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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR • BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS • Bulletin No. 1635 LABOR in the TEXTILE and APPAREL INDUSTRIES Bulletin No. 1 6 35 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR George P. Shultz, Secretary BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS Ge offrey H. Moore, Commissioner •~ ^ 5 T ' August 1 9 6 9 For sale by the Supe rinte ndent of D ocum e nts, U.S . Governm ent Pr in tin g Office, W as h in g to n , D.C., 20402. P r ic e $1,00 Acknowledgments The report is a product of the Department of Laborfs Bureau of Labor Statistics in consultation with the Bureau of International Labor Affairs. It was prepared under the supervision of H. M. Douty of the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Other principal contributors from the Bureau of Labor Sta tistics were David P. Lafayette (Office of Manpower and Employment Statistics); Edgar Weinberg (Office of Productivity, Technology, and Growth); William M. Davis (Office of Wages and Industrial Relations); and Julian Frechtman (Office of Foreign Labor and Trade). Herbert N. Blackman and Irving I. Kramer of the Bureau of International Labor Affairs contributed signifi cantly to the planning and development of the project. iii Page Summary ............................................ 1 Employment, Unemployment and Labor Turnover....... . 11 A. Textiles.... .................................. 11 Current Employment Situation ................ Employment Trends ........................... Unemployment Trends ......................... Labor Turnover .............................. 11 11 A p p a r e l ...................... ................. 14 Current Employment Situation ................ Employment Trends ........................... Unemployment Trends ......................... Labor Turnover........ ...................... 14 14 15 16 B. Industry Location............ .................. 13 13 17 A. Textiles ...................................... 17 B. Apparel ....................................... 18 Establishment Size ................................. 20 A. Textiles ...................................... 20 B. Apparel ....................................... 20 Labor Force Characteristics: Skill, Education, Race, Sex and A g e ....... ........................... A. Textiles ............... ................... Skill ....................................... Education ................................... Race ........................................ Women Workers ............................... A g e ......................................... v 22 22 22 23 24 25 Content s— Cont inued Page B. V. 25 26 26 27 27 29 29 Operating Characteristics ................... Manpower Utilization ........................ Interplant Differences in Performance ....... Some Factors Affecting IndustryPerformance .. Adjustments to Technological Change ......... 29 29 30 30 34 A p p a r e l ....................................... 35 Operating Characteristics ................... Manpower Utilization ........................ Some Factors Affecting IndustryPerformance .. Adjustments to Technological Change ......... 35 36 36 38 Wages and Industrial Relations ................... 39 A. Textiles ...................................... 39 Wage and Benefit Levels ..................... Wage and Benefit Trends ..................... Industrial Relations ........................ 39 41 42 Apparel ....................................... 44 Wage and Benefit Levels ..................... Wage and Benefit Trends ..................... Industrial Relations ........................ 44 46 47 Textiles and Apparel in Puerto Rico ............... 49 B. Skill ....................................... Education................................... Race ....... Women Workers ............ Age ......................................... Textiles ...................................... B. VII. 25 Technological Change ............................... A. VI. Apparel ....................................... Employment and Unemployment ..................... Size of Establishment ........................... Wage and Benefit Levels ......................... Industrial Relations ............................. vi 49 51 51 53 Contents— Continued Page Statistical Appendix ......................................... Table 1 - Total Employment: Manufacturing, Textiles, and Apparel, 1947 to 1968 .................. Table 2 - Unemployment Rates in Manufacturing, Textiles and Apparel, 1958 to 1968 ............. ..... Table 3 - Labor Turnover Rates: Manufacturing, Tex tiles andApparel* 1958 to 1967 ............. Table 4 - Employment in Textiles, by Region and State, June 1968 .............. Table 5 - Employment in Apparel, by Region and State, March 1968 ................................. Table 6 - Percent Distribution of Employment in Manu facturing, Textiles and Apparel, by Area, First Quarter, 1967 ......................... Table 7 - Percent Distribution of Employment in Textiles in Selected States, by Area, First Quarter, 1967 ....................................... Table 8 - Percent Distribution of Employment in Apparel for Selected States, by Area, First Quarter, 1967 ....................................... Table 9 - Employment in Textiles and Apparel, as Percent of Manufacturing Employment,. by Selected States and Areas,First Quarter, 1967 ....... Table 10- Percent Distribution of Employees, by Employ ment-Size Class, by Selected Industry, First Quarter, 1967 ................. Table 11- Percent Distribution of Establishments, by Employment-Size Class, by Selected Industry, First Quarter, 1967 and 1962 ............... Table 12- Percent Distribution of Employed Workers in Selected Industries, by Broad Occupational Group, 1968 ................................ Table 13- Percent Distribution of Years of School Com pleted by the Experienced Civilian Labor Force in Manufacturing, Textiles, and Apparel, 1960 ....................................... Table 14- Percentage Distribution of Nonwhite Employment in Manufacturing, Textiles and Apparel, by Sex, 1962 to 1968 ............... Table 15- Percent Employment of Negroes in the Textile Industry, by Selected States,1966 ......... Table 16- Percent Employment of Negroes in the Apparel Industry, by Selected States,1966 .......... vii 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 Contents— Cont inued Page Table 17- Employment of Women in Manufacturing and in Textile and Apparel Industries, 1960 and 1967 .......................................... Table 18- Percent Distribution of Employed Persons by Age, Manufacturing, Textiles, and Apparel, 1960 and 1950 ...................................... Table 19- Changes in Average Hourly and Weekly Earnings and Average Weekly Hours of Production Workers in Textile Manufacturing, October 1958 to October 1968 ................ Table 20- Annual Earnings of Workers in the Textile Industry and Selected Branches, 1964 ................... Table 21- Estimated Proportions of Production Workers Earning Less than $2.00 an Hour in Selected Textile Industries, United States and Southeast, October 1968 .................................. Table 22- Paid Holiday Provisions for Production Workers in Selected Textile Industries, United States and Selected Regions .............................. Table 23- Vacation Benefits in Selected Textile Industries, United States and Selected Regions ............ Table 24- Health and Welfare Benefits for Production Workers in Selected Textile Industries, United States and Selected Regions .......................... Table 25- General Wage Increases, Cotton and Synthetic Tex tile Industries, North and South, 1950-68 ..... Table 26- Annual Earnings of Textile Workers, 1946-64 ..... Table 27- Proportion of Workers Covered by Union Agreements in Selected Textile Industries, United States and Selected Regions .......................... Table 28- Membership of the Major Unions in the Textile and Apparel Industries, 1956, 1960, 1964 and 1966 .. Table 29- Work Stoppages in the United States, All Indus tries and Textile, 1956-67 .................... Table 30- Changes in Average Hourly and Weekly Earnings and Average Weekly Hours of Production Workers in Apparel Manufacturing, October 1958 to October 1968 .......................................... Table 31- Annual Earnings of Workers in Apparel Industry and Selected Branches, 1964 ................... Table 32- Average Hourly Earnings in Selected Occupations, Selected Apparel Industries ................... Table 33- Estimated Proportions of Production Workers Earn ing Less than $2.00 an Hour in Selected Apparel Industries, United States and Selected Regions, October 1968 .................................. viii 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 Contents— Continued Page Table 34- Annual Earnings of Apparel Workers, 1946-64 .. Table 35- Major Collective Bargaining Agreements in the Apparel Industry .......................... Table 36- Work Stoppages in the United States, All Industries and Apparel, 1956-67 ........... Table 37- Employment in Puerto Rico in All Manufactur ing, Textiles, and Apparel, 1957-67 ....... Table 38- Employment in Puerto Rico in Selected Textile and Apparel Industries, 1957-67 ........... Table 39- Employment, Underemployment and Unemployment in Puerto Rico, 1957-67 ................... Table 40- Employment and Number of Plants by Plant Size in Puerto Rico in Manufacturing, Textiles, and Apparel, 1957, 1966 and October 1967 ... Table 41- Employment and Number of Plants by Plant Size in Puerto Rico in Manufacturing, Textiles, and Apparel, 1957 and 1966 ................ Table 42- Average Hourly and Weekly Earnings, and Average Weekly Hours, Manufacturing, Tex tiles, and Apparel, Puerto Rico, 1957-67 ... Table 43- Average Hourly Earnings, Textiles and Apparel, Mainland and Puerto Rico, 1957-68 ......... ix 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 L A B O R IN T H E T E X T I L E A N D A P P A R E L IN D U S T R IE S SUMMARY Textiles and apparel are among the oldest manufacturing industries in the United States.!./ Together they employ a significant fraction of the industrial labor force. Each industry consists of a compara tively large number of firms and establishments which are widely dis persed geographically. Either separately or in combination, the two industries account for a sizable proportion of factory employment in numerous small- and medium-sized communities. Employment in apparel is relatively important in several major metropolitan areas. In the United States market, both industries operate generally under condi tions of intense product competition, including competition from im ported yarns, fabrics, and garments from many parts of the world. The purpose of the present report is to summarize available information on labor and related economic conditions in the two indus tries. The data presented are drawn largely from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the Bureau of the Census, and other governmental agencies. Wherever possible, statistics are presented through 1968. It is hoped that the report, aside from such immediate interest as it may have, will provide a convenient source of background information for the appraisal of future labor developments in these industries. 1 / The textile industry, as used in this report, conforms to major industry groups 22 of the Standard Industrial Classification Manual; the apparel industry conforms to major industry group 23. - 2 - Employment and Unemployment During 1968, the textile and apparel industries combined employed an average of 2.4 million workers — in apparel. 985,000 in textiles and 1,417,000 The two industries together accounted for about one-eighth of all manufacturing employment. Employment trends in the two industries differed significantly during the postwar period. Between 1947 and 1968, employment in tex tiles fell by 24 percent, with most of the decline occurring by 1958. The rate of decline slowed between 1958 and 1963 and was reversed in 1964 under the stimulus of rapid national economic growth. In the case of apparel, employment was almost 23.percent greater in 1968 than in 1947, with much of the increase occurring after 1961. In manufac turing as a whole, employment was about 27 percent greater in 1968 than in 1947. The ratio of employment in apparel to that in all manufacturing— 7.2 percent in 1968 -i- has not changed markedly during the postwar period; on the other hand, the textile proportion declined from more than 8 percent in the late 1940's to 5 percent in 1968. The unemployment rate in textiles generally has been somewhat higher than the manufacturing rate in recent years, and the rate in the apparel industry has been significantly higher. In 1968, average unemployment rates in manufacturing, textiles, and apparel were 3.2, 3.5, and 5.9, respectively. - 3 Labor Turnover Labor turnover rates (accessions and separations) have been sub stantially higher in apparel than in manufacturing as a whole since 1958, when these data first became available; in textiles, both separa tion and accession rates were lower than in manufacturing generally until 1965. The quit rate in both textiles and apparel has risen dur ing the past several years, suggesting that alternative employment opportunities have widened. Industry Location The apparel industry is somewhat less concentrated regionally than the textile industry. Almost 70 percent of the textile labor force was employed in the South in 1968, and the remainder was found largely in the Northeast. More than half of all textile employment was accounted for by the three States of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. To a highly unusual extent among manufacturing industries, tex tile employment is found in small communities. In 1967, the most recent year for which these data are available, about 61 percent of the tex tile workers were employed in nonmetropolitan areas. textile States the proportion was considerably higher. In some major For example, the proportion of textile employment in nonmetropolitan areas was 70 percent in Georgia, 77 percent in South Carolina, and 86 percent in North Carolina. Textiles provided somewhat more than half of all factory jobs in nonmetropolitan areas in North and South Carolina, - 4 and about one-third in Georgia. Additionally, textiles provided one-fourth or more of all manufacturing jobs in a substantial number of metropolitan areas. The industry is thus of critical importance in the economic life of many small and of some larger communities. Regionally, about 46 percent of apparel employment in 1968 was in the Northeast, 36 percent in the South, almost 11 percent in the North Central States, and the remainder in the West. urban industry than textiles. Apparel is more of an It is, of course, a major source of fac tory jobs in New York City, and a significant source of employment in a number of other large communities. However, about one-third of apparel employment is found in nonmetropolitan areas. In fact, apparel accounted for more than 15 percent of all factory jobs in the nonmetropolitan areas of six States: Pennsylvania, Missouri, Georgia, Tennessee, Alabama and Mississippi. The two industries combined account for a very high proportion of all manufacturing jobs in some States. In South Carolina, for example, about 58 percent of manufacturing employment is found in these two indus tries; in North Carolina the proportion is almost half. Even in the industrially diversified State of New York, textiles and apparel combined provide more than 18 percent of manufacturing employment. Establishment Size Both industries consist of large numbers of establishments — in 1967, textile establishments numbered 7,083 and apparel establishments 25,498.2/ The two industries combined accounted for about 11 percent of all manufacturing establishments. 2/ Based on Bureau of the Census, County Business Patterns. 1967. - 5 In terms of establishment-size distribution by number of employees, textiles conformed much more closely than apparel to manufacturing as a whole. In 1967, 46 percent of the workers in manufacturing were em ployed in establishments with 500 or more employees. The proportion of workers in textiles in this establishment-size group was 45 percent and in apparel only 17 percent. On the other hand, almost 38 percent of the workers in apparel were in establishments with fewer than 100 em ployees; the proportion for textiles was approximately 15 percent. small establishments are numerous in both industries. Very In textiles, 37 percent of the establishments employed fewer than 19 workers; in apparel, 49 percent of the establishments were in this employment-size class. The proportion of total employment in these small establishments, how ever, was only 2.3 percent in textiles and 6.4 percent in apparel. Labor Force Characteristics a. Skill. Both the textile and apparel industries have unusually high proportions of semi-skilled (operatives and kindred) workers — 67 percent in textiles and 78 percent in apparel. about These proportions re flect the nature of the production processes in the two industries, prin cipally the existence of large numbers of highly specialized operations. In manufacturing generally, about 44 percent of the employees are in the semi-skilled category. Skilled workers account for about 12 percent of the employed labor force in textiles, 5 percent in apparel, and almost 19 percent in manufacturing as a whole. b. Education. The educational attainment of workers in both in dustries, on the average, is below the level in manufacturing generally. - 6 - In 1960, the latest year for which this information is available, the median years of schooling completed by textile workers was slightly less than 8.0; by apparel workers, 9.7; and by workers in manufacturing as a whole, 11.0. c. Race. In textiles, in 1968, whites constituted 90.5, and non whites 9.5 percent, of total employment. facturing generally was 9.7 percent. The nonwhite proportion in manu The proportion of nonwhite employ ment in textiles doubled between 1962 and 1968 for a relatively greater gain than in manufacturing as a whole, and the upward trend appears to be continuing into 1969. In absolute numbers, nonwhites held about 55,000 more jobs in textiles in 1968 than in 1962. By State, nonwhite employment in textiles in 1966, the most recent year for which State data are available, ranged from 2 percent in Massachusetts to 13 percent in New Jersey. In the important textile States of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, the range was from 8 to 10 percent. In recent years, the employment of nonwhites has been proportionately greater in apparel than in manufacturing generally. Between 1962 and 1968, nonwhite workers increased from 9.3 to 12.7 percent of apparel em ployment — a somewhat slower rate of increase than in textiles but greater than for all manufacturing. Preliminary data for early 1969 indicate that the nonwhite employment ratio continues to grow. In some labor markets, the apparel industry employs large numbers of workers of other minority groups, notably Puerto Ricans in New York City and Cubans in Miami. By State, nonwhite employment in 1966 ranged from 4 percent in Tennessee to 16 percent in South Carolina. The rate was 10 percent in New York. - 7 d. Sex, The employment of women in both industries is relatively much greater than in manufacturing as a whole. In 1967, women consti^ tuted about 45 percent of the labor force in textiles, compared with approximately 27 percent in all manufacturing. The proportion of women employees in apparel is extraordinarily high — almost 80 percent. The occupational requirements of these industries are such as to make each a major source of factory employment for women. e. Age. In 1960, the median age of workers in manufacturing gen erally was 39.5 years. higher — The median age in textiles was only moderately 40.7 years, largely reflecting the somewhat greater proportion of workers over 44 years of age (39 percent in textiles compared with 35 percent in all manufacturing). The median age level of workers in apparel was 41.7 years, the high est for any major manufacturing industry. About 41 percent of the apparel workers were over 44 years of age in 1960, and a relatively high propor tion — 9.1 percent — were over 59 years. The relatively high proportion of women in the textile and apparel labor force probably has an effect on age distribution in these industries. Women tend to leave the labor force at about 25 years of age and to return soon after age 40, when family responsibilities become less burdensome. In the case of textiles, contracting employment during the 1950fs presum ably affected age composition. In apparel, the seasonal nature of the industry may provide an opportunity for some older workers to supplement their retirement incomes by employment during peak seasons. - 8 - Technological Change During the past few years heavy capital expenditures in the tex tile industry have been made for the modernization of plant and equip ment, and for additional capacity. Such expenditures are estimated at $4.6 billion over the period 1964-68. Improved managerial capacity and changes in industry organization also have affected manpower utiliza tion. Although definitive data on productivity are lacking, man-hour output appears to have advanced substantially in recent years. Levels of performance among plants within the industry differ widely, reflect ing differences in capital investment, age of equipment, plant size, and other factors. In apparel, the scope for technological improvement and innovation appears more limited^ than in textiles. The industry1s expenditures in recent years for new plant and equipment, although increasing, have been among the lowest per production worker among manufacturing industries. Research and development expenditures are on a small scale. The tech nology of apparel manufacture is comparatively simple and highly labor intensive. The capital-labor ratio in apparel, based on 1963 data, was about one-half of the ratio for textile mill products and about one-fourth of the all manufacturing ratio. While intense competition results in severe pressure on costs, advances in mechanization remain difficult for the typical apparel firm. The tendency for production runs to be short complicates the problem. The use of mass production methods of standardization, simplification, - 9 and specialization is limited by the demands of fashion for frequent changes of style* Reliance is placed largely on improved production engineering techniques and on comparatively small improvements in equipment to enhance efficiency in the use of manpower. Wages and Industrial Relations Production workers in textiles had straight-time average hourly earnings of about $2.15 in October 1968; including premium pay for overtime, earnings were $2.27 an hour. Weekly earnings averaged $94.00. Some sectors within the broad industry group had relatively large propor tions of workers below the $1.60 Federal minimum wage, which was intro duced February 1, 1968. Employee benefits, such as paid holidays, vaca tions, and insurance and pension plans, tend to be less liberal in textiles than in manufacturing generally. Wage adjustments have accelerated in the textile industry in recent years. Six rounds of wage increases in southern textile mills occurred between 1963 and 1968. The first four each amounted to about 5 percent; the 1967 increase was 6 to 6 1/2 percent; and the 1968 adjustment aver aged about 6 percent. Wages continued upward in 1969. Unionization is not extensive in the dominant southern division of the textile industry. The incidence of industrial disputes has been com paratively low in recent years. In apparel, production workers averaged $2.22 an hour in straight-time wages in October 1968; the addition of premium overtime pay raises the average by 5 cents. Average weekly earnings were about $83.00. As in - 10 - textiles, wages in some sectors of the apparel industry were signifi cantly affected by the $1.60 Federal minimum wage. The length of the standard workweek in major divisions of the women's apparel industry is 35 hours; in men's apparel, the standard is typically 40 hours. Average actual weekly hours are subject to seasonal variation, but in recent years have tended to fall below the level in manufacturing generally. Employee benefit provisions vary considerably among industries in the apparel group. The pace of wage adjustments in apparel began to quicken in 1965. Unionization is more extensive than in textiles, although some segments of apparel are not well organized. Work stoppages have not been exten sive in recent years. Puerto Rico Average factory employment in textiles in Puerto Rico exceeded 7,000 workers in 1968; in apparel the average was 37,000. The two indus tries combined accounted for almost one-third of all factory employment on the Island. Puerto Rican textile employment was about 0.7 percent of textile employment on the mainland; in apparel, the proportion was about 2.6 percent. In 1968, average hourly earnings in the Puerto Rican textile indus try were $1.45 and in apparel $1.44. In percentage terms, wage differ entials between Puerto Rico and the mainland have declined in both indus tries over the past decade; in cents-per-hour terms, differentials have widened somewhat in the past several years. - I. 11 - EMPLOYMENT, UNEMPLOYMENT AND LABOR TURNOVER A. Textiles Current Employment Situation Employment in textile mills averaged 985,000 workers in 1968, when the industry accounted for 5.0 percent of manufacturing em ployment. This represented an increase of about 2.9 percent over average employment during 1967. During the same period, employment in manufacturing as a whole increased by 1.5 percent. The unemployment rate in textiles decreased from 3.8 to 3.5 percent between 1967 and 1968, while the rate in all manufacturing declined from 3.6 to 3.2 percent. The quit rate in textiles was slightly higher in November 1968 than in the corresponding month of 1967 — 3.1 as against 2.8 — , possibly signifying that alternative employment opportunities for textile workers had experienced some improvement. However, the rate for new hires was about the same in November of both years, suggest ing that the demand for workers had not altered. Employment Trends In 1967, nearly half of the total employment in textile mills was divided almost equally between the two largest industry groups— cotton broad woven fabrics and knit goods (including hosiery, fabric, outerwear and underwear)• Three other industry groups combined— yarn and thread, silk and synthetic broad woven fabrics, and finishing textiles (except wool and knit)— accounted for nearly one-third of all workers. The four remaining industry groups— weaving and finish ing broad woolens, floor covering, narrow fabrics and smallwares, and miscellaneous textile goods— together employed one-fifth of the indus t r y ^ workers. Employment in textile manufacturing establishments fell from about 1,300,000 in 1947 to approximately 985,000 in 1968, or by about 24 per cent (Appendix table 1). During the same period, total manufacturing employment rose by 27 percent, to an all-time high of 19.7 million. As a result, the proportion of manufacturing employment accounted for by textiles fell from 8.4 percent to 5.0 percent. Most of the decline in employment in the textile industry took place between 1947 and 1958. Among the factors leading to this decline in textile employment was a reorganization of the industry into larger, more efficient enter prises. The favorable business climate during the years immediately 12 after World War II led to considerable over-capacity, which in turn created intense price competition among the small firms then dominat ing the industry. This climate encouraged mergers and the continued migration of the industry to the South. The larger, more modern capital-intensive plants in the South tended to reduce labor require ments in the industry over the period. Other factors contributing to reduced employment in the industry included the widespread acceptance and increased output of synthetic fabrics, for which production processes were generally more highly automatic than those used to manufacture textiles from natural fibers. Imports of textile products also increased over the period, having some influence on employment. Between 1958 and 1963, employment in textile mills continued to decline, but at a slower rate. The rapid growth of the economy in the early 1960fs blunted this decline, and in 1964 textile employment began to increase. Further stimulated by the Vietnam conflict, employment rose between 1964 and 1968 by about 100,000 employees. The only other period in the postwar era when the textile industry experienced employ ment growth of more than a yearfs duration was during the 1945-48 boom. Employment rose in seven of the nine textile mill industry groups between 1958 and 1967 .U However, significant employment declines in the two remaining groups— cotton broad woven goods and wool weaving and finishing— nearly^ offset these gains. Rising production and use of syn thetic fabrics, as well as increasing consumer acceptance of blended synthetic and natural fiber fabrics, resulted in decreased demand for fabrics made solely of cotton or wool. As a result, employment in cot ton and wool textile mills has tended to decline. Employment in the second largest industry subgroup, knitting, de clined between 1947 and 1958, from 242,000 to a low of 207,000. The introduction of nylon seamless hosiery after World War II contributed importantly to the decline, since the equipment used to make seamless hosiery was more automatic than that which it replaced. Nevertheless, by 1967 employment in knitting mills had returned to the level of the early 1950fs, and accounted for about one-fourth of total industry employment, compared to less than one-fifth in 1947. This recent growth has been stimulated by increasing consumer preference for casual wear, including knitted outerwear such as shirts and sweaters. 1/ BLS employment (payroll) data prior to 1958 are available separately for only three industry groups— knitting; yarn and thread; and finishing textiles (except wool and knit). - 13 Unemployment Trends Textile workers experienced a relatively high rate of unemployment between 1958 and 1968 (Appendix table 2). The unemployment rate for textile workers was somewhat higher than that for all manufacturing for every year between 1958 and 1968, except 1961 and 1962, but there is no evidence of any significant change in the relationship over the years. The percentage of the textile labor force that was unemployed ranged from a high of 9.5 in 1958, to a low of 3.5 in 1968. The high unemployment rates in the late 1950fs undoubtedly reflected the sharp decline in textile employment during the decade ending in 1958, which left a relatively large pool of unemployed experienced tex tile workers. However, by 1968, many of these workers had either moved to other industries or had been absorbed back into textile employment in the tight labor markets of 1966-68. In recent years, some textile manufacturers appear to have experienced labor shortages, especially of male skilled workers. During 1968, the unemployment rate for male textile workers averaged 1.7 percent for the year. This was 0.7 of a percentage point lower than the unemployment rate for all male manu facturing workers in that year. Labor Turnover Separation rates in textile mills rose significantly between 1958 and 1967 (Appendix table 3). Although the layoff rate in 1967 was less than half the rate in 1958, the quit rate was more than 2 1/2 times higher. In 1967, the quit rate was higher in textile mills than in all manufacturing. The high quit rates and low layoff rates in the textile industry in recent years appear to indicate that the industryfs workers found alternative job opportunities increasingly abundant over the 1958 to 1967 period. Many of the industryfs workers probably shifted to higher paying jobs, either in other industries or in other textile mills. The accession rate2J in the textile industry also rose substantially during the 1958-67 period, reflecting increaising labor requirements and the availability of additional workers. Many of the accessions during this period of growing employment probably represented workers moving from one textile establishment to another in search of more attractive jobs. 2/ The rate at which employees are hired - 14 B. Apparel Current Employment Situation In the apparel industry, an average of 1,417,000 workers were employed in 1968, an increase of 1,2 percent over 1967. The employ ment increase in manufacturing as a whole was 1.5 percent, as pre viously indicated. The apparel industry accounted for 7.2 percent of manufacturing employment in 1968, down from 7.5 percent in 1965. The unemployment rate in apparel fell from 6.5 percent in 1967 to 5.9 percent in 1968. This was the lowest unemployment rate in the industry over the past decade. It remained, however, ‘substan tially higher than the rate for all manufacturing. Voluntary quits in the apparel industry were at the same rate in November of both 1967 and 1968. Total accession and separation rates were slightly lower in November 1968 than a year earlier. In apparel, as in textiles, no unusual change in the employment picture was evident as 1968 came to an end. Employment Trends In the apparel industry, more than 35 percent of the workers in 1967 were engaged in making clothing for men and boys, about 30 per cent produced womenfs outerwear, and 12 percent turned out fabricated textile products, such as curtains and housefurnishings. The remain ing workers (about 22 percent) were employed in establishments making women1s and childrenfs undergarments; girls1 and children’s outerwear; hats, caps, and millinery; and fur goods and miscellaneous apparel. Employment in apparel manufacturing establishments increased from less than 1,200,000 to more than 1,400,000 between 1947 and 1968 (Ap pendix table 1). Apparel industry employment increased at the same average rate as all manufacturing over the period. However, signifi cantly different growth rates were experienced by the industry from year to year. During the late 1940fs and throughout most of the 1950fs, the industry’s employment remained relatively stable, fluc tuating between 1,150,000 and 1,250,000 workers. Not until 1962, how ever, did apparel employment again achieve the high level reached in 1953, about 1,250,000 workers. Since 1958, apparel employment has increased by more than 250,000, or by more than one-fifth, only slightly less than the average growth for manufacturing as a whole. Employment change varied considerably among the different apparel industry groups between 1947 and 1967, reflecting such factors as - 15 changes in the age composition of the population and the trend toward casual wear. Employment increased most rapidly (nearly 50 percent) in the industry group producing girls1, children*s, and infants1 out erwear. This rise was stimulated mainly by the increasing proportion of children in the population. Moreover, employment in the industry group manufacturing women1s, misses1, and juniorfs outerwear-rose by 25 percent during this period. Another industry group with more than a proportionate growth in employment was menfs and boys1 furnishings, which increased by about 40 percent. In contrast, the industry group manufacturing menfs and boys* suits and coats suffered an employment decline of nearly 15 percent, reflecting the relative decline in popularity of formal wear. The most rapid increase in apparel industry employment between 1958 and 1967— ' occurred in miscellaneous fabricated textile products, whose products include curtains, draperies, and other textile house furnishings, where demand was stimulated by the growing number of young adults establishing new households. Unemployment Trends In the apparel industry, unemployment rates have been significantly above the level for all manufacturing in recent years, ranging from a high of 12.0 in 1958 to a low of 5.9 in 1968 (Appendix table 2). During this period the unemployment rate for apparel workers as well as all manufacturing workers fluctuated with changes in economic conditions; the rapid growth of the economy since 1961 has been reflected in sig nificantly lower rates for both manufacturing and apparel. Neverthe less, the general nature of the apparel industry— many small firms, an easy-to-train labor force composed mostly of women, seasonality and other characteristics— has resulted in significantly higher unemploy ment rates for apparel workers than for other workers, even in periods of strong demand for apparel products. In addition, the ratio of ap parel unemployment to that of all manufacturing has tended to rise in the past few years, mainly because the apparel rate has not fallen as rapidly as that of all manufacturing. This could indicate an inability of apparel workers to find alternative employment opportunities as easily as manufacturing workers in general. However, it could also indicate that the "frictional11 unemployment rate in the apparel industry is con siderably higher than in manufacturing, due mainly to the nature of the industry and its labor force. Consequently, it may be very difficult to achieve an unemployment rate in apparel corresponding at all closely with the rate for manufacturing as a whole, even in periods of high-level activity. 3/ BLS employment (payroll) data prior to 1958 are not available separately for three industry groups— miscellaneous fabricated textile products; fur goods and miscellaneous apparel; and hats, caps, and millinery. Labor Turnover Separation rates in the apparel industry, unlike in textile mills, rose little between 1958 and 1967 (Appendix table 3). However, the quit rate in the industry in 1967 was significantly higher than in 1958, indicating expanding job opportunities for the industryfs workforce. Throughout the period, however, separation rates in the apparel indus try have been considerably higher than in manufacturing generally, indicating relative instability in the industry. Much of this instabil ity can be traced to the existence of numerous small firms, and the high rate of business mortality for such operations. In addition, seasonal fluctuations in activity, and the high proportion of women workers would tend to result in relatively high separation rates. - 17 II. INDUSTRY LOCATION A. Textiles Regionally, the textile industry is heavily concentrated in the South and the Northeast. In 1968, almost 70 percent of the industryfs workers were employed in the Southern States (Appendix table 4). Three Southern States— North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia— accounted for more than half of textile employment. The Northeast, however, also employed large numbers of textile workers, accounting for more than one-fourth of the industryfs employment in 1968. Within the Northeast, New York and Pennsylvania had particularly large concentrations of tex tile workers (6 and 7 percent, respectively). The North Central and Pacific States together accounted for less than 5 percent of the indus try’s workers. The textile industry is predominately located outside metropolitan areas, unlike the typical manufacturing industry. In 1967, 61 percent of the industry’s employment was located in nonmetropolitan areas, as compared with about 21 percent of manufacturing employment (Appendix table 6). However, this proportion varies greatly by region and State (Appendix table 7). In the Northeast, textile employment in nonmetro politan areas ranged from 2 percent in Massachusetts to 29 percent in Pennsylvania. In the South, however, most of the industry is located in nonmetropolitan areas. In the three Southern States containing over half the industry’s workers, employment in nonmetropolitan areas ranged from 70 percent in Georgia to 86 percent in North Carolina. Employment in 1967 in textiles and apparel, and in the two indus tries combined, as percentages of manufacturing employment, is shown in Appendix table 9 for selected States!/ and, within these States, for all metropolitan areas, for selected specific metropolitan areas, and for nonmetropolitan areas. These data are highly significant, for they show the great importance of these industries as a source of employment in many areas. Together, the two industries account for more than 12 per cent of total manufacturing employment. The textile industry alone in 1967 provided almost 5 percent of employment in manufacturing as a whole. In South Carolina, the industry accounted for 46 percent of all-jobs in manufacturing, and for slightly more than half of the factory jobs in the State’s nonmetropolitan areas. In North Carolina, the proportions were 41 percent for the State as a whole and 47 percent for nonmetropolitan areas. About a quarter of all factory jobs in Georgia were in textiles, including almost a third of those in nonmetropolitan areas. 1 / The selected States represent 84 percent of total textile employment • - 18 - In a substantial number of specific metropolitan areas, textile employment represents 25 percent or more of all jobs in manufacturing. Such areas include Fayetteville, Greensboro-High Point, and WinstonSalem in North Carolina; Auguste and Greenville in South Carolina; and Albany, Columbus, and Macon in Georgia. Textile industry payrolls are of particular importance to the economic health of many small communities in nonmetropolitan areas. Such communities, because of their relatively small size, their depen dence on textile production, and their lack of industrial diversifica tion may be adversely affected to a more marked extent than large areas by significant changes in textile output and employment. B. Apparel The apparel industry is somewhat less concentrated regionally than the textile industry. In 1968, about 46 percent of the apparel workers were employed in the Northeast, mostly in New York and Pennsylvania (Appendix table 5)• The South accounted for 36 percent and the North Central States for 11 percent of the industryfs workers. Within these two regions, however, no State accounted for more than 5 percent of total apparel employment. More than 6 percent of apparel industry employment was found in the West, with the largest concentration in California. In terms of metropolitan areas, the location of the apparel indus try more nearly than textiles approximates that of manufacturing as a whole (Appendix table 6). In 1967, about 35 percent of the apparel industry’s workers were employed outside metropolitan areas, as com pared with about 21 percent of manufacturing employment. In the South, however, as in the case of textiles, the apparel industry is located predominantly in nonmetropolitan areas (Appendix table 8). The data in Appendix table 92J show the great importance of apparel employment in 1967 in several major metropolitan areas— notably New York City, where apparel accounted for almost one-fourth of all jobs in manufacturing, and Jersey City, where the proportion was about 17 percent. It was also highly significant in a number of smaller metro politan areas in both the North and South— for example, in Atlantic City, New Jersey, where apparel contributed 40 percent of manufacturing jobs; Binghamton, New York-Pennsylvania, 21 percent; Johnstown, Penn sylvania, 20 percent; Scranton and Wilkes-Barre-Hazleton, Pennsylvania, 32 and 38 percent, respectively; Wilmington, North Carolina, 22 percent; Greenville, South Carolina, 17 percent; and El Paso and Laredo, Texas, 57 and 24 percent, respectively. 2/ The table contains data for States with about 83 percent of total apparel employment. - 19 In nonmetropolitan areas, apparel employment constituted a sig nificant proportion of total manufacturing employment in many of the selected States represented in Appendix table 9. In fact, the pro portion exceeded 10 percent in 10 of the 14 selected States, and 20 percent in 4 of those States. These figures clearly suggest that apparel manufacture constitutes a major source of employment in many small communities over a broad geographic area. - III. 20 - E S T A B L I S H M E N T SIZE A. Textiles The dis t r i b u t i o n of textile w o r k e r s by size of e s t a b l i s h m e n t did not differ m a r k e d l y in 1967 from the d i s t r i b u t i o n for m a n u f a c t u r i n g as a w h o l e (Appendix table 10). A somewhat g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n of t e x tile w o r k e r s w ere employed in e s t a b l i s h m e n t s w i t h 100 to 499 w o r k e r s than in manuf a c t u r i n g , and a sligh t l y s m aller p r o p o r t i o n in e s t a b l i s h m e n t s w i t h 1 to 99 employees. A b o u t the same p r o p o r t i o n of the i n d u s try's w o r k e r s (45 percent) w e r e e m p l o y e d in large e s t a b l i s h m e n t s w i t h 500 or m o r e workers. The a v e ra g e textile mill, however, w a s c o n s i d e r ably larger than the average m a n u f a c t u r i n g plant. A l m o s t t wo-thirds of all m a n u f a c t u r i n g establis h m e n t s in 1967 e m p l o y e d 19 or f ewer w o r k ers, w h e r e a s in textiles only 37 per c e n t of the e s t a b l i s h m e n t s w e r e of this size (Appendix table 11). T e xtile m i l l s w e r e almost three times as l ikely to have 500 or m o r e e mployees than m a n u f a c t u r i n g plants in 1966. One reason for the rela t i v e l y large size of textile p l a n t s is that long p r o d u c t i o n runs are p o s s i b l e for m a n y of the p r o d u c t s of the industry. M a n u f a c t u r i n g p lants that h a v e long runs of s t a n d a r d i z e d produ c t s tend to be large in size. M u c h of the output of the i n d u s t r y is sold to other m a n u f a c t u r e r s for fur t h e r fabrication. In contrast, m a n y m a n u f a c t u r i n g industries, e s p e c i a l l y those selling a large p r o p o r t i o n of their products to consumers, cannot so r e a d i l y take a d v a n tage of economies oir scale. A n o t h e r r e a s o n for the r e l a t i v e l y large size of textile plants is that it is r e l a t i v e l y simple to shift p r o d u c tion runs among types of b l e n d e d fabrics. A trend toward l a r g er-size es t a b l i s h m e n t s exists in m a n u f a c t u r i n g generally. Bet w e e n 1962 and 1967, a p e r i o d of r apid e c o n o m i c growth, the p r o p o r t i o n of textile estab l i s h m e n t s w i t h 1 to 19 em p l o y e e s fell 2.9 p e r c e n t a g e points. A similar d e c l i n e o c c u r r e d in m a n u f a c t u r i n g as a whole. In b o t h m a n u f a c t u r i n g and textiles the recent trend in e s t a b lishment size is in the d i r e c t i o n of pl a n t s w i t h 250 or m o r e employees. B e t w e e n 1962 and 1967, textile p l ants w i t h 250 or m o r e w o r k e r s incr e a s e d from 12.6 percent to 14.4 per c e n t of the total. In m a n u f a c t u r i n g the increase of these l arger-size p l a n t s w a s from 4 to 4.8 percent. B. Apparel In the apparel industry, the d i s t r i b u t i o n of w o r k e r s b y size of e s t a blishment is consid e r a b l y diff e r e n t t han in m a n u f a c t u r i n g . Ap p a rel w o r k e r s are m u c h m o r e l ik e l y to be e m p l o y e d in small e s t a b l i s h m e n t s w i t h b e t w e e n 20 and 99 w o r k e r s (Appendix table 10). In 1967, - 21 almost one-third of the industry's w o r k e r s w e r e e m p l o y e d in these small establishments, as compare d w i t h less than o n e - f i f t h in m a n u facturing. Moreover, only 1 of every 6 w o r k e r s in the apparel ind u s try w a s employed in establishmen t s w i t h 500 or m o r e workers, as c o m p a r e d w i t h almost 1 of every 2 w o r k e r s in m a n u f a c t u r i n g generally. A p p a r e l plants tend to be rel a t i v e l y small for reasons the reverse of those m a k i n g for c o m parativel y large plants in textiles. Apparel plants p r oduce a great v a r i e t y of products, w i t h fashion and de s i g n an important ingredient. P r o d u c t i o n runs are t y p i cally short. M oreover, t echnology in the apparel industry is simple. O f t e n all that is n e e d e d to set up a plant is an idea and a small i n v estment in equipment. Many employers b e gin p r o d u c t i o n w i t h only an investment in m a t e r i a l inven tories by u tilizing the facilities of apparel i ndustry contractors. As in m a n u f a c t u r i n g and in the textile industry, apparel plants are becom i n g larger, but the trend is not as p r o n o u n c e d in a p parel as in m a n u fac turing, and c o nsiderab l y less so than in the textile industry. In 1967, a slightly larger p r o p o r t i o n of apparel plan t s emplo y e d b e t w e e n 20 and 99 workers than in 1962 (Appendix table 11). The p r o p o r t i o n of plants w i t h 1 to 19 workers declined almost 3 p e r c e n t a g e points (from 51.8 to 49.1 percent), whe r e a s those w i t h m o r e than 250 employees in creased from 3.0 to 4.2 percent of the total. T h e s e statistics seem to indicate that w i t h the current state of techno l o g y and industry practice, rela t i v e l y small 20-99 e m p l o y ee - s i z e plants r epresent the pr e d o m i n a n t standard for the industry. There is some tende n c y toward the g r o w t h of large plants, and the very small plant is d eclining in importance. The a b s olute n u m b e r of est a b l ishments in the apparel and textile industries is impressive. In 1967, apparel esta b l i s h m e n t s n u m b e r e d 25,498 and textile establishment s 7,083. The two industries combined a c counted for about 11 percent of all m a n u f a c t u r i n g establishments.!.' 1j The data are f rom Bure a u of the Census, Co u n t y Business P a t t e r n s . 1 9 6 7 . Technically, the n u m b e r s refer to "reporting unit s " w h i c h for m a n u f a c t u r i n g are c o n c e p t u a l l y i d e n tical w i t h " e s t a b l i s h m e n t s " as used in censuses of ma nufactures. - IV. 22 L A B O R FORCE CHARAC TERISTICS: SKILL, EDUCATION, RACE, SEX A N D A G E A. Tex t i l e s Skill Tex t i l e m i l l s h a v e a hig h p r o p o r t i o n of se m i s k i l l e d w o r k e r s for a m a n u f a c t u r i n g i ndustry (Appendix table 12). In 1968, t w o - t h i r d s of the industry's w o r k force w e r e c l a s s i f i e d as operat i v e s , as c o m p a r e d w i t h less than 45 percent in all m a n u f a c t u r i n g . The proportions of textile m i l l w o r k e r s in the r e m a i n i n g b l u e collar o c c u p a t i o n s — craf t s m e n and l a b orers— w e r e b e l o w the a v e r a g e for m a n u f a c t u r i n g . Blu e col l a r wor k e r s as a w h o l e m a d e up almost 85 p e r c e n t of emplo y m e n t in the i ndustry in 1968, as c om p a r e d w i t h o n l y about 70 p e r c e n t in manufacturing. W h i t e collar work e r s (professional and technical, m a n a g e r s and officials, clerical and sales) m a d e up about 14 p e r c e n t of emplo y m e n t in textiles in 1968. In the same year, w h i t e collar w o r k e r s in m a n u facturing m a d e up about 30 per c e n t of total employment. The small share of jobs hel d by p r o f e s s i o n a l w o r k e r s is one r e a s o n for the l ow p r o p o r t i o n of w h ite collar w o r k e r s in textiles. The p r o p o r t i o n of p r o f e s s i o n a l work e r s w a s four times h i g h e r in m a n u f a c t u r i n g (almost 10 percent) than in textile m i l l s (about 3 percent). F e w scientists, engineers, and technicians w e r e e m p l o y e d in the industry, r e f l e c t i n g the r e l a t i v e l y l o w e mphasis on r e s e a r c h and development. The h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n of se m i s k i l l e d w o r k e r s in the t e xtile i n d u s try is m a i n l y a result of the n a t u r e of the p r o d u c t i o n process. Al though h i g h l y mechanized, the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of wool, cotton, and s yn thetic fibers into y a r n and fabric involves m a n y d i s c r e t e operations, w h i c h require large n u m b e r s of m a c h i n e tenders. A l t h o u g h ski l l levels h a v e b e e n rising in the textile i n d u s t r y in recent years, less skilled w o r k e r s w i l l c ontinue to m a k e up a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h p r o p o r t i o n of the industry's w o r k force in the f o r e s e e a b l e future. Education The educational a t t ainmen t level of textile m i l l w o r k e r s w a s si g n i f i c a n t l y lower than that of m a n u f a c t u r i n g w o r k e r s in 1960 (Appendix table 13). The m e d i a n school yea r s comp l e t e d for textile w o r k e r ^ w as slightly less than 8.0 in 1960, as compa r e d w i t h 11.0 in m a n u f a c t u r i n g . The textile industry had a hig h e r p r o p o r t i o n of w o r k e r s w i t h 7 or fewer yea r s of education, and a small e r p r o p o r t i o n of w o r k e r s w i t h 4 y e a r s of h i g h school- or 1 or m o r e years of college. M a n y c h a r a c t eristics of the t e xtile w o r k force c o n t r i b u t e to the l o w edu c a t i o n a l a t tainment in the industry. T h e ski l l r e q u i r e m e n t s of - 23 the industry are r e latively low. The h i g h p r o p o r t i o n of opera t i v e s contributes s ignificantly to the low educ a t i o n a l attainment, as does the c omparatively small p r o p o r t i o n of p r o f e s s i o n a l and t echnical workers, who typically h ave some college education. The textile w o r k force also tends to be older than that of the typical m a n u f a c t u r i n g industry, further contributing to the l ow e d u c a tional attainment. More over, the industry is largely lo cated ou t s i d e m e t r o p o l i t a n areas. In general, u rban dwellers tend to h a v e h i g h e r ed u c a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t than n o n - u r b a n residents. A n ind i c a t i o n of the i m p o r t a n c e of the c o n t r i b u tion of factors other than skill level to ed u c a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t is that operatives (n.e.c.), w h o m a d e up almost ha l f of the i n d u s t r y ’s w o r k e r s in 1960, h a d an aver a g e educa t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t of 8.5 years, whe r e a s operatives (n.e.c.) in m a n u f a c t u r i n g h a d 9.4 years. Race In 1968, non w h i t e workers, as A p p e n d i x table 14 shows, m a d e up about the same pro p o r t i o n of employ m e n t in text i l e m i l l s (9.5 percent) as in m a n u f a c t u r i n g (9.7 percent). N o n w h i t e women, however, he l d a larger p r o p o r t i o n of the jobs in textiles (3.6 percent) than in m a n u facturing (2.6 percent). For n o n w h i t e men, the s i t u a t i o n w a s reversed; a lower p r o p o r t i o n of employment in t e xtile m i l l s w a s compo s e d of n o n whi t e m e n (6.0 percent) than in m a n u f a c t u r i n g (7.1 percent). In recent years, the p r o p o r t i o n of n o n w h i t e w o r k e r s has b e e n in c r e a s i n g in the textile industry, signaling some b r e a k i n g d own of em ployment barriers. B e t w e e n 1962 and 1968, the p r o p o r t i o n of n o n w h i t e w o m e n in textiles m o r e than tripled, from 1.1 to 3.6 percent. The change represents an increase of about 30,000 jobs over the period. Nonwhite m e n also increased their share of jobs in the industry in the same p e r iod, from about 3.7 to 6.0 percent. T aken together, n o n w h i t e m e n and w o m e n held about 55,000 m o r e jobs in textile m i l l s in 1968 than in 1962. Over the 6-year period, gains for n o n w h i t e w o m e n w e r e steady, w h e r e a s m o s t of the increase for n o n w h i t e m e n o c c u r r e d after 1965. Although increased p a r t i c i p a t i o n of n o n w h i t e s was typical t h r oughout m a n u f a c t u r ing during the period, the trend w a s m o r e p r o n o u n c e d in textiles. Be tween 1962 and 1968, the p r o p o r t i o n of n o n w h i t e w o r k e r s i n c r e a s e d from 7.4 to 9.7 percent in m a n u f actur i n g , as compa r e d w i t h a g a i n of f rom 4.8 percent to 9.5 percent in textiles. The u p w a r d trend a p pears to be continuing into 1969. Several factors m a y hav e c o n t r i b u t e d to the recent n o n w h i t e gains in employm ent in textiles. The h i g h level of e c onomic a c t i v i t y in recent years m a y have encour a g e d s ome w h i t e t e x t i l e w o r k e r s to seek a l t e r n a t i v e employments. At the same time, the d e m a n d for w o r k e r s by the industry w a s expanding. The m a r k e t for textile w o r k e r s tightened. In this situation, n o n w h i t e workers, w i t h t y p i c a l l y lower labor force p a r t i c i p a t i o n and h i g h e r u n e m p l o y m e n t rates, w e r e a v a i l a b l e to fill - 24 the p r e s s i n g employment needs of the industry. In addition, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, gov e r n m e n t p r o g r a m s to end d i s c r i m i n a t i o n in hiring, and p r ivate initiatives, p r o b a b l y all c o n t r i b u t e d to the a c c e l e r a t e d flow of n o n w h i t e w o r k e r s into the textile industry. W h e t h e r n o n w h i t e w o r k e r s can m a i n t a i n and i n c r e a s e their r e p r e s e n t a tion in the industry remains to be seen. Current da t a in d i c a t e that n o n w h i t e w o r k e r s are continuing to m o v e into the text i l e i n d u s t r y at a hig h e r rate than into m a n u f a c t u r i n g generally. Emp l o y m e n t of N e groes a c c o u n t e d for a v a r y i n g p r o p o r t i o n of total textile e m p loyment by State in 1966 J J Neg r o e m p l o y m e n t rang e d from about 2 percent of the textile w o r k force in M a s s a c h u s e t t s to about 13 percent in N e w J ersey (Appendix table 15). N e g r o e s tended to m a k e up a lar g e r p r o p o r t i o n of textile e m p l o y m e n t in m e t r o p o l i t a n (10 percent) than in n o n m e t r o p o l i t a n areas (7 percent). In the t hree l a rgest t e x tile m a n u f a c t u r i n g States, N o r t h Carolina, S o uth Carolina, and Georgia, the employment of non w h i t e s ran g e d from 8 to 10 percent. Women Workers W o m e n w o r k e r s m a k e up a m u c h h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n of e m p l o y m e n t in the t e xtile i n d ustry than in manuf a c t u r i n g . In 1967, about 45 p e r c e n t of textile w o r k e r s w e r e women, as com p a r e d w i t h a p p r o x i m a t e l y 27 per c e n t in m a n u f a c t u r i n g (Appendix table 17). The h i g h p r o p o r t i o n of w o m e n in textiles can be a t t r i b u t e d in pa r t to the c o n c e n t r a t i o n of s e m i s k i l l e d w o r k e r s in the industry. W o m e n m a d e up n e a r l y one - h a l f of s e m i - s k i l l e d w o r k e r s (operatives) in n o n d u r a b l e m a n u f a c t u r i n g in 1960. M o r e o v e r , the n a t u r e of d e m a n d for the p roduc t s of the ind u s t r y m a y help to e x p l a i n the h i g h p r o p o r t i o n of women. Text i l e p r o d u c t i o n is r e s p o n s i v e to w i d e seasonal and cyclical f l u c t uati o n s in demand. Women, m o r e eas i l y than men, can p r o v i d e a rese r v o i r of labor to m e e t the p e a k labor n e e d s of the, industry. Finally, h i s t o r i c a l p r e c e d e n t m a y pl a y a r ole in the h i g h p r o p o r t i o n of w o m e n in the industry. Employ m e n t of w o m e n v a r i e d w i d e l y w i t h i n the v a r i o u s com p o n e n t s of the textile ind u s t r y in 1967. W o m e n w o r k e r s r a nged f rom 68 perc e n t of employment in k n i t t i n g m i l l s to 25 p e r c e n t of e m p l o y m e n t in textile f inishing (except w o o l and k n i t ) . The u n e v e n d i s t r i b u t i o n of w o m e n in the i n d ustry can be p a r t i a l l y expl a i n e d b y v a r i a t i o n s in the o c c u p a tional s t r u cture of its vari o u s divisions. The p r o p o r t i o n of w o m e n w o r k e r s in the industry increased b e t w e e n 1960 and 1967. 1/ Based on Equ a l E m p l o y m e n t O p p o r t u n i t y C o m m i s s i o n data. Such data are con t a i n e d in (1) repor t s from all em p l o y e r s subject to T i t l e VII of the Civil Rights A c t of 1964 (generally those w i t h 100 or m o r e employees) and from F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t c o n t r a c t o r s and s u b c o n t r a c t o r s w i t h 50 or m o r e employees, and (2) v o l u n t a r i l y s u b m i t t e d r e p o r t s b y m e m b e r s of Plans for Progress. - 25 Age The m e d i a n age of textile m i l l w o r k e r s (40.7 years) was somewhat h i g h e r than that of all m a n u f a c t u r i n g w o r k e r s (39.5 years) in 1960. The age d i f f e rential was m a i n l y caused b y w o r k e r s over 44 years of age (Appendix table 18). N e a r l y 39 p e r c e n t of the t e xtile w o r k e r s w e r e over 44 in 1960, as compared w i t h 35 p e rcent in m a n u f a c t u r i n g . This r e l a t i v e l y h i g h p r o p o r t i o n of wo r k e r s over 44 m a y reflect the c o n t r a c tion of employment in the indus t r y b y m o r e than o n e - q u a r t e r b e t w e e n 1950 and 1960. Y o u n g e r workers, eith e r laid off or fearing layoffs, m a y h ave tended to find employment in other industries during this u n c e r t a i n period. A n o t h e r factor contribu t i n g to the h i g h m e d i a n age of textile wor k e r s m a y be the relati v e l y hi g h p r o p o r t i o n of w o m e n in the industry. W o m e n usu a l l y leave the labor force at about 25 years of age, and b e g i n to return soon after age 40, w h e n family r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s b e c o m e less burdensome. The fact that the textile w o r k force has a low p r o p o r t i o n of workers b e t w e e n the ages of 25 and 44 w o u l d tend to e m p h asize the importance of w o m e n w o r k e r s on the age s t r u cture of the industry. In addition, the his t o r i c a l p o p u l a t i o n m i g r a t i o n from rural to u r b a n areas also influences the age compos i t i o n of the industry. L o c a t e d m a i n l y in n o n m e t r o p o l i t a n areas, the textile industry is p r o b a b l y m o r e a f fected by the m i g r a t i o n of y o u n g e r w o r k e r s than m o s t other industries. Yout h s under 19 y ears of age tended to h o l d a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y low n u m b e r of jobs in textile m i l l s in 1960. The same p h e n o m e n a was exhibited in 1950, a l t h o u g h somewhat less m a r k edly. However, the share of jobs held by youths under 25 years of age (13.9 percent) w a s similar to that for the same age group in m a n u f a c t u r i n g (14.1 percent). Al though the w o r k force of the textile i n dustry g r e w older b e t w e e n 1950 and 1960, the age s t ructure of all m a n u f a c t u r i n g also shifted upward. In 1960, 4.5 percent m o r e work e r s in m a n u f a c t u r i n g w e r e over 44 than in 1950, as compared w i t h 8.9 perc e n t in textiles. B. Apparel Skill The apparel industry has the hi g h e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n of semi-s k i l l e d jobs of any m a n u f a c t u r i n g indust r y (Appendix table 12). In 1968, o p e r a tives m a d e up almost 80 p e r cent of employ m e n t in the industry, as c o m pared w i t h about 45 percent in m a n u f a c t u r i n g generally. It is e s t i m a t e d that n e a r l y half of the opera t i v e s in the appa r e l indus t r y w e r e sewers, either sewing m a c h i n e operators, w h o predomi n a t e d , or ha n d stitchers. In apparel, as in textiles, the n a t u r e of the m a n u f a c t u r i n g pr o c e s s a ccounts for the h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n of c o m p a r a t i v e l y l o w - s k i l l e d workers. T he n u m b e r of p r o d u c t i o n operat i o n s on a ga r m e n t is large, p r o d u c t i o n - 26 runs are typically short, and firms tend to be small and f r e q u e n t l y undercapitalized. Such conditions are not co n d u c i v e to w i d e s p r e a d use of s o p h i sticated p r o d u c t i o n equipment. The ind u s t r y is one of the least m e c h a n i z e d among m a n u f a c t u r i n g industries. For example, v e r y few m a c h i n e s are in oper a t i o n in the i n d u s t r y w h i c h l ink to gether v a r i o u s functions in the p r o d u c t i o n process. As in the tex tile industry, the occupa t i o n a l patte r n s of the a p parel indus t r y wi l l c ontinue to favor the u n s k i l l e d and s e m i - s k i l l e d w o r k e r in the f o r e seeable future. Education In the apparel industry, the e d u c a t i o n a l att a i n m e n t of w o r k e r s was also s i g nificantly lower than for w o r k e r s in all m a n u f a c t u r i n g , but somewhat higher than for w o r k e r s in textiles. In 1960, the a v e r age schooling of apparel industr y w o r k e r s w as 9.7 years, as compared w i t h 11.0 years in m a n u f a c t u r i n g (Appendix table 13). As in the tex tile industry, a larger p r o p o r t i o n of the appa r e l w o r k force h ad 7 or less yea r s of education, and a smaller p r o p o r t i o n ha d 4 years of h i g h school or 1 or m o r e years of college, than for m a n u f a c t u r i n g w o r k e r s as a whole. M o s t of the factors that c o n t r i b u t e d to the l o w e d u c a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t of textile workers are found also in the appa r e l industry. As c om p a red w i t h textiles, however, the fact that the a p p a r e l i n dustry is m o r e h e a v i l y r e p r e s e n t e d in m e t r o p o l i t a n areas p r o b a b l y a ccounts for m u c h of the differ e n c e in educational levels b e t w e e n the two industries. Race In the apparel industry, no n w h i t e w o r k e r s in 1968 m a d e up a s o m e w h a t larger share of employment (12.7 percent) than in all m a n u f a c t u r i n g (9.7 percent) (Appendix table 14). As in the t e xtile industry, the p r o p o r t i o n of jobs hel d by n o n w h i t e w o r k e r s has in c r e a s e d in recent years. Bet w e e n 1962 and 1968, non w h i t e e mployment incr e a s e d f r o m 9.3 to 12.7 percent in apparel, as compared w i t h an increase from 7.4 to 9.7 p e rcent in m a n u facturing. Pra c t i c a l l y all the g a i n in n o n w h i t e p e n e t r a t i o n of the a p parel industry o c c urred after 1965. P r e l i m i n a r y data i n dicate that the gain continued into 1969. N o n w h i t e m e n in the appa r e l i n d u s t r y h a v e a c t u a l l y d e c l i n e d slightly as a p r o p o r t i o n over the years. The p r o p o r t i o n was 2.8 p e r c e n t in 1962 and 2.6 p e rcent in 1968. In terms of numbers, n o n w h i t e m a l e e m p loyment in a p p arel was about the same in 1962 and 1968. Over the period, n o n w h i t e m a l e w o r k e r s m a y have found m o r e a t t r a c t i v e a l t e r n a t i v e employment o p p o rtunities in the m e t r o p o l i t a n areas w h e r e appa r e l firms are located. The increased p r o p o r t i o n of n o n w h i t e w o m e n workers, w h i c h m o r e than offset the p r o p o r t i o n a t e decline of n o n w h i t e men, p r o b a b l y res u l t e d f rom - 27 the gene r a l l y tight labor m a r k e t s i t u a t i o n b e t w e e n 1965 and 1968. A l t e r n a t i v e employment o p p o rtuni t i e s for w h i t e w o m e n m a y h a v e widened, thus opening up o p p ortunities for n o n w h i t e w o m e n that w o u l d not o t h e r w i s e h ave existed. Negro employment by State in the a p parel industry in 1966 ranged from about 4 percent in Ten n e s s e e to about 16 p e rcent in South C a r o l i n a (Appendix table 16). As in textile mills, N e groes in appa r e l also tended to m a k e up a larger share of emp l oyment in m e t r o p o l i t a n than in n o n m e t r o p o l i t a n areas. About 12 percent of a p parel i n d u s t r y e mployment in m e t r o p o l i t a n areas was composed of Negroes, as a g ainst only about 6 p e rcent in n o n m e t r o p o l i t a n areas. In the three largest appa r e l m a n u f a c t u r i n g States, Pennsylvania, N e w York, and Georgia, Negro e m p l o y m e n t ranged b e t w e e n 9 and 11 percent. Women Workers In the apparel industry, w o m e n m a k e up an e x t r e m e l y h i g h p r o p o r tion of emp l o y m e n t — n e a r l y 80 pe rcent in 1967 (Appendix table 17). O p e r a t i v e jobs predom i n a t e in the industry, and their n a t u r e helps largely to explain the c o n c e n t r a t i o n of women. The m a j o r o c c u p a t i o n a l group comprises sewing m a c h i n e o p e r ators and h a n d stitchers and is staffed almost e n t irely by women. More o v e r , like the textile industry, the apparel industry is seasonal in n a t u r e and subject to c y clical swings, and w o m e n p r o v i d e a flexible source of labor supply. Bet w e e n 1960 and 1967, the p r o p o r t i o n of w o m e n w o r k e r s in the apparel industry increased by about 2 p e r c e n t a g e points. This inc r e a s e in the female p a r t i c i p a t i o n rate can be a t t r i b u t e d to a m o r e rap i d g r o w t h of industry groups w i t h i n the ap parel i n d u s t r y that empl o y a l a rger than a v erage p r o p o r t i o n of women. Age W o r k e r s in apparel had the h i g h e s t m e d i a n age level of any m a j o r m a n u f a c t u r i n g industry in 196 0 — 41.7 years, as c ompared w i t h 39.5 years for w o r k e r s in m a n u f a c t u r i n g (Appendix table 18). A b o u t 41 p e rcent of apparel w o r k e r s w e r e over 44 years of age in 1960; the com p a r a b l e f i g ure in m a n u f a c t u r i n g was about 35 percent. A s in the textile industry, the h i g h p r o p o r t i o n of w o m e n w o r k e r s wa s p r o b a b l y the m a i n c ause of this p e c u l i a r age structure. A r e l at i v e l y h i g h p r o p o r t i o n of app a r e l i n d u s try w o r k e r s w e r e over 59 years of age (9.1 percent). This m a y be p a r t l y a refl e c t i o n of wage levels in the industry, a nd p a r t l y of its seaso n a l nature, w h i c h provides an o p p o r t u n i t y for m a n y older w o r k e r s to s u p p l e m e n t their retirement incomes by e m p l o y m e n t d u ring p e a k seasons. - 28 Y o u t h s und e r 25 held a share of a p p a r e l e m p l o y m e n t e q u a l to that in manufact u r i n g . However, the apparel i n d u s t r y tended to ser v e m o r e as a source of entry level j ob s in 1950 than it did in 1960. Youths und e r 25 m a d e up 2.5 percent m o r e of the w o r k f o rce in a p p a r e l in 1950 than in m a n u f a c t u r i n g in 1950. In 1960, however, the d i f f e r e n t i a l h ad b e e n reduced to 0.1 percent. A l t h o u g h the w o r k force of the a p p a r e l in d u s t r y (like the textile industry) g r e w older b e t w e e n 1950 and 1960, the age s t r u c t u r e of all m a n u f a c t u r i n g similarly shifted. B e t w e e n 1950 and 1960, the p r o p o r tion of w o r k e r s over 44 years of age in c r e a s e d b y 4.5 pe r c e n t in m a n u facturing and b y 7.8 percent in apparel. - 29 V. T E C H N O L O G I C A L CHANGE A, Textiles Opera t i n g C h a racteristics The basic p r o d u c t i o n proce s s e s of the t e xtile ind u s t r y are carr i e d out on high l y m e c h a n i z e d p o w e r m a c h i n e r y such as s e m i a u t o m a t i c spinning frames and autom a t i c looms. M o d e r n m i l l s are laid out on one floor w i t h w o r k m o v i n g read i l y from one stage to the next. M a n y m u l t i s t o r i e d plants, however, still exist in the industry. The w o r k is m a c h i n e rather than w o r k e r paced. The typical t e x tile w o r k e r tends or m i n d s long rows of i dentical m a c h i n e s in carding, spinning, weaving, and other rooms of a mill. M o s t of the w o r k is p h y s i c a l l y light. The ope r a t i v e m a y feed y a r n to and remove ya r n from the m a c h i n e w h e n n e c e s s a r y and w a t c h out for br e a k s in y a r n w h i c h he m u s t repair quickly. Tasks u s u a l l y can be lea r n e d in a short time but p r o f i c i e n c y comes w i t h expe r i e n c e on the job. A l t h o u g h textile p r o d u c t i o n w a s among the first industries to be m e c h anized, the industry remains r e l a t i v e l y labor intensive. Wages of p r o d u c t i o n wor k e r s c onstitut e d 43 p e rcent of v a l u e added, compa r e d w i t h 31 percent for m a n u f a c t u r i n g as a w h o l e in 1966. D e s p i t e some increase since 1948, capital in vested (book value) p e r p r o d u c t i o n w o r k e r in 1963 (as e s t i mated by the N a t i o n a l Indus t r i a l C o n f e r e n c e Board) was a little over half the ratio for all m a n u f a c t u r i n g . This relati o n s h i p p r o b a b l y still holds true for recent years. Manpower Utilization E f f o r t s t o im prove th e u t i l i z a t i o n o f manpower in th e t e x t i l e in d u s t r y a re c o n s t a n t ly b e in g made th rou gh changes in t e c h n o lo g y , management, and o r g a n i z a t i o n . The m o d e r n iz a tio n o f p la n t and e q u ip ment in r e c e n t y e a r s has been advanced by s u b s t a n t i a l c a p i t a l i n v e s t m en t, and by th e em ergence o f v e r t i c a l l y in t e g r a t e d com panies w ith more p r o f e s s i o n a l management. D e f i n i t i v e f i g u r e s on tr e n d s in ou tp u t p e r m an-hour in th e t e x t i l e in d u s t r y a re n o t a v a i l a b l e . In a d d i t io n t o th e u su a l prob lem s o f d e t e r m in in g th e b e s t m easure o f o u tp u t f o r in d i v i d u a l p r o d u c t s , a s s ig n in g a p p r o p r ia t e w e ig h t s , and a c h ie v in g r e a s o n a b le c o m p a r a b ilit y betw een m an-hours and o u t p u t , t h e r e a re e s p e c i a l l y com plex p rob lem s o f a c c o u n t in g f o r ch an ges in q u a l i t y and p r o d u c t m ix and in th e d e g r e e o f in t e g r a t i o n o f p r o d u c t io n f a c i l i t i e s . A gene r a l v i e w of changes in m a n p o w e r u t i l i z a t i o n in recent years m a y b e obt a i n e d from estimates of the r ise in output and of the change - 30 in m a n -hours. Rou g h e stimates indic a t e an in c r e a s e in the r a n g e of 36-46 p e r c e n t in textile output b e t w e e n 1960 and 1966, and a rise in all e m p loyee m a n - h o u r s in the n e i g h b o r h o o d of 8 percent. These esti m a t e s relate to the textile indus t r y as a whole. A m o n g the ind i v i d u a l sectors of the industry, s u b s tant i a l v a r i a t i o n s u n d o u b t e d l y occurred. Interplant Diff e r e n c e s in P e r f o r m a n c e Levels of p e r f o r m a n c e differ w i d e l y among p l a n t s w i t h i n the textile industry, bec a u s e of d iff e r e n c e s in capital investment, age of equipment, m a n a g e r i a l and emplo y e e skill, size, type of o r g a n i z a tion, and other factors. A rough g a u g e of the d i f f e r e n c e s in p e r formance is p r o v i d e d by D e partmen t of C o m m e r c e m e a s u r e s for m o r e e f f i cient and a ve r a g e mills. The "highest p r o d u c t i v i t y e s t a b l i s h m e n t s " are d e f i n e d as those in a p p r o x i m a t e l y the first qu a r t i l e of e s t a b l i s h m e n t s r anked in ascending order of the ratio of p a y r o l l s to v a l u e added. In the cotton b r o a d w o v e n fabric industry, for example, v a l u e added per employee for the "highest p r o d u c t i v i t y e s t a b l i s h m e n t s " was 60 p e rcent grea t e r than the indu s t r y ave r a g e in 1963. A l t h o u g h the p r e c i s e extent to w h i c h such differ e n c e s reflect v a r i a t i o n s in p r o d u c t m i x among plants in each i nd ustry is unknown, sign i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s in p e r f o r m a n c e p r o b a b l y ac c o u n t e d for m o s t of the disparity. Some Factors A f f e c t i n g I ndustry P e r f o r m a n c e I nvestment and R e s e a r c h . A d v a n c e s in t e c h n o l o g y and e f f i c i e n c y ove r the next few yea r s w i l l be a f f e c t e d b y the m a g n i t u d e of recent expe n d i t u r e s on larg e - s c a l e m o d e r n i z a t i o n of textile pla n t and e q u i p ment. In the p eriod 1964-68, e x p e n d i t u r e s on n e w p l a n t and equipment, as r eported by SEC, amounted to a total of $4.6 billion, or an a v e r a g e of about $916 m i l l i o n annually. Duri n g the p r e c e d i n g five years, e x p e n d i tures w e r e a little m o r e than half of this amount. In 1968, total e x p e n d i tures on n e w plant and equipment w e r e $820 mi l l i o n , c o n s i d e r a b l y b e l o w the 1966 p e a k of $1.13 billion, but g r e a t e r than any y e a r p r i o r to 1965. E s timates t h r o u g h 1970 antic i p a t e g r a d u a l l y rising expenditures. The b u l k of capital e x p endit u r e since 1960 has b e e n for m o d e r n i zation and replacement, but the p r o p o r t i o n for a d d i t i o n a l c a p a c i t y has b e e n increasing. T e x t i l e capacity, a c c o r d i n g to M c G r a w - H i l l reports, i n creased by 31 p e r cent b e t w e e n 1962 and 1967. A m u c h larger p r o p o r tion of the i n d u s t r y ’s equipment is n o w five y e a r s o ld or less: 38 percent in D e c e m b e r 1966 compared w i t h 27 perc e n t in spring 1962. This improvement in the textile i n d u s t r y ’s e q uipment com p a r e s f a v o r a b l y w i t h advances m a d e b y m a n u f a c t u r i n g generally: about 36 p e r c e n t of m a n u f a c turing c apa city w a s five yea r s old or less in 1966, c o m p a r e d w i t h 33 per c e n t in 1962. By the end of 1968, ac c o r d i n g to M c G r a w - H i l l reports, 31 about 17 percent of the plant and equi p m e n t of larger textile c o m p a n ies w a s outmoded compared w i t h 29 p e r c e n t in 1962. It is like l y that the p r o p o r t i o n of o u t - o f - d a t e facilities for smaller c ompanies w o u l d be con s i d e r a b l y larger. I n creased expenditures on r e s ear c h and d e v e l o p m e n t are anot h e r facet of the i n d u s t r y ’s efforts to m o d e r n i z e its technology. A c c o r d i n g to N a t i o n a l Science F o u n d a t i o n estimates, R and D e x p e n d i t u r e s by t e xtile and apparel firms totaled $42 m i l l i o n in 1966, c o m p a r e d w i t h $15 m i l l i o n in 1957. M o s t of these expendit u r e s w e r e by textile firms; r e s e a r c h e x penditures by apparel m a n u f a c t u r e r s w e r e neglig i b l e . (These figures do n ot include expenditures by text i l e m a c h i n e r y m a n u f a c t u r e r s and c h e mical suppliers.) R and D e x p e n d i t u r e s in textiles and appa r e l as a p e r c e n t a g e of sales are i nsign i f i c a n t in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h e x p e n d i t u r e s b y some other industries, such as paper, w h i c h also do not re c e i v e Federal funds for this purpose. It should be n o t e d that a h i g h p r o p o r t i o n of e x p e n d i t u r e s for n e w plant and equipment and for R and D is m a d e by a r e l a t i v e l y small n u m b e r of large companies. Abo u t three-fo u r t h s of n e w c a pital expe n d i t u r e s in 1963 w e r e m a d e by m u l t i p l a n t companies, w h i c h inclu d e d only about o n e - f o u r t h of all establishments. P r a c t i c a l l y all of the R and D is done by large- and m e d i u m - s i z e d companies. Small c ompanies u s u a l l y lack the f inancial resources for e x t e n s i v e c a pital i n v e stment or r e search and development programs. T e c h n o l o g i c a l C h a n g e s . Capital i n v e stment w h e t h e r for e x p a n s i o n or m o d e r n i z a t i o n p r o v i d e s opport u n i t i e s for intr o d u c i n g the latest types of textile equipment. M o s t of the changes in textile t e c h n o l o g y involve improvements of existing m a c h i n e r y , and the i n t r o d u c t i o n of aux i l i a r y devices to improve output per m a n -hour. 1. Faster, L a r g e r C a p a c i t y M a c h i n e s . O ne of the m o s t important sources of grea t e r p r o d u c t i v i t y is the i n t r o d u c t i o n of faster m a c h i n e speeds w i t h larger packages. S uch advan c e s reduce the n u m b e r of m a c h i n e s and the n u m b e r of m a c h i n e o p e r a t i v e s and m a i n t e n a n c e w o r k e r s required for a g i ven output. N e w c a rding m a c h i n e s , for example, o p e r a t e at m o r e than four times the speed of 10 y e a r s ago, d r awing m a c h i n e s at six times the speed. Spindle speeds w e r e 10,000 r.p.m. in 1950 and 13,500 today; 20,000 r.p.m. are n o w possible. W i n d i n g speeds are at least double those of 10 to 15 yea r s ago. C o n v e n t i o n a l l oom speeds in creased 25 to 50 percent in the past 15 yea r s and shutt l e l e s s looms m a y soon dou b l e the speed of weaving. M a c h i n e output of h o s i e r y and other knit t i n g equipment, due to m u l t i p l e feeds, also is rising v e r y s i g n i f i cantly. Carpets are n o w p r o duce d m a i n l y by h i g h - s p e e d tufting m a c h i n e r y , rather than by the slower w e a v i n g process. - 32 These types of m a c h i n e a d vances h a v e b e e n p a r t l y r e spon s i b l e for the decl i n e in the amount of capital equi p m e n t n e e d e d for a giv e n v o l u m e of production. M o r e o v e r , incr e a s e d m a c h i n e r y u t i l i zation w i t h three shift operat i o n s and better m a n a g e m e n t h a v e r e d u c e d the n u m b e r of m a c h i n e s r e q uired for a g i v e n output. In 1967, for example, output of cotton and m a n m a d e fa b r i c w a s a bout 25 per c e n t above 1948, despite a 21 per c e n t decli n e in the n u m b e r of looms. 2. M e c h a n i z a t i o n of M a t e r i a l s H a n d l i n g . R e q u i r e m e n t s for m a n u a l labor for m a t e r i a l s hand l i n g are also r e d u c e d b y i m p r o v e d conveyor systems and p n e u m a t i c chutes. M o r e w i d e s p r e a d a d o p t i o n of m e c h a n i c a l t ransfer of goods b e t w e e n the m a n y d i s c r e t e textile p r o c e s s e s is s i g n i f i cant, since m a t e r i a l s h a n d l i n g c omprises 5 to 15 per c e n t of p r o d u c t i o n costs. Improved p o w e r e d conveyors, hoists, m o n o r a i l s , tramrails, and forklift trucks are being u t i l i z e d i n c r e a s i n g l y at all steps, from raw m a t e r i a l to finished product. M e c h a n i z e d h a n d l i n g is p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r tant in i m p r oving proc e s s f l o w in the o l d e r m u l t i s t o r y mi l l s , and in h a n d l i n g h e a vier m a c h i n e packages, such as 80 to 90 p o u n d laps. Pneu m a t i c sto c k conveyance, a m o r e a d v a n c e d m e t h o d m o v e s sto c k b y air and g r e a t l y increases p r o d u c t i v i t y but is c o stly and still li m i t e d in use. 3. M a i n t e n a n c e . Built-in maintenance reduces requirements for m a i n t e n a n c e workers. Cent r a l l u b r i c a t i o n and sealed a n t i f r i c t i o n b e a r i n g s result in less d o w n t i m e and p r a c t i c a l l y e l i m i n a t e s m a n u a l lubrication. Roller b e a r i n g s on n e w draw i n g frames r e q u i r e oiling only once e very three years during overhaul, c o m p a r e d w i t h o nce a w e e k on older m o d e l s . In at least one of the n e w m ills, all p r o d u c t i o n m a c h i n e s are e quipped w i t h an a utomatic l u b r i c a t i o n s y s t e m in w h i c h oi l enters thr o u g h lines in the floor and is pum p e d to l u b r i c a t i o n p o i n t s on e a c h m a c h i n e once every minute. A u t o m a t i c devices for clean i n g and for a t m o s p h e r i c control, n o w gaining i ndustry acceptance, free m a c h i n e tenders for m o r e p r o d u c t i v e duties. C l e aning m a y c o n s t i t u t e as m u c h as 20 p e r c e n t of total labor costs in y a r n mills. To r e d u c e the amount of lint and fly on h i g h speed m a c h i n e r y , s u ction devices are i n s t a l l e d on the m a c h i n e at p o i n t s of discharge. In addition, a trave l i n g m o n o r a i l cleaner, w h i c h a u t o m a t i cally b l o w s r e s i d u e off m a c h i n e frames, v a c u u m s the floor, and p n e u m a t i c ally carries the w a s t e to the w a s t e room, e l i m i n a t e s the n e e d for m a i n tenance laborers. A p o t e n t i a l l y u s e f u l process, still lim i t e d to a f e w of the n e w e s t plants, is the system of total air cleaning. This s y stem forces the air down f r o m o verhea d ducts, c a rrying the lint l a d e n air w i t h it, to ducts u n d e r the floor. The air, fil t e r e d of waste, is ret u r n e d to the ove r h e a d ducts. P l a n t e f f i c i e n c y is increased, but the s ystem is said to b e too costly for the a v e r a g e mill. - 33 4. I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , E l e c t r o n i c i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n for control of operations is limited, but g r o w i n g in importance. Such a u x i l i a r y devices as stop m o t i o n devices, a nd c ontinuous recording and controlling instruments w h i c h rep l a c e v i s u a l s c anning or other slower m e t h o d s of inspection, redu c e downtime, and permit m o r e e f f i cient quality control. Some of the n e w e r e l e c t r o n i c devices act i v a t e m a c h i n e changes w h e n a defect is detected. Fo r example, y a m t h i c k ness is controlled by a photoe l e c t r i c cell o n a d r a w i n g m a c h i n e w h i c h detects the d i f ference in light pas s i n g thro u g h the y a r n and signals an e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c clutch w h i c h adjusts the m a c h i n e automatically. M e c h a n i c a l and e l e c tronic c ounters and central m o n i toring systems are being u t i l i z e d i n c r e a s i n g l y for cost and qu a l i t y control. A n electronic m o n i t o r i n g system, for example, w h i c h records the p e r f o r m a n c e of every loom on a central console, v i s u a l l y and in pri n t e d reports, is n o w being u t i l i z e d in the n e w e s t mills. Computers are u s e d by large c ompanies for d ata p r o c e s s i n g accounting, inventory and p r o d u c t i o n control, and are bei n g ex tended to control finishing processes. Uses in finishing involve co n trol of continuous b l e a ching and dyeing operations, and dye color m a t c h i n g to determine the least e x p e n s i v e c o m b i n a t i o n of dyes t u f f s to m a t c h colors, system a t i c a l l y rather than by trial and error. 5. M a c h i n e and M a t e r i a l I n n o v a t i o n s . Several f a r - r eaching innovations, such as a u tomatic creeling and dof f i n g i n crease p r o d u c tivity sub s t a n t i a l l y but relati v e l y h i g h cost m a y limit their adoption. Prog r e s s is being m a d e toward a system of conti n u o u s a u t o m a t i c p r o d u c tion w h i c h w o u l d integrate several p r o c e s s e s and reduce the n u m b e r of operations p e r f o r m e d by workers. A n advan c e d s y stem of contin u o u s m a n ufacture, first used in Japan, i ntegrates o p e r a t i o n s from opening through carding and improves other operations. Claims of expec t e d in creases in output per m a n - h o u r range from 70 pe r c e n t to 100 perc e n t above c o nventional mills. This innovation, however, m a y be e c o n o m i c a l l y feasible only in high l y special i z e d plants. In add i t i o n to m e c h a n i c a l changes in p r o d u c t i o n m ethods, innovations in fibers, fabrics, and finishes, such as s t retch yar n s and fabrics, l aminated and coated fabrics, and n o n w o v e n fabrics, could ha v e an impact on textile production, o p ening n e w m a r k e t s or dis p l a c i n g m o r e c o n v e ntional fabrics. Some n e w types of fabric fo r m a t i o n (needle p u n c h and bonded) bypass spinning, weaving, or k n i t t i n g proc e s s e s and h a v e m u c h lower labor requi r e m e n t s than w o v e n fabrics. Finally, continu i n g g r o w t h in u s e of m a n m a d e fibers, p a r t i cularly noncellulosics, has an important effect o n r e d u c i n g m a n p o w e r requirements. M a n m a d e filament yarn, for example, does n o t r e q u i r e c o n ven t i o n a l prep a r a t o r y m i l l operations. By 1975, m a n m a d e fibers are - 34 e xpected to account for as m u c h as 65 p e r c e n t of total fiber c o n s u m p tion (cotton equivalent basis) compared w i t h 57 perc e n t in 1966, A d j u s t m e n t s to T e c h n o l o g i c a l C h a n g e P r ivate A r r a n g e m e n t s . Formal p r o v i s i o n s for w o r k e r adj u s t m e n t to technological change are found p r i m a r i l y in plants w i t h u n i o n agr e e m e n t s and even these are few in number. C o ntracts u s u a l l y p r o v i d e for the p r i n ciple of seniority as a m e a s u r e of p r o t e c t i o n for the e m ployee d i splaced by t e c hnological developments, a l t h o u g h v a r i o u s limitations m a y be included. Some contracts c o n t a i n p r o v i s i o n s w h i c h r e q u i r e advance n o t i c e to the union, u n i o n review, or a trial peri o d for the proposed technological change. Techn o l o g i c a l changes w h i c h affect the pa c e of w o r k — "speedup" (i.e., the i n s t a llation of f a st e r m a c h i n e s or the speeding up of old m a chines) and " s t retchout" (i.e., i n c reasing the n u m b e r of m a c h i n e s assig n e d to the w o r k e r ) — are a m a j o r topic of l a b o r - m a n a g e m e n t d i s c u s sion. In some contracts, w o r k l o a d as s i g n m e n t s are subject to a r e v i e w by the u n i o n and m a y b e submitt e d to arbitration. Industry training or retra i n i n g g e n e r a l l y involves the traditional m e t h o d of learning on the job b y a s s i s t i n g an e x p e r i e n c e d employee. Some mills, however, have adopt e d a m o r e formal a p p r o a c h to training, involving the setting aside of training areas and the establi s h m e n t of classes for i n s tructional purposes. M a c h i n e m a n u f a c t u r e r s are also in volv e d in training, p a r t i c u l a r l y in the i n s t a l l a t i o n of radi c a l l y n e w equipment• G o v ernment P r o g r a m s . Under the M a n p o w e r Deve l o p m e n t and Train i n g Act of 1962 and the A r e a Red e v e l o p m e n t A ct of 1961, the Fede r a l G o v e r n m e n t has financed i n s titutional an d o n - t h e - j o b training p r o g r a m s for u n d e r - e m p l o y e d and unempl o y e d w o r k e r s for e x isting job v a c a n c i e s in t ex tile m i l l s in several localities. T hese programs inc l u d e former textile workers, but are not limited to them, and no da t a a re av a i l a b l e on the p r o p o r t i o n of trainees w h o w e r e p r e v i o u s l y in the textile industry. B e t w e e n A ugust 1962, w h e n the M D T A p r o g r a m began, and J u n e 1968, almost 6,000 w o r k e r s w e r e trained for m a n y textile occupations. Oc c u p a t i o n s for training are d e t e r m i n e d on the basis of current local requirements, and m a y (as in the case of laborers) b e on the d e c l i n e in the long run for the n a t i o n a l industry. The n u m b e r of trainees and the d u r a t i o n of training in occupations w i t h over 100 trainees are p r e s e n t e d in the following table: 35 - Num b e r of trainees Occupa t i o n W e a v e r ..................... L o o m fixer ................. Spinner ..................... Kni t t i n g m a c h i n e operator. Doffer ..................... L a b orer .................... Thrower .................... Y a r n w i n d e r ............... O t her ...................... 1,273 537 907 347 375 276 266 108 1,092 D u r a t i o n of training (weeks) 5-39 9-52 4-30 4-26 5-20 4 4-52 4-20 — Labor shortages for parti c u l a r o c c u p a t i o n s in some plants and localities continue to require training p r o g r a m s in spite of the p r o spect of declining employment for the indus t r y as a whole. Also, since textile skills are not easily tran s f e r a b l e to other industries, u n e m ployed textile workers often n e e d ret r a i n i n g in order to q u a l i f y for other types of work. In v i e w of the limited scope of formal industry a r r a n g e m e n t s for adjustment to techno l o g i c a l change, g o v e r n m e n t instit u t i o n s for u n e m ployment insurance, placement, and retra i n i n g pl a y a m a j o r role in assisting the textile w o r k e r in the event of p l a n t closings and m a s s layoffs. B. Apparel O p e r ating C h a r a c teristics A p p a r e l m a n u f a c t u r i n g involves a series of cutting, sewing, p r e s sing and packing operations p e r f o r m e d p r i m a r i l y o n m a n u a l l y o p e r a t e d single p u r p o s e machines. Some or all of these opera t i o n s are carried on by m a nufacturers, jobbers or c o n t r a c t o r s w ho compr i s e the 25,900 e s tablishments in the industry. A b o u t 73 per c e n t h ad fewer than 50 employees. N u m erous styles and sizes of a p a r t i c u l a r type of appa r e l are produced, g e n e r a l l y in small lots. The simple t e c hnology of appa r e l m a n u f a c t u r i n g — m a i n l y sewing m a c h i n e s — is high l y labor intensive. E a c h m a c h i n e is o p e r a t e d b y a worker. Capital invested per p r o d u c t i o n w o r k e r in 1963 a m o u n t e d to $5,653, about half the ratio for text i l e m i l l p r o d u c t s and a bout a f ourth of the m a n u f a c t u r i n g ratio. Wag e s of p r o d u c t i o n w o r k e r s as a p r o p o r t i o n of v a l u e added in 1966 a m o u n t e d to 44 percent, compa r e d w i t h 31 percent for m a nufacturing. - 36 The apparel industry is m a r k e d b y easy entry, b o t h b y w o r k e r s and owners. W o m e n of all ages can q u i c k l y a c q u i r e the skill n e e d e d to b e c o m e sewing m a c h i n e operators, the m a j o r o c c u p a t i o n a l group. Since the equipment requires little e n g i n e e r i n g or te c h n i c a l k n o w l edge, and the m a r k e t i n g and m a t e r i a l s are h a n d l e d by jobbers, it is rela t i v e l y easy for an e n t r e pren e u r w i t h a m o d e s t amount of capital to set up a plant as a contractor. Manpower Utilization D e f i n i t i v e figures are not a v a i l a b l e on outp u t per m a n - h o u r in the apparel industry. In a d d i t i o n to the u s u a l p r o b l e m s of d e t e r m i n ing the best m e a s u r e of output of indivi d u a l products, a s s i g n i n g a p p r o p r i a t e weights, and achieving r e a s o n a b l e c o m p a r a b i l i t y b e t w e e n m a n - h o u r s and output, there are espec i a l l y c o m p l e x p r o b l e m s of a c c o u n t i n g for changes in q u a l i t y and p r oduct mix. A gen e r a l v i e w of the changes in m a n p o w e r u t i l i z a t i o n in recent years m a y be obtained from estimates of the r i s e in ou t p u t and of the c hange in man-hours. R o u g h est i m a t e s indicate an i n c r e a s e of the order of 30 to 34 p e rcent in apparel o u tput b e t w e e n 1960 and 1966 and a rise in all e m p loyee m a n - h o u r s of less th a n 14 percent. These es t i m a t e s r e late to the apparel industry as a whole. Substantial variations un do u b t e d l y occurred among the ind i v i d u a l sectors of the industry. Some Factors A f f e c t i n g Industry P e r f o r m a n c e ment, among ($123 $89.7 I n v e s t m e n t . The i n d u s t r y fs exp e n d i t u r e s for n e w p l a n t a nd e q u i p though increasing, is among the lowest per p r o d u c t i o n w o r k e r m a n u f a c t u r i n g industries. E x p e n d i t u r e s a v e r a g e d $144.6 m i l l i o n per p r o d u c t i o n worker) over the 1962-66 period, com p a r e d w i t h m i l l i o n ($83 per p r o d u c t i o n worker) for the 195 7 - 6 1 period. R e s e a r c h act i v i t i e s to impr o v e a p p a r e l t e c h n o l o g y are on a v e r y small scale. Onl y in recent years has the F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t giv e n a t t e n t i o n to the industry. The N a t i o n a l B u r e a u of Stan d a r d s of the U.S. Depart m e n t of Com m e r c e init i a t e d a p r o g r a m in 1963 to assi s t the i ndustry to improve p r o d u c t i o n processes, exp a n d the c o l l e c t i o n and d i s s e m i n a t i o n of technical information, inc r e a s e the tech n i c a l training of personnel, and assist u n i v e r s i t y r e s e a r c h deal i n g w i t h the a p p a r e l industry. In cooper a t i o n w i t h the A p p a r e l R e s e a r c h Foundation, a grant, combining Fede r a l and industry funds, w a s a w a r d e d to an e n g i n e e r i n g f i r m w h i c h d e v e loped p r o t o t y p e equipm e n t for the a u t o m a t i c conv e y i n g of m u l tiple plys of limp fabric from stacks to the sewing m a c h i n e , a p r o c e s s consid e r e d a b o t t l e n e c k in the m e c h a n i z a t i o n of sewing operations. T he N a t i o n a l B u r e a u of Standards also i n i t iated a series of i n - h o u s e p r o j ects and g rants to u n i v e r s i t i e s to p r o v i d e r e s e a r c h studies for the app a r e l industry. The final obj e c t i v e of this j o i n t effort is to dev e l o p - 37 a technical research p r o g r a m that can then be s u s t ained w h o l l y by the industry, w h i c h so far has spent little for r e s e a r c h and development. T e c hnological C h a n g e s . W h i l e intense c o m p e t i t i o n results in severe pres s u r e to reduce labor costs, m e c h a n i z a t i o n remains d i fficult for the typical apparel firm and in some cases u n economical, b e c a u s e of short p r o d u c t i o n runs. The u s e of m a s s p r o d u c t i o n m e t h o d s of s t a n d ardization, simplifi c a t i o n and s p e c i a l i z a t i o n is limited by dema n d s of f a shion for frequent changes of style. Recent trends in m e n fs and w o m e n Ts apparel include m a n y changes in colors and a w i d e r ange o f w o v e n and knit fabrics. Techno l o g i c a l change is likely to be m o r e rapid among la r g e - s c a l e prod u c e r s of standardized types of clothing. Firms m a k i n g shirts, pajamas, underwear, w o r k clothing, and similar staple goods, p r o d u c e s t a n dardized goods for inventory as w e l l as for order, enabling long p r o d u c t i o n runs for w h i c h m e c h a n i z e d e quipment can be economical. These firms, w h i c h tend to be larger t han average, are among the m o s t m e c h a n i z e d in the industry and are e x p e c t e d to c o n t i n u e to adopt im pro v e d equipment to raise their productivity. 1. P r o d u c t i o n E n g ine e r i n g M e t h o d s . P r o d u c e r s l ook chiefly to p r o d u c t i o n engineering techniques rath e r than m a c h i n e i m p r ovements to increas e productivity. The ne e d for exact p o s i t i o n i n g of w o r k in the sewing m a c h i n e and frequent stopping to adjust the c loth m e a n s that operators, not machines, largely dete r m i n e the v o l u m e of output in the sewing department. Since m a c h i n e s are run about a third of total w o r k i n g time, changes in m e t h o d s of hand l i n g and p o s i t i o n i n g the c l o t h and in m o v i n g the w o r k from one o p e r a t o r to a n o t h e r m a y h a v e a g r e a t e r i n f l u ence on output per m a n - h o u r than improv e m e n t s in m a c h i n e speeds. Pro ducers seek l a b or-savings through time study me t h o d s , improving the a r r a ngement of equipment for a single operation, and of the w o r k f low of an entire proc e s s in o rder to use a v a i l a b l e m a c h i n e r y to be t t e r advantage. For example, in the p r o d u c t i o n of styled gar m e n t s such as suits and coats, a continuing shift is taking p l a c e f rom the trad i t i o n a l hand tailoring system, w h i c h uses m a n y s k illed workers, to se c t i o n w o r k w h i c h u t i l izes m a n y semi-skilled sewing m a c h i n e operators. 2. E q uipment C h a n g e s . M e c h a n i c a l changes involve p r i n c i p a l l y small a t tachments to b asic equip m e n t and u s e of w o r k h a n d l i n g aids rather than any basic m o d i f i c a t i o n of the sewing operation. Equi p m e n t such as n e e d l e positioners, automatic thread cutters, and parts stackers, w h i c h are design ed to reduce time spent by sewing m a c h i n e oper a t o r s in p o s i tioning and adjusting tasks, are the p r i n c i p a l m e a n s of improving p r o duct i v i t y in basic sewing operations. In the cutting o perations, e l e c tric cloth spreading m a c h i n e s and n e w systems of p a t t e r n m a k i n g are being a d opted to a limited extent. - 38 3. Changes in A u x i l i a r y O p e r a t i o n s , A few lar g e a p p a r e l firms are seeking g r eater e f f i c i e n c y thr o u g h impr o v e m e n t s in d i s t r i b u t i o n and off i c e work. Since fast d i s t r i b u t i o n of appa r e l is of m a j o r impo r t a n c e in this compet i t i v e consu m e r industry, l arge m u l t i p l a n t firms h a v e set up convey o r i z e d ord e r p r o c e s s i n g systems in w arehouses. M a n y large apparel firms are using comp u t e r s for b u s i n e s s purposes, such as sales analysis, allowing firms to adjust p r o d u c t i o n q u i c k l y to styles m o s t in demand. 4. Perma n e n t P r e s s . U t i l i z i n g improved c h e m i c a l l y treated fabrics and heat curing techniques, m a n u f a c t u r e r s are g r e a t l y expanding p r o d u c t i o n of garments that can hold their shape t h r o u g h a n u m b e r of w a s h i n g s w i t h o u t pressing. These n e w p r o c e s s e s are w i d e l y us e d for such g a r m e n t s as m e n ’s and b o y s 1 trousers and shirts, m e n ’s c a sual w ear and w o r k clothing, and w o m e n ’s sportswear. T he fabrics u s e d a re m a i n l y c o t t o n - s y n t h e t i c blends, a l t h o u g h r e s e a r c h is u n d e r w a y to a p p l y similar techniques to other fabrics. Pres e n t m e t h o d s consist of t r eating the fabrics at the textile m i l l and curing eith e r at the t e xtile m i l l be f o r e the garment is m a n u f a c t u r e d ( p r e c u r e ) , or at the a p p a r e l firm after m a n u fac t u r e (postcure). P r e c u r e techn i q u e s are us e d m a i n l y for light fabrics, such as those u s e d in shirts; p o s t c u r e m e t h o d s are m o r e a p p l i c a b l e fqr h e a v i e r fabrics, such as those u sed for trousers. A p p a r e l firms u t i l izing the p o s t c u r e p r ocess are r e q u i r e d to u s e spec i a l ovens or h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e p r esses to cure garments. Increased production worker m a n - h o u r s m a y be r e q u i r e d for the m a n u f a c t u r e of g a r m e n t s u s i n g the p o s t c u r e process beca u s e of the a d d i t i o n a l opera t i o n s needed. A d j u s t m e n t to T e c h n o l o g i c a l Change U n i o n s and m a n a g e m e n t conti n u e to c o o p e r a t e in improving efficiency. Bot h m a j o r unions, the I n t ernati o n a l L a d i e s 1 Garm e n t W o r k e r s 1 U n i o n (ILGWU) and the A m a l g a m a t e d Clothing W o r k e r s of A m e r i c a (ACWA) h ave a ssisted in the i n t r o d u c t i o n of n e w m e t h o d s in u n i o n i z e d e s t a blishments, as part of a continuing p r o g r a m to p r o m o t e s ound b u s i n e s s c o n ditions in the industry. This p o l i c y of c o o p e r a t i o n is stated s p e c i f i c a l l y in the current m a s t e r agreement b e t w e e n the A C W A and The Clothing M a n u f a c t u r e r s ’ A s s o c i a t i o n of the U n i t e d States, c o vering m o s t of the w o r k e r s in the m e n ’s and b o y s ’ coats and suits b r a n c h of the industry. An exa m p l e of c o o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e n the ILGWU and m a n u f a c t u r e r s is the v o l u n tary e s t ablishment in 1964 of a c o n t i n u i n g labor r e l a t i o n s co m m i t t e e by this u n i o n and a m a j o r w o m e n ’s s portswear firm. One of the topics of d i s c u s s i o n on the a g e n d a of this co m m i t t e e is the a d o p t i o n of n e w p r o d u c t i o n systems. L a b o r - m a n a g e m e n t c o ntracts t y p i c a l l y p r o v i d e for m e a s u r e s to a s s u r e income p r o t e c t i o n and job security. M o s t of the c ontracts in force in 1968 b e t w e e n the two m a j o r union s and a p p a r e l m a n u f a c t u r e r s cont a i n e d p r o v i s i o n s assuring no r e d u c t i o n in w a g e s and rio loss of jobs b e c a u s e of t e c h n o l o g i c a l change. - 39 VI. W A G E S A N D I NDU S T R I A L R E L A TIONS A, Textiles W age and Benefit Levels Earnings in the textile i n d u s t r i e s — hourly, weekly, or a n n u a l — are low compared w i t h those in m o s t oth e r m a n u f a c t u r i n g industries. The average textile p r o d u c t i o n w o r k e r in O c t o b e r 1968 e a r n e d about $2.15 an hour at straight-time, or about $2.27 w i t h o v e r t i m e pay. Weekly earnings averaged about $94.00 a week. H o u r l y p a y w a s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 75 cents and w e e k l y pay about $30.00 b e l o w the aver a g e for all factory workers (Appendix table 19.1/ In 1964, the latest y ear for w h i c h inf o r m a - tion on annual earnings is available, the ave r a g e annual e arnings of w o r k ers regularly employed in the textile indus t r i e s (that is, w i t h earnings in eac h of four quarters) was about $4,300 a y ear (Appendix table 20). This w a s less than in any other m a n u f a c t u r i n g industry group except apparel. The d ata on annual earnings include b o t h w a g e earners a nd salaried workers. Earnings, of course, v ary among textile i ndustries and, w i t h i n each industry, among o ccupations and areas. A m o n g the i n d ustries shown in A p p e n d i x table 19, the level of s tr a i g h t - t i m e a v e r a g e h o u r l y earnings in Octo b e r 1968 ranged from $1.98 in h o s i e r y (other than w o m e n ’s hosiery) to $2.35 for m i s c e l l a n e o u s textile goods, w h i c h includes a w i d e ran g e of p r o ducts not elsewhere classified. In the bas i c b r o a d w o v e n c o t t o n and s y n thetic fabric industries, s t r aigh t - t i m e h o u r l y earni n g s a v e r a g e d $2.15 and $2.18, respectively. Amo n g other important ind u s t r y divisions, the a v e r a g e for w o o l textiles was $2.22, knit o u t e r w e a r $2.23, and dyei n g and f i n i s h ing $2.28. Part of the differ e n c e in earnings among textile i n d u s t r i e s — for e x ample, betw e e n textile dyeing and finishing and the p r o d u c t i o n of b r o a d w o v e n g o o d s — reflects d ifferences in o c c u p a t i o n a l composition. Variations in industry earnings also reflect to some extent di f f e r e n c e s in location. Thus, the textile dyeing and fini s h i n g and w o o l textile indus t r i e s are r e l atively m o r e important outside the S o u t h than cot t o n or s ynthetic bro a d w o v e n goods. Until recent years, earnings of textile w o r k e r s tended to be somewhat lower in the South than elsewhere. However, earnings for w o r k e r s doing the same type of w o r k in co t t o n and m a n - m a d e fiber i n d ustries are n o w at about the same level in the S outheast and N e w England; e a rnings are still about 10 to 20 cents lower in the Southwest. On F e b r u a r y 1, 1968, a m i n i m u m w a g e of $1.60 an h o u r b e c a m e e f f e c t i v e under the Fair Labor Standards Act. P r i o r to that date, an esti m a t e d 7 to 10 per c e n t of the w o r k e r s in textile dy e i n g and finishing, 1/ P r e l i m i n a r y data indicat e that in J a n u a r y 1969 a v e r a g e h o u r l y and w e e k l y earnings in textiles w e r e 84 cents and $ 3 4 . 0 0 , r e s p e c t i v e l y , b e l o w the levels in all manufacturing. - 40 8 to 12 percent in w o o l textiles, and m o r e than 40 p e r c e n t in m e n fs and c h i l d r e n ’s hosi e r y w e r e earni n g s less than $1.60 an hour. In the large cotton textile industry, r o u g h l y one out of eight w o r k e r s w as earning less than the n e w m i n i m u m rate; and the p r o p o r t i o n i n syn thetic textiles was only s light l y higher. It; is e s t i m a t e d that at least half of all p r o d u c t i o n w o r k e r s in textile i n d u s t r i e s (except textile dyeing and finishing) a re c u r rently e a rning b e t w e e n $1.60 and $2.00 an hour. The p r o p o r t i o n ranges fr o m a n e s t i m a t e d 50 p e r cent in cotton and w o o l textiles and w o m e n ’s h o s i e r y to an esti m a t e d 65 to 75 percent in m e n ’s and c h i l d r e n ’s hosiery. The p r e d ominant sche d u l e d w o r k w e e k in m o s t t e x t i l e i n d ustries is 40 hours. Special surveys in c o t t o n and synt h e t i c t e x t i l e m a n u f a c t u r e in 1965 i ndicated that a m a j o r i t y of w o r k e r s w e r e on 48-hour schedules. Since that time, however, actual hours h a v e declined, and in O c tober 1968 the average w o r k w e e k for all textile m a n u f a c t u r e w as sl i g h t l y m o r e than 41 hours, compared w i t h about 42 hou r s in O c t o b e r 1965. P a i d leave and h e a l t h and w e l f a r e b e n e f i t s are less l i b e r a l in m o s t textile industries than in m a n u f a c t u r i n g generally. A special survey in 1966 indicated that employer e x p e n d i t u r e s for p aid l e a v e and for p r i v a t e w e l f a r e plans averaged 13 perc e n t of total c o m p e n s a t i o n in m a n u f a c t u r i n g as a whole. In c otton and synt h e t i c textiles, a s i milar study in 1965 i n dicated that e mployer expendi t u r e s for these b e n e f i t s a m o u n t e d to 5.5 percent. Pai d h o l i d a y s — u s u a l l y 7 or m o r e a y e a r — are c o m m o n p r a c t i c e in m o s t m a n u f a c t u r i n g industries, but a large p r o p o r t i o n of t e x t i l e w o r k e r s rec e i v e fewer than 4 p aid holidays. O n l y w o o l and the t e xtile dyeing and finishing industries, of those for w h i c h i n f o r m a t i o n is available, p r o v i d e d m o s t p r o d u c t i o n w o r k e r s w i t h 4 or m o r e p a i d holidays, and less than half of the w o r k e r s in all industries, except wool, recei v e d 5 or m o r e (Appendix table 22). As of the fall of 1967, from two-fi f t h s to t hree-fourths of the w o r k e r s in the h o s i e r y i n d u s t r y r e c e i v e d no pa i d holidays; there is no i n f o r m a t i o n indica t i n g that there has b e e n a s ub stantial change in this i n d ustr y since then. In the m a n u f a c t u r e of c ott o n and m a n - m a d e fabrics, about one out of six workers, including one - t h i r d of those in the Southwest, r e c e i v e d no paid holidays in S e ptember 1968, but o n l y one out of ten w o r k e r s in w o o l e n textiles and in textile dyeing and fi n i s h i n g h ad no holid a y s w i t h pay. For those w o r k e r s covered b y h o l i d a y provisions, the m o s t co m m o n n u m b e r of days off w i t h pay is four (three in the Southwest) in c o t t o n and m a n - m a d e fabrics production, an d six or six and one - h a l f (two in the Southeast) in the m a n u f a c t u r e of w o o l e n textiles. In hosiery, the n u m b e r of holidays var i e s w i d e l y among e s t a b l i s h m e n t s from on e to seven or seven and one-half, an d in t e x t i l e d y e i n g and finishing, the n u m b e r v a ries from one to n i n e or more. - 41 V acations are m o r e common than h o l i d a y s for textile workers. The vast m a j o r i t y of w o rkers enga g e d in the p r o d u c t i o n of cotton, man-made, or wool textiles, and textile dyeing and finishing, and from 70 to 85 percent of those enga g e d in the m a n u f a c t u r e of ho s i e r y r e c e i v e paid vacations. The typical p r o v i s i o n is 1 w e e k after 1 y e a r ’s service and 2 weeks after 5 y e a r s ’ service. In contrast to m a n u f a c t u r i n g as a whole, v a c a ti o n s of m o r e than 2 weeks are unu s u a l (Appendix table 23). Life, hospital, and surgical i nsurance plans, financed at least in part by employers,are w i d e s p r e a d in the textile industries. They apply to over nine-t e n t h s of the w o r k e r s emplo y e d in the cotton t e x tile, synthetic textile, and dyeing and finishing industries (Appendix table 24). In the South, premiu m s are o f t e n paid for in part by the employees. Other types of insurance are less common. In contrast to other benefits, N e w E n g l a n d lags b e h i n d the South in the p r o v i s i o n of m o n t h l y p e n s i o n b e n e f i t s for cotton textile workers. Instead, N e w England m a n u f a c t u r e r s p r o v i d e lu m p - s u m payments on r e t i r e ment. M o n t h l y pens i o n benefits are in effect for about seven out of ten s o u thern cotton textile workers. In the textile dyeing and f i n i s h ing industry, some kind of p e n s i o n — either m o n t h l y benef i t s or lump- s u m p a y m e n t s — apply to about three-f o u r t h s of the p r o d u c t i o n w o r k e r s in the M i d d l e A t l a n t i c region, two-thirds in N e w England, and about t h ree-fifths in the Southeast, w h e r e the indus t r y is n o w concentrated. W a g e and Benefit Trends A f ter a period of infrequent w a g e changes, w a g e activ i t y in the cotton and synthetic textile industries increased during the 1 9 6 0 ’s, From Novem b e r 1963 to July 1968 there w e r e six rounds of w a g e increases in s o u thern textile m i lls (Appendix table 25). Each of the southern w a g e increases since 1963, except those that we n t into effect in September 1967 and July 1968, am ounted to about 5 percent. The 1967 increase amounted to 6 or 6 1/2 percent, and the 1968 increase averaged about 6 percent. Wages continued upward in 1969. The a c c e l e r a t i o n of w a g e ch ange a p p a r e n t l y r eflected the increased p r o s p e r i t y of the industry. This in turn w a s due to a nu m b e r of factors, i n c l u d i n g the effect of the o ne- p r i c e c o t t o n law, h e a v y demands for t e x tile products, and substantial improv e m e n t s in productivity. Southern difficulties in recrui t i n g wor k e r s w e r e also reported. G e n e r a l w a g e changes since 1963 have b e e n somewhat larger in s outhern than in the n o r t h e r n cotton and s y n thetic textile mills. For cotton textiles, w h e r e comparisons of g e neral w a g e changes and changes in hour l y earnings are possible, the increase in the two m e a s u r e s - 42 has b e e n p r a c t i c a l l y identical since 1958. Straight-time hourly earn ings of all textile workers h a v e incr e a s e d by about 48 p e r c e n t since 1958— m o r e than the increases for all f a ctory p r o d u c t i o n workers. Be cause of a slightly greater increase in a v e r a g e w e e k l y hours, bo t h h o u r l y earnings including p r e m i u m p ay for ov e r t i m e and w e e k l y earnings adva n c e d slightly faster than s t r a i g h t - t i m e h o u r l y earnings. Changes in average annual earnings for w o r k e r s w i t h e a rnings in the textile i ndustry in each of four quarters of a y ear are shown in A p p e n d i x table 26 from 1946 to 1964, the latest years for w h i c h these d ata are a v a i l able. Over the who l e period, average annual earnings i ncreased by about 123 percent. Earnings at straig h t - t i m e r o s e at about the same r a t e in m o s t t ex tile industries b e t w e e n 1958 and 1968 (Appendix table 19). E xceptions w e r e the m a n u f a c t u r e of floor coverings, w h e r e h o u r l y earnings excluding p r e m i u m pay for o v e r t i m e increa s e d by only about 32 percent, and h o s i e r y (except w o m e n ’s hosiery) and bro a d w o v e n co t t o n fabrics, w h e r e they rose b e t w e e n 55 and 60 percent. S t r a i g h t - t i m e h o u r l y earnings in floor coverings w e r e h i g hest of all tex t i l e i n d ustries (except m i s c e l laneous textile goods) in 1958, and thus w a g e increases sim i l a r to those in other industries bet w e e n 1958 and 1968 r e s u l t e d in a r e l a t i v e l y smaller perc e n t a g e increase in s t r a i g h t - t i m e a v e r a g e h o u r l y ea r n i n g s for this period. On the other hand, h o u r l y earnings in m e n ’s and c h i l d r e n ’s h o s i e r y and cotton fabrics w e r e r e l a t i v e l y l o w in 1958, and the same cents per hour w a g e increases over t hese y e a r s w o u l d be h i g h e r in per c e n t a g e terms. N o r t h e r n plants h a v e continued to l i b e r a l i z e benefits, and since 1965, substantial numbers of s o u t h e r n c o t t o n and s y n thetic plants have libera l i z e d or introduced benefits, e s p e c i a l l y h o l i d a y and p e n s i o n p r o visions. I ndustrial Relations Extent of U n i o n i z a t i o n . U n i o n agree m e n t s g o v e r n the w a g e s and w o rking conditions of only a small m i n o r i t y of textile workers. In m o s t m a n u f a c t u r i n g industries, u n i o n agr e e m e n t s cover from 60 to 65 perc e n t of the p r o d u c t i o n workers..?/ As A p p e n d i x table 27 indicates, only in textile dyeing and finishing do u n i o n agreem e n t s cover m o r e than a third of the p r o d u c t i o n workers, and in the S o u t h e a s t e r n States, as few as 1 or 2 percent of synthetic textile m a n u f a c t u r i n g and h o s i e r y employees w o r k under union contracts. The h i g h e s t contract c o v e r a g e in the S o u t h east is recorded in cotton textiles, w h e r e an e s t i m a t e d 14 pe r c e n t of the 2/ Dat a refer to 1966, the latest ye a r for w h i c h this in f o r m a t i o n is available. There has b e e n r e l a t i v e l y little chan g e in u n i o n i z a t i o n since these studies w e r e made. - 43 w o r k e r s are under collec t i v e ba r g a i n i n g agreements, and in textile dyeing and finishing, w h e r e agr e e m e n t s a p ply to one out of four s o u thern workers. W i t h the continued shift of t e xtile e m p l o y m e n t to the South in the p o s t w a r period, u n i o n i z a t i o n has a c t u a l l y decli n e d in importance. D u r i n g the 1 9 6 0 fs, there has b e e n little change in coverage of u n i o n a g r eements in these industries. W i t h i n the past two years u n ions have w o n barg a i n i n g elections in a n u m b e r of south e r n textile plants, but ver y f e w of these plants have signed col l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g agreements. Consid e r i n g m e m b e r s h i p rather than the n u m b e r of w o r k e r s covered by u n ion agreements, m e m b e r s h i p in m a j o r textile unions has dec l i n e d p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y m o r e than employment. B e t w e e n 1956 and 1966, textile p r o d u c t i o n w o r k e r employment fell b y about 87,000 w o r k e r s — about 9.2 p e r c e n t — w h i l e m e m b e r s h i p in the m a j o r textile unions declined by about 83,000 or 27 p e rcent (Appendix table 28). M e m b e r s h i p in the p r i n c i p a l textile unions was about 33 percent of textile p r o d u c t i o n w o r k e r employment in 1956 and 27 p e r c e n t in 1966..3/ B a r gaining P a t t e r n s . In recent years, the p a t t e r n of w a g e changes in cotton and synthetic textile m a n u f a c t u r e has b een e s t a b l i s h e d by n o n u n i o n establis h m e n t s in the South. In contrast to the years be f o r e the m i d - 1 9 5 0 fs, w h e n m e m b e r s of the N e w E n g l a n d T e xtile M a n u f a c t u r e r s A s s o c i a tion b a r g a i n e d as a unit, u n i o n i z e d companies n o w n e g o t i a t e on an individual basis. The frequency of bargai n i n g and w a g e changes in the textile i n d u s tries, p a r t i c u l a r l y in the m a n u f a c t u r e of b r o a d w o v e n goods, has a c c e l e r a t e d in the 1 9 6 0 fs as the i n d u s t r i e s 1 p r o s p e r i t y increased. W i t h the economic difficulties and declines in e m p loyment in the 1 9 5 0 fs, there w e r e a n u m b e r of years in w h i c h w a g e s w e r e not changed and one y e a r in w h i c h they w e r e reduced by u n i o n i z e d mills. Begi n n i n g in 1964, however, n o r t h e r n cotton textile m a n u f a c t u r e r s b e g a n to n e g o t i a t e w a g e increases each year, and, in 1966, 3-year a g r eements p r o v i d e d not only for a w a g e increase in the first contract ye a r but for defer r e d w a g e i ncreases in the second and third years. This d e v e l o p m e n t p a r a l l e l e d an a c c e l e r a t i o n of w a g e changes in southern textile plants. 3/ A n u m b e r of other u nio n s h a v e some m e m b e r s h i p in the textile industries. These include the Ind u s t r i a l Trades U n i o n (independent), w h i c h represents some 1,700 empl o y e e s of 16 w o o l e n and worsted, dye, and k n i t t i n g m i l l s in the Woons ocket, R h o d e Isla n d area. - 44 Strike I d l e n e s s , The n u m b e r of m a n - d a y s of idleness resu l t i n g from w o r k stoppages in the textile ind ustries has b e e n p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y smaller than the average for all industries. In each y e a r except two b e t w e e n 1956 and 1967, less than a tenth of 1 p e r c e n t of es t i m a t e d w o r k i n g time has be e n lost b e c a u s e of w o r k stoppages in textile i n d ustries (Appendix table 29). M o s t textile stoppages have b e e n c o n c e n t r a t e d in the Northeast. De spite the loss of u n i o n m e m b e r s and c o v e r a g e of u n i o n a g r e e m e n t s w i t h the shift of the industry to the South, strikes to o r g a n i z e plan t s ha v e n ot in creased in number. B. Apparel W a g e and Benefit Levels H o u r l y earnings in the a p par e l ind u s t r i e s are lower than in any other m a n u f a c t u r i n g group except textiles and leather. B e c a u s e of r e l a t i v e l y short hours, w e e k l y and annual e a r n i n g s of a p p a r e l w o r k e r s are b e l o w those of all other m a j o r industry groups. The a v e r a g e a p p a r e l w o r k e r in O c t o b e r 1968 earned just over $2.20 an hour (about $2.27 if p r e m i u m p a y for o v e r time is included), or slightly m o r e than $82.00 a w e e k — about 70 cents an hour and m o r e than $43.00 a w e e k less t han the a v e r a g e f a c t o r y p r o d u c t i o n work e r (Appendix table 30) .it/ The ann u a l earni n g s of w o r k e r s r e g u l a r l y attached to the a p p arel industries (those w i t h ear n i n g s in e a c h of four quarters) a v e raged about $3,650 in 1964 (Appendix table 31). In O c t o b e r 1968, e s timated a v e r a g e strai g h t time h o u r l y earnings v a r i e d among apparel industries from a l ow of abo u t $1.90 in the m a n u f a c ture of such products as w o r k clothing, shirts, trousers, a nd w o m e n fs and c h i l d r e n fs underwear, to about $2.72 in the m a n u f a c t u r e of w o m e n fs coats and suits. E arnings v a r i e d among i n d ustries for the same o c c u p a t i o n as w e l l as for all occupations cons i d e r e d as a group. Thus, even for j a n i tors, earnings in the m e n ’s and b o y s T suit and coat i n d u s t r y a re s u b s t a n tially high e r than those in m e n fs and b o y s 1 shirt or w o r k c l othing f a c tories (Appendix table 32). For p r o d u c t i o n occupa t i o n s , the d i f f e r e n c e s in earnings are even greater. W i t h i n an industry earnings v a r y s u b s t a n t i a l l y among o c c u p a t i o n s and areas. A survey of the w o m e n 1s and m i s s e s 1 dress i n d u s t r y in 11 m a j o r p r o d u c t i o n centers in M a r c h 1966 r ecorded earni n g s rang i n g from $1.63 an h our in Dallas, Texas to $2.73 in N e w Y o r k City. At that time, in N e w Y o r k City, skilled cutters and m a r k e r s earned an a v e r a g e of $3.55 an hour, w h i l e the largest o c c u p a t i o n a l g r oup in the i n d u s t r y — w o m e n sewing m a c h i n e operators (single h a n d - t a i l o r system) a v e r a g e d $2.81. In the pro d u c t i o n of w o m e n ’s coats and suits, earni n g s in A u g u s t 1965 4/ P r e l i m i n a r y data indicate that in J a n u a r y 1969 a v e r a g e h o u r l y and w e e k l y earnings in textiles w e r e 83 cents an d $45.00, r e s p e ctively, b e l o w the levels in all manufacturing. - 45 varied from $2.00 in Kansas City to $2.92 in New York City, with cut ters averaging $3.90 and sewing machine operators (single hand-tailor system) $3.45 in New York City.5/ Prior to February 1, 1968, a substantial number of workers in the apparel industries earned less than $1.60— the minimum which went into effect for manufacturing establishments under the Fair Labor Standards Act on that date. In Appendix table 33, estimates of the proportion of workers currently earning less than $2.00 an hour are presented for three apparel industries. On a nationwide basis, the estimates range from 22 percent in the menfs and boys1 suits and coats industry to an estimated 70 percent in the manufacture of work clothing, and 80 percent in the shirt (except work shirts) and nightwear industry. The scheduled workweek in most men's apparel industries is 40 hours, with few establishments reporting longer schedules. Work schedules in most major centers of the women's dress industry and all major centers of the women's coat and suit industry, as well as in unionized plants manufacturing infants' and children's wear, are typically 35 hours a week— ' Most workers in other women's apparel industries are also on a 35-hour workweek. Average actual hours vary with the season in many apparel industries, but typically are below 40 a week, whereas in recent years the workweek in all manufacturing has averaged 40 hours or more. Because in many apparel industries most establishments are small, employee benefits are often financed by industry-area funds to which unionized employers contribute specified amounts per man-hour worked. The limited information that is available indicates that employer con tributions or direct expenditures for benefits were proportionately smaller in apparel manufacture than in manufacturing as a whole. Bene fits are more generous in industries in which large numbers of establish ments have been organized than in such industries as work clothing and shirt manufacturing, where union agreements cover only a minority of the workers. In the women's apparel industries and in the production of men's coats and suits, most workers receive paid holidays, but in the manufac ture of men's and boys' shirts, about a third of the workers did not re ceive any paid holidays as of 1964. (Available information does not indi cate any substantial subsequent change in practice. The predominant num ber of paid holidays is 7, 7 1/2, or 8, except in work clothing, where 6 or 7 days are equally common. V In the coat and suit operators were more numerous lower earnings. 6/ The only major dress hours were common were mostly industry, section system sewing machine than tailor system operators and had areas in which schedules in excess of 35 unorganized. - 46 Most apparel workers receive paid vacations, but the length of vacations varies among industries. Employees of the m enfs suit and coat and shirt industries receive two weeks1 vacation after a yearfs service and a third week after 1 1/2 years .U In the work clothing industry, most employees receive one week after a yearfs service and a second week is added after 3 or 5 years1 service. Only about one-fourth of the workers in work clothing have 3 weeks1 or more of paid vacation, usually after 10 or 15 years of service. Vacation benefits vary among major centers of the dress industry. In most areas, employees with a yearfs service receive 2 or 4 percent of their annual earnings as vacation benefits; this percentage does not vary with length of service. Vacation practices in the womenfs coat and suit industry varied, with payments ranging from 2 percent of annual earnings, or about one week’s pay, to 3 3/4 percent, or pay for a second week. One year’s service was generally required for payments. In unionized plants in centers of women’s coat and suit production, pensions of $50.00 or $65.00 a month are financed by employer payments of 2 1/2 to 6 1/2 percent of payrolls. Most unionized producers of dresses pay 4 1/2 percent of payrolls for pensions of $60.00 a month, and in men’s apparel, most employers in the men’s and boys’ coats and suits industry contribute 4.5 percent of payrolls for pension benefits based on earnings and length of service, and in shirts and allied gar ments, 3.1 percent for pensions of $60.00 a month. A number of apparel agreements provide for local medical care facilities, often clinics that provide a variety of medical care serv ices. Other health benefits include hospitalization, ranging from full coverage for a semi-private room for workers in women’s dresses and men’s and boys’ coats and suits to $30.00 a day for workers manufacturing women’s coats and suits and men’s shirts and cotton garments. Allowances for surgical expenses are generally $300.00 for workers in men’s and boys’ shirts and allied garments and as high as $500.00 in the women’s dress industry, and in both the women’s and men’s coats and suits industries. Most union firms pay from 4 to 7 1/2 percent of gross payroll to finance health and welfare benefits. Wage and Benefit Trends Because of the fragmented nature of bargaining and the number of unilateral employer decisions, it is difficult to generalize about the size of general wage increases and changes in benefits in the apparel JJ Two weeks are given in the summer after 1 year of service and the third week is granted during Christmas week for employees with 1 year of service as of December 1. In effect then, only those employees with at least 1 1/2 years of service as of December 1 would receive the full 3 weeks of vacation for the year. - 47 industries. Until 1965-66, wages were generally increased only once every two or three years, but beginning in 1965, wage activity in creased. In 1965, after a lapse of two years, 1-year contracts nego tiated for the shirt and other menfs cotton garment industries provided wage increases. In 1966, 3-year contracts were negotiated providing for increases in both 1966 and 1967. Some work clothing plants put into effect negotiated or deferred increases during 1965, 1966, and 1967. There was a similar acceleration of wage changes in the women1s apparel industries. Prior to the early 1960fs, wage reopenings were often trig gered by 5 percent increases in the Consumer Price Index, while recently this has been reduced to about 2 or 2 1/2 percent. In 1967 and 1968, many contracts in women1s apparel were reopened for wage negotiations, based on an increase in the CPI. In general, provisions for deferred wage increases and new contract negotiations will raise the wage level in apparel in 1969. Straight-time average hourly earnings increased by more than 40 percent in both the apparel industries and all manufacturing between October 1958 and October 1968.il/ The percentage rise in average weekly earnings was less in apparel than in all manufacturing, reflecting a larger rise in average hours in manufacturing. Annual earnings in these industries for regular workers rose less than in most other major manufacturing groups (Appendix table 34). The rise between 1946 and 1964 (the latest year for which data on annual earnings are available), was 67 percent; for the period 1959-64 the increase was 14 percent. There has been a relatively little variation among apparel industries in the extent to which earnings have increased, with the exception of womenfs suits, skirts, coats, and millinery. In those industries, hourly earnings rose less than 30 percent between 1958 and 1968. Except for reductions in weekly schedules in the millinery and fur industries in 1958, there has been little change in hours of work in apparel indus tries in recent years. Many recent union agreements have liberalized benefits and increased the percentage that employers contribute for vacations, holidays, and health and welfare benefits. Industrial Relations Extent of Unionization. The proportion of workers covered by union agreements varies widely among apparel industries, although generally it is much higher than in the textile industries. Among three of the major 8/ The increase would be about the same if the average for 1958 were used as a base. October 1958 has been substituted because of seasonal variations in some apparel industries. - 48 menfs apparel industries for which data are available, coverage of union agreements varies from about two-fifths of the production workers in shirt manufacture to 90 percent in the manufacture of coats and suits. In 9 out of 11 major metropolitan areas in the womenfs dress industry and all areas studied in womenfs coat and suit production, about 7 out °f 8 workers were covered by union agreements. (Exceptions were Dallas and Los Angeles, where fewer than one-tenth of the dress workers were cov ered by agreements.) Union agreements also apply extensively to workers in a number of other women1s apparel industries. Despite a growth in apparel employment, there has been no sig nificant gain in union membership or coverage of union agreements in recent years. Membership in the four major apparel unions considered as a group actually declined slightly between 1956 and 1966. In the two largest unions, membership was stable. At the same time, annual average production worker employment in the apparel industries grew by 155,000. The failure of union membership or coverage of union agreements to keep pace with employment is apparently due to the fact that the growth has occurred mostly in areas that have proved difficult to organize. Mem bership in the principal apparel unions has fallen from about 84 percent of production worker employment in 1956 to 72 in 1966. Bargaining Patterns. Large establishments are relatively rare in the apparel industries; hence, most collective bargaining agreements cover groups of establishments within metropolitan areas or, in some cases, even broader areas (Appendix table 35). Some agreements, for example, cover the New York metropolitan area or parts of several northeastern States. Typically, contracts are negotiated for a period of two or three years. Until the past several years, they normally provided for wage reopeners on a certain date or if a specified increase occurred in the Consumer Price Index. Specified deferred wage increases were not provided for. Generally, increases were put into effect less often than annually. In recent years, there has been a tendency to provide for specific deferred wage increases, although there are still provisions for reopeners in many Ladies1 Garment Workers contracts if the CPI increases by a speci fied amount, or if the statutory minimum wage increases. Many of the women's garment contracts require that minimum occupational rates shall be maintained at a specified level above the statutory minimum. Strike Idleness. Except in 1958, when more than 150,000 workers in the dress and millinery industries struck over new agreements, time lost because of work stoppages has been proportionately much smaller in apparel than the average for all industries (Appendix table 36). Despite the failure of union membership and coverage of union agreements to keep pace with the growth of employment in the industry, there has been no increase in strikes to organize new plants. - 49 VII. TEXTILES AND APPAREL IN PUERTO RICQi/ Employment and Unemployment In 1968, factory employment in Puerto Rico averaged 7,600 in textiles and 37,100 in apparel.2J Between 1957 and 1968, factory employment in textiles and apparel combined increased by 89 percent. In apparel, the gain was 97 percent; in textiles, 58 percent (Appendix table 37). In the balance of manufacturing industry, over the same period, employment rose by 85 percent, and in all nonagricultural indus try (excluding textiles and apparel), by 62 percent.A/ Among the indi vidual textile and apparel industries, the largest single source of employment was in women1s, misses’, children’s and infants1 undergarments (Appendix table 38). In 1968, almost one-third of all factory employment in Puerto Rico was accounted for by apparel and textiles, as compared with almost two-fifths in 1966.4/A significant aspect of the development of the ap parel industry has been the shift from home needlework to factory work. In 1957, there were about 18,000 home needleworkers and 19,000 factory apparel workers, a total of about 37,000. By 1968, there were only about 2,000 home needleworkers, but factory employment had risen to 37,000 for a total employment only slightly greater than in 1957. These figures suggest that the development of a strong factory industry has gradually whittled away at the cottage industry, but this is probably only partially true. No definite information is available on the subse quent employment of the displaced needleworkers, but there are indications that some have become factory workers in apparel; others have left the labor force or become domestic workers; and still others have moved into 1/ The definitions of the textile and apparel industries in Puerto Rico correspond broadly to those used for the mainland of the United States, but there are several major differences. Included in the children’s dress and related products industry are establishments primarily engaged in the manufacture of dolls, and included in the hosiery and textile products industry are establishments primarily engaged in the manufacture of mattresses and bedsprings. 2/ Wherever data for 1968 are used, they represent the average for January through October unless otherwise specified. 3/ On the mainland, between 1957 and 1968, textile mill employ ment was virtually unchanged, but employment in apparel and in manu facturing as a whole rose by 15 and 17 percent, respectively. 4/ On the mainland, combined textile and apparel employment accounted for 12 percent of manufacturing employment (Appendix table 1). - 50 - h ome p i e c e w o r k for other industries, such as glo v e m a n u f a c t u r i n g . P o s s i b l y the single factor m o s t infl u e n c i n g the r e d u c t i o n in the n u m ber of home nee d l e w o r k e r s has be e n the d w i n d l i n g importance, b o t h in relative and absolute terms, of those appa r e l indus t r i e s in w h i c h hand finishing was an important operation. It is evident that, w h i l e the level of* appa r e l e m p l o y m e n t has r e m a i n e d r e l a t i v e l y stable, the shift f rom h o m e w o r k to f a c t o r y work, as w e l l as the shift in industry patterns, has resul t e d in a h i g h e r level of productivity, and c o n s e quent l y g r e a t e r output for the industry. Separate data are not ava i l a b l e on u n e m p l o y m e n t in the textile and a p par el industries in Puert o Rico. For all n o n a g r i c u l t u r a l i n d u s tries, u n e m ployment over the last 12 y e ars has a v e r a g e d 11.2 percent, double the u n e m p loyment rate for the m a i n l a n d (Appendix t able 39). In Oct o b e r 1968, the rate w as 11.3 percent, or about triple the m a i n l a n d rate. W i t h some v a r i a t i o n — as l o w as 9.9 per c e n t in 1960 and as h igh as 13.5 in 1 9 5 8 — n o n a g r i c u l t u r a l u n e m p l o y m e n t has remai n e d r e l a t i v e l y steady over the entire decade. The f e male u n e m p l o y m e n t rate has g e n e r ally b e e n m o r e favorable than the m a l e rate. A f t e r a p e r i o d of steady decline, followed by some u p w a r d mo v e m e n t , it dropped to a l ow point of 7.3 percent in Octo b e r 1968. In a d d i t i o n to unemployment, u n d e r e m p l o y m e n t — those w o r k e r s w h o w o r k 34 hours or less per w e e k for i n v o l u n t a r y r e a s o n s — is also a serious problem. The rate for u n d e r e m p l o y m e n t has b e e n c o n s i s t e n t l y high, a p p r o x i m a t e l y at the same level as u n employment. W h i l e employment during the p ast 12 y e a r s incr e a s e d b y 30 percent, increases of 28 percent occurre d in the c i v i l i a n n o n i n s t i t u t i o n a l p o p u lation and in the labor force. T here has thus b e e n a c o m p a r a t i v e l y small gai n in relative employment. This p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h has b e e n influenced in the past several y e a r s b y the r e t u r n of a p o r t i o n of the P uerto R i c a n p o p u l a t i o n that had m i g r a t e d to the m a i n l a n d , m a i n l y N e w Y o r k City, and, in returning, e x erted a d d i t i o n a l p r e s s u r e o n job o p p o r tunities . U n e m p l o y m e n t among young p e o p l e has b e e n and continues to b e a s e rious .problem* A p p r o x i m a t e l y half the u n e m p l o y e d o n the island are less than 25 yea r s old. T h e fact that the s i t u a t i o n is n o t i mproving and is indeed w o r s e n i n g is indi c a t e d b y the d e c r e a s e of 4.8 y e a r s in the ave r a g e age of the u n e m p l o y e d b e t w e e n 1960 a nd 1967. This is in part a refle c t i o n of the decrea s i n g a v e r a g e age of the population. M o r e and more, as employme n t shifts from the " t r a d i t i o n a l ” sector (agriculture, needlework, d omes t i c service, s e l f - e m p l o y e d m e r c h a n t s - 51 - and street peddlers, and sugar m i l l jobs) to the "modern" sector (manufacturing, construction, trade, g o v e r n m e n t and services other than d o m e s t i c ) , r e l atively low e d u c a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t beco m e s a v o c a tional handicap for b o t h the young and o lder Pue r t o Rican, A m o r e favorable aspect of the u n e m p l o y m e n t p i c t u r e is the r e l a tively short duration of m o s t u n e m p loyment. Two - t h i r d s of the p e rsons seeking w o r k stay u n e m p l o y e d for a pe r i o d of 4 w e e k s or less. Only 6.2 perc e n t of job seekers are u n e m p l o y e d for 3 1 / 2 m o n t h s or more. L o n g - t e r m unemployment is often a r e f l e c t i o n of the shift from the t r a d itional to the m o d e r n economy, from the d i s a p p e a r a n c e of industries using r e l ative u n skilled labor to those w i t h g r e a t e r skill requirements. Size of Establishment Bet w e e n 1957 and O c t ober 1967, the n u m b e r of textile and apparel plants in P u erto Rico increased from 415 to 500, or 22 percent, a c c o u n t ing for about 20 percent of the island's m a n u f a c t u r i n g establis h m e n t s (Appendix table 40). B e t ween the two years, the ave r a g e apparel plant increased in size from 51 to 83 workers, but the a v e r a g e textile plant remained about the same siz e — 100 workers. In 1957, 71 percent of the a p parel plants had fewer than 50 e m p l o y ees, and 26 percent had betw e e n 50 and 250 (Appendix table 41). By Octo b e r 1967, this had shifted to 48 p e r c e n t in the smaller size, and 49 percent in the larger. Over this peri o d the p r o p o r t i o n of w o r k e r s in small plants was cut m o r e than half, fr o m 24.5 p e r c e n t in 1957 to 11.5 percent in O c tober 1967. Un l i k e the s i t u a t i o n on the ma i n l a n d , the a v erage apparel plant in Puerto Rico is larger than the a v e r a g e m a n u f a c turing establishment. P r e s u m a b l y this r eflects the t e ndency of m a n u f a c turers of m a s s - p r o d u c e d articles, such as brassieres, to locate sizeable plants on the island. W age and Benefit Levels In the p e r i o d from 1957 t h r o u g h 1968, av e r a g e h o u r l y e arnings in Puerto R i c o fs textile industry rose 88 percent, from 77 cents to $1.45; and in apparel by 118 percent, from 66 cents to $1.44 (Appendix table 42). The increase in a p parel w a s at a p p r o x i m a t e l y the same rate as in Puerto Ric a n m a n u f a c t u r i n g g e n e r a l l y u n t i l 1966, but by 1968 h a d s u b stantially exceeded the m a n u f a c t u r i n g incre a s e of 103 percent. As a result of w a g e m o v e m e n t s o ccurring during the past decade, d ifferentials bet w e e n m a i n l a n d and island h o u r l y earnings in textiles - 52 - and apparel hav e n a r r o w e d in p e r c e n t a g e terms; however, t hey h a v e remai n e d about the same in terms of m o n e y (Appendix table 43). If anything, the gap in abs o l u t e terms has w i d e n e d somewhat in recent years. Since 1957, h o u r l y earni n g s in texti l e s in P u e r t o Ri c o ha v e a v e raged about 68 cents less than on the main l a n d . In two of these years, they rose to w i t h i n 63 cents of the m a i n l a n d level, b ut since 1962, the gap has bee n increasing w i t h in d i c a t i o n s that it w i l l be about 74 cents for 1968. In apparel ma n u f a c t u r i n g , the d i f f e r e n c e a veraged 75 cents over the 12-year span, w i t h a 76-cent d i f f e r e n c e indicated for 1968. Even m o r e than on the m a i n l a n d , m i n i m u m w a g e ch a n g e s u n d e r the Fair Lab o r Standards Act h a v e exer t e d a p o w e r f u l i n f l u e n c e on h o u r l y earnings. U n l i k e the m a i n l a n d ’s u n i f o r m m i n i m u m w a g e level, island m i n i m a are set on an i n d u s t r y - b y - i n d u s t r y b a s i s b y indus t r y committees, and are reviewed at a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 - year intervals. M u c h of the rise b e t w e e n 1967 and 1968 took p l a c e in the spring of 1968, after the Fair Lab o r Standards Act m i n i m u m of $1.60 p e r h o u r we n t into effect on the m a i n l a n d (February 1). The Fair L a b o r S t a ndards A c t r e q u i r e d a c o r r e s ponding p e r c e n t a g e increase in the island minim u m . Ex c e p t for the m a n u f a c t u r e of handkerchiefs, for w h ich a h a r d s h i p e x c e p t i o n w a s filed, this p e r c e n t a g e i n c rease wen t into effect in A p r i l 1968. A v e r a g e w e e k l y e a r nings in ap p a r e l h a v e r i s e n fr o m $21.98 in 1957 to $51.04 in 1 9 6 8 , ^ an 11-year i n c r e a s e of 132 percent, as c o m p a r e d w i t h 110 perc e n t in all manufact u r i n g . H o wever, the level of a v e r a g e w e e k l y earnings in 1968 was lower in appa r e l than in m a n u f a c t u r i n g by $5.98, or about 10 percent. Whi l e the gap in terms of d o l l a r s has g r o w n s o m e w h a t since 1957, it has decr e a s e d in p e r c e n t a g e terms b y a bout one-half. A l t h o u g h w e e k l y earnings in the m u c h smal l e r t e xtile i n d u s t r y rose by only 100 percent in the same period, their lev e l w a s $5.59 h i g h e r than in apparel in 1968. A b o u t two-thirds of this d i f f e r e n c e w a s due to h igher average w e e k l y hou r s in textiles, and the r e m a i n d e r to a d i f f e r ence in a v e rage h o u r l y earnings. In m a n u f a c t u r i n g industries, isla n d a v e r a g e w e e k l y h o u r s tend to be lower than on the m a inland. This is p a r t i c u l a r l y t rue in textiles; in apparel, the d i f f e r e n c e has b e e n slight. However, it s h o u l d be n o t e d that on the m a i n l a n d scheduled h o u r s in a p p a r e l ar e o f t e n 35 per week, n o t a b l y in the w o m e n ’s b r a n c h of the industry. O n the island, they are 40, indicating that there is a s u b s t a n t i a l s h o r t a g e of fu l l - t i m e w o r k in the industry. Over the past 12 years, t e x t i l e w e e k l y h o urs h a v e a v e raged 2.4 h igher than in apparel. ance, In a d d i t i o n to l e gally r equ i r e d so c i a l security, u n e m p l o y m e n t i n s u r and w o r k m e n ’s c o m p e n s a t i o n coverage, fema l e em p l o y e e s a r e e n t i t l e d - 53 - b y l a w to two mon t h s of m a t e r n i t y leave at half pay. Pa i d holidays, vacations, and m e d i c a l insuranc e are p r o v i d e d for in u n i o n a g r eements and are found to some extent in u n o r g a n i z e d plants. The p a y m e n t of C h ristmas bonuses is not unusual. Indus t r i a l Relations E xtent of U n i o n i z a t i o n . The P u e r t o R i c a n D e p a r t m e n t of Labor e s t i m a t e d that in Oct o b e r 1966 there w e r e 13,000 u n i o n m e m b e r s in apparel, or 41 percent of perso n s employed, and 1,200 in textile mills, or 21 percent of persons employed. In f o r m a t i o n from other sources indicates that r o u g h l y 12,000 w e r e in the I n t e r n a t i o n a l L a d i e s 1 Garm e n t W o r k e r s 1 Union, AFL-CIOfci/; 1.500 or m o r e in the A m a l g a m a t e d Clothing Wor k e r s of America, AF L - C I 0 2 j and anot h e r 1,200 in other unions •U Of 287 textile and apparel plan t s covered in eco n o m i c analyses p r e p a r e d in 1964 by the W a g e and Hour and P u b l i c C ontracts D i v i sions of the U.S. Depart m e n t of Labor, 85, w i t h 10,252 w o r k e r s » or about one - t h i r d of the ind u s t r y total, w e r e covered by u n i o n - m a n a g e m e n t contracts. These 85 plants ave r a g e d about 120 w o r k e r s each, as c o m pared w i t h an average of 96 w o r k e r s in plants not covered b y contracts. Industrial D isputes and W o r k S t o p p a g e s . In the course of the last decade there h a v e bee n o nly three u n i o n - a p p r o v e d strikes in the a p parel industry in Puerto Rico. These strikes w e r e small and w e r e o r g a n i z a tional rather than economic in nature. In all the stoppages, the str i k ing u n i o n has b e e n the A m a l g a m a t e d Clothing W o r k e r s of America, A F L - C I O In addition, a small n u m b e r of w i l d c a t strikes, g e n e r a l l y of short dura tion, hav e occurred. 5/ W i l l i a m Knowles, "Uni o n i s m and P o l i t i c s in Puer t o R i c o " in Status of Puerto R i c o , S elected B a c k g r o u n d Studies, p r e p a r e d for the U . S . - P u e r t o Rico C o m m i s s i o n on the Status of P u e r t o Rico, 1966. 6/ Informal esti m a t e p r o v i d e d b y the ACWA, AFL-CIO. 7/ Bas e d on a 1964 estima t e m a d e by the U.S. D e p a r t m e n t of Labor, W a g e and H o u r and Publ i c Contra c t s Divisions. STAT I S T I C A L A P P E N D I X Table 1--Total Employment in Manufacturing, Textiles, and Apparel, 1947 to 1968 JL/ _________________________________(In thousands)__________________________________ Year 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 ........... ......... ..................... ..................... ..................... ..................... ..................... ..................... ..................... ..................... ..................... ..................... ..................... ..................... ..................... ..................... ..................... ..................... ..................... ..................... ..................... ..................... 2/................... IV 2/ Source: Manufacturing 15,545 15,582 14,441 15,241 16,393 16,632 17,549 16,314 16,882 17,243 17,174 15,945 16,675 16,796 16,326 16,853 16,995 17,274 18,062 19,214 19,434 19,734 Textiles 1,299 1,332 1,187 1,256 1,238 1,163 1,155 1,042 1,050 1,032 981 919 946 924 893 902 885 892 926 964 957 985 Apparel 1,154 1,190 1,173 1,202 1,207 1,216 1,248 1,184 1,219 1,223 1,210 1,172 1,226 1,233 1,215 1,264 1,283 1,303 1,354 1,402 1,400 1,417 Private wage and salary workers only, Pr e 1iminary. U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics Ratios Textiles to Apparel to manufacturing manufacturing 8.4 8.6 8.2 8.2 7.6 7.0 6.6 6.4 6.2 6.0 5.7 5.8 5.7 5.5 5.5 5.4 5.2 5.2 5.1 5.0 4.9 5.0 7.4 7.6 8.1 7.9 7.4 7.3 7.1 7.3 7 -2 7.1 7.0 7.3 7.4 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.3 7.2 7.2 i tn T - 56 T able 2 --Unemployment R ates in M an ufactu rin g, T e x tile s and A p p arel, 1958 to 1968 Year M anufacturing T e x tile s A pparel R a tio s T e x tile to A pparel to m anufacturing m anufacturing 1958 ............................... 9.2 9.5 12.0 1.03 1.03 1959 ............................... 6 .0 7.2 9 .6 1.20 1.60 I960 ............................... 6.2 6.3 10.5 1.02 1.69 1961 ............................... 7.7 6.8 11.4 .88 1.48 1962 ............................... 5 .8 5 .2 9.8 .90 1.69 1963 ............................... 1964 ............................... 5 .7 6.7 9 .6 1.18 1.68 4.9 5 .7 8 .0 1.16 1.63 1965 ............................... 4 .0 4.3 7.3 1.08 1.83 1966 ............................... 3 .2 3.7 6 .0 1.16 1.88 1967 ............................... 3 .6 3 .8 6.5 1.06 1.81 1968 ............................... 3 .2 3.5 5.9 1.09 1.84 S ource: U .S. D epartm ent of L abor, Bureau of Labor S t a t i s t i c s . Table 3--Labor Turnover Rates in Manufacturing, Textiles, and Apparel, 1958 to 1967 1/ Manufacturing Textiles Apparel Accessions Accessions Separations Separations Accessions Separations Total New Total Quits Layoffs Total New Total Quits Layoffs Total New Total Quits Layoffs Hires Hires Hires Year 1958 3.6 1.7 4.1 i.i 2.6 3.'2 1.6 3.5 1.3 1,8 5.2 2.5 5.7 1.7 3.5 1959 4.2 2.6 4.1 1.5 2.0 3.5 2.4 3.5 1.7 1.3 5.7 3.6 5.6 2.3 2.7 1960 3.8 2.2 4.3 1.3 2.4 3.2 2.0 3.7 1.6 1.5 5.4 3.2 6.1 2.3 3.2 • 3 1 1961 4.1 2.2 4.0 1.2 2.2 3.5 2.2 3.4 1.6 1.3 5.7 3.1 5.8 2.0 O . l 1962 4.1 2.5 4.1 1.4 2.0 3.6 2.5 3.7 1.9 1.2 5.5 3.5 5.8 2.3 2.7 1963 3.9 2.4 3.9 1.4 1.8 3.6 2.5 3.8 1.9 1.2 5.3 3.3 5.5 2.2 2.6 1964 4.0 2.6 3.9 1.5 1.7 3.8 2.7 3.8 2.1 1.1 5.5 3.3 5.6 2.2 2.6 1965 4.3 3.1 4.1 1.9 1.4 4.3 3.3 4.1 2.5 .8 5.8 3.7 5.8 2.6 2.4 1966 5.0 3.8 4.6 2.6 1.2 5.1 4.1 5.1 3.5 .7 6.1 4.2 6.1 3.3 2.0 1967 4.4 3.3 4.6 2.3 1.4 4.9 3.8 5.0 3.4 .8 5.6 3.7 6.0 2.9 2.3 i u v. 1 1/ Per hundred employees* Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. - 58 Table 4.— Employment in Textiles, by Region and State, March 19681./ T o t a l ........... ............. 991,876 Percent of total 100.0 Northeast ............................ Maine .............................. Massachusetts ...................... Rhode Island .......... ............. Connecticut ........................ New Y o r k ............... ............ New Jersey,.......................... Pennsylvania....................... All o t h e r ...... .................... 261,414 12,689 36,192 22,614 13,834 59,674 30,003 69,521 16,887 26.4 1.3 3.6 2.3 1.4 6.0 3.0 7.0 1.7 North Central ........................ Ohio ............................... All other .......................... 31,941 10,918 21,023 3.2 1.1 2.1 South ................... ............. Virginia ............................ North Carolina ..................... South Carolina ..................... Georgia ............................ Tennessee •••............ ........... A l a b a m a .... ........................ All other .......................... 686,216 41,501 275,598 148,415 116,026 32,857 41,986 29,833 69.2 4.2 27.8 15.0 11.7 3.3 4.2 3.0 West ................................. California............... .......... All o t h e r ...... ••••••.........,,,,, 12,305 8,933 3,372 1.2 .9 .3 State Employment 1/ Employment covered by unemployment insurance (excludes mainly self-employed workers)• Source: U,S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Employment Security, - 59 Table 5.— Employment in Apparel, by Region and State, March 19681./ State Employment Percent distribution 1,442,330 100.0 Northeast ................ Massachusetts ................ Connecticut ................. New Y o r k ............... .... . New Jersey .................. Pennsylvania..... ........... All o t h e r ................. .. 669,793 55,496 15,606 288,797 79,694 182,015 48,185 46.4 3.8 1.1 20.0 5.5 12.6 3.3 North Central .... ............. Ohio ............ •••••••••••• Illinois .................... M i c h i g a n ............. ...... Missouri ..................... All o t h e r .... ............... 154,595 19,181 39,057 21,766 33,920 40,671 10.7 1.3 2.7 1.5 2.4 2.8 South ......................... Maryland .................... Virginia .................... North Carolina .............. South Carolina .............. Georgia ..................... Kentucky............. ....... Tennessee ................... Alabama ..................... Mississippi .................. Texas ....................... All other ................... 524,496 24,813 35,062 68,471 40,370 67,375 28,914 67,030 42,594 37,785 52,661 59,421 36.4 1.7 2.4 4.7 2.8 4.7 2.0 4.6 3.0 2.6 West ................. ......... California .................. All other ........... ........ 93,446 72,162 21,284 6.5 5.0 1.5 Total ................ 3.7 4.1 1/ Employment covered by unemployment insurance (excludes mainly self-employed workers). Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Employment Security. - 60 Table 6.— Per c e n t D i s t r i b u t i o n of Emp l o y m e n t in Man u f a c t u r i n g , Texti l e s and Apparel, by Area, First Qua r t e r 1967— ' Area Percent2/ M e t r o p o l i t a n area Manufacturing T extiles Apparel ....... 100 100 100 ...... 79 39 65 21 61 35 N o n m e t r o p o l i t a n are a ... 1/ Employment covered by old-age, survivors, and d i s a b i l i t y insurance (excludes m a i n l y s el f - e m p l o y e d w o r k e r s ) . 2/ P ercents are roun d e d to near e s t w h o l e number. Source: U.S. D e p artment of Commerce, B u r e a u of the Census. - 61 - Table 7.— Per c e n t D i s t r i b u t i o n of Emp l o y m e n t in Textile s in Selec t e d States, b y Area, First Q u a r t e r 19671./ e2J Total Metropolitan ar e a ....... 100 98 2 M i d d l e Atl a n t i c N e w Y o r k ............. N e w Jer s e y ........... P e n n s y l v a n i a ........ 100 100 100 91 92 71 9 8 29 South A l a b a m a .............. G e o r g i a .............. N o r t h C a r olina ...... South C a r olina ...... T e n n e s s e e ....... T . .. V i r g i n i a ....... . 100 100 100 100 100 100 10 30 14 23 69 9 90 70 86 77 31 91 Stat N e w England Massachusetts Nonmetropolitan area 1/ Emp l o y m e n t covered by old-age, survivors, and d i s a b i l i t y insurance (excludes m a i n l y s e l f - e m p l o y e d work e r s ) . 2V The selec t e d States a c c o u n t e d for about 84 p e rcent of employment in textile m i l l s in 1967. (Percents are r o u n d e d to nearest whole n u m b e r ) . Source: U.S. D e p a r t m e n t of Commerce, B u r e a u of the Census. - 62 - T able 8 . --Percent D i s t r i b u t i o n of E m p l oyment in A p p a r e l in Selected States, by Area, First Q u a r t e r 1967 1/ Total Metropolitan area ........... 100 100 0 Middle A t l a n t i c New Y o r k ................. New J ersey .............. P e n n s ylvania ............ 100 100 100 96 85 76 4 15 24 North Central Illinois ................. Missouri ................. 100 100 72 59 28 41 South A l a b a m a .................. Georgia .................. M i s s issippi ............. North C a r olina ......... South Caro l i n a ......... Tennessee ............... Texas ............ . ...... V irginia . .. ... .......... . 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 11 18 2 24 35 16 74 30 89 82 98 76 65 84 26 70 Pacific Cal i f o r n i a 100 97 3 -State 2/ New England M a s s a c husetts .............. Non-metropolitan ar e a 1/ E mployment covered by old-age, survivors, and d i s a b i l i t y insurance (excludes m a i n l y self-employed workers). 2/ The selected States a cco u n t e d for about 83 percent of employment in the apparel industr y in 1967. (Percents are rounded to nearest whole number). Source: U.S. D e p a r t m e n t of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. - 63 Table 9 - - E m ployment in Textiles a n d Apparel, as P e r c e n t of M a n u f a c t u r i n g E m p l o yment, by S e l e c t e d S t ates and Areas, Fir s t Q u a r t e r 1967 1/ States and areas Total Textiles Apparel 12.0 4.8 7.2 M a s s a c h u s e t t s ................ ............. M e t r o p o l i t a n areas ....................... Boston, Lowell, Law r e n c e ............. Broc k t o n ................................ Fall R i v e r - N e w B e d f o r d ............... W o r c e s t e r ............................... N o n - m e t r o p o l i t a n areas .................. 12.5 12.6 9.4 10.1 35.4 11.4 9.4 4.7 4.7 3.2 2.2 9.7 6.9 8.6 7.8 7.9 6.2 7.9 25.7 4.5 .7 N e w Y o r k ............ ........................ M e t r o p o l i t a n areas ...................... A l b a n y - S c h e n e c t a d y - T r o y .............. N e w Y o r k ................................ N o n - m e t r o p o l i t a n areas .................. 18.4 19.9 15.0 27.3 7.4 2.9 3.0 6.9 3.7 2.0 15.5 16.9 8.1 23.6 5.4 N e w J ersey .................................. M e t r o p o l i t a n areas ...................... Allentown-Beth.-Easton, Pa.-N.J. 2/ .......................... A t l a n t i c City .......................... Jer s e y City ............................ P a t e r s o n - C l i f t o n - P a s s a i c ............. N o n - m e t r o p o l i t a n areas .................. 11.9 12.5 3.1 3.5 8.8 9.0 10.7 39.9 21.1 16.3 9.7 8.0 0.0 3.9 7.6 1.5 2.7 39.9 17.2 8.7 8.2 15.7 14.4 4.2 3.7 11.5 10.7 27.3 16.5 21.1 16.3 20.0 5.5 9.2 0.0 21.8 7.3 21.1 12.4 20.0 14.6 14.9 25.9 39.3 44.7 12.3 21.5 3.4 4.1 16.7 7.1 6.5 2.1 6.5 U n i t e d States ................................. P e n n s y l v a n i a .................... ........... M e t r o p o l i t a n areas ...................... Allentown-Beth.-Easton, N.Y., Pa. 2/ ......................... A l t o o n a ....... .......................... Binghamton, N.Y.-Pa. 2/ .............. H a r r i s b u r g .............................. J o h n s t o w n ............................... L a ncaster ............................... Philadelphia, Pa.-N.J. 2/ ............ R e a d i n g ................................. Scr a n t o n ................................ W i l k e s - B a r r e - H a z l e t o n ................. Y o r k ..................................... N o n - m e t r o p o l i t a n areas .................. : ! 0.0 3.9 11.2 10.8 9.2 32.2 38.2 10.2 15.0 - 64 Table 9 - - Employment in T e xtiles a nd Apparel, as P e r c e n t of M a n u f a c t u r i n g Employment, by S e l e c t e d States and Areas, First Q u a r t e r 1967 1/ (continued) States a nd areas Total T e xtiles Apparel 7.7 5.6 16.5 M i s s o u r i 3 / ................................. M e t r o p o l i t a n areas ..................... N o n - m e t r o p o l i t a n areas ................. V i r g i n i a .................................... M e t r o p o l i t a n areas ..................... Lyn c h b u r g .............................. R o a n o k e ............................... . N o n - m e t r o p o l i t a n areas ................. 20.9 9.0 17.2 23.2 29.9 11.5 2.4 8.5 8.8 18.3 9.4 6.6 8.7 14.4 11.6 N o r t h Carolina ............................ M e t r o p o l i t a n areas ..................... A s h e v i l l e .............................. Charlotte ....... .. .................. . D u r h a m ................................. F a y e t t e v i l l e .......................... G r e e n s b o r o - H i g h Point ............... R a l e i g h ................................ Wilmington .......................... . N o n - m e t r o p o l i t a n areas ................. 49.8 24.4 26.7 26 . 4 25.1 53 . 4 21.4 18.4 34.9 62.1 39.6 16.8 15.6 19.6 21.2 30.8 15.7 10.7 12.7 50.7 10.2 7.6 11.1 6.8 4.0 22.6 5.7 7.7 22.2 11.4 S o u t h Carolina .................... ........ M e t r o p o l i t a n areas ..................... Augusta, Ga.-S.C. 2 / ................. C h a rleston ............................ Columbia ............................... Gree n v i l l e ..... ....................... N o n - m e t r o p o l i t a n areas .................. 58.3 46.5 46.3 22.5 18.5 61.1 64.0 45.6 32.7 40.9 8.8 6.5 44.3 51.8 12.7 13.8 5.4 13.7 12.3 16.8 12.2 G e orgia ..................................... M e t r o p o l i t a n areas ..................... A l b a n y ................................. A t l a n t a .................... ........... Augusta, Ga.-S.C. 2/ ................. C h a t t a n o o g a , T e n n .- G a ................. Columbus, Ga.-Ala. 27 ............... M a c o n .................................. Sav a n n a h ............................... N o n - m e t r o p o l i t a n areas .............. . 40.4 22.8 41.1 13.5 31.6 90.1 62.0 24.1 2.3 54.9 25.0 16.9 38.2 6.3 28.8 83.5 58.2 18.1 15.4 5.9 2.9 7.2 2.8 6.6 3.8 6.0 2.3 22.5 0.0 32 . 4 - 65 Table 9 --Employment in Textiles and Apparel, as Percent of Manufacturing Employment, by Selected States and Areas, First Quarter 1967 1 / (continued) States and areas Total Textiles Apparel Tennessee .............................. Metropolitan areas ................... Chattanooga, Tenn.-Ga. 2/ ........... Knoxville ...................... . Nashville .......................... Non-metropolitan areas ............... 23.3 14.9 14.0 24.3 14.8 3 1.8 7.1 9.8 12.0 21.7 5.5 4.4 16.2 5.1 2.0 2.6 9.3 27.1 Alabama ................................ Metropolitan areas ................... Columbus, Ga.-Ala. 2/ .............. Montgomery ............ ............. Non-metropolitan areas ............... 27.0 5.9 12.8 12.3 46.4 13.6 2.9 0.0 7.9 23.4 13.4 3.0 12.8 4.4 23.0 Mississippi 3/ .......................... Metropolitan areas ................... Non-metropolitan areas ............... 21.9 4.8 23.7 Texas 3/ ............................... Metropolitan areas ................... Abiline ............................ Brownsville-Harlingen-San Benito .... El Paso ....... - ................... Laredo ............................. McAllen-Edinburg ................... San Antonio ........................ Wichita Falls ...................... Non-metropolitan areas ............... 8.2 7.4 9.4 21.5 56.6 23.8 10.8 15.4 14.1 11.5 California 3/ .......................... Metropolitan areas ................... Non-metropolitan areas ................ 4.4 4.5 3.3 1/ Employment covered by old-age, survivors, and disability insurance (excludes mainly self-employed workers)* 2 / For metropolitan areas falling in two or more States, an attempt was made to distinguish employment for each State involved. 3/ Textile employment in Missouri, Mississippi, Texas, and California was relatively insignificant in 1967. Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. - Table 66 - 10.--Percent Distribution of Employees, by Employment-Size Class, by Selected Industry, First Quarter 1967 1/ Employment-size of establishments Manufacturing Textiles Apparel i to 19 ................. 6.2 2.3 6.4 20 to 49 ................. 8.2 5.0 14.0 50 to 99 ................. 9.3 7.4 17.4 100 to 249 ................ 16.0 18.2 26.0 250 to 499 ................ 14.3 22.4 19.3 500 or more ............... 46.0 44.9 16.9 JV Employment covered by old-age, survivors, and disability insurance (excludes mainly self-employed workers). Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. - 67 Table 11.--Percent Distribution of Establishments, by Employment Size-Class, by Selected Industry, First Quarter 1967 and 1962 1/ Employment-size of Establishments Manu fac tur ing 1967 1962 Textiles 1967 1962 Apparel 1967 1962 i to 19 .................. 62.9 65.7 37.2 40.1 49.1 51.8 20 to 49 .................. 17.0 16.5 19.9 19.5 23,9 24.1 50 to 99 .................. 8.7 7.9 13.6 13.5 13.7 12.9 100 to 249 ................. 6.7 6.0 14.9 14.4 9.1 8.1 250 to 499 ................. 2.7 2.3 8.3 7.4 3.1 2.3 500 or more ................ 2.1 1.7 6.1 5.2 1.1 0.7 JL/ Employment covered by old-age, survivors, and disability insurance (excludes mainly self-employed workers'). Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 68 Table - 12.--Percent Distribution of Employed Workers in Manufacturing, Textiles, and Apparel, by Broad Occupational Group, 1968 Occupational group Total .................... Manufacturing Textiles Apparel 100.0 100.0 100.0 ki ndrpH wnrlfprs ...................................... 9.6 2.7 1.0 Managers, officials, and proprietors ................... 6.2 3.0 3.9 Clerical and kindred workers .... 12.5 8.0 7.6 Sales workers ................... 2.4 .9 1.6 Craftsmen, foremen and kindred workers ............... 18.9 12.1 5.2 Operatives and kindred workers ....................... 43.7 67.3 78.3 Service workers ................. 1.5 1.7 1.0 Laborers, except farm ........... 5.2 4.2 1.4 Professional, technical and Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics (unpublished). - 69 Table 13. --Percent Distribution of Years of School Completed by the Experienced Civilian Labor Force in Manufacturing, Textiles, and Apparel, 1960 Years of school completed Manufacturing Textiles Apparel Total....................... 100.0 100.0 100.0 Elementary Less than 5 ................... . 5 to 7 ........................... 8 ......................... ....... 4.7 12.8 16.8 9.4 25.1 16.8 7.4 17.2 21.8 High school 1 to 3 ....................... . 4 ................................ 24.1 27.7 24.0 18.9 26.1 22.0 College 1 to 3 ........................... 4 ................................ 5 or more........................ 8.0 4.2 1.7 3.5 1.8 0.4 3.9 1.3 0.4 Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. - 70 Table 14 --Percentage Distribution of .Nonwhite Employment in Manufacturing, Textiles and Apparel, by Sex, 1962 to 1968 Year ’ Manufacturing Total Men Women Textiles Total Men Women Total Apparel Men Women 1962 7.4 5.9 1.6 4.8 3.7 i.i 9.3 2.8 6.5 1963 7.3 5.8 1.5 4.9 3.5 1.4 9.4 2.2 7.1 1964 7.5 5.8 1.7 5.5 3.8 1.6 9.1 2.0 7.1 1965 8.2 6.4 1.8 6.3 4.4 1.9 9.7 2.6 7.1 1966 8.6 6.7 1.9 8.0 5.6 2.3 11.1 2.3 8.9 1967 9.3 7.0 2.3 8.7 5.8 2.9 12.4 2.6 9.8 1968 9.7 7.1 2.6 9.5 6.0 3.6 12.7 2.6 10.2 Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics# 71 Table 15. --Percent Employment of Negroes in the Textile Industry, by Selected States, 1966 1/ State Total Metropolitan area Non-metropolitan $rea Total........... ......... 8 10 New England Massachusetts................. 2 2 Middle Atlantic New York......... ............. New Jersey.................... 5 13 7 13 2 13 South Alabama....................... Georgia....................... North Carolina................. South Carolina................ Tennessee............ ......... Virginia...................... 8 10 8 9 5 10 10 15 11 11 7 14 7 7 8 9 2 9 1/ The selected States accounted for about 80 percent of employment in textile mills in 1966. (Percents are rounded to nearest whole number.) 2/ Less than 1 percent. Source: Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) 7 2/ 72 Table 16. --Percent Employment of Negroes in the Apparel Industry, by Selected States, 1966 1/ Total Metropolitan area Non-metropo1itan area Total............. 9 12 6 New England Massachusetts.............. 6 6 2/ Middle Atlantic New York................... New Jersey................. Pennsylvania............... 10 14 11 11 15 11 4 10 2/ North Central Illinois................... Missouri................... 12 7 16 13 3 1 South Alabama.................... Georgia.................... Mississippi................ North Carolina........... . . South Carolina............. Tennessee.................. Texas...................... Virginia................... 6 9 6 9 16 4 7 14 13 13 7 23 5 8 6 8 16 3 6 9 Pacific California...... ........... 11 11 3 State j i i ' j | j 21 13 16 1 1/ The selected States accounted for about 80 percent of employment in the apparel industry in 1966. (Percents are rounded to nearest whole number.) 2/ Less than 1 percent. Source: Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) Table 17. --Employment of Women in Manufacturing and in Textile and Apparel Industries, 1960 and 1967.1/ Industry SIC 1967 Number (000) Women Total Percent distribution 1960 Number (000) Women Total Percent distri bution 4,372.0 . 26.0 D Manufacturing .................................. 19,434.0 5,348.0 27.5 16,796.0 22 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 Textile mill products .......................... Weaving mills, cotton broad woven fabrics ...... Weaving mills, synthetics .............. ...... Weaving and finishing mills, wool .............. Narrow fabric mills .......................... Knitting mills ............................... Textile finishing, except wool ................ Floor covering mills ......................... Yarn and thread mills ......... ............... Miscellaneous textile goods ................... 956.9 236.2 101.1 43.4 30.5 229.7 78.5 45.9 114.4 77.2 427.7 92.7 36.1 15.7 17.4 157.3 19.6 15.0 52.0 21.9 44.7 39.2 35.7 36.2 57.0 68.5 25.0 32.7 45.5 28.4 924.4 254.0 84.4 55.6 27.6 215.4 77.0 37.6 102.5 70.2 401.5 98.3 28.8 18.8 14.7 148.9 16.5 11.8 44.7 18.9 43.4 38.7 34.1 33.8 53.3 69.1 21.4 31.4 1 43.6 w 26.9 i 23 Apparel and other textile products .............. 231 Men*s and boy*s suits and coats ............... Men*s and boy*s furnishings ................... 232 233 Women*s and misses* outerwear ................. 234 Women*s and children*s undergarments .......... 235 Hats, caps, and millinery ..................... 236 Childrens outerwear .......................... 237-8 Fur goods and miscellaneous apparel ........... 239 Miscellaneous fabricated textile products ...... 1,400.4 128.2 368.9 421.8 125.1 25.2 78.1 81.4 171.7 1,118.5 90.9 311.9 351.3 108.7 16.8 66.8 59.4 112.6 79.9 70.9 84.5 83.3 86.9 66.7 85.5 73.0 65.6 1,233.2 119.6 303.8 371.2 117.7 34.6 76.7 69.9 139.9 962.2 80.8 257.1 301.0 101.9 21.9 64.7 49.2 85.6 78.0 67.6 84.6 81.1 86.6 63.3 84.4 70.4 61.2 1/ Source: Private wage and salary workers. U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. 74 Table 18* --Percent Distribution of Employed Persons in Manufacturing, Textiles and Apparel, by Age, 1960 and 1950 Age 14 18 25 35 45 60 to 17....................... to 24....................... to 34....................... to 44....................... to 59....................... + ........................... Source: 1960 Manufacturing 1.8 12.3 23.7 26.7 28.4 7.0 1950 Textiles Apparel 1.0 1.5 12.7 19.4 25.5 31.7 9.1 12.9 21.3 25.8 32.3 6.5 U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Table 19--Changes in Average Hourly and Weekly Earnings and Average Weekly Hours of Production Workers in Textile Manufacturing, October 1958 to October 1968 Industry SIC Gross average hourly earnings Gross average weekly earnings Oct. 1958 Oct. 1968 Percent change Oct. 1958 Oct. 1968 $2.11 $3.06 45.0 $83.77 $125.77 22 1.51 2.27 50.3 60.55 Broad woven cotton fabrics ------------ 221 1.43 2.26 58.0 Broad woven silk and synthetic fabrics -- 222 1.52 2.33 Weaving and finishing broad woolens ---- 223 1.60 Narrow fabrics and smallwares ---------- 224 Knitting ------------------------------ Average weekly hours Average hourly earnings excluding premium pay for overtime work Percent Oct. Oct. change 1958 1968 Oct. 1958 Oct. 1968 Percent change 50.1 39.7 41.1 3.5 $2.05 $2.92 42.4 94.21 55.6 40.1 41.5 3.5 1.46 2.16 47.9 57.63 93.79 62.7 40.3 41.5 3.0 1.38 2.15 55.8 53.3 61.56 101.36 64.7 40.5 43.5 7.4 1.47 2.18 48.3 2.34 46.3 66.56 99.45 49.4 41.6 42.5 2.2 1.53 2.22 45.1 1.57 2.25 43.3 62.02 91.35 47.3 39.5 40.6 2.8 1.52 2.16 42.1 225 1.47 2.18 48.3 57.48 86.33 50.2 39.1 39.6 1.3 1.43 2.10 46.9 Women's full and knee length hosiery --- 2251 1.55 2.19 41.3 61.07 86.72 42.0 39.4 39.6 0.5 1.52 2.14 40.8 All other hosiery--------------------- 2252 1.27 2.01 58.3 47.88 75.98 58.7 37.7 37.8 0.3 1.25 1.98 58.4 Knit outerwear ------------------------ 2253 1.55 2.28 47.1 60.30 88.92 47.5 38.9 39.0 0.3 1.52 2.23 46.7 Knit underwear ------------------------ 2254 1.41 2.04 44.7 55.98 81.40 45.4 39.7 39.9 0.5 1.38 1.99 44.2 Finishing textiles, except wool and knit ------------------- r ----------- 226 1.67 2.41 44.3 70.14 101.46 44.7 42.0 42.1 0.2 1.60 2.28 42.5 Floor covering ------------------------ 227 1.70 2.31 35.9 71.57 100.25 40.1 42.1 43.4 3.1 1.64 2.17 32.3 Yarn and thread ----------------------- 228 1.41 2.12 50.4 55.13 87.77 59.2 39.1 41.4 5.9 1.37 2.02 47.4 Miscellaneous textile goods ----------- 229 1.71 2.49 45.6 69.26 106.82 54.2 40.5 42.9 5.9 1.65 2.35 42.4 All manufacturing --------------------- 19-39 All textiles -------------------------- Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics Percent change - 76 Table 20--Annual E a r nings 1/ of W o r k e r s in the T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y and Se lected Branches, 1964 2/ Item N umber of workers (in thousands): T o t a l ..................... 4 q u a r t e r s ............... A nnual earnings, 1/ U n i t e d States: M e a n ....................... Median. .......... M i d d l e r a n g e ............. M e a n annual earnings 1/ in the: S o u t h e a s t ................. S o u t h w e s t ................. Te x t i l e mill products B r o a d w o v e n fabric mills, cotton 1,067.3 790.0 263 211 $4,295 3,719 2,9734,755 $4,349 3,845 3 , 2564,681 $3,722 3,099 2,4814,146 $ 4 ,060 3,782 $4,364 3,733 $3,367 3,637 Knitting mills 289.6 190.7 1/ Includes all p r o d u c t i o n and n o n p r o d u c t i o n work e r s emp l o y e d in the industry in each of the 4 c alendar quarters. 2/ M o s t current info r m a t i o n from this source. Source: Bureau of L a b o r Statistics, D i v i s i o n of T r e n d s in E m p l o y e e Compensation, from the Social S e c u r i t y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n s l»percent Continuous W o r k H i s t o r y Sample. Table 21— Estimated Proportions of Production Workers Earning Less Than $2.00 an Hour in Selected Textile Industries, United States and Southeast, October 1968 Industry and region Cotton: United S t a t e s .... . SIC 2211; parts of 2281, 2282, 2284 Southeast ........... Synthetic: United States ......... Date of most recent survey 2/201.2 Sept. 1968 2221; parts of 2281, 2282, 2284 Part of 2231; 2283 Southeast ......... .. Straight-time: average hourly earnings as of: date of survey-All pro Percent earning duct ion less than-workers $2.00 $2.06 50.8 Estimated gen eral wage change since survey - Estimated current 1/ straighttime average hourly earnings-All pro Percent earning duction less than-workers $2.00 $2.06 50.8 2.06 50.6 * 189.8 Southeast ........... Wool: United States ......... No. of production workers (000's) 2.06 50.6 Sept. 1968 2.06 54.7 - 2.06 54.7 113.0 _ 2.05 56.1 _ 2.05 56.1 41.8 Nov. 1966 1.90 69.2 2.06-2.12 44.7-52.0 18.4 - 1.82 79.4 10.0 2.00 59.0 3/139.0 8.4% Women’s Hosiery: United States ......... Southeast ............ 2251 44.5 38.4 Sept. 1967 - 1.89 1.89 66.5 66.6 9.7 10.1 2.07-2.11 2.08-2.11 49.0-51.9 48.4-51.5 Men’s Hosiery: United States ......... Southeast ........... Part of 2252 20.1 16.2 Sept. 1967 - 1.71 1.69 81.9 83.5 11.4 11.4 1.90-1.94 1.88-1.92 66.0-69.6 58.3-71.8 Children's Hosiery: United S t a t e s .... . Southeast...... . Part of 2252 15.3 14.8 Sept. 1967 - 1.66 1.66 87.2 87.0 11.4 11.4 1.85-1.89 1,85-1.89 71.4-75.0 71.2-74.8 54.8 31.7 Winter 1965-66 1.96 1.83 62.7 79.8 11,7 12.4 2.19-2.28 2.06-2.13 28.7-37.5 39.0-49.4 Textile dyeing and finishing: United States .......... Southeast ............ 226 1/ October 1968. Where general wage changes and changes in gross earnings differ substantially, two estimates of current earnings are presented; one computed by adjusting earnings as of the date of the survey by general wage changes, and the second by adjusting these earnings by the percent change in gross earnings. 2/ Excludes 19,564 workers in bleaching, cloth dyeing and finishing, and fabricating departments. 3 j Excludes 6,593 workers in bleaching, cloth dyeing and finishing, and fabricating departments. Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics Table 22— Paid Holiday Provisions for Production Workers in Selected Textile Industries, United States and Selected Regions Percent of workers covered by provisions for-Date of most recent survey Industry and selected regions 1 holi day 2 holi days 3 holi days 4 holi days 5 holi days 6 to 6^ holidays 7 to 7 k holidays 8 to 8% holidays 9 holi days Over 9 holidays No holi days 1/ 15 16 35 TEXTILES Cotton and man-made: United States ............ Southeast .............. Southwest .............. Sept. 1968 4 5 - 17 19 11 15 16 31 31 35 23 6 7 3 6 22 49 2 4 5 4 18 21 - - 2 1/ - 1 1/ - 7 3 - - - - - - 3 4 8 12 34 10 10 2 7 1 1 - - 12 13 2 1/ 16 16 1 - - - - - 14 18 5 6 1 2 7 1 4 - - - - Wool: United States ............ Southeast .............. Nov. 1966 Women's hosiery: United States ............ Southeast .............. Sept. 1967 Men's hosiery: United States ............ Southeast .............. Sept. 1967 Children's hosiery: United States ......... . Southeast .............. Sept. 1967 7 7 4 4 9 9 4 4 - 1/ - - - Winter 1965-66 8 8 16 7 3 9 13 14 14 28 12 5 9 1 Textile dyeing and finishing: United States ............ Southeast .......... .... ’ 1/ Less than 0.5 percent. Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics y 4 6 - - - - - - - - 11 13 43 46 62 73 - - 76 76 9 14 1 11 - - - 17 - Table 23— Vacation Benefits in Selected Textile Industries, United States and Selected Regions Industry and selected regions TEXTILES Cotton and man-made fib e rs : United S tates ...................... Southeast .......................... Southwest .......................... Wool: United S tates ...................... Southeast .......................... Women*s hosiery: United S tates ...................... Southeast .......................... Men’s hosiery: United S t a t e s ........... Southeast .......................... C h ild re n s hosiery: United S tates .................... Southeast .......................... T extile dyeing and f in ishing: United S tates ...................... Southeast .......................... Percent of workers receiving-- Date of survey 1 week or more 2 weeks or more 2 weeks a fte r 3 weeks a fte r Paid vacation a fte r a fte r 1 y e a r's 5 years' 15 y ears' vacations 1/ 1 y e a r's service service service service September 1968 96 96 87 95 95 80 3 3 - 74 73 76 7 5 - November 1966 97 98 93 94 6 10 76 85 18 September 1967 86 85 85 85 11 13 60 61 17 16 September 1967 70 64 61 56 1 - 45 43 10 8 September 1967 70 69 64 63 4 4 31 30 - Winter 1965-66 96 93 96 93 4 86 85 22 7 1 4 1/ Vacation payments such as percent of annual earnings and flat-sum amounts were converted to an equivalent time basis. Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics Table 24— Health and Welfare Benefits for Production Workers in Selected Textile Industries United States and Selected Regions * Industry and region Cotton and man-made fibers: United States ......... Date and scope of survey (SIC code) September 1968 2211; parts of 2281; 2282; 2284 96 62 62 97 97 64 68 97 97 63 21 61 80 97 97 97 97 63 51 72 65 91 60 74 95 94 62 40 99 44 82 99 98 46 59 88 70 41 91 92 61 28 92 73 42 93 94 60 31 76 51 32 69 68 32 21 78 54 27 66 66 27 22 September 1967 Part of 2252 74 51 28 80 80 39 Winter 1965-66 226 93 52 70 98 98 50 57 93 57 67 99 99 24 58 Southeast ............ Southwest ........... Wool: United States ........ . November 1966 2231; 2283 Southeast ........... Women*s hosiery: United States .......... September 1967 2251 Southeast ......... . Men*s hosiery: United States ......... September 1967 Part of 2252 Southeast ........ . Children*s hosiery: United States .......... Textile dyeing and finishing; United S t a t e s ...... . Southeast.... ....... Percent of workers covered by provisions paid for wholly or in part by employers-Sickness and accident Accidental Life benefits Hospital Surgical Medical Pension death and insurance (including benefits benefits benefits plan dismemberment paid sick leave) ______ Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics Table 25—General Wage Increases,. Cotton and. Synthetic Textile Industries, North and South, 1950-68 South North Year Period Amount Period Amount 1968 .......................... Summer Est. approx, 6% April 3.5% (avg. approx. 7c) 1967 .......................... September Est, approx, 67, April 3.1% (avg. approx. 6c) 1966 .......................... Summer Approx, 4%%-5% April 10c 1965 .......................... Summer 5% April 5% (avg. approx. 8%c) 1964 .......................... September 57« April 5% 1963 ......................... November 57. 1962 .......................... February Est, approx, 5$ April 3fc% 1960 .......................... February Approx, 5c April 5% 1959 .......................... February Upward adjustment (est, approx. 10c) April 7% 1958 ..... .................... April None 1957 .......................... April None 6h% 1956 .......................... October Avg. 10c April 1955 .......................... August Avg. 5C April None 1954 .......................... April None 1953 .......................... April None 1952 .......................... July Avg. 8%c decrease Arbitrator's decision March 6%% increase Sept. 10% (avg. 12%c) 1951 .......................... April 1950 .......................... Fall Total increase from— October 1958-October 1968 .... January 1950-October 1968 ..... Source: 27. Approx. 87. Approx. Approx. U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics 78c or 56% $1.04 or 92% Approx. 64C or 43% Approx. 83c or 64^% - 82 Tab l e 26--Annual Ear n i n g s of T e x t i l e Workers, 1946-64 2/ Year 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 I960 1961 1962 1963 1964 ............................................ ......................... .................. ................................. . ......... ............................................ ........................... ................ ............................................ ...................................... ..... ............................................ ............................................ ............................................ ............................................ ............................................ ............................................ ............................................ ........ ................................... ............................................ .......................... * ................ ............... ............................ ............................................ P e r c e n t increase: 1946-64 ......................... .... .......... 1954-64 ........................................ 1959-64 ........................................ 1/ M e d i a n annual earni n g s $1,670 2,030 2,250 2,140 2,390 2,450 2,530 2,580 2,470 2,730 NA 2,830 2,810 3,110 NA 3,180 3,360 3,430 3,716 122.5 50.6 19.6 1/ I n c l u d e s all p r o d u c t i o n and n o n p r o d u c t i o n wor k e r s e m p l o y e d in any industry in each of the 4 calen d a r qu a r t e r s who h a d some e m p l o y m en t in the textile industry during one o r m o r e quart e r s of the year, 2/ M o s t current i n f o r m a t i o n from this source. Source: Bureau of L a b o r Statistics, D i v i s i o n of T r e n d s in E m p l o y e e Compensation, from the Social S e c u r i t y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s 1-percent C o ntinuous W o r k H i s t o r y Sample. Table 27— Proportion of Workers Covered by Union Agreements in Selected Textile Industries, United States and Selected Regions Industry and region 1/ Scope of survey (SIC code) Date of survey Major Unions Number of production workers in industry Percent of workers covered by union agreements Textile Workers Union of America -United Textile Workers of America 2/ 220,784 3/ 17 189,808 5,255 3/ 14 3/ 31 4/ 145,573 3/ 13 TEXTILES Cotton: United States .............. 2211; parts of 2281, 2282, 2284 Sept, 1968 Southeast ........................... Southwest ............ .............. Synthetic: United States ....................... 2221; parts of 2281, 2282, 2284 Sept, 1968 Textile Workers Union of America Southeast..................... Wool: United States ................... , , 113,264 Parts of 2231; 2283 Nov. 1966 United Textile Workers of America Textile Workers Union of America Southeast........ .................. 31 1 41,765 32 18,409 9 Women' s hos iery: United States ........................ Southeast .......................... 2251 Sept. 1967 Textile Workers Union of America 44,545 38,428 5 4 Men's hosiery: United S ta te s................. Southeast............ .............. Part of 2252 Sept. 1967 Textile Workers Union of America 20,078 16,238 9 2 Children's hosiery: United States ..... ................. Southeast .............. Part of 2252 Sept. 1967 Textile Workers Union of America 15,255 14,755 5 5 Textile dyeing and finishing: United States ........................ Southeast ........................... 226 Winter 1965-66 Textile Workers Union of America 54,774 31,651 45 26 1 / The regions include: Southeast - Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia; and Southwest - Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas* 2/ Includes 19,564 workers in bleaching, cloth dyeing and finishing, and fabricating departments, 3 / 1968 data on union coverage were not available when this table was prepared; figures are for September 1965--the date of the latest survey from which such data are available. Information indicates no substantial change in unionization since 1965, 4 / Includes 6,593 workers in bleaching, cloth dyeing and finishing, and fabricating departments. Source: U.S, Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics Table 28--Membership of the Major Unions in the Textile and Apparel Industries, 1956, 1960, 1964 and 1966^/ Estimated membership in the industries 3/ Total union membership Union 2/ 1956 1960 1964 ,1.232,982 1,138,262 1,109,978 385,000 377,000 377,000 382,000 United Garment Workers of America ................. 40,000 35,000 26,000 27,000 International Ladies* Garment Workers* Union ...... 450,802 446,554 442,318 455,164 434,072 448,000 40,000 40,000 40,000 30,000 40,000 30,000 3,500 975 2,050 2,225 2,050 2,225 980 1,400 1,400 1,300 NA 1,300 210 215 210 215 Totals ............................ ........... Amalgamated Clothing Workers of A m e r i c a ...... . United Hatters, Cap and Millinery Workers International Union ............................ Amalgamated Lace Operatives of A m e r i c a ...... . Machine Printers and Engravers Association of the United States ........... ................... Textile Foremen*s Guild, Inc. 4 / ...... ......................... 1966 1964 1966 301,600 305,600 1,126,945 , NA 27,000 United Textile Workers of America ................. 100,000 40,000 44,000 47,041 44,000 47,041 Textile Workers Union of A m e r i c a ...... ........... 202,700 192,000 177,000 182,000 168,150 172,900 American Federation of Hosiery Workers 5/ ........ 10,000 5,333 1/ Unions with a majority of their membership in these industries. From the biennial survey of union membership. Division of Industrial and Labor Relations, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. 2/ List omits plant unions. 3/ Data are computed from union percentage estimates of members in the industries. Such estimates were not available for 1956 and 1960. 4/ The Textile Foremen*s Guild first became a National Union in 1962. 5/ The American Federation of Hosiery Workers merged with the Textile Workers Union of America on April 15, 1965. Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics Table 29-- Work Stoppages in the United States, All Industries and Textiles, 1956-67 St<jppages Year All industries Man-days idle during year... Percent of estimated Per worker Number total pri involved vate nonfarm working time Textile industries f Man-days idle during year Percent of estimated Per worker Workers total Number involved involved working time Stoi’Pages Number Workers involved 1956 •••• 3,825 1,900,000 33,100,000 •29 17*4 70 18,200 426,000 .16 23.4 1957 •••• 3,673 1,390,000 16,500,000 .14 11.4 47 14,000 212,000 .08 15.1 1958 •••• 3,694 2,060,000 23,900,000 .22 11.6 51 6,370 111,000 .05 17.4 1959 •*•• 3,708 1,880,000 69,000,000 .61 36.7 70 23,500 229,000 .09 9.7 1960 •••• 3,333 1,320,000 19,100,000 .17 14.5 30 4,770 34,000 .01 7.1 1961 •••• 3,367 1,450,000 16,300,000 .12 11.2 35 5,970 39,100 .02 6.5 1962 **«• 3,614 1,230,000 18,600,000 .16 15.0 50 6,990 99,900 .04 14.2 1963 •••• 3,362 941,000 16,100,000 .13 17.1 36 13,000 193,000 .09 14.8 1964 «• •• 3,655 1,640,000 22,900,000 .18 14.0 37 8,440 124,000 .05 14.6 1965 • ••• 3,963 1,550,000 23,300,000 .18 15.1 44 21,300 174,000 .07 8.1 1966 •••• 4,405 1,960,000 25,400,000 .18 12.9 56 25,700 195,000 .08 7.5 1967 •••• 4,595 2,870,000 42,100,000 .30 14.7 54 15,900 328,000 .14 20.6 Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics Number Table 30-- Changes in Average Hourly and Weekly Earnings and Average Weekly Hours of Production Workers in Apparel Manufacturing, October 1958i/ to October 1968 Industry SIC Gross averag e hourly earnin gs Oct. 1958 Oct. 1968 Percent change All manufacturing ....... ............ 19-39 $2.11 $3.06 45.0 All apparel .......................... 45.5 23 1.56 2.27 Men's and boys' coats and suits ..... 231 1.75 2.68 Men's and boys' furnishings ......... 232 1.30 1. 95 Men's and boys' shirts and nightwear 2321 1.29 1.92 Men's and boys' separate trousers .... 2327 1.31 Work clothing ....................... Gross average weekly earnings Oct. 1958 Oct. 1968 $83.77 $125.77 Percent change Average weekly hours Avera ge hourly earnings excl uding premium pay fa r overtime work Oct. Oct. Percent 1958 1968 change Oct. 1958 Oct. 1968 Percent change 50.1 39.7 41.1 3.5 $2.05 $2.92 42.4 47.9 35.8 36.4 1.7 1.53 2.22 45.1 10.6 1.74 2.61 50.0 55.85 82.63 53.1 60.90 103.18 69.4 34.8 38.5 50.0 42.84 71.96 68.0 36.8 36.9 0.3 1.28 1.92 50.0 48.$ 48.63 69.89 43.7 37.7 36.4 -3.4 1.22 1.90 55.7 1.94 48.1 46.90 72.36 54.3 35.8 37.3 4.2 1.27 1.91 50.4 2328 1.24 1.92 54.8 45.26 70.66 56.1 36.5 36.8 0.8 1.19 1.90 59.7 Women's, misses', and juniors' outerwear .......................... 233 1.76 2.45 39.2 58.43 83.30 42.6 33.2 34.0 2.4 1.73 2.41 39.3 Women's blouses, waists, and shirts .. 2331 1.45 2.09 44.1 49.74 71.90 44.6 34.3 34.4 0.3 1.45 2.04 40.7 Women's, misses', and juniors' dresses ............................ 2335 1.72 2.55 48.3 56.07 84.66 51.0 32.6 33.2 1.8 1.70 2.51 47.6 Women's suits, skirts, and coats .... 2337 2.17 2.78 28.1 70.96 95.08 34.0 32.7 34.2 4.6 2.14 2.72 27.1 Women's and misses' outerwear, not elsewhere classified .......... . 2339 1.42 2.08 46.5 51.12 74.05 44*9 36.0 35.6 -1.1 1.37 2.01 46.7 Women's and childrens' undergarments . 234 1.43 2.06 44.1 53.77 76.43 42.1 37.6 37.1 -1.3 1.40 2.02 44.3 Women's and childrens' underwear .... 2341 1.39 2.01 44.6 52.96 75.17 41.9 38.1 37.4 -1.8 1.31 1.91 45.8 Corsets and allied garments ......... 2342 1.51 2.16 43.0 55.12 79.06 43.4 36.5 36.6 0.3 1.45 2.07 42.8 Hats, caps, and millinery ........... 235 1.75 2.12 21.1 61.25 75.26 22.9 35.0 35.5 1.4 1.70 2.08 22.4 Girls' and childrens' outerwear ..... 236 1.42 2.07 45.8 51.69 74.93 45.0 36.4 36.2 -0.5 1.40 2.03 45.0 Childrens' dresses, blouses, and shirts ............................. 2361 1.40 2.04 45.7 49.42 72.62 46.9 35.3 35.6 0.8 1.36 1.97 44.9 Fur goods and miscellaneous apparel .. 237,8 1.74 2.38 36.8 64.90 87.58 34.9 37.3 36.8 -1.3 1.69 2.33 37.9 Miscellaneous fabricated textile products .......... ................ 239 1.53 2.39 56.2 59.82 93.21 55.8 39.1 39.0 -0.3 1.48 2.30 55.4 1.41 2.01 42.6 54.00 77.59 43.7 38.3 38.6 0.8 1.33 1.97 48.1 House furnishings .................. . 2391,2 1/ October 1958 is used rather than an annual average because of seasonality in some of the apparel industries. average for 1957-59 because information was not available for 1957. Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics It is not possible to use an - 87 Table 31*»*»Annual Earn i n g s 1/ of W o r k e r s in A p parel I n dustry and Se lected Branches, 1964 2/ Item Num b e r of workers (in thousands): Total ................. 4 quarters ........... Annual earnings, 1/ U n i t e d States: M e a n .................. M e d i a n ................ M i d d l e range ........ M e a n annual earnings 1/ in the: S outh east ............ Sout h w e s t ............ Apparel M e n fs youths*, and boys* furnishings, w o r k clothing, and allied g a rments 1,739.2 1,143.3 419.7 269.2 $3,663 2,874 2,2953,819 $ 3 ,224 2,744 2,296- $2,996 3,457 $2,928 3,046 3,309 W o m e n 1s , misses*, and juniors* outerwear 521.9 334.1 $3,765 2,878 2,2503,828 $2,967 3,506 1/ Includes all p r o d u c t i o n and n o n p r o d u c t i o n w o r k e r s emplo y e d in the industry in each of the 4 c a lendar quarters. 2/ M o s t current i n f o rmat i o n from this source. Source: Bureau of L a b o r Statistics, D i v i s i o n of T r e n d s in E m p l o y e e Compensation, from the Social S e c u r i t y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n s l»percent C o ntinuous W o r k H i s t o r y Sample. Table 32--Average Hourly Earnings!/ in Selected Occupations, Selected Apparel Industries Occupation and industry Markers: Men's and boys* suits and coats .... Men's and boys* shirts ............ Work clothing ...................... Estimated number of workers Estimated General wage Current average changes since hourly earnings 2/ survey (October 1968) Date of survey Average hourly earnings at date of survey 441 348 312 April 1967 April-June 1964 February 1968 $3.06 1.88 2.25 $.389 .300 .135 $3.45-$3.50 $2.18-$2.41 $2.29-$2.39 942 April 1967 2.09 .350 $2.39-$2.44 Inspectors, final: Men's and boys* suits and coats (coat fabrication) .... ........ . Men's and boys' shirts (end thread trimmers) ........ .............. Work clothing ................ . 3,850 2,730 April-June 1964 February 1968 1.36 1.84 .300 .110 $1.66-$1.74 $1.87-$1.95 Pressers, finish, machine: Men's and boys' suits and coats (coat fabrication) ...... ....... Men's and boys' shirts .... ....... Work clothing ..................... 4,370 1,292 1,582 April 1967 April-June 1964 February 1968 3.00 1.51 1.92 .350 .300 .115 $3.35-$3.44 $1.81-$1.93 $1.95-$2.04 Sewing machine operators: Men's and boys' suits and coats (coat fabrication) .............. Men's and boys' s h i r t s ......... . Work clothing...... .............. 32,895 57,237 44,363 April 1967 April-June 1964 February 1968 2.31 1.44 1.82 .350 .300 .109 $2.64-$2.66 $1.74-$1.84 $1.85-$1.93 Janitors: Men's and boys' suits and coats .... Men's and boys' shirts ............ Work clothing .................... . 735 682 624 April 1967 April-June 1964 February 1968 1.74 1.33 1.68 .350 .300 .101 $1.99-$2.09 $1.63-$1.70 $1.71-$1.78 1/ Excludes premium pay for overtime and for work on weekends, holidays, and late sh ifts, 2/ Where general wage changes and changes in gross earnings d iffer substantially, two estimates of current earnings are pre sented, one computed by adjusting earnings as of the date of the survey by general wage changes and the second by adjusting these earnings by the percent change in gross earnings. These estimates may d iffer from actual earnings because earnings levels change not only as a result of wage-rate increases but also because of changes in the distribution of employment among firms and in the average length of service. Earnings for piecework occupations also change with changes in output. Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor S ta tistics Table 33-Esti”|t|dtProgortlons of^roduc^ign Workers Earning Less than $2.00 an Hour in Selected Apparel Industries. United States Industry and region Men's and boys' suits and coats: United States ............................ Border S ta te s..................... . Southeast ................................ Men's and boys' shirts (except work shirts) and nightwear: United States ............................. SIC 2311 2321 Border S ta tes........................ Southeast ................................ Southwest ................. .............. Work clothing: United States ............................. Border States ......................... Southeast ............................... Southwest ........................... . No. of production workers (000's) 98.4 13.7 8.9 April 1967 96.9 8.7 55.1 2.5 2328 Date of most recent survey 62.8 9.0 23.0 15.4 Straight-time average hourly earnings as of date of survey-All pro Percent earning duction less than— workers $2.00 Estimated gen eral wage changes since survey Estimated current 1/ straighttime average hourly earnings-All pro Percent earning duction less than-workers $2.00 $2.28 2.11 1.83 42.5 48.3 71.3 $.350 .350 .350 $2.63 2.42-2.46 2.10-2.18 21.8 24.8-30.0 42.6-52.0 April-June 1964 June 1964 - 1.45 94.0 .300 1.75-1.86 76.2-85.1 1.42 1.38 1.30 96.2 97.4 99.6 .300 .300 .300 1.72-1.82 1.68-1.77 1.60-1.66 79.7-88.1 85.7-92.4 95.5-97.8 Feb. 1968 - 1.84 1.82 1.84 1.81 77.6 80.1 77.6 81.1 .110 .109 .110 .109 1.87-1.95 1.85-1.93 1.87-1.95 1.84-1.92 69.1-75.5 71.4-77.8 69.0-75.4 73.7-79.3 - - - 1/ October 1968. Where general wage changes and changes in gross earnings differ substantially, two estimates of current earnings are presented, one computed by adjusting earnings as of the date of the survey by general wage change^ and the second by adjusting these earnings by the percent change in gross earnings. Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics 90 Table 34--Annual Earni n g s of A p parel Workers, 1946-64 2/ Year 1946 1/ M e d i a n annual e a rnings $1,720 1,760 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1,860 1,780 1,860 1,950 2,110 2 , 120 2,090 2 ,2 0 0 NA 2,340 2,350 2.520 NA 2.520 2,680 2,750 2,870 Percent increase: 1946-64 1954-64 1959-64 66.9 37.3 13.9 JL/ I n c l u d e s all p r o d u c t i o n and n o n p r o d u c t i o n w o r k e r s e m p l o y e d in any industry in each of the 4 calen d a r q u a r t e r s who h a d some e m p l o y men t in the apparel industry du r i n g one o r m o r e quarters of the year. 2/ M o s t current info r m a t i o n from this source. Source: Bureau of L a b o r Statistics, D i v i s i o n of Tr e n d s in Em p l o y e e Compensation, f rom the Social S e c u r i t y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s 1 -percent C o n tinuous W o r k H i s t o r y Sample. 91 Table 35—Major C ollective Bargaining Agreements in the Apparel Industry!./ Company or association Clothing Manufacturers A ssociation of the U.S.A. - - - ------------------------------------Cluett Peabody and Company, Arrow D ivision ---------------------------------------------------Men's and Boys' Leisurewear A ssociation --------------------------------------------------------A ffilia te d Dress Manufacturers, In c.; National Dress Manufacturers Asso cia tio n , In c.; Popular Priced Dress Manufacturers' Group, Inc.; United Better Dress Manufacturers' A ssociation, In c.; Popular Price Dress Contractors' A ssociation, Inc. --------------------------------------------------------------------National Skirt and Sportswear A ssociation, I n c .; National A ssociation of Blouse Manufacturers, In c.; and Greater Blouse, Skirt, and Neckwear Contractors A ssociation, Inc. -----------------------------------------------------------------------New York Coat and Suit A ssociation, In c.; American Cloak and Suit Manufacturers A ssociation; Infants' and Children's Coat A ssociation -------------A llied Underwear A ssociation, In c.; Lingerie Manufacturers A ssociation of New York, In c.; Negligee Manufacturers A ssociation of New York, In c.; United Underwear Contractors Associition; and Undergarment Accessories A ssociation, Inc. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Associated Corset and Brassiere Manufacturers, Inc. ----------------------------------American M illinery Manufacturers A ssociation, Inc. ------------------------------------Industrial A ssociation of Juvenile Apparel Manufacturers, Inc.; Children's Dress, Cotton Dress, and Sportswear Contractors Association , I n c .; and New Jersey Apparel Contractors A ssociation, Inc. -----------Infants' and Children's Novelty A ssociation, Inc.; Manufacturers of Snowsu its , Novelty Wear, and Infants' Coats, In c.; and Infants' and Children's Coat A ssociation, Inc. --------------------------------------------------------------Fashion Apparel Manufacturers A ssociation; and Philadelphia Apparel Producers A ssociation ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------A ssociation of Rain Apparel Contractors, In c.; and New York Raincoat Manufacturers A ssociation ---------------------------------------------------------------------------Slate Belt Apparel Contractors A ssociation -------------------------------------------------Associated Fur Manufacturers, In c.; and Master Furriers Guild ------------------P leaters. S titch ers and Embroiderers A ssociation, I n c .; National Hand Embroidery and Novelty Manufacturers A ssociation, In c.; Associated Manufacturers, Tubular Pipings and Trimmings, In c.; Covered Button A ssociation of New York, I n c .; and Uniform Manufacturers Exchange, United Knitwear Manufacturers League, In c.; A ssociation of Knitted Fabrics Manufacturers, In c.; Knitted A ccessories Group; and Passementer ie and Trimming Manufacturers A ssociation --------------------------------------------Washable S u its, N ovelties, and Sportswear Contractors, Inc. ---------------------Boston Apparel Guild; and New England Sportswear Manufacturers A ssociation --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Jonathan Logan, Inc. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------New York Raincoat Manufacturers A ssociation, The A ssociation of Rain Apparel Contractors, and independent companies ------------------------------------------ Estimated employment covered by agreement Duration 125,000 9,000 8,500 3 years 3 years 2 years 5/71 8/69 8/69 Ladies Garment Workers 80,000 3 years 1/70 Ladies Garment Workers 33,000 3 years 5/70 Ladies Garment Workers 42,000 3 years 5/70 Ladies Garment Workers Ladies Garment Workers H atters, Cap and M illinery Workers 20,000 6,500 7,000 3 years 3 years 3 years 6/69 12/71 12/71 Ladies Garment Workers 15,000 3 years 1/70 Ladies Garment Workers 9,500 3 years 5/70 Ladies Garment Workers 11,000 3 years 1/3/69 Ladies Garment Workers Ladies Garment Workers Amalgamated Meat Cutters 5,000 15,000 7,000 3 years 3 years 4 years 7/70 5/70 2/69 Ladies Garment Workers 8,000 3 years 2/70 Ladies Garment Workers Clothing Workers 15,000 8,000 3 years 3 years 7/70 12/69 Ladies Garment Workers Ladies Garment Workers 5,000 5,000 39 months 3 years 6/70 3/69 Ladies Garment Workers 5,000 3 years 7/70 Union Clothing Workers Clothing Workers Clothing Workers 1/ Agreements covering 5,000 or more workers on f i le with the D ivision of Industrial R elations, Bureau of Labor S ta tis tic s , U.S. Department of Labor, in January 1969. Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor S ta tistic s Expiration date Table 3 6 --Work Stoppages in the United S ta te s, A ll In d ustries and Apparel, 1956-1967 Stoppages Year Number Workers involved A ll in d u stries Man-days id le during year Percent of estimated Per worker Number to ta l p r i involved vate nonfarm working time A]spare! in d u stries Man-days id le during year Percent of estim ated Workers Per worker to ta l Number involved involved working time Stoppages Number 17.4 11.4 129 13,800 16,500,000 .29 .14 128 23,900,000 .22 3,708 2,060,000 1,880,000 69,000,000 .61 11.6 36.7 3,333 3,367 1,320,000 1,450,000 19,100,000 16,300,000 .17 .12 1,230,000 18,600,000 1963 . . . 1964 . . . 3,614 3,362 941,000 3,655 1955 . . . .06 16,400 173,000 215,000 .07 12.5 13.1 126 122 152,000 19,100 1,100,000 253,000 .37 .08 7.2 13.2 14.5 11.2 87 112 12,100 15,100 134,000 146,000 11.0 9.6 .16 15.0 16,100,000 .13 17.1 95 109 23,600 22,300 130,000 210,000 .04 .05 .04 .06 1,640,000 22,900,000 .18 14.0 106 24,700 225,000 .07 3,963 1,550,000 23,300,000 .18 15.1 100 9,760 199,000 .06 9.1 20.3 1966 . . . 4,405 1,960,000 25,400,000 .18 12.9 100 11,800 263,000 .07 22.2 1967 . . . 4,595 2,870,000 42,100,000 .30 14.7 96 21,200 238,000 .07 11.2 1956 . . . 1957 . . . 1958 . . . 1959 . . . 1960 . . . 1961 . . . 1962 . . . Source: 3,825 3,673 3,694 1,900,000 1,390,000 33,100,000 U.S* Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics 5.5 9.4 Table 3 7 Employment In Puerto Rico in A l l M anufacturing, Textiles, and Apparel, 1957-1967 (In thousands) All m a n u f a c t u r i n g T e x t i l e m ill w orkers Y ear/Month Total Female Total 1957 ..................... 1958 ..................... 1959 ..................... 1960 ..................... 1961 ..................... 1962 ..................... 1963 ..................... 1964 ..................... 1965 ..................... 1966 ..................... 1967 ..................... Jan-Oct. 1968 average .. 71.4 69.5 77.2 80.7 85.2 93.5 96,6 102.4 110.4 118.0 124.2 132.9 32.6 30.6 35.2 36.4 38 . 8 43.7 44.4 47.6 51.5 55.5 59.3 64.4 4.8 4.5 5.2 5.0 4. 8 4.6 4.6 5.0 5.6 6.2 6.5 7.6 _1/ Source: F e male 2.6 2.2 2.6 2.5 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.4 2.6 3. 0 3.2 3.9 App a r e l workers Total 18.8 17.4 19.6 21.5 22.4 25.1 25.8 27.1 29.2 32.2 34.3 37.1 Fema l e Ho m e needleworkers 16.5 15.4 17.4 18.9 19.6 22.0 22.6 23.6 25.6 28.1 29.9 •32.3 Estimated. Commonwealth of Puerto Ilico, Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment Statistics Division, except for home n e e d l e w o r k e r s , for w h i c h the source is Work E x p e r i e n c e in Pu e r t o R i c o . 18 16 15 16 13 12 12 10 9 7 2 1/ 2 Table 3&--.Employment in Puerto Rico in Selected Te x t i l e and A p p a r e l Industries, 1957-67 (In thousands) October 1957 ..... 1958 ..... 1959 ..... 1960 ..... 1 9 6 1 ..... 1962 ..... 1963 ..... 1964 ..... 1965 ..... 1966 ..... 1967 ..... Source: Broadwoven fabric mills 516 799 720 772 562 270 335 353 334 343 261 Kni t t i n g mills 3,361 2,996 3,721 3,263 3,509 3,461 2,679 4,120 4,562 4,842 5,439 Women* s , M e n ’s , youths *, misses1 and boys* suits a nd juniors* and coats a n d o u terwear furnishings 3,953 4,026 4,005 4,119 4 ,407 5,276 5,153 5,368 6,307 6,283 7,919 2,130 1,559 2,571 2,143 2,573 2,587 2,974 3,051 3,100 3 ,752 4 ,117 W o m e n 's , misses' children's, a n d infants' underga r m e n t s 6,571 6,911 8,438 9,884 10,813 12,002 13,838 14,902 16,378 17,783 18,538 Girls' children's, and infants' outerwear 1,231 1,303 1,282 1,283 1,249 1,246 1,052 982 927 1,117 1,124 Puerto Rico Bureau of Labor Statistics, Census of Manufacturing Industries in Puerto Rico. Table 39.— Employment, Underemployment and Unemployment in Puerto Rico, 1957-67 (Figures other than rates in thousands) = 1957 = f 1958j f = f = = 1 = = ( = T 1962} 196s[ 1964 1965 1966 i i 19591 I960) 1961 j ! j 1967 Oct. 1968 Oct. 1967 __________ L 1 | Civilian noninstitutional population ...................... Labor f o r c e ............ .......... Employed .................. . Underemployed •••••...... . Unemployed ..................... Male labor force ................. Employed ....................... • Underemployed ............. . Unemployed .............. ....... Female labor force ......... ...... Employed ....................... Underemployed ................ Unemployed ...................... Rates Total: Unemployment ................. Underemployment ..................... ........... Nonagricultural industries: Unemployment .................................................................. Underemployment ................................................. ... Manufacturing industries: Unemployment .................. i 1,341 1,363! 1,377 1,398:1 ,424 i 632 639 633 628 j 654 546 556 j 572 550 550, 104 i 98 95 93 94 \ 82 89 j 87 82 72 | j 1 456 475 1 464 482 471 410 408 401 j 416 397 88 79 80 79 77 i 61 67 67 55 1 66 i i 161 164 j 169 172 j 172 142 j; 149 140 155 5 156 16 16 14 17 1 18 22 20 16 21 17 ! 1,484 1,545ll,617 1,623 1,650 1,681 1,693 1,723 j j i 1 1 ! i i s i i i i I 756 661 80 95 777 681 83 96 789 693 79 96 793 705 82 89 809 718 70 91 529 461 75 68 554 377 65 77 560 484 66 76 565 490 60 75 558 486 61 72 569 498 53 71 199 184 16 15 202 184 15 18 217 197 | 17 1 20 j 224 203 19 21 235 218 21 17 239 220 17 20 684 600 100 84 714 626 98 88 i 728 ! i 645 ! 91 i 83 505 436 83 69 526 452 81 74 179 164 17 15 1 i ; ! ! 188 ; 174 j 17 i 14 i 1 £ i i i 14.9 14.7 16.2 16.3 15.9 15.0 13.1 15.0 | 12.5 115.0 12.7 14.7 12.3 11.3 11.4 12.5 12.6 10.6 12.4 10.7 12.2 11.5 11.2 11.6 11.2 9.8 11.9 NA 13.5 NA 12.9 7.6 9.9 7.8 10.5 7.8 10.6 7.5 10.0 7.4 10.3 6.9 11.0 6.5 11.0 NA 6.8 i 8.4 NA 8.1 NA 7.0 NA NA 15.2 11.5 10.9 9.8 1 NA NA NA NA i NA ; NA NA ! ! -L:. Source: : f c = j :l----------------------- Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Full Employment and Underemployment in Puerto Rico and Employment and Unemployment in Puerto R i c o . Tab l e 40.— Employment and Number of Plants by P l a n t Size in Puerto Rico in M a nufacturing, and Apparel, 1957, 1966, and October 1967 1966 1957 Industry Plants w ith All plants 1-49 50-249 workers . workers 1967 Plants w i t h All plants Textiles, Plants w ith All plants 1-49 j 50-249 w o r k e r s | workers 1-49 work e r s 50-249 workers NA 458 4,113 NA 3,631 24,976 Employment All m a n u f a c t u r i n g . . 72,135 T e x t i l e mills ..... 4,904 App a r e l ............ 13,791 17,985 464 4,601 35,403 3,065 10,715 119,335 22,485 6,196 662 3,878 33,447 | 62,770 i 2,313 i 23,297 Numt>er of p].ants All manufacturing.. Tex t i l e m i l l s ...... Appa r e l ............ 2,014 49 366 1,633 17 259 335 28 97 2,417 62 412 1,811 31 195 j 525 24 201 Empl o y e e s per plant A ll m a n u f a c t u r i n g . . T e x t i l e mills ..... A p p a r e l ............ 36 100 51 11 27 18 106 110 110 49 100 81 12 21 20 NA 6,809 35,755 120 117 116 1_____________1i, _____ — NA 69 431 NA 29 205 NA NA 16 20 NA 110 119 33 210 i NA 99 83 i L ______ _____ NA - Not available. Source: Puerto Rico Bureau of Labor Statistics, Census of Manufacturing Industries of Puerto Rico Table 41.— Employment and N u m b e r of Plants by Pla n t Size in Puerto Rico in Manufacturing, Textiles, and Apparel, 1957 and 1966 (Percent) Industry 1966 1957 s Plants w i t h Plants wi t h All | 1-49 50-249 ‘ 50-249 1-49 plants workers work e r s workers workers Al l plants All plants 1967 Plants with 50-249 1-49 workers workers E m p l oyment All manufacturing . Textile mil l s ..... Apparel ............ 100.0 100.0 100.0 24.9 9.5 24.5 49.1 62.7 57.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 18.8 10.7 11.6 52.6 45.4 69.7 100.0 100.0 100.0 NA 6.7 11.5 NA 53.3 69.9 100.0 100.0 100.0 NA 42.0 47.6 NA 47.8 48.7 Numlber of plaiits A ll manufacturing . Textile mills ..... App a r e l ............ 81,1 34; 7 70.8 100.0 100.0 100.0 16.6 57.1 26.5 100.0 100.0 100.0 41.8 50.0 47.3 29.0 38.7 48.8 < N A - Not available. Source: Puerto Rico Bureau of Lab o r Statistics, Census of M a n u f a c t u r i n g Industries of Puerto Rico 1 Table 42.— Average Hourly and Weekly Earnings, a n d A v e r a g e W e e k l y Hours, Manufa c t u r i n g , and Apparel, Puerto Rico, A v erage 1iourly earnings Year/M o n t h 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. Jan. -Oct. 1968 a v e r a g e . ......... Source: All m a n u facturing Textiles $ .76 .83 .87 .92 .99 1.06 1.13 1.18 1.24 1.30 1.39 $ .77 .85 .90 .93 .98 1.05 1.08 1.12 1.19 1.22 1.33 $ .66 .74 .78 .83 .90 .98 1.04 1.09 1.14 1.17 1.27 1.54 1.45 1.44 Apparel Aver a g e vjeekly earnings All m a n u facturing Textiles 1957-67 Textiles A p parel $27.14 29.41 31.78 33.56 36.56 39.33 40.99 44.09 45.57 4 8.34 52.14 $28.33 30.45 33.29 33.70 3 5.84 3 8.28 38.77 42.22 44. 74 47.34 $21.98 24.53 27.06 28.25 3 1.77 34.52 36.12 38.70 40.28 41.73 51.63 57.02 56.63 Aver a g e we e k l y hours All m a n u facturing Textiles Apparel 44.87 37.1 36.4 37.3 36.9 37.3 37.4 36.6 35.7 37.2 36.2 36.5 36.6 36.0 37.8 37.6 38.9 38.7 33.2 33.2 34.6 34.2 35.3 35.4 34.7 35.6 35.3 35.7 35.3 51.04 37.1 39.0 35.4 35.9 35.6 36.7 36.4 37.0 Commonwealth of Puerto Rico Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment Statistics Division. Table 43.— Average H o u r l y Earnings, Textiles and Apparel, M a i n l a n d and Puerto Rico 1957-1968 Year/M o n t h Mainland Textiles ☆ U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1969 O - 360-030 1957 ...... ................ 1958 ...................... 1959 ...................... 1960 ...................... 1961 ...................... 1962 ...................... 1963 ...................... 1964 ...................... 1965 ...................... 1966 ...................... 1967 ...................... Jan.-Oct. 1968 average .. Source: $1.49 1.49 1.56 1.61 1.63 1.68 1.71 1.79 1.87 1.96 2.06 2.19 Puerto Rico Apparel Textiles Appa r e l $1.51 ,1.54 1.56 1.59 1.64 1.69 1.73 1.79 1.83 1.89 2.03 2.20 $ .77 .85 .90 .93 .98 1.05 1.08 1.12 1.19 1.22 1.33 1.45 $ .66 .74 .78 .83 .90 .98 1.04 1.09 1.14 1.17 1.27 1.44 Mainland-PuerTto Rico difference Textiles $ .72 .64 .66 .68 .65 .63 .63 .67 .68 .74 .73 .74 Main l a n d data: U.S. Dep a r t m e n t of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment and E a r n i n g s . Puerto Rico Data: C o m m o n w e a l t h of Puerto Rico D e p a r t m e n t of Labor, Bu r e a u of Labor Statistics, E m p loyment Statistics Division. Apparel $ .85 .80 .78 .76 .74 .71 .69 .70 .69 .72 .76 .76 i v , U.S. D EPA R TM EN T OF LABOR B U R E A U O F L A B O R ST A T IST IC S W ASHING TO N, D .C . 2 0 2 1 2 O F F IC IA L BU SIN E SS P O S T A G E AND F E E S P A ID U.S. D E P A R T M E N T OF L A B O R r I TH IR D n CLASS M A IL I I___________________________________ l
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