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U N IT E D S T A T E S D E P A R T M E N T O F L A B O R Frances Perkins, Secretary B U R E A U O F L A B O R ST A T IST IC S Isador L ubin, Commissioner (on leave) A . F . H inrichs, A cting Commissioner + Intercity Variations in W age Levels Prepared by the D IV IS IO N O F W A G E A N A L Y S IS R O B E R T J. M YE R S, C hief Bulletin T^o. 793 [Reprinted from the M onthly L abor R eview, August 1944] U N IT E D ST A T E S G O V E R N M E N T P R IN T IN G OFFICE W A SH IN G T O N : 1944 For sale by the Superintendent o f Docum ents, U . S. G overnm ent Printing Office W ashington 25, D . C. ' Price 5 cents Letter o f Transmittal U nited States D epartment of L abor, B ureau of L abor Statistics, W ashington , D . C., August 2 4 , 1944* The Secretary of L abor : I have the honor to transm it herewith a report on intercity variations in wage levels. This report was prepared by Louis M . Solomon of the Bureau’s Division of W age Analysis. The general m ethod used in this bulletin was outlined by the D ivision’s planning com m ittee, and the statistical m aterial was compiled under the direction of Joseph H . M ayer. A. F. H inrichs, A cting Com m issioner . H on. F rances P erkins, Secretary o f Labor. Contents Page Summary__________________________________________________________________ Purpose and scope of study---------------------------------------------------------------------------------M ethod of analysis-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Selection of occupations____________________________________________________ Average wage rates--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------W age levels in manufacturing industries-----------------------------------------------------------Average rank of areas_______________________________________________________ Influence of incentive paym ent-------------------------------------------------------------------Stability of rank----------------------------------Comparisons with common labor rates---------------------------------------------------------W age levels in nonmanufacturing-------------------------------------------------------------------------Average rank of areas------------------------------------------------------------ (ii) 1 2 3 4 5 5 7 8 8 11 12 B ulletin T^jo. 793 o f the U n ited States Bureau o f Labor Statistics (Reprinted from the M onthly L abor R eview , August 1944] Intercity Variations in Wage Levels Sum m ary Examination of wage statistics for American cities of 250,000 population or more reveals striking differences in the rates of pay for identical or closely similar work. These differences may reflect dif ferences in the productivity of labor or management, the influence of unionization, the temporary result of abrupt industry shifts, or a variety of other factors. Although the relative wage level of an area varies somewhat according to the occupation considered, there is sufficient consistency in the wage rates of most areas to permit their classification as high-wage or low-wage, or in some intermediate position. In the present article wage data for 26 manufacturing and 9 non manufacturing occupational classifications have been analyzed to dis cover the relative general wage levels of 31 large urban areas. In order to discount the influence of varying industrial composition among these areas, identical occupations with uniform weights were studied in all areas. The manufacturing occupations were drawn largely from the metalworking industries, while financial institutions and power laundries account for 5 of the 9 nonmanufacturing jobs. Since these industries are not equally representative of all areas, the wage levels indicated should be recognized as rough approximations. On the basis of evidence presented here, Detroit and Seattle appear to maintain the highest wages among the areas studied, the former ranking first in manufacturing occupations and the latter first in nonmanufacturing. Other areas in which wage rates are 10 percent or more above the general average for both groups of occupations are San Francisco, Portland, and Cleveland. Atlanta, Dallas, Birmingham, San Antonio, Memphis, and New Orleans appear to be the lowestwage urban areas; although it has been possible to rank five of these six areas with respect to only one of the two occupational groups, the low level of their wage rates is confirmed by information from other sources. Houston and St. Louis are also at least 10 percent below the average for both groups. Both in manufacturing and in nonmanufac turing the level of wages in the highest-wage areas is almost twice as high as in the lowest-wage area. 607018°—44 (1 ) 2 Most of the remaining areas pay wages somewhere near the average either in manufacturing or in nonmanufacturing, or in both. The wage levels of some of these areas, in fact, are clustered within so narrow a range that a variation of only a few percentage points would change the rank of the area by 5 or 6 places. Areas in which the pay is higher than average but less than 110 percent of the average for one or both groups are Toledo, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, and Milwaukee. It is probable that New York City would fall in this class if sufficient data were available to permit classification. Wage rates in Indianapolis, MinneapolisSt. Paul, Cincinnati, and Washington (rated only in private non manufacturing) appear to be about average. Columbus, Baltimore, Louisville, and Boston are relatively low-wage areas, but surpass 90 percent of the average for one or both occupational groups. Denver, for which nonmanufacturing wage data alone are available, pays wages about 10 percent below the average and should probably be added to this group of cities. Buffalo and Chicago, which pay about average wages in manufacturing, pay relatively high wages in nonmanufacturing jobs. Kansas City pays average wages in manufac turing but somewhat lower wages in nonmanufacturing, while Providence wage levels are below the average for the first group and slightly above for the second. P urpose and Scope o f Study Intercity differences in wage rates play an important part in the economic life of the Nation. They are a vital concern of the war worker seeking the most advantageous market in which to sell his services, of the manufacturer considering the expansion or relocation of his facilities, of the Federal agency faced with responsibility for determining or stabilizing wage rates, and of other groups to which wages represent a source of income or an item of expense. It is not, of course, to be expected that wage rates should be uniform in all parts of the United States. The labor available in some com munities is more efficient than that in others. Changes in the local ization of industry, such as those associated with the war production program, create labor shortages in some communities and leave surpluses in others. The level of wage rates is also influenced by local differences in the extent of unionism, the regularity and security of employment, alternative opportunities for earning a living, the cost of consumer goods, the availability of capital equipment, the efficiency of management, and other factors. To some extent, therefore, geo graphic variations in wage rates may serve merely to offset differences in the productivity of labor or the attractiveness of employment. Wage differences also help to induce workers to move from the trades and localities in which surpluses exist to those in which labor is scarce. Other differences reflect the influence of monopolistic forces, while still others are largely fortuitous. The purpose of the present study was to achieve an approximate classification of the major American cities with respect to the relative levels of their wage rates, and to indicate roughly the extent of existing wage differences. Previous studies by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and tabulations of census data have shown the existence of broad re gional variations in wages, and a few studies—particularly those of 3 common-labor entrance rates and of union rates in certain highly organized trades—have provided detail by individual city. The information now available, however, is superior to material previously assembled both as to scope and accuracy of classifications employed. The materia] on which the rankings of the respective urban areas are based consists of average hourly rates or straight-time hourly earnings of experienced workers employed at specific jobs. The rankings con sequently reflect variations in hourly wage rates as they are ordinarily conceived by employers and workers. Obviously they do not measure differences in weekly or annual incomes, since they take no account of hours worked or of supplementary income. They are deficient as measures of labor cost in so far as they fail to reflect differences in labor productivity and certain other items. The study included 31 urban areas centering in cities with a popula tion of 250,000 or more. It therefore covered most of the larger cities of the United States, although a few, including New York City, were omitted because of lack of sufficient basic materials.2 Most of the areas studied include suburbs or other neighboring cities in which wage levels have been found to approximate those of the central city. Twenty-four of the areas covered have been ranked according to their wage levels in both manufacturing and nonmanufacturing industries. Two additional areas have been ranked with respect to their manu facturing wage levels only, and five have been ranked only with respect to their wages in nonmanufacturing. The wage data relate primarily to the spring and summer of 1943. M ethod o f A na lysis Outlined briefly, the steps involved in determining the relative wage levels of the urban areas were as follows: (1) Standard lists of occupations (one for manufacturing and one for nonmanufacturing) were selected to represent the wage leveils of all areas; (2) the average wage rate paid in each occupation in each area was determined from tabulations already at hand; (3) the respective averages for each occu pation were combined into a composite occupational average for all areas, using as weights the estimated number of employees in that occupation in each area; (4) the average rate for each occupation in each area was expressed as a percentage of the composite occupational average; (5) the resulting series of relatives for each area were then combined into general index numbers for manufacturing and non manufacturing separately, the relative for each occupation being weighted in proportion to the estimated number of workers in that occupation in all areas combined; (6) for convenience in interpretation, these index numbers were then adjusted so that the simple average for all areas would equal 100; as an additional step (7) each area was ranked according to its wage rate for each separate occupation, and average ranks (unweighted) were then determined for each city for comparison with the index numbers described above. 2 Other than New York City, the only places of 250,000 or more omitted in this study are Newark, Jersey City, Omaha, and Rochester. Oakland, Calif., is included in the San Francisco wage area. 4 SE LE C TIO N OF O CCU PATIO N S The following factors were taken into consideration in the selection of occupations: (1) Definitiveness, i. e., distinctiveness and ease of classification, (2) frequency in the areas covered, (3) numerical importance, (4) prevalence of payment by the hour, day, or week, (5) sensitivity of wage rates to economic influences, and (6) representa tiveness of various skill and wage levels. These criteria, especially the second, proved to be very restrictive and, although applied with some flexibility, greatly limited the number of jobs suitable for con sideration. Certain suitable jobs, moreover, in industries such as building construction, and public utilities, were not generally included in the locality wage surveys.3 The list finally selected included 26 occupational groups representa tive of manufacturing industries and 9 representative of nonmanu facturing. Twenty of the jobs in manufacturing, however, represented various branches of the metal trades, a fact which must be taken into consideration in interpreting the results of the analysis. Three represented the food industries (bakeries) and three (janitors, janitresses, and hand truckers) a variety of industries. Two of the non manufacturing occupations represented financial institutions; three, power laundries; and four, a variety of industries. The selected occu pational groups and the respective weights used are presented in table 1. T a b l e 1.— Occupational Groups, W eights, and Average H ourly Wage Rates Used in Constructing Composite Index Numbers o f W age Rates Occupation, class, and sex Aver age Weight hourly wage rates1 Manufacturing Muirnfartriring, totalMetalworking: Assemblers, bench: Class A, male......... ......... Class B, male................... Class C, male _ Class B, female Class C, female................. Coremakers, hand, bench: Class A, male................... Class B, male................... Drill-press operators, single .flninfilo* opii iuU3# Class A, male................... Class B, male................... Class C, male__________ Class C, female.......... ...... Electricians, maintenance: Class A, male................... Class B, male____ ______ Engine-lathe operators: Class A, mala _ _ Class B, male................... Class C, male................... Class C, female Shake-out men (foundry), male................ .................... Tool and die makers: Class A, male. Class B, male................... 100.0 3.8 7.2 6.1 3.8 17.5 $1.13 1.00 .85 .87 .68 1.8 1.1 1.22 1.10 1.0 2.3 2.6 2.5 1.09 .95 .84 .72 2.2 1.2 1.25 1.03 4.0 4.7 2.7 .9 1.22 1.06 .95 .85 2.6 .87 6.7 2.9 1.48 1.23 Occupation, class, and sex Food products: Bakers, all-round (bench hands), male______ _______ Pfnod wrAnnprQ• DICflU W1ctUyCXo* Male.................................. Female___ ______ _______ Miscellaneous industries: Janitors: M a le ______ __ T Female Trackers, hand, male- _ Aver age Weight hourly wage rates* 1.4 $0.98 .4 .2 .79 .61 10.8 1.1 8.5 .75 .71 .75 Nonmanufacturing Nonmanufacturing, total________ Financial institutions: Paying and receiving tellers: Male____ ______________ Female_____ Power laundries: Feeders, catchers, and shakers (flatwork), female.... ........__ Markers, female...................... Washers, male_____ ________ Miscellaneous industries: Elevator operators, passenger: M a le..-............................ Female.............................. File clerks, class B, female___ Switchboard operators, fe male _____ _ . _ 100.0 8.8 4.5 1.06 .73 32.2 10.5 4.0 .39 .45 .72 10.2 6.0 11.0 .65 .48 .51 12.8 .56 1Weighted average representing areas covered by study; wage rates as of spring and summer of 1943. * Shipbuilding, airframe assembly, and the basic iron and steel industry were purposely excluded from the data analyzed in this article because they are not found in all of the areas. In many areas, however, these industries greatly influence the level of local wage rates. 5 A V E R A G E W AGE RA TE S The average hourly rates for the respective occupational groups in each area were established on the basis of wage studies conducted by the various regional offices of the Bureau during the spring and summer of 1943. The primary purpose of these studies was to pro vide information for use by the War Labor Board in administering the wage-stabilization program. In some cases the rates used represented combinations of data for industry branches which are usually presented separately by the Bureau. Thus, the foundry occupations cover both ferrous- and nonferrous-metal foundries; some of the other metalworking occupations represent combinations of data for machinery factories and ordnance plants; the jobs of janitor and hand trucker are found in many in dustries, etc. In consequence, although the same jobs have been used to represent every area, the influence of varying industrial composition has not been entirely eliminated.4 The industry branches actually covered in the particular localities are, for the most part, the dominant industries in which the occupations are found. With respect to size of establishment, unionization, and similar factors, the wage rates used for each occupation are generally representative of establishments in the respective communities. The selected occupational groups are, of course, more representative of some areas than of others. Industries of considerable importance in individual cities— for example, grain milling in Minneapolis and petroleum refining in Houston—have little direct representation here. The index numbers and rankings should consequently be considered only as rough and ready measures of relative wage levels, and recog nized as subject to a considerable margin of error. W age Levels in M anufacturing Industries Index numbers and rankings for each of the 31 areas are presented in table 2. Data appear for both manufacturing and nonmanufac turing industries, but because of the differences in wage levels in these two broad industrial segments they will be discussed separately. The indexes of manufacturing wage rates reveal that Detroit (index 131) ranks first among the 26 areas for which an index is given. Neighboring Toledo, competing in some occupations for the same labor supply, ranks second (127), Portland third (117), and Seattle fourth (116). Atlanta, with an index of 70, ranks last, while rates in Dallas (76) and. Birmingham (78) are only slightly higher. Examination of these data reveals no consistent variation by size of central city,5 but regional differences are marked. These reflect the customary regional pattern shown by earlier wage surveys of the Bureau. In general, the highest wage levels are found on the Pacific Coast, reflecting in part the increasingly important industrial role played by Pacific Coast cities and their effort to attract additional labor. All of the 4 areas in this region are included among the high est 10, although thelndexior Los Angeles (103) is considerably lower* * Because of the industry combinations that have been made, the actual wage rates for the occupation covered in each city are not entirely suitable for collective-bargaining or wage-stabilization purposes and are not presented in this article. The basic wage material will be supplied to interested persons, however, on application to the Bureau. * This is probably due to the fact that the cities covered are few in number and the range in size relatively narrow. Other studies by the Bureau have demonstrated a strong tendency for wage rates to increase witn size of city. 6 than those for the other 3 areas. The Great Lakes areas are also represented by relatively high index numbers, 3 of the 6 approxi mately equaling and 3 substantially exceeding the average for the 26 areas combined. Collective agreements with labor unions are com mon in all of the highest ranking areas, and all of these areas are centers of heavy industry. T able 2.— Indexes and Rank o f 31 Urban Areas, by Level of W age Rates in Selected Occupations, Spring-Sum m er o f 1943 .Indexes (average, all areas -100) Area Detroit, Mich.......... Toledo, Ohio............ Portland, Oreg_____ Seattle, Wash______ San Francisco, Calif Pittsburgh, Pa......... Cleveland, Ohio...... Philadelphia, Pa— Los Angeles, Calif... Milwaukee, Wis___ Indianapolis, In d . . . Kansas City, M o ... Buffalo, N. Y .......... Chicago, 111.-_____ Washington, D. C Cincinnati, Ohio___ Non- Manu- NonManu- manufacfac- manufacfacturturturturing ing ing ing 131 127 117 116 114 113 111 107 103 102 101 100 99 99 (8) 98 116 104 121 136 135 105 110 103 114 106 100 88 115 112 102 101 Indexes (average, all areas *100) Bank of area, based on index1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13.5 13.5 <*) 16 4 11 3 1 2 10 8 12 6 9 17 22.5 5 7 13.5 15 Area Columbus, Ohio___ Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minn___________ Baltimore, M d____ Denver, Colo........... Louisville, K y _____ Providence, R. I ___ Houston, Tex........... St. Louis, M o.......... Boston, Mass........... Birmingham, A la ... Dallas, Tex.............. New Orleans, La___ Memphis, Tenn...... Atlanta, Oa.............. San Antonio, T e x ... Bank of area, based on index* Non- Manu- NonManu- manumanufacfacfae* facturtur turturing ing ing ing 98 95 98 94 (2) 92 92 90 87 86 78 76 C) (2) 70 (*) 100 93 90 86 102 83 88 100 (2) 80 73 72 (*) 70 16 19 16 18 (2) 19.5 19.5 21 22 23 24 25 (2) (2) 26 (») 17 20 21 24 13.5 25 22.5 17 (*) 26 27 28 (2) 29 * In eases where 2 or more elties have the same index, the rank given represents the average of the ranks in which they would fall; i. e., 13.5 is the average of ranks 13 and 14,16 is the average of ranks 15,16, and 17, etc. 8 Data not available. In the Midwest, except in the vicinity of the Great Lakes, the range is extremely narrow, all of the cities except St. Louis (87) having index numbers from 98 to 101, inclusive. The eastern areas rank rel atively low, except for Pittsburgh (113) and Philadelphia (107).a New England has long been recognized as a relatively low-wage region and the index numbers for Boston (86) and Providence (92) support this designation. In general, however, the lowest index numbers represent southern cities. The extreme range of these index numbers is noteworthy. The index for Detroit is nearly twice as high as that for Atlanta, and, al though these figures may exaggerate or understate the amount of the difference somewhat, there can be no doubt that it is very great. Reference to the basic data, for example, reveals that the hand truckers included in the Bureau’s survey in the Georgia capital averaged 45 cents an hour, while those studied in Detroit averaged 94 cents. The respective rates for janitors were 36 cents and 90cents. Male bench assemblers, class C, averaged 59 cents and $1.11, re spectively. The relative difference was less pronounced, however, among skilled classifications. Thus, class A tool and die makers averaged $1.20 in the Atlanta area and $1.62 in the Detroit area. Class A bench assemblers averaged $1.07 and $1.32, respectively.• • The results of a number of Bureau studies suggest that wage levels in New York City are generally some what below the levels prevailing in Philadelphia with respect to manufacturing. Thus, common-labor entrance rates in manufacturing in the spring and summer of 1943 averaged 69.8 cents per hour in Philadel phia and 64.4 cents in New York City. In nonmanufacturing the relationship appears to be reversed, with wages in New York City slightly exceeding those in Philadelphia. 7 For the purpose of comparison with the cost of a family budget, measures of wage rates are less satisfactory than measures of weekly, monthly, or annual earnings. It is of interest to note, however, that the differences in wage rates disclosed by this study show but little relationship to differences in the retail-price level in the various cen tral cities. Information regarding intercity differences in the cost of. the same standard of living in the spring of 1943 is available for 21 of the 26 cities.7 Of these, the price level was highest in San Francisco, followed by Detroit, Chicago, Cleveland, Boston, and Minneapolis. Kansas City was lowest, with Birmingham, Houston, Indianapolis, and Los Angeles only slightly higher. Costs in Atlanta were about the same as in Philadelphia. The lowest cost was only 14 percent below the highest. AVERAGE RANK OF AREAS The index numbers presented in table 2 are of particular interest because they indicate roughly the extent of wage differences from area to area. A second type of comparison, which ranks the various areas without attempting to measure the extent of their differences, is presented in tabid 3. In arriving at this comparison all cities were first ranked in accordance with the level of wage rates in each occu pational category separately. The series of rankings for each city resulting from this operation were then summarized in terms of a sim ple average and the final rank determined on the basis of that average. T able 3.— Comparative Rank o f 2 6 Urban Areas, by Level o f W age Rates in Selected M anufacturing Occupations, Spring-Sum m er of 1943 Rank of area1 Area Detroit _ . Toledo___ Portland............ Sp.fitt.le ___ San Francisco... Pittsburgh _ Cleveland __ _ Philadelphia___ Los Angeles____ Milwaukee _ Indianapolis.... Kansas City Buffalo Chicago.............. Index Aver age rank 131 127 117 116 114 113 111 107 103 102 101 100 99 99 2.5 4.2 4.5 5.6 5.0 7.5 6.5 8.7 9.3 11.6 12.6 14.1 12.8 11.6 Based on index Based on average rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13.5 13.5 1 2 3 5 4 7 6 8 9 10.5 13 16 14 10.5 Rank of area1 Area Cincinnati..___ Columbus MinneapolisSt. Paul_____ Baltimore.......... Louisville __ . Providence____ Houston........... St. T.onis Boston Birmingham___ Dallas................ Atlanta..______ Index Aver age rank 98 98 14.4 13.3 16 16 17 15 98 94 92 92 90 87 86 78 76 70 12.5 17.0 16.1 17.2 17.0 17.6 20.1 23.4 21.0 23.2 16 18 19.5 19.5 21 22 23 24 25 26 12 19.5 18 21 19.5 22 23 26 24 25 Based Based on on index average rank 1 In cases where two or more cities have the same index or rank, the figure given represents the average of the ranks in which they would fall; i. e., 13.5 is the average of ranks 13 and 14,16 is the average of ranks 15,16, and 17, etc. It might be expected that these two methods would yield substan tially different results, particularly in view of the different weights given to the individual occupations. In the preparation of the index numbers these weights varied from 0.2 (female bread wrappers) to 17.5 (female bencn assemblers, class C), whereas the method of average rankings gave all occupations the same weight. The com parison presented in table 3, however, reveals great similarity in the 7 The figures used represent the estimated cost of a budget for a 4-person manual workers’ family living at the maintenance level. This budget was defined by the Division of Social Research of the Works Progress Administration early in 1035. See Estimated Inter-City Differences in Cost of Living, March 15, 1943, in Monthly Labor Review, October 1943 (p.803). 8 ranks of the areas and suggests that the weights assigned the various occupations have not been of major significance. The Detroit, Toledo, and Portland areas are respectively first, second, and third in both series. Both methods place the Atlanta, Dallas, and Birming ham areas at the bottom of the fist, although their individual positions are somewhat different. The positions oi only three areas— Kansas City, Minneapolis-St. Paul, and Chicago— are changed by more than two places. These shifts of position, moreover, are of little signif icance, since they involve areas whose wage levels appear to be very nearly the same. INFLUENCE OF INCENTIVE PAYMENT It has been mentioned that prevalence of payment by the hour, day, or week was one of the criteria taken into consideration in selecting occupations for use in this analysis. Among certain manufacturing occupations, however—particularly assemblers, drill-press operators, and engine-lathe operators— incentive systems were in use by some establishments. Since the straight-time hourly earnings of incentive workers usually exceed the rates of time workers, the inclusion of incentive earnings tends to overstate somewhat the wage levels of those areas in which incentive payment is most common.8 It is doubtful, however, whether the index numbers or the ranks of the urban areas are influenced very substantially by the inclusion of incentive payments. In no area do incentive-paid workers represent a large proportion of those compared in this study. Moreover, a calculation of average ranks among eight occupations paid almost exclusively on a time basis 9 produces rankings very similar to those based on the index numbers. Only five areas are changed by more than four places. Philadelphia and Milwaukee—both areas in which incentive payment is common—drop five and six places, respectively, whereas Chicago, Minneapolis-St. Paul, and St. Louis move upward by approximately as many places. The changes in rank of the latter tnree cities probably arc due to other differences and not to the elimi nation of incentive payments. Again the changes in rank are observed primarily among areas whoso wages are closely similar, while the standing of the highest- and lowcst-wage areas is not greatly changed. Incentive payment is not characteristic of the areas with top rating or of those in the South. STABILITY OF RANK Critical examination of the wage data for individual occupations reveals that the relative wage levels of the individual areas vary con siderably by occupation and that the index numbers and average rankings presented above tend to oversimplify the relationship between the wage levels of the various areas. It may be seen from table 4 that Detroit, which ranks first in 11 occupations, falls as low as seventh in the rate for male bread wrappers. Minneapolis-St. Paul, although twelfth in average rank, is first in the rate for class A electricians. St. Louis ranks last in three occupations, but fourth from the top in the rates for all-round bakers.*• •The exclusion of incentive pay is desirable, not because the straight-time hourly earnings of incentive workers fail to reflect levels of pay accurately, but because the greater effort that is typically induced by incentive pay tends to disturb the comparability of jobs. •Those occupational classifications are as follows: All-round baker; maintenance electrician, classes A and B; tool and die maker, classes A and B; janitor; janitress: and hand trucker. It will be noticed that these occupations differ from the remaining 18 not only with regard to method of wage payment but in other important respects as well. Consequently the differences in the rank of the 8 occupations and those of the 26 may not be attributed entirely to the elimination of incentive pay. 9 T able 4.— Rank o f 26 Urban Areas, b y Individual Manufacturing Occupation, S prin gSummer o f 1943 1 Occupation, class, and sex * Average rank___ _ „ Metalworking: Assemblers, bench: Class A ___ ... Class B _________ Class C . Class B , female . _,T __ _ _ __ _____ _________ Class C, female.................................................. Coremakers, hand, bench: Class A _ Class B ____ _ _____ ___ Drill-press operators, single spindle: Class A___ _________________ ____ __ Detroit Toledo Port land San Fran cisco 2.5 4.2 4.5 5.0 1 2 2 1 1 6 1 1 6 2 2 3 00 4 (8) 3 4 8 10 2 6 1 1 8 7 5 2 5 5 2 4 16.5 11 (3) 2 5 5 4 3 4 3 9 5 4 (*) 2 2 1 8 3 4 10 (3) Class A ........................ _ _________ _ _ Class B _ _____ ____ ___ _ _ _____ 1 1 8 5 4 Class C.............................. ................................ Class C, female_________________ _________ 3 1 1 2 Electricians, maintenance: Class A ..................................................................... Class B............................................................... Engine-lathe operators: Shake-out. men ffnnndry) Tool and die makers: Class A ._ Class B ______ _ _ _ _r __ , _ __ _____ ___________ 2 1 4 5 7 4 15 5 Food products: Bakers, all-round (bench hands)___ Br^ad wrappers..____________ ___ _____________ Bread wrappers, female___ Miscellaneous industries: Janitors_____ _ _ _ _ _ T_ _ _ __ Truckers, hand_____________________________ Janitors, female_ _ _ Occupation, class, and sex’ Average rank _____ _ ____ Metalworking: Assemblers, bench: Class Class Class Class Class A ____ _ _ _____ __ B_ __ _ _ ______________ C ___ r ____ _______ _ B, female. ______ _ C, female __ ... ..... ... Coremakers, hand, bench: Class A _ _ ___ ___ ____ ____ _______ Class B .............................................................. Drill-press operators, single spindle: Class A _ _ __ ____ Class B _ ______ _____ • 1 1 2 3 3 2.5 4 5 3 5 (3) (3) 00 2 2 4 3 11 4 (3) 10 6 7 8 7 5 2 2 3 2 1 5 3 (») 5 2 00 6 7 4 3 7 00 10 6 2 7 3 2 00 5 CO 6 8 8.5 8 (3) 5 1 10 2.5 1 8.5 6.5 4 5 7 M il Minne Los Pitts Phila apolisburgh delphia Angeles Chicago waukee St. Paul 7.5 8.7 3 5 5 4 11.6 11.6 12.5 17 21 14 19 14 16 9 6 4 10 14.5 4 10 17 15 17 11 4 9 13 9 9 6 1 1 6 11 13 7 14 19 3 7 9 8 18 16 11 13 10 16 6 20 20 2 7 3 9.3 3 00 3 Class C _ _____ _ 11 Class C, female................................................. 18 Electricians, maintenance: Class A ............................................................... 4 11 Class B ............................................................ Engine-lathe operators: Class A ___ . . ____ ___ _ 7 Class B _ _ ___ ___________ _ 6 Class C ____ _ _ 7 Class C, fem ale............................................... 00 Shake-out men (foundry) _ __ ________ __ 12 Tool and die makers: Class A __________ ___ _ _______________ 13 Class B ______________________ r _____ 8 Food products: Bakers, all-round (bench hands) _ _ _ _ 7 Bread wrappers ___ _____ __, , _.n. „r * 14 Bread wrappers, female _ _ 8.5 Miscellaneous industries: Janitors_._ .__ _ 10 Janitors, female. _ _ _ r 3 Truckers, hand............ *.......................................... 8 See footnotes at end of table. 3.5 1 1 6.5 15 11 (3) 7.5 (3) 1 1 _ ________ _______ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ r _ __ 5.6 7 9 10 9 6 5 4 Class B _________ Class C__ ____ Class C , female Seattle Cleve land 9 8 11 13 7 3 9 17 15 7 15 6 6 9 8 20 1 12 13 16 13 15 14 10 18 15 11 5 9 6 12 6 8 00 13 5 5 11 14 8 8 6 16 15 12 IT 8 15 3 6 20.5 4 7 13 11 9 6 6 4 19 12.5 17 00 15 15.5 16 1 16 8 6 12.5 16 11 9 15 8 12 12 9 14 8.3 2 12.5 10 10 10 T able 4.— Rank o f 26 Urban Areas, by Individual M anufacturing Occupation, Sprin gSummer o f 1943 1— Continued Occupation, class, and sex * Indi anap olis Average rank _ ___ _ _ . _ 12.6 Metalworking: Assemblers, bench: Class A_. _rT ^ 18 Class B _____ . _ ____ . __ _ __ _ 8 Class C ______ _____ 6 Class B, female _ 11 __ _ 11 Class O' female _ ,. Coremakers, hand, bench: 23 Class A__ _______ _____________ __________ Class B ............................................................ 13 Drill-press operators, single spindle: Class A _ _ 21 __ Class B 14 Class C ______ 14 13 Class C, female__________________________ Electricians, maintenance: Class A _ _____ ____ ___ 13.5 Class B _ ___ _ ____ 14 Engine-lathe operators: Class A . ______ 10 Class B ____ ____ _____ „_ 11 Class C _ 9 Class C, female__________________________ 10 Shake-nnt men (foundry) 10 Tool and die makers: Class A __ _ 9 Class B _ __ 10 Food products: Bakers, all-round (heneh hands) _ _ 16 Bread wrappers . . . . . __ 11 Bread wrappers, female 10 Miscellaneous industries: Janitors____ _ 12.5 Janitors, female ___ 15.5 13.5 Truckers, hand .......................................... .......... Occupation, class, and sex * Buf Colum Kan Cin Louis Hous sas falo bus ton City cinnati ville 12.8 13.3 14.1 14.4 16.1 17.0 22 20 12.5 (3) 12.5 23 16 8 5 14.5 13 14 12.5 7.5 8 20 17 14 12 7 11 13 21 (3) 18 19 12 19 (3) 12.5 11 14 11 3 21 (3) 17.5 12 22 20 16 16.5 15 21 12 14 14 10 13 6 17.5 19 7 17 23 12 8.5 2 10 16 21 16 12 20 18 12 12 7 21 22 18 9 19 15 11 5 <3) 19 6.5 16 19 13 3.5 19 19 16 4 2 (3) 17 (3) (3) 17 20 23 14 3 15 12 12 15 9 19 9 13 22 16 23 14 12 22 19 15 11 19 18 20.5 20 17 9 12 10 8.5 21 15 6.5 8 20 11 13 17.5 13 22 17.5 14.5 17 21 14.5 14 11 11 17 18 13.5 9 13 18 21 14 22 22 22 26 7 6 9 Bir Balti Prov St. At more idence Louis Boston Dallas lanta ming ham Average rank 17.0 Metalworking: Assemblers, bench: Class A _ ______ _ ______ ____ _____ 16 Class B _____ __ ___ ___ 15 Class C _ _ _ ___ 20 Class B, female . _ ......... (3) Class C, female _ _ 10 Coremakers, hand, bench: Class A __ _ _ __ 20 Class B ___________ __________ __________ 19 Drill-press operators, single spindle: Class A 17.5 Class B__ ___ __ __ ____ 15 Class C __ __ __ ___ __ _______ 19 Class C, female _ __ ............. __ 11 Electricians, maintenance: Class A __ _ __ _ ___________ 13.5 _ ___ ____ _. Class B _ ___ 17 Engine-lathe operators: Class A _ _____ ____________________ . 14 Class B _ __ _ _ __ 18 Class C ______ _ ___ _ _ _ _____ 19 Class C, female 12 Shake-ont men (foundry) _ ..... __ __ _ 22 Tool and die makers: Class A _ _______ __ - _. 18 Class B_____ ____________________________ 16 Food products: Bakers, all-rmmd (heneh hands) 18 Bread wrappers._ ______ ___ 22 Bread wrappers, female _ 19 Miscellaneous industries: Janitors __ __ 19 Janitors, female T _ _ 17 Truckers, hand...................................................... 19 17.2 17.6 20.1 21.0 23.2 23.4 10 18 15 16 19 25 24 16 (3) (3) 21 22 18 17 20 (3) 25 23 (3) (3) 12 26 22 (3) (3) 24 23 (5) (3) (3) 7 21 15 15 17.5 18 (3) 22.5 25 24 24 22.5 19 17 15 10 (3) 25 25 (3) 22 23 22 19 20 22 24 (3) (3) (3) (3) (3) 24 24 23 (3) 22 20 5 18 17 21 16 10 23 <3) 24 23 22 20 21 11 21 21 21 13 (3) 18 23 22 19 14 20 25 25 17 (3) 25 24 26 (3) (3) 26 16.5 24 (3) (3) 24 16 22 11 14 26 21 23 23 21 (3) 25 (3) (3) (3) (s) 4 17.5 (3) (3) (3) (3) 20 17.5 12 23 24 *18 24 23 <3) 18 19 17 23 21 21 20 20 20 26 (3) 25 25 (3) 24 24 23 i 23 1 In cases where two or more cities have the same rank, the figure given represents the average of the ranks in which they would fall; i. e., 2.5 is the average of ranks 2 and 3,17.5 is the average of ranks 17 and 18, etc. * Male unless otherwise designated. 8 Data not available. 11 Obviously these rankings for individual occupations are considerably influenced by random factors and should not be regarded as highly significant. In some cases, moreover, considerable differences in occupational rank may reflect wage differences of only 3 or 4 cents per horn*. The detail for individual occupations is useful, however, as the basis of a rough measure of the stability of the over-all ranks. This measure may be formulated by comparing each area’s rank in each individual occupation with its average rank, and averaging the deviations. For example, the various ranks of Detroit among the 26 occupations deviate by an average of 1.5 points from the area’s average rank of 2.5. This would appear to indicate that Detroit’s position at or near the top of the list is rather consistent among the various occupations. The lowest average rank, that of Birmingham, is also relatively stable, since the average deviation is only 1.1. For only 5 areas, however, is the average deviation less than 2.0. For 5 it is 2.0 but less than 3.0, and for 9 it is 3.0 but less than 4.0. The 7 areas with least-stable rank are Columbus (5.3), St. Louis (4.8), Cincinnati (4.2), Minneapolis-St. Paul (4.1), Louisville (4.1), Los Angeles (4.0), and Philadelphia (4.0).101 As would be expected, fluctuations in rank are most pronounced among those areas the wage levels of which cluster within a narrow range. COMPARISONS WITH COMMON LABOR RATES In view of the great influence of the metal trades in the composite index numbers and ranks presented above, and in view of the instability of rank of certain areas, it is of interest to compare these composite measures with other measures of intercity differences in wage level. The most appropriate alternative measure available consists of the average entrance rates of male common laborers in manufacturing industries in 1943.11 Although the rates in that occupation are also materially influenced by wage practice in the metal trades, they cover a number of other industries, including meat packing, fertilizer, furniture, leather, and petroleum. Common-labor entrance rates represent time payments exclusively. They are less frequently de termined by collective-bargaining agreements than are the wages of skilled workers. The comparison afforded by table 5 reveals a fairly close correlation between the composite index and the index of common-labor entrance rates. In both series the highest index is found in D etroit12 and the lowest in Atlanta. In each case the maximum index number is approximately twice the minimum. The 5 highest-wage areas are the same by both measures, as are also 3 of the 5 lowest-wage areas. The coefficient of correlation is 0.89. In 18 of the 26 areas the ranks are the same or differ by not more than 3 places. Several striking differences may be noted, however. Cincinnati ranks sixteenth w The stability of rank of the various occupations can be similarly measured. Among the 26 individual areas in which class A tool and die makers’ wages were studied, these workers rank first in every case, yield ing an average rank of 1 and an average deviation of 0. Female janitors, who rank last, show an average deviation of 1.5. All of the average deviations for occupations are relatively low, the highest being for all round bakers and female bread wrappers (both 3.8). 11 See Hourly Entrance Rates of Common Laborers in Large Cities, Spring and Summer of 1943 in, Monthly Labor Review, April 1944. The averages here used represent manufacturing industry only and are taken from table 2 (p. 811). It should be noted that the areas represented by the common-labor rates are somewhat more restricted than those used in this article, being limited for the most part within city boundaries. 12 it will be noted, however, that Detroit’s top position in common-labor rates was shared by Portland and San Francisco. 12 in the composite index but twenty-third in the index of commonlabor rates, and Indianapolis ranks eleventh in the composite index but seventeenth in the common-labor index. The comparative ranks of 5 other areas differ by 4 places or m ore.18 'T able 5.— Differences in M anufacturing Wage Levels in Urban Areas as M easured b y Com posite Index and by Common-Labor Entrance Rates, Spring-Sum m er o f 1943 Index number (average, all areas=100) Index number (average, all areas® 100) Rank i Area Area Compo Com Compo site mon site index labor index Detroit___ _ _ Toledo _ Portland............ Seattle................ San Francisco— Pittsburgh ____ Cleveland_____ Philadelphia___ Los Angeles....... Milwaukee Indianapolis___ Kansas City___ Buffalo Chicago.............. R ank1 131 127 117 116 114 113 111 107 103 102 101 100 99 99 129 116 129 126 129 112 106 102 111 99 94 103 101 101 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13.5 13.5 Compo Com Compo Com mon mon site site index labor index labor Com mon labor 2 5 2 4 2 6 8 10.5 7 14 17 9 12.5 12.5 Cincinnati _ Columbus MinneapolisSt. Paul......... Baltimore.......... Louisville _ ... Providence . _ Houston......... . St. Louis.......... Boston............. Birmingham___ Dallas................ Atlanta______ - 98 98 82 90 98 94 92 92 90 87 86 78 76 70 102 98 81 95 88 86 90 78 87 63 16 16 23 18.5 16 18 19.5 19.5 21 22 23 24 25 26 10.5 15 24 16 20 22 18.5 25 21 26 1In cases where two or more cities have the same index, the rank given represents the average of the ranks in which they would fall; i. e., 13.5 is the average of ranks 13 and 14,19.5 is the average of ranks 19 and 20, etc. W age Levels in Nonmanufacturing For 24 of the urban areas discussed above, and for 5 additional areas, Index numbers of wage levels in nonmanufacturing industry have been prepared. These index numbers, it will be recalled, are based on wage data for 9 occupations in banks, laundries, and miscellaneous industries. In general, the establishments in which these occupations were found were smaller than the manufacturing establishments studied. Unionization was less common, and incentive payment negligible. The index numbers and rankings in the nonmanufacturing field have been presented in table 2. Comparison of these with the •corresponding measures based on manufacturing occupations reveals much similarity, but a few significant differences. Both series of index numbers, it will be noted, reveal about the same regional variations in wage level, although the New England areas appear somewhat more favorably in nonmanufacturing than in manufacturing. The range from the lowest to the highest index number is also approximately the same in each case. Correlation of the index numbers for areas appearing in both series yields a coefficient of 0.68. It will be noted that Seattle ranks first in the level of nonmanu facturing wages, with San Francisco a very close second, and Portland third. Detroit holds fourth place in nonmanufacturing. Four of the leading five areas, therefore, are common to both series. All of the five lowest-wage areas in nonmanufacturing are in the South.1 11 For other comparisons of possible interest, see Union Wages and Hours in the Baking Industry, July 1, 1943, in Monthly Labor Review, March 1944 ftable 8, p. 609), and Union Wages and Hours in the Printing Trades, July 1, 1943 infMonthly Labor Review, April 1944 (table 6, p. 831). 13 The index numbers and rank of several areas differ greatly in the two series. Kansas City, for example, is near the middle of the group with respect to manufacturing wages but in nonmanufacturing is represented by an index number of only 88 and is tied with St. Louis for twenty-second place. Toledo ranks second in manufacturing but only eleventh in nonmanufacturing. Buffalo, paying only about average wages in manufacturing, ranks fifth from the top in non manufacturing. Boston, Chicago, and Providence all rank consider ably higher in the nonmanufacturing series than in manufacturing.14 AVERAGE RANK OF AREAS The ranks of the various urban areas, by individual occupation, are given in table 6. The order of the areas on the basis of average rank will be seen to correspond rather closely with that based on the index numbers. The position of only one area, Houston, differs by more than three places. T a b l e 6.— Rank o f 29 Urban Areas, b y Individual Nonmanufacturing Occupation, Spring-Sum m er o f 1 9 4 3 1 Financial institutions Area San Francisco____ Seattle....... .......... Detroit.................. Portland............... Cleveland_______ Los Anpeles_____ Buffalo__________ Milwaukee______ Chicago_________ Pittsburgh............ Washington_____ Providence............ Philadelphia......... Toledo................... Boston.................. M inneapolis-St. Paul................... Indianapolis_____ Cincinnati............ Columbus_______ Baltimore_______ Houston................ St. Louis________ Denver.................. Kansas City......... Memphis.............. Dallas................... Louisville.............. New Orleans......... San Antonio......... Power laundries Aver Feeders, age Paying Paying catchers, rank and re and re and ceiving ceiving ers shak (flattellers, tellers, work), male female female Miscellaneous industries Eleva tor Mark Wash opera ers, ers, tors, female male passen ger, male Eleva tor File opera clerks, tors, class B, passen female ger, female Switch board opera tors, female 1.9 2.0 5.5 6.4 8.1 9.1 9.3 9.8 9.9 10.5 11.2 13.1 13.5 13.6 14.8 1 2 7 17 11 20.5 6 3.5 20.5 5 3.5 9.5 17 13 8 1 2 5 3 9 17 9 7 16 20.5 4 12.5 23 25 14.5 2 1 6.5 3 11 5 4 8 6.5 18 16 9.5 17 9.5 15 1 2 9 5 7 3.5 3.5 11 6 15 8 11 17.5 13.5 17.5 2 1 5 3 7.5 7.5 16.5 4 11.5 6 21 9.5 11.5 9.5 22 3 (*) 5 00 6 7 25.5 9 1 2 14.5 19.5 4 11 13 1 2 7 3 5 6 11 14 (») 4 10 16 8.5 17.5 19 1 3 4 11 5 2 6 13 9 20 8 (*) 15 16 14 5 3 1 6 11 13 2 19 9 4 16 17.5 8 7 10 15.4 15.6 15.8 16.5 ‘18.1 19.6 20.7 20.9 22.2 22.6 23.6 24.2 25.5 25.9 20.5 24.5 23 14 17 12 15 20.5 26 9.5 24.5 28 27 29 23 12.5 11 18.5 23 9 26 18.5 14.5 6 28 29 27 20.5 14 13 12 19 21 25 23 20 24 29 26 22 27 28 17.5 11 13.5 17.5 22 26 24.5 20.5 23 27 24.5 20.5 29 28 14.5 14.5 16.5 13 19.5 24 25 19.5 23 29 27 . 18 26 28 10 16 8 18 12 17 14.5 23 0) 21.5 19.5 24 21.5 25.5 12.5 21 21 21 8.5 17.5 12.5 15 27 28 23 24.5 26 24.5 12 10 23.5 7 17 22 23.5 26 28 27 19 25 18 21 15 17.5 14 20.5 23 24 22 25 12 26 20.5 27 28 29 1In cases where two or more cities have the same rank, the figure given represents the average of the ranks in which they would fall; i. e. 3.5 is the average of ranks 3 and 4; 14.5 is the average of ranks 14 and 15, etc. * Data not available. 14 These comparisons are complicated somewhat by the fact that some of the ranks are assigned to areas that appear in only one series. On the basis of corrected rankings, covering only the 24 areas common to both series, 7 areas (mostly in the middle-wage range) show differences of position of more than 4 places. 14 The relative wage levels of some areas, however, will be seen to vary greatly from occupation to occupation. Chicago, which ranks first in the payment of male elevator operators, ranks nineteenth with respect to the wages of male tellers.15 The Memphis area, which ranks last in three occupations, ranks sixth and ninth in two others. Application of the measure of stability described above reveals that Seattle has the most stable rank, with an average deviation of only 0.5 place. San Francisco (1.0) and Detroit (1.7) also have relatively stable ranks. On the whole, the rank of the areas with respect to non manufacturing occupations appears to be somewhat less stable than that based on manufacturing occupations. The ranks of six areas have average deviations of 2.0 bui less than 3.0, seven of 3.0 but less 10, seven of 4.0 but less than 5.0, and four of 5.0 but less than 6.0. The least stable ranks by this measure are those for Memphis (6.8) and Pittsburgh (7.0).16 w The rates shown for tellers in some areas have been greatly affected by labor turnover, w Among the nine nonmanufacturing occupations studied, male tellers recoived the highest wage in every city, yielding an average deviation of zero. Because the number of occupations studied was so limited, all of the average deviations were small. The largest were for male elevator operators (1.21 and female file clerks ( 1.0). U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 19 44
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