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1969
HANDBOOK
on
WOMEN
WORKERS
WOMEN'S BUREAU
BULLETIN 294
Sites g£
Wage and Labor Standards Administration
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
AN ACT TO ESTABLISH IN THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR A
BUREAU TO BE KNOWN AS
THE WOMEN’S BUREAU
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representa
tives of the United States of America in Congress as
sembled, That there shall be established in the Depart
ment of Labor a bureau to be known as the Women’s
Bureau.
Sec. 2. That the said bureau shall be in charge of a di
rector, a woman, to be appointed by the President, by and
with the advice and consent of the Senate, who shall
receive an annual compensation of $5,000.1 It shall be the
duty of said bureau to formulate standards and policies
which shall promote the welfare of wage-earning women,
improve their working conditions, increase their effici
ency, and advance their opportunities for profitable em
ployment. The said bureau shall have authority to investi
gate and report to the said department upon all matters
pertaining to the welfare of women in industry. The
director of said bureau may from time to time publish
the results of these investigations in such a manner and
to such extent as the Secretary of Labor may prescribe.
Sec. 3. That there shall be in said bureau an assistant
director, to be appointed by the Secretary of Labor, who
shall receive an annual compensation of $3,500 1 and shall
perform such duties as shall be prescribed by the director
and approved by the Secretary of Labor.
SEC. 4. That there is hereby authorized to be employed
by said bureau a chief clerk and such special agents,
assistants, clerks, and other employees at such rates of
compensation and in such numbers as Congress may from
time to time provide by appropriations.
Sec. 5. That the Secretary of Labor is hereby directed
to furnish sufficient quarters, office furniture, and equip
ment for the work of this bureau.
Sec. 6. That this act shall take effect and be in force
from and after its passage.
Approved June 5, 1920.
Public Law No. 259, 66th Congress (H.R. 13229).
1 Amount increased by Reclassification Act of March 4, 1923, as amended and
supplemented.
1969
HANDBOOK
on
WOMEN
WORKERS
Women's Bureau
Bulletin 294
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
George P. Shultz, Secretary
Wage and Labor Standards Administration
Arthur A. Fletcher, Administrator
WOMEN'S BUREAU
Elizabeth Duncan Koontz, Director
1969
Most intangible, but by no means least telling, of recent
changes is one in the general attitude toward women’s
participation in the various aspects of American society.
It is a change which includes the attitudes of men toward
accepting women as colleagues and employees, the atti
tudes of both toward the creation of a society whose aim
is the well-being of people—not of men alone or of
women apart—a society of diverse talents used to their
fullest.
American Women, 1963-1968
Report of the Interdepartmental Committee
on the Status of Women
United States Government Printing Office, Washington: 1969
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $1.50
1
FOREWORD
This handbook on American women workers is published peri
odically by the Women’s Bureau of the U.S. Department of Labor.
The handbook assembles factual information covering the partici
pation and characteristics of women in the labor force, the pat
terns of their employment, their occupations, their income and
earnings, their education and training, and the Federal and State
laws affecting the employment and the civil and political status of
women.
The handbook is designed as a ready source of reference. Part I
deals with women in the labor force; Part II is concerned with
the laws governing women’s employment and status; Part III
tells about the Interdepartmental Committee, the Citizens’ Advis
ory Council, and the State commissions on the status of women;
Part IV lists organizations of interest to women; and Part V con
sists of a selected bibliography on American women workers.
This 1969 edition includes information that has become availa
ble since 1965. Knowledge about the work women do, the circum
stances of their working, and the direction of changes in their
work is essential—if society is to make maximum use of the po
tential of women as a human resource and if women themselves
are to take advantage of the greater opportunities now available
to them.
Elizabeth Duncan Koontz
Director, Women’s Bureau
>
lii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Women’s Bureau acknowledges with appreciation the
assistance given by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and the Man
power Administration of the U.S. Department of Labor; the
Bureau of the Census of the U.S. Department of Commerce; the
National Science Foundation; the Office of Education, Social and
Rehabilitation Service, and Social Security Administration of the
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare; the Defense
Advisory Committee on Women in the Services (DACOWITS) of
the U.S. Department of Defense; and the U.S. Civil Service Com
mission.
The Women’s Bureau also wishes to thank the many private or
ganizations and individuals without whose cooperation the infor
mation given in this handbook would be less complete.
The handbook was prepared under the general direction of Isa
belle S. Streidl.
Part I was prepared by Mary G. Kramer, Rosalind Raskin, and
Jean A. Wells, with statistical assistance by Grace R. Hipp and
Harriet G. Magruder.
Part II was prepared by Priscilla B. Bonuccelli, Grace C.
Ferrill, and E. Boyd Steele, under the supervision of Pearl G.
Spindler.
Part III was prepared by Marguerite I. Gilmore.
Part IV was prepared under the direction of Lillian Barsky.
Part V was prepared by Jean K. Boardman.
Other assistance was provided by Lillian Barsky, Laura T.
Danley, Ruth Erskine, Ella J. Green, and Jane M. Newman,
under the supervision of Eleanor M. Coakley.
The assistance of many other Bureau staff members is also
gratefully acknowledged.
'
CONTENTS
t
Acknowledgments
jjj
Foreword _____________________________________
jv
PART I—WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
Section
Highlights
Page
________
Chapter l—Women
t
^
4
3
as
Workers
Toward Economic Equality and Opportunity________________
1 Predominant Work Patterns
Numbers and Trends _____________________________________
2 Twenty-nine Million Women Workers___________________
3 Nonwhite Women in the Labor Force_______
4 Employment and Unemployment
5 Most Women Are Homemakers ____________________
6 Geographical Distribution of Women Workers ................■_______
7 Annual Growth in Labor Force of Women and Men, 1947-68 ___
8 Rise in Median Age of Women Workers____________________
Labor Force Participation of Women
17
9 Variations in Labor Force Participation by Age Group, 1940-68
10 Rise in Labor Force Participation of Mature Women_________
11 Labor Force Participation of White and Nonwhite Women____
12 Labor Force Participation of Women 18 to 64 Years Old_____
Marital Status of Women Workers_____________________________
13 Nearly 3 Out of 5 Women Workers Are Married____________
14 Labor Force Participation of Women by Marital Status______
16 Labor Force Participation of Women by Age and Marital Status .
Family Status of Women Workers
16 Types of Families in the Population _____ __________________
17 Unrelated Individuals in the Population
29
18 Labor Force Participation of Women in Different Types of
Families ________________
Employment Status of Husband-Wife and Female-Head Families___
19 Husband-Wife Families ________________________
20 Female-Head Families___________________________
Working Wives _______________
21 Labor Force Participation of Wives by Income ofHusband____
22 Contribution of Wives to Family Income___________________
23 Job-Related Expenses of Working Wives____________________
24 Occupations of Husbands and Wives ________
Working Mothers
26 Number and Proportion of Working Mothers_____________ _
26 Labor Force Participation of Mothers
40
27 Trends in Labor Force Participation of Mothers ___________
5
6
9
9
10
11
12
12
16
15
17
19
20
21
23
23
26
27
28
28
29
29
29
29
32
32
34
36
37
37
37
40
v
Section
Page
28 Children of Working Mothers ------------------------------------------29 Labor Force Participation of White and Nonwhite Mothers------30 Labor Force Participation of Mothers by Income of Husband----31 Part-Time and Part-Year Work Patterns of Mothers--------------Mothers (husband present) ----------------------------------------Mothers (husband absent)------- ----------------------------------32 Child Care Arrangements of Working Mothers------ ----------------Federal and State tax treatment regarding child care
expenses
33 Maternity Provisions-------------Voluntary plans----------Legislative provisions ------------------------------------------------Working Life of Women___________________
34 Work Experience of Women------------------------------ r----------------Reasons given for part-year work--------------------------------Changes in work experience of women since 1950 --------------Work experience by age------------------Work experience by marital status-------------------------------Work experience by occupation-------------------------------------Work experience of white and nonwhite women---------------35 Employed Women by Part-Time and Full-Time Status------------Part-time and full-time employment by selected char
acteristics --------------Interest among jobseekers in full- or part-time work---------36 Unemployed Women-----------Trends in unemployment rates--------------------------------------Unemployment by marital status----------------------------------Unemployment by family status-----------------------------------Unemployment by age -----------------------------------------------Special unemployment problems of teenagers------------------“Hidden” unemployment and “underemployment”------------Unemployment of white and nonwhite women and girls------37 Labor Turnover and Absenteeism---------------------------------------Labor turnover_____________ _____ —-------- --------------Absenteeism - -------38 Multiple Jobholders
80
39 Women as Members of Unions----------------------------Womanpower Reserve
84
Chapter 2—Women’s Employment
Industries
by
Occupations
51
52
52
53
55
55
56
56
57
58
60
62
63
66
66
67
69
69
69
70
72
73
73
76
76
80
82
and
Principal Occupations of Women------------------------------------------------40 Type of Work----------------------------------------------------------------41 Major Occupation Groups------------------------------------------------Occupational differences between women and men------------42 Proportion of Workers Who Are Women-----------------------------Detailed Occupations of Women------------------------------------------------43 Women in Professional Occupations-----------------------------------44 Women Managers, Officials, and Proprietors ------------------------45 Women in Clerical Occupations------------------------------------------46 Women in Service Occupations----------------vi
42
42
43
43
46
47
47
87
87
89
93
94
94
95
100
100
101
Section
^
*
Page
Occupations by Selected Characteristics...............................................__
47 Occupations of Women by Marital Status
102
48 Occupations of Nonwhite Women____________ ____ _________
49 Occupations of Young Women___________________ ________
50 Occupations of Mature Women_____________ ______ _______
Industry Groups of Women____________________ _____ _________
51 Distribution of Women by Industry
109
Changes in women’s employment by industry___________
Women as a percent of all workers
109
52 Women as Nonfarm Workers_____________________________
Factory workers .....................
Nonmanufacturing workers _________________
53 Women on Farms__________________ _____ _______________
Women in Public Administration
118
54 Women in Federal Civilian Service.................................................
Legislative branch __________________________________
Judicial branch __________
Executive branch, general __________ _____ _______ ___
Executive branch, Foreign Service
55 Women in the Armed Services 122
66 Women in State Office____________________ _______ ______
57 Women Mayors 126
Chapter 3—Women’s Income
*
■**'“
*
and
105
107
108
109
109
Ill
113
115
117
118
118
118
119
120
125
Earnings
Factors Affecting Earnings 127
Income of Families and Women____ _____ _____________________
58 Family Income ____________
Income of husband-wife families -___
Income of female-head families
Families living in poverty
59 Income of Women Compared With That of Men_____________
Differences in income received_____ _____
Trends in income differences____________________
Occupational income differences
60 Income of Women by Work Experience 134
61 Wage or Salary Income of White andNonwhite Women________
62 Income by Age ______
63 Income by Occupation ________________________________
64 Income by Education____ ____________
65 Women Receiving Benefits
141
66 Women as Stockholders ________________
Earnings of Nonprofessional Women Workers___________________
67 Earnings of Office Workers 146
68 Earnings in Selected ManufacturingIndustries______________
Cotton textiles
Synthetic textiles
Women’s and misses’ dresses 152
69 Earnings in Selected Service Industries
153
Hotels and motels ________
Laundry and cleaning services
154
Eating and drinking places
102
128
128
129
129
130
132
132
133
134
136
137
138
138
145
146
147
149
150
153
156
vii
Section
Page
70 Earnings in Nonprofessional Hospital Occupations__________
Salaries of Professional Women Workers 158
71 Salaries of School Teachers___________________________
Elementary and secondary school teachers________________
College and university teachers________________
Junior college teachers________________________________
72 Salaries of Professional and Technical Workers in Private
Industry
__________________________________________
73 Salaries in Professional HospitalNursing Occupations_________
74 Salaries of Professional and Technical Hospital Personnel
(Nonnursing)
168
75 Salaries of Scientists
Salaries of Federal Employees__________________________________
Salaries of College Graduates________ ___ ____________________
76 Starting Salaries of Recent College Graduates______________
77 Salaries of College Women Seven Years After Graduation___
Chapter 4—Education, Training,
and
Employment
of
158
t
159
161
162
*
162
163
169
171
173
173
174
Women
Education of Women in the Population and Labor Force ________
78 Education of Women Workers
79 Rise in Educational Attainment
School Enrollments __________________ _____ _______ ______ ___
80 Enrollments by Age _______
81 Enrollments by Type of School
183
82 Secondary School Enrollments
Growth
Retention rates ________________
School dropouts _____________________________________
Women and Higher Education_________________________________
83 High School Graduates Entering College
186
84 College Enrollments
Types of institutions attended bywomen
187
Freshmen students _______
Full-time and part-time students
Graduate students
College enrollment and marriage 190
85 Women Earning Degrees
Number and types of degrees______________
Comparison of degrees earned by women and men_______
Fields of study in which women earned degrees_________
Bachelor’s degrees
First professional degrees
Master’s degrees_________________
Doctor’s degrees__ ______
86 Continuing Education Programs forWomen ________________
87 Financial Assistance for College Students---- ----Educational opportunity grants
201
National defense student loans
201
Guaranteed loans
202
Work-study assistance
viii
157
177
178
179
180
180
184
184
185
185
186
187
189
189
190
190
190
191
192
193
195
196
196
199
201
202
Section
*
Page
Cooperative education __________________
203
Social security benefits for students________________
203
Aid for special fields of study______________
203
Aid to veterans_________ __________
204
Aid to children of veterans___________
204
Education and Employment________________
204
88 Educational Attainment and Labor Force Participation
204
89 Educational Attainment and Occupations ____________
209
Occupations of Girl High School Graduates and School Drop
outs ________________ _____
212
College Majors and Occupations________________
216
90 Educational Attainment and Unemployment
217
91 Educational Attainment and Hours of Work___________
220
Training Programs for Women_______________ _
220
92 Federally Aided Vocational Education"
221
93 Training Programs Under the Department of Labor_____
225
Training under the Manpower Development and Training
Act _______ __ ___ _
_
226
Training and other opportunities under the Economic
Opportunity Act ____________ ______
229
The Neighborhood Youth Corps __
229
Adult work training and experience programs
230
The Work Incentive Program____________
231
Newest program directions and innovations
232
The Concentrated Employment Program
232
Cooperative programs with industry
233
94 Training and Other Programs Under the Office of Economic
Opportunity
_____________
235
The Job Corps ______________
235
The Domestic Volunteer Service Program (VISTA) ____
236
Community action programs_____
237
95 Apprenticeship Training ___________________
237
96 Vocational Rehabilitation of Handicapped Women___
238
97 Special Program for Private Household Workers___
240
Chapter 5—Outlook
*
\
for
Women Workers
Outlook for Women Workers _________
PART II—LAWS GOVERNING WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT
AND STATUS
Highlights
____________________________
Chapter 6—Federal Labor Laws
251
for
Women
98 The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 __________
99 Fair Labor Standards Amendments of 1966 ___
100 Equal Pay Act of 1963 _________________ """
101 Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 _____________
Empioyment by the Federal Government and by Federal Contractors
102 Executive Order 11375 _________
103 Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 _____
253
254
255
255
257
257
258
ix
Section
Page
Chapter 7—State Labor Laws
for
Women
Minimum Wage -----------------------------------------------------------104 Historical Record of Minimum Wage Legislation------------105 Roster of Minimum Wage Jurisdictions-----------------------Overtime Compensation ----------------------------------------------106 Statutory Requirements ---------------------------------.............
107 Wage Order Requirements --------------------------------------Equal Pay ............................. ............................ ...............................
108 Historical Record of Equal Pay Legislation.......... .......... 109 Roster of Equal Pay States........ ......... ....... ...............-.........
Fair Employment Practices --------------------------------------------110 Roster of Fair Employment Practices States---------------Hours of Work------------- --------------------------------------- -------111 Maximum Daily and Weekly Hours --------------------------112 Day of Rest----------------------------------------------------------113 Meal Period ---------------------------------------------------------114 Rest Period-----------------------------------------------------------115 Nightworlc
------ -------------------------------------- ---------Other Labor Legislation-------------------------------------------------116 Industrial Homework ---------------------------------------------117 Employment Before and After Childbirth---------------------118 Occupational Limitations ----------------------------------------119 Seating and Weightlifting---------------------------------------Seating ------------------------------ -------------------------Weightlifting ----------------------- --------------------- ------Chapter 8—Political
and
Civil Status
of
f
Women
New Trends ------ --------------- ----------- -------------------------------------Political Status ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------120 Citizenship -------------------------------------------------- -------- -------121 Voting and Public Office------------------------------------ ------------Federal elections------------------------------------------ ---------State elections -------------------------------------------------------Civil service positions -----------------------------------------------Courts—jury service ------------------------------------------------122 Domicile ---------- -----------------------------------------------------------Civil Status—Family Relations ----------------------------------------------123 Marriage ------------------------------------------ ---------------------------124 Divorce ------------- -------- --------------------------------------- --------125 Parent and Child ----------------------------------------------------------Unmarried parents ---------------------------------------------- Inheritance by parents from children----------------------------126 Family Support-------------------------------------------------------------Unmarried parents---------------------------------------------------Uniform Reciprocal Enforcement of Support Act-----------Civil Status—Property and Contract Law --------------------------------127 Property -------------------------------------------------------------------128 Ownership, Control, and Use of Property ------------------------Personal earnings ---------------------------------------------------Real property owned separately----------------------------------Real and personal property acquired by joint efforts after
marriage
------------------- ;------------------------ -------------
X
261
262
265
266
266
267
267
267
269
269
269
270
271
273
274
274
275
275
275
276
277
278
278
278
281
282
282
282
282
282
282
283
284
285
285
286
287
287
287
288
288
288
289
289
289
289
290
290
»
i
Section
V
129
Page
Disposition of property after death
Contracts __________
291
292
PART III—COMMISSIONS ON THE STATUS OF WOMEN
Federal
State _ _
294
297
PART IV—ORGANIZATIONS OF INTEREST TO WOMEN
Civic, Religious, and Social Organizations___________
Professional and Business Organizations________
Genera} Service Organizations of Business and Professional Women
Educational Organizations ____________
Political and Legislative Organizations _____________
Patriotic Organizations___________
Farm and Rural Organizations__________
Labor Organizations _______________
Alphabetical List of Organizations ___________
302
308
319
321
325
326
327
328
329
PART V—BIBLIOGRAPHY ON AMERICAN WOMEN
WORKERS
«
General ________________
Commissions on the Status of Women_____________
Counseling and Guidance ___________________
Education and Training__________
Continuing education—programs and needs______
Job training and vocational education__________
Family Status and Responsibilities of Women Workers
Child care arrangements _______________
Working mothers ____________________
Historical Development __________
International _____________
Special Groups of Women____________
Mature women ____________ _________
Nonwhite women _______________
Teenagers and youth_______________
Other special groups _________________
Standards and Legislation Affecting Women ________
Civil and political status ____________
Equal pay_________________
Minimum wage____________
Union Organization ____________
Volunteers___________ ____
Women as Workers_______________ ___
Earnings and income____________________
Occupations and employment __________ ;____
Reports of Conferences, Meetings, and Commissions___
Speeches ________________
Bibliographies ________________
INDEX
334
335
336
338
340
341
343
343
345
346
350
351
351
353
354
355
357
358
358
359
359
360
361
362
364
366
369
370
373
xi
Tables
Table
1
2
3
4
Women in the Labor Force, Selected Years, 1890-1968 -----------Employment Status of Women and Men, 1968 ---------------------Women in the Population and Labor Force, by Age, 1940 and 1968
Labor Force Participation Rates of Women, by Age, Selected
Years, 1940-68
6 Women as Percent of Civilian Labor Force, by Age and Color,
1958 and 1968 _________________________________ _____
6 Labor Force Participation Rates of Women 18 to 64 Years of
Age, Selected Years, 1947-68 --------------------------------------7 Women in the Population and Labor Force, by Marital Status,
March 1940 and 1967 --------------------------------------------------8 Labor Force Participation Rates of Women, by Marital Status,
Selected Years, 1940-67 -----------------------------------------------9 Labor Force Participation Rates of Women, by Age and Marital
Status, March 1967 ------------------------------------------------------10 Employment Status of Female Family Heads, by Employment
Status of Other Family Members, March 1967 -----------------11 Labor Force Status of Female Family Heads, by Age, March
1967
---------- -----------------------------------------------------------12 Labor Force Participation Rates of Wives (Husband Present),
by Income of Husband in 1966 and Presence and Age of
Children, March 1967 -------------------------------------------------13 Percent Distribution of Married Women (Husband Present)
in the Labor Force, by Income of Husband in 1966, March
1967
____________________________________________ —
14 Percent of Family Income Accounted for by Wives’ Earnings
in 1966 _______________________ _______ ___ ____ _____
15 Occupation of Wives, by Occupation of Husbands, March 1967 _ 16 Mothers in the Population and Labor Force, by Marital Status
and by Age of Children, March 1967 -----------------------------17 Labor Force Participation Rates of Mothers and of All Women,
Selected Years, 1940-67 -----------------------------------------------18 Labor Force Participation Rates of Mothers (Husband Present),
by Color and by Age of Children, March 1967 ------------------19 Labor Force Participation Rates and Percent Distribution of
Mothers (Husband Present), by Income of Husband in 1966
and Age of Children, March 1967 --------------------------------20 Work Experience in 1966 of Mothers (Husband Present), by
Age of Children, March 1967 --------------------------------------21 Full-Time and Part-Time Work Status of Mothers Employed in
Nonagricultural Industries, by Marital Status and by Age of
Children, March 1967 ------------------------------ ------------------22 Child Care Arrangements of Working Mothers With Children
Under 14 Years of Age, by Age of Children, February 1965 - 23 Work Experience of Women, 1950, 1960, and 1967 ---------------24 Percent of Women and Men With Work Experience in 1967, by
Age -------------------------- ---------------- -----------------------------25 Work Experience of Women in 1967, by Age----------------------26 Work Experience of Women in 1967, by Marital Status------27 Work Experience of Women in 1967, by Major Occupation Group
xii
Page
10
f
n
17
18
22
22
23
26
27
30
31
33
34
35
38
39
40
43
45
47
48
49
57
58
59
60
61
4
Table
28 Work Experience of Women in 1967, by Color and Age_______
64
29 Women at Work in Nonagricultural Industries, by Full- and
Part-Time Status and Selected Characteristics, 1968 _____
66
30 Unemployed Persons Looking for Full- or Part-Time Work by
Age, 1968 ---------------------------------------------------------- ’
g7
31 Percent Distribution of the Unemployed and Unemployment
Kates, by Sex and Reason for Unemployment, 1968 _________
68
32 Unemployment Rates of Women and Men, 1947-68 _______
70
33 Unemployment Rates of Women and Men, by Age 1968
71
34 Unemployment Rates, by Sex, Age, and Color, Selected Years,
1959—68 _________________
^
35 Women With Two or More Jobs, by Occupation of Primary ani
Secondary Jobs, May 1966 ___________________
81
36 Women Members of Labor Unions, 1966 ___________
83
37 Employment, by Sex and Type of Work, 1940, 1950, and1968 ..
88
38 Major Occupation Groups and Selected Occupations of Employed
Women, April 1968 ________________________
9Q
39 Major Occupation Groups of Employed Girls 14 and 15 Years of
Age, April 1968 _________________________
91
40 Major Occupation Groups of Employed Women, 1940, 1950, and
^
92
41 Detailed Occupations in Which 100,000 or More Women Were
Employed, 1960 __________
06
42 °Crr,tirS in Which Women Were Three-fourths or More of
Total Employed, 1960 _________________
g_
43 Major Occupation Groups of Employed Women, by Marital Status
March 1967 ________________
103
44 Marital Status of Employed Women, by Major Occupation Group,
March 1967 ___________
^
45 M1968 °CCUpation GrouPs of Employed Nonwhite Women, April
4
46
Major Occupation Groups of Employed Girls 16 to 19 Years of
Age, April 1968 ____________________________
47 Major Occupation Groups of Employed Women 45 Years of Age
*
and Over, April ig68 of Employed Women, 1940, 1950, and
Industry GrouPs ______________________
1967
____________
49 Women in Nonagricultural Industries, 1964 and 1968 ____ _ '
Women in Manufacturing Industries, 1960 and 1968 __________
0men ln Selected Nonmanufacturing Industries, 1960 and 1968 _
„
"lp oyment Status of Women Living on Farms, 1960 and 1967
Women in the Federal Civilian Service, Selected Years, 1923-67
54 Foreign Service Personnel, by Sex and Rank, March 1968
48
f?
56
57
58
59
60
TST*
°n A0tive Families, by Type of Family, 1966 ________
Median Income of Duty in the Armed Services, November 1967 ..
Families Living in Poverty, 1966 __________
Income of Women and Men, 1966 __________
Women’s Median Wage or Salary Income as Percent of Men’s, by
Selected Major Occupation Group, 1956-66 __________
Median Income of Women Workers in 1966, by Work Experience .
m
10g
110
112
114
116
118
120
121
123
128
131
jgg
435
136
Xlll
Page
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
Median Wage or Salary Income of Year-Round Full-Time Work
ers, by Sex and Color, 1939 and 1956-66 --------------------------Median Wage or Salary Income of Year-Round Full-Time Work
ers, by Major Occupation Group and Sex, 1966 -------------------Median Income in 1966 of Persons, by Educational Attainment,
Sex, and Color -------------------------------------------------- -------Number of Women Receiving OASDI Benefits and Average
Monthly Benefits Received, by Color, End of 1966 ---------------Average Weekly Earnings of Women in Selected Office Occupa
tions, 17 Metropolitan Areas, July 1967-June 1968 ------------Average Hourly Earnings in Selected Occupations in the Cotton
Textile Industry, by Sex, United States and Southeast Region,
September 1965 ----------------- *---------------------------------------Average Hourly Earnings in Selected Occupations in the Syn
thetic Textile Industry, by Sex, United States and Southeast
Region, September 1965 ----------------------------------------------Average Hourly Earnings in the Women’s and Misses’ Dress
Industry, by Sex, 11 Metropolitan Areas, March 1966 -------Average Hourly Wages of Employees in Selected Hotel Occupa
tions, by Region, United States and Metropolitan Areas, April
1967 ___________________________________ _______
Average Hourly Earnings in Laundry and Cleaning Services, by
Sex, Region, and Occupation, April 1968 ------------------------Average Hourly Wages in Selected Occupations in Eating and
Drinking Places, by Sex and Region, United States and Metro
politan Areas, April 1967 ---------------------------------------------Average Earnings of Women Employed Full Time in Nonprofes
sional Hospital Occupations, 21 Metropolitan Areas, July 1966 .
Estimated Average Annual Salaries of Elementary and Secondary
School Teachers, by Area, 1968-69 --------------------------------Median Annual Salaries of Teaching Staff in Colleges and Uni
versities, by Sex, 1965-66 ------------------------------------------Median Weekly Earnings of Women in Selected Hospital Nursing
Occupations, 21 Metropolitan Areas, July 1966 ---------------Women Professional Registered Nurses, by Field of Employment,
1967
Median Weekly Salaries of Women Industrial Nurses, 64 Metro
politan Areas, 1967-68 ------------------------------------------------78 Median Weekly Earnings of Women in Selected Nonnursing Pro
fessional and Technical Hospital Occupations, 21 Metropolitan
Areas, July 1966 --------------------------------- ----------------------79 Women Scientists, by Field and Highest Degree, 1966 -------
80 Median Annual Salaries of Full-Time Employed Women Civilian
Scientists, by Field, 1966 -------------------------------------------81 Average Annual Salaries of Women Full-Time White-Collar
Workers in the Federal Service, All Areas, by Occupation
Group, October 31, 1967 ------------------------------------------------82 Starting Salaries of Women With Bachelor’s Degrees, by Field,
1968 and 1969
83 Average Annual Salaries of 1957 Women College Graduates, by
Occupation, 1957-58 and 1964 ----------------------------------------
137
4
139
141
144
148
150
151
152
154
155
157
159
160
161
164
165
77
xiv
166
168
170
171
172
174
176
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
Educational Attainment of the Population and of Workers, by
Sex, March 1968 ______________________________
jijrg
School Enrollments, October 1966, and Enrollment Rates, October
1950 and 1966, by Sex and Age
jgj
School Enrollments and Enrollment Rates, by Color, Age, and
Sex, October 1966
lg2
Types of School Attended by Students 5 to 34 Years of Age, by
Sex, October 1966 __________________________________
lg4
High School Graduates and First-Time College Enrollees, by Sex,
Selected Years, 1950-67 ____________________________
lg7
College Enrollments, by Type of Institution and Enrollment
Category, Fall 1967
Igg
Earned Bachelor’s Degrees Conferred on Women, by Selected
Fields of Study, 1966-67
193
Earned First Professional Degrees Conferred on Women, by Se
lected Fields of Study, 1966-67 _______________ ____ _____
195
Earned Master’s Degrees Conferred on Women, by Selected
Fields of Study, 1966-67
I97
Earned Doctor’s Degrees Conferred on Women, by Selected
Fields of Study, 1966-67 _____________
199
Labor Force Participation Rates of Women, by Educational At
tainment and Marital Status, March 1968
206
Labor Force Participation Rates of Women, by Educational At
tainment and Age, March 1968
207
Labor Force Participation Rates of Nonwhite Women, by Educa
tional Attainment and Age, March 1968
208
Employment Status of High School Graduates Not Enrolled in
College and School Dropouts, by Sex, Age, and Color, October
1967 ------------------------------------------------------------------------210
Major Occupation Groups of Employed Women, by Educational
Attainment, March 1968
211
Educational Attainment of Employed Women, by Major Occupa
tion Group, March 1968
214
Major Occupation Groups of Employed Girl High School Grad
uates and School Dropouts, by Color, October 1967 ___________ 215
Unemployment Rates of Women, by Educational Attainment and
Color, March 1968 ___________________________
217
Educational Attainment of Women in the Labor Force, by Em
ployment Status and Color, March 1968
219
Weekly Hours of Work of Women Employed in Nonagricultural
Industries, by Educational Attainment, March 1968 ________
220
Women Enrolled in Public Vocational Courses, by Type of Pro
gram, 1966-67 ______________________________
223
Percentage of Women Enrolled in MDTA Training Programs,
by Selected Characteristics, Fiscal Year 1968 _____________
227
Percentage of Women Enrolled in MDTA Programs, by Selected
Occupations, Fiscal Year 1968
228
Labor Force Participation Rates, by Sex and by Age of Women,
1968 and Projected to 1980
244
Labor Force Participation Rates, by Sex and Color and by Age
of Women, 1968 and Projected to 1980
245
xv
Charts
Chart
Page
A Most Women Are Homemakers
12
B Fourteen States Each Have More Than a Half Million Women
Workers_______________________________
C Women’s Employment Has Increased Faster Than Men’s______
D The Proportion of Women Workers Over 45 Is Rising________
E Among Adult Women, Nonwhite Are More Likely To Work Than
Are White Women
F Most Women Who Work Are Married
24
G The Number of Married Women in the Labor Force Has Grown
Rapidly
H Mothers Are More Likely To Work Today Than Ever Before---I A High Proportion of Nonwhite Working Mothers Have Young
Children
44
J A Smaller Proportion of Mothers With Young Children Work at
All Income Levels
K About 2 Out of 5 Women Workers Have Full-Time Year-Round
Jobs ------------------------------------L Unemployment Is Highest Among Younger Women --------------M Unemployment of Nonwhite Workers Continues To Be High--N 7 Out of 10 Clerical Workers Are Women
93
O A Larger Proportion of Non white Than White Women Are in
Service Work 105
P The Earnings Gap Between Women and Men Is Widening------Q Education and Earning Power Go Together--------------------------R Most Women Workers Are at Least High School Graduates------S The Difference in the Educational Attainment of White and Non
white Workers Is Narrowing
T 2 Out of 5 Women College Graduates Major in Education-------U Labor Force Participation Increases With Education _________
V The Jobs Women Hold Reflect the Education They Have Had----
Because of rounding, details in the statistical tables do not neces
sarily add to the totals. The word “average” refers to an arithmetical
mean.
The information in this handbook is based upon the latest figures
available when released to press.
xvi
*
14
15
20
21
25
41
46
56
71
74
133
140
179
180
192
205
213
Parti
Women in the Labor Force
V
HIGHLIGHTS
EMPLOYMENT IN 1968
Number—Over 29 million women are in the labor force.
This is 42 percent of all women of working age.
Women are 37 percent of the labor force.
Age—Half of the women workers are 40 years of age or over.
Almost two-fifths are 45 years or older.
More than half of all women are in the labor force in the fol
lowing age groups: 18 and 19 years, 20 to 24 years, and 45
to 54 years.
Marital Status—Almost 3 out of 5 women workers are married (husband
present).
Of all married women (husband present) in the population, 37
percent are working.
Family Status—About 10.6 million mothers with children under 18 years
of age are working, of whom 4.1 million have children under 6
years.
Working mothers are 38 percent of all women in the labor force.
Employment Patterns—About 42 percent of all women workers work
full time the year round.
Almost 30 percent work part time the year round or part of the
year.
Occupations—About 34 percent of all employed women are
clerical workers.
They include 3.3 million stenographers, typists, and secretaries.
Sixteen percent are service workers (except private household).
Fifteen percent are operatives, chiefly in factories.
Almost 15 percent are professional and technical workers. They
include 1.7 million teachers.
INCOME IN 1966
Median Income in 1966—$4,026 was received by year-round full-time
women workers; $1,638, by all women with income.
EDUCATION IN 1966-68
School and College Enrollment—There were over 26 million girls and
women between 5 and 34 years of age enrolled in school in the fall
of 1966. The 2.8 million college women were two-fifths of all college
students in the fall of 1967.
3
Education Completed—About 297,000 women earned college degrees
in 1966—67. A total of 2.9 million women workers have a college
degree, according to a March 1968 study. About 12.2 million women
workers are at least high school graduates (no college), and 3.4
million have some college education (no degree).
•
1
WOMEN AS WORKERS
Toward Economic Equality and Opportunity
Womanpower is one of our country’s greatest, resources.
Women s skills and abilities are being used more fully and more
creatively than ever before—in the home, in the community, and
on the job.
Since 1940 American women have been responsible for the
major share in the growth of the labor force. They accounted for
about 65 percent of the total increase from 1940 to 1968, and their
representation in the labor force has risen from one-fourth to al
most two-fifths of all workers.
The growing contribution made by women to the economic life
of the country has developed largely as a result of many social
and economic changes of the last 28 years. Women have been
freed for work outside the home by scientific and technological
advances that have simplified home chores. The growth of new
industries in a dynamic economy and expanded activities in oth
ers, as in commerce and trade, have opened new doors for women
in business, the professions, and the production of goods and serv
ices.
The increased demand for women as workers has been accom
panied by broadened opportunities for their education and by
girls’ and women’s increasing awareness of the need for more
training. The great emphasis in recent years on completion of
high school, on occupational training, on university education,
and on continuing education for mature women has encouraged
women to seek better preparation for jobs. This has facilitated
their integration into the working world.
Women have made significant progress in the last few years
and have found many new doors opened to them. Many of these
gains can be credited to the President’s Commission on the Status
of Women, established in 1961.1 The Commission studied the role
of women in American life, examined their needs, and evaluated
their potential contribution to the country’s economic, social, and
1 See Part III for additional information on the President’s Commission on the Status
of Women and developments stemming from this Commission.
5
6
WOMEN AS WORKERS
political development. The Commission’s report, American
Women, contained many far-reaching recommendations that envi
sioned full partnership for women in the affairs of the Nation. At
the Federal level the Interdepartmental Committee and the Citi
zens’ Advisory Council on the Status of Women have followed
through on the work of the original Commission.
In addition, commissions on the status of women established
in each of the 50 States, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico,
the Virgin Islands, and two municipalities have not only made
full recognition and utilization of the Nation’s womanpower a
matter of wide concern but also have achieved many gains for
women. In all areas greater interest has been aroused in the need
to educate, counsel, and train women for their responsibilities as
homemakers, mothers, and workers.
Women are promised equality and greater economic opportu
nity under Government programs that mark the beginning of a
new national effort to eradicate discrimination based on sex, race,
and age. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is of particular interest to
women, since its employment provisions prohibit discrimination
in employment on the basis of sex as well as race, color, religion,
or national origin. The Equal Pay Act of 1963, which became ef
fective in 1964, promises better wage protection for women by
prohibiting wage discrimination on the basis of sex. Job discrimi
nation against either men or women workers 40 to 65 years of age
is prohibited by the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of
1967. This act, like the two just mentioned, covers establishments
engaged in interstate commerce. In addition, Executive orders re
quire equal employment opportunity regardless of race, creed,
color, national origin, sex, or age—in Government employment
and in employment by Federal contractors and under federally
assisted construction.
The Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 commits the Nation to
remove the causes and consequences of poverty.2 The act affects
women as it does men. It is designed to help develop the potential
ities of the most severely disadvantaged of our people, many of
whom are women. A society that aspires toward greatness must
make use of every individual’s talents and abilities, and it must
give each and every one the opportunity to participate fully in the
social and economic life of the country.1
1. Predominant Work Patterns
The social, economic, and cultural factors that have led to these
2 Some programs of this act are discussed in sections 93 and 94.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
7
important milestones have been at work for decades shaping new
patterns for women’s lives. One of these factors is greater longev
ity, especially for women. The baby girl born in 1900 had a life
expectancy of only 48 years, but the baby girl born in 1966 can
expect to live, on the average, to the age of nearly 74 years. The
factors that have extended the lifespan have reduced the inci
dence of disease and have given women greater vitality for fuller
enjoyment of their added years.
Women are marrying young today—half of them marry by age
20.6, and more marry at age 18 than at any other age. About 9
out of 10 women work outside the home some time during their
lives, whether they marry or not. But marriage and the presence
of children tend to curtail their employment, while widowhood,
divorce, and the decrease of family responsibilities tend to attract
them back into the work force. As indicated from statistics on
women s characteristics and from a special study on worklife ex
pectancy,3 several major work patterns are found to exist among
women.
For women who remain single, the work pattern is relatively
simple and bears a strong resemblance to that for men. Women in
this group, which includes about one-tenth of all women, work
most of their lives. Those who enter the labor force by age 20 and
remain unmarried will probably continue to work for about 45
years—slightly more than the 43-year average for men. These
single women workers at the age of 35 can expect, on the average,
to be on the job another 31 years—2.6 years more than the aver
age man of 35.
Women who marry, do not have children, and remain married
(about one-tenth of all married women), if they enter the labor
force by age 20, have a worklife expectancy of 35 years—10 years
less than single women. At age 35, these married women have an
average of 24 more working years (about 7 years less than single
women). Whereas most single women must depend on their own
earnings for support, women with husbands are in a better posi
tion to stop work when they have minor disabilities or for other
reasons.
The length of the average working life for the large group of
married women with children is more difficult to estimate because
of the intermittent nature of their work careers. Like other
women, typically they start to work immediately after finishing
high school—generally when they are 17 or 18 years old. After a
few years, often they quit work to get married and have children.
’U.S. Department of Labor, Manpower Administration: “Work Life Expectancy and Trainmg Needs of Women.” Manpower Report No. 12. May 1967.
8
WOMEN AS WORKERS
Since the current tendency is for women to marry and have chil
dren at a younger age than formerly, the average woman has
borne her last child at about age 80 and is in her midthirties
when all her children are in school and her family responsibili
ties considerably decreased. Stimulated by such factors as eco
nomic pressures, lighter housekeeping tasks, and better job oppor
tunities, those who return to the labor force generally have been
out for about 8 to 10 years. If they reenter when they are 35
years of age and have no more children, they can expect to aver
age another 24 years of work.
The expected worklife of a woman with children diminishes
with the more children she has and the later she has the last
child. For example, a woman marrying at age 20 has a worklife
expectancy of 25 years if she has just one child, 22 years if she
has two children, 20 years if she has three children, and 17 years
if she has four or more children.
After losing their husbands, a relatively large percentage of
widowed, divorced, or separated women return to the labor force.
After age 30, the length of time these women can expect to re
main in the work force is slightly less than for single women but
longer than for married women. Women workers who at age 35
are widowed, separated, or divorced can anticipate another 28
years at work—about one-half year less than the average man.
Whether or not a particular woman will look for employment
depends on various economic, social, and psychological factors at
the time in her life when she is making her decision. But financial
reasons are usually the strongest motivation for most women. It
can be assumed, of course, that economic necessity is the overrid
ing reason for employment among women who have to support
themselves, among women who have to support dependents with
out help of a husband, among working mothers of young children,
and among wives whose husbands have inadequate or no income.
An investigation into the reasons why married women become
part of the labor force was made by the Bureau of Labor Statis
tics in February 1964.4 This survey revealed that married
women constituted about two-thirds of the 1.2 million women 18
to 64 years old who entered into employment in 1963. About half
of the married women gave economic necessity as their major
reason for taking a job. These wives worked to supplement inade
quate family income; to help pay for a home, medical treatment,
or their children’s education; or to raise the family’s standard of
living in general.
4 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report No. 69.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
9
Financial remuneration is, however, not the sole reason why so
many women are in the labor force. About one-fifth of the mar
ried women questioned in the Bureau of Labor Statistics survey
indicated that their interest in employment was social or psycho
logical in nature, and almost another fifth said they wanted to
earn extra money. It is significant that the more education a
woman acquires, the more likely she is to seek paid employment,
irrespective of her financial status. The educated woman desires
to contribute her skills and talents to the economy not only for
the financial rewards, but even more to reap the psychic rewards
that come from achievement and recognition and service to soci
ety.
Numbers and Trends
2. Twenty-nine Million Wo men Workers
About 29.2 million women were in the labor force in 1968. This
figure exceeds by about 9 million the wartime employment peak
reached in July 1944 during World War II, when there were
around 20 million women workers 16 years of age and over. It
compares with about 5 million at the turn of the century and with
the prewar figure of slightly less than 14 million in 1940 (table
1).
There has been a striking advance in this century in the pro
portion of women in the work force. In 1900 women were only 18
percent of all workers; in 1940, about 25 percent. The proportion
reached a high of 36 percent during World War II and then
dropped sharply to 28 percent with the return of male veterans to
civilian jobs, before starting to climb again. Today 37 percent of
all workers are women.
The remarkable rise in the numbers and proportions of women
in the labor force is due to a combination of demographic, eco
nomic, and social developments. Among demographic factors, the
most important were the overall increase in population and the
changed ratio of women to men in the population, resulting from
the greater longevity of women. Economic and social factors in
cluded (1) the increasing demand for labor as the industrial
structure of employment shifted job growth from agriculture to
goods-producing activities to services and (2) the resultant trend
toward urban living. To these factors were added more recently
the widespread use of laborsaving equipment in the home, rising
aspirations toward a higher standard of living and a higher level
of education, and increased job opportunities for women in rap-
10
WOMEN AS WORKERS
idly expanding clerical, service, and sales occupations. Finally, an
evolution in social attitudes and values encouraged women to de
velop their abilities and talents to the fullest in paid work.
Table 1.—Women
Date
Labor Force, Selected Years,
(Women 16 years of age and over)
in the
Number
».
i
1890-1968
As percent As percent
of woman
of all
workers population
HIGHLIGHTS 1
1968 (annual average) _ __ _ ......... . _ 29,204,000
April 1968 _
___
__ 28,697,000
Midsixties (April 1966)
_
_ .
__ 25,831,000
Start of the sixties (April 1960)
- __ 22,985,000
Midfifties (April 1955)
—
- __ 19,987,000
Korean conflict (April 1953)
_
. _ __ 19,116,000
Pre-Korean conflict (April 1950)
. _ 17,882,000
Post-World War II (April 1947) __ _ __ 16,150,000
World War II (April 1945)
_
- __ 19,290,000
Pre-World War II (March 1940) . ___ _ _ 13,783,000
37.1
37.0
35.0
33.3
31.2
30.6
29.1
27.6
36.1
25.4
41.6
41.0
38.8
37.4
34.8
34.0
33.0
30.9
38.1
28.9
LONG-TERM TRENDS 2
(April) _________
. __ ______
10,396,000
(January)
____________________ ..
8,229,000
(June)
__
4,999,000
(June) _____ __ __
_.
3,704,000
21.9
20.4
18.1
17.0
23.6
22.7
20.0
18.2
1930
1920
1900
1890
1 Civilian labor force.
2 Decennial census figures cover those 14 years of age and over in the total labor force.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Employment and Earnings,
May 1960, 1965, and 1968, and January 1969. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the
Census: Annual Report on the Labor Force, 1940-55. Social Science Research Council:
“Labor Force in the United States, 1890-1960." 1948.
Between 1900 and 1968 the female population 16 years of age
and over increased nearly threefold. During the same period the
ratio of men to women in the population changed considerably. In
1900 men outnumbered women by more than 1.3 million, but
today there are almost 5 million more women than men of work
ing age (16 years and over). The female labor force increased almost sixfold during this period. The percentage of women
workers among all women of working age advanced from 20 per
cent in 1900 to 29 percent in 1940 and to 42 percent in 1968.
3. Nonwhite Women in the Labor Force
The civilian labor force in 1968 included 3.8 million nonwhite
women. They represented 13 percent of the civilian woman labor
force and 43 percent of all nonwhite workers. More than 90 per
cent of nonwhite women in the population in 1960 were Negro ac
w
*
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
11
cording to the decennial Census of Population, but the geographi
cal distribution of Negro women ranged from less than 10 percent
of all nonwhite women in some Western States to almost 100 per
cent in some Southern States.5
4. Employment and Unemployment
About 27.8 million women were employed in 1968, and an addi
tional 38,000 were in the Armed Forces (table 2).
Unemployed women—those seeking work—numbered 1.4 mil
lion. This means that there were about 20 women who had jobs
for every woman who was unemployed. While 37 percent of all
workers were women, 50 percent of all unemployed persons were
women.
Table 2.—Employment
Status
of
Women
and
Men,
19681
(Persons 16 years of age and over)
Women
Employment status
Number
Population ________ - - 70,218,000
In labor force _
29,242,000
Civilian labor force
- _ 29,204,000
Employed
.
27,807,000
Unemployed __
-1,397,000
Armed Forces _ _
38,000
Not in the labor force
40,976,000
Keeping house
_ _ _ 35,023,000
In school
-3,408,000
Other!
_ .
-_
2,544,000
Men
Percent
distribution
Number
Percent
distribution
100.0
65,345,000
100.0
41.6
41.6
39.6
53,030,000
49,533,000
48,114,000
1,419,000
3,497,000
12,315,000
180,000
3,492,000
8,643,000
81.2
75.8
73.6
2.0
.1
58.4
49.9
4.9
3.6
2.2
5.4
18.8
^3
5.3
13.2
2 Includes 839,000 (1.2 percent) women and 1,426,000 (2.2 percent) men unable to work.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Employment and Earn
ings, January 1969.
The unemployment rate has been higher for women than for
men in recent years, and the gap between the two rates has been
widening. Following the recession of 1960-61 and the high unem
ployment rates prevailing in 1961 (7.2 percent for women and 6.4
percent for men), the rates for both women and men declined, but
the employment situation did not improve for women as much as
it did for men. Women’s unemployment remained fairly high at
5 For detailed information on Negro women in the labor force, aee “Negro Women in the
Population and in the Labor Force.” Women’s Bureau, Wage and Labor Standards Adminis
tration, U.S. Department of Labor. December 1967.
12
WOMEN AS WORKERS
4.8 percent for 1968, while the rate for men dropped to 2.9 per
cent. (For more details on women’s unemployment, see sec. 36.)
5. Most Women Are Homemakers
The majority of women continue to be homemakers, whether or
not they also have jobs (chart A). In 1968, 41 million women
were not in the labor force, and 35 million of these devoted their
full time to housekeeping. Almost two-fifths of all married
women and many single women as well are both homemakers and
workers. During an average workweek in 1968, 50 percent of all
women were keeping house full time, and about 42 percent were
either full- or part-time workers. Most of the remainder were girls
16 to 20 years of age who were in school.
Chart A
MOST WOMEN ARE HOMEMAKERS
(Women's Status in the Population and Labor Force, March 1967)
Women 16 Years of Age and Over
Millions
In Labor Force
Not in the Labor Force
Ever-Married
No
Children
Under 18
With
Children
Under 18
Ever Married
With Children
Under 18
No Children
Under 18
Under 6!
1 May also have older children.
Source: U S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
6. Geographical Distribution of Women Workers
Geographically, women in the labor force are concentrated
most heavily in the Middle Atlantic and North Central States and
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
13
in California and Texas (chart B). Six States each had over a
million women in the labor force in 1960, according to the de
cennial Census of Population. These States, in descending order of
the number of women workers, were New York, California, Penn
sylvania, Illinois, Ohio, and Texas.
A comparison of 1950 and 1960 decennial censuses shows a slight
shift in the geographical distribution of women workers from
Northeast and North Central States to the South and the West.6
These changes reflect population migration patterns and, related to
these, the movement of industry into the South and the West.
Women’s representation in the labor force varies considerably
throughout the country. According to the 1960 census, the highest
percentages of women among all workers were found in the
urban District of Columbia (44 percent) and in New Hampshire
(36 percent). The lowest ratios of women to all workers were
found in North Dakota (27 percent) and Alaska (24 percent).
These percentages are related to the ratio of women to men in the
population and to the existence of industries that employ rela
tively large numbers of women.
The percentage of women workers among all women 14 years
of age and over in the population (the labor force participation
rate) was between 32 and 36 percent in a majority of the States
in 1960. It was highest in the District of Columbia (52 percent),
followed by Nevada (41 percent) and Alaska, Hawaii, and New
Hampshire (40 percent each); it was lowest in Kentucky (27 per
cent) and West Virginia (24 percent). These variations in labor
force participation rates are related to the availability of jobs as
well as to family tradition, local customs, and social attitudes.
Most Negro women in the labor force live in the South. States
with the largest number in 1960 were Texas, Georgia, Florida,
North Carolina, Alabama, and Louisiana. Outside the South those
with the largest number were New York, Illinois, Pennsylvania,
and California. Negro women constituted more than 90 percent
of all nonwhite women workers in a majority of the States in
1960. In most Western States, however, their representation
among nonwhite women wohkers was lower, ranging from less
than 1 percent in Hawaii to 82 percent in Colorado.
Labor force participation rates of Negro women are tradition
ally high. Among States with at least 1,000 Negro women in the
population in 1960, the percentage who were in the labor force
was highest in Alaska (59 percent), followed by Nevada (54 per-6
6 See “Women Workers in 1960: Geographical Differences.” Bull. 284. Women’s Bureau,
U.S. Department of Labor. 1962.
FOURTEEN STATES EACH HAVE MORE THAN A HALF MILLION WOMEN WORKERS
{Number of Women Workers, 1960)
N. Dak.
Vt
N.H.
S. Dak.
Mass
R.l,
Conn.
N J.
Del.
ivid.
D.C
500.000 and over
Alaska
Hawaii
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.
□
□
200.000 and under 500,000
Under 200,000
WOMEN AS WORKERS
Chart 8
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
15
cent) and the District of Columbia and Florida (53 percent each).
It was lowest in Mississippi (34 percent), Louisiana and Okla
homa (36 percent each), and Michigan (37 percent).
7. Annual Growth in Labor Force of Women and Men, 1947-68
The important advances in employment that women have made
since World War II are brought out clearly by comparing for men
and women the average numbers in the labor force in 1947 and
1968. Such a comparison shows that the number of women in the
civilian labor force increased by 75 percent (from 16.7 to 29.2
million), while the number of men rose only 16 percent (from
42.7 to 49.5 million) (chart C). Consequently, in 1968 women
were 37 percent of the total civilian labor force compared with
only 28 percent in 1947.
Cfcart C
WOMEN'S EMPLOYMENT HAS INCREASED FASTER THAN MEN’S
(Relative Growth of the Labor Force, by Sex, 1947-681)
Index 1947-100
Women
1947
1950
1952
1954
1956
1958
1960
1962
1964
1966
1968
Annua! averages.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
8. Rise in Median Age of Women Workers
Since the turn of the century there has been an almost contin
uous rise in the median (half above/half below) age of women
16
WOMEN AS WORKERS
workers. In 1900 their median age was 26 years; in 1940, 32 years;
in 1945, 34 years; in 1950, 37 years; and in 1960, 41 years. By
1968 it had dropped slightly to 40 years—compared with about 41
years for men workers.
The downward influence on the average age of women workers
has been the generation of war and postwar babies who have been
entering the labor force in the 1960’s. Their large numbers gener
ally have been counterbalanced by the larger labor force of
women 45 years of age and over. As a result, the average age of
women workers has hovered at 40 or 41 years from 1960 to 1968.
Nonwhite women in the labor force are somewhat younger
than white women workers. In 1968 the median age of nonwhite
women workers was about 38 years.
The median age of workers was influenced not only by the
changing age and sex composition of the population, but also by
such developments as reforms in child labor and school attend
ance laws, changing social attitudes, and the manpower demands
of two World Wars. In 1938, for example, the Federal Fair Labor
Standards Act established a minimum age of 16 years, generally,
for employees engaged in interstate commerce or in the produc
tion of goods for interstate commerce.
Nearly all States have passed compulsory school attendance
laws establishing a minimum age at which pupils are permitted
to leave school, usually 16 years. This trend, combined with ef
forts to keep pupils from dropping out of school and to prepare
them for jobs by a variety of training and counseling programs,
has tended to delay the entrance of young people into the labor
force.
Prior to World War I the typical woman worker was young
and unmarried. Traditional social patterns discouraged the em
ployment of married women unless dire economic necessity re
quired them to support the family. Today, in contrast, the typical
woman worker is 40 years old and married. She is, in fact, an ac
cepted member of the labor force, irrespective of her marital sta
tus or her age. Two World Wars, with their exceptional demand
for production workers, encouraged large numbers of adult
women to enter employment to help with the war effort. After
World War II the manpower needs and consumer demands of an
expanding-economy caused many mature women to remain on the
job and inspired others to join them. These various developments
tended to raise the median age of women workers—and at an ac
celerated rate after 1940.
A comparison of the distribution of the woman labor force in
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
17
1940 and 1968 by age group clearly illustrates the shift toward
the employment of more mature women (table 3). In 1940 about 2
out of 5 women workers were 35 years of age or over. In 1968, in
contrast, almost 3 out of 5 women in the labor force were 35
years or over.
Table 3.—Women
in the
Population
1940
and
and
Labor Force,
by
Age,
1968 1
(Women 16 years of age and over)
Percent
distribution
Number
Age
1968
1940
1968
1940
Percent
increase
1940-68
POPULATION
Total _ _.
69,910,000
47,769,000
100.0
100.0
46.5
and 17 years _ _
and 19 years _
to 24 years __
___
to 34 years _
to 44 years
_
to 54 years _
to 64 years _ __
years and over ___
3,542,000
3,446,000
7,699,000
11,885,000
12,034,000
11,682,000
9,238,000
10,384,000
2,413,000
2,506,000
5,870,000
10,760,000
9,120,000
7,475,000
5,115,000
4,510,000
5.1
4.9
11.0
17.0
17.2
16.7
13.2
14.9
5.1
5.2
12.3
22.5
19.1
15.6
10.7
9.4
46.8
37.5
31.2
10.5
32.0
56.3
80.6
130.2
Total _______
16
18
20
26
35
45
55
65
_
28,697,000
13,783,000
100.0
100.0
108.2
914,000
1,665,000
4,095,000
5,089,000
5,866,000
6,147,000
3,936,000
986,000
333,000
1,070,000
2,820,000
3,820,000
2,680,000
1,830,000
920,000
310,000
3.2
5.8
14.3
17.7
20.4
21.4
13.7
3.4
2.4
7.8
20.5
27.7
19.4
13.3
6.7
174.5
55.6
45.2
33.2
118.9
235.9
327.8
218.1
LABOR FORCE
16
18
20
25
35
45
and 17 years
_
and 19 years _ _
to 24 years
to 34 years _ ___
to 44 years ____
to 54 years _
55 to 64 years
.
65 years and over ___
2.2
1 Data are for civilian noninstitutional population and labor force in March 1940 and April
1968.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Employment and Earnings,
May 1968. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census: Current Population Reports,
P-50, Nos. 22 and 32.
Labor Force Participation of Women
9. Variations in Labor Force Participation by Age Group,
1940-68
The labor force participation rate of women is the percent of
all women in the population 16 years of age and over who are
working or seeking work. It therefore includes the unemployed.
18
WOMEN AS WORKERS
In past decades the highest labor force participation rate of
women was traditionally among those 20 to 24 years old. In 1940,
for example, from a high of 48 percent for this age group the rate
was successively lower for each older group (table 4). By 1960,
however, the proportion of mature women in the labor force ac
tually exceeded the proportion of young women, as women devel
oped a two-phase lifetime working cycle—taking a job when first
out of school, withdrawing from the labor force for marriage and
motherhood, and returning to paid work in later years when the
children are in school or on their own. In recent years the per
centages of those at work in the two groups have been fairly sim
ilar—with a slightly higher proportion in the younger group.
Table 4.—Labor Force Participation Rates of Women,
Selected Years, 1940-681
Age
16
18
20
25
35
45
55
65
Total
and 17 years
25.8
and 19 years__ _____ . _ .............
to 24years
to 34years
42.8
to 44years
to 54years _ _
to 64years _____________________
years and over
9.5
by
Age,
1968
1960
I960
1940
41.0
37.4
23.7
48.0
45.4
35.9
44.3
49.5
37.4
10.8
33.0
25.2
45.6
44.6
33.6
38.2
37.1
27.6
9.7
28.9
13.8
42.7
48.0
35.5
29.4
24.5
18.0
6.9
48.3
53.2
48.7
52.6
42.6
1 Data are for civilian noninstitutional population in March 1940 and in April of other years.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Employment and Earnings,
May 1968, and Special Labor Force Report No. 14. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau
of the Census: Current Population Reports, P-57, No. 94, and P-50, Nos. 22 and 32.
Between 1960 and 1968 the number of girls 16 to 19 years old
in the population increased by about 1.8 million as a result of the
World War II “baby crop.” However, in spite of the larger num
ber of young women and girls in the population today, their labor
force participation rate increased only slightly between 1950 and
1968. Two factors are primarily responsible: first, the tendency
for girls to extend their training and schooling before taking a
job; second, the early age at which they marry and have children,
thus delaying entry into the labor force for many because of fam
ily responsibilities.
The labor force participation rate for girls aged 16 and 17
years increased from 14 percent in 1940 to 25 percent in 1950 and
then remained fairly stationary through 1968. The rate for young
women aged 18 and 19 years rose slightly, from 46 percent in
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
19
1950 to 48 percent in 1968, but this was only about 5 percentage
points higher than the rate in 1940. However, in the next two age
groups—20 to 24 years and 25 to 34 years—the percentages of
women at work dropped from 1940 to 1950 before taking an up
ward turn. These were largely the mothers of the World War II
“baby crop.” By 1968 the labor force participation rates of women
in these two groups were higher by 5 and 7 percentage points,
respectively, over 1940.
Of special interest is the recent rise in the labor force partici
pation of young adult women (25 to 34 years of age) from 35.9
percent in 1960 to 42.8 percent in 1968. This reflects in part the
declining birth rate, which reached a new low in 1967.
10. Rise in Labor Force Participation of Mature Women
The increasing tendency of women to return to the labor force
after their family responsibilities have lessened is illustrated by
the changes since 1940 in the labor force participation rates of
mature women. While the rate for all women 16 years and over
increased by 12 percentage points between 1940 and 1968, and
that for women 35 to 44 years old rose by 19 points, the rate for
women 45 to 64 years of age increased 26 points. Among women
45 to 54 years of age, for example, the labor force participation
rate was more than twice as great in 1968 as it was in 1940, and
among women 55 to 64 it increased from 18 to 43 percent—a rise
of almost 2i/2 times the earlier rate. Even among women 65
years of age and over there was increased labor force participation
—9 percent in 1968 compared with 7 percent in 1940.
The dramatic increase in the number of mature women in the
labor force is illustrated in table 3. In age group 35 to 44 years
the number of women workers more than doubled between 1940
and 1968. In age group 45 to 54 years their number more than tri
pled, and in age group 55 to 64 years their number increased
more than fourfold. Even among the oldest group of women, 65
years and over, the number of women workers rose more than
threefold during that period.
The corresponding increase in the woman population between
1940 and 1968 was substantially less. The highest rise was for
age group 65 years and over.
The significant extent to which women aged 45 and over have
moved into the labor force in recent years is indicated by chart D.
In 1940 such women were only 22 percent of all women in the
labor force, but by 1968 they constituted 39 percent. During the
20
WOMEN AS WORKERS
same period the proportion of the under-25-year age group
dropped from 31 to 23 percent, and that of women in the central
years (25 to 44) dropped from 47 to 38 percent.
Omrt 0
'
THE PROPORTION OF WOMEN WORKERS OVER 45 IS RISING
,
(PdfiCent Distribution of Women Workers, by Age, 1940, 1950, and 19681)
1940
Data are for March 1940 and April 1950 and 1968.
Source: U S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
11. Labor Force Participation of White and Nonwhite
Women
A comparison of labor force participation rates for white and
nonwhite women in 1968 shows that, except among teenagers, rel
atively more nonwhite than white women were in the labor force
(chart E). The difference is most striking in age group 25 to 34
years, where 57 percent of nonwhite women, but only 41 percent
of white women, were in the labor force. This compares with an
overall average labor force participation rate of 49 percent for
nonwhite and 41 percent for white women. The highest labor
force participation rates were in age group 45 to 54 years: 60 per
cent for nonwhite women and 51 percent for white women.
Traditionally a much higher proportion of nonwhite than
white women are in the labor force. The main reason for this dif-
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
21
ference is that economic responsibility for maintaining the family
often falls more heavily on nonwhite than on white women. In re
cent years, however, mature white women have entered the labor
force in such large numbers that the difference has been reduced
slightly.
Chart I
AMONG ADULT WOMEN, NONWHITE ARE MORE LIKELY TO WORK THAN ARE WHITE
(Labor Force Participation Rates of Women, by Age and Color, 19681!
Percent
White
Nonwhite
;=
0
20-24
years
25-34
years
35-44
45-54
years
55-64
years
65 years
and over
Annuai averageSource: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
A comparison of proportions of women workers in the total
labor force by age and by color for 1958 and 1968 shows the ris
ing importance of both white and nonwhite women in the labor
force during that decade (table 5).
12. Labor Force Participation of Women 18 to 64 Years Old
Labor force participation rates usually are computed for ages
16 years and over, the standard working ages now used by the Bu
reau of the Census. A more appropriate rate for women, however,
is one calculated for ages 18 to 64 years, the age group at which
employment is most likely. Girls under 18 years of age, for ex
ample, preferably should be in school or in training, and women
over 65 should be free to retire from the labor force and not
under economic compulsion to work.
22
WOMEN AS WORKERS
Table 5.—Women
as
Percent
of
Civilian Labor Force,
1958
and
by
Age
and
Color,
1968 1
(Women 16 years of age and over)
All women as
percent of all
workers
16
20
25
35
45
55
65
Age
1968
Total
_ _
37.1
to 19 years _ _ _. . ___ 44.4
16 and 17 years __ .---- 40.1
18 and 19 years _
.___ 47.6
to 24 years . _
45.5
to 34 years _______ .. - _ 32.5
to 44 years _______ - 35.4
to 54 years
_ _ _ ... - 37.4
to 64 years
_
. - -. 35.9
years and over ______..... 31.7
White women as Nonwhite women
percent of all white as percent of all
workers
nonwhite workers
1958
32.7
43.0
37.7
47.0
39.9
28.6
32.3
34.3
30.2
25.7
1968
36.3
44.6
40.3
47.8
45.3
31.0
34.2
36.7
35.5
31.3
1958
31.9
43.7
38.0
47.9
39.9
27.1
31.1
33.5
29.7
25.3
1968
43.2
42.9
38.6
45.6
46.6
42.4
44.3
43.5
39.9
35.6
1958
39.5
37.9
34.8
40.0
40.0
39.0
42.3
41.1
35.2
30.3
1 Annual averages.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Employment and Earnings,
January 1969; Manpower Administration: "Manpower Report of the President Including a
Report on Manpower Requirements, Resources, Utilization, and Training.” April 1968.
Data are not available for computing labor force participation
rates for all women 18 to 64 years of age prior to 1947 nor for
nonwhite women prior to 1954, but figures for each year from
1947 to 1968 for all women show the steady increase in women’s
entry into the labor force during that period (table 6). In 1947,
Table 6.—Labor
Force Participation Rates
Age, Selected Years,
Year
1968
1967
1966
1965
1962
1960
1958
1956
1954
1952
1950
1948
1947
of
Women
18
to
64
Years
of
1947-681
All
women
48.2
47.6
46.5
44.7
43.5
42.7
41.8
41.1
38.6
38.3
37.2
35.6
34.8
Nonwhite
women
56.1
56.2
55.9
55.1
63.9
53.5
63.0
51.6
50.7
(s)
(3)
<■>
(s)
1 Annual averages.
s Data not available.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Employment and Earnings,
January 1969; Manpower Administration: "Manpower Report of the President Including a
Report on Manpower Requirements, Resources, Utilization, and Training.” April 1968.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
23
35 percent of women 18 to 64 years old were either working or
seeking work. By 1968 this proportion had risen to 48 percent.
Nonwhite women in this age group had a labor force participa
tion rate one-sixth higher than that for all women. Their rate
rose from 51 percent in 1954 to 56 percent in 1968, as compared
with the rise from 39 percent to 48 percent for all women in this
age group.
Marital Status of Women Workers
13. Nearly 3 Out of 5 Women Workers Are Married
The increasing tendency of married women to go to work has
been the most important factor in the growth of the woman labor
force. Fifty-eight percent of all women 16 years of age and over
in the labor force in March 1967 were married (husband pres
ent), and 21 percent were single (table 7). An additional 6 perTable 7.—Women
in the
Population
March
and
1940
Labor Force,1
and
by
Marital Status,
1967
(Women 16 years of age and over)
Percent
distribution
Marital status
Number
1940=
1967
Percent
increase
1940-67
POPULATION
Total___ ____ __ _______
Single ________________
Married
__ _
Husband present ___
Husband absent___
Widowed _
Divorced
_
_
_______
_______
_______
_______
_______
_______
69,410,000
11,664,000
46,191,000
43,225,000
2,966,000
9,228,000
2,327,000
100.0
100.0
37.3
27.6
59.5
56.4
3.1
319.5
53.5
51.6
88.4
3.4 ■ ‘12.9
‘77.1
16.8
66.5
62.3
4.3
13.3 i
j
LABOR FORCE
Total
_
_
._
_ _______
Single
_
_______
Married _______
Husband present ___ _______
Husband absent
_ _. ______
Widowed _ _ _ __
_______
Divorced _
________
27,545,000
5,915,000
17,486,000
15,908,000
1,578,000
2,487,000
1,657,000
100.0
21.5
63.5
57.8
5.7
9.0 ^
6.0 )
100.0
99.0
48.5
36.4
30.3
6.1
313.4
246.9
278.8
87.9
‘15.1
‘98.3
1 Data are for civilian noninstitutional population and labor force.
2 Survey made in 1940 also included data for girls 14 and 15 years of age.
8 A decrease instead of an increase.
4 Not reported separately in 1940.
Source i U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report
No. 94. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census: Current Population Reports,
P-50, No. 22.
24
WOMEN AS WORKERS
cent were married (husband absent), 9 percent were widowed,
and 6 percent were divorced.
This is a remarkable change from 1940, when only 30 percent7
of all women workers were married (husband present) and 48
percent were single (chart F). The number of married women
(husband present) in the labor force increased by almost 12 mil
lion between 1940 and 1967. This represented a rise of 279 per
cent, an increase substantially larger than their 52-percent rise in
the population.
In contrast, the number of single women in the labor force de
clined by almost 800,000 between 1940 and 1967, and the propor-
Ckorl f
MOST WOMEN WHO WORK ARE MARRIED
(Percent Distribution of Women in the Labor Force,
by Marital Status, Selected Years, 1940—671)
100
Percent
Married,
husband
absent
□
80 •
11
60 —
uncu
□
Widowed or
divorced
HH
40 —
Single
20
—
Married,
husband
present
1340
1950
1960
1967
Data cover March of each year and are for women 14 years of age and over except 1967
which are for 16 and over.
Source: U S Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics;
________ U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.
7 Prior to 1967, reports on the marital status of workers covered persons 14 years of age
and over.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
25
tion of all women workers who were single dropped from 48 per
cent to only 21 percent. Higher marriage rates contributed to this
decline in the number of single women workers. Marriage rates
started to rise during World War II and reached their peak dur
ing 1946-48. By 1967, about 62 percent of all women in the popu
lation 16 years of age and over were married and living with
their husbands compared with 56 percent in 1940. Currently at
least 9 out of 10 girls can expect to marry.
limit G
THE NUMBER OF MARRIED WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE HAS GROWN RAPIDLY
(Women in the Labor Force, by Marital Status,
Selected Years, 1940—671)
30
Millions
Other Marital Status
Married i'Busband Present!
1940
1950
I960
1 Data cover March oi each year and are for women 14 years of age and over except 1967
which are for 16 and over.
2 Includes widowed, divorced, or separated
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics!
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.
1967
26
WOMEN AS WORKERS
The other group of women in the labor force—those widowed,
divorced, or separated from their husbands for other reasons, in
cluding those whose husbands are in the Armed Forces—remained
at the same proportion (approximately one-fifth) during the pe
riod 1940-67. In actual numbers, however, they almost doubled
(chart G).
14. Labor Force Participation of Women by Marital Status
As indicated previously, the most significant change between
1940 and 1967 in labor force participation rates of women oc
curred among married women (husband present) (table 8). In
1940, 15 percent of these women were workers; by 1967 this pro
portion had more than doubled—to 37 percent. As might be ex
pected, this rate was still much lower than that of single girls,
married women not living with husbands, or divorced women, al
though married women outnumbered the other categories com
bined.
In contrast to the steady rise in the labor force participation rate
of married women, that of single women increased slightly from
48 percent in 1940 to 51 percent in 1950, and then dropped to 44
percent in 1960, and further down to 41 percent for each year
from 1963 through 1966. With the change in survey coverage (a
minimum of 16 years of age rather than 14 years) effective in
1967, the percentage of single women who were working was re
ported to be 51 percent. This statistical jump was expected since
the earlier percentages had been lowered by the large numbers of
single girls 14 and 15 years of age still in school.
Table 8.—Labor Force Participation Rates
Selected Years,
of
Women,
by
Marital Status,
1940-671
(Women 16 years of age and over)
Marital status
Total ________________ __ ....
Single _____________________.
.
Married ..
_
______
Husband present________ ______
Husband absent - ______ -_____
Widowed__ . _ _ _ _
_ .______
Divorced _____ _
. ___
1967
39.7
50.7
37.8
36.8
53.2
27.0
71.2
I9602
34.8
44.1
31.7
30.5
51.8
29.8 1
71.6 J
I9602
19402
31.4
50.5
24.8
23.8
47.4
27.4
48.1
16.7
14.7
53.4
3 36.0
3 32.0
1 Data are for March of each year.
2 Surveys made prior to 1967 also included data for girls 14 and 15 years of age.
3 Not reported separately in 1940 and 1950.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report
Nos. 94 and 13. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census: Current Population
Reports, P-50, Nos. 29 and 22.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
27
Women in other marital status groups characteristically have
high labor force participation rates. More than half (53 percent)
of the 3 million married women (not widows or divorcees) whose
husbands were absent from home were workers in 1967. This
group included about 172,000 women whose husbands were in the
Armed Forces, but consisted largely of those whose husbands
were absent for such reasons as employment away from home, res
idence in an institution, separation by choice, or desertion.
Of the 9.2 million widowed women in the population in 1967, 27
percent were in the labor force; of the 2.3 million divorced
women, 71 percent. The labor force participation of these two
groups combined had increased slightly since 1940. However, a
much smaller percentage of widows than of divorcees were
workers, mainly because widows represent an older age group.
15. Labor Force Participation of Women by Age and Marital
Status
When labor force participation rates of single and married
women (husband present) are analyzed according to age, it is evi
dent that the probability of a woman’s working is influenced
more by marital status than by age. Differences in participation
are particularly noticeable among women 25 to 29 years old, the
age group in which married women are most likely to have young
children who need their care (table 9). In this age group 84 per
cent of single women, but only 34 percent of married women livTable 9.—Labor
Force Participation Rates
Marital Status, March
of
Women,
by
Age
and
1967
Marital status
Age
Total _. .
16 to 19 years _
20 to 24 years ......
25 to 29 years
30 to 34 years
35 to 44 years
45 to 54 years
55 to 64 years
65 to 69 years
70 years and over
Single
_________
37.2
---------------------------
84.1
73.6
---- _____
--------------
63.2
32.4
Married
(husband
present)
36.8
31.5
41.1
34.1
35.8
42.7
44.9
33.5
10.6
3.0
Other1
39.4
41.1
60.9
59.7
64.9
68.9
69.1
53.5
20.9
5.9
1 Widowed, divorced, or separated.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report
No. 94.
28
WOMEN AS WORKERS
ing with their husbands, worked in 1967. In the age group 30 to
34 years, the difference was still pronounced—74 percent of sin
gle women, but only 36 percent of married women (husband pres
ent) , were in the labor force.
The peak in labor force participation of single women (84 per
cent) was in the age group 25 to 29 years; the peak of married
women with husband present (45 percent) was in the age group
45 to 54 years.
For each age group, starting with 20 to 24 years, the highest
rate of participation in the labor force was among single women
and the lowest rate was among married women living with their
husbands. The percentage of widowed, separated, and divorced
women in the labor force fluctuated, with a high of 69 percent for
those between the ages of 35 and 54 years.
Family Status of Women Workers
16. Types of Families in the Population
There were almost 49 million families in the United States in
March 1967, with the 42.6 million husband-wife families forming
87 percent of the total.8 Eleven percent of the families had a
woman as the head, and the remaining 2 percent were headed by
a man without a wife.
Husband-wife families usually are larger than those headed by
a woman or by a man without a wife. In March 1967 there were
four or more members in nearly half of the husband-wife fam
ilies, but in less than one-third of the families headed by a woman
and one-fifth of those headed by a man without a wife present.
Nearly three-fifths of all husband-wife families had one or
more own children under 18 years of age, about one-tenth had at
least one additional family member 18 years of age or over, and
three-tenths had no children under 18 years of age and no other
family member 18 years of age or over. In the latter group were
many older couples whose children were grown and no longer liv
ing with them and many childless young couples.
Families headed by a woman had a somewhat different compo
sition. Of the 5.2 million such families in 1967, almost half con
sisted of two members, almost one-fourth consisted of three mem
bers, and the remainder consisted of four or more members.
Nearly half of the women were widows, and almost two-fifths
were separated or divorced.
8 U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census: Current Population Reports, P-20,
No. 173.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
29
Half of the women had no own children under 18 years of age,
but 18 percent had one own child and 32 percent had two or more
own children. Moreover, almost one-tenth of the women family
heads had children under 18 years living with them who were re
lated to them but were not their own. About 37 percent of those
with own children had children under 6 years of age. Twenty-two
percent of all women family heads were nonwhite; they num
bered 1.1 million.
17. Unrelated Individuals in the Population
In addition to these family groups of related individuals, there
were about 7.9 million women and 4.7 million men classified as
“unrelated individuals,” who were not living with relatives.
About 6.6 million of these women had their own homes or apart
ments and were living independently as “primary individuals.”
As a group, these were older women (median age 65 years), and
most were widows. The other 1.3 million women in this classifica
tion, most of whom were in their thirties and single, were mainly
roomers, boarders, hotel guests, and resident employees.
18. Labor Force Participation of Women in Different Types
of Families
Labor force participation rates of women vary among the dif
ferent types of families. Obviously, women who do not have hus
bands are more likely to work than are those with husbands.
More than half of the women family heads were in the labor
force in 1967, in contrast to only 37 percent of the wives living
with their husbands.
Employment Status of Husband-Wife
and Female-Head Families
19. Husband-Wife Families
In 37 million husband-wife families the husbands were in the
labor force in March 1967. In 50 percent of these families another
member of the family also was in the labor force. About 755,000
of the husbands were unemployed (an unemployment rate of 2
percent). About 5.5 million husbands in husband-wife families
were not in the labor force.
20. Female-Head Families
More than 50 percent of the women who had families but no
husbands in March 1967 were in the labor force (table 10). In 44
CO
o
Status
of
Female Family Heads,
by
Employment Status
of
Other Family Members, March
1967
(Persons 16 years of age and over)
Female family heads
Labor force
Employment status of other
family members
Unemployed
ment rate
Percent
in labor
force
Population
Total
Employed
____ ___ ____ .
.
_
5,166,000
2,717,000
2,596,000
52.6
100.0
100.0
121,000
100.0
4.5
100.0
---
Some other member in the labor force
.
Some other member employed1
Some other unemployed, none employed - - .
No other member in the labor force _.
_ _ _
46.6
42.2
4.4
53.4
44.4
39.7
4.6
55.6
44.4
40.1
4.2
55.6
44.4
31.5
12.9
55.6
4.6
3.6
12.7
4.6
...
50.1
49.5
55.3
54.8
Number ___
Percent ___
_ _
1 Includes families with one or more members employed regardless of the employment status of other members.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report No, 94.
*
WOMEN AS WORKERS
Table 10.—Employment
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
31
percent of the 2.7 million families whose women heads were
workers, another member of the family group also was in the
labor force. However, 1.5 million female family heads were the
sole breadwinners for their families and 121,000 were unem
ployed. Their unemployment rate of 4.5 percent was considerably
higher than that for husbands in husband-wife families. The re
maining 2.4 million female family heads were not in the labor
force.
An analysis of the labor force status of female family heads by
age reveals that in March 1967 the labor force participation rate
was highest for those 45 to 54 years old (71 percent) (table 11).
These women accounted for only 29 percent of all female family
heads in the labor force and 22 percent of all female family heads
in the population. In the next younger age group (35 to 44 years
old), nearly 68 percent of the women were workers; in the next
higher age group (55 to 64 years old), 57 percent.
Table 11.—Labor Force Status op Female Family Heads,
March 1967
by
Age,
(Women 16 years of age and over)
Number
—
——
——----- -------Population
Labor force
Percent distribution
----------------------------PopulaLabor
tion
force
Percent
in labor
force
Total ---------------16
25
35
45
55
65
5,166,000
2,717,000
100.0
100.0
52.6
to 24 years -----------to 34 years -----------to 44 years ---------to 54 years-----------to 64 years-----------years and over--------
244,000
808,000
1,086,000
1,116,000
789,000
1,123,000
128,000
494,000
733,000
792,000
450,000
120,000
4.7
15.6
21.0
21.6
15.3
21.7
4.7
18.2
27.0
29.1
16.6
4.4
52.5
61.1
67.5
71.0
57.0
10.7
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report
No. 94.
Although the youngest age group (16 to 24 years old) was nu
merically almost the smallest and represented only 5 percent of
all female family heads in the population and also in the labor
force, nearly 53 percent were in the labor force. At the other ex
treme, women 65 years of age and over represented the largest
group of female family heads in the population, but only 11 per
cent were in the labor force.
Significantly, families headed by women were the most econom
ically deprived—in 1967 almost one-third of such families lived in
poverty, according to the poverty index developed by the U.S. So
32
WOMEN AS WORKERS
cial Security Administration. They were also the most persis
tently poor—it is estimated that between 1959 and 1966 the num
ber of poor nonfarm households headed by women increased 2
percent.9
Working Wives
The growing tendency for married women to go into paid work
is reflected in the number and proportion of working couples in
the Nation.
Of the 15.9 million wives (husband present) in the labor force
in March 1967, about 14.8 million had husbands who were also in
the labor force. These working couples represented 34 percent of
all couples in the population. They had increased by 6.8 million
since 1950, when there were 8 million working couples—22 per
cent of all married couples. Before World War II their number
and proportion were still smaller: in 1940 working couples num
bered 3 million—only 11 percent of all couples.
In 18.4 million husband-wife families the husbands were the
only earners in March 1967. In 3.7 million such families the wives
were not in the labor force, but other family members as well as
the husbands were working. The labor force also included over a
million working wives whose husbands were not in the labor
force, mainly because they were retired or disabled. In over half a
million families neither the husbands nor the wives worked, but
other family members did, and in 3.8 million families no one
worked.
21. Labor Force Participation of Wives by Income of Husband
The percentage of wives in the labor force in March 1967 was
highest where the husbands’ incomes were between $5,000 and
$7,000 (43 percent) (table 12). The next highest was where the
husbands’ incomes were between $3,000 and $5,000 (41 percent).
When the husbands’ incomes were at the poverty level, the
labor force participation rate of wives varied from 27 percent
where the husbands’ incomes were between $1,000 and $2,000 to
37 percent where they were under $1,000. When the husbands’ in
comes were just under the poverty line—$2,000 to $3,000—33
percent of the wives were in the labor force.
At the upper end of the income scale, only 29 percent of the
0 Economic Report of the President. February 1968.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
33
wives whose husbands’ incomes were $10,000 or more were in the
labor force.
The labor force participation rates of wives, therefore, are
highest where the husbands’ incomes do not represent poverty
ieveis, hut rather the lower range of middle-income levels. The
rate then declines as the husbands’ incomes reach higher levels.
Table 12.—Labor Force Participation Rates op Wives (Husband
March 1967 °F HUSBAND “ 1966 AND Presence and Age of
Present)
Children!
(Women 16 years of age and over)
Presence and age of children
Income of husband
Total
Under $1,000
$1,000 to $1,999
$2,000 to $2,999
$3,000 to $4,999
$5,000 to $6,999 ___
$7,000 to $9,999
$10,000 and over
Total
No children
under 18
36.8
37.4
27.0
33.0
41.4
42.6
37.9
28.8
38.9
34.3
23.6
29.2
41.0
48.0
46.6
36.6
Children
6-17 only
45.0
52.3
45.9
50.8
52.0
49.9
46.9
32.9
Children
under 61
26.5
35.3
31.4
31.3
34.4
31.6
21.9
15.7
1 Also may have older children.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of
Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report
No. 94.
When a wife decides whether or not to seek paid employment,
the presence of young children in the family seems a more impor
tant consideration than her husband’s income. (For details on
working mothers, see secs. 25-33.) Among married women
(husband present) the labor force participation rate in March
1967 varied from 27 percent for those who had preschool children
percent. for those with school-age children only. On the
other hand, wives (husband present) who had no children under
years of age had a relatively low labor force participation rate
of 39 percent. This is explained by the fact that this group in
cludes many older women who are retired or unable to work.
Percent distribution of all working wives shows that in
1967 almost two-thirds had husbands whose incomes were
v5,000 or more (table 13). More working wives (about 27 per
cent) were found where the husbands’ incomes were between
$5,000 and $7,000 than at any other income level. At the ex
tremes, 16 percent of working wives had husbands whose incomes
were below $3,000; 14 percent, $10,000 or more
34
WOMEN AS WORKERS
22. Contribution of Wives to Family Income
A special study by the Bureau of Labor Statistics throws light
on the contribution made to family income by married women
who worked some time during 1967.10 These statistics include
women who worked full time the year round and also those who
worked part time and part of the year.
Table 13.—Percent
in the
Distribution
Labor Force,
by
of
Income
Married Women (Husband Present)
of
Husband
in
1966,
March
1967
(Women 16 years of age and over)
Income of husband
Wives in the
labor force
Number Percent -
15,908,000
Under $1,000 __
$1,000 to $1,999
$2,000 to $2,999
$3,000 to $4,999
$5,000 to $6,999
$7,000 to $9,999
$10,000 and over
4.2
5.2
6.5
18.6
26.8
24.9
13.9
100.0
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report
No. 94.
They show that wives’ earnings generally constituted a smaller
proportion of family income in low-income families than in
higher income families (table 14). For example, in almost threefifths of the families with incomes below $2,000, but in only about
one-fifth of the families with incomes between $10,000 and
$15,000, the wives’ earnings accounted for less than 10 percent of
family income.
In families with incomes below $2,000, nearly half of the work
ing wives contributed less than 5 percent to family income. In the
income class $2,000 to $3,000, almost two-fifths of the wives who
worked contributed less than 5 percent. In more than one-fifth of
the families in this income class, the wives’ earnings accounted
for 10 to 30 percent of family income.
In higher income brackets wives generally contributed a
greater share to family income. Wives’ earnings accounted for 30
percent or more of the income in almost half of the families with
incomes between $10,000 and $15,000. They accounted for 20 per
cent or more in almost three-fifths of the families with incomes of
$15,000 or more.
” U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report No. 94.
Table
14.—Percent
______
______
______
______
______
______
---------
14.4
15.8
23.0
28.1
22.9
--------------
...
6.0
12.2
for by
Wives’ Earnings
1966
Percent distribution of wives by percent of family income accounted for by wives’ earnings
Less
than
5.0
5.0
to
9.9
10.0
to
19.9
20.0
to
29.9
30.0
to
39.9
40.0
to
49.9
48.0
37.8
34.5
32.7
21.5
14.8
9.6
9.1
9.2
9.2
14.5
14.5
6.9
7.0
9.8
5.8
7.4
7.5
10.0
12.6
11.8
10.2
20.0
9.4
6.4
7.9
14.5
14.0
15.6
15.5
18.4
22.3
17.5
23.1
18.7
3.8
6.4
6.4
9.3
12.4
16.6
$8,767 $7,008
$8,130
$8,955
$9,993
$10,322
Total
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report No. 94.
in
50.0
to
74.9
75.0
and
over
7.5
10.6
9.2
7.1
11.4
9.8
3.6
6.6
8.2
1.1
11.0
6.5
4.1
.3
.4
$9,973
$7,673
$4,566
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
Median family income
Family Income Accounted
Median
percent
of family
income
accounted
for by
wives’
earnings
Family income
Under $2,000 .
$2,000 to $2,999
$3,000 to $4,999
$5,000 to $6,999
$7,000 to $9,999
$10,000 to $14,999
$15,000 and over
of
CO
36
WOMEN AS WORKERS
The median family income was highest ($10,332) in families
where wives’ earnings accounted for 30 to 40 percent of family
income. It was lowest ($4,566) in families where wives obviously
were the principal earners, accounting for 75 percent or more of
family income.
23. Job-Related Expenses of Working Wives
Working wives, and particularly working mothers, have many
expenses related to their working that reduce the income availa
ble to them from their earnings. The principal costs involved are
for clothing and personal care, food, transportation, child care
and household help arrangements, and taxes. Studies reveal that
these work-related expenses may absorb between one-fourth and
one-half of a wife’s earnings.11 If she has children, her expenses
vary according to their number and ages.
Working wives tend to spend more for clothing, beauty care,
and other personal grooming needs than nonworking wives do.
They may spend more for food because they tend to buy more of
the time-saving “convenience foods” and to eat more meals in
public eating places. They have transportation expenses to and
from work. Working mothers, in addition, may have considerable
expenses for day care for their children. This may involve private
or public day care centers or babysitters. Working wives and
mothers often pay for household help, such as maids or cleaning
women, and they may increase their expenses by sending their
household laundry to commercial establishments.
There are other job-related expenses, such as purchased
lunches, required uniforms, dues for professional organizations or
union membership, professional publications, or even continued
education—depending on the requirements of the job. Federal and
State income taxes and social security taxes must be paid. In addi
tion, the earnings of the wife often place total family income in a
higher income tax bracket.
On the other hand, there are benefits from working outside the
home, in addition to the obvious one of increased family income.
A few are tangible; most are intangible but personally signifi
cant. Among the measurable benefits may be employee pension
plans, health insurance benefits, paid sick leave and vacations,
11 “The Working Wife and Her Family’s Economic Position." In Monthly Labor Review,
Bureau of Laboi* Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, April 1962, and "Marital and
Family Characteristics of Workers." Ibid,., January 1962. Ann H. Candle, Financial and
Management Practices of Employed and Nonemployed Wives.” In Journal of Home Eco
nomics, December 1964. See also Special Labor Force Report No. 40, Bureau of Labor
Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
37
profit-sharing plans, and discount privileges, as well as social se
curity benefits and retirement income above those the nonworking
wife can count on. Often the intangible benefits are equally or
more important to the working wife. These include the opportu
nity to widen her horizons and the benefit of being able to develop
new skills and discover new aptitudes. Many working wives feel
that they become more effective members of their own families
and contribute more to their community and to society in general
by combining paid employment with homemaking.
24. Occupations of Husbands and Wives
A comparison of the occupations held by husbands and wives in
March 1967 indicated that just over one-fifth of working couples
pursued similar lines of work.
The highest correlation between the husband’s and the wife’s
jobs existed among clerical workers (45.1 percent); however, it
was apparent that within this major occupation group many hus
bands and wives did not do the same work (table 15). Two-fifths
(40 percent) of the wives of professional and technical workers
were in the same major occupation group as their husbands.
Correlation between farm jobs was also relatively high (34.8 per
cent)—not surprising since most farm wives have few job oppor
tunities other than farm work.
More than one-third of the wives of service workers had serv
ice jobs, and approximately three-tenths of the wives of opera
tives, about one-tenth of the wives in managerial positions, and
one-ninth of those in sales work had husbands in the same occu
pations.
Working Mothers12
25. Number and Proportion of Working Mothers
Working mothers with children under 18 years of age num
bered 10.6 million in March 1967 (table 16). They represented 38
percent of all such mothers in the population and 38 percent of
all women workers. Nonwhite working mothers with children of
these ages totaled 1.5 million or 15 percent of all working
mothers.
Working mothers as a group are not as young as might be ex“The term “working mothers," as used in this publication, refers to workers who have
children under 18 years of age, unless otherwise designated.
Table 15.—Occupation
of
Wives,
by
Occupation
of
Husbands, March
co
00
1967
Occupation of husband
Total
Sales
workers
Craftsmen,
foremen, Operatives,
kindred
kindred
workers
workers
All
service
workers
Farm
workers
Non
farm
laborers
1,788
2,091
1,059
811
2,859
2,755
944
641
689
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
14.6
40.0
16.0
13.2
18.6
9.8
6.6
7.8
12.1
4.8
3.4
6.7
4.5
7.4
19.6
13.0
3.0
7.4
5.6
4.0
5.4
3.8
4.2
2.7
3.7
3.4
2.0
_
2.9
3.0
1.9
.
3.6
6.9
„
.y
2.6
1.6
1.3
4.6
3.2
1.4
33.1
3.3
10.7
4.6
5.4
3.4
6.8
.7
34.4
3.9
43.8
3.9
.7
45.1
3.7
1.7
45.0
1.0
2.8
2.0
.8
Z.t>
2;6
3.7
2.7
34.9
25.2
26.7
z.z
1.3
.9
17.9
11.1
22.0
8.2
15.4
19.0
7.2
13.3
30.5
12.9
16.5
28.6
5.9
16.9
28.1
10.7
24.2
8.7
7.7
17.5
6.5
8.0
18.7
6.5
__
3.3
8.9
4.8
1.1
.6
1.1
1.0
.2
1.6
.8
.6
17.5
3.8
5.0
6.4
.7
15.3
1.6
7.5
1.4
31.4
5.0
19.2
1.2
1.7
21.4
3.8
6.2
14.4
7.2
8.2
7.9
12.9
9.8
14.9
19.7
28.8
_„ _
1U.1
__
14.6
*
*
Number (in thousands) _
Percent --------------------
13,637
Professional, technical workersMedical and other health
workers
---------Teachers (except college) _ _
Other professional workersManagers, officials, proprietors
(except farm)
--------Salaried _ ----------------Self-employed---------------Clerical, kindred workers-----Secretaries, stenographers,
typists . - Other clerical workers---Sales workers -------------------Craftsmen, foremen, kindred
workers ---Operatives, kindred workers - Private household workers---Service workers (except private household)
-
Clerical,
kindred
workers
4
8.0
6.4
11.6
3.0
1.6
1.8
.8
.
2.3
1.1
12.2
_
_ ,
0.4
12.5
6.2
„
.y
27.0
15.1
WOMEN AS WORKERS
Occupation of wife
Managers,
officials,
Profes
sional, proprietors
technical
(except
farm)
workers
t
•
Waitresses, cooks, bartenders -------------------------Other service workers___
Farm workers - ____ ..
Nonfarm laborers _____
*
5.1
9.5
2.0
2.2
6.2
.2
.3
1
3.3
4.6
.2
.2
4.4
8.5
.2
___
2.5
7.3
.3
5.5
9.4
.7
.5
.1
6.7
13.0
.9
.3
9.3
19.5
.4
.7
5.3
4.8
34.8
.5
4
8.7
14.1
1.9
1.3
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report No. 94.
Table 16.—Mothers in
by
the
Population
and
Labor Force,
Marital Status and by Age of Children, March
(Mothers 16 years of age and over)
1967
Number
Marital status and age of children
Percent distribution
Population
Labor force
Mothers with children under 18 years
27,683,000
10,582,000
100.0
100.0
38.2
Married, husband present
Other women ever married 1
Mothers with children 6 to 17 only
24.819.000
2,864,000
13.264.000
8.750.000
1.832.000
6.443.000
89.7
10.3
47.9
82.7
17.3
60.9
35.3
64.0
48.6
Married, husband present
Other women ever married 1
Mothers with children 3 to 5 (none under 3) 2
11,699,000
1.565.000
5.607.000
5.269.000
1.174.000
1.934.000
42.3
5.7
20.3
49.8
45.0
75.0
34.5
Married, husband present
Other women ever married 1
Mothers with children under 3 2
5.030.000
577,000
8.812.000
1.595.000
339,000
2.205.000
18.2
2.1
15.1
3.2
31.8
20.8
31.7
58.8
25.0
Married, husband present
Other women ever married1
8,090,000
722,000
1,886,000
29.2
319,000
2.6
17.8
3.0
23.3
44.2
Source: TJ.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report No. 94.
11.1
18.3
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
1 Widowed, divorced, or separated.
2 Also may have older children.
Population Labor force labor force
WOMEN AS WORKERS
40
pected. Their median age in March 1967 was 37 years—only
about 3 years less than the median age for all women workers.
26. Labor Force Participation of Mothers
The presence or absence of a husband has a strong influence on
a mother’s decision to work. Thus in March 1967 the proportion
of mothers in the labor force whose husbands were present was
only 35 percent compared with 64 percent for other mothers.
There were 8.8 million working mothers with husband present
in 1967, which represented 83 percent of all working mothers. Of
these mothers, more than 3 out of 10 (35.3 percent) were in the
labor force. In contrast, of the mothers not living with their hus
bands—the widowed, divorced, separated, or deserted, who were
rearing children in fatherless homes—more than 6 out of 10 (64
percent) were in the labor force. These mothers have, of course, a
compelling need for earnings: probably half of them are rearing
children in poverty.13
27. Trends in Labor Force Participation of Mothers
Between 1940 and 1967 the labor force participation rate of
mothers increased about two times more than did the labor force
participation rate of all women (table 17). In 1940 only 9 percent
of all mothers with children under 18 years of age worked outside
Table 17.—Labor Force Participation Rates of Mothers
Women,1 Selected Years, 1940-67
Year
1967
1966
1964
1962
1960
1958
1956
1954
1952
1950
1948
1946
1940
others2
38.2
35.8
34.5
32.9
30.4
29.5
27.5
25.6
23.8
21.6
20.2
18.2
8.6
and of
All
All women3
41.1
38.9
37.4
36.6
36.7
36.0
35.9
33.7
33.8
33.1
31.9
31.2
28.2
1 Includes women 16 years of age and over in 1967 but 14 years and over in earlier years.
3 Data are for March of each year except 1946, 1948, 1952, and 1954 when they are for April.
* Annual averages.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics; U.S. Department of Com
merce, Bureau of the Census.
18 U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Social Security Administration:
“The Shape of Poverty in 1966." In Social Security Bulletin, March 1968.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
41
the home, but by 1967 this proportion had increased to 38 per
cent. The corresponding rise in the proportion of all women in the
labor force was much smaller—from 28 percent in 1940 to 41 per
cent in 1967.
Since 1948 the percentage of mothers who work has steadily
increased about 1 percentage point a year (chart H). Between
MOTHERS ARE MORE LIKELY TO WORK TODAY THAN EVER BEFORE
(Labor Force Participation Rates of Mothers, by Age of Children,
Selected Years, 1948-67*)
Percent
1960
With
children
6 to 17
years only
children 2
under 6
1 Data cover March of each year except for April 1948 and 1952 and are for women
14 years of age and over except 1967 which are for 16 and over,
May also have older children.
2
Source: U S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics;
_________ U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census._______________________
1948 and 1960 the participation rate rose more slowly for
mothers with children under 6 years of age than for those with
42
WOMEN AS WORKERS
children 6 to 17 years only. However, since 1960 the rate for
mothers of young children increased much faster than for other
mothers, so that by 1967, 49 percent of the mothers with children
6 to 17 years only and 29 percent of those with young children
were in the labor force.
28. Children of Working Mothers
Working mothers with husband present had nearly 20 million
children under 18 years of age in 1967, with about 5 million of
them under 6 years old.
Because more mothers tend to be in paid work if their children
are of school age and if there is no father in the home, the high
est labor force participation rate in March 1967 was among those
not living with their husbands and with school-age children only
(table 16). The lowest rate, on the other hand, was among
mothers with husband present and with children under 3 years of
age.
In families in which the fathers were at home and all the chil
dren were over 6 years old, 45 percent of the mothers worked. In
families in which the fathers were at home and there were chil
dren 3 to 5 years old, 32 percent of the mothers worked; and
when there were still younger children, only 23 percent of the
mothers worked.
In fatherless homes, on the other hand, much higher propor
tions of mothers worked, reflecting their greater financial need—
75 percent of the mothers with school-age children only and 59
percent of the mothers with children 3 to 5 years old were in the
labor force. Even where they had children under 3 years of age,
44 percent of these mothers worked.
29. Labor Force Participation of White and Nonwhite Mothers
A comparison of the labor force participation of nonwhite with
white mothers (husband present) shows that proportionately
more nonwhite mothers are in the labor force. About 55 percent
of nonwhite mothers of children 6 to 17 years old were in paid
work in March 1967 compared with 44 percent of white mothers
with children these ages (table 18). Among mothers with chil
dren under 6 years of age, 42 percent of the nonwhite mothers,
but only 25 percent of the white mothers, were in the labor force.
A percent distribution of nonwhite and white working mothers
(husband present) by age of children shows that relatively more
nonwhite had children under 3 years old and relatively more
white had older children (chart I).
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
Table 18.—Labor
Present),
Force
by
Participation
Color
and by
Age
Rates
of
of
Mothers
Children, March
43
(Husband
1967
___________________ __________ (Mothers 16 years of age and over)
Age of children
.
Nonwhite as
Mothers in the labor force percent of
~
-- ---------------------------- all working
number
Total
Children 6 to 17 years only
Children under 6 years 1
None under 3 years ____ ___
Some under 3 years
1,063,000
7,697,000
12.0
PERCENT
66.2
42.1
51.8
36.6
44.2
24.8
29.6
21.7
9.3
16.1
16.2
16.3
Source; U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report
30. Labor Force Participation of Mothers by Income of
Husband
When the labor force participation rates of mothers (husband
present) are correlated with the income received by their hus
bands, it is apparent that mothers work primarily because of
economic need. Among mothers with husband present, the largest
proportion (44 percent) was in the labor force in March 1967
when the husbands’ incomes were below $1,000 a year (table 19).
As the husbands’ incomes increase, the percentage of mothers in
the labor force generally declines.
Irrespective of her husband’s income, a mother with younger
children is obviously less willing or able to work than one with
older children. At all income levels of husbands, a smaller propor
tion of mothers worked in March 1967 if their children were not
yet in school (chart J).
For example, as is apparent from table 19, almost 40 percent of
the mothers worked when their husbands’ incomes were between
$2,000 and $3,000, but this proportion rose to 51 percent for those
with school-age children only, and it dropped to 31 percent for
those with children under 6 years of age. Similarly, in families
where the husbands’ incomes were between $5,000 and $7,000, 39
percent of all the mothers were in the labor force, but only 32
percent worked if they had preschool children. At yet higher in
come levels (between $7,000 and $10,000), 34 percent of the
mothers were in the labor force, but only 22 percent worked when
they had young children.
31. Part-Time and Part-Year Work Patterns of Mothers
Mothers are likely to work part time (less than 35 hours a
WOMEN AS WORKERS
44
Cbort I
A HIGH PROPORTION OF NONWHITE WORKING MOTHERS HAVE YOUNG CHILDREN
(Percent Distribution of Mothers (Husband Present) in the Labor Force,
by Color and Age of Children, March 1967)
100
Percent
80 —
47
62
With children 6 to 17 years only
■
hIi
60 —
With children 3 to 5 years
(none under 3)1
With children under 3 years'
40 —
24
u
1 i?
1
17
" :§■ i
■
■
20 —
Mill
H
29
21
I
Nonwhite
White
May also have older children.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
III
week) or part of the year (less than 50 weeks of the year) or
both. Mothers with husband present and very young children
(under 3 years), in particular, tend to prefer part-time and partyear work. Many mothers who can work only part time must
make a special effort to find a job with a work schedule flexible
enough to combine work outside the home with care of their chil
dren.
Many mothers who work full time (35 hours a week or more)
work only part of the year. They may take full-time seasonal jobs
Table 19.—Labor
Force Participation Rates
Husband
and
in
Percent Distribution
1966
and
Age
of
of
Mothers (Husband Present),
Children, March
by
Income
of
1967
(Mothers 16 years of age and over)
_____ ______
Under $1,000 __
____
___
_ _ ______
$1,000 to $1,999 _______________________ ______
$2,000 to $2,999 ____________________
_____
$3,000 to $4,999 ________________________ _ ___
$5,000 to $6,999 ____ _____
______
$7,000 to $9,999 ______________ _____ _ . ______
$10,000 and over
.
_
______
44.3
38.5
39.5
41.9
39.4
33.8
25.4
52.3
45.9
50.8
52.0
50.0
46.9
32.9
35.3
31.4
31.3
34.5
31.6
21.9
15.7
1 Also may have older children.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report No. 94.
Percent distribution of mothers in
labor force with children—
Under 18
Under 6
6-17 years
years1
only
years
3,481,000
8,750,000
5,269,000
100.0
100.0
100.0
2.6
3.1
4.9
18.3
28.1
27.7
15.2
2.8
3.0
4.4
15.9
25.1
30.4
18.4
2.4
3.3
5.7
22.0
32.6
23.6
10.4
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
Income of husband
Total ___________________
Percent of mothers in labor force
with children—
Under 18
Under 6
6-17 years
only
years1
years
35.3
45.0
26.5
Ol
46
WOMEN AS WORKERS
Chart )
A SMALLER PROPORTION OF MOTHERS WITH YOUNG CHILDREN WORK AT ALL INCOME LEVELS
(Labor Force Participation Rates of Mothers, by Income of Husband in 1966
and Age of Children, March 1967)
60
Percent
52
52
51
50
□
50
47
46
35
34
31
|
6 t 17 only
6 to
| With children
nder 61
33
32
31
With children
30 —
22
20
—
16
10
Under
$1,000
$2,000
$5,000
$7,000
to
to
to
to
1,999
$1,000
2,999
6,999
$10,000
9,999
and over
1 May also have older children.
Source: U S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
during periods of peak business, such as are available in retail
trade during the Christmas season, in laundries during the sum
mer, or in canneries and other food processing plants during the
harvest season. Mothers who are teachers may work only part of
the year, and so may mothers in the hotel and resort business.
(For other information on part-time and part-year work of
women, see secs. 34 and 35.)
Mothers (husband present).—Among mothers with husband
present and school-age children only, 65 percent worked full time
in 1966, but only 39 percent worked full time the year round
(table 20). Twelve percent of the mothers who worked full time
were on the job from 1 to 26 weeks only.
Mothers (husband present) who had preschool children were
even less inclined to work full time or the year round. Sixty-two
percent of the mothers with 3- to 5-year-old children and none
younger worked full time, but only 31 percent worked full time
the year round and 19 percent worked from 1 to 26 weeks.
A higher proportion of mothers with children under 3 years
was on full-time schedules than of mothers who had school-age
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
Table
20.—Work Experience
by
Age
of
in
1966
of Mothers
Children, March
47
(Husband Present),
1967
(Mothers 16 years of age and over)
Mothers with children3-5 years
(none
under 3)1
3 years 1
42.6
39.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
64.7
62.0
66.6
39.0
13.6
16.3
17.6
32.7
33.4
20.8
Work experience
6-17
years only
Percent with work experience” ...
53.9
PERCENT DISTRIBUTION
Total___ _
Full
time3
_
60 to 52 weeks
27 to 49 weeks _
1 to 26 weeks ____
Part time * _
35.3
30.6
12.4
19.0
38.0
27 weeks or more
1 to 26 weeks
21.7
13.6
19.5
18.5
12.2
12.5
1 Also may have older children.
2 Data are for civilian noninstitutional population.
3 Worked 35 hours or more a week.
4 Worked less than 35 hours a week.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report
No. 94.
children only or children 3 to 5 years old but none younger. Six
ty-seven percent of the mothers with children under 3 years
worked full time, but only 16 percent worked full time the year
round and 33 percent worked from 1 to 26 weeks.
The proportion of mothers (husband present) who worked part
time was highest (38 percent) for those who had children 3 to 5
years old but none younger and lowest (33 percent) for those who
had children under 3.
Mothers (husband absent).—Typically, a mother who is raising
children without the help of a husband is more likely to work full
time than is the mother whose husband is at home. Economic
necessity is obviously the main reason for the mother’s work
pattern.
Eighty-one percent of all mothers (husband absent) who were
employed in nonagricultural industries in March 1967 were on
full-time schedules (table 21).
32. Child Care Arrangements of Working Mothers
The arrangements working mothers make for the care of their
children are of vital importance to the welfare of their families
48
WOMEN AS WORKERS
Table 21.—Full-Time
in
and Part-Time Work Status of Mothers Employed
Nonagricultural Industries, by Marital Status and by Age of
Children, March
1967
(Mothers 16 years of age and over)
Percent distribution
Number
(in
thousands)
Total
Full
time1
Part
time2
Mothers with children under 18 years _
9,761
100.0
72.2
27.8
Married (husband present)
Other women ever married 3 __
Mothers with children 6 to 17 only----
8,078
1,673
6,019
100.0
100.0
100.0
70.5
80.6
72.4
29.5
19.4
27.6
Married (husband present) _ - Other women ever married3 —
Mothers with children 3 to 5 years
(none under 3)4 _____ — -
4,935
1,084
100.0
100.0
70.7
80.2
29.3
19.8
1,774
100.0
73.7
26.3
Married (husband present)
Other women ever married3 ___
Mothers with children under 3 years4-.
1,462
312
1,958
100.0
100.0
100.0
71.4
83.7
70.5
28.6
16.3
29.5
Married (husband present) ____
Other women ever married 3
1,681
277
100.0
100.0
69.1
79.1
30.9
20.9
Marital status and
age of children
1 Worked 35 hours or more a week.
2 Worked less than 35 hours a week.
8 Widowed, divorced, or separated.
4 Also may have older children.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report
No. 94.
and to the interests of their communities. To obtain current in
formation, the Children’s Bureau of the U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare and the Women’s Bureau of the
U.S. Department of Labor cosponsored a national survey of child
care arrangements of working mothers.14 The survey was limited
to women who worked 27 weeks or more in 1964, either full or
part time, and who had at least one child under 14 years of age
living at home. It was conducted by the Bureau of the Census in
February 1965.
According to the latest findings, the 6.1 million mothers cov
ered by the survey had 12.3 million children under 14 years of
age, of whom 3.8 million were under 6 years. While their mothers
were at work, 46 percent of the children were cared for in their
own homes, with 15 percent looked after by their fathers, 21 per
cent by other relatives, and 9 percent by maids, housekeepers, or
babysitters (table 22).
14 This survey was partially supported under the research program of the Manpower Ad
ministration, U.S. Department of Labor.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
49
An additional 16 percent of the children were cared for outside
their own homes, about half by relatives. Thirteen percent of the
children were looked after by their own mothers while they
worked, and 15 percent had mothers who worked only during
school hours. Eight percent of the children were expected to care
for themselves, while only 2 percent of the surveyed children
were in group care, such as in day care centers, nursery schools,
and after-school centers.
These findings, as did those of a survey undertaken by the Chil
dren’s Bureau in 1958, emphasize the urgent need for additional
day care facilities. Licensed public and private day care facilities
available in 1967 could provide for about half a million children.
This represented, unfortunately, only a small percentage of the
Table 22.—Child Care Arrangements of Working Mothers1 With
Children Under 14 Years of Age, by Age of Children, February 1965
(Percent distribution)
Age of children
Type of arrangement
Total
Under 6
years
6 to 11
years
12 and 13
years
Number (in thousands)
Percent _ _ . _____ _
12,287
3,794
6,091
2,401
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Care in child’s own home by—
45.5
47.1
46.9
38.1
14.9
21.2
14.4
17.5
15.4
23.2
4.6
16.6
2.1
6.1
15.3
17.1
14.3
20.9
4.7
16.2
4.7
8.4
3.8
1.2
4.7
15.7
6.9
30.7
4.4
11.0
1.7
4.8
7.8
8.0
14.9
15.8
38.8
22.1
5.2
5.8
42.1
3.3
1.5
57.0
2.2
8.1
5.6
.5
.6
8.0
.4
20.7
13.0
15.0
12.5
11.1
15.0
.5
.8
20.5
24.2
.3
.6
.7
Father
Other relative ... ..
_
Under 16 years__
16 years and over
Nonrelative who only looked
after children .______
Nonrelative who usually did
additional household chores _
Care in someone else’s home by—
Relative _____
Nonrelative
_
Other arrangements _ _
__ __
Care in group care center___
Child looked after self
Mother looked after child
while working _ _ ____
Mother worked only during
child’s school hours _ _ _
Other
__________
1 Refers to mothers who worked either full or part time for 27 weeks or more in 1964.
Source: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Social and Rehabilitation
Service, Children’s Bureau, and U.S. Department of Labor, Wage and Labor Standards Ad
ministration, Women’s Bureau: “Child Care Arrangements of Working Mothers in the
United States.” Children’s Bureau Pub. 461-1968.
50
WOMEN AS WORKERS
children who needed day care services. Public and voluntary
agencies, however, are working actively to close the gap.
Several legislative enactments in recent years have helped to
increase the availability of day care facilities. A major advance
was made possible by the child welfare provisions of the 1962
Public Welfare Amendments to the Social Security Act, which
authorized Federal grants-in-aid to State 15 public welfare agen
cies for day care services. To qualify for Federal aid, a State must
have an approved child welfare services plan that requires,
among other things, that day care will be provided only in facili
ties (including private homes) which are licensed by the State or
meet the standards of the State licensing authority and give
priority to children from low-income homes.
Since the adoption of these amendments, the States have been
moving to provide adequate day care services for children who
need them. For the year ending June 1968, more than half the
States budgeted State or local funds for day care services, while
all but five States budgeted some public funds (Federal, State, or
local).
Under the 1967 amendments to the Social Security Act, the
Work Incentive Program (WIN), which was established for recip
ients of aid to families with dependent children (AFDC), re
quires necessary child care services for children of those engaged
in training or employment under the program.
Financial assistance for day care programs is also available
under the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964. Headstart, the best
known of the programs, was first administered by the Office of
Economic Opportunity but recently was transferred to the De
partment of Health, Education, and Welfare. It enables many
young children in low-income families to have full-year full-day
care, and other children to have part-day or summer care. In ad
dition, special day care programs are provided for children of
migrants.
Day care is authorized by the Economic Opportunity Act also
as one of the supportive services provided in the Concentrated
Employment Program (CEP), a work training program adminis
tered by the Department of Labor for unemployed and low-in
come individuals.
Under a Presidential directive of April 1968, a Federal Panel
on Early Childhood, comprised of representatives from nine
agencies, was established to coordinate all early childhood pro
grams financed by Federal funds. On September 23, 1968, the
15 Includes territorial jurisdictions and the District of Columbia.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
51
Panel issued “Interagency Day Care Requirements,” setting forth
minimum standards which must be met by day care programs re
ceiving funds from the Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare; the Department of Labor; or the Office of Economic Op
portunity. The Panel also launched in 1968 a new program called
Community Coordinated Child Care (4-C program). To be orga
nized by one designated group in each locality, such as a commu
nity action agency or a local welfare department, the 4-C program
seeks to expand and improve day care services through more
effective communitywide planning, continuity of operation, effici
ent use of local resources, lower administrative costs, and better
utilization of Federal funds.
Federal and, State tax treatment regarding child care expenses.__
Since its adoption in 1913, the Federal income tax law has made
an allowance for the circumstances of the individual taxpayer
through personal exemptions. In the Revenue Act of 1954 a deduc
tion was allowed for child care expenses incurred by working
women and widowers 16 if such child care enabled them to be gain
fully employed. Under that act an allowance of up to $600 was
permitted for care of a child under 12 years of age or a dependent
physically or mentally incapable of caring for himself. Widows,
widowers, and separated and divorced persons could deduct the
full amount regardless of income. However, a married woman
claiming the deduction was required to file a joint return with her
husband, and if the combined adjusted gross income exceeded
$4,500 the deduction was reduced $1 for each $1 above that
amount. These restrictions regarding the working wife did not
aPPly if ber husband was incapable of self-support because of
mental or physical disability.
A 1963 amendment provided for allowing the deduction for
child care expenses to a deserted wife who could not locate her
husband.
The Revenue Act of 1964 raised the maximum deduction for
child care, the income limitation, and the age of children covered.
Deductions of $600 for one child or $900 for two or more children
may be taken when the total income of a working wife and her
husband is less than $6,000 a year. Above that figure, the amount
of deduction is reduced $1 for each $1 of income. As a result, a
deduction cannot be claimed by one-child families with total ad
justed gross income of more than $6,600 or by families with two
or more children with more than $6,900. The act allows a married
ia The term “widower” includes divorced and legally separated men.
52
WOMEN AS WORKERS
man to deduct the cost of child care if his wife is in an institution
for at least 90 consecutive days or for a shorter period if termi
nated by her death. A married man whose wife is at home but un
able to care for herself is eligible for the deduction, subject to the
$6,000 income limitation applicable to married women. The act
also raised the age of children covered by the deduction to include
those under 13 years.
In addition to Federal laws governing deductions for child care
expenses, a number of States permit employed taxpayers to take
such deductions from State income taxes. Some of the State laws
are identical with the Federal law; others have variations as to
who can claim the deduction, the amount of the deduction, the age
limit of children for whose care the deduction can be claimed, and
the income limitation of taxpayers eligible to claim the deduction.
33. Maternity Provisions
Large numbers of women workers in this country are eligible
to receive maternity benefits. The three major types of maternity
benefits are: maternity leave with provisions for job security,
cash payments to compensate for loss of wages, and allowances
for medical care and services. Such benefits are provided primar
ily through voluntary plans and less frequently by legislative
action.
Voluntary plans.—Voluntary health plans include those nego
tiated between unions and management, those offered by com
mercial insurance companies, those operated by associations of
hospitals or physicians, and those operated cooperatively by
groups.
In 1966 the Bureau of Labor Statistics summarized 100 selected
health and insurance plans17 negotiated between unions and
management. All but a few had maternity medical allowances for
women employees. In addition, about half provided cash benefits
for a specified number of weeks. Job security and paid sick leave
as such were not covered in the study. There were wide variations
in allowances for maternity hospitalization and for surgical and
medical care; for example, the surgical allowance in many con
tracts ranged from $50 to $150. Many plans provided compensa
tion for the full cost of specified services in addition to hospital
room and board allowances. Others established a flat maternity
allowance, covering both hospitalization and surgical benefits.
17 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: “Digest of 100 Selected Health
and Insurance Plans Under Collective Bargaining, Early 1966." Bull. 1602. September 1966.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
53
In approximately three-fourths of these plans the company paid
the full costs of maternity benefits for its employees. Under the
remaining plans, the employer and employee shared the costs of
the employee’s benefits.
Legislative provisions.—Several Federal and State laws ex
tend some maternity protection to limited numbers of women
workers.
The only Federal law that specifically listed maternity benefits
as such covered women employees in the railroad industry. How
ever, that law was amended in 1968 to delete the provision for
maternity weekly cash benefits, although the right of women to
use their regular sick benefits during absences for pregnancy or
childbirth was retained.
Women employees in Federal service do not receive maternity
leave as such, but Federal law (5 U.S.C. 6301-6311) does make
paid sick leave available to them, and a Civil Service Commission
regulation permits sick leave to be used as maternity leave. As
is the case for all illness, Federal employees receive full pay
during their sick-leave days. Those days are limited in number
each year but may be accumulated. Women granted maternity
leave have job security and may return to the jobs they held
before taking leave.
In addition, under Federal law (5 U.S.C. 8901-8913), Govern
ment employees may elect to >articipate in one of several health
insurance plans that include payments toward maternity medical
care for women employees. Both the Federal Government and the
participating employees share the cost of these benefits. As a
fairly new development, the Federal Government, through its In
terdepartmental Committee on the Status of Women, is exploring
the idea of seeking Congressional approval of paid maternity
leave in addition to paid sick leave.
Women members of the Armed Forces, who are separated from
military service because of pregnancy, are eligible for maternity
care in a military hospital or facility. They are provided with
prenatal, hospital, and postnatal care.
Women employed by Federal contractors and subcontractors
and by federally assisted construction contractors and subcon
tractors are covered by Executive Order 11375 (see sec. 102),
which in effect extends antidiscrimination programs of Govern
ment contractors to include discrimination based on sex. The
equal employment opportunity program developed by the Depart
ment of Labor’s Office of Federal Contract Compliance (OFCC) is
implemented by Federal contracting agencies, with emphasis on
54
WOMEN AS WORKERS
affirmative action and preaward compliance review. As maternity
leave protection is an integral part of the program, guidelines
being prepared for women’s employment include a provision re
lating to maternity leave.
Women employees in private industry are affected by maternity
leave rulings of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
(EEOC), which administers title VII of the Civil Rights Act of
1964 (see sec. 101). One ruling requires employers to grant recall
rights to women after childbirth, just as recall rights are given to
men after a sustained illness or convalescence. A second ruling
maintains that “a leave of absence should be granted for preg
nancy whether or not it is granted for illness.” Another ruling
declares that health plans which grant maternity benefits to
wives of men employees must include women employees as well.
However, the EEOC has ruled that it is not a violation of title
VII to provide paid sick leave but unpaid maternity leave, and
that an employer has the right to decide at what point during a
woman’s pregnancy her employment may be suspended.
Cash benefits for maternity leave are provided to women
workers under the laws of New Jersey, Rhode Island, and Puerto
Rico. Six other States and Puerto Rico prohibit employment for
specified periods before and/or after childbirth, but of these only
Puerto Rico requires women to have reemployment rights or re
ceive compensatory payments (see sec. 117). Under State unem
ployment insurance laws, women in 37 States and the District of
Columbia are disqualified from collecting unemployment insur
ance during a specified period before and/or after childbirth,18
regardless of the reason for their unemployment (which might
have been a layoff).
Many State and local governments allow their women em
ployees to use sick leave as maternity leave, and some also provide
insured medical care. In 1962, 14 States and Puerto Rico offered
health benefit programs with maternity provisions to employees of
these jurisdictions who wished to participate.19 In two of these—
New York and Massachusetts—local governments were allowed to
participate voluntarily in the program. Under all these programs
the employers and enrolled employees both contributed to their
cost. A few of the plans were designed to cover the entire cost of
combined hospital and physician’s charges for a confinement.
18 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Employment Security: “Comparison of State Un
employment Insurance Laws.” Bull. U--141. 1966.
19 U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service: “State Em
ployees’ Health Benefit Programs.” Health Economics Series No. 2, December 1963, and
“Maternity Care Utilization and Financing.” Health Economics Series No. 4, January 1964.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
55
Variations in provisions ranged from separate allowances speci
fied for hospital charges and physician’s fees to a lump sum al
lowance for both types of expenses.
Working Life of Women
34. Work Experience of Women
The number of women and men in the labor force is obtained
by a regular monthly survey of the population.20 A similar sur
vey, conducted once a year, yields the number of women and men
who worked at some time during the previous year.
The number of persons who work some time during the course
of a year is naturally greater than the average number in the
labor force at any one period in time during that year. In 1967,
35.8 million women 16 years of age and over had some work expe
rience,21 but the average number in the labor force was 28.4 million
—a difference of 7.4 million.
Many women cannot work full time (35 hours or more a week)
the year round (50 to 52 weeks) because of home responsibilities,
school attendance, or other reasons. In addition, there are
women who would like to work throughout the year but are una
ble to find this type of job because of lack of skills or education or
because such jobs are not available in the community in which
they live. As a result, women are more likely than men are to
work part time or part year. Only 42 percent of the women who
worked at some time in 1967 were employed full time the year
round (chart K). In contrast, 70 percent of all men with work
experience in 1967 were full-time year-round workers. Twentyeight percent of the women with work experience worked full
time for part of the year. The remaining 29 percent of the women
had part-time jobs. By comparison, only 11 percent of the men
with work experience in 1967 held part-time jobs.
The percentage of women working part time increases as the
number of weeks worked declines. Thus in 1967, less than onefifth of the women who worked 50 to 52 weeks and less than onethird of those who worked from 27 to 49 weeks were employed
part time, but almost one-half of those who worked half a year or
less had part-time jobs.
20 The survey is conducted for the Bureau of Labor Statistics by the Bureau of the Census
through its current population survey. It consists of interviewing a scientifically selected
sample of about 50,000 households, designed to represent the civilian noninstitutional popula
tion 16 years of age and over.
21 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report No. 107.
56
WOMEN AS WORKERS
ABOUT 2 OUT OF 5 WOMEN WORKERS HAVE FULL-TIME YEAR-ROUND JOBS
(Work Experience of Women, by Full-Time and Part-Time Status
and Weeks Worked, 1967)
45
Percent
40
Full- time
(35 hours
35
Part- time
(less than
35 hours)
30
25
20
15
10
5
50-52
weeks
27-49
weeks
Year-Round
1-26
weeks
Part-Year
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Reasons given for part-year work.—The major reasons given
by women and men for working only part of the year in 1967 dif
fered considerably. More than half of the women stated that tak
ing care of their household was the principal reason; another 21
percent said attendance at school limited their work. Only 12 per
cent claimed unemployment as the reason for working less than a
full year. In contrast, 30 percent of the men 16 years of age or
over mentioned unemployment as the major reason for part-year
work, and one-third of the men reported school attendance as the
principal factor.
Changes in work experience of women since 1950.—The number
of women with work experience rose 12.4 million from 1950 to
1967 (table 23). The number who worked part time rose 4.3
million. This increase of 70 percent was considerably greater
than the increase of 47 percent registered by women full-time
workers. Most of the increase in part-time workers, however,
came between 1950 and 1960. From 1960 to 1967 the number of
women part-time workers increased by only 6 percent compared
with an increase of 22 percent among full-time workers.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
57
Another change in the composition of the group of women with
work experience was that a somewhat larger proportion worked a
full year in 1967 (52 percent) than in 1950 (45 percent). This
was due mainly to a relatively large increase in the number of
women who worked full time for 50 to 52 weeks.
Table 23.—Work Experience
op
Women,
1950, 1960,
Number (in thousands)
Work experience
1967
Total ___ ____ _______ 35,787
Year round:
50 to 52 weeks:
Full time2
Part time3
Part year:
27 to 49 weeks:
Full time 2
Part time 3
1 to 26 weeks:
Full time2
Part time3
__ _______ 15,084
_ _______ 3,545
and
19671
Percent distribution
1960
1950
1967
1960
1950
30,585
23,350
100.0
100.0
100.0
11,299
3,060
8,592
1,916
42.1
9.9
36.9
36.8
10.0
8.2
-. _______
_ _______
4,651
2,228
4,479
2,023
4,171
13.0
14.6
1,210
6.2
6.6
17.9
5.1
. ______
.. _______
5,516
4,763
4,899
4,825
4,377
3,088
15.4
13.3
16.0
15.8
18.7
13.2
1 Includes women 16 years of age and over in 1967 but 14 years and over in 1950 and 1960.
2 Worked 35 hours or more a week.
3 Worked less than 35 hours a week.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Special Labor Force Report
No. 107 ; Manpower Administration, “Manpower Report of the President Including a Report
on Manpower Requirements, Resources, Utilization, and Training.” April 1968.
Work experience by age.—As might be expected, women be
tween 18 and 64 years of age are more likely to work some time
during the year than are younger girls or older women. In 1967
almost three-fourths of all women 18 to 24 years of age, about
three-fifths of those 45 to 54, and more than half of those 25 to 44
had work experience (table 24). In contrast, slightly less than
half of the girls 16 and 17 years old and the women 55 to 64, and
only one-seventh of the women 65 and over had worked some
time during that year.
At all age levels a larger proportion of men than of women had
work experience in 1967. For men the percentage was highest
among those 25 to 54 years of age (96 or 98 percent) and lowest
among those 65 years of age and over (35 percent).
In the principal working age group (18 to 64 years), the pro
portion of all women who worked some time during 1967 was 58
percent as compared with 94 percent for men.
58
WOMEN AS WORKERS
Table 24.—Percent
of
Women
and Men
by Age
With Work Experience
in
1967,
(Persons 16 years of age and over)
Age
Total_______
and 17 years ___
and 19 years ___
to 24 years ____
to 34 years _
to 44 years ____
to 64 years ____
66 to 64 years ___
66 years and over _
18 to 64 years
16
18
20
26
35
45
Women
Men
61.3
47.8
72.0
71.0
53.7
56.8
59.6
49.9
13.9
58.5
85.1
65.5
87.1
90.2
98.1
97.9
96.1
88.5
34.9
94.4
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report
No. 107.
Women 45 to 64 years of age are the most likely to work full
time the year round. About 55 percent of the women in this age
group were full-time year-round workers in 1967 (table 25). In
contrast, only 10 percent of girls 16 to 19 years of age were on
full-time schedules throughout the year.
Teenage girls and women 65 years of age and over who work
are the most likely to work primarily at part-time jobs. Among
those with work experience, just over half of the girls 16 to 19
years of age and of the women 65 years of age and over were
part-time workers in 1967. In fact, about 1 out of 3 of the teenage
girls worked at part-time jobs for 26 weeks or less. On the other
hand, less than 1 out of 5 women 20 to 24 years of age worked pri
marily at part-time jobs.
Work experience by marital status.—About 60 percent of the
35.8 million women with work experience in 1967 were married
women living with their husbands (table 26). Another 23 percent
were single, and the remaining 17 percent were widowed, di
vorced, or living apart from their husbands.
Single women were the most likely to have worked at some time
in 1967. Sixty-nine percent of them compared with 46 percent of
the widowed, divorced, or separated women and 48 percent of the
married women (husband present) had had work experience.
Women who are widowed, divorced, or with husbands absent are
more likely to work full time the year round than are single
women or married women living with their husbands. In 1967, 52
percent of the former group of women were full-time year-round
4
tf
Table 25.—Work Experience
of
Women
in
*
1967, by Age
(Women 16 years of age and over)
Age
20-24
years
25-34
years
35-44
years
45-54
years
55-64
years
65 years
and over
35,787,000
4,167,000
5,432,000
6,342,000
6,856,000
6,948,000
4,599,000
1,443,000
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Worked at full-time jobs1
70.6
46.3
81.3
73.7
72.8
74.6
73.4
47.3
50 to 52 weeks
......
27 to 49 weeks
_
_ _. _
1 to 26 weeks
Worked at part-time jobs2 ___. _. _
42.1
13.0
15.5
29.4
10.0
37.4
17.4
26.5
18.7
40.9
15.5
17.3
26.3
48.6
13.4
55.1
7.5
28.8
53.7
12.2
53.8
11.7
28.8
7.4
7.3
25.4
8.0
11.0
27.2
26.6
52.7
50 to 52 weeks
_. ...
27 to 49 weeks ________ . _ _
1 to 26 weeks _ _ __ _ . . .
9.9
10.8
7.2
5.3
13.8
11.1
6.0
5.7
8.5
12.8
6.0
21.3
9.0
33.7
4.8
4.5
9.5
10.3
6.2
7.8
19.4
Work experience
Number________ ___ ___
__
Percent
___
Total
13.3
1 Worked 35 hours or more a week.
2 Worked less than 35 hours a week.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report No. 107.
10.8
10.9
12.0
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
16-19
years
OX
60
WOMEN AS WORKERS
workers compared with 37 percent of the single women and 41
percent of the married women (husband present). Conversely,
widowed, divorced, or separated women are less likely to work on
part-time jobs. Thus only 23 percent of these women worked less
than 35 hours a week in 1967 compared with 34 percent of the
single women and 30 percent of the married women (husband
present).
Table 26.—Work Experience
of
Women
in
1967,
by
Marital Status
(Women 16 years of age and over)
Marital status
Work experience
Total
Number
Percent with work
experience ’
Single
Married
(husband
present)
Other1
35,787,000
8,209,000
21,326,000
6,252,000
51.3
68.5
48.3
45.9
PERCENT DISTRIBUTION
Total . _____
_
Worked at full-time jobs: 3
50 to 52 weeks ____
27 to 49 weeks _____
1 to 26 weeks _
Worked at part-time jobs 4_
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
42.1
13.0
15.4
29.4
36.7
9.6
19.7
34.0
41.3
14.2
14.9
29.6
52.3
13.4
11.5
22.8
1 Widowed, divorced, or separated.
2 Data are for civilian noninstitutional population.
3 Worked 36 hours or more a week.
4 Worked less than 35 hours a week.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report
No. 107.
Work experience by occupation.—Certain occupations require
continuity of performance and seldom are connected with seasonal
activities. Women employed in these occupations are therefore
usually full-time year-round workers. For example, in 1967 at
least half of the women employed in four major occupation
groups—nonfarm managers, officials, and proprietors (64 per
cent), craftsmen (54 percent), and clerical workers and profes
sional workers (both 51 percent)—were on the job 50 to 52 weeks
for 35 hours a week or more (table 27).
Other jobs provide employment opportunities for part-time
work at peak periods during the day or certain days during the
week. This is typical of farm work, private household work, and
4
*
Table 27.—Work Experience
of
Women
in
1967,
by
4
Major Occupation Group
(Women 16 years of age and over)
Percent ciistribution of women with work experience
Worked at full-time jobs1
Total
Total ----- ------------------------------ -----Professional, technical, kindred -workers ---Managers, officials, proprietors (except farm) _
Clerical, kindred workers ------------------------Sales workers ---------- :--------------------------Craftsmen, foremen, kindred workers ------Operatives, kindred workers
- -----Nonfarm laborers
Private household workers
-Service workers (except private household) Farmers, farm managers -----------------------Farm laborers, foremen -----
35,787,000
4,611,000
1,374,000
11,579,000
2,739,000
363,000
5,502,000
209,000
2,426,000
5,785,000
106,000
1,093,000
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
50-52weeks
27-49
weeks
26 weeks
or less
42.1
50.5
64.0
51.2
28.2
54.0
44.9
32.5
17.9
31.6
38.7
13.0
13.7
11.5
11.9
7.3
16.5
15.4
12.4
8.5
14.4
12.3
11.3
21.3
29.2
10.4
18.6
12.0
1 Worked 35 hours or more a week.
2 Worked less than 35 hours a week.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report No. 107.
21.6
18.2
6.4
13.2
5.7
6.5
2.8
19.9
Worked
at
part-time
jobs2
29.4
23.4
15.9
22.5
52.3
18.2
12.2
20.1
65.3
36.4
52.9
61.7
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
Major occupation group of longest job
Number
with work
experience
62
WOMEN AS WORKERS
sales work. For example, in 1967 at least half of the women with
work experience in four major occupation groups—private household workers, farm laborers and foremen, farmers and farm
managers, and sales workers—worked less than 35 hours a week.
In fact, among private household workers and farm laborers and
foremen, almost two-thirds worked part time.
Information on part-year or part-time employment of women
by detailed occupations is available only from the decennial cen
sus.22 Even though the data collected concerning work experience
in 1959 are not current, they provide some indication of the de
tailed occupations in which part-time or part-year employment
frequently occurs.
The decennial data show that some occupations are typically
both part year and part time. For example, women giving dancing
and music lessons or teaching in special schools such as kindergar
tens, nursery schools, adult education centers, and driver-training
schools, often work only a few hours a day or in the evening and
usually work only part of the year. Moreover, women working as
demonstrators and door-to-door salesmen usually work less than
a full week and often work seasonally.
In other occupations part-year work is prevalent. Two-thirds
or more of the women working in 1959 as elementary and second
ary school teachers; operatives in canning and preserving of
fruits, vegetables, and seafood; counter and fountain workers;
and waitresses, among others, were employed less than 50 weeks a
year. Most schools operate on a 9-month schedule, and canneries
and packing plants employ most of their operatives only for the
harvesting season. Moreover, work in eating and drinking places
and in hotels and motels is often seasonal.
Finally, there are some detailed occupations in which women
usually work less than 35 hours a week. These include attendant
and assistant in libraries, babysitter, laundress, and charwoman
and cleaner. More than half of all attendants and assistants in li
braries worked less than 35 hours a week in 1959. Women in this
occupation work at peak periods—after school hours and in the
evening—or as replacements for full-time workers in libraries
open 6 days a week. Two-thirds of the babysitters worked less
than 35 hours a week in 1959, and half worked less than 15 hours
a week. Much of the work done by charwomen and cleaners is per
formed after office hours and does not require an 8-hour day.
Work experience of white and nonwhite women.—A larger
22 U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census: “U.S. Census of Population: 1960.
Occupational Characteristics, PC (2)—7A.”
*
,
i,
y
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
63
proportion of nonwhite than of white women seek and hold jobs.
In 1967, 59 and 50 percent, respectively, had work experience
(table 28). In addition, nonwhite women are more likely to work
part year. To some extent this is due to the difficulty they experi
ence in finding full-time year-round work. Of the women who
worked in 1967, 32 percent of nonwhite women worked at full
time jobs on part-year schedules compared with 28 percent of
white women. Conversely, relatively more white women than non
white women were on the job full time the year round (42 and 40
percent, respectively).
There were also variations in the work experience of white and
nonwhite women workers by age group. Among women 25 years
of age and over, relatively more nonwhite women than white
women worked at some time in 1967. The proportions were fairly
similar among women 20 to 24 years of age, but among teenagers
relatively fewer nonwhite than white girls had some work experi
ence. In every age group except those 25 through 44 years, a larger
proportion of white women than nonwhite women were full-time
year-round workers. Relatively more nonwhite women than white
women held part-time jobs in the group 45 years of age and over.
35. Employed Women by Part-Time and Full-Time Status
The Bureau of Labor Statistics publishes another series of fig
ures (both monthly and annual averages) on part-time and full
time employment of women and men based on the current house
hold survey. These figures differ from those shown under work ex
perience, since they relate solely to nonagricultural employment.
Moreover, only persons working on part-time and full-time sched
ules at the time of the monthly survey are counted. Persons who
worked less than 35 hours a week because of bad weather, in
dustrial dispute, vacation, illness, holiday, or other noneconomic
reasons are included with those on full-time schedules who
worked 35 hours or more a week. Persons on part-time schedules
are primarily those who worked part time for economic reasons
(slack work, material shortages, repairs to plant or equipment,
start or termination of job during the week, and inability to
find full-time work) and those who usually work part time for
other reasons (also called voluntary part time).
Seventy-four percent of the 25,412,000 women employed in non
agricultural industries in 1968 were on full-time schedules (table
29). About 23 percent were employed part time by choice, and the
remainder worked part time involuntarily. In contrast, 92 percent
05
>P»
Table 28.—Work Experience
of
Women
in
1967,
by
Color
and
Age
Percent distribution of women with work experience
----
Women in the population
Worked at full-time jobs1
Worked
Number
Percent
with work
experience
_---
62,132,000
6,022,000
6,714,000
20,990,000
18,842,000
9,564,000
50.4
61.3
71.2
53.6
54.5
13.6
--
7,599,000
59.1
100.0
40.2
14.7
16.8
28.3
---_
---
950,000
938,000
2,887,000
2,024,000
800,000
49.8
69.2
67.5
63.2
17.8
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
8.2
33.0
47.3
46.9
20.4
5.1
22.8
16.7
12.3
4.9
40.4
26.8
14.4
7.9
4.9
46.3
17.4
21.6
32.9
69.7
Age
Total
50-52
weeks
27-49
weeks
1-26
weeks
part-time
jobs2
42.4
10.3
37.9
44.5
55.5
29.7
12.7
7.8
16.7
14.0
11.9
7.8
15.2
27.4
26.4
13.9
7.6
11.7
29.6
54.6
18.9
27.7
25.0
50.9
WHITE
Total
16
20
26
45
65
.
to 19 years
to 24 years
to 44 years
to 64 years
years and over
..
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
NONWHITE
Total
16
20
25
45
65
.
to 19 years _
_
to 24 years
_
to 44 years__
to 64 years
_
years and over
1 Worked 35 hours or more a week.
2 Worked less than 35 hours a week.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report No. 107.
x
J
<■
WOMEN AS WORKERS
(Women 16 years of age and over)
A
Table 29.—Women
at
A
Work
in
4
Nonagricultural Industries, by FullCharacteristics, 19681
and
Part-Time Status
and
Selected
(Women 16 years of age and over)
Characteristics
Total _____________________
Color:
White ______________________
Nonwhite ____
______
_
.
__________
__________
890,000
1,505,000
3,708,000
9,605,000
8,840,000
865,000
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
19.4
67.7
82.2
76.1
77.2
50.3
6.2
5.3
3.3
3.0
3.6
3.5
74.4
27.0
14.5
20.9
19.3
46.2
5,840,000
14,661,000
100.0
100.0
72.3
72.9
3.6
3.2
24.1
23.9
4,911,000
100.0
79.3
4.2
16.5
22,266,000
3,146,000
100.0
100.0
74.1
73.5
3.0
7.2
22.9
19.3
1 Annual average.
3 Includes slack work, job-changing during week, etc.
3 Widowed, divorced, or separated.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
______ ____________
Age:
16 and 17 years ____ _____
_ _ ____________
18 and 19 years .
.
__
. _______ ____
20 to 24 years
__
____
____________
26 to 44 years
______
__ ____________
45 to 64 years
_____
____
_ _ _ ____________
65 years and over
_
_ ____________
Marital status:
Single __ .
. __
_ _
_ ____________
Married (husband present) ______
_ ____________
Other3____________________
___
_ ----------------
Number
of women
25,412,000
Parent distribution of women at work
On part-time schedules for—
On
-------------------------------full-time
Economic
Other
Total
schedules
reasons2
reasons
100.0
74.0
3.5
22.5
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Employment and Earnings, January 1969.
Ol
66
WOMEN AS WORKERS
of the men were on full-time schedules, and only 6 percent
worked part time voluntarily.
Part-time and full-time employment by selected characteris
tics.—Full-time employment is characteristic of most women 18
to 64 years of age. In 1968 about 77 percent of all women in this
broad age group were on full-time schedules. Full-time work was
most prevalent (82 percent) among women 20 to 24 years of age.
On the other hand, girls under 18 years of age and women 65
years of age and over are the most likely to seek part-time work
—74 percent of girls under 18 years of age and 46 percent of
women 65 years of age and over worked part time by choice in
1968.
Women who are widowed, divorced, or separated from their
husbands are the most likely to work full time—79 percent were
on full-time schedules in 1968, and only 16 percent worked part
time voluntarily. On the other hand, 24 percent of the single
women worked part time by choice. It must be remembered, how
ever, that this group includes most of the more than 662,000 girls
under 18 years of age who worked part time voluntarily.
About the same proportion of nonwhite and white women
worked on full-time schedules in 1968—73 percent compared with
74 percent. However, 7 percent of the nonwhite women and only 3
percent of the white women worked part time for economic rea
sons. As a result, the proportion of white women who worked
part time by choice (23 percent) was slightly higher than the
proportion of nonwhite women (19 percent).
Interest among jobseekers in full- or part-time work.—Women
and teenagers are more inclined to seek part-time work than are
men 20 years of age and over. Of the 1,397,000 women looking for
work in 1968, 27 percent sought part-time jobs (table 30). The
percentage looking for part-time work was almost twice as high
for girls 16 to 21 years of age (34 percent) as for women 22 to 24
years of age (18 percent). But the proportion of unemployed
looking for part-time work was highest among teenage boys (47
percent). This was in contrast to only 10 percent among men 20
years of age and over.
Eighty-six percent of all girls 16 to 21 years of age who were
both attending school and looking for work in 1968 looked for
part-time jobs. Many unemployed women 55 years of age and over
also preferred part-time work (32 percent). On the other hand,
only 22 percent of unemployed women 25 to 54 years of age
sought part-time work.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
Table 30.—Unemployed Persons Looking for Fullby Age, 19681
or
67
Part-Time Work,
(Persons 16 years of age and over)
Looking for
full-time work
Number
Age
Percent
Number
UNEMPLOYED
Total
Men _________
Women ..........
Looking for
part-time work
as a percent of
unemployed
Percent in each group
Looking for
part-time work
persons
2,138,000
___
__
100.0
679,000
100.0
24.1
1,124,000
1,014,000
52.6
47.4
296,000
383,000
43.6
56.4
20.8
27.4
UNEMPLOYED WOMEN, BY AGE
Total__
_ _ ____
16 to 21 years
.
Major activities:
Attending school
All other ___ .
22 to 24 years
25 to 54 years__ _ _ __
55 years and over _.
__
1,014,000
100.0
383,000
100.0
27.4
379,000
37.4
193,000
50.4
33.7
19,000
360,000
1.9
35.5
121,000
102,000
10.1
22,000
455,000
78,000
44.9
7.7
132,000
36,000
31.6
18.8
5.7
34.5
9.4
86.4
16.7
17.7
22.5
31.6
72,000
1 Annual average.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Employment and Earnings, January 1969.
Another measure of unemployment in relation to part-time and
full-time work comes from data23 relating to the part-time and
the full-time labor force. These data show that unemployment is
generally higher among part-time workers than among full-time
workers.
The unemployment rate for adult women (20 years of age and
over) working part time in 1968 was 4 percent. The unemploy
ment rate among adult men on part-time jobs was even higher—
4.9 percent. On the other hand, adult men who were full-time
workers had a much lower unemployment rate (2 percent) than
did adult women on full-time jobs (3.7 percent). Unlike other
workers, teenagers who were part-time workers had a lower un
employment rate (12.3 percent) than those who worked full time
(13 percent).
36. Unemployed Women
Unemployed women—those in the labor force but not able to
find work—averaged 1.4 million in 1968. The unemployment rate
for women 16 years of age and over was 4.8 percent. This was
23 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Employment and Earnings,
January 1969.
68
WOMEN AS WORKERS
substantially higher than the 2.9 percent unemployment rate
among men. Women not only have a higher unemployment rate
than men, but the gap has been widening in recent years.
One of the reasons for women’s continued high unemployment
rate is that they move in and out of the labor force more fre
quently than men do. A recently instituted analysis of reasons
why unemployed persons are looking for work showed that in
1968 the percentage of unemployed women 20 years of age and
over who were labor force reentrants (43 percent) was double
that of men (21 percent) (table 31). On the other hand, only 35
percent of the unemployed women but 60 percent of the unem
ployed men had lost their last jobs involuntarily.
Table 31.—Percent
Rates,
Distribution op the Unemployed and Unemployment
Sex and Reason for Unemployment, 19681
by
(Persons 20 years of age and over)
Women
Reason for unemployment
Men
PERCENT DISTRIBUTION
Total unemployed:
Number
Percent
Lost last job____
Left last job ________________
____
Reentered labor force___ __
Never worked before ______ _ _ __ ___
985,000
993,000
100.0
100.0
34.7
17.0
42.9
5.6
60.4
16.8
20.7
3.8
1.3
2.2
2.2
unemploymf.nt rate
Total unemployment rate___ ___ ______
Job-loser rate
Job-leaver rate
Reentrant rate
New entrant rate
*
*
.6
1.6
.2
1.3
.4
.4
(’)
1 Annual average.
* Not reported where base is less than 50,000.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Employment and Earnings,
January 1969.
Unemployment associated with reentry into the labor force is
much less responsive to improved economic conditions than unem
ployment due to job loss. Between June 1964 and December 1968,
the unemployment rates of women 20 years of age and over de
clined quite sharply—from 2.2 to 1.1 percent—for job losers, but
only slightly—from 1.6 to 1.3 percent—for women reentrants.24
34 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report No.
78 and Employment and Earnings, January 1969.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
69
During the same period, unemployment among men 20 years of
age and over also dropped markedly—from 2.3 to 1.1 percent—
for job losers, but only slightly—from 0.6 to 0.5 percent—for the
reentrants.
Because many more women than men seek reentry into the
labor force, women's total rate of unemployment declined less
(from 5.2 to 3 percent) than men’s (from 3.6 to 1.9 percent) over
the 4-year period.
The higher unemployment rate among women is also the result
of the more restrictive hiring practices that affect women,
whether they are low-skilled workers with only limited education
or highly skilled professionals with much education. Unemploy
ment is a problem for women in almost all occupations and at all
ages, but for some groups it is a far more serious problem than it
is for others. For girls and women who are members of families
living in poverty or for those who must support themselves and
others, unemployment is as tragic as it is for male heads of fam
ilies.
Trends in unemployment rates.—Beginning with 1948, women’s
unemployment rates generally have been higher than those of men,
except in 1958 when both sexes had the same rate—a high of 6.8
percent, reflecting the 1957-58 recession (table 32). During the
next recession in 1961, the unemployment rate of men reached
6.4 percent, which was slightly below the 1958 rate. In contrast,
women’s unemployment rate rose to 7.2 percent in 1958. From
then on, almost continuously unemployment has declined less for
women than for men. As a result, the greatest gaps between men’s
and women’s unemployment rates during the 1947-68 period oc
curred in the most recent years: 2.1 percentage points in 1967
and 1.9 percentage points in 1968.
Unemployment by marital status.—From the standpoint of
marital status, the highest rate of unemployment exists among
single women. More than one-third of the single women workers
are teenagers, and many are entering the labor force for the first
time. In March 1967, the date of the latest labor force survey by
marital status,25 5.9 percent of the single women workers were
unemployed. The rates were 4.5 percent for married women (hus
band present) and 4.4 percent for the group of widowed, di
vorced, or separated women.
Unemployment by family status.—The unemployment rate
was 4.6 percent in March 1967 among the women in the labor
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report No. 94.
70
WOMEN AS WORKERS
force who were heads of families.26 This was slightly higher than
the rate for wives (4.5 percent) and considerably higher than for
men family heads (2.1 percent). Since only about a third of the
women family heads who were unemployed had another family
earner, their joblessness could be expected to cause real hardship
for their families.
Table 32.—Unemployment Rates
of
Women
and
4
Men, 1947-681
(Persons 16 years of age and over)
Year
1968
1967
1966
1965
1964
1963
1962
1961
1960
1959
1958
1957
1956
1955
1954
1953
1952
1951
1950
1949
1948
1947
"Women
_ _ ___________________________________
__________
______
___________
_______________________
____________
____
...
_________________________
_______________________________________
_____
___________________________________ _____
4.1
4.8
5.2
4.8
5.5
6.2
6.5
6.2
7.2
5.9
5.9
6.8
4.7
4.8
4.9
6.0
3.3
3.6
4.4
5.7
6.0
3.7
Men
2.9
3.1
3.2
4.0
4.6
5.2
5.2
6.4
5.4
5.3
6.8
4.1
3.8
4.2
5.3
2.8
2.8
2.8
5.1
5.9
3.6
4.0
1 Annual averages.
Note.—Data for years prior to 1960 are not strictly comparable with later data, since they
exclude Alaska and Hawaii and because of the introduction of decennial censuses into the
estimating procedure in 1953 and 1962.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Employment and Earnings,
January 1969.
Unemployment by age.—By age group the highest unemploy
ment rate for women in 1968 occurred among those 16 to 19 years
old (chart L). The rates then progressively declined for each age
group, with the lowest rate prevailing for women 55 to 64 years
of age (table 33). Although teenagers’ unemployment was the
highest, it was generally of short duration. Few girls were unem
ployed longer than 4 weeks, but some might have had several pe26 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: “Unemployment in the American
Family.” In Monthly Labor Review, October 1968.
y
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
71
riods of unemployment in the year. Older women’s unemploy
ment, in contrast, was of longer duration; and the older the
women were, the longer they had to search for a job.
UNEMPLOYMENT IS HIGHEST AMONG YOUNGER WOMEN
(Unemployment Rates of Women, by Age, 1947-681)
Percent
16 to 19 Years
20 to 44 Years
45 to 64 Years
65 Years and Over
1950
1952
1954
1958
1956
1960
1962
1964
1966
1968
Annual averagesSource: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Table 33.—Unemployment Rates
of
Women
and
Men,
by
Age, 19681
(Persons 16 years of age and over)
^ge
16
20
25
35
45
55
65
Total
to 19 years
14.0
16 and 17 years
15.9
18 and 19 years
12.9
to 24 years
to 34 years__________________________
to 44 years _______________________
to 54 years__________________________
to 64 years
years and over______________________
Women
Men
4_g
2.9
11.6
6.7
4.7
34
2.4
2.2
2.71
13.9
9.7
5.1
1.9
1.6
1.6
1.9
2.9
1 Annual average.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics: Employment and Earnings,
January 1969.
In the youngest age group—16 and 17 years old—179,000 girls
on the average were looking for jobs in 1968. This was an unem-
72
WOMEN AS WORKERS
ployment rate of 15.9 percent compared with 13.9 percent for
boys of the same age.
Most of these young girls were seeking their first job, usually a
part-time job to fit in with school attendance. In 1968 only about
32 percent of girls of this age had jobs, and many of these girls
were babysitters. Whether school dropouts or not, their limited
schooling and their lack of skills and experience made it difficult
for them to find regular employment.
This problem is almost as great for 18- and 19-year-old girls,
although their educational and skill level is higher. Girls in this
age group have the second highest unemployment rate among
women of all ages—12.9 percent in 1968, when 233,000 of these
girls were looking for jobs. (The unemployment rate for boys in
this age group was 9.7 percent.) There were significant differ
ences, however, in the percentages in the labor force among the
16- and 17-year-old girls and among those aged 18 and 19 years.
Because school attendance laws keep many of the 16- and 17year-old girls out of the labor force, their labor force participation
rate was not more than 31.7 percent in 1968. On the other hand,
girls 18 and 19 years old had a labor force participation rate of
about 52.4 percent.
The unemployment rate of young women in the 20- to 24-yearold group was 6.7 percent in 1968, when 285,000 of them were un
employed. This compares with 5.1 percent for young men these
ages. In the last 6 years unemployment rates have been higher
for women than for men in this age group. In every year from
1947 to 1961 (except for 1951), women in their early twenties
had relatively less unemployment than young men had.
During the past two decades unemployment rates have been
consistently higher for women than for men in the 25- to 44-year
age bracket. However, at ages 45 to 54, when women’s participa
tion in the labor force has become increasingly high, their unem
ployment rates were not much higher than men’s until 1963,
when relatively many more women than men were unable to locate
a job. Women 55 years of age and older have about the same unem
ployment rates as men in this age group.
Special unemployment problems of teenagers.—Among the
572,000 girls 16 to 21 years old who were unemployed in 1968, 1
out of 3 was looking for part-time work (table 30). This was a
greater proportion than the more than 1 out of 4 of all unem
ployed women 16 years of age and over and 1 out of 5 of all un
employed men who were seeking part-time employment in that
year. Teenage girls, of course, seek part-time work mainly to fit
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
73
in with school attendance. The unemployed girls in this age group
who were looking for part-time work constituted almost 9 out of
10 among the students as compared with 1 out of 6 among those
not attending school.
Teenage girls may encounter difficulties when looking not only
for part-time jobs but also for their first steady jobs, which in
some instances may prove to be more transitory than steady.
Thus data for 1968 show that among 16- to 19-year-old unem
ployed youth, 39 percent had never worked before.27 Among those
who had worked, about 1 out of 4 had lost their jobs through cir
cumstances beyond their control, such as slack work, no more
work available, or the firm had moved or gone out of business. In
this group of former workers, less than 1 out of 5 had left their
jobs voluntarily, and more than 1 out of 2 were reentering the
labor force, probably after a period of school attendance.
“Hidden” unemployment and “underemployment”.—In addition
to reported unemployment, there is also concealed unemployment
in all age groups, but especially among older workers. Those no
longer seeking work are considered outside the labor force statis
tically and not counted among the unemployed. Since no account is
taken of the many who have given up jobhunting because it seemed
hopeless, unemployment rates of older women especially may be
deceptively low. Of the 263,000 women 45 years of age and over
who were reported to be unemployed in 1968, about 8 percent had
been looking for work for 6 months or longer. Many more thous
ands may have given up looking.
The “hidden” unemployed among women are probably the least
employable in terms of education, skills, industry attachment, or
job vacancies in their communities. Yet unemployment could bear
particularly hard on them. And it must be remembered that in
many rural and generally depressed areas of this country, job op
portunities may not exist.
There are still other women who have jobs but do not work as
many hours or weeks as they would like. They are the “underem
ployed”—those who work part time or part year, but would pre
fer full-time year-round steady jobs if they could find them.
These, too, are disadvantaged in terms of employment.
Unemployment of white and nonwhite women and girls.—Both
white and nonwhite women generally have higher unemployment
than their male counterparts (chart M). In 1961, however, non
white men workers had the highest unemployment rate (12.8 per27 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Employment and Earnings,
January 1969.
74
WOMEN AS WORKERS
UNEMPLOYMENT OF NONWHITE WORKERS CONTINUES TO BE HIGH
( Unemployment Rates of Workers, by Color and Sex, 1961 and 19681)
15
Percent
|
| White
Nonwhite
1968
Annual averages.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics
cent); by 1968 their rate was down to 5.6 percent. But the im
proved employment situation affected nonwhite women workers
less favorably. Their unemployment rate dropped less sharply—
from 11.8 percent to 8.3 percent—during the 7-year period.
Compared with the unemployment rates of white women, those
of nonwhite women present special aspects of severity and hard
ship (table 34). Not only are the unemployment rates of non
white teenage girls and women considerably higher than those of
white at each age group (except women 65 years and over in
1968), but also unemployment is typically of longer duration.
While the labor force participation rate of nonwhite teenage girls
(35 percent) in 1968 was lower than that of white girls (43 per
cent), their unemployment rate was more than twice that of
white girls—28.8 percent of nonwhite girls 16 to 19 years old
were looking for work compared with 12.1 percent of white girls.
The difference was even larger in the age group 16 and 17 years
old—33.7 percent of nonwhite girls and 13.9 percent of white
girls were unemployed.
Nonwhite girls in the age group 16 to 21 years who dropped
out before completing high school constituted 41 percent of those
<
Table 34.—Unemployment Rates,
by
Sex, Age,
and
Color, Selected Years, 1959-681
(Persons 16 years of age and over)
Age
Nonwhite
White
4.6
11.4
12.9
5.9
3.9
3.1
2.3
8.3
28.8
33.7
26.2
12.3
8.4
5.0
3.2
2.1
2.8
4.7
3.7
2.9
2.3
2.7
2.4
2.6
2.6
10.1
5.6
2.7
10.7
12.7
9.0
4.2
1.9
White
Nonwhite
White
1959
1961
1963
1965
1967
1968
Nonwhite
White
Nonwhite
9.2
31.7
37.8
27.8
13.7
8.4
7.6
4.4
3.9
3.1
5.8
15.1
18.1
13.2
7.4
5.8
4.6
3.9
3.5
3.0
11.2
7.4
22.9
27.1
4.7
15.9
17.8
14.2
7.8
3.9
2.9
3.3
4.0
4.1
10.5
27.3
27.0
27.4
15.5
9.5
White
Nonwhite
White
Non
white
WOMEN
12.1
13.9
11.0
10.6
6.0
9.1
29.5
32.0
28.3
13.8
8.7
6.2
4.4
3.4
3.4
5.0
14.0
15.0
13.4
6.3
4.8
4.1
3.0
2.7
2.7
34.9
40.1
31.9
18.7
11.7
8.2
6.1
4.8
3.6
6.5
14.8
17.0
13.6
8.4
11.8
5.3
29.1
31.1
28.2
19.5
12.0
6.6
11.1
5.6
4.8
4.3
3.7
10.7
7.4
6.3
6.5
5.7
15.7
16.5
15.1
12.8
13.3
11.1
6.7
5.0
4.7
4.0
4.0
3.4
9.4
27.7
25.8
29.9
14.9
9.7
7.6
6.1
5.0
2.3
MEN
16
20
25
35
45
55
65
Total
to 19 years __ _ __
16 and 17 years ___
18 and 19 years ___
to 24 years
to 34 years ________
to 44 years ---------to 54 years ______
to 64 years .
____
years and over_____
12.3
8.2
4.6
1.7
1.4
1.5
1.7
2.8
22.1
26.6
19.0
8.3
3.8
2.9
2.5
3.6
4.0
1.6
1.8
2.2
2.7
6.0
23.9
28.9
20.1
8.0
4.4
3.1
3.4
4.1
5.1
3.6
12.9
14.7
11.4
5.9
20.2
9.3
2.6
6.2
2.3
2.3
3.1
3.4
5.1
5.1
5.4
5.2
8.0
7.1
7.4
10.1
10.0
4.9
4.0
4.4
5.3
5.2
26.7
31.0
23.9
15.3
12.9
10.7
10.2
10.5
9.4
4.6
14.0
15.0
13.0
7.5
3.8
3.2
3.7
4.2
4.5
11.5
25.2
22.3
27.2
16.3
12.3
8.9
7.9
8.7
8.4
1 Annual averages.
^ >
#
t
Source: U.S. Department of Labor: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment and Earnings, January 1969; Manpower Administration, “Manpower
Report of the President Including a Report on Manpower Requirements, Resources, Utilization, and Training/’ April 1968.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
Total
16 to 19 years
16 and 17 years ---18 and 19 years _ 20 to 24 years
26 to 34 years_________
35 to 44 years
- 45 to 54 years
-. .
55 to 64 years
65 years and over _____
4.3
^
C7I
76
WOMEN AS WORKERS
not enrolled in college in October 1967.28 Those who drop out gen
erally experience severe unemployment. Their unemployment rate
in October 1967 was 30.1 percent. This is understandable because
high school dropouts are least qualified for the jobs of today’s
complex society. It is to be expected, therefore, that nonwhite
girls who were high school graduates had a relatively lower un
employment rate—21.6 percent. However, their unemployment
was still far above average for all women (5.6 percent) for that
month, assumedly because many had difficulty in obtaining the
white-collar and other jobs to which they aspire and for which
they may have been trained in high school. (Unemployment rates
by educational attainment are discussed in chapter 4.)
37. Labor Turnover and Absenfeeism
Labor turnover.—Labor turnover rates are influenced more
by the skill level of the job, the age of the worker, the worker’s
record of job stability, and the worker’s length of service with
the employer than by the sex of the worker.29 Comparisons of the
absenteeism artd labor turnover rates of men and women, there
fore, need to be related to those in comparable jobs and circum
stances if they are to be truly meaningful.
Of course, the worklife pattern of women—with many working
for a few years after finishing school, leaving the labor force for
marriage and childrearing, and returning to the labor force after
their children are grown or reach school age—does increase the
labor turnover rates for women. However, it is also true that
men’s rates are raised by their tendency to move from one job to
another somewhat more often than women.30
Because comparative turnover rates of men and women are
difficult to obtain, available statistics which combine data for
different groups of workers have some value—as long as their
limitations are recognized.
An analysis of labor turnover rates for factory workers during
1968 revealed an average quit rate of 26 per 1,000 women em
ployees as against 22 per 1,000 men employees. These data are of
special interest not only because the rate was just slightly higher
for women than men but also because comparison of these results
with those of an earlier study showed that factory women had
28U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report No. 100.
20 U.S. Department of Labor, Wage and Labor Standards Administration, Women’s Bureau:
“Facts About Women’s Absenteeism and Labor Turnover.” August 1969.
30 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report No. 35.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
77
become less inclined to quit their jobs than they formerly were.31
This is probably because the proportion of older women workers
has increased and women are more interested in continuous em
ployment.
A U.S. Civil Service Commission study of relative voluntary
separation (turnover) rates of women and men full-time career
employees in the Federal Government during the period Decem
ber 16, 1962, to February 2, 1963, showed that on an overall basis
the separation rate for women was about 2(4 times greater than
that for men.32 The higher rate for women is explained in part by
the many women in the Federal civil service who (1) are under
25 years of age, (2) are in lower grade clerical jobs (particularly
in the occupations of stenographer and typist, which have the
highest turnover rates), and (3) have few years of Federal serv
ice. These groups have higher turnover rates than others re
gardless of sex. When the data for women and men are compared
by age group, by broad occupation group, and by length of serv
ice, the differences in their relative turnover rates decrease.
A study of occupational mobility of individuals 18 years of age
and over showed that in 1966 men changed occupations more fre
quently than women.33 Ten percent of the men but only 7 percent
of the women employed in January 1966 were working in an oc
cupation different from the one they had held in January 1965.
(This study may understate the mobility of the labor force, and
especially of women, since it excluded those who left their jobs
and were not employed in January 1966.)
Although occupation-changing was highest among young
workers regardless of sex, the turnover rate was somewhat less
for girls than for boys. Almost 1 out of 3 boys 18 and 19 years of
age and more than 1 out of 4 young men 20 to 24 years of age
who worked in January 1966 changed occupations at least once
during the previous year. More than 1 out of 4 girls 18 and 19
years old and about 1 out of 7 young women 20 to 24 years of age
changed occupations during the year. Many such young people
shop for jobs as they start their work careers. Others are laid off
because they lack the skills to command steady jobs or the senior
ity to protect them against involuntary separation.
Among women, occupational mobility rates varied little with
31 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: “Labor Turnover of Women
Factory Workers, 1950-55.” In Monthly Labor Review, August 1955.
32 President’s Commission on the Status of Women: Report of the Committee on Federal
Employment, Appendix F. October 1963.
33 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report
No. 84.
78
WOMEN AS WORKERS
marital status or color. However, women’s occupation-changing
had an inverse relationship with their length of time on the job.
Of those with 1 year or less of service, 36 percent made an occu
pational change; of those with over 10 years’ service, less than 1
percent made a change. By educational level, occupational
changes occurred least frequently among women who had grad
uated from college and those who had 8 years of schooling or less.
The former group presumably remained in the occupation for
which they had trained; the latter group probably included many
older women, who often found it difficult to locate new jobs.
By major occupation group the 1965 rate of job-changing for
women was highest among craftsmen, foremen, and kindred
workers—a category which includes relatively few women. The
next highest rates for women were among clerical workers, sales
workers, and service workers (except private household). These
three groups cover almost three-fifths of all employed women.
Among men occupation-changing was most frequent for nonfarm
laborers, followed in descending order by clerical workers, opera
tives, service workers, and craftsmen and foremen. Among pro
fessional and technical workers the occupation-changing rate was
low for both women and men workers. Only 3 percent of the
women and 6 percent of the men reported a profession different
from the one held a year earlier.
Another measure of job stability is job tenure. A special study,
exploring the length of time that workers had been employed con
tinuously on the job each held in January 1966, showed that on the
average women had spent 2.8 years on the current job as com
pared with 5.2 years for men.34 Job tenure increased with age, but
somewhat less for women than for men. In general, both women
and men workers under 25 years of age had averaged 1 year or
less on the current job. Among workers 25 to 44 years old, women
had been with the same employer about 3 years on the average
compared with 5 years for men. Among those 45 years old and
over, the average job tenure for women was about 7 years—still
considerably less than the 13 years for men.
By marital status it was found that single women had about
the same job tenure as did men in the same age groups. After
about age 45, single women tend to stay even longer with the same
employer than men do. However, relatively few women remain
single, and the job pattern of married women dominates the over
all employment pattern for women. The average tenure in Janu
ary 1966 for married women (3.1 years) was twice as high as for
34 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report No. 77.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
79
single women (1.6 years). The difference reflects the greater pro
portion of married women in age groups (35 years and over) with
longer job tenure and the overwhelming percentage of single
women in the youngest age groups, where job tenure is very low.
The average time on the current job was also much longer for
full-time women workers (3.3 years) than for part-time women
workers (1.7 years).
The average job tenure was exactly the same for nonwhite and
white women. Also about the same proportion (20 percent) of
nonwhite and of white women had held their current job for 10
years or more. A greater proportion of nonwhite women than
white women are in service occupations where work is less steady
than in the clerical occupations where white women are concen
trated. This might be expected to result in a shorter average job
tenure for nonwhite women, but this factor is offset by the more
continuous association of nonwhite women with the labor force
because of economic need, as reflected in their higher labor force
participation rates.
A comparison of job tenure in January 1966 by major industry
group showed that women workers in communications and public
utilities had been with the same employer the longest on the aver
age (4.6 years). The shortest average job tenure for women
(about 2 years) was among those employed in wholesale and re
tail trade. Women factory workers had an average of 3.8 years of
continuous job attachment. Among them, workers in the textile
mill and the chemical products manufacturing industries had the
longest average job tenures (5.2 and 4.9 years, respectively). On
the other hand, women employed in the printing and publishing
industry had one of the shortest average job tenures for women
in the manufacturing industries (3 years).
By occupation the study indicated that women who had the
greatest job stability were in occupations that require the most
training or experience or that provide the least opportunity to
make a move. Among the latter, for example, were women farm
laborers and foremen, who had the next-to-highest average num
ber of years (11.6) with the same employer. Many were unpaid
workers on family farms, and more than two-fifths had spent
more than 15 years on the current job. The total number was, of
course, small. Also, characteristically, they were an older group.
Equally small was the number of women farmers and farm man
agers, although they had the longest average tenure (21.6 years).
Many of these were, of course, self-employed; and they were also
an older group. Women employed as managers, officials, and pro
80
WOMEN AS WORKERS
prietors, another older group, averaged 6.5 years on their current
job. Women craftsmen had spent an average of 6.4 years on the
job; operatives and kindred workers, 3.4 years.
Professional and technical workers, of whom 3 out of 5 had
spent 5 years or less with the same employer, had a relatively low
average job tenure of 3.5 years, partly because they were a some
what younger group and partly because they had more opportuni
ties for job changes. Clerical workers, also a younger group, aver
aged 2.7 years on the current job; service workers, including pri
vate household workers, less than 2 years. Service jobs are likely
to be part time and part year in nature. It is not surprising,
therefore, that more than 7 out of 10 women in private household
and other service jobs had spent 5 years or less on the current
job.
Absenteeism.—Like labor turnover, absenteeism is an important
factor in determining labor costs. On the average women lose
more workdays because of acute conditions than men do, but the
reverse is true for chronic conditions such as heart trouble, arth
ritis, rheumatism, and orthopedic impairment. According to a
recent study, employed persons 17 years of age and over lost an
average of 3.1 days during the period July 1966 to June 1967
because of acute conditions (3.3 for women and 3 for men).35
When both types of conditions were counted, the worktime lost
by persons 17 years of age and over because of illness or injury
averaged 5.3 days for women and 5.4 days for men over the same
period.
38. Multiple Jobholders
More than half a million women (576,000), or about 2 percent
of all employed women, held more than one wage or salary job in
May 1966 (table 35). The highest incidence of “moonlighting”
(2.9 percent) was in age groups 14 to 17 years and 25 to 34
years. In the latter age group men also show the highest propor
tion of multiple jobholding. These are typically the years in
which financial obligations are heavy. Among women the lowest
proportions of multiple jobholders were in age groups 20 to 24
years (1.5 percent) and 18 and 19 years (1.6 percent). Women
are much less likely to hold more than one job than are men.
More than 3 million men, or 6.4 percent, were multiple jobholders
in May 1966.
35 U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare: Vital and Health Statistics, Series
10, No. 43.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
81
On their second job women averaged 9 hours a week compared
with 14 hours for men. On the primary job women moonlighters
were mainly clerical, professional and technical, or service
workers (except private household). Most dual jobholders
worked in a different industry or occupation on their secondary
jobs.
The question is often raised whether moonlighters are depriv
ing the unemployed of job opportunities. The May 1966 analysis
indicates that this is not so. Comparatively few unemployed per
sons could or would take the secondary jobs held by dual jobhold
ers. Most of these jobs are part time, and many require special
qualifications or skills.
Table
35.—Women
With Two or More Jobs, by Occupation
and Secondary Jobs, May 1966
of
Primary
(Women 14 years of age and over)
Number of
Occupation
group 1
All occupations ________
with 2 or
more jobs
--- 576,000
Professional, technical, kindred
workers
_ .
...
Medical, other health workers . _.
Teachers (except college)
__ _
Other professional, technical,
kindred workers
_ .
_ _.
Managers, officials, proprietors
(except farm) _ . _______ __ ...
Clerical, kindred workers
...
Sales workers
_
.__
Retail trade ______
...
Other sales workers _
. _ _ ...
Craftsmen, foremen, kindred
workers
_
..
Operatives, kindred workers .
.
Nonfarm laborers ___
...
Private household workers
...
Service workers (except
private household)
. _ ...
Waitresses, cooks, bartenders . ...
Other service workers
_ _..
Farmers, farm managers ______ . _
Farm laborers, foremen
...
Percent distribution
As percent of
total women Primary Secondary
employed
job
job
2.2
100.0
100.0
3.5
18.4
2.4
3.6
123,000
18,000
57,000
2.1
3.8
21.4
3.1
9.9
48,000
4.1
8.3
12.3
24,000
171,000
30,000
2.1
2.1
4.2
29.7
5.2
3.6
22.2
10.2
21,000
9,000
11,000
38,000
4,000
23,000
111,000
47,000
64,000
3,000
38,000
1.7
1:3
3.8
4.7
.9
3.1
1.1
2.7
3.3
2.4
2.2
6.2
1.6
7.3
8.3
1.9
1.9
.7
6.6
2.8
.7
4.0
12.3
.5
19.6
9.2
10.4
4.3
6.6
2.1
19.3
8.2
11.1
1 Occupation of primary job.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report
No. 90.
82
WOMEN AS WORKERS
39. Wo men as Members of Unions
An estimated 3,689,000 3C women were members of national and
international labor unions in the United States in 1966.36 This
37
was an increase of about 276,000 since 1964. Almost 1 out of 5
union members in 1966 was a woman.
About 1 out of 7 women in the Nation’s labor force, but 1 out of
4 men workers, belonged to a union. The relatively low propor
tion of women who are union members reflects to some extent the
nature of women’s employment and the industries in which they
work. Women who expect to remain in the labor force only a few
years or who are part-time or part-year workers may feel less in
clined to join a union than do men who expect to work during
most of their lives. Moreover, the largest number of women in the
labor force are clerical and service workers and thus are in indus
tries in which union organization is less extensive than among
the blue-collar workers of manufacturing industries.
Among 190 unions participating in the 1966 survey, 140 indi
cated that they had women members. The highest membership fig
ures for women were reported by unions which have collective
bargaining contracts in industries that normally employ large
numbers of women (table 36). About 18 percent of all women
members, for example, were in two unions in the apparel industry
(International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union and Amalga
mated Clothing Workers of America). Other unions that reported
a sizable female membership were the International Brotherhood
of Electrical Workers, the Retail Clerks International Association,
and the Hotel and Restaurant Employees and Bartenders Interna
tional Union.
In addition, there were relatively large numbers of women
members in several big industrial and transportation unions, al
though women represented only a small portion of their total
membership. This group of unions included automobile and ma
chinery manufacturing.
There are no unions exclusively for women. In four unions
women constituted at least 80 percent of the membership, and
their combined total in these unions reached 412,000 in 1966. In
107 unions women’s membership ranged from none to less than
10 percent. On the other hand, women formed at least half of the
membership in 26 unions, which in turn accounted for more than
two-fifths of women’s union membership.
36 May include a few members living outside the United States.
37 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: “Directory of National and Inter
national Labor Unions in the United States, 1967.” Bull. 1696. 1968.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
Table 36.—Women Members
Union
op
Labor Unions,1
83
1966
Approximate
number of
women
American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial
Organizations:
International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union___________
364,131
Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America_____________
286,500
International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers__________
262,500
Retail Clerks International Association
250,157
Hotel and Restaurant Employees and Bartenders
International Union
202,488
Communications Workers of America _________________
176,614
International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and
Agricultural Implement Workers of America___________
168,324
International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine
Workers
112,000
Building Service Employees’ International Union ___ ____
97,580
International Association of Machinists and Aerospace
Workers
83,616
Textile Workers Union of America______________
—
72,800
United Federation of Postal Clerks ____________________
57,258
Brotherhood of Railway, Airline and Steamship Clerks,
Freight Handlers, Express and Station Employes________
54,000
American Federation of Government Employees __________
50,000
Office and Professional Employees International Union_____
49,000
Amalgamated Meat Cutters and Butcher Workmen of North
America
45,898
International Brotherhood of Bookbinders _______
37,056
United Packinghouse, Food and Allied Workers-----------------28,350
United Shoe Workers of America______
27,030
Retail, Wholesale and Department Store Union_____ ___
(!)
American Federation of Teachers_________________________
0)
United Rubber, Cork, Linoleum and Plastic Workers of
America ______________________________________
United Steelworkers of America__________________________
(*)
Unaffiliated:
Alliance of Independent Telephone Unions_______________
56,250
United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers of America —
41,750
International Union of District 50, United Mine Workers
of America __________________ _______ r-------------------27,840
International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs,
Warehousemen and Helpers of America----------------------------(’)1 2
1 Unions reporting 25,000 or more women members.
2 Data not reported, but number of women believed to be significant.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: “Directory of National
and International Labor Unions in the United States, 1967.” Bull. 1596. 1968.
In terms of affiliation, it is estimated that 88 percent of the
women members belonged to the AFL-CIO and 12 percent be
longed to unaffiliated unions in 1966.
(!)
84
WOMEN AS WORKERS
Womanpower Reserve
Women 16 years of age and over who are not in the labor force
make up a womanpower reserve—a potential source of additional
workers who might be needed in an expanding economy or in
time of national emergency. Some of these are highly educated,
and many have received on-the-job training during previous work
experience.
Women not in the labor force averaged 41 million in 1968 and
were more than three-fourths of all persons who did not work or
look for work. A majority of women not in the labor force in
1968 were not working because of home responsibilities. Other
women, more than half of whom were at least 70 years of age,
were unable to work, presumably because of illness or disability.
Another group, most of whom were teenagers, were attending
school.
The average number of women not in the labor force during
1968 and their reasons for nonparticipation were as follows:
Women not in the labor force
Number
Total -----------------------------------Keeping house
Going to school _________________
_
Unable to work _____________________
Other reasons
1,705,000
Percent
40,976,000
36,023,000
3,408,000
839,000
100
86
8
2
4
A more practical estimate of the supply of women actually
available for increasing the Nation’s work force would exclude
teenagers and young adults who are attending school, mothers of
young children, and elderly women who may not be able to work
because of illness or disability. Even if these groups are excluded,
the number of women in the labor reserve exceeds that of men—
making women the largest single source for labor force expan
sion.
Interest in learning more about the reasons for nonparticipa
tion in the labor force stimulated a special survey of persons who
said they wanted a job although not looking for work.38 When
surveyed in September 1966, about 8 percent of the 43.7 million
women not in the labor force at that time said they would like to
U.S Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report No. 86.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
85
have a regular full-time or part-time job. Their main reason for
not seeking work, as stated by about 3 out of 10 of the women,
was “family responsibilities.” Four other important reasons, each
given by more than 1 out of 10 women, were “ill health or physi
cal disability,” “in school,” “believed it would be impossible to
find work,” and “inability to arrange child care.”
The majority of women who indicated they were unable to ar
range child care were between 25 and 55 years of age. Presuma
bly they would be available for work if this specific problem were
solved. Of those who believed it impossible to find work, however,
many were also either in ill health, in school, or tied down with
family responsibilities. Therefore, many actually were not readily
available for work.
In September 1966 men constituted about one-fourth of all per
sons who were neither working nor looking for work. The men’s
reasons for nonparticipation were quite different in order of im
portance from those of women. Of the men who said they wanted
a job although not looking for work, more than two-fifths listed
“in school” and three-tenths, “ill health or physical disability.”
2
V
WOMEN'S EMPLOYMENT BY OCCUPATIONS
AND INDUSTRIES
Principal Occupations of Women
*
v
The considerable rise in women’s employment in recent years
has been accompanied by an increase in the number and variety
of women’s occupational opportunities. The expansion of services
to individuals and to communities opened up new opportunities in
the health and allied medical fields, in public and private social
services, in research and educational services, in personal serv
ices, and in data processing and computer programing. The auto
mation of processes in factories, stores, and other businesses has
expanded the need for technical and clerical personnel. The grow
ing complexity of business and industry has strengthened the de
mand for technical and professional specialists. As a result, the
number of women in new fields of employment is expanding de
spite the fact that women are still concentrated in relatively few
occupations. And the trend toward expansion is expected to con
tinue as more girls become aware of the variety of career choices
open to them and seek the required education or training.
Occupations of persons in the labor force may be classified ac
cording to the type of work performed or by broad occupation
categories. Both are significant in any discussion of the current
employment of women and the shifts in women’s working patterns.
40. Type of Work
The wide disparity between the concentration of women and
men workers by type of work has contributed to the difference in
the rate of growth of their employment, in the relative number
working part time or part year, and in their earnings. Of the 27.9
million women 14 years of age and over employed in April 1968,
almost three-fifths were employed in white-collar jobs (table 87).
Almost one-fourth were in service work. The remainder were di-
87
88
women’s employment by occupations and industries
vided about 8 to 1 between blue-collar work and farm work. In
contrast, almost one-half of the men were employed in blue-collar
work, and two-fifths were in white-collar jobs. The remainder
were about equally divided between farm work and service work.
The fact that women are highly concentrated in white-collar
and service work—the fastest growing types of work in recent
decades—accounts in part for the substantial rise in the number
and proportion of women in the labor force, whereas men’s em
ployment has not kept pace with the growth in the adult male
population since 1950. At the same time the employment of a rel
atively large segment of all women workers in service work and
certain kinds of white-collar work—jobs that often are part time
or part year—accounts to some extent for the fact that women
are more likely than men to work less than a full week or less
than a full year. Similarly, the difference between the average
earnings of men and women is affected by the greater concentra
tion of women (23 percent) than men (7 percent) in service jobs
which are typically low paid.
Table 37.—Employment,
by
Sex
and
Type
of
Work,
1940, 1950,
and
1968 1
(Persons 14 years of age and over)
Number (in thousands)
Type
of work
1968
1950
1940
Percent distribution
1968
1950
1940
WOMEN
27,896
17,176
11,920
100.0
100.0
100.0
White-collar work __ 16,415
Blue-collar work . _ 4,563
Service work _____ 6,361
555
Farm work
__
8,858
3,464
3,939
916
5,380
2,400
3,450
690
58.8
16.4
22.8
2.0
51.6
20.2
22.9
5.3
45.1
20.1
28.9
5.8
Total ___
MEN
48,351
41,492
34,180
100.0
100.0
100.0
White-collar work _ 19,256
Blue-collar work__ 22,661
Service work _ ___ 3,323
3,111
Farm work ______
13,522
19,108
2,757
6,104
9,710
14,390
2,160
7,920
39.8
46.9
6.9
6.4
32.6
46.1
6.6
14.7
28.4
42.1
6.3
23.2
Total
___
1 Data are for April of each year.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Employment and Earnings,
May 1968 and May 1960, and Monthly Labor Review, August 1947. U.S. Department of Com
merce, Bureau of the Census: Current Population Reports, P-57, No. 94.
The proportion of all women workers engaged in white-collar
work was larger in 1968 than in 1940—having reached more than
one-half by 1950. On the other hand, over the 28-year period the
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
89
proportion engaged in blue-collar work declined from 20 to 16
percent; in service work, from 29 to 23 percent; and in farm
work, from 6 to 2 percent. Among men, the biggest changes were
an increase in the proportion engaged in white-collar work and a
tremendous drop in both the number and the proportion in farm
work.
41. Major Occupation Groups
The occupations of persons in the labor force are divided into
11 broad categories in monthly figures collected by the Bureau of
the Census and published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. More
employed women 16 years of age and over (34 percent) were in
clerical work in April 1968 than in any other major occupation
group (table 38). The next largest group was service workers
(except private household), followed by operatives. Professional
workers were the fourth largest group, with sales, private house
hold, and managerial workers following in that order. A total of
less than 4 percent were farm workers, craftsmen, or nonfarm la
borers.
Beginning in January 1967, the regular employment data pub
lished by the Bureau of Labor Statistics have included persons 16
years of age and over, whereas prior data included persons 14
years of age and over. This change reflects the fact that virtually
all 14- and 15-year-old boys and girls have been enrolled in school
in recent years and that those who do work are usually only
part-time or part-year workers. Selected data on 14- and 15-yearold workers are published in separate tabulations.
As might be expected, the occupational distribution of young
girls is very different from that of older women. Almost threefourths of the 14- and 15-year-old girls employed in April 1968
were in private household jobs, most of them as babysitters
(table 39). When figures for this age group are included with
those of older women workers for the purpose of making compar
isons with earlier years, the proportion of women in private
household work is about one percentage point higher and the pro
portions in clerical, professional, and operative positions are less
than half a percentage point lower than when only women 16
years of age and over are counted.
Women’s employment has expanded in nearly all of the major
occupation groups since 1940. The greatest growth has been in
the number of clerical workers—from 2.5 million women 14 years
of age and over in 1940 to 9.3 million in 1968, more than a three-
90
WOMEN’S
employment by occupations and industries
Table 38.—Major Occupation Groups
and Selected Occupations
Employed Women, April 1968
of
(Women 16 years of age and over)
Number
(in
thousands)
........ 27,495
Major occupation group
or selected occupation
Total _. _
..................
As percent
of total
employed
100.0
36.6
Percent
distribution
Professional, technical workers 1
4,016
14.6
38.6
Medical, other health workers_______
Teachers (except college)
Managers, officials, proprietors
(except farm) 1
1,006
3.7
1,668
6.1
61.6
70.9
1,202
4.4
15.7
Salaried ^
__
Self-employed (retail trade)
Clerical workers 1
821
236
9,274
3,322
1,883
3.0
.9
33.7
1,678
311
4,125
1,304
2,042
116
1,728
6.1
1.1
15.0
15.1
22.7
72.7
98.8
41.2
60.8
3.2
30.0
4.7
7.4
.4
6.3
27.6
54.2
3.4
98.1
_
_
__
Stenographers, typists, secretaries___
Sales workers 1
Retail trade
Craftsmen, foremen ___
_ __ _ _ __
Operatives 1 ____ _ ___ _____ _________
Durable goods manufacturing _
_.
Nondurable goods manufacturing_____
Nonfarm laborers _____ _ _ _____
Private household workers
Service workers (except private
household) 1 __________
Waitresses, cooks, bartenders
-Farmers, farm managers
_ . _ ______
Farm laborers, foremen
_ .
_
Paid workers
_
__ ___ _
_
Unpaid family workers _
12.1
6.8
4,300
15.6
57.4
1,565
82
457
5.7
75.1
4.1
29.8
.3
1.7
100
.4
358
1.3
10.3
64.3
1 Includes women in occupations not shown separately in this category.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Employment and Earnings,
May 1968.
fold increase (table 40). The clerical workers of 1968, however,
differ in many respects from the clerical workers of 1940. The ap
plication of technological developments to many clerical jobs has
raised the level of skill required and the educational training
needed. Opportunities for unskilled workers have narrowed, and
there is an increasing demand for workers with the broad educa
tion and training that allow for flexibility.
The number of women service workers (except private house
hold) also has more than tripled since 1940. Included among the
reasons for this tremendous growth are the increase in the popu-
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
Table 39.—Major
Occupation Groups
Years
of
of
Employed Girls
Age, April
14
and
91
15
1968
Major occupation group
Total . ___ _ ____ ____
Professional, technical workers
Managers, officials, proprietors
(except farm) ___
Clerical workers ______________ __________
Sales workers _ _ - __ _ _ _ _
_ _ _
Craftsmen, foremen __
_ _
Operatives _____________________________
Nonfarm laborers
Private household workers
Service workers (except private household) __
Farmers, farm managers .__ .
__
___
Farm laborers, foremen _____
__
Number
Percent
distribution
401,000
100.0
6,000
1.5
1,000
15,000
18,000
.2
3.7
4.5
5,000
7,000
293,000
41,000
1.2
1.7
73.1
10.2
15,000
3.7
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Employment and Earn
ings, May 1968.
lation, especially among older people who require more medical
care and other services, and the building of many new restau
rants, hotels, and motels, with the accompanying need for maids,
waitresses, cooks, kitchen workers, and other service personnel.
Sixteen percent of all women workers were engaged in a service
occupation (except private household) in April 1968 as compared
with 13 percent in 1950 and 11 percent in 1940.
About 4.1 million women worked as operatives, and 4 million
were professional and technical workers in April 1968. But the
rate of growth in these two major occupation groups since 1940,
and especially since 1950, differed greatly. The number of women
professional workers more than doubled over the 18-year period,
illustrating the rising demand for workers with higher educa
tional achievement or specialized skills. On the other hand, the
number of women operatives increased by only 28 percent. Thus
this occupation declined in relative importance for women—from
19 percent of all women workers in 1950 to 15 percent in 1968.
The relative importance for women of several other major oc
cupation groups has declined since 1940. Although the number of
women employed as private household workers increased between
1950 and 1968 after dropping between 1940 and 1950, they repre
sented only 7 percent of all women workers in 1968 as compared
with 18 percent in 1940. The percentage of women employed as
sales workers dropped to slightly below 7 percent in 1968, after
having increased from 7 to 9 percent between 1940 and 1950. The
Occupation Groups
of
Employed Women,
1940, 1950,
and
1968
(Women 14 years of age and over)
Major occupation group
Number
(in thousands)
mo
1968
1950
Total . - __ 27,896
17,156
11,920
Professional, technical workers
_
Managers, officials, proprietors
(except farm)
__ _______ ______
Clerical workers
_ _ - _
_ _
Sales workers
__
Craftsmen, foremen ___________ ______
Operatives
__
Nonfarm laborers _
______
............
Private household workers
__
Service workers (except private household)
Farmers, farm managers _ _ _ _
__ _
Farm laborers, foremen _ _ _ _
_ _ __
1968
Percent
distribution
1950
100.0
100.0
100.0
1940
As percent of
total employed
1968
1950
1940
25.9
36.6
29.3
__
4,022
1,862
1,570
14.4
10.8
13.2
38.6
41.8
45.4
__
1,203
9,289
1,901
311
4,130
123
941
4,539
1,516
181
3,215
450
2,530
830
4.3
33.3
5.5
26.4
3.8
21.2
6.8
1.1
8.8
1.1
2,021
1,771
2,168
253\
663 J
18.7
.4
10.3
14.8
59.3
39.0
2.4
26.9
11.7
52.6
27.9
14.8
.4
7.2
15.6
.3
1.7
15.7
72.6
39.7
3.3
29.9
3.5
97.6
57.0
4.1
28.0
__
._
__
_
__
__
__
__
4,341
82
472
68
110
2,190
100
2,100
1,350
2 690
7.0
.9
18.4
.8
17.6
11.3
12.6
\
1.5
3.9 J
2 5.8
2.2
92.1
45.4
5.5')
27.4 J
2.1
25.7
3.2
93.8
40.1
2 8.0
1 Data are for April of each year.
2 Not reported separately in 1940.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Employment and Earnings, May 1968 and May 1960, and Monthly Labor Review,
August 1947 ; and U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census: Current Population Reports, P-57, No. 94.
?
*
w o m e n ’s e m pl o y m e n t by occupations and in d u str ies
Table 40.—Major
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
93
number as well as the proportion of women employed in farming
occupations decreased between 1940 and 1968.
Occupational diffevences between women and men.—The major
occupation groups in which women 16 years of age and over are
concentrated differ from those of men (chart N). In contrast to
Clou N
7 OUT OF 10 CLERICAL WORKERS ARE WOMEN
(Major Occupation Group of Employed Women and Men, April 1968)
Millions
to
6
4
I
I
0
Women
ES
Clerical Workers
10
Men
Se_rvice_Workers (exc^t private household)
Operatives
~WTProfessional, Technical Workers
Sales Workers
=□
3
Private Household Workers
Managers, Officials, Proprietors (except farm)
■
"
Farm Laborers, Foremen
Craftsmen, Foremen
Nonfarm| Laborers
Farmers, Farm Managers
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
the predominance of clerical workers among women, 40 percent
of all men employed in April 1968 were either craftsmen or oper
atives, with an almost equal number in each group. The next larg
est number of employed men were nonfarm managers, officials, or
proprietors—almost 1 out of 7 men was in the managerial group
as compared with 1 out of 25 women. Many more men than
women were employed as nonfarm laborers and farm workers. On
the other hand, almost twice as many women as men had jobs as
service workers either inside or outside the home. A slightly
larger proportion of women than men were sales workers, al
though the number of men sales workers exceeded that of women.
94
women’s employment by occupations and industries
42. Proportion of Workers Who Are Women
The diversity in the employment of men and women is also il
lustrated by the varying proportions women are of all workers in
the different major occupation groups. As might be expected,
women 14 years of age and over accounted for nearly all (98 per
cent) of the private household workers in 1968 (table 40). They
also predominated among clerical workers—holding 73 percent of
these jobs. In only one other major occupation group—service
workers (except private household)—did women make up more
than half (57 percent) of all workers. However, the proportions
that women were of all professional and technical workers (39
percent) and sales workers (40 percent) slightly exceeded the av
erage for all occupations (37 percent). At the other end of the
scale, women held relatively few of the jobs as craftsmen, non
farm laborers, and farmers and farm managers.
The rise in women’s representation among all workers from 26
percent in 1940 to 37 percent in 1968 was not spread equally
among the major occupation groups. A large gain occurred among
clerical workers—from 53 to 73 percent. Above-average advances
were also made among service workers (except private house
hold) and among sales workers. On the other hand, there was a
significant decline in the proportion that women were of all pro
fessional and technical workers—from 45 percent to 39 percent.
This was the only major occupation group in which women’s rep
resentation was less in 1968 than in 1940. Although the number
of women employed in professional and technical occupations rose
sharply over the 28-year period, the decline in the proportion of
women resulted from the much more rapid pace at which men
moved into these occupations. Even in the teaching profession,
where women have traditionally been a large majority, the pro
portion of men has increased slightly in recent years. Moreover,
many of the new professional positions that have opened up since
1940 have been in science and engineering—fields in which women
constitute only a small minority.
Detailed Occupations of Women
The principal source of information on the detailed occupations
of employed persons is the decennial census. Although data col
lected in the 1960 census can be supplemented for selected occupa
tions or groups of occupations by more recent employment figures
published monthly by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, or by recent
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
95
estimates of employment in individual occupations, an overall
consideration of all detailed occupations must be based on census
figures.
In 1960, as in previous census years, women were concentrated
in a relatively small number of occupations. Nearly one-fourth of
all employed women 14 years of age and over were secretaries,
sales women in retail trade, general private household workers, or
teachers in elementary schools. In each of the top three of these
occupations more than a million women were employed. About
one-third of all working women were in seven occupations—the
four listed previously and bookkeeper, waitress, and professional
nurse. In fact, nearly two-thirds of the 21.2 million women em
ployed in 1960 were in 36 individual occupations, each of which
engaged 100,000 or more women (table 41). About two-fifths of
these occupations were white collar, one-fourth were manual, and
the remainder were service. The list included four professional
occupations—teacher in elementary schools, teacher in secondary
schools, professional nurse, and musician and music teacher.
The number of occupations in which 100,000 or more women
were employed had increased since 1950, when there were only
29. The seven occupations added during the decade were babysit
ter, charwoman and cleaner, counter and fountain worker, file
clerk, housekeeper and stewardess (except private household),
musician and music teacher, and receptionist. Nearly all of these
jobs were for clerical workers or for service workers (except pri
vate household)—the two major occupation groups in which the
number of employed women had increased the most since 1950.
Another measure of the major occupations of women is an ex
amination of those in which women are three-fourths or more
of all workers. In more than half of the 36 occupations in which
100,000 or more women were employed in 1960, at least 3 out of 4
workers were women; in at least one-third, 9 out of 10 were
women. Table 42 shows the detailed occupations in which 75 per
cent or more of all workers were women in 1960.43
43. Women in Professional Occupations
There were 4 million women—1 out of 7 employed women__in
professional and technical occupations in April 1968. About 2.2
million more women were engaged in professional or technical
work in 1968 than in 1950, and almost 2.5 million more than in
1940. (The 1968 figures are for women 16 years of age and over,
but since 14- and 15-year-olds in professional and technical work
96
WOMEN’S
employment by occupations and industries
Table 41.__ Detailed Occupations
in
100,000
1960
Which
Women Were Employed,
or
More
(Women 14 years of age and over)
Occupation
Secretaries ------------------------------------------------Sales women (retail trade) --------------------------Private household workers (n.e.c.) ------------------Teachers (elementary school) -----------------------Bookkeepers ------------------- ---------------------- ----Waitresses
Nurses (professional) ----------------------- ------Sewers and stitchers (mfg.) -------------------------Typists ----------------------------------------------------Cashiers ------------,------------------------------------ -
Cooks (except private household)
-----------Telephone operators
---------------- ----------Babysitters -----------------------------------------------Attendants (hospitals and other institutions)
-Laundry and drycleaning operatives — ---------Assemblers
Operatives (apparel and accessories )---------------Hairdressers and cosmetologists---------------Packers and wrappers (n.e.c.)
-----------Stenographers --------------------------------------------Teachers (secondary school) ------- ---------Office machine operators-------------------------------Checkers, examiners, and inspectors (mfg.) -----Practical nurses
Kitchen workers (n.e.c.) (except private
household)
Chambermaids and maids (except private
household) ---------------------------------------------Housekeepers (private household) ------------------Operatives (electrical machinery, equipment,
and supplies) -----------------------------------------Receptionists --------------------------- --------------Charwomen and cleaners------ ------------Housekeepers and stewardesses (except private
household) ---------------------------------------------Dressmakers and seamstresses (except factory)
Counter and fountain workers ----------------- File clerks
—•.-------------------Musicians and music teachers---------— ---------Operatives (yarn, thread, and fabric mills)
-
Number
As percent of
total employed
1,423,352
1,397,364
1,162,683
860,413
764,054
714,827
567,884
534,258
496,735
367,954
361,772
341,797
319,735
288,268
277,396
270,769
270,619
267,050
262,935
258,554
243,452
227,849
215,066
197,115
97
54
96
86
84
87
98
94
95
78
64
96
98
74
72
44
75
89
60
96
47
74
45
96
179,796
59
162,433
143,290
98
99
138,001
131,142
122,728
48
98
68
117,693
115,252
112,547
112,323
109,638
103,399
81
97
71
86
57
44
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census: “U.S. Census of Population:
1960, Detailed Characteristics, U.S, Summary, PC(1)—ID,” 1963.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
Table 42.—Occupations
in
Which Women Were Three-fourths
Total Employed, 1960
Occupations with 100,000 or more women
or
More
97
of
Occupations with less than 100,000 women
WOMEN WERE 90 PERCENT OR MORE OF TOTAL EMPLOYED
Housekeepers (private household)
Nurses (professional)
Receptionists
Babysitters
Chambermaids and maids (except
private household)
Secretaries
Dressmakers and seamstresses
(except factory)
Private household workers (n.e.c.)
Telephone operators
Stenographers
Practical nurses
Typists
Sewers and stitchers (mfg.)
Nurses (student)
Laundresses (private household)
Attendants (physicians’ and dentists'
offices)
Dietitians and nutritionists
Demonstrators
Milliners
WOMEN WERE 80 TO 89 PERCENT OF TOTAL EMPLOYED
Hairdressers and cosmetologists
Waitresses
Teachers (elementary school)
File clerks
Bookkeepers
Housekeepers and stewardesses
(except private household)
Boarding and lodging house keepers
Librarians
WOMEN WERE 75 TO 79 PERCENT OF TOTAL EMPLOYED
Cashiers
Operatives (apparel and accessories)
Spinners (textile)
Dancers and dancingteachers
Attendants and assistants (library)
Operatives (knitting mills)
Midwives
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census: “U.S. Census of Population:
1960. Detailed Characteristics, U.S. Summary, PC(1)—ID.” 1963.
numbered only 6,000 in April 1968, comparisons with census data
for earlier years (based on 14 and over) are not affected.)
The sharp rise in the number of women professional workers,
especially since 1950, may be attributed to a variety of social and
economic developments. The tremendous need for better educated
workers, as well as the sizable increase in the population, stimu
lated the expansion of educational systems and facilities. The con
tinuing concern for the health of all, and especially of older peo
ple as the lifespan increases, resulted in enlarged medical facili
98
WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT BY OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES
ties and expanded health programs. The growth of business and
industrial firms and of government operations increased the need
not only for accountants and personnel workers but also for
mathematicians and other professional and technical workers in
the field of data processing.
Teaching continues to be the most popular profession among
women. The 1.7 million women noncollege teachers in April 1968
equaled 42 percent of all professional women (table 38). This
number of women teachers (considerably above the 1.2 million re
corded in the 1960 census and double the 839,000 reported in
1950) gives some indication of the rapid expansion of our educa
tional systems. Seven out of 10 of the women teachers employed
at the time of the 1960 census were in elementary education; 2
out of 10 taught in secondary schools.
The number of women teaching in junior high and high schools
has not increased as rapidly as has the number of men. There has
been a concerted and fairly successful effort to attract more men
into these jobs. As a result, women were less than half of all sec
ondary school teachers in 1960, after being in the majority in
1950.
There has also been a decline in the proportion of women
among teachers at the college and university level. Only 22 per
cent of the faculty and other professional staff in institutions of
higher education were women in 1964 (the most recent date for
which comparable figures are available). This is a considerably
smaller proportion than they were in 1940 (28 percent), 1930 (27
percent), or 1920 (26 percent), and only slightly above their pro
portion in 1910 (20 percent).
A special survey of public school teachers in 1965-66 disclosed
that although men were in the majority in secondary schools,
about 70 percent of all teachers were women.1 Almost two-thirds
of the women teachers were married, about one-tenth were
widowed or divorced, and the rest were single. The median age of
women teachers was 40 years. Women teachers, on the whole, were
somewhat older and had less education than their male counter
parts. About 10 percent of all women teachers, but only 2 percent
of the men, had not earned a bachelor’s degree. Furthermore, only
18 percent of the women teachers, compared with 35 percent of
the men, had obtained a master’s or other advanced degree. Half
of all the teachers in the sample had taught less than 10 years.
1 National Education Association:
Research Report 1967-R 4, 1967,
“The
American
Public
School
Teacher,
1965-66.”
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
99
Another large group of professional women are employed as
medical and other health workers (the only other category of
professional workers for whom employment figures are reported
regularly by the Bureau of Labor Statistics). In April 1968 they
numbered 1,006,000 and were one-fourth of all women pro
fessional workers. The largest single occupation in this group is
that of professional nurse; almost 568,000 women were employed
as professional nurses at the time of the 1960 decennial census,
and estimates placed the figure at about 659,000 in 1968. Another
important occupation in this group is medical or dental techni
cian. More than 86,000 women worked as technicians in labora
tories, hospitals, clinics, and physicians’ or dentists’ offices in
1960—twice as many as in 1950. Other women medical and health
workers employed in 1960 were student nurses (56,540), dieti
tians and nutritionists (24,237), therapists (19,752), and physi
cians and surgeons (15,513). Since 1960 the number of women
physicians has grown to about 20,000.
Although the number of women physicians has increased about
26 percent since 1960, women’s representation among all physi
cians has remained unchanged during the period at about 7 per
cent. On the other hand, there have been slow but steady in
creases since 1955 in both the numbers and proportions of women
enrolled in and graduating from U.S. medical schools. In 1967
women constituted 8.3 percent of students enrolled in U.S medical
schools (as compared with 5.4 percent in 1955) and 7.5 percent of
medical school graduates (as compared with 4.9 percent in 1955).
Women also hold a wide variety of professional jobs outside the
teaching and health fields. Although women still represented only
one-fifth of professional and technical workers in these fields in
1968, their share of such positions had increased slightly since
1960. In 1960 relatively large numbers of women were musicians
and music teachers, accountants and auditors, social and welfare
workers, librarians, and editors and reporters. The growing di
versity of women’s employment in professional positions is illus
trated by the fact that in at least seven additional occupations the
number of employed women doubled or more than doubled be
tween 1950 and 1960: industrial engineer, mathematician, aero
nautical engineer, personnel and labor relations worker, public re
lations worker and publicity writer, recreation and group worker,
and sports instructor and official. Recent estimates indicate that
the rapid expansion previously noted among women mathema
ticians and public relations workers has continued since 1960. On
the other hand, the total number of women engineers and scientists
100
WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT BY OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES
did not rise significantly between 1950 and 1960; and women hold
only a small proportion of the positions as engineers, technicians
(other than medical and dental), and scientists, despite the nu
merous job openings created by the tremendous interest in re
search and development.
44. Women Managers, Officials, and Proprietors
About 1.2 million women were employed as managers, officials,
and proprietors in April 1968. This group of women workers had
almost tripled since 1940, with most of the increase occuring
prior to 1950. However, this is a relatively small occupation
group for women; they are still outnumbered by men about 6 to 1.
More than two-thirds of the women employed in this major oc
cupation group in 1968 were salaried workers. (In contrast, at
the time of the 1950 census only about half of the women manag
ers and proprietors were salaried workers.) Many small individu
ally owned enterprises have been replaced in recent years by su
permarkets, large discount houses, and branch operations of large
companies, thus limiting opportunities for the individual proprie
tor.
In 1968, as in 1960, about two-thirds of the self-employed
women were proprietors in retail trade. The 1960 census shows
that these women were operating mainly eating and drinking
places, food and dairy product stores, and apparel and accessories
stores. Another large group operated establishments offering
personal services. Many of the salaried managers were likewise
in retail trade and personal services in 1960; others worked as
buyers and department heads in stores, officials in public adminis
tration, managers and superintendents in buildings, and postmas
ters. The employment of both women and men managers and pro
prietors has been expanding rapidly in the fields of banking and
other finance, insurance and real estate, and business services.
45. Women in Clerical Occupations
Of the nearly 9.3 million women employed in April 1968 as
clerical workers—the largest occupation group for women—3.3
million, or more than one-third, were stenographers, typists, or
secretaries. (This was considerably above the number employed
in these occupations at the time of the 1960 census (2.2 million)
and the 1950 census (1.5 million).) The growth of business and
industry, of all kinds of services, and of government operations has
brought a rising demand for workers in these occupations to
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
101
handle correspondence, interoffice communications, and other
forms of paperwork. On the other hand, the number of women
employed to handle communication other than by mail remained
almost unchanged between 1950 and 1960. Thus there were about
342.000 women telephone operators at the time of both the 1950
and 1960 censuses, although the number almost doubled between
1940 and 1950. The installation of automatic dialing equipment
permitted the telephone industry to expand its services without
increasing the number of operators. Since 1960, the number of
telephone operators has increased slightly as more businesses
needed switchboard operators for private branch exchanges
(PBX).
Another large group of women clerical workers are bookkeep
ers. The number of women bookkeepers increased by more than
200.000 between 1950 and 1960—to a total of 764,054. (Recent es
timates indicate that this rate of growth has continued since
1960.) These additional bookkeepers were employed mainly in re
tail trade, professional and related services, and finance, insur
ance, and real estate. The rapid expansion of these industries also
brought about increases in women’s employment as cashiers, bank
tellers, bill and account collectors, and insurance adjusters, exam
iners, and investigators. The rise in women’s employment as bank
tellers was particularly striking—more than a threefold increase
between 1950' and 1960. (There has been a less rapid but substan
tial increase since 1960.) In fact, women’s employment in this oc
cupation increased more rapidly than did men’s; and as a result, 7
out of 10 bank tellers in 1960 (and in 1967) were women com
pared with less than 5 out of 10 in 1950. Other clerical occupa
tions in which women’s employment doubled or more than dou
bled between 1950 and 1960 were library attendant and assistant,
payroll and timekeeping clerk, receptionist, stock clerk and store
keeper, and ticket, station, and express agent.2
46. Women in Service Occupations
The second largest group of employed women (4.3 million) in
April 1968 were service workers (except private household).
More than 1 out of 3 of these were waitresses, cooks, and barten
ders. (The 1.6 million women working in these occupations in
1968 exceeded the 1.1 million similarly employed at the time of
the 1960 census and the 800,000 in 1950. About 2 out of 3 of the
2 For further information on clerical occupations, see “Clerical Occupations for Women —
Today and Tomorrow.” Bull. 289. Women's Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor. 1964.
102
WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT BY OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES
women in these occupations in 1960 were waitresses.) Many more
workers have been needed to prepare and serve food in new and
expanding restaurants and other eating and drinking places as
personal incomes rise and as more women work outside the home.
Most of these jobs have been filled by women, since employment
is often part time or part year.
Many women are also employed as kitchen workers and counter
and fountain workers in restaurants and eating and drinking
places. In 1960 these women workers, added to waitresses, cooks,
and bartenders, constituted about half of the 2.8 million women
service workers.
Two other large groups of women service workers at the time
of the 1960 census were in the health field—attendants in hospi
tals and other institutions (288,268) and practical nurses
(197,115). The construction and expansion of hospitals, nursing
homes, mental institutions, and other health facilities brought an
increasing demand for workers in these occupations. Here again,
most of the new openings have been filled by women. As a result,
the number of attendants in hospitals and other institutions had
more than doubled since 1950, and the number of women practi
cal nurses increased by one-half. (Recent estimates indicate that
employment of women as practical nurses has been increasing at
about the same rate.)
Outside of occupations related to health and food, the largest
group for women service workers is that of hairdresser and cos
metologist. It is estimated that more than 400,000 women were
employed in this occupation in 1967—a substantial increase from
the 1950 and 1960 figures of about 190,000 and 270,000, respec
tively. Other large groups of women were employed in 1960 in
housekeeping services as chambermaids and maids or house
keepers and stewardesses, and in building and custodial services
as charwomen and cleaners or janitors and sextons.
Occupations by Selected Characteristics
47. Occupations of Women by Marital Status
The occupations of women vary to some extent with their mari
tal status. More women 16 years of age and over were employed
in clerical work than in any other major occupation group in
March 1967, whether they were single, married (husband pres
ent), or with other marital status (table 43). But the concentra
tion of women in this occupation group differed according to their
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
103
marital status. Thus a larger proportion of all single women (43
percent) than of either married women (32 percent) or women
with other marital status (26 percent) were clerical workers.
There are several reasons for the larger proportion of single
women in clerical jobs. Many of these women are under 25 years
of age and completed their education with high school. Thus they
often hold low-paying entry jobs that require little training or ex
perience. Moreover, many single girls prefer clerical work be
cause it is usually full time the year round.
Table 43.—Major Occupation Groups or Employed Women,
Marital Status, March 1967
by
(Women 16 years of age and over)
Marital status
Major occupation group
Total
Single
Married
(husband
present)
Other1
Number
_ _____ _
Percent ___
Professional, technical
workers
_ _
Managers, officials,
proprietors (except farm) .
Clerical workers _ __
_
Sales workers ____ _ _ _ _ _
Operatives
Private household workers__
Service workers (except
private household) ______
Others ___ _
__
26,226,000
100.0
5,566,000
100.0
15,189,000
100.0
5,471,000
100.0
14.1
17.0
14.6
9.8
4.2
32.9
7.1
16.7
7.0
1.9
42.5
5.5
9.2
9.4
4.7
32.1
7.9
17.6
4.3
5.3
25.6
6.5
16.8
12.1
15.9
3.1
12.6
1.9
15.2
3.6
21.2
2.7
1 Widowed, divorced, or separated.
2 Includes craftsmen, farm workers, and nonfarm laborers.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor,
Report No. 94.
Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force
Another large proportion of the single women (17 percent)
were employed in March 1967 in professional and technical oc
cupations. Unmarried women who recently have completed college
or graduate work often qualify for these positions more easily than
do older married women workers who lack continuity in job ex
perience. However, more married women are beginning to qualify
for and to obtain professional positions, especially in fields where
shortages exist. In March 1967, 15 percent of all married women
workers were in professional and technical occupations.
Two other major occupation groups—operatives and service
workers (except private household)—each accounted for about
one-sixth of all married women workers. Many operative occupa
104
WOMEN'S EMPLOYMENT BY OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES
tions pay relatively well and at the same time require little or no
previous work experience. Moreover, married women who prefer
part-time work or work conveniently located near their homes
often find such opportunities in service occupations.
Among women who were widowed, divorced, or with husband
absent, the largest group after clerical workers were in service
work outside the home (21 percent). Many of these were older
women who did not have the skills and training required in other
types of jobs or who, because of financial need, had to take what
ever jobs were available. In addition, large groups of women with
“other” marital status were operatives (17 percent) and private
household workers (12 percent).
Just as married women (husband present) constituted well
over one-half of all women workers in March 1967, they were
also well over one-half of the workers in each of the major occu
pation groups, with the exception of private household workers
(table 44). In this group they were a little over one-third of the
total. Especially high proportions of married women workers
were in three major occupation groups: operatives, sales workers,
and managers, officials, and proprietors. Many married women
prefer part-time employment and thus take sales jobs. Others
work as salaried managers, especially in retail outlets, or as selfemployed proprietors in their own or a family business.
Table 44.—Marital Status of Employed Women,
by
Major Occupation Group, March 1967
(Women 16 years of age and over)
Percent distribution by marital status
Number
Total
Single
Married
(husband
present)
_
26,226,000
100.0
21.2
57.9
20.9
-.
3,698,000
100.0
25.6
59.9
14.5
._
1,101,000
8,628,000
1,862,000
4,117,000
1,836,000
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
9.5
27.4
16.4
12.5
28.5
64.3
56.4
64.4
65.1
35.5
26.1
16.2
19.1
22.4
36.0
_
4,170,000
813,000
100.0
100.0
16.8
13.2
55.4
68.3
27.8
18.5
Major occupation group
Total _________
Professional, technical
workers
Managers, officials,
proprietors (except farm)
Clerical workers
Sales workers _
Operatives
Private household workers _.
Service workers (except
private household)
Other2
1 Widowed, divorced, or separated.
2 Includes craftsmen, farm workers, and nonfarm laborers.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics:
Report No. 94,
Other1
Special Labor Force
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
105
48. Occupations of Nonwhite Women3
Of the 28.7 million women in the civilian labor force in April
1968, 3.7 million were nonwhite. They represented 49 percent of
all nonwhite women 16 years of age or over in the population.
About 1 out of 14 nonwhite women in the labor force was unem
ployed, as compared with 1 out of 25 white women. Nonwhite
women were somewhat more likely than white women to work at
part-time or part-year jobs.
These characteristics of nonwhite women workers are interre
lated with the types of jobs they hold. Whereas more than 3 out
of 5 white women workers were engaged in white-collar work in
April 1968, almost half of the nonwhite women were in service
work where intermittent or part-time work is common (chart O).
On the other hand, approximately the same proportions of both
white and nonwhite women were employed in blue-collar work or
farm work in April 1968.
A LARGER PROPORTION OF NONWHITE THAN WHITE WOMEN ARE IN SERVICE WORK
(Employed Women, by Color and Type of Work, April 1968)
NONWHITE WOMEN
WHITE WOMEN
Farm Workers 2%-
Farm Workers 2%
Blue-Collar
Workers
\ 16%
'
Service
Workers
18%
White-Collar
Workers
31%
3,439,000
24,056,000
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
3 For further information on the occupations of nonwhite women workers, see “Negro
Women in the Population and in the Labor Force.” Women's Bureau, Wage and Labor
Standards Administration, U.S. Department of Labor. 1967.
106
WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT BY OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES
Since nonwhite women constituted only about 1 out of 8 women
workers in April 1968, they were a small proportion of all em
ployed women in most major occupation groups. However, almost
half of the private household workers and about 1 out of 5 service
workers (except private household) were nonwhite.
Nonwhite women are concentrated in certain major occupation
groups as they are in certain types of work. Thus about onefourth of all employed nonwhite women were private household
workers in April 1968 (table 45). Approximately another onefourth were service workers outside the home. The third largest
occupation group for employed nonwhite women was clerical
workers (17 percent), followed by operatives (also 17 percent).
Table 45.—Major
Occupation Groups
op
Employed Nonwhite Women,
April 1968
(Women 16 years of age and over)
Major occupation group
Total _ _ ____
Professional, technical workers
Managers, officials, proprietors
(except farm) __________
Clerical workers
Sales workers
Craftsmen, foremen ____
Operatives _ _
Nonfarm laborers
Private household workers
Service workers (except
private household) ____ .
Farmers, farm managers
Farm laborers, foremen
___
As percent
of total
employed
women
Number
Percent
distribution
3,439,000
351,000
100.0
10.2
12.5
8.7
52,000
598,000
72,000
28,000
581,000
17,000
839,000
1.5
17.4
4.3
6.4
3.8
9.0
14.0
14.7
48.6
832,000
7,000
65,000
2.1
.8
16.9
.5
24.4
24.2
.2
1.9
19.3
8.5
14.2
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau ,of Labor Statistics: Employment and Earnings,
May 1968.
But nonwhite women’s employment was much more diversi
fied in 1968 than in 1940, when three-fifths of all employed non
white women were private household workers. World War II stim
ulated their entry into many new kinds of jobs—particularly cler
ical, sales, professional, and service outside the home. This diversi
fication has proceeded at a more rapid rate in the last 5 years. As a
result, about 20 percent of all employed nonwhite women were in
clerical or sales work in 1968 compared with 12 percent in 1963, 6
percent in 1950, and 2 percent in 1940. Similarly, 10 percent of
employed nonwhite women were in professional and technical oc-
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
107
eupations in 1968 compared with 7 percent in 1963, 6 percent in
1950, and 4 percent in 1940.4
49. Occupations of Young Women
There were 2.3 million girls 16 to 19 years of age employed in
April 1968 (table 46). More than 2 out of 5 (42 percent) of these
young workers were in the clerical field. The next largest group
were service workers outside the home (21 percent) and private
household workers (13 percent). In only two other major occupa
tion groups—sales workers and operatives—were there a con
siderable number in this age group.
Table 46.—Major Occupation Groups
of
op
Age, April
Major occupation group
Total
- _ _ _ _ _ _ ______
Professional, technical workers
Managers, officials, proprietors (except farm)
_ _ _
........
.
Clerical workers
_ _.
.
Sales workers _
__
Craftsmen, foremen _______
Operatives - ____
Nonfarm laborers
_
_
Private household workers
Service workers (except private household) _______
Farmers, farm managers__________
Farm laborers, foremen____ _ _
.
Employed Girls
16
to
19 Years
1968
Number
2,280,000
70,000
4,000
963,000
230,000
10,000
Percent
distribution
100.0
3.1
.2
As percent
of total
employed
women
8.3
1.7
41.8
.3
10.3
10.1
12.2
12,000
.4
8.9
.5
287,000
12.6
3.2
4.9
10.3
16.6
472,000
20.7
11.0
39,000
1.7
8.5
203,000
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Employment and Earn
ings, May 1968.
Another measure of the types of jobs held by teenage girls is
their representation among all employed women in the various
major occupation groups. Thus, although girls 16 to 19 years of
age accounted for only 8 percent of all employed women in April
1968, they were 17 percent of private household workers, 12 per
cent of sales workers, and 11 percent of service workers outside
the home. On the other hand, they were only a very small propor
tion of managers and of professional and technical workers.
4 Data for 1940 and 1950 (from the decennial censuses) and for 1963 are for persons
14 years of age and over, while 1968 figures are for persons 16 years of age and over and
are not strictly comparable.
108
women’s employment by occupations and industries
SO. Occupations of Mature Women
There were about 10.8 million women 45 years of age and over
at work in April 1968 (table 47). Of these, about 2.8 million, or
26 percent, were in clerical occupations. These occupations are
■not as popular for mature women as they are for all women
workers generally. The next two largest occupation groups for
mature women in April 1968 were service workers employed out
side the home (16 percent) and operatives (15 percent). An addi
tional 14 percent were in professional and technical occupations.
In this occupation group, mature women held proportionately
about as many positions as did women of all ages—a clear indica
tion of the rising demand for workers with higher educational
achievement irrespective of their age. Sizable numbers of mature
women were also employed as private household workers, sales
workers, and nonfarm managers, officials, and proprietors.
Table 47.—Major
Occupation Groups
Age
and
of
Employed Women
Over, April
45
Years
of
1968
Percent
distribution
Major occupation group
Number
Total _ _ _ _
_
_
Professional, technical workers
Managers, officials, proprietors (except farm) _.
Clerical workers _
Sales workers
_ __ _
Craftsmen, foremen ____
Operatives - - Nonfarm laborers
_
Private household workers
Service workers (except private household) _________
Farmers, farm managers
Farm laborers, foremen__ _____ _
10,778,000
1,503,000
100.0
719,000
2,835,000
909,000
133,000
1,644,000
42,000
929,000
6.7
26.3
8.4
1,773,000
16.5
66,000
.6
2.1
228,000
13.9
1.2
15.3
.4
8.6
As percent
of total
employed
women
39.2
37.4
59.8
30.6
48.3
42.8
39.9
36.2
53.8
41.2
80.5
49.9
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Additional information on the types of jobs held by mature
women may be obtained by comparing the number of women 45
years of age and over with the total number of employed women
in each major occupation group. Thus, although mature women
constituted only 39 percent of all employed women in April 1968,
they were 80 percent of the extremely small group of women em
ployed as farmers and farm managers. Mature women were 60
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
109
percent of all women employed as nonfarm managers, officials,
and proprietors, and nearly half of the sales workers and of the
small number of women employed as farm laborers and foremen.
On the other hand, the representation of mature women was low
est among clerical workers (31 percent).
Industry Groups of Women
51. Distribution of Women by Industry
About 98 percent of all employed women 14 years of age and
over were working in nonagricultural industries in 1967, and
about three-fifths of these were engaged in the distribution of
goods and services (table 48). Among the 11.2 million women
providing services, 6.8 million were employed in professional and
related services, such as schools, hospitals, other medical and
health facilities, and welfare or religious agencies. About 3.7 mil
lion women provided personal services either in private house
holds or in establishments such as hotels, laundries or drycleaners, and beauty shops. The remainder, about three-quarters of
a million women, were engaged in business and repair services or
recreation and entertainment services. Of the women engaged in
the distribution of goods, 4.9 million were employed in retail
trade and more than half a million were in wholesale trade.
Another 5.4 million, or 20 percent of all employed women, were
employed in manufacturing industries. In only two other indus
tries—finance, insurance, and real estate and public administra
tion—were as many as 1 million women employed.
Changes in women’s employment by industry.—Proportion
ately more women were employed in 1967 than in 1940 in con
struction; transportation, communication, and other public utili
ties ; wholesale trade; retail trade; finance, insurance, and real es
tate ; and public administration as these industries expanded with
the growing economy. On the other hand, smaller proportions of
all employed women were in agriculture, manufacturing, and serv
ice industries. The proportion of all employed women in manu
facturing declined from 1950 to 1967, after a slight increase in
the preceding decade. Within the services industry group, the
proportion of women employed in professional and related serv
ices rose significantly—from 17 to 26 percent—in the period 1940
to 1967, while the percentage in personal services dropped even
more sharply—from 26 to 14 percent.
Women as a percent of all workers.—Only in the services in-
110
Industry Groups
of
Employed Women,
1940, 1950,
and
1967
(Women 14 years of age and over)
Number (in thousands)
Major industry group
Total
_ __
Agriculture, forestry, fisheries .. __
Mining
_.
Construction
____
.
Manufacturing _ . __
Transportation, communication, other
public utilities _ _ _____
Wholesale trade
Retail trade _ ______
Finance, insurance, real estate
Services
._
Business and repair .. ____
Personal
Entertainment, recreation
Professional and related _
Public administration
1967
1950
Percent distribution
1940
26,620
16,674
11,920
489
37
228
5,432
692
15
533
68
3,765
37
2,540
923
539
4,878
1,642
11,223
560
3,650
185
6,828
1,229
663
452
3,403
856
6,019
159
3,000
125
2,735
743
12
1950
1940
1967
1960
1940
100.0
1.8
.1
100.0
100.0
36.2
29.0
25.9
4.2
4.5
.1
.4
.3
21.3
10.2
1.8
2.2
6.2
.9
20.4
.1
13.5
6.7
5.4
26.6
25.4
23.2
3.2
1.7
17.0
4.2
44.7
.7
26.4
.7
16.9
3.1
19.6
21.4
43.0
47.9
60.2
26.6
75.5
29.7
61.6
30.2
14.9
19.3
36.2
42.7
55.2
13.4
70.7
24.4
55.2
25.4
11.8
377
199
3.5
2,021
18.3
497
5,334
84
3,145
87
2,018
371
total employed
1967
2.0
6.2
42.2
2.1
13.7
.7
25.6
4.6
22.6
4.0
2.7
20.4
5.1
36.1
1.0
18.0
.7
16.4
4.5
1.3
1.8
16.0
30.7
32.5
58.6
9.5
73.2
21.3
57.4
20.5
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census: Current Population Reports, P-60, Nos. 7 and 53.
*
*
w o m e n ’s e m pl o y m e n t by occupations and in d u str ies
Table 48.—Major
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
111
dustry group were women more than half (60 percent) of all
workers in 1967. Within this industry group women held 62 per
cent of all jobs in professional and related services and 75 percent
in personal services but only 30 percent in entertainment and rec
reation services and 27 percent in business and repair services.
Women were also well represented among all workers both in re
tail trade and in finance, insurance, and real estate. In fact, in
these two industry groups the proportion of all workers who were
women rose sharply between 1940 and 1967—from 31 to 43 per
cent in retail trade and from 33 to 48 percent in finance, insur
ance, and real estate.
52. Women as Nonfarm Workers
Women’s employment in detailed nonagricultural industries is
tabulated quarterly by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. The figures
for women on payrolls of manufacturing industries have been is
sued since October 1940 (with a few breaks in continuity). Those
for women on payrolls of nonmanufacturing industries date only
from 1964, except for selected industries for which data have
been available since 1960. A recent expansion in data collection
makes available estimates of women employees for 386 industries,
with totals for all eight major industry divisions. The major in
dustry divisions include two (government and contract construc
tion) for which data prior to 1964 are not available and two (serv
ices and transportation, communication, and other public utili
ties) for which only selected data were previously available. Be
cause these figures are based on payroll data, they differ some
what from the Bureau of the Census figures as shown in table
48.®
In April 1968 the estimated total number of women on the pay
rolls of nonagricultural industries was 24.3 million, an increase
of 25 percent over the April 1964 figure (table 49). More than 5
million women were employed in each of four major industry di
visions: services (5.5 million), wholesale and retail trade (5.4
million), manufacturing (5.4 million), and government (5.3 mil
lion). Large numbers of women were also employed in finance, in
surance, and real estate (1.7 million) and in transportation, com
munication, and other public utilities (850,000).6
6 The two surveys cover different time periods; the Bureau of the Census survey includes
the self-employed, private household workers, and unpaid family workers ; and the Bureau of
Labor Statistics figures may include some duplication in the case of persons employed by
more than one firm.
112
in
Nonagricultural Industries,
1964
and
Number
1968
As percent of
total employed
1964
1968
33.8
36.0
Percent
1964-68
25.3
1968
24,305,000
Industry
Total
Service and miscellaneous ..
Wholesale and retail trade __
_
-- -Manufacturing _
_
_ _ _
-Government
....................
Federal
_
____
State .. .
Local . ..........................
-^
Finance, insurance, real estate - _ ------ —
Transportation, communication, other public
utilities .
____________ __ _______
Contract construction___ _ _____ __ ------- -------- .
Mining __ _ _
_
__
-
1964
19,402,000
5,527,000
5,395,000
5,356,000
5,311,000
708,000
1,004,000
3,599,000
1,676,000
4,395,000
4,461,000
4,431,000
3,761,000
532,000
713,000
2,516,000
1,459,000
53.1
38.8
27.5
43.5
26.1
41.0
51.0
50.6
51.0
37.5
26.0
39.2
22.7
38.5
46.5
49.7
25.8
20.9
20.9
41.2
33.1
40.7
43.1
14.9
853,000
152,000
35,000
714,000
147,000
34,000
19.9
4.8
5.6
18.3
5.1
5.4
19.5
3.4
2.9
1 Data are for April of each year.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Employment and Earnings, July and August 1968, and “Employment and Earnings
Statistics for the United States, 1909-67.” Bull. 1312-6. October 1967
*
<
WOMEN'S EMPLOYMENT BY OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES
Table 49.—Women
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
113
Women on government payrolls included 3.6 million in local
government, of whom 3 out of 4 were in education. Of the 1 mil
lion women employed by State governments, 2 out of 5 were in ed
ucation. Comparatively few women were employed in contract
construction, the other industry not previously reported. A ma
jority of these women were employed by special trade contractors
in such fields as electrical work and plumbing, heating, and air
conditioning.
The most rapid expansion in women’s employment since April
1964 has occurred in local and State government (43 and 41 per
cent, respectively). Large increases have also taken place in the
number of women employed in Federal Government (33 percent)
and in services (26 percent). Women now constitute more than
half of all employees in services, local government, and finance,
insurance, and real estate. On the other hand, only 1 out of 20 em
ployees in construction is a woman.
Factory workers.—The 5.4 million women working in manu
facturing industries in April 1968 constituted about one-fifth of
all employed women and more than one-fourth of all manufactur
ing employees (table 50). Some of these women worked in factory
offices; others were production workers. The relative importance
of these two groups varies considerably from industry to indus
try. In many of the heavy manufacturing industries, less than
half of the women employees had production jobs in 1960. In other
lighter manufacturing industries, such as apparel and some tex
tile mills, as many as four-fifths of the women were production
workers.
Manufacturing industries are divided into those producing du
rable goods and those producing nondurable goods. Women are
more likely to be employed in nondurable goods than in durable
goods. Thus 57 percent of all women in manufacturing in April
1968 were employed in plants producing “soft” goods. Neverthe
less, this concentration was not as great as it had been in 1950
(67 percent) or in 1960 (61 percent).
Of the women working in industries in the nondurable division,
more than one-third were in apparel and related products. Two
other large employers of women were textile mill products and
food and kindred products. The overall number of women em
ployed in the manufacture of nondurable goods increased 16 per
cent from 1960 to 1968, but the number of women workers in
creased by less than 10 percent in textile mill products, leather
and leather products, and food and kindred products and actually
decreased in tobacco manufactures and petroleum refining and re-
114
WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT BY OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES
Table 50.—Women
in
Manufacturing Industries,
Number
in
1968
Industry
Total
-
Percent
distribution
1968
and
19681
As percent of
total employed Percent
-------------------- increase
1968
1960 1960-68
100.0
27.5
25.7
23.5
57.4
21.0
8.2
7.8
61.1
22.1
9.4
9.1
38.4
80.1
45.2
25.8
36.6
78.6
43.4
23.1
16.0
17.0
8.5
5.1
6.1
3.8
3.7
5.9
3.5
4.3
30.9
20.0
56.0
28.0
18.2
51.8
28.8
34.1
6.9
3.2
2.7
.6
2.5
3.0
1.0
31.1
21.4
43.1
28.3
21.7
50.1
58.4
13.2
= 26.3
.3
.4
9.0
8.2
756,700
284,500
241,700
221,900
157,800
103,800
101,200
87,800
86,400
42.6
14.1
5.3
4.5
4.1
2.9
1.9
1.9
1.6
1.6
38.9
12.2
4.6
4.4
4.1
2.8
1.5
2.1
1.8
.9
19.8
39.0
14.5
17.7
10.9
35.4
22.4
15.9
6.6
25.7
17.6
36.3
13.1
16.6
11.0
33.5
17.1
15.3
5.9
19.0
35.3
42.5
42.9
27.6
25.9
31.8
56.6
9.4
15.4
111.2
57,700
1.1
1.0
9.8
7.0
32.3
182,600
3.4
3.5
43.5
39.4
19.9
5,356,000 100.0
__
1960
1960
nondurable goods
Subtotal
3,074,000
Apparel and related products - 1,123,100
Textile mill products
- 441,100
Food and kindred products__ 415,800
Printing, publishing, allied in
dustries _____
- _ - -327,000
Chemicals, allied products___ 204,300
Leather, leather products____ 197,800
Rubber, miscellaneous plastic
products
-. - -. _ 170,100
Paper, allied products
__
147,200
Tobacco manufactures _ _
30,900
Petroleum refining and related
16,500
products ____ _____ - - -
=
5.2
durable goods
Subtotal
2,282,000
Electrical equipment, supplies _ Machinery (except electrical) _ _
Fabricated metal products___
Transportation equipment___
Instruments, related products _
Furniture, fixtures - - - Stone, clay, glass products___
Primary metal industries
Ordnance, accessories ____ ..
Lumber, wood products (except
furniture)
_
_ __ _ _
Miscellaneous manufacturing
industries ...........................
1 Data are for April of each year.
2 A decrease instead of an increase.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Employment and Earnings,
July and August 1968, and “Employment and Earnings Statistics for the United States,
1909-67." Bull. 1812-5. October 1967.
lated industries. Since 1960 the automation of plant processes
begun in the 1950’s has continued in most of these industries, re
sulting in a fairly stable or a dwindling demand for production
workers despite increases in production.
Women’s employment in plants producing durable goods in-
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
115
creased 35 percent from 1960 to 1968. One-third of all women em
ployed in durable goods manufacturing in April 1968 were in the
electrical equipment and supplies industry. This includes firms
manufacturing radio and television sets, telephones, electric
lamps, electric measuring instruments, and household appliances.
Women constituted almost two-fifths of all workers in nondura
ble goods industries but only about one-fifth of the workers in du
rable goods industries. The highest representations of women in
the nondurable goods group were in apparel and related products
(80 percent) and leather and leather products (56 percent). In
the durable goods group the two industries having the highest
proportions of women workers were electrical equipment and sup
plies (39 percent) and instruments and related products (35 per
cent) .
Nonmanufacturing workers.—The 70 nonmanufacturing indus
tries for which payroll data have been available since 1960 in
clude all divisions in retail trade, wholesale trade, and finance, in
surance, and real estate. Of the 4.6 million women employed in re
tail trade in April 1968, 1.4 million were working in general mer
chandise stores and almost 1.3 million in eating and drinking
places (table 51). Only 799,000 women were in wholesale trade.
An additional 1.7 million women were employed in finance, insur
ance, and real estate, mainly in banks and in certain insurance
companies.
Growth in women’s employment since 1960 has amounted to 26
percent both in retail trade and in finance, insurance, and real es
tate. Particularly noteworthy were the increases in women’s em
ployment in eating and drinking places (42 percent) and in bank
ing (38 percent). A striking 77 percent increase occurred in the
security dealers and exchanges industry, but the total number of
women employed was still relatively small.
Among service industries, large numbers of women were em
ployed in April 1968 in hospitals (1,326,500), in educational serv
ices (508,200), and in laundries and cleaning and dyeing plants
(361,300). A few service industries not surveyed in 1960 also had
large concentrations of women employees in 1968. These include
medical and health services other than hospitals (757,000) and
miscellaneous business services other than credit and advertising
(358,200).
Women’s employment in hospitals increased by 60 percent from
1960 to 1968 and in college and university educational services by
two-thirds, but in laundries and cleaning and dyeing plants it
rose only slightly.
116
WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT BY OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES
Table
51.—Women
in
Selected Nonmanufacturing Industries,
1960
and
19681
Number
As percent of
total employed
Percent
increase
1960-68
Industry
1968
1968
1960
Retail trade
General merchandise stores __
Eating, drinking places ------- Food stores
Apparel, accessories .
Furniture, fixtures —
Other retail stores------------ -----
4,596,000
44.6
43.3
1,401,900
1,266,500
557,500
464,500
127,500
778,300
69.0
55.9
34.2
65.3
29.5
24.0
72.3
54.4
33.2
65.0
28.8
22.2
26.2
24.8
42.0
24.0
5.1
10.5
25.5
Finance, insurance, real estate
1,676,000
50.6
50.2
26.2
555,700
483,500
204,000
188,700
144,400
61,100
62.2
49.9
34.6
54.5
57.0
34.1
61.0
50.0
36.5
54.4
57.2
30.5
37.5
17.1
8.1
34.3
30.0
77.1
38,500
49.6
799,000
22.2
46.5
22.5
19.6
35,000
5.6
5.0
2 2.8
1,326,500
81.3
81.0
60.1
361,300
311,900
508,200
259,300
210,200
38,700
127,500
67,400
51,600
49,200
40,700
66.1
49.5
47.0
40.5
58.6
46.8
63.9
34.3
72.1
42.4
14.3
65.2
49.7
43.8
35.2
61.2
29.0
67.8
35.4
71.6
33.6
14.3
5.6
31.8
52.3
66.6
29.5
144.9
31.3
1.2
36.1
33.7
50.7
490,800
98,100
89,700
80,700
49.9
15.1
8.7
24.7
51.4
15.2
8.6
21.9
14.0
5.5
23.0
93.5
_ -
Banking _.
_ ._
- Insurance carriers _
-Real estate
Credit agencies (except banks) _ _
Insurance agents, brokers, services.
Security dealers, exchanges ..
Other finance, insurance, real es
tate Wholesale trade -------------------------Mining
__
Services (miscellaneous) :
Hospitals
_________________ Laundries, cleaning and dyeing
plants
Hotels, tourist courts, motels---Educational services __
—
Colleges, universities .
..
Elementary, secondary schools
Educational services (n.e.c.) _
Legal services
.
. .
Motion pictures __ .
.. ...
Credit reporting, collection _ _ _.
Advertising .... ..... _ _ .
Engineering, architectural services.
Transportation, communication, other
public utilities:
Communication _.
.
...
Electric, gas, sanitary services .
Trucking, warehousing ____
Transportation by air
_____
7.2
1 Data are for April of each year.
2 A decrease instead of an increase.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Employment and Earnings,
July and August 1968, and “Employment and Earnings Statistics for the United States, 1909
67.” Bull. 1312-5. October 1967,
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
117
The communication industry was the only one in the transpor
tation and public utilities group that had more than 100,000
women workers. In April 1968, 490,800 women were working in
this industry—an increase of 14 percent over the number em
ployed in 1960. The great majority of these women were tele
phone workers.
Women generally constitute a higher proportion of all em
ployees in nonmanufacturing than in manufacturing industries.
In April 1968 women held 81 percent of the jobs in hospitals, 72
percent in credit reporting and collection agencies, 69 percent in
general merchandise stores, 66 percent in laundries and cleaning
and dyeing plants, and 65 percent in apparel and accessories
stores. On the other hand, women were only a small proportion of
all workers in mining (6 percent) and in trucking and warehous
ing (9 percent).
53. Women on Farms
About 3.8 million women—only 5 percent of the women 14
years of age and over in the United States—were estimated to be
living on farms in the year centered on April 1967 (table 52).
This was 1.3 million less than in April 1960 (monthly figure), the
earliest date for which a comparable figure is available.
The number of farm women in the labor force, however, has
decreased only slightly since 1960, as a larger proportion of all
farm women were employed or seeking work in 1967 than in 1960
—36 percent compared with 30 percent. On the other hand, the
labor force participation rate of men living on farms declined
from 85 percent in 1960 to 81 percent in 1967.
About 38 percent of the 1.3 million employed women residing
on farms in 1967 were working in agriculture; a majority of these
were unpaid family workers. Another 245,000 women who were
employed in agriculture in 1967 were not farm residents. There is
an increasing tendency for agricultural workers to live away
from the farm and to commute to work. In fact, nonfarm resi
dents constituted 33 percent of the women employed in agricul
ture in 1967 compared with 22 percent in April 1960.
More recent figures show there were 628,000 women 14 years
of age and over working in agriculture in April 1968.6 Of these,
82,000 were farmers and farm managers and 472,000 were farm
laborers and foremen. The remainder were performing a variety
of clerical, sales, or service operations for agricultural firms. One*
* U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Employment and Earnings, May
1968.
118
WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT BY OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES
Table 52.—Employment Status
1960
and
of
Women Living
on
Farms,
19671
(Women 14 years of age and over)
Percent
distribution
Number
Employment status
1960
1967
Total ____________ —
In labor force
__. _
,
Employed
__
Agriculture ____
Nonagriculture .
Unemployed
Not in labor force ___ . _
3,798,000
1,384,000
1,336,000
503,000
833,000
48,000
2,414,000
5,076,000
1,523,000
1,449,000
637,000
812,000
74,000
3,553,000
1967
1960
100.0
36.4
35.2
13.2
21.9
1.3
63.6
100.0
30.0
28.5
12.5
16.0
1.5
70.0
1 Data are for April 1960 and April-centered annual averages in 1967.
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census: Current Population Reports,
P-27, No. 39.
distinguishing characteristic of these agricultural workers was
that they tended to be older than workers in nonagricultural in
dustries. More than half of the women employed in farm work
in April 1968 were 45 years of age or over, and 6 percent were
65 years of age or over.
The April figures are fairly low for agricultural employment,
as the peak months of farm activity are June and July. During
1968 women’s agricultural employment reached a maximum of
999,000 in June.7 Fluctuations in farm employment are much
greater than in nonagricultural employment and are one of the
primary reasons for the seasonal pattern of the labor force as a
whole.
Women in Public Administration
54. Women in Federal Civilian Service
Legislative branch.—In the legislative branch of the Federal
Government, one woman was in the Senate and 10 women were in
the House of Representatives in the 91st Congress.
Judicial branch.—Women occupied the following Federal
judgeships by Presidential appointment as of early 1969: dis
trict courts, five; Court of Customs, one; Tax Court, two. In addi
tion, three women were serving in District of Columbia courts by
Presidential appointment.
7 Ibid. July 1968,
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
119
Executive branch, general.s—The highest ranking women in the
executive branch of the Federal service, including the Foreign
Service, in mid-1969 were in the following positions: Assistant
Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare for Community
and Field Services; Administrator, Bureau of Security and
Consular Affairs, Department of State; Special Assistant to the
President for Consumer Affairs; Ambassador to Norway; Am
bassador to Nepal; Ambassador to Barbados; Chairman, Inter
state Commerce Commission; Delegate to United Nations Human
Rights Commission; Delegate to United Nations Social Commis
sion of the Economic and Social Council; Administrator, Social
and Rehabilitation Service, Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare; Commissioner, Federal Trade Commission; Commis
sioner, Tariff Commission; Commissioner, Equal Employment Op
portunity Commission; Member, Indian Claims Commission;
Assistant Administrator for Personnel, Veterans Administration;
Associate Director for Policy and Research, United States Infor
mation Agency; Member, Executive Committee, United Nations
Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization; Deputy As
sistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs; Deputy Assistant
Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare for Population and
Family Planning; Deputy Director, Office of Civil Defense, De
partment of the Army; Director of the Mint, Department of the
Treasury; Director, Office of Territories, Department of the
Interior; Director, Women’s Bureau, Wage and Labor Standards
Administration, Department of Labor; Assistant Commissioner,
Office of Research and Statistics, Social Security Administration,
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare; Assistant Com
missioner of Education, Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare; Assistant Commissioner for Educational Statistics, Office
of Education, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
In June 1967 an estimated 849,000 women were working for
the Federal Government (table 53). This number was considera
bly above the 173,000 employed in 1939 but short of the World
War II peak of 1,111,000.
Of the 659,403 women who were employed full time in October
1967 in white-collar positions, more than 7 out of 10 were GS 5 or
the equivalent or less.8 The majority were employed as clerks,
9
typists, secretaries, or stenographers. Only 2 percent of all
women were in grades GS 12 and above as compared with 21 per
cent of men.
8 See section 121 for discussion of policy on women in the Federal civil service.
9 U.S. Civil Service Commission, Bureau of Management Services: “Study of Employment
of Women in the Federal Government, 1967.” June 1968,
120
WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT BY OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES
Table 53.—Women
in
the
Federal Civilian
Service,
Selected Years,
1923-67 1
Number 2
Year
1967
1964
1961
1958
1956
1954
1952
1950
1947
1944
1939
1923
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
________________ __ _____
_________________________
(Korean conflict) ______ _ _
_________________________
(return of war veterans)
(World War II peak) _____
________________________
_________________________
_
As percent
of total
employees
849,421
601,358
560,593
533,001
533,318
521,945
601,215
410,327
444,194
1,110,545
172,733
81,486
30
25
25
24
24
24
25
23
24
37
19
16
1 Data are for June of each year except 1944 (July) and 1956, 1958, 1961, and 1964
(December).
2 Refers to civilian employees in continental United States except for 1967 when refers to
all U.S. citizen civilian employees.
Source: U.S. Civil Service Commission.
There were 164 women in grades GS 16 through 18 or equiva
lent in full-time positions. The State Department (including AID
and Peace Corps) had 49 women in these grades; Health, Educa
tion, and Welfare, 47; Veterans Administration, 9; Labor, 8; and
the U.S. Information Agency, 6. A number of agencies had no
women in these grades.
Increasing numbers of young women are taking the Federal
Service Entrance Examination and being appointed to profes
sional positions at the entrance level. The percentage of women
appointed to such positions nearly doubled between 1963 and 1967
—rising from 18 to 35 percent. The actual number of women ap
pointed, however, nearly tripled during this period. In addition,
women accounted for 29 percent of those selected as management
interns in 1967, as compared with only 14 percent in 1965.
Executive branch, Foreign Service.—In the international field
women have held positions of high rank. As far back as 1964 the
United States has been represented on the Trusteeship Council by
a woman holding the rank of ambassador. Women have repre
sented the United States regularly as alternate delegates to the
U.N. General Assembly, and have served on delegations to the
UNESCO General Conference, UNICEF, the Organization of
American States, and other bodies. (In 1968 a U.S. delegate was
the first woman elected to the Executive Board of UNESCO.) In
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
121
1969 women served as representatives of the United States on the
Social Commission, the Status of Women Commission, and the
Human Rights Commission, and women served in various capaci
ties in the U.S. Permanent Mission to the United Nations. The
United States is a member of the Inter-American Commission of
Women, and a woman has represented the United States in the
Inter-American Children’s Institute. In addition, U.S. delegations
to international conferences usually include women among their
advisers and in other technical capacities.
A total of 3,061 women were in the Foreign Service of the
United States in 1968 (table 54). They equaled 28 percent of all
Foreign Service employees. The Ambassadors to Denmark, Nor
way, and Nepal were the only women among 103 chiefs of mis
sion. Other Foreign Service officers included 355 women, less
than one-tenth of the total. Most of the women in this group were
consular officers and political officers in embassies and legations.
About half of the staff positions in the Foreign Service were
held by women. They were employed in a variety of specialized
occupations, including clerk, stenographer, typist, and secretary,
as well as assistant attache, liaison officer, fiscal officer, consular
attache, administrative assistant, librarian, and political and re
search analyst.
Table 54.—Foreign Service Personnel,
by
Sex
and
Rank, March 1968
Women
Men
Percent
Percent
Number distribution Number distribution
Rank
Total
Total
f oreign service Ulficers: 1
Chief of Mission
Career Ambassador,
Career Minister, and
Class 1 _
Class 2 and 3
Class 4 and 5
Class 6 to 8
Foreign Service Staff:
Class 1 and 2 - _
____
Class 3 to 5
Class 6 to 8
Class 9 and 10
Consular agent
Unclassified
10,769
3,061
100.0
7,708
103
3
.1
100
100.0
' '
1.3
416
1,674
1,721
1,204
5
79
156
115
.2
2.6
5.1
3.8
411
1,595
1,565
1,089
5.3
20.7
20.3
14.1
400
1,361
3,156
722
11
1
48
553
1,544
558
1.6
18.1
50.4
18.2
352
808
1,612
164
11
1
4.6
10.5
20.9
2.1
.1
(’)
—
—
1 Includes 1,615 Foreign Service Reserve Officers (162 women).
2 Less than 0.05 percent.
Source: U.S. Department of State: Summary of Employment, March 31, 1968.
122
WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT BY OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES
A study by the President’s Commission on the Status of Women
showed less discrepancy in promotion rates of men and women in
the Foreign Service than in the civil service generally.10 The
turnover among women Foreign Service officers is quite high be
cause of the difficulty of combining marriage and a career that re
quires frequent changes in assignments.
55. Women in the Armed Services
Women in the armed services of the United States, who are an
integral part of our Armed Forces, have been given permanent
status by act of Congress and serve on active duty as commis
sioned officers and in enlisted grades. They are on an interchange
able (noncombatant) basis with their male counterparts and
provide a well-trained nucleus that could be expanded rapidly in
the event of mobilization. While on active duty, both officers and
enlisted women receive medical and dental care, annual vacations,
educational and training opportunities, and social security protec
tion.
Women officers serve in the grades of second lieutenant to colo
nel in the Army, Marine Corps, and Air Force, and from ensign
to captain in the Navy. However, effective November 8, 1967,
Public Law 90-130 amended previous laws and removed certain
restrictions on the promotional opportunities and career tenure of
women officers serving on active duty in the Armed Forces.
Programs for women in the armed services are divided into two
broad categories—medical and line. Requirements for medical
personnel are based on professional needs.
At the end of November 1967 there were 35,598 women on ac
tive duty in the armed services (table 55). They included 2,516
officers and 23,667 enlisted personnel serving in the “line” com
ponents and 9,415 officers serving in the medical professions.
Women’s peak participation in the Armed Forces was reached
in May 1945, when a total of 266,184 women were in the four mil
itary services. Of these, 183,484 were enlisted women, 67,507
were nurses and other medical personnel, and 15,193 were
nonmedical officers. In addition, there were about 10,000 enlisted
women and 1,000 women officers in the Coast Guard Women’s Re
serve (SPARS). In peacetime SPARS are under the Transporta
tion Department.
The direct commission program is the major source of officers.
10 President’s Commission on the Status of Women: Report of the Committee on Federal
Employment. October 1963.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
Table 55.—Women
on
Active Duty in
November 1967
the
123
Armed Services,
Officers
Branch of service
Total
Army .. _
Navy _
Marine Corps
Air Force
Total
Line
Nurses
Medical
specialists
35,598
2,516
8,701
714
23,667
14,871
8,190
2,557
9,980
924
550
233
809
3,005
2,352
436
88
10,506
5,200
2,324
5,637
0)
3,344
H
190
Enlisted
personnel
1 Medical needs supported by Navy.
Source: U.S. Department of Defense, Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the
Services.
With few exceptions a bachelor’s or higher degree from an ac
credited college or university is required for a direct commission
as a second lieutenant or ensign. Most newly appointed officers re
ceive military orientation and other training. At the end of their
training period, they are assigned to a specialization, determined
by the needs of the service and the education and background of
the officers.
Enlisted women must have a high school diploma or its equiva
lent. Highly qualified enlisted women or noncommissioned officers
may qualify for officer candidate programs conducted by each of
the four services. Upon successful completion of these programs,
they are commissioned as officers in their respective services.
Initial tours of duty for officers in the Women’s Army Corps
(WAC) are for 2 years. Enlistments are for periods of from 2 to
6 years. Women in the Navy (WAVES) are obligated for a min
imum of 2 years if they are officers and 3 years if enlisted.
Women in the Air Force (WAF) have a minimum service period
of 4 years for both officers and enlisted personnel, while the
Women Marine officers have a duty obligation of 3 years and the
enlisted women from 3 to 4 years. The minimum age at enlist
ment, as well as the length of enlistment period, varies not only
from service to service but also between officers and enlisted per
sonnel.
Of all women officers on active duty at the end of November
1967, 79 percent were in the health professions. They were as
signed to work within the medical areas of the Forces—Nurse
Corps, Medical Specialist Corps, Medical Service Corps, and Med
ical Corps. Nurses alone accounted for over 73 percent of all
women officers. Dietitians, physical therapists, occupational ther
apists, and doctors, as well as others in allied medical scientific
124
WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT BY OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES
fields, accounted for the additional officers in the military medical
services.
The remaining 21 percent of the women officers were nonmedi
cal or “line” officers. They performed a wide variety of duties,
ranging from staff positions at departmental level to unit com
manders in the field. These women were employed as logisticians
and operations officers, information experts, finance and disburs
ing officers, personnel managers, scientists, and lawyers.
Most enlisted women are in military positions that are closely
related to women’s occupations in civilian life. Of all enlisted
women on active duty at the end of 1967, about one-fourth were
assigned to clerical and administrative positions such as clerktypist, administrator, payroll clerk, personnel supervisor, and
keypunch operator. An additional one-fourth of the enlisted
women were medical technicians, that is, X-ray technicians, dental
technicians, laboratory technicians, and medical corpsmen. Other
enlisted women are in occupations that also have direct civilian
counterparts, such as meteorologist, draftsman, photographer,
data programer, air traffic controller, lithographer, electronic
technician, and cook. However, many other enlisted women are em
ployed in work that has no direct counterpart in civilian life. Ex
amples of these are image interpreter, intelligence specialist, and
cryptographer.
The military services maintain an educational program ranging
from indoctrination courses for newly enlisted personnel to post
graduate degree courses at universities throughout the country.
Many of these courses are aimed at training enlisted women to
gain a skill either on the job or in one of the schools operated by
each of the services. Selected personnel also may enroll in civilian
colleges in degree-completion programs for the purpose of acquir
ing a bachelor’s or higher degree. Officers selected on a “best
qualified” basis are trained at civilian institutions at both the un
dergraduate and graduate levels.
Postgraduate education is available to women officers in the
professional fields to which they have been assigned. In addition,
off-duty college courses for credit toward a degree are conducted
by civilian universities at most military installations for the bene
fit of military personnel. Tuition assistance is available.
Medical programs offer financial assistance from the Armed
Forces to students in certain medical areas who will agree to
serve in their specialties in the Armed Forces in return for such
aid. The active duty required varies according to the amount of
aid rendered.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
125
The Veterans Administration estimates that at the end of De
cember 1967 there were approximately 497,000 women veterans,
about 2 percent of all war veterans. Of the 414,000 women veter
ans in 1965, 22,000 were veterans from World War I; 317,000,
from World War II; and 75,000, from the Korean conflict. In ad
dition, there were 400 nurses from the Spanish-American
War. No recent information is available on the number of women
veterans receiving compensation or pensions. Women and men
veterans are entitled to the same benefits, such as life insurance
coverage, reemployment rights, and educational benefits. Qualified
women may also apply for Reserve service. Women reservists, de
pending upon their Reserve status, participate in weekly drills
and summer training with their units. They may be called to ac
tive duty in the event of a national emergency, the same as men
reservists.
56. Women in State Office
From 370 in 1965, the number of women in State legislatures
declined to 318 in 1967—45 in upper houses, 270 in lower houses,
and three in Nebraska’s unicameral legislature. There was at
least one woman in the lower house of every State in 1967.
Women held seats in the upper house of 30 States. In New Hamp
shire 15 percent of the 400 seats in the house of representatives
were held by women; in Arizona 15 percent of 60 seats in the
lower house were held by women. Vermont and Nevada, with 13
percent, were the only other States in which more than 10 per
cent of the seats in the lower house were held by women. About
17 percent of the members of the Delaware Senate were women;
in Connecticut and Maryland women accounted for 11 and 9 per
cent, respectively, of the members of the upper house. In Texas,
Kansas, South Carolina, and Alabama, women were less than 1
percent of the members of the lower house. In New York and Cal
ifornia no women served in the senate, and only five out of 150
seats in the house of representatives in New York and three out
of 80 seats in the lower house in California were held by women.
In 1967 women in 19 States had achieved statewide elective po
sitions other than in the legislature. One woman was elected Gov
ernor of her State. Ten women were elected to State boards of ed
ucation, and seven each were elected secretary of state and trea
surer. Others served as auditor, superintendent of public instruc
tion, supreme court justice, registrar of State land office, and su
preme court clerk. In Colorado five of a total of 23 statewide elec
126
WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT BY OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES
tive posts were held by women; in Alabama, four of 18; in Wyo
ming, four of nine; in Arizona, three of 18; in Utah, three of 19;
and in Delaware, two of six.
57. Women Mayors
In 1966 a total of 100 women were serving as mayors in 30
States compared with 112 in 32 States in 1964.11 States report
ing women mayors in 1966 but not in 1964 were Michigan, Mis
souri, New Hampshire, Utah, and Wyoming. On the other hand,
the following States had women mayors in 1964 but not in 1966:
Alaska, Hawaii, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Oregon, Pennsylvania,
and Virginia. In 1966 California and Iowa each had eight women
mayors; Georgia, Illinois, and Kansas, six; and Oklahoma and
Kentucky, five.
Another survey in 1967 showed women mayors in two States
not previously listed—Delaware and South Carolina.11 There
12
were also five women mayors in Puerto Rico in 1967.
Several of the 20 States that reported no women mayors in
1966 listed many women holding important elective and appoint
ive offices.
11 Survey made by the Montana Municipal League, Shelby, Montana.
12 Montana Municipal League, Shelby, Montana.
3
WOMEN'S INCOME AND EARNINGS
Income and earnings, both strongly influenced by length and
type of work experience, are two measures of women’s economic
status.
Income statistics, as reported by the Bureau of the Census, U.S.
Department of Commerce, include income from all sources—not
only wages, salaries, earnings from self-employment, rents, and
returns from investment such as dividends and interest, but also
income from insurance policies, pensions, old-age and survivors
insurance benefits, and aid to families with dependent children, as
well as other forms of public assistance.
Factors Affecting Earnings
Payroll earnings, the major source of income reported by
women, are compensation received in such forms as wages, sala
ries, piece rate payments, and cash bonuses. These earnings vary
widely among individuals since they are influenced by such fac
tors as type of job, skill requirements of the job, character of the
employing industry, geographical location of the plant or oifice,
size of the company, and extent of unionization.1
Women tend to receive lower income and earnings than men,
mainly because of differences in types of jobs held, job training,
and continuity of work experience. Large numbers of women
work in traditionally low-paying occupations and low-wage indus
tries.
A significant difference between women workers and men
workers is the intermittent nature of women’s lifetime work pat
tern. Nearly all women workers interrupt their employment at
some time for marriage and for bearing and rearing children.
When they return to the labor force, many can work only part
time or part of the year because of continued home responsibili1 Information on wages and salaries paid by employers for a specific job may be obtained
from local public employment service offices. There are more than 2,000 of these offices in
the Nation.
127
128
WOMEN’S INCOME AND EARNINGS
ties. Thus—whether clerical workers, operatives, or professional
workers—they will have lost ground in terms of job seniority and
work experience to qualify for promotion at the same rate as
men.
Income of Families and Women
58. Family Income
The 48.9 million families in the Nation had a median income of
$7,436 in 1966 (table 56). About 14 percent had incomes of less
than $3,000, sometimes defined as the poverty level, and 46 per
cent received less than $7,000, considered a level of “modest ade
quacy.” About 37 percent received $9,000 or more. An income of
$9,191 in 1966 dollars was considered necessary for an urban
family of four to enjoy a moderate standard of living according to
the new City Worker’s Family Budget.2
The median income of families has been rising steadily. In 1966
it was about $1,200 above the median income received 5 years pre
viously and more than $1,700 above that received 10 years pre
viously, even when expressed in terms of constant purchasing
power which takes into account changing prices.
Table 56.—Median Income
of
Families,
by
Type of Family, 1966
All families
Type of family
Total _
-
Number
Percent
distribution
Median income of
families headed
by year-round
Median
full-time
income
worker
..........
48,922,000
100.0
$7,436
$8,693
Male head
_
._
Married (wife present) _
Wife in paid labor
force
_
__
Wife not in paid
labor force .
__
Other marital status __
Female head
___ _ _
43,750,000
42,553,000
89.4
87.0
7,803
7,838
8,845
8,861
15,005,000
30.7
9,246
10,071
27,548,000
1,197,000
5,172,000
56.3
2.4
10.6
7,128
6,432
4,010
8,168
7,973
5,614
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census: Current Population Reports,
P-60, No. 53.
One factor in the rise in family income is the increase in the
proportion of families who have income from both earnings and
other sources. The proportion of families with income from mul
2 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: “City Worker’s Family Budget,
Autumn 1966.” Bull. 1570-1. 1967.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
129
tiple sources increased from only 23 percent in 1951 to 49 percent
in 1966. Such families had a median income in 1966 of $8,600,
which was approximately $1,300 more than that for families with
income from earnings only. Only a small proportion of families (2
percent in 1966) depend solely on self-employment income.
An increase in the proportion of families with more than one
wage earner also has tended to raise family income. In 1951 only
39 percent of all families had two or more earners, while 55 per
cent had one earner and 6 percent had no earner. By comparison
in 1966, 50 percent had two or more earners (13 percent had at
least three), 42 percent had one earner, and 8 percent had none.
The proportion of working wives among the husband-wife fam
ilies with income increased sharply—from 23 percent in 1951 to
35 percent in 1966.
Increased occupational skills of the labor force have also con
tributed to the rise in family income. The proportion of family
heads employed as professional or technical workers rose from 8
percent in March 1952 to 14 percent in March 1967. The median
income in 1966 of families headed by a worker in this category
was approximately 32 percent higher than the median income of
all families with an employed head.
Income of husband-wife families.—Median income in 1966 for
all the 42.6 million husband-wife families was $7,838. For the 15
million families in which the wife was a paid worker, the median
income was $9,246. This was 30 percent higher than the median
income of $7,128 for families in which the wife was not in the
paid labor force. Seventy-one percent of the families with work
ing wives had incomes of $7,000 or more compared with 51 per
cent of those with wives not in the labor force. (See sec. 22 for
working wives’ contribution to family income.) An undetermined,
although small, percentage of husband-wife families had some in
come from the earnings of other family members. In a very small
percentage of husband-wife families, the husband was not work
ing.
Income of female-head families.—More than one-tenth of all
families were headed by a woman in 1966. Their median income
was only $4,010. Families in which the woman head was a yearround full-time worker did better—their median income was
$5,614. However, this was still substantially below the $8,168 me
dian income of male-head families in which the head worked year
round full time but the wife was not in the paid labor force. In
only 30 percent of the families headed by a woman was the fam
ily head a full-time breadwinner compared with 72 percent of the
130
women’s income and earnings
male-head families. Only 22 percent of the families with a female
head had incomes of $7,000 or more. Detailed data from the 1960
census indicate that female-head families depend to a larger ex
tent than do husband-wife families on income from other family
members. (For other characteristics of female-head families, see
sec. 20.)
Families living in poverty.—Despite the continuing rise in fam
ily income, 6.1 million families were living in poverty in 1966
(table 57). In 1959 poor families had numbered 8.3 million.
Of those families who were poor in 1966, 1.8 million were
headed by a woman. Although families headed by a woman con
stituted only 11 percent of all families, they accounted for 30 per
cent of all poor families. The proportion of all poor nonwhite
families that were headed by a woman was even greater—41 per
cent.
The likelihood of poverty is greater among families headed by
a woman than among husband-wife families. The likelihood is
even greater if the families headed by a woman are nonwhite. In
1966, 8 percent of the white and 27 percent of the nonwhite hus
band-wife families were poor. But 28 percent of the white and 60
percent of the nonwhite families headed by a woman lived in pov
erty.
Poverty is less frequent among both white and nonwhite hus
band-wife families if the wife is in the paid labor force. About 3
percent of the white husband-wife families were poor in 1966 if
the wife was in the paid labor force; 11 percent, if she was not.
The comparable percentages for nonwhite husband-wife families
were 19 and 34 percent, respectively.
About 24.8 million of the 29.7 million poor persons m 1966
were family members. They included 12.5 million children under
18 years of age—7.5 million white and 5 million nonwhite. About
1 out of 3 children in both white and nonwhite poor families were
under 6 years of age.
Type of family
Total ____
Male head
_
Female head
Children under 18 years living in poverty in 1966
As percent of all
children under 18
Number (in thousands)
White Nonwhite
Total
Nonwhite
White
Total
12,540
8,117
4,423
7,526
5,280
2,246
5,014
2,837
2,177
18.0
13.0
61.0
12.6
9.6
50.2
49.2
o8.2
78.4
Nonwhite children were nearly four times as likely as white
children to be poor in 1966. Forty-nine percent of all nonwhite
children were members of poor families as compared with 13 per
cent of all white children. The incidence of poverty among chil
dren was highest (78 percent) in nonwhite families headed by a
woman.
Table 57—Families Living in
Poverty,1
1966
Poor families
as percent of
all families
Poor families
All families
Total
White
Nonwhite
Total
Number (in millions) -----------Percent
.
—---- - _
44.0
100.0
4.9
100.0
6.1
100.0
4.4
100.0
1.7
100.0
12.4
9.9
34.9
Husband-wife
Wife in paid labor force ___
Wife not in paid labor force
-_
_
87.0
30.7
56.3
88.6
30.3
58.4
72.3
34.4
37.9
66.9
12.2
54.7
71.3
9.8
61.5
55.6
18.4
37.2
9.6
5.0
12.1
8.0
3.2
10.5
26.8
18.7
34.2
Male head (without wife) ..
Female head
-
-_
2.4
10.6
2.3
9.1
4.0
23.7
3.4
29.7
3.3
25.4
3.5
40.9
17.3
35.0
14.6
27.7
30.8
60.2
Total
-
White
White Nonwhite
1 Based on the Social Security Administration poverty-income standard which takes into account family size, composition, and place of residence. The
index in 1966 classified as poor those nonfarm households where total money income was less than $1,635 for an unrelated individual, $2,115 for a couple,
and $3,335 for a family of four.
Source: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Social Security Administration, Office of Research and Statistics: Research and Statistics
Note No. 23—1967.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
Nonwhite
48.9
100.0
Type of family
CO
132
WOMEN’S INCOME AND EARNINGS
59. Income of Women Compared With That of Men
Differences in income received.—During 1966, 61 percent of the
women 14 years of age and over in the population and 92 percent
of the men received some income of their own (table 58). The me
dian income received by women, however, was substantially below
that received by men. The median income of the 44.1 million
women who had income of their own was $1,638, or less than
one-third the $5,306 median received by the 60.1 million men with
income. The median wage or salary income of women was $2,149;
that of men, $5,693. The difference in the income of year-round
full-time workers was not as great, but was still substantial.
Women year-round full-time workers had a median wage or sal
ary income of $3,973; men, $6,848.
Table 58.—Income
of
Women
Men, 1966
and
(Persons 14 years of age and over)
Total
money income
Wage or salary
income
Men
Women
Men
60,088
92.0
$5,306
31,455
43.6
$2,149
48,125
73.7
$5,693
100.0
100.0
100.0
12.9
10.1
8.2
7.9
7.8
53.1
32.7
15.1
13.5
14.0
10.1
14.7
13.7
6.6
6.2
7.5
8.5
57.5
40.5
$3,973
67.2
$6,848
Women
TOTAL INCOME RECIPIENTS
Number (in thousands)
Percent of population
Median income _ _ _
$1,000
to $1,999
to $2,999
to $3,999
to $4,999
and over
44,067
61.0
$1,638
Percent distribution
100.0
Total
Under
$1,000
$2,000
$3,000
$4,000
$5,000
_ ...
_
-
.
_ . . ..
.
_____________
35.9
19.4
12.6
11.6
8.2
12.5
YEAR-ROUND FULL-TIME WORKERS
Percent of total income recipients
Median income
_
__
_.
30.0
$4,026
60.2
$6,955
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census: Current Population Reports,
P-60, No. 63.
A comparison of the percentage of women and men at various
income levels further illustrates the striking differences between
the total money income of women and men. For example, in
1966, 36 percent of the women with income but only 13 percent
of the men had less than $1,000; and 55 percent of the women but
only 23 percent of the men had less than $2,000. At the upper end
of the income scale, only 13 percent of the women but 53 percent
of the men had $5,000 or more.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
133
Trends in income differences.—It is not unexpected that women
receive a smaller average annual income than do men when total
wage or salary incomes are compared, since a much smaller pro
portion of women than men work full time the year round. In
1966, for instance, only 41 percent of the women but 67 percent of
the men were full-time year-round workers. (For a discussion of
women’s part-time and part-year work patterns, see secs. 31, 34,
and 35.)
However, a comparison of median wage or salary incomes of
full-time year-round women and men workers reveals not only
that the incomes of women are considerably less than those of
men but also that the gap has widened in recent years (chart P).
In 1956, for example, among full-time year-round wage or salary
workers, women’s median income of $2,827 was 63 percent of the
THE EARNINGS GAP BETWEEN WOMEN AND MEN IS WIDENING
(Median Wage or Salary Income of Year-Round Full-Time Workers, by Sex, 1956-66)
$7,500
Wage or Salary Income
$6,500 —
$5,500
-
$4,500 :
$3,500
Women
j—
$2 ,500 1—
1958
1959
1963
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census,
1964
134
women’s income and earnings
$4,466 received by men. Women’s median wage or salary income
rose to $3,973 in 1966, while men’s rose to $6,848. Both sexes had
significant increases in income, but because women’s income in
creased at a slower rate their median income in 1966 was only 58
percent of that of men.
Occupational income differences.—A comparison of wage or sal
ary income of full-time year-round women workers in selected
occupation groups with that of men shows that women’s relative
income position deteriorated in most occupations during the pe
riod 1956 to 1966 (table 59).
The median wage or salary income of women clerical workers
dropped from 72 percent of that of men in 1956 to 67 percent in
1966; that of women operatives, from 62 percent in 1956 to 56
percent in 1966, after reaching a peak of 63 percent in 1959; and
that of women sales workers, from a peak of 45 percent in 1957
to 41 percent in 1966, although this was higher than in 1961 and
1963 ( 39 percent). Income of women managers, officials, and pro
prietors also declined in relation to that of men—from a high of
64 percent in 1957 to 54 percent in 1966, although this repre
sented a slight increase over the low of 52 percent in 1965.
On the other hand, the wage or salary income of professional
and technical women workers as a percent of men’s was higher in
1966 (65 percent) than in 1956 (62 percent), after reaching a
peak of 68 percent in 1961 and 1965. Women service workers not
in private households were in about the same position relative to
men in 1956 and 1966. Their wage or salary income was 55 per
cent of men’s in both years, after reaching a peak of 59 percent in
1960.
60. Income of Women by Work. Experience
Although not affecting the comparison of full-time year-round
earnings for men and women, women’s part-time and part-year
employment accounts in part for the differences in median income
between men and women. This type of work pattern necessarily
reduces average annual earnings substantially. During 1966, for
instance, 22.7 million women employed in full-time jobs had a me
dian income of $3,160 (table 60). In contrast, the median income
of the 8.9 million women with part-time jobs amounted to only
$827. There is also a wide income differential between women
who work full time the year round and those who work part time
the year round. Thus in 1966 the median income of the 13.2 mil-
4
Table 59.—Women’s Median
by
Wage or Salary Income
Selected Major Occupation Group,
as
Percent
of
Men’s,
1956-66
(Year-round full-time workers 14 years of age and over)
Professional, technical workers
Managers, officials, proprietors
(except farm)
_ __
_
Clerical workers __
_ _ _
Sales workers _
_
_ _ __ _
Operatives
_____ ___
_
Service workers (except private
household)
___ __
1966
1965
1964
1963
1962
1961
1960
1959
1958
1957
1956
...
65.1
67.7
64.3
64.8
66.1
67.6
64.0
64.2
63.7
63.6
62.4
_..
...
___
_. _
54.0
66.5
41.0
55.9
52.2
68.1
42.4
57.1
55.5
66.2
40.4
57.8
55.2
67.7
39.0
57.4
57.8
68.6
43.6
59.4
53.2
69.5
39.1
57.3
57.6
68.3
42.2
59.7
56.9
68.1
42.2
63.3
58.6
70.0
43.8
61.5
63.7
72.0
44.5
59.4
59.1
71.7
41.8
62.1
... 55.4
57.0
53.7
57.5
51.8
56.1
59.1
56.0
53.2
55.3
55.4
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census: Current Population Reports, P-60, Nos. 53, 51, 47, 43, 41, 39, 37, 35, 33, 30, and 27.
135
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
Selected
major occupation group
136
WOMEN’S INCOME AND EARNINGS
lion women in the former group was $4,026, while that of the 2.7
million who worked part time the year round was only $1,504.
Table 60.—Median Income of Women Workers
Work Experience
in
1966,
by
(Women 14 years of age and over)
Women with full-time
jobs1
Work experience
50
40
27
14
13
Total
to 52 weeks
to 49 weeks ________
to 39 weeks____ _ ....... ......
to 26 weeks ____ _ _.
weeks or less ___
Women with part-time
jobs 1 3
2
Numbers
Median
income
Number2
Median
income
22,657,000
13,225,000
2,362,000
2,205,000
2,336,000
2,529,000
$3,160
4,026
3,042
2,243
1,335
497
8,943,000
2,710,000
935,000
1,150,000
1,701,000
2,447,000
$ 827
1,504
1,286
996
605
372
1 Worked 35 hours or more a week.
2 Worked less than 35 hours a week.
3 Refers to women with income and includes members of the Armed Forces.
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census: Current Population Reports,
P-60, No. 53.
61. Wage or Salary Income of White and Nonwhite
Women
The median wage or salary income of nonwhite women who
worked full time year round in 1966 was $2,949 (table 61). This
was about three-fourths (71 percent) of the median income of
white women, and an improvement over past years. The gap in in
come between the white and nonwhite groups had narrowed more
significantly for women than for men during the 27 years since
1939, when nonwhite women received less than two-fifths (38
percent) as much as white women. In contrast, the gap for men
narrowed by only 18 percentage points. The median income of
nonwhite men who worked year round full time was 63 percent of
white men’s in 1966; it was 45 percent in 1939.
The gap between the income of nonwhite and white women
workers is explained largely by the greater occupational concen
tration of nonwhite women in low-wage and low-skill jobs and
their geographical concentration in Southern States, where in
comes are lower than in other regions of the country. Some prog
ress has been made, however, in raising the educational and skill
levels of nonwhite girls and in Opening up employment opportuni
ties to them.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
137
Table 61.—Median Wage or Salary Income of Year-Round Full-Time
Workers, by Sex and Color, 1939 and 1956-66
(Persons 14 years of age and over)
Median wage or
salary income
--------------------------------------White
Nonwhite
Year
Nonwhite
income as
percent of
white income
WOMEN
1966
1965
1964
1963
1962
1961
1960
1959 ______
1958
1957 _____
1956
$4,152
3,991
3,859
3,723
3,601
3,480
3,410
3,306
3,225
3,107
2,958
71.0
70.6
69.3
63.6
63.3
66.8
69.6
66.4
61.6
60.1
55.3
863
1939
$2,949
2,816
2,674
2,368
2,278
2,325
2,372
2,196
1,988
1,866
1,637
327
37.9
$7,164
6,704
6,497
6,277
6,025
5,880
5,662
5,456
5,186
4,950
4,710
1,419
$4,528
4,277
4,285
4,104
3,799
3,883
3,789
3,339
3,368
3,137
2,912
639
63.2
63.8
66.0
65.4
63.1
66.0
66.9
61.2
64.9
63.4
61.8
45.0
MEN
1966
1965
_
1964
1963
1962
1961
1960 ________________
1959
1958
1957
1956
1939 ....
_
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census: Current Population Reports,
P-60, Nos. 63, 61, 47, 43, 41, 39, 37, 36, 33, 30, and 27.
Nonwhite women are also in an unfavorable income position
relative to nonwhite men. Among full-time year-round workers,
the 1966 median wage or salary income of nonwhite women was
only 65 percent of that of nonwhite men. This was, however,
slightly better than the proportion (58 percent) that the median
wage or salary income of all women was of that of all men.
62. Income by Age
When women’s income is analyzed in terms of the ages of the
women involved, important differences are found in the propor
tions who receive income as well as in the amount received.
138
women’s income and earnings
In 1966 the age group with the greatest proportion receiving
income (83 percent) was that of women 65 years and over.3 This
proportion, which increased sharply during the 1950’s and early
1960’s, reflects the rising number of women who receive social se
curity benefits and private or public pensions. The next highest
proportion (70 percent) was among young women 20 to 24 years
of age. Among women 25 to 64 years of age, the proportions re
ceiving income in 1966 ranged from 54 to 64 percent. Only 46 per
cent of girls 14 to 19 years of age received some income.
In amount, the median income of women rose sharply from
?423 for girls 14 to 19 years old to $2,126 for the young adult
group 20 to 24 years old. Among women 25 to 54 years of age, it
increased only moderately, to a peak of $2,758 for those 45 to 54
years old; then it dropped to $2,214 for women 55 to 64 years old,
and finally to $1,085 for women 65 years and over. Men’s peak in
come ($7,305) was received by those 35 to 44 years old.
63. Income by Occupation
The wage or salary income of women and men is obviously in
fluenced by the type of job they hold. Occupations that require
greater skills and more knowledge naturally pay better than
those that involve only routine duties. Among women who were
year-round full-time workers in 1966, the highest medians were
paid to professional and technical workers ($5,826) and nonfarm
managers, officials, and proprietors ($4,919) (table 62). In the
clerical field, where nearly 1 out of 3 women workers was em
ployed, the median was still relatively high ($4,316). On the
other hand, women working as operatives earned only about
three-fifths as much as women professional workers, and women
sales and service workers outside the home earned about half as
much as the most skilled group of women. At the low end of the
wage or salary income scale, women private household workers
averaged only $1,297 even when they worked full time the year
round.
64. Income by Education
There is a definite correlation between educational accom
plishment and income among both women and men: those with
the least schooling have the lowest incomes, and those with the
most formal education have the highest. The pattern shown pre3 U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census: Current Population Reports, P-60,
No, 63.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
139
viously, however, when the income and earnings of women and
men were compared is repeated here: at all levels of educational
attainment the median income received by women is substantially
below the median income of men.
Table 62.—Median
Workers,
Wage
by
or
Salary Income
of
Year-Round Full-Time
Major Occupation Group
and
Sex,
1966
(Persons 14 years of age and over)
Major occupation group
Professional, technical workers $6,826
Managers, officials, proprietors (except farm) ______
Clerical workers __________________________
Sales workers
3,103
Craftsmen, foremen
Operatives-------------------------------------------------Nonfarm laborers
Private workers (except private household) __ _____
Service household workers ________________
Farmers, farm managers
Farm laborers, foremen___
Women
4,919
4,346
Men
$8,945
9,103
4,316 6,487
7,669
7,197
3,416 6,112
(J)
4,946
C)
2,815 1,297 5,078
(*)
1,229
(*)2,4891 * * * 5
1 Median not shown where base is less than 75,000.
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census: Current Population Reports,
P-60, No. 53.
Among the 34 million women 25 years of age and over who re
ceived some money income in 1966, those with 5 years of college
or more had the highest median income ($6,114) (chart Q).
Women who had completed 4 years of college had only 68 percent
($4,165) of the median income of those with first professional de
grees or at least a year of graduate study, and women high school
graduates had only 64 percent ($2,673) of the median income of
those who had completed 4 years of college. Women with 8 years
of schooling had only 53 percent ($1,404) of the median income
of high school graduates.
A comparison of the median income received by women and
men with equal amounts of schooling shows that generally the
more education women liave the more nearly their income ap
proaches that of men. Thus among women and men who had com
pleted only 8 years of school, women’s median income in 1966 was
only 31 percent of men’s; among those with 4 years of high school
but no college, women’s median income was 39 percent of men’s;
and among those who had completed 4 years of college, women’s
median income was 43 percent of men’s. The income of women with
5 years of college or more came closest (61 percent) to that of
men.
140
WOMEN’S INCOME AND EARNINGS
EDUCATION AND EARNING POWER GO TOGETHER
Women 25 Years ol Age and Over
Median Income
Elementary School
High School
College
$6,114
eoooi—
5000 —
$4,165
4,000
-
3,000 —
2,000
$2,673
$2,827
$1,913
—
$1,404
Less than 8 years
8 years1
1-3 years 4 years
1-3 years 4 years
5 years
or more
Includes women reporting no school years completed
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census.
The one exception to the general rule was that women with less
than 8 years of schooling received a higher proportion of men’s in
come (86 percent) than did those who had completed 8 years.
This may be accounted for in part by the fact that many women
who have not finished elementary school are 65 years of age and
over and are probably receiving social security benefits. (See sec.
65 for women receiving OASDI benefits.) Of the women with
less than 8 years of education at the time of the 1960 decennial
census, more than 2 out of 5 of those 25 years of age and over
who had income were at least 65 years old.
A comparison of the income of women and men by educational
attainment and color shows that in 1966 nonwhite women re
ceived less than white women, nonwhite men, and white men at
each educational level, with one exception: among those with
some college, the median income of nonwhite women was higher
than that of white women—$3,964 as compared with $3,519 (table
63). This is probably accounted for by the fact that non white
women who have attended college have a stronger attachment to
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
141
the labor force than do white women with this much education.4
The gap between the incomes of nonwhite women and men was
less than that between white women and men. But irrespective of
color, the gap narrowed as the number of years of school com
pleted increased. Thus among nonwhites with an elementary school
education or less, the median income in 1966 of women was
only 38 percent of that of men; among those with a high school
education (no college), 48 percent; and among those with some
college education, 67 percent. The comparable percentages for
white women in relation to white men were 33, 38, and 39, re
spectively.
Table
63.—Median Income
in
1966 or Persons,
Attainment, Sex,
and
by
Educational
Color
(Persons 25 years of age and over)
Men
Women
Educational attainment
Total
White
Total ______ ___ .. $1,926 $1,988
White Nonwhite
Nonwhite
Total
$1,561
$6,128
$6,390
$3,665
Elementary school ______
Less than 8 years ___ _ _
8 years _____ . _ _ _ ..
1,190
1,009
1,404
1,236
1,055
1,416
993
932
1,303
3,488
2,784
4,518
3,731
2,945
4,611
2,632
2,376
3,681
High school __________ __
1 to 3 years ._.
4 years .
___ _ _ _
2,368
1,913
2,673
2,421
1,960
2,700
2,057
1,698
2,475
6,576
5,982
6,924
6,736
6,189
7,068
4,725
4,278
5,188
College ____________
__
1 to 3 years _______ -.
4 years ___________ - 6 years or more ___ _ _
3,569
2,827
4,165
6,114
3,519
(*)
o
(l)
3,964
o
o
(*)
8,779
7,709
9,728
10,041
9,023
0)
<‘>
o
5,928
o
o
n
1 Not available.
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census: Current Population Reports,
P-60, No. 53.
65. Wo men Receiving Benefits
Women are paid benefits under the Railroad Retirement Act,
civil service retirement system, State and local government retire
ment systems, the uniformed services retirement system, and
workmen’s compensation. Some women also receive benefits under
unemployment insurance, State disability laws, public assistance,
private retirement systems, and other programs. However, by far
the most widespread protection for women is the benefits paid
4 U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service: “Graduates
of Predominantly Negro Colleges, Class of 1964.” Pub. 1671. 1967.
142
women’s income and earnings
under Federal old-age, survivors, disability, and health insurance.
Some women receive retirement income from more than one
source, and some receive some employment income as well as re
tirement benefits. For many, however, social security benefits are
the chief source of income they can count on.
The Social Security Act of 1935, as amended, provides for par
tial replacement of income lost when employment is cut off be
cause of age, disability, or death. The social security program is
financed through a tax on workers and their employers and on
self-employed persons, and is administered by the Federal Gov
ernment. A series of amendments to the original act have ex
tended its coverage, increased benefit amounts, expanded the
classes of dependents who qualify as beneficiaries, protected the
benefit rights of certain workers who suffer long term disability,
and added health insurance (medicare) benefits. Disabled insured
workers whose disability is expected to last for at least 12 months
are eligible for benefits for themselves and their families, begin
ning with the seventh month of their disability.
Under the 1965 amendments, workers or widows who attained
age 72 before 1969 and who had earnings credits for more than
one-half year of covered work but less than that normally re
quired to qualify for a benefit were considered as transitionally
insured and were given a special minimum benefit, which was less
than the statutory minimum for regular workers. The 1966
amendments provided similar special benefits for workers with
less or no past earnings under social security, but reduced this
benefit by the amount of pensions, retirement benefits, or annui
ties received from any other government system. In addition, the
special payment is suspended for any month for which the benefi
ciary gets payments under a federally aided public assistance pro
gram.
The 1967 amendments to the Social Security Act provided for
an across-the-board increase in cash benefits of at least 13 percent
beginning February 1968 and an increase in the minimum pri
mary insurance amount from $44 to $55. The average monthly
benefit paid to all retired workers (with or without dependents)
already on the rolls was increased from $86 to $98. Monthly bene
fits range from the new minimum of $55 to a maximum of $156
for workers with highest taxable earnings who began to draw
benefits at age 65. The increase from $6,600 to $7,800 (effective
January 1, 1968) in the amount of annual earnings that is taxa
ble and that can be used in the benefit computation results in an
ultimate maximum monthly benefit of $218, based on average
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
143
monthly earnings of $650. The special payments to people aged 72
and older were raised from $35 to $40 a month for one person
(including widows) and from $52.50 to $60 a month for a couple.
Eligibility for benefits was extended for disabled survivors, dis
abled workers, dependents of women workers, servicemen, and
others. New benefits under medicare were also added. While so
cial security benefits were liberalized under the 1967 law, revised
welfare amendments placed new restrictions on aid to families
with dependent children, including a requirement that welfare re
cipients, with certain exceptions, take jobs or work training. This
work requirement applies only where adequate day care facilities
are available. (For further information on the Work Incentive
Program, see sec. 93.)
Under the 1967 amendments the amount that retired workers
under age 72 can earn in covered employment without a decrease
in benefits was raised from $1,500 to $1,680. Beginning with age
72 current earnings do not affect benefits.
Women may benefit from the Social Security Act in their own
right as workers, or they may benefit as aged wives of retired or
disabled workers, as widows, disabled daughters, or dependent
mothers of insured workers, or as young wives or widows, if they
have children of insured workers in their care. Certain divorced
women also are eligible for benefits, as are certain students be
tween the ages of 18 and 22.
A woman worker qualifies for retirement benefits if she is fully
insured. How long she must work to be fully insured depends on
when she was born—the older she is, the less time she needs to
have worked under social security. The minimum requirement is
three-fourths of a year of work under social security for a
woman born before 1895. A woman born in 1929 or later needs a
total of 10 years’ work under social security to qualify for retire
ment benefits. The period over which her average earnings are
computed can begin in 1937 or 1951, depending upon which re
sults in a higher benefit.
About 11.4 million women received benefits under the old-age,
survivors, and disability insurance programs of the Social Secur
ity Administration in 1966 (table 64). Women accounted for 60
percent of the adults who received some type of benefit.
The 4.6 million women beneficiaries who were retired workers
62 years of age and over received average monthly benefits of
$70.79. Another 2.6 million beneficiaries who were widows 62
years and over without children received average monthly bene
fits of $74.11. The third largest group of beneficiaries were wives
Table
64.—Number
of
Women Receiving OASDI Benefits
Benefits Received,
by
Color, End
of
and
Average Monthly
>tx
1966
Average
monthly
benefits
Number
Average
monthly
benefits
Beneficiaries
Number
Total
------------------------------------------------------Retirees 62 years and over--------------------------------------Wives of retirees, with dependent children1---------------Wives (62 years and over) of retirees, without depen
dent children2----------------------------------------------------Widows, without children3 -------------------- ------------------Widows, with dependent children -----------------------------Parents 4
Disabled:
Own disability
Wives of disabled workers, with dependent children
Wives of disabled workers, without dependent chil
dren --------------Women with special age-72 benefits --------------------------Wives of special age-72 beneficiaries -------------------------
11,418,853
4,624,100
171,223
$70.79
32.64
835,281
361,412
31,696
$56.14
23.97
2,458,819
2,599,178
487,755
32,334
44.60
74.11
65.57
77.10
118,514
144,300
87,141
3,422
33.97
60.61
48.60
67.25
288,930
186,536
85.46
34.06
41,833
29,785
70.11
25.25
32,513
519,640
17,825
37.20
34.93
17.49
2,975
13,816
387
32.99
34.94
17.46
1 Dependent children include unmarried children under 18 years or between 18 and 22 if they are full-time students; also, unmarried disabled children
of any age whose disability began before their 18th birthday. A wife with dependent children may be under 62 years and receive full benefits, which are
50 percent of the retiree’s amount.
.
,
2 If a wife without dependent children is under 65 years at the time of her husband's retirement, she receives reduced benefits; if she is 65, she
receives full benefits, which are 50 percent of the retiree's amount.
3 A widow receives 82.5 percent of the deceased spouse's benefit amount.
4 The dependent parent of a deceased insured worker may receive benefits at any age, 62 or over. If there is only one surviving parent, he or
she gets 82.5 percent of the benefit amount; if both parents survive, each gets 75 percent of the benefit amount.
Source: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Social Security Administration: “Annual Statistical Supplement, 1966.
w o m e n ’s in c o m e and ea rn in g s
Nonwhite
Total
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
145
of retirees 62 years and over without dependent children; they
numbered 2.5 million and received average benefits of $44.60.
In 1966, 288,930 disabled women workers were receiving aver
age monthly benefits of $85.46. In addition, about 219,000 wives
of disabled workers were receiving benefits. About 85 percent of
these beneficiaries were mothers; their monthly benefits averaged
$34.06.
Nonwhite women were 7 percent of all women beneficiaries and
numbered 835,281. Their average monthly benefits ranged from
$17.46 to $70.11.
As a result of the 1956 amendment to the Social Security Act
that lowered the retirement age for women from 65 to 62 years,
there has been an increase in the number of women applying for
benefit^, even though early retirement means permanently re
duced benefits. By the close of 1966, 50 percent of the women who
were drawing benefits as retired workers had taken an actuar
ially reduced benefit. Of the women drawing benefits as dependent
wives of retired workers at the end of 1966, the proportion with
actuarially reduced benefits was 57 percent.
As of January 1, 1967, 98.3 million of the 125.0 million
workers then living were insured for retirement and/or survivor
benefits. Of these, 40 million (41 percent) were women.
A recent study of minimum social security retirement benefits
showed that among those whose earnings qualified them only for
minimum benefits, almost two-thirds were women.5 About threefourths of the women who were entitled to the minimum benefit
were receiving benefits actuarially reduced below the minimum
because they claimed benefits before age 65. Almost one-fourth of
the recipients of minimum benefits were also getting public assist
ance payments.
66. Women as Stockholders
Women’s participation in stockownership is another indicator
of their economic status. The more than 12 million women esti
mated to have one or more shares of stock in publicly owned cor
porations in 1966 represented 51 percent of individual sharehold
ers.
According to a study made in 1965, about 1 out of 6 women and
men in the adult population (21 years of age and over) was a
shareowner.6 Sixteen percent of all adult women were shareown
B U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Social Security Administration: Social
Security Bulletin, March 1967.
0 New York Stock Exchange: "Shareownership—U.S.A,: 1965 Census of Shareowners."
June 1965.
146
women’s income and earnings
ers compared with 17 percent of adult men. Women constituted 33
percent of the total stockholders of record reported by public cor
porations. The number of shares owned individually by women
stockholders equaled 18 percent of the total as compared with 24
percent owned individually by men. The remaining 58 percent
were held or owned by institutions, brokers and dealers, persons
with joint accounts, nominees (who hold shares for others), and
foreign owners. The estimated market value of the stock regis
tered in women’s names was 18 percent of the total compared
with 20 percent for stock registered in men’s names.
The likelihood of shareownership increases with the amount of
formal education. In 1965 only 1 out of 18 adults with 3 years of
high school or less was a shareowner. In contrast, 1 out of 7 adult
high school graduates and 3 out of 5 adult college graduates were
shareowners. Among women shareowners 1 out of 4 had grad
uated from college.
The highest incidence by occupation of shareownership in 1965
occurred among people employed in professional and technical oc
cupations—in this group almost 2 out of 5 were shareowners.
Among those employed as managers, officials, and proprietors,
nearly 1 out of 3 owned shares; among those in clerical and sales
work, about 1 out of 5.
The largest single group of shareowners in 1965 were women
not in the labor force; that is, housewives, retired women, widows,
and other women living alone. The nearly 6.4 million such women
who were shareowners accounted for about 35 percent of the total
number of individual shareowners and about 17 percent of the
women not in the labor force.
Among adults who became shareowners for the first time be
tween 1962 and 1965, about 52 percent were women. Twenty-nine
percent of all the new shareowners were women not in the labor
force.
Earnings of Nonprofessional Women Workers
67. Earnings of Office Workers
The main source of salary information for women engaged in
clerical work is the Bureau of Labor Statistics’ community wage
surveys conducted regularly in 85 important centers of business
and industry. These reports show average earnings for major office
occupations and the number of workers in specified salary group
ings.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
147
Among women clerical workers surveyed in 14 office jobs in 17
selected standard metropolitan statistical areas during the fiscal
year July 1967 to June 1968, secretaries received the highest sal
aries in most areas. Their average weekly earnings ranged from
$95 in Memphis to $127 in Los Angeles-Long Beach (table 65).
Average earnings of class A accounting clerks, which exceeded
those of secretaries in Kansas City, Memphis, and Portland, Ore
gon, ranged from $98 a week in Dallas to $120.50 in San Francisco-Oakland. Senior stenographers’ weekly salaries averaged a low
of $93 in Minneapolis-St. Paul and a high of $113 in Los An
geles-Long Beach. Office girls were among the lowest paid clerical
workers studied, with weekly salaries ranging from $66 in Dallas
and Minneapolis-St. Paul to $84 in San Francisco-Oakland. The
widest spreads in average weekly earnings, in addition to secre
taries, were among Comptometer operators—from a low of $77.50
in Birmingham and Memphis to a high of $111.50 in San Francis
co-Oakland—and payroll clerks—from a low of $87.50 in Mem
phis to a high of $118.50 in San Francisco-Oakland.
Although men represent less than 3 out of 10 of all clerical
workers, their average earnings are usually higher than those
of women clerical workers. This does not mean that women are
paid less than men for equal work. Industries and establishments
differ in pay level and job staffing. Moreover, there may be differ
ences among employees in specific duties performed and length of
service.
Men’s average weekly earnings were substantially higher than
those of women among class A and class B accounting clerks and
payroll clerks in all 17 selected metropolitan areas. The weekly
salary differential between the earnings of women and men ranged
from $11 to $37 for class A accounting clerks, from $8 to $30.50
for class B accounting clerks, and from $7 to $30.50 for payroll
clerks.
In most cities office boys received higher salaries than office
girls. The greatest salary differential was in Seattle-Everett,
where office girls earned $73 a week and office boys $87.50. How
ever, in San Francisco-Oakland office girls averaged $3.50 a week
more than office boys.
68. Earnings in Selected Manufacturing Industries
Detailed information on a nationwide basis and/or on an area
basis is available with respect to women’s earnings in selected
manufacturing and service industries periodically surveyed by
148
Table 65.—Average
Weekly Earnings1
of
Women
in
Selected Office Occupations,
17
Metropolitan Areas, July
1967-
Metropolitan
area
Secre
taries
Atlanta ___
$113.00
Birmingham ___ 108.00
Boston ________ 108.50
Buffalo ________ 114.00
Chicago _______ 118.00
Cleveland ._ .. 116.60
Dallas ___ ___
105.50
Kansas City ___ 107.50
Los AngelesLong Beach - _ 127.00
Memphis ______
95.00
MinneapolisSt. Paul _____ 104.00
New York City _ 123.00
Philadelphia ___ 115.50
Pittsburgh _____ 114.50
Portland (Oreg.)_ 109.50
San FranciscoOakland ____ 122.00
Seattle-Everett . - 120.00
Account- Bookkeeping
ing
machine
Stenog
clerks,
operators, raphers,
class A
class A
senior
Payroll
clerks
Typists,
class A
Comptom
eter
opera
tors
Keypunch
operators,
class A
Account
ing
clerks,
class B
Switch
board
operators,
class A 2
$112.00
107.50
102.50
112.50
112.50
112.00
98.00
109.00
$ 93.00
96.00
94.50
98.50
108.00
102.50
90.00
99.00
$109.50
106.50
96.60
106.00
108.00
105.00
101.00
99.50
$ 97.00
88.60
90.50
102.00
106.00
99.50
96.50
98.00
$ 88.50
83.00
86.00
90.50
96.00
91.00
80.50
86.60
$ 93.50
77.50
84.50
82.50
94.50
93.00
84.00
88.50
$105.00
86.50
90.00
99.00
102.00
97.50
90.00
93.50
$ 90.50
83.00
82.00
88.00
93.00
85.50
85.00
83.00
$102.00
93.00
93.60
103.00
103.00
106.00
89.00
99.00
119.00
98.50
111.50
87.00
113.00
97.00
115.50
87.50
97.50
83.00
108.50
77.50
113.00
86.50
97.50
80.50
100.00
112.50
104.00
112.50
110.50
99.50
109.00
99.50
97.00
103.50
93.00
106.50
99.50
99.50
100.00
94.50
107.50
91.00
102.50
101.00
82.50
94.50
90.00
86.50
91.00
88.50
98.50
86.00
95.50
100.50
88.00
101.00
94.50
97.00
97.00
120.50
107.50
115.50
100.50
111.00
118.50
104.50
93.50
95.00
111.50
102.50
111.00
105.00
100.0#
Office
girls
File
clerks,
class B
$ 78.60
72.00
76.60
77.00
84.50
79.00
72.00
71.50
$ 75.00
68.00
69.00
69.50
78.00
72.00
66.00
70.50
$ 77.00
68.50
71.00
76.50
83.00
75.50
68.00
74.50
113.00
91.60
89.50
68.00
83.00
67.00
82.00
69.50
81.00
90.00
81.00
89.00
88.50
90.00
105.00
97.60
102.00
95.50
73.00
83.50
73.00
79.00
79.00
66.00
74.00
68.50
71.00
71.00
72.50
83.00
72.00
77.60
82.00
100.50
90.50
103.60
106.50
84.00
79.50
84.00
73.00
79.50
85.50
Typists,
class B
1 Straight-time earnings for standard workweek.
2 Operating a switchboard in a plant or office.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: “Occupational Earnings and Wage Trends in Metropolitan Areas, 1967-68.” Summary
Releases.
WOMEN’S INCOME AND EARNINGS
June 1968
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
149
the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Area-centered wage surveys
rather than industrywide surveys sometimes are conducted in
manufacturing industries that are highly concentrated in a few
areas of the country.
Cotton textiles.—The largest of the textile industries, cotton
textiles, in September 1965 employed 82,836 women, who consti
tuted 38 percent of all workers in that industry (table 66). A
comparison with the wage survey conducted in May 1963 indi
cates that the proportion of women employed had not changed,
despite an overall decrease in employment in the cotton textile in
dustry. Since 94 percent of the workers were located in the
Southeast, women’s average hourly earnings in the Nation ($1.67)
in September 1965 were the same as in the Southeast. The 2,670
women workers located in New England averaged $1.73 in hourly
earnings.
Numerically, the major jobs held in this industry by women
were those of ring-frame spinner, yarn winder, weaver, and bat
tery hand. Almost all of the ring-frame spinners, yarn winders,
and battery hands were women. Their average hourly earnings
were about the same as those of men, except in the case of women
battery hands whose average hourly earnings ($1.56) were
slightly higher than those of men in this occupation ($1.48).
Slightly more than half (52 percent) of the weavers were women
in 1965. Their proportion had risen from 49 percent in 1963,
even though there was a decrease in the total number of weavers
employed in the industry. Weavers were the highest paid workers
—women weavers averaged $1.99 (men $2.02) nationwide and
$1.99 (men $2.01) in the Southeast.
Differences in average pay levels between women and men re
sult partly from variations in the sex composition of the work
force in plants and in jobs with different pay levels. Almost
three-fifths (59 percent) of the women, for example, were em
ployed in four occupations (battery hand, cloth inspector, spin
ner, and winder) that require less skill than the jobs typically
held by men (card grinder, loom fixer, and maintenance machin
ist). Although men and women were employed in about equal
numbers as weavers, they were to some extent tending the opera
tion of different types of looms. Men accounted for three-fourths
of the Jacquard loom weavers (the highest paid of the weavers
—$2.19 for men, $2.09 for women), whereas nearly three-fifths
(58 percent) of the plain loom weavers (the lowest paid weavers
—$1.98 for men, $1.97 for women) were women.
Between 1963 and 1965, women made inroads into several of
150
WOMEN’S INCOME AND EARNINGS
Table 66.—Averagk Hourly Earnings 1
Cotton
Textile
Industry,
Region, September
by
Sex,
in
Selected Occupations
United
States
and
in
the
Southeast
1965
Occupation
Number
----------------------Women
Men
Women as
percent of
total
employed
Average hourly
earnings
-----------------------Women Men
United States_______
82,836
136,641
37.7
$1.67
$1.78
Battery hands
Electricians, maintenance
Grinders, card___ - _ _ Inspectors, cloth, machine___
Loom fixers _ _
- .Machinists, maintenance ___
Spinners, ring-frame __
Warper tenders _ _ ___ _ _
Weavers _______
______
Winders, yarn ____ __ _ _
Southeast __ ______
9,261
463
687
1,746
831
10,331
1,160
186
714
9,242
200
128,342
95.2
1.56
__
__
84.6
. __
__
1.62
1.48
2.21
2.03
1.69
2.27
2.18
<*>
1.74
2.02
1.74
1.78
Battery hands
_______ _ _
Electricians, maintenance
Grinders, card
Inspectors, cloth, machine
Loom fixers...... ....... ..........
Machinists, maintenance
_
Spinners, ring-frame _ _____
Warper tenders ____
Weavers
_
. _
Winders, yarn _
_
__
__
4,570
__
__
18,776
1,081
9,833
16,602
77,704
8,710
__
__
4,291
__
<2)
968
9,141
15,457
440
655
1,672
736
9,672
1,106
C>
676
8,634
160
__
__
99.0
60.2
51.5
98.8
37.7
«
1.69
1.99
1.63
1.67
95.2
1.56
__
__
__
1.63
85.4
..
..
(s)
58.9
51.4
99.0
__
o
1.71
1.99
1.63
1.48
2.21
2.03
1.69
2.27
2.19
C)
1.72
2.01
1.72
1 Excludes premium pay for overtime and for work on weekends, holidays, and late shifts.
2 Not available.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: “Industry Wage Survey—
Cotton Textiles, September 1965.” Bull. 1506. July 1966.
the predominantly masculine occupations in the cotton textile in
dustry, such as card tender, slasher tender, slubber tender,
comber tender, and twister tender. However, no women were em
ployed in either 1963 or 1965 in plant maintenance work, as loom
fixers, machinists, and electricians—the highest paid occupations
in the industry.
Synthetic textiles.—The 40,571 women employed by plants en
gaged in the manufacture of synthetic textiles in September 1965
were 40 percent of all workers in this industry as compared with
39 percent in May 1963. In 1965 women averaged $1.63 an hour
(men $1.82) (table 67). Seventy percent of the women in this in
dustry were located in the Southeast. Their main occupations
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
151
were yarn winder and ring-frame spinner, and they constituted
almost all of the workers in these occupations. Women also held a
large proportion of the machine cloth inspector and battery hand
jobs. Women’s hourly earnings were either a little lower than or
the same as men’s with two exceptions: average hourly earnings
of women battery hands in the Nation were $1.54 as compared
with $1.53 for men; of women yarn winders in the Southeast,
$1.61 as compared with $1.60 for men. One of the highest paid oc
cupations was weaver. Women weavers in the Nation averaged
$2.06 (men $2.13).
Table 67.—Average Hourly Earnings1
the
Synthetic Textile Industry,
Region, September
by
in
Selected Occupations in
Sex, United States and Southeast
1966
Women as
percent of
Number
Occupation
United States __
Battery hands___
Electricians, maintenance __
Inspectors, cloth, machine__
Loom fixers __
Machinists, maintenance ___
Spinners, ring-frame
Twister tenders, ring-frame _.
Weavers ______
Winders, yarn
Southeast__ _ __
Women
40,671
1,885
Battery hands _____
Electricians, maintenance__
Inspectors, cloth, machine__
Loom fixers
Machinists, maintenance ___
Spinners, ring-frame _ _
_
Twister tenders, ring-frame _
Weavers _
_
Winders, yarn _
1,446
2,722
4,399
2,659
2,925
12,263
28,300
Men
59,782
480
252
543
5,240
348
435
1,242
6,349
287
45,679
—
total
employed
40.4
79.7
Average hourly
earnings
—
Women Men
$1.63 $1.82
1.54
83.4
1.60
91.0
68.2
31.5
97.7
38.3
1.67
1.56
2.06
1.60
1.62
86.8
1.54
1.53
2.18
1.71
2.39
2.21
1.73
1.65
2.13
1.60
1.78
83.3
1.60
3,769
1,366
1,641
220
203
374
3,433
302
363
1,090
4,162
91.2
55.6
28.3
1.66
1.58
2.04
1.54
2.14
1.71
2.36
2.18
1.73
1.66
2.09
8,622
107
98.8
1.61
1.60
1,862
1 Excludes premium pay for overtime and for work on weekends, holidays, and late shifts.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: “Industry Wage Survey—
Synthetic Textiles, September 1966.” Bull. 1509. June 1966.
The difference in the average earnings of women and men in
this industry varied among the regions. It amounted to 16 cents
in the Southeast, 25 cents in New England, and 36 cents in the
Middle Atlantic Region. Differences in average pay levels between
women and men are partly the result of the distribution of plant
152
women’s income and earnings
employees by sex and among jobs with divergent pay levels. Dif
ferences in averages in the same job and area may reflect minor
differences in duties. Women tend to be concentrated in the less
skilled and lower paying occupations with the exception of weav
ers. However, fewer women than men are Jacquard loom or box
loom weavers, who are the most highly paid weavers. The propor
tion of women box loom weavers declined between 1963 and 1965
from 34 to 23 percent. At the same time the percentage of women
Jacquard loom weavers rose from 22 to 24 percent. Among the
best paid workers in the synthetic textile industry are those in
plant maintenance, as loom fixers, electricians, and machinists. In
1965 all of these workers were men.
Women’s and misses’ dresses.—Wage data were collected in
March 1966 from plants manufacturing women’s and misses’
dresses in 11 metropolitan areas. About 56 percent of the nearly
89,000 production workers (both sexes) covered in the wage sur
vey were in New York City. Women production workers in New
York numbered 36,817 and received the highest average hourly
earnings for women—$2.46; more than two-fifths were paid $2.50
or more an hour (table 68). They received their lowest hourly
earnings in Dallas ($1.60). The proportion of women paid less
than $1.40 an hour was 38 percent in Dallas—a much larger per
centage than in any of the other centers surveyed.
Table 68.—Average Hourly Earnings 1
Dress Industry,
by
in the Women’s and Misses’
Sex, 11 Metropolitan Areas, March 1966
Metropolitan area
Boston . _. _
Chicago ___
Dallas
Fall River-New Bedford
Los Angeles-Long Beach and
Anaheim-Santa AnaGarden Grove
Newark-Jersey City
New York City
.
Paterson-Clifton-Passaic
Philadelphia
St. Louis _ __
Wilkes-Barre-Hazelton „
Percent of women
receiving—
Number of
women
production
workers
Women
1,582
1,761
2,509
5,951
$2.05
1.94
1.60
1.97
$3.44
2.86
1.88
2.16
8.1
7.6
38.0
3.6
21.4
13.3
3.0
15.4
5,208
3,575
36,817
1,600
3,878
1,757
7,139
2.07
2.30
2.46
2.30
2.08
2.00
1.88
2.84
3.01
3.50
4.19
2.70
2.64
2.01
11.5
6.4
3.0
2.6
4.5
3.3
4.6
21.7
32.6
42.8
32.2
21.3
14.2
11.4
Average hourly
earnings
Men
$2.50
Under
$1.40 and over
1 Excludes premium pay for overtime and for work on weekends, holidays, and late shifts.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: “Industry Wage Survey—
Women’s and Misses’ Dresses, March 1966.” Bull. 1538. December 1966.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
153
In all areas women dominated the work force, but the ratio of
women to men varied substantially. Women outnumbered men by
at least 10 to 1 in Fall River-New Bedford, Newark-Jersey City,
and St. Louis, whereas the ratios in Boston and New York were
about 5 to 1 and 3 to 1, respectively.
Women had lower average earnings than men in all centers
surveyed. The difference was smallest in Wilkes-Barre-Hazelton
(women $1.88, men $2.01) and greatest in Paterson-CliftonPassaic (women $2.30, men $4.19). Women’s lower average earn
ings reflect the employment of numerous women in the lower paid
jobs of examiner, thread trimmer, and work distributor. Virtu
ally all thread trimmers are women, and they are the lowest paid
workers in most areas. More than nine-tenths of the sewing
machirie operators in each area were women. Women were also
predominant in all of the other occupations except cutter and
marker in each area and presser in a few areas. Hand pressers
and cutters and markers are the most highly paid workers in the
industry, and most of these workers are men. Despite the predom
inance of women workers in dress manufacturing, few women
have become cutters; and those who have become pressers earn
lower wages than do men pressers.
The earnings variations among the areas partly reflect differ
ences in market influences and manufacturing processes. In New
York, for example, the single hand tailor system of sewing is pre
dominant, while in Dallas, which had the lowest average earn
ings, the section system is predominant. In all areas but one, av
erage hourly earnings were higher for single hand sewing mach
ine operators than for section system operators. The difference
ranged from 19 to 43 cents an hour.
69. Earnings in Selected Service Industries
Wage surveys were made in 1966 and 1967 in three major serv
ice industries employing large numbers of women: hotels and
motels, laundries and cleaning services, and eating and drinking
places. In contrast to the geographical concentration of the manu
facturing industries discussed previously, service industries are
located in almost every city and town. Generally occupational av
erages were highest in Pacific Coast States and lowest in South
ern States.
Hotels and motels.—The wage survey of employees in selected
hotel occupations throughout the Nation indicated that the larg
est numbers of women were employed as chambermaids and wait
154
women’s income and earnings
resses. Virtually all chambermaids were women. Their average
hourly wages were slightly higher in metropolitan areas than in
the country as a whole. In metropolitan areas wages ranged from
$1.04 an hour in the South to $1.56 in the Northeast; in all areas
they ranged from $1.00 in the South to $1.51 in the Northeast
(table 69).
Table 69.—Average
Occupations,
by
Hourly Wages1 of Employees in Selected Hotel2
Region, United States and Metropolitan Areas, April
1967
Chambermaids
Average
hourly
wages
101,363
Northeast _________
South _______
North Central
__ .
West _ __ ___
Waitresses
Waiters
Number
Average
hourly
wages
Number
Average
hourly
wages
$1.25
47,536
$0.95
13,363
$0.98
22,817
36,197
21,697
20,752
1.51
1.00
1.23
1.45
11,750
13,994
11,411
10,381
.94
.70
.94
1.31
4,515
4,211
2,102
2,535
.97
.77
.95
1.39
Metropolitan
areas _ _ __
73,026
1.31
30,534
.98
11,065
1.03
Northeast
___
.
South __ _
.. _
North Central „
.
West ____________
17,943
23,356
15,302
16,425
1.56
1.04
1.25
1.49
6,276
8,652
6,930
8,676
.92
.68
.94
1.36
3,671
3,223
1,847
2,324
1.02
.80
.98
1.41
Region
United States
Number
1 Excludes tips and the value of free meals, room, and uniforms, as well as premium pay
for overtime and work on weekends, holidays, and late shifts. Includes service charges added
to customers’ bills and distributed to employees by employers.
2 Refers to year-round hotels, tourist courts, and motels.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: “Industry Wage Survey—
Hotels and Motels, April 1967.’’ Bull. 1587. April 1968.
Waitresses outnumbered waiters by more than 3 to 1. For the
country as a whole, average hourly wages of women in this occu
pation were lower than those of men by 3 cents. The differential
was greater in metropolitan areas, ranging from 4 cents in the
North Central Region to 12 cents in the South. In metropolitan
areas the average hourly wages of waitresses ranged from 68
cents in the South to $1.36 in the West; of waiters, from 80 cents
in the South to $1.41 in the West.
Laundry and cleaning services.—Women, who constituted
slightly more than three-fourths of the nonsupervisory inside
plant workers covered by a survey of this industry in April 1968,
received average hourly earnings of $1.56 compared with $2.04
for men (table 70). Regionally the difference in average earnings
Table 70.—Average Hourly
Services,2
by
Earnings 1
Sex, Region,
and
in
Laundry
Cleaning
and
1968
Occupation, April
(Nonsupervisory inside plant workers)
Women
-------------------------------------------
Average hourly
earnings
Percent of women
receiving—
-----------------------------
As percent of
total employed
77.4
Women
$1.56
Men
$2.04
Under
$1.15
0.9
Under
$1.30
30.2
Region:
Northeast ------ South -------------------------------------------------North Central
-West__ ___ ____ - - — -
74,900
126,600
94,100
46,600
68.2
81.5
81.2
76.6
1.72
1.36
1.59
1.78
2.23
1.67
2.12
2.22
.4
1.6
.9
.1
6.5
57.2
22.8
9.6
Occupation:
Assemblers
-- Clerks, retail receiving _ _ ------- ------ ------ - Finishers, flatwork, machine - _ _ ________ - Pressers, hand (drycleaning) _ _
---------Pressers, machine (drycleaning) ---------------- -Pressers, machine, shirts
—
Pressers, machine, wearing apparel (laundry) __
Tumbler operators
Washers, machine __ —
24,700
63,400
44,500
5,700
35,500
33,400
20,600
2,400
1,300
91.8
95.2
96.9
95.0
67.0
97.1
96.7
55.8
11.4
1.50
1.44
1.43
1.86
1.80
1.59
1.51
1.39
1.47
1.78
1.51
1.78
2.29
2.41
1.80
2.09
1.75
1.92
.6
1.3
.5
1.8
.6
.4
.8
1.2
31.7
36.0
42.1
15.5
22.0
26.8
34.7
44.6
38.1
--
1 Excludes premium pay for overtime and for work on weekends, holidays, and late shifts.
2 Includes linen supply and industrial launderers and dyeing and cleaning plants (except rug-cleaning).
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
—
Number
342,200
Region and occupation
United States
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Wage and Hour and Public Contracts Divisions: "Laundry and Cleaning Services—A Study of the Economic Ef
fects of the $1.15 Minimum Wage and 42-Hour Maximum Workweek Standards Under the Fair Labor Standards Act." Submitted to the Congress, 1969.
cn
156
women’s income and earnings
ranged from 31 cents in the South to 53 cents in the North Cen
tral Region. Differences in average pay levels for women and men
may be the result of several factors, including variation in the
distribution of the sexes among establishments and among jobs
with divergent pay levels.
Women predominated in most nonsupervisory occupations in
laundry and drycleaning establishments. They were at least 9 out
of 10 of all assemblers, retail receiving clerks, machine flatwork
finishers, hand pressers (drycleaning), machine shirt pressers,
and machine wearing apparel pressers (laundry).
Highest hourly earnings for women in this industry were re
ceived by hand pressers (drycleaning), $1.86, followed by ma
chine pressers (drycleaning), $1.80. Hourly earnings were con
siderably less for tumbler operators, $1.39; machine flatwork
finishers, $1.43; and retail receiving clerks, $1.44. Differentials
between the average hourly earnings of women and men ranged
from 7 cents for retail receiving clerks to 61 cents for machine
pressers (drycleaning).
Eating and drinking places.—A wage survey of eating and
drinking places in April 1967 indicated that in the establishments
surveyed more women were employed as waitresses than in all
other occupations combined. The average hourly wages nation
wide of waitresses, who outnumbered waiters by almost 9 to 1,
were 13 cents less than those of men (table 71). The wage gap in
metropolitan areas was 15 cents. The lowest paid waitresses in
metropolitan areas were in the South (76 cents an hour) ; the
highest, in the West ($1.36 an hour).
About 37,500, or 1 out of 4, dishwashers in the Nation were
women. Their average hourly wages were considerably less than
those of men in the occupation and ranged in metropolitan areas
from 83 cents in the South to $1.33 in the West. Comparable
wages for men ranged from $1.03 in the South to $1.51 in the
Northeast and West.
About 14,000 women were employed as bartenders. They consti
tuted 15 percent of all workers in this occupation. Women had av
erage hourly wages of $1.66 (men $2.12) in all areas and $1.69
(men $2.15) in metropolitan areas. Lowest average hourly wages
received by women bartenders in metropolitan areas were in the
South ($1.60); highest, in the Northeast and West ($1.76). Men’s
average hourly wages in metropolitan areas exceeded those of
women by 64 cents in the North Central Region and 67 cents in
the West,
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
Table 71.—Average Hourly Wages'
and
Drinking Places,
politan
Areas, April
by
Sex
and
157
Selected Occupations in Eating
Region, United States and Metro
in
1967
Bartenders
Region
Waiters or
waitresses
Average
hourly
Number wages
Number
Average
hourly
wages
Dishwashers
Number
Average
hourly
wages
WOMEN
United States ____
Northeast ______ ..
South _ ______ _ _ _ . _
North Central
West____ - __ _ . _ .
Metropolitan areas _ _
Northeast __ _ _ _ _ _
South
______ _ _
North Central ____ _
West______ _. ___
_
14,038
3,047
2,661
5,459
2,881
11,543
2,842
2,418
4,084
2,199
United States
__
Northeast ____ _____ _
South_______ _ _____
North Central . _. __
West „ _ _ ___ .
Metropolitan areas _
Northeast _ _ ________ _
South _ _ _ _ _ _
.
North Central _ _ _
West __ . ___
78,884
35,172
7,600
19,947
16,165
67,888
29,739
6,919
16,458
14,772
$1.66 509,444 $1.01
1.74 137,875
1.03
1.59 124,265
.77
.99
1.62 160,138
1.71
87,166 1.33
1.03
1.69 371,714
1.03
1.76 112,643
1.60
77,880
.76
1.01
1.66 109,226
1.76
71,965
1.36
37,523 $1.00
1.26
3,764
.79
14,652
15,374
1.07
1.32
3,733
19,939
1.09
1.27
2,884
.83
8,166
6,589
1.25
2,300
1.33
MEN
2.12
1.97
1.83
2.22
2.46
2.15
2.00
1.84
2.30
2.43
57,861
25,091
14,640
12,785
5,345
51,194
24,871
10,735
10,272
5,316
1.14 105,344
1.23
32,426
.81
24,023
1.24 24,982
1.36 23,913
1.18
87,911
1.23
28,902
.82
17,586
20,665
1.27
1.36 20,758
1.32
1.49
.99
1.23
1.49
1.36
1.51
1.03
1.24
1.51
1 Excludes tips and the value of free meals, room, and uniforms, as well as premium pay
for overtime and work on weekends, holidays, and late shifts. Includes service charges added
to customers’ bills and distributed to employees by employers.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: “Industry Wage Survey—
Eating and Drinking Places, April 1967." Bull. 1588. April 1968.
70. Earnings in Nonprofessional Hospital Occupations
A July 1966 survey of earnings and employment conditions of
selected hospital personnel covered all private and State and local
government hospitals throughout the Nation. The occupations for
which wage information was obtained included both professional
and nonprofessional staff. Salaries received by professional hospi
tal personnel are discussed in secs. 73 and 74.
Among the nearly 1.8 million nonsupervisory employees cov
ered by the survey, more than 1.5 million were employed full
time. About two-thirds of the nonsupervisory employees were in
nongovernment hospitals. Part-time work was more prevalent
158
women’s income and earnings
among employees in private than in State and local hospitals and
among general duty nurses than those in other occupations.
Of the women nonprofessional full-time employees other than
clerical studied in the survey, the largest number (244,078) were
nurses’ aides. Other occupations in which large numbers of
women were employed were practical nurse (121,528); psychia
tric aide (74,717); kitchen helper (72,223); and maid (77,170).
The average earnings of nonsupervisory employees in State and
local hospitals were higher than those in private hospitals, except
in the South where they were about the same. Table 72 shows the
average weekly earnings of women nurses’ aides and licensed
practical nurses and average hourly earnings in three occupations
in nongovernment hospitals in 21 selected metropolitan areas.
Highest average weekly earnings were reported for licensed prac
tical nurses—ranging from $64 in Atlanta to $90 in Detroit.
Nurses’ aides had average weekly earnings ranging from $49 in
Dallas to $82 in San Francisco-Oakland.
Women employed as flatwork finishers (machine), kitchen
helpers, and maids—occupations requiring relatively few skills
—were among the lowest paid in nongovernment hospitals. In the
21 selected areas, the lowest hourly earnings in these three occu
pations were in Atlanta; the highest, in San Francisco-Oakland.
Salaries of Professional Women Workers
Salary studies are not available for women in all types of pro
fessional work, but some salary surveys have been made by pro
fessional associations for their own membership or by research
organizations, college alumnae associations, or women’s organiza
tions. Among salary studies periodically available are those made
for school teachers and registered nurses.
71. Salaries of School Teachers
More than two-fifths of the 4 million women employed in pro
fessional and technical occupations in April 1968 were school
teachers other than in colleges and universities. These 1.7 million
women represented 71 percent of all noncollege teachers. In ele
mentary schools about 85 percent of the teachers were women; in
secondary schools, 46 percent.
Teachers’ salaries reported by the National Education Associa
tion are not shown separately for men and women. Nevertheless,
they are considered representative of women’s salaries because of
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
169
Table 72.—Average Earnings1
of Women Employed Full Time in
Nonprofessional Hospital2 Occupations, 21 Metropolitan Areas, July
1966
Average
weekly earnings
Metropolitan area
Atlanta ..
Baltimore ________ ..
Boston
.Buffalo
.. _ _
._
Chicago
-.
Cincinnati _ _
..
Cleveland ______
..
Dallas
_
Denver _ _
-.
Detroit
..
Los Angeles-Long Beach _
Memphis . _____
-_
Miami _ _ _.
..
Minneapolis-St. Paul
_
New York City . ___ _
Philadelphia _____
_
Portland (Oreg.)
_
St. Louis _
San Francisco-Oakland .
Seattle-Everett __
Washington (D.C.)
_ _
Nurses’
aides
$50.50
56.50
63.50
59.50
61.00
55.50
58.50
49.00
61.00
62.00
69.00
50.50
53.50
72.00
69.00
54.50
69.50
55.50
82.00
68.00
57.50
Licensed
practical
nurses
$64.00
73.50
82.50
75.50
82.50
79.50
77.00
66.00
75.00
90.00
85.00
65.50
69.50
76.50
89.00
68.00
78.50
73.00
88.00
77.50
74.50
Average
hourly earnings
Finishers,
flatwork
(machine)
$1.03
1.39
1.55
1.61
1.46
1.31
1.43
1.28
1.58
1.69
1.10
1.25
1.89
1.81
1.36
1.77
1.38
2.03
1.76
1.38
Kitchen
helpers
Maids
$1.03
1.38
1.49
1.58
1.46
1.36
1.38
1.08
1.29
1.46
1.55
1.12
1.23
1.81
1.76
1.30
1.74
1.33
1.93
1.68
1.38
$1.00
1.29
1.51
1.58
1.46
1.39
1.45
1.18
1.26
1.50
1.55
1.13
1.26
1.80
1.80
1.39
1.76
1.37
1.98
1.71
1.39
1 Excludes premium pay for overtime and for work on weekends, holidays, and late shifts,
as well as value of room, board, or other perquisites. Weekly earnings are rounded to the
nearest half dollar.
2 Covers only nongovernment hospitals.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: "Industry Wage Survey—
Hospitals, July 1966." Bull. 1553. July 1967.
the sizable proportion of women teachers and because salary dif
ferentials based on sex have largely been eliminated. In some in
stances, however, men teachers may receive higher salaries be
cause of the subjects they teach, their longer tenure, or their
greater educational achievement.
Although differentials between levels of the school system ex
isted in the past, most school districts now have a single salary
schedule, based on education and experience, for all teachers in
their area. Some, however, pay higher salaries to teachers of vo
cational education, physical education, and other special courses.
Elementary and secondary school teachers.—Salaries of class
room teachers (both sexes) were estimated by the National Edu
cation Association to average $7,908 during the school year
160
women’s income and earnings
1968-69, with elementary school teachers receiving $7,676 and
secondary teachers receiving $8,160. By comparison, the average
salaries of classroom teachers in 1967-68 were: total, $7,423; ele
mentary schools, $7,208; and secondary schools, $7,692. Thus
both elementary and secondary school teachers earned about 6
percent more in 1968-69 than in 1967-68.
Detailed information on the number of women classroom teach
ers and the average salaries paid to all classroom teachers is
available by selected geographical areas for the school year
1968-69. Women classroom teachers numbered 1.3 million and
represented 68 percent of all classroom teachers in the Nation,
but their proportion varied from 62 percent of all teachers in the
Far West to 78 percent in Hawaii (table 73). The average annual
salary of classroom teachers in the contiguous United States
ranged from $6,802 in the Southeast to $9,165 in the Far West. In
Alaska it was $10,427; in Hawaii, $8,100.
Table 73.—Estimated Average Annual Salaries of Elementary
Secondary School Teachers, by Area, 1968-69
Average
annual
Women
Area
60 States and D.C.
New England
- _____
Mideast (including D.C.) __
Southeast _ _. _____ _ Great Lakes
Plains . - ____
_____
Southwest
Rocky Mountains . ____
Far West __ - - Alaska _
Hawaii _ _
._
...
Number
and
As percent
of total
Percent of all
classroom teachers
receiving—
(men and
women)
Under $8,500 and
$6,500
over
1,305,481
68.1
$ 7,908
28.0
31.1
70,426
253,444
317,630
245,887
114,781
116,661
35,081
143,800
2,138
5,633
65.7
66.9
76.4
65.1
67.4
68.5
63.5
61.7
65.4
77.9
7,941
8,595
6,802
8,543
7,281
6,824
6,983
9,165
10,427
8,100
27.0
17.1
48.5
17.6
33.7
37.1
41.9
12.4
35.3
44.6
8.1
40.6
15.0
11.9
9.1
62.5
85.3
39.8
- _
28.0
Source: National Education Association: "Estimates of School Statistics, 1968-69.” Research
Report 1968-R 16. (Copyright 1968 by the National Education Association. All rights reserved.)
Twenty-eight percent of all classroom teachers received less
than $6,500 in 1968-69, with the highest proportion in this cate
gory in the Southeast (49 percent). In contrast, 31 percent of the
teachers received a salary of $8,500 or more, with the highest
proportion for the contiguous United States in the Far West (63
percent) and for the noncontiguous United States in Alaska (85
percent).
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
161
Minimum and maximum salaries of teachers differ considerably
among the various school systems. A survey of minimum and
maximum salaries of teachers employed for the school year
1968-69 in systems with enrollment of at least 6,000 pupils
showed that median salaries of beginning teachers with a bache
lor’s degree were $6,300 (enrollment of 100,000 or more pupils),
and $6,000 (enrollment of less than 100,000).7 The median mini
mum salaries of teachers with a master’s degree were $7,000 (en
rollment of 100,000 or more), $6,448 (enrollment of 50,000 to
99,999), $6,600 (enrollment of 12,000 to 49,999), $6,550 (enroll
ment of 6,000 to 11,999), $6,480 (enrollment of 3,000 to 5,999),
and $6,426 (enrollment of 1,200 to 2,999).
The 1968-69 maximum salaries paid in recognition of experi
ence to teachers with a bachelor’s degree were about 38 to 63 per
cent above minimum salaries. For teachers with a master’s de
gree, the maximum salaries exceeded the minimums by 50 to 59
percent. The medians of the maximum salaries received by non
college teachers with the highest level of preparation ranged
from $11,000 to $12,366.
College and university teachers.—Women represented 18 per
cent of the faculties in colleges and universities and numbered
26,734 in 1965-66 (table 74). The median annual salary received
by women college teachers for 9 months of full-time teaching was
$7,732; the range was from $6,454 for instructors to $11,649 for
professors. Differences in medians from one major teaching level
to the next were at least $1,400.
Table 74.—Median
Annual Salaries
Universities,
Teaching Staff
of
by
Sex,
Colleges
and
Median annual
salary
Number
Teaching staff
in
1965-66
Women
Men
Total -----------------------
26,734
118,641
$ 7,732
Women
$ 9,275
Men
Professors
-----------Associate professors _______
Assistant professors ________
Instructors -------------------------
3,149
5,148
8,983
9,454
32,873
28,892
37,232
19,644
11,649
9,322
7,870
6,454
12,768
10,064
8,446
6,864
Source: National Education Association: “Salaries in Higher Education, 1965-66." Research
Report 1966-R 2. (Copyright 1966 by the National Education Association. All rights reserved.)
Women teachers received a higher median salary ($8,195) in
public universities with enrollment of 10,000 and over than in
T National Education Association: “Salary Schedules for Teachers, 1968-69.” Research Report
1968-R 13. 1968.
162
women’s income and earnings
any other type of institution of higher learning. Those in State
colleges received the next highest median salary ($8,113), and
those in small private colleges with enrollment of less than 500 had
the lowest ($6,265).
Salaries for administrative positions in colleges and universi
ties are not reported by sex. Among 32 positions listed for admin
istrative officers, deans of women received the second lowest me
dian salary ($10,289) for a full 12 months in 1967-68.8 Also low
were the median salaries of directors of student financial aid
($9,424), registrars ($10,366), deans or directors of student
placement ($10,606), and directors of public relations ($10,823).
Among deans of professional and graduate schools were deans of
home economics ($18,417) and of nursing ($16,550)—two posts
usually held by women.
Junior college teachers.—The 5,717 women teachers employed
by public junior colleges in 1965-66 had a median salary of
$7,830; the 1,100 women teachers in private junior colleges,
$6,114.9 With salaries computed on the basis of 9 months’ serv
ice, women’s medians were lower than men’s by $575 in public
junior colleges and by $550 in private junior colleges.
72. Salaries of Professional and Technical Workers in
Private Industry
A survey of salaries paid by private industry in June 1968 to
selected professional, administrative, technical, and clerical per
sonnel indicated that although women accounted for approxi
mately one-half of the total employment in the occupations stud
ied, they were employed largely in clerical positions.10
Women were a relatively small proportion of the total em
ployed in professional and technical occupations. They accounted
for almost one-fourth of the draftsmen-tracers but less than onetwentieth of the three draftsmen levels combined. Women were
about one-fifth of the engineering technicians at level I but less
than one-twentieth of such technicians at levels II through V
combined. The median annual salaries for these technical occupa
tions ranged from $4,811 for draftsmen-tracers and $5,496 for en
gineering technicians I to $8,998 for draftsmen III and $9,648 for
engineering technicians V.
8 National Education Association: “Salaries in Higher Education, 1967-68.” Research Report
1968—R 7. 1968.
•National Education Association; “Salaries in Higher Education, 1965-66.” Research Report
1966-R 2. 1966.
10 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: “National Survey of Professional,
Administrative, Technical, and Clerical Pay, June 1968.” Bull. 1617. January 1969.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
163
In the professional and administrative occupations, women
were reported employed mainly in the first few levels. They ac
counted for at least 10 but less than 25 percent of the accountants
I, job analysts II, chemists I and II, buyers I, and managers of
office services I. The median annual salaries for these occupations
ranged from $7,296 for buyers I to $9,192 for managers of office
services I.
73. Salaries in Professional Hospital Nursing Occupations
Hospital occupations cover a wide range of skills and functions.
Full-time registered professional nurses and other professional
and technical employees accounted for one-sixth of hospital per
sonnel in July 1966.
Table 75 shows the median weekly earnings of women in five
nursing occupations in nongovernment hospitals in 21 metropoli
tan areas in July 1966. Highest median earnings were received by
directors of nursing. In most of the areas, supervisors of nursing
received the second highest median earnings, followed by nursing
instructors, head nurses, and general duty nurses. In the 16 met
ropolitan areas in which the earnings of directors of nursing
were reported, the highest weekly salary was in Washington,
D.C. ($204.50); the lowest, in Dallas ($121.00). In those areas for
which the median earnings of supervisors were reported, New
York had the highest; Atlanta, the lowest. For nursing instruc
tors and head nurses, highest earnings were reported in San
Francisco-Oakland; lowest, in Atlanta. Earnings generally were
higher in State and local government hospitals than in private
hospitals. Also they were higher in large cities than in small ones
and in the West than in other regions. Earnings were lowest in the
South—general duty nurses in the South received 22 percent less
weekly, on the average, than those in the West.
Hospital nurses worked 40 hours a week in most areas sur
veyed. For work after 40 hours, they usually received either com
pensatory time off or straight-time pay. Nurses on late shifts gen
erally were paid a shift differential.
During the latter half of 1966, nurses gained very sizable in
creases in salaries. These are not reflected in table 75. However, a
spot check by the Bureau of Labor Statistics indicated that in
creases were granted by a majority of the hospitals in 11 of the
21 areas. In addition, a limited study of salary ranges in non-Federal short term general hospitals conducted in April 1967 pro-
164
WOMEN'S INCOME AND EARNINGS
Table 75.—Median
Weekly Earnings 1
Nursing Occupations,
Metropolitan area
Atlanta
Baltimore ____________
Boston _______________
Buffalo ____________
Chicago ______________
Cincinnati __________
Cleveland _____________
Dallas ________________
Denver _______________
Detroit ______________
Los AngelesLong Beach ________
Memphis___________
Miami ________________
Minneapolis-St. Paul _
New York City______
Philadelphia __________
Portland (Oreg.) __ _
St. Louis 160.50
San Francisco-Oakland
Seattle-Everett ________
Washington (D.C.) ___
21
of
Women
in
Selected Hospital 1
2
Metropolitan Areas, July
Directors
of
nursing
Supervisors
of
nursing
$107.50
$138.50 133.00
163.50 130.00
____
133.50
168.50 137.50
____
135.00
154.50 139.00
121.00 121.00
138.50 125.50
167.50 148.00
164.00
____
162.00
161.50
____
173.00
156.50
133.00
115.00
127.00
150.50
123.50
119.00
126.50
202.00
150.00
179.00 135.00
204.50
131.00
1966
Head
nurses
General
duty
nurses
$102.00
115.00
120.50
114.60
122.50
117.00
124.00
107.50
115.00
130.50
$ 91.00
98.50
102.50
103.00
110.00
100.00
107.00
104.00
97.00
118.50
$101.50
127.50
128.00
125.50
132.00
118.00
128.00
110.00
123.00
144.00
123.50
105.00
105.00
116.50
132.50
105.00
114.00
110.50
135.00
126.00
116.00
110.50
97.00
95.00
102.00
119.00
92.00
104.00
99.00
117.00
108.50
97.00
132.50
107.50
Nursing
instructors
117.00
125.50
122.50
111.00
154.50
124.00
1 Excludes extra pay for work on late shifts, as well as value of room, board, or other
perquisites. Earnings are rounded to the nearest half dollar.
2 Covers only nongovernment hospitals.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: “Industry Wage Survey—
Hospitals, July 1966.” Bull. 1563. June 1967.
vided further evidence of rising salary levels for nurses.11 In
creases in starting salaries in the 103 hospitals that were in
cluded in the study ranged from 2 percent to 27 percent, with
about one-fourth of the hospitals reporting at least a 20-percent
increase. The median increase was about 13 percent.
An estimated 63 percent of all the registered nurses employed
in the United States in 1967 were working in hospitals or similar
institutions (table 76). About 19 percent were private duty or
office nurses. The remainder were public health, school, or in
dustrial nurses or were working in schools of nursing or nursing
homes. One percent of nurses were men.
Private duty nurses are self-employed, and their compensation
is individually determined. However, standard fees for private
duty nurses for a basic 8-hour day have been established by State
u American Nurses’ Association: “Facta About Nursing.” 1967 edition.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
Table 76.-—Women
Professional Registered Nurses,
Employment,
Field of employment
Total ____ . _ _ _ _ ___ _____
Hospital or other institution_____ _
Private duty, office, other ______ _
Public health (including school) _
_
Nursing education
Occupational health
. _
Nursing homes ___ ..
__ _
by
165
Field
of
1967
Number
Percent
distribution
640,000
400,000
124,000
41,600
24,000
19,500
31,000
100.0
62.5
19.4
6.5
3.8
3.0
4.8
Source: American Nurses’ Association: “Facts About Nursing.” 1968 edition.
nurses’ associations. As of January 1968, these ranged from $20
in Utah to $38 in Connecticut.12 From December 1957 to December
1967 the number of registered nurses listed with registries de
creased by nearly 38 percent, and calls to registries decreased by
36 percent. One factor in the decline in the employment of private
duty nurses may be the growth of intensive care units in hospi
tals.
Office nurses had an annual median salary of $4,500 for full
time work when surveyed in 1964.13 The lowest median salary
was in the Southeast ($3,900), and the highest was in Pacific
Coast States ($4,980). About 43 percent of the office nurses regu
larly worked 40 hours a week; 37 percent, between 30 and 40
hours; and 12 percent, more than 40 hours. For 8 percent there
was no report of hours worked.
Local public health nurses in staff nurse positions received me
dian annual salaries of $6,460 in official agencies and $6,281 in
nonofficial agencies, as of April 1, 1967.14 Comparable salaries for
local public health supervising nurses were $8,094 in official agen
cies and $7,886 in nonofficial agencies. By region, salaries were
highest in the West and lowest in the South. These 1967 salaries
reflect increases received by nurses during the latter half of 1966.
School nurses employed in public schools for the school year
1966-67 received average salaries of $7,297 (enrollment of 25,000
or more), $6,820 (enrollment of 3,000 to 24,999), and $6,005 (en
rollment of 300 to 2,999).15 The median salary in April 1967 for
staff nurses in schools was $7,046.16
12 American Nurses’ Association: “Facts About Nursing.” 1968 edition.
13 American Nurses’ Association: “Facts About Nursing.” 1966 edition.
14 National League for Nursing: “Salaries Paid by Public Health Nursing Services—1967.”
In Nursing Outlook, December 1967.
15 National Education Association: “Twenty-third Biennial Salary Survey of Public School
Professional Personnel, 1966-67 ; National Data.” Research Report 1967-R 11. 1967.
16 See footnote 12.
166
women’s income and earnings
Nurse educators employed on a full-time basis in December
1965 received a median annual salary of $6,600.17 Median salaries
were $6,240 for teachers in professional hospital nursing schools
and $7,500 for teachers in collegiate schools.
Industrial nurses’ salaries vary considerably among metropoli
tan areas. Between July 1967 and June 1968 women industrial
nurses received median weekly salaries ranging from $98 in Scran
ton to $145.50 in Beaumont-Port Arthur (table 77). This would
mean a range of $5,096 to $7,566 for a full year (52 weeks) of
work.
Nurses employed in nongovernment nursing homes and re
lated facilities received average hourly earnings of $3.04 in April
1968.18 This compares with $2.90 in October 1967 and $2.28 in
1965.19
Table 77.—Median
Weekly
64
Salaries1
op
Metropolitan Areas,
,,
,
Metropolitan area
Women
Industrial Nurses,
1967-68
Median
weekly
salary
Akron __ ----------------------------------------Albany-Schenectady-Troy ______________________
12
Allentown-Bethlehem-Easton ___________________
12
Atlanta ---------------------------------------------Baltimore --------------- _
_______________________________
126.00
Beaumont-Port Arthur ____
__________________
__
145.50
Birmingham ____________________________
Boston_________________________________________________
124.50
Buffalo -----------------------------------------------------------128.
Canton ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 124.00
Charleston _____________________________
Chattanooga _____________________________
Chicago ----------------------------------------------------------------------130.50
Cincinnati ___________________________
Cleveland ____________________________
Columbus ____________________________________________
114.50
Dallas --------------------------------------------------------1
Davenport-Rock Island-Moline __ . _
122.50
Dayton ____________________________
Denver ________________________________
Des Moines __________________________________
12
Detroit --------- ..
________________________________ ___ 143.00
See footnote at end of table.
1T American Nurses’ Association: “Facts About Nursing.” 1967 edition.
18 U.S. Department of Labor, Wage and Hour and Public Contracts Divisions: “Nursing
Homes and Related Facilities—A Study of the Economic Effects of the $1.15 Minimum Wage
Under the Fair Labor Standards Act.” Submitted to the Congress, 1969.
19 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: “Industry Wage Survey—Nursing
Homes and Related Facilities, April 1965.” Bull. 1492. April 1966.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
167
Table 77.—Median Weekly Salaries 1 of Women Industrial
Nurses, 64 Metropolitan Areas, 1967-68—Continued
Metropolitan area
Fort Worth $131.60
Greenville
Houston
Indianapolis
Kansas City
127.50
Lawrence-Haverhill ______________________
Los Angeles-Long Beach
Louisville
Memphis :__________________________________________
Miami ------------------------------------------------------------------------------Milwaukee ;. _
Minneapolis-St. Pault________________
Muskegon-Muskegon Heights
Newark and Jersey City 127.00
New Haven ____________
New Orleans 124.50
New York ___
Paterson-Clifton-Passaic
Philadelphia ________________________
Phoenix ________________
Pittsburgh
Portland (Maine) ___________________
Portland (Oreg.-Wash.)
Providence-Pawtucket____________________
Richmond _____________________________________
Rockford
St. Louis____________
San Bernardino-Riverside-Ontario
San Diego __________
San Francisco-Oakland
San Jose 140.50
Savannah
Scranton
Seattle-Everett
127.00
South Bend ___________________________________
Toledo _______________________________________
Trenton
Washington (D.C.-Md.-Va.)
117.50
Waterbury
Wichita ________________________________ ___
Worcester _________________________________________________
Youngstown-Warren _
_
Median
weekly
salary
99.00
132.00
132.00
123.50
143.00
123.00
114.00
119.50
127.00
128.50
123.50
126.00
134.00
126.00
120.00
128.00
122.00
100.50
126.50
113.50
120.00
114.00
129.50
129.50
137.00
139.00
117.50
98.00
122.00
130.50
127.50
117.50
123.00
119.50
125.00
1 Straight-time earnings.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: “Occupational Earnings
and Wage Trends, 1967-68.” Summary Releases, Nos. 1-3.
168
women’s income and earnings
74. Salaries of Professional and Technical Hospifa! Personnel
( Nonnursing)
Among women employed in private hospitals in professional oc
cupations other than nursing, medical social workers generally
were the highest paid in 1966 (table 78). Their lowest reported
median weekly salary was in Boston ($120); their highest, in San
Francisco-Oakland ($165). Medical record librarians were paid
more than dietitians in some areas and less in others. Their low
est median weekly salary was in Dallas ($92.50), and their high
est was in Boston ($135.50). The median weekly salary of dieti
tians ranged from a low of $105.50 in Denver to a high of $128 in
Table 78.—Median Weekly Earnings 1 of Women in Selected Nonnursing
Professional and Technical Hospital2 Occupations, 21 Metropolitan
Areas, July
1966
Metropolitan
area
Dietitians
Atlanta
___
Baltimore _
_.
. $112.00
Boston
___
116.00
Buffalo ______ _ _
108.50
Chicago
124.00
Cincinnati _. . ____ 112.00
Cleveland
___ 120.50
Dallas ___ _ _ _
109.50
Denver _______ _ _ 105.50
Detroit _ _
_
127.00
Los Angeles-Long
Beach
119.00
Memphis _________
____
Miami
__
119.50
Minneapolis-St.
Paul .
_.
106.00
New York City____ 118.50
Philadelphia .
__
106.00
Portland (Oreg.) ___ 122.50
St. Louis - ______
111.00
San FranciscoOakland
_ ___
128.00
Seattle-Everett ___ 108.00
Washington (D.C.) _
106.00
Medical
record
librarians
$101.50
100.00
135.50
Medical
Physical
Medical
social
X-ray
theratechnicians
workers technologistsi pists
125.00
92.50
123.50
132.50
$105.00
109.50
100.00
106.50
154.00
111.00
129.00
115.00
132.50
106.00
98.00
104.00
146.50
119.00
132.50
164.50
121.00
$149.50
120.00
112.00
149.50
122.00
108.50
114.50
125.00
123.50
120.00
108.00
127.00
133.00
105.50
82.00
86.50
115.50
84.00
112.00
77.00
101.50
88.50
96.50
117.50
115.00
138.50
$105.00
165.00
112.00
111.50
93.00
113.00
108.50
141.00
110.50
104.00
$ 88.00
86.00
85.00
89.00
101.00
90.00
89.50
89.00
80.50
104.50
119.00
101.50
129.50
107.50
113.00
99.00
86.50
1 Excludes extra pay for work on late shifts, as well as value of room, board, or other
perquisites. Earnings are rounded to the nearest half dollar.
2Covers only nongovernment hospitals.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: “Industry Wage Survey—
Hospitals, July 1966.” Bull. 1663. June 1967,
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
169
San Francisco-Oakland. Medical technologists received their low
est median weekly salary in Philadelphia ($93) and their highest
in San Francisco-Oakland ($141).
Physical therapists generally received higher earnings than did
medical technologists. Therapists had their lowest median weekly
salary in St. Louis ($101.50) and their highest in Los AngelesLong Beach ($133). X-ray technicians were the lowest paid of
any of these occupations—their median salary ranged from $77 a
week in Philadelphia to $113 a week in San Francisco-Oakland.
75. Salaries of Scientists
A report on the economic and professional characteristics of
approximately 205,000 full-time employed civilian U.S. scientists
listed on the National Science Foundation's National Register of
Scientific and Technical Personnel in 1966 gives information on
the salaries of women scientists by major scientific field.
Women scientists were 8 percent of all registered scientists and
numbered 20,164 (table 79). Three-fourths of the women scien
tists were in four major fields: chemistry (25 percent), psychol
ogy (21 percent), biological sciences (17 percent), and mathemat
ics (12 percent). Subfields in which the greatest numbers of women
were found were clinical psychology, biochemistry, organic chemis
try, analytical chemistry, numerical methods and computation, and
microbiology. Educational attainment of women scientists was
high: 33 percent had a doctorate, 2 percent had a professional
medical degree, 38 percent had a master’s degree, and 26 percent
had a bachelor’s degree. Fewer than 1 percent reported less than
a bachelor’s degree.
The greatest number of women Ph. D.’s was among psycholo
gists and biological scientists. Women with a master’s degree
were primarily psychologists, mathematicians, chemists, or bio
logical scientists. Women scientists with only a bachelor’s degree
were mainly chemists.
The median annual salary of all scientists (both sexes) on the
register was $12,000 (table 80). Bachelor’s and master’s degree
holders reported median salaries of $11,000 and $10,700, respec
tively, while holders of doctorates reported a median salary of
$13,200. The median annual salary of women scientists was
$9,000.
Among women scientists, the highest median salaries were re
ceived by statisticians ($10,500) and economists ($10,300), fol
lowed by psychologists ($10,000); sociologists, anthropologists,
o
Field
All fields _
_
Total
__
by
Field
Less than
bachelor’s
degree
and
Highest Degree, 1966
Highest degree
Bachelor’s
Master's
Professional
medical
Ph. D.
No report
of degree
.. ______
20,164
99
5,305
7,677
306
6,595
182
Chemistry . _ _ _ _ ___
______
Earth sciences
_
. ______
Meteorology
______
Physics ____ _____________ _____
Mathematics .
__
______
Agricultural sciences ........
_____
Biological sciences___
. -____
Psychology _ _ _
--------Statistics
__
-------Economics .
_____
Sociology _. __ _ _
-------Anthropology _ _ .
-------Linguistics . _ _ ______
-------Other
--------
4,995
654
129
981
2,395
50
3,347
4,233
307
571
581
171
267
1,483
20
2
8
1
24
7
18
1
8
4
2,458
217
56
319
730
14
648
66
82
84
12
7
43
569
1,261
292
42
412
1,270
21
929
1,995
144
258
226
13
102
712
24
1,175
139
13
244
332
8
1,442
2,161
64
218
343
149
119
188
57
4
10
4
38
1
5
Source: National Science Foundation: “American Science Manpower, 1966.” December 1967.
1
1
276
2
2
34
8
9
7
2
2
7
w o m e n ’s in c o m e and ea r n in g s
Table 79.—Women Scientists,
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
Table 80.—Median
Annual Salaries
op
Civilian Scientists,
171
Full-Time Employed Women
by
Field,
1966
Women
Field
Number
Percent
distribution
All fields
- - - _.
Chemistry .
Earth sciences - --------- ...
Meteorology ---------------Physics --- -----..
Mathematics _
Agricultural sciences - _.
Biological sciences Psychology __
-- Statistics ___________ .
Economics
- -...
Sociology -------------------- ...
Anthropology - - - - ...
Linguistics ______ ___...
Other
__
- ...
20,164
4,995
654
129
981
2,395
50
3,347
4,233
307
571
581
171
267
1,483
100.0
24.8
3.2
.6
4.9
11.9
.2
16.6
21.0
1.5
2.8
2.9
.8
1.3
7.4
Median
annual
salary
Median annual
salary of
all scientists
(both sexes)
$ 9,000
8,100
9,000
9,600
9,000
9,100
8,500
9,200
10,000
10,500
10,300
9,600
9,600
8,600
8,200
$12,000
12,000
11,400
11,700
12,500
12,000
10,000
12,000
11,500
12,800
13,100
11,300
11,500
10,000
12,000
Source: National Science Foundation: “American Science Manpower, 1966.” December 1967.
and meteorologists ($9,600 each); biological scientists ($9,200);
mathematicians ($9,100) ; and physicists and earth scientists
($9,000 each). Median salaries of women scientists were from
$1,400 to $3,900 a year less than the median salaries of all scien
tists in their respective fields.
Salaries of Federal Employees
As of October 31, 1967, the 659,403 women white-collar
workers in the Federal service had an average annual salary of
$6,403 as compared with $9,154 for men (table 81). Women were
34 percent of all full-time white-collar workers. Salaries ranged
from $3,776 for grade 1 jobs to $27,055 for grade 18 jobs—as de
termined under the Classification Act of 1949, as amended. Effec
tive July 13, 1969, salaries were increased so that they ranged
from $3,889 for grade 1 to $33,495 for grade 18.
Differences between the grades and salaries of women and men
arise not only from differences in types of jobs held, but also
from differences in length of service. In June 1967 the average
length of service of Federal employees was 9 years for women but
14.1 years for men. About 46 percent of the women but only 22
percent of the men had less than 5 years of service, while 64 per
cent of the women and 39 percent of the men had less than 10
172
WOMEN’S INCOME AND EARNINGS
years of service. A survey of full-time civilian employment indi
cated that total employment of women in higher level positions
(general schedule grades 12 or the equivalent and above) in
creased by 12 percent between October 31, 1966, and October 31,
1967.20
Table 81.—Average Annual Salaries of Women Full-Time White-Collar
Workers in the Federal Service, All Areas,1 by Occupation Group,
October 31, 1967
Occupation group
Number
Total _________ _
659,403
General administrative, clerical, and office
services ______
333,776
Postal ___
80,828
Accounting and budget
52,913
Medical, hospital, dental and public health _
50,532
Supply____________________
40,150
Legal and kindred ________
20,182
Personnel management and industrial
relations _ _
.
19,957
Social science, psychology, and welfare___
8,934
Education____ . _
8,914
Mathematics and statistics
7,607
Business and industry
6,467
Information and arts _.
6,036
Transportation
5,982
Library and archives .
5,045
Physical sciences
4,182
Biological sciences
2,636
Engineering and architecture
1,895
Investigation ____
803
Commodity quality control, inspection, and
grading
_ _
529
Equipment, facilities, and service
310
Copyright, patent, and trademark _ _
117
Veterinary medical science
24
Miscellaneous occupations
1,584
Note. Preliminary data
Average
annual
salary
As percent
of total
employed
$6,403
34.1
5,828
6,495
6,704
7,186
6,361
7,016
73.1
14.2
46.8
52.5
48.9
45.2
7,150
9,683
7,341
7,558
8,823
8,286
6,695
8,073
8,712
8,106
7,981
8,109
53.8
26.9
36.7
48.7
12.1
30.1
18.3
65.4
9.8
6.3
1.3
2.3
7,870
8,545
10,753
11,169
6,924
2.5
1.6
6.5
1.0
4.0
1 Worldwide.
Source: U.S. Civil Service Commission, Bureau of Manpower Information Systems: “Occupa
tions of Federal White-Collar Workers, October 31, 1967." SM-56-7.
The largest group of women full-time white-collar workers in
the Federal service in October 1967 numbered 333,776 and were
employed in general administrative, clerical, and office services.
20 U.S. Civil Service Commission, Bureau of Manpower Information Systems: “Occupations
of Federal White-Collar Workers, October 31, 1967.” SM-56-7.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
173
Their average annual salary was $5,828. Women postal em
ployees, who numbered 80,828, were the second largest group and
had an average annual salary of $6,495. The third largest group
of women were in accounting and budget work, where 52,913
were employed at an average annual salary of $6,704. The highest
average salaries paid to women employed in the Federal service
were in veterinary medical science ($11,169) ; copyright, patent,
and trademark ($10,753); and social science, psychology, and
welfare ($9,683). There were only 24 women veterinarians and
only 117 women employed in copyright, patent, and trademark.
However, women in social science, psychology, and welfare num
bered 8,934 and represented 27 percent of total employment in
these fields.
Salaries of College Graduates
76. Starting Salaries of Recent College Graduates
The jobs and salaries expected to be oifered by 208 companies
to June 1969 college graduates were reported in a survey con
ducted in November 1968 by the Northwestern University Place
ment Center. Almost all of the companies that responded to the
university’s inquiry made regular visits to selected campuses and
actively sought college and university graduates. All but a few
were large- or medium-sized corporations. They were located in
21 States representing all major regions of the country and a
wide variety of business interests.
Since the companies that recruit at colleges seek outstanding
senior students, graduates recruited on campus usually are of
fered higher beginning salaries than graduates who apply to a
company’s employment office after leaving college. The North
western survey indicated that although 40 percent of all college
students today are women, many companies do not regularly re
cruit college women through campus interviews. For those
women who do receive job offers at college, however, starting sal
aries have been rising at a slightly faster rate than those for
men. Nevertheless, the spread between the offers made to men
and women with the same college majors is still substantial.
Reports from 132 companies indicated that these companies
hired a total of 1,871 college women in 1968 and that they
planned to hire a total of 2,251 college women from 1969 graduat
ing classes, an increase of 20 percent. Most of the companies
174
women’s income and earnings
reported that they would hire more college women if they were
available, especially in such fields as engineering, data processing,
accounting, and mathematics.
Starting salaries offered by the 132 companies to women sched
uled to receive bachelor’s degrees in 1969 averaged about $648 a
month in contrast to the $609 offered in 1968. Women graduates
to be employed in most scientific and engineering fields received
the most generous job offers (table 82). For example, the pro
posed monthly salaries of women engineers averaged $806; gen
eral scientists, $750; chemists, $711; and mathematicians and
statisticians, $707. The average monthly salaries offered to
women in other fields ranged from $485 for secretaries to $692
for accountants. Increases in average salaries offered in 1969 as
compared with 1968 ranged from $20 a month for economists to
$64 a month for engineers.
Table 82.—Starting
Salaries
by
op
Field,
Women With Bachelor’s Degrees,
1968
and
1969
Number
Average monthly
starting salary
Increase
1968-69
Field
companies
1969
1968
Mathematics, statistics
Data processing, computer programmg -------------------------------------General business _______
Accounting _ _
Liberal arts _ _ _
Chemistry
Engineering ___
Marketing, retailing
_______
Home economics
Science (field not stated)
Secretary
Economics, finance
40
$707
$648
$59
47
34
37
17
15
20
14
22
10
7
4
671
592
692
575
711
806
601
588
750
485
602
620
570
643
522
690
742
571
555
708
455
582
51
22
49
53
21
64
30
33
42
30
20
Source: Endicott, Frank S., Dr.: “Trends in Employment of College and University Grad
uates in Business and Industry.” Northwestern University. 1969.
77. Salaries of College Women Seven Years After
Graduation
A resurvey of women college graduates of the class of 1957 was
conducted by the Women’s Bureau in 1964. Those surveyed were
generally the same June 1957 graduates who participated in an
earlier survey made in the winter of 1957-58 by the Women’s Bu
reau and the National Vocational Guidance Association.
About half (49 percent) of the women graduates were em-
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
175
ployed 7 years after graduation. Of those employed in 1964, 9 out
of 10 were in professional positions—a slightly larger proportion
than 7 years earlier (8 out of 10). The increase probably was due
to the improved job status in 1964 of some of the graduates, in
cluding those who had been graduate assistants, and to the rela
tively greater tendency of those with professional jobs to remain
in the labor force.
Salaries of the June 1957 women graduates were, on the aver
age, almost 60 percent higher in 1964 than in 1957-58. The aver
age annual salary of the graduates was $5,947 in 1964 as com
pared with $3,739 in 1957-58 (table 83).
The highest average salaries earned in 1964 by the June 1957
women graduates were received by those employed as chemists,
mathematicians, or statisticians ($8,039), followed by managers
or officials ($7,466) and professional workers in schools, exclud
ing teachers ($6,744). Teachers, with an average salary of
$5,890, earned slightly less than the average for the total group
of survey graduates, although they constituted 62 percent of
those employed. Lowest average earnings were reported by secre
taries and stenographers ($4,527), miscellaneous clerical workers
($4,813), and librarians ($5,658).
Fully 20 percent of the employed graduates earned $7,000 or
over in 1964; only 5 percent earned less than $4,000. The gradu
ates’ earnings were generally highest in the West ($6,358) and
Northeast ($6,266) and lowest in the South ($5,215).
The positive influence of advanced education on salary levels
was corroborated by the $6,409 average salary of graduates with
a master’s degree and the $5,800 average of those with a bacca
laureate only. The earnings of the few survey graduates with a
doctorate were not reported because most were resident physi
cians in hospitals and had typically low earnings.
In terms of their undergraduate major, graduates with the
highest average salaries in 1964 were those who had majored in
mathematics ($7,517), chemistry ($6,535), or psychology
($6,393). The large group of graduates with an education major
averaged $5,877, slightly below the average for the total group.
Lowest average salaries were received by graduates with a major
in music ($5,566) or business and commerce ($5,568).
176
women's income and earnings
Table 83.—Average Annual Salaries of 1957 Women College
Graduates, by Occupation, 1957-58 and 1964
1957-58
1964
Number
Occupation group
Graduates represented1
.
Average
annual
salary
Number
Average
annual
salary
32,571
$5,947
63,945
$3,739
__
569
627
__
4,847
4,675
__
764
544
329
447
449
2,049
__
3,278
3,407
3,097
3,676
3,104
3,247
401
808
542
__
3,576
4,040
3,397
..
__
4,302
_
_ _
3,875
370
2,125
626
3,167
3,862
3,971
..
4,089
_
3,295
543
1,266
39,320
3,655
3,792
3,799
25,549
4,613
8,290
3,858
3,785
3,658
3,475
3,854
3,947
Chemists, mathematicians,
statisticians _ 569
Chemists .
- -_ . .
Mathematicians, statisticians _ _
__
Clerical workers (miscellaneous) __
1,010
Advertising, editorial assistants Bookkeepers, accounting clerks . _
_ _
Library assistants . ____
Personnel assistants__ _____
__
Typists _
__ .
^
Other clerical workers . __ _
Dietitians, home economists
____
527
Dietitians _ _ __
__ _ _ _ _
__
Home economists
_
Editors, copywriters, reporters
585
Librarians
_
____
646
Managers, officials
511
Nurses ___________ ________
1,930
Professional workers (miscellan_________ ___
eous)
1,775
Religious workers _ ____
__
Other professional workers ___
__
Research workers
.. . _
310
School workers (miscellaneous) ___
674
Secretaries, stenographers ______
1,410
Social, welfare, recreation workers _ _ 1,230
Recreation workers . _ _ _
Social, welfare workers
Teachers _
..
20,140
Kindergarten _ ___
728
Elementary school
11,243
Junior high school _ _____ _
2,682
Senior high school .
3,856
Other _
_ __
1,631
Technicians (biological) ...
732
Therapists _ _. ______
316
8,039
4,813
_ _
_
__
6,110
6,274
5,658
7,466
6,078
•
6,557
_ _
.
6,388
6,744
4,527
6,137
5,890
6,060
5,843
5,837
5,852
6,313
5,843
6,214
_ _
868
1,586
701
1 Excludes part-time workers and those employed outside the United States in 1964. In
cludes a few graduates who had an occupation not listed.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Wage and Labor Standards Administration, Women’s
Bureau: “College Women Seven Years After Graduation; Resurvey of Women Graduates—
Class of 1957.” Bull. 292. 1966.
4
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND
EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
The continuing growth of our economy depends in large meas
ure on the amount of trained manpower or womanpower availa
ble. Recent changes in technology demand better trained and edu
cated workers. Few employment opportunities are open to the il
literate or to those with a limited number of years of formal edu
cation. The amount and type of education or training a woman
has received affect not only the likelihood of her being employed
but also the type of job she may hold and the regularity of her
employment. Thus any discussion of women workers would be in
complete without some recognition of the vocational benefits that
accompany the social and cultural values of education.
Education of Women in the Population
and Labor Force1
In March 1968 women 18 years of age and over in the labor
force had slightly more schooling on the average than did all
women of this age group in the population—a median of 12.4
years for workers and a median of 12.2 years for the population
(table 84). Almost 11 percent of the women in the labor force had
completed 4 years of college or more compared with only 8 per
cent of the woman population. Forty-four percent of the women
in the work force had completed their education with high school
graduation compared with 38 percent of the women in the popula
tion. At the lower end of the educational scale, only 16 percent of
the women workers had an eighth grade education or less com
pared with 24 percent of the women in the population. And
women with less than 5 years of schooling were less than half as
prevalent in the labor force as in the population. Among men
there is less difference between the educational attainment of
1 See also “Trends in Educational Attainment o£ Women.” Women’s Bureau, Wage and
Labor Standards Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, October 1969.
177
178
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
those in the labor force and those in the population, since most
men in the population are also in the labor force.
Table 84.—Educatonal Attainment of the Population
by Sex, March 1968
and of
Workers,
(Persons 18 years of age and over)
Labor force
Population
Years of school
completed
Women
Men
Women
Men
47,255
66,288
57,989
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
4.4
Number (in thousands)
Percent - _
----- -
27,846
1.8
3.4
7.4
Elementary school:
Less than 5 years1 _ -----6 to 7 years __
8 years --
8.1
11.8
5.5
8.9
12.5
5.4
8.7
11.2
High school:
1 to 3 years _ _
4 years . __
18.6
38.2
17.9
30.6
17.6
43.7
18.6
33.8
11.3
5.7
1.9
12.4
6.9
5.3
12.3
7.4
3.1
12.2
12.2
12.2
12.4
12.3
________
__
---
College:
1 to 3 years _ .. ______
4 years _
_____
5 years or more __..
Median years of school
completed
______ .
---
7.7
5.9
1 Includes persons reporting no school years completed.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics:
Report No. 103.
Special Labor Force
78. Education of Women Workers
More than 18.5 million, or 67 percent, of the women 18 years of
age and over in the labor force in March 1968 had at least a high
school education (chart R). Of these, 2.9 million were college
graduates, including 868,000 who had had 5 years of college or
more. More than 3.4 million had completed 1 to 3 years of college.
More than 2 million women workers had not finished elementary
school, and 100,000 of these had not attended school at all.
In March 1968 nonwhite women workers had completed a me
dian of 11.7 years of schooling compared with 12.4 years for
white women workers (chart S). The difference in the amount of
education completed by nonwhite and white women not in the
labor force—9.4 and 12.1 years, respectively—was greater. How
ever, the median educational attainment of nonwhite women
workers was a year more than that of their male counterparts.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
Ckart |
179
MOST WOMEN WORKERS ARE AT LEAST HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES
(Number of Women Workers, by Years of School Completed, March 1968)
Women 18 Years of Age and Over
14
Millions
Elementary School
High School
College
12.2
12-
10 -
4.9
3.4
2.4
2.1
1.5
0
.5
□
less than
5 years 1
n
u
5-7
years
.9
1-3
years
4 years
1-3
years
4 years
□
5 years
or more
1 Includes women reporting no school years completed.
Source: U S. Department of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
79. Rise in Educational Attainment
Educational attainment of the population as a whole and of
those working or seeking work has increased over the past few
years. Between October 1952 and March 1968, the median years
of school completed by all women 18 years of age and over rose
1.2 years; by women workers, 0.4 years. Men made even better
progress over the period. The median years of school completed
by all men 18 years of age and over rose 2.1 years; by those in the
labor force, 1.9 years.
Nonwhite workers made better progress in educational attain
ment between October 1952 and March 1968 than did white
workers. The median years of school completed by nonwhite
women workers rose 3.6 years compared with only 0.3 years for
white women workers. The contrast in the rise in years of school
completed by nonwhite and white men workers—3.5 and 1.5
years, respectively—was not as sharp.
180
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
THE DIFFERENCE IN THE EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT OF WHITE
AND NONWHITE WORKERS IS NARROWING
(Median Years of School Completed by Workers, by Sex and Color,
October 1952 and March 1968)
Persons 18 Years of Age and Over
Nonwhite
White
March
1968
October
1952
October
1952
Women
March
1968
Men
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
School Enrollments
The rise in educational attainment was given special impetus
by the increasing demand for workers in occupations that require
a higher level of skill and training. It is therefore significant to
consider the number of persons enrolled in and graduating from
school at the various levels.
80. Enrollments by Age
There were 26.3 million girls and women between 5 and 34
years of age enrolled in school in the fall of 1966 (table 85). This
was 11.9 million more than in the fall of 1950. Even more signifi
cant was the rise—from 41 percent in 1950 to 56 percent in 1966
—in the proportion of the female population 5 to 34 years of age
who were attending school.
This increase, however, was not spread evenly among the vari
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
181
ous age groups. Nearly all girls of elementary school age—6 to 13
years—were enrolled in school in both years. In contrast, a con
siderably higher proportion of 5-year-old girls and of girls and
women 14 to 34 years of age were enrolled in school in 1966 than
in 1950. Among girls of the usual high school age—14 to 17 years
—the proportion attending school rose from 82 to 93 percent. The
proportion of girls 18 and 19 years of age enrolled in school in
creased by more than half, but the proportion for women 20 to 34
years of age increased almost fourfold.
Table 85.—School1
Enrollments, October
October
1950
and
1966,
by
1966,
Sex
Enrollment Rates,
and
and
Age
(Persons 5 to 34 years of age)
Number of students
Female students Male students
enrolled in 1966
as percent of
as percent of
----------------------------------------population
population
Girls and
Boys and-----------------------------------------------women
men
1966
1950
1966
1950
Age
Total _____
_
5 years
6 years
7 to 13 years 13,756,000
14 to 17 years ____
18 and 19 years ___ .
22
20
25
30
to 24 years
and 21 years
to 29 years
to 34 years
____
____
____
____
26,337,000
1,539,000
1,998,000
6,523,000
1,335,000
28,733,000
1,548,000
2,071,000
14,139,000
6,770,000
1,841,000
278,000
602,000
214,000
92,000
736,000
931,000
506,000
191,000
56.1
74.1
97.6
99.5
92.9
37.7
\
6.6
20.9 /
3.6
1.7
41.0
51.9
97.9
98.7
82.2
24.3
4-6
,
.4
.4
64.1
71.5
97.7
99.2
94.4
57.8
47.5
51.6
96.1
98.7
84.3
35.2
21.3 / 14-2
41.4 V
9.6
5.9
3.8
1.51 2
1 Includes schools in regular school system; that is, public, parochial, and private schools
offering a diploma or a degree.
2 Not reported separately in 1950.
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census: Current Population Reports,
P-20, No. 167.
Relatively fewer females 5 to 34 years of age than males of this
age group were attending school in both 1950 and 1966. There
was little difference in the proportions of the population enrolled
in school at ages 5 through 17. But there was a wide disparity
among those 18 years of age and over. In 1966 among 18- and 19year-olds, about 3 out of 5 boys were enrolled in school as com
pared with only 2 out of 5 girls. Similarly, among those 20 and 21
years old, 41 percent of the men were attending school as com
pared with 21 percent of the women. Among those 22 to 24 years
old, the proportion of men attending school (21 percent) was
three times that of women (7 percent); while among those 25 to
34 years old, men were more than twice as likely as women to be
enrolled in school.
182
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
There was also a divergence in the proportions of white and
nonwhite girls 14 years of age and over who were attending
school. In 1966 nearly all girls under 14 years of age, both white
and nonwhite, were enrolled in school (table 86). Among those 14
to 17 years old, a slightly higher proportion of white than non
white girls were enrolled in school—93 and 90 percent, respec
tively. The gap was wider among those of college age. Thirty-nine
percent of white girls 18 and 19 years of age were attending
school as compared with 32 percent of nonwhite girls of these
ages. And among women 20 and 21 years of age, white women
were almost twice as likely as nonwhite women to be enrolled in
school—22 and 12 percent, respectively.
Table
86.—School1 Enrollments
and
and
Enrollment Rates,
by
Color, Age,
Sex, October 1966
(Persons 5 to 34 years of age)
Girls and women
Age
Number
Boys and men
As percent
of
population
As percent
of
Number population
WHITE
Total ...... ..... ......
5 years
__
___6 years _
___ ____
7 to 13 years ___
14 to 17 years
_ ____ ___
18 and 19 years ______
20 and 21 years __
22 to 24 years ____ _.___
25 to 29 years
_ .... _
30 to 34 years
___
_ .
3.9
1.7
25,017,000
1,328,000
1,768,000
12,155,000
5,887,000
1,649,000
881,000
701,000
480,000
168,000
64.1
72.4
97.8
99.2
94.7
59.0
44.9
23.0
10.3
3.8
3,639,000
217,000
310,000
1,998,000
873,000
139,000
42,000
33,000
15,000
57.4
3,716,000
66.2
220,000
98.4
99.5
90.3
31.9
12,000
1.7
303,000
1,984,000
883,000
192,000
50,000
35,000
26,000
23,000
63.8
66.5
96.8
99.2
92.9
49.1
17.4
22,698,000
1,322,000
1,688,000
11,758,000
5,650,000
1,196,000
560,000
245,000
190,000
80,000
55.9
75.5
97.5
99.5
93.3
38.6
22.3
6.6
NONWHITE
Total ___ _____ _ - _.
5 years
.
_
_ __ _
6 years ___
....
7 to 13 years...... ......_ _
14 to 17 years ___ _ _
18 and 19 years _
20 and 21 years
.
22 to 24 years
__ ___ ___
25 to 29 years .........._ _ 30 to 34 years _
11.6
6.5
2.1
8.6
4.4
4.2
1 Includes schools in regular school system ; that is, public, parochial, and private schools
offering a diploma or a degree.
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce,
Reports, P-20, No. 167.
Bureau of the Census:
Current
Population
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
183
Among girls 14 to 17 years of age, the gap in the relative num
ber of white and nonwhite girls in school was considerably nar
rower in 1966 than it had been in 1950, when 84 percent of white
as compared with 72 percent of nonwhite girls were enrolled in
school. Among 18- and 19-year-olds, however, nonwhite girls had
lost the favorable position they had in 1950, when only 24 percent
of white but 26 percent of nonwhite girls were enrolled in school.
Another interesting comparison is between the school enroll
ment of nonwhite girls and boys. Nearly all nonwhite youngsters
6 to 13 years of age were enrolled in school in 1966. But among
those 14 years of age and over, nonwhite boys were more likely
than nonwhite girls to attend school. The difference was most
marked among those over 18 years of age. In 1966 nearly half (49
percent) of nonwhite boys 18 and 19 years old were enrolled in
school as compared with less than a third (32 percent) of non
white girls. Among nonwhites 20 to 34 years of age, the propor
tions attending school were 7 percent for men and 4 percent for
women.
81. Enrollments by Type of School
Of the 26.3 million girls and women enrolled in the fall of
1966, 17.4 million (66 percent) were in elementary school or kin
dergarten, 6.6 million (25 percent) were in high school, and the
remaining 2.3 million (9 percent) were attending colleges, univer
sities, or professional schools (table 87). The numbers of female
and male students were about the same at the elementary and sec
ondary school levels. But more than half again as many men as
women were attending college.
These students were enrolled in schools in the regular school
system; that is, any type of graded public, private, or parochial
school offering courses leading to an elementary or high school di
ploma, or to a college, university, or professional degree. Students
taking vocational courses for credit at any of these schools also
are included.
An additional 634,000 girls and women (626,000 boys and men)
5 to 34 years of age were enrolled in special schools outside the
regular school system. Most of these schools offer occupationally
oriented courses not leading to a diploma or a degree. Among oth
ers, they include trade schools, business colleges, schools of nurs
ing, schools of beauty culture, and technical schools. About
530,000, or 84 percent, of the girls and women enrolled in these
schools in the fall of 1966 were 18 years of age or over. The com
parable percentage for men was 79.
184
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
Table 87.—Types
of
School 1 Attended by Students 5
by Sex, October 1966
Female students
Type of school
Total _ _ __
Number
______
Elementary school or
kindergarten _ _________ _
High school _____________
College
.
__
Percent
distribution
to
34 Years
of
Age,
Male students
Number
Percent
distribution
26,337,000
100.0
28,733,000
100.0
17,426,000
6,674,000
2,337,000
66.2
25.0
8.9
18,197,000
6,791,000
3,749,000
63.3
23.6
13.0
1 Includes schools in regular school system; that is, public, parochial, and private schools
offering a diploma or a degree.
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census: Current Population Reports,
P-20, No. 167.
82. Secondary School Enrollmenfs
Growth.—The number of young people enrolling in and grad
uating from high school is rising steadily. While part of this is
due to the increase in the number of young people in the popula
tion, part is also due to certain social and economic factors. Most
States have passed compulsory school attendance laws establish
ing a minimum school-leaving age—usually 16. The passage of
child labor laws at both the State and Federal levels has raised
the minimum age at which young people can be employed, thus
influencing them to stay in school. Moreover, more young people
are able to stay in school because of the rise in personal and fam
ily income. And young people are increasingly aware of the neces
sity of securing at least a high school diploma in order to qualify
for most jobs. Many of the jobs requiring little or no training
that formerly offered beginning employment for young men and
women have disappeared.
As recently as the school year 1949-50, only 77 out of 100 per
sons 14 to 17 years of age were enrolled in high school.2 In
1966-67 this ratio had grown to 94 out of 100. A similar growth
occurred among high school graduates. In 1950 only 59 per 100
persons 17 years of age graduated from high school, but by 1967
this ratio had increased to 75 per 100.
There were 2,679,000 persons who graduated from high school
in 1967. This was 754,000 more than the number who graduated
in 1962 but only 7,000 more than had graduated in 1966. The
number of young people in the population of high school graduat
2 U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education: “Digest of
Educational Statistics, 1968.” OE-10024-68.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
185
ing age remained fairly constant from 1966 to 1967, following a
very substantial increase from 1962 to 1966. Girls have consist
ently outnumbered boys among high school graduates. However,
the difference has narrowed, and currently the number of girls
graduating from high school is only slightly more than the num
ber of boys—1,348,000 and 1,331,000, respectively, in 1967.
Retention rates.—The increased holding power of the schools
has been measured on the basis of retention rates. Of those
youngsters who entered the fifth grade in the fall of 1942, 81 per
cent enrolled in the ninth grade in 1946 and 51 percent graduated
from high school in June 1950.3 The picture has brightened con
siderably since then. Of those boys and girls who entered the fifth
grade in 1959, 97 percent enrolled in the ninth grade in 1963 and
72 percent graduated from high school in June 1967. Moreover,
40 percent of those who started fifth grade in 1959 enrolled in
college in the fall of 1967. First-time college enrollees in the fall
of 1950 had amounted to only 21 percent of those who had entered
fifth grade in 1942.
School dropouts.—Despite this substantial progress, large num
bers of both girls and boys still leave school before earning a
high school diploma. In October 1967, 1.6 million of the 5 million
girls 16 to 21 years of age who were not in school had dropped
out before completing high school.4 Dropping out of school was
much more prevalent among nonwhite girls than among white
girls—41 percent of the nonwhite but only 30 percent of the
white girls not in school had not graduated from high school.
Among boys of this age group who were not in school, 58 percent
of the nonwhites and 39 percent of the whites had dropped out be
fore graduating from high school.
In a 1963 survey of out-of-school youth aged 16 to 21 years,
marriage or pregnancy was given as the principal reason for
leaving school by about 2 out of 5 girls who had dropped out of
elementary or high school and almost 1 out of 4 girls who had
dropped out of college.5 The second most important reason for
leaving school at the elementary or high school level was lack f
interest in school. Economic reasons were cited by about 1 out of
8 of both elementary or high school and college girls. Among boys
16 to 21 years, economic reasons were most often cited by drop
outs at all school levels, but lack of interest in school was of al
most equal importance in the case of elementary and high school
dropouts.
3 Ibid.
4 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report No. 100.
5 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report No. 46.
186
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OP WOMEN
Women and Higher Education
Each year more and more women enroll in and graduate from
institutions of higher education. However, women still lag behind
men in pursuing their education beyond the secondary school
level, especially in the area of advanced degrees.
83. High School Graduates Entering College
Nearly 716,000 women and more than 936,000 men enrolled in
college for the first time in October 1967 (table 88). These en
rollments represented increases of 7 percent for women and 5
percent for men over those of October 1966. On the other hand,
the numbers of girls and boys graduating from high school were
virtually unchanged from June 1966 to June 1967.
From 1950 to 1965 first-time college enrollments of women in
degree-credit programs more than tripled, while the number of
girls graduating from high school little more than doubled. First
time college enrollments of men also increased proportionately
more than high school graduations during the 15-year period.
These differences represent in part a rise in the proportions of
young men and women who go on to college directly from high
school. They also represent a substantial increase in the number
of men and women who enter college after being out of school for
a year or more.
Of all women students 14 to 34 years of age enrolled in the
first year of college in October 1966, 30 percent had graduated
from high school before 1966 and 9 percent had graduated in
1961 or earlier.51 Among men first-year students, 34 percent had
graduated before 1966 and 15 percent in 1961 or earlier. Among
students enrolled in 2-year colleges, the figures were even more
striking—43 percent of the men and 36 percent of the women
first-year students had graduated before 1966, and 21 percent of
the men and 11 percent of the women had graduated in 1961
or earlier.
Some of these older students undoubtedly were men who had
been in military service or women who had been busy with family
responsibilities during the intervening years. And some may have
been workers who found the need of further education in order to
advance in their careers.
Ba U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census: Current Population Reports,
P-20, No. 183.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
Table 88.—High School Graduates
Enrollees,
by
and
187
First-Time College
Sex, Selected Years,
1950-67
(Persons of all ages)
Women
Year
1967_________ --1966________ - 1965___
--1964______ . --1962_______ - - 1960________ - - 1958______
--1956__ _____ - - 1954____ ___ - 1952__
___ --1950
_____ ---
Men
High school
graduates
First-time
college
enrollees
High school
graduates
First-time
college
enrollees
’1,348,000
1,346,000
1,337,000
1,169,000
984,000
966,000
780,400
735,300
663,600
627,300
629,000
’715,911
’ 670,648
618,332
528,340
436,627
387,049
312,450
277,064
244,573
213,206
197,103
11,331,000
1,326,000
1,305,000
1,121,000
941,000
898,000
725,500
679,500
612,500
569,200
570,700
’ 936,406
2 894,916
834,594
706,466
601,993
542,774
468,625
446,114
386,549
323,673
319,733
1 Preliminary data.
- Data for first-time students for 1966 and 1967 are not strictly comparable with data for
prior years, which include only first-time students in programs chiefly creditable toward a
bachelor’s degree.
Source: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education: “Digest
of Educational Statistics, 1968.” OIM0024-68 and “Opening Fall Enrollment, Higher Educa
tion, 1960, 1963, and 1967.’’ OE-54007-60, 54003-63, and 54003-67.
84. College Enrollments
There were 2,805,130 women enrolled in institutions of higher
education in the fall of 1967 (table 89). The number of women
enrollees was 10 percent higher than in 1966 and 53 percent
higher than in 1963 (the earliest date for which comparable fig
ures were obtained by the Office of Education). Between 1963 and
1967 the number of women 18 to 21 years of age in the population
increased by 22 percent. Women accounted for 40 percent of all
students in colleges and universities in 1967 as compared with 38
percent in 1963.
Types of institutions attended by women.—There were
2,204,316 women enrolled in 4-year institutions in the fall of
1967. Of these, 952,531, or 43 percent, were enrolled in universi
ties (institutions which have professional schools, offer advanced
degrees as well as bachelor’s degrees, and stress graduate instruc
tion). Women enrolled in all other 4-year institutions numbered
1,251,785.
More than one-fifth of women college students were enrolled in
2-year institutions in the fall of 1967. A significant feature in the
growth of higher education in recent years has been the rapid ex
188
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
pansion in the number of students enrolled in 2-year institutions.
In 1967 the total number of junior college enrollees was 79 per
cent greater than in 1963. Women enrollees in 2-year colleges in
creased by 92 percent during this period, as compared with a 46percent increase in women enrollees at 4-year institutions.
Table 89.—College Enrollments,1 by Type op Institution and Enrollment
Category, Fall 1967
Women
Total
Number
As per
cent of
Percent
total
distribution
type of institution
___
Total _ - __
4-year institutions
— _____
Universities
___ _____
All other institutions _____
__
2-year institutions _____
6,963,687
5,445,608
2,609,097
2,826,511
1,518,079
2,805,130
2,204,316
952,531
1,251,785
600,814
100.0
_____
_____
___
_____
_____
_____
5,445,608
3,475,660
1,969,948
1,518,079
1,374,670
143,409
2,204,316
1,452,995
751,321
600,814
536,135
64,679
100.0
6,963,687
2,805,130
100.0
6,670,416
5,770,451
899,965
293,271
2,660,973
2,394,115
266,858
144,157
94.9
85.3
9.5
5.1
4-year institutions .........
Public
_____
Private
_ ____ _
2-year institutions ____
Public _
_
Private _____ ___
78.6
34.0
44.6
21.4
65.9
34.1
100.0
89.2
10.8
40.3
40.5
36.4
44.3
39.6
--
41.8
38.1
--
39.0
45.1
ENROLLMENT CATEGORY
Total . _ ______ _____
Resident students
__
___
Undergraduate ____ _____
Graduate .................. _____
___
Extension students ___
40.3
39.9
41.5
29.7
49.2
1 Includes students enrolled in degree-credit programs and those enrolled in programs
not chiefly creditable toward a degree.
Source: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education: "Opening
Fall Enrollment, Higher Education, 1967.” OE-54003-67.
Two-year institutions include junior colleges, technical insti
tutes, and semiprofessional schools that offer programs extending
at least 2 years but less than 4 years beyond high school. These
institutions do not grant bachelor’s degrees. Junior colleges (in
cluding the 2-year branches of public universities) offer programs
creditable toward a bachelor’s degree by transfer to a 4-year insti
tution. In addition, many junior colleges offer terminal programs
either in liberal arts or in technical-vocational fields. Technical,
vocational, and semiprofessional programs are not generally cred
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
189
itable toward a baccalaureate degree, but usually lead to an
associate degree or similar certificate.
The growth in junior colleges can be attributed in part to the
increasing enrollment pressures on all institutions of higher edu
cation. But 2-year colleges also have a distinct purpose and role of
their own. Community colleges bring higher education within fi
nancial and commuting reach of many students who might not
otherwise be able to attend college. Two-year colleges also serve
students who seek courses beyond the high school level which will
prepare them for immediate employment. In addition, they fre
quently offer educational facilities to adults who wish to improve
or refresh their skills, develop new interests, or expand their gen
eral education.
About 70 percent of all women enrolled in institutions of
higher education in the fall of 1967 attended publicly sponsored
colleges and universities. The remainder were in privately con
trolled schools. Women enrolled in 2-year institutions were more
likely than those enrolled in 4-year institutions to be attending
publicly sponsored schools—89 and 66 percent, respectively.
Freshmen students.—More than 2.3 million, or one-third, of all
students enrolled in institutions of higher education in the fall of
1967 were freshmen.6 Women students totaled 989,963, or 43 per
cent of the freshman class. Of these, 715,911 women were first
time enrollees—students who had never previously been enrolled
at any institution of higher education. The remaining 274,052
women had previously taken college courses but had not earned
enough credits to be classified as sophomores. There was no signif
icant difference between the proportions of men and women
freshmen students who were first-time enrollees. The proportion
of first-time enrollees among freshmen women was slightly lower
in 2-year institutions than in 4-year institutions—64 and 78 per
cent, respectively.
Full-time and part-time students.—Thirty-three percent of the
women enrolled in institutions of higher education in the fall of
1967 were resident students attending school only part time or ex
tension students. A slightly smaller proportion of men (29 per
cent) were on part-time schedules. There was considerable differ
ence in part-time or extension enrollment of women between the
2- and 4-year institutions—50 and 28 percent, respectively. Many
married women with family responsibilities attend community
junior colleges on a part-time schedule.
6 U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education: “Opening Fall
Enrollment, Higher Education, 1967.” OE-64003-67.
190
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
Graduate students.—Graduate students accounted for 13 per
cent of the 6,670,416 resident students enrolled in the fall of 1967
and numbered 899,965. Of these, 266,858, or 30 percent, were
women. Thus about 1 out of every 10 women and almost 1 out of
every 6 men resident students were studying at the postbaccalau
reate level. The proportion of part-time students at the graduate
level was 50 percent as compared with 24 percent at the under
graduate level. Data on the part-time status of graduate resident
students are not available by sex.
College enrollment and marriage.—In October 1966 about
340,000, or 15 percent, of the women college students under 35
years of age were married (husband present).7 This compares
with 147,000 married women students, or 13 percent, in 1959.
However, most of these married women students were 22 years of
age and over—75 percent in 1966 and 79 percent in 1959 (the
earliest date for which comparable figures are available).
Married women students are more likely to be enrolled in col
lege on a part-time than a full-time basis. Thus 60 percent were
attending school only part time in 1966. A larger proportion of
married women students 22 years of age and over (72 percent)
than of those younger (26 percent) were enrolled part time.
The percentage of men college students who are married is sig
nificantly higher than that of women. In October 1966, 24 percent
of all men under 35 years of age who were enrolled in college
were married (wife present). Married men students, like married
women students, are likely to be relatively older and to attend
school part time. Eighty-six percent of the married men students
in October 1966 were 22 years of age and over, and about threefifths of these men were attending school part time. Only onefifth of those under 22 years of age were part-time students.
85. Women Earning Degrees
The number of degrees earned by women has risen significantly
in recent years and reached a record high of 296,732 in the school
year 1966-67. This was an increase of more than 22,500 over the
number earned in 1965-66 and more than 132,750 over the number
conferred by institutions of higher education in 1959-60. It was
a more than threefold increase over the number earned in 1939
40.
Number and types of degrees.—Women’s degrees in 1967 in
cluded 238,133 bachelor’s degrees (80.3 percent), 1,429 first pro7 U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census: Current Population Reports,
P-20, No. 167.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
191
fessional degrees (0.5 percent), 54,713 master’s degrees (18.4
percent), and 2,457 doctor’s degrees (0.8 percent).
Because of changes in definitions by the Office of Education, it
is not possible to compare 1966 or 1967 data on bachelor’s, first
professional, or master’s degrees with data for prior years. As
previously defined, bachelor’s degrees were those which required
4 but less than 5 years of college education. In 1966 bachelor’s
degrees were redefined to include those requiring 4 or 5 years of
college. First professional degrees (first reported separately from
bachelor’s degrees in 1961) previously included professional
degrees requiring 5 years or more of higher education. In 1966
they were redefined to include only professional degrees requiring
6 years or more of higher education.8 In addition, certain degrees,
such as master of library science and master of social work, which
were classified as first professional degrees from 1961 to 1965,
were reclassified as master’s degrees in 1966.
Comparison of degrees earned by women and men.—In 1967
women earned about the same proportion (38 percent) of all
degrees conferred as in 1965. The proportions of all conferred de
grees earned by women at three degree levels in selected years
from 1900 to 1967 follow:
Percent earned by women in—
Degree level
Total _________
Bachelor’s or first
professional _______
Master’s ___________
Doctor’s ___________
1967
1966
1965
1960
1950
I960
1900
3JU
3SL4
38J5
342
244
39^5
1&9
' 40.3
’34.7
11.9
140.4
’33.8
40.7
32.1
11.6
10.8
35.3
31.6
10.5
23.9
29.2
9.7
39.9
40.4
15.4
19.1
19.1
6.0
1 Data not comparable with prior years. See text explanation.
Since data for 1966 and 1967 are not comparable with those for
previous years at the first and second degree levels, comparisons at
these levels will be made between 1965 and previous years. In 1965
women earned about 41 percent of bachelor’s and first profes
sional degrees as compared with 35 percent in 1960. Back at the
turn of the century, women earned only 19 percent of all bache
lor’s and first professional degrees. This proportion rose to 40
percent in 1930, and reached a peak of 41 percent in 1940. Fol
lowing World War II the percent dropped to a low of 24 in 1950,
when the college graduating classes included large numbers of re
turning veterans.
Although the number of women taking advanced degrees has
8 First professional degrees now include such degrees as M.D., D.D.S., LL.B., and B.D.
192
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
increased, women earn only a small proportion of all advanced de
grees conferred. Thus in 1965 women earned 32 percent of all
master’s or second-level degrees. This was considerably below the
peak of 40 percent registered in 1930. However, it was above the 19
percent they earned in 1900 and a more recent low of 29 percent
they earned in 1950.
Women earned a higher proportion of all doctor’s degrees in
1967 than in 1965—12 percent as compared with 11 percent. This
was almost twice as high a proportion as they earned in 1900 but
still below the 15 percent they earned in 1930. The number of
doctor’s degrees earned by women increased from 23 in 1900 to
353 in 1930 and to 2,457 in 1967.
Fields of study in which women earned degrees.—Since more
and more women are enrolling in and graduating from institutions
of higher education, it is of interest to examine the fields of study
in which they earn degrees. Although women earn degrees in a
broad and varied range of subjects, most of the degrees received
by women are concentrated in a relatively limited number of
fields of study. The field of education alone accounted for 38
percent of bachelor’s degrees earned by women in 1967 (chart T).
2 OUT OF 5 WOMEN COLLEGE GRADUATES MAJOR IN EDUCATION
(Bachelor’s Degrees Conferred on Women, by Field of Study, 1966-67}
Basic and
Applied
Sciences
__ 13%
Education
38%
Social Sciences
16%
j
Humanities
and the Arts
24%
238,133
Source: U S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education .
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
193
Education also accounted for 51 percent of master’s and 29 percent
of doctor’s degrees earned by women in 1967—not surprising
since teaching is the largest single professional occupation for
women. The humanities and the arts were the next most popular
disciplines, accounting for 24 percent of bachelor’s, 18 percent
of master’s, and 21 percent of doctor’s degrees.
Bachelor’s degrees.—Within the leading fields of education
and the humanities, the most popular single subjects in which
women earned bachelor’s degrees in 1967 were elementary educa
tion (58,016 degrees), English and journalism (29,206), fine
and applied arts (12,569), and foreign languages and literature
(12,184) (table 90). Many women also earned degrees in the social
sciences, especially history (11,064) and sociology (10,588) ; in
psychology (7,806) ; and in basic and applied sciences, especially
nursing (8,252), biological sciences (8,047), and mathematical
subjects (7,310).
Table 90.—Earned Bachelor’s Degrees 1 Conferred
Fields of Study, 1966-67
on
Women,
by
Selected
Women
Field of study
Total ________ _
Education
_
Art education______
Business and commercial
education
Early childhood, nursery,
and kindergarten
education
Education of exceptional
children and the
handicapped
Elementary education ..
Home economics education
Music education
Physical education _ - _
Secondary education___
Speech and hearing
education ____..
Other .
_
Humanities and the arts
English, journalism
..
Fine and applied arts
See footnote at end of table.
Total
Number
As per
cent of all
Percent bachelor’s
distri
degrees
bution conferred
562,369
238,133
100.0
42.3
120,874
3,928
90,562
2,829
38.0
1.2
74.9
72.0
6,315
4,523
1.9
71.6
4,023
3,992
1.7
99.2
1,999
64,595
4,582
5,593
13,473
2,852
1,698
58,016
4,567
3,203
4,946
1,532
.7
24.4
1.9
1.3
84.9
89.8
99.7
57.3
36.7
53.7
2,378
11,136
98,368
45,949
21,553
2,004
3,252
56,883
29,206
12,569
2.1
.6
.8
1.4
23.9
12.3
5.3
84.3
29.2
57.8
63.6
68.3
194
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
Table 90.—Earned
Bachelor’s Degrees 1 Conferred
Fields
of
Study,
on
Women,
by
Selected
1966-67—Continued
Women
Field of study
Foreign languages,
literature
_ _ _ _
Religion, philosophy ____
Other
_ _
_
Psychology _____________
Social sciences _ _ _ _ _ _
Social sciences ..................
Anthropology
Economics ___ ____ History
Political science,
government............
Social sciences
(general)..
..
Social work, administration, welfare Sociology ________ - _
Other .. ........ ........... ...
Geography _____ _ _ _ _
Basic and applied sciences _ ..
Biological sciences ___ _
Health professions _______
Medical technology___
Nursing, public health
nursing
Therapy (occupational
and physical)
.
Other health professions __
Mathematical subjects - __
Physical sciences _. _ ..
Other
..
.... ... _ .
Other professional fields
Business and commerce___
Home economics__
___
Library scienfce __
__
Other
______
___
As per
cent of all
Percent bachelor’s
distri
degrees
bution conferred
Total
Number
17,025
9,509
4,332
19,496
106,919
104,756
1,825
13,058
31,793
12,184
2,134
790
7,806
37,656
37,219
971
1,331
11,064
5.1
.9
.3
3.3
15.8
15.6
.4
.6
10.2
4.6
34.8
17,733
3,920
1.6
22.1
14,744
6,487
2.7
44.0
1,881
17,751
5,971
2,163
130,974
28,950
16,123
2,261
1,462
10,588
1,396
437
31,301
8,047
12,437
2,019
.6
77.7
59.6
23.4
8,334
1,306
4,222
21,308
17,794
46,799
85,738
69,687
6,335
701
9,015
4.4
.6
.2
20.2
.8
23.9
27.8
77.1
89.3
8,252
3.5
99.0
1,180
986
7,310
2,402
1,105
13,925
5,992
6,166
647
.5
.4
3.1
90.4
23.4
34.3
13.5
2.4
16.2
1,120
13.1
3.4
5.2
71.6
22.4
18.2
40.0
35.2
35.5
53.2
1.0
.5
5.8
~2l
2.6
.3
.5
8.6
97.3
92.3
12.4
1 Includes degrees requiring 4 or 5 years of education.
Source: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education: “Earned
Degrees, 1966-67.” OE-S4013-67.
Another indication of the popularity of certain subjects among
women is the proportion of all degrees in them earned by women.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
195
In 1967 almost all bachelor’s degrees in home economics education;
early childhood, nursery, and kindergarten education; nursing;
and home economics were conferred on women. Women also earned
9 out of 10 bachelor’s degrees in library science, occupational and
physical therapy, elementary education, and medical technology;
8 out of 10 in education of exceptional children and the handi
capped and in speech and hearing education; 7 out of 10 in
social work, art education, business and commercial education,
and foreign languages and literature; and 6 out of 10 in English
and journalism and in sociology. On the other hand, women earned
only 1 out of 10 bachelor’s degrees in economics and less than 1
out of 10 in business and commerce.
First professional degrees.—Because of the change in defini
tion (see Number and types of degrees, above), data on first
professional degrees earned in 1966 and 1967 are not comparable
with 1965 data, except for a few specific degrees. In 1967 women
earned 1,429 first professional degrees (table 91). Of these, 1,144
were in the fields of medicine and law (M.D., J.D., or LL.B.)—
Table 91.—Earned
First Professional Degrees ' Conferred
Selected Fields
of
Study,
on
Women,
by
1966-67
Women
As percent of all
first profes
sional degrees
conferred
Field of study
Total
Number
Percent
distribution
Total ____ . _
Humanities and the arts
Religion and philosophy _ _ _
Other _
Basic and applied sciences
Health professions
Medicine (M.D. only) _
Pharmacy
Veterinary medicine
(D.V.M. only) ____
Other health
professions _
Other
Other professional fields 2 ____
Law _____
32,493
1,429
100.0
4.4
4,228
4,079
149
13,399
13,330
7,767
8.7
7.6
2.9
2.7
1.0
10.1
202
124
109
15
734
730
574
41
51.4
51.1
40.2
2.9
5.5
5.5
7.4
20.3
942
52
3.6
5.5
4,419
69
14,866
14,846
63
4
571
570
4.4
.3
40.0
39.9
1.4
5.8
3.8
3.8
1 Includes degrees requiring at least 6 years of education.
2 Includes persons earning degrees in fields not shown separately.
Source: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education: “Earned
Degrees, 1966-67.” OE-54013-67.
196
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OP WOMEN
an increase of 12 percent over the number earned by women in
these two fields in 1966 (medicine, 516; law, 508) and 31 percent
over the number earned in 1965.
Only 4.4 percent of all first professional degrees conferred in
1967 were earned by women. A slightly larger share of such
degrees was earned by women in certain health professions—
pharmacy (20 percent), medicine (7 percent), and veterinary
medicine (6 percent) ; but women’s share of degrees in other
health professions, including dentistry and certain medical special
ties, was only 1 percent. Women earned only 4 percent of all
law degrees.
Master’s degrees.—Master’s degrees earned by women in
1967 were more concentrated in the field of education than were
bachelor’s degrees—51 and 38 percent, respectively. Women who
have majored in another field of study at the undergraduate level
often obtain their master’s degree in education in order to qualify
for teaching positions in secondary schools or to qualify for higher
rates of pay. There was less interest in 1967 at the master’s level
than at the undergraduate level in the humanities (18 percent
compared with 24 percent), in social sciences (11 and 16 percent),
and in the basic and applied sciences (9 and 13 percent).
The most popular individual subjects for women at the master’s
degree level, as at the undergraduate level, were elementary edu
cation (8,055) and English and journalism (4,170) ; but many
women earned master’s degrees in library science (3,567), counsel
ing and guidance (3,276), social work (2,533), fine and applied
arts (2,476), and foreign languages and literature (2,379) (table
92).
Even though women earned only 35 percent of all master’s
degrees conferred in 1967, they still predominated in the same
individual educational subjects as at the undergraduate level and
in nursing and home economics. They also earned 79 percent of
the degrees in library science and 60 percent of the degrees in
social work. However, they earned only 9 and 10 percent of the
degrees in economics and in physical sciences, respectively; less
than 3 percent of the degrees in business and commerce; and 2
percent in other basic and applied sciences (which includes en
gineering) .
Doctor’s degrees.—The specialization by women in the field
of education is markedly reduced at the doctorate level. Of all
doctor’s degrees earned by women in 1967, 29 percent were in the
field of education, as compared with 25 percent in basic and
applied sciences and 21 percent in the humanities and the arts
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
Table 92.—Earned
Master’s Degrees Conferred
Fields
of
Study,
on
Women,
by
197
Selected
1966-67
Women
Field of study
Total _______
Education ___
Art education_____
Business and commercial
education
Counseling, guidance ______
Curriculum and instruction _
Early childhood, nursery, and
kindergarten education__
Educational administration,
supervision, or finance___
Educational psychology
Education of exceptional children and the handicapped
Elementary education _____
Home economics education
Music education
Physical education__
Secondary education ____
Speech and hearing
education___
Other
Humanities and the arts
English, journalism _
Fine and applied arts
Foreign languages,
literature _
Religion, philosophy _
Other
Psychology
Social sciences _
Social sciences _
Anthropology
Area and regional
studies Economics
History ___
Political science,
government _
Social sciences
(general) ......................
Total
Number
As percent
of all
master’s
Percent
degrees
distribution conferred
157,892
64,713
100.0
34.7
55,861
721
27,918
404
51.0
.7
50.0
56.0
1,224
7,001
1,117
707
3,276
699
1.3
1.3
67.8
46.8
62.6
395
389
.7
98.5
7,230
634
1,602
280
2.9
.5
44.2
2,295
10,040
509
1,509
3,052
4,305
1,584
8,055
504
578
852
1,809
2.9
14.7
.9
887
14,942
22,051
7,984
5,812
675
6,504
9,836
4,170
2,476
4,255
2,876
1,124
3,138
19,173
18,710
357
2,379
600
4.3
211
1,062
5,851
5,784
117
.4
1.9
10.7
10.6
.2
419
1,778
4,621
125
168
1,317
.3
2.4
29.8
9.4
28.5
1,775
387
.7
21.8
1,688
462
.8
27.4
6.0
1.1
1.6
3.3
1.2
11.9
18.0
7.6
4.5
1.1
.2
22.2
69.0
80.2
99.0
38.3
27.9
42.0
76.1
43.5
44.6
52.2
42.6
55.9
20.9
18.8
33.8
30.5
30.9
32.8
198
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
Table 92.—Earned
Master’s Degrees Conferred on Women,
Fields of Study, 1966-67—Continued
by
Selected
Women
Field of study
Social work, administra
tion, welfare .. _ _ _.
Sociology __________
Other _
___ _. __
Total
Number
As percent
of all
master’s
degrees
Percent
distribution conferred
4,220
1,193
2,669
2,533
356
319
4.6
.7
60.0
29.8
.6
12.0
__
463
67
.1
14.5
Basic and applied sciences
_
Biological sciences
_ __
Health professions
-Nursing, public health
nursing __________ ..
Public health
__
Other health
professions _______ _ _
Mathematical subjects _
__
Physical sciences
-___ - _ _
Other
--
35,960
5,003
3,455
5,121
1,282
1,663
9.4
2.3
3.0
14.2
25.6
48.1
1,145
865
1,120
2.0
294
.5
97.8
34.0
1,445
5,284
5,412
16,796
249
1,284
553
339
.5
2.3
17.2
24.3
1.0
.6
10.2
2.0
Other professional fields
. __
Business and commerce - - . _
Home economics _
_
Library science ____
Other ______
__ __ __ __
21,719
14,894
850
4,489
1,486
4,925
406
804
3,567
148
9.0
.7
1.5
6.5
.3
22.7
2.7
94.6
79.5
Geography______ _ .
10.0
Source: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education: “Earned
Degrees, 1966-67.” OE-54013-67
(table 93). In the latter two fields the largest single subjects were
biological sciences and English and journalism. Psychology ac
counted for less than 10 percent of doctor’s degrees earned by
women; social sciences, 13 percent.
Although women earned only 12 percent of all doctor’s degrees
conferred in 1967, their share in certain fields was considerably
larger—20 percent in education and in the humanities and the
arts and 19 percent in psychology. On the other hand, half of
all doctoral degrees conferred in 1967 were in the basic and applied
sciences, where women’s share was only 6 percent.
In several individual subjects women’s share of doctoral de
grees was substantially higher in 1967 than in 1956 (the earliest
date for which comparable figures are available by field of study).
For example, increases were from 20 to 28 percent in foreign
languages and literature, from 15 to 23 percent in English and
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
199
journalism, and from 14 to 19 percent in psychology. Women’s
share of doctoral degrees in biological sciences rose only mod
erately from 11 percent in 1956 to 15 percent in 1967, but the
actual number of degrees earned by women in this field increased
by almost one-half in just 2 years, from 1965 to 1967.
Table 93.—Earned Doctor’s Degrees Conferred on Women,
Fields of Study, 1966-67
Selected
by
Women
As percent of
all doctor's
degrees
conferred
Total
Number
Percent
distribution
20,621
2,457
100.0
Education ________
3,529
722
29.4
20.5
Humanities and the arts
English and journalism .
Fine and applied arts
Foreign languages, literature __
Other
Psychology ___
Social sciences
2,543
871
504
578
590
1,231
511
203
93
163
52
20.8
20.1
8.3
3.8
23.3
18.5
28.2
232
9.4
18.8
2,586
310
12.6
12.0
10,096
2,256
832
3,462
3,546
605
342
59
162
42
24.6
13.9
2.4
636
77
Field of study
Total __
Basic and applied sciences ____
Biological sciences
Mathematical subjects
Physical sciences
Other ___
Other professional fields
6.6
2.1
11.9
8.8
6.0
6.6
15.2
7.1
4.7
1.7
1.2
3.1
12.1
Source: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education- "Earned
Degrees, 1966-67.” OE-64013-67.
86. Continuing Education Programs for Women
Many mature women wish to return to school after their fam
ily responsibilities lessen, in order to prepare themselves for
entry or reentry into the world of work or for a serious volunteer
commitment. Some of these women seek to start or continue a col
lege education which had been precluded or interrupted by mar
riage and family. For others the passage of years and volunteer
or family experiences have brought changing occupational inter
ests. Others want to update and refresh their knowledge or to
work toward advanced degrees in their previous professional
fields.
Educational institutions are paying increasing attention to the
200
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
special needs of these mature women. Programs and practices de
signed for students in their late teens or early twenties have
proved inadequate or frustrating in many ways to women in their
thirties or over. Many of these older women are married and have
family responsibilities; many have been out of school for 10 or 20
years. They need less rigid interpretation of entrance require
ments, such as substituting equivalency tests for credits earned
too long ago to be considered eligible. They need flexible schedul
ing, often on a part-time basis and at hours convenient for those
with young children at home. They need special counseling serv
ices on both educational and occupational opportunities. They
may also need financial aid, now seldom available to those on
part-time schedules. Finally, they need changes in course mate
rial and teaching methods designed for young people and fre
quently inappropriate for mature women with broader back
grounds of life experience, probably including periods of employ
ment or volunteer work.
Continuing education programs to meet these needs have been
developed by colleges and universities, 2-year community colleges,
and a few public secondary school systems. The programs vary
with each institution, but certain general features characterize
various types of programs.9
One approach has been the establishment of a center for the
continuing education of women within the college or university in
order to make the regular resources of the institution more
efficiently and effectively useful to adult women. Individual coun
seling, information, and referral services may be provided on
both educational and employment opportunities. Job placement
services, nursery facilities, and scholarship aid also may be in
cluded.
A general orientation workshop or course has been another
type of response to the special needs of mature women. Such ori
entation courses usually offer a comprehensive survey of current
information on career, educational, and volunteer opportunities.
Counseling and guidance on both a group and an individual basis,
aptitude testing, and placement assistance are often included.
Another approach has been the establishment of special pro
grams for adult women to pursue either undergraduate or gradu
ate education on a part-time basis. Such programs may include
pre-admission counseling and refresher courses.
9 For more* detailed information on continuing education programs and services, see
“Continuing Education Programs and Services for Women.” Pamphlet 10. Women's Bureau,
Wage and Labor Standards Administration, U.S. Department of Labor. 1968.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
201
Special degree programs that go beyond the usual part-time ar
rangements in meeting the flexible time needs of mature women
also have been developed. Such programs may combine short
term residence requirements or special summer seminars with
provision for independent or correspondence study. Other fea
tures sometimes included are credit for life experience, taped lec
tures, and programed learning.
87. Financial Assistance for College Students
As more and more high school graduates seek education beyond
the secondary level and as college costs continue to rise, financial
aid has become an increasingly important problem to college stu
dents. Institutions of higher education and many private groups
and organizations have long offered financial assistance to able
students. To help meet society’s need for educated men and
women and trained manpower, Congress has, in recent years, au
thorized a number of federally assisted aid programs in the form
of grants, loans, and employment opportunities. These programs
are available to students seeking postsecondary training at partic
ipating colleges, universities, and vocational, business, or techni
cal schools. Students who want details about any of these pro
grams should inquire at the school to which they are applying or
in which they are enrolled.
Educational opportunity grants.—These grants are available to
undergraduate students with exceptional financial need. To be eli
gible, students must be enrolled or accepted for enrollment on a
full-time basis.
Grants are made to eligible students for each of 4 years of un
dergraduate study, in amounts ranging from $200 to $1,000 an ac
ademic year. Institutions of higher education participating in the
program select the recipients and determine the amount each stu
dent needs, in accordance with criteria established by the Office
of Education. Matching awards, in amounts at least equal to the
Federal grants, must be provided to grant recipients by the partic
ipating institutions or by other sources—so that the students re
ceive packages of financial assistance designed for individual
needs and circumstances.
National defense student loans.—Students who have been ac
cepted for enrollment or are already in attendance on at least a
half-time basis at participating colleges, universities, or voca
tional, business, or technical schools and who need financial help
for educational expenses are eligible for these long term, low-in
terest loans.
202
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
Undergraduate students may borrow up to $1,000 each aca
demic year, to a total of $4,000. Graduate students may borrow as
much as $2,500 a year, to a maximum of $10,000. The repayment
period and the interest (8 percent a year) do not begin until 9
months after students end their studies. Repayment of principal
may be extended over a 10-year period. Repayment may be de
ferred up to a total of 3 years while borrowers are serving in the
Armed Forces, with the Peace Corps, or as Volunteers in Service
to America (VISTA).
If borrowers become full-time teachers in public or other non
profit elementary or secondary schools or in institutions of higher
education, up to 50 percent of the loans may be forgiven at the
rate of 10 percent for each year of teaching service. Student bor
rowers who teach handicapped children or who choose to teach in
specifically designated schools located in primarily low income
areas may cancel the full amount of their loans at the rate of 15
percent a year.
Guaranteed loans.—Students enrolled or accepted for enroll
ment in approved colleges, universities, or vocational, technical,
trade, or business schools may obtain low-cost insured loans from
private commercial lenders. Such lenders may be banks, credit
unions, savings and loan associations, insurance companies, or
colleges that elect to become lenders under the program. A State
agency or private nonprofit agency or, in some cases, the Federal
Government guarantees the loans. The Federal Government pays
a portion of the interest on behalf of eligible students. Depending
upon the State program, students apply directly to a bank or
other lending agency, to the college, or to the State loan guaran
tee agency.
Under this program students may borrow as much as $1,500 a
year, to a maximum of $7,500. In most States half-time students
are eligible, although some States require full-time enrollment.
The maximum interest rate on these loans is 7 percent a year.
However, for students with adjusted family incomes of under
$15,000 a year, the Federal Government pays the entire interest
charge while the students are in school and until the beginning of
the repayment period.
The repayment period does not begin until 9 to 12 months after
students have completed their education or have left school. Re
payment may be deferred while the students serve in the Peace
Corps, in VISTA, or in the Armed Forces.
Work-study assistance.—This is a program of part-time em
ployment for students who need a job to help to pay for education
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
203
expenses. To be eligible, students must be enroned and be in good
standing or be accepted for enrollment on a full-time basis at par
ticipating colleges or universities or in postsecondary programs
in vocational schools. The students’ eligibility depends upon finan
cial need, with preference given to applicants from low-income
families.
The work may be for the schools themselves or for public or
private nonprofit organizations contracting with the institutions.
The Federal Government reimburses participating institutions
for 80 percent of the students’ wages. The participating institu
tions select the students to be employed, determine the jobs to be
performed, handle the payroll, and administer the program.
Students may work an average of 15 hours weekly while at
tending classes and up to 40 hours a week during vacations or
other periods when classes are not in session. In general, the
basic pay rate is at least the current minimum wage; salaries of
up to $3.50 an hour may be paid for highly specialized work.
Cooperative education.—A new form of student educational as
sistance was provided by the Higher Education Act of 1968,
which authorized Federal grants to colleges to help them estab
lish programs of alternate full-time academic study and full-time
public or private employment. The aim of the cooperative educa
tion program is twofold: to offer students the opportunity to earn
needed funds through periods of full-time work, and to give them
work experience related to their academic or occupational objec
tives.
Social security benefits for students.—Sons and daughters of
retired or deceased workers are eligible for social security bene
fits up to age 22 if they are unmarried, full-time students. To
be eligible, the student must be enrolled in an accredited school
for a course of study which will take at least 3 months and must
carry a subject load sufficient to complete the course in the time
normally required by a day student. Payment of these benefits is
not automatic. Students who believe they are eligible and who are
not receiving these benefits should inquire at a local social se
curity office.
Aid for special fields of study.—A number of federally assisted
fellowships and scholarship programs are available to students in
certain specialized fields of study. These include teaching, counsel
ing and guidance, library work, nursing and other health fields,
social work, and vocational rehabilitation. Information on the
types of programs offered may be obtained from the U.S. Depart
ment of Health, Education, and Welfare.
204
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OP WOMEN
Aid to veterans.—Benefits for additional training or education
are available to men and women who have served in the Armed
Forces since January 31, 1955. Eligible veterans are those who
have served 181 days on active duty or less than 181 days if duty
was terminated because of service-connected disability.
Benefits are paid on the basis of 1 month of benefits for post
secondary-school education for each month of active duty to a
maximum of 36 months. Benefits may also be paid for high school
education, and these benefits are not counted against the period
for which benefits may be paid for schooling above the secondary
level. The amount of benefits varies with the number of depend
ents and whether the schooling is on a full-time or a part-time
basis.
Training or education may be taken in approved courses at
high schools, public or private colleges, or vocational, business, or
correspondence schools. Further information may be obtained
from school veterans’ counselors or from the nearest office of the
Veterans Administration.
Aid to children of veterans.—Educational benefits are provided
for children of veterans who died or were permanently and to
tally disabled as a result of service in the Armed Forces. Gener
ally, students who are at least 18 years of age (or high school
graduates) but not more than 25 years of age are eligible.
Benefits may be paid for a maximum 36 months or the equiva
lent of 36 months for students enrolled part time. The monthly
payment for full-time training or education is $130.
Education or training may be taken in approved colleges, voca
tional or business schools, or other educational institutions. Fur
ther information may be obtained from school veterans’ counse
lors or from the nearest office of the Veterans Administration.
Education and Employment
88. Educational Attainment and Labor Force Participation
There is a direct relationship between the educational attain
ment of women and their labor force participation. The more edu
cation a woman has received, the greater the likelihood that she
will be engaged in paid employment. A high school diploma is a
prerequisite for many jobs today, and there is an increasing de
mand for workers with education above the high school level. A
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
205
shortage of personnel with the necessary technical and profes
sional training to fill the complex requirements of many positions
in this era of technological change is acute and is expected to con
tinue. Moreover, women who have completed 4 years of college or
more are motivated to seek employment outside the home because
of the higher earnings available to them and because of a desire
to use the skills they have acquired through higher education.
In March 1968, 71 percent of the women 18 years of age and
over who had completed 5 years of college or more and 54 percent
of those who had earned a bachelor’s degree only were in the
labor force (chart U). The percentage dropped to 48 percent
among those who were high school graduates and to 31 percent
among those who did not go beyond the eighth grade. The
chances of being employed were even slimmer for women who
had less than 5 years of formal education.
Chart U
LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION INCREASES WITH EDUCATION
March 1968)
Women 18 Years of Age and Over
Elementary School
High School
College
60 —
less than
5 years 1
5-7
years
8 years
" ^ /
1-3
years
4 years
4 years
5 years
Includes women reporting no school years completed.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics
The relationship between educational attainment and labor
force participation is almost as strong among married women
(husband present) as it is among single women and women who
are widowed, divorced, or separated. Thus the highest labor force
206
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
participation rate among women in each marital group in March
1968 was for those with 4 years of college or more, and the lowest
rate was among women with less than 8 years of schooling (table
94).
Table 94.—Labor Force Participation Rates
Attainment
and
of
Women,
Marital Status, March
by
Educational
1968
(Women 18 years of age and over)
Marital status
Years of school
completed
Total __ _____ - _ . ____
Elementary school:
Less than 8 years2
_
____
8 years
_
_
High school:
1 to 3 years _ ______ ____
4 years _ _
_
_
_ ____
College:
1 to 3 years __ _____ ___
4 years or more - _ _
____
Married
(husband
present)
Other 1
Total
Single
42.0
62.3
38.4
40.6
24.4
30.8
36.2
48.5
25.1
30.9
27.8
39.6
48.1
46.6
72.6
37.0
41.5
44.3
58.0
45.5
58.4
54.4
81.8
39.7
51.3
54.9
61.4
21.6
1 Widowed, divorced, or separated.
2 Includes women reporting no school years completed.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report
No. 103.
The pattern of greater labor force participation among women
with higher educational attainment generally held true when the
figures were broken down by age groups, except among those 18
to 24 years of age (table 95). Since few women complete college
before they are 20 years of age, it is not surprising that the high
est labor force participation rate for girls 18 and 19 years old was
at the high school level. Similarly, relatively few women 20 to 24
years of age have earned advanced degrees, and so in this age
group those with 4 years of college were the most likely to be in
the labor force. Extremely high rates of labor force participation
were shown for those with 5 years of college or more in the age
groups 45 to 54 years (86 percent) and 55 to 64 years (76 per
cent). On the other hand, only in the age groups 35 to 44 years
and 45 to 54 years were as many as 41 percent of the women
with less than 8 years of schooling in the labor force.
Among nonwhite women labor force participation in March
1968 was higher with each higher level of educational attainment
for every age group, except for those 18 and 19 and those 20 to 24
years of age with 1 year of college or more (table 96). Many of
these young women probably were still in school. Lowest labor
y
Table 95.—Labor
Force Participation Rates
of
Women,
by
Educational Attainment
and
Age, March
1968
(Women 18 years of age and over)
Age
Years of school
completed
25 to 34
years
■35 to 44
years
45 to 54
years
42.0
49.5
53.6
42.7
49.0
52.4
43.0
9.5
24.4
17.4
28.2
30.8
39.5
218.8
2 45.6
47.7
29.5
217.0
32.5
36.5
33.9
18.8
39.1
36.2
41.2
35.2
43.6
46.2
40.7
34.0
43.7
49.2
30.7
28.1
31.9
38.3
6.3
5.1
7.3
8.4
39.6
48.1
37.3
58.4
34.8
59.1
41.2
41.6
49.1
49.5
48.2
55.8
42.1
47.6
9.9
12.4
45.5
54.4
70.8
41.7
51.7
82.2
74.0
44.2
51.9
48.4
50.1
71.5
52.9
63.0
48.6
59.8
75.7
14.8
...
...
68.6
1 Includes women reporting no school years completed.
2 Base is less than 100,000.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report No. 103.
86.0
12.1
33.0
207
65 years
and over
20 to 24
years
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
Total _
_
_
Elementary school:
Less than 8 years 1
... _ _ _
Less than 5 years 1 _ _ ___
5 to 7 years _ _
___ ___
8 years ______ -___ _____ . _ _.
High school:
1 to 3 years _____ _ _____
4 years - . - . ___ ___ ....
College:
...
1 to 3 years
...
4 years _ _ _ _ __ — _ _ _
5 years or more ___
- ...
55 to 64
years
Total
18 and 19
years
208
of
Nonwhite Women,
by
Educational Attainment
and
Age, March 1968
(Women 18 years of age and over)
Age
Years of school
completed
Total
.
.......... .____
Elementary school:
8 years or less1
- __ _____
High school:
1 to 3 years
_ ___ ______
_____ . _ .___
4 years _ ^
College:
1 year or more .
___
55 to 64
years
65 years
and over
59.0
48.3
10.9
52.3
51.9
46.5
10.1
53.3
61.4
58.0
63.2
61.7
66.3
47.3
56.9
13.9
14.3
72.9
78.5
76.2
54.3
15.6
Total
18 and 19
years
20 to 24
years
25 to 34
years
35 to 44
years
45 to 54
years
50.7
45.8
54.9
57.3
59.3
38.6
40.5
33.7
40.5
49.1
62.1
35.5
56.0
38.0
68.4
65.9
46.4
60.1
1 Includes women reporting no school years completed.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report No. 103.
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
Table 96.—Labor Force Participation Rates
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
209
force participation rates for women of the usual working ages
(18 to 64 years) were found among women 20 to 24 years of age
with 8 years or less of schooling (34 percent) and among 18- and
19-year-olds with 1 to 3 years of high school education (36 per
cent). More than 7 out of 10 of all nonwhite women 25 to 54 years
of age with some college education were in the labor force.
Among girls 16 to 21 years of age who were not enrolled in
school, the difference in the labor force participation rates in Oc
tober 1967 of high school graduates (70 percent) and school drop
outs (39 percent) reflected primarily the fact that many of the
dropouts left school to marry and have families (table 97). How
ever, the lower labor force participation rates for dropouts than
for high school graduates also held true among boys of this age
group not enrolled in school, indicating that lack of schooling
probably contributed to the nonparticipation of both boy and girl
dropouts.
89. Educational Attainment and Occupations
The amount of education a woman has completed determines to
a great extent the type of job she can obtain. Thus in March 1968
about half the employed women 18 years of age and over who had
attended college were in professional and technical occupations
(table 98). On the other hand, more than three-fourths of those
who had attended elementary school only were operatives or serv
ice workers either inside or outside the home.
Among women who had attended college, there was a consider
able variation in occupational distribution according to the num
ber of years of school completed. For example, 91 percent of the
women with 5 years of college or more were in professional and
technical occupations, and another 3 percent were nonfarm man
agers, officials, and proprietors. In contrast, only 30 percent of
the women who had completed only 1 to 3 years of college were in
professional and technical or nonfarm managerial occupations.
Among women who had completed high school but had not
gone on to college, about half (51 percent) were clerical workers,
and 11 percent were in professional and technical or managerial
occupations. Many of the remainder were service workers outside
the home (13 percent) or operatives (12 percent). On the other
hand, only a small proportion (20 percent) of the women who
had attended but not completed high school were clerical
workers. Such dropouts were mainly operatives (28 percent) or
service workers outside the home (26 percent).
Status1
of
High School Graduates Not Enrolled
and
Color, October
in
College
and
School Dropouts,
by
Sex, Age,
1967
Graduates
Age and color
Population
Dropouts
Rate
Labor
force
Labor force
participation
Number
Unemploy
ment
Population
Rate
Labor
force
Labor force Unemployparticipation
ment
GIRLS
Total_______ ________
16 and 17 years
________
18 and 19 years___________
20 and 21 years _ ________
White
Nonwhite
_
________
________
3,456,000
2,417,000
112,000
1,476,000
1,868,000
3,042,000
414,000
69.9
11.5
1,557,000
602,000
38.7
19.1
73,000
1,072,000
1,272,000
65.2
72.6
(*)
14.9
68.1
8.2
353,000
585,000
619,000
127,000
239,000
236,000
36.0
40.9
38.1
24.4
21.3
14.0
2,144,000
273,000
70.5
65.9
10.2
21.6
1,273,000
284,000
489,000
113,000
38.4
39.8
16.6
30.1
91.3
6.9
1,270,000
1,090,000
85.8
12.0
O
<*)
8.8
94.0
91.3
91.1
4.9
5.8
14.7
268,000
501,000
501,000
990,000
280,000
199,000
433,000
458,000
852,000
238,000
74.3
86.4
91.4
21.6
88.8
BOYS
Total___ ___ ________
16 and 17 years ___ ________
18 and 19 years
________
20 and 21 years _ _ . -----------White
_
________
Nonwhite ____
------------
1,720,000
55,000
771,000
894,000
1,518,000
202,000
1,570,000
45,000
685,000
840,000
1,386,000
184,000
1 Data are for civilian noninstitutional population.
2 Percent not shown where base is less than 75,000.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report No. 100.
13.9
86.1
6.1
10.2
85.0
18.5
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
(Persons 16 to 21 years of age)
Number
210
Table 97.—Employment
1
Table 98.—Major
Occupation Groups
of
Employed Women,
by
Educational Attainment, March
1968
(Women 18 years of age and over)
Years of school completed
Elementary school
Major occupation
group
Total
Less
than
5 years 1
5 to 7
years
High school
8
years
College
1 to 3
years
4
years
1 to 3
years
4
years
5 years
or
more
26,667
478
1,418
2,293
4,570
11,711
3,318
2,024
855
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Professional, technical workers
. .
Managers, officials, proprietors (except
farm) _
___ __
Clerical workers
Sales workers
_.
Craftsmen, foremen
_
Operatives ____
Nonfarm laborers ..
Private household workers - - _
Service workers (except private house
hold) __________
Farm workers _ __ _
15.0
.6
.3
.9
1.9
6.4
24.5
77.3
90.7
4.6
33.9
6.5
2.5
3.5
4.4
3.8
10.7
5.8
4.4
19.6
8.4
4.9
50.6
5.5
48.5
3.2
4.2
1.8
31.9
27.8
8.0
1.0
11.8
6.1
1.8
4.5
13.0
1.4
.4
1.0
.4
.8
.8
.3
14.7
7.7
2.6
.1
1.6
.4
.2
25.5
4.1
25.7
1.9
13.2
9.4
1.2
.8
1.4
.4
—
1.1
15.6
.4
5.8
15.4
1.6
1.2
2.3
.4
34.7
.4
36.4
.5
35.3
.7
23.0
17.9
3.5
25.8
3.7
2.8
1 Includes women reporting no school years completed.
.5
3.0
.6
.2
.5
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
Number (in thousands) ___ ___ Percent
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report No. 103.
211
212
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
Women who had not gone beyond the elementary grades were
particularly disadvantaged occupationally. Among those who had
completed only 8 years of school, only 11 percent were in cleri
cal occupations, with the largest proportions working as opera
tives (32 percent), service workers outside the home (26 per
cent), or private household workers (15 percent). And the most
disadvantaged of all were those with less than 5 years of schooling.
More than half of these women were service workers, either in
private households (36 percent) or outside the home (18 per
cent). More than a third (35 percent) were operatives.
The close relationship between education and occupation is also
evident from an analysis of the amount of education received by
women employed in each of the major occupation groups (chart
V). Of the 4 million women employed in professional and techni
cal occupations in March 1968, 79 percent had attended college
and 58 percent had graduated (table 99). Of the 9.1 million cleri
cal workers, about 21 percent had some college training, and an
additional 75 percent had attended high school (66 percent had
graduated). Among the 1.2 million women employed as nonfarm
managers, officials, and proprietors, there was considerably more
diversity in educational attainment. In this major occupation
group, 24 percent had attended college, an additional 64 percent
had attended high school (47 percent had graduated), and 12
percent had 8 years or less of schooling. Among the 4.2 million
women operatives, however, only 3 percent had some college, an
additional 64 percent had attended high school (33 percent had
graduated), and 34 percent had 8 years or less of education.
Finally, among women employed as private household workers,
less than half had more than 8 years of schooling.
Occupations of girl high school graduates and school dropouts.—
Girls who complete high school enjoy occupational advantages as
compared with those who drop out of school. Of the 2.1 million em
ployed girls 16 to 21 years of age who had graduated from high
school but were not enrolled in college in October 1967, 61 percent
were in clerical jobs and another 7 percent were professional or
technical workers (table 100). Twelve percent were operatives,
11 percent were service workers outside the home, and 2 percent
were private household workers. In contrast, among the almost
half million employed girls 16 to 21 years of age who had
dropped out of school, 33 percent were operatives, 27 percent
were service workers outside the home, and 12 percent were pri
vate household workers. Only 13 percent were clerical workers.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
213
Chart V
THE JOBS WOMEN HOLD REFLECT THE EDUCATION THEY HAVE HAD
(Number of Employed Women, by Selected Major Occupation Group
and Years of School Completed, March 1968)
Millions of women 18 years of age and over
Clerical Workers
Operatives
Service Workers
(except private
household)
Professional and
Technical Workers
Sales Workers
Private Household
Workers
Nonfarm Managers1
8 years or less
of schooling2
lto 4 years
of high school
1 year or more
of college
Includes officials and proprietors (except farm).
Includes women reporting no school years completed.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Nonwhite girls, whether graduates or dropouts, were disadvan
taged occupationally as compared with white girls. Worst off
were the nonwhite dropouts—54 percent were service workers ei
ther inside or outside the home, and 9 percent were farm laborers
or foremen. Twenty-four percent were operatives, and only 8 per
cent were in clerical jobs. (See sec. 48 for additional discus
sion of occupations of non white women.)
214
Attainment
of
Employed Women,
by
Major Occupation Group, March
1968
(Women 18 years of age and over)
Percent distribution by years of school completed
Elementary school
Number
(in
thousands)
Major occupation
group
Total
Less
than
5 years 1
High school
College
5 to 7
years
8
years
1 to 3
years
4
years
1 to 3
years
4
years
5 years
or
more
__
26,667
100.0
1.8
5.3
8.6
17.1
43.9
12.5
7.6
3.2
Professional, technical workers _
__
Managers, officials, proprietors (except
farm)
__ _
__
_
._
Clerical workers
__
_
..
Sales workers
. .
__
_ ..
Craftsmen, foremen
_ _________
Operatives .
...
.
. .
Nonfarm laborers
.
.
__ ..
Private household workers _____ . _.
Service workers (except private house
hold)
__
Farm workers
.
..
__
4,005
100.0
<*>
.1
.5
2.2
18.6
20.3
39.0
19.3
1,222
1.0
7.4
2.9
1.7
3.2
.5
2.2
12.0
22.6
47.1
65.5
53.8
43.3
33.1
31.7
19.3
14.8
17.8
4.0
7.0
2.7
7.7
14.8
17.5
17.8
21.7
16.4
9.9
.6
.8
4.1
.7
2.3
2.5
1,551
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
__
.6
__
.1
4,113
434
100.0
100.0
28.5
20.5
37.7
33.6
7.6
.7
.1
6.2
2.1
Total
9,053
1,732
284
4,172
101
(2)
2.0
9.9
11.3
21.0
2.1
8.9
4.0
12.0
14.2
21.7
22.2
28.5
30.4
36.6
11.6
6.3
2.4
2.0
3.5
.4
.3
.7
(’)
—-
1 Includes women reporting no school years completed.
2 Less than 0.05 percent.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report No. 103.
*
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
Table 99—Educational
Table 100.—Major Occupation Groups
op
Employed Girl High School Graduates 1
Color, October 1967
and
School Dropouts,
by
(Girls 16 to 21 years of age)
Total
Major occupation group
____
____
_
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
Graduates
Dropouts
Graduates
Dropouts
2,140,000
487,000
1,926,000
408,000
214,000
79,000
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
6.5
.9
60.7
5.1
.3
11.7
.3
1.9
11.4
1.2
.6
7.1
1.3
1.0
13.3
6.9
.8
33.1
1.4
11.9
26.6
.3
1.5
.7
14.4
7.8
.7
35.0
1.5
1.6
10.0
10.9
25.3
.4
3.9
15.7
.9
2.9
£
3.5
61.6
5.5
.4
10.6
.2
___
1.2
4.0
1 Not enrolled in college.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report No. 100.
8.2
52.4
1.7
2.4
21.0
23.5
1.2
21.2
32.9
9.4
1.2
215
Nonwhite
Dropouts
W OM EN IN TH E LABOR FORCE
Number
_
_ _ _. _
_
Percent
____ _
Professional, technical workers
Managers, officials, proprietors (except farm)
Clerical workers___ _
Sales workers__
_
Craftsmen, foremen__ ____
Operatives
Nonfarm laborers
Private household workers
Service workers (except private household)
Farmers, farm managers __
Farm laborers, foremen
___
White
Graduates
216
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
College majors and occupations.—A survey of occupational
training of workers showed that in April 1963 women college
graduates were more likely to be working in occupations related to
their major fields of study than were women with 3 years of col
lege—82 percent and 66 percent, respectively.7 The proportion of
women with 4 years or more of college who were utilizing their
college majors in their current work was higher in some fields
than in others. More than 90 percent of the women graduates who
had majored in education and the health sciences were using their
college training in their jobs, as were 88 percent of the women
graduates who majored in business. However, among women
graduates with majors in the social sciences and the humanities,
only 76 percent and 69 percent, respectively, were using their aca
demic training. Nongraduates with 3 years of college who had
majored in health sciences were more likely to be using their ma
jors (93 percent) than were those who had majored in education
(65 percent).
According to a special study of graduates of predominantly
Negro colleges, Negro college women have a stronger work orien
tation than white college women.8 When compared with other
college women who graduated in 1964, Negro women were more
than twice as likely (40 percent) as southern white women (19
percent) and all other women (14 percent) to say that they real
istically expected to combine marriage, childrearing, and gainful
employment.
The study showed a remarkable similarity between the general
fields of academic preparation chosen by Negro and white college
women. Negro women were somewhat more likely than white
women to have majored in fields where the correlation between oc
cupations and college major is strongest, as shown in the 1963
training study discussed above in this section. Thus 64 percent
of women students at predominantly Negro colleges majored in
elementary or secondary education or other educational fields, as
compared with 53 percent of southern white women and 50 per
cent of all other women. Moreover, Negro women were twice as
likely as other women college students to major in business fields
—4 and 2 percent, respectively. On the other hand, only 6 percent
of Negro women majored in the humanities, where the weakest
correlation had been reported, as compared with 20 and 19 per
cent, respectively, of southern white and all other women.
7 U.S. Department of Labor, Manpower
of Adult Workers.” Manpower Automation
8 U.S. Department of Health, Education,
of Predominantly Negro Colleges, Class of
Administration: “Formal Occupational Training
Research Monograph No. 2. 1964.
and Welfare, Public Health Service: “Graduates
1964.” Pub. 1571. 1967.
217
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
Career fields actually entered by 1964 graduates immediately
after graduation did not differ substantially for Negro and white
women. The same proportion of Negro and southern white women
graduates (55 percent) and only a slightly higher proportion of
other women graduates (59 percent) entered the teaching field.
Negro college women, however, were twice as likely as white
women to find employment in the field of social work—10 percent
as compared with 5 and 4 percent, respectively, of southern white
and other women. As might be expected from their major field
preparation, a smaller proportion of Negro (8 percent) than
southern white (15 percent) or other women (11 percent) entered
the humanities fields.
90. Educational Attainment and Unemployment
There is a fairly close correlation between limited education
and unemployment. (For further information on unemployed
women, see sec. 36.) Women who have not graduated from
high school generally experience more unemployment than do
those with more formal education. In March 1968 women 18 years
of age and over with only 8 years of schooling had an unemploy
ment rate of 5.1 percent (table 101). Those who had completed
high school but had not attended college had an unemployment
rate of 3.8 percent. Women with a college education run the least
risk of unemployment—unemployment rates in March 1968 were
2.3 percent for women who had attended college for 1 year or
more and 1.6 percent for those who had graduated.
Table 101.—Unemployment Rates
Attainment
of
and Color,
Women, by Educational
March 1968
(Women 18 years of age and over)
Years of school
completed
Total . _. _ _.
Elementary school:
Less than 8 years 1 . 8 years
High school:
1 to 3 years _. _ _
4 years _____ .
College:
1 year or more
Total
White
4.2
3.7
7.5
6.1
6.5
4.2
10.6
5.1
____
Nonwhite
5.3
5.8
3.4
10.3
3.8
2.3
2.3
3.0
6.6
8.0
1 Includes
women reporting no school years completed.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor
Force
port No. 103.
Re-
218
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
Unemployment is higher among nonwhite women than among
white women at almost all educational levels. However, the corre
lation between limited education and unemployment is not as clear
for nonwhite women. Among all nonwhite women 18 years of age
and over in the labor force in March 1968, those with 8 years of
education or less had a lower unemployment rate (7.2 percent)
than did those who had completed high school (8 percent). This
may be explained by the fact that nonwhite women who have
completed high school may not be satisfied to work at semiskilled
and unskilled occupations and have difficulty in finding and qual
ifying for more desirable work. For nonwhite women who had
some college education, however, the risk of unemployment was
much lower—their unemployment rate was only 3 percent in
March 1968.
The effect of limited educational attainment was more clearly
indicated by the unemployment rates in October 1967 among girls
16 to 21 years of age not enrolled in school. High school dropouts
were much more likely to be unemployed than were graduates—
19 and 11 percent, respectively (table 97). Among nonwhite girls
the unemployment rate for dropouts was a startling 30 percent as
compared with 22 percent for high school graduates.
Another measure of the relationship between education and un
employment is a comparison of the years of school completed by
employed and unemployed women in the labor force. One-fifth of
the women 18 years of age and over who were unemployed in
March 1968 had an eighth grade education or less (table 102). In
contrast, about one-sixth of the employed women had so little
schooling. Moreover, almost half of the unemployed but only
about a third of the employed women had not completed high
school. At the upper end of the education scale, 1 out of 8 of the
unemployed but nearly 1 out of 4 of the employed, had attended
college for 1 year or more.
Among nonwhite women a slightly larger proportion of the em
ployed (29 percent) than of the unemployed (27 percent) had an
eighth grade education or less, and the proportions of employed
and unemployed women who were high school graduates did not
differ greatly—32 and 34 percent, respectively. The advantage of
some college education was, however, reflected in the employment
figures: the proportion of the employed who attended college for 1
year or more substantially exceeded that of the unemployed with
this much education—16 and 6 percent, respectively.
Table 102.
Educational Attainment of Women
in
the
Labor Force,
by
Employment Status
and
Color, March 1968
(Women 18 years of age and over)
All women
completed
26,667,000
100.0
1,179,000
100.0
23,330,000
100.0
908,000
100.0
3,337,000
100.0
271,000
100.0
7.1
8.6
10.5
10.5
5.4
8.4
9.6
9.6
19.1
9.6
13.2
13.9
17.1
43.9
27.2
39.2
16.3
45.6
25.8
40.6
22.8
32.1
32.2
34.2
23.2
12.6
24.2
14.4
16.5
6.2
12.4
12.0
12.4
12.1
11.8
11.2
•Includes women reporting no school years completed.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force Report No. 103.
219
Non white women
Employed
Unemployed
Unemployed
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
Total _____________________ ___ '
Percent
_
__ _ _ . _
___
Elementary school:
Less than 8 years1 _
_ ______
8 years
__
_
High school:
1 to 3 years__ __
___ ___
4 years ___
___
College:
1 year or more _.
....
Median years of school
completed ______ _ _
White women
Employed
Unemployed
Employed
220
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
91. Educational Attainment and Hours of Work
Women with a limited amount of formal education are more
likely to be employed part time than are highly educated women.
Many of the occupational opportunities available to women with
little schooling are in private household or other service work—
typically part-time jobs. Among women employed in nonagricultural industries in March 1968 the likelihood of working less
than 35 hours a week generally diminished with each higher level
of school attainment (table 103). Of all employed women with
less than 8 years of schooling, 35 percent worked part time. The
comparable percentages for employed women with a high school
education but no college and those with 4 years of college educa
tion or more were 26 and 22 percent, respectively.
Table 103.—Weekly Hours of Work of Women Employed in
Non AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES, BY EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT, MARCH
1968
(Women 18 years of age and over)
Percent distribution
Years of school
completed
Number
Total ______ ____
_____
Elementary school:
Less than 8 years1 . _ __
8 years __ ______________ ___
High school:
1 to 3 years _ _ _ _ _ _ __ . - - -.
4 years ____ _____ _____
College:
....
1 to 3 years _ _
___
___
4 years or more . _
_
Total
35 hours 1 to 34
or more hours
26,165,000
100.0
71.1
28.9
1,821,000
2,194,000
100.0
100.0
65.1
68.0
34.9
32.0
4,472,000
11,524,000
100.0
100.0
66.6
73.7
33.4
26.3
3,288,000
2,866,000
100.0
100.0
67.6
77.9
32.4
22.1
1 Includes women reporting no school years completed.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Special Labor Force
Report No. 103.
Training Programs for Women
Opportunities to obtain the occupational and other preemploy
ment training necessary to prepare for gainful employment are
available to women and girls through a variety of federally as
sisted vocational education and training programs. These pro
grams are designed to reach, among others, mature women
workers, many with family responsibilities, who are entering or
reentering the labor force or who have been displaced from pre
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
221
vious employment; younger women about to enter the labor force,
who need skill development to compete successfully in an econ
omy of advancing skill demands; and undereducated women and
women with other limitations stemming from deprived back
grounds, who need special assistance and training to enable them
to advance their economic status by qualifying for regular em
ployment at higher skill levels.
92. Federally Aided Vocational Education
Vocational education through cooperative Federal-State-local
programs is the oldest federally aided training program—ini
tiated half a century ago under the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917
and gradually extended under subsequent acts. The Vocational
Education Act of 1963 provided for extensive broadening, enlarg
ing, and improving of vocational programs to permit vocational
education to react with more sensitivity both to the demands of
the economy and to the needs of various segments of the popula
tion. The act provided more flexibility for training in previously
authorized occupation groups and authorized vocational training
in business and office occupations not covered by the previous
laws. With these changes federally aided vocational training ex
cluded no occupations except those generally considered profes
sional or requiring a baccalaureate or higher degree.
Despite substantia] progress in vocational education made
under the 1963 act, further changes were needed to adapt the sys
tem to new conditions. Thus vocational education amendments
of 1968 placed major emphasis on expansion and improvement in
programs for both youth and adults with physical, academic, or
socioeconomic handicaps that prevent them from succeeding in
the rregular vocational education programs. The amendments also
stressed the need for greater expansion of programs at postsec
ondary levels to meet demands of the highly technical and spe
cialized modern economy and, in addition, new programs for the
handicapped.
The 1968 amendments provided greatly increased resources for
vocational education programs and for supportive services in the
form of research, experimental, and demonstration projects; cur
riculum development; training of personnel; studies and projec
tions of manpower needs; and national and State advisory coun
cils on vocational education.
Vocational education under present legislation is designed to
prepare all groups in the community for their place in the world
of work. This includes high school students, high school gradu
222
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
ates or dropouts who are free to study full time in preparing for
a job, and persons who have already entered the labor force,
whether employed, unemployed, or underemployed, who may need
training or retraining. Persons already receiving training allow
ances under other Federal training programs, however, are not
eligible for vocational education courses.
Recent legislation has also expanded provision for work experi
ence programs for vocational students. The two main types of
work experience programs are work-study programs and coopera
tive education. Under the work-study programs Federal funds are
available to permit needy full-time vocational education students
15 to 20 years of age to stay in school and to be paid for part-time
work at school or some other public agency. (See also Workstudy assistance in sec. 87.)
Cooperative education, the other main type of work experience
program, has long been prevalent in trade and industrial educa
tion and in distributive education. In cooperative education,
courses are arranged to allow alternate periods of work and class
attendance. On-the-job training provided by employers in accord
ance with such an arrangement must be under public supervision
to assure that actual vocational training is provided. The advan
tages of this type of training were recognized by Congress, which
in the 1968 act authorized Federal funds for its expansion in
order to provide students with “meaningful work experience” and
to “create interaction between educators and employers” on their
common needs and problems.
A distinction between work-study programs and cooperative ed
ucation is that the former serve primarily to offer financial aid
while the latter is a planned part of an educational program.
Only in the cooperative program is the work supervised by the ed
ucational staff responsible for the student’s vocational training.
Both types of program, however, have great value in affording
students the opportunity to prepare for employment through ac
tual work experience as well as formal educational training.
Enrollments of students in vocational courses increased by 54
percent from 1964 to 1967; enrollments of women students in
creased by almost 66 percent. More than 3.8 million women and
girls were enrolled in public vocational courses in the 1966-67
school year (table 104). Of these, about 61 percent were enrolled
in regular secondary school programs, 32 percent were in adult
extension courses, and 6 percent were in post-secondary-school
programs. In addition, about 35,000 disadvantaged women and
*
Table 104.—Women
Enrolled
in
Public Vocational Courses,
Secondary school
courses
All women enrollees
Program
Total ___
__
_.
Job-oriented courses___
Office occupations __ _
Distribution ___ .
Trades and industry
Health occupations ..
Technical education
Agriculture_____
Percent As percent
distri
of total
bution
enrollees
Number
Percent
distri
bution
54.3
2,349,070
100.0
2,101,221
54.9
96.2
1,416,185
60.3
57,025
1,214,925
214,314
155,808
109,005
22,890
9,003
1.5
31.7
5.6
4.1
91.6
77.3
44.6
10.5
94.7
18,286
781,459
74,446
53,849
15,773
2,445
4,913
.8
8.6
1.0
of
Post-secondaryschool courses
3,827,166 100.0
2.8
.6
.2
Type
33.3
3.2
2.3
.7
.1
.2
Number
214,617
Percent
distri
bution
Program,
1966-67
Adult extension
courses
Number
Percent
distri
bution
Number
Percent
distri
bution
100.0
1,228,159
100.0
35,320
100.0
3,036
1.4
659,501
53.7
22,499
63.7
2,744
128,509
6,698
17,189
51,008
7,509
1.3
59.9
3.1
31,762
301,494
130,917
79,218
40,837
12,881
3,311
2.6
12.0
9.8
6.4
15.7
39
1.0
4,236
3,463
2,253
5,552
1,387
55
.3
111
.3
668
8.0
23.8
3.5
.3
24.5
10.7
6.5
3.3
1 Includes women in courses not shown separately.
Source: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education, Division of Vocational and Technical Education.
.2
223
Special needs
programs
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
Home economics1
Number
by
224
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
girls, or about 1 percent of the total enrollment, were enrolled in
special needs programs.
Women accounted for 54 percent of the total enrollment in
public vocational courses in 1966-67, but they accounted for vir
tually all the enrollment in home economics and health occupa
tions courses and more than three-fourths in office occupations
training.
More than 2.1 million, or 55 percent, of the women receiving
federally aided vocational training in 1967 were enrolled in home
economics classes. Home economics enrollment amounted to 64
percent of women’s enrollments in special needs programs, 60
percent in secondary schools, 54 percent in adult extension
courses, and 1 percent in post-secondary-school programs.
While home economics courses formerly were designed primar
ily to improve the quality of home and family life, the Vocational
Education Act of 1963 provided for additional courses directed
toward gainful employment. In 1967 about 57,000 women were en
rolled in job-oriented home economics courses. About 32,000 of
these women were in adult extension courses, 18,000 were full
time students in secondary schools, 4,000 were in special needs
programs, and 2,700 were in post-secondary-school courses. These
women gained knowledge and skills in such home economics sub
jects as food and clothing management, production, and services;
child care and guidance; home furnishing and equipment services;
and home and institutional management.
Although federally aided vocational training in office occupa
tions had not been authorized prior to the 1964-65 school year,
more than 1.2 million girls and women, or 32 percent of women
vocational students, were taking such training in 1967. The pro
portion of women training for office occupations in secondary
school vocational courses was 33 percent; in adult extension
courses, 25 percent; and in special needs programs, 10 percent.
Among post-secondary-school students, however, almost 129,000,
or 60 percent, were training for office occupations. The training
includes such subjects as accounting and computing, data process
ing, filing and general clerical work, stenography, secretarial
skills, typing, operation of office machines, personnel, and office
management.
The 214,000 women participating in the distributive education
program during the 1966-67 school year represented 45 percent of
all enrollees in this field. These women were studying such sub
jects as salesmanship, buying, pricing, advertising and display,
fashion, and business organization. Although less than 6 percent
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
225
of all women vocational students were in distributive education,
131.000 women, or 11 percent of those in adult extension courses,
were training for this field.
Courses in trades and industry accounted for nearly 156,000
women in 1967, or 11 percent of all vocational education enrollees
in this field. About 79,000, or more than half of these women,
were in adult extension courses, but almost 54,000 were regular
secondary school students. The most commonly offered courses in
this area are beauty culture, power machine operation, and con
sumer foods.
Enrollees in health occupations courses included 109,000
women in 1967, almost tripling the enrollment of women in 1956.
This growth reflects both the stimulus of Federal funds and the
increasing demands for hospital and other personnel required to
supplement the services of professional nurses. Programs of study
in the health occupations supportive to the professions of nurs
ing, medicine, and dentistry include practical nursing, certified
laboratory assisting, and dental assisting. These programs are
carried out in cooperation with hospitals and other health agen
cies. Most of the women vocational students studying health occu
pations were either in post-secondary-school programs (51,000)
or in adult extension courses (41,000). Despite the great demand
for health workers, only 3 percent of all women vocational stu
dents were studying health occupations. Among post-secondaryschool students, however, 24 percent were training in health occu
pations.
Women enrolled in technical education courses numbered about
23.000 and accounted for less than 1 percent of all women voca
tional students. Most women studying technical subjects were in
adult extension or post-secondary-school programs. Electrical and
electronics technology, drafting and design, and data processing
were some of the courses offered in this field. Men outnumbered
women in technical courses by 11 to 1.
93. Training Programs Under the Department of Labor
As part of the overall national effort to reduce and eventually
eliminate poverty, the Department of Labor is directly and exten
sively involved in a variety of manpower development and train
ing programs. Since 1965 the emphasis in these programs has
been on reaching disadvantaged persons and providing them with
training, augmented by the many supportive services needed to
overcome their disadvantaged status in qualifying for employ
ment.
226
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OP WOMEN
Training under the Manpower Development and Training Act.—
The Manpower Development and Training Act (MDTA) of
1962 has been adapted to socioeconomic changes and shifting na
tional manpower needs and challenges. Originally enacted to pro
vide a diversified nationwide training program for the unemployed
and underemployed, it has been expanded to provide more tools
and incentives to draw increasing numbers of disadvantaged per
sons into training. The earliest amendments in 1963 launched a
greatly expanded youth program to focus on disadvantaged
youth, and began the process of liberalizing training allowance
provisions. Succeeding amendments in 1965 and 1966 supplied
greater training incentives through expanded provision for in
come maintenance, a crucial concern to the disadvantaged.
At the same time administrative measures have been focused
increasingly on improving related remedial training services,
such as counseling and testing programs and social services, and
on coordinating training resources with other antipoverty and
manpower development programs to maximize the effectiveness of
the act. By 1966 the MDTA had become an important part of the
national war on poverty. Plans initiated since that date set a goal
of devoting about two-thirds of the MDTA training effort to serv
ing the manpower needs of disadvantaged persons; the other
third continued to be designated for one of the act’s original ob
jectives—training to meet skill and occupational shortages.
As of the end of June 1968 nearly 400,000 women and girls (3
out of every 8 trainees) had been enrolled in MDTA training since
the act’s inception—300,000 of them in institutional vocational
training courses and 100,000 in on-the-job training (OJT). The
proportion of women enrollees has shown a steady advance in
both programs. During fiscal year 1968 an estimated 62,000
women were enrolled in the institutional training program, and
40,000 were in the OJT program—accounting for 45 percent
and 32 percent, respectively, of the year’s total trainee roster
(table 105).
The characteristics of the 1968 MDTA enrollees indicate that
the programs are reaching women of disadvantaged status. In the
institutional program, for example, 50 percent of the women
trainees were heads of families, 39 percent had three or more de
pendents, and 17 percent were public assistance recipients. Al
most half (49 percent) were dropouts who had not completed
high school, and 53 percent were nonwhite. Women of all ages
were represented: 36 percent were under 22 years of age, 34 per
cent were between 22 and 34, 17 percent were between 35 and 44,
and the remainder were 45 and over.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
227
Table 105.—Percentage
Programs,
by
of Women Enrolled in MDTA Training
Selected Characteristics, Fiscal Year 1968
Type of training
Characteristics
Number __ ___
_
Percent __________
Institutional
On-the-job
62,000
40,000
100
100
13
23
34
17
13
10
22
Age:
Under 19 years ______
19 to 21 years _______
22 to 34 years _______
35 to 44 years _______
45 years and over ____
Education:
Less than 8 years
8 years ________ ____
9 to 11 years .... ..........
12 years __ _______
Over 12 years _ ____
6
5
7
36
42
9
36
45
Head of family
50
35
39
17
12
8
6
Three or more dependents
39
34
Public assistance recipients
17
8
Nonwhite
53
47
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Manpower Administration.
The OJT program has been slower in absorbing women train
ees and particularly women in disadvantaged categories (stem
ming in part from the participation in the trainee selection proc
ess by employer sponsors with their preference for the better
qualified trainees). But steady progress is being made toward
broadening these highly desirable training opportunities for all
women. During fiscal year 1968 the proportion of women in this
program advanced to about one-third, from an initial proportion
of about one-fifth. In this program, too, 49 percent of the women
trainees had less than a high school education. Forty-seven per
cent were nonwhite, and 32 percent were under age 22. But, as
compared with the institutional program, a higher proportion (39
percent) were between 22 and 34 years of age. Moreover, a smaller
proportion had family responsibilities—35 percent were heads of
families and 34 percent reported at least three dependents. And
only 8 percent were public assistance recipients.
A wide variety of occupational training is being offered to
women in MDTA programs. But the greatest proportion are being
trained in occupations traditionally held by women. In the insti-
228
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
tutional program about 9 out of 10 of the women enrolled during
fiscal year 1968 were trained in professional or semiprofessional
and technical occupations, clerical and sales work, and services
(table 106). The greatest concentration was found in the growing
health field—in refresher training for professional nurse and in
training for licensed practical nurse and a variety of other health
Table 106.—Percentage of
Women Enrolled
in
MDTA
1968
Programs,
by
Selected Occupations, Fiscal Year
Type of training
Occupation
Institutional
Number ____________ _______________
Percent _ _ ______
Professional, technical,and managerial1______
Professional nurse (refresher) __________
Occupations in medicine and health 1 ______
2
Clerical and sales1 _________________
Computing and account recording (n.e.c.)
Stenographer __________________________
Stenographer-typist and related _________
Service1__________________________________
Attendants, home and first aid ................... _
Attendants, hospital and related3________
Chefs and cooks (large hotels
and restaurants) _____________________
Waitress and related - _________________
Farming, fishing, forestry _____
Processing1 ,______________________________
Mixing and blending (chemicals,
plastics, etc.) ________________________
Machine trades ___________________________
Bench work 1 ___________________
62,000
100
27
g"
Electronic components assembly and repair _
Structural work___________________________
All other occupations________________ ____ ..
45
41
<T
On-the-job
40,000
100
4
ig
4
14
23
___
13
___
___
32
19
___
9
3
___
___
(*)
(4)
(4)
___
2
5
3
12
22
___
4
7
2
2
(4)
4
6
1 Includes women being trained in occupations not shown separately.
3 Includes licensed practical nurse, surgical technician, inhalation therapist, medical lab
oratory technician, and dentist’s assistant.
a Includes nurse's’ aide, ward attendant, psychiatric aide, and tray-line worker,
4 Less than 1 percent.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Manpower Administration.
services occupations. The second largest concentration was in
office-clerical occupations. The pattern is generally the same for
the OJT program, but with a different “mix.” A greater propor
tion of women trainees in this program have been trained in in
dustrial occupations for which OJT is used more extensively. Nev
ertheless, about half of the women enrolled during fiscal year
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
229
1968 were in professional and technical, clerical, sales, and serv
ice occupations. Within these groups the largest concentration of
women was in health-related services occupations.
Training and other opportunities under the Economic Opportu
nity Act.—Operating under delegation from the Office of
Economic Opportunity, the Department of Labor administers a
number of work training programs authorized under the Eco
nomic Opportunity Act (EOA) of 1964, as amended. These include
the Neighborhood Youth Corps (NYC) and a complex of adult
work training and experience programs. More recently the De
partment was also assigned responsibility for administering the
Work Incentive Program (WIN) authorized by new amendments
to the Social Security Act in furtherance of one of the objectives
of the EOA—to move people off welfare rolls and into productive
employment. All of these programs serve the needs of impover
ished women and young girls as they aid the poverty population
at large; some are of especial importance in their capacity to serve
the needs of women workers in poverty status.
The Neighborhood Youth Corps.—This exclusively youth
program offers work training to those under age 22 who are
members of impoverished families. For in-school youth it pro
vides part-time and summer work which enables many potential
dropouts to stay in school. For those who have dropped out or
completed school but have no job-ready skills, it provides training
to increase their employability.
As of the end of fiscal year 1968, nearly 1.6 million youth had
been the beneficiaries of this program since its inception in Janu
ary 1965. About one-third of these opportunities were provided
during fiscal year 1968, as the program gained momentum.
Work projects for these youth are sponsored by both private
and public organizations in local communities. Projects are de
signed to provide socially useful services for the community
which would not be available without Federal financial assist
ance. Sponsors have included community action agencies, public
schools, conservation groups, forestry and rural development
agencies, libraries, hospitals, Indian tribes, and various local and
State agencies. Enrollees have provided a wide variety of needed
services, as aides in libraries, schools, cafeterias, museums and
art galleries, public housing projects, hospitals, parks, old-age
and nursing homes, and the like.
The in-school program is aimed primarily at potential school
dropouts, bringing to these youth the financial assistance and
work experience needed to motivate them to remain in school.
230
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
The out-of-school program—as the name implies—serves impov
erished youth who are generally dropouts with no prospects of re
suming their schooling. Both programs provide counseling, reme
dial education, and a variety of other supportive services to make
schoolroom education more meaningful or to fill gaps in job readi
ness. Job referral and placement services are also part of the pro
grams. Young girls have shared almost equally with male youth
in NYC training; they have constituted about 45 percent of both
in-school and out-of-school enrollees.
Adult work training and experience programs.—Amend
ments to the EOA in 1966 created programs for the assistance of
chronically unemployed and poverty-stricken adults. Three such
programs were initiated during fiscal year 1967:
Operation Mainstream established projects for improvement
and rehabilitation of the physical environment and community
facilities, such as improvement of parks, forests, and wildlife
areas, roadside beautification, water and air pollution control
measures; and provision of centers to furnish social services for
the poor. This program has brought jobs and training opportuni
ties to both rural and urban poor people with a history of chronic
unemployment. The nature of the work performed on most proj
ects provides only minimal opportunities for women. As a conse
quence, most of the participants have been men, with a considera
ble proportion of these opportunities opened to the particularly
disadvantaged older men. From its beginning in March 1967
through June 1968, training opportunities for almost 24,000 per
sons were authorized under this program.
New Careers is a program that offers extensive opportunities
for women. Open to adults at least 22 years of age who come from
families with incomes below the poverty line, it is aimed at estab
lishing, on a permanent basis, new and necessary community serv
ice jobs that will open up career avenues and at the same time
relieve critical national shortages of professional personnel in
such fields as health, education, and public welfare services. The
program is a pioneering effort along the lines of restructuring
professional occupations—in both public and private agencies—to
extract tasks requiring less than professional training and to pre
pare trainees to work as aides to professional workers. “Career
ladders,” or possibilities for advancement to more responsible
jobs through structured channels of promotion, are implicit in
the project designs.
Currently, New Careers projects are training practical nurses,
patrolmen, social work assistants, teachers’ aides, and many other
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
231
preprofessional workers. During fiscal year 1968, more than 63
percent of all New Careers participants were women.
Special Impact, the third of the newer adult work training pro
grams, has established projects in as yet a small number of urban
neighborhoods with great concentrations of poverty-stricken resi
dents. These projects are aimed at improving employment pros
pects of the residents and the overall social and physical environ
ment of the neighborhoods. They provide work experience and
training to the neighborhood residents in such activities as home
renovation, improvement of health facilities, development of rec
reational facilities, and expansion of community social and eco
nomic programs. It is anticipated that these projects will serve as
catalysts in improving urban slum-like areas while providing
training that leads to employment, since another objective is to
enlist the cooperation of private business in an effort to provide
new opportunities for rehabilitation of the neighborhood and its
residents.
Participation is open to chronically unemployed and impover
ished persons at least 16 years of age. Projects are linked to other
related programs—Federal, State, and local—as part of an over
all comprehensive manpower effort to provide a spectrum of serv
ices to develop the employability of hardcore unemployed in im
poverished population pockets.
The Work Incentive Program.—Under WIN welfare recipi
ents are given occupational training and supportive services to
prepare them for jobs that will remove them from welfare rolls.
The entire matrix of Federal, State, and local agencies is used by
the Department to deliver the needed manpower services. Local
welfare and other agencies refer clients to the program, and State
employment service agencies provide placement and related serv
ices for those ready and able to work. Those needing work expe
rience and training and supportive services, such as basic and
remedial education, are moved into the most suitable of the man
power development and training programs already described:
MDTA institutional or on-the-job training, or one of the several
youth and adult work experience programs authorized under the
EOA. Placement in a job follows at any time that the client is
judged ready by the local manpower agency. Those found unsuit
able for training or jobs in the regular economy may move into
special work projects developed through agreements between the
Department of Labor and public agencies or private nonprofit or
ganizations.
The cooperation of private industry, subsidized by Federal
232
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
funds, is encouraged to provide on-the-job training opportunities
under this program. Participants are permitted to augment their
welfare grants to some extent by trainee earnings or allowances
as an incentive to enter the WIN program. Day care centers are
being established to enable welfare mothers to participate as ex
tensively as possible.
Those eligible for this program are members of households re
ceiving aid to families with dependent children, who are over 16
years of age and not in school full time. It is estimated that about
three-quarters of a million welfare recipients can be assisted by
this program by the end of fiscal year 1972. A sizable proportion
are expected to be women who heavily weight the Nation’s wel
fare rolls.
Newest program directions and innovations.—As the focus of
the manpower development program was turned to the hardest
core of the disadvantaged, the concept of human resources
development evolved. It represented a departure in the admin
istration of the Federal-State employment service to enable
the system to respond effectively to the manpower challenge pre
sented by the disadvantaged unemployed or underemployed and
those traditionally looked upon as unemployable. Launched during
the summer of 1966, the human resources program introduced the
technique of reaching out on an individual basis to the most dis
advantaged—those who do not themselves come forward for man
power services—and bringing to them training and related serv
ices to improve their employability, with the ultimate objective
of placement in jobs. The program began in Chicago, with the
employment service, community action agencies, and public wel
fare agencies participating, joined by the business and industrial
community cooperating to provide training and job opportunities.
Individuals in the target population were identified and contacted
by neighborhood workers employed by the welfare agency. Em
ployment service staff outstationed in neighborhood centers pro
vided interviewing, counseling, and testing services, followed by
referral to training or jobs, plus a program of job development
among responsive employers.
This new person-to-person approach, providing a comprehen
sive array of manpower services tailored to the needs of the indi
vidual, paved the way for development of other manpower pro
grams of similar purpose.
The Concentrated Employment Program.—CEP was one of
the early outgrowths of the human resources development con
cept. It launched a concentrated attack on unemployment and sub
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
233
employment in slum areas of selected large cities and in certain
rural areas with severe manpower problems. It utilizes the same
technique of outreach to contact and recruit residents of the des
ignated target area who are most in need of manpower services
and jobs, and provides a delivery system for bringing them con
centrated individualized assistance under one coordinated agency
sponsor. This program has been very effective in reaching impov
erished women, who accounted for more than half of all those
reached by late September 1968.
Each local CEP combines under single sponsorship, frequently
the local community action agency, all of the available manpower
services necessary to help persons move from dependency and
unemployability to self-sufficiency by providing effective coordina
tion between various manpower programs. It utilizes all the
training and work experience programs heretofore described as
provided under the MDTA and EOA, but it is funded as well as
sponsored through this single source by allocation of funds al
ready authorized for those programs.
The CEP provides an array of services: initial general work
orientation conducted by counselors and coaches working with enrollees on an individual basis, followed by appropriate occupa
tional or work training, further education, or placement in jobs.
Supportive services are provided, as needed, throughout the CEP
experience to enable enrollees to move into productive employ
ment. Followup functions and guidance are provided after the enrollee has been placed in a job. Maximum involvement of the pri
vate sector of the community is sought by reaching out to busi
ness and industry as well as labor unions to line up job opportuni
ties that were previously closed to the hardcore jobless.
By late 1968, 76 CEP’s were operational, of which 13 were lo
cated in rural areas.
Cooperative programs with industry.—As manpower develop
ment programs have meshed with the antipoverty effort, the
greater involvement of private industry has become another pro
gram focus. The success of early experimental and demonstration
projects led to a major thrust to enlist the cooperation of private
business to absorb into regular jobs, through specially structured
training, those among the disadvantaged who previously were not
considered for employment opportunities. The following two pro
grams have been established to implement this drive:
Opportunities Industrialization Centers (OIC) are an out
growth of an early experiment in Philadelphia which tailored
training to employer specifications in order to prepare disadvan
234
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
taged persons, largely youth, for available jobs. The success of
this experiment, based on the concepts of partnership with busi
ness and trainee self-help in personal improvement, has led to
establishment of similar programs on a nationwide basis funded
by grants from the Departments of Labor and Health, Educa
tion, and Welfare and the Office of Economic Opportunity. Fed
eral funds are being augmented by a drive for contributions from
private industry and community sources.
OIC's conduct training for the disadvantaged in courses devel
oped in cooperation with prospective employers, with whom en
lightened entrance requirements have been worked out. Program
directors work in close cooperation with the business community,
with advisory committees of businessmen, and with such organi
zations as boards of trade to develop job prospects and specifically
designed training programs. Other program aspects, such as
scholarship funds and funds for personal emergencies, enable
trainees to overcome hurdles which might otherwise block com
pletion of training and movement into jobs. The early results of
this program have shown a gratifyingly high rate of posttraining
placement in training-related jobs.
Job Opportunities in the Business Sector (JOBS) is an emer
gent program which crystallizes the new thrust toward involve
ment of private industry in the effort to cope with hardcore un
employment. It is built upon the principle of subsidizing industry
for the extra costs entailed in the intensive training required to
provide the disadvantaged with social and personal employment
services. It constitutes an expanded effort—JOBS programs are
planned to cover 50 of the Nation’s largest cities—to stimulate
private industry to employ and train the hardcore unemployed.
The JOBS program is essentially an elaboration of MDTA onthe-job training and of recent small-scale test contracts which
provided funds for the more intensive training and supportive
services required to make it feasible for employers to hire and
train the hardcore unemployed. Leadership in promoting this pro
gram has been taken by the recently formed National Alliance of
Businessmen, which is composed of prominent and committed in
dustry leaders. Under the program the Department of Labor can
cqntract to reimburse employers for the extra costs of the added
training needed by the target population groups.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
235
94. Training and Other Programs Under the Office of
Economic Opportunity
Other programs of special interest to women which were estab
lished under the act to combat poverty are the Job Corps, VISTA,
and community action programs.
The Job Corps.—The Job Corps, administered formerly by the
Office of Economic Opportunity, is a program for young people
14 through 21 years of age who are out of school and out of work
and who lack the education and skills necessary to obtain jobs.
Some high school graduates may be enrolled in exceptional cases.
The Job Corps offers them a change of environment in residential
centers and a total learning experience tailored to develop new
habits and attitudes. At the residential centers of the Women’s
Job Corps, deprived girls are prepared to become skillful
workers, homemakers, and responsible citizens. The centers offer
basic education in reading, writing, speaking skills, and arithme
tic; training in job skills for which there is a demand; education
in home and family life; participation in the arts to develop self
expression and motivation; recreation and training in physical fit
ness ; and counseling, guidance, and health services.
In December 1968, 19 Job Corps residential centers for women
and one special center were providing educational and job train
ing in such areas as secretarial, business, and clerical skills; data
processing; retail sales; food preparation and service; health and
paramedical services; cosmetology; child care; fabric arts and
dress designing; graphic arts skills; driver education; and in
dustrial electronics.
Each young woman in the Job Corps receives a monthly living
allowance of $35 to $50 in addition to room and board, medical
and dental care, and work clothing. An allowance of $50 for each
month of satisfactory service is paid her at the end of her service
if she has remained in the program at least 90 days. Of this
amount, she may allocate to her family up to $25 a month, which
is matched by the Job Corps.
Women who have completed their training period in regular
Job Corps residential centers but are not yet ready for entrance
into the competitive working world may be assigned to
JC/YWCA extension residential centers. In December 1968 the 26
such centers operated by the Young Women’s Christian Associa
tion were offering about 400 young women an opportunity for su
pervised work experience assignments while continuing to receive
Job Corps benefits and services. Their work experiences are full
236
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
time, regular job assignments designed to increase their skills to
employability level of competence. In addition, they receive coun
seling and guidance in personal and social development and sup
plemental education where needed.
In December 1968 about 10,000 women were enrolled in the Job
Corps, in residential and extension centers. Women amounted to
28 percent of total enrollees. The 1967 amendments to the Eco
nomic Opportunity Act required that a 25-percent enrollment of
women be achieved in fiscal year 1968 and a 50-percent enroll
ment as soon as practicable.
The Domestic Volunteer Service Program (VISTA).—A do
mestic version of the Peace Corps, VISTA offers Americans the
opportunity to join the war on poverty at home by working on a
volunteer basis with the disadvantaged. The program, formerly
called Volunteers in Service to America, was renamed to reflect
the broader scope provided by the Economic Opportunity Amend
ments of 1967 for the conduct of programs on a full-time or part
time basis or for shorter periods of time than the 1-year service
period previously authorized. The volunteers, whether full-time
or part-time, are trained for the job and location to which they
are assigned. In October 1968, 45 percent of the almost 5,000 full
time volunteers serving in the field or in training for VISTA proj
ects were women.
Full-time volunteers help teach, train, and counsel impover
ished Americans in rural and urban community action programs,
migrant worker communities, Indian reservations, hospitals,
schools, and institutions for the mentally ill or mentally retarded.
Their assignments may be in any of the 50 States, the District of
Columbia, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, American Samoa, or
the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. These volunteers re
ceive a monthly living allowance and are reimbursed for medical
and dental expenses during service. In addition, they receive a
readjustment allowance of $50 for each month of satisfactory
service, to be paid upon completion of service.
The auxiliary and special volunteer programs authorized by the
amended act include local community service volunteer programs,
programs specially designed for the elderly (both as volunteers
and as beneficiaries), demonstration projects with the Teacher
Corps to assist in the rehabilitation of youthful criminal offenders,
and special programs designed to stimulate and to initiate im
proved methods of providing volunteer services and to encourage
wider volunteer participation. Volunteers in these special pro
grams receive no stipend or living allowance, but they do get such
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
237
other support as is required by the special circumstances of the
project.
Community action 'programs.—Under title II of the EOA,
urban and rural communities (including Indian reservations)
may receive Federal assistance for programs developed by them
to meet local poverty problems. The Federal Government can
provide up to 80 percent of the cost of the programs (or 100 per
cent in the case of the very poorest communities). To be eligible
to receive Federal assistance, a community must mobilize its own
resources, develop a program that gives promise of eliminating
poverty, and enlist the poor themselves in developing and carry
ing it out.
Programs may be in such areas as employment information and
counseling, job training and development, health, remedial educa
tion, housing, and home management. These programs are gener
ally carried out by a “community action agency,” which may be a
State or political subdivision, a combination of such subdivisions,
or a public or private nonprofit agency designated by such a gov
ernment entity. Special programs to meet problems common to a
number of communities, which are also funded through the com
munity action provisions of the EOA, include Headstart and Fol
low Through, Upward Bound, Neighborhood Health Centers,
Family Planning, Migrant Programs, Legal Services, and Serv
ices to Older Persons.
95. Apprenticeship Training
Apprenticeship is one of the oldest systems of occupational
training on the job for young adults. Apprentices develop skills
as employed workers through practical experience and formal in
struction on the job. At the conclusion of their terms of training
—typically 4 years—they are certificated as full-fledged journey
men in their trades. Apprenticeship programs are directed by in
dustry, usually through cooperative programs established by em
ployers and labor organizations. They are closely related to the
manpower needs of employers, who train for existing or prospec
tive job vacancies.
The Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training in the Manpower
Administration of the Department of Labor and the cooperating
State apprenticeship agencies, operating through a network of
field offices throughout the Nation, encourage the extension of ap
prenticeship programs and approve standards for training. Fed
eral- and State-approved programs cover about 370 occupations.
238
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
Although women demonstrated competence in many industrial
skills in a wide range of occupations during World Wars I and II,
only a minimal proportion (less than 1 percent) of the estimated
278,000 registered apprentices in training at the beginning of
1968 were women. In mid-1968 women were being or had been
trained as apprentices in 47 skilled occupations. These included
such traditional apprenticeships for women as cosmetologist,
dressmaker, fabric cutter, tailor, fur finisher, bookbinder, and
dental technician. But some women have also been trained as ap
prentices in such occupations as clock and watch repairman, elec
tronic technician, engraver, optical mechanic, precision lens
grinder, machinist, plumber, draftsman, electrical equipment re
pairer, electronic subassembly repairer, and compositor.
In view of the increasing needs of the economy for highly
trained and skilled workers, the Bureau of Apprenticeship and
Training and the Women’s Bureau of the Labor Department are
jointly exploring opportunities for more women in apprentice
ships. A goal of this joint effort is to delineate ongoing and new
apprenticeship programs in growing or emerging occupations and
industries where women can be trained and employed.
96. Vocational Rehabilitation of Handicapped Women
Through the State-Federal program of vocational rehabilita
tion, which began in 1920 and which has been progressively ex
panded, State agencies provide a wide range of services to the
handicapped. All the States, the District of Columbia, Guam,
Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands have vocational rehabilita
tion programs. Of the more than 200,000 handicapped people who
were rehabilitated into employment through these programs in
fiscal year 1968, an estimated 94,000, or 45 percent, were women.
Eligibility for vocational rehabilitation services is based on a
finding of physical or mental disability the existence of which is a
substantial handicap to employment and on a reasonable expecta
tion that the services may enable the individual to engage in a
gainful occupation. In most cases the criterion of rehabilitation is
successful accomplishment in paid employment, verified by indi
vidual followup. In some cases it is the ability to perform the im
portant work of homemaking; thus, an eligible woman may be
provided rehabilitation services so that she can be the homemaker
for her own family.
The basic State-Federal program focuses on the individual dis
abled person—his abilities and aptitudes, his interests, and his
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
239
needs. Rehabilitation involves the special skills of a variety of
professions collaborating to solve the complex problems often
presented by severely handicapped persons.
Basic services include: 1) comprehensive evaluation, including
medical study and diagnosis; 2) medical, surgical, and hospital
care, and related therapy to remove or reduce disability; 3)
prosthetic and orthotic devices; 4) counseling and guidance serv
ices; 5) training services; 6) services in comprehensive or spe
cialized rehabilitation facilities, including adjustment centers; 7)
maintenance and transportation as appropriate during rehabilita
tion; 8) tools, equipment, and licenses for work on a job or in es
tablishing a small business; 9) initial stock and supplies as well
as management services and supervision for small businesses, in
cluding the acquisition of vending stands by the State agency;
10) reader services for the blind and interpreter services for the
deaf; 11) recruitment and training services to provide new ca
reers for handicapped people in the field of rehabilitation and
other public service areas; 12) the construction or establishment
of rehabilitation facilities; 13) the provision of facilities and serv
ices which promise to contribute to a group of handicapped peo
ple, but which do not relate directly to the rehabilitation plan of
any one individual; 14) services to families of handicapped people
when such services will contribute substantially to the rehabilita
tion of the handicapped client; 15) other goods and services nec
essary to render a handicapped person employable; and 16) place
ment services, including followup services, to assist handicapped
individuals to maintain their employment.
In addition to the basic State-Federal services, the Federal pro
gram of vocational rehabilitation includes a variety of related
provisions to strengthen, increase, and improve public and non
profit resources and services for rehabilitation of the handi
capped. These include, for example, grants for research and dem
onstration projects for training of personnel, for construction and
improvement of rehabilitation facilities, and for projects to ex
pand rehabilitation services.
The Federal share of funds to support the basic State agency
services changed from 75 to 80 percent beginning July 1, 1969.
The Federal agency administering vocational rehabilitation serv
ices is the Rehabilitation Services Administration in the Social
and Rehabilitation Service, Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare.
Many handicapped workers trained under vocational rehabili
tation programs receive supplemental training under the Man
240
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
power Development and Training Act. Handicapped trainees
(both sexes) enrolled in MDTA institutional projects represented
10 percent of the 150,000 institutional MDTA trainees in 1967,
but the proportion of handicapped female trainees was small—
only 5 percent compared with 14 percent for handicapped men.
97. Special Program for Private Household Workers
The Women’s Bureau has been deeply concerned with the need
to improve the social and economic status of private household
workers. Present efforts to improve employment conditions in this
occupation are intended to help not only those currently employed
and their employers, but also many unemployed women and
prospective employers. At the same time that many household po
sitions cannot be filled because of the lack of qualified applicants,
there are many unskilled unemployed women who could be
trained for this occupation, and there are other women and girls
who might enter the occupation if it had more dignity.
The Women’s Bureau sponsored consultations on household em
ployment in June 1964 and in February 1965, at which represent
atives of interested national organizations considered what was
needed to improve working conditions and standards as well as
worker qualifications and performance. As a result of these con
sultations, the National Committee on Household Employment
was formed to combine and coordinate the efforts of national or
ganizations interested in upgrading the field of household employ
ment and to assist them in working with related government pro
grams. The committee now includes 22 private organizations. The
Women’s Bureau continues to offer technical assistance in these
endeavors.
The committee is demonstrating that this occupation can be re
constituted and the industry restructured. The committee has de
veloped a recommended code of standards for household em
ployees and employers. It has supported a participant-observer
study of New York City household employees under the sponsor
ship of New York University and the National Council of Negro
Women. It has also participated in the development of pilot train
ing projects to upgrade employment standards and opportunities.
The first demonstration project was in Washington, D.C. In
March 1968 demonstration projects in seven cities were funded by
the Department of Labor. Each of the projects is sponsored by a
different organization and emphasizes a different approach to the
upgrading of household employment, such as formal training and
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
241
work experience programs; private businesses and cooperative
organizations to provide household services; recruitment, counsel
ing, job development, and placement aid; postplacement counsel
ing and support; and the development, promotion, and institution
of work standards. The National Committee on Household Em
ployment provides technical supervision, monitors the projects,
and acts as liaison between government and the projects.
Women private household workers are employed as general
household workers, housekeepers, maids, cleaning women, laun
dresses, and babysitters. The 1.7 million women private house
hold workers in 1967 constituted 98 percent of all workers in the
occupation.
Wages in this occupation are extremely low. In 1966 women
private household workers who worked full time the year round
(slightly more than one-fifth of those employed) had median
earnings of only $1,297. Their median total cash income, which
included wage and self-employment income as well as all forms of
social insurance and public assistance payments, was only $1,441.
About 6 out of 10 of all women private household workers had
total cash incomes under $1,000; just over 1 out of 10 had as
much as $2,000 total cash income.
The low annual wages of women private household workers re
flect not only their low rates of pay but also the intermittent
character of their employment. In 1967, 62 percent of women pri
vate household workers 16 years of age and over worked part
time (less than 85 hours a week). Only 26 percent of all women
workers 16 years of age and over worked part time in 1967. More
over, more than 4 out of 10 women private household workers,
but only 3 out of 10 of all women workers, worked 26 weeks or
less during 1966.
Full-time private household workers tend to work longer
hours than other employed women do. In 1967, 37 percent of the
private household workers on full-time schedules worked 41
hours a week or more, as compared with only 22 percent of all
full-time women workers employed in nonfarm occupations.
A high proportion of women private household workers (an es
timated 12 percent in 1966) are heads of families. For these
women, low pay and long hours are particularly severe hardships.
Private household workers, as a group, are disadvantaged edu
cationally. The median number of years of school completed by
women private household workers in March 1967 was 8.9, as com
pared with a median of 12.4 years completed by all women
workers. The 1960 census disclosed other characteristics of
242
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
women private household workers (excluding babysitters) :
their median age (46 years) was about 6 years more than that of
all women in the labor force; 65 percent were nonwhite; more
(54 percent) lived in the South than elsewhere; about 74 percent
lived in urban areas; and only 11 percent were “live-in” workers.
In addition to being disadvantaged economically, private house
hold workers are deprived legislatively. While an employer is re
quired to remit the social security tax for a household employee
who earns a minimum of $50 in a calendar quarter, this occupa
tion is not covered by the Federal minimum wage and hour law.
Moreover, these workers are generally excluded from other forms
of protective legislation from which most workers benefit, such as
State wage and hour laws, unemployment compensation, and
workmen’s compensation.
5
OUTLOOK FOR WOMEN WORKERS*
The demand for women workers will depend upon the Nation’s
economy and decisions regarding national objectives. Full utiliza
tion of all our human resources, whether manpower or womanpower, is essential if we are to achieve anticipated goals in the
decades ahead.
With the population projected at 207 million in 1970 and 243
million in 1980, the Department of Labor anticipates a work
force of 85 million in 1970 and about 100 million in 1980 to produce
needed goods and services. The number of women workers is ex
pected to increase faster than that of men workers in the years
ahead, as it has over the past several decades. (See sec. 7 for
discussion of labor force growth.) It is estimated that between
1968 and 1980 the number of women workers will rise by 23 per
cent; the number of men workers, by 21 percent. Population in
creases will account for a large proportion of the total labor force
growth. Other factors will be the rising labor force participation
of young adult women, if the recent trend continues, and the re
turn of mature women to the labor force.
In 1968, 41.6 percent of all women 16 years of age and over
were in the labor force (table 107). This percentage is expected to
increase to 41.9 percent in 1980, while the corresponding rate for
men will be virtually unchanged between 1968 and 1980. The rate
for women in the main working ages (18 to 64 years) is expected
to rise from 48.2 percent in 1968 to 49 percent in 1980. In the
light of past trends, these projections are considered conserva
tive.
’“Projections for 1970, 1975, and 1980 on population and labor force are for persons 16
years of age and over and assume an unemployment rate of about 4 percent, a continuation
of recent trends in economic and social patterns in our society and of scientific and tech
nological advances, and an absence of disasters. Projections for 1975 on employment in major
occupation groups are for persons 16 years of age and over and assume an unemployment
rate of 3 percent. These data are from the “Manpower Report of the President Including a
Report on Manpower Requirements, Resources, Utilization, and Training.” U.S. Department of
Labor. January 1969.
Unless attributed to special studies, 1976 projections of manpower requirements for detailed
occupations are for persons 14 years of age and over and assume an unemployment rate of 3
percent. These data are from "America's Industrial and Occupational Manpower Requirements.
1964-75.” Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. January 1, 1966.
243
244
OUTLOOK FOR WOMEN WORKERS
Table 107.—Labor Force Participation Rates, by Sex
Women, 1968 and Projected to 19801
and by
Age
of
(Persons 16 years of age and over)
Sex and age
Total ___ ____ ___
- _____
„
Men
__________ ____________
Women __ ___ ___ . _ _. _ _ ___
16 to 19 years - .
____ _____
20 to 24 years
- - _____
25 to 34 years ------------ . _ _ _
. _
35 to 44 years _ _ ______
45 to 54 years-------------------- ____
55 to 64 years-------------- _____
55 to 59 years - - — . _____
60 to 64 years * - - __ _____
65 years and over _ _____ _____
65 to 69 years ____ . ........ _
70 years and over __ _____
18 to 64 years ________ _____
Actual
1968
60.7
81.2
41.6
42.0
54.6
42.6
48.9
52.3
42.4
47.9
36.1
9.6
17.0
5.8
48.2
-
Projected to—
1975
60.0
80.1
41.3
39.6
51.5
39.3
40.0
57.6
45.7
54.2
1980
60.4
80.3
41.9
40.0
52.6
40.3
50.0
59.5
47.3
56.2
36.2
9.8
17.4
6.0
48.2
37.3
9.9
17.4
6.1
49.0
1970
59.7
80.3
40.5
39.4
50.3
38.6
47.5
55.3
43.8
51.5
34.8
9.8
17.4
5.9
47.2
1 Annual averages, including Armed Forces.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment and Earnings,
January 1969; Manpower Administration, “Manpower Report of the President Including a
Report on Manpower Requirements, Resources, Utilization, and Training.” January 1969.
The 1968 labor force participation rates of girls 16 to 19 years
of age and of young women 20 to 24 years of age exceeded the
rates projected for 1970 through 1980. Projections indicate that
much larger proportions of mature women will be working in 1975
and 1980 than in 1968. The rate for women in the 45- to 54-yearold group, which was 52.3 percent in 1968, is projected at 59.5
percent in 1980; and the rate for those 55 to 59 years old, which
was 47.9 percent in 1968, is projected at 56.2 percent in 1980.
Labor force participation rates by color show that a larger pro
portion of nonwhite women 16 years of age and over were in the
labor force in 1968 (49.3 percent) than is estimated for 1970 (48
percent), 1975 (47.9 percent), or 1980 (47.5 percent) (table 108).
The 1968 labor force participation rate of nonwhite girls 16 to 19
years of age exceeded that projected for 1970 but was below that
estimated for 1975 and 1980. Only among nonwhite women 45 to
64 years of age was labor force participation in 1968 below that
projected for 1970, 1975, and 1980. The labor force participation
rate of nonwhite men at 78.8 percent in 1968 was almost the same
as that estimated for 1970 through 1980.
What jobs will be available for women workers? Growth in
fc.
Table 108.
Labor Force Participation Rates,
by
Sex
and
Color
and by
Age
of
Women,
1968
and
Projected
to
19801
(Persons 16 years of age and over)
^kite
65 years and over . .
___________
___________
___ _____
___________
___________
___________
___________
___________
Actual
1968
60.4
81.4
40.7
43.1
54.1
40.7
47.5
51.5
1970
59.4
80.5
39.6
40.2
49.9
36.7
46.1
54.4
________
_________
42.0
9.4
43.3
9.6
Projected to—
1975
59.7
80.3
40.4
40.1
51.3
37.7
47.8
56.9
45.3
9.7
1980
60.1
80.4
41.1
40.3
52.6
38.9
49.0
58.9
1968
63.1
78.8
49.3
34.9
58.5
56.6
59.3
59.8
1970
62.4
78.3
48.0
34.6
52.9
52.3
57.6
62.9
47.1
9.9
47.0
11.9
49.0
11.4
Projected to—
1975
62.4
78.5
47.9
36.9
52.6
50.9
57.6
63.6
49.3
10.9
1980
62.4
79.0
47.5
38.1
52.4
49.7
57.6
63.9
49.6
10.6
1 Annual averages, including Armed Forces.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment and Earnings, January 1969; Manpower Administration, “Manpower Re
port of the President Including a Report on Manpower Requirements, Resources, Utilization, and Training." January 1969.
245
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
Sex and age
Total
_
_
Men _
Women . _ _
16 to 19 years _
__ .
20 to 24 years . ___
26 to 34 years ._
36 to 44 years___
__ _
45 to 54 years ___
55 to 64 years
__
.
Nonwhite
246
OUTLOOK FOR WOMEN WORKERS
the economy is, of course, never even. Industries have different
growth rates: some will expand, others will show little change,
and still others will decline as new industries develop. Moreover,
growth rates are affected by priorities assigned by Federal and
State Governments to the various goals to improve American life.
Some of these decisions already have been made by newly enacted
social legislation, such as the 1967 Social Security Amendments
which increased the need for health and welfare workers. Other
priorities in education, health, housing, transportation, and urban
development—to name just a few—have not yet been established.
These will affect significantly the occupational structure within
industries and the demand for workers with specific skills and ed
ucational attainment.1
The Nation’s manpower requirements in 1975 will be influenced
by the following projected changes in industrial composition. Gov
ernment and services will increase in relation to total employ
ment, as will construction and trade. The proportion of all
workers in finance, insurance, and real estate will be unchanged.
On the other hand, the relative importance of manufacturing and
of transportation and public utilities will decline slightly, and the
proportions of all workers in agriculture and in mining will con
tinue long term declines.
The occupational structure of the work force will continue to
change, reflecting both technological developments and the differ
ent growth rates of industries. White-collar workers and service
workers will be relatively more important; blue-collar workers
and farm workers will decline as proportions of total employ
ment.
The largest growth rate will be among professional and techni
cal workers. Included in the estimated 12.9 million such workers
in 1975 will be the following:
Teachers (alllevels)
Engineers Engineering and science technicians ____ _ _ _ _
Professionalnurses_______
Accountants
Draftsmen ____________________________________
Physicians__ _______
Chemists __ _____
_
_____ _
_____ ____
2,700,000
1,500,000
1,000,000
830,000
565,000
375,000
305,000
200,000
A study shows that the supply of chemists, physicists, life sci
entists, and mathematicians needed in 1975 will be double that
1 For employment opportunities in specific occupations, see “Occupational Outlook Hand
book,” 1968—69 edition. Bull. 1650, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, and
publications of the Women's Bureau listed in the bibliography of this handbook.
WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE
247
available in 1967 in order “to maintain high levels of economic
activity and technological advance, increasingly complex efforts
in research and development, a strong national defense and our
space programs.”2 The number of employed engineers needed
will increase by two-thirds.
A special study on the health industry indicates that between
1966 and 1975 the demand for physicians will increase by about
one-third; for dentists, by more than one-fourth; and for both
professional nurses and medical X-ray technicians, by nearly
two-fifths.3 The demand for occupational therapists, physical
therapists, and medical technologists is expected to rise at an
even greater rate. Many of these jobs will be filled by women.
A study on staffing American colleges and universities projects
an increase between 1963 and 1969 of 42 percent in the full-time
staff of institutions of higher education.4 This should open up
more opportunities for women teachers at the college level. But
women may have more competition from men for jobs as elemen
tary and secondary school teachers, if past trends continue.
Employment requirements for clerical and kindred workers in
1975 are estimated at 14.8 million. This would be about one-sixth
more than the number employed in 1968. Despite increased auto
mation, the demand for clerical workers will rise as the size and
complexity of modern business organizations increase and as
functions formerly performed by sales personnel are transferred
to clerical workers. Demand will be high for stenographers, typ
ists, and secretaries and for office machine operators, particularly
those associated with computer operations. Most of these jobs
will be filled by women.
Sales workers are estimated at 5.6 million in 1975. This would
be one-eighth more than were employed in 1968. Employment
prospects will be good for real estate agents, insurance salesmen,
and retail sales clerks. Many of the opportunities for retail sales
clerks will be part time at peak periods of the day or at peak pe
riods of the year as stores in metropolitan or suburban areas ex
tend their hours of operation. These jobs should prove attractive
to women.
In the blue-collar field, the most rapid increase in requirements
by 1975 will be for craftsmen—an occupation group with rela
tively few women. The demand for operatives will increase more
2 U.S. Department of Labor, Manpower Administration; “The Job Market for Engineers,
Scientists, Technicians/’ January 1968.
3 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: “Health Manpower, 1966-75: A
Study of Requirements and Supply.” Report No. 323. June 1967.
4 U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education: “Staffing Ameri
can Colleges and Universities.” OE-53028-67.
248
OUTLOOK FOR WOMEN WORKERS
slowly, and the demand for nonfarm laborers will be unchanged.
Requirements for service workers in 1975 are estimated at 12
million, or one-eighth more than in 1968. Little of this increase
will be among workers employed in private homes. The greatest
demand will be for health service workers such as practical
nurses, hospital attendants, and nurses’ aides; restaurant
workers such as cooks and waitresses; beauty operators; janitors,
caretakers, and building cleaners; and protective service workers
such as policemen and firemen. A majority of these service jobs
are held by women.
All of the foregoing estimates indicate a continued strong de
mand for workers with high levels of education, skill, and train
ing. Conversely, job opportunities for those with little schooling
and training will continue to decrease.
These factors, together with the increasing competition of men
in traditional women’s fields, indicate that women must take ad
vantage of all the education and training available to them and
develop their talents and abilities to the fullest extent possible. In
this era of rising demand for more skilled workers and of acceler
ated automation, women must be adaptable and flexible in their
attitudes—willing to learn and willing to make necessary
changes. They must be alert to new job opportunities and to new
training programs. Only if they are fully prepared by education,
training, and the willingness to learn anew, will they be ready for
the challenges and demands of tomorrow’s society.
Part II
Laws Governing Women's
Employment and Status
HIGHLIGHTS
Minimum wage-36 States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico
have minimum wage laws in operation that apply to women; of
these, 31 apply also to men. An additional 3 States have mini
mum wage laws applicable to women, but the laws are not
currently in operation.
On February 1, 1967, 8.5 million new workers were brought
under the Federal Fair Labor Standards Act for the first time.
Most workers covered under the law's minimum wage and over
time pay provisions now must be paid at least $1.60 an hour.
Equal pay-31 States have equal pay laws; 5 States and the District of
Columbia which have no equal pay laws have fair employment
practices laws that prohibit discrimination in rate of pay or
compensation based on sex. (D.C. has a police regulation.)
The Federal Equal Pay Act of 1963 prohibits employers from
discriminating in the payment of wages on the basis of sex.
Sex discrimination-15 States and the District of Columbia prohibit dis
crimination in private employment based on sex.
Since July 2, 1968, employers and unions with at least 25
employees or members are covered under title VII of the Civil
Rights Act of 1964—the Federal law prohibiting discrimination in
private employment based on sex as well as race, color, religion,
and national origin.
Executive Order 11375, amending Executive Order 11246,
explicitly prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex in Federal
employment and by Federal contractors.
Hours of work 41 States and the District of Columbia regulate daily
and/or weekly working hours for women in one or more in
dustries; 25 States and the District of Columbia set maximum
hours of 8 a day, or 48 or less a week, or both.
Nightwork 18 States and Puerto Rico prohibit and/or regulate the em
ployment of adult women in specified industries or occupations
at night.
Industrial homework—19 States and Puerto Rico have industrial home
work laws or regulations.
Employment before and after childbirth—6 States and Puerto Rico pro
hibit the employment of women immediately before and/or after
childbirth.
Occupational limitations—26 States prohibit the employment of adult
women in specified occupations or industries or under certain
251
working conditions considered hazardous or injurious to health.
Age discrimination—Effective on June 12, 1968, discrimination in em
ployment against persons 40 to 65 years old by employers, em
ployment agencies, and labor unions is prohibited by Federal
law.
Jury duty—All States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico permit
women to serve on all juries. Women are eligible for Federal
jury service in all jurisdictions by virtue of the 1957 Federal Civil
Rights Act.
Marriage laws—46 States and the District of Columbia require a pre
marital health examination for both applicants for a marriage
license.
Married women's rights—All States recognize a married woman's legal
capacity to contract her personal services outside the home.
Married women generally have control of their own earnings;
however, in 4 of the 8 community property States, the wife's
earnings are under the complete control of the husband.
6
FEDERAL LABOR LAWS
FOR WOMEN
as of January 1, 1969
Not since the passage of the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938
has there been major Federal legislation as significant to working
women as certain enactments in recent years; namely, the
Equal Pay Act of 1963, title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964,
the 1966 amendments to the Fair Labor Standards Act, and the
Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967. Also of great im
portance is the 1967 Executive order prohibiting sex discrimina
tion in employment. This chapter presents a brief description of
each of these major Federal laws and the Executive order, with
emphasis on the aspects of the laws that pertain to women
workers.
98. The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938
June 25, 1968, marked the 30th anniversary of the signing of
the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) into law. Known as the
Federal wage and hour law, it was the first Federal law to estab
lish a floor for wages paid to persons engaged in interstate com
merce or the production of goods for commerce, as defined in the
law, and to encourage a shorter workweek by requiring premium
pay for work beyond a specified number of hours. The FLSA has
made possible the raising of minimum wage rates for those in the
lowest paid occupations and/or industries.
The original act in 1938 established a 25-cent-an-hour mini
mum wage for covered employment and provided for a gradual
increase to a 40-cent minimum after 7 years. The law has been
amended from time to time to increase the required minimum rate
and to extend coverage to new groups of employees. The most re
cent amendments were passed in 1966.
The Fair Labor Standards Act does not limit the number of
hours that an employee may work, but it does require premium
pay of iy2 times the employee’s regular rate after specified hours
of work. When enacted in 1938, the act required payment of li/2
253
254
FEDERAL LABOR LAWS FOR WOMEN
times the regular rate after 44 hours a week for the first year,
after 42 hours in the second year, and after 40 hours thereafter.
99. Fair Labor Standards Amendments of 1966
At the present time, most workers covered by the law’s mini
mum wage and overtime pay provisions must be paid at least
$1.60 an hour, and iy2 times their regular rate of pay for all
hours worked over 40 in the workweek. Among those to whom
these provisions apply are: employees in manufacturing, process
ing, and distributing establishments; in the telephone, telegraph,
radio, television, and transportation industries; those who handle
goods moving in interstate commerce; those who regularly use
the mails, telephone, or telegraph for interstate communication;
and those who regularly travel across State lines while working.
The 1966 amendments extended the act’s minimum wage pro
tection to more than 10 million additional workers. Those covered
for the first time included employees of large hotels, motels, and
restaurants; hospitals, nursing homes, or schools; and those em
ployed in laundering, cleaning, or repairing clothing or fabrics.
Effective February 1, 1969, these employees must be paid at least
$1.30 an hour, and overtime pay after 40 hours. The hourly mini
mum for these employees will increase 15 cents a year, until it
reaches $1.60 an hour on February 1, 1971.
Some farm workers were also newly covered by minimum wage
provisions, and, effective February 1, 1969, they must be paid at
least $1.30 an hour. Farm workers, however, are exempt from the
overtime pay requirements. Also exempt from these requirements
are employees of hotels, motels, or restaurants and certain other
employees serving food or beverages.
Special overtime provisions require employees of nursing
homes, rest homes, and bowling alleys to be paid overtime after
48 hours in a workweek, while hospitals are permitted to compute
overtime pay on the basis of a 14-day period.
Nearly 4 out of 5 nonsupervisory workers in private employ
ment are now benefiting under the act.
Not covered under the Fair Labor Standards Act are executive,
administrative, and professional employees (including teachers);
outside salesmen; employees of small or local retail or service es
tablishments; most farm workers; and employees of certain sea
sonal amusement or recreational establishments. In addition, pri
vate household workers are not entitled to benefits under the act.
The law is administered and enforced by the Wage and Hour
and Public Contracts Divisions of the U.S. Department of Labor,
LAWS GOVERNING WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT AND STATUS
265
which has regional and field offices throughout the United States.
Information obtained from employers and employees is treated
confidentially.
It is a violation of the law to discharge an employee for filing a
complaint or participating in a proceeding under the law. The law
provides methods for recovering unpaid minimum and/or over
time wages. Willful violations may be prosecuted criminally and
the violator fined up to $10,000. A second conviction for such a
violation may result in imprisonment.
A 2-year statute of limitations applies to the recovery of back
wages, except that in the case of willful violations, there is a 3year limitation.
100. Equal Pay Act of 1963
The Federal Equal Pay Act was signed June 10, 1963, as an
amendment to the Fair Labor Standards Act. This law applies to
all employees who are entitled to the benefits of the minimum
wage provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act, and prohibits
employers from discriminating on the basis of sex in the payment
of wages for equal work on jobs requiring equal skill, effort, and
responsibility and which are performed under similar working
conditions. The equal pay amendment has been in effect generally
since June 11, 1964, with deferment in the case of certain collec
tive bargaining agreements until June 11, 1965.
The law does not prohibit wage differentials based on a senior
ity system, a merit system, a system measuring earnings by quan
tity or quality of production, or any other factor other than sex.
It does prohibit an employer from reducing the wage rate of any
employee in order to comply with the provisions of the act. Also,
it prohibits labor organizations from causing or attempting to
cause an employer to discriminate against an employee in viola
tion of the equal pay provisions.
The Wage and Hour and Public Contracts Divisions of the De
partment of Labor administers and enforces the equal pay law.
(See sec. 99 for enforcement information.)
101. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
A milestone in the progress of equal employment opportunity
for women was reached with the passage of title VII of the Civil
Rights Act of 1964. Effective July 2, 1965, title VII of that act
prohibits discrimination in private employment based on sex as
well as on race, color, religion, and national origin in industries
256
FEDERAL LABOR LAWS FOR WOMEN
affecting commerce. The law also applies to labor organizations
and to employment agencies, including the Federal-State employ
ment service system. Since July 2, 1968, employers and unions
with at least 25 employees or members, respectively, have been
covered.
The law makes unlawful specified acts by employers, public and
private employment agencies, labor organizations, and joint la
bor-management committees.
Unlawful employment practices include:
• For an employer to fail or refuse to hire, to discharge, or
otherwise to discriminate against an individual because of
race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, with respect to
compensation, terms, conditions, or privileges of employ
ment; or to limit, segregate, or classify his employees in any
way which deprives them of employment opportunities.
•For a union to exclude or expel from membership, limit,
segregate, or classify its membership; fail or refuse to refer
for employment any individual on any of the prohibited
grounds; or to cause or attempt to cause an employer to
discriminate.
• For an employment agency to fail or refuse to refer for
employment any individual on any of the prohibited grounds.
• For any of the above to print, publish, or cause to be
printed advertisements regarding employment indicating any
preference, classification, or discrimination on any of the
prohibited grounds.
• For an employer, labor union, or joint labor-manage
ment committee to discriminate on any of the prohibited
grounds in apprenticeship or other training or retraining, in
cluding on-the-job training programs.
The exception to the above prohibitions is when sex is a
bona fide occupational qualification reasonably necessary to
the normal operation of the particular business.
Among those not covered are local, State, and Federal agencies,
government-owned corporations, Indian tribes, and religious or
educational institutions where the employee performs work con
nected with the institution’s religious or educational activities.
Title VII is administered by the Equal Employment Opportu
nity Commission. The Commission has the responsibility of inves
tigating complaints of discrimination and of attempting to resolve
LAWS GOVERNING WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT AND STATUS
257
any discrimination found by means of conference, conciliation,
and persuasion. A person who believes that he or she is a victim
of discrimination may file a complaint with the Commission.
The Commission has no independent enforcement power. If it is
unable to settle a complaint, it notifies the aggrieved employee
who, on his own, may bring an action in U.S. district court under
title VII.
In addition, individual Commissioners may initiate complaints
if they receive information which indicates that the law has been
violated; and where there is a pattern or practice of discrimina
tion, rather than a single instance, the U.S. Attorney General
may undertake action in the U.S. district court.
Before any action may be taken under title VII, however, op
portunity must be given State fair employment practices agencies
to resolve the complaint under State fair employment practices
legislation within certain time limits. At present, with respect to
complaints of sex discrimination, the Equal Employment Oppor
tunity Commission defers to 12 States—Connecticut, Hawaii,
Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada,
New York, Utah, Wisconsin, and Wyoming—and the District of
Columbia. In Alaska it defers only in charges alleging wage dis
crimination based on sex; in Colorado, where sex discrimination
in apprenticeship and other training programs is alleged. In all of
these jurisdictions, a complainant must seek relief from the State
agency before filing a complaint with the Commission.
Employment by the Federal Government
and by Federal Contractors
102. Executive Order 11375
On October 13, 1967, Executive Order 11375 was signed, which
amended Executive Order 11246 of September 24, 1965, to ex
plicitly prohibit discrimination on the basis of sex in Federal em
ployment, employment by Federal contractors and subcontractors,
and employment on federally assisted construction. The provi
sions concerning Federal employment became effective November
12, 1967; the remaining provisions, October 14, 1968.
Executive Order 11375 in effect superseded the Presidential
directive of July 1962, which instructed Federal agencies to make
all selections for appointments, advancement, and training in the
258
FEDERAL LABOR LAWS FOR WOMEN
Federal service without regard to sex, except in unusual circum
stances found justified by the Civil Service Commission.
The Civil Service Commission administers Executive Order
11375* with respect to complaints of discrimination based on sex
made by Federal employees.
The Office of Federal Contract Compliance in the U.S. Depart
ment of Labor administers the provisions prohibiting discrimina
tion in employment by Federal contractors and subcontractors
and under federally assisted construction contracts.
103. Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967
The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967, signed
December 15, 1967, became effective June 12, 1968. The law pro
hibits discrimination in employment against persons 40 to 65
years old by employers, employment agencies, and labor unions.
The age discrimination law now applies to employers of 25 or
more persons in an industry affecting interstate commerce, em
ployment agencies serving such employers, and labor organiza
tions with 25 or more members in an industry affecting interstate
commerce. The law protects not only employed persons, but also
persons applying for or seeking employment. Exceptions are
made for situations where age is a bona fide occupational qualifi
cation reasonably necessary to the normal operations of a particu
lar business. More specifically:
It is against the law
• For an employer:
—to fail or refuse to hire, or to discharge, or otherwise dis
criminate against any individual as to compensation, terms,
conditions, or privileges of employment because of age;
—to limit, segregate, or classify his employees so as to de
prive a person of employment opportunities, or adversely af
fect the individual’s status as an employee because of age;
—to reduce the wage rate of any employee in order to comply
with the act.
•For an employment agency:
—to fail or refuse to refer for employment, or otherwise dis
criminate against, any individual because of age, or to clas
sify or refer anyone for employment on the basis of age.
•For a labor organization:
—to discriminate against anyone because of age by excluding
or expelling any individual from membership, or by limiting,
♦Federal employment provisions were superseded and strengthened by Executive Order
11478 issued August 8, 1969,
LAWS GOVERNING WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT AND STATUS
259
segregating, or classifying its membership on the basis of
age, or by other means;
—to fail or refuse to refer anyone for employment so as to
result in a deprivation or limitation of employment opportu
nities or otherwise adversely affect the individual’s status as
an employee because of age;
—to cause or attempt to cause an employer to discriminate
against any individual because of age.
•For employers, employment agencies, or labor organiza
tions:
—to discriminate against a person for opposing a practice
made unlawful by the act, or for making a charge, assisting,
or participating in any investigation, proceeding, or litiga
tion under it;
—to use printed or published notices or advertisements indi
cating any preference, limitation, specification, or discrimi
nation based on age.
The prohibitions against discrimination because of age do
not apply:
—where age is a bona fide occupational qualification reasona
bly necessary to the normal operations of the particular busi
ness ;
—where the differentiation is based on reasonable factors
other than age;
—where the discharge or discipline of an individual is for
good cause;
—where the differentiation is caused by observing the terms
of a bona fide seniority system or any bona fide employee ben
efit plan. This applies to new and existing employee benefit
plans, and to the establishment and maintenance of such
plans. However, no employee benefit plan shall excuse the
failure to hire any individual.
The Secretary of Labor is responsible for administering and
enforcing the act. He may secure injunctions to enforce employ
ment rights under the new law. Any aggrieved person may bring a
civil action for legal or equitable relief, including unpaid mini
mum wages and overtime pay. However, this right terminates if
the Secretary commences an action to enforce that individual’s
right. Before bringing a suit, an employee must notify the Secre
tary of Labor of his intent and allow the Secretary 60 days
within which to secure voluntary compliance with the law. This
notice must be filed within 180 days of the alleged unlawful act.
260
FEDERAL LABOR LAWS FOR WOMEN
Where an employee pursues the remedies available under a State
age discrimination law, the notice time to the Secretary of Labor
is extended to 300 days of the alleged violation or within 30 days
after receipt of notice of termination of the State proceedings,
whichever is earlier.
Before an employee can bring a Federal court suit in an age
discrimination practice also prohibited by State law, the State
agency must be allowed 60 days within which to adjust the dis
pute. The 60 days are extended to 120 days when a State’s age
discrimination law is in its first year of operation.
A Federal court suit must be started within 2 years after the
cause of action accrued, except for willful violations, in which
case a 3-year statute of limitations applies. Criminal penalties of
a fine of not more than $500 or imprisonment for not more than 1
year may be imposed for interference with the duties of the Secre
tary under the law.
The Wage and Hour and Public Contracts Divisions of the U.S.
Department of Labor administers the act.
7
STATE LABOR LAWS FOR WOMEN
as of January 1, 1969
During a century of development, the field of labor legislation
for women has seen a tremendous increase in the number of laws
and a notable improvement in the standards established. Today
each of the 50 States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico
have laws relating to the employment of women. The principal
subjects of regulation are: (1) minimum wage; (2) overtime
compensation; (3) equal pay; (4) fair employment practices; (5)
hours of work, including maximum daily and weekly hours, day
of rest, meal and rest periods, and nightwork; (6) industrial
homework; (7) employment before and after childbirth; (8) occu
pational limitations; and (9) other standards, such as seating
provisions and weightlifting limitations.
Although legislation in one or more of these fields has been
enacted in all of the States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto
Rico, the standards established vary widely. In some jurisdictions
different standards apply to different occupations or industries.
Laws relating to minors are mentioned here only if they apply
also to women.
Minimum Wage
A total of 36 States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico
have minimum wage laws with minimum wage rates currently in
effect. These laws apply to men as well as women in 29 States, the
District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. In 7 States the minimum
wage laws apply only to women or to women and minors. An ad
ditional 3 States have minimum wage laws, applicable to females
and/or minors, which are not in operation.
In general these laws are applicable to all industries and occu
pations except domestic service and agriculture, which are specif
ically exempt in most States.
The laws of 9 States—Arkansas, California, Colorado, Michi
gan, New Jersey, North Dakota, Utah, Washington, and Wiscon-
261
262
STATE LABOR LAWS FOR WOMEN
sin—either set statutory minimum wage rates or permit a wage
board to set minimum rates for both domestic service and agricul
tural workers. In Wisconsin wage orders cover both groups. The
Michigan statutory rate applies to agricultural employees (except
certain employees engaged in harvesting on a piecework basis)
and domestic service workers, but is limited to employers of 4 or
more. The Arkansas law is limited to employers of 5 or more and
applies to agricultural workers, with some exceptions, whose em
ployer used more than 500 man-days of agricultural labor in any
4 months of the preceding year. The New Jersey statutory rate
applies to agricultural workers and excludes domestic service
workers, but the law permits them to be covered by a wage order.
California has a wage order applicable to agricultural workers,
but has none for domestic service workers. The remaining 4
States—Colorado, North Dakota, Utah, and Washington—have no
wage orders that apply to domestic service or agricultural
workers.
The laws of 7 jurisdictions—the District of Columbia, Hawaii,
Massachusetts, New Mexico, Oregon, Puerto Rico, and West
Virginia—cover either domestic service or agricultural workers,
but not both. West Virginia does not exclude domestic service
workers as a group, but coverage is limited to employers of 6 or
more. Some or all agricultural workers are covered under the
minimum wage law or orders in the District of Columbia, Hawaii,
Massachusetts, New Mexico, Oregon, and Puerto Rico.
Since the Federal Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) of 1938,
as amended, establishes a minimum hourly rate for both men and
women engaged in or producing goods for interstate commerce
and for employees of most large retail firms and other specified
establishments, as well as some workers in agriculture, the bene
fits of State minimum wage legislation apply chiefly to workers in
local trade and service industries.
104. Historical Record of Minimum Wage Legislation
The history of minimum wage legislation began in 1912 with
the passage of a minimum wage law in Massachusetts. At that
time minimum wage legislation was designed for the protection
of women and minors, and did much to raise their extremely low
wages in manufacturing (now covered by the FLSA) and in trade
and service industries. Between 1912 and 1923 laws were enacted
in 15 States,1 the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico.
1 One of these laws was repealed in 1919 (Nebraska); another, in 1921 (Texas).
LAWS GOVERNING WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT AND STATUS
263
Legislative progress was interrupted by the 1923 decision of
the U.S. Supreme Court declaring the District of Columbia law
unconstitutional, and no new minimum wage laws were passed
during the next 10 years.
The depression years of the 1930’s brought a revival of interest
in minimum wage legislation, and 13 additional States and
Alaska enacted laws.
In 1937 the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of
the minimum wage law in the State of Washington, expressly
reversing its prior decision on the District of Columbia minimum
wage law.
In 1941 Hawaii enacted a minimum wage law, bringing to 30
the number of jurisdictions with such legislation.
From 1941 through 1954 no State enacted a minimum wage
law. However, there was a considerable amount of legislative ac
tivity in the States which already had minimum wage legislation
on their statute books. In some States the laws were amended to
extend coverage to men; in others, to establish or increase a stat
utory rate; and in still others, to strengthen the procedural provi
sions.
In the period 1955-66 the following actions occurred:
10 States—Delaware, Idaho, Indiana, Maryland, Michigan,
New Mexico, North Carolina, Vermont, West Virginia, and Wyo
ming—enacted minimum wage laws for the first time, making a
total of 40 jurisdictions with such laws.
7 States—Maine, New Jersey, New York, Oklahoma, Pennsyl
vania, Rhode Island, and Washington—and the District of Colum
bia with wage board laws enacted statutory rate laws, retaining,
with the exception of Maine and Oklahoma, the wage board pro
vision. The enactments in 5 States—Maine, New Jersey, Okla
homa, Pennsylvania, and Washington—and the District of Col
umbia also extended coverage to men.
4 States—Kentucky, Nevada, North Dakota, and South Dakota
—amended their laws to extend coverage to men.
16 States—Alaska, Connecticut, Hawaii, Idaho, Maine, Massa
chusetts, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Mexico, New York,
North Carolina, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Vermont, Washing
ton, and Wyoming—amended their laws one or more times to in
crease the statutory rates.
2 States—Massachusetts and New Jersey—and the District of
Columbia amended their premium pay requirements. Massachu
setts amended its minimum wage law to require the payment of
not less than 11/2 times an employee’s regular rate for hours
264
STATE LABOR LAWS FOR WOMEN
worked in exeess of 40 a week, exempting a number of occupa
tions and industries from the overtime provision. In New Jersey
and the District of Columbia new statutory rate laws were en
acted which included overtime pay requirements covering most
workers.
Other amendments in a number of jurisdictions affected cover
age of the minimum wage laws, clarified specific provisions, or
otherwise strengthened the laws.
In 1967:
1 State—Nebraska—enacted a minimum wage law for the first
time, bringing to 41 the total number of jurisdictions having such
laws. This law establishes a statutory rate applicable to men,
women, and minors, and is limited to employers of 4 or more.
1 State—Oregon—with a wage board law applicable to women
and minors enacted a statutory rate law applicable to men and
women 18 years and over.
1 State—New Hampshire—made its wage board provisions ap
plicable to men.
1 State—Maryland—extended coverage by eliminating the ex
emption for employers of less than 7.
12 States—Connecticut, Delaware, Idaho, Indiana, Maine, Mary
land, New Hampshire, New Mexico, Rhode Island, Vermont,
Washington, and Wyoming—amended their laws to increase their
statutory rates.
2 States—New Mexico and Massachusetts—extended coverage
to some or all agricultural workers.
2 States—California and Wisconsin—with wage board laws re
vised wage orders, setting a single rate for all occupations and in
dustries.
1 State—Michigan—amended its minimum wage regulations to
decrease allowable deductions and strengthen enforcement.
In 1968:
1 State—Arkansas—with a statutory rate law applicable to fe
males enacted a new law establishing a statutory rate applicable
to men, women, and minors, effective January 1, 1969.
1 State—Delaware—amended its law to set a minimum rate for
employees receiving gratuities.
1 State—Pennsylvania—amended its law to increase the statu
tory rate and to require overtime pay.
LAWS GOVERNING WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT AND STATUS
265
105. Rosier of Minimum Wage Jurisdictions
The 41 jurisdictions with minimum wage legislation* are:
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
District of Columbia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois 2
Indiana
Kansas 2
Kentucky
Louisiana *
2
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Puerto Rico
Rhode Island
South Dakota
Utah
Vermont
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Eight States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico have
laws that set a statutory rate and also provide for the establish
ment of occupation or industry rates based on recommendations of
wage boards. (Only those jurisdictions which can set rates higher
than the statutory minimum or expand coverage are shown
below.) Nineteen States have statutory rate laws only; that is,
the rate is set by the legislature. Twelve States (including 3 with
no minimum wage rates currently in effect) have laws that set no
fixed rate but provide for minimum rates to be established on an
occupation or industry basis by wage board action.
The following list shows, for the 41 jurisdictions, the type of
law and employee covered:
1. Statutory rate and wage board law for:
Men, women, and minors
Connecticut
District of Columbia
Massachusetts
New Hampshire
New Jersey3
New York
Pennsylvania
Puerto Rico
Rhode Island
Washington 3
2. Statutory rate law only for:
Men, women, and minors
Alaska
Arkansas
Delaware
Hawaii
Idaho
Maine
Maryland
Nebraska
Nevada
New Mexico
North Carolina
(16 to 65 years)
South Dakota
(14 years and over)
Vermont
West Virginia
*Since this publication was prepared, Texas enacted a minimum wage law, effective
February 1, 1970, covering men, women, and minors.
2 No minimum rates in effect.
3 Wage orders applicable to women and minors only.
266
STATE LABOR LAWS FOR WOMEN
Men and women
Indiana (18 years and over)
Michigan (18 to 65 years)
Oklahoma (18 to 65 years)
Oregon (18 years and over)
Wyoming (18 years and over)
3. Wage board law only for:
Men, women, and minors North Dakota
Women
Arizona and minors
Illinois *
Kentucky
California
Colorado
Kansas'
Minnesota
Ohio
Utah
Wisconsin
Females 4 5
Louisiana
Overtime Compensation
Sixteen States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico have
laws or regulations—usually part of the minimum wage program
—that provide for overtime compensation. These generally re
quire the payment of premium rates for hours worked in excess
of a daily and/or weekly standard. Premium pay requirements
are both a deterrent to excessive hours of work and an impetus to
the equitable distribution of work.
106. Statutory Requirements
Statutes of 10 States and the District of Columbia require the
payment of 1*4 times the regular rate of pay after a specified
number of daily and/or weekly hours. Generally these statutes are
applicable to men, women, and minors. The following list of juris
dictions with statutory overtime rates shows the hours after
which premium pay is required:
Alaska ___________
Connecticut______
District of Columbia
Hawaii
___ _ _
Idaho3 __________
Maine ___________
Massachusetts _ _. _.
New Jersey _
Pennsylvania ____
Vermont _______
West Virginia ___
Daily
standard
8
8
Weekly
standard
40
42; 40 (7/1/69)
40
40
48
48
40
40
42; 40 (2/1/69)
48
48
4 No minimum rates in effect.
5 The premium pay requirement is separate from the minimum wage program and is ap
plicable to women only.
LAWS GOVERNING WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT AND STATUS
267
107. Wage Order Requirements
Wage orders issued as part of the minimum wage program in 6
States and Puerto Rico require the payment of premium rates for
overtime. Generally the orders provide for payment of 11/q times,
or double, either the minimum rate or the regular rate of pay for
hours in excess of a daily and/or weekly standard. The following
list of jurisdictions with wage orders that require overtime rates
(for men, women, and minors unless otherwise indicated) shows
the premium rate established and the hours after which the pre
mium is payable. Most of the jurisdictions have issued a number
of wage orders with varying standards for different occupations.
The one shown is the highest standard of general application.
California6
Colorado 6
Kentucky 7
New York
Oregons
Rhode Island
Puerto Rico
Rate
1 % times the regular rate
Double the regular rate
1% times the regular rate
1 % times the minimum rate
Vz
1V times the minimum rate
Double the regular rate
1 *4 times basic minimum rate
the minimum rate
2
Weekly
standard
40
Daily
standard
8
12; 8 on 7th day
8
__
...
8
8
40
44
40
40
45
44
Equal Pay
Thirty-one States have equal pay laws applicable to private em
ployment that prohibit discrimination in rate of pay based on sex.
They establish the principle of payment of a wage rate based on
the job and not on the sex of the worker. Five States with no
equal pay law have fair employment practices laws and the Dis
trict of Columbia, a regulation, that prohibit discrimination in
rate of pay or compensation based on sex.
108. Historical Record of Equal Pay Legislation
Public attention was first sharply focused on equal pay for
women during World War I when large numbers of women were
employed in war industries on the same jobs as men, and the Na
tional War Labor Board enforced the policy of “no wage discrimi
nation against women on the grounds of sex.” In 1919, 2 States—
6 Applicable to women and minors only. In California minors under 18 are limited to 8
hours a day, 6 days a week.
7 Since the issuance of wage orders applicable to women and minors only, statutory coverage
of the wage board program has been extended to men.
268
STATE LABOR LAWS FOR WOMEN
Michigan and Montana—enacted equal pay legislation. For nearly
26 years these were the only States with such laws.
Progress in the equal pay field was made during World War II
when again large numbers of women entered the labor force,
many of them in jobs previously held by men. Government agen
cies, employers, unions, organizations, and the general public
were concerned with the removal of wage differentials as a means
of furthering the war effort.
During the period 1943-45 equal pay laws were enacted in 4
States—Illinois, Massachusetts, New York, and Washington.
In the next 4 years 6 States—California, Connecticut, Maine,
New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island—and Alaska
passed equal pay laws.
New Jersey enacted an equal pay law in 1952. Arkansas, Colo
rado, and Oregon passed such legislation in 1955.
In 1957 California amended its equal pay law to strengthen ex
isting legislation, and Nebraska adopted a resolution endorsing
the policy of equal pay for equal work without discrimination
based on sex and urging the adoption of this policy by all em
ployers in the State. Hawaii, Ohio, and Wyoming passed equal
pay laws in 1959.
In 1961 Wisconsin amended its fair employment practices act
to prohibit discrimination because of sex and to provide that a
differential in pay between employees, when based in good faith
on any factor other than sex, is not prohibited.
In 1962 Arizona passed an equal pay law, and Michigan amend
ed its law (which previously covered only manufacture or pro
duction of any article) to extend coverage to any employer of
labor employing both males and females.
During 1963 Missouri enacted an equal pay law, and Vermont
passed a fair employment practices law which also prohibits dis
crimination in rates of pay by reason of sex.
Also in 1963 the Federal Equal Pay Act was passed as an
amendment to the Fair Labor Standards Act.
In 1965, 3 States—North Dakota, Oklahoma, and West Vir
ginia—enacted equal pay laws, and 3 States with no equal pay
law—Maryland, Nebraska, and Utah—passed fair employment
practices laws which prohibit discrimination in compensation
based on sex. Amendments in California, Maine, New York, and
Rhode Island strengthened existing equal pay laws.
In 1966, 4 States—Georgia, Kentucky, Maryland, and South
Dakota—enacted equal pay laws. Massachusetts enacted a law
that provides equal pay for certain civil service employees.
LAWS GOVERNING WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT AND STATUS
269
In 1967, 2 States—Indiana and Nebraska—enacted equal pay
laws. Indiana included its equal pay provision as part of the
amendments to its minimum wage law.
109. Roster of Equal Pay States*9
8
The 31 States with equal pay laws* are:
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Georgia
Hawaii
Illinois
Indiana 0
Kentucky
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New York
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Dakota
Washington
West Virginia
Wyoming
Equal pay laws in Colorado, Georgia, Indiana, Kentucky, Mary
land, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania,
and Washington are applicable to public as well as private employ
ment. (A Massachusetts law contains an elective equal pay pro
vision, applicable to employees of cities or towns who are in the
classified civil service; and a Texas law requires equal pay for
women in private employment.) In 21 States the laws apply to
most types of privates employment. In general those States speci
fying exemptions exclude agricultural labor and domestic service.
The Illinois law applies only to manufacturing.
Fair Employment Practices
110. Roster of Fair Employment Practices States
Thirty-seven States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Eico
have fair employment practices laws, but only 15 of the States
and the District of Columbia include a prohibition against dis
crimination in employment based on sex. Prior to the enactment
of title VII of the Federal Civil Rights Act of 1964, the laws of
*Since this publication was prepared, 4 States—Florida, Idaho, Minnesota, and Nevada—
enacted equal pay laws.
8 Fair employment practices acts in 6 States with no equal pay law—Idaho, Nevada, Utah,
Vermont, and Wisconsin—prohibit discrimination in rate of pay or compensation based on sex.
In the District of Columbia, there is a regulation prohibiting discrimination based on sex.
9 Indiana included an equal pay provision in its amendments to the minimum wage law.
270
STATE LABOR LAWS FOR WOMEN
only 2 States—Hawaii and Wisconsin—prohibited sex discrimina
tion in employment.
The 39 jurisdictions with fair employment practices laws are:
Alaska
Arizona
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
District of Columbia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
Ohio
Oklahoma (eff. 5/16/69)
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Puerto Rico
Rhode Island
Utah
Vermont
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
The 16 jurisdictions whose fair employment practices laws prohibit discrimination in employment based on sex* are:
Arizona
Connecticut
District of Columbia
Hawaii
Idaho
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Missouri
Nebraska
Nevada
New York
Oklahoma (eff. 5/16/69)
Utah
Wisconsin
Wyoming
In 2 additional States—Alaska and Vermont—the fair employ
ment practices law prohibits discrimination based on sex, in
wages only. In a third State—Colorado—the law prohibits dis
crimination based on sex only in apprenticeship, on-the-job train
ing, or other occupational instruction, training, or retraining pro
grams.
Hours of Work
The first enforceable law regulating the hours of employment
of women became effective in Massachusetts in 1879. Today 46
States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico have estab
lished standards governing at least one aspect of women’s hours
of employment; that is, maximum daily or weekly hours, day of
rest, meal and rest periods, and nightwork. Some of these stand
ards have been established by statute; others, by minimum wage
or industrial welfare order.
*Since this publication was prepared, 6 States—Alaska, Colorado, Minnesota, New Mexico,
Oregon, and Pennsylvania—enacted laws prohibiting discrimination in employment based on
sex.
LAWS GOVERNING WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT AND STATUS
271
111. Maximum Daily and Weekly Hours
Forty-one States and the District of Columbia regulate the
number of daily and/or weekly hours of employment for women
in one or more industries. These limitations have been established
either by statute or by order. Nine States—Alabama, Alaska, Del
aware, Florida, Hawaii, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, and West Virginia
—and Puerto Rico do not have such laws; however, laws or wage
orders in 5 of these jurisdictions—Alaska, Hawaii, Idaho, Puerto
Rico, and West Virginia—require the payment of premium rates
for time worked over specified hours.
Hours standards for 3 of the 41 States—Georgia, Montana, and
South Carolina—are applicable to both men and women. In addi
tion there are 3 States—New Mexico, North Carolina, and Wash
ington—which cover men and women in some industries and
women only in others.
The standard setting the fewest maximum hours which may be
worked, in one or more industries, is shown for each of the 41
States and the District of Columbia.
Arizona _ _ .
Arkansas _
California _ _ _
Colorado
„
.
Connecticut _
...
District of
Columbia _
Georgia _ _ _
Illinois ___
-Kansas11 ..
.
Kentucky _
Louisiana
...
Maine ____ .
__
Maryland_____
Massachusetts - Michigan . _ _ _.
Minnesota ___
Mississippi___ ...
Missouri _
...
Montana______ ...
Nebraska___
Nevada
...
Maximum hours
Daily Weekly
8
48
8
8
8
8
C)
8
10
8
8
10
8
9
10
9
9
48
60
48
48
60
48
50
60
48
54
54
60
54
48
54
48
__
10
9
8
9
8
48
48
New Hampshire _
New Jersey _
__
New Mexico _
New York _
. ..
North Carolina _. ..
North Dakota _ _ -Ohio __
Oklahoma
Oregon 11
_ _ ..
Pennsylvania _ _ ..
Rhode Island . ..
South Carolina . _ ..
South Dakota
Tennessee
_ _ -Texas
-.
Utah .
__
Vermont ___
Virginia____ _.
Washington _ _ _ __
Wisconsin _____ __
Wyoming12 ____ . _
Maximum hours
Daily Weekly
10
48
10
8
8
9
8%
8
9
8
10
9
8
10
10
9
8
9
9
8
9
8
54
48
48
48
48
48
54
40
48
48
40
54
50
54
48
50
48
48
50
48
10 A 6-day week limitation provides, in effect, for 48-hour workweek.
11 Maximum hours standards set by Labor Commissioner under minimum wage
program.
12 If the 8 hours of work are spread over more than 12 hours in a day, time and one-half
must be paid for each of the 8 hours worked after the 12-hour period.
272
STATE LABOR LAWS FOR WOMEN
As the table shows, in one or more industries:
2 States have a maximum of 8 hours a day, 40 hours a week.
23 States and the District of Columbia have set maximum
hours of 8 a day, 48 a week, or both.
8 States have a maximum 9-hour day, 50- or 54-hour week.
(This includes Michigan with an average 9-hour, maximum
10-hour, day.)
Minnesota has no daily hours limitation in its statute, but limits
weekly hours to 54.
7 States have a maximum 10-hour day, 50- to 60-hour week.
However, many of these hours laws contain exemptions or ex
ceptions from their limitations. For example:
Work is permitted in excess of the maximum hours limitations
for at least some employees in 16 States if they receive over
time compensation: Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado,
Kansas, Nevada, New Mexico, North Carolina, Oklahoma,
Oregon, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Texas, Virginia, Wis
consin, and Wyoming.
4 States—North Carolina, Oregon, South Carolina, and Vir
ginia—exempt workers who are paid in accordance with the
overtime requirements of, or who are subject to, the FLSA,
the Federal minimum wage and hour law of most general
application. Arizona exempts employers operating in compli
ance with the FLSA, provided IV2 times the regular rate is
paid for hours over 8 a day. California permits airline and
railroad personnel and women protected by the FLSA, with
some industry exceptions, to work up to 10 hours a day and
58 hours a week if they are paid 1i/2 times their regular rate
for hours over 8 a day and 40 a week. Kansas exempts most
firms meeting the wage, overtime, and recordkeeping require
ments of the FLSA or comparable standards set by collective
bargaining agreements. New Mexico exempts employees in
interstate commerce whose hours are regulated by acts of
Congress.
1 State—Maryland—exempts employment subject to a bona
fide collective bargaining agreement.
State agencies in Arkansas, Kansas, Massachusetts, Michigan,
Minnesota, Oregon, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin have broad
authority to permit work in excess of the maximum hours
limitations on a case-by-case basis; to vary hours restrictions
by industry or occupation; or to regulate hours by requiring
premium pay for overtime: Premium pay for overtime work
is required by law or order regulating hours in Arkansas,
LAWS GOVERNING WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT AND STATUS
273
Kansas, Oregon, and Wisconsin. The minimum wage laws or
orders of Massachusetts, Oregon, and Pennsylvania require
premium pay for overtime work (see secs. 106 and 107).
28 more States have specific exceptions to the hours restrictions
for emergencies, seasonal peaks, national defense, and other
reasons.
Some or all women employed in executive, administrative, and
professional positions are exempt from hours laws limitations
in 26 States and the District of Columbia.
Since 1963, 16 States—Arizona, California, Colorado, Illinois,
Kansas, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, Nebraska,
New York, North Carolina, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and
Washington—and the District of Columbia have modified their
maximum hours laws or orders one or more times to permit work
beyond the limits established by the maximum hours laws under
regulated conditions, to exempt additional groups of workers
from hours restrictions, or to establish administrative procedures
for varying hours limitations. One State—Delaware—eliminated
hours restrictions altogether.
In Michigan the State Occupational Safety Standards Commis
sion has promulgated a standard which removes the limitations
on women’s daily and weekly hours of work, effective February
15, 1969, subject to modification by the State legislature.*
112. Day of Rest
Twenty States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico have
established a 6-day maximum workweek for women employed in
some or all industries. In 8 of these jurisdictions—California,
Connecticut, Illinois, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York,
Puerto Rico, and Wisconsin—this standard is applicable to both
men and women. Jurisdictions that provide for a 6-day maximum
workweek are:
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Connecticut
District of Columbia
Illinois
Kansas
Louisiana
Massachusetts
Nevada
New Hampshire
New JerseyNew York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Puerto Rico
Utah
Washington
Wisconsin
Of the remaining 30 States, 20 have laws that prohibit specified
employment or activities on Sunday:
* Since preparation of this publication, a court case brought about reinstatement of the
limitations.
274
STATE LABOR LAWS FOR WOMEN
Alabama
Florida
Georgia
Idaho
Indiana
Kentucky
Maine
Maryland
Mississippi
Missouri
New Mexico
Oklahoma
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Vermont
Virginia
West Virginia
113. Meal Period
Twenty-three States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico
provide that meal periods, varying from 20 minutes to 1 hour in
duration, must be allowed women employed in some or all indus
tries. In 8 States—Indiana, Nebraska, and New York—these
provisions apply to men as well as women. The length of the meal
period is provided by statute, order, or regulation in 25 jurisdic
tions:
Arkansas
California
Colorado
District of Columbia
Indiana
Kansas
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Nebraska
Nevada
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Puerto Rico
Rhode Island
Utah
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Combining rest period and meal period provisions, Kentucky
requires that before and after the regularly scheduled lunch pe
riod (duration not specified) rest periods shall be granted fe
males; and in Wyoming females employed in specified establish
ments who are required to be on their feet continuously must
have two paid rest periods, one before and one after the lunch
hour.
114. Rest Period
Twelve States and Puerto Rico13 have provided for specific rest
periods (as distinct from a meal period) for women workers. The
statutes in Alaska, Kentucky, Nevada, and Wyoming cover a
variety of industries (in Alaska and Wyoming, applicable only to
women standing continuously) ; laws in New York and Pennsyl
vania apply to elevator operators not provided with seating facili
ties. Rest periods in one or more industries are required by wage
13 Rest period provision in Puerto Rico applies also to men.
LAWS GOVERNING WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT AND STATUS
275
orders in Arizona, California, Colorado, Oregon, Puerto Rico,
Utah, and Washington. Most of the provisions are for a 10-minute
rest period within each half day of work.
In addition, in Arkansas manufacturing establishments operat
ing on a 24-hour schedule may, when necessary, be exempt from
the meal period provision if females are granted 10 minutes for
each of two paid rest periods and provision is made for them to
eat at their work; and the North Dakota Manufacturing Order
prohibits the employment of women for more than 2 hours with
out a rest period (duration not specified).
115. Nightwork
In 18 States and Puerto Rico nightwork for adult women is
prohibited and/or regulated in certain industries or occupations.
Nine States and Puerto Rico prohibit nightwork for adult
women in certain occupations or industries or under specified con
ditions :
Connecticut
Kansas
Massachusetts
Nebraska
New Jersey
New York
North Dakota
Ohio
Puerto Rico
Washington
In North Dakota and Washington the prohibition applies only
to elevator operators; in Ohio, only to taxicab drivers.
In 9 other States, as well as in several of the jurisdictions that
prohibit nightwork in specified industries or occupations, the em
ployment of adult women at night is regulated either by maxi
mum hour provisions or by specified standards of working condi
tions. For example, in 1 State women and minors are limited to 8
hours a night.
California
Illinois
New Hampshire
New Mexico
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
Utah
Wisconsin
Arizona and the District of Columbia prohibit the employment
of females under 21 years of age in night messenger service; the
Arizona law is applicable also to males under 21.
Other Labor Legislation
116. Industrial Homework
Nineteen States and Puerto Rico have industrial homework
laws or regulations:
276
STATE LABOR LAWS FOR WOMEN
California
Connecticut
Hawaii
Illinois
Indiana
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Missouri
New Jersey
New York
Ohio
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Puerto Rico
Rhode Island
Tennessee
Texas
West Virginia
Wisconsin
These regulations apply to all persons, except in Oregon, where
the provisions apply to women and minors only.
In addition, the Alaska and Washington minimum wage and
hour laws authorize the issuance of rules and regulations restrict
ing or prohibiting industrial homework where necessary to safe
guard minimum wage rates prescribed in the laws.
117. Employment Before and After Childbirth
Six States and Puerto Rico prohibit the employment of women
in one or more industries or occupations immediately before
and/or after childbirth. These standards are established by stat
ute or by minimum wage or welfare orders. Women may not be
employed in—
Connecticut ___ 4 weeks before and 4 weeks after childbirth
Massachusetts _ 4 weeks before and 4 weeks after childbirth
Missouri -----------3 weeks before and 3 weeks after childbirth
New York --------------------------------- 4 weeks after childbirth
Puerto Rico___4 weeks before and 4 weeks after childbirth
Vermont -----------2 weeks before and 4 weeks after childbirth
Washington 14 — 4 months before and 6 weeks after childbirth
In addition to prohibiting employment, Puerto Rico requires
the employer to pay the working mother one-half of her regular
wage or salary during an 8-week period and provides for job se
curity during the required absence.
Rhode Island’s Temporary Disability Insurance Act provides
that women workers covered by the act who are unemployed be
cause of sickness resulting from pregnancy are entitled to cash
benefits for maternity leave for a 14-week period beginning the
sixth week prior to the week of expected childbirth, or the week
childbirth occurs if it is more than 6 weeks prior to the expected
birth.
In New Jersey the Temporary Disability Benefits Act provides
that women workers to whom the act applies are entitled to cash
14 Standard established by minimum wage orders. Some orders provide that a special per
mit may be granted for continued employment upon employer’s request and with doctor's
certificate.
LAWS GOVERNING WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT AND STATUS
277
payments for disability existing during the 4 weeks before and 4
weeks following childbirth.
Also, the Oregon Mercantile and Sanitation and Physical Wel
fare Orders recommend that an employer should not employ a
female at any work during the 6 weeks preceding and the 4 weeks
following the birth of her child, unless recommended by a licensed
medical authority.
118. Occupational Limitations
Twenty-six States have laws or regulations that prohibit the
employment of adult women in specified occupations or industries
or under certain working conditions which are considered hazard
ous or injurious to health and safety. In 17 of these States the
prohibition applies to women’s employment in or about mines.
Clerical or similar work is excepted from the prohibition in ap
proximately half of these States. Nine States prohibit women from
mixing, selling, or dispensing alcoholic beverages for on-premises
consumption, and 1 State—Georgia—prohibits their employment
in retail liquor stores. (In addition, a Florida statute authorizes
the city of Tampa to prohibit females from soliciting customers
to buy alcoholic beverages.)
The following States have occupational limitations applicable
to—
Alabama
Arizona
Arkansas
Colorado
Illinois
Indiana
Maryland
Missouri
New York
Mines
Ohio
Oklahoma
Pennsylvania
Utah
Virginia
Washington
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Establishments serving
alcoholic beverages
Alaska
California
Connecticut
Illinois15
Indiana
Kentucky
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
Eleven States prohibit the employment of women in other
places or occupations, or under certain conditions:
Arizona—In occupations requiring constant standing.
Colorado—Working around coke ovens.
Massachusetts—Working on cores more than 2 cubic feet or
60 pounds.
15 Illinois State law empowers city and county governments to prohibit by general ordinance
or resolution.
278
STATE LABOR LAWS FOR WOMEN
Michigan—Handling harmful substances; in foundries, ex
cept with approval of the Department of Labor.
Minnesota—Placing cores in or out of ovens; cleaning mov
ing machinery.
Missouri—Cleaning or working between moving machinery.
New York—Coremaking, or in connection with coremaking,
in a room in which the oven is in operation.
Ohio—As crossing watchman, section hand, express driver,
metal molder, bellhop, gas- or electric-meter reader; in
shoeshining parlors, bowling alleys as pinsetters, pool
rooms; in delivery service on motor-propelled vehicles of
over 1-ton capacity; in operating freight or baggage eleva
tors if the doors are not automatically or semi-automatically controlled; in baggage and freight handling, by
means of handtrucks, trucking and handling heavy mate
rials of any kind; in blast furnaces, smelters, and quarries
except in offices thereof.
Pennsylvania—In dangerous or injurious occupations.
Washington—As bellhop.
Wisconsin—In dangerous or injurious occupations.
The majority of the States with occupational limitations for
adult women also have prohibitory legislation for persons under
21 years. In addition, 10 States have occupational limitations for
persons under 21 years only. Most of these limitations apply to
the serving of liquor and to the driving of taxicabs, schoolbuses,
or public vehicles; others prohibit the employment of females
under 21 years in jobs demanding constant standing or as messen
ger, bellhop, or caddy.
119. Seating and Weightlifting
A number of jurisdictions, through statutes, minimum wage or
ders, and other regulations, have established employment stan
dards for women relating to plant facilities such as seats, lunch
rooms, dressing and rest rooms, and toilet rooms, and to weight
lifting. Only the seating and weightlifting provisions are in
cluded in this summary.
Seating.—Forty-five States, the District of Columbia, and
Puerto Rico have seating laws or orders; all but 1—the Florida
law—apply exclusively to women. Delaware, Hawaii, Illinois,
Maryland, and Mississippi have no seating laws or orders.
Weightlifting.—Ten States and Puerto Rico have statutes,
rules, regulations, and/or orders which specify the maximum
LAWS GOVERNING WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT AND STATUS
279
weight women employees may lift, carry, or lift and carry. Fol
lowing are the standards established for weightlifting and carry
ing in the 11 jurisdictions. Some States have standards varying
by occupation or industry and are, therefore, listed more than
once.
Any occupation: “excessive weight” in Oregon; 30 pounds
lifting and 15 pounds carrying in Utah; 35 percent of body
weight, or 25 pounds where repetitive lifting in Alaska; 25
in Ohio; 40 in Massachusetts; 44 in Puerto Rico; 50 pounds
lifting and 10 pounds carrying up and down stairways
in California.
Foundries and corerooms: 25 pounds in Maryland, Massa
chusetts, Minnesota, and New York.
Specified occupations or industries (by orders): 25 pounds in
California; 25 to 50 in Oregon; 35 pounds and “excessive
weight” in Washington.
8
POLITICAL AND CIVIL
STATUS OF WOMEN
as of January 1, 1969
New Trends
Progress continues to be made in the direction of revising out
moded laws and practices which differentiate between men and
women unfairly and unrealistically. The philosophy favoring the
dominance of the husband in the marital relation has generally
been replaced by the idea that both parties have rights and re
sponsibilities in marriage, and that while the wife is entitled to a
measure of legal protection she does have responsibilities.
The status of women has enjoyed a continuous improvement
since the 19th century, when the first Married Women’s Property
Acts were passed. These first legal steps toward releasing a mar
ried woman’s property and property rights from her husband’s
control started a trend, which has continued over the years, to
equalize married women’s rights with those of married men in
the enjoyment and disposition of property. A married woman’s
citizenship no longer automatically follows that of her husband
—she neither gains U.S. citizenship by marriage to a citizen of
the United States, nor loses her U.S. citizenship by marriage to
an alien. The adoption of the 19th amendment to the Constitution,
which gave both married and single women the right to vote,
marked the beginning of the political emancipation of women and
established the basis for them to participate fully in the political
life of the country.
More recently, attention has been given to eliminating other ar
tificial barriers which kept many Americans, especially Negro
men and women, from the polls. Women slowly have been catch
ing up with men in terms of equal eligibility for jury service—an
important privilege and responsibility of all citizens—by the en
actment of laws which base qualifications for, and disqualifica
tions and exemptions from, jury service on factors other than sex.
Commissions on the status of women have been active in rec-
281
282
POLITICAL AND CIVIL STATUS OP WOMEN
ommending and supporting programs to improve the civil and po
litical status of women.1 As of January 1, 1969, almost all of the
commissions had made interim or final reports on a wide range of
subjects, including property rights, marriage and divorce law,
consortium, homestead law, and domicile law.
Political Status
120. Citizenship
Citizenship in the United States is acquired in the same way by
men and women; that is, by birth within the domain, by birth
abroad of a parent who is a citizen, or by naturalization. Mothers
as well as fathers confer citizenship on their minor children.
A married woman’s citizenship does not automatically follow
that of her husband. An alien wife may become a citizen whether
or not her alien husband desires or qualifies for that privilege.
When a woman citizen marries an alien, she retains her citizen
ship until she renounces it by declaring allegiance to another gov
ernment.
121. Voting and Public Office
Federal elections.—Women and men have equal rights of suf
frage in the election of Federal Government officials and on pro
postals for change in the Federal Constitution.
Qualifications for election or appointment to posts in the execu
tive and legislative branches of the Federal Government or for
appointment to the judiciary are the same for women and men.
State elections.—Women and men have equal rights of suffrage
in the election of State and local officials and in the determination
of public issues within the State.
Qualifications for election to State and local government posi
tions are the same for women and men.
Civil service positions.—Positions in both Federal and State
civil service are generally open to women who qualify. Through
fair employment practices laws or executive policy statements,
some States prohibit sex discrimination in hiring, promotion, and
training in public employment.
In Federal employment a policy developed as a result of the
hiring statute of 1870, which resulted in sex discrimination in
hiring and promotion, was reversed on June 4, 1962, when the
Attorney General declared this practice unjustified and invalid.
1 See Part III for additional information on activities of commissions on the status of women.
LAWS GOVERNING WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT AND STATUS
283
Subsequently a Presidential directive of July 23, 1962, required
Federal agency heads to fill positions without reference to sex
where experience and physical requirements were met, and the
Civil Service Commission issued appropriate rules and regula
tions to implement this directive. In order to preclude any possi
bility of reversion to the previous policy, in 1965 Congress re
pealed the 1870 law.
In 1967 the President signed Executive Order 11375, which
specifically prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex in Federal
and Federal contract employment. This order was a direct out
growth of the recommendations of the Federal Woman’s Award
Study Group created by the President in 1966 to examine and
make suggestions with respect to careers for women in the execu
tive branch. The Study Group is composed of outstanding women
in Federal service who have received special recognition for their
contributions. The group recommended that in order to increase
the number of women in professional, administrative, and techni
cal positions in the Federal Government, the Civil Service Com
mission : develop a reporting system to provide necessary data for
an appraisal of the position of women in the Federal Govern
ment; review examination and qualification requirements with a
view toward providing more flexibility in examinations and insur
ing appropriate credit for participation in community, cultural,
social service, and professional association activities; and develop
a program to recruit women for part-time employment.
Courts—jury service.—Since the enactment of the Civil Rights
Act of 1957 removing the disqualification of women for service on
Federal juries in all States, many States have equalized laws af
fecting service on State grand and petit juries. The Federal Jury
Selection and Service Act of 1968, which provides for selection of
Federal juries at random from a fair cross section of the com
munity and specifically prohibits exclusion because of race, color,
religion, sex, national origin, or economic status, implements the
1957 Civil Rights Act.
Women are now eligible by law to serve on State juries in all
50 States and on juries in the District of Columbia and Puerto
Rico. The last 3 States amended their laws since 1966 to permit
women to serve. In White v. Crook (251 F. Supp. 401 (1966)), the
Alabama law excluding women from State juries was declared
unconstitutional by a Federal court on the ground that the State
law denied equal protection to women in violation of the 14th
amendment. Thereafter the legislature enacted a law permitting
women to serve on State juries.
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POLITICAL AND CIVIL STATUS OF WOMEN
In 1966 South Carolina voters approved a constitutional
amendment to permit women to serve on State juries. The amend
ment was ratified by the General Assembly in 1957. In 1968 the
Mississippi legislature amended the law which barred women from
serving on State juries, so that women may now serve on the same
basis as men.
In 28 States 2 women serve under the same terms and condi
tions as men, with the same qualifications, disqualifications, and
exemptions. In 22 States and the District of Columbia, women
may be excused on grounds not available to men. Of these, 11
States 3 permit a woman to be excused solely on the basis of her
sex. An additional 10 States,4 the District of Columbia, and
Puerto Rico permit women to claim an exemption because of child
care or family responsibilities. Rhode Island further provides
that women shall be included for jury service only when court
house facilities permit. In 1967 Florida and New Hampshire re
moved their requirement that women register before they may be
considered for jury service. Louisiana is now the only State with
this requirement.
122. Domicile
A person’s domicile is determined by the coexistence of physi
cal presence and intent to reside permanently in a particular
place. Residence is mere physical presence. The concept of domi
cile is important since many legal rights and duties attach to it,
e.g., the right to vote and run for public office and the duty to pay
taxes. As a general rule, the domicile of a married woman is
deemed, by operation of law, to be that of her husband. If the
husband changes his domicile and makes reasonable provision for
his wife at the new domicile, she is under a duty to follow him,
unless to do so would be a recognized hardship. However, a mar
ried woman may establish a separate domicile when the interests
of husband and wife are hostile and result in a separation of the
parties. In addition, an increasing number of jurisdictions are
permitting a wife to establish a separate domicile when the mari
tal unity has been breached and the parties are living separately
3 Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Delaware, Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa,
Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Michigan, Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, New Jersey, New
Mexico, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Vermont, Washington,
West Virginia, Wisconsin.
3 Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nevada, New York, Rhode
Island, Tennessee, Virginia.
4 Connecticut, Florida, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South
Carolina, Texas, Utah, Wyoming.
LAWS GOVERNING WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT AND STATUS
285
by mutual consent or acquiescence. In such cases separate exist
ence, interest, and rights are recognized.
However, problems may arise in this area of the law for the
married woman whose marriage is intact but who for some good
and valid reason has a residence separate from that of her hus
band. In recognition of the inequities that may result from the
rigid application of the general rule, an increasing number of
States are permitting a married woman to have a separate domi
cile, either for all purposes or for specified purposes. At present,
5 States—Alaska, Arkansas, Delaware, Hawaii, and Wisconsin—
permit a married woman to establish a separate domicile for all
purposes. In addition, 8 States5 permit a separate domicile for
eligibility to public office; 2 States 6 permit a separate domicile
for jury service; 3 States 7 recognize a separate domicile for pro
bate ; and 13 States 8 permit a separate domicile for voting.
Civil Status—Family Relations
123. Marriage
State laws establishing marriage requirements generally do not
make distinctions based on sex except in setting minimum ages—
usually lower for women than for men. When parental consent is
not required, the minimum age for women is 18 years in 35 States 9
and the District of Columbia; it is 19, 20, or 21 in the remaining
jurisdictions. Girls may marry with parental consent at the age
of 16 years in 38 States 10 11 the District of Columbia, at age 15
and
in 5 States,11 and at age 14 in 4 States.12 The minimum age in
Washington is 17 years; in Kansas, 18 years. In New Hampshire a
girl who marries below the age of 18 must have both the consent
of her parents and that of the court. All but 4 States 13 require a
5 Maine, New Jersey, New York.
6 Maine, New Jersey.
7 California, Florida, New Jersey.
8 California, Connecticut, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan,
New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Wyoming.
9Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Delaware, Idaho, Illinois,
Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri,
Montana, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina,
North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Carolina, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Vermont,
Washington, Wisconsin.
10 Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia,
Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts,
Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York,
North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Tennessee, Vermont,
Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming.
11 Mississippi, Missouri, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon.
12 Alabama, South Carolina, Texas, Utah.
13 Maryland, Minnesota, Nevada, South Carolina.
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POLITICAL AND CIVIL STATUS OP WOMEN
premarital health examination for both applicants for a marriage
license. In these 4 jurisdictions the health examination is not re
quired for either applicant.
The landmark decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in Loving
v. Virginia (388 U.S. 1 (1967)) held Virginia’s miscegenation law
unconstitutional as a denial of equal protection of the laws and a
deprivation of due process of law, in violation of the 14th amend
ment to the Constitution. This decision appears to have invalidated
laws in 15 other States 14 which prohibit marriage between persons
of different races.
124. Divorce
All States and the District of Columbia permit divorce on more
than one ground. For the most part grounds for divorce are the
same for husband and wife, although more than half the States
recognize to the wife and at least 13 States 15 permit a man to seek
divorce to the wife and at least 13 States 1B permit a man to seek
a divorce on the basis of his wife’s pregnancy by another man at
the time of their marriage.
Adultery is recognized as a ground for divorce in all States and
the District of Columbia. The most common other grounds for di
vorce are desertion, separation for a specified period, cruelty, al
coholism, impotency, felony conviction, and insanity. Some juris
dictions permit divorce on the grounds of drug addiction or com
mission of an infamous crime.
Forty-eight States and the District of Columbia have laws
which permit the award of permanent alimony to the wife in the
discretion of the court when divorce is granted. (In North Caro
lina alimony is limited to specified circumstances. Pennsylvania
and Texas make no general provisions for alimony on final de
cree, although in Pennsylvania the court is empowered to decree
alimony for the support of either an insane wife or an insane
husband. In addition to Pennsylvania, in at least 6 States16 with
no general provision for alimony to the husband, the wife may be
held liable for the support of the husband in case of divorce on
the basis of his mental illness.
14 Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi,
Missouri, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, West Virginia.
(Maryland repealed its miscegenation law in early 1967 prior to the Supreme Court's decision.)
15 Alabama, Arizona, Georgia, Iowa, Kentucky, Mississippi, Missouri, New Mexico, North
Carolina, Oklahoma, Tennessee, Virginia, Wyoming.
M Connecticut, Delaware, Kansas, Mississippi, Nebraska, Wyoming.
LAWS GOVERNING WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT AND STATUS
287
Twelve States 17 may allow alimony to either spouse; in addition,
Massachusetts and New Hampshire allow the husband a portion
of the wife’s estate in the nature of alimony. The statutes of Colo
rado and Virginia are broad enough to apply to either spouse, but
in actual practice alimony may be limited to the wife since in nei
ther State does there appear to be a judicial determination per
mitting alimony to the husband.
125. Parent and Child
Under the common law, the father was the preferred natural
guardian of the person of a minor child and as such had the care,
custody, control, and responsibility for the education of the child.
This rule has been abrogated by statute in the majority of States
to provide that the natural guardianship of a minor child is
vested jointly in both parents. Seven States18 presently provide
by statute that the father is the preferred natural guardian of a
minor child.
State laws usually provide that when a minor becomes the
owner of a specified amount of property a guardian of the minor’s
estate must be appointed to manage and conserve the estate. Six
States 19 and the District of Columbia specify by statute that the
father is preferred when it is necessary to appoint a guardian of
the estate of a minor.
If a marriage is broken by divorce or legal separation, gener
ally neither parent has any legal advantage over the other as to
custody of a minor child; the best interests of the child guide the
court’s disposition of custody. If there is a contest between the
parents regarding custody or guardianship of a minor child, at
least 8 States20 provide by statute that, all other things being
equal, the mother has a preferred right if the child is of tender
years, and the father has a preferred right if the child is of an
age to require education or preparation for labor or business.
Unmarried parents.—An unmarried mother is considered the
natural guardian and entitled to the custody of her child. The
father becomes the natural guardian only if he legally acknowl
edges his relationship to the child or marries the mother.
Inheritance by parents from children.—No distinction exists
between the rights of the father and those of the mother to in11 Alaska, California, Hawaii, Illinois, Iowa, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma,
Oregon, Utah, West Virginia.
18 Alaska, Georgia, Louisiana, New Mexico, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Texas.
19 Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Montana, New Mexico, North Dakota.
29 Arizona, California, Michigan, Montana, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Utah.
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POLITICAL AND CIVIL STATUS OP WOMEN
herit from legitimate children. Most States allow an unmarried
mother to inherit from her child.
126. Family Support
Notwithstanding the legal emancipation of women and their in
creased participation in the labor force, in all States a husband is
liable for the support of his wife. In most States a wife is respon
sible for the support of her husband when he is unable to support
himself. Nearly all States make both the mother and father liable
for the support of their legitimate minor child; however, the lia
bility of the mother is frequently secondary. In the 8 States 21
with community property laws of ownership between husband
and wife, the common estate of husband and wife is liable for
debts for family support. In addition, most States specify that
children are liable for the support of needy parents under speci
fied circumstances. A money judgment stemming from duties of
support may be enforced against either the person or his prop
erty.
Unmarried parents.—The mother is primarily liable for sup
port of her child born out of wedlock. Most States have legal pro
cedures for establishing paternity. Until paternity is established
or voluntarily assumed, the father has no legal obligation to sup
port the child, or to contribute to the expenses of the mother at,
childbirth.
Uniform Reciprocal Enforcement of Support Act.—Uniform
Reciprocal Enforcement of Support Acts are now in effect in all
jurisdictions of the United States, following the 1957 law enacted
by Congress for the District of Columbia. This legislation does
not create new duties of support, but provides by reciprocal legis
lation for enforcement across State lines of support duties al
ready existing. Each State applies its own law, but the act makes
binding the support duty regardless of the presence or residence
of the obligee. New judgments may be obtained, or existing judg
ments enforced from State to State under this legislation.
Enforcement of these laws by courts throughout the country
has lightened the burden of welfare agencies to a large extent;
and the civil rather than criminal emphasis has contributed to
the preservation of the family, since it is thus easier for the
parties to become reconciled.
One problem, however, has persisted to hamper the effective
administration of these acts: that of finding the deserting party
21 Arizona, California, Idaho, Louisiana, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, Washington.
LAWS GOVERNING WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT AND STATUS
289
responsible for the support of his dependents. A New York law di
rects the State Department of Social Welfare to establish a cen
tral registry of records for locating deserting parents of children
who are receiving or likely to need public assistance. The depart
ment is authorized to obtain information from other State agen
cies (e.g., motor vehicle and tax records) concerning the identity
and whereabouts of deserting parents. Many other States permit
responsible State agencies to request and receive information
from the records of all other State agencies to assist in locating
parents who have deserted their children or any other persons
liable for support of dependents. Various Federal agencies are au
thorized to attempt to locate the parent responsible for support in
certain circumstances where the children are eligible for assist
ance under the aid to families with dependent children program.
Civil Status—Property and Contract Law
127. Property
Property is broadly divided into two categories—personal and
real (real estate and things permanently attached thereto). In
property management and control, inheritance, and freedom of
enjoyment of earnings, no distinction is made between the rights
of unmarried women and unmarried men. However, there may be
distinctions between rights of married and single women.
^ There are two different property systems within the United
States—the community property system, which grew out of
French and Spanish law, and the common law system, which de
veloped from the English common law.
128. Ownership, Control, and Use of Property
Personal earnings.—Personal earnings of married women are
made their separate property by specific statute in most of the
States not having a community property law. Earnings are con
sidered part of the community in the community property States.
In 4 of these States—Arizona, Louisiana, Nevada, and New Mex
ico—the community property is managed and controlled by the
husband, but the remaining 4—California, Idaho, Texas, and
Washington—provide that the wife may control her earnings. In
Texas a provision giving married women such right by vesting
control over community property in the spouse who would have
control had the property not become part of the community be
came effective January 1, 1968.
290
POLITICAL AND CIVIL STATUS OP WOMEN
Real property owned separately.—Although a married woman
has the power to contract with reference to her separate real
property, a number of States—either directly or indirectly—re
strict a married person’s right to convey or encumber his or her
separate real property. In 22 States 22 and the District of Colum
bia, where both the husband and wife have either curtesy, dower,
or a statutory interest in the nature of dower in the spouse’s
property, it is necessary that either spouse join in the conveyance
of the real estate belonging to the other spouse in order to bar
this interest. This requirement may be of benefit to a married
woman in that it can help prevent the dissipation of the assets of
her spouse.
Six States 23 provide dower or a statutory interest in the nature
of dower for a wife without giving her husband a similar interest
in her property, thereby making it necessary for the wife to join
in her husband’s conveyance of his realty without subjecting her
real estate to similar restrictions. Two States—Alabama and
Forida—while not giving a husband a curtesy or statutory dower
interest in the wife’s property, specifically require him to join in
the conveyance of his wife’s property.
Recent enactments in this area include a 1967 amendment to
Indiana law to remove a provision that a married woman could
not convey her separate real property without the signature of
her husband. And in the Texas amendments referred to earlier,
the marital property law was changed to provide, among other
things, for elimination of any inequality caused through use of
the terms “husband” and “wife” by referring to “spouses,” so
that provisions for the husband and wife are identical. Texas
amendments also provided for joint management of community
property by husband and wife.
Real and personal property acquired by joint efforts after mar
riage.—Under the community property system, all property ac
quired after marriage is classified as either separate or commu
nity property. Separate property is under the control and manage
ment of the individual owning it, and in 7 of the 8 community
property States the husband generally has control of the com
munity property. In Texas each spouse now has control of that
community property which he or she would have owned if a sin
gle person.
22 Delaware, Hawaii, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Minnesota,
Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode
Island, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin. (Also Missouri for all
estates vested as of 1955, when the statutory'dower law of 1939 was repealed.)
23 Arkansas, Indiana, Michigan, Montana, South Carolina, Utah. (In Utah joinder of a
wife to bar dower is necessary only if the wife is a resident of Utah.)
LAWS GOVERNING WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT AND STATUS
291
Under the common law system, all property is owned sepa
rately or jointly in accordance with the title to it, and control of
the property depends upon the type of ownership under which it
is held. Separate property belongs to one of the spouses and is
under the exclusive control of that spouse. Joint property is that
in which both spouses have an interest, and the control is gener
ally shared.
Control of real estate depends upon the type of ownership
under which it is held. Under the old common law, real estate
conveyed or devised to a husband and wife created an estate by
the entireties held by them as one person, with the husband enti
tled to all the rents, profits, and enjoyment thereof. Today, while
the common law estate by the entireties may still be created in
the District of Columbia and the majority of the 42 common law
States, it is also generally possible for married persons to own
real estate by some other form of ownership, under which each
spouse is entitled to one-half of the rents, profits, and enjoyment
of the property.
Personal property accumulated during marriage by the cooper
ative efforts of husband and wife is generally under the control of
the husband, subject to certain restrictions ; for example, in many
States the husband cannot mortgage the family furniture without
the wife s consent. The effect of this common law rule may be
overcome by private agreement between the parties, or by a title
or record (such as a bill of sale) establishing otherwise. It may
be necessary for a court of equity to decide the ownership.
Disposition of property after death.—Married women may dis
pose of their separate property by will as freely as married men.
The majority of States provide that, in the absence of a will, a
widow or widower inherits from the deceased spouse in a similar
manner. The surviving spouse’s share of the estate generally de
pends on whether there are surviving issue, parents, or other
next of kin.
In both common law and community property States, a surviv
ing husband or wife generally receives all of the property sepa
rately owned by the deceased spouse if there are no descendants;
one-half or one-third if there are descendants. In all the commu
nity property States, a wife receives her half of the community
property. In 4 of these States—California, Idaho, Nevada, and
New Mexico—she receives her husband’s half; in 2—Arizona and
Texas—she receives her husband’s half if there are no descend
ants; and in the remaining 2—Louisiana and Washington—she
receives his half if there are no descendants or parents. In the
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POLITICAL AND CIVIL STATUS OF WOMEN
common law States, jointly owned property is divided according to
the title.
129. Contracts
All States with a common law background recognize a married
woman’s legal capacity to contract her personal services in em
ployment outside her home and her entitlement to earnings from
such work without the formal consent of her husband. In the 8
community property States a married woman may contract with
respect to her employment and earnings from such employment,
but the earnings are considered part of the community property.
(See sec. 128 for discussion of earnings.)
In most States a married woman may contract with respect to
her separate property. However, in at least 3 States—Georgia,
Idaho, and Kentucky—a married woman does not have the legal
capacity to become a surety or a guarantor.
In 4 States—California, Florida, Nevada, and Pennsylvania—
court sanction and, in some cases, the husband’s consent, is re
quired for a wife’s legal venture into an independent business. In
addition, Massachusetts requires a married woman or her hus
band to file a certificate with the city or town clerk’s office in
order to prevent the personal property of her business from being
liable for her husband’s debts.
Although married women in general may contract freely with
third parties, transactions between husband and wife are still
subject to legal limitations in many States. In some States such
contracts are restricted by the general rule that controls the ac
tions of persons occupying confidential relations with each other.
In some States such contracts may be executed by a formal writ
ten document, and in others no authority exists to make such con
tracts.
Part III
Commissions on the Status ot Women
COMMISSIONS ON THE STATUS
OF WOMEN
Federal
The momentum generated by the activities of the President’s
Commission on the Status of Women was the force that resulted
in the creation of State commissions on the status of women and
the Interdepartmental Committee and Citizens’ Advisory Council
on the Status of Women, under which the social, professional, and
legal interests of women have continued to receive attention.
The President’s Commission on the Status of Women was es
tablished by President John F. Kennedy on December 14, 1961.
The function of the Commission was to examine and recommend
remedies for the prejudices and outmoded customs which, the
President said, “act as barriers to the full realization of women’s
basic rights . . . .” The Commission and its seven committees
studied a wide variety of problems affecting women’s role in the
economic, political, and cultural life of the Nation. Its recommen
dations were in its report, American Women, which was pre
sented to the President on October 11, 1963.
Acting immediately on the recommendations of the Commis
sion, President Kennedy signed Executive Order 11126 on Novem
ber 1, 1963, establishing the Interdepartmental Committee on the
Status of Women, now composed of six Secretaries of Depart
ments, the Attorney General, the Chairman of the Civil Service
Commission, the Chairman of the Equal Employment Opportu
nity Commission, and the Director of the Office of Economic Op
portunity, with the Secretary of Labor as chairman. The Execu
tive order further established a Citizens’ Advisory Council, com
posed of 20 private citizens appointed by the President for an in
determinate time.
The Committee and Council have sponsored four national con
ferences of commissions on the status of women. Beginning with
a small 1-day conference attended by 87 State commission mem
bers in 1964, the conferences grew, as interest in the status of
women and the number of commissions increased, to a 3-day
meeting in 1968, with more than 400 participants. Leaders of na
tional organizations attended, and the President, Vice President,
Cabinet officers, Members of Congress, and leading citizens were
294
COMMISSIONS ON THE STATUS OF WOMEN
295
on the program. The conferences gave impetus to the status of
women movement throughout the Nation.
Four reports of progress on the status of women have been
published.
In order to keep up with fast-moving events and to present ad
vanced proposals to stimulate action and strengthen the progress
of women, the Council set up task forces on family law and pol
icy, health and welfare, labor standards, and social insurance and
taxes. The task forces prepared reports and recommendations, and
the reports have been published.
A brief summary of major task force recommendations fol
lows:
Family Law and Policy
Declaring that marriage is an economic partnership, the task
force recommended that an agency such as the Commission on
Uniform State Laws be urged to make a fundamental study of
family property law and prepare a model law looking toward pro
tection of a married woman’s rights in property acquired during
the marriage in common law States and greater rights in the
management of community property in community property
States. It asked that the recent law revision in Texas be brought
to the attention of appropriate groups in other community prop
erty States.
Convinced that the right of a woman to determine her own re
productive life is a basic human right, the task force recom
mended repeal of laws that make abortion a criminal offense and
that restrict access to birth control devices and information.
The task force further suggested that alimony should not be
used to redress wrongs and that criteria for fixing alimony should
recognize contributions of each spouse to the family and the finan
cial need of each spouse; that voluntary separation should be in
cluded as grounds for divorce; and that married women should
have the same rights as married men to establish their own domi
ciles.
Protection of the rights of children was of basic concern. The
task force declared that illegitimate children should have the
same legal rights as the legitimate, that in divorce cases custody
of children should be granted in accordance with the best interests
of the child, and that the mother should not have to bring charges
of criminal nonsupport against the father in order to receive
public assistance.
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COMMISSIONS ON THE STATUS OF WOMEN
Health and Welfare
The Task Force on Health and Welfare prefaced its report
with this statement: “To assure for women the right of choice
with respect to their own lives and to planning for their families,
we make the following recommendations.”
There are 15 of these recommendations, dealing with the topics
of increased opportunities, on-the-job training, homemaker serv
ices, and protective services for children.
The task force urged that methods of family planning and ac
cess to them be readily available, and that legal abortion services
be available under the same conditions to all women regardless of
economic status.
Recognizing that adequate day care of children continues to be
a. need throughout the country, the task force urged community
development of facilities and programs “to meet its needs.” It
further urged that opportunities for challenging assignments for
volunteers be expanded by public and private health, welfare, and
other service organizations, and that governmental agencies
make the necessary effort to obtain the removal of any legal bar
riers to the use of needed volunteers.
Another proposal was for intensive study and bold experimen
tation as to the most feasible methods of providing basic income
maintenance.
Labor Standards
The task force recommended that all nonsupervisory workers
be covered under the minimum wage provisions of the Fair Labor
Standards Act. It was particularly concerned that agricultural
and household workers, who are vulnerable to exceedingly low
wages because of lack of statutory protection, be covered by the
act.
The task force proposed that overtime be paid at the rate of at
least 114 times the regular rate after 8 hours a day and 40 hours
a week. It also recommended that States which have not yet done
so enact adequate minimum wage laws and amend their maximum
hours laws to permit women to work overtime beyond the maxi
mum hours if this overtime is compensated at a rate at least in
accordance with the premium pay provisions of the Fair Labor
Standards Act and if the overtime is agreed to voluntarily by the
employee.
In States where there are prohibitions on nightwork applicable
to women only, the task force recommended that these be re
COMMISSIONS ON THE STATUS OF WOMEN
297
moved for adult women and urged the assurance of adequate po
lice protection, transportation, and meal facilities for all workers
employed at night. It also recommended that laws prohibiting
women from being employed in particular occupations be repealed.
Another recommendation by the task force was that States re
peal laws which place absolute limits on weightlifting and re
place them with well-designed safety and health regulations ade
quate for the protection of both men and women.
Also recommended were provisions for reasonable maternity
leave, a review of laws pertaining to occupational safety and
health, and the strengthening of enforcement powers of Federal
and State fair employment practices commissions. The task force
proposed that all State fair employment laws contain provisions
relating to discrimination based on sex.
Social Insurance and Taxes
Included in the 11 specific recommendations for improving the
unemployment insurance system as it relates to women were pro
posals concerning: experience rating and financing; disqualifica
tion for compensation with respect to pregnancy and to leaving
on account of family obligations; and benefits based on depen
dents allowances. A Federal-State system of temporary disability
insurance, tied to the unemployment insurance system, to include
maternity benefits was recommended.
Also supported was legislation to permit some couples to com
bine earnings for purposes of computing social security benefits.
As a long-range solution to the inequities to which working wives
are subjected, the task force requested the next Advisory Council
on Social Security to consider a “double-decker” approach that
would (1) provide for meeting the needs of dependents through a
socially adequate benefit financed out of general revenues and (2)
provide for supplementation of this basic benefit by contributory
wage-related benefits for those who worked in covered employ
ment.
State
Even before American Women was transmitted to the
President in October 1963, several States had established commis
sions on the status of women, and all 50 States had done so by
February 1967. In addition, commissions have been set up in the
District of Columbia, the Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, and two
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COMMISSIONS ON THE STATUS OF WOMEN
municipalities. Over the years, changes in State administration
frequently have meant a slowing down of commission activities
—sometimes for a brief period, sometimes longer if a major reor
ganization of structure and personnel was involved. In only two
States have official activities come to an end, and in one of these
an active citizens’ council on the status of women has picked up
the task of implementing the original commission’s recommenda
tions. A new trend appears to be the establishment of more city
commissions in order to focus on local problems while working
cooperatively with the State commissions and participating in the
nationwide movement.
Most commissions were created by action of State Governors
and about a fifth by State legislatures. A few have appropriations
which permit a paid executive, but the majority have financial as
sistance to cover only a few items, and therefore rely primarily
on the voluntary services of their members. The Department of
Labor, through the Women’s Bureau, assisted in the organization
of the commissions and provides continuing technical assistance
and staff support. The commissions have made substantial contri
butions by informing women and inspiring them to study and act
on their problems.
The functions and target areas of the great majority of State
commissions were defined by their Governors or State legisla
tures. Areas of concern originally were patterned after those of
the President’s Commission, focusing on employment, home and
community, labor legislation, civil and political rights, education
and counseling, and social insurance and tax law. Some commis
sions recently have branched out in new directions. Several have
set up committees on special problems of women in poverty. Oth
ers have developed special projects to expand day care services or
to upgrade the occupation of household employment.
Most commissions have between 15 and 30 members; and they
usually draw on the assistance of specialists, interested individu
als, and organization representatives on committees or task
forces. A major factor in the effectiveness of many commissions
lies in the fact that their membership is broad and representa
tive. Active participants include leaders in women’s civic and serv
ice organizations, church groups, unions, employer associations,
educational institutions, and professional and vocational organi
zations. Many commissions include State legislators and officials;
most include men and representatives of minority groups in their
memberships and are making a determined effort to include more
members under 30 years of age and also those with low incomes.
COMMISSIONS ON THE STATUS OF WOMEN
299
Local and regional conferences, discussion groups, and work
shops have been sponsored by State commissions. These have pro
vided a forum for nationwide discussion of major, and sometimes
controversial, issues. They have reached and informed many
women—and men—who might not otherwise have become in
volved, and provided avenues for communicating effective meth
ods for implementation of their recommendations.
State commissions have been effective in their efforts to secure
passage of new and improved labor laws. The unprecedented
gains in State minimum wage legislation in the last 5 years—six
new laws and many strengthening amendments—can be largely
attributed to the determination of the commissions. In various
States they have successfully campaigned for equal pay and fair
employment practices legislation. In others they have won the
battle to secure the right of women to serve on State court juries
or, in some cases, to serve on the same basis as men. By preparing
rosters of qualified women, they have stimulated both Federal
and State agencies to put women in positions of leadership, and
have encouraged women themselves to seek and accept more re
sponsible appointive or elective positions. Women today are serv
ing on school boards and draft boards; as State registrars of
motor vehicles; as State treasurers or commissioners of revenue;
and in many other jobs, paid or honorary, that were once re
served for men.
Concentrated efforts have been made by many commissions to
increase educational, training, and guidance opportunities for
women. Guidance and counseling centers have been established, a
part-time degree program has been initiated at a State university
city campus, and local industry has been helped to provide train
ing programs for women workers.
Through these and many other activities, the commissions on
the status of women have provided the continuing leadership at
the local level which is so essential if progress is to be made to
ward the goal of helping women to achieve their full potential in
a democratic society.
i
Part IV
Organizations of Interest to Women
339-458
ORGANIZATIONS OF INTEREST
TO WOMEN
National organizations for women, together with some profes
sional organizations for both women and men, are grouped in the
following list according to fields of interest. Membership is noted
when recent figures are available. (For an alphabetical list of or
ganizations included, see pages 329-331.)
Civic, Religious, and Social Organizations
Civic
League of Women Voters of the United States, 1200 17th Street
NW, Washington, D.C. 20036. Founded 1920. Its purpose is to
promote political responsibility through informed and active
participation of citizens in government. Membership: 146,000
in more than 1,237 local leagues organized in 50 States, the
District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico.
Religious
Church Women United, 475 Riverside Drive, New York, N.Y.
10027. Organized 1941. It is a movement related to the National
Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of
America. Its purpose is to unite women in their allegiance to
Jesus Christ as divine Lord and Saviour and to assist them in
relating to their fellow Christians in such a way as most nearly
fulfills their common calling through the church. Membership:
14 million and 2,500 local councils of churchwomen.
Unitarian Universalist Women’s Federation, 25 Beacon Street,
Boston, Mass. 02108. Founded 1963. Its purpose is to uphold
and extend the philosophy of liberal religion while stressing
the unique contribution that women alone can make. It serves
the spiritual and social needs of women through group expres
sion, education, service, and action. Membership: 20,000.
Social
American Women’s Voluntary Services, Inc., 125 East 65th
Street, New York, N.Y. 10021. Founded 1940. Its purpose is to
make available to all women of America the opportunity to
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ORGANIZATIONS OP INTEREST TO WOMEN
303
work actively on a voluntary basis for their country through
constructive service to their community, and to instruct and
guide these volunteers toward the achievement of this end.
Association of the Junior Leagues of America, Inc., The Wal
dorf-Astoria, New York, N.Y. 10022. Founded 1921. Nonprofit,
advisory to 213 Junior Leagues in the United States, Canada,
and Mexico, with total membership of 95,000 community volun
teers. Junior League purpose is to foster interest among its
members in the social, economic, educational, cultural, and civic
conditions of the community, and to make their volunteer serv
ice efficient.
B’nai B’rith Women, 1640 Rhode Island Avenue NW., Washing
ton, D.C. 20036. Founded 1897. It is a Jewish women’s service
organization engaging in educational, civic, and philanthropic
programs. It provides both womanpower and financial support
for projects vital to the welfare of the individual, community,
and country. The largest part of its funds and programing is
devoted to youth-building activities and advancement of equal
opportunity and rights for all. The organization established
and maintains a home for emotionally disturbed children in Is
rael. In the United States it contributes to the support of a
number of national medical institutions and a residential treat
ment center for children. Membership: 135,000 in the United
States and Canada.
Camp Fire Girls, Inc., 65 Worth Street, New York, N.Y. 10013.
Founded 1910. Its purpose is to perpetuate the spiritual ideals
of the home and to stimulate and aid in the formation of habits
making for health and character. It seeks to serve the leisure
time needs of all girls from 7 through high school age, and em
phasizes the individual development of each girl. Its program
supplements the training of the home, church or synagogue,
and school through enjoyable and character-building activities.
Membership: 600,000.
General Federation of Women’s Clubs, 1734 N Street NW., Wash
ington, D.C. 20036. Established 1890. Its objective is to unite
women’s clubs and like organizations throughout the world for
mutual benefit and for the promotion of their common interest
in education, philanthropy, public welfare, moral values, civics,
and fine arts. Membership: 11 million through combined mem
bership with affiliated groups in 58 countries, territories, and
possessions (862,740 per capita paying members).
Girl Scouts of the United States of America, 830 Third Avenue,
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ORGANIZATIONS OP INTEREST TO WOMEN
New York, N.Y. 10022. Founded 1912. Its purpose is to help
girls of every race, creed, national origin, and background to
develop as happy, resourceful individuals, willing to share their
abilities as citizens in their homes, communities, country, and
world. Membership: 2,968,000 girls. Direction and guidance is
given by 626,000 adult volunteers, who are supported by 2,700
employed professional staff members serving throughout the
United States and in Europe and the Far East.
Girls Clubs of America, Inc., 133 East 62d Street, New York, N.Y.
10021. Founded 1945. National nonprofit youth organization.
Its goal is to train girls to be responsible citizens and home
makers. The organization provides daily out-of-school pro
grams in permanent clubhouses for girls from 6 years of age
through high school. The program is available to all girls, re
gardless of race, creed, or national origin, at flexible member
ship fees. Membership: 85,000 girls, 130 clubs throughout the
Nation and Canada.
Hadassah, The Women’s Zionist Organization of America, Inc., 65
East 52d Street, New York, N.Y. 10022. Founded 1912. Its pur
pose is to participate in efforts that help safeguard the demo
cratic way of life here and that work toward peace and security
throughout the world; provide basic Jewish education as back
ground for intelligent and creative Jewish living in America
and help interpret Israel to the American people. Through
affiliation with Hadassah in Israel, it supports medical institu
tions, teaching, research and public health networks, and child
welfare and vocational education projects. It also fosters a pro
gram of Jewish education, encourages participation in Ameri
can civic affairs, conducts youth activities, and provides fellow
ships and other grants for travel and study in Israel.
Lucy Stone League, The, 38 East 57th Street, New York, N.Y.
10022. The League is a center for research and information on
the status of women. Membership: About 100.
National Assembly for Social Policy and Development, Inc., The,
345 East 46th Street, New York, N.Y. 10017. Organized 1967
(formerly the National Social Welfare Assembly). It formu
lates, proposes, and advances national social policy in its areas
of competence by documenting needs and resources; presenting
pros and cons of alternatives; giving expert technical consulta
tion; and communicating need and aspirations to those in posi
tion to bring about change. Assists organizations in adapting
programs as needed for today’s problems, develops new ideas
ORGANIZATIONS OF INTEREST TO WOMEN
305
for programs and delivery of service, proposes new patterns of
service systems, and provides a mechanism for organizations
and interests to work together on common concerns. Member
ship: 300. (Half are at large and half from recommendations
of the national organizations affiliated and associated with The
Assembly.)
National Association of Colored Women’s Clubs, Inc., 1601 R
Street NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. The organization was
founded in 1896 to prepare women for complete community
participation by raising the standards of homelife and by pro
viding better health, educational, and economic opportunities.
Membership: 100,000 in 42 States.
National Committee on Household Employment, 1346 Con
necticut Avenue NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Founded 1965.
Its purpose is to serve as a clearinghouse and coordinator for
all organizations concerned with upgrading the status of pri
vate household employment, to provide leadership in establish
ing and promoting standards for private household work, to
serve as liaison with government agencies, and to stimulate the
development of additional jobs—new and traditional—and
training opportunities in the private household field. Local
counterparts of the national agencies and organizations partici
pating in the National Committee form committees on house
hold employment which enlist the assistance and services of
local public and private agencies to carry out its program and
achieve its objectives. Membership: 22 national voluntary
agencies and organizations with a combined membership of ap
proximately 25 million men and women.
National Consumers League, 1029 Vermont Avenue NW.,
Washington, D.C. 20005. Established 1899. Its purpose is to
awaken consumers’ interest in their responsibility for condi
tions under which goods are made and distributed and, through
investigation, education, and legislation, to promote fair labor
standards. Its legislative program includes consumer protec
tion, minimum wage, child labor, hours of work, social secu
rity, and improvement of the conditions of migrant workers in
agriculture. There are active State branches in New Jersey and
Ohio, and individual members in every State. (Not restricted to
women.)
National Council of Catholic Women, 1312 Massachusetts Avenue
NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. Established 1920. Its purpose is
to unite existing organizations as well as individual Catholic
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ORGANIZATIONS OP INTEREST TO WOMEN
women in order that the federation may speak and act as a unit
when the good of church or country demands such expression.
Through five commissions based on Vatican Council II, it en
deavors to stimulate interest in the welfare of all working per
sons. Affiliated with World Union of Catholic Women’s Organi
zations. Membership: 10 million women through more than
14,000 national, State, diocesan, and local affiliated groups. In
dividual membership program in the planning stage.
National Council of Jewish Women, Inc., 1 West 47th Street,
New York, N.Y. 10036. Established 1893. An educational and
service organization which leads and educates women for con
structive action in the community. Through 265 affiliated local
units, it maintains over 1,000 community services to the aging
and to children and youth. A major emphasis in recent years
has been development of programs to meet the needs of disad
vantaged families and out-of-school, out-of-work youth. It also
conducts an adult education and social action program con
cerned with major national and international issues. Its over
seas program extends these services to Jewish communities
abroad by sponsoring studies in U.S. graduate schools for edu
cators and social welfare specialists, and by direct financial aid
to educational institutions. Membership: 100,000.
National Council of Negro Women, Inc., Suite 832, 1346 Connecti
cut Avenue NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Organized 1935. It
seeks the cooperation and membership of all races and works
for the integration of Negroes into the economic, social, cul
tural, civic, and political life of every community. There are 25
national organizations and 107 local sections capable of reach
ing 850,000 women.
National Council of Women of the United States, Inc., 345 East
46th Street, New York, N.Y. 10017. Founded 1888. Serves as
information center and clearinghouse for 30 affiliated women’s
organizations; conducts pilot projects and sponsors conferences
on national and international problems and matters of concern
to women, sharing results with affiliated groups; and provides
exchange of news and ideas among the women of the free world.
Membership: Approximately 4 million (individual and through
affiliates).
National Jewish Welfare Board, 145 East 32d Street, New York,
N.Y. 10016. Founded 1917. It is the national association of
Young Men’s and Women’s Hebrew Associations and Jewish
Community Centers. It is also the recognized Jewish commu
ORGANIZATIONS OF INTEREST TO WOMEN
307
nity agency for meeting the religious, welfare, and morale needs
of Jewish personnel in the Armed Forces and their dependents,
and is a constituent agency of the United Service Organizations
(USO). The Women’s Organizations’ Services of the National
Jewish Welfare Board coordinate the work of nine national
Jewish women’s organizations united for services to hospital
ized veterans, military personnel in camps, and chaplains.
National Organization for Women (N.O.W.), Suite 500, 1629 K
Street NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Founded 1966. Its pur
pose is to work actively for full equality for all women in
America, in truly equal partnership with men. N.O.W. cam
paigns for full income tax deductions for child care costs of
working parents, for a nationwide network of child care cen
ters to enable more women to work while raising a family, for
greatly expanded job training programs for women, and for
reexamination of marriage and divorce laws and customs that
discriminate against women and men alike. Membership: More
than 1,000 men and women.
National Woman’s Christian Temperance Union, 1730 Chicago
Avenue, Evanston, 111. 60201. Established 1874. Its purpose is
to unite the Christian women of the United States for the edu
cation of the public to a standard of total abstinence from alco
holic beverages and abolition of liquor traffic, for youth train
ing in habits of total abstinence and sobriety, and for the pro
motion of good citizenship, peace, and the general welfare. Paid
membership: 300,000.
Women in Community Service, Inc. (WICS), 1730 Rhode Island
Avenue NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Incorporated December
1964 by members of Church Women United, National Council
of Catholic Women, National Council of Jewish Women, and
National Council of Negro Women. Its function is to frame and
carry out effective volunteer service programs against poverty
throughout the Nation. WICS has processed more than 60,000
young women interested in the Job Corps. WICS volunteers
number more than 11,000 and have established 289 screening
centers in 50 States.
Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom, adminis
trative headquarters U.S. Section: Jane Addams House, 2006
Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 19103; legislative office: 120
Maryland Avenue NE., Washington, D.C. 20002. Established
1915 in The Hague. Its purpose is to work by nonviolent means
to establish the political, economic, social, and psychological
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ORGANIZATIONS OP INTEREST TO WOMEN
conditions throughout the world which are conducive to world
peace. It seeks the abolition of all wars and the substitution of
methods other than violence in the solution of conflict. It seeks
justice for all without distinction as to sex, race, class, or creed.
Young Women’s Christian Association of the United States of
America, 600 Lexington Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10022.
Founded in the United States 1858. Organized to advance the
physical, mental, social, and spiritual well-being of women and
girls, it is a membership movement with a Christian purpose
open to persons of all races and all faiths. Emphasis is placed
on both leadership development and social action. Affiliated
with the World YWCA. Approximately 5,500 locations in the
United States.
Professional and Business Organizations
Accountancy
American Society of Women Accountants, 327 South LaSalle
Street, Chicago, 111. 60604. Founded 1938. Its purpose is to offer
technical and educational programs to improve the efficiency of
its members, to provide opportunity for exchange of ideas, and
to encourage many of its members to become certified public ac
countants. Membership: 4,050.
American Woman’s Society of Certified Public Accountants, 327
South LaSalle Street, Chicago, 111. 60604. Founded 1933. Its
purpose is to advance the professional interest of women certi
fied public accountants and to promote a greater interest among
women in the higher attainments of the accounting profession.
Membership: 751.
Banking
National Association of Bank-Women Inc., 60 East 42d Street,
New York, N.Y. 10017. Founded 1921. Its purpose is to bring
together women executives engaged in the profession of bank
ing for exchange of ideas and experiences for mutual benefit, to
promote the interests of its members, and to further the inter
ests of all women in the banking profession. It is the only na
tional organization of executive women in banking, with mem
bers from national, State, and savings banks, and trust compa
nies. Membership: 6,000.
ORGANIZATIONS OF INTEREST TO WOMEN
309
Construction
National Association of Women in Construction, 346 North
Beachwood Drive, Los Angeles, Calif. 90004. Organized 1953;
received national charter 1955. Objectives: to unite for their
mutual benefit women who are actively engaged in various
phases of the construction industry, to encourage cooperation
and better understanding among women in the industry, and to
promote fellowship and good will among members of the or
ganization. Membership is open to all women who are employed
in or who own businesses in the construction or allied fields.
NAWIC is nonprofit, nonsectarian, and nonpartisan; not affili
ated with any religious, fraternal, or labor group. There are
147 chapters in various cities throughout the United States.
Membership: More than 5,000.
Credit
Credit Women-international, 2051 Railway Exchange Building,
St. Louis, Mo. 63101. Founded 1930. Its purpose is to promote
the common interests and to contribute the combined efforts of
women working in the retail credit profession. It is primarily
an educational organization emphasizing the need of continued
education for women if they are to advance in their chosen ca
reers; also, it provides a stimulus for self-improvement. Mem
bership: Approximately 14,200.
Engineering
Society of Women Engineers, United Engineering Center, 345
East 47th Street, New York, N.Y. 10017. Established 1952. Its
purpose is to inform young women, their parents, counselors,
and the public in general of the qualifications and achievements
of women engineers and of the opportunities open to them; to
assist women engineers in readying themselves for a return to
active work after temporary retirement; and to encourage
women engineers to attain high levels of educational and pro
fessional achievement. Membership: 950.
Fashion
Fashion Group, Inc., The, 9 Rockefeller Plaza, New York, N.Y.
10020. Founded 1931. It is a nonprofit association of women en
gaged in fashion work, formed to advance the principles of ap
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ORGANIZATIONS OF INTEREST TO WOMEN
plied art in industry, to maintain high standards, to provide li
aison among the many facets of fashion industries, to dissemi
nate information on trends through meetings and bulletins, and
to encourage new interest in fashion through training courses
and scholarships. Membership: 4,000 members with 28 re
gional groups in the United States, plus 2 regional groups in
Canada, 2 in Australia, and 1 group in Paris.
Finance
Federation of Women Shareholders in American Business, Inc.,
527 Lexington Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10017. Its purpose is
(a) to educate women concerning the importance of using their
vote as stockholders (including the goal of a secret ballot for
all shareholders—especially employee-shareholders—in corpor
ate elections); (b) to delineate their responsibilities as em
ployers of management and labor; and (c) to provide financial
education for women because they own, although they do not
control, 70 percent of the privately owned wealth. It supports
equal pay for equal work, equal mandatory retirement age, and
equal executive training and opportunity in business; and
wants women on boards of directors of major corporations and
banks.
Geography
Society of Woman Geographers, The, 1619 New Hampshire Ave
nue NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. Founded 1925. Its purpose
is to form a medium of contact between traveled women en
gaged in geographical work and allied arts and sciences, to fur
ther geograpical work in all its branches, to spread geographi
cal knowledge, and to encourage geographical research. Mem
bership: 400.
Health Services
American Association of Industrial Nurses, Inc., 170 East 61st
Street, New York, N.Y. 10021. Founded 1942. It is the profes
sional association of registered nurses engaged in the practice
of industrial nursing. Its purpose is to maintain the honor and
character of the profession among industrial nurses, to improve
community health by better nursing service to workers, to de
velop and promote standards for industrial nurses and in
dustrial nursing services, and to stimulate interest in and pro
ORGANIZATIONS OF INTEREST TO WOMEN
311
vide a forum for the discussion of problems in the field of in
dustrial nursing. Membership: 5,503.
American Association of Medical Record Librarians, 211 East
Chicago Avenue, Chicago, 111. 60611. Founded 1928. Its pur
pose is to improve the quality and efficiency of medical records
in hospitals, clinics, and other health and mental institutions;
to establish standards and criteria of competency; and to de
velop and improve the teaching and practice of medical record
science so that it may be of greater service to the science of
medicine and public health. Membership: 6,920. (Not restricted
to women, but membership is primarily women.)
American Association of Nurse Anesthetists, Suite 3010, Pruden
tial Plaza, Chicago, 111. 60601. Founded 1931. Its purpose is to
develop educational standards and techniques in the adminis
tration of anesthetics, to facilitate cooperation between nurse
anesthetists and the medical profession, and to promote an edu
cational program on the importance of the proper administra
tion of anesthetics. Membership: 13,087.
American Dental Assistants Association, Inc., 211 East Chicago
Avenue, Chicago, 111. 60611. Established 1924. Its purpose is to
promote the education of the dental assistant, to improve and
sustain the vocation of dental assisting, and to contribute to the
advancement of the dental profession and the improvement of
public health. Membership: 14,000.
American Dental Hygienists’ Association, 211 East Chicago Ave
nue, Chicago, 111. 60611. Established 1923. Its purpose is to ele
vate and sustain the professional character and education of
dental hygienists; to promote among them mutual improve
ment, social intercourse, and good will; to inform and direct
public opinion in relation to dental hygiene and the promotion
of pertinent legislation; and to represent and safeguard the
common interests of members of the profession. Membership:
Approximately 6,800 active and 3,680 student.
American Medical Women’s Association, Inc., 1740 Broadway,
New York, N.Y. 10019. Founded 1915. Its purpose is to further
the art and science of medicine; to promote interests common
to women physicians and the public; to aid and encourage
premedical, medical, and postgraduate medical students; to fos
ter medical relief projects; and to cooperate with other organi
zations having comparable interests. Affiliated with the Medi
cal Women’s International Association.
American Nurses’ Association, Inc., 10 Columbus Circle, New
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ORGANIZATIONS OF INTEREST TO WOMEN
York, N.Y. 10019. Organized 1896 as the Nurses Associated
Alumnae of the United States and Canada. It is the professional
association for registered nurses. Its purposes are to foster
high standards of nursing practice, to promote the professional
and educational advancement of nurses, to advance the eco
nomic and general welfare of nurses, to promote research to im
prove the practice of nursing, and to support legislation to
provide all people with better nursing care. Affiliated with the
International Council of Nurses. Membership: 170,000.
American Occupational Therapy Association, 251 Park Avenue
South, New York, N.Y. 10010. Founded 1917. Its objectives are
to promote the use of occupational therapy, to advance stand
ards of education and training in this field, to conduct a na
tional registration examination, to maintain a registry of quali
fied occupational therapists, to promote research, and to engage
in other activities advantageous to the profession and its mem
bers. Membership: 5,900. Registrants: 8,100. (Not restricted to
women, but membership is primarily women.)
American Physical Therapy Association, 1740 Broadway, New
York, N.Y. 10019. Founded 1921. The object of this organiza
tion is to foster the development and improvement of physical
therapy service and physical therapy education through the
coordinated action of physical therapists, allied professional
groups, citizens, agencies, and schools so that the physical ther
apy needs of the people will be met. Membership: 10,888. (Ap
proximately 75 percent are women.) In addition, there are
1,462 student members.
American Public Health Asociation, Inc., 1740 Broadway, New
York, N.Y. 10019. Founded 1872. Its purpose is to protect and
promote public and personal health. It is a nongovernmental
organization and the only national society providing a common
forum for the field of public health and a single voice for the
physicians, nurses, educators, civic leaders, engineers, dentists,
sanitarians, laboratory scientists, nutritionists, statisticians, in
dustrial hygienists, and the many specialists making up the
community health team. Membership: Approximately 18,000
individual members and fellows, 52 affiliated associations and
branches, 42 sustaining members, 130 agency members.
American Society of Medical Technologists, Suite 1600, Hermann
Professional Building, Houston, Tex. 77025. Founded 1933. Its
purpose is to promote higher standards in clinical laboratory
methods and research, and to raise the status of those specializ-
ORGANIZATIONS OF INTEREST TO WOMEN
313
mg in medical laboratory technique. Membership: 12,000. (Not
restricted to women, but membership is primarily women.)
American Society of Radiologic Technologists, c/o Genevieve J.
Eilert, Executive Secretary, 537 South Main Street, Fond du
Lac, Wis. 54935. Founded 1920. Its purpose is to promote the
science and art of radiography and to assist in establishing ap
proved standards of training and recognized qualifications for
those engaged in technical work in radiological departments.
Membership: 14,190. (Not restricted to women, but member
ship is about 70 percent women.)
American Speech and Hearing Association, 9030 Old Georgetown
Road, Washington, D.C. 20014. Founded 1925. Its purposes are
to encourage basic scientific study of the processes of individual
human speech and hearing, to promote investigation of speech
and hearing disorders, and to foster improvement of therapeu
tic procedures with such disorders; to stimulate exchange of in
formation among persons thus engaged and to disseminate such
information. Membership: 11,858. (Not restricted to women.)
Association of American Women Dentists, c/o Dr. Josephine Palancia, President, 1527 West Passyunk Avenue, Philadelphia,
Pa. 19145. Founded 1921. Objectives are to promote good fel
lowship and cooperation among its members and to aid in the
advancement of women in dentistry. Membership: Approxi
mately 300.
National Association for Practical Nurse Education and Service,
Inc., 535 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10017. Organized 1941.
Its major purpose is to promote practical nurse education and
service to State associations. It conducts an accrediting pro
gram for schools of practical nursing; sponsors workshops, in
stitutes, seminars, and summer school sessions; offers consulta
tion service; and publishes a monthly magazine, manuals, and
other educational literature. Membership: 31,387. (Not re
stricted to women, but membership is primarily women.)
National Federation of Licensed Practical Nurses, Inc., 250 West
57th Street, New York, N.Y. 10019. Organized 1949. Its major
objectives are to associate all licensed practical nurses and to
protect their welfare, to further the highest ethical principles,
to interpret the standards of licensed practical nursing, and to
promote the most effective use of their services. Membership:
32,000.
National League for Nursing, 10 Columbus Circle, New York,
N.Y. 10019. Organized 1952. Its purpose is to foster the devel
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ORGANIZATIONS OF INTEREST TO WOMEN
opment of hospital, industrial, public health, and other orga
nized nursing services and of nursing education through the
coordinated action of nurses, allied professional groups, citi
zens, agencies, and schools so that the nursing needs of the peo
ple will be met. Membership: 23,000 individuals and 1,800
agency members.
Home Economics
American Dietetic Association, 620 North Michigan Avenue, Chi
cago, 111. 60611. Founded 1917. The objective of this association
is to improve the nutrition of human beings, to advance the sci
ence of dietetics and nutrition, and to promote education in
these and allied areas. Membership: 19,000. (Not restricted to
women, but membership is primarily women.)
American Home Economics Association, 1600 20th Street NW.,
Washington, D.C. 20009. Established 1909. A national organi
zation for home economists in all areas of the profession, in
cluding teaching, research, extension, business, health and wel
fare, dietetics, and journalism. Its purpose is to improve the
quality and standards of individual and family life through ed
ucation, research, cooperative activities, information, and legis
lation. Membership: 28,000 individual members, both men and
women; 425 affiliated college chapters; 248 groups of home
economists in homemaking.
National Executive Housekeepers Association, Inc., The, c/o Mrs.
Alberta J. Wetherholt, Executive Secretary, Boom 204, Busi
ness and Professional Building, Gallipolis, Ohio 45631. Incor
porated 1931. Its purpose is to bring together the progressive
executive housekeepers of the country in an active, cooperative
body; to encourage educational activities and high professional
standards; to encourage a wider knowledge of administrative
problems; to promote research; and to engage in other activi
ties advantageous to the profession and its members. Member
ship: Approximately 3,400 in 85 chapters. (Approximately 85
percent are women.)
Insurance
National Association of Insurance Women (International), Suite
202, 4828 South Peoria, Tulsa, Okla. 74105. Founded 1940. Its
purpose is to encourage and foster educational programs de
signed to broaden the knowledge of insurance of its members
ORGANIZATIONS OF INTEREST TO WOMEN
315
and to cultivate their friendship, loyalty, and service. Member
ship: Approximately 14,300 in 300 affiliated clubs.
Women Leaders Round Table, The National Association of Life
Underwriters, c/o Miss Ethel B. Karene, C.L.U., Union Central
Life Insurance Co., 225 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10007.
Founded 1936. Its purpose is to promote a friendly relationship
among women underwriters who are producing a considerable
volume of business, and to provide for an interchange of ideas
to the advantage of the institution of life insurance and of the
general public. Membership: 365.
Interior Decoration
American Institute of Interior Designers, 730 Fifth Avenue, New
i"ork, N.Y. 10019. Founded 1931. A nonprofit association of in
terior designers and decorators, organized to maintain stand
ards of design and professional practice. Membership: 4,800
in 41 chapters. (Not restricted to women.)
Law
National Association of Women Lawyers, American Bar Center,
1155 East 60th Street, Chicago, 111. 60637. Founded 1899. Its
purpose is to promote the welfare and interests of women law
yers, to maintain the honor and integrity of the legal profes
sion, to aid in the enactment of legislation for the common good
and in the administration of justice, and to undertake actively
whatever is necessary to promote and advance the purposes of
the association. Membership: 1,200.
Library Science
American Library Association, 50 East Huron Street, Chicago,
111. 60611. Founded 1876. Its objective is to promote library serv
ice and librarianship. Membership: Approximately 35,000.
(Not restricted to women, but personal membership is predomi
nantly women.)
Special Libraries Association, 31 East 10th Street, New York,
N.Y. 10003. Organized 1909. Its purpose is to promote the col
lection, organization, and dissemination of information in spe
cialized fields and to improve the usefulness of special libraries
and information services. Membership: 6,700. (Not restricted
to women.)
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ORGANIZATIONS OF INTEREST TO WOMEN
Music
National Federation of Music Clubs, Suite 1215, 600 South Michi
gan Avenue, Chicago, 111. 60605. Founded 1898. Its purpose is
to bring into working relations with one another music clubs
and other musical organizations and individuals directly or in
directly associated with musical activity, for the purpose of de
veloping and maintaining high musical standards; to aid and
encourage musical education; and to promote American music
and American artists throughout America and other countries.
Membership: 600,000. (Not restricted to women, but member
ship is primarily women.)
Personnel
American Personnel and Guidance Association, 1605 New Hamp
shire Avenue NW„ Washington, D.C. 20009. Origin stems from
1913 with founding of National Vocational Guidance Associa
tion, which is one of eight divisions now constituting APGA.
Its purposes are to advance the scientific discipline of personnel
and guidance work; to conduct and foster programs of educa
tion in the field of personnel and guidance; and to promote
sound personnel and guidance practices in the interests of soci
ety. It stimulates, promotes, and conducts programs of scientific
research and of education in the field of personnel and guidance
work; publishes scientific, educational, and professional litera
ture; advances high standards of professional conduct; and
conducts scientific, educational, and professional meetings and
conferences. Membership: 25,000.
International Association of Personnel Women, Suite 925, 405
Lexington Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10017. Founded 1951. Its
objectives are to encourage, promote, and extend women’s mem
berships in associations devoted to a better understanding of
employer-employee relationships; to encourage and assist
women to prepare for careers in the fields of personnel and in
dustrial relations; to stimulate the organization of local groups
for study, research, and exchange of information and ideas;
and to promote scientific study of personnel and industrial rela
tions work by collecting and publishing such information, or
ganizing conferences and discussion groups, and publishing and
distributing conference proceedings and other books, periodi
cals, and reports that will help accomplish its purposes and ob
jectives. Membership: 1,200 including members in England,
Norway, Canada, and the Philippines.
ORGANIZATIONS OP INTEREST TO WOMEN
317
Radio and Television
American Women in Radio and Television, Inc., 75 East 55th
Street, New York, N.Y. 10022. Established 1951. The objec
tives of this professional organization of women working as
broadcasters, executives, and administrators and in a creative
capacity in radio, television, broadcast-advertising, and closely
allied fields are to provide a medium for communication and
exchange of ideas; to encourage cooperation within the allied
fields of the industry; and to augment the value of members to
their employers, their industry, their community, and their
country. Membership: 1,900.
Railway
National Association of Railway Business Women, Inc., Room
714, 50 East Broad Street, Columbus, Ohio 43215. Organized
1918; incorporated 1941. Its purpose is to stimulate interest in
the railroad industry; to foster cooperation and better under
standing within the railroad industry and its affiliates; to
create good public relations for the railroad industry; to fur
ther the educational, social, and professional interests of its
members; to undertake charitable, benevolent, and social wel
fare projects; and to establish, provide, and operate a residence
or residences to be used as living quarters for members after
their retirement. First residence for retired members was es
tablished in Boca Raton, Fla.; the second residence was estab
lished in Green Valley, Ariz. National welfare project is pro
viding model electric trains to schools and hospitals for handi
capped children. Membership: Approximately 7,000 active in
60 chapters located in 33 States. Associate membership availa
ble.
Real Estate
Women’s Council of the National Association of Real Estate
Boards, 155 East Superior Street, Chicago, 111. 60611. Estab
lished 1939. Its purpose is to promote women’s active participa
tion in local Board activities and to present programs to all
women realtors within local and State groups that offer an op
portunity for leadership, education, and fellowship. Member
ship: 5,469.
318
ORGANIZATIONS OF INTEREST TO WOMEN
Secretarial
National Association of Legal Secretaries, 146 North San Fer
nando Boulevard, Burbank, Calif. 91502. Founded 1950. Its
purposes are to organize and charter local chapters of legal sec
retaries associations throughout the world; to carry on a pro
gram for further education of those engaged in legal secretar
ial work; to cooperate with attorneys, judges, and bar associa
tions in stimulating high professional standards and ethics
among those persons engaged as secretaries, stenographers,
and clerks in private law offices, trust companies, and various
courts and agencies; and to aid in the enactment of legislation
for the public good. Membership: Approximately 14,000.
National Secretaries Association (International), 1103 Grand Av
enue, Kansas City, Mo. 64106. Organized 1942. Its purpose is to
elevate the standards of the secretarial profession by uniting,
for their mutual benefit by means of educational and profes
sional activities, men and women who are or have been engaged
in secretarial work. It established the Institute for Certifying
Secretaries, a department of NSA; and sponsors the annual
certifying examination presented by this institute the first Fri
day and Saturday of May at universities and colleges across the
country. Membership: 25,000 in 580 chapters.
Social Service
National Association of Social Workers, 2 Park Avenue, New
York, N.Y. 10016. Established 1955. Its purpose is to improve
the quality of social work practice, advance the profession, and
represent it on social welfare issues. Membership: 46,000.
Chapters: 170 in all 50 States, the District of Columbia, Puerto
Rico, and Europe. (Membership includes both men and
women.)
National Committee for the Day Care of Children, Inc., 114 East
32d Street, New York, N.Y. 10016. Founded 1959 as the Inter
City Committee for Day Care of Children, Inc.; name changed
in 1960. Its purposes are to encourage cooperative effort
throughout the country toward the establishment of adequate
day care services for children; to interpret as widely as possi
ble the needs of children for day care; to promote good stand
ards for day care; to encourage study and research in the field
of day care; and to stimulate the exchange of information,
ideas, and experiences in the field of day care. Membership:
Approximately 950, including 61 agencies.
ORGANIZATIONS OF INTEREST TO WOMEN
319
National Council for Homemaker Services, Inc., 1740 Broadway,
New York, N.Y. 10019. Incorporated 1962. Its purposes are to
promote understanding of the values of homemaker services; to
provide a central source of information and a medium through
which knowledge and experience can be pooled and made avail
able ; to encourage and guide communities in organizing and ex
tending homemaker programs; to promote development of
standards; to publish reports and distribute educational and
promotional materials; and to sponsor conferences and semi
nars. Membership: 211 local agencies, 117 individuals, 19 or
ganizations.
Teaching
See Educational Organizations.
Writing
American Newspaper Women’s Club, Inc., 1607 22d Street NW.,
Washington, D.C. 20008. Founded 1932. Its purpose is to main
tain a meeting place for members, to promote professional pur
suits and good fellowship among the members, and to encour
age friendly understanding between the members and those
whom they must contact in their profession. Membership: 260
professional, 105 associate members.
National League of American Pen Women, Inc., 1300 17th
Street NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Founded 1897. Its pur
pose is to conduct and promote creative and educational activi
ties in art, letters, and music. Membership: 5,000.
Women’s National Press Club, 505 National Press Building,
Washington, D.C. 20004. Founded 1919. Purposes are to en
courage higher professional standards among women in jour
nalism and other media of public information; to present out
standing leaders and foster discussion in meetings and semi
nars, thereby encouraging dissemination of information to the
public on national and international affairs—economic, educa
tional, scientific, and welfare developments, and any additional
topics of current interest. Membership: 550.
General Service Organizations of Business and
Professional Women
Altrusa International, Inc., 332 South Michigan Avenue, Chicago,
111. 60604. Established 1917. Pioneer of women’s service clubs.
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ORGANIZATIONS OF INTEREST TO WOMEN
It channels its service work through four committees: Interna
tional Relations, Community Services, Vocational Services, and
Altrusa Information. It supports two major projects through
voluntary contributions of members: Grants-in-Aid, which
awards gift grants to graduate women from Asia and Latin
America for higher study, and Founders Fund Vocational Aid,
which makes available through local Altrusa clubs grants for
women of all ages who need job training, rehabilitation, or
other help to equip themselves to find employment or start a
business of their own. Membership: 17,941 in 552 clubs in 13
countries.
National Association of Negro Business and Professional
Women’s Clubs, Inc., c/o Mrs. Margaret L. Belcher, President,
2861 Urban Avenue, Columbus, Ga. 31907. Founded 1935. Its
purpose is to promote and protect the interests of Negro busi
ness and professional women and create good fellowship among
them, to direct their interests toward united action for im
proved social and civic conditions, to encourage the training
and development of women, and to inspire and train young
women for leadership. Membership: 10,000.
National Federation of Business and Professional Women’s
Clubs, Inc., The, 2012 Massachusetts Avenue NW., Washington,
D.C. 20006. Established 1919. Its purpose is to elevate the stand
ards and promote the interests of business and professional
women, and to extend opportunities to business and profes
sional women through education along lines of industrial, sci
entific, and vocational activities. Affiliated with International
Federation of Business and Professional Women. Membership:
More than 178,000 in approximately 3,800 clubs in 50 States,
the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands.
Pilot Club International, 244 College Street, Macon, Ga. 31201.
Organized 1921. A classified service club for executive business
and professional women. Its objectives are to develop friend
ship as a means of encouraging and promoting international
peace and cultural relations; to inculcate the ideal of service as
the basis of all worthy enterprises; to encourage high ethical
standards among business and professional women; and to
promote active participation in any movement that tends to im
prove the civic, social, industrial, and commercial welfare of
the community. Membership: More than 15,000 in 480 clubs in
the United States, Canada, England, France, Bermuda, and
Japan.
ORGANIZATIONS OP INTEREST TO WOMEN
321
Quota International, Inc., 1145 19th Street NW., Washington,
D.C. 20036. Established 1919. A classified civic service club of
women executives. Among its objectives are service to country
and community, developing good fellowship and enduring
friendship, and emphasizing the worth of useful occupation. It
promotes international understanding through club programs
and the granting of international fellowships. Other major ac
tivities are service to girls, service to the hearing and speech
handicapped, and community service. Membership: 12,000 in
392 clubs in four countries.
Soroptimist International Association, Soroptimist Federation of
the Americas, Inc., 1616 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa.
19103. Founded 1921. Its purpose is to assist in developing the
highest concept of patriotism and love of country; to promote
the spirit of service; to foster high ethical standards in busi
ness and professions; to advance the status of women; to de
velop interest in community, national, and international affairs;
and to recognize the worthiness and dignity of all legitimate oc
cupations as affording to each Soroptimist an opportunity to
serve society. Membership in International Association: 49,000
in 1,600 clubs in 39 countries.
Zonta International, 59 East Van Buren Street, Chicago, 111.
60605. Established 1919. Its main objectives are encouragement
of high ethical standards in business and professions; improve
ment of the legal, political, economic, and professional status of
women; and advancement of international understanding, good
will, and peace through a world fellowship of executive women.
Membership: 19,000 in 520 clubs in 33 countries.
Educational Organizations
Adult Education Association of the United States of America,
1225 19th Street NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Founded 1951.
Its purpose is to further the concept of education as a process
continuing throughout life, by developing greater unity of pur
pose in the adult education movement, by helping individuals
engaged in adult education increase their competence, by bring
ing agencies of adult education into closer relationship, by de
tecting needs and gaps in the field and by mobilizing resources
for filling them, by making the general public more aware of
the need and opportunities for adult education, by assembling
and making available knowledge about adult education, and by
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ORGANIZATIONS OF INTEREST TO WOMEN
serving as a voice for the adult education movement. Its serv
ices include the publication of leadership materials, consulta
tion services, conferences and field services. Membership:
5.000. (Not restricted to women.)
American Association of University Women, 2401 Virginia Ave
nue NW., Washington, D.C. 20037. Founded 1882. Its purpose
is to enlarge opportunities for college women, and to help mem
bers extend their education and use their abilities and training
in building better communities and when considering national
and international problems. It also works to maintain high
standards in education generally. Affiliated with International
Federation of University Women. Membership: More than
175.000.
American Council on Education, 1785 Massachusetts Avenue
NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Established 1918. Serves as a
center of coordination and cooperation in higher education;
conducts inquiries and investigations into specific educational
problems and seeks to enlist appropriate agencies for their so
lutions. Acts as a liaison between higher education and the
Federal Government. Membership: 246 educational associa
tions, 1,273 institutions.
American Federation of Teachers, AFL—CIO, 1012 14th Street
NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. Founded 1919. Its objectives are
to improve working conditions for teachers and to obtain better
educational facilities for children. Membership: 140,000.
American Vocational Association, Inc., 1025 15th Street NW.,
Washington, D.C. 20005. Founded 1925 by a merger of two as
sociations which go back to 1906. Its purpose is to promote vo
cational, technical, and practical arts education and to improve
the quality of instruction in these phases of education, to find
the aptitudes and talents of each person and prepare him for
the vocation in which he is best fitted to earn his livelihood,
and by so doing to contribute to the freedom and security of
both the individual and the Nation. Also, promotes training of
adult workers in vocational education to update them in their
occupations and to train them for new ones. Membership:
40.000. approximately 15,000 of whom are women.
Council on Social Work Education, 345 East 46th Street, New
York, N.Y. 10017. Founded 1952. Its purposes are to maintain
and improve the quality of social work education; to expand re
sources for social work education of high quality; to improve
the quality, as well as increase the number, of people interested
ORGANIZATIONS OF INTEREST TO WOMEN
323
in social work careers; to gain understanding and support for
social work education; and to learn from and contribute to so
cial work education in other countries. The Council’s concern is
with master’s degree and advanced programs in social work
and undergraduate programs in social welfare. Membership:
3,700 constituent and associate members.
Delta Kappa Gamma Society (International), Post Office Box
1589, Austin, Tex. 78767. Founded 1929. Its purposes are to
unite women educators of the world in a genuine spiritual fel
lowship ; to honor women who have given or who evidence a po
tential for distinctive service in any field of education; to ad
vance the professional interest and position of women in educa
tion ; to sponsor and support desirable educational legislation
and initiate legislation in the interests of women educators; to
endow scholarships to aid outstanding women educators in
pursuing graduate study and to grant fellowships to women ed
ucators from other countries; to stimulate personal and profes
sional growth of members and to encourage their participation
in appropriate programs of action; to inform the membership
of current economic, social, political, and educational issues.
Membership: 100,000.
International Toastmistress Clubs, 11301 Long Beach Boulevard,
Lynwood, Calif. 90262. Founded 1938. Its purpose is to orga
nize new clubs and to coordinate the work of all member clubs,
for improvement of individual members through study and
practice in conversation, speech, group leadership, and analyti
cal listening. It is an educational organization for women inter
ested in increasing their ability and confidence. A program of
self-development places major emphasis upon communication,
leadership training, and skill in organizational techniques.
Membership: 20,000.
National Association of College Women, 1501 11th Street NW.,
Washington, D.C. 20001. Founded 1924. Its purpose is to pro
mote closer union and fellowship among college women for con
structive educational work; to study educational conditions
with emphasis upon problems affecting college women; to raise
educational standards in colleges and universities; to stimulate
intellectual attainment among college women; and to arouse in
college women a consciousness of their responsibility in aiding
in the solution of pertinent problems on local, State, and na
tional levels. Membership: 2,000.
National Association of Women Deans and Counselors, a depart
324
ORGANIZATIONS OP INTEREST TO WOMEN
ment of the National Education Association, 1201 16th Street
NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Established 1916. Its basic pur
pose is to render service to students at all levels through com
petent performance of personnel and guidance functions, with
particular attention to the special needs of girls and women.
Membership: 2,500.
National Congress of Colored Parents and Teachers, 201 Ashby
Street NW., Atlanta, Ga. 30314. Founded 1926. Its purpose is
to promote the welfare of children and youth in home, school,
church, and community; to raise the standards of homelife; to
secure adequate laws for the care and protection of children
and youth; to bring into closer relation the home and the
school, that parents and teachers may cooperate intelligently in
the training of the child; to develop between educators and the
general public such united efforts as can secure for every child
the highest advantages in physical, mental, social, and spiritual
education. Membership: 250,000. (Not restricted to women.)
National Congress of Parents and Teachers, 700 North Rush
Street, Chicago, 111. 60611. Founded 1897. Its purpose is to
promote the welfare of children and youth in home, school,
church, and community; to raise the standards of homelife; to
secure adequate laws for the care and protection of children
and youth; to bring into closer relation the home and the
school, that parents and teachers may cooperate intelligently in
the training of the child; and to develop between educators and
the general public such united efforts as will secure for every
child the highest advantages in physical, mental, social, and
spiritual education. Membership: 11,029,396. (Not restricted to
women.)
National Council of Administrative Women in Education, a de
partment of the National Education Association, 1201 16th
Street NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Founded 1915; became
NEA affiliate 1932. Its purpose is to contribute to the advance
ment of education by encouraging women in education to pre
pare for and accept the challenge of administrative or execu
tive positions; to urge school systems and educational agencies
to recognize women’s administrative abilities and to employ
qualified women as administrators; to recognize the achieve
ments of women in educational administration; and to work for
the general recognition and utilization of women’s leadership
abilities as a significant national resource. Membership: 1,700.
National Education Association of the United States, 1201 16th
Street NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Established 1857 as the
ORGANIZATIONS OF INTEREST TO WOMEN
325
National Teachers Association. Its purpose is to elevate the
character and advance the interests of the teaching profession
and to promote the cause of education. Membership: 1,028,456
individual personal memberships and approximately 1,703,316
affiliated through State, territorial, and local groups. (Not re
stricted to women, but a majority of the members are women.)
Political and Legislative Organizations
Democratic National Committee, Office of Women’s Activities,
2600 Virginia Avenue NW., Washington, D.C. 20037. Estab
lished 1953, to replace the previous Women’s Division and
Women’s Bureau, dating back to 1916. Its purpose is to encour
age more women to participate in Democratic political organi
zations and provide them with information and techniques to
make it possible for them to work as equals with men at all po
litical levels. Functions include preparing and distributing polit
ical techniques materials, assisting in building political organi
zations, and aiding and encouraging women to seek both public
and party office.
National Federation of Republican Women, 1625 I Street NW.,
Washington, D.C. 20006. Founded 1938. The objectives are to
promote an informed electorate through political education, to
increase the effectiveness of women in the cause of good gov
ernment through active political participation, to facilitate co
operation among women’s Republican clubs, to foster loyalty to
the Republican Party and to promote its ideals, to support ob
jectives and policies of the Republican National Committee, and
to work for the election of the Republican Party’s nominees.
Membership: 500,000 women in 50 States, the Commonwealth
of Puerto Rico, and the District of Columbia.
National Woman’s Party, 144 Constitution Avenue NE., Wash
ington, D.C. 20002. Established 1913 for suffrage for women
through the adoption of the Federal Suffrage Amendment;
reorganized in 1921 for equal rights for women in all fields. Its
immediate purpose is to secure the adoption of the Equal
Rights for Women Amendment to the National Constitution
and equal rights for women in the international field. It is af
filiated with the World Woman’s Party and with the Interna
tional Council of Women.
Republican National Committee, Women’s Division, 1625 I Street
NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Founded 1918 to give women a
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ORGANIZATIONS OP INTEREST TO WOMEN
voice in the councils of the Republican National Committee. Its
basic objectives are to coordinate the activities of women in the
Republican Party to achieve a maximum effectiveness from
their efforts; to encourage their participation in party work
and in seeking public office as candidates; and to promote equal
recognition of women with men at all levels of party organiza
tion, to develop leadership among Republican women, and to
keep women informed of party activities and current issues.
Woman’s National Democratic Club, 1526 New Hampshire Ave
nue NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Founded 1922. Its purpose
is to afford Democratic women an opportunity to obtain infor
mation about problems and issues confronting the country and
to discuss Democratic ideals and programs, to do educational
and community service work, and to hear and meet the Na
tion’s lawmakers and other leaders in domestic and interna
tional fields. Membership: 1,550.
Patriotic Organizations
Daughters of the American Revolution, National Society, 1776 D
Street NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Established 1890. Objec
tives are historic preservation, promotion of education, and pa
triotic endeavor. National Headquarters, Washington, D.C.,
Americana Museum with 28 period rooms and genealogical li
brary open to the public daily. Membership: Approximately
186,000 in nearly 3,000 local chapters throughout the United
States.
Disabled American Veterans Auxiliary, 3725 Alexandria Pike,
Cold Spring, Ky. 41076. Established 1922. Its purpose is to up
hold and maintain the Constitution and laws of the United
States, to advance the interests and work for the betterment of
all wounded, injured, and disabled veterans and their families.
Membership is composed of wives, widows, mothers, daughters,
sisters, granddaughters, and grandmothers of disabled veterans
of World Wars I and II and the Korean conflict, and disabled
women veterans. Membership: Approximately 35,000.
Ladies Auxiliary to the Veterans of Foreign Wars of the United
States, 406 West 34th Street, Kansas City, Mo. 64111. Founded
1914. Its objectives are fraternal, patriotic, and educational.
Major programs include volunteer work in Veterans Adminis
tration and other hospitals, and welfare activities for veterans
and their dependents. Membership: 400,000.
ORGANIZATIONS OP INTEREST TO WOMEN
327
United Daughters of the Confederacy, 328 North Boulevard,
Richmond, Va. 23220. Established 1894. Its purpose is histori
cal, benevolent, educational, and social. Membership: Approxi
mately 36,000. (Membership restricted to women who are de
scendants of Confederate veterans of the War Between the
States.)
Farm and Rural Organizations
American Farm Bureau Federation, Women’s Committee, Room
1000, Merchandise Mart, Chicago, 111. 60654. Its objective is to
assist in an active, organized way in carrying forward the pro
gram of the American Farm Bureau Federation; to promote,
strengthen, and assist the development of the business, eco
nomic, social, educational, and spiritual interests of the farm
families of the Nation; and to develop agriculture. Member
ship: 1,703,908.
Country Women's! Council, U.S.A., c/o Mrs. Homer A. Greene,
Chairman, Greene Acres, Tutwiler, Miss. 38963. Founded 1939.’
This Council is a coordinating group made up of representa
tives of four national and some 82 regional and State societies
m the United States which are constituent members of the As
sociated Country Women of the World. Its purpose is to effect a
closer association among these United States groups in carry
ing out the aims and programs of the Associated Country
Women of the World in furthering friendship and understand
ing among the country women of the world, in improving their
standard of living, and in representing them in international
councils. Membership: 3 million.
National Extension Homemakers Council, c/o Mrs. Wilmer Smith,
Route 1, Wilson, Tex. 79381. Founded 1936. Its purpose is to
strengthen and develop adult education in home economics
through the Cooperative Extension Service of the U.S. Depart
ment of Agriculture and the land-grant colleges; to provide op
portunity for homemakers to pool their judgment for the im
provement of home and community life; and to offer a means
by which homemakers may promote extension projects impor
tant in the protection and development of the American home.
Membership: Approximately 1 million.
Woman’s National Farm and Garden Association, Inc., c/o Mrs.
Nelson B. Sackett, President, 860 Park Avenue, New York,
N.Y. 10021. Founded 1914. Its purpose is to stimulate interest
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ORGANIZATIONS OP INTEREST TO WOMEN
in the conservation of natural resources and an appreciation of
country life; to work for improvement of rural conditions; to
promote good relationships between farm and city women; to
help women and girls through scholarships and expert advice
to obtain the best available training in agriculture, horticul
ture, and related professions, and to develop opportunities for
women so trained; to stimulate and make available to members
opportunities for the marketing of farm and garden products;
and to cooperate with national and international groups of
women with similar interests. Membership: 9,000.
Labor Organizations
The Bureau of Labor Statistics of the U.S. Department of
Labor, in its “Directory of National and International Labor Un
ions in the United States, 1967,” includes a table listing of the un
ions that report membership by sex. (See table 36 of this hand
book for unions reporting 25,000 or more women members.)
American Federation of Labor-Congress of Industrial Organiza
tions (AFL-CIO) Auxiliaries, 815 16th Street NW., Washing
ton, D.C. 20006. Established December 1957 by merger of the
former American Federation of Women’s Auxiliaries of Labor
and National C.I.O. Auxiliaries. Composed of women from fam
ilies of men in a trade union affiliated with the AFL-CIO. Its
purpose is to further the program of the AFL-CIO; to foster
organizing of the unorganized members of union families and
to educate them in the benefits of trade unionism; to aid in se
curing better schools and instructors; to abolish child labor; to
promote legislation which benefits workers and their families;
and to promote social and cultural activities. Membership:
50,000.
ORGANIZATIONS OF INTEREST TO WOMEN
329
Alphabetical List of Organizations
Page
Adult Education Association of the United States of America_______
AFL-CIO Auxiliaries
328
Altrusa International, Inc.
319
American Association of Industrial Nurses, Inc.
310
American Association of Medical Record Librarians___
American Association of Nurse Anesthetists
311
American Association of University Women
322
American Council on Education __
American Dental Assistants Association, Inc. __________________
American Dental Hygienists’ Association
311
American Dietetic Association
314
American Farm Bureau Federation, Women’s Committee___________
American Federation of Teachers (AFL-CIO) ___
American Home Economics Association
314
American Institute of Interior Designers
315
American Library Association
315
American Medical Women’s Association, Inc. _ __________
American Newspaper Women’s Club, Inc.
319
American Nurses’ Association, Inc.
311
American Occupational Therapy Association_____________________
American Personnel and Guidance Association _ _
American Physical Therapy Association
312
American Public Health Association, Inc.
American Society of Medical Technologists
_ _ ________
American Society of Radiologic Technologists
_______________
American Society of Women Accountants
American Speech and Hearing Association _________________
American Vocational Association, Inc.
American Woman’s Society of Certified Public Accountants_________
American Women in Radio and Television, Inc.
American Women’s Voluntary Services, Inc. _____
_. _ _ ______
Association of American Women Dentists ___
313
Association of the Junior Leagues of America, Inc. _
_
B’nai B’rith Women
303
Camp Fire Girls, Inc.
Church Women United
Council on Social Work Education _______
Country Women’s Council, U.S.A. ____________________
__
Credit Women-International__________________
Daughters of the American Revolution, National Society
_
Delta Kappa Gamma Society (International)
Democratic National Committee, Office of Women’s Activities___
Disabled American Veterans Auxiliary____________
Fashion Group, Inc., The
Federation of Women Shareholders in American Business, Inc.
General Federation of Women’s Clubs ._________________________
Girl Scouts of the United States of America __________________
321
311
322
311
327
322
311
312
316
312
312
313
308
313
322
308
317
302
303
303
302
322
327
309
326
323
325
326
309
310
303
303
330
ORGANIZATIONS OF INTEREST TO WOMEN
Page
Girls Clubs of America, Inc.
Hadassah, The Women’s Zionist Organization of America, Inc. _
International Association of Personnel Women ___
International Toastmistress Clubs
Ladies Auxiliary to the Veterans of Foreign Wars of the United
States_________
League of Women Voters of the United States 302
Lucy Stone League, The 304
National Assembly for Social Policy and Development, Inc., The___
National Association for Practical Nurse Education and Service,
Inc. ___________________________________________
National Association of Bank-Women Inc.________________
National Association of College Women ____
National Association of Colored Women’s Clubs, Inc. ____________
National Association of Insurance Women (International) _________
National Association of Legal Secretaries________________________
National Association of Negro Business and Professional Women’s
Clubs, Inc. _________________________________________________
National Association of Railway Business Women, Inc._________
National Association of Social Workers
National Association of Women Deans and Counselors________
National Association of Women in Construction
National Association of Women Lawyers ___ ____ __ _________
National Committee for the Day Care of Children, Inc.__________
National Committee on Household Employment
National Congress of Colored Parents and Teachers______________
National Congress of Parents and Teachers
National Consumers League
________________ _____________ _ _
National Council for Homemaker Services, Inc. _
National Council of Administrative Women in Education _
National Council of Catholic Women__________
National Council of Jewish Women, Inc. ____________
National Council of Negro Women, Inc.
National Council of Women of the United States, Inc.__________
National Education Association of the United States______
National Executive Housekeepers Association, Inc., The
_
National Extension Homemakers Council______________________
National Federation of Business and Professional Women’s Clubs,
Inc., The
National Federation of Licensed Practical Nurses, Inc.____________
National Federation of Music Clubs__________
National Federation of Republican Women
National Jewish Welfare Board___
National League for Nursing ____________________
- --- ---National League of American Pen Women, Inc.______________ ____
National Organization for Women . _
National Secretaries Association (International)
____________
National Woman’s Christian Temperance Union _____
___ - _ _
National Woman’s Party ________
Pilot Club International___
304
304
316
323
326
304
313
308
323
306
314
318
320
317
318
323
309
315
318
305
324
324
305
319
324
305
306
306
306
324
314
327
320
313
316
325
306
313
319
307
318
307
325
320
ORGANIZATIONS OF INTEREST TO WOMEN
331
Page
Quota International, Inc.
Republican National Committee, Women’s Division
Society of Woman Geographers, The___
Society of Women Engineers _______________
Soroptimist International Association, Soroptimist Federation of
the Americas, Inc. ____________________________
Special Libraries Association
Unitarian Universalist Women’s Federation__________________
United Daughters of the Confederacy_______ _______ _________
Woman’s National Democratic Club
Woman’s National Farm and Garden Association, Inc. __________
Women in Community Service, Inc. 307
Women Leaders Round Table, The National Association of Life
Underwriters______________________________________
Women’s Council of the National Association of Real Estate Boards . _
Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom . _ _
___
Women’s National Press Club
Young Women’s Christian Association of the United States of
America
Zonta International
321
325
310
309
315
302
327
326
327
31
317
307
319
308
321
11
*
Part V
Bibliography
on
American Women Workers
339-458
BIBLIOGRAPHY ON
AMERICAN WOMEN WORKERS
This bibliography covers principally publications of current in
terest concerning women as workers and citizens. It was prepared
in response to numerous requests for reference materials pertain
ing to women’s participation in employment and other activities
outside the home. Since it is based primarily on materials utilized
in the course of research work and is not the result of a complete
review of the literature in the field, the bibliography is of neces
sity limited. It includes references with varying conclusions and
opinions, and does not constitute endorsement of any single point
of view.
Wherever possible, the references have been classified accord
ing to their primary subject matter. Those which are not special
ized are shown under “General.”
The topical sections of the bibliography are:
General
Commissions on the Status of Women
Counseling and Guidance
Education and Training
Family Status and Responsibilities of Women Workers
Historical Development
International
Special Groups of Women
Standards and Legislation Affecting Women
Union Organization
Volunteers
Women as Workers
Reports of Conferences, Meetings, and Commissions
Speeches
Bibliographies
Unless otherwise stated, U.S. Government publications may be
obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Govern
ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402, or are available at
depository libraries.
GENERAL
Bird, Caroline. Born Female—The High Cost of Keeping Women
Down. New York, N.Y., David McKay Co., 1968.
334
BIBLIOGRAPHY
335
Farber, Seymour, and Roger H. L. Wilson, eds. The Potential of
Woman. New York, N.Y., McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1963.
Firkel, Eva. Woman in the Modern World. Notre Dame, Ind.,
Fides Publishers, 1963.
Friedan, Betty. The Feminine Mystique. New York, N.Y., W. W.
Norton & Co., Inc., 1963.
Ginzberg, Eli. The Development of Human Resources. New York,
N.Y., McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1966.
Goldberg, Dorothy. The Creative Woman. New York, N.Y., David
McKay Co., 1963.
Harbison, Frederick, and Charles A. Myers. Education, Man
power and Economic Growth. New York, N.Y., McGraw-Hill
Book Co., Inc., 1964.
Kaufman, Jacob J., Grant N. Farr, and John C. Shearer. The De
velopment and Utilization of Human Resources. A Guide for
Research. University Park, Pa., The Pennsylvania State
University, Institute for Research on Human Resources, 1967.
Lamson, Peggy L. Few Are Chosen. American Women in Political
Life Today. Boston, Mass., Houghton Mifflin Co., 1968.
Lewis, Edwin C. Developing Woman’s Potential. Ames, Iowa,
Iowa State University Press, 1968.
Roesch, Roberta. Women in Action—Their Questions and Their
Answers. New York, N.Y., John Day Co., 1967.
The Role of the Educated Woman. Proceedings of a symposium
held at Rice University, January 29-30, 1963. Sponsored by
Mary Gibbs Jones College. Houston, Tex., Rice University,
1964.
Who’s Who of American Women. 5th ed. 1968-69. Chicago, 111.,
A. N. Marquis Co., 1968.
Winter, Elmer L. Women at Work: Every Woman’s Guide to Suc
cessful Employment. New York, N.Y., Simon and Schuster,
1967.
The Woman in America. In Daedalus, Spring 1964. Journal of the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
COMMISSIONS ON THE STATUS OF WOMEN
Handbook for State and City Commissions on the Status of
Women. The University of Wisconsin, in cooperation with the
Women’s Bureau, Wage and Labor Standards Administration,
U.S. Department of Labor, 1968. (Available from the Women’s
Bureau, Wage and Labor Standards Administration, U.S. De
partment of Labor, Washington, D.C. 20210)
336
BIBLIOGRAPHY
President’s Commission on the Status of Women:
American Women. The report of the Commission. 1963.
Reports of Committees:
Civil and Political Rights. 1964.
Education. 1964.
Federal Employment. 1963.
Home and Community. 1963.
Private Employment. 1964.
Protective Labor Legislation. 1963.
Social Insurance and Taxes. 1963.
Report on Four Consultations: Summaries of consultations held
under Commission auspices on Private Employment Oppor
tunities, New Patterns in Volunteer Work, Portrayal of
Women by the Mass Media, and Problems of Negro Women.
1963.
U.S. Department of Labor, Wage and Labor Standards Adminis
tration, Women’s Bureau:
Interdepartmental Committee and Citizens’ Advisory Council
on the Status of Women:
American Women, 1963-1968. 1968.
Progress Report on the Status of Women. First Annual Re
port, October 11, 1963 through October 10, 1964. 1964.
Report on Progress in 1965 on the Status of Women. Second
Annual Report, December 31, 1965. 1966.
Report on Progress in 1966 on the Status of Women. Third
Annual Report, December 31, 1966. 1967.
Reports of the Task Forces to the Citizens’ Advisory Council.
1968:
Family Law and Policy
Health and Welfare
Labor Standards
Social Insurance and Taxes
COUNSELING AND GUIDANCE
American Association of University Women, Educational Foun
dation:
Continuing Education—Focus on Counseling and Training. In
Women’s Education, March 1965.
Developing Women’s Natural Gifts. In Women’s Education,
March 1965.
Early Counseling of Girls Is Important. In Women’s Educa
tion, December 1965.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
337
Berry, Jane, and others. Counseling Girls and Women: Aware
ness, Analysis, Action. Kansas City, Mo., The University of
Missouri at Kansas City Press, 1966.
Bird, Caroline. Born Female—The High Cost of Keeping Women
Down. New York, N.Y., David McKay Co., 1968.
Calvert, Robert, Jr., and John E. Steele. Planning Your Career.
New York, N.Y., McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1963.
Dolan, Eleanor F., and others. Counseling Techniques for Mature
Women. Report of Adult Counselor Training Program. Ameri
can Association of University Women, 1966.
Edwards, Rita. A Suggested Program of School Guidance To Aid
in the Optimum Development of American Girls. Newark, N.J.,
Newark State College, 1967.
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Document and Ref
erence Text: An Index to Minority Group Employment In
formation. Ann Arbor, Mich., University of Michigan-Wayne
State University, 1967.
Harbeson, Gladys E. Choice and Challenge for the American
Woman. Cambridge, Mass., Schenkman Publishing Co., Inc.,
1967.
King, Alice Gore. Help Wanted: Female—The Young Woman’s
Guide to Job-Hunting. New York, N.Y., Charles Scribner’s
Sons, 1968.
Lewis, Edwin C. Counselors and Girls. In Journal of Counseling
Psychology, Summer 1965.
O’Neil], Barbara Powell. Careers for Women After Marriage and
Children. New York, N.Y., Macmillan Co., 1965.
Russo, Sabatino A., Jr., and William Laas. Women! Business
Needs You! A Back-to-Business Guide for Modern Women.
New York, N.Y., Popular Library, 1968.
Scofield, Nanette E., and Betty Klarman. So You Want To Go
Back to Work! New York, N.Y., Random House, 1968.
Smith, Margaret Ruth. Guidance-Personnel Work: Future Tense.
New York, N.Y., Teachers College, Columbia University Press,
1966.
U.S. Department of Labor, Manpower Administration:
Career Guidance—Report of the Subcommittee on Career Guid
ance of the Committee on Specialized Personnel. 1967.
Career Guide for Demand Occupations. 1965.
Counselor’s Handbook. 1967.
Guide to Local Occupational Information. (Revised periodi
cally)
338
BIBLIOGRAPHY
U.S. Department of Labor, Wage and Labor Standards Adminis
tration, Women’s Bureau:
Counseling Girls Toward New Perspectives. A report of the
Middle Atlantic Regional Pilot Conference, Philadelphia,
Pa., December 2-4, 1965. 1966.
New Approaches to Counseling Girls in the 1960’s. A report of
the Midwest Regional Pilot Conference, Chicago, 111., Febru
ary 26-27, 1965. 1965.
Speech about job opportunities for girls before the Maryland
State Personnel and Guidance Association, Annapolis, Md.,
May 2, 1964.
Women and Girls in the Labor Market Today and Tomorrow.
Speech before the National Conference on Social Welfare,
Cleveland, Ohio, May 21, 1963.
Winter, Elmer L. Women at Work: Every Woman’s Guide to
Successful Employment. New York, N.Y., Simon and Schus
ter, 1967.
EDUCATION AND TRAINING
Adult Education Association. Adult Leadership. (Monthly)
Washington, D.C.
Bernard, Jessie S. Academic Women. University Park, Pa., The
Pennsylvania State University Press, 1964.
Bureau of Social Science Research, Inc. Two Years After the Col
lege Degree: Work and Further Study Patterns. Report on the
1960 Survey of 1958 College Graduates. Washington, D.C.,
1963.
Dennis, Lawrence E., ed. Education and a Woman’s Life. Wash
ington, D.C., American Council on Education, 1963.
Dolan, Eleanor F. Higher Education for Women: Time for Reap
praisal. In Higher Education, September 1963.
The Education and Training of Racial Minorities. Proceedings of
a conference, May 11-12, 1967. Madison, Wis., University of
Wisconsin, Center for Studies in Vocational and Technical Ed
ucation, 1968.
Ginzberg, Eli, and associates. Life Styles of Educated Women.
New York, N.Y., Columbia University Press, 1966.
Kaufman, Jacob J., and others. The Role of the Secondary
Schools in the Preparation of Youth for Employment. Univer
sity Park, Pa., The Pennsylvania State University, Institute for
Research on Human Resources, 1967.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
339
Pervin, Lawrence A., Louis E. Reik, and Willard Dalrymple. The
College Dropout and Utilization of Talent. Princeton, N.J.,
Princeton University Press, 1966.
Pollack, Jack Harrison. Girl Dropouts: A Neglected National
Tragedy. In Parade, September 26, 1965.
Riessman, Frank L., and Hermine I. Popper. Up From Poverty.
New York, N.Y., Harper & Row, 1968.
Special Issue on Women’s Education. In Saturday Review, May
18, 1963.
The Two-Year College for Women: A Challenge Met. In the New
York Times Magazine, March 7, 1965.
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. School En
rollment: October 1966. Current Population Reports, P-20, No.
167, August 30, 1967.
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National In
stitutes of Health. Special Report on Women Graduate Study.
Resources for Medical Research. Report No. 13. June 1968.
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Ed
ucation :
American Education. (Monthly)
Digest of Educational Statistics. (Annual)
Earned Degrees Conferred. (Annual)
Opening Fall Enrollment, Higher Education. (Annual)
Projections of Educational Statistics. (Annual)
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public
Health Service. Graduates of Predominantly Negro Colleges,
Class of 1964. Pub. 1571. 1967.
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Educa
tional Attainment of Workers, March 1968. Special Labor
Force Report No. 103.
U.S. Department of Labor, Wage and Labor Standards Adminis
tration, Women’s Bureau:
College Women Seven Years After Graduation: Resurvey of
Women Graduates—Class of 1957. Bull. 292. 1966.
Fact Sheets on:
Educational Attainment of Nonwhite Women. August 1968.
Trends in Educational Attainment of Women. August 1969.
Fifteen Years After College—Study of Alumnae of the Class of
1945. Bull. 283. 1962.
Trends in Educational Attainment of Women. October 1969.
340
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Continuing Education—Programs and Needs
Berry, Jane, and Sandra Epstein. Continuing Education of
Women: Needs, Aspirations and Plans. Kansas City, Mo., The
University of Missouri at Kansas City Press, 1963.
Canadian Department of Labour, Women’s Bureau. Job Training
—for the Mature Woman Entering or Re-entering the Labour
Force. Ottawa, Canada, 1964.
Cockburn, Patricia. Women University Graduates in Continuing
Education and Employment. An exploratory study initiated by
the Canadian Federation of University Women, 1966. Toronto,
Canada, 1967.
College Programs for Mature Women. In Saturday Review, May
18, 1963.
Continuing Education for Adults. Syracuse, N.Y., Syracuse Uni
versity. (Monthly newsletter)
Education and a Woman’s Life. Report of Itasca Conference on
the Continuing Education of Women. Held at Itasca State
Park, Itasca, Minn., September 1962. Washington, D.C., Ameri
can Council on Education, 1963.
Elmquist, Nanette J. Career Clinic fcr Mature Women, Inc., of
Greater Minneapolis, Guide Book. Minneapolis, Minn., 1964.
Goldman, Freda H. A Turning To Take Next. Alternative Goals
in the Education of Women. Notes and Essays on Education for
Adults, No. 47. Boston, Mass., Center for the Study of Liberal
Education for Adults, 1965.
Lewis, Edwin C. Toward a New Femininity. Ames, Iowa, Iowa
State University Press, 1968.
Likert, Jane Gibson, ed. Conversations With Returning Women
Students. Ann Arbor, Mich., Center for Continuing Education
of Women of the University of Michigan, 1967.
Minnesota Plan for the Continuing Education of Women. A FiveYear Report, 1960-1965. Minneapolis, Minn., University of
Minnesota, 1967.
Minnesota Plan Guidelines—Women’s Continuing Education Pro
gram. Minneapolis, Minn., University of Minnesota. (Quarterly)
Resources for the Employment of Mature Women and/or Their
Continuing Education. A Selected Bibliography and Aids. New
York, N.Y., Richard J. Bernhard Memorial Library, Federa
tion Employment and Guidance Service, 1966.
Stollenwerk, Toni. Back to Work, Ladies: A Career Guide for the
Mature Woman, New York, N.Y., Pilot Books, 1968.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
341
Studies and Training Program in Continuing Education. Univer
sity of Chicago, Continuing Education Report. (Periodical)
U.S. Department of Labor, Manpower Administration. Training
and Employment of the Older Worker. Recent Findings and
Recommendations Based on Older Worker Experimental and
Demonstration Projects, February 1968. 1968.
U.S. Department of Labor, Wage and Labor Standards Adminis
tration, Women’s Bureau. Continuing Education Programs and
Services for Women. Pamphlet 10. 1968.
The Westchester Project in Graduate Education for Mature
Women. Annual Report, 1966-1967. White Plains, N.Y., New
York University Graduate School of Social Work.
Westervelt, Esther M. Report on Operation of New York State
Guidance Center for Women, November 6, 1966 to August 31,
1968. Suffern, N.Y., 1968.
Job Training and Vocational Education
Harris, Norman C. Technical Education in the Junior College.
Washington, D.C., American Association of Junior Colleges,
1964.
Helping the Housewife. In Business Week, August 3, 1968.
Household Help. In House Beautiful, March 1969.
Levitan, Sar A. Vocational Education and Federal Policy. Public
Policy Information Bulletin. Kalamazoo, Mich., W. E. Upjohn
Institute for Employment Research, May 1963.
Marshall, F. Ray, and Vernon M. Briggs, Jr. The Negro and Ap
prenticeship. Baltimore, Md., Johns Hopkins Press, 1967.
Parton, Margaret. Help Wanted. In Woman’s Day, July 1967.
Party Aide Guide. Washington, D.C., The National Committee on
Household Employment, 1967.
Roebling, Mary G. Associate Wanted. In McCall’s, June 1968.
Rogers, John G. Solving a Household Problem: Maid to Order. In
Parade, July 21, 1968.
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Ed
ucation :
Education for a Changing World of Work. Report of the Panel
of Consultants on Vocational Education. 1963.
Federal Programs of Job Training and Retraining. 1967.
Vocational Education—The Bridge Between Man and His
Work. Highlights and recommendations from the general re
port of the Advisory Council on Vocational Education. Pub.
1. 1968.
342
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The Vocational Education Act of 1968. 1968.
U.S Department of Labor:
Manpower Report of the President Including a Report on Man
power Requirements, Resources, Utilization, and Training.
January 1969.
Opportunities Industrialization Center. Labor Program Report
No. 4.
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics:
An Assessment of Apprenticeship and Training. In Monthly
Labor Review, January, February, April, and June 1964.
Industrial Retraining Programs for Technological Change: A
Study of the Performance of Older Workers. Bull. 1368.
1963.
U.S. Department of Labor, Manpower Administration:
Family Breadwinners: Their Special Training Needs. Manpower
Research Bull. 5. January 1964.
Formal Occupational Training of Adult Workers. Manpower
Automation Research Monograph No. 2. December 1964.
The Influence of MDTA Training on Earnings. Manpower
Evaluation Report No. 8. December 1968.
Manpower Research and Training Under the Manpower Devel
opment and Training Act of 1962. A Report by the Secretary
of Labor. March 1966.
The Mentally Retarded: Their Special Training Needs. Bull. 6.
October 1964.
Occupational Training of Women Under the Manpower Devel
opment and Training Act. Manpower Evaluation Report No.
3. July 1964.
Occupational Training/Pathway to Employment. 1964.
Secretarial Training With Speech Improvement. An Experi
mental and Demonstration Project. Final Report. September
12, 1966-September 25, 1967.
Training in Service Occupations Under the Manpower Develop
ment and Training Act. Manpower Research Bull. 9. March
1966.
U.S. Department of Labor, Wage and Labor Standards Admini
stration, Women’s Bureau:
If Only I Could Get Some Household Help! Leaflet 51. 1969.
Job Training Suggestions for Women and Girls. Leaflet 40.
May 1968.
U.S. Department of Labor, Wage and Labor Standards Adminis
tration, Women’s Bureau, and Manpower Administration, Bu-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
343
reau of Apprenticeship and Training. Everybody’s Talking
About Trained Workers for the Future. 1963.
Van Thorne, Harriet. Help. In Redbook Magazine, November
1968.
Whitfield, Edwin A., and Richard Hoover. Guide to Careers
Through Vocational Training. San Diego, Calif., Robert R.
Knapp, 1968.
FAMILY STATUS AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF
WOMEN WORKERS
Kenniston, Kenneth and Ellen. The Image of Women and Work.
In the American Scholar, Summer 1964.
Oregon Bureau of Labor. They Carry the Burden Alone—The So
cio-Economic Living Pattern of Oregon Women With Depend
ents. A Research Report. 1968.
Rodman, Hyman. Marriage, Family, and Society: A Reader. New
York, N.Y., Random House, 1965.
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Marital
and Family Characteristics of Workers, March 1967. Special
Labor Force Report No. 94.
Child Care Arrangements
Care of Children in Day Centers. World Health Organization.
Public Health Papers No. 24. 1964.
Child Care and the YWCA. Young Women’s Christian Associa
tion of the United States of America. 1968.
Child Welfare League of America:
Child Care and Working Mothers. 1968.
Day Care: An Expanding Resource for Children. 1965.
Guide for Establishing and Operating Day Care Centers for
Young Children. 1966.
Standards for Day Care Service. December 1, 1969.
Congress Expands Day Care. In Voice for Children, September
1968. The Day Care and Child Development Council of Amer
ica.
Day Care and the Working Mother. A report of a conference. Bal
timore Regional Joint Board, Amalgamated Clothing Workers
of America, June 17, 1967. 1967.
Dittman, Laura, ed. Early Child Care: The New Perspectives.
1968.
Hosley, Eleanor M. Part-Time Care: The Day-Care Problem. In
344
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Serv
ice, September 1964.
National Council of Jewish Women. 1968 Blueprint for Effective
Action: Day Care. New York, N.Y. 1968.
National Federation of Settlements and Neighborhood Centers:
Day Care Aides: A Guide for In-Service Training. 1968.
New Day Care Programs for Neighborhood Centers. Report of
workshop on day care programs for neighborhood centers,
November 1-10, 1965. Chicago, 111. 1966.
Selected Readings for Trainees for Day Care Aides. 1968.
Some Ways of Distinguishing a Good School or Center for Young
Children. The National Association for the Education of
Young Children. Washington, D.C. Revised 1965.
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Ed
ucation. Child Care and Guidance—A Suggested Post High
School Curriculum. 1967.
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Social and
Rehabilitation Service, Children’s Bureau:
Child Care Arrangements of Full-Time Working Mothers. Pub.
378. (1958 study). Reprinted 1964.
Children in Day Care, With Focus on Health. Pub. 444-1967.
Children of Working Mothers. Pub. 382-1960. (1958 study).
Reprinted 1964.
Day Care Report. Child Welfare Report No. 14. 1964. (Cited
under Conferences.)
Day Care Services. Pub. 420-1964. Reprinted 1967.
Daytime Programs for Children. 1966. Reprinted 1968.
Goals, Problems, and Progress in Child Welfare. Report of four
regional meetings on implementation of the 1962 Public Wel
fare Amendments. Child Welfare Report No. 13. 1964.
Good References on Day Care. Federal Panel on Early Child
hood. July 1968.
Licensing of Child Care Facilities by State Welfare Depart
ments. Pub. 462-1968.
A Pilot Study of Day Care Centers and Their Clientele. 1965.
Spotlight on Day Care. Proceedings of the National Conference
on Day Care Services. Pub. 438-1966. Reprinted 1967.
What Is Good Day Care? Folder No. 53. 1964. Reprinted 1965.
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Social and
Rehabilitation Service, Children’s Bureau, and U.S. Department
of Labor, Wage and Labor Standards Administration, Women’s
Bureau. Child Care Arrangements of Working Mothers in the
United States. Children’s Bureau Pub. 461-1968.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
345
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare; U.S. Office
of Economic Opportunity; and U.S. Department of Labor. Fed
eral Interagency Day Care Requirements. September 1968.
U.S. Department of Labor, Wage and Labor Standards Adminis
tration, Women’s Bureau:
Facts About Day Care. September 1969.
Federal Funds for Day Care Projects. February 1969.
Working Mothers and the Need for Child Care Services. June
1968.
Working Women and Day Care Needs. Report of a consultation
held June 1, 1967. 1968.
U.S. Office of Economic Opportunity:
Daily Program I: For a Child Development Center. Daily Pro
gram III: For a Child Development Center. 1965.
Designing the Child Development Center. Project Head Start.
Community Action Agency. 1968.
Parent and Child Centers: A Guide for the Development of Parent
and Child Centers. July 1967.
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UNION ORGANIZATION
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A Digest of One Hundred Selected Health and Insurance Plans
Under Collective Bargaining, Winter 1961-62. Bull. 1330.
June 1962.
360
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Directory of National and International Labor Unions in the
United States, 1967. Bull. 1596. 1968.
Labor in a Year of Expansion. In Monthly Labor Review, Jan
uary 1969.
Prospects for White-Collar Unionism. In Monthly Labor Re
view, January 1969.
VOLUNTEERS
American Association of University Women, Educational Foun
dation:
The Role of the Volunteer and Expanding Services. In
Women’s Education, March 1967.
Volunteer Service Is Every Girl’s Right. In Women’s Educa
tion, March 1967.
What Educators Should Know About Volunteers. In Women’s
Education, March 1967.
Goldman, Freda H. A Turning To Take Next. Alternative Goals
in the Education of Women. Notes and Essays on Education for
Adults, No. 47. Boston, Mass., Center for the Study of Liberal
Education for Adults, 1965.
Johnson, Guion Griffis. Volunteers in Community Service. Chapel
Hill, N.C., The North Carolina Council of Women’s Organiza
tions, Inc., 1967.
National Council of Catholic Women. On the Identity of Women’s
Organizations. In Word, March 1968.
National Federation of Settlements and Neighborhood Centers.
100,000 Hours a Week: Volunteers in Service to Youth and
Families. New York, N.Y., 1965.
National Study Service. Use of Volunteers in Public Welfare. Re
port of a study made for the New York City Department of
Welfare. New York, N.Y., 1963.
Naylor, Harriet H. Volunteers Today—Finding, Training, and
Working With Them. New York, N.Y., Association Press, 1967.
Stenzel, Anne K, and Helen M. Feeney. Volunteer Training and
Development. A Manual for Community Groups. New York,
N.Y., Seabury Press, 1968.
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Social and
Rehabilitation Service, Children’s Bureau:
How Volunteers Can Help Disadvantaged Children. In Chil
dren, July-August 1967.
Volunteers in Institutions for Delinquents. In Children, JulyAugust 1967.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
361
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Welfare Ad
ministration:
Anti-Delinquency Project Measures—Effectiveness of Volun
teers. In Welfare in Review, March 1966.
Opportunities for Volunteers in Public Welfare Departments.
Pub. 21. 1967.
U.S. Department of Labor, Manpower Administration. Americans
Volunteer. Manpower Research Monograph No. 10. April 1969.
WOMEN AS WORKERS
Bird, Caroline. Born Female—The High Cost of Keeping Women
Down. New York, N.Y., David McKay Co., 1968.
Cain, Glen G. Married Women in the Labor Force: An Economic
Analysis. Chicago, 111., University of Chicago Press, 1966.
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics:
Educational Attainment of Workers, March 1968. Special Labor
Force Report No. 103.
Labor Force Projections by State, 1970 and 1980. Special Labor
Force Report No. 74.
Marital and Family Characteristics of Workers, March 1967.
Special Labor Force Report No. 94.
Occupational Mobility of Employed Workers. Special Labor
Force Report No. 84.
Reasons for Nonparticipation in the Labor Force. Special
Labor Force Report No. 86.
Women and the Labor Force. Special Labor Force Report No.
93.
Work Experience of the Population in 1967. Special Labor
Force Report No. 107.
U.S. Department of Labor, Wage and Labor Standards Adminis
tration, Women’s Bureau:
Background Facts on Women Workers in the United States.
(Revised periodically)
Background Paper on National Service and Young Women.
1967.
Fact Sheets on:
The American Family in Poverty. April 1968.
Changing Patterns of Women’s Lives. July 1969.
Educational Attainment of Nonwhite Women. August 1968.
Trends in Educational Attainment of Women. August 1969.
Women in Professional and Technical Positions. November
1968.
362
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Women Private Household Workers. July 1969.
Women’s Earnings in Poor Families. January 1967.
Facts About Women’s Absenteeism and Labor Turnover.
August 1969.
Maternity Benefit Provisions for Employed Women. Bull. 272.
1960.
Negro Women in the Population and in the Labor Force. De
cember 1967.
Part-Time Employment of Women. April 1968.
To Improve the Status of Private-Household Work. March
1965.
Trends in Educational Attainment of Women. October 1969.
Underutilization of Women Workers. August 1967.
Utilization of Women Workers. Reprint from the 1967 Man
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Why Women Work. May 1968.
Women in Poverty—Jobs and the Need for Jobs. April 1968.
Women Telephone Workers and Changing Technology. Bull.
286. 1963.
Women Workers. (By State)
“Women’s Work”—How Much Truth-in-Labeling? May 1967.
Working Wives—Their Contribution to Family Income. Novem
ber 1968.
Earnings and Income
American Nurses’ Association. Facts About Nursing. A Statisti
cal Summary. 1968 edition.
Endicott, Frank S. Trends in the Employment of College and
University Graduates in Business and Industry, 1969. Evans
ton, 111., Northwestern University, 1968.
National Education Association of the United States, Research
Division:
Estimates of School Statistics, 1968-69. Research Report
1968-R 16. 1968.
Salaries in Higher Education, 1967-68. Research Report
1968-R 7. 1968.
Salary Schedules for Administrative Personnel, 1967-68. Re
search Report 1968-R 2. 1968.
Salary Schedules for Principals, 1967-68. Research Report
1968-R 5. 1968.
Salary Schedules for Teachers, 1968-69. Research Report
1968-R 13. 1968.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
363
New York Stock Exchange:
1967 Fact Book. May 1967.
Shareownership—U.S.A.: 1965 Census of Shareowners. June
1965.
U.S. Civil Service Commission, Bureau of Manpower Information
Systems. Occupations of Federal White-Collar Workers, Octo
ber 31, 1967. Pamphlet SM 56-7.
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census:
Family Income Advances, Poverty Reduced in 1967. Current
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Household Income in 1967 by Selected Characteristics of the
Head. Current Population Reports, P-60, No. 57, December
17, 1968.
Income in 1966 of Families and Persons in the United States.
Current Population Reports, P-60, No. 53, December 28, 1967.
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Social Se
curity Administration:
Comparing the Financial Position of the Aged in Britain and
the United States. In Social Security Bulletin, July 1968.
Income-Loss Protection Against Illness. In Social Security Bul
letin, January 1967.
The Retirement Test: Its Effect on Older Workers’ Earnings.
In Social Security Bulletin, June 1968.
The Shape of Poverty in 1966. In Social Security Bulletin,
March 1968.
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics:
Differences in Pay Between Men and Women Workers. In
Monthly Labor Review, December 1967.
The Effects of Employment Redistribution on Earnings. Spe
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Income and Levels of Living. In Monthly Labor Review, March
1968.
Low Earners and Their Incomes. Special Labor Force Report
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National Survey of Professional, Administrative, Technical,
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Occupational Earnings and Education. In Monthly Labor Re
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U.S. Department of Labor, Manpower Administration. The Influ
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364
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Women’s Earnings in Poor Families. January 1967.
Working Wives—Their Contribution to Family Income. No
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Occupations and Employment
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Cooper, Joseph D. A Woman’s Guide to Part-Time Jobs. New
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David, Harry D. Upgrading Office Skills. In Training Directors
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King, Alice Gore:
Career Opportunities for Women in Business. New York, N.Y.,
E. P. Dutton & Co., 1963.
Help Wanted: Female—The Young Woman’s Guide to Job
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Kreps, Juanita. Automation and Employment. New York, N.Y.,
Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1964.
Lambeck, Ruth. 380 Part-Time Jobs for Women. New York, N.Y.,
Bell Publishing Co., 1968.
Lopate, Carol. Women in Medicine. Baltimore, Md., Johns Hop
kins Press, 1968.
Moore, Mary Furlong. Career Guide for Young People. Garden
City, N.Y., Doubleday & Co., Dolphin Books, 1963.
National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional
Standards (National Education Association) and Catalyst in
Education. Teaching: Opportunities for Women College Grad
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National Education Association of the United States, Research
Division:
The American Public-School Teacher, 1965-66. Research Re
port 1967-R 4, 1967.
Economic Status of the Teaching Profession, 1967-68. Public
Schools. Colleges and Universities. Research Report
1968-R 4, 1968.
O’Neill, Barbara Powell. Careers for Women After Marriage and
Children. New York, N.Y., Macmillan Co., 1965.
Russo, Sabatino A., Jr., and William Laas. Women! Business
Needs You! A Back-to-Business Guide for Modern Women. New
York, N.Y., Popular Library, 1968.
Scobey, Joan, and Lee Parr McGrath. Creative Careers for
BIBLIOGRAPHY
365
Women. A Handbook of Sources and Ideas for Part-Time Jobs.
New York, N.Y., Essandess Special Editions: A Division of
Simon and Schuster, 1968.
Sheppard, Harold L., and A. Harvey Belitsky. The Job Hunt. Bal
timore, Md., Johns Hopkins Press, 1966.
U.S. Civil Service Commission:
Federal Civilian Manpower Statistics. (Monthly)
Occupations of Federal White-Collar Workers, October 31,
1967. Pamphlet SM 56-7.
Study of Employment of Women in the Federal Government,
1967. MS 62-3, June 1968.
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public
Health Service, National Center for Health Statistics:
Health Resources Statistics, Health Manpower, 1965. Pub.
1509. 1966.
State Licensing of Health Occupations. Pub. 1758. October 1967.
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics:
Differences in Pay Between Men and Women Workers. In
Monthly Labor Review, December 1967.
Educational Attainment of Workers. In Monthly Labor Review,
February 1969.
Health Manpower 1966-75. A Study of Requirements and Sup
ply. Report No. 323. June 1967.
Occupational Outlook Handbook, 1968-69 edition. Bull. 1550.
Occupational Outlook Quarterly.
Sex and Equal Employment Rights. In Monthly Labor Review,
August 1967.
Women and the Labor Force. In Monthly Labor Review, Febru
ary 1968.
U.S. Department of Labor, Manpower Administration:
Health Careers Guidebook. 1965.
Technology and Manpower in the Health Service Industry,
1965-75. Manpower Research Bulletin No. 14. May 1967.
U.S. Department of Labor, Wage and Labor Standards Adminis
tration, Women’s Bureau:
Careers for Women as Technicians. Bull. 282. 1961.
Careers for Women in Conservation. Leaflet 50. January 1969.
Careers for Women in the Armed Forces.
Clerical Occupations for Women—Today and Tomorrow. Bull.
289. 1964.
If Only I Could Get Some Household Help! Leaflet 51. 1969.
366
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Job Horizons for College Women. Bull. 288. Revised 1967.
Selected Readings on Employment and Training Opportunities
in the Professions. November 1966.
Skilled Trades for Girls. Reprint from Occupational Outlook
Quarterly, December 1967.
Why Not Be:
An Engineer? Leaflet 41. 1967.
A Mathematician? Leaflet 45. 1968.
A Medical Technologist? Leaflet 44. 1968.
An Optometrist? Leaflet 42. 1968.
A Personnel Specialist? Leaflet 48. 1968.
A Pharmacist? Leaflet 43. 1968.
A Public Relations Worker? Leaflet 46. 1968.
A Technical Writer? Leaflet 47. 1968.
Women Journalists and Today’s World. In the Matrix, April
1965.
Weisl, Reyna, Jane Fleming, and Mary Janney, eds. Washington
Opportunities for Women. A Guide to Part-Time Work and
Study for the Educated Woman. Washington, D.C., Robert B.
Luce, 1967.
White, Martha S., Mary D. Albro, and Alice B. Skinner, eds. The
Next Step. A Guide to Part-Time Opportunities in Greater Bos
ton for the Educated Woman. Cambridge, Mass., Radcliffe In
stitute for Independent Study, 1964.
Winter, Elmer L. Women at Work: Every Woman’s Guide to Suc
cessful Employment. New York, N.Y., Simon and Schuster,
1967.
REPORTS OF CONFERENCES, MEETINGS, AND
COMMISSIONS
The Education and Training of Racial Minorities. Held at the
University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis., Center for Studies in
Vocational and Technical Education, May 11-12, 1967. 1968.
Manpower Implications of Automation. Held in Washington,
D.C., December 8-10, 1964. Sponsored jointly by the Organiza
tion of Economic Cooperation and Development, U.S. Depart
ment of Labor, and the Canadian Department of Labour. 1964.
The People Left Behind. Report of the President’s National Ad
visory Commission on Rural Poverty. 1967.
Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders.
New York, N.Y., E. P. Dutton & Co., 1968.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
367
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service:
Age of Transition—Rural Youth in a Changing Society. Hand
book No. 347. 1967.
White Americans in Rural Poverty. Agricultural Economic Re
port No. 124. 1967.
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public
Health Service. Manpower for the Medical Laboratory. Proceed
ings of a Conference of Government and the Professions. Held in
Washington, D.C., October 11-13,1967. Pub. 1833.1968.
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Social and
Rehabilitation Service, Children’s Bureau:
Day Care. Meeting of Representatives of State Advisory Com
mittees on Day Care Services and State Departments of
Public Welfare. Held in Washington, D.C., March 19-20,
1964. Child Welfare Report No. 14. 1964.
Federal Programs Assisting Children and Youth. Interdepart
mental Committee on Children and Youth. Revised 1968.
U.S. Department of Labor, Manpower Administration. Career
Guidance. A Report of the Subcommittee on Career Guidance of
the Committee on Specialized Personnel. 1967.
U.S. Department of Labor, Manpower Administration, and U.S.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Edu
cation. Counselor Development in American Society. Confer
ence recommendations from Invitational Conference on Govern
ment-University Relations in the Professional Preparation and
Employment of Counselors. Held in Washington, D.C., June
2-3, 1965. 1966.
U.S. Department of Labor, Wage and Labor Standards Adminis
tration, Women’s Bureau:
Arrowhead Regional Conference on the Status of Women in
Northern Minnesota. Held in Duluth, Minn., July 17, 1964.
1966.
Counseling Girls Toward New Perspectives. Middle Atlantic
Regional Pilot Conference. Held in Philadelphia, Pa., Decem
ber 2-4, 1965. 1966.
Employment Problems of Women. Connecticut Valley Confer
ence. Held at Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, Mass.,
March 16-17, 1962. 1962.
Exploding the Myths. Conference on Expanding Employment
Opportunities for Career Women. Held in Los Angeles,
Calif., December 3, 1966. 1967.
Job Horizons for Women and Girls in the District of Columbia.
Held in Washington, D.C., December 6-7, 1968. 1969.
368
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Meeting Medical Manpower Needs—The Fuller Utilization of
the Woman Physician. Conference sponsored by the Women’s
Bureau, the American Medical Women’s Association, and
the President’s Study Group on Careers for Women. Held in
Washington, D.C., January 12-13, 1968. 1968.
New Approaches to Counseling Girls in the 1960’s. Midwest
Regional Pilot Conference. Held at the University of Chi
cago, Chicago, 111., February 26-27, 1965. 1965.
New Horizons for North Dakota Women. Held in Bismarck,
N. Dak., July 17-18,1964. 1966.
1968: Time for Action. Fourth National Conference of Com
missions on the Status of Women. Held in Washington, D.C.,
June 20-22,1968. 1969.
Progress and Prospects. Second National Conference of Gover
nors’ Commissions on the Status of Women. Held in Wash
ington, D.C., July 28-30, 1965. 1966.
Roles and Goals: The Status of Women in America. Report of
Northeast Regional Conference of State Commissions. Held
in Philadelphia, Pa., February 29-March 2, 1968. 1968.
Sex Discrimination in Employment Practices. Held at the Uni
versity of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, Calif.,
September 19, 1968. 1969.
Shortage or Surplus? An Assessment of Boston Womanpower
in Industry, Government, and Research. Held at Boston Uni
versity, Boston, Mass., June 7-8, 1963. 1966.
Statewide Meeting of the Governor’s Commission on the Status
of Women. Held in Des Moines, Iowa, November 20-21, 1964.
1967.
The Status of Household Employment. Held in Chicago, 111.,
May 20, 1967. 1968.
Targets for Action. Third National Conference of Commissions
on the Status of Women. Held in Washington, D.C., June
28-30, 1966. 1967.
Unions and the Changing Status of Women Workers. Held at
Rutgers-The State University, New Brunswick, N.J., Octo
ber 17, 1964. 1966.
Wisconsin Governor’s Conference on the Changing Status of
Women. Held at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.,
January 31-February 1, 1964. 1965.
Woman’s Destiny—Choice or Chance? Held at the University
of Washington, Seattle, Wash., November 21-22, 1963. 1965.
Women in the Upper Peninsula Economy. Held at Northern
Michigan University, Marquette, Mich., May 16, 1964. 1966.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
369
Women’s Changing World. Second Annual Women’s Confer
ence. Held at the University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah,
September 5-6, 1963.
Working Women and Day Care Needs. Held in Washington,
D.C., June 1, 1967. 1968.
SPEECHES
Keyserling, Mary Dublin:
Child Day Care Service Needs—A Challenge to the District.
Speech before the National Capital Area Child Day Care As
sociation, Washington, D.C., May 1, 1967.
Continuing Education for Women—A Growing Challenge.
Speech before the Twenty-second National Conference on
Higher Education, Chicago, 111., March 7, 1967.
Day Care and the Working Mother. The Magnitude of the
Problem on a National Scale. Speech before the Amalga
mated Clothing Workers of America Conference on Day Care
and the Working Mother, Baltimore, Md., June 17, 1967.
Day Care in a Changing Economy. Speech before the Maryland
Committee on Group Day Care of Children, Baltimore, Md.,
May 19, 1964.
Economic Opportunity—A Challenge to the Community.
Speech before the National Council of Jewish Women, Wil
mington Section, Wilmington, Del., November 24, 1964.
Goals—Ways to Fuller Utilization. Speech before the Confer
ence on Expanding Employment Opportunities for Career
Women, Los Angeles, Calif., December 2, 1966.
The Nation’s Working Mothers and the Need for Day Care.
Address before the National Conference on Day Care Serv
ices, Washington, D.C., May 14, 1965.
The Negro Woman in the United States—New Roles—New
Challenges. Speech before the National Association of Col
ored Women’s Clubs Convention, Oklahoma City, Okla., July
27, 1966.
New Opportunities and New Responsibilities for Women. Con
vocation address at Sweet Briar College, Sweet Briar, Va.,
September 17,1964.
Recent Federal Employment Policy Developments—New Prog
ress for Women. Speech before Annual Labor-Management
Conference, Northeastern University, Boston, Mass., Febru
ary 5, 1966.
Research and Your Job. Speech before the National Federation
370
BIBLIOGRAPHY
of Business and Professional Women’s Clubs, Inc., Detroit,
Mich., July 18, 1964.
Women, Work, and Poverty. Speech before Conference of
Women in the War on Poverty, Washington, D.C., May 8,
1967.
Working Mothers and Their Children—The Urgent Need for
Day Care Services. Washington, D.C., June 1, 1967. In Re
port of a Consultation on Working Women and Day Care
Needs. Held in Washington, D.C., June 1, 1967. 1968.
Working Women and the American Economy. Speech before
D-A-Y Workshop—The Homemaker Who Earns, New York,
N.Y., January 31, 1967.
Your Talents—Let’s Not Waste Them. Speech before a Backto-Work Symposium for Women Who Want To Resume
Their Careers, New York, N.Y., January 25, 1967.
Koontz, Elizabeth Duncan:
Access to Education in the United States. Presented at the
Twenty-second Session of the United Nations Commission on
the Status of Women, New York, N.Y., February 4, 1969.
Household Employment: The Quiet Revolution. Speech before
the Northern Virginia Conference on Household Employment,
Alexandria, Va., April 14, 1969.
The Political Rights of Women. Presented at the Twenty-sec
ond Session of the United Nations Commission on the Status
of Women, New York, N.Y., January 28, 1969.
Peterson, Esther. The Dollars and Cents of Day Care. Speech at
the Meeting of Representatives of State Advisory Committees
on Day Care Services and State Departments of Public Welfare,
Washington, D.C., March 19-20, 1964. In Child Welfare Report
No. 14.1964.
BIBLIOGRAPHIES
Bernhard Memorial Library, Richard J. Resources for the Em
ployment of Mature Women and/or Their Continuing Educa
tion. A Selected Bibliography and Aids. New York, N.Y., Fed
eration Employment and Guidance Service, 1966.
B’nai B’rith Vocational Services, Counselor’s Information Serv
ice. Washington, D.C. (Quarterly)
Business and Professional Women’s Foundation, Washington,
D.C.:
A Selected Annotated Bibliography of Materials (1956-1965)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
371
Relating to Women in Positions at Managerial, Administra
tive, and Executive Levels. May 1966.
A Selected Annotated Bibliography. Working Mothers. 1968.
College Placement Council, Research Information Center. A Biblio
graphy of Selected Research and Statistical Studies Pertaining
to College-Trained Manpower, 1960-66. Bethlehem, Pa., College
Placement Council, 1967.
Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC). Research in
Education. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Wel
fare, Office of Education. (Monthly)
Forrester, Gertrude. Occupational Literature: An Annotated Bib
liography. New York, N.Y., H. W. Wilson Co., 1964.
Jones, Anna May. Vocational Orientation Toward a Rewarding
Life. A supplementary source of references for coordination
with the curriculum. (For the teacher and counselor in the ele
mentary and secondary schools.) New York, N.Y., New York
University Printing Office, 1965.
National Vocational Guidance Association, Career Information
Review Service Committee. NVGA Bibliography of Current Oc
cupational Literature, 1966 edition. Washington, D.C., Ameri
can Personnel and Guidance Association, 1966.
Occupational Information Library of the University Testing Serv
ice. Chapel Hill, N.C., University of North Carolina, 1967.
U.S. Department of Labor, Manpower Administration, Bureau of
Work-Training Programs. Counselor’s Reference Bibliography
1968.
University of Wisconsin, Center for Studies in Vocational and
Technical Education. Madison, Wis. (Triannual prior to 1969;
now monthly)
Subjects covered include the following:
Apprenticeship
Disadvantaged Groups
Guidance
Job Analysis
Job Cluster Concept
Job Placement
Legislation
Manpower
Retraining
Technological Change
Work Experience
Vocational Advisory Service, Information Bulletin. New York,
N.Y. (Issued periodically)
Wigney, Trevor. The Education of Women and Girls in a Chang
ing Society. A Selected Bibliography With Annotations. To
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INDEX
Abortion laws, 295, 296
Absenteeism, 76, 80
Accountants, auditors, 98, 99, 163,
174, 246
Accounting and budget workers
(Fed. Govt.), 172, 173
Administrative assistants, 121
Administrators:
Military, 124
School, 162
Advertising services industry, 116
Age:
Childbearing, 8
Children of working mothers,
42
Compulsory school attendance,
16, 184
Discrimination, 6, 258-260
Education, 180-183, 206-210
Farm workers, 118
Income, 137-138
Job tenure, 78
Labor force, 15-17, 19-20, 22,
31, 37, 40
Nonwhite women, 16, 22
Labor force participation, 17
19, 20, 21, 27-28, 31, 72, 206
210, 244, 245
Nonwhite, 20, 21, 22, 74,
206, 208, 209
Marriage:
Average, 7, 8
Legal minimum, 285
Mothers (working), 37, 40
Multiple jobholders, 80
Occupations, 79-80, 89, 91, 95,
97, 104, 107-109, 242
Part-time and full-time status,
63, 64, 65, 66
Population, 17, 18, 19, 31, 187
School enrollees, 180-183
Teachers, 98
Training program enrollees,
226-227
Unemployment, 67, 70-76
Nonwhite, 73-76
Work experience, 57-58, 59, 63,
64
Worklife expectancy, 7-8
Age Discrimination in Employment
Act of 1967, 6, 258-260
Agriculture, 109, 110, 117-118, 228,
246
(see
Aid forIncentive Program)
Work dependent children
Air transportation industry, 116
Ambassadors, 119, 120, 121
American Women (report of the
President’s Commission on the
Status of Women), 6, 294, 297
Anthropologists, 169, 170,171
Apparel and accessories stores, 116,
117
Apparel and related products indus
tries, 113, 114, 115
Apprenticeship training, 237-238,
256, 257
(see
Armed services
Federal employ
ment)
Assemblers (laundry), 155, 156
Attaches, 121
Attendants:
Hotne and first aid, 228
Hospitals and other institutions,
102, 228, 248
Babysitters, 62, 89, 95, 241
Banking industry, 115, 116
Bank tellers, 101
Bartenders, 39, 81, 90, 101-102, 156,
157
Battery hands, 149, 150, 151
Bill and account collectors, 101
Birth rate, 18, 19
Bookkeepers, 95, 101, 148, 176
Business and repair services, 109,
110, 111
Business services industry (other
than credit and advertising), 116
373
374
INDEX
Buyers, 100, 163
Cashiers, 101
Chambermaids, maids, 91, 102, 153
154, 158, 159
Charwomen, cleaners, 62, 95, 102
Chemical and allied products indus
try, 79,114
Chemists, 163, 169, 170, 171, 174,
175, 176, 246-247
Child care:
Arrangements
of
working
mothers, 47, 48-49
Comunity programs, 296
Community
Coordinated
Child Care (4-C), 51
Income tax deductions, 51-52
Legislative provisions, 50, 143,
229, 232
(see also
Children assistance):Education: Fin
ancial
Guardianship, 287, 295
Inheritance by parent, 287-288
Living in poverty, 130
Support, 288-289, 295
Working mothers, 42
Citizens’ Advisory Council on the
Status of Women, 6, 294-297
Citizenship, 281, 282
City Worker’s Family Budget, 128
Civil Rights Act of 1957, 283
Civil Rights Act of 1964, 6, 54,
253, 255-257, 269
(see also
Civil service positions 282-283
Federal employment),
Civil status—contract and property
laws (see Contractual powers of
married women; Property owner
ship and control)
Civil status—family relations (see
Children; Divorce laws; Family
support; Marriage laws)
Clerical, kindred workers, 37, 38-39,
92, 93, 94, 95, 100-101, 102-103,
104, 106, 107, 108, 109, 117, 119,
124, 134, 135, 138, 139, 146-147,
148, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 209,
211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 228-229,
247
Clerks, 121
Accounting, 147, 148, 176
File, 95, 148
Payroll, 101, 124, 147, 148
Retail receiving (laundry), 165,
156
(see also
College
Education):
Degrees:
Fields of study, 169, 170,
192-199
Numbers and proportions,
190-199
Dropouts, 185
Enrollments:
Freshmen, 189
First-time, 186, 187,
189
Graduate students, 190
Married students, 190
Part-time, 189, 190
Types of institutions, 99,
187-189
Utilization of major, 216-217
Commissions on the status of
women, 5-6, 281-282, 294-299
(see
Communication industry
portation, communication, Trans
other
public utilities)
Community action programs (CAP),
237
Community Coordinated Child Care
(4-C), 51
Compulsory school attendance, 16,
184
Computers and account recorders,
228
Concentrated Employment Program
(CEP), 50, 232-233
Construction industry, 109, 110, 111,
112, 113, 246
Continuing education, 199-201
Contractual powers of married
women, 292
Controllers, air traffic, 124
Cooks (except private household),
39, 81, 90, 91, 101-102, 124, 228,
248
Copyright, patent, trademark work
ers (Fed. Govt.), 172, 173
Counter and fountain workers, 62,
95,102
Craftsmen, foremen, kindred work
ers, 38-39, 60, 61, 78, 80, 81, 89,
90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 106, 107, 108,
139, 211, 214, 215, 228, 247
INDEX
Credit agencies (except banks), 116
Credit reporting and collection agen
cies, 116,117
Cryptographers, 124
Data programers, 124
(see
Day care
Child care)
Deans, 162 services
Demonstrators, 62
Dietitians, 99, 123, 168, 176
Disability benefits, 141-144, 276-277,
297
(see
Disadvantaged persons
Pov
erty: Programs)
Discrimination:
Age, 6, 268-260
Sex, 6, 63-54, 122, 253, 255-258,
267-270, 283, 297, 299
Dishwashers, 156, 157
Distribution courses, 223, 224-225
Divorce laws, 286-287, 295
(see
Divorced women
Marital status)
Domestic Volunteer Service Program
(VISTA), 202, 236-237
Domicile, 284-285, 295
Door-to-door salesmen, 62
Draftsmen, draftsmen-tracers, 124,
162, 246
Durable goods manufacturing (see
Manufacturing)
(see also
Earnings
cific occupation or Income and spe
industry):
Clerical workers, 146-147, 148,
172-173,174, 175, 176
College graduates, 173-176
Differences between women and
men, 127, 147, 149, 150-152,
153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 159,
161, 162, 171, 173
Education, 169, 171, 173-176
Factors affecting, 127-128, 151
152, 153, 171
Federal civilian employees, 171
173
Geographical differences, 147,
148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153,
154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159,
160, 163, 164, 165, 166-167,
168-169, 175
Hospital occupations:
Nonprofessional, 157-158,
159
Professional, 163-169
375
Manufacturing industries:
Cotton textiles, 149-150
Synthetic textiles, 150-152
Women’s
and
misses’
dresses, 152-153
Professional, technical, kindred
workers, 158-169, 171, 173,
174, 175, 176
Scientists, 169, 171, 172, 173,
174, 175, 176
Service industries:
Eating and drinking places,
156, 157
Hotels and motels, 153-154
Laundries, 154, 156
Teachers:
College and university, 161
162
Elementary and secondary
school, 159-161, 175, 176
Junior college, 162
Eating and drinking places industry,
115, 116, 156-157
Economic Opportunity Act of 1964,
6, 50, 229-231, 233, 235-237
Economists, 169, 170, 171, 174
Editors, reporters, 99, 176
(see also
EducationTraining programs): High
College;
school;
Age, 180-183, 206-209, 210
Compulsory school attendance,
16, 184
Continuing education programs,
199-201
Cooperative education programs,
203, 222
Distributive education programs,
222, 223, 224-225
Earnings, 169, 171, 173-176
Enrollments:
Rates, 99,180-183
Types of schools, 99, 183
185, 187-189
Financial assistance, 124, 201
204, 222
Hours of work, 220
Income, 138-141
Labor force, 177-180, 210, 218,
219
Labor
force
participation,
9, 204-210
376
INDEX
Labor turnover, 78
Marital status, 206
Military services education pro
grams, 123,124
Nonwhite women, 178, 179, 182
183, 185, 206, 208, 209, 210,
213, 215, 217-218, 219
Occupations, 98, 103, 169, 209,
211-217, 241
Population, 177-178, 179, 210
Retention rates, 185
School dropouts, 185, 210, 213,
215
Training program enrollees, 227
Trends, 179, 180-181, 183, 184
185, 186, 187-188, 190, 191
192, 195-196, 198-199
Unemployment, 74, 76, 210, 217
218, 219
Educational services industry, 115,
116
Electric, gas, sanitary services indus
try, 116
Electrical equipment and supplies
industry, 114, 115
(see also
Employment Unemployment):
Labor force;
Occupations;
Before and after childbirth, 276
277
Engineering services industry, 116
Engineers, 99-100, 174, 246
Aeronautical, 99
Industrial, 99
Entertainment and recreational serv
ices industry, 109, 110, 111
Equal employment opportunities:
Civil Rights Act of 1964, 6, 54,
253, 255-257, 269
Executive Order 11375, 53, 257
258, 283
Federal employment, 6, 53, 122,
253, 257-258, 283
Equal Pay Act of 1963, 6, 253, 255
Equal pay laws:
Federal, 6, 253, 255
State, 267-269, 299
Examiners (mfg.), 153
Executive Orders:
11126, 294
11246, 257
11375, 53, 257-258, 283
Fabricated metal products industry,
114
Factory workers, 76-77, 113-115,
149-153
Fair employment practices laws, 257,
269-270, 282, 297, 299
Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938,
16, 242, 253-255, 262, 268, 296
Families:
Composition, 28-29
Income, 32, 34-36, 128-130
Labor force participation, 29-31
Living in poverty, 31-32, 130,
131
Numbers and types, 28-29
Occupations, 37, 38-39
Unemployment, 29, 30, 31, 69-70
Family heads, 28, 29-32, 131, 226,
227
Age, 31
Income, 128, 129-130
Labor force participation, 29,
30, 31
Nonwhite, 29, 131
Occupations, 129, 241
Population, 31
Unemployment, 31, 69-70
Family Law and Policy Task Force
report, 295
Family Planning, 237
Family support, 288-289
Farm women, 117-118
Farm workers (farmers, managers;
farm laborers, foremen), 37, 38
39, 60, 61, 62, 79, 81, 89, 90, 91,
92, 93, 94, 105, 106, 107, 108-109,
117-118, 139, 211, 213, 214, 215,
228, 296
Federal employment:
Civilian service, 6, 53, 77, 113,
118-120,171-173, 282-283
Foreign Service, 120-122
Military service, 11, 53, 122-125
Federal Panel on Early Childhood,
50-51
Federal Woman’s Award Study
Group, 283
Finance and disbursing officers, 124
Finance, insurance, real estate, 100,
101, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 115,
116, 246
INDEX
Finishers, flatwork, machine, 155,
156, 159
Fiscal officers, 121
Follow Through, 237
Food and kindred products industry,
113, 114
Food stores industry, 116
(see
Foreign Service
Federal em
ployment)
Furniture and fixtures manufactur
ing industry, 114
Furniture and house furnishings
stores industry, 116
General administrative, clerical, of
fice workers (Fed. Govt.), 172
173
General merchandise stores indus
try, 115, 116, 117
Geographical distribution:
Industries, 149, 150, 151,152, 153
Labor force, 12-15, 136, 242
Nonwhite women, 11, 13, 136
Government workers (see Federal
employment; Public administra
tion)
Governors’ commissions on the status
(see
of womenwomen)
Commissions on the
status of
Hairdressers, cosmetologists, 102,
248
(see
Handicapped workers
Training
programs: Vocational rehabilita
tion)
(see
Heads of families
Family
heads)
Headstart, 50, 237
Health and Welfare Task Force re
port, 296
Health occupations training, 223,
224, 225
Higher Education Act of 1968, 203
(see also
HighDropouts, 185
school
Education):
Enrollments, 183,184
Graduates, 184-185, 186, 187
Home economics training, 223, 224,
225
Homemaker services, 296
Home economists, 174, 176
Homemakers, 11,12, 84
Hospital occupations (nonprofession
al and professional), 99, 102, 124,
377
157-158, 159, 163, 164, 165, 168,
169, 228, 247, 248
Hospital services industry, 115, 116,
117
Hotels and motels industry, 116, 153
154
(see also
Hours of work status; Work ex
Part-time
and full-time
perience), 220
Nurses, 163, 165
Private household workers, 241
Hours-of-work laws, 270-275
Day of rest, 273-274
Maximum daily and weekly
hours, 242, 271-273
Meal period, 274
Nightwork, 275
Rest period, 274-275
(see
Household workers)
Private
household workers
Housekeepers, stewardesses (except
private household), 95, 102
also
Income (see
Age, 137-138Earnings):
City Worker’s Family Budget,
128
Differences between women and
men, 127, 132-134, 135, 137,
138, 139, 141
Education, 138-141
Families, 34-36, 128-130
Heads, 128, 129-130
Husbands’ incomes as fac
tor in labor force par
ticipation:
Mothers, 43, 44
Wives, 32-33, 34
Working wives’ contribubution, 34-36
Maintenance (basic), 296
Nonwhite women, 130, 136-137,
140-141, 144, 145
Numbers and proportions of
women, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132
134, 136, 138, 139, 143-145
Occupations, 129, 134, 135, 138,
139, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151,
241
Social security benefits, 140,
141-145
Trends, 128-129, 133-134, 135,
136, 137, 138
378
INDEX
Work experience, 134, 136
Year-round full-time workers,
129-130, 132, 133-134, 136,
137, 138, 241
Industrial homework laws, 275-276
(see also
Industries
specific industry
groups):
Geographical distribution, 149,
150,151, 152,153
Job tenure, 79, 171-172
Labor turnover, 76, 77,122
Major groups, 109-111
Numbers and proportions of
women, 109-126
Outlook, 246
Trends, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113
117, 119
Inheritance laws, 287-288
Inspectors, cloth, machine, 150, 151
Institutional training, 226, 227-228,
231, 240
Instruments and related products in
dustry, 114, 115
also
Insurance (see
ance, real estate) : Finance, insur
Adjusters, examiners, investi
gators, 101
Agents, brokers, services in
dustry, 116
Carriers industry, 116
Interdepartmental Committee on the
Status of Women, 6, 294-295
International organizations, 119,
120-121
Janitors, sextons, 102, 248
Job analysts, 163
Job Corps, 235-236
Job Opportunities in the Business
Sector (JOBS), 234
Job-related expenses, 36
Job tenure, 78-80, 171-172
Judges, 118, 125
(see also
Junior colleges
Teachers),
187-189
Jury Selection and Service Act of
1918, 283
Jury service, 281, 283-284, 299
Kitchen helpers (hospital), 158, 159
Kitchen workers, 91, 102
Labor force
ment) :
(see also
Unemploy
Age, 15-17, 19-20, 22, 31, 37,
40, 72, 206-210, 244, 245
Differences between women and
men, 16
Education, 9, 177-180, 204-210,
218, 219
Families, 29-32
Geographical distribution, 12-14,
15, 136, 242
Marital status, 8, 9, 16, 23-28,
32, 39, 40, 205-206
Mothers, 37, 39-47
Nonparticipation, 84-85
Nonwhite women, 10-11, 13, 15,
16, 20-21, 22, 23, 42, 43, 105,
206, 209, 210, 244
Numbers and proportions of
women, 5, 9-11, 13-15, 17, 19
20, 22, 23, 24-25, 29-32, 37,
39, 40, 117, 118, 177, 178, 243
Outlook, 243-248
Participation rates, 7, 10, 12, 13,
15, 17-23, 26, 27-28, 29, 30,
31, 32-33, 39, 40-41, 42-44, 45,
46, 47, 117, 204-209, 210, 243
244, 245
Reentry, 8, 68-69
Trends, 5, 9-10, 13, 15-27, 32,
40^2, 88, 117
Wives, 32-33
Labor laws for women:
Federal, 16, 253-260
State, 261-279
Labor reserve, 84-85
Labor Standards Task Force report,
296-297
Labor turnover, 76-80, 122
Labor unions, 82-83
(see
Laborers
Farm workers; Non
farm laborers)
Laundresses, 62, 241
Laundry, cleaning, dyeing services
industry, 115, 116, 117, 154, 155,
156
Laundry workers, 154, 155, 156
Lawyers, 124
Leather and leather products indus
try, 113, 114, 115
Legal Services Program, 237
Legislation, Federal:
Age Discrimination in Employ-
INDEX
ment Act of 1967, 6, 253, 258
260
Civil Rights Act of 1957, 283
Civil Rights Act of 1964, 6, 54,
253, 255-257, 269
Economic Opportunity Act of
1964, 6, 50, 229-231, 233, 235
237
Equal Pay Act of 1963, 6, 253,
255
Fair Labor Standards Act of
1938, 16, 242, 253-255, 262,
268, 296
Higher Education Act of 1968,
203
Manpower Development and
Training Act, 226-229, 231,
233, 234, 239-240
Railroad Retirement Act, 141
Revenue Act of 1954, 51
Revenue Act of 1964, 51-52
Smith-Hughes Act of 1917, 221
Social Security Act of 1935, 50,
142-145, 229, 231-232, 242, 246
Vocational Education Act of
1963, 221, 224
Legislators, 118, 125
Liaison officers, 121
Librarians, 99, 121, 175, 176
Library attendants and assistants,
62, 101, 176
Life expectancy, 7
Linguisticians, 170, 171
Lithographers, 124
Logisticians, 124
Lumber and wood products (except
furniture) industry, 114
Machinery (except electrical) indus
try, 114
(see
Maids
Chambermaids,
Private household workers) maids;
Managers, officials, proprietors, (ex
cept farm), 37, 38-39, 60, 61, 79
80, 81, 89, 90,91, 92, 93, 100, 103,
104, 106, 107, 108, 109, 134, 135,
138, 139, 163,175, 209, 211, 212,
213, 214, 215,228
Manpower Development and Train
ing Act, 226-229, 231, 233, 234,
239-240
Manufacturing, 109, 110, 111, 112,
113-115, 117, 147, 149-153, 246
379
Marital status:
College students, 190
Job tenure, 78-79
Labor force, 16, 23-25, 32, 39
Labor force participation, 26-28,
39, 40, 47, 205-206
Occupations, 98, 102-104
Part-time and full-time status,
46-47, 65, 66
Population, 23, 25, 27, 39
Social security beneficiaries,
143-145
Unemployment, 69
Work experience, 58, 60
Work patterns, 7-8
Worklife expectancy, 7-8
Marriage:
Average age, 7
Laws, 285-286
Rates, 25
(see
Married women
Marital status)
Maternity benefits and protection:
Employment before and after
childbirth, 54, 276-277
Maternity benefits, 52-55, 276
277, 297
Mathematicians, 98, 99, 169, 170,
171, 172, 174, 175, 176, 246-247
Mature women:
Continuing education programs
199-201
Income, 138
Job tenure, 78
Labor force, 17, 19-20
Labor force participation, 16
17, 18, 19-20, 27, 28, 31, 244,
245
Occupations, 104, 108-109, 118
Part-time and full-time status,
65, 66
Population, 17, 19, 31
Unemployment, 70, 71, 72, 73,
74, 75
Work experience, 57, 58, 59, 63
Mayors, 126
Medical and health services indus
try (other than hospitals), 115
Medical and other health workers
(professional), 38, 81, 90
Medical record librarians, 168
Meteorologists, 124, 170, 171
Microbiologists, 169
380
INDEX
Migrant Program, 237
(see
Military service
Federal em
ployment)
Minimum wage laws:
Federal, 16, 242, 253-265, 262,
296
State, 242, 261-266, 296, 299
Mining, 110, 112, 116, 117, 246
Mothers (working):
Age, 37, 40
Children:
Arrangements for care, 47
49
Number and age, 42, 48
Husbands’ incomes, 43, 45, 46
Job-related expenses, 36
Marital status, 39, 40
Nonwhite, 37, 42-43
Numbers and proportions, 37,
39, 40
Part-time and full-time status,
43-44, 46-47
Work experience, 44, 46-47
Work patterns, 7-8
Worklife expectancy, 7-8
Motion picture industry, 116
Multiple jobholders, 80-81
Musicians, music teachers, 62, 95, 99,
175
National Committee on Household
Employment, 240-241
Negro workers (see Nonwhite wom
en)
Neighborhood Health Centers, 237
Neighborhood Youth Corps, 229-230
New Careers Program, 230-231
Nightwork laws, 275, 296-297
Nondurable goods manufacturing
(see Manufacturing)
Nonfarm laborers, 38-39, 61, 78, 81,
89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 106, 107, 108,
139, 211, 214, 215, 248
Nonmanufacturing industries (see
specific industries)
Non white women:
Education, 178, 179, 182-183,
185, 206, 208, 209, 210, 215,
217-218, 219
Family heads, 29, 131
Geographical distribution, 11,
13, 136
Income, 130, 136-137, 140-141,
144, 145
Job tenure, 79
Labor force, 10-11, 13, 15, 16,
43, 105, 210, 242
Age, 16
Labor force participation, 10,
13-15, 20-21, 22, 23, 42, 43,
74, 105, 206, 209, 210, 244, 245
Mothers (working), 37, 42, 43
Occupations, 105-107, 136, 213,
215, 242
Utilization of college major,
216-217
Part-time and full-time status,
63, 65, 66, 105
Social security beneficiaries, 144,
145
Training program enrollees, 227
Types of work, 105
Unemployment, 73-76, 105, 217,
218, 219
Work experience, 62-63, 64
Nurses:
Practical, 102, 158, 159, 228,
230, 248
Professional, 99, 122, 123, 125,
163-167, 228, 246
Student, 99
Nurses’ aides, 158, 159, 248
Occupational limitation laws, 277
278, 297
(see
Occupational mobility
Labor
turnover)
Occupational safety and health laws,
297
also
Occupations (see
specific occu
pations and occupation groups):
Age, 79-80, 89, 91, 95, 97, 104,
107-109, 242
Differences between women and
men, 93, 149-150, 152, 153
Earnings, 147-169, 171, 172, 173,
174, 175-176
Education, 98, 103, 169, 209,
211-217, 241
Utilization of college major,
216-217
Federal employment, 118-124,
172-173
Husbands and wives, 37, 38-39
INDEX
Income, 129, 134, 135, 138, 139,
147, 148, 149, 150,151, 241
Job tenure, 79-80
Labor turnover, 78
Major groups, 89-93, 94
Marital status, 98, 102-104
Mature women, 104, 108-109,
118
Multiple jobholders, 81
Nonwhite women, 105-107, 136,
213, 215, 216-217, 242
Numbers and proportions of
women, 81, 89-94, 95-102,103
109, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153,
154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 160,
161, 162, 163, 165, 169, 170,
171, 172, 173, 241
Outlook, 60, 62, 246-248
Part-time and full-time status,
60, 61, 62, 102, 104, 105, 241
Self-employed persons, 38-39,
90, 100, 104
Teenagers and young adults, 89,
91, 95, 97, 103, 107, 212-213,
215
Trends, 89-93, 94, 95, 97, 98, 99
100, 101, 102, 106-107
Types of work, 95
Wives, 37, 38-39
Work experience, 60-62, 118, 241
Office girls and boys, 147, 148
Office occupations training, 223, 224,
228
Office services managers, 163
(see
Office Persons,
Clerical workers)
Older workers Services to, 237
On-the-job training, 222, 226, 227,
228, 231-232, 234, 256, 296
Operation Mainstream Program, 230
Operatives, canning and preserving
of fruit, etc., 62
Operatives, kindred workers, 37, 38
39, 61, 62, 78, 80, 81, 89, 90, 91,
92, 93, 103-104, 106, 107, 108, 134,
135, 138, 139, 149-153, 209, 211,
212, 213, 214, 215, 228, 247-248
Operators:
Bookkeeping machine, 148
Comptometer, 147, 148
Keypunch, 124, 148
Office machine, 247
Sewing machine, 153
381
Switchboard, 101, 148
Tumbler, 155,156
Opportunities Industrialization Cen
ters (OIC), 233-234
Organizations of interest to women
(see
331) Alphabetical list, pp. 329
Outlook :
Industries, 246
Labor force, 243
Labor force participation, 243
244, 245
Nonwhite, 244, 245
Occupations, 246-248
Population, 243
Types of work, 246
Overtime compensation laws:
Federal, 242, 253-255, 296
State, 266-267, 296
Paper and allied products industry,
114
(see
Part-time and full-time status
Work 64, 65, 66
Age, 63, experience):
Differences between women and
men, 55, 63, 66, 88
Education, 220
Hospitals, 157-158
Job tenure, 79
,
Marital status, 48, 65, 66
Mothers (working), 44, 46-47
Nonwhite women, 65, 66, 105
Private household workers, 241
Trends, 56-57
Unemployment, 66-67
also
(see
Part-time or and full-time status;
part-year work
Part-time
Work experience)
Peace Corps, 202
Personal services industry, 109, 110,
111
Personnel and labor relations work
ers, 98, 99, 124, 163, 176
Petroleum refining and related prod
ucts industry, 113-114
Photographers, 124
Physicians, surgeons, 99, 123, 175,
246, 247
Physicists, 170, 171, 246-247
Political and research analysts, 121
(see
Political status office; Citizenship;
Domicile; Public
Voting)
382
INDEX
Population:
Age, 17, 18, 19, 31, 187
Education, 177-178, 179, 210
Family status, 28
Heads, 31
Marital status, 23, 25, 27, 39
Mature women, 17,19, 31
Mothers, 39
Outlook, 243
Trends, 10, 17, 18, 19, 23
Unrelated individuals, 29
Postal employees, 172, 173
Postmasters, 100
Poverty:
Families living in poverty, 31
32, 130, 131
(see also
Progams
training programs), specific
6, 50,
225-237, 298
President’s Commission on the Sta
tus of Women, 5-6, 122, 294
Pressers, 153, 155, 156
Primary metal industries, 114
Printing, publishing, and allied
products industry, 79, 114
Private household workers, 37, 38
39, 60, 61, 62, 80, 81, 90, 91, 92,
93, 94, 95, 103, 104, 106, 107, 108,
138, 139, 209, 211, 212, 213, 214,
215, 240-242, 296
Special programs, 240-241, 298
Professional and related services in
dustry, 109, 110, 111
Professional, technical, kindred
workers, 37, 38-39, 60, 61, 62, 78,
80, 81, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95,
96, 97, 98, 99-100, 103, 104, 106,
107, 108, 134, 135, 138, 139, 158
170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175-176,
209, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 228,
229, 246-247
Property ownership and control, 281,
289-292, 295
Protective services workers, 230, 248
Psychiatric aides, 158, 228
Psychologists, 169, 170, 171, 175
(see also
Public administration State office;
Fed
eral employment;
Mayors), 100, 109, 110, 111, 112,
113, 118-126, 246, 299
Public office, 118, 125-126, 282
Public relations workers, publicity
writers, 99, 162
Railroad Retirement Act, 141
(see
Real estate
Finance, insurance,
real estate)
Receptionists, 95, 101
Recreation and group workers, 99
Reentry into the labor force, 8, 68-69
Registrars (college), 162
Retail trade, 79, 81, 90, 95, 100, 101,
109,110, 111, 112, 115, 116,117
Retirement benefits, 141-145
Revenue Acts, 51-52
Rubber and miscellaneous plastic
products industry, 114
Salaried managers, 38-39, 90, 100,
104
(see
Salaries
Earnings)
Sales workers, 37, 38-39, 60, 61, 62,
78, 81, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95,
103, 104, 106, 107, 108, 109, 117,
134, 135, 138, 139, 211, 213, 214,
215, 228-229, 247
Scientists, 99-100, 124, 169-171, 172
Agricultural, 170, 171
Biological, 169, 170, 171
Earth, 170, 171
Life, 246-247
Seating provisions, 278
(see
Secretaries
Stenographers, typ
ists, secretaries)
Security dealers and exchanges in
dustry, 115, 116
Self-employed managers, 38-39, 90,
100, 104
Separated women (see Marital sta
tus)
Services industries, 109, 110, 111,
112, 113, 115, 116,117
Service workers (except private
household), 37, 38-39, 61, 78, 79,
80, 81, 89, 90-91, 92, 93, 94, 95,
101-102, 103, 104, 106, 107, 108,
117, 134, 135, 138, 139, 153-157,
209, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 228
229, 248
Single women (see Marital status)
Smith-Hughes Act of 1917, 221
Social and welfare workers, 99, 176
Social Insurance and Taxes Task
Force report, 297
Social science, psychology, and wel-
INDEX
fare workers (Fed. Govt.), 172,
173
Social Security Act of 1935, 50, 142,
145, 229, 231-232, 242
Social Security, Advisory Council
on, 297
Social security benefits, 122, 138, 140,
141-145, 297
Students, 203
Social work assistants, 230
Social workers, medical, 168
Sociologists, 169, 170, 171
Special Impact Program, 231
Spinners, ring-frame, 149, 150-151
Sports instructors and officials, 99
State commissions on the status of
(see
women
Commissions on the
status of women)
State office, 125-126, 299
Statisticians, 169, 170, 171, 174, 175,
176
Stenographers, typists, secretaries
(see also
Clerical 121, 124, 77,
90, 95, 100, 119,workers), 38,147,
148, 174, 175,176, 228, 247
Stock clerks, storekeepers, 101
Stockholders, 145-146
Stone, clay, glass products industry,
114
Student financial aid directors, 162
Student placement directors, 162
Superintendents, building, 100
Teacher Corps, 236
Teachers, 94, 98, 158-162, 175, 176,
246
College and university, 98, 99,
161-162, 247
Elementary school, 38, 62, 81, 90,
95, 98, 158, 159-161, 176, 247
Junior college, 162
Secondary school, 38, 62, 81, 90,
95, 98, 158, 159-161, 176, 247
Special schools, 62
Teachers’ aides, 230
Technical training, 224, 225
Technicians:
Medical and dental, 99, 124, 168,
169, 247
Other, 100, 124, 162, 176, 246
Technological change, 5, 87, 90, 100
101, 114, 205, 246, 247
Technologists, medical, 168, 169, 247
383
Teenagers and young adults:
Income, 138
Job tenure, 78
Labor force participation, 18
19, 21, 27, 31, 72, 74, 206, 207,
209, 244, 245
Nonwhite, 21, 74, 206, 208,
209, 244, 245
Labor turnover, 77, 78
Multiple jobholders, 80
Occupations, 89, 91, 95, 97, 103,
107, 212-213, 215
Part-time and full-time status,
66
Unemployment, 67, 70-73, 74
76, 218
Work experience, 57, 58, 63
Telephone workers, 101, 117, 148
Tenders (mfg.), 150, 151
Textile mill products industry, 79,
113, 114
Therapists, 99, 123, 168, 169, 176,
247
Ticket agents (station and express),
101
Tobacco manufactures industry, 113
114
Trades and industry training, 224,
225
Training programs:
Apprenticeship, 237-238, 256,
257
Concentrated
Employment
(CEP), 50, 232-233
Job Corps, 235-236
Job Opportunities in the Busi
ness Sector (JOBS), 234
Manpower Development and
Training Act (MDTA), 226
229, 231, 233, 234, 239-240
Neighborhood
Youth Corps,
229-230
New Careers, 230-231
Operation Mainstream, 230
Opportunities Industrialization
Centers (OIC), 233-234
Special Impact, 231
Vocational education (federally
aided), 221-225
Vocational rehabilitation, 238
240
384
INDEX
Work Incentive (WIN), 50, 143,
229, 231-232
Transportation,
communication,
other public utilities, 79, 109, 110,
111, 112, 114, 116, 117, 246
Trimmer, thread, 153
Trucking and warehousing industry,
116, 117
Types of work:
Blue-collar, 88-89, 95, 105, 246,
247
Farm, 88-89 105, 246
Service, 87-89, 95, 105, 246
White-collar, 87-89, 95, 105, 119,
171, 172, 246
Typical woman worker, 16
Typists (see Stenographers, typists,
secretaries)
Underemployment, 73
also
Unemployment11-12, 67-76 Training
(see
programs),
Age, 67, 70-73, 74-76
Differences between women and
men, 11-12, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72
Education, 74, 76, 209, 217-218,
219
Families, 29, 30, 31, 69-70
Hidden, 73
Labor force reentrants, 8, 68-69
Marital status, 69
Nonwhite women, 73-76, 105,
217, 218-219
Part-time and full-time status,
66-67
Trends, 11—12, 68—69, 70, 72, 73—
74
Unemployment insurance benefits,
297
Uniform State Laws, Commission on,
295
Union membership, 82-83
Unpaid family workers, 79, 90, 117
Unrelated individuals, 29
Upward Bound, 237
Veterans, 125
Aid for education, 204
Veterinarians (Fed. Govt.), 172, 173
(see
VISTA Program)
Domestic Volunteer
Service
•fc
Vocational education (see Training
programs)
Vocational Education Act of 1963,
221, 224
Vocational rehabilitation (see Train
ing programs)
Volunteers, 296
Voting, 281, 282
Wages or salary (see Earnings; In
come)
Waitresses, 39, 62, 81, 90, 91, 95,
101-102, 153-154, 157, 228, 248
Washers, machine, 155
Weavers, 149, 150,151
Weightlifting provisions, 278-279,
297
Wholesale trade, 79, 109, 110, 111,
112, 115, 116
Widows (see Inheritance laws; Mar
ital status; Social security bene
fits)
Winders, yarn, 149, 150-151
also
Wives (working) (see
Families;
Marital status; Mothers (work
ing) ) :
Contributions to family income,
34-36
Husbands’ incomes, 32-33, 34
Job-related expenses, 36-37
Occupations, 37, 38-39
Womanpower reserve, 84-85
Work distributors, 153
also
Work full-time status):
Part-time
and experience (see
Age, 57-58, 59, 63, 64
Differences between women and
men, 65, 57
Income, 134, 136
Marital status, 58, 60
Mothers, 44, 46, 47
Nonwhite women, 62-63, 64
Occupations, 60-62, 118, 241
Trends, 56-57
Work Incentive Program (WIN), 50,
143, 229, 231-232
Work patterns, 6-9, 18, 76, 127-128,
134
Working couples, 32, 37
Worklife expectancy, 7-8
Work-study programs, 202-203, 222
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1B69—339-458
'*cnr
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I
I
*
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
Wage and Labor Standards Administration
Women's Bureau
Washington, D.C. 20210
POSTAGE AND FEES PAID
OFFICIAL BUSINESS
U.S
Department of Laboi
THIRD CLASS MAIL
@FedFRASER