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L 'J-j : Library Manpower: A Study of Demand and Supply Bulletin 1852 U. S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics U n ited S t a t e s . Bureau o f Labor S t a t i s t i c s . L ib ra ry manpower. ( B u lle tin - Bureau o f Labor S t a t i s t i c s , U. S. D ept, o f Labor ; ) B ib lio g ra p h y : p . 1 . L ib ra ry em ployees—U n ited S t a t e s . 2 . Manpower p o lic y —U n ited S t a t e s . I . T i t l e . I I . S e r ie s : U n ite d S t a t e s . Bureau o f Labor S t a t i s t i c s . B u lle tin ; t DNB4: 1 . L i b r a r ie s —U n ited S t a t e s —Manpower. Z665 U53L] HD805I.A 62 CZ6S2.2.U5] 3 3 1 * .0973s 74-28192 £331.7*61*020973 3 Library Manpower: A Study of Demand and Supply Bulletin 1852 U. S. Department of Labor Peter J. Brennan, Secretary Bureau of Labor Statistics .Julius Shiskin, Commissioner 1975 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402, GPO Bookstores, or BLS Regional Offices listed on inside back cover. Price $1.75. Make checks payable to Superintendent of Documents. Stock Number 029-001-01367 Cat. No. L2.3:1852 Preface This bulletin presents the results of a study of library manpower demand and supply conducted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics for the U.S. Office of Education. The primary objectives of the study are the identification and analysis of factors which influence manpower needs, and the development of projections of demand for library personnel. The bulletin was prepared in the Bureau’s Division of Manpower and Occupational Outlook by Anne S. Kahl and Mary I. DeLaVergne under the supervision of Michael J. Pilot. Grateful acknowledgement is made to staff members of the Office of Education for their interest and support. Dr. Frank L. Schick of the National Center for Educational Statistics was largely responsible for initiating the study, and provided constructive advice during every phase of the research. Assistance from the Division of Library Programs was provided by Henry T. Drennan. The Bureau also acknowledges the cooperation of many people in the library community. Comments on the study were received from representatives of the American Library Association, Special Libraries Association, and Council on Library Technology; and from consultants, educators, administrators, and practicing librarians. Special gratitude goes to the librarians who gave so generously and helpfully of their time during the interview phase of the study. in P r e f a c e ......................................................................................................................................................................................iii Introduction ..........................................................................................................................................................................ix H ighlights..................................................................................................................................................................................xi Chapter 1. Current manpower situation Employment t r e n d s ................................................................................................................................................. 1 Geographic distribution ......................................................................................................................................... 6 Staffing patterns ..................................................................................................................................................... 6 Demographic characteristics .....................................................................................................................................12 Educational attainment .............................................................................................................................................16 E a rn in g s .........................................................................................................................................................................20 Hiring and recruitment e x p e rie n c e ............................................................................................................................ 22 Minority i s s u e s ............................................................................................................................................................ 25 Chapter 2. Projections of manpower demand Factors affecting g r o w t h ............................................................................................................................................ 29 Estimates of demand in 1980 and 1985 ................................................................................................................ 36 Specific occupational needs—a qualitative assessm en t.................................................................................................................................................................39 Replacement needs .................................................................................................................................................... 42 Chapter 3. Projections of manpower supply New college g r a d u a te s ................................................................................................................................................ 44 Other sources of supply ............................................................................................................................................ 44 Library attendants and assistants ............................................................................................................................ 46 Chapter 4. Outlook and implications New graduates and others ........................................................................................................................................ 48 Training p ro g ra m s.........................................................................................................................................................50 Tables: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Estimated employment of librarians and library attendants and assistants by type of library, 1960 and 1970 ............................................ 2 Trends in enrollments, instructional staff, and library staff in colleges and universities, 1959—60 to 1970—71 , 5 Employment of special librarians by major industry group and selected industries, 1970 .................................................................................... ... . 6 Employment of librarians and library attendants and assistants, by State, 1970 7 Employment of librarians and library attendants and assistants by type of library and sex, 1970 ............................................................................................. 14 Occupational distribution of the male experienced civilian labor force by years of school completed, 1970 (in p e r c e n t) ........................................................................ 19 Occupational distribution of the female experienced civilian labor force by years of school completed, 1970 (in percent) ............................................................ 19 Tables—Continued 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Earnings distribution of the male experienced civilian labor force who worked 50 to 52 weeks in 1969, by selected occupation (in percent) ............................................................ . . 20 Earnings distribution of the female experienced civilian labor force who worked 50 to 52 weeks in 1969, by selected ............................................................ .21 occupation (in percent) Mean full-year earnings in 1969 and male/female earnings ratio of the experienced civilian labor force and selected *22 occupations, by sex ............................................................ Earnings distribution of the male experienced civilian labor force for selected occupations in 1969 ................................ -2 3 Earnings distribution of the female experienced civilian .2 4 labor force for selected occupations in 1969 ................ Employment in the educational services industry, estimated 1960 and 1970, and projected 1980 and 1985 . *37 Projected employment requirements for librarians, by type of library, 1970-85 ................................................ .33 Average annual rates of change in employment of librarians, by type of library, 1960—70 and projected 1970—80 and 1980—85 . . 33 Projected employment requirements for library attendants and assistants by type of library, 1970—85 ........................ .39 Average annual rates of change in employment of library attendants and assistants, by type of library, 1960—70 and projected 1970—80 and 1980—85 ................................................................................ 39 Estimated openings for librarians, 1960—85 ............................................................................................ 43 Estimated openings for library attendants and assistants, 1960—85 ........................................................ 43 Supply-demand situation for librarians, 1960—70 and projected 1970—80 and 1980—85 . . . . .49 Charts: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Employment of librarians in public and private colleges and universities, 1962—71 ............................................ . 4 Employment of librarians and library attendants and assistants by sex and type of library, 1970 ............................................................................................ 13 Employment of librarians by age and sex,1970 .......................................................................................... 15 Years of school completed by librarians and library attendants and assistants, 1960 and 1970 .................... .1 8 Annual rate of change in elementary—secondary school enrollments, 1960-71 and projected1972—85 . . . . . 30 Estimated number of annual job openings for librarians resulting from growth and replacement needs, 1960-70 and projected 1970—85 ........................................................ . . 42 Number of library science bachelor’s and master’s degrees, 1960—61 to 1971—72 and projected 1972-73 to 1984-85 .4 5 Appendixes: A. Coverage, definitions, data sources and projection methods ............................................................................................................................ 52 B. Sample d e s i g n .................................................................................................................................................... 61 Appendixes—Continued C. D. E. F. Staff position d escrip tio n s................................................................................................................................. 63 Questionnaire g u id e .............................................................................................................................................64 Bibliography.........................................................................................................................................................83 Detailed tables .................................................................................................................................................89 Introduction Background Manpower problems have been a major concern of the library profession since the early 1960’s. The existence of a library manpower shortage drew national attention when, in 1967, the American Library Associa tion announced that the scarcity of professional librar ians had reached crisis proportions. For the next few years, the profession sought to ameliorate the situation by actively recruiting persons for careers in librarianship, lobbying for increased aid for library education, and encouraging job redesign. These efforts were largely successful. By 1970, however, the situation had changed completely. The need for ever-growing numbers of library personnel began to wane because of government austerity budgets and declining school enrollments. In short order, libraries were swamped by job applicants, and new library school graduates were having difficulty finding jobs. This abrupt shift in conditions of demand and supply has serious implications for library education programs, for officials concerned with student and university financial support* and for individuals consider ing a career in librarianship. The situation gave rise to wide-spread apprehension within the library community as to the prospective employment outlook. Study objectives Additional research was needed in order to identify the place of library personnel within the spectrum of prospective supply-demand conditions for professional and related manpower. While studies conducted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in the late 1960’s pointed to an overall balance between supply and demand for college graduates by the end of the 1970’s, individual occupations were expected to experience situations varying from excess demand to excess supply. The Bureau of Labor Statistics as part of its occupa tional outlook program had developed projections of manpower requirements for professional librarians. How ever, these needs had not been broken down by employment setting, namely: School, public, academic, and special libraries. Data also were lacking on the functions of individuals employed in libraries in both professional and nonprofessional categories. The Bureau of Labor Statistics was awarded a contract to develop information that would help fill existing data gaps and present a comprehensive view of library manpower through the mid-1980’s. The award followed discussions in early 1972 between the staffs of the BLS and the U.S. Office of Education’s National Center for Educational Statistics and Division of Library Programs. The study was designed to develop projections of employment requirements by employment setting and occupational level, and to provide information on job functions and educational requirements—and how each is changing. Methods The study entailed two major collection phases. Phase 1 consisted of a detailed search of existing literature for statistics and other relevant information. All available U.S. Office of Education data were provided to the BLS. Library periodicals and related publications were ex am ined. A literature search by the ERICClearinghouse on Library and Information Sciences provided useful information on recently published studies dealing with various aspects of library manpower under study by the BLS. Representatives of the Ameri can Library Association and others knowledgeable in the field were consulted for advice and assistance as well as for leads to ongoing studies. Valuable information also was obtained through participation, attendance, and discussion at annual and mid-winter American Library Association meetings and annual conferences of the Council on Library Technol ogy. Phase 2 was the personal interview stage. About 100 personal visits were conducted from February through May 1973 with head librarians, library adminis trators, personnel officers, and other employer repre sentatives to obtain information on staffing patterns, job functions, education and training needs, and manpower problems in the library field. Information also was sought to identify the factors that have the greatest bearing on library manpower requirements. Appendix B presents a brief description of the procedures used in selecting the sample. An interview guide was developed to ensure that the information collected by the inter viewers was obtained and recorded in a consistent manner. A copy of the interview guide is included in this report as appendix D. Appendix C presents a list of job descriptions developed for use in conjunction with the interview guide. The figures for 1970 employment presented in this bulletin are BLS estimates based on current and histori cal data available from the U.S. Office of Education, U.S. Bureau of the Census, BLS, and other sources. Detailed information on sources of data, an explanation of the reason certain sources were considered preferable to others, and a description of the procedures used in developing the estimates are presented in appendix A. Projections of manpower requirements were developed within the framework of the BLS model of the economy in 1985. Assumptions underlying the BLS model and a de scription of the projection methods also are presented in appendix A. Techniques established in other BLS studies were used to estimate replacement needs resulting from deaths and retirements. The analysis of supply of librarians was based on National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES) esti mates and projections of earned degrees in library science. Estimates of the proportion of new graduates entering the field were developed largely on the basis of various followup studies and surveys that provide infor mation on past patterns of labor force entry of college graduates (including teachers and school librarians). A general paucity of data prevented development of projections of supply for library attendants and assis tants. Unless otherwise noted, all tables and charts pre sented in the report reflect BLS estimates. Highlights Employment in libraries is expected to grow more slowly over the 1970—85 period than it did during the decade of the 1960’s. The total number of persons in library occupations is projected to rise to 374,000 in 1985 from about 235,000 in 1970. In line with recent trends, employment of library attendants and assistants is expected to rise more sharply than that of librarians, as nonprofessional staff members are assigned increasing responsibility for routine library work. Between 1970 and 1985, total librarian employment is projected to rise to 162,000 from 115,000, or 41 percent; employment of attendants and assistants is expected to increase to 212,000 from 120,000, or 77 percent. Compared to the rapid expansion which took place in the 1960’s—much of it stimulated by unprecedented levels of Federal support for library services—employment growth over the projected period is expected to be much slower. Furthermore, growth is expected to be slowest during the 1970’s, with much of the overall 1970—85 increase occurring after 1980. Employment of school librarians is projected to grow to nearly 80,000 by 1985, from 52,000 in 1970. Much of this growth will not occur until the 1980’s, when school enrollments are projected to turn sharply upward. Employment of public librarians is projected to rise to 33,000 by 1985 from 26,500 in 1970. Contributing to the relatively slow growth of librarian employment in public libraries is the increasing use of paraprofessional personnel. Employment of academic librarians is projected to rise to 27,000 in 1985 from 19,000 in 1970. Most of this growth will occur during the 1970’s. Employment growth in academic libraries is expected to come to a virtual halt after 1980 because of the anticipated drop in college-level enrollments beginning in the late 1970’s. Employment of special librarians is projected to rise from 17,000 to 22,500 between 1970 and 1985. The demand for special librarians reflects the changing occupational patterns in those industries employing special librarians. The main source of demand for librarians through 1985 will be replacement requirements. The number of librarians needed to replace those who retire, die, or leave the labor force for other reasons will greatly exceed the number required to fill newly added posi tions. Over the entire 1970—85 period, replacement needs are expected to account for three quarters of the job openings for librarians—compared to less than half the openings in the 1960’s. To meet projected requirements for growth and for replacement, job openings for librarians are expected to average 11,200 a year between 1970 and 1985. Based on past patterns of entry into the profession by new bachelor’s and master’s library science degree recipients, an estimated 9,000 new graduates are likely to enter the labor force as librarians every year from 1970 to 1985. This means that the number of jobs open to persons other than new graduates is likely to be sharply curtailed. Only 2,200 jobs a year are expected to be available to persons seeking reentry, delayed entry, or transfer to the occupation. While in the 1960—70 period, new graduates filled about 40 percent of all openings, they will be available to fill 80 percent of openings created by growth and replacement needs in the 1970—85 period. The employment situation for persons other than new graduates is likely to deteriorate accordingly. Educational requirements for beginning librarians have been upgraded substantially in the past 5 to 10 years. Data from the survey show that the master’s degree in librarianship is required for employment in virtually all academic libraries. Large public libraries generally require the master’s degree, and many special libraries do so as well. Few school libraries formally require the master’s degree in librarianship, but in practice, school administrators may give preference to candidates with the library science master’s. As a result, job prospects in the 1970’s and 1980’s for entering librarians without the graduate degree in librarianship appear to be limited. Such openings probably will be found, for the most part, in small libraries where the salary level is too low to attract fully trained personnel. Since 1970, the job market for librarians has been tight. For the jobseeker, the current situation contrasts unfavorably with that 5 to 10 years ago. Respondents to this survey were almost unanimous in describing the transition from a shortage of library manpower in the middle and late 1960’s to an “abundance” or “over supply,” coupled with fewer job openings, in 1972. Beginning librarians are easiest to find, according to the libraries surveyed. Librarians with highly specialized training, and those with appropriate experience, are harder to find. In contrast to the anticipated tight job market for beginning librarians throughout the 1970—85 period, demand is expected to remain strong for black and other minority librarians, community outreach librarians, media/audiovisual specialists, and library auto mation specialists. Experienced library administrators and supervisory librarians are also expected to continue in strong demand. Chapter 1. Current Manpower Situation Employment trends An estimated 235,000 persons1 were employed in library occupations in 1970, more than twice as many as in 1960. The 1970 figure includes 115,000 librarians and 120,000 library attendants and assistants. (See table 1.) The latter category is made up of persons employed in a variety of library-related occupations at the nonprofes sional level. School librarians. Nearly half of all librarians in the United States were employed in school libraries in 1970 as shown in the following tabulation: Percent distribution Type o f library Public ............................... S c h o o l............................... Academ ic .......................... S p ecial............................... Librarians ..........23 ..........45 ..........17 ..........15 Library attendants and assistants 38 16 33 13 The dominance of elementary and secondary schools in total library employment has important manpower implications, because the educational preparation of school librarians, the State certification requirements which most of them must meet, and their day-to-day job duties differ in significant respects from those of other librarians. According to BLS estimates, more than 90 percent of school librarians employed in 1970 worked in 17,500 public school systems; the remainder were employed by non pub lie schools, which numbered about 18,000 in 1970.2 School librarians generally work in libraries in the school building. However, some perform central services at system or district headquarters, or work as school library supervisors at the district or State levels. In secondary schools, public and nonpublic, school library services were virtually universal by the early 1970’s. At the elementary level, however, library pro grams tended to be more limited in scope, and less 1Full-time and part-time personnel. The methods used to derive these estimates, as well as information on coverage, definitions, and data sources, are presented in appendix A. adequately staffed. Few small elementary schools can support the full-time services of a professionally trained librarian. Indeed, most of the 6,000 small school systems surveyed by the Office of Education in 19703 employed no librarians at all. In small public systems and in many nonpublic elementary schools, the library staff, if there is any at all, generally consists of a part-time teacherlibrarian assisted by student or parent volunteers. At the opposite end of the spectrum are the large city and county public school systems. In fall 1970, the Nation’s 192 largest public school systems—each with an enroll ment of at least 25,000 students—employed more than one-fourth of all public school librarians. Twenty-six of these school systems employed more than 100 full-time equivalent librarians each.4 School systems employing the largest number of librarians in 1970 were Chicago, New York City, and Dade County, Fla. School libraries grew rapidly during the 1960’s. Employment of librarians rose to 52,000 from 30,900 between 1960 and 1970, an average annual rate of increase of 5.3 percent. Very little of this growth was associated with rising enrollments, since the increase in enrollments tapered off throughout the decade, and by 1970, had stopped altogether. The main reason for the rapid growth of school libraries during the 1960’s was heightened public con2In fall 1970, there were 17,498 operating public school systems with a total enrollment of over 45 million pupils attending approximately 64,000 elementary schools, 24,000 secondary schools, and 2,000 combined elementary-secondary schools. In addition, over 5 million pupils were enrolled in 14,400 nonpublic elementary schools and 3,800 nonpublic secondary schools. See Education Directory, 1970, Public School Systems (Office of Education, 1971), p. 6 and Digest o f Educational Statistics, 1972 edition (Office of Education, 1973), p. 12. 3The results for 1970 of the annual sample survey of all public school systems in the United States appear in Statistics o f Local Public School Systems, Fall 1970, Staff (Office of Education, 1973, OE 73-11415). The publication shows the number of librarians, library aides and audiovisual staff members employed in public school systems according to enrollment size category. The smallest category comprises approximately 6,000 systems enrolling fewer than 300 pupils each. 4 These figures do not include the schools’ separately re ported audiovisual staff, a total of 2,705 persons in 1970. Type of library Total, all libraries . . School ........................................ P u b lic ........................................... A cadem ic.................................... S p e c ia l......................................... 1960-70 average annual rate of growth1 1970 1960 Total Librarians Library attendants and assistants Total Librarians Library attendants and assistants Total Librarians Library attendants and assistants 106,000 69,000 37,000 235,000 115,000 120,000 8.3 5.2 12.5 (2) ( 2) (2) (2) 30,900 17,700 10,400 10,000 (2) ( 2) o (2 ) 71,000 71,500 59,500 33,000 52,000 26,500 19,500 17,000 19,000 45,000 40,000 16,000 ( 2) ( 2) (2) ( 2) 5.3 4.1 6.5 5.5 (2) (2) ( 2) ( 2) 1Com pounded. 2 N o t a v a ila b le . cern and support for quality education for all children. This led directly to the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965 and other legislation under which the Federal Government, for the first time, expended large amounts of money in support of elementary and secondary education, specifically includ ing school libraries. Between 1966 and 1973, nearly $617 million in ESEA Title II funds had been made available for the purchase of printed and audiovisual school library materials. Availability of ESEA funds has led to an increase in the number of school libraries and to a significant improvement in school library collections and services. Public librarians. In 1970, nearly 1 out of every 4 librarians, or 26,500, worked in a public library. There is great diversity in the 8,800 public libraries serving towns, cities, and larger political units.5 They differ in the size and character of the areas they serve; the social, economic, and racial composition of the populations they serve; the type and scope of the programs they offer; and the size, duties, and profes sional preparation of their staffs. The 1,700 or so large public libraries serve areas of 25,000 inhabitants or more each and employ about 75 percent of all public librarians. The remainder of the librarians are employed in about 7,100 small libraries serving villages and rural areas.6 5In preparation for a survey to be conducted in 1975, the Office of Education has identified a public library universe of 8,769 libraries. Of these, 1,664 libraries serve 25,000 inhabitants or more each, and 7,105 serve less than 25,000. 6 In 1962, the most recent year for which such data are available, nearly 77 percent of all public library staff members (nonprofessional and maintenance staff, as well as professional librarians) were employed in libraries which served areas of 25,000 inhabitants or more. The remainder were employed in libraries serving 25,000 inhabitants or less. Results of the National Center for Educational Statistics’ 1968 survey of public libraries serving areas with 25,000 inhabitants or more show the great concen tration of public libraries in a small number of areas.7 Fewer than 100 libraries employed over half the entire staff reported by the libraries covered by the survey. The largest public libraries, in terms of 1968 staff size, were those serving major metropolitan areas: The New York Public Library, Brooklyn Public library, Queens Borough Public Library, Chicago Public Library, Free Library of Philadelphia, Los Angeles Public Library, and Los Angeles County Public Library. Employment growth also was rapid in public libraries in the 1960’s. Employment of librarians increased to 26.500 from 17,700 between 1960 and 1970—an average annual rate of 4.1 percent. Academic librarians. An estimated 19,500 librarians, or 1 out of every 6, were employed in the Nation’s 2.500 college and university libraries in 1970. Fall 1971 survey data for several categories of academic library personnel are shown in appendix table 1. According to the 1971 survey, nearly 45 percent of all academic librarians worked in universities, 42 percent worked in 4-year colleges, and 13 percent worked in 2-year institutions—primarily community colleges and junior colleges.8 Public institutions employed 3 out of every 5 academic librarians, and the proportion is rising. Colleges and u n iv ersities en ro llin g 10,000 stu d en ts 7 The survey results appear in Statistics o f Public Libraries Serving Areas with at least 25,000 Inhabitants, 1968 (Office of Education, 1970, OE-15068-68). The publication presents data on “library staff” and “maintenance staff” employed in each of 1,059 reporting libraries, as well as aggregated data distributed by population size class. This survey is conducted every 3 years; results for 1971 are scheduled for publication in 1975. 8Library Statistics o f Colleges and Universities, Fall 1971 Analytic Report (Part C) (Office of Education, 1973, OE-7411417). or more employed nearly half of the academic librarians in 1971; the remainder were in smaller institutions, as shown in the following tabulation: Enrollment size o f institution Percent distribution o f librarians All colleges and universities..................... 100.0 10,000 students or m o re ............................................. 5.000- 9,999 students ................................................. 1.000- 4,999 students ................................................. 500-999 students ............................................................ Fewer than 500 students................................................ 47.8 17.9 23.4 6.6 4.3 Over 200 academic libraries in the United States had a professional staff of at least 20 persons each and 22 libraries employed at least 100 professionals each.9 Most academic libraries were much smaller, however. Six out of 10 libraries employed fewer than five professional staff members each in 1971. The percent distribution of all 2,535 academic libraries by number of professional staff members is show below: Size o f full-time equivalent professional staff Percent o f libraries 100 or more ....................................................................... 0.9 50 to 9 9 . 9 ............................................................................ 2.0 20 to 4 9 . 9 .................................................... 5.3 10 to 1 9 . 9 ............................................................................ 9.5 5 to 9 . 9 ...................................................................................21.5 3 to 4 . 9 ...................................................................................25.4 2 to 2 . 9 ...................................................................................17.6 1 to 1 . 9 ...................................................................................16.6 Less than 1 .......................................................................... 1.2 The mean number of full-time equivalent professional staff members in 1971 was 8.6 . Although libraries of every type experienced sub stantial employment growth during the 1960’s, academic libraries grew the most rapidly. (See table 1.) The number of academic librarians almost doubled, rising to 19,500 from 10,400 between 1960 and 1970, an average annual rate of increase of 6.5 percent. This growth reflects the extraordinary rise in college-level enroll ments during the 1960’s, the post-Sputnik commitment to strengthen the Nation’s research and development capability, and the massive infusion of Federal funds in support of higher education. Table 2 illustrates the upward trends, during the 1960’s, in college-level enroll ments, instructional staff, and library staff. Employment of academic librarians increased much more rapidly in publicly controlled institutions than in private ones during the 1960’s. (See chart 1.) Indeed, 9 “Professional staff,” as used in the National Center for Educational Statistics’ academic library surveys, comprises 1) librarians, and 2) other staff members whose work requires completion of a bachelor’s degree. In 1971, librarians consti tuted nearly 86 percent of all professional staff members employed in academic libraries. 1971 survey data show a slight decline in the number of librarians in private colleges and universities.10* The relative importance, in terms of employment, of public colleges and universities has increased accordingly. Public institutions employed over 62 percent of all academic librarians in 1971, compared to 52 percent 10 years before. Special librarians. An estimated 17,000 special librarians were employed in the United States in 1970. The field of special librarianship is in fact many disparate fields, linked by a distinctive emphasis on subject matter and on service to the user. Special librarians are employed throughout the economy, as shown in table 3 } 1 Chiefly because of definitional and conceptual dif ferences, the data in table 3 are not comparable with estimates of special librarian employment based on several recent surveys.12 Medical librarianship and law librarianship rank among the most important specialties within the field of special librarianship, and the Federal Government is a principal employer of special librarians. In addition, many special librarians are employed in company or corporation libraries in engineering, science and technology, business, the social sciences, or publish ing. Others work for foundations, associations, and organizations which have special collections in history, literature, or the arts. Employment of special librarians rose to approxi mately 17,000 from 10,000 between 1960 and 1970, an average annual rate of increase of 5.5 percent. The number of special libraries grew to about 13,000 in 1968 from about 8,500 in 1963.13 Special libraries appear to be more sensitive than others to fluctuations in econom ic conditions. BLS survey results show that some special 10Library Statistics o f Colleges and Universities, Fall 1969 Analytic Report (Office of Education, 1971, DHEW 12-1 A), p. 17, and Library Statistics o f Colleges and Universities, Fall 1971 Analytic R eport (Part C) (Office of Education, 1973, OE-74-11417), p. 12. 11 “Educational services” is an industry group made up of elementary and secondary education; colleges and universities (public) libraries; and educational services, not elsewhere classi fied. 12Of principal importance are the 1969 survey o f medical and health sciences libraries, the annual survey of law school libraries, and the 1972 survey of Federal libraries. These are discussed in appendix A. 13Anthony T. Kruzas, Directory o f Special Libraries and Information Centers (Detroit, Gale Research Company, 1963), and Anthony T. Kruzas, Directory o f Special Libraries and Information Centers, 2d edition (Detroit, Gale Research Com pany, 1968). In addition, Kruzas has published Encyclopedia o f Information Systems and Sources (Ann Arbor, Edwards Brothers, 1971), which inventories those organizations whose methods of information storage and retrieval are based on new, automated technologies. Chart 1 ... ■ Employment of librarians in public and private colleges and universities, 1962-71 Number 20,000 1962 Source: 63 64 65 National Center for Educational Statistics Year 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 .......... .......... ......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... Library staff1 Enrollment (1,000's) Instructional staff (1,000's) Total Librarians 2,954 3,200 3,455 3,696 4,115 4,671 5,070 5,480 5,954 6,344 6,721 7,178 202 214 228 242 274 317 351 378 414 444 468 501 18,000 (2> 21,100 ( 2) 25,200 ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) 43,500 45,150 ( 2) 48,211 9,000 (2 ) 10,300 (2) 11,900 (2) (2) (2) 17,400 17,695 (2) 18,295 1Library staff figures are actual survey results except the 1959-60, 1961-62, and 1963-64 data for “other professionals” and for “nonprofessionals,” which have been adjusted to compensate for a refinement in the definitions introduced in 1967. Prior to that, “other professionals” (staff members other than librarians whose work normally requires completion of a least a bachelor’s degree) were not separately reported, and most respondents classified them as “nonprofessionals.” libraries suffered during the business slowdown in 1969-70. In certain industries—notably engineering and aerospace—special libraries were reduced in staff, or closed entirely, because of drastic budget cuts.14 Library attendants and assistants. An estimated 120,000 persons worked as library attendants and assistants in 1970 compared to 37,000 in 1960. (See table 1.) This is an annual average increase of 12.5 percent. Approxi mately two additional library attendants and assistants took jobs for each librarian added to the labor force during the 1960’s. For the most part, the increase is attributable to greater use of nonprofessionals in library work to perform work once done by professionals. More than one-third of the attendants and assistants worked in public libraries, and another one-third worked in academic libraries. School libraries, though predomi nant in employment of librarians, employed only 16 percent of all attendants and assistants. Special libraries employed some 13 percent of the total. Hours worked. Part-time employment is very high in library occupations. One in every three librarians worked part time (that is, fewer than 35 hours a week) in 1970 as did roughly 2 out of 3 library attendants and 14 The vulnerability of special libraries to shifts in the economic climate is discussed by Bill M. Woods in “The Special Library Concept of Service,” American Libraries, July-August 1972, pp. 759-68. Other professionals 700 (2) 800 (2) 1,000 (2) (2) (2) 2,000 2,454 (2) 3,054 Nonprofessionals 8,300 (2) 10,000 (2) 12,300 (2) (2) ( 2) 24,100 25,001 (2) 26,862 2 Not available. NOTE: The employment data in this table are expressed in “full-time equivalents” (full-time personnel plus full-time equiva lent of part-time personnel) and therefore are not comparable with the BLS estimates shown in table 1, which include both full-time and part-time personnel. SOURCE: National Center for Educational Statistics. assistants, according to data from the 1970 census on number of hours worked.15 Part-time employment seems to be more significant in librarianship than in many other occupations. For professional, technical, and kindred workers as a whole, about 20 percent worked part time in 1970, compared to 34 percent of the librarians. And on the nonprofes sional level, about 23 percent of all clerical workers were employed part time in 1970, compared to nearly 63 percent of the library attendants and assistants. It should be noted that these data do not provide a breakdown of full-time and part-time employment in different types of libraries. Thus, although use of part-time nonprofes sional personnel is believed to be quite extensive in large public libraries (for one thing, pages generally work part time), the census data are not detailed enough for comparisons of the use of part-time personnel in different types of libraries. 1 5For detail, see pp. 747-65 of Census o f Population: 1970, Occupational Characteristics, Subject Reports, Final Report PC(2)-7A (Bureau of the Census, 1973). Data on the number of hours worked during a particular week are presented for more than 400 occupations, including librarian and library attendant and assistant. These data, based on a 5-percent sample of the population enumerated in 1970, represent the number of hours actually worked in a particular “reference” week, and do not necessarily reflect the number of hours usually worked or the scheduled number of hours. Classified as “part time” are persons who worked 1 to 34 hours during the reference week. Industry group Percent distribution Total, all industries................... lO O .b Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries.......... M in in g ............................................................ Construction ............................................... M an u factu rin g ............................................. Transportation, communications, and other u tilitie s ................................. Wholesale and retail tra d e .......................... Finance, insurance, and real e s ta te ................................................ Services, excluding educational services.................................................... Miscellaneous business services........................................ Medical, other health services......................................... Legal services.................................... Religious organizations................... Nonprofit membership organizations............................... Professional and related services......................................... G overnm ent.................................................. 0.1 .6 1.2 20.6 1.9 3.5 4.8 example, the number of librarians rose by more than 4,000 between 1960 and 1970. In California, in Pennsyl vania, and in Texas, employment of librarians increased by 3,000. Substantial employment growth also took place in the following States, each of which employed at least 1,000 more librarians in 1970 than it had in 1960: Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Maryland, Massachu setts, Michigan, New Jersey, North Carolina, Ohio, Virginia, and Wisconsin. (See appendix table 4.) Growth in 1960—70 was exceptionally rapid in Florida, Georgia, and Maryland where employment of librarians in 1970 was more than double the 1960 level. 47.6 Staffing patterns 5.2 6.1 8.7 9.5 6.6 5.8 19.6 Geographic distribution More than half of the Nation’s librarians are em ployed in nine States: New York, California, Illinois, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Texas, Michigan, Massachusetts, and New Jersey, according to 1970 census data. The concen tration of library manpower is heaviest in the Middle Atlantic and East North Central regions, as shown in table 4 .16 This is about the same as the distribution of all professional and technical workers, both being associated fairly closely with population density. The geographic distribution of library attendants and assis tants follows that of librarians. A comparison with 1960 data shows that although employment of librarians rose sharply over the decade, distribution by region changed very little. (See appendix table 2.) The nine leading States included a somewhat smaller percent of all U.S. librarians in 1970 than in 1960, but there were only slight changes in rank order. New York, California, and Illinois together included 24 percent of the Nation’s librarians in 1970, compared to 26 percent in 1960. The greatest number of new jobs for librarians in the 1960’s were in the largest States. In New York, for1 Library staffing patterns vary considerably, and de pend chiefly on the size and type of the institution. In many libraries, 80 percent or more of the staff are either librarians or library attendants-assistants—a broad cate gory of nonprofessional occupations including assistants, technicians, technical assistants, aides, clerks, pages, and others in library-related occupations. Compared to the number in library occupations, relatively few persons are employed in libraries in nonlibrary occupations. The proportion ranges from zero in very small libraries— where the parent organization handles maintenance duties, for example—to 20 percent or more in large libraries. Examples of nonlibrary occupations are main tenance staff, including janitors, cleaners, building engi neers, groundskeepers, and guards; clerical staff, includ ing secretaries, typists, and clerks; and specialists in personnel and employee relations, budget and finance, computer science, ami public relations. Over the past decade, manpower utilization has emerged as a central concern of the library profession. Various projects launched in the 1960’s—among them the School Library Manpower Project, Jobs in Instruc tional Media Survey, Health Sciences Library Manpower Study, and Illinois Task Analysis Study—have focused on task analysis and job redesign as a means of promoting more efficient use of library personnel. Task analysis as a research tool has been applied in different ways. In the Health Sciences Library Manpower Study, a job-task index was constructed to measure the extent to which individuals were engaged in a predefined range of professional or nonprofessional activities.17 The School Library Manpower Project and the Illinois Task Analysis Study covered library work in greater depth but from different bases. The former was based on a predeter- 1 6Additional detail from the census, including 1970 employ ment by sex and 1960-70 growth, may be found in appendix 17Lesliebeth Rothenberg and others, “A Job-Task Index for tables 2 , 3 , and 4. Office of Education data on the geographic Evaluating Professional Personnel Utilization in Libraries,” distribution of manpower employed in academic libraries and Library Quarterly, October 1971, pp. 320-38. school libraries appear in appendix tables 5 and 6. (P e rc e n t d is trib u tio n ) State Total Northeast: New England: M ain e ..................... New Hampshire . . V e r m o n t .............. Massachusetts . . . Rhode Island Connecticut.......... Middle Atlantic: New York ............ New Jersey .......... Pennsylvania North Central: East North Central: Ohio ..................... Indiana ................. Illin o is ................... M ic h ig a n .............. Wisconsin.............. West North Central: Minnesota ............ I owa ..................... M issouri................. North Dakota . . . South Dakota . . . N ebraska.............. Kansas................... Librarians Library attendants and assistants 100.0 100.0 0.5 .4 .4 3.7 .4 0.4 .4 .3 4.6 1.6 9.9 3.5 5.5 .6 2.0 10.4 3.1 4.6 5.0 2.3 5.6 3.8 5.0 2.5 4.8 4.3 2.2 2.6 2.0 1.7 2.0 .3 .4 .7 1.4 2.3 1.6 2.4 .3 .4 .7 1.3 South: South Atlantic: Delaware Maryland SOURCE: .3 2.6 .3 2.3 State District of Columbia V irg in ia ................... .. West V irg in ia .......... North Carolina . . . . South Carolina . . . . Georgia F lo rid a ...................... East South Central: K entu cky................. Tennessee .............. Alabama ................. Mississippi.............. West South Central: A rka n s a s ................. Louisiana................. Oklahoma .............. T e x a s ........................ West: Mountain: Montana . . Idaho .......... Wyoming . . Colorado . . New Mexico Arizona . . . Utah .......... Nevada Pacific: Washington Oregon California . . Alaska Hawaii Librarians Library attendants and assistants 1.2 2.8 .5 2.6 1.3 1.0 2.4 .4 2.1 .7 2.2 1.6 2.7 2.5 1.3 1.7 1.3 .9 1.2 1.3 1.1 .7 .8 .6 1.5 4.9 1.3 1.0 3.9 .5 .4 .4 .3 1.1 .2 1.2 .6 .8 .8 .2 .2 1.3 .5 .8 .5 .1 2.0 2.2 1.1 8.6 .1 12.6 .1 .5 .5 1.5 U .S . B ureau o f th e Census, Census o f P o p u la tio n : 1 9 7 0 , Characteristics o f the Population, V o l. 1, Pts. 1 -5 0 . mined list of library tasks and reported what types of personnel in school libraries performed these tasks.18 The Illinois study, on the other hand, based its analysis on tasks observed, defined, and rated by 15 variables in actual library situations.19 This approach permitted the Illinois researchers to rate tasks by the qualifications needed to perform them. These major studies, and numerous other efforts on a smaller scale, have produced an impressive body of literature on job functions and educational requirements for library personnel. Nearly all the work done in this area calls for a clearer distinction, in practice as well as in theory, between professional and nonprofessional duties. To this end, 18 “School Library Personnel Task Analysis Survey,” American Libraries, February 1970, pp. 176-77. 1 9 Social and Educational Research and Development, Inc.,/4 Task Analysis o f Library Jobs in the State o f Illinois, Silver Spring, Md.,SERD, 1970. various suggestions have been put forth for restructuring jobs and reorganizing staffing patterns. Strong support is evident for the movement to restructure library jobs— separating out the clerical and routine components of professional jobs, and assigning the simpler tasks to paraprofessionals and nonprofessionals. Widespread in terest in job redesign has been heightened by the advent of new procedures and technologies for handling the essentially clerical tasks which comprise a large portion of any library’s daily operation. Of particular impor tance are recent innovations in cataloging procedure. The greatly increased availability of prepared cataloging copy, together with the application of computer tech nology to data processing procedures, has had a pro found impact on ordinary library operations by reducing the number of professional decisions required and eliminating certain clerical procedures. This had made possible the simplification and rationalization of profes sional and nonprofessional tasks in the catalog depart ments of libraries throughout the country. Library technical assistants. Most authorities have come to favor an additional level of library staffing, just below the professional level. The new paraprofessional occupation which has emerged in response to this need generally is designated “library technical assistant” or “library technician.”20 The library technical assistant occupies a position somewhere between the professional librarian and the library clerk. Estimates of the number of library technical assistants employed in the United States were not developed for this bulletin. Instead, they are included with all other nonprofessional library workers in the estimate of 120,000 library attendants and assistants employed in 1970. Of this total, library technical assistants probably comprise no more than 20 percent. Relatively few library technical assistants are believed to have any formal training in library technol ogy. (More than 100 formal programs in library technol ogy are offered in community colleges throughout the country. These programs are discussed briefly in the section on supply.) The question of the role and training of the library technical assistant has received attention from various quarters, and a number of definitions and criteria for educational programs have emerged. Since 1966, the U.S. Civil Service Commission, for example, has pub lished job descriptions for personnel in the Library Technician series, GS-1411. These define positions classed as Library Technician, and specify the education and experience needed. In 1967, the Council on Library Technology (COLT) was established to offer a means of communication to persons and institutions involved in training of library technical assistants. COLT has spon sored regional workshops and annual conferences and has actively encouraged research on library technical assistant programs and graduates. The American Library Association (ALA) has issued several policy statements. The official ALA position on appropriate educational programs for library technical assistants was adopted in 1969 and revised in 1971.21 It outlines requirements for faculty, facilities, curricula, and student selection and placement. An ALA policy statement on library education and manpower was adopted in 1970.22 This document recommends levels of training and education appropriate for the following categories of library personnel: Senior Librar ian (Senior Specialist), Librarian (Specialist), Library Associate (Associate Specialist), Library Technical Assis tant (Technical Assistant), and Clerk. The Medical Library Association issued a statement on the training of medical library technicians in 1967 and adopted stan dards for medical library technicians in 1970.23 The latter are generally compatible with the ALA recommen dations for educational programs to prepare library/ media technical assistants, although they call for medical specialization as part of a curriculum. The Special Libraries Association, while taking no official action, has been active in the discussion of paraprofessionals at its conferences, and has published articles on the subject in its journal. In these various ways, “ . . . the profession has been moving toward asserting responsibility for the definition and supervision of the training and education for the library technical assistant.”24 The task analysis projects described earlier have identified a number of duties characteristically per formed by library technical assistants. In practice, however, there appears to be great variation in task assignments from library to library. Two studies cited by Chisholm and Anderson25 attest to the wide range of tasks performed by technical assistants. A special effort was made in this survey to obtain a clearer understanding of the extent to which library technical assistants are employed; of the ways in which they are used; and of the type of education and training employers consider most useful for them. This effort was not entirely successful. The difficulties encountered by BLS interviewers result chiefly from the fact that the occupation is an emerging one. Despite various efforts by the library associations to clarify the role of the library technical assistant, this relatively new occupation is not entirely understood, nor is it accepted by the profession at large. Although the library technical assistant currently is accepted as a meaningful staff level in most large libraries, this is not the case everywhere. Many librarians in small libraries are acquainted with 23“MLA Official Policy Statement on the Training of Medical Library Technicians,” Bulletin o f the Medical Library Association, October 1967, p. 510 and Medical Library Associa tion, Standards for Medical Library Technicians (Chicago, MLA, 20Although a few programs for training library technical 1970). assistants have been in existence since the late 1940’s, the 24Elin Christianson, Paraprofessional and Nonprofessional paraprofessional level of library worker did not attract serious Staff in Special Libraries (New York, Special Libraries Associa attention from the profession until the mid-1960’s, when tion, 1973). concern about the shortage of qualified librarians created strong 2 5Studies by Charlotte Mugnier and John E. James, cited in interest in optimal use of library personnel at all levels. Margaret E. Chisholm and Charles R. Anderson, Education, Job 2 1Criteria for Programs to Prepare Library Media Technical Roles, and Upward Mobility: An Investigation o f Opportunities Assistants (Chicago, American Library Association, 1971). at the Pre- and Paraprofessional Level in Government Libraries in 2 2“Library Education and Manpower,” American Libraries, the Washington, D.C. Area (College Park, Md., University of April 1970, pp. 34144. Maryland, 1973). library technical assistants only through the professional literature; they have had no experience at all with them on a practical level. The absence of a standard, com monly accepted terminology to describe library em ployees at the paraprofessional level contrasts sharply with the widespread understanding of the distinction between a professional librarian and a nonprofessional library staff member. An SLA publication puts it this way: . . . On a day-to-day basis, the bisection of personnel into professional/nonprofessional categories is readily understood and practiced in the library community. The librarian, considering an individual or staff, can informally place workers into one or the other category. He uses a combination of knowledge of the individual’s education, background, experience, and responsibilities to make a judgment.2 6 The survey responses on library technical assistants in school libraries and special libraries are not presented in this report. There were fewer problems with survey responses from the public and academic libraries. These libraries were, for the most part, much larger than the school libraries and special libraries surveyed and accord ingly had more complex staffing patterns—often encom passing librarians, specialists, library technical assistants, clerks, and pages. Library technical assistants comprised about 30 percent of the full-time equivalent staff in the academic libraries surveyed. In the technical services area in particular, library technical assistants have assumed considerable responsibility for routine duties formerly performed by academic librarians. In the public libraries surveyed, library technical assistants made up 15 percent of the FTE staff. In addition to relieving public librarians of routine tasks in acquisitions and cataloging, library technical assistants in some public library systems have been assigned to supervise branch libraries. In some school systems a parallel development reportedly is taking place, as library technical assistants—rather than librarians— are put in charge of elementary school libraries. Changing job functions. Survey respondents were asked to discuss changes which had taken place over the preceding 5 years in the job roles of librarians, techni cians, and clerks. The consensus regarding librarians was that their tasks had become more specialized and that they were devoting more time than ever before to “professional” tasks, notably program planning and administration. There was general agreement that techni cians had assumed greater responsibility for routine library tasks, especially in the area of cataloging. There 2 6Christianson, op. cit., p. 2. was a corresponding increase in the level of responsi bility for clerks. The trend toward greater differentiation between professional and nonprofessional tasks is apparent in school libraries. A number of them mentioned (1) greater specialization and more effective differentiation between the professional and clerical levels, with a resultant shift downward of responsibility for routine tasks; (2) greatly increased importance of audiovisualmedia materials and services, with a consequent increase in media—related duties for professionals and nonprofes sionals alike; and (3) closer contact by the library staff with students and teachers. Significant changes in curriculum design and emphasis on individualized in struction have led to a shift away from the traditional classroom concept, toward heavier library use. School librarians are much more directly involved than they used to be in the teaching and learning process. The shift of routine and clerical tasks from librarians to technical assistants and clerks was associated primarily with advances in cataloging, notably the increased use of prepared cataloging copy. In the relatively few schools employing technical assistants as well as clerks, certain supervisory responsibilities have been shifted downward as well; technical assistants frequently supervise clerks and student assistants. Public librarians generally agree that the gradual elimination of nonprofessional duties from professionals’ jobs is the most noteworthy change of the past 5 years or so. Librarians reportedly spend more time on plan ning and administration and less on routine operations. Many of the clerical tasks formerly performed by librarians now are entrusted to library technical assis tants and clerks. Among other changes in public librar ians’ duties are: ( 1) more audio-visual/media work, (2) more community outreach work, and (3) more profes sional specialization. Several public libraries stressed recent efficiency gains on the part of the technical services staff due to the introduction of new systems for selecting, acquiring, and processing library materials. The simplification of cataloging procedures through the increased use of prepared cataloging copy was noted less frequently by public librarians than it was by academic librarians. Many of the academic libraries surveyed reported that librarians were spending less time than before on duties of a routine or clerical nature. This is chiefly due to the reorganization and simplification of acquisitions and cataloging procedures, which has made it possible for technical assistants and clerks to handle steps in the procedure which previously required a professional librarian’s attention. More effective differentiation be tween professional and nonprofessional duties in aca- demic libraries also has come about because of staff expansion. Hiring of additional staff has permitted greater specialization in work assignments, thus usually freeing professional librarians from certain “nonprofessional” duties. A number of academic libraries indicated increased specialization at the professional level as well. Rapid growth in the scope and size of academic library collections, together with the addition of professional staff, has resulted in the creation of new positions in some libraries. Among these are rare books librarian, pen heals librarian, acquisitions librarian, government documents librarians, and audiovisual librarian. Some evidence of a downward shift in responsibility for routine and clerical library operations appears in special libraries. In one library, library technical assis tants have relieved librarians of routine cataloging duties; in another, delegation of routine duties to clerks has enabled the head librarian to devote more time to policymaking, planning, and administration. Volunteers and student assistants. The use of volunteers and student assistants varies by type of library. Volun teers worked in nearly 90 percent of the school libraries surveyed, and in 60 percent of the public libraries. They do not seem to be used to any great extent in academic or special libraries; only about 15 percent of these libraries reported any volunteers. The amount of labor contributed by library volun teers is modest in comparison with the hours worked by regular staff members. In most cases, library adminis trators appear to make a conscious effort to ensure that volunteers are not used as a low-cost substitute for regular staff. This is not always the case, however. A few libraries reported that recent budget cuts had forced staff cuts and, as a result, continuation of certain library services depended entirely on the availability of volun teers. Only school libraries and academic libraries were queried about the use of paid student assistants. About 20 percent of the school libraries used paid students; few of these used volunteers. All academic libraries in the survey employ students in campus libraries, a practice which is regarded as a form of student aid. Federally funded Work-Study Programs2 7 pay the salaries of many students working part-time in college and university libraries, a well-established and generally successful arrangement which reportedly benefits students and libraries alike. 27Federal funds are made available to colleges and univer sities to promote the part-time employment of postsecondary students in financial need under Title IV-C of the Higher Education Act of 1965, as amended. The data show that school libraries rely most heavily on volunteers. Nine out of 10 schools in the survey reported some use of volunteers, and the amount of time contributed by volunteers in school libraries was con siderably greater (relative to manhours worked by regular library staff) than in other types of libraries. In the 30 public school systems and nonpublic schools surveyed, the number of library volunteers in 1972 ranged from zero2728* to more than 150, with most schools reporting 10-50 volunteer parents, students, or others. School library volunteers mostly assist with routine tasks: Charging books in and out, shelving, processing, mending, preparing library materials for the bindery, typing, filing, and delivering library materials to teachers. The duties performed by volunteers have not changed appreciably over the past 5 years, according to most respondents. School libraries use as many or more volunteers today than they did 5 years ago; only 8 percent reported using fewer volunteers in 1972 than in 1967. Of the 35 public libraries surveyed, 20 used volun teers in 1972 and 15 did not. Large public libraries show a greater propensity to use volunteers than smaller ones; three out of four of the public libraries in the survey which employed 100 staff members or more in 1972 used the services of volunteers. Among public libraries employing a total of 20 persons or less, however, only 1 in 4 used volunteers.2 9 Compared to the number of persons they employ, public libraries—both large and small—use very few volunteers. The number of volun teers in public libraries surveyed ranged from 1 to 50;30 total man-hours contributed per week were well under 100 (the equivalent of 2.5 staff members working 40 hours per week) in all but one public library in the survey. Compared to the total number of people employed in these libraries, the amount of volunteer assistance was scarcely significant in terms of additional manpower. The chief value of volunteer assistance in public libraries appears to be noneconomic. There is, on 2 8Of the 3 school systems in the survey which reported zero volunteers in 1972, one is a big-city system employing more than 400 full-time and part-time library personnel, plus paid student assistants. Neither of the other systems-both much smaller-uses paid student assistants. 29The distribution of all 35 public libraries surveyed was as follows: Staff size Volunteers No volunteers 20 or fewer .............. 3 8 21-99 persons........... 5 3 100 or m o re.............. 12 4 30Three libraries, each with a total full-time and part-time staff exceeding 100 persons in 1972, were unable to specify how many volunteers they had used during the year. There was no reason to believe that they differed significantly from other libraries of comparable size in the number of volunteers used. the one hand, a public relations benefit for the library from direct community involvement in the library’s activities. On the other hand, volunteers who succeed in demonstrating a spirit of good will may greatly improve the quality of ordinary library services. This is especially valuable in the area of community outreach—including services to the homebound—which is a major activity for public library volunteers. Although volunteers perform a variety of routine tasks in public libraries, they appear to be employed most heavily in types of work which do not overlap the duties of paid staff members, notably outreach and extension services. Volunteers characteris tically deliver books to shut-ins, provide materials to hospital patients, and assist with story hours, and summer reading clubs. As in the case of school libraries, there has been little appreciable change in the duties of public library volunteers in the past 5 years. And compared with 1967, nearly all public libraries today use as many or more volunteers. Few of the academic and special libraries surveyed by BLS use volunteers. The desire of virtually all colleges and universities to provide campus employment oppor tunities for their students militates against their use. Relatively few special libraries would be likely to consider it appropriate to solicit or accept volunteer services. Hospital libraries are a significant exception. They rely heavily on volunteer help. The 1969 health sciences library survey found that almost half of all hospital library personnel were volunteers. Career ladders. Opportunities for upward mobility with in the library profession are fairly limited. There are several reasons for this. Most important is the customary educational requirement for entry at the professional level which prevents nonprofessionals from progressing to professional positions on the basis of experience alone. A college or graduate degree—including course work in librarianship—almost always is essential to appointment at a professional level. Nonprofessionals and paraprofessionals thus are blocked, as a rule, from entering the professional grades. Despite widespread interest in generating career opportunities for nonprofes sionals, very few libraries appear to have taken steps to facilitate the movement of nonprofessionals into profes sional positions because of the current job market for professionals. Another important reason for the relatively limited upward mobility characteristic of librarianship is staff size. In many libraries, the number of staff members is so small that there is little opportunity for advancement based on skill specialization, added responsibility, or supervisory duties. This is equally a problem for profes sionals and for nonprofessionals. In a fairly typical library staffed by two librarians and three clerks,3 1 for example, there is not much scope for a hierarchy of jobs. Many libraries—school libraries and special libraries in particular—are about this size. They are not in a position to offer their employees much prospect of advancement. In general, differentiated staffing patterns which include a hierarchy of jobs and provide opportunities for promotion are encountered more often in public and academic libraries, i.e., in the larger libraries, than in other kinds of libraries. Career ladders of varying degrees of complexity were described to BLS interviewers during the Library Man power Survey. All of the large public libraries in the survey, and many medium-sized ones as well, have personnel structures which provide at least two separate career ladders; one for librarians and one for clerks. A number of public libraries have a third ladder as well, for paraprofessional personnel. Job titles for the paraprofessional level vary considerably; “library assistant” was encountered more frequently than “library technician” or “library technical assistant.” Following are two examples of public library career ladders. The more complex pattern is used in a large library. It establishes three separate career ladders for library personnel, and has a “lattice” feature which enables clerks to switch into the library technician series after 2 years’ experi ence. Librarians Librarian I (M LS32 from A LA-accredited sch ool) Supervising Librarian I (MLS plus 1 year’s exp eri ence) Supervising Librarian II (MLS plus 3 years’ experi ence) Supervising Librarian III (MLS plus 4 years’ experi ence) Supervising Librarian IV (MLS plus 5 years’ experi ence) C hief Supervisor (MLS plus 6 years’ experience) Library technicians Library Technician I (1 year’s college plus 6 hours’ Library Science plus 3 years’ experience) Library T echnician II (2 years’ college plus 12 hours’ Library Science plus 4 years’ experience) Library T echnician III (2 years’ college plus 24 hours’ Library Science plus 5 years’ experience) 31 Survey results for the smallest libraries in the BLS sample, that is, for libraries employing one to four full-time and part-time librarians, show marked differences by type o f library as to the number of nonprofessionals employed. These data indicate that small public and academic libraries employ more nonprofessionals than equally small school libraries. A public or academic library with two librarians on the staff probably employs three to five clerks, whereas a school library staffed by two librarians probably only one to two clerks. Data on special libraries were not rehable enough for publication. 3 2Or equivalent, such as MSLS. Library clerks Clerk I (high sch o o l graduate) Clerk II (high sch o o l plus 6 m on th s’ experience) Clerk III (high sch ool plus 1 year’s experience) Clerk IV (high sch o o l plus 2 years’ experience) Library T echnician I (see above) or Clerk V (2 years’ college plus typing plus 4 years’ experience) C hief Clerk (2 years’ college plus supervisory course plus 6 years’ experience) The less complex example is typical of the formal job structure in many medium-sized public libraries: Librarians Librarian (MLS) Senior Librarian (MLS plus 18-24 m on th s’ experi ence) Principal Librarian (MLS plus experience) Supervisory Librarian (MLS plus experience) C oordinating Librarian (MLS plus experience) A ssistant C hief Librarian (MLS plus experience plus adm inistrative ability plus form al training) Clerks Clerk (high sch o o l graduate) Senior clerk (high sch ool plus 18 m on th s’ experience) Supervisory Clerk (high sch o o l plus experience plus form al training) A separate career ladder for paraprofessionals is found, almost exclusively, in large public libraries, university libraries, and Federal libraries. The personnel structure in most other libraries provides a staff distinc tion only between librarians and clerks—“professionals” and “nonprofessionals.” Moreover, when the “library assistant” level does exist, as in many large public libraries, a bachelor’s degree almost always is required at the entry level. A graduate of a community college library technology program would not satisfy the formal requirements for “library assistants” in one of these libraries. Few of the other libraries surveyed had personnel structures as formal and complex as those described by the large and medium-sized public libraries. However, a few large university libraries had comparable systems, with librarian, library assistant, and clerk classifications each encompassing three or four grades. None of the school libraries surveyed described a formal career structure for their professional or non professional staff members. total number employed.33 The proportion of women librarians varies by type of library, however, ranging from 66 percent in academic libraries to 93 percent in school libraries. Among library attendants and assistants, the propor tion of women is slightly lower—an estimated 94,500 women worked as library attendants and assistants in 1970, nearly 79 percent of the total. There are striking similarities in the distribution by sex of library personnel in different types of libraries. School libraries, for example, employ a very high proportion of women—well over nine-tenths in both library occupations—whereas the proportion of women employed in academic libraries is only about two-thirds. Men and women appear to pursue different specialties within librarianship. In 1970, about 60 percent of all men librarians, but only 26 percent of all women librarians, were employed in academic or special libraries. For women, school libraries rank first. About 50 percent of all women librarians work in school libraries, compared to only 20 percent of the men. Among library attendants and assistants, too, men and women exhibit different employment patterns. Men library attendants and assistants are concentrated most heavily in academic libraries, whereas women library attendants and assistants are distributed somewhat more evenly among all kinds of libraries. (See chart 2.) Men have been attracted to librarianship in growing numbers in recent years. To some extent, this reflects the profession’s evident concern with its image, and the success of efforts to alter what it regards as an unfavorable stereotype. Consequently, men are actively recruited for professional positions in libraries. The increase in the number of men working in libraries also may reflect a heightened tendency for new college graduates with backgrounds in management, computer science, audiovisual technology, law, and engineering to consider careers in librarianship. According to the limited data available, the number of men librarians increased more than 80 percent between 1960 and 1970. However, employment of women librarians rose over 60 percent in the same period, and because of their large number, the proportion of men in the field shows little change. Only a few professional occupations—notably nursing and teaching—have as high a proportion of women as librarianship. About 40 percent of all professional, technical, and kindred workers in 1970 were women, However, 84 percent of all librarians were women, as Demographic characteristics Sex. An estimated 97,000 women worked as librarians in 1970. (See table 5.) They constituted 84 percent of the 3 3For the method used to derive estimates of the demo graphic characteristics of librarians and library attendants and assistants, see appendix A. Chart 2 Employment of librarians and library attendants and assistants by sex and type of library, 1970 Male librarians Total: 18,000 Male library attendants and assistants Total: 25,500 Library attendants and assistants Librarians Type of library Total Men Women Total Men Women All libraries .................................... School................................................................ P u b lic ................................................................ Academic ......................................................... Special ............................... * ............................ 115,000 52,000 26,500 19,500 17,000 18,000 3,600 3,700 6,600 4,100 97,000 48,400 22,800 12,900 12,900 120,000 19,000 45,000 40,000 16,000 25,500 700 8,300 12,500 4,000 94,500 18,300 36,700 27,500 12,000 All libraries .................................... School................................................................ P u b lic ................................................................ Academic ......................................................... Special .............................................................. 100 100 100 100 100 16 7 14 34 24 84 93 86 66 76 100 100 100 100 100 21 4 18 31 25 79 96 82 69 75 were 95 percent of registered nurses, dietitians, and therapists and 84 percent of elementary schoolteachers. The proportion of women in most other professional occupations was much lower, as for example, accoun tants—19 percent, engineers—less than 2 percent, physi cians, dentists and related practitioners—8 percent, and writers, artists, and entertainers—30 percent. Age. Women librarians are older than men, on average. According to census data on employed librarians, 48 percent of the women but only 26 percent of the men were age 45 years or over in 1970. (See chart 3.) Data for 1960, while not strictly comparable, suggest that a larger proportion of librarians are in the younger age groups today than was the case a decade ago. This is in line with BLS survey results. Many of the librarians surveyed in 1973 reported that the average age of professional staff members had declined since 1967, chiefly because of retirements and expansion. The vacancies and new positions were filled, by and large, by recent M.L.S. or college graduates, most of whom were in their twenties or thirties. Despite this trend, nearly 44 percent of all librarians were age 45 years or over in 1970, a significantly higher percent of older workers than in any other professional occupation, except for physicians and dentists as shown below: Occupation Percent 45 years or over L ib rarians....................................................................... 44 Professional, technical, and kindred w orkers........................................... 34 A ccou ntants.......................................................40 Computer specialists.........................................10 Engineers ............................................................36 Physicians, dentists, and related practitioners....................................48 Registered nurses, dietitians, and therapists................................................38 Social and recreation w o rk e rs ........................ 32 Teachers, except college and university.......................................................32 Writers, artists, and entertainers .................................................. 32 The average age of library attendants and assistants is considerably lower than that of librarians. Fully 50 percent of the attendants and assistants employed in 1970 were age 24 years or less. As in the case of librarians, however, the men tend to be younger than the women. According to the 1970 census, the median age of men library attendants and assistants was 21.9 years, compared to 29.8 years for women. Race. The distribution of librarians by race is much like that of other professional occupations: they are pre dominantly white. In 1970, the percent of librarians who were white compared with other occupations as follows: Occupation Percent white L ib ra ria n s ....................................................................... 92 Professional, technical, and kindred workers ................................. 93 Computer specialists.........................................95 Engineers ............................................................97 R eg istered nurses, d ie titia n s , and therapists................................................90 Teachers, except college and university ............................................. 90 The number of black librarians doubled between 1960 and 1970, rising to 8,000 from roughly 4,000. Overall, the proportion of nonwhites employed as librarians rose during the sixties, from about 6 percent in 1960 to 8 percent in 1970. Employment of librarians of Spanish origin was somewhat less than 2,000 in 1970, according to 1970 census data.34 3 4For additional detail on the distribution by race and sex of employed librarians, see p. 12 of Census o f Population: 1970, Occupational Characteristics, Subject Reports, Final Report PC(2)-7A (Bureau of the Census, 1973). Employment data based on a 5 -percent sample of the population are presented for whites, Negroes, American Indians, Japanese, Chinese, Filipinos, and persons of Spanish origin. It should be noted that persons of Spanish origin are double-counted. Since they may be of any race, they are counted once in the appropriate racial category and a second time in the “Spanish origin” category. Data for library attendants and assistants appear on p. 17 of the same publication. Library attendants and assistants, too, are pre dominantly white. In 1970, more than 90 percent of the attendants and assistants were white, about 8 percent were black, and only 2 percent were members of other races. Library attendants and assistants of Spanish origin numbered more than 2,700 in 1970. Educational attainment Probably no more than 40-50 percent of all librarians employed in the United States have a master’s degree in librarianship, the academic credential which the profes sion considers a “basic requirement” for a practicing librarian.35 There are several reasons for this, the chief one being the relatively large number of school librarians. Nearly half the librarians in the United States work in school libraries, where, as a rule, the most important credential is a State teaching certificate—not a master’s degree in librarianship.36 In nearly all States, the minimum educational require ment for a school librarian is a bachelor’s degree, including a designated number of undergraduate hours in education and some additional hours in library science. State requirements vary as to the number of credit hours of library science required for certification as a school librarian, but 18 hours is fairly standard. Only a few States—notably Hawaii, Kentucky, and New Jerseydemand a master’s degree in librarianship in addition to the bachelor’s degree with a major or minor in educa tion. However, some local boards of education are more stringent in their requirements than State certification authorities. At present, because of the tight job market, many schools can and do insist that newly hired librarians have the master’s degree in librarianship, even though this is not a formal State requirement.37 Because of their special focus on children and learning, school librarians tend to have more in common, professionally, with 3 5The American Library Association’s official position on the level of training and education appropriate for various library occupations is set forth in Library Education and Manpower, A Statement o f Policy Adopted by the Council o f the American Library Association (Chicago, ALA, 1970). 36All of the 48,000 librarians or more employed in public schools, and some of the estimated 4,000 librarians in nonpublic schools, are required by State law or regulation to hold appropriate teaching certificates. Cf, A Manual on Certification Requirements for School Personnel in the United States (Wash ington, National Education Association, 1970), p. 28. 3 7This is not always the case, however. In school systems where personnel with a master’s degree automatically command a higher starting salary than those with a bachelor’s degree, job applicants with a bachelor’s degree generally are preferred. teachers than they have with their colleagues in public, academic, or special libraries. Compared to other librar ians, school librarians are less likely to have earned the master’s degree in library science and more likely to have a background in education, including some audiovisual or media skills. Another reason for the relatively low percent of librarians with graduate degrees lies in a change, about 25 years ago, in the level of training required for professional librarians. Until the late 1940’s, the 5-year bachelor’s degree in library science (no longer awarded by U.S. library schools) was the normal background for a professional librarian. The master’s program in library science—now the standard first professional degree38 —was officially endorsed by ALA in 1951, when new standards for accreditation of library school programs were adopted. (The 1951 standards for accreditation were revised in 1971.) Thus, prior to the early 1950’s, virtually all library school graduates were recipients of the so-called “ fifth year” bachelor’s degree in library science. A diminishing but still discernible number of today’s practicing librarians completed their professional training and began work in the 1930’s or 1940’s. The predominance of older librarians contributes in still another way to the relatively low percent of librarians who have the master’s degree. Professional standards have risen over the years, and are continuing to rise, so that with the important exception of school libraries, fewer and fewer libraries are hiring beginning librarians who are not library school graduates. Insis tence on formal professional training is a fairly recent development, however, and some older librarians are still at work whose qualifications lie in long years of varied experience, rather than formal training in library school. Still another reason for the relatively low percent of librarians with the master’s degree is the limited financial base of small libraries. Quite a few of the public libraries serving communities of 25,000 inhabitants or less operate with an extremely low budget, and a total staff of 2 or 3 persons. A number of special libraries operate under the same constraints. Despite the overall upgrad ing of professional standards, these libraries generally are not in the market for graduate librarians. Their resources are simply too limited. 3 8 The master’s degree in librarianship is regarded as the first professional degree by the American Library Association (ALA). The ALA does not recognize the bachelor’s degree, even one with a library science major, as adequate preparation for a professional librarian. This point of view has produced an official protest from the American Association of School Librarians inasmuch as the bachelor’s degree is the standard preparation of school librarians. BLS and other survey data indicate clearly that small public libraries differ substantially from larger ones in terms of staff credentials. The BLS survey conducted in early 1973 provides data on the educational attainment of 1,778 librarians in 35 public libraries, including six “small” public libraries serving 25,000 persons or less. In the small public libraries surveyed by BLS—each with a 1972 operating budget of less than $45,000—only 1 librarian in 5 had the master’s degree in librarianship compared to 4 out of 5 with the master’s in all public libraries surveyed. Furthermore, fully a third of the librarians staffing these small public libraries had no more than a high school education. Elsewhere—in larger public libraries, in school and academic libraries, and in most special libraries—the librarian with no college education at all has virtually disappeared. Office of Education survey data indicate that public librarians with the master’s degree are concentrated in the Nation’s largest libraries. In 1968, the 85 largest public libraries39 in the United States employed twothirds of the total number of master’s degree librar ians40 in public libraries serving 25,000 persons or more. Over 1,000 smaller public libraries employed the re mainder. Comparable 1968 data are not available on public libraries serving fewer than 25,000 persons. The BLS survey reveals certain patterns in the educational background of librarians working in dif ferent types of libraries. School librarians, predictably, are much less likely than others to have a master’s degree in librarianship. Moreover, almost as many school librarians have a graduate degree in another field as have the master’s in library science. About 65 percent of the school librarians covered by the survey had only a bachelor’s degree; the remainder had either the library science master’s (20 percent) or another graduate degree (15 percent). Very few school librarians reported two graduate degrees (library science master’s plus a master’s or doctorate in another field). The picture in academic libraries is quite different. According to the survey, 95 percent of academic librarians have the master’s degree in librarianship,41 3 9Largest in terms of library staff size. Each of the 85 libraries employed 100 FTE persons or more, not including maintenance. Statistics o f Public Libraries Serving Areas with at Least 25,000 Inhabitants, 1968 (Office of Education, 1970, OE-15068-68). 40Includes recipients of the “fifth year” bachelor’s degree in librarianship, no longer awarded by U.S. library schools. 4 in cludes double degrees. About 78 percent of the academic librarians surveyed had the master’s degree in librarianship only and another 16 percent had the library science master’s plus a second graduate degree; roughly 1 percent had a graduate degree but not in librarianship; and not quite 5 percent had a bachelor’s degree only or less. and a sizable and growing number have two graduate degrees. Diversity of professional credentials probably is greatest among public libraries and special libraries. In some public libraries, all the librarians on the staff hold master’s degrees in librarianship, while in others, none do. The number of graduate librarians in public libraries is rising, however, for in the past several years, most public libraries that could afford to do so have given preference in hiring to master’s graduates (or, in the case of librarian trainees, to persons enrolled in a graduate program in library science). Over 80 percent of the public librarians covered by the survey had the master’s degree in librarianship. Very few had two graduate degrees. The percent of librarians with library science master’s was higher (about 90 percent) in libraries serving 500,000 persons or more, and lower in smaller libraries: roughly 60 percent of the librarians in public libraries serving 50,000—99,999 persons had the master’s degree, and only about 20 percent in libraries serving fewer than 25,000 persons. Survey data on educational attainment of special librarians are too limited for meaningful comparisons. Nevertheless they illustrate the great variety in types of special libraries, and in appropriate staff qualifications. In special libraries, subject expertise is exceptionally important, and it is not uncommon for the head librarian to be a subject expert with strong academic credentials—a chemist, historian, or lawyer, for exam ple—with course work but no formal degree in librarianship. In law school, medical school, and other special libraries within a university setting, however, the special librarian almost invariably has a library science master’s, and frequently has two graduate degrees. Chart 4 depicts the improvement in librarians’ educa tional qualifications which took place between 1960 and 1970. According to decennial census data, the propor tion of librarians with at least a college education rose significantly, from over half in 1960 to nearly two-thirds in 1970. The census data show 42 percent of all librarians in 1970 having completed 5 years or more of college (i.e., library science master’s or other graduate work), up from 35 percent 10 years before. This increase in the proportion of librarians with graduate training reflects the considerable expansion of library education programs during the decade of the sixties. Compared to the substantial upgrading of librarians’ educational quali fications between 1960 and 1970, the improvement in attendants and assistants’ qualifications was much more modest. Nonetheless, more than half of all library attendants and assistants in 1970 had at least some college education, and nearly 20 percent were college graduates. Chart 4 Years of school completed by librarians and library attendants and assistants, 1960 and 1970 Librarians 1970 1960 Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census. The survey provides data on the training of atten dants and assistants in different types of libraries. In academic libraries, the educational attainment level is particularly high; over 70 percent had some college, and of these, half had a college degree. High school gradua tion is the usual entry requirement for attendants and assistants in public libraries and school libraries. Over 65 percent of the attendants and assistants in the public libraries surveyed, and 85 percent in the school libraries, had a high school education. A few attendants and assistants working in academic libraries had graduate degrees, including master’s degrees in library science. This, however, was highly unusual. A number of people with the bachelor’s degree in library science were employed as library attendants and assis tants, mostly in public or school libraries. Very few of the attendants and assistants working in libraries sur veyed by BLS had completed the 2-year community college program for library technician training, or had been awarded the associate of arts degree in library technology. The total was well under 1 percent in all libraries surveyed. Tables 6 and 7, based on 1970 census data, illustrate the difference in educational attainment of men and women librarians, and offer a comparison with eight other professional occupations. More men than women librarians had gone on to complete 5 years or more of higher education—52 percent of the men and 39 percent of the women. This compares favorably with profes sional and technical workers as a whole, but among the selected occupations shown, social scientists, college and university teachers, and counselors all had higher average educational attainment levels than librarians. Librarians compared very closely with secondary school teachers in years of college completed. The survey sought to explore recent changes in educational requirements for library manpower. The principal finding is that the profession is undergoing a rapid upgrading. Although only about half of all librarians have the master’s degree in librarianship, this is a far larger percent than a decade ago. Moreover, today’s entering librarians are more likely than their predeces sors—even those of just a few years ago—to have a graduate degree in librarianship. In less than a decade, the library science master’s has become the standard credentials for jobseekers in virtually all large libraries, and in many smaller ones as well. The master’s degree in librarianship is required for employment in 95 percent of the academic libraries and nearly 70 percent of the public libraries surveyed by Table 6. Occupational distribution of the male experienced civilian labor force by years of school completed, 1970. Table 7. Occupational distribution of the female experienced civilian labor force by years of school completed, 1970 (In pe rce n t) (In p e rce n t) Occupation Total Experienced civilian labor f o r c e ..................... 100 Professional, technical, and kindred workers . . L ib rarian s................. Computer specialists............ Engineers ................. Registered nurses................... Social scientists ............ Teachers, college and university . . . Teachers, elementary school Teachers, secondary school Vocational and educational counselors . . . 4 years of 5 yrs. of 1 -4 high college years school college ior more or less 73 7 100 23 43 34 100 14 34 52 100 100 26 21 57 56 17 23 100 23 40 37 100 9 38 53 100 3 12 85 100 4 48 48 100 3 40 57 100 7 23 70 S O U R C E : U .S . B ureau o f th e Census. 20 4 years of 1 - 4 5 years of high years college school college or more or less Occupation Total Experienced civilian labor f o r c e ..................... 100 76 20 Professional, technical, and kindred workers . . 100 26 54 20 100 20 41 39 100 100 29 38 62 47 9 15 100 46 48 6 100 15 32 53 100 7 28 65 100 6 68 26 100 3 58 39 100 9 29 62 Lib rarians................. Computer specialists............ Engineers ................. Registered nurses................... Social scientists ............ Teachers, college and university . . . Teachers, elementary school Teachers, secondary school Vocational and educational counselors. . . S O U R C E : U .S . B ureau o f th e Census. 4 but the smallest public libraries will require newly hired librarians to have a college degree. School libraries, too, have been active with respect to upgrading staff, but relatively few have instituted a formal library science master’s requirement. Instead, quite a few State authorities have approved changes requiring a greater number of hours of library science. One out of three school libraries surveyed by BLS reported that it currently required entering librarians to have more credit hours of library science than was the case 5 years ago. Some boards of education currently give preference to job applicants with a master’s degree in librarianship plus appropriate teaching credentials. At the same time, there are reports from other school systems of preference for candidates with bachelor’s degrees (including appropriate teaching credentials and course work for librarianship), inasmuch as the salary schedule for teachers, librarians, and other instructional staff members is related to academic background. In these schools, instructional personnel with a master’s degree command a higher salary than those with a bachelor’s degree, and therefore are less sought after. BLS. Less than 15 percent of the school libraries in the survey require the graduate degree in librarianship. In practice, some school administrators currently give preference in hiring to candidates with the library science master’s; others do not. There has been little change in formal requirements for academic librarians in the past 5 years. Then, as now, the master’s degree in librarianship was essential. In practice, many academic libraries give preference to applicants with two master’s degrees, and require these for openings above the entry level. The supply of graduate librarians with a master’s degree or doctorate in a subject field has increased greatly in the past few years, according to BLS survey data. In part, this reflects the change in the job market for today’s college graduates, compared to the situation in the 1960’s. More and more graduates, unable to find jobs in their own fields, add the library science master’s to their credentials in the expectation of increasing their employability. This trend has created a supply of job applicants with impressive academic credentials. Public libraries are in the midst of a change; roughly 1 library in 5 surveyed has upgraded the require ments for beginning librarians since 1967 and now requires the library science master’s rather than just a bachelor’s degree, as before. Some small public libraries require only a high school diploma for beginning librarians, the only libraries in the BLS survey to do so. Public libraries are actively concerned with upgrading staff, however, and it seems likely that by the 1980’s, all Earnings Of those librarians employed full year in 1969,42 one-third of the men earned less than $8,000, compared 4 2 Those who worked 50 to 52 weeks in 1969. Table 8. Earnings distribution of the male experienced civilian labor force who worked 50 to 52 weeks in 1969, by selected occupation ( In p e rce n t) Occupation Total To $3,999 $ 4,000 to $7,999 $ 8,000 to $11,999 $ 12,000 to $14,999 $15,000 and above Experienced civilian labor force .................................................... 100 11 34 33 10 12 Professional, technical, and kindred w o rk e rs ............................ 100 5 17 32 18 28 100 100 100 100 100 11 16 24 27 37 9 4 44 7 36 41 28 27 25 20 2 22 12 6 8 21 43 100 8 10 25 20 37 100 6 34 42 12 6 100 4 27 45 15 9 100 6 18 37 21 18 Librarians........................................... Computer specialists........................ Engineers........................................... Registered nurses............................ Social scientists ............................... Teachers, college and university .................................... Teachers, elementary school ........................................... Teachers, secondary s c h o o l........................................... Vocational and educational counselors ............ S O U R C E : U .S . B ureau o f th e Census. 3 15 12 (In p e rce n t) $ 8,000 to $11,999 $ 12,000 to $14,999 Occupation Total To $3,999 $4,000 to $7,999 Experienced civilian labor fo rc e ............................................... 100 37 52 9 1 1 Professional, technical, and kindred w o rk e rs ............................ 100 17 49 27 4 3 100 100 100 100 100 19 5 5 17 7 40 35 24 53 33 34 42 36 27 34 5 13 17 2 2 1 13 13 100 18 27 34 11 10 100 13 52 30 4 1 100 12 49 32 6 1 100 13 30 39 12 6 Librarians........................................... Computer specialists........................ Engineers........................................... Registered nurses............................. Social scientists ............................... Teachers, college and u n iv e rs ity ............................ Teachers, elementary s c h o o l........................................... Teachers, secondary s c h o o l........................................... Vocational and educational counselors ............ $15,000 and above 5 18 S O U R C E : U .S . B ureau o f th e Census. to nearly three-fifths of all women librarians. (See tables 8 and 9.)43 Approximately one-third of all librarians— men and women—had earnings ranging from $8,000 to $11,999. The tables allow comparison of librarians’ earnings with other occupational groups. For the total experi enced civilian labor force,44 about twice the proportion of women as men had earnings of less than $8,000. While over one-half the men made $8,000 or more, only about one woman in 10 did. As would be expected, among professional and technical workers employed full-year, there is a greater concentration of workers in the higher earnings cate gories. Four-fifths of all men professional and technical workers earned $8,000 or more; only one woman in 4 3The earnings data presented here are based on information from the 1970 decennial census and reflect annual earnings and number of weeks worked in 1969. See tables 11, 16, and 19 in Census o f Population: 1970, Occupational Characteristics, Sub ject Reports, Final Report PC (2)-7A (Bureau of the Census, 1973). Apart from the Census, earnings data for the library profession are available from a variety of sources which vary, however, in terms of completeness and comparability. Sources of data include the American Library Association, the Special Libraries Association, the Council on Library Resources, the National Education Association, the Public Personnel Associa tion, and the College Placement Council. Results of an annual survey of starting salaries for graduates of ALA-accredited institutions are published every June in Library Journal 4 4 The “experienced civilian labor force” is comprised of all employed and experienced unemployed civilians. Unemployed persons who have worked at any time in the past are classified as “experienced unemployed.” three earned that much. Women librarians, while making less than men, do relatively better than women in other professional occupations. This contrasts with the situa tion for men librarians when their earnings are compared to those of other men professionals. Forty-one percent of the women librarians earned $8,000 or more com pared to 34 percent of all women professionals. Only 67 percent of the men librarians earned $8,000 or more compared to 78 percent of all men professionals. Similar comparisons can be drawn between librarians and persons in other occupations and between men and women in the various occupations. Table 10 presents the actual mean earnings figures of men and women full-year workers. Relatively speaking, women librarians in terms of their earnings fared much better than most women in the labor force, whereas men librarians were only slightly better off than men workers as a whole. The average earnings in 1969 for women librarians working a full year were $7,004. These earnings were about the same as those of other profes sionals, but they were 42 percent higher than the average for all women in the experienced civilian labor force. The average full-year earnings for men librarians were $10,694. Men librarians, however, made only about four-fifths of the average of all men professional and technical workers. Their average earnings were $2,563 less than those for all men professional workers and only 12 percent more than the average for all men in the experienced civilian labor force. The male-female earnings ratios in table 10 show that for all professional workers and for the total Table 10. Mean full-year earnings in 1969 and male-female earnings ratio of the experienced civilian labor force and selected occupations, by sex Mean earnings (full-year) Occupation L ib ra ria n s ............................................................................ Professional, technical, and kindred w orkers.............. Experienced civilian labor force .................................... Computer specialists......................................................... Engineers ............................................................................ Registered nurses .............................................................. Social scientists................................................................... Teachers, college and university .................................... Teachers, elementary s c h o o l........................................... Teachers, secondary school............................................. Vocational and educational counselors........................ Men Women $10,694 13,257 9,580 11,690 14,037 9,374 15,373 13,880 9,091 9,798 $ 7,004 7,009 4,944 8,873 10,877 6,585 9,797 8,596 7,072 7,417 8,579 11,121 Male-female earnings ratio 1.53:1 1.89:1 1.94:1 1.32:1 1.29:1 1.42:1 1.57:1 1.61:1 1.29:1 1.32:1 1.30:1 S O U R C E : U .S . B ureau o f th e Census. experienced civilian labor force, the mean earnings of men employed full-year approached two times the female average. For men librarians, the figure was only one and one-half times the female average. The lowest male-female full-year earnings ratios among the selected occupations are for engineers and for elemen tary schoolteachers. Some of the difference in the earnings figures undoubtedly reflects the fact that more women than men are part-time workers. The available data, while providing information by number of weeks worked, do not permit a comparison of full-time, full-year workers. Overall, the earnings distributions of men and women who were employed in 1969 regardless of the number of weeks worked are fairly similar to those for full-year workers. (See tables 11 and 12.) The most significant change in the distributions is the increase in the proportion of workers in the lowest earnings category and the decrease in the highest category. The proportion of workers earning less than $4,000 is greater for both men and women in the total experienced civilian labor force, in the total professional and technical workers category, and in each of the nine selected professional occupations. For all men librarians employed in 1969, almost one-third made less than $4,000. Among full-year workers, only 11 percent of men librarians made less than $4,000. A similar situation prevails for women librarians. Of all employed women librarians, 35 percent earned less than $4,000 in 1969, compared to 19 percent of those who worked full-year. At the opposite end of the spectrum, in the highest earnings category, 10 percent of all men librarians had earnings of $15,000 or more. In comparison, 15 percent employed the full year earned $15,000 or more. For women, the proportion of librarians in the highest earnings category was 2 percent for full-year workers and less than 1 percent for all women librarians regardless of the number of weeks worked. Data from the 1970 census show that men are more likely to be full-year workers than are women. Seventythree percent of all men in the experienced civilian labor force worked 50 to 52 weeks in 1969 compared to 53 percent of all women. Fifty-four percent of men librarians were full-year workers; among women, 43 percent. When those workers who were employed more than three-fourths of the year—that is, 40 weeks or more in 1969—are considered, 74 percent of the men librar ians are included. For women librarians, 70 percent worked three-fourths of the year. This percent is equal to that for all women in the experienced civilian labor force. For men, however, the 74 percent for librarians is well below the 87 percent for the total experienced civilian male labor force. Considering the number of weeks worked in terms of other professional occupations, there is a marked simi larity in the participation patterns of librarians, teachers, and counselors. All these occupations are important in schools, and the fact that schools generally operate on a 9-month basis accounts for the relatively large amount of part-year employment in these occupations. Hiring and recruitment experience Since 1970, the job market for librarians has been tight. For the jobseeker, the current employment situa tion contrasts unfavorably with that 5 to 10 years ago, when librarians were in extremely short supply. Librarians, as well as school teachers, university professors, engineers, scientists, and other professional personnel have encountered a tight job market since the beginning of the 1970’s. Engineers and scientists, for example, have been affected by cutbacks in R&D, aerospace, and defense spending; teachers and professors (In p e rce n t) Occupation Total To $3,999 $4,000 to $7,999 $ 8,000 to $11,999 Experienced civilian labor force ............................................................................ 100 21 33 28 8 10 Professional, technical and kindred w o rk e rs ...................................... .. 100 11 19 30 16 24 100 100 100 100 100 34 7 4 18 15 12 22 26 20 8 37 8 8 11 26 38 28 27 23 19 39 100 18 13 24 17 28 100 15 34 37 10 4 100 11 27 41 14 7 100 16 16 35 19 14 Librarians.............................................................. Computer specialists........................................... Engineers.............................................................. Registered nurses............................................... Social scientists .................................................. Teachers, college and university ....................................................... Teachers, elementary s c h o o l.............................................................. Teachers, secondary s c h o o l.............................................................. Vocational and educational counselors....................................................... 8 $ 12,000 to $14,999 $15,000 and above 10 18 34 S O U R C E : U .S . B ureau o f th e Census. have been affected primarily by supply-demand factors. Practically all of the professions—with the possible exception of some health fields—have had to deal with the sudden shift from a scarcity of appropriately educated personnel to an adequate or oversupply. For many, the job market turnaround was intensified by the general slowdown in business activity and employment. In professional and technical occupations as a group—the chief employer of college graduates—employment leveled off in 1971. At the same time, there was a very sharp increase in the numbers of new college graduates, and the record college graduating classes of 1970 and 1971 encountered serious difficulties in obtaining jobs related to their training. The employment situation for new graduates appears to have eased somewhat since then, but there is little likelihood of a return to the “seller’s market” which characterized the 1960 de cade.45 The shift from a shortage of librarians to an over supply has created a sense of urgency within the profession. In 1972, at the 91st annual conference of the American Library Association, a groundswell of discon tent from the membership led the ALA Council to adopt several resolutions on the job situation. One resolution, on the more effective dissemination of job information, was proposed at the initiative of the Social Responsibili ties Round Table Task Force on Jobs, a group of young librarians directly affected by the dearth of library jobs. The resolution recommended improvements in the con ference’s traditional placement service, and called upon ALA to work with State library associations to set up a placement service for librarians in each State modeled on California’s “hotline” system.46 Another resolution directed the ALA Office of Library Manpower to collect information on unemployment of librarians and to report its findings to the profession. The survey results were published in March 1973 47 Based on a mail survey of 123 graduate library education programs (nonaccredited as well as A LA-accredited programs were included in the survey), the ALA Office of Library Manpower reported that 15 percent of the June 1972 library science graduates who sought library jobs had failed to find one as of November 1, 1972. Among the reasons suggested by the schools for the placement difficulties encountered by their graduates were the following: limited geographic mobility; poor economic conditions locally or nationally; personality problems; lack of flexibility concerning specific jobs or salary levels; and scarcity of vacancies, apart from those in affirmative action programs. 4 5The improvement, since 1970, in the employment 46This is a method of publicizing information on current job situation of graduates of A LA-accredited library schools is openings by means of a recorded telephone message which gives documented in Frarey’s annual survey of library salaries and the caller a weekly updated list of job vacancies. The system in placements. See the June 15 issue of Library Journal for Frarey’s California is maintained by the California Library Association. annual article describing the job market encountered by the 47“Employment Information Report,” American Libraries, preceding year’s library school graduates. March 1973, pp. 157-58. ( In p e rc e n t) $ 8,000 to $11,999 $ 12,000 to $14,999 Occupation Total To $3,999 $4,000 to $7,999 Experienced civilian labor force ............................................................................ 100 55 36 7 1 1 Professional, technical and kindred w o rk e rs ................................................ 100 33 40 22 3 2 100 100 100 160 100 35 16 22 33 36 25 45 30 26 34 32 19 27 100 38 24 100 27 100 100 Librarians.............................................................. Computer specialists........................................... Engineers.............................................................. Registered nurses................................................ Social scientists .................................................. Teachers, college and university ....................................................... Teachers, elementary s c h o o l.............................................................. Teachers, secondary s c h o o l.............................................................. Vocational and educational counselors....................................................... $15,000 and above 5 1 10 15 4 16 2 11 1 10 26 7 5 43 26 3 1 27 41 27 4 1 27 22 33 13 5 12 33 S O U R C E : U .S . B ureau o f th e Census. Several questions in the BLS survey focused on the current job market. Head librarians and library adminis trators were asked about recent changes in the library manpower supply; about library jobs which are difficult to fill, and those which are not; and about the nature of current manpower problems, if any. Respondents are almost unanimous in describing the transition from a shortage of library manpower in the middle and late 1960’s to an “abundance” or “over supply,” coupled with fewer available jobs, in 1972. Libraries in all parts of the country noted that the supply of library school graduates has grown markedly since the mid-1960’s. In addition to the record numbers of new M.L.S. graduates seeking jobs, growing numbers of trained librarians are seeking to re-enter the labor force. The supply of qualified librarians thus has grown a great deal in just a few years. At the same time, demand has slackened. The abrupt reduction in demand is closely related to budget constraints. At the time of the survey, budget considerations prevented most libraries from doing as much hiring as they had in the past. In many instances, the introduction of new programs and services was being delayed and existing programs were being cut back. A large public library in the Midwest explained, “City budget slashes have resulted in cutbacks and layoffs of library personnel. If the current freeze were lifted, we could hire good people at all levels.” Well over half the school libraries surveyed by BLS reported that budget limitations affected their staffing levels. Aca demic libraries, like school libraries, are particularly hard hit by austerity budgets. In the public libraries, budget was cited more frequently than any other manpower problem. By and large, the libraries surveyed had few recruit ment difficulties. Most reported an abundance of highly qualified applicants. Indeed, many libraries were finding it difficult to handle the large volume of unsolicited applications and inquiries. Beginning librarians, it was found, are easiest to hire and a number of libraries indicated that positions at all levels are easy to fill. A public library system on the West Coast summarized the overall situation as follows: “Generally, there are so few vacancies here—and we have such an abundance of unsolicited applications—that we have ended library school recruiting trips except for the minority search.” Nonetheless, most large libraries are actively seeking a few people with highly specific combinations of training and experience. Black and other minority librarians are sought, as are public librarians qualified to work with the disadvantaged, experienced catalogers, and experi enced library administrators. For these positions, supply does not appear to meet current demand. For most other professional library positions which pose recruitment problems, the difficulty generally lies in unattractive salaries, unsatisfactory working condi tions, or undesirable location, rather than scarce supply. School libraries, for example, reported some difficulty hiring media specialists, instructional materials special ists, audiovisual technicians, librarians trained in excep tional education, and systems analysts with backgrounds in education. Some public libraries reported difficulty recruiting professional staff at any level because of low salaries, undesirable working hours, or remote location. Academic libraries encountered some difficulty filling positions for supervisory librarian and library administra tor, head cataloger, and experienced librarian. Some academic libraries also reported difficulty hiring techni cal assistants and clerks because of low salaries. encountered by blacks in seeking admission to graduate library education, and in seeking employment or ad vancement, are presented in E. J. Josey’s collection of reminiscences by noted black librarians.49 Minority employment at the Library of Congress has been surveyed semiannually since May 1971. Data show that despite recent gains, minority members predomi nate in low-paying jobs and are few in number in top jobs. In November 1973, the date of the most recent LC Minority issues survey,50 total full-time employment was 4,147 persons, of whom nearly 43 percent were minority members. Over the past few years, the issue of minorities and Seventy-two percent of the employees in the lowest four women in the library profession has become an increas pay grades (GS-1 to GS-4) were minority members as ingly sensitive and controversial one. Protestors at the were nearly 53 percent in the GS-5 to GS-8 category. In Library of Congress and Los Angeles County Public grades GS-9 and above, about 19 percent of LC’s Library have denounced hiring and promotion practices employees in November 1973 were minority members. as discriminatory.48 They have called for significant This is the usual entering grade for beginning M.L.S. improvements in opportunities for advancement for librarians under Federal civil service regulations. Of blacks, Chicanos, American Indians, and other ethnic approximately 300 persons in the Library’s top jobs, and racial minority groups. The situation in these commanding salaries of $23,000 to $36,000 in 1973, libraries is not unlike that in most other occupations: only 6 percent were minority members. Minority group members are disproportionately con Limited data on minority employment also are centrated in the lowest paying and least interesting jobs. available from a sample survey of public libraries, In most libraries, more minority members work as academic libraries, and State library agencies conducted library clerks than work as librarians, and very few hold in 1969 by ALA’s Library Administration Division, and top administrative jobs. Examples of past discrimination from the 1973 BLS Library Manpower Survey. Accord ing to ALA survey data, four out of five responding 4 8 In 1971, black employees of the Library of Congress (LC) libraries had some minority group members on the staff, complained to the Librarian of Congress, and to the Civil but minorities were few in number at the professional Service Commission, of alleged discrimination in employment and advancement opportunity at LC. The controversy also was level. Only 8 percent of professional staff members in referred to ALA, where it has been under consideration since the public libraries surveyed, and 4 percent in the 1971 by the Staff Committee on Mediation, Arbitration, and academic libraries and State library agencies, were Inquiry. LC has since drawn up an Affirmative Action plan minority members. Results of the survey are reported in (required under the Equal Opportunity Act of 1972), and issues the July-August 1969 issue of A LA Bulletin. semi-annual reports on its progress in improving employment and advancement opportunities for all members of its staff. BLS survey results in 1973 showed a higher propor Remedial action reportedly has been undertaken in several key tion of minority members in professional positions than areas, including preemployment tests, training and performance reported by ALA’s 1969 survey. School libraries re agreements, tuition support, and career counseling. Nonetheless, vealed a particularly high level of minority representa the controversy continues: criticism by some employees of the Affirmative Action plan was reported by the press in October tion: More than 26 percent of the professionals and 43 1973. percent of the nonprofessionals employed in school The Los Angeles County Public Library case also began in libraries were minority members. In public libraries, 1971, with a formal complaint to the California Fair Employ nearly 13 percent of the professionals and 18 percent of ment Practices Commission (FEPC) by a group of black the nonprofessionals were minority members. In the librarians, who charged the Library with failing to offer equal employment and promotional opportunities to minority groups. academic libraries surveyed, minority members com The Commission completed its inquiry in 1972, and upheld all prised 9 percent of both professional and nonprofes charges made by the complainants. In response to FEPC sional staff members. Academic libraries surveyed by suggestions for remedial action in some areas, the Library BLS thus did not fall into the otherwise consistent subsequently intensified its affirmative action efforts. One pattern of a greater concentration of minority members outgrowth of these efforts was a cross-complaint of “reverse discrimination,” brought before the Los Angeles County Civil in nonprofessional jobs than in professional ones. Service Commission by another group of librarians. After a lengthy hearing, the Civil Service Commission upheld the Library’s practice of utilizing “selective certification” in certain of its appointments of otherwise qualified personnel. See articles in the May 15, 1972 and Apr. 1,1973 issues of Library Journal 49E. J. Josey, ed., The Black Librarian in America (Metuchen, New Jersey, The Scarecrow Press, 1970). 50“LC Minority Employment,” LC Information Bulletin, Jan. 18, 1974. The “minority issue” also exists with respect to sex. As noted earlier, most librarians are women. Many library administrators consider it desirable to increase the number of men on the staff, especially at the professional level, in order to counter the profession’s “feminine” image. As a consequence, an effort to recruit men to the profession is underway in the Nation’s leading libraries and library schools. BLS survey results indicate that more men than ever before are available for employment as librarians. The increase in the supply of men is attributed to the tight job market for profes sionals in other fields; to salary improvements in the past few years which have made librarianship financially more attractive to men; and to active recruitment by the libraries themselves for men librarians. School library administrators offer an additional reason: The increas ingly important audiovisual area attracts men. At the same time, the growing strength of the women’s movement has drawn attention to the status of women in librarianship. Some see signs of growing inequality of opportunity for women in the profession. Anita R. Schiller of the University of California Library at La Jolla, for example, asserts that women constitute “the disadvantaged majority” in librarianship. She points out that the salaries of women librarians generally tend to be lower than those of men librarians; that the top positions in the Nation’s largest libraries are held by men; and that the proportion of women deans of accredited library schools is declining.51 Evidence such as this, coupled with strong pressure from concerned members, has spurred ALA to step up its activities in support of women’s status within the profession. The Social Responsibilities Round Table Task Force on Women is continuing its publicity efforts and is seeking additional information on salaries, training opportuni ties, promotions, and other indications of the employ ment status of women librarians. In 1973, the ALA ad hoc Committee on Equal Opportunities in Libraries prepared a policy statement on the equal employment rights of those employed, recruited, or seeking any type of library position. Also in 1973, California librarians secured official ALA support, by means of a resolution adopted at the 92d annual conference, for an ongoing legislative effort to correct discriminatory pay practices which adversely affect women in University of California libraries.52 With the enactment of the Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972, the Federal Government brought the force of law to bear to end discrimination in employment.5 3 Libraries and other educational and governmental institutions, which had been exempted from the requirements of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, now are required to abide by provisions of that Act which forbid discrimination in employment practices because of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. For years, many libraries have sought to assure equal opportunity in hiring, placement, promotion, salaries, and other employment practices. They have done so for reasons of conscience, good public relations, and good labor-management relations. Now, however, such efforts are required by law. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) receives complaints of job discrimination and has the power to bring civil actions against employers who discriminate. These may result in substantial back pay awards, as was the case in several court orders announced in 1973, requiring employers found guilty of discriminatory employment practices to award back pay totalling several million dollars. Further, affirmative action plans are required of all institutions with Federal contracts or subcontracts.54 This requirement is especially important for academic libraries, since many colleges and universities have Federal contracts. Affirma tive action requires the employer to take steps to make equal employment opportunity a reality. It includes establishing goals and timetables for hiring minority personnel. Additionally, it includes designing a plan to meet those goals and timetables through methods which usually include aggressive recruiting of minority person nel and specialized training. EEOC guidelines for implementation of the Equal Employment Opportunity Act stress the importance of minority recruiting, and warn that the first opportunity 5 3On Mar. 24,1972, the President signed Public Law 92-261, amending Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The act, with its amendment, is commonly called the Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972. By amending the 1964 act, Congress extended its coverage to educational institutions, governments, governmental agencies, and political subdivisions that have 15 employees or more for each working day of 20 or more calendar weeks in the current or preceding year. Public libraries with fewer than 15 employees may be covered nonetheless if they are not distinct from the municipal government. 51 Anita R. Schiller, “The Disadvantaged Majority,” 54Pursuant to Amended Executive Order 11246, institutions American Libraries, April 1970, pp. 345-49. with Federal contracts or subcontracts are required to present 5 2The situation in the University of California libraries is evidence of nondiscrimination in employment practices. To help copiously documented in the 1972 Report on the Status of insure against discrimination, the Department of Labor Office of Women Employed in the Library of the University of California, Federal Contract Compliance in 1971 issued Revised Order No. Berkeley. The report was compiled by women staff members, 4, requiring institutions to submit affirmative action plans within represented by the Affirmative Action Program for Women 120 days o f the commencement of the contract. Revised Order Committee (AAPWC). No. 4 illustrates the elements of such a plan. reported that although it ordinarily requires a master’s degree in librarianship from an ALA-accredited school for beginning librarians, it would waive the master’s requirement for a promising black applicant with only a bachelor’s degree in librarianship. Another public library reported that although the position it was trying to fill required experience, a black candidate straight out of library school would be considered. Still other public libraries pointed out that civil service regulations or union contracts made it impossible to relax hiring requirements. A number of libraries find it difficult to 1. advertising job openings in professional jour recruit minorities because very few minority members nals, live in the particular area, or would want to move there. 2. listing job openings w ith the N ational Registry o f Librarians, Few libraries, moreover, have funds to defray the cost of 3. recruiting at the ALA con ven tion , and relocating a minority librarian recruited in another part 4. listing job openings w ith local em p loym en t of the country. Many librarians have some difficulty agencies. justifying the cost of long-distance recruitment trips In addition, about half of the libraries with minority themselves. recruitment programs sought to reach potential minority The shortage of qualified minority applicants signi job candidates by: fies, in turn, a scarcity of minority students in library schools. The ALA has urged library educators to take 1. advertising in m inority newspapers and in sch ool and underground publications, steps to attract minorities to the profession. Its Precon 2. listing job openings w ith the Urban League and ference on the Recruitment of Minorities, held in Dallas other m inority-oriented organizations, and in 1971, recommended 44. .. that all library schools admit 3. recruiting at library sch ools w ith a predom i qualified minority applicants on a preferential basis and nantly black student b od y. seek to provide financial aid for those who are economi A substantial number of large academic and public cally handicapped.” 57 The Preconference recommended libraries mentioned campus recruitment trips to the a relaxation of library school admission standards in School of Library Science at Atlanta University, a school order to enroll promising minority candidates. which serves as an employment clearinghouse for black In line with yet another Preconference recommenda librarians. Atlanta reportedly has tailored its program in tion, several libraries and library schools have launched order to prepare its library science graduates to work cooperative programs designed to attract minority stu with the disadvantaged in urban public libraries. In dents, to provide them with financial support while they addition to library education, the course deals with drug are in library school, and to offer suitable job opportuni abuse, legal aid services, consumer education, Right-toties upon graduation. One such program is under way in Read efforts, and vocational guidance.5 6 New York, co-sponsored by Columbia University Libraries were asked by BLS interviewers what Libraries and the Columbia University School of Library difficulties they encountered in minority recruitment. Service. It offers college graduates from minority groups The shortage of qualified minority applicants, cited a work-study program and tuition waiver. Special efforts repeatedly, appears to be the chief constraint on also are being made to train minority and disadvantaged increasing the number of blacks and other minorities in students in library science at the doctoral level. In 1972, professional positions in libraries. a consortium of the Big Ten universities and the The shortage of minority members with appropriate University of Chicago started a 4-year program which credentials has led some libraries to consider waiving will offer the Ph. D. in library science to black, Chicano, their usual requirements. One public library surveyed American Indian, Puerto Rican, and Appalachian white librarians.58 5 5The ALA has drawn up two articles on this subject: In 1970, the Federal Government took a strong “Equal Employment Opportunity-Affirmative Action Plans for Libraries,” American Libraries, October 1971, pp. 977-83, and position on encouraging minority representation in “LAD Report-EEOC Guidelines for Preventing Discriminatory library education, by redirecting funds awarded under Employment Practices,” American Libraries, December 1972, Title II-B of the Higher Education Act (library training pp. 1207-09. and institute program) to give priority to training 5 6Reported in Thomas Childers and Kathlyn Adams, for discrimination is in recruitment procedure.55 Survey data for 1973 show a great deal of aggressive minority recruiting, most notably in large public and academic libraries. Asked whether the library had a minority recruitment program, about a third of the public libraries and half of the academic libraries in the survey affirmed that they did. Recruitment methods cited most frequently by public and academic library administrators were: “Recruitment of Minorities,” American Libraries, June 1972, pp. 613-21. 5 7Op. cit., p. 617. 5 8Reported in American Libraries, October 1972, p. 943. disadvantaged persons and retraining library personnel to work in disadvantaged communities.59 Despite these efforts, minorities make up a very small proportion of total library school enrollment. Available data suggest that minorities comprise no more than 3 to 5 percent of enrollment in accredited library programs at all levels. Total full-time and part-time enrollment in 1972 is estimated at roughly 10,000, of which only 300 to 500 were minority members.60 ALA survey data revealed a marked increase in the number of minorities in accredited library education programs between 1969 and 1972, but the numbers involved are quite small, compared to total enrollment. The 1972 survey by ALA’s Library Education Division and Office for Re cruitment shows 310 blacks, 17 Mexican Americans, and 1 Puerto Rican enrolled in the spring of 1972, compared to 156 blacks, 9 Mexican Americans, and 9 Puerto Ricans in 1969.61 Minority recruitment efforts by graduate library schools are made considerably more difficult by the relatively low pay level in librarianship, compared to other professions. An earlier section has shown that, as a rule, salaries for librarians are not competitive with other professions which have comparable educational require ments. 5 9 See Frank A. Stevens and Frances Yvonne Hicks, “Higher Education Act of 1965, Title II-B: Library Education,” The Bowker Annual o f Library and Book Trade Information 1972 (New York, R. R. Bowker Co., 1972). 60The estimate of 10,000 students in accredited library education programs is based on enrollment data for 1969 and 1970 which show: 1969 Undergraduate ................ Master’s ............................. Advanced: Specialists.............. Advanced: D o cto ra l................ ..............1,367 ..............8,542 1970 1,192 8,933 .............. 176 150 .............. 324 344 See Margaret E. Monroe, “U.S. Graduate Library Education Programs,” pp. 20-6 in Frank L. Schick and D. Kathryn Weintraub, North American Library Education Directory and Statistics 1969-1971 (Chicago, American Library Association, 1972). 6 1Reported in American Libraries, October 1972, p. 942. Chapter 2. Projections of Manpower Demand and Supply Factors affecting growth Requirements for library manpower are determined by the interplay of a number of demographic, economic, and social factors. Among the most important are trends in population and enrollments; public support for new and improved library services; the level of governmental and other spending for library programs; developments in library automation and networking; and changes in library staffing patterns. Population trends. Public library staffing needs are directly affected by population growth and by shifts in population patterns. The U.S. population was 181 million in 1960 and 205 million in 1970. Total population is expected to reach 224 million by 1980 and 236 million by 1985.62 Changes in the geographic, racial, age, and income distribution of the population all have implications for library service. Perhaps the most important trend, from the viewpoint of community services, has been the massive post-World War II population movement from rural and small town areas to metropolitan areas; from cities to suburbs; and from the South and Middle West to Florida, the South West, and the Pacific Coast. The impact of rapid population growth on schools, libraries, and other community services has been heaviest in the suburbs surrounding major metropolitan areas. The movement away from core cities to outlying suburbs has had generally adverse consequences for the cities, and has created problems of unplanned growth for the suburbs. Administrators in all of the big city public library systems surveyed by BLS appear to grasp the implica tions for library service and staffing patterns of changing population patterns. In one of the most clearly unani mous findings of the study, urban public libraries indicated that they are committed to modifying tradi tional library services as much as necessary to reach the disadvantaged groups which comprise such a large—and growing—share of their clientele. Enrollment trends. Student enrollment is an important determinant of staffing needs in school libraries and in academic libraries. At the elementary-secondary level, the 1970’s present the prospect of a decline in the number of children and teenagers in school. The current period of dwindling enrollments and diminished staff needs after nearly 20 years of expansion requires a considerable adjustment on the part of the U.S. educa tional establishment. Chart 5 highlights actual and projected elementary-secondary enrollment trends for the 25-year period from 1960 to 1985.6 3 Total enroll ments show almost no growth between 1965 and 1980. However, a sharp increase is projected between 1980 and 1985, mostly at the elementary level, as the children born to the post-World War II “baby boom” generation begin to reach school age. Classroom teachers appear to bear the brunt of reduced job opportunities due to lower elementarysecondary enrollments. For the past several years, demand for school librarians, school psychologists, guidance counselors and other specialized categories of instructional personnel has remained fairly strong, de spite reductions in enrollments. Between 1965 and 1970, when elementary-secondary enrollment growth was coming to a halt, public school enrollment rose at an average annual rate of about 1.7 percent per year. Employment of classroom teachers rose 3.8 percent per year in this period, but employment of public school librarians rose much faster—more than 7.9 percent per year. 6 3 Based on estimated and projected enrollment data 6 2 Based on series “E” projections of the U.S. Bureau of the published in Projections o f Educational Statistics to 1981-82, Census. See Current Population Reports, Series P-25, No. 493 1972 edition (Office of Education, 1973, OE 73-11105), and (Bureau of the Census, 1972). Series E is one of several unpublished projections to 1984-85 developed for BLS by the alternative population projections, each based on a different Office of Education in January 1973. For a discussion of the assumption as to future fertility levels. Series E implies an likelihood of a downward revision of these elementary and ultimate completed fertility rate of 2,100; that is, 1,000 women secondary enrollment projections due to lower fertility trends, would have, on average, 2,100 births throughout their childbear see “Comment on assumptions” in appendix A. ing period. Chart 5 Annual rate of change in elementary-secondary school enrollments, 1960-71 and projected 1972-85 I960: 1970: 1979: 1985: 41,981,000 51,309,000 49,100,000 54,200,000 1960-1970: 1970-1979: 1979-1985: 1970-1985: +2.0% -0.5% +1.7% +0.4% : 11 jjf§11 1961 Source: 65 70 National Center for Educational Statistics 75 80 1985 The very rapid growth since 1965 in the number of school librarians—all the more remarkable because it occurred in a period of decelerating enrollment growth—is chiefly attributable to pent-up demand for school library services. Following the 1965 enactment of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, funds became available to meet this demand on a nationwide scale. The massive infusion of Federal funds specifically earmarked for instructional materials and for school library resources stimulated the expansion of school library services, led to the establishment of libraries in schools which previously had none, and resulted in the hiring of professional librarians and audiovisual special ists. From 1965 to 1970, when expenditures under ESEA Title II totaled nearly $341 million,64 the number of full-time equivalent librarians in the Nation’s public schools rose to 42,500 from approximately 29,000.6 5 How will the current trend in elementary-secondary enrollments affect employment opportunities for school librarians? Indications are that demand for librarians will continue to rise, despite the anticipated decline in enrollments during the 1970’s. As noted above, employ ment of school librarians surged upward in the late 1960’s, as funds became available to satisfy pent-up demand, and rapid employment growth occurred even though enrollment growth was slowing. Especially at the secondary level, much of the demand for adequate school library programs and personnel appears to have been released, and as a result, enrollment levels are likely to have a greater impact than before on school library manpower needs. Employment of school library person nel accordingly is expected to rise more rapidly between 1980 and 1985 than in the 1970’s. Institutions of higher education are expected to feel the effects of the current decline in elementarysecondary enrollments by the early 1980’s. More imme diately, for the remainder of the 1970’s, college level 640ffice o f Education expenditures for Title II of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act have been as follows: Fiscal year: 1966 ......................................................... $97,347,441 1967 ......................................................... 99,627,150 1968 ......................................................... 98,452,733 1969 ......................................................... 42,200,706 1970 ......................................................... 37,344,773 1971 ......................................................... 70,625,253 1972 ......................................................... 79,477,964 1973 ......................................................... 84,000,000 enrollments are expected to continue to rise, but much less rapidly than before.66 The extraordinary rise in college enrollments of the 1960 decade is not likely to continue. It should be noted that changes in college level enrollments are much more difficult to predict than changes in elementary-secondary enrollments, since the latter are predominantly influenced by population trends. Enrollment trends at the college level are more speculative, since the proportion of the college-age population actually enrolled in school (currently about 30 percent) fluctuates in response to economic, political, and social factors. Among the factors which affect young people’s educational decisions are the military draft situation, the expansion of junior and community college facilities, the availability of scholarships and student loans, and changes in the job market for college graduates. To further complicate the matter, a growing number of older persons are returning to college, or entering for the first time. The slow growth of college-level enrollments in the 1970’s, followed by a drop in the 1980’s, is expected to dampen demand for academic library staff. The results of a recent study prepared for the Council on Library Resources67—show that while size of library staff is strongly associated with an academic institution’s enrollment class size, several other variables are more sensitive measures of staff size. The authors found that in academic libraries, staff size is significantly associated with size of collection, educational expenditures per student, and type (public or private) and size of institution. The unavailability of long-range projections for collection size and per student educational expendi tures made it necessary, in developing the BLS projec tions for 1980 and 1985, to rely primarily on projected enrollment—even though this provides a cruder measure of staff size variance. New and improved services. Library employment is sensitive to public demand for new library services and for improvements or modifications in existing services. Both employment levels and staffing patterns are af fected by changes in the range of services the library offers. Such changes most often are brought about by 6 6Based on estimated and projected enrollment data pub lished in Projections o f Educational Statistics to 1981-82, 1972 edition (Office of Education, 1973, OE-73-11105) and unpub lished projections to 1984-85 developed for the BLS by the Office of Education in January 1973. For a discussion of the likelihood of a downward revision of these higher enrollment projections due to recent trends in college attendance, see 6 5Statistics o f State School Systems 1965-66 (Office of “Comment on assumptions” in appendix A. 6 7William J. Baumol and Matityahu Marcus, Economics o f Education, 1968, OF-20020-66), p. 28 and Statistics o f Local Public School Systems, Fall 1970, Staff (Office of Education, Academic Libraries (Washington, D.C., American Council on Education, 1973). 1972, OE-73-11415), p. 7. shifts in the library’s role within the school, college, community or parent organization. In most cases, the range of library services offered, and the budget support these services receive, reflect current tax payer priorities in the competition for the tax dollar. A number of public libraries surveyed by BLS view introduction of new services as a leading factor in future employment growth. Most new and innovative public library services come under the heading of “ community outreach”—modifying traditional library services to meet the heeds of a particular segment of the community. Current community outreach efforts by urban public libraries are part of a larger effort on the part of the cities to deal with acute social and economic problems. Community outreach includes programs for a number of special groups within the community: Children, teen agers, the elderly, the handicapped and minorities, for example. Community outreach sometimes involves joint action by the public library with other city or county agencies and programs—those dealing with adult educa tion, for example, or with literacy, health, welfare, or employment. Outreach also may mean storefront ex hibits, film festivals, craft programs, photography dis plays, storytelling in Spanish, puppet shows, daycare centers, thrift shops, senior citizen activities, services to migrants, and cooperative programs with Head Start, the Neighborhood Youth Corps, or the Job Corps. School library services have undergone a transforma tion over the past 10 to 15 years. Fundamental changes have taken place in library collections, personnel, and programs, and in nearly all secondary schools (and many elementary schools as well), the library now plays an active role in the instructional process. This was not the case a decade or so ago. The shift in the library’s role and the broadening of its activities reflect developments in teaching methods and also the availability of a variety of instructional materials. The successful introduction of individualized instruction and self-directed learning created a pressing need for curriculum reform, for organizational changes, and for additional instructional materials for use both inside and outside the classroom. The use of innovative teaching methods and instruc tional materials has contributed to the broadening of the library’s role in elementary and secondary education. Of almost equal importance, however, is the greatly in creased availability of funds, in particular, ESEA Title II funds specifically for instructional materials and for school library resources. Recent developments in teaching methods and tech nologies are likely to continue through 1985, and beyond. According to a report submitted to the Com mission on Population Growth and the American Fu ture, the American educational system is expected to continue moving in the direction of individualized instruction and greater diversity of teaching methods over the next 30 years.68 This forecast is based on consultation with leading educators and public decision makers. It implies a continued strong demand for counselors, psychologists, instructional materials and curriculum specialists, librarians, and other personnel involved in the effort to tailor each child’s educational program to his own abilities, interests, and goals. Certain other developments in education are likely to influence future demand for school librarians and media specialists. First is the anticipated expansion of school ing at the prekindergarten level. A growing proportion of children are likely to begin formal schooling as early as age three. In elementary schools, the report to the Population Commission envisages less rigid scheduling of classes, and freer, more random access to literary, audiovisual, graphic, and mechanical materials. Instruc tional television and computer-assisted instruction also is foreseen. In secondary schools as well, the report an ticip ates extensive use of literary, audiovisual, mechanical, electronic, and graphic materials. Government spending. Federal support for library pro grams is a fairly recent development. The first major piece of Federal library legislation was the 1956 Library Services Act, but spending levels under this and subse quent legislation peaked only in the mid- to late 1960’s. Over the past two decades, Federal expenditures for library construction, materials, services, and professional development have exceeded $1 billion. The future of Federal library legislation was clouded in 1974, but it appeared unlikely that spending levels in the remainder of the 1970 decade would return to earlier heights. The massive infusion of money has had a significant impact on library services and facilities throughout the country, and has stimulated improvements and innova tions in library programs in a variety of ways. Not least important is the effect upon library staff. Employment of librarians and library support personnel has grown at a rapid rate since the beginning of the 1960’s, and the level of professionalism has clearly risen. Much of this improvement in the quantity and quality of library personnel can be associated with the release of Federal funds. More than $35 million in Federal funds has gone toward direct support for the advanced training of librarians and media specialists, enabling them to im prove their skills and techniques and thus enhance the 6 8 Elliott R. Morss and Ritchie H. Reed, editors, Economic Aspects o f Population Change, Vol. II of Commission research reports (Washington, Commission on Population Growth and the American Future, 1972). services of their libraries. This assistance has been available to the profession for nearly a decade, under the Higher Education Act of 1965, Title II-Part B, as amended, which supports training by means of fellow ships for individuals enrolled in graduate library education programs, and sponsorship of special training institutes. Beginning in the late 1960’s, almost exclusive emphasis was placed on advanced training and continu ing education for librarians who serve the disadvantaged. In 1973 alone, more than 200 minority and disad vantaged persons entered the profession as specialists in meeting the library needs of underprivileged groups as a result of federally funded institutes for library training. The impact of Federal funds upon library employ ment is particularly evident in the Nation’s schools. Under the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, Title II, as amended, substantial Federal funds have been expended for school library support over a short period of time. Since 1966, over $600 million in ESEA Title II funds have been made available to public and nonpublic schools alike for the purchase of printed and audiovisual school library materials. ESEA Title II is the principal source of Federal aid to school libraries, but not the only one. Additional funds have come, for example, from ESEA Title I, which provides assistance to meet the educational needs of deprived children; and from various other enactments. The availability of large amounts of money for the purchase of library materials is believed to have been a decisive factor in the rapid growth in employment of school librarians since 1965. The level of Federal support for school libraries will continue to be a critical growth factor in the opinion of many observers. Expansion of employment opportuni ties for school librarians in the 1970’s—when enroll ments are falling—will depend to a large extent on public sentiment concerning the level of financial support for education in general, and for school library programs in particular. On the Federal level, although the future of ESEA is uncertain, a continued Federal Government role in the funding of elementary and secondary education is likely. Both the level and the form of future Federal aid to education will have a direct impact on school librarians. The question of school financing is not within the scope of this study. Nonetheless, a few observations are in order. On the basis of recent experience with ESEA, a strong case can be made for categorical support of school library programs. In many schools, the availa bility of funds specifically earmarked for books, periodi cals, cassettes, filmstrips, and similar instructional ma terials served as the catalyst for expanding and improv ing school library programs, and for hiring specially trained personnel. Some experts in the field of school librarianship believe that without the “seed money” made available by Title II of ESEA, many of the sophisticated, well-equipped libraries in the Nation’s schools would not exist. In the opinion of Geraldine Clark, assistant director for the Bureau of Libraries of the New York City Board of Education, ESEA has served as a “pump-primer.” 69 Writing in early 1973, Clark reported widespread concern that without Federal aid, school library services will suffer: Most school librarians with whom I have talked recently believe that without categorical Federal aid and its prescription for maintaining local effort, the current level of local support for school libraries will be reduced . . . BLS interviewers reported a similar mood of pessimism on the part of school librarians in many parts of the country. Federal support of academic libraries is a major development of the past decade or so. Beginning with the National Defense Education Act of 1958, a number of Federal programs have stimulated the growth of college and university collections, helped provide build ings to house them, and provided assistance for the training of academic library staff. However, the Federal legislation with the broadest impact upon college and university libraries undoubtedly has been Title II of the Higher Education Act of 1965. HEA Title II has influenced academic libraries both directly and indirectly. Directly, through Part A of Title II, which provides funds to colleges and universities for purchase of library materials. The growth of academic library collections has been stimulated considerably by these provisions, under which even the smallest college library can receive as much as $5,000 for acquisitions as a basic grant, and larger libraries as much as 20 times that figure in supplementary and special-purpose grants. Parts B and C of HEA Title II benefit the entire library community, not just academic libraries. Part B supports the professional training of librarians and other library personnel and also funds research and demonstrations. Part C, which supports certain Library of Congress acquisitions and cataloging activities, has had an impact on bibliographic and processing procedures in libraries throughout the country. Part C of HEA Title II gives the Librarian of Congress the responsibility of acquiring, insofar as possible, all library materials currently pub lished throughout the world which are of value to scholarship, of cataloging these materials promptly, and of distributing bibliographic information through printed 6 9Geraldine Clark, “Secondary School Libraries,” School Library Journal, March 1973, p. 76-77. cards and other means, including machine-readable tapes. The considerable impact upon library staff needs of LC-supported innovations in cataloging and technical processing is described elsewhere in this report. (See section on Staffing Patterns.) Other legislation has stimulated academic library development as well. Federal programs in the late 1950’s and early 1960’s provided funds for foreign area studies in U.S. universities, including substantial support for the purchase of books, documents, and other research materials. This resulted in an enormous broadening of U.S. university collections. Academic library staffs have of necessity become more specialized; in order to handle vastly increased collections in unfamiliar areas, large university libraries have added language and subject specialists, government documents librarians, and scholarly bibliographers. Library buildings were among the principal campus beneficiaries of the Higher Education Facilities Act from its passage in 1963 to 1969, when appropriations were cut back. A large proportion of the Nation’s college and university libraries have been substantially rehoused since World War II, Federal funds having provided much of the stimulus for new construction. The construction of new buildings has given academic librarians an opportunity to incorporate sophisticated audiovisual collections and services into the building design. The close link between contemporary library design and media-based library services is nowhere more evident than in the junior colleges. The use of instructional technology and audiovisual learning materials has flour ished in this setting, and newly built junior college libraries usually serve as multipurpose, multimedia learn ing centers. Of all the Federal programs which provide financial support for libraries, Federal aid to public libraries has the longest history. Initiated in 1956 with enactment of the Library Services Act, the program originally was designed to establish public library service in rural areas. The scope of the law has since been expanded. Known since 1964 as the Library Services and Construction Act (LSCA) the program now provides money for urban as well as rural library service, for construction and modernization of public library buildings, for interlibrary cooperation, and for services to special groups— including the handicapped and the institutionalized. Under Title I of LSCA, Federal money has been spent on demonstration projects to help communities meet their information needs more effectively and more imaginatively. Federal funds provided by LSCA also have contributed to the establishment and strengthening of library systems, whose many cooperative activities include the cooperative buying and processing of library materials, as well as the creation and shared use of union catalogs. Some State library agencies have used LSCA Title I funds for education and personnel development. Particular emphasis is given to recruiting and training “community outreach” personnel who can serve as a liaison between the public library and the “disadvan taged”—individuals or groups within a community who, for geographic, economic, cultural, linguistic, or other reasons, exist outside the mainstream of community life. Title II of LSCA supports public library construction, and requires matching State and local funds. By 1973, Federal funds had helped to build more than 1,800 public libraries. Some $160 million in LSCA Title II funds had been matched by about $400 million in State and local funds. Program activities under Title III include establishment or expansion of processing centers using modern technology and equipment; and coordination of all library acquisitions within a region. Funds available under LSCA have had a significant impact on the quality of library collections and person nel available to serve institutional populations—inmates, patients, or residents of penal institutions, reformatories, residential training schools, orphanages, and hospitals. “Capable, enthusiastic, service-minded” people reported ly are entering the field of institutional librarianship.70 This can be attributed in large part, to the availability of financial support for varied and creative institutional library programs and services. Library automation and networking. By the early 1970’s, the emergence of the computer as an aid to library operations had affected work flows and staffing needs in perhaps 200 of the Nation’s largest libraries— among them, academic libraries, public libraries, and special libraries. 71 Most libraries which have operational systems use the computer for acquisitions, cataloging, and circulation control. A somewhat smaller number of 70Elizabeth H. Hughey, “The Library Services and Construc tion Act During Fiscal Year 1971,” pp. 214-19 in The Bowker Annual o f Library and Book Trade Information, 17th ed., New York, R.R. Bowker Co., 1972. 7 According to a 1973 report to the ALA’s Information Science and Automation Division (ISAD), at least 25 or 30 major academic and public libraries had well-tested working systems in operation at that time, and perhaps as many as 100 or more had significant operations under way. (“Report of the Committee on Research Topics, Journal o f Library Automation, September 1973, p. 133.) An earlier report on library automa tion activity in the Federal Government showed that about 60 Federal libraries had operational systems-mostly in cataloging or serials control-although more than 130 Federal libraries were involved in automation activity. (Peter Simmons, “Library Automation,” pp. 167-201 in Carlos A. Cuadra, ed., Annual Review o f Information Science and Technology, Vol. 8, Wash ington, D.C: American Society for Information Science, 1973). libraries have automated their indexing systems, and fewer still are active in the glamorous, but essentially experimental, area of automated information storage and retrieval. Special libraries are in the forefront in this area. Automation of library operations necessitates a change in work assignments, and usually entails some departmental reorganization as well. Some libraries surveyed by BLS reported a reduction in staff require ments as a result of the automation of acquisitions and cataloging procedures. One large academic library re ported a reduction in the need for professional staff in technical processing; another reported that computeriza tion of acquisitions and cataloging had reduced the number of typists on the staff. The manpower implications of library automation appear to be chiefly qualitative, not quantitative. Baumol and Marcus, among others, point out that computers are not a substitute for professional library personnel.72 Rather, machines accomplish enormous amounts of the nonprofessional, predominantly clerical, tasks which constitute such a large part of the daily work in any library. No decline in the demand for skilled professionals as a result of automation is foreseen by most authorities. Moreover, because of the relatively limited penetration of computers in libraries, reduction in nonprofessional staff requirements due to automation is likely to be moderate. Automation is feasible only in fairly large libraries, and there is little prospect, over the next decade or two, the medium-sized and small libraries will move to automate their operations. Few such libraries can afford the expense of custom-made soft ware; manual methods are cheaper for them. For these libraries, the most feasible method of benefiting from advances in library automation and technology appears to lie in cooperative efforts, by means of systems or networks of library computer-users; or in subscription to commercial services. Among the most active of the computer-based networks is the Ohio College Library Center (OCLC) system, which offers its members on-line access to both local input and MARCderived cataloging information,73 online location of 7 2Baumol and Marcus, op. cit., p. 42. 73MARC is the acronym for Machine-Readable Cataloging, a major endeavor by the Library of Congress in the field of automated technical processing. The MARC program, initially undertaken in the late 1960’s on an experimental basis, constitutes an effort to develop and distribute cataloging data in machine-readable form. The data base currently includes all English language material cataloged by the Library of Congress since 1968, and since October 1971, all records produced by the Cataloging-in-Publication program. The MARC data base is used by more than 200 libraries, predominantly large academic and public libraries. materials for interlibrary loan, and on-line training sessions for catalogers. Serial check-in and circulation subsystems are scheduled to be added to the OCLC system, although cataloging will continue to be the major thrust of the network’s effort. Although automation appears to have relatively little effect on the number of library workers needed, it creates a demand for particular skills at both the professional and nonprofessional levels. Computer per sonnel are required—among them, systems analysts, programmers, and various categories of electronic data processing (EDP) personnel—keypunch operators, data typists, card-to-tape converter operators, console opera tors, and others. Knowledge of computer science in itself is generally not sufficient, however; some familiarity with librarianship—or expertise in library procedures— also is rquired. Some of the specific skills necessary for library automation personnel are noted later, in the discussion of computer personnel as a “new and emerg ing” library occupation. Staffing patterns. Manpower requirements in library settings have been affected by the establishment of differentiated staffing patterns, which use the services of individuals with several different levels of training and skill. This has led, most importantly, to the increased use of personnel below the professional level: library techni cal assistants, clerks, and others. A number of studies attest to a downward trend in the ratio of professional to nonprofessional library personnel. According to data cited by Baumol and Marcus, for example, the size of the professional staff in college and university libraries declined relative to the number of nonprofessionals at a rate of about 1.5 percent per year during the two decades from 1950 to 1969. The authors attribute this decline, at least in part, to “widespread efforts on the part of library administrators to distinguish between professional and nonprofessional activities and to use the services of the professional staff as far as possible entirely for professional work.” 74 Chiefly on the basis of Office of Education data, Bolino reports that the increasing use of nonprofessionals “is evident in all kinds of libraries.” 75 Census data show that between 1960 and 1970, the ratio of professionals to nonprofessionals fell, on average, from approximately 3:1 to 1:1. As noted earlier, nonprofessionals are used most extensively in public libraries and in academic libraries, probably 74 Baumol and Marcus, op. cit., p. 73. 7 5 August C. Bolino, Supply and Demand Analysis o f Manpower Trends in the Library and Information Field (Wash ington, D.C., 1969). Unpublished report submitted to the Office o f Education. because these tend to be larger institutions, with a greater need for differentiated staffing patterns. Most authorities agree that recent trends in library staffing are likely to continue. The steadily growing use of nonprofessionals has clear manpower implications: Employment of library attendants and assistants is expected to grow much more rapidly, through 1985, than employment of professional librarians. Estimates of demand in 1980 and 1985 Demand for librarians and library attendants and assistants over the 1970-85 period, in addition to the growth factors discussed in the previous section, will be influenced by projected patterns of growth in (1) the economy as a whole, in general, and (2) the educational services industry, in particular. The analysis of this combination of growth factors points to a marked slowdown in employment growth for library occupa tions. However, rates of employment growth will vary over the period as well as by type of library. The basic set of projections of library manpower requirements to 1980 and 1985 reflects the BLS model of the economy in 1985.76 As such, they are influenced by the economic, political, and technological assump tions—some explicit, but others, even more numerous, implicit—underlying the Bureau’s model.77 • Fiscal, m onetary, and m anpow er training and educa tional programs are ex p ected to achieve a satisfactory balance betw een relatively low u n em p loym en t (4 percent) and relative price stability (3 percent annual increase in the im plicit price deflator for gross national product), perm itting achievem ent o f the long-term econ o m ic grow th rate. • The institutional fram ework o f the American econ om y is not exp ected to change radically. • E conom ic, social, tech n ological, and scien tific trends are expected to con tin u e, including values placed on w ork, education , in com e, and leisure. It is important to note the assumptions related to governmental roles: All levels of government will expand efforts to meet a variety of domestic needs, but State and local government activity will continue to grow relative to Federal activity. Federal, State, and local budgets will be close to balance by 1980 and 1985. Among the specific assumptions are that: Increased Federal revenue resulting from grow th in the econ om y will be used largely to expand Federal grants to State and local governm ents relative to other categories o f expenditures although at a di minishing rate. The substantial increase in Federal grants w ill permit State and local governm ents to slow the rate of increase in their taxes. The possible effects upon libraries of this latter broad assumption is unclear. It is not known, at this time, for example, whether Federal support to school and aca demic libraries will be direct—a continuation of cate gorical programs included in the Elementary and Secondary Education Act and the Higher Education Act—or indirect, as in the case of general or educational revenue sharing. As nonteaching supportive services, such as libraries, reach a point of adequacy in elemen tary and secondary schools and colleges and universities, these services may find their budgets increasingly tied to the same factors—principally changes in levels of enroll ments—governing support, whether direct or indirect, to their respective parent institutions. Because of the uncertainties involved, an alternative set of projections for school and academic librarians was developed. These estimates, which are lower than the “basic” projections, are solely judgmental. For this reason, they should be interpreted as illustrative only. An alternative projection of employment requirements was not devel oped for public librarians. While support channelled to public libraries under the Library Services and Construc tion Act has provided the impetus for much of the recent expansion that has occurred in this area, public libraries have subsisted mainly on a very small but stable share of local government revenues. Overall, they are likely to maintain this competitive stance in the future. Within the public library sector, however, there are substantial differences in financial well-being. Suburban libraries tend to be in the strongest financial position and large urban libraries, in the most precarious position. Development of a comprehensive alternative projection for special librarians is impossible due to the numerous and diverse factors affecting employment growth in this occupation. No attempt was made to develop alternative projections for library attendants and assistants. Nearly 90 percent of all librarians and library attendants work in the educational services industry, SIC 82, as defined by the Standard Industrial Classification Manual.78 As in other industries, each of the educa- 7 8Executive Office of the President, Office of Management and Budget, 1967. SIC 82 includes elementary and secondary schools; college, universities, professional schools, and junior 7 6 See appendix A for more details on the methods used in colleges; libraries and information centers; correspondence developing the 1980 and 1985 projections. schools; vocational schools, except vocational high schools; and 7 7Jack Alterman, “The United States Economy in 1985: An schools and educational services, not elsewhere classified. Thus, this major industry group includes all school, academic, and Overview of BLS Projections,” Monthly Labor Review, public libraries, plus some special libraries. December 1973, pp. 3-7. tional services industries uses a unique combination of occupational skills. Although growth or decline of each occupation is affected by its own complex of factors, demand in occupations that have a high concentration in one or a few industries reflects heavily the changing patterns of employment growth in those industries. In the case of the educational services industries and the key education related occupations—teachers, librarians, and counselors—the same principal demand factors (population and enrollment) are at play. Total employment in the educational services in dustry is projected to rise to nearly 9.1 million in 1985 from slightly more than 6 million in 1970. (See table 13.) This represents a considerable slowdown in employ ment growth from that experienced over the 1960-70 period (2.8 percent annually compared with 5.3 per cent). Looking over the projected period, employment in education services is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 2.9 percent between 1970 and 1980, reaching a level of nearly 8 million in 1980; growth, thereafter, is expected to decelerate to an average of 2.6 percent yearly. Interestingly, the Bureau’s projections point to a rather sharp slowdown in the Nation’s overall economic growth starting about 1978 and continuing into the 1980’s.79 Table 13 indicates that growth will be slowest in elementary and secondary schools and colleges and universities—a reflection of overall enrollment trends. As noted in the previous section, elementary and secondary enrollments are projected to swing upward towards the end of the decade, stimulating employment growth in schools over the 1980-85 period. At about the same time, higher education enrollments will exhibit a pendu lum effect and swing downward—contributing to a 7 9For additional information and details on contributing factors, see Jack Alterman, “The United States Economy in 1985: An Overview of BLS Projections,” Monthly Labor Review, December 1973, pp. 3-7. Table 13. and 1985 virtual halt in employment growth in colleges and universities. The rate of growth in employment in public libraries is expected to remain stable at about 4 percent throughout the period, reflecting demands of an expand ing population for new and varied services. Growth in the other educational services industries, combined, is expected to be quite strong (6.5-percent annually) over the 1970-80 period—dropping thereafter, on average, to about one-half this level. Employment requirements for librarians—reflecting in part the expected changes in employment growth in the educational services industries—are projected to rise from 115,000 in 1970 to 141,000 in 1980, and to 162,000 in 1985. (See table 14.) While nearly 9 out of every 10 librarians work in the educational services industry, they are only a very small proportion of the total number of persons employed in this major industry grouping—1.6 percent in 1970. This ratio is expected to remain fairly stable throughout the projected period. A comparison of growth rates shown in tables 13 and 15 indicates that over the 1960-70 period, employment of librarians grew at nearly the same rate as the educational services industry—5.2 and 5.3 percent re spectively. The projected patterns of employment growth over the 1970-80 and 1980-85 periods, however, are expected to differ. For example, employment growth for librarians, in contrast to that for the industry as a whole, is expected to be more rapid during the latter 5 years of the projected period. The principal cause is the projected rise in employment growth in elementary and secondary schools, where currently about 45 percent of all librarians are employed. Employment of school librarians is projected to grow from 52,000 in 1970 to nearly 65,000 in 1980, and to nearly 80,000 by 1985. Table 15 indicates that over the 1980-85 period, when school enrollments are projected to turn sharply upward, growth in employment of school librarians is expected to be nearly twice as fast as Employment in the educational services industry, estimated 1960 and 1970, and projected 1980 A verage an n u al rate of change Employment in thousands (percent) Industry division 1960 1970 1980 1985 1960-70 1970-80 1970-85 1980-85 Total, educational services........................ 3,600 Elementary and secondary schools ....................................................................... (2 ) Colleges and universities................................................ (2) Libraries1 .......................................................................... (2) Educational services. n.e.c ............................................................................ (2) 6,025 7,990 9,080 5.3 2.9 2.8 2.6 4,110 1,576 82 5,120 2,270 6,000 3.7 3.9 2.6 2.8 120 <2) (2 ) (2) 2.2 2,375 145 3.9 3.2 .9 4.0 257 480 560 (2) 6.5 5.4 3.3 1 P u b lic libraries. 2 N o t a va ila b le . Table 14. Projected employment requirements for librarians, by type of library, 1970-85 Projected requirements for librarians Type of library Estimated 1970 employment All libraries . . . . School.................................... P u b lic .................................... Academ ic ............................. Special ................................. 115,000 52,000 26,500 19,500 17,000 Basic 1980 1985 1980 1985 141,000 64,500 30,000 26,500 162,000 79,500 33,000 27,000 22,500 132,000 59,000 30,000 22,500 148,000 69,500 33,000 23,000 22,500 20,000 in1 the 1970’s. Growth in school library staff require ments is expected to be stimulated over the entire projected period by an expected continued broadening of the school library’s role in the instructional process. The small share (1.3 percent) that employment of librarians represents of total employment in schools is expected to remain constant throughout the projected period. On the other hand, the proportion of school librarians to total librarians is expected to rise from 45 percent in 1970 to nearly 50 percent by 1985. Employment requirements for public librarians are projected to rise from 26,500 in 1970 to 30,000 in 1980—an annual rate of growth of 1.3 percent. Con tributing to the relatively slow growth of librarian employment in public libraries is the increasing use of paraprofessional personnel. Changes in staffing patterns are particularly evident in large public libraries where specially trained library technicians and library clerks are relieving professional librarians of certain routine and clerical duties. In the 1980’s, the rate of employment growth is expected to accelerate to 2 percent a year, on average—with projected requirements for public librari ans reaching 33,000 by 1985. Despite this anticipated upward surge, employment of librarians as a proportion of total employment in public libraries will drop to 24 percent by 1985 from about 32 percent in 1970. In sum, public libraries are expected to decline as an area of job opportunities for librarians—accounting for about 20 percent of total librarian employment in 1985, com pared to 24 percent in 1970. Employment requirements for academic librarians are projected to increase to 25,500 in 1980 from 19,000 in 1970—an average annual rate of 3.1 percent. Between 1980 and 1985, however, the rate of growth is expected to drop sharply to an annual average of .3 percent, reflecting the virtual halt in employment growth in colleges and universities during this period because of the projected sharp drop in higher education enroll ments. As a proportion of total employment in colleges and universities, employment of academic librarians is a very small share-1.2 percent in 1970. This ratio is expected to inch downward to 1.1 percent by 1985. Alternative low 20,000 Because of the wide divergence in rates of growth over the projected period, employment of academic librarians as a proportion of total librarian employment is ex pected to increase from 17 percent in 1970 to 19 percent in 1980, then drop back to 17 percent by 1985. Because no one variable or set of variables apply to special librarians as a group, the projections of employ ment requirements in this field of library science were developed entirely within the framework of the Bureau’s industry-occupational matrix program.80 As such, they reflect changing patterns of occupational composition in the specific industries employing special librarians. As indicated in table 14, employment of special librarians is projected to increase from 17,000 to 20,000 between 1970 and 1980 (1.6 percent annually), rising thereafter at a more rapid pace (2.4 percent) to 22,500 by 1985. Throughout the projected period, the noneducational services industries, combined, are expected to continue to account for about 10 percent of total employment of librarians. Employment requirements for library attendants and assistants are expected to rise sharply, from 120,000 in 1970 to 173,000 in 1980 and 212,000 in 1985. (See table 16.) Table 17 indicates how employment growth will vary by type of library over the projected period. A comparison of data in tables 15 and 17 shows that 8 °See appendix A for information on how such estimates are derived. Table 15. Average annual rates of change in employ ment of librarians, by type of library, 1960-70, and projected 1970-80 and 1980-85 Type of library Employment 1960-70 Projected requirements 1970-80 1980-85 2.8 A ll libraries . . . 5.2 2.0 School ............................... P u b lic ................................. A ca d e m ic.......................... S p e c ia l............................... 5.3 4.1 6.5 5.5 2.2 4.3 1.3 3.1 2.0 1.6 .3 2.4 growth in employment of library attendants and assis tants—while projected to grow at a more rapid pace than librarians—will follow the same pattern of growth expected for librarians. The more rapid rate of growth for attendants and assistants reflects continued attention to task analysis, job redesign, and the management techniques designed to promote effective utilization of staff. Growing use of paraprofessional personnel in libraries is in line with a similar trend observed in education, health, welfare, and other communityoriented industries. The following tabulation illustrates how employment of library attendants and assistants, as a proportion of total employment is expected to shape up in each of the educational services industries: 1970 1980 1985 Total, educational services ................... 1.7 1.9 2.1 Elementary and secondary schools...................................... College and universities.............. (Public) lib ra rie s .......................... Educational services, n.e.c........... .5 2.5 55.2 .3 .5 .7 2.6 2.6 56.0 58.6 .3 .2 Expected changes in the percent distribution of library attendants and assistants, by type of employment setting, are illustrated in the following tabulation: 1970 1980 1985 Total, all industries1 . . . . 100 100 100 Total, educational services . . . . . . 87 92 89 Elementary and secondary schools............ . . Colleges and universities ............................. . . (Public) libraries Educational services, n .e .c .......................... All other industries, combined . . . 16 33 38 16 35 40 19 29 40 1 1 8 1 11 13 1 D e ta il m a y n o t a d d to 1 0 0 d u e to ro u n d in g . Table 16. Projected employment requirements for library attendants and assistants, by type of library, 1970-85 Type of I ibrary Estimated 1970 , employment Projected requirements 1980 1985 A ll libraries . . . 120,000 173,000 212,000 School................................. P u b lic ................................. Academic .......................... Special ............................... 19,000 45,000 40,000 16,000 27,000 67,000 59,000 40,000 85,000 62,500 24,500 20,000 Table 17. Average annual rates of change in employ ment of library attendants and assistants, by type of library, 1960-70 and projected 1970-80, and 1980-85 Type of library Employment 1960-70 Projected requirements 1970-80 All libraries .......... School.................................... P u b lic .................................... Academic ............................. Special ................................. 12.5 ( M ( M ( M 1980-85 3.7 4.1 3.6 4 .0 3.9 2.3 8.2 4.8 1.1 4.1 1 N o t ava ila b le . Specific occupational needs—a qualitative assessment This section presents a qualitative assessment, based largely upon BLS survey results, of specific occupational skills that will be sought by libraries over the projected period. The discussion focuses on three key areas of expertise, each involving special skills or educational preparation. Possible reactions by administrators of library educa tion programs to prospective supply-demand conditions for librarians are examined later in the report. (See section on Implications for Training.) The information in this section gives an added dimension to the gross numbers on projected requirements and supply by focusing on those occupations in which growth is expected to be particularly strong in the 1970-85 period—community outreach personnel, audiovisual or media personnel, and computer personnel. All require specialized training. Community outreach personnel Demand is expected to be strong through 1985 for community outreach person nel to staff urban public library programs which serve minority groups, the poor, the elderly, and other special groups. Community outreach personnel include librar ians equipped with special skills for dealing with minorities and the disadvantaged; professional workers in such related fields as social work, sociology, and social psychology; and, at the nonprofessional level, assistants or aides who are familiar with the community and proficient in imparting basic information to individuals or groups. The BLS survey results point to a strong demand for community outreach librarians; fully 40 percent of the public libraries surveyed hope to add community out reach specialists to their staff during the decade of the 1970’s. One large library in the Midwest reported to BLS interviewers that changing inner-city service patterns will create a demand for new programs, and for specially qualified staff. Among the qualifications sought is graduate training in social work as well as in librarianship, and a demonstrated ability to work with groups. Media personnel Audiovisual technology has affected staffing patterns in nearly all types of libraries. Nowhere, perhaps, has the emergence of media programs had a greater impact on personnel needs than in school libraries and junior college libraries. School library programs and staff needs have been strongly influenced by developments in instructional technology and by innovations in instructional materials. The widespread availability of equipment and materials has facilitated the classroom use of a variety of audiovisual materials—filmstrips, tape and disc record ings, slides, transparencies, and 16mm motion picture films. In addition, some school systems have incor porated various instructional technologies into the curri culum. Among the “teaching machines” already in use are language laboratories, cable television, and the computer. The field of educational technology has flourished in recent years because of developments in learning theory; technological breakthroughs; the avail ability of funds to purchase instructional machines and materials; and the emergence of a new cluster of professional and paraprofessional occupations. The transformation of the traditional school library to the heavily nonprint-media-oriented “media center” or “instructional materials center” has necessitated the hiring of personnel with special training in audiovisual technology, curriculum development, and so forth. Some school systems have opted for two separate departments: The library, headed by a school librarian; and the media center or audiovisual center, headed by a media specialist or audiovisual coordinator. In other school systems, library and audiovisual programs are administered jointly, in a unified media program staffed by librarians, audiovisual specialists, and support per sonnel. The unified approach is officially recommended by the two principal associations representing librarians and audiovisualists: The American Association of School Librarians and the Association for Educational Com munication and Technology.81 Responses to the survey make it clear that the widespread acceptance of educational technology, and the introduction of new instructional methods and materials, has created a need for specially-trained person nel. Two out of 3 school libraries surveyed looked forward to hiring a media specialist or media technician, or both, within the next 10 years. Roughly 15 percent of the school libraries in the survey hoped to add an instructional materials specialist to the staff. Other new and emerging occupations reported by school libraries w ere: D istric t supervisor, computer specialist, curriculum specialist, and technical assistant. “Media” clearly is the growth area in school library staffing. However, in order to fully assess future man power needs and educational requirements in the field of school librarian ship, it is important to obtain additional information on the type of professional training media specialists are expected to offer. Currently, there are several different routes to specialization: • Master’s degree in librarian ship, with specialization in school librarianship and course work in media tech nology ; • Master’s degree in education, with specialization in media technology; • Master’s degree in communications technology, with specialization in school media. The BLS survey did not produce conclusive data on the type and level of professional education most appropriate for newly hired media specialists. Several school libraries in the survey specified that candidates for media specialist positions should combine prepara tion in audiovisual or media technology with librarianship, but most school libraries simply stated that media specialists should offer preparation in audiovisual or media technology and a background in education, including course work in educational psychology and curriculum development. The school libraries in the BLS sample did not address either of two important issues: (1) should the media specialists have formal training in librarianship, in audiovisual technology, or in both fields; and (2) at what level should this training be taken? Is an undergraduate degree sufficient? Although firm evidence is lacking, it appears that the master’s degree in librarianship is an appropriate qualifi cation for a school media specialist provided course work in education and audiovisual technology is in cluded in the graduate or undergraduate training. With out some specialization in education or media, or both, the graduate degree in library science may not suffice. Moreover, persons with a bachelor’s or master’s in education, including a specialization in audiovisual meth ods and materials, may well be in a position to compete successfully with library science graduates for school 8 American Association of School Librarians and Depart media positions. ment of Audiovisual Instruction of the National Education School libraries also report a strong demand for Association (now the Association for Educational Communica media technicians—high school or community college tion and Technology), Standards for School Media Programs, graduates with the technical skills to produce materials, Chicago and Washington, D.C., ALA and NEA, 1969. repair and maintain equipment, and assist with various kinds of presentations. Media technicians are not the same as library technicians. They are expected to have the skills to operate and maintain film, television, radio, graphic, and art equipment. Many media technicians are men. In colleges and universities as well, the growing use of instructional technology and audiovisual materials has created a strong demand for media specialists and media technicians. This demand is expected to continue. Over 45 percent of the academic libraries surveyed saw some possibility of hiring a media specialist in the future. Nearly 15 percent expected to hire a media technician. Approximately 5 percent of the academic libraries surveyed thought it likely they would need to hire an instructional materials specialist. In its 1972 report on instructional technology in higher education,8 2 the Carnegie Commission on Higher Education suggests that computers, cable television, videocassettes, and other forms of electronic technology will be “generally introduced” in academic libraries between 1980 and 1990, and will be “generally in use” in libraries after 1990. Some implications of the expand ing use of informational technology in higher education, in the opinion of the Carnegie Commission, are these: • The library, if it becomes the center for the storage and retrieval of knowledge in whatever form, will become a more dominant feature of the campus. New libraries should be planned with the potential impact of technology in mind. • New buildings should be built with adequate elec tronic components. They should also be planned for 24-hour use. • New professions of multimedia technologists are being born. • On campus there will need to be some agency (whether it is the library or some other facility) that will provide equipment and materials, assist in the preparation of programs, and aid in the presentation of programs. In public libraries, too, the growing importance of multimedia collections has produced a demand for appropriately trained personnel at the professional and non professional levels. Of the public libraries surveyed, 34 percent anticipated a future need for media special ists or media technicians, or both. Computer personnel Librarians have made considerable progress over the past decade in understanding and using 8 2 The Fourth Revolution: Instructional Technology in Higher Education, A Report and Recommendations by the Carnegie Commission on Higher Education (New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1972). computers. Beginning with the 1963 Conference on Libraries and Automation,83 and continuing through the 1970 Conference on Interlibrary Communications and Networks,84 great effort has been expended in education and training through special courses, confer ence programs, and workshops. Most library schools reportedly require graduates to have some familiarity with systems analysis and data processing techniques.85 Many librarians have become expert programmers, and have worked successfully with local computer staff members (in a university computer center, for example) in designing systems. The demand for computer-oriented library personnel is expected to continue. Among the public libraries surveyed, 43 percent foresaw a possible future need for computer specialists or clerks, or both, with electronic data processing skills. Fully 55 percent of the academic libraries surveyed foresaw some need for a computer specialist, and another 15 percent anticipated a possible future need for keypunch operators and automated data systems typists. Employers were asked what qualifications they would look for in hiring a computer specialist, but no clear preference emerged. Some libraries opted for systems analysts and programmers with library experience, whereas others preferred librarians with computer skills. The survey results did not yield a clear preference, on the part of employers, for computer specialists with a graduate degree in librarianship, a degree in computer science, both degrees, or some combination of graduate study and experience. The absence of a single preferred route to qualification as a library systems analyst or systems librarian has been noted by Carter.86 Describing the emergence, in recent years, of a cadre of individuals experienced in library systems analysis and automation, Carter points out that library schools are capable of providing “considerable training” in automation princi ples and the techniques of systems analysis. Just a few years ago this was not the case, and libraries in need of systems personnel tended to turn to individuals with prior experience in systems analysis or programing, or both. A number of these individuals have been attracted 8 3Conference on Libraries and Automation, Airlie Foun dation, 1963, Libraries and Automation, Proceedings, edited by Barbara E. Markuson (Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1964). 84 Conference on Interlibrary Communications and Net works, Airlie House, 1970, Proceedings o f the Conference on Interlibrary Communications and Information Networks, edited by Joseph Becker (Chicago, American Library Association, 1971). 8 5Barbara Evans Markuson, “An Overview of Library Sys tems and Automation,” Datamation, February 1970, pp. 60-68. 8 6Ruth C. Carter, “Systems Analysis as a Prelude to Library Automation,” Library Trends, April 1973, pp. 505-21. to the library profession and have attained education and experience in both areas. Carter observes that “ . . . at present there does not seem to be any serious shortage of individuals with experience or expertise in library systems analysis.”8 7 Replacement needs Projections of changes in manpower requirements by occupation and industry provide only one part of the information on the total number of job openings which will need to be filled in the years ahead. In most occupations, more workers are needed to fill positions left vacant by workers who retire or die, than are needed to staff new positions created by growth of the field. The Bureau’s projections to 1985 indicate that replace ment needs will account for two of every three job openings throughout the economy between 1972 and 1985.8 8 Replacements generally exceed the average in occupa tions that (1) employ many women, and (2) have a large proportion of older workers who have relatively few years of working life remaining. Chart 6 and table 18, which summarize expected job openings for librarians over the projected period, indicate that the number of librarians needed to replace those who retire, die, or leave the labor force for other reasons will greatly exceed the number required to fill newly added posi tions. Of the 168,000 job openings expected over the entire 1970-85 period, (under the basic model), 121,000 or nearly three of every four are expected as a result of vacancies that will occur due to deaths and retirements. Only 1 vacancy in 4 will be created by expansion or by the introduction of new programs and positions. This is in marked contrast to the situation of the 1960’s when very rapid employment growth caused staff expansion to account for over half the job openings for librarians. The situation for library attendants and assistants is similar to that for librarians. (See table 19.) Between 1960 and 1970, expansion accounted for 83,000 or more than two-thirds of the total estimated 120,000 job openings for library attendants and assistants. Over the 1970-85 period—with employment of library attendants and assistants expected to grow only about one-third as fast as during the 1960 decade—the proportion of job openings resulting from replacement needs is expected to rise to 62 percent, nearly a reversal of the earlier trend. 8 7Op. cit., p. 518. 8 8Neal H. Rosenthal, “The United States Economy in 1985: Projected Changes in Occupations,” Monthly Labor Review, December 1973, pp. 18-26. Chart 6 Estimated number of annual job openings for librarians resulting from growth and replacement needs, 1960-70 and projected 1970-85 Number (in thousands) 15 12 1960-70 1970-85 Table 18. Estimated openings for librarians, 1960-85 Alternative low Basic Openings 1960-70 1970-80 1970-85 1980-85 1970-80 1970-85 1980-85 ............................. 89,000 100,000 168,000 65,000 89,000 148,000 57,000 Employment g ro w th ................... Replacement needs1 ................... 46,000 43,000 26,000 74,000 47,000 21,000 121,000 44,000 17,000 72,000 33,000 115,000 16,000 41,000 Total 1 E stim ates o f jo b openings d u e to separations fr o m th e labor fo rc e w e re d eveloped acco rd ing to standard B LS procedures as o u tlin e d in V o lu m e I o f Tomorrow's Manpower Needs (B L S B u lletin 1 6 0 6 , F e b ru a ry 1 9 6 9 ) . Table 19. Estimated openings for library attendants and assistants, 1960-85 Many job openings also are created because of occupational shifts. However, data for estimating trans fer losses and gains to the library profession are not available at the present time—a situation which applies to nearly all occupations.89 Estimates of job openings in this section, therefore, do not include transfers. 1960-70 1970-85 1970-80 1980-85 T o t a l.............. 120,000 243,000 142,000 97,000 92,000 151,000 53,000 89,000 39,000 58,000 Openings Employment growth . . Replacement needs1 83,000 37,000 1 R efe r to fo o t n o t e 1 , ta b le 1 8 . 8 9The BLS currently is analyzing recently acquired 1970 census data that should provide some insight on detailed occupational mobility between 1965 and 1970. Chapter 3. Projections of Manpower Supply The principal sources of supply of librarians are new college graduates, labor force reentrants and delayed entrants, and occupational transfers. Together they constitute the potential pool of persons to fill jobs created by growth and replacement needs. of college graduates as a whole into the labor force and specifically of graduates of programs in teaching and librarianship.91 An estimated 134,000 new graduates are expected to seek entry as librarians over the 1970-85 period, or an annual average of about 9,000. New college graduates Other sources of supply New college graduates are anticipated to be the primary source of supply for the library profession throughout the 1970’s and into the eighties. U.S. Office of Education projections indicate that over the 1970 to 1985 period, an annual average of 11,200 bachelor’s and master’s degrees will be awarded in the field of library science.90 This is 2Vi times the annual average for the 1960 to 1970 period. Chart 7 illustrates the rapid growth in the number of library science bachelor’s and master’s degrees awarded over the sixties and in the early 1970’s. While growth is expected to continue, the rate of growth is projected to slow. Between 1960 and 1970, the average annual rate of growth was more than 12 percent—3Vi times the projected rate for the 1970-85 period. Thus, while the number of graduates earning degrees in library science will continue to expand, the growth surge of the sixties will subside considerably, and after 1980 there is expected to be a significant leveling off in the number of degrees awarded. Not all those who receive their degrees in library science can be considered part of the effective supply of librarians. Some degree recipients are already in the labor force. Others accept employment outside the field of librarianship. Still others delay entry into the labor force to continue their education, or to assume home making or family responsibilities. The projections of new graduates who will become a part of the effective supply are developed considering these factors. An estimated four-fifths of all persons who will receive a bachelor’s or master’s degree in library science are expected to enter the library profession. This entry rate is based on information relating to patterns of entry The supply of new graduates will be augmented by reentrants, delayed entrants, and persons transferring into the occupation. Reentrants are workers who leave the labor force temporarily, and then return. In a field such as librarianship in which a large number of professional women have traditionally been employed, reentry may represent a significant source of supply. Delayed entrants to the field are persons who do not enter the labor force immediately upon graduation but seek entry after some period in a nonlabor force status. Many persons also may enter the profession by trans ferring from other occupations or by occupational upgrading. As employment in the occupation increases, the number of persons in these supply categories is expected to grow. As more people enter and leave the occupation and as the number of new graduates grows, the potential supply of reentrants and delayed entrants may be expected to expand; and as more persons with higher levels of educational attainment enter the labor force, the potential for occupational transfer also may increase. Since data are available only on entry patterns of new library science degree recipients into the profession and these data indicate a fairly consistent entry rate over the past years, the basic assumption underlying the overall supply analysis is that these patterns of entry will be 91 Occupational Outlook for College Graduates, 1974-75 ed. (BLS Bulletin 1785, 1974). Teacher Supply and Demand in Public Schools, 1972 (Washington, National Education Associa tion, Research Report 1972-R8). (Information is published annually in the Teacher Supply and Demand in Public Schools Reports.) Carlyle J. Frarey and Carol L. Learmont, “Placements and Salaries, 1972: We Hold Our Own,” Library Journal, June 15, 9 0Projections o f Educational Statistics to 1981-82, 1972 ed. 1973, pp. 1880-86. (Information is published annually in the Library Journal in June.) (Office of Education, 1973, OE 73-11105), pp. 52-57. maintained. The job prospects for persons other than new graduates must be derived by implication. Lack of data makes an independent supply analysis impossible. While it is known that delayed entrants, reentrants, and occupational transfers may represent significant supply components, the extent of their significance is not measurable. There is a lack of information on patterns of reentry and delayed entry as well as inter-occupation al mobility, and little is known even about the operation of the factors which affect entry into the occupation. Library attendants and assistants Estimates of the supply of library attendants and assistants were not developed because (1) there is no clear-cut definition of the occupation in terms of skill content and it is difficult to pinpoint the sources of occupational supply, and (2) there is little information on patterns of entry into the occupation from various sources of supply. The lack of clarity is defining the nature of the work of library attendants and assistants is reflected in the very inconsistency of terminology which characterizes the occupation. Job titles, including “library technical assistant,” “library aide,” “library attendant,” and so forth, describe persons variously employed. Work may range from simple clerical tasks to functioning in a truly paraprofessional capacity, providing auxiliary library services which require much more highly specialized skills. In the 1970 Census of Population, occupational mobility information was collected, and the data indi cate to some extent the diversity of the occupational supply sources of library attendants and assistants. Persons who reported their 1970 occupation as “library attendant” were engaged in a wide variety of activities 5 years previous. Slightly over one-half were not in the labor force; about one-fourth reported themselves to have been library attendants 5 years before. The remaining one-fourth were scattered over the occupa tional spectrum. About half of this remaining group were in other clerical occupations in 1965, but they were not concentrated in any one in particular. Many library attendants in 1970 had been in other “clerical and kindred worker” occupations in 1965. Of 47 detailed occupations in the broad occupational category, in 1970 library attendants had been in 34 of these in 1965. Others reported entering the occupation from professional fields including librarianship and teaching, and some reported themselves to have been salesworkers or service workers. A few were scattered throughout the other broad occupational categories. Entrants to an occupation may receive occupational training in colleges and universities, junior and com munity colleges, formal employer training programs, self-study, vocational education programs at the second ary and postsecondary levels, and informally on the job. In an occupation in which minimal skills are required, the potential sources of training are more numerous, and in an occupation in which training is less rigorous, entry from the training source into the occupation is less certain and continued attachment to it is more tenuous. Specialized skills training limits the potential sources of training, and entry may be restricted to those with formal education. Also, the occupational mobility out of a field is limited by the investment in training which the individual has made. Overall, the training of library attendants and assis tants varies considerably. Responses to the BLS Library Manpower survey showed that fewer than 1 percent of staff members classed as library technical assistants had the associate of arts degree in library technology. The University of Maryland’s 1973 survey of small and medium-sized Federal libraries in the Washington, D.C. area found that only 0.8 percent of the technicians covered by the survey had the associate degree with a major in library science. Some library attendants and assistants have college training; some have only a high school education which has been supplemented by nothing more than the most informal on-the-job orienta tion with work in a library. With occupational training so diverse, to specify the sources of training is virtually impossible. Even when sources of training are known though, the number of persons trained may be un known. For example, while on-the-job programs in individual libraries and library systems are available, no comprehensive data on the number of persons so trained are available. To some extent training of library attendants and assistants has become more formalized. The proliferation of community and junior colleges throughout the 1960’s and rapid enrollment growth during the decade have helped establish 2-year colleges as a source of supply in various technical and paraprofessional fields. Com munity and junior college enrollments between 1960 and 1970 more than tripled, and their anticipated expansion in the future together with increased emphasis on the career education function of the community college likely will make them a more significant supply factor. Supply projections capability, however, is limited by lack of historical data. The U.S. Office of Education has data on associate degrees and other awards below the baccalaureate only since 1965-66. While these include the “library assistant technologies” curriculum, no pro jections of degrees awarded below the baccalaureate are developed and projections of 2-year college enrollments are not available by curriculum. Library technical assistant training programs are concentrated to a considerable extent in California which has allocated substantial resources to the develop ment of its higher education system. According to the latest institutional data on degrees conferred, of the 471 associate degrees and other formal awards below the baccalaureate awarded in library assistant technologies in 1970-71, nearly one-third were awarded to graduates of California institutions, and of the 24 States with programs California had nearly one-third of the total number. Supply analysis also is limited to the extent that training paths are not mutually exclusive. Data on graduates of library technology programs may under state the actual impact of these programs. Many persons already employed in libraries enroll for several courses but do not complete the formal 1- or 2-year programs. The U.S. Office of Education information on full- and part-time attendance status indicates that of those receiving formal education, on-the-job training repre sents—for some, at least—a vital element in the occupa tional entry process. Of persons enrolled in library technical assistant training programs in 1970-71, nearly two-thirds attended only part-time.9 2 The future of training programs and the establish ment and recognition of educational requirements and other occupational credentials, all have implications for the supply of library attendants and assistants. An analysis of supply cannot be developed, however, until more definitive data are available on sources of occupa tional supply and patterns of entry into the occupation. 9 2Council on Library Technology. 1971 Directory o f Insti tutions Offering or Planning Programs for the Training o f Library Technical Assistants, p. 2. Chapter 4. Outlook and Implications New graduates and others w it h To meet the projected demand for 168,000 librarians between 1970 and 1985—47,000 for growth and 121,000 for replacement—the number of persons enter ing the profession must average 11,200 a year. Projecting entrance of new graduates on the basis of past trends, an estimated 80 percent of new bachelor’s and master’s library science degree recipients may be expected to enter the labor force as librarians. For the 1970-85 period, this is an annual average of 9,000 new graduates entering the occupation. The balance of job openings will have to be filled from other sources of supply. Thus, 2,200 openings annually are expected to be available to persons seeking reentry, delayed entry, and transfer into the occupation. Table 20 highlights the supply-demand situation for librarians. Over the 1960-70 period, an estimated annual average of 8,900 openings arose due to growth and replacement needs. New graduates were available to fill only about 40 percent of these openings. This implies that an estimated 5,300 openings were filled by persons other than new graduates. A turnaround in this situation is projected over the 1970-85 period. New graduates will be available to fill an estimated 80 percent of total openings, and the number of jobs open to potential delayed entrants, reentrants, and occupational transfers is anticipated to be sharply curtailed. The projected 2,200 annual openings available to persons from these three supply sources is only about two-fifths of the number of annual openings estimated to have been filled from them during the 1960’s. For new college graduates seeking jobs as librarians, supply and demand are expected to be approximately in balance. For the 1970-85 period, the estimated annual average number of job openings resulting from growth and replacement needs is exactly equal to the projected annual average number of bachelor’s and master’s degrees to be awarded over the 15-year period. However, since all degree recipients are not a part of the effective supply, overall demand will exceed the supply of new graduates. The outlook for delayed entrants, reentrants, and occupational transfers is expected to be less favorable, jobseekers than in the past. This situation arises primar ily from the fact that the supply of new college graduates will be able to meet demand much more adequately than over the past decade. Less market pressure will be exerted to draw people from other sources of supply into the profession. In addition, new graduates seeking jobs are likely to have certain market advantages. They have up-to-date training and generally command lower entry-level salaries. For reentrants and delayed entrants, especially women with family responsi bilities, lack of mobility may be an obstacle to occupa tional entry. To the extent that experience is a prime factor influencing hiring in libraries, however, reentrants and occupational transfers are likely to have a competi tive edge over the new college graduate. In certain locations or in certain types of libraries, some variation from the overall supply-demand projec tions may occur. Labor market costs and imperfections, including geographic immobility and lack of knowledge of job opportunities open to librarians seeking labor force entry—either as new graduates or as reentrants, delayed entrants, or transfers—represent barriers to entry. Actually, the so-called “turnaround” in the supplydemand situation for librarians represents an alignment with the general labor market situation. The librarian shortage in the sixties created a situation which facili tated tremendous movement of delayed entrants, reen trants, and occupational transfers into the occupation. The anticipated tightening of the labor market will create an increasingly competitive situation for persons in these categories. It is expected that through the mid-1980’s, about 1 out of every 5 librarian jobs will be filled from sources other than the pool of new degree recipients. This is much more in line with the overall situation for the college trained labor force than the 60-percent rate of the 1960-70 period. The Bureau of Labor Statistics projects that overall during the 1972-85 period, for jobs requiring a college degree, 1 entrant out of every 7 will be someone other than a new college graduate. Prospects for the future of librarianship can be discerned by considering the BLS labor force projections th e p ro sp e ct o f m uch m ore c o m p e t itio n am ong Table 20. Supply-demand situation for librarians, 1960-70 and projected 1970-80, and 1980-85 (A n n u a l averages) Openings Period 1960-70 .......................... Bachelor's and master's degrees awarded in library science Total Growth Replacement1 8,900 4,600 4,300 10,000 11,200 2,600 3,100 4,200 8,900 2,200 7,200 7,700 3,200 8,200 13,200 Estimated entry of new graduates2 Implied number of openings filled by delayed entrants, reentrants, and net occupa tional transfers 4,500 3,600 5,300 7,400 10,300 8,200 1,800 8,100 11,200 2,200 13,200 9,000 10,600 10,300 8,200 11,200 9,000 10,600 700 900 800 B A S IC 1970-80 .......................... 1970-85 .......................... 1980-85 .......................... 13,100 2,500 A L T E R N A T IV E -L O W 1970-80 .......................... 1970-85 .......................... 1980-85 .......................... 8,900 9,900 11,400 1,700 1 D eaths, re tire m e n ts , and o th e r labor cludes tran sfers to o th e r o c c u p a tio n s .) force separations. ( E x and the outlook for college graduates generally. Overall, it is expected that educational requirements for many jobs will rise and there will be an upgrading in the educational attainment level of the labor force. Twice as many college degrees are projected to be awarded between 1972-85 as over the previous 13-year period, 1959-72, and the supply of college graduates in the Nation’s labor force is projected to increase over 2Vi times the rate of increase in the labor force as a whole. As a result of the greater number of college graduates, the tendency for employers to hire persons with the highest educational qualifications, and of course, the educational upgrading necessitated by the changing nature or content of existing jobs, job entry require ments may be expected to rise. The Bureau of Labor Statistics projects that nearly a quarter of the 1972-85 job openings will require persons with 4 years or more of college; this compares with an estimated 18 percent filled by college graduates in 1959-72. While some of this increase is attributable to the fact that professional and technical employment growth will be faster than growth in all other major occupational groups, some of it is not; about one out of five jobs open to college graduates through the mid1980’s is expected to result from educational upgrading in occupations in which workers formerly were em ployed with less education. As the labor market for librarians tightens, the emphasis on educational qualifications is likely to increase. Of the library science degrees conferred in 1970-71, about 7 out of 8 were at the master’s level, and although only about one-third of all library science programs in institutions of higher education were accred ited by the American Library Association, the ALA-accredited programs conferred four-fifths of all master’s 2 Assum ed 8 0 p e rce n t e n try rate. degrees. About 70 percent of total bachelor’s and master’s degrees conferred were master’s degrees awarded by ALA-accredited programs. As competition for jobs becomes stiffer and as new graduates seek to enhance their labor market potential, the tendency for students to enroll in accredited programs at the master’s level is likely to increase. Library educators have begun to voice concern, however, about a possible shift in the number of openings in accredited programs. The likeli hood of future curtailment in enrollments in accredited library science programs, coupled with continued growth in nonaccredited programs, is discussed in the section on Training Programs. Since the outlook for new college graduates in librarianship is only one piece of the overall outlook picture for college graduates, it is valuable to consider how they fit together. Two points of variation may be noted. First, the extent to which supply and demand are projected to be in balance is somewhat different, and second, the projected requirements arising from growth and replacement needs vary as well. For college graduates overall, a rough balance of supply and demand is projected for 1972-80, but for 1980-85 the Bureau of Labor Statistics projects that supply may exceed requirements. This prospective gap in the later period is anticipated to stem not from an increase in supply but a marked leveling off of demand. Although the number of degrees awarded over the 1980-85 period will increase less—both absolutely and relatively—than in 1972—80, this slowdown will not be sufficient to compensate for the projected slowdown in the rate of growth in the economy during the 1980-85 period. Labor force growth generates growth in the economy. During the 1960’s the number of births in the United States declined; consequently, the number of labor force entrants during the projection period will taper off toward the end of the 1970’s. This follows upon the swelling impact that the postwar baby boom’s entry into the labor force effected in the previous decade. A dampened demand for goods and services and sharp slowdown of economic growth thus is anticipated. For college graduates, the result is a market for highly trained workers which may not be able to absorb all potential entrants into jobs commensurate with their training, a situation which may create problems of underemployment, job dissatisfaction, and increasing occupational mobility. In addition, the availability of more college graduates is likely to affect adversely persons with less education both in terms of job entry and advancement. For college graduates entering the labor force as librarians, a balance of supply and demand for the 1970-85 period is projected. While the slowdown in economic growth which is expected to cause the deterioration of the situation for college graduates as a whole will have some effect on occupational needs, the primary demand factors for librarians suggest that requirements will be sufficient to absorb the influx of new workers. One of the projected outcomes of the economic slowdown is a slackening in the growth of government revenues and increased budget pressures in the government sector. Although slower growth in the labor force and slower growth in economic activity will dampen demand for government functions overall, the various levels of government may have to evaluate and reestablish their priorities. Because school enrollment projections indicate a rise in enrollments from 1980-85, increased priority is apt to be given to the education function of government. Similarly, public libraries are likely to continue receiving support as requirements of a growing population and an increasingly well-educated population continue to be served. The moderation of the overall demand for college graduates which is influenced by the moderation of economic growth thus is expected to have a less adverse effect on librarians than on new college graduates in various other fields. The overall outlook for college graduates and the outlook for those entering librarianship differ on anoth er point—the projections of requirements for growth and replacement. Replacement needs for librarians are expec ted to be higher than those for college-educated workers overall. Nearly three-fourths of the anticipated openings for librarians over the 1970-85 period will stem from the need to replace workers who die, retire, or leave the labor force. For the labor force as a whole, net occupational openings for 1972-85 due to replacement needs are projected to be double those for growth needs. And in the case of college graduates, 1 out of 5 of the 14.5 million college graduates who will be needed to fill job openings over the 1972-85 period will find a job created by educational upgrading. Of the remainder, about two-fifths will be needed to meet growth require ments in occupations currently requiring a college degree and nearly three-fifths to meet replacement needs. Training programs Librarians. The anticipated adequate supply of potential jobseekers in the 1970-85 period has several implications for programs of library education. Experience in other occupations suggests that in the search for jobs, new library school graduates are likely to have a competitive advantage over experienced librarians seeking to reenter the labor force. If this holds true for librarianship over the projected period, nearly all newly graduated librar ians are likely to succeed in finding jobs. Competition, however, is likely to be in store for many, if not most, reentrants. The data suggest strongly that a great number of graduate librarians who interrupt their careers in the 1970’s or early 1980’s will experience difficulty in returning to the profession. Library schools are in a better position to adjust to the changing job market than are many other profes sional schools, those requiring a longer period of formal education. Because the master’s program in librarianship may be completed in only 1 year of full-time study, library schools can make a fairly rapid adjustment to the market. Library schools concerned about the career satisfac tion of past as well as current graduates may opt to curtail expansion. Some schools already have done so. However, this decision requires additional information on the employment experience of library school gradu ates. The schools themselves are in the best position to monitor new graduates’ placement experience, and to keep track o f former graduates who leave the profession for a period of time and then seek to reenter. Both situations should be watched closely, and taken into consideration when decisions are made as to maintain ing, expanding, or curtailing enrollments. There were clear signs, in 1973 and 1974, that a number of ALA-accredited programs in library science plan to limit enrollment growth in the immediate future. More than half of the accredited schools responding to a January 1974 survey expect either to hold the line or to curtail enrollment in master’s degree programs through the 1977-78 academic year.93 About an equal number 9 3Survey o f Library and Information Science Education Programs 1971-73 (Bloomington, Ind., Indiana University Graduate Library School, Jan. 18,1974, mimeographed). of accredited schools anticipate moderate growth in their master’s degree programs; very few anticipate substantial growth at the master’s level. At the post master’s and doctoral levels, strong growth is foreseen by the accredited schools. Data are less complete for the nonaccredited programs. However, responses to the 1974 survey suggest that enrollment will rise much more rapidly in nonaccredited programs than in accredited ones over the next few years. This prospect has given rise to concern on the part of some educators, who fear that the growing proportion of graduates trained in non accredited programs will have an adverse effect on the profession. Library schools may choose to reexamine their curriculums from the viewpoint of the principal growth areas for librarians through 1985—school librarianship, media-audiovisual technology, library administration, library automation, and community outreach librarianship. Library schools which traditionally have placed a large number of their graduates in academic and research libraries, for example, may opt to place greater stress on preparation for other areas of librarianship, where future employment growth is expected to be somewhat stronger. Library attendants and assistants. The various programs for training library technicians or library technical assistants also bear watching. Although employment of attendants and assistants is expected to grow more rapidly than that of librarians in the 1970-85 period, national projections of employment growth do not in themselves justify expansion of local programs. The BLS survey revealed that relatively few persons employed as library technicians are graduates of the 1 to 2 year programs usually offered at the community college level. Instead, these programs appear to function chiefly as a source of supplementary training for library technicians and library clerks already employed in a nearby library. Compared to the number enrolled, relatively few library technology students complete the degree program—inasmuch as the degree almost never is a job prerequisite. Although many of the libraries surveyed by BLS regard library technology programs as “useful,” virtually none regard them as “essential.” Therefore, schools with library technology programs may want to examine closely the local employment situation for potential students and graduates before instituting or expanding programs. Appendix A. Coverage, Definitions, Data Sources, and Projection Methods Coverage and definitions The subject of this bulletin is manpower in two major library occupations: Librarians, and library attendants and assistants. Not included in the scope of the study are persons who, though employed in libraries, work at jobs which are not specifically library-related. The profes sional group which is excluded is fairly small, and is made up of specialists in such areas as personnel and employee relations, budget and finance, public relations, systems analysis, and language or subject areas. Also excluded are two considerably larger groups of workers in nonprofessional jobs: Clerical workers, including secretaries, typists, and clerks; and maintenance staff, including guards, drivers, building engineers, custodians, and groundskeepers. The distinction between “library-related” and “non library related” occupations is not always clear cut. In many small libraries, librarians or their assistants handle maintenance, clerical, and/or administrative tasks in addition to their principal duties. Also excluded from the scope of the study are persons trained in library science but not employed in libraries. This diverse group includes persons in a number of occupations closely involved with librarianship: Library educators (who, as educators, are classified with all other college and university teachers), library consul tants, library and book trade writers and editors, library association staff members, and government officials and administrators. The definition of “librarian” used in this report is generally consistent with the Census definition. It was adhered to as closely as possible in developing estimates of current and projected 1980 and 1985 employment. During the interview phase of the study, the definitions shown in appendix C were used to elicit information on the nature of the work performed by library personnel in libraries of different kinds and sizes. The BLS definition of “librarian” aimed to distinguish profes sional from nonprofessional personnel on the basis of duties performed, rather than on the basis of educational background. In this respect it differs from the approach adopted by the American Library Association in its 1970 statement on library education and manpower. The ALA approach establishes educational prerequisites for each of five levels of library occupations. The definition of “library attendant and assistant” used in this report is the standard occupational classifica tion used by the U.S. Bureau of the Census. It is a broad category comprised of nonprofessional library personnel with many different job titles. The census definition was used because of the absence of alternative data sources for nonprofessional library personnel. It had been hoped that employment data could be developed separately for several nonprofessional library occupations, but this was not feasible. All nonprofessional library workers accord ingly are treated as a single category throughout the report. The definitions of technical assistant and clerk shown in appendix C were used during the interview phase of the study as part of the effort to distinguish library technical assistants (library technicians) from other library nonprofessionals. This effort was not successful. The plan to develop firm employment esti mates for library technical assistants accordingly was abandoned, and only qualitative information on this occupation is presented in the report. During the 1970 Census of Population, persons were counted as library attendants and assistants if they reported any of the following jobs: Accessioner—U.S. Library of Congress Assistant Librarian’s Medical library Attendant, not specified (if employed in a library) Book shelver Book sorter Clerk, not specified (if employed in a library) Computer tape librarian Filing books Film-library clerk Helper Librarian’s Not specified (if employed in a library) Librarian, not specified (if employed in a depart ment store or mail order establishment) Library aide Library clerk Library monitor Library page Page Shelving b ook s Stack attendant Stacking books Tape librarian The standard census definition of library attendant and assistant was revised slightly for the 1970 Census of Population, with the result that 1960 and 1970 census data for this occupation (and for many other occupa tions and industries) are not comparable without an adjustment to compensate for the change in definition. The adjustment procedure is explained in U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1970 Occupational and Industry Classifica tion Systems in terms o f their 1960 Occupation and Industry Elements, by John A. Priebe, Joan Heinkel, and Stanley Greene, Technical Paper No. 26, (Washington, D.C., 1972). For adjustment purposes, a sample of 1960 census returns was recoded according to the 1970 definitions of occupation and industry. Reclassification of the 1960 data on library attendants and assistants resulted in a 13 percent increase in this category—from an actual 1960 census figure of 32,872 to an adjusted 1960 census figure of 37,000. The adjustment was about equally divided between 2,100 persons previously classi fied as messengers and office boys, and 2,200 persons previously classified as clerical and kindred workers, not elsewhere classified. Methods Estimates o f 1960 and 1970 employment. Historical and current data on employment in library occupations are available from a variety of sources, of which the most important are the Office of Education and the Bureau of the Census. Coverage is not complete however, and the various sources are not readily compatible because of conceptual differences and use of different reference periods. The estimates of 1960 and 1970 librarian employment found in this report represent an effort to use the most reliable data from several sources, and to reconcile differences between them. The most important considerations in selecting particular data sources were (1) the relative accuracy of various employment series, and (2) the availability of consistent historical trend series. Estimates of total library employment in 1960 and 1970 were derived by aggregating separate estimates made for each of four types of libraries—school, public, academic, and special. The initial estimates were com pared with decennial census data on the distribution of employed persons by occupation and industry, and with the BLS industry-occupational matrix. (The matrix is explained later in this appendix.) Adjustments were made as necessary to ensure consistency between totals and subtotals. The BLS estimates (and most census data as well) pertain to full-time plus part-time employment. This is in contrast to the usual practice of the Office of Education, which reports employment data in terms of full-time equivalents (FTE)—that is, full-time personnel plus “full-time equivalent” of part-time personnel. As a rule, full-time plus part-time employment is higher than FTE employment. Fall 1969 data on academic librar ians, for example, show a total of 17,695 FTE librarians, compared to an estimated total of 19,051 full-time plus part-time librarians (17,017 full-time plus 2,034 parttime). The procedures used by BLS to convert FTE to full-time plus part-time employment are described below. Estimates o f 1960 and 1970 school librarian employ ment are based on data from Office of Education surveys of public school personnel. For most years between 1960 and 1970, data are available on the number of public school librarians as reported in 1 of 2 surveys: The biennial survey of State school systems and the annual survey of local public school systems. For some years, data are available from both surveys. State school system data are available for 1961-70; local public school system data are available for Fall 1967-70. Each of these periodic surveys provides consistent time-series data on employment of public school staff members including librarians, expressed in full-time equivalents. (The local public school system survey also reports employment of audiovisual specialists and library aides). In addition, three surveys devoted exclusively to pub he school library resources and personnel were conducted in the 1960-70 period, and two of them provide benchmark data. Most important of all is a comprehensive 1960-61 survey which furnishes basic data on school library resources, services, and staff in all public school districts and additional detail for districts enrolling 150 pupils or more. This was followed in 1961-62 by a “postcard” survey which furnishes limited data for districts enrolling 150 pupils or more. Data on the number of librarians in nonpublic schools are not available. (Two surveys of nonpub He schools were conducted by the Office of Education between 1960 and 1970, but they do not provide information on library staff.) Estimates of the number of nonpublic school librarians therefore were derived by applying the public school librarian-pupil ratio to nonpublic school enrollment figures. Based on (1) actual survey results from the Office of Education’s 1960-61 public school library survey and from its Fall 1970 local public school system survey, and (2) estimated data for nonpublic schools, the following estimates were derived by BLS of the number of full-time equivalent school librarians: Total . . . . Public School . . . Nonpublic School 1960 1970 28,000 48,000 25,000 3,000 43,000 5,000 These estimates of FTE employment then were converted to estimates of full-time and part-time em ployment by applying the following formula: FT + PT = 1.10 FTE This formula represents the relationship between FTE and full-time and part-time employment in 368 school libraries in the State of Wisconsin, according to unpub lished data from the Office of Education’s 1972-73 Library General Information Survey. The weakness of this method lies in the reliance on data from one State to represent all 50 States. It is, nonetheless, the best information currently available on employment of school librarians in full-time, part-time, and FTE units. Estimates o f 1960 and 1970 public librarian employ ment are based on data from the Bureau of the Census’ annual sample survey of State and local governments and from its quinquennial Census of Governments. The annual survey provides data for every year since 1961 on expenditures and staff of “local libraries”—that is, libraries operated by local governments.1 The definition of “local libraries” used by the Census Bureau in its government surveys comes reasonably close to the generally-accepted definition of “public libraries.”12 It should be noted that the Census Bureau figures on local libraries do not include libraries operated by State governments (State library agencies, State law libraries, State institutional libraries, and so forth). The quin quennial survey provides comparable data on local libraries for 1967, 1962, and 1957. Data for 1960 are BLS estimates, obtained by interpolating annual figures for 1958-60. Employment data for local libraries which appear in these annual and quinquennial reports pertain to total library staff; data are not published separately for librarians, library attendants and assistants, maintenance or other personnel. The employment data are presented 1 Results o f the annual survey are published every year. See, for example, U.S. Bureau o f the Census, Public Employment in 1970, Series GE70-No. 1 (Washington, D.C., 1971). 2 See, for example, the definition agreed to by members of the ALA Statistics Coordinating Project which appears on pp. 30-31 of Library Statistics: A Handbook o f Concepts, Defini tions, and Terminology (Chicago, American Library Association, 1966). in full-time and part-time terms as well as in full-time equivalents. This makes it unnecessary to apply an FTE conversion factor to the survey data on public library staff. Data from a number of public library surveys, among them Office of Education surveys conducted in 1962, 1965, and 1968, suggest that librarians comprised about one-third of total public library staff in 1960 and 1970. These estimates are supported by 1970 census results and the BLS industry-occupational matrix, both of which provide information on staffing patterns in public libraries. The 1962 survey conducted by the Office of Educa tion covers all public libraries in the United States; subsequent surveys have covered only the ‘large” public libraries which serve 25,000 persons or more. Staffing patterns vary between the “large” and “small” libraries, with large libraries reporting fewer librarians, relative to total staff, than small libraries. To some extent, this reflects actual differences in staffing patterns. The larger the library, the greater the opportunity for specialization in job assignments, and for extensive use of nonprofes sionals. Some of the difference in staffing patterns is only apparent, however, for there exists in practice some lack of agreement as to the dividing line between “professional” and “nonprofessional” library occupa tions. This is especially a problem in very small libraries, where the entire staff may be regarded as “librarians.” In those public libraries serving populations of 25,000 or more, the percent of all staff members (including maintenance) who are librarians was, on average, as follows: 1962 ...................................................................................................30.5 1965 .................... 28.1 1968 ................................................................................................... 27.4 However, when small libraries as well as large ones were surveyed, the percent of librarians on the staff was appreciably higher—35.4 percent in 1962. For 1960 and 1970, BLS estimated this figure to be 33 percent. The 1980 and 1985 projections assume a substantial drop, to 23 percent in 1985. Estimates o f 1960 and 1970 academic librarian employment are based on data from the Office of Education’s annual college and university library survey. Results of this annual survey of the entire higher education universe are regarded as highly reliable, and provide particularly valuable trend data. Data on re sources, expenditures, and staff in each of the Nation’s 2,500 or so academic libraries are published annually, in a report of institutional data. An analytic report published every other year presents aggregate data for the entire academic library universe. Analytic reports used in preparing this study are those for 1959-60, 1961-62, 1963-64; and Fall 1968,1969, and 1971. Data for 1960 and 1970 were interpolated from actual figures for earlier and later years. Adjustments were made in the survey data. First, survey results for 1959-60, 1961-62, and 1963-64 were adjusted to ensure consistency over time in two employ ment series: Professionals other than librarians, and nonprofessionals. Until the 1967-68 survey, no distinc tion had been made between these two occupational categories, and as a result, professionals other than (1 ) FT + PT — librarians were incorrectly classed as nonprofessionals.3 It should be noted that the adjustment procedure does not alter the survey data for librarians. The second adjustment was necessary in order to convert FTE employment data to full-time plus parttime employment. The following formulas, based on actual data from the Office of Education’s 1969 college and university library survey, were used to convert FTE to full-time plus part-time figures: .962 FTE L + 3 (FT E - L .9 6 2 FTE ) L (2 ) FT + PT POL = .875 FTE POL + 3 (FTE POL .875 FTE ) POL (3 ) FT + PT = .887 FTE + 3 (FT E .887 FTE N N N ) N Where FT + PT = FTE full-tim e and part-time em p loym en t full-tim e equivalent em p loym en t (all full-tim e plus full-tim e equivalent o f part-tim e) L = librarians POL = professionals other than librarians N = nonprofessionals Estimates o f 1960 and 1970 special librarian employ ment were developed wholly within the framework of the BLS industry-occupational matrix. The procedure by which information on the level and composition of demand for the economy’s goods and services is trans lated, first, into requirements for workers by industry and then into requirements for workers by occupation is explained in greater detail later in this appendix. The BLS industry-occupational matrix was used to derive employment estimates for special librarians be cause other sources of statistical data on special librar ians are too fragmentary to form the basis for an industrywide estimate. Few attempts have ever been made to survey all special libraries in the United States, chiefly because of the difficulties involved in develop ing a comprehensive and up-to-date universe. Foremost among those concerned with a listing of U.S. special libraries is Anthony T. Kruzas, whose publications in clude several editions of Directory o f Special Libraries and Information Centers (Detroit, Gale Research Com pany, 1968) and also Encyclopedia o f Information Systems and Sources (Ann Arbor, Edwards Brothers, 1971). The very diversity of special libraries militates against a universe survey by the libraries themselves; music libraries, for e^aihple, have little in common with scientific and engineering libraries. The existence of a number of professional associations uniting special li brarians in various fields—medicine, law, theology, theater, and so forth—attests to the essential plurality of the industry. It is not surprising, therefore, that the most important surveys in the special library field are associa tion-sponsored and confined to a single speciality. Notable examples are the 1969 health sciences library survey and various investigations which accompanied it; several recent surveys of law libraries; and the 1972 survey of some 2,600 Federal libraries. The 1969 survey of medical and health sciences libraries was conducted under the auspices of the American Medical Association, the American Hospital Association, and the Medical Library Association, with financial support from the National Library of Medicine. A total of 3,155 health sciences libraries were identified in the initial phase of the survey, and these are listed in Frank Schick and Susan Crawford, Directory o f Health Sciences Libraries, 1969 (Chicago, American Medical Association, 1971). These libraries employed a total 3Library Statistics o f Colleges and Universities, Analytic Report, Fall 1968 (Washington, D.C., 1970), p. 13. full-time and part-time staff of 14,938 persons in 1969, of whom 5,861 were in hospital libraries and 9,077 were in medical school libraries, medical society libraries, and other nonhospital health sciences libraries. Of the total staff, 6,052 persons were categorized as “professional” and 8,886 as “nonprofessional.” Additional information on this survey, its methods and results, may be found in (1) Susan Crawford, “Health Sciences Libraries in the United States: Survey and Statistical Profile,” The Bowker Annual o f Library and Book Trade Information, New York, R.R. Bowker Company, 1972, (2) Susan Criwford, ed., “Health Sciences libraries in the United States: A Statistical Profile,” Bulletin o f the Medical Library Association, Vol. 60, No. 2, Supplement, April 1972, and (3) David Kronick, Alan M. Rees, and Lesliebeth Rothenberg, “An Investigation of the Educational Needs of Health Sciences Library Manpower,” Parts I, II, III, IV, and V, Bulletin o f the Medical Library Associa tioni, Vol. 58, No. 1, January 1970, Vol. 58, No. 4, October 1970, Vol. 59, No. 1, January 1971, and Vol. 59, No. 3, July 1971. Law libraries have not undergone a single, exhaustive survey comparable to the 1969 health sciences library survey. Instead, efforts are underway to conduct con tinuing surveys of a few major indicators of law library operations. Surveys of law school libraries were started in 1969 under the auspices of the American Association of Law Libraries and the American Bar Association and have been conducted annually since that tim e; results are published every year in the May issue of Law Library Journal. In 1970, for example, some 146 law school libraries (of a total of more than 800 law libraries of all types—law school, local bar, law firm, government, and other) reported 503 professionals, 596 full-time nonpro fessionals, and 1,270 part-time nonprofessionals. The mean staff size in 145 schools was 3.4 professionals, 4.1 full-time nonprofessionals, and 5.9 part-time nonprofes sionals. The first of a continuing series of surveys of local bar libraries was conducted in 1971, and surveys of law firm libraries and government law libraries are planned. Two surveys of law librarians’ salaries have been conducted since 1970 by Professor Carlyle Frarey of Columbia University, the results having appeared in the Law Library Journal The 1972 Federal library survey represents the first attempt to conduct an exhaustive survey of all the 2,600 or so libraries which serve the Federal Government. Sponsored by the Federal Library Committee and funded by the Office of Education, the fiscal year 1972 survey aimed at comprehensive coverage, including some Federal libraries which are not special libraries: School libraries for dependents overseas, for example, and the quasi-public and quasi-academic libraries run by the Department of Defense. Respondents to the survey employed 11,143 full-time staff members, of whom 29 percent were librarians. One o f every 3 Federal librarians worked in a National library—the Library of Congress, the National Agricultural Library, or the National Library of Medicine. Estimates o f 1960 and 1970 library attendant and assistant employment are based on actual and adjusted Census data. The 1960 estimate of 37,000 full-time and part-time library attendants and assistants is adjusted upward from the actual 1960 figure of nearly 33,000. Both the need for this adjustment and the procedure used in making it are described in an earlier part of this appendix. No estimates are presented in this report of the 1960 distribution of attendants and assistants by type of library. This reflects the paucity of data upon which to base an estimate. Census industry classifications used in 1960 were broader than those used in 1970, and 1960 data for three crucial components of the educational services industry—elementary and secondary schools, colleges and universities, and (public) libraries—were not presented separately. Instead, these three industries, together with a miscellany of other educational institu tions, were presented as a single category. The 1970 introduction of a considerably more detailed classifica tion system (the 1970 census presents data for 227 industries and 441 occupations, compared to 150 industries and297 occupations in the 1960 census) made it possible for the first time, to develop employ ment estimates for attendant and assistants by type of library. The match is not an exact one, but is believed to be reasonably close. 1970 census industry codes and the type of library to which each corresponds are as follows: 8 5 7 (K ) Elem entary and secondary s c h o o l s ............................................S chool libraries 858 Colleges and univer sities ......................... A cadem ic libraries 859 Libraries ............................ Public libraries Residual group com prised o f the other 2 2 4 industries ............................... Special libraries For more detail on the census classification systems, see U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1970 Census of Population, Classified Index o f Industries and Occupations (Washing ton, D.C., 1971). Data from the 1970 census on the distribution of employed library attendants and assistants in the three relevant industries (elementary and secondary schools, colleges and universities, and libraries) plus the residual category (all other industries, summed) were used for the BLS estimates for 1970 employment of attendants and assistants by type of library. Estimates o f the demographic characteristics o f librar ians and library attendants and assistants are based on 1970 census data. Census sex ratios were applied to BLS estimates of employment of librarians by type of library in a two-step process. First, using census data, percents were calculated for the distribution of librarians by sex, age group, and race in each of three industries: Elemen tary and secondary schools (857-K), libraries (859), and colleges and universities (858), and for all other indus tries, summed. (The residual group was considered to approximate the special libraries industry.) These census ratios were then applied to the independently-derived BLS estimates for school librarians, public librarians, academic librarians, and special librarians, respectively. For library attendants and assistants, actual census data on sex, age, and race were used. Projections of 1980 and 1985 requirements The method for projecting library manpower require ments to 1980 and 1985 used in this study is consistent with techniques used by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in other studies of future occupational manpower needs. The procedure is summarized briefly in the section that follows. Additional detail on the variety of techniques used by the Bureau to develop estimates and projections of requirements for workers by industry and occupation appears in chapters 5, 7, and 31 of BLS Bulletin 1711, BLS Handbook o f Methods. The sequence of projection procedures is also described in appendix A of BLS Bulletin 1737, Tomorrow’s Manpower Needs: Volume IV, The National Industry-Occupational Matrix and Other Manpower Data. Framework for developing projections. The Bureau of Labor Statistics has prepared national industry and occupational manpower projections since the 1950’s. The latest set of projections revises previously published projections to 1980 and extends the estimates to 1985.4 The projections are based on an extensive and inter related program of studies conducted by the Bureau on economic growth, technological change, and industrial and occupational trends. The 1980 and 1985 projections encompass a number of integrated components. Specifi cally, they cover labor force; hours of work; output per man-hour; gross national product (GNP) and the compo sition of demand; output and productivity by detailed industry group; and industrial and occupational employ ment requirements. The projections are interrelated: The growth of GNP, a foundation of the projections, is conditioned upon assumptions concerning labor supply, productivity changes, and hours of work. The rate and 4The revised 1980 and new 1985 projections are summarized in The U.S. Economy in 1985 (BLS Bulletin 1809, 1974). direction of changes in the major demand components of GNP, in turn, yield changing requirements for labor by industry and occupation. By 1985, according to the BLS projections, the U.S. labor force will reach 108 million; the number of persons employed, 103 million (both totals include military); and gross national product, about $1.9 trillion (1972 dollars). These estimates reflect a number of implicit as well as explicit assumptions, and in particular a key assumption that basic economic factors will not veer from long-term paths. Despite the assumption of continuation of underlying forces, however, demo graphic changes already underway presage changes in the rate of economic growth and the supply of trained manpower. In two significant departures from past trends, the latest BLS projections suggest (1) a sharp slowdown in overall economic growth and (2) a poten tial oversupply of college graduates, both to begin in the late 1970’s. The expected dampening in the rate of economic growth is almost entirely demographic, caused by the slowdown in births which will begin to show up in the smaller number of new entrants into the labor force toward the end of the 1970’s. The shift in the supply-demand situation for college graduates similarly reflects the combining of demographic factors. It should be emphasized that the projected dampening in the rate of growth is not due to an assumption regarding failure to achieve high levels of employment. On the contrary, the projections assume 96 percent of the civilian labor force employed in both 1980 and 1985. Following are the general assumptions concerning the economy in 1980 and 1985 which underlie the Bureau’s projections: Fiscal, monetary, and manpower training and educa tional programs will achieve a satisfactory balance between relatively low unemployment and relative price stability, permitting achievement of the long term economic growth rate. The projections assume a 4-percent unemployment rate (of the civilian labor force) and a 3-percent annual increase in the implicit price deflator for gross national product. The institutional framework of the American econ omy will not change radically. Economic, social, technological, and scientific trends will continue, including values placed on work, education, income, and leisure. Efforts to solve major domestic problems such as those of air and water pollution, solid waste disposal, urban congestion, inadequate industrial safety, and energy shortages may consume more productive resources but will not have more than a marginal effect on long-term growth. Projection methods. Development of the Bureau’s pro jections begins with the labor force. The labor force projection, based on the Bureau of the Census projec tions of population (Series E), is developed through separate projections of labor force participation for the various age, sex, and racial groups in the population. The detailed participation rates are then applied to the projected levels in each population group. The economic growth projections, developed in con sultation with the Interagency Committee on Economic Growth, cover gross national product and its distribution among the four major components (or demand cate gories) of GNP: Consumer expenditures, domestic in vestment, net foreign demand, and government expenditures-Federal, State, and local. Industry and occupational employment projec tions—the end product of labor force and economic growth projections—are arrived at by using a combina tion of techniques. First, major demand components of GNP are converted into industry employment require ments. Total industry employment is obtained by calculations involving projected changes in demand, interindustry (input-output) relationships, and output and productivity. The employment projections are ini tially developed for about 135 industries or industry groups, covering the entire economy. The results of the inpdf-output employment projections are then checked and reconciled for consistency with an independent set of industry employment projections derived by regres sion techniques. Finally, projected industry employment is converted into occupational needs. This step in the procedure requires the projection of detailed occupational patterns on an industry-by-industry basis. Each industry uses a unique combination of occupational skills, together with other factors of production, in its efforts to achieve least cost for its output. Occupational patterns may be markedly different from one industry to another. Over fairly short periods, the occupational structure of many industries is stable. Occupational patterns, however, change with the advance of technology and changes in the supply of workers. The Bureau accordingly has developed a technique for projecting occupational pat terns which takes into account such information as is available on the effect of changing technology and shifts in labor supply. Occupational patterns are projected by means of the BLS industry-occupational matrix—a matrix, or table, which divides total U.S. employment into occupations cross-classified by industries. At present, matrices are available for 1970, 1980, and 1985. The amount of industry and occupational detail has increased with successive matrices. In the latest matrix, industry-occu pational data are set up in a table which shows 400 specific occupations plus groups of occupations crossclassified with 200 industries. To put it another way, the industry-occupational matrix is a set of ratios showing the occupational pattern of employment for each of 200 industries. Every industry in the matrix is represented by a column which adds to 100 percent, and shows the percent distribution of employment by detailed occupation in that industry. Thus there are 200 separate ratios for librarians, indi cating the proportion of total employment which librarians comprise in each of the 200 matrix industries. Similarly, there are 200 ratios for library attendants and assistants. These ratios are developed for a base year primarily on the basis of decennial census data on employment by occupation and industry. The census data are refined and adjusted by BLS staff to take into account unallocated workers, seasonal employment fac tors, BLS industry employment estimates, and occupa tional estimates derived from in-depth studies and other sources considered preferable to Census data. Projecting the ratios to a target year is a major step in the entire projection sequence. It is done by extra polating past trends and, where possible, by analyzing the factors that influence occupational structure. Changes in the ratios are indicative of changing occupa tional patterns within an industry, a development which usually is associated with industry growth, technological changes, changes in business organization, shifts in manpower supply, job redesign, or any of a number of other factors. In the next step, industry target year estimates developed in an earlier stage of the projection sequence are combined with projected occupational patterns. To derive future employment requirements for a given occupation, each of the 200 ratios is applied to the appropriate target year industry employment estimate. Total national requirements for the occupation then are obtained by summing across all industries. Finally, these preliminary occupational projections are analyzed and adjusted on the basis of in-depth studies conducted in the course of the Bureau’s occupa tional outlook program. These studies, for selected industries and occupations, provide an analysis of the factors affecting demand for workers in a given occupa tion, and an assessment of the way these factors are likely to operate in the future. Technological change is the most often discussed factor affecting occupational employment, but occupational changes are influenced by a number of other factors as well. Their importance varies from one occupation to another. Occupational employment is influenced, for example, by growth in population and changes in age distribution; by govern ment policy—which may, for example, generate massive expenditures for research and development, or for construction; by institutional factors, such as unionmanagement relationships and practices; and by the relative supply of workers in other occupations, as, for example, the substitution effect resulting from shortages of professionals and their replacement by paraprofessionals. The growth of employment in library occupations is affected by a unique complex of factors—population growth; enrollment trends; changing patterns of library usage and new concepts of library service; government policy concerning Federal support for education in general and for libraries in particular; the advent of the computer as an aid to library operations; innovations in the area of interlibrary cooperation and accompanying shifts in organizational patterns and work procedures; and changes in staffing patterns stimulated in part by past manpower shortages. All of these demand factors were taken into account in developing the final estimates of 1980 and 1985 requirements for librarians and library attendants and assistants. That is, preliminary matrix ratios were evalu ated in the light of specific assumptions about the various demand factors which influence employment in library occupations. Particular consideration was given to the effect of population trends upon employment in public libraries and the effect of enrollment trends upon employment in school libraries and in academic libraries. No single factor was identified as a critical determinant of employment in special libraries. Comment on assumptions. BLS projections are not predictions. They are based on past trends and on an assessment of the likely future behavior of a number of economic, demographic, and social variables. To the extent that the assumptions upon which the BLS model is based are not realized, the employment levels and the industrial and occupational employment patterns pro jected for 1980 and 1985 may not be attained. This caveat applies not only to the assumptions listed on page 57, but to several specific assumptions which were used in the supply-demand analysis for library personnel. On the supply side, to the extent that degrees awarded in library science between 1970 and 1985 depart from the level currently projected by the Office of Education—there is a strong possibility that they will be lower—the number of new graduates seeking jobs as librarians is likely to be lower than that projected in this report. On the demand side, the BLS analysis of future requirements for library personnel relies in part on projections of population and enrollment. If, as seems increasingly likely, 1985 population and enrollment levels are lower than those assumed at the time this analysis was carried out, fewer librarians may be required. To better explain the necessity for the caveat about the demographic and enrollment projections upon which the analysis is partly based, consider recent trends in fertility rates. This factor not only underlies population projections and school enrollment projections but also is an important factor in female labor force participation. In the latest population projections developed by the Census Bureau,5 fertility assumptions have been revised downward to reflect the sharp decline in fertility which has been evidenced since 1970 as well as the sharp decline in the birth expectations of young wives during the past 5 years. The Census Bureau in its prior projections developed four population series assuming a range of four different fertility levels. Considering additional data now available, the “high” series of these earlier projections appears to imply an unrealistically high fertility rate. Thus, it has been dropped. In addition, a new low series has been developed. The basis for this lowest of four series is an arbitrary fertility level. There is no precedent in American demographic history on which to assign such a low level. However, its development reflects the unprecedented demographic developments: an all-time low fertility rate; a continu ously declining birth rate; and an overall trend to smaller families. Over the past decade, the fertility decline has caused a dramatic shift from a three-child to a two-child family norm. One implication of a continuing downward trend in fertility is that the number of children entering school may not, in fact, be as large as had been expected. The Bureau of Labor Statistics recently adopted a lower fertility assumption for use in developing its labor force projections, and new enrollment projections developed by the U.S. Office of Education will reflect a similar change. In preparing this report, estimates developed by the Office of Education and published in the 1972 edition of Projections o f Educational Statistics were used, together with unpublished projections through 1985 prepared for the Bureau of Labor Statistics in January 1973. Preliminary projections developed just prior to publication of this report indicate the likelihood of a downward revision of earlier figures. Enrollment estimates developed on the basis of the fertility assump tion implicit in the earlier projections thus may prove to be too high. This possibility is particularly significant at the elementary school level, since 1985’s 12-year-olds and all those younger will be bom after 1972. The upturn in enrollments anticipated for the late 1970’s is not, in fact, ensured. Should declines in fertility con tinue to new lows, the demand projections for school librarians may prove to be overstated. Since a trend has not been firmly established, however, it would be 5Current Population Reports, Series P-25, No. 493, “Projec tions of the Population of the United States, by Age and Sex: 1972 to 2020,” (Bureau of the Census, 1972). premature to assume such a decline. That the decline is an outgrowth of new attitudes and economic conditions and may be expected to continue remains highly speculative. Enrollment projections figure into the supply demand picture for librarians not only at the elementary school level but also in terms of higher education enrollments. While projections of enrollments at this level are not subject to the uncertainties of projecting population since the college-age population to 1985 already has been born, assumptions must be made concerning, first, what constitutes the potential college-age population and, secondly, what proportion of that population will be enrolled in institutions of higher education. The Nation’s 18- to 21-year-olds in the past have been considered the “conventional” college-age group; and the assumed enrollment levels have been determined in line with trends set during a period when the proportion of persons graduating from high school and the percent going on to college were increasing rapidly. No consider ation was given to the possibility of declines in enroll ment rates below then current levels. The most recent available data, however, indicate that a change in the assumptions may be necessary in order to develop realistic projections. School enrollment rates for persons 18 to 24 years old just out of high school may be expected to decline somewhat since college enrollment apparently has been influenced by such factors as changing attitudes toward education, financial support for college students, the growth of community colleges, and changes in admission practices. In addition, there is some evidence that the draft laws which formerly allowed deferments for men enrolled in college created a situation in which enrollment rates may have been unusually high during the late 1960’s; consequently, enrollment projections may have been overstated. Such overstatement may be counterbalanced, however, by changing enrollment patterns. The school enrollment rates for persons over 25 years old have increased slightly between 1963 and 1972. Also, a recent survey revealed that 1.5 million adults age 35 years and over were enrolled in or attending school, and somewhat over one-half of them were enrolled in college. Enrollment projections at the college and university level influence the outlook analysis for librarians both in terms of the projected demand for librarians to serve the needs of future college and university students and also in terms of the future supply of new college graduates eligible for entry into the occupation. The Office of Education’s projections of enrollments and degrees awarded are being revised downward to reflect the recent enrollment changes. The Carnegie Commission on Higher Education has revised its enrollment projections to show smaller increases than had originally been projected. The National Education Association has surveyed the Nation’s largest teacher preparation institu tions and found a potential enrollment decline which is attributed to student response to employment prospects in teaching. The Bureau of Labor Statistics, too, notes that the imbalance in the supply and demand for college graduates may not be as large as projected to the extent that college enrollments slow down as students become aware of the less favorable job market. Female labor force participation patterns represents another factor which could have a significant impact on the potential supply situation in librarianship. As was noted in the discussion of Other Sources of Supply, information is lacking on patterns of occupational entry and delayed entry, but it is known that in an occupation which is largely female these supply components become increasingly important in the outlook analysis. The influx of women workers into the labor force over the past decade has been dramatic. While the proportion of women workers in the labor force is expected to continue to rise, the assumed halt in the decline in women’s fertility rates and the fact that the increase in the women’s population over the projection period will be concentrated in the age group with a lower labor force participation rate will result in a much more moderate rate of increase. Should the decline in fertility rates persist, however, the proportion of women of childbearing age who have preschool age children to care for would decline and potentially more women could enter the work force. Similarly, socioeconomic or legislative changes could alter participation rates. For example, daycare provisions might facilitate entry of mothers into the labor force. While factors related to labor force participation of women affect the librarian occupation, to the extent that more men enter this traditionally female dominated occupation, the impact of these factors may be moderated. Appendix B. The survey phase of the Library Manpower Study consisted of personal visits to about 100 libraries and library systems to elicit information on staffing patterns, job functions, training needs, and current manpower problems in the library field as well as to identify the factors that have the greatest bearing on library man power requirements. Persons interviewed included head librarians, library administrators, personnel officers, or others who were able to provide the information. This appendix presents a brief description of the procedures used in selecting the sample for the survey phase of this study. Industrial coverage The survey included establishments primarily engaged in the following activities as defined in the 1967 edition of the Standard Industrial Classification Manual: SIC 8211 —Elementary and Secondary Schools SIC 8221 — Colleges, Universities and Professional Schools SIC 8222 — Junior Colleges and Technical Insti tutes SIC 8231 - Libraries and Information Centers The survey also included libraries in industrial, commercial, and governmental establishments and insti tutions, such as hospitals, which engage in a wide variety of activities. Geographic coverage The survey provided data on a nationwide basis. Selection of respondents The Nation’s libraries are situated in about 52,000 institutions or institutional systems. The following is a breakdown by type: Public school systems ................................................................18,000 Nonpublic schools.......................................................................17,000 Public libraries................................................................................ 7,000 Academic libraries......................................................................... 2,000 Special lib raries..........................................................................11,000 Sample Design In developing the sample design, the universe was stratified first by type of library—public school, non public school, public, academic, and special.1 These five types of libraries were substratified by size where possible. Public school systems, nonpublic schools, and academic institutions were each stratified on the basis of enrollment size. Public libraries were stratified by size of population served. Lack of information prohibited sub stratification of special libraries. Information was avail able from the Office of Education on the distribution of employed librarians by type of library. Additional data, primarily from the Office of Education, provided esti mates of the variance of employment in each of these types of libraries. On the basis of these data, a sample of 100 respondents was selected. The final distribution was as follows: Public school systems ........................................................................ 26 Nonpublic schools................................................................................. 4 Public libraries...................................................................................... 35 Academic libraries............................................................................... 23 Special lib ra rie s .................................................................................... 12 Minimum establishment size The survey included establishments employing at least one person assigned to library duties on a full-time or part-time basis. Establishments with no paid person nel specifically assigned to library duties were considered out-of-scope, and were replaced by alternates. Occupational coverage The survey covered all staff, excluding maintenance, employed in a library or assigned to library duties. 1The BLS Office of Data Collection and Survey Operations had, on magnetic tape, the U.S. Office of Education universes for public school systems, nonpublic schools, and institutions of higher education. The sample of public libraries was selected from the universe compiled by the U.S. Office of Education for its 1962 survey of public libraries. The sample of special libraries was selected on the basis of information presented in the 1970-71 edition of the American Library Directory (New York, R.R. Bowker Co., 1970). Janitors, building interior cleaners, laborers, grounds keepers, guards, and other maintenance personnel did not fall within the scope of the study. Appendix C presents the list of staff position descriptions, developed by BLS, for each of the four library occupations with which the study was specifically concerned: Librarian Specialist Technical Assistant Clerk library personnel in scope of the study who did not fit any of the four BLS library occupation descriptions were counted and classed separately as “other.” Reference period Survey data related to the fiscal year ending closest to June 30,1972, or to calendar year 1972. Collection method Data were collected by personal visit. Prior to the interview, collection materials had been sent to all respondents. These materials consisted of: Library Manpower Study Interview Guide BLS 3022. (See appendix D.) Library Manpower Study Job List No. 1. (See appendix C.) Appendix C. Staff Position Descriptions Job descriptions for library personnel vary not only by type of library but in many instances by library within each employment setting. An analysis of occupa tional staffing patterns based on a survey of limited size necessitated development of a list of job descriptions that would apply broadly to all types of libraries. The following is a list of job descriptions developed by the BLS for use in conjunction with the Library Manpower Study Interview Guide. They are based, in part, on definitions approved by the American Library Associa tion. Employers were asked to classify their staff according to the most appropriate occupational cate gory. Job List No. 1. — Library Manpower Study — Staff Position Description Librarians Librarians review and analyze the needs of the library’s users and formulate policies and procedures for staff implementation in meeting those needs. Their responsibilities may include: development, coordination, and administration of the library program; staff selec tion, supervision, evaluation, and training; delegation of duties, responsibilities, and authority; evaluation, selec tion, and classification of library materials and equip ment; and instruction and assistance in the use of the library’s resources. The librarian’s expertise may lie in a particular area of librarianship such as bibliography, reference, or administration, or the librarian may com bine librarianship with a subject or language specialty. Specialists Specialists include professional personnel who apply their knowledge of the theories, principles, and tech niques of some subject specialty other than librarianship, such as languages, law, and computer technology, to work within a library. (Include audio-visual specialists and media specialists.) staff. Technical assistants may be responsible for such assignments as implementing circulation policies and procedures, preparing and maintaining library materials and equipment, and performing the various technical aspects of acquisitions processing or cataloging. Techni cal assistants may render reference services of a direc tional or factfinding nature. They may work in a supervisory capacity to direct the work of clerks or other technical assistants. (Established rules and guidelines form the framework within which a technical assistant operates.) Clerks Clerks commonly perform work of a general office nature, such as typing, filing, and operating business machines. Their jobs may entail routine library-related tasks such as bookmarking and pocketing, shelving and the physical preparation of library books and materials, filing and maintaining circulation records, and typing and filing cards, forms, and reports. Other library personnel Technical assistants Technical assistants apply library-related skills to one or more of the functional areas of library operations for the purpose of supporting and assisting the professional Includes all library personnel not classified above. However, maintenance and custodial employees as well as volunteers and student assistants are not to be included. Appendix D. Questionnaire Guide The following interview guide was prepared as an aid to Bureau staff members in conducting the interviews. Its use assured the same questions being asked each employer. In addition, by following the format sug gested in the guide, the written reports of each interview tended to follow a standard format that aided in the analysis of the interviews. The Guide was pretested with four employers (one of each type of library—school, academic, public, and special) in the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area. BLS-3022 U S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR Bureau of Labor Statistics Office of Manpower Structure and Trends Washington, D.C. 20212 Office o f Management and Budget No. 44-S 72037 Approval expires 12/31/73 Your report will be held in strict confidence. Interview G uide fo r Library M anpow er S tu d y This interview was conducted at: Organization or institution Address Official’s name and title Telephone No. Date Interviewer’s name A. Introduction This interview is being conducted by the BLS in conjunction with its study of library manpower. The study is being made for the U.S. Office of Education. It is designed to develop projections of employment requirements for library manpower by employment setting (academic, public, school, and special libraries) and by occupational level (librarians, technical assistants, and clerks). It will provide information on job functions and educational require ments— and how each is changing. The study also will contribute valuable information to the BLS occupational outlook'program. The Bureau of Labor Statistics will hold all information furnished by the respondent in strict confidence. B. Site Information (Reference period: End of fiscal year closest to June 3 0 ,1 9 7 2 or end of calendar year 1972) 1. Type of library: | a. | School library. Answer item a. on this page. Then skip to page 4 and answer question 2. [ | Academic library. Answer item b. on page 3 and question 2 on page 4. | | Public library. Answer item c. on page 4 and question 2 on page 4. | | Special library. Answer item d. on page 4 and question 2 on page 4. School library (1) Institutional control and organizational level (Check one) | | Public school system | | Nonpublic school If this library is in a nonpublic school, please specify whether the school is: | | Elementary | | Secondary | | Combined elementary-secondary (2) Enrollment category (Check one) | 25,000 pupils or more □ 10,000-24,999 pupils □ 5,000-9,999 pupils □ 2,500-4,999 pupils □ 300-2,999 pupils | (3) | | Less than 300 pupils Number of classroom teachers (Specify) b. Academic library (1) Institutional control (Check one) □ | (2) Public 1 Private Level o f education (Check one) | | 4 —year with graduate students | | 4 —year without graduate students I | (3) 2—year Enrollment category (Total “head count” of full-time and part-time, degree credit and nondegree credit students. Check one) I I 10,000 students or more I I 5,000—9,999 students I I 1 ,000-4,999 students I I 5 0 0 -9 9 9 students I I Less than 500 students (4) Instructional staff (Total full-time and part-time. Specify) (5) Library units covered (Check one) I I This report furnishes consolidated data for all library units on the campus I I This report furnishes data for one o f several libraries on the campus (such as general university library, law school library, medical school library). Names of library units not covered by this report: c. Public library (1) Population category o f area served (Check one) | | 500,000 or more □ 100,000-499,999 □ 5 0,000-99,999 □ 35,000—49,999 □ 2 5,000-34,999 | 1 Less than 25,000 d. Special library (1) Subject speciality (Check one) [ | Medical/health sciences | | Law | | Physical sciences, engineering | | Business [ | (2) Other (specify)_____________________________ Industry or nature of parent organization (Specify) 2. Total operating expenditures (budget). This question should be answered by each library. C. Staffing (Reference period: End of fiscal year closest to June 30, 1972 or end of calendar year 1972) 1. a. How many persons are employed in this lib ra ry ? _______________________________ b. How many were employed in 1 9 6 7 ? _________________________________________ Do not count maintenance or custodial personnel, laborers, volunteers, or student assistants in any of the totals or subtotals. All other staff members should be classified in the most appropriate occupational category: Librarian, Specialist, Technical Assistant, Clerk, Other (specify). Descrip tions for each occupational category appear on Job List No. 1; personnel who fit none of the BLS library occupation descriptions should be classed as “Other.” Data should be presented, if possible, for full-time and part-time personnel and full-time equivalent (FTE) positions. Data should refer to the end of the fiscal year closest to June 30, 1972, and June 30, 1967, or the end of calendar years 1972 and 1967. Please indicate the source of the 1967 data by checking the appropriate box: I I Personnel records Q Estimate Number of Employees in 1972 Staff position Total ..................... Librarians........... Specialists ......... Technical assistants ......... C lerks.................. Other (specify) Total Full time Parttime Number of Employees in 1967 FTE Total Full time Parttime FTE 2. a. How many volunteers work in the library? (Specify number o f volunteers and total manhours o f assistance.) b. How are volunteers utilized? c. How does the number o f volunteers in 1972 compare with that 5 years ago? (More? Less? About the same?) d. Discuss any changes over the past 5 years in the manner and extent to which the library utilizes volunteers. e. What factors have contributed to these changes? (SCHOOL AND ACADEMIC LIBRARIES ONLY: PLEASE COMPLETE QUESTION C3a BEFORE THE INTERVIEW) 3. a. How many paid student assistants work in your library? b. How are paid student assistants utilized? c. How does the number o f paid student assistants in 1972 compare with that 5 years ago? (More? Less? About the same?) d. Discuss any changes over the past 5 years in the manner and extent to which the library utilizes paid student assistants. e. What factors have contributed to these changes? 4. Estimate the percentage distribution o f library personnel in each of the 4 staff positions: By sex and race. Percent Distribution of— Sex and race Librarians Specialists Technical assistants Qerks M ale......................... Female .................. W h ite....................... Negro and other r a c e s ........... 5. What changes have taken place over the last 5 years in the distribution of library staff by sex, race, and age? 6. What factors influenced these changes? a. Internal factors— e.g., recruitment, personnel policy, salary level. b. External factors— e.g., supply o f qualified applicants, economic conditions. 7. Minority groups— a. Does your library' have a recruitment program aimed at increasing the number of minority group members on your staff? b. If yes: (1) Discuss recruitment methods. (2) What staff positions are you recruiting for? (3) Discuss difficulties encountered in minority group recruiting program. D. Job Functions 1. Discuss the changes, if any, which have taken place during the past 5 years in the duties performed by a. Librarians b. Specialists c. Technical assistants d. Clerks 2. Describe shift o f duties from one staff position to another over the past 5 years. 3. Describe any changes in duties expected to take place over the next 10 years. 4. Do you anticipate any shift of duties from one staff position to another over the next 10 years? 5. Describe any new or emerging occupations in terms of the duties performed. 6. How is technology expected to affect job functions and staffing patterns over the next 10 years? PLEASE COMPLETE QUESTION E l BEFORE THE INTER VIEW E. Education and Training (Reference period: End of fiscal year closer to June 3 0 ,1 9 7 2 or end of calendar year 1972) 1. What is the educational level attained by your present staff? (Enter number o f employees by staff position and highest level o f education attained. Do not include maintenance or custodial personnel, laborers; personnel classified as “Other” in question Cl; student assistants or volunteers.) Staff position Librarian . . . Specialist . . . Technical assistant . . C le r k ............ Total Less than high school graduate High school graduate Some college — no earned degree Associate degree Bachelor’s degree Graduate degree(s) Area of Concentration Area of Concentration Area(s) of Concentration Library science Library science Other Other Library science Other Double degree library and other curriculum 2. Indicate the basic minimum requirements at the entry level for persons in each of the following staff positions: Staff Position Education Experience Certification Librarian......... Specialist......... NOT APPLICABLE Technical assistant......... NOT APPLICABLE G e r k ................ 3. 4. Beyond the minimal entry requirements, what qualifications do you seek? E.g., additional education, experience, personal characteristics, etc. Regarding the educational background of your staff, are there any areas: a. In which they lack necessary preparation for the work they do? If so, which areas? b. In which their preparation overqualifies them for the work they do? If so, which areas? 5. How well do library education and training programs prepare graduates for work in your library? Are there any areas in which the library feels current training is inadequate or irrelevant? If so, what areas? 6. How have educational requirements for library manpower changed during the past 5 years? (Specify by staff position.) 7. Looking ahead, do you expect the library personnel you hire over the next 10 years to have about the same educational qualifications as your present staff? If not, what changes in educational preparation of your staff do you anticipate? (Specify by staff position.) 8. Describe any new or em erging occupations in terms o f qualifications (educational and otherw ise) necessary. 9. 10. Describe the pattern of advancement (career ladder) within each staff position; from one staff position to the next. (Consider formal education; on-the-job training; experience. Specify length of time, if established.) Identify and discuss you* current manpower problems. PLEASE COMPLETE QUESTIONS FI AND F2 BEFORE THE INTER VIEW F. Supply (Reference period: End Of fiscal year closest to June 30, 1972 or end of calendar year 1972) 1 * Was the number o f staff positions reduced during the past year? By how many? Staff positions Librarians ............................. Specialists ............................. Technical assistants . . . . . . C lerk s..................................... Number 2, Hdw miany positions were filled during the past year? Staff positions Number Librarians............................... Specialists ............................. Technical assistants .............. Clerks ...................................... b. Indicate the sources of personnel placed during the past year. Please enter each new hire (or promotion or transfer) only once; if more than one source applies, mark the one which appears first on the list. Librarians Source Specialists Technical assistants Clerks Slew graduates— Library programs ...................................... Non-library programs ......... Promotions within the library ......................... /Transfers within this employment setting . . . . Tfarisfeh fforit other libraries— School ........................................................ Acadehiic Public ...................... .................... ................................... Special ........................................................ Transfers from non-library occupations ......... Re-entrants to the labor fo r c e ........................... Other (specify) — ------------------- - ------------------- ■ 3. Discuss how this hiring pattern differs from that 5 years ago. 4 i In the last $ yeats, how have your actual hiring experiences related to the qualifications you were seeking? 5. What measures have been taken in the last 5 years to alleviate manpower problems? (E .g., specific recruiting campaigns, supplem entary training programs, job redesign.) 6. In what occupations do you currently experience difficulty obtaining qualified personnel? What are the reasons? [ | General shortage of trained personnel | | Salary structure | | Recruitment problems (e.g., location) | | Constraints imposed by civil service or personnel department regulations | | Other (specify) ___________________________________________________ 7. What do you do if you cannot get a qualified individual for a position? | | Hire persons with less than the desired qualifications and train on-the-job | | Help existing staff to obtain additional formal education I [ Leave the position vacant until a qualified person becomes available | | Other ( s p e c if y ) ___________________________________________________ 8. In what positions do you currently experience no difficulty in obtaining qualified personnel? 9. How has the overall library manpower supply situation changed over the past 5 years? G. Requirements 1. Indicate the major factors that have contributed to employment growth over the past 10 years, e.g., expansion o f facilities, increased demand for library services, changes in technology, job redesign, budget changes, implementation of State, American Library Association, or other standards. 2. In your opinion, what factors will affect your library manpower requirements in the next 10 years? 3. Have you developed projections of library employment needs for the future? If so , w hat are your anticipated needs? On what criteria are these needs based? PLEASE COMPLETE QUESTIONS HI AND H2 BEFORE THE INTERVIEW H. Effect of Federal Funding (Reference period: End of fiscal year closest to June 30, 1972 or end of calendar year 1972) 1. a. What proportion of your total library budget is Federally financed? b. Did Federal funds account for a larger or smaller proportion of your budget 5 years ago? 2. a. What are the program sources of Federal funding? b. Have the sources of Federal Financing changed over the past 5 years? If so, how? 3. What impact, if any, has the availability of Federal funds had on your manpower situation? I. Interviewer’s Comments Appendix E. Selected Bibliography Library statistics and directories Academic Library Statistics 1970-71, A compilation of statistics from the 78 university library members of the Association of Research Libraries, Washing ton, D.C., ARL, n.d. American Association of Law Libraries, Directory o f Law Libraries, 1972 edition, Chicago, AALL, 1972. Issued biennially. American Library Association, Library Statistics: A Handbook o f Concepts, Definitions, and Terminol ogy, Chicago, ALA, 1966. Revision in progress. American Library Directory 1970-71, 27th edition. New York, R.R. Bowker Company, 1970. Issued biennially. American Medical Association, Directory o f Health Sciences Libraries in the United States 1969, Chicago, AMA, 1970. Crawford, Susan, ed., “ Health Sciences Libraries in the United States: A Statistical Profile,” published as a supplement to the Bulletin o f the Medical Library Association, April 1972. Gilford, Dorothy N. and Frank L. Schick, “Statistics of Libraries for the 1970’s,” pp. 133-37 in The Bowker Annual o f Library and Book Trade Infor mation, 17th edition, New York, R.R. Bowker Company, 1972. Grego, Noel R., 1972 Directory o f Institutions Offering or Planning Programs for the Training o f Library Technical Assistants, 3rd edition, Chicago, Council on Library Technology, 1971. Kruzas, Anthony T., Directory o f Special Libraries and Information Centers, 2nd edition, Detroit, Gale Research Company, 1968. Schick, Frank L., “Library Statistics: A Century Plus,” American Libraries, July-August 1971, pp. 727-31. Schick, Frank L., ed., North American Library Educa tion Directory and Statistics 1966-68, Chicago, American Library Association, 1968. Schick, Frank L., and D. Kathryn Weintraub, eds., North American Library Education Directory and Statis tics 1969-71, Chicago, American Library Associa tion, 1972. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Census of Governments, 1967, Vol. 3, No. 2, Compendium o f Public Employment, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1969. ________ Census of Population: 1970, Subject Reports, Final Report PC (2)-7A, Occupational Character istics, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washing ton, D.C., 1973. ________ Census of Population: 1970, Subject Reports, Final Report PC (2)-7C, Occupation by Industry, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1972. ________ 1970 Occupation and Industry Classification Systems in Terms o f Their 1960 Occupation and Industry Elements, by John A. Priebe, Joan Heinkel, and Stanley Greene (Technical Paper No. 26), U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 1972. ________Public Employment in 1970. Series GE 70-No. 1, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1971. Issued annually. U.S. Office of Education, Library Statistics o f Colleges and Universities 1959-60, Part 2: Analytic Report, by Barbara Denison and Doris C. Holladay, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1962. ________Library Statistics o f Colleges and Universities 1961-62, Part 2: Analytic Report, by Theodore Sam ore, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1964. ________Library Statistics o f Colleges and Universities 1963-64, Analytic Report, by Theodore Samore, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1968. ___ Library Statistics o f Colleges and Universities, Analytic Report, Fall 1968, by Bronson Price, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1970. ----- Library Statistics o f Colleges and Universities, Fall 1969, Analytic Report, by Bronson Price and Doris C. Holladay, U.S. Government Printing Of fice, Washington, D.C., 1971. , . Library Statistics o f Colleges and Universities, Fall 1971, Analytic Report (Part C), by Stanley V. Smith, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washing ton D.C., 1973. ___ Planning for a Nationwide System o f Library Statistics, by David C. Palmer. Final report of the Library Administration Division of ALA. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1970. ----- Public School Library Statistics 1962-63, by Richard L. Darling, U.S. Government Printing Of fice, Washington, D.C., 1964. ___ Statistics o f Local Public School Systems 1967, Fall 1967: Pupils, Schools, Staff. 1966-67: Expenditures, by Gerald Kahn and Warren A. Hughes, U.S. Government Printing Office, Wash ington, D.C., 1969. ___ Statistics o f Local Public School Systems Fall 1968, Schools, Pupils, and Staff, by Gerald Kahn and Warren A. Hughes, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1970. ___ Statistics o f Local Public School Systems Fall 1969, Pupils and Staff, by Warren A. Hughes, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1971. ____Statistics o f Local Public School Systems Fall 1970, Staff, by Warren A. Hughes, U.S. Govern ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1973. ____Statistics o f Local Public School Systems Fall 1971, Staff, by Warren A. Hughes, U.S. Govern ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Forth coming. ____Statistics o f Public School Libraries 1960-61, Part I, Basic Tables, by Mary Helen Mahar and Doris C. Holladay, U.S. Government Printing Of fice, Washington, D.C., 1964. ___ Statistics o f Public School Libraries 1960-61, Part II, Analysis and Interpretation, by Mary Helen Mahar, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1965 (?) ___ Statistics o f State School Systems 1959-60, by Carol Hobson and Samuel Schloss, U.S. Gov ernment Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1963. ___ Statistics o f State School Systems 1961-62, by Carol Hobson and Samuel Schloss, U.S. Gov ernment Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1964. ___ Statistics o f State School Systems 1963-64, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1967. ___ Statistics o f State School Systems 1965-66, by Clayton D. Hutchins and Richard H. Barr, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1968. ___ Statistics o f State School Systems 1967-68, by Richard H. Barr and Geraldine J. Scott, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1970. ___ Statistics o f State School Systems 1969-70, by Geraldine J. Scott, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1973. ___ Statistics o f State School Systems 1971-72, by Geraldine J. Scott, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Forthcoming. ___ Survey o f Federal Libraries 1972, by Edwin E. Olson, Rosemary Merritt, and Marcia Bellassai. Sponsored by the Federal Library Com mittee. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washing ton, D.C. Forthcoming. Library manpower utilization, staffing patterns American Library Association, “The subprofessional or technical assistant: a statement of definition,” ALA Bulletin, April 1968, pp. 387-97. Asheim, Lester, “Education and manpower for librarianship,” ALA Bulletin, October 1968, pp. 1096-106. Ayers, Jerry B., Library S ta ff Needs in Southern Appalachian Schools, Cookeville, Tennessee, Ten nessee Technological University, 1972. Brown, Thomas R., “Task Analysis Study in IllinoisPhase I of a Cooperative Project,” American Libraries, March 1971, pp. 312-14. Bundy, Mary Lee, “Libraries, Manpower, and Automa tion: Shaping the Future of Libraries,” Library Trends, April 1970, pp. 464-86. The Case for Library Technical Assistants and Library Clerks in Indiana, Manpower Report 69-3, Lafay ette, Indiana, Office of Manpower Studies, School of Technology, Purdue University, 1969. Casey, Genevieve, “ library Manpower in the Detroit Metropolitan Region,” American Libraries, Sep tember 1970, pp. 787-89. Christianson, Elin, Paraprofessional and Nonprofessional S ta ff in Special Libraries, SLA State-of-the-Art Review No. 2, New York, Special Libraries Asso ciation, 1973. Doerschuk, Ernest E., Jr., “Facing Realities: The Penn sylvania Library Manpower Survey,” PLA Bulletin, January 1972, pp. 21-24. Ginzberg, Eli and Carol A. Brown, Manpower fo r Li brary Services, Columbia University, Conservation of Human Resources Project, New York, 1967. Social and Educational Research and Development, Inc., A Task Analysis o f Library Jobs in the State o f Illinois, Silver Spring, Maryland, SERD, 1970. U.S. Employment Service, Occupations in Library Sci ence, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washing ton, D.C., 1973. Ward, James E., Education and Manpower in Tennessee Libraries, Nashville, David Lipscomb College, 1971. Library education American Library Association, Criteria for Programs to Prepare Library/Medical Technical Assistants, Chi cago, ALA, 1971. Boaz, Martha, “Some Current Concepts about Library Education,” College and Research Libraries, Jan uary 1972, pp. 18-23. Green, Charlotte, “Nonprofessional library Workers in the Science Libraries in Industry,” Special Librar ies, October 1970, pp. 453-59. Boll, John J. “A Basis for Library Education,” Library Quarterly, April 1972, pp. 195-211. Grego, Noel R. and Sister Mary Chrysantha Rudnik,/oZ? Description and Certification for Library Techni cal Assistants, Chicago, Council on Library Tech nology, 1970. Bone, Larry Earl and Frederic R. Hartz, “Taking the Full Ride; A Librarian’s Routes to Continuing Education,” Library Journal, Oct. 1, 1970, pp. 3244-46. “Guidelines for Using Volunteers in Libraries,” Ameri can Libraries, April 1971, pp. 407-08. The California Community Colleges, Office of the Chancellor, The Library Technical Assistant Pro gram; Guidelines and Course Content for Com munity College Programs, Sacramento, The Cali fornia Community Colleges, 1970. James, John E., “Library Technician Program: The Library Technician Graduates’ Point of View,” Special Libraries, July-August 1971, pp. 268-78. Library Education and Manpower; A Statement o f Policy Adopted by the Council o f the ALA, June 30, 1970, Chicago, American Library Association, 1970. Medical Library Association, Standards for Medical Library Technicians, Chicago, MLA, 1970. Chisholm, Margaret E. and Charles R. Anderson, Educa tion, Job Roles, and Upward Mobility: An Investi gation o f Opportunities at the Pre- and Paraprofes sional Level in Government Libraries in the Wash ington, D.C. Area, College Park, School of Library and Information Services, University of Maryland, 1973. Rogers, A. Robert, “More or Less? Forecasting Library Manpower in Ohio,” OLA Bulletin, October 1970, pp. 4-8. Danton, Periam J., Between MLS and Ph.D.: A Study o f Sixth Year Specialist Programs in Accredited Library Schools, Chicago, American Library Asso ciation, 1970. Rosenthal, Joseph A., “Nonprofessionals and Catalog ing: A Survey of Five Libraries,” Library R e sources and Technical Services, Summer 1969, pp. 321-31. Goldhor, Herbert, ed., Education for Librarianship: The Design o f the Curriculum o f Library Schools, Monograph Series No. 11, Urbana, University of Illinois Graduate School of Library Science, 1971. Rudnik, Sister Mary Chrysantha, “What Every Librarian Should Know About Library Technical Assis tants,” Wilson Library Bulletin, September 1971, pp. 67-72. Hoey, E. L., “Establishing a medical library technology program the SUNY experience; with course de scriptions,” Medical Library Association Bulletin, April 1969, pp. 151-59. Horn, Andrew H., “Time for Decision: Library Educa tion for the Seventies,” Special Libraries, Decem ber 1971, pp. 515-23. American Library Association, Occupational Definitions for School Library Media Personnel, Chicago, ALA, 1971. Kortendick, James J. and Elizabeth W. Stone, Job Dimensions and Educational Needs in Librarianship, Chicago, American Library Association, 1971. American Library Association, School Library Man power Project: Phase I-F inal Report, Chicago, ALA, 1970. “MLA Official Policy Statement on the Training of Medical Library Technicians.” Bulletin o f the Medical Library Association, October 1967, p. 510. Monroe, Margaret E., “Education in Librarianship for Serving the Disadvantaged,” Library Trends, Octo ber 1971, pp. 445-62. Neill, Samuel D., “Who Needs to go to a Graduate Library School?” Journal o f Education for Librar ianship, Spring 1973, pp. 212-25. Ryan, Dorothy E., “ Library Education in the Soaring Seventies,” Southeastern Librarian, Winter 1970, pp. 232-39. Shores, Louis, and others, The Tex-Tec Syllabi: Courses o f Study for Library Technical Assistants, Wash ington, D.C., Communication Service Corporation, 1968. Stone, Elizabeth W., “Continuing Education for Librar ianship,” American Libraries, June 1970, pp. 543-53. Stone, Elizabeth W., Factors related to the professional development o f librarians, Metuchen, N.J., The Scarecrow Press, 1969. Stone, Elizabeth W., ed., “Personnel Development and Continuing Education in Libraries,” Library Trends, July 1971. Entire issue. Wasserman, Paul, “Professional Adaptation: Library Education Mandate,” Library Journal, Apr. 1, 1970, pp. 1281-88. American Library Association, School Library Person nel: Task Analysis Survey, Chicago, ALA, 1969. Bergeson, Clarence O., “ Relationship of Library Science and Audiovisual Instruction,” Audio vis ual Instruc tion, February 1967, pp. 101-03. California State Department of Education, School Li braries in California: A Report to the California Legislature, prepared by Marvin Howell, Sacra mento, 1968. Case, Robert N., “School Library Manpower Project Enters First Year,” Audiovisual Instruction, Jan uary 1969, pp. 42-43. Case, Robert N., and Anna Mary Lowrey, “School Library Manpower Project: A Report on Phase I,” American Libraries, January 1971, pp. 98-101. “A Casebook of School Library Services,” American Libraries, February 1970, pp. 162-77. Clark, Geraldine, “Secondary School Libraries: Prob lems, Problems, Problems,” Library Journal, Mar. 15, 1973, pp. 972-73. Delaney, Arthur A., “School Audiovisual - Library Services: Whose Job?” Audiovisual Instruction, November 1970, pp. 26-28. Gaver, Mary V., Services o f Secondary School Media Centers, Chicago, American Library Association, 1971. Grady, William F., “Certification of Audiovisual Personnel-a Nationwide Status Report,” Audiovisual In struction, March 1971, pp. 8-18. Graham, Mae, ed., “The Changing Nature of the School Library,” Library Trends, April 1969. Entire issue. School library manpower American Association of School Librarians and Depart ment of Audiovisual Instruction of the National Education Association (now the Association for Educational Communication and Technology), Standards for School Media Programs, Chicago and Washington, D.C., American library Association and National Education Association, 1969. Guthrie, Melvin Glenn, A Study o f Conditions and Services in School Libraries in the State o f Arizona, A Supplementary Report of the Arizona Library Survey, Tempe, Bureau of Educational Research and Services, College of Education, Arizona State University, 1968. Lewis, Philip, ed., “New Dimensions in Educational Technology for Multi-Media Centers,” Library Trends, April 1971. Entire issue. Lowrey, Anna Mary, “School Library Manpower Project Launches Phase II,” Audiovisual Instruction, Jan uary 1972, pp. 26-28. Childers, Tom, and Beth Krevitt, “Municipal Funding of Library Services,” American Libraries, January 1972, pp. 53-57. Picco, John P., ed., The Secondary School Library in Transition: A Report, Portland, Oregon, Knapp School Libraries Project and the School of Educa tion, Portland State College, March 1967. Conant, Ralph and Kathleen Molz, ed., The Metropoli tan Library, Cambridge, MIT Press, 1972. Conant, Ralph W., ed., The Public Library and the City, Cambridge, MIT Press, 1965. Srygley, Sara K., ed., “School Library Services and Administration at the School District Level,” Library Trends, April 1968. Entire issue. Martin, Lowell A., Library Response to Urban Change: A Study o f the Chicago Public Library, Chicago, American Library Association, 1969. U.S. Office of Education, The Education Professions: A Report on the People Who Serve Our Schools and Colleges - 1968, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1969. First of a series of annual reports required by the Education Professions Development Act. “Minimum Professional Personnel and Staffing Patterns for Maryland’s Public Library System: A Pro posal,” Library Journal, October 15,1968. U.S. Office of Education, Emphasis on Excellence in School Media Programs, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1969. U.S. Office of Education, The School Library as a Materials Center: Educational Needs o f Librarians and Teachers in its Administration and Use, edited by Mary Helen Mahar, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1964. U.S. Office of Education, Survey o f School Library Standards by Richard L. Darling, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1964. Wallington, James, “Act I of JIMS (Jobs in Instructional Media Study),” Audiovisual Instruction, May 1970, pp. 25-30. Wallington, James, “Act II of JIMS (Jobs in Instruc tional Media Study),”Audiovisual Instruction, Jan uary 1972, pp. 29-32. Wallington, James et al, Jobs in Instructional Media, Washington, D.C., National Education Association, 1969. Public library manpower American Library Association, Certification o f Public Librarians in the United States, prepared by Ruth R. Frame, Chicago, ALA, 1972. Bone, Larry Earl, ed., “Current Trends in Urban Main Libraries,” Library Trends, April 1972. Entire issue. Budington, William S., ed., “ Library Services in Metro politan Areas,” Library Trends, October 1974. Entire issue. Public Library Association, Minimum Standards for Public Library Systems, 1966, Chicago, American Library Association, 1967. Academic library manpower Baumol, William J., and Matityahu Marcus, Economics o f Academic Libraries, prepared for Council on Library Resources by Mathematica, Inc., American Council on Education, Washington, D.C., 1973. Carnegie Commission on Higher Education, The Fourth Revolution: Instructional Technology in Higher Education, New York, McGraw Hill, 1972. Deale, H. Vail, ed., “Trends in College Librarianship,” Library Trends, July 1969. Entire issue. Morrison, Perry D., The Career o f the Academic Librar ian, Chicago, American Library Association, 1969. Special library manpower American Documentation Institute, Special Libraries: Problems and Cooperative Potentials, by Robert J. Havlik, Bill M. Woods, and Leona M. Vogt. A Report Prepared for the National Advisory Com mission on Libraries, Washington, D.C., 1967. Kenyon, Carleton W., “The Dimensions of Law Librar ianship,” Special Libraries, March 1971, pp. 129-35. Kronick, David A., Lesliebeth Rothenberg, and others, “An Investigation of the Education Needs of Health Sciences Library Manpower,” published as follows in various issues of the Bulletin o f the Medical Library Association: Part I, Definition of the Manpower Problem and Research Design, January 1970, pp. 7-17. Part II, Health-Related Institutions and their Library Resources, October 1970, pp. 510-20, Part III, Manpower Supply and Demand in Health Sciences Libraries, January 1971, pp. 21-30. Part IV, Characteristics of Man power in the Health Sciences Library, January 1971, pp. 31-40. Part V, Manpower for Hospital Libraries, July 1971, pp. 392403. Part VII, Summary and Conclusions, April 1972, pp. 292-300. Part VI was published as follows: Lesliebeth Rothenberg and others, “A Job-Task Index for Evaluating Professional Personnel Utilization in Libraries,” Library Quarterly, October 1971, pp. 320-28. Ladendorf, Janice M., The Changing Role o f the Special Librarian in Industry, Business, and Government, SLA State-of-the-Art Review No. 1, New York: Special Libraries Association, 1973. Lewis, Alfred J., “ Law Library Statistics,” pp. 301-07 in The Bowker Annual o f Library and Book Trade Information, 18th edition, New York, R.R. Bow ker Company, 1973. Lewis, Alfred J., “ 1969 Statistical Survey of Law School Libraries and Librarians,” Law Library Journal May 1970, pp. 267-72. (Survey results have appeared annually since 1970 in the May issue of Law Library Journal.) McGuirl, Marlene, “Summary of the Survey of Law Libraries Serving a Local Bar,” Law Library Journal, May 1972, pp. 244-62. Schick, Frank L., “The Century Gap of Law Library Statistics,” Law Library Journal February 1968, pp. 2-6. Titley, Joan, ed., “Health Sciences Libraries,” Library Trends, July 1974. Entire issue. BLS projections to 1985 The U.S. Economy in 1985: A summary o f BLS Projections, Bulletin 1809 (1974). This bulletin consists of reprints of four articles from the Monthly Labor Review, December 1973, and added appendixes containing explanatory notes and detail tables. The Structure o f the U.S. Economy in 1980 and 1985, Bulletin 1831. Forthcoming. Occupational Manpower and Training Needs, Bulletin 1824 (1974). Revised 1974. Tomorrow’s Manpower Needs, Vol. M il, Bulletin 1606, February 1969 and Vol. I V (Revised), Bulletin 1737, 1971. The 1970 and 1980 industry-occupation matrix tables and other manpower data are presented in Vol. IV. The 1985 industry-occupation matrix tables are scheduled for publication in 1975. Appendix F. Detailed Tables F-l. Distribution of staff in college and university libraries, by staff position and control and type of institution, fall 1971 F-2. Employment of librarians by sex and State, 1960 and 1970 F-3. Employment of library attendants and assistants by sex and State, 1960 and 1970 F-4. Employment of librarians and library attendants and assistants, by State, 1970 and 1960-70 increase F-5. Library staff in colleges and universities, by State, fall 1971 F-6. Employment of librarians in public elementary and secondary schools, by State and selected academic years Table F-1. Distribution of staff in college and university libraries, by staff position and control and type of institution, fall 1971 Control and type of institution Total staff Librarians Other profes sional staff2 Clerical and other staff Total, public and private.......................... Universities....................................................... 4-year institutions with graduate s tu d en ts.................................................. 4-year institutions w ith out graduate students........................................... 2-year institu tio ns....................................................... Total, p u b lic ............................................... Universities....................................................... 4-year institutions with graduate s tu d en ts.................................................. 4-year institutions w ith out graduate students........................................... 2-year ins titu tio n s ...................................................... T o ta l,1 private ........................................... Universities....................................................... 4-year institutions with graduate stu d en ts.................................................. 4-year institutions with out graduate students........................................... 2-year institu tio n s....................................................... 48,211 23,681 18,295 8,138 3,054 1,253 26,862 14,290 13,913 5,633 913 7,367 4,816 5,800 30,121 15,549 2,122 2,402 11,403 5,411 493 395 1,716 835 2,201 3,003 17,002 9,302 8,376 3,458 456 4,462 1,025 5,170 18,090 8,132 449 2,085 6,892 2,727 101 323 1,338 418 475 2,762 9,860 4,988 5,537 *2 ,1 7 5 457 2,905 3,791 630 1,673 317 392 72 1,726 241 1 E xcludes c o n trib u te d service s ta ff. 2 In cludes persons w h o , th o u g h n o t lib raria n s , are in positions n o rm a lly re q u irin g a t least a b achelor's degree. w ith th e B LS estim ates show n in ta b le 1, w h ic h in clude b o th fu ll-tim e and p a rt-tim e perso nnel. N O T E : T h e e m p lo y m e n t data in th is ta b le are expressed in " fu ll- t im e e q u iva le n ts " (fu ll-tim e personnel plus fu ll-tim e e q u i v a le n t o f p a rt-tim e perso nnel) and th e re fo re are n o t com p a ra b le S O U R C E : Library Statistics o f Colleges and Universities, Fall 1971 Analytic Report (Part C) (O ffic e o f E d u c a tio n , 1 9 7 3 , O E -7 4 -1 1 4 1 7 ). 1970 1960 State Total Men Women Total Men Women United S ta te s ............................................... 123,549 22,286 101,263 75,672 11,023 64,649 A labam a............................................................................ Alaska .............................................................................. Arizona ............................................................................ Arkansas............................................................................ C a lifo rn ia ......................................................................... 1,569 173 971 1,040 10,631 192 24 186 106 2,382 1,377 149 785 934 8,249 1,060 68 478 569 7,697 99 4 44 22 1,344 961 64 434 547 6,353 Colorado .......................................................................... C o n n ecticu t..................................................................... Delaware .......................................................................... District of Colum bia....................................................... F lo rid a .............................................................................. 1,463 1,944 355 1,499 3,339 259 368 33 460 423 1,204 1,576 322 1,039 2,916 864 1,469 185 1,361 1,566 130 253 11 388 175 734 1,216 174 973 1,391 Georgia.............................................................................. Hawaii .............................................................................. Idaho ................................................................................. Illinois .............................................................................. In d ia n a .............................................................................. 2,684 668 492 6,909 2,835 332 112 62 1,341 541 2,352 556 430 5,568 2,294 1,321 354 255 4,198 1,856 123 58 42 674 264 1,198 296 213 3,524 1,592 2,066 1,707 1,660 1,792 630 376 207 164 264 114 1,690 1,500 1,496 1,528 516 1,280 1,179 903 1,226 412 138 161 58 166 35 1,142 1,018 845 1,060 377 M a r y la n d .......................................................................... Massachusetts.................................................................. M ichigan............................................................................ Minnesota.......................................................................... Mississippi ....................................................................... 3,260 4,518 4,635 2,509 1,117 656 1,000 890 499 167 2,604 3,518 3,745 2,010 950 1,589 3,335 2,766 1,718 590 319 586 461 202 22 1,270 2,749 2,305 1,516 568 M iss o u ri............................................................................ M o n ta n a ............................................................................ Nebraska .......................................................................... N ev a d a .............................................................................. New Hampshire .............................................................. 2,421 554 913 272 493 419 79 101 66 127 2,002 475 812 206 366 1,559 256 695 90 377 211 30 70 15 57 1,348 226 625 75 320 New Jersey................................. ..................................... New M e x ic o ..................................................................... New Y o r k .......................................................................... North C a ro lin a ................................................................ North D a k o ta ................................................................... 4,337 693 12,169 3,223 384 728 126 2,967 369 50 3,609 567 9,202 2,854 334 2,513 351 8,053 1,582 243 354 50 1,570 167 36 2,159 301 6,483 1,415 207 O h io ................................................................................... O klahom a.......................................................................... O re g o n .............................................................................. Pennsylvania..................................................................... Rhode Island ................................................................... 6,196 1,377 1,401 6,832 522 996 293 211 1,355 93 5,230 1,084 1,190 5,477 429 3,855 930 896 3,682 342 479 139 122 491 52 3,376 791 774 3,191 290 South C a ro lin a ................................................................ South D a k o ta .................................................................. Tennessee......................................................................... T e x a s ................................................................................. U t a h ................................................................................... 1,627 499 2,050 6,021 1,033 139 62 283 810 200 1,488 437 1,767 5,211 833 802 304 1,270 3,109 506 34 29 139 388 84 768 275 1,131 2,721 422 V e rm o n t............................................................................ Virginia ............................................................................ Washington....................................................................... West Virginia .................................................................. W isconsin......................................................................... W y o m in g .......................................................................... 430 3,449 2,503 665 2,740 279 93 537 429 104 485 36 337 2,912 2,074 561 2,255 243 281 1,865 1,667 438 1,522 185 43 240 192 53 187 12 238 1,625 1,475 385 1,335 173 Io w a ................................................................................... Kansas .............................................................................. Kentucky .......................................................................... L ou isian a......................................................................... M a in e ................................................................................. • NOTE: 1 9 6 0 and 1 9 7 0 da ta are n o t s tric tly c o m p a ra b le since th e 1 9 7 0 o c c u p a tio n a l classification system excludes c erta in persons w h o w e re co u n ted as librarians in 1 9 6 0 . SOURCE: U .S . Bureau o f th e Census, Census o f P o p u la tio n : 1 9 7 0 , C h a ra c te ris tic s o f th e P o p u la t io n , V o l. 1, Parts 1 -5 0 . 1970 1960 State Total Men Women Total Men Women United S ta te s ................................................ 126,207 26,207 99,337 37,059 9,003 28,056 A labam a............................................................................ Alaska .............................................................................. Arizona ............................................................................ Arkansas............................................................................ C a lifo rn ia .......................................................................... 1,349 131 1,006 724 15,835 314 12 241 156 3,953 1,035 119 765 568 11,882 336 25 229 201 4,158 111 1 24 37 916 225 24 205 164 3,242 Colorado .......................................................................... C o n n e ctic u t..................................................................... Delaware .......................................................................... District of Colum bia....................................................... F lo rid a .............................................................................. 1,602 2,522 350 1,197 3,108 336 514 37 505 732 1,266 2,008 313 692 2,376 276 928 123 581 468 88 200 19 316 116 188 728 104 265 352 Georgia............................................................................... Hawaii .............................................................................. Id a h o ................................................................................. Illinois .............................................................................. In d ia n a ............................................................................... 2,045 581 410 6,091 3,183 474 96 94 1,308 611 1,571 485 316 4,783 2,572 486 146 119 2,283 859 121 38 32 577 218 365 108 87 1,706 641 Io w a ................................................................................... Kansas ............................................................................... Kentucky .......................................................................... L ou isian a.......................................................................... M a in e ................................................................................. 2,075 1,608 1,528 1,609 528 295 330 329 428 72 1,780 1,278 1,199 1,181 456 529 436 411 587 184 95 74 124 151 30 434 362 287 436 154 Maryland .......................................................................... Massachusetts................................................................... M ichigan............................................................................ Minnesota.......................................................................... Mississippi ....................................................................... 2,919 5,809 5,426 2,906 938 793 1,251 953 413 193 2,126 4,558 4,473 2,493 745 741 1,952 1,573 917 263 201 491 392 144 57 540 1,461 1,181 773 206 M iss o u ri............................................................................ M o n ta n a ............................................................................ Nebraska .......................................................................... N evad a............................................................................... New Hampshire .............................................................. 3,039 489 919 136 624 675 59 144 31 142 2,364 430 775 105 482 858 104 295 52 186 272 24 63 14 44 586 80 232 38 142 New Jersey....................................................................... New M e x ic o ..................................................................... New Y o r k .......................................................................... North C a ro lin a ................................................................ North D a k o ta ................................................................... 3,863 648 13,060 2,643 434 740 76 3,259 585 60 3,123 552 9,801 2,058 374 1,263 121 3,959 739 52 290 31 1,147 207 15 973 90 2,812 532 37 O h io ................................................................................... O klahom a.......................................................................... O re g o n .............................................................................. Pennsylvania..................................................................... Rhode Island ................................................................... 6,282 1,209 1,933 5,741 810 1,072 240 233 1,194 203 5,210 969 1,700 4,547 607 2,357 384 503 1,712 220 441 103 56 354 76 1,916 281 447 1,358 144 South C a ro lin a ................................................................ South D a k o ta ................................................................... Tennessee.......................................................................... T e x a s ................................................................................. U t a h ................................................................................... 922 494 1,677 4,894 700 115 46 423 1,189 155 807 448 1,254 3,705 545 291 110 632 1,471 226 57 14 172 386 46 234 96 460 1,085 180 V e rm o n t............................................................................ Virginia ............................................................................ Washington....................................................................... West Virginia ................................................................... Wisconsin.......................................................................... Wyoming .......................................................................... 438 2,992 2,712 508 3,311 249 67 708 354 98 482 60 371 2,284 2,358 410 2,829 189 108 793 602 275 877 58 18 240 96 72 180 12 90 553 506 203 697 46 N O T E : 1 9 6 0 and 1 9 7 0 census data are n o t s tric tly c o m parab le because (1 ) th e 1 9 7 0 o c c u p a tio n a l classification system c o u n ted as lib ra ry a tte n d a n ts and assistants c erta in occ u p a tio n s w h ic h had n o t been in th is cate g o ry in 1 9 6 0 , and (2 ) th e low er age lim it fo r th e civilian labor fo rc e was changed fr o m 1 4 to 16 years. S O U R C E : U .S . Bureau o f th e Census, Census o f P o p u la tio n : 1 9 7 0 , Characteristics o f the Population, V o l. 1 , Parts 1 -5 0 . Library attendants and assistants Librarians State 1970 1960-70 increase 1970 1960-70 increase United States .................................................. 123,549 47,877 126,207 89,148 A la b a m a .............................................................................. Alaska ................................................................................... A riz o n a ................................................................................. Arkansas.............................................................................. California ............................................................................ 1,569 173 971 1,040 10,631 509 105 493 471 2,934 1,349 131 1,006 724 15,835 1,013 106 777 523 11,677 C o lorad o .............................................................................. Connecticut ....................................................................... Delaw are.............................................................................. District of C o lu m b ia ......................................................... Florida ................................................................................. 1,463 1,944 355 1,499 3,339 599 475 170 138 1,773 1,602 2,522 350 1,197 3,108 1,326 1,594 227 616 2,640 G eorgia................................................................................. H a w a ii................................................................................... Idaho ................................................................................... Illin o is ................................................................................... In d ia n a ................................................................................. 2,684 668 492 6,909 2,835 1,363 314 237 2,711 979 2,045 581 410 6,091 3,183 1,559 435 291 3,808 2,324 I o w a ...................................................................................... Kansas................................................................................... Kentucky ............................................................................ Louisiana ............................................................................ Maine ................................................................................... 2,066 1,707 1,660 1,792 630 786 528 757 566 218 2,075 1,608 1,528 1,609 528 1,546 1,172 1,117 1,022 344 M aryland.............................................................................. Massachusetts..................................................................... M ich igan .............................................................................. M innesota............................................................................ Mississippi............................................................................ 3,260 4,518 4,635 2,509 1,117 1,671 1,183 1,869 791 527 2,919 5,809 5,426 2,906 938 2,178 3,857 3,853 1,989 675 Missouri .............................................................................. M o n ta n a .............................................................................. Nebraska.............................................................................. Nevada ................................................................................. New Hampshire.................................................................. 2,421 554 913 272 493 862 298 218 182 116 3,039 489 919 136 624 2,181 385 624 84 438 New Jersey .......................................................................... New M e x ic o ....................................................................... New Y o r k ............................................................................ North Carolina ................................................................... North D a k o ta ..................................................................... 4,337 693 12,169 3,223 384 1,824 342 4,116 1,641 141 3,863 648 13,060 2,643 434 2,600 527 9,101 1,904 382 O h i o ..................................................................................... O k la h o m a ............................................................................ Oregon ................................................................................. Pennsylvania....................................................................... Rhode Island....................................................................... 6,196 1,377 1,401 6,832 522 2,341 447 505 3,150 180 6,282 1,209 1,933 5,741 810 3,925 825 1,430 4,0 29 590 South Carolina .................................................................. South D a k o ta ..................................................................... Tennessee............................................................................ Texas ................................................................................... Utah ..................................................................................... 1,627 499 2,050 6,021 1,033 825 195 780 2,912 527 922 494 1,677 4,894 700 631 384 1,045 3,423 474 V e r m o n t.............................................................................. V irg in ia ................................................................................. W ashington.......................... ............................................... West V irg in ia....................................................................... Wisconsin ............................................................................ W yom ing............................................................................... 430 3,449 2,503 665 2,740 279 149 1,584 836 227 1,218 94 438 2,992 2,712 508 3,311 249 330 2,199 2,110 233 2,434 191 N O T E : 1 9 6 0 and 1 9 7 0 census data are n o t s tric tly c o m p a rable. See N o te s, a p p e n d ix tables F 2 a nd F 3 . SOURCE: U .S . Bureau o f th e Census, Census o f P o p u la tio n : 1 9 7 0 , Characteristics o f the Population , V o l. 1 , Parts 1 -5 0 , and Census o f P o p u la tio n : 1 9 6 0 . Table F-5. Library staff in colleges and universities, by State, fall 1971 Nonprofessional staff Professional staff1 State Number Percent Number Percent United States .................................................. 21,183 100.0 26,523 100.0 A la b a m a .............................................................................. |A la s k a ................................................................................... A riz o n a ................................................................................. Arkansas.............................................................................. California ............................................................................ 267 25 183 116 2,023 1.3 .1 .9 .6 9.5 284 33 285 117 3,168 1.1 .1 1.1 .4 11.9 C olorado.............................................................................. Connecticut ....................................................................... D elaw are.............................................................................. District of C o lu m b ia ......................................................... Florida ................................................................................. 236 504 40 249 546 1.1 2.4 .2 1.2 2.6 364 525 70 211 721 1.4 2.0 .3 .8 2.7 G eorgia................................................................................. H a w a ii................................................................................... Idaho ................................................................................... Illin o is ................................................................................... In d ia n a ................................................................................. 437 99 69 1,124 513 2.1 .5 .3 5.3 2.4 462 115 114 1,349 622 1.7 .4 .4 5.1 2.4 I o w a ...................................................................................... Kansas................................................................................... Kentucky ............................................................................ Louisiana ................................. .......................................... Maine ................................................................................... 301 278 317 379 103 1.4 1.3 1.5 1.8 .5 344 246 353 288 88 1.3 .9 1.3 1.1 .3 M aryland............................................................................... Massachusetts..................................................................... M ich igan .............................................................................. M innesota............................................................................ Mississippi............................................................................ 392 1,062 761 408 228 1.8 5.0 3.6 1.9 1.1 560 1,371 990 381 141 2.1 5.2 3.7 1.4 .5 Missouri .............................................................................. M o n ta n a .............................................................................. Nebraska.............................................................................. Nevada ................................................................................. New Hampshire................................................................... 439 79 164 31 126 2.1 .4 .8 .1 .6 543 55 184 65 182 2.1 .2 .7 .2 .7 New J e rs e y .......................................................................... New M e x ic o ....................................................................... New Y o r k ............................................................................ North Carolina ................................................................... North D a k o ta ..................................................................... 545 100 2,217 688 68 2.6 .5 10.5 3.2 .3 765 119 3,100 680 42 2.9 .4 11.7 2.6 .2 O h i o ...................................................................................... O k la h o m a ............................................................................ Oregon ................................................................................. Pennsylvania....................................................................... Rhode Island....................................................................... 848 199 247 1,248 126 4.0 .9 1.2 5.9 .6 1,173 228 338 1,571 173 4.4 .9 1.3 5.9 .7 South Carolina ................................................................... South D a k o ta ..................................................................... Tennessee............................................................................ Texas ................................................................................... U t a h ..................................................................................... 211 64 407 993 164 1.0 249 64 457 1,318 192 .9 .2 V e r m o n t.............................................................................. V irg in ia ................................................................................. W ashington.......................................................................... West V irgin ia........................................................................ Wisconsin ............................................................................ W yom ing.............................................................................. 76 435 405 137 474 32 1 Lib raria n s and o th e r professional s taff m em bers. T h e fa ll 1971 to ta l includes a p p r o x im a te ly 1 8 ,0 0 0 librarians and 3 ,0 0 0 o th e r professionals. .3 1.9 4.7 .8 .4 2.0 1.9 .6 2.2 .1 NOTE: 127 549 529 147 411 60 1.7 5.0 .7 .5 2.1 2.0 .6 1.6 .2 E m p lo y m e n t in f u ll-tim e e quivalen ts. Library Statistics o f Colleges and Universities, 1971, Analytic Report, (Part C) (O ffic e o f E d u c a tio n , 1 9 7 3 , SOURCE: O E -74-1 1 4 1 7 ). Table F-6. Employment of librarians in public elementary and secondary schools, by State and selected academic years Academic year State 1961-62 1963-64 1965-66 1967-68 1969-70 United States............................................. 19,603 23,769 28,965 33,838 39,790 Alabama ....................................................................... A la s k a ............................................................................ A r iz o n a ......................................................................... Arkansas ....................................................................... C alifornia....................................................................... _ _ _ _ _ 20 249 211 1,075 29 258 239 1,210 52 377 285 1,425 62 408 323 1,697 61 360 1,599 C o lo ra d o ....................................................................... Connecticut.................................................................. D e la w a re ....................................................................... District of Columbia .................................................. F lo rid a ............................................................................ 229 175 76 24 1,071 264 232 82 23 1,289 332 271 95 89 1,587 373 297 120 133 1,844 454 388 133 156 2,057 Georgia .......................................................................... H a w a ii............................................................................ Id a h o .............................................................................. Illin o is ............................................................................ Indiana ......................................................................... 507 119 158 563 488 650 137 154 1,093 411 1,111 171 151 1,284 598 1,485 203 192 1,540 822 1,701 213 187 1,728 887 Iowa .............................................................................. Kansas............................................................................ Kentucky ....................................................................... Louisiana....................................................................... M ain e .............................................................................. 224 414 490 723 - 286 452 583 739 65 520 511 632 853 69 575 681 912 1,138 128 892 771 1,057 1,187 147 535 355 1,269 715 337 650 328 768 862 389 839 586 1,172 1,015 528 934 714 1,862 1,131 604 609 159 300 123 63 M a ry la n d ....................................................................... Massachusetts .............................................................. Michigan ....................................................................... Minnesota ..................................................................... Mississippi..................................................................... M issouri......................................................................... Montana ....................................................................... N ebraska....................................................................... Nevada............................................................................ New Ham pshire........................................................... ( M 342 1,137 564 313 89 112 39 14 91 168 43 29 546 106 176 83 41 New Jersey .................................................................. New M exico .................................................................. New York ..................................................................... North Carolina.............................................................. North Dakota .............................................................. 524 162 2,293 963 135 653 158 2,710 1,253 32 808 181 2,705 1,621 73 Ohio .............................................................................. Oklahoma ..................................................................... O regon............................................................................ Pennsylvania ................................................................ Rhode Is la n d ................................................................ 819 103 297 864 48 933 215 340 1,063 49 South C arolina.............................................................. South Dakota .............................................................. Tennessee ..................................................................... Texas .............................................................................. Utah .............................................................................. 370 Vermont ....................................................................... V ir g in ia ......................................................................... Washington .................................................................. West V irg in ia ................................................................ Wisconsin....................................................................... W y o m in g ....................................................................... 1 D ata fo r lib raria n s n o t re p o rte d sep arately. ( M ( M - 503 1,214 196 670 93 743 65 845 ( M 411 116 98 ( M 120 240 3,538 1,776 173 1,089 203 424 1,281 107 1,412 293 524 1,633 143 1,687 352 641 1,859 198 443 92 573 1,392 235 615 124 738 1,670 282 1,206 138 966 1,653 322 1,356 153 1,086 1,795 333 26 43 859 563 207 933 77 112 981 803 218 1,229 80 124 1,413 891 239 1,176 67 16 ( M ( M ( M ( M 719 185 894 66 SOURCE: U .S . O ffic e 240 3,438 ( M of School Systems, various issues. E d u c a tio n , Statistics o f State BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS REGIONAL OFFICES Region I Region V 1603 JFK Federal Building Government Center Boston, Mass. 02203 Phone: 223-6762 (Area Code 617) Region II 9th Floor, 230 South Dearborn St. Chicago, III. 60604 Phone: 353-1880 (Area Code 312) Region VI Suite 3400 1515 Broadway New York, N.Y. 10036 Phone: 971-5405 (Area Code 212) 1100 Commerce St., Rm. 6B7 Dallas, Tex. 75202 Phone: 749-3516 (Area Code 214) Regions Vi! and VIII * Region III P.O. Box 13309 Philadelphia, Pa. 19101 Phone: 597-1154 (Area Code 215) Regions IX and X ** Region IV Suite 540 1371 Peachtree St., NE. Atlanta, Ga. 30309 Phone: 526-5418 (Area Code 404) Federal Office Building 911 Walnut St., 15th Floor Kansas City, Mo. 64106 Phone: 374-2481 (Area Code 816) 450 Golden Gate Ave. Box 36017 San Francisco, Calif. 94102 Phone: 556-4678 (Area Code 415) Regions VII and VIII are serviced by Kansas City Regions IX and X are serviced by San Francisco
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