
name, he states, is derived from that of a metal used in the preparation
of the dye. The preparation of this dye consists in the mixture of the
dust of this metal (the nature of which is kept secret) with finely leviga­
ted nutgalls. In some cases this mass is scented by the admixture of
harsi, an odorous perfume commonly used in the seraglio. This dye is
generally kept in the form of paste, and it is applied by rubbing it on
the hair or beard with the hands. After a few days the hair assumes a
beautiful glossy black. L a n eer er attributes the fine black beards and
soft glossy black hair of the Turks to the common use of this superior
dye. The coloring property is probably wholly due to the pyrogallic
acid of the galls. Most of the lotions and perfumes prepared by apothe­
caries and hair dressers in this country, as in France, consist of compounds
holding in solution different proportions of litharge, lime and nitrate of
silver. Some of the most popular of the French dyes are sold under
such names as VEau de Perse, VEau d'Egypte, VEau de Chypre, VEau
de Chene, &c. They contain from one-eleventh to one-seventh per cent,
of sulphuret of potassium, nitrate of silver or quick lime, with minute
proportions of oxide of lead and carbonate of iron. What is sold by our
own apothecaries as “ vegetable dye,” consists of one ounce of nitrate of
silver to a pint of rose-water, put up in colored bottles. The directions
for the use of this preparation are, first, to free the hair from grease by
washing it with pearlash water or soda, and, after the hair is perfectly
dry, apply the dye by means of a brush. It does not “ strike” for seve­
ral hours, but may be hastened by exposure to sunshine. Other prepa­
rations are accompanied with a mordant, which usually consists of a
strong solution of sulphuret of potassium; still others, with ammonia,
this substance being added to correct the otherwise bad odor of the sul­
phuret of potassium; it is commonly called inodorous dye. French
“ Brown dye” is composed of sulphate of copper, ammonia, and prussiate
of potassa; this is exceedingly poisonous, but said to be a very fine
dye.
D epil a t o r ie s are substances used to remove hairs from the surface.
Ladies generally consider the growth of hair on the face, arms and neck
as prejudicial to beauty. Hence those who allow themselves to be
troubled by such physical indications of good health, make use of depila­
tories for their removal. Depilatories are always composed of strong
alkalies, and usually those which are the most injurious, the sulphurets
of arsenic and lime. Le Rusina des Orientaux, which is one of the most
esteemed of these preparations, consists of a solution of quick lime and
orpiment, (sulphuret of arsenic,) and a test of its good quality on prepa­
ration is, that it will remove the barbs of a feather. It is, indeed, a powerful
caustic, and its use requires great circumspection. An analogous prepa­
ration is generally kept by our apothecaries, and is in common use by
hair dressers. The formula for its preparation i s : best lime, slaked,
three pounds; orpiment, half a pound. Mix by means of a drum sieve.




144

Cosmetics.

[February,

Preserve the same for sale in well corked bottles. Directions for use:
mix with a sufficient quantity of water to render it of creamy consistence,
lay it over the hairs to be removed, for about five minutes, or until the
smarting produced by the application renders its removal necessary.
The part is then to be lathered and shaved (or scraped) with an ivory
razor or ivory paper-cutter; then thoroughly wash the part with warm
water, and anoint with cold cream. Simpler compounds are usually
kept, which consist of quick lime mixed with pulverized charcoal. Pa­
risian cream is composed of quick lime and orpiment, colored with pul­
verized anchusa bark, which gives to it a beautiful rose color. There
are various other hair dyes and depilatory preparations, but these are
fair samples, and are sufficient to illustrate the danger of their use. The
most usual accidents following the use of hair dyes and depilatories, are
erosions and local inflammations of the face and head, which sometimes
leave bad scars. A case of insanity was reported from one of the hospi­
tals of Berlin in 1855, which was attributed to the use of hair dye. On
analysis, this dye was found to be composed of nitrate of silver and salts
of lead.
T ooth P ow ders and M outh W ashes are also commonly classed as
cosmetics. But inasmuch as they constitute a highly sanitary class of
compounds, which cannot be said of other cosmetics, they arc worthy of
a better place. Tooth powders, soaps and washes, when properly con­
stituted, greatly assist in preserving a healthy condition of the teeth, and
therefore contribute to the act of mastication, and so promote healthy
digestion. The ill effects resulting from the accumulation of “ tartar” on
the teeth is well known to most persons; and in certain states of the
system, the secretions of the mouth are also well known to exercise an
injurious effect upon the teeth. The daily employment of a cleansing
dentifrice will not only remove the oftentimes injurious remains of food,
but will also generally prevent the accumulation of tartar or other inju- •
rious secretions. The state of the gums, too, and indeed the whole lin­
ing of the mouth, is often to be taken into account in the use of a den­
tifrice. It is plain, therefore, that these useful preparations are part of
the art of medicine; and the whole train of pernicious preparations by
charlatans, which usually contain strong acids, alkalies or opiums, in
combination with gritty substances, should be abandoned. Under ordi­
nary circumstances, mild soap, deprived of its disagreeable taste by the
incorporation of orris, sassafras, or other bland aromatics, is unquestiona­
bly the most cleansing dentifrice, and, therefore, the best. But whenever
there is any special purpose to fulfil in the use of a dentifrice, the indi­
vidual would do well to consult a physician.
C osmetic S oaps are usually made by remclting the common curd
soap of commerce and mixing with it aromatic and coloring substances,
according to the quality required. Curd soap is a nearly neutral soap,
made of soda and tallow. Oil soaps arc also sometimes used for the
same purpose. The conditions of a good toilet soap are, that it will
not shrink or change shape; produce a profuse lather during the act of
washing; leave the skin soft and not liable to chap ; and that it be either
inodorous or have a pleasant aroma. Few or none of the common com­
mercial varieties of soap possess these qualities, and, therefore, the object
of the perfumer is to produce them without in any manner impairing the
well-known properties of soap for cleansing purposes. The favorite vari-




1862 . ]

Cosmetics.

145

ety of toilet soap, supposed by many to be made of the oil of sweet
almonds, and therefore called almond soap, is generally made according
to the following formula: Finest curd soap, 1 cwt.; finest oil soap, 14
lbs.; finest marine soap, 14 lbs.; otto of almonds, 1^ lbs.; otto of cloves,
J lb .; otto of carraway, ^ lb. First melt one-half of the curd soap, and
then add the marine soap; when this is well “ crutched,” (stirred in,)
add the oil soap ; and finish with the remaining curd. When the whole
is well melted and thoroughly mixed, add the perfumes, quickly mix
them, and turn into the moulds. The finer qualities of scented soap are
made by adding the perfume after the melted soap has become nearly
cold. This is done in order to avoid the loss, by evaporation, of the
more costly perfumes. They lose about twenty per cent, of their aroma
if added to the compound while it is hot. For cheaper varieties of toilet
soap, the proportion of perfume is not only much lessened, or altogether
omitted, but common rosin soap is substituted for that which is made of
oil. “ Honey soap” is made of yellow soap and fig soft soap, scented
with the otto of citronella. It contains no honey.
It would be an endless task to undertake to characterize the qualities
of the variously-named toilet soaps. Of their composition, the above
examples will suffice. Fortunately, the aromatic substances are too
costly to be added in quantities large enough to injure the well-known
qualities of soap, or to have any injurious effect upon the skin. And,
since they rather serve as temptations to the use of soap, and, therefore,
to the promotion of cleanliness, the practice deserves encouragement.
Of medicated soaps, however, the case is altogether different. It is plain
that the variety of substances which may be incorporated with soap is
endless; but it is equally plain that if medicine of any kind is to bo
applied to the skin, it is much better to apply it after the use of
soap than with it, and that it is much better to apply medicine under
the direction of a physician than that of a soap vender.
Finally, in the choice of cosmetics, of whichsoever class, those known to
be inert should always be preferred to those of doubtful properties, how­
ever agreeable to the senses. And it should constantly be borne in
mind, that whatever is a foe to health is an enemy to beauty.
D angerous C osmetics .—At a recent sitting of the Academy of Medi­
cine here, Dr. R e v eil read a paper on the necessity of preventing per­
fumers from selling poisonous or dangerous articles, which should be left
exclusively to the responsibility of regular chemists, and not sold without
a physician’s prescription. “ To show the danger there is in allowing
the unchecked sale of certain compounds,” he said, “ I need but state
that arsenic, the acid nitrate of mercury, tartar emetic, cantharides, colcliicum, and potassa caustica, form part of their ingredients. The kind
of soap called lettuce soap, which is sold with the announcement that it
has been acknowledged by the Academy, does not contain the slightest
trace of lettuce. This and other soaps are all colored green by the sesqui oxide of chromium, or of a rose color by the bi-sulphuret of mercury,
known as vermillion. Some, which are cheaper, contain thirty per cent,
of insoluble matter, such as lime or plaster, while others contain animal
nitrogenous matter, which, having escaped the process of saponification,
emits a bad smell when its solution is left exposed to the air.”
V O L . X L v i.— N O . I I .
10




146

Chambers of Commerce and Boards of Trade.

[February,

CHAMBERS OF COMMERCE AND BOARDS OF TRADE.

T he C ham ber of C ommerce of N ew -Y ork .

Monthly Meeting, January 2,1861.
T h e regular monthly meeting of the Chamber of Commerce was held

at 1 o’clock, Thursday, January 2d. A. A. Low, Esq., Second Vice-Presi­
dent, in the chair. About fifty members were present.
Messrs. J ohn E. F orbes , N o. 103 Wall-street; D an iel W illis J am es ,
N o. 21 Cliff-street; J ohn S lade , No. 22 Park Place; G eo rg e C abot
W ard , N o. 66 Wall-street, and D avid W atts , N o. 45 Broad-street,
were elected members.
Arbitration Committee.—Hon. G eorge O pd t k e having resigned his
position as Chairman of the Arbitration Committee, in assuming the
duties of Mayor of the City of Neit-York, Mr. R obert B. M inturn was
unanimously elected Chairman, and Mr. J ohn C. G re en as a member of
the committee.
Protection of Merchant Vessels against Privateers.— Capt. C. H . M ar ­
shall , from the committee appointed to memorialize Congress on the
subject of protecting merchant vessels in the European trade against
rebel privateers, reported the following, and spoke in very favorable terms
of the gratifying reception which the committee has met with, when pre­
senting the memorial at Washington.
Memorial to President Lincoln.—The Special Committee of the NewYork Chamber of Commerce reported the following memorial, which, on
the 10th of December, was duly transmitted to the President of the
United States, was read.*
Mr. T homas T ilesto n , in connection with the report, spoke of the
pleasure and satisfaction derived by the committee from a visit to the
Treasury Department, and pronounced a high eulogy on the AssistantSecretary, Mr. H arrington , for the precision, system and accuracy with
which business was conducted, especially in regard to the large amount
of treasury notes.
The New Tariff.—Re-assessing Goods in Bond.—The Chairman (A. A.
Low) brought to the attention of the Chamber the tariff of December
25, which he considered, in some of its features, a departure from the
general principles which have governed the legislation of this country.
At no previous time in our history has a tariff bill been passed so sud­
denly and unexpectedly, or one embracing two features so objectionable,
viz.: In its action (according to the interpretation given by Secretary
C ha se ) on goods on shipboard, which have heretofore been exempt, and
on goods in bond. He was not quite sure that the act would be made
to revoke the exemption given to goods on board ship ; but that goods
in bond, which had been assessed already, should be re-assessed at a
* S e e M erchants’ M agazine, for J a n u a ry , pages 4 2 and 43.




1 8 6 2 .]

Chambers of Commerce and Boards o f Trade.

147

higher rate, was an injustice which he felt assured Congress never con­
templated, and which the Chamber should remonstrate against.
Mr. B oyal P h elps moved the following:
Resolved, That the merchants of New-York have seen with regret the
construction which the Secretary of the Treasury has put upon the late act
of Congress in relation to an increase of duties on certain articles of
merchandise, and that the Executive Committee of this Chamber be in­
structed to prepare a remonstrance to its being made applicable to goods
in bond, imported prior to the passage of said law, and goods on ship­
board on the 5th of August.
Mr. O pd y k e agreed with the Chairman in considering the policy of
taxing goods in bond as absolutely wrong ; still, on a careful perusal of
the bill, he thought the Secretary of the Treasury justified in the inter­
pretation he had put upon it. He felt confident that Congress had not
intended to act in this manner, and that on the remonstrance of the
Chamber they would pass an explanatory act, modifying it.
Mr. P h e l p s thought the construction put upon the bill by Secretary
C hase a forced one. To plain merchants, and (as he was informed) ac­
cording to numerous legal authorities, goods are “ imported,” when the
merchant presents his manifest at the Custom-House ; therefore the sec­
tion declaring that from and after the passage of the act, in lieu of duties
heretofore imposed by law, there shall be levied, collected and paid on
articles “ imported from foreign countries” the duties named, did not
fairly apply to goods in bond. No merchant, on reading the bill, as it
was published some days ago, would think of putting such a construc­
tion upon i t ; otherwise they might have availed themselves of the time
intervening the publication of the bill and its going into operation, to
have paid the duties heretofore assessed, and entered their goods. But
goods in bond were already “ imported,” and could not be said to be im­
ported again. He attributed the interpretation given by Mr. C hase to
the distracted state of public affairs at the present moment, especially in
view of the suspension of specie payments by the banks.
Mr. J onathan S tdeges sta te d th a t h e was inform ed by m em bers of th e
com m ittee w ho p re p a re d an d re p o rte d th e bill, th a t th e re w as no in ten tio n
to apply it to goods in bond. B y th e in te rp re ta tio n given to it, th e govern­
m e n t m ig h t reach articles in th e h an d s of th e consum er.
Mr. O pd yke was satisfied that Congress had not such an intention in

passing the bill; but as the language stood, it warranted the interpreta­
tion given by Secretary C ha se . He read the entire clause, to show that
it required the increased duties to be paid hereafter on all merchandiseimported, whether imported before or subsequent to the passage of the
act. The Assistant Secretary told him (Mr. O pd yk e ) that Mr. C hase
would review his decision. Undoubtedly if he considered his interpre­
tation erroneous, he would at once modify i t ; but he knew the Secre­
tary well enough to be sure, if he arrived at the conclusion that his first
decision was right, it would be useless to expect him to change it.
Mr. P . M. W etmore hoped the committee of the Chamber having in
charge the interest of the commercial community would consider the
whole matter of the bill in a wide sense, and would remonstrate against
any legislation on tariffs which did not give time for the facts to reach
commercial cities. Did any one suppose that this bill in any of its ele­
ments had reached San Francisco before it became a law ?. How could




148

Chambers of Commerce and Boards o f Trade.

[February,

m erchants deal w ith each other, or w ith th e governm ent, u n d e r such cir­
cum stances ?
Mr. T ileston remarked that every tariff heretofore enacted had been

prospective. That this should be retrospective, was opposed to every
consideration of justice and to the spirit of pur government.
The resolution was passed unanimously.
Internal Taxation.—Mr. B ichard L athers , in th e sam e connection, of­
fered th e fo llo w in g :

Resolved, That the Executive Committee of the Chamber of Com­
merce be a committee, with power to add to their number, to consider
and digest a respectful memorial to Congress, asking for a speedy passage
of effective laws by which such equal taxation shall be levied on the sev­
eral States, and a judicious system of excise as to sustain the public
credit, and form a stable basis for payments of the interest, and the ulti­
mate liquidation of the principal of the public debt.
In proposing the resolution, Mr. L athers said:
The finances of the country have now reached a crisis, which, if not
generally obvious cannot fail to alarm the mercantile interests. The re­
bellion has not only destroyed a large part of our domestic commerce,
impaired our mercantile capital, but has seriously affected our foreign
commerce, both for merchandise and shipping. The patriotism of a
loyal people has, notwithstanding, thus far nobly sustained the efforts of
the government by large armies, and ample means to sustain them in the
field. Perhaps this Chamber, by the patriotic energy of its leading mem­
bers, has already performed its whole duty to the important interest it
represents, in the early struggle to maintain the integrity of the Union
against secession and its train of evils. But it was well said by a distin­
guished soldier, “ that nothing was done till all was accomplished.” And
as the finances of the country are likely to become seriously deranged, our
commerce and other industrial interests much impaired, if not destroyed,
by vicious or inert legislation, and as the government credit is seriously
imperilled, and its future large negotiations of doubtful success, it would
seem proper that this Chamber should call the attention of Congress
and the public to the necessity of sustaining the administration by prac­
tical and speedy legislation, for putting our fiscal matters on a permanent
footing, worthy of a great and loyal people, whose means are as ample as
their patriotism is earnest to sustain the Constitution and the Union. It
is to be regretted that too much time has been spent by many of our repre­
sentatives during the present session of Congress in profitless discussion of
subjects of no practical interest, and in feeble investigations of misfor­
tunes and frauds always incident to war, and only to be corrected by
future watchfulness, rather than by crimination of the parties involved.
In times like these the government must necessarily make many blunders,
and officials commit many indiscretions ; yet, to be extreme in criticism and
captious in non-essentials, is to contribute materially to defeat the cause, al­
though, perhaps, the punishment of the individual is all that is intended.
The government is only on trial at the ballot-box ; and so long as it conforms
to the Constitution and the laws made under it, no citizen has a right to
withhold a full and hearty support of all its measures for sustaining the
law and the supremacy of the government over every State of the Union.
Any thing short of this is unworthy of a good citizen; and the factious
attacks covertly directed against the administration and its military com-




1862 .]

Chambers of Commerce and Boards o f Trade.

149

manders by individuals bolding extreme opinions, for tbe purpose of
driving them counter to their constitutional duties or official judgment,
is little short of rebellion. But one impulse should now move the pub­
lic heart—to sustain the government by strong arms and ready purses in
defence of the Union. Discussion of abstract policy is now out of
place. The civil government, and the military commanders under it, decide
the policy of their respective jurisdiction, subject only to the Constitu­
tion and the laws ; while the province of the people and their represen­
tatives is most usefully filled by practical legislation and earnest efforts
to sustain the war to a successful issue, by men and money, freely and
promptly given. It is unfortunate that the advocates of protection
should have availed themselves of the present national crisis to still fur­
ther paralize commerce by the prohibition of so large a part of our for­
eign imports, and the destruction of our carrying trade. It has done
much to estrange friendly foreign powers from us, and tends to alienate
the affections of the West from the East, whose manufacturers reap great
advantages at their expense under the high tariff. Yet, great as are these
evils, we are threatened in addition with an unconvertible currency, an
enormous public debt, and, I fear, an impaired public credit, unless Con­
gress can be induced to come up to the exigency of the times, with the wis­
dom and energy of statesmen who desire to serve their country by prac­
tical measures of relief, nationally and not sectionally considered. The
credit of the government can only he sustained by adequate taxation of
all the interests and in all the sections of the country. If the govern­
ment is not sustained, all interests perish with it, andjno section is worthy
of representation in Congress which shall neglect or refuse to bear its
fair share of the public burden; and no representative is worthy of pub­
lic confidence who shall defer to such a constituency under any pretence
whatever. These are times that individuals and communities are to be
estimated by their acts. Money is strictly a practical issue with nations ;
large expenditures cannot he liquidated by mere professions of loyalty to
the government, and loud denunciations of rebellion on the part of indi­
viduals, whose purse-strings are unmoved by their patriotism. War
always presents a practical test to the individuals of a nation, not only as
a question of personal bravery, hut also of liberality ; and financier's dis­
count public stocks on good terms in proportion as such liberality is en­
dorsed by taxation adequate for the ultimate redemption of such bills as
are drawn in part on posterity. The continental issues of our own nation
and the French assignats became worthless, because not properly endorsed
by taxation; while the enormous debt of Great Britain commands public
favor, and lias always enjoyed public confidence at home and abroad, be­
cause simultaneously with every issue was enacted and enforced adequate
taxation for a basis of the respective credits. If the people are candidly
appealed to in the spirit of patriotism to sustain the government, by a
prompt and liberal response in the way of taxation, I am confident of suc­
cess, and not only will the public negotiations be favorably made, but the
saving to the public financially will greatly lighten public burdens and
future taxation of the country. Our banking institutions, now greatly
embarrassed by their liberal aid to the government, will be relieved, and,
with a well-sustained public credit, mercantile and industrial interests
will revive, and in turn alleviate public burdens.
I merely suggest these crude remarks, not wishing at present to occupy
the valuable time of the Chamber by elaborating them. But I am confident




150

Chambers of'Commerce and Boards o f Trade.

[February,

that no fiscal ingenuity can now supply the place of taxation which will
meet the requirements of the public credit; and I am unwilling to be­
lieve that a nation, supplying 650,000 men in defence of its government,
will refuse to contribute the means to sustain them in the field.
Apart from the peculiar functions of this Chamber, in guarding the in­
terests of commeree, many of us represent large pecuniary interests in the
government issues, and may, I think, with much propriety, take the lead
in seconding the earnest efforts of the able Secretary of the Treasury,
Mr. C ha se , in sustaining the government, and facilitating his future nego­
tiations in a practicable manner.
Mr. D en n in g D cer seconded the resolution. The expenses of govern­
ment, with the amount necessary for a sinking fund, would require a
revenue of two hundred millions a year. They could not derive more
than one hundred millions from import duties, and would have to make
up the other one hundred millions from internal taxes.
Captain M arshall agreed with the resolution in every respect. We
had the rebellion to put down, and it could not be done without money;
and he hoped such measures would be taken as to meet the loans that
merchants and bankers had given so freely. He regretted that legisla­
tion on the tariff had been conducted with a view to protection, instead
of revenue; and he hoped government would make a tariff with a view
to revenue alone.
The resolution was carried.
Coinage in Neio-York.—The Chairman remarked, that the memorial
to Congress, in reference to coinage at New-York, had been promptly
placed before the Senate of the United States b y Senator K in g , of NewYork, who observed that, as the memorial contained much valuable sta­
tistical information, he desired it might be printed for the use of the
members.
An interesting donation has been made to the Chamber by the Secre­
tary, in photographic portraits of Messrs. C obden and B righ t , of Eng­
land, and M. C h e v a lie r , of France. The picture represents these gen­
tlemen as engaged together in the discussion of the British-French treaty
of 1861—a treaty in which Mr. C obden was conspicuous.
Mr. T ilesto n corrected a statement he had made at the former meet­
ing, that the legislature of New-Jersey taxed through passengers on
rail-roads fifty cents a head. It is now fixed at ten cents.
Mr. D cer wished the gentleman to also correct the statement that the
State had made $600,000 out of such tax. It did not average $80,000 a
year.
The Stevens Battery.—The Secretary read an invitation from E. A.
Stevens to witness the experiments on the Stevens battery, on Saturday,
January 4.
Mr. W etmore moved the acceptance of the invitation, and also the
appointment of a committee (of w'hich the Chairman should be one) to
make a report thereon.
Mr. P h e lps hoped that the Chamber would not so far depart from its
legitimate business as to appoint such a committee.
Captain M arshall inquired of Mr. W etm ore if he was not aware th e
government had rejected the battery.
Mr. W etm ore desired, for that reason, to have a committee. H e
would have more confidence in a report from Captain M arshall than
from the government officials.




1862.]

Chambers o f Commerce and Boards o f Trade.

151

Captain M arshall said lie had visited it with the committee from
government, and could not help pronouncing it a total failure from be­
ginning to end. Seven hundred thousand dollars had already been spent
on it, and it was stated that eight hundred thousand dollars more would
be required for its completion; and, with all that, he considered it a
craft that would never float.
The question being put on Mr. W etm ore ’s motion, was declared car­
ried, and the Chairman was called upon to name a committee.
The following gentlemen were nominated for membership of the
Chamber of Commerce : H iram B arney , Collector of the Port of NewYork, nominated by C. H. M a r sh a ll ; R ichard K. H aight , 57 Broad­
way, nominated by J. S mith H omans. And the Chamber adjourned.
J. S mith H omans, Secretary.
C hamber of C ommerce , S an F rancisco , N ov . 29th, 1861.
STEAM

TO

CHINA.

At an adjourned meeting of the Chamber of Commerce, San Francisco,
held Wednesday, Nov. 27th, 1861, the following memorial was unani­
mously adopted, and copies ordered to be sent to the honorable Senators
and Representatives of California in Congress, and to the Chambers of
Commerce and Boards of Trade in the Atlantic cities:
San Francisco, Nov. 27th, 1861.
G eo r g e H. K ellogg , Esq., President Chamber of Commerce:
Dear Sir,—Your committee, appointed under resolution of the Cham­
ber, to take necessary steps to call the attention of the Congress of the
United States to the importance of establishing a steam mail line from
San Francisco to Japan and China, beg leave to report:
That they have availed themselves of all the information at their com­
mand, and of the knowledge of the subject-matter in consideration, both
in a commercial and nautical point of view, possessed by many of our
citizens.
Your committee are deeply impressed with the importance of the
establishment of this line of steamers, and its value to our State commer­
cially ; and have prepared the annexed memorial as an expression of the
views of the Chamber of Commerce of San Francisco on this subject.
And, in conclusion, beg leave to suggest that members of the Chamber
and citizens, who have statistical or other information on the subject,
should, by letter or otherwise, convey it to our congressional repre­
sentatives.
W . C. R alston ,
W illiam G ibb ,
A lexander F orbes ,
T. G. C ary ,

H en ry C arlton , J r .,
B . D avidson ,
C. H. B aldw in ,
A lbert D ibbl ee .

To the Honorable Senate and House of Representatives, United States of
America:

The Chamber of Commerce of San Francisco, representing the mer­
cantile interest of California and of the American portion of the Pacific
coast, would respectfully submit to the Congress of the United States,
that, in their judgment, a steam mail across the Pacific, to Japan and




152

Chambers o f Commerce and Boards o f Trade.

[February,

China, in subsidized steamers, or in armed vessels of the government, by
which treasure shipments can be made and protected, is a necessity called
for by the present and prospective extent of our commerce on the Pacific
Ocean.
We would respectfully call attention to the fact that, from our posi­
tion, our whole business, even with the States of our own Union, has to
be transacted by ocean lines of packets, and that our business has been
greatly instrumental in building the American merchant marine to its
present power and strength. The value of our commerce to the ship­
owning interests of the Union may be estimated by the freights paid in
the city of San Francisco, annually, to inward-bound ships, amounting to
four and one-fourth millions of dollars, while our out freights of cereals
alone have been equal to the lading of seventy-five medium clippers per
annum.
We would also call attention to the fact, that our business with the
other States of the Union, amounting to nearly forty millions of dollars
per annum, costs our State, for remittance of treasure, one and one-fourth
millions per year.
And we would, as proof of the great and growing importance of the
trade of this State, call the attention of your honorable Body to the fol­
lowing statement of facts having a direct bearing on the establishment of
the line of steamers herein asked for.
That recent shipments made of our gold bullion to China have been
received with such favor that a great reduction in the price of Mexican
dollars in this market has been made, decreasing comparatively the cost
of all importations of Chinese production, paid for in bullion, five per
cent., which will, if continuous, amount to near one million per annum
on the business of the United States. The fact is thus established that
gold bullion is a good remittance. The Chinese merchants of San Fran­
cisco are now exclusively using gold bars in preference to silver in their
remittances to their countrymen. These facts are indicative that the
tide of Eastern exchange has already begun to turn in favor of the gold
production of California; and all indications now point unmistakably to
the conclusion that, within a few years after the establishment of
the line of steamers asked for, the entire production of the precious
metals of California will be absorbed in the East India and China busi­
ness.
That our productions and export of silver and quicksilver will rapidly
increase in amount, and that it is desirable that means should be provided
by which our silver may speedily and directly reach its best market, on
the Asiatic coast.
That a line of mail steamships from San Francisco to China, in con­
nection with the Continental Telegraph, will give to American merchants
the advantages of more rapid communication of commercial intelligence
than will be possessed by their European competitors.
That the means of regular monthly or bi-monthly shipments of trea­
sure from San Francisco to China will have a tendency to make NewYork and San Francisco the turning points in all exchange which require
payments in bullion, and will increase the financial importance of the
United States in our relations with other commercial nations.
That large amounts of silver, produced in the countries south of Cali­
fornia, are now shipped to China by foreign vessels and indirect routes,




1862.]

Chambers o f Commerce and Boards o f Trade.

153

the freights and profits of which might be obtained to American com­
merce by the establishment of a China steam mail.
That the change of routine in our commercial arrangements with East­
ern nations, consequent on the growth and commercial importance of
California, is yearly increasing the number of commercial travellers who
seek their Asiatic destination, or return, via San Francisco.
That a line of steamers across the Pacific, while extending and
strengthening our own commerce, would divert the trade, passengers
and commerce of other nations to our ports, and to the benefit of .our
ships and people. The lines of steamers on the Pacific coast already
extend from Chili to Vancouver Island, which would connect with, and
he tributary to, the mail line between California and China.
That close commercial relations with the Asiatic nations would tend
to the growth of a merchant marine and ship-building interest on the
Pacific, that would add greatly to the wealth of the nation in time of
peace, and to our strength, safety and power in war.
That the wealth of our material resources, the extent of our coast and
our distance from other States of the Union, renders it imperative, that
in peace wo should be strengthened, that we may have ability to meet
the exigencies of war without that aid from the general government of
which our position may deprive this State.
That with the establishment of a steam mail from San Francisco to
China, the debt of the United States to eastern nations can be paid at
great saving to the nation at large, and also at a great saving to the
State of California, in an increased value of her gold and silver and other
exports.
That our shipping and commerce, both on the American and Asiatic
coast, need the protection and encouragement that an efficient steam
navy only can give.
That California’s commerce with China is rapidly increasing, having
doubled within the last year, and that there is, in that country, a grow­
ing demand for the production of our fields and forests, which may be
fostered into an extensive commerce.
That our commercial relations with Japan are precarious, from the
want of frequent presence of an adequate naval force.
That foreign nations are active and persistent in efforts to monopolize
the commerce of the Asiatics, to the detriment of the American com­
merce on the Pacific.
That the aggregate of tonnage arriving at San Francisco, in 1859, was
598,631 tons; of which 47,519 tons cleared for China, and 18,378 tons
for other ports in the East Indies. The arrivals from China, 27,814
tons; from other ports in East Indies, 10,780 tons, on which the freight
values were near four hundred thousand dollars, and cargo values,
$2,662,241.
That our import of treasure for the year 1859, was $2,516,152; and
our export of treasure, $47,640,462; of which $3,100,755 were sent to
China in forty-five vessels. The amount shipped in 1860, $3,374,680, in
thirty-two vessels.
That our export of commodities, exclusive of bullion, have increased
three millions within the last year, amounting, for the year 1860, to
$8,532,439; of which amount, $4,918,336 were the productions of our
State. The export of barley increased from 15,000 sacks, in 1854, to




154

Chambers of Commerce and Boards o f Trade.

[February,

163,249, in 1859; while our wheat export, from 4,06V sacks, valued at
$14,900, in 1854, reached the valuation of $1,854,259, in 1860. Our
export of wool, in 1854, was valued at $14,000; in 1860, its valuation
was $392,502 ; showing an amount of progress in material interests and
general wealth, under all the disadvantages of distance from the other
States and the central government, indicative of what our future effort
will accomplish.
That for the protection of the American commerce of the Pacific,
large steamers are not required; and that the cost of naval service on
this ocean may be much lessened if a portion of the steamers are engaged
in the carriage of the mails and treasure freights, as such steamers, when
necessity requires, are at the speedy control of the commander of the
San Francisco and China naval stations, having the entire naval force of
the North Pacific within a month’s call of the Department, making a less
force necessary in time of peace, and creating a readiness and efficiency
in time of war.
That, as a progressive people, we believe it desirable to use our steam
navy in forwarding the interests of commerce—a desire which is almost
a necessity, from the amount and value, and the dangers to which our
specie shipments are exposed.
That although this service may be rendered American commerce by
the vessels of our steam navy, a less interrupted service could be made
by subsidized steamers, whose efficiency for warlike purposes may be
insured by frequent official inspection.
That our treasure exports are sufficient, not only to pay the annual
balance of trade due from the United States to eastern nations, but also
a portion of that of other nations with whom the United States have
commercial relations; that, by the shipment of our bullion direct to
China, American merchants will save the exchanges, interest and com­
missions they now pay other nations, while our State will save the costs
we now pay in its transport, amounting in the aggregate to a much
larger sum than the establishment of the mail will cost to the federal
government.
That a steam mail line from San Francisco to China will be a general
commercial benefit to the country; were it exclusively to the benefit of
California, our liberal contribution to the metallic wealth and general
business interest of the Union would make it our due; but in receiving
this aid to our State’s interest, California only shares in a benefit to the
commerce of the whole Union, and of every consumer of India-grown
products in our population.
Your memorialists would also say, in conclusion, the mail line across
the Pacific cannot, for many years, be established without the aid of
government, and that the aid and protection we seek is a necessity of
our present commerce, and an enterprise, the great importance of which,
to the United States, can scarcely be over-estimated; we therefore pray
your earnest and immediate attention to the subject of this memorial, in
the confident hope that you will grant the relief asked for, by subsidizing
a mail line of steamships from California to Japan and China, or give
such other relief as may appear for the best interests of the United States
and the States of the Pacific coast.
[Attest.]
G eo rge H. K ellogg , President.
W m. R. W adsw orth , Secretary.




1862.]

Trade with China, Japan and the Amoor.

155

T R A D E W I T H C HI N A , J A P A N AND T H E AMOOR.
M EM O RIA L O F P . M . D . C O L L IN S , E S Q ., L A T E C O M M E R C IA L A G E N T O F TH E
U N IT E D S TA TES A T T H E M OU TH O F T H E A M O O R .

To the Chamber of Commerce of the State of New-York :
T iie undersigned would most respectfully and earnestly represent unto
your honorable body, that he has, for several years past, been occupied in
attempting to bring the attention of our government as well as our mer­
chants to the development of a new field of commercial enterprise, viz.,
Northeastern Asia.
In April, 1856, he obtained the appointment of “ Commercial Agent
for the Amoor,” and, having proceeded immediately to Russia, succeeded
in procuring the authorization of the Emperor A l e x a n d e r II. to visit the
Amoor country.
In December of the same year he set out from Moscow, and, after a
voyage of some five thousand miles through Siberia, reached the head­
waters of the Amoor at Cheta.
Having spent some months in visiting the gold and silver mines, and
other objects of interest in Trans-Baikal, he embarked on the river Ingodah,
an affluent of the Schilkah, which flows into the Amoor, and reached the
Strait of Tartary in August, making a continuous voyage on the three
rivers of some twenty-six hundred miles, to the Pacific Ocean.
Having also visited Japan, he proceeded to Kamschatka, and sailing
thence, via the Sandwich Islands, reached San Francisco late in the fall of
1857.
This voyage, undertaken purely in a commercial point of view, com­
prehended, as a natural result, the practicability of steam, rail-road and
telegraphic communication over and through the country visited.
Without dwelling on either the first or second, which have been fully
reported upon to our government, he will speak only of the third tele­
graphic communication.
The country over which he passed, much to his surprise, from all re­
ports and accounts previously received, proved to be much more favor­
ably adapted to telegraphic communication than his most sanguine ex­
pectations had led him to hope.
There is absolutely nothing in the climate, the country, the inhabit­
ants, or the absence of inhabitants, that militates to as great an extent
against the practicability of telegraphic communication as we have on
our Pacific line, from St. Louis to San Francisco.
Starting from Moscow, we have an uninterrupted land route, mostly
along a great imperial highway, to the mouth of the Amoor, a distance
of seven thousand miles.
After reaching the mouth of the Amoor, we have a choice of three
routes by which to reach, over the intervening space of some three
thousand miles, the shores of America.
It is not necessary to discuss at any length the relative merits of these
various routes. In my humble opinion, the capital undertaking the enter-




156

Trade with China, Japan and the Amoor.

[February,

prise of constructing the line will determine the best route, from a purely
financial point of view.
The undersigned has already, in various preliminary modes, proceeded
to bring the question of European-American telegraphic union across
Asiatic Russia, before the Emperor of Russia, the Canadian Parliament
and the Congress of the United States.
It is argued in Russia that, inasmuch as the United States, in view of
her vast commerce with Europe, is more largely interested than Russia
in the consummation of the enterprise, should lead off in the encourage­
ment of the proposition.
This argument really seems to have considerable force now, inasmuch
as Russia lias commenced, on her own account and charge, the construc­
tion of a continuous line to connect Europe with the Pacific at the
Amoor, being actually more than half of the whole distance from St.
Petersburg to San Francisco.
At the last regular session of Congress a memorial was presented, ask­
ing the co-operation and aid of our government, in making the proposed
survey and reconnoissance of a route for a telegraph line, from the Rus­
sian frontier, adjoining the British possessions on the Pacific coast, to the
mouth of the Amoor.
The right had previously been obtained from the Russian government
to make the survey, in view of connecting the Russian telegraph, which
is to terminate at the Amoor, with our system of telegraphs, either at
San Francisco or St. Louis.
The grant of the survey by the Imperial government contemplates the
ultimate union of the whole world telegraphically, over the Russo-American line.
Since these negotiations were set on foot, St. Louis has been united
to San Francisco by the construction of the Pacific telegraph; conse­
quently the whole American system has touched the shores of the Pacific
Ocean.
In my correspondence with the Russian government, the original pro­
position to tap the European system at Moscow has been abandoned, in
consequence of the order of the Emperor authorizing (commanding) the
Russian government telegraph to be pushed east to the Amoor.
Consequently, we have now only to discuss the construction of the
central link in this world-encircling chain, from the Amoor to San Fran­
cisco ; and, even while we are writing, a line is in course of construc­
tion, uniting the California lines and penetrating north to the Columbia
River.
Thus the gap is being rapidly closed up, and the undertaking, which
seemed encumbered with so many difficulties but a year or two since,
begins to assume a less formidable appearance. From the Columbia
to the Amoor is less than five thousand miles; it is over this space that
we have now to direct our whole attention.
There is not the least necessity to set forth the advantageous results to
commerce, and the national benefits to be derived by the United States
as a nation, from telegraphic union with Europe; the question, in all
its bearings, is well and fully comprehended by your honorable body.
The object now proposed is to get the assistance of our government in
aid of the enterprise ; first, a survey of the route and a subsidy, then such
other and further aid as Congress can be induced to grant.




1862.]

Recent Progress o f the Magnetic Telegraph.

157

Your memorialist would, therefore, in view of the foregoing premises,
ash of the Chamber of Commerce such action upon the subject matter—
European-American Telegraphic Union, via the North Pacific—as in the
interest of commerce may be deemed suitable and proper, so that the
action of your body may, in a legitimate and proper manner, be presented
to the Congress of the United States, now in session, in furtherance of,
and in aid of, said telegraphic proposition.
All of which is most respectfully submitted.
P er ry M cD . C ollins .

New-York, December 5th, 1861.

R E C E N T P R O G R E S S OF T H E M A G N E T I C T E L E G R A P H .
I.

T h e P a c if ic T ele g r a ph . II. T h e Ca l if o r n ia T ele g r a ph . III. T h e M alta an d A l ex a n ­
T e leg r a ph . IV. T ele g r a ph in E u r o pe . V. T e leg r a ph E x ten sio n on th e P a c if ic .

d r ia

THE

PACIFIC

TELEGRAPH.

O n Thanksgiving dav, the 28th ult., says the Rochester Union, a large
party of the workmen engaged in constructing the Pacific telegraph from
the western borders to Salt Lake City, under the direction of Mr. C r eig h ­
ton , arrived at Omaha on their return.
The line had been constructed pre­
vious to July, 1861, as far west as Julesburgh, which is on the Platt River,
300 miles east of Denver. Prom that point to Fort Bridger, about 700
miles, the line was constructed by the party of which Mr. S tarr was one.
Mr. C reighton had from 75 to 80 men employed, and they were divided
in three trains. The men of one train dug the holes, those of another
cut down the poles and set them, and the third put up the wire. In the
three trains there were about 75 wagons and 700 cattle, including a few
milch cows, to furnish milk for the men. The wagons contained from 35
to 45 hundred pounds each, consisting of wire, insulators, tools, camp equip­
age and provisions. The trains were said to be the best that ever started
over the plains—the cattle being excellent, the wagons good, and all
that pertained to the comfort of the men was in keeping with the rest.
Good tents were provided, also cooking stoves, and all the necessary
utensils for providing meals, and—what was quite in keeping with these
—the best food that could he conveyed over the plains and mountains.
The first pole was set on the 4th of July, at Julesburgh, and the last
on this section at Fort Bridger, about one hundred miles this side of
Salt Lake City, on the 15th of October. The diggers’ train went ahead
and got along at the rate of about twelve miles per day, digging about
twenty-four holes for each mile. The train which put up the poles only
made about ten miles per day, and was one hundred and fifty miles be­
hind the diggers when the latter reached the end of the route. On the
plains the digging was easy, and the work went rapidly on; in the
mountains it was slow, owing to the rocky soil.
The poles were selected, cut, stripped of bark by the men, and were




158

Recent Progress o f the Magnetic Telegraph.

[February,

then drawn out by the cattle and distributed along the line. In some lo­
calities excellent timber was found in great abundance, hard pine being
most plenty, though some cedar was obtained. Dead or dry pines were
often found in large quantities, some of which would make three poles
each of suitable size. In some localities the poles had to be cut in the
mountains, and hauled over one hundred miles. Each pole is twenty feet
in length, and is buried four feet in the ground. Through the Rocky
Mountain Pass, where the line runs, there are points where the snow is
known to cover the ground to the depth of eleven feet.
The line is well put up, and is as substantial as such a line can be. It
has a single wire, not exposed to damage from the falling of trees, as
care was taken to avoid every thing of that kind.
The route adopted was mainly along the road, across the plains and
through the mountains. To shorten distances, where the road ran in a
serpentine form, the telegraph takes a direct line, following the general
course of the road. The track pursued by the western trains over the
plains is very crooked, often made so by the cattle dying in the path.
When an animal falls, its carcass is seldom removed from the track, ex­
cept as the wolves carry it away by piece-meal; and trains which follow
turn out to avoid it, thus making a crooked track, for the bones of
thousands of animals lie bleaching along the great paths that lead from
the Missouri to the Pacific.
The constructors of this telegraph line met with no hostile Indians,
though they saw many of the natives along the way, and sometimes suf­
fered by their thieving depredations. The Indian Agent at Deer Creek,
sixty-five miles above Fort Laramie, told Mr. S tarr that one of the Sioux
chiefs conversed with him about the telegraph project before the poles
were set, and said that he understood that poles were to be set sixteen
feet high, and then strung with wires closely from top to bottom. As
this would make a wire fence, all the buffaloes and other game would be
kept from coming down to the south. He looked upon the project with
disfavor ; but when he understood that there was to be but one wire, and
that sixteen feet above the ground, he was quite relieved of his fears, and
appeared to be satisfied. Speaking of the manner in which the natives
regard the telegraph, Mr. S tarr says the antelopes were timid and dis­
trustful. Herds of them crossing the plains would stop when they came
to the telegraph, and cautiously examine the poles before venturing to
pass between them.
The stations of the telegraph operators are chiefly at the stations of
the mail company, from fifty to one hundred miles apart. There are
usually two or three persons at each station, taking care of the mules of
the stage company, and these are all the society the operator has. The
work of repairing the same must, for the present, at least, be performed
by the operators going out when they find communication with the next
station interrupted. The duty of an operator and repairer is any thing
but a pastime, and to perform it well requires hardy, courageous men,
who are not afraid to be alone, and to contend with snow storms and
whatever else they may meet in that vast wild region over which they
must sometimes travel. The right men will, in time, be found in the
right places; and of the successful working of the telegraph to the
Pacific, none are more confident than the men who constructed it, and
who, therefore, best know what obstacles are in the way.




1862.]

159

Recent Progress o f the Magnetic Telegraph.
CALIFORNIA T ELEGRAPH TAR I F F

The rates as fixed from St. Louis are according to the following table:
§ 4 25
First 10 words,..........
Next 90 words, (each,)
36
24
18
12

These rates for the lowest amount of matter telegraphed strictly con­
form to the act of Congress, which limited the maximum to $4 25 for
the first ten words, and thirty-six cents for each ■additional. The rates
from New-York to San Francisco are |5 95 for the first ten words,
and forty-eight cents for each subsequent word, the difference being the
present charges between New-York and St. Louis. As yet, through rates
are exacted upon all despatches to Salt Lake City, Carson City, and
other intermediate stations on the route, no way rates having so far been
determined on. This irregularity will, however, it is said, be of only
short duration, as at a meeting of the company, soon to be held in NewYork, a way schedule will be agreed upon. The impression that the
present rates are too high, either for the accommodation of the public or
the interests of the company, is one which time may confirm. Such is
the opinion of some of the corporators.
The President’s message of December, 1861, was telegraphed from
New-York to San Francisco in thirty-six hours. The cost of this was
about one hundred and fifty-six dollars. The difference in time between
these two places is about three hours. The ordinary time occupied in
the transmission of a short message is about three hours, so that a short
message, leaving New-York at 9 A. M., will reach San Francisco at 9 A.
M., their time.

OCEAN T E L E G R A P H

The success of the Malta and Alexandria telegraph is a guarantee of
the practicability of establishing oceanic telegraphic communications
between every part of the habitable globe. An unbroken cable of 1,400
miles in daily use is now an accomplished fact. A brief glance at the
map of the world will satisfy an observer, that, by means of cables not
exceeding that in length, telegraphic communication may be established
between the four quarters of the globe. Europe and Asia are adjacent,
but the former continent is now connected with one of the most impor­
tant ports on the African coast by the cable which has just been laid,
taken in conjunction with its northern continuation to Sicily and the
south of Italy. Between the British Isles and North America commu­
nication may be established by laying three cables, none of which equal
in length two-thirds of the cable which now unites Malta with Alexan­
dria. Greater difficulties may possibly oppose themselves in consigning
to a safe resting-place at the bottom of the North Atlantic Ocean a
thousand miles of wire, than in the comparatively placid water of the
Mediterranean Sea; but they are not difficulties which are insurmount­
able.




160

Recent Progress o f the Magnetic Telegraph.

[February,

In carrying a telegraphic cable from Scotland, by the Faroe Islands, to
Iceland, and thence to Greenland, and thence to Newfoundland, the chief
obstacle, in a commercial point of view, will be the loss incurred in case
of a mishap. Between these points the cable, when once laid, must be
regarded as laid for ever. The notion that a submarine cable once laid
with safety would never need repair, has long since exploded. So well
aware are the contractors, to whom we understand the government have
let for a term of years the Malta and Alexandria cable, of the necessity
of keeping it in constant repair, that a small steamer will be kept con­
tinually employed to recover and repair it at any place it may prove de­
fective. The impossibility of repairing, if needful, an Atlantic telegraph,
however laid, must always prove the greatest obstacle to the successful
issue of an undertaking having for its object the establishment of tele­
graphic communication between Europe and America. Still, however,
with the spectacle of a cable upwards of 1,000 miles in length, in good
working order, we are much mistaken if a second attempt is not shortly
made to bridge over, in some way or another, the vast expanse of the At­
lantic Ocean.
TELEGRAPH

IN E U R O P E .

At the late meeting of the British Association for the Advancement
of Science in Manchester, a telegraphic soiree was held in the large Free
Trade Hall, at which were present all the most distinguished men con­
nected with telegraphs in the kingdom. A great variety of instruments was
exhibited, showing a constant progress in the mechanical part of the
science ; and, to test the power of the batteries to send a message any
distance, the continental lines were connected, so that a message could
traverse the whole of Europe without interruption. With what result,
the following record, which wo take from the Mechanics' Magazine of
London, will show :
At 8 P. M. messages were exchanged with the Hague ; at 8.10 P. M.
with Hamburg; and at 8.20 P. M. with Berlin. At 8.11 P. M. a mes­
sage regarding the weather was sent to St. Petersburg, and at 8.52 the
answer was returned. At 8.55 the second question about the tempera­
ture was sent to St. Petersburg, and at 8.57 the reply was received.
At 9.5 P. M. St. Petersburg joined up the Manchester and Moscow
lines, when Manchester put the following question to Moscow :
Message.—“ 9.6 P. M.—Please say what weather you have, and also
your time.”
Reply.—“ 9.7 P. M.—It is raining. It is 36 minutes past 11.”
At 9.17 P. M. Moscow joined up the Manchester and Odessa lines,
when the following correspondence ensued :
Messaqe.—9.18 P. M. Manchester asks, “ What is your weather and
time ?”
Reply.—“ 9.20 P. M.—Weather cool, but very clear. Windy. 6
minutes past 11.”
Message.—“ 9.21 P. M. Manchester asks, “ is the harvest over ?”
(Here is rather a longer interval—the Odessa clerk having been called
away from his instrument.)




1862.]

Recent Progress o f the Magnetic Telegraph.

161

Reply.—“ 9.32 P. M.—The harvest is over, and the grapes are now in
season.”
From Odessa the line was extended to Nicolaieff, on the northwest
coast of the Black Sea; and, but for a storm raging, which interfered with
the currents of electricity, it would have been extended to Taganrog, on
the northeast coast of the Sea of Azoff, a distance of 3,100 miles. Such
were the immense spaces traversed by the electric spark sent from the
Hall in Manchester, where the British Association was assembled.
THE TELEGRAPH

EXTENSION

ON T H E P A C I F I C .

The Alta California of a late date says, Oregon has no magnetic tele­
graph as yet, but it is arranged that before the middle of 1862 Portland
shall be in communication with the wires of California, and through them
with St. Louis, New-York and Boston. Mr. J. E. S trong , who has built
many miles of telegraph in California, has spent some months in Oregon,
examining the route from Yreka to Portland, obtaining subscriptions and
making contracts for the erection of the line. Yreka, the largest town
in the extreme north of this State, on the main stage-road from Sacra­
mento to Portland, 320 miles distant from the former place, 350 from the
latter by the wire, and 25 miles from Oregon, is now in telegraphic con­
nection with the large towns of California. The main body of the popu­
lation of Oregon is in the Willamette Valley, on the northern border of
the State, and 100 miles from the ocean. Portland, the chief commer­
cial town, is only 10 miles from the Columbia River. Mr. S trong meas­
ured the distances from Yreka, by the stage-road, and found them to be
as follows, from place to place :
M iles.

M iles.

To Jackson,........................... 62-J- To Albany,........................... 10-J
To Canonville,...................... 69J To Salem,.............................. 25
To Rosebury,........................ 27 To Oregon City,.................. 37
To Oakland,........................... 18 To Portland,......................... 13
To Eugene City,.................... 57£
To Corvallis,.......................... 40
Total.......................... 300
Jacksonville is in the Rogue River Valley ; Canonville, Rosebury and
Oakland, in the Umpqua Valley, and Eugene City, Corvallis, Albany, Sa­
lem, Oregon City and Portland, are on the banks of Willamette River.
The Rogue and Umpqua rivers run westward to the Pacific, and the
AVillamette runs northward to the Columbia. There are three mountain
ranges to be crossed between Yreka and Portland, the Siskiyon range,
between the Klamath and Rogue valleys ; the Umpqua range, between the
Rogue and Umpqua valleys; and the Carapooya range, between the
Umpqua and Willamette. The Siskiyon mountains are bare to the sum­
mit, but all that portion in Oregon is covered with thick timber, and the
other mountain ranges are also heavily timbered. The valleys contain
some evergreen and oak forests^ but about half the distance from Yreka
to Portland is over prairies.
The material for poles is abundant, and the earth along the route is
favorable to their erection. The poles will be sawn eight inches square
at the bottom, four inches at the top, and 22 feet long, of which length
three feet will be put into the ground. The poles will be 88 yards apart,
V O L . X L V I.---- N O . I I .




11

Recent Progress of the Magnetic Telegraph.

162

[February,

requiring 20 to the mile. The wire will be No. 9, about a sixth of an inch
thick—a size larger than that used in California—and 320 pounds will be
used in a mile. It is impossible to determine in advance the precise
cost of a long line of telegraph, but Mr. S trong makes the following es­
timate per m ile:
Wire, 320 lbs.,...........................................................
Twenty poles, on the ground,..................................
Setting poles,.............................................................
Freight on wire,.........................................................
Putting up wire,.........................................................
Twenty insulators, improved kind,............................

$ 30
45
8
15
20
20

Total per mile,................................. $ 138
This is exclusive of the cost of offices, batteries, superintendence and
collecting subscriptions. The company will be styled “ The Oregon Tel­
egraph Company,” with a capital stock of $75,000, and its main place of
business in Portland. The line will not stop, however, at Portland, but
will extend seven miles further, to Vancouver, which is a town of note,
and is the chief military post for Oregon and the eastern part of Washing­
ton Territory. After the Oregon line shall have been completed, it will not
be long before a line will be built through Washington to Olympia,
Stellacoom, Port Townsend, and thence across to Victoria. The Rus­
sians have already a line complete from St. Petersburgh to Irkutsk, and
they are now extending it to Nicolaiefsky, at the mouth of the Amoor,
from which point they promise to continue it across to Sitka. As to
the possibility of this, there can be no reasonable doubt. Either by way
of the Eleutian Islands or by Behring’s Straits, not more than 150 miles
of submarine wire is necessary in any one place. The distance is about
3,500 miles from the mouth of the Amoor to Sitka, and thence 900 to
Portland.

ARMY T E L E G R A P H .

In July last the French Minister of War caused some experiments to
be made in the Champ de Mars with the army telegraph. Let us see in
what these experiments consisted: A certain number of mounted artil­
lerists were followed by a vehicle properly attached, in which were placed
lances designed to serve as telegraph posts, and also the electric conduct­
ing wire. At a given signal they quickly extended themselves over the
line ; this signal was given as soon as the extremity of the conductor was
fixed to the earth by means of a stake. At the distance of thirty metres
a horseman dismounted, took a lance given him by an artillerist in the
carriage, and set up the lance in the earth, causing it to make half a turn
so that the head of the lance should be encircled by the electric wire.
The horseman then made the lance fast by means of two guys fixed to it,
and fastened to the earth with two stakes. The same operation was per­
formed rapidly by other horsemen, but it was found that the lances were
required not more than once in one hundred metres.— Silliman's Amer­
ican Journal of Science, January, 1862.




1862.]

MR.

Mr. Townsend Harris, Minister to Japan.

TOWNSEND HARRIS,

163

M I N I S T E R TO J A P A N .

M r . H arris having desired a recall from Japan, the President has nomi­
nated R obert H . P ru yn , Esq., of Albany, as his successor.
An article has recently appeared in a daily paper of New-York, ex­
tracted from the San Francisco Bulletin, which states that the American
merchants in Japan have requested the recall of Mr. T ownsend H arris ,
our minister resident in that country, on the ground that he unnecessa­
rily restrains American citizens from visiting Yeddo, the capital city of
the Empire.
Unexplained, this statement would detract from the well-won reputa­
tion of Mr. H arris as a faithful minister, watchful of the interests he rep­
resents, and careful to secure every just privilege to his countrymen.
We therefore set this matter right before those who feel an interest in
the question.
In the present instance, however, it seems proper to allude to the
binding obligation resting on Mr. H arris to maintain a definite policy in
the administration of his important trust. The difficulties which he was
to encounter with his venturous countrymen, ever ardent in the pursuit
of pleasure or profit, were apparent to Mr. H arris from the moment the
treaty was signed, yet he has never wavered for an instant in maintaining
the integrity of that instrument. He had, at the commencement of his
official duties, enjoined upon all his personal friends and correspondents
a rigid abstinence from all public, use of his private letters. All devia­
tions from this rule of conduct on their part have been without his con­
sent, and against his wishes.

The following passages from a private letter of Mr. H arris will show
how carefully his conduct was guarded on this point :
L egation of the U nited S tates , Teddo, August 24, 1859.
As might be expected, every body wishes to come to Yeddo to see
the sights. This very natural desire places me in a delicate position.
As a matter of duty, I require from the Japanese a strict fulfillment of
all their treaty stipulations, and on my part I feel hound, not only by
considerations of policy, but from a high sense of justice, to observe all
the stipulations faithfully and loyally.
The Japanese government is sufficiently embarrassed by the presence
of the legations, and of those who have the right to visit them, and I am
confident that a succession of mere visitors, passing between Kanagawa
and Yeddo, would cause serious annoyance.
The Japanese say that the treaty provides for the residence of the
minister after the 4th of July, 1859, and for other Americans after the
1st of January, 1862 ; and they say, very justly, that no one has a right
to come to Yeddo before the last-named date, except the persons who
are connected with the legation, or who may have important business to
transact with it.




164

M r. Toibnsend H arris, Minister to Japan.

[February,

Mr. C ollins , now at Kanagawa, desires to come up here, and, as you
are probably prepared to learn, I have declined to give him the requisite
authority to come. Mr. C ollins is a gentleman of distinguished m erit;
he was appointed American consul to the Russian settlements on the
river Amoor, in 1855-6; he made an overland journey from St. Petersburgh in 1856, and returned to California, where he published an account
of his observations on his extended tour. As a matter of course, he will
be greatly disappointed in not being permitted to visit Yeddo. Possibly
I may be censured for the course I take, but it is a course dictated solely
by a sense of duty.
The following are extracts from a letter written by me to Mr. E. M.
D oer , our acting consul at Kanagawa, in reference to this case, which

you may use whenever you deem it necessary that my action should be
defended:
Yeddo, August 22d, 1859.
Sir,-—-By the third article of our treaty with Japan, the city of Yeddo
is to be opened to American citizens on the 1st day of January, 1862,
and I am of opinion that prior to that date no person can claim the right
to visit the city, except those connected with the legation, or persons
who may have business with it which cannot be transacted by letter.
I am careful not to claim any rights that are not clearly set forth in
the treaty stipulations, and I am not willing to ask any favor of this
government, particularly as I am now in correspondence with it on the
subject of my communications with the consular officers of the United
States.
I should be h a p p y to g ratify Mr. C ollins , if I could do so w ith o u t
com prom ising w h a t I co n sid er to b e an im p o rta n t principle.

As this is the first case of the kind that has occurred, I shall consider
it as a precedent which will be applied to all future cases that may arise;
and I respectfully request you to communicate my decision to alf Ameri­
can citizens who may inform you of their wish to visit Yeddo prior to
the 1st of January, 1862.
I am, Sir, your obedient servant,
T ownsend H arris .

To the American Consul at Kanagawa, Japan.
It will be seen by this correspondence how rigidly the American min­
ister adhered to the stipulations which he had entered into with the
government of Japan. Instead of receiving censure for his conduct in
this respect, he deserves the highest commendation for thus preserv­
ing unstained the good faith and honor of the American name and
character.
A letter to a daily paper in this city, published during the past week,
from an intelligent correspondent at Kanagawa, under date August 15th,
says:
“ Mr. A lcock , it is thought, would make war upon Japan, if he could;
and the French charge would like nothing better * * * to avenge
his own self-induced and imaginary insults.




1862.]

M r. Townsend H arris, M inister to Japan.

165

“ Meanwhile, the attitude which the American minister maintains at
Yeddo, which is one of sincere friendship to Japan, whatever else may
be said of it, is the greatest obstacle here in the way of the accomplish­
ment of the wishes of the British and French ministers, because it makes
their case a more difficult one to justify with their masters at home.
“ Mr. D e W itt , consul-general, who is now here, has received replies
from his own government respecting the withdrawal of the ministers
from Yeddo, last January, and he says that the position taken by Mr.
H a r ris , in opposition to all the others’ receives the most hearty approval
of his (Mr. D e W itt ’s ) government. Holland will not, therefore, join
the crusade against Japan, if there be one.”
Travellers and public writers have questioned the reality of the advan­
tages we had expected to derive from the opening of commerce with
Japan. In all his letters from that country, Mr. H arris has dwelt ear­
nestly on these advantages as a certain result of the good understanding
we have attained with that strange, unenlightened people. He has never
counted upon realizing these advantages on the instant, nor until, in the
fullness of time, the Japanese should be instructed to know and appreciate
the benefits and the blessings of commerce. That such a time will come,
and speedily, he has frequently avowed his unfaltering belief, and there
is little doubt that upon his return to his native country, ho will make
known the grounds upon which this belief is founded.
The aid rendered by him to the English envoy, Lord E lg in , was
deemed of sufficient importance to call for a grateful acknowledgment
from the minister and a munificent gift from the queen.
Mr. H arris has more recently rendered a similar service to the envoy
from Prussia, Count D ’E ulenburg , which has been courteously and
warmly acknowledged, in a diplomatic note, of which the following is an
extract:
Legation of Prussia, Yeddo, January 25th, 1861.
Sir,—I have the honor to inform you, that I yesterday signed, with
Japanese plenipotentiaries appointed for that purpose, a treaty of amity,
commerce and navigation between Prussia and Japan.
You witnessed the difficulties I encountered, and which I had to over­
come.
I frankly declare, that I should never have succeeded in this without
your cordial and efficient co-operation.
You not only effectually aided me as the representative of a power in
friendship with Prussia, but, as a true friend, interested yourself, person­
ally, in the success of my mission.
I shall avail myself of an early opportunity to bring this fact to the
knowledge of my government; but I am anxious to state to you, on this
occasion, how greatly I appreciate all the proofs of friendship you con­
stantly gave me during my eventful stay in Japan. * * *
Please accept the renewed assurance of my most distinguished consid­
eration.
(Signed,)
C ount D ’E ulenburg .
To T ownsend H a r ris , Esq., Minister Resident o f the United States in
Japan.




166

The Cotton Question.

THE

I.

C otton

in

E gy pt .

II.

COTTON

[February,

QUESTION.

A u str a lia . III. B azley on C otton .
V. C otton -S eed fo r I n d ia .

IV.

C otton

and

S l a y eey .

E x pedition ary T our to P romote the C ultivation of C otton.—Mr.
G. R. H aywood , secretary to tbe Cotton Supply Association, sailed on
the 12th July in the E u x in e , in company with Dr. F orbes , (who has
had considerable experience as a government official in India,) with the
intention, in the first place, of spending a fortnight or a month in Egypt,
during which time they purpose to have an interview with the viceroy,
to urge upon him the advantage of taking energetic steps to extend the
area of cotton cultivation in that country. They will next proceed to
Bombay, the home government having amply furnished them with intro­
ductions, and afterwards go down to the Shedashaghur, which it is ex­
pected will ultimately be one of the best ports in India, where they are
going to establish a factory for cleaning and packing cotton, and a large
amount of machinery will be sent out forthwith. They also intend to
visit Dharwar and Berar, where they will establish agencies; and will
most likely make their way down to Madras. During their route, their
inquiries will be directed to the quantity and quality of cotton which
each locality can supply, and its probable price, as well as to collect all
the information and give all the encouragement and assistance in their
power.— Times.
G row th o f C otton in A ustralia .—A private letter from Australia
says: “ The Chinese may yet be found useful in the growth of cotton in
the northern parts of the country, but as yet the experiment has not
been tried. Some little feeling of excitement as to the formation of
plantations is felt, and, for my own part, I have much hopes of a benefi­
cial result. The Manchester people ought to publish cheap pamphlets
for circulation here, or rather in Queensland, explaining the culture of
cotton, &c., and forward seed of the best quality to their friends, the
curators of botanical gardens and others, so as to give the movement an
impetus. A friend of mine, Mr. M oore , of the botanical gardens, Syd­
ney, (brother to your Glasnevin (Dublin) curator,) would be a good man
for them to correspond with, and, I am sure, one who would give all the
aid in his power. There are good botanical gardens in Queensland, and
the capital, Brisbane, at Maryborough, Wide Bay. More to the north
still, there is an experimental plantation and company formed. Another
friend of mine, T homas B row n , Esq., (Messrs. N augiiton & B row n ,
Maryborough, storekeepers,) may be found of use on the ground at present
most approved of. A Mr. M cM illan is commencing at Rochampton.
I may mention these matters to you, as you might have some talk with
your Manchester friends.”




The Cotton Question.

167

M r . B azley ’s V ie w .— Mr. B azley places the cotton of Queensland
foremost as regards quality. He declares it to be the best in the world,
and the beauty of the cloth which it produces is unrivalled. This cotton
field is of boundless extent, and the climate, too warm for the European
constitution, is admirably adapted for the Coolies or the Chinese. In a
district larger than France, there are not more than 50,000 inhabitants;
but, under such stimulants as the present value of cotton, labor in abun­
dance can be drawn from both India and China. It is impossible to
overrate the importance of Queensland as a cotton-producing district
upon densely populated countries like India and China. At no remote
day, this new field may prove more valuable than even the auriferous
wealth which we have been accustomed to regard as the chief treasure
of Australia. And contemporaneous with the advancement of this cot­
ton-field must be the facilities it will afford to the free labor of the east­
ern world, and all the social machinery therewith connected for convert­
ing the Pagan strangers into good subjects and Christians. The industry
of the Asiatic is one of his characteristic features; and the impetus which
the new movement will give to immigration of this class implies, develop­
ment on a scale so large that it may be safely left to the reader’s imagi­
nation.
T h e C otton S u pply and S la v er y .—At the annual meeting of the
Bradford West Circuit Juvenile Missionary Society, England, Mr. H en ry
M itch ell , the chairman, called the attention of the meeting to a sample
of beautiful cotton grown in Western Africa, and urged the import­
ance, now that the supply was likely to be cut off from America, of
the commercial classes seeking an ample supply of cotton from other
parts of the earth, particularly India and Africa. The Bev. W m . M oister ,
a missionary from South Africa, stated that in that part of the earth
there was no limit to the growth of fine cotton, and that it was only
needful to teach the native population to prepare it for importation to
England, to secure a superabundance of the best and finest cotton for
this market.
C otton-S eed fo r I ndia .—In their efforts to meet, on as large a scale
as possible, the requirements of the cotton cultivator of India for a better
description of cotton-seed than that indigenous to the country, the Cot­
ton Supply Association are receiving most valuable co-operation from
the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company. The directors
of that company having, with distinguished liberality, signified their wil­
lingness to convey, free of freight, on account of the association, one ton
of cotton-seed, by each of their steamers, to Bombay, Madras and Cal­
cutta, the offer was, of course, gratefully accepted. The result is, that
four tons of seed (Egyptian) per month are now being regularly shipped
by the association to those ports from Suez. Experiments with various
kinds of seed show that the Egyptian variety is admirably suited to the
soil and climate of India. Samples of cotton grown from it in that
country, and forwarded to the association, have been valued at a high
figure, and considered finer, stronger, and more marketable, than any
other received specimens from the same quarter.




Commercial Regulations.

168

COMMERCIAL

I.

[February,

REGULATIONS.

S a l t pe tr e a n d A rms . II. T reasury D ecisio n s .—1. E ound C ast S t e e l .—2. S il k L a c e .
—3. V e lv ets .-—4. D eer S k in s .—5. S ad dlery . III. M ex ica n C on v en tio n . IV. C onfiscated
P ro per ty . V. T reaty w it h T urk ey . VI. E d in b u r g h C ha m ber of C ommerce . VII. G la s ­
g o w C ham ber of C ommerce .

SALTPETRE

AND ARMS.

T he following is the proclamation of the British government:

B t the Q ueen —A P roclamation . V icto ria , B.
Whereas in and by a certain statute, made and passed in the Parlia­
ment held in the 16th and 17th years of our reign, and entitled “ The
Customs Consolidation Act, 1853,” it is, among other things, declared
and enacted as follows, that is to say:
“ The following goods may, by proclamation or order in council, be
prohibited either to be exported or carried coastwise : arms, ammunition,
and gunpowder, military and naval stores, and any articles which her
Majesty shall judge capable of being converted into or made useful in
increasing the quantity of military and naval stores, provisions, or any
sort of victual which may be used as food by m an; and if any goods so
prohibited shall be exported from the United Kingdom, or carried coast­
wise, or be water-borne to be so exported or carried, they shall be for­
feited.
“ And whereas we have thought fit, by and with the advice of our Privy
Council, to prohibit either to be exported or carried coastwise the arti­
cles hereinafter mentioned, that is to say, arms, ammunition and mili­
tary stores, (including percussion caps and'tubes,) and also lead, (being an
article which we judge capable of being converted into or made useful in
increasing the quantity of military or naval stores,) we, therefore, by and
with the advice of our Privy Council, and by this our royal proclama­
tion, do order and direct that, from and after the date hereof, all arms,
ammunition and military stores, (including percussion caps and tubes,)
and also lead, shall be, and the same are hereby prohibited either to be
exported from the United Kingdom or carried coastwise.
“ Given at our Court at Windsor, this 4th day of December, in the
year of Lord 1861, and in the 25th year of our reign.”
The London Times, of November 28, says in its city article, that the
saltpetre market had lately been disturbed by some large transactions on
American account. Three thousand tons, an amount equal to the whole
stock in London, had been bought, on such terms as to cause a rise of
thirty-seven or forty shillings per hundred weight; and it was given out
that the purchase was made for the federal government. It is now sug­
gested that the purchase was made under hasty orders, with the inten­




1862.]

169

Commercial Regulations.

tion of “ offering an outrage to England such as might render it difficult
to obtain supplies h e r e a f t e r a n d the remarkably sagacious writer who
throws out this hint, also suggests that the British government should
prevent the clearance of this contraband of war. It is plain that our
English friends will feel much more easy, after they have had their eyes
opened to one or two serious mistakes of fact into which they have been
led, perhaps not without design.
Some uneasiness has been created by the announcement, in recent
English papers, that large quantities of saltpetre bought in England for
account of our government had been stopped. We are able to say on
the highest authority that this step cannot in the least embarrass us. The
government has on hand now an immense supply of this necessary article,
most of which has been in store since the war of 1812. The amount of
saltpetre now in government stores is, we are assured, sufficient for all
emergencies; and we suppose the recent purchases in Europe, if any
were really made, were intended only to add to the present store, in pro­
portion as it was diminished in the course of the war, in accordance with
that policy which induces every great government to keep on hand of
this article, at all times, sufficient for a war of twenty or thirty years’
duration.
TREASURY DECISIONS.

Treasury Department, December 21, 1861.
The following decisions, by the Secretary of the Treasury, of questions
arising upon appeals by importers from the decisions of collectors relat­
ing to the proper classification under the tariff acts of March 2, 1861,
and August 5, 1861, of certain articles of foreign manufacture and pro­
duction entered at the ports of Boston and New-York, are published for
the information of officers of the customs and others concerned.
S. P. C h a s e , Secretary of the Treasury.

R O UN D

CAST

S T E E L ,

IN

COILS.

Treasury Department, November 22, 1861.
Sir,—I have had under consideration an appeal from your decision sub­
jecting to duty, at the rate of 1£ cent per pound, under the provision for
steel in the 6th clause of section 7 of the tariff act of March 2, 1861,
certain articles styled b y the importers, Messrs. N a y l o r & Co., “ round
cast steel, in coils.” The provision for steel in that clause is as follows,
viz.: “ On all steel in ingots, bars, sheets, or wire, not less than one-fourth
of one inch in diameter, valued at seven cents per pound or less, one and
a half cent per pound ; valued at about seven cents per pound and not
above eleven cents per pound, two cents per pound. Steel in any other
form, not otherwise provided for, shall pay a duty of 20 per centum ad
valorem."
You levied the duty at the rate of 1£ cent per pound on said articles
as “ wire” “ a quarter of an inch in diameter, valued at seven cents or
less per pound,” and the appellants claim entry at the rate of 20 per cent.,




170

Commercial Regulations.

[February^

under tbe provision for “ steel in any other form not otherwise provided
for.”
The question presented, then, is one of fact—whether the article in
controversy is “ wire” within the meaning of the law, or whether it is
“ steel in any other form ?” In the opinion of the experts connected
with the customs, to whom it has been submitted, it is not strictly wire,
it having been hammered and rolled to bring it into its present shape, in­
stead of “ drawn,” the process necessary to make it wire. It having
been decided by one of my predecessors that it is not “ bar” steel, that
point is considered as settled. Then, being neither “ wire” nor “ bar”
within the meaning of the law, it falls, in my opinion, under the provision
for “ steel in any other form not otherwise provided for,” and, as such,
liable to duty at the rate of twenty per cent.
,
I am, very respectfully,
S. P. C h a s e , Secretary of the Treasury.
J. Z. G o o d r i c h , Esq., Collector, &c., Boston.
S I LK

L A C E T S .

Treasury Department, November 29, 1861.
Sir,—I have had under consideration your report on the appeal of
Messrs. Y a r e t & Co., from your assessment of duty at the rate of 40
per centum ad valorem, under the act of 5th August, 1861, on “ silk
lacets” imported by them.
The appellants claim entry of said articles at the rate of 30 per centum,
under the provision in the 22d section of the act of March 2, 1861, for
“ articles worn by men, women and children, of whatever material com­
posed, made up or made wholly or in part by the hand, not otherwise
provided for.”
The article in question, it appears, is a manufacture of silk and metal,
silk being the material of chief value ; and, further, that it is “ not made
up or made wholly or in part by hand,” but made wholly by machinery.
Being made by machinery and not by hand, it cannot be referred to the
provision for “ articles worn by men, women,” &c., but it falls, in my
opinion, under the provision for “ all manufactures of silk, or of which
silk shall be the component material of chief value, not otherwise provi­
ded for.”
Your decision, therefore, is hereby affirmed.
I am, very respectfully,
S. P. C h a s e , Secretary of the Treasury.
H i r a m B a r n e t , Esq., Collector, dbc., New-YorJc.

V E L V E T S IN

T H E P IE C E , IN T E N D E D F O R T H E M A N U FA C T U R E O F B U TTO N S.

Treasury Department, December 2, 1861.
Sir,—I have had under consideration your report on the appeal of
Messrs. A. I s e l i n & Co., from your decision subjecting to duty at the
rate of 30 per cent., under the tariff act of August 5, 1861, certain “ vel­
vets,” in the piece, imported by them.




Commercial Reaulations.

m

The appellants allege that the fabric imported by them in this case is
intended for the manufacture of buttons, and, on that ground, they claim
exemption from duty under the provisions in the 23d section of the tariff
act of March 2, 1861, which admit, free of duty, “ lastings, mohair
cloth, silk, twist, or other manufactures of cloth, cut in strips or patterns
of the size and shape for shoes, slippers, boots) bootees, gaiters and but­
tons, exclusively, not combined with India rubber.”
It appears, however, as a matter of fact, from the statement made by
official experts, that the velvet in this case is not imported “ cut in strips
or patterns of the size and shape for shoes, slippers, boots, bootees,
gaiters and buttons, exclusively; ” but is in a form and of dimensions
that will admit of its application to the manufacture of many other
articles.
It cannot, therefore, claim the exemption extended by the 23d section
of the tariff to cloth “ exclusively” applicable to the manufacture of but­
tons and the other enumerated articles, but must be held subject to duty
at the rate of 30 per cent., under the provision in the 2d section of the
tariff act of 5th August, 1861, viz.: “ On all silk velvets, or velvets of
which silk is the component material of chief value, valued at three dol­
lars per square yard, or under, thirty per cent, ad valorem.
Your decision is affirmed.
I am, very respectfully,
S. P. C h a se , Secretary of the Treasury.
H iram B a r n e t , Esq., Collector, (be., New-Tork.

D E E R

S K I N S .

Treasury Department, December 3, 1861.
Sir,—I acknowledge the receipt of your report in the case of the ap­
peal of Mr. E. L. C orning , from’ your decision assessing a duty of ten
per centum ad valorem on a lot of “ deer skins,” imported into your port
from Para in th e brig E mma.
The 2d clause of the 10th section of the act of 2d March, 1861, im­
poses a duty of five per centum ad valorem “ on raw hides and skins
of all kinds, whether dried, salted or pickled, not otherwise provided
for.” The amendatory act of the 5th August, 1861, makes a new pro­
vision for “ hides,” imposing upon them a duty of ten per centum ad
valorem, leaving the provision above cited in the act of 2d March, 1861,
in other respects unchanged.
The importation in question was made since the act of 5th August,
1861, went into effect. As the law now stands, “ skins” are subjected to
a duty of five per centum ad valorem, and “ hides” to a duty of ten per
centum ad valorem ; and the question presented in this case is, whether
the article is a “ hide” or a “ skin.”
To ascertain the meaning of these terms as used in the law, reference
must be had to the distinction between them recognised in the language
and usage of trade. The term ■“ hides,” it is well understood in trade,
refers to the “ skins” of the larger animals, used generally in the manu­
facture of sole, belt and other leather of that character, and “ skins” to




172

Commercial Regulations.

[February,

tbe finer pelts of the smaller animals, such as the deer and goat, used in
the manufacture of buckskin, morocco, &c.
Assuming this distinction to be correct, I am of the opinion that the
article in question is to be regarded as a “ skin,” within the meaning of
the law, and liable, under the tariff act of the 2d March, 1861, to a duty
of five per centum ad valorem.
I am, very respectfully,
S. P. C ha se , Secretary of the Treasury.
H ikam B a r n e t , Esq., Collector, <&c., New-YorJc.

SADDLERY.

Treasury Department, December 16, 1861.
Sir,—I have carefully considered the several reports and papers sub­
mitted to me with the appeal of Messrs. G ra u pn er & L oring , from your
assessment of duty on certain “ polished curb chains,” at the rate of 30
per cent., under the provision in section 22 of the tariff act of the 2d
March, 1861, for “ coach and harness furniture of all kinds, saddlery,
coach and harness hardware, silver-plated, brass, brass-plated or covered,
common tinned, burnished or japanned, not otherwise provided for.”
The importers, it appears, claim to enter the merchandise at a duty of
25 per cent., under the provision made in the 4th clause of the 7th sec­
tion of that tariff, for “ chains under No. 9, wire gauge.”
The article in question, it appears, is a short chain, finished and ready
for attachment to a bridle-bit, and is fit for no other use. It has been
usual, in the construction of tariffs, where provision has been made for
“ saddlery” by name, to regard articles of this description as embraced
within the meaning of that term, and I perceive no just reason for de­
parting from that usage in this case. The provision referred to by the
importers in regard to “ chains,” must be held to have no reference to an
article fitted exclusively for a particular purpose, and belonging, in com­
mercial language and usage, to a classification for which a specific pro­
vision is made in the law.
Your decision is affirmed.
I am, very respectfully,
S. P . C ha se , Secretary of the Treasury.
J. Z. G oodrich , Esq., Collector, dkc., Boston, Mass.

THE MEXICAN CONVENTION BETWEEN ENGLAND, FRANCE AND SPAIN.

The following is the full text of the Mexican convention between Eng­
land, France and Spain, of which brief summaries have already been
given. After the usual preliminaries, the convention reads as follows:
A rticle 1. Her Majesty, the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Ireland, her Majesty, the Queen of Spain, and his Majesty,
the Emperor of the French, engage to make, immediately after the sig­
nature of the present convention, the necessary arrangements for de­
spatching to the coast of Mexico combined naval and military forces, the
strength of which shall be determined by a further interchange of com­




1862.]

Commercial Regulations.

173

munications between their governments, but of which the total shall be
sufficient to seize and occupy the several fortresses and military positions
on the Mexican coast.
The commanders of the allied forces shall be, moreover, authorized to
execute the other operations which may be considered, on the spot,
most suitable to effect the object specified in the preamble of the
present convention, and specifically to insure the security of foreign resi­
dents.
All the measures contemplated in this article shall be taken in the
name and on account of the high contracting parties, without refer­
ence to the particular nationality of the forces employed to execute
them.
A rt . 2. The high contracting parties engage not to seek for themselves,
in the employment of the coercive measures contemplated by the present
convention, any acquisition of territory, nor any special advantage, and
not to exercise, in the internal affairs of Mexico, any influence of a nature
to prejudice the right of the Mexican nation to choose and to constitute
freely the form of its government.
A rt . 3. A com m ission, com posed of th re e com m issioners, one to be
nam ed b y each of th e c o n tractin g pow ers, shall be established, w ith full
au th o rity to determ in e all questions th a t m ay arise as to th e ap p lication
or d istrib u tio n o f th e sum s of m o n ey w hich m ay b e recovered from Mex­
ico, having reg ard to th e respective rig h ts o f th e th re e co n tractin g p a r­
ties.
A rt . 4. The high contracting parties desiring, moreover, that the

measures which they intend to adopt should not bear an exclusive char­
acter, and being aware that the government of the United States, on its
part, has, like them, claims to enforce upon the Mexican republic, agree,
that immediately after the signature of the present convention, a copy
thereof shall be communicated to the government of the United States;
that that government shall be invited to accede to i t ; and that, in antici­
pation of that accession, their respective ministers at Washington shall
be at once furnished with full powers for the purpose of concluding and
signing, collectively or separately, with the plenipotentiary designated
by the President of the United States, a convention identical, save the
suppression of the present article, with that which they sign this day.
But, as by delaying to put into execution Articles 1 and 2 of the present
convention, the high contracting parties would incur a risk of failing in
the object which they desire to attain, they have agreed not to defer,
with the view of obtaining the accession of the government of the United
States, the commencement of the above-mentioned operation beyond the
time at which their combined forces can be assembled in the neighbor­
hood of Vera Cruz.
A rt . 5. The present convention shall be ratified, and the ratifications
thereof shall be exchanged at London, within fifteen days.
In witness whereof, the respective plenipotentiaries have signed it, and
have affixed thereto the seal of their arms.
Done at London, in triplicate, the 31st day of the month of October,
in the year of our Lord 1861.




l.
l.
l.

s.]
s.l
s.J

R ussell .
X a v ie r de I sturiz .
F lahault .

174

Commercial Regulations.
CONFISCATED

[February,

PROPERTY.

General Regulations Relative to Securing and Disposing o f the Property found or
brought within the Territory note or hereafter occupied by the United States Forces
in the Disloyal States.

Treasury Department, November 30th, 1861.
In order to the security and proper disposition of the productions of
the soil, and of all other property found within the limits of States, or
parts of States, declared to ho in insurrection against the United States,
and now occupied, or hereafter to be occupied by the troops and authori­
ties of the Union, the following regulations are established :
There shall be appointed, by the Secretary of the Treasury, with the
approbation of the President, agents to reside at such ports or places as
are or may be occupied by the forces of the United States, whose duties
shall be to secure and prepare for market the cotton and such other pro­
ducts and property as may be found or brought within the lines of the
army or under the control of the Federal authorities.
To enable such agents to fulfill the duties devolved upon them, the
military and naval authorities, under proper instructions, will render such
military protection and aid as may be required to carry out the inten­
tion of this department.
Persons held to service for life under State laws, who may be found
within such limits, may be employed by the agent, who will prepare lists
embracing the names, sex and condition of such persons, and, as near as
may be, their respective ages, together with the name of any person
claiming their services; which lists shall be in triplicate, one for the mili­
tary commandant, one for the files of the agent, and one to be imme­
diately forwarded to the Secretary of the Treasury.
The persons so listed will be organized for systematic labor in securing
and preparing for market the cotton, rice and other products found within
the territory brought under Federal control. Pay rolls will be prepared,
and a strict account of the labor daily performed by each person entered
thereon, for which a proper compensation shall be allowed and paid to
the laborers. The amount of such compensation will be fixed, in propor­
tion to the service rendered by the agent, and approved by the military
commandant and by the Secretary of the Treasury.
An inventory of all horses, mules and other stock, vehicles of transpor­
tation and other property, will be carefully made, and a copy transmitted
to the Secretary of the Treasury, signed by such agent.
A record of all products taken possession of will be made, and those
of each plantation kept distinct. When prepared for shipment, the
packages from the several plantations will be plainly marked and num­
bered, so as to be easily distinguished.
An account of all provisions, of whatsoever character, found on each
plantation, will be taken, and such provisions will be used, so far as may
be necessary, for the sustenance of the laborers thereon. Any deficien­
cies of subsistence will be supplied by the United States commissary,
upon the requisition of the agent, to whom they will be charged, and
for which he will account.
The cotton and other articles, when prepared for market, shall be
shipped to New-York, and, so far as practicable, by the returning govern­
ment transports; and all shipments shall be consigned to the designated




1862.]

Commercial Regulations.

175

agent at New-York, unless otherwise specially directed by the Secretary
of the Treasury.
A carefully detailed account will be kept by the agent of all supplies
furnished by the government, and of all expenditures made.
Each agent will transmit a weekly report of his proceedings to the
Secretary of the Treasury, and render his accounts in duplicate monthly
for settlement.
All requisitions, bills of lading and invoices, will be countersigned by
the military commander, or by such officer as he may designate for the
purpose.
Each agent will so transact his business and keep his accounts, that
as little injury as possible may accrue to private citizens who now main­
tain, or may within reasonable time resume, the character of loyal citi­
zens of the United States.
S. P. C h a se ,
Secretary of the Treasury.
TREATY

WITH

TURKEY.

A treaty of commerce has been concluded between Turkey, and Eng­
land and France, which will have great effect in promoting the agricul­
ture and commerce of Turkey, and her trade with the two western pow­
ers. The new treaty, which will come into effect on the 1st of March,
1862, at once reduces the duty on all exports to eight per cent., which
is to be further reduced one per cent, every year, till it finally ceases.
To make up what loss this may occasion to the revenue, the duty on
imports, which was formerly five per cent., is to be raised to eight.
There are vast tracts of land, in many instances near the coast, which
will now probably be brought into cultivation. Under the old Turkish
system, the government reserved to itself the monopoly of the purchase
of corn, which it sought to obtain, at an arbitrarily low price, for the
consumption of Constantinople and the great cities. Land-owners, con­
sequently, only sowed sufficient for their own wants, and any surplus
they had went to the government, at its own price. Under the treaty
concluded by Lord P onsonby with the Porte, this monopoly was abol­
ished ; but the Turks, still anxious to keep their grain at home, insisted
on an export duty of twelve per cent., which only had the effect of im­
peding the industry of some of the finest grain-producing land in the
world.— Morning Post.

THE AMERICAN

QUESTION.

At the Chamber of Commerce of Edinburgh, on December 13th, a
motion was made by the members to memorialize the government to do
the utmost in their power to act on the resolution proposed by the Brit­
ish government to the Paris conference of 1856, to have recourse to ar­
bitration before appealing to arms. Several members having opposed
the motion, on the ground that it might perhaps be construed into an
expression of want of confidence in government, the mover, though dis­
claiming that idea, consented to withdraw the motion.




176

Commercial Regulations.
GLASGOW CHAMBER

[February,

OP C O M M E R C E .

The directors of this body, at their meeting in December, agreed to
draw the attention of the Chambers of Commerce in the kingdom to the
importance and desirableness of recommending the discontinuance of
envelopes in business communications in their respective districts. They
also agreed to memorialize government to use its influence with the gov­
ernment of the United States to allow of some arrangements being made
for the transmission of letters from this country to the Southern States,
the post-office authorities of America having intimated that all letters to
the Southern States would be returned to the writers through the deadletter office.
B R E A C H E S OF C O N T R A C T I N I N D I A .

In reply to a memorial on this subject, the Manchester Chamber of
Commerce have received the following communication from the India
House:
India Office, London, S. W., 18</i Oct., 1861.
Sir,—I am directed by the Secretary of State for India in Council to
acknowledge the receipt of a memorial from the directors of the Man­
chester Chamber of Commerce, forwarded by you to Sir C harles W ood ,
with respect to the difficulty of enforcing the observance of legal con­
tracts made with the agricultural population of India, with reference,
more especially, to the cultivation of indigo; and to inform you, in re­
ply, that although Her Majesty’s government are not prepared to approve
any act which shall treat breaches of contracts for the delivery of agri­
cultural produce as criminal offences, the best attention of the govern­
ment of India is devoted to the establishment of efficient civil tribunals,
in which due and prompt remedy shall be afforded in all cases of con­
tract willfully and unjustifiably broken.
I am, sir, your obedient servant,
C osmo J. M el v il l .
M alcolm Ross, Esq., Manchester Chamber of Commerce.

C O M M E R C E OF F R A N C E .

A commission has been established at the Ministry of Commerce,
Paris, composed of eminent lawyers, members of the Council of State,
and retired consuls, for the purpose of preparing a revision of the crimi­
nal code. Several of the articles of that code are no longer applicable,
in consequence of the great changes which have taken place in the mode
of transacting business in France. It is said that the law of 1856 on
joint-stock companies is to be the subject of a very minute examination.
It is not expected, however, that the proposed changes can be accom­
plished without bringing the subject before the Corps Legislatif. The
French Minister of Commerce has required information from the authori­
ties in several of the commercial towns of France, with respect to the
various usages existing as to the sale of merchandise, the mode of pay­
ment, and the amount of discount allowed.




Journal o f N autical Intelligence.

1862.]

m

J O U R N A L OF N A U T I C A L I N T E L L I G E N C E .

I. N e w L ig iit -H ou 8E8.—1. B ass S t r a it .—2. G u l f o f S t . L a w r en c e .—3. E ast C oast o f E n g ­
la n d . I I. N e w R e efs . I I I . N ew W h a lin g G rou nd . IV . N ew F og B ell . Y . L iv e r po o l
D ocks . Y I. R e b el P ir a t e s . V I I . S tea m ers in C h il i . Y I I I . A rm in g M erchant S h ip s .

NEW

LIGHT-HOUSES.

Australia.—Bass Strait.— Fixed Light on Cape Wickham.—On and
after the 1st day of November, 1861, a light will be exhibited from the
light-house recently erected on the hill near Cape Wickham, at the north
end of King Island, in Bass Strait, south coast of Australia. The light
will be a fixed white light, and will be visible from the deck of a vessel
when bearing from N. N. E. ^ E. round by the east, to W. N. W. It is
placed at an elevation of 280 feet above the mean level of the sea, and
should be seen in clear weather from a distance of twenty-four miles.
The illuminating apparatus is catadioptric, or by lenses of the first order.
The light house is a circular stone tower, 145 feet high, and painted
white. From it the west extreme of Harbinger Reef bears W. by N. f
N., distant four and one-half miles, and the east extreme N. W. by W.,
four miles; Navarino Shoal N. E. by N., two and one-half miles; and
south extreme of New Year Islands S. W. -J- S., nine miles, and north ex­
treme S. W. J W., seven and one-half miles. The position of the light­
house is about lat. 39° 35' S., and long. 143° 57' east of Greenwich.
Caution.—The attention of mariners is called to the following extract
from the report of the light-house commissioners appointed by the gov­
ernments of Now South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania :
“ In advising the erection of a light-house on King Island, the commis­
sioners wish to guard themselves from affording the public any reason­
able supposition that this light can be at all considered in the position of
a great highway light for the navigation of Bass Strait. The south coast
of New-Holland, at the western entrance of the strait, being free from
danger, affords, in their opinion, the safest shore for the prudent mariner
to approach, and they conceive that the light on King Island is only to
be regarded as a beacon for warning navigators of danger, rather than as
a leading light to a great thoroughfare.” The bearings are magnetic.
Variation 8° 20' east in 1861.
Gulf of St. Lawrence.— Revolving Light on Cape George.—After the
25th day of October, 1861, a light will be exhibited from a light-house
recently erected on Cape George, near the northeastern extremity of
Nova Scotia, at the entrance of Northumberland Strait, Gulf of St. Law­
rence. The light will be a revolving white light, attaining its greatest
brilliancy every half-minute. The elevation of the light is about 400 feet
above the mean level of the sea, and should be seen in clear weather
from a distance of twenty-five miles. The light is only shown during
the navigable season. The illuminating apparatus is dioptric, or by
lenses of the second order. The tower, which is thirty-nine feet high
from base to vane, is square, painted white, surmounted by a lantern, and
VOL.

x l v i .—

NO. II.




12

178

Journal of N autical Intelligence.

[February,

stands on the north side of the cape, in lat. 45° 52' 50" N., long. 61°
55' west of Greenwich.
Pubnico Light.—On the 1st day of October, 1861, the light at Pubnico, on the southwest coast of Nova Scotia, was changed from red to
white.
Fixed Light on Cape Sable.—Also, that on or about the 12th day of
October, 1861, a fixed red light would be exhibited from a light-house
recently erected on Cape Sable, near the southwestern extreme of Nova
Scotia; of which no further details are known.
England.— East Coast.— Revolving Light near Outer Dowsing Shoal.
—Official information has been received, that a light-vessel has been
placed on the west side of Outer Dowsing Shoal, off the coast of Lincoln­
shire, in the North Sea. The light is a quick revolving light, showing a
red face every twenty seconds. It is elevated thirty-eight feet above the
level of the sea, and should be seen in clear weather from a distance of
about ten miles. The light-vessel lies in nine fathoms at low water
springs, with Spurnhigh light-house bearing N. W. by W. thirty-three and
a half miles ; Dudgeon light-vessel S. W. %S., southerly thirteen and a
quarter miles; Cromer light-house S. W. thirty-four miles ; north ex­
treme of the shoal N. -)■W. five and a half miles ; and the nearest shoal
spot E. by N. one mile. The lat. is 53° 28J' N., long. 1° 2' 40" east of
Greenwich. A can (watch) buoy, marked Outer Dowsing, lies threequarters of a mile E. S. E. from the light-vessel.
Girdler Light Vessel.—Also, that on or about the 1st day of Novem­
ber, 1861, the Girdler light-vessel, at the entrance of the Thames, would
be moved about two cables length W. N. W. from her present position,
into twenty feet at low water. All bearings are magnetic. Variation
21° 30' west in 1861.
NEW

REEFS.

South Pacific Ocean.— Pelorus Reef.—Official information has been
received at this office, that H. B . M. S. P elobus , when navigating be­
tween New Zealand and the Fiji Islands, on the 12th July, 1861, passed
within a third of a mile of a reef, which appeared to be about a quarter
of a mile in length, and to have not more than one or two fathoms
water on its western end, at the extremity of which breakers were visible.
Its position is in lat. 22° 52J' S., long. 176° 27' 50" west of Greenwich,
Pylstaart Island was in sight, and bore N. by E., distant thirty-seven
miles.
Also, that after dark on the evening of the same day, when steering
N. W., under reduced sail, soundings were obtained with the hand lead
in seven fathoms, followed by two casts in six and a half and seven fath­
oms respectively. The vessel was immediately brought to the wind and
tacked, and the deep sea lead hove, but no soundings were obtained within
sixty-three fathoms. This bank, if it exists, is in lat. 21° 43' S., long.
176° 42' W.
Caution.—As these shoals lie directly in the track of vessels bound
from New-Zealand to the windward islands of the Fiji group, the mari­
ner is cautioned to pay great attention to the lead, and to keep a good
look-out for discolored water when in this neighborhood.




1862.]

179

Journal o f N autical Intelligence.

The natives of the Friendly Islands, who maintain much intercourse
with the Fiji group by means of their large canoes, state that they are
aware of the existence of many shoals between Tongatabu and the Ono
Islands to the south of the Fiji group, but are unable to define their posi­
tion. The only bank of which there is any reliable information, is one
of some extent, having twenty-two fathoms water on it. It was discov­
ered in August, 1860, by three American whalers in company, and the
mean of their observations place it in lat. 22° 43' S., long. 176° 11' W.
The bearings are magnetic. Variation 10° 20' E. in 1861.
NEW

WHALING

GROUND

AND

PLENTY

OF

WHALES.

Ships N orthern L ight and S ir e n Q u een , both of which arrived at
this port this forenoon, from Sir T homas R ow e ’s Welcome, Hudson
Bay, lat. 65° N., Ion. 90° W., report having found plenty of whales, but
owing to the sickness of the crews with scurvy, the shortness of the
season, and losing part of their oil by the ice, were not as successful as
could have been desired. The ground visited by these ships is 1,500
miles west of Cumberland Inlet, the rendezvous of A n t elo pe , B lack
E agle and other ships, and has never been visited by whalers before,
either American or foreign. No ships have been there since the expedi­
tion of P arry and L yon in 1822. It was owing to the published state­
ments of these explorers that these ships were fitted out and sent to that
region, P arry having stated that whales were to be seen every day in
the open season, which is fully confirmed by Captains C h a pe l , who state
that if their crews had been well they would have brought home full
ships. The weather during the open season was very good, but the
crews of the ships, particularly the S ir e n Q u e en , suffered severely with
the scurvy. The information gained by these voyages is of importance
to the whaling interest, and will, no doubt, revive the energies of our
merchants, who were disheartened at the unfavorable news brought by
the A ntelope in regard to the whaling business of Cumberland Inlet.
The captains of the N orthern L ig h t , S ir e n Q u een and the A nsel
G ibbs , the latter in Cumberland Inlet, are brothers, belonging in NewLondon, Conn., and have visited Davis Straits on previous voyages.
Captain I chabod H andy , an old and experienced whaleman, late master
of the barque B ell e , was also on board the N orthern L ight , after
whom they named their winter quarters, Handy Harbor.—New-Bedford
Standard, Oct. 11.
A

NEW

STYLE

OF

FOG-BELL.

We notice in the Portland Advertiser an account of a fog-bell now at
the machine-shop of Mr. I ra W inn in that city, which, it says, appears
to be free from the objections which arc brought against those now in
use. We quote the chief part of its description :
“ The machine is simple in its construction, as all really good machines
are; it works itself, and will continue to do its duty for an indefinite
period, if its shafts and wheels are only kept properly oiled. The ham­
mers are attached by rods with spiral springs to clock-work, which is
kept constantly wound up by the never-ceasing motion of the sea itself.




180

[February,

Journal o f N autical Intelligence.

A piece of timber, from the base of the machine, reaches out of the
water, and over this beam a chain extends, holding at its extremity a
large float, which rests upon the surface; this chain passes around a
cylinder within the house, having at its other extremity a weight, which
retains the slack caused by the rise of the float upon the water, and at
the same time winds up the machine. It is estimated that a rise of the
waves of four inches in the minute will suffice to keep the machine in
motion. The hammers, which may vary in weight, are designed to strike
on a steel bell of high tone, about once in ten or fifteen seconds, giving
out a clear, sharp ring, which will not accord with the noise of the surf,
and may be heard above the roar of a storm or the rush and thunder of
the breakers for many miles. It would require too much space to give
a detailed description of the machine ; its chief merit lies in the fact that
its action will continue as long as there is motion in the water, and that
its simple construction renders it almost wholly self-governing; the only
care it requires, as we have before observed, is attention to the shafts and
cogs to prevent their chafing for the wrant of oil. It is not to be sup­
posed that the ringing of the bell is necessarily without intermission ;
the hammers may be disconnected at will, and the machine continue
running without sound, or the machine itself may be wholly stopped and
again set in motion within a single minute.”
CU N A R D

STEAMERS.

Besides the S c o t ia , which was launched under such favorable auspices,
Messrs. R o b e r t N a p i e r & S o n are making rapid progress with another
first-class steamship, to be employed by the same company in their North
American trade, to be called the C h in a . She is to be a screw-propeller
of great power. The following details, connected with the different ships
belonging to this company, cannot fail to be interesting, and we therefore
give the subjoined table of the principal dimensions of paddle steam
vessels built for the British and North American Royal Mail Steam
Packet Company (machinery of the whole, and hulls of P e r s i a and
S c o t ia , by R o b e r t N a p i e r & S o n , Glasgow.)
A sia ,
A fric a .

D ate o f co n stru ctio n ,................
M aterial of h u ll,.........................
L en g th of keel an d fo re ra k e ,. .
B re a d th of beam , e x tr e m e ,... .
D ep ih , o y er p la n k in g ,..............
T on n ag e.........................................
M ean d ra ft.....................................
C orresponding d isplacem ent,..
“
neid a r e a ,.........
D iam eter of c y lin d e rs,..............
L en g th o f stro k e,.........................
A rea of fire g r a te ,.......................
H eatin g surface in b o ile rs,. . . .
N om inal p o w e r ,.........................

......... feet, 266.5
......... “
40.0
.......... “
30.2
......... feet,

..

“

18.8

7,032

LIVERPOOL

L a P la ta ,
A ra b ia .

..
1852
. . W ood.
. . 285.0
..
40.7
..
30.8
. . 2,293
19.0
. . 3,950
686
..
103.0
9.0
. . 642.0
. . 16,948
873

P ersia.

.
..

..
..
..
..

..

1855
Iron.
360.0
45.0
32.2
3,587
20.0
4,860
750
100.5
10.0
715
22,307
850

Scotia.
..

..
..
..
..
..
..
..

1861
Iron.
366
47.7
33.5
4,050
20.0
5,620
820
100.0
12.0
758.0
23,826
883

DOCKS.

The report of the Select Committee appointed to inquire into the ex­
tension of Chatham Dockyard, a few months ago, went very fully into




1862.]

Journal o f N autical Intelligence.

181

the subject, and recommended the construction of new basins and graving
docks there, at a cost of £900,000, which recommendation was approved
by Parliament.
On the Liverpool side of the Mersey there is an area of dock-water
space of 235 acres. The entrances to these docks vary from 30 feet to
100 feet in width, and the average depth of water at mean neap tides
varies from 16 feet 3 inches to 19 feet, and at spring tides from 23 feet
3 inches to 26 feet. The area of water space of the Birkenhead Docks,
now completed, or to be completed within three years, is 153 acres. Of
this water space, the great float of 120 acres is now complete. The width
of the entrances varies from 50 feet to 100 feet, and the depth of water
on the sills at mean neap tides is 23 feet 3 inches, and at mean spring
tides 30 feet 3 inches. The lock entrances into two of the Liverpool
docks have been so constructed that they can be used as graving docks
in case of necessity. The Canada Dock lock is 500 feet long, 100 feet
wide, and has a depth of water at the sill at mean spring tides of 26 feet.
The Huskisson Dock lock is 396 feet long, 80 feet wide, and has a depth
of water on the sill, at mean spring tides, of 24 feet 9 inches. On the
Birkenhead side there is one lock entrance 500 feet long, 85 feet wide,
and a depth of water of 30 feet 3 inches at mean spring tides. This lock
can also be used as a graving dock. There are 16 graving docks in Liv­
erpool, varying in length from 300 feet to 700 feet, having a depth of
water of 18 feet to 21 feet on the blocks at mean springtides; the width
of the entrances varying from 40 feet to 70 feet.
At Birkenhead three public graving docks are in course of construc­
tion, each 750 feet long; two having 50 feet entrances, and the third an
entrance of 85 feet wide. The depth of water in these graving docks is
25 feet 9 inches at mean spring tides. There is another lock entrance
into the Birkenhead Docks which is now 400 feet long by 100 feet wide,
having a depth of water, at mean spring tides, of 30 feet 3 inches, which
could also be lengthened to 500 feet, and adapted for use as a graving
dock at a cost of about £15,000.
In addition to the public docks on both sides of the river above alluded
to, there are ten private graving docks on the Birkenhead side; two of
these are 440 feet long, and have a depth of water, at mean spring tides,
of 20 feet 3 inches, and one of these is now being enlarged, and the depth
of water increased to 24 feet. Two others of these docks are 380 feet long
each, with a depth of water, at mean spring tides, of 19 feet 3 inches.
The width of entrances to these four docks varies from 80 feet to 87 feet.
The mean of spring tides is called 18 feet 3 inches on the old dock-sill
datum; but the tides rise occasionally to 21 feet, which would make a
depth of water on the sill of the Birkenhead Docks, at the highest tides,
of 33 feet 3 inches. From the above statement it would appear that
there is a large area of dock-water space now ready, or shortly to be
completed, which, in case of war or any sudden emergency, would afford
accommodation to some of the largest ships in her Majesty’s service; and
there is no doubt, from the nature of the locality, that graving-dock ac­
commodation suitable for the largest ships of war now being constructed
could be provided at a very moderate cost.




182

Journal o f N autical Intelligence.
REBEL

[February,

PIRATES.

The despatch of Secretary S ew ard to minister A dams, dated Novem­
ber 11th, states:
“ The case in regard to pirates, engaged by insurgents in this country,
practically stands: Every naval power and every commercial power, ex­
cept one, practically excludes them from their ports, except in distress,
or for a visit of any kind longer than twenty-four hours, and from sup­
plies, except of coals, except for twenty-four hours’ consumption. Great
Britain, as we are given to understand by the answer of Earl R ussell ,
allows those pirates to visit her ports and stay at their own pleasure, re­
ceiving supplies 'without restriction. We find it difficult to believe that
the government of Great Britain has constituted this exception with full
deliberation. I intimated in a preceding dispatch the hope that the sub­
ject might be reconsidered before it should be necessary for us to con­
sider what remedies we can adopt to prevent the evils which must result
to our commerce from the policy thus indicated by Great Britain. I
have consulted on the subject with Lord L yons , and he may, perhaps,
communicate with his government thereupon. Meantime I am directed
by the President to instruct you to call the attention of her Majesty’s
government to the question under the influences of a spirit of peace and
friendship, and with a desire to preserve what remains of a commerce
mutually important to both countries.”
STEAMERS

IN CHI LI .

The government is contemplating the establishment of a line of steamers
between the Atlantic and Pacific, by the Straits of Magellan. The agent
of the British Pacific Steam Navigation Company offers to start the line
if he shall receive a subvention from the South American States. If done,
this would connect the Chilian trade more closely with England, by way of
Brazil, thence to Southampton by the direct line, operating injuriously,
to a certain degree, against the American Panama line. While the
United States and her commercial men, apparently regardless of their
own interests, have no steam communication with Brazil, English mer­
chants are seeking new channels of commerce with Brazil and the South
American States. The British mail steamers, between Valparaiso and
Ancud, get this year from the Chilian government $40,000, instead of
the $50,000 of last year.
THE

ARMING

OF

MERCHANT

SHIPS.

Her Majesty’s government have determined, it appears, to arm the
steamers of the Peninsular and Oriental Company and other mail contract
packets, so as to render them fully capable of defence against the attacks
of privateers, in the event of a war with America. The Peninsular and
Oriental Company have sent, in consequence, a requisition for a consider­
able amount of ordnance stores. This company possesses about fifty
vessels, and most of them can carry an armament of six heavy guns,
including two 40 pounder A rmstrongs , with rifles, revolvers, cutlasses
and boarding-pikes for crews of about 150 men and officers for each ship.




1862 . ]

Journal o f N autical Intelligence.

183

With armaments and crews to this extent, not taking into account the
number of naval and military passengers usually carried, and who will
doubtless be willing to give their assistance, these vessels would not only
take good care of themselves, but, if opportunity offered, would be ready
to act upon the offensive. The same company are having their officers
and men drilled both in gunnery and rifle practice.— Daily News.
DR.

HAVES*

LATE

VOYAGE.

Since Dr. H ayes arrived at homo h e has been invited by the American
Geographical and Statistical Society, New-York, by the Academy of
Natural Sciences, the American Philosophical Society and the Board of
Trade, of Philadelphia, to give before them a summary of the results of
his expedition. These results have been stated as follows :
1. A detailed survey of the west coast of north Baffin’s Bay, Smith’s
Straits and Kennedy Channel, and the extension of the survey to the
north of any previous exploration. This survey embraces about 1,300
miles of shore line.
2. The discovery of a new channel or sound, opening westward from
Smith’s Strait, parallel with Jones and Lancaster Sounds.
3. A detailed survey of the coasts of Whale Sound and the coasts to
the north and south of it. This survey embraces about 600 miles of
shore line.
4. Surveys of glaciers, by which their rate of movement is estimated.
5. Complete set of pendulum experiments.
6. Sets of magnetic experiments at Port Foulke, Cape Isabella, in
Whale Sound, at Upernavik and Godhavn.
7. Topographic and hydrographic surveys, including tidal observa­
tions.
8. Large collections of specimens of natural history and geological
and mineralogical collections.
9. A continuous set of meteorological observations.
10. An extensive collection of photographic views.
11. The accomplishment of a more northern latitude than ever before
attained upon land.
12. Fresh confirmation of theories respecting the open Polar Sea.
LAKE

TRADE

OF

1 8 6 1 .

The number of side-wheel steamers which were in service during the
season of 1861, at different points on the lakes, was sixty-seven, of which
number eight were engaged in the Lake Superior trade. The whole
number of propellers in service was two hundred and nineteen, of which
nine were also engaged in the Lake Superior trade, more or less. The
number of barks in service was ninety-four. Engaged in the Lake
Superior trade, more or less, were eight barks. The total number of
brigs, seventy-five, and schooners, eight hundred and ninety-two. There
were also more or less engaged in the Lake Superior trade, one brig and
forty-three schooners. The number of tugs in service at different points,
is one hundred and eight. Forty-one of this number were engaged ex­
clusively on the Detroit and St. Clair Rivers, or between Lakes Erie and
Huron.




184

Journal o f Insurance and Banking.

JOURNAL

I.

OF I N S U R A N C E

F ir e I nsuran ce R eport .

FIRE

II.

[February,

AND B A N K I N G .

G ov ernm ent C urrency .

INSURANCE

REPORT.

A t a meeting of the New-York Board of Fire Insurance Companies,
held December 23d, 1861, the committee appointed at a previous meet­
ing submitted the following report and resolutions :
The committee appointed by the Board of Underwriters of the city of
New-York, at their meeting on the 12th inst., to take into consideration
the storage of petroleum, earth oils, benzine, benzole and naphtha in public
warehouses and other buildings in compact portions of the city, are pre­
pared to submit the following report:
Your committee find that the substance known by the name of petro­
leum, rock oil, or earth oil, as it is generally received in its crude and
unrefined state, is largely charged with volatile matter, highly inflam­
mable in its nature, and evolved to some extent at the usual temperature
of the atmosphere, and much more freely by an increased degree of heat.
This gas, when evolved in large quantities, and mingled with the air in
closed buildings, becomes exceedingly inflammable, and, under certain
contingencies, like coal gas, highly explosive. The oil itself, when in
actual contact with fire, burns with a very dense smoke and intense heat,
and is nearly or quite inextinguishable by water. Excited by a high
degree of heat, it becomes more inflammable, penetrates surrounding
objects, and imparts to them its own destructive qualities. The storage
of these oils is not only dangerous on account of their liability to fire,
and their destructive properties when on fire, but on account of their
injurious effects on other merchandise stored in the same or even adjoin­
ing buildings, by reason of their offensive and penetrating odor. In a
fire of any considerable magnitude, this explosive gas would be generated
in immense quantities, and the destruction of property in a compact por­
tion of the city would, in all probability, be incalculably great.
With these facts before us, your committee cannot do less than recom­
mend that petroleum, rock oil or earth oil, in its crude or unrefined con­
dition, be declared by your Board positively uninsurable in all buildings
in compact portions of the city, and in all public warehouses privileged for
storage of hazardous and extra hazardous merchandise, and that such oils
are considered insurable only when in detached and properly-ventilated
sheds and warehouses, specially adapted by their construction for that
purpose, and devoted exclusively to the storage of such oils, or substances
of a similar character, and then at a special rate not less than th ree pe r
cent .

Your committee also find that benzine, benzole and naphtha, liquids
produced from the distillation of coal and the refining of crude petro­
leum, rock oil and earth oil, and extremely volatile in their properties,
and nearly allied with, if not more dangerous than camphene, are being




1862.]

Journal o f Insurance and Banking.

185

largely introduced into various arts and manufactures, and arc often
stored in considerable quantities in stores and warehouses in this city
and vicinity. These articles, when exposed, evaporate with great rapid­
ity at a moderate temperature, and when combined with air become
exceedingly explosive and dangerous, burning with great fury, and com­
municating fire to surrounding objects almost instantaneously. In the
judgment of the committee, these articles, when kept in quantities of
three barrels or less in any one building, should be placed in the list of
11special hazards,” and charged as such, and when kept in quantities
greater than three barrels, should be subject to the same restrictions and
rates as crude petroleum, rock oil and earth oil.
Your committee also recommend that manufactured coal oil, refined
petroleum oil, kerosene and carbon oil, and all oils manufactured from
coal, rock oil or earth oil, when kept in less quantities than ten barrels,
be classed as “ extra hazardous," and when kept in larger quantities than
ten barrels, as “ specially hazardous,” and charged accordingly.
Your committee, therefore, recommend the adoption of the following
resolutions:
Resolved, That petroleum, rock oil and earth oil, in a crude or unre­
fined state, be and hereby are declared uninsurable, except when stored
in detached and properly-ventilated sheds and warehouses, specially
adapted by their construction for that purpose, and devoted exclusively
to the storage of such oils, or substances of a similar character, and then
at a special rate of not less than three per cent.
Resolved, That benzine, benzole and naphtha, when kept in quantities
of three barrels or less, be classed as “ specially hazardous," and charged
as such; and when kept in larger quantities than three barrels, be subject
to the same restrictions and rates as crude petroleum, rock oil and earth
oil.
Resolved, That manufactured coal oil, refined petroleum oil, kerosene
and carbon oil, and all oils manufactured from coal, rock or earth oil
and petroleum, when kept in less quantities than ten barrels, be classed
as 11extra hazardous," and when kept in larger quantities than ten barrels,
be classed as “ specially hazardous," and charged as such.
All of which is respectfully submitted.
D. A. H eald, of Home Ins. Go.,
G eorge T. H o p e , of Continental Ins. Co.,
E. A. S tansbury , of Metropolitan Ins. Co., - Committee.
H en ry A. O akley , of Howard Ins. Co.,
J. L. D ouglass , of Merchants' Ins. Co.,
New-York, December 23, 1861.
After full discussion the report was accepted, and the resolutions were
unanimously adopted.
On motion, it was further resolved, that the building containing the
articles above enumerated, and all other merchandise therein, be charged
at the rates named above.
R ichard J. T h o rn e , President.
W illiam F. U nd erh ill , Secretary.
New-York, December 23, 1861.




186

Journal of Insurance and Banking.
GOVERNMENT

[February,

CURRENCY.

The following has been printed in circular form, written by an ex­
perienced bank officer, who is connected with one of the largest and
most successful of the associated banks :
SKETCH

OF A PLA N FO R A GOVERNM ENT LOAN.

Congress to authorize Mr. C hase to borrow at once, from the banks
in New-York, Boston and Philadelphia, three hundred (300) million
dollars, pledging as collateral security therefor five hundred (500) million
7 30-100 per cent. Treasury notes, (convertible into twenty years’ 7 per
cent, bonds at any time,) accompanied with an act of Congress pledging
the entire property of the United States as security against any and all
loss accruing to the hanks through this and the last two loans or pur­
chases of Treasury notes and bonds.
If deemed important, a direct lien on the lands belonging to the United
States, in the shape of a mortgage or otherwise, could be asked for.
The Secretary of the Treasury should receive instructions, with dis­
cretionary powers as to time and price, to sell the wThole or any part of
said five hundred million dollars Treasury notes, (or the 7 per cent, bonds
into which they could at any time be converted,) and apply the proceeds
thereof to the payment of the loan of three hundred million dollars.
To enable the banks to make this loan, and insure the prompt payment
of the entire amount, as called for by the government, continuing specie
payments, it w'ould be highly important that foreign exchanges be kept
in favor of the United States ; and as we can only hope for a continuance
of the present reduced rate for exchange through continued diminished
imports of goods, Congress should immediately impose heavy duties upon
many articles in common use, to continue during the war.
If, through a change in the rates for foreign exchange, with a prospect
of a shipment of gold, it should become necessary to suspend specie pay­
ments, the drafts of the government can easily be met by the banks with
their common currency, (including, perhaps, fifty million dollars demand
Treasury notes for the use of the troops, which could be redeemed by
the banks as their own circulation,) provided it were included in the
proposed arrangement for security.
The direct advantages to the banks in making this loan are—1. Security from loss on the amount of the two last loans or purchases
of one hundred million dollars Treasury notes and bonds.
2. Accruing interest on loan of three hundred million dollars to be
placed to the credit of government at once, but which will not be wanted
for some months.
The indirect benefit would accrue through the good effects of such a
measure upon the whole business community—the probability of a con­
tinuance of specie payments, and saving the present currency from inter­
ference at this inauspicious time.
Through the confidence of the people in the ability of the government
to conduct the war to a successful issue with the means thus placed
at its disposal in this negotiation, the Secretary of the Treasury would
be able to sell the Treasury notes or bonds before the 1st of July next,
at a price not below that at which the fifty million 6 per cent, bonds
were awarded to the banks in November last.




S ecurity .

1862.]

The Warehousing System o f the United States.

187

T H E W A R E H O U S I N G S Y S T E M OF T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S .
Tariff Act of August, 1861, section 5, provides as follows:
5. And he it further enacted, That all goods, wares and mer­
chandise actually on shipboard and bound to the United States, and all
goods, wares and merchandise on deposit in warehouses or public stores
at the date of the passage of this act, shall be subject to pay such duties
as provided by law before and at the time of the passage of this act:
And provided further, That all goods deposited in public store or
bonded warehouse after this act takes effect and goes into operation, if
designed for consumption in the United States, must be withdrawn
therefrom, or the duties thereon paid in three months after the same are
deposited ; and goods designed for exportation and consumption in
foreign countries may be withdrawn by the owner at any time before
the expiration of three years after the same are deposited ; such goods,
if not withdrawn in three years, to be regarded as abandoned to the
government, and sold under such regulations as the Secretary of the
Treasury may prescribe, and the proceeds paid into the Treasury:
Provided, That merchandise, upon which the owner may have neg­
lected to pay duties within three months from the time of its deposit,
may be withdrawn and entered for consumption at any time within two
years of the time of its deposit, upon the payment of the legal duties,
with an addition of 26 per centum thereto: Provided, also, That mer­
chandise upon which duties have been paid, if exported to a foreign
country within three years, shall be entitled to return duties, proper evi­
dence of such merchandise having been landed abroad to be furnished
to the collector by the importer, one per centum of said duties to be
retained by the government.
T he

S ec.

SO M E R E A S O N S W H Y G OO D S O U G H T TO B E A L L O W E D TO R E M A IN IN BOND
FOR THREE

O R F IV E

Y EA RS.

What the Treasury wants is revenue. If it can be shown that the
three months’ bonding system will kill the goose that lays the golden
egg, much will be done, no doubt, towards restoring the old regulation,
allowing three years to take goods out of bond.
Under the three years’ bonding system a business had grown up in
the United States, unknown before, at least in its extent, which business
helped, in a considerable degree, the sale and export of American manu­
factured goods and produce. Able to find, under that system, in our
bonded warehouses, the manufactures and produce of England, France,
Spain, Asia and other regions, merchants of this and of other countries
made up assorted cargoes for the West Indies, South America, Africa,
and even the East Indies, and, along with the foreign article, American
merchandise would be taken. Under the short bonding system this
business, which was fast making the United States the commercial mart
of the world, is lost to the country, and the cities of New-York, Phila­




188

The Warehousing System o f the United States.

[February,

delphia and Boston will feel its effects, not only in the loss of what trade
of the kind had been already established, but yet more in the loss of the
expansion which that trade was taking, which was great, and, but for the
unfortunate change, would have been lasting.
The writer has himself imported goods, and kept them in bond three
years without selling them, at the expiration of which time he has had
to ship them again to a foreign port, and re-import them, to get another
three years’ extension. This is mentioned only to show that the time of
three years is not by any means too long, if long enough; for here there
is a double freight and incidental expense lost, which a more liberal
system would have saved.
The idea that revenue will come in quicker under the three months’
system will probably be found a delusion. The only effect of this system
will be to prevent importation, and it will most certainly, at times, cause
a great rise in prices of any. article not imported in sufficient quantity,
and not found in market to supply a sudden demand. High prices stop
consumption, and, therefore, the revenue must suffer. Under the three
or five years’ system goods will be warehoused, and duties paid on them
whenever the consumption of the country will demand i t ; and, inasmuch
as it will have a tendency to keep prices moderate, the revenue will be
benefited by the duties on the increased consumption of a cheaper
article. Much more might be said on the subject, but the foregoing is
deemed sufficient to call for a return to the more beneficial and liberal
provision of our former revenue laws. A perseverance in the present
system will lose revenue to the customs, and cause a great loss to our
trading community, our ships, our manufacturers and mechanics.
M ercator.

New-York, January 8, 1862.

THE

ENGLISH

WAREHOUSING

SYSTEM.

Section 103, of the British warehousing act, provides: Goods ware­
housed, not cleared for home use or exportation within five years, must
be re-warehoused; and duties on deficiencies and expense of examina­
tion, to be paid down. All warehoused goods shall be cleared, either for
home use or exportation, at the expiration of five years from the date of
warehousing; or within such further period, and in such cases, as the
commissioners of the treasury shall direct, unless the owner or proprietor
of such goods be desirous of re-warehousing them, in which case they
shall be examined by the proper officers, and the duties due upon any
deficiency or difference between the quantity ascertained on landing and
the quantity then found to exist, subject to such allowances as are by
law permitted in respect thereof, together with the necessary expense
attendant thereon, shall be paid down; and the quantity so found shall
be re-warehoused in the name of the then owner or proprietor thereof, in
the same manner as on the first importation.




JOURNAL

I.

189

Journal o f Mining and Manufactures.

1862.]

OF M I N I N G

AND M A N U F A C T U R E S .

W. A rmstrong on P lated S h ip s . II. T h e F u r T ra d e . III. M an ufa ctu re o f S ho es .
Co ch ineal in I n d ia . V. A P o w e r fu l G u n . VI. L ak e S u p er io r Co p p e r R eg io n . VII.
L u c if er M atches . VIII. S ir E. M urch ison . IX. S a le o f L a w r en c e M a c h in e Snop. X.
R ecent I t a l ia n I n v en tio n s . XI. U p p e r L e a t h e r fo r S ho es . XII. C otton P r in tin g in
F ran ce . XIII. N e w P a ten ts .
S ir

IV.

SIR

W. A R M S T R O N G

ON

IRON-PLATED

SHIPS,

& C.

T h e annual meeting of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers was
opened at Sheffield, in November, Sir W illiam A rmstrong , the president,
in the chair. There was a numerous attendance, and after the minutes
of the previous meeting had been confirmed, the president delivered his
annual address. Having spoken of the mechanical arts as applied to
the purposes of peace, he alluded to the changes which the progress of
science had necessitated in the machinery of war. “ Our warlike neigh­
bors, the French,” he said, “ always forward in every thing appertain­
ing to war, have of late years devoted their energies to two most impor­
tant subjects; the rifling of ordnance and the application of defensive
armor to ships. Their advances have necessitated similar steps on our
part, and we have certainly no reason to suppose that we are behind them
in the race.” Having described his own process of manufacturing ord­
nance, he observed: “ With regard to the great question of the ultimate
effect of artillery against ships protected by defensive armor, I believe
that whatever thickness of iron may be adopted, guns will be con­
structed capable of destroying it. At the same time, I am of opinion,
that iron-plated ships will be infinitely more secure against artillery than
timber ships. The former will effectually resist every species of explo­
sive or incendiary projectile, as well as solid shot from all but the heavi­
est guns, which can never be used in large numbers against them. In
short, it appears to me to be a question between plated ships, or none at
all, at any rate, so far as line-of-battle ships are concerned.” Sir W il ­
liam discussed at considerable length the question as to the most suita­
ble plates for resisting shot; his opinion, upon the whole, being in favor
of rolled rather than forged iron. Three papers were subsequently read
by members of the institution, including one by Mr. H enry B essem er ,
“ On the manufacture of cast steel and its application to constructive
purposes.” After describing his process of making cast steel, Mr. B es ­
sem er said, one of the most special adaptations of such steel, was its
suitability for the manufacture of ordnance. By his process, blocks of
metal of any required size, from one to twenty or thirty tons weight,
might be made of any tensile strength, and at Messrs. B essem er ’s works
the most satisfactory results had been obtained in the manufacture of
ordnance with the metal fused for piston rods. With the degree of
toughness afforded by this metal, the bursting of the gun became almost
impossible, as its power of resisting a tensile strain was fifteen tons a




190

Journal o f M ining and Manufactures.

[February,

square inch above that of the best English bar iron, and experiments
that have been made showed that tubular pieces could be crushed flat
without exhibiting any signs of fracture. An eighteen pounder was ex­
hibited, and it was stated, that the erection of the necessary apparatus
for the production of steel by this process, inclusive of air-pumps and
steam-engine, on a scale capable of producing from crude iron enough
steel to make forty such gun blocks per day, would not exceed a cost of
£5,000.
THE

FUR

TRADE.

Mink sable and Siberian squirrel furs are those most in demand, and
are considered most fashionable. Although the demand for this class of
furs is very great, yet, owing to the great supply, and the facility with
which they are obtained, the prices are moderate. The best quality of
mink sable is found in Maine; it is also procured in tire Hudson Bay
regions, the northwest, and found in small quantities in this State.
The most expensive of all furs is the Russian sable, which sell from
$500 to $1,500 per set. This quality of fur is very scarce, and, besides,
their exportation from Russia has been prohibited by the Emperor.
Those that reach this country are smuggled away. The Hudson Bay
sable is also quite scarce and expensive, being sold as high as $100 to
$600 per set.
The opussum and muskrat furs abound in great quantities, and are
easily obtained. Fitch is but little in demand, although a few years since
it was much sought after. Buffalo skins are obtained in Minnesota, Dakota,
Nebraska, Kansas and Northern Texas. Each year this animal becomes
scarcer, and before many years they will doubtless be extinct. The ani­
mals are shot by the Indians and others, who sell the skins to traders.
The hides are worth from three to twelve dollars apiece. The finest
skins are greatly in demand by military officers, who use them instead
of blankets, for which they are found far superior.
Many beaver skins, bought by dealers, are shipped by them to Eng­
land, where they are used extensively for cloak linings. This animal is
found among the Rocky Mountains and in the British dominions, and
does not, as many suppose, decrease each year, although, it is said, they
push farther west. The quantity of beaver skins obtained this year is
equally as great as has been procured for several years back. Yery few
are now found about Lake Superior, where they w'ere a few years since
in great numbers.
Fur dealers resort to numerous tricks, by which they can dye furs of
a common quality, and give them the appearance of those more rare.
The price of all furs varies according to their shades of color and their
scarcity. This business, although one of profit, yet involves considerable
risk and outlay.
IMPROVEMENT

IN

THE

MANUFACTURE

OF

SHOES.

We recently examined, at the store of F. S. V an derpo el , N o. 60
Liberty-street, an invention which is attracting the attention of shoe and
leather manufacturers. It is known as “ H en ry P ort ’s Patent,” and in




1862.]

Journal o f Mining and Manufacturet.

191

several particulars is very peculiar. The object is to facilitate the mak­
ing of boots and shoes.
In the process here adopted, the shank and heel is of vulcanized rub­
ber, in one piece, with rivets imbedded—the latter being the project­
ing points of a skeleton, protruding themselves at regular distances near
the margin of the last. The uppers are lasted in the ordinary way, on
the patent notched last, this being nothing more than a plain iron sur­
face with depression to receive the rivet for the purpose of clinch­
ing. A punch or guide to enter the rivets at their proper place on
the notched last is then applied, by a single stroke. The entire bottom
(composed of two distinct pieces—the half-sole and shank piece) is next
adjusted to its place—when another stroke clinches the whole in a finish­
ed shoe—nothing more being necessary than to substitute a smooth iron­
faced last for the notched one, which effectually flattens the rivets.
The shoe thus made is claimed to be, as it really appears, as strong as
any sewed work, and has an elasticity and softness of tread which
commends it for use. Furthermore, the shank and heel being of rub­
ber, are pronounced capable of outlasting the most durable upper.
At the exhibition yesterday, a pair of shoes w’as made by hand in twenty
minutes, after the upper was adjusted to the last; and we are informed
that a single workman can easily turn out twenty-five pairs per day.
Machinery is expected to work this patent with much greater efficiency.
The patent, as we are informed, is offered for sale.

COCHINEAL

IN

INDIA.

An Indian correspondent of the London Globe has recently pointed
out that the cochineal insect—the dye of which is at present, with the
exception of a small quantity imported from Madeira, entirely derived
from South America—is found over a vast tract of country in British
India. It was introduced in 1801, when the lac insect was unknown,
and cochineal was worth $7 a pound, by a gentleman of the name of
D aw son , tempted by a prize offered by the East India Company. The
cactus, on which alone the insect flourishes, grows profusely throughout
the southwestern provinces of the Indian peninsula. Within a very short
time, the cochineal extended over 800 miles of country ; but, as no per­
sons who understood how to prepare the article for market had been in­
troduced with the cochineal insect, the commercial speculation com­
pletely failed. In the course of time, the cochineal insect extended from
Fort St. George, where it was landed, 4,000 miles inward. Here it is
found in a wild state, but the natives have not yet learned how to use it
for coloring silk and wool.
THE

MOST

POWERFUL

GUN

INTHE

WORLD.

We are sure that none of our readers will fail to read the account, late­
ly published, of the trial of the great Union gun. There have been guns
made in Europe of much larger calibre than this, but none of them of
sufficient strength to give any considerable velocity to the shot. This
gun is twelve inches in diameter, and, being rifled, carries an elongated




192

Journal o f M ining and Manufactures.

[February,

shot weighing 423 lbs.—namely, the same weight as the round ball of
R odman ’s fifteen-inch gun, which is 425 lbs.
The London Engineer, in speaking of the recent experiments at Shoeburyness, calls A rmstrong ’s two hundred-pounder the most powerful
ordnance in the world; but the shot of the big gun at Fortress Monroe is
more than twice as large, and the gun is consequently more than twice as
powerful. These two guns, the twelve-inch rifled, and the fifteen-inch
smooth bore, are the most powerful pieces of ordnance that have ever
yet been made.
The introduction of iron-plated ships has made it very desirable for
sea-coast defence to have enormous cannon, the shots from which would
break the iron plates to pieces. But, until R odman’s improved mode of
casting was invented, it was impossible to make large cannon strong
enough to bear the charges required to give effective velocity to balls
weighing 400 lbs. These circumstances cause peculiar interest to attach
to the trial of the twelve-inch rifled cannon, and we are much pleased at
being able to present so good a description of this trial.

THE

LAKE

SUPERIOR

COPPER

REGIONS.

The Ontonagon Miner gives the following statement of shipments from
the copper mines of that district for the past season :
T o n s.

N e t lb s.

National,..................................... 1,868,196 or 934
Minnesota,..................... .......... 3,760,800 u 1,880
Rockland,....................... ..........
938,034 u
469
Superior,....................... ..........
79,328 a
39
Flint Steel,..................... ..........
3,039 u
1
Nebraska,..................... ..........
14,683 u
7
Knowlton,..................... ..........
22,799 u
11
Ogima,........................... ..........
19,360 u
9
Evergreen Bluff,............. .......... 125,895 a
62
u
Ridge,............................
31
a
Adventure,.....................
3
2
Toltec,........................... ..........
4,455 u
Bohemian,..................... ..........
15,160 u
7
Total,..................... .......... 6,920,731

a

3,460

lbs.

196
800
34
1,328
1,039
683
799
1,360
1,895
138
844
455
1,160
731

In looking over some statistics of production of the mines of this region,
we had the curiosity to compare the increase therein shown with the in­
crease of population. We find that in 1854 the population of the two
copper counties of the Upper Peninsula (Houghton and Ontonagon) was
7,985; the production of ingot copper was 1,488 tons, and the value
about $495,200. This would give a yield of 373 lbs. to every man,
woman and child, making each one a producer to the amount of $75 60.
In 1860, after an interval of six years, we find the population amounting
to 13,810 souls, producing 6,000 tons ingot copper, worth $2,400,000.
This is at the rate of 866 lbs., or $173 20 to each individual. The in­
crease in the six years, as exhibited by the above figures, is, for the
population, about 74 per cent.; for the production and value, 310 per
cent.




1862.]

Journal o f Mining and Manufactures.
LUCIFER

193

MATCHES.

Mr. G o r e , a recent writer on this subject, gives some astonishing
statistics respecting this branch of manufacture. The firm of Messrs.
D ix o n employ 400 workmen, and generally have on hand £ 8 , 0 0 0 or
£10,000 worth of timber. Each week they consume one ton of sulphur
and make 43,000,000 matches, or 2,160,000,000 in the year. Beckoning
the length of a match at two and a quarter inches, the total length of
these would far exceed the circumference of the earth. Another calcu­
lation has been made, that the whole length of waxed cotton wicks con­
sumed every year by one London manufacturer in the production of
“ vestas” would be sufficient to reach from England to America and
back again. The magnitude of the figures relating to the English manu­
facture of matches is, however, insignificant, when we turn to the Austrian
production. Two makers alone, M. P o l l a k , at Vienna, and M. F u r t h ,
in Bohemia, produce the amazing number of 44,800,000,000 matches
yearly, consuming twenty tons of phosphorus, and giving employment
to 600 persons. The low price at which these necessaries of life are
produced is equally astonishing. M. F u r t h sells his cheapest boxes at
one penny per dozen, each containing eighty matches. Another maker
sells the plain boxes at two pence per 100, and 1,400 matches for one
farthing; whilst a third maker sells a case of fifty boxes, each containing
100 lucifers, for four pence. The imports of matches into the United
Kingdom are of the value of £60,000 yearly, representing the enormous
number of 200,000,000 daily. The daily consumption is 50,000,000
more than the above number, or upwards of eight matches each day for
every individual in the kingdom.
SIR

R.

MURCHISON

AND

DR.

CUMMING.

The former writes to the Manchester Examiner in reference to the
lectures of the latter :
“ Dr. C u m m in g having said that he consulted me, I must state what
occurred between us at a merry morning dejeuner at Tunbridge Wells,
where I met the reverend and eloquent gentleman at the house of a
mutual friend. He asked me if I believed in an internal fiery state of
the globe, and I replied that, in common with the majority of geologists,
I inferred from the evidence of increase of temperature in deep shafts,
and also from former and present outbursts of igneous matter, that the
existence of a central heat could not, in my opinion, be denied. The
words ‘ burning cauldron,’ as used by the doctor, are, of course, not
mine. If not misreported, Dr. C u m m in g has, in the same lecture, com­
pletely misunderstood what I said to him on the subject of gold. I
directed his attention to two verses in the book of J o b , which indicated
that the patriarch was an observant mining geologist. The words
(chap, xxviii. 1) are, ‘ Surely there is a vein for the s i l v e r a n d in the
6th verse, ‘ It (the earth) hath dust of gold.’ Now, although gold, as
well as silver, was originally found in veinstones or disseminated in solid
rocks, yet the more precious metal is usually found in superficial debris
of pebbles, sand, etc., (the ‘ dust’ of J ob ,) whilst silver is almost exclu­
sively obtained from veinstones in mines of argentiferous galena. So
far, therefore, Dr. C u m m in g is right in announcing that I did say ‘ J ob
VOL. X L vi.— NO. II.




13

194

Journal o f Mining and Manufactures.

[February,

was a good geologist.’ But if he added (as one report of his lecture has
it) that I was led to anticipate the discovery of gold in Australia by the
words of J o b , he is entirely in error.”
LAWRENCE

MACHINE

SHOP.

The whole assets of the Lawrence machine shop were sold by auction,
in January, for $9,150, to J acob P ie r c e . According to vote of the
stockholders, all the property was sold in one lot. It consisted of out­
standing accounts exceeding $18,000; promissory notes amounting,
without interest, to over $95,000; 212 shares of stock of Terre Haute,
Alton and St. Louis Rail-Road, par $50 per share; 487 shares of stock
of Mississippi and Missouri Rail-Road, par $100 per share. Also, 584
acres of land in Aroma, 111.; 480 acres in Douglas county, Nebraska;
760 in Kankakee, McLean and Linn counties, 111.; and 80 in Newaygo
county, Michigan, and some other matters.
RECENT

ITALIAN

INVENTIONS.

The new life infused into the formerly inert limbs of Italy, has quick­
ened the genius of its people into industrial activity. They are grap­
pling with matters more serious than art or song. A great national
exhibition has lately been held at Florence, and the products of Italian
industry, though far from being abreast of those of France or England,
are, to say the least, highly promising. The great want of that penin­
sula is coal, which has not been found, to any extent, on its surface.
The lack of this must prove a serious drawback to the promotion of
steam navigation and manufactures. But water-power does not, proba­
bly, exist in greater abundance in any other country of Europe, of the
same extent, excepting Switzerland and Norway.
Among recent Italian inventions, the pantelgraph, brought out by
C a sselli , is worthy of special notice. This instrument is intended for
the transmission of messages immediately from the writer’s own hand,
conveying a facsimile of every word and letter, thus bearing the full
authenticity of the hand and signature. A banker, for example, at one
city, may hereafter draw a check or a draft upon his correspondent in
another, which will be immediately honored. The telegraphic wire is
made to deliver, at any distance, not only ideas, but forms, whether sig­
natures, designs, portraits, or any other kind of resemblances. The
action is so rapid, too, that twelve words per minute can be transmitted.
“ A small point, vrites a correspondent, “ something like the hand of a
watch, runs semi-circularly, moved by a very simple machine, upon a
chemically-prepared paper, tracing almost invisible lines, the aggregate
of which soon embodies the words, or the various parts of the design,
till the whole stands before us.”
Among other Italian inventions, is a boring machine, now being used
in opening a tunnel through the Alps. This instrument is propelled by
condensed air. Another is a very ingenious contrivance for assisting
railroad trains up heavy grades, securing greater safety and better facili­
ties on short curves than hitherto possessed. In this case, the power is
obtained from water. A trial of the apparatus is said to have resulted
quite successfully on one of the Sardinian rail-roads.




1862.]

Journal o f Mining and Manufactures.

I

A NEW SUBSTITUTE FOR THE UPPER LEATHER IN BOOTS AND SHOES.

We hear that Mr. S zer elem y , who is celebrated for the induration of
the stone in the house of parliament with a preparation of zoppissa, has
discovered the means of rendering a woven fabric completely impervious
to wet or damp, and which will not crack or shrink, permits the perspi­
ration to pass off, is exceedingly soft to the foot, and will fit it as a glove
fits the hand. This new leather is called panonia. Other improvements,
too, are made by Mr. W m. S outhwood , for the protection of the foot, by
allowing the points of the rivets to terminate between the leather of the
inner sole; the inside leather is reversed, the sucking part of it, therefore,
instead of drawing, excludes the damp from the ground, and absorbs the
perspiration. We understand a company has been formed for working
these valuable discoveries, by which great advantages will be given to
the public in both cheapness and comfort.
COTTON

PRINTING

IN

FRANCE.

The Constitutionnel publishes the following results of the imperial
decree, dated the 13th of February last, authorizing the importation of
foreign cotton cloths free of duty, on condition of their being re-exported
after having been printed at French mills. 70,000 pieces of unbleached
cotton, of 46 yards each, have, since the publication of the decree, been
imported into France, on the conditions specified. Of these, Mulhausen
received 45,000 pieces, nearly all from Switzerland, and Rouen, 25,000,
from England. These calicoes cost from 5c. to 6c. the metre less than
French calicoes, being a difference of 15 per cent., which proves, says
the Constitutionnel, that the negotiators of the treaty of commerce with
England were correct in fixing the import duty on such articles at 15
per cent. The value of these cotton cloths temporarily admitted into
France is estimated at from l,500,000f. to l,600,000f., to which the
bleaching and printing is to be added, at the rate of from 28 to 20 cent­
imes the metre, being an addition to the value of about l,300,000f.
Thus the facility granted by the decree of the 13th of February has
been doubly beneficial to the French manufacturers. It opened markets
to them which were closed in consequence of the high price of their
calicoes, and enabled them to give employment to their operatives at a
moment when trade was dull in consequence of the political events in
the United States. This result has been obtained without injury to the
French weavers. In fact, the price of French cloths have rather increased
than diminished since the decree of the 13th of February. On the other
hand, the experience obtained has proved that there is not an equal ad­
vantage to be obtained by the temporary admission of muslins, inasmuch
as the price charged by the French manufacturers for these articles is
nearly the same as the English. “ In a word,” concludes the Constitu­
tionnel, “ the decree of the 13th of February, which has been in existence
little more than six months, has produced most satisfactory results, not
only with respect to our foreign relations, but with regard to our home
consumption. The inquiry instituted last year by the Superior Council
of Trade leaves no doubt on this head. Calicoes cannot be printed at a
cheap rate except in large quantities. A new pattern costs a large price,
and must be spread over a large quantity of calico in order to be sold




Journal of Mining and Manufactures.

196

[February,

cheap. Thus, for example, suppose a new pattern, including the price of
the drawing and of the copper cylinder, costs 10,000f.; if the sale does
not exceed 10,000 pieces, there is an expense of If. the piece. On the
contrary, the cost is considerably diminished if there are 20,000 or 40,000
pieces printed. We have likewise to thank the government for the de­
crees of the 26th of August last, by which woollen cloths, plain or mixed,
are admitted for printing, on condition of being re-exported.”
NEW

PATENTS

IN

THE

UNITED

STATES.

Ross W in a n s and T h o m a s W in a n s , of Baltimore, Md., for an im­
proved steering apparatus for navigable vessels : They claim the combi­
nation of a vessel having a spindle-formed bottom, two rudders located
below the bottom thereof, at opposite sides of the longitudinal centre,
and mechanism to impart opposite movements to the rudders, substan­
tially as described.
A. G . T o m p k in s , of New-York city, for an improved screw propeller:
He claims constructing the propeller with a flaring-edged felloe or continu­
ous rim, supported upon separate spokes or arms, that radiate from the
driving shaft, all in the manner and for the purpose shown and described.
This invention relates to an improvement in what is generally known as
the screw propeller, and has for its object the obviating of friction and
consequent loss of power attending the working of the ordinary sub­
merged screw propeller.
R o b e r t T a y l o r , of New-York city, for an improvement in canal lock
gates j First, a circular face gate for canal locks, the face of which is
smooth and attached to side pieces or arms radiating from the journals
or axle inserted in the side of the water-way or sides of the lock, when
used in combination with a similarly curved breast wall, which forms the
lower part of the gate, substantially as described. Second, in combina­
tion with such a gate, a wicket leaf, hinged or hung thereto, and opera­
ting in the manner and for the purpose described and represented.
S. H. L o n g , U . S. A., of Alton, Illinois, for an improved dredging
machine : First, the construction and operation of a scraper for opening
channels across bars, &c., substantially such as described. The applicacation and use of such a scraper, with a steamtug or towboat for drag­
ging it across the bar in the direction in which the channel is to be made,
substantially as set forth and explained.
J. E. M a l l o y , of New-York c i t y , for an improvement in the prepara­
tion of fiber for the manufacture of paper: He claims the process of sep­
arating fiber from fiber-yielding plants, as set forth, consisting of the sep­
arate and successive steps of combining, rubbing and washing the plants
in cold water; the whole forming one continuous operation, performed
while the fiber is fresh and plant undesiccated, as set forth.
P . G . G a r d i n e r , of New-York city, for an improvement in cotton
presses: He claims the arrangement and combination of the right and
left screws, pivoted nuts, and friction rollers resting on suitable ways, at­
tached to the frame, when operating levers, in the manner and for the
purpose substantially as described and set forth.
L e o n P i e r r e B a r r e , of Paris, France, for an improvement in steam
boilers: First, the fitting or fixing the tubes of tubular steam boilers by




1862.]

Journal of Mining and Manufactures.

197

means of small flanged tubes with collars by means of cement, for pro­
ducing a steam and water-tight joint between the said boiler tubes and
the end plates of tubular steam boilers. Second, the construction and
employment of a mandrel for facilitating the cleaning of tubes in tubular
boilers.
E. S. B o y n t o n , of Alexandria, Virginia, for an improvement in iron
masts, steeples, &c.: He claims the constructing of masts and spars, and
such perpendicular structures as require height and stability, by means of
flat bars of wrought iron or steel, made continuous by riveting the ends
of the bars together, and winding them spirally around from the bottom
to the top of the structure, one portion winding around in one direction
and the other portion winding around in the reverse direction, so as to
form spiral or diagonal braces throughout the structure, secured together
at the points of intersection, and relying on said continuous braces for
their support, without the aid of longitudinal or circular ribs or any in­
ternal framing, substantially as described.
G. M . C o o p e r , of Litchfield, Michigan, for an improvement in press f o r
packing wool: He claims the two adjacent vertical fixed sides, two adja­
cent hinged and movable sides, supporting and guide rods, sliding yoke,
and piston, the whole being combined and operating together in the man­
ner set forth.
PHOTOZINCOGRAPHY.

At a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science, held in September last, Col. Sir H. J a m e s , R. E., described the
process of “ photozincography,” by means of which photographic copies
of the ordnance maps are cheaply multiplied, either on their original or
on a reduced or enlarged scale. The process is applicable to the repro­
duction of old manuscripts and old printed books. A copy of Domes­
day Book (the part relating to Cornwall taken by this means) was ex­
hibited to the meeting. The process consists in taking a photographic
collodion negative, which is intensified by means of bichloride of mer­
cury and sulphate of ammonia. Paper deprived of its size is saturated
with a solution of gelatine and bichromate of potash. The paper thus
prepared is exposed to the light beneath the negative, the result of which
is, that the parts which have been exposed to the light become hardened
and insoluble. The whole is then inked with a greasy ink, and after­
wards washed in water, which removes the ink from all the parts except
those on which the light has acted. A transfer to stone or zinc is then
taken in the ordinary way, and copies are printed. Sir H e n r y J a m e s
then described an improvement which had lately been made in the pro­
cess, by means of which a reduced copy of a map or plan could be made,
in which the minor detail (which would be useless on a reduced scale)
could be omitted, and the names of places and other features of the plan
given in full-sized legible characters.




198

H. E. MORINGKS MONTHLY COFFEE CIRCULAR.
Stock o f Coffee at the five principal Ports of the United States of America, on the 31s£ of December, 1861.
R io , S antos.

S

tock

.

D o m in g o .

L a g u a y r a . M a r a c a ib o .

J a m a ic a .

Ceara.

B a g s , 1 6 0 lb s . B a g s , 1 3 0 lb s . B a g s , 1 1 0 lb s . B a g s , 120 lb s . B a g s , 150 lb s . B a g s , 128 lb s.

44,017
5,388
600
15,000
none.

T o tal 31st D ec.,.
do. 1 s t “

65,005
80,622

D ecrease,................
In c re a se ,.................

15,617

3,500
650

1,300

11,963

440

4,960

J a n u a ry ,
do.
do.
do.
do.

none.

none.

none.
1,737
1,333

493

404

11,963
13,284

n o n e.

none.

440
275

4,960
229

165

4,731

1,321




none.
3,000
8,428
5,428

none.
880

none.

1860.

1859.

3,759
132
91
1,810
3,357

5,452
906
536
1,344
5,357

2,615
1,538
1,228
315
3,214

2 ,2 0 0

1,800
2,700

i,500

6,107
7,222

9,149
6,189

13,595
11,380

8,910
7,010

1,320

900

1,500

1,115

2,960

2,215

1,900

1st J a n u a ry , 1861, 9,149 tons,
1st D ecem ber, 1860, 6,189 “
1st N ovem ber,
2,575
1st O ctober,
2,719
1st S eptem ber,
4,370
3,033
1st A u g u st,
5,350
1st J u ly ,
4,710
1st J u n e ,
1 st M ay,
3,S08
1st A pril,
4,155
1st M arch,
5,820
1st F e b ru ary ,
8,273
1st J a n u a ry ,
13,595

D ecrease,
In crease,
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.

9,752 to n s, a g a in st th e p rev io u s 13 m onths, 5,673 tons.

In c re a se ,

1861.

599 to n s, o r 12 p e r cent, S tock, 1st D ecem b er,. tons, 7,222
165 do. “ 27 do.
A d d rece ip ts in d o .,___
4,346
1S2 do. “ 6 8 do.
169 do. “ 14 do.
T o tal su pply,.............. tons, 11,568
. . do. “
. . do.
D ed u ct stock, 31st D ec.,
6,107

6,107 tons, ag a in st 1st D ecb’r, 1861, 7,222 tons. D ecrease, 1,115 tons, o r 15 p er cent. D istrib u tio n in D ecb ’r,. to n s,

a g a in st
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.

1858.

4,511
444
81
1,071
none.

* Ceylon, 3,000 m a ts o f 51 lbs.

1S62, 4,511 to n s, a g a in s t 1st D ecb ’r, 1861, 5,110 tons. D ecrease,
’
do.
do.
609 “
do.
do.
do.
444 do.
do.
do.
263 “
do.
do.
do.
81 do.
do.
do.
do.
1,240 “
do.
do.
1,071 do.
do.
do.
n o n e. “
do.
do.
do. none. do.

6,107 tons,
7,222 “
9,560 “
9,745 “
13,883 “
14,211 “
14,675 “
11,104 “
6,971 “
5,759 “
8,452 “
9,935 “
9,149 “

none.

18 6 1 .

5,461

1860.
6,189
7,64S
13,837
9,149
4,688

D istrib u tio n in J a n u a ry , tons 9,659 12,434
o r 33 p e r cent.
do.
F e b ru a ry , ‘r 11,841 10,640
5,926
do.
M arch,
'
9,247
■' 17
do.
4,663
do.
A p ril,
1
5,859
“ 271
do.
6,449
4,684
“ 259
do.
do.
M ay,
do.
June,
5,862
4,254
“ 216
do.
5,372
8,048
“ 368
do.
do.
July*
1
4,056
5,644
do.
do.
A u g u st,
“ 174
6,748
8,130
do.
S eptem ber,
“ 136
do.
do.
O ctober,
8,627
do.
2,937
“ 63
do.
N
o
v
em
b
’r,
*
5,498
4,526
do.
“ 39
4,688
do.
D ecem ber,
5,461
“ 45
do.
do.
“
20
T o ta l in 12 m o n th s ,___tons, 80,290 80,963
do.
“ 83
do. first — m o n th s,..
6,747
6*691
4,079 tons, o r 72 p e r cent. A v erag e p e r m o n th ,___

3,042 tons,
1,033
6,985
7,026
9,513
11,178
9,325
6,394
3,163
1,604
2,632
1,662
4,446

[February,

A verage for la st 13 m onths,

1 ,0 0 0

800

4,150
3,657

T o ta l, 1st J a n u a ry , 1862,

Stock 1st J a n u a ry , 1862,
1st D ecem ber, 1861,
1st N ovem ber, "
1st O ctober,
1st S eptem ber,
1st A u g u st,
1st J u ly ,
1st J u n e ,
1st M ay,
1st A pril,
1st M arch,
1st F eb ru ary ,
1st J a n u a ry ,

880

437

* N o d a ta from N ew -O rleans since 1st Septem ber.
Stock in N e w -Y o rk ,ls t
B oston,
P h ila d elp h ia,
B altim o re,
N ew -O rleans,

B a g s , 130 lb s. M a t s , 60 l b s .

3,000

T otal T ons.

S in g a p o r e .
M a t s , 60 lb s .

Monthly Coffee Circular.

N e w -Y o rk ,............
B o s to n ,....................
P h ila d elp h ia,.........
B a ltim o re ,__ ____
N ew -O rleans,* . . .

J ava.

Ceylo n.
P a c k a g e s .*

COFFEE

MARKETS

OF

THE

WORLD.

1862.]

THE

Imports, Stocks and Distribution of Coffee in the five principal Ports of the United States, up to 31s< December.
1858.

1S61.

1860.

1859.

N e w -Y o rk ,...........................................
B o s to n ,..................................................
P h ila d e lp h ia ,........................................
B a ltim o re ,............................................
N e w -O rle a n s ,......................................

47,965 tons.
3,311 “
6,547 “
9,805 “
9,620 “

82,648 tons.
4,147 “
6,699 “
12,581 “
20,442 “

41,630 tons.
6,835 “
12,907 “
16,837 “
26,061 “

41,501 tons.
8,339 “
10,810 “
14,498 “
23,874 “

40,936 tons.
5,658 “
9,116 u
13,430 “
19,999 “

T o ta l,..............................................
A dd stock, J a n u a r y 1 s t,..................

77,248 tons.
9,149 “

76,517 tons.
13,595 “

104,270 tons.
8,910 “

98,522 tons.
22,740 “

89,139 tons.
13,598 “

T o ta l supply in 11 m o n th s,---D e d u c t stock, D ecem b er 8 1 s t,___

86,397 tons.
6,107 “

90,112 tons.
9,149 “

113,180 tons.
13,595 “

121,262 tons.
8,910 “

102,737 tons.
9,440 “

D is trib u tio n in 12 m o n th s ,..............
“
m onthly a v e ra g e ,___

80,290 tons.
6,691 “

80,963 tons.
6,747 “

99,585 tons.
8,299 “

112,852 tons.
9,363 “

93,297 tons.
7,775 “

I mports

u p to 3 1 s t

o r D ecem ber .

A v erag e.

N e w -Y ork Q uo ta tio ns .

In c lu d in g d u ty o f 5 c e n ts p e r pou n d .

C en ts p e r IJ>.
18>£ © 19 fo u r m onths.
17* © 18
“
“
22 © 24 “
“
29 © 26 fo u r an d six mos.
— © 21
“
w
— © 15
cash in bond.

Stocks, Receipts and Distribution of Coffee in the six principal Depots of Europe, up to lsi December.
S tock 1st D ecem ber .

1861.

I n H o lla n d ,.............................. tons,
A n tw e r p ,............................ “
T r ie s te ,.................................
H a v r e . . . . . . ........................

“
“

T o ta l, D ecem ber, 1 s t,..to n s ,
do. N ovem ber 1 s t , . . . “
do. O ctober 1 st,........ “

1860.

16,150
1,950
6,500
2,800
2,250
8,700

24,250
1,750
1,500

38,350
40,550
48,650

40,350
43,850
50,S50

2 ,2 0 0

2,800
7,850

1859.

1858.

A verage.

28,650
2,500
4,000
1,400
4,300

2 2 ,1 0 0

2 ,2 0 0

2 ,8 8 8

1 0 ,0 0 0

8,150

8,675

50,850
53,250
55,150

44,200
50,900
59,650

43,438
47,136
53,575

4,550
4,250 •
2,950

22,7S8
2,687
4,062
2,338

R e c eip ts

1861.

1860.

T o ta l stock, J a n u a r y 1 s t,.......................... tons,
do. rece ip ts u p to D ecem ber 1 s t ,___ “

45,100
181,900

52,250
160,800

T o ta l supply for 11 m o n th s,..................
D ed u ct stock, D ecem b er 1 s t,..................

“
“

227,000
88,350

213,050
40,350

do.
in D ecem b er,........................
R ec eip ts in
do.
......................
A v erag e d istrib u tio n p e r m o n th ,............

“
“
“

188,650
16,500
14,300
17,150

172,700
13,650
10,150
15,700

and

D ist r ib u t io n .




109

The Crop year of Ceylon, ending 30th September, yielded 30,159 tons, against 31,643 tons in 1860; 29,228 tons in 1859, and 27,632 tons in 1858,
average of 29,665 tons in four years.

Monthly Coffee Circular.

E io , p rim e ,___
“ f a ir ,..........
L a g u a y ra ,........
J a v a , ................
C ey lo n ,..............
S t. D o m in g o ,..

200

H. E. MORING’S MONTHLY SUGAR CIRCULAR.
Imports, Stocks and Distribution of Sugar in the fo u r principal Ports of the United States, up to 31s< December.
1858.

1860.

1859.

N e w -Y o rk ,............................................
B o s to n ,....................................................
P h ila d e lp h ia ,........................................
B altim o re,..............................................

203,464 tons.
80,914 “
21,347 “
13,254 44

251,011 tons.
49,204 “
32,399 “
31,849 “

208,792- tons.
33,888 “
30,595 “
22,154 44

198,799 tons.
31,794 “
26,376 “
24,095 44

215,517 tons.
36,450 44
27,679 44
22,838 44

T o t a l,..............................................
A dd stock, J a n u a ry 1 s t,....................

268,979 tons.
56,394 44

364,463 tons.
24,140 “

295,429 tons.
15,333 “

281,064 tons.
18,103 44

802,484 tons.
28,493 44

T o ta l supply in 112 m o n th s,___
D ed u ct stock, D ecem ber 8 1 st,........

825,373 tons.
27,640 “

888,603 to n s.
56,394 “

310,762 tons.
24,140 “

299,167 tons.
15,333 44

D istrib u tio n in 12 m o n th s ,. . .*
“
m o n th ly average,.

297,783 tons.
24,811 “

882,209 tons.
27,684 “

286,622 tons.
23,885 “

283,834 tons.
23,653 44

u p

to

81 st

of

D ec em ber .

A verage.

N e w -Y ork Q uo ta tio ns .

In c lu d in g 2 # ce n ts p e r p o u n d d u ty .

C en t8 p e r lb .
C uba, fair re fin in g ,.......... 7& © 7% four m os.
44 fair g ro c e ry ,.......... 8
© S%
44
“ H av an a, N o. 12, ..
@ 8%
“
830,977 tons.
“ M e la d o ,................... 4 X @ 5X
“
30,877 44
P ern am s, A m er. brow n,. 7)4 @ ,7%
800,100 tons. M anila, c u rre n t c la y e d ,.. 7% @ 7% six mos.
25,008 44

* In c lu d in g e x p o rt o f 24,599 to n s fro m 1st J a n u a r y to 31st J u ly —no e x p o rt since.

Stocks, Receipts and Distribution of Sugar in the six principal Depots of Europe, up to
Stock, 1st D ecember.
In Holland,............................. tons,
Antwerp,........................... 44

Total, December 1st,__ “
44 November 1st,.... 44
44 October 1st,......... 44




1861.

1860.

1859.

1868.

Average.

14,750
2,450
6,500
3,950
7,000
117,650

3,250
350
3,500
2,100
4,850
82,400

6.500
3,200
5.500
4,100
8,300
111,400

3,000
1,200
500
6,700
250
84,950

6,875
1,800
4,000
4,213
4,975
99,100

Total Stock, January 1st,........................ tons,
44 receipts up to December 1 s t,....... 44

90,850
663,150

125,250
551,000

Total supply for 11 months,................. 44
Deduct stock, December 1st,................. 44

754,000
152,300

676,250
95,950

152,300
169.050
188.050

95,950
124,000
139,050

139,000
160,400
162,800

96,600
121,300
136,850

120,963
143,682
156,488

44
in November,.................. 44
Receipts
44
................... 44
Average distribution per month,............ 44

601,700
53.700
86,950
54.700

580,800
52,700
24,650
52,755

and

Deliveries.

1861.

1860.

[February,

Trieste,.............................. 44
Havre,................................ 44

R eceipts

December.

Monthly Sugar Circular.

1861.

I m po sts

H hds.

S tock .

T ota l T o n s.
M elado,
H h d s .,
1 ,4 0 0 lb s .

D o m e s tic ,
1 ,1 0 0 lb s .

20,386
1,206
746
1,441
23,779
23,246
4,467

376

1,426

21.4
590
1,128
538

1,426
1,594
168

N e w -Y o rk ,........
B o s to n ,................
P h ila d elp h ia, . . .
B a ltim o re ,..........
T o ta l, 31st D ec.,
do. 1 s t
“
D e c re a se ,............
In c re a se ,..............

4 5 0 lb s .

17,514
3,830
1,882
1,267
24,493
21,604
2,8S9

B ags,
a s p e r s p e c i­
f ic a tio n .

J ava,
B a s k e ts ,
6 0 0 lb s .

94,544
63,963
2,400
1 2 ,0 0 0

172,907
226,55S
53,651

2,352
2,352

1861.

1860.

21,264
3,629
1,005
1,742
27,640
32,687
5,047

36,322
9,263
3,119
7,690
56,394
67,855
11,461

S p e c if ic a t io n o f B a g s .

1858.

1859.

19,571
2,889
471
1,209
24,140
30,SS7
6,247

10,4S3
1,569
928
2,353
15,333
20,2S4
4,951

M a n il a ,

C h in a ,

70 l b s .

130 lb s .

62,724
60,963
9,000
132,687
180,496
47,809

S in g a p o r e ,
S ia m a n d
C alcutta.
130 lb s .

16,250

1,979

16,250
21,700
5,450

1,979
3,200

B r a z il ,

M a u r it iu s ,

150 lb s .

160 l b s .

13,591
3.000
2,400
3.000
21,991
19,161
2,830
1861.

67,855
8,879

45,300
27,640

76,734
56,394

D istrib u tio n in D ec. “

17,660

20,340

J a n u a ry ,
1862, 27,040 tons, ag a n st,
D ecem ber, 1861, 32,687 “
N ovem ber,
35,182 “
O ctober,
42,377 “
S eptem ber,
63,557 “
82,076 “
A u g u st,
91,140 “
J u ly ,
June,
83,953 “
M ay,
67,281 “
A pril,
55,8S4 “
M arch,
42,823 “
F eb ru ary ,
46,S25 “
J a n u a ry ,
56,394 M

1st
1st
1st
1st
1st
1st
1st
1st
1st
1st
1st
1st
1st

J a n u a ry ,
1861, 56,394 tons.
D ecem ber, 1860, 67,855
N ovem ber, “
75,888
O ctober,
“
S9,458
S eptem ber, “
109,106
A u g u st,
“
95,050
J u ly ,
“
83,169
June,
“
65,673
M ay,
“
53,701
A pril,
“
80,831
M arch,
“
21,510
F e b ru a ry ,
“
18,930
J a n u a ry ,
“
24,140

A verage for th e la st 13 m os., 55,986 tons, a g a in st th e p revious 13 m onths, 60,900 tons.




D ecrease, 28,754 tons, o r ; 51 p e r cent.
44
OK460
KO
44
35,168 U o r 52
o r 54
40,706
o r 54
“
47,081
o r 42
“
45,549
o r 13
“
12,974
or
9
In crea se , 7,971
o r 29
“
18,2S0
o r 21
“
13,580
o r 81
“
25,053
or 100
“
21,313
o r 147
“
27,895
o r 134
“
32,254

D istrib u tio n in J a n ., tons.
“
F e b .,
"
“
M arch,
•*
A p ril,
“
M ay,
“
June,
“
J u ly ,
“
A ug.,
“
S ept.,
“
O ct.,

19,446
24,176
28,372
28,060
88,980
21,735
29,383
33,646
27,544
14,525
14,206
17,660

14,043
15,917
21,846
24,857
40,059
28,165
40,381
26,176
47,563
32,719
20,143
20,340

D ecrease,

4,914 tons, o r

297,733

332,209

24,811

27*,684

“

Nov.,

“

D ec.,

T o ta l in 12 m onths,
“ first 11 “
8 p er cent. A v erag e p e r m o n th ,

201

S tock, 1 st
1 st
1st
1st
1st
1st
1st
1st
1st
1st
1st
1st
1st

D ecrea se . 5,047 to n s, o r 15 p e r cent.

1860.

32,6S7
12,613

S tock, 1st D ecem b er,.to n s,
S tock in N ew -Y ork, 1st J a n ., 1862, 21,264 to n s, ag a in st, 1st D ec., 1861, 24,120 tons. D ecrea se , 2,856 to n s, o r 12 p e r cent. A dd receip ts in d o .,. . . “
B oston,
“
3 629 “
“
“
5 844 “
“
2,215 “
or 88
“
Total supply,........... “
P h ila d elp h ia,
“
1 005 “
“
“
972 “
In crea se ,
33 “
or 3
“
D ed u ct stock, 31st D ec. “
B altim ore,
“
1 ,7 4 2
“
“
“
1,751
“
D ecrease,
9 “
or 1
“
______________ T o tal, 1st J a n ., 1862, 27,640 to n s, ag a in st, 1st D ec., 1861, 32,687 tons.

2*6oi
2 ,0 0 1

1 ,2 2 1

Monthly Sugar Circular.

F o re ig n ,
1 ,4 0 0 lb s .

B oxes,

1862.]

Stock of Sugar at the four principal Ports of the United Stales of America on the 31si of December, 1861.

202

Commercial Chronicle and Review.

COMMERCIAL

[February,

C H R O N I C L E AND R E V I E W .

T he now year opens with a dullness in commercial circles. The banks
of the city determined, in convention, on the 28th December, to suspend
specie payment. This step was taken on Monday, 30th. The banks
of Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Providence, Albany and other cities
followed suit. A temporary check is therefore given to the foreign export
of gold, and the banks will now prepare for resumption at a time when
the government can repay them for their large advances.
The new measures of Congress have an important bearing upon the
financial and commercial affairs of the country. Congress passed, on the
26th December, a new tariff, in reference to tea, coffee and sugar. A
supplementary or explanatory act was passed on the 11th January. (See
page 187.)
The technicality upon which Secretary C h a s e based his decision, that
teas and coffees shipped before the 5th of August for this country should
enter free of duties, has led Collector B a r n e y to the decision, that if
shipped after that date they shall pay duties according to the act of
December 24th, and not under the act of August 5th. The Secretary,
in his decision, stated that tea and coffee, direct from the country of
production, were duty-free before the 5th of August. The act of August
5th provides, that any goods “ on shipboard and bound for the United
States, on or before the 5th of August, shall pay according to the rates
then and before established.” The act of December 24th provides,
“ that in lieu of the duties heretofore imposed by law, there shall be
levied on the merchandise enumerated,” &c. As teas shipped before
the 5th of August paid no duties, the Secretary ruled that they were
not included in the “ merchandise enumerated,” and decided that they
should enter free of duty, as before. The Collector decides, that as teas
shipped after that time would have had to pay the duties established by
the act of August 5th, therefore they are included in the “ merchandise
enumerated,” and must pay twenty cents per pound, by the act of
December 24.
On the 9th January a bill was introduced into the United States Senate
to punish frauds on the United States Treasury, and referred to a special
committee. A bill was also considered to abolish the franking privilege,
which was afterwards passed by the House of Representatives. On the
15th a resolution was offered by the Committee on Ways and Means, re­
commending such taxation as, with the tariff, shall produce $150,000,000
per annum. This proposition, and numerous others in reference to reve­
nue and taxation, are now under consideration.
Mr. L atham , Senator, of California, has presented a petition from San
Francisco for a line of mail steamers between that port and China. On
the 2d January Senator L atham presented a resolution, instructing the
Committee on Finance to inquire into the expediency of establishing a
distinct bureau for the Treasury Department, to regulate and control the
mint, which was agreed to. A bill was introduced into the House, and




Commercial Chronicle and Review.

203

referred, providing for the defence of Philadelphia and the Delaware
River. On the 6th January a speech was made in the House of Repre­
sentatives, by Hon. R oscoe C onckling , in relation to the battle of Ball’s
Bluff.
On the 8th, a hill was reported to the House of Representatives, in
favor of appropriating $35,000 for exhibiting American products at the
World’s Fair. A bill was adopted, requesting the Secretary of the
Treasury to show as near as possible, the floating debt of the United
States. The Committee of Ways and Means was instructed to consider
the expediency of raising $100,000,000 by taxation, and also to consider
the expediency of pledging the public lands to pay the United States
debt and interest; also a bill to tax passenger travel on rail-roads, to tax
transfers of stock, &c., and five dollars docket fees on any suit com­
menced in a court of record.
On the 15th January, a bill was introduced into the Assembly of NewYork to raise a tax for the support of families of volunteers. The Com­
mittee of Ways and Means requested to elaborate a bill for the more
effectual equalization of property as a basis for taxation.
, The annual returns of the custom-house at this port, show extraordinary
features in our exports. Of domestic produce, the gross export was one
hundred and thirty-one millions’of dollars. We present the following as
the general results compared with the four previous years:
E xports
1857.

of the

P ort

of

1858.

N ew -Y ork, 1857—1861.
1859.

1860.

1861.

Dom. produce,. .$61,803,235 $53,949,703 $59,929,531 $95,468,296 $131,235,995
Foreign, free,.. . . 4,229,776
1,601,111
2,999,881
2,258,710
2,154,947
5,765,274
“
dutiable, 7,331,144 4,087,398
5,050,909
6,203,959
Specie & bullion, 44,360,174 26,001,431 69,715,866 42,191,171
4,236,250
Total exports,. .$120,886,296 $85,639,643 $137,696,187 $145,683,451 $142,931,151

On the other hand, the imports for consumption, for 1861, are reduced
nearly sixty-six per cent, compared with the previous year. We present
the general results for five years, the specie items for the past year form­
ing a larger sum than ever before :
I mports
E ntered fo e

1857.

1858.

at

N ew -Y ork .
1859.

1860.

1861.

Consumption,. .$122,937,013 $102,942,737$176,765,309 $154,660,498 $54,264,661
W arehoused,... 73,342,349 25,635,519
36,875,054 46,741,185 41,072,228
22,024,691 28,708,732 28,006,447 30,353,918
Free goods,___ 21,440,734
Specie,.............. 12,898,033
2,264,120
2,816,421
8,852,330 37,088,413
Total,............... $230,618,129 $152,867,067 $245,165,516 $238,260,460 $162,768,790
Withdrawn from
warehouse,.. 40,609,890 37,499,542 26,857,089 31,103,924 39,717,259

The United States forces having taken possession of Port Royal, South
Carolina, they have taken large quantities of Sea Island and other cotton.
A shipment of three thousand hales, by the steamer V anderbilt , reached
this port early in January, and realized high prices. For Sea Island cot­
ton, some brought 63 cents per pound. A correspondent says :
“ Engines and negroes competent to superintend them, are to he found
on every large plantation from which they have not been carried off or
shot by their fugitive masters. Mr. L an e , the government agent, is




204

[February,

Commercial Chronicle and Review.

actively employed in the collection and ginning of cotton on this and
the adjacent islands, and he employs for the running of engines and gins
only the negroes on the plantations. Whatever is necessary to prepare
the cotton for shipment or market—except receiving pay for it—has
always been their regular duty, and very few except the slaves have the
necessary knowledge and experience. It is the testimony of Mr. L a n e ,
who is as far as possible from being an abolitionist, that the negroes
under him do their work faithfully and well, with very little supervision,
and no means of compulsion whatever. By their help, the cotton is gin­
ned and packed for about $2 50 a bale—a price for which it could not
possibly be done in New-York. There is still greater saving in cost of
transportation and risk of damage. One hundred thousand pounds 'of
unginned cotton contain seventy thousand pounds of seed and refuge,
and, beside the freight of such a bulk of waste matter, the seed is wanted
here for planting. The great liability to heating and to injury by water
is reason enough for not sending it north in bulk. When ginned and
packed in bales, it is compressed, and the water cannot penetrate.
Loosely gathered, the whole may be rendered valueless by exposure.”
The prices of produce at the end of the year 1861 were well-sustained.
We annex the ruling prices, compared with January, 1858—1861.
We have, in former volumes, given with this annual summary a com­
parative table of prices on the opening of the year. The labor in com­
pleting the other tables, owing to changes in the tariff, will make this
a valuable one, but it will be very useful for reference throughout the
year.
Comparative P rices

at

N e w -Y ork , J anuary 3, 18fi8— 1862.
1858.

Ashes, pots,................................. .100 lbs.
it
“ pearls,........................... .
Breadstuff's:
Wheat flour, State................. . . . .bbl.
“
best extra Genesee,. “
it
Rye flour,
“
(C
Corn meal, Jersey,................
Wheat, white Genesee,.........
“
white Michigan,......... . . “
it
“
white Ohio................
il
“
white Southern,........
“
“
red Western,............
“
Chicago spring,___ . . . “
Rye, Northern,...................... . . . “
it
Oats, State,............................
it
Corn, old Western,...............
“ new Southern,............ . “
Cotton, middling Uplands, . . . . ........lb.
it
middling New-Orleans,
Fish, dry cod,............................ .quintal,
Fruit, bunched raisins,............
“ currants,.......................... ........ ib.
Hay, shipping,.......................... .100 lbs.
Hemp, regular American,........
H ops,......................................... ........lb.
Iron, Scotch, pig.......................
it
“ English, bars,..................
L aths,.......................................
Lead, Spanish,...........................
a
“ Galena,............................




$5 75
5 75
4 25
7 50
4 00
3 25
1 30
1 20
1 15
1 25
1 10
73
43
65
62

1860.

1861.

1862.

$5 624 $ 5 124 85 00
6 00
5 374 5 00

$6 25
6 25

1859.

4 30
7 75
3 75
3 40
1 40
1 25
1 30
1 45
1 20
834
78
53
78
75
12
124
4 00
2 05

84
9
3 25
1 95
9
74
80
65
125
00
100 00
15
10
25 00
26 00
55 00
62 50
2 124
1 25
5 60
4 75
none.
5 85

5 50
5 35
4 30
7 50
7 50
7 50
4 00
4 00
3 874
3 15
3 00
3 90
1 45
1 50
1 50
1 50
1 45
1 50
1 48
1 45
1 45
1 52
1 45
1 45
1 42
1 38
1 30
1 30
1 18
1 18
83
75
92
42
464
37
72
64
90
724
68
88
124
354
11
12|
36
HI
3
50
4 50
3 50
3 20
2 35
1 75
9
6
44
90
1 00
774
145 00 152 50 210 00
20
25
16
24 50 21 00 23 00
53 00 52 00 57 00
1 30
1 25
2 00
5 25
7 00
5 65
7 004
5 774 5 50

1862.]

Commercial Chronicle and Review.
1858.

Leather, hemlock, sole, light,........ ..lb. $0 221
it
........
“
oak,
“
28
Lime, common Rockland,.............. .bbl.
85
Liquors:
Brandy, new Cognac,................
4 25
Domestic whiskey,.....................
22
Molasses, New-Orleans.................. tc
35
Naval stores:
Crude turpentine,....................... , .bbl. 2 871
Spirits
“
...................... ..gall.
38
Common rosin, North Carolina,,.. bbl. 1 30
O ils:
Crude whale,............................... •gall.
60
Sperm.......................................... ti
1 00
Linseed,....................................... ft
55
Provisions:
Pork, old mess,.......................... . .bbl. 15 40
“ old prime,....................... . . “ 13 00
Beef, city mess,......................... . . “ 10 00
tt
“ repacked Chicago,..........
12 50
If
Beef hams, e x tra,......................
15 50
Hams, pickled............................ .. .lb.
8f
ft
Shoulders, pickled,...................
61
if
L ard ,.........................................
H
Butter, Ohio,.............................
16
“
State,............................ . . . “
20
“
Orange County,........... __ “
24
Cheese,.......................................
8
Rice, good,................................. 100 lbs.
3 25
Salt, Liverpool, ground,..............
80
it
“ fine, Ashron’s.......................
1 30
Seeds, clover,................................ .. .lb.
91
if
Sugar, Cuba, good,.......................
7
ft
Tallow,...........................................
10
if
Whalebone, polar,........................
1 10
ft
Wool, common fleece,..................
27

1859.

1860.

$0 24
30
75

$0 20
30
75

205
1861.

1862.

$0 191 $0 201
28
27
75
65

3 00
241
37

3 00
26
53

3 00
19f
37

4 00
201
53

3 68f
49
1 55

3 43f
441
1 65

2 75
35
1 25

10 00
1 471
6 00

65
1 36
65

52
1 40
57

61
1 40
50

48
1 40
86

12 00
17 00
16 371 16 00
13 00
10 50
11 75
8 50
9 00
9 00
5 50
6 00
9 50
9 50
9 00
11 00
15 00
14 50
14 00
14 50
8
6
9*
n
44
61
H
101
1H
10f
84
18
16
14
15
20
20
18
19
25
22
24
22
9
11
10
7
3 50
4 20
4 00
7 00
.90
1 15
75
86
1 38
1 95
1 60
1 70
n
71
H
81
7
7f
61
8i
10J
9f
101
91
95
90
88
76
3
40
30
50

The annual report of the State Engineer of New-York, for 1861, re­
ports the length of canals in the State amounts to eight hundred and
eighty-six miles, and there are seventeen reservoirs to supply it with
water. Seven feet of water have been maintained throughout the season.
The eastern division comprises all the lines of canal east of Oneida Lake ;
the middle division, all lying between Oneida Lake and Wayne county ;
and the western division, all in the western part of the State. To finish
the enlargement will require $391,000, exclusive of land damages. There
will be also an additional item of $75,000 for bottoming out the Erie
canal, when the work was prematurely accepted by former canal commis­
sioners and engineers. Number of unfinished contracts, seventy-six. It
is completed through the Cayuga marshes already. The amount paid
last year for bottoming out was $59,229. Mr. R ichmond recommends
an increased expenditure on the Erie basin; also the construction of
thirteen locks additional between Rochester and the Cayuga marshes.
The reservoirs have been completed on the Black River Canal, capable
of discharging 11,000 cubic feet per minute. The State Engineer states
that there will be an additional expenditure required for the completion
of several of the lateral canals; but the aggregate figure is less than
$25,000.
The trustees of the New-York and Erie Rail-Road Company, on the
31st December relinquished the property to the new organization.




206

Commercial Chronicle and Review.

[February,

The following carefully prepared table gives the wholesale average price
of flour in the Philadelphia market in the month of December for 66
years past:
1861.............
1860,............
1859,...........
1858............. ___
1857,............
1856............. ___
1855,........... ___
1854,............ ___
1853............. ___
1852,............
1851,............
1850,............ ___
1849,...........
1848,............ ___
1847,............
1846,............
1845,............
1844,............ ___
1843,............ ___
1842,............
1841,............
1840,...........

4 87
5 31
5 12
6 66
8 86
9 18
6 86
4
4
5
6

71
87
14
49

6 06
4 29
4 37
4 50
6 42
5 00

1839,............
1838,............
1837,............
1836.............
1835,............ ___
1834,............ ___
1833,............ ___
1832,............ ___
1831,............ ___
1830,............ ___
1829,........... ___
1828,............ ___
1827)............
1826,........... ___
1825j............ ___
1824,............ ___
1823,............ ___
1822,...........
1821,........... ___
1820,........... ___
1819,............ ___
1818,............

8 40
9 62
1100
6 75
4 90
5 37
5 62
5 25
5 31
5 43
8 00
5 00
5 25
4 87
4 87
6 12
6 50
6 25
4 50
6 12
9 00

1817,............ ___
1816,............
1815,............ ___
1814,............
1813,............ ___
1812,............ ___
1811,............ ___
1810,............
1809,............ ___
1808^............ ___
1807,............ ___
1806............. ___
1805,...........
1804,............ ___
1803,............ ___
1802,............ ___
1801,............ ___
1800,............
1799,............ ___
1798,............
1797,.............
1796,.............

$ 9 37
13 00
9 25
8 00
8 75
10 25
10 00
1125
7 50
6 75
6 75
7 50
8 26
11 00
7 50
6 50
7 25
1100
10 00
9 75
8 50
1100

Many comments have been made by the merchants, custom-house bro­
kers and employes, since the passage of the August tariff bill, concerning
the importance and value of the warehousing system, and the opinions
expressed have been unanimous in its favor. Indeed, a petition has been
indited, and signed by many of the large importing merchants of the
city, urging the restoration of the warehousing system as it existed previous
to August 5, 1861. Below will be found the petition, together with Col­
lector B arney ’s letter to Secretary C hase on the subject, in which he
concurs with the merchants in their views of the importance of its res­
toration.
New-York, Nov. 9, 1861.
To Hon. H iram B arney , Collector of the port of New- York :
Dear Sir,—The undersigned, merchants of this city, ask your attention
to the restoration of the bonding privileges which for some years, and,
till recently, were enjoyed by them under the revenue laws of the
country.
By the act of Congress passed in the month of August last, limiting
the time to three months during which goods in bond may be either en­
tered for consumption without payment of extra duties or may be ex­
ported, the advantages of the system are all but annulled; and the un­
dersigned do not understand that the government derives any particular
benefit from the withdrawal of a privilege that is valuable to the mer­
chants, and of much importance to the commercial interests of this city
generally.
The undersigned, therefore, respectfully request you to represent to the
Treasury Department at Washington, that a deep interest is felt by the
merchants of this city in the restoration of the bonding system, as it ex­
isted prior to the 6th of August, and to use your influence in having the
privileges, which are now limited to three months, extended to three
years.




1862.]

Commercial Chronicle and Review,

207

New-York may thus continue to be, as it has hitherto been, a depot
of foreign merchandise and a distributing mart for all parts of the world,
at the same time offering the merchant the choice of the foreign or home
markets during the whole term of three years.
Respectfully yours,
A rcher & B ull , J osiah M acy ’s S ons , F ogg B bos ., U dolpho W o lfe ,

A. A. Low & B ros ., C. H. M arshall , W. W. D e F orest & Co., M.
H athaway , G rin n ell , M inturn & Co., G oodhue & Co., H owland &
A spinw a ll , O ly phant , S on & Co., E . M. T ie r s & Co., J ohn C aswell
& Co., B ucklin & C rane , B ooth & E dgar , M aitland , P h elps
Co.,
G oodrich & W alker , E. D. M organ & Co., C ary & C o., N. L. & G eo .
G risw old , I saac S herm an .

collector barney ’s letter .

Custom-House, New-YorTc, Collector's Office, Nov. 15, 1861.
Sir,—I have the honor to transmit herewith a memorial which has been
addressed to me by some of the wealthiest and most respectable import­
ers of this city, praying for a restoration of the warehouse system as it
existed prior to August 5, 1861. I most cheerfully comply with their
request that I should represent to the department the deep interest which
is felt by the merchants of the city in the re-establishment of the privi­
leges they enjoyed under the “ Act to extend the Warehousing System,”
passed April 28, 1854, and I cannot do so more forcibly than by submit­
ting the appeal which they, themselves, have prepared.
Very respectfully, your obedient servant,
H iram B arney , Collector.
Hon. S almon P. C ha se , Secretary of the Treasury.
The State Auditor of Michigan reports to the legislature that the total
available means in the treasury the past year were $1,230,001, including
$523,083 derived from the war fund, and the balance from taxes, amount left
over from the previous year, and other sources of revenue. The expenses
of the year have been $1,258,235, (or $28,000 in excess of receipts,) the
war portion of the expenses being $539,428. Of this sum the govern­
ment is sure to refund $500,000, or enough to turn upon that portion of
the national tax which falls to Michigan. The deficit of $28,000 is more
than balanced by the taxes due from the Detroit and Milwaukie and the
Michigan rail-roads; from the former $22,000, and from the latter
$35,000. The total debt of the State is $2,736,264, including $449,100
war loan bonds. The aggregate delinquent taxes returned in 1860 was
$318,423 60. The State is debtor to the counties $33,633 01, and
credited by $200,146 72.
The auditor’s statement of the condition of the securities and circu­
lation of the banks of Illinois, as they existed on Monday, the 6th day of
January inst., shows that the total amount of outstanding circulation is
now reduced to $1,415,076, secured by a total of bonds amounting to
$1,411,772, estimated, we presume, at their present valuation.




208

STATISTICS
I.

T rade of R oxbury.
of

[February,

Statistics o f Trade and Commerce.

the

L a k es.

Y.

II.

OF

.

X.

AND

COMMERCE.

I I I . C o m m e r c e o f P o r t l a n d . IY . T r a d e
V I. C o n s u m p t i o n o f W i n e . V I I . S h i p
Sea -Isla n d C otto n .
IX . T i d e - W a t e r R e ­

C it y T o b a c c o T r a d e .

E x p o r t o f S e w in g M a c h in e s .

L o a d f o r N o r t h C a r o l in a .
c e ip t s

TRADE

H udso n B a y .

X I.

TRADE

V III.

Sale of

Sto ck o f C otto n in

OF

L iv e r p o o l .

ROXBURY,

MA S S .

harbor master of the city of Roxbury makes the following state­
ment of the commercial trade of that city during the year 1861:
T he

Im ports.

Value.

Timber,......................2,365,397 feet.
Coal,........................
20,133 tons...............
W ood,.....................
1,861 cords.............
Hay,........................
275 tons.
....
Bricks,...............................1,174,000
....
Iron,........................
200 tons.
....
12,825 feet.
....
Edgestones,............
Lime,.......................
9,710 casks.............
Bone,......................
250 tons...............
....
....
Other articles,........

$24,261
100,665
9,395
4,400
5,876
4,400
3,847
6,311
3,000
5,113

$167,172
Phosphate of lime exported, 150 tons,...................... 3,000
The number of vessels employed was 280.
The city paid, during the year 1861, $47,483 34 for repairing streets
and sidewalks.
THE

NEW- YORK

CI TY

TOBACCO

TRADE.

There is a very general impression that the tobacco trade of this city
is seriously affected by the rebellion in the Southern States. Such, how­
ever, is not the case. There has been a considerable advance in Virginia
manufactured (plug) tobacco, and other tobaccos are held to some
extent just now at speculative prices. There is an abundant supply in
market at present, nearly as much, perhaps, as is usual at this season of
the year. On the first of May the total number of hogsheads in the city
was 12,180, of which 911 were Virginia; and on the first of this month
there were 21,721 hogsheads on hand, 650 of which were Virginia and
North Carolina tobacco.
There will be a very small tobacco crop in Virginia this year, and
that of Kentucky will not be so large as usual. So far as this city is
concerned, there will be no tobacco received from Virginia, as what little
is manufactured will be demanded for home consumption at the South.
Plug tobacco has consequently advanced, according to grades, from six­
teen to forty or fifty cents per pound, and will advance still more. This
kind of tobacco can be manufactured here without difficulty, and those
who use the article need not fear a tobacco famine.




Statistics o f Trade and Commerce.

1862.]

COMMERCE

OF

209

PORTLAND.

The number of foreign arrivals at Portland, for the month of Novem­
ber, was sixty-eight; comprising three steamships, six ships, ten barks,
fourteen brigs, thirty-five schooners. There were twenty-three dutiable
and forty-five free cargoes. The following is a comparative statement of
the commerce of Portland for the month of November, 1860 and 1861,
as it appears on the books of the custom-house:
I m ports .

1861.

Dutiable, entered for consumption,............ . $ 44,775
“
warehoused,................................... 43,302
Free, (exclusive of specie and bullion,)
. 36,680
Specie and bullion,.................................... . 25,168

... ,
___
___
___

Total imports,............................................ $ 149,925

___

1860.
$7,800
39,302
18,626
$ 65,728

E xports .

Domestic merchandise,............................... $ 163,107
Foreign
“
dutiable,..................
1,099
“
“
free,........................... 62,838

___ , $ 107,529
___
5,411
___
8,462

Total exports,.............................................. $227,044
Merchandise withdrawn from warehouse for
consumption,..........................................
25,226

___ , $121,402

COMMERCE

OF

___

23,372

MONTREAL.

The clearances of sea-going craft from the port of Montreal, for the
season of 1861, showed 494 vessels, representing 250,281 tons, against
229 vessels, of 116,748 tons, for 1860. The principal ports to which
produce was exported, were:
I

V essels.

Liverpool,.............................73
Glasgow,............................ 34
London,.................................19
Gloucester,........................ 14
Bristol,................................ 8

860 .

1861.
Tons.

Vessels.

Tons.

68,067
22,097
7,770
4,222
2,392

146
68
57
20
20

126,326
45,883
27,551
7,686
8,532

....
....

Should a war occur between England and the United States, a serious
retrogression would take place in the shipments to and from that port.
EXPORT

OF

SEWING-MACHINES.

The trade in sewing-machines already ranks among the most important
of our national industries. For some time machine-sewing has, in this
country, almost superseded the ordinary use of the ncedle in the manu­
facture of garments ; but other countries are only just beginning to adopt
the economizing invention. Certain of our enterprising manufacturers
of machines have recently introduced their productions into the principal
VOL. xl v i .— NO. II.




14

Statistics o f Trade and Commerce.

210

[February,

cities of Europe, and the result has been quite an important demand for
tbe American machines. The machines made here are cheaper, more
handsome, and more complete, than those of English makers, and the
probability seems to be that the Yankee machine will defeat the English
one, even on English ground. The following statement of the export of
machines from one port, for two months, shows the importance that this
branch of manufacture is assuming:
E xport o r S e w in g -m achines from N ew -Y ork , from A ugust 1 s t
O ctober 1 st , 1861.
D e s tin a t io n .

Q u a n tity .

D e s tin a t io n .

V a lu e .

Q u a n tity .

to

V a lu e .

$ 612
Liverpool,................ 546 $ 20,528 London,............ . . . 8
112
8,368 Cadiz,.................. . . . 3
New-Grenada,.......... 168
Brazil,...................... 114
10,553 British West Indies,. 3
201
150
Chili,........................ 106
5,537 Venezuela,........ . . . 3
Havre,...................... 71
6,888 Constantinople,. . . . 9
250
Hamburgh,.............. 87
3,772 Africa,................. . . . 2
91
73
Cuba,....................... 45
2,888 China,................ . . . 1
1,343 Leghorn,............ . . . 1
100
Mexico,.................... 27
941 Bremen,............. . . . 1
Argentine Republic, 22
45
802
Cisplatine Republic, 22
Porto-Rico,.............. 18
445
Total,.............. . .1,268 $ 64,149
Rotterdam,.............. 11
450
The above is from the United States Economist. Of the machines,
W h e e l e r & W ilso n ’s comprise a large majority.
THE

TRADE

OF

THE

LAKES.

The quantity of grain received here during the 253 days of navigation,
is immense, as the figures will attest, and is divided as follows:
Flour, barrels,............................................. 2,135,308
Wheat, bushels,.......................................... 26,683,237
Corn,
“
20,986,450
Oats,
“
1,801,240
Rye,
“
356,370
Barley, “
282,350
50,109,647
Reducing flour to wheat would give,........10,766,540
Making a total of............................... 60,876,187
Add to this the flour and grain received during the year by rail-road,
and the grand total for 1861 will be over sixty-two millions of bushels !
No port in the world ever saw the equal of this.
To elevate and discharge this grain, we have seventeen elevators, with
capacity of storage varying from 120,000 to 600,000 bushels, and an
aggregate of 3,500,000 bushels. Each of these can elevate from a vessel
4,000 bushels per hour. Three new ones, now in process of erection,
will give us, next year, storage room for 4,000,000 bushels.
The estimated amount of flour and grain at all the Lake ports west of
this State, for the season of 1861, is 113,000,000 bushels; of which




Statistics o f Trade and Commerce.

211

there has been received at Buffalo, 62,000,000 bushels; at Dunkirk,
3,500,000; at Oswego, 18,000,000; at Ogdensburgh, 3,500,000; at
Montreal, 15,000,000; making a grand total of one hundred and two
millions bushels sent forward from the granaries of the West.
The quantity in store here is 1,500,000; Chicago, 3,500,000; Milwaukie, 1,500,000 ; all other Lake ports, about 3,000,000 bushels. Total
now in store, say 9,500,000 bushels.—Buffalo paper.
CONSUMPTION

OF

WINE

UNDER

THE

REDUCED

DUTIES.

From official statements, just made up, it appears that, although the
consumption of wine since the reduction of the duties may not have met
the sanguine anticipations of the early advocates of that measure, it has
still shown an increase of sufficient magnitude to demonstrate the im­
policy of the previous almost prohibitory rates. It is also to he remarked,
that the correctness of the arguments originally used, as to the extent to
which wine would be taken into use if the duty were lowered to Is. per
gallon, has not yet been fully tried, the alcoholic test having acted most
injuriously upon the trade, not only by the uncertainties and vexations
inseparable from it, but also by causing the duty to be as high as 2s. 5d.
on nearly all the wines imported as suitable for this country. The con­
sumption of imported wines of all kinds in the United Kingdom, in the
eight months from the 1st of January to the 31st of August last, has been
7.667.894 gallons. This shows an increase of 2,201,959 gallons, or 40
per cent., over the same period of last year, and of 2,856,877 gallons, or
60 per cent., over the same period of 1859. White wine is still more
largely consumed than red, the proportions being 3,621,197 gallons of
red, and 4,046,697 gallons of white ; but the tendency of late has been
so much in favor of red descriptions, that they seem likely soon to obtain
a preponderance. Thus, while the consumption of red increased last
year 65 per cent., the increase in that of white was only 24 per cent
With regard to the rates of duty paid under the alcoholic scale, it
appears that only 10J per cent, of the total quantity came in at the
shilling d uty; about 4 f per cent, came in at Is. 9d., 83-J per cent, at
2s. 5d., and I f per cent, at 2s. lid . The proportion imported in
bottles, and which is included in the 2s. 5d. duty, was about 9£ per cent
Last year the importations of wine, in anticipation of the reduction of
duties, were extremely heavy, and greatly in excess of the consumption.
This year the importations and consumption have very nearly gone hand
in hand, the arrivals having been 7,844,505 gallons, and the deliveries
7.667.894 gallons. The arrival of French and Portuguese descriptions
have been less than the consumption, but those of Spanish have been
much in excess of it.—Travers’ Circular.
THE

UNPRODUCTIVE

LABOR

OF

EUROPE.

Some correct statistics have been collected respecting the number of
men employed in the armies of Europe, and it is really almost enough
to make one despair of the progress of mankind to find that something
like four millions of men, at the very lowest computation, are under
arms, either for protection or the cutting of throats, as the case may be.




212

Statistics of Trade and Commerce.

[February,

Here is the list: Army of Austria, 738,344 ; Prussia, 719,092 ; Russia,
850,000 ; France, 626,000 ; Great Britain and India, 534,827 ; Denmark,
Sweden, Spain, Portugal and Italy, 303,497 ; total, 3,771,760. The cost
of maintaining, clothing and paying these men, at the low average of £40
per head, is £150,000,000 per annum. But the loss is not to be meas­
ured by this sum, enormous as it is; for we must also reckon what would
be gained were this mass of labor productive instead of unproductive.
The labor of 3,771,760 able-bodied men cannot be calculated as pro­
ducing less than £120,000,000 per annum; so that virtually between
the cost of their maintenance and what they ought to produce, were
their labor utilized, there is a difference of £300,000,000 a year! We
arc quite sure that this sum is rather under than over the mark. The
worst feature of all this is, that we can see no termination to this ex­
penditure. Since the break-down of popular institutions in America, and
the outbreak of the savage war which the Republicans and Democrats of
that country are waging against each other, we may turn in vain for con­
solation from the Old to the New World.— Money Market Review.

THE

SHIP-LOAD

FOR

NORTH

CAROLINA.

The relief-ship, the schooner E. S iied do n , left this port for North
Carolina in December, freighted with provisions, clothing and other gifts
for the loyal people of that State. The relief committee have purchased,
or obtained by direct donation, 5,000 bushels of corn, 135 bbls. of meal,
150 bbls. of bread, 82 bbls. of pork, 200 sacks of salt, several hogsheads
of molasses, large quantities of hams, bacon and tongues, and other
articles of food, enough, it is estimated, to feed the loyal North Caro­
linians for two or three months. The supply of clothing consisted of
blankets, shawls, ready-made garments and stout shoes, for men, women
and children, all selected with particular reference to comfort and dura­
bility. Strong and warm, if not ornamental, jackets and sacks can be
made from the 2,000 gunny bags which hold a portion of the provisions.
The entire amount of money collected and invested in these charitable
offerings was $9,300. The value of other miscellaneous donations was
not less than $3,000. The schooner was crammed to her utmost capacity.
The gifts will be distributed under the immediate direction of Mr. Dow,
who is sole authorized agent of the committee for the purpose.
GOVERNMENT

SALE

OF

SEA

ISLAND

COTTON.

The seventy-nine bales of Sea Island cotton brought from Port Royal
were sold at auction, January 10th, under the direction of Assistant
Quartermaster-General D. D. T om pkins . The bales were lying about in
the storehouse Nos. 65 and 67 Watts-street-, where fifty or sixty cotton
brokers, commission merchants and tradesmen convened, at 12 o’clock.
After some little time spent in examining the article, Mr. D an iel H.
B urdett , the auctioneer, mounted a bale, and announcing that the cotton
would be sold for cash, invited an offer for the first lot of five bales,
1,435 pounds. The bidding commenced at 40 cents, quickly went up
to 57, and then more slowly to 63 cents per pound, at which price it was
knocked down to T ruesdell & G re en . Lot No. 2, nine bales, 2,765




1 S62 .]

213

Statistics of Trade and Commerce.

pounds, was secured by the same buyers, at 56|- cents. Lots 3 to 7
inclusive, forty-six bales, 15,206 pounds, were taken by W . L attem eyer ,
at 62£. Lot 8, five bales, 1,566 pounds, was knocked down to T ruesdell
& G r e e n , at 56|% Lot 9, unmerchantable short staple, twelve bales, 4,043
pounds, went to Mr. D ex ter , at 27. Lot 10, unmerchantable short staple,
two bales, 697 pounds, was sold to F. C. C ross , at 18 cents. The pro­
ceeds of the entire sale were $14,071 98£. The bidding throughout
was not particularly spirited, although fair prices were reached, and the
contest was limited to half a dozen merchants. As soon as Mr. B urdett
dismounted from his impromptu stand, another gentleman claimed the
attention of the audience, and exhibited a miniature bale of Sea Island
cotton, ginned by his machine. lie distributed the bale among the by­
standers, some of whom filled the vacancy in their beavers with a pound
or two of the article, and departed, expressing their entire satisfaction as
to the utility of the machine.
TID E-W A TER

RECEIPTS.

The quantity of flour, wheat, corn and barley left at tide-water during
the month of December, in the years 1860 and 1861, is as follows:
F lo u r .
bbls.

W h e a t.
bush.

C o rn .
b u sh .

B arl& y.
bush.

I8 6 0 ...............................
1 861,..............................

15,102
78,404

..
..

174,117
1,137,577

..
..

75,794
1,185,113

..
..

66,618
199,735

In c re a s e ,..................

63,302

..

963,460

..

1,109,319

..

133,117

The aggregate quantity of the same articles left at tide-water, from
the commencement to the close of navigation, during the years 1860 and
1861, is as follows :
F lo u r .
bbls.

1860, ........................... 1,149,100
1 8 6 1 , ........................... 1,493,238
In c re a s e ,..................
D e c re a s e ,................

W h e a t.
bush.

..
..

344,138 . .
...................

C orn.
bu sh .

17,176,000
29,886,637
12,710,637
....

..
..
..
..

B a r le y .
bush.

14,155,473
23,342,334
9,186,861
____

..
..

2,967,576
2,235,850

.....................
..
731,726

By reducing the wheat to flour, the quantity of the latter left at tide­
water this year, compared with the corresponding period of last year,
shows a gain of 2,886,265 bbls. of flour. The following comparative
table shows the quantity of some of the principal articles of produce at
tide-water, from the commencement to the close of navigation, in the
years in d ic a te d :
1859.
Canal open,..........
Flour,.........................
W heat,...................... ........ bush. 5,105,100
Corn,......................... ........ “ 2,463,921
Barley,...................... ........ “ 3,261,958
Oats,......................... ........ “ 6,089,760
362,837
R y e,.......................... ........ “
Beef,........................... .......... bbls.
38,826
Pork,......................... .......... “
37,906
Bacon,........................ ............ lbs. 1,921,670
Butter,........................ ............ “ 3,534,000
Lard..........................
Cheese,..................... ............“ 12,338,000
Wool.......................... ............ “ 2,230,000




..
..
..
..

..
..

1860.
April 25.
1,149,100
17,176,000
14,155,472
2,967,576
6,490,917
332,049
11,295
7,187
458,464
2,389,653
1,017,985
12,039,542
2,035,679

1861.
May 1.
1,493,238
. . 29,886,637
. . 23,342,334
2,235,850
5,978,388
832,792
28,431
9,842
638,600
4,067,893
..
1,320,093
. . 10,474,005
728,483

214

[February,

Statistics o f Trade and Commerce.
THE

STOCK

OF

COTTON.

The stock of cotton at Liverpool is ■well-maintained, although it has
been gradually falling this month. The monthly variation since the
commencement of the second half of the year has been as follows :
1861 .

5 ,... . . .
2, . . . . . .
Sept. 6,. . . . . .
Oet. 4, . . . . . .

Ju ly
Aug.

bales.
1,108,300
1,019,990
886,680
712,830

1860.

..
..
..
..

bales.
1,298,490 1 Nov. 1, ___ . .
1,241,370 Dee. 6........ ..
If 13........ ..
1,022,370
834,650 1 “ 20, ___ ..

1860.

1861 .

bales.
588,750
606,810
596,950
581,460

..
..
..
..

bales.
667,980
579,620
581,420
539,460

The large receipts of Surat, and the diminution in consumption occa­
sioned by the introduction of short time in the manufacturing districts,
have reversed the relative position of the stock this year, as compared
with 1860, although in July it was considerably below last year’s mark.
The last weekly analysis of the stock showed that it was made up as
follows: American, 1861, 230,710 bales; 1860, 405,ISO bales. Surat,
1861, 303,050 bales; 1860, 94,960 bales. Brazil, 1861, 28,340 bales;
1860, 12,990 bales. Egyptian, 1861, 16,560 bales; 1860, 25,520 bales.
West Indian, 1861, 2,800 bales; 1860, 840 bales.— Times.
BRITISH COMMERCE AND THE HUDSON’S BAY TERRITORY.

At the Town Hall, Manchester, Captain K en n ed y (the commander of
th e P rin c e A lbert , on Lady F ranklin ’s private expedition to the Arctic
regions, in search of Sir J ohn F ranklin ) addressed a meeting in the
mayor’s parlor, explaining his proposed mission to the Red River district,
and giving various interesting particulars relative to the condition of
th e country and its aborigines.
Capt. K en ned y said, he had first to speak of the territory which had
so long been monopolized by the Hudson’s Bay Company ; of the con­
dition of the aborigines of British North America; and of the commer­
cial aspects and advantages of this territory. The Hudson’s Bay Com­
pany claimed a chartered and a licensed territory. The chartered territory
was that washed by the rivers falling into the Hudson’s Bay. The
licensed territory was usually given for twenty-one years at a time for ex­
clusive trade by the company. Thus a large tract of country had been
held exclusively by this company for two hundred years, and during that
time, as shown in the examinations taken four years ago by a select com­
mittee of the House of Commons, they had drawn from that country
twenty millions sterling. The chartered territory and the licensed terri­
tory were often confounded. The former, as the company claimed it,
was held in perpetuity. The licensed territory, as he had already said,
was only held for periods of 21 years. The license was withheld from
the company in 1859, and was now open to any one who chose to go into
it. The charter had not been subjected to any judicial tribunal, but Mr.
G ladstone had pronounced it not to be worth the parchment upon which
it was written. The charter was given to the company on the terms that
they were to have an exclusive right of trade over territory not already
in the hands of Christian princes. At that time the French were coloniz­
ing Canada, and 45 years previously to this, a charter was given to the
Quebec Fur Company, embracing the entire space from the Canadian




Statistics o f Trade and Commerce.

215

lakes to the Arctic Sea, and onwards to the Pacific. On this ground
alone the charter of the Hudson’s Bay Company was null and void; but
in addition to that an act of Parliament was passed in 1690, 50 years
after the original charter of C harles II., which gave express permission
to the Hudson’s Bay Company to exercise exclusive rights over the coun­
try for seven years only from that date; that was from 1690 to 1697.
Since that time there had been no act of Parliament giving the company
exclusive powers. So that there was no law preventing the country being
opened for general trade. The government also had sent out troops with
sealed instructions, and he drew the inference that the object was to pro­
tect British interests, the chartered and licensed rights of the company
being considered at an end. The Americans were now going through the
country, by way of the Mississippi to the Red River of the North, with
which they communicated by means of steamers over Lake Winnipeg,
and then by wagons over the prairies. The valley of the Saskatchewan
was represented by those who had passed a -lifetime there as the most
favorable for agricultural purposes of any in North America. The best
proof of the fertility of the valley was the vast number of buffaloes
roaming along the banks of the rivers through the entire valley. These
animals could be turned to very valuable purposes of trade, if the means
were only provided for bringing them to market. Not only were they
valuable for their hide and tallow, but they made an admirable article of
food for voyaging purposes, which was not only more palatable and
nutritious than the salt beef used by the sailors, but was capable of com­
pression into a small compact bulk. While this territory occupied an
area larger than Europe, it also embraced the same variety of resources
and means of wealth.
Sir G eo rge S im pson , in the narrative of his overland journey, gave as
an instance of the fertility of the soil, that wheat crops had been raised
for 20 years in succession from the same fields without the application
of manure, and rich crops being still obtained at the end of that period.
He knew a man who, out of 11 bushels had obtained 600 on the banks
of the Red River; and these fertile prairies extended 400 miles north
and south, and perhaps 600 or 800 east and west, all capable of being
turned to valuable agricultural purposes and the rearing of cattle and sheep.
As to sheep, there was ample evidence that they would thrive. No steps
had been taken to rear them in large numbers ; but the Scotch families
had introduced enough to furnish themselves with the necessary supply
of wool; and on the Rocky Mountains there was a species of sheep, the
wool of which (as might be seen from specimens in the British Museum)
was the finest in the world. If this was the case on the elevated plateau
of the Rocky Mountains, what must they expect from pastures which af­
forded such an ample supply for multitudes of buffaloes both in summer
and winter ? As to the minerals of the country, on the western portion
there was a vast salt basin, in which a great variety of the family of salts was
to be found. There was also a vast bed of coal, which extended for many
miles along the banks of the valley of the Saskatchewan, and was used by
the blacksmiths in the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company. There was
also a large quantity of mineral ta r ; and gold was found there, tho ugh
perhaps not of equal value to that found in British Columbia. Van­
couver’s Island had been styled the Madeira of the Pacific. This was
true of the country and climate from the seaboard to the Rocky Moun-




216

Statistics o f Trade and Commerce.

[February,

tains and for a considerable distance northward. The finest forests to be
found in the world flourished in this country. He has seen cargoes of
the timber at the Isle of Wight, and the Messrs. W h i t e , of Cowes, who
might be considered standard ship-builders, said they derived from that
country the finest spars ever seen. Sir B u l w e r L y t t o n , when Colonial
Secretary, regarded the country with very much more interest than had
been manifested since he left the colonial office. He offered £50,000
annually to encourage the conveyance of mails to British Columbia by
the Red River route rather than by Panama. His (Captain K e n n e d y ’ s )
opinion was, that the best line of telegraphic communication between this
country and America would be by way of Behring’s Straits. The
quantity of sea over which the telegraph would pass would in no case ex­
ceed 60 or 70 miles.— From the Manchester Guardian.

LUMBER TRADE

OF

ALBANY.

The following tables, showing the lumber trade of Albany for the last
twelve years, are from the Albany Journal:
R E C E IP T S D U R IN G T H E Y E A R N A M E D .
B oards a n d
S c a n tlin g , f t .

1850,. . .
1851,...
1852,...
1853,. . .
1854,.. .
1855,. . .
1856,. . .
1 8 57,...
1858,.. .
1859,.. .
I8 6 0 ,...
1861,. . .

...
...
...
.. .
...
...
...
...

...
...
...

216,791,800
260,238,003
317,135,620
393,726,073
311,571,151
245,921,652
223,345,545
180,697,629
267,408,411
291,771,762
301,022,600

T im b e r ,
C .f e e t .

S h in g le s ,
M.

..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
. .
..
..
..

34,226
34,136
31,636
27,586
24,003
57,210
36,899
70,004
31,823
48,756
41,222
31,782

S ta v e s , lbs.

. . 28,832 . . 150,515,280
.. 110,200 . . 115,087,290
. . 201,714 . . 107,961,289
.. 19,916 . . 118,066,750
.. 28,909 . . 135,805,091
.. 24,104 . . 140,255,285
..
14,539 . . 102,548,492
.. 85,104 . . 153,264,620
. . 119,497 . . 135,011,817
..
70,381 . . 114,540,503
.. 46,888 . . 147,485,369
.. 44,754 . . 116,784,471

V A L U A T IO N O F T H E R E C E IP T S D U R IN G T H E Y E A R S N A M E D .

<&S c a n tlin g .
$ 3,251,878
4,119,568
5,495,960
6,299,617
4,985,139
4,426,589
3,573,529
2,881,560
4,412,205
4,887,177
4,042,128
2,729,454

B ds.

1850,...
1851,.. .
1852,. ..
1853,...
1854,. ..
1855,...
1856,...
1857,.. .
1858,. ..
1859,.. .
I860,. ..
1 8 61,...




T im b e r .

S h in g le s .

..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

$119,791
121,524
110,726
99,585
86,981
228,840
129,147
248,515
111,383
170,646
144,277
111,237

..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

$4,325
13,010
52,509
3,386
6,649
4,854
2,616
15,218
20,314
11,965
7,971
7,697

S ta v e s.

..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

$ 677,319
546,655
507,418
569,600
611,123
631,149
461,468
689,691
540,047
458,282
594,942
575,138

I

1862 .]

Rail-Road, Canal and Telegraph Statistics.

217

RAIL-ROAD, CANAL AND TELEGRAPH STATISTICS.

I.

R a il -R o a d s

is

P eru.

II. R
IV .

u s s ia n

R a il w a y s .

III.

B r id g e s

in n

oyee

T ham es.

W a r d ’s T e l e g r a p h S i g n a l s .

RAIL-ROADS

IN

PERU.

I n the Republic of Peru there are only three rail-roads, viz.: the Lima
and Callao, the Lima and Chorillos, and the Tacna and Arica, having a
total running distance of 56^- miles.
Rail-Road from Lima to Callao.—This line, between the capital and
the port of Callao, 81- miles long, was inaugurated April 5th, 1850. It
cost about $550,000. The principal owner, Senor D on P edro C an dama, has the propriety for 99 years, and the exclusive privilege for 25
years. His contract with the government is one of the most advan­
tageous which is known. Six trains run each -way daily, and on the day
the mail steamer sails there is always an extra train. The ascending
grade averages about 60 feet to the mile, and the cars from Lima to
Callao come down almost by their own gravity, with but little aid from
the engine. The first locomotive ever built in Peru has recently been
put in use upon this road.
The products of this rail-road reached more than $255,000 annually,
in five years after its inauguration.

P roduct

of the

L ima and C allao R a il -R oad , from A p r il 5 to N ov .

30, 1860.
Y ea rs.

P a s sen g e rs.

1 8 5 1 ,. .
1 8 5 2 ,..
1 8 5 3 ,. .
1 8 5 4 ,. .
1 8 5 5 ,. .
18 5 6 ,. .
1 8 5 7 ,. .
1 8 5 8 ,. .
1 8 5 9 ,. .
I 8 6 0 ,. .

296,94 0
455,430
577,550
593,720
688,530
617,220
676,501
677,573
659,103
647,526

Total,

6,100,143

F r e ig h t.

T ic k e ts .

..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

$ 1 0 0 ,7 7 3
161,156
192,507
197,906
229,507
205,738
2 41,164
243,949
234,795
230,869

. . $ 2 ,0 3 8 ,3 6 8

..

'

$ 3,652
9,389
20,685
25,636
41,197
59,384
77,674
86,042
97,737
80,943

..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

$ 5 0 2 ,3 4 4

..

..

T o ta l R e c 'ts .

$ 104,426
170,546
213,193
223,542
270,705
265,123
318,839
329,991
332,532
311,812
$ 2,540,713

In the space of ten years this rail-road has conveyed 6,100,143
or more than three times the population of the republic.

pas-

sengers,

A GIGANTIC

CANAL.

We understand that parties are nowin Washington, representing large
European and American interests, urging upon government the necessity




218

Rail-R oad, Canal and Telegraph Statistics.

[February,

of constructing a ship canal between Lake Erie and Lake Michigan.
They look to the State of New-York to widen and deepen its great
canal, and to the State of Illinois, to enlarge its canal, so that vessels
may be laden, according to their theory, nine months of the year on the
Mississippi and discharged on the Hudson. It is asserted, that by the
time the canal could be completed, should the government enter at once
upon the project, the productions of the West would swell vastly beyond
their present dimensions, and give to the country great additional re­
sources for an exchange of products for the staples and manufactures of
Europe.
The canal between the two points would be about 160 miles long; the
Illinois canal is 100 miles; the connection with the Mississippi River
would be at Peru, the terminus of the Illinois Canal, by way of the Illi­
nois River, which is very deep and broad nearly its whole length.
This new outlet is called for partly by the conviction, that the South­
ern rebellion has destroyed the commerce of the lower Mississippi and
New-Orleans beyond a hope of redemption, and partly to prevent a mo­
nopoly of freight which the western road seems to impose.

RUSSIAN

RAILWAYS.

From the report of the council of administration of the Great Russian
Railway, recently presented to a general meeting of that widely-scat­
tered proprietary, it appears, that on January 2Vth, 1860, the section
from Pskow to Ostrow, extending over 49 verstes, was opened for traf­
fic; and on November 8th, 191 verstes more were completed, making
the length finished upon the Varsovian line 497 verstes. On 11th April
last, the branch from Kowno to the Prussian frontier, 81 verstes in
length, was finished; and on 14th June, the section from Moscow to
Vladimir was executed, so that the company has now 756 verstes in full
working. At the end of the current year, the entire line from St. Peters­
burg to the Prussian frontier will be opened for public traffic, and so
unite the capital of the empire to the other great lines of Continental
Europe. Thus, by next spring, the undertaking achieved will comprise
1,614 verstes, or 1,722 kilometres, (a kilometre, we beg to remind the
reader, is 0.62 mile English,) executed in five years, being at the rate of
344 kilometres per annum. In France, the average length of line con­
structed by the Lyons Mediterranean has been 107|- kilometres per
annum; by the Southern, 105 ; by the Eastern, 99-)-, so that the united
efforts of the three great French companies have not equalled what has
been achieved by the Great Russian, in presence of a climate admitting
only about half the number of working days enjoyed by the West of
Europe. In Canada again, observes the Russian administration, the
Grand Trunk system was only executed at the rate of 225 kilometres
per annum, to say nothing of the Victoria Bridge, which was not com­
pleted till a year and a half had elapsed after the opening of the remain­
der of the undertaking ; while in British India eight companies, organ­
ized for the execution of distinct lines, extending altogether over 8,000
kilometres, have at present, after struggling on for ten years, only exe­
cuted a fifth of their contemplated task, or about 1,900 kilometres.
The original estimates, which served as a basis of the concession




1862 .]

Rail-Road, Canal and Telegraph Statistics.

219

granted by tlie government, have been exceeded ; and this is attributed
to the rapid and unforeseen advance in the price of labor, the fall of the
course of exchange, the depreciation of the rouble, the sacrifices neces­
sary for supplying the absence of local resources, &c. Deducting from
the outlay the charges for interest and exchange, the total expenses in­
curred for rolling stock, construction and material of way, and charges
for management, amounted, in round figures, to 129,000,000 roubles, or
64,000 roubles per verste. To this must be added 18,000,000 roubles
expended by the State on the Varsovian line, making the total cost of
the 1,614 verstes 137,500,000 roubles, or 85,000 roubles per verste ; or,
in English money and measures, about £16,500 per mile; a tolerable
sum, considering the nature of much of the ground traversed. The ad­
ministration of the company comforts the shareholders, by stating that
the average cost of the French lines (calculating the value of the rouble
at 3f. 60c.) was 111,566 per verste; of the Dutch lines, 85,281 roubles
per verste ; of the Belgium State lines, 98,095 roubles per verste; of
the line from Berlin to Potsdam, Magdebourg, 95,828 roubles per verste ;
on the Cologne Minden, 96,471 roubles per verste; on the Rhenish
lines, 101,954 roubles per verste; and on the Aix la Chapelle, Maestricht
and Hasselt line, 92,205 roubles per verste.

NEW

IRON

BRIDGE

OVER

THE

THAMES.

The London E n gin eer gives an account of a new proposed bridge (the
Blackfriars) over the Thames, and has some reflections upon the general
subject of iron arched bridges, of which we give an abstract. The whole
design of the new bridge is represented as of impressive boldness and
magnificence; built of mixed granite and iron, but so arranged in its
architectural features, as to be most graceful in outline, though enor­
mously massive in all its details. It consists of three arches, the centre
one being of the gigantic span of 280 feet. The two side arches will be
220 feet span, each. From the springing of the largest arch to the crown
will only bo a rise of 22 feet. The spandrils of the outer rib on each
side will be closed, but filled up with figures in bas-relief, and rich, orna­
mental scroll-work. The cornice beneath the parapet is of exceedingly
bold and handsome design, with an iron parapet above. The piers,
however, form the most massive and noble-looking feature of the whole.
These will be four in number, all of granite, and of immense size, width
and depth. Each, on its extremity, will be surmounted with a column
of polished red granite, for which, in size and massiveness, we must look
for parallels among the rock-hewn temples of Egypt. They will be
columns, 40 feet in height, 23 feet in diameter at base and capital, and
no less than 18 feet diameter in the column, and, though built hollow,
will weigh upwards of 500 tons. Their capitals will reach to the summit
of the bridge, and it is intended hereafter to surmount them with colos­
sal groups of statuary. The whole structure will only be a few feet
longer than the present bridge, but its width will be nearly double, viz.:
76 feet against 42. There will be two footways of 14 feet width, and
two tramways of 8J feet each. These will be in the centre of the bridge,
leaving two roadways of 16 feet each for the light traffic and omnibuses.
The whole area of the road and footway will be nearly 78,000 feet. The




220

Rail-Road, Canal and Telegraph Statistics.

[February,

cost of the new bridge is estimated at from £245,000 to £250,000;
which is at the rate of less than £3 6s. a foot, or, size for size, nearly
half the price of the old one.
The following table shows the length, area and cost of each of the me­
tropolitan bridges:
B r id g e s .

London,...................
Southwark,..............
Blackfriars,..............
W atcrloo,................
ITungerford,............
Westminster, (old,).
Yauxhall,................
Chelsea....................
Westminster, (new,).
Blackfriars, (new,)..

W id th .

L e n g th .

Feet.
.904
.800
.995
.1,380
.1,356
.1,160
.840
.922
.990
.980

..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Ft. in.
53 6
42 6
42 0
41 6
13 4
43 0
36 2
45 0
85 0
76 0

A rea.

..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Feet.
47,912
34,000
41,790
51,270
20,480
49,880
30,380
41,490
80,000
77,000

Cost p e r
sq u a re fo o t.

Cost.

..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

£
542,150
384,000
157,840
579,915
98,760
389,500
300,000

88,000

estim’d.
245,000

..
..
..

£
11
11
3
10
4
7
9
2
3
3

s.
6
5
15
0
16
16
10
5
5
5

d.

0
10
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

The widest arch of which any authentic record exists, was that stand­
ing, in 1390, over the Adda, at Trezza, in Italy. This was a nearly
semi-circular granite arch, of 251 feet span. It was subsequently pur­
posely destroyed.
The next widest is the central iron arch of Southwark bridge, of 240
feet span and 24 feet rise.
The next is the arch of the Sunderland bridge at Wearmouth, 236
feet span; the abutments retreating, however, 2 feet on each side, so as
to give a clear opening of 240 feet.
The next is a granite arch of 224 feet clear span on the line of the
Washington aqueduct, United States.

The side arches of Southwark bridge have a span of 210 feet each.
The next is the sandstone arch, of 200 feet span and 42 feet rise, over
the Dee, at Chester.

The next is the iron arch, now nearly completed, carrying the railway
across the Severn at Areley. Span, 200 feet; rise, 20 feet.
The circular arch, built of tufa, at Vielle Brionde, France, has a span
of 183|- feet, and a rise of T07[- feet.
The span of the Staines bridge is 181 feet.
The railway viaduct at Ballochmyle, on the line of the Glasgow and
Southwestern Railway, has a semi-circular masonry arch of 180 feet span,
the largest stone arch yet erected for railway purposes.
The Pimlico Railway bridge has four wrought-iron arches, of 175 feet
span, the largest metal arches yet applied for railway purposes, with theexception of the 200 feet span at Areley.
The central span of London bridge is 152 feet wide.
T elford ’s design, made in 1806, for a cast-iron bridge over the
Thames, was for a single arch of 600 feet span and 65 feet rise. R en n ie
and Mr. R obert S teph en so n designed cast-iron arched bridges for the
Menai Straits of respectively 350 feet and 450 feet span. A wroughtiron arch, designed many years ago by M. C a l l ip e , of Paris, was to have
a clear span of 656 feet.




1862.]

Rail-Road, Canal and Telegraph Statistics.
w a r d

’s

m a r in e

t e l e g r a p h

221

.

Mr. W m. H. W ard , of Auburn, N. Y., has interested the British Ad­
miralty in a code of night signals invented by him, termed the Ocean
Telegraph, which they had tested at Woolwich, England, from the mast­
head of ship F isga rd , August 9th, when, as it was stated, the lights re­
flected as signals by this method were distinctly read (or understood) at
the distance of two miles. The report then given represented that the
committee were apparently satisfied “ with the operating with the various
red, white and dark shades from the deck of the ship, so as to readily
dispatch messages from ship to ship and shore, and the brilliancy of the
lights
also, that “ the invention was perfect, except that the weight of
the lamps exceeded 30 pounds, which was a slight drawback.” Further
experiments were ordered. Mr. W ard says :
“ The cost for maintaining continuous communications by night does
not exceed (for light) one shilling per hour, with lights that will operate
in clear weather ten miles. So perfect is the arrangement and simple,
that good operators can give a column of news per hour with ease. But
the letters of the alphabet are 26 in number, (to indicate which takes
less than a minute, at long ranges, as we find no difficulty in exceeding
that number,) which are subject to innumerable changes, with only the
use of two, three and four for a lengthy sentence; that is, by reserving
only two letters for indicating a sentence of quite a length, as A., B., in­
dicates ‘ stocks lower,’ while A., C., 1stocks higher,’ A., D., ‘ cotton dull,’
A., E., ‘grain better,’ &c., will give 650 separate significations, each one
referring to its proper sentence in the book of sentences for news, &c.
“ With the use of three letters for indications or sentences, 15,600
changes are made, and with only four, 358,800 separate distinct indica­
tions are effected, which may be divided into classes as follows:
1st class, of only two indications or letters.
2d “ to indicate important sentences, are.....................
650
2d “ of three-letter indications,....................................
15,600
3d “ of four-letter indications,....................................... 358,800
Making a total of.........................................................

375,050

Changes for indicating as many separate distinct sentences or words suf­
ficient for all possible practical purposes, for all time to come; by the
use of which, in connection with the said ocean marine telegraph, a
steamer’s news can be given, by day or night, in ten to twenty minutes,
and any extraordinary message can be spelled out in a few minutes
more.
“ The beauty of all is the cheapness; for a complete set of those lan­
terns, such as is spoken of in the Times' report on the 7th December, is
only £20 sterling. The largest, at £50, are for light-houses, and work
ten miles. A steamer’s set will be £40. What, then, is there in the
way of the accomplishment of all that can be desired by the associated
press and the public ?
“ It would afford me much pleasure to receive orders for the Cape
Race and other prominent light-houses. Mr. M ac I v e r and Mr. C unard
will introduce them on their line (the C unard line) of steamers w hen-




Rail-R oad and Telegraph Statistics.

222

[February, 1862.

ever the light-houses are supplied. In fact, both these gentlemen have
taken a deep interest in bringing it forward before the government and
the public.”
OVERLAND

TELEGRAPH

TO

INDIA.

The last published part of the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical
Society contains Sir H en ry R aw linson ’s communication on a direct
overland telegraph to India, from which we gather a few interesting par­
ticulars. A telegraph, 1,314 miles in length, is in operation from Con­
stantinople to Bagdad, being no inconsiderable part of a line which the
Turkish government erected at its own cost, intending to carry it on to
Bussorah. From the latter place, Sir H en ry R aw linson recommends
that it should be extended to Teheran, thence to Ispahan, Shiraz and
Bunder Abbas, at the head of the Persian Gulf; and from there along
the coast, through the territories of the Imaum of Muscat and the Khan
of Kelat, to Kurrachi, where the line would meet our Indian telegraph
system. “ Teheran,” as we are informed, “ has peculiar advantages as a
principal station ; first, because a line passing that way would be sure of
the favor of the Persian government; and, secondly, because it would
there be connected with other lines of telegraphs. An electric communi­
cation is already established between Teheran and Tabriz, while Persian
telegraphy seems likely to progress, and to connect itself with the Rus­
sian system by way of Tiflis, and even with our Scindian frontiers, by
way of Herat.” The distance from Bagdad to Bunder Abbas would be
1,302 miles; from Bunder Abbas to Kurrachi, '731, making the whole
distance from Constantinople to India, 3,351 miles. There is much to be
said for an overland telegraph to the far East. It can be more easily re­
paired than a submarine cable, and it appears that the Arabs are not un­
friendly to the presence of English enterprise in the desert in such a
form. One of the chiefs said to our consul at Diarbekir, “ If in your
hands, yes ; but if in the hands of the Turks, we should destroy it, look­
ing upon it but as the forerunner of forts and soldiers to coerce us.”
Should this scheme be accomplished, as we hope it will, London would
be able to communicate directly with Calcutta, and we should have a line
rivalling that which now stretches all across the great continent of North
America, from New-York to San Francisco. We notice in the last news
from South Africa that a telegraph line is to be set up from Cape Town
to Graham’s Town, and that extensions to Natal and Caffraria are
talked of.—English paper.




THE

MERCHANTS’ MAGAZINE
AND

COMMERCIAL

REVIEW.

E s t a b lis h e d J u l y , 1 8 3 9 .

E D IT E D

BY

I . S M IT H H O M A N S , (S E C R E T A R Y O F T H E C H A M B E R O F C O M M E E C E O F T H E S T A T E O F N E W -Y O B ® ,)
A N D W IL L IA M

VOLUME XLVI.

FEBRUARY,

CONTENTS
A

r t

.

B . DAN A , ATTORNEY AT LA W .

OF N o .

1 8 6 2.

II., VOL.

NUMBER II.

XLVI.
p a g e

I . A N A T IO N A L C U R R E N C Y A N D B A N K IN G S Y S T E M ,,............................................ 113
II.

A N A T IO N A L A U T H E N T IC A T E D C U R R E N C Y .—T h e P la n S tated —A d v an ta g es
to th e G o v ern m en t—A d v an ta g es to th e P eople—A U n ifo rm C irc u latin g M ed iu m —
N a tu ra l E x c h an g es—R eg u latio n o f th e E x c h an g es—S ecu rity for th e B an k N o tes—
S afer th a n those o f th e B an k o f E n g lan d —A d v an ta g es to th e B anks—S o lv en t B an k s
P ro te c te d a g a in st th e In so lv en t—T h e C urrency m a d e less F lu c tu a tin g —T h e B an k s
m a d e m o re S ecure—O bjections to th e P la n —In o p p o rtu n e —I ts B asis n o t P e rm a n e n t
—T a k es C apital o u t o f T ra d e —A lleg ed T a m p e rin g w ith th e C u rren cy —C onclusion, 119

I I I . IN T E R N A T IO N A L G E N E R A L A V E R A G E .—1. A u th o rity in L aw usu ally , b u t n o t
absolutely, a te s t o f correctness. 2. A w id e ra n g e o f P re c e d e n ts n ec essary in M er­
can tile L aw . 3. Inconsistencies now e x istin g in th e p re s e n t G en eral A v erag e P ra c ­
tice o f different Com m ercial N atio n s. 4. P ro p o se d R em oval o f th e se In co n siste n cies
by th e A ssociation for th e P ro m o tio n o f Social Science. 5. W h a t step s th e y h av e
ta k e n a n d w h a t th e y propose to do. 6 . D ifficulties in th e w ay. 7. R efo rm n o t
n eed ed in A m erican P ractice. 8 . O ur C ustom s in th is R esp ec t b ased u p o n a w id e
field o f P reced e n ts. 9. T h e N a tu re o f E n g lish E x c ep tio n s and th e A rg u m en ts upon
w h ich th e y a re founded. 10. A m erican R easonings u p o n th e sam e p o in ts, a n d th e
A u th o rities w h ich su p p o rt them . 11. C ause o f th e In co n siste n cies in E n g lish
P ractice. 12. D a n g e r o f L ik e C auses p ro d u cin g a S im ilar Effect in th is C ity to g re a t
d e trim e n t o f C om m ercial E n te rp ris e ,........................................................................................ 129
IV . CO SM ETICS.—P erso n al A d o rn m en t.—A n cie n t use of C o sm etics; th e ir C om position
a n d P re p a ra tio n ; Im ita tio n s a n d C ounterfeits.—B lancs, P o w d e rs, R o u g es, F ard s,
M ilks, P om ades, H air-D yes, D ep ilato ries, etc., a n d th e d a n g e rs o f th e ir use.—T ooth
P o w d e rs a n d Soaps.—T o ilet Soaps, how m ad e, an d th e significance o f th e ir nam es.
—T rick s o f th e T r a d e ,..................................................................................................................... 139
V . T R A D E W IT H C H IN A , J A P A N A N D T n E A M O O R.—M em o rial o f P . M. D .
C o l l i n s , E sq ., la te C om m ercial A g en t o f th e U n ite d S ta te s a t th e m o u th o f th e
A m oor,.................................................................................................................................................. 155
V I. R E C E N T P R O G R E S S O F T H E M A G N E T IC T E L E G R A P H .—1. T h e Pacific T e l­
eg rap h . 2. T h e C alifornia T e leg rap h . 3. T h e M alta a n d A lex a n d ria T eleg rap h .
4. T e leg rap h in E u ro p e . 5. T e leg rap h E x te n s io n on th e P a c ific ,.................................. 15T




Contents o f February N o., 1862.

224

V II. M E. T O W N S E N D H A R R IS , M IN IS T E R TO J A P A N ,...................................................... 168
V I I I . T H E W A R E H O U S IN G S Y S T E M O P T H E U N IT E D ST A T E S .—Som e R easons
w hy G oods o u g h t to be allow ed to rem ain in B ond for th re e o r five y e a rs ,.................. 18?
IX .

T O E C O F F E E A N D S U G A R T R A D E O F T H E U N IT E D ST A T E S .—M onthly
C ircular, show ing th e Stocks, R ec eip ts an d C onsum ption o f Coffee an d S u g ar a t th e
p rin c ip al p o rts of th e U n ite d S tates o f A m erica an d E u ro p e , D ecem b er, 1858—1S61, 198

C H A M B E R S OF C O M M E R C E A N D B O A R D S OF T R A D E .
T h e C ham ber o f C om m erce o f N ew -Y o rk .—M onthly M eeting, J a n u a r y 2, 1862. C ham ber o f
Com m erce, S an F rancisco.—S team to C h in a,.......................................................................................... 146

TIIE C O T T O N

QUESTION.

1. C otton in E g y p t. 2. A u stralia. 3. B a z l e y on C otton. 4. C otton an d S lavery. 5. C otton­
seed for I n d ia ,.................................................................................................................................................... 166

COMMERCIAL

REGULATIONS.

1. S a ltp e tre a n d A rm s. 2. T re a su ry D ecisions—R ound C ast Steel—Silk Lace—Y elv ets—D eer
Skins—S addlery. 3. M exican C onvention. 4. Confiscated P ro p erty . 5. T re a ty w ith T u r ­
key. 6 . E d in b u rg h C ham ber o f C om m erce. 7. G lasgow C ham ber o f C om m erce. 8 . B reach es
o f C o n tra ct in In d ia . 9. Com m erce o f F ra n c e ,...................................................................................... 168

JOURNAL

OF

NAUTICAL

INTELLIGENCE.

1. N ew L ig h t-H o u se s.—Bass S tra it—G u lf o f St. L aw rence—E a s t Coast o f E n g lan d . 2. N ew
Reefs. 3. N ew W haling G round. 4. N ew F o g Bell. 5. L iverpool D ocks. 6 . R ebel P irates.
7. S team ers in Chili. 8. A rm in g M erchant Ships. 9. D r. I I ay es ’ la te V oyage. 10. L ak e
T ra d e o f 1861,.......................................................................................................................................................177

JOURNAL

OF I N S U R A N C E

1. F ire In s u ra n c e R ep o rt.

JOURNAL

AND

BANKING.

2. G overnm ent C u rre n c y ,............................................................................ 184

OF M I N I N G

AND

MANUFACTURES.

1. S ir W . A r m s t r o n g on P la te d Ships. 2. T h e F ur- T ra d e. 3. M an u factu re o f Shoes. 4.
Cochineal in In d ia . 5. A P o w erfu l G un. 6 . L a k e S u perior C opper R egion. 7. L ucifer
M atches. 8 . S ir E . M u r c h i s o n . 9. S ale o f L aw ren c e M achine Shop. 10. R ecen t Ita lia n
In v en tio n s. 11. U p p e r L e a th e r for Shoes. 12. C otton P rin tin g in F ran ce. 13. N ew
P a te n ts ,................................................................................................................................................................ 189

C O MME R C I A L C H R O N I C L E AND R E V I E W .
R eview o f th e M onth—E x p o rts a n d Im p o rts o f N ew -Y o rk for y ea rs 1857-1861—C om parative
P rices a t N ew -Y ork o f L e ad in g A rtic les, on J a n u a ry 3, for y ea rs 1S58-1862—A v erag e price
o f F lo u r a t P h ila d elp h ia, for sixty-six y ea rs p ast.—T h e W areh o u se S y ste m ,.............................. 202

S T A T I S T I C S OF T R A D E A N D C O M M E R C E .
1. T ra d e o f R o xbury. 2. C ity Tobacco T ra d e. 3. C om m erce o f P o rtla n d . 4. T ra d e o f th e
L akes. 5. E x p o rt o f Sew ing-M achines. 6 . C onsum ption o f W ine. 7. S hip lo ad for N o rth
C arolina. 8 . S ale o f S ea Is la n d C otton. 9. T id e-W ater R eceipts. 10. H u d so n Bay. 11.
Slock o f C otton in L iverpool. 12. L u m b er T ra d e o f A lb a n y ,........................................................ 208

RAIL-ROAD,

CANAL

AND T E L E G R A M

STATISTICS.

1. R ail-R o ad in P e ru . 2. R u ssia n R ailw ays. 8 . B rid g e s over th e T h am es. 4. W a rd ’s T e le­
g rap h S ignals, . . . . ........................................................................................................................................ 217