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Jobs for Which You Probably Will Need A College Education U.S. Departm ent of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics May 1980 UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI CINCINNATI. OHIO )RY No. 465 U.S. Department of Labor Ray Marshall, Secretary Bureau of Labor Statistics Janet L. Norwood, Commissioner May 1980 Material contained in this publication is in the public domain and may be reproduced, fully or partially, without permission of the Federal Government. Source credit is requested but not required. Permission is required only to reproduce any copyrighted material contained herein. Jobs for Which You Probably Will Need A College Education Are you exploring careers that require a college education and perhaps even more advanced training in graduate or professional school? If so, this pamphlet can be o f help to you. Even if you have not chosen a career but are planning to go to college, you can use the information it contains. This pamphlet presents a list of occupations— selected from the 1980-81 O ccupational O u tlo o k H andbook of the Bureau o f Labor Statistics—for which you’ll probably need a college education. It highlights the training requirements for each. Included are the familiar occupations that require at least a bachelor’s degree, such as teacher and engineer, and those that re quire professional training beyond college, such as law yer and physician. There also are occupations you might not have thought about, such as credit manager, securities sales worker, occupational safety and health worker, and technical writer. In addition, this pamphlet includes several occupations for which a college degree is not generally required but for which a degree is becoming more important. Examples are airplane pilot, hotel manager, and wholesale trade sales worker. These summaries cannot provide all the information you need, however. Details on the content o f a degree program are omitted. So too is information on special talents, aptitudes, or interests a job may require. For more information about an occupation, look in the O c cupational O utlook H andbook. It describes the nature o f the work, working conditions, places of employment, job qualifications and advancement prospects, employ ment outlook, and earnings for hundreds of occupa tions. It also lists related occupations and other helpful sources of career information. The H a ndbook is available in offices of school guid ance counselors and employment counselors and in school and public libraries. Or it may be purchased for $8 by check or money order from the nearest regional office o f the Bureau o f Labor Statistics. A list of offices and their addresses appears at the back of this pamphlet. Reprints from the H andbook also are available, each containing information about several related o c cupations. At the end o f this pamphlet is a list of reprints along with an order form that includes infor mation on prices. This pamphlet is one in a series of five prepared by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Each pamphlet dis cusses a group of occupations for which a particular educational or training background is applicable. The other titles in the series are: Jobs fo r Which You Can Train Through Apprenticeship; Jobs fo r Which You Can Qualify I f Y o u ’re N ot a High School Graduate; Jobs fo r Which You Can Qualify I f Y o u ’re a High School Graduate; and Jobs fo r Which You Probably Will Need Som e College or Specialized Training. Office Occupations Computer and Related Occupations Programmers. There are no universal training require ments for programmers because employers’ needs vary. Most programmers are college graduates; others have taken courses in programming to supplement their ex perience. Firms that use computers for scientific or engineering applications usually require programmers to have a bachelor’s degree with a major in the physical scien ces, m athem atics, engineering, or computer science. Some of these jobs require a graduate degree. Although some employers who use computers for busi ness applications do not require a college degree, they prefer applicants who have had courses in data process ing, accounting, and business administration. Systems analysts. Generally, a bachelor’s degree is the minimum educational requirement. For a job with a bank, insurance company, or other business firm, a col lege degree in accounting, business, or economics is ap propriate. For work in a scientific or technical organization, applicants need a degree in the physical sciences, mathematics, or engineering. In addition to the bach elor’s degree in a suitable field, some employers prefer applicants who have related work ex perience. Others require a graduate degree. A growing number of employers seek applicants who have a degree in computer science, information systems, infor mation science, or data processing. Regardless of col lege major, most employers look for people who are familiar with programming languages. In addition, most em ployers prefer applicants who have some ex perience in com puter programming. Banking Occupations Bank officers and managers. M anagem ent trainees generally fill these positions although outstanding bank clerks or tellers may be prom oted to trainee positions and then to m anagem ent jobs. A bachelor’s degree is the m inim um educational requirem ent for m anage ment trainees. A m ajor in banking and finance is useful, but liberal arts graduates who have had courses in accounting, economics, and statistics also are well qualified. Some banks prefer to hire persons who have a graduate degree for trainee positions; the most desirable degree is the M aster of Business A dm inistra tion. Insurance Occupations Actuaries. A bachelor’s degree with a m ajor in m athem atics or statistics provides a good background for a beginning job in a large life or casualty com pany; a degree in actuarial science is even better. Some com panies hire applicants who have an economics or busi ness adm inistration m ajor, if they have a thorough foundation in calculus, probability, and statistics. Other useful courses are insurance, law, economics, and accounting. Completion of the entire series o f ex am inations for full professional status usually takes from 5 to 10 years. Applicants who pass the first two ex am inations while still in college usually have an ad v an tage in competing for actuarial jobs upon graduation. Administrative and Related Occupations A ccountants. Most large firms require applicants to have a bachelor’s degree with a m ajor in accounting. Some prefer applicants who have a m aster’s degree in accounting. Training in accounting also is available in junior and com m unity colleges, business schools, and correspondence schools; however, job opportunities for graduates o f these 1- and 2-year program s usually are limited to small accounting and business firms. A grow ing num ber of em ployers prefer applicants who are fam iliar with com puters. To become a certified public accountant (CPA ), each State requires that an in d iv id u a l pass an ex a m in a tio n p re p a re d by the A m erican Institute of C ertified Public Accountants, and m eet the education and experience requirem ents of the State. O ther designations indicating professional com petence include certified internal auditor (C IA ) and certified m anagem ent accountant (CMA). Claim representatives. A growing num ber of insurance com panies prefer to hire college graduates for positions as claim representatives (exam iners and adjusters). College training is not always necessary, however. P er sons experienced in autom obile repair work might be hired as auto adjusters, and those who have had cleri cal experience might get jobs as inside adjusters. About three-fourths of the States require adjusters to be licensed. State licensing requirem ents vary, but appli cants usually must complete an approved course in in surance or loss adjusting, and pass a written exam ina tion. They should be bonded which requires good character references and should be at least 20 years old. Buyers. M any buyers have worked their way up from stockroom and sales positions. Nevertheless, a college degree is increasingly im portant for buyers, and m ay be required in the future. Generally, employers train gradu ates from any field. M any stores have formal 6- to 8month programs for all management trainees, includ ing buyers. These program s combine classroom instruc tion in m erchandising and purchasing with short ro ta tions to various jobs and departm ents in the store. Underwriters. A bachelor’s degree is the m inimum educational requirem ent for beginning underw riting jobs. Applicants who have a degree in business a d m inistration or liberal arts are preferred, but college training in almost any field is acceptable. Some com panies train high school graduates who have ex perience as underw riting clerks to become u n d er writers. 2 City managers. Although some individuals who have a bachelor’s degree in public administration may find employment as a city manager, a master’s degree in public or business administration is becoming essential. Workers usually begin as a management assistant in a position such as administrative assistant, department head assistant, or assistant city manager and advance to more responsible positions or to a city manager job as they gain experience. College student personnel workers. A bachelor’s degree generally is required for personnel workers; an advanced degree is necessary for higher level positions. Schools often prefer persons who have a bachelor’s degree in social science and a master’s degree in stu dent personnel work. Some personnel occupations may require specialized training. A college counselor, for example, may need a master’s degree in clinical or counseling psychology. A Ph. D. usually is required for top student personnel positions. Credit managers. A bachelor’s degree usually is re quired for beginning jobs in credit management. Employers generally prefer applicants who have ma jored in business administration, economics, or ac counting, although some employers hire liberal arts graduates as well. Experience may substitute for the college degree; some employers accept high school graduates who have had experience in credit collection or in processing credit information. H otel managers and assistants. Although experience and management ability are most important in selecting hotel managers, employers increasingly prefer appli cants who have completed a 4-year college curriculum in hotel and restaurant administration. Formal training in hotel or restaurant management also provides oppor tunities for part-time or summer job experience and contacts with prospective employers. Employers may hire graduates o f the hotel training programs offered by some junior colleges, technical institutes, and the Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Motel Association. Some large hotels have special manage ment trainee programs in which newly hired workers or persons promoted from within rotate among various departments to acquire a thorough knowledge of the hotel’s operation. Lawyers. All States require admission to the bar to practice law. To qualify for the bar examination, appli cants generally must complete 4 years of college followed by 3 years of law school. Four years of study usually are required to complete a night school law cur riculum. Although formal training takes place in law school, careful selection of undergraduate courses is important because there is no “prelaw major.” Students should choose courses that develop and expand their reading, writing, verbal, and analytical skills. College majors in the social sciences, natural sciences, or humanities are particularly suitable. Competition for admission to law school is intense. As is true for other professional schools, law schools vary widely in quality and reputation. Graduates will find their standing in the graduating class and the stature of the school they attended important to prospective employers. M arketing research workers. Although a bachelor’s degree usually is sufficient for trainees, graduate education is necessary for many specialized market research positions. E xperience in other types of research can qualify workers; teachers of marketing or statistics, for example, may be hired to head a marketing research department. Graduate study usually is re quired for advancement, and a sizable number of market researchers hold a master’s degree in business administration. Personnel and labor relations workers. A bachelor’s degree is the minimum educational background for a beginning job in personnel work—a field that includes occupations such as recruiter, interviewer, job analyst, position classifier, wage administrator, training specialist, and employee counselor. Some employers look for college graduates who have majored in personnel administration, public administration, business, or economics, while others prefer applicants who have a liberal arts background. Graduate study in industrial relations, economics, business, or law usually is re quired for a labor relations job. The combination of a law degree plus a master’s in industrial relations is in creasingly desirable for people seeking to enter this small and highly competitive field. Some workers gain experience in personnel work and then switch to labor relations. Purchasing agents. A college degree is required for a beginning position with a large company. Many com panies hire business administration or liberal arts ma jors as trainees, but firms that manufacture machinery or chemicals generally prefer science or engineering majors. Large companies increasingly look for appli cants who have a master’s degree in business ad ministration or management. Some small firms select purchasing agents from their own staff and do not re quire a college degree. Continuing education is essen tial for career advancement. Purchasing agents are en couraged to participate in professional seminars and to take college and university courses in purchasing. Urban and regional planners. The master’s degree in planning is the usual requirement for entry level jobs. A quired. Other Federal inspectors must pass an ex am ination based on specialized knowledge, in addition to having work experience in a related field. Q ualifica tions for inspectors at the State and local level usually are sim ilar to those for F ederal employees. All inspec tors com plete classroom and on-the-job training. Occupational safety and health workers. Entry level occupational safety and health professionals generally need at least a bachelor’s degree in engineering or science. Many em ployers prefer applicants who have a g raduate degree in industrial hygiene, safety engineer ing, or occupational safety and health, or prior in dustrial experience. Some em ployers will hire g ra d u ates of 2-year colleges for jobs as technicians, p a r ticularly if they have work experience related to the job. Education and Related Occupations Teaching Occupations K indergarten and elem entary school teachers. All States require teachers in public elementary schools and some States also require elem entary teachers in private and parochial schools to be certified. An individual must have a bachelor’s degree from an institution with a State-approved teacher education program , studentteaching, and basic education courses for certification. In 1978, 23 States required teachers to have a graduate degree and 30 States required continuing education. Some States require U.S. citizenship, some an oath of allegiance, and several a health certificate. Local school systems sometimes have additional req u ire ments. bachelor’s degree in city planning, architecture, la n d scape architecture, engineering, or other closely related field is acceptable for some beginning jobs. A m aster’s degree is essential for advancement in most jobs. Service Occupations Secondary school teachers. All States require public secondary school teachers to be certified, and some States also require secondary teachers in private and parochial schools to be certified. An individual m ust have a bachelor’s degree from an institution with a State-approved teacher education program , studentteaching, and basic education courses to be certified. In 1978, 23 States required teachers to have a graduate degree and 30 States required continuing education. Some States dem and U.S. citizenship, some an oath of allegiance, and several a health certificate. Local school systems sometimes have additional req u ire ments. Protective and Related Service Occupations FBI special agents. An applicant usually must graduate from a State-accredited law school or have a m ajor in accounting. As the need arises, the FBI occasionally recruits college graduates who have a physical science m ajor, fluency in a foreign language, or 3 years of professional investigative experience. Applicants must be a U.S. citizen between 23 and 35 years of age. They must meet rigid physical requirem ents and pass an ap titude test. H ealth a n d reg u la to ry in sp ecto rs (g o vern m en t). Because inspectors perform a wide range of duties, qualifications for em ploym ent vary. The F ederal Governm ent requires a passing score on the Profes sional and A d m in istrativ e C a re e r E x am in atio n (PACE) for m any occupations, including im migration, customs, occupational safety, and health and consum er safety inspectors. To take the exam ination, a bachelor’s degree or 3 years of responsible work experience is re College and university faculty. Community and junior colleges and some 4-year colleges require beginning in structors to have a m aster’s degree. Some colleges and universities require a doctoral degree for entry level appointm ents and for tenure, which is increasingly difficult to attain. A dvancem ent to assistant professor, to associate professor, and then to professor requires 4 4 additional teaching experience. Publications that evi dence expertise in one’s discipline are also helpful. Library Occupations Librarians. A master’s degree in library science generally is required to enter the occupation. A Ph. D. degree is an asset for individuals who plan a teaching career or who aspire to a top administrative post, par ticularly in a college or university library, or in a large library system. Information scientists and special librarians generally need a master’s degree or doctor ate in the subject area of the specialized library. Most States require public school librarians to be certified both as teachers and as librarians. Some States require certification of public librarians; the specific education and experience necessary vary. Sales Occupations Insurance agents and brokers. Many employers prefer college graduates when hiring new insurance sales workers. Degrees in almost any field are acceptable, but a p p lica n ts who h ave stu d ied a cco u n tin g , economics, finance, business law, or insurance are preferred. Because success in selling greatly depends on personal qualities such as aggressiveness and selfconfidence, employers look for these traits. Some employers hire individuals who have experience and these characteristics, whether or not they have attended college. Newly hired workers usually receive some for mal training. Trainees may attend company-sponsored classes or courses at local colleges and universities. Home study (correspondence) courses also are avail able. All agents and most brokers must be licensed in the State where they sell insurance. Most States require candidates for a license to pass a written examination. M anufacturers’ sales workers. Employers generally prefer to hire college graduates for these positions. A bachelor’s degree in liberal arts or in business ad ministration is good preparation for selling nontechni cal products. Industrial manufacturers look for appli cants who have degrees in science or engineering, and pharmaceutical companies usually prefer persons who have studied pharmacy. Newly hired sales workers may receive specialized training before they start on the job. Some companies, especially those that manufacture complex technical products, have formal training programs that last 2 years or longer. Other firms offer classroom instruction followed by additional training under the supervision of field managers. Securities sales workers. Employers generally prefer to hire college graduates and consider a degree in busi ness administration, economics, finance, or liberal arts good preparation for the job. Successful sales or managerial experience is particularly helpful. Almost all States require securities sales workers to be licensed and bonded and to pass a written test. In addition, practically all sales workers must be a registered repre sentative of their firm according to the regulations of the securities exchanges through which they do busi ness, or the National Association of Securities Dealers. Examinations and character investigations are re quired for registration. Most employers provide train ing to help newly hired sales workers meet the require ments for registration. Wholesale trade sales workers. Employers generally require applicants to be high school graduates, although college training is increasingly important. The background a sales worker needs depends mainly upon the product line and the market. Selling certain prod ucts, such as pharmaceuticals, may require a back ground in chemistry, biology, or pharmacy, for exam ple. High school graduates may begin in a non-selling job and work their way up or may be hired as a sales trainee. Usually it takes 2 years or longer to prepare trainees for sales positions. College graduates enter the sales force directly out of school. Occupations in Transportation Activities Air Transportation Occupations A irplane pilots. Pilots who are paid to transport passengers or cargo must have at least a commercial pilot’s license from the Federal Aviation Administra tion (FAA). To obtain a license, applicants must be at least 18, have at least 250 hours of flight experience, and pass a strict physical examination. Applicants also must pass a written test and demonstrate their flying ability to FAA examiners. For bad weather, pilots also must be licensed to fly by instruments which requires 40 hours of experience using instruments, passing a writ ten test, and demonstrating their ability to FAA ex aminers. New pilots, usually hired as flight engineers, already have fulfilled the added requirements. Airline captains must have a transport pilot’s license requiring even more flight experience. Flying can be learned in military or civilian flying schools, but the airlines and many businesses prefer pilots trained in the Armed Forces. Airline pilots must be high school graduates; however, most airlines require 2 years of college and prefer college graduates. Merchant Marine Occupations M erchant marine officers. Candidates must either ac quire at least 3 years of appropriate sea experience or graduate from the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy, from one of six State merchant marine academies, or from a trade union training program. Candidates also must pass a Coast Guard examination to obtain a license. Usually, applicants who have sea experience but are not graduates of academ ies must obtain train ing to pass the exam ination. Scientific and Technical Occupations Conservation Occupations Foresters. A bachelor’s degree with a m ajor in forestry generally is required to become a forester. Because of the large supply of forestry graduates, however, many em ployers prefer applicants who have an advanced degree. Teaching and research generally require the advanced degree. Range managers. A bachelor’s degree with a m ajor in range m anagem ent, range science, or a closely related field usually is required for em ploym ent as a range m anager. M any college students obtain valuable ex perience through sum m er jobs with Federal G overn m ent agencies, such as the Forest Service or B ureau of Land M anagem ent. A graduate degree in range m anagem ent generally is required for teaching and research positions, and is helpful for advancem ent in other jobs. Soil conservationists. Because few colleges and univer sities offer a degree in soil conservation, most soil con servationists have a degree in agronomy, agriculture, or a closely related field of natural resource science, such as wildlife biology, forestry, or range management. A background in agricultural engineering and courses in cartography are very useful. Engineers Engineers. Most entry positions in engineering require a bachelor’s degree. College graduates who have m a jored in m athem atics or one of the natural sciences may qualify for some beginning jobs. Occasionally, ex perienced technicians advance to engineering jobs. However, graduate training in engineering, which is em phasized for a num ber of jobs, is essential for teach ing and research and for advancem ent in m any areas. In all States, engineers must be registered if they offer their services directly to the public, or if their work affects life, health, or property. The m ajority of engineers are not registered. R egistration requirem ents include a degree from an accredited engineering school, 4 years of relevant work experience, and pass ing a State exam ination. Geophysicists. A bachelor’s degree in geophysics or a geophysical specialty, or in a related field of science or en gineering with courses in geophysics, physics, geology, m athem atics, chemistry, and engineering generally is the minim um requirem ent for these posi tions. G rad u ate training usually is necessary for jobs in research and college and university teaching, and for supervisory positions in exploration activities. M eteorologists. G enerally, the minimum requirem ent is a bachelor’s degree in meteorology, or in a related science or engineering with courses in m eteorology. An advanced degree is necessary for some positions, p a r ticularly in research and in college and university teaching. Oceanographers. An advanced degree, preferably a Ph. D. degree in oceanography, one of the natural sciences, or engineering generally is required to become an oceanographer. A bachelor’s degree is suffi cient for a beginning job as a research or laboratory assistant. Environmental Scientists Geologists. A bachelor’s degree in geology or a related field is appropriate training for many entry jobs. An a d vanced degree is helpful for promotion in most types of work and is required for college teaching and some research positions. Life Science Occupations Biochemists. M any beginning jobs in biochem istry, especially in research and teaching, require an a d vanced degree. A Ph. D. degree usually is necessary for high-level biochem ical research and for advancem ent to managerial and administrative jobs. A bachelor’s degree with a major in biochemistry or chemistry, or with a major in biology and a minor in chemistry, may be sufficient for an entry job as a research assistant or technician. degree in physics or in mathematics with a physics minor usually can qualify for graduate programs in astronomy. Chemists. A bachelor’s degree in chemistry usually is the minimum requirement for entry positions in analysis and testing, quality control, technical service and sales, or jobs as assistants to senior chemists in research and development laboratories. Graduate training is essential for many positions, and is helpful for advancement in all types of work. A Ph. D. degree generally is required for teaching in colleges and universities and for advancement to many administra tive positions. L ife scientists. This group includes scientists such as botanists, zoologists, microbiologists, and agronomists. Although a bachelor’s degree is adequate for some jobs in these fields, most positions require graduate training. A Ph. D. degree usually is required to teach in a col lege or university, or to obtain a senior research or ad ministrative position. A professional health degree, such as an M.D. or D .D .S., is necessary for some jobs in medical research. Physicists. A bachelor’s degree is adequate for some entry level jobs, but graduate training in physics or a re lated science is needed for advancement. A doctorate usually is required for teaching positions in colleges and universities, and for senior research and ad ministrative positions. Soil scientists. A bachelor’s degree in soil science, agronomy, or a closely related field usually is required. Some employers also require applicants to have had courses in chemistry and cartography. Soil scientists who have training in both field work and laboratory work may have the edge in obtaining the best jobs. An advanced degree, especially a doctorate, may be neces sary for high-level research jobs. A few States require certification of soil scientists who inspect soil conditions before construction starts. To be certified, applicants must have a bachelor’s degree and 3 years’ experience as a soil scientist or a master’s degree and 2 years’ ex perience. Applicants must pass a written examination. Other Scientific and Technical Occupations Food technologists. A bachelor’s degree with a major in food technology or in one of the physical or life sciences, such as chemistry or biology, is the usual minimum requirement for entry jobs. An advanced degree is necessary for many jobs, particularly research and college teaching and for some management level jobs in industry. Mathematics Occupations M athem aticians. Although a bachelor’s degree in mathematics is adequate for some jobs in private indus try and government, employers usually require an ad vanced degree. A Ph. D. degree generally is required to teach in a college or university. In applied m athem atics, training in the field in which the mathematics will be used is important. Health Occupations Dental Occupations Dentists. All States require dentists to have a license. To be licensed, candidates must graduate from a den tal school approved by the American Dental Associa tion and pass a State board examination. Most States’ licenses permit dentists to engage in both general and sp ecialized practice. H ow ever, 14 States require specialists to have 2 or 3 years of graduate education and in some cases, pass a State examination on the specialty. Dental school training generally lasts 4 academic years, although some institutions condense this training into 3 calendar years. Applicants to dental school must have 2 to 4 years of college education, in cluding courses in the sciences and humanities. In 1978, about 4 out o f 5 students in dental school had a bachelor’s or master’s degree. Statisticians. A statistician generally must have a bachelor’s degree in statistics or mathematics. For some jobs, however, a bachelor’s degree in economics or another applied field and a minor in statistics is preferable. An advanced degree is required for some positions, particularly college teaching. Courses in computer programming, systems analysis, and other computer-related subjects are highly recommended. Physical Scientists A stronom ers. The usual requirement for a job in astronomy is a Ph. D. degree. Persons who have less education may qualify for some jobs; however, highlevel positions in teaching and research as well as ad vancement in most areas are open only to those who have a doctorate. In addition to students with a bachelor’s degree in astronomy, those with a bachelor’s Medical Practitioners Chiropractors. All States require chiropractors to meet certain educational requirements and to pass a State board examination for a license. Although the type of chiropractic procedures permitted and education re 7 quired vary, most States require graduation from a 4year chiropractic course following 2 years of under graduate college work. Optometrists. All States require optometrists to be licensed. Applicants for a license must have a Doctor of Optometry degree from an accredited school of op tometry and pass a State board examination. The D oc tor of Optometry degree requires a minimum of 6 years of education after high school, consisting of 4 years of optometry school preceded by at least 2 years of under graduate college study. Physicians and osteopathic physicians. All States re quire a license for the practice of medicine. Applicants for a license must graduate from an approved medical school or school of osteopathy, pass a State board ex amination, and, in almost all cases, serve a 1- or 2-year hospital residency. Most students who enter medical school or a school of osteopathy have earned a bachelor’s degree, although many schools accept stu dents who have had just 3 years of college. No one col lege major is best. A major in one of the sciences, or a major in the humanities with extra course work in the sciences, is good preparation. Most medical schools and schools of osteopathy have a 4-year curriculum. Persons who wish to specialize must complete “ad vanced residency training” usually followed by 2 or more years of practice in the specialty before they may take the specialty board examinations. Podiatrists. All States require a license for the practice of podiatry. Applicants for a license must graduate from an accredited 4-year program in a college of podiatric medicine and pass a State board exam ina tion. Four States also require a 1-year residency. At least 3 years of college are required for admission to a college of podiatric medicine. Most successful appli cants to schools of podiatry in 1978 had a bachelor’s degree. No one college major is required. Veterinarians. All States require a license to practice veterinary medicine. To be licensed, a candidate must earn the Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (D .V .M .) degree and pass a State board examination. Four years of study in a college of veterinary medicine preceded by at least 2 years of undergraduate education in the physical and biological sciences are required to earn the D.V.M . degree. Most students, however, have com pleted 3 to 4 years of college. Medical Technologist, Technician, and Assistant Occupations M edical laboratory workers. Medical laboratory assis tants usually are trained on the job. In recent years, however, an increasing number have completed 1-year training programs at a hospital, junior college, or voca tional school. Many of these schools also offer a 2-year training program for technicians. Some workers are trained in the Armed Forces. Most technologists have completed 4 years o f college, including 12 months in medical technology. Nursing Occupations Registered nurses. All States require professional nurses to be licensed. Applicants for a license must graduate from a school approved by the State board of nursing and pass the State board examination. All nursing schools require a high school diploma for entry. Programs vary in length from 2 to 5 years. Nurses who complete 2-year courses earn associate degrees; those who complete 3-year courses earn diplomas; and those who graduate from 4- or 5-year courses receive bachelor’s degrees. A master’s degree is preferred for research, consultation, teaching, administration, and clinical specialization. Therapy and Rehabilitation Occupations Occupational therapists. A bachelor’s degree in oc cupational therapy generally is required to enter this profession. Some schools, however, offer programs leading to a certificate or a master’s degree in occupa tional therapy for students who have a bachelor’s degree in another field. P hysical therapists. A ll States require physical therapists to be licensed. Applicants for a license must have a bachelor’s degree in physical therapy and pass a State board exam ination. Persons who have a bachelor’s degree in another field may enter certificate programs and master’s degree programs. A graduate degree combined with clinical experience increases ad vancem ent opportunities, esp ecially in teaching, research, and administration. Speech pathologists and audiologists. Many States and Federal programs require applicants for beginning jobs to have a master’s degree. In addition, a teacher’s cer tificate often is required for work in public schools and some States insist that workers who deal with handi capped children have special training. Thirty States re quire that those offering speech pathology and audiology services outside o f schools be licensed. Other Health Occupations Dietitians. A bachelor’s degree, preferably with a home economics major in foods and nutrition or institution management, is the basic educational requirement. To qualify for professional recognition, the American Dietetic Association recommends completion of a 6- to 12-month approved dietetic internship or a 1- to 2-year approved individual traineeship program after gradua tion. offer advanced professional degree program s leading to a Doctor of P harm acy (Pharm .D .) degree. The Pharm .D ., a m aster’s degree, or Ph. D. degree in p h a r macy is required for certain research, adm inistrative, or teaching positions. Social Scientists Anthropologists. A Ph. D. degree in anthropology is necessary for a perm anent position in colleges and universities an d for m any n o n ac ad em ic jobs. A m aster’s degree is sufficient for a teaching job in com munity and junior colleges and some 4-year colleges and for some beginning jobs in business and govern ment, but advancem ent generally is limited. Economists. A bachelor’s degree in economics is suffi cient preparation for m any beginning jobs in govern ment and industry. A m aster’s degree is sufficient for a teaching position in com m unity and junior colleges and some 4-year colleges and may be required for m ore responsible nonacadem ic positions. A Ph. D. degree is required for a perm anent position in colleges and universities and is an asset for advancem ent in all areas. Health services adm inistrators. A bachelor’s degree often is the m inim um requirem ent but a m aster’s degree in hospital or health adm inistration or in public health som etimes is required. The P h .D . degree generally is required for teaching and research and for adm inistrative jobs in large, prestigious organizations. M edical record adm inistrators. Colleges and univer sities offer 4-year program s leading to a bachelor’s degree in m edical record adm inistration. Some persons transfer into these program s from a junior college. Oneyear certificate program s are available for persons who already have a bachelor’s degree and the required courses in the liberal arts and biological sciences. Pharmacists. All States require pharm acists to be licensed. To obtain a license, one must graduate from an accredited pharm acy college, pass a State board ex am ination, and usually have a specified am ount of practical experience or period of internship under the supervision of a licensed pharm acist. For entry to a col lege of pharm acy, at least 1 or 2 years of prepharm acy education in an accredited junior college, college, or university usually are required. At least 5 years of study beyond high school are required to graduate from a college of pharm acy. Most graduates receive a Bachelor of Science (B.S.) or Bachelor of Pharm acy (B .Pharm .) degree. M any colleges of pharm acy also Geographers. A bachelor’s degree in geography is the minimum requirem ent for beginning jobs in govern ment and industry. A m aster’s degree, which is suffi cient for a teaching job in com m unity and junior col leges and some 4-year colleges, m ay be required for advancem ent in nonacadem ic areas. A Ph. D. degree is necessary for a perm anent position in colleges and universities, and for some senior-level research, planning, and administrative positions. Historians. G raduate education usually is necessary for employment as a historian. Although a m aster’s degree is sufficient for a teaching job in com m unity and junior colleges and some 4-year colleges and for some nonacadem ic positions, advancem ent may be lim ited for persons who do not have a Ph. D. degree. A Ph. D. is required for a perm anent position in colleges and universities and for m any research and adm inistrative jobs. Political scientists. G ra d u ate training generally is r e quired for em ploym ent as a political scientist. A Ph. D. degree is necessary for a perm anent position in colleges and universities and for some nonacadem ic jobs. A m aster’s degree is sufficient for a teaching job in com munity and junior colleges and some 4-year colleges and for various adm inistrative and research jobs in government, industry, consulting firms, and nonprofit research or civic organizations. P sychologists. A d o c to ra l degree in psychology generally is the m inim um requirem ent for employment as a psychologist. It is needed for many beginning posi tions and is increasingly im portant for advancem ent, particularly in colleges and universities. The Ph. D. degree culm inates in a dissertation, whereas the Psy. D. (Doctor of Psychology) is based on practical work and exam inations. M aster’s degree holders may teach in com m unity and ju nior colleges and some 4-year col leges, work as school psychologists or counselors, or serve as psychological assistants. Bachelor’s degree holders may assist psychologists in a variety of settings. All Stales and the D istrict of Columbia have certifica tion or licensing requirem ents for psychologists who want to enter independent practice. The requirem ents generally include a doctorate in psychology, 2 years of professional experience, and successful completion of a written exam ination. Some States certify m aster’s degree holders as psychological assistants or associates. Sociologists. A m aster’s degree in sociology generally is the minim um requirem ent for employment as a sociologist. A lthough a m aster’s degree is sufficient for a teaching job in com m unity and junior colleges and some 4-year colleges and for some nonacadem ic posi tions, advancem ent opportunities may be limited. A Ph. D. degree is necessary for a perm anent position in colleges and universities and commonly is needed for jobs as directors of m ajor research projects, adm inistra tors, or consultants. com m unity, and State em ploym ent service agencies, m any employers prefer a m aster’s degree in counseling. Some others require only a high school diplom a and some counseling-related experience. College students should enroll in courses in psychology and sociology. The m aster’s degree requires from 1 to 2 years of study including supervised counseling experience. After beginning work, counselors usually continue training at area colleges and universities or at in-service program s scheduled by counseling agencies. Social Service Occupations Counseling Occupations School counselors. Most States require school coun selors to have both counseling and teaching certificates, although an increasing num ber of States no longer re quire teaching certification. To obtain a teaching cer tificate, an individual m ust have a bachelor’s degree from an institution with a State-approved teacher education program , including basic education courses and student teaching. D epending on the State, g rad u ate work and from 1- to 5-years of teaching experience usually are required for a counseling certificate. Most un d ergraduate students interested in becoming school counselors take the regular program of teacher ed u ca tio n w ith a d d itio n a l courses in psychology and sociology. In States that do not require teaching ex perience, students can m ajor in any field. A few States substitute a counseling internship for teaching ex perience. One to two years of study are necessary to earn a m aster’s degree in counseling. Rehabilitation counselors. A bachelor’s degree with courses in counseling, psychology, and related fields is the m inimum requirem ent. However, employers prefer persons who have a m aster’s degree in rehabilitation counseling, vocational counseling, or a related area. R ehabilitation counselors in m any States must be hired according to State civil service and m erit system rules. These regulations usually require applicants to pass a com petitive exam ination, som etim es supplem ented by an interview, and evaluation by a board of exam iners. In addition, some private organizations require co u n selors to pass an exam ination given by the Commission on R ehabilitation C ounselor Certification. E m p lo ym en t counselors. Although minimum entrance requirem ents currently are not uniform among private, College career planning and placem ent counselors. A m aster’s degree in counseling, college student person- 10 A nel work, or a behavioral science is preferred. Work ex perience in business, industry, government, or educa tional organizations before entry is helpful. a bachelor’s degree in architecture plus 3 years of ex perience in an architect’s office, and must pass a writ ten examination. Those who have master’s degrees need only 2 years of experience. In most States, an architect may substitute 12 years of practical ex perience for the bachelor’s degree. Many graduates of schools of architecture work in the field without a license. However, a registered architect is required to take legal responsibility for all work. Clergy Protestant ministers. Educational requirements vary greatly among denominations. Some have little or no requirements while others may require 3 years of professional study in an accredited school or seminary after college graduation. Industrial designers. Completion of an industrial design curriculum in an art school, an art department of a university, or a technical college is the usual way to enter this field. Persons majoring in engineering, architecture, or fine arts may qualify as industrial designers if their backgrounds match the type of work being done by their employers. Most large manufactur ing firms hire only industrial designers who have a bachelor’s degree in the field. Rabbis. Completion of a 3- to 5-year prescribed course of study in a seminary usually is required for or dination, although entrance requirements and the cur riculum depend upon the branch of Judaism. Conser vative and Reform seminaries require a bachelor’s degree for entry, but most Orthodox seminaries have no formal requirements. R om an C atholic priests. Preparation normally requires 8 years of study after high school. Generally, 4 years of training in a college or college seminary are required. After graduation, individuals complete 4 years of study in a theological seminary. Interior Designers. A 3-year course in a professional school of interior design or a 4-year college or univer sity program in interior design and decoration is in creasingly necessary to enter the field. In most cases, 1 to 5 years of on-the-job training are necessary for ad vancement to designer. Other Social Service Occupations Cooperative extension service workers. These workers must have at least a bachelor’s degree in the field in which they will conduct their educational program. Although one can specialize in a variety of areas, the most common are agriculture, home economics, youth activities, and community resource development. In addition, training in educational techniques and in a communications field, such as journalism, is helpful. Often workers receive instruction in pre-induction training programs and can improve their skills through regular in-service training programs. Landscape Architects. A bachelor’s degree in land scape architecture through a 4- to 5-year program of study is the usual requirement for employment. To qualify for a license for independent practice, which more than half of all States require, applicants must have a degree in landscape architecture from an ac credited school, 2 to 4 years’ experience, and the ability to pass an examination. Experience sometimes may substitute for the degree. Communications Occupations Social workers. A bachelor’s degree in social work generally is the minimum educational requirement for beginning jobs in the field. However, many positions, particularly supervisory, research, or administrative jobs, require a master’s degree in social work. A doc torate often is preferred for teaching positions. In 1978, 22 States had licensing or registration laws for social work practice and for the use of professional social work titles. Usually, work experience, successful com pletion of an examination, or both are required. Newspaper reporters. Most newspapers consider only applicants who have a bachelor’s degree. They prefer a journalism major or another major combined with jour nalism. Graduate work is increasingly important. Rural, small-town, and suburban papers may have jobs for talented writers without a college degree, but col lege graduates seeking experience fill even these jobs. Intern experience or part-time work on a newspaper while in school helps immeasurably in job placement after graduation. Public relations workers. A bachelor’s degree in jour nalism, communications, or public relations usually is preferred for beginning jobs. Some em ployers, however, seek college graduates who have a degree in a scientific or technical field, plus communications skills. Many employers prefer to hire applicants who have media or journalism experience. Performing Arts, Design, and Communications Occupations Design Occupations Architects. All States require architects to be licensed (registered). To obtain a license, applicants must have 11 Ordering Occupational Outlook Handbook Reprints There are 42 reprints from the Occupational O ut look H andbook, 1980-81 Edition, available for order. Each reprint contains a group of related occupational and in d u stria l statem en ts. For ex am p le, re p rin t 2075 -3 5 , C om m u n icatio n s O ccu p atio n s, in clu d es statements on broadcast technicians, newspaper report ers, photographers, public relations workers, radio and television announcers, the radio and television b ro a d casting industry, and technical writers. A list of all reprints follows. A flyer that cross-references all O c cupational O utlook H andbook occupations and indus tries to the reprints in which they appear may be ob tained by using the reprint order form on the back page of this leaflet. Occupational Outlook Reprints, 1980-81 Edition Bulletin No. 2075-1 2075-2 2075-3 2075-4 2075-5 2075-6 Radio and television announcers. This highly com peti tive profession is difficult to enter. Form al training in broadcasting in a college or technical school and ex perience working for a cam pus or local station are valuable. However, station officials pay particular a t tention to taped auditions. A F ederal Communications Commission radiotelephone operator license often is helpful, since the added skill enables announcers to handle many broadcasting duties. Such versatility is particularly important in small stations, where announc ers generally get their first jobs. Larger stations often re quire several years’ experience. 2075-7 2075-8 2075-9 2075-10 2075-11 2075-12 2075-13 2075-14 2075-15 Technical writers. Although any person who can write effectively about a technical subject may be hired as a technical w riter, m any em ployers prefer applicants who have a college degree in science or engineering plus a minor in English, journalism , or technical com m unica tion. O ther em ployers em phasize writing ability and seek candidates who have degrees in technical com m unication, English, journalism , or the liberal arts. Often technical writers have worked as research or editorial assistants, technicians, scientists, or engineers before seeking technical writing jobs. Some employers, however, hire inexperienced college graduates. A portfolio of writing sam ples is invaluable when apply ing for a job. Knowledge of graphics and other aspects of publication also may help. 2075-16 2075-17 2075-18 2075-19 2075-20 2075-21 2075-22 2075-23 2075-24 12 Title Tom orrow ’s Jobs M etalworking Occupations Printing and Publishing Occupations Factory Production O ccupations C lerical Occupations Office M achine and C om puter O c cupations Banking and Insurance Occupations Business Occupations Service Occupations Food M erchandising Occupations Protective and R elated Service Oc cupations Education and R elated O ccupations Sales O ccupations Construction O ccupations — Struc tural Construction Occupations — Finish ing Air and W ater Transportation Oc cupations R ailroad Occupations Driving O ccupations Environm ental Scientists and C on servation O ccupations Engineering and R elated O ccupa tions Physical and Life Scientists M athem atics and R elated O ccupa tions Public Utilities O ccupations M o to r V e h ic le a n d M a c h in e ry R epairers A 2075-25 2075-26 2075-27 2075-28 2075-29 2075-30 2075-31 2075-32 2075-33 2075-34 2075-35 2075-36 2075-37 2075-38 2075-39 2075-40 2075-41 2075-42 Machine Repairers and Operators Small Business Occupations Health Practitioners Health Occupations D e n ta l a u x ilia r ie s , n u r sin g , therapy and rehabilitation, health services administration Health Occupations Medical technologists, technicians, and assistants, dispensing opti cians, ophthalmic laboratory tech nicians, medical record personnel Lawyers, City Managers, and Social Science Occupations Counseling and Related Occupations Social Service Occupations Performing Arts and EntertainmentRelated Occupations Design Occupations Communications Occupations Agriculture and Logging and Lum ber Mill Products Industries Energy-Producing Industries P etroleu m R efin in g , In d u strial Chemical, Drug, and Paper and Allied Products Industries Alum inum , Iron and Steel, and Foundry Industries Aircraft, Missile, and Spacecraft, Office Machine and Computer, Electronics, and Motor Vehicle and Equipment Manufacturing In dustries Apparel, Baking, Laundry and Dry Cleaning, and Textile Mill Prod ucts Industries Government Occupations College and university facu lty .................................... 12 College career planning and placement counselors..................................................................... 31 College student personnel w orkers............................ 31 Cooperative extension service workers..................... 36 Credit m anagers................................................................ 8 Dentists............................................................................... 27 D ietitians........................................................................... 32 Econom ists... ................................................................ 30 Elementary school te a ch ers......................................... 12 Employment counselors................................................. 31 Engineers........................................................................... 20 FBI special a g en ts.......................................................... 11 Food technologists.......................................................... 21 Foresters................................................................ 19 or 36 Geographers..................................................................... 30 Geologists........................................................................... 19 Geophysicists..................................................................... 19 Health and regulatory inspectors............................... 11 Health services administrators.................................... 28 Historians........................................................................... 30 Hotel managers and assistants....................................... 9 Industrial d esigners............... ........................................ 34 Insurance agents and b rok ers............................ 7 or 13 Interior designers............................................................ 34 Kindergarten teach ers.................................................... 12 Landscape architects...................................................... 34 Lawyers..................................................................... 8 or 30 Librarians......................................................................... 12 Life scientists..................................................................... 21 Manufacturers’ sales workers...................................... 13 Marketing research workers........................................... 8 Mathematicians................................................................ 22 Medical laboratory w orkers......................................... 29 Medical record administrators.................................... 29 Merchant marine o ffic ers............................................. 16 Meteorologists................................................................... 19 Newspaper reporters............................................. 3 or 35 Occupational therapists................................................. 28 Occupational safety and health w ork ers................. 11 O ceanographers.............................................................. 19 Optometrists....................................................................... 27 Osteopathic physicians............................................... . 27 Personnel and labor relations workers........................ 8 27 Pharmacists.............................................................. .. Physical therapists.......................................................... 28 P hysicians......................................................................... 27 Physicists........................................................................... 21 Podiatrists......................................................................... 27 Political scientists............................................................ 30 Programmers............................................................ 6 or 22 Protestant m inisters........................................................ 31 Psychologists.......................................................... 30 or 31 Public relations w orkers...................................... 8 or 35 Purchasing agents.............................................................. 8 R a b b is............................................................................... 31 The following is an alphabetical listing of the occupa tions included in this leaflet. Occupations are crossreferenced to the H andbook reprint in which they ap pear. A ccou n tan ts............................................................ 8 or 22 Actuaries.................................................................. 7 or 22 Airplane p ilo t s ................................................................ 16 Anthropologists................................................................ 30 Architects........................................................................... 34 Astronomers....................................................................... 21 Bank officers and managers...........................................7 B iochem ists................................ ...................................... 21 Buyers................................................................................. 13 Chemists............................................................................. 21 Chiropractors.................................................................... 27 City managers.................................................................. 30 Claim representatives........................................................7 13 Radio and television announcers................... 33 or Range m a n agers................................................. 19 or Registered nurses........................................................... Rehabilitation counselors............................................ Roman Catholic priests................................................. School counselors........................................................... Secondary school tea ch ers.......................................... Securities sales workers.......................................... .. Social workers.................................................................. S ocio lo g ists...................................................................... 35 36 28 31 31 31 12 13 32 30 Soil conservationists........................................... 19 or Soil scientists.................................................................... Speech pathologists and audiologists....................... Statisticians...................................................................... Systems analysts..................................................... 6 or Technical w riters................................................... 3 or Underwriters...................................................................... Urban and regional planners...................................... Veterinarians.................................................................... Wholesale trade sales workers.................................... 14 36 21 28 22 22 35 7 34 27 13 U.S. Departm ent of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics W ashington, D.C. 20212 Postage and Fees Paid U.S. Department of Labor Third Class Mail Official Business Penalty for private use, $300 Lab-441
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