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L 3, 2 '
W
'( ■ ■ ■ M k
WOUSTRY
90
labor and material
requirements K’
for sewer works rc
oi
construction
the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 20402 - Price 30 cents
For sale by
P re fa ce
T h is study o f total la bor and m a teria l requirem ents fo r the con
struction o f sew er fa cilitie s is one in a s e rie s o f Bureau o f L a b or S tatistics
studies o f variou s types of con stru ction that m ight be a ffected b y future gov
ernm ental action. P re v io u s ly published studies exam ined the follow in g types
of con stru ction: S ch ools, highways, F ed era l o ffice buildings, h osp ita ls, civ il
w orks a ctivities o f the A rm y C orps of E ngineers, public housing, private o n e fa m ily dwelling units, and co lle g e student housing.
The studies are being m ade by the B ureau 's D ivision o f P rod u ctivity
M easurem ent, L loyd A . P rochnow , Chief, under the general d irection o f
Leon G reen b erg, A ssistan t C om m ission er fo r P rod u ctivity and T ech n olog ica l
D evelopm ents. T his bulletin was p rep a red tinder the su p ervision of Jam es F .
W alker, by Roland V . M urray, who also was resp on sib le fo r com p ilin g the
data for o n -site la b or requ irem en ts. C laiborne M . B all p rep a red the data on
m a teria ls and o ff-s it e la bor requ irem en ts.
The Bureau gratefully acknow ledges the coop era tion of o ffic ia ls o f
the W ater Supply and P ollu tion C ontrol D ivision of the P ublic Health S erv ice,
and o f the Com m unity F a c ilitie s A dm inistration of the Housing and Hom e
Finance A gen cy in supplying p r o je c t p a yrolls on which m ost o f the o n -site
requirem ents data w ere based. M r. P e te r P . Rowan, who was a sso cia te d
with the P ublic Health S e rv ice , was p a rticu la rly helpful in this and related
a re a s.
iii
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction ................................... .................................. .......................................
Nature o f survey ...............................................................................................
G en eral survey f i n d i n g s ......... .............................................................................
P r o je c t c h a r a c t e r is t ic s ........................
O n -site m an-hour r e q u ir e m e n t s ..............................
The co s t of d irect w a g e s ..................................... ................. ........................
R equirem ents by occupation ................................. ..................... ...................
A ppren tice m an -h ou rs ....................................................................... ...............
O vertim e m an -h ou rs .................................... ....................................................
C onstruction t im e ......................
O ff-s ite e m p lo y m e n t ........... ............................................. ............................
C ost of m a teria ls u sed
........................................ ..
P rev iou s studies ................................................... ................. ..............................
Scope and m ethod o f s u r v e y ............................. ..................................................
S a m p l e .................... .......................... ..................... .......................................
M an-hour estim ates ..........................................
O n -site m a n -h o u r s .......................................
O ff-s it e m an -h ou rs ..................................................................
1
2
3
7
10
12
13
15
17
18
19
22
26
28
28
28
28
30
T a b le s :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
A -l.
O n -site la bor requ irem en ts fo r sew er w orks con stru ction ,
by se le cte d c h a r a c te r is tic s , 1 9 6 2 -6 3 ..............................................
O n -site la bor requirem ents fo r sew er w orks con stru ction ,
by occupation and region , 1962-63 ...................................................
P ercen tage distribution of o n -site m an -h ou rs fo r sew er line
and plant con stru ction , by occupation and region , 1962-63 . . .
M an-hour requirem ents per $ 1 ,0 0 0 of sew er con stru ction
con tra ct, by producing se cto r and stage of m anufacture,
1962-63 ......................................................................................................
C ost o f m a teria ls per $ 1 ,0 0 0 of sew er w orks con stru ction
con tra ct, by type o f m a teria ls, region , and type o f p ro je ct,
1962-63 ......................................................................................................
Number o f sam ple con tracts in selected ca teg ories . . . . . . . . . . .
11
14
16
20
24
29
C harts:
1.
2.
D istribution of m an -h ou rs fo r each $ 1 ,0 0 0 o f sew er w orks
con stru ction con tra ct. ..............................................................
W here the sew er w orks con stru ction con tra ct d ollar g o e s .........
v
6
Introduction
New con stru ction is a m a jo r com ponent o f the N ation 's output of
goods and s e r v ic e s and an im portant s o u rce o f em ploym ent. Job s a re c r e
ated not only at con stru ction sites but also in many m anufacturing, trade,
s e rv ic e , and transportation in dustries w hich m ake, s e ll, and d eliver m a te
r ia ls and equipment req u ired in con stru ction p r o c e s s e s . B ecau se o f its fa r reaching em ploym ent im pact, a vigorou s con stru ction industry is a significant
aid in lim itin g unem ploym ent.
T o provide factual data on the m o re d ire ct em ploym ent-gen erating
effe cts o f con stru ction expenditures, the Bureau o f L abor Statistics (BLS)
has a continuing p rogra m o f studies to m easu re labor and m a teria l r e q u ire
m ents fo r variou s segm ents of the con stru ction industry. Construction o f
sew er fa cilitie s w as s e le cte d as p a rticu la rly appropriate fo r study becau se
o f the continuing F e d e ra l in terest and participation in w ater pollution con trol
and the frequent prom in en ce of this type o f w ork in F ed eral em ploym ent
generating p ro g ra m s.
At the tim e to w hich this industry r e fe r s , 1962-1963, F ed era l a s s is t
ance to lo c a l governm ents fo r sew er w ork s con stru ction took three fo r m s ,
im plem enting three different p u rp oses. One of these was the W ater P ollution
C ontrol p rogram , dating fro m the m iddle 1950's, adm inistered b y the P ublic
Health S ervice of the U .S . Departm ent of Health, Education, and W elfa re.
This program p rov id es grants to lo ca l agen cies fo r partial financing o f co n
struction o f sewage treatm ent fa cilitie s , including intercepting and outfall
sew ers. The p rin cip al purpose is to provide an incentive to lo c a l com m unities
to d e crea se the amount o f untreated w astes disch a rg ed to w ater s o u r c e s . The
secon d continuing p rogram was the P ublic F a cilitie s Loan P ro g ra m under the
Com m unity F a c ilitie s A dm inistration o f the Housing and Home Finance A gency.
T his is a loan p rogram designed to a s s is t sm all com m un ities without estab
lish ed c re d it rating to acqu ire needed public fa c ilitie s . Although loans w ere
available fo r m any types o f fa c ilitie s , they w ere u sed p rim a rily fo r sew er and
w ater w ork s. M o reov er, the sew er con stru ction tended to be fo r c o lle ctio n
lines rather than treatm ent fa c ilitie s , thus com plem enting the pollution con trol
p rogra m . The third p rogram was the A c ce le r a te d P ublic W orks P ro g ra m
which w as aim ed at helping people livin g in e co n o m ica lly d istre s se d a rea s by
providing im m ediate em ploym ent on public con stru ction . The p rogra m as a
whole w as under the d irection of the A re a R edevelopm ent A dm inistration o f
the U .S . Departm ent of C om m erce, but grants w e re m ade through agen cies
already in the relevant fie ld s, such as the two m entioned p rev iou sly . Many
different c la s s e s o f public w orks w ere approved tinder this p rogra m , but
sew er fa c ilitie s , w hich accounted fo r ov er a quarter o f the total d ollar volum e
o f ap provals, m ade up the la rg e st single group.
Another rea son fo r the study is the cu rren t and p ro sp e ctiv e im p o r
tance o f this w ork . Expenditures fo r sew er fa cilitie s con stru ction have r is e n
steadily to a r e c o r d $1, 375 m illion in 1964. Although som e d e cre a s e
o c c u r r e d in 1965 after the A c ce le r a te d P ublic W orks P r o g r a m 's initial im pact
2
of 1963 and 1964, expenditures are expected to continue to r is e . The needs
to be m et a ris e not only from population growth and m obility, but also from
d e ficien cies in existing waste d isp osal system s which are the subject of m uch
cu rren t con cern . T hese d eficien cies are ch ie fly inadequate treatm ent of
liquid w astes b efore their return to w aterw ays, and the existence of com bined
storm and sanitary system s in m any urban areas which dump untreated w astes
into w aterw ays during storm s. R em edy of the latter situation alone, by se p
aration of storm and sanitary sew ers, would co st m any b illion s of d o lla rs .
Nature o f Survey
The study was designed p rim a rily to m easu re the total m an -h ou rs
of labor requ ired for each $ 1, 000 of sew er fa cilitie s con stru ction con tra ct.
T hese m an -h ou rs include both o n -site and o ff-s it e em ploym ent in the c o n
struction industry, and the o ff-s it e em ploym ent in industries which produce
and distribute the m a teria ls, supplies, and equipment used in the co n s tr u c
tion. Data for o n -site labor include m an -h ou rs f o r su p ervisory, en g in eer
ing, c le r ic a l, and custodial em ployees at the con stru ction sites, as w ell as
those fo r w ork ers in the con stru ction tra d es. Data fo r o ff-s it e em ploym ent
co v e r not only the final stage of m a teria ls m anufacture and transport to the
site, but all other stages of production including the extraction of raw
m a te ria ls.
T hese labor requirem ents are thus the total of those generated by
the con stru ction con tra ct. H ow ever, additional em ploym ent is generated by
a con stru ction p r o je c t other than by the con stru ction con tract itse lf. This
additional w ork includes preparation o f plans and sp ecifica tion s, in spection
by governm ent a gen cies, installations by public utility em p loyees, and other
appurtenant w ork . T hese other sou rces o f em ploym ent are not r e fle c te d in
the estim a tes, w hich m ight differ slightly if total p r o je c t m an -h ou rs w ere
related to total p r o je c t c o s ts . Em ploym ent crea ted by the respending and
investing o f the w ages and p rofits a risin g from the co n stru ctio n --th e m u lti
p lie r e f f e c t - - i s excluded.
This study is based on data cov erin g con stru ction , ch ie fly in 1962
and 1963, on 138 sew er w orks con tra cts. Only new sanitary sew er fa c i li
tie s are cov ered ; rep a ir w ork and w ork on storm drainage system s are
excluded, although six con tra cts co v e r w ork on featu res o f com bined storm
and sanitary system s.
A ll of the p r o je c ts w ere under one or m o re o f the F ed eral assistan ce
p rogra m s just d escrib ed : 85 w ere ad m inistered by the P ublic Health S erv ice
and 53 by the Com m unity F a cilitie s A dm inistration. Thus, the study did not
include any p ro je cts financed without F ed eral funds. Of the 138 con tra cts,
86 w ere p rim a rily fo r sew er line constru ction, and 52 p rim a rily fo r plant
con stru ction . Data fo r these two groups are shown separately, w here c o n
sid ered helpful, throughout the rep ort.
3
G eneral S urvey Findings
C onstruction o f sew er w orks in 1962-63 req u ired an average o f 222
m an -h ou rs o f la b or fo r each $ 1, 000 o f con stru ction con tra ct amount.
R equirem ents for other types o f con stru ction studied in this s e r ie s ranged
fro m 204 to 236 m a n -h ou rs.
E m ploym ent at the site o f w ork on sew er fa cilitie s req u ired 85 m an
h ou rs, and o ff-s it e em ploym ent, p r im a r ily to produ ce the m a te ria ls used,
req u ired 137 m a n -h ou rs. The total m an -h ou rs w e re distributed by industry
groups as follow s:
M an -hours per $ 1, 000 o f
con stru ction con tra ct, 1962-63
Number
T o t a l.........................
O n -site con stru ction
O ff-s ite , t o t a l............
C onstruction . . . . .
M anufacturing . . . .
T r a d e .......................
T ransportation . . .
S e r v ic e s ..................
Other .......................
P ercen t
222
85
137
7
73
23
11
7
16
100
38
62
3
33
11
5
3
7
M an-hour requirem ents in the two m a jo r types o f sew er w orks v a r
ied only slightly.
M an-hours per $ 1, 000 o f
con stru ction con tra ct, 1962-63
L ines
T o t a l .................... .. .
O n -site con stru ction
O ff-s ite , t o t a l . . . . . .
Plants
223
86
137
221
83
138
T h ere w e re , h ow ever, som e d iffe re n ce s in the distribution o f these
h ou rs, p a rticu la rly in the pattern o f o n -s ite con stru ction occu p ation s. T h ere
w ere wide d iffe re n ce s in total o n -s ite m an -h ou r requ irem en ts am ong individ
ual p r o je c ts , and a substantial d ifferen ce betw een p r o je c ts in the South and in
the r e s t of the Nation.
The study developed, as byproduct, a rough breakdown o f c o n
t r a c t o r s ' c o s ts as betw een w ages paid to con stru ction w o r k e r s , m a te ria ls
purchased, and overhead and p ro fit. The p ercen tages w e r e , r e sp e ctiv e ly ,
C h art 1.
D istrib u tio n o f Man-Hours for E ach $ 1 0 0 0 of Sewer W orks C on stru ction C o n tract, 1 9 6 2 -6 3
Total Man-Hours:
Total Man-Hours:
223
221
\
PRIMARY
► MAN-HOURS
(168)
m
PRIMARY
Off-site
Construction
MAN-HOURS
(159)
Transportation,
Transportation,
Trade, and Services
Trade, and Services
t
t
Last Manufacturing Stage
Last Manufacturing Stage
(or other processing)
(or other processing)
SECONDARY
SECONDARY
MAN-HOURS
-►
◄
—
MAN-HOURS
►
(55)
(62)
Other
Manufacturing
Transportation,
Trade, and Services
Industries
SEWER LINES
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
OF LABOR STATISTICS
BUREAU
SEWER PLANTS
All
Other
Industries
5
25, 56, and 19 fo r all p r o je c ts c o v e re d . The w ages p ercen ta ges tended to
be m o re un iform than the m an -h ou rs w orked, by p r o je c t and region , becau se
high m an -h ou r requ irem en ts frequently w e re a sso cia te d with low w age ra tes
and low m an -h ou r requ irem en ts with high wage ra te s. H ow ever, the p e r
centage fo r plants w as somewhat higher than fo r lin e s — 27 and 24, r e s p e c
tiv e ly , The m a teria ls ra tio s va ried little in total between the two types, 56
in lin es and 57 in plants. T here w e re , h ow ever, great d iffe re n ce s in the
types o f m a teria ls used.
The d ifferen ce between total con tra ct amounts and the com bined sum
o f the w ages paid and m a teria ls purchased am ounted to 19 percen t o f the c o n
tra ct am ounts. T h is residu al rep resen ts the total o f overhead and p ro fit.
In this rep ort, overhead expenses a re those w hich cannot be d ire ctly attrib
uted to s p e c ific p r o je c ts , as fo r exam ple, expenses fo r the cen tra l o ffic e and
yard, in surance, and ta xes.
In the y e a rs 1962-63, the average expenditures p er year fo r all types
o f lo c a l public sew er fa cilitie s w ere $1 , 131 m illio n . T his study indicated
that at this rate o f expenditure sew er con stru ction p rovid ed about 125, 000 fu ll
tim e jo b s , 48, 000 o n -s ite and 77, 000 o f f - s i t e .1 Since fu ll-tim e w ork is the
exception, e s p e c ia lly in heavy con stru ction , the actual num ber o f p erson s
em ployed o n -s ite w as undoubtedly con sid e ra b ly g re a te r.
1
The fu ll-tim e w ork yea r fo r o n -s ite w ork is taken as 50 tim e s th
average w orkw eek o f 3 9 .9 hours in 1962 and 40. 6 in 1963 a s re p o rte d in the
B u reau 's em ploym ent and earnings s e r ie s . F o r other types o f em ploym ent
2, 000 hours w ere co n sid e re d a full y e a r 1s em ploym ent.
C h art 2 .
W here the Sewer W ork s C onstruction C o n tract D ollar Goes
1 9 6 2 -6 3
Stone, clay, glass products
Supervisory,
technical, clerical
Skilled trades
Semiskilled, unskilled
3.8
7.8
12.7
Stone, clay, glass products
6.2
Supervisory,
1.7
0.3
All other materials & supplies
2.6
technical, clerical
3.4
Skilled trades
15.0
Semiskilled, unskilled 8.2
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
BUREAU
OF LABOR STATISTICS
15.9
13.4
Electrical products
SEWER PLANTS
4.8
All other materials & supplies
44.5
SEWER LINES
10.9
Metal products
Sewer plant equipment
33.7
Metal products
Sewer plant equipment
Electrical products
4.2
7
P r o je c t C h a ra cteristics
T o d a y 's urban s o cie ty uses a wide variety o f fa cilitie s fo r the c o l
lection , treatm ent, and d isp osal o f human and industrial w astes. T hese
fa cilitie s range from the sm all pipes co lle ctin g household w astes to the
la rge trunk lin es and in tercep tors; fro m the sim ple sewage lagoon to the
in tricate p r o c e s s in g com p lex o f the m etropolitan treatm ent plant; and fro m
the "pack a ged" lift station to the m u ltim illio n -d o lla r pumping station. The
curren t study included a ll of these fa cilitie s in sofar as they related to new
sanitary sew er system s. R epair jo b s w ere excluded and also w ork on storm
sew er sy stem s. S everal r e lie f sew er jo b s , featu res o f com bined storm and
sanitary system s, w ere included.
The 138 con tra cts 2 included in the study w ere distributed among
types o f fa cilitie s as shown in the follow ing tabulation. (See appendix fo r
additional details on sam ple selection and w eigh tin g.) C ontracts are divided
into two b road c la s s e s , a ccord in g to whether they ch ie fly in volved pipeline
o r plant con stru ction .
A ctual (unweighted) con
tra ct am ounts, 1962-63
Number o f
con tracts
Thousands
o f d olla rs
P e rce n t
A ll c o n t r a c t s .......................
138
$ 4 5 ,4 6 5
100
P rin cip a lly p ip e lin e s ................
L in es e x c lu s iv e ly ..................
L in es and other (ch ie fly
lift s ta tio n s )...........................
P rin cip a lly p la n ts ......................
Sewage treatm ent plants . . .
Pum ping station s....................
W aste stabilization ponds . .
M i x e d ........................................
rr
86
24,717
15,932
3F
25
52
29
9
9
5
8, 785
20.748
14,493
3, 578
910
1, 767
19
46
32
8
2
4
54
2
B ecau se o f the d isp e rse d nature o f the w ork , " p r o je c t " and "c o
tra ct" do not always have identical m eanings in sew er con stru ction . How
ev er, in this rep ort, either w ord m ay be used to designate a single prim e
general con tra ct (o r , ra re ly , a general and one or m o re sp ecia lty prim es)
fo r con stru ction o f a sp ecified feature or group o f featu res o f a sew er
system .
8
The 86 sew er line con tra cts w ere ch ie fly c o lle c tio n and trunk (or
interceptor) lin es in about equal num bers; in addition, there w ere a r e la
tiv ely sm all num ber o f outfall and r e lie f se w e rs. (Outfall sew ers conduct
the effluent fro m the treatm ent plant to a r iv e r o r other disposal area; r e lie f
sew ers in com bined storm and sanitary system s divert e x c e s s storm w aters
d ire ctly into a r iv e r to prevent overload in g o f the treatm ent p la n t.)
The pipelines p rim a rily w ere co n cre te , v itr ifie d -c la y , o r cast iron .
Sm aller amounts o f steel, a sb e sto s-ce m e n t, and corru ga ted m etal pipe w ere
used. In addition, one jo b used c a s t-in -p la c e r e in fo rc e d co n cre te pipe, and
another used b r ic k m a son ry fo r lining a sew er con stru cted by tunneling.
The "o th e r " elem ent in "lin es and oth er" in the previou s tabulation
is alm ost en tirely lift stations. T hese are the pumping fa c ilitie s , usually
sm all, req u ired in lin es w here the terra in is such that gravity alone w ill not
insure adequate flow . In addition, o f co u rs e , all sew er lin es requ ire such
structures as m a n -h oles and junction ch a m b ers, to facilitate the operation
and m aintenance o f the lin es.
T ren ch ing alm ost u n iversally was used fo r placing pipe below ground.
H ow ever, in one entire jo b and in portions o f two oth ers, tunneling was used.
T hese exam ples do not include the m any c a s e s w here re la tiv e ly short s e c
tions o f the line had to be b o re d under such ob sta cle s as highways and
ra ilro a d s.
Of the 52 plants c o v e r e d in the survey, about half included som e
external pipeline w ork, usually fo r in tercep tors or outfalls, in addition to
the n e c e s s a r y w ithin-plant piping con n ection s. In each c a s e , h ow ever, the
plant con stru ction predom inated.
Seven of the treatm ent plants, represen tin g half o f the con tract
amount in this ca teg ory , w ere to provide p rim a ry treatm ent o n ly --th e se p a r
ation o f liquids and so lid s, with digestion o f the solid s, and disposal of
liquids without further treatm ent. The other 22 plants p rovid ed s o -c a lle d
secon da ry tr e a tm e n t--c o n v e rs io n o f the liquid w astes through b io lo g ica l
p r o c e s s e s to com p aratively in offen sive effluents b e fo re their d isp osa l. E leven
o f th ese, represen tin g a third of treatm ent plant con tra ct amount, u sed the
activated sludge p r o c e s s , and 11, represen tin g a sixth o f con tra ct amount,
used the other prin cip al p ro ce ss in g m ethod, the trick lin g filte r system .
M ost treatm ent plants w ere o f sm all o r m oderate siz e , including
s e v e ra l o f the sm all packaged equipment type, requiring hardly m o re o n -site
con stru ction than fo r a foundation and a sh ell. H ow ever, 8 con tra cts o f over
$ 5 00,000 each accounted fo r 70 p ercen t of the total con tra ct amount fo r
treatm ent plant con stru ction . T hese la rg e con tra cts w e re fo r p r o c e s s in g
com p lexes using a v a riety o f fa c ilitie s . M odern la r g e -s c a le sewage tre a t
m ent con sists o f a s e rie s o f ph ysical, b io lo g ica l, and ch em ica l p r o c e s s e s
and th erefore req u ires sev era l distinct types o f stru ctu res (tanks, lagoons,
buildings, m ech an ical in sta lla tion s), and o f co u r s e , appurtenant piping, and
e le c tr ic a l and other related w ork.
9
The pumping station ca teg ory was dom inated by a single v e ry large
con tract fo r a plant which included installations fo r primping storm w ater as
w ell as sanitary sew age. The other eight con tra cts w ere fo r rela tively sm all
lift stations.
W aste stabilization ponds are shallow ponds acting as natural sewage
treatm ent "plan ts" through the action of m ic r o -o r g a n is m s on the raw sew age.
They usually involve no m o re con stru ction w ork than excavation and diking,
and inlet and outlet stru ctu res. Such ponds usually serve sm all com m uni
t ie s --e a c h of the nine sam ple p r o je c ts was in a nonm etropolitan area.
The five p r o je c ts designated as "m ix ed " in the previou s tabulation
w ere con tracts with m ultiple fea tu res. The two la rg e st rep resen t com plete
system s, with sew er lin es, lift stations, and treatm ent fa cilitie s .
10
O n-Site M an-Hour R equirem ents
O n -site m an-hour requirem ents averaged 85 per $ 1, 000 3 of c o n
tra ct amount of sew er fa cilitie s con stru ction but va ried w idely by p r o je c t
c h a r a c te r is tic s . (See table 1.) Some o f the variations are consistent with
those noted in previou s studies in this s e r ie s . A ch ief exam ple o f this is the
con sisten tly higher em ploym ent generated by a dollar of con stru ction in the
South com p a red with the rem ainder of the country. T o a sm a ller and le s s
consistent extent, higher requirem ents also are evident fo r p r o je c ts outside
o f m etropolitan a rea s, and sm a ller p r o je c ts . It usually is assum ed that the
availability o f labor at com p aratively low hou rly rates in the South and in
sm a ller com m unities redu ces the incentive fo r m echanization, and that
sm a ller p ro je cts reduce the opportunity fo r it.
The range in requirem ents fo r individual p r o je c ts w as ex trem ely
w id e --fr o m 23 to 249 m an -h ou rs per $ 1,000 in sew er line p r o je c ts , and
fro m 31 to 159 in plant p r o je c ts . In som e in stan ces, these wide ranges
re fle cte d fin an cially v e ry p rofitab le, or virtu ally d isa strou s, jo b s as
explained in the wage portion o f this study. T his is typical of h ig h -r is k
operation s such as sew er fa cilitie s w ork. In other in stan ces, these wide
ranges r e fle c t individual p r o je c t c h a r a c te ris tic s .
H ow ever, the ranges ra d ica lly differ fo r the South and the r e s t of
the country. M ost o f the con tract value of the sam ple fo r the South was in
p r o je c ts with requirem ents over 100 m an -h ou rs per $ 1,000; fo r the rem ainder
o f the country, m ost o f the value was in p ro je cts with requ irem en ts under
100.
P e rce n t of con tra ct amount
L ines
South
Plants
Other U .S .
South
T o t a l ......................................
100
100
100
Under 5 0 ......................................
50 and under 1 0 0 ......................
100 and Tinder 1 5 0 ....................
150 and under 200 ....................
200 and under 250 ....................
33
64
3
0
0
5
35
58
2
0
4
95
1
0
0
M an-hours per $ 1,000
15
4
Other U. S
3
The "m a n -h ou rs per $ 1, 000" con cept cannot be used fo r p rod u c
ity com p a rison s becau se o f the different ph ysical quantities w hich the $ 1, 000
m ay rep resen t, owing to d ifferen ces in p r ic e s of con stru ction . P r ic e d iffe r
en ces r e fle c t not only d iffe re n ce s in productivity, but a lso d iffe re n ce s in
p ro fits, and c o sts o f m a te ria ls , la b or, etc.
Table 1.
On-Site Labor Requirements for Sewer Works Construction, by Selected Characteristics, 1962-63
M a n - h o u r s p e r $ 1 , 0 0 0 of c on tra ct
C h aracteristics
United
State s
N orth
east
N o rth
Central
South
Wages as p e r c e n t of c on tra c t amount
West
United
States
N orth
east
N o rt h
Central
A v e r a g e h o u r l y earn ings
South
W est
United
State s
N o rth
east
N o rt h
Central
South
We st
T o t a l , a l l c o n tra c ts . . . . . .
8 4.5
7 0 .8
66.6
1 0 9 .5
6 3.2
2 5 .3
25.5
2 4.6
26.3
2 3.8
$ 3 .00
$ 3 .60
$ 3 .70
$ 2 .41
$ 3.77
L in e s ................................ ................
P l a n t s ...............................................
85.9
8 2 .7
6 8 .6
7 2 .4
61.9
7 1 .9
117 .4
9 9.8
61.7
6 6 .1
2 4.3
2 6 .6
25.7
2 5 .3
23.8
25 .6
2 4 .5
2 3 .6
2 3 .5
2 4 .4
$ 2 .83
3 .2 2
$ 3 .75
3 .4 9
$ 3 .8 4
3. 56
$ 2 .09
2 .8 7
$ 3. b l
3. 70
A l l c o n tracts:
M e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a ..................
N o n m e t r o p o lit a n a r e a .......... '
7 8.2
9 3 .1
7 0 .5
7 1 .2
6 3 .0
70.6
99 .4
1 2 2 .4
5 9 .6
69 .8
2 5.9
24. 5
25.4
25 .6
2 4 .2
25.1
2 8 .4
23.8
2 3.5
2 4 .4
3 .32
2 .63
3 .60
3 .5 9
3.84
3 .5 6
2 .8 5
1.94
3 .95
3 .5 0
L in e s :
M e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a ..................
N o nm etropolitan a re a . . . . .
74.7
1 0 3 .8
6 0.6
75.5
57.0
68. 1
9 8 .5
1 4 5 .5
5 8 .2
7 4.5
2 3 .0
26 .4
2 3.2
2 7.9
2 2 .2
25. 7
2 3.2
26.5
23. 1
25.3
3.08
2.5 4
3 .8 3
3 .6 9
3 .9 0
3. 78
2.36
1 .8 2
3.96
3.39
P l a n ts :
M e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a .................
N o n m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a ..........
83. 1
C2. 1
75. 1
64.4
70 . 7
73. 1
100. 7
9 8 .8
6 5.5
6 6 .4
30 .0
2 2 .6
26.4
2 1 .9
26. 7
24.5
35.8
2 1 .0
2 5.5
2 3.8
3 .6 1
2.75
3 .5 2
3 .4 0
3.7 8
3.36
3.56
2.13
3 .b 9
3.58
A l l con tra c ts :
U n d e r $ 5 0 , 0 0 0 .........................
$ 5 0 , 0 0 0 - $ 9 9 , 999 ..................
$ 100, 0 0 0 - $ 2 9 9 , 999 .............
$ 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 - $ 4 9 9 , 999 .............
$ 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 - $ 9 9 9 , 999 .............
$ 1 , 0 0 0 , 000 and o v e r ..........
9 2.0
94.8
95.8
8 4 .6
64. 7
84.9
7 7.6
52 .4
6 7.2
66. 1
65 .2
(l )
8 3.4
71.8
75. 1
65.4
0
64.2
10 6 .4
131. 1
1 3 2 .8
1 0 7 .3
(>)
99 .6
(l )
75. 7
67. 6
(*)
4 7.6
7 0 .0
2 5.7
26.1
25 .4
2 3 .2
21 .5
28 .4
2 7 .9
1 8 .4
2 5.2
2 1.9
2 5 .0
C)
2 6 .2
2 5 .6
2 8 .0
2 3.9
f1)
24 .4
2 4 .4
2 6 .6
24. 0
23. 2
t1)
30.8
0
28. 6
2 4 .3
l1)
18.6
26. 1
2. 79
2.76
2. 65
2. 74
3. 31
3.34
3.60
3.5 0
3. 75
3.31
3.8 4
3. 13
3 .56
3 .73
3 .6 6
(l )
3 .8 0
2.29
2.03
1.8 1
2. 17
f1)
3.09
C)
3.77
3 .5 9
C)
3 .90
3.73
L in e s :
U n d e r $ 5 0 , 0 0 0 .........................
$ 5 0 , 0 0 0 - $ 9 9 , 9 9 9 ..................
$ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 - $ 2 9 9 , 999 .............
$ 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 - $ 4 9 9 , 999 . . . . . .
$ 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 - $ 9 9 9 , 999 .............
$ 1 , 0 0 0 , 000 and o v e r . . . . .
9 3.3
9 9.3
1 0 4 .1
88.4
5 5.4
8 1 .3
7 7.6
(')
66.5
64 .6
(!)
(*)
84. 3
74. 1
71.8
62.4
o
1 2 7 .0
1 4 7 .1
1 2 3 .9
27 .5
26. 7
26. 7
2 3 .6
2 0.2
24.1
2 7.9
(*>
25.8
2 2 .6
(l)
t1)
30 .0
27. 1
28 .4
23 .2
0
(*)
C)
2 5 .9
2 6 .2
2 4.6
C)
f1)
(•)
29.9
25.7
(*)
16.3
<)
‘
2.9 4
2.69
2.56
2.67
3.65
2.97
3.60
(*)
3. 77
3 .4 9
(!)
(l )
(*)
78.4
73.1
<*)
4 1.7
(*)
t1)
3 .5 6
3 .66
3 .9 5
3 .72
(')
t1)
0)
2 .04
1 .7 8
1 .9 8
t1)
(')
(l )
3 .8 1
3 .5 1
0)
3 .9 0
0
P l a n ts :
Under $ 5 0 ,0 0 0
$ 5 0 , 0 0 0 - $ 9 9 , 999 ..................
$ 100, 0 0 0 - $ 2 9 9 , 999 .............
$ 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 - $ 4 9 9 , 999 .............
$ 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 - $ 9 9 9 , 999 .............
$ 1 , 0 0 0 , 000 and over ..........
90. 7
83 .2
8 1.0
78.4
7 5 .2
8 7. 7
O
(*)
64. 4
82.9
0
8 1 .1
0
0
(*)
(‘ )
(*>
62.8
(*)
C)
C)
2 4 .0
24.6
2 3 .0
22 .5
2 2.8
31 .6
(*)
(*)
2 3.9
(l )
(*)
0
2 3.5
C)
27 .4
(*)
(*)
2 5 .5
24.4
(>)
19.0
2 1 .6
(’ )
C)
(*)
h
2 3.0
(*)
(’ )
(*)
2.64
2 .9 6
2 .8 4
2. 88
3 .0 4
3.6 0
0)
(l )
3. 71
(l )
2 .83
O
3.37
t1)
2 .5 1
f1)
1.90
2.49
0)
C)
t1)
(l )
3.67
(l )
(')
6b. 2
9 7 .2
(')
1 0 0 .2
86. 5
(*)
(*)
1 Fewer than 3 contracts in category.
(\)
(l)
C)
(l )
C)
(l )
(l )
h
3. 74
(l)
t1)
12
The C ost o f D irect W ages
W ages paid to o n -s ite con stru ction w o rk e rs constituted about 25 p e r
cent of total con stru ction con tra ct amount, and this figure tended to be quite
constant by region and other ch a r a c te ristic s (table 1). T his r e fle c ts a tend
ency o b s e rv e d in p reviou s studies in this s e r ie s ; high m an-hour requirem ents
tend to be a ssocia ted with low average h ou rly earnings and v ice v e rs a . F or
exam ple, m an-hour requirem ents in the South are double those for the other
region s fo r lin es con stru cted in nonm etropolitan a re a s, but average h ou rly
earnings are alm ost on e-h a lf as m uch. The resu lt is a wage requirem ent
differin g only slightly from the national av era ge.
T his tendency o f variations in hours and rates to o ffse t one another
is illu stra ted further in the follow ing tabulation, which shows that half of all
the p r o je c ts (with som ewhat m o re than half o f the w eighted con tra ct amounts)
have wage p ercen tages within 5 percentage points o f the national average.
Plants
Lines
W ages as a
p ercen t o f
con tra ct amount
Number of
p r o je c ts
studied
T otal ................ ..
Under 1 0 ..................
10 and under 20 . . .
20 and under 30 . . .
30 and under 40 . . .
40 and under 50 . . .
86
2
23
40
16
5
P e rce n t o f
con tract
amount
100.0
2 .5
30. 8
47. 2
15.8
3 .7
Number o f
p r o je c ts
studied
52
1
13
29
8
1
P e rce n t o f
con tra ct
amount
100.0
1.1
8 .7
6 1 .5
2 8 .4
.3
In addition to reflectin g p o ssib le d iffe re n ce s in productivity, the
ex trem es in this table tend (sin ce con tract amounts a re fixed) to rep resen t
unusually profitable o r unprofitable jo b s . The ex trem es m ay also r e fle c t
la rg e d ifferen ces in percen tages o f m a te ria l c o sts in con tra ct am ounts, due
to jo b c h a r a c te r is tic s . Sewer fa cilitie s con stru ction tends to be one o f the
m o re speculative types o f con stru ction , ch ie fly becau se o f the b elow -g rou n d le v e l nature o f m uch o f the w ork . U nexpected encountering o f w ater m ay
in cre a se co sts greatly by requ irin g extensive pumping; r o ck m ay req u ire
d rillin g and blasting; unstable s o ils m ay req u ire heavy shoring. In the p r e s
ent study, fie ld rep resen ta tives heard num erous com plaints o f lo s s e s on c o n
tra cts in the cou rse o f data co lle ctio n , with unfavorable s o il conditions m ost
com m on ly being blam ed. (The speculative nature o f sew er w ork contributed
to one o f the ch ief p rob lem s encountered in data c o lle c tio n --th e difficulty o f
obtaining in form ation on w ork p e rfo rm e d by p rim e and su b con tractors sin ce
gone out o f b u sin ess. F our p r o je c ts in the sam ple studied w e re rep orted to
have bankrupted the prim e c o n tra cto r s .)
The portion o f table 1 showing average hou rly earnings illu stra tes
the d iffe re n ce s in earnings between the South and the r e st o f the country
13
(p articu larly the W est), and between m etropolitan and nonm etropolitan a re a s .
The extrem e range in this average in individual p r o je c ts was fro m $ 1.48 to
$ 4 .7 4 for sew er line con stru ction and from $ 1.61 to $ 4 .3 1 fo r plants. The
low er figure in each ca se rep resen ts a p ro je ct in a sm all southern com m unity;
the la rg er figu re, a p ro je ct in a m etropolitan a r e a --o n e in the N ortheast and
one in the W est.
The w ages d iscu ssed in this section , and the average h ou rly earn
ings based on them, rep resen t total g ro ss earnings, including overtim e p r e
m ium s, b efore any deductions for s o cia l secu rity, health in surance, etc.
The w ages do not rep resen t total la b or c o s ts , which would include tra v el and
vacation allow an ces, co n tra cto rs' lega lly req u ired or voluntary contributions
to health and w elfa re funds, and other frin ge ben efits.
R equirem ents by Occupation
The p rin cipal skilled trades requ ired in sew er fa cilitie s c o n s tru c
tion are operating engineers and carpen ters (table 2).
Operating engineers co v e r em ployees operating all types o f c o n
struction m ach in ery except pow ered handtools (ja ck h a m m ers, d r ills , saws,
and the lik e), the op e ra to rs of which are separately shown. F o r somewhat
over a half o f all m an -h ou rs rep orted for operating en gin eers, the type o f
equipment w as sp ecified . F ollow ing is a distribution o f these sp e cifie d m an
hour s :
P e rce n t
T o t a l ...................................................
B a ck h o e .....................................................
C r a n e -s h o v e l-d r a g lin e .........................
100
16
19
D o z e r ............................................
T ra cto r (attachm ents, if any, not
r e p o r t e d ).................................................
17
Pump and c o m p r e s s o r .........................
L o a d e r .......................................................
P ile d r i v e r ..............................................
S crap er .....................................................
T re n ch e r, d it c h e r .................................
13
12
8
3
3
A ll other ...................................................
4
5
P rim a rily , the equipment operated w as o f the type re q u ire d fo r
trenching and other excavation, and backfillin g. P ile driving and pumping
equipment w ere a ssocia ted with these o p e ra tio n s--th e fo r m e r w as exten sively
used for installing sheet piling, and the latter fo r excavation dewatering.
Table 2.
O n-Site L abor Requirem ents fo r Sewer W orks C onstruction, by O ccupation and Region, 1962-63
United States
O ccupation1
M an-hours
P er
per
cent
$ 1 ,0 0 0
T o t a l ....................................
8 4 .5
Superintendents and
gen eral fo re m e n
P ro fe s s io n a l and te c h n ic a l.
C l e r i c a l ........... .......................
Northeast
North Central
M an-hours
P er
per
cent
$ 1,000
M an-hours
P er
p er
cent
$ 1 ,0 0 0
South
West
M an-hours
P er
p er
cent
$ 1 ,0 0 0
M an-hours
P er
per
cent
$ 1 ,0 0 0
100.0
70.8
100.0
6 6 .6
100.0
109.5
100.0
6 .8
.7
.6
8.1
-8
.8
6.1
.4
.7
8. 7
.6
1. 0
5 .6
♦8
.2
8 .4
1 .2
.3
8 .3
1.0
1. 0
7 .6
.9
1.0
5 .7
.2
.2
9 .0
.3
.4
Operating e n g i n e e r s ............
14.7
17.4
11.2
15.9
12.5
18.7
17.9
16.4
13.5
2 1 .3
C a r p e n t e r s .............................
P lu m b ers
Iron w ork ers2
B rick la y e r s3
E lectricia n s .................... ..
Cem ent fin ish e rs . . . . . . . . .
P ain ters ..................................
Other (skilled) trades4 . . . .
6 .5
2.1
1 .6
1 .4
1.3
1.1
.6
1 .2
7.7
2 .4
1.9
1.6
1.5
1.3
.7
1 .4
6. 8
3 .6
1.6
1.0
1 .6
.9
.6
1.1
9 .6
5 .0
2 .2
1 .4
2 .3
1 .2
.8
1.5
5 .5
2 .7
2 .4
1 .3
1 .5
1 .2
.6
1.0
8 .3
4 .0
3 .6
2 .0
2 .3
1.8
1.0
1.5
7.1
1 .3
1 .6
1.9
1 .3
1 .3
.5
1 .6
6 .5
1.2
1 .4
1.7
1.2
1.1
.5
1.5
6.1
1.7
.8
.5
.6
1. 0
.6
.8
9 .7
2 .7
1 .3
.8
1. 0
1 .6
1.0
1 .2
T ru ck d riv ers .................. ..
O ile rs ..............
H elpers and t e n d e r s ............
P ow er tool o p e ra to rs •. • ••
2 .7
2 .4
1 .5
1 .2
3 .2
2 .9
1.8
1 .4
3.1
3 .2
.3
.8
4 .4
4 .5
.4
1.2
1 .6
1. 7
1.0
.8
2 .5
2 .5
1.5
1.1
3.1
1.8
2.1
1.6
2 .9
1.7
1.9
1.5
2 .6
3 .9
1.8
1.1
4.1
6 .2
2 .9
1.8
L abor fo re m e n
1 .4
1.7
1 .3
1.8
1 .4
2.1
1 .6
1.5
1.1
1.7
5.1
3 1 .3
.2
6.1
3 7.0
.3
4 .0
22.2
.3
5 .6
31.3
.5
2 .0
22 .2
.6
3 .0
3 3 .4
.8
7 .8
4 6 .5
.1
7.1
4 2 .4
.1
4 .0
16.8
(5)
6 .4
26 .6
(5)
P ip ela y e rs
L a b o re rs ...............................
F lagm en, w atchm en . . . . . .
1
2
3
4
6 3 .2
100.0
Skilled occu pation s include apprentices and working forem en .
P r im a r ily re in forcin g iron w ork ers; also includes structural and ornam ental iron w ork ers.
Includes m anhole b lock la y e r s .
C ov ers p r im a r ily m ech an ics (construction equipment repair and p r o c e s s equipment installation) and m inor building
tra d es.
5 L e ss than ♦05.
Note:
B ecause o f rounding, sums of individual item s m ay not equal totals.
15
C arpen ters w ere em ployed as exten sively in sew er plant co n s tr u c
tion as in som e types o f building con stru ction p rev iou sly studied. T hey w ere
em ployed p rim a rily for con crete form w ork on buildings and tanks. H ow ever,
carp en ters w ere also em ployed to a significant extent in sew er line co n stru c
tion for installing w ood shoring in tren ch es and building fo rm s fo r c a s t-in
place con crete pipe and appurtenant con crete sew er stru ctu res such as m an
h oles and outlet w ork s.
R egion al d ifferen ces in the distribution o f m an -h ou rs by occupation
should be in terpreted with caution. T hey resu lt fro m a variety o f fa cto r s ,
among w hich are the different prop ortion s of lin es and plants in the re g io n 's
p r o je c ts , the chance o c cu rr e n c e of jo b s presenting unusual fea tu res, and
lo c a l d ifferen ces in jo b c la s s ifica tio n . P erhaps the m ost striking variation,
and one which has been ob serv ed in previou s studies in the s e r ie s , is the
high prop ortion of com m on la b o r e rs in the South.
T able 3, w hich shows the occupational distribution o f m an -h ou rs
separately fo r sew er lin es and plants, illu stra tes the relative com p lexity o f
the two types of con stru ction .
The pattern fo r lin es r e fle c ts the com p aratively sim ple operations
o f excavating, pipe handling, and backfillin g. Skilled con stru ction w o rk e rs
account fo r only a quarter o f total m an -h ou rs, and these skilled w o rk e rs are
ch ie fly operating en gin eers. On the other hand, com m on la b o r e rs alone
account for 43 p ercen t of total o n -site m a n -h ou rs. T his ratio is far higher
than the corresp on d in g ratios found in previou s studies in this s e r ie s . This
fact m ight be a con sideration when assigning p r io r ity to p r o je c ts in program s
fo r alleviating unem ploym ent.
The occupational pattern for sew er plants r e fle c ts the greater and
m o re va ried sk ills requ ired to constru ct the m any different types o f fa c ili
ties in and around treatm ent and pumping plants. The skilled con stru ction
trades account fo r n ea rly a half o f all o n -site m an -h ou rs, w h ereas com m on
la b o r e rs account for only 30 percen t. T hese ratios approach those o b se rv e d
in studies of building con stru ction .
A ppren tice M an-H ours
A p p ren tices in form a l, re g is te re d p rogra m s accounted for only 2
percen t o f the total m an -h ou rs w orked by the skilled production w o rk e rs on
all sew er fa cilitie s p r o je c ts . The percentage fo r line con stru ction was m uch
low er than that fo r plants, w here, as has been seen, there is a la rg e r p e r
centage o f w ork ers in trades with strong apprenticeship tradition s. (National
apprenticeship standards for heavy equipment op era tors and m ech a n ics w ere
not establish ed until 1963.)
T a b le 3,
P e r c e n t a g e D istrib u tio n o f O n -S ite M a n -H o u rs f o r S ew er L in e and P la n t C o n s tru ctio n ,
b y O ccu p a tion and R e g io n , 1 9 6 2 -6 3
L in e s
O c c u p a tio n 1
P la n ts
U nited
States
N o rth
east
N o rth
C e n tra l
South
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
8 .6
.6
.4
8 .6
:3
.6
7 .0
.8
1. 2
7 .0
0
1. 2
7. 6
.5
.6
6 .1
1. 3
1 .8
9 .9
. 2
( 2)
2 5 .6
16. 7
2 3 .8
14. 6
1 3 .0
1 2 .0
1 5 .8
1 6 .5
.9
.3
.8
.9
1 .3
.4
.2
1 .7
. 2
.3
. 1
8 .8
.6
.6
.5
.2
1 .3
( 2)
14. 3
5. 1
3 .9
2 .0
3. 3
2. 3
1 .5
1 5 .9
8 .6
3 .8
2. 1
3 .9
2 .0
1 .4
1 5 .5
7. 6
6 .4
3 .0
4 .4
2. 8
1 .9
1 3 .9
2. 3
3. 2
1 .8
2. 7
2. 3
1. 1
1 1 .4
6 .9
2 .5
1 .2
2 .4
2 .1
2 .8
.6
.5
1 .4
2. 3
1 .6
2. 3
2 .9
.9
5. 2
5 .0
.4
.7
3. 7
3 .4
1 .8
1 .9
3 .6
1 .5
1. 7
.9
5 .5
7 .7
3 .0
1 .9
2.1
2 .5
1 .8
1 .7
3 .8
4. 2
.5
1 .5
1 .3
1 .7
1. 1
.5
1 .9
2 .0
2. 3
2. 3
1 .5
3. 3
2 .8
1 .7
1 .5
1 .3
1 .9
1 .5
1 .0
2 .0
2. 1
2 .4
1 .5
3.1
9 .6
42. 7
.4
1 2 .9
3 7 .4
1 .2
5. 8
3 8 .8
1 .7
10. 7
49. 2
( 2)
7.1
2 7 .0
( 2)
.4
2 7 .0
( 2)
.3
28. 1
( 2)
1 .9
32. 5
.3
4 .9
2 5 .9
(2)
N orth
C e n tra l
U nited
State s
N o rth
ea st
T o ta l . .........................................
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
S u p erin te n d e n ts and g e n e r a l . .
f o r e m e n .......................................
P r o f e s s io n a l and t e c h n ic a l . . .
C l e r i c a l ...........................................
8 .9
.8
.4
1 1 .0
1 .5
.7
9. 3
1 .8
.1
O p e ra tin g e n g i n e e r s ....................
1 9 .6
1 9 .9
C a r p e n t e r s .............................
P l u m b e r s ..................................
I r o n w o r k e r s ....................................
B r ic k la y e r s ....................................
E l e c t r i c i a n s ....................................
C e m e n t f i n i s h e r s ................. ..
P a i n t e r s ...........................................
2 .4
.4
.4
1 .3
. 1
.5
(2)
.7
O th er (s k ille d ) t r a d e s .................
.7
1 .4
T r u c k d r i v e r s ................. ................
O i l e r s ................................................
H e lp e r s and t e n d e r s ....................
P o w e r t o o l o p e r a t o r s .................
4. 1
3. 2
1 .8
1. 2
L a b o r f o r e m e n .............................
P i p e l a y e r s ................. ..
L a b o r e r s ................. ................ ..
F la g m e n and w a t c h m e n ............
0
0
.6
0
0
.i
0
.7
0
South
W est
1 .6
2 9 .9
. 1
1 S k ille d o c c u p a t io n s in clu d e a p p re n tice s and w o rk in g fo r e m e n .
2 L e s s than . 0 5 .
N ote:
B e c a u s e o f rou n d in g , su m s o f in dividu al ite m s m a y n ot equ al 100 p e r c e n t.
W est
17
P ercen t of skilled trade man -h ou rs
w orked by apprentices
Total
L ines
Plants
2 .2
1.1
2 .9
Operating e n g in e e r s ............. ...................2
.4
0
1.5
8 .0
1.6
2.7
14.5
1.2
1.8
7. 1
All skilled t r a d e s ........... ____
____
-----____
____
2.0
8 .9
1.4
1.5
____
____
1.0
1.7
4 .6
18.9
0
0
8 .3
0
0
Other skilled t r a d e s ............. ____
5 .2
.4
C a r p e n t e r s ...................... .. . . .
P l u m b e r s .................................
Iron w o rk e rs . •. . ..................
B r i c k l a y e r s .............................
E l e c t r i c i a n s ......... ..
Cement fin is h e r s ........... * . . •
P a i n t e r s ........... ........................
In the aggregate or in percentage of total, apprentice m an -h ou rs
w ere significant ch iefly in the plum bing and e le c tr ic a l tra d es.
O vertim e M an-H ours
F o r 102 (o f the 138) p r o je c ts , w hich accounted fo r o v e r 80 percent
o f the total m an -h ou rs w orked in the sam ple p r o je c ts , data w ere available
fo r m easurin g the prop ortion o f these hours w hich w ere paid fo r at overtim e
ra te s. F or all p r o je c ts , this amounted to 7 .5 percen t. The ratio fo r sew er
line constru ction, h ow ever, was m uch higher than fo r plant con stru ction ,
10. 3 and 4. 2 re sp e ctiv e ly . On severa l sizable line p r o je c ts , this proportion
approached a quarter of all hours w orked.
The higher proportion of overtim e hours on line con stru ction p rob a
bly is due to the m ore exposed conditions under w hich this w ork is done and
to the loca tion of the w ork on public r ig h ts -o f-w a y . Both these conditions
requ ire intensive activity when w eather conditions are favorable (p a rticu
la r ly to make m axim um use of heavy con stru ction equipment) and when
tra ffic w ill be disrupted the lea st.
18
C onstruction T im e
On the average, the jo b s co v e re d in this survey requ ired a little
o v er 33 w eeks to com p lete. The sewage plants, h ow ever, req u ired a sub
stantially lon ger p eriod for con stru ction than the lin e s --4 1 weeks as c o m
pared with 28. The d ifferen ce was not due to variations in the distribution
o f the p r o je c ts , fo r exam ple by c o s t c la s s . The relation sh ip held fo r all
size s and loca tion s o f p r o je c ts ; on the average, sew er plant con stru ction
req u ires about 50 p ercen t lon ger than com p arable sew er line p r o je c ts . T hese
figu res c o v e r the total elapsed tim e fro m the start of site operation s to the
substantial com p letion of the con tra ct. T hey do not include the som etim es
extensive p eriod o f testing and rem ed ial w ork, but they do include p eriod s
during the co u rs e of con stru ction when, fo r variou s re a so n s, no w ork was
p e rfo rm ed .
T o m easu re the distribution o f em ploym ent o v er the p e rio d o f c o n
struction, the con stru ction tim e fo r each p r o je c t was divided into 10 equal
in tervals, and data w ere tabulated on the number o f m an -h ou rs w orked in
each in terval. T his p roced u re perm itted the com bination o f m an -h ou rs fo r
p ro je cts o f variou s s iz e s in o rd e r to obtain typical em ploym ent patterns.
The resu lts fo r the two m a jo r groups o f p r o je c ts re v e a le d little d ifferen ce in
the tim ing o f em ploym ent:
Tenths o f con stru ction p e riod
T otal
P e rce n t o f m an -h ou rs:
Sewer lin es ................
Sewer p la n t s ................
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
100
100
5
5
10
10
13
13
15
14
14
13
13
13
11
11
8
10
7
7
4
4
19
O ff-S ite Em ploym ent
F o r each m an-hour o f w ork p e rfo rm e d at the con stru ction site of
sew er fa cilitie s con stru ction , an additional 1 .6 m an -h ou rs o f w ork w ere
req u ired elsew h ere to produ ce and distribute the m a te ria ls, supplies, and
equipment used at the site. The ratio was about the sam e fo r lin es and
plants. T hese are rather high ra tios com p a red with the sam e ratio in other
types o f con stru ction . T his resu lts in part fro m the fact that site w o rk e rs
are able to place rela tiv ely la rge values o f w ork p er hour on this kind o f
c o n s tr u ctio n --in the ca se o f lin es, by the use o f heavy con stru ction equip
m ent; in plants, by the installation o f p r o c e s s equipm ent.
T his o ff-s it e activity d irectly a ffects a substantial num ber o f indus
t r ie s ; in d irectly it a ffects virtu ally all industries as the im pact o f the initial
pu rchases spreads throughout the econ om y. T hese e ffe cts are shown in
table 4, w hich p resen ts by industry the total m an-hour requ irem en ts fo r
sew er w ork s con stru ction . P rim a ry m an -h ou rs a re defined as those w orked
at the con stru ction site and in activities c lo s e ly related to the site: o ff-s it e
em ploym ent in the con stru ction industry, em ploym ent in the la st stage o f
m a teria ls m anufacture, and em ploym ent in the in dustries distributing the
final product to the site. S econdary m an-hours are those req u ired p r io r to
final m anufacture in all a ctivities in volved in producing and distributing m ate
ria ls and equipment, including the b a sic extraction and p r o c e ss in g o f raw
m a te ria ls . The distin ction between the two a rea s m ay be useful in gaging
the im m ed ia cy of the im pact o f a con stru ction p ro p o sa l.
P rim a ry m an -h ou rs la rg e ly r e fle c t m a teria ls usage. Thus, the
substantial em ploym ent in the stone, cla y , and glass products industry w ill
be seen to r e fle c t in la rg e part the usage o f co n cre te and cla y sew er pipe.
Secondary m an-hour requ irem en ts, by their definition, cou ld be analyzed
only with r e fe r e n c e to the b a sic data on interindustry relation sh ips.
20
T able 4. M an-H our R equirem ents P e r $ 1,000 o f Sewer
C onstruction C ontract, by P rod u cin g S ector
and Stage of M anufacture, 1962-63
T otal
m an-hour s
P rim a ry
m an -h ou rs
Secondary
m an -h ou rs
A ll s e c t o r s ........... ...................
221.9
163.8
5 8 .2
On- site co n s tr u ctio n .........................
84 .5
8 4 .5
A g r ic u ltu r e ..........................................
M in in g ............................. ................... ..
Other c o n s t r u c t io n ...........................
M a n u fa c tu r in g ...........................
Lum ber and lum ber products . .
P aper and paper p r o d u c t s .........
P r in tin g ............................................
C h e m ic a ls ........................................
Stone, cla y, and glass products
P rim a ry m e t a ls .............................
F a b rica ted m etal products . . . .
M a c h in e ry ........................................
E le c tr ic a l p r o d u c t s ......................
T ra nsportation e q u ip m e n t.........
Other m an u factu rin g....................
T ra n sp orta tion ....................................
T r a d e .....................................................
S e rv ice s ...............................................
Other i n d u s t r i e s ...............................
2 .2
4 .8
7. 2
7 2 .6
1.6
1.5
1. 1
1.6
26. 2
11.7
6.6
14. 1
4 .0
1.0
3. 2
10.6
23. 3
7. 3
9 .3
.2
1.1
5 .5
4 6 .8
.7
S ector
Note:
totals.
—
.2
2 2 .8
5. 7
3. 9
10.5
2.1
.2
.7
4.7
16.5
1.6
2 .8
2. 0
3 .7
1.7
2 5 .8
1.0
1.5
1.1
1 .4
3 .4
6. 0
2.6
3.6
1 .9
.7
2 .5
5.8
6. 8
5 .8
6 .6
B ecause o f rounding, sum o f individual item s m ay not equal
21
T otal o ff-s it e m an-hour requirem ents p e r $ 1,000 fo r con stru ction
of the two prin cip al types o f sew er w o r k s — lin es and p la n ts--sh o w little
differen ce:
M an-hours p er $ 1,000 o f con tra ct
fo r sew er w orks constru ction
O ff- site
Type o f
fa cility
A ll
indus
trie s
O n- s it e :
co n
s tr u c
tion
T otal
Con
s tr u c
tion
Manu
fa c
turing
T ra n s p o rta t io n ,
tra d e,
and
s e r v ic e s
Other
T otal hours:
A ll sew er
f a c i lit ie s .. . . .
L ines . . . . . . . . .
Plants . . . . . . . .
222
223
221
85
86
83
137
137
138
7
7
7
73
74
72
41
40
43
16
16
16
P rim a ry hours:
A ll sew er
fa c ilit ie s .........
L in e s . . . . . . . . .
P la n t s ................
164
168
159
85
86
83
79
82
76
5
5
5
47
51
42
23
22
25
4
4
4
Secon dary
hours:
A ll sew er
f a cilitie s .........
L in e s ..................
P la n t s ................
58
55
62
- -
58
55
62
2
2
2
26
23
30
18
18
18
12
12
12
- -
In the p rim a ry o ff-s it e ca tegory , lin es requ ire m o re m an -h ou rs
than are req u ired by plants, because of the use o f m a te ria ls, such as pipe,
o f a rela tiv ely low o rd e r o f fabrication , requiring m o re hours in the final
stage. Plants use a greater value o f item s, such as p r o c e s s and con trol
equipment, requiring m o re p ro ce ss in g p r io r to the final m anufacturing
stage.
22
C ost of M aterials U sed
The co s t of m a teria ls used in con stru ction o f the sew er w orks under
study amounted to 56. 5 percen t of the con tract amount. F o r the lines it was
55. 7 percen t and for plants, 5 7 .4 . Included in these fig u re s are the value of
the m a teria ls in corp ora ted into the various stru ctu res; the value o f p r o c e s s
ing equipment and other types of in stalled equipment; the value o f supplies
consum ed; and co sts o f con stru ction equipment rental o r estim ates of d e p re
ciation allow an ces. T hey do not include co sts o f pu rchases o f overhead goods
and s e r v ic e s .
The prop ortion o f m aterials c o st to con tra ct amount va ried w id ely
depending on p ecu lia rities of individual jo b s o r their relative p rofitab ility.
Thus, high p roportion s often w ere a ssocia ted with unprofitable jo b s , or with
jo b s which by their nature req u ired little o n -s ite constru ction, as fo r exam
ple, the installation of a sm all treatm ent plaint using packaged equipm ent.
T h re e -q u a rte rs of the con tra cts, how ever, showed m a te ria ls p roportion s
within approxim ately 15 percentage points o f the average:
L ines
P ercen t m a te
ria ls co st o f
con tra ct amount
T o t a l..................
Under 40 ................
40 and under 50 . .
50 and under 60 . .
60 and under 70 . .
70 and under 80 . .
80 and o v e r ...........
Plants
Number of
p ro je cts
studied
P ercen t o f
con tra ct
amount
Number of
p r o je c ts
studied
P e rce n t o f
con tract
amount
86
10
25
28
13
7
3
100. 0
5 .7
2 1 .4
36.5
23 .8
10.8
1 .8
52
2
7
24
10
8
100.0
1
1.0
11.0
55. 1
29. 6
2 .4
.9
T able 5 p resen ts the c o sts to the co n tra cto rs o f m a jo r m a teria ls
and groups of m a teria ls used in each $ 1,000 o f sew er fa cilitie s con stru ction .
M inor item s are included in group totals but a re not liste d separately. Data
are shown fo r all p r o je c ts by region , and fo r lin es and plants separately.
The table shows quite different patterns of m a teria ls usage fo r lin es
and plants. F or lin es, n ea rly on e-h a lf o f total m a te ria ls co s t is accounted
fo r by con crete and cla y pipe and an additional on e -fifth by the estim ate fo r
con stru ction equipment usage. On the other hand, plant con stru ction uses a
wide variety of m a teria ls, m any o f a high degree of fa brication , as might be
expected from the va ried structures involved. In this r e sp e ct, the two
m a teria ls patterns p a ra llel the two con stru ction occupational patterns p r e
v iou sly d iscu ssed .
23
Some apparent anom alies in the table are explained by the design
and techniques o f sew er fa cilitie s con stru ction . F o r exam ple, the greater
relative use o f b r ic k and "oth er p reca st co n cre te p rod u cts" in lin es r e fle c ts
the produ ction o f sew er m anh oles. The high requirem ents o f sand and gravel
relative to cem ent, in r e v e r s e o f the usual pattern, suggest its use as a pipe
bedding m a teria l in lin es, and as a filte r m edium in plants.
Each o f the broad c a t e g o r ie s --lin e s and p la n ts --in clu d e s elem ents o f
the other. This explains expenditures fo r pumps and m o to rs on line co n stru c
tion. W here slop es are such that sewage cannot flow p ro p e rly by gravity
alone, lift stations are requ ired . F inally, in view o f the great d iffe re n ce s
between the line and plant m aterial patterns, the region al variations shown
are as m uch a r e fle c tio n o f d ifferen ce s in product m ix as in lo c a l u sage. The
breakdowns are thus applicable only to situations w here the m ix is assum ed
to be s im ila r.
24
T able 5.
C ost of M a teria ls p er $ 1,000 o f Sew er W orks C onstruction C ontract, by Type
o f M a teria ls, R egion, and T ype o f P r o je c t, 1962-63
Item
United
States
N orth
east
A ll p r o je c ts
North
South
Central
W est
United
States:
lin es
United
States:
plants
T otal, all m a teria ls •.. ............. $ 5 6 4 .7 0
$ 5 3 0 .4 0
$ 5 3 3 .0 0
$ 5 7 0 .5 0
$ 6 2 1 .3 0
$ 5 5 7 .2 0
$ 5 7 3 .9 0
Stone, cla y , and glass produ cts •. $ 2 3 4 .6 0
Cem ent, co n cre te , and gypsum
products
130.20
88.00
C on crete p i p e ..............................
29.80
R eady m ix ed co n cre te ..............
2.50
C oncrete b lock . . ................ ... ..
Other p re ca st con cre te
7 .8 0
p r o d u c t s ......... ♦ . . . ................. ..
1.60
C e m e n t......................... . ...............
$ 1 5 6 .1 0
$ 2 2 7 .9 0
$ 2 1 4 .7 0
$ 3 5 5 .4 0
$337. 30
$ 1 0 9 .3 0
7 9.80
33. 20
30.80
3.20
131.20
75. 20
38.30
2. 10
103.80
65.60
29.70
2. 10
231.50
201.40
18.60
3.30
179.90
147.40
16. 30
2.40
69.60
15.70
46.30
2.70
10.90
1.40
13.40
1.70
3.90
2.00
7 .00
1.00
11.50
2.00
3. 30
1.20
C lay p r o d u c ts ...................................
C lay sew er pipe .........................
B r ic k .........................................
77.40
67.8 0
8. 20
5 5.50
50 .7 0
2.70
67.00
57.30
8 .8 0
95. 20
80.40
13.00
6 9.90
67.80
1.70
124.30
113.40
10.80
20. 20
12. 20
5 .00
Other stone, clay, and glass
p r o d u c t s ...........................................
Sand and g r a v e l...........................
A sb estos cem ent p i p e ..............
M iscellan eou s a g g r e g a te .........
F ill d irt...........................................
27.00
17.70
6 .00
1.80
.60
20.80
10. 20
6 .10
3.30
. 30
29.70
24. 20
-3.00
.90
15.70
10.80
2.50
1. 10
.60
54.00
31.60
21.00
.80
.30
33. 10
22.80
7. 20
2.90
. 20
19.50
11.50
4 .5 0
. 50
1.00
M etal produ cts (excep t plumbing
and heating)....................................
P rim a ry m etal p r o d u c t s ...........
Cast iron p ip e .........................
Steel pipe ................ ...................
Steel sheet p ilin g .......................
Cast iron m anholes, e tc. . . .
Aluminum sheet m e t a l ...........
C opper sheet and p i p e ...........
105.70
56.00
34. 10
8 .0 0
5 .6 0
5 .5 0
1.70
.7 0
112.90
64.60
33.20
11.40
7 .4 0
5 .3 0
5 .40
1.20
90. 30
32.60
17.90
6. 20
.4 0
3 .6 0
3. 20
.8 0
133.00
77. 60
53.80
7 .7 0
8 .50
6 .5 0
(M
.4 0
58. 20
30. 10
11.70
7 .7 0
3 .80
5 .60
. 10
.80
62. 30
47.80
28.50
9 .0 0
1. 30
8 .8 0
(M
n
158.60
66. 20
4 1 .0 0
6 .7 0
10.70
1.40
3.60
1.60
F a b rica ted m etal p r o d u c ts .. . . .
R ein forcin g rod s and b a rs;
j o i s t s ..............••••••.............
Structural steel .............. •••••
V alves and f i t t i n g s ..................
Steel plate p r o d u c t s ......... ..
F abricated sheet m etal
produ cts ................................ .
C orrugated m etal p i p e ............
Fencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
M etal d oors and fra m e s . . . . .
M etal windows and fra m e s . .
P refa b rica ted buildings . . . . .
4 9 .7 0
4 8 .3 0
5 7.70
55.40
28. 10
14. 50
92.40
15.30
8 .8 0
8 .30
4. 20
13.70
8 .4 0
9 .3 0
3 .40
20.80
9 .8 0
10.90
6 .7 0
15.30
8 .9 0
9. 10
4 .6 0
1 0 .Q0
7 .8 0
2.50
1.10
4 .7 0
.7 0
2. 30
1.70
28. 20
18.70
15.70
7. 30
3 .40
3 .3 0
1.80
1.40
1.10
.6 0
.6 0
6 .2 0
2.30
1.20
.9 0
—
1.40
.3 0
2 .60
1.60
1.60
.4 0
6 .4 0
4 .9 0
1.70
1.30
.7 0
1.00
1.70
.80
.6 0
1.50
1.60
.20
.6 0
2.90
.5 0
.3 0
.5 0
—
6 .7 0
3 .70
3 .40
2. 80
1.80
1.20
Sewage plant e q u ip m e n t..................
Pum ps and m o t o r s ......... .............
M ech anical c o l l e c t o r s ................
D ig esters, c l a r i f i e r s ......... ..
D iffu sers and distribution
equipment • • • . . . ................
L a b ora tory equipm ent and
instrum ents
E le c tr ic a l generating units . . . .
C h lorin ators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E l e v a t o r s ................ ..
U n sp ecified equipment ................
69.90
27. 20
15.40
10.00
89.9 0
24.00
32.00
16.10
76.50
23.40
31.70
8 .5 0
71. 20
39.70
5 .5 0
4 .0 0
4 1 .4 0
7 .3 0
2.20
19.70
17.40
15.80
...
. 10
134.00
41. 20
34. 10
22. 10
5. 10
11.70
4 .7 0
4 .0 0
2.50
2.10
1.40
1.10
.9 0
6 .7 0
1.50
2.10
1.40
.3 0
1.00
2. 20
1.20
1.50
2.90
1. 10
.9 0
2.10
11.00
.70
1.90
.70
See footnote at end o f table
- -
3 .30
6 .3 0
11.40
.6 0
. 20
..
.
. 70
3.90
3.00
2.40
2. 10
14.00
25
T able 5.
C ost o f M a teria ls per $ 1, 000 o f Sewer W orks C onstruction C ontract, by Type
o f M a teria ls, R egion, and T ype o f P r o je c t, 1962-63—Continued
Item
United
States
N orth
east
E le c tr ic a l p r o d u c ts ...........................
Sw itchboards and panelboards •.
W ire and cable ................................
E le c tr ic a l m e te rs and
instrum ents ••••.•••................ ..
T r a n s fo r m e r s ..................................
Conduit ................ ............... ..
C u rren t-ca rry in g d e v i c e s .........
Lighting fix tu res ...........................
$ 23. 30
12.80
2.30
$ 25.60
17.40
1.70
2.00
1.90
1.60
1. 20
1.00
P etroleu m p r o d u c t s .........................
F uel and lu bricatin g o i l s ............
A sphalt p a v in g ........................... ....
A ll p r o je c ts
North
C entral
United
States:
lin es
United
States:
plants
South
W est
$ 20. 30
8 .50
2. 70
$ 26.60
14.00
2.30
$ 1 7 .9 0
11.60
2.10
$ 3 .30
1.40
.8 0
$ 4 7 .7 0
2 6.80
4 .1 0
2.50
.3 0
1.50
.7 0
1.10
2. 80
.9 0
2. 10
1. 20
1.50
1.70
4 .0 0
1.60
1.60
.8 0
1.50
. 10
1.30
. 30
.8 0
. 20
C
1)
.4 0
. 20
. 20
4. 20
4 .3 0
3. 20
2.40
2. 10
14.00
8 .7 0
4 .8 0
14.60
8 .50
5 .8 0
13.60
10.40
2.70
12.80
9. 10
3 .00
16.60
5 .70
10.50
16.80
9. 20
7 .40
10.60
8 .0 0
1.60
Lum ber and lum ber products . . . .
D im ension lu m b e r ........... ..
6 .7 0
5 .40
7 .30
7. 10
5.50
3.70
7 .9 0
6. 10
5 .00
4 .5 0
4 .4 0
4 .2 0
9 .4 0
6 .9 0
Plum bing and heating m a teria ls
and eq u ip m e n t..................................
Plum bing m a teria ls ....................
Plum bing f i x t u r e s ....................
6. 20
1. 10
.50
8 .6 0
2.20
.70
8 .90
1. 10
.4 0
4. 10
.8 0
.6 0
5 .5 0
. 70
. 10
.4 0
. 20
—
13.40
2. 10
1. 10
Heating m a t e r i a l s .........................
B low ers and fans .................. ....
B o ile rs and ra d ia tors, w arm
air fu rn aces, unit h ea ters,
and v e n t ila t o r s .........................
A ir-con d ition in g equipment . .
5. 20
2.40
6 .50
4 .6 0
7.80
4. 80
3.40
.9 0
4 .7 0
1.00
. 20
. 20
11.20
5. 20
1. 70
.60
1.60
1.50
1.40
1.20
.80
3 .30
C hem ical products ...........................
Dynamite and caps .........................
Paint ................ .................
3 .6 0
1.80
1. 10
4 .6 0
2.70
1.70
2.90
1.40
1. 20
1.50
. 20
.7 0
A ll other m a t e r ia l.............................
N u rsery products ...........................
2.10
1.00
2.60
1.60
2.10
1.40
C onstruction equipment (rental
ch arg es and d ep reciation
a llo w a n c e s ).........................................
9 8.60
108.10
85.00
- -
(>)
3.80
1.40
8 .20
5. 20
1.50
2.00
1.30
. 10
5 .6 0
2.50
2.40
2 .1 0
.9 0
1.50
.6 0
.90
3.50
1.80
9 6.70
111.70
1 L e ss than $ 0 .0 5 .
Note: G roup totals include products not shown sep arately.
—
.4 0
112.50
81 .8 0
26
P rev iou s Studies
T h ree previou s studies of la bor and m a teria l requirem ents fo r
sew er con stru ction have been m ade in the BLS co v e rin g data relatin g roughly
to 1934, 1940, and 1949.4 D ifferen ce s in scop e, sam pling, cla s s ifica tio n ,
and data c o lle c tio n in these e a r lie r studies and the curren t one lim it the
usefu ln ess o f com p a rison s. H ow ever, som e con clu sion s appear reasonable:
O n -site con stru ction w ork er w ages as a percentage o f the total con tract
amount w ere as low in 1962-63 as they had been at any tim e over the previou s
30 y e a rs; the percentage o f com bined overhead and p ro fit, on the other hand,
was as high or higher them it had been in the sam e 30-y e a r p e rio d .
P e rce n t o f con stru ction
con tra ct amount
1962-63
T o t a l ...............................................
W ages to o n -site w o r k e r s ...........
M aterials and supplies ................
Other costs and p rofits ................
1949
1940
1934
100
32
44
24
100
30
50
20
100
26
51
23
Other co sts include con stru ction equipment dep reciation , w hich was
not shown separately in the e a r lie r studies, and em ploym ent c o s ts other than
w ages paid to o n -s ite w o r k e r s . Both o f these c la s s e s o f co sts are b e lie v e d
to have in cre a se d as a percentage o f total con tra ct c o s t ov er the y e a r s .
4
"R ela tive C ost o f M aterial and L abor in C onstruction o f W ater a
Sew erage S y s te m s ," M onthly L abor R eview , January 1935 (based on data
c o lle c te d at around 1934), pp. 146-146; " E xpenditures fo r L abor and M aterial
and M an-H ours o f L abor C reated per $ 1 m illio n o f C ontracts A w arded fo r
Sew ers and Sew erage S ystem s, " BLS m im eograph ed re le a s e , N ovem ber 1944
(based on data c o lle c te d at around 1940); "E xpenditures per M illion D olla rs
fo r C onstruction o f New W ater Supply and Sewage D isp osal System s, " BLS
m im eographed r e le a s e , M ay 1951 (based on data fo r 1948-50).
27
The o v e r a ll percentage o f m a teria ls co st in total c o st appears to
have d e cre a se d only slightly over the y e a rs, but there have been significant
shifts in the rela tiv e im portance o f som e m a te ria ls . The use o f lum ber
products has d ecrea sed , probably re fle ctin g the greater use o f steel shoring
and p refa b rica ted fo r m s . The total amount o f "co n c r e te p rod u cts"-h a s
in crea sed , and the amount o f cem ent and aggregates has d e cre a se d , as
re a d y -m ix e d con crete has rep la ced site -m ix e d . C on crete products also
appear to have gained at the expense of b rick , w here p re ca st co n cre te m an
h oles and m anhole section s have rep la ce d b rick m anh oles.
F o r the e a rlie st two studies and the latest, o v e ra ll m an -h ou rs data
are available, suggesting the p o ssib ility o f m easurin g changes in output per
m an-hour ov er the 3 0 -y ea r p eriod . The available data, h ow ever, do not
relate produ ction m an -h ou rs to units o f physical output, such as linear feet
o f pipe laid, but only to d olla rs of con tra ct amount. T hese d olla rs m ay
rep resen t different ph ysical quantities at different tim es owing to co n s tr u c
tion p r ic e changes. T o m ea su re the change in m an-hour requirem ents fo r
equivalent amounts of con stru ction , it is n e c e s s a r y to adjust the d olla rs for
p r ic e changes so that they rep resen t approxim ately equal ph ysical quantities.
Making such an adjustm ent in the case o f sew er con stru ction resu lts in an
indicated in cre a se o f 40 to 50 p ercen t in output per m an-hour over the 30year p e rio d .
A part o f this in cre a s e resu lted fro m the tra n sfer o f certain o p e ra
tions fro m o n -s ite to o ff-s it e loca tion s, as fo r exam ple, the prefa b rica tion
o f fo r m s fo r co n cre te w ork, the p reca stin g of som e co n cre te produ cts, the
prem ixin g of c o n cre te , and even the m anufacture of jointing elem ents on
som e piping. H ow ever, a part of the in cre a se is due to im p roved m ethods,
p a rticu la rly in excavation.
28
S cope and M ethod o f Survey
Sample
T h is study is based on data co v e rin g 138 prim e con tra cts fo r the
con stru ction of sew er fa c ilitie s . Of th ese, 85 w e re con stru cted under the
W ater P ollution C ontrol P rog ra m o f the P ublic Health S erv ice, and 53 under
that part of the A c ce le r a te d P ublic W orks P ro g ra m w hich was adm inistered
by the Com m unity F a c ilitie s A dm inistration. The w ork under the fo rm e r
p rogram was done ch iefly in 1962 and 1963; w ork under the latter program
was accom p lish ed ch iefly in 1963. The sam ples each rep resen ted about 1 in
8 o f the total num ber o f p r o je c ts undertaken by these agen cies during the
re sp e ctiv e p e r io d s . Sample p r o je c ts w ere lo ca te d in 44 States and the D is
tr ic t o f Colum bia.
T o obtain a represen tative sam ple, p r o je c ts w ere se le cte d by type
o f p r o je c t, broad geographical region , amount o f con tra ct, and whether with
in o r outside a m etropolitan a rea . The distribution o f the sam ple p ro je cts
by these c a te g o rie s is shown in table A - l . In tabulating the data, how ever,
w eighting was applied to adjust fo r nonrespondents, and fo r som e d ifferen ces
in p r o je c t c h a r a c te ris tic s d is c lo s e d in the c o u rs e o f the su rvey. U nless
otherw ise stated, all m ea su res presen ted in the re p o rt a re based on weighted
data.
M an-hour E stim ates
E stim ates o f total m an-hour requ irem en ts fo r sew er con stru ction
a re derived by com bining estim a tes o f o n -s ite and o ff-s it e m a n -h ou rs.
O n -site m a n -h o u r s . With m in or exception s, con stru ction under both the F e d e ra l W ater P ollu tion C ontrol P rog ra m and the A c c e le r a te d P ublic W orks
P ro g ra m is subject to p revailin g wage law s. T o ch eck com p lia n ce with these
law s, regulations req u ire that each con tra ctor on such con stru ction file a
cop y o f h is w eek ly p r o je c t p a yroll with the spon sorin g agency. T h ese pay
r o lls are thus a p rim a ry sou rce o f data on con stru ction m an -h ou rs w orked
and w ages paid on a p r o je c t. In the cu rren t study, the p a yroll file s fo r the
sam ple p r o je c ts w ere m ade available fo r data tra n scrip tion through the
coop eration o f the P ublic Health S e r v ic e 's D ivision of W ater Supply and
P ollu tion C ontrol and the Com m unity F a c ilitie s A d m in istra tion 's Public F a c il
itie s D ivision .
Although these p a y rolls w ere the b a sic so u rce o f o n -s ite la bor data,
som e c la s s e s o f o n -site w ork ers are exem pt fro m the legal rep ortin g re q u ire
m en ts. T hese exem ptions include su p ervisory, tech n ical, and c le r ic a l p e r
sonnel, and se lf-e m p lo y e d su b con tractors (w orking p r o p r ie to r s ). M o re o v e r,
the p ro ce ss in g o f the p a y rolls ra is e d frequent questions regardin g data co m
pleten ess and m eaning. T hese m issin g data w ere obtained and questions con
cern in g data m eaning r e so lv e d by telephone o r co rre sp o n d e n ce , o r , m ost
com m only, through v is its by BLS fie ld rep resen ta tiv es, in the c o u rs e o f the
m a te ria ls data c o lle c tio n .
T a b le A - l . . N um ber o f S am ple C o n tr a c ts in S e le c te d C a te g o r ie s
Under
$ 5 0 ,0 0 0
$ 5 0 ,0 0 0 and
under $ 100, 000
T o ta l M e t r o N on m et M e tr o N o n m e t
p olita n rop olita n politan ro p o lita n
area
a re a
a re a
a re a
$ 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 and
u nder $ 3 0 0 ,0 0 0
$ 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 and
under $ 500, 000
M e tr o N o n m e t
politan r o p o lita n
area
area
M e t r o N on m et
p olita n ro p o lita n
a rea
a re a
$ 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 and
under $ 1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0
$ 1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0
and o v e r
M e t r o N on m et
politan rop olita n
a re a
a re a
M e t r o N on m et
p olitan rop olitan
a re a
area
T o t a l ...............
138
11
12
10
15
18
27
8
15
7
4
9
2
L in e s , to ta l. . . .
N o rth e a st •, .
N orth C en tra l
South ...............
W e st ...............
P la n ts, t o t a l . . .
N o rth e a st . . .
N orth C en tra l
S o u t h ...............
W e st ...............
86
19
23
28
16
52
9
16
9
4
4
1
0
2
0
1
1
0
4
1
1
1
1
8
0
4
4
0
8
0
4
2
2
2
1
0
1
0
10
2
1
5
2
5
1
2
0
2
9
5
2
1
1
9
3
2
0
4
19
1
5
7
2
1
3
1
1
0
0
1
0
8
3
3
2
0
7
1
2
3
5
0
1
1
3
2
1
0
0
1
2
1
0
0
1
2
1
0
1
0
5
0
1
2
2
4
1
2
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
1
0
1
17
10
ro
3
8
0
2
5
1
1
30
O ff-s ite m a n -h o u rs . O ff-s ite m an-hour requ irem en ts in con stru ction r e p resen t ch iefly the hours requ ired to produce and distribute the m a te ria ls,
supplies, and equipment used. E stim ation o f these h ou rs th e re fo re began
with a listin g o f the value o f a ll such ite m s. F o r the p resen t study, this
listin g was obtained in one of two w ays. F o r jo b s under $500, 000, a m a il
questionnaire in itially was used. 5 F or la rg e r jo b s , and fo r nonrespondents
on the sm a ller jo b s , data w ere obtained in v isits by BLS fie ld rep resen ta tiv es.
F o r a re la tiv e ly sm all num ber o f su bcon tractors who w ere out of business
o r otherw ise in a c ce s s ib le , uncooperative, o r w hose con tra cts w ere e x c e e d
ingly sm all, estim ates o f both la bor and m a teria ls w ere prep a red on the
ba sis o f rep orts fo r sim ila r jo b s . In all, the study o f the 138 sam ple p r o je c ts
requ ired contact o f (o r estim ates for) 645 prim e and su b con tra ctors.
The m a teria ls listin gs thus obtained w ere c la s s ifie d into ca te g o rie s
(consistent with the 4 -d ig it Standard Industrial C lassification ) as found in
the Census o f M anufactures product groups. F o r each o f these groups, the
average amounts req u ired for $ 1 ,0 0 0 o f sew er fa cilitie s con stru ction w ere
calculated. Each o f these averages was redu ced by a ratio represen tin g the
differen ce between m an u factu rer's and c o n tr a c to r 's valuation. The amounts
thus redu ced w ere consistent with Census data published fo r these variou s
com ponents.
P rim a ry m an -h ou rs fo r m anufacturing sew erage m a teria ls (i. e . ,
the hours req u ired in the final m anufacturing stage) w ere developed by
m ultiplying these average amounts by a ratio o f m anufacturing m an -h ou rs to
$ 1, 000 o f produ ction . T hese ratios w ere com puted fro m the output and
em ploym ent data in the 1962 Survey of M anufactures.
P rim a ry m an -h ou rs for trade and transportation w ere derived in a
sim ila r m anner. H ere, h ow ever, em ploym ent ra tios w ere applied to the
differen ce between p r o d u ce r 's and p u rch a s e r's valuation, which was taken
as the total o f all distribution c o s ts between the sites o f final m anufacture
and con stru ction.
T o com pute secon da ry m an -h ou rs to produ ce the m a teria ls (i. e . ,
hours req u ired in all stages o f production other than final m anufacture and
transportation), the 1958 interindustry study by the O ffice o f B usiness
E con om ics o f the U .S . Departm ent o f C om m erce was used. T his study
5
The questionnaire requested detailed inform ation on type, quant
and cost o f m a teria ls and supplies; equipment d ep recia tion and rental c o s ts ;
and su bcon tractors (nam es, a d d resse s, nature o f w ork and subcontract
am ounts), the su b con tractors, in turn, a lso being sent a cop y of the
que stionnair e .
31
indicates the amount o f secon dary product or s e r v ic e re q u ire d o f each o f its
78 industry s e c to r s to produ ce the p rim a ry product. Summing these amounts
and applying the appropriate em ploym ent ratios produ ced the num ber o f s e c
ondary m an -h ou rs req u ired in each o f the s e c to r s .
Two other m in or com ponents w ere req u ired to com p lete the co m p i
lation o f total o ff-s it e hours as defined fo r this s e r ie s o f stu dies. One o f
these is the hours req u ired to produce the c o n tr a c to r s ’ pu rchases o f o v e r
head m a teria ls and s e r v ic e s . The quantities o f these item s w ere estim ated
and included in the m an-hour con v ersion s ju st d e scrib e d . The other is the
h ou rs w orked by the o ff-s it e em ployees o f the con stru ction industry. The
estim ate fo r these h ou rs is based on the d ifferen ce between the p roportion
o f all nonconstruction w o rk e rs in the con tract con stru ction industry as
re p o rted in the BLS em ploym ent trend s e r ie s , and the prop ortion o f o n -site
n on con struction m an -h ou rs as developed in this study.
* U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1966 O - 219-825
