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UNITED STATES D E P A R T M E N T OF L A B O R
Frances Perkins, Secretary
B U R E A U OF L A B O R S T A T IS T IC S
Isador Lubin, Commissioner (on leave)
A . F. Hinrichs, Acting Commissioner
H a n d b o o k o f L a b o r S ta tis tic s
1941 Edition
♦
Volume II
Wages and Wage Regulation
B u lletin
7V£o.
694
U N IT E D S T A T E S
G O V E R N M E N T P R IN T IN G OFFICE
W A S H IN G T O N : 1942
For sale by the Superintendent o f Documents, Washington, D . C.
Price 45 cents
C O N T E N T S
Page
Sources of wage and hour statistics______________________________________
General trend of wages and hours:
Wages, hours, and productivity of industrial labor, 1909 to 1940_____
Wages and hours by industries and trades:
Hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings, by industries—.
Ammunition industry— Earnings and hours, O ctober 1937___________
Army and N avy— Pay of enlisted personnel__________________________
Bakery industry— Union wages and hours, 1940______________________
Barber shops— Union wages and hours, 1938_________________________
Bituminous-coal mining— Earnings and hours, 1935 and 1936________
Building trades— Union wages and hours, 1940_______________________
Building trades— W age rates and hours, 1936________________________
Canning and preserving industries— Annual earnings, 1937 and 1938-_
Carpet and rug industry— Earnings and hours, 1939_________________
Cereal-preparations industry— Hours and earnings, 1938_____________
Cigar industry— Earnings and hours, M arch 1936____________________
Com m on laborers— Entrance wage rates, July 1940__________________
Cordage and twine industry— Hourly earnings, 1940_________________
Cotton picking— Wage rates, 1940____________________________________
Cotton, rayon, and silk dyeing and finishing— Hourly earnings, 1938__
Drug, medicine, and toilet preparations industry— Hourly earnings,
M ay 1940___________________________________________________________
Electrical-products manufacture— Earnings and hours, 1936 and 1937_
Embroideries industry— Earnings and hours, 1940___________________
Enameled-utensil industry— Earnings and hours, August 1940_______
Explosives industry— Earnings and hours, O ctober 1937_____________
Fabricated textile products, miscellaneous— H ourly earnings, 1940___
Farm workers— W age rates and earnings_____________________________
Federal em ploym ent— Occupations and salaries, 1938________________
Fertilizer industry— Earnings and hours, 1938________________________
Fire departments— Salaries, hours, aud other working conditions,
1938_________________________________________________________________
Fireworks industry— Earnings and hours, October 1937______________
Fishing industry— Earnings and methods of wage payment, 1933____
Furniture manufacturing industry— Earnings, 1936, 1937, and 1941.
Granite industry— Earnings and hours, August 1937_________________
Gray-iron and malleable-iron foundries— Earnings in 1938-39________
H at industries— Earnings and hours, 1939____________________________
Hosiery manufacture— Earnings and hours, 1937, 1938, and 1940:
Full-fashioned hosiery____________________________________________
.Seamless hosiery_________________________________________________
Iron and steel industry— Earnings and hours, 1937 and 1938_________
Jewelry industry— Earnings and hours,February 1940________________
Jute-bagging industry— H ourly earnings, 1940________________________
K nit-goods industries (other than hosiery)— Hours and earnings, 1937
and 1938 ____________________________________________________________
Leather belting and packing industry— Earnings and hours, 1939____
Leather industry— Earnings and hours, September 1939_____________
m
1
5
21
27
31
34
37
40
46
52
57
58
67
68
72
76
77
78
81
85
94
103
107
111
113
117
121
125
133
136
141
149
155
159
162
168
179
197
201
202
216
220
IV
CONTENTS
Wages and hours— Continued.
Luggage and miscellaneous leather products industries— Hourly
earnings, 1939_______________________________________________________
Lumber and tim ber products industry— Hourly earnings, 1939-40__
Earnings in manufacture of veneer and veneer products_________
M achine-shop industries— Earnings, 1938-39_________________________
M eat-packing industry— Earnings and hours, 1937___________________
M en’s neckwear industry— Earnings and hours, 1939_________________
M en’s robe industry— Earnings and hours, 1938______________________
Milk condenseries— Wages and hours, 1938___________________________
Millinery industry— Earnings and hours, 1937-38___________________
M otortruck drivers and helpers— Union wages and hours, 1940______
Office workers— Earnings, 1937, 1938 and 1940_______________________
New Y ork State factories, October 1940_________________________
New Y ork City, 1937 and 1938__________________________________
Paperboard industry— Hourly earnings, N ovem ber-D eeem ber 1939-_
Paper products, converted, industry— Hourly earnings, January 1940_
Police departments— Salaries and working conditions, 1938__________
Portable-lamp and lamp-shade industries— Earnings and hours, F eb
ruary and March 1940______________________________________________
Printing trades— Union wages and hours, 1940_______________________
Processed-waste industry— Earnings and hours, 1940_________________
Professional workers— Incom e and salaries:
Accountants, 1936________________________________________________
Chiropodists, 1937________________________________________________
Chiropractors, 1937_______________________________________________
Dentists, 1937____________________________________________________
Engineering profession___________________________________________
Lawyers, 1936____________________________________________________
Library employees, 1939__________________________________________
Public health nurses, 1938________________________________________
Osteopathic physicians, 1937_____________________________________
Physicians, 1939__________________________________________________
School employees, 1940-41_______________________________________
Y . M. C. A. secretaries, 1939____ _______________________________
Radio manufacture— Earnings, 1936 and 1937________________________
Radio transmitters and related products manufacture— Earnings and
hours, 1938_________________________________________________________
R ayon and silk industry— Earnings and hours, 1940_________________
Rubber products— Earnings and hours, M ay 1940___________________
Tire and tube industry___________________________________________
R ubber boot and shoe industry__________________________________
“ Other rubber goods” industry___________________________________
Shoe and allied industries— Earnings and hours, 1939________________
B oot and shoe m anufacture______________________________________
Manufacture of boot and shoe cut stock and findings____________
M anufacture of shoe patterns____________________________________
Soap industry— Earnings and hours, January 1938___________________
Steam railroads— Hours and earnings, 1932 to 1941__________________
Street and sewer construction— Wages and hours, 1936______________
Street-railway employees— Union wages and hours, 1940_____________
W oolen and worsted industry— Average hourly earnings, 1938_______
Hourly earnings in 105 selected industries, by States, 1937________________
Frequency o f pay days in American industry______________________________
Annual wage and guaranteed em ploym ent plans___________________________
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344
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357
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365
367
CONTENTS
Wage and hour regulation:
Aftermath of the NR A _______________________________________________
Effects of N RA on later legislation_______________________________
Accomplishments of the N R A ___________________________________
Extent of voluntary continuance of N R A labor standards________
Hours and earnings before and after the N R A __________________
State industrial codes_____________________________________________
Wage and hour legislation— Federal and State:
General scope_____________________________________________________
Hours o f labor— Federal legislation:
Fair Labor Standards Act,1938______________________________
Public contracts and public works___________________________
Interstate commerce_________________________________________
Hours of labor— State legislation:
Limitations on working hours of men________________________
Limitations on working hours of women____________________
Regulation of night work for women________________ ________
Wage legislation:
Wage legislation for womenand minors______________________
Status of legislation for men_________________________________
Operations under Federal Public Contracts Act, 1936-41____________
Operations under Federal Fair Labor Standards Act, 1938-41_______
Comparison of Davis-Bacon and Walsh-Healey Acts_________________
State minimum-wage legislation______________________________________
Effect of minimum wage on earnings_________________________________
Suspension of 8-hour day on construction of leased bases____________
Regulation of hours of work of motor-vehicle operators_____________
Minimum wages for sugar-beet and sugarcane labor__________________
Bituminous coal codes, 1935 and 1937________________________________
Legislation requiring the payment of wages at specified times, as of June
1, 1941
V
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418
B u lle tin I\£o. 694 (V o l. I I ) o f the
U nited States Bureau o f Labor Statistics
Handbook o f Labor Statistics
1941 E dition
Volume II.—Wages and Wage Regulations
Sources of Wage and Hour Statistics
Wage and hour statistics in the United States have registered
marked gains, both in quality and in scope, during the past decade.
Although these gains could not have been realized without advances
in the science and techniques of statistics, they were due chiefly to
the growing demand for sound factual material for regulatory pur
poses. Thus the Social Security Act, the Public Contracts Act, and
the Fair Labor Standards Act require various types of wage and
hour statistics for the determination of policies and the measure
ment of results. State and local laws have also required better and
more extensive statistical material. Another important factor has
been the extension of collective bargaining which has made it impera
tive for both labor and management to appraise the wage picture
accurately.
A review of wage and hour information currently available reveals
little uniformity as to purpose, quality, or form. On the one hand
are series of exceedingly simple statistics, collected periodically, and
designed primarily to indicate trends in wages and hours; on the
other hand are detailed special studies, executed only once or very
infrequently, but providing relatively complete information as to wage
and hour structure at a given time. Some wage studies are based on
rates o f pa y and others on actual earnings, which may reflect the
influence of bonuses, overtime rates, or various types of deductions.
Most studies of wages and hours are based on the records or reports
of employers and depend entirely on voluntary cooperation. In a
few instances, however, reports which have been made mandatory
for administrative purposes are incidentally employed as a basis for
wage and hour statistics. The greater proportion of the wage and
hour material now available refers to workers within given industries,
rather than all the workers in specific areas or population groups. In
spite of the expansion of such statistics in recent years, the coverage
of the various industries is uneven. Thus, material on wages and
hours in manufacturing industries is considerably more complete
than in the service industries, and special studies of wages and hours
1
2
WAGES AND WAGE REGULATIONS
have covered the low-wage industries more completely than the highwage industries.
Undoubtedly the major source of wage and hour statistics in this
country is the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. Among
other Federal agencies providing wage and hour statistics, a number
rely chiefly on special studies, which usually secure data for short
periods of time only. The Women’s Bureau and the Children’s
Bureau of the Department of Labor, for example, deal chiefly with
statistics related to the welfare of women and children. The Wage
and Hour Division and the Public Contracts Division of the Depart
ment of Labor (responsible for administering the Fair Labor
Standards Act and the Public Contracts Act, respectively), although
depending primarily on studies by the Bureau of Labor Statistics,
conduct occasional small studies in specific industries, often in connec
tion with inspection activities.
A valuable and comparatively new source of information on annual
earnings is the Federal Bureau of Old Age and Survivors’ Insurance
of the Social Security Board. These statistics cover all industries
included under the old age and survivors’ insurance program and
apply to all earnings that are taxable under the program. The bien
nial Census of Manufactures throws light on the question of annual
earnings. The 1940 census will also provide valuable information
regarding annual wage income and annual weeks of work. The
National Income Section of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic
Commerce has engaged in a number of studies of incomes of profes
sional persons to piece out its information on national incomes.
Sources of specialized data on annual earnings are the Railroad Retire
ment Board and the Interstate Commerce Commission. Mention
should also be made of the tabulations of the Civil Service Com
mission of annual salary rates of Federal employees and of the peri
odic statistics on wages of farm labor issued by the Bureau of
Agricultural Economics.
A number of official State agencies, such as departments of labor
and minimum wage commissions, assemble information on wages and
hours usually in the form of special studies in particular industries.
Among the States whose official agencies have published studies in
recent years are New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Ohio. Also a
few cities have made wage studies, several having been operated as
W P A projects.
Among private organizations collecting wage and hour statistics
the National Industrial Conference Board occupies a prominent place.
Various employers’ associations make studies of wages and hours
among member companies and it is to be regretted that the results
are infrequently made available to the public. Several labor unions
have produced studies of merit, which also, unfortunately, are usually
unavailable for public use.
The Bureau of Labor Statistics collects and publishes a great variety
of information on wages and hours, most of which is included in the
following categories: (1) Monthly and annual statistics on average
hourly earnings, average weekly earnings, and average weekly hours
of work for most of the important industries except farming; (2)
detailed special studies of the wage and hour structure of particular
industries; and (3) an annual survey of union scales of wages in some
30 trades and industries for which data are available.
General T ren d o f W ages and H ours
Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 694.
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1941 edition.
8
Wages, Hours, and Productivity of Industrial
Labor, 1909 to_l9401
The decade of the thirties was marked by unusual changes in rates
of wages and hours of work and by the rapid extension of collective
bargaining. Far-reaching public policies relating to wages and hours
were adopted. Adjustments to these changes and the satisfactory
working out of the new policies called for available information about
earlier experiences. In consequence, the Bureau of Labor Statistics
undertook an extensive study and new analysis of earlier wage and
hour data. These surveys made possible the computing of several
new and complete series extending back as far as 1909 and the linking
of these to the Bureau of Labor Statistics series already available for
1932 and later years.
The study was concerned primarily with wages,2 but the use of data
bearing on this subject led to the construction of statistical series on
such related subjects as labor productivity and purchasing power,
weekly hours, weekly earnings, employment, pay rolls or total wages,
and wage earners’ share of income paid out. For wages, hours, and
employment, actual levels are shown as well as trends.
There is only a limited amount of information available for the
earlier part of the period from 1909 to 1940, but it is possible, in the
varied fields of manufacturing, mining, and railroad transportation,
to compute hourly earnings and other series with assurance of rea
sonable exactness. The relative importance of manufacturing,
mining, and railroad transportation combined, as measured by employ
ment, increased in the first of the three decades and declined in the
second, but the end of the third decade showed little change over its
beginning. In 1940, employment in these fields as a percentage of
total employment was almost the same as in 1909.
These industries are basic and extremely varied. The part they
played in the Nation’s total production was probably at least as im1 Summary of article by Witt Bowden of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, in the Monthly
Labor Review for September 1940, with revisions and later data.
2 The study began in a project to revise the general index of average hourly earnings
extending back to 1840 and first published in the Monthly Labor Review of February 1921.
The long period covered by this index required the use of link relatives. For a given period
one set Of figures wag available, and for another period, another set, with significantly
different levels of wages. It was assumed that although the levels in dollars were dif
ferent, the trend of each series was substantially representative of the general trend
of the period. Thus, the index represented only the general trend, computed by linking
the different series— a method first used extensively by Professor A. L. Bowley in the
study of wages in England. The wage structure became increasingly complex, with excep
tionally rapid and often divergent changes in wages, especially during the period of the
World War and later during the depression beginning in 1929. As a result, there could
be no assurance that the linking of earlier and current data would avoid serious distortions
of the general trend of hourly wages. The general index was therefore discontinued.
The several series here presented are close approximations, not merely of the trends but
also of the absolute levels, of hourly earnings in the varied and basically important fields
of manufacturing, mining, and railroad transportation. It is not possible, however, to
determine by any adequate tests whether or not average hourly earnings in these industries
are representative of earnings in all business enterprises.
Use was made of the numerous wage and hour reports of the Bureau of Labor Statistics
throughout the period, the census reports, and various other official sources. Supplementary
use was made of such unofficial sources as the important pioneer work on wages and hours
in 25 manufacturing industries by the National Industrial Conference Board.
5
6
GENERAL TREND
portant in 1940 as in 1909, for although their proportion of total em
ployment was somewhat smaller, they experienced a comparatively
rapid advance in labor productivity. Output per worker almost
doubled in manufacturing, but increased only about 50 percent in
agriculture and very slightly in such important employments as retail
trade and many oi the service industries. In relative importance
mining and railroad transportation lost ground to competing indus
tries, but manufacturing made extensive gains. Some of these gains,
as in the manufacture of fuels, electrical goods, road-building
machinery and materials, and transportation equipment, partly
counteracted the losses by mines and railroads.
Sum m ary o f Changes
A general view of the whole period reveals a particularly significant
rise of average hourly earnings from 20.7 cents in 1909 to 68.3 cents in
1940. Money earnings are of course affected by changes in cost of
living, but even when these changes are taken into account, the
resulting figures of real hourly earnings show a rise of 106.9 percent.
Average hours of work fell from 51.7 in 1909 to 38.3 in 1940; weekly
and annual earnings therefore did not rise as much as hourly earnings,
but there was a gam of 54.0 percent in real weekly earnings, in spite of
a reduction of more than a fourth in weekly hours.
Changes in real hourly earnings indicate changes in the amount of
goods and services an hour’s wage will buy. Real hourly earnings
may in turn be compared to the out ut per hour of labor, commonly
called the productivity of labor. ^Ian-hour output increased much
more than real earnings per hour. In manufacturing, real hourly
earnings were 117.5 percent higher in 1940 than in 1909, in contrast
to the much greater rise of 177.8 precent in man-hour output.
The years from 1909 to 1914 we <• comparatively stable. The early
months of the World W ar were marked by sharp recession, but in
general the war years brought abnormal demands, comparatively full
employment, and rapid advances in prices and wage rates. During
the 10 years from 1909 to 1919, both hourly and weekly earnings
in manufacturing, mining, and railroads more than doubled, but prices
rose so rapidly that weekly earnings would buy only 10.7 percent
more in 1919 than in 1909. The average number of wage earners in
manufacturing, mining, and railroads rose from 8,667,000 in 1909 to
11,322,000 in 1919. Average hours of work fell from 51.7 per week
in 1909 to 46.9 in 191?. Total pay rolls in the three branches of
employment almost trebled, expanding from $4,680,000,000 to
$13,453,000,000, but when the change in cost of living is taken into
account the increase was only 44.5 percent.
The years from 1919 to 1923 may be described as the period of
post-war readjustment. It was a time of fluctuating prices; of
demobilization and the curtailment of war demands; of the shifting
of workers into new employments, or, for considerable numbers, into
the ranks of the unemployed; and of industrial disputes in which
some of the unions lost ground but from which labor as a whole
emerged with gains in the form of shorter hours and higher wages.
Employment was somewhat lower in 1923 than in 1919, a decline ex
plainable in part by the fact that many women and emergency war-
7
WAGES, HOURS, AND PRODUCTIVITY
time workers on the pay rolls in 1919 were no longer employed. The
volume of production was much larger in 1923 than in 1919.
From 1923 to 1929, hourly earnings, when adjusted by the index of
cost of living, rose 6.2 percent. Man-hour output, in contrast, rose in
most of the industries by a much larger percentage. The increase in
man-hour output in manufacturing industries as a whole was 31.7
percent; in bituminous-coal mining, 8.1 percent; and in steam rail
roads, 18.2 percent. Conditions peculiar to anthracite mining led to
a slight reduction in output per man-hour in that industry. An
outstanding characteristic of these years was the decline of wages as a
percentage of total income payments in manufacturing, the minerals
industries as a whole, and steam railroads. TcJal wages fell from 63.6
percent of all income payments in these industries in 1923 to 57.1 per
cent in 1929. The benefits of the rising productivity of labor were not
in general transferred through price reductions to consumers, for the
index of cost of living was higher during most of the period than in
i923.
Between 1929 and 1932, hourly earnings in manufacturing, mining,
and railroads fell sharply, but somewhat less so than cost of living.
The extreme decline in hours of work (from 45.2 hours in 1929 to 37.7
in 1932), combined with the fall in hourly earnings, reduced real
weekly earnings 12.8 percent in spite of the reduction in cost of living.
The outstanding change was the precipitous fall in employment. The
number of wage earners in the three branches of employment combined
fell from 10,835,000 to 6,799,000, or 37.2 percent. A t the same time,
as an accompaniment to the fall in average weekly hours, the total
number of man-hours was cut almost in half. There was an even
greater fall in total pay rolls expressed in money wages, and even when
adjusted to the cost of living the aggregate wage in these industries
was only a little more than half as large as in 1929. In manufactur
ing, the minerals industries, and railroads, wages as a percentage of
income payments declined sharply during these depression years.
T
able
1 . — S u m m ary o f changes in employments hoursf earnings , and productivity
in manufacturings minings and steam railroads, 1 9 0 9 -4 0 1
Item
1909
1919
1923
1929
1932
$0. 502
.477
$0. 547
.520
$0,584
.566
$0.487
.458
$0,683
.670
. 707
.537
.779
.581
.693
.630
.582
.591
.859
.711
23.83
23.29
25.55
25.13
26.78
26.40
18.60
17.86
26.62
26.11
26.80
24.84
27.48
26.42
27.56
28.26
16.51
23.13
25.46
31.32
1940
M O N E Y E AR N IN G S
Average hourly earnings:
Manufacturing, mining, and steam railroads,
combined........ .................................................. $0.207
Manufacturing............ ...................... ................
. 193
Mining (bituminous, anthracite, and metallif
.313
erous)___________ __________ ____ _________
Steam railroads____________________ ________
.219
Average weekly earnings:
Manufacturing, mining, and steam railroads,
combined..........-________ _________ ________ 10.83
Manufacturing___________________ _________
10.38
Mining (bituminous, anthracite, and metallif
erous)... .......... .......... ...................... -............... 12.41
11.77
Steam railroads. __________________ ________
1
Most of the figures in this table and the other tables are not the results of exact measurements of the
whole of the fields covered, but are estimates derived from the best available data, subjected to various
tests of adequacy.
GENERAL TREND
8
T a b l e 1 .— Sum m ary o f changes in em ploym ent , hours, earnings , and productivity
in manufacturing , m ining , and steam railroads , 1 505-4^~~Continued
1909
Item
1919
1923
1929
1932
1940
INDEXES OF “ REAL” EARNINGS (MONEY EARNINGS ADJUSTED TO COST OF LIV
ING) (AVERAGE 1923-35=100)
“ Real” average hourly earnings:
Manufacturing, mining, and steam railroads,
combined.......................................... ................
Manufacturing____ ___________ ______________
Mining (bituminous, anthracite, and metallif
erous)____ _____ _____ _ _______________
Steam railroads_____ ___________________ ____
“ Real” average weekly earnings:
Manufacturing, mining, and steam railroads,
combined__________________ ___________ _
Manufacturing__________________ __________
Mining (bituminous, anthracite, and metallif
erous)__________ _______ _________ ________
Steam railroads___ ______ __________________
72.5
70.7
88.5
87.9
98.7
98.1
104.8
106.1
109.7
107.8
150.0
153.8
80.0
72.9
90.9
89.9
102.4
99.5
90.6
107.3
95.5
126.4
137.6
148.3
82.9
80.4
91.8
90.8
100.6
100.2
104.9
104.7
91.5
88.9
127.7
126.8
90.4
87.6
98.3
93.1
103.0
101.2
102.8
107.7
77.3
110.6
116.3
146.2
INDEXES OF LABOR PRODUCTIVITY (AVERAGE 1923-25=100)
Output per man-hour:
Manufacturing8____________________________
Bituminous-coal mining________________ _____
Anthracite mining_____________ _______ _____
Steam railroads____________________ _______
62.2
69.5
84.8
375.4
71.7
85.1
100.0
85.4
94.0
99.2
103.5
96.4
123.8
107.2
99.8
113.9
128.0
115.0
119.0
111.9
172.8
141.2
157.3
HOURS ACTUALLY WORKED
Average weekly hours:
Manufacturing, mining, and steam railroads,
combined_______ _________________________
Manufacturing..................... - ............ ............ .........
Mining (bituminous, anthracite, and metallif
erous)____ _________ _______________ ______
Steam railroads-_______ _____________________
51.7
52.7
46.9
47.8
46.1
47.3
45.2
45.7
37.7
38.2
38.3
38.1
40.5
53.9
39.1
46.3
36.1
45.5
40.2
44.8
28.7
39.1
29.8
44.1
EMPLOYMENT AND MAN-HOURS
Employment in manufacturing, mining, and steam
railroads as a percentage of all employment........ .......
28.0
Number of wage earners:
Manufacturing, mining, and steam railroads,
combined.................. .................... .......thousands. _ 8,667
6,273
Manufacturing..______ ___________________ do___
Mining (bituminous, anthracite, and metallif
831
erous)....... ............................ ................. thousands..
Steam railroads.........................
do___
1,563
Total man-hours:
Manufacturing, mining, and steam railroads,
combined..__________ _______________ millions.. 23,327
Manufacturing____ _________________
do___ 17,191
Mining (bituminous, anthracite, and metallif
erous).................................................. . .millions-. 1,748
4,388
Steam railroads......................
...d o ___
33.8
26.8
25.6
11,322
8,418
11,076
8,195
10,835
8,369
6,799
5,236
10,100
8,484
824
2,079
904
1,977
712
1,755
487
1,076
553
1,063
27,620
20,925
26, 543
20,156
25,479
19,888
13,328
10,400
20,114
16,809
1,677
5,018
1,696
4,691
1,488
4,103
727
2,201
856
2,449
TOTAL MONEY WAGES (IN MILLIONS)
Total money wages:
Manufacturing, mining, and steam railroads,
combined-,___________ _________ _________ $4,680 $13,453 $14,109 $14,454 $6,315 $12,805
Manufacturing....................... ....... ....................... 3,210 9,665 10,152 10,894 4,610 10,396
Mining (bituminous, anthracite, and metallif
erous).................. ............ .................................
511 1,095 1,233
976
403
669
959 2,693 2,724 2,585 1,302
1,740
Steam railroads,...................................................
8 See table 3, footnotes 1 and 2.
81914.
9
WAGES, HOURS, AND PRODUCTIVITY
T
able
1 . — Sum m ary o f changes in em ploym ent9 hours , earnings , and productivity
in manufacturing , m ining , and steam railroads , 1 9 0 9 -4 0 — Continued
Item
1909
1919
1923
1929
1932
1940
INDEXES OF TOTAL “ REAL” WAGES (AVERAGE 1923-25=100)
Total ‘Teal” wages:
Manufacturing, mining, and steam railroads,
combined-.___ ___________ ________ ____
Manufacturing_____________________________
Mining (bituminous, anthracite, and metallif
erous)___ __________ ____ -_ _____ ____
Steam railroads____________________________
67.6
63.9
88.<6
72.1
97.7
96.9
95. <6
102.0
104.8
104.0
106.8
58.6
59.0
115.9
129.8
105.4
99.5
44.9
62.9
72.8
82.0
57.1
51.7
* 59.5
111.1
110.0 86.6
WAGES AS PERCENT OF INCOME
Wages as percent of total income payments * in manu
facturing, minerals, and steam railroads, combined._
64.6
63.6
4See table 7, footnote 3.
* 1939.
After 1932, average weekly earnings rose from $18.60 in 1932 to
$26.62 in 1940, an increase of 43.1 percent. Weekly earnings adjusted
to cost of living increased 39.6 percent. Hourly earnings rose from
48.7 cents in 1932 to 68.3 cents in 1940, thus regaining the loss sustained
after 1929 and rising to a level never previously attained. In 1940, the
average number of wage earners in the combined industries was
10,100,200, a rise of 48.5 percent over 1932. The average hours of work
were almost the same in 1940 as in 1932. This is explained by the fact
that the extensive reductions in the normal or regularly scheduled hours
of labor were accompanied by reductions in the amount of part time
and by increases in overtime.
The rise in pay rolls from 1932 to 1940, when adjusted for changes
in cost of living, was 97.8 percent. Aggregate wages regained a large
part of the loss of the years from 1929 to 1932. Wage payments m
manufacturing, all of the minerals industries, and steam railroads com
bined rose from 51.7 percent of all income payments in these industries
in 1932 to 59.5 percent in 1939, thus regaining the losses sustained after
1929, but not those of the preceding decade.
One of the significant gains of these decades was the recognition of
the profound change in the American market.3 In earlier decades,
frontier growth at home and expansion in undeveloped areas of the
world were accompanied by an almost uninterrupted increase of oppor
tunities both for the investment of surplus income and for the profitable
employment of labor. New conditions made no longer possible the
former dependence on an expanding national and world economy and
shifted the emphasis to the internal market for consumers’ goods.
Wages, previously considered primarily as cost of production, came to
be viewed also as the predominant part of the income flow required to
sustain internal markets and to maintain without interruption the cycle
of production and consumption.
The preceding paragraphs give a summary analysis. A more de
tailed discussion of each of the topics summarized follows.
* Noteworthy in this connection are the Hearings before the Temporary N ational Eco
nomic Committee, especially P a rt 1, Economic Prologue (Washington, 1939) and P a rt 9,
Savings and Investment (Washington, 1940).
GENERAL TREND
10
H ou rly Earnings: E xtent o f Change
During the decade of the World W ar, from 1909 to 1919, the abnormal
wartime demands drained off much of the labor supply into the armed
forces and at the same time brought about a rapid rise in prices. Under
these conditions, wage rates naturally increased. In 1909, workers in
manufacturing, mining, and railroads averaged only 20.7 cents an
hour. In 1919, the average was 50.2 cents an hour, and by 1924 there
was a further increase to 56.8 cents.4 Between 1924 and 1930, there
was no marked change in hourly earnings, but the period of depression
beginning in 1929 was marked by a reduction from 58.4 cents in 1929 to
48.0 cents in 1933. An upward trend beginning in 1934 became most
marked between 1936 and 1937 but continued throughout the remainder
of the period. In 1940 hourly earnings were higher than in any pre
vious year (table 2).
T a b l e 2 , — Average hourly earnings o f wage earners in manufacturing, m ining, and
steam railroads, and index of cost of living, 1909, 1 914 f 1919, 1 9 2 8 -4 0
[Index numbers: Average 1923-25=100]
Average hourly earnings
Amount (cents)
Year
Manufac
turing
mining,
and
steam
railroads
Manu
fac
turing
1909___
1914___
1919___
1923___
1924___
20.7
23.7
50.2
54.7
56.8
19.3
22.3
47.7
52.0
54.5
1925......
1926___
1927.-,.
1928___
1929___
56.7
57.1
57.3
57.9
58.4
1930......
1931___
1932___
1933___
1934___
1935___
1936___
1937......
1938___
1939......
1940___
Index numbers
Index
of cost
of liv
ing 8
Steam
rail
roads 1
Manufac
turing,
mining,
and
steam
railroads
Manu
fac
turing
Mining i
Steam
rail
roads 8
31.3
34.4
70.7
77.9
77.1
21.9
25.2
53.7
58.1
59.2
36.9
42.3
89.5
97.6
101.3
36.0
41.6
88.9
97.0
101.6
40.7
44.7
91.9
101.3
100.2
37.1
42.7
90.9
98.4
100.2
<50.9
58.3
101.1
98.9
99.2
54.4
54.8
55.2
56.0
56.6
75.8
75.8
73.7
71.5
69.3
59.9
59.9
61.0
61.8
63.0
101.1
101.8
102 2
103.3
104.2
101.4
102.2
102.9
104.4
105.5
98.5
98.5
95.8
92.9
90.1
101.4
101.4
103.3
104.6
106.7
101.8
102.6
100.6
99.5
99.4
57.5
54.7
48.7
48.0
55.7
55.2
51.7
45.8
45.5
54.1
69.5
67.3
58.2
55.7
69.2
63.8
64.4
59.1
58.7
59.5
102.6
97.6
86.9
85.6
99.3
102.9
96.4
85.4
84.8
100 9
90.3
87.5
75.6
72.4
89.9
108.0
109.0
100.1
99.4
100. 7
96.9
88.2
79.2
75. 0
77.7
57.9
58.6
64.8
65.7
66.1
68.3
55.9
56.4
63.4
63.9
64.4
67.0
74.0
77.1
82.8
84.7
85.7
85.9
64.3
65.1
66.9
70.4
70.7
71.1
103.3
104.5
115.6
117.2
117.9
121.8
104.2
105.2
118.2
119.1
120.1
124.9
96.2
100.2
107.6
110.1
111.4
111.7
108.9
110.2
113.3
119.2
119.7
120.4
79.6
80.4
83.4
81.8
80.7
81.2
Mining *
1 Bituminous coal, anthracite, and metalliferous. Based, in coal mining, on time at face excluding lunch *
* In this table and also in tables 3 to 6. steam railroad statistics apply to class I roads only. The relative
importance of class I roads has been virtually constant. Their car-miles represent I 98.8 percent of the
total in 1915, 98.3 percent in 1923, and 99.5 percent in 1929 and 1936. The figures for 1909 are the averages of
the 2 fiscal years ending June 30,1910. Since the figures then published included all classes of roads, esti
mates for class I roads were computed by means of ratios for the fiscal year 1910-11. The 1914 figures were
derived from data for the fiscal year ending June 30,1915. For some of the years, data for switching and
terminal companies were eliminated by means of ratios. Earnings are based on “ time paid for.”
8 Revised index taking into account changes in distribution of expenditures as shown by the 1934-36
study of family expenditures of wage earners and lower-salaried workers made by the Bureau of Labor
Statistics.
4The 1913 cost-of-living figure multiplied by the ratio of the 1909 to the 1913 index of the retail price of food.
4 The years intervening between 1919 and 1924 were marked by considerable fluctuations
in both wages and cost of living. Statistics of union rates and of general wages in selected
industries indicate increases in 1920 and declines in 1921 or 1922, and thereafter an up
tu rn in wages. The index of cost of liv in g rose sharply between 1919 and June 1920,
and thereafter, by 1922, returned approximately to the level of early 1919.
WAGES, HOURS, AND PRODUCTIVITY
11
A t the beginning of the three decades, average hourly earnings were
13.5 percent higher in steam railroads than in manufacturing; and
at the end of the period, only 6.1 percent higher. In mining, earnings
per hour were materially higher than in manufacturing throughout the
period, and with the exception of the years 1932 and 1933, higher also
than in railroad transportation. In the twenties, wages of manu
facturing and railroad workers remained fairly stable but the earnings
of miners declined. This was largely a result of the break-down of
collective bargaining and the progressive disintegration of the unionwage structure in bituminous-coal mining. After 1929, railroad
workers suffered the smallest decline in their hourly earnings, and after
1932, they made the smallest gains.
H o u rly Earnings: Causes o f Changes
In large and varied fields of employment, there are continuous
changes in the relative numbers of workers receiving various rates of
pay and in the number of hours of labor at each rate level. These
changes may of course have some effect on average hourly earnings (the
weighted rate of pay) independently of changes in the separate rates.
When only a few occupations with widely divergent numbers and
rates of pay are considered, changes in the numbers as well as changes
in the separate rates may have serious effects in altering the average
rate. When, however, the field covered is large and varied, any change
in the average rate is mainly an effect of changes in the separate rates.5
The main causes of changes in rates of pay during the period 1909-40
have been the growth of collective bargaining; the adoption of public
policies affecting wages; price changes; and changes in technology and
the productivity of labor.
The influence of the first factor, collective bargaining, grew with
unionization. From 1909 to 1940 there was an increase of only
5 The average wage rate brs at times Been viewed as being independent of the differences
in the separate rates and the varying numbers receiving the different rates. The separate
occupational rates in the different plants, no matter how divergent in size and in numbers
receiving the rates, were converted to index numbers. These numbers (showing percentage
changes in the separate rates) were added and averaged, and the simple averages of the
index numbers for the years covered were viewed as an index of wage rates. Information
regarding the varying amount of employment and size of pay rolls was formerly, of course,
relatively inadequate, and the methods used were in a sense adapted to the limitations of
the data. This was the method used, in connection With daily rates, by the Aldrich Com
mittee in its frequently used index of “ relative wages in all occupations” from 1840 to
1891, although the Committee also computed a general index by weighting the relatives
for the several industries by the numbers employed or numbers gainfully occupied. (U. S.
Congress, Senate, Committee on Finance, Report on Wholesale Prices, Wages, and Trans
portation, March 3, 1893 (Washington, 1893), part I, pp. 110-177.)
More recent conceptions of an average wage rate require that both the differences in
the separate rates and the different numbers receiving them be taken into account. When
the rates of pay of (let us say) 50 carpenters each receiving $1.00 an hour, 10 electricians
each receiving 80 cents an hour, and 200 laborers each receiving 40 cents an hour are
combined into a general rate, the separate rates should be weighted by the man-hours of
employment at each rate.
But this direct method of ascertaining the separate rates and combihing them on the
basis of the numb§?s receiving each rate can be used only in limited fields. The number
of rates (both time rates and piece rates) is almost infinite and there is a bewildering
rapidity o f change in the kinds o f work demanded, in the degrees of skill required, and in
the numbers receiving the separate rates. However, the equivalent of such a weighted
average rate is obtainable by computing average hourly earnings. It is a relatively simple
problem to obtain extensive samples of both pay rolls and man-hours. The pay-roll figures
include wages paid both for piece work and for time work, and the man-hours include time
worked on both a time basis and a piece basis. The number of dollars of aggregate wages
divided by the number of hours of aggregate time worked therefore gives average hourly
turnings, and the figure thus obtained is the equivalent of the weighted average rate.
A change in.wage rate's may cause or be accompanied by a shift in the proportions of
workers at different rate levels or in the speed of piece workers or in other factors
affecting average hourly earnings. Therefore, a change of say 10 percent in rates of pay
might not be accompanied by a change of exactly 10 percent in average hourly earnings.
505364 0 - 43 - 2
12
GENERAL TREND
about 75 percent in the number of workers who form the potential
membership of labor organizations. In contrast, there was a four
fold increase in the membership of labor organizations, and there
fore general advances in wages were more easily secured and retained.
A second cause of the rise in the compensation of labor, especially
during the latter part of the period, was public policy, although the
action of public agencies in connection with strikes and industrial
disputes has tended at times to force employees to yield and accept
reductions or forego advances. ^ During the World W ar, public
agencies were established for adjusting industrial disputes, and the
provisions of Government contracts for war supplies tended to raise
wages. After the World W ar, there was a policy of nonintervention
as far as legislative and administrative agencies were concerned, but
the courts were utilized extensively by employers, especially through
injunctions, to check the influence of labor organizations. As a result,
the Norris-LaGuardia Act was passed in 1932 to limit the use of
injunctions in labor disputes. Minimum-wage legislation was
enacted in some States, but unfavorable court decisions seriously halted
the efforts to establish minimum wages by law. The extreme reduc
tions of wages in some industries during the depression beginning
in 1929 were followed by the enactment of the wage-and-hour pro
visions of the National Industrial Recovery Act, under which an
attempt was made on a Nation-wide basis to establish minimum rates
of pay for virtually all types of workers. The National Industrial
Recovery Act also defended the workers’ right to organize and to
deal collectively with employers. The invalidation o t the law was
followed by the National Labor Relations Act for maintaining these
rights of workers. Further developments in public policy relating to
wages included the Public Contracts Act of 1936, the Fair Labor
Standards Act of 1938, and the payment of prevailing wages in the
emergency employment program.
Two other influences of outstanding importance affecting rates of
wages were technology and price. Changes in prices most directly
affecting wage earners are embodied in the cost-of-living index. (See
table 2.J Technological changes and the accompanying rise in labor
productivity and in volume of production created an economic basis
for increases in the compensation of workers.
P rodu ctivity and Purchasing P ow er
The average amount of wages paid for an hour of labor when
allowances are made for changes in cost of living measures approxi
mately the purchasing power of wages and indicates roughly what
wage earners draw out of the national product per hour of labor.
The productivity of labor in the sense of the amount produced per
hour of labor indicates the general level of industrial efficiency on
which depends the amount produced for consumption. A comparison
of real hourly earnings with man-hour productivity indicates roughly
whether or not the wage earners’ rate of consumption is keeping pace
with the basic or man-hour rate of production.® Indexes of production
•For a further development of this conception, see Productivity, Wages, and National
Income, by Spurgeon Bell, Washington, Brookings Institution, 1940. This volume em
phasizes the view that it is more Important for employers to distribute the benefits of
increasing productivity to consumers generally through lower prices than to wage earners
through higher wages.
WAGES, HOURS, AND PRODUCTIVITY
13
axe available for manufacturing as a whole, for bituminous-coal min
ing, for anthracite mining, and for steam railroads. From these
indexes o f production and from the figures o f employment and hours,
indexes o f man-hour output have been constructed (table 3) for com
parison with the indexes of real hourly earnings for the same
industries.
3 .— In d e x es o f average h ou rly ea rn in g s adjusted to cost o f livin g a nd i n
dexes o f o u tp u t p er m a n -h ou r i n m an u fa ctu rin g, coal m in in g ,° a nd stea m rail
roads, 1 9 0 9 , 1 9 1 4 , 1 9 1 9 , 1 9 2 8 - 4 0 1
T able
[Average 1923-25*100]
Year
Manufacturing
Bituminous-coal
mining
Anthracite mining
Steam railroads
Average
hourly
earnings Output
adjusted per man
hour*
by costof-living
index
Average
hourly
earnings Output
adjusted per man
hour 3
by costof-living
index
Average
hourly
earnings Output
adjusted per man
hour 3
by costof-living
index
Aver&ge
hourly
earnings Output
adjusted per man
by costhour4
of-living
index
1909_______________
1914_______________
1919_______________
1923_______________
1924_______________
1925_______________
1926_______________
70.7
71.4
87.9
98.1
102.4
99.6
99.6
62.2
71.7
71.7
94.0
100.1
106.2
110.1
77.4
75.0
91.6
104.2
100.0
95.9
93.5
69.5
77.2
85.1
99.2
100.9
100.2
99.5
61.1
56.4
76.0
96.0
103.6
100.4
99.2
84.8
89.8
100.0
103.5
97.7
98.2
98.7
72.9
73.2
89.9
99.5
101.0
99.6
98.8
75.4
85.4
96.4
99.3
104.6
107.1
1927_______________
1928.....................
1929_______________
1930______________ _
1931_______________
1932_______________
1933____ __________
102.3
104.9
106.1
106.2
109.3
107.8
113.1
113.4
119.1
123.8
127.5
132.6
128.0
135.5
91.2
87.8
83.6
86.3
89.6
80.2
81.5
100.8
104.5
107.2
111.9
117.1
115.0
109.1
100.6
101.1
100.6
102.7
112.1
125.0
130.9
101.7
101.5
99.8
97.3
103.7
119.0
130.8
102.7
105.1
107.3
111.5
123.6
126.4
132.5
106.8
112.1
113.9
113.8
114.6
111.9
124.6
1934______ _____ _
1935_______________
1936_______________
1937_______________
1938______
_ _ .
1939...
.
1940_______________
129.9
130.9
130.8
141.7
145.6
148.8
153.8
140.4
148.8
150.3
147.8
150.7
163.9
172.8
105.7
114.2
120.5
125.3
131.1
134.0
132.8
111.0
114.5
120.5
123.8
131.8
142.2
141.2
127.5
124.1
124.4
125.7
135.2
137.3
136.6
122.6
125.5
129.6
136.8
137.1
135.9
145.7
148.3
148.3
125.4
131.0
140.5
143.2
141.5
149.3
157.3
° The figures are subject to adjustment to the 1939 Census of Mineral Industries.
1 Each of these indexes is derived by dividing one index by another (a production index by a man-hours
index or an index of average hourly earnings by the cost-of-living index), the original indexes being oh the
1023-25 base. The base-period figures of the derived indexes represent the average output (or the real
hourly earnings) over the 3-year period and not the average of the 3 yearly figures.
* The production index used in computing man-hour output up to 1939 is the National Bureau of Eco
nomic Research index, constructed from the detailed data collected by the Bureau of the Census and pub
lished in a volume by Mr. Solomon Fabricant, The Output of Manufacturing Industries, 1899-1937.
For the year 1940 the Federal Reserve Board index is linked to the National Bureau of Economic Re
search index.
3 The index of production used is derived from tonnage figures. The index of man-hour output in mining
is affected to an exceptional degree by factors other than technological change, such as the proportion of
mining done in high-cost mines and by contractors.
4 The production index used is derived from revenue traffic units (revenue passenger-miles times 2.6 plus
revenue ton-miles).
There was an almost continuous rise from 1909 to 1940 in labor
productivity. Changes during the twenties (1923 to 1929) were espe
cially significant because o f their bearing on the ensuing depression.
In manufacturing, bituminous-coal mining, and steam railroads, man
hour output rose sharply and at the same time there was either a
much smaller increase or a decline in real hourly earnings. (See
table 3.) In railroad transportation, real hourly earnings increased
8 percent in contrast to an 18-percent rise in man-hour output. In
manufacturing, real hourly earnings rose 8 percent and man-hour
GENERAL TREND
14
output, 32 percent. In bituminous-coal mining, real hourly earnings
declined 20 percent in contrast to an 8-percent advance in man-hour
output. Conditions peculiar to the anthracite industry account for
the fact that from 1923 to 1929 man-hour output declined slightly,
accompanying a small increase in earnings.
From 1909 to 1940, manufacturing showed a rise of 118 percent in
real hourly earnings and 178 percent in man-hour output; bituminouscoal mining showed corresponding increases of 72 and 103 percent ;
anthracite mining (1909 to 1935), 103 and 48 percent; and railroad
transportation (1914 to 1940), 103 and 109 percent.
In 1940, in manufacturing, real hourly earnings were 54 percent
above the average for 1923 to 1925, and man-hour output was 73 per
cent above the 1923-25 level. Corresponding increases in bituminouscoal mining were 33 and 41 percent; in anthracite mining (in 1935) 24
and 26 percent; and in railroad transportation, 48 and 57 percent.
W eekly Earnings
The weekly money earnings of the average wage earner in manu
facturing, mining, and railroad transportation more than doubled
T
able
4.—
A verag e
w eek ly ea rn in gs i n m a n u fa ctu rin g , m in in g , a nd stea m ra il
ro a d s , 1 90 9 , 191 4 y 1 91 9 , 1 9 2 8 -4 0
[Index numbers: Average 1923-25=1001
Index numbers adjusted by cost-of-living
index 3
Average weekly earnings 1
Year
Manu
facturing,
mining,
Manu
facturing 3 Mining
and
steam
railroads
*
Steam
railroads
Manu
facturing,
mining,
Manu
Steam
facturings Mining * railroads
and
steam
railroads
1909____________
1914____________
1919____________
1923____________
1924____________
$10.83
12.09
23.83
25.55
25.51
$10.38
11.61
23.29
25.13
25.24
$12.41
13.06
26.80
27.48
26.64
$11.77
13.66
24.84
26.42
26.14
82.9
80.8
91.8
100.6
100.2
80.4
78.6
90.8
100.2
100.3
90.4
83.0
98.3
103.0
99.6
87.6
88.7
93.1
101.2
99.8
1925____________
1926____________
1927____________
3928......................
1929......................
25.95
26.44
26.31
26.55
26.78
25.71
26.00
26.10
26.34
26.40
26.78
29.74
26.34
26.54
27.56
26.63
26.91
27.19
27.49
28.26
99.3
100.4
101.9
103.9
104.9
99.6
99.9
102.3
104.4
104.7
97.5
107.5
97.1
98.9
102.8
99.1
99.3
102.4
104.6
107.7
1930.....................
1931____________
1932........... ..........
1933____________
1934____________
25.06
22.64
18.60
18.09
19.65
24. 53
22.02
17.86
17.36
18.93
24.95
20.41
16.51
16.80
19.93
27. 57
26.54
23.13
22.84
24.11
100.7
100.0
91.5
94.0
98.5
99.8
98.4
88.9
91.3
96.0
95.5
85.8
77.3
83.1
95.1
107.7
113.9
110.6
115.3
117.5
1935____________
1936........ - ..........
1937____________
1938____________
1939_____ ______
1940_______ ____
21.52
23.26
25.40
23.47
25.26
26.62
20.85
22.60
24.95
22.70
24.58
26.11
20.94
23.44
24.94
21.92
24.71
25.46
26.49
27.72
28.93
29.98
30.71
31.32
105.3
112.7
118.6
111.7
121.9
127.7
103.3
110.8
118.0
109.4
120.1
126.8
97.6
108.1
110.9
99.4
113.5
116.3
126.1
130.6
131.4
138.9
144.1
146.2
i
In manufacturing and mining, average weekly earnings for the years 1932 to 1940 were computed from the
Bureau of Labor Statistics' employment and pay-roll samples. For the periodirom 1909 to 1932, estimated
total weekly pay rolls were divided by the estimated average number of employees, and these series were
then adjusted to the 1932-40 series by means of the ratios for 1932. For railroads, average weekly earnings
were computed from the Interstate Coipmerce Commission's figures of employment and pay rolls.
3 See table 3, footnote 1.
* Railroad repair shops are excluded throughout the period.
« Bituminous coal, anthracite, and metalliferous.
WAGES, HOURS, AND PRODUCTIVITY
15
from 1909 to 1919, but at the end of the decade, the wage earner’s
dollar woulo v uy only half as much as at its beginning. The weekly
average in 1909 was $10.83; in 1919, $23.83; in 1923, $25.55; and in
1929, $26.78. There followed sharp reductions in money wages and
somewhat smaller declines in cost of living during the depression years,
but in 1934 both money earnings and cost of living turned upward.
In buying power, although not in dollars, weekly earnings were higher
in 1940 than in any previous vear.
The average weekly wage (table 4) is the average of the wages of all
types of workers—regulany employed full-time workers and part-time
and overtime workers. Part-time and overtime workers as propor
tions of the total vary both from industry to industry and from time to
time in the same industry.7
W eekly Hours and Employment
Weekly hours of work (hours actually worked, not normal or regu
larly scheduled hours) averaged 51.7 in 1909 and 46.9 in 1919. During
the next decade there *s little change. Most of the sharp reduction
from 45.2 hours in 192 * to 37.7 in 1932 was caused by increased part
time and the sharing of work. The average in 1940 was 38.3 hours,
about the same as in 1932. After 1932, the averages were influenced
by two contrary tendencies. The reduction of part time tended to raise
the averages. At the same time, however, a widespread reduction of
the normal length o f shifts and of the hours of plant operation tended
to lower the averages. The reduction of normal hours was brought
about largely by collective bargaining, the National Industrial Recov
ery Act, and the Fair Labor Standards Act.
The predominance o f manufacturing in the general average for
manufacturing, mining, and railroads accounts for the fact that hours
of work in manufacturing conformed closely to hours in the combined
industries. Throughout the period, mining was characterized by a
large amount o f part time and also, in many areas, by collective
agreements for hours of labor materially shorter than in many other
industries. These circumstances account for the fact that average
hours in the mining industries were usually shorter than in manufac
turing or railroad transportation. The general average in the mining
industries fell from 40.5 hours in 1909 to 39.1 hours in 1919. The
average in 1929 rose to 40.2 hours but fell to only 28.7 hours in 1932,
rising slightly to 29.8 in 1940. Railroad workers as a rule had com
paratively long hours. The average in 1909 ^fas 53.9 hours; in 1919,
46.3; in 1929, 44.8; in 1932, 39.1; and in 1940, 44.1.
The average worker in manufacturing, mining, and railroad trans
portation had about 13 hours more leisure per week ( 2 % hours per
working day) in 1940 than in 1909. A t the same time, in terms of
the things a dollar could buy, for every dollar the average weekly pay
envelope contained in 1909, it had $1.54 in 1940. These remarkable
7 Average weekly earnings in manufacturing and mining are now computed on an annual
basis by adding sample pay rolls for the 12 reporting weeks (usually the week ending
nearest the middle of the month) and similarly by adding the number of workers (includ
ing part-time and overtime workers) on the pay rolls during the 12 weeks and by dividing
the sum of the pay rolls by the sum of the workers. For the period from 1909 to 1932,
the estimated average weekly pay roll in each main branch of employment was divided by
the estimated average number of employees, and the resulting series were adjusted to
the 19,32—40 series by means of the ratios for 1932. For railroads, average weekly earnings
were computed from the Interstate Commerce Commission’s figures of employment and pay
roila
16
GENERAL TREND
gains were accompanied by even more noteworthy advances in labor
productivity.
The increase in the average number o f wage earners was wholly
accounted for by the growth o f the manufacturing industries. The
number in manufacturing was 6,273,200 in 1909 and 8,484,400 in 1940.
In contrast, employment in the mining industries fell from 831,000
in 1909 to 553,200 in 1940, and in railroad transportation, from 1,562,700 in 1909 to 1,062,600 in 1940.8
T a b l e 5 . — A v era g e n u m ber o f wage earners and average w e ek ly hdurs i n m a n u fa c
tu rin g, m in in g , and steam railroads, 1 9 0 9 , 1 9 1 4 , 1 9 1 9 , 1 9 2 3 - 4 0
Average number of wage earners 1
Average weekly hours 2
Manufac
turing,
mining,
and steam
railroads
Manufac
turing
Mining
1909............ ..............
1914______________
1919______________
1923______________
1924______________
1925______________
1926______________
8,666,900
8,960,600
11,322,000
11,075,500
10,299,800
10,529,600
10,727,100
6,273,200
6,614,000
8,418,400
8,194,700
7,609,100
7,875,000
8,024,300
831,000
863,700
824,400
903,800
829,000
803,200
813,400
1,562,700
1,482,900
2,079,200
1,977,000
1,861,700
1,851,400
1,889,400
51.7
50.3
46.9
46.1
44.4
45.2
45.7
52.7
51.0
47.8
47.3
45.4
46.3
46.5
40.5
38.7
39.1
36.1
35.3
36.1
40.1
53.9
54.1
46.3
45.5
44.1
44.5
44.9
1927______________
1928______________
1929______________
1930______________
1931______________
1932______________
1933______________
10,494,800
10,344,700
10,835,100
9,523,800
8,071,400
6,799,300
7,300,700
7,851,500
7,865,200
8,368,800
7,292,700
6,162,300
5,235,500
5,790, 500
804,700
730,400
711,500
668,100
593,200
487,400
489,400
1,838,600
1,749,100
1,754,800
1,563,000
1,315,900
1,076,400
1,020,800
45.2
45.2
45.2
43.0
40.8
37.7
37.5
46.3
46.1
45.7
43.5
41.7
38.2
37.8
36.5
37.9
40.2
36.6
31.0
28.7
30.6
44.6
44.5
44.8
43.2
41.2
39.1
38.9
1934______________
1935______________
1936______________
1937__________
1938______________
1939______________
1940______________
8,385,500
8,821,100
9,539,500
10,360,200
8,688,600
9,415,600
10,100,200
6,763,900
7,202,600
7,810,800
8,570,000
7,175,500
7,887,800
8,484,400
568,200
579,700
602,900
625,700
537,500
502,000
553,200
1,053,400
1,038,800
1,125,800
1,164,500
975,600
1,025,800
1,062,600
34.9
36.5
39.0
38.6
35.7
37.8
38.3
34.5
36.5
39.1
38.6
35.5
37.6
38.1
28.9
28.3
30.5
30.2
25.7
29.0
29.8
40.5
41.2
42.6
43.2
42.6
43.5
44.1
Year
Steam
railroads
Manufac
turing,
mining,
and steam
railroads
Steam
Manu
factur Mining rail
ing
roads
1 Manufacturing excludes railroad repair shops. In railroads, the numbers receiving pay during the
month are used, with ratio adjustments of middle-of-month figures before 1933; and all employees are classed
as wage earners except the following groups as numbered in the Interstate Commerce Commission's current
classification (or corresponding earlier groups): Groups 1-5,13,17,19-22,27, 44, 50-52, 78, 84, 85, 99, 105,106.
In mining, Census and Bureau of Labor Statistics data are used, with figures for years not covered by
these agencies estimated from Bureau of Mines and State data. See footnote a to table 3. 2 In manufacturing and mining, for years 1932 to 1940, weekly hours are from Bureau of Labor Statistics
man-hour samples. In manufacturing, for years 1909 to 1932, weekly hours were computed by dividing
man-hours (derived from pay rolls and hourly earnings) by employment and linking to the 1932-40 series
by the 1932 ratio. In mining it was necessary to adapt methods to the varied and at times fragmentary
data. For railroads, weekly hours are man-hours divided by employment.
Pay Rolls and Wage Earners’ Share o f Income
Total wage payments in manufacturing, mining, and steam rail
roads almost trebled from 1909 to 1919, rising from $4,680,000,000 to
$13,453,000,000. During the next 10 years there were few extreme
fluctuations. The total in 1929 was $14,454,000,000, and in 1932,
$6,315,000,000, much less than half o f the 1929 aggregate. The high
point after 1932 was $12,805,000,000 in 1940. (See table 6.)
8 The number of wage earners is the average of all full-time, part-time, and overtime
workers on the pay rolls during the 12 reporting periods of each year. Average weekly
hours, as stated above, are affected by part-time, overtime, and labor turn-over and are
materially lower than full-time hours of regularly employed workers. Thus, in manulacturmg as a whole, average hours actually worked in 1909, 1914, 1919, 1923, and
1929 were from 7 to 10 percent less than prevailing hours or normal hours of work as
computed from census data. The later increase in part time added to the difference.
17
WAGES, HOURS, AND PRODUCTIVITY
When expressed in terms of purchasing power, total wages showed
much smaller variations. There was a rise of about 99 percent in the
cost-of-living index from 1909 to 1919. The rise continued until
1920, when a decline set in and the index, up to 1929, remained
comparatively near the 1916 level. When pay rolls were being reduced
so sharply after 1929* there was a fall in the cost of living, but so great
was the reduction in wage payments that pay rolls adjusted by the
cost^of-living index were 14 percent lower in 1932 than in 1914. The
rise in wage payments after 1932 brought the total in 1940, when
adjusted for changes in cost of living, to the highest point of the
entire period.
T
a b l e
6*—
P a y rolls in m a n u fa ctu rin g, m in in g , and stea m railroads, a nd in d ex o f
cost o f livin g, 1909, 1914, 1919, 1928-40
[Index numbers: Average 1923-25=100]
Total wages
Amount (millions)
Index numbers
Index
of cost
of liv
ing
Year
Manufac
turing,
mining,
and Steam
railroads
Manu
factur
ing i
Steam
Mining2 railroads
Manufac
turing,
mining,
and steam
railroads
Manu
factur
ing 1
Mining2
Steam
railroads
1909___
1914____
1919____
1923.......
1924____
$4,680
5,403
13,453
14,109
13,112
$3,210
3,788
9,665
10,152
9,468
$511
559
1,095
1,233
1,100
$959
1,056
2,693
2,724
2,544
34.4
39.7
98.8
103.6
96.3
32.5
38.4
98.0
102.9
96.0
45.1
49.3
96.7
108.8
97.1
36.7
40.4
103.1
104.2
97.4
3 50.9
58.3
101.1
98.9
99.2
1925____
1926____
1927____
1928____
1929____
13,616
14,138
13,761
13,690
14,454
9,980
10,285
10,100
10,212
10,894
1,065
1,202
1,054
964
975
2,571
2,651
2,007
2,514
2,585
100.0
103.9
101.1
100.6
106.2
101.1
104.2
102.4
103.5
110.4
94.0
106.1
93.0
85.1
86.1
98.4
101.5
99.8
96.2
98.9
101.8
102.6
100.6
99.5
99.4
1930____
3931____
1932____
1933____
1934 ____
11,896
9,115
6,315
6,570
8,243
8,818
6,689
4,610
4,945
6,368
831
605
403
409
551
2,247
1,821
1,302
1,216
1,324
87.4
67.0
46.4
48.3
60.6
89.4
67.8
46.7
50.1
64.5
73.3
53.4
35.6
36.1
48.7
86.0
69.7
49.8
46.5
50.7
90.9
88.2
79.2
75.0
77.7
1936____
1936____
1937____
1938____
1939____
1940.......
9,327
10, 767
12,608
9,831
11,323
12,805
7,311
8,463
10,108
7,742
9,092
10,396
581
672
743
564
588
669
1,436
1,632
1,757
1,525
1,643
1,740
68.5
79.1
92.6
72.2
83.2
94.1
74.1
86.8
102.5
78.5
92.2
105.4
51.3
59.3
65.5
49.8
51.9
59.1
54.9
62.5
67.2
58.4
62.9
66.6
79.6
80.4
as. 4
81.8
80.7
81.2
1 Railroad repair shops are excluded throughout the period.
* BitutniflOiis-Coal, anthracite, and metalliferous. Pay rolls are from data collected by the Bureau of the
Census and the Bureau of Labor Statistics, with figures for years not covered by these agencies computed
by use of varied data, especially man-hours and average hourly earnings, with adjustments for conformity
to ttetid. See footnote a to table 3.
3 The 1913 cost-of-living figure multiplied by the ratio of the 1909 to the 1913 index of the retail price of food.
In manufacturing, railroad transportation, and the more important
minerals industries, the statistics o f total income and o f wages are
comparatively adequate. It is possible, therefore, on the basis o f
recent revisions o f income statistics9 to compute wages as percentages
o f total income in these industries.
9
National Bureau of Economic Research, National Income and Capital Formation, 1919.‘>5, by Simon Kuznets (New York, 1937) ; U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of
Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Income in the United States, 1929-37, by Robert R.
Nathan (Washington, 1938). Revisions of the data from 1929 to 1939 were supplied by
the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. The figures of the National Bureau of
Economic Research were linked by the 1929 ratios to the figures of the Bureau of Foreign
and Domestic Commerce.
18
GENERAL TREND
111 1919, wages were 64.6 percent of all income payments in manu
facturing, railroad transportation, and the minerals industries (bi
tuminous-coal, anthracite and metalliferous mines, oil wells and
natural gas, and quarrying and nonmetallie mines), and in 1920, 66.4
percent (table 7). In 1929, wages were only 57.1 percent of all income
payments in these industries. This decline occurred during a period
when there were large savings of income not distributed as income
payments but retained by business firms for the stockholders or other
owners. The decline of the comparative amount going to wages con
tinued until 1932 when wages were 51.7 percent o f the total. Income
payments other than wages after 1929 were in part derived from
earlier savings. After 1932, the percentage that was distributed as
wages regained a part of the earlier loss and was somewhat larger
in 1939 than in 1929.
T a b l e 7 . — W a g e and non w a ge in co m e as percentages o f aggregate in co m e p a id out in
m a n u fa ctu rin g , m in era ls in d u striestl and stea m ra ilroa d s ,2 1 9 1 9 - 8 9
Percentages of aggregate
income going to—
Year
Wages
Income
payments
other than
wages
3
Percentages of aggregate
income going to—
Year
Wages
Income
payments
other than
wages
1919
________________
1920 ............... .............. .......
1921_____________________
1922.....................................
1923_____________ ______ _
64.6
66.4
61.3
61.8
63.6
35.4
33.6
38.7
38.2
36.4
1930_____ _____________
1931........................... ..........
1932_______________ _____
1933_____ _______________
1934____________ ________
53.4
52.2
51.7
55.1
57.2
46.6
47.8
48.3
44.9
42.8
1924 . _________________
1925
__________
1926 __________________ .
1927 ...................................
1928____________ _______
1929............................... - -
61.8
61.1
60. 5
58. 9
57.4
57.1
38.2
38.9
39.5
41.1
42.6
42.9
1935_____________________
1936_______________ _____
1 9 3 7 ....................................
1938__________ ____ _____
1939...... ................................
57.9
57.5
59.4
58.6
59.5
42.1
42.5
40.6
41.4
40. 5
— . 4 ---------
i Bituminous-coal, anthracite, and metalliferous mines, oil wells and natural gas, and quarrying and
nonmetallie mines.
i Including Pullman and railway express.
3 Computed from the income statistics of the National Bureau of Economic Research in National Income
and Capital Formation, 1- ^-35, by Simon Kuznets (pp. 62-63), for 1919 to 1929, and of the Bureau of
Foreign and Domestic Commerce of the U. S. Department of Commerce for 1929 to 1939, linked by the
1929 ratios.
A fall in wages as a percentage of total income paid out may, of
course, occur when there is a rise in the amount of wages paid. This
occurred at times from 1919 to 1929, when total wage payments in
creased, though not as much as nonwage income. From 1929 to 1932,
nonwage income also declined, but not so rapidly as wages. After
1932, wage payments and nonwage income both increased, but the
larger increase was in wages.
W
a g e s
a n d
H o u r s
b y
I n d u s tr ie s
a n d
T r a d e s
Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 694
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1941 edition
19
Hourly Earnings, Weekly Hours, and Weekly Earnings,
by Industries
The Bureau of Labor Statistics compiles and publishes monthly
the hourly earnings, weekly hours o f labor, and weekly earnings for
workers in a large number of industries. The average hourly earnings
and weekly hours are based on information furnished by such of
the establishments reporting regularly to the Bureau on employment
and pay rolls as are able to furnish data regarding man-hours of
employment. By dividing man-hours per week by the number of
employees on the weekly pay roll, the average hours per week per
worker are obtained; and by dividing the weekly pay roll by the
number of man-hours worked, average hourly earnings are obtained.
Multiplying hourly earnings by hours per week produces, o f course,
the average weekly earnings per worker. The weekly per capita
earnings thus obtained may differ, because o f the smaller sample of
plants reporting man-hour data, from the published average which
is obtained by dividing total pay rolls by total employment as fur
nished by all reporting establishments. The difference, however, is
in most cases quite small, and the average derived from the larger
sample is used by the Bureau as being probably somewhat more repre
sentative than that secured from the smaller man-hour sample.
The attempt by the Bureau to secure man-hour data as a means of
computing hourly earnings and weekly hours was initiated only in
1932 and for most industries it was several months before the reports
were sufficiently numerous to permit of satisfactory results. There
was, however, a constant increase in the number of establishments
reporting man-hours until at the present time the figures compiled
on hours and earnings monthly may be accepted as substantially
correct for most of the industries covered by the employment and
pay-roll reports. Also, while fluctuation in the number of reporting
establishments may affect the strict comparability o f the averages
from month to month, the figures may be accepted as quite accurately
indicative of the trend in hours and earnings.
Those industries for which the samples seem too small to produce
fairly accurate results are omitted from the accompanying table which
shows by years for 1933,1936,1939, and 1940 and for August 1941, the
average hourly earnings, average weekly hours, and weekly per capita
earnings. The averages for all manufacturing and for each of the
industry groups have been weighted by the number of employees in
each o f the industries concerned.
21
A verag e hours worked per w eek , average h ou rly and w eek ly earnings in m anu fa cturing and n o n m a n u fa ctu rin g in d u stries , b y ye a rs , 1 9 3 8 ,
.7030, 1 9 4 0 , and A u g u st 1 9 4 1 (p r e lim in a r y )
Average hourly earnings
(in cents)
Average hours worked per week
^0#£,
to
^
Average weekly earnings
Industry
1933
1936
1939
1940
Aug.
1941
1933
1936
1939
1940
Aug.
1941
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
Total manufacturing............ ......... ..................................................................................... 37.8
Durable goods............... ......................... —................... —- .......................................... 34.7
Nondurable goods....................... .................................................................................. 39.7
39.1
40.8
37.7
37.6
37.8
37.4
38.1
39.2
37.0
41.0
42.6
39.4
45.5
48.5
43.7
56.4
59.7
53.7
64.4
71.0
59.1
67.0
73.4
61.2
74.5 $17.36 $22.60 $24.58 $26.11 $31.63
17.80 25.24 27.83 29.88 36.52
83.0
17.04 20.09 21.54 22.03 25.38
65.8
33.8
32.5
(0
29.7
(0
0)
35.2
0)
0)
33.5
35.8
32.8
0)
(*)
0)
33.5
(0
0)
33.1
34.6
32.7
40.8
40.9
41.9
38.2
41.0
41.7
41.0
39.0
40.0
41.2
41.7
41.7
39.3
43.5
40.4
41.2
39.4
41.3
39.9
40.6
42.4
36.8
35.5
37.7
36.4
39.1
38.4
38.1
38.2
38.1
37.6
38.1
38.5
38.8
39.7
38.1
38.9
37.7
37.2
38.5
40.0
38.9
38.1
37.3
39.5
37.2
39.5
41.3
39.0
38.9
39.1
40.3
38.8
39.2
39.0
41.1
39.5
41.3
39.1
40.1
40.7
43.7
41.0
41.4
40.1
45.0
41.1
44.0
45.9
42.8
40.1
41.5
44.0
41.5
44.2
42.9
46.5
42.0
45.1
40.1
44.6
43.9
46.2
45.6
50.3
53.1
0)
45.3
0)
(0
46.5
0)
0)
51.6
48.2
48.0
0)
0)
0)
54.1
0)
0)
57.1
57.5
53.2
62.0
67.1
57.5
49.3
52.6
62.7
56.2
57.0
55.8
58.7
58.2
58.4
52.5
53.8
55.4
61.3
66.1
71.0
62.4
66.3
60.1
75.9
84.3
69.0
58.1
60.1
76.7
66.8
67.6
62.7
69.7
66.6
72.7
61.1
61.8
68.3
72.5
78.9
82.1
74.0
79.0
71.6
77.3
84.8
69.6
60.1
62.2
79.1
68.3
69.1
65.2
71.4
68.0
73.6
63.0
63.5
70.3
74.5
80.0
82.9
75.8
81.7
73.4
87.1
96.8
80.0
67.5
70.2
90.5
77.5
75.3
72.1
81.1
73.7
83.5
66.9
73.5
75.5
84.4
90.7
91.8
85.3
99.7
82.6
17.03
17.27
16.91
13.33
17.53
17.28
15.61
15.73
15.88
17.38
17.67
16.08
18.95
16.87
(})
18.86
18.86
24.12
19.83
19.77
17.32
25.61
27.37
24.08
18.99
21.53
26.11
22.90
22.23
22.44
24.25
24.12
24.32
20.69
23.43
22.36
25.29
25.94
28.78
24.98
26.87
25.55
28.00
29.92
26.04
21.33
23.11
29.45
25.47
25.80
23.92
26.19
25.25
27.95
23.61
24.49
25.96
28.19
29.61
30.38
28.43
31.44
27.83
29.57
31.54
27.50
22.51
24.19
32.56
26.64
26.83
25.51
28.71
26. 33
28.83
24.46
26.06
27.74
30.82
31.18
33.06
30. 72
35.61
30.13
30.12
38.81
36.02
27.91
30.38
41.41
33.11
30.21
29.71
35.51
30.48
36.82
28.42
34.03
31.68
38.19
36.31
40.76
37.44
46.02
37.72
33.9
44.6
37.3
41.0
42.1
38.3
42.1
38.5
38.1
40.4
42.9
38.5
39.8
37.3
36.3
41.5
35.5
36.0
36.7
38.0
48.2
38.5
40.3
39.5
38.9
43.2
37.9
38.0
39.4
39.8
51.2
41.3
46.6
46.4
41.9
45.6
39.0
39.4
46.1
56.8
63.6
54.0
59.9
56.9
75.9
63.2
77.4
62.2
63.3
76.0
75.2
58.1
66.0
64.3
89.4
74.5
92.9
74.1
77.1
83.5
76.8 85.0
61.4 68.7
66.1 74.4
65.7 75.4
89.9 99.0
74.3 85.5
94.9 105.7
75.0 84.4
79.3 88.4
87.0 103.9
19.44
18.30
19.85
17.04
21.05
27.46
20.96
18.85
18.71
20.81
28.40
20.10
24.55
23.98
29.08
26.08
29.75
23.74
25.54
27.35
32.25
22.34
26.19
23.98
32.30
30.34
32.90
26.71
28.33
31.91
36.97
23.60
26.56
25.94
34.65
31.40
35.88
28.47
31.25
34.78
43.53
28.32
34.49
35.01
41.23
38.46
41.14
33.29
40.74
46.47
1933
1936
1939
1940
Aug.
1941
Durable goods
0)
36.5
36.3
0)
0)
35.2
0)
0)
31.0
35.7
44.4
0)
56.5
48.0
0)
(*)
59.3
0)
0)
60.8
WAGES AND HOURS
Iron and steel and their products, not including machinery................................
Blast furnaces, steel works, and rolling mills......................................................
Bolts, nuts, washers, and rivets.........................................................................
Cast-iron pipe......................... ....................... .................................................. .............
Cutlery (not including silver and plated cutlery) and edge tools................
Forgings, iron and steel...............................................................................................
Hardware..........................................................................................................................
Plumbers’ supplies...................... ....... ..........................................................................
Stamped and enameled w a re ..................................................................... ............
Steam and hot-water heating apparatus and steam fittings....... ..................
Stov es............—........................... ..................................................- ..............................
Structural and ornamental metalwork..................................................................
Tin cans and other tinware.............................................................................. .........
Tools (not including edge tools, machine tools, files, and saws)...................
Wirework.............................. ......... .......................................................... .......................
Machinery, not including transportation equipment.............................................
Agricultural implements (including tractors)........................ ....... .....................
Cash registers, adding machines, and calculating machines..........................
Electrical machinery, apparatus, and suppli %...................................................
Engines, turbines, water wheels, and windmills...............................................
Foundry and machine-shop products....................................................................
Machine tools.......................... .......................................................................................
Radios and phonographs...................... ......................................................................
Textile machinery and parts............. .......................................................................
Typewriters and parts.................................................................... .......... ................
Transportation equipment................................................................................................
Aircraft............................................................................................................................
Automobiles.................................. .......................................................... ......................
Cars, electric- and steam-railroad...... ........... ..........................................................
Locomotives................................ ............... ....................................................................
Shipbuilding....................................................................................................................
41.1
41.3
41.6
41.9
39.1
41.6
39.0
41.5
43.0
42.4
39.0
39.2
39.6
37.9
39.3
37.1
40.7
38.2
38.9
38.9
40.0
40.4
41.3
39.4
39.1
38.9
40.6
38.8
38.7
39.3
43.0
42.6
44.4
43.1
42.4
41.9
44.1
39.5
41.8
42.5
0)
0)
49.3
41.9
(0
0)
49.1
0)
0)
37.7
57.0
57.0
59.5
50.5
55.4
55.6
58.4
57.8
42.4
45.5
67.7
70.1
72.3
58.7
58.4
69.3
64.3
69.9
50.1
53.0
70.8
73.3
77.0
59.9
58.6
70.1
65.5
72.1
52.1
54.7
80.8
83.7
88.7
68.0
60.5
77.9
74.1
81.7
58.8
60.2
17.69
16.85
18.07
15.26
18.00
17.61
18.06
18.19
12.63
13.71
23. 57
23.52
24. 75
21.50
21.82
23.05
22.90
23.99
18.34
19.25
26.36
27.55
28. 57
22.27
23.20
25.73
26.03
26.67
19.71
20.51
28.39
29.64
31.67
23.64
23.22
27.29
26.46
27.97
20.37
21.36
34.88
35.67
39.17
29.29
25.76
32.65
32.33
32.29
24.65
25,43
0)
37.4
0)
32.2
34.1
35.9
0)
0)
43.2
43.1
39.1
41.9
38.5
36.8
38.0
39.9
41.1
38.4
36.8
37.8
38.2
35.2
36.9
37.2
40.7
38.0
36.7
37.0
38.5
35.8
35.6
37.2
43.3
41.0
38.5
38.8
40.7
37.6
38.8
38.3
0)
30.0
0)
36.7
46.7
48.2
0)
0)
46.7
39.8
55.5
45.3
57.9
60.9
64.8
55.3
54.0
47.6
65.0
54.3
69.9
72.1
71.4
62.5
54.6
50.1
66.8
56.3
71.0
74.5
71.9
63.4
61.0
57.3
72.1
64.8
78.2
78.2
73.1
68.7
14.02
11.14
16.30
11.88
16.55
18.07
18.71
15.82
20.16
17.18
21.47
18.94
22.27
22.35
24.60
21.22
22.17
18.29
24.01
20.55
26.67
25.32
26.18
22.74
22.23
19.09
24.69
20.95
27.34
26.63
25.49
23.10
26.44
23.49
27.98
25.30
31.82
29.28
28.30
26.22
0)
40.4
36.8
41.4
0)
42.4
(*)
39.9
0)
39.3
0)
37.1
41.3
0)
0)
0)
0)
(»)
0)
C1)
0)
0)
41.1
0)
0)
41.7
0)
0)
37.2
35.7
37.0
36.7
37.5
38.6
38.9
34.4
35.5
37.8
37.6
38.9
36.2
36.2
33.4
32.2
33.3
35.0
36.5
0)
35.3
36.3
35.6
39.2
41.1
42.3
40.5
47.3
36.5
39.5
35.7
36.6
36.1
36.7
39.0
38.6
32.2
35.6
37.0
36.9
38.4
36.5
36.4
34.0
33.2
33.9
37.5
35.9
0)
34.9
36.2
35.7
38.7
40.3
41.7
39.0
46.7
36.9
38.1
35.0
35.8
35.2
36.0
37.8
37.6
32.5
34.0
36.4
35.6
38.0
35.7
36.1
33.4
32.5
33.8
35.7
34.4
34.1
34.1
34.9
34.2
37.6
40.0
41.4
39.0
46.2
36.3
38.1
38.1
38.9
39.7
39.4
41.2
40.1
37.0
36.2
38.6
38.5
40.3
37.8
39.6
36.4
36.3
36.0
37.4
36.4
33.6
37.4
39.2
38.8
40.7
41.3
41.8
42.4
47.5
39.8
38.6
0)
34.7
45.5
27.7
0)
42.5
0)
38.4
0)
30.4
0)
35.6
39.6
0)
0)
0)
0)
0)
0)
0)
0)
0)
44.6
0)
0)
66.1
0)
(1)
36.6
46.8
44.2
56.3
36.8
44.7
51.7
67.5
52.2
44.6
38.5
43.5
42.6
50.1
51.2
56.0
52.9
44.6
34.2
0)
37.3
51.1
49.8
56.1
53.0
54.4
78.4
44.3
39.3
41.8
48.4
46.4
64.4
38.9
47.4
53.5
70.7
53.6
46.1
41.0
46.8
42.9
52.8
52.2
58.1
51.9
45.6
38.3
0)
39.4
52.8
50.3
63.4
61.8
62.1
86.5
48.4
46.4
49.2
50.4
48.5
66.9
41.2
49.2
54.5
73.4
55.3
47.8
43.1
48.9
45.5
56.4
53.9
59.3
53.8
47.5
41.4
69.9
41.1
55.0
52.6
64.7
63.0
63.8
88.3
48.6
46.5
50.5
55.4
53.3
72.1
47.2
54.9
58.2
83.1
54.0
50.3
45.8
54.4
50.8
63.6
59.6
64.7
60.8
51.6
44.8
74.0
44.8
61.5
59.0
71.4
65.8
67.2
91.5
51.7
52.0
55.5
13.54
13.34
16.68
11.56
14.91
17.97
19.09
14.03
14.12
12.19
13.79
13.29
16.26
14.44
14.30
17.03
14.16
11.49
16.22
10.92
16.15
15.41
19.06
18.75
21.66
27.80
20.58
11.35
13.65
16.53
16.15
20.61
13.79
17.26
20.17
23.29
17.89
16.99
14.47
16.56
15.44
18.11
17.63
18.39
18.81
15.78
13.92
20.46
13.10
18.49
17.47
21.99
21.78
22.98
31.50
21.38
14.14
16.38
17.04
16.68
23.25
14.26
18.22
20.82
22.73
18.98
17.14
15.05
18.15
15.78
19.21
18.10
19.32
19.20
17.15
14.16
22.19
13.64
19.09
17.83
24.43
24.74
25.70
33.46
22.60
16.77
18.64
17.44
17.13
23.56
14.85
18.41
20.62
23.71
18.69
17.63
15.29
18.91
16.33
20.33
18.31
19.31
19.65
17.17
14.56
24.07
13.91
19.07
17.85
24.27
24.72
26.32
34.06
22.71
16.61
19.16
21.05
20.63
28.53
18.58
22.59
23.57
30.48
19.51
19.70
17.75
22.45
19.37
25.21
22.18
23.68
23.45
19.49
16.77
28.54
16.69
23.97
22.90
28.86
26.31
28.06
38.49
24.77
20.27
21.39
N o n d u ra b le goods
Textiles and their products._______ _________
Fabrics._________ ___________ _______
Carpets and rugs__________________
Cotton goods____ ____________ ____
Cotton small wares________________
Dyeing and finishing textiles________
Hats, fur-felt______________________
Hosiery...................... ........ ................
Knitted outerwear_________________
Knitted underwear............... ........... ..
Knitted cloth_________ ___________
Silk and rayon goods_____ _________
Woolen and worsted goods...............
Wearing apparel____ _________________
Clothing, men’s.............................. .
Clothing, women’s___ _____________
Corsets and allied garments_________
Men’s furnishings___ _____________
Millinery............................... ...........
Shirts and collars....... ....... ................
Leather and its manufactures..........................
Boots and shoes..........................................
Leather................... ........ ....... ....... ........
Food and kindred products..............................
Baking....................................................
Beverages........................ ............... .........
Butter............................................. ........
Canning and preserving............................
Confectionery...........................................
1 Data not available.
0)
0)
35.6
37.7
0)
0)
36.2
0)
0)
36.2
.
.
.
.
.
.
•
.
.
.
EARNINGS AND HOURS BY INDUSTRIES
Nonferrous metals and their products................. .......
Aluminum manufactures.................. ................
Brass, bronze, and copper products___________
Clocks and watches and time-recording devices.
Jewelry.............................................. ......................
Lighting equipment....................................... ........
Silverware and plated ware__...............................
Smelting and refining—copper, lead, and zinc..
Lumber ana allied products______________ _______
Furniture._______ ________ ________ ____ _____
Lumber:
Millwork................. ................... .....................
Sawmills................................... ......... .............
Stone, clay, and glass products........... .........................
Brick, tile, and terra cotta_______________ ____
Cement____ _____ _____________ ______________
Glass___________________________ _____________
Marble, granite, slate, and other products_____
Pottery_____________ _______ _________________
to
CO
A v era g e hours worked per w eek, average h ou rly and w eekly earnings in m a n u fa cturing and n o n m a n u fa ctu rin g in d u stries, b y yea rs, 1 9 8 8 , 1 9 3 6 ,
1 9 3 9 y 1 9 4 0 , and A u g u st 1 9 4 1 — Continued
Average hours worked per week
Average hourly earnings
(in cents)
£
Average weekly earnings
Industry
1933
1936
1939
1940 Aug.
1941
1933
1936
1939
1940 Aug.
1941
43.4
47.6
43.3
49.0
0)
0)
38.8
0)
0)
0)
40.6
43.8
47.4
42.2
43.8
38.8
36.2
35.7
35.7
39.3
40.9
41.6
42.3
46.2
40.6
42.9
37.6
35.4
34.1
35.6
38.5
40.2
40.3
41.4
45.5
40.2
43.1
37.6
36.2
34.9
36.3
38.4
39.2
40.5
42.9
46.0
39.6
36.4
43.5
37.2
36.6
37.3
40.1
41.9
43.1
46.0
52.3
46.2
42.6
0)
C)
34.2
0)
0)
0)
44.3
53.6
55.5
56.5
49.5
57.9
41.0
44.4
40.5
69.9
48.1
53.7
60.5
62.6
68.6
58.5
63.6
47.6
51.4
47.1
77.3
54.7
62.0
61.1
64.0
68.6
61.4
64.6
49.3
53.5
48.7
79.2
56.2
64.6
0)
0)
(»)
37.9
0)
41.0
0)
0)
35.2
40.0
40.5
41.2
40.5
0)
0)
31.6
37.9
38.6
37.0
39.2
35.8
40.4
40.6
49.1
39.5
39.6
38.5
41.9
38.6
39.4
37.6
38.6
35.4
40.3
38.3
36.1
38.6
36.1
39.5
40.0
44.3
39.8
38.9
35.8
40.5
37.9
39.8
36.9
37.5
35.0
38.9
38.5
35.9
38.7
36.1
39.7
40.0
43.7
39.6
39.6
35.4
40.6
39.1
39.8
36.9
38.3
34.8
38.7
39.9
35.7
40.0
38.0
40.6
41.3
38.7
40.4
43.0
36.1
41.7
39.3
41.3
39.4
41.4
37.0
41.3
81.6
0) 74.2 80.4 81.1
92.2 100.4 103.3 107.0
0)
63.0 74.5 76.3 83.7
0)
65.5 82.7 97.4 97.1 102.5
55.7 66.1 69.0 78.0
(})
56.6 65.3 78.4 80.4 88.7
22.0 30.2 33.5 37.1
0)
55.0 59.6 60.7 63.6
0)
57.7 70.6 81.2 84.7 89.4
26.5 33.2 41.2 43.0 51.7
51.2 60.0 70.4 72.2 78.4
42.0 53.2 64.6 67.9 72.8
46.9 60.1 70.7 71.5 79.0
69.8 76.7 77.9 86.1
(0
52.3 60.7 61.7 71.5
C1)
64.2 87.3 95.7 96.7 106.2
45.5 53.5 60.5 62.1 70.0
25.14
31.18
21. 24
26.46
18. 76
23.42
9.70
19.90
20.55
10.39
20.95
17.01
18.94
19.25
17.45
20.53
17.19
28.41
35.15
24. 34
29.36
22.29
26.54
10.75
22.18
27.95
12.77
25.12
20.52
23.69
26.08
20.20
30.72
21.39
30.30
37.58
28.85
34.97
26.25
31.30
13.70
25.06
31.62
14.71
28.48
24.52
28.11
28.22
22.80
33.36
23.34
30.78
38.22
29.80
34.98
27.81
32.17
15.10
25.08
33.50
15.07
29.26
26.51
28.45
28.62
23.64
33.55
23.80
32.23
38.88
33.78
38.57
32.16
36.65
14.82
26.95
38.46
18.67
32.65
28.60
32.66
33.78
29.60
39.17
28.76
NONMANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
Coal mining:
31.4
Anthracite.......... ........... .............. .............................. ......................... —
Bituminous____________________ ______ _______ ______ ____ _________ 29.5
Metalliferous mining........ ................................................................ .............. 39.1
30.8
28.8
42.0
27.7
27 1
40.0
27.2
28.1
40.9
38.8
32.7
41.9
81.8
50.1
49.5
92.4 98.9
88.3 103.3
73.3 80.8
25.74
14.47
19.32
25.63
22.71
25.45
25.67
23.88
28.05
24.94
24.71
29.86
33.56
33.85
33.68
1933
1936
1939
1940
Aug.
1941
manufacturing industries—continued
N o n d u ra b le goods —Continued
83.3
79.4
60.5
92.3
88.6
70.5
64.4 $20.34 $23.60 $25.80 $25.42 $28.07
64.1 25.06 26.56 29.24 29.47 29.64
76.6 20.00 23.89 27.85 27.60 30.31
77.4 19.26 21.38 24.68 26.07 27.64
68.0 22.83 22.71 23.91 24.25 29.56
52.0 12.60 14.95 16.84 17.81 19.37
57.8 13.46 15.81 17.53 18.61 21.08
51.4 12.40 14.77 16.69 17.64 19.06
82.4 23.25 26.25 28.45 29.10 32.04
61.8 17.15 19.55 21.78 21.92 5.722
72.5 17.97 22.33 24.92 26.13 31.18
WAGES AND HOURS
Food and kindred products—Continued.
Flour_____ ______ _____________________ ______________________ ____
Ice cream .._____________ _______________ _________________________
Slaughtering and meat packing_____________________________________
Sugar, beet----------------------------------- ------ ---------------------------------------Sugar, refining, cane _ ___________ ____ ______________ ______________
Tobacco manufactures________________________________________________
Chewing and smoking tobacco and snuf!-------------------------- ------ --------Cigars and cigarettes____________________________________ ____ _____
Paper and printing.---------------------------------------------------------------------------Boxes, paper------- ------ --------- -------------------------------------------------------Paper and pulp--------------------------------------------------------------------- ------ ^Printing and publishing:
Book and jo b .------ ----------------------------------- ------------------------------Newspapers and periodicals__________________________ ________ _
Chemical, petroleum, and coal products________________________________
Petroleum refining------------------------------------------- --------------------------Other than petroleum refining--------------------------------------------------------Chemicals------------------------------- ---------------------------- ---------- -------Cottonseed—oil, cake, and meal_______________________: ________
Druggists' preparations------------------------------------------------------------Explosives-------- --------------------------------------------------------------------Fertilizers--------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------Paint and varnishes___________________________________________
Rayon and allied products...____ ______________________________
Soap_________________________________________________________
Rubber products---- --------------------------------------------------------------------- - —
Rubber boots and shoes_______ ____________________________________
Rubber tires and inner tubes---------------------------------------------------------Rubber goods, other.----------------- ------------------------------------------ ------ --
Insurance2—_______ ________
Building construction____________
36.3
(?)
41.4
38.2
39.2
38.3
39.3
37.8
43.7
37.9
<9
42.0
45.4
40.1
40.3
39.1
39.6
45.9
39.4
39.7
46.1
40.2
40.3
47.4
<9
(9
42.6
43.5
48.3
42.5
42.8
41.7
43.0
47.1
42.7
41.8
41.2
42.9
46.8
43.0
42.9
41.1
42.8
46.1
43.2
43.2
(9
(9
<9
(9
(9
(9
(9
O
<9
9
M
(9
(9
(9
<9
32.8
32.6
33.1
41.0
<9
47.5
76.8
55.0
87.3
56.8
88.1
64.1
93.5
14.64
27.51
19.69
29.93
21.01
34.09
22.33
34.03
27.91
36.26
(9
69.3
80.3
63.8
80.0
86.9
71.4
80.6
88.4
72.2
79.2
91.5
26.11
29.23
26.56
29.29
32.22
30.03
31.07
34.38
33.13
31.60
35.10
33.75
31,75
36.75
36.67
(9
(9
9
66.7
52.2
28.7
37.4
44.2
71.5
53.4
32.4
41.7
49.0
73.9
53.9
33.2
42.2
48.9
79.8
57.4
34.7
44.1
50.8
(9
(9
(9
(9
26.11
19.18
12.79
14.74
16.78
33.83
34.29
28.53
20.68
13.97
16.06
18.65
37.28
37.99
27.08
29.85
21.17
15.25
17.69
19.96
36.63
36.32
30.34
30.39
21.17
15.52
18.10
20.44
37.46
36.55
31.62
32.60
22.43
16.13
18.94
21.44
39.47
37.33
(9
57.7
h
M
(9
(9
(9
(9
<9
82.4
(9
(9
93.2
95.9
96.3
(9
* Data not available.
2Figures prior to 1939 are not strictly comparable with figures for 1939, 1940, and 1941 as the latter exclude data for corporation officers, executives, and other employees whose
duties are mainly supervisory.
3Earnings relate to cash payments only. The additional value of board, room, and tips cannot be computed.
EARNINGS AND HOURS BY INDUSTRIES
Quarrying and nonmetallic mining
Crude-petroleum producing...........
Public utilities:
Telephone and telegraph3.......
Electric light and power3_____
Street railways and bussesJ. ...
Trade:
Wholesale2................... ..............
Retail2................- _________ _
Hotels (year-round)23____ _______
Laundries_____ __________________
Dyeing and cleaning_____________
Brokerage2............. ......................... .
to
O i
26
WAGES AND HOURS
Table 2 shows average hours worked per week, average hourly
earnings, and average weekly earnings, by principal industry groups,
for selected months in 1940 and 1941.
Table 2.— A v e r a g e
h o u rs w o r k e d p e r w e e k , a v e r a g e h o u r ly ea r n in g s , a n d a v e r a g e
w e e k l y ea r n in g s , b y p rin c ip a l i n d u s t r y g r o u p s , f o r s e le c te d m o n th s in 1 9 4 0
a n d 19-41
Manufacturing
Total manufacturing
Durable-goods group
Year and month
Nondurable-goods group
>
Average Average Average Average Average Average Average Average Average
hours
hours
hours
worked hourly weekly worked hourly weekly worked hourly weekly
per week earnings earnings per week earnings earnings per week earnings earnings
C en ts
m o
March___________
June.......... .............
September....... ......
December.............
m i
March....................
June ____ ______
September_______
December________
C en ts
C en ts
37.5
37.5
38.8
39.8
66.5
67.2
67.1
68.3
$25.46
25.79
26.54
27.89
38.3
38.7
40.2
41.2
72.8
73.2
73.7
74.9
$28.90
29.48
30.57
31.96
36.9
36.4
37.5
38.4
61.0
61.7
61.1
61.7
$21.86
21.81
22.20
23.09
40.4
41.3
40.9
41.2
69.7
73.8
75.8
78.7
29.11
31.88
32.06
33.68
42.0
43.1
42.3
42.8
76.8
82.2
84.3
87.1
33.49
36.91
36.82
38.65
38.8
39.4
39.5
39.4
62.4
65.0
66.8
69.5
23.63
25.11
25.78
26.92
Mining
Anthracite
Bituminous coal
Metalliferous
1940
March....................
J u n e................. .
September..............
December________
m i
March_________
June__________ __
September.............
December________
26.3
29.3
28.4
29.7
92.5
93.0
93.6
91.9
24.22
26.85
25.96
27.60
26.5
26.8
28.7
31.0
88.4
88.7
88.3
88.7
23.57
23.48
25.25
27.12
41.2
40.1
41.1
42.2
73.0
72.5
73.2
74.6
29.88
28.95
29.97
31.41
29.9
34.0
33.4
23.6
92.7
100.2
98.2
100.7
27.79
34.20
32.60
24.05
31.6
31.7
31.5
31.6
88.3
102.3
103.4
106.8
27.64
32.37
32.75
33.38
41.0
42.7
41.6
43.0
75.4
80.2
82.1
85.4
30.85
34.07
34.04
36.76
Mining—Continued
Quarrying and nonmetallic
m o
March............... .
June_____________
September.............
December _______
mi
March.............. .
June________ _____
September..............
December. ______
Public utilities
Crude-petroleum produc
tion
Telephone and telegraph
36.9
40.2
41.8
40.0
56.0
56.7
56.7
58.7
20.67
22.89
23.75
23.42
37.8
37.4
36.9
36.9
88.4
88.3
89.5
89.4
34.02
33.74
33.98
33.96
39.4
39.5
39.7
39.5
81.1
80.3
80.1
81.1
31.73
31.54
31.66
31.88
38.9
42.8
43.6
41.9
58.9
63.5
64.3
66.7
22.85
27.19
28.07
27.74
37.3
37.1
38.6
38.3
89.3
93.5
96.2
98.8
34.25
35.67
38.28
38.92
39.8
40.2
40.3
40.7
80.6
80.2
79.3
82.6
31.93
32.02
31.75
33.39
Public utilities—Continued
Electric light and power
mo
March______ ____ _
June______________
September_____ .
December . . . _ .
mi
March_______ ____
June________ _____
September. ......... . _
December. ...........
Trade
Street railways and busses
Wholesale
39.9
39.3
39.1
39. 1
87.6
89.0
89.2
90.4
34.96
35.03
34.86
35.37
46.3
46.3
46.5
47.4
71.8
72.3
72.6
73.0
33.60
33.80
34.15
34.91
41.2
41.2
41.5
41.5
73.1
73.7
74.8
75.6
30.08
30.41
31.08
31.25
39.3
39.3
40.0
40.3
91.4
92.9
92.5
94.0
35.82
36.44
36.81
37.73
46.6
47.7
46.4
46.8
73.2
74.5
77.1
77.9
34.59
35.91
36.20
36.94
40.6
41.4
41.0
41.3
77.2
79.8
81.2
82.0
31.17
32.57
33.28
33.69
Am m u n it io n
27
in d u s tr y
T a b l e 2. — A v e r a g e h o u r s w o r k e d per' w e e k , a v e r a g e h o u r l y e a r n in g s , and* a v e r a g e
w e e k l y e a r n in g s , b y p r in c ip a l i n d u s t r y g r o u p s ,
a nd 1 9 4 1 —Continued
for
s e l e c t e d m o n t h s in 1 9 4 0
Trade—Continued
Service
Hotels (yeai-round)1
Retail
Laundries
Year and mouth
Average
Average Average
Average Average Average Average Average
Average
hours
hours
hours
hourly
hourly weekly
worked earnings weekly worked hourly weekly
worked earnings
earnings per week
earnings per week earnings earnings
per week
W40
March.................. .
June.._____ ______
September.._______
December .............
m i
March________ . . .
June___ _________
September________
December...............
Cents
Cents
42.6
42.9
43.2
42.9
54.0
54.8
53.3
52.2
21.02
21.51
21.16
20.37
46.2
46.3
46.2
45.7
32.9
33.3
33.6
33.9
15.44
15.47
15.51
15.78
43.0
43.9
42.8
43.2
42.7
42.8
42.4
42.3
54.8
57.2
56.8
56.1
21.59
22.31
22.11
21.59
46.0
45.8
45.4
45.1
33.7
34.2
35.6
36.5
15.67
15.86
16.27
16.79
43.3
43.7
43.3
42.9
Cents
41.7
42.2
42.7
42.6
17.87
18.51
18.20
18.36
42.6
43.9
44.9
46.1
18.37
19.09
19.33
19.59
Service—Continued
Brokerage
Insurance
Dyeing and cleaning
m o
March.....................
June.........................
September________
December. .............
m i
March......................
June________ _____
September________
December.
42.4
45.0
44.3
42.4
48.8
49.1
49.2
48.6
20.10
21.57
21.30
20.09
36.95
36.73
35.97
37.71
36.79
36.90
35.89
36.95
42.4
44.7
44.7
42.3
49.4
50.6
51.9
52.4
20.34
22.27
22.69
21.69
37.85
39.32
39.79
40.47
37.24
37.65
37.25
38.33
Private building
construction
m o
March.................... .
_____
June __
September
December________
Mareh
m i
.Tune
September ______
December. ________
1 Cash
30.9
33.8
34.8
33.8
97.1
94.8
94.7
96.7
29.93
31.95
32.92
32.63
32.8
35.3
36.5
100.0
99.7
101.7
32.61
35.15
37.10
payments only; additional value of board, room, and tips not included.
Ammunition Industry—Earnings and Hours, October
19371
The Census of Manufactures in 1935 included in the ammunition
and related products industry “ establishments engaged primarily in
the manufacture of ammunition for small arms (not including
grenades and bombs), and of blasting and detonating caps.” These
are private plants, thus excluding the production of ammunition in
arsenals and other establishments under the Federal Government.
The present survey conformed to this definition of the industry.
P.
1 Abstract of article in the M onthly Labor Review for M ay 1938, prepared by J. Perlman,
L. Jones, and O. R. W itm er, of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
505364 0 - 43 - 3
28
WAGES AND HOURS
In 1935, the Census o f Manufactures reported for the industry 13
establishments with a total of 5,599 wage earners. The Bureau of
Labor Statistics found 12 plants, which employed 5,823 workers,
and all o f these were covered by the study. O f the total, 7 plants
with 1,758 wage earners made blasting and detonating caps, and
5 establishments with 4,065 employees manufactured small-arms
ammunition.
Many o f the plants in the ammunition and related products industry
are integrated with those in other industries, especially explosives.
The establishments in this industry are quite well distributed geo
graphically : One in California, three in Connecticut, one in Illinois,
one in Minnesota, one in New York, one in New Jersey, one in Ohio,
and three in Pennsylvania. Because o f the element o f hazard involved,
all but two o f these establishments are located in relatively small towns.
The hazardous nature of the ammunition and related products
industry is naturally attributable to the extensive use o f explosive
powders in its manufactured products. Seasonal demand also plays
some part in connection with certain products manufactured by this
industry, as for example, small-arms ammunition for the hunting
season. The information obtained covered the month o f October
1937. which is fairly representative o f the entire year.
Trade-union organization plays only a small role in the ammuni
tion and related products industry. One establishment had an oral
agreement with an affiliated trade-union. Several of the large plants,
however, reported the existence of company unions.
A v e r a g e H o u r ly E a r n in g s
O f the total number of employees covered, 59.0 percent were paid
on a straight time-rate basis, 29.2 percent on a straight piece-rate
basis, and 11.8 percent under some production-bonus plan. Time
workers were found in each o f the plants included, and in all but
two they constituted a majority of the wage earners. Piece workers
were found in only 5 establishments, in 3 of which they were
numerous. Production-bonus plans existed in 8 of the plants, but in
5 o f these they covered a relatively small number of the employees.
In 7 of the 12 establishments, overtime, when worked, was paid
for at time and one-half to all except a few salaried workers. In
four plants, the overtime compensation was on a pro rata basis, and
in one establishment overtime was prohibited altogether.
The average hourly earnings of the 5,823 employees covered in
the ammunition and related products industry were 58.7 cents in
October 1937. This average covers a wide range of individual earn
ings, from a figure under 27.5 cents to one over $1.25 (table 1). It
should be mentioned that the industry average is considerably in
fluenced by the wages paid in two relatively high-wage plants; exclu
sive of these plants the industry average is 56.4 cents, instead of 58.7
cents.
O f the 5,823 employees covered in all plants, 3,140, or 53.9 percent,
were males. Their average hourly earnings amounted to 66.1 cents
in October 1937. Table 2 gives the percentage distribution o f male
ammunition workers by average hourly earnings and by skill.
In spite o f the generally hazardous nature of the industry, there
is a large proportion of women employed by it. They number 2,683,
29
AMMUNITION INDUSTRY
which is 46.1 percent of the total labor force. Only a few o f these
women (13 forewomen) may be regarded as skilled. They have not
been distinguished from the semiskilled in table 3 which gives a dis
tribution o f female ammunition workers similar to that shown in
table 2.
T a b l e 1.— D istr ib u tio n o f a m m u n itio n w ork ers b y average h o u rly ea rn in gs in
October 1 9 8 7
Average hourly earnings
Num
ber of
em
ploy
ees
Under 27.5 c e n ts ..____________
27.6 and under 32.5 cents_______
32.5 and under 37.5 cents______
37.5 and under 42.5 cents_______
42.5 and under 47.5 cents______
47.5 and under 52.5 cents_______
52.5 and under 57.5 cents.............
57.5 and under 62.5 cents..........
62.5 and under 67.5 cents_______
15
45
201
416
916
983
702
503
537
T able
Cu
Sim
mula
ple
tive
per
per
cent
cent
age
age
0.3
.7
3.5
7.1
15.8
16.8
12.1
8.6
9.3
0.3
1.0
4.5
11.6
27.4
44.2
56.3
64.9
74.2
Average hourly earnings
67.5 and under 72.5 cents_____
72.5 and under 77.5 cents..........
77.5 and under 82.5 cents.. . . .
82.5 and under 87.5 cents_____
87.5 and under 92.5 cents_____
92.5 and under 100.0 cents____
100.0 and under 110.0 cents___
110.0 and under 125.0 cents___
125.0 cents and over............ __
396
429
206
174
95
82
81
37
5
6.8
7.3
3.6
2.9
1.7
1.4
1.4
.6
.1
81.0
88.3
91.9
94.8
96.5
97.9
99.3
99.9
100.0
P ercentage d istribu tion o f m ale a m m u n itio n w orkers b y average h o u rly
ea rn in gs in October 1 9 8 7 , b y sk ill
All male
employees
Average hourly earnings
Skilled
Under 27.5 cents______________ _______________________
27.6 and under 32.5 cents__________ _ _____________
32.5 and under 37.5 cents____________ _________________
37.6 and under 42.5 cents. ___________________________
42.5 and under 47.5 cents. .....................................................
47.5 and under 52.5 cents________________ _____________
52.5 and under 57.5 cents______________ ____ __________
57.5 and under 62.5 cents__________________ __________
62.5 and under 67.5 cents___ _______ __________________
67.6 and under 72.5 cents______________________________
72.5 and under 77.5 cents_____ __ . ----_ _ . . .
77.5 and under 82.5 cents. -------------------------------------------82.5 and under 87.5 cents______________________________
87.5 and under 92.6 cents-------- ------- --------------- ------------92.5 and under 100.0 cents_______________ ___________ _.
100.0 and under 110.0 cents_____ _______ ___ __________
110 0 and under 125.0 cents
.
_ _
125.0 cents and over
_ ______________ ____________
0.2
.6
2.6
4.8
10.2
14.3
13.2
14.5
8.8
11.3
5.8
4.5
2.8
2.5
2.6
1.1
.2
0.2
2.0
3.2
9.9
17.0
8.7
13.6
9.5
9.8
7.5
6.8
7.5
3.8
.5
Average of all employees (in cents)----------------------- -------
66.1
78.2
T able
Cu
Num Sim mulaber of ple
tive
em per
ploy cent per
cent
ees
age
age
3 .—
P ercen tage
Average hourly earnings
____
Under 27.5 cents
27.5 and under 32.5 cents...
32.5 and under 37.5 cents...
37.5 and under 42.5 cents...
42.5 and under 47.5 cents...
47.5 and under 52.5 cents...
52.5 and under 57.5 cents...
57.5 and under 62.5 cents...
62.5 and under 67.5 cents...
0.4
1.3
1.9
6.5
9.8
17.0
14.8
14.5
9.8
12.4
5.5
3.3
.9
1.0
.8
.1
7.2
6.9
20.6
22.3
14.4
11 8
7.0
6. 7
2.2
.4
.5
62.6
57.1
d istribu tion o f fe m a le a m m u n itio n w orkers
h o u rly ea rn in g s in October 1 9 8 7 , b y skill
All fe
male
Un
Semi
em
skilled
ploy skilled^
ees
0.6
1.4
6.8
12.4
28.6
24.6
9.5
3.3
3.0
0.6
1.3
6.8
12.4
29.1
23.9
9.4
3.2
3.0
3.0
7.6
12.1
22.2
33.9
10.6
4.0
2.6
i Includes also 13 skilled employees (forewomen).
Semiskilled Unskilled
Average hourly earnings
by
average
All fe
male Semi
Un
em
ploy skilled i skilled
ees
67.5 and under 72.5 cents..
72.5 and under 77.5 cents..
77.5 and under 82.5 cents..
82.5 and under 87.5 cents..
87.5 and under 92.5 cents..
92.5 and under 97.5 cents..
4.5
2.8
.8
1.3
.3
.1
4.7
2.9
.9
1.3
.4
.1
3.0
Average of all employees
(in cents)______________
49.5
49.5
48.5
1.0
30
WAGES AND HOURS
A v e r a g e W e e k ly H o u r s
In 10 out o f the 12 plants covered in the ammunition and related
products industry, the full-time operations extended over 5 days, or
40 hours per week. In one establishment, the scheduled hours for
most wage earners were 42% for females and 43% for males, the work
also extending over 5 days. The full-time hours for nearly all em
ployees in the remaining plant amounted to 48 for females and 50
for males, with operations covering 5% days in the week. Hence, as
in the case o f average hourly earnings, the prevailing tendencies in
weekly hours in this industry are also obscured by the considerably
longer hours in two of the establishments.
The average weekly hours actually worked by all employees were
40.4 in October 1937, while the weighted average of scheduled hours
\fras approximately 42. According to table 4, nearly one-sixth c>f
the employees worked less than 40 hours per week.
T
able
4 .— D istrib u tio n o f a m m u n itio n w orkers b y w eek ly hours in October 1 9 8 7 ,
b y sex
All employees
Males
Num
ber
Simple
per
cent
age
Cumu
lative
per
cent
age
Num
ber
Under 16 hours____________
16 and under 24 hours—........
24 and under 32 hours______
32 and under 36 hours______
36 and under 40 hours..........
Exactly 40 hours___________
Over 40 and under 44 hours..
44 and under 48 hours______
48 and under 56 hours______
56 hours and over..________
42
43
100
334
392
3,694
323
334
465
96
0.7
.8
1.7
5.7
6.7
63.5
5.5
5.8
8.0
1.6
0.7
1.5
3.2
8.9
15.6
79.1
84.6
90.4
98.4
100.0
19
14
41
108
135
1,845
217
263
403
95
0.6
.5
1.3
3.4
4.3
58.8
6.9
8.3
12.9
3.0
Total________________
5,823
100.0
3,140
100.0
Weekly hours
Average of all employees___
40.4
Simple
per
cent
age
Females
Cumu
lative
per
cent
age
Num
ber
0.6
1.1
2.4
5.8
10.1
68.9
75.8
84.1
97.0
100.0
23
29
59
226
257
1,849
106
71
62
1
0.9
1.0
2.2
8.5
9.5
69.0
3.9
2.7
2.3
0)
2,683
100.0
41. 7
Simple
per
cent
age
Cumu
lative
per
cent
age
0.9
1.9
4.1
12.6
22.1
91.1
95.0
97.7
100.0
100.0
38.9
1 Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
A v e r a g e W e e k ly E a r n in g s
In October 1937 average weekly earnings of all employees in the
ammunition and related products industry amounted to $23.71. A
distribution o f ammunition workers by average weekly earnings is
shown in table 5.
31
ARMY AND NAVY— ENLISTED PERSONNEL
T a b l e 5 . — D istrib u tio n o f a m m u n itio n w orkers b y average w eek ly ea rn in g s, October
1 9 8 7 , b y sex
Females
Males
Average weekly earnings
Under $5............_.........
$5 and under $10 .............
$10 and under $15________
$15 and under $20..............
$20 and under $25..............
$25 and under $30________
$30 and under $35...............
$35 and under $40________
$40 and under $45________
$45 and under $50________
$50 and under $60________
$60 and under $70.............
$70 and over.............. ........
T o ta l
Num
ber of
em
ploy
ees
Simple
per
cent
age
Cumu
lative
per
cent
age
Average weekly earnings
5
18
30
380
893
903
483
192
101
63
52
17
3
0.2
.5
1.0
12.1
28.4
28.8
15.4
6.1
3.2
2.0
1.7
.5
.1
0.2
.7
1.7
13.8
42.2
71.0
86.4
92.5
95.7
97.7
99.4
99.9
100.0
Under $5.00_____________
$5.00 and under $7.50. . . .
$7.50 and under $10.00___
$10.00 and under $12.50...
$12.50 and under $15.00._.
$15.00 and under $17.50...
$17.50 and under $20.00...
$20.00 and under $22.50.
$22.50 and under $25.00...
$25.00 and under $27.50...
$27.50 and under $30.00...
$30.00 and under $32.50...
$32.50 and under $35.00. _.
$Sfi (¥1 a n d nvsr
3,140
100.0
Total_______ _____
Num
ber of
em
ploy
ees
Simple
per
cent
age
Cumu
lative
per
cent
age
13
19
22
63
272
427
1,014
427
102
111
130
40
31
12
0.5
.7
.8
2.4
10.1
15.9
37.8
15.9
3.8
4.2
4.8
1.5
1.2
.4
0.5
1.2
2.0
4.4
14.5
30.4
68.2
84.1
87.9
92.1
96.9
98.4
99.6
100.0
2,683
ICO. 0
A rm y and N avy—Pay of Enlisted Personnel1
Enlisted men joining the United States Army for the first time
as privates receive base pay of $21 monthly; for Navy recruits en
tering as apprentice seamen, the base pay on entrance is also $21.
Men who attain the highest grade in both services receive a mini
mum of $126 a month, which is increased on a fixed schedule, ac
cording to length of service, until a maximum base pay plus longevity
credit of $157.50 is reached. In all cases, the base pay is supple
mented by a number of allowances, including food and lodging and
medical and dental attention. Extra payment is made for hazardous
and highly skilled work, special assignments, and medals received for
distinguished service. Retirement pay is provided up to a maximum
o f $138.88 per month, allowances included.
B a se P a y P lu s L o n g e v it y C r e d it
The monthly rates of pay for enlisted Army and Navy personnel
are shown in tables 1 and 2, by grade and class, according to length
of service.
1 From Monthly Labor Review, July 1940, with later data.
32
WAGES AND HOURS
T
able
!• — M o n t h l y rates o f p a y o f enlisted m en o f the A r m y
Service of—
Group
Fifst grade (master sergeant)________________ _______
Second grade (first sergeant and technical sergeant)—.
Third grade (staff sergeant)____ ________________ ____
Fourth grade (sergeant)....................................................
Fifth grade (corporal)..........................................................
Sixth grade (private, 1st class), basic rate......................
Specialist rate:
First class.......... ..................
Second class............ .............................................
Third class.......... .................................................
Fourth class............................................................
Fifth class................................... ...........................
Sixth class................................................... ...........
Seventh grade (private), basic rate...................................
Specialist rate:
First class.......................... ...................................
Second class____________________ _____ ______
Third class__________________________________
Fourth class_______ _________ _______ _______
Fifth class___ ______ ______ _________________
Sixth class......................................... ................... .
Less
than 4
years
Over 4 Over $ Over 12 Over 16 Over 20
years
years
years
years
years
$126 $132.30 $138.60 $144.90 $151.20
88.20
84
92.40
96.60 100.80
72
75.60
79.20
86.40
82.80
56.70
62.10
64.80
59.40
54
44.10
42
46.20
50.40
48.30
31.50
30
33.00
36.00
34.50
$157.50
105.00
90.00
67.60
52.50
37.50
60
55
50
45
36
33
21
61.50
56.50
51.50
46.50
37.50
34.50
22.05
63.00
58.00
53.00
48.00
39.00
36.00
23.10
64.50
59.50
54.50
49.50
40.50
37.50
24.15
66.00
61.00
56.00
51.00
42.00
39.00
25.20
67.50
62.50
57.50
52.50
43.50
40.50
26.25
51
46
41
36
27
24
52.05
47.05
42.05
37.05
28.05
25.05
53.10
48.10
43.10
38.10
29.10
26.10
54.15
49.15
44.15
39.15
30.15
27.15
55.20
50.20
45.20
40.20
31.20
28.20
56.25
51.25
46.25
41.25
32.25
29.26
T a b l e 2. — M o n t h ly rates o f p a y o f enlisted m en in the N a v y
Pay grade
Base pay
Base pay Base pay Base pay Base pay
plus 10
plus 15
plus 20
plus 25
percent
percent
percent
percent
$144.90
First grade (chief petty officer)_____ _______________
$126
$138.60
.......grade
_........(A) (chief
First
officer, acting)
99petty108.90
113.85
84
92.40
Second grade (petty officer, 1st class)............................
96.60
72
Third grade (petty officer, 2d class)............... ..............
79.20
82.80
Fourth grade (petty officer, 3d class)......... ...................
66.00
69.00
60
54
Fifth grade (nonrated, 1st class)_____ ______________
59.40
62.10
Sixth grade (nonrated, 2d class)....... ....................... .......
36
39.60
41.40
Seventh grade (nonrated, 3d class)___ ____________
21
23.10
24.15
$151.20
118.80
100.80
86.40
72.00
64.80
43.20
25.20
$157.50
123.75
105.00
90.00
75.00
67.50
40.00
26.25
P r o m o t io n I n c lu d in g R e e n lis t m e n t
As noted above, a recruit who enters the Army receives a base pay o f
$21 a month as a private. There is no automatic promotion in grade.
A Navy recruit is designated an apprentice seaman upon enlistment
and is also paid a basic wage of $21 a month. He is sent to a naval
training station for a 12-weeks’ course o f training. Following this
course, he is transferred to general service at sea unless selected for
special service school instruction. After 4 months’ total service,
including recruit training, an apprentice seaman is promoted to
seaman second class, and seaman second class may be rated firemen
third class as vacancies occur, if selected for engineering duty. The
monthly pay of these ratings is $36. Ex-members of the armed
services who reenlist are promoted in 1 month in place of 4 months,
provided their previous service and training warrant such ad
vancement.
The length-of-service pay granted in addition to the base pay is
shown in tables 1 and 2. In the Army, enlisted men receive the
maximum pay addition for length of service—that is, 25 percent over
the appropriate base rate—at the end o f 20 years’ service. This
maximum is reached in the Navy after 16 years. The increments in
ARMY AND NAVY— ENLISTED PERSONNEL
33
the Army consist of additions o f 5 percent after each 4 years of
service up to a total of 5 additions. In the Navy, the increase is 10
percent after the first 4 years and 5 percent thereafter for 3 successive
4-year periods.
In the absence of an automatic promotion system in the Army,
enlisted men in the two lower grades are permitted to qualify as
specialists with the corresponding increases in pay indicated in table 1.
Outside o f the length-of-service increase in pay, promotion depends
entirely upon the individual’s personal qualifications and the number
o f vacancies resulting from retirement, death, and related factorsA man who reenlists in either the Army or Navy, within 3 months of
the day o f a discharge under honorable conditions, receives a reenlist
ment allowance of $50 for each year o f service in the last expiring en
listment (maximum $150 in the Army and $300 in the N avy), provided
he is rated in the first three grades o f the Army, or is a chief petty
officer, petty officer first class or second class in the Navy. The allow
ance for lower ratings in the fourth to seventh pay grades in both
services, is $25 for each year of service (maximum $75 in the Army
and $150 in the Navy).
Under the revised schedule of reenlistment pay adopted in 1941 men
in the first 3 pay grades of the Navy (mates, chief petty officers with
permanent appointments, and chief petty officers with acting appoint
ment) receive a cash bonus of $100 per year’s service in previous en
listment, provided they reenlist within 24 hours on the same ship or
station where they have been serving. For lower pay grades the bonus
is $50 per year.
Allowances
A man enlisting in the Army is credited with a clothing allowance
and all clothing drawn is charged against this sum. Upon first enlist
ment, a Navy recruit is furnished with an outfit o f clothing free o f
charge. The value of this outfit was $113 in the early part of 1940.
Enlisted men in the Army are entitled to an allowance for quarters
and rations not to exceed $4 per day, if food and lodging are not sup
plied. The regulations in effect at present provide for an allowance of
$1.20 a day for subsistence when mess facilities are not furnished and
$1 a day if such facilities are furnished. The allowance for quarters is
75 cents a day. Higher rates are paid on special duty and while a man
is in a travel status.
For Navy personnel, the allowance in place of food is 50 cents a day,
but is subject to change. Enlisted men on certain classes o f duty
ashore may receive a subsistence and quarters allqwance of from
$1.95 to $3.75 a day in place of the ration and quarters not supplied
in kind.
By act of October 7, 1940, a man in the first 3 pay grades of the
Army or Navy receives a rental allowance of $34.50 monthly if he
has a wife, child under 18, or dependent mother.
In both services, men who have been awarded medals of honor for a
distinguished act or service, such as the Distinguished Service Medal,
are entitled to a permanent monthly addition to wages of $2 for each
such medal awarded. The same allowance is made for each “ bar”
added to the medal, a bar being awarded instead o f a medal for each
succeeding deed or service.
34
WAGES AND HOURS
In the Army, expert gunners, expert riflemen, expert bombers,
expert aerial gunners, and pistol experts (dismounted) may be paid $5
extra each month, under certain conditions. The qualification terms
are subject to change. A 50-percent addition to base pay is made to
enlisted Army men when they are engaged in actual flying duty.
Temporary monthly additions to pay are provided for as follows in
the Navy: $5 when the man is detailed to mess duty; $15 to $30 for
duty as mail clerk, $10 for duty as assistant mail clerk (except at the
Naval Station, Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, where the allowance is $15);
50 percent increase over the regular pay when individual flight orders
have been issued and the required number of aerial flights have been
made; $10 to $30 when the enlisted man is designated as a diver, plus
$5 an hour for each hour or fraction thereof if he is employed in diving
in depths over 90 feet; $5 to $30, depending on detail, rating, and
qualification, for duty on board submarines; $2 when detailed as
listeners on submarines, as qualified sound operators or repairmen;
and $1 to $5 for qualification in the use of arms.
A man who is discharged from the Army at a point other than the
place o f enlistment is given travel pay at the rate of 5 cents a mile from
the place of discharge to the place of enlistment, except that for any
sea travel involved, transportation in kind and subsistence en route
are furnished.
A t expiration of enlistment and discharge from the Navy, a man is
entitled to travel allowance which is paid to him in cash at the rate of
5 cents a mile for all land travel, and to transportation in kind (in
cluding subsistence) for sea travel, from the place of discharge to the
place o f acceptance for enlistment.
R e tir e d P a y
After 30 years of service, an enlisted man may retire on three-fourths
pay o f his rating, including all permanent additions, plus $15.75 a
month allowance in lieu o f rations, quarters, and fuel and light. The
maximum retirement pay is $133.88 a month in both services. Re
duced pensions are authorized for short-service men. A ll pensioners,
regardless o f years of service, receive $15.75 monthly as commutation
o f quarters, fuel, light, and rations.
Bakery Industry—Union Wages and Hours, 19401
The average hourly wage rate of union bakery workers in 62 cities2
was $0,753 on June 1, 1940. Actual rates ranged from $0,262 for
woman beginners in machine shops in Portland Maine, to $1,643 for
first hands in machine shops doing Hebrew baking in New York City.
Wage payments under bakery agreements are almost universally
established on a time basis. Agreements with large factory bakeries
generally specify hourly rates, whereas those with the smaller shops
1 Abstract of article in the Monthly Labor Review for January 1941, prepared by Frank
McElroy, of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
* See footnote 2, p. 46, for list of cities surveyed.
Effective union agreements for
bakery workers were reported in only 62 of the 72 cities listed.
S.
BAKERY INDUSTRY
35
specify daily or weekly rates. In order to achieve comparability, these
daily and weekly wage scales have been converted to an hourly basis
and are so presented throughout this report. The averages cited in
clude all of the occupations specified in the agreements, except
apprentices.
H o u r ly W a g e R a te s
Nearly 75 percent of the bakery-union membership in the cities
studied had hourly rates between 40 and 90 cents per hour. Only 2
percent of the membership had hourly rates of less than 40 cents. (See
table 1.) Generally the rates of $1 and over per hour applied to
members in shops doing specialty baking, such as Hebrew baking
(which accounted for over 80 percent of the members having such
rates), Polish baking, French pastry baking, and cake baking. In a
number o f cities there were rates of $1 and over per hour for foremen or
for journeymen on night shifts, but for journeymen doing ordinary
baking on day shifts scales of $1 and higher were reported only in
Butte, Los Angeles, Newark, New York, Phoenix, Portland, Oreg.,
St. Louis, San Francisco. Seattle, Spokane, and Washington, D. C.
Because o f the lack o i uniformity in the occupational designations
and in the division of work among the rated occupations in the various
cities, no distribution based upon particular occupations was possible.
Examination of the reports, however, indicated that the great majority
of the rates of less than 60 cents per hour applied to members in the
auxiliary occupations, such as icers, slicers, wrappers, packers, checkers,
pan greasers, janitors, and general helpers. In the main these occupa
tions were reported only under the agreetnents with large factory-type
bakeries in which the occupational divisions were frequently quite
extensive. In the bakers5 classifications, rates for benchmen ormachinemen, the predominating journeyman designations, were seldom
less than 60 cents per hour and were most frequently at least 70 cents
per hour. Mixers and ovenmen generally had the highest rates specified
in each agreement.
T able
1.—
D istrib u tio n o f u nion
m em bers in the ba kery trades, b y h ou rly rates,
Ju n e 1, 1 9 4 0
Classified hourly rates
1940
Classified hourly rates
Average hourly r a t e . .................... .........
$0.753
Percent of members whose hourly rates
were—
Under 40 cents. __________ _____ ___
40 and under 50 cents__________ ____
50 and under 60 cents_______________
60 and under 70 cents_______________
70 and under 80 cents________ _______
80 and under 90 cents_______________
2.0
14.8
12.9
16.1
18.0
13.1
Percent of members whose hourly rates
were—
90 cents and under $1.00_____________
$1.00 and under $1.10_______________
$1.10 and under $1.20 . .
$1.20 and under $1.30
$1.30 and under $1.40 ___ _
$1.40 and under $1.50_____
$1.50 and under $1.60
$1.60 and under $1.70_____
O v e r tim e R a te s
Time and one-half was predominantly specified as the initial over
time rate in the bakery agreements. This rate was reported in 88
percent o f the quotations and applied to 80 percent o f the total
membership reported.
36
WAGES AND HOURS
The overtime rates provided and the proportion of the union
members affected are shown in the following statement:
Number of
quotations
Percent of
union members
affected
No overtime rate provided
_
20
165
Straight time - ---41
Time and one-third______
_
_ - __ 2,212
Time and one-half - _
Double time______________
Specified amounts, not a multiple of regular
_ - _
_
_
28
rate - ___ ___ 39
Overtime prohibited
M a x im u m
W e e k ly
2.9
5.4
3.1
79.9
1.7
1.2
5.8
H o u rs, 1940
The average maximum workweek provided in the union agreements
for bakery workers on June 1, 1940, was 41.3 hours. Forty hours
constituted the basic workweek for 60.1 percent of the total member
ship. (See table 2.) Only 1.2 percent of the members included in
the survey had agreements permitting more than 48 hours5work in any
week without payment for overtime. On the other hand 5.8 percent
of the members had workweeks of less than 40 hours.
Generally speaking, the workweek in machine shops was limited to
40 hours. Practically all of the hour scales in excess of 42 hours per
week applied to hand shops. The only 50-hour scales reported applied
to hand shops in Indianapolis and Worcester. The 54-hour scales
applied to smaller shops doing Italian-style baking in New York City,
and the only 56-hour scale applied not to regular bakers but to plant
firemen who were working on a 7-day basis in Des Moines. All the
36-hour workweeks reported were in Portland, Or eg., San Francisco,
and Seattle, where the 6-hour day has been widely adopted. The 35hour week was in effect only for a part of the Bohemian- and Frenchstyle baking in New York City. All the workweeks of less than 35
hours, reported in Chicago, New York, and Philadelphia, represented
work-sharing restrictions imposed upon the members of the unions.
T a b l e 2 . — D istrib u tio n o f u n io n m em bers in the ba kery trades b y hours p er w eek ,
J u n e 1, 1 9 4 0
Classified weekly hours
1940
Average weekly hours.......... ................... . .
41.3
Percent of members whose hours per week
were—
24 hours............. ............ ......................
24J4 hours....................................... ......
26 hours............. ........... ........... .........
32 hours___________ _____ ___________
35 hours_____________________ ______
36 hours_________ ______ ____ _______
3 7 H hours________________ _______
39 hours________ ____ _______ _______
0. 4
.6
1.1
.2
.2
2.4
.7
.2
Classified weekly hours
Percent of members whose hours per week
were—
40 hours_______ _____ ___ ____ ______
42 hours----- ----------------------------------44 hours__________ _________________
45 hours________________ ________ .
47hours______ . . . ............... ............
48 hours____ ______________ ________
50 hours........................ .......................
54 hours_______ ___________________
56 hours____________ ______ _________
1940
60.1
10.4
6.2
5.8
.1
10.4
.1
1.1
(0
1 Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
T re n d o f W ages and H o u r
S c a le s
Data based upon comparable quotations for the bakery trades,
from which inferences relating to trends may be drawn, are available
BARBER SHOPS
37
only for the past 4 years. Since 1986, however, the movement of
wage rates has been consistently upward and that of allowed weekly
hours has been consistently downward.
In 1987 the wage rates of union bakery workers were 5.1 percent
higher on the average than in 1936. The 1938 study showed an
average increase o f 2.3 percent over 1937, and in 1939 the reports
indicated a further rise of 1.2 percent over 1938. The advance of
2.7 percent on the average between June 1, 1939, and June 1, 1940,
indicated by the reports upon which this study is based, was propor
tionately greater than that of either of the two preceding years, but
only slightly more than half as great as the rise from 1936 to 1937.
The year-to-year changes in allowed weekly hours since 1936 have
all been small. In 1937, weekly hours, on the average, were 1.6 per
cent less than in 1936. Subsequent changes have not amounted to
more than 0.5 percent in any one year. The average reductions
shown for each year in comparison with the immediately preceding
year were 0.4 percent in 1938, 0.2 percent in 1939, and 0.5 percent
in 1940.
Scope o f th e S tu d y
This study was one o f a series of annual surveys started in 1907,
covering union scales in various trades in the principal cities of the
United States. The number of cities included has been gradually
increased from 39 in the earliest surveys to 72 in those of recent
years. These cities are located in 40 States and the District of
Columbia. Effective union agreements providing wage and hour
scales for bakery workers were reported in 62 o f the 72 cities covered
in 1940.
Barber Shops—Union Wages and Hours, 19381
This report covers the rates and hours of union barbers in 173 cities
and towns in 43 States, as indicated in collective agreements which
were in force all or a substantial part of 1938. It does not include
data for all cities which have union rates and hours in effect but only
those for which the Bureau has copies of agreements.
No exact figures are available as to the extent of unionization in
the entire trade, although it is estimated that about one of every five
barbers in the United States belongs to a barbers5 union. The union
admits to active membership any competent journeyman barber, hair
dresser, waver, marceller, cosmetician, or manicurist (except Orien
tals), not over 50 years of age. Persons over 50 may be admitted as
nonbeneficiary members (i. e., with n‘o participation in sick and death
benefits). Women have been admitted to membership only since 1924.
Self-employed barbers in “one-chair55 shops are admitted, as well as
two or more parsers who practice the trade in their own shops with
out employing others. Proprietors, however, who employ one or more
barbers are not eligible.
1
Abstract of article in the M o nth ly Labor Review for June 1939, prepared by Don Q.
Crowther, of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
38
WAGES AND HOURS
R a te s an d H o u rs
The prevailing method of wage payment found in barbers’ agree
ments was a weekly guaranty o f a definite amount, plus a stipulated
percentage of all receipts over a certain amount taken in by the indi
vidual barber during the week. Almost as common, however, was
the method o f paying union barbers on a flat percentage basis—an
agreed percentage of all receipts from the individual barber’s work—
with a guaranteed weekly amount in some cases and no guaranty in
others. In no case were the wages of full-time barbers stated in
terms o f definite daily or weekly amounts with no relation to the
receipts.
The weekly guaranties ranged from $10 to $30, the most common
amounts being from $20 to $25. Usually, when the weekly guaranteed
wage was comparatively high, the total receipts from the individual
barber’s work had to be a relatively large amount before he could get
any additional compensation from the percentage arrangement. In
cases where the weekly guaranty was as high as $30, for example, the
barbers received nothing in addition to the guaranteed amount unless
their receipts for the week exceeded $42 in some cities and $45 in
others, in which cases the barbers received from 50 to 70 percent of
the excess. Where the weekly guaranties were low, on the other hand,
the barbers began to share in receipts exceeding amounts as low as $15
and $18 per week. Where the barbers were paid on a straight per
centage basis with no weekly guaranty, the percentage of total receipts
paid as wages ranged from 60 to 75, with the most common figures 65
and 70 percent.
Barbering is one trade in which the weekly hours of work have
remained comparatively high. Although the 8-hour day (Monday to
Friday) has been established in many cities and towns, the 9- and 10hour days are not at all uncommon. Barbers usually work long
hours on Saturdays. In most of the cities covered by this study the
barbers worked 10 or more hours on Saturdays and in some cases as
long as 12 and 13 hours. Reading, Pa., was the only city covered
which had a short Saturday. Generally speaking, the weekly working
hours of barbers in the cities covered were somewhere between 50 and
60, with the established hours in a large number of cities being around
54 and 55 hours. In 15 of the 173 cities, however, the weekly hours
of at least some of the union barbers were in excess of 60, and in 24
cities the union hours were less than 50.
As a general rule no overtime is worked in the barbering trade and
the union agreements make no provision for overtime rates. The
agreements usually provide definitely that the doors of the shops shall
be locked and the blinds pulled down promptly at the agreed closing
time and that the shops shall not open before the regular hour on the
succeeding day. It is usually agreed, however, that the barbers shall
take care of all customers who enter the shop before the closing hour
and the time spent on this work after the shops close is not reg rded
as overtime. Barbers paid on a percentage basis profit from this work
only insofar as their total receipts, on which their pay is based, are
increased.
In quite a number of cities a few extra or part-time barbers are
employed to help take care o f the increased volume of business at the
end o f each week. These extra men usually work on Saturdays and
BARBER
SHOPS
39
quite often on Fridays—all day or just in the evenings. In most cases
these extras did not have other occupations or employment, but a few
had part-time employment elsewhere—some in factories, some on
W P A projects, etc. Many agreements included definite provisions
for payment of these part-time men. Some of them provided for
payment on a straight percentage basis and others for a daily guar
anty, plus a stipulated percent o f daily receipts exceeding a certain
basic sum.
L ic e n s in g o r R e g is t r a t io n o f B a r b e r s 2
A ll States except three (Maryland, New York, and Virginia) have
State laws which establish certain standards and requirements for
obtaining a license to practice barbering. Most States have created
administrative agencies, most commonly called Boards of Baiber
Examiners, to conduct examinations, determine the qualifications, and
pass upon the fitness o f applicants to practice barbering. Examina
tions are held in most States at regular intervals and each applicant
who meets all requirements and pays the established fees is issued a
numbered certificate and his name is entered on the State records as
a registered barber. Ordinarily, the certificate is renewed each year,
upon payment of the renewal fee, without further requirements. In
some States, however, barbers must have a physical examination each
year and present a certificate of good health from a registered physi
cian in order to have their certificates renewed. The requirements for
obtaining original certificates in the various States are quite uniform
on some points and vary a great deal on others. In practically all
States, applicants are required to be of good moral habits and free
from any infectious or contagious disease.
In 34 States the minimum age at which applicants can receive
certificates is 18 years. The Iowa, Massachusetts, Montana, and
Washington laws do not specify any age limit; the minimum age in
Pennsylvania is 16 years; in Connecticut, Delaware, Kansas, Missouri,
and North Carolina, 19 years; in Illinois, 19y 2 years; and in Wiscon
sin, 21 years.
Although some States have specified no educational requirements—
the ability to read and write English intelligently being apparently
sufficient—quite a number of States require an eighth-grade grammarschool education or its equivalent, and in Kentucky and Wisconsin
the standard is as high as the tenth grade or 2 years o f high school.
In some cases, where the applicant cannot present proof o f his educa
tional attainments, provision is made for giving him a preliminary
examination to determine whether he has an education equivalent to
that required.
There is a great variation in the amount of the fees charged for
conducting the examinations and issuing the original 'certificates of
registration as well as in the fees for renewing the certificates annually.
The highest fee for examination and certificate is $35 in Arizona and
the lowest $5 in Arkansas, Kansas, Maine, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island,
and Washington. The highest annual renewal fee is $7.50 in Alabama
and the lowest $1 in Washington. The most common fees ra * |e from
$10 to $15 for the original examination and certificate and from $2 to
$5 for renewals each year.
2
Based on data compiled by the Bureau’s Division of Labor L aw Inform ation.
40
WAGES AND HOURS
There is also a great variation in the amount of training necessary
to obtain a barber’s license in the various States. Most o f the laws
providing for the examination and licensing of barbers provide also
for the examination and registration of apprentices. The term “ ap
prentice” is used in most of the laws and is applied to those engaged
in learning the trade under the supervision of a registered barber.
The periods o f “ apprenticeship” training required for obtaining a
barber’s license in the different States vary from 6 months in Michigan
to 3 years in Connecticut, Delaware, and Wisconsin. In Georgia and
Washington no period of training is specified; in these States appli
cants merely have to be able to pass the required examinations. In
some States, time spent in a barbers’ school or practicing in another
State can be substituted in satisfying the “ apprenticeship” training
requirements, while in others the completion of a course in a qualified
barbers’ school is required in addition to the training period specified.
In 11 States—Florida, Indiana, Louisiana, Minnesota, Montana, Ne
braska, Nevada, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, and Texas—the laws
require that applicants have 18 months of training as “apprentices”
and be graduates from approved barbers’ schools.
Bituminous-Coal Mining—Earnings and Hours, 1935
and 19361
Wage earners in the bituminous-coal mining industry worked an
average of 32.3 hours per week and earned an average of 77.3 cents
per hour and $24.96 per week in the latter part of 1936, according to
a survey of wages, hours, and working conditions in this industry
made by the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
These figures are based primarily on data for a pay-roll period
near the close of 1936. A few months later, however, a new wage
agreement was negotiated between the mine owners and the United
Mine Workers. In is is known as the Appalachian Agreement, and
became effective on April 2, 1937. It provided primarily for a sub
stantial increase in wages.2 As regards hours of work, the 7-hour
day and the 35-hour week were continued in the 1937 agreement, but
in an effort to discourage overtime it was provided that all overtime
worked by mine workers paid on an hourly or daily basis in excess
of the established hours of work was to be paid for at the rate of time
and one-half.
Previous surveys of wages and hours in the bituminous-coal mining
industry, made by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1922, 1924, 1926,
1929, 1931, and 1933, covered only underground mines and were lim
ited to the 11 principal coal-producing States, namely: Alabama,
Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Ohio, Pennsylvania,
Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia—with the addition of Utah,
1 Abstract of article in the M onthly Labor Review fo r November 1937, prepared by V icto r
S. B aril and Abner C. Lakenan, of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
2 Although this agreement covered only the Appalachian area, including Pennsylvania,
M aryland, Ohio, Michigan, West Virginia, V irg inia, eastern Kentucky, and northern Ten
nessee, it served as a basis for all other bituminous-coal agreements. Under the Appala
chian agreement, yardage and deadwork rates were increased 10 percent; tonnage rates
were advanced 10 percent or m o re; tim e rates were increased from 8.7 to 12.9 percent in the
northern district and from 9.6 to 14.2 percent in the southern d is tric t; miners doing
mechanical loading, whether in underground or open-pit mines, received an increase of 70
cents per day if they were tim e workers or an equivalent increase if they were tonnage or
piece worker#.
41
BITUMINOUS-COAL MINING
Washington, and Wyoming in the 1922 survey. In 1936, however,
the scope of the survey was extended to include underground mines in
9 additional States—Arkansas, Iowa, Maryland, Missouri, Montana,
New Mexico, Oklahoma, Utah, and Wyoming—and also to include
open-pit or strip mines in 4 States. As a result, information was
obtained for 94,074 wage earners employed in 516 mines in 20 impor
tant coal-producing States. O f these 516 mines, 499, employing
92,658 wage earners, were underground, and 17, employing 1,416
workers, were strip mines.
Very few companies keep a daily record of the hours worked bv
miners and loaders. In order to obtain accurate time records for this
group o f workers, it was necessary to arrange with mine officials to
have a special day-by-day record kept o f the hours worked by each
worker in this group for one pay-roll period. The remaining em
ployees, whether inside or outside, presented no special problems,
as they are time workers and a record of their time is always available.
The method of presentation of the 1936 data differs somewhat from
that used in former years. In addition to time at the face, including
lunch, and time in the mine, including lunch and travel time, the
actual hours worked at the face or place of work were also computed
for miners and loaders. This not only makes it possible to show for
these workers the actual hours worked at the face per start and per
week and the average earnings received per hour, but it also permits
the presentation of average hours and earnings of all wage earners in
the industry as a whole and in each State and wage district. Another
departure is the discontinuance of the practice o f showing figures for
a half month, all data on hours and earnings having been reduced to
a 1-week basis.
Earnings and H ours, 1936
Averages covering all wage earners in the industry for the United
States, as well as for the various States, are presented in table 1.
T
a b l e
1.—
A v era g e hours and earnings o f wage earners in b itu m in o u s-coa l m in in g ,
1 9 3 6 , by State
State
Number
of mines
covered
Number
of wage
earners
covered
Average
hours
actually
worked
per week i
Per hour
Average esarnings—
Per week
United States_____________ _______ _____
616
94,074
32.3
$0.773
$24.96
Alabama............... . . ........- .............. ...........
Arkansas........................... - _____ _________
Colorado..................... ................................
Illinois.............. .......................... ...............
Indiana.............. ........................ .......... . . .
Iowa.............................................................
Kansas...................... ...................................
Kentucky.................................... .......... .
M aryland........... .............. ............ ..........
Missouri.................................... ..................
Montana................................... .................
New Mexico........ ................... ............ ........
Ohio......... ........................................... .
Oklahoma...,.............................................
Pennsylvania_____ _______ ____ _________
Tennessee.................................. ..................
U ta h ............................... ...........................
Virginia____________ ______ ____________
West Virginia________ ____ ____ ________
Wyoming.................................. ...................
16
10
16
43
24
18
11
49
6
15
4
4
3,834
784
1,669
8,767
2,268
1,770
754
10, 760
636
1,064
345
561
6,082
699
26,152
1,517
576
2,809
22,099
968
32.5
28.8
33.8
35.1
34.8
27.9
30.3
32.3
29.4
31.4
33.2
35.4
32.0
34.4
31.5
31.5
37.1
33.0
31.8
35.8
.543
.635
.831
.837
.841
.738
.686
.719
.745
.624
.886
.724
.775
.659
.799
,631
.955
.679
.801
.90S
17.65
18.26
28.12
29.37
29.23
20.56
20.79
23.23
21.89
19.58
29.43
25.62
24.81
22.69
25.21
19.87
35.40
22.42
25.50
32.48
i These figures exclude lunch time and travel time.
V
10
128
11
5
14
97
8
42
WAGES AND HOURS
Underground Mines
Wage earners employed in and in connection with underground
mines fall into two broad groups, namely: miners and loaders and
aother than miners and loaders.” The first group is made up exclu
sively o f inside workers, who are generally paid on a tonnage or
piece-work basis, whereas the second includes all inside workers other
than miners and loaders, and all surface workers. Workers in the
latter group are paid on a time rather than a tonnage or piece basis.
M in ers and loaders .—Miners and loaders constitute the largest and
most important group in underground mines. In 1936, slightly over 60
percent of the wage earners in underground mines were in this group.
Miners and loaders may be either hand or machine workers. Also
included in this classification are miners’ and loaders’ helpers. For this
group it is possible to compute average daily and weekly working time
and average hourly earnings on a threefold basis, namely: time actually
worked at the face or place of work in the mine; 3 time actually spent
at the face, including lunch time; and total time spent in the mine,
including lunch and travel time.
The average earnings of all miners and loaders, based on time
actually worked at the face or place of work in the mine, were 80.7
cents per hour, $5.42 per start (day), and $24.02 per week. Averages
by States are shown in table 2.
T able 2. —
A v era g e starts (d a y s ), h o u rs, and earnings o f m in ers a nd loaders in
underground m in es, 1 9 S 6 , b y State
Average hours based on time—
State
Num
ber
of
mines
cov
ered
Num
ber
of
wage
earn
ers
cov
ered
Average earnings—
At face,
Actually
Per hour based on
including
Aver worked at
In mine
time
lunch
face
age
starts
(days)
Per
At
in 1
start Per
week Per
Actu face,
(day) week
Per
Per
ally
in
In
start Per start Per start Per
clud mine
(day) week (day) week (day) week worked
at face ing
lunch
U n it e d
States..
499 56,395
4.4
6.7
29.8
7.2
31.8
8.0
35.3
Ala_____
Ark_____
Colo____
111______
Ind........ .
Iowa____
Kans___
K y--------M d_____
M o_____
M ont___
N. Mex __
Ohio____
Okla____
Pa______
Tenn___
Utah____
Va______
W. V a ..„
W yo____
16 2,152
10
538
16 1,020
40 4,005
19
805
18 1,299
6
369
49 6,644
6
430
11
624
134
4
4
348
27 3,989
10
455
128 17,207
11 1,011
5
235
14 1,633
97 12,956
8
541
4.4
3.9
4.6
4.7
4.6
3.9
3.2
4.6
4.2
3.8
4.5
4.8
4.5
4.7
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.3
4.4
4.9
6.9
6.7
6.9
6.8
6.6
6.8
6.7
6.7
6.5
6.7
6.8
6.6
6.6
6.9
6.8
6.4
6.9
7.0
6.6
7.0
30.4
26.0
31.8
32.3
30.6
26.2
21.5
30.4
27.5
25.6
31.0
31.8
29.9
32.4
29.6
28.4
31.5
30.4
29.2
34.1
7.4
7.2
7.4
7.2
7.1
7.3
7.2
7.0
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.1
7.2
7.4
7.3
6.9
7.4
7.5
7.0
7.5
32.5
28.0
34.1
34.2
32.7
28.2
23.2
32.0
30.0
27.5
33.1
34.2
32.3
34.8
31.8
30.6
33.8
32.5
31.1
36.5
8.3
7.8
8.2
7.9
7.6
7.7
8.0
7.8
7.7
7.6
7.9
7.8
8.0
8.0
8.1
7.3
8.1
8.1
7.9
8.3
36.4
30.3
37.6
37.3
35.2
30.1
25.8
35.4
32.5
28.7
35.8
37.5
36.1
37.8
35.4
32.8
37.1
35.3
35.1
40.7
$0.807 $0.756 $0.681 $5.42 $24.02
.551 .517
.643 .598
.864 .806
.897 .847
1.001 .937
.751 .699
.605 .563
.761 .725
.759 .696
.607 .565
1.000 .936
.703 .654
.774 .716
.683 .636
.821 .764
.617 .572
1.168 1,090
.680 .637
.865 .813
.979 .913
.461
.552
.730
.778
.870
.655
.606
.655
.643
.541
.866
.597
.640
.586
.686
.534
.994
.586
.720
.821
3.82
4.33
5.98
6.14
6.63
5.07
4.04
5.08
4.96
4.09
6.84
4.66
5.13
4.68
5.55
3.92
8.08
4.76
5.70
6.84
16. 79
16.73
27.49
28.99
30.61
19. 70
13.03
23.17
20.89
15.54
30.99
22.40
23.11
22.13
24.29
17.52
36.84
20.68
25.27
33.37
8 Time at the “face'* or place of work in the mine includes all productive time spent in
mining or loading coal, as well as any on-duty nonproductive time incidental to mining and
loading, such as waiting for mine cars.
43
BITUMINOUS-COAL MINING
O th er w age earners .—Approximately 40 percent of the workers
covered in this survey were found in this group, which includes in^de
workers other than miners and loaders and all outside workers, fn
1936, wage earners other than miners and loaders worked an average
of 35.7 hours per week and earned 72.9 cents per hour and $26.03 per
week. Averages by States are presented in table 3.
T able 3. —
H o u r s and earnings o f wage earners other than m in ers a nd loaders in
underground m in es, 1 9 3 6 , b y State
State
Number
of wage
earners
covered
Number
of mines
covered
Average
hours
actually
worked
per week
Average earnings—
Per hour
Per week
United States._________________________
499
36,263
35.7
$0.729
$26.03
Alabama______ ______________________
Arkansas______________________________
Colorado_____________________________
Illinois____ ___________________________
Indiana__________*.___________________
Iowa________________________________
Kansas_____________________________
Kentucky_____________________________
Maryland_______ _____________________
Missouri_______________________________
Montana. ___________________________
New Mexico_____ _____________________
Ohio__________________________________
Oklahoma_____________________________
Pennsylvania__________________________
Tennessee_____________________________
Utah__________________________________
Virginia___ ______ _____________________
West Virginia__________________________
Wyoming______ _______________________
16
10
16
40
19
18
6
49
6
11
4
4
27
10
128
1.682
246
649
4, 208
1, 147
471
70
4,116
206
199
211
213
2,093
214
8,945
506
341
1,176
9,143
427
35.1
34.8
37.0
36.1
37.6
32.3
29.4
35.3
33.3
35.5
34.6
41.2
36.1
38.7
35.3
37.7
40.9
36.6
35.6
37.9
.534
.622
.786
.781
.755
.710
.622
.661
.721
.517
..821
.749
.776
.617
.765
.651
.842
.678
.726
.827
18.75
21.62
29.10
28.21
28.34
22.94
18.25
23.33
23.99
18.34
28.43
30.88
28.05
23.88
26.97
24.58
34.41
24.84
25.84
31.36
11
5
14
97
8
Strip Mines
The amount of bituminous coal mined mechanically in open pits
has increased slowly but steadily in recent years. Yet in 1935 the
open-pit or strip mines, according to reports of the Bureau of Mines,
accounted for only 6.4 percent of the total bituminous tonnage pro
duced. This type o f mine was surveyed by the Bureau of Labor
Statistics for the first time in 1936. Data were obtained for 1,416
wage earners in 17 open-pit or strip mines located in 4 of the principal
States in whidh-trip mining is carried on. These 1,416 wage earners,
according to repc ts of the Bureau of Mines, represented 12.8 percent
of all wage earners in strip mines in 1935. On an average, wage
earners in the 17 strip mines covered in the survey worked 42.5
hours per week and received 80.7 cents per hour and $34.33 per week.
The much higher average weekly earnings in strip mines as com
pared with those in underground mines ($34.33 in strip mines as
against $24.02 for miners and loaders and $26.03 for other than miners
and loaders in underground mines) were due largely to the longer
workweek found in strip mines.
Wages and Hours in Underground Mines, 1929 to 1936
A limited comparison of wage and hour figures can be made for
the years 1929, 1931, 1933, and 1936. O f necessity, this comparison
must be confined to the 11 States covered in the earlier surveys and
505364 0 - 4 3 - 4
WAGES AND HOURS
44
to workers in underground mines.4 The data covering miners and
loaders will be discussed separately from those relating to wage earners
other than miners and loaders.
M in ers and loaders .—An examination of table 4 reveals the fact
that not only was the sharp decline in the average hourly earnings of
miners and loaders between 1929 and 1933 checked by 1936, but also
that actually in the latter year miners and loaders averaged more per
hour than in 1929.
T
a b l e
4 .-— A v era g e
starts (d a y s), h o u rs, and ea rn in gs o f m in ers and loa d ers , 1 9 2 9 ,
1 9 3 1 , 1 9 8 3 , and 1 9 3 6
Average hours based on time—
Num
ber of
mines
covered
Year
1929_____________
1931_____________
1933_____________
1936_____________
535
469
444
427
Num
ber of
wage
earners
covered
99,405
90,063
78,896
51, 791
Average earnings-
Per hour,
Average At face, in
In mine
based on
starts cluding lunch
time—
(days)
worked
per
At
week
face,
Per
Per
In
Per
Per includ
start week
start week
mine
ing
(day)
(day)
lunch
3.2
3.4
4.5
8.0
8.0
8.0
7.2
25.9
27.1
31.9
8.8
8.8
8.9
8.0
28.4
30.0
35.5
$0.687 $0.626
.599
.546
.395
.357
.759
.682
Per
start
(day)
Per
week
$5.50
4.82
3.18
5.43
$15.54
10.69
24.19
O th er w a ge earn ers .— Between 1929 and 1933 the average hourly
earnings of wage earners other than miners and loaders in the 11
States dropped from 60.5 to 43.9 cents. Not only was this decrease
wiped out by 1936, but the 1936 average of 72.8 cents shows a gain of
approximately 20 percent over 1929. (See table 5.)
T
a b l e
5 .—
H o u r s and ea rn in g s o f wage earners other than m in ers and loaders in
un d ergrou n d m in e s , 1 9 2 9 , 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 3 , a nd 1 9 8 6
Number
of mines
covered
Year
1929__________________________ _________
1931___________________________ ________
1933_____ ___________ _____ _____________
1936______ ___________________ _____ ____
535
469
444
423
Number
of wage
earners
covered
Average
hours
actually
worked
per week
52,806
47,725
41,438
33,735
32.3
31.9
35.7
Average earnings—
Per hour
$0.605
.595
.439
.728
Per week
$19.25
13.90
25.99
A n n u al Earnings, 19355
The average annual earnings of bituminous-mine workers in 1935
amounted to $917. This average applies to all wage earners in all
occupations whose names appeared on the pay rolls of the companies
4 The 1936 sample for the 11 States is smaller than that of former years. Only 20
percent of the wage earners were covered in 1936, instead of approximately one-third as
in previous surveys. However, a larger number of small mines was scheduled in 1936 than
in former years. This is evidenced by the fact that the drop in the number of employees
scheduled was greater than that in the number of mines scheduled. (See table 4.)
5 Extract from an article by Edward K. Frazier, of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, in
Monthly Labor Review for July 1937.
BITUMINOUS-COAL MINING
45
covered by the Bureau’s survey. Thus, it is possible that the same
name may have appeared on the pay rolls of more than one firm, but
it is believed that such duplication was not of sufficient extent to nave
any material influence on the average quoted.
The most fortunate employees were those whose names appeared in
each of the 24 half-month pay-roll periods during the year. These
constituted 50.2 percent o f all the wage earners scheduled and their
annual earnings averaged $1,146. Those employees who had work
during 9 months or more o f the year (i. e., during 18 or more halfmonth pay-roll periods) constituted 79.4 percent o f the total, and
their annual earnings averaged $1,045.
The annual earnings shown here are gross, as they include certain
occupational expenses which in most instances must be borne by inside
workers in underground mines. These expenses cover such items as
explosives, tool sharpening, rental of safety lamps, cost of carbide for
open lights, purchase o f tools, etc. Moreover? the annual earnings
reported are limited to those made by a worker m 1935 within a single
establishment, thus excluding the earnings he may have obtained from
other companies during the year. The figures plainly indicate, how
ever, that in 1935 the great majority of the employees worked for one
company only, as nearly 80 percent obtained some work during 18
or more half-month pay-roll periods during the year.
The number of pay-roll periods over which an employee’s work was
spread, it should be pointed out, by no means expresses the actual
number o f days or hours worked during the year. The amount of
time worked during a half-month pay-roll period varies seasonally,
and there are sometimes differences between the working time o i
mines even during the same season.
The normalcy of the year should also be considered. On the basis
o f tonnage, the amount produced in 1935 was less than for any year
between 1909 and 1931 and only 11.6 percent greater than in 1933.
Likewise, the average number of days operated in 1935 was lower than
for any year between 1925 and 1930, and only 12 days higher than in
1933, when the figure was 167. In view of these facts, 1935 conditions
in this industry must be classed as below normal.
Workers in Underground Mines
The average yearly earnings of the inside employees whose work
was spread over 24 half-month pay-roll periods amounted to $1,133
in 1935. This amount exceeds by $102 the average of $1,031 for those
whose work extended over 18 or more half-month pay-roll periods.
The average for those whose work was spread over 12 or more half
month periods amounted to $985, as compared with $904 for all
employees who worked any part of 1935.
Regularity o f employment was greater among outside workers than
those employed underground. The average annual earnings of those
whose work was spread over 24 half-month periods amounted to $1,179.
This is $90 more than the average of $1,089 for employees whose work
extended over 18 or more half-month periods. The latter figure in
turn is $39 higher than that of $1,050 for those who secured some work
in 12 or more half-month periods. The average for all employees who
worked any part o f 1935 was $962. Each of the above averages is
higher than the corresponding figure for inside workers.
46
WAGES AND HOURS
Building Trades—Union Wages and Hours, 19401
The average union wage rate per hour was $1,369 for all of the
building trades in the 72 cities covered in a survey by the Bureau
o f Labor Statistics on June 1, 1940. The average for the journey
man trades was $1,487, and for the helper and laborer trades, $0,898.
Union scales of wages and hours in the building trades have been
collected by the Bureau of Labor Statistics each year since 1907.
The early studies were made in 39 cities and included 14 journeyman
trades and 4 helper and laborer trades. The study has been grad
ually extended to cover 72 cities, and now includes 28 journeyman
trades and 9 helper and laborer trades. These cities are located in 40
States and the District of Columbia.2
A union scale is a wage rate or schedule of hours agreed to by an
employer (or group of employers) and a labor organization for per
sons who are actually working or would be working if there were
work to be done in that locality. A union scale usually fixes a limit
in one direction, that is, a minimum wage rate and maximum hours
of work, with specific provisions for overtime.
Trer.J o f U nion Wage Rates and Hours, 1907 to 19/ ?
As shown in table 1, throughout the period covered by the series,
from 1907 to date, the index numbers almost consistently reflected
an upward trend in the hourly wage rates and a decline in the scales
o f weekly hours of union members in the building trades.
1 Abstract of article in the Monthly Labor Review for November 1940, prepared by Frank
S. McBlroy, of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
2 The following were the cities covered in 1940 :
"North and Pacific
Baltimore, Md.
Boston, Mass.
Buffalo, N. Y.
Butte, Mont.
Charleston, W. Va.
Chicago, 111.
Cincinnati, Ohio.
Cleveland, Ohio.
Columbus, Ohio.
Davenport, I o w a . ( I n
cluded in Rock Island
(111.) district.)
Dayton, Ohio.
Denver, Colo.
Des Moines, Iowa.
Detroit, Mich.
Duluth, Minn.
Erie, Pa.
Grand Rapids, Mich.
Indianapolis, Ind.
Kansas City, Mo.
Los Angeles, Calif.
Madison, Wis.
Manchester, N. H.
Milwaukee, Wis.
Minneapolis, Minn.
Moline, 111. (Included in
Rock Island (111.) dis
trict. )
Newark, N. J.
New Haven, Conn.
New York, N. Y.
Omaha, Nebr.
Peoria, 111.
Philadelphia, Pa.
Pittsburgh, Pa.
Portland, Maine.
Portland, Oreg.
Providence, R. I.
Reading, Pa.
Atlanta. Ga.
Birmingham, Ala.
Charleston, S. C.
Charlotte, N. C.
Dallas, Tex.
El Paso, Tex.
Houston, Tex.
Jackson, Miss.
Jacksonville, Fla.
Little Rock, Ark.
Louisville, Ky.
Memphis, Tenn.
Nashville, Tenn.
New Orleans, La.
Rochester, N. Y.
Rock Island (111.) district.
St. Louis, Mo.
St. Paul, Minn.
Salt Lake City, Utah.
San Francisco, Calif.
Scranton, Pa.
Seattle, Wash.
South Bend, Ind.
Spokane, Wash.
Springfield, Mass.
Toledo, Ohio.
Washington, D. C.
Wichita, Kans.
Worcester, Mass.
York, Pa.
Youngstown, Ohio.
South and Southwest
Norfolk, Va.
Oklahoma City, Okla.
Phoenix, Ariz.
Richmond, Va.
San Antonio, Tex.
47
BUILDING TRADES
T able
1.—
In d e x es o f u n io n h o u rly wage rates and w eek ly hours in all building
trades, 1 9 0 7 to 1 9 4 0
Index numbers (1929=100)
Year
All building Journeymen
trades
Index numbers (1929=100)
Helpers and
laborers
All building Journeymen Helpers and
trades
laborers
Year
Wage Hours Wage Hours Wage
rate
rate
rate H o u rs
1907___
1908.......
1909____
1910.......
1911___
1912.......
1913.......
1914___
1915.......
1916___
1917.......
1918____
1919.......
1920____
1921____
1922____
1923___
31.5
33.5
35.1
36.5
37.1
37.9
38.8
39.6
39.9
41.2
43.8
48.6
55.7
75.2
76.6
71.8
79.4
110.0
108.3
106.8
105.5
105.1
104.8
104.6
104.2
104.1
103.7
103.5
102.9
102.4
101.9
101.8
101.8
101.9
31.7
33.8
35.5
37.0
37.6
38.5
39.4
40.3
40.6
42.0
44.3
49.0
56.0
74.9
76.3
71.9
79.2
109.3
107.7
106.4
105.2
104.8
104.5
104.2
103.9
103.8
103.4
103.2
102.6
102.2
101.7
101.6
101.7
101.8
30.7
32.1
33.2
34.3
34.5
34.8
35.8
36.2
36.5
37.7
41.4
48.0
55.5
80.5
81.3
74.0
78.5
113.1
110.8
108.5
106.6
106.4
106.1
106.1
105.5
105.4
105.1
104.7
104.3
103.3
102.7
102.7
102.4
102.6
Wage Hours Wage Hours Wage
rate
rate
rat Jnours
1924.......
1925___
1926.......
1927.......
1928.......
1929___
1930___
1931___
1932___
1933___
1934.......
1935___
1936___
1937.......
1938.......
1939.......
1940.......
85.7
89.0
94.8
98.1
98.7
100.0
104.2
104.5
89.3
86.8
87.4
88.4
91.6
98.0
106.7
107.4
109.1
101.9
101.9
101.7
101.5
100.9
100.0
97.2
96.0
94.3
94.0
90.5
89.8
89.8
90.2
88.7
88.5
88.4
85.6
88.8
94.7
97.9
98.7
100.0
104.1
104.5
89.3
86.9
87.4
88.4
91.3
97.6
106.1
106.8
108.3
101.8
101.8
101.6
101.4
100.7
100.0
97.1
95.8
94.1
93.8
90.3
89.6
89.6
90.0
88.4
88.3
88.3
84.9
87.7
95.6
97.3
98.3
100.0
105.1
104.5
89.2
85.2
87.7
88,2
93.4
101.5
111.7
112.6
114.8
102.6
102.4
102.2
102.2
102.1
100.0
97.8
97.0
94.8
94.4
91.4
90.8
91.0
91.3
89.9
89.7
89.2
Trends in Ir dividual Trades, 1929 to 1940
The indexes of hourly wage rates and maximum weekly hours for
the separate crafts from 1929 to 1940 are shown in table 2.
Compared to the base year (1929), the average rate for steam and
sprinkler fitters’ helpers advanced more than that of any other trade,
their 1940 wage-rate index being 128.2.
T a b l e 2 .— In d e x es o f u n io n h ou rly wage rates and w eek ly hours in each building
trade, 1 9 2 9 to 1 9 4 0
[1929=100]
Y t'
1929_________
1930____ ____
1931_________
1932_________
1933_________
1934...........
1935........ ........
1936_________
1937_________
3938_________
1939_________
1940...... ..........
1929___ _____
1930...... ..........
1931_________
1932____ ____
1933_________
1934_________
1935_________
1936_________
1937_________
1938................
1939____ ____
1940...............
Asbestos
workers
Bricklayers
Wage Hours
rate
Wage Hours
rate
100.0 100.0
105.8
96.3
106.8
94.0
89.0
92.8
88.7
91.8
88.6
91.7
89.8
91.0
93.4
91.3
100.6
91.0
110.3
89.5
110.8
89.5
112.0
89.0
Engineers
(portable and
hoisting)
100.0
102.4
102.2
87.5
85.2
84.5
84.2
84.7
90.6
100.1
100.6
102.8
100.0
107.7
107.7
100.7
99.6
101.4
103.1
104.2
112.6
116.0
117.4
118.4
100.0
104.6
105.3
88.2
88.0
93.2
94.1
95.5
104.6
112.2
113.0
114.3
100.0
95.1
93.7
92.6
91.7
89.7
89.2
89.7
89.5
89.3
89.2
89.1
100.0
97.6
96.1
93.9
94.9
93.3
93.2
93.2
94.1
91.0
91.1
90.8
Glaziers
100.0
96.8
95.1
92.9
92.9
88.1
87.5
87.8
87.9
86.3
86.1
86.1
Carpenters
Cement
finishers
Electricians
(inside wiremen)
Elevator
constructors
Wage Hours Wage Hours Wage Hours Wage Hours
rate
rate
rate
rate
1 .0
104.0
104.2
85.4
85.2
86.7
87.8
92.3
98.3
107.1
107.3
110.0
100.0
96.9
95.4
93.0
91.6
90.8
90.4
90.5
90.3
88.6
88.6
88.6
Granite
cutters
100.0
105.1
105.2
94.2
90.7
90.6
90.5
90.5
91.0
96.3
97.7
97.7
100.0
95.2
94.4
94.8
93.6
92.1
92.1
91.5
91.9
85.3
85.3
85.3
100.0
106.6
107.0
93.4
91.2
92.1
92.6
95.0
101.9
111.3
111.7
112.7
100.0
96.1
95.0
93.9
95.7
92.2
92.0
91.6
91.7
88.9
88.9
89.1
Lathers
100.0
104.3
103.7
93.1
89.7
92.1
93.1
95.5
101.8
112.7
116.4
117.2
100.0
94.3
93.8
93.3
92.9
87.5
87.4
86.5
87.7
86.1
85.4
85.2
100.0
101.8
103.2
98.5
89.9
90.1
94.4
96.9
101.1
111.4
112.0
113.9
100.0
97.6
96.6
94.3
94.3
88.7
85.1
85.4
89.6
89.1
88.8
88.8
100.0
100.3
100.8
92.3
89.2
88.8
89.4
89.9
95.1
103.2
103.5
105.2
100.0
94.7
93.0
92.0
91.9
90.9
90.9
90.8
90.8
90.8
90.8
86.7
100.0
100.0
104.7
96.8
105.2
95.0
97.9
95.0
91.0
93.0
91.2
92.2
91.3
91.9
92.4
92.6
96.0
92.4
107.7
91.7
109. £
89.5
111.2
89.1
Mosaic and
Marble setters
terrazzo
workers
100.0
104.7
105.6
97.2
89.5
90.8
90.8
91.1
95.4
106.0
107.5
108.0
100.0
94.5
93.6
89.8
91.0
90.9
90.3
89.4
90.0
87.7
87.7
87.7
48
WAGES AND HOTJRS
T able
— In d e x es o f u n io n h ou rly wage rates and w eek ly hours in each bu ild in g
tradet 1 9 2 9 to 1 9 4 0 — Continued
Painters
Plasterers
Roofers—
Plumbers and Roofers—
composition slate and tile
gas fitters
Sheet-metal
workers
Year
Wage Hours Wage Hours Wage Hours Wage Hours Wage Hours Wage Hours
rate
rate
rate
rate
rate
rate
1929..............
1930.—.........
1931.........— .
1932_______
1933.........—
1934....... ......
1935..............
1936....... .......
1937..............
1938....... .......
1939_______
1940..............
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
105.6 98.9 105.0 97.7 103.9 95.4 106.0 96.1 103.1 95.7 104.6
106.1 98.0 104.7 •97.0 105.1 94.1 106.7 94.9 103.5 94.1 106.2
89.6 97.9 87.1 95.2 91.4 93.7 93.2 93.9 89.9 94.1 92.1
87.8 97.7 83.7 97.2 90.6 93.3 91.2 95.1 87.7 94.1 89.4
86.4 85.6 84.6 93.1 91.4 92.4 93.0 92.6 87.2 93.8 89.7
86.7 85.5 85.6 91.6 92.8 91.8 95.6 92.5 89.5 92.6 90.4
91.1 85.9 86.1 90.1 95.2 90.6 96.2 93.1 90.2 93.4 92.2
97.7 85.9 94.9 90.2 100.4 91.1 103.7 93.2 96.9 93.3 98.9
104.2 86.0 106.1 86.5 112.5 86.5 114.8 91.5 103.4 92.2 108.8
105.0 85.7 107.0 86.5 113.5 86.8 115.2 91.6 104.4 92.2 110.4
105.2 86.1 107.5 86.3 115.3 85.9 117.9 91.2 106.2 92.1 112.4
Sign painters
Steam and
sprinkler
fitters
StructuralStonecutters Stonemasons iron
workers1
Tile layers
1929_______ 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
1930.............. 99.9 99.1 104.9 95.5 100.7 96.9 101.5 96.6 105.5 96.9 104.5
1931........... . 99.8 98.1 105.5 94.5 101.0 96.4 102.0 94.9 106.5 95.8 105.6
1932_______ 90.1 97.6 90.9 93.6 93.7 94.3 90.5 94.5 92.3 93.4 91.1
1933_______ 83.2 97.8 88.2 93.1 84.7 94.3 84.5 93.8 91.3 93.1 88.3
1934_______ 82.9 95.1 89.2 92.5 85.1 93.0 84.4 93.4 92.5 91.8 88.3
1935_______ 85.6 93.1 90.7 92.2 85.1 92.7 84.2 93.3 93.2 90.7 89.0
1936___ ___ 87,6 92.9 93.7 92.4 86.3 92.8 85.2 93.3 95.6 90.6 90.7
1937_______ 96.8 92.9 98.8 92.5 88.3 92.8 94.1 93.3 104.4 90.2 97.1
1938_______ 97.7 92.0 111.4 87.6 96.1 91.7 102.1 90.2 112.7 89.2 106.4
1939_______ 97.9 91.9 112.2 88.0 96.5 91.8 102.4 90.2 114.0 89.1 106.5
1940.......... — 98.1 92.1 112.5 88.0 96.8 91.7 101.9 90.1 114.4 89.1 106.7
Year
Building
laborers
Hod carriers
(masons’
tenders)
Plasterers’
laborers
Elevator
constructors’
helpers
Marblesetters’
helpers
Steam and
sprinkler fit
ters’ helpers
100.0
96.3
94.7
93.3
93.2
91.9
92.0
91.9
92.0
90.1
90.1
90.1
100.0
94.8
93.6
92.6
92.4
86.2
86.2
86.1
89.8
89.8
89.8
89.8
Tile layers’
helpers
Wage Hours Wage Hours Wage Hours Wage Hours Wage Hours Wage Hours Wage Hours
rate
rate
rate
rate
rate
rate
rate
1929..
1930..
1931..
1932..
1933..
1934..
1935..
1936..
1937..
1938..
1939..
1940..
100.0 ’ 100.0 100.0
105.5
98.1 103.8
103.9
97.0 103.5
89.4
93.6 85.8
84.2
93.2 84.7
87.3
89.1 90.3
88.6
89.0 87.4
96.2
89.5 92.1
105.3
89.7 99.1
89.3 109.1
112.9
113.6
89.2 109.4
115.4
88.7 113.6
100.0
99.3
98.8
96.6
96.1
94.3
94.2
94.0
94.3
93.2
92.9
92.8
100.0
106.0
105.6
87.6
82.5
84.8
86.2
88.0
95.8
108.1
109.0
109.2
100.0
97.4
96.6
96.3
94.7
91.8
90.7
89.2
89.2
85.1
84.8
84.5
100.0
105.4
105.7
96.9
88.9
88.4
88.6
89.5
91.8
104.5
107.9
108.9
100.0
96.2
94.7
94.7
92.5
91.8
91.5
92.1
91.7
91.1
86.8
86.6
100.0
101.7
101.8
93.2
90.7
90.9
91.5
91.6
97.0
105.4
105.9
108.2
100.0
95.9
94.2
93.8
94.0
92.3
92.3
92.2
92.2
92.2
92.2
88.3
100.0
109.3
109.3
94.3
91.6
91.9
93.0
93.2
100.0
121.8
122.5
123.2
100.0
92.1
91.8
91.7
91.6
91.1
91.1
91.5
91.8
82.3
82.2
82.2
100.0
108.5
108.5
95.8
91.4
91.5
94.6
96.0
101.2
111.6
111.9
112.1
100.0
93.6
92.6
91.4
91.5
87.6
76.3
76.3
81.6
81.6
81.6
81.6
i Included rodmen prior to 1938.
M a x im u m
W e e k ly H o u r s
In comparison with the base year (1929), all of the trades had
reductions in their average allowed weekly hours. The greatest
decline was that o f tile layers’ helpers, with an hour index of 81.6.
Average U nion Wage Rates, 1940
The average union rate per hour for all building trades in the 72
cities studied was $1,369 per hour on June 1, 1940. The journeyman
average was $1,487 and that of the helpers and laborers was $0,898.
(See table 3.)
The bricklayers’ average of $1,711 was higher than that o f any other
trade, although the plasterers were a close second with an average of
49
BUILDING TRADES
$1,704. The structural-iron workers ($1,614) and the lathers ($1,602)
were next in line.
The extreme range o f journeyman rates was from $0.55 per hour,
for glaziers, paperhangers, and some o f the painters in Charleston,
S. C., to $2.50 per hour, for bucket-hoist operators in New York City.
Nearly 99 percent o f the journeymen, however, had rates between $1
and $2.10, with about 65 percent receiving between $1.20 and $1.70.
T a b l e 3 . — D istrib u tio n o f u n io n m em bers in the bu ild in g trades, b y h o u rly wage
rates, J u n e 1 , 1 9 4 0
Trade
Percent of union journeymen whose rates
Aver
age
100 110 120 130 140 150 160
rate Un and
and and and and and
per der un and
un un un un un un
hour
100 der der der der der der der
110 120 130 140 150 160 170
Journeymen...................
Asbestos workers.......... 5_
Boilermakers___________
Bricklayers_____ _______
Carpenters_____________
Cement finishers________
Electricians, inside wiremen______ _____ _____
Elevator constructors___
Engineers, portable and
hoisting______________
Glaziers............................
Granite cutters.. ............ .
Lathers________________
Machinists_____________
Marble setters..................
M osaic and terrazzo
workers____ _______
Painters_____________ .
Paperhangers____ ______
Plasterers______ ____ ___
Plumbers and gas fitters..
Hodmen_______________
Roofers, composition.......
Roofers, slate and tile___
Sheet-metal workers____
Sign painters..... ..............
Steam and sprinkler fit
ters__________________
Stonecutters____________
Stonemasons___________
Structural-iron workers ...
Tile layers
_
_ _
0.9
4.2
1.470
1.576
1.711
1.425
1.439
7.1
.6
1.552
1.511
.2
.1
1.539
1.412
1.342
1.602
1.500
1.589
1.451
1.390
1.367
1.704
1.537
1.454
1.276
1.417
1.447
1.500
".8
7.1 17.1 12.1
1.2 12.0 31.6
6.0 2.6
.8
.3 4.5 3.4
4.4 12.2 23.4 11.8
4.0 3.6 31.5 15.3
4.1
.8
(in cents) per hour were—
4.7 16.2 14.5
4.1
62.4
1.8 23.1
8.5 6.4
3.8 9.2
9.0
8.1
6.2
1.1
7.5
0.3
12.2 9.2
13.0
5.1 3.9
20'6
10.3 19.7 2.1
.1 33.9
13.7 3.3 15.5
11.0 19.8 1.3
.5
.8 11.6 17.8
2.2 13.5 20.9
1.6 9.8 12.5 20.9 23.7 15.7
1.0 5.0 3.0 13.8 12.0
2.7 11.9 14 1 20.1 10.6
18.3 18.4 4.4 41.0
.9 7.9 5.2 8.0
"."3
1.1
.3 25.2 6.7
.2 5.9 17.1
170 180 190 200
and and and and 210
un un un un and
der der der der over
180 190 200 210
7.5
2.7
1.2
9.3
2 .9
20.2 ____
____
3.1 23.8 9.2 9.7 2.4 2.6 11.0
13.9 13.9
6.6 5.4 1.8
.4
12.5
4.7
.3
"."9 6.0
2.5 20.1 'is ’ 9 24.5
9.4 53.5 3.8
1.5 17.9 14.6 41.5 1.3
1.8 1.8 29.1 15.4 6.7 14.8 8.5 21.9
.2 27.1 25.4
7.5 10.8 19.1 8.1
7.7 13.3 18.8 21.5
4.2 31.8
.1 1.0 3.7 11.6
19.5 11.2 17.3
.8
.2 2.1
.9 11.3 13.8 16.4 20.0 3.9 17.0
2.1 6.4 26.1 12.4 5.2 16.0 7.2 23.1
9.1 16.4 9.0 25.6 9.3 5.1 4.5 13.8 5.8
1.0 13.6 7.2 17.2 9.1 2.9 11.2 17.6 12.3 7.9 ____
3.5 3.1 26.3 23.7
.6 16.3 2.4 8.0 16.1 ____
7.7 2.3 20.8 12.6 3.3 14.4 8.4 13.8 13.7 ____
3.4
7.8
1.8
2.7
1.585
.1
1.389 8.4
1.540 ____
1.614
1.469
1.8
5.6
.4
.1
34.8
14.4
2.5
1.4
____
____
____
..
2.9
__ 17.3 ____
2.1 5.2 19.5 5.0 19.3 3.6 26.1 .......
6.5
.3 ____
9.6 26.2 6.5 1.8 2.3 31.1 1.7
(0 21.2 3.5 10.9 32.5 7.1 6.8 i .2 8.5 7.9 ____
.1 15.8 6.1 ____
.7 28.8 13.9 14.4
7..6 12.5
2?3 20.2 18.9 3.4 21.5 33.7
1
Percent of union helpers and laborers whose rates (in cents) per
hour were—
Trade
age
90 100 110 120 130 140 150
50
60
70
80
rate
per Un and and and and and and and and and and and
hour der un un un un un un un un un un un
50 der der der der der der der der der der der
70
80
90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160
60
Helpers and laborers *________ $0.898
Building laborers
________
Elevator constructors’ helpers. Hod carriers (masons’ tenders) Marble setters’ helpers_______
Plasterers’ laborers___________
Steam and sprinkler fitters’
helpers . . . .. . ____________
Tile layers’ helpers....................
1.9
7.1 10.0 15.4 20.5
5.5 15.1 10.0 10.1
1.1
1.7
1.6
(i)
.812 3.0 10.7 14.5 13.3 27.8 3.6 17.8 9.3
14.7 ____ ____
.1
.7 6.8 11.7 43.3 22.7
1.096 . . . . .
.1 ....... ____
.974
" 2. 2 3.7 24.5 10.5 6.4 8.0 4.5 39.2
-- 34.1 ___
1.058 ____
.8 2.9 11.0 12.9 17.4 14.7 6.2
.2 20.2 3.8
1.085
3.7 3.3 6.8 5.2 9.1 15.3 26.1 6.3
1.095
1.001 . . . . .
.3
1.1
7.1 22.8 11.9 6.4
1.9 16.9 13.6 18.9
7. 5 4.9
6.3 12.7 28.5
.1
39.1
i Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
3
Includes also plumbers’ laborers and composition roofers’ helpers, not shown separately because of the
small number of quotations obtained for these trades.
50
W A G ES A N D H O U R S
A v e r a g e R a te s i n E a c h C i t y
Averages of the combined journeyman rates and of the combined
helper and laborer rates in each city, grouped according to population,
are presented in table 4.3
T able
4 .— Average union hourly wage rates in the building trades, by cities and
population groups, Ju n e 1, 1 940
City and population
group
Aver
age
hourly
rate
J ou rn eym en
Population, over 1,000,000:
New York, N. Y ___ $1.796
Chicago, 111________
1.663
1.6S8
A v er a g e f o r g r o u p ---1.396
Detroit, M ich______
1.364
Philadelphia, Pa----1.189
Los Angeles, Calif.. .
Population, 500,000 to
1,000,000:
Washington, D. C__. 1.661
Pittsburgh, Pa_____
1.561
1.521
St. Louis, M o______
1.445
Cleveland, Ohio____
1 .415
A v er a g e f o r g r o u p ___
1.413
Boston, Mass______
1.329
Baltimore, M d _____
1.327
Buffalo, N. Y ______
San Francisco, Calif. 1.303
Milwaukee, Wis____ 1.218
Population, 250,000 to
500,000:
Newark, N. J______
1.708
Cinmnnati, Ohin
1.439
1.434
Toledo, Ohio.........
1.419
Denver, Colo___
1.411
Kansas City, M o___
Indianapolis, Ind___ 1.360
A v er a g e f o r g r o u p ___
1.S59
Rochester, N. Y .......
1.350
Seattle, Wash___. . .
1.334
Birmingham, Ala___ 1.318
Minneapolis, M inn.. 1.305
Columbus, Ohio____ 1.304
1.286
Houston, Tex______
St. Paul, Minn_____
1.286
Louisville, K y_____
1.285
1.259
Dallas, Tex________
1.247
New Orleans, La___
Providence, R. I____ 1.239
1.235
Memphis, Tenn.......
Portland, Oreg........ . 1.234
Atlanta, Ga............... 1.122
Population, 100,000 to
250,000:
1.422
Dayton, Ohio...........
1.402
Peoria, 111........ .........
Youngstown, Ohio... 1.365
Spokane, Wash_____ 1.320
Des Moines, Iowa___ 1.296
Erie, Pa.... ..............
1.287
Springfield, Mass___ 1.284
1.274
Scranton, Pa_______
O klahom a C ity ,
Okla_____________ 1.270
1.264
South Bend, Ind___
Rock Island (111.)
district1_______ . 1.258
A v er a g e f o r g r o u p ___
1 .2 4 9
City and population
group
Aver
age
hourly
rate
J o u r n e y m e n —Continued
Aver
age
hourly
rate
H e lp e r s and, laborers —
Population, 100,000 to
250,000—Continued.
San Antonio, Tex__ $1.244
Reading, Pa.......... . .
1.236
New Haven, Conn.. 1.233
El Paso, Tex........... . 1.226
Nashville, Tenn.......
1.210
Omaha, Nebr______
1.204
Grand Rapids, Mich. 1.179
’iluth, Minn_____
1.169
“ jrcester, Mass____ 1.158
S alt L a k e C ity ,
Utah____________
1.157
Richmond, V a........ . 1.100
Jacksonville, Fla......
1.089
Wichita, Kans..........
1.084
Norfolk, V a .............
1.066
Population, 40,000 to
100,000:
Butte, M ont_______
1.474
Charleston, W. V a... 1.252
Phoenix, Ariz______
1.209
Madison, Wis_____
1.186
Jackson, Miss
___
1.184
A v er a g e fo r g r o u p ___
1.177
Manchester, N. H ._. 1.150
Little Rock, Ark___
1.101
Charlotte, N. C____
1.057
Charleston, S. C____ 1.044
York, Pa__________
.989
Portland, M ain e___
.983
H e lp e r s a n d laborers
Population, over 1,000,000:
New York, N. Y ___
A v er a g e fo r g r o u p ___
Chicago, 111.._____
Detroit, M ich______
Philadelphia, Pa___
Los Angeles, Calif. _.
Population, 500,000 to
1,000,000:
St. Louis, M o.........
Cleveland, Ohio____
San Francisco, CalifBoston, Mass______
Milwaukee, Wis____
Pittsburgh, Pa_____
A v er a g e f o r g r o u p ___
Washington, D. C ...
Baltimore, M d .........
Buffalo, N. Y ............
Population, 250,000 to
500,000:
Newark, N. J______
Seattle, Wash
Kansas City, M o___
Minneapolis, M inn..
City and population
group
1.169
1.046
1.037
.851
.734
.710
.941
.919
.910
.886
.883
.876
.8 4 8
.834
.686
.664
1.073
.925
.908
.903
Continued
Population, 250,000 to
500,000—Continued.
Cincinnati, Ohio
$0.851
Toledo, Ohio_______
.801
Denver, Colo
.799
Indianapolis, Ind___
.793
St. Paul, M in n ... . . .
.793
Portland, O reg .......
.789
A v er a g e f o r g r o u p ___
.7 6 6
Rochester, N. Y ____
.731
Providence, R. I
. 717
Columbus, Ohio
.679
Houston, Tex
.609
New Orleans, La___
.601
Dallas, Tex. . . .
.598
Louisville, Ky
. 584
Birmingham, Ala___
!466
Population, 100,000 to
250,000:
Spokane, Wash_____ 1.001
Peoria, 111.. . . . .
.879
Worcester, Mass
.839
Salt Lake C ity ,
U t a h ____ .
.
.789
South Bendr Ind
.786
New Haven, Conn...
.767
Des Moines, Iowa__
.763
Scranton, Pa
.734
Davton, Ohio
.720
Springfield, Mass___
.716
Rock Island (111.)
district1_________
.709
A v er a g e f o r g r o u p ___
.6 9 8
Reading, Pa .
.683
Youngstown, Ohio...
.682
Duluth, Minn .
.643
Erie, Pa.
._
.632
Omaha, Nebr
.629
O klahom a C ity ,
Okla
. 570
Grand Rapids, Mich.
.549
San Antonio, Tex___
.546
El Paso, Tex_______
.516
Nashville, Tenn____
.481
Richmond, Va
. 481
[ 469
Wichita, Kans
Jacksonville, Fla
.439
Population, 40,000 to
100,000:
Butte, Mont
. 872
Madison, Wis...........
.726
Manchester, N. H __
. *> 3
Phoenix, Ariz
.685
York, Pa ^
.675
A v er a g e f o r g r o u p ___
.6 6 4
Portland, Maine
.627
Charleston, W. Va__
.535
Jackson, Miss...........
1462
Charleston, S. C .......
.448
i Includes Rock Island, 111., Davenport, Iowa, and Moline, 111.
3
The averages are weighted according to the number of members in each local union
covered by the reported rates. W hile a comparison of average rates between cities where
averages include the influence of the membership factor may be somewhat misleading
where membership in particular trades is unusually large or small in comparison w ith
the same trades in other cities, a weighted average of this kind is obviously more realistic
than a simple average of specific rates. In the la tte r case, a wage rate for a trade includ
ing half a dozen members would be given the same importance as a trade including several
hundred members.
51
BUILDING TRADES
The highest city averages for the journeymen trades were those of
New York ($1,796 per hour) and Newark ($1.708). Chicago ($1.663),
Washington ($1,661), Pittsburgh ($1,561), and St. Louis ($1,521)
averaged above $1.50 per hour.
O v e r t im e a n d S u n d a y R a te s
Double time was reported as the agreed-upon initial overtime rate
in exactly half of the total quotations. Nearly all of the other
quotations gave time and one-half as the initial overtime rate.
O f the total journeyman membership, 89 percent had a double
time rate for Sunday and 10 percent had a time and one-half rate.
The helpers and laborers had a double-time rate for over 96 percent
of their total membership and a rate of time and one-half for about
3 percent.
Union Hours, 1940
The average maximum workweek provided in the union agree
ments o f all building trades was 38.3 hours on June 1, 1940. The
average for the journeyman trades was 38 hours, and for the helper
and laborer trades, 39.1 hours (table 5).
T a b l e 5 . — D istrib u tio n o f u n io n m em bers in eacK(building } tradet b y w eek ly h o u rs ,
June
Trade
1940
Aver
age
Percent of union members whose hours per week
were
per
week
30
32
35
40
42
44
45
48
9.5
0.1
4 19.6
66.9
0.1
2.8
0.1
10.9
10.2
14.5
1.5
1.6
2.5
1.6
22.6
.5
3.3
1.5
.1
2 20.3 67.8
1.8 80.0
20.0 78.5
38.7 59.1
20.9 75.7
22.7 73.2
7.3 69.8
9.8 76.2
1.4 79.4
30.7 66.0
60.1 39.9
7.6 65.7
3.8 95.4
36.8 62.6
23.5 73.9
36.4 42.5
11.0 55.5
2.2
4.0 48.4
14.3 69.0
2.5 94.2
i 15.7 79.3
15.0 79.8
17.0 80.3
18.4 73.5
6.4 74.3
8.5 90.4
23.7 75.4
5.7 89.1
1.6 96.2
.1
3.1
.8
.6
*. 7
.6
.9
1.4
.1
12.6
1.0
1.8
1.1
.2
A11 building trades___________ ____ ________ 38.3
Journeymen_______________ ______________
Asbestos workers................... ...................
Boilermakers.............. ...................... ........
Bricklayers................................_........„ ___
Carpenters___ _______ ________________
Cement finishers........ ...............................
Electricians, inside wiremen....... .......... .
Elevator constructors_________________
Engineers, portable and hoisting_______
Glaziers___________________ _____ _____
Granite cutters_______________________
Lathers______ _______________________
Machinists_____ ______________ _______
Marble setters____ ____________________
Mosaic and terrazzo workers___________
Painters......... ......... __.......... _...............
Paperhangers_________________________
Plasterers____________________________
Plumbers and gas fitters_______________
R odm en..____________________________
Roofers, composition__________ ______
Roofers, slate and tile______
_______
Sheet-metal workers.... ................
Sign painters.......................................
Steam and sprinkler fitters ______ _ _ _
Stonecutters____________ _____________
Stonemasons.....................................
Structural-iron workers_____________ _
Tile layers_____________________ - .........
1,
38.0
38.5
38.8
37.9
38.7
38.8
37.4
40.0
40.8
38.4
37.0
37.0
39.8
26.3
.5
1.0
3 .2 20. 5
3t,. 3 32.3
35.2 44.7
37.8. 15. 5
39.5
3.3
39.3
1.0
39.4
.4
38.9
2.4
39.2
1.0
37.8 19. 2
39.6
38.7
.8
39.2
5.2
39.8.
1.4
2+ \
3, \
.9
.6
.4
.5
.1
1.6
.6
1.2
.7
1.2
1.7
3.0
2.2
.5
.4
1.0
.3
4.9
.1
.6
.1
214.3
.3
1.9
.8
. 8~
6.4
Helpers and laborers3........ ............ ................ 39.1
10.9
.5
16.7 63.7
1.8
(0
14.2
Building laborers____________ ____ _ . . . 40.1
1.7
9.8 71.8
.7
1.8
.1 11.8
11.6 75.2
Elevator constructors’ helpers......... ........ 39.8
1.3
Hod carriers (masons’ tenders)................ 38.6
1.0
11.1
.2
39.1 45.7
2.9
.2
Marble setters’ helpers________________ 38.2
1.0
35.0 63.8
Plasterers’ laborers..
.
.
_ 36. 6 33.5
4.3 59.6
2.0
.3
.3
.1
Steam and sprinkler fitters’ helpers_____ 35.'8 39.1
6.2 54.6
1.4 96.0 ...............
1.3 1_____
.2 —
Tile layers’ helpers____ _______________ 39.9
"T I
1Includes 0.3 percent of the composition roofers having a 36.9-hour scale, amounting to less than a tenth
of 1 percent in the journeyman and all building trades totals.
2 Includes less than a tenth of 1 percent of the engineers, reported as having a*54-hour week.
3 Includes also plumbers’ laborers and composition roofers’ helpers, not shown separately because of the
small number of quotations obtained for these trades,
4 Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
52
WAGES AND HOURS
The plasterers’ average of 35.2 hours per week
any trade, and the average of 40.8 hours for the
highest. This high average was due to the fact
agreements for engineers specify a 48-hour week
work.
was the lowest of
engineers was the
that many of the
for street or road
#######*
Building Trades— Wage Rates and H ours, 19361
The Bureau o f Labor Statistics, in cooperation with the Works
Progress Administration, undertook an extensive survey of the wage
rates and hours of labor that actually prevailed in the building
industry in the fall o f 1936. This survey included both union ana
nonunion workers.2
In order to obtain a representative cross section o f wages and hours
of labor in the building industry, information was obtained from
contractors located in 105 cities in 48 States and the District of
Columbia. Since the object o f the survey was to secure an all-round
picture o f prevailing wage rates in the principal occupations in the
building trades (excluding apprentices and foremen), care was exer
cised to secure an adequate sample in each city. Among other factors
considered in building up the sample were type of construction
(whether residential or nonresidential), type of financing (whether
public or private), organization status of the workers (whether union
or nonunion), size of firms, and class o f work performed.
In all, the records of over 6,000 contractors were examined and
scheduled, but only 5,450, covering 13,267 projects, were used in com
piling the report. From these pay rolls the wages paid to and the
hours worked by 186,145 employees were recorded. It is impossible
to state definitely what percentage this number was o f all employees
working in the building trades at the time o f the survey, but it
probably represented between 25 and 30 percent of the total.
Average H ourly Wage Rates
For the building-construction industry as a whole, or, more pre
cisely, for the 186,145 workers covered in the survey, the average
hourly rate paid in 1936 was 91.8 cents. O f the 186,145 employees
scheduled, 126,014, or 67.7 percent, were union and 60,131, or 32.3
percent, were nonunion employees.
Skilled workers numbered
105,662, or 56*8 percent; semiskilled 42,850, or 23.0 percent; and
unskilled 37,633, or 20.2 percent.
Although the average hourly rate for all workers‘in 1936 was 91.8
cents, there were wide variations in the different occupational groups.
Table 1 shows these variations by regions and by union affiliation.
The highest rates paid are reported for hoisting engineers, with an
average hourly rate of $1,343. Ranking next were the structural-iron
workers, with an average o f $1,332 an hour.
1 Abstract of articles by Edward P. Sanford, of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, in the
M onthly Labor Review for August and October 1937.
3 The Bureau of Labor Statistics makes annual surveys of union scales o f wages and
hours in the building trades, but this is the only general survey of actual wages and hours,
both union and nonunion, ever made by the Bureau.
53
BUILDING TRADES
T able
1.—
A v era g e u n io n and n o n u n io n h o u rly wages i n selected occu p ation s in the
building trades , 1 9 8 6 , b y geographic d iv isio n s
United States
Occupation
All occupations.............................. .
Bricklayers............ ............................
Carpenters.................. .............. .........
Cement finishers.................. ...... ........
Helpers.........................................
Electricians (inside wiremen) _..........
Helpers...................... ...................
Engineers, hoisting (2 or more drums).
Helpers, not elsewhere classified___
Hod carriers........................................
Laborers, common............... ..............
Lathers, wood________ ________
Lathers, metal............ . .......................
Mixer operators_________________
Painters..................................... ........
Plasterers...........................................
Plumbers....................... - ..................
Helpers.......... ..............................
Reinforcing steel workers (rodmen). .
Roofers, composition___________
Roofers, slate or tile__ ___________
Sheet-metal workers................. .........
Helpers......................... ................
Steam fitters........................... - ..........
Helpers........................................ .
Stonemasons.......................... ............
Structural-iron workers.......... ..........
Tile layers.......................................
Helpers....................................... .
Truck drivers:
Under i n tons___ _________
1 H to 5 tons..................... .......... .
Over 5 tons............ .......... .........
$0.918
$0.899
1.304 $1.361 $0,972
1.048 1.150
.805
1.119 1.222
.783
.922
.519
.866
.862
1.300 1.361
.648
.502
.720
.942
1.343 1.419
.667
.781
.489
.781
.850
.577
.616
.629
.420
1.091 1.277
.704
1.304 1.342
.949
.871 1.038
.667
.935 1.092
.702
1. 292 1.354
.938
1.224 1.284
.954
.612
.482
.699
1.089 1.155
.876
.944 1.123
.716
1.083 1.213
.907
1.079 1. 202
.819
.511
.607
.457
1.260 1.302
.950
.723
.786
.548
1.278 1.354
.870
1.332 1.396 1.111
1.205 1.248
.927
.719
.792
.477
.518
.630
.822
.580
.718
.876
.471
.535
.648
All occupations.................................. $0,982
$1,062
1.210 $1,248 $1.034
.803
.980 1.066
1.164 1.249
.898
.654
.703
.563
1.106 1.172
.896
.531
.637
.723
.979
1.323 1.352
.513
.594
.719
.759
.561
.676
.601
.671
.485
.900
1.268 1.309
.881
1.398 1.418
.829
.890 1.210
.885 1.001
.686
1.271 1.303 1.011
1.128 1.208
.925
.494
.530
.585
1. 252 1.284 1.018
.684
.961 1.193
1.112 1.154
.965
.803
1.140 1.245
.462
.522
.687
.902
1.201 1.291
.754
.540
.678
1.149 1.258
.931
.759
1. 201 1.244
1.204 1.261 1.016
.774
.800
.695
.475
.528
.673
.646
.702
.483
.511
.624
West North Central
$0,880
1.314 $1.335 $1.030
1.132 1.224
.802
1.124 1.212
.791
.883
.798
.540
1.321 1.341 1.024
.731
.771
.545
1.334 1.382 1.072
.805
.868
.516
.750
.801
.653
.613
.704
.494
.678
1.179 1.330
1. 300 1.366
.908
.682
.988 1.160
.731
1.045 1.246
.961
1.324 1.372
1.286 1.310 1.001
.761
.523
.651
1.052 1.143
.677
.740
1.038 1.200
.805
1.148 1.247
.823
1.057 1.192
.504
.560
.668
1.329
.997
1.317
.669
.693
.636
.825
1.337 1.383
1.269 1.348 1.090
.923
1.236 1.282
.764
.816
.527
Laborers, common..............................
Lathers, wood____ _______ ____ _
Lathers, metal________ _________
Mixer operators..................................
Painters._______________________
Plasterers.............................................
Plumbers______________________
Helpers............ ............................
Reinforcing steel workers (rodmen). .
Roofers, composition_____________
Roofers, slate or tile______________
Sheet-metal workers_____________
Helpers.................... ............... .
Steam fitters.—........................... ........
Helpers____ ________________
Stonemasons.......................................
Structural-iron workers______ ____
Tile layers......... ........... ......................
Helpers............ ...... .......................
Truck drivers:
Under i n tons . . . . .
.
.592
13^ to 5 tons......................... ........ .721
Over 5 tons
1.018
Middle Atlantic
Non Total Union Non Total Union Non
Total Union union
union
union
East North Central
Bricklayers.-------------- ------------- . . .
Carpenters-------------------------- --------Cement finishers------- --------- ----------Helpers.........— , -------------------Electricians (inside wiremen)..........
Helpers______ _______________
Engineers, hoisting (2 or more drums).
Helpers, not elsewhere classified___
New England
.623
.773
1.027
.558
.598
.575
.639
.870
.750
.667
.895
$0,939
.845
.798
.579
.889
.593
1.305
.570
.602
.483
.671
.962
.964
.749
.953
.992
.556
.640
.862
1.099
1.011
.446
1.083
.550
.888
1.388
. 825
.472
.470
.600
.550
South Atlantic
$0,788
1.273 $1.328 $1.022
.995 1.103
.765
1.057 1.178
.828
.469
.481
.573
.832
1.201 1.258
.634
.765
.551
1.172 1.418
.718
.746
.456
.595
.557
.806
.859
.735
.435
.593
.681
.995 1.167
.983
1.275 1.281
.664
.597
.781
.704
.955 1.110
.960
1.227 1.256
1.234 1.275
.921
.502
.598
.470
1. 213 1.296
.835
.954 1.157
.770
.850
1.247 1.394
.851
1.055 1.201
.511
.578
.476
1. 295 1.309 1.004
.721
.533
.778
.562
1.069 1.196
.883
1.292 1.345
.929
1.105 1.135
.698
.757
.517
.506
.667
.738
1.399 $1.447
1.165 1.241
1.265 1.295
.919
.937
1.483 1.521
.776
.811
1.605 1.618
.802
.748
.850
.897
.572
.538
1.220 1.367
1.348 1.387
1.147 1.193
1.038 1.139
1.415 1.467
1.309 1.363
.721
.763
1.045 1.099
1.122 1.184
1.147 1.219
1.259 1.295
.553
.618
1.311 1.324
.831
.872
1.342 1.428
1.486 1.505
1.302 1.344
.887
.935
.534
.737
.752
.466
.541
.730
1.199 $1. 287
.937 1.149
.985 1.242
.582
.379
1.231 1.355
.522
.589
1.321 1. 531
.487
.585
.521
.604
.431
.560
.896 1.071
1.236 1.263
.731 1.107
.797 1.047
1.158 1.248
1.127 1.253
.452
.509
1.127 1.274
.771 1.019
1.021 1.192
.997 1.245
.430
.594
1.120 1.260
.614
.685
1.350 1.384
1.365 1.565
1.242 1.339
.592
.707
.355
.554
.659
$0.950
.756
.643
.332
.791
.452
.873
.440
.463
.374
.699
1.018
.499
.668
.897
.867
.392
.870
.675
.857
.772
.404
.898
.455
1.097
.818
.922
.408
.344
.471
54
T
WAGES AND HOURS
a b l e
1.—
A v era g e u n io n and n o n u n io n h o u rly wages in selected o ccup ation s in the
building trades , 1 9 8 6 , b y geographic division s — Continued
East South
Central
West South
Central
Pacific
Mountain
Occupation
Non Total Union Non Total Union Non Total Union Non
Total Union union
union
union
union
All occupations_________ $0,645
Bricklayers________ - ___
Carpenters........................
Cement finishers........ ......
Helpers______ ____
Electricians (inside wiremen)__....... ............ ......
Helpers.......... .............
Engineers, hoisting (2 or
more drums).................
Helpers not elsewhere
classified______________
Hod carriers____________
Laborers, common______
Lathers, wood____ ______
Lathers, metal..................
Mixer operators..... .........
Painters......... ............... .
Plasterers............... ..........
Plumbers...........................
Helpers.......................
Reinforcing steel workers
(rodmen)... .................
Roofers, composition........
Roofers, slate or tile_____
Sheet-metal workers_____
Helpers..... .................
Steam fitters____________
Helpers........ ..........
Stonemasons____ _______
Structural-iron workers.._
Tile layers_______ ______
Helpers_____________
Truck drivers:
Under I H tons______
1 H to ; tons_________
Over 5 tons....... ..........
$0,675
$0,901 ________
$0.921 _________ _____
1.197 $1.211 $1,005 1.138 $1,208 $0.894 1.278 $1.320 $0.915 ”17348 $1.410 $0.928
.847 .896 .708 .883 .983 .753 1.086 1.187 .801 1.043 1.088 .924
.806 1.005 .648 .947 1.008 .808 1.103 1.174 .925 1.125 1.163 1.012
.450
.450 .386 .538 .366 .694 .788 .624 .742 .780 .697
.989 1.043
.487 .500
1.019 1.070
.779 1.072 1.118
.438 .565 .599
.874 1.171 1.207
.482 .654 .692
.836 1.006 1.008 1.000 1.170 ' 1. 224
.413
.571
.338
.917
1.027
.609
.839
1.085
1.116
.439
.468 * .409 .437 .461
.575 .425 .455 .551
.352 .337 .359 .363
1.030 .850 .633
1.073 .788 1.116 1.148
.683 .563 .801 .848
.923 .650 .763 .960
1.108 1.010 1. 057 1.161
1.152 .930 1.183 1.249
.491 .416 .461 .609
.855
.561
.795
.907
.437
1.144
.550
1.156
1.028
.987
.456
.893
.607
.940
.936
.444
1.165
.521
1.182
1.123
1.044
.533
.665
.526
.675
.772
.431
.921
.571
.922
.912
.839
.434
.354
.459 ” ."612
.668 .668
.354
.415
.946
.603
.820
1.095
.425
1.190
.573
.994
1.004
1.156
.480
.429
.401
.359
.601
.914
.685
.637
.857
.991
.408
.565
.818
.497
1.188
1.104
.752
1.067
1.195
1.250
.648
.919 1.174 1.244
.532 .616 .744
.833 1.147 1.167 1.038
.665 .512 .650 .700
.859 .606 1.004 1.042
.512 .444 .627 .650
1.338 .688 1.283 1. 321
1.148 1.000 1.337 1.343
.901 .617 .922 1. 001
1.164 .771 .932 .982
1. 347 .838 1.336 1. 351
1.284 1.000 1.177 1.209
.733 .532 .649 .709
.936 .993 1.089 1.136 .917
.611 .602 .909 1. 045 .847
1.100 .768 .949 1.042 .725
1.245 .828 .965 1.142 .711
.460 .419 .520 .633 .426
1.195 1.125 1.205 1.228 .967
.642 .430 .628 .708 .514
1.205 .748 1.165 1. 201 1.000
1.013 .974 1.183 1.224 1.007
1.187 1.013 1.137 1. 218 1.04u
.490 .471 .661 .756 .558
.408 .446
.448
.532 —
.391
.448
.532
.828
.471
_
.676 ” .738 ” ."577
.850 .850
1.147
.949
.995
.995
.552
1.262
.693
1.308
1.220
1.105
.723
. 555
.698
.800
. 553
.606
.570
1.018
1.211
. 765
.800
1.141
1.054
.565
1.171 1. 086
1. 093 .774
1.119 .786
1.102 .799
.606 .500
1.296 1.065
.716 .651
_
1. 317
1.290 I. 069
1.110 .857
.723 _______
.637
.744
.875
.504
.638
Because metal lath and composition board have been replacing
wooden lath in the building industry, the occupation of wood lather
is slowly disappearing. Only 589 wood lathers were reported by
the contractors. In 63 o f the 105 cities studied, none were found
working. In 25 cities no lathers of any kind were reported, the work
being done by carpenters. Metal lathers were reported in 72 cities,
and m 31 cities both metal and wood lathers were found.
G eogra ph ic d ifferen ces .—As shown in table 1, hourly rates paid
in the building trades not only varied widely among occupations,
but as in most other industries showed sharp regional differences.
In 1936, the highest average rate, $1,062 an hour, was shown for the
Middle Atlantic region and the lowest, 64.5 cents an hour, for the
East South Central division, a spread o f 41.7 cents an hour. Ranking
next to the Middle Atlantic States was the East North Central region,
with an average rate of 98.2 cents. Other areas with relatively high
average rates were the Pacific and Mountain regions. The average
hourly rate in New England, 89.9 cents, was 15 percent below that for
the Middle Atlantic States.
R a tes o f u n ion and n on u n ion w ork ers .—In a study so extensive, it
was impracticable to check every one of the employees scheduled, in
55
BUILDING TRADES
order to learn i f he were a union member in good standing at the
time the pay roll was scheduled. Even with this limitation, the
results o f the survey, as shown in table 1, indicated that for all occu
pations and in all parts o f the country, union rates are substantially
above nonunion rates. These differences are further indicated in table
2 fo r a few sample occupations in typical selected cities.
T
a b l e
2 .—
A v era g e h o u rly u n io n and n o n u n io n wages in sa m p le building-tra d es
occu p ation s in typ ica l cities , 1 9 S 6
Bricklayers
City
Carpenters
Total
Union
rate
Non
union
rate
Dif
ference
Total
Union
rate
Non
union
rate
Dif
ference
Atlanta, Ga....... ............... .............
$0.996
Chicago, 111.............. .............. ........... 1.487
Cleveland, Ohio.--.......... ............... . 1.375
Denver, Colo___ ____ ____ ________ 1.160
New Orleans, La_________ ________
.981
New York, N. Y __________________
1.443
St. Louis, M o___________ _________ 1.445
San Francisco, Calif________ ______
1.491
$1.126
1.487
1.375
1.234
(2)
1.501
1.464
1.491
$0,775
0)
0)
.831
.981
.926
.971
0)
$0.351
$0.723
1.460
1.216
1.046
.683
1.302
1.173
1.095
$1,004
1.495
1.252
1.217
.750
1.390
1.235
1.108
$0,673
1.000
.703
.761
.672
.907
.730
1.053
$0.331
.495
.549
.456
.078
.483
.505
.055
.403
.575
.493
Electricians
Atlanta, Ga______________________ $0.985
Chicago, 111______________________
1.465
Cleveland, O h io.................. ............. 1.503
Denver, Colo_____ _____ __________ 1.222
New Orleans, L a ____________ ____
1.250
New York, N. Y . ____ ____________
1.660
St. Louis, M o____________________
1.420
San Francisco, Calif__________ ____
1.248
$1,042
1.465
1.503
1.250
1.250
1.700
1.478
1.251
$0.875
(i)
0)
1.000
0)
.883
.786
1.181
Plumbers
$0.167
.250
.817
.692
.070
Sheet-metal workers
Atlanta, Ga__ ____________
___ $0.820 'SI. 031
Chicago, 111______________________
1.435
1.496
Cleveland, Ohio..
_
1.189
1.245
Denver, Colo_____________________
1.150
1.245
New Orleans, La____________ ___
.864
1.050
New York, N-. Y __________________
1.397
1.399
St. Louis, M o .. __ ____ __ __ 1.303
1.372
San Francisco, Calif_______________ 1.039
1.040
1 No nonunion workers reported.
$0.768
1.158
.995
.580
.808
1.369
.789
1.025
$0,263
.338
.250
.665
.242
.030
.583
.015
$1,081
1.495
1.375
1.239
1.039
1.452
1.352
1.199
$1.125
1.495
1.375
1.294
1.050
1.494
1.439
1.201
$0.971
(i)
0)
1.Q19
1.025
1.060
.853
1.171
$0.154
.275
.025
.434
✓ 586
.030
Structural-iron workers
$1,250
1.342
1.375
1.247
1.175
1.603
1.476
1.387
$1,250
1.481
1.375
1.247
(2)
1.609
1.476
1.387
(i)
$1.124
(l)
0)
1.175
1.562
(i)
0)
$0.357
.047
2 No union workers reported.
W age rates by size o f city.— A s in most other trades and industries,
wage rates in building construction tend to vary directly with the size
o f city. Rates are highest in the large metropolitan areas and are
progressively lower as the size o f the cities decreases. The average
hourly rate paid to both union and nonunion workers in cities with a
population o f 500,000 to 1,000,000 was 6.9 percent less than in cities
with a population o f 1,000,000 or over. The margin was progressively
widened until in cities with a population o f 50,000 to 100,000 the
average rate was 23.4 percent less than that in cities with a population
o f more than 1,000,000.
Racial differences.— O f the 186,145 workers included in the B u
reau’s survey, 21,894 (11.8 percent) were colored. Most o f these were
employed in semiskilled and unskilled occupations in the Southern
States. Only 1.4 percent o f the workers covered on skilled occupations
were colored.
56
WAGES AND HOURS
The rates o f Negro workers in the building trades were below those
o f white workers o f the same skills in all parts o f the country. ([See
table 3.) The greatest difference occurred in the rates o f skilled
workers. Compared with an average o f $1,156 an hour for skilled
white workers, skilled colored workers averaged only 79.1 cents. Semi
skilled colored employees received an average o f 13.9 cents an hour
less than white workers o f the same class, and unskilled colored work
ers averaged 14.1 cents an hour less than unskilled white workers.
W age differences between white and colored workers were found in
all geographic divisions.
T able 3. —
A v era g e h o u rly wages o f w hite and N eg ro w orkers in building trades in 1 9 3 6
Skilled
Semiskilled
Unskilled
Geographic division
Negro
White
United States.______ ________________
$1.156
New England________________ _______
Middle Atlantic______________ _____—
East North Central___________________
West North Central__________________
South Atlantic_______________ _____
East South Central___________________
West South Central. ................................
1.101
1.229
1.203
1.103
1.057
.957
.907
White
Negro
White
Negro
$0.791
$0,714
$0.575
$0.572
$0,431
1.188
1.101
.700
.723
.734
.711
.030
.818
.773
.004
.547
.473
.403
.015
.002
.708
0
.435
.451
.427
.008
.550
.028
.592
.408
.357
.370
.408
.507
.509
.013
.417
.331
.355
1The average hourly rate paid to colored semiskilled workers in the West North Central region is distorted
because of preponderance of colored workers reported from St. Louis and Kansas City, Mo.
F u ll-T im e W e e k ly H o u r s
The working time o f 70.7 percent o f the workers for whom in for
mation was obtained was 40 hours per week, 9.3 percent worked 30
hours a week, and 1.6 percent worked over 30 and under 40 hours; 10.4
percent worked 44 hours; 4.9 percent worked 48 hours, and only 2.6
percent worked over 48 hours per week. (Table 4.)
T
able
4 . — D istrib u tio n o f building-trades w orkers b y w eek ly hours in 1 9 3 6 , a n d b y
geographic d iv isio n s
Percent working classified full-time weekly hours in—
Weekly hours worked
30 hours.......................... ..............
Over 30 and under 30 hours____ _
30 and under 40 hours__________
40 hours______________________
Over 40 and under 44 hours______
44 hours.................... .......... ........
Over 44 and under 48 hours______
48 hours........... ............ ............... .
Over 48 and under 54 hours_____
54 and under 00 hours____ ______
00 hours and over.........................
Total.................................
1Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
Mid East West South East West
United New
dle North North At South South Moun Pa
States Eng
At Cen Cen lantic
Cen Cen tain cific
land lantic
tral tral
tral
tral
9.3
1.4
.2
70.7
0)
10.4
.5
4.9
1.4
.8
.4
5.5
0)
11:4
1.0
74.0 80.5
0)
0
11.9 5.0
.1
.3
5.3
.0
.2
.1
2.2
.5
.8
0
0.8
.8
0)
77.2
.1
8.4
.9
3.3
1.5
.9
.1
100.0 100.0 100.0
100.0
11.8
3.8
.8
02.2
(0
0.0
.3
13.7
.0
.2
0
3.0
1.0
.5
(l)
06.0 70.0
0
0
20.3 9.3
1.3
1.0
1.8
5.5
5.0
2.8
1.4
1.3
.1
2.5
9.2
.1
.5
48.5
0
30.0
.8
9.3
.9
.2
.5
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
10.0 20.5
19.3
1.2
.2 1 .5
38.0 02.8
.3
0
12.0
4.0
.1
.1
17.2
9.9
.3
.4
1.7
.3
100.0
100.0
57
C A N N I N G A N D P R E S E R V I N G I NDUSTRIES
Regional differences m how s of labor.— In general, working time
was longer in the South than in other parts o f the country, but the geo
graphical differences in hours o f labor were much less marked than
were the wage-rate difference.
Differences by broad occupational groups and union membership
status.—Skilled, union, building-trade workers do not, as a rule, work
as long hours as nonunion men and less skilled workers. (Table 5.)
O f all skilled employees studied, 82.2 percent worked 40 hours and
under 44 hours per week, as compared with 86.2 percent o f the skilled
nonunion workers. Although 2.7 percent o f the nonunion skilled
employees worked between 80 and 86 hours per week, 18.8 percent
union skilled men fell in this group.
T able 5.—
D istr ib u tio n o f building-trades w orkers b y w eek ly hours in 1 9 8 6 , a nd b y
skiU and u n io n status
[Percent working classified full-time weekly hours]
Skilled
Hours of labor per full-time week United
States
30 hours______________________
Over 30 and under 36 hours____
36 and under 40 hours - . _ _____
40 h ours...___________________
Over 40 and under 44 hours_____
44 hours______________________
Over 44 and under 48 hours__ __
48 hours______________________
Over 48 and under 64 hours_____
64 and under 60 hours__________
60 hours and over______________
Total_________________ .
Semiskilled
Non Total Union Non Total Union Non
Total Union union
union
union
9.1
2.1
.1
71.3
(l)
10.8
.5
4.1
1.2
.5
.3
11.2 2.3 11.4
.4
.7
2.6
.2
.1
.2
82.1 36.1 70.1
.1
.1
0)
3.1 35.4 8.7
.5
2.0
.8 15.0 6.1
.8
5.2
(0
.1
1.3
2.0
.1
1.3
100.0 100.0
100.0 100.0 100.0
9.3
1.4
.2
70.7
0)
10.3
.5
4.9
1.4
.9
.4
Unskilled
16.0
.9
79.7
.2
2.0
.1
1.1
0)
0)
2.5
.4
.5
51.7
.1
21.5
1.3
15.6
2.2
3.8
.4
7.3
.5
.2
69.8
9.3
1.0
.4
85.7
5.7
.1
.1
56.3
10.9
.7
5.9
2.4
1.3
1.0
2.2
<i)
1.0
0)
.4
18.4
1.2
10.0
4.4
2.0
1.8
100.0
100.0
100.0 100.0 100.0
—
1Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
Canning and Preserving Industries—Annual Earnings,
1937 and 19381
Canneries packing vegetables and deciduous fruits in 1987 operated
only from 5 to 8 weeks on the average when one seasonal product was
canned, and from 11 to 49 weeks when one or more seasonal or nonseasonal products were added. Sixty-four percent o f the workers had
less than 8 weeks’ employment in the year. Only 5 percent o f the
workers earned as much as $600 during the year.
Pineapple canneries and plants engaged in cold packing o f berries
and fruits and the preparation o f frosted fruits and vegetables also
had short operating seasons, but establishments which canned citrus
fruits and juices and packed dried fruit were in operation for com
paratively longer periods o f the year. Although the dried-fruit
industry operated fo r a longer period during the year than most o f
the other canning and preserving industries, only one-sixth o f the
workers in these plants had worked as many as 89 weeks in 1987.
1 Abstract of an article by Bertha M. Nienburg, IT. S. Women’s Bureau, in the Monthly
Labor Review for February 1941.
68
WAGES AND HOURS
These facts were revealed in a survey o f the canning and preserving
industries made in 1938 and 1939 by the United States W omen’s B u
reau.2 The survey covered 693 plants in 19 States 3 in 1939 and 4
plants in Hawaii. The maximum number employed in these plants
was 153,328, representing nearly half o f the workers in the industry.
The follow ing table shows the annual employment and earnings
in these canning and preserving industries:
A n n u a l em p lo ym en t and earnings in ca n n in g a nd preservin g , b y prod uct
Vegetables and decid
uous fruits (1937)
Weeks worked in year
Dried fruit (1937)
Hawaiian pineapple (1938)
Percent of
Percent of
Percent of
employees Average employees Average employees
working
year’s
working
year’s
working
classified earnings classified earnings classified
weeks
weeks
weeks
Total_________ ___________
100.0
$140.90
100.0
$272.45
Under 4 weeks........ .............
4 and under 8 weeks..............
8 and under 12 weeks............
12 and under 16 weeks.........
16 and under 20 weeks______
20 weeks........ ............. .......
21 and under 26 weeks______
26 weeks.......... ....... ..............
27 and under 33 weeks......... .
33 and under 39 weeks______
39 weeks.................. .......... .
40 and under 46 weeks....... .
46 and under 52 weeks.........
52 weeks________ _________
33.3
31.5
15.5
6.7
3.8
.7
2.3
.3
1.3
1.1
.1
.8
1.1
1.9
20.10
74.90
149.10
223.35
294.55
298.25
374.95
446.35
492,20
593.15
602.10
708.40
905. 30
1,078.10
21.2
21.6
13.2
9.3
5.0
1.0
4.4
.8
3.7
3.0
.5
3.6
7.6
5.1
20.40
81.60
151.60
210.05
278.05
310.50
350.85
375.20
424.85
530.35
552.85
612.35
849.40
1,079.50
Average year's
earnings
Men
100.0 $169.00
5.4
13.5
28.3
12.8
3.4
.4
2.5
.6
‘ 6.3
3.9
.6
1.9
6.2
14.2
16.30
67.40
128.00
177.00
248.00
0)
280.00
0)
354.00
440.00
486.00
562.00
586.00
891.00
Women
$115.00
15.00
50.70
92.65
115.00
137.00
0)
174.00
0)
209.00
254.00
0)
294.00
358.00
370.00
l Base too small to warrant computation of an average.
Carpet and Rug Industry—Earnings and Hours, 19394
The survey o f wages and hours in the carpet and rug industry in
cluded the manufacture o f wool carpets and rugs, woolen and worsted
carpet yarns, paper-fiber and grass rugs, and carpets and rugs made o f
cotton yarns.
A ccording to the Census o f Manufactures for 1937 (covering plants
having an annual product valued at $5,000 or m ore), the wool carpet
and rug industry embraced 55 establishments employing on the aver
age 30,779 wage earners during the year. There were 15 independent
carpet yarn-spinning plants, with an average employment o f 2,548
workers, and 9 paper-fiber and grass carpet and rug mills employing
788 wage earners. The Census o f Manufactures does not present sepa
rate figures on number o f plants and employees for cotton carpets and
rugs. The analysis o f products in the cotton-goods industry, however,
shows that the annual output in 1937 was valued at $477,076 for cotton
braided rugs and $1,969,335 fo r cotton woven rugs. These figures do
not include cotton bath mats.
2 U. S. Department of Labor. Women’s Bureau. Bulletin No. 176: Application of Labor
Legislation in the Fruit and Vegetable Canning and Preserving Industries. Washington,
3 Arkansas, California, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota,
New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, Washing
ton, and Wisconsin.
4 Abstract of article in the Monthly Labor Review for July 1940, prepared by H. E.
Riley, of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
CARPET AND RUG INDUSTRY
59
The data obtained from a m ajority o f the mills cover a pay period
in November or December 1939. This was a period o f considerable
activity in the wool carpet and rug branch o f the industry. The
coverage includes a selected sample o f wool carpet and rug, wool
carpet yarn, and cotton carpet and rug establishments, and all o f the
paper-fiber and grass-rug mills that could be located at the time
the field work was done.
In choosing the wool carpet and yarn plants to be scheduled, con
sideration was given to the principal factors that might have some
influence on the industry’s wage structure. A m ong these factors were
geographical location, size o f plant, size o f community, type o f prod
uct, and un> nization.
The coverage in the paper-fiber and grass-rug branch included 6
plants with 590 wage earners. A ccording to the Census o f M anufac
tures, there were 828 wage earners in this branch during the same
month (November) in 1937.
According to the best available information, the cotton carpet and
rug branch includes 34 establishments with a total employment
ranging from 1,000 to 1,500 wage earners. The survey covered 17
plants with 789 workers. The coverage included 5 plants in Pennsyl
vania and 3 in New York. The remaining establishments scheduled
were located in the States o f California, Georgia, Illinois, Massachu
setts, North Carolina, and Rhode Island.
W ool Carpets and Rugs and Carpet Yarns
The bulk o f the United States wool carpet and rug output is pro
duced by plants that perform both the yarn processing and weaving
operations. There are several mills, however, that have no spinning
departments, but buy their yarns from the independent carpet yarn
spinning establishments. In addition, a few plants utilize reworked
fibers obtained from old carpets and rugs, although these materials
may be supplemented with new yarns.
The products o f the industry include several types o f carpets and
rugs, differing chiefly in the method o f weaving employed. Most
important among these varieties are the W iltons, Brussels,2 velvets,
tapestries, Axminsters, chenilles, and punched felts. In general, the
Wiltons, Brussels, and chenilles are highest in quality, while the bulk
o f the Axminsters and punched felts are inexpensive grades.
The industry is largely confined to a few States in the eastern part
o f the country. A ccording to the report o f the Census o f M anufac
tures fo r 1937, New Y ork was the leading State, with half (50.1 per
cent) o f the employees in the industry. Pennsylvania was next in
importance, with 17.3 percent o f the total wage earners, followed by
New Jersey and Massachusetts with 10.2 percent and 5.6 percent,
respectively. The remaining workers were employed in scattered
plants located in other States.
Although a m ajority o f both wool-carpet and rug-weaving mills
and independent yarn establishments are relatively small in size, the
bulk o f the employment is in large plants. Labor organization is
a The Bureau has no specific reports of Brussels rug production in any of the plants
scheduled. It is quite likely, however, that some of the establishments reporting Wilton
production were also making Brussels, as both types are produced with the same equipment.
505364 0 - 43 - 5
60
WAGES AND HOURS
extensive in the industry, although largely confined to the carpet
weaving mills.
Nearly three-fourths (73.1 percent) o f the employees in wool
carpet and rug-weaving mills, and nearly two-thirds (63.5 percent)
o f those in independent yarn establishments were males.
(See
table 1.)
Skilled wage earners constituted about one-fifth (21.8
percent) o f the total in independent yarn mills, as against two-fifths
(39.8 percent) in weaving establishments. Over two-thirds (67.1
percent) o f the independent yarn-mill employees were semiskilled,
whereas only about two-fifths (41.6 percent) o f the workers in
weaving plants were in this category. The semiskilled group included
virtually all o f the females in the independent yarn mills and about
two-thirds o f those in the weaving establishments.
Average Hourly Earnings 3
Over half (52.6 percent) o f the wage earners covered in the wool
branch o f the industry were paid on a straight hourly rate basis. The
use o f piece-rate and production-bonus systems was pronounced in
certain occupations, particularly in the weaving operations. Thus,
virtually all Axminster, chenille, tapestry, and broad velvet weavers,
and all o f the setters were paid exclusively by piece work or some
production-bonus method.
The earnings o f all workers in the wool carpet and rug industry
averaged 65.5 cents an hour in November and December 1939. (See
table 1.) Male employees averaged 68.2 cents an hour, as against
57.8 cents for females. The highest average (84.5 cents) was received
T a b l e 1 .— Average hourly earnings of wool carpet and rug workers , November and
December 1 9 8 9 , by type of mill, skill, and sex
All workers
Skilled workers
Semiskilled
workers
Unskilled
workers
Type of mill
Fe Total Male Fe Total Male Fe
Fe
Total Male male
male
male Total Male male
Average hourly earnings
All mills________________ $0.655 $0. 682 $0.578 $0.817 $0. 845 $0.671 $0. 571 $0. 582 $0. 557 $0.516 $0. 520 $0.466
.615 .667 .521 .805 .808 0)
. 569 .622 .520 .509 .513 0)
Independent yarn___
Carpet and rug______ .658 .683 .585 .818 .847 .671 .572 .577 .564 .516 .521 .467
Number of workers (weighted)
All mills_______________ 30, 558 22,104 8,454 11, 716 9, 666 2,050 13, 324 7,382 5,942 5, 518 5,056
12 1,589
867
515
503
Independent yarn___ 2,367 1,500
747
842
263
250
Carpet and rug....... . 28,191 20,604 7, 587 11, 201 9,163 2,038 11, 735 6,635 5,100 5,255 4,806
462
13
449
Percent of workers
All mills________________ 100.0
Independent yarn----- 100.0
Carpet and rug--------- 100.0
72.4
63.5
73.1
27.6
36.5
26.9
38.4
21.8
39.8
31.7
21.3
32.6
6.7
.5
7.2
43.6
67.1
41.6
24.2
31.6
23.5
19.4
35.5
18.1
18.0
11.1
18. 6
16.5
10.6
17.0
1.5
.5
1.6
i Not a sufficient number of workers to permit computation of an average.
8 The data shown in this section are based on earnings at regular rates of pay, excluding
extra payments for overtime work. W ith the payments at extra rates included, the
average fo r all employees was 65.7 cents as compared with the average of 65.5 cents based
on regular rates o f pay.
61
CARPET AND RUG INDUSTRY
by the skilled males, while the unskilled females had the lowest
earnings (46.6 cents).
H ourly earnings averaged 61.5 cents in the independent yarn mills,
as compared with 65.8 cents in the carpet and rug weaving mills.
A s shown by table 1, hourly earnings were lower in independent yarn
than in weaving mills for every skill-sex group except the semiskilled
males, who averaged 62.2 cents in the former as compared with 57.7
cents in the latter establishments.
A n examination o f the distribution in table 2 reveals that the
earnings o f half (50-9 percent) o f the workers averaged between 47.5
and 67.5 cents an hour.
T a b l e 2 .— Percentage distribution of workers in all mills in wool carpet and rug
industry according? to [average \hourlyl earnings, November and December 1 939, by
sex and skill
All workers
Average hourly earnings
(in cents)
30.0 and under 32.5
32.5 and under 35.0____ _
35.0 and under 37.5______
37.5 and under 40.0______
40.0 and under 42.5______
42.5 and under 47.5______
47.5 and under 52.5______
52.5 and under 57.5______
57.5 and under 62.5______
62.5 and under 67.5______
67.5 and under 72.5______
72.5 and under 77.5______
77.5 and under 82.5_____
82.5 and under 87.5
87.5 and under 92.5______
92.5 and under 100.0 _____
100.0 and under 110.0____
110.0 and under 120.0___
120.0 and over
Total_____________
Skilled workers
Semiskilled
workers
Unskilled workers
Fe Total Male Fe Total Male Fe Total Male Fe
Total Male male
male
male
male
0.6
.6
1.0
1.4
2.9
6.8
13.7
16.2
11.6
9.4
6.9
5.8
5.1
4.7
3.8
2.9
2.6
1.9
2.1
0.5
.4
.9
.9
2.6
5.8
13.6
14.6
9.9
9.4
6.7
6.4
5.3
5.7
4.6
3.8
3.5
2.5
2.9
0.7
1.1
1.2
2.6
3.6
9.5
14.1
20.7
16.0
9.3
7.6
4.2
4.8
1.9
1.7
.5
.3
.2
0)
0.1
.5
.3
.3
1.0
1.6
2.6
3.3
7.0
8.3
10.1
10.6
10.5
10.4
9.4
7.1
6.6
4.8
5. 5
0.2
.1
.2
.1
.5
1.2
2.7
3.0
5.4
7.4
7.9
10.8
10.3
11.5
9.9
8.4
7.9
5.8
6.7
2.4
.7
1.1
3.1
3.9
2.3
4.4
14.2
12.5
20.1
9.9
11.8
4.5
6.9
1.4
.6
.2
1.1
.5
1.1
2.1
2.4
8.7
16.7
23.2
16.7
12.9
6.6
3.2
2.2
1.6
.4
.4
.1
.1
0)
1.1
.3
1.1
1.4
2.3
7.8
16.6
19.5
16.0
16.3
8.8
3.7
1.9
2.0
.7
.5
0)
1.0
.7
1.1
3.0
2.6
9.7
16.8
27.5
17.6
8.8
3.8
2.6
2.7
1.2
.1
.2
.2
.3
.1
0.3
1.1
2.1
1.9
8.0
13.3
29.9
27.0
9.1
3.2
1.3
1.7
.6
.1
.3
.1
(0
0.3
1.2
1.8
1.7
6.9
11.7
29.9
29.0
9.7
3.3
1.3
1.9
.7
.1
.3
.2
0)
5.4
3.2
19.0
31.0
31.3
4.3
2.8
1.9
1.1
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
N um ber of w orkers
(weighted)____________ 30, 558 22,104 8,454 11, 716 9,666 2,050 13,324 7,382 5,942 5, 518 5,056
462
1 Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
Average hourly earnings by occupational groups are shown in
table 3. The averages ranged from $1,079 an hour for the male
broad-loom 4 W ilton weavers to 37.8 cents for the female learners.
A m ong the skilled males, the most important occupations as
measured by number o f employees were the broad-loom Axminster
weavers, the broad- and narrow-loom W ilton weavers, and the mule
spinners. The earnings o f loom fixers, also an important group,
averaged $1,043, which was exceeded only by the average for the male
broad-loom W ilton weavers. The relatively small group o f narrowloom chenille weavers received 57.6 cents an hour, which was the
lowest average shown fo r any skilled male occupation.
4
F or the purpose o f this analysis the Bureau has defined a broad loom as one o f 6 /4
size (54 inches wide) or larger. The United States Census o f Manufactures defines a
broad loom as one o f 8 /4 size or over. An examination o f the earnings data reveals, how
ever, that the 6 /4 loom should be considered a broad, rather than a narrow loom. The
dnta for vnrious broad-loom weavers also include earnings o f a few weavers operating 2
narrow looms.
62
WAGES AND HOURS
T able 3.— Average earnings and hours of wool carpet and rug workers, November
and December 1989, by sex, skill, and occupation
Skill, sex, and occupation
Aver Aver Aver
age
age
age w eekly
hourly weekly
earn hours earn
ings
ings
All workers.......................... SO. 655
38.1
$24.94
.817
Skilled workers____ _______
Males............. ....................... .845
Blacksmiths---------------- .823
Card grinders................. .866
Card strippers------------- .658
Carpenters------- --------- .786
.810
Electricians______ ____
Engineers----- ------------ .866
Fixers, machine (other
than loom)--------------.738
Foremen, working_____ .958
Inspectors, carpets and
rugs__________ ____ _ .634
Loom fixers___________ 1.043
.813
Machinists___________
Millwrights___________ .792
.670
Painters______________
Pipefitters, plumbers,
.770
and steamfitters........
.787
Spinners, mule-----------Subforemen, working... .780
.812
Tinsmiths____________
Weavers—
Axminister, broad
loom____________ .856
Axminster, narrow
loom____________ .609
C h en ille, broad
.812
loom____________
Chenille, narrow
loom____________
.576
T apestry, broad
loom__________ . .993
T ap estry , narrow
loom____________
.771
Velvet, broad loom. .870
Velvet, narrow loom. .605
Wilton, broad loom. 1.079
Wilton, n a rr ow
lo o m .......... .........
.828
Welders. . . ---------------- .792
Miscellaneous mainte
nance workers______
.815
Miscellaneous skilled
workers, other_______ .821
Females__________________ .671
.676
Forewomen___________
Inspectors, carpets and
.526
ru g s.-.------------------Setters (Axminister)___ .696
Weavers (Axminster),
narrow loom..... .......... .640
Weavers (chenille), weft. .563
Miscellaneous skilled
.683
workers------------------.571
Semiskilled workers....... .
Males____________________ .582
.573
Balers and packers____
Beam tiers........ ............ .544
.600
Beamer tenders..........
Card tenders......... ........ .570
Chain hangers (Axmin
ster).................... ........ .615
Checkers and weighers.. .571
Clerks, factory------------- .616
.598
Cop sizers____________
Creelers, Wilton---------- .464
.607
Cutters_______ _______
.600
Dryer operators.............
Dyers----- ------------------- .616
Firemen______________ .617
Frame builders and re
pairers (Axminster). . . .551
37.9
38.7
41.4
40.1
39.5
40.8
41.1
45.7
30.95
32.69
34.03
34. 71
26.01
32.06
33.30
39. 52
40.1
41.7
29.59
39. 92
39.3
40.0
40.4
40.4
40.6
24.92
41.78
32.87
31.98
27.17
41.3
37.9
41.0
40.1
31.77
29.84
31.97
32. 54
39.4
33.72
38.8
23. 63
40.6
32.93
39.9
22.99
38.3
38.03
30.4
37.6
33.5
37.8
23.44
32. 71
20.29
40.81
36.4
39.7
30.18
31.43
40.5
32. 99
38.5
34.0
40.6
31.59
22.78
27.43
34.9
32.7
18. 37
22.74
33.8
37.0
21.62
20.84
36.8
38.0
39.4
39.1
40.4
40.9
38.6
25.16
21.69
22.90
22.41
21.97
24. 58
21.97
40.0
39.1
40.0
40.8
38.4
40.5
37.0
37.3
42.9
24.60
22.34
24.64
24. 37
17.83
24. 57
22.18
23.00
26.44
39.5
21.77
Skill, sex, and occupation
Aver Aver Aver
age
age
age
hourly weekly
weekly
earn hours earn
ings
ings
Semiskilled workers—Con.
Males—C ontinued.
Helpers, machine fixers. $0.661
Helpers, maintenance... .594
Packers, yarn_________
.548
Picker tenders________
.563
Piecers_______________
.669
Reelers_______________
.491
Scouring-machine tend
ers_________________
.596
Sewing-machine oper
ators___________ ____
.624
Shearers______________
.657
.821
Spool-storage hands___
Starchers and dryers,
carpets_____________
.591
Steamer operators_____
.600
Stock men____________
.634
Threaders (Axminster). .793
Truck drivers_________
.636
Twister tenders_______
.488
Weft cutters__________
.708
Winders....... ......... ........ .620
Wire men___ ____ _____
.555
Miscellaneous machine
operators............... .
.591
Miscellaneous
semi
skilled workers, other. .595
Females__________________ .557
Beamer tenders_______
.601
Burlers_______________ .623
Clerks, factory________
.464
Reelers_______________
.559
Sewers, hand_________
.491
Sewing-machine oper
ators_______________
.534
Spinners, frame_______
.560
Spoolers______________
.532
Twister tenders_______
.540
Winders______________ .525
Miscellaneous
semi
skilled workers______
. 533
Unskilled workers...............
Males____________________
Creelers, beaming.........
D offers_______________
Elevator operators_____
Floor hands___________
Helpers, processing____
Helpers, shipping_____
Janitors___ ____ ______
Labelers. ............... ........
Laborers—
Dye house________
General___________
Maintenance______
Learners.................... .
Machinery oilers______
Raw stock blenders.......
Spool strippers...............
Starch makers_________
Sweepers_____________
Truckers, hand....... ......
Waste pickers...............
Watchmen____________
Miscellaneous unskilled '
workers..___________
Females...............................
Creelers, beaming..........
D offers, frame spinning.
Helpeis, processing........
Learners.........................
Miscellaneous unskilled
workers.......................
40.5
40.6
41.5
40.1
39.5
40.9
$26.77
24.15
22.74
22.58
26.47
20.10
40.2
23.99
37.7
39.9
38.1
23.50
26.24
31.32
40.7
40.4
40.6
39.4
44.7
41.3
41.4
32.7
39.3
24.05
24.24
25.74
31.29
28.44
20.15
29.28
20.27
21.79
39.1
23.14
38.3
36.2
35.4
36.4
39.2
34.1
40.4
22.82
20.19
21.26
22.68
18.18
19.06
19.87
39.5
37.5
33.1
37.1
37.1
21.11
21.00
17.62
20.05
19.46
37.4
19.91
38.8
38.9
39.1
36.1
40.0
39.1
39.4
40.3
37.9
39.9
20.03
20. 26
19.73
20. 48
19.68
19.63
20. 52
20.03
17.61
22.78
.572
34.7
.507
38.0
.539
41.3
.392
39.1
.517
40.2
.563
38.3
.536
38.4
.596
40.0
.443
39.6
.532
39.3
.506 . 39.4
.476
41.8
19.86
19.27
22.27
15.33
20.78
21.55
20.56
23.84
17. 55
20.92
19.95
19.90
.516
.520
. 505
.567
.491
.502
.521
.497
.464
.570
.559
38.6
21.59
.466
.413
.525
.511
.378
37.6
39.0
37.6
39.0
36.9
17.53
16.10
19.73
19.92
13.95
.470
37.4
17.59
CARPET AND RUG INDUSTRY
63
The presence o f both men and women in substantial numbers in
several important occupations affords an opportunity to make signifi
cant comparisons o f earnings o f males and females. It must be borne
in mind, however, that the actual duties performed by male employees
in some occupations may include heavy tasks that are not required o f
females in the same jobs.
Am ong the skilled employees, only the carpet and rug inspectors
and "the narrow-loom Axminster weavers contained a sufficient number
o f both men and women to permit a comparison. In the former
group, the earnings o f males exceeded those o f females by 10.8 cents
an hour. In the latter, however, women averaged 3.1 cents per hour
more than men.
In the list o f semiskilled occupations, the earnings o f males exceeded
the average fo r females by 15.2, 9.0, and 9.5 cents, respectively, in the
occupations o f clerks, sewing-machine operators, and winders. On the
other hand, the averages for male and female beamer tenders were
almost identical, while women averaged 6.8 cents more than men as
reelers and 5.2 cents more as twister tenders.
Am ong the unskilled workers, it may be noted, male beaming creelers
averaged 50.5 cents, as compared with 41.3 cents for females in the
same occupation.
A s previously mentioned, the earnings data do not include extra
payments for overtime work.5 Although some extra overtime pay
ments were made in virtually all o f the establishments covered by the
survey, the addition o f these earnings would have increased the plant
average but slightly in each case. In fact, for only one plant would
the average have changed by as much as 1 cent. Furthermore, the
overtime payments were generally distributed over the entire pay roll
in each mill. Hence, the extra earnings are not heavily concentrated
in particular occupational groups.
Weekly Hours and Earnings
The actual workweek averaged 38.1 hours for all wage earners in
the industry at the time o f the survey. (See table 3.) Am ong the
males the average was 38.7 hours for skilled, 39.4 hours for semiskilled,
and 38.9 hours for unskilled workers. In comparison, the respective
averages for females were 34.0 hours, 36.2 hours, and 37.6 hours.
Weekly earnings o f all employees averaged $24.94 in November and
December 1939. The average varied from $32.69 for the skilled males
to $17.53 for unskilled females. It will be observed that the difference
in the weekly earnings o f males and females amounted to $9.91 for the
skilled workers, as against only $2.71 among the semiskilled and $2.73
for the unskilled employees. The highest occupational figure was
reported for the loom fixers, who averaged $41.78. The lowest weekly
earnings were received by the male and female learners, who averaged
$15.33 and $13.95, respectively.
Paper-Fiber and Grass Carpets and Rugs
The paper-fiber and grass carpet and rug mills are widely distributed
geographically, with two plants in Wisconsin, two in Massachusetts,
and one each in Pennsylvania and New York.
6
The Fair Labor Standards Act requires the payment of time and a half for all time
worked beyond 42 hours per week. A number of the plants covered by the survey paid
time and a half for time worked beyond 8 hours a day or 40 hours a week.
64
WAGES AND HOURS
T w o plants had contracts with national labor organizations.
O f the 590 employees scheduled, 450, or about three-fourths, were
classed as semiskilled. The remaining workers were about equally
divided between the skilled and unskilled categories. Over threefourths o f the workers were males. (See table 4.) As the number
o f skilled and unskilled workers was too limited to justify detailed
analysis, the distribution shown in table 5 combines all skill classes
for each sex.
Average Hourly Earnings’/ ’
About three-fifths o f the employees scheduled were paid on a straight
piece-rate or production-bonus basis. The production-bonus workers
were confined to one plant, which had a plan based on the Bedeaux
system.
The hourly earnings o f all employees averaged 48.9 cents at the
time o f the survey. The average for males was 50.3 cents, as compared
with 44.3 cents fo r females. Skilled males earned 64.7 cents an hour,
as against 49.6 cents for semiskilled and 39.2 cents for unskilled males.
T
able
4 .— A v era g e ea rn in g s and hours o f p a per-fiber and grass carpet and rug
w ork ers, b y sex and skill
Number of
workers
Sex and skill
Average
hourly
earnings
Average
weekly
hours
Average
weekly
earnings
All workers.... ........................................ ......... __
590
$0.489
40.5
$19. SI
Males_________ ____________________________
Skilled............ .......................................... .
Semiskilled_____ ______ ________________
Unskilled________ ______ ________ _______
Females____________________ _______________
454
68
324
62
136
.503
.647
.496
.392
.443
40.6
39.3
40.7
41.3
40.1
20.43
25.46
20.19
16.17
17.75
A ccording to table 5, over three-fifths (63.2 percent) o f the workers
averaged between 40.0 and 57.5 cents an hour.
T
able
5 . — P ercen tage d istribu tion o f pa p er-fiber and grass carpet a nd rug w orkers
according to average h o u rly ea rn in gs, b y sex
All
Average hourly earnings
workers Males
(in cents)
30.0 and under 32.5_____
32.5 and under 35.0..........
35.0 and under 37.5_____
37.5 and under 40.0_____
40.0 and under 42.5_____
42.5 and under 47.5........47.5 and under 52.5..........
52.5 and under 57,5..........
57.5 and under 62.5._.......
3.6
4.9
4.6
5.8
11.5
21.3
18.5
11.9
4.9
3.7
5.3
4.6
4.4
7.7
18.7
19.7
14.1
6.2
Fe
males
2.9
3.7
4.4
10.3
24.4
30.2
14.7
4.4
.7
Average hourly earnings
All
(in cents)
workers Males
62.5 and under 67.5_____
67.5 and under 72.5_____
72.5 and under 77.5_____
77.5 and under 82.5_____
82.5 and over__________
Total....................
Number of workers____
Fe
males
3.9
4.4
2.0
1.0
1.7
4.2
5.7
2.4
1.1
2.2
2.9
100.0
100.0
100.0
590
454
136
.7
.7
Weekly Hours and Earnings
The actual weekly hours o f work for all employees averaged 40.5
at the time o f the survey. Male workers averaged 40.6 hours, as
compared with 40.1 hours for females.
fl The data shown in this section are based on earnings at regular rates of pay, exclud
ing payments at extra rates for overtime work. Including the extra rates, the average for
all employees was 49.2 cents, as against the average of 48.9 cents based on regular rates of
pay.
65
CARPET AND RUG INDUSTRY
Weekly earnings o f all employees averaged $19.81. Males received
$20.43, which was $2.68 more than the average for females. The
average fo r skilled males ($25.46) exceeded that o f the semiskilled
males by $5.27. In turn, the latter group averaged $4.02 more than the
unskilled males. (See table 4.)
Cotton Carpets and Rugs
O f the 17 cotton carpet and rug plants surveyed, 9 were reported
to be making exclusively products covered by the definition fo r this
branch, namely, cotton rugs o f braided-yarn, chenille, or flat-woven
ty p es.
There is very little labor organization in the cotton branch o f the
carpet and rug industry.
A majority o f the workers in this branch o f the industry were
classed as semiskilled. O f the 789 employees scheduled, 61.0 percent
were in this category; 26.1 percent were skilled and 12.9 percent un
skilled. Most o f the skilled and unskilled employees were males, who
constituted 55.0 percent o f the labor force, while all but 32 o f the
females were in semiskilled occupations. (See table 6.)
T able
6.—
A v era g e earnings and hours o f cotton carpet and rug w ork ers, b y sex
and skill
Number of
workers
Sex and skill
Average
hourly
earnings
Average
weekly
hours
Average
weekly
earnings
All workers______________________________ __
789
$0.426
37.2
$15.84
Males___________________________ _________
Skilled_________________________________
Semiskilled_ . . . _______ _____________
Unskilled__________ _____ ______________
434
187
158
89
.479
.569
.420
.401
38.2
37.3
39.2
38.3
18.28
21.24
16.45
15.33
Females_____ _____________ ______________
355
.357
36.1
12.86
Average Hourly Earnings7
Straight piece-rate or production-bonus wage payment plans were
in effect in 12 o f the plants surveyed. In each o f these mills, however,
there were some employees, chiefly in the indirect and unskilled groups,
who were paid straight-time rates. The number o f workers actually
receiving straight piece-rates or bonus earnings amounted to 43.6
percent o f the total labor force.
The hourly earnings o f all employees in this branch o f the industry
averaged 42.6 cents at the time o f the survey. The average for males
was 47.9 cents as compared with 35.7 cents for females, a difference o f
12.2 cents. A distribution by average hourly earnings fo r cotton
carpet and rug workers is shown in table 7.
7
The data shown in this section are based on earnings at regular rates of pay, exclud
ing extra payments fo r overtime work. With the payments at extra rates included, the
average fo r all employees was 42.8 cents as compared with the average o f 42.6 cents based
on regular rates o f pay.
WAGES AND HOURS
66
T
able
7 ,— P ercen tag e distribu tion o f cotton carpet and rug w orkers according to
average h ou rly earnings, b y sex a nd skill
Average hourly earnings
(in cents)
Under 30.0 ___
Exactly 30.0____ J___
SO 1 and under 32 5
32.5 and under 35.0_____
35 0 and under 37.5
37.5 and under 40.0
40.0 and under 42.5..........
42.5 and under 47.5..........
47.5 and under 52.5-------52.5 and under 57.5---------
Total
0.1
20.2
5.8
15.6
11.3
10.0
5.8
8.1
fi oK
o.
3.0
Males
Females
0. 2
15.7
4. 8
8.3
11.8
6.7
6.7
9.2
12 2
25.6
6. 7
24.8
10.7
14.1
4.5
6.8
39
4 .1
1 .7
Fe
males
Average hourly earnings
(in cents)
Total
Males
57.5 and under 62.5_____
62.5 and under 67.5_____
67.5 and under 77.5 ..
77.5 and under 87.5 ____
87.5 and under 100.0 _ _
100.0 and over___-
2.3
2.4
1.8
1.1
1.1
2.9
3.7
4.1
3.0
2.1
2.1
5.3
0.6
.3
.3
Total____________
100.0
100.0
100.0
789
434
355
Number of workers____
Table 8 shows averages for the occupational groups containing a
sufficient number o f workers to permit the presentation o f separate
data. Male weavers, a skilled group, had the highest average shown,
although it will be observed that this figure is less than the average
(56.9 cents) fo r all skilled males. This difference is due to the fact
that the skilled males other than weavers consisted largely o f higherpaid working supervisors.
T
able
8 .— A v era g e ea rn in gs and hours f o r selected o ccu p ation s i n cotton carpet and
ru g m ills
Sex, occupation, and skill
Males:
Weavers, skilled___ _____ __________________ ___
Winders, semiskilled____________________________
Females:
Braiders, semiskilled ___________________________
Burlersand menders, semiskilled........................ .
Sewing-machine operators, semiskilled___________
Winders, semiskilled_______________ ____________
Number
of
workers
Average
hourly
earnings
Average
weekly
hours
Average
weekly
earnings
138
29
$0.519
.322
37. 6
38.4
$19.05
12. 37
26
64
157
53
.328
.353
.373
.345
34.3
36.8
36.5
35.5
11. 25
12.99
13.59
12. 25
Weekly Hours and Earnings
The actual workweek for all employees averaged 37.2 hours at the
time o f the survey. The average was 38.2 hours fo r males, as against
36.1 hours for females. Am ong the males, it will be observed that the
semiskilled workers had the longest workweek (39.2 hours), whereas
the skilled had the shortest (37.3 hours).
W eekly earnings averaged $15.84 for all workers, as against $18.28
fo r males and $12.86 for females. Skilled males averaged $21.24,
which was $4.79 above the level for the semiskilled males. The aver
age earnings o f the latter exceeded those o f the unskilled group by
only $1.12. (See table 8 for average weekly hours and earnings o f
selected occupational groups.)
CEREAL-PREPARATION INDUSTRY
67
Cereal-Preparations Industry—Hours and Earnings
19381
Large quantities o f cereal preparations are purchased by the G ov
ernment, and a survey was made in A pril and May 1938, by the United
States W om en’s Bureau, o f wages and hours in the industry, prelimi
nary to proceedings by the Public Contracts Board to fix minimum
wages under the Public Contracts Act.
The survey covered 33 establishments whose principal products
were breakfast cereals (rolled oats; shredded wheat; puffed wheat and
rice; wheat, bran, and corn flakes, etc.), various prepared flours (pan
cake and waffle flour, buckwheat flour, etc.), and similar food prod
ucts made from wheat, oats, and other grain products. Two-tnirds
(67 percent) o f the 4,610 employees covered were men. The estab
lishments surveyed represented at least one-third o f those in the in
dustry, and the employees covered represented 60 percent o f the total
employees.
Hours o f W ork
Over half o f the establishments which reported a regular schedule o f
hours had a scheduled week o f 40 hours. In the other establishments,
the weekly hours ranged from 36 to 48, where the hours were the same
for both men and women.
The number o f hours worked varied in the different States, the
proportion o f employees working less than 40 hours being as great as
76 percent in Nebraska and Missouri and 80 percent in Iowa, and as
small as 16.2 percent in California and Oregon and 16.8 percent in
New Y ork and New Jersey. In table 1 is shown the percentage o f the
employees in the various occupational groups who worked specified
weekly hours.
T a b l e 1 .— H o u r s worked b y em p lo yees in cereal-prepa ra tions in d u s tr y , b y occup a
tional group
Occupational group
Percent of employees whose actual weekly hours
were—
Num
ber of
em
Over Over
and
ploy Un
and 48 and 56
and
under 60
40
40 to 44
ees der 40
under under
over
44
56
60
48
4,518
47.5
15.1
23.9
3.3
8.8
1.0
0.4
_________
Receiving and cleaning______
88
Processing____________________ _____ _____ 1,135
Packing and labeling_____________________ 1,916
Shipping and general utility_______________
557
Engineers, firemen, and mechanical workers
in manufacturing_______________________
571
Foremen_____ __________________________
66
Others1.............. ___ ...........
185
60.2
29.0
52.6
52.4
10.2
11.9
17.7
23.7
5.7
39.0
21.0
14.5
3.4
3.5
3.2
2.3
17.0
14.4
4.8
6.5
3.4
1.2
.4
.4
.9
.2
.2
60.2
39.4
50.8
6.0
16.7
10.3
19.1
19.7
15.1
2.1
4.5
8.1
9.5
16.7
13.5
2.8
1.5
2.2
.4
1.5
All groups_________ _____ ________________
1 Includes workers in printing, carton and box, can, and wax-paper departments.
1 From Monthly Labor Review for June 1939.
WAGES AND HOURS
68
H o u r ly and W eek ly Earnings
Almost one-half (45 percent) o f the 4,569 employees in the cerealpreparations industry for whom hours were reported earned 45 and
under 65 cents an hour. The highest average hourly earnings (78.9
cents) in any State or State group w.ere in Michigan and the lowest
(49.1 cents) in Nebraska and Missouri combined.
There was considerable variation in hourly earnings in the different
occupations. Engineers, firemen, and mechanical workers employed
in the manufacturing processes had the highest earnings, their average
being 84.7 cents an hour. Workers in the processing occupations 2
earned an average o f 79.3 cents an h ou r; shipping and utility workers,
65.1 cents an hour; and receiving and cleaning workers, 59.9 cents an
hour. Filling, packing, and labeling workers earned the lowest hourly
average— 52.3 cents.
The average week’s earnings in the industry in the pay-roll period
scheduled wrere $25.65. There was a wide range in average week’s
earnings as between the various State groups. The lowest average
was $16.55 in Nebraska and Missouri, and the highest, $31.15, in M ichi
gan. The average week’s earnings in the industry in the different
State groups, and also the average hourly earnings, are presented in
table 2.
T able
2 . — A v era g e w eek ’s and h o u rly ea rn in gs in
hy State
cerea l-p rep a ra tion s in d u s tr y ,
Week’s earnings
State
Number of
employees
Average
Hourly earnings
Number of
employees
T o t a l...____________________ ______________________
4,610
$25.65
4,569
California and Oregon___________ ________________
Illinois and Indiana________________________ _______
Iowa__________ _____ ______________________________
Michigan____ _______________________________ „_____
Minnesota___ ____ ______________ ____ _____________
Nebraska and Missouri____ _______ ____ ____________
New York and New Jersey___ ______________________
204
456
1,085
1,970
125
207
563
26.00
24.55
18.65
31.15
20.90
16. 55
25.00
204
454
1,084
1,970
125
207
525
1
Average
C en ts
66.2
61.0
59.2
54.1
78.9
53.0
49.1
61.2
1 Extra pay for overtime not included.
>###+###
Cigar Industry—Earnings and Hours, March 19363
The data obtained in this survey generally covered a pay-roll period
during the month o f March 1936, at the time when production in the
industry wTas in preparation for the Easter demand for cigars. In
making this survey the Bureau covered a wide territory, from Newr
England to Florida and west to and including the Mississippi Valley,
thus leaving out only a few o f the outlying western districts that are
o f limited importance.
The main part o f the survey, which was made on a sample basis,
was limited to establishments with 20 or more employees. The sam2 Cookers, bakers, dryers, sterilizers, mixers, rollers or flakers, shredders, puffers or
shooters, and graders, according to machine on which workers are employed.
3 Abstract of article in the Monthly Labor Review for April 1937, prepared hy Henry A.
Bates and Donald L. Helm, of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
69
CIGAR INDUSTRY
pie included 96 plants and 15,772 workers. It is estimated that this
sample, in terms o f employees, covered approximately 30 percent of
those found in plants with 20 or more workers in 1936. In selecting
the sample great care was taken to make it fully representative o f the
part o f the industry it covers. A m ong the factors considered were
geographical distribution, size o f city, size o f establishment, degree o f
mechanization o f plant, type o f cigar, unionization, etc.
A v e r a g e H o u r l y E a r n in g s
Although the average hourly earnings for all employees in the
industry amounted to 37.1 cents, there were 3.4 percent earning under
20.0 cents, 11.4 percent under 25.0 cents, 26.9 percent under 30.0 cents,
51.1 percent under 35.0 cents, and 63.3 percent under 37.5 cents (the
limit nearest the industry average). F or a distribution according to
average hourly earnings, see table 1.
T
able
1 .— Percentage d istribu tion o f em p lo yees in cigar in d u stry
average h o u rly ea rn in g s , M a r c h 1 9 3 6 , by sex
Total
Average hourly earnings (in cents)
Under 15.0__________ _________________ _
15.0 and under 17.5___________ _____ ____
17.5 and under 20.0............... ......................
20.0 and under 22.5___ ______ ____ _____
22.5 and under 25.0_____ _ ____________
25.0 and under 27.5_____________________
27.5 and under 30.0_____________________
30.0 and under 32.5................ ..............
32.5 and under 35.0--. _
_____
35.0 and under 37.5.......
.........................
37.5 and under 40.0_____ ______________
40.0 and under 42.5__- _ . __________ __
42.5 and under 45.0______________
. ___
45.0 and under 47.5............. ........... .........
47.5 and under 50.0___ _________________
50.0 and under 55.0__ ________ _ ______
55.0 and under 60.0___ ________________
60.0 and under 65.0_____________________
65.0 and under 70.0__________ _________
70.0 and under 80.0-.- _ __________ _
80.0 and under 90.0__________ _________
90.0 and under 100.0____ ______________
100.0 and under 120.0
120.0 and over
Total
Males
according
Females
Simple
percent
age
Cumu
lative
percent
age
Simple
percent
age
Cumu
lative
percent
age
Simple
percent
age
0.8
.9
1.7
2.9
5.1
7.6
7.9
12.1
12.1
12.2
9.1
6.4
5.5
3.8
2.6
2.4
1.6
1.3
.7
1.2
.9
.5
.4
.3
0.8
1.7
3.4
6.3
11.4
19.0
26.9
39.0
51.1
63.3
72.4
78.8
84.3
88.1
90.7
93.1
94.7
96.0
96.7
97.9
98.8
99.3
99.7
100.0
0.5
.6
.8
1.9
2.5
5.1
5.0
10.3
7.3
8.9
7.3
7.0
4.5
5.2
3.4
5.6
4.1
4.0
2.9
4.7
3.4
2.0
1.8
1.2
0.5
1.1
1.9
3.8
6.3
11.4
16.4
26.7
34.0
42.9
50.2
57.2
61.7
66.9
70.3
75.9
80.0
84.0
86.9
91.6
95.0
97.0
98.8
100.0
0.9
1.1
1.9
3.2
5.8
8.4
8.8
12.7
13.6
13.2
9.7
6.2
5.8
3.4
2.3
1.4
.9
.4
0)
.1
.1
0)
100.0
100.0
to
Cumu
lative
percent
age
0.9
2.0
3.9
7.1
12.9
21.3
30.1
42.8
56.4
69.6
79.3
85.5
91.3
94.7
97.0
98.4
99.3
99.7
99.7
99. &
99.9
100.0
100.0
i Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
The average hourly earnings amounted to 46.3 cents for males and
33.8 cents for females, a difference o f 12.5 cents. The contrast be
tween the earnings o f males and females is brought out even more
vividly by comparing the two distributions.
F or both sexes combined, the average was 37.2 cents in the North
and 37.1 cents in the South. (See table 2.) The similarity o f the
averages was due to the fact that there were low-paid districts in the
northern as well as in the southern region, and that the Florida average
was comparable with those in some o f the higher-paid districts in the
North.
70
WAGES AND HOURS
T a b l e 2 . — A v era g e h ou rly earnings o f em p lo yees in cigar in d u s try, M a r c h 1 9 3 6 , by
district and sex
District
Total
Males
Females
$0.371
$0.463
$0.338
North. ....................................................................... ......
New England _____________ ___________________
New York City............. ................... - ____ _________
Up-State New York.............................. .....................
New Jersey. ____________________ ______________
Philadelphia___________ _____ ____________ _____
Small cities, eastern Pennsylvania............ ................
Towns, eastern Pennsylvania................. ..................
Western Pennsylvania and West Virginia_________
O h io ._____________________ - ........... - .............. ......
Indiana . . .
_________ ______________________
Michigan ___________ _______________________
Other Middle Western States..... ...............................
.372
.509
.408
.400
.383
.419
.388
.296
.328
.314
.328
.363
.320
.477
.560
.453
.510
.522
.583
.530
.342
.507
.346
.424
.514
.405
.343
.444
.387
.358
.361
.380
.354
.274
.296
.306
.309
.343
.281
South...................................................... ........... ..............
Florida _____________________ ______ ____ _______
Other Southern States_____________ ____________ _
.371
.389
.325
.445
.450
.411
.321
.331
.308
United States__________ ____ _______________________
Table 3 presents the average hourly earnings by occupational
classes. A n examination o f the available data shows that, for the
United States as a whole, the averages for males ranged from 29.3
cents for hand-manipulated machine bunchmakers to 83.4 cents for
office and plant supervisory employees, and fo r females from 18.4
cents for learners and apprentices to 45.9 cents for office and plant
supervisory employees.
T a b l e 3 . — A v era g e h o u rly ea rn in gs o f em p lo yees in cigar in d u s tr y , M a r c h 1 9 3 6 , b y
occup ation al class, region, and sex
United States
North
South
Occupational class
Males Females Males Females Males Females
Helpers, stocking ___________________________________ $0.349
Conditioners, leaf____________________________________
.480
Conditioners’ helpers, leaf___________________________
.347
Strippers, hand______________________________________
Strippers, machine..___________ _________ ___________
Selectors, wrappers________ _________________ _____
.721
Cigar makers, hand, whole work......... ...........................
.391
Bunchmakers, hand...................................................... .
.447
Rollers, hand...... ............................ ...................... .............
.333
Bunchmakers, hand-manipulated machine....................
.293
Bunchmakers, shredded-filler machine.........................
.354
Wrapper layers, shredded-filler machine________ ____
Filler feeders, long-filler machine............. .................. .
Binder layers, long-filler machine____________ _______
Wrapper layers, long-filler machine...............................
Finishers, long-filler machine............................................
Examiners, final, cigar and box_______ ____ _________
.502
Mechanics............................ .................... ..........................
.754
Packers..____ _____ ________________________________
.536
Banders and cellophaners, hand........... ...........................
Banders and cellophaners, machine.......................... .
Supervisory employees, office and plant______________
.834
Clerical employees, office and plant............. ...................
.529
Miscellaneous direct skilled workers................................
0)
Miscellaneous direct semiskilled workers.......... ...........
0)
Miscellaneous direct unskilled workers.........................
.363
Miscellaneous indirect skilled workers.......................
.655
Miscellaneous indirect semiskilled workers....................
.431
Miscellaneous indirect unskilled workers_____________
.346
Miscellaneous service workers_________________
___
.358
Learners and apprentices____________________ ____ __
.360
Averages not shown for fewer than 24 employees.
$0.298
.294
.255
.292
.323
.360
.354
.321
.343
.370
.366
.373
.372
.374
.381
.377
.377
.311
.341
.459
.453
.350
0)
.300
0)
0)
.371
.184
$0.348
.472
.346
0)
.421
.395
.333
.291
.340
.494
.753
.448
.809
.500
0)
0)
.353
.677
.437
.366
.368
0)
$0.298
.298
.262
.293
.292
.369
.361
.322
.343
.380
.375
.383
.382
.384
.385
.377
.370
.303
.336
.458
.454
.351
0)
.288
0)
,380
.181
$0.356
.498
.353
.734
.365
.453
.333
0)
.364
0)
.757
.615
.926
.569
0)
0)
0)
0)
.318
.336
.340
$0.300
0)
.245
.287
.408
.354
.339
.320
(0
.342
.336
.324
.326
.325
.317
.379
.422
.321
.362
0)
.451
0)
0)
0)
0)
0)
0)
c ig a r
71
I n d u st r y
W e e k ly H o u r s
W ith an average o f 34.8 hours per week for all employees in the
industry, it was found that 60.5 percent worked under 40 hours, 22.6
percent exactly 40 hours, and the remaining 16.9 percent over 40
hours. It is notable that relatively few employees worked long hours,
only 3.8 percent being employed 48 hours and over.
Males were employed longer hours than females, the average for the
form er amounting to 39.4, as compared with 33.4 fo r the latter. (See
table 4.) The average weekly hours were greater in the South than
in the North, this being true for each sex as well as for all employees.
T able
4.—
A v era g e w eek ly hours o f em p lo yees in cigar in d u s tr y , M a r c h 1 9 8 6 , b y
district and sex
District
Total
Males
Females
United States_____ ____ _______ ________ ____ _________
34.8
39.4
33.4
North______________________________________ __________
New England_____________________________ ____ ___
New York City ________ ____ ___________ _____ ___
Up-State New York_____ _ _______________________
New Jersey___________ ____ _______________________
Philadelphia.______ ____ _____ ____________________
Small cities, eastern Pennsylvania.. ______ . . . . . .
Towns, eastern Pennsylvania_____________________
Western Pennsylvania and West Virginia_________
Ohio________ ______ _______ _______________________
Indiana_____________________ ______ ______
Michigan__________________________________________
Other Middle Western States... . . . _________ ____
33.8
32.1
33.9
30.7
35.9
36.1
30.4
32.3
35.2
35.4
33.7
35.9
38.0
39.0
37.8
39.2
38.9
41.9
41.7
39.7
35.0
42.3
38.7
42.1
43.0
33.2
32.6
27.0
31.9
28.4
35.1
34.9
28.8
31.1
34.1
34.4
32.3
35.1
40.8
South____________________ ____________________________
Florida_______ _____________________________ ______
Other Southern States____ ________ ____ __________
37.8
38.4
36.4
39.9
39.6
41.6
36.5
37.3
35.5
A v e r a g e W e e k ly E a r n in g s
The average weekly earnings o f all employees in the industry
amounted to $12.94, but the extent o f the low weekly pay can only
be seen from the distribution o f individual workers; 17.0 percent
earned less than $8, 48.6 percent less than $12, and 79.2 percent less
than $16. A m ong the remaining employees, 12.5 percent earned $16
and under $20, and 3.4 percent $28 and over. The presence o f such a
relatively large proportion o f low-paid workers was the result o f low
average hourly earnings as well as short weekly hours.
The average earnings per week o f male workers amounted to $18.24,
which was considerably higher than the average o f $11.30 reported
fo r females. The large difference in favor o f males was due to the
fact that they not only had higher average hourly earnings but also
longer hours o f work.
The average earnings per week o f all employees in the South ex
ceeded those in the North, the former amounting to $14.00 as compared
with $12.56 for the latter. (See table 5.) A s regards a. e several dis
tricts, the highest averages were found in New Enj/, ind ($16.32),
Philadelphia ($15.12), and Florida ($14.96). Low averages appeared
in the other Southern States ($11.82), the small cities in eastern
Pennsylvania ($11.81), western Pennsylvania and West Virginia
($11.52), Ohio ($11.11), and Indiana ($11.06), with the smallest aver
age ($9.57) in the towns o f eastern Pennsylvania.
72
WAGES AND HOURS
T a b l e 5 . — A verage w eek ly earnings o f em p lo yees in cigar in d u s tr y , M a r c h 1 9 8 6 , b y
district and sex
District
United States.................. ..............................
Total
Males
Females
$12.94
$18.24
$11.30
North________ ________________ _____ _____
New England.._____ __________________
New York City____ ___________________
Up-State New York____________ _______
New Jersey_________ ____ _____________
Philadelphia_________ _________________
Small cities, eastern Pennsylvania_______
Towns, eastern Pennsylvania___________
Western Pennsylvania and West Virginia.
Ohio_________________ _____ ___________
Indiana....... ...............................................
M ichigan____________________________
Other Middle Western States___________
12. 56
16.32
13.83
12.29
13.74
15.12
11.81
9. 57
11. 52
11.11
11.06
13.05
12.19
18.59
21.20
17.76
19.88
21.90
24.32
21.06
11.97
21.46
13.43
17.84
22.10
13.45
11.18
11.99
12.35
10.16
12.65
13.28
10.20
8.53
10.09
10.60
10.00
12.05
11.47
South________________ ________________ ___
Florida____________ _____ _____________
Other Southern States__________________
14.00
14. 96
11.82
17.74
17.83
17.08
11.74
12.33
10.93
Common Laborers—Entrance Wage Rates, Ju ly 19401
The average hourly entrance rate o f pay o f adult male common
laborers in 20 industries in the United States was 50.6 cents in July
1940. This average was obtained from the data gathered by the
Bureau o f Labor Statistics in its fifteenth annual survey o f the niring
rates for common labor. The study covered 202,929 common laborers
working at entrance rates in 6,571 establishments. O f these establish
ments, 4,736 were in the 16 manufacturing industries surveyed, 731
were in 3 public-utility services, and 1,104 were in the buildingconstruction industry.
As in the Bureau s previous surveys o f entrance rates, this study was
conducted by the mail-questionnaire method.
E n t r a n c e R a t e s f o r t h e C o u n t r y as a W h o le
The hourly entrance rates paid to adult male common laborers in
the 20 industries covered in this study, while averaging 50.6 cents,
ranged from less than 25 cents to more than $1.10. This wide distri
bution suggests that the entrance wage rate for adult male common
laborers (as is true also o f the rates for other workers) is affected by
such factors as geographical location, size o f community, race o f worker,
hazards o f the job, and type o f industry. Study o f the data in table 1
shows that relatively few common laborers are paid less than 30 cents
or more than 67% cents an hour. More than nine-tenths (92.6 percent)
o f all the common laborers surveyed in 1940 had rates which fell within
this 37%-cent range. About one-seventh o f the workers received the
statutory minimum o f exactly 30 cents an hour, provided by the Fair
Labor Standards Act.
1
Abstract of article in the Monthly Labor Review for January 1941, prepared by
Willis C. Quant and Edward K. Frazier, of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
73
COMMON LABORERS
T
able
1.—
D istrib u tio n o f adult m ale com m o n laborers , b y h ou rly entrance rates in
20
in d u stries , J u l y 1 9 4 0
Num
Cumu
ber of Simple
lative
laborers per
per
at
cent
cent
entrance age
age
rates
Hourly entrance rate
(in cents)
All rates................ ..............
202,929
100.0
___
Under 25.0........... ................
25.0 and under 30.0_______
Exactly 30.0_____________
Over 30.0 and under 32.5..
32.5 and under 35.0_______
35.0 and under 37.5........ .
87.5 and under 40.0............
40.0 and under 42.5........ .
42.5 and under 47.5_______
617~
1,167
29, 757
575
1,260
5,853
2, 727
19, 562
18,202
.6
14.7
.3
.6
2.9
1.3
9.6
9.0
0.3
.9
15.6
15.9
16.5
19.4
20.7
30.3
39.3
Num
Cumu
ber of Simple
lative
laborers per
per
at
cent cent
entrance age
age
rates
Hourly entrance rate
(in cents)
47.5 and under 52.5........ .
52.5 and under 57.5............
57.5 and under 62.5............
62.5 and under 67.5............
67.5 and under 72.5............
72.5 and under 77.5............
77.5 and under 82.5.............
82.5 and under 90.0_______
90.0 and under 100.0______
100.0 and under 110.0.........
110.0 and over...................
25,932
22,781
21, 517
39,776
4,640
3,114
2,664
1,527
886
235
137
52.1
63.3
73.9
93.5
95.8
97.3
98.6
99.4
99.8
99.9
12.8
11.2
10.6
19.6
2.3
1.5
1.3
.8
.4
.1
.1
V a r ia tio n s in W a g e R a te s
Geographical differences in average hourly entrance rates are shown
in table 2, which presents the data by States and by two broad regions,
one composed o f the Northern and Western States, and the other o f
the Southern and Southwestern States.
The State averages for the country as a whole ranged from a low
o f 30.7 cents an hour in North Carolina to a high o f 65.1 cents in the
District o f Columbia. The average o f 65.1 cents for the District o f
Columbia is largely the result o f the predominance o f building con
struction in that area.
T a b l e 2 . — A v era g e h ou rly entrance rates o f adult m ale com m o n laborers in
20
in d u stries, J u ly 1 9 4 0 , by State and region
Region and State
Average
Estab Labor
hourly
ers at
lish entrance
entrance
ments
rates
rate
United States________
6, 571
202,929
$0. 506
North and West______
California________
Colorado_________
Connecticut___ ..
Delaware________
District of Colum
bia_____________
Idaho______ _____
Illinois............. ......
Indiana__________
Iowa......................
Kansas________ .
Maine___________
Maryland________
Massachusetts____
Michigan.............
Minnesota.............
Missouri_________
Montana________
Nebraska________
Nevada__________
New Hampshire-..
New Jersey______
New Y ork... ____
North Dakota.......
Ohio..... ................ .
5, 215
377
65
123
41
149. 275
9, 387
1,173
2,000
711
.560
.589
.557
.544
.485
63
24
366
247
1,911
879
12,873
11,653
3,208
1,586
2, 529
4,183
3, 545
8,010
4,201
3, 544
* 711
976
164
1,029
5, 518
9, 581
171
15,342
.651
.577
.585
.570
.539
.467
.469
.490
.533
.566
.557
.552
.590
.497
.600
.499
.5M
.532
.423
.575
100
105
78
109
244
316
122
163
31
42
7
46
229
363
15
616
Region and State
North and West—Con.
Oregon. ------------Pennsylvania____
Rhode Island_____
South Dakota____
Utah____________
Vermont_____ -Waslilngton . ____
West Virginia____
Wisconsin____ _
Wyoming________
South and Southwest..
Alabama........ ........
Arizona__________
Arkansas________
Florida__________
Georgia__________
Kentucky-----------Louisiana________
Mississippi_______
New M e x ico .____
North Carolina___
Oklahoma. _____
South Carolina___
Tennessee .......... .
Texas_________ _.
Virginia---------------
* Because of the small coverage, no average is presented.
Average
Estab Labor
ers at
hourly
lish entrance
entrance
ments
rates
rate
139
548
39
16
33
25
199
88
225
11
4,636
21, 735
395
427
756
389
6, 351
4,612
5,002
87
$0.602
.556
.532
.487
.486
.438
.630
.549
.537
1, 356
104
26
68
90
113
75
107
31
14
104
72
53, 654
4,818
650
4,440
5, 327
4,213
1,421
7. 651
2. 513
326
3, 309
1,247
2, 624
3,638
7, 698
3, 779
.355
.392
.398
.322
.322
.317
.437
.360
.356
.360
.307
.482
.316
.337
55
107
237
153
0)
.390
.357
74
WAGES AND HOURS
The average hourly rate paid in the Northern and Western States as
a whole was 56.0 cents and that fo r the Southern and Southwestern
States was but 35.5 cents.
The average entrance rates o f 57.4 cents paid to Negroes and the
56.1 cents paid to Mexicans in the Northern and Western States (table
3) were slightly higher than the average rate o f 55.9 cents paid to
whites other than Mexicans. This was due to considerable concentra
tion o f the Negroes and Mexicans in the iron and steel industry, where
their average hourly entrance rates amounted to 59.3 and 61.3 cents
an hour, respectively. In the South and Southwest whites other than
Mexicans received the highest rates.
T a b l e 3 . — P ercen tage distribu tion o f adult m ale c om m o n laborers b y h ou rly entrance
rates in 2 0 in d u stries , J u l y 1 9 4 0 , b y race a nd region
North and West
Hourly entrance rate (in cents)
All
Under 25.0______________________
25.0 and under 30.0...... .......... .......
Exactly 30.0____________________
Over 30.0 and under 32.5......... .
32.5 and under 35.0.......... ..............
35.0 and under 37.5____ ________
37.5 and under 40.0......................
40.0 and under 42.5_____________
42.5 and under 47.5_____________
47.5 and under 52.5_______ ______
52.5 and under 57.5_____________
57.5 and under 62.5........ .............. .
62.5 and under 67.5_____________
67.5 and under 72.5........................
72.5 and under 77.5_____ _______
77.5 and under 82.5____ ________
82.5 and under 90.0.......................
90.0 and under 100.0.......................
100.0 and under 110.0___________
110.0 and over................. ...............
(0
0.1
1.2
.1
.2
1.2
1.1
8.5
8.0
15.9
14.8
14.3
26.1
2.9
1.9
1.8
1.0
.6
.2
.1
All rates_____________ _____
White
other
than
Mexican
(0
Negro
South and ' .. uthwest
Mexi
can
All
White
other
than
Mexican
Negro
Mexi
can
1.1
2.0
52.2
.8
1.8
7.7
2.1
12.7
11.7
4.2
1.3
.3
1.1
.5
.5
0.5
.7
39.9
.7
1.3
11.2
2.6
14.4
13.0
7.1
2.3
.8
2.8
1.3
1.4
1.3
2.6
60.9
.8
1.7
5.5
1.7
11.3
11.1
2.4
.6
p)
.1
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
2,110
$0. 561
53, 654
$0.355
19, 721
$0. 386
32, 631
$0. 336
1,307
$0.353
0.1
1.2.
.1
.2
1.2
1.2
8.7
7.9
15.9
14.3
14.7
26.9
2. 7
1.9
1.1
1.0
.6
.2
.1
0.1
1.0
.1
.2
1.0
.3
7.6
9.2
14.6
19.5
10.6
19.5
4.5
1.7
8.3
1.0
.7
.1
0)
0.3
.1
.2
.1
1.8
2.6
3.4
6.2
19.8
10.2
17.5
31.6
4.4
1.2
.6
0)
100.0
100.0
1C0.0
Number of common laborers at
entrance rate.............................. 149, 275
Average hourly entrance rate___ $0. 560
132,145
$0,559
15,020
$0. 574
'
6. 5
6.1
26.4
1.5
9.6
7.9
2.1
24.4
7.1
5.4
2.5
.5
1 Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
E n tr a n c e ^ R a te D iffe r e n c e s B e t w e e n I n d u s tr ie s
The industrial data presented in table 4 reveals that, fo r the coun
try as a whole, common laborers in the petroleum-refining industry
had the highest average hourly entrance rate (63.6 cents an hour) o f
any o f the 16 manufacturing industries covered in the survey. The
lowest average (36.8 cents an hour) prevailed in the fertilizer indus
try. The average fo r the 16 manufacturing industries combined
was 49.8 cents an hour. Common laborers in the public-utility group
received an average o f 47.7 cents an hour, which was lower than the
averages fo r manufacturing or fo r building construction. The
building-construction industry average o f 60.1 cents an hour was
higher than that fo r either manufacturing or public utilities.
75
COMMON LABORERS
T a b l e 4 . — A v era g e h ou rly entrance rates o f adult m ale com m o n laborers , J u l y 1 9 4 0 ,
b y in d u stry and region
Industry
Common laborers
Average
Average hourly en
hourly Establishments re Number of laborers at
porting
entrance rates
trance rate
earn
ings
of all
South
wage
North South
North South
and
and
earn Total North and
and
and South
South Total West
and South Total
ers »
West
west
West west
west
1,356 202,929 149,275. 53,654 $0,506 $0,560
$0.355
6,571
5,215
Manufacturing........................
4,736
(2)
(2)
Automobile parts _____
87
378
Brick, tile, terra cotta. $0.553
Cement------------------------.715
131
151
Chemicals.................... .
.808
Fertilizer................. ......... .449
318
Foundry and machineshop products...............
.730 1,329
.742
127
Glass.. ...................... .
Iron and steel__________
.849
251
144
Leather____ ___________
.646
Lumber (sawmills).........
.496
531
Meat packing..................
240
.689
Paints and varnishes___
.721
325
Paper and pulp........ .......
.649
489
Petroleum refining_____
.986
149
Rubber tires and inner
21
tubes
. _____
.971
Soap...................................
.712
65
3,859
87
318
101
128
130
877 167,204 121,789 45,415
2,270
2,270
7,904 1,984
60
9,888
4,162
30
2,937 1,225
23
3,980 1,218
5,198
5,412
1,708 3,704
188
.498
.561
.446
.528
.563
.368
.553
.561
.483
.568
.619
.486
.353
1,175
114
235
128
321
206
291
441
100
154
13
16
16
210
34
34
48
49
.490
.528
.589
.509
.400
.564
.515
.478
.636
.509
.536
.603
.524
.539
.582
.533
.514
.674
.344
.442
.435
.411
.301
.409
.352
.403
.579
(4)
(8)
.533
(3)
(4)
(4)
3,511
1,559
.477
.466
.508
.492
.353
.378
All 20 industries___________
(2)
Public utilities........................
Electric light and power.
Electric street-railway
and city motorbus
operation and mainten a n ce..........................
Manufactured and nat
ural gas..........................
(*)
.891
Building construction............
21
(4)
(4)
19,325
6,928
31,501
3,151
34,423
12,497
2,087
24,247
4,935
17,038 2, 287
6,330
598
28,882 2,619
411
2,740
14,364 20,059
11,221 1,276
1,884
203
16,351 7,896
3,005 1,930
396
784
396
(4)
13,807
5,182
.299
.432
.378
.314
731
326
559
241
172
85
17,318
6,741
.725
201
156
45
5,536
4,710
826
.491
.521
.317
(2)
204
162
42
5,041
3,915
1,126
.476
.514
.344
.947 1,104
797
307 I 18,407
13,679
4,728
.601
.681
.372
1
These are United States totals, based on monthly reports on employment and pay rolls collected by the
Bureau.
* Not available.
* Twenty-one establishments in the rubber tire and tube industry, having a total employment of about
18,500 workers of all skills, reported 396 common laborers at entrance rates. These laborers had an average
entrance rate of 51.7 cents per hour. It is believed that this average does not reflect the true average rate
for the industry generally, as 14 plants employing about 27,000 reported no common laborers at entrance
rates. Of these plants, 7 with a total employment of about 21,000 had entrance rates for common laborers
well above the 51.7-cent average, the range of such rates being from 55 to 75 cents an hour.
4 Regional figures are omitted in order not to disclose plant identity.
T r e n d s R e fle c te d b y E n tra n ce R a te s fr o m
1926 t o 1940
Table 5 shows the trends o f average hourly ent \nce rates o f com
mon laborers since 1926 fo r 13 industries combiner and fo r each o f
three groups, namely manufacturing industries, public utilities, and
building construction. The manufacturing group covered by this
table includes only 9 industries, because comparable data for a greater
number are not available fo r the earlier years. The manufacturing
industries included in this ta'^le are brick, tile, and terra cotta, cement,
foundry and machine-shop products, iron and steel, leather, lumber,
meat packing, paper and pulp, and petroleum refining.
The average hourly entrance rate fo r the 13 industries rose by
seven-tenths o f a cent between 1939 and 1940. The 9 manufacturing
industries showed an average increase o f 1.1 cents over the 1939 rate,
while the public utilities average dropped eight-tenths o f a cent below
505364 0 - 43 - 6
76
WAGES AND HOURS
the 1939 figure. Building construction continued at the same level
as in 1939, its average being 60.1 cents fo r both years.
Although the 50.7 cents for all 13 industries and the 49.8 cents for
the manufacturing group for 1940 were the highest averages for any
o f the years since 1937, the figure fo r public utilities was lower than
the average paid either in 1938 or 1939.
T a b l e 5 . — A v era g e h o u rly entrance rates o f adult m ale c om m o n laborers in
IS
in d u stries, 1 9 2 6 to 1 9 4 0 , by in d u s try group
July
1926_______________ . . .
...................
1927___________________________________________
1928___________________________________________
1929__________
.
1930_______________
1931_________________________________________
1932___________________________________________
1933___________________________ .
.
1934__________________________________
_____
1935___________________________________________
1936__________________ ________________________
1937 2__________________________________________
1938 2__________________________________________
1939-____ ____________________________________
1940___________________________________________
All indus
tries cov
ered
$0.426
.424
.428
.432
.429
.403
.355
.333
.420
.430
.434
.493
.495
.500
.507
Manufac
turing
industries
covered
$0.401
.399
.402
.407
.405
.383
.318
.305
.407
.415
.425
.488
.486
.487
.498
Public
utilities
$0.420
.398
.429
.428
.446
.446
.415
.387
.418
.420
.437
.463
.479
.485
.477
Building
construc
tion i
$0,471
.482
.474
.483
.470
.426
.399
.383
.455
.481
.509
.551
.578
.601
.601
1 For the years 1926 to 1935, inclusive, the figures cover a small amount of construction outside of the
building industry.
2 Averages for the year were computed on the basis of identical establishments for both 1937 and 1938.
9 Averages for the year were computed on the basis of identical establishments for both 1938 and 1939.
Cordage and Twine Industry—Hourly Earnings, 19401
The first survey by the Bureau o f Labor Statistics o f hourly earn
ings in the cordage and twine industry was made in the fall o f 1940.
The study, which covered pay-roll periods in August and September,
1940, included 43 establishments employing 5,299 wage earners, or
approximately one-third o f the industry.
Earnings o f employees in the cordage and twine industry averaged
46.8 cents an hour at the time o f the survey. As shown by table 1,
the wage level was substantially higher in the North than in the
South. The difference in earnings is partly accounted for by the
difference in the products manufactured in the two regions. Most o f
the production in the Southern States consisted o f cotton cordage
and twine, whereas the northern establishments were engaged chiefly
in the processing o f hard fibers and soft fibers other than cotton.
H ourly earnings in the hard fiber mills averaged 55.9 cents as
compared with an average o f only 39.7 cents in the mills producing
cotton cordage (table 2 ). Average hourly earnings in the mills
making cordage and twine o f soft fibers other than cotton amounted
to 50.6 cents. The hourly earnings data do not include earnings at
extra rates fo r overtime work.2
1From Monthly Labor Review for October 1941.
2
Had the extra overtime earnings been included, the industry average would have been
Increased by only three-tenths of a cent.
77
COTTON PICKING
T able
1.—
P ercen tage d istribu tion o f em p lo yees in cordage and tw in e in d u s try , b y
average h ou rly earnings and region , Sep tem ber 1 9 4 0
Average hourly earn
ings (in cents)
Under 32.5_____________
Exactly 32.5___ ________
32.6 and under 35.0_____
35.0 and under 37.5____
37.5 and under 40.0 .......
40.0 and under 42.5_____
42.5 and under 45.0.........
45.0 and under 47.5.........
47.5 and under 50.0........ .
50.0 and under 52.5.........
52.5 and under 55.0_____
55.0 and under 57.5 ____
57.5 and under 60.0..........
60.0 and under 62.5_____
62.5 and under 65.0_____
65.0 and under 67.5_____
United North i South 2
States
0.2
15.8
6.2
9.0
7.1
8.8
6.7
5.8
6.0
8.3
4.6
4.8
2.2
2.8
2.4
2.0
0.2
3.3
.5
2.5
3.4
6.8
8.7
7.1
8.6
13.2
7.5
8.6
3.9
5.0
4.5
3.4
0.3
29.7
12.6
16.6
11.3
11.0
4.4
4.3
3.1
2.8
1.2
.4
.2
.i
.4
Average hourly earn
ings (in cents)
United North 4 South 2
States
67.5 and under 70.0.........
70.0 and under 72.5_____
72.5 and under 75.0_____
75.0 and under 77.5........ .
77.5 and under 80.0_____
80.0 and under 82.5_____
82.5 and under 87.5_____
87.5 and under 92.5_____
92.5 and under 97.5
97.5 and over___________
1.0
1.5
.7
1.5
.5
.4
.5
.4
.2
.6
1.7
2.7
1.2
2.5
.8
.7
1.0
.7
.5
0.2
.1
.1
.4
(3)
.1
0)
.1
1.0
.2
Total____________
100.0
100.0
100.0
Number of employees 4_. 5,299
Average hourly earnings. $0,468
2,813
$0.540
2,486
$0.384
1 Includes the States of California, Connecticut, Illinois, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Ohio,
Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Wisconsin.
2 Includes the States of Alabama, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, North Carolina, South
Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia.
3 Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
4 Excluding clerical employees.
T a b l e 2 . — P ercen tage d istribu tion o f em p lo yees in cordage and tw in e in d u s tr y , by
average h ou rly earnings and ty p e o f p rod u ct , S ep tem ber 1 9 4 0
Average hourly earn
ings (in cents)
Under 32.5........ ...........
Exactly 32.5........... ..........
32.6 and under 35.0.........
35.0 and under 37.5_____
37.5 and under 40.0.........
40.0 and under 42.5_____
42.5 and under 45.0..........
45.0 and under 47.5_____
47.5 and under 50.0_____
50.0 and under 52.5_____
52.5 and under 55.0_____
55.0 and under 57.5_____
57.5 and under 60.0_____
60.0 and under 62.5_____
62.5 and under 65.0.........
65.0 and under 67.5___ _
Other
Hard Cot
soft
All fiber ton
fiber fiber
mills
mills mills mills
0.2
15.8
6.2
9.0
7.1
8.8
6.7
5.8
6.0
8.3
4.6
4.8
2.2
2.8
2.4
2.0
0.4
.1
6.1
1.4
5.6
5.4
6.6
6.0
15.1
6.3
10.1
4.4
5.2
6.4
5.0
0.4
26.9
11.8
12.9
10.9
10.9
7.3
4.3
4.4
3.6
1.9
1.3
.3
.8
.2
.4
0.2
9.6
1.2
4.4
5.6
7.8
6.9
7.9
9.2
10.5
8.2
6.0
3.6
4.4
2.6
2.1
Average hourly earn
ings (in cents)
67.5 and under 70.0_____
70.0 and under 72.5_____
72.5 and under 75.0_____
75.0 and under 77.5_____
77.5 and under 80.0_____
80.0 and under 82.5_____
82.5 and under 87.5..........
87.5 and under 92.5_____
92.5 and under 97.5_____
97.5 and over___________
Total____________
Hard Cot Other
soft
All fiber ton
fiber
mills
mills fiber mills
mills
1.0
1.5
.7
1.5
.5
.4
.5
.4
.2
.6
2.7
3.0
1.4
2.2
1.4
.9
1.2
.9
.6
1.6
0.3
.3
.1
.5
0
.1
.1
.1
. . . ...
0.7
2.2
1.0
3.1
.2
.5
.7
.5
.4
.5
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Total number of em
ployees 2_____________ 5,299 1,387 2,621 1,291
Average hourly earnings. $0.468 $0. 559 $0,397 $0. 506
1 Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
2 Excluding clerical employees.
*#++####
Cotton Picking—Wage Rates, 19401
W age rates fo r the picking o f seed cotton averaged 62 cents per
100 pounds in 1940, for the country as a whole. This was an increase
o f 4 cents over #ie 1939 figure but a decrease o f 7 cents from that for
1936 and 1937. The 1940 rates ranged from 51 cents in Alabama to
95 cents in California. Average rates for each o f the cotton-growing
States, and fo r the United States as a whole, in 1929 and in each
year from 1936 to 1940, are shown in the follow ing table giving data
from Crops and Markets for November 1940, issued by the United
States Department o f Agriculture.
From Monthly Labor Review, February 1941.
78
WAGES AND HOURS
A v era g e wage rates f o r p ick in g 1 0 0 po u n d s o f seed cotton, 1 9 2 9 and 1 9 3 6 - 4 0
State
1929
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940
United States................ ........... ..................
$1.06
$0.69
$0. 69
$0.57
$0. 58
$0.62
Virginia................................... ................. .......
N orth Carolina_____ ____________________
South Carolina................................. .............
Georgia______ ________ ___________ ______
Florida............................................. ...............
Illinois.................. ...........................................
Missouri........... ............ ...................... ........
Kansas.......................... ...................................
K entucky............ ...........................................
Tennessee...................... ......... ......................
Alabama ................ ................... ..................
Mississippi..................................... ..................
Louisiana........................... ..............................
Texas______________________ __________
O k la h om a ...____ _______ _______________
A rkansas._____ ________________________
N ew M exico___________________ _________
A rizona._______ _________ _____ _________
California......... .................................. ............
1.15
1.01
.81
.90
1.07
1.15
1.12
1.80
1.18
1.34
.92
1.08
1.01
1.11
1.22
1.06
1.25
1.50
1. 45
. 70
.65
.55
. 55
.60
.90
.95
. 75
.95
.80
.60
.75
.65
.65
.75
.75
. 70
1.10
1.00
.75
.70
.60
.60
.65
.70
.80
.65
.80
.70
.60
.80
.70
.65
.75
.70
.70
.85
.95
.65
.60
.50
.50
.60
.70
. 75
.65
.80
.60
.50
.55
.55
.55
.70
.60
.60
.80
.75
.60
.60
.50
.50
.60
.70
. 75
.65
.80
.60
.50
.60
. 55
. 55
.65
.60
.65
.90
.85
.70
.67
.54
.53
.67
.70
. 77
.65
.80
.65
.51
.57
.55
.58
.72
.65
.68
.93
.95
Cotton, Rayon, and Silk Dyeing and Finishing—
Hourly Earnings, 19381
Dyeing and finishing is one o f the important phases o f textile
manufacturing, regardless o f the materials used. The processes in
volved are largely chemical and highly specialized, and for this reason
the work is generally considered a separate industry, even though
many o f the larger textile manufacturers perform the dyeing and
finishing along with the other phases o f the manufacturing processes.
A distinction is usually made in the industry between “ corporate”
and “ commercial” establishments, the form er being engaged in dyeing
and finishing their own production o f yarn and fabrics, whereas the
latter dye and finish yarn or fabrics not o f their own manufacture
but supplied to them by other textile plants. The Bureau’s 1938 survey
in the industry excluded commercial plants employing fewer than 20
workers during the pay-roll period scheduled, while the dyeing and
finishing departments o f corporate establishments were scheduled
regardless o f the number o f employees found. Moreover, the survey
excluded the dyeing and finishing o f yarn in corporate plants, which
is usually included by the Bureau in the separate surveys o f the cotton
and silk and rayon goods industries.2
A s defined by the Census o f Manufactures, the dyeing and finishing
industry showed 533 establishments (whose annual production was
valued at $5,000 or more) and 74,982 wage earners (average for the
year) in 1937. The Bureau’s ’ survey was made on » sample basis,
including 206 plants with 28,330 workers.
B y far the largest proportion o f the total labor force in the dyeing
and finishing industry was paid on a straight time basis, the actual
figure amounting to 85.6 percent.
1 From the Monthly Labor Review for January 1940.
2 This survey also excluded the dyeing and finishing of woolens and worsteds.
79
COTTON, RAYON. AND SILK DYEING AND FINISHING
A v e r a g e H o u r l y E a r n in g s
F or the 28,330 wage earners employed by the dyeing and finishing
plants covered in this survey, hourly earnings averaged 54.5 cents in
the first h alf o f 1938. Table 1 presents the percentage distribution
o f individual hourly earnings upon which this average is based. One
feature o f this table is the extensive range covered by the individual
hourly earnings.
T able
1,—
Percentage d istribu tion o f d yein g and fin ish in g w ork ers, by average h ou rly
ea rn in g s, skill, and sex, 1 9 3 8
All workers
Average hourly earnings
(in cents)
Fe Total Male Fe Total Male Fe Total Male Fe
Total Male male
male
male
male
Under 22.5______________
22.5 and under 25.0______
25.0 and under 27.5______
27.5 and under 30.0___ _30.0 and under 32.5___
32.5 and under 35.0_____
35.0 and under 37.5____
37.5 and under 40.0______
40.0 and under 42.5______
42.5 and under 47.5______
47.5 and under 52.5______
52.5 and under 57.5 ______
0.3
.4
1.0
1.2
2.8
4.3
5.4
7.1
6.0
12.7
13.3
9.2
0.3
.5
1.0
.6
2.4
3.3
4.8
6.2
4.9
12.4
12.8
10.1
0.6
.2
1.4
5.0
5.8
11.4
9.5
13.1
13.6
14.9
15.8
4.0
57.5 and under 62.5______
62.5 and under 67.5______
67.5 and under 72.5______
72.5 and under 77.5______
77.5 and under 82.5______
82.5 and under 87.5______
87.5 and under 92.5______
92.5 and under 100.0
100.0 and under 120.0 .
120.0 and under 140.0-..
140.0 and under 160.0____
160.0 and under 180.0........
180.0 and under 200.0__ _
200.0 and over...............
6.9
15.0
5.2
2.0
1.4
1.1
.9
.4
1.3
.4
.4
1.0
.2
.1
7.7
16.8
5.8
2.2
1.6
1.3
1.0
.4
1.5
.5
.4
1.1
.3
.1
1.7
1.2
1.1
.6
.1
C1)
Total.......................
Semiskilled work Unskilled workers
ers
Skilled workers
0)
0)
0)
0.2
.3
1.5
1.8
2.0
5.4
6.9
7.5
0.3
.3
1.4
1.7
1.8
5.3
6.7
7.4
7.7
8.8
8.3
8.6
6. 7
4.6
4.4
2.3
5. 5
3.3
3.1
8.5
1.9
.7
7.6
8. 7
8.5
8.7
6.7
4.6
4.5
2.3
5.6
3.4
3.1
8.7
2.0
.7
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of workers______ 28,330 24,560 3, 770 3, 214 3,169
2.4
1.4
6.9
1.0
5.2
10.3
10.7
4.8
15.5
14.1
22.9
2.4
0.1
.1
.5
1.3
3.0
4.7
5.3
8.0
6.4
12.6
13.8
10.3
0.1
.1
.4
.5
2.4
3.2
4.4
6.7
5.0
12.1
13.5
11.6
0.5
.1
.9
5.4
5.9
11.7
9.5
13.9
13.4
15.1
14.9
4.0
1.3
2.1
3.7
1.4
3.8
5.7
8.3
7.3
7.1
17.8
15.3
6.2
1.2
2.1
3.5
1.4
3.8
5.4
8.2
7.4
6.6
18.1
14.9
6.4
7.9
16.2
5.2
1.3
.9
.8
.5
.l
.9
.1
0)
9.1
19.4
6.0
1.4
1.1
1.0
.6
.2
1.1
.1
(0
1.6
1.1
1.3
.6
.1
0)
2.4
13.4
3.1
.8
.2
.1
0)
2.1
2.4
14.2
.3
3.3
.8 _____
.2
.1
0)
*
(2)
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
45 20,112 16,678 3,434 5,004 4,713
291
1 Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
2 Not a sufficient number of workers to justify presentation of a distribution. These figures, however,
are included in the totals.
W ith some exceptions, the representation in the higher-earnings
classes in the dyeing and finishing industry is restricted to skilled
males. Thus, for the entire country, one-half (50.3 percent) o f the
workers in this group received 72.5 cents and over an hour. This
may be compared with 5.5 percent for semiskilled and only 1.1 percent
for unskilled males. F or all females, the figure amounted to less than
1 percent, practically all o f them being semiskilled workers.
A ccording to table 2, the average hourly earnings in the United
States as a whole ranged from 84.7 cents for skilled males to 39.9
cents fo r unskilled females.
In dyeing and finishing, as in some o f the other divisions o f the tex
tile industry, there are sharp geographical differences in hourly
80
WAGES AND HOURS
T able
2 . — A v era g e h o u rly earnings o f d yein g and fin ish in g w ork ers, 1 9 3 8 , b y wage
d istrict , s e x , and skill
Number of workers
Wage district and sex
All
Average hourly earnings
Semi
Un
All
Semi
Un
Skilled skilled skilled
workers Skilled skilled skilled
United States_____________ ___
28,330
Males____ ____________________ 24, 560
3, 770
Females, _________ ____________
3,214
3,169
45
20,112
16,678
3,434
5,004
4, 713
291
$0,545
.565
.412
$0,842
.847
0)
$0.518
.540
.412
$0.461
.465
.399
Northern wage district2___________
Males_____________ _________
Females___________________ •
Southern wage district3___________
Males________________________
Females______________________
2,424
2,385
39
790
784
6
15,448
13,005
2,443
4, 664
3, 673
991
3,882
3,618
264
1,122
1,095
27
.586
.607
.435
.409
.420
.350
.922
.928
0)
.599
.600
(9
.554
.576
.436
.397
.409
.352
.500
.506
.413
.325
.327
0)
21,754
19,008
2,746
6, 576
5, 552
1,024
1 Not a sufficient number of workers to justify computation of an average.
2 Includes Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, Delaware, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois.
3 Includes Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia.
earnings. A ccording to table 3, the State averages in dyeing and
finishing plants ranged from 36.7 cents in Georgia to 67.0 cents in
New Jersey. It is significant to note, however, that the highest average,
namely 44.8 cents for Virginia and Tennessee combined, among the
southern States was distinctly below the lowest average— 52.4 cents
fo r Massachusetts— shown by any o f the northern States.
T able 3. —
A v era g e h o u rly earnings o f d yein g and fin ish in g w ork erst 1 9 3 8 , b y wage
district and State
Coverage of survey
Wage district and State
Number of
plants
Number of
workers
Average hourly
earnings
_______
206
28,330
$0,545
Northern wage district______________________________
Connecticut______________________ ____________
Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio 1_____________________
Massachusetts2-------------------------------------------------New Jersey_______________ _ ______ __________
New York_______________ ___________ - ______
Pennsylvania 3_______ _ ,
_____
_______
Rhode Island________ _
_____________________
157
11
6
22
48
21
21, 754
1,549
487
4,850
6,152
2, 201
2,87?
3, 643
.586
.563
.546
.524
.670
.545
.598
.556
Southern wage district______________________________
Alabama and Mississippi<_______________________
Georgia------------------------------------------------------------North Carolina_________________________________
South Carolina_________________________________
Virginia and Tennessee 4_______________ _______
49
6
6
22
10
5
6, 576
623
612
2,021
2,247
1,073
.409
.391
.367
.394
.420
.448
United States______ _______
,, ______
26
23
1 Includes 3 plants in Illinois, 1 in Indiana, and 2 in Ohio.
3 Includes 1 plant in Maine and 2 in New Hampshire.
3 Includes 1 plant in Delaware.
^Includes 4 plants in Alabama and 2 in Mississippi.
3 Includes 3 plants in Virginia and 2 in Tennessee.
Practically all o f the union establishments 8 covered in the sample
were commercial plants. Moreover, they were nearly all located in
the northern wage district. Am ong the commercial establishments,
the union plants had average hourly earnings o f 66.3 cents, which
may be compared with 54.4 cents for the nonunion establishments.
The few union corporate plants averaged 59.3 cents, as against 52.9
cents fo r the nonunion establishments.
3 An establishment was classified as union if the majority of employees in the plant were
in occupations covered by either oral or written agreements with unions.
DRUG, MEDICINE, AND TOILET PREPARATIONS INDUSTRY
81
Drug, Medicine, and Toilet Preparations Industry—
Hourly Earnings, May 19401
The present study of hourly earnings in the drug, medicine, and
toilet preparations industry is based on data obtained by mail ques
tionnaire from 1,028 members of the industry, who recorded certain
pay-roll information for 45,250 employees. The information per
tained to the pay-roll period ending nearest May 15, 1940. Hourly
earnings at this time of year are believed to be fairly representative
of normal conditions in the industry.
Altogether 615 returns were received for establishments engaged
primarily in the manufacture of drugs and medicines. These estab
lishments employed a total of 27,226 workers, including clerical
workers. Since roughly comparable census figures for 1937 enumer
ated only 995 establishments2 in this branch of the industry and only
30,990 workers (including clerks), it is apparent that a very substantial
part of the industry was represented.
Usable returns were received from 201 establishments engaged pri
marily in the production of toilet preparations. These plants em
ployed 9,093 workers. Roughly comparable census figures for 1937
showed this branch of the industry to include 469 establishments,8
and 12,167 wage earners and clerks. Consequently, it appears that
this branch, too, was substantially represented in the returns, although
perhaps not so completely as the drug and medicine branch.
The remaining 212 establishments returning questionnaires were com
bined-product firms engaged in both branches of the industry, were
primarily engaged in distribution or in activities outside the industry,
or were central administrative offices.
Although conclusions might have been drawn directly from the pay
roll data secured by questionnaire, it was deemed advisable, before
preparing the final tabulations, to make correction for differences in
the completeness of representation of the various geographic areas
and sizes of establishments. In arriving at properly “weighted”
figures, use was made of unpublished census information regarding
the size composition of plants in the various States. On the whole, the
effect of the weighting process was not great; in the two branches
of the industry combined, average hourly earnings derived from the
weighted figures, for example, were only 1 cent lower than the average
derived from unweighted figures. It is believed, however, that the
weighted figures provide an improved and generally dependable indi
cation of earnings in the industry.
M a jo r B r a n c h e s o f t h e I n d u s t r y
The average hourly earnings of all workers4 in the industry
amounted to 54.6 cents in May 1940. Regionally, the highest
average hourly earnings (57.4 cents) were received by workers in the
1 Abstract o f an article by Sidney C. Sufrin, Bureau o f Labor Statistics, in the Monthly
Labor Review for A pril 1941.
* Gf the 1,013 establishments enumerated by the census, 18 reported no employees.
* 9 o f the establishments reported by the census employed no workers.
The term “ workers” as used throughout this study includes production, clerical, m ain
tenance, and shipping, as well as inside selling employees. By and large the average
hourly earnings reported in the survey do not reflect additional earnings for overtime.
82
WAGES AND HOURS
Midwest.5 The lowest average hourly remuneration (44.2 cents)
was earned by workers in the South. This was fully 13 cents less
than average earnings in the Midwest and almost 10.5 cents less
than the average for all workers in the industry. The average hourly
earnings of 55.7 cents paid workers in the Western region were slightly
higher (1.1 cents) than the average for the industry, while the average
wage of 53.8 cents an hour paid workers in the Northeastern region
was less than 1 cent below the average earnings of workers in the
industry as a whole (table 1).
T able
1 . — Average hourly earnings and percentage distribution of estimated number
of workers, M a y 1 940, by branch o f industry, region, and sex
Average hourly earnings
Branch of industry and region
All
workers
Males
Percent of workers
Females
All
workers
Males
Females
Total industry------------------------------------Northeastern r e g i o n . ....... ...............
Midwestern region...............................
Southern region__________ __________
Western region.....................................
$0.646
.638
.574
.442
.657
$0.659
.654
.691
.499
.636
$0.463
.452
.487
.408
.509
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
42.1
42.6
42.3
37.4
37.4
57.9
57.4
57.7
62.6
62.6
Drug and medicine branch_____________
Northeastern region-------- ------ --------Midwestern region_______ ____ _____
Southern region................ ............... .
Western region................................ .
.566
.562
.588
.452
.573
.670
. 664
.700
.503
.667
.474
.460
.497
.420
.514
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
46.9
50.0
•44.7
37.8
38.6
53.1
50.0
55.3
62.2
61.4
Toilet preparations branch___ _____ ____
Northeastern region............. ............ .
Midwestern region..... ............ .............
Southern region____________________
Western region.......................... ...........
.497
.497
.508
.395
.535
.622
.626
.634
.481
.592
.442
.441
.450
.348
.503
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
30.7
30.1
31.6
35.4
35.7
69.3
69.9
68.4
64.6
64.3
D rug and m edicm e branch ,—The workers in the drug and medicine
branch received average earnings of 56.6 cents an hour, which was 2
cents higher than the average for the industry as a whole. Average
hourly earnings in this branch in the 4 regions ranged from 1.0 to 2.4
cents an hour higher than those in the entire industry in the same
areas. As is the case for the industry as a whole, the highest average
hourly wages in the drug and medicine branch (58.8 cents) were paid
to workers in the Midwest and the lowest average earnings (45.2
cents) were paid to workers in the South.
T oilet preparations branch ,—The average hourly earnings of the
workers in the toilet preparations branch were only 49.7 cents an hour,
6.9 cents less than the earnings received by workers in the drug and
medicine branch, and 4.9 cents an hour less than the average for the
total industry. It should be noted that the proportion of femaV
workers found in the toilet preparations branch was higher than xu
the drug and medicine branch (69.3 percent as compared with 53.1
percent). Since female workers in the industry tend to earn less
6 For the purposes of this report, the Midwestern region includes Illinois, Indiana, Iowa,
Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska. Ohio, South Dakota, and Wisconsin.
The Northeastern region includes Connecticut, Delaware, District of Columbia, Maine,
Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode
Island, and Vermont. The Southern region includes Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia,
Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee,
Texas, Virginia, and W est Virginia. The Western region includes California, Colorado,
Oregon, Utah, and Washington.
DRUGS, MEDICINE, AND TOILET PREPARATIONS INDUSTRY
83
than male workers, part o f the difference in hourly earnings in the
two branches can be accounted for on that score.
A difference o f fully 14 cents an hour was found to exist between
the average hourly wages in the West, the highest paid region
(53.5 cents), and the South, the lowest paid region (39.5 cents). In
comparing the average hourly wages by regions for the two branches,
it was found that the differences ranged from 3.8 cents in the Western
region to 8.0 cents an hour in the Midwest. In each region, the
average hourly earnings o f workers in the drug and medicine branch
exceeded the corresponding averages o f workers in the toilet
preparations branch.
Table 2 presents a simple percentage distribution o f the estimated
44,604 workers in the m ajor branches o f the industry in May 1940,
according to average hourly earnings, by branch o f industry and by
sex. Individual workers earned from less than 30 cents to over
$1.32 an hour. F ully one-half o f the workers (50.6 percent) were
found within the 20-cent range o f 32.5 to 52.5 cents. A negligible
number o f workers (0.3 percent) earned less than 30 cents, the mini
mum in effect under the Fair Labor Standards Act. The legal m ini
mum, exactly 30 cents, was earned by 3.8 percent o f the workers,
while as many as 7.5 percent received exactly 40 cents an hour, the
ultimate floor to wages prescribed under the act.
T
a b l e
2 .—
P ercentage d istribu tion o f estim ated n u m ber o f w orkers according to
average h ou rly ea rn in g s, M a y 1 9 4 0 , by branch o f in d u s try and sex
Drug and medicine
branch
Total industry
Average hourly earnings
(in cents)
All
workers Males
Fe
All
males workers Males
Toilet preparations
branch
All
Fe
males workers Males
Fe
males
Under 30.0_______________
Exactly 30.0..........................
30.1 and under 32.5________
32:5 and under 35.0________
35.0 and under 37.5___ ____
37.5 and under 40 .0.-..........
Exactly 40.0______________
40.1 and under 42.5________
42.5 and under 45.0________
45.0 and under 47.5________
47.5 and under 52.5___ ____
52.5 and under 57.5_.............
0.3
3.8
1.4
2.3
7.5
5.8
7.5
4.0
0.6
6.5
10.4
7.4
0.3
1.0
.0
.9
1.9
1.8
2.4
1.5
2.8
4.2
9.7
8.8
0.3
5.3
2.0
3.3
11.6
8.7
11.2
5.8
9.4
8.2
11.0
6.4
0.3
3.6
1.3
1.9
4.8
5.4
7.4
3.3
6.3
6. 2
10.0
8.0
0.3
1.4
.5
.9
1.7
1.5
2. 1
1.3
2. 6
4.0
9.0
8.6
0.3
5.6
1.9
2.9
7. 6
8.8
12.2
5.0
9.5
8.2
11.0
7.4
0.3
4.1
1.8
3.2
13.8
6.8
7. 6
5.6
7.3
7.1
11.4
6. 1
0.1
2.5
1.0
.9
2.7
2.6
3.4
2.3
3.6
4.8
12.8
9.3
0.3
4.8
2.1
4.2
18.7
8.7
9.5
7. 1
9.1
8.1
10.9
4.6
57.5 and under 62.5________
62.5 and under 67.5________
67.5 and under 72.5_.........
72.5 and under 77.5...............
77.5 and under 82.5________
82.5 and under 87.5...............
87.5 and under 92.5...............
92.5 and under 97.5________
97.5 and under 102.5............
102.5 and under 112.5______
112.5 and under 122.5..........
122.5 and under 132.5______
132.5 and over................. ___
7.1
6.9
5.3
4.4
3.3
2.5
2.0
1.3
1. 1
1.0
.7
.5
.4
9.2
11.5
9.3
8.1
6.5
4.7
4.2
2.6
2.3
2.0
1.5
.9
.7
5.5
3.7
2.4
1.7
.9
.9
.5
.4
.2
.2
.2
.1
.1
7.9
7.6
6.0
5.0
3.9
3.1
2.3
1.6
1.3
1.1
.8
.5
.4
9.2
11.2
9.6
8.6
7.0
5.4
4.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
.9
.7
6.6
4.3
2.8
1.8
1.2
1.1
.4
.4
.2
.3
.2
.2
.1
5.3
5.4
3.5
3.0
1.8
1.1
1.4
.7
.7
.8
.5
.4
.3
9.3
11.6
7.9
6.6
4.6
2.3
3.3
1.4
1.7
2.2
1.2
1.1
.8
3.5
2.8
1.6
1.4
.5
.5
.4
.2
.2
.2
.2
.1
Total....... ...................
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Number of workers............ 44,604
Average hourly earnings___ $0. 546
1,441
Number of plants_________
18,780
$0. 659
25,824
$0.463
31, 448
$0. 566
994
14,737
$0,670
16,711
$0.474
13,156
$0. 497
447
4,043
$0. 622
9,113
$0.442
1 Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
(0
84
WAGES AND HOURS
Si z e of Plant and Average Hourly Earnings
In addition to being scattered over most o f the United States,
establishments in the drug, medicine, and toilet preparations industry
varied in size from plants employing only 1 worker to those employ
ing in excess o f 1,500 workers. Table 3, which presents the average
hourly earnings o f workers in the combined industry and in each
branch, according to size o f plant, groups the plants into 8 size classes.
T a b l e 3 . — E stim a ted n u m ber o f w orkers and average h ou rly ea rnings a ccording to
siz e o f plant, M a y 1 9 4 0 , b y branch o f in d u s try and sex
Drug and medicine
branch
Total industry
Size of plant
All
work
ers
Males
Fe
males
All
work
ers
Males
Fe
males
Toilet preparations
branch
All
work
ers
Males
Fe
males
Average hourly earnings
United States_____________ $0. 546
1 to 5 workers________ ____
6 to 20 workers____________
21 to 50 workers_____ ____
51 to 100 workers_____ ____
101 to 250 workers_________
251 to 500 workers_________
501 to 1,000 workers_______
1,001 to 2,500 workers
.492
.508
.499
.497
.541
.525
.573
.661
$0.659
$0. 463
$0. 566
$0. 670
$0. 474
$0. 497
$0.622
$0.442
.549
.607
.583
.603
.661
.659
.680
. 764
.451
.449
.440
.433
.462
.447
.461
. 557
.507
.525
.513
.509
.556
.553
.575
.661
.561
.630
.593
.603
.662
.673
.677
. 764
.465
.460
.446
.438
.467
.456
.452
.557
.463
.461
.466
.470
.515
.505
.561
.522
.538
.550
.601
.660
.644
.713
.426
.421
.430
.423
.454
.441
.497
Number of workers
United States_____________ 44, 604
1 to 5 workers
_
6 to 20 workers___ _____ 21 to 50 workers..... ..............
51 to 100 workers__________
101 to 250 workers_________
251 to 500 workers.......... .
501 to 1,000 workers_______
1,001 to 2,500 workers
1, 565
3,977
4, 510
5,332
8,536
8,029
6,256
6,399
18,780
25, 824
31, 448
14, 737
16,711
13,156
4,043
9,113
656
1, 481
1,845
2,016
3, 398
2,971
3, 207
3,206
909
2,496
2,665
3, 316
5,138
5,058
3,049
3,193
1, 029
2,916
3,130
3, 747
5,404
3,405
5,418
6,399
452
1,115
1,425
1, 597
2,469
1. 513
2, 960
3,206
577
1, 801
1, 705
2,150
2,935
1, 892
2, 458
3,193
536
1, 061
1, 380
1.585
3,132
4, 624
838
204
366
420
419
929
1,458
247
332
695
960
1,166
2,203
3,166
591
W ith the presentation o f this added detail there appears to be
a tendency fo r the larger plants, i. e., those employing more than 251
workers, to pay higher wages than the smaller plants, and fo r the
plants with greatest employment to pay the highest average hourly
wages. F or the entire United States, the difference in hourly wages
between the smallest plants and the largest plants amounted to 16.9
cents. The difference in hourly earnings o f male employees in these
two plant groups was large (21.5 cents). The plants which paid the
lowest average hourly wages to women employed between 51 and 100
workers. The difference in average hourly earnings o f women in
these plants and those in the largest plants group was 12.4 cents.
The difference in average hourly earnings between the smallest plants
and the largest was 10.6 cents.
S u b s id ia r y B r a n c h e s o f t h e I n d u s t r y
Certain o f the questionnaire returns could not be grouped with
the majority o f returns since they did not fall clearly within either
85
ELECTRICAL-PRODUCTS MANUFACTURE
o f the m ajor branches which have been discussed. It was not possible
to weight the returns o f these establishments. The information that
was supplied, however, was segregated and analyzed separately in
its unweighted form. The unweighted data were divided into four
classifications. The percentage distribution according to average
hourly earnings is shown, by sex, in table 4 for each o f the four
classifications.
T a b l e 4 . — P ercentage d istribu tion o f workers reported in su b sid ia r y branches o f
d ru g s , m ed icin es, and toilet p rep a ra tion s in d u s tr y , M a y 1 9 4 0 y b y average h ou rly
earnings and sex
Average hourly earnings
(in cents)
Combined prod
ucts manufac
turers
Manufacturing
drugs, medicines,
and toilet prepara
tions as minor
products
Manufacturing
departments of
distributors
Central adminis
trative offices
Fe Total Males Fe Total Males Fe Total Males Fe
Total Males males
males
males
males
Under 30.0_._................. .
Exactly 30.0......................
30.1 and under 32.5...........
32.5 and under 35.0_____
35.0 and under 37.5______
13.0
1.0
3.7
16.7
0.8
37.5 and under 40.0______
Exactly 40.0____________
40.1 and under 42.5______
42.5 and under 45.0______
45.0 and under 47.5______
4.0
18.4
1.4
5.3
22.2
0.4
3.0
.9
2.1
3.7
0.3
1.0
.2
.8
.8
0.5
5.6
1.8
3.8
7.5
0.1
7.8
6.5
7.1
8.6
0.2
3.0
1.9
.9
3.5
12.4
10.8
12.7
13.5
9.8
5.2
3.9
3.7
8.1
1.6
4.0
2.4
3.2
7.2
13.5
5.7
4.6
3.9
8.5
4.9
3.0
2.4
4.3
3.5
.8
2.1
.7
2.5
2.2
10.3
4.0
4.6
6.7
5.3
7.4
.8
5.8
6.5
7.2
1.6
.9
1.4
2.8
4.0
47.5 and under 52.5______
52.5 and under 57.5........
57.5 and under 62.5______
62.5 and under 67.5__.........
67.5 and under 72.5—.........
10.1
5.7
3.9
2.9
3.2
19.2
14.4
8.0
7.2
8.8
6.0
1.8
2.1
1.1
.7
10.2
10.3
7.8
6.8
8.7
6.8
11.8
8.9
6.9
10.8
15.1
8.4
6.4
6.6
5.9
6.3
9.1
6.8
6.5
4.7
8.4
18.1
12.8
12.8
9.5
72.5 and under 77.5______
77.5 and under 82.5.........
82.5 and under 87.5______
87.5 and under 92.5..........
92.5 and under 97.5______
2.7
1.5
1.7
1.2
.5
8.0
.8
3.2
3.2
.8
.4
1.8
1.1
.4
.4
5.5
4.9
3.3
3.0
1.9
7.6
7.9
4.9
4.7
3.0
2.7
1.0
1.0
.8
.4
1.6
LI
4.1
.7
.7
3.3
2.3
8.6
1.4
1.4
97.5 and under 102.5____
102.5 and under 112.5____
112.5 and under 122.5____
122.5 and under 132.5____
132.5 and o v e r __________
1.0
2.5
1.6
21.6
.7
1.9
3.5
1.6
1.2
1.2
3.2
5.8
2.6
1.8
1.9
.2
.5
.3
.3
.3
b6
i 1.2
Total.......................
—
0.1
0.2
0.1
.1
.1
2.5
.3
.3
1.3
."i
3.0
12.7
.6
9.9
9.9
10.2
2.6
4.2
2.0
3.4
6.7
1.4
.6
.8
2.5
4.4
3.0
5.6
2.5
3.8
7.5
4.3
.9
1.3
.6
.2
12.0
10.1
9.1
9.2
8.0
8.8
6.8
9.0
7.6
7.1
13.2
11.4
9.1
9.8
8.3
4.5
4.2
4.5
2.6
2.7
4.9
3.8
6.0
4.1
4.0
4.4
4.4
4.0
2.0
2.2
2.1
2.8
3.2
1.4
1.9
3.8
5.9
7.8
4.0
4.6
1.4
1.5
1.4
.4
.9
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
407
125
630 1,620
Number of workers_____
282 5, 381 3,059 2,322
893
430
463 2,250
Average hourly earnings.. $0.464 $0. 583 $0. 411 $0.627 $0.723 $0.501 $0,488 $0,602 $0,382 $0,664 $0,789 $0.616
10
103
Number of plants...........
73
26
* 97.5 cents and over.
J102.5 cents and over.
Electrical^Products Manufacture—Earnings and Hours,
1936 and 19371
In 1937, according to the Census o f Manufactures, the electrical
manufacturing industry was fifth in rank among all manufacturing
industries in terms o£ employment (with an average o f 257,660 wage
1 Abstract of articles in the Monthly Labor Review for June, July, and October 1939,
prepared by J. Perlman, O. R. Mann, H. O. Rogers, and D. L. Helm, of the Bureau of Labor
Statistics.
86
WAGES AND HOURS
earners) and third in terms o f wages. The Bureau o f Labor Statistics
survey covered 233 establishments and 63,394 wage earners— approxi
mately one-fourth o f the total employed in the industry.
Most o f the electrical manufacturing industry is located in metro
politan areas o f 1,000,000 population and over. O f the 233 plants
covered in the survey, 151 establishments and more than one-half (54.5
percent) o f all wage earners were found in these large communities.
Moreover, a considerable proportion o f the industry is located in other
large centers, namely from 250,000 to 1,000,000, which accounted for
43 plants and over one-fifth (21.5 percent) o f the workers. The
remainder o f the industry, including 39 establishments and less than
one-fourth o f the wage earners (24.0 percent), was found in communi
ties o f less than 250,000, but very little o f the industry was located in
small towns.
Large companies occupy a dominant position in the electrical manu
facturing industry. In fact, 54 establishments with more than twothirds (68.6 percent) o f the wage earners belonged to companies with
1,000 or more employees. A m ong the largest concerns in the industry,
by far the greatest employment is concentrated in the “ B ig Three”
companies. O f the total sample, 22 establishments with 44.7 percent
o f the wage earners belonged to those companies.
Diversity o f product is one o f the principal characteristics o f the
industry. The plants included in the Bureau’s study were manu
facturing carbon products, domestic appliances, electric lamps, elec
trical measuring instruments, industrial controls, fractional- and in
tegral-horsepower motors and generators, fuses, wiring devices and
specialty transformers, signaling apparatus, dry and storage batteries,
transformers and switchgear, wire and cable, and miscellaneous prod
ucts. Establishments manufacturing the follow ing groups o f prod
ucts were not covered: Certain electrical domestic appliances (such as
clocks, ranges, refrigerators, sewing machines, washing machines,
and minor household food appliances), radio parts, tubes, transmit
ters, receiving sets, and related products, electrical construction ma
terial (except carbon products), electrical illumination products (ex
cept lam ps), electrical transportation equipment, and X -r a y equip
ment and related products. Most o f the excluded groups are classified
by the Census Bureau under other industries, either because the elec
trical work in them is minor or because they are o f such importance
that their manufacture constitutes another industry.
The sample studied was selected taking into consideration such
factors as product, corporate affiliation, size o f establishment,2 unioni
zation, geographical distribution, and size o f community. A ll States
o f any importance in the industry, except California,3 were included.
A ccording to the Census o f Manufactures in 1935, these States em
ployed 96.4 percent o f the total workers in the industry. V ery little
o f the industry is found in the South.
The study was started in September 1937 and completed early in
1938. In nearly all cases, the wages and hours data cover a pay-roll pe2 No establishment with fewer than 6 wage earners was included in the Bureau’s study.
Although such plants are numerous in the industry, their *employment is relatively
insignificant.
8
According to the Census of Manufactures of 1935, the number of wage earners in this
State constituted only 1.5 percent of the total ih the industry.
87
ELECTRICAL-PRODUCTS MANUFACTURE
riod during August 1937. A ccordingly they reflect conditions pre
vailing prior to the effective date o f the Fair Labor Standards A ct
([October 24, 1938). However, since relatively few workers were
round earning under 25 cents an hour in this industry, the adoption
o f that minimum evidently did not disturb the wage structure.
A v e r a g e H o u r l y E a r n in g s , 1937
F or all 63,394 wage earners for whom data were obtained, hourly
earnings averaged 71 cents in August 1937. The variations in earnings
in the different divisions o f the industry, according to sex and skill,
are shown in table 1.
T able 1.— A verag e
h o u rly earnings in electrical m a n u fa ctu rin g , A u g u s t 1 9 8 7 , by
in d u stry d iv isio n , skill, and sex
Semiskilled
All workers
Industry division
Total
Male
Fe
male
Skilled:
Male
Total
Unskilled
Fe Total
Male male
1
Male
Fe
male
All industry divisions_______ $0. 710 $0. 767 $0. 508 $1.012 $0. 728 $0. 755 $0. 541 $0. 565 $0,609 $0.499
Carbon products____________
Domestic appliances________
Dry batteries____ ___________
Electric lamps......... ...... ..........
Electrical measuring instru
ments_____ ____ ___ ____
Fractional-horsepower motors Fuses, wiring devices, and
specialty transformers.........
Industrial controls__________
Integral-horsepower m o to r s
and generators____________
Signaling apparatus_________
Storage batteries . . . .
Transformers and switchgear. .
Wire and cable.._____ _______
Miscellaneous products...........
.581
.637
.536
.600
.606
.708
.608
.781
.461
.461
.448
.535
.788
.941
.784
.934
.630
.648
.564
.666
.633
.680
.609
.704
(2>
.480
.455
.541
.514
.513
.511
.555
.536
.564
.582
.656
.460
.457
.446
.527
.636
.668
.723
.714
.502
.533
.902
.938
.665
.707
.713
.712
.517
.606
.529
.558
.592
.584
.497
.528
.495
.743
.621
.780
.411
.545
.858
1.006
.574
.739
.610
.758
.459
.570
.426
.594
.494
.619
.406
.537
.857
.533
.783
.862
.629
.749
.882
.566
. 788
.883
.649
.789
.579
.413
. 541
.597
.451
.588
1.097
.803
.928
1.096
.861
1.057
.800
.559
.798
.864
.677
.755
.810
.562
.800
.870
.685
.774
.601
f2)
(2)
.646
.499
.572
.647
.433
.697
.670
.549
.603
.672
.451
.705
.690
.571
.610
.573
.408
.513
.589
.442
.592
1 Includes a small number of skilled workers.
*Not a sufficient number of workers to present an average.
In five, divisions o f the industry, namely industrial controls, inte
gral-horsepower motors and generators, storage batteries, transformers
and switchgear, and miscellaneous products, the average hourly
ear'nings were higher than for the industry as a whole.
Table 2 shows the percentage distribution o f hourly earnings o f
individual employees, by sex and skill. The chief fact that emerges
from this table is the extensive range o f individual hourly earnings.
Relatively few employees were found in the lower-wage classes,
only 2.1 percent earning under 35 cents an hour, although as many
as one-tenth (9.1 percent) received below 42.5 cents. On the other
hand, some o f the workers in this industry ranked with the highestpaid employees in the country. Nearly one-fourth (23.1 percent)
were paid 87.5 cents and over, and 14.9 percent earned 97.5 cents and
over. There were 6.5 percent receiving $1,125 and over, and 1.7
percent were paid $1,325 and over.
Although the workers in electrical manufacturing are predomi
nately males, 23.2 percent o f the employees in the industry are
females.
88
WAGES AND HOURS
T a b l e 2 .- — D istrib u tio n o f w orkers in electrical m a n u fa ctu rin g , according to average
h ou rly ea rn in g s , A u g u s t 1937> b y skill and sex
Average hourly earnings
(in cents)
All workers
Total Male Female
Under 25.0.
25.0 and under 27.5
__
27.5 and under 30.0__________
30.0 and under 32.5
__ ____
32.5 and under 35.0____. _ ___
35.0 and under 37.5___ _______
37.5 and under 40.0__________
40.0 and under 42.5__________
42.5 and under 47.5__________
47.5 and under 52.5__________
52.5 and under 57.5__________
57.5 and under 62.5__________
0.1
.3
.2
.9
.6
2.1
1.5
3.4
6.7
8.9
9.7
9.0
(2)
0.1
.1
.4
.2
.7
.6
2.1
4.7
6.6
7.0
8.1
0. 5
.8
.9
2. 5
2.0
6. 5
4.6
7.8
13.6
16.5
17.7
12.0
62.5 and under 67.5__________
67.5 and under 72.5__________
72.5 and under 77.5__________
77.5 and under 82.5__________
82.5 and under 87.5__________
87.5 and under 92.5__________
92.5 and under 97.5__________
97.5 and under 102.5_________
102.5 and under 112.5
____
112.5 and under 122.5_______
122.5 and under 132.5...............
132.5 and under 142.5
142.5 and under 152.5________
152.5 and under 162.5..
__
162.5 and o v e r .__
__ ___
8.7
7.2
6.6
5.7
5.3
4.4
3.8
3.5
4.9
3.1
1.7
.9
.5
.2
.1
9.4
8.2
8.0
7.1
6.7
5.7
4.9
4.5
6.3
4.1
2.3
1.1
.6
.3
.2
6.5
4.1
2.0
1.1
.5
.2
.1
.1
(2)
(2)
(2)
Total____ ______ ______ 100.0 100.0
100.0
Skilled:
Male
Semiskilled
Total Male Female1 Total Male Female
1.5
(2)
0.1
(2)
.3
.2
.7
.7
1.9
4.4
7.2
8.2
9.1
(2)
(2)
(2)
0. 2
.1
.3
.5
1.3
3.4
5.1
6.1
8.3
2.6
3.3
5.1
6.3
7.2
8.4
8.5
9.5
16.6
12.8
7.8
4.1
2.6
1.2
.8
9.8
9.9
8.6
8.3
8.0
6.1
4.9
4.0
4.4
2.0
.8
.3
.1
(2)
(2)
10.1
10.6
9.6
9.3
9.2
7.0
5.7
4.5
5.0
2.4
.9
.3
.1
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
0.1
.4
.4
.8
(2)
Unskilled
100.0 100.0 100.0
i Includes a small number of skilled workers.
(2)
0. 2
.3
1.2
1.0
3.1
1.8
5.6
10.8
20.6
22.3
14.0
8.3
5.9
2.4
1.4
.8
.2
(2)
(2)
.1
0. 3
.6
.5
1.8
1.3
4.1
3.0
6.2
11.4
13.8
14.2
12.0
(2)
0. 3
.2
1.0
.6
1.8
1.2
4.6
9.2
12.8
12.5
12.3
0. 7
1.0
1.0
2.9
2.3
7.4
5.4
8.4
14.5
15.3
16.4
11.4
10.2
6.4
5.5
3.2
2.0
1.2
.9
.6
.5
.2
.1
(2)
(2)
(2)
13.3
8.4
8.0
4.9
3.2
2.0
1.4
.9
.9
.3
.1
.1
(2)
(2)
6.0
3.6
1.9
1.0
100.0 100.0 100.0
.4
.2
.1
.1
(2)
(2)
(2)
100.0
3 Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
The industry’s labor force is predominantly composed o f semi
skilled and unskilled employees. O f the total number scheduled, 38.5
percent were classed as semiskilled and 43.7 percent as unskilled, and
only 17.8 percent as skilled.
Plant averages ranged from less than 30 cents to over $1 and the
distribution was quite irregular (table 3 ). However, 168 establish
ments, or seven-tenths o f the total number, had average hourly earn
ings within the fairly wide spread from 45 to 75 cents. There were
33 plants with averages under 45 cents, and 32 averaged 75 cents and
over.
T a b l e 3 , — D istrib u tio n o f electrical m an u fa ctu rin g p la n ts , by average h ou rly ea rnings
in A u g u s t 1 9 3 7
Average hourly earnings
(in cents)
Under 30.0___________________________
30.0 and under 32.5________________ - 32.5 and under 35.0________________ _ 35.0 and under 37.5._______ ___________
37.5 and under 40.0___________________
40.0 and under 42.5_________________ .
42.5 and under 45.0___________________
45.0 and under 47.5___________________
47.5 and under 50.0___________________ '
50.0 and under 52.5______________
52.5 and under 55.0- ___________ ____
55.0 and under 57.5___________________
57.5 and under 60.0___________________
60.0 a n d u n d e r 62.5
62.5 and under 65.0___________________
65.0 and under 67.5__________________ :
67.5 and under 70.0___________________
Number
of plants
2
2
2
4
8
7
8
13
15
15
18
15
25
12
7
13
16
Average hourly earnings
(in cents)
70.0 and under 72.5______ ____________
72.5 and u n d e r 75.0
75.0 and under 77.5 . 77.5 and under 80.0 ___
80.0 and under 82.5_____ ______ . _
82.5 and under 85.0
85.0 and under 87.5__ __
87.5 and under 90.0
90.0 and under 92.5______
92.5 and under 95.0____________ _
95.0 and under 97.5
97.5 and under 100.0 __
100. and over....... . _
Total
_ -
Number
of plants
9
10
6
4
5
2
4
2
2
2
1
4
233
89
ELECTRICAL-PRODUCTS MANUFACTURE
Occupational Differences
Table 4 presents the average hourly earnings in selected occupational
classes, which appeared in three or more divisions of the electrical
manufacturing industry.
T able
4. — A v era g e h o u rly ea rn in g s, w eek ly hours, and w eek ly ea rnings in selected
occu p ation s in electrical m a n u fa ctu rin g , A u g u s t 1 9 8 7 , b y sk ill and sex
Males
Skill and occupation
Skilled workers:
Assemblers, skilled__________________
Blacksmiths________________________
Boring-mill operators, skilled_________
Bricklayers_________________________
Carpenters, skilled___________________
Coremakers_________________________
Drill-press operators, skilled__________
Electricians, maintenance____________
Engineers, powerhouse_______________
Foremen, working-----------------------------Grinding-machine operators, skilled___
Hardeners___________________________
Inspectors, skilled____________________
Lathe operators, engine, skilled________
Lathe operators, turret, skilled________
Lay-out men, skilled_________________
Machinists__________________________
Mechanics, machine-repair____________
Milling-machine operators, skilled_____
Millwrights and other maintenance
workers___________________________
Model makers_______________________
Molders, foundry____________________
Pattern makers______________________
Pipefitters and plumbers_____________
Screw-machine operators, automatic,
skilled_____________________________
Set-up men, machine, skilled__________
Sheet-metal workers, skilled___________
Shippers, head_______________________
Testers, skilled_______________________
Tinsmiths and sheet-metal workers____
Tool and die makers__________________
Welders and brazers__________________
Welders, maintenance________________
Winders, skilled______________________
Aver
Aver
Aver
Aver
Num age Aver
age Num age Aver age
age week
age week
ber of hour week
ber of hour week
work
work
ly
ly
ly
ly
ly
ly
earn hours
ers
earn
ers
earn hours
earn
ings
ings
ings
ings
372 $1.149
39
.935
167 1.229
45
.963
202 .926
70 1.031
177
.908
412
.971
84
.957
2,101 1.038
185 1.019
38 1.057
161 1.099
292 1.066
184 1.002
117 1.115
.942
798
334
.956
207 1.110
42.3 $48.63
41.3 38.58
41.0 50.33
41.7 40.15
42.0 38.88
38.3 39. 52
41.3 37.45
43.6 42. 35
44.7 42.76
43.1 44.68
40.7 41.44
39.8 42. 09
41.2 45.24
41.5 44. 25
41.1 41.19
43.7 48.69
42.0 39. 62
41.7 39.88
40.2 44. 60
373
92
193
143
203
.857
.972
1.007
1.156
1.009
43.9
40.4
37.5
39.8
42.8
37. 59
39. 27
37.82
46. 07
43.19
162
.998
.961
.987
.825
1.084
.957
1.051
1.018
.955
1.119
39.4
41.6
40.7
43.7
44.6
42.4
41.5
40.0
42.4
40.9
39.28
39.97
40. 20
36.11
48.37
40. 56
43. 67
40. 72
40.45
45. 76
40.9
41.5
42.9
42.4
41.5
40.3
41.7
40.8
41.8
43.7
40.0
40.4
40.1
40.6
44.3
40.3
41.0
41.7
42. 5
40.2
40.9
22.28
34.01
29.34
34.80
32.40
31.52
30. 77
32.21
28. 51
38. 50
34. 22
32.99
32. 79
30. 03
31. 05
33. 02
30.80
31.08
33.10
34. 34
31.65
40.8
34.07
211
195
91
92
81
1,487
615
56
37
Semiskilled workers:
.545
613
Apprentices__________________________
.819
Assemblers, semiskilled_______________ 3, 333
.684
56
Balancers____________________________
.821
Boring-mill operators, semiskilled______
63
92
.780
Boxmakers___________________________
.782
Buffers and polishers_________________
235
182
.738
Carpenters, semiskilled_______________
234
.788
Checkers------------------------------------------.683
293
Clerks, factory_______________________
292
.882
Crane operators_______________ ______
83
.856
Cutters, insulation___________________
45
.817
Die casters___________________________
189
.818
Die setters________ ___________ ______
795
Drill-press operators, semiskilled - _____
.740
117
.700
Firemen_____________________
- ___
253
.819
Grinding-machine operators, semiskilled _
Inspectors, semiskilled________________ 1,121 .751
349
.745
Lathe operators, engine, semiskilled____
278
.780
Lathe operators, turret, semiskilled ___
64
.853
Lay-out men, semiskilled______ - _____
373
.775
Milling-machine operators, semiskilled....
Miscellaneous furnace and ovenmcn,
357
.834
semiskilled_________________________
1Not a sufficient number of workers to present an average.
Females
476 $0.529
16
0)
38.2
0)
$20.19
0)
19
0)
0)
0)
70
162
.487
.504
39.4
39.9
19. 22
20.13
41
.527
39.8
20.97
" o f " o r "0 )"'
21.15
144
.536
39.5
11
0)
0)
0)
1
16
0)
0)
0)
0)
0)
0)
16 I 0)
0)
0)
90
WAGES AND HOURS
T a b l e 4 . — A verag e h ou rly ea rn in g s} w eek ly h ou rs , and w eek ly earnings in selected
occup ation s
tinued
in
electrical m a n u fa ctu rin g , A u g u s t
1 9 3 7 , by skill and s e x —Con
Males
Skill and occupation
Aver
Aver
Aver
Aver
Num age Aver
age Num age Aver
age
age week
age week
ber of hour week
ber of hour week
work
work
ly
ly
ly
ly
ly
ly
earn
earn
earn
ers
earn hours
ers
ings hours ings
ings
ings
Semiskilled workers—Continued.
171 $0,699
Mixers, compound___________________
294
.845
Molders, plastic........... .................... ......
135
.726
Oilers and motor tenders
_____
79
.761
Painters, brush.............................. .........
.834
Painters, maintenance________________
120
.775
339
Painters, spray______ _______ _________
232
.809
Platers.................................... ........ ..
.730
Punch-press operators, semiskilled_____ 1, 346
.687
320
Repairmen, product...............................
41
.731
Salvage workers, semiskilled______ ____
.837
Saw operators________________________
88
Screw-machine operators, automatic
.772
182
semiskilled.......
Screw-machine operators, hand, semi.805
347
skilled___________ ____ _____________
64
.843
Set-up men, machines, semiskilled
164
Shearmen_______ ______ ___________
.820
76
.725
Sheet-metal workers, semiskilled
403
.635
Shipping and receiving clerks.............. .
824
.651
Stock clerks........ .................................. .
.787
252
Storekeepers_____________________ ____
648
.747
Testers, semiskilled___________________
69
.586
Timekeepers- .................. ......................
.719
138
Tool-crib attendants_____ ____ _______ _
.739
TruQk drivers
174
.748
Truck operators, electric and gas
299
.645
Utility m e n ..________________________
81
489
.611
Watchmen ................................ ............
.802
227
Welders, spot__ ____________________
Winders, semiskilled................................
464
.850
Unskilled workers:
Assemblers, unskilled_________________ 3,106
Burrers and rough grinders_______ ____
503
207
Cleaners, parts. . . . ___________________
74
Cleaners, machine and equipment_____
Common laborers____________________ 1,066
534
Drill-press operators, unskilled_________
Elevator operators * ___________ ______ _
140
Foundry laborers _______ ____ _______
152
Freight loaders and unloaders_____ .
118
Helpers, foundry and machine...............
535
Helpers, maintenance__________ ______
537
Helpers, production line_______________
262
Inspectors, unskilled_______ ____ ______
377
741
Janitors____ _____ _______ ____________
Lathe operators, engine, unskilled........ .
87
Learners___ ________________ _______ _
867
Material handlers____________________
861
Miscellaneous furnace and ovenmen,
103
unskilled____________________ ______
Packers and wrappers.................... .........
716
Painters, d ip ........... .................... ...........
117
Platers’ helpers_______________ ______ _
228
Punch-press operators, unskilled.............
347
Rackers and unrackers............................
61
Riveters_________ ______ ____ _ ______
52
Salvage workers, unskilled.......................
135
Sandblasters
69
Screw-machine operators, hand, un
skilled_________ ___________ ____ _
44
Solderers____________________________
126
Stampers, markers, labelers____________
76
Stock- and shipping-room laborers_____
564
30
Tapers__________ ______ _____________
416
Testers, unskilled____ ________________
Truckers, hand
406
Winders, unskilled................... ...............
369
40.6 $28.36
39.7 33. 53
41.4 30.06
44.1 33. 51
41.4 34. 51
41.8 32. 37
39.4 31.89
39.8 29.00
39.7 27.30
39.7 29.05
41.2 34.43
39.6
30. 55
39.5
40. 7
40.0
40. 5
42.9
42.3
42.4
42.1
42.9
40.8
42.8
40.4
42.1
45.7
39.2
42.6
31.80
34.29
32. 79
29.40
27. 25
27. 53
33. 35
31.45
25.11
29. 32
31.62
30.23
27.16
27.94
31.46
36. 22
.583
.660
.717
.649
.589
.572
.618
.711
.772
.698
.650
.640
.597
.600
.620
.505
.632
40.8
40.2
39.9
39.5
40.7
40.6
41.7
36.8
42.4
41.2
42.1
40.3
40.2
41.4
39.9
39.3
40.0
.579
.670
.683
.624
.570
.522
.602
.652
.879
.567
.654
.766
.599
0)
.633
. 561
.646
1 Not a sufficient number of workers to present an average.
Females
18
0)
0)
0)
5
0)
0)
0)
17
0)
154 $0. 530
50
.507
10
0)
1
24
34
2
227
48
1
1
0)
37.4
38. 1
0)
0)
$19.80
19.29
(0
0)
(0
0)
0)
0)
(0
.548
.521
0)
(0
0)
0)
39.0
40.2
0)
0)
0)
0)
21. 35
20.95
0)
0)
(0
0)
193
159
.554
.577
39.0
38.2
21. 58
22.06
23. 76
26. 51
28.60
25. 66
23.97
23. 23
25. 77
26.17
32.72
28. 75
27. 39
25. 79
24.01
24.83
24. 77
19. 84
25. 24
5, 707
24
38
5
11
249
2
.486
0)
0)
0)
0)
.499
(')
37.9
0)
0)
(0
0)
37.2
0)
18.41
0)
0)
ro
0)
18. 57
0)
20
482
111
104
374
29
0)
.495
.529
.516
.369
0)
0)
38.6
35.6
38.3
37.6
0)
(0
19.11
18. 84
19. 76
13.88
0)
44.9
42.3
41.4
40.9
39.1
38.9
39.3
40.2
41. 2
25.99
28. 35
28. 28
25. 51
22. 30
20.30
23.64
26.24
36.17
1
368
30
2
434
21
99
13
0)
.460
0)
0)
.515
0)
.448
0)
0)
38.6
0)
0)
38.0
0)
39.0
0)
0)
17. 76
0)
0)
19. 54
0)
17.48
40.8
40.5
39.2
42.1
0)
40.8
41. 7
41.7
23.16
26. 51
30.03
25.21
0)
25.79
23.41
26.94
2
380
50
4
244
437
.504
.439
0)
.562
.530
0)
38.6
38.5
(0
38.2
39.5
0)
19.46
16. 92
0)
21.48
20.96
1, 297
.570
38.5
21.93
0)
ELECTRICAL-PRODUCTS MANUFACTURE
91
Among skilled males, the highest paid occupational class was that
o f boring-mill operators, who averaged $1,229 an hour. By contrast,
the lowest paid skilled occupational classes were millwrights and other
maintenance workers and shippers, whose averages amounted respec
tively to 85.7 and 82.5 cents. As regards semiskilled males, the
average hourly earnings of 50 occupational classes covered a spread
from 88.2 cents for crane operators to 54.5 cents for apprentices.
Among unskilled males, the highest occupational average was 87.9
cents tor sandblasters. The averages of the other 39 occupational
classes ranged from 77.2 cents for freight loaders and unloaders to
50.5 cents for learners.
A v e r a g e W e e k ly H o u r s a n d E a r n in g s , 1937
The 8-hour day and 40-hour week generally prevailed in the elec
trical manufacturing industry in August 1937. O f the 233 plants
covered, 128 worked their employees 40 hours per week, with all but
1 of these also having an 8-hour day.
Only 10 establishments had scheduled hours of less than 40 per
week. In 3 of these, the full-time hours were under 36^, the lowest
being 30 hours. There were 5 plants with scheduled hours of ZG1/^ .
The regular hours were between ZGA/^ and 40 in 2 establishments.
In 5 plants, the scheduled hours were over 40 and under 44 per week.
As many as 28 establishments had 44 as their full-time hours, and all
but 1 of these worked 8 hours per day and 4 hours on Saturday. The
regular hours were 45 in 14 plants, over 45 and under 48 in 4, 48 in
12, over 48 and under 50 in 6, 50 in 6, and over 50 in 2 establishments.
In the remaining 18 plants, the scheduled hours varied by,sex or
department, with a substantial number of employees working 40 hours.
A c tu a l W e e k ly H o u rs
A t the time of the survey, the actual weekly hours of all wage earners
in the electrical manufacturing industry averaged 40.5. In table 5,
average actual hours per week are given by industry division, skill,
and sex.
T a b l e 5 . — A verag e actual w eek ly hours in electrical m a n u fa ctu rin g , A u g u s t 1 9 3 7 ,
b y in d u stry d iv isio n , skill, and sex
All workers
Industry division
Total Male Female
Skilled:
Male
Semiskilled
Unskilled
Total Male Female1 Total Male Female
All divisions.............. - ......... — 40.5
41.2
38.3
41.7’ 40.9
41.2
38.9
39.7
40.8
38.1
45.2
39.3
42.1
39.6
46.3
39.6
43.2
41.2
40.4
38.5
40.7
39.0
50.2
40.0
49.2
41.1
46.5
40.5
42.9
39.4
46.6
40.6
43.5
41.7
(2)
39.8
41.4
39.1
43.7
38.3
41.4
39.4
45.2
38.3
42.3
40.7
40.4
38.3
40.6
39.0
39.9
40.8
40.4
41.7
39.3
38.5
40.7
43.0
40.1
41.2
40.3
41.3
39.3
39.3
39.6
39.9
40.3
41.4
39.3
38.4
39.2
40.3
41.8
41.1
37.6
36.3
43.7
41.3
40.4
40.8
40.9
41.3
38.7
36.5
38.3
39.2
41.6
40.6
37.5
36.3
41.5
39.0
40.6
41.0
40.2
40.7
41.8
40.9
40.6
41.3
40.6
41.0
38.0
33.6
39.3
37.7
36.9
39.6
41.3
43.4
41.5
42.0
41.8
41.3
41.9
41.7
40.7
41.2
40.3
40.9
42.1
41.8
40.7
41.3
40.5
41.0
38.4
(a)
(*)
38.8
38.0
39.8
40.9
36.1
40.2
39.9
39.8
40.3
42.1
38.4
40.2
40.5
40.5
40.9
37.9
33.5
39.5
37.5
36.8
39.6
Carbon products. ...................
Domestic appliances------------Dry batteries...... .....................
Electric lamps--------------------Electrical measuring instru
ments— ------------------ -----Fractional-horsepower motors.
Fuses, wiring devices, and spe
cialty transformers....... ........
Industrial controls...................
Integral-horsepower motors
and generators......................
Signaling apparatus.......... ......
Storage batteries....... ...........
Transformers and switchgear..
Wire and cable______________
Miscellaneous products---------
*Includes a small number of skilled workers.
*Not a sufficient number of workers to present an average.
505364 0 - 43 - 7
92
WAGES AND HOURS
A total distribution o f all employees according to actual weekly
hours discloses the fact that one-half (50.2 percent) worked exactly
40 hours during the week scheduled.
Generally speaking, the average actual weekly hours varied inversely
with the degree of skill, although the differences were not very pro
nounced in most instances. For the industry as a whole, the averages
were 41.7 for skilled, 40.9 for semiskilled, and 39.7 for unskilled work
ers. On a sex-skill basis, the figures for males amounted to 41.7 for
skilled, 41.2 for semiskilled, and 40.8 for unskilled employees. The
females averaged 38.9 for semiskilled and 38.1 hours for unskilled.
Average Weekly Earnings
The average weekly earnings of all wage earners in the electrical
manufacturing industry amounted to $28.78 in August 1937 (table 6).
On a sex-skill basis, the average weekly earnings for males was $42.21
for skilled, $31.14 for semiskilled, and $24.83 for unskilled workers.
The females averaged $21.05 for semiskilled and $19.01 for unskilled
employees.
In terms o f weekly earnings, the highest-paid industry divisions were
those manufacturing integral-horsepower motors and generators and
transformers, and switchgear, whose averages for all workers
amounted, respectively, to $35.54 and $35.31. Next came the man
ufacture of storage batteries, of miscellaneous products, and of indus
trial controls, with averages of approximately $30 to $32.
T able
6. — A v era g e
w eek ly earnings in electrical m a n u fa ctu rin g , A u g u s t 1 9 3 7 , b y
in d u stry d iv isio n , sk ill} and sex
All workers
Industry division
Total Male Female
All divisions________________ $28.78 $31.59
Carbon products____________ 26.27
Domestic appliances________ 25.00
Dry batteries_____________ _ 22.56
Electric lamps______________ 23.76
Electrical measuring instru
25.42
ments—
Fractional-horsepower motors- 27.28
Fuses, wiring devices, and
specialty transformers_____ 19.39
Industrial controls__________ 29.95
Integral-horsepower motors
and generators
35.54
Signaling apparatus_________ 20.81
Storage batteries____________ 31.78
Transformers and switchgear.. *35.31
Wire and cable................ ........ 25.28
Miscellaneous products______ 30.53
$19.46
Skilled:
Male
Semiskilled
Unskilled
Total Male Female1Total Male Female
$42.21 $29.80 $31.14
$21.05 $22.43 $24.83
$19.01
22.45
19.66
21.16
21.83
24.25
21.62
24.62
26.72
18.57
17.48
18.13
20.58
36.70 26.65 28.76
40.35 29.12 29.40
20.29 20.96 24.84
23.86 22.28 24.21
19.54
20.27
15.44
19.80
37.51 23.18 24.96
41.54 30.16 31.31
17.77 16.32 20.58
20.80 23.25 25.16
15.24
19.45
22.01
13.89
21.24
22.53
16.67
23.29
45.33
34.82
38.56
46.07
36.03
43.68
23.07
(2)
(2)
25.04
18.90
22.80
21.71
13.67
20.24
22.09
16.27
23.41
28.09
28.02
26.24
32.15
18.64
17.74
18.24
20.91
39.53
37.68
38.57
38.39
29.22
29.78
19.74
20.49
25.94
32.05
36.91
23.15
32.01
36.44
26.36
32.38
29.32
26.23
24.18
22.32
33.57
23.29
32.45
35.61
27.33
30.84
29.51
27.61
26.53
29.33
34.11
23.50
32. 55
35.93
27.70
31.74
(2)
19.10
18.87
21.12
26.49
15.60
27.98
26.72
21.85
24.33
28.28
17.34
28.35
27.92
23.11
24.93
1 Includes a small number of skilled workers.
8Not a sufficient number of workers to present an average.
For males, the average earnings were $31.59 a week. According to
the distribution, over one-half (54.9 percent) earned between $20 and
$35. For females, the average weekly earnings amounted to $19.46.
As shown by the distribution, over two-thirds (67.0 percent) earned
between $15 and $25, and more than nine-tenths (92.4 percent) received
between $10 and $30. ( See table 7.)
93
ELECTRICAL-PRODUCTS MANUFACTURE
T a b l e 7 . — P ercen tag e distribu tion o f w orkers in electrical m a n u fa ctu rin g b y skill
and s e x , according to w eek ly ea rn in g s , A u g u s t 1 9 8 7
All workers
Weekly earnings
Total Male Female
Under $5.................................
$5 and under $10.................
$10 and under $15.............. ......
$15 and under $20.....................
$20 and under $25___________
$25 and under $30....................
$30 and under $35...................
$35 and under $40................... .
$40 and under $45___________
$45 and under $50......... .
$50 and under $55 _____ __
$55 and under $60
$60 and under $65.....................
$65 and under $70 __
. _
$70 and under $75 __ _ __
$75 and o v e r _______________
0.5
1.6
5.3
13.8
21.4
18.1
13.9
9.9
6.4
3. 9
2.3
1.3
.8
.4
.2
.2
0.3
1.0
2.5
8.5
17.0
20.4
17.5
12.7
8.3
5.1
2. 9
1.7
1.0
.5
.3
.3
1.0
3.8
14.8
31.4
35.6
10.6
2.3
.4
.1
(2)
Total_________________ 100.0 100.0
100.0
Skilled:
Male
0.1
.5
.5
1.0
2.5
6.8
14.6
19.5
19.0
13. 8
8. 7
5.4
3.4
1.8
1.1
1.3
Semiskilled
Unskilled
Total Male Female1Tota£ Male Female
0.2
.9
2.3
9.1
19.0
22.4
20.2
13.1
6.6
3.1
1.6
.7
.4
.2
.1
.1
0.2
.7
1.6
6.1
15.1
23.8
22.9
15.1'
7.5
3.6
1.8
.8
.4
.2
.1
.1
100.0 100.0 100.0
0.4
1.8
6.7
28.7
43.9
14.9
2.9
.5
.2
0.8
2.7
9.9
23.2
31.2
18.8
8.2
3.1
1.2
.5
.3
.1
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
0.6
1.6
4.9
16.8
29.7
25.5
12.6
5.0
1.9
.8
.4
.2
.1
(2)
(2)
1.2
4.4
17.1
32.1
33.2
9.4
2.1
.4
.1
(2)
(?)
100.0 100.0 100.0
100.0
1 Includes a small number of skilled workers.
3 Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
Annual Earnings, 1936
Annual earnings o f workers engaged in electrical manufacturing
who worked throughout the calendar year 1936 averaged $1,480. They
constituted a fairly substantial majority of the total working force.
Those who had employment for 9 months or more averaged $1,400, and
for those working at least 6 months the average was $1,340. With all
short-service employees included, the average annual wage was $1,182.
These averages, it should be emphasized, apply only to wage earners
who were on the pay roll of plants surveyed in August 1937 and were
employed by the same establishment for one or more pay-roll periods
in 1936.4 Obviously, this method o f collecting annual earnings has
certain shortcomings. It makes no allowance for a certain amount of
the earnings of a substantial number of workers who shift from one
plant to another or even from one industry to another. However,
employees who worked in the same plant every pay-roll period through
out the year could hardly have worked at other employments. For
this group, therefore, the annual earnings shown may safely be taken
as the equivalent to the total wages for the year.6 The same is largely
true of those who worked 9 months or more in the same plant, as in
most instances the opportunities for such persons to obtain work in
other establishments are very small. By contrast, no such reliance
may be placed on the data when the group is enlarged to include those
whose work period was 6 months or less.
V a ria tio n s b y S ex and S k ill
The average annual earnings o f males greatly exceeded those of
females. As shown in table 8, the respective figures for the industry
*Data regarding annual earnings were available for only 29,701 workers in 108 plants.
6 The annual earnings of these employees, however, tend to overstate somewhat the
average opportunity to earn afforded by the industry, because the figures are weighted to
some extent by the earnings of certain maintenance employees who are customarily
employed much more steadily than other classes of employees.
94
WAGES AND HOURS
as a whole were $1,580 and $954 for employees whose work extended
over 12 months, $1,516 and $916 for those who worked 9 months or
more, $1,451 and $879 for employees whose work extended over 6 months
or more, and $1,284 and $768 for those who worked any part of the year.
T a b l e 8 . — A v era g e a nnual earnings o f w orkers in electrical m a n u fa ctu rin g , 1 9 3 6 ,
b y sex and skill
All workers
Employees whose work
extended over—
Male
Fe
male
Male
$1,480 $1,580
1,400 1,516
1,340 1,451
1,182 1,284
$954
916
879
768
$1,881 $1,427 $1,484
1,828 1,352 1,428
1,789 1,302 1,370
1,694 1,165 1,218
Total
12 months____________ ______
9 months or more____________
6 months or more____________
Any part of the year.................
Skilled
workers Semiskilled workers
Total
Unskilled workers
Fe Total
Male male
1
Fe
Male male
$989 $1,147 $1,284
943 1,088 1,223
922 1,027 1,146
935
856
852
$938
901
857
728
i Includes a small number of skilled workers.
E m broideries In d u stry — E arnings and H ou rs, 19401
The hourly earnings of embroidery-shop workers in the principal
producing centers averaged 60.2 cents in March 1940. This was
revealed by a field survey completed by the Bureau of Labor Statistics
at the request of the Wage and Hour Division. The survey was
limited to establishments located in New York City, northern New
Jersey, Philadelphia, and Chicago. Plants located in these four
centers account for a large majority of the United States production
o f embroideries, trimmings, and related products.
The “embroideries industry” has been defined by the Administrator
of the Wage and Hour Act as follows:
The production o f all kinds o f hand- and machine-made embroideries and
ornamental stitchings, including, but not by way of limitation, tucking, shirring,
smocking, hemstitching, hand rolling, fagoting, Bonnaz embroidery, appliqu^,
crochet beading, hand drawing, machine drawing, rhinestone trimming, sequin
trimming, spangle trimming, eyelets, passementerie, pleating, the application o f
rhinestones and nailheads, Schiffli embroidery and laces, burnt-out laces and
velvets, Swiss hand-loom machine embroidery, thread splitting, embroiderythread cutting, scallop cutting, lace cutting, lace making-up, making-up o f em
broidered yard goods, straight cutting o f embroidery and cutting out of
embroidery, embroidery trimmings, bindings, pipings, and emblems: Provided,
how ever, That (1 ) the foregoing, when produced or performed by a manufac
turer o f a garment, fabric, or other article fo r use on such garment, fabric, or
other article and (2) the manufacture o f covered buttons and buckles shall
not be included
The above definition was used by the Bureau of. Labor Statistics
in outlining the scope of its survey. Examination of the structure
o f the industry indicated that the establishments making the products
1
Abstract of an article by H. E. Riley, Bureau of Labor Statistics, in the Monthly Labor
Review for December 1940.
EMBROIDERIES INDUSTRY
95
or performing the operations included in the definition fall into the
four following general product groups:
{a ) Schiffli machine products, combining automatic and pantograph Schiflii
operations, as well as thread cutting and scallop cutting.
(&) Swiss hand-loom products. (The operations performed by the establish
ments making these products are quite different from those in other embroideries
plants.)
(<?) Pleating, stitching, and related operations, including the Bonnaz em
broideries, hand embroideries, and stitching operations, all o f which are
frequently carried on in a single establishment.
(d )
Bindings and trimmings, including bias bindings, pipings, upholstery
trimmings, and related products. (The manufacture of upholstery trimmings
is chiefly confined to a few relatively large establishments, many o f whose
operations, although varied in nature, compare closely with those carried on
in plants making bias bindings and pipings.)
M e th o d o f S tu d y
In view o f tlie fact that the large majority of the embroideries
establishments are situated in four restricted areas, namely, Chicago,
Philadelphia, New York City, and northern New Jersey,2 the gather
ing o f detailed data by personal visit was limited to these districts.
For the remaining part of the industry lying outside of these regions,
a mail questionnaire was used.
The coverage of the field survey included approximately half of
the wage earners in Chicago, Philadelphia, and northern New Jersey,
and a third of the employees in New York City establishments. The
sample in each center was carefully selected, in order to give ade
quate representation with respect to such factors as size of establish
ment, unionization, and type of product. The data obtained in each
industry center have been weighted upward in order to give a final
set o f figures representing the estimated total employment in the
four centers. This was done by multiplying the New Jersey, Phila
delphia, and Chicago figures by 2 and the New York data by 3.
The averages and distributions used in this article are based on
earnings at regular rates of pay, exclusive of extra overtime earnings.
While office workers were covered in the survey they are not included
in any of the figures presented here.
Most of the establishments in the embroideries industry are rela
tively small in size. Only 45 of the 352 establishments covered by
the field survey reported employment of home workers during 1939.
This total included 19 plants in New York, 17 in New Jersey, 5 in
Chicago, and 4 in Philadelphia. At the time of the survey, only 33
of the establishments scheduled were employing home workers. The
home workers reported were chiefly engaged in performing hand
operations, including hand embroidery, scallop cutting, mending, etc.
Union organization is quite extensive in New York City, Phila
delphia, and Chicago, but it is relatively unimportant in the northern
New Jersey area. O f the 148 establishments scheduled in New York,
all but 16 had contracts with labor organizations. In the New Jersey
2
Including the cities of Guttenberg, West New York, Weeliawken, Union City, North
Bergen, and adjacent areas.
96
WAGES AND HOURS
cities, however, only 10 of the 142 plants covered were operating
under union agreements and these were all engaged in manufacturing
Swiss hand-loom products. About one-half of the plants in Phila
delphia, employing nearly one-half of the wage earners covered, were
unionized. In Chicago, 14 of the 32 establishments surveyed, with
about one-fourth of the employees, had contracts with labor organiza
tions. The International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union, an A. F.
of L. affiliate, predominates in the pleating and stitching branch,
while the only union contracts among the bias-binding establishments
surveyed were with the Textile Workers Union of America, a member
of the C. I. O.
A v e r a g e H o u r l y E a r n in g s in P r in c ip a l M a n u fa c t u r in g C e n t e r s
The general average hourly wage of 60.2 cents given earlier is a com
bination of widely different averages for various types of workers in
the major centers3 (table 1).
T able 1.—A verag e
h o u rly earnings o f w orkers in the em broid eries in d u s tr y , M a r c h
1 9 4 0 , b y in d u stry center , skill, and sex
All workers
Skilled workers
Semiskilled
workers
Unskilled
workers
Industry center
Fe Total Male Fe Total Male Fe Total Male Fe
Total Male male
male
male
male
Average hourly earnings
Total_____________ ____ _ $0.602 $0,696 $0.545 $0.952 $1.062 $0.866 $0.490 $0. 567 $0.451 $0.371 $0.374 $0.369
New York City........ . .702 .762 .655 1.023 1.134 .934 .513 .592 .467 .377 .374 .380
Northern New Jersey _ .459 .569 .414 .792 .821 .660 .489 .551 .454 .368 .370 .368
.533 .522 .538 .703 .730 .693 .470 .520 .451 .348 .356 .338
Philadelphia________
Chicago....................... .468 .579 .431 .649 .784 .582 .429 .537 .403 .360 .387 .351
Number of workers (weighted)
Total__________________
New York City_____
Northern New Jersey.
Philadelphia.......... .
Chicago____ ________
11,112 4,047 7,065 4,168 1,816 2,352 3,659 1,137 2, 522 3,285 T, 094 2,191
6,942 2,961 3,981 3,408 1, 530 1,878 1, 731
822
981
609 1,122 1,803
122
392
846
984
2,370
620 1,750
26 1,238
106
878
148
652
62
198
260
252
194
62
454
198
58
140
78
352
102
1,148
268
880
250
438
78
360
358
88 270
Percent of workers
Total................. ................
New York City_____
Northern New Jersey
Philadelphia________
Chicago_____ _______
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
36.4
42.7
26.2
30.4
23.3
63.6
57.3
73.8
69.6
76.7
37.6
49.1
6.2
39.8
30.7
16.3
22.0
5.1
9.5
8.9
21.3
27.1
1.1
30.3
21.8
32.9
25.0
52.3
38.7
38.1
10.2
8.8
16.5
8.9
6.8
22.7
16.2
35.8
29.8
31.3
29.5
25.9
41.5
21.5
31.2
9.8
11.8
4.5
12.0
7.7
19.7
14.1
37.0
9.5
23.5
The hourly earnings of all wage earners in New York City estab
lishments averaged 70.2 cents at the time of the survey. The dis
tribution shown in table 2 covers a wide range of individual earn
ings, with over one-eighth (13.7 percent) of the workers averaging
under 35 cents, while one-sixth (17.1 percent) received $1,275 an hour
and over. The table also reveals that there was a marked difference
in earnings as between the pleating and stitching and the trimming
establishments.
3
Most of the employees were paid straight-time rates. Substantial numbers of piece
workers were found, however, among the hand cutters, hand embroiderers, and Swiss handloom stitchers.
97
EMBROIDERIES INDUSTRY
T a b l e 2 , — Percentage d istribu tion o f w orkers in the em broid eries in d u s tr y in N e w
Y o r k C it y , b y average h ou rly earn in gs, product, skill, and sex, M a r c h 1 9 4 0
All products
Average hourly earnings
(in cents)
All workers
Skilled workers
Semiskilled
workers
Unskilled workers
Fe Total M ale Fe Total M ale Fe Total M ale Fe
Total M ale male
male
male
male
Under 30.0 _
______
Exactly 30.0___ _ ______
30.1 and under 32.5______
32.5 and under 35.0______
35.0 and under 37.5______
37.5 and under 40.0______
40.0 and under 42.5______
42.5 and under 47.5______
47.5 and under 52.5______
52.5 and under 57.5______
57.5 and under 62.5______
62.5 and under 67.5______
67.5 and under 72.5______
1.5
5.4
2. 3
4. 5
6.4
3.2
6.1
6.1
5.5
3.7
1.8
2.5
2.2
1.4
6.0
1.1
5.1
5.8
1.9
3.9
5.5
4.9
3.2
2.0
2.1
2.2
1.5
5.0
3.2
4.1
6.9
4.1
7.7
6.6
6.0
4.0
1.6
2.7
2.1
72.5 and under 77.5______
77.5 and under 82.5____
82.5 and under 87.5__ ___
87.5 and under 92.5
92.5 and under 97.5
97.5 and under 102.5
102.5 and under 107.5
107.5 and under 112.5
112.5 and under 117.5
117.5 and under 122.5* __
122.5 and under 127.5
127.5 and under 132.5
132.5 and under 137.5 _
137.5 and over
2.1
2.0
12.6
4.4
2.0
4.0
.7
.1
2.9
.5
.4
13.3
1.9
1.9
2.2
3.6
5.9
1.8
1.3
3.3
.8
.1
6.0
1.0
.9
20.4
3.6
4.0
2.0
.8
17.5
6.3
2.6
4.5
.7
.2
.5
.1
.1
8.0
.7
.5
Total_____________
0.1
0.2
.2
.4
.8
1.2
1.3
1.1
2.1
2.1
0.4
.6
.4
1.0
1.4
1.8
1.8
.3
.5
1.0
1.9
1.6
1.0
2.4
2.4
3.2
1.6
22.2
8.1
3.8
7.4
1. 5
.3
5.8
1.0
.9
26.9
4.0
4.0
2.7
2.0
7.7
2.0
2.0
5.3
1.6
.2
11. 5
2.0
1.8
39.1
7.1
7.6
3.5
1.3
33.8
13.1
5.3
9.1
1.4
.3
1.1
.2
.2
17.0
1.4
1.0
0.9
4.5
2.8
2.3
8.8
4.7
12.2
13.9
10.9
9.5
4.2
4.2
3.6
2.1
4.9
6.6
1.6
.7
1.6
2.0
7.4
2.0
7.4
9.9
8.9
10.3
5.4
4.4
5.4
1.3
5.3
4.3
2.4
9.6
6.1
15.0
16.4
12.0
9.1
3.5
4.0
2.7
4.8
16.4
6.2
15.1
16.1
7.3
11.0
8.7
8.5
2.5
.7
1.5
.8
3.9
12.7
8.9
3.9
1.5
3.0
1.1
.5
5.3
.3
.3
.8
.2
.3
.2
.3
3.0
5.1
19.4
4.0
16.8
15.3
5.5
7.7
11.3
10.2
2.2
.7
1.1
.7
4.6
14.1
8.0
13.8
16.7
8.9
13.8
6.4
7.0
2.8
.6
1.8
.9
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
609 1,122 1,803
822
981
Number of workers______ 6,942 2,961 3,981 3,408 1, 530 1,878 1,731
Average hourly earnings.. $0. 702 $0.762 $0.655 $1,023 $1.134 $0.934 $0.513 $0. 592 $0.467 $0.377 $0.374 $0.380
Pleating, stitching, etc.
Average hourly earnings
(in cents)
All workers
Skilled workers
Semiskilled
workers
Unskilled workers
Fe Total M ale Fe Total M ale Fe Total M ale Fe
Total M ale male
male
male
male 1
Under 30.0__
- _ _
Exactly 30.0
30.1 and under 32.5__
32.5 and under 35.0
35.0 and under 37.5
37.5 and under 40.0___
40.0 and under 42.5______
42.5 and under 47.5______
47.5 and under 52.5______
52.5 and under 57.5______
57.5 and under 62.5______
62.5 and under 67.5______
67.5 and under 72.5______
1.7
5.6
2.1
2. 9
5. 7
2.3
4.2
4.1
4.8
2.3
1.2
2.5
1.9
1.6
5.7
.9
4. 5
3.9
1.5
2.4
4.1
3.7
1.3
1.5
1.9
1.5
1.9
5.6
3.0
1.8
7.0
3.0
5.5
4.1
5.6
3.0
1.0
3.0
2.2
0.2
0.1
.1
.5
1.1
1.0
.8
1.6
1.5
0 .2 - - - - -
.2
.2
.2
1.1
1.1
.9
1.8
1.7
.7
2.0
2.0
1.6
7.5
1.9
.6
9.9
2.5
8.1
10.6
12.0
6.2
3.4
6.2
4.3
5.3
.9
6.2
.9
3.5
8.8
9.7
4.4
5.3
5.3
4.4
2.4
8.6
2.9
.5
12.0
3.3
10.5
11.5
13.3
7.2
2.4
6.7
4.3
6.0
17.7
7.3
11.1
16.4
7.8
11.1
8.0
8.3
2.4
.4
2.0
1.1
6.7
20.7
3.9
18.4
12.3
5.6
7.3
11.2
8.9
2.2
1.7
1.1
5.6
15.6
9.6
6.3
18.8
9.3
13.7
5.9
7.8
2.6
.7
2.2
1.1
.4
1.2
2.0
2.2
1.3
2.8
2.2
2.7
1.9
.2
72.5 and under 77.5______
1.7
77.5 and under 82.5
.6
1.1
1. 5
.8
8. 7 23. 1
1.0
2. 2
4. 4
.4
15.2
6.2 21.3 23.5
8.3 35.0
8.7
8.0
9.1
.2
82.5 and under 87.5______
87.5 and under 92 5
1.-9
7. 7
1.7 13.6
2.2
5.3
.5
5. 3
8. 5
5.5
92.5 and under 97.5
1.7
1.2
2. 7
.5
2.5
1. 5
3.1
3.9
5.4
9.5
2.2
3.5
1.4
4. 9
3. 9
5. 6
7.7
97.5 and under 102.5
.7
1.5
102.5 and under 107.5
1.3
1.1
.8
.8
.l
.2
.2
.2
107 5 and under 112 5
.3
.3
112 5 and Tinder 117 5
1.2
.6
3. 5
7. 5
6.0 12. 4
.1
.2
117.5 and under 122.5
.9
2.0
.5
1. 2
.1
.7
122.5 and under 127.5
.4
1. 3
.2
.8
127 5 and under 132 5
16. 5 26.1
9.8 28.8 42.9 17.8
132 5 and under 137 5
4.2
7.8
1.5
2. 5
4. 8
.8
8.5
5.2
.6
4.2
1.0
2.5
137.5 and over___ _____
Total_____________ 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
339
966
627 1,347
537
810
Number of workers______ 5,496 2,256 3,240 3,183 1, 380 1,803
Average hourly earnings.. $0. 777 $0.852 $0. 722 $1.050 $1.183 $0.952 $0. 550 $0.624 $0.505 $0.378 $0.370 $0.386
i Includes 3 workers engaged in the manufacture of Swiss hand-loom products.
98
WAGES AND HOURS
T a b l e 3 . — Percen tage distribu tion of w ork ers in the em broideries in du stry in
N e w Y ork C ity , by average hourly earnings, product, skill , and sex , M arch
1940 — Continued __________________________________________________________________
Trimmings, etc.
Average hourly earnings
(in cents)
All workers
Under 3 0 .0 .._________________
Exactly 30.0__________________
30.1 and under 32.5___________
32.5 and under 35.0....................
35.0 and under 37.5___________
37.5 and under 40.0-.____.........
40.0 and under 42.5....................
42.5 and under 47.5___________
47.5 and under 52.5___________
52.5 and under 57.5___________
57.5 and under 62.5....................
62.5 and under 67.5___________
67.5 and under 72.5...................
Total
M ale
0.4
4.6
2.9
10.9
0.9
6.8
1.7
6.8
11.8
Semiskilled workers
Fe
male
Skilled
work
ers
2
Total
M ale
0.8
2.4
4.0
14.6
3.9
4.3
7.5
7.5
17.6
18.4
9.4
13.7
5.1
1. 2
6.1
Total
1.3
13.2
2.6
Male
2.1
16.8
4.2
13.7
Fe
male
7.0
27.1
15.8
5.9
10.5
10.5
9.2
21.1
100.0
100.0
100.0
Number of workers__________ 1,446
705
741
225
765
270
456
495
285
Average hourly earnings_____ $0.485 $0. 538 $0.434 $0. 747 $0.475 $0. 558 $0.430 $0. 374 $0. 382
171
$0. 360
8.9
6.2
72.5 and under 77.5___________
77.5 and under 82.5....................
82.5 and under 87.5....................
87.5 and under 92.5....................
92.5 and under 97.5___________
97.5 and under 102.5. ..............
102.5 and under 107.5_________
107.5 and under 112.5_________
112.5 and under 117.5________
117.5 and under 122.5................
122.5 and under 127.5_________
127.5 and under 132.5_________
132.5 and under 1 3 7 .5 ,_______
137.5 and over__.......................
Total............... ........... ____
3.4
8.5
9.7
8.5
9.4
3.8
3.0
4.7
13.6
14.0
8.3
8.9
3.9
2.3
3,1
1.2
.8
.4
.8
.6
5.5
1.3
4.7
1.7
.9
1.7
1.3
.4
.2
.6
.6
.9
.4
1.3
1.3
100.0
100.0
3.7
2.7
6.1
8.9
18.3
17.9
8.1
8.5
4.0
1.6
1.6
2.0
1.2
.8
**
2.7
5.3
5.3
2.7
5.3
5.3
9.3
10.7
17.3
4.0
2.7
2.7
2.7
4.0
4.8
6.7
9.7
12.2 20.6
11.1 22.5
2.7
7.8
17.8
5.6
3.3
6.7
2.0
5.6
1.6
8.0
3.3
8.9
3.3
Fe
male
Unskilled workers
16.6
.8 2.2
2.2
.8
3.9
10.3
11.5
4.8
.6
.6
5.3
8.4
11.6
12.6
2.6 2.1
2.1
1.3
49. 2
7.0
7.0
14.0
8.8
3.5
3.5
.6
2.7
1.3
4.0
4.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
2 Data insufficient to show distribution by sex.
Earnings of all wage earners in northern New Jersey averaged 45.9
cents an hour. About one-fourth (26.2 percent) of the workers were
males, who averaged 56.9 cents. In comparison, the females received
earnings of 41.4 cents an hour (table 3).
T able 3. —
P ercentage d istribu tion o f workers in the em broid eries in d u s try in northern
N e w J e r s e y , b y average h ou rly ea rn in g s , prod u ct , sk ill , a nd sex , M a r c h 1 9 4 0
All products
Average hourly earnings
(in cents)
Total
3 0 .0 . . . . . . . . . . . .
and under3 2 . 5 . . . . . .
and under 3 5 . 0 ____
and under 3 7 . 5 ____
and under4 0 . 0 . .......
and under4 2 . 5 . . . . . .
and under 4 7 . 5 _ _ _
and under 5 2 . 5 ____
and under 5 7 . 5 ____
and under 6 2 . 5 . .......
and under 6 7 . 5 ____
and under 7 2 . 5 ____
and under 7 7 . 5 ____
and under 8 2 . 5 ____
and under 8 7 . 5 . . . . .
and under 9 2 . 5 ____
and under 9 7 . 5 _ _ _
Exactly
3 0 .1
3 2 .5
3 5 .0
3 7 .5
4 0 .0
4 2 .5
4 7 .5
5 2 .5
5 7 .5
6 2 .5
6 7 .5
7 2 .5
7 7 .5
8 2 .5
8 7 .5
9 2 .5
9 7 .5
and over____ ___
Total_________
Number of workers...... .
Average hourly earnings
Skilled Semiskilled workers
Unskilled workers
work
Male Female ers 1 Total Male Female Total Male Female
All workers
7.9
1.2
1.4
24.3
6.8
10.1
5.2
3.6
8.9
1.6
1.8
1 2.3
2 .3
2.
11.4
15.5
6.7
5.3
2.9
1.3
1.4
1.7
.3
.5
.3
6 .1
1 3 .5
1 1 .9
1 3 .9
9 .4
4 .5
4 .8
1.0
100.0
3 .5
6.1
1.0
1.6
1.0
28.7
8.5
12.7
13.3
16.2
4.8
2.3
.6
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
100.0
.1
100.0
620
2,370
$0,459 $0.569
1,750
$0.414
6.6
2.7
1.5
8.1
2.7
8.1
1.4
9.5
4.1
9.5
12.2
21.5
5.4
2.0
.3
1.1
12.6
15.4
26.8
12.4
9.0
4.8
1.1
1.1
.6
2.6
8.2
17.9
18.4
19.3
13.8
3.6
3.1
2.0
22.6
13.7
2.7
42.9
13.0
14.2
7.7
42.3
13.7
15.0
2.6
.2
47.3
7.5
7.5
3.8
7.5
1.9
100.0
100.0
100.0
846
----- 106
$0.454 $0.368 $0.370
878
$0.368
4.3
.5
1.7
15.4
3.3
10.6
18.7
30.6
9.7
4.3
.7
14.6
2.4
1.8
2.1
8.2
2.1
.2
8.1
2.7
14.8
100.0
100.0
100.0
148 1,238
392
$0.792 $0.489 $0.551
100.0
EMBROIDERIES INDUSTRY
T
99
3.'—Percentage distribution of workers in the embroideries industry in north
ern New Jersey, by average hourly earnings, product, skill, and sex, March
19Jf 0— C ontinued
able
Swiss hand-loom
products
Schiffli products
Pleat
ing,
stitch
Semiskilled
Average hourly earn
ing,
All
workers
Un
Semi Un
ings (in cents)
etc.;
workers
Skilled
All skilled
skilled work
skilled all
work
work ers work work work
ers 1
ers
ers
ers »
ers 1
Fe
Fe
Total Male male
Total Male male
Exactly 30.0..............
30.1 and under 32.5...
32.5 and under 35.0—
35.0 and under 37.5...
37.5 and under 40.0—
40.0 and under 42.5—
42.5 and under 47.5—
47.5 and under 52,5...
52.5 and under 57.5—
57.5 and under 62.5...
62.5 and under 67.5...
67.5 and under 72,5...
72.5 and under 77.5...
77.5 and under 82.5—
82.5 and under 87.5...
87.5 and under 92.5—
92.5 and under 97.5...
97.5 and over
T ota l..............
6.3
4.0
.9
1.0
23.7 " '9 .T
4.9
2.0
3.2
10.0
6.3
12.9
17.6 14.2
7.6 13.4
5.9 15.1
2.6
8.7
1.2
4.3
1.4
5.1
1.7
6.3
.4
1.2
.6
2.0
.2
.8
4.3
1.1
7.2
1.2
1.4
28.8
5.9
12.4
15.2
18.7
5.5
2.8
.4
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
100.0 100.0 100.0
2.8
6.9
1.4
9.7
4.2
9.7
12.5
22. 2
5.6
8.3
2.8
13.9
2.1
.4
.4
10.1 ’ "’ 5.2
2.3
.7
3.3
9.1
8.5
16.6
29.4 19.6
13.7 21.5
9.7 21.5
4.0 13.1
2.6
.8
2.6
1.0
.2
.7
.2
2.9
.5
.5
12.1
2.9
11.5
20.1
33.6
10.5
4.8
.3
.3
.7
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
13.4
1.8
2.1
46.8
9.4
13.1
9.4
3.1
.3
18.5
3.0
.7
20.0
23.0
11.9
2.2
3.7
1.5
3.7
5.2
2.2
1.5
2.2
17.8
.7
1.8
100.0 100.0
100.0
.3
.3
1.8
21.3
5.4
5.4
7.1
3.6
8.9
12.5
5.4
3.6
5.4
19.0
5.1
19.0
35.3
20.3
1.3
9.9
1.4
7.0
43.6
2.8
8.5
8.5
9.9
4.2
2.8
1.4
100.0
100.0
142
762
112
158
Number of workers.. 1,958
144 1,052
506 1,452
306
746
270
Average hourly earn
ings....................... . $0,469 $0,583 $0,422 $0.791 $0,492 $0.553 $0.461 $0.371 $0.414 $0.489 $0,361 $0.401
1 Data insufficient to show distributions for other classifications.
In the Philadelphia plants covered by the survey, the earnings of
all workers averaged 53.3 cents an hour. The males averaged 52.2
cents an hour, which was 1.6 cents under the wage level for all
females. It will be observed that, taking each skill group separately,
the males’ earnings exceeded the average for females. In the total
labor force, however, the skilled females, who averaged 69.3 cents,
constituted the largest skill .^x group, accounting for 30.3 percent
of all wage earners. Among the males, on the other hand, the un
skilled workers, who averaged only 35.6 cents, made up the largest
group, totaling 12.0 percent of the working force and 39.5 percent of
all males in the Philadelphia embroidery establishments. In other
words, the higher wage level for females as compared with males
was due to the fact that a larger proportion of the former than of
the latter were in skilled occupations. The hourly earnings of
individual employees ranged from less than 30 to over 97.5 cents.
(See table 4.)
100
WAGES AND HOURS
T a b l e 4 . — P ercentage d istribu tion o f w orkers i n the em broid eries in d u s tr y i n PhilaLd elph ia , b y average h o u rly ea rn in gs , p rod u ct , sk ill ,
aw<2 sea;, M a r c h
1940
All products i
Average hourly earnings
All workers
Total
Skilled
work
ers 3
Female
Male
0.9
19.3
2.2
4.4
5.7
4.0
.9
16.3
4.0
6.6
.9
7.9
5.3
1.8
.9
7.5
Un
skilled
work
ers 3
Semi
skilled
work
ers 3
Under 30.0 cents__________ _____ _ . ____
Exactly 30.0 cents______________________
30.1 and under 32.5 cents________________
32.5 and under 35.0 cents________________
35.0 and under 37.5 cents..... ......................
37.5 and under 40.0 cents________________
40.0 and under 42.5 cents------------ ----------42.5 and under 47.5 cents...------------------47.5 and under 52.5 cents............................
52.5 and under 57.5 cents________________
57.5 and under 62.5 cents________________
62.6 and under 67.5 cents________________
67.5 and under 72.5 cents_______________
72.5 and under 77.5 cents____________ . . .
77.5 and under 82.5 cents__________ _____
82.5 and under 87.5 cents_________ ______
87.5 and under 92.5 cents________________
92.5 and under 97.5 cents_____ __________
97.5 cents and over_____________________
0.6
19.1
2.1
4.3
5.8
5.2
2.1
14.5
4.9
6.7
1.5
7.2
6.1
2.1
.9
5.5
1.2
8.4
1.8
18.1
2.0
4.0
6.1
8.1
5.1
10.1
7.1
7.1
3.0
5.1
8.1
3.0
1.0
1.0
4.0
2.0
5.1
11.0
.4
3.1
.8
6.9
2.3
5.4
.8
9.2
11.5
4.6
2.3
13.8
2.3
20.9
3.8
Total----------- -------- ----------------------
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Number of workers....................................
Average hourly earnings------------------------
652
$0,533
198
$0.522
454
$0. 538
260
$0,703
252
$0.470
140
$0,348
0.8
11.5
10.3
4.0
5.6
6.3
9.5
2.4
23.8
8.7
11.9
3.2
8.7
3.2
.8
14
48.6
2.9
10.0
15 7
l] 4
4.3
11.4
2.9
1.4
.8
.8
i Data insufficient to show separate distributions for each product.
3 Data insufficient to show separate distributions by sex.
The hourly earnings of wage earners in Chicago establishments
averaged 46.8 cents at the time of the survey. Males, who made
up 23.3 percent of the working force, averaged 57.9 cents, which may
be compared with 43.1 cents for females (table 5).
T a b l e 5 , — Percentage distribution o f w orkers in the em broid eries in d u s try in C h ica go .
b y average h o u rly ea rn in g s , p roduct , skill, a nd sex , M a r c h 1 9 4 0
All products
All workers
Average hourly earnings
Total
Male
Under 30.0 cents---------------Exactly 30.0 cents--------------30.1 and under 32.5 cents-32.5 and under 35.0 cents----35.0 and under 37.5 cents___
37.5 and under 40.0 cents----40.0 and under 42.5 cents----42.5 and under 47.5 cents----47.5 and under 52.5 cents----52.5 and under 57.5 cents----57.5 and under 62.5 cents----62.5 and under 67.5 cents___
67.5 and under 72.5 cents___
72.5 and under 77.5 cents___
77.5 and under 82.5 cents___
82.5 and under 87.5 cents___
87.5 and under 92.5 cents___
92.5 and under 97.5 cents----97.5 cents and over_________
0.7
5.9
3.6
14.3
12.5
5.9
8.9
13.9
5.7
7.0
2.4
4.9
3.5
3.0
1.6
.7
1.7
.2
3.7
8.2
7.5
3.0
3.0
11.2
5.2
10.4
3.0
10.4
6.0
8.2
5.2
3.0
6.0
Total___________ ____
100.0
Number of workers________
Average hourly earnings___
1,148
$0.468
Skilled workers
Female
1.5
4.5
Male
6.9
5.9
12.3
11.4
6.4
16.4
23.2
7.8
8.2
.5
4.6
.9
2.2
17.9
1.7
26.8
20.1
6.7
5.6
13.4
2.8
2.2
.6
3.7
.5
.2
3.6
2.3
4.0
6.2
4.5
2.8
2.8
6.2
10.3
6.8
10.3
10.3
9.7
4.5
1.7
5.1
.6
11.9
9.8
1.6
.8
12.8
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
268
$0.579
880
$0,431
352
$0.649
102
$0.784
250
$0. 582
438
$0,429
358
$0.360
1 Data insufficient to show distribution by sex.
0.5
6.4
4.5
16.0
14.1
6.8
10.7
14.8
5.9
5.9
2.3
3.2
2.7
1.4
.5
Total
Semi
Un
skilled skilled
workers1
workers1
Female
2.0
7.8
3.9
11.8
11.8
21.5
11.8
5.9
13.7
3.2
5.6
fc.8
5.6
4.0
4.0
8.8
11.2
8.0
9.6
9.6
4.8
1.6
.5
.5
.5
EMBROIDERIES INDUSTRY
T
101
5.— Percentage distribution of workers in the embroideries industry in
Chicago, by average hourly earningsf product, skillt and sex, March 1940— Con.
able
Schiffli products
Average hourly earnings
Under 30.0 cents----------------Exactly 30.0 cents____ ____
30.1 and under 32.5 cents.
32.5 and under 35.0 cents. _ _
35.0 and under 37.5 cents___
37.5 and under 40.0 cents___
40.0 and under 42.5 cents.. _
42.5 and under 47.5 cents.. .
47.5 and under 52.5 cents__
52.5 and under 57.5 cents.. .
57.5 and under 62.5 cents. _ .
62.5 and under 67.5 cents.. _
67.5 and under 72.5 cents.. .
72.5 and under 77.5 cents___
77.5 and under 82.5 cents___
82.5 and under 87.5 cents. _ _
87.5 and under 92.5 cents. _ _
92.5 and under 97.5 cents. _ .
97.5 cents and over............
Total....... .....................
Pleating, stitching, etc.1
All workers
All workers
Semi UnSemi Un
Skilled skilled
skilled skilled
work work skilled
work work
Fe
Fe
ers 1 ers 1 work
ers 1 ers 1 Total Male male
Total Male male
ers i
5.6
2.2
14.0
17.9
7.8
9.5
18.4
5.0
6.7
.6
3.9
.6
2.2
.6
1.1
1.7
5.8
5.8
3.8
5.8
7.7
7.7
15.4
1.9
11.5
1.9
7.7
1.9
3.8
5.8
2.2
7.7
5.8
5.5
31.0
17.4
22.9
9.4
11.0
22.9
39.0
31.0
.8
100.0 100.0 100.0
13.5
1.4
20.2
32.3
13.5
6.8
5.4
4.1
1.4
1.4
5.9 _____
1.2
3.5
11.8
9.4
3.5
14.1
32.9
5.9
10.6
1.2
100.0
1.0
6.1
4.1
14.3
10.1
5.1
8.6
11.9
6.1
7.1
3.3
5.3
4.8
3.3
2.0
.5
1.8
.3
4.3
2.4
3.7
0.6
6.7
5.1
15.8
10.5
5.8
10.5
11.6
6.7
7.0
3.2
4.2
3.8
1.9
.6
.6
.3
5.1
2.6
4.5
7.1
4.5
3.2
2.6
6.4
10 3
7.7
10.3
11.5
8.3
5.1
.6
3.8
.6
10.9
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
100.0
9.8
8.5
2.4
1.2
13.5
3.7
7.3
3.7
9.8
8.5
8.5
7.3
2.4
6.1
1.2
1.5
7.5
12.7
12.7
8.2
18.0
17.2
9.0
6.7
.7
3.7
.7
3.8
21.0
1.9
31.4
11.4
1.9
4.8
19.0
1.9
2.9
.7
.7
100.0
100.0
Number of workers...........
104
254
164
312
210
170
148
790
626
268
3358
Average hourly earnings___ $0,451 $0.599 $0,388 $0,444 $0,364 $0,477 $0.565 $0.451 $0.624 $0.419 $0.357
1 Data insufficient to show distribution by sex.
2 Includes employees in 2 plants engaged in the manufacture of trimmings, etc.
3 Includes 40 skilled workers for whom no distribution is shown.
The actual workweek averaged 33.7 hours in the principal embroid
ery centers at the time of the survey. The workweek averaged 30.3
hours in New York City, as compared with 33.9 in Philadelphia, 36.6
in Chicago, and 41.9 in northern New Jersey. The workweek ranged
from 47.8 hours for males in northern New Jersey Schiffli plants to
27.7 hours for females in the New York City pleating and stitching
establishments. In every product group and center, the males aver
aged more hours per week than did the females.
Average weekly earnings ranged from $21.32 in New York City to
$17.12 in Chicago.
Earnings o f Home Workers
The establishments covered by the survey reported a total employ
ment of 337 home workers in March 1940. Complete earnings and
hours data were available for 146 of these employees.4 This group
included 42 hand cutters, 71 hand embroiderers, and 33 finishers,
sewers, and menders. The total included 84 employees in the New
York metropolitan area and 62 in Philadelphia. Virtually all of the
home workers reported in the New York metropolitan area were em
ployed by the New Jersey Schiffli establishments. In Philadelphia
all home workers were employed by hand-embroidery plants. The
following distribution of home workers5 hourly earnings is based on
weighted data.
Under 30.0 cents_____________________________________
Exactly 30.0 cents____________________________________
30.1 and under 32.5 cents_____________________________
*
Percent
2. 6
17.2
33. 4
This is the actual number reported before application of weighting factors.
WAGES AND HOURS
102
P ercen t
3 2 .5
3 5 .0
3 7 .5
4 0 .0
4 2 .5
4 7 .5
52 .5
5 7 .5
and
u n d e r 3 5 .0 c e n ts ____________________________________________
and
u n d e r 3 7 .5 c e n ts ____________________________________________
a n d u n d e r 4 0 .0 c e n ts ____________________________________________
a n d u n d e r 4 2 .5 c e n ts-------------------------------------------------------------------and
u n d e r 4 7 .5 c e n ts ------------------------------------------------------------------and
u n d e r 5 2 .5 c e n ts _________________________________
a n d u n d e r 5 7 .5 c e n ts -------------------------------------------------------------------c e n ts a n d o v e r --------------------------------------------------------------------------------T o t a l___________________________________________________________
5. 8
16. 8
1 .9
8 .1
3. 2
4. 2
2 .9
3. 9
100. 0
N u m b e r o f w o r k e r s ------------------------------------------------------------------~ -----------309
A v e r a g e h o u r ly e a r n in g s _____________________________________________ $ 0. 3 6 7
Results o f Mail Questionnaire
The mail questionnaire was sent to 489 plants situated outside of
the four principal embroidery-manufacturing areas. Replies were
received from 217 of these establishments. A majority of the returns,
however, reported that the plants were out of business, were making
a product not covered by the definition, employed no wage earners, or
for other reasons were unable to supply usable information. After
the elimination of the unusable schedules, a total of 64 remained to be
tabulated. This included 5 schedules covering Schiffli-embroidery
establishments, 46 schedules for pleating and stitching plants, and
12 returns from establishments making trimmings and related
products. A majority of the usable replies came from the States of
California, Massachusetts, and Missouri. A distribution of the
hourly earnings in the 64 establishments is shown in table 6.
T
6 ,— Percentage d istribu tion o f w orkers reported in m a il-q u estio n n a ire su rv ey
o f the em broideries in d u s tr y , b y average h ou rly ea rn in g s a nd p rod uct, 1 9 4 0
able
Average hourly earnings (in ^ents)
All prod
ucts
Schiffli
products i
Pleating,
stitching, Trimmings,
etc.
etc.
Under 30.0___ ____________ ________________________
Exactly 30.0........ ............ - --------------------------------------30.1 and under 31.0.______________ ______ _______
31.0 and under 32.0_________________________________
32.0 and under 33.0_________________________________
33.0 and under 34.0_________________ ____ __________
34.0 and under 35.0____________________ _______ _____
35.0 and under 36.0---------------------- --------- ----------------36.0 and under 37.0______________________ __________37.0 and under 38.0____________ ____ _______ _________
38.0 and under 39.0____________ ________ ____________
39.0 and under 40.0________________________________ _
40.0 and under 42.5_______________________________
2.1
8.6
.5
1.1
9.1
3.4
1.4
13.5
2.3
4.6
2.9
1.9
9.3
42.5 and under 47.5_________ _______ ________________
47.5 and under 52.5_________________________________
52.5 and under 57.5_________________________________
57.5 and under 62.5_______ ______ ___________________
62.5 and under 67.5_________________________________
67.5 and under 72.5_________________________________
72.5 and under 77.5_________________________________
77.5 and under 82.5_______ _________________________
82.5 and under 87.5___________________ ____________
87.5 and under 92.5___________________ _____________
92.5 and under 100.0________________________________
100.0 and under 110.0_______________________________
110.0 and under 120.0_______________________________
120.0 and over_______________________ ______ ______
11.0
6.9
4.0
3.3
3.2
1.5
2.3
1.9
.8
1.2
.1
1.6
.8
.7
2.5
1.2
1.6
2.3
Total............................ .......... ......... .....................
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Number of plants_______ ______ ______________ _____
Number of workers.............. ................ ...................... —
64
1,069
$0,460
6
244
46
475
$0,490
350
$0,417
Average hourly earnings.................... ..................................
* Includes 1 small plant manufacturing Swiss hand-loom products.
21.4
.4
2.0
2.5
1.2
23.1
1.6
7.0
.8
7.0
8.2
7.8
1.6
2.0
3.3
1.6
1.6
.4
1.2
$0.454
4.2
3.6
1.1
1.5
1.1
3.6
1.5
8.6
3.4
4.0
2.7
1.9
11.6
12.5
6.7
6.7
5.3
4.4
2.1
3.4
3.2
1.7
1.5
.8
0.6
6.6
1.1
24.9
3.7
1.4
13.7
1.4
3.7
4.6
3.1
7.7
10.9
6.6
2.0
1.4
1.4
.6
1.4
1.1
.3
.9
.3
.6
.6
12
ENAM ELED-UTENSIL IN DUSTRY
103
EnamelecUUtensil Industry—Earnings and Hours,
August 19401
During August 1940, earnings of factory workers in the enameledutensil industry averaged 52.2 cents an hour. Slightly more than
three-fourtlis of all factory workers received from 35 to 62.5 cents
an hour.
The basic data were collected by field representatives of the Bureau
of Labor Statistics who visited every member of the industry known to
the Bureau.2 The field representatives obtained information from
pay rolls and other records, with respect to occupation, sex, race,
total hours worked, and total earnings of individual workers during
a representative pay-roll period, typically in August 1940. Data for
factory workers, clerks, working supervisory and office employees
were included in the survey; information concerning higher super
visory officials and salesmen, however, was excluded.
Nature o f the Industry
The 17 plants covered in the field survey and in the report pro
duced utensils used in the preparation, cooking, and storage of foods
for household, institutional, and commercial use; butcher trays and
display platters; hospital and sick-room supplies, such as bed pans,
irrigators, and sterilizing trays; sanitary ware, such as washbasins,
chambers, combinets, and sundry enameled-steel items.
The cooking and household ware section of the enameled-utensil
industry, according to the Census of Manufactures, was composed of
26 establishments in 1937.3 Sixteen of these made household enameled
ware as a major and 10 as a minor product. The firms whose value
output was mainly concentrated on household enameled ware pro
duced, in 1937, a product worth $16,195,416. The 10 plants which
manufactured enameled ware as a subsidiary product, produced an
output valued at only $2,559,458. It is apparent, therefore, that
these latter establishments were not of very great relative importance
to the total industry.
The total wage bill for factory and clerical employees ($5,734,779)
was about 35 percent of the value of all products produced.
With respect to geographical location, the industry is strongly con
centrated in the East North Central States and in the adjoining State
of Missouri, New York, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia. No estab
lishments falling within the limits of the industrial definition w^re
found in New England, in the South, or in the Pacific coast regions.
The location of the plants of the industry showed no marked pattern
with respect to size of metropolitan area. The factories scheduled
were in communities ranging in population from about 6,000 to over
1,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 .
Nearly one-half (8) of the plants in the industry employed between
250 and 500 workers; 4 others were in the class of 100 and under 250;
while 2 plants employed between 500 and 1,000 workers. At one ex1 Abstract of an article by Sidney C. Sufrin, of the Bureau o f Labor Statistics, in the
Monthly Labor Review for March 1941.
2 31 plants were visited by field representatives, but only those plants or der rtments
whose products were primarily enameled cooking and hospital utensils were ocneduled;
these numbered 17.
3 Only one plant was reported whose m ajor product was enameled hospital ware.
104
WAGES AND HOURS
treme was a plant employing over 1,000 workers and on the other
were 2 plants which employed fewer than 50 workers.
The overwhelming proportion of the 17 plants covered in the
enameled-utensil industry were single-establishment firms, only 2
being affiliated with other establishments.
Average H ou rly Earnings4
About half of all the employees5 in the 17 plants studied were paid
on a time-rate basis, most of them being paid at an hourly rate. The
plant clerical workers, working foremen, powerhouse and maintenance
workers constituted the majority of the workers whose earnings were
computed on a weekly or monthly basis.
The distribution of workers according to average hourly earnings,
presented in table 1, shows a range from 30.0 cents to more than $1 an
hour. Despite these wide differences, a substantial majority (75.8
percent) of the employees tended to receive hourly wages in the range
35.0 to 62.5 cents.
T able
1.—
P ercen tage d istribu tion o f w ork ers 1 in en a m eled -u ten sil
average h ou rly ea rn in g s, sex, and sk ill, A u g u s t 1 9 4 0
All workers
Average hourly earnings
(in cents)
Total
Male
Fe
male
Exactly 30.0___ ___________ .
30.1 and under 32.5___ ______
32.5 and under 35.0__________
35.0 and under 37.5..................
37.5 and under 40.0__________
40.0 and under 42.5__________
42.5 and under 45.0__________
45.0 and under 47.5__________
47.5 and under 50.0__________
50.0 and under 52.5________ .
52.5 and under 55.0__________
1.1
.8
3.7
6.1
7.0
8.1
9.6
8.7
6.6
7.4
5.4
0.4
.1
.2
.9
2.4
6.5
6.9
8.1
7.9
9.0
6.8
2.3
1.9
9.8
15.1
14.8
10.8
13.9
9.7
4.5
4.7
3.1
55.0 and under 57.5__________
57.5 and under 60.0__________
60.0 and under 62.5__________
62.5 and under 65.0__________
65.0 and under 67.5__________
67.5 and under 72.5_____ _____
72.5 and under 77.5. _ _
77.5 and under 82.5.... ..............
82.5 and under 87.5_______ __
87.5 and under 92.5__________
92.5 and under 100.0_________
100.0 and over______ ___ . . .
5.5
4.3
7.1
3.0
3.8
3.7
2.7
1.7
1.4
.9
1.0
.4
7.1
5.7
10.3
4.0
5.6
5.4
4.2
2.6
2.2
1.5
1.6
.6
2.7
1.9
1.7
1.3
.8
.8
.2
Total. ____ ___________ 100.0
100.0
in d u s try ,
by
Skill Semiskilled workers
Unskilled workers
ed
work
ers
Fe Total Male
Fe
total T ota l2 Male male*
male
(male)
1.0
.9
8.5
10.3
14.4
11.0
14.0
8.3
6.3
7.0
4.4
2.4
1.7
5.3
11.1
10.1
11.8
13.5
11.6
8.3
4.7
3.6
1.1
.3
.6
2.5
6.3
12.7
13.6
11.4
13.2
7.5
5.6
4.3
3.7
11.9
23.4
15.4
10.5
13.5
12.0
1.4
.6
.9
8.7
7.4
9.3
5.3
7.3
6.9
3.8
2.5
1.6
1.3
1.4
.3
3.9
2.8
2.4
1.9
1.0
1.3
.4
.1
4.5
2.5
12.6
1.1
1.5
1.3
1.1
.3
.1
.1
.6
.4
.5
.4
.4
.1
.1
2.9
1.6
7.6
.8
1.1
.8
.6
.2
.1
.1
.1
.1
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Number of workers............
5,800 3,667 2,133
573 3,327 1,978 1,349 1,900 1,116
Average hourly earnings........ $0,522 $0.573 $0.429 $0,695 $0.529 $0.582 $0,448 $0,452 $0,490
784
$0,395
(3)
0)
100.0
0.5
1.4
1.0
1.9
2.6
4.9
4.9
0.5
.4
3.5
4.3
6.3
7.2
8.6
8.1
6.3
9.5
6.6
.1
.2
.8
4.6
4.8
8.0
6.4
11.1
8.0
6.6
5.8
9.1
5.2
7.3
8.4
11.4
7.5
8.2
4.7
5.8
2.8
6.7
5.6
6.5
3.9
4.7
4.6
2.4
1.5
1.0
.8
.8
.2
100.0
100.0
0.2
i Does not include office workers.
* Includes 18 females who were reported as skilled.
3 Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
Excluding office workers, no employee covered was paid less than 30
cents an hour. Only 5.6 percent of the factory workers received less
than 35 cents per hour, while those earning less than 40 cents consti
tuted about one-fifth of the total number. On the other hand, about
one-fifth of the factory working force were found earning 62.5 cents
4 The data on earnings presented in this article are based on work at regular rates, thus
excluding the earnings from extra rates paid for overtime work.
8 All data presented, unless otherwise specified, exclude office workers.
of office workers are discussed on p. 106.
Hourly earnings
105
ENAMELED-UTENSIL INDUSTRY
and over. Workers earning in excess of 82.5 cents an hour on the
average, constituted but 3.7 percent of the total factory force. A
negligible percentage of the factory workers earned $1 and over per
hour.
Table 2 presents the distribution of workers by earnings classes
for the entire country, and for the two major regions in which the
industry is located. The eastern region, with 5 plants, includes the
States of New York, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia. The midwestern region, with 12 plants, includes the States of Illinois, Indiana,
Missouri, Ohio, and Wisconsin.
T a b l e 2 . — Percentage distribution of workers1 in enameled-utensil industry, by aver
age hourly earnings and geographical region, August 1940
Average hourly earnings
(in cents)
Exactly 30.0. ____________
30.1 and under 32.5...............
32.5 and under 35.0________
35.0 and under 37.5___ ____
37.5 and under 40.0 ________
40.0 and under 42.5________
42.5 and under 45.0________
45.0 and under 47.5________
47
K onH
fli* uv.U.____
O
__
*timO
aUU nuH
UliUcf
50.0 and under 52.5________
KOU
KaUU
qbH inifihr
0 _____ _
UUUcI Ud»v.
55.0 and under 57.5 _
57.5 and under 60.0
_ _
60.0 and under 62.5________
62.5 and under 65.0________
Total East*
1.1
.8
3.7
6.1
7.0
8.1
9.6
8.7
6.6
7.4
5.4
5.5
4.3
7.1
3.0
2.3
1.4
8.7
10.3
9.9
11.5
7.6
8.8
6.8
7.3
4.0
3.4
3.3
3.9
2.5
Mid
west 3
0.2
.3
.2
3.1
4.9
5.7
10.8
8.6
6.5
7.5
6. 5
6.9
5.0
9.4
3.4
M id
Total East2 west
3
Average hourly earnings
(in cents)
3.8
3.7
2.7
1.7
1.4
.9
1.0
.4
2.2
2.3
1.2
.7
.9
.3
.3
.4
100.0
100.0
100.0
Number of workers_______ 5,800 2,410
5
17
Number of plan ts.___ ___
Average hourly earnings___ $0. 522 $0.472
3,390
12
$0.557
65.0 and under 67.5________
67.5 and under 72.5-_.......... .
72.5 and under 77.5________
77.5 and under 82.5________
82.5 and under 87.5________
87.5 and under 92.5________
92.5 and under 100.0_______
100.0 and over____________
Total_____
______
4.9
4.8
3.8
2.4
1.7
1.4
1-6
.4
1 Does not include office workers.
2 Includes the States of New York, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia.
2 Includes the States of Illinois, Indiana, Missouri, Ohio, and Wisconsin.
Workers in each sex and skill group in the unionized plants6tended
to earn more per hour than in the corresponding class in the nonunionized factories. The differences in these average hourly wages
ranged from 5.2 cents for unskilled males to 0.9 cents per hour for
unskilled females. (Table 3.)
T a b l e 3 . — Average
hourly earnings of workers 1 in enameled-utensil industry,
August 1940y by sext skill, and unionization
Average hourly earnings
Sex and skill
All
plants
All workers___________ ______ __________
$0.522
........................ ...................
Skilled....... .695
Semiskilled 2..................................... .
.529
Unskilled.......................................... .
.452
Union
ized
plants
Non
union
plants
Number of workers
All
plants
Union
ized
plants
Non
union
plants
$0. 526
. 707
.536
.460
$0. 514
.678
.517
.433
5,800
• 573
3,327
1,900
3,773
340
2,076
1, 357
2,027
233
1,251
543
Males______ ______ __________. . . . .
Skilled............. ....................................
Semiskilled__________ . . . ..............
Unskilled______ ________ _____ _____
.573
.695
. 582
.490
.585
.707
. 597
.507
. 554
. 678
. 561
.455
3,667
573
1,978
1,166
2,274
340
1,172
762
1,393
233
806
354
Females____ _____ _________
Semiskilled *______________ _______
Unskilled....... ........... ...........................
.429
.448
.395
.433
.456
.397
.419
.432
.388
2,133
1,349
784
1,499
904
595
634
445
189
1 Does not include office workers.
2 Includes 18 females who were reported as skilled (15 in union plants and 3 in nonunion plants).
6 A union establishment as defined ip this article is one in which the m ajority o f the
employees in the plant are covered by either a w ritten or an oral agreement between the
plant and a trade-union.
WAGES AND HOURS
106
Average Hourly Earnings of Office Workers
In addition to the data on hourly earnings already presented for
factory workers, information was secured for 323 office workers. The
95 male office workers received, on the average, 66 cents per hour; the
228 females 41.9 cents per hour.
Just under a third of all these office workers earned less than 40
cents per hour (table 4). Among the males, 8.6 percent received less
than that hourly wage. The proportion of female office workers
receiving less than 40 cents per hour was as high as 40.9 percent.
More than a quarter of all the female office workers reported re
ceived 35 and under 40 cents per hour. Slightly less than 15 percent
earned under 35 cents.
Nearly 37 percent of the male office workers received 65 cents or more
per hour. Only 5.6 percent of the female office workers received
such average hourly earnings.
T able
4 .—
P ercentage d istribu tion o f office w orkers in en a m eled -u ten sil in d u s tr y , by
average h o u rly earnings and sex, A u g u s t 1 9 4 0
Average hourly earnings
All
work Males
ers
Fe
males
Under 30.0 cents________ ..
Exactly 30.0 cents_________
30.1 and under 32.5 cents__
32.5 and under 35.0 cents__
35.0 and under 37.5 cents__
37.5 and under 40.0 cents__
40.0 and under 42.5 cents__
42.5 and under 45.0 cents__
45.0 and under 47.5 cents__
47.5 and under 50.0 cents__
50.0 and under 52.5 cents__
52.5 and under 55.0 cents__
55.0 and under 57.5 cents__
57.5 and under 60.0 cents__
60.0 and under 62.5 cents__
0.9
2.5 ' “ l .T
4.0
2.1
3.4
1.1
13.1
3.2
7.5
1.1
3.2
6.5
9.6
6.3
7.5
9.4
4.2
5.6
6.2
11.5
6.2
5.2
4.6
6.3
4.3
4.2
3.2
1.9
1.3
3.1
4.8
4.4
17.2
10.1
7.9
11.0
6.6
6.1
3.9
6.6
3.9
4.4
1.3
Average hourly earnings
62.5 and under 65.0 cents___
65.0 and under 67.5 cents___
67.5 and under 72.5 cents___
72.5 and under 77.5 cents___
77.5 and under 82.5 cents___
82.5 and under 87.6 cents___
87.5 and under 92.5 cents___
92.5 and under 100.0 cents.
100.0 and over_____________
All
Fe
work Males males
ers
1.5
.6
4.0
2.8
.6
.9
.9
.6
4.3
1.1
1.1
6.3
7.3
2.1
3.2
2.1
1.1
13.6
1.8
.4
3.1
.9
100.0
100.0
100.0
Number of workers..............
323
95
Average hourly earnings___ $0. 511 $0,660
228
$0,449
Total........... ..............
.4
.4
.4
W eekly Hours and Earnings
The average time actually worked by factory employees in the
enameled-utensil industry during August 1940 was 37.3 hours per
week. Male workers averaged 38 hours as compared with 36 hours
for female employees. Skilled male workers averaged 39.6 hours;
semiskilled, 38 hours; and unskilled, 37.1 hours per week. The cor
responding figures for female workers were 39.6, 36.5, and 35.1 hours.
The average weekly earnings of all workers covered in the enameledutensil industry amounted to $19.44 in August 1940. This was ex
clusive of earnings due to extra rates for overtime work.7 Weekly
earnings varied conspicuously among the different skill and sex groups.
Male workers averaged $21.77, as compared with $15.44 for females.
Skilled males, however, averaged $27.54 per week, as compared to $22.12
for semiskilled, and $18.19 for unskilled. The average weekly earnings
of semiskilled females was $16.28, which is only $1 above the average
7 If the earnings from extra rates for overtime work were included, it would increase the
average weekly earnings of all workers in the industry by only 12 cents.
EXP L O S I V E S I N D U S T R Y
107
earnings of all females, but almost $2 below the weekly average pay of
unskilled males. Unskilled female workers earned an average of only
$13.87 per week, or about three-fourths of the average of unskilled
males.
Skilled die makers had the highest average weekly earnings in
the industry ($34.41) and learners were the lowest paid male workers,
averaging $14.49 per week. The highest paid female workers were
the skilled group, earning an average of $21.78 per week, followed by
the solderers and welders, who averaged $18.05 a week. Female learn
ers earning, on the average, $10.97 per week, were in the lowest paid
occupational classification.
Explosives Industry—Earnings and Hours, October
19371
The explosives industry, as defined by the Census of Manufactures,
includes establishments engaged primarily in the manufacture of
dynamite, gelatin dynamite, “permissible” explosives (i. e., those ap
proved by the U. S. Bureau of Mines for use in mines where dust and
gas explosions are likely to occur), nitroglycerin, black blasting, pellet,
and fuse powder, smokeless powder, and miscellaneous explosives.
Although explosives are used widely, the industry is relatively small.
In 1935, according to the Census of Manufactures, there were 74 estab
lishments, each of which had an output for the year valued at $5,000
or more. This study was restricted to establishments reporting 5
or more workers, thus including 51 plants in 21 States. At the time
of the survey in October 1937, they employed a total of 3,814 wage
earners engaged on work falling within the scope of the survey.2
The explosives industry here covered may be divided into two
branches—high explosives (including dynamite, nitroglycerin, nitrostarch, dinite, and TNT), and black powder. There are several types
of dynamite (gelatin, powder or granulated, and permissible) as well
as of black powder (pellet, fuse, blasting, etc.). The raw materials
used in the manufacture of high explosives are nitric acid, sulphuric
acid, glycerin, toluene, and various “dopes” (nitro-cotton, ammonium
nitrate, sodium nitrate, wood pulp, starch, etc.), whereas those used
in the manufacture of black powder are charcoal, sulphur, and salt
peter or nitrate of soda. The making of high explosives involves
largely chemical processes, whereas that of black powder involves me'
chanical processes almost entirely. High explosives are used for heavy
blasting in construction, mining, quarrying, stumping, and oil-well
shooting; black powder is used in the manufacture of fireworks and
ammunition, and for light blasting in coal mining.
A given plant usually specializes in the making of either one or the
other kind of products. However, there were three establishments
making both high-explosive and black-powder products, and these were
classified in accordance with the predominant product.
1
Abstract of article in the Monthly Labor Review for August 1938, prepared by J.
Perlman, P. L. Jones, and O. R. W itm er, of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
3 A t the time of the survey these plants employed a total of 4,524 wage earners.
505364 0 - 43 - 8
108
WAGES AND HOURS
Characteristics o f Industry
As explosives are difficult to transport and store with safety, pro
duction is found for the most part near the centers of demand.
Mainly for this reason, establishments manufacturing explosives are
widely scattered over the country. Both branches of the industry
are extremely hazardous, especially in the initial processes during
which the various sensitive explosive ingredients are mixed together.
Although the individual establishments in the explosives industry
are relatively small, there is substantial integration from the stand
point of ownership. The 51 plants included in the survey were
controlled by 19 companies.
Partly because of storage hazards and partly because of the sea
sonal character of the demand for explosives, output and employment
in the industry are subject to some seasonal fluctuation. Employ
ment in high explosives is usually at a low point during the winter
and mid-summer, and the busiest season is generally in the fall and
spring months. The black powder manufacturers are busiest during
the late fall and winter months. The information obtained in this
survey covered, in nearly all plants, a pay-roll period in October 1937.
The favorable position occupied by the industry with respect to
average earnings per hour is due considerably to the relatively high
proportion of skilled workers employed. Of the 3,814 wage earners
covered by the survey, more than one-half (2,055, or 53.9 percent)
were in occupations classified by the industry as skilled, and over onefourth (1,071, or 28.1 percent) were semiskilled. Workers in the
unskilled occupations accounted for less than one-fifth (688, or 18.0
percent) of the total labor force. Another factor responsible for the
high average hourly earnings is the small number of female wage
earners3 in the industry.
Broadly speaking, there is very little organization among the
workers in the explosives industry. Of the 51 establishments with
3,814 employees, only 4 plants with 156 wage earners had collective
agreements with trade-unions.
Average H o u rly Earnings
Nearly all (98.5 percent) of the wage earners employed in the man
ufacture of explosives are paid on a straight time-rate basis. This
practice was followed exclusively by 43 of the 51 establishments
covered in the survey. In the remaining 8 plants, some employees
were paid on a straight piece-rate basis, and in one of these some
received a group bonus, which was based on production in excess of a
specified amount.
Overtime was paid for at the rate of time and one-half to all
workers in 30 of the 51 establishments covered (i. e., in 25 plants
belonging to the “Big Three” and in 5 belonging to the “Other
companies”).
•No separate tabulations by sex or race were warranted. Only 19 women were found,
all in the paper-shell rolling department, where they worked as hand or machine shell
rollers and pickers. Also, only 13 Negroes were reported, all of whom were employed by
a few plants in the Southern States. There were also 67 Mexicans in several establishments.
109
EXPLOSIVES I N D U S T R Y
For the explosives industry as a whole, hourly earnings in October
1937 averaged 77.1 cents. Table 1 gives a percentage distribution by
average hourly earnings of employees in the industry.
T able 1 .— Distribution of explosives workers, by average hourly earnings in October
1937
Average hourly earnings
Under 37.5 cents .
37.5 and under 42.5 cents_______
42.5 and under 47.5 cents. - ____
47.5 and under 52.6 cents_______
52.5 and under 57.5 cents_______
57.5 and under 62.5 cents. ..........
62.5 and under 67.5 cents_______
67.5 and under 72.5 cents_______
72.5 and under 77.5 cents_______
77.5 and under 82.5 cents_______
Num
ber of
em
ploy
ees
30
34
48
101
223
336
426
413
378
371
Cu
Sim mu
ple lative
per per
cent cent
age
age
0.8 0.8
.9
1.7
1.2 2.9
2.7
5.8
5.6
11.4
9.9
9.8
52.1
61.9
8.8 20.2
11.2 31.4
10.8 42.2
Cu
Sim mu
ple lative
per per
cent cent
age
age
Average hourly earnings
Num
ber of
em
ploy
ees
82.5 and under 87.5 cents______
87.6 and under 92.5 cents______
92.5 and under 97.5 cents............
97.5 and under 102.5 cents_____
102.5 and under 107.5 cents........
107.5 and under 112,5 cents........
112.5 and under 125.0 cents____
125.0 cents and over___________
463
266
237
169
109
114
71
25
12.1
7.0
6.2
Total............ ....................... 3,814
100.0
4.4
2.9
3.0
1.8
.7
74.0
81.0
87.2
91.6
94.5
^ 7 .5
99.3
100.0
The average hourly earnings of skilled employees, of course, are
the highest, amounting to 85.2 cents an hour. Semiskilled workers
averaged 71.1 and unskilled, 62.0 cents. The range between the
average earnings of the skilled and the semiskilled workers is thus
14.1 cents and between the semiskilled and the unskilled 9.1 cents—
altogether, a spread of 23.2 cents.
There are a considerable number of occupations in the explosives
industry. Because of the small number of employees involved in
the total industry, however, most of the occupations were too
small to justify the computation of separate averages. Hence it was
necessary to group the individual occupations into related occupa
tional classes, for which averages are presented in table 2.
T able 2.— Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings of explosives
workers, October 1937, by skill and occupational class
Skill and occupational class
Number of
employees
Average
hourly
earnings
Average
weekly
hours
Average
weekly
earnings
3,814
$0.771
41.3
$31.84
Skilled employees__________________________________
Acid operators____ ______ ____________ ____ _____
Black-powder line operators.....................................
^lack-powder maker operators__________________
uope-house operators___________________________
Dynamite loaders______________________________
Dynamite mixers.______ _______________________
Foremen, working......... ...... ........... ..........................
Mechanics, maintenance________________________
Nitroglycerin operators___ ______________________
Packers, high explosives and black powder___ ____
Miscellaneous skilled, direct____ _________________
Miscellaneous skilled, indirect___________________
" 2, 055
197
87
263
107
241
90
145
412
89
128
131
165
.852
.828
.684
.764
.766
.880
.813
1.013
.928
.918
.745
.824
.879
41.5
42.8
43.0
41.2
41.0
41.0
42.0
42.6
40.9
42.1
40.1
41.1
42.1
35.36
35.46
29.39
31. 53
31.44
36.07
34.11
43.12
37.96
38.65
29.89
33.84
36.99
Semiskilled employees____ _________________________
Black-powder helpers_____________ _________ ____
High-explosive helpers.......... ....................................
Miscellaneous semiskilled, direct__________ ______
Miscellaneous semiskilled, indirect...........................
1,071
407
214
362
.711
.727
.716
.673
.723
41.6
40.0
40.6
41.8
43.1
29.67
29.12
29.02
28.09
31.17
688
.620
40.1
24.87
All employees------------------ ----- --------------------------------
Unskilled employees_______________ ___________ ____
88
WAGES AND HOURS
110
The Bureau’s survey indicates that there are no well-defined geo
graphical differences in earnings in the explosives industry. It is true
that the plant with the lowest average hourly earnings was in the
South, and the plant with the highest average was m the North.
There were, however, 3 southern plants with average earnings of more
than 70 cents, while earnings in 11 of the northern and 2 of the far
western plants averaged less than 70 cents.
There were striking variations in the average hourly earnings be
tween employees of the “Big Three” producers and those of “Other
companies” in the explosives industry. On the average, the earnings
of workers employed by the three leading companies m October 1937
were 25.4 percent higher than those of workers employed by the
smaller companies. Against an average of 81.9 cents for* employees
of the “Big Three,” the hourly earnings in the establishments of the
“Other companies” averaged 65.3 cents.
Weekly Hours and Earnings
The full-time weekly hours in the explosives industry in October
1937 were remarkably uniform, a 40-hour week being in effect in all
except nine of the plants covered by the survey. Only two of the
plants had a workweek of less than 40 hours; of these, one operated
on a 35-hour schedule, and the other worked 37y 2 hours. Among
the establishments that worked more than 40 hours a week, two
operated 44 hours and five operated 48 hours.
Both of the plants that reported a full-time week of less than 40
hours were “Big Three” establishments. The “Other companies,”
by contrast, accounted for all of the plants that had a working sched
ule of more than 40 hours a week. Of the 44 establishments that had
a 40-hour week, however, 16 were plants of the “Other companies.”
The actual working time of all employees in the explosives industry
averaged 41.3 hours a week in October 1937.
According to table 3, the actual working time of 58.3 percent of
all employees in the industry was exactly 40 hours a week. The aver^
age weekly hours amounted to 40.2 for the “Big Three” plants and 44.1
for plants belonging to the “Other companies.”
T a b l e 3 .— Distribution o f explosives workers, by weekly hours , in October 1 9 3 7
Weekly hours
Number of
employees
Simple per
centage
Under 16 hours......................................... ........................
16 and under 24 hours_____________ __________________
24 and under 32 hours.......... . . . .............. ................ .........
32 and under 36 hours.—....... ................................ ..........
36 and under 40 hours_______________________________
40 hours___ _____ ____________________________ ______
Over 40 and under 44 hours_________ ____ _____ ______
44 and under 48 hours.. ...................................................
48 hours................. ...... .............. ........................ ..............
Over 48 and under 56 hours.............................. ............ .
56 hours and over................. .............. ...... ........................
22
20
77
278
105
2,224
262
230
308
125
163
0.6
.5
2.0
7.3
2.8
58.3
6.8
6.1
8.0
3.3
4.3
Total..................................... .......................... .........
3,814
100.0
Cumulative
percentage
0.6
1.1
3.1
10.4
13.2
71.5
78.3
84.4
92.4
95.7
100.0
111
FABRICATED TEXTILE PRODUCTS
For all employees in the explosives industry, weekly earnings in
October 1937 averaged $31.84.
Nearly a third o f the workers (31.3 percent) were paid $35 or over
a week, and 16.0 percent earned $40 or more. Only 6.1 percent received
less than $20 weekly. The classification $30 and under $35 accounted
for a larger proportion of the total working force than any other.
The average weekly earnings amounted to $32.97 for employees of
the “Big Three” companies, as compared with $28.79 for employees
in the “ Other companies,” or a difference of $4.18.
Average weekly earnings, however, varied sharply between skills,
ranging from $35.36 for skilled employees to $24.87 for unskilled em
ployees. Semiskilled workers averaged $29.57 a week. A distribution
by weekly earnings and by skill is presented in table 4.
T
able
4*—
P ercentage d istribu tion o f explosives w ork ers, b y w eek ly earnings and b y
sk ill , October 19L 7
Weekly earnings
Under $5.......... ...............
$5 and under $10..............
$10 and under $15............
$15 and under $20.............
$20 and under $25.............
$25 and under $30............
$30 and under $35........... .
$35 and under $40............
$40 and under $45............
$45 and under $50_______
Semi
Un
Skilled skilled
skilled
0.6
.5
1.6
5.7
15.5
27.4
22.6
15.5
6.1
0.2
1.0
.4
4.4
15.8
29.4
34.4
9.2
2.9
1.4
1.5
2.0
2.0
10.9
35.8
31.5
10.8
2.7
2.4
.4
Weekly earnings
Semi
Skilled skilled
Un
skill
$50 and under $55. ........
$55 and under $60______
$60 and under $65. ____
$65 and under $70______
$70and under $75...........
2.8
.8
.5
.3
.1
0.3
.5
.1
Total....................
100.0
100.0
100.0
Average earnings, all
employees...................
$35.36
$29.57
$24.87
Fabricated Textile Products, Miscellaneous—Hourly
Earnings, 19401
Late in 1940 tlxe Bureau of Labor Statistics made a study of hours
and earnings in establishments manufacturing miscellaneous fabri
cated textile products.2 The study included information for 125
mills employing 10,526 workers (roughly one-fifth of the total num
ber of wage earners in the industry) and covered a pay-roll period in
August or September 1940.
The accompanying table which presents a percentage distribution
of employees by average hourly earnings, major product, and region,
reveals that the earnings of all employees in the industry averaged
41.2 cents an hour.3
1 From the Monthly Labor Review for October 1941.
2 The study, made at the request of the Wage and Hour Division, covered fabricated
items commonly manufactured in textile mills, but which had been exclifded from previous
wage and hour studies of the textile industry. These products include bags, bedspreads,
curtains, sheets and pillowcases, bandages and surgical gauze, table cloths, lunch cloths
and napkins, towels, washcloths and dishcloths, blankets, diapers, and bath m ats and
related articles.
8 The wage data presented in this article include only the earnings at ' egular rates of
pay. Had the extra overtime earnings been included the industry ave' ige would have
been increased by only four-tenths of a cent.
WAGES AND HOURS
112
P ercentage d istribu tion o f em p lo ye es in m iscella n eou s fa b rica ted textile prod ucts
in d u stry b y average h o u rly ea rn in g s, ty p e o f p rod u ct, a nd re g io n ,1 S ep tem ber 1 9 4 0
Bags
All products
Average hourly earnings
United North
States
2.9
31.0
7.4
11.9
7i 4
7.4
5.6
4.9
4.1
4.2
2.6
2.2
1.2
1.2
.9
1.0
.6
.6
.7
.6
.5
.3
.1
.3
.4
Under 32.5 cents___________
Exactly 32.5 cents__________
32.6 and under 35.0 cents___
35.0 and under 37.5 cents___
37.5 and under 40.0 cents___
40.0 and under 42.5 cents___
42.5 and under 45.0 cents___
45.0 and under 47.5 cents___
47.5 and under 50.0 cents___
50.0 and under 52.5 cents___
52.5 and under 55.0 cents___
55.0 and under 57.5 cents___
57.5 and under 60.0 cents___
60.0 and under 62.5 cents___
62.5 and under 65.0 cents___
65.0 and under 67.5 cents___
67.5 and under 70.0 cents___
70.0 and under 72.5 cents___
72.5 and under 77.5 cents___
77.5 and under 82.5 cents___
82.5 and under 87.5 cents___
87.5 and under 92.5 cents___
92.5 and under 97.5 cents___
97.5 and under 102.5 cents.._
102.5 cents and over________
3.5
15.5
4.8
13.8
8.3
9.0
6.4
6.0
5.2
5.7
3.5
3.0
2.1
1.9
1.6
1.8
1.1
1.1
1.4
1.2
1.0
.6
.3
.5
.7
South
2.4
44.1
9.7
10.1
6.7
6.0
4.9
3.9
3.2
3.0
1.9
1.4
.6
.6
.2
.3
.2
.2
.2
.2
.1
.1
(3)
(3)
Bedspreads
United
States
North
South
3.2
12.4
5.3
9.4
5.5
11.2
7.5
6.2
4.8
5.8
4.0
3.5
2.2
3.1
1.8
2.1
1.4
1.4
2.2
2.0
1.8
.8
.4
.8
1.2
4.7
.9
3.5
6.8
4.2
13.5
8.7
7.4
5.8
7.3
5.2
4.6
2.9
4.1
2.3
2.8
1.7
1,7
2.8
2.6
2.0
1.0
.6
1.2
1.7
0.2
36.6
9.2
15.1
8.4
6.2
4.8
3.4
2.7
2.5
1.6
1.2
.6
.9
.6
.6
.9
.9
.8
.9
1.2
.3
United
States North
4.5
64.2
9.8
9.5
5.8
2.3
1.1
.4
.6
.4
.2
.3
.3
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
0.4
17.7
3.8
21.4
30.8
4.9
3.0
1.1
2.6
1.9
2.6
2.3
2.6
1.1
1.1
1.1
.8
.8
South
5.0
68.8
10.3
8.3
3.3
2.1
.9
.3
.4
.3
.1
(3)
<3)
(3)
(3)
.1
.1
.2
.2
Total.............................
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Number of employees4........
Average hourly earnings___
10,526
$0.412
4,821
$0,452
5,705
$0,376
2,013
$0,483
1,372
$0. 519
641
$0,402
2,904
$0.342
266
$0.410
2,638
$0,336
Sheets and pillowcases
Other products
Cur
tains 2
Average hourly earnings
United
States
North
Under 32.5 cents.............. ...........
Exactly 32.5 cents_____________
32.6 and under 35.0 cents.......... .
35.0 and under 37.5 cents______
37.5 and under 40.0 cents...........
40.0 and under 42.5 cents...........
42.5 and under 45.0 cents............
45.0 and under 47.5 cents______
47.5 and under 50.0 cents.......... .
50.0 and under 52.5 cents...........
52.5 and under 55.0 cents............
55.0 and under 57.5 cents............
57.5 and under 60.0 cents........ .
60.0 and under 62.5 cents............
62.5 and under 65.0 cents.......... .
65.0 and under 67.5 cents.......... .
67.5 and under 70.0 cents______
70.0 and under 72.5 cents______
72.5 and under 77.5 cents............
77.5 and under 82.5 cents______
82.5 and under 87.5 cents______
87.5 and under 92.5 cents. . . .
92.5 and under 97.5 cents______
97.5 and under 102.5 cents_____
102.5 cents and over____ ______
0.8
3.7
6.9
19.3
11.9
8.1
8.0
7.1
7.9
8.7
6.0
3.6
1.9
1.7
.4
1.5
.6
.6
.6
.2
.1
.2
1.5
.1
.1
.2
Total.......... — - .................
100.0
100.0
Number of employees 4. .............
Average hourly earnings...........
1,225
$0.443
585
$0.456
3.8
22.0
11.2
8.2
7.9
8.4
9.1
8.2
6.5
3.6
1.5
1.7
.5
2.1
1.0
,9
.7
.3
.2
.5
South
United
States
North
South
1.8
33.0
6.3
17.0
6.9
6.4
5.0
4.9
3.5
4.7
1.5
1.8
1.4
.7
.8
.6
.6
.5
.8
.3
.4
.3
.2
.2
.4
2.7
19.1
7.7
8.7
9.0
10.4
8.6
8.1
6.4
4.9
3.6
2.9
1.2
1.1
1.2
1.1
.4
.5
.4
.7
.4
.3
.2
.2
.2
9.1
7.8
4.6
8.0
8.9
8.9
6.2
6.4
6.7
4.4
3.3
3.4
2.4
1.8
3.7
3.3
1.2
1.8
1.3
2.1
1.6
1.0
,6
.9
.6
0.2
23.5
8.9
8.9
9.1
11.0
9.5
8.7
6.3
5.0
3.7
2.7
.7
.8
.3
.2
.1
.1
.1
.1
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
640
$0.432
1,938
$0,401
2,446
$0,428
676
$0,475
1,770
$0,410
0.2
7.0
9.8
16.9
12.5
8.0
8.1
5.9
6.9
9.1
5.5
3.6
2.2
1.7
.3
.9
.2
.3
.5
.2
.2
.1
» The North includes California, Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Kansas, Maine, Massachusetts, Minne
sota, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Wisconsin. The
South includes Alabama, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South
Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia.
2 All plants sampled, with one exception, were in the North.
3 Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
* Excludes clerical employees.
113
FARM WORKERS
Farm Workers—Wage Rates and Earnings1
Farm Wage Rates
Information regarding the earnings of hired farm workers is far
from adequate, but the wage rates paid to hired workers when
actually at work have long been reported on a sample basis to the
Department of Agriculture. The weighted average rate per month
was $23.77 in 1909 and $59.88 in 1920, the rise being mainly the
complement o f a general rise in prices. The average rate fell sharply
after 1920 but rose again to $44.52 in 1929. In 1933 the rate was
$21.10, less than half of the 1929 average. Although the rate in 1940
was $31.28—much higher than in 1933—farm wages lagged seriously
behind many other forms of income.2 (See table 1.)
T
able
1.—
F a r m wage rates i n the U n ited S ta tes, 1 9 0 9 to 1 9 4 1
Weighted average
rate per month
Farm wage rates
Per month—
Year
With
board
Without
board
1
Per day—
With
board
Without
board
Amount
Index
numbers
(average,
1924-29=
100)
1909_______________________ _____________
1914________________________ _______ ____
1919___________ ______ _____ _____________
1923........... ............................................ ..........
1924._____ _______ _______________ ______ _
$22.21
22.62
43.29
37.24
37.92
$28.10
29.74
56.63
48.25
49.32
$1.09
1.17
2.54
1.89
1.94
$1.30
1.43
3.03
2.25
2.29
$23.77
25.13
51.13
41.87
42.91
54.0
57.1
116.2
95.2
97.5
1925................................................ ...................
1926.____ ____________ ___________________
1927._____ _______ ________ ______________
1928____________________ ____ ______ ____
1929....... ................._c____ ____________ ___
38.77
39.87
40.11
40.11
4a 61
49.90
50.83
50.85
50.72
51.22
1.97
1.98
1.98
1.98
1.96
2.29
2.31
2.28
2.27
2. 25
43.51
44.36
44.36
44.28
44. 52
98.9
100.8
100.8
100.7
101.2
1930....... ................. ......................... ................
1931....... .................. .......... ................... ..........
1932____ _________ ______ _________ ______
1933...._______ ________ _________________
1934____ _____ ________ ____ _____________
37.59
28.77
20.85
18.07
20.24
48.10
38.38
28.88
25.67
28.19
1.76
1.32
.94
.85
.98
2.08
1.62
1.20
1.11
1. °6
41.25
32.11
23.66
21.10
23.61
93.8
73.0
53.8
48.0
53.7
1935.._____ ______ _____ _________________
1936................................. .................... ..........
1937______________________________________
1938______________________ ______________
1939____ _________________________________
22.42
24.53
28.00
27.73
27.39
30.24
32.28
36.32
35.97
35.82
1.07
1.15
1.33
1.31
1.30
1.33
1.42
1.61
1.58
1.56
25. 53
27.51
31.25
30.84
30.56
58.0
62.5
71.0
70.1
69.5
1940_____________________________________
April 1, 1940_________________________
July 1, 1940_________ ____ ___________
October 1, 1940_______________________
1941:
January 1,1941______________________
April 1,1941............ ............................. .
July 1 ,1 9 4 1 ...____ _______ __________
28.05
27.45
29.01
28.77
36.68
36.41
37.18
36.84
1.36
1.26
1.37
1.39
1.59
1.55
1.62
1.61
31.28
30.60
31.94
31.82
71.1
69.6
72.6
72.3
26.88
31.56
36.45
36.61
40.44
44.95
1.29
1.41
1.80
1.59
1.70
1.98
30. 73
34. 29
39. 55
69.9
77.9
89.9
* U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Crops and Markets, January and July 1941.
Farm wage rates are reported four times each year, for January,
April, July, and October. The reports are tabulated by main
geographic divisions. It is therefore possible to note both regional
and seasonal variations in the rates. For this purpose, it is desirable
to choose a period when rates were comparatively stable. The period
chosen is from April 1, 1938, to April 1, 1939 (table 2). Neither
farm wage rates nor hourly earnings in manufacturing industries
1 From the Monthly Labor Review for July 1939 and September 1941.
2 These weighted averages, as revised by the U. S. Department of Agriculture (Crops
and Markets, January 1939 and July 1941), are significant mainly for indicating the general
trend of wage rates.
114
WAGES AND HOURS
underwent any significant change during this period. Some increase
in farm wages was apparent between April 1, 1939, and April 1,
1940, but it was not until the period of intensified national defense
activity that rates advanced significantly. For the purpose of
indicating the rise in rates after April 1, 1939, figures are also given
in table 2 for April 1, 1940, and April 1, 1941.
T
able
2 .— F a r m wa^e rates b y geographic d iv is io n , A p r i l 1, 1 9 3 8 , to A p r i l 1 ,1 9 4 1
Rate per
month—
Geographic division
and date
With
With
With out With
out
board board board board
United States:
April 1, 1938
$27.60 $33.82 $1.25 $1.55
28.95 37.28 1.38 1.63
July 1, 1938
October 1, 1938_____ 28.25 36.09 1.36 1.59
January 1, 1939_____ 24.86 34.92 1.20 1.53
27.08 35.42 1.23 1.53
April 1, 1939
April 1, 1940.......... . 27.45 36.41 1.26 1.55
April 1, 1941________ 31.56 40.44 1.41 1.70
New Encland:
April 1, 1938
July 1,1938_________
October 1, 1938—. - - January 1, 1939_____
April 1, 1939
April 1, 1940
April 1, 1941________
Middle Atlantic:
April 1, 1938
July 1, 1938— ...........
October 1,1938_____
January 1,1939
April 1, 1939-.............
April 1, 1940 _______
April 1, 1941________
East North Central:
April 1, 1938________
July 1, 1938_________
October 1, 1938.........
January 1, 1939_____
April 1, 1939 ...........
April 1, 1940________
April 1, 1941-_______
West North Central:
April 1, 1938..........
July 1, 1938— . ..........
October 1,1938.........
January 1, 1939_____
April 1, 1939________
April 1, 1940________
April 1, 1941________
Rate per
month—
Rate per
day—
31.83
33.40
31.83
31.08
31.92
32. 58
37.63
55.66
57.23
55.13
54.71
56.23
56.48
63.05
1.73
1.84
1.84
1.72
1.73
1.73
1.93
2.55
2.62
2.58
2. 56
2.72
2.58
2.85
29.18
30.05
29.42
27.05
28.48
29.05
33. 72
46.01
46. 56.
45.83
44.15
45.39
46. 22
52.31
1.69
1.79
1.78
1.61
1.64
1.68
1.88
2.32
2.37
2.39
2.?0
2.26
2.29
2.53
29.11
29.91
29.74
25.40
28.80
28.73
34.20
41.03
41.91
41.68
37.95
40.91
41.27
47.01
1.53
1.66
1.65
1.43
1.50
1.52
1.75
2.02
2.16
2.16
1.94
2.03
2.02
2.27
28.35
29.47
28.83
21.98
28.21
27.98
32.29
38.93
39.82
39.20
33.33
38.41
38. 59
43.39
1.39
1.56
1.59
1.25
1.38
1.39
1.55
1.92
2.09
2.12
1.74
1.87
1.87
2.09
Geographic division
and date
South Atlantic:
April 1, 1938________
July 1, 1938________
October 1, 1938_____
January 1, 1939_____
April 1, 1939________
April 1, 1940...............
April 1, 1941________
T
ocit
Smith
CpTitral*
JT
ja
M O
U U lll v
c i lv lc U *
April 1, 1938............
July 1, 1938.—...........
October 1, 1938.........
January 1, 1939_____
April 1, 1939..............
April 1, 1940________
April 1, 1941________
West South Central:
April 1, 1938_______
July 1, 1938________
October 1, 1938_____
January 1, 1939.........
April 1,1939— .........
April 1, 1940________
April 1, 1941________
Mountain:
April 1, 1938________
July 1, 1938________
October 1, 1938_____
January 1, 1939_____
April 1, 1939________
April 1,1940 _______
April 1, 1941________
Pac^c:
pril 1, 1938-...........
July 1, 1938________
October 1, 1938_____
January 1, 1939.........
April 1, 1939________
April 1, 1940________
April 1, 1941______
Rate per
day—
With With With With
board out board out
board
board
17.06
16.41
16.54
16.10
16.92
19.03
$24.43 $0.86 $1.15
25.11
.89 1.19
24.40
.87 1.16
24.93
.86 1.18
.84 1.14
24.32
25.45
.88 1.18
27.97
.99 1.28
15.78
15.98
15.68
15.54
15.97
16.14
17.92
22.73
23.05
22.66
22.47
22.95
23.39
25.15
. V8
.80
.77
.77
.78
.80
.86
1.00
1.03
1.03
1.03
1.02
1.04
1.11
18.70
19.39
19.19
18.08
18.54
18.70
21.41
27.29
28.37
27.86
26.83
26.94
27.37
30.10
.93
.99
.97
.92
.92
.92
1.02
1.22
1.28
1.24
1.19
1.18
1.18
1.30
34.95
37.37
36.84
30.96
35.03
35.04
38.34
51.00
53.53
52.29
46.22
51.00
51.30
55.07
1.63
1.74
1.81
1.53
1.61
1.63
1.75
2.19
2.31
2.33
2.09
2.22
2.18
2.38
44.39
44.19
41.83
41.35
40.89
41.57
48.30
66.68
65.96
62.05
62.49
62.31
64.91
71.32
1.95
2.10
2.02
1.92
1.96
1.96
2.20
2.81
2.78
2.71
2.62
2.66
2.68
2.94
1 The period from April 1, 1938, to April 1, 1939, is chosen for the purpose of illustrating regional and
seasonal variations. During this period, there were few increases or decreases in rates except those of a
seasonal character. After April 1, 1939, and particularly after April 1, 1940, significant increases occurred,
mainly as a result of improved employment conditions and competition for labor by industry. These
increases are shown by figures for April 1, 1940, and April 1, 1941.
Rates are lower in January than in any other month reported
except when there is a general downward tendency, as in the period
from 1930 to 1932. The rates’ vary extensively in different sections
o f the country. The region with the highest rates on January 1,
1939, was the Pacific division, and the region with the lowest rates
was the East South Central division. (See table 2.) The rates in
1938 were almost four times as high in California as in South Carolina.
In the intervening areas there was a gradual rise in rates from South
Carolina to California. The differences have been explained3 as
8 Rural Sociology, March 1939 (pp. 36-42) : Profile of Wage Rates in the Southwest,
by Prof. “E. D. Tetreau.
FARM WORKERS
115
resulting from increases westward in the ability of farmers to pay
higher wages; declining competition westward of unpaid family
labor; the greater influence in the West of competitive wage rates in
nonagricultural industries; and differences in the efficiency of
workers.
Farm wage rates in recent years have lagged behind industrial
wages. The rise in farm rates after April 1,1939, was approximately
the same as the rise in industrial wages. The increases reflect im
proved conditions of employment and the stimulus of competition for
workers by industrial employers, especially in the defense industries.
Average Earnings
Average farm wage rates should not be confused with average
earnings, which were vitally affected by the amount of employment
available. Average earnings of farm wage earners roughly compar
able to the averages in nonagricultural employments may be com
puted from revised estimates of number of hired farm workers and of
total farm wages, including board and other perquisites.4 These
estimates indicate that hired farm workers earned, on the average, in
1909, $256;5 in 1914, $276; and in 1919, $544. This rise was mainly
a result o f higher prices. After 1920 there was a sharp decline, the
average falling below $400 in 1921 and 1922 and then rising above
$400, the figure for 1929 being $430. The average for 1933 was only
$212, and in 1938, $300. The average amount of employment in 1938
was a little more than 7 months. A farm laborer who worked at
the average wage rate adjusted to include board and other perquisites
and who had employment throughout the year earned approximately
$500.
Farm Wages as Shown by Special Surveys
The deficiency of income among hired farm workers is indicated
broadly by the figures, given above, of the general averages of farm
wages and the regional variations in farm wage rates. Special sur
veys, although fragmentary, furnish significant verification of the
estimated general averages and provide illustrations of the levels of
income that determine the purchasing power and living conditions
of wage earners on farms.
A study of farm laborers in 11 counties in 1936 indicates that the
highest average annual cash income per family in any of these counties
was $572. In 4 of the counties the average was less than $200, and
in one it fell as low as $127. Within each county there was a wide
range above and below the average.6 These figures include all forms
of cash income. The proportions of hired workers in the several
4 Revised employment estimates .by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics and the N a
tional Research Project of the Works Progress Administration were summarized in the
Monthly Labor Review, June 1939 (p. 1241) : Farm Employment, 1909 to 1938. Revised
figures of total wages, including board and other perquisites, are given in U. S. Department
of Agriculture, The Cost of Hired Farm Labor, 1 9 0 9 -3 8 (preliminary), Washington, 1939.
5 This and the following figures of average earnings include estimates of board and other
perquisites, the estimates being made from the point of view, not of their value to the
worker, but of their cost to the employer. Farmers are probably liberal in their estimates
of cost, but the net result may be a slight underestimate of board and other perquisites
from the point of view of their value to the worker. Figures of average earnings, whether
for a year or for shorter periods, have the limitations of the basic data on employment
and total wages, notably the inclusion of temporary, peak-season workers. However, in
farm-wage statistics, the farm-wage rates and the data of special surveys afford checks
which indicate a degree of adequacy warranting significant conclusions.
6 Summarized from surveys of agricultural conditions in 11 counties, made by T om Vasey
and Josiah C. Folsom o f the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Some of the information
here used is from the summary by Prof. Paul C. Taylor in the second volume of Senate
Hearings on Unemployment and Relief, pursuant to S. Res. 36, 75th Cong.
116
WAGES AND HOURS
counties receiving pay for nonagricultural employment ranged from
8.2 percent in Placer County, Calif., to 37.3 percent in Fentress County,
Tenn. The proportions of income from nonagricultural employment
ranged from 4.9 percent in Karnes County, Tex., to 33.5 percent in
Fentress County, Tenn. In two of the counties the income of depend
ents ranged from 0.2 to 13.8 percent of the total income. In all counties
relief payments formed some part of the total income, the highest
being 12.0 percent. Most of the workers included in these surveys
were noncasual, nonmigratory farm workers with comparatively
regular employment.
Another study of workers with comparatively steady jobs is a sur
vey of farm labor conditions in Gloucester, Hunterdon, and Mon
mouth Counties in New Jersey.7 The survey excludes large numbers
o f casual workers who find employment in that region after the mid
dle o f May. Money wages from farm labor in 1935 averaged $431
for the 3 counties, the county averages ranging from $375 to $487. The
average income from all sources was $443, or only $12 more than the
average wage from farm labor alone. These figures represent the
earnings of a selected group of 1,185 workers who received cash wages
in 1935. Reports were obtained from 1,591 laborers, including some
who were not actually at work at the time of the survey, and the average
wage o f this larger group in 1935 was $348. The earnings of white
workers (more than four-fifths of the total number) averaged about
20 percent more than the earnings of Negroes. There were 52 mem
bers o f laborers5families who reported some agricultural employment
during the year, and 47 who reported some nonagricultural em
ployment.
These figures of earnings do not include perquisites. In the 3 New
Jersey counties, those who received board and also other perquisites
counted the total value as approximately equal to their cash wages,
but 34 percent of the workers received neither board nor other per
quisites. A few hired workers, mostly older persons or persons with
limited strength or ability, worked without money wages.
Earnings of Migratory Farm Workers
Information about the wages of migratory farm workers is frag
mentary and the surveys that have been made have been predominantly
in areas of comparatively high wages.
These studies suggest that adult men among the seasonal migrants
in agriculture may average about $300 per year and that migrant
families average perhaps $400 per year. Assuming an average of two
workers and four to five persons per migrant family—approximately
the family composition which has been observed in California—it
may be estimated that the earnings of migrant agricultural families
are equivalent to a wage of only about $200 per worker, and that they
provide maintenance of less than $100 per year for each member of the
average migrant family.8
One o f the studies of earnings of migratory workers was a survey in
the Yakima Valley covering the year ending July 25, 1936. In this
fertile, irrigated region, noted for apples and other fruits and general
TU. S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics. Farm Labor Conditions in Gloucester. Hun
terdon, and Monmouth Counties, New Jersey, April—May 1936. By Josiah C. Folsom.
Washington, 1939.
8 Monthly Labor Review, July 1937 (pp. 3-16) : A Survey of Labor Migration Between
States, by N. A. ToUes. (Reprinted as Serial No. R. 592.)
FEDERAL EMPLOYMENT
117
farm crops, about one-fourth of the workers earned $100 or less during
the 52 weeks; almost one-half earned less than $200; and one-fourth
earned more than $400. The family earnings of the entire group
included in the study averaged $342; the earnings of families not on
relief averaged $466; and the earnings of families who had depended to
any extent on relief averaged $269.9
A survey of family earnings of hand laborers in several of the sugarbeet areas in 1935 indicated that half o f the families received less than
$340 for sugar-beet work during the year; 30 percent received less
than $200; and 78 percent received less than $600. There was an
average of 6.4 persons per family. In addition to the earnings men
tioned, most of the families obtained some income from other sources,
the median ranging in the different sugar-beet areas from $31 to $93.
At some time during the year 63 percent of the families obtained either
work relief or direct relief, the proportion of families receiving such
aid ranging in the several sugar-beet areas from 37 to 97 percent. The
cash income per family member, excluding relief, was $75 or less for
half of the families.10
The California State Belief Administration obtained information
regarding the family incomes of 775 farm workers from 1930 to 1935.
These families had applied for aid during the off-season months of
December and January, when employment opportunities are at a
minimum. The information obtained indicated that the average
family earnings ranged from $381 in 1930 to $289 in 1935. In 1930
half o f the families earned less than $343, and in 1935 half earned less
than $261. Only 18 of the families reported steady employment in
1935 for 1 or more members of the family, and 14 of the 18 families
reported steady work for only 1 member of the family. Only 13
families reported total family earnings in 1935 above $800.11
*########
Federal Employment—Occupations and Salaries, 193812
The diversity of the services which the Federal Government renders
requires the widest possible variety o f occupational training and ex
perience on the part of its employees. Naval stations and Army
arsenals must have toolmakers, machinists, ordnance engineers, in
strument makers, tool and gauge designers, and draftsmen. The
Department of the Interior employs teachers for Indians and Eskimos;
geologists, photographers, and map experts for the Geological Survey;
as well as highly specialized mining, reclamation, and hydraulic en
gineers. Federal experimental farms require the services of farm
hands and stablemen, entomologists, and husbandmen. The list could
be extended almost indefinitely, for the Civil Service Commission has
in its files some 25,000 different titles of positions in both the depart
mental and field services which have been officially reported to it by
the various Government departments and agencies.
9 Monthly Labor Review, August 1937 (pp. 301-311) : Seasonal Agricultural Labor in
the Yakima Valley, by Paul H. Landis. (Reprinted as Serial No. R. 610.)
10Monthly Labor Review, February 1938 (pp. 322-340) : Wages, Employment Condi
tions, and Welfare of Sugar-Beet Laborers, by Elizabeth S. Johnson. (Reprinted as Serial
No. R. 703.)
u California State Relief Administration, Division of Special Surveys and Studies.
Migratory Labor in California (pp. 109, 119-129). San Francisco, 1936. Part-time
employment as a factor in low income is indicated in various studies, notably U. S. Farm
Security Administration, A Study of 6,655 Migrant Households in California, 1938, San
Francisco, 1939.
12 Abstract of article by Malcolm L. Smith, Civil Service Commission, and Kathryn R.
Wright, Bureau of Labor Statistics, in the Monthly Labor Review for January 1941.
WAGES AND HOURS
118
Civilian employees in the Federal service numbering 808,715 at the
end of 1938 were included in this study. The Postal Service used
more of these employees than any other single department or agency.
Nearly a third of the 808,000 employees had positions as postmasters
and assistant postmasters or as postal clerks and carriers.
Men held 82 percent of all the jobs at the end of 1938. Nearly
56 percent o f the positions held by women were of a clerical nature.
The average age for all employees was 40.8 years, but woman em
ployees were 4.6 years younger than men, the average ages being
36.9 years for* women and 41.5 for men.
Annual earnings of Government employees varied more with occupa
tion than with age. The averages for the major occupational groups,
exclusive o f postmasters and assistants, ranged from $1,192 for un
skilled trade and manual workers to $3,137 for persons in technical,
scientific, and professional occupations. For the most part salaries
increased with the age of the employee, but the range was compara
tively narrow. Employees under 25 years of age had average earnings
of $1,360 and those of 50 but under 60 years earned $2,053. The
average salary of civilian employees in the Federal Government
regardless of occupation or age, was $1,871 at the end of 1938.
Details regarding age, sex, and salary of Federal employees by
principal occupational groups are shown in the accompanying table.
All occupational groups 3.
----------- ------- ----------- 808,715 82.0 18.0 41.5 36.9 $1,387 $1,871 $2,175
Percent with salaries
$2,000 and 0 ver
Third quartile
Average 1
quartile
Salary
First
Women
g
i
Average
age 1
Men
Percent
of em
ployees
Women
Occupational group
Estimated number
employees
of
A g e , sex, and sala ry o f F ed eral em p lo yees, D ecem ber 3 1 , 1 9 3 8 , in 1 1 7 occup ation al
groups
43.0
Technical, scientific, and professional 3__________ 74,705 91.7 8.3 40.6 40.8 2,396 3,137 3,893 93.7
7,000 89.3 10.7 43.8 47.4 2,137 2,941 3,643 93.1
Accountants and auditors.............. ......... —
Agricultural extension agents 3______________
6,950 67.6 32.4 (3)
(3)
0
0
0
0
Agronomists, horticulturists, botanists, and
bacteriologists...................... ...... .......................
2,096 2,766 3,505 92.8
3, 450 96.2 3.8 34.5 (3)
2,710 3,086 3,653 98.0
Architects................. ........................................... 2,200 98.9 1.1 40.6 (3)
Attorneys and judges______ ________________
5,300 94.8 5.2 38.4 35.7 3,080 3,993 5,313 97.5
Chemists and metallurgists 3------------ ------------ 1,455 96.6 3.4 41.0 (3) 2,175 3,061 3,717 94.5
Economists, agricultural...... ............................. 1,950 95.4 4.6 41.2 (3) 2,194 3,145 4,116 93.1
Economists, business and other........................ 3,100 95.5 4.5 41.9 (3)
2,752 3,437 4,373 99.2
Editorial and informational occupations
(professional)................... ..................................
600 88.3 11.7 40.6 0
2,777 3,510 4,388 91.7
Engineers (professional)3................................... 19,820 100.0
41.0
2, 616 3,169 3,691 96.9
Entomologists and husbandmen......................
1,150 95.7 4.3 39.0 T 3) ' 2,122 2,827 3,468 94.8
Forestry and range science occupations. ___
1,840 2,176 2,899 89.0
3,900 99.2
.8 33.6 0
Geologists and physical scientists, n. e. c.3........ 1,214 97.9 2.1 38.1 0
2,179 3,019 3,825 99.2
Home economists................................. ...............
270 7.4 92.6 (3) 38.8 1,933 2,129 3,125 63.0
Librarians 3............................................................
605 40.0 60.0 37.2 43.7 2,064 2,663 3,139 86.7
Medical and dental scientists 3__ ......................
5,220 96.9 3.1 47.1 0
3,414 4,118 4,924 100.0
Social and welfare workers 3.................... ..........
755 37.7 62.3 39.3 38.1 1,509 2,010 2,265 68.0
Social scientists, n. e. c.3.............................. ....... 2,025 90.1 9.9 41.6 0
2,416 3,412 4,895 85.0
Statisticians and mathematicians 3..................
2,631 3.2^0 4,213 94.0
855 90.1 9.9 38.9 0
Veterinary scientists3....................................... . 2,805 99.6
.4 44.7 0
1,436 2,129 2,797 90.5
2,177 3,156 3,757 97.7
Zoologists and naturalists...................................
650 92.3 7.7 36.9 0
3,430 79.9 20.1 42.3 37.0 1,974 2,758 3,836 78.1
Other3 4............................................................. .
Semitechnical, semiscientiflc, and semiprofes
sional 3....................................................................... 51,990 77.8 22.2 37.2 35.9 1,614 1,944 2,631 44.2
Agricultural and biological occupations3........ 3,910 84.1 15.9 34.5 34.4 1,034 1,423 1,987 24.3
.1,664 2,150 3,425 62.5
43.3
400 100.0
Commodity inspectors and graders..................
See footnotes at end of table.
119
FEDERAL EMPLOYMENT
Percent
of em
ployees
Average
age 1
Salary
05
CD
S
B
S
2
§
a
o
£
§
s
1
o
£
c
+3
.g
£
<0
bfi
a
>
<
1
*g
2
Semitechnical, etc.— Continued.
Communications and photography tech1,900 99.7 0.3 35.9 (3) $1,641 $1,846 $1,996
nicians.................................................................
1,683 1,959 2,196
Draftsmen............................... ........... .................. 5,200 96.9 3.1 34.6 (3)
Engineering, architectural, and physicalscience occupations----- ------------------------------ 10,900 96.3 3.7 33.7 35.0 1,425 1,790 2,034
Fact-finding and compliance investigators--. 3,700 97.3 2.7 43.0 (3) 2,686 2,992 3,452
1,530 3.6 96.4 (8)
32.0 1,320 1,441 1,615
Home-management advisers..............................
Legal examiners, adjudicators, and investi6,500
97.7 2.3 42.7 (3)
2,837 3, 316 3,877
gators................ ........... - .......... .......... ..............
650 69.2 30.8 40.5 (3)
1,511 1,743 2,117
Medical and dental technicians...... .................
Nurses (graduate)....................................... ......... 5,850 3.4 96.6 (3) 37.7 1,712 1,874 1,969
4,100 97.6 2.4 37.0 (3)
1,509 1,831 2,076
Rural-rehabilitation supervisors......................
1,100 55.9 44.1 35.0 36.7 1,371 1,780 2,180
Social-science occupations................. ...............
970 1,714 2,158
Teachers and instructors 8................................. 3,400 52.9 47.1 41.1 36.2
600 49.2 50.8 42.2 44.2 1,812 1,945 2,125
Therapeutic occupations___________ _______
2,250 87.8 12.2 27.9 23.6 1,051 1,183 2,003
Other2 4 ............................................... ...............
Percent with salaries
$2,000 and over
Occupational group
Estimated number
employees
of
A g e , sex , and sala ry o f F ederal em p lo yees, D ecem ber 8 1 , 1 9 8 8 , i n 1 1 7 occupational
grou p s — Continued
24.2
56.4
28.9
98.2
2.6
99.2
35.4
17.9
30.4
38.6
39.9
40.0
25.1
422 1,021 2,234
Postmasters and assistants---------------------------------- 47,000 66.8 33.2 48.9 45.2
Postal clerks and carriers---------------------------- ------- 209,000 96.9 3.1 42.1 43.7 1,995 2,090 2,181
28.5
74.8
Managerial and administrative 2________________ 36, 245 85.2 14.8 43.6 34.3 1,835 2,248 3.181
2.300 98.9 1.1 46.3 (3) 2, 673 2,988 3,469
Appraisers____ ______ _______ ______________
Inspectional occupations, n. e. c.2.................... 6,105 95.9 4.1 44.7 42.8 1,850 2,109 2,565
43.4
1,600 100.0
1,870 2,428 3,141
Marine officials and inspectors______________
7,200 50.6 49.4 39.7 30.7 1,360 1,616 2,160
Tax collectors and deputies-------------------------Other 24................................................................. 19,040 92.0 8.0 43.0 36.8 1,894 2,616 3,612
62.5
97.0
67.8
68.8
33.8
87.0
Clerical2.............................................. ...................... 148,000 45.2 54.8 32.8 33.7 1,338 1,572 1,841
37.9 1,513 1,771 2,206
6,500 76.5 23.5 (3)
Accounting, fiscal, and pay-roll clerks.............
1,700 23.5 76.5 40.7 37.0 1,251 1,393 1,604
Communications operators______ _____ ____ _
Editorial, informational, and personnel clerks. 2,000 71.0 29.0 37.4 36.9 1, 577 1,958 2,815
5,250 56.7 43.3 29.5 35.1 1,270 1,416 1,653
File, mail, and record clerks..............................
4,900 95.9 4.1 25.1 (•)
1,018 1,176 1,357
Messengers............... .................... ......................
5,550 50.0 50.0 29.2 31.6 1,287 1,412 1, 585
Office-appliance operators, n .e. c . ____ _____
3,500 80.0 20.0 40.4 45.4 1,478 1, 766 2,160
Purchase and supply clerks_______ _________
5,800 75.9 24.1 30.1 35.4 1,225 1,526 1,756
Statistical, coding, and research clerks 2_____
Stenographers, typists, and secretaries______ 53, 200 15.0 85.0 29.0 30.7 1,275 1,462 1,700
1,600 89.1 10.9 39.1 (3)
Verifying and reviewing clerks, n. e. c....... .
1,228 1,513 1,746
Other 4_____________________________________ 58, 000 56.9 43.1 34.0 40.2 1,382 1,668 1,953
14.3
35.5
7.1
46.8
8.5
.1
1.5
31.0
8.3
5.1
12.5
21.8
Service 2______ _____ ___________________________ 56, 720 84.3
Attendants, hospitals and other institutions.. 19,100 78.0
Building services—janitors and charmen____ 12,100 73.6
2,850 84.2
Cooks______________________________________
2,000 88.8
Elevator operators______________ ____ ______
Kitchen workers. _________
_. .
..
1, 550 91.9
Personal-service occupations, n. e. c_________
1,550 74.2
Protective services 24_______________________ 17, 570 98.2
13.6
.3
.8
11.2
Trade and manual2. ______ ____________________
Skilled 2________ _______ ___________________
Construction occupations—total___ ____
Bricklayers and stonemasons........... .
Carpenters and other woodworkers. _
Cement finishers and plasterers.........
Drillers....................... .......... ........ ........
Machinery operators, n. e. c ...............
Painters............................................. .
Plumbers and steam fitters........ .........
Insulation and other construction
workers____ ______ _______________
Metalworking occupations—total_______
Blacksmiths and occupations in me
chanical and heat treatment of
metals................................ .................
Boilermakers........ .......... ......................
Machinists.......... ...................................
See footnotes at end of table.
185,055 94.4
93,150 899.4
18, 585
650
8,700
500
1,000
1,100
2,435
3,700
5001
30, 3801
1,3301
1, 6001
17.300
15.7
22.0
26.4
15.8
11.2
8.1
25.8
1.8
41.7
40.5
43.0
42.2
41.7
30.9
35.9
42.5
40.9
37.5
45.1
46.3
36.6
(3)
37.2
46.1
1,117
1,051
1,077
1,235
1,212
675
707
1,342
1,305
1,164
1,200
1,439
1,310
807
935
1,844
1,571
1,333
1,363
1,716
1,409
946
1,318
2,316
16.8
39.7
5.6 42.1 41.7 1,256
8.6 42.9 (•) 1, 546
45.1
1,325
46.8
1,088
47.2
1,206
45.6
1,246
42.9
1,411
38.1
1,269
45.6
1,543
1,424
43.5
1,579
1,862
1, 751
1,597
1, 705
1,685
1,596
1,640
1,841
1,880
1,924
2,141
2,054
2,163
2,003
2,124
1,731
1,897
2,055
2,189
20.3
34.9
30.2
53.1
27.4
36.0
3. 5
16.4
30.2
40.0
44.2
42.0i
1,849i 2,032 2,261
1,570i 1,874 2,088
54.0
32.3
44.8
42.3
42.4
1,290i 1,571 1,910
1,274 1,810i 2,082
1.643; 1.885 2.057
19.5
31.6
29.7
WAGES AND HOURS
120
Trade and manual—Continued.
Skilled—Continued.
Metalworking occupations—Con.
Molders and foundry workers..........
Sheet-metal workers______________
Structural-iron workers___________
Toolmakers, die sinkers, and other
machine-shop occupations..............
Welders------------------------------------Other4----------- --------------- ---------------Printing occupations—total2__________
Compositors and typesetters----------Photoengravers2........... ....................
Pressmen and plate printers_______
Lithographers and other printing
occupations....................................
Communications linemen and related
occupations----------------------------------Crane, derrick, hoist, and shovel operators
Foremen, construction_______________
Foremen, n. e. c____ ________________
Electricians_________________________
Instrument makers__________________
Locomotive engineers, brakemen, and
other transportation occupations_____
Mechanics, airplane_________________
Mechanics, motor vehicle_____________
Mechanics and repairmen, n. e. c______
Pattern and model makers____________
Stationary enginemen________________
Tailors and clothing workers2____ _____
Other 4----------- --------------- ------ ---------Semiskilled 2---------- ------------------------------Chainmen and rodmen___ ___________
Chauffeurs_________________________
Chippers and calkers (shipbuilding)____
Clothing-machine operators2__________
Construction occupations_____________
Firemen (boiler)____________________
Hunters, trappers, and guides____ _____
Irrigation occupations________________
Laundry workers____________________
Machine-shop occupations___ ____ ____
Metalworking occupations, n. e. c______
Munitions and other chemical workers. _
Nurserymen, gardeners, and grounds
keepers____ _____________________
Oilers of machinery_________ ________
Printing and publishing occupations,
n. e. c______________ _____________
Sailors and deckhands_______________
Teamsters and other transportation
occupations, n. e. c__________ ______
Warehousemen and stores handlers____
Other 4_____________________________
Unskilled laborers and operatives_____ ____
Average
age 1
Salary
1,045
3,590
350
44.0
38.5
45.3
1,390
2,350
1,425
3,150
900
550
850
42.4
38.4
44.4
44.8
42.0
48.6
44.6
1,556
1,832
1,565
1,813
2,648
(*)
1,794
850
500
1,200
2,500
8,500
5,400
500
Average
quartile
M CD
First
g
s
i Women
Women
Percent
of em
ployees
Men
Occupational group
Estimated number
employees
of
A g e , sex , and sala ry o f F ed eral em p lo ye es , D ecem ber 3 1 , 1 9 3 8 , in 1 1 7 o ccup ation al
grou p s — Continued
$1,184 $1,852 $2,175
1,328 1,863 2,209
1,702 2,015 2,250
44.5
41.2
51.4
2,122
2,177
1,887
2,950
3,022
(3)
2,963
34.5
45.5
15.1
70.5
81.7
68.2
70.6
44.4
1,604 2,405 2,603
58.8
40.5
41.9
44.4
44.2
41.0
42.3
1,451
1,575
1,791
1,559
1,601
1,855
1,863
1,830
2,048
1,768
1,938
2,068
2,390
2,180
2,332
2,043
2,231
2,267
37.0
36.7
56.8
33.8
43.5
60.0
45.1
41.6
41.2
43.7
41.0
44.1
46.3
44.2
40.9
28.9
40.0
45.5
44.5
42.5
44.6
44.4
42.1
39.6
41.3
40.7
35.6
1,650
1,622
1,576
1,349
1,335
1,682
1,416
1,364
1,267
1,160
1,220
1,843
1,086
1,133
1,265
1,114
1, 366
566
1,282
1,240
1,209
1,982
1,941
1,757
1,732
1,813
1,946
1,771
1,616
1,451
1,319
1,453
1,943
1,245
1,414
1,369
1, 434
1,613
749
1,489
1,433
1,410
2,857
2,178
2,054
2,060
2,183
2,335
2,004
1,963
1,696
1,454
1,770
2,131
1,419
1,933
1,473
1,988
1,853
1,036
1,777
1,701
1,617
48.6
43.2
30.6
28.2
36.0
44.4
25.3
23.2
10.1
.4
20.3
35.8
3.3
23.6
.5
24.0
11.3
.9
10.6
7.4
1.3
1,520 2,005 2,106
1,252 1,375 1,497
42.5
5,150 29.6 70.4 34.7 41.1 1,549 1,641 1,733
550 100.0
30.7
730
903 1,085
3.8
1.8
545
1,850
1,800
3,615
4,500
4,050
475
5,600
47,905 85.1
2,600 100.0
8,050 100.0
600 100.0
2,225 11.2
700 100.0
6,500 100.0
250 100.0
400 100.0
550 49.1
3,195 89.2
1,560 86.5
750 84.0
800 100.0
1,600 100.0
900
1,950
9,575
44,000
100.0
100.0
94.0
93.9
14.9
88.8
50.9
10.8
13.5
16.0
40.5
37.0
36.9
45.7
37.8
(3)
42.9
34.8
36.9
42.3
6.0 41.9 41.1
6.1 41.4 43.8
1,134
1,497
1,210
1,032
1,887
1,975
1,704
2,663
2,835
(3)
2,686
1, 539
2,043
1,377
1,192
1,837
2,158
1,588
1,475
5.6
59.0
3.5
.3
* Median.
2
Age and salary computations are exclusive of employees for whom complete information was not avail
able on age and salary. In this category are persons serving without compensation (largely agents and
consultants), dollar-a-year employees, and workers paid on a piece-work basis.
2 Insufficient number of employees for computation of an average.
4 The “ other” categories consist primarily of positions the titles of which were too general for specific
classification in any of the detailed occupational groups. Included also are numerically insignificant cate
gories of occupations. In the “ managerial and administrative” group the positions are predominantly
administrative and supervisory in character without specific reference to occupational fields.
s College instructors and professors are counted in the profession which they teach, but instructors and
teachers in primary and secondary schools are included here.
# Insufficient number of women for analysis of skilled trade and manual occupations by sex.
N . e. c.=not elsewhere classified.
FERTILIZER INDUSTRY
121
Fertiliser Industry—Earnings and Hours, 19381
The modern fertilizer industry dates from about the middle of the
last century, when the process of treating mineral phosphates with
sulphuric acid to form superphosphates was discovered. Although
the acidulation of phosphate rock furnishes one of the essential fer
tilizer ingredients, the industry also comprehends two other processes,
namely, the manufacture of sulphuric acid and the mixing, in varying
proportions, of superphosphates with other ingredients, such as potash,
ammoniates, or nitrates, and fillers to make complete fertilizers.
Depending upon the integration of the three processes involved,
there are also three types of fertilizer establishments, namely acid
making, superphosphate, and dry-mixing plants. Acid-making es
tablishments are completely integrated plants, which manufacture
their own sulphuric acid and superphosphates and mix the various
fertilizer ingredients. Superphosphate or wet-mixing establishments
purchase their acid requirements, but they make their own super
phosphates and mix them with the other ingredients. On the other
hand, dry-mixing plants manufacture none of the conventional fer
tilizer ingredients, being engaged only in mixing purchased materials.
This study was made on a sample basis, covering 283 establishments
and 15,657 wage earners. It is estimated that, at the time of the survey
during the spring months of 1938, the number of workers included
about two-fifths of the total labor force in the industry.
As freight costs represent a substantial portion of the price paid by
the farmer for fertilizers, close proximity to the principal marketing
areas has been the main factor in determining the regional distribu
tion of the industry. One of the most distinctive features of the
latter, therefore, is its marked concentration in the southeastern
coastal States, where the exhaustion of the soil, due primarily to the
growing of one crop, such as tobacco or cotton, as well as to soil
erosion, has created a great demand for fertilizers. Nevertheless, an
important portion of the industry is scattered throughout much of
the remainder of the country, especially the Northern States east of
the Mississippi River.
O f the 283 establishments in the sample, 35 were acid-making, 42
superphosphate, and 206 dry-mixing plants. In terms of the number
of workers, the figures were respectively 4,927 (31.5 percent), 3,083
(19.7 percent), and 7,647 (48.8 percent). It should be pointed out
that the survey did not cover any establishments with fewer than 10
workers.
Concentration of ownership is an important factor in the industry.
First, it is customary to consider the “ Big 7” companies, each having
a large number of establishments scattered over the country. In
addition, there is a substantial number of intermediate companies,
each of which has 2 or more plants in the industry. The remaining
group may be termed 1-establishment companies. O f the 283 plants
in the sample, 60 belonged to the “ Big 7,” 72 to the intermediate
group, and 151 to the 1-establishment firms; they employed 35.5,
28.9, and 35.6 percent, respectively, of the total employees covered.
1 Abstract of article in the Monthly Labor Review for March 1939, prepared by J.
Perlman, O. R. W itm er, H . O. Rogers, and P. L. Jones, of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
122
WAGES AND HOURS
Measured in production, however, the “ Big 7” companies are vastly
more important than is indicated by the relative number of their
employees. To a lesser degree this is also true o f the intermediate
companies. The tendency is for the 1-establishment concerns to be
found mostly in the smaller communities, while the larger companies
are concentrated more in the metropolitan areas.
O f the 283 establishments in the sample, 6 (with 6 percent o f the
employees) were operating under trade-union agreements at the
time o f the survey. All of these plants were located in communities
with a population of 100,000 and over.
Another distinguishing feature of the industry is the extreme
simplicity of its manufacturing processes, especially in mixing fer
tilizers. As a result, manpower requirements have been reduced to
a minimum, and most of the work is now being done by mechanical
devices capable of handling large quantities of bulk materials.
A further peculiarity of the fertilizer industry is the large pro
portion that unskilled workers and Negroes form in the labor force.2
It is also important to note that in rural areas and small towns many
of the employees are agricultural laborers, who are drawn into the
plants to work during the peak season.
Still another outstanding characteristic of the fertilizer industry is
its extreme seasonality. Although there is a small amount of sea
sonal activity in this industry in certain parts of the country before
the fall planting, by far the^most important season occurs prior to
planting in the spring months. This season extends over the months
of March, April, and May, traveling progressively from the extreme
southern to extreme northern States.
Average Hourly Earnings
Nearly all wage earners (99.8 percent) studied in the fertilizer
industry were paid on a straight time-rate basis. Production-bonus
systems of wage payment were not reported by any of the plants
covered.3
Extra rates of pay for overtime were not general in the industry.
In 51 establishments, however, overtime was paid for at rates either
o f time and one-third or time and one-half.4
In the spring of 1938, the earnings of the 15,657 workers covered
in the 283 fertilizer manufacturing plants averaged 32.6 cents an
hour. However, there is a large measure o f variability behind this
average. Over one-fourth (26.1 percent) of all workers earned less
than 25 cents an hour, and considerably more than one-half (55.1
percent) were paid under 30 cents. Nearly seven-tenths (68.7 per2 In the plants studied, there were 17 females, all of whom were engaged on unskilled,
light operations, but they were excluded from the tabulations contained in this report.
3 The figures on earnings in this report do not include the value of perquisites, but very
little of these are furnished to employees in the industry. In 12 establishments, some of
the workers were given free houses, including free electric light and fuel in several in
stances. In 4 other plants, houses were rented to employees at reduced rates. Respirators
were distributed without cost to such persons as required them in their work by 4 estab
lishments, 2 of which also gave free boots and gloves.
Six plants paid all or part of the
premiums on group insurance, and 1 establishment furnished free medical services.
4 Extra earnings due to overtime were taken into consideration in computing average
hourly earnings. Most of the overtime was found in the Northern wage region, but the
additional earnings due to it would affect the average for that region by less than 1 cent.
123
FERTILIZER INDUSTRY
cent) received less than 40 cents. There was a small scattering of
employees in the upper-earnings classes, but nine-tenths (89.9 percent)
earned under 52.5 cents.
One cause of the wide distribution of hourly earnings in the
fertilizer industry is the distinctly different wage levels of the 3
skill groups and also regional differences (table 1). Compared with
an average o f 57.6 cents for skilled workers, the earnings of the semi
skilled averaged 36.4 cents, and the average of the unskilled was
28.7 cents.
T
a b l e
1.—
A v era g e h ou rly earnings in the fe r tiliz er in d u stry d u rin g sp rin g m onths
o f 1 9 8 8 , b y region , race, and skill
Number of workers
Average hourly earnings
Semi- • Un
Skilled
work skilled skilled
work
work
ers
ers
ers
Region and race
All
work
ers
United States------------------------------White__________________________
Negro...............................................
15,657
3,660
11,997
939
795
144
3,402
1,201
2,201
Northern wage district_____________
White________ _________________
Negro________ _________________
4,012
2,294
1, 718
415
387
28
Southern wage district............ ............
White______________________
Negro-------- -------------------------
11,645
1,366
10,279
Upper southern wage district
White__________________
Negro---------------------------Lower Southern wage dis
trict.-------- -----------------------White____ _____ ____ _
Negro----------------------------
All
work
ers
Semi
Skilled skilled
work work
ers
ers
11,316
1,664
9,652
$0,326
.461
.281
$0.576
.613
.398
$0.364
.449
.319
$0. 287
.390
.268
1,228
715
513
2, 369
1,192
1,177
.508
.519
.491
.702
.700
0)
.521
.524
.517
.460
.447
.474
524
408
116
2,174
486
1,688
8,947
472
8, 475
.263
.368
.248
.483
. 524
.356
.283
.338
.269
.241
.248
.240
2,174
281
1,893
122
91
31
472
93
379
1,580
97
1,483
.363
.441
.351
.555
.592
(0
.376
.412
.367
.340
.312
.342
9,471
1,085
8,386
402
317
85
1, 702
393
1,309
7, 367
375
6, 992'
.240
.350
.224
.463
.506
.323
.258
.320
.241
.219
.232
.219
Un
skilled
work
ers
1 Not a sufficient number of workers to present averages.
Differences B etw een W hite and Negro Workers
The fertilizer industry is one of the few in which colored workers
predominate. O f the 15,657 wage earners included in the survey,
11,997 were Negroes. This means that for the industry, as a whole,
about 3 out o f 4 workers employed were colored.
Although colored workers predominate in numbers, relatively few
were found in the skilled jobs. This accounts in part for their low
average wages, as compared with white workers.
As a general rule, whites and Negroes were not found on the same
job in the same plant. There were, however, a number of establish
ments in which white and colored employees worked side by side at
one or more occupations. In general, no differences in hourly rates
were found to exist between white and colored employees who worked
side by side at the same occupation in the same plant.
It would require exhaustive analysis to determine whether or not
whites and Negroes engaged in the same work but in different plants
received the same hourly earnings.
505364 0 - 43 - 9
124
WAGES AND HOURS
Influence o f Sise o f Com m unity, Corporate Affiliation, and T ype o f Plant
Hourly earnings in the fertilizer industry varied directly with size
of community. In the larger communities in the upper southern
wage district average earnings resembled the wage levels prevailing
in the smaller communities in the northern wage district. However,
in the lower southern wage district, average earnings in even the
larger communities were much below the level of the smallest com
munities in the northern wage area, although they roughly approxi
mated the averages shown for the two smallest size groups m the
upper southern district.
In the northern wage region, with two exceptions, the average earn
ings per hour increased with size of community, the total spread being
from 36.4 cents in rural territory (with a population of under 2,500)
to 59.0 cents in the metropolitan areas of 1,000,000 and over. One
of the exceptions related to small towns o f 2,500 and less than 5,000,
which averaged even more than communities of 25,000 and under
50,000. The other exception affected the metropolitan areas of
100.000 and less than 250,000, which averaged less than those with
50.000 and under 100,000.
A similar story is told by the figures relating to the southern wage
territory. In the upper southern wage district, although the aver
age in rural territory exceeded that in small towns with 2,500 and
under 5,000 population, both had lower averages than communities
of 100,000 and less than 500,000, the only other places for which
figures are shown. The spread between rural territory and metro
politan areas of 250,000 and under 500,000 amounted to 11.1 cents,
while the widest range between small towns and largest communities
was 15.6 cents. In the lower southern wage area, the rural territory
also averaged slightly more than small towns. Furthermore, com
munities of 250,000 and less than 500,000 averaged slightly below
those with 100,000 and under 250,000. However, with these excep
tions, the hourly earnings increased with size of community. The
widest range (between small towns and places of 100,000 and less
than 250,000) was 13.2 cents.
As mentioned before, there is a tendency for the larger companies
to concentrate in the bigger metropolitan areas, whereas the 1-estab
lishment concerns are found mostly in the smaller communities. In
view of this, it is of interest to note to what extent size of company
affects hourly earnings.
In general, for each size of company the average earnings per hour
increased with size of community. On the whole,there were also
differences in favor of the “ Big 7” over the intermediate firms as
well as in favor of the latter over the 1-establishment companies for
each size of community.
Weekly Hours and Earnings
In view of the fact that the survey was taken during the spring
months o f 1938, the weekly hours and earnings reflect conditions in
the fertilizer industry at the peak of the season, being considerably
higher than the respective figures that prevail in other parts of the
125
FIRE DEPARTMENTS
year. Average weekly hours and earnings in the spring o f 1938 are
presented in table 2 by region, race, and skill.
T a b l e 2 . —Average
weekly hours and weekly earnings in the fertilizer industry
during spring months of 1938, by region, race, and skill
Average weekly hours
Region and race
All
work
ers
Skilled Semi
work skilled
work
ers
ers
Average weekly earnings
Un
skilled
work
ers
All
work
ers
Skilled Semi
work skilled
work
ers
ers
Un
skilled
work
ers
United States______________________
White__________________________
Negro-------- ---------------- , -------------
45.0
47.9
44.1
51.5
50.5
56.6
52.0
50.6
52.7
42.4
44.8
42.0
$14.67
22.12
12.40
$29.67
30.96
22.55
$18.91
22.72
16.83
$12.15
17.46
11.23
Northern wage district____________
White— ! ______________________
Negro_____ ______________ ____
Southern wage district_____________
White__________________________
Negro__________________________
Upper southern wage district___
White______________________
Negro______________________
Lower southern wage district___
White______________________
Negro----------- ----------------------
45.2
47.4
42.3
44.9
48.9
44.4
44.9
48.1
44.4
45.0
49.1
44.4
49.6
49.6
0)
52.9
51.4
58.4
50.5
49.3
0)
53.7
52.0
60.0
48.7
50.6
46.0
53.8
50.7
54.7
53.3
52.1
53.6
54.0
50.3
55.1
42.6
44.7
40.5
42.3
44.9
42.2
41.9
43.1
41.9
42.4
45.4
42.2
22.93
24. 58
20. 73
11.82
17.99
11.00
16.29
21.19
15.56
10.80
17.16
9. 97
34.82
35.18
0)
25.59
26.96
20.77
28.01
29. 21
0)
24.86
26.32
19. 41
25.37
26. 51
23. 78
15.26
17.14
14.72
20.01
21.45
19. 65
13.94
16.11
13.29
19.58
19.98
19.19
10.18
11.12
10.13
14.28
13. 42
14. 33
9.30
10.53
9.24
1 Not a sufficient number of workers to present averages.
F or the country as a whole, the actual average weekly hours for all
workers in the industry amounted to 45.0 and average weekly
earnings fo r all workers were $14.67.
Fire Departments—Salaries, Hours, and Other Working
Conditions, 1938 1
A comprehensive study o f firemen’s salaries, hours, and working
conditions has been made by the Division of Construction and Pub
lic Employment o f the Bureau o f Labor Statistics, in cooperation
with the W ork Projects Administration. Data as o f July 1, 1938,
have been collected and tabulated fo r fire departments in the majority
o f cities having 25,000 inhabitants and more in 1930. The results o f
this survey have been published in a series o f reports, one for the
United States as a whole, and one for each o f nine regions giving
details by cities. Other subjects included in the reports are: Prom o
tion o f lower-grade privates, vacations with pay, items supplied
firemen, and volunteer and call systems.
Salaries and O th e r W ork in g C onditions
The analysis o f salaries is based on reports received from 363
cities. Because o f the size o f the New Y ork (Jity department, together
with its unusually high salary scale, figures fo r this city are shown
separately in the accompanying table.
1
Abstract of articles in the Monthly l abor Review for July 1940 and July 1941, prepared
by Gerald M. Whitright and Mahlon B. Buckman? of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
WAGES AND HOURS
126
Salaries in Relation to Occupation
A bout three-fourths o f all fire-department employees were privates,
engineers, and drivers. These 3 occupational groups are interre
lated ; a number o f cities reported as privates the men who performed
the duties o f drivers and engineers. Since privates constituted more
than two-thirds o f the total o f 66,878 fire-department employees in
the 363 reporting cities, this occupational group dominated the dis
tribution o f employees according to salary rates, shown in the accom
panying table.
Although salaries o f privates on July 1, 1938, ranged from $720 to
$3,000 per year, fewer than one-half o f 1 percent received less than
$100 per month. Over nine-tenths o f all privates outside New Y ork
City had salaries o f $1,550 to $2,550. The salary most frequently
reported was between $2,150 and $2,250.
Municipal fire-department employees in the United States in selected
occupations,by salary,July 1,1938
All occupations 1
Salary class
All
cities
Cities reporting
specified occupa
tion_____________
New
York
City
363
1
Chiefs
City group 2
I
II
IV
New
York
City
City group2
I
II
III
IV
175
357
1
12
77
96
171
All salaries............ 66,878 10,489 17, 239 22,094 9,166 7,890
34
69 « 13 7 29
Under $950..........
133
* 78
11
$950-$l,049______
39
16
8
4
9
$1,050-$1,149____
7
3
37
4
14
1
$1,150-$1,249____
84
76
217
56
1
1
$l-,250-$l,349____
392
146
187
57
357
1
12
77
96
171
$1,350-$1,449____
821
$1,450-$1,549____ 1,055
$1,550-$1,649____ 2,898
$1,650-$1,749____ 4,198
$1,750-$1,849___ _ 4,862
12
III
All
cities
78
97
10
14
48
44
17
11
26
82
203
1,151
129
284
387
352
282
381
1,102
772
894
1,531 1,204 1,216
1,642
936 1,116
1
2
2
$1,850-$1,949____
$1,950-12,049____
$2,050-$2.149........
$2,150-$2,249____
$2,250-$2,349____
5, 764
7,378
4,474
8,365
2,946
20
2,950
19
68
75
177
265
1,263
3, 717
1,067
4,028
2,926
1,921
3,039
1,062
775
590
882
819
541
764
647
389
722
201
4
7
8
10
8
$2,350-$2,449____
$2,450-$2,549........
$2,550-$2,649____
$2,650-$2,749........
$2,750-$2,849........
5,107
4,997
2,166
1,093
683
134
822
30
5
13
2,844
2,101
1,590
640
226
1,548
1,083
387
208
225
421
679
97
147
123
160
312
62
93
96
26
17
10
21
12
$2,850-$2,949____
$2,950-$3,049____
$3,050-$3,149____
$3,150-$3,249........
$3,250-$3,349____
824
5,347
145
403
75
29
4,489
20
10
19
633
404
24
240
16
42
315
49
96
17
101
91
28
40
18
19
48
24
17
5
12
38
7
10
15
$3,350-$3,449____
$3,450-$3,549____
$3,550-$3,649____
$3,650-$3,749____
$3,750-$3,849____
329
121
86
15
23
107
38
3
2
2
164
34
28
1
4
38
26
35
9
7
17
14
10
1
9
3
9
10
2
1
5
12
26
$3,850-$3,949........
$3,950-$4,049____
$4,050 and over..
937
144
804
931
1
8 548
95
• 150
10 73
4
36
1
10
ii 26
127
1
2
3
16
77
See footnotes at end of table.
1
2
2
1
4
4
1
12
4
6
8
10
8
1
3
5
5
3
3
23
12
5
18
8
1
2
2
2
2
4
14
3
3
8
7
22
2
5
5
2
2
10
2
3
1
7
8
1
2
3
8
1
1
2
9
37
1
5
21
2
6
127
FIRE D E P A R T M E N T S
Municipal fire-department employees in the United States in selected
occupations, by salary, July 1, 1938— Continued
Captains
Salary class
Privates
City group 2
All
cities
Cities reporting
specified occupation_____________
New
York
City
II
I
336
1
12
All salaries_______
Under $950_____
$950-$l,049______
$1,050-$1,149____
$1,150-$1,249____
$t250-$l,349____
5,769
354
1,213
$1,350-$! ,449____
$1,450-$1,549........
$1,550-$1,649........
$1,650-$1,749____
$1,750-$1,849____
46
44
112
265
225
$1,850-$1,949____
$l,950-$2,049____
$2,050-$2,149____
$2,150-$2,249........
$2,250-$2,349____
550
486
445
440
281
$2,350-$2,449........
$2,450-$2,549____
$2,550-$2,649____
$2,650-$2,749........
$2,750-$2,849........
228
546
193
397
274
$2,850-$2,949____
$2,950-$3,049____
$3,050-$3,149____
$3,150-$3,249____
$3,250-$3,349____
75
336
31
309
51
220
$3,350-$3,449____
$3,450-$3,549____
$3,550-$3,649........
$3,650-$3,749____
$3,750-$3,849
98
98
$3,850-$3,949____
$3,950-$4,049____
$4,050 and over.-.
III
78
IV
92
153
2,238 1,037
3
8
96
213
266
75
194
356
1
City group 2
I
II
12
78
III
IV
97
168
927 44,633 8,100 12,089 14,061 5,650
5
20
8
8
3
13
146
63
65
8
268
51
83
4,733
15
8
5
18
134
69
12
21
41
113
73
34
23
71
152
83
571
748
2, 217
2,803
3,460
44
162
1, 054
97
307
1,02J
1,139
1,050
230
179
517
763
644
244
262
635
739
712
272
277
214
354
166
135
117
50
43
45
143
92
85
43
70
3,844
5,544 2,910
3,183
6,625
1,598
8
103
1,040
3,390
821
3,045
1,761
1,308
2,144
416
437
343
632
576
314
354
427
203
515
47
151
226
143
67
110
44
87
34
58
87
33
20
16
6
2
3,929
3,704
1, 209
36
66
2,598
1,667
1,202
1,009
531
5
265
500
2
57
256
90
4
77
12
16
15
31
12
10
12
7
69
4, 572 4,440
2
21
354
All
New
cities York
City
750
36
66
9
100
60
32
2
18
354
3
1
1Includes 16,119 employees for whom salaries by occupations are not shown separately. For greater
detail see Serial No. R. 1301.
2The 362 cities other than New York City have been divided into 4 population groups, on the basis of
the United States Census of Population for 1930, as follows: Group I includes 12 cities with a population of
500,000 or over; group II, 78 cities of 100,000 and under 500,000; group III, 97 cities of 50,000 and under 100,000;
and group IV, 175 cities of 25,000 and under 50,000.
3Each receives $840.
4Each receives $900.
3Includes employees whose salaries range from $552 to $936.
•Includes employees whose salaries range from $780 to $912.
7Includes employees whose salaries range from $720 to $900.
8Includes employees whose salaries range from $4,200 to $12,500.
9Includes employees whose salaries range from $4,040 to $10,000.
10Includes employees whose salaries range from $4,056 to $8,000.
11Includes employees whose salaries rapge from $4,200 to $6,000.
12Includes employees whose salaiies range from $4,250 to $4,833.
Variations in salaries o f privates resulted not only from differences
between cities, but also from the fact that some departments had 5
or more grades o f privates. F or example, the New Y ork City depart
ment classified its privates into 5 grades; the rate o f pay for those in
the first grade was $3,000, fo r those in the second grade, $2,500, and for
those in the lower grades, $2,000. First-grade privates constituted
128
WAGES AND HOURS
only 55 percent o f all privates in New Y ork City, but 89 percent o f the
privates in the other 355 cities reporting privates.
Salary scales for the 2,633 engineers reported were similar to those
fo r privates; the greatest concentration ox salaries (about 13 percent)
was in the $100 range beginning at $2,150. The corresponding salary
range containing the largest proportion o f drivers, however, was $500
lower than that fo r privates and engineers.
Department heads, o f course, were the best paid o f the fire-depart
ment personnel. The commissioner who was in charge o f the New
Y ork City department received $12,500 a year, while the next
highest salary was $10,000 paid to the chief in Chicago. Over 21
percent o f all chiefs had salaries o f $4,050 or more in 1938. Salaries
o f the remainder varied between this amount and $1,560 received by
the chief in Enid, Okla., with about one-tenth o f the total receiving
approximately $3,000 a year.
Fire Protection Related to Concentration o f Population
The cost of fire protection per inhabitant depends upon many
factors. In any particular city, the primary factors are, of course,
the average salary rate and the number of employees per 10,000 of
population. The latter depends, in turn, upon a variety of considera
tions, among which are the nature of local fire hazards, the a,mount of
equipment, and the average hours on duty of the firemen.
A s a group, cities o f 500,000 or more, except New Y ork City, had
fewer fire-department employees per 10,000 o f population than any
other population group.3 There was wide variation among individual
cities composing this group. F or example, the Chicago department
had only 9 employees per 10,000 inhabitants in contrast to 20 employees
per 10,000 in Boston. New Y ork City had 15 employees per 10,000
inhabitants.
Although average salaries per fire-department employee decreased
consistently from the groups o f largest to smallest cities, the per cap
ita salary costs did not follow the same pattern. F or example, the 12
largest cities, exclusive o f New Y ork City, were able to furnish fire
protection at a per capita salary cost o f $2.97, as contrasted with a
cost o f $3.05 in cities o f 100,000 to 500,000, despite the fact that the
average annual salary in the largest cities was more than $300 greater
than that in the next size group.
O ther W orking Conditions
Items of equipment furnished to members of the fire department,
policies regarding vacations with pay, and promotion systems affect
not only the real income of fire-department employees, but also the
quality and cost of the service rendered to the public.
W ithout exception, fire departments in the 363 cities supplied
sleeping quarters for firemen on night duty, and in 241 cities supplied
* Ratios are on the basis of the 1930 population figures and are presented to show relative
comparisons rather than actual figures. The 1940 census indicates that there were popula
tion increases of varying degrees for each group of cities covered by the table. However,
preliminary estimates o f ratios of employees per 10,000 and salary costs per capita on the
basis of 1940 population figures show that although the population increases lower these
ratios, they do not change appreciably the relative positions of the groups.
FIRE D E P A R T M E N T S
129
bedding, linen, and laundry without charge. Only 50 cities furnished
uniforms, 17 supplied clpth and trimmings for uniforms, and 5 gave
a cash allowance fo r uniforms. Other items o f equipment such as
helmets, rubber coats and boots, and badges were frequently furnished.
Practically all fire departments give vacations with p a y ; less than
a half o f 1 percent o f all employees in the 363 cities received no vaca
tion. Although the vacation periods varied in length from 7 to 33
days, 62 percent o f the employees received approximately 2 weeks.
Cities in the East North Central and the South Atlantic regions gave
the longest vacations. Members o f the Chicago and Detroit fire
departments, who constituted 31 percent o f all employees in the East
North Central region, received 20 days. Similarly, the department
in W ashington, D. C., with 15 percent o f the employees in the South
Atlantic region, gave 26-day vacations. Most members o f the New
Y ork City fire department have vacations o f 21 days. In only the
East South Central region were the vacation periods appreciably
shorter than 2 weeks; 42 percent o f the total employees in this region
received 10 days.
Promotion policies in fire departments are exemplified by the
systems o f prom oting privates. In 263 o f the 363 cities it was
the general policy to promote privates automatically from one grade
to another after a specified period o f service, usually a year. Forty six cities provided fo r promotion by civil-service examination, and 26
made promotions on the recommendation o f superior officers. O f the
28 cities which reported that they did not classify privates in more
than one grade, some indicated that they gave salary increases within
that grade.
H ours o f W o rk
Hours o f work for firemen vary greatly from city to city. Since
adequate fire protection has to be provided at all times, a large enough
force must always be on duty to take care o f ordinary needs and lie
able to meet emergencies. This has resulted in the development o f a
considerable number o f different systems o f operation calling for
various periods o f duty. In some small communities the hours o f
duty are practically continuous, and the firemen are obliged to live
at or near the fire station, where they are on call at all times. Some
small cities and towns have volunteer fire departments, whose mem
bers are not paid, but who are subject to call as required. There are
occasional examples o f combinations o f paid and volunteer units
within a city.
In general, the actual system o f operation used depends to some
extent upon customs in an area, but to a greater extent on the size and
financial condition o f the city. Continuous or nearly continuous
duty is not practical in cities o f any considerable size. Platoon sys
tems have been introduced to avoid the necessity o f continuous duty.
In the simplest platoon systems the firemen usually work 1 or a few
days continuously, and then have a full 24 hours off duty. Other
platoon systems have been developed in which one group works 10
hours during the daytime for several days, and then changes over to
14 hours o f night duty. Such systems require a 24-hour period o f
130
WAGES AND HOURS
duty for one platoon, and provide a leave period o f 24 hours fo r the
other, at each period o f change from day to night duty.
There has been a steady but gradual trend toward the elimination
o f all 24-hour periods o f duty. In some large cities, platoon systems
have been devised which completely eliminate the 24-hour period o f
duty, and there is one which provides for an 8-hour day for each fire
man, with 1 day off each week. The introduction and establishment
o f these modern and complicated systems present many problems to
city officials. In the first place, the cost increases sharply when hours
are reduced, because o f the additional personnel needed. F or example,
the number o f firemen needed in a system providing an 8-hour day is
about two-thirds greater than for the system in which 2 full days on
duty are followed by 1 day off. Secondly, the problem o f organization
and personnel training is complicated by any change o f system which
reduces the hours and increases the number o f men required. Certain
specific requirements as to the number o f consecutive hours on duty
and days off are often imposed by law, and any change involves
months o f detailed planning to meet these legal requirements and still
provide at all times the requisite number o f firemen in each grade and
occupational classification. Budgetary considerations are frequently
the controlling factor in determining the system o f operation, but the
general tendency is toward shorter hours and more regular periods
o f duty.
Only the general subject o f the hours o f work in various types o f
platoon systems is presented here.
Single-Platoon System
The single-platoon system ranks next to continuous service with
respect to the length o f the workweek. Firemen working under one
type o f single-platoon system are on duty 144 hours per week, as
compared with 168 hours for the full week o f continuous service.
In this type, the fireman is on duty 24 hours a day fo r 6 days and then
has 1 day o f leave. I f there are 70 firemen on the force, 10 o f them
take their day o f leave on each day o f the week in succession.
Thus, 60 members o f the force are on duty at all times.
In another common variation o f the single-platoon system, the
members o f the force are on duty for 2 days, then off for 1. Under this
plan the fireman works 14 full days in a period o f 3 weeks, making
an average workweek o f 4.7 days or 112 hours. The period o f 3
weeks is taken as the basis fo r computing all averages, because not until
this period o f 21 days is completed does the fireman have a workweek
which is identical in all respects with a preceding week.
The shortest workweek under the single-platoon system occurs in
a variation in which the pattern is 1 day on and 2 days off, but this
type is not common. The average hours worked in this type are 56
per week.
Double-Platoon System
B y far the greatest number o f firemen work under what is called the
double-platoon system, and there are about a half a dozen important
types o f this system. The simplest is one in which one platoon o f fire-
FIRE D E P A R T M E N T S
131
men is on duty 24 hours without interruption, and then off duty for 24
hours. The second platoon merely alternates with the first in order
to maintain continuous fire-protection service. This system is still
generally used in many parts o f the country because o f its simplicity
o f operation, particularly in smaller departments where limited per
sonnel does not permit more complicated systems. Its primary dis
advantage is that the fireman has to be on duty 24 hours a day every
other* day.
The term “ tour” is applied to any period o f consecutive hours on
duty or off duty. The word “ shift,” as used in fire departments
throughout the country, usually refers to the time when one group
or platoon o f firemen relieves the platoon which has just completed a
tour.
The various types o f double-platoon systems differ primarily in the
number o f days worked before the 24-hour tour is introduced to shift
a platoon from one set o f hours to the other. Shifts on the third,
fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, or eighth day are common in fire depart
ments throughout the country. I f no additional time off is granted,
the firemen in these cases work 84 hours a week. W hen additional
time off each week is given, the hours worked are usually 72 per week.
This occurs in several States where State laws provide for 1 full day
o f leave per week fo r all firemen.
10-Group System (Double-Platoon)
There is a type o f double-platoon system which completely elimi
nates the 24-hour tour. It is called the “ 10-group” or “ elimination”
system because it eliminates the necessity for any 24-hour tours o f
duty fo r the firemen.
The entire force o f firemen is divided into 10 groups, and the groups
are so combined for duty that continuous service is maintained with
maximum personnel at all times. The pattern o f the hours o f duty
and time off repeats itself every 1G days. During these 10 days each
fireman has 8 tours o f duty and 2 long tours off. The 8 tours o f duty
consist o f four 9-hour tours, and four 15-hour tours, a total o f 96 hours
in 10 days, or an average o f 9 hours and 36 minutes per day.
Every 10 days each member receives one 48-hour leave and one
24-hour 1 ive. He is also off duty three 9-hour periods and three
15-liour periods, making a total o f 144 hours off and 96 hours on. On
each day the 10 groups are arranged so that the members o f one group
are on 24-hour leave, members o f another group are about in the
middle o f their 48-hour leave, members o f 4 groups are working a
9-hour tour o f duty, and members o f 4 groups are working a 15-hour
tour. Members o f most 10-group elimination double-platoon sys
tems work about 68 hours per week.
Overlapping Group System (Double-Platoon)
The city o f San Francisco has developed a unique variation o f the
double-platoon system in which each member o f the* force works the
same general pattern o f hours and these patterns or cycles overlap
each other. The fireman is on duty 10 hours during the daytime the
first 6 days and then he is off duty 24 hours. This 24 hours off extends
through parts o f the sixth and seventh days. However, during the
132
WAGES AND HOURS
early part o f the sixth day he works a day tour o f 10 hours and during
the night o f the seventh day he is on duty 14 hours, but these two tours
o f duty are 24 hours apart. The night tour o f the seventh day is the
beginning o f a series o f 7 night tours, after which he has 2 full days
off. H is 15-day cycle is then completed and another is started. It is
identical in all respects with the first, except that it begins on a differ
ent day o f the week. I f the first began on Monday, the second would
start on a Tuesday. Not until seven periods are completed does the
fireman start a cycle again on a Monday.
As in all platoon systems, the primary purpose is to maintain a
constant and balanced fire-fighting force on duty at all times, but at
the same time allow the firemen reasonable hours o f work and adequate
time off.
Three-Platoon System
The primary purpose o f the three-platoon system is to give the
firemen an 8-hour day, with 1 day off each week. Probably the best
example o f this system is found in New Y ork City. The citizens o f
New York City passed a law in 1937 which made mandatory the
installation o f the three-plato
"
1 ‘ 1 ‘ 1 ;scribed here briefly.
officers ranking as
The law applies to firemen
high as deputy chief. It provides that no fireman shall be assigned
to more than one tour o f duty in any 24 consecutive hours and that
no tour o f duty shall exceed 8 consecutive hours. Also the type o f
tour is changed each week for every fireman, giving him an 8-hour
shift beginning at midnight 1 week, at 4 p. m. the next week, and
8 a. m. the third week.
Under this three-platoon system the fire-fighting personnel is divided
into 10 groups in a manner somewhat similar to that explained above
in discussing the 10-group double-platoon system. Three -groups
are on duty each tour, and 2 groups are off on their 32-hour leave.
Each day 3 o f the groups are on a tour which began at midnight,
3 are on a tour which began at 8 a. m., and 3 at 4 p. m. Each group
works 6 tours o f one type and then takes a leave o f 32 hours. The
next week the groups change types o f tours. In other words, if group
1 works the tour beginning at midnight for 6 days, the next week
the group will shift to the tour beginning at 4 p. m., and in the third
week the cycle is completed with 6 tours beginning at 8 a. m. It
takes 20 days to complete this cycle. The 32-hour leave which occurs
between the tour extending from midnight to 8 a. m. and the tour
from 4 p. m. to midnight is responsible for the cycle being 20 days
in length rather than 21 days. During the 2 days in which this 32
hours off occurs each member performs 8 hours’" duty on each day
but the tours are 32 hours apart. In the 20-day period each group
performs 18 tours o f duty.
Since 20 days is one day short o f a 3-week period, it can be seen that
if the first cycle began on Monday the second cycle must start on a
Sunday. Hence a fireman in any one group would have to work
through 7 complete cycles before lie would start a cycle on the same
day o f the week that he started the first cycle. W hile there still
remains some irregularity in a fireman’s hours under this system, he
has better general working conditions because o f the 8-hour day, and
the day off each week.
F I REWORKS INDUSTRY
133
Fireworks Industry—Earnings and Hours,
October 19371
The establishments comprising the fireworks, or “ pyrotechnic” in
dustry, may be divided into three distinct grou ps: (1) The commercial
fireworks group, which includes those plants which are engaged solely
in the manufacture o f various types o f fireworks; (2) the display fire
works group, which includes those plants which, in addition to manu
facturing fireworks, also undertake the assembly o f exhibitions and
the actual display o f fireworks; (3) the fusee division, which manu
factures such products as flares or fusees for use on highways, railroads
and ships, railroad torpedoes, and safety fuses and squibs for use in
mining.
The term “ fireworks” has been defined to include all such articles
producing an audible or visible display. Aside from fusees, which
have a utilitarian purpose, the principal products o f the industry
are paper caps, sparklers, colored flares, salutes, Roman candles, sky
rockets, pin-wheels, triangles, sky bombs, fountains, and firecrackers
o f all kinds.
The fireworks industry is small. A ccording to the Census o f Manu
factures, it had 52 plants, whose product was valued at $5,000 or
more in 1935. They employed an average o f 1,587 wage earners in
that year. The Bureau o f Labor Statistics survey included 41 estab
lishments, with a total o f 1,384 employees.2 O f these, 19 plants with
988 workers are in the commercial division, 7 establishments with 86
employees are in the display division, and 15 plants with 310 workers
are in the fusee division.
The plants in the fireworks industry are relatively small. The 41
establishments covered in the survey averaged 34 employees each,
The establishments are scattered throughout northern and western
United States. Although the fireworks plants buy their materials
from large companies in the explosives industry, they are independent
and unaniliated organizations. Because o f the hazard involved, as
well as because o f restrictive municipal or State legislation, a great
many o f the plants are located outside o f city limits; hence their
wages, hours, and working conditions are influenced largely by local
conditions. The industry is highly competitive.
In the fusee division o f the industry employment is not particularly
subject to seasonal variation. The plants in this division are engaged
in the production o f articles for the transportation and mining indus
tries so that employment in them depends largely upon general eco
nomic conditions in the country. On the other hand, there is a strong
seasonal element in employment in the other two divisions o f the in
dustry. Thus, the establishments making commercial fireworks
depend almost entirely on the demands for the Fourth o f July and
Christmas.
1 Abstract of article in the Monthly Labor Review for April 1938, prepared by J. Perl
man, P. L. Jones, and O. R. Witmer, of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
2 The survey excluded establishments with fewer than 5 wage earners.
This accounts
partly for the smaller number of plants and employees covered by the survey as compared
with the number in the Census of Manufactures in 1935. Another reason for the lower
coverage in number of workers is that the survey was made during a slack season in the
display fireworks division.
134
WAGES AND HOURS
The information obtained in this survey relates to a pay-roll period
in October 1937, though fo r a few scattered establishments the data
cover either a prior or a later date. This seems to be a representative
pay-roll period fo r the commercial fireworks and fusee divisions. It
is not entirely representative fo r the display fireworks division,
although in several instances information fo r this branch was obtained
fo r a previous pay-roll period.
The employees in this industry are not generally organized. Only
one establishment was reported as having a contract with a tradeunion.
A verage H o u r ly Earnings
In 16 o f the 41 establishments covered, all o f the wage earners were
paid on a straight time-rate basis. In only 2 plants were all workers
paid on a straight piece-rate basis. In 19 establishments, part o f the
employees were paid time rates, while others were paid piece rates.
In the other 4 establishments, some o f the workers were paid on a
time basis, while others were given a bonus, provided their units of
production exceeded a required standard. The average hourly earn
ings o f the 1,384 wage earners covered in the survey amounted to
41.3 cents, males averaging 49.1 cents and females 31.8 cents an hour.
O f the 721 male employees, about one-fifth (141) were classed
as skilled, three-fifths (438) as semiskilled and the remaining onefifth (142) as unskilled. Nearly all the female employees were
classed as semiskilled. (See table 1.)
T
able
1 .—Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings in fireworks
industry, October 1937, by sex, skill, and occupation
Sex, skill, and occupation
Number
of em
ployees
All male employees_________________ ____ ____________
Skilled males___- . ____ _______________ ___________
Powder mixers________________________________
Foremen, working-------------------------------------------Maintenance and power, skilled_______________
Semiskilled males-------------------- ---------------- ------------Loaders, fireworks, machine..................................
Loaders, fireworks, h a n d ...----------------------------Paper fabricators, miscellaneous....................... .
Assemblers and finishers, fireworks____________
Fireworks makers, miscellaneous.._____ ______
Miscellaneous semiskilled.................. ......... .........
Unskilled males___________ ____ __________________
Material carriers and productive helpers______
Laborers________ ____________________ _____ _
Watchmen------------ ------- -----------------------------------
721
141
42
55
44
438
51
93
53
89
58
94
142
65
41
36
All female employees 1.......... ...............................................
Semiskilled females:
Loaders, fireworks, hand........... ...........................
Tube rollers, hand...... ............................................
Paper fabricators, miscellaneous.____ _________
Assemblers and finishers, fireworks___________
Packers, fireworks..__________ ________________
Miscellaneous semiskilled2____________________
1 Includes all semiskilled and 14 unskilled employees.
* Includes 14 unskilled employees
Average
hourly
earnings
Average
weekly
hours
Average
weekly
earnings
$0.491
.650
.518
.802
.588
.479
.522
.486
.408
.493
.497
.469
.379
.428
.365
.328
42.4
42.0
41.7
41.7
42.5
41.4
38.7
43.6
42.9
39.7
39.7
42.7
45.8
41.6
42.8
56.8
$20.82
27.29
21.62
33.47
24.99
19. 86
20.20
21.20
17.50
19. 56
19. 75
20. 02
17. 39
17.81
15.62
18.63
663
.318
38.3
12.18
55
49
38
360
109
52
.283
.326
.344
.305
.324
.408
40.8
40.9
40.1
37.6
38.1
37.3
11.56
13.32
13.78
11.46
12.37
15. 24
135
FIREWORKS INDUSTRY
There is wide divergence in the average hourly earnings o f the three
occupations classed as skilled. These averages were 80.2 cents for
working foremen, 58.8 cents for skilled mechanics in the maintenance
and power departments, and 51.8 cents for powder mixers. The
relatively high earnings o f working foremen are undoubtedly due to
the skill and responsibility required o f them in supervising an
industry with a predominance o f semiskilled and unskilled employees.
Differences in the hourly earnings of males and females for the
same skill and occupations must be examined with certain reserva
tions. It frequently happened that although the same occupational
designation was used for both males and females, the latter were not
performing exactly the same duties as the men.
Taking the States with 3 or more establishments, the average
hourly earnings amounted to 53.5 cents for Connecticut, 45.2 cents for
Illinois, 43.5 cents for New Jersey, 41.8 cents for Ohio, 35.3 cents for
Pennsylvania, and 33.3 cents fo r Maryland. These State averages
combine commercial and display plants and fusee plants in unequal
proportion.
A n examination o f the data indicates the existence o f significant
variations among the three divisions o f the industry (table 2 ). Thus,
considering all employees, the average hourly earnings were 38.3 cents
fo r commercial fireworks, 41.5 cents for display fireworks, and 51.7
cents fo r the fusee division.
T able
2.—Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings of employees
in fireworks industry, October 1987, by division and sex
Sex
Commer
cial and
display
fireworks
divisions
Fusee
division
Average hourly earnings__________
Males___ _____________________
Females......... .............................
$0,386
.457
.300
$0.517
.628
.386
Average weekly hours........... ..........
Males________________________
Females_____________ ____ ___
41.5
43.7
39.1
36.8
37.9
35.5
Average weekly earnings_________
Males______ _____ ___________
Females________ ____________
$16.02
19.96
11.74
$18.99
23.80
13.72
W eek ly H ou rs and Earnings
O f the 41 plants covered, 19 had scheduled hours o f exactly 40 per
week at the time o f the survey. Only 3 establishments had a work
week o f less than 40 hours, their full-time hours being respectively 32%,
35, and 36%. The remaining plants w^ere distributed as follow s:
1 at 41%, 1 at 42%, 5 at 44,1 at 45, 7 at 48,1 at 49%, and 3 at 50 hours
per week.
The actual weekly hours o f all employees in the fireworks industry
averaged 40.4 in October 1937. The averages were 42.4 for males and
38.3 for females. A distribution by sex is given in table 3.
136
WAGES AND HOURS
T a b l e 3 . — Distribution
of employees in the fireworks industry according to weekly
hours, October 1937, by sex
Total
1
Num Simple Cumu Num Simple Cumu Num
Cumu
lative ber of
lative
ber of
ber of Simple
per
per lative
per
em
em
per
per
em
per
cent cent ploy cent cent
ploy
ploy cent
cent
age
age
age
age
age
age
ees
ees
ees
Weekly hours
Under 16 hours_____________________
16 and under 24 hours______ - _______
24 and under 32 hours_______________
32 and under 36 hours_______________
36 and under 40 hours______ _______
Exactly 40 hours____________________
Over 40 and under 44 hours_________
44 and under 48 hours_______________
Exactly 48 hours____________________ }
Over 48 and under 66 hours_________
56 and under 62 hours_______________
62 hours and over
Total
_
Females
Males
_
33
42
57
123
121
439
172
127
207
30
33
2.4
3.0
4.1
8.9
8.8
31.7
12.4
9.2
14.9
2.2
2.4
1,384
100.0
Average weekly hours for all em
ployees____________ ____ _________
19
2.4
5.4
20
19
9.5
18.4
30
63
27.2
245
58.9
67
71.3
47
80.5
95.4 f 65
l
84
29
97.6
33
100.0
2.6
2.8
2.6
4.2
8.7
34.0
9.3
6.5
9.1
11.6
4.0
4.6
2.6
5.4
8.0
12.2
20.9
54.9
64.2
70.7
79.8
91.4 }
95.4
100.0
721 100.0
14
22
38
93
58
194
105
80
58
1
2.1
3.3
5.8
14.0
8.7
29.3
15.8
12.1
663
100.0
42.4
40.4
2.1
5.4
11.2
25.2
33.9
63.2
79.0
91.1
99.8
100.0
8.7
.2
38.3
The average weekly earnings o f all employees in the fireworks indus
try were $16.68 in October 1937. For males, the average earnings were
$20.82 per week. A ccording to table 4, one-fourth o f them earned $16
and less than $20, and one-fifth $20 and under $24.
T a b l e 4 .—Distribution
of male and female employees in fireworks industry according
to weekly earnings, October 1937
Males
Weekly earnings
Under $4________________
$4 and under $8_________
$8 and under $12________
$12 and under $16_______
$16 and under $20_______
$20 and under $24_______
$24 and under $28............
$28 and under $32_______
$32 and under $36_______
$36 and under $40_______
$40 and under $44_______
$44 and under $48_______
$48 and over________ . . .
Total_____________
Females
Num Simple Cumu
ber of
lative
per
em
per
ployees centage centage
14
24
29
100
ISO
148
109
54
25
13
17
4
4
1.9
3.4
4.0
13.9
24.9
20.6
15.1
7.5
3.4
1.8
2.4
.5
.6
721
100.0
1.9
5.3
9.3
23. 2
48.1
68.7
83.8
91.3
94.7
96.5
98.9
99.4
100.0
Num
Cumu
ber of Simple
lative
per
em
per
centage
ployees
centage
Weekly earnings
Under$2_________ . . . .
$2 and under $4_________
$4 and under $6_________
$6 and under $8_________
$8 and under $10________
$10 and under $12_______
$12 and under $14...........
$14 and under $16_______
$16 and under $18_______
$18 and under'$20_____ _
$20 and under $22. _____
$22 and under $24_______
$24 and under $26_______
2
18
37
37
88
108
142
136
54
19
12
9
1
0.3
2.7
5.6
5.6
13.3
16.2
21.5
20.5
8.1
2.9
1.8
1.3
.2
Total...............
663
100.0
....
0.3
3.0
8.6
14.2
27.5
43.7
65.2
85.7
93.8
96.7
98.5
99.8
100.0
*######*
Fishing Industry—Earnings and Methods of Wage
Payment, 19331
Fishing is one o f the pioneer American industries, and it is still a
means o f livelihood for a substantial segment o f the population* In
1930, according to the Bureau o f the Census, 73,280 workers were
employed in the industry. The census figures, however, tend to underx
From Monthly Labor Review for September 1936.
FISHING I N D U S T R Y
137
state the importance o f the fishing industry, as they do not include the
Alaskan fishermen; the members o f fishing crews who reported their
occupations as engineers, cooks, radio operators, seamen, sailors, and
deck hands; and many o f the persons with whom fishing is an auxil
iary occupation. W ith these workers included, the Bureau o f Fisheries
estimates that the total working force o f the industry has been in the
neighborhood o f 120,000.
Despite the importance o f the industry in the economic framework
o f the country, comparatively little has been known about the earnings
o f fishermen. This deficiency is supplied in part by an analysis2 of
the earnings o f fishermen published by the National Recovery
Administration in 1936. The main body o f the data was obtained by
means o f a questionnaire which, in August 1934, was sent to recorded
owners o f fishing vessels o f 5 net tons and over. The final analysis is
based on the reports o f 567 vessels. It is believed that this sample is
reasonably representative o f the industry as a whole.
E xten t o f P art-T im e E m ploym ent
Statistics compiled by the Bureau o f Fisheries show that approxi
mately a third o f the workers engaged in the boat and shore fisheries
o f the Atlantic and G ulf coasts and the Great Lakes are “ casual” fish
ermen ; i. e., those with whom fishing is a secondary occupation.
The part-time fishermen o f the eastern United States tend to be
found in larger proportions on the Great Lakes, in the Chesapeake
Bay area, and on the South Atlantic and G ulf coasts. They are chiefly
small farmers or farm laborers. The combination o f fishing and
farm ing in these areas is facilitated by the fact that some o f the im
portant fisheries o f the South and the oyster fishery o f the Chesapeake
Bay are most active during the winter months.
The principal fisheries in the Northeastern States, when not afford
ing more or less year-round employment, tend to be concentrated in
the summer and early fall. Consequently, the New England fisher
men are unable to transfer to farming during the slack season as
readily as those in the Middle and South Atlantic coast regions.
Likewise, there are comparatively few industrial establishments in
the area that can offer employment to the fishermen during the off
season. To some extent fishing is combined with the resort trades in
both New England and on the Middle Atlantic coast, but here again
there is an occupational conflict.
No reliable statistics are available on the number o f fishermen on
the Pacific coast who obtain a major share o f their income from other
sources. The evidence indicates, however, that the number is not
large. The Pacific fisheries are for the most part carried on in deep
water and for the large-scale supply o f canneries and reduction plants.
This type o f enterprise is not easily undertaken by the casual worker.
A long the Pacific coast, moreover, the agricultural population— the
class from which casual fishermen are usually recruited in other parts
o f the country— is not generally settled in close proximity to the
seacoast; but even in this area there are exceptions. Fishing is not
as a rule the sole occupation o f either the salmon fishermen o f the
Columbia River or the Alaskan fishermen.
3
National Recovery Administration. Division of Review. Industry Studies Section.
Earnings of Fishermen and of Fishing Craft— Appendix to the Fishery Industry and the
Fishery Codes, by John R. Arnold. Washington, 1936.
138
WAGES AND HOURS
Although it is clear that a significant proportion o f the total working
force is employed only part time, no information is available as to
the extent the earnings o f fishermen were supplemented by income
from other u* rces.
M ethods o f R em u n eration
A distinguishing feature o f the fishing industry is the wide va
riety in the methods o f wage payment. Compensation both by straight
wages on a time basis and by piece rates exists. In the marine fish
eries, however, by far the most common plan is to pay each member
o f the crew by a share in the value o f the catch. Under this plan the
compensation received by individual fishermen is primarily dependent
on the quantity o f fish caught and the unit price received for them,
and secondarily on the items deducted from the gross revenue before
arriving at the crew’s share.
The arrangement whereby the value o f the catch o f a fishing craft
working on shares is distributed among the persons and interests
concerned is known as a “ lay.” A share fisherman may receive a
wage or a bonus on a time or percentage basis in addition to or in lieu
o f a share in a lay. This arrangement, however, ordinarily applies
only to persons with exceptional responsibility, such as the captain,
mate, or pilot, or to members o f the crew engaged in specialized work,
such as the engineer, fireman, radio operator, or cook.
Straight wages on a time basis are usually restricted to the follow ing
classes o f vessel fisheries :
(1) The crews o f most oyster dredges.
(2) The crews o f the craft operating pound nets on the coast o f
New Jersey.
(3) The crews o f the menhaden fishing vessels operating out o f
Reedville, Va. This was the home port o f approximately a third o f
the vessels actively engaged in this branch o f the fishing industry in
1933. Some o f the menhaden vessels working out o f the Middle
Atlantic ports north o f V irginia operate on a share basis, and a m odi
fied share system is used by those operating on the Atlantic coast south
o f Virginia.
(4) The crews o f the paranzella net vessels working out o f San
Francisco.
(5) On the Great Lakes, and especially on the upper lakes, a
straight-time wage appears to be the prevailing system.
(6) The crews o f one important trawling fleet working out o f Nor
folk, Va., are paid on a time basis. The method is also used on some
shrimp vessels on the G u lf and in Alaska and occasionally elsewhere.
Piece rates are general among the fishermen employed by the salmon
canneries o f Alaska. The piece rates may be accompanied, however,
•by the payment o f fixed sums, often referred to as “ run money.” The
only other vessels whose crews are compensated on a straight piecerate basis are those in the Alaskan cod fishery, working out o f Puget
Sound and San Francisco.
The compensation o f fishing crews by means o f piece rates, however,
frequently shades off into intermediate systems. H ybrid methods o f
this kind are common on the menhaden vessels working off the South.
A tlantic coast, in the shrimp fisheries o f the G ulf coast, and in the
herring fisheries o f Alaska.
139
FISHING INDUSTRY
The relative importance of the different methods of wage payment
in the fishing industry in 1933 is indicated in table 1. The propor
tions shown are not fixed, as there is a tendency to shift from one
method to another in the hope that the altered arrangement will be
more satisfactory to the owners or the crews. Changes were espe
cially common on the Great Lakes during the depression, but they
occurred elsewhere as well.
T able
1 .— R elative im p ortan ce o f different m ethods o f wage p a ym e n t in fish in g
in d u s tr y , 1 9 3 3
1
Percent of total
Method of remuneration
All methods__________________
Number of
vessels
Number of
men
100
100
Share basis___________________
Time rates_____________________
Piece rates3 ___________________
79
19
2
72
25
3
Value of
catch
100
74
24
2
1 Estimated from returns to N RA questionnaire.
3 Includes piece-rate vessels owned or operated by salmon canneries in Alaska, which were not covered
by the original questionnaire.
The predominance of the share system in the fishing industry is
customarily explained by the need of providing a means of rewarding
the fishing crews adequately for the dangers and hardships to which
they are exposed. There is, no doubt, some truth in this explanation;
but the continuance of the share system is probably due, at least in
part, to the influence of habit and tradition on a very conservative
class of workers. At all events fishing is one of the few remaining
industries in the country in which the share system of remuneration
is still dominant. The variations in earnings which result and the
extent to which the earnings of the mass of the workers depend
directly on fluctuations of commodity prices have important effects
on the status and mental attitude of the fishermen.
Average Earnings in 1933
In 1933 the value of the catch of the 567 fishing vessels for which
reports were received totaled $7,649,842. O f the total, 38.6 percent
($2,951,695) went for wage disbursements. The earnings of the 5,051
workers employed by these vessels during the year varied widely,
but for the industry as a whole averaged $591. Earnings of the
California fishermen were highest, averaging $979. By contrast, an
average o f only $242 was reported for. the South.
On the Great Lakes and West coast, the earnings of the share fish
ermen exceed those of workers employed on a straight wage basis by
a substantial margin. As against an average o f $1,005 for the share
fishermen of California, for example, those employed on a wage basis
averaged $874 in 1933. On the East coast and Gulf, however, the
annual earnings of fishing crews that were paid on a wage basis had
an advantage over the share fishermen. Thus, in the Middle Atlantic
region the wage earners averaged $717, as compared with $630 for the
share fishermen.
505364 0 - 43 - 10
140
WAGES AND HOURS
A better indication of the wide variation of earnings in the fishing
industry is given by table 2 which shows, by regions, the average
earnings in 1933 of the fishermen engaged in each of the major
branches o f the industry for which information is available. In com
paring these averages, it should be noted that as a general rule the
members o f the crew of a lay vessel are allotted one share each, and
that any whose duties or responsibilities entitle them to additional
or higher compensation receive it in the form of a wage or bonus.
For this reason the averages given in the table closely approximate
the actual average of the ordinary fishermen and of other members
o f the crews who did not receive special compensation.
T a b l e 2 .— E a r n in g s o f fish erm en in im p ortan t branches o f the fish in g in d u stry in
1933
Method of remuneration, region, and branch of Number Number
of vessels of men
industry
Share vessels:
New England____________________________
Groundfish___________________________
Mackerel______________ ______________
Miscellaneous________________________
Middle Atlantic__________________________
Scallop______________________________
Miscellaneous-______ ___________ _____
South..____________ _____________________
Red snapper......................... ...................
Shrimp.................................. ...................
Miscellaneous________________________
Great Lakes.................................... ................
Lake Erie____________________________
Lakes Huron and Michigan___________
California____ ___________________________
Tuna________________________________
Tuna and sardine_____________________
Sardine, Monterey_____ ______________
Sardine, southern California___________
Miscellaneous________________________
Northwest and Alaska____________ ______
Halibut______________________________
Salmon____________ ____ _ . . .
Alaska herring____ ____ _____ _______
Miscellaneous________ ____
. . . _.
Time-rate vessels:
New England, oyster_______________ . . . .
Middle Atlantic___________ ______ ________
Oyster_________ ____________________
Pound net__________________ .
South___________________ _ . .
Menhaden........... ...... .............
Oyster and shrimp____________________
Great Lakes (Lakes Huron and Michigan). .
California, paranzella net............ ...... .......
Northwest and Alaska, miscellaneous____ .
Piece-rate vessels:
California: Alaska cod____________________
Northwest and Alaska: Alaska c o d ......... .
105
07
14
24
29
6
23
57
37
11
9
21
5
16
58
24
12
10
6
6
160
69
65
19
7
$769,930
638,533
50,669
80, 728
116,186
47,073
69,113
97,378
54,455
13,798
29,125
67,254
19, 746
47, 508
615,676
3 384, 500
3121,970
55,311
40,996
12,899
637,305
398,371
111,820
100, 772
26,342
54
674
636
38
173
75
7
417, 518
378,632
316,780
61, 852
279,966
224, 519
55,447
205,000
302,679
9,450
88,127
107,612
70,773
36,839
163,056
143,255
19,801
94,901
104, 1 6 6
3,675
1,389
525
77
119
41,229
87,158
28,313
58,116
368
488
102
29
73
613
289
124
110
57
33
985
465
339
132
49
125
154
21
100
2
3
Average
Total crews’ earnings
earnings1 per man i
$2 , 530,332
2,191, 543
121,047
217, 742
262,601
106,108
156, 493
299,793
195,368
26,838
77, 587
126, 444
39,385
87,059
1,475,656
1,058,529
233,867
92,380
72,114
18,766
1,233,384
808, 558
225,637
144,600
54,589
1,355
1,067
169
119
185
42
143
407
296
24
87
16
30
9
27
18
9
42
14
3
Value of
catch
$568
598
300
678
635
2
1 ,1 2 1
490
239
184
575
331
679
681
679
1,006
31,330
3 984
503
732
391
657
857
345
763
538
711
717
737
682
243
225
582
668
1 Excluding percentage bonuses charged to gross stock or vessel share.
2 The data for 1 0 of the 14 vessels in the mackerel fishery covered only the mackerel season proper, and
not winter participation in the southern trawl fishery. Since the southern trawl was the more profitable
part of the operation of these vessels in 1933, and because of the omission the average earnings per man
should be raised about 75 percent for comparison with the other fisheries.
* Including extra shares or half shares allotted to 4 captains in lieu of bonuses charged to the vessel share
or the operating expense.
A comparison o f the ratios borne by the total crew share to the
value of the catch in the various fisheries with the average share per
man indicates a certain rough correlation. Both the New England
ground fishery and the red-snapper fishery of the South, but partic
ularly the latter, show low average earnings as well as low propor-
FURNITURE MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY
141
tions o f crew shares. There are, however, exceptions to this
relationship. The crews o f the New England mackerel vessels in
1933 received a normal share of the gross, but because of low prices
for their product, the average earnings per man were comparatively
low. Their total earnings for the year, however, were approximately
75 percent higher than the average indicated in the table, as the
realization, from winter trawling operations in the South, of 10 of
the 14 vessels covered, was not included. As the prices received for
the trawl catch were relatively much better in 1933 than were those
received for mackerel, the excluded shares are believed to have repre
sented about half the earnings for the year o f the crews of the 10
vessels.
In the Monterey sardine fishery in California and in the salmon
fishery of the Pacific Northwest also, normal ratios of the crew share
to gross stock were combined with low earnings per man, though the
discrepancy was less extreme than in the New England mackerel
fishery.
Another factor that should be considered in comparing earnings in
the different branches of the industry is that allowance has to be
made for the fact that the cost o f food for the crews o f some of the
vessels has been deducted from the gross stock before arriving at the
crew share. On the Great Lakes, in the shrimp industry of the South,
and in the salmon troll fishery of Washington and Oregon, the vessels
reporting were not ordinarily out of port for more than a day at a
time and the men as a rule supplied their own food. In the Monterey
sardine and the Alaska herring fisheries, and in a few other branches
of the industry, the crew’s share was determined before deducting
the cost of the food. The individual shares for all of these fishermen
are somewhat higher than they should be for strict comparison with
the corresponding figures for the share vessels of the New England
and Middle Atlantic areas, for the California tuna fishery, for the
Pacific halibut fishery, and for some others. No data are available for
adjusting the individual share figures accurately to offset this differ
ence.
Furniture Manufacturing Industry—Earnings,
1936, 1937, and 19411
As defined in this article, the furniture industry includes the manu
facture o f three broad classes of product; namely, wood household
furniture, office furniture, and public-building furniture. The scope
of the industry studied is somewhat more limited than the census
classification, which also embraces household furniture made o f metal,
fiber, reed, ratten and willow, “ laboratory, hospital, and other profes
sional furniture” and “ partitions, shelving, cabinet work, and office
and store fixtures.” Establishments engaged primarily in the manu
facture of these products, however, probably employ less than one-fifth
of the wage earners in the broader industry and differ from the rest
o f the industry in their wage structure and in other characteristics.
1 Summary o f an article by V ictor S. Baril, Bureau o f Labor Statistics, in the M onthly
Labor Review fo r September 1941.
142
WAGES AND HOOTS
The branches covered in the Bureau of Labor Statistics survey a r e
estimated to have employed in 1939 some 125,000 workers, and to have
manufactured products worth approximately $500,000,000; of this
amount, wood household furniture represented roughly seven-eighths,
office furniture about one-tenth, and public-building furniture about
one-twentieth.
The sample on which the 1941 survey was based was selected entirely
from among 373 plants studied in a 1937 survey of the industry. This
method was adopted in the interest of speed and -economy, and in
the belief that these 373 plants, originally selected from a list o f all
furniture manufacturers, were still reasonably representative of the
industry.
The information on which the survey is based was obtained directly
from plant records by field representatives o f the Bureau. The basic
information included the occupation, sex, color, and method of wage
payment of each worker, as well as his actual hours of work and his
actual earnings for one representative pay-roll period. For each
worker extra earnings due to overtime worked at punitive rates of pay
were reported separately from earnings at regular rates o f pay.
The average hourly earnings used in this report, unless otherwise
specified, are based on earnings at regular rates of pay and do not
reflect any extra earnings received by workers for overtime worked at
punitive rates of pay. In this respect the figures for 1941 differ from
those for 1937, as the latter are based on earnings at all rates and there
fore reflect any extra earnings for overtime worked at higher rates.
This difference, however, does not impair the validity of general com
parisons, since relatively few of the plants paid extra rates for over
time work in 1937. In the North 29 of the 93 plants covered paid extra
for overtime but in most cases the amount of such payments during
the period surveyed is believed to have been small.
Wood Household Furniture Branch
The average hourly earnings of 10,430 workers in 72 plants in the
wood household branch of the furniture industry in February 1941
amounted to 48.7 cents.2 Although a few workers earned less than
30 cents an hour and some earned more than $1.20, the vast majority
had earnings within a much more limited range. Four-fifths of the
workers earned between 30 and 62.5 cents, and one-fifth had earnings
within the 2.5-cent interval from 30 to 32.5 cents. (See table 1.)
Workers in the North averaged 55.6 cents an hour or half again as
much as workers in the South, whose earnings amounted to 36.9 cents.
Average hourly earnings in the 72 plants were slightly higher in
1941 than in the same plants in 1937. Workers in the North averaged
0.9 cent more per hour (55.6 compared to 54.7 cents) and in the South
1.9 cents more per hour (36.9 as against 35 cents). The net gain
for the industry as a whole, however, amounted to only 0.1 cent. This
seeming inconsistency is explained by the fact that the southern
plants with their much lower wage level, experienced substantial
2 This average is based on earnings at regular rates o f pay.
If, however, extra earnings
for overtime at punitive rates o f pay are added to the earnings at regular rates o f pay,
the over all average is increased by 1.3 cents.
143
EURNITURE MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY
gains in employment during the 3 ^ -year period and consequently
received greater weight in 1941 than they did in 1937.
T
1 .— P ercentage distribu tion o f w ork ers in w ood household fu rn itu re bra nch ,
b y average h o u rly earnings and reg io n , October 1 9 3 7 and F e b r u a r y 1 9 4 1
a b l e
United States
North
South
Average hourly earnings
1937
Under 30.0 cents_________ ____ _________
30.0 and under 32.5 cents________________
32.5 and under 35.0 cents_______________
35.0 and under 37.5 cents________________
37.5 and under 40.0 cents____________ __
40.0 and under 42.5 cents________________
42.5 and under 47.5 cents________________
47.5 and under 52.5 cents___________ ____
52.5 and under 57.5 cents________________
57.5 and under 62.5 cents________________
52.5 and under 67.5 cents________________
87.5 and under 72.5 cents____ __________
72.5 and under 77.5 cents_______________
77.5 and under 82.5 cents________________
82.5 and under 87.5 cents________________
87.5 and under 92.5 cents________________
92.5 and under 100.0 cents_______________
1 0 0 . 0 and under 1 1 0 . 0 cents______________
1 1 0 . 0 and under 1 2 0 . 0 cents______________
1 2 0 . 0 cents and over
T o t a l . _________________________
Number of plants_______ ______________
Number of workers____________________
Average hourly earnings________________
1
Less than one-tenth of
1
9.2
9.4
6 .0
5.7
4.6
8.9
11.0
9.9
7.0
6 .0
5.9
3.9
3.6
2.5
2 .1
1 .1
1 .0
1 .0
.6
.6
1941
0 .2
19.2
5.3
7.0
4.3
8.3
10.9
1 0.2
8 .0
5.9
4.7
4.1
3.6
2 .2
1.5
1 .1
1 .0
1.4
.7
.4
1937
3.4
2.7
2.9
4.1
4.4
10.1
13.2
1 1.8
8.7
7.8
7.9
5.3
5.0
3.5
3.0
1 .6
1.4
1.4
.9
.9
1941
0)
5.4
2 .1
4.8
3.7
9.2
13.3
12.9
10.5
1937
22.9
25.1
13.3
9.6
4.8
0.4
44.7
6 .2
6 .6
6 .6
1 1.1
11 2
.
5.4
5.4
5.3
2.9
1.7
8 .1
6 .6
5.2
3.4
1 .8
1.3
.9
.7
.4
1 .2
5.9
5.2
3.2
.8
.2
.1
.1
.1
2 .2
1.7
1.5
2 .1
1 .0
.6
1941
.2
1
.
0)
.1
.1
0)
1
0)
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
72
9,690
$0.486
72
10,430
$0.487
56
6 , 771
$0. 547
56
6,766
$0. 556
16
2,919
$0.350
16
3,664
$0.369
percent.
The modest increase in earnings since 1937 is due largely to the
raising o f wage rates for a substantial number of workers who pre
viously received less than 30 cents an hour. This adjustment, which
meant wage increases for 3.4 percent of the workers in the North and
22.5 percent o f those in the South, undoubtedly resulted from the
application o f the 30-cent minimum wage under the Fair Labor Stand
ards Act. Practically all of the workers formerly receiving less than
30 cents were earning between 30 and 32.5 cents in 1941; most of these
workers in fact received exactly 30 cents.
Substantial variations in average earnings existed among the four
product groups of the wood household-furniture branch. In 1941
the highest average hourly earnings (56.8 cents) were found in plants
producing upholstered furniture, the next highest (50.5 cents) in
novelty furniture, and the lowest (44.2 cents) in case goods. The
average for kitchen furniture plants, 45.8 cents, closely approximated
that for case goods. (See table 2.) These differences reflect the
skill requirements of the labor force and the wage levels of the regions
in which the manufacture of the various products is concentrated.
In the country as a whole three of the four product groups showed
slightly higher average hourly earnings in 1941 than in 1937. The
increases ranged from 0.1 cent for upholstered furniture plants to 0.9
cent in kitchen furniture plants. The average for novelty furniture
was 1.2 cents lower in 1941 than in 1937.
14 4
WAGES AND HOURS
T a b l e 2 .— P ercentage d istribution o f w orkers in the w ood household fu rn itu re branch
b y average h ou rly earnings and b y p rod u ct , October 1 9 8 7 and F eb ru a ry 1 9 4 1
Case goods
Average hourly earnings
1941
1937
Under 30.0 cents__________________
30.0 and under 32.5 cents___________
32.5 and under 35.0 cents___________
35.0 and under 37.5 cents___________
37.5 and under 40.0 cents__________
40.0 and under 42.5 cents___________
42.5 and under 47.5 cents___________
47.5 and under 52.5 cents---------------52.5 and under 57.5 cents_____ ____ _
57.5 and under 62.5 cents..^________
62.5 and under 67.5 cents___________
67.5 and under 72.5 cents___________
72.5 and under 77.5 cents___________
77.5 and under 82.5 cents___________
82.5 and under 87.5 cents___________
87.5 and under 92.5 cents___________
92.5 and under 100.0 cents__________
1 0 0 . 0 and under 1 1 0 . 0 cents_________
1 1 0 . 0 and under 1 2 0 . 0 cents_________
1 2 0 . 0 cents and over......... ...... ...........
Total___________________
._
Number of plants.____ ___________
Number of workers_______________
Average hourly earnings___________
0.2
25.4
6.5
1 2.1
11.5
8 .6
7.0
5.3
9.8
11.3
10-3
6.3
4.8
8 .2
4.7
9.0
1 2.0
9.7
6.4
5.0
3.5
3.3
2.5
6 .0
2.4
1.5
1 .0
1 .2
1 .0
.7
.3
.5
.3
.5
.5
Upholstered
furniture
1937
5.8
7.7
3.2
3.7
2.9
6 .8
9.6
9.1
7.4
6.7
6 .8
5.8
5.2
4.3
3.3
8 .6
5.7
5.7
5.6
4.3
3.9
3.0
2.7
.2
12.7
22.5
6 .1
6 .0
6.7
2.9
8 .8
11.4
10.7
10.9
4.1
3.6
9.9
11.3
10.6
6 .8
1 2.0
8 .1
3.1
3.1
4.1
2 .8
2 .8
2 .2
1 .6
.1
1.7
.8
.3
.1
2 .1
1 .1
.3
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
24
2,584
$0. 567
24
2,708
$0,568
765
$0,449
1 .6
2 .1
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
29
4,462
29
4, 965
$0.442
.2
5.7
3.9
5.3
5.8
9.8
11.5
9.7
6.5
7.5
5.5
4.8
6
11
4.7
.2
1
Novelty furni’
ture
1937
.3
.2
1
1
.
.
0.3
11.7
4.3
4.7
3.1
7.1
8.9
9.9
1941
1937
.4
2 .6
2.5
2.9
.
1941
Kitchen furni
ture
2 .6
6 .8
3.7
4.8
1.4
.5
1941
0 )
13.0
' 3.2
6 .0
4.9
9.6
11.4
1 1.8
9.6
7.7
6 .8
4.7
5.6
2.3
1 .0
.5
.9
.5
.4
.5
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
13
1,879
$0. 517
13
2,043
$0. 505
.1
.1
1 0 0 .0
6
6
714
$0.458
* Less than one-tenth of 1 percent.
It is apparent from table 3 that average hourly earnings of workers
in the wood household branch tend to vary directly with the size of
the community. Although the various averages snow some irregu
larity, the average for plants in the largest communities (67.5 cents) is
highest among the various size groups, while that for the smallest
communities (39.8 cents) is by far the lowest. The tendency is even
more pronounced when the communities are segregated by region.
In all product groups there existed a substantial difference in average
hourly earnings in favor of workers in trade-union plants. These
differences amounted to 2.7 cents in upholstered furniture, 3.4 cents
in case goods, 9.7 cents in the combined novelty and kitchen furniture
groups, and 6.3 cents in the wood household branch as a whole.
There appears to be no consistent relationship ,>etween size o f plant
and average hourly earnings.
T a b l e 3 . — A verag e h o u rly earnings in the w ood-household fu rn itu re branch , b y
siz e o f c o m m u n ity and reg io n , F eb r u a ry 1 9 4 1
Size of community
United States
North
South
Aver
Num Num
age
ber of ber of hourly
plants workers earn
ings
Aver
Num Num
age
ber of ber of hourly
plants workers earn
ings
Aver
Num Num
age
ber of ber of hourly
plants workers earn
ings
Under 10,000___________
10,000and under 20,000_____
20,000 and under 50,000_____
50,000 and under 100,000____
100,000 and under 500,000___
500,000 and over____________
17
13
9
4
T o ta l................ ..........
17
2,779
2,426
1, 363
553
1,667
1,642
$0. 397
.487
.467
.515
.476
.675
72
10,430
.487
12
9
7
4
9
17
1,178
1,347
954
553
1,092
1,642
$0.462
.583
.490
.515
.537
.675
56
6,766
.556
10
8
)
l
1
3
1,601
1,079
5
qcm
16
3,664
$0.351
.378
QO
Q
•Q
uO
.369
145
FURNITURE MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY
Office Furniture Branch
The 1,960 workers in 16 plants manufacturing wood office furniture
earned an average of 47.9 cents an hour in February 1941. (See table
4.) This average is 0.8 cent lower than the general average for wood
household furniture but 3.7 cents higher than the average for case goods,
the product most comparable to wood office furniture.
Average hourly earnings were 2.9 cents higher in February 1941
than in October 1937. The increase was due largely to the almost
complete elimination of the “ under 30 cents” group in 1941. Most of
the workers formerly receiving less than 30 cents had been shifted to
the next higher wage class.
T a b l e 4 . — P ercentage d istribu tion o f w orkers in w ood office fu rn itu re branch, b y
average h ou rly ea rn in gs, October 1 9 8 7 and F eb r u a ry 1 9 4 1
Average hourly earhings
Under 30.0 cents----------------------30.0 and under 32.5 cents. ___ .
32.5 and under 35.0 cents. ___ _
35.0 and under 37.5 cents. ______
37.5 and under 40.0 cents ..........
40.0 and under 42.5 cents. ____
42.5 and under 47.5 cents. _ _____
47.5 and under 52.5 cents..............
52.5 and under 57.5 cents________
57.5 and under 62.5 cents________
62.5 and under 67.5 cents.............
67.5 and under 72.5 cents________
72.5 and under 77.5 cents....... ......
1937
1941
4.7
8.3
5.4
7.3
8.9
14.2
16.8
10.9
1 1.8
11.8
6.3
5.4
4.3
1.9
1 .8
0 .1
1 1.2
4.2
14.7
4.1
1 1.6
7.6
5. 5
6 .0
3.7
3.1
Average hourly earnings
77.5 and under 82.5 cents. _ _____
82.5 and under 87.5 cents. ______
87.5 and under 92.5 cents. _____
92.5 and under 100.0 cents. _____
1 0 0 . 0 and under 1 1 0 . 0 cents______
1 1 0 . 0 and under 1 2 0 . 0 cents______
Total____________________
1937
1 .0
.9
.3
.1
1941
1.9
1.4
.8
.8
.5
.4
.1
.2
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
Number of plants. ............ ...........
16
1,655
Number of workers_____ _____
Average hourly earnings.......... ..... $0.450
16
1,960
$0.479
Workers in the metal office furniture division are on the whole the
highest-paid group of workers in the industry. The average hourly
earnings of tne 3,717 workers surveyed amounted to 68.7 cents in
February 1941. These earnings exceeded by nearly 10 cents those
for workers in the public-building branch and by at least 20 cents
those in the wood household branch and in the wood office division of
the industry. (See table 5.)
T a b l e 5 . — P ercen tage d istribu tion o f w orkers in m etal office fu r n itu r e branch, b y
average h o u rly ea rn in g s, October 1 9 3 7 and F eb r u a ry 1 9 4 1
Average hourly earnings
Under 40.0 cents_________________
40.0 and under 42.5 cents_________
42.5 and under 47.5 cents________
47.5 and under 52.5 cents________
52.5 and under 57.5 cents_________
57.5 and under 62.5 cents_________
62.5 and under 67.5 cents________
67.5 and under 72.5 cents_________
72.5 and under 77.5 cents_________
77.5 and under 82.5 cents...
. _
82.5 and under 87.5 cents........ .......
1937
0.5
2.5
5.7
12.6
10.4
11.5
10.9
9.8
9.4
8.4
6.1
1941
1.2
1.5
4.7
8.3
11.3
13.1
11.2
11.4
9.2
7.0
6.4
Average hourly earnings
87.5 and under 92.5 cents . . . .
92.5 and under 100.0 cents .. .
100.0and under 110.0 cents___
110.0and under 120.0 cents.........
120.0cents and over
..........
Total________
__________
1937
5.7
3.3
2.0
.7
.5
100.0
11
Number of plants__ ____ ____
Number of workers
2,402
Average hourly earnings.............. . $0.673
1941
5.2
5.2
2.4
1.4
.5
100.0
11
3,717
$0.687
P ublioBuilding Furniture Branch
The average hourly earnings of workers in the public-building
furniture branch, 59.2 cents in February 1941, were next to the highest
for any division of the furniture industry. Though 9.5 cents lower
146
WAGES AND HOURS
than the average for metal office furniture workers, the earningse of
the 1,719 workers in public-building furniture exceeded by 11.3 cents
the average for wood office furniture and by 10.5 cents that for wood
household furniture. (See table 6.)
T a b l e 6 . — P ercen tage d istribu tion o f w ork ers in p u b lic-b u ild in g fu r n itu r e bra nch ,
b y average h o u rly ea rn in g s, October 1 9 8 7 and F eb r u a ry 1 9 4 1
Average hourly earnings
Under 30.0 cents_______________
30.0 and under 32.5 cents________
32.5 and under 35.0 cents________
35.0 and under 37.5 cents________
37.5 and under 40.0 cents________
40.0 and under 42.5 cents________
42.5 and under 47.5 cents_______
47.5 and under 52.5 cents________
52.5 and under 57.5 cents________
57.5 and under 62.5 cents________
62.5 and under 67.5 cents________
67.5 and under 72.5 cents________
72.5 and under 77.5 cents...............
1937
3.8
4.4
3.5
7.1
5.6
5.1
8 .0
8.4
9.4
1 0.2
8.3
1941
0 .1
5.0
4.1
5.5
2.9
4.8
9.9
7.9
7.8
Average hourly earnings
1937
77.5 and under 82.5 cents________
82.5 and under 87.5 cents________
87.5 and under 92.5 cents________
92.5 and under 100.0 cents_______
1 0 0 . 0 and under 1 1 0 . 0 cents______
1 1 0 . 0 and under 1 2 0 . 0 cents______
1 2 0 . 0 cents and over____________
Total____________________
1941
3.8
2.4
2.3
6 .2
3.8
2.3
1.9
1.9
.7
2 .6
.9
.2
.2
.2
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
8 .2
6 .6
9.0
9.0
7.2
8 .8
Number of plants........... ............ .
13
Number of workers..... ..............
1,708
Average hourly earnings........ ...... $0. 548
13
1,719
$0. 592
Furniture Industry as a Whole
The figures in table 7 present a composite picture for the industry
covered in this survey, i. e., wood household, wood and metal office, and
public-building furniture. Due to the fact that the wood household
branch was not sampled in the same proportion as the other divisions
o f the industry, it was necessary to assign a weight of 4 to the data
for the wood household branch in order that it might be represented
in the same proportion as those for the office and public-building
furniture branches. Inasmuch as the weights used are approxima
tions, the resulting figures must be considered estimates.
T a b l e 7 . —E stim a ted percentage d istribution o f w orkers in the fu rn itu re in d u stry,
b y average h ou rly earnings and region, October 1 9 8 7 and F eb r u a ry 1 9 4 1
North
United States
South
Average hourly earnings
1937
Under 30.0 cents_______________________
30.0 and under 32.5 cents________________
32.5 and under 35.0 cents________________
35.0 and under 37.5 cents_____ . _______
37.5 and under 40.0 cents.. .. .. _______
40.0 and under 42.5 cents_____ __________
42.5 and under 47.5 cents_______________
47.5 and under 52.5 cents________________
52.5 and under 57.5 cents________________
57.5 and under 62.5 cents_______________
62.5 and under 67.5 cents___ ___ _______
67.5 and under 72.5 cents_______________
72.5 and under 77.5 cents________________
77.5 and under 82.5 cents_________ _____
82.5 and under 87.5 cents_______________
87.5 and under 92.5 cents________
92.5 and under 100.0 cents______________
1 0 0 . 0 and under 1 1 0 . 0 cents_____________
1 1 0 . 0 and under 1 2 0 . 0 cents______________
1 2 0 . 0 cents and over______ _____ _ _ _
Total___________________________
Average hourly earnings____ ___________
1
Less than a tenth of
1
percent.
8.4
8.7
5.6
5.5
4.5
8 .6
10.7
1 0.0
7.2
6.4
6 .2
4.3
4.0
2 .8
2.3
1.4
1 .2
1 .0
.6
.6
1941
0 .1
17.0
4.8
6 .8
3.9
7.8
10.4
10. 1
8 .2
6.5
5.4
4.8
4.2
2.7
1.9
1.5
1.3
1.5
.7
.4
1937
1941
3.0
2 .6
2.7
4.0
4.4
9.5
12.5
1 1 .8
0)
1937
4.7
1.9
4.9
3.3
8.3
1 2.1
1 2.2
8.9
10.4
8 .2
8 .1
8 .6
5.6
5.4
3.8
3.1
1.9
1.5
1.4
.8
.8
7.2
6 .6
5.7
3.7
2 .8
2 .1
2 2.8
25.1
13.4
9.6
4.8
.5
0.4
44.7
11.4
1 1 .2
5.4
6 .2
6 .6
6 .6
5.5
5.3
5.3
3.3
2 .8
1.7
1 .8
1.3
1 .2
.8
.2
.1
.1
.8
.6
.3
.1
.1
.i
1.9
2 .1
1 .0
1941
.2
0)
.1
.1
0)
0)
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
$0. 496
$0. 505
$0.554
$0. 571
$0.350
$0.369
147
FURNITURE MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY
Worke ^ in the furniture industry earned an average of 50.5 cents
an hour ii ^February 1941 or 0.9 cents more than in October 1937. In
the North workers averaged 57.1 cents an hour, and in the South
36.9 cents. These averages represent increases over 1937 of 1.7 and
1.9 cents, respectively.
In 1937, 3 percent of the northern workers and 22.8 percent of the
southern workers received less than 30 cents an hour. Most of these
workers were absorbed by 1941 in the 30 and under 32.5 cent interval.
It is probable that a very high percentage of these workers were re
ceiving exactly 30 cents an hour, the minimum under the Fair Labor
Standards Act.
Increases in earnings were also received by workers who already
earned more than the minimum of 30 cents. In the North these in
creases appear to be largely confined to the wage brackets under 72.5
cents and in the South to the wage brackets under 57.5 cents.
Estimated Distribution o f H ourly Earnings o f Office Workers
Separate wage information was obtained for certain office em
ployees (other than salesmen, professional and technical workers,
roprietors, mangers, and officials). These employees worked in ofces attached to the plants surveyed. Employees in central offices
away from the plants surveyed were not covered.
The distributions presented in table 8 are estimates, based on ac
tual returns for 983 workers. It was necessary to weight the data
reported for the wood household branch by 4, in order that the data
for all branches might be combined on a comparable basis.
Office workers in the furniture industry earned in February 1941
an average of 54.2 cents an hour, but there was a rather wide disper
sion of individual earnings about this average.
E
T a b l e 8 . — E stim a ted percentage d istribu tion o f office w orkers in the fu rn itu re in d u stry
b y average h ou rly earnings and regio n , F eb r u a ry 1 9 4 1
Average hourly earnings United
States North
Under 30.0 cents_______
30.0 and under 32.5 cents..
32.5 and under 35.0 cents..
35.0 and under 37.5 cents..
37.5 and under 40.0 cents..
40.0 and under 42.5 cents..
42.5 and under 47.5 cents..
47.5 and under 52.5 cents..
52.5 and under 57.5 cents._
57.5 and under 62.5 cents..
62.5 and under 67.5 cents..
67.5 and under 72.5 cents..
72.5 and under 77.5 cents..
0.9
6.2
3.6
7.7
5.5
7.8
15.7
13.2
6.8
7.9
6.0
4.2
2.9
0.4
6.5
3.8
9.5
4.5
7.3
15.9
12.2
7.1
7.3
6.2
3.5
3.4
South
2.6
4.7
2.6
1.1
9.5
9.7
15.4
16.9
5.4
10.3
5.4
6.9
.9
Average hourly earnings United
States North
South
77.5 and under 82.5 cents..
82.5 and under 87.5 cents..
87.5 and under 92.5 cents..
92.5 and under 100.0 cents.
100.0 and under 110.0
cents________________
110.0 and under 120.0
cents________________
120.0 cents and over
2.7
2.0
2.0
.7
2.5
2.3
2.3
.8
3.4
.9
.9
2.1
1.8
3.4
.8
1.3
1.0
1.7
Total......................
100.0
100.0
100.0
Average hourly earnings. $0.542
$0.545
$0.514
The average hourly earnings of office employees in the South, 51.4
cents an hour, were only 3.1 cents lower than those of office employees
in the North. Comparing the two distributions it will be seen that
there were substantially more workers in the South with earnings
in the intermediate wage brackets (37.5 to 62.5 cents), but few workers
with earnings in the wage brackets either above or below the in
termediate group.
148
WAGES AND HOURS
Earnings in M inor Branches o f Industry
In addition to its more detailed survey of the wage structure of the
major branches of the furniture industry, the Bureau obtained in
formation on earnings in a limited number of establishments producing
juvenile, porch, and camp furniture made of wood, and household
furniture made of fiber, reed, rattan, and willow. Data for these
branches have been excluded from the preceding discussion of the
furniture industry.
The average hourly earnings of 2,394 workers in 29 plants manu
facturing wood juvenile, porch, and camp furniture amounted in
February 1941 to 46.1 cents. Individual earnings were largely con
fined to the lower wage brackets.
Regional differences account for much of the variation in individual
earnings. Fully four-fifths of the workers in the South, as against
only 28.7 percent of those in the North, had average hourly earnings
of less than 40 cents. Much variation in average hourly earnings is
due to product differences. Thus, workers in plants making wood
juvenile furniture averaged 50.9 cents, while workers in plants manu
facturing wood porch and camp furniture averaged only 40.2 cents.
The general average hourly earnings of 554 workers in 11 plants
manufacturing household furniture made of fiber, reed, rattan, and
willow amounted to 49.7 cents.
Annual Earnings in N orthern Factories, 19363
The average annual earnings in the furniture manufacturing in
dustry in the North in 1936 amounted to $1,202 for wage earners whose
employment extended over 12 months. When the group was enlarged
to include those working 9 months or more, the average fell slightly
to $1,177, and then dropped again, to $1,133, when employees working
at least 6 months were included. For all of the employees who had
work in these factories at any time during the year, the average was
only $997. These averages relate only to the earnings of employees in
factories in which they were at work in October 1937.
It should be pointed out that the figures cover only the total
earnings and number of pay-roll periods in 1936 of each employee
in the establishment in which he worked during October 1937, which
includes the pay-roll period covered by the wages and hours data.
This limitation makes it necessary to classify the wage earners accord
ing to the number of months worked in that plant in 1936, the classes
used here embracing those employees whose work extended over (1)
12 months (2) 9 months or more, (3) 6 months or more, and (4) any
part of the year. Those who worked in the same establishments
throughout the year constitute the permanent employees. However,
those who worked 9 but less than 12 months may also be classified with
the permanent labor force, because in most instances the opportunities
for such persons to obtain wTork in other plants are very small. In
other words, for these employees the figures obtained by the Bureau
cover more or less their total annual earnings for 1936. No such
reliance may be placed on the data when the group is enlarged to
include those whose work extended over 6 months or more and, least
of all, when those employees are included who worked any part of the
3 From the M onthly Labor Review for April 1939.
149
GRANITE INDUSTRY
year, as each of these classes includes a large number of employees
who quite likely worked in other establishments.
Earnings by Skill
Classified on the basis of skill, the average annual earnings of em
ployees who worked during 12 months were $1,317 for skilled, $1,120
for semiskilled, and $988 for unskilled employees. (See table 9.)
This means a difference of $197 between skilled and semiskilled work
ers, as compared with a difference of $132 between semiskilled and
unskilled employees. The average annual earnings of employees who
worked 9 months or more were $1,177, or only $25 less than the average
of those working throughout the year.
In view of the small coverage, any generalizations with respect to
differences in average annual earnings among the various product
divisions of the industry should be made with caution. Generally
speaking, the highest average annual earnings were reported in the
metal office and public seating furniture branches of the industry.
Upholstered furniture plants occupied a middle position, while the
lowest figures are shown for plants making case goods, novelty,
kitchen, and wood office furniture.
T able
9.—
A verage an n u al earnings in 6 8 fu rn itu re fa cto ries in the N o r th , 1 9 8 6 , by
product and skill
Wood furniture
All
Employees whose work branches
extended over—
of the
industry Total
Hous ehold fuirniture
Total
12 months______________
Skilled_____________
Semiskilled.- ______
Unskilled__________
Case Uphol Nov
goods stered elty
$1,202 $1,175 $1,178 $1,149 $1,229 $1,125
1,317 1,287 1,287 1,266 1, 331 1,206
1,120 1,089 1,092 1,059 1,126 1,096
964
965
971
988
0)
0)
Kitch
en
Metal Public
office seating
Wood furni
office ture furni
ture
furni
ture
$1,162 $1,150 $1, 278
1,284 1,409
0)
1,052 1,214
0)
(0
0)
0)
$1,328
1,479
1,232
0)
9 months or more______
Skilled______ _____
Semiskilled_________
Unskilled__________
1,177
1,294
1,104
965
1,131
1,245
1,048
926
1,131
1,245
1,047
921
1,093
1,208
1,018
922
1,194
1,301
1,083
947
1,096
1,195
1,053
0)
1,071
0)
1,033
0)
1,135
1,249
1,054
0)
1,304
1,452
1,240
1,057
1,272
1,402
1,215
0)
6 months or more_____ _
Skilled_____________
Semiskilled - ...........
Unskilled__________
1,133
1, 254
1,063
910
1,084
1, 205
1,005
864
1,082
1,204
1,002
856
1,056
1,169
989
868
1,163
1, 270
1,055
909
992
1,126
941
789
1,045
0)
1.009
to
1,109
1, 219
1,035
(*)
1, 261
1,416
1,197
1,015
1, 252
1, 365
1,200
0)
Any part of the year____
Skilled_____________
Semiskilled________
Unskilled-........ ........
997
1,168
923
701
958
1,121
879
667
956
1,121
879
657
919
1,074
857
657
1,045
1,186
935
688
871
1,058
817
630
958
0)
937
0)
972
1,121
883
0)
1,114
1, 350
1,030
811
1,062
1,245
1,011
721
i Employees too few to justify computation of an average.
Granite Industry— Earnings and Hours, August 19371
In the granite industry, as well as in most of the other stone indus
tries, it is customary to classify the product into (1) broken or crushed
stone and (2) dimension stone. Broken or crushed stone includes
1
Abstract o f article in the M onthly Tabor Review fo r December 1937, prepared by
J. Perlman, P. J. Jones, and O. It. Witmer, of the Bureau o f Labor Statistics.
150
WAGES AND HOURS
irregular fragments of various sizes, while dimension stone includes
that cut to specific sizes and shapes. The dimension-granite industry,
which is covered by the present article, may be further subdivided, by
process, into quarrying and finishing. Some plants do quarrying only
and sell rough blocks or slabs, some do both quarrying and finishing,
and some buy rough stock and limit their activities to finishing only.
Granites are found in many parts of the country, the chief areas
being the Appalachian district from Maine to Georgia, the Middle
Western States (especially Minnesota and Wisconsin), the Rocky
Mountain States, and the Pacific States (chiefly California).
As regards the uses of dimension granite,2 the products in order of
importance are monumental stone, building stone, paving blocks, curb
ing stone, and rubble. Monumental stone is used for tombstones and
large monuments or mausoleums. The latter are made from the best
grade of granite, which is carefully selected on the basis of color, tex
ture, and freedom from blemish. A high polish is important to the
stone. This requires considerable skill. Increasing quantities of
polished stone are also being used for building purposes, because such
stone is attractive and can be cleaned more easily than rough stone.
Most of the building granite, however, consists of unpolished stone
cut to specified shape and size in accordance with building needs.
Of the 185 plants covered in this survey, 39 did quarrying only,
102 finishing only, and 44 both quarrying and finishing. In select
ing the plants the Bureau exercised great care to make the sample
representative of the industry.
The information obtained related mainly to a pay-roll period in the
first half of August 1937, although in a few plants it was necessary
to take a period immediately before or after that time. Reports
indicate that in all cases this period was representative.
Average H ourly Earnings
Most of the employees in the quarries were paid on a time-rate
basis. In 30 of the 83 establishments covered, punitive overtime
rates, usually time and one-half, were paid to some employees. In
67 plants overtime compensation on a pro rata basis was paid to some
of the workers.
In the finishing plants nearly all of the employees, with the ex
ception of blacksmiths and paving cutters in some of the plants,
were paid on a time-rate basis. In a number of cases it was the
custom for the firm to pay the blacksmith a fixed amount for each
man for whom he sharpened tools. In 86 finishing establishments
overtime rates on a punitive basis, usually time and one-half, were
paid to some of the workers. Pro rata rate for overtime to some of
the employees was also found in 121 plants.
The 1,741 workers employed in the 83 quarries covered in this
survey averaged 53.7 cents per hour in August 1937. The range of
earnings was from about 10 cents an hour for a few unskilled workers
in the lowest-wage quarries to more than a dollar for the best-paid
workers. (See table 1.)
a Broken or crushed stone is used chiefly for road construction, railroad ballast, concrete
aggregate, etc.
151
GRANITE INDUSTRY
The average hourly earnings of the 3,669 workers employed in the
146 finishing plants included in this survey amounted to 75.5 cents
in August 1937. This was nearly 22 cents higher than the corre
sponding figure (53.7 cents) for quarries.
T able
1 .— D istrib u tio n
o f em p lo yees in d im en sion -g ra n ite
h ou rly ea rn in g s , A u g u s t 1 9 3 7
in d u stry
Quarrying
Average hourly earnings
10.0 and under 12.5 cents________________
12.5 and under 17.5 cents________________
17.5 and under 22.5 cents._______________
22.5 and under 27.5 cents_______________
27.5 and under 32.5 cents_______________
32.5 and under 37.5 cents________________
37.5 and under 42.5 cents_____ ______ ___
42.5 and under 47.5 cents_____ _____ ____
47.5 and under 52.5 cents.......... .................
52.5 and under 57.5 cents..______________
57.5 and under 62.5 cents----------- --------62.5 and under 67.5 cents.._______ _______
67.5 and under 72.5 cents________________
72.5 and under 77.5 cents------- ---------------77.5 and under 82.5 cents________________
82.5 and under 87.5 cents........ ...................
87.5 and under 92.5 cents.............................
92.5 and under 97.5 cents________________
97.5 and under 102.5 cents............. .............
102.5 and under 107.5 cents— .................. I
107.5 and under 112.5 cents_________ ___
112.5 and under 125.0 cents______________ }
125.0 and under 150.0 cents. ____________
150.0 cents and over........ ................ ........... »
Total........................... .......................
Num
ber of
em
ployees
by
average
Finishing
Simple
percent
age
Cumu
lative
percent
age
Num
ber of
em
ployees
Simple
percent
age
5
75
53
53
89
104
164
59
120
157
133
212
232
129
21
19
36
10
34
0.3
4.3
3.0
3.1
5.1
6.0
9.4
3.4
6.9
9.0
7.6
12.2
13.3
7.4
1.2
1.1
2.1
.6
2.1
0.3
4.6
7.6
10.7
15.8
21.8
31.2
34.6
41.5
50.5
58.1
70.3
83.6
91.0
92.2
93.3
95.4
96.0
97.9
36
2.1
100.0
2
23
45
65
58
99
195
136
257
156
155
203
137
191
237
90
155
'54
1,017
128
54
92
114
6
0.1
.6
1.2
1.8
1.6
2.7
5.3
3.7
7.0
4.2
4.3
5.5
3.7
5.2
6.5
2.4
4.3
1.4
27.8
3.5
1.4
2.5
3.1
.2
1, 741
100.0
3,669
100.0
f
\
l
Cumu
lative
percent
age
0.1
.7
1.9
3.7
5.3
8.0
13.3
17.0
24.0
28.2
32.5
38.0
41.7
46.9
53.4
55.8
60.1
61.5
89.3
92.8
94.2
96.7
99.8
100.0
Geographical and Occupational Differences
The average hourly earnings of all employees in quarries surveyed
ranged from 24.6 cents in Georgia and South Carolina combined
to 72.4 cents in Vermont. North Carolina averaged 36.5 cents, while
the average of Pennsylvania and Maryland was approximately 42
cents. The three Middle Western States— Wisconsin, Minnesota, and
South Dakota— had a combined average of 54 cents, and occupied
more or less a middle position between the two extremes. New York
and Connecticut together averaged about 60 cents, while the remain
ing New England States averaged about 66 cents, thus being near
the top limit denoted by the Vermont average.
In the finishing plants the hourly earnings of all employees by
States in the establishments surveyed ranged from 38.7 cents in
South Carolina to $1,052 in New York, but, excluding these two
States, the spread was only from 58.6 cents in North Carolina to
91.2 cents in New Hampshire. The average for finishing plants
surveyed in Georgia was slightly higher than in North Carolina, in
this respect apparently differing from quarries. But in both branches
of the industry, the three Southern States had the lowest averages.
Finishing plants in Pennsylvania and Maryland had higher averages
152
WAGES AND HOURS
than those in the three Middle Western States. This also represents
a change in the regional relationship found in quarrying. As in
quarries, the highest averages in the finishing branch of the industry
also appeared in the New England States. The average of California
was on a par with the lowest averages reported in the New England
States.
O f the 1,741 quarry employees covered, 1,216, or 69.9 percent, were
classified by the plants as skilled. The remaining employees were
divided almost equally between semiskilled (246, or 14.1 percent)
and unskilled (279, or 16.0 percent). There were only five appren
tices (classified as semiskilled) found in this branch of the industry.
Skill is one of the elements responsible for the variations in indi
vidual earnings, as may be seen from the fact that the average hourly
earnings amounted to 59.1 cents for skilled, 44.6 cents for semi
skilled, and 38.4 cents for unskilled workers.
The frequency distributions of the earnings of individual employees
in finishing plants further indicate the relative advantage of skilled
workers. Thus, only 1.7 percent of the workers classified as skilled
earned less than 37.5 cents an hour, as compared with 24.1 percent of
the semiskilled, 25.1 percent of the apprentices, and 35.4 percent of
the unskilled. The figure 37.5 cents per hour is just below the average
of the unskilled.
There is also considerable variation in the average hourly earnings
among the various occupations belonging to each skill. Occu
pational averages are presented in table 2 for the region with the
highest average wage for all occupations and for the region with
the lowest average.
T
able
2 , — A verag e h ou rly ea rn in g s , w eek ly h o u rs , and w eek ly earnings in d im en
sio n -g ra n ite in d u s tr y , A u g u s t 1 9 3 7 , b y skill and o ccu p ation
Q U A R R Y IN G
Skill and occupation
Average Average Average Average Average Average
hourly weekly weekly hourly weekly w'eekly
earnings hours earnings earnings hours earnings
North Carolina, Georgia,
and South Carolina 1
Vermont
All employees----------------------------------------- - -
$0. 724
37.1
$26.84
$0.281
45.9
$12. 92
Skilled employees___________________________
Blacksmiths____________________________
Channel bar operators_____________ ____
Derrickmen__ __________________________
Drillers_________________________ _______
Hoist engineers__________________________
Miscellaneous engineers_______________ . _
Quarrymen--------------------------------------------Working foremen_____________________
Miscellaneous, skilled____________________
.779
.851
.744
.691
(2)
.711
.678
1.287
.867
37.2
37.5
35.6
38.8
(2)
38.7
(2)
36.4
36.7
39.7
29.03
31.97
26. 44
26. 83
(2)
27. 52
(2)
24. 70
47.17
34.43
.317
.503
.280
.232
. 196
.302
.398
.202
.565
.387
47. 6
46.5
44.5
44.9
50.9
48.3
50.7
46.1
48.4
50.2
15.08
23. 38
12.46
10. 43
9. 96
14.58
20.14
9. 33
27. 32
19. 41
Semiskilled employees______ ______ __________
Bar gang men__________ _________________
Derrick signalmen__________ ___ _________
Truck drivers___________________________
Miscellaneous helpers____________________
Miscellaneous, semiskilled *______________
.667
35.6
23. 72
.696
(2)
.637
(2)
34.5
(2)
35.4
(2)
24.05
(2)
22. 57
(2)
.239
(2)
(2)
.325
.191
(2)
43.7
(2)
(2)
41.0
49.8
(2)
10.45
(2)
(2)
13. 32
9.51
<*)
Unskilled employees................................. ...........
Qrouters___________ _____ ___________—
Laborers____________________________
Tool runners_________ _____ ______ _______
Miscellaneous, unskilled---------------------------
.524
.567
(2)
(2)
(2)
37.7
35.3
(2)
(2)
(2)
19. 87
20. 02
(2)
(2)
(2)
.226
.190
.228
.196
.289
43.8
42.0
45.1
44.6
38.5
9. 92
7.96
10. 26
8. 72
11.13
See footnotes at end of table.
(?)
153
GRANITE INDUSTRY
T
2 . — A v era g e h ou rly ea rn in g s , w eek ly h o u rst and w eek ly ea rn in gs in d im en
sio n -g ra n ite in d u s tr y , A u g u st 1 9 8 7 , hy skill and occu p a tion — Continued
a b l e
F IN IS H IN G
Average Average Average Average Average Average
hourly weekly weekly hourly weekly weekly
earnings hours earnings earnings hours earnings
Skill and occupation
North Carolina, Georgia,
and South Carolina
Varm nnt
All employees_________________ ___ . . .
___
$0.895
37.3
$33.39
$0. 552
38.1
$21.06
Skilled employees___________________________
Bed setters------------------ ------------------------Blacksmiths_______________________ _____
Boxers_____ ______ __________________
Carbo sawyers___________________________
Carvers_________________________________
Cranemen__________ _____ _____________
Cutters_______________________ _ ______
D rille rs.._______ ________________ ____ _
Foremen... ____________________________
Lumpers________________________________
Machinists_____ _____________ _______
Paving cutters .. _ ..
. . . . . .
Polishers________________________________
Sandblasters____________________________
Sawyers________________________________
Surfacers_______________________________
Incapacitated employees *_____________
Miscellaneous, skilled____________________
.984
1.018
1.004
.812
.959
1.295
.817
1.002
37.1
39.4
35.2
39.1
36.1
38.3
40.1
36.2
36. 47
40.08
35. 35
31.72
34.60
49.59
32. 77
36.24
36.3
(2)
35.4
41.7
(2)
.804
(2)
(2)
38.4
(2)
(2)
30. 83
(2)
1.040
1.077
.988
1.012
(2)
37.7
37.5
40.8
36.1
(2)
(2)
39. 22
40. 33
40. 32
36. 51
(2)
(2)
.714
(2)
.685
.366
(2)
(2)
.455
.801
.352
.970
(2)
(2)
.750
.655
.774
.557
.731
(2)
(2)
(2)
37.3
36.2
35.3
43.4
(2)
(2)
24. 7
43.4
34.2
33.7
36.6
(2)
(2)
25.93
(2)
24. 24
15. 25
(2)
(2)
16. 97
29.00
12. 42
42.11
(2)
(2)
18. 53
28.41
26. 49
18. 79
26. 76
(*)
(2)
Semiskilled employees_______________________
Learners________________________________
Sawyers’ helpers .. . _. _____ _ ________
Tool grinders___ ______ __________________
Truck drivers . ... _____ _______________
Miscellaneous helpers____________ ___ . . .
Miscellaneous, semiskilled._______ _____
.461
(2)
(2)
.483
39.7
(2)
(2)
38.2
18. 27
(21
(21
18. 44
.316
(2)
( 2)
12.96
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
.282
.299
(2)
(*)
46.3
41.7
(2)
(2)
13.06
12.45
(2)
Unskilled employees___ ____________________
Laborers__________ .. ____________ ____
Tool runners___________ ________________
Miscellaneous, unskilled.. . __________ ..
. 511
.538
(2)
.502
39.5
38.2
(2)
40.8
20.18
20. 55
(2)
20. 51
.241
.235
.248
(2)
41.8
43.5
37.3
(2)
10.09
10.24
9. 23
(2)
Apprentices_________________ ______________
Cutters’ apprentices, first year____ ______
Cutters’ apprentices, second year.. ______
Cutters’ apprentices, third year______ ____
Cutters’ apprentices, miscellaneous_______
Miscellaneous apprentices.......... ..... .........
.532
.398
. 475
.649
36. 5
34.6
38.4
36.0
19.41
13. 77
18. 22
23.36
.560
37.5
20. 99
.371
.265
.382
.457
(2)
345
40.8
41.3
42.6
42.0
(2)
41.7
15.12
10.93
16.28
19.20
(2)
14. 38
( 2)
(>)
41.1
1 Includes only 1 quarry in South Carolina.
2 Not enough employees to justify the computation of an average.
3 Includes apprentices and learners.
* Workers who are not so proficient as regular employees because of old age or physical disability.
U nionifcat ion
Q u a rryin g .—With one exception, all the trade-union quarries in the
sample were located in the New* England States. The number of
trade-union establishments found within this area was 24, which may
be compared with a total of 83 quarries covered.3
Considering all employees, there w as very little difference in the
average hourly earnings between the trade-union and non-trade-union
establishments in the New England States including New York, the
respective averages being 68.6 and 69.3 cents. For skilled workers,
however, the average in trade-union plants was 68.9 cents, as com
pared with 74.1 cents in non-trade-union plants. Examination of the
data indicates that the higher average in non-trade-union establish-
3Since tl e survey was nu de, additional plants have signed union agreements.
WAGES AND HOURS
154
ments was due entirely to the influence of a few plants that operated
under an employee-representation plan. On the other hand, in the
case of semiskilled and unskilled workers, the average (58.8 cents
per hour) in the trade-union plants exceeded that (54.4 cents) in the
non-trade-union establishments.
F in ish in g .—O f the 146 finishing plants in the sample, 68 were
trade-union establishments.4 Fifty-eight of the trade-union plants
were located in the New England States including New York.
In the New England States including New York, the average
hourly earnings were greater in trade-union than in non-trade-union
establishments. Taking all employees, the trade-union average was
92.9 cents as compared with 76.0 cents for non-trade-union shops,
the respective averages for skilled being 96.4 and 89.3 cents and for
semiskilled, unskilled, and apprentices 54.0 and 50.9 cents. A similar
difference was found in the Middle Western States, where the tradeunion average was 75.5 and the non-trade-union average 63.0 cents
for all employees, with the respective averages for the skilled workers
amounting to 78.5 and 71.1 cents.
Earnings o f Colored Workers
One of the principal reasons for the low wages in quarries in the
Southern States is the presence of a relatively large number of colored
workers. This is especially true of Georgia and South Carolina
combined, where the majority of each group according to skill was
composed of Negro employees. (See table 3.)
T
a b l e
3
. — A v era g e h o u rly earnings o f em p lo yees in quarries o f d im en sion -gra n ite
in d u s try in S o u th ern S ta tes , A u g u s t 1 9 3 7 , b y skill a nd color
Number of employees
Skill and color
Total
North
Carolina
Average hourly earnings
Georgia
and
South
Carolina 1
Total
North
Carolina
Georgia
and
South
Carolina 1
Skilled employees______________________
White________________________ ____
Colored___________ _______ _________
205
85
120
49
37
12
156
48
108
$0.317
.470
.217
$0,466
.498
. 354
$0. 279
.450
.206
Semiskilled employees__________ _______
White__________ ________ __________
Colored.......... ................. .....................
61
24
37
25
15
10
36
9
27
.239
.275
.222
.316
.330
(2)
.203
(*)
.199
Unskilled employees...................................
W hite.____ _____ ________ __________
Colored____________ _________ ______
97
29
68
52
22
30
45
7
38
.226
.268
.211
.287
.304
.276
.168
(2)
.165
1 Includes only 1 quarry in South Carolina.
2 Fewer than 12 employees; no average computed.
W eekly H ours and Earnings
Average hours worked by all employees in the quarrying branch
of the industry amounted to 41.8 per week. Only about 9 percent
4 Since the survey was made, additional plants have signed union agreements.
GRAY-IRON AND MALLEABLE-IRON FOUNDRIES
15 5
o f the employees worked less than 32 hours per week. More than
one-third of the workers (36.4 percent) had a week of less than 40
hours, and about one-fifth of them (19.7 percent) worked exactly 40
hours. Almost 25 percent of the employees, nowever, worked 48
hours and above.
For all employees in finishing plants average hours were 39.1
per week. Twelve percent o f the employees worked under 32 hours.
One-third of the employees worked under 40 hours, but nearly fourtenths (38.7 percent) had a workweek of exactly 40 hours. Only 11.7
percent of the employees worked 48 hours or more.
The average weekly earnings of all employees in quarries were $22.47.
More than one^fifth of the workers (21.0 percent) earned under $15
and more than one-third (35.8 percent) received less than $20 per
week. As many as 85 percent of the employees earned under $30,
thus leaving less than one-sixth of them receiving as much as $30
and over.
Gray-Iron and Malleable-Iron Foundries—Earnings in
19 38-391
During the latter part of 1938 and the early months of 1939, hourly
earnings o f all male workers in gray-iron foundries averaged 67.1
cents, according to findings in a study made by the Bureau o f Labor
Statistics. Weekly hours averaged 35.0 and the average weekly
earnings amounted to $23.44. Male workers in malleable-iron foun
dries, on the other hand, had average hourly earnings of 68.9 cents
and average weekly hours and earnings of 35.4 and $24.37, respectively.
An important factor in the wage structure of the foundry industry
is the predominance o f males in the labor force. Virtually the entire
personnel in gray-iron foundries, 99.7 percent, consists of men. O f
these males, about two-fifths (39 percent) were classed as skilled, 24
percent as semiskilled, and 37 percent as unskilled. In malleableiron foundries, also, the labor force was composed almost entirely
of men. O f these males, 35.8 percent were classed as skilled, 25.9
percent as semiskilled, and 38.3 percent as unskilled. All of this
branch o f the foundry industry is in the Northern States, and race
is not a factor of importance in accounting for differences in hourly
earnings.
O.
1Abstract
of article in the Monthly Labor Review for November 1940, prepared by
II. Mann and D. L. Helm, of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
505 364 0 - 43 - 11
15 6
WAGES AND HOURS
H ou rly Earnings
O f the 36,749 male workers in gray-iron foundries covered by the
study, only 7.7 percent had hourly earnings of less than 40 cents, and
about one-fourth (26.8 percent) of the total earned less than 52.5
cents an hour. In contrast, there was a fairly substantial number
of employees in the higher wage brackets, 23.9 percent earning 82.5
cents or more and 9.5 percent with earnings of $1 or more an hour.
An outstanding feature of the wage structure in malleable-iron
foundries is the small proportion of workers in the low-wage brackets.
O f the 6,157 males covered, only 0.7 percent had earnings of less than
40 cents an hour. By contrast, 4.9 percent had hourly earnings of
$1 or more. Two-thirds (65.1 percent) of all male workers had
hourly earnings concentrated within the comparatively narrow range
of 52.5 and under 82.5 cents.
Geographical Variations
In gray-iron foundries there are pronounced geographical differ
ences m hourly earnings. Against an average of 80.4 cents for all
gray-iron foundry employees in the State of Washington, those in
Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina averaged 41.8 cents. In any
geographical comparison in this industry, however, the factor of
race should be considered. In the Northern States, colored workers
are found in all of the skill classifications, whereas in the South,
the colored workers are confined almost entirely to the unskilled
group.
H ours and Earnings by Occupation
Hourly earnings in gray-iron foundries are dependent to a iarge
extent on the specific occupations of the individual employees. The
skilled occupations, with but few exceptions, had average hourly
earnings ranging between 80 and 90 cents. These occupations were
made up of such skilled craftsmen as molders, pattern makers, core
makers, etc. Most of the semiskilled occupations had average hourly
earnings of between 53.9 cents (the average for apprentices) and 65
cents. Among the unskilled jobs, consisting mostly of various types
of foundry labor, the range was from 41.8 cents for watchmen to 60.3
cents for core-oven tenders.
By far the greatest proportion of the few females employed in grayiron foundries held semiskilled jobs. The average hourly earnings of
all females were 58.3 cents, and their weekly earnings amounted to
$18.69 for an average workweek of 32.1 hours.
Skilled workers in malleable-iron foundries had average hourly
earnings o f 80.4 cents, with most of the occupational averages coming
within the narrow range of 75 to 85 cents an hour. Semiskilled
workers in malleable-iron foundries averaged 65.7 cents an hour and
the unskilled workers had an hourly average of 60.5 cents. O f the
few females employed, about two-thirds were in semiskilled jobs and
the remainder were unskilled. Hourly earnings of all females aver
aged 55.6 cents. Their average workweek wTas 33.4 hours, with
average weekly earnings of $18.55.
GKAY-IRON AND MALLEABLE-IRON FOUNDRIES
157
Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings of foundry workers, 1988
and 1989, by occupation, sex, and skiU
GRAY-IRON FOUNDRIES
Occupation, sex, and skill
Number of
workers
Average
hourly
earnings
Average
weekly
hours
Average
weekly
earnings
M a les
A ll occupations______________ ________ ___
36,749
$0.671
35.0
$23.44
Skilled workers_____________ _____ _______
Core makers, skilled - __________________
Foremen, working, skilled___ ____ _____
Maintenance and repairmen, skilled______
M illwrights................. .................................
Miscellaneous skilled workers, direct_____
Miscellaneous skilled workers, indirect___
Molders, hand, bench_______________
Molders, hand, floor. ____- ___________
Molders, machine, skilled......................... .
Molders, nonferrous____ _______ _____ __
Pattern makers, metal_________________
Pattern makers, wood____ _____ _______
Welders and burners— ....... ............... ........
14,419
2,165
816
295
.834
.847
.924
.775
.778
.869
.900
.796
.818
.840
.818
.836
.893
.692
34.3
34.5
40.4
39.5
41.7
36.8
40.0
32.5
32.5
34.2
36.3
38.7
37.5
37.2
28.66
29.24
37.33
30.59
32.48
32.03
36.03
25.86
26.57
28.73
29.72
32.31
33.51
25.76
Semiskilled workers— ............ ...... ......... .........
Apprentices, foundry....................................
Carpenters, flask................................ .........
Chippers................ ............................... ........
Core makers, semiskilled........................... .
Core pasters—. ............. .........—_________
Crane operators..................................... ........
Cupola tenders....... .....................................
Factory clerks................. ..........................—
Foremen, working, semiskilled___ ____
Inspectors and testers...................................
Ladle liners------- -------- ------ ---------- --------Maintenance and repairmen, semiskilled-—
Miscellaneous furnace men---------------------Miscellaneous semiskilled workers, direct.
Miscellaneous semiskilled workers, indirect.
Miscellaneous machine operators.............
Molders, machine, semiskilled.............. ......
Pourers and ladleraen.................................
Shipping and receiving clerks— ......... ........
Storekeepers------------------------ ------ ----------Truck drivers..-............................. ............
Truckers, power........................ ................ .
8,743
1,064
316
1,543
505
277
699
630
130
313
295
135
243
39
273
113
97
799
509
290
156
197
.620
.539
.641
.588
.618
.706
.646
.640
.614
.652
.612
.600
.614
.787
.605
.623
.608
.712
.632
.585
.644
.570
.633
36.1
35.0
36.5
34.9
35.1
37.5
35.8
36.1
38.3
38.8
37.9
35.8
37.7
35.6
38.2
36.5
34.7
35.4
35.8
37.9
37.8
41.0
35.8
22.38
18.86
23.39
20.51
Unskilled workers.......................... ....................
Casting cleaners........ ................... .........—
Core carriers------------------------- ---------------Core makers’ helpers_______ __________
Core-oven tenders____ ________ _______
Cupola chargers and helpers-------------------Flask and pattern carriers----------------------Grinders, rough..... ................... ...................
Janitors------------------------------------------------Laborers, foundry.-------------- ------------------Learners
_
Loaders and unloaders---------------------------Maintenance helpers----------- ------ - .........
Miscellaneous furnace helpers------------------Miscellaneous unskilled workers, direct----Miscellaneous unskilled workers, indirect-.
Molders’ helpers-------------------- ---------------Sandblasters—................. ................ .............
Sand conditioners, hand..................... .........
Sand conditioners, machine.........—.............
Shake-out men....... ................... ............ ......
Stock and shipping-room labor.............. —
Truckers, hand.------ -----------------------------Tumbler operators........................................
Watchmen............ .......... — -------------------Packers and wrappers— ................. ...... —
13,587
582
244
156
1,870
303
264
353
2,026
170
184
481
357
44
.533
.530
.469
.534
.603
.542
.547
.573
.511
.493
.507
.445
.553
.569
.502
.550
.523
.592
.506
.602
.580
.458
.538
.556
.418
.577
34.9
35.0
33.7
35.4
36.5
33.9
35.9
35.5
36.5
34.7
87.7
30.8
38.3
34.8
36.9
34.6
34.0
36.1
34.6
36.4
32.7
37.4
34.0
36.0
44.0
39.0
18.38
22.50
94
.583
32.1
18.69
Fem ales
A ll occupations1................. ............... — ...........
i
122
116
35
2,446
4,614
2,224
58
291
1,142
95
120
212
625
141
1,022
243
1. 262
167
2.231
245
234
98
68
Includes 64 semiskilled core makers with average hourly earnings of 62.5 cents.
21.66
26.46
23.13
23.09
23.48
25.32
23.16
21.48
23.14
28.05
23.10
22.75
21.08
25.23
22.61
22.18
24.31
23.33
22.64
18.58
18.58
15.82
18.90
21.98
18.36
19.64
20.35
18.65
17.11
19.10
13.68
21.17
19.79
18.50
19.01
17.79
21.38
17.48
21.91
18.97
17.12
18.29
20.01
158
WAGES AND HOURS
A v era g e h o u rly ea rn in g s, w e ek ly hours, and w eek ly ea rnings o f f o u n d r y w ork ers, 1 9 8 8
and 1 9 8 9 , b y o ccu p a tion , sex , and s k il l —Continued
M A L L E A B L E -IR O N F O U N D R IE S
Occupation, sex, and skill
Malta
Number of
workers
Average
hourly
earnings
Average
weekly
hours
Average
weekly
earnings
All occupations---------------------- ---------------- - .......................
6,157
$0.689
35.4
$24.37
Skilled workers--------------------------------- - ............ - ................
Core makers, skilled ---------------------- ---------------------Foremen, working, skilled-------------------------------------Maintenance and repairmen, skilled----------------------Millwrights----------- -----------------------------------------------Miscellaneous skilled workers, direct------------- --------Miscellaneous skilled workers, indirect....... ..............
Molders, hand, bench........... ..................... ...................
Molders, hand, floor---------------- ----------- -----------------Molders, machine, skilled..............................................
Pattern makers, metal................. ................... ..............
Pattern makers, wood................ _.............. ...................
2,205
254
95
119
38
35
24
525
.804
.757
.796
.754
.715
.757
.804
.758
.771
.862
.792
.809
34.5
34.8
38.9
37.6
38.9
39.6
40.7
31.5
29.3
34.7
38.9
35.6
27.71
26.36
30.93
28.37
27.80
29.99
32.71
23.90
22.60
29.92
30.76
28.79
Semiskilled work rs----------------------------------- ------- ------Annealers.----------- ------------- ------------------------ ---------- Apprentices, foundry............... ............ .........................
Carpenters, flask-------------------------- ------------------------Chippers_____________________________ ____________
Core makers, semiskilled------------------------------------Core pasters............ ...................................... ..................
Crane operators______________ ____________ _______
Foremen, working, semiskilled---------------------- --------Inspectors and testers____________ ____ ___________
Ladle liners---------------------- ---------------- -------------------Maintenance and repairmen, semiskilled..................
Miscellaneous furnace men............................... ............
Miscellaneous semiskilled workers, direct.................
Miscellaneous semiskilled workers, indirect ______
Miscellaneous machine operators-------------- ---------Molders, machine, semiskilled— -------- -----------------Pourers and ladlemen....................... ...........................
Shipping and receiving clerks--------------------------- . . .
Straighteners------ ----------------------------- ------- ------------Truckers, power.............. .............................. ..................
1,592
.657
.664
.483
.684
.654
.662
.589
.697
.654
.614
.616
.640
.721
.689
.601
.678
.703
.811
.604
.701
.604
36.7
37.3
34.5
37.8
36.3
35.9
39.5
38.3
39.2
37.3
35,3
35.7
37.8
34.8
38.8
35.3
32.7
36.6
36.2
39.9
37.0
24.13
24.77
16.65
25.82
23.72
23.80
23.30
26.72
25.66
22.90
21. 74
22.82
27.28
24.00
23. 32
23.98
23.02
29.70
21.89
27.97
22.36
Unskilled workers............................................. .....................
Annealing firemen---------------- --------------------- ------- Casting cleaners------------------ --------------------- ---------Core carriers---------------------------------------------------------Core-makers’ helpers___ ____ ______________ ______
Core-oven tenders__________________________ ______
Flask and pattern carriers-------------------------------------Grinders, rough---------------------------------------- ------------Janitors............. .............................. ..................................
Laborers, foundry---------------------- --------------------------Loaders and unloaders____ _______________________
Maintenance helpers----------- -------------- ------------------Miscellaneous furnace helpers____ _____ _ ________
Miscellaneous unskilled workers, direct-----------------Miscellaneous unskilled workers, indirect.......... .......
Molders’ helpers................. ........... ...............................
Sandblasters...... .......................................... ..................
Sand conditioners, hand__________________________
Sand conditioners, machine______ ________________
Shake-out men...................... .......................... ................
Stock and shipping room labor__________ ________ _
Truckers, hand _________ ______________ _____ ___
Tumbler operators__________________ _________ ___
Watchmen________ _____ ______ _____ ____________
Packers and wrappers______________________ _______
2,360
52
71
32
90
34
38
389
50
431
41
48
116
79
.605
.553
.575
.579
.552
.590
.575
.659
.538
.570
35.4
39.1
35.6
35.2
35.4
36.3
35.3
35.4
35.9
33.4
30.3
37.0
36.3
37.0
36.8
34.4
36.4
36.4
36.8
34.1
37.1
34.4
34.4
43.7
35.4
21.40
21.59
20.46
20.38
19.51
21.42
20.32
23.34
19.29
19.06
20. 78
' 23.04
22.92
18.72
22.24
21.82
24.21
22.09
23.61
23.11
19.15
20.48
23.47
21.69
19.79
100
887
89
39
220
27
47
227
38
24
36
49
206
46
53
68
76
101
60
124
56
30
59
45
21
101
54
62
84
196
62
92
83
72
62
.686
.623
.631
.505
.604
.635
.666
.608
.642
.678
.516
.596
.682
.496
.560
Femalts
All occupations. ______________________________________
244
.556
33.4
18. 55
Semiskilled workers *.............. .......................... ...................
Unskilled workers_____________________________________
157
87
.558
.552
33.3
33.5
18. 57
18.52
* Includes 121 core makers with average hourly earnings of 56.6 cents.
HAT INDUSTRIES
159
Hat Industries—Earnings and Hours, 19391
The Bureau of Labor Statistics made a study in 1939 of earnings
and hours in the four hat industries—manufacturing, respectively,
fur-felt hats, wool-felt bodies and finished wool-felt hats for men,
straw hats, and hat materials.
F ur-F elt H ats
The survey o f the fur-felt hat industry covered 7,182 wage earners,
or approximately half o f the total employed in the industry. Over
three-fourths (77.7 percent) of the workers were males. The majority
of the males were in skilled occupations, whereas most of the females
were classed as semiskilled.
Most o f the women employed in the fur-felt hat industry are
engaged in the various finishing processes, known in the industry as
front-shop operations. These jobs include binding hat brims, fitting
and inserting hat bands and linings, and various other trimming
operations, in the manufacture of rough hat bodies, which is called
the back-shop operation, men are employed almost exclusively.
Many of the processes in this department require a high degree of
skill and also involve continuous exposure to dust and hot water.
The hourly earnings of all workers in this branch averaged 66.3
cents in the early part of 1939. Males averaged 71.2 cents an hour,
as against only 49.1 cents for females. The hourly earnings o f male
workers were higher in the back shops than in the front shops. The
reverse was true, however, for the females.
The majority of the establishments covered by the survey were on
a 40-hour week basis. The actual workweek during the pay period
covered by the survey averaged 37.2 hours. Male wage earners
averaged 37.3 hours, as against 36.9 hours for females.
The weekly earnings of all workers in the fur-felt hat industry
averaged $24.69. The average was $26.57 for males and $18.13 for
females. Skilled males were paid $30.86 as compared with $23.48
for skilled females. The earnings of semiskilled workers amounted
to $22.54 per week for males and $17.92 for females. Unskilled males
earned $17.01 on the average, as against $14.51 for unskilled females.
W ool-F elt H ats
The separation of back- and front-shop operations in the wool-felt
hat industry is similar to that found in the fur-felt plants. Likewise,
as in the fur-felt branch, a large majority (74.0 percent) of the
workers were males. Male employees constituted four-fifths (79.6 per
cent) of the labor force in the back shops but less than three-fifths
(56.9 percent) in the front shops. Only 18.8 percent of the workers
were classed as skilled. All of these employees were males. The
unskilled occupations included only 9.0 percent of the entire labor
force.
The earnings of all workers in the wool-felt hat industry averaged
49.8 cents an hour. The average for males was 52.2 cents as against
43.0 -cents for females. The skilled males earned 66.3 cents an hour.
1 A bstract of a rtic le from th e M o nth ly Labor Review fo r October 1939.
160
WAGES AND HOURS
Among the semiskilled employees the males averaged 48.6 cents,
which was 5.4 cents higher than the average for females. The
average for unskilled males was 41.7 cents, or 1.4 cents higher than
the hourly earnings of unskilled females.
The actual hours worked in the wool-felt hat industry as a whole
average 39.0 per week. The averages for the various types of plants
did not differ materially, amounting to 38.0 hours in the independent
back shops as against 38.7 hours in the independent front shops and
39.6 hours in the establishments that combine both back- and frontshop operations. One-third (33.5 percent) of the workers worked
exactly 44 hours per week during the selected pay period while 15.0
percent averaged exactly 40 hours.
The weekly earnings of all workers in the wool-felt hat industry
averaged $19.46. The average for males was $20.55, which may be
compared with $16.37 for females.
S tfa w Hats
The survey covered 2,489 wage earners in plants making dressstraw hats and 483 workers in harvest-hat establishments. This
constituted almost 100 percent of the total employment in both
branches.
Most o f the employees in both dress-straw and harvest-hat plants
are semiskilled. For the industry as a whole about two-thirds (65.6
percent) of the workers were semiskilled. In the harvest-hat plants,
however, 84.3 percent of the workers were classed as semiskilled, while
only 5.8 percent were skilled. In the dress-straw-hat establishments
30.7 percent of the workers were skilled and 62.0 percent were semi
skilled. The labor force in the total industry was composed of nearly
equal proportions of males and females (48.1 percent males as against
51.9 percent females). Males constituted 59.2 percent in the
harvest-hat branch as against only 46.0 percent in the dress-straw hat
plants.
The earnings of all workers covered in the survey of the straw-hat
industry averaged 49.1 cents an hour. Male employees received 57.3
cents, as compared with 41.1 cents for females. The average hourly
earnings of all workers in dress-straw-hat establishments were exactly
50.0 cents. This may be compared with 44.1 cents for employees of
harvest-hat plants.
The actual time worked by all employees covered in the survey of
the straw-hat industry averaged 41.2 hours per week. The average
was 41.3 hours in the dress-straw branch as against 40.3 in the harvesthat establishments. Average actual weekly hours ranged from 45.2
for the unskilled males in dress-straw-hat plants lo 38.2 for semi
skilled females in the harvest-hat branch. Over one-third (34.7
percent) o f the workers in the industry as a whole worked exactly 44
hours, while 16.2 percent worked exactly 40 hours per week at the
time o f the survey.
The weekly earnings of all employees in the straw-hat industry
averaged $20.20. The level of earnings was somewhat higher in the
dress-straw than in the harvest-hat establishments, their respective
averages being $20.66 and $17.80. This difference was primarily
due to the higher earnings of the skilled workers in dress-straw-hat
plants.
161
HAT INDUSTRIES
H at M aterials
The hat-materials industry includes establishments engaged in the
manufacture o f hatters’ fur and hat trimmings. The survey, which
included virtually 100 percent of the industry, covered 3,126 wage
earners employed in 52 establishments. A majority of the occupa
tions were classed as semiskilled, 70.0 percent of the workers being
in this category. In the trimmings branch, which includes plants
manufacturing such products as sweat bands, linings, and ribbons,
45.5 percent o f the workers were semiskilled, while 37.7 percent were
skilled and 16.8 percent unskilled. Male employees made up 61.8
percent o f the labor force in hatters’ fur as against 51.3 percent in
trimmings plants,
A v era g e h o u rly earnings in the hat in d u stries , 1 9 8 9 , b y d iv isio n o f in d u s tr y , ty p e o f
plant, skill, a n d sex
All workers
Skilled workers
Semiskilled
workers
Unskilled workers
Type of plant
Fe
Fe
Fe
Total Male male Total Male male Total Male Fe Total Male male
male
Fur-fell hats
All plants— ........... ........... $0,663 $0.712 $0,491 $0.843 $0,855 $0,628 $0,543 $0,586 $0,488 $0.417 $0,423 $0,386
.758 .767 .405 .907 .907
.438 .443 .396
.638 .642 0)
Back shops__________
.603 .660 .496 .778 .796 ‘ ‘ .‘ 628 .523 .561 .488 .388 .391 .381
Front shops....... ..........
.734
.785
.691
.714
.529
.776
.792
.757
.726
.572
.546
.432
.552
.380
.453
.909
.928
.880
.872
.699
.918
.928
.902
.872
.714
All plants— ........................
Back shops........ .........
Front shops.................
.498
.482
.545
.522
.500
.608
.430
.407
.461
.663
.660
.671
.663
.660
.671
Integrated plants........ .....
Back shops...................
Front shops....... ..........
Independent back shops. _
Independent front shops. .
.496
.475
.540
.493
.571
. 5ltf
.485
.610
.530
.599
.432
.405
.448
.408
.531
.672
.676
.667
.642
0)
.672
.676
.667
.642
0)
.491
.500
.441
.573
.595
.482
.411
.416
.337
.713
.717
.615
.747
.753
.615
.552
.527
.588
.651
.612
.715
.406
.377
.437
.790
.739
.802
Integrated plants________
Back shops............ .
Front shops....... ..........
Independent back shops..
Independent front shops..
.686
.634
.660
.626
.597
.438
.661
.699
.607
.425
(0
.547
0)
.448
.455
.458
.451
.412
.293
.458
.461
.452
.419
.298
.441
.428
.446
.358
.280
.468
.452
.517
.486
.467
.590
.432
.408
.464
.415
.402
.451
.417
.405
.468
0)
.463
.444
.508
.464
.560
.475
.451
.590
.502
.591
.433
.406
.450
.410
.533
.424
.409
.456
.391
(0
.426
.410
.480
.396
0)
0)
.425
(0
0)
.497
.497
—
.424
.419
.441
.455
.437
.485
.409
.414
.380
.308
.301
.336
.305
.298
.333
0)
.821 .514
.739
.842 ‘ ‘ .‘ 514
.520
.539
.480
.649
.671
.558
.407
.380
.446
.427
.446
.385
.455
.468
.402
.368
.361
.373
.697
.697
.575
.546
Wool-felt hats
—
.403
.424
.416
Straw hats
All products____ ________
Dress straw hats_____
Harvest hats..... ..........
.314
.308
Hat materials
All products........................
Hatters' fur..................
Trimmings...................
1Number of workers not sufficient to justify computation of an average.
The hourly earnings of all employees covered in the survey of the
hat-materials industry averaged 55.2 cents. Males received 65.1
cents an hour on the average as against 40.6 cents for females, a
difference of 24.5 cents. The hourly earnings of all workers in the
hat-trimmings branch averaged 58.8 cents, which is 6.1 cents higher
than the average shown for all employees in the hatters’ fur estab
lishments. For some o f the skill and sex groups, however, higher
averages were found in the hatters’ fur than in the trimmings plants.
WAGES AND HOURS
16 2
The actual weekly hours of all employees in the hat-materials in
dustry averaged 37.8. The average was 38.8 hours in hatters’ fur
establishments as against 36.5 hours for the workers in hat-trim
mings plants. Over one-third (36.4 percent) of the hatters’ fur
workers and one-half (50.7 percent) of the hat-trimmings employees
worked exactly 40 hours. On the other hand, 18.4 percent in the fur
cutting establishments as against 6.0 percent in the trimmings branch
worked exactly 44 hours.
The weekly earnings of all employees in the hat-materials industry
averaged $20.89. The levels of weekly earnings for the two branches
were quite similar, amounting to $20.45 in hatters’ fur and $21.47 in
hat trimmings. In both branches weekly earnings of males were
substantially higher than the average for females, due to the fact
that male employees had not only a higher hourly average but
also worked more hours per week.
#######<
H o s i e r y M a n u f a c t u r e — E a r n in g s a n d H o u r s ,
1937, 1938, a n d 1 9 4 0 1
Full-Fashioned H osiery
The full-fashioned stocking is made by knitting a flat fabric, which
is subsequently seamed into a tubular form. The fashioning process
consists in changing the number of rows of loops by adding or drop
ping stitches. This makes it possible to widen or narrow the stocking,
which then conforms to the shape of the leg.
A distinguishing characteristic of the full-fashioned branch is the
homogeneity of its products. In 1935, the latest year for which cen
sus data are available, over 95 percent of the output consisted of
women’s stockings made of all-pure-thread-silk or pure-thread-silk
with lisle or cotton tops, heels, and toes.
The manufacturing processes in full-fashioned hosiery are carried
on in two stages. Beginning with the prepared ^arn, the first stage
involves the knitting of “gray” goods. The knitting is done on flat
bed, spring-needle knitting machines which are extremely complicated
and difficult to adjust and operate, so that in case of error the losses
due to damaged products may be quite large. Also, the principal raw
material used, namely silk, is very fragile and must be handled with
great care during every stage of the process. The second stage covers
the dyeing and finishing of the “gray” goods.2
The knitting and finishing processes are usually carried on within
a single establishment. In recent years, however, there has developed
a group of commercial finishing plants that specialize in dyeing and
finishing full-fashioned stockings.
The survey on which this article is based included 105 plants and
26,807 wage earners in the full-fashioned branch of the hosiery in
dustry, and covered, for the most part, a pay-roll period during
September 1938.
The manufacturing of full-fashioned hosiery is predominantly a
northern industry, being most heavily concentrated in eastern Penn1 Abstract of articles in the Monthly Labor Review for May and June 1939, and Janu
ary 1940, by Jacob Perlman, H. E. Riley, and E. B. Morris, of the Bureau of Labor
Statistics.
2 The production of ingrained full-fashioned hosiery (i. e., made of previously dyed
yarn) is relatively insignificant.
HOSIERY MANUFACTURE
16 3
sylvania and to a lesser extent in the other Middle Atlantic States.
In recent years, the industry has exhibited a decided trend toward the
Southern States.
In the northern region, full-fashioned hosiery manufacture is
mostly concentrated in the larger communities. Of the 78 plants
covered in that territory. 42 are in metropolitan areas having a pop
ulation of 1,000,000 or more. The Philadelphia district alone con
tained 27 of these 42 mills. By contrast, most of the southern plants
are in smaller communities. Of the 27 mills surveyed in the South,
only 3 with 15 percent of the total workers scheduled in that territory
are in metropolitan areas of 100,000 to 250,000.
The single-plant company is, on the whole, most typical of the fullfashioned industry. However, some of the mills recently established
in the Southern States are controlled by companies having plants
in the North.
The equipment used in the full-fashioned branch of the industry
represents a high degree of technical development. In connection
with the knitting operations, most plants employ two types of ma
chines, namely the “legger” and “footer.” The leg part of the
stocking is knitted on the “legger,” from which it is transferred to
the “footer” to complete the knitting process. Following this step,
the stocking is seamed up the back. It is then completed by the
looping operation, which closes the heel and toe openings, after which
the stocking is ready to go to the dyeing and finishing department.
A considerable amount of skilled labor is required at each step of
the manufacturing process, especially in the knitting department. The
operators of both “leggers” and “footers” must have long experience.
A high degree of dexterity and good eyesight are the prerequisites for
the toppers, who transfer the stocking from one machine to the other.
The seaming and looping operators also require skill tod dexterity.
These are the most important of a number of skilled occupations in
the industry.
A v e r a g e H o u r l y E a rn in g s
The large majority of the workers in the full-fashioned branch are
paid on a straight piece-rate basis. In four mills, some of the wage
earners were working under production-bonus systems.
Of the 52 trade-union plants, 15 reported that as a matter of general
policy no overtime was worked. In the mills having some overtime,
9 paid the regular rate to all direct employees, 4 paid this rate to
hourly workers (no overtime was worked by piece workers), and the
remaining 24 plants paid extra rates for overtime.
Among the non-trade-union plants, 44 of the 53 paid the regular rate
for overtime to all direct employees. In 4 additional plants, extra
rates applied only to certain direct hourly workers, such as dye-house
employees; but in 2 of these plants no overtime was worked by piece
workers. In considering overtime pay, it should be remembered that
the pay-roll period covered by the survey occurred during September
1938, prior to the effective date of the Fair Labor Standards Act.
Penalties for faulty work were imposed in only 9 trade-union and
19 non-trade-union plants.
Variations b y sex and ski!/.— Hourly earnings of the 26,807 fullfashioned hosiery workers included in the survey averaged 65.8 cents
in September 1938.
WAGES AND HOURS
164
The average hourly earnings of all males for the country as a whole
amounted to 83.5 cents an hour, as compared with 50.9 cents for all
females. (See table 1.) The higher average for males was largely
due to the 45.5 cents difference between the earnings of skilled males
and skilled females. On the other hand, males averaged only 3.1 cents
more than females for semiskilled workers, while among unskilled
employees the averages were practically the same. It should be noted,
however, that for each sex-skill group the average was considerably
higher in the North than in the South.
T a b l e 1 .— Average hourly earnings o f full-fashioned hosiery workers, 1 9 3 8 , by
region , skill, and sex
All workers
Region
Skilled
Semiskilled
Unskilled
Fe Total Male Fe Total Male Fe Total Male Fe
Total Male male
male
male
male
United States.. $0.658 $0,835 $0,509 $0.773 $1,002 $0. 547 $0,509 $0,528 $0.497 $0.378 $0.377 $0.378
North ___ .693 .867 .541 .809 1.028 .580 .537 .555 .524 .424 .437
.417
South............... .581 .760 .440 .694 .939 .480 .430 .440 .424 .292 .285
.298
As table 2 indicates, the distribution of hourly earnings of all
workers in the country as a whole covers a very wide spread, ranging
from under 17.5 cents to over $1.50. There is no marked concen
tration in the data, but instead the hourly earnings are widely scat
tered throughout the distribution.
T a b l e 2 .— Percentage distribution o f full-fashioned hosiery workers according to
average hourly earnings, 1 9 3 8 , by skill and sex
All workers
Average hourly earnings
(in cents)
Skilled
Unskilled
Fe Total Male Fe Total Male Fe Total Male Fe
Total Male male
male
male
male
0.2
Under 17.5.........................— 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.1
.2 “ 0)"" .4
17.5 and under 22.5____ 1.8 1.3 2.3
.9
.6
.3
.8
.5
22.5 and under 25.0--------0)
.6 0)
1.1
.9 2.1
25.0 and under 27.5____ 1.6
.5 1.2
.5 0.1
.9
27.5 and under 30.0_____ .9
.9
. 1 1.6
30.0 and under 32.5--------- 2.1 1.4 2.7
.1 2.3
32.5 and under 35.0____ 3.3 2.2 4.2 1.3
.2 2.6
35.0 and under 37.5--------- 3.3 1.9 4.5 1.5
37.5 and under 40.0--------- 5.1 2.6 7.0 2.6" .3 4.7
.6 5.2
40.0 and under 42.5____ 4.6 3.0 5.9 3.0
42.5 and under 47.5____ 7.6 4.0 10.4 6.0 1.1 10.5
47.5 and under 52.5____ 8.4 3.7 12.1 7.2 1.5 12.6
52.5 and under 57.5____ 8.5 4.0 11.9 8.3 2.0 14.3
57.5 and under 62.5____ 7.5 3.7 10.6 8.3 2.8 13.4
62.5 and under 67.5--------- 6.6 4.2 8.5 7.6 3.6 11.3
67.5 and under 72.5--.......... 5.1 4.0 6.0 5.9 4.0 7.6
72.5 and under 77.5____ 4.0 4.3 3.8 4.7 4.5 5.0
77.5 and under 82.5............. 3.1 4.0 2.4 3.5 4.5 2.6
82.5 and under 87.5____ 2.5 4.1 1.3 3.3 5.3 1.5
.6
.8 3.4 6.4
87.5 and under 92.5--------- 2.6 4.9
.6
.6 5.4 10.6
92.5 and under 100.0____ 3.8 7.8
.2 7.6 15.5
.3
4.9 10.8
100.0 and under 110.0 . 1 6.7 13.9
.1
110.0 and under 120.0___ 4.3 9.7
4.8 9.9 0)
3.1 6.9 0)
120.0 and under 130.0 ..
2.7 5.5 0)
130.0 and under 140.0 _ 1.7 3.8 0)
1.6 3.3
140.0 and under 150.0
L0 2.3 0)
2.0 4.2
150.0 and over___ .
1.3 3.0
Total_________ 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
1 Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
Semiskilled
0.3 0.6 0.2 3.0 3.9
2.5
.8 1.0
.7 11.6 9.8 12.8
.8
.8
.9 2.8 3.6
2.3
1.9 1.7 2.0 6.0 4.9
6.6
1.4 1.3 1.5 2.1 1.8
2.3
3.0 2.5 3.3 6.6 7.6
6.0
6.2 6.0 6.2 8.5 8.6
8.4
6.4 4.7 7.4 6.9 7.4
6.6
8.3 7.1 9.1 11.4 9.8 12.5
7.3 8.5 6.5 8.1 9.0
7.5
11.1 11.5 10.8 9.5 9.2
9.7
11.2 8.8 12.7 8.8 9.2
8.7
9.1 8.3 9.5 7.2 8.6
6.3
7.9 7.5 8.2 3.0 2.8
3.1
6.5 7.6 5.9 1.8 1.5
2.0
5.1 5.4 4.9 1.3 1.1
1.4
3.9 5.5 2.9
.6
.5
.4
3.4 4.1 2.9
.2
.3
.3
1.6 2.1 1.3
.3
.2
.4
1.9 2.0 1.8
.1
.1 0)
1.3 2.0
.8
.1
.1
.1
.4
.6
.3
.2
.3
.2.
.1 0)
.1
.1
. 0)
fi)
0)
0)
0)
0)
0)
ioo.o 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 1000
HOSIERY MANUFACTURE
16 5
This wide dispersion in average hourly earnings is due to differences
caused by a variety of factors, such as geographical location, sex,
skill, occupation, unionization, type of plant, etc.
Occupational differences .— Table 3 presents the average hourly
earnings of workers in the various occupational classes.
For the country as a whole, the most important skilled occupations
numerically for males are footer and legger knitters. Their respec
tive average hourly earnings were $1,125 and 99.2 cents. The rel
atively small group of single-unit knitters, which is a new occupation,
averaged only slightly more than the legger knitters.
As regards skilled females, the most important occupations numer
ically are toppers, seamers, and loopers. Their respective average
hourly earnings amounted to 58.1,50.8, and 54.8 cents.
T a b l e 3 . — Average earnings and hours o f full-fashioned hosiery workers, 1 988, by
occupation
Skill, sex, and occupation
Majes:
S k ille d w o r k e r s
Foremen, working........... ..............
............
Knitters, footer..................... ................._...........
Knitters^ legger....................... ..... .....................
Knitters^ single-unit____ _______ ___________
Machine fixers_______ ________
Toppers................. ............................................
Miscellaneous skilled, direct__ ____ _____ ____
Miscellaneous skilled, indirect____ __ __ ____
Females:
Forewomen, working_____________ ____ ____
Knitters, miscellaneous___ ___ _____________
Loopers_____________________ _ ______
Menders______________________ _______
Seamers___________ ____________ ________
Toppers.____ _____________ ______ ______
Males:
S e m is k ille d w o r k e r s
Boarders, automatic................................ ...........
Boarders, other......................... ............ ......... .
Clerks, factory______________________ ... _
Dye-machine operators __ _____
Knitters' helpers_________ _______________
Packers.___ _____ ___________________
Stock handlers__ ________________________
Subforemen, working____________ __ _ _
Miscellaneous semiskilled, direct................. ........
Miscellaneous semiskilled, indirect____ _______
Females:
Boarders, automatic_____________ ___ _____
Boarders, other____ ______________ __ ..
Clerks, factory. _________________________
Inspectors and examiners........................... ..........
Pairers_______ ____ ________ _______ ____
Stock handlers_____________________ __ ..
Subforewomen, working_______ ___________
Winders__________ ___ _________________
General workers and helpers_______ ________
Males:
U n s k il le d w o r k e r s
Cleaners, machine_______ ______ ________
Janitors and cleaners___________ ___ _____
Learners and apprentices, full-fashioned knitters....
Learners and apprentices, other.................. ........
Watchmen................ ..... ............ .....................
Work distributors........................ .....................
Miscellaneous unskilled direct__________ ____
Miscellaneous unskilled indirect_____________
Females:
Clippers_________ ___ ____ ___________ __
Folders, wrappers, and boxers...................... ........
Learners and apprentices____ __________ ____
Stampers and labelers______________ ______
Work distributors.......... . ............... .................
Miscellaneous unskilled direct_______________
Number
of
workers
Average
hourly
earnings
Average
weekly
hours
Average
weekly
earnings
141
1,801
5,440
68
263
315
67
172
57
107
1,635
891
2,254
8,927
$1,055
1.125
.992
1.010
1.084
.615
.700
.696
.641
.564
.548
.487
.508
.581
43.5
37.4
39.0
39.1
43.8
36.5
41.2
45.3
41.5
39.6
36.5
36.7
37.1
36.6
$45.87
42.13
38.65
39.51
47.45
22.46
28.80
31.51
26.58
22.31
20.01
17.88
18.82
21.28
219
441
159
148
657
184
156
66
163
*
161
153
583
101
1,516
994
141
122
163
116
.759
.607
.535
.607
.422
.433
.453
.659
.515
.508
.759
.632
.396
.445
.519
.357
.507
.439
.350
37.6
36.8
43.5
42.0
38.4
42.6
40.9
44.7
40.7
46.3
37.0
36.6
41.6
38.2
36.9
39.9
41.5
37.0
37.0
28.57
22.32
23.26
25.45
16.19
18.43
18.51
29.45
20.98
23.55
28.10
23.15
16.47
16.97
19.17
14.26
21.03
16.21
12.95
83
120
457
103
167
156
133
48
77
888
609
837
135
113
.375
.358
.383
.245
.384
.399
.416
.429
.402
.447
.254
.423
.359
.391
42.4
45.0
39.9
36.5
50.2
41.0
41.8
42.5
37.4
37.6
38.5
38.4
39.3
38.7
15.88
16.14
15.27
8.96
19.28
16.36
17.39
18.22
15.04
16.82
9.77
16.24
14.13
15.14
WAGES AND HOURS
166
Earnings in union and nonunion plants .— Because of the fact that
the sample included only 1 union establishment in the southern
territory, comparison of average hourly earnings between union and
nonunion plants must be confined to the North, where data were
obtained for 51 union and 27 nonunion mills.
Based on data covering individual workers in the northern terri
tory, the hourly earnings averaged 74.3 cents in union and 60.5 cents
in nonunion plants, a difference of 13.8 cents. (See table 4.)
T a b l e 4 .— Average hourly earnings o f full-fashioned hosiery workers in the N ortht
1 9 8 8 , by unionization and skill
Sex and unionization
Both sexes______ -_______ ___ ________
Union plants____ _________________
Nonunion plants___________________
Males_______________________ -_____
Union plants__________ ___________
Nonunion plants___________________
Females________ _____________________
Union plants______________________
Nonunion plants.____ ________ _____
All workers.
$0.693
.743
.605
.867
.949
.736
.541
.573
.480
Skilled
$0.809
.836
.744
1.028
1.065
.941
.580
.601
.532
Semiskilled
$0.537
.573
.490
.555
.584
.527
.524
. 567
.460
Unskilled
$0,424
.446
.405
.437
.446
.433
.417
.446
.381
W e e k ly H o u rs a n d E a rn in g s
Shift operation was quite common in the full-fashioned branch of
the hosiery industry in September 1938. In the northern territory,
of 60 integrated establishments that reported on this point, only
7 operated 1 shift, while 50 worked during 2 shifts and 3 during 3
shifts. O f the 14 independent finishing plants, however, only 3
operated for 2 shifts and 1 for 3 shifts. In the southern region, of
tne 23 mills reporting this information, 20 operated for 2 shifts and
4 for 3 shifts. In nearly every case, the second and third shifts were
confined to the knitting department.3
The 8-hour shift and 40-hour week generally prevailed in this
branch of the industry at the time of the survey.
For the country as a whole weekly hours actually worked averaged
38.2. Hours were slightly longer in the South than in the North—
39.3 as compared with 37.8— a situation which obtained for all of the
various sex-skill groups (table 5).
The average weekly earnings of all males in the country as a whole
amounted to $32.97, as against $18.94 for all females. The averages
were $29.22 for all skilled, $19.64 for semiskilled, and $14.96 for
unskilled employees. On a sex-skill basis, the averages ranged from
$39.55 for skilled males in the North to $11.67 for unskilled females in
the South.
As was shown in table 3, the average weekly earnings among skilled
males in the country as a whole ranged from $47.45 for machine fixers
to $22.46 for toppers. For semiskilled males, they varied from $29.45
for working subforemen to $16.19 for knitters’ helpers. The spread
for unskilled males was from $19.28 for watchmen to $8.96 for mis
cellaneous learners and apprentices. Among skilled females the
* In 14 establishm ents, located in both the northern and southern te rrito rie s , there was
a wage d iffe re n tia l in fa v o r o f employees w orking on the second and th ird sh ifts.
167
HOSIERY MANUFACTURE
average varied from $26.58 for working forewomen to $17.88 for
menders. The range for semiskilled females was from $28.10 for
automatic boarders to $12.95 for general workers and helpers. The
averages for unskilled females varied from $16.82 for folders, wrap
pers, and boxers to $9.77 for learners and apprentices.
T
able
5 . — Average
actual weekly hours and average weekly earnings of full-fashioned
hosiery workers, 1938, by skill, sex, and region
All workers
Kegion
Unskilled
Semiskilled
Skilled
Total
Male
37.7
37.4
38.8
39.6
39.1
40.6
42.1
41.8
42.5
38.1
37.7
39.2
United States. $25.16 $32.97 $18.94 $29. 22 $38.97 $20.13 $19. 64 $21.09 $18. 76 $14.96 $15.88
North____ 26.17 33.85 19.87 30. 21 39. 55 21.03 20. 52 21.98 19. 59 16.57 18.27
South____ 22.81 30. 79 16.86 26.98 37.55 18. 24 17.02 18.13 16.42 11.87 12.14
$14. 42
15. 69
11. 67
Male
Fe
male
Total
Male
Fe
male
Fe
male
Fe
male
Total
Total
Male
Average actual weekly hours
United States.
North___
South____
38.2
37.8
39.3
39.5
39.0
40.5
37.2
36.8
38.3
37.8
37.3
38.9
38.9
38.5
40.0
36.8
36.2
38. Q
38.6
38.2
39.6
40.0
39.6
41.2
Average weekly earnings
A n n u a l E a r n i n g s , 1 9 37
In the full-fashioned branch o f the hosiery industry, the average
annual earnings in 1937 o f employees who worked throughout the
year amounted to $1,328, as compared with $1,264 for all who had
employment for 40 weeks and over, $1,198 for those who worked 26
weeks and over, and $1,120 for all employees on the pay roll during
any part of the year.
These averages cover only wage earners on the pay roll of the estab
lishments surveyed in September 1938, who were employed by the
same plant for one or more pay-roll periods in 1937.4 Owing to the
fact that the figures were obtained from employers’ records, they
cover only the total earnings and number of pay-roll periods in 1937
of each wage earner in the plant in which he worked during September
1938. Hence, the annual figures do not include any earnings of an
individual in other establishments in which he may have worked
during 1937. However, employees who were on the pay roll o f a
plant for a considerable number of weeks were not likely to have had
opportunity for employment elsewhere.
Table 6 shows the average annual earnings of workers in fullfashioned hosiery plants by region, skill, and sex.
The average annual earnings were higher for males than females.
With one exception, this was true Jin each region and for each skill
group. The exception was found in the case o f unskilled workers
employed throughout the year in the South; among them females
averaged $41 more than males. The differences were especially pro
nounced for skilled workers. Furthermore, for identical groups of
employees, the differences were generally greater in the northern than
the southern region.
4 Annual earnings data were received for only 18,061 workers in 78 plants.
168
T
able
WAGES AND HOURS
6 . —Average
annual earnings of full-fashioned hosiery workers, by region,
slci/tty o/fbd S(/*Cp 1937
Average annual earnings of employees whose work extended over—
Region, and skill of
workers
52 weeks
40 weeks and over 26 weeks and over
Any part of the
year
Fe Total Males Fe Total Males Fe Total Males Fe
Total Males males
males
males
males
United States................... $1,328 $1,717 $946 $1,264 $1,664
Skilled.......................... 1,513 1,973 1,008 1,436 1,888
Semiskilled...................
976 1,099
876
909 1,039
842
Unskilled............... .......
799
895
736
765
$906 $1,198 $1,582
965 1,369 1,816
852
948
833
795
713
709
$859 $1,120 $1,490
916 1,297 1,743
859
792
783
640
658
710
$799
859
734
592
North.................................. 1,383 1,778
973 1,288 1,685
Skilled........................ 1,630 2,099 1,075 1,478 1,924
922 1,058
Semiskilled...................
996 1,118
878
775
879
Unskilled......................
968
703
797
923 1,220 1,596
996 1,407 1,837
861
961
838
704
841
728
876 1,154 1,517
948 1,349 1,778
794
797
879
666
765
657
826
902
742
602
Soiith................................... 1,248 1,623
Skilled......................... 1,367 1,802
Semiskilled_____ ____
935 1,047
Unskilled......................
802
781
864 1,138 1,543
894 1,276 1,760
824
896
819
678
727
668
815 1,031 1,414
843 1,171 1,648
789
740
787
582
660
573
735
765
714
565
910 1,205 1,608
930 1,338 1,798
873
868
971
734
822
743
Among males, the difference in the annual earnings of skilled and
semiskilled workers was much greater than the difference between
the semiskilled and unskilled groups. In the country as a whole,
the average annual earnings for all skilled males who were employed
throughout the year amounted to $1,973, which was $874 more than
the average for semiskilled males ($1,099). The average of the latter
group, however, exceeded that of unskilled males by only $204.
Seamless Hosiery
The seamless stocking is so named because it is knit in tubular form.
It differs from the full-fashioned stocking in having all the rows of
loops parallel throughout its length. Consequently, the seamless
product has approximately the same diameter at the ankle as at the
top. A slight degree o f shape may be given to the stocking by tighten
ing the yarn during the knitting of the ankle section.
In contrast with the full-fasnioned hosiery industry, the seamless
branch makes a wide variety of products. Its output in 1935, the
latest year for which census data are available, included 42.6 million
dozen pairs o f men’s hose, 14.6 million dozen pairs of boys’, misses’
and children’s hose, 13.7 million dozen pairs of women’s hose, and 5.5
million dozen pairs of infants’ hose.
Most of the work in seamless-hosiery mills consists o f knitting
operations. A large proportion o f the hosiery produced in this branch
contains two or more colors. The method o f manufacturing these
products usually requires a previously dyed yarn, although some of
the men’s and women’s seamless stockings are dyed and finished by
methods similar to those used in full-fashioned establishments. How
ever, because o f the wide variety of styles and color combinations,
most seamless-hosiery plants find it impractical to dye their own
yams. Instead, they purchase the yarns from textile-dyeing firms.
The survey of the seamless branch of the hosiery industry covered
97 representative plants! (with 18,270 wage earners), giving a
fairly accurate picture o f the seamless industry as to geographical
HOSIERY MANUFACTURE
169
distribution of mills, size of community, size of establishment, and
unionization.
The majority of the seamless mills in the southern territory are
located in relatively small communities. On the other hand, 21 of
the 32 northern establishments, which included nearly three-fifths
of the workers in this territory, were located in metropolitan areas
o f 100,000 and over.
As in the full-fashioned branch, the single-plant company predomi
nates in the seamless industry. Although there are several large cor
porations having more than 1 mill, a majority of the industry’s out
put is produced T>y single-establishment companies.
Most o f the knitting machines used in the seamless branch are
highly automatic in operation. Several types of circular latch-needle
machines are employed, but they all require very little attention and
relatively limited skill on the part of the operators. It is customary
to employ a male machine fixer to make adjustments and repairs on
a large number of machines. The machines themselves are operated
by women whose duties consist largely of tying broken yarn, remov
ing completed stockings, and transferring rib tops for certain types of
hosiery. Most of the seamless stockings are then completed by a
looping operation, which is quite similar to that performed in the
manufacture o f full-fashioned hosiery.
An outstanding feature of the manufacture of seamless hosiery is
the large proportion of female employees. They constituted 69 per
cent of the total wage earners scheduled. Another characteristic of
the industry is the predominance of workers in occupations regarded
by employers as semiskilled.
A v e r a g e H o u r l y E a r n in g s
As in full-fashioned hosiery plants, the great majority of the em
ployees in the seamless branch are paid on a straight piece-rate basis.
With the exception of one establishment, this method of wage pay
ment was found in all mills surveyed. In three plants, including the
one with no piece workers, some of the wage earners worked under
production-bonus plans.
The payment o f regular rates for overtime generally prevailed in
this branch of the industry. Time and one-half was allowed to all
hourly employees by only 2 plants, while 2 mills paid this higher
rate only to their machine fixers.5
Penalties of various types for faulty work were provided in 38 of
the 97 mills. In 29 establishments the employees received no pay for
unsatisfactory stockings, and 3 mills applied penalties for poor work
in excess o f a small maximum tolerance.
V a ria tion s ~by sex and sh ill.—The hourly earnings of the 18,270
wage earners in the seamless hosiery mills included in the survey
averaged 35.1 cents in September 1938.
The male employees in the country as a whole averaged 42.5 cents
an hour, or 11.1 cents more than the average of 31.4 cents for females.
A considerable part of this difference was attributable to the relatively
high earnings of skilled males, who averaged 64.2 cents. (See table 7.)
Among the semiskilled workers, the difference in hourly earnings
• Overtime compensation earned either at regular or extra rates usually does not apply
to salaried employees, who are expected to work above full-time hours without additional
remuneration.
WAGES AND HOURS
170
between males and females was 5.5 cents, whereas in the unskilled
group the earnings o f males and females averaged about the same.
Similar differences in average earnings per hour were found among
the sex-skill groups in each region. Furthermore, for each sex-skill
group, the average was considerably higher in the northern than the
southern territory.
T
able
7.
—Average hourly earnings of seamless hosiery workers, 19S8\ by region,
s k i l l y and sex
All workers
Semiskilled
Unskilled
Skilled:
Male
Region
Total
Male
United States........... ....... $0.351 $0.425
North___________ _______
South____________ ______
.412
.331
Female
Total
$0,314
$0.642 $0.334 $0.374
.538
.398
.367
.295
.693
.624
Male
.395
.314
Female Total
.490
.349
Male
Female
$0,319 $0.299 $0.305
$0,298
1.372
2. 299
.356
.283
.387
.286
.348
.283
1 Includes 23 workers reported as skilled.
2 Includes 26 workers reported as skilled.
The distribution o f hourly earnings covering all workers in the
country as a whole ranged from under 17.5 cents to over $1.00 (table 8),
but the largest concentration (18.7 percent) occurred between 27.5 and
32.5 cents.
T
able
8.
—Percentage distribution of seamless-hosiery workersy according to average
hourly earnings, 1988f by skill and sex
All workers
Semiskilled
Average hourly earnings
Total
Male
Fe
male
Under 17.5 cents__________
17.5 and under 22.5 cents.
22.5 and under 25.0 cents.. .
25.0 and under 27.5 cents.
27.5 and under 30.0 cents.. .
30.0 and under 32.5 cents.. .
32.5 and under 35.0 cents.. .
35.0 and under 37.5 cents.
37.5 and under 40.0 cents...
40.0 and under 42.5 cents...
42.5 and under 47.5 cents.. .
47.5 and under 52.5 cents.. .
52.5 and under 57.5 cents . . .
57.5 and under 62.5 cents.. .
62.5 and under 67.5 cents.. .
67.5 and under 72.5 cents.. .
72.5 and under 77.5 cents...
77.5 and under 82.5 cents...
82.5 and under 87.5 cents...
87.5 and under 92.5 cents.. .
92.5 and under 100.0 cents..
100.0 cents and over.............
4.7
8.9
6.9
9.6
8.2
10.5
9.7
8.4
6.5
5.6
7.3
4.4
2.8
1.8
1.5
1.2
.8
.4
.1
.3
.2
.2
1.8
5.8
4.4
5.8
5.3
10.2
7.1
6.7
5.7
6.5
9.4
8.0
5.4
3.8
4.0
3.4
2.4
1.3
.4
1.0
.7
.9
6.0
10.3
8.0
11.2
9.5
10.6
10.8
9.1
6.9
5.3
6.3
2.8
1.6
.9
.4
.2
.1
Total...........................
100.0
100.0
Skilled:
Male
Unskilled
Fe
male i Total
Total
Male
1.4
6.5
5.1
6.6
7.2
10.1
8.5
8.3
7.4
8.2
11.7
8.0
5.2
2.1
1.8
.9
.6
.1
.1
.1
.1
4.8
9.2
8.3
11.3
9.7
10.8
11.0
9.4
7.2
5.4
6.6
3.0
1.7
.9
.4
.2
.1
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
.3
.3
1.2
.9
1.7
1.4
2.5
5.3
11.2
8.7
10.8
13.3
13.3
9.8
5.7
1.6
4.7
3.1
4.1
3.9
8.5
7.4
9.9
9.0
10.7
10.4
9.1
7.3
6.2
8.0
4.4
2.7
1.2
.7
.4
.2
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
100.0
100.0
100.0
ioo.o
100.0
(?)
(*)
(2)
0.1
Male
Fe
male
9.0
13.1
7.2
11.5
7.7
13.1
10.3
7.8
5.4
4.6
5.3
2.3
1.2
.9
.3
.1
.1
.1
5.9
11.2
8.1
10.4
4.1
24.7
10.0
6.6
4.1
4.1
5.2
3.1
1.1
1.2
.1
.1
9.8
13.5
6.9
11.9
8.7
10.0
10.4
8.2
5.7
4.8
5.4
2.1
1.2
.8
.4
(2)
.1
.1
100.0
100.0
100.0
(2)
1 Includes 49 females classed as skilled.
2 Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
G eogra ph ica l and occupation al d ifferen ces .—Geographical differ
ences in wages account in part for the relatively wide dispersion found
in the hourly earnings of employees in seamless mills. For all workers,
the averages were 41.2 cents in the northern and 33.1 cents in the
southern region—a difference o f 8.1 cents.
171
HOSIERY MANUFACTURE
O ccu pation al d ifferen ces .—The average hourly earnings o f the vari
ous occupational classes in the seamless branch of the industry are
shown in table 9.
The highest-paid occupations were those of working foremen and
machine fixers, the former averaging 76.9 and the latter 62.1 cents.
T
able
9 . —Average
earnings and hours of seamless-hosiery workers, 1938, by
occupation
Skill, sex, and occupation
Number
of
workers
Average
hourly
earnings
Average
weekly
hours
Average
weekly
earnings
Skilled workers
Males:
Foremen, working..................... ....................................
Machine fixers..................................................................
Miscellaneous skilled, indirect....................................
212
873
93
$0.769
.621
.551
45.0
43.3
48.0
$34.61
26.88
26.43
1,203
113
104
607
213
292
354
158
92
235
162
109
.376
.420
.397
.381
.327
.417
.290
.431
.341
.359
.412
.383
34.8
45.0
44.6
38.4
40.4
37.0
39.0
45.4
39.7
44.4
41.8
48.7
13.07
18.90
17.71
14.65
13.22
15.42
11.30
19.57
13.54
15.93
17.20
18.66
214
109
1,046
130
69
137
2,614
82
3,465
521
729
90
130
i 315
.391
.332
.312
.336
.313
. 355
.299
.272
.326
.312
.336
.318
.334
.352
36.6
41.8
36.0
39.1
35.1
39.2
36.6
30.7
36. 5
35.9
32.4
42.6
33.3
40.2
14.30
13.86
11.24
13.11
10.97
13.88
10.92
8.33
11.90
11.21
10.87
13.57
11.13
14.15
75
83
79
93
114
214
115
34
.333
.298
.285
.281
.311
.313
.295
.326
32.6
42. 7
43.1
36.9
51.0
39.6
32.0
40.3
10.86
12.70
12.27
10.36
15.87
12.40
9.42
13.15
415
591
290
699
237
452
308
.295
.334
.157
.322
.316
.304
'.280
33.6
35.7
34.7
37.0
34.4
37.1
34.3
9.88
11.91
5.44
11.91
10.87
11.27
9.59
Semiskilled workers
Males:
Boarders...............................
.
___
Clerks, factory.......................................................... .......
Dye-machine operators....... .............................. ............
Knitters, automatic.....................................
.............
Knitters, rib............................................................ ........
Knitters, string................................
......
Knitters, transfer............................ ............ .......... ........
Machine fixers' helpers.................... ...................... .......
Machine operators, miscellaneous...........................__
Packers............. .......................
........
Miscellaneous semiskilled, direct...................... .........
Miscellaneous semiskilled, indirect.............................
Females:
Boarders. ............... ......................................... .............
Clerks, factory............................................ .....................
Inspectors and examiners............ ..................................
Knitters, automatic............................. ..........................
Knitters, rib.................................................................
Knitters, string................................................ ..............
Knitters, transfer.................................. .....................
Finishers, miscellaneous..............................................
Loopers.........................................................................
Menders....................................................................
Seamers...............................................
Stock handlers.................. ............................................
W inders........ ...........................................................
Miscellaneous semiskilled.......... .......................... ........
Unskilled workers
Males:
Clippers......................................... ................... ..............
Dye-house laborers........................................................
Janitors and cleaners...... ..................................... _ .
Learners and apprentices.............................. ..............
Watchmen........... ....................................... ..................
Work distributors.........................................................
Miscellaneous unskilled, direct.................................
Miscellaneous unskilled, indirect..............................
Females:
Clippers. .........................................................................
Folders, wrappers, and boxers.....................................
Learners and apprentices............................................
Pairers.......................................... ................... .................
Separators ...................................................................
Stampers and labelers...................................................
Miscellaneous unskilled.................... ...........................
1 Includes 49 workers who were reported as skilled.
T r a d e -U n io n O r g a n is a tio n
Very little trade-union organization was found among employees
in seamless-hosiery establishments. O f the 97 plants included in the
sample, only 5 reported written agreements with independent labor
organizations, of which 4 were with the American Federation of
505364 0 - 43 - 12
WAGES AND HOURS
172
Hosiery Workers and 1 with a federal union directly affiliated with
the American Federation of Labor. The workers scheduled in these
mills amounted to 7.2 percent of the total coverage. Most o f the
trade-union plants were located in the northern territory.
W e e k l y Hours and Earnings
The majority of the establishments included in the sample of the
seamless branch were operating on a 2- or 3-shift basis in September
1938. O f the 97 plants scheduled, 60 were on 2 or 3 shifts, relatively
few having a third shift. In the mills having more than 1 shift,
however, the second and third shifts were usually confined to selected
occupations, most frequently in the knitting department. About
three-fourths of the southern plants had at least some employees on
second or third shifts, but only a third of the northern mills worked
more than 1 shift.
As in the full-fashioned industry, the 8-hour shift and 40-hour week
were common.
The actual weekly hours of all workers in the seamless branch for
the country as a whole averaged 37.4 in September 1938. They were
slightly more in the northern than in the southern region—37.4 as
compared with 37.3 hours. (See table 10.) Male employees in the
country as a whole averaged 40.1 hours, which may be compared with
36.2 hours for females. The highest averages of actual hours worked
per week were found for skilled males. Among the females, the semi
skilled averaged more than the unskilled, but the opposite was true
of the male workers.
The average weekly earnings for all workers in the northern area
exceeded those in the southern area by $3.05, the figures being re
spectively $15.42 and $12.37. Whereas more than one-half (53.5
percent) of the southern employees earned under $12 a week, the
number found in this classification in the North amounted to less
than three-tenths (29.2 percent) of the total. For the country as
a whole, the average weekly earnings were $17.04 for all males and
$11.37 for females. In terms of sex-skill groups, the averages ranged
from $29.66 for skilled males in the North to $10.02 for unskilled
females in the South.
T
able
10.—Average actual weekly hours of seamless-hosiery workers, 1988, by skilly
sex, and region
All workers
Semiskilled
Unskilled
Skilled:
Male
Region
Total
Male
Female
Total
Male
Female Total
Male
Female
36.5
36.6
36.4
39.9
40.6
39.7
35.5
35.8
35.5
$10.91
13.03
10.32
$12.14
15.75
11.36
$10.58
12.47
10.02
Average actual weekly hours
United States___
North_______
South_______
37.4
37.4
37.3
40.1
40.4
40.0
36.2
36.5
36.0
44.0
42.8
44.4
37.0
37.1
37.0
38.8
39.2
38.8
36.3
136.6
2 36.2
Average weekly earnings
United States..,_ $13.11
North_______
16.42
South........... . 12.37
$17.04
21.76
15.91
$11.37
13.39
10.63
$28.24
29.66
27.72
1 Includes 23 workers reported as skilled.
$12.37
14.63
11.62
$14.50
19.19
13.53
$11.61
i 13.63
2 10.83
2 Includes 26 workers reported as skilled.
173
HOSIERY MANUFACTURE
A n n u a l E a r n in g s , 1937
The annual earnings in the seamless branch of the industry were
considerably lower than those in the full-fashioned branch, the
average earnings being $772 for employees who worked 52 weeks,
$674 for those who worked 40 weeks or over, $643 for those who
worked 26 weeks and over, and $602 for all employees on the pay
roll any time in the year. The differences in annual earnings
between the two branches reflect largely the differences in hourly
earnings.
These averages cover only wage earners on the pay roll of the
establishments surveyed in September 1938 who were employed by
the same plant for one or more pay-roll periods in 1937. The annual
figures obtained do not include any earnings of an individual in
otner establishments in which he may have worked during 1937.6
The average annual earnings of workers in seamless-hosiery estab
lishments are shown in table 11.
T
able
11.—Average annual earnings of seamless-hosiery workers, 1987, by region,
skill, and sex
Average annual earnings of employees whose work extended over—
Region, and skill of
workers
52 weeks
40 weeks and over 26 weeks and over
Any part of the
year
Fe Total Males Fe
Fe
Fe
Total Males males
males Total Males males Total Males males
$772 $994
United States.................—
Skilled________ _______ 1,445 1,445
702
822
Semiskilled1................
Unskilled____ _______
658
789
North___________________
Skilled.................. .........
Semiskilled * ________
Unskilled____________
878 1,223
1,534 1,534
812 1,087
980
751
South____________________
716
897
Skilled....... ............ ....... 1,398 1,398
642
Semiskilled3....... .........
718
722
Unskilled____________
617
$641
648
615
716
723
690
595
601
579
$674 $899
1,381 1,381
745
621
702
586
800 1,148
1,504 1,504
748 1,008
693
904
620
815
1,326 1,326
566
663
644
546
$571
576
555
674
679
649
524
526
518
$643 $867
1,368 1,368
592
717
564
674
$545
764 1,106
1,491 1,491
714
970
665
848
644
592
785
1,313 1,313
638
539
620
526
499
548
534
649
625
499
499
$602 $811
1,325 1,325
557
670
511
603
$511
733 1,080
1,481 1,481
950
689
618
790
616
548
725
1,259 1,259
502
589
473
549
463
517
486
625
580
467
451
1 Includes 44 skilled females.
2 Includes 21 skilled females.
3 Includes 23 skilled females.
As in the full-fashioned branch, substantial differences were found
between average annual earnings of males and females in seamlesshosiery plants. These differences were generally larger among semi
skilled than unskilled workers. The differences were also greater
in northern than southern establishments.
Average annual earnings generally varied considerably with the
skill of the workers. For example, the average of all skilled males
whose work extended over 52 weeks was $1,445. This was $623 more
than the average ($822) received by the semiskilled males in the
same group. The unskilled males averaged $789, or only $33 less
than the annual earnings of the semiskilled men.
6 Annual earnings data were secured for only 12,413 workers in 75 plants.
174
WAGES AND HOURS
Average H o u r l y Earnings in 19407
A survey o f the seamless-hosiery industry was made by the Bureau
of Labor Statistics in the fall of 1940, for the purpose of examining
the industry’s wage structure after 2 years of operation under general
minimum-wage rates. Seamless-hosiery mills had operated under the
statutory minimum wage of 25 cents an hour between October 24,
1938, and September 18, 1939. On the latter date a minimum wage
o f 32.5 cents an hour, recommended by an industry committee and
approved by the Administrator of the Fair Labor Standards Act,
was applied. This was the minimum in effect at the time of the
Bureau’s survey.
The study covered 30,4108 workers or approximately one-half o f
the industry’s wage earners. Somewhat more than half of the siz
able establishments in the industry were included, but mills employ
ing fewer than 10 wage earners were generally excluded. Many of
the larger mills were covered only to the extent of one-half their total
employment; out o f a total of 237 mills surveyed, 40 were covered
only partially. In all such cases, the sample of workers from the
individual mill was carefully selected to include a balanced represen
tation o f all occupations. This mill-sampling procedure among the
larger establishments was adopted as a means of including a consid
erable number o f these larger mills without permitting them to in
fluence the total picture unduly. The sample of mills was selected
in such a way as to give adequate consideration to type of product,
geographical location, size of community, size of company, extent of
union affiliation, and other significant industry characteristics.
Although the coverage of the 1940 survey was somewhat broader
than that on which the 1938 study was based, it included the mills in
the 1938 sample, and special tabulations permit a direct comparison
o f 1938 and 1940 data for identical mills.
The hourly earnings of all workers in the seamless-hosiery mills
averaged 41.2 cents9 in September 1940.
Individual earnings were confined almost entirely within the limits
of the 60-cent range between 32.5 and 92.5 cents an hour. A per
centage distribution by average hourly earnings intervals of 2.5 cents
is given in table 12, for all workers, by sex and region. This dis
tribution reveals a marked concentration at exactly the minimum wage
(32.5 cents). One-fifth (20.8 percent) of all workers earned only
the minimum wage, and more than a third (34.2 percent) earned
32.5 and under 35.0 cents.
Average hourly wages lower than 32.5 cents were received by 2.9
percent o f the workers, representing certificated subminimum workers
(2.1 percent) and apparent violations of the minimum wage (an
additional 0.8 percent).10
7Abstract of an article by Frances M . Jones, Bureau of Labor Statistics, in the M onthly
Labor Review for June 1941.
8 This figure does not include office workers, nor wage earners engaged in the manufac
ture of surgical hosiery.
9 This average is based on earnings at straight-time rates, the extra earnings from
punitive overtime rates having been excluded. However, the amount of overtime worked
during the period studied was not sufficient to change materially the average hourly wage.
W ith the extra pay for overtime work included, the average hourly earnings are increased
only by two-tenths of a cent, or from 41.2 cents to 41.4 cents. The average of 43.5 cents
for the North is increased to 43.8 cents, and the average of 40.4 cents for the South to
40.6 cents.
10 Some of the workers represented as earning less than 32.5 cents an hour were em
ployed in two m ills that did not reckon formal rest periods as a part of the working week.
These workers were being paid the legal minimum for time worked as computed by their
employers.
HOSIERY MANUFACTURE
175
T a b l e 1 2 . — Percentage distribution of seamless-hosiery workers, 1940, by average
_____________________ hourly earnings, region, and sex_____________________
All regions
Average hourly earnings
North
South
All
All
All
Fe
Fe
Fe
work Males
work Males
males work Males males
males
ers
ers
ers
Under 30.0 cents.............................. . . .
30.0 and under 32,5 cents.-..................
Exactly 32.5 cents_________________
32.6 and under 35.0 cents____ _______
35.0 and under 37.5 cents____ , _______
37.5 and under 40.0 cents____________
40.0 and under 42.5 cents____________
42.5 and under 45.0 cents.___________
45.0 and under 47.5 cents____________
47.5 and under 50.0 cents____________
50.0 and under 52.5 cents------------------52.5 and under 57.5 cents____________
57.5 and under 62.5 cents____ _______
62.5 and under 67.5 cents— ............. .
67.5 and under 72.5 cents____________
72.5 and under 77.5 cents____________
77.5 and under 82.5 cents......................
82.5 and under 87.5 cents_____ ______
87.5 and under 92.5 cents.....................
92.5 and under 97.5 cents_______ ____
97.5 and under 102.5 cents____ _______
102.5 and under 112.5 cents__________
112.5 cents and over_________ _____
1.9
1.0
20.8
13.4
13.9
10.1
8.6
6.0
5.2
3.5
3.6
4.2
2.2
1.7
1.2
.9
.5
.4
.4
.2
.1
.1
.1
1.3
.8
17.8
6.5
9.6
6.8
8.1
5.3
6.0
4.2
6.0
7.6
4.6
4.4
3.1
2.5
1.5
1.1
1.3
.7
.4
.2
.2
2.2
1.2
22.2
16.7
16.1
11.7
8.9
6.3
4.8
3.2
2.4
2.5
1.1
.4
.2
.1
0)
0)
0)
Total.-------- ---------------- ------------
100.0
100.0
100.0
2.2
.7
15.6
8.3
14.6
10.1
8.8
7.4
7.2
4.5
4.6
4.7
3.1
2.2
2.1
1.3
.7
.7
.4
.4
.2
.1
.1
0.9
.4
7.9
1.7
7.4
5.0
7.0
5.0
7.9
5.6
7.6
8.5
7.4
6.4
7.0
4.6
2.5
2.5
1.6
1.5
.7
.5
.4
2.7
.8
18.6
10.7
17.2
12.1
9.6
8.2
6.9
4.1
3.4
3.3
1.4
.6
.3
.1
0)
100.0
100.0
100.0
1.8
1.2
22.4
15.0
13.7
10.1
8.4
5.5
4.6
3.2
3.3
4.0
1.9
1.6
.9
.7
.5
.3
.4
.2
.1
.1
.1
1.4
.9
20.3
7.7
10.1
7.3
8.3
5.3
5.5
3.8
5.6
7.4
3.9
3.9
2.1
1.9
1.3
.8
1.2
.5
.4
.2
.2
100.0
100.0
100.0
Number of workers-------------------------- 30,410 9,944 20,466 7,417 1,998 5,419 22,993 7,946
Average hourly earnings..................... $0.412 $0.472 $0.380 $0.435 $0,536 $0.392 $0,404 $0,454
* Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
15,047
$0,375
0)
0)
2.0
1.3
23.5
18.9
15.7
11.6
8.6
5.6
4.0
2.9
2.1
2.2
.9
.4
.2
.1
0)
(i)
(0
V ernations am ong m ills .—Much of the limited variation in indi
vidual average hourly earnings can be attributed to differences in wage
levels among mills rather than to occupational and skill wage differ
ences within establishments. There was a spread of 76.7 percent
between the average earnings in the lowest-wage and the highest-wage
mills.11 The lowest average wage found in any finished-goods m ill12
covered in the survey was 32.6 cents; the highest, 57.6 cents an hour.
Approximately 8 percent of the mills had a wage level between 32.5
and 35.0 cents, and 3 percent paid wages which averaged 50 cents or
more. A distribution of mills by plant average hourly earnings is
presented in table 13.
T
able
1 3 . — Distribution
of mills and workers in seamless-hosiery industry, 1940, by
____________ groups of mills with specified wage levels and by region___________
North
All regions
Plant average hourly earnings
Mills
Work
Mills
ers em
ployed
(per Num Per
cent)
cent
ber
South
Work
Mills
ers em
ployed
(per Num Per
cent)
ber
cent
W ork
ers em
ployed
(per
cent)
Num
ber
Per
cent
32.5 and under 35.0 cents____________
35.0 and under 37.5 cents_____ ______
37.5 and under 40.0 cents------------------40.0 and under 42.5 cents____________
42.5 and under 4&5.0 cents........... ..........
45.0 and under 47.5 cents.................
47.5 and under 50.0 cents......................
50.0 cents and over______ ___________
19
49
62
39
36
14
11
7
8.0
20.7
26.1
16.5
15.2
5.9
4.6
3.0
5.7
14.8
23.7
19.1
17.8
6.2
8.6
4.1
3
7
18
15
20
6
5
4
3.8
9.0
23.1
19.2
25.7
7.7
6.4
5.1
0.8
3.7
16.6
19.8
31.3
8.1
12.1
7.6
16
42
44
24
16
8
6
3
10.1
26.4
27.6
15.1
10.1
5.0
3.8
1.9
7.3
18.4
25.9
18.9
13.4
5.6
7.5
3.0
Total........... .......... .......................
237
100.0
100.0
78
100.0
100.0
159
100.0
100.0
u Since wage levels in the large mills tend to be higher than those in small mills, the
overrepresentation of large mills previously mentioned has the effect of exaggerating
slightly the number of mills with high wage levels.
u The survey included gray goods mills and finishing plants, as well as finished-goods
mills.
176
WAGES AND HOURS
R eg ion a l d ifferen ces .—Wages paid by mills located in the Northern
States are higher, in general, than those paid by southern mills. Aver
age wages in the North were 43.5 cents, as compared with a southern
average wage of 40.4 cents an hour (table 14). The median wage in
the North was about 39 cents. Approximately 16 percent of the north
ern workers earned exactly the minimum wage, slightly more than a
fourth earned less than 35 cents, and 51.5 percent received less than 40
cents. The median southern wage was about 36 cents. Almost a
fourth o f the southern workers earned exactly the minimum, twofifths earned less than 35 cents, and about two-thirds were paid less
than 40 cents.
The broad classifications of “North” and “ South,” however, tend
to obscure other important regional differences.
T
able
14.— Average hourly earnings of seamless-hosiery workers, 1940, and distri'
bution of mills by region and by specified wage levels
Number of mills paying average hourly wages in 1940 of—
Region
Average
35.0
40.0
42.5
45.0
hourly 32.5
37.5
47.5
earn
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
under under under under under under under
ings
35.0
40.0
45.0
50.0
37.5
42.5
47.5
cents cents cents cents cents cents cents
All regions------ ---------------------- --------- $0,412
North_____________ _____ ______
Pennsylvania and adjacent area.
Philadelphia_______________
Reading_________ _________
Remainder of area_________
North Atlantic________________
Midwest_____ _
____________
Rockford, 111.1_____________
Remainder of area1________
.435
.422
.433
.428
.418
.420
.458
.478
.454
South_________________________ ___
North Carolina------------------------Triangle area____ _________
Burlington_____________
High Point____________
Remainder of area_____
Western North Carolina___
Hickory_______________
Remainder of area_____
Remainder of State________
Other South___________________
Georgia____________________
Tennessee_________ _______
Virginia______________ ____
Border States______________
Remainder of area_________
.404
.423
.450
.439
.457
.449
.397
.397
.397
.381
.385
.377
.389
.392
.400
.366
Number of workers, all regions_____
Number of workers, North..... ..........
Number of workers, South................
30,410
7,417
22,993
50.0
cents
and
over
19
49
62
39
36
14
11
7
3
1
7
4
20
12
2
2
8
3
5
6
5
1
1
3
4
1
3
3
15
8
1
1
6
3
4
5
2
1
2
18
12
1
3
8
3
3
1
1
1
1
2
16
1
42
20
2
44
26
5
3
24
17
8
2
2
17
6
11
4
18
4
5
4
2
3
6
7
2
5
2
7
2
3
2
8
7
7
3
3
1
6
5
5
1
1
3
3
1
1
1
2
1
2
2
14
3
11
4
24
6
7
1
3
5
16
13
7
1
3
3
6
3
3
1,741
56
1,685
4,504
278
4,226
7,182
1,228
5,954
5,817
1,470
4,347
1
1
15
4
8
1
1
3
3
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
5,408
2,322
3,086
1,880
601
1,279
2,627
897
1,730
1,251
565
686
i The distribution of mill averages is omitted to prevent identification of plant-average data for Rock
ford, 111. A partial coverage of all Rockford mills was included in the survey.
North Carolina is the largest seamless-hosiery producing State in
the country, and North Carolina’s most important hosiery center pays
wages that are among the highest in the industry. The average earn
ings in High Point (45.7 cents) are exceeded in the industry only
by earnings in Rockford, 111. (47.8 cents), a much smaller center.
Mills in Burlington, N. C., pay wages (43.9 cents) more than equal
to the average Philadelphia wage (43.3 cents). Average earnings in
177
HOSIERY MANUFACTURE
North Carolina as a whole (42.3 cents) exceed slightly the averages
for both Pennsylvania (42.2 cents) and the North Atlantic States
(42.0 cents).
Influence o f size o f cormrmnity.—The concentration of the industry
in small towns undoubtedly contributes to the low level of wages which
prevails generally. This condition is accentuated in the lower-wage
areas of the South where a substantial proportion of the mills are
scattered among small towns in which the economic pattern is more
rural than urban in character, job opportunities are scarce, and the
percentage of workers organized for bargaining is very low.
It is significant that only 29 percent of the workers in the North
were in communities smaller than 25,000 population, as compared with
68 percent in the South. In the high-wage Middle West, less than 15
percent of the workers were found m communities smaller than 25,000
population, as compared with 27 percent in Pennsylvania, and 64
percent in the North Atlantic area. A large part of the high-wage
Triangle area in North Carolina is urban in character, whereas 97
percent of the workers in the remainder of the State, where lower
wages prevail, were in communities of less than 25,000 population.
Table 15 shows average hourly earnings by size of community for
the North, the South, and the country as a whole.
T
a b l e 15.— Average hourly earnings of seamless-hosiery workers, 1940, by size of
community and region
All regions
Size of community 1
(population)
All sizes__________ _______ _
Under 5,000_________ ______ 5,000 and under 10,000..........
10,000 and under 25,000_______
25,000 and under 100,000--------100,000 and under 500,000_____
500,000 and over______________
Average
hourly
earnings
North
Percent of
average
earnings in
smallest
commu
nity class
Average
hourly
earnings
South
Percent of
average
earnings in
smallest
commu
nity class
Average
hourly
earnings
Percent of
average
earnings in
smallest
commu
nity class
$0.412
106.2
$0.435
107.7
$0.404
104.7
.388
.392
.412
.431
.420
.449
100.0
101,0
106.2
111.1
.404
.416
.426
.441
.433
.449
100.0
.386
.389
.409
.429
.408
100.0
100.8
106.0
111.1
108.2
115.7
103.0
105.4
109.2
107.2
111.1
105.7
1 Community size is not to be confused with corporate size of town. As used here, the term refers to the
metropolitan district or labor-market area, within which there is competition among workers for jobs as well
as among employers for workers. The U. S. Bureau of the Census metropolitan districts were utilized for
communities of 100,000 population or more which embraced a town of at least 50,000 corporate population.
Similar labor-market areas were established for smaller communities.
Price o f product and average hourly earnings.—There is a noticeable
tendency towards the payment of lower wages in the manufacture of
cheap hosiery than are generally paid in the production of higherpriced goods. This fact is demonstrated in table 16, which classifies
each mill according to the dominant retail price of its product and
distributes the mills by plant-average wage classes. The average
hourly earnings of mills in each retail-price class also are shown in
table 16. There is a difference of approximately 3 cents in average
wages between the group of mills which specialize in hosiery that
retails for less than 25 cents, and those mills which produce principally
high-priced goods.
17 8
T
W AGES
AND H O U RS
16.—Average hourly earnings of seamless-hosiery workers, 1940, and distribu
tion of mills by dominant retail price of mill product and specified wage levels
able
Number of mills paying average hourly wages
in 1940 of—
Total number
of—
Aver
age
Dominant retail-price class
hourly 32.5 35.0
of mill product
earn
and and
M ills Workers ings under under
35.0 37.5
cents cents
<i
37.5
and
under
40.0
cents
40.0
and
under
42.5
cents
42.5
and
under
45.0
cents
45.0
and
under
47.5
cents
All retail-price classes.............
237
30,410
$0.412
19
49
62
39
36
14
10 cents and under________
Over 10 and under 16 cents..
16 and under 25 cents_____
25 and under 35 cents_____
35 and under 50 cents...........
50 cents and over____ ____ _
Unknown.................. ..............
45
70
27
50
30
13
2
5,813
8,396
3,040
7,587
3,467
1,818
289
.398
.401
.403
.429
.428
.419
0)
4
7
2
3
3
17
20
4
4
4
12
24
9
7
5
5
4
9
6
12
5
2
1
3
5
3
12
9
3
1
5
47.5
and
under
50.0
cents
1
6
2
50.0
cents
and
over
11
7
4
1
4
1
1
2
2
1
2
» Average was not computed.
C o m p a r i s o n o f W a g e L e v e l s i n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 38 a n d S e p t e m b e r 1 9 4 0
Average wages in 91 identical m ills13 advanced from 35.1 cents to
41.3 cents14 during 2 years of operation under a general minimum
wage. This represents an increase of 17.7 percent, which may be
compared with an estimated pay-roll increase of 10.1 percent that was
necessary to bring the wages o f all workers up to the 32.5-cent
minimum.
T
able
17.— Changes in average hourly earnings from 1938 to 1940 in 91 seamless-
hosiery mills, by 1938 plant averages
Averagee hourly earnings in—
1938 plant-average hourly earnings
Total
number of
mills classi
fied as of September
1938
1938
September 1940
Average
Percent of
increase
over 1938
average
Estimated
direct per
cent of in
crease result
ing from
minimum
wage under
Fair Labor
Standards
A c t1
All 1938 plants................ ........................
91
$0.351
$0,413
17.7
10.1
Under 25.0 cents................................ .......
25.0 and under 27.5 cents--------------------27.5 and under 30.0 cents________ ____
30.0 and under 32.5 cents______________
32.5 and Under 35.0 cents______________
35.0 and under 37.5 cents. _____ _____
37.5 and under 40.0 cents _ ..................
40.0 and under 42.5 cents_______ _____
42.5 and under 45.0 cents.........................
45.0 and under 47.5 cents______________
47.5 cents and over___________________
9
8
9
7
15
4
12
4
14
4
5
.226
.265
.291
.314
.337
.367
.385
.410
.436
.459
.512
.351
.373
.385
.384
.395
.402
.417
.429
.484
.492
.523
55.3
40.8
32.3
22.3
17.2
9.5
8.3
4.6
11.0
7.2
2.1
52.7
28.8
21.3
14.2
9.0
3.8
|
1
>
\
J
2.2
r
*6
1 Source: U. S. Department of Labor, Wage and Hour Division, Research and Statistics Branch, Mini
mum Wages in the Seamless Hoisery Industry, March 1941 (p. 63).
That the application of a minimum wage would result in a pro
nounced concentration of workers’ earnings at and slightly above the
18
The term “identical mills” as used herein refers to the complete 1938 sample of 97
mills, and the 3940 sample of 91 mills which were still in business at the time of the 1940
survey.
14
The practically identical averages obtained in 1940 from the two samples of 91 and
237 mills (41.3 and 41.2 cents, respectively) are a commentary on the representative
character of the plants included in the sample.
179
IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY
wage floor was to be expected. However, the wage adjustment that
occurred subsequent to September 1938 was more far-reaching than
a mere increase of the wages of the lowest-paid workers to 32.5 cents.
Occupational and skill differences also were maintained to a limited
extent, causing wage increases among workers o f all wage levels. This
fact is clearly shown in table 18, which gives a distribution o f em
ployees by average hourly earnings for both the 1938 and the 1940
periods. A comparison of the data for the 2 years shows the extent
to which the earnings o f workers at various wage levels were adjusted.
T
able
18.—
C u m ulative percentage d istribu tion o f sea m less-h o siery w ork ers, 1 9 8 8
and 1 9 4 0 , b y average h o u rly earnings a nd b y region
All regions
North
South
Average hourly earnings
1938
1940
Under 32.5 cents............................................
32.5 and under 35.0 cents...................... ........
35.0 and under 37.5 cents........................... .
37.5 and under 40.0 cents_______ _________
40.0 and under 42.5 cents...........................
42.5 and under 47.5 cents______ __________
47.5 and under 52.5 cents___________ _____
52.5 and under 57.5 cents_________________
57.5 and under 62.5 cents.................. ............
62.5 and under 67.5 cents...............................
67.5 and under 72.5 cents..............................
72.5 and under 77.5 cents..............................
77.5 and under 82.5 cents______ __________
82.5 and under 87.5 cents........... ........... .......
87.5 and under 92.5 cents..............................
92.5 and under 100.0 cents_________ ______
100.0cents and over.............. .........................
100.0
100.0
Number of workers........................................
Average hourly earnings_______ ______ _
18,270
$0. 351
17,346
$0.413
48.8
58.5
66.9
73.4
79.0
86.3
90.7
93.5
95.3
96.8
98.0
98.8
99.2
99.3
99.6
99.8
3.7
35.9
49.7
60.2
68.9
81.1
88.3
92.2
94.2
95.9
97.0
98.1
98.6
99.0
99.5
99.7
1938
22.5
35.9
47.2
56.8
64.7
76.1
83.3
88.2
91.9
94.2
96.7
98.2
98.7
99.1
99.6
99.8
100.0
4,465
$0.412
1940
2.9
25.7
38.2
48.5
57.6
72.7
82.0
87.2
90.6
92.9
95.2
97.1
97.9
98.7
99.2
99.6
100.0
4,657
$0,443
1938
57.4
65.8
73.2
78.7
83.6
89.6
93.1
95.1
96.3
97.5
98.2
98.8
99.2
99.3
99.6
99.8
1940
3.9
39.6
53.9
64.5
73.0
84.1
90.6
94.0
95.5
97.0
97.7
98.4
98.8
99.0
99.5
99.7
100.0
100.0
13,805
$0,331
12,689
$0,402
I r o n a n d S t e e l I n d u s t r y — E a r n in g s a n d H o u r s , 1 9 3 7
and 19 3 8 1
The iron and steel industry may be variously defined. A narrow
definition of the industry would include only those branches engaged
in the manufacture of crude iron and steel and of rolled products.
These branches constitute the “basic” group, which includes blast
furnaces, steel works, and rolling mills. Also included in this group
are those departments operated in connection with rolling mills fur
ther to process the rolled products, such as wrought pipe, bolts and
nuts, etc. According to the 1937 Census of Manufactures there were
497 establishments in this group, each with an annual output valued
at $5,000 or more. These establishments had an average monthly
employment of 502,417 wage earners.
Along with establishments in the basic group, the Bureau of Labor
Statistics also covered those independent establishments engaged in
the manufacture of finished iron and steel products. Thus, wire
drawn from purchased rods and also independent tube mills were
covered. In all, the Bureau’s survey covered 276 plants in 23 States.
1Abstract of articles in the Monthly Labor Review for August, September, and October
1940, prepared by Victor S. Baril and Abner C. Lakeman, of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
180
WAGES AND HOURS
The geographical classification of the data used in this report differs
somewhat from that followed in previous surveys. Instead o f the
four districts formerly used,2 the Bureau adopted three broad regions,
namely the North, the South, and the West. The northern region,
by far the largest of the three, was further divided into five divisions
as follows: Eastern, Pittsburgh-Youngstown, Lake Erie, ChicagoGary, and Inland. Essentially the change involved the breaking
down into smaller divisions of the Great Lakes and middle western
district, which extended from western New York to Colorado, the
reclassification of a few centers of production, and finally the creation
o f a western classification including the Southwest and Pacific coast.
The latter territory was covered for the first time in this survey.3
It should be pointed out that the sample was selected on the basis
of department and not of firm nor of works. A firm may have several
works (i. e., separate establishments or operations) and each of these
works may in turn have several departments. As a rule, only certain
departments were covered in any of these works. For that reason,
the term “plant” or “establishment,” whenever used in this article,
will be construed to mean department, such as open-hearth furnaces,
blooming mills, etc.—and not complete operations or works embrac
ing a number 01 departments.
In most cases the pay-roll period covered was one in April 1938.
O f the 276 plants furnishing information, 231 reported for a pay-roll
period in April and 29 for a period in March. No information was
obtained for a pay-roll period prior to January or later than
September 1938.
Average H ou rly Earnings
In April 1938 the over-all average hourly earnings of the 81,217
wage earners employed in the 276 establishments for which data
were obtained amounted to 83.9 cents an hour. Earnings varied
widely between plants, the averages ranging from 38.3 cents to $1,212.
It will be seen from table 1 that the individual plant averages are
widely scattered between these two extremes.
2These were the eastern, the Pittsburgh, the Great Lakes and middle western, and the
southern districts.
8The eastern division is the same as in former surveys. It embraces Massachusetts,
Rhode Island, Connecticut, Delaware, New Jersey, the eastern half of New York and of
Pennsylvania, and the territory in and around Baltimore. The Pittsburgh-Youngstown
division includes all of the old Pittsburgh district plus some centers in the vicinity of
Youngstown which in former surveys had been classified in the Great Lakes and middle
western district. The Lake Erie division, which was formerly included in the Great
Lakes and middle western district, embraces all of western New York, the Lake counties
of Ohio, and the territory in and around Detroit. The Chicago-Gary division, which was
also included in former surveys in the Great Lake and middle western district, covers all
operations in and around Chicago, 111., and Gary, Ind. Also included in this division are
the isolated operations in northwestern Illinois and in Minnesota. The inland division
is made up of the remaining producing centers in the North. W ith the exception of the
mills in Kentucky, all of the mills in the inland division were formerly classified in the
Great Lakes and middle western district. The inland division extends from Ashland, K y.,
to Kansas City, Mo. It includes those mills along the Ohio River in both Kentucky and
Ohio, those mills in central and southern Ohio not included in the Pittsburgh-Youngstown
or the Lake Erie divisions, mills in the central and southern sections of Illinois and
Indiana not included in the Chicago-Gary division, and all the mills in Missouri. The
Southern region differs from the district formerly used in that it does not include the
Kentucky mills located along the Ohio. The Western region is made up of the mills in the
Southwest and also those on the Pacific coast. The latter mills were covered for the first
time in connection with the 1938 survey.
181
IKON AND STEEL INDUSTRY
T able 1.— Distribution of individual plants in the iron and steel industry, by average
hourly earnings and by region, April 1988
North
PittsEast burgh- Lake Chicago- In
land
ern Youngs- Erie
Gary
divi
divi
town
divi
divi
divi
sion
sion
sion
sion
sion
United
States
Average hourly earnings
Total
232
Total plants______ ____________
276
37.5 and under 42.5 cents_______
42.5 and under 47.5 cents.............
47.5 and under 52.5 cents_______
52.5 and under 57.5- cents......... _.
57.5 and under 62.5 cents.............
62.5 and under 67.5 cents........... 67.5 and under 72.5 cents............
72.5 and under 77.5 cents......... . .
77.5 and under 82.5 cents...........
82.5 and under 87.5 cents...........
87.5 and under 92.5 cents...........
92.5 and under 100.0 cents..........
100.0 and under 110.0 cents__
110.0 and under 120.0 cents__
120.0 cents and over____
__ _
1
1
1
2
12
56
2
2
2
9
17
32
56
58
44
30
7
5
7
15
27
53
54
39
24
4
4
4
1
1
83
37
31
25
West
South
19
25
1
1
1
2
i
10
8
10
13
24
23
18
5
8
9
1
1
1
3
3
3
4
11
4
8
1
10
2
2
1
4
7
9
5
6
5
3
3
4
1
2
4
1
3
3
1
2
1
3
4
1
2
6
1
Despite the wide dispersion of the plant averages, the average
hourly earnings of individual workers displayed a pronounced cen
tral tendency. This may be seen from the distribution presented
in table 2. Approximately one-sixth of the workers (16.2 percent)
averaged between 62.5 and 67.5 cents. The fact that the lower limit
of this interval coincides to a considerable extent with the commonlabor rate in effect for the majority of the workers in the northern
region largely explains this concentration.
T able 2.— Distribution of workers in the iron and steel industry, by average hourly
ea rn in g s, A p r i l 1 9 8 8
Average hourly earnings
(in cents)
Num
Cumu
lative
ber of Simple
per
work centage
per
centage
ers
Total workers_____________ 81,217
Under 30.0...............................
30.0 and under 32.5_________
32.5 and under 35.0..............
35.0 and tinder 37.5....... .........
37.5 and under 40.0_________
40.0 and under 42.5................
42.5 and under 47.5_________
47.5 and under 52.5_________
52.5 and under 57.5_________
57.5 and under 62.5....... .........
62.5 and under 67.5....... .........
67.5 and under 72.5..............._
72.5 and under 77.6................
77.5 and under 82.5................
1
10
121
248
605
1,096
2,639
3,642
13,083
9,685
8 ,399
7,758
.3
.7
1.3
3.2
4.5
16.2
11.9
10.3
9.6
80
26
137
82.5 and under 87,5._
1 00 .0
0)
0 .1
0)
.2
.1
Average hourly earnings
(in cents)
(i)
0 .1
.1
.3
.4
.7
1.4
2.7
5.9
10.4
26.6
38.5
48.8
58.4
*7 KuUU
anH iin
riAv* Q
04*0
UUUpl
JOR7
__ . . .
92.5 and under 100.0.
100.0 and under 110.0 .............
110.0 and under 120.0 .............
120.0 and under 130.0— ........
130.0 and under 140.0 . .
140.0 and under 150.0 . . .
150.0 and under 160.0 . .
160.0 and under 170.0____
170.0 and under 180.0____ _
180.0 and under 190.0.............
190.0 and under 200.0 .
200.0 and under 220 .0 . ____
220.0 and under 240.0 ........
240.0 and over______________
Num Simple Cumu
ber of per lative
work centage
per
centage
ers
6,714
K, fU
fi
O
048
6,075
5,200
3,401
2,270
1,248
831
534
493
368
290
151
199
115
151
8.3
7.0
7.5
6.4
4.2
2 .8
1. 5
1 .0
.7
.6
.5
.4
.2
.2
.1
.2
66.7
70
40. 74
81.2
87.6
91.8
94.6
96.1
97.1
97.8
98.4
98.9
99.3
99.5
99.7
99.8
100 .0
Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
The extreme range in the individual averages (from less than 30
cents to over $2.40) is, to a very large extent, due to the fact that over
one-half of the employees were either piece or bonus workers, the
remainder being time workers.
182
WAGES AND HOURS
Hourly Earnings of Male Workers, by Skill
Inasmuch as iron and steel workers are overwhelmingly male, it is
only natural that the distribution of hourly earnings of all males
(see table 3) should follow very closely that of all workers.
T a b l e 3 . — Distribution
of ?nale workers in the iron and steel industry, April 1938,
by average hourly earnings and by skill
Total workers
Skilled workers
Semiskilled
workers
Unskilled
workers
Average hourly earnings
Num Percent Num Percent Num Percent Num Percent
ber
ber
ber
ber
Total workers________
*80,711
100.0
Under 30.0 cents_______
30.0 and under 32.5 cents
32.5 and under 35.0 cents
35.0 and under 37.5 cents
37.5 and under 40.0 cents
40.0 and under 42.5 cents . _ _
42.5 and under 47.5 cents
___
47.5 and under 52.5 cents
52.5 and under 57.5 cents
57.5 and under 62.5 cents
62.5 and under 67.5 cents
67.5 and under 72.5 cents
72.5 and under 77.5 cents
77.5 and under 82.5 cents
82.5 and under 87.5 cents................
87.5 and under 92.5 cents_______
92.5 and under 100.0 cents
100.0 and under 110.0 cents________
110.0 and under 120.0 ceDts
120.0 and under 130.0 cents— ...........
130.0 and under 140.0 cents
140.0 and under 150.0 cents.........
150.0 and under 160.0 cents
160.0 and under 170.0 cents...........
170.0 and under 180.0 cents . _*
180.0 and under 190.0 cents .........
190.0 and under 200.0 cents
200.0 and under 220.0 cents
220.0 and under 240.0 cents
240.0 cents and over.....................
10
80
26
136
119
247
600
1,089
2,281
3,536
13,069
9,683
8,397
7,757
6, 712
5,645
6,075
5,199
3,400
2,270
1,248
831
534
493
368
290
151
199
115
151
0)
0.1
0)
.2
.1
.3
.7
1.32.8
4.4
16.3
12.1
10.5
9.6
8.3
7.0
7.5
6.4
4.2
2.8
1.5
1.0
’. 6
.5
.4
.2
.2
.l
.2
27,320
3
6
6
13
27
57
116
184
370
883
1,381
2,241
2,877
3,168
2,689
3,357
2,890
2,057
1,444
889
617
443
438
312
252
141
194
114
151
100.0
(*)
0)
0)
(0
0.1
.2
.6
.7
1.4
3.2
.5.1
8.2
10.5
11.5
9.8
12.3
10.6
7.5
5.3
3.3
2.3
1.6
1.6
1.1
.9
.5
.7
.4
.6
32,594
100.0
20,797
100.0
2
29
14
23
55
63
159
468
727
1,414
4,371
5,586
4,521
3,730
2,701
2,225
2,084
1,945
1,084
700
324
1^7
'2
46
35
13
10
5
1
0)
0.1
0)
.1
.2
.2
.5
1.4
2.2
4.3
13.5
17.2
14.0
11.4
8.3
6.8
6.4
6.0
3.3
2.1
1.0
.5
.3
.1
.1
0)
(1)
(1)
0)
8
48
6
107
51
157
384
505
1,370
1,752
7,815
2,716
1,635
1,150
843
731
634
364
259
126
35
37
9
9
21
25
0)
' 0.2
0)
.5
.2
.8
1.8
2.4
6.6
8.4
37.7
13.2
7.9
5.5
4.1
3.5
3.0
1.8
1.2
.6
.2
.2
0)
0)
.1
.1
1 Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
Quite naturally, the number of skilled workers in the upper wage
brackets exceeded by a wide margin that of the semiskilled and the
unskilled workers. Thus, 70 percent of all the skilled workers earned
82.5 cents or more and well over one-third (36.4 percent) earned $1
or more. In contrast, only 34.9 percent of the semiskilled and 14.8
percent of the unskilled averaged 82.5 cents or better an hour, and only
13.4 percent of the former and 4.2 percent of the latter as much as
$1 an hour.
Unskilled workers accounted for the major share of the iron and
steel workers earning less than 62.5 cents an hour. One-fifth of the
unskilled (20.9 percent) averaged less than 62.5 cents, compared to
9 percent of the semiskilled ana only 3 percent of the skilled workers.
It should be pointed out, however, that only 5.9 percent of the unskilled
earned less than 52.5 cents and less than 1 percent (0.9) averaged
under 40 cents an hour.
18 3
IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY
Hourly Earnings of Female Workers
There are few females employed in iron and steel establishments.
A ll but 2 of the 506 females covered in the survey were found in tin
plate mills and most of them were employed as assorters of tin plate.
Female workers earned an average of 57.8 cents an hour, or 26.3 cents
less than male workers.
The average hourly earnings of female workers, unlike those of male
workers, were confined to extremely narrow limits, as may be seen from
the distribution in table 4.
T
able
4 . — Distribution
of female workers in the iron and steel industry, April 1988,
by average hourly earnings
Number of
workers
Average hourly earnings
Percent of
workers
Total workers____ ____________________ ____________________________
506
100.0
Under 52.5 cents______________ ______ ______________________________
52.5 and under 57.5 cents___________________________________________
57.5 and under 62.5 cents___________________________________________
62,5 and under 67.5 cents___________________________________________
67.5 cents and over_________________________________________________
16
358
106
14
12
3.2
70.7
20.9
2.8
2.4
Regional Variations
For purposes of comparison, the country has been divided into
three broad regions, namely the North, the West, and the South, and
the information collected has been classified according to these regions.
The distribution of individual plants according to average hourly
earnings (see table 5) indicates quite definitely that each region has a
distinctive wage structure. Despite some overlapping, it is evident
that the highest wage level is found in the W est and the lowest in the
South, the northern wage level being somewhat lower than the former,
yet substantially higher than the latter.
T
able
5 . — Average
hourly earnings in the iron and steel industry, April 1988, by
region, division, and skill
Total workers
Skilled workers
Semiskilled
workers
Unskilled
workers
Num
ber
Aver
age
hourly
earn
ings
Num
ber
Aver
age
hourly
earn
ings
Num
ber
Aver
age
hourly
earn
ings
Num
ber
81,217
$0.839
27,338
$0,992
33,074
$0,793
20,805
$0,689
North.............................................. ......... 74,325
9,927
Eastern division.......................
Pittsburgh-Youngstown division. 35,284
9,251
Lake Erie division_____________
Chicago-Gary division........... ....... 14,302
5,561
Inland division____ ____________
2,632
West........ ........................................ .
South..................................... ................. 4,260
.847
.778
.858
.825
.857
.918
.923
.660
25,025
3,797
11,550
3,121
4,582
1,975
1,008
1,305
.992
.917
1.003
.968
.998
1.098
1.137
.854
30,321
3,544
14,736
3,638
6,092
2,311
986
1,767
.802
.729
.812
.781
.815
.858
.829
.622
18,979
2,586
8,998
2,492
3,628
1,275
638
1,188
.703
.629
.718
.691
.726
.719
.713
.489
Region and division
United States.........................................
Aver
age
hourly
earn
ings
184
WAGES AND HOURS
In appraising the regional influence on the wage structure of the
industry, one should bear in mind that the extremely uneven distri
bution of the iron and steel industry among the three broad regions
reduces greatly the influence of some regions on the general wage level
of the industry as a whole. Thus, over 90 percent o f the wage earners
in the industry are found in the North and less than 10 percent in the
other two regions. Despite this fact, however, the West and the South,
having respectively the highest and lowest wage levels, do exert a
definite though not extensive influence on the general wage structure
of the iron and steel industry.
Variations According to Branch of Industry
Branch of industry also exerts some influence on the general wage
structure. This is clearly indicated by the averages for each branch.
The lowest average hourly earnings (73.6 cents) were found in blast
furnaces and the highest (87.3 cents) in steel works. The average for
rolling mills (84.4 cents) was only 2.9 cents below that for steel works,
but 10.8 cents above that for blast furnaces. The averages by branches
are presented in table 6.
T
6 .— Average hourly earnings in the iron and steel industry, April 1 9 8 8 , b y
______________________ branch, region, and skill________________________
able
United States
North
West
South
Num
ber of
work
ers
Aver
age
hourly
earn
ings
Num
ber of
work
ers
Aver Num
age
ber of
hourly work
earn
ers
ings
Aver
age
hourly
earn
ings
Num
ber of
work
ers
All branches-------- -------------------------- 81,217
27,338
Skilled. - _____________ ________
Semiskilled ...... ............................. 33,074
Unskilled............ ............................ 20,805
$0.839
.992
.793
.689
74,325
25,025
30,321
18,979
$0.847
.992
.802
.703
2,632
1,008
986
638
$0.923
1.137
.829
.713
4,260
1,305
1,767
1,188
5,596
2,045
2,403
1,548
11,457
4,667
3,368
3,422
63, 764
20,626
27. 303
15,835
.736
.869
.691
.602
.873
1. 022
.821
.692
.844
.999
.799
.698
4,746
1, 715
1,859
1,172
10,353
4,232
3,013
3,108
59,226
19,078
25,449
14,699
.772
.881
.734
.641
.873
1.018
.822
.694
.849
.998
.805
.709
214
74
74
66
819
312
271
236
1,599
622
641
336
<*)
(*)
0)
0)
.915
1.086
.861
.721
.949
1.200
.828
.713
1,036
256
470
310
285
123
84
78
2,939
926
1, 213
800
Branch and skill of workers
Blast furnaces---------------------------------Skilled________ ____ ___________
Semiskilled............. ............. ..........
Unskilled____________________ ..
Steel works_________________________
Skilled_________________________
Semiskilled_____________________
Unskilled______________________
Rolling mills. ____________________
Skilled_________________________
Semiskilled_____________________
Unskilled______________________
Aver
age
hourly
earn
ings
$0,660
.854
.622
.489
0)
0)
0)
0)
0)
(})
0)
0)
.679
.861
.651
.494
1 Plant coverage too small to justify presentation of averages.
Variations by Departments
It will be remembered that the iron and steel survey was conducted
on a departmental basis, information being obtained for a representa
tive number of establishments in 21 departments. O f these, 3 were
in the steel-works branch and 17 in the rolling-mills branch. In the
blast-furnace branch of the industry there is only the one department.
O f the 21 departments, blast furnaces had the lowest average, 73.6
cents, and tin mills the highest, 89.0 cents. (See table 7.) In only
four departments was the average under 80 cents and in only one was
it under 77 cents. On the other hand, 12 departments averaged between
81 and 85 cents and 5 averaged at least 85 cents. I f the highest and
lowest averages are overlooked, the spread in average hourly earnings
of the remaining 19 departments was only slightly more than 10 cents—
from 77.4 cents in puddle mills to 87.7 cents in strip mills.
185
IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY
T
a b l e
7 .—
Average hourly earnings of iron and steel workers, April 1938, by depart
ment and skill
Number of workers
Average hourly earnings of—
Department
Total
Semi
Skilled skilled
Un
skilled
All
work
ers
Semi
Skilled
work skilled
work
ers
ers
All departments____________________
81,217
27,337
33,074
20,806
$0,839
$0.992
$0. 793
$0.689
Blast furnaces______________________
5,996
2,044
2,403
1, 549
.736
.869
.691
.602
Steel works_________________________
Bessemer converters_____ _____
Open-hearth furnaces___________
Electric furnaces_____ . . . _ . . .
11,457
813
9.784
860
4, 667
333
3,950
384
3, 368
207
2,908
253
3. 422
273
2,926
223
.873
.847
.878
.845
1.022
.964
1. 030
.980
.821
.789
.829
.775
.692
.728
.691
.663
Rolling mills_______________________ 63, 764
Puddling mills. _______________
355
Blooming mills_________________
3, 728
Billet mills______ ______________
1, 055
Plate mills_________________ .. .
3,487
Rail mills______ ________ ____ _
1,110
Structural mills________________
1.169
Bar mills.____ _________________
5,068
Rod mills................... .....................
1,860
Wire m ills.._________ __________
4,603
Skelp mills............... ........... ..........
491
Lap-weld tube mills..................
1,994
Butt-weld tube mills___________
2,698
Seamless tube mills_____________
2,726
Sheet- and tin-bar m ills........... .
975
8trip mills______________________ 11,107
Sheet mills_____________________ 10, 443
Tin mills_______________________ 10,895
20,626
192
1,239
365
1,005
329
322
1,833
652
2,432
171
413
575
887
340
3, 337
2,627
3, 907
27,303
99
1,632
497
1,395
492
543
1,658
690
1,131
146
931
1,321
1, 301
406
5,206
4,873
4,982
15,835
64
857
193
1,087
289
304
1,577
51.8
1,040
174
650
802
538
229
2,564
2,943
2,006
.844
.774
.861
.839
.820
.811
.834
.789
.824
.811
.818
.793
.810
.810
.824
.877
.852
.890
.998
.887
1.049
1,015
.979
.968
.978
.952
1.039
.903
1.004
.908
.973
.884
.967
1.044
1. 059
1.039
.799
.643
.785
.767
.786
.789
.816
.739
.741
.769
.723
.800
.788
.817
.785
.827
.819
.805
.698
.606
.682
.664
.692
.652
.682
.636
.657
.651
.699
.700
.717
.662
.650
.721
.707
.776
Un
skilled
work
ers
Occupational Differences
Broadly speaking, the highest hourly earnings in the iron and steel
industry are paid to rollers in the rolling mills. For this occupation
hourly earnings in April 1938 ranged from an average of $1,620 in
sheared-plate mills! to $2,927 in strip mills. Other occupational
groups with high hourly earnings were blowers in the blast furnaces,
melters and pourers in steel works, and heaters in rolling mills. A ll
of these are highly skilled occupations and in most cases averaged
well above $1 an hour.
A t the bottom of the scale, in terms of hourly earnings, are the
workers engaged on the heavy manual jobs. These are for the most
part common laborers and helpers. Comparatively little skill is re
quired on these jobs, and the earnings of the overwhelming majority
of these employees were restricted to the 10-cent range of 60 and
under 70 cents an hour in April 1938. Even on these jobs, where
brawn rather than skill is the primary requirement, general averages
of less than 60 cents an hour were reported for only two o f the
occupational groups. The exceptions were hookers in rod mills,
who averaged 58.1 cents, and door operators in open-hearth furnaces,
who averaged 55.8 cents.
Occupation likewise sets a rigid outside limit on weekly earnings.
Certain of the highly skilled employees, such as rollers in strip mills,
averaged as much as $100 a week. Weekly pay envelopes of this
amount were by no means typical, however, even among the highly
skilled employees. In other departments the weekly earnings of the
higher-paid occupational groups ranged from $50 to $75, and a very
substantial majority of skilled groups averaged less than $40 a week.
186
WAGES AND HOURS
A step below the skilled groups were the helpers and attendants
whose weekly earnings for the most part ranged from about $20 to
$30. For the unskilled occupational groups the range of weekly
earnings was much lower. In fact, the overwhelming majority of
the unskilled workers averaged less than $20 a week in the early part
of 1938, and weekly pay envelopes containing less than $15 were
reported for a considerable number. W ell above this level, however,
were unskilled workers employed in the butt-weld tube mills. For
all unskilled employees in this department weekly earnings averaged
$25.94, while the hook boys averaged $35.39 a week.
Taken as a whole, weekly earnings in the iron and steel industry
in April 1938 were low, considering the relatively high level of hourly
earnings, because of the reduced operating time that prevailed in
virtually all branches of the industry at that time. For the industry
as a whole, the weekly working time averaged only 28.5 hours in
April 1938. The nearest approach to full-time operation at the time
of the survey was 34.3 hours, the average for the rod mills. A t the
other extreme, an average workweek of only 22.3 hours was reported
for the employees of the Bessemer converters.
W ages an d H o u r s , b y D e p a rtm e n ts
The following series of tables shows, by department, the hours of
work per week, average hourly earnings, and average weekly earnings
for each major occupation in 1938.
Blast Furnaces
The relatively low wage level of wage earners employed by the
blast furnaces was due primarily to the comparatively small segment
of the labor force found in the high-wage brackets. Top wages in
this branch of the industry were paid to blowers, who, averaged
$1,194 an hour in April 1938. This group, however, accounted for
only a small fraction of the total wage earners. Earnings of other
occupational groups lagged far behind.
T a b l e 8 . — Average
hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings of wage
earners in blast furnaces, April 1938, by occupation and skill.
Skill and occupational group
Number
of wage
earners
Average
hourly
earnings
Average
weekly
hours
Average
weekly
earnings
All occupations. ............. ........ ..................- - - ------- ----------
2,733
$0.720
30.4
$21.89
Skilled-------------------- ------------------------------------------ ---------Blowers................ - .................................... - .....................
Blowing engineers..........................................................
Blowing engineers' assistants.................... ...................
Keepers........................................ - ....................................
Ore-bridge operators............................ - --------------------Other skilled workers............- ------- ------------- ------------
594
115
95
75
194
95
20
.894
1.194
.899
.750
.716
.888
.828
32.8
40.0
34.1
27.8
29.4
32.4
37.9
29.30
47.76
30.63
20.53
21.01
28.79
31.39
Semiskilled - .............................................................................
Keepers' helpers.........................- .............. - ...................
Larrymen.........................................................................
Pig-machine men.......... ......... ................................. .
Skip operators-.......................................- .......................
Stove tenders.............................................. ....................
Transfer-car operators.....................................................
Other semiskilled workers................ ............................
1,407
504
175
262
146
160
74
86
.680
.640
.693
.668
.712
.735
.695
.725
29.6
27.4
29.9
30.0
30.8
32.8
32.4
30.5
20.15
17.55
20.70
20.06
21.93
24.15
22.50
22.11
Unskilled.......................................- ............ - .......... - ..............
Cindermen (at dump)....................................................
Larrymen’s helpers.................................................. —
Stockers...........- ....................... — ..................................
Other unskilled workers....... ........................................
732
49
91
394
198
.640
.688
.621
.644
.628
30.1
31.1
32.4
28.6
31.6
19.23
21.39
20.15
18.44
19.84
187
IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY
Steel W o r k s
Highest wages in the steel-works branch of the industry were paid
to melters. A t open-hearth furnaces these employees averaged
$1,895 an hour and at electric furnaces the average was $1,468.
Other skilled workers with high averages were melters5 first helpers,
steel pourers, vessel men, and stopper setters. A ll of these occupa
tional groups averaged more than $1 an hour. The lowest paid of the
skilled occupational classes was that of molders in electric furnaces,
who showed an average of 75.2 cents.
T
able
9.— Average hourly earnings^ weekly hours, and weekly earnings of wage
earners in steel works, April 1938, by occupation and skill
Skill and occupational group
Number
of wage
earners
Average
hourly
earnings
Average
weekly
hours
Average
weekly
earnings
Bessemer converters
All occupations ............ ........................................................
298
$0.934
22.3
$20.79
Skilled................................................................. ..................
Blowing engineers........................... ...............................
Ingot strippers................................................................
Mixermen.......................................... .........................
Steel pourers........... ........................................, ..............
Stopper setters...................... ........... ........ ................... Vesselmen.......... ..............................................................
Other skilled workers....................................................
120
9
12
16
12
13
14
44
1.090
.885
.881
.917
1.334
1.125
1.333
1.133
23.2
27.1
19.9
34.2
23.9
19.3
23.2
20.4
25.32
23.97
17.54
31.34
31.82
21.70
30.87
23.05
Semiskilled................. - ..................................... ....................
Vesselmen’s helpers.......................................................
Other semiskilled workers...........................................
39
17
22
.961
1.062
.877
22.5
23.2
21.9
21. 60
24. 69
19.22
Unskilled................................................. ...............................
Cinder pitmen............. ..................................................
Stockers.......................................... ................................
Other unskilled workers........................ ................... .
139
51
56
32
.780
.718
.841
.776
21.4
21.2
20.3
23.4
16.66
15.23
17.10
18.18
Open-hearthfurnaces
All occupations................................................... ...................
4,965
.979
26.3
25.72
Skilled........... ................... .................... ........... ....................
Charging-floor cranemen................................................
Charging-machine operators________________ _____
Ingot strippers............................. ................................. .
Ladle cranemen-------- ------------- ------------------------------Melters__________ ______ _________________________
Melters’ helpers, first................... ................................
Steel pourers_________ ____________________________
Stock cranemen_____________ _______ _____________
Other skilled workers........................................ .......... .
2,101
184
213
133
263
110
684
146
226
142
1.154
.912
.997
.886
968
1.895
1.447
1.038
.815
.841
28.0
24.4
28.8
27.2
28.1
39.1
26.0
30.7
27.9
29.6
32.28
22. 27
28.73
24.12
27.16
74.04
37. 69
31.83
22.76
24.89
Semiskilled................................................... .......... ................
Melters’ helpers, second......... ......................................
Nozzle setters____________ _____ ___ _______ _____ _
Stopper setters............... ........... ............ ........ ................
Other semiskilled workers........... ........... ........ ............
1,308
723
113
99
373
.935
1.069
.835
.967
.720
26.0
24.8
27.1
28.4
27.3
24. 28
26.47
22. 63
27.49
19.68
Unskilled................. ............................ ..................... .............
Door operators____ _________ _____________ _______
Melters’ helpers, third................................................
Mold cappers.......................... ............ ............................
Stockers............................................. ..............................
Other unskilled workers........................................... .
1.556
124
737
130
523
42
.745
.558
.802
.774
.693
.722
24.3
18.6
24.7
24.2
24.9
25.7
18.07
10.36
19.80
18.73
17.25
18. 57
Electricfurnaces
All occupations........................................... .........................-
533
.860
30.7
26. 36
Skilled................................ .....................................................
Ladle cranemen________ ____________ ________ ____
Ladlemen (steel pourers)...................................... .........
Melters............................................ ...............................
Melters’ helpers, first_____________ _______________
Molders............................................................. ................
Other skilled workers............................ ........................
249
35
35
34
71
50
24
1.006
.924
.919
1.468
1.015
.752
.898
31.9
25.8
29.3
40.4
33.7
33.6
24.4
32.15
24. 83
26.93
59.32
34.15
25.26
21.86
505364 0 - 43 - 13
WAGES AND HOURS
188
T
a b l e 9.—
A v era g e h o u rly ea rn in g s , w eek ly h ou rst and w eek ly ea rnings o f w age
earners in steel w o rk s , A p r i l 1 9 8 8 , b y occu p ation and sk ill —Continued
Number
of wage
earners
Skill and occupational group
Average
hourly
earnings
Average
weekly
hours
Average
weekly
earnings
E le c tr ic fu r n a c e s —Continued
Semiskilled________________________________________
Ladlemen's helpers...................................... .............
Melters’ helpers, second___________ _____________
Melters’ helpers, third_____________ ______ ______
Other semiskilled workers______ ____ _____ ______
140
22
52
37
29
$0. 772
.804
.834
.735
.693
29.8
30.0
29.8
24.7
36.3
$23.03
24.09
24.81
18.19
25.20
Unskilled-.......... ....................................................... —
Chargers, hand................................................. ........
Stockers----------------------- ------ ----------------------------Other unskilled workers..................... ......................
144
21
111
12
.670
.705
.665
.641
29.2
35.8
27.6
32.5
19.58
25.27
18. 37
20.80
Rolling Mills
H ourly earnings o f rolling-mill employees cover an unusually wide
range. Some o i the employees rank with the highest-paid wage
earners in the country. Earnings o f others, by contrast, are low in
comparison with the general wage level prevailing in the iron and steel
industry.
Broaaly speaking, the highest hourly earnings are found in the strip
and tin-plate mills. In both o f these divisions there are a number o f
occupational groups in the upper-wage classes. As previously indi
cated, rollers in strip mills averaged as high as $2,927 an hour. In
addition to this occupation, heaters averaged $1,752, while the respec
tive averages o f assistant rollers and cold reduction rollers were
$1,493 and $1,291. Even among the semiskilled strip-mill workers
there were occupations with averages above $1 an hour. This was
true o f heaters’ helpers who averaged $1,161 and shear and leveler
operators who averaged $1,047. Moreover, none o f the unskilled
occupational groups in strip mills averaged less than 75 cents an hour.
In the tin-plate mills there was no occupation averaging as much as
rollers in the strip mills, but the general level o f wages was relatively
high for each o f the principal groups o f wage earners.
T
a b l e 10.—
A v era g e h o u rly ea rn in g s, w eek ly h o u rsf and w eek ly ea rn in gs o f w age
earners in rolling m ills , A p r i l 1 9 8 8 , b y occu p a tion a nd sk ill
Skill and occupational group
Number
of wage
earners
Average
hourly
earnings
Average
weekly
hours
Average
weekly
earnings
P u d d lin g m ills
All occupations................................... ..................................
296
$0,798
30.8
$24.57
Skilled....................... ................................................. ...........
Puddlers.......................................................................... .
Puddlers, level-handed..................................... .......... .
Other skilled workers.............................. .................... .
172
48
101
23
.895
.952
.875
.864
32.3
31.8
33.3
29.1
28.91
30.28
29.11
25.16
Semiskilled................................................ .............................
Puddlers’ helpers.............................. .............................
Other semiskilled workers.............................................
79
51
28
.651
.654
.647
28.6
29.8
26.6
18.66
19.45
17.23
Unskilled.................................................................................
Stockers..... .................................................................. .
Other unskilled workers..... ..........................................
45
19
26
.639
.623
.651
28.7
30.3
27.6
18.35
18.90
17.95
ir o n
and
steel
in d u s t r y
189
10. — A v era g e h o u rly ea rn in g s, w eek ly hours, a nd w eek ly ea rn in gs o f w age
earners in rolling m ills, A p r i l 1 9 8 8 , b y o ccu p ation a nd sk ill —Continued
T able
Skill and occupational group
Number
of wage
earners
Average
hourly
earnings
Average
weekly
hours
Average
weekly
earnings
B illet m ills
All occupations____________________________________
619
$0.883
26.4
$23.26
Skilled____________________________________________
Guide setters___________________ ______ ____ _
Inspectors, product _______________________ ____
Roll engineers, electric__________________________
Roll engineers, steam____ ______________________
Rollers------------------------------------------------------------Rollers, assistant_______________________________
Shearmen_____________________________________
Tilting-table operators__________________________
Other skilled workers___________________________
212
12
50
7
23
31
11
30
27
19
1.128
1.041
.805
.750
.872
1.745
1.124
.930
1.186
1.568
24.8
26.4
28.0
21.7
12.3
26.1
16.6
28.1
24.7
29.2
27.98
27.47
22.50
16.29
10. 72
45.46
18,62
26,15
29.35
45. 79
Semiskilled._____ ____________________ ____________
Chippers and grinders__________________________
Hotbed men. . . _______________ _____________
Transfer-table operators_________________________
Other semiskilled workers____________ ________
302
200
15
10
77
.788
.757
.803
.799
.871
28.3
29.5
24.6
20.1
27.1
22.31
22.29
19.74
16.08
23.65
Unskilled_________________________________________
Shearmen’s helpers______________ ______________
Other unskilled workers_______________________
105
.691
.812
.668
23.9
19.9
24.8
16. 49
16.17
16. 57
20
85
B lo o m in g m ills
All occupations__________________________ ______ ___
1,926
.915
26.7
24.39
Skilled____________________________________________
Heaters_______________________________________
Manipulators__________________________________
Pit cranemen__________________________________
Roll engineers, electric__________________________
Roll engineers, steam_____ _____________________
Rollers__________________ _____________________
Shearmen________ _____________________________
Other skilled workers___________________________
602
106
69
162
24
30
65
85
61
1.198
1.377
1.280
1.053
.991
1.339
1.772
.996
.833
28.4
32.4
25.4
29.3
30.0
25.6
27.8
25.3
28.1
34.01
44. 55
32. 57
30.84
29. 75
34. 21
49.27
25.18
23. 39
Semiskilled_______________________________________
Bottom makers____ ____ _______________________
Chippers and grinders____ _____________________
Gas makers_______ ____ _______________________
Heaters’ helpers_______ ______ __________________
Shearmen’s helpers_____________________________
Transfer-table operators_________ _____ __________
Other semiskilled workers________ _____________
866
83
465
36
61
103
40
78
.802
.953
.760
.673
1.063
.766
.835
.780
26.7
25.8
27.2
35.4
29.1
21.6
26.4
25.7
21.42
24. 55
20.69
23.81
30.89
16.56
22.00
20.08
Unskilled_______________________________ __________
Bottom makers’ helpers_________________________
Buggy operators_______________________________
Cover operators________________________________
Other unskilled workers_______________ _______
458
99
45
44
270
.714
.789
.822
.672
.674
24.3
25.0
24.0
25.2
24.0
17. 34
19.68
19.70
16.91
16.16
P la te m ills
All occupations____________________________________
1,687
.886
24.4
21.62
Skilled____________________________________________
Charging-crane and charging-machine operators.
Heaters_____________________ _____ ____________
Inspectors, product____ ________________________
Layers-out and markers_________________________
Roll engineers, electric__________________________
Roll engineers, steam______ _____________________
Rollers, sheared-plate___________________________
Rollers, universal-plate_____ ____________________
J3crewmen, sheared-plate________________________
Shearmen... ________ ______ ____ ______________
Other skilled workers________ __________ ____ _
613
80
65
80
98
16
13
30
66
1.052
.917
1. 266
.830
.915
.966
.834
1.620
1.652
1.282
1.020
.997
25.8
26.9
32.3
23.6
23.5
20.2
27.8
33.2
26.5
27.1
23.7
25.1
27.15
24.69
40.89
19.62
21.48
19.49
23. 21
53.83
43.84
34.71
24.14
24.97
Semiskilled______ ______ ______ _____________________
Cold-roll operators_______ _____________________
Heaters’ helpers____________ ___________________
Hookmen, sheared-plate_______ ___________ ____
Layers-out and markers’ assistants__________ ____
Transfer-table operators_________________________
Other semiskilled workers___________ ______ _____
647
46
47
90
76
47
341
.799
.812
.908
.903
.779
.767
.761
23.6
22.8
24.6
25.7
21.9
22.3
23.5
18.85
18 55
22. 35
23.21
17.06
17.09
17.90
Unskilled..................................... ...... ................. .............
8hearmen’s helpers..................... ......................... .
Other unskilled workers.............................................
427
350
77
.758
.784
.663
23.6
22.6
28.2
17.88
17.70
18.69
6
34
125
190
T
WAGES AND HOURS
A v era g e h o u rly ea rn in g s , w eek ly h o u rs , a nd w eek ly ea rn in g s o f w a ge
earners in rolling m ills , A p r i l 1 9 3 8 , b y o ccu p ation a nd s k il l —Continued
a b l e 10.—
Skill and occupational group
Number
of wage
earners
Average
hourly
earnings
Average
weekly
hours
Average
weekly
earnings
R a il m ills
All occupations____________________________________
703
$0,847
28.2
$23.90
S k illed--_____________ _______ _____________________
Charging-machine operators_____________________
Guide setters................................... .............. ......... .
Inspectors, rails......................................... ................
Roll engineers, electric and steam________________
Rollers..... ..................... ................. ............................
Straighteners, gag press__________________ _______
Table levermen........................... ........... ........... ........
Other skilled workers.............................. ...............
185
8
8
48
12
7
49
29
24
1.046
.959
.929
.771
.805
1.711
1. 369
.876
1.098
29.9
25.1
35.6
29.5
29.0
37.9
28.8
29.8
30.8
31.26
24.04
33.12
22.74
23.47
64.77
39.42
26.14
33.80
Semiskilled_________________________ ______ ________
Chippers.............................. .............. ......... ..............
Drillers and punchers....... .......................... .............
Hot sawmen____________ _______ ________ ______ _
Straighteners’ helpers....................... .......................
Other semiskilled workers______________________
332
79
68
7
52
126
.822
.867
.885
.817
.851
.754
27.6
22.4
30.5
30.3
28.0
28.9
22.68
19.41
26.95
24.76
23.84
21.83
Unskilled___ _____________ _______ _________________
Hotbed m e n ............................. ...... ........................
Other unskilled workers^............ ...... ........... .............
186
88
98
.677
.673
.682
27.7
29.2
26.4
18.75
19.62
17.97
S tr u ctu ra l m ills
All occupations............................. .................................. .
652
.868
29.2
25.39
Skilled...............................................................................
Guide setters.................................... ................ .........
Heaters............ .................................. ........................
Inspectors, product................ ......... ........................ .
Roll engineers, electric........... ......... ........................ .
Rollers.............................. ............................. ............
Rollers, assistant........................................... ..........
Straighteners......................... .............. .....................
Tilting-table operators...............................................
Other skilled workers.............. ..................... ..........
161
11
12
30
16
13
13
31
18
17
1.108
1.013
1.306
.849
.910
1.717
1.255
.907
.952
1.267
30.6
33.8
38.1
23.6
25.2
41.7
36.3
29.9
29.9
30.0
33.94
34.27
49.72
20.06
22.90
71. 57
45.58
27.15
28.43
38.01
Semiskilled....................................... ................. ..............
Chargers................................... ..................................
Chippers..... ................ ................... ...... .....................
Heaters’ helpers.............. ................. ........................
Shearmen....... ........................ .............................. .
Straighteners’ helpers___________ ______________
Transfer-table operators.____________ ______ _____
Other semiskilled workers........ .................... ...........
250
16
29
20
15
23
45
102
.860
.979
.741
.924
.932
.756
.971
.820
31.3
32.9
32.5
31.7
35.6
29.2
32.6
29.9
26.92
32.21
24.11
29.26
33.12
22.09
31.60
24.53
Unskilled___________________________________ ______
Hotbed men...... ........... .........................................
Other unskilled workers............................................
241
44
197
.691
.687
.693
26.2
27.3
26.0
18.11
18.72
17.97
B a r m ills
All occupations.................................................................
3,235
.827
29.3
24.20
Skilled.................................................... .........................
Catchers____________________ __________________
Finishers________ ______________________________
Heaters____________ _______________ ______ _____
Roll engineers, electric........... ......................... .........
Roll engineers, steam______________ ______ ______
Rollers________________________________________
Roughers____ _________________________________
Stranders.________________ ____________________
Other skilled workers___________________________
1,286
89
131
141
19
17
90
213
217
369
.993
.877
1.049
1.105
.730
.628
1.742
.992
.868
.850
30.5
29.3
30.6
31.4
31.2
31.6
35.0
29.3
31.3
29.4
30.28
25.69
32.12
34.69
22.79
19.80
60.90
29.06
27.16
25.00
Semiskilled___________________________ _____ ______ _
Chargers and chargers’ helpers................. ................
Heaters’ helpers____ ________________ _______ ___
Hook-ups____ ____ _____________________________
Shearmen............................................ ............... ......
Transfer-table operators.____ ______ ______ _______
Other semiskilled workers........................................
895
121
163
75
177
104
255
.775
.783
.817
.742
.765
.818
.747
28.2
28.3
27.5
28.4
30.7
25.3
28.1
21.89
22.19
22.43
21.05
23.4?
20.69
21.03
Unskilled.................................. ..................................... .
Bundlers................. ............................ ....................
Drag-downs.................... ...................... .....................
Hotbed men....................................... ................. ......
Shearmen’s helpers....................................................
Stockers........... ..........................................................
Other unskilled workers.............................................
1,054
140
90
243
220
119
242
.654
.696
.660
.649
.674
.649
.622
28.6
23.8
30.2
27.6
30.6
28.4
30.3
18.74
16.56
19.92
17.88
20.62
18.45
18.86
191
IKON A N D STEEL INDUSTRY
T able 10.— Average hourly earningsf weekly hourst and weekly earnings o f wage
_____ earners in rolling m ills , A p ril 1 9 3 8 , by occupation and skill— Continued
Skill and occupational group
R o d m ills
Number
of wage
earners
Average
hourly
earnings
Average
weekly
hours
Average
weekly
earnings
All occupations.............. ........... ................ .......................
1,022
$0,882
34.3
$30.21
Skilled......... .................................. ......... ..................... .
Catchers.......... ................ ......................................... .
Finishers___ _____ _______ _____ _______ ___ _____
Heaters._______________ _____ __________________
Roll engineers, electric_____ _____________ _______
Rollers r.__________ ______ ___________ ______ ___
Rollers, assistant_______________________________
Roughers___ ________ __________ _______________
Other skilled workers_________________________ .
353
94
36
38
14
29
19
32
91
1.144
1.110
1.411
1.182
.813
1.825
1.617
1.066
.768
35.8
36.0
37.0
35.7
38.3
39.3
39.5
33.2
33.8
40.95
39.92
52.16
42.18
31.11
71.64
63.86
35.40
25.98
Semiskilled_______________________ ________________
Chargers and chargers’ helpers. _____ ___ .. _ ..
Conveyor men. . . . . _____ * _______ ____________
Heaters’ helpers_____ _____ _____________________
Hookers (rolls)___________ _______ ____ __________
Reelers.,1___1____ _____ _______________ ________
Shearmen______________________________________
Other semiskilled workers_______________________
378
67
85
28
32
52
29
85
.764
.730
.677
.842
.581
.787
.880
.864
33.6
34.4
31.2
35.0
35.8
32.8
33.2
34.9
25.72
25.09
21.13
29.48
20.83
25.84
29.25
30.13
Unskilled............... .......................... .............. .............. ...
Bundlers...... ........... ....................................... ...........
Stockers_______________ ______ _______ ________
Other unskilled workers_______ ______ ________ _
291
113
37
141
.693
.765
.692
.645
33.2
30.4
33.5
35.4
23.01
23.22
23.14
22.81
All occupations_______________________ ____ _____ _
3,192
.845
28.7
24.26
Skilled_______________________________________ ____
Die reamers_______________________________ ____
Inspectors, product _______________ ___________
Testers and gagers______________________________
Wipers__________________________ ________ ___
Wire drawers_______ _________ _________________
Other skilled workers___ ________ ___________ ..
1,889
64
57
69
63
1,493
143
.925
.826
.811
.710
.841
.960
.837
27.1
30.7
31.9
31.7
32.5
26.3
27.2
25.08
25.39
25.91
22. 52
27.34
25.28
22.75
Semiskilled. ................................................ ...............
Block tenders_________ _____ _____ _____________
Fireman, annealing and galvanizing, furnaces........
Reelers___________________________ _______ _____
Straightener and cutter operators________________
Truckers, power.............. ......... ........... ................... .
Other semiskilled workers.........................................
776
192
70
288
33
139
54
.787
.813
.789
.799
.775
.766
.670
31.6
32.1
35.5
31.7
26.3
31.1
28.9
24.87
26.08
28.03
25.36
20.35
23.80
19.33
Unskilled....... ..................................................................
Truckers, hand..................................... ......... ..........
Wire bundlers and packers_______ ______ ________
Other unskilled workers............. ...............................
527
132
183
212
.678
.630
.691
.696
30.1
29.4
30.1
30.6
20.43
18.53
20.82
21.28
W ir e m ills
S k e lp m ills
309
.834
30.3
25. 22
Skilled_________________ ________________________
Heaters____ ______
. _. __________________
Rollers_______ _______ _________________________
Rollers, assistant......................... .............................
Roughers____________________ ____ ____ _______ _
Other skilled w orkers........... ................................ .
95
13
8
11
10
53
1.063
1.586
1.921
1.269
.780
.797
33.8
32.6
37.1
36.8
32.5
33.3
35.94
51.65
71.34
46.66
25.35
26. 52
Semiskilled.............................. ......... ..................... .........
Heaters’ helpers.................... . ..................................
Shearmen_________ ____ _______ _______ _____ ___
Other semiskilled workers.........................................
73
24
8
41
.733
.815
.711
.699
30.0
25.7
30.3
32.5
22.01
20.92
21.57
22.72
Unskilled__________ ______ ______ _______ ______ ____
Hotbed men....... ......... ............ ...............................
Shearmen’s helpers_______ ____ _________________
Other unskilled workers_________ _______________
141
33
21
87
.703
.718
.636
.712
28.0
34.6
27.0
25.7
19.66
24.82
17.16
18.31
1,387
.818
30.9
25.30
289
24
20
163
21
40
21
.934
.979
.881
.823
1.003
1.341
.883
31.6
34.2
39.3
29.1
33.0
32.4
38.1
29.52
33.47
34.63
23.91
33.08
43.46
33.63
All occupations____________
_____________________
L a p -w e ld tube m ills
All occupations............................................................ .
Skilled....... ............... .......................................................
Benders.............................. ........................................
Die setters............................................................. .
Inspectors, product.....................................................
Roll setters................................................................
Welders..... ..................................... ......... ................ _
Other skilled workers.................................................
19 2
WAGES AND HOURS
T a b l e 10.— Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings o f wage
earners in rolling mills, A p ril 1938, by occupation and skill— Continued
Skill and occupational group
Number
of wage
earners
Average
hourly
earnings
Average
weekly
hours
Average
weekly
earnings
L a p -w e ld tu b e m ills —Continued
Semiskilled_____________________ __________________
Bailers______________________________ __________
Bar pullers.-______ ____________________________
Blister men__________ _____ _______ ____________
Charging-machine operators (bending furnace)____
Coupling reamers and tappers__________________
Cutters and threaders_________________ ______
Pipe testers, hydraulic__________________________
Saw operators__________________________________
Straightener operators__________________________
Takers-off_______ _____________________________
Turn-downs___________________________________
Other semiskilled workers_______________________
710
28
22
30
59
15
225
40
20
54
22
37
158
$0.816
.766
.791
.782
.816
.736
.852
.776
.835
.786
.796
1.002
.765
31.2
27.9
29.7
28.3
29.6
33.9
31.7
31.4
34.3
33.2
28.6
33.4
30.8
$25. 44
21.37
23.53
22.13
24.12
24.96
26.97
24. 37
28.64
26.12
22.74
33.47
23.53
Unskilled________ ____ ____________________________
Benders’ helpers________________ ______________
Buggymen_____________________________________
Pipe testers’ helpers, hydraulic__________________
Pit hands (welding furnace)_____________________
Other unskilled workers________________________
388
15
28
24
98
223
.730
.864
.820
.746
.759
.696
30.0
28.9
32.8
35.3
27.2
30.4
21.90
24.96
26.92
26.34
20. 62
21.15
B u tt-w e ld tu b e m ills
All occupations___ ____ ____________________________
1,652
.839
34.2
28.67
Skilled____________________________________________
Die setters_____________________________________
Inspectors, product_____________________________
Roll setters____________________________________
Welders_______________________________________
Other skilled workers___________________________
284
20
169
27
63
5
1.031
.835
.786
1.086
1.668
0
34.6
36.4
32.7
39.1
36.6
35. 65
30.41
25.71
42.43
61.02
Semiskilled________________________________________
Bench movers... _________ _______ __________
Bundlers and helpers___________________________
Chargers, hand_______ _______________________
Charging-machine operators_____________________
Coupling reamers and tappers___________________
Cutters and threaders__________________ ______
Galvanizers________________ __________________
Heaters, skelp.. _______________________________
Pickers___________ _____ .. _____ __ ..
Pipe picklers___________________________________
Pipe testers, hydraulic_____ __________________
Saw operators_________ _. .. _____ ___________
Size rollers__________________ ________________
Skelp clippers and helpers______________________
Straighteners, hand____________________________
Straighteners, machine... ____ _______________
Other semiskilled workers______________________
940
36
113
18
49
36
148
24
20
56
10
92
52
40
58
48
49
91
.811
.870
.732
.840
.896
.758
.809
.880
.664
1.066
.954
.718
.825
.897
.886
.704
.765
.747
34.3
35.8
32.6
32.3
35.2
32.0
35.7
35.6
34.4
36.5
33.3
32.9
32.5
38.5
35.4
33.5
36.7
31.7
27.80
31.10
23.84
27.12
31.58
24. 25
28. 86
31.31
22. 85
38. 92
31.78
23. 66
26.82
34. 56
31.39
23.56
28.05
23.71
Unskilled_________________________________________
Bell cleaners_______ __________________________
Hook boys_____ ___________________
.. ..
Rackmen_____ . _____ ____ ____________
Tongsmen________ ___ ________________________
Other unskilled workers________________________
428
47
34
54
65
228
.772
.795
.920
.765
.835
.722
33.6
34.3
38.5
33.5
35.5
32.3
25.94
27.24
35.39
25.60
29. 61
23. 29
0
0
S ea m less tube m ills
All occupations____________________________________
1,553
.854
32.6
27.85
Skilled____________________________________________
Heaters_______________________________________
Inspectors, product. ___________________________
Piercing operators______________________________
Rollers, hot-mill. _ __________________________
Other skilled workers__________________________
443
16
275
24
28
100
.903
1.291
.807
1.232
1.130
.991
32.8
29.3
33.7
28.5
30.8
32.6
29.62
37. 79
27.16
35.14
34.83
32.29
Semiskilled________________________________________
Benchmen, cold drawing________________________
Cut-off operators__________ _____________________
Pipe picklers_______ _______ ____________________
Pipe testers, hydraulic____________________ ____
Pointers, cold drawing__________________________
Straighteners, hand._________ __________________
Straighteners, machine__________________________
Other semiskilled workers_______________________
850
50
.876
.683
.794
.787
.714
.821
.815
.890
.924
27.7
33.2
33.1
34.5
29.0
30.6
29.7
34.2
33.3
29.12
18.94
26.41
26.07
24.64
23.85
24.93
26.42
31.56
131
10
34
18
25
34
548
1 Number of workers not sufficient to permit presentation of an average.
193
IRON A N D STEEL INDUSTRY
T a b l e 10 . — Average hourly earnings , weekly hoursy and weekly earnings o f wage
earners in rolling m illsy A p ril 1 9 8 8 , hy occupation and skill— Continued
Skill and occupational group
Number
of wage
earners
Average
hourly
earnings
Average
weekly
hours
, Average
weekly
earnings
S ea m less tu b e m ills —Continued
Unskilled...........................................................................
Benchmen’s helpers, cold drawing_______________
Qther unskilled workers__ ____ _________________
S h eet - an d tin -p la te bar m ills
All occupations_____________________
____________
466
Skilled.___________ ____ _
Guide setters__________________________________
Inspectors, product_____________________________
Rollers............. ...........
Shearmen_____________ .
.
. .
Other skilled workers___________________________
170
14
38
21
45
52
Semiskilled_________________
.
Loopers________________
. . .
. . .
Transfer-table operators_______ __ ______________
Other semiskilled workers_______________________
226
14
25
187
Unskilled___________
8hearmen’s helpers__________ . .. _____________
Other unskilled workers________________ _____
70
48
22
260
42
218
$0,686
.658
.690
30.2
26.9
30.8
$20.69
17.69
21.27
.887
28.3
25.14
1.058
.942
.870
1.656
.906
1.081
28.4
27.9
30.5
31.6
24.5
29.1
30.03
26.29
26.52
52.37
22.15
31.40
.817
.738
.880
.817
29.2
27.3
20.3
30.5
23.85
20.17
17.86
24.93
.684
.713
.638
25.5
23.0
30.9
17.45
16.41
19.70
S trip m ills
All occupations__________
6,091
.914
25.0
22.86
Skilled________________
Cold-roll rollers (finishing)______________________
Gagers________________________________________
Heaters_______________ .
Inspectors, product_______
....
...
Looper operators______________ .. _____ ______
Pulpit operators.. _______ . . . _______________
Roll engineers, electric__________________________
Rollers______________________ _ _ .. ..
Rollers, assistant______________ _______ _____
Rollers, cold reduction_____________________ . ..
Shearmen_____________ .
Speed operators_______ . . .
Other skilled workers___________________________
1,633
56
38
36
364
47
44
39
34
107
306
465
34
63
1.123
.926
1.228
1.752
.848
.955
1.067
.986
2,927
1.493
1.291
.970
1.276
.966
27.4
30.2
26.4
28.5
26.4
23.9
23.8
32.3
34.4
24.2
31.0
25.4
25.2
33.3
30.80
27. 95
32.39
49.88
22.41
22.82
25.45
31.84
100.68
36.13
40.06
24.63
32.21
32.14
Semiskilled _____________________ ________________
Chargers and chargers’ helpers__________________
Coders__________
Cold-roll catchers (finishing)___________ _________
Heaters’ helpers____________________ __________
Picklers. _____
Rollers’ helpers, cold reduction__________________
Rollers, levelers. _____ .
Shear and leveler operators______________________
Shearmen’s helpers___ _____ . ____ . . _____ .
Stitcher-car operators ______
Tractor operators______________________________
Other semiskilled workers_______________________
Unskilled________
._
Picklers’ helpers ______ . . .
Shear and leveler operators’ helpers______________
Sheet pilers.___________________________________
Stitcher feeders_________________________________
Other unskilled workers________________________
3,005
69
68
70
56
87
535
66
54
598
89
315
998
1,453
344
54
101
25
929
.849
.899
.929
.811
1.161
.912
.943
.829
1.047
.798
.966
.727
.817
.778
.829
.773
.844
.787
.755
24.8
23.2
26.7
23.3
23.1
24.0
25.0
21.0
29.1
22.4
26.9
26.4
25.7
22.7
20.8
28.6
21.6
27.2
23.1
21.04
20.84
24.80
18.85
26.85
21.90
23. 61
17.44
30.44
17.84
25. 96
19.22
20.96
17.69
17.22
22.10
18.21
21.38
17.45
S h eet m ills
All occupations. ..... ........................ ...... ........................
7, 502
.903
24.1
21.77
Skilled___________________ _________________ .. ..
Catchers___________________ _______ ______ ..
Gagers and inspectors, product____ _____________
Pair heaters______ _____________________________
Resquare shearmen_____________________________
Rollers, assistant, mechanical mills____ __________
Rollers, hand mills_____________________________
Rollers’ helpers and finishers, hand mills_________
Rollers, mechanical mills________ _______________
Roughers_____ ____ ____ ____ ___________________
Shearmen_________ _______ ________________ . ..
Sheet heaters________ _____ ____________________
Other skilled wolkers___________________________
1, 622
151
238
37
145
152
76
70
153
87
195
37
281
1.203
1.163
.761
1.228
.818
1.301
2.182
1.278
1.885
1.419
1.252
1.735
1.078
24.9
23.8
29.0
25.7
28.8
21.0
25.0
24.1
21.0
24.1
23.2
26.0
25.7
29.97
27.64
22.04
31.56
23.53
27.28
54.46
30.85
39. 55
34.23
29.08
45.12
27.73
194
WAGES AND HOURS
T a b l e 10.— Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings o f wage
earners in rolling mills, A p ril 193 8 , by occupation and skill— Continued
Skill and occupational group
Number
of wage
earners
Average
hourly
earnings
Average
weekly
hours
Average
weekly
earnings
S heet m ills —Continued
Semiskilled...................................... ...... .........
Cold-roll rollers_________________________
Doublers_____ _________________________
Galvanizers...................... ................ ...........
Matchers.____________ ________ _______ Openers______ _____ _____________ _____
Openers, level-handed................................ .
Picklers, sheet ....................................... ......
Roller and stretcher levelers_____________
Sheet heaters’ helpers........................ ..........
Spannermen....................................... ...........
Other semiskilled workers............................
3, 524
137
253
84
522
384
164
70
66
29
64
1,751
$0.870
.865
1.013
.847
1.013
.863
.839
.823
.856
1.188
1.184
.807
23.8
22.7
22.4
35.1
21.3
21.3
24.7
30.1
24.6
27.4
23.4
24.5
$20.74
19.67
22.70
29.74
21.53
18.42
20.73
24.78
21.07
32.58
27.74
19. 76
Unskilled........................... ............ ...................
Catchers and feeders, normalizing furnaces.
Chargers, pair and pack furnaces_________
Cold-roll catchers-........................................
Drag-ups.......... .............................................
Feeders, galvanizing____________________
Picklers’ helpers, sheet____ _____ _____ —
Reelers and rack men, galvanizing_______
Resquare shearmen’s helpers. _...............
Roller and stretcher levelers' helpers.........
Shearmen’s helpers......................... ..............
Stockers........................................ ................
Other unskilled workers................... ..........
2,356
61
373
230
20
95
155
141
145
85
204
67
780
.737
.700
.841
.736
.907
.750
.716
.644
.717
.713
.894
.651
.693
24.0
18.4
20.5
22.7
24.2
32.2
27.0
28.4
23.7
27.7
21.9
25.4
24.1
17.66
12.86
17.26
16.68
21.92
24.14
19.32
18.27
17.01
19.73
19.56
16.55
16.66
T in -p la te m ills
All occupations......... ............... .....................
8.042
.938
29.4
27. 59
Skilled............ ........................ ............................
Catchers...................................................... .
Catchers, level-handed________ _________ _
Gagers and inspectors____________ _______
Heaters________________________________
Heaters, level-handed....... ...........................
Pair heaters_____ _______ ______ ________ _
Pair heaters, level-handed............................
Resquare shearmen------------------------ ------Rollers___________________ _____________
Rollers, level-handed..... ..........___...............
Roughers____________ _______ ___________
Shearmen.......... ...........................................
Tinners, hand_____ ____ ________ ____ ___
Tinners, machine____________ ________
Other skilled workers_______________ ____
2,978
306
143
54
102
1.085
.987
.944
.733
.966
492
1.049
275
26
69
274
126
287
239
134
166
%285
.836
.966
.833
1.743
1.113
1.077
1.181
1.168
.995
1.146
31.6
31.0
36.9
34.9
33.6
35.7
36.0
35.1
29.7
32.8
32.2
36.2
22.5
20.3
30.3
24.6
34.27
30. 65
34.83
25.60
32.43
37.38
30.07
33.89
24.78
57.18
35.89
39.02
26.59
23. 77
28.97
28.14
Semiskilled________________________________
Branners_______________ ____ __________
Cold-roll roughers.______ _ _____ _________
Doublers, hand............................................
Heaters’ helpers.......... ..................................
Openers_________ ____ _____ ____________
Screw boys....................... ............ ................
Single boys_____ _______ ________________
Other semiskilled workers_____ ______ ___
3. 962
111
145
526
61
545
280
450
1, 844
.826
.672
.930
.815
.857
1.104
.719
.805
.789
28.8
27.4
32.3
29.8
37.7
22.0
33.7
30.0
29.1
23.81
18.39
30.07
24.31
32. 32
24.33
24.22
24.12
22.93
U nskilled.......... ...............................................
Cold-roll catchers........................................
Picklers’ helpers________ ________________
Shearmen’s helpers_____ _________ _______
Other unskilled workers...............................
1,102
92
261
103
646
.901
.920
1.312
.816
.737
25.7
29.9
26.4
20.4
25.6
23.12
27.55
34.71
16.68
18. 83
Mechanical, Transportation, and Plant-Service Occupations
Most o f the mechanical, transportation, and plant-service occupa
tions that are common to all departments of the iron and steel industry
were found in the intermediate earning classes. On the one hand,
none of these workers had exceptionally high earnings comparable
with those of rollers in strip mills. On the other han$l, there were no
unusually low earnings reported for these occupational groups.
195
IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY
Am ong the mechanical, transportation, and service employees, the
highest average earnings—$1,143 an hour— was reported fo r brick
layers. W ith a single exception, namely, roll turners, who averaged
$1,012, this was the only occupational group whose hourly earnings
exceeded $1 an hour. Most o f the remaining skilled occupations
earned between 80 and 90 cents an hour, although plant supervisory
employees averaged 93.8 cents and machinists averaged 92.8 cents.
A t the bottom o f the scale in terms o f hourly earnings were the com
mon laborers, numerically the most important o f mechanical, trans
portation, and service occupations. This group averaged 60.0 cents
an hour.
V ery few o f the mechanical, transportation, and service employees
had full-tim e employment in A pril 1938. The average working time
for the group as a whole was 29.7 hours a week. The range in weekly
hours, however, was from 26.0 for common laborers to 36.5 for steam
engineers.
W eekly earnings o f the mechanical, transportation, and service
employees ranged from an average o f $15.58 for common laborers to
$33.96 fo r bricklayers. The average fo r all occupations was $22.97
a week.
T a b l e 11 . — A verag e h ou rly ea rn in g s, w eek ly h ou rs, and w eek ly ea rnings o f m ale
m echanical, tra n sporta tion , and service w orkers, A p r i l 1 9 3 8 , b y occup ation and skill
Occupation
Number
of wage
earners
Average
hourly
earnings
Average
weekly
hours
Average
weekly
earnings
All occupations__________ ____________________________
32,354
$0.773
29.7
$22.97
Skilled workers ----------- ------- ------------- ---------- --------------Blacksmiths____ ______. ____ . . . . . ____ _________
Boilermakers____________ ________________________
Bricklayers..__________ _____________ ______ _____
Carpenters------- -------------------------------------------- ------Cranemen, miscellaneous, skilled..............................
Electricians............................................... .......................
Engineers, locomotive----------------------------------------- Engineers, power, steam---------------------------------- -----Engineers, power, electric...... ............ ..........................
Inspectors and repairmen, motors------ ------------------Ladle liners................................ ............ ..................... . .
Machinsts---------------------- ------- -----------------------------Millwrights______________________________ ______ _
Pipe fitters_______ ___________ _______ ____________
Riggers..-------- ------- ------- --------------------------------------Roll turners______________________________ ______ _
Supervisory, plant______________ _______ _________
Welders-------------------------------------------------------------- Miscellaneous skilled workers.--------- ----------- ---------
11,352
198
96
302
192
198
918
447
101
149
607
126
1,256
1,333
543
235
462
2,404
409
1,376
.896
.872
.894
1.143
.853
.898
.868
.864
.857
.850
.886
.844
.928
.856
.840
.816
1.012
.938
.888
.826
32.2
29.5
28.4
29.7
31.8
28.6
33.5
26.1
36.5
33.7
30.0
29.9
31.0
32.0
30.8
30.4
32.3
35.5
32.4
31.8
28.83
25.70
25.42
33.96
27.13
25.66
29.13
22. 57
31.30
28.69
26.59
25.22
28. 72
27.40
25.89
24.81
32.68
33.31
28.79
26.26
Semiskilled workers.-------- -------------------------------------------Blacksmiths' helpers......................................................
Bricklayers ’ helpers.____ __________ ________ _____
Clerical—plant_____ ___________________ ____ _____
Cranemen, miscellaneous, semiskilled-------------- —
Crane followers................... .............................................
Electricians’ helpers....... ............ ............. ...................
Firemen, locomotive....................... ............... ..............
Firemen and water tenders, power................. ...........
Inspectors’ and repairmen’s helpers, motors----------Machinists’ helpers.................................................. .
Millwrights’ helpers............ ..........................................
Oilers and greasers, equipment-...................................
Pipe fitters’ helpers............................. ............ ..............
Pumpers______ _____ ______ ___ ______ _____ _____
Switchmen, locomotive___________________________
Miscellaneous semiskilled workers............................ .
12, 274
143
172
2,611
3,081
1,801
140
62
337
122
292
518
901
160
153
510
1,271
.743
.643
.643
.782
. 773
.704.692
.758
.742
.753
.686
.713
.705
.662
.746
.805
.710
29.3
30.0
29.0
30.8
28.3
28.1
31.7
32.8
36.4
26.6
31.7
28.2
28.3
30.9
33.8
26.7
29.6
21.80
19.30
18.63
24.10
21.86
19.79
21.92
24.82
27.03
20.00
21.73
20.10
19.92
20.45
25. 21
21.52
21.03
Unskilled workers.................................................................
Laborers, common........ ........................... .....................
Laborers, miscellaneous................................................
Service workers, plant................................ ............. .
Miscellaneous unskilled workers........ .......... : ______
8,728
4,517
2,891
945
375
.629
.600
.664
.642
.653
27.1
26.0
26.4
32.6
31.2
17.01
15.58
17.53
20.94
20.36
196
WAGES AND HOURS
A n n u a l Earnings, 1937
Workers who were employed throughout 1937 in the iron and
steel industry earned an average o f $1,773. The average annual
earnings o f those workers employed 9 months or more amounted to
$1,679, and those o f workers employed 6 months or more to $1,650.
The average for all wage earners who worked any part o f the year
was $1,628. These annual earnings reflect on the one hand the com
paratively high wage level o f the iron and steel industry and on the
other hand the relatively stable employment in the industry in 1937.4
Annual earnings varied considerably between skill groups. F or
employees who worked 12 months the difference in favor o f skilled over
semiskilled workers amounted to $452 for the country as a whole.
Semiskilled workers’ earnings exceeded those o f unskilled workers by
$189. The respective skill differences in annual earnings for em
ployees working 9 months or more were $459 and $180, and those for
employees working any part o f the year were $470 and $187. Table 12
shows the distribution o f the iron and steel workers and their average
annual earnings by skill and period o f employment.
T
able
12.
— D istrib u tio n a nd average an n u al earnings o f iro n and
p eriod o f em p lo ym en t and skilly 1 9 3 7
steel
w o rk ers , b y
Employees whose work extended over—
Item and skill
12 months
Average annual earnings:
All workers-----------------------------------------------------------Skilled________________________________________
Semiskilled___________________________________
Unskilled---------------------------------------------- ---------Percent of workers:
All workers_______________________________________
Skilled________________________________________
Semiskilled___________________________________
Unskilled..-------- --------------------------------------------Number of workers:
All workers-------- ----------- ------------------------------- -----Skilled________________________________________
Semiskilled____________________ _____________
Unskilled___________________________ ________
9 months
or more
Gmonths
or more
Any part
of year
$1,773
$2,107
$1, 655
$1,466
$1,679
$2,023
$1, 564
$1,384
$1, 650
$2,002
$1,538
$1, 351
$1,628
$1,986
$1,516
$1,329
61.7
65.5
60.6
58.2
94.9
96.8
94.7
92.8
98.2
98.9
98.0
97.7
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
45,152
16,330
18,003
10, 819
69, 529
24,128
28,143
17, 258
71,942
24,661
29,117
18,164
73,228
24,924
29,710
18,594
Despite the relatively high level o f annual earnings indicated by
the general averages, there was considerable variation in the earnings
o f individual workers. Although employees who worked throughout
the year earned an average o f $1,773 in 1937, the earnings o f individ
uals in this group ranged from less than $600 to over* $4,000. W ithin
this extreme range, however, over one-third o f the workers (34.9 per
cent) earned between $1,400 and $1,800, over three-fifths (62.6 percent)
between $1,200 and $2,000, and not far from seven-eighths (85.8 per
cent) between $1,000 and $2,400. Only 3.2 percent o f those who
worked 12 months in 1937 earned under $1,000, and less than 1 percent
4 Average annual earnings were obtained only for those employees who were actually
working during April 1938 in the establishments surveyed. Furthermore they include
only the amounts received from the company for which they were working in April 1938.
For example, if an employee earned $600 in 1937 while working for Company A and $800
while working for Company B, and appeared on Company B’s pay roll in April 1938, only
the $800 received from Company B would be included in 1937 average earnings.
JEWELRY INDUSTRY
197
(0.6) under $800. On the other hand, 11 percent received $2,400 or
more, and 3.9 percent $3,000 or more. O f the employees working 9
months or more, one-third (33.7 percent ) earned less than $1,400 and
two-thirds (66.3 percent) $1,400 or more.
#######^
Jew elry Industry—Earnings and Hours, February 19401
The jewelry-manufacturing industry has been defined in general by
the W age and Hour Administrator as the “ manufacturing, processing,
and assembling wholly or partially from any material” o f articles
which are commonly or commercially known as jewelry. It covers
the manufacture and processing o f precious, semiprecious, synthetic,
or imitation stones, as well as the manufacture, drilling, and stringing
o f pearls, imitation pearls, and beads for use in the manufacture of
jewelry. It includes such products as “ religious, school, college, and
fraternal insignia; articles o f ornament or adornment designed to be
worn on apparel or carried on or about the person; metal mesh bags
and metal watch bracelets; and chain, mesh, and parts for use in the
manufacture o f any o f the articles included in this definition.” The
follow ing are included only if made from or embellished with pre
cious metal or precious, semiprecious, synthetic, or imitation stones:
Cigar and cigarette cases, cigar and cigarette holders, cigarette
lighters, pocket knives, cigar cutters, badges, emblems, military and
naval insignia, belt buckles, and handbag and pocketbook frames
and clasps.
In determining the scope o f the survey, the Bureau of Labor
Statistics followed the general outlines o f the above definition. H ow
ever, the actual coverage necessarily extends somewhat beyond these
limits in certain cases. Thus, a considerable proportion o f the ciga
rette lighters and cigar and cigarette cases produced in plants covered
by the report were not made o f precious metals or embellished with
stones. The data obtained from such plants relate to all o f the wage
earners employed, because it was impossible to separate those who
worked on the types o f lighters and cases specified in the definition
from those who worked on other types. On the other hand, the survey
did not cover lapidary work,2 except when carried on in jewelry fac
tories. A preliminary investigation o f the specialized lapidary indus
try revealed that this group o f small establishments employs highly
paid, skilled workers who work irregularly on a piece-rate basis.3 For
the most part, the lapidary firms do not keep time records o f a
t}rpe which would yield the information needed fo r analysis o f
hourly earnings.
The study was based on a representative sample, including approxi
mately one-third o f the employees in the industry. Data covering
wages and hours were obtained for all classes o f employees in each
plant, with the exception of the supervisory and management officials.
1 Abstract of article in the Monthly Labor Review for January 1941, prepared by H. E.
Riley, of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
2 Lapidary work consists of the cutting, polishing, and setting of diamonds and other
precious and semiprecious stones.
3 According to the United States Census of Manufactures, the lapidary industry in 1937
consisted of 51 establishments with 217 wage earners.
WAGES AND HOURS
19 8
The products o f the industry are usually classified, on the basis o f
the type o f raw materials used, into two groups, namely, precious
jewelry and medium- and low-priced jewelry. The precious-jewelry
group embraces products made o f platinum or gold o f 10-karat fine
ness or better, and articles containing precious stones such as dia
monds, pearls, etc. Medium- and low-priced jewelry includes products
made o f silver, base metals, plastics, wood, leather, and other materials,
including gold o f less than 10-karat fineness. These latter articles
may be decorated with semiprecious, synthetic, or imitation stones.
Although the establishments in the industry generally tend to spe
cialize in either precious or medium- and low-priced products, a con
siderable group o f plants made articles in both o f these categories.
As none o f the plants scheduled maintained separate pay-roll records
fo r the two types o f products, it has been necessary in analyzing the
wage data to create a third classification embracing plants making
both precious and medium- and low-priced jewelry.4
Average H ou rly Earnings
H ourly earnings o f the 9,628 factory wage earners covered in the
survey averaged 58 cents in February 1940 (see table 1). The spread
o f earnings, shown in table 2, covers a very wide range, extending
from under 30 cents to over $1,625 an hour.
T a b l e 1.— A verage h o u rly earnings o f je w e l r y w ork ers, 1 9 4 0 , b y regio n , ty p e o f
p rod u ct , sex, and skill
All workers
Skilled workers
Semiskilled
workers
Unskilled workers
Product and region
Fe Total Male Fe Total Male Fe Total Male Fe
Total Male male
male
male
male
All products........................ $0.580 $0,702 $0. 380 $0,836 $0.861 $0.499 $0.462 $0.551 $0.382 $0.368 $0.399 $0.349
New York metropoli
.666 .791 .424 .980 1.028 .541 .502 .568 .426 .384 .398 .373
tan..............................
.499 .610 .362 .718 .736 .458 .423 .502 .366 .359 .402 .338
New England............ Other regions............. . .719 .803 .400 .903 .917 .515 .561 .669 .390 .389 .389 .390
Precious jewelry...............
New York metropoli
tan.......... ...................
New England— ..........
Other regions...............
Medium- and low-priced
jewelry_____ __________
New York metropoli
tan________ ________
New England..._____
Other regions________
Precious and mediumand low-priced jewelry. _
New York metropoli
tan______ ____ ____
New England....... .......
Other regions........ .......
.989
.531 1.098 1.116
.664
.676
.725
.493
.415
.416
.411
1.020 1.070
.689 .728
.918 .947
.948
.573 1.198 1.224
0) .801 .809
.493 1.042 1.054
.718
0)
0)
.723
.521
.651
.783
.517
.436
.448
0)
0)
0)
0)
.684
0)
0)
0)
.381
0)
0)
.483
.591
.366
.708
.736
.445
.421
.492
.371
.360
.395
.344
.506
.468
.541
.597
.578
.676
.401
.354
.382
.763
.683
.776
.823
.705
.799
.466
.427
.453
.407
.442
.500
.481
.562
.410
.358
.375
.367
.354
.401
.377
.398
.438
.362
.336
.379
.631
.707
.420
.803
.816
.553
.529
.612
.416
.392
.399
.382
.621
.595
.706
.705
.682
.743
.451
.405
.421
.830
.786
.809
.862
.794
.818
(i)
0)
0)
.494
.486
.649
.531
.576
.713
.449
.404
.411
.414
.388
.375
0)
.413
.421
.355
0)
.371
0)
1 Number o f workers insufficient to warrant computation of an average.
4
A n attempt to classify these establishments in one or the other of the above groups on
the basis of chief products proved to be impracticable because of the lack of adequate
information as to the relative output of the two classes of products.
199
JEWELRY INDUSTRY
T able
2 . — P ercentage d istribu tion o f je w e lr y w orkers b y average h o u rly ea rn in g s%
sex , and skilly 1 9 4 0
Skilled workers
All workers
Semiskilled
workers
Unskilled workers
Average hourly earning3
Fe Total Male Fe Total Male Fe Total Male Fe
Total Male male
male
male
male
0.2 - 0.2
12.2
4.5
3.2
1.3
11.3
3.9
11.4
7.3
2.6
6.1
9.5
9.8
12.3
11.7
10.6 14.6
8.6
6.0
7.9
4.3
5.3
2.9
0.3
18.9
4.8
17.6
15.0
9.1
9.3
11.1
7.2
3.7
1.2
.9
1.7
26.2
4.6
15.5
16.9
6.8
9.6
8.3
5.6
2.1
1.7
.5
2.8
20.0
3.3
7.2
15.8
6.0
11.9
10.2
10.7
5.0
4.3
1.3
1.0
29.9
5.3
20.1
17.5
7.2
8.3
7.2
2.7
.5
.2
.1
4.9
3.6
2.4
3.6
3.4
1.2
.5
.2
0)
.2
.1
.2
.1
.1
.3
.7
.2
.3
______
Total.......................... 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
100.0
598
1,063
Under 30.0 cents........ ........
0.4
Exactly 30.0 cents............... 10.7
30.1 and under 32.5 cents— 2.3
32.5 and under 35.0 cents.. 8.1
35.0 and under 37.5 cents.. 8.7
37.5 and under 40.0 cents.. 4.3
40.0 and under 42.5 cents.. 7.1
42.5 and under 47.5 cents.. 8.5
47.5 and under 52.5 cents._ 8.1
52.5 and under 57.5 cents.. 5.3
57.5 and under 62.5 cents.. 4.7
62.5 and under 67.5 cents.. 4.1
0.4
4.2
.8
2.2
4.7
1.7
5.8
7.2
9.3
6.6
6.7
6.1
0.5
21.0
4.7
17.5
15.2
8.3
9.3
10.5
6.4
3.1
1.3
1.0
67.5 and under 72.5 cents..
72.5 and under 77.5 cents..
77.5 and under 82.5 cents..
82.5 and under 92.5 cents..
92.5 and under 102.5 cents.
102.5 and under 112.5 cents.
112.5 and under 122.5 cents.
122.5 and under 132.5 cents.
132.5 and under 142.5 cents.
142.5 and under 152.5 cents.
152.5 and under 162.5 cents.
162.5 cents and over...
5.3
4.5
4.0
6.8
6.9
4. 5
3. 8
2.9
.5
.2
0)
.2
.2
1.9
(0
3.5
2.8
2.4
4.2
4. 3
2.8
2.4
1.8
1.2
1.0
.4
.9
1.6
.7
1.4
1
0)
1.2
.1
.5
1.3
.7
2.9
4.4
6.1
5.9
6.5
7.4
6.3
5.5
5.3
9.4
9.9
7.1
6.0
4. 7
2.9
2.6
1.1
2.2
1.0
(9
.2
1.0
.4
2.1
3.4
5.5
5.6
6.5
7.6
2.9
6.6
1.3
5.8
5.7
9.9 ” i .Y
2.1
10.4
2.1
7.4
6.4
5.0
3.1
2.8
1.2
2.4
Number of workers______ 9,628 5,913 3, 715 3,465 3,227
1 Less than
4.2
.8
4.2
6.3
5.5
13.9
18.1
15.1
8.8
7.1
5.9
.4
2.5
1.8
1.1
1.8
1.6
.6
.4
.3
.2
.1
.1
.1
.9
.6
.5
.3
.1
.2
0)
0)
238 4, 502 2,088 2,414 1,661
a tenth of 1 percent.
The wide dispersion o f earnings and absence o f any pronounced
central tendency in the data lead to the conclusion that other factors
besides differences in sex and skill are needed to account for the wage
structure o f the jewelry industry. Although the distribution o f
plant averages varies considerably among the three wage areas, this
difference is due chiefly to variations in the geographical distribution
o f the precious-jewelry plants and those making medium- and lowpriced products. F or example, nearly three-fifths o f the plants in the
New Y ork metropolitan region averaged 65 cents an hour or more
and over one-fifth showed averages o f 95 cents or more, whereas only
slightly more than one-tenth o f the New England establishments aver
aged 65 cents and over, and none had wage^ levels exceeding 95 cents.
This contrast is related to the fact that the precious-jewelry estab
lishments, which predominate in the New Y ork City area, show the
highest wage levels^ whereas the plants making medium- and lowpriced products, which are concentrated in the lower earnings inter
vals, make up most o f the coverage in the New England region. The
distribution o f plant averages for those establishments in the New
Y ork area which make medium- and low-priced jewelry compares
rather closely with that fo r the same class o f plants in the New E ng
land region. A similar relationship is also evident in the plant data
for the area outside o f the New England and New Y ork metropolitan
regions.
200
WAGES AND HOURS
The variations in hourly earnings by type o f product, as shown by
the plant average data^ are also evident in the distributions o f indi
vidual employees’ earnings. (See table 3.)
T a b l e 3 . — Percentage d istribution o f je w e lr y workers by average h ourly earnings and
typ e o f p rod u ct , 1 9 4 0
A verage h o u rly earnings
Precious
jewelry
Medium- and
low-priced
jewelry
Precious and
medium- and
low-priced
jewelry
Under 30.0 cents_______________________________________
Exactly 30.0 cents________________________________ ____
30.1 and under 32.5 cents_______________________________
32.5 and under 35.0 cents_______________________________
35.0 and under 37.5 cents_______________________________
37.5 and under 40.0 cents_______________________________
40.0 and under 42.5 cents_______________________________
42.5 and under 47.5 cents_______________________________
47.5 and under 52.5 cents_______________________________
52.5 and under 57.5 cents_______________________________
57.5 and under 62.5 cents_______________________________
62.5 and under 67.5 cents_______________________________
0.5
1.7
.6
.5
2.4
1.2
1.6
3.2
3.3
2.7
3.0
3.4
0.3
14.7
3.0
11.6
11.0
5.1
8.3
9.3
8.9
5.5
4.6
4.0
0.6
5.1
1.4
3.6
6.5
4.0
7.5
9.5
9.0
6.1
5.9
5.0
67.5 and under 72.5 cents_______________________________
72.5 and under 77.5 cents_____ _________________________
77.5 and under 82.5 cents__________________ ___________
82.5 and under 92.5 cents_______________________________
92.5 and under 102.5 cents_____________________________
102.5 and under 112.5 cents_____________________________
112.5 and under 122.5 cents_____________________________
122.5 and under 132.5 cents_____________________________
132.5 and under 142.5 cents_____________________________
142.5 and under 152.5 cents_____________________________
152.5 and under 162.5 cents_____________________________
162.5 cents and over.______ ___________ ______ _________
4.2
4.6
3.2
8.4
13.7
8.6
7.8
7.6
5.5
5.7
2.5
4.1
3.1
2.0
1.6
2.5
1.6
.9
1.0
.5
.2
.1
4.1
4.1
4.2
6.3
5.9
4.5
2.7
1.8
.9
.5
.2
.6
Total____________________________________________
100.0
100.0
100.0
Number ot workers-------------------------- ----------------------------
1, 392
6,104
2,132
0)
.2
1 Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
W eekly Hours and Earnings
The actual workweek in the industry as a whole averaged 37.8
hours at the time o f the survey. Hours o f work averaged 35.7 a
week in precious-jewelry plants, as compared with 37.8 in establish
ments making medium- and low-priced articles, and 39.4 in plants
producing both types.
W eekly earnings o f all workers covered by the survey averaged
$21.96 in February 1940. Male wage earners averaged $26.90, as
compared with $14.09 for females. The highest weekly earnings
were received by skilled males, who averaged $32.58. The unskilled
females had the lowest earnings, averaging $13.01 a week. An
outstanding feature o f the weekly wage picture is the wide variation
in earnings o f men, as compared with women, among the three skill
groups. The average fo r skilled male workers exceeded that o f the
semiskilled males by $11.40. F or the women, the difference amounted
to only $4.43. Similarly, unskilled men received $4.98 less than
semiskilled men, whereas, the unskilled women averaged but $1.11
less than the average for semiskilled women.
The distribution o f weekly earnings is shown in table 4.
201
JUTE-BAGGING INDUSTRY
T
able
4.
— P ercen tage d istribu tion o f je w e lr y w orkers b y w eek ly ea rn in g s, sex , a nd
sk ill , 1 9 4 0
All workers
Skilled workers
Semiskilled
workers
Unskilled workers
Weekly earnings
Fe Total Male Fe Total Male Fe Total Male Fe
Total Male male
male
male
male
Under $5.......................... .
$5 and under $10............ .
$10 and under $15________
$15 and under $20________
$20 and under $25________
$25 and under $30________
$30 and under $35________
$35 and under $40________
$40 and under $45________
$45 and under $50________
$50 and under $55________
$55 and over.. . . . .
2.0
6.3
27.1
20.4
13.7
8.7
6.8
5.0
3.9
2.4
1.7
2.0
1.2
3.3
12.5
16.6
17.9
13.2
11.0
8.1
6.3
3.8
2.8
3.3
3.1
11.1
50.0
26.6
7.0
1.6
.3
.1
.1
.1
(>)
0.7
2.3
6.2
10.3
14.2
15.1
13.2
12.1
9.8
6.2
4.6
5.3
0.7
2.0
5.1
8.3
13.7
15.7
14.0
12.9
10.4
6.7
4.9
5.6
1.3
5.0
21.4
37.5
20.6
9.2
2.5
1.3
.4
.4
.4
2.6
7.9
33.8
27.0
14.9
6.2
4.4
1.5
.9
.3
.2
.3
1.8
4.1
17.5
25.8
23.4
11.6
9.2
3.1
1.8
.6
.4
.7
Total.____ ________ 100.0 100. 0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of workers______ 9,628 5,913 3, 715 3,465 3, 227
3.3
11.1
48.2
28.1
7.5
1.5
.2
2.8
10.5
51.4
23.8
9.2
1.9
.3
.1
2.2
7.5
35.1
28.4
20.6
5.2
3.2
12.2
60.7
21.2
2.7
.8
.2
0)
0)
100.0
238 4,502 2,088 2,414
100.0 100.0
1,661
598
100.0
1,063
Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
########
Jute^Bagging Industry—Hourly Earnings, 19401
A t the request o f the W age and Hour Division, the Bureau o f Labor
Statistics made a survey o f average hourly earnings in the jute cotton
bagging industry.
The survey was limited to the manufacture o f jute cotton-bale
coverings, including both the spinning and weaving o f the jute yarns.
The operations covered also include the repairing o f used bagging.
The survey did not include the manufacture o f jute carpet yarns or
jute fabrics fo r purposes other than cotton-bale coverings. Neither
did it include jute cordage and twine, which was covered in a
separate study o f the cordage and twine industry.
A ccording to information available at the time o f the survey,
there were 12 mills in the United States producing either new or
reworked cotton bagging; all o f these were in the cotton-growing
States. The Bureau was able to study only 9 mills, however, as one
company, controlling 3 mills, refused to furnish the information
requested. The number o f wage earners scheduled totaled 1,116.
During the period covered by the study, September 1940, hourly
earnings o f the wage earners averaged 33.8 cents.2 Over one-half
(56.7 percent) o f the workers received exactly 32.5 cents, the legal
minimum at the time o f the survey, while 85.9 percent averaged
under 35 cents an hour. Only 5.2 percent o f the employees averaged
over 40 cents an hour.
Detailed data cannot be presented for this industry, because to do
so would reveal plant identities.
1 From Monthly Labor Review for June 1941.
3
The wage data presented in this article include only the earnings at regular rates of pay.
Had the extra overtime earnings been included, the industry average would have been
increased by only four-tenths of a cent.
202
WAGES AND HOURS
Knit-Goods Industries (Other Than Hosiery)—Hours
and Earnings, 1937 and 19381
The Bureau o f Labor Statistics 1938 survey o f earnings and hours
in the knit-goods industries included establishments manufacturing
the follow ing products: Hosiery (full-fashioned and seamless),2
knitted underwear, knitted outerwear, knitted cloth, and knitted
gloves and mittens. A common characteristic o f these industries is
that all o f their establishments employ knitting machines in the man
ufacturing operations. The, yarns consumed are made o f cotton,
rayon, silk, wool, or other fibers, or o f any mixture o f fibers. This
report covers knitted underwear, outerwear, cloth, gloves and mittens.
Although these four industries resemble each other in some respects,
each is essentially a distinct entity, possessing special characteristics
that necessitate a separate treatment o f the data.
The knitted-underwear and the knitted-outerwear mills both knit
the fabrics and make them up into garments. The knitted-cloth
mills, however, knit flat or tubular fabrics for sale to cutting and
sewing establishments, which have no knitting equipment. The cloth
knitting mills produce fabrics for outerwear, underwear,- and gloves
and mittens.
The production o f knitted gloves and mittens requires a certain
amount o f specialized equipment, and is influenced by different factors
o f style and seasonal demand from those affecting the other knit-goods
industries.
The survey o f the knit-goods industries was made on the basis o f
a representative sample, which was selected with great care to assure
adequate coverage with respect to all significant characteristics o f the
various branches, including geographical distribution, size o f estab
lishment,3 size o f community, product, corporate affiliation, and
unionization.
The data collected included annual earnings for the calendar year
1937, wherever available, for employees who were on the plant’s pay
roll at the time o f the survey.
F or most o f the plants in the survey, the information covered a
pay-roll period in August or September 1938. The monthly indexes
o f employment in knit-goods mills, as compiled by the Bureau’s D i
vision o f Employment Statistics, indicate that the general level o f
activity during that period was fairly normal as compared with the
year as a whole.
K nitted U nderwear
Based on the definition o f the Census o f Manufactures, the knittedunderwear industry included 179 establishments in 1937, with 39,923
wage earners (average for the year). The coverage o f the survey
includes 61 establishments and 12,545 wage earners.
A n analysis o f the sample shows that the knitted-underwear industry
is widely distributed geographically. V ery little production is found
west o f the Mississippi Biver, however, except in the State o f Minne
sota. New Y ork is the leading State, including 32.3 percent o f the
1 Abstract of articles by H. E. Riley and J. Perlman, of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, in
the Monthly Labor Review for November 1939 and February 1940.
2 See p. 162 for data on the hosiery industry.
3,No establishment with fewer than 10 wage earners was included in the survey.
KNIT-GOODS INDUSTRIES (OTHER THAN HOSIERY)
203
workers covered by the survey. Pennsylvania ranks second in im
portance, with 17.4 percent o f the wage earners. A substantial pro
portion o f the industry is located in the Southern States, 23.9 percent
o f the employees being found in that region.
In common with other textile industries, underwear manufacturing
has been shifting into the Southern States in recent years.
The knitted-underwear industry contains relatively few very small
plants. O f the 61 establishments included in the survey, 17 with 6.1
percent o f the workers scheduled had under 100 employees, 13 with
14.4 percent o f the wage earners had 101 to 250, 21 with 47.6 percent
o f the workers had 251 to 500, and 10 with 31.9 percent of the wage
earners had over 500 employees.
Relatively few plants in the industry were found in the largest
metropolitan areas. O f the 49 establishments covered in the Northern
States, 11 plants, with 20.1 percent o f the employees scheduled in that
territory, were located in metropolitan centers having a population
o f about 750,000 and over. The southern sample showed 6 establish
ments, with 56.2 percent o f the workers scheduled in that area, located
in places o f 75,000 to 175,000, while 6 plants, with 43.8 percent o f the
wage earners, were found in communities o f under 25,000.
Although the practice o f collective bargaining between employers
and employees was found in only 6 o f the 61 establishments included,
the number o f workers affected amounted to about one-sixth o f the
total scheduled. A ll o f the union plants in the sample were located
in Northern States.
Most o f the knitted underwear produced in the United States is
made by first knitting a flat or tubular cloth, which is then marked
according to a pattern and cut up into the garment parts. The parts
are assembled, hemmed, and trimmed to form the completed article.
These are largely sewing-machine operations.
Four-fifths (80.3 percent) o f the employees were classed as semi
skilled, one-eighth (11.9 percent) as skilled, and only 7.8 percent as
unskilled. Over four-fifths (86.5 percent) o f the semiskilled workers
were women. On the other hand, males predominated in the skilled
occupations, amounting to more than two-thirds (69.6 percent) o f the
total in this group.
The proportions o f males and females were
about equal among the unskilled workers.
Average*Hourly Earnings
A large majority o f the workers are paid on a straight piece-rate
basis.
O f the 12,545 workers included, 3,139 (25.0 percent) were
paid on a time basis, 6,750 (53.8 percent) received straight piece rates,
and 2,656 (21.2 percent) were subject to production-bonus systems.
Few establishments followed a policy o f paying extra rates for over
time work. In 10 establishments, workers on extra shifts received
higher rates than those employed on regular daytime operation.4 These
additional payments for extra-shift operation had virtually no effect
on the averages, however, as the number o f employees affected amounted
to less than 1 percent o f the total scheduled.
According to table 1, the hourly earnings o f all workers averaged
39.9 cents in August and September 1938.
4
There were 21 additional plants with extra-shift operation that did not pay higher
rates to the workers on the extra shifts
505364 O - 43 = 14
204
WAGES AND HOURS
able
1. —A verag e h ou rly ea rn in gs in k n itted-und erw ear
___________________ S ep tem ber 1 9 8 8 , b y wage area, skill, and
T
Skilled workers
All workers
in d u s tr y f A u g u s t and
sex ____________________
Semiskilled
workers
Unskilled workers
Wage area
Fe T otal Male Fe T otal Male Fe T o ta l Male Fe
T ota l Male male
male
male
male
Average hourly earnings
$0.489 $0,368 $0,549 $0.603 $0.417 $0,383 $0.449 $0.371 $0.320 $0.366 $0. 266
United States.................
Northern wage a r e a ..___
N ew England States1
and N ew York 3___
Pennsylvania............ .
Mid dle Western
States 3......................
Southern wage area «_____
.422
.528
.386
.581
.642
.437
.404
.488
.390
.337
.395
.274
.423
.379
.520
.503
.383
.352
.594
.515
.660
.548
.431
.396
.402
.372
.481
.475
.384
.363
.348
.262
.378
.371
.298
.233
.475
.330
.582
.381
.442
.309
.613
.445
.723
.481
.470
.327
.454
.319
.523
.350
.442
.313
.430
.271
.467
.293
.348
.239
456 10,067 1, 356 8, 711
979
503
476
990 6,665
733
362
371
677 3, 657
124 1,613
412
201
243
39
169
162
189 1, 395
366 2.046
120
246
80
141
40
10 5
Number of workers
United States...................... 12,545 2,902 9,643 1,499 1,043
789
371 7,655
Northern wage area.......... 9,548 2,141 7, 407 1,160
N ew England States1
657
457
200 4, 334
and New York 3___ 5, 403 1, 377 4,026
352 1,830
244
189
55 1, 737
Pennsylvania-............. 2,182
Mid dle Western
116 1,584
412 1, 551
259
143
States 3........ .............. 1,963
254
85 2,412
761 2,236
339
Southern wage area *_____ 2,997
1 Includes Connecticut, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Vermont.
3 Includes New Jersey.
3 Includes Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, and Wisconsin.
* Includes Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia.
The distribution for all workers shows a well-defined central tend
ency. In terms o f 5-cent class intervals, the greatest concentration
(22.0 percent) occurs between 35 and 40 cents an hour. (See table 2.)
T
able
________
2 . — Percentage d istribution o f workers in k nitted -und erw ear in d u stry by
average h o u rly ea rn in g s, sk ill, and s e x , A u g u s t and Sep tem ber 1 9 3 8 ________
All workers
Average hourly earnings
(in cents)
Skilled workers
Semiskilled
workers
Unskilled workers
Fe Total Male Fe Total Male Fe Total Male Fe
Total Male male
male
male
male
Under 17.5............................ 0.8
17.5 and under 20.0
__ 1.2
2.3
20.0 and under 22.5........ .
22.5 and under 25.0............ 2.4
5.4
25.0 and under 27.5_______
27.5 and under 30.0............
6.8
30.0 and under 32.5............
9.2
7.5
32.5 and under 35.0............
35.0 and under 37.5............. 12.2
37.5 and under 40.0............
9.8
40.0 and under 42.5_______
8.6
42.5 and under 47.5............. 12.8
0.8
.2
1.0
.7
2.2
1.9
6.5
4.9
8.6
6.2
8.8
12.5
47.5 and under 52.5.............
52.5 and under 57.5...........
57.5 and under 62.5...........
62.5 and under 67.5.............
67.5 and under 72.5.............
72.5 and under 77.5
___
77.5 and under 82.5.............
82.5 and under 87.5_______
87.5 and under 92.5
__
92.5 and under 100.0______
100.0 and under 110.0
110.0 and under 120.0
120.0 and over _________
10.5
9.8
5.8
5.2
3.7
3.3
2.0
1.2
1.7
.6
.8
.6
.5
8.5
4.8
2.4
1.6
1.0
.8
.5
.3
.4
.2
.2
.2
.1
0.3
.l
.7
.4
1.4
1.4
2.1
4.0
5.6
7.4
7.9
12.0
0.3
.l
.4
.1
.5
.6
1.2
2.4
3.3
3.0
6.7
10.9
7.9 10.6
3.3
9.8
1.3
7.1
. 5 \ 7.2
.2
4.6
.1
4.9
0) 2.8
0) 2.1
0) 2.9
(0 1.1
1. 5
1. 2
0)
.9
9.9
11.9
8.2
9.9
6.2
6.8
3.9
2.9
4.1
1.6
2.1
1. 7
1.3
0.8
1. 5
2.7
2.9
6.3
8.2
10.0
8.3
13.3
11.0
8.6
13.1
0.2
1.3
1.1
3.5
3.3
4.4
7.7
11.0
17.5
10.5
14.8
12.5
5.0
4.4
1.1
.9
.4
.2
.2
0.7
.9
1.9
2.5
5.3
7.7
10.0
8.0
13.0
10.3
9.0
13.8
1.0
.1
.6
.7
2.0
2.1
8.3
5.6
9.7
6.7
9.9
15.4
0.7
1.0
2.1
2.8
5.8
8.5
10.3
8.4
13.5
10.9
8.9
13.5
2.8
6. 3
9.4
4.3
12.5
5.7
11.4
7.2
13.3
8.0
6.0
5.6
8.6
4.3
1.8
.9
.6
.3
.2
.1
.1
11.8
10.6
5.4
3.2
2.9
1.8
1. 3
.4
.4
.1
8.1
3.4
1.3
.5
.2
.1
4.5
1.5
.8
.4
.3
0)
0)
1.4
.6
3.4
1.8.
6.4
3.8
12.9
8.2
16.5
11.7
10.1
8.9
8.5
.2
3.0
1.6
.6 ’ “ ".’ 2
.6
0)
0)
0)
0)
0)
Total........................ 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of workers........... 12,545 2,902 9,643 1,499 1,043
1 Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
4.2
12.4
15.8
6.9
18.8
7.8
9.9
6.1
9.9
4.0
1.7
2.1
456 10,067 1,356 8,711
979
503
100.0
476
KNIT-GOODS INDUSTRIES (OTHER THAN HOSIERY)
205
Substantially higher hourly earnings are found in the northern
than in the southern wage region for every skill and sex group.
Differences in hourly earnings are also found within the northern
wage area, although the variations are less pronounced than shown
between the northern and southern wage regions as a whole. The
average hourly earnings o f all workers in the New England States
and New Y ork amounted to 42.3 cents, which is 4.4 cents higher than
the average (37.9 cents) for Pennsylvania and 5.2 cents lower than
the average (47.5 cents) for the Middle Western States. The same
order prevails for each o f the skill and sex groups.
In the northern wage area, the average hourly earnings o f males
exceeded those o f females by 14.2 cents. The difference amounted to
20.5 cents for skilled, 9.8 cents for semiskilled, and 12.1 cents for
unskilled workers. Semiskilled females, who constituted over iwothirds o f the total labor force, averaged 39.0 cents. The hourly
earnings o f males in the southern wage region averaged 38.1 cents,
which is 7.2 cents higher than the average for females.
Occupational differences.— According to table 3, which presents
occupational averages for the country as a whole, working foremen
had the highest hourly earnings in the knitted-underwear industry,
amounting to 79.0 cents.
T
a b l e 3 .—
A verage earnings and hours in knitted-und erw ear in d u s try , b y skilly sex y
•and o ccu p ation , A u g u st and Sep tem ber 1 9 3 8
Skill, sex, and occupation
Number
of work
ers
Average
hourly
earnings
Average
weekly
hours
61
172
102
349
43
166
19
21
110
$0.484
.525
.790
.514
.547
.715
.750
.681
.654
40.4
39.7
44.6
37.5
37.7
42. 3
36.0
44.8
45.0
$19.52
20.83
35. 22
19.31
20. 61
30. 23
26.98
30.51
29.41
162
38
41
114
10
48
41
2
.365
.400
.526
.415
0)
.408
.473
0)
35.6
35.9
41.9
37.2
0)
37.2
38.2
0)
12.99
14. 39
22.02
15.45
0)
15. 20
18.08
0)
39
144
51
64
112
138
33
199
154
43
87
57
34
41
70
90
.376
.480
.427
.434
.509
.427
.428
.420
.434
.420
.558
.432
.442
.460
.415
.441
40.3
43.3
41.7
52.9
38.2
39.9
35.0
41.1
39.5
42.6
42.9
39.8
30.2
39.2
36.0
43.9
15.15
20.80
17.80
22.99
19.44
17. 06
14.98
17.28
17.13
17.91
23.95
17.20
13. 37
18.01
14.97
19.32
Average
weekly
earnings
S killed w o r k e r s
Males:
Cutters, hand 8______ ____________________________________
Cutters, machine 1________________________________________
Foremen, working 4________________ _____________________
Knitters, circular3_____ ________________________ - ______
Knitters, fla t3______ _____________________________________
Machine fixers 4 _ _ _ . _ . ___ _________________ . . - ____
Miscellaneous skilled workers, knitting department___ __
Miscellaneous skilled workers, direct, other_________ _____
Miscellaneous skilled workers, indirect____________________
Females:
Cutters, hand 3___________________________________________
Cutters, machine 3________________ _______ _____________
Forewomen, working 4____________________________________
Knitters, circular 8____________________________ __________
Knitters, fla t3_____ ______________________________________
Loopers 8_________________________________________________
Miscellaneous skilled workers, knitting department_______
Miscellaneous skilled workers, direct, other_____________
S em isk ille d w o rk ers
Males:
Brush-machine operators8________________________________
Clerks, fa ctory4___________________________________________
Dye-machine operators 4__________________________________
Firem en___________________ _____________________ _______
L ayers-up 8_______ ______________________________________
M achine operators, miscellaneous4________________________
Markers, stampers, and labelers 8_________________________
Packers 4________________________________________ ___ __ _.
Steamers and pressers4____________________ ________ _____
Stock handlers 4___________________________________________
Subforemen, working 4______________________ _____________
Washer and bleacher tenders 3____________________________
W inders___________ _______________________ _____ ________
Miscellaneous semiskilled workers, knitting department___
Miscellaneous semiskilled workers, direct, other___________
Miscellaneous semiskilled workers, indirect___ _________
See fo o tn o te s a t end o f table.
206
T able 3.—
WAGES AND HOURS
A v era g e ea rn in g s and hours in knitted -u n d erw ea r in d u s tr y , b y skilly sex,
and o ccu p a tion , A u g u s t and S ep tem b er 1 9 3 8 — Continued
Skill, sex, and occupation
S e m isk ille d w o r k e r s— Continued
Females:
Buttonhole-machine operators *_______ ____ ________
Button sewing-machine operators 2...................................
Clerks, factory 4........................................... ..................
Edgers *_______________ _________ ___________
Finishers, miscellaneous 3_________ ____ ______ ____
Folders, wrappers, and boxers 3........ ..............................
Hemmers 3_______________________________ ____
Inspectors and examiners 4............ _................................
Ironers, hand 3___...... ...................................... ..............
Layers-up 3.............. ................ .................. ..................
Machine operators, miscellaneous 4................ ..................
Markers, stampers, and labelers 3_____ ____ ________
Menders, hand 3................................... ........................
Beinforcers 3................... ............... ................... ...........
Seamers3...................... ......................... ....................__
Steamers and pressers 4.............. ..................... ...............
Subforewomen, working 4..................... ...........................
Tape stringers 3...... .................................. ....................
Trimmers, hand 3...... ..... .............. ............... ................
Winders3________________ ___ ________________
Miscellaneous semiskilled workers, knitting department__
Miscellaneous semiskilled workers, direct, other....... ........
Number Average Average Average
of work hourly weekly weekly
ers
earnings hours earnings
208
226
74
699
237
874
265
720
57
133
77
128
144
434
3,617
130
78
66
180
236
24
204
$0.372
.353
.367
.370
.387
.361
.364
.345
.379
.379
.357
.372
.358
.393
.371
.379
.436
.361
.348
.430
.387
.363
31.3
32.9
40.7
34.9
35.3
36.5
35.9
33.3
31.4
40.5
35.8
33.3
36.3
31.0
35.4
34.9
41.5
30.2
33.7
29.6
38.6
34.6
75
26
85
204
48
65
.341
.282
.362
.370
.418
.381
42.8
38.2
49.0
38.6
43.7
43.2
14.59
10. 77
17.74
14.26
18.28
16.44
27
314
131
4
.294
.237
.329
40.0
37.9
38.1
11.77
8.96
12.53
'
$11.64
11.60
14.93
12.92
13.67
13.18
13.06
11.49
11.92
15.37
12.78
12.41
13.00
12.18
13.14
13.24
18.09
10.91
11.72
12.73
14.96
12.56
U n sk ille d w o r k e r s
Males:
Janitors and cleaners......................................................
Learners and apprentices *___ ___ ___ _____ _______
Watchmen.......................... .............................. .............
Work distributors4........ ................................... ............
Miscellaneous unskilled workers, direct_________ ____
Miscellaneous unskilled workers, indirect..... ...................
Females:
Janitresses and cleaners.__________ _______________
Learners and apprentices 4................................ ............
Work distributors 4___________ ________________
Miscellaneous unskilled workers, indirect_____________
(9
(9
(9
1Not a sufficient number of workers to permit the presentation of an average.
3Sewing-department occupation.
3Knitting-department occupation.
*Employees in this group may work in both sewing and knitting departments.
Annual Earnings, 1937
Table 4 presents data on average annual earnings o f 8,572 workers
in 50 establishments in the knitted-underwear industry, classified
according to region, skill, and sex. This table reveals that the
average annual earnings o f males were substantially higher than
those o f females. The difference in favor o f the males was greatest
fo r the skilled and least for the unskilled employees. F or example,
among the full-time workers in the country as a whole, the average
annual earnings o f males exceeded those o f females by $621 in the
skilled, $434 in the semiskilled, and $257 in the unskilled group.
F or each skill group, moreover, the difference was greater in the
North than in the South.
I t should be pointed out that the annual figures cover only the
total earnings received and number o f pay-roll periods worked in
1937 by each wage earner in the plant in which he was employed
during September 1938, when the survey was made. The annual
data, therefore, do not include any earnings received by an individual
from other establishments in which he may have worked during
1937. Moreover, the report includes data covering only those wage
20 7
KNIT-GOODS INDUSTRIES (OTHER THAN HOSIERY)
earners who were employed during 1937 by the establishments sur
veyed and were still on the pay rolls o f the same plant in 1938. I f
all employees working in 1937 had been included, however, the results
probably would not differ materially from those shown in this report.
T able 4 . — A verag e
a nnual earnings o f k n itted-u n d erw ear workerSj 1 9 3 7 , b y wage
area , skill , and sex
Average annual earnings of employees whose work extended over—
52 weeks
Skill and region
39 weeks and over
26 weeks and over
A ny part of the year
Fe T otal M a les Fe T o ta l M a le s Fe T o ta l
Fe
T o ta l M a les males
M a le s males
males
males
United States............... $888 $1,234
Skilled___________ 1,348 1,464
Semiskilled---------- 768 1,105
Unskilled...............
944
869
Northern wage area... 966
Skilled.................... 1,423
Semiskilled______
833
Unskilled...............
935
Southern wage area ...
731
Skilled.................. . 1,143
Sem iskilled.......... 651
Unskilled...............
708
1,320
1,551
1,202
1,003
1,005
1,233
858
755
$681 $760 $1,082
843 1,109 1,267
999
671
702
837
757
687
722
787
891 1,144
709
725
717
795
611
680
993
683
607
633
645
671
1,150
1,333
1,065
895
908
1,085
832
712
$659 $731 $1,049
752 1,077 1,234
655
675
966
615
731
808
679
756
774 1,111
674
696
625
763
599
658
632
965
611
598
590
657
1,111
1,292
1,027
862
887
1,070.
810
692
$635 $701 $1,015
731 1,046 1,208
630
646
933
595
685
770
653
721
756 1,072
664
648
600
701
579
640
957
601
578
593
584
645
1,069
1,260
985
809
871
1,058
793
679
$607
699
603
545
621
717
617
536
561
601
559
574
Knitted Outerwear
A s defined by the Census o f Manufactures, the knitted-outerwear
industry in 1937 included 669 plants having a product valued at
$5,000 or more. The average number o f wage earners for the year
was 26,139. The sample in this survey covered 105 establishments
and 7,230 wage earners. Although the manufacture o f knitted outer
wear is heavily concentrated in the M iddle Atlantic States, significant
portions o f the industry are found in other parts o f the country. In
terms o f the survey’s coverage, New Y ork is the leading State, includ
ing 20.2 percent o f the total workers. Pennsylvania ranks second
with 15.4 percent o f all wage earners, and Massachusetts is next with
15.1 percent. Other important States are Ohio, Wisconsin, and Cali
fornia. Less than 10 percent o f the employees were found in the
South.a
Most o f the establishments in the knitted-outerwear industry are
small, with very few employing over 500 workers. Another out
standing feature o f the industry is the marked concentration o f estab
lishments in the large metropolitan centers, particularly in New Y ork
City.
Judged on the basis o f the survey’s coverage, labor organization is
important, although not dominant, in the industry.
Industrial home work is found in the knitted-outerwear industry.
Because o f the almost complete absence o f records as to the hours o f
work and production o f individual home workers, however, it was not
possible to include these employees within the scope o f the survey.
aAmong the other States included in the survey are Connecticut, Illinois, Michigan, Mis
sissippi, New Jersey, North Carolina, Oregon, Rhode Island, Utah, Virginia, and Wash
ington.
208
WAGES AND HOURS
The equipment used in the manufacture o f knitted outerwear ineludes circular and flat knitting machines, ribbers, brushers, calenders,
pressers, cutters, and several types o f sewing macnines, some o f which
are highly specialized. In general, two methods o f production are
employed. Certain garments, such as heavy sweaters and bathing
suits, are usually made on flat knitting machines, which shape the
articles during the knitting process by means o f various controlling
devices. Polo shirts, light sweaters, and suits and dresses, on the
other hand, are commonly made o f tubular or flat knit cloth, which is
marked and cut according to a pattern, the parts thus produced being
sewed together to form a garment.
These manufacturing processes require a large number o f skilled
workers. A ccording to table 5, 62.9 percent o f the 7,230 wage earners
included in the survey were classed as skilled* On the other hand, the
number o f unskilled workers amounted to only 4.8 percent o f the total.
T able 5.—
A verage
hourly earnings in knitted-outerw ear
S ep tem ber 1 9 3 8 , b y skill and sex
in d u s tr y , A u g u s t
Workers
Skill and sex
N um ber
Percent
and
Average
hourly
earnings
All workers...................................................... ............ ............
M ales................. ................................................................
Females...................... .....................................................
7,230
1,778
5,452
100.0
24.6
75.4
$0.458
.622
.398
Skilled workers................. ... ........................... .................
Males__________________________ __________________
Females_____ __________________ ________________
Semiskilled and unskilled w orkers......................................
Males . ____________ __________ ____ ____________
Females.............................................................. ..............
4,549
1,098
3,451
2,681
680
2, 001
62.9
15. 2
47.7
37.1
9.4
27.7
.502
. 741
.418
.382
.435
.362
Average Hourly Earnings
The straight piece-rate method o f wage payment is used extensively
in the knitted-outerwear industry. Only 3 establishments had pro
duction-bonus systems, which covered 390 workers, or 5.4 percent
o f the total included in the survey. Piece rates and productionbonus plans commonly apply to the important direct occupations,
such as the knitters, cutters, and various sewing-machine operators.
At the time o f the survey, a m ajority o f the establishments covered
paid only the regular rates fo r overtime work.5 O f the 72 nonunion
plants, 58 paid the regular rates for overtime. Am ong the remain
ing 14 nonunion establishments, 3 paid time and a h a lf and 4 time
and a third for overtime. A m ong the 33 trade-union establishments,
8 paid the regular rates, 6 time and a half, 7 time and a third, and 2
time and a fourth for overtime. In nine plants, hourly workers
received overtime rates o f time and a third, while the piece workers
were paid only the regular rate. Overtime rates for both hourly
and piece-rate emplo}7ees in one establishment varied from time and
a third to time and a half, depending upon the amount o f overtime
worked.
5
Three establishments paid higher rates for extra-shift operation, but the number of
workers involved was negligible.
209
KNIT-GOODS INDUSTRIES (OTHER THAN HOSIERY)
The hourly earnings o f all workers included in the survey averaged
45.8 cents in August and September 1938. (See table 5.) The
hourly earnings o f the individual employees, however, varied con
siderably, according to the distribution in table 6. F or example,
the earnings o f all but 3.1 percent o f the wage earners covered a
spread from 17.5 cents to $1.20 an hour.
Vaviations by sex and skill.— The average hourly earnings for
all male employees was 62.2 cents, which may be compared with only
39.8 cents for all females, a difference o f 22.4 cents.
Nearly two-thirds (65.2 percent) o f the males, as compared with
one-fourth (24.5 percent) o f the females, received 47.5 cents or more
an hour.
T able
6 .— Percentage distribution of workers in knitted-outerwear industry by
average hourly earnings, skill, and sex, August and September 1988
All workers
Skilled workers
Semiskilled and
unskilled workers
Average hourly earnings
Fe Total Males Fe Total
Fe
Total Males males
Males males
males
Under 17.5 cents.............................. _
17.5 and under 20.0 cents----------------20.0 and under 22.5 cents___________
22.5 and under 25.0 cents___________
25.0 and under 27.5 cents___________
27.5 and under 30.0 cents............... .
30.0 and under 32.5 cents___________
32.5 and under 35.0 cents....................
35.0 and under 37.5 cents___________
37.5 and under 40.0 cents___________
40.0 and under 42.5 cents___________
42.5 and under 47.5 cents___________
1.8
2.3
2.8
2.7
5.3
5.9
6.5
5.4
7.7
6.2
6.7
12.2
0.3
.6
1.8
1.4
2.6
1.7
3.1
3.4
4.6
2.8
3.3
9.2
2.3
2.9
3.2
3.1
6.2
7.3
7.6
6.1
8.6
7.3
7.9
13.0
1.3
1.8
2.0
1.9
4.0
5.5
5.6
4.5
6.6
6.0
6.4
12.3
0.1
.5
.5
.6
.5
1.4
1.5
2.0
1.6
1.5
6.1
1.7
2.4
2.5
2.4
5.1
7.1
7.0
5.5
8.1
7.4
7.9
14.1
2.6
3.1
4.2
4.0
7.5
6.7
8.1
7.0
9.4
6.5
7.3
12.0
0.9
1.3
3.8
2.9
5.9
3.7
6.0
6.5
8.8
4.7
6.0
14.4
3.2
3.7
4.3
4.4
8.1
7.8
8.8
7.2
9.7
7.0
7.8
11.2
47.5 and under 52.5 cents___________
52.5 and under 57.5 cents___________
57.5 and under 62.5 cents___________
62.5 and under 67.5 cents___________
67.5 and under 72.5 cents___________
72.5 and under 77.5 cents.. _ . . . . . .
77.5 and under 82.5 cents. _________
82.5 and under 87.5 cents___________
87.5 and under 92.5 cents___________
92.5 and under 100.0 cents__________
100.0 and under 110.0 cents_________
110.0 and under 120.0 cents_________
120.0 cents and over_______________
8.5
5.8
3.9
2.9
2.7
2.3
1.5
1.5
.8
1.1
1.4
.8
1.3
8.5
7.1
6.4
4.9
4.9
6.0
4.7
3.9
2.5
3.7
5.1
2.7
4.8
8.3
5.4
3. 1
2.3
2.0
1.2
.5
.6
.3
.3
.2
.2
.1
8.9
6.4
4.6
3.4
3.4
3.1
1.9
2.1
1.2
1.7
2.2
1.2
2.0
8.3
7.5
6.6
5.6
6.3
8.1
5.9
6.0
3.7
5.6
8.1
4.3
7.7
9.1
6.0
3.9
2.7
2.4
1.5
.7
.9
.4
.4
.3
.3
.2
7.4
4.8
2.9
2.2
1.7
1.0
.7
.3
.2
.21
.1
.1
(0
9.1
6.5
5.9
3.8
2.6
2.5
2.6
.6
.6
.6
.1
.1
.1
6.9
4.3
1.8
1.6
1.3
.5
.1
.2
.1
(0
0)
0)
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
5,452
4, 549
1,098
3,451
2,681
T o ta l...____________ ________
100.0 100.0
Number of workers________________ 7, 230
1,778
680
100.0
2,001
1 Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
Occupational differences.— Table 7 shows average hourly earnings
in the knitted-outerwear industry for the principal occupational
classes.
The most important occupations numerically among the skilled
males were the circular and flat knitters, who averaged 64.1 and 65.9
cents an hour, respectively. W ith one important exception, namely,
hand cutters, these were the lowest occupational averages shown for
skilled males. Am ong skilled women, seamers were by far the most
important occupation numerically, comprising over one-half o f all
skilled females and over one-fourth o f the total labor force. The
average fo r this class was 41.8 cents an hour.
210
T
able
WAGES AND HOURS
7 . — Average
earnings and hours in knitted-outerwear industry, August and
September 1988, by skill, sex, and occupation
Skill, sex, and occupation
Number
of work
ers
Average
hourly
earnings
Average
weekly
hours
51
113
87
237
210
89
119
88
48
25
22
$0.565
.714
.971
. 641
.659
.904
.765
.964
.717
.849
.639
42.6
40.0
42.2
44.7
42.6
43.5
39.9
39.2
33.9
39.5
43.3
$24.09
28.55
40.94
28.66
28.06
39.36
30.56
37.85
24.30
33.67
27.66
76
224
50
143
80
151
338
92
14
112
186
1,943
18
24
.400
.395
.440
.423
.515
.441
.368
.363
0)
.518
.413
.418
0)
.588
40.7
40.4
40.3
38.7
43.2
34.8
37.6
40.9
0)
36.9
38.5
37.3
0)
42.5
16.28
15.98
17.71
16.38
22.24
15.35
13.84
14.85
(0
19.10
15.87
15.60
0)
24.97
77
59
77
155
18
32
62
23
.557
.460
.395
.467
0)
.409
.486
.455
43.3
41.9
45.9
41.0
0)
43.4
40. 6
48.0
24.12
19.27
18.14
19.11
0)
17.76
19.71
21.84
51
35
68
304
42
54
475
57
209
216
36
284
.378
.403
.421
.355
.362
.314
.363
.346
.328
.426
.413
.378
37.0
40.1
35.6
38.8
38.0
40.0
36.3
42. 2
35.8
37.1
41.1
39.0
13.99
16.16
14.99
13.80
13.74
12.57
13.15
14.58
11.74
15.82
17.00
14. 75
37
52
88
.344
.358
.349
43.3
41.1
46.0
14.89
14.74
16.05
115
48
7
.233
.361
0)
37.5
34.9
0)
8.74
12.59
0)
Average
weekly
earnings
Skilled workers
Males:
Cutters, hand *
Cutters) machine *
Foremen, working 4
Knitters,’circular3
_
_
........................................ ......... .
______ . ........... .......... ..............
.... ................. ..................... __
______ __________ ________ ____
Prossers, garment *
___ __________________________ ____
Seamers3______________________________________ _______ __
Miscellaneous skilled workers, knitting department.............
Miscellaneous skilled workers, direct______________________
Misnp.iianenns skilled workers, indirect____________________
Females:
Putftenhnle-mftehiue operators3
....... _
Cutters, hand3____________________________ _____ _____ __
Cutters) machine3__________________ _____________________
Finishers, miscellaneous 3
.......................... .
Hemmers3 ___________________ __________________________
Inspectors and axamioers * ..
__ ......
Knitters, circular * ___________ ____________________ _____
Knitters, flat *______________ ____ ______________ _______
Loopers3.. __ ____________________________________________
Menders, hand3____ _____________ _________ - .......................
Seamers3. ______________________ _______________________
Miscellaneous skilled workers, knitting department........ .
Miscellaneous skilled workers, direct_____________________
Semiskilled workers
Males:
Clerks, factory 4______ ____ _______________________________
Machine operators, miscellaneous4_______ ____ ___________
Packers4 . _______________________________________________
Steamers and pressers4____________________________________
Winders3_____________________________ _____ ___________
Miscellaneous semiskilled workers, knitting department___
Miscellaneous semiskilled workers, direct_________________
Miscellaneous semiskilled workers, indirect_______________
Females:
Button sewing-machine operators3________________________
Clerks, factory4
_ ______________ ____ ____________
Edgers3__________________________________________________
Folders, wrappers, and boxers3. . ________________________
Machine operators, miscellaneous 4 __ ____ _______________
Markers3 ______________________________________________
Sewers, hand 3 ._ ____________________________________ _
Steamers and pressers 3 .
_____________________________
Trimmers, hand 3_________________________________________
Winders3
. . _____________________________________
Miscellaneous semiskilled workers, knitting department___
Miscellaneous semiskilled workers, direct_________________
Unskilled workers
Males:
Learners and apprentices 4_________ ___________ _______ ___
Miscellaneous unskilled workers, direct._____ ____________
Miscellaneous unskilled workers, indirect___________ ______
Females:
Learners and apprentices4.......... .......................... ....................
Miscellaneous unskilled workers, direct___________________
Miscellaneous unskilled workers, indirect_________________
i Not a sufficient number of workers to permit the presentation of an average.
* Sewing-department occupation.
* Knitting-department occupation.
* Employees in this group may work in both sewing and knitting departments.
A n examination o f the data reveals little evidence o f geographical
differences in average hourly earnings in this industry. On the other
hand, an analysis o f the data shows that hourly earnings vary in
accordance with size o f community. The average hourly earnings
o f all employees in establishments located in places o f about 50,000
KNIT-GOODS INDUSTRIES (OTHER THAN HO SIERY)
211
population and under amounted to 34 cents. This group o f plants
includes the 3 southern establishments but even with the latter ex
cluded the average is only 40 cents. B y contrast, the hourly earnings
o f workers in plants found in communities between 175,000 and
500,000 averaged 45 cents. Practically the same average was found
in metropolitan areas with 750,000 and over, excluding Philadelphia
and New Y ork City, which averaged, respectively, 55 and 61 cents.
A n examination o f the figures also shows the relationship between
unionization and hourly earnings. On the basis o f the sample, union
plants in this industry were confined entirely to the larger communi
ties, as none o f the establishments covered in places o f about 50,000
population and under were found to have agreements with unions.
W ith the exception o f New Y ork City, there appears to be little
difference between wage levels in the union and nonunion plants
located in the same communities. I f a comparison is made between
the union and nonunion establishments in the larger cities, other
than New Y ork and Philadelphia, it is found that the averages in
both cases are about 45 cents an hour. Philadelphia, however, in
which all but 4 o f the 13 plants covered are union plants, had an
average o f 55 cents an h ou r; there was little, i f any, difference in the
earnings in union and nonunion plants. In the New Y ork metro
politan area, however, average hourly earnings were substantially
higher in the 16 union than in the 24 nonunion plants, the figures
being 75 and 55 cents, respectively.
A comparison of the averages for plants of various sizes fails to
reveal any significant relationship between size o f establishment and
hourly earnings.
Whether or not there is anj^ relationship between type o f product
made and average hourly earnings cannot be determined on the
basis o f data secured in this survey, due to the thinness o f the sample
with respect to plants making products other than sweaters.
A n n u a l E arnings, 1937
Average annual earnings o f workers in the knitted-outerwear in
dustry, by sex and skill, are shown in table 8.
In knitted-outerwear plants, as in the knitted-underwear industry,
the average annual earnings o f males were substantially greater than
those o f females. Am ong the employees whose work extended over 52
weeks, the annual earnings o f males averaged $1,526, as compared
with $858 fo r females. F or the skilled workers in this group, the
average for males amounted to $1,717, or nearly twice as much as the
average ($888) fo r females. A m ong the semiskilled and unskilled
full-time employees, the average annual earnings o f males exceeded
those for females by $394. A similar picture is shown fo r the aver
ages when extended to cover the earnings o f all workers employed
during shorter periods o f time.
I t should be stated that the annual data for 1937 cover only total
earnings o f each employee in the plant where he was employed in
September 1938, and do not include any earnings by him in other
plants. Moreover, the data cover only those wage earners who
were employed during 1937 by the establishments surveyed and were
still on the pay rolls o f the same plant in 1938.
212
T
able
WAGES AND HOURS
8 . — Average
annual earnings of knitted-outerwear workers, 1987, by skill
and sex
Average annual earnings of employees whose work extended O v e r -
Skill
26 weeks and
over
39 weeks and
over
52 weeks
Any part of the
year
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Total Males males Total Males males Total Males males Total Males males
All workers.......................... $1,122 $1,526
$858
$897 $1,345
$737
$824 $1,259
$681
$754 $1,169
$622
Skilled.................................. 1,217 1,717
961 1,199
Semiskilled and unskilled.
888
805
962 1,501
779 1,039
762
691
885 1,419
714
957
705
637
810 1,332
653
873
644
583
K nitted Cloth
The Bureau’s survey o f the knitted-cloth industry was confined to
22 establishments, in which 1,715 wage earners were scheduled.6
A classification o f the mills according to size (as measured by total
employment) shows that a majority are relatively small. One-half
o f the establishments studied had less than 100 employees, 6 between
100 and 250, and 5 over 250 workers.
In view o f the fact that the cloth-knitting mills sell most of their
products to the garment cutting and sewing establishments, it is not
surprising that the knitted-cloth industry should be concentrated in
or near New Y ork City, which is the center for that type o f produc
tion. The survey included 10 plants in New Y ork and 3 in New
Jersey, all but 1 o f which were in the New Y ork metropolitan area.
O f the remaining establishments, 4 were in Massachusetts and 1 each
in Michigan, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and
Virginia.
Labor organization is important in this industry.
A v e r a g e E arnings
A large majority o f the wage earners included in the survey were
paid on a time-rate basis. None o f the establishments reported the
use o f production-bonus plans.
Only 9 o f the plants surveyed paid extra rates for overtime work
ranging from time and one-fourth to time and one-half. The extra
rates usually took effect after from 40 to 45 hours a week.
The hourly earnings o f all workers in the knitted-cloth industry
averaged 56.0 cents in August and September 1938. (See table 9.)
Although the distribution, which is shown in table 10, extends from
under 17.5 cents to over $1.20 an hour, it will be observed that over
one-half (53.6 percent) o f the total labor force averaged between 35
and 52.5 cents.
9 As defined by the Census of Manufactures, the industry in 1937 included 213 estab
lishments (having an annual product valued at $5,000 or more) and 11,360 wage earners
(average for year). A substantial number of these plants, however, had less than 10
employees, which were excluded from the scope of this survey.
KNIT-GOODS INDUSTRIES (OTHER THAN HOSIERY)
T
213
9 .— Average hourly earnings, actual weekly hours, and weekly earnings in
able
knitted-cloth industry, August and September 1938, by sex and skill
W orkers
Sex and skill
Number
Percent
Average
hourly
earnings
Average
actual
weekly
hours
Average
weekly
earnings
Total..................................................................
1,715
100.0
$0,560
44.2
$24. 74
M ales................................................................
Skilled________ _____ __________ _____
Semiskilled and unskilled........ ..............
1,298
582
716
75 7
33.9
.601
.779
41.8
.465
45.2
43.7
46.4
27.18
34.05
21.59
417
24.3
.418
41.0
17.16
Females........................... ............................ .
T
10 .—Percentage distribution of workers in knitted-cloth industry according
to average hourly earnings, by sex and skill, August and September 1938
able
Males
Average hourly earnings
All workers
Total
Skilled
Semiskilled
and un
skilled
Females
Under 17.5 cents___ ____ ____ ____ _______
17.5 and under 20.0 cents__________________
20.0 and under 22.5 cents____ ____________
22.5 and under 25.0 cents_________________
25.0 and under 27.5 cents_________________
27.5 and under 30.0 cents_________________
30.0 and under 32.5 cents_________________
32.5 and under 35.0 cents____ . . . . . .
35.0 and under 37.5 cents_________________
37.5 and under 40.0 cents_________________
40.0 and under 42.5 cents_________________
42.5 and under 47.5 cents________________
0.1
.1
.4
.4
2.9
1.6
3.3
1.3
6.4
4.1
8.5
22.6
0.5
.2
1.3
1.8
2.4
.5
5.3
3.2
7.8
19.3
.9
1.4
2.7
14.3
1.0
.3
2.4
3.2
4.2
1.0
8.9
4.6
11.9
23.3
47.5 and under 52.5 cents_________ _____
52.5 and under 57.5 cents_________________
57.5 and under 62.5 cents_________________
62.5 and under 67.5 cents_________________
67.5 and under 72.5 cents_________________
72.5 and under 77.5 cents_________________
77.5 and under 82.5 cents______
___
82.5 and under 87.5 cents_________________
87.5 and under 92.5 cents_________________
92.5 and under 100.0 cents________ __
100.0 and under 110.0 cents_______________
110.0 and under 120.0 cents,.
120.0 cents and over______ ___________
12.0
5.2
1.7
4.1
2.0
4.4
6.0
1.5
3.1
1.8
3.9
.9
1.7
13.0
5.5
1.8
4.7
2.4
5.3
7. 9
2.0
4. 2
2.3
5.1
1. 2
2.3
2.4
5.3
1.5
6.0
2.7
10.3
16.1
4.0
8.6
5.0
11.2
2. 4
4.8
21.6
5.6
2.1
3.6
2.1
1.3
1. 3
.4
.6
.1
.1
.1
.3
8.6
4.3
1.4
2.2
1.0
1.4
0.2
.2
0.2
.2
L2
7 .7
.7
6.0
3.8
9.8
7.0
10.7
33.4
.2
.2
Total______________________________
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Number of workers..____ ______ _________
1,715
1,298
582
716
417
The hourly earnings o f all males averaged 60.1 cents. The average
for the skilled males was 77.9 cents which was 31.4.cents more than
the average (46.5 cents) for the group o f semiskilled and unskilled
males. The females received 41.8 cents or 4.7 cents less than the
average for semiskilled and unskilled males.
Occupational differences.— Because o f the small size o f the industry
separate figures can be presented for only a few o f the occupations
commonly recognized in knitted-cloth mills. (See table 11.)
Male machine fixers received the highest earnings, amounting to
$1,026 an hour on the average. This was substantially higher than
the earnings o f working foremen, who averaged 95.4 cents. The
knitters, who made up three-fifths (58.9 percent) o f the skilled males,
received 74.7 cents.
214
T
able
WAGES AND HOURS
11.— Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings in knittedcloth industry, August and September 1938, by sex, skilly and occupation
Sex, skill, and occupation
Number
of work
ers
Average
hourly
earnings
Average
weekly
hours
45
343
45
94
15
40
$0,954
.747
1.026
.749
0)
.634
44.9
43.1
45.0
43.6
0)
45.1
$42.85
32.22
46.12
32.68
0)
28.56
57
49
121
37
52
105
70
64
16
.513
.554
.496
.453
.395
.462
.450
.512
0)
51.0
47.0
47.2
47.5
48.5
44.1
47.2
48.1
0)
26.19
26.04
23.43
21.53
19.16
20.36
21.26
24.60
0)
20
46
57
22
.442
.374
.416
.404
41.7
45.6
40.8
41.8
18.41
17.06
16.97
16.87
273
144
.431
.394
40.2
42.5
17.36
16.77
Average
weekly
earnings
M a les
Skilled workers:
Foremen, working........ ..........................................
Knitters.......... ............................... ...........................
Machine fixers...... .......... ...........................*.______
Miscellaneous skilled, knitting department____
Miscellaneous skilled, direct............................... .
Miscellaneous skilled, indiiect_________________
Semiskilled workers:
Brush-machine operators_________ ____ ________
Clerks, factory........................ ..................................
Dye-machine operators..........................................
Machine operators, miscellaneous........................
Packers........ .............................................................
Steamers and pressers........... ................... ...............
Miscellaneous semiskilled, knitting department
Miscellaneous semiskilled, direct..........................
Miscellaneous semiskilled, indirect......................
Unskilled workers:
W atchm en............................................ .................
Work distributors............ ................................... .
Miscellaneous unskilled, direct......................... .
Miscellaneous unskilled, indirect..........................
F em a les
Knitting department.
Other departments...
i Not a sufficient number of workers to permit the presentation of an average.
The number o f employees in knitted-cloth mills for whom annual
earnings were obtained was too small to permit a detailed analysis.
Annual earnings fo r all workers who were continuously employed
during the year ranged from $2,621 in one plant to $1,076 in another
establishment. In both o f these plants, it should be noted, the annual
data covered only male employees. Plant average annual earnings o f
employees who were on the pay roll during 39 weeks and over ranged
from $1,699 to $945.
W ide differences in the annual earnings o f males and females were
found in every plant fo r which such a comparison could be made.
K nitted Gloves and M ittens
The survey o f the knitted gloves and mittens industry covered only
6 establishments, with 805 wage earners.7 O f these, 4 were located
in New Y ork State.
Nearly four-fifths (78.6 percent) o f the workers in the industry
were females. A bout two-thirds (65.6 percent) o f the females and
less than one-half (47.7 percent) ox the males were classed as skilled.
The number o f unskilled workers in each sex group was too limited
to permit a separate analysis; hence, the figures are shown fo r the
semiskilled and unskilled combined (table 12).
A ll o f the plants included in the survey employed a considerable
number o f piece workers, although some employees on a time basis
were found in each establishment.
7 According to the Census of Manufactures, in 1937 this industry included 15 establish
ments (having an annual product valued a t $5,000 o r.m o re ) and 3,182 wage earners
(average for the year).
K N I T - G O O D S INDUSTRIES
T
215
( O T H E R T H A N HOSIERY)
12 .— Average hourly earnings, actual weekly hours, and weekly earnings in
knitted gloves and mittens industry, August and September 1938, by sex and skill
able
Workers
Sex and skill
Number
Percent
Average
actual
weekly
hours
Average
hourly
earnings
Average
weekly
earnings
Total______ ______ ______ _________ ______
Skilled_________ _______ _____________
Semiskilled and unskilled_____ ______
805
497
308
100.0
61.8
38.2
$0.409
.432
.379
33.3
30.6
37.6
$13.62
13.23
14.25
Males........................................ ........... ............
S k i l l e d .____________ _______________
Semiskilled and unskilled____________
Females_________ ____ ___________________
Skilled_______________________________
Semiskilled and unskilled____________
172
82
90
633
415
218
21.4
10.2
11.2
78.6
51.6
27.0
.585
.719
.474
.345
.355
.330
41.6
39.4
43.5
31.0
28.9
35.2
24.32
28.35
20.64
10.71
10.24
11.62
The average hourly earnings in 3 establishments amounted to about
40 cents. One plant had an average o f about 35 cents, while the re
maining establishments averaged over 40 and less than 45 cents.
The hourly earnings o f all workers averaged 40.9 cents in August
and September 1938. The total distribution o f individual earnings,
according to table 13, covers a relatively wide range, with significant
limits at 20.0 and 82.5 cents, within which are included 97.5 percent
o f all employees. Over two-fifths (43.3 percent) averaged between
32.5 and 42.5 cents. The number paid under 32.5 cents amounted to
27.5 percent. Three-tenths (29.2 percent) averaged 42.5 cents or over
but only 9.1 percent received as much as 62.5 cents or more.
The number o f employees in mills making knitted gloves and m it
tens fo r whom annual earnings were obtained was too small to permit
a detailed analysis. W ide differences in the annual earnings o f males
and females were found in every plant for which such a comparison
could be made.
T
able
13.— Percentage distribution of workers in knitted gloves and mittens industry
according to average h o u rly ea rn in gs, by skill and sex, A u g u s t and September 1938
All workers
Semiskilled and
unskilled workers
Skilled workers
Average hourly earnings
Total
Male
Fe
male
Total
1.1
.9
8.7
3. 5
5.2
6.0
8.1
13.0
16.2
11.4
0.8
.4
3.2
2.6
4.8
5.8
7.0
12.7
14.3
8.5
9.5
8.7
5.8
2.0
.8
1.4
.8
Under 17.5 cents______ ____________
17.5 and under 20.0 cents____ _______
20.0 and under 22.5 cents............... .......
22.5 and under 25.0 cents____________
25.0 and under 27.5 cents____________
27.5 and under 30.0 cents____________
30.0 and under 32.5 cents____________
32.5 and under 35.0 cents____________
35.0 and under 37.5 cents________
37.5 and under 40.0 cents____________
7.6
2.7
4.5
4.8
6.3
10.9
13.3
9.9
2.3
1.7
4.7
40.0 and under 42.5 cents...................
42.5 and under 47.5 cents____________
47.5 and under 52.5 cents____________
52.5 and under 57.5 cents____________
57.5 and under 62.5 cents_____ _____
62.5 and under 67.5 cents____________
67.5 and under 72.5 cents____________
72.5 and under 77.5 cents
77.5 and under 82.5 cents____________
82.5 cents and over— ............... ............
9.2
8.4
6.5
2.7
2.5
1.4
.9
.7
5.2
.9
4.7
9.3
13.4
6.4
11.6
5.8
3.5
2.9
23.8
4.1
10.4
8.2
4.6
1.7
Total............... .............................
100.0
100.0
Number of workers...............................
805
172
0.9
3.5
1.7
.6
Male
1.2
1.2
1.2
Fe
male
Total
1.0
.5
3.9
3.1
5.5
7.0
8.4
15.0
17. 2
9.9
1.0
1.3
14.6
12.9
F3.9
r3 . 2
f5. 2
7.8
11.4
12.3
11.3
9.9
5.3
1.4
8.8
8.1
7.5
3.9
5.2
1.3
Male
6.7
2.2
1.1
3.3
3. 3
7.8
8.9
15.6
17.8
7.8
17.8
3.3
2.2
1.1
Fe
male
1.4
1. 8
18.0
4.1
4.6
4.1
7.3
9.6
14.7
14.2
8.7
5.0
3.2
2.3
8.5
1.4
2.4
8.5
4.9
4.9
8.5
4.9
4.9
50.2
7.2
.3
1.1
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
633
497
82
415
308
90
218
.2
.2
.2
.2
.2
1.0
.2
.2
.2
1.0
.3
.5
.5
216
WAGES AND HOURS
L eath er B eltin g and P acking In d u stry — Earnings
and H ou rs, 19391
The leather belting and packing industry, as defined by the Census
o f Manufactures, embraces establishments engaged primarily in the
making o f the follow in g: Leather belting, chiefly for use in the trans
mission o f power; leather packing, such as cup, U-valve, oil-retainerseal, etc.; and “ textile leathers,” such as aprons, picker leathers, mill
strapping, etc. In general, the Bureau o f Labor Statistics survey con
formed to the definition o f the leather belting and packing industry
as stated by the Census o f Manufactures. The survey covered all
establishments in the industry except those with fewer than 3 em
ployees. Thus defined, it included 108 plants with 1,956 wage earners.
Taken as a whole, the industry is not large. In 1937, the latest
year for which figures are available, the number o f belting and pack
ing establishments totaled 182. During the year, these plants em
ployed an average o f 2,829 wage earners, and their total wage bill
amounted to $3,354,946.
Not only is the leather belting and packing industry comparatively
small, but, as a rule, its operations are carried on in very small
establishments. Only about 15 to 16 wage earners were employed
by the average leather belting and packing plant, according to the
Census o f Manufactures in 1937.
Geographically, the industry is widely scattered. In 1937, approxi
mately two-fifths of its plants with over one-third of the wage
earners were found in three important industrial States, namely,
Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and New York. The remainder of
the industry, however, was broadly distributed over the country.
Operations in the leather belting and packing industry are largely
free from seasonal fluctuations.
Average H ourly Earnings
O f the total workers covered in the survey, 9.8 percent were paid
on a straight piece-work basis, 6.1 percent worked under productionbonus plans, and 84.1 percent were paid on a straight time-rate
basis.
Extra rates fo r overtime work were general throughout the
industry. Most o f these plants allowed time and one-half after
40 hours o f work. About one-fifth o f the plants also paid double
time for wTork on Sundays and holidays.
During the pay-roll period scheduled, a number o f employees
worked overtime. I f the earnings due to the extra rates allowed for
this overtime are considered, the average hourly earnings for all
workers in the industry are increased from 56.5 to 57.8 cents, a gain
o f 1.3 cents. The subsequent analysis o f both hourly and weekly
earnings is on the basis o f regular rates only.
In September 1939, earnings o f all workers in the belting and
packing industry averaged 56.5 cents an hour. Individual hourly
earnings, however, varied widely, ranging from about 25 cents to
above $1, according to the distribution in table 1.
1
Abstract from Part II of Bulletin No. 679 : Earnings and Hours in ±he Leather and
Leather Belting and Packing Industries, 1939. Prepared by J. Perlman, P. L. Jones, H. O.
Rogers, and O. R. Witmer, of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
217
LEATHER BELTING AND PACKING INDUSTRY
Although the spread o f individual earnings was wide, the hourly
earnings o f a fairly large proportion o f the labor force wTere restricted
to comparatively narrow limits. Almost one-third (31.8 percent)
o f the wage earners were concentrated within the 15-cent range of
42.5 and under 57.5 cents. Moreover, the range for more than threefifths (63.4 percent) was between 40.0 and 72.5 cents.
A s in the leather industry, women form a minor proportion (14.6
percent) o f the total labor force in leather belting and packing.
The dominant groups are the skilled and semiskilled males; each
o f these groups accounted for 38 percent o f the total. Only onetenth (9.9 percent) o f all workers were unskilled males.2
Sharply contrasting levels o f hourly earnings are shown for each
of these groups o f employees in the industry. Compared with an
average o f 68.2 cents an hour fo r skilled males, semiskilled males
averaged 54.4 cents, and unskilled males had an average o f 42.2
cents. The female employees, most o f whom are semiskilled work
ers, averaged 40.5 cents.
T
able
1.— Percentage distribution of leather belting and packing workers by average
hourly earnings, sex, and skill, September 1989
Males
All
workers
Average hourly earnings
Females
Total
Skilled
Semi
skilled
Un
skilled
Under 25.0 cents_________________ _____
Exactly 25.0 cents _ _ _ __ - _,
25.1 and under 27.5 cents________________
27.5 and under 30.0 cents________________
30.0 and under 32.5 cents_______ ________
32.5 and under 35.0 cents_________________
35.0 and under 37.5 cents_________________
37.5 and under 40.0 cents - - _____________
40.0 and under 42.5 cents________ _______
42.5 and under 47.5 cents_________________
47.5 and under 52.5 cents_________ ___ - 52.5 and under 57.5 cents_________________
0.1
1.3
.2
.2
2.2
1.6
8.5
3.2
7.0
10.0
10.6
11.2
0.1
1.2
.2
.1
1.6
1.9
3.8
2.1
6.1
9.4
10.7
12.2
0.1
.4
.8
.7
.8
2.3
4.2
5.4
11.7
57.5 and under 62.5 cents_________________
62.5 and under 67.5 cents________________
67.5 and under 72.5 cents___ - , _______
72.5 and under 77.5 cents __ _
_ _____
77.5 and under 82.5 cents, _ , _ _ _ __ __
82.5 and under 87.5 cents.,. ______ _
..
87.5 and under 92.5 cents _ , , __________
92.5 and under 100.0 cents
____ ____
100.0 and under 110.0 cents . , ______ _,
110.0 and under 125.0 cents
- , , , , ,
125.0 and under 150.0 cents ___ , . ____
150.0 cents and over _
7.8
8.5
8. 3
6.4
5.1
2.6
2.1
.7
1.3
.6
.4
8.4
9.8
9.8
7. 5
5.9
3.1
2. 5
.8
1. 5
.7
.5
.1
9.2
11.9
13.9
11.8
9.9
4.2
5.0
1.8
3.2
1. 5
1.1
.1
9.1
10.3
7.7
5.3
3. 5
2.7
.5
.1
.1
3.1
Total______________________________
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Number of workers______________________
Average hourly earnings_________________
1,956
$0,565
1,671
$0. 592
739
$0,682
738
$0. 544
194
$0.422
285
$0.405
0.5
.3
.l
2.2
2.0
4.9
2.7
8.7
12.1
12.9
14.3
1.0
8.2
.5
4.1
5.2
11.3
4.6
10.8
19.2
23.3
7.2
2.1
.7
5.6
.4
36.5
9.8
12.3
13.3
9.8
4.2
4.2
1.1
i~5
Geographical Differences
In analyzing the data on a geographical basis, the same break-down
was used in leather belting and packing as in the leather industry,
which consisted o f the New England, Middle Atlantic, Middle Western
(including C alifornia), and Southern States.
The Southern States employed only about one-eighth o f the total
workers in the industry. Generally speaking, hourly earnings were
3 The number of c o lo r e d workers (1.5 percent) in the establishments covered was not
s u ffic ie n tly la r g e to j u s t i f y s e p a r a t e a n a l y s i s .
218
WAGES AND HOURS
lower here than in other parts o f the country. A ll but one o f the
southern establishments averaged below 60 cents, while two-thirds o f
the northern plants showed averages above that figure. This does not
mean, however, that the low-wage establishments were all located in
the South. A s a matter o f fact, there were as many establishments
averaging less than 45 cents in the North as in the South.
Since there were no female workers found in the southern establish
ments, any comparison between the northern and southern regions
should be confined to male employees. For all males the average
hourly earnings were 62.1 cents in the Northern and 43.9 cents in the
Southern States, a difference o f 18.2 cents.
Each district showed a substantial number o f employees in the
higher-wage classes, namely, above 72.5 cents, the figures being 28.2
percent in the Middle Atlantic, 21.5 percent in the New England, and
16.2 percent in the Middle Western States (including C alifornia).
Variations by Sise of C o m m u n i t y ^Unionisation, and Product
A s in the leather industry, plants making leather belting and pack
ing are, for the most part, located in large industrial centers. O f the
total employees in the industry, as many as 44.4 percent were found
in metropolitan areas with a population o f 1,000,000 and over, and
one-fourth (24.4 percent) were located in communities between 250,000
and 1,000,000. There were 13.6 percent in places between 50,000 and
250,000, and 17.6 percent were found in towns between 5,000 and 50,000.
Due to the fact that the coverage in the Southern States is relatively
small, any analysis o f hourly earnings by size o f community in this
industry must be confined to the northern region. F or all workers,
average hourly earnings in this area amounted to 51.7 cents in towns
with a population between 5,000 and 50,000, 55.8 cents in places be
tween 50,000 and 250,000, 63.9 cents in communities between 250,000
and 1,000,000, and 58.1 cents in metropolitan areas with 1,000,000 and
over.
Unionization has not made much headway in the leather belting
and packing industry. O f the 108 establishments covered in the sur
vey, only 4 were operating under union agreements. These plants
were all located in metropolitan areas with a population o f 1,000,000
and over in the Northern States. W ith one exception, they averaged
over 65 cents, which places them in the u^pper half o f the distribution
o f establishments by average hourly earnings.
Despite the fact that all o f the union plants were located in metro
politan areas with a population o f 1,000,000 and over, the average
hourly earnings here were lower than those found in communities
between 250,000 and 1,000,000. This is due to the fact that the pro
portion o f employees working in leather-packing establishments, which
generally had a lower wage level than plants making other products,
was higher in metropolitan areas o f 1,000,000 and over as compared
with other classes o f communities.
F or all wage earners, the average hourly earnings amounted to 58.1
cents in plants making primarily leather belting, 52.6 cents in those
engaged principally in making leather packing, and 58.2 cents in
establishments producing other products that come within the defini
tion o f the industry.
L E A T H E R BELTING A N D PACKING INDUSTRY
219
The chief reason fo r the higher wage level in leather belting is the
fact that the plants engaged chiefly in making this product employed
relatively few women, namely, 2.3 percent o f the total labor force.
Occupational Differences
The average hourly earnings for the various occupations in the
leather belting and packing industry for the country as a whole ap
pear in table 2. B y far the highest average, 82.6 cents, is shown for
working foremen. F or the remaining occupational groups among
skilled males, the averages covered a narrow range— from 59.8 cents
to 67.3 cents. The lowest average was for pressmen. The important
occupation o f all-around belt makers averaged 65.1 cents.
The occupational averages o f females ranged from 36.2 cents for
packers to 44.4 cents for cup-form ing press operators. In four occu
pations, figures are shown fo r both males and females, and in each the
remales averaged considerably less than the males.
W eekly Hours and Earnings
W ith very few exceptions, the full-time weekly hours in the leather
belting and packing industry amounted to 44 or less in September
1939. Moreover, about one-half o f the plants had a full-time work
week o f 44 hours, with the great m ajority o f the remainder operating
under a 40-hour week.
A s in the leather industry, employees in the maintenance, power
house, and service departments in many o f the leather belting and
packing plants had scheduled hours that were different from those o f
the majority o f the wage earners.
The average actual weekly hours worked by all wage earners in the
leather belting and packing industry amounted to 43.4 in September
1939. The male workers averaged 43.5 hours, as against 42.9 for
female employees.
One-fifth (20.3 percent) o f all wage earners worked exactly 40
hours during the pay-roll period scheduled.
Three-tenths (30.2
percent) worked exactly 44 hours, which was the maximum allowed
under the F air Labor Standards A ct at the time o f the survey with
out the payment o f extra rates for time worked beyond this number
o f hours.
F or all wage earners in the leather belting and packing industry,
the average weekly earnings in September 1939 amounted to $24.51.®
During the week scheduled, 65.4 percent o f the total earned between
$15 and $30. One-tenth (10.1 percent) received less than $15. The
remaining one-fourth (24.5 percent) earned $30 and over, but only
4.7 percent were paid as much as $40.
A s with hourly earnings, weekly earnings varied considerably
among the several skill-sex groups. Male employees averaged $25.73,
as compared with $17.37 fo r female workers. Am ong the males, the
averages amounted to $30.02 for skilled, $23.48 fo r semiskilled, and
$17.96 for unskilled employees.
* I f the earnings due to the extra rates for overtime work were included, it would In
crease the average weekly earnings of a ll workers in the industry by 56 cents.
505364 0 - 43 - 15
220
T
WAGES AND HOURS
2 . — Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings of leather
belting and packing workers, September 19S9, by sex, skill, and occupation
able
Sex, skill, and occupation
Number
of work
ers
Average
hourly
earnings
Average
weekly
hours
Average
weekly
earnings
_•------------------------------------------------------- -
1,956
$0.565
43.4
$24. 51
Males ...................... - ................... ................... ................. ..................
Skilled____________________________________________________
Belt makers, all around_______________________________
Cutters, belting strips_________________________________
Foremen, working____________________________________
Pressmen, belts____________________________ ______ ___
Shaving-machine operators, belting and packing-------Sorters and matchers, belting---------------------- ------- --------Miscellaneous workers, maintenance, skilled____ _____
Miscellaneous workers, other, skilled__________________
1.671
739
197
28
170
137
26
32
82
67
.592
.682
.651
.652
.826
.598
.639
.616
.648
.673
43.5
44.0
44.9
44.3
44.3
42.9
41.6
45.2
45.7
41.5
25. 73
30.02
29.22
28. 87
36.59
25.69
26.60
27.83
29.59
27.94
Semiskilled_______________________________________________
Clerks, plant_____________________________________ ___
Cup-edge trimmers, lathe_____________________________
Cup-forming press operators.-................................. .........
Cutters, packing, punch press___________________ _____
Inspectors and testers, belts and packing______________
Packers, shipping_______________________ ____ ________
Picker-making workers, semiskilled___________________
Round-belt-making workers, sem isk illed .____ ______
Scarfing machine operators, belts and aprons__________
Trimmers and polishers, belt edges____________________
Miscellaneous workers, maintenance, semiskilled_____
Miscellaneous workers, leather finishing, machine-------Miscellaneous workers, other, semiskilled____ ____ ___
738
71
56
82
37
20
39
71
40
32
30
45
18
197
.544
.600
.604
.565
.593
.563
.478
.457
.524
.595
.555
.504
.534
.536
43.1
43.3
42.7
41.5
46.3
43.6
43.4
41.8
43.8
43.7
44.6
45.2
38.3
43.2
23.48
25.95
25. 78
23.43
27.46
24.54
20.73
19.08
22.93
26.01
24.76
22.80
20.46
23.15
U n sk ille d ..-____ ________________________________________
Apprentices____ ________________________________ _____
L e a r n e r s._________ __________ ________________ _____
Material handlers and general helpers......... .......... ..........
Watchmen________ ____________________ ______________
Miscellaneous workers, maintenance, unskilled________
Miscellaneous workers, other, unskilled........ ...................
194
14
12
86
27
35
20
.422
.471
.370
.412
.410
.461
.413
42.5
42.9
36.8
40.9
50.4
43.2
40.6
17.96
20.21
13.59
16.85
20.65
19.88
16.76
Females_________________________ __________________________
Cup-edge trimmers, lathe-------- ------- ---------------- ------------- Cup-forming press operators__________ _. .. . . . _________
Cutters, packing, punch press_____________ ____ __________
Packers, shipping_____ ______ ____________________________
Sorters....................... ...................................................................
Miscellaneous workers...................... .......... ................................
285
32
44
54
34
35
86
.405
.399
.444
.420
.362
.380
.407
42.9
46.4
42.9
42.4
44.0
45.4
40.4
17. 37
18.50
19.05
17.80
15.92
17.27
16.42
All workers---------------
L eath er In d u stry — Earnings and H ou rs,
Septem ber 19391
The manufacture o f leather from hides and skins includes two prin
cipal processes, namely tanning and finishing.2 Most establishments
are integrated, thus perform ing all processes. A few plants do
tanning only, but a substantial number engage in finishing only. The
Bureau’s survey included integrated establishments employing 20 or
more wage earners, as wTell as those confining their operations to
either tanning or finishing and which employed 10 or more workers.
The data collected cover a period prior to October 24, 1939, the
effective date o f the 30-cent minimum and 42-hour maximum under
the Fair Labor Standards Act.
In the aggregate, the 402 establishments 3 in the industry, accord
ing to the Census o f Manufactures, provided work for 50,687 wage
1 Abstract
Jones, II. O.
2 Includes
3 Includes
of article in the M onthly Labor Review for April 1940, prepared by P. L.
Rogers, and O. R. Witmer, of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
currying, a secondary process o f finishing leather after tanning.
only plants with an annual production valued at $5,000 and over.
221
LEATHER INDUSTRY
earners in 1937, with the total wage bill amounting to $61,288,375.
Leather manufacturing is widely scattered geographically. The New
England States, which constituted the early center of the indus
try, still remain an important producing region. In the Southern
States by contrast, establishments making leather are scattered
throughout the Appalachian belt, but their combined employment
constitutes only a minor portion of the industry’s total.
At first glance, the leather industry appears reasonably homoge
neous in terms of product. Actually, however, it is an industry o f
extreme diversity. The factors that contribute to the complexity o f
the industry are the variations in the kinds of animal skins or hides
employed for conversion into leather and the specific uses for which
the finished leather is intended. These factors, in turn, determine the
tanning and finishing methods employed in the manufacturing
process.
In the present survey, no attempt was made to cover all of the
leather plants. Instead, the survey was restricted to a carefully
selected sample of 152 establishments, including both regular and
contract plants, from which wages and hours data were obtained for
25,617 wage earners.
Average Hourly Earnings
A majority o f the wage earners in the leather industry are paid on a
straight time-rate basis. Production-bonus systems of wage pay
ment were reported by a few of the larger establishments, affecting
approximately one-tenth of the total wage earners in the industry.
T
a b l e
1 .— Percentage distribution of leather workers by average hourly earnings,
sex, and skill, September 1939
,
Males
Average hourly earnings
Under 25.0 cents._.____________________
Exactly 25.0 cents____________________ .
25.1 and under 27.5 cents-----------------------27.5 and under 30.0 cents__________ ____ _
30.0 and under 32.5 cents__________ ___
32.5 and under 35.0 cents-----------------------35.0 and under 37.5 cents________________
37.5 and under 40.0 cents________________
40.0 and under 42.5 cents________________
42.5 and under 47.5 cents_______________
47.5 and under 52.5 cents.................... ........
52.5 and under 57.5 cents________________
57.5 and under 62.5 cents___________ ____
62.5 and under 67.5 cents_________ ____
67.5 and under 72.5 cents____________ .
72.5 and under 77.5 cents_______________
77.5 and under 82.5 cents______________
82.5 and under 87.5 cents________________
87.5 and under 92.5 cents_______________
92.5 and under 100.0 cents
__
100.0 and under 110.0 cents______________
110.0 and under 125.0 cents - ______ ___
125.0 and under 150.0 cents. - ____
150.0 cents and over __- __ - ___
Total____________________________
Number of workers (weighted)_______...
Average hourly earnings___________ —
» Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
All
workers
0)
0.6
.3
.3
.7
.8
1.9
1.2
5.5
7.4
11.5
12.5
13.9
10.8
8.2
6.1
5.1
3.2
2.7
3.1
2.3
1.0
.7
.2
Total
0)
0.5
.2
o
Skilled
0.1
Semi
skilled
.6
.6
.9
4.0
6.5
11.4
12.7
.2
.2
.2
.3
.7
1.8
3.8
5.9
0.1
.2
.2
.4
.5
.4
.6
2.7
5.2
8.9
11.3
14.7
11.7
8.7
6. 7
5.5
3.5
3.0
3.3
2.5
1.1
.8
.3
8.9
11.7
11. 4
9. 1
8.6
6.2
8.0
10.1
7.4
2.6
2.0
.8
15.5
13.7
10.7
8. 1
6.8
3.9
2.8
3.1
2.4
1.3
.9
.3
0)
0)
Un
skilled
0.1
1.6
.3
.4
1.1
.9
1.3
1.8
7.9
11.2
19.7
18.5
15.7
8.1
3.8
2.9
1.8
1.3
.8
.5
.2
.1
0)
0)
Females
1.7
1.0
1.8
2.1
2.4
15.2
4.5
22.8
17.4
12.1
9.8
4.7
1.4
2.4
.3
.2
(0
.1
.1
100.0
100.0
100.0
100. 0
100.0
100.0
47,904
$0. 623
43, 895
$0. 638
6, 439
24, 280
$0. 656
13,176
4. 009
*■'». 445
$0. 773
222
WAGES AND HOURS
Considering the hourly earnings of individual workers, which are
shown in table 1, the largest proportion (13.9 percent) in any 5-cent
interval was found between 57.5 and 62.5 cents. Approximately
one-half (48.7 percent) received between 47.5 and 67.5 cents, and over
four-fifths (81.0 percent) were paid between 40.0 and 82.5 cents.
For all wage earners in the leather industry, earnings in September
1939 averaged 62.3 cents an hour, but varied considerably among
establishments.
G e o g r a p h ic a l D iffe r e n c e s
With hourly earnings in the northern region differing considerably
in most instances within a single State, it is obviously difficult to
conceive here of homogeneous wage districts that are composed of
more than one State. The three districts that are shown in this report
represent more or less arbitrary groupings of States that correspond to
areas that the trade frequently regards as competing producing areas.
These groupings include plants surveyed in the New England, Middle
Atlantic, and Middle Western States, respectively. The New England
States covered in the survey included Massachusetts, New Hampshire,
and Connecticut. Delaware was added to the Middle Atlantic States
which, under the Bureau of the Census classification, include New
York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. The Middle Western States,
as used in the present survey include not only the East North Central
States (Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, and Wisconsin), as defined
by the Bureau of the Census, but also Minnesota, Missouri, and Cali
fornia. Each of these groups o f States is important, accounting re
spectively for 23.2, 38.0, and 31.9 percent of the total workers in the
industry.
The differences in the wage structure of these three districts are not
sufficient for them to be regarded as distinctive wage areas. The most
concentrated distribution of hourly earnings is found in the Middle
Western States (including California). Only 2.9 percent of the
workers received less than 40 cents, and 2.6 percent were paid more
than 92.5 cents. On the other hand, more than two-thirds (67.7 per
cent) earned 47.5 to 72.5 cents. The average for all workers was 62.0
cents, while most establishments averaged less than 65 cents. (See
table 2.)
223
LEATHER INDUSTRY
T
a b l e
2 .
— Percentage distribution of leather workers by average hourly earnings,
sexy and district, September 1989
All workers
Average hourly earn
ings (in cents)
New
Eng
land
Under 25.0................
Exactly 25.0_______
25.1 and under 27.5__
27.5 and under 30.0...
30.0 and under 32.5...
32.5 and under 35.0...
35.0 and under 37.5...
37.5 and under 40.0...
40.0 and under 42.5...
42.5 and under 47.5...
47.5 and under 52.5...
52.5 and under 57.5...
57.5 and under 62.5...
62.5 and under 67.5__
67.5 and under 72.5...
72.5 and under 77.5__
77.5 and under 82.5...
82.5 and under 87.5...
87.5 and under 92.5...
92.5 and under 100.0..
100.0 and under 110.0.
110.0 and under 125.0.
125.0 and under 150.0.
150.0 and over____
Mid
dle
At
lantic
0.1 (*)
.4 0.1
.3 (t )
.3
.1
.5
.6
.2
.5
1.9 2.7
.9 1.0
7.8 5.1
6.6 6.6
9.9 12.4
10.4 12.5
12.2 12.0
10.1 10.2
7.0 7.1
6.2 6.9
5.6 5.8
3.8 3.5
4.2 2.8
4.6 4.1
4.4 2.7
1.8 1.4
.7 1.4
.l
.5
Total............... 100.0 100.0
Number of workers
(weighted)______ 11,098 18,227
Average hourly earn
ings....................... $0.645 $0.642
Males
Females1
Middle
Middle
Middle
West
West
Mid West
New Mid
ern (in South Eng
dle ern (in South New
dle
ern (in
cluding ern land At cluding ern Eng
At cluding
land lantic
Califor
lantic Califor
Califor
nia)
nia)
nia)
(*)
0.4
.2
.4
.3
.2
.8
.6
3.6
6.7
11.0
13.5
18.1
13.7
11.4
6.4
4.9
3.0
2.2
1. 3
.8
.2
.2
.l
0.1
5.0
.4
2.4
.2
1.8
.2
4.1
.4
6.5
.1
1.6
.8
6.5
.5
9.6 4.6
18.2 4.8
12.5 9.9
13.1 10.2
9.8 13.2
3.9 11.4
3.6 7.7
. 5 7.0
.2 6.4
.2 4.2
.2 4.8
. 1 5. 2
.1 5.0
. 1 2.0
.8
.l
(2)
0.1
(2)
.1
.4
.2
.7
.5
3. 5
6.0
12.9
13.5
12.6
10.9
7.5
7.4
6.2
3.8
2.9
4.4
2.8
1.5
1.5
.6
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
15,277
3,302 9,823 16,939
$0. 620 $0.461 $0.670 $0. 658
0.1
0.2
.8
1.0 0.5
1.1 2.3
1.1 5.0
10.6 29.4
3.5 7.4
32.5 25.1
20.7 14.6
10.5 6.6
12.2 1.5
3.5 3.8
.3
.9
1.8 2.0
.2
.4
.5
4.7
2.2
3.6
2.9
1.2
6.4
2.8
12.2
16.9
18.4
14.9
6.6
2.8
3.2
.8
.3
.1
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
100.0
(J)
.1
.1
.3
.4
2.7
5.7
10.2
13.3
19.1
14.7
12.3
7.0
5.4
3.3
2.4
1. 5
.9
.2
.2
.1
5.0
2.4
1.8
4.1
6.5
1.6
6.5
9.6
18.2
12.5
13.1
9.8
3.9
3.6
.5
.2
.2
.2
.1
.1
.1
3,302 1,275 1,288
1,446
$0.635 $0.461 $0.447 $0.417
$0.467
13,831
1 No females were employed in plants covered in survey in Southern States.
* Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
D iffe re n c e s B e tw e e n U n io n an d N o n u n io n P la n ts
Unionism has existed in the leather industry fo r many years. A t
the time o f the survey, approximately one-fourth o f the workers were
employed in u n ion 4 establishments. A s may be seen from table 3,
the average hourly earnings o f all workers were higher in union than
nonunion establishments in each case, the difference amounting to 14.2
cents in communities between 20,000 and 100,000, but only 2.4 cents
in metropolitan areas with 1,000,000 and over. Differences also ap
pear fo r each skill group among the males. The only comparison for
females is in metropolitan areas o f 1,000,000 and over, where the
hourly earnings in both union and nonunion plants averaged approxi
mately the same.
* As defined in this survey, a union establishment is one in which the majority of em
ployees are covered by either a written or oral agreement with an affiliated union. Plants
with an employee organization confined to only one company are included with the non
union establishments. There were relatively few such plants, although they covered a
substantial number of workers in the industry.
WAGES AND HOURS
224
T
able
3 , — Average
hourly earnings of leather workers in the northern region, Sep
tember 1989, by size of community, unionization, sex, and skill
Number of workers (weighted)
Average hourly earnings
Population of com
Males
Males
munity and un
All
All
Fe work
Fe
ionization
work
males
males
ers Total Skilled Semi Un
ers Total Skilled Semi Un
skilled skilled
skilled skilled
20,000 and under
100,000:
Union plants__ 1,252
Nonunion
plants_______ 4,698
1,000,000 and over:
Union plants__ 9,099
Nonunion
plants ______ 10,554
1,216
111
796
309
4,456
571
2,860
1,025
242
36 $0.774 $0.785 $0.818 $0,862 $0,590
.632
.640
.694
8,019
1,345
4,545
2,129 1,080
.691
.722
9,734
1,915
5,169
2,650
.667
.683
820
0)
.658
.560 $0.471
.872
.746
.572
.462
.853
.684
.558
.463
» Not a sufficient coverage to permit the presentation of an average.
Variations by Size o f Com m unity 5
The leather industry is concentrated to a marked extent in the large
industrial communities. There was no consistent relationship be
tween hourly earnings and size o f community.
Product Differences
Thus far, the analysis has been on the basis o f leather manufac
turing as a whole, in order to determine the part played in shaping
the industry’s wage structure by various factors, such as the composi
tion o f the labor force as to sex and skill, geographical location,
unionization, and size o f community. From the competitive stand
point, however, it is important to view differences in wages on the
basis o f either individual products or groups o f products which are
manufactured by the various plants in the industry. (See table 4.)
T
able
4 . — Average
hourly earnings of leather workers, September 1939, by product,
sex, and skill
Males
Product
All
workers
Total
Skilled
Semi
skilled
Un
skilled
Fe
males
All products_______ _____________________
$0.623
$0.638
$0. 773
$0.656
$0,538
$0,445
Side upper leather i______________ ______
Sole, including belting, leather___________
Kid upper leather..____ _________________
Calf upper leather_______________________
Glove leather 3_______________________ __
Other sheepskin leather... . . ........... ........
Miscellaneous leather___________ ________
.632
.567
.632
.723
.827
.596
.608
.647
.567
.680
.766
.827
.615
.616
.744
.649
.865
.884
.831
.702
.780
•662
.584
.649
.766
.927
.642
.640
.566
.528
.523
.638
.598
.512
.489
.442
(s)
.411
.507
.453
.432
1 Includes integrated plants engaged in both tanning and finishing of patent leather.
* Includes sheep, kid, “ cabretta,” and cape glove leather.
* Not a sufficient number of workers to permit the presentation of an average.
5 By size o f comm unity is meant the size o f the m etropolitan area within which the
plant is located. For places with a population o f 100,000 or more, the Bureau utilized
the m etropolitan districts as defined by the U. S. Bureau o f the Census. On the other
hand, for communities with less than 100,000, similar m etropolitan centers were set up,
including not only the population within a particular political subdivision but also that
o f fhe nearby areas. Roughly speaking, the m etropolitan districts correspond to labormarket areas, within which there is com petition among workers for jobs as well as among
employers for workers.
LEATHER INDUSTRY
225
Variations by Occupation and Race
W ithin each o f the broad skill-sex groups, hourly earnings varied
conspicuously by occupation. Am ong the skilled males, average
hourly earnings by occupation ranged from 86.2 cents for daubers
(final coat, patent leather) to 65.8 cents fo r miscellaneous maintenance
workers.
The highest hourly earnings for any occupation regarded by em
ployers as semiskilled are shown for wet wheelers (emery grinding),
whose average amounted to 90.9 cents. A t the other extreme among
the semiskilled male occupations are the stretching-machine opera
tors, oiling-off machine operators, and hand leather stutters, spongers,
and oilers, whose averages were respectively 52.3, 49.5, and 48.9 cents.
The highest-paid unskilled males are the beam-house haulers, clean
ers o f equipment, and stampers o f hides and leather, who averaged 6162 cents an hour. F or the remaining occupations, the averages ranged
from 57.6 cents for tan-house haulers to 45.6 cents for watchmen.
The small group o f learners averaged 48.8 cents, which was higher
than the averages shown for miscellaneous laborers, strippers o f
leather (other than patent), janitors, and watchmen.
In contrast with the wide range o f hourly earnings among the
male occupations, those o f female workers wTere confined to rather
restricted limits.
O f the total wage earners in the leather industry, 4.1 percent were
Negroes. The proportion o f colored workers, however, varied from
one region to another. The great majority of the Negroes were in
semiskilled and unskilled occupations. Thus, the colored workers
constituted 4.1 percent o f the semiskilled and 7.0 percent of the un
skilled males, as against less than 1 percent o f the skilled males. V ir
tually all o f the Negroes employed in the industry were males, the
number o f females amounting to only 2.3 percent.
A careful check o f the basic data indicates that, in all plants where
whites and Negroes were employed side by side on the same work,
there was no difference in their rates o f pay. In some establishments,
especially in the Southern States, Negro workers were employed
exclusively in certain occupations. Owing to the other factors that
play a part in the wage structure, however, it is impossible to deter
mine whether or not the Negroes received lower rates of pay than white
employees in the same occupations in other plants.
On the other hand, there is no doubt that the colored employees
occupied the lower rungs in the wage ladder o f the leather industry.
As a result, the average hourly earnings o f Negroes were lower than
those o f other workers in the industry. F or all colored employees, the
average amounted to 52.4 cents, which may be compared with 62.9
cents for all other workers. Taking the two groups in which most of
the Negroes were found, the respective averages were 55.7 and 66.1
cents for semiskilled males and 49.5 and 54.6 cents for unskilled males.
Extra Rates for Overtim e W ork
Extra rates were provided for overtime work in practically all es
tablishments covered in the survey. The practices followed by the
different plants, however, varied considerably. In the majority o f
establishments, the practice conformed with the provisions o f the
226
WAGES AND HOURS
F air Labor Standards Act, and time and one-half was provided for
all work in excess o f 44 hours per week.
The figures herein presented for the leather industry have been
based on regular rates only. A substantial number o f employees in
the industry, however, worked overtime during the pay-roll period
covered by the survey, fo r which they were paid extra rates. The
latter no doubt increased considerably the hourly earnings o f some
individual employees. On the other hand, if the earnings due to the
extra rates paid fo r overtime work are distributed among all workers
in the industry, the average is raised by only one-half o f a cent.
W e e k ly " H o u r s a n d E a r n in g s
About two-thirds o f the establishments in the leather industry were
operating on an 8-hour day and 40-hour week schedule in September
1939. A substantial number o f plants, however, had a full-time work
week o f 44 hours. V ery few establishments deviated from either the
40- or 44-hour week.
It should be noted that the full-time hours indicated above are those
that applied to the majority o f employees in a given plant. Mainte
nance, powerhouse, and ’service workers frequently had different
scheduled hours from those o f the main body o f wage earners.
F or all wage earners, the actual weekly hours worked in the leather
industry averaged 39.1 in September 1939. A ccording to the dis
tribution in table 5, three-tenths (30.2 percent) o f the total labor
force worked less than 40 hours during the week scheduled, most o f
these employees being on short time due to absence from work, labor
turn-over, and other causes.
The average weekly hours varied little geographically, the averages
fo r all workers amounting to 39.1 in the Northern and 39.5 in the
Southern States.
T
able
5 . —Percentage
distribution of leather workersby actual weekly hours, sex,
and skill, September 1 98 9
Males
Weekly hours
Under 24 hours......................................
24 and under 32 hours....................... .
32 and under 36 hours.............................
36 and under 40 hours.............................
Exactly 40 hours....................................
Over 40 and under 44 hours.....................
Exactly 44 hours....................................
Over 44 and under 48 hours.....................
48 and under 52 hours.............................
52 and under 56 hours............................
56 hours and over................................ .
Total............................................
Average weekly hours............................
All
workers
4.4
6.1
10.1
9.6
36.1
11.9
11.6
4.0
2.7
1.4
2.1
100.0
39.1
Total
4.3
5.9
10.2
9.3
35.5
12.3
12.0
3.9
2.8
1.5
2.3
100.0
39.2
Skilled
Semi
skilled
Un
skilled
1.9
4.0
7.4
7.3
40.5
8.7
17.9
4.6
3.9
1.8
2.0
100.0
40.5
4.3
6.4
11.4
10.5
33.4
12.5
11.2
3.9
2.5
1.5
2.4
5.3
5.8
9.2
8.2
36.7
13.5
10.8
3.7
2.8
1.5
2.5
100.0
39.1
100.0
39.0
Females
5.9
8.1
9.1
12.0
43.6
8.5
6.3
4.8
1.6
.1
100.0
37.4
* Exclusive of 232 workers for whom hours were not reported.
Average weekly earnings o f all workers in the leather industry, ex
clusive o f earnings due to the extra rates fo r overtime work,6
• I f the earnings due to the extra rates for overtime work were included, i t would
increase the average weekly earnings of a ll workers in the industry by only 20 cents.
LUGGAGE AND LEATHER PRODUCTS INDUSTRIES
227
amounted to $24.42 in September 1939. Like hourly earnings, how
ever, weekly earnings varied conspicuously among the different skillsex groups. F or male employees, the averages were $31.33 for skilled,
$25.62 fo r semiskilled, and $21.18 fo r unskilled workers. The weekly
earnings o f all male workers averaged $25.14, compared with only
$16.64 fo r female employees. (See table 6.)
In the Northern States the average weekly earnings o f all workers
were $24.82. The averages varied little among the several districts
in the Northern States, being, respectively, $25 fo r the New England,
$24.84 for the Middle Atlantic, and $24.67 for the Middle Western
States (including C alifornia). The weekly earnings in the Southern
States averaged only $18.20.
T a b l e 6.—
Percentage distribution of leather workersby average weekly earnings,
sex, and skilly September 1989
Males
Weekly earnings1
All
workers
Total
Skilled
Un
skilled
Females
Under $5...............................................
$5 and under $10.................................. .
$10 and under $15.......... ........................
$15 and under $20......................... .........
$20 and under $25...................................
$25 and under $30...............................
$30 and under $35...................................
$35 and under $40. ..................................
$40 and under $45..................................
$45 and under $50......... .........................
$50 and over............... ....................... .
1.1
2.3
6.3
17.6
27.7
23.8
12.5
5.7
1.7
.7
0.9
1.8
4.8
15.0
28.6
25.7
13.7
6.2
1.8
.7
1.4
5.2
10.7
26.9
23.3
18.0
7.3
2.6
0.8
1.3
4.3
12.3
27.4
29.9
15.9
5.6
1.4
.6
Total.......................................... ............
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Average weekly earnings..... .........................
$24.42
$25.14
$31.33
$25.62
$21.18
$16.64
.6
.8
0.2
Semi
skilled
.9
3.5
.5
1.7
3.0
7.6
25.0
39.5
17.0
4.9
1.3
(3)
(3)
2.2
7.6
21.6
44.3
20.2
3.6
.3
.1
.1
(3)
1 Exclusive of 232 workers for whom weekly earnings were not reported.
* Excludes earnings at extra rates for overtime.
* Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
Luggage and M iscellan eous L eath er P rod u cts
In du stries— H o u rly E arnings, 19391
This report covers luggage (trunks, suitcases, and brief cases) and
certain miscellaneous leather products included by the Census of
Manufactures under “leather goods— small articles” and “ leather
goods not elsewhere classified.” The information presented is based
on a period subsequent to October 24,1939, when the hourly minimum
o f 30 cents and the maximum workweek o f 42 hours became effective
under the provisions o f the Fair Labor Standards A ct o f 1938.
Under these provisions, all workers employed in establishments en
gaged in interstate commerce who work in excess o f 42 hours a week
were entitled to time and one-half for overtime. Unless otherwise in
dicated, the hourly earnings shown in this article are based on regular
rates. In other words, they do not reflect the earnings from the extra
rates paid fo r overtime work.
1
Abstract of article in the M onthly Labor Review for October 1940, prepared by J.
Perlman, H . O. Rogers, P. L. Jones, and John F. Laciskey, of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
228
WAGES AND HOURS
Luggage Industry
The luggage manufacturing industry, as defined by the Census of
Manufactures, embraces establishments engaged wholly or princi
pally “ in the manufacture o f trunks, suitcases, brief cases, sample
cases, traveling bags, satchels, Boston bags, hat boxes, and related
products, regardless o f the materials from which they are made.”
Thus defined, the industry accounts for a wide variety o f products,
and even for the same product there are considerable differences in
appearance, quality, and price.
Luggage manufacturing is an industry composed o f a relatively
large number o f small concerns. The Census of Manufactures
shows that in 1937 there were 27712establishments engaged primarily
in the making o f luggage. D uring the year, these plants employed
an average o f 8,708 wage earners, or approximately 31 workers per
establishment. In fact, virtually two-thirds of the plants employed
not more than 20 workers and over one-fourth had not more than
5 wage earners. B y contrast, only 15 establishments reported over
100 workers.
One o f the distinctive features o f the industry is its marked con
centration in the Northern States. Luggage manufacturing is also
heavily concentrated in the large metropolitan areas with a popula
tion o f 1,000,000 and over. New Y ork and Chicago are particularly
important centers, each accounting for a major fraction o f the indus
try. Other centers o f importance are Philadelphia, St. Louis, and
Detroit. On the Pacific Coast, most o f the plants are located in San
Francisco and Los Angeles. Proxim ity to the principal labor and
consumer markets has been the chief factor determining the location
o f the industry.
Largely due to the small size o f the average luggage manufacturing
establishment, owner management is quite prevalent in the industry.
Not only is corporate ownership much less common than in other
industries, but the great bulk o f the industry’s output is accounted
fo r by single-plant companies. Multiunit concerns are exceptional.
The manufacture o f luggage is essentially an industry o f semi
skilled workers. Taking the industry as a whole, more than threefifths (61.7 percent) o f the labor force were classed as semiskilled.
Women constitute a substantial proportion o f the industry’s working
force. O f the total wage earners employed by the plants included in
this survey, 34.2 percent were females. F or the most part, women
were employed in the lining and finishing departments. The over
whelming m ajority o f the women were semiskilled and hardly any
were classed as skilled.
In recent years, considerable progress has been made by unions
in organizing the employees in the luggage industry. A t the time
o f this survey, approximately three-fifths o f the Avorkers were em
ployed in union establishments.3 The unions are particularly strong
in certain o f the more important producing centers. In the New Y ork
metropolitan area, fo r example, more than two-thirds o f the establish2 Includes only plants with an annual production valued at $5,000 and over.
3 A union establishment, as defined in this survey, is one in which the majority of the
employees are covered by either a written or oral agreement with an affiliated union.
Plants with employee-representation plans were included with the nonunion establish
ments. Of the plants covered in the present survey, however, only one reported an
employee-representatinn plan.
LUGGAGE AND LEATHER PRODUCTS INDUSTRIES
229
ments included in the survey were unionized. The unions were like
wise strong in Chicago, Philadelphia, and San Francisco. In many
other localities, on the other hand, very little headway has been made
by the unions.
Employment in the luggage industry is influenced by the seasonal
character o f demand. Ordinarily, the high point o f production is
reached in the late summer or early fall, and the slack period occurs
in the winter and early spring.
Average H ourly Earnings
The material presented in this report is based on a study o f a care
fully selected sample o f 152 plants, each o f which employed 3 or more
wage earners. A ll o f the larger plants in the industry were in
cluded— i. e., those employing approximately 100 workers or more—>
and about half o f the smaller ones. In order to avoid underrepre
sentation o f the smaller plants, they have been given a weight o f 2
in all tabulations.
Although time workers predominated by a wide margin, straight
piece rates were reported for more than one-fourth of the wage
earners. Piece-rate workers were most frequently found among the
skilled and semiskilled occupations. H ardly any o f the unskilled
workers were paid piece rates.
A production-bonus system o f wage payment was reported by only
a single plant.
H ourly earnings o f all wage earners in the luggage industry aver
aged 52.4 cents in November and December 1939. Between individual
establishments, however, the earnings varied conspicuously. In fact,
the extreme spread was from 13.8 cents to $1,018 an hour. Despite
this wide diversity, the average hourly earnings in almost two-thirds
o f the plants were restricted to the relatively narrow limits o f 35 and
60 cents. These employed virtually three-fourths o f the workers in
the industry. The plants averaging under 35 cents employed less
than 6 percent of the wage earners, and those averaging 60 cents and
over accounted for more than one-fifth of the employees.
The broad dispersion o f wages in the luggage industry is further
emphasized by table 1, which presents the percentage distribution of
the labor force according to average hourly earnings.
A large part o f the dispersion o f hourly earnings in the luggage
industry may be explained by the sharply contrasting wage levels of
the different groups o f employees. Compared with an average of
70.9 cents for skilled males, semiskilled males averaged 55.6 cents and
the unskilled males 38.8 cents. The hourly earnings o f the female
workers, by contrast, averaged 40.5 cents for semiskilled and 34.2
cents fo r unskilled. The extreme spread between the highest- and
lowest-paid groups was thus 36.7 cents.
Influence o f plant location and unionization.— In contrast wTith
many other industries, there are no well-defined geographical differ
ences in hourly earnings in the luggage industry. It is true that all
establishments averaging 55 cents and over were located in the North
ern States, but this region likewise accounted for all plants that
averaged under 37.5 cents. Both the highest- and lowest-paid con
cerns were distributed widely on a geographical basis.
230
WAGES AND HOURS
T a b l e 1.— Percentage distribution of luggage workers by average hourly earnings,
________________ sex, and skill, November and December 1 9 8 9 _____________
Males
All workers
Average hourly
earnings (in cents)
Females
Semi Un
Semi
Semi
Un
Un
Total Skilled skilled i skilled Total Skilled skilled skilled Total skilled i skilled
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
Under 25.0 ___________
.4
.1
1.9
.5
.4
.1
2.5
0.1
4.1
25.0 and under 27.5----(2)
.1
2.5
.2
.2
.1
2.0
.6
A
.2
.3
27.5 and under 30.0----.5
26.5
6.6
.8
5.2
23.4 18.4
10.6
.8
10.6
16.3
34.9
Exactly 30.0---------------1.1
.5
3.9
5.1
4.0
.7
2.5
.5
2.9
5.2
4.3
30.1 and under 32.5___
1.9
.8
4.5
5.5
1.9
6.8
6.6
3.6
.8
4.2
32.5 and under 35.0___
7.8
5.7
1.8
14.7 15.6
15.9
5.6
15.4
9.1
10.3
35.0 and under 37.5___
1.8
19.0
4.7
5.2
11.3
13.3
13.0
7.5
1.1
8.6
12.2
37.5 and under 40.0----18.5
11
2.8
10.1 11.0
6.8
8.7
5.9
11.9
7.7
2.8
9.3
4.8
40.0 and under 42.5..
6.8
10.9 12.8
13.9
13.8
5.1
6.8
13.9
9.3 11.0
11.7
42.5 and under 47.5___
8.7
6.9
10.2
5.9
6.5
8.7
8.4
5.3
9.1
8.0
1.0
47.5 and under 52.5----9.0
3.0
9.2
10.8
4.2
4.4
7.5
9.0
8.0
5.0
52.5 and under 57.5___
7.4
2.1
7.4
8.9
2.7
7.4
5.7
2.0
2.3
57.5 and under 62.5___
5.5
10.2
10.2
8.2
1.3
1.7
1.9
5.7
5.1
.9
7.8
62.5 and under 67.5___
7.0
3.2
5.3
5.6
1.0
.7
.8
67.5 and under 72.5___
7.0
.7
3.7
4.1
4.4
6.6
6.6
2.4
.5
.5
.6
.3
72.5 and under 77.5----3.1
4.9
.4
2.3
.4
77.5 and under 82.5___
4.9
1.4
2.9
2.0
6.5
3.6
2.6
.4
.4
6.5
1.6
82.5 and under 87.5___
2.5
5.5
2.7
.2
.2
2.2
5.5
1.5
3.3
87.5 and under 92.5___
3.6
6.6
.2
2.7
.2
92.5 and under 100.0__
2.5
6.6
1.5
.7
7.9
3.4
7.9
1.3
100.0 and under 110.0..
2.3
(*)
(J)
.
1
2.0
.8
.3
110.0 and under 120.0..
2.0
.6
1.2
.4
120.0 and under 130.0__
.4
1. 2
.2
.6
.1
.2
.6
1.5
130.0 and over.
._ _
.4
1.5
100.0 100.0
Total.................... 100.0 100.0
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of workers
2,921
395
(weighted).......... ....... 9,709 2,285
5,993 1,431 6,393 2, 285 3,072 1,036 3, 316
Average hourly earn
$0. 524 $0. 709 $0. 485 $0. 376 $0,584 $0. 709 $0. 556 $0,388 $0. 398 $0.405 $0,342
ings—
iIncludes 126 females who were reported as skilled.
* Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
Furthermore, most o f the highest-paid establishments were union,4
while all but one o f the lowest-paid plants were nonunion, thus indi
cating the unionization is more important than geographical loca
tion as a factor in the wage structure. The southern establishments
included in the survey (both union and nonunion) were in the inter
mediate wage classes, averaging more than 37.5 cents but less than
55 cents.
Average hourly earnings o f wage earners employed in plants that
were operating under union agreements were considerably higher than
those o f workers employed in nonunion establishments. (See
table 2.)
T
able
2. — Average hourly earnings of luggage workers, November and December
s k i l l y and unionization___________________
____________________ 1989, by sex,
Average hourly earnings
Sex and skill
All plants
All workers.....................- .............. .................
Skilled....... ....................................... .........
Semiskilled 1............... ..............................
Unskilled...................................................
$0,524
.709
.485
.376
.584
.709
.556
.388
.398
.405
Unskilled........... ..........— ............
.342
1 Includes 126 females who were reported as skilled.
Males.................................................................
Skilled........................................................
Semiskilled...............................................
Unskilled...................................................
Females...........................................................
Union
plants
Non
union
plants
Number of workers (weighted)
All plants
Union
plants
Non
union
plants
$0,579
.781
.537
.388
$0,458
.603
.430
.361
9,709
2,285
5,993
1,431
5,368
1,382
3,178
808
4,341
903
2,815
623
.634
.781
.606
.395
.433
.442
.358
.514
.603
.492
.377
.368
.373
.332
6,393
2,285
3,072
1,036
3,316
2,921
395
3,818
1,382
1,787
649
1,550
1,391
159
2,575
903
1,285
387
1,766
1,530
236
4 In fact, all except 1 of the establishments averaging 65 cents and over were union.
231
LUGGAGE AND LEATHER PRODUCTS INDUSTRIES
Even within restricted areas hourly earnings varied sharply. In
the New Y ork metropolitan district, fo r example, average hourly earn
ings o f the union plants ranged from 35.8 cents to over $1, and in
the nonunion establishments the range was from 33.7 to 67.4 cents.
Similarly, in the Chicago metropolitan area the spread for union
plants was from 42.8 to 81.7 cents, and for nonunion establishments
it was from 30.4 to 56.9 cents.
The difference in hourly earnings in favor o f communities o f 1,000,000 and over is largely a reflection o f the high-wage level in the New
Y ork metropolitan area, especially in union plants. A similarly high
wage level was found in the Philadelphia metropolitan district, where
most o f the establishments included in the survey were also unionized.5
In the Chicago metropolitan area, on the other hand, the average
hourly earnings were below those found in communities o f less than
1,000,000, especially for union establishments.
Virtually all o f the plants covered by the survey in San Francisco
were union, and all o f the plants included in Los Angeles were non
union. This is reflected in the average hourly earnings o f the two
metropolitan areas, the respective figures being 58.7 and 44.8 cents.
Product differences.— As already indicated, a wide variety o f prod
ucts are manufactured by the luggage industry. O f the total number
o f workers included in the survey, almost three-fifths (59.0 percent)
were found making suitcases. There were 10.8 percent working on
trunks, 9.8 percent on brief cases, 3.0 percent on sample cases, and 17.4
percent on various other luggage.6
T a b l e 3 . — Average
hourly earnings of luggage workers, November and December
1989, by product, sex, and skill
All workers
Product
Males
Females
Semi- Un
SemiUn Total SemiUn
Total Skilled skill skilled Total Skilled skill skilled
skill skilled
ed i
ed
ed i
Average hourly earnings
All products.................... . $0.624 $0,709 $0,485 $0. 376 $0,584 $0,709 $0.556 $0,388 $0.398 $0.405 $0.342
Trunks................... _.........
Suitcases-..........................
Brief cases.........................
Sample cases___________
Other luggage-.................
.530
.547
.493
.561
.457
.582
.744
.709
.679
. 68r,
.525
.500
.460
.505
.437
9,709
2,285
Trunks............................... 1,048
Suitcases...... ................... 5,722
Brief cases.......................
953
Sample cases........ ...........
292
Other luggage................... 1,694
382
1,385
184
112
222
.433
.369
.382
(2)
.352
.540
.609
.536
.625
.549
.582
.744
.709
.679
.685
.546
.576
.503
.597
.527
5,993
1,431 6,393
2,285
3,072
504
3,623
552
136
1,178
162
959
714 3, 773
217
661
44
202
294
798
382
1,385
184
112
222
415
1, 797 *
326
70
464
.433
.374
.393
(2)
.385
.417
.417
.384
406
.359
. 417
.420
.393
.399
.367
.343
.355
(2)
.326
1,036 3,316
2,921
395
162
89
591 1,949
151
292
20
90
112
896
89
1,826
226
66
714
123
66
24
182
Number of workers
All products......................
i Includes 126 females (1 trunk worker, 46 suitcase workers, 13 brief-case workers, 6 sample-case workers,
and 60 workers employed in the manufacture of other luggage) reported as skilled.
* Coverage not sufficient to permit the presentation of an average.
•The average for all establishments in Philadelphia amounted to 63.6 cents, as com
pared with 64.6 cents in New York. Due to the fact that only 2 of the plants covered in
the Philadelphia area were nonunion, no separate figures can be given for union and
nonunion establishments.
• Other luggage includes Boston bags, zipper bags, radio cases, hat boxes, physician’s
bags, instrument cases, etc.
232
WAGES AND HOURS
Occupational differences.— An analysis o f hourly earnings by occu
pations brings to light pronounced differences within each o f the skillsex groups. O f the skilled males, working foremen with an average
o f 80.4 cents an hour were the highest-paid employees. Ranking next
were the suitcase assemblers, with an average o f 76.1 cents. Other
skilled males with relatively high earnings include heavy-sewingmachine operators (75.9 cents) and bag assemblers (73.7 cents).
Trunk assemblers (trimming and finishing), with an average o f 54.0
cents, had the lowest average o f any o f the skilled males.
The highest hourly earnings for the semiskilled males are showm for
sewing-machine operators (not specified), who averaged 67.8 cents.
F or the unskilled males, the range o f average hourly earnings was
from 32.2 cents for errand boys to 42.6 cents for wrappers and packers.
The great majority o f the unskilled occupations, however, averaged
between 37 and 40 cents an hour.
The maximum spread in the occupational averages o f females was
only 13.2 cents, the highest average (45.6 cents) being shown for light
sewing-machine operators, a semiskilled occupation, and the lowest
average (32.4 cents) for trimmers, an unskilled occupation.
Extra Rates for Overtim e W ork
The great m ajority o f the establishments covered in the survey of
the luggage industry paid extra rates for overtime work, but the
practices follow ed differed among the various plants.
The figures presented thus far have been based on regular rates
only. However, if the earnings due to the extra rates paid for over
time work were distributed among all wage earners in the industry,
they would affect the averages only to a limited extent. Including
the extra rates paid for overtime work, the average hourly earnings
amounted to 53.6 cents for all workers, 60.1 cents for males, and 40.2
cents for females, which may be compared respectively with 52.4,
58.4, and 39.8 cents, as based on regular rates only.
Miscellaneous Leather Products
Am ong the products included in the survey are billfolds and wab
lets, key cases, cigar and cigarette cases, coin cases, calling-card cases,
etc., which the Census o f Manufactures classified under “ leather
goods— small articles.” The survey also covered vanity sets, desk
sets, dog furnishings, handles, corners, and straps for luggage, burnt
and embossed leather, etc., which are classified by the Census o f
Manufactures under “ leather goods not elsewhere classified.” The
above articles were included in the survey whether they were made
o f leather or materials other than leather.
Establishments that were engaged wholly or principally in the
manufacture o f belts for personal wear, which are classified by the
Census o f Manufactures under “ leather goods not elsewhere classi
fied,” were not included in the survey. The survey also omitted the
women’s handbags and purses industry, which is a separate classifi
cation in the Census o f Manufactures. On the other hand, the survey
included in the miscellaneous products industry, camera cases, which
are classified by the Census o f Manufactures with the luggage industry.
LUGGAGE AND LEATHER PRODUCTS INDUSTRIES
233
W ith the plants manufacturing belts for personal use excluded, the
miscellaneous leather products industry is somewhat smaller than the
luggage industry. Although precise figures are not available, the in
dustry probably provides employment for over 7,000 wage earners.
The miscellaneous leather products industry resembles the luggage
industry in several respects. Like the luggage industry, the establish
ments making miscellaneous leather articles are comparatively small,
with very few o f the plants employing as many as 100 wage earners.
Moreover, the geographical distribution o f the two industries is
similar.
Operations in the miscellaneous leather products industry are sub
ject to sharp seasonal changes. Generally speaking, the busiest season
occurs in the early fall in anticipation o f the holiday trade.
Semiskilled workers accounted for a substantial majority o f the
operatives (approximately two-thirds) employed in the industry.
More than three-fifths o f the workers were women. The predomi
nance o f females is explained largely by the high production o f light
sewing-machine operations. Moreover, female workers accounted for
more than three-fourths o f the unskilled occupations. By contrast,
virtually all o f the skilled occupations were held by males.
Unionism has made less headway in the miscellaneous leather prod
ucts industry than in the luggage industry. A t the time o f the sur
vey, only about one-seventh o f the workers in miscellaneous leather
products were employed in plants operating under union agreements.
A ll o f the union establishments, moreover, were located in the metro
politan areas with a population o f 1,000,000 and over.
A v e r a g e H o u r ly E a rn in g s
Despite the predominance o f time workers, most o f the plants in
cluded in the survey employed some wage earners on a piece-rate basis.
The piece-rate workers constituted approximately one-fifth o f the total
labor force. Am ong the occupations that had a substantial number o f
workers who were paid piece rates were handle makers, clickingmachine cutters, hand creasers, creasing- and embossing-machine oper
ators, riveting-machine operators, spray-gun operators, sewing-ma
chine operators, hand lacers, and pasters. Most o f these occupations
are classed as semiskilled.
Production-bonus systems o f wage payment were reported by only a
few establishments. The workers employed under this system o f re
muneration accounted for less than 2 percent o f the total labor force.
In the miscellaneous leather products industry,7 hourly earnings
averaged 41.9 cents in the latter part o f 1939. As in the luggage in
dustry, however, hourly earnings varied considerably among plants,
the averages ranging from 29.0 to 86.5 cents. Between these extremes
the heaviest concentration was found in the 10-cent range o f 32.5 and
under 42.5 cents.
Although, roughly, 2 out o f every 5 wage earners in the miscellaneous
leather products industry were paid 40 cents an hour and over, only
about 1 out o f every 10 earned 62.5 cents and over, and no more than a
small fraction (1.6 percent) received $1.00 and over.
7 In this industry, as in the luggage industry, all of the larger plants and about half
of the smaller plants were studied. Figures for the smaller plants were then weighted
upward. The sample studied included 103 plants, each of which employed 3 or more wage
234
WAGES AND HOURS
T able 4. — Percentage distribution of miscellaneous leather-products workers by
average hourly earnings, sex, and skill, November and December 1939
Males
All workers
Average hourly earnings
(in cents)
Females
Semi Un
Semi Un
Semi
Total Skilled skilled1 skilled Total Skilled skilled skilled Total skilled1 Un
skilled
Under 25.0............ ............
25.0 and under 27.5_____
27.5 and under 30.0........ .
Exactly 30.0____________
30.0 and under 32.5_____
32.5 and under 35.0_____
35.0 and under 37.5_____
37.5 and under 40.0
0.7
1.2
.8
29.3
3.3
5.1
16.2
6.4
0.2
0.1
.7
.6
27.7
3.9
5.6
18.3
7.4
2.8
3.2
1.7
50.0
2.9
5.9
17.8
4.8
0.5
.3
.4
16.5
2.0
3.3
6.4
7.0
0.2
0.1
.6
2.7
1.0
1.5
2.8
4.0
.6
2.7
1.0
1.5
2.8
4.0
.1
20.0
2.0
4.1
7.2
8.4
2.7
2.4
1.1
38.2
4.3
4.3
12.1
8.8
0.8
1.8
1.1
37.6
4.2
6.4
22.5
6.0
0.1
1.1
.9
31.6
4.8
6.3
23.5
6.9
2.8
3.5
1.8
53.6
2.5
6.4
19.5
3.6
40.0 and under 42.5........ .
42.5 and under 47.5........ .
47.5 and under 52.5_____
52.5 and under 57.5_____
57.5 and under 62.5..........
62.5 and under 67.5_____
67.5 and under 72.5
72.5 and under 77.5
6.7
7.5
5.7
3.5
2.4
2.8
1.4
1.7
3.6
7.3
9.3
8.7
6.4
10.6
6.2
8.0
8.3
9.0
6.1
3.4
2.2
2.1
.9
1.0
3.6
3.3
2.4
.8
.4
.1
.1
.1
6.3
9.3
9.8
6.5
4.5
6.4
3.5
4.2
3.6
7.3
9.3
8.7
6.4
10.6
6.2
8.0
7.7
10.7
11.1
6.2
4.1
5.1
2.7
2.9
6.7
8.3
5.4
2.4
1.3
.5
.5
.5
7.0
6.4
3.1
1.6
1.0
.4
(2)
.1
8.5
8.1
3.7
2.1
1.3
.6
(2)
.2
2.6
1.8
1.4
.3
.2
77.5 and under 82.5.........
82.5 and under 87.5 . _
87.5 and under 92.5
92.5 and under 100.0__
100.0 and under 110.0___
110.0 and under 120.0___
120.0 and under 130.0___
130.0 and over. - __
.8
1.2
1.0
2.0
2.9
2.5
1.8
2.1
.5
.4
2.9
5.8
6.4
3.8
3.9
1.5
1.7
1.1
1.9
1.7
.8
.3
.3
.2
2.9
5.8
6.4
3.8
3.9
1. 5
1.7
1.1
1.0
1.6
.3
.3
.1
T ota l......................
100.0
100.0
100.0 100.0
100.0
100.0
.7
.7
.6
.1
.4
.5
.1
.1
.7
.7
(2)
100.0
.7
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
100.0 100.0
.1
.1
.1
(2)
100.0
100.0
Number
of workers
(weighted)___________ 7,341
373 4,450 3,251 1,199
943 1,575
943 4,826 1,572 2,891
Average hourly earnings. $0.419 $0,652 $0.401 $0,329 $0,520 $0,652 $0,478 $0.360 $0,351 $0.363 $0,319
1 Includes 131 females who were reported as skilled.
* Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
A s in the luggage industry, a large part o f the dispersion o f hourly
earnings in the miscellaneous leather products industry is explained
by the variations in the wage levels o f the different groups o f workers.
F or the male employees, the averages were 65.2 cents fo r skilled, 47.8
cents for semiskilled, and 36.0 cents fo r unskilled. Earnings o f female
workers averaged 36.3 cents for semiskilled and 31.9 cents for unskilled.
H ourly earnings o f 62.5 cents and over were confined almost exclu
sively to the skilled and semiskilled males. Only 6.0 percent o f the
skilled males earned below 35 cents an hour, and 12.8 percent received
less than 40 cents. For semiskilled males, the respective figures were
26.3 and 41.9 percent.
A ll o f the union establishments covered in the survey were located
in the New York, Chicago, and Philadelphia metropolitan districts.
Consequently, any comparison in hourly earnings between union and
nonunion plants must be confined to these areas.
Restricted in this way, the hourly earnings in union establishments
were higher than those in nonunion plants. Against an average o f
50.0 cents fo r all wage earners in union establishments in New York,
Chicago, and Philadelphia, the average fo r all workers in nonunion
plants in the same communities was 41.3 cents.
In the New Y ork metropolitan area, furthermore, there was a
sufficient number o f union and nonunion plants to fnake a comparison,
and the advantage was with the union establishments. Thus, the
LUMBER AND TIMBER PRODUCTS INDUSTRY
235
average hourly earnings for all workers was 50.0 cents in union plants,
as against 41.4 cents for nonunion concerns.
As in the luggage industry, there are no well-defined geographical
differences in hourly earnings in the miscellaneous leather products
industry. In each of the regions where the industiy is located, there
is considerable scattering of the average hourly earnings in the various
plants. Both the high- and low-paid establishments are widely
dispersed geographically. Moreover, even within restricted areas,
hourly earnings vary conspicuously.
Unlike the luggage industry, there is no evidence of any relationship
between size of community and hourly earnings in the miscellaneous
leather products industry.
O c cu p a tio n a l d iffe r e n c e s .—In the miscellaneous leather products in
dustry the highest average—82.0 cents—was for working fore
men. Hourly earnings of the other occupational groups among males
la
far behind.
occupational averages for the semiskilled males ranged from
89.4 to 62.1 cents an hour, the highest average being reported for
sewing-machine operators and the lowest for handle makers’ helpers.
For most of the occupations, however, the spread was from 40 to
50 cents.
With the single exception of edge colorers, who averaged 45.8 cents
an hour, all of the unskilled male occupations averaged under 40
cents. Hourly earnings of less than 85 cents were likewise reported
for floor workers (including general helpers), hand pasters’ helpers,
and the miscellaneous unskilled males.
The occupational averages of females ranged from 26.8 cents an
hour for learners to 45.4 cents for working foreladies. Hourly earn
ings above the 40-cent level, however, were restricted exclusively to
the few females who were classed as skilled.
Extra Rates for Overtim e W ork
By far the great majority of the plants included in the survey of the
miscellaneous leather products industry paid time and one-half for
all work in excess o f 42 hours a week, which conforms with the pro
visions o f the Fair Labor Standards Act. Several establishments,
however, were more liberal in their overtime provisions. Some plants
paid for overtime work on a pro rata basis, and a few establishments
prohibited overtime work altogether.N
The figures presented are based on regular rates only, the averages
amounting to 41.9 cents for all workers in the industry, 52.0 cents tor
males, and 35.1 cents for females. Including the extra rates paid for
overtime work, the respective averages are 42.8,53.3, and 35.7 cents.
*#####+*
L u m b e r a n d T im b e r P ro d u c ts I n d u s tr y — H o u r ly
E a r n in g s , 1 9 3 9 - 4 0 1
In the winter of 1939-40, workers in the lumber and timber prod
ucts industry earned an average of 50.1 cents per hour. As a result
1
Abstract of an article by Harry Ober, Bureau of Labor Statistics, in the Monthly
Labor Review for July 1941.
505364 0 - 43 - 16
236
WAGES AND HOURS
o f the 30-cent minimum wage, which became effective on October 24,
1939, nearly one-third of all workers averaged from 30 to 32.5 cents.
Three percent earned less than 30 cents, and the remainder were
widely scattered among various higher wage classes. Only about 1
worker out of 10 received as much as 77.5 cents per hour.
The scope of the industry covered by the Bureau’s survey is reliably
indicated by the definition adopted in the code of fair competition
under the N. R. A., which included “logs, poles, and piling; sawn
lumber and products of planing mills operated in conjunction with
sawmills; shingles; woodwork (millwork) including products of plan
ing mills operated in conjunction with retail lumber yards; hardwood
flooring; veneers; plywood; kiln-dried hardwood dimensions; lath;
sawed boxes, shooks and crates; plywood, veneer, and wirebound
packages and containers.” As thus defined, the industry involves
considerably more than the mere conversion of timber into lumber
and other basic products. A narrower definition than tfce above, how
ever, would be unrealistic, in view of the marked tendency for saw
mills in recent years to perform certain wood-reworking processes,
such as the manufacture of millwork, flooring, and dimension stock.
The manufacture of finished furniture, it should be noted, is not in
cluded in this industry.
Method and Scope of Study
The material on which the Bureau’s study is based was transcribed
from actual pay-roll records by the Bureau’s trained field representa
tives. The plants included in the sample were selected with great
care, in order that they might faithfully represent this complex in
dustry. Particular pains were taken to include an appropriate num
ber of remote and isolated logging camps and sawmills, as well as
those most easily accessible.
It was impracticable, however, to include numerous very small plants
in the sample, and, for the most part, the survey was limited to estab
lishments employing 20 or more workers.2 In the case of custommillwork plants and single mills, establishments having as few as 10
workers were included, since a large part o f the product of these
branches is manufactured in small plants. On the other hand, an
excessive proportion of the largest plants were covered, but only a
sample o f the workers in each such plant was selected. In making
such selection within individual establishments special effort was taken
to obtain a balanced cross section of the labor force.
Information was obtained for a total o f 116,833 workers in 1,387
establishments. The sample constituted over one-fourth o f the work
ers in the three principal census classifications, three-eighths of the
workers in the veneer-basket industry, and somewhat more than twofifths o f the workers in the plywood industry. O f the total number
of establishments in the sample, 20.4 percent were in the West, 35.2
percent were in the North, and 44.4 percent in the South; while of
the workers 31.5 percent were in the West, 22.6 percent were in the
North, and 45.9 percent in the South.
*The results of a check survey help to indicate the level of wages among small saw
mills. These results are presented briefly in a later part of this article.
LUMBER AND TIMBER PRODUCTS INDUSTRY
237
P r o d u c tio n U n its and B ran ch es
To discuss the various branches o f this industry in terms o f “ estab
lishments” is not entirely satisfactory, since many establishments
engage in two or more distinct and important stages o f production.
Thus a very substantial proportion o f all planing-mill products are
produced in establishments usually classified not as planing mills but
as sawmills. In order to indicate the scope o f the various processes
more accurately and to group together the workers engaged in similar
types o f work, the present study has distinguished separate “ produc
tion units” within establishments. The employees of a small planing
mill operated in connection with a large sawmill are thus classified
as planing-mill employees.
Because o f the special character o f the labor force and the distinct
processes involved in the manufacture o f veneer products, the pro
duction o f such articles has been excluded from the major industry.
The three branches o f the veneer and veneer-products group are dis
cussed separately at the end o f this article. This survey covered 119
production units in the three branches combined.
The “ lumber and timber-products industry,” excluding veneer and
veneer products, is represented by 2,129 production units in 10 distinct
branches. In the largest o f these branches— sawmilling— 625 produc
tion units and 34,159 workers were studied; in the smallest— shingle
manufacture— the survey covered only 27 production units and 1,175
workers.
N a tu re o f D ata O b ta in ed
A s is customary in the Bureau’s studies o f this type, full information
was secured regarding the sex, color, and occupation o f each worker
studied, and his hours o f work and earnings during a representative
pay-roll period. The hours referred to in the present report consist o f
hours actually worked, whether paid fo r at straight time or punitive
overtime rates. Although information regarding overtime was se
cured in the study o f this industry, it was found through a spot check
that the amount o f overtime involved at the time o f the survey was
extremely minor and did not warrant separate analysis. Total earn
ings include the payment o f bonuses, payments fo r overtime at penalty
rates, and the estimated value o f board and lodging wherever they were
provided. In general, few workers were on piece rates, and still fewer
received bonuses or other incentives; the bulk o f the workers were on
a straight time-payment basis.
Period covered.— The survey o f the lumber and timber products
industry was started early in September 1939 and continued until A pril
1940. Practically all o f the plants scheduled in the W est and North
provided data for a pay-roll period prior to October 24,1939, when the
minimum wage under the Fair Labor Standards A ct was 25 cents an
hour and the maximum hours o f work were 44 per week. The field
work in the South, however, was not started until late in 1939, and
most o f the schedules fo r the South were for a pay-roll period after
October 24, 1939; they therefore reflect the influence o f the minimum
hourly wage o f 30 cents and the maximum weekly hours o f 42 per
week, which became effective on this date. Because o f this fact, the
238
WAGES AND HOURS
data for the West and the North are not entirely comparable with
those fo r the South, and in the presentation o f summaries for the
country as a whole have required minor adjustments. These adjust
ments have involved the assumption that all workers in the W est and
the North who earned under 30 cents when the survey was made were
raised to the wage class “ 30 cents and under 32.5 cents per hour” soon
afterward.3 Although it has been impracticable to extend the adjust
ments to subregions and other minor divisions o f the industry, care has
been taken to avoid misleading comparisons o f data representing
different periods.
Hourly Earnings
T h e U n ite d States as a W h ole
In the 10 branches which are considered in the present report to con
stitute the lumber and timber products industry hourly earnings in the
winter o f 1939-40 averaged 50.1 cents. This average is based on
schedules covering 105,362 workers in 1,297 establishments. In the
summary figures for the country as a whole, presented in table 1, data
fo r the West and North have been adjusted to make allowance for
changes in subminimum rates follow ing the establishment o f the 30cent minimum on October 24, 1939. This adjustment has involved
raising to the wage class “ 30 and under 32.5 cents” the 0.1 percent o f
the western workers and the 10.9 percent o f the northern workers origi
nally reported as receiving less than 30 cents an hour. It has had the
effect o f raising the over-all average for the W est by only 0.1 cent and
that fo r the North by only 1 cent.
It will be observed that nearly one-third (32.7 percent) o f the
workers in the industry had earnings o f 30 and under 32.5 cents per
hour; o f these the great majority received exactly 30 cents.4 Only
3 percent o f the workers received less than the minimum.5 O f the
remainder o f the workers, about one-sixth earned from 32.5 to 42.5
cents per hour; nearly one-fifth earned from 42.5 to 62.5 cents per
hour; nearly another fifth earned from 62.5 to 82.5 cents per hour;
and one-tenth had earnings o f 82.5 cents per hour or more.
Average hourly earnings in individual branches o f the industry in
the winter o f 1939-40 varied from a low o f 36.6 cents in cooperagestock production to a high o f 94.8 cents in the manufacture o f shingles.
These extremely low and extremely high earnings, however, involved
only small proportions o f the total number o f workers in the industry.
The two branches, logging and sawmilling, which together account for
a That this assumption is fairly reasonable is indicated by a spot check made by the
Bureau in the latter part of 1940. On the basis of the returns of a mailed inquiry it
appears that relatively few workers in the lumber industry in the North were then receiv
ing less than 30 cents an hour. Replies were received from 103 firms which in 1939 paid
some of their workers less than 30 cents an hour. Only 11 of the reporting firms were
still paying any of their workers less than 30 cents, and 10 of these 11 were engaged
exclusively in intrastate commerce. Only 1 worker in the remaining plant was reported
to be earning less than 30 cents an hour at the time of the spot check.
4 Of the 34,357 workers appearing in table 1 as receiving 30 and under 32.5 cents per
hour, 29,710 were actually reported in this wage class by southern plants, 2,125 were so
reported by western and northern plants, and only 2,522 were so classified as a result of
the adjustment described above.
8 All of the workers classified as receiving less than 30 cents an hour were actually
^reported at such wages by southern plants. Presumably a very small additional number of
western and northern employees also received less than 30 cents per hour, but, as a result
of the method of 'adjustment employed, these are here included in the 30 and under 32.5
cents class.
239
LUMBER AND TIMBER PRODUCTS INDUSTRY
about half the workers in the sample, paid average wages o f 59.7 cents
and 47.5 cents per hour, respectively. The next largest branch, sur
facing, which accounts for nearly a sixth o f all the workers in the
sample, showed average hourly earnings o f 44.8 cents per hour.
W orkers in custom-millwork production earned on the average 60
cents per hour, while workers in wooden-box production, who com
prised one-eighth o f the workers in the sample, had average hourly
earnings o f 42.5 cents. A s is indicated later, regional* factors are o f
paramount importance in their influence on average hourly earnings
among the branches o f the industry.
T a b l e 1 . — Distribution of workers in the lumber and timber products industry by
average hourly earnings and by branch of the industry , 1 9 3 9 -4 0
[Adjusted to reflect changes caused by 30-cent minimum wage *]
Under 30.0..........
30.0 and under 32.5.
32.5 and under 35.0.
35.0 and under 37.5.
37.5 and under 40.0.
40.0 and under 42.5.
42.5 and under 47.547.5 and under 52.5.
52.5 and under 57.5.
57.5 and under 62.562.5 and under 67.567.5 and under 72.5.
72.5 and under 77.5.
77.5 and under 82.5.
82.5 and under 87.5.
87.5 and under 92.5.
92.5 and under
100.0....... ............
100.0 and under
110.0....................
110.0 and under
120.0__________
120.0 and under
130.0..... .......... .
130.0 and under
140.0..............
140.0 and under
150.0_____ _____
150.0 and over........
3.0
32.7
4.6
4.7
2.7
4.4
5.0
5.1
4.0
5.1
7.1
4.9
3.9
2.9
2.0
2.0
3.0
35.6
40.2
45.0
47.7
52.1
57.1
62.3
66.3
71.3
78.5
83.4
87.3
90.2
92.2
94.2
1,950
1.9
1,973
6.0
5.3
3.6
2.5
1.7
6.0
42.6
4.0
3.7
1.9
3.1
2.9
3.6
3.1
5.1
9.0
5.1
3.0
2.2
1.4
1.1
96.0
4.3
1.4
1.3
1.9
.7
1.9
97.9
4.4
.6
4.8
2.2
1,013
1.0
98.9
2.3
.2
2.0
1.1
528
.5
99.4
1.2
.1
.4
.1
335
.3
99.7
.7
(2)
134
205
.1 99.8
.2 100.0
.2
(2)
(2)
Total............ —
Number of produc
tion units______
Number of workers.
Average
hourly
earnings......... .
3.9
37.4
4.5
4.5
2.7
4.0
4.6
4.2
2.9
4.
1.7
22.8
4.9
4.4
2.8
3.1
4.0
3.8
2.8
4.2
7.0
5.1
6.3
3.7
4.0
$0. 501
1.6
.3
100.0 100.0 100.0
2,129
105,362
8.2
2
409
100.0
4.8
7.9
1.4
4.6
1.6
6.7
6.6
9.0
7.3
8.8
7.6
6.3
7.0
3.8
3.6
3.5
.4
(2)
(2)
1.6
8.3
1.7
4.8
2.6
9.6
11.8
11.6
10.0
8.1
9.5
6.8
4.1
1.8
2.4
1.2
0.1
36.2
12.4
10.1
7.8
9.5
8.3
4.4
3.1
3.2
2.5
.7
.9
.3
.1
.2
(2)
.2
0.2
39.3
8.5
8.3
4.8
8.9
8.6
7.4
3.7
3.7
2.0
1.2
.7
.4
.3
.8
1.2
60.6
8.1
4.3
2.4
3.5
4.0
5.8
3.3
2.1
1.1
2.0
.8
.4
.2
.1
.7
.4
.1
.1
—
(2)
0.1
.2
2.2
17.4
11.0
7.3
9.1
6.6
Wooden-box manu
facture
Shingle manufacture
Cooperage stock man
ufacture
Hardwood dimension
stock manufacture
j Hardwood flooring
j
manufacture
Stock millwork man
ufacture
Surfacing
3,160
34,357
4,867
5,004
2,864
4, 651
5,286
5,399
4,232
5,349
7,518
5,194
4,073
3,066
2,149
2,055
! Custom
millwork
|
manufacture
Branch (percentage distribution)
Cumulative percent
age
Average hourly
earnings (in cents)
! Simple percentage
Number of workers
Total
0.4
43.2
5.7
6.2
3.2
4.7
5.9
6.8
6.4
6.0
4.1
2.4
1.3
1.1
.9
.6
8.5
.5
11.9
.3
9.0
.1
7.7
.1
(2)
4.4
(2)
(2)
2.7
1.9
(2)
.1
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
89
34
625 443 242
38
47
27 175
34,159 ), 434 6,258 6,279 2,649 1,818 2,325 1,175 13,254
$0.475 ). 448 $0,600 $0. 547 $0. 390 $0,403 $0.366 $0.948:$0,425
$0,597
$
1In this table data for the West and North, which were collected prior to October 24, 1939, the effective
date of the 30-cent minimum wage, have been adjusted to reflect the changes resulting from the 30-cent
minimum. Data for the South were collected subsequent to October 24, 1939, and conseaue tly reflect
without adjustment the changes resulting from the 30-cent minimum,
i Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
240
WAGES AND HOURS
R e g io n a l V a ria tio n s
In view o f the profound differences in the timber stand in various
parts o f the country, the scale and character o f logging and other oper
ations, and the level o f wages which workers in the industry receive, it
is essential to examine the wage structure o f the industry by separate
regions.
The broad areas o f the West, the North and the S ou th 6 present
many contrasts. In the West, for example, the available stand of
saw timber is heavily concentrated, and permits the establishment o f
large, highly mechanized, and relatively permanent logging camps
and sawmills; in the North and South, on the other hand, the saw
timber ready fo r cutting is scattered, and small and shifting opera
tions are typical. In 1939, the active lumber mills o f the West pro
duced an average o f 5,065 M. B. F. o f lumber per mill as against 607
M. B. F. per mill in the North and 997 M. B. F. per mill in the South.
Thus, on the average, the West produced more than 8 times as much
lumber per mill as the North and five times as much as the South.
Timber in the W est is o f larger diameter, as a rule, than timber in the
North or South, and there are, o f course, differences in the labor
supply and in other important factors.
H ourly earnings at the time o f the study averaged 72.7 cents in the
West, 46.4 cents in the North and 34.6 cents in the South.7 The fig
ures here given for the West and the North— and all those presented
in the remainder o f this section o f the article— are unadjusted, and
consequently do not reflect changes due to the 30-cent minimum wage.
In view o f the fact that data for the South were collected subsequent
to the effective date o f the 30-cent minimum, the figures probably
understate slightly the difference between hourly earnings in the
South and those in the West and North. A s is noted below, hourly
earnings vary substantially by branch and by region, even within
these separate areas.
Earnings in the W est.— W orkers in the W est are by far the highest
paid in the industry. The distribution by average hourly earnings of
the 34,655 western workers studied shows that although the range of
earnings was from under 25 cents to over $1.50, nearly half (45.9
percent) were concentrated in the range from 62.5 to 82.5 cents per
hour, and one-fourth had earnings o f 82.5 cents and over (table 2 ).
Only 2.8 percent earned less than 40 cents per hour.
6 The West includes Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, and all States west of
these. The North is composed of Kansas, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, West Virginia,
Maryland, Delaware, and all States north of these. The South includes Oklahoma,
Arkansas, Kentucky, Virginia, and all States south of these.
7 As a supplement to its main survey in the lumber and timber products industry, in
which it was impracticable to include a representative sample of the thousands of estab
lishments employing fewer than 20 wage earners, the Bureau conducted a spot-check survey
of hourly earnings in a few very small logging camps and sawmills. Although the scope
of this supplementary study was limited, the establishments surveyed were chosen on a
random basis, and the results of the survey are believed to be significant.
In the spot-check survey wage and hour data were secured for 5,323 workers in 382
widely scattered establishments. Of these about two-thirds were in the South, one-fifth
in the West, and roughly one-tenth in the North. Due to a lack of adequate time records,
logging was represented less fully than sawmilling.
The data obtained indicate that hourly earnings in small logging averaged 64 cents in
the West, 36 cents in the North, and 25.9 cents in the South. No workers in the West,
but 14.5 percent in the North and 45.7 percent in the South earned less than 30 cents.
Employees in small sawmills averaged 52.3 cents in the West, 37.5* cents in the North, and
25.6 cents in the South ; workers earning less than 30 cents amounted to 2.4 percent of
the total in the West, 18.9 percent in the North, and 47.5 percent in the South. In the
case of each branch of the industry data for the West and North refer to a period prior
to the effective date of the 30-cent minimum wage and data for the South to a period
subsequent to that date.
241
LUMBER AND TIMBER PRODUCTS INDUSTRY
T a b l e 2 .— Percentage distribution of workers in the lumber and timber products
industry in the W est , by average hourly earnings and region , 1989 1
Douglas fir
Average hourly earnings
(in cents)
Total
Under 25.0_______________
25.0 and under 27.5____ - __
27.5 and under 30.0________
30.0 and under 32.5_________
32.5 and under 35.0___ _____
35.0 and under 37.5_________
37.5 and under 40.0_________
40.0 and under 42.5_________
42.5 and under 47.5_________
47.5 and under 52.5_________
52.5 and under 57.5_________
57.5 and under 62.5________
62.5 and under 67.5________
67.5 and under 72.5________
72.5 and under 77.5________
77.5 and under 82.5_________
82.5 and under 87.5________
87.5 and under 92.5________
92.5 and under 100.0________
100.0 and under 110.0_______
110.0 and under 120.0_______
120.0 and under 130.0______
130.0 and under 140.0_______
140.0 and under 150.0.^_____
150.0 and over______________
(2)
0.1
(2)
.4
.5
1.3
.5
1.3
2.5
6.0
5.7
10.0
17.6
11.7
9.2
7.4
5.0
5. 1
5.2
4.8
2.4
1.4
.9
.4
Red
wood
Western pine
West West
East East
ern
ern
ern
ern
Cali Moun
Total Wash Ore
Total Wash Ore
tain Cali
fornia States
fornia
ing
ing
gon
gon
ton
ton
(2)
(2)
(2)
0.2
.1
.2
.2
.4
1.5
2.7
1.8
4.1
22.9
14.4
11.0
8.7
6. 1
6.6
6. 1
6.2
3.1
1.7
1.0
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
0.1
(2)
(2)
.2
.9
1.1
1.3
23.0
15.4
11.8
9.3
6.5
7.2
7.4
7.6
3.8
2. 1
1. 2
0.1
(2)
.5
.3
.5
.4
1.1
3.9
6.1
3.3
9.4
22.7
12.4
9.4
7.6
5.4
5.5
3.7
3. 7
1.8
.9
.5
0.1
.1
( 2)
.7
1.0
2.7
.9
2.4
3.8
7.5
8.5
16.5
12.8
9.0
7.4
6.2
3.9
3. 7
4.4
3. 5
1.9
1.3
.8
(2)
0.3
.2
2.1
.3
6.1
9.3
12.4
8.1
18.0
13.8
6.8
5.8
5.0
2.9
2.2
2.6
1.8
.9
.7
.2
.1
0.1
(2)
0.1
.1
(3)
0.2
.1
.3
.1
.3
.3
.9
2.5
6.7
11.7
13.4
13.5
8.8
6.6
7.5
4.2
4.5
6.0
6.3
2.4
1.3
1.3
1.8
3.3
7.3
2.7
3.6
4.2
7.2
6.9
17.8
12.8
7.1
7.4
5.3
2.7
3.0
2.4
1.7
1.2
.6
(2)
.4
.1
.2
1.3
5.7
6.8
17.1
11.3
13.0
9.5
6.4
5.7
4.6
5.9
3.6
2. 7
2.4
1.4
.l
0.1
.2
.1
.2
.2
1.7
23.8
19.1
12.6
8.7
9.2
7.6
5.4
2.8
2.6
2.6
1.5
.5
.3
.3
.5
.1
.2
100.0
100.0
Number of production units __
121
514
97
273
56
218
57
78
82
Number of workers _______ 34, 655 17, 432 11,377 6, 055 15, 363 2, 444 3, 799 4, 533 4,587
Average hourly earnings____ $0. 727 $0. 773 $0.808 $0. 715 $0. 689 $0.627 $0. 754 $0. 731 $0. 623
23
1,860
$0. 637
Total _______________
.6
100.0
.5
.5
100.0
.6
.5
100.0
.3
. 5
. 2
.7
100. 0 100.0
.4
1.2
.3
.9
100.0
100.0
100.0
.5
.3
.1
1 The data presented in this table have not been adjusted, and do not reflect the influence of the 30-eent
minimum wage.
JLess than one-tenth of 1 percent.
Average hourly earnings by branches o f the industry in the West
ranged from 63.1 cents in stock mill work production to as high as
94.8 cents per hour in shingle manufacturing. These two branches,
however, included a very small proportion o f all workers. Most of
the wwkers were employed in logging, sawmilling, and surfacing;
average hourly earnings in these three branches amounted to 80.1
cents, 70.2 cents, and 67.1 cents per hour, respectively.
Average hourly earnings in the Pacific Coast States were considerablv higher than in the Mountain States; the 30,068 workers in the
Pacific Coast States averaged 74.3 cents, while the 4,587 in the Moun
tain States averaged only 62.3 cents. This regional grouping, how
ever, is probably less significant than the classification of regions on
the basis o f the type o f lumber produced. Average hourly earnings
in the Douglas-fir region were 77.3 cents per hour, in the westernpine region 68.9 cents, and in the redwood region 63.7 cents.
Earnings in the N orth.— The survey in the North involved 22,741
workers employed in 609 production units. In the late summer of
1939 these workers earned, on the average, 46.4 cents per hour. (See
table 3.) Although average hourly earnings o f individual workers
ranged from under 25 cents to over $1.50, the distribution o f workers
shows considerable, concentration around the average. Over one-
242
WAGES AND HOURS
fourth o f the workers (28.1 percent) were included in the 10-cent
range o f 30 to 40 cents; nearly half o f the workers had average
hourly earnings o f from 40 to 62.5 cents. Nearly one-sixth o f the
workers earned 62.5 cents per hour and over, and fully one-tenth
earned under 30 cents.
T a b l e 3 . —Percentage
distribution of workers in the lumber and timber products
industry in the North by average hourly earnings and region, 1939 1
Average hourly earnings
Total
Prairie
States
Under 25.0 cents....................... ........
25.0 and under 27.5 cents..................
27.5 and under 30.0 cents__________
30.0 and under 32.5 cents...................
32.5 and under 35.0 cents.................
35.0 and under 37.5 cents.......... ........
37.5 and under 40.0 cents...................
40.0 and under 42.5 cents..................
42.5 and under 47.5 cents............... .
47.5 and under 52.5 cents....... ...........
62.5 and under 57.5 cents................. .
57.5 and under 62.5 cents...............
62.5 and under 67.5 cents..................
67.5 and under 72.5 cents..................
72.5 and under 77.5 cents............... .
77.5 and under 82.5 cents.......... .......
82.5 and under 87.5 cents...................
87.5 and under 92.5 cents__________
92.5 and under 100.0 cents.................
100.0 and under 110.0 cents...............
110.0 and under 120.0 cents...............
120.0 and under 130.0 cents..... .........
130.0 and under 140.0 cents________
140.0 and under 150.0 cents..............
150.0 cents and ov e r....................... .
0.6
7.5
2.8
8.7
4.8
8.5
6.1
11.8
12.2
9.2
6.4
5.4
4.2
3.3
2.7
1.4
1.3
.8
.4
1.1
.6
.1
.1
(*)
(3)
0.4
13.7
2.4
5.6
2.4
4.6
3.2
10.2
10.5
12.0
10.3
8.5
5.8
3.9
3.7
1.2
.5
.6
.2
.2
.1
Total______________________
100.0
100.0
Number of production units............
Number of workers..........................
Average hourly earnings....... ..........
609
22,741
$0,464
62
3,272
$0.472
Lake
States
East
Central
States
Middle
Atlantic
States
New
England
States
0.3
4.9
2.2
14.6
5.4
8.9
6.8
9.6
11.9
8.0
7.0
5.7
3.6
2.6
2.0
1.2
1.5
.5
.4
2.5
.1
.1
(*)
.1
.1
1.4
6.9
1.8
5.6
4.1
5.4
3.1
6.9
9.4
9.7
6.7
6.8
6.4
4.0
4.1
3.0
3.9
2.4
1.2
2.7
3.3
.5
.5
.1
.1
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
137
6,526
$0.451
113
4,688
$0,463
146
4,036
$0.546
151
4,219
$0,403
0.4
1.4
2.2
5.7
4.6
11.6
8.6
18.4
16.2
10.0
5.0
4.4
3.4
3.5
2.6
.9
.7
.2
.1
.1
(’ )
0.5
15.6
5.9
12.6
6.9
9.2
6.6
9.8
9.7
6.9
4.6
3.0
2.6
2.3
1.4
.9
.3
.5
.3
.3
(*)
.1
(’ )
1 The data presented in this table have not been adjusted and do not reflect the influence of the 30-cent
minimum wage.
> Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
Average hourly earnings by branch o f the industry in this region
showed considerable variation from the average fo r the industry as
a whole. Cooperage-stock production provided the lowest average
hourly earnings (35.1 cents) while workers in custom and stock millwork manufacturing earned 60.6 and 54.5 cents per hour, respectively.
Custom- and stock-millwork production was relatively more important
in the North than in the W est; about one-third o f all workers in the
sample were employed in these two branches.
In the late summer o f 1939 more than two-fifths (43.8 percent)
o f the workers in the small cooperage-stock branch and more than a
fifth (21.7 percent) o f the workers in logging camps earned less than
30 cents an hour. F ully one-fourth o f the workers in custom-millwork and nearly one-fifth in stock-millwork production earned from
62.5 to 82.5 cents; nearly one-sixth in custom millwork earned 82.5
cents and over.
Average hourly earnings in the regions which comprise the North
varied from a low o f 40.3 cents in the New England States to a high
o f 54.6 cents per hour in the M iddle Atlantic States; the latter region,
with average hourly earnings 7.4 cents higher than the highest or
243
L U M B E R A N D TIMBER PRODUCTS INDUSTRY
the other regions, was in a class by itself. In the New England
States over a fifth o f the workers earned under 30 cents per hour.
In the M iddle Atlantic States about one-seventh earned 82.5 cents an
hour and over.
Eam m gs in the South.— During late 1939 and early 1940 workers
in the South earned on the average 34.6 cents per hour. The dis
tribution o f individual earnings shows that about half o f the workers
received exactly 30 cents per hour. In practically all cases the wage
and hour data fo r the South were for a pay-roll period after October
24, 1939, and for that reason reflect the wage adjustments to the 30cent minimum hourly rate which became effective on that date for
concerns engaged in interstate commerce. Nevertheless, 6.6 percent
o f the workers were earning less than 30 cents an hour. Presumably
most o f these were employed in plants not engaged in interstate
commerce, or fo r some other reason not subject to the Fair Labor
Standards Act. Another one-eighth o f the southern workers earned
over 30 and under 32.5 cents an hour. Over one-fourth o f the workers
(27.8 percent) earned from 32.5 to 62.5 cents and only 3.5 percent
had earnings o f 62.5 cents an hour and over. (See table 4.)
T a b l e 4 .— Percentage
distribution of workers in the lumber and timber products
industry m the South, by average hourly earnings and State, 1989-40
Ar
kan
South Geor Flor Ala Mis
Vir Ken Ten North
Loui Texas sas
Average hourly
Caro
Caro
sis
Total
gia
ginia tucky nessee lina lina
earnings (in cents)
ida bama sippi siana
and
Okla
homa
Under 15.0..............
15.0 and under 17.5_
17.5 and under 20.0_
20.0 and under 22.5.
22.5 and under 25.0.
25.0 and under 27.5.
27.5 and under 30.0.
Exactly 30.0..........
Over 30.0 and un
der 32.5...... ..........
32.5 and under 35.0.
35.0 and under 37.5.
37.5 and under 40.0.
40.0 and under 42.5.
42.5 and under 47.5.
47.5 and under 52.5.
52.5 and under 57.5.
57.5 and under 62.5.
62.5 and under 67.5.
67.5 and under 72.5.
72.5 and under 77.5.
77.5 and under 82.5.
82.5 and under 87.5.
87.5 and under 92.5.
92.5 and under 100.0.
100.0 and under
110.0.....................
110.0 and under
120.0.....................
120.0 and over.........
24.4
0.1
.7
.3
.1
.1
.5
.5
29, 7
0.4
2.6
.8
.4
.3
4.7
.7
59.6
1.6
3.5
1.0
.6
.3
1.6
.3
57.9
4.1
5.6
3.3
4.0
1.1
1.7
.8
56.7
0.4
2.9
.8
1.8
.3
1.0
.3
57.0
0.4
.8
.3
.7
.2
.7
.4
63.2
0.1
.5
.5
.6
.3
.8
1.4
55.2
0.1
1.0
.7
1.0
.6
2.1
.6
42.3
0)
1.0
.6
1.8
.6
7.6
.8
38.1
0)
0.5
.3
.2
1.2
.4
42.6
14.0
7.1
6.0
1.9
3.7
2.9
2.8
1.7
2.5
1.4
2.2
1.4
1.5
.7
.2
.2
11.3
3.7
14.0
4.8
4.6
6.9
6.9
4.3
3.9
2.6
4.1
4.7
1.0
1.0
.6
.2
17.7
8.7
7.6
3.6
6.1
6.6
5.6
3.0
3.1
1.9
.9
1.2
.4
.3
.6
.2
9.8
5.0
4.1
1.6
2.1
2.3
1.7
1.4
.7
.5
.6
.3
.1
.2
0)
.1
11.5
4.2
3.2
1.7
2.2
2.9
1.9
1.4
1.1
.9
.8
.3
.2
.2
.1
.2
5.8
3.8
2.7
1.7
1.2
1.7
1.5
1.0
1.0
.9
.7
.2
0)
.2
.2
.1
7.8
5.9
4.4
2.4
3.3
3.1
2.1
1.7
1.1
1.1
,8
.5
.3
.2
.2
.1
11.4
4.7
5.4
2.0
2.3
2.4
2.1
.8
.6
.3
.4
.1
.2
.2
.2
.1
11.2
7.1
4.5
2.7
2.7
3.1
2.7
1.6
1.5
.8
.9
.4
.4
.2
.2
.2
14.1
11.9
6.0
3.0
3.8
4.2
2.0
1.6
1.2
1.2
.6
.4
.6
.3
.2
.2
13.0
10.3
6.0
3.7
4.0
4.0
2.8
1.7
.9
.7
.7
.5
.5
.2
.3
.1
17.9
10.4
6.8
3.8
3.6
3.8
2.7
1.8
1.4
.8
.3
.5
.2
.2
.4
(9
.2
.2
.3
.2 ____
.2
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
.2
.1
0.5
1.4
.7
.9
.4
2.1
.6
49.7
(i)
0.1
.2
.1
.2
1.4
.2
47.3
12.4
7.5
5.5
2.7
3.2
3.4
2.6
1.6
1.3
.9
.8
.6
.4
.3
.2
.1
.1
.1
0)
0)
0.1
.1
.2
.2
0)
.2
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
<9
.2
(i)
(9
Total............. 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of produc
tion u n its........... 1,006
65
31
47
114
65
75
119
80
102
111
107
90
Number of work
ers......... .............. 47,966 2,563 1,225 2,638 4,535 3,162 2,409 4,550 4,613 6,138 5,453 4,402 6,278
A verage h o u rly
earnings.............. $0,346 $0,376 $0,435 $0,383 $0.322 $0,329 $0,305 $0,339 $0,330 $0,348 $0.350 $0.342 $0.352
1 Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
244
W A G E S AND HOURS
Average hourly earnings by branch o f the lumber and timber prod
ucts industry in the South varied from a low o f 32.4 cents in sur
facing to a high o f 43.6 cents in custom-millwork production. Three
o f the nine branches in the South, logging, sawmilling, and surfacing,
which had average hourly earnings o f 34.4 cents, 33.9 cents, and 32.4
cents, respectively, accounted fo r seven-tenths o f the workers in the
sample fo r this region. O f the other three-tenths about half were
in the wooden-box branch, which provided average hourly earnings
o f 34 cents per hour.
On the whole, geographic variations in average hourly earnings were
not very pronounced in the South. Average earnings varied from a
low o f 30.5 cents in Georgia to a high o f 43.5 cents in Kentucky. In
general, earnings were somewhat higher in the border States than
in the “ deep South.” Only about a fourth o f the workers in K en
tucky but nearly two-thirds o f the workers in Alabama earned ex
actly 30 cents. In Georgia a high proportion o f all workers (20.6
percent) earned under 30 cents. Relatively few workers in any State
had earnings o f 62.5 cents and over.
Earnings in th e M anufacture o f V en eer and V en eer Products
W hile veneer and plywood are timber products in the strict sense,
they are mainly manufactured in independent mills or in sawmills.
In recognition o f the special character o f the mills producing veneer,
plywood, and veneer baskets, such mills have been excluded from the
“ lumber and timber products industry,” as defined for the purpose
o f the general survey.
H ourly earnings in the manufacture o f veneer, plywood, and veneer
baskets in the United States as a whole averaged 37.3 cents, 49 cents,
and 34.2 cents, respectively. (See table 5.) The figures fo r northern
workers included in these totals have been adjusted to take account
o f changes due to the 30-cent minimum wage; the western workers
included in the sample consist almost exclusively o f plywood workers,
none o f whom earned less than 30 cents, and data for the southern
workers were collected after the 30-cent minimum came into effect,
and consequently did not require adjustment.
The distributions o f individual earnings indicate a decided concen
tration (from over a third o f the workers in the plywood branch to
over two-thirds in the veneer-basket branch) in the class interval
30.0 and under 32.5 cents per hour. Although this concentration re
sults in part from the adjustment mentioned above, there is little
doubt that the adjusted figures depict with reasonable accuracy the
wage distributions after the effective date of the 30-cent minimum
wage. In the 10-cent range from 32.5 to 42.5 cents were included
over a sixth o f the workers in the plywood branch, nearly one-fourth
o f the workers in veneer manufacture, and one-fifth o f the workers
engaged in the production o f baskets. Over one-fourth o f the workers
in the plywood branch, but few workers in the veneer and veneerbasket branches, had average hourly earnings o f 62.5 cents and over.
H ourly earnings' in these branches, as in the larger industry, were
highest in the West and lowest in the South.
245
MACHINE-SH OP IN DUSTRIES
T able 5 . —
D i s t r i b u t i o n o f w o r k e r s i n the v e n e e r , p l y w o o d , a n d v e n e e r b a s k ets
b r a n c h e s , 6?/ a vera g e h o u r ly e a r n i n g s , 1 9 8 9 - 4 0
[Adjusted to reflect changes due to 30-cent minimum wage
Plywood
Veneer
Veneer baskets
Average hourly earnings
Number
of workers
Percent
age
Number
oi workers
Percent
age
Number
of workers
Under 30.0 cents_________________
30.0 and under 32.5 cents__________
32.5 and under 35.0 cents_________
35.0 and under 37.5 cents__________
37.5 and under 40.0 cents__________
40.0 and under 42.5 cents__________
42.5 and under 47.5 cents__________
47.5 and under 52.5 cents__________
52.5 and under 57.5 cents__________
57.5 and under 62.5 cents__________
62.5 and under 67.5 cents__________
67.5 and under 72.5 cents__________
72.5 and under 77.5 cents__________
77.5 and under 82.5 cents__________
82.5 and under 87.5 cents_________
87.5 and under 92.5 cents__________
92.5 and under 100.0 cents_________
100.0 cents and over.______________
3
1,233
159
112
99
157
176
117
53
35
20
20
11
13
6
1
5
6
0.1
55.4
7.1
5.0
4.4
7.1
7.9
5.3
2.4
1.6
.9
.9
.5
.6
.3
(2)
.2
.3
5
2,207
246
337
285
209
336
175
168
135
735
584
178
184
81
94
115
92
0.1
35.8
4.0
5.5
4.6
3.4
5.4
2.8
2.7
2.2
11.9
9.5
2.9
3.0
1.3
1.5
1.9
1.5
20
2,132
241
217
86
102
77
61
65
36
15
7
7
5
2
3
2
1
Number of production units__ __
Number of workers______________
Average hourly earnings
39
2,226
$0. 373
100.0
47
6,166
$0. 490
100.0
33
3,079
$0.342
Percent
age
0.6
69.3
7.8
7.0
2.8
3.3
2.5
2.0
2.1
1.2
.5
.2
.2
.2
.1
.1
.1
(2)
100.0
1 In this table data for the West and North, which were collected prior to October 24, 1939, the effective
date of the 30-cent minimum wage, have been adjusted to reflect the changes resulting from the 30-cent
minimum. Data for the South were collected subsequent to October 24, 1939, and consequently reflect
without adjustment the changes resulting from the 30-cent minimum.
3 Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
Machine-Shop Industries—Earnings, 1938-391
A study o f wages and hours o f labor in the machine-shop industries
was made by the Bureau o f Labor Statistics, covering the latter part
o f 1938 and the early months o f 1939.
The machine-shop industries are predominantly man-employing in
dustries, with males form ing 99 percent of the labor force.
A verage H o u rly Earnings
Table 1 reveals the relatively small proportion of workers in lowwage brackets. Taking all divisions o f machine shops together, only
2.7 percent o f the workers earned less than 40 cents an hour, and
fewer than a quarter (23 percent) o f the labor force averaged less
than 57% cents. In contrast, there was a fairly substantial scat
tering o f employees in the higher-earnings classes, 29.8 percent averaging 82.5 cents or over and 9.1 percent averaging $1 or more an hour.
In the machine-shop industries, as in many other branches o f manu
facturing, there are pronounced geographical differences in hourly
earnings. Against an average o f 88.3 cents for all machine-shop em
ployees in Washington, those in Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina
averaged 44.6 cents. Generally speaking, a relatively high level o f
wages likewise prevailed in the Middle Atlantic region and in most
States o f the Midwest.
1Abstract of article in the Monthly Labor Review for November 1940, prepared by
O. R. Mann and D. L. Helm of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
246
WAGES
AND HOURS
T a b l e 1.—Percentage
distribution of machine-shop workers by average hourly
earnings and product, 1938 and 1939
Agri
All
cul
Average hourly earnings divi
tural Trac
(in cents)
sions im ple tors
ments
Under 30.0...... ..................
30.0 and under 32.5_____
32.5 and under 35.0_____
35.0 and under 37.5_____
37.5 and under 40.0.........
40.0 and under 42.5..........
42.5 and under 47.5.........
47.5 and under 52.5_____
52.5 and under 57.5_____
57.5 and under 62.5........62.5 and under 67.5_____
0.5
.4
.3
.9
.6
1.9
3.9
6.8
7.7
9.4
10.1
0.9
.2
.3
.9
.5
1.2
3.6
e;6
8.4
11.2
10.5
67.5 and under 72.5_____
72.5 and under 77.5_____
77.5 and under 82.5_____
82.5 and under 87.5.........
87.5 and under 92.5_____
92.5 and under 100.0____
100.0 and under 110.0___
110.0 and under 120.0___
120.0 and under 130.0___
130.0 and under 140.0___
140.0 and over_________
10.0
9.3
8.4
7.5
6.6
6.6
5.5
2.4
.8
.3
.1
11.1
10.0
9.0
8.8
6.3
6.7
3.2
.6
0)
0)
0.1
(0
.1
.2
.2
.6
1.0
1.7
5.0
7.9
0.3
.2
.1
.4
.1
1.1
2.1
5.5
7.9
9.8
13.9
0.1
.2
.1
.6
.4
1.4
3.0
6.4
6.6
9.5
10.0
0.1
.1
.2
.5
.4
1.2
3.2
7.2
7.7
8.5
10.8
0.2
.3
.5
.3
.8
1.3
2.1
6.0
7.5
8.3
7.1
0.3
.2
.2
.7
.5
2.2
4.9
8.3
11.6
12.6
12.4
1.3
1.1
.5
1.1
1.2
2.5
7.1
11.0
10.4
11.5
11.4
1.2
.9
.7
1.8
1.0
5.1
6.9
9.9
8.3
9.6
8.0
8.9
8.2
8.4
11.4
12.0
15.5
14.7
3.2
.6
.2
.1
11.1
11.1
10.4
8.3
6.8
4.9
3.8
1.3
.5
.3
.1
10.8
9.7
9.8
7.6
6.5
6.7
5.5
2.8
1.5
.7
.1
10.0
10.4
10.1
9.0
7.0
6.2
4.7
1.9
.5
.2
.1
7.8
8.3
6.8
5.8
6.1
8.3
6.8
12.0
2.5
.8
.4
11.3
9.6
7.4
6.2
5.0
3.1
2.2
.9
.3
.1
0)
10.1
9.1
6.3
5.1
3.8
3.4
1.7
.7
.3
.3
.1
8.5
8.2
6.3
6.3
6.0
4.8
4.6
1.3
.4
.2
0)
100.0 100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0 100.0
91
41
5,943 17,249
$0. 726 $0.751
41
6,309
$0,728
19
3,332
$0.797
46
5,975
$0.673
44
96
6,372 5, 512
$0,649 $0.667
Total.............. —
100.0 100.0 100.0
=
Number of establish
14
41
ments---- ------ ----------685
Number of workers____ 90,419 7,268 9,205
Average hourly earnings. $0. 724 $0.702 $0.842
Paper
mill
Average hourly earnings and
(in cents)
pulp
ma
chinery
Cranes,
Printers’ Pumps
and
Textile Ma
machin pump
dredg Ma Engines,
turbines,
machin chine
ing
chine
and
water ery
ing
ery
and shops
machin tools and
equip equip parts
wheels
ery, etc.
ment
ment
Con Mining Sawmill
well veying
and
ma
Metal Oil
and and
work refinery
ele chinery wood
work
and
vating
ing ma ma
equip ing ma
chinery chinery ma
chinery ment chinery
Food,
Packing
Ma
wrap beverage chinery
ping, etc., and drug- not
else
manufac prepara where
tion
turing
machin machin classi
fied
ery
ery
1.4
.5
.8
3.0
5.1
5.6
6.6
10.6
0.3
.6
.2
1.4
.9
2.8
4.3
4.9
4.8
7.6
10.4
0.1
,1
.4
.7
.3
2.1
6.5
10.2
9. 9.
10.1
11.5
0.6
.5
.3
2.9
.8
5.6
5.0
9.2
12.6
12.8
10.4
0.7
1.5
.5
1.4
.5
4.8
5.1
11.4
17.6
16.8
13.1
1.3
.9
.7
1.9
.4
2.2
4.4
5.9
6.1
8.1
10.6
0.6
.6
.5
2.4
1.8
3.8
8.5
10.6
10.8
9.8
10.9
0.7
.6
.3
.8
.4
1.8
4.7
6.6
7.9
8.9
8.8
9.7
12.4
7.7
5.9
5.7
6.3
8.4
4.2
1.2
.2
.1
9.4
8.5
7.0
5.9
5.2
4.7
4.9
1.7
.4
.2
.2
9.8
8.1
6.4
4.6
4.2
2.4
2.2
1.1
.1
.4
9.5
8.9
3.6
2.0
1.3
.8
.5
.1
10.7
11.3
9.7
7.4
5.2
6.4
7.7
5.4
1.3
.8
.3
9.1
8.3
7.2
8.6
8.7
7.2
5.9
1.7
.5
.2
.1
9.6
8.0
6.2
4.1
3.3
4.0
2.4
1.3
.5
.2
.1
9.5
7.8
7.9
7.7
7.7
7.4
6.4
2.4
1.2
.4
.1
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Number of establish
20
ments.........................
Number of workers------ 1,082
Average hourly earnings. $0,671
27
2,425
$0,765
21
2,685
$0,745
20
1,817
$0,685
29
2,784
$0,646
16
1,097
$0,601
14
1,122
$0,722
36
2,242
$0,645
69
8,000
$0,723
Under 30.0_____ ______
30.0 fitnd under 82.5____
32.5 and under 35.0____
35.0 and under 37.5____
37.5 and under 40.0____
40.0 and under 42.5____
42.5 and under 47.5____
47.5 and under 52.5........
52.5 and under 57.5____
57.5 and under 62.5........
62.5 and under 67.5........
2.1
.8
.6
1.1
.7
1.8
5.3
7.3
8.9
10.4
12.2
(0
0.2
67.5 and under 72.5........
72.5 and under 77.5____
77.5 and under 82.5........
82.5 and under 87.5____
87.5 and under 92.5........
92.5 and under 100.0___
100.0 and under 110.0___
110.0 and under 120.0 ...
120.0 and under 130.0
130.0 and under 140.0
140.0 a;nd over................
9.8
9.5
11.6
6.2
3.7
2.9
4.0
1.0
Total__________ _
i Less than one-tenth of 1 percent.
247
M ACHINE-SH OP INDUSTRIES
V a r i a t i o n s b y O c c u p a tio n a n d S k i ll
H ourly earnings in machine shops are dependent largely on the
specific occupations o f the individual employees. Broadly speaking,
the highest hourly earnings are paid to working foremen. F or this
occupation, hourly earnings in the latter part o f 1938 and the early
months o f 1939 averaged 95.2 cents (table 2). Other occupational
groups with high hourly earnings were boring-mill operators and
wood-pattern makers; these are highly skilled occupations, averaging
90 cents or more an hour.
T able 2.— Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings of male
machine-shop workers, 1988 and 1989, by occupation and skill
Occupation and skill
Number Average
of
hourly
workers earnings
Average
weekly
hours
Average
weekly
earnings
All occupations............................................................................
89,240
$0,727
37.6
$27.34
Skilled workers..................................... ..................... ...................
Assemblers and erectors, floor, skilled.______ ____________
Assemblers and fitters, bench, skilled____________________
Assemblers, miscellaneous, skilled.______________________
Blacksmiths, production_______________________________
Boring-mill operators, skilled___________________________
Carpenters, maintenance, skilled________________________
Drill-press operators, multiple, skilled___________________
Drill-press operators, radial, skilled___ _____ ____________
Drill-press operators, single, skilled________ _____________
Electricians, maintenance___^__________________________
Electricians, production________ ________ _______________
Engineers, boiler and powerhouse_____ __________________
Foremen, working, skilled__________ ______________ _____
Gear cutters, skilled____ _______________ _______________
Grinding-machine operators, skilled_____________________
Hammersmiths, skilled_________________________________
Hardeners and heat treaters, skilled________ _____ _______
Inspectors, skilled______ ___________ ______ ____________
Lathe hands, engine, skilled______ _____ _____ __________
Lathe hands, turret, skilled_____________________________
Lathe and screw-machine operators, automatic, skilled____
Lathe and screw-machine operators, semiautomatic, skilled Layout men__________________________ _______ .
. ..
Machinists____________________________________________
Maintenance and repairmen, skilled_____________________
Milling^machine operators, skilled_______________________
Millwrights___________________________________________
Miscellaneous machine operators, skilled________________
Miscellaneous skilled workers, direct_______________ : ____
Miscellaneous skilled workers, indirect__________ ________
Pattern makers, wood_____ ____________________________
Pipefitters and plumbers_______ _______________________
Planer operators, skilled_________ ____________________
Screw-machine operators, hand, skilled__________ _____ _
Set-up men___________________________________________
Shaper operators, skilled__________________ _____ _______
Sheet-metal workers, skilled..................... ............ ................
Testers, skilled........................................... .............................
Tool and die makers..................................... ..........................
Tool grinders................................................. ........... ..............
Welders and braziers, hand................................... .......... .
34,094
2,844
1,979
247
438
1,511
242
296
571
338
523
202
242
2,878
342
1,442
168
269
1,179
2,970
1,834
479
135
534
1,397
758
1,678
485
229
164
65
488
223
972
297
446
237
335
240
2,194
763
1,460
.864
.842
.838
.872
.780
.904
.777
.881
.850
.804
.833
.814
.793
.952
.891
.906
.939
.843
.854
.848
.861
.903
.938
.848
.811
.842
.877
.782
.907
.918
.801
.916
.802
.885
.889
.861
.852
.817
.815
.899
.802
.822
38.2
38.8
38.5
35.5
35.7
37.8
38.9
35.7
37/9
36.8
40.4
40.2
42.9
40.6
37.5
36.8
35.1
38.0
37.9
37.3
37.1
36.8
31.7
37.2
40.1
38.5
37.4
39.2
37.6
34.5
38.7
39.1
38.4
38.2
38.2
37.9
37.5
39.0
39.0
38.3
38.0
37.4
32.97
32.64
32.22
31.00
27.81
34.21
30. 25
31. 50
32.24
29. 58
33.64
32.72
33.99
38.67
33.38
33.37
32.95
32.08
32.34
31.60
31.91
33.25
29.70
31. 52
32.51
32.41
32. 82
30.68
34.13
31.66
30.99
35.82
30.79
33.82
33.96
32.66
31.99
31.83
31.82
34.43
30.44
30.71
Semiskilled workers......................................... ............................
Apprentices.................................................................... .........
Assemblers and proctors, floor, semiskilled___ ___________
Assemblers and fitters, bench, semiskilled________________
Assemblers, miscellaneous, semiskilled___________________
Boring-mill operators, semiskilled______________________ _
Broachers, keyseaters and spliners_______________________
Bulldozers and upsetters............................ ...........................
Burners and cutters............................................................. .
Carpenters, maintenance, semiskilled-___________________
Checkers..................................... ............... ................ ...........
Chippers____________ _____________________ ___________
Cold-saw operators_____ _____ ______________ ___________
Crane operators.......... .............................. ............ ........... .
Craters.............................................. ................. ...... ..............
39,576
2,385
3,781
3, 213
303
687
175
244
187
157
241
103
309
804
774
.675
.481
.698
.696
.669
.705
.735
.786
.700
.611
.686
.712
.635
.660
.646
37.1
38.0
37.2
36.4
37.6
36.9
35.6
33.9
38.2
39.1
37.3
36.7
38.3
37.2
38.1
25.00
18. 30
25.98
25.33
25.15
25.99
26.17
26.64
26. 73
23. 91
25.59
26.12
24.32
24.58
24.62
248
T
W A G E S AND HOURS
— Average hourly earnings , weekly hoursf and weekly earnings o f male
machine-shop workers , 1938 and 1 9 3 9 , by occupation and skill— Continued
a b l e
Occupation and skill
Semiskilled workers—Continued.
Drill-press operators, multiple, semiskilled_______________
Drill-press operators, radial, semiskilled____________
Drill-press operators, single, semiskilled_________
... . ..
Factory clerks_______________________________
—
Firemen, boiler, and powerhouse______________ ______
Foremen, working, semiskilled_________________
___
Gear cutters, semiskilled_____________________________ Grinding-machine operators, semiskilled_____________ ___
Hammersmiths, semiskilled-. __________ ______ ________
Hardeners and heat treaters, semiskilled____________ ___
Inspectors, semiskilled-------------------------------------------------Lathe hands, engine, semiskilled________________________
Lathe hands, turret, semiskilled________________________
Lathe and screw-machine operators, automatic, semiskilled.
Lathe and screw-machine operators, semiautomatic, semi
skilled- _____________________________ ______________
Maintenance and repairmen, Semiskilled________________
Milling-machine operators, semiskilled__________________
Miscellaneous machine operators, semiskilled __________
Miscellaneous semiskilled workers, direct________________
Miscellaneous semiskilled workers, indirect______________
Oilers and beltmen____________________________________
Painters, brush ----------------------------------------------------------Painters, spray------------------------------------------------------------Planer operators, semiskilled___________________________
Polishers and buffers... _______________________________
Punch and press machine operators, semiskilled__________
Repairmen, product___________________________________
Riveters
_______________________ __________________
Screw-machine operators, hand, semiskilled______________
Shaper operators, semiskilled___________________________
Shearmen_____________________________________________
Sheet-metal machine operators__________________________
Sheet-metal workers, semiskilled________________________
Shipping and receiving clerks___________________________
Stock clerks.. _________ ___________ ____ _____________
Storekeepers__________________________________________
Straighteners__________________________________________
Testers, semiskilled____________________________________
Threading-machine operators _________________________
Timekeepers______________________ ___________________
Tool-crib attendants_________________________________
Truck drivers_________ _________ ______ ____________
Truckers, power ___________________________________
Welders, machine___________________________________
Woodworkers____________________________________ ...
Unskilled workers_________________________________________
Assemblers and erectors, floor, unskilled_______________
Assemblers and fitters, bench, unskilled________________
Burrers and rough grinders_____________________________
Cleaners, parts________ _____ __________________________
Crane followers. ______________________________________
Drill-press operators, single, unskilled___________________
Elevator operators___________ ___________________
.
Helpers, assemblers'___________________________________
Helpers, blacksmith and forge____________
__________
Helpers, general... _ . ___. . . ________________________
Helpers, machine-tool operators’
_________ _________
Helpers, machinists’ _. . . . . . . _______________________
Helpers, maintenance____ ___________________________
Helpers, sheet-metal workers’ ____ _________
________
Inspectors, unskilled.
___________ ________ ____ ___
Janitors_______________ _____ ____________________
Laborers, common____ ___________ ____________________
Learners__________________________ __________________
Loaders and unloaders_________ . ____________________
Miscellaneous machine operators, unskilled______________
Miscellaneous unskilled workers, direct_______ _________
Miscellaneous unskilled workers, indirect_____ ________
Packers and wrappers_________________ _____ _________ .
Painters, dip______________________________ _ ________
Punch and press machine operators, unskilled____________
Stock and shipping-room labor___________ _____________
Truckers, hand________________________________________
Watchmen___________ ________________ _______________
Number
of
workers
Average
hourly
earnings
Average
weekly
hour's
712
887
1,674
669
568
375
362
1, 758
231
366
1,066
1,572
1, 379
363
$0. 738
.715
.680
.646
.600
.696
.759
.727
.731
.704
.685
.671
.705
.729
36.0
36.1
35.8
38.6
43.0
39.9
36.3
36.2
31.7
37.4
37.2
36.9
36.4
35.9
$26. 59
25.79
24, 34
24.97
25.83
27,7 1
27.58
26. 30
23.15
26.31
25. 49
24. 72
25,72
26,21
258
531
1,589
633
671
214
232
667
578
272
614
990
169
217
360
160
287
117
266
577
1,185
466
222
432
145
271
700
445
374
151
438
.750
.644
.720
.678
.689
.694
.630
.650
.685
.668
.714
.732
.740
.782
.712
.656
.710
.758
.632
.622
.617
.697
.782
.727
.723
.626
.633
.607
.645
. 749
.666
35.7
38.7
36.3
37.1
35.9
35.9
37.5
37.9
38,7
36.9
34.5
35.8
36.1
35.9
37.2
37.4
35.5
36.0
39.3
40.2
37.3
38.1
34.5
36.0
36.8
38.8
37.6
41.4
37.4
36.0
36.5
26.81
24.94
26.17
25.17
24.75
24. 91
23.66
24.61
26.48
24.67
24,61
26. 21
26.68
28.08
26. 52
24. 52
25. 20
27.28
24.85
24.99
23.04
26. 52
26.98
26.15
26. 61
24.31
23.79
25.14
24.13
26.97
24.29
15, 570
368
464
657
311
134
257
153
516
476
900
352
388
548
220
141
1,321
1,996
861
486
204
359
215
482
168
177
967
909
1,540
.553
.601
.536
.606
.679
.663
.512
.553
.546
.613
.560
.568
.533
.596
.564
.543
.535
.527
.511
.633
.543
.571
.543
.613
.638
.525
.539
.573
.498
37.8
36.6
36.2
36.1
37.9
36.8
34.9
37.0
37.2
35.2
36.7
37.2
39.7
38. 5
38.4
37.5
38.1
37.2
37.6
36.1
36.6
37.0
37.2
38.0
35.2
36.4
37.5
36.8
44.2
20.95
22.02
19. 39
21.88
25. 71
24. 39
17.90
20. 45
20. 30
21. 61
20.55
21.12
21.19
22.93
21.64
20.38
20.35
19.58
19. 21
22. 86
19. 87
21.15
20.18
23. 27
22. 49
19. 07
20.20
21.08
22.02
Average
weekly
earnings
M EAT-PACKING INDUSTRY
249
Overtime Work and Pay
A full-time week o f 40 hours existed in 402 establishments, while 237
bad a full-time week o f 44 hours. A small number o f firms observed
neither o f these workweeks.
The payment o f time-and-one-half rates for overtime work was
common in the industry, this arrangement existing in 655 o f the 685
establishments studied. Only 240 establishments, however, began the
payment o f overtime rates after the first 40 hours; 431 began the
payment o f overtime rates after the first 44 hours; and 8 firms had
other arrangements.
Meat-Packing Industry—Earnings and Hours, 19371
This survey covered plants engaged in wholesale slaughtering and
meat packing. Establishments slaughtering either largely or entirely
for retail distribution were excluded.
The plant departments covered included cattle killing, hog killing,
sheep and calf killing, offal, hide, casing, fresh-beef cutting, fresh-pork
cutting, lard and oleo oil, sausage, cured meat, and canning.2 In addi
tion, there were included the shipping, service, maintenance, and power
departments. B ox departments and cooper, tin, and other shops, in
which the products made were entirely new, were excluded from the
survey, as were also all operations connected wTith the distribution of
meat products. A s far as possible, the survey excluded the manu
facture o f byproducts.
The survey was made in December 1937 on the basis o f a sample
which included 258 plants and 49,235 wage earners. According to the
Census o f Manufactures, the industry had 1,160 establishments and
127,476 workers in 1937. Am ong the principal factors considered in
determining the sample were geographical distribution, size o f com
munity, corporate affiliation, size o f establishment, product, and
unionization.
Average Hourly Earnings
B y far the great majority o f workers in meat packing are paid on
a time-rate basis. Production-bonus systems o f wage payment were
not particularly widespread. Although as many as 24.3 percent o f
the workers were paid under such systems, they were found only in
40 plants, nearly all o f which belonged to the larger companies.
In nearly all plants o f the “ Big Four” companies, workers received
time and one-half for overtime, this rate applying in most cases after
10 hours per day. O f the establishments belonging to the remaining
companies, over one-fourth paid time and one-half and a few granted
time and one-fourth or time and one-third, usually after 10 hours
per day. In more than one-half of the plants, however, the regular
1 Abstract o f articles in the Monthly Labor Review for October and December 1939, pre
oared by J. Perlman, E. B. Morris, and H. O. Rogers, o f the Bureau o f Labor Statistics.
2 Meat canning was included only i f the establishment was engaged in slaughtering.
250
W A G E S AND HOURS
rate applied to overtime. Salaried employees were ordinarily ex
pected to work overtime without additional remuneration.
The average hourly earnings shown in this report are based on
both regular and overtime rates. A n examination o f the data, how
ever, indicates that relatively few employees were affected by the
extra overtime earnings during the pay-roll period scheduled. In
other words, the exclusion o f extra earnings due to overtime would
affect very little the average earnings per hour.
In December 1937, the earnings o f the 49,235 wage earners covered
in this survey averaged 64.9 cents an hour. Earnings between plants,
however, varied widely, the averages ranging from 21.3 to 88.6 cents.
Despite the broad dispersion o f plant averages, a substantial seg
ment o f the total working force was concentrated within a compara
tively narrow range o f hourly earnings (table 1). More than twofifths (44.9 percent) o f the employees were found with earnings o f
57.5 and under 72.5 cents. Furthermore, seven-tenths (70.5 percent)
received between 47.5 and 77.5 cents.
T able 1.— Percentage distribution of meat-packing workers by average hourly earn
ings, sex, and skill, December 1937
Males
All
workers
Average hourly earnings
Under 17.5 cents...... .................. ...........
17.5 and under 22.5 cents.........................
22.5 and under 27.5 cents------------------27.5 and under 32.5 cents.........................
32.5 and under 37.5 cents.........................
37.5 and under 42.5 cents...... ........ .........
42.5 and under 47.5 cents------------------47.6 and under 52.5 cents.........................
52.5 and under 57.5 cents...................... .
57.5 and under 62.5 cents.........................
62.5 and under 67.5 cents.........................
67.5 and under 72.5 cents................. .......
72.5 and under 77.5 cents_______ _____
77.5 and under 82.5 cents.................... .
82.5 and under 87.5 cents........................
87.5 and under 92.5 cents______ ___ __
92.5 and under 100.0 cents.......................
100.0 and under 110.0 cents......................
110.0 and under 120.0 cents............. ........
120.0 cents and over...... ..........................
Total............................................
Number of workers................................
Average hourly earnings.........................
0.1
.4
.5
1.2
1.6
3.4
3.7
9.6
7.1
15.4
18; 1
11.4
8.9
5.8
4.0
2.5
2.5
2.0
1.0
.8
100.0
49,235
$0,649
Total
0.1
.3
.5
.9
1.3
2.3
2.9
5.2
6.0
16.2
20.0
12.8
10.1
6.6
4.6
2.9
2.9
2.3
1.1
1.0
100.0
42,986
$0,669
Females
Skilled
Semi
skilled
Un
skilled
0)
0.1
.2
.4
.6
1.0
1.3
2.7
3.2
5.0
8.4
9.8
11.8
11.3
11.2
7.9
9.4
8.0
4.1
3.6
100.0
10,313
$0,798
0.1
.3
.4
.9
1.4
2.1
3.0
5.0
6.0
13.5
23.8
16.2
12.3
7.0
3.7
1.9
1.2
.7
.3
.2
0.2
.6
.8
1.6
1.8
3.6
4.3
7.7
8.4
30.8
23.3
9.2
4.6
1.8
.5
.3
.2
.2
0)
.1
0.4
.4
.9
2.5
4.3
10.7
9.0
39.9
14.4
9.4
4.6
2.2
.8
.3
.1
(l)
.1
0)
100.0
20,799
$0.651
100.0
11,874
$0,587
100.0
6,249
$0,497
iLess than one-tenth of 1 percent.
V a r i a t i o n s b y S e x a n d S k i ll
A s in other industries, hourly earnings in meat packing vary con
spicuously according to sex and skill. Am ong males, the averages
were 79.8 cents for skilled, 65.1 cents fo r semiskilled, and 58.7 cents
fo r unskilled employees. Hence, the difference between skilled and
semiskilled (14.7 cents) was more than twice as large as that (6.4
cents) between semiskilled and unskilled workers. The average
hourly earnings o f all males amounted to 66.9 cents. The female
MEAT-PACKING INDUSTRY
group as a whole averaged 49.7 cents.
the average for unskilled males.
251
This was 9 cents less than
G e o g ra p h ic a l D iffe r e n c e s
Table 2 presents average hourly earnings by States. In some
States, to be sure, the coverage is relatively small, which limits the
significance o f their averages. This table indicates that, with the
exception o f Texas, Oklahoma, and Arizona, there is a marked cleav
age between the average hourly earnings in the Southern States and
those in the northern and western areas. F or all workers, the aver
ages were 66.7 cents in the northern and 49.7 cents in the southern
wage district, a difference o f 17.0 cents.
The average hourly earnings in the Texas-Oklahoma-Arizona re
gion amounted to 58.3 cents. These higher earnings, as compared
with other Southern States, may be explained largely by the fact
that the average for this territory is heavily weighted by wages in
plants o f the “ B ig F our” companies, where hourly earnings are on
the whole higher than those paid by the other packers, as will be
pointed out later.
T
able
2 , — A verag e h ou rly earnings o f m ea t-ya ck in g vjorkers , b y wage district and
State , D ecem ber 1 9 8 7
Wage district and State
United States.
Northern wage district_________________
California__________________________
Colorado, including Idaho, Montana,
Nevada, and Utah-----------------------Illinois.____________ _______________
Indiana___________________________
Iowa______________________________
Kansas____________________________
Maryland, including Delaware and
West Virginia____________________
Massachusetts, including Connecticut,
Maine, New Hampshire, and Rhode
Island___________________________
Michigan__________________________
Minnesota_________________________
Missouri___________________________
Nebraska____________________ ____ _
Aver
age
hourly
earn
ings
$0. 649
.667
.717
.642
.704
.599
.634
.674
.517
.699
.618
.722
.696
.702
Wage district and State
Northern wage district—Continued.
New Jersey____ _______________
New York_____________________
North Dakota and South Dakota
Ohio__________________________
Pennsylvania__________________
Washington and Oregon________
W isc o n sin ______________________
Southern wage district_________________
Kentucky_________________________
Louisiana, including Arkansas and
Mississippi______________________
Tennessee_________________________
Texas and Oklahoma, including Ari
zona___ _________________________
Virginia, including Alabama, Florida,
Georgia, North Carolina, and South
Carolina_________________________
Aver
age
hourly
earn
ings
$0. 672
.666
.655
.600
.589
.682
.692
.497
.441
.292
.426
. 583
.418
There are several explanations for the lower hourly earnings of
employees in the southern as compared with the northern wage dis
trict. In part, the lower hourly earnings reflect the larger repre
sentation o f the small packing companies in the Southern States. In
addition, the southern plants are located in smaller communities,3
where wage rates are customarily lower. Still another factor is the
lesser degree o f unionization in the southern area. A fourth factor
is the relatively lower wages paid to colored as compared with white
workers in the southern territory.
* In the South, there are no metropolitan areas with a population of 500,000 and over.
505364 0 - 43 - 17
WAGES AND HOURS
252
Earnings by Type of Company
For the purposes of this survey, the companies covered have been
divided into three types, namely the “ Big Four,” intermediate, and
small companies. The “ Big Four” packers are well known, each of
them employing a considerable number of workers and having a large
number o f plants scattered throughout the country. Although much
smaller than the “ Big Four,” the intermediate companies have similar
characteristics. In general, they employ a large number of employees,
who are found in one or more establishment, and have a wide dis
tribution for their products. Among the small companies, few have
more than 500 workers, and most of them have only one plant. The
market of the small companies is usually restricted, although some
times it may extend to more than one State.
Sharply contrasting wage levels are shown for the three types of
companies (table 3). For all workers in the United States, hourly
earnings averaged 70.1 cents for the “Big Four,” 63.6 cents for the
intermediate, and 56.2 cents for the small companies. The respective
figures in the northern wage district were 71.5, 63.6, and 59.7 cents.
In the southern wage district, the “ Big Four” averaged 58.0 cents, as
against 41.8 cents for the other companies. Similar relationships are
found in the data for each of the skills among the males and for
female workers.
T able 3. — Average hourly earnings o f meat-packing workers , December 198 7 , by
wage district, type of com pany , sex> and skill
Males
Wage district and type of company
Num Total
ber of workers
plants
All
Semi
Skilled skilled
Un
skilled
Fe
males
United States........................................................
“ Big Four” ............................... ............. .......
Intermediate 1______ ____ _____ _________
Small«..............................................................
258
59
16
183
$0,649
.701
.636
.562
$0,669
.724
.659
.579
$0,798
.874
.781
.697
$0,651
.702
.650
.554
$0.587
.633
.599
.491
$0,497
.539
.492
.415
Northern wage district........................................
“ Big Four” ................................... ..................
Intermediate...................................................
Small............................................ ...................
218
51
16
151
.667
.715
.636
.597
.689
.739
.659
.615
.820
.887
.781
.733
.670
.717
.650
.590
.607
.649
.599
.525
.511
.550
.492
.439
Southern wage district.................................. .
“ Big Four” .......................................... ..........
OtherJ.................. .........................................
40
8
.497
.580
.512
.598
.638
.761
.493
.578
.430
.501
.368
.422
.418
.430
.541
.405
.360
.317
32
1 Excludes 1 plant belonging to an intermediate company in southern wage district.
* Includes 1 plant belonging to an intermediate company in the southern wage district;
Influence of Size of Community
Although the meat-packing industry is now more widely scattered
geographically than formerly, it is still centralized in the largest
metropolitan areas.4 In terms of the total workers in the sample,
one-third were found in metropolitan areas with a population of
4 In this report, communities are defined in terms of metropolitan areas. Fo r places
w ith a population of 100,000 and over, the metropolitan districts of the Bureau of the
Census were used. A sim ilar classification, which included not only the population w ithin
political subdivisions but also th at of outlying areas, was adopted fo r the smaller communi
ties. Thus, an attem pt was made to classify a ll communities according to labor-market
areas.
MEAT-PACKING INDUSTRY
253
1,000,000 and over, while somewhat less than one-half were in com
munities o f 500,000 and over. One-fourth o f the total employees were
in metropolitan centers between 100,000 and 500,000, and over
one-sixth were in places between 25,000 and 100,000. Only 7 per
cent were in communities with a population o f under 25,000.
The average hourly earnings on the whole varied directly with the
size o f community. In the northern wage district, i f places with a
population o f under 25,000 are excluded, the average for all workers
increased gradually with the size o f community, the range being from
61.8 cents fo r centers between 25,000 and 50,000 to 69.9 cents for
metropolitan areas o f 1,000,000 and over. The relatively high average
in communities under 25,000 is due largely to the high wage level m
one large establishment. In the southern wage district, the average
hourly earnings were higher in metropolitan areas between 100,000
and 500,000 than those in places under 100,000. Generally speaking,
the tendency fo r average hourly earnings to vary with size o f com
munity is also borne out by the data analyzed by sex and skill.
Earnings of White and Negro Workers
It is significant to note that the occupational opportunities for
Negro workers are not so restricted in the meat-packing as in many
other industries; this is evident from analysis o f the composition o f
each color group, by skill. O f the total white males in the northern
wage district, 24.7 percent were skilled, 48.4 percent semiskilled,
ana 26.9 percent unskilled employees. The respective figures for male
Negroes were 20.0, 49.5, and 30.5 percent. A more or less similar situa
tion prevailed in the southern wage district. O f all white males in this
territory, 26.4 percent were skilled, 48.9 percent semiskilled, and 24.7
percent unskilled workers. The respective figures for male Negroes
were 19.8, 39.8, and 40.4 percent.5
In the northern wage district, as shown in table 4, the average
hourly earnings o f Negroes exceeded those o f whites for all workers
as well as for each group classified on the basis o f skill and sex. This
is due to the fact that the Negroes constitute a larger proportion o f
the labor force in the larger companies, which have higher average
hourly earnings.
In the southern wage district, on the other hand, the average hourly
earnings o f whites exceeded those o f Negroes for all as well as for each
group o f workers. T o some extent this is due to the fact that the
proportion o f Negroes was smaller in the “ B ig Four” companies, as
compared with the other packers. F or males, the Negroes constituted
23.9 percent o f the total in the “ B ig Four,” as against 29.9 percent
in the other companies. However, the average hourly earnings o f
white males exceeded those o f Negro males fo r each type of company.
In the “ B ig Four,” the averages were 61.1 cents fo r whites and 54.9
cents for Negroes, while in the small companies they were 44.6 cents
for whites and 39.8 cents for Negroes.6
• O f the to tal northern males who were Mexicans and others, 11.8 percent were skilled,
51.8 percent semiskilled, and 36.4 percent unskilled employees. The respective southern
figures were 22.3, 53.9, and 23.8 percent.
• I t w ill be seen th a t the average hourly earnings were also higher fo r whites than for
Mexicans and others in practically a ll cases. This was due largely to the fact th a t the
m ajority of Mexicans and others were employed by other than the “ Big Four” packers.
254
T able
WAGES AND HOURS
wage d istrict ,
4 . — A verage h ou rly earnings o f m ea t-p a ck in g w orkers, b y
color, sex, and skill, D ecem ber 1 9 3 7
Average hourly earnings
Number of workers
Wage district and
color
Males
Males
Total
All
Northern district. __ 43,717 38,106
Whites________ 38, 540 33,188
Negroes_______ 4,447 4, 231
Mexicans and
687
730
others_______
Southern district__ 5, 518 4,880
Whites________ 3,874 3, 292
Negroes_______ 1, 351 1,306
Mexicans and
282
others_______
293
Semi UnSkilled skilled skiled
Fe
males Total
Fe
Semi Un males
Skilled skilled skilled
All
9,120 18,519 10,467 5,611 $0.667 $0.689 $0.820 $0.670 $0.607 $0.511
.665
.603 .510
.818
8,191 16,070 8,927 5,352 .663 .686
.705
.629 .531
.837
216 .700 .708
848 2,093 1,290
356
250
43
.687
.694
.802
.704
.639
0)
1,193
871
259
2,280
1,609
519
1,407
812
528
638
582
45
.497
.512
.458
.512
.533
.464
.638
.671
.538
.493
.498
.486
.430
.445
.403
.368
.376
0)
63
152
67
11
.473
.481
.566
.458
.454
0)
81
1 Number of workers not sufficient to justify computation of an average.
E a rn in g s i n U n io n a n d N o n u n io n P la n ts
In considering unionization, the Bureau classified as a union plant
one which had an agreement with one or more unions that covered a
considerable proportion o f the workers in the establishment.7 Be
cause o f lack o f complete information, it was impossible to classify
the plants belonging to the “ B ig Four” and intermediate companies
on that basis at the time o f the survey. Hence the analysis o f unioni
zation must be confined to the smaller companies.
O f the 151 plants belonging to small companies in the northern
wage district, 62 with 52.6 percent o f the total employees were union
establishments.8 As indicated in table 5, the union plants averaged
6.1 cents per hour higher for all workers than the nonunion establish
ments, the respective figures being 62.7 and 56.6 cents. This differ
ence is found in each size o f community, although it is considerably
less pronounced in the metropolitan areas o f 1,000,000 and over than
in other places.
Only 2 o f the 31 plants belonging to small companies in the southern
wage district had agreements with a union organization.
T a b l e 5 . — A verage h ou rly earnings o f m ea t-p a ck in g w orkers in sm all c o m p a n ies ,
N orthern wage district, D ecem ber 1 9 3 7 , b y u n io n iza tio n and size o f c o m m u n ity
Unionization and size of community
Number of
plants
Number of
workers
Average hourly
earnings
Union plants- _______ ___________________________
Under 50,000 population- ______________________
50,000 and under 250,000 population_______________
250,000 and under 1,000,000 population ________ - 1,000,000 popul ation and over. .. _________________ _
62
11
11
15
25
5, 712
695
1,189
970
2,858
$0.627
.587
.577
.628
. 658
Nonunion plants. ________________________________
Under 50,000 population_______________________ _
50,000 and under 250,000 population__________ ____
250,000 and under 1,000,000 population____________
1,000,000 population and over.. _________________
89
21
15
22
31
5,140
1,112
578
1,488
1, 962
.566
.513
.528
.519
.645
7A workers’ organization confined to a single plant and not affiliated with a larger,
group was not classified as a union plant. However, there were relatively few establish
ments in the meat-packing industry with workers’ organizations confined to a single plant.
8 It should be noted that the average number of employees was greater in the union than
in the nonunion plants.
MEAT-PACKING INDUSTRY
255
W eekly Hours
In December 1937, the 8-hour day and 40-hour week were quite
common in the meat-packing industry. O f the 258 plants covered,
100 reported a full-time week o f 40 hours. In only 1 establishment
were the normal weekly hours less than 40; in that plant they were
32. In the remaining plants, hours ranged from over 40 to 60, with
2 reporting over 40 and under 44 hours, 29 establishments 44 hours,
1 plant 44.5 hours, 24 plants 45 hours, 63 plants 48 hours, 13 plants
50 hours, 2 plants over 50 and under 54 hours, 11 plants 54 hours,
5 plants 55 to 56 hours, and 7 plants 60 hours.
Full-time hours were somewhat shorter for the “ B ig Four” com
panies, as is shown by the fact that 48 o f the 59 “ B ig Four” plants
covered in the survey reported a 40-hour week. By contrast, 52 of
the 199 other plants normally worked 40 hours.
It should be noted that the full-time hours indicated above are
those that apply to the majority o f the workers engaged directly in
production. Maintenance, powerhouse, and service employees, as
well as some employees in the production departments, usually have
different hours from those o f the main body o f workers.
F or all wage earners, the actual weekly hours worked averaged
42.5 in December 1937. They amounted to 42.9 for males, as com
pared with 40.0 hours for females. The regional difference was
slight, the northern workers averaging 42.6 and the southern 41.9
hours.
A more important difference in average weekly hours was found
between employees o f the “ B ig Four” and those o f other companies.
Compared with an average o f 40.7 hours for workers in the “ B ig
Four,” the figures were 44.2 9 for the intermediate and 44.9 10 hours
for the small companies.
W eekly Earnings
The average weekly earnings o f all employees in the meat-packing
industry amounted to $27.57 in December 1937. Male workers aver
aged $28.69, as against $19.91 for females. Am ong the males, the
averages were $34.41 for skilled, $28.07 for semiskilled, and $24.80
for unskilled employees. The averages for all workers were $28.43
in the northern and $20.79 in the southern wage district.
The highest average weekly earnings— $28.56— are shown for the
employees o f the “ B ig Four” companies. W orkers o f the interme
diate and small companies averaged respectively $28.139 and $25.25.10
This spread is somewhat narrower than might be expected from the
broad differences in hourly earnings and is explained by the longer
hours worked per week by employees o f the intermediate and small
companies.
Over two-fifths (43.8 percent) o f the total labor force in the in
dustry had weekly earnings between $24 and $32, and over seventenths (71.3 percent) earned between $20 and $36 a week. As many
as 13.4 percent were paid $36 and over, but only 1.6 percent earned
$48 and over. There were 12.1 percent between $12 and $20, while
3.2 percent received under $12 a week.
Excludes 1 intermediate plant in the southern wage district.
10 Includes 1 intermediate plant in the southern wage district.
9
256
WAGES AND HOURS
T a b l e 6 .— A verage w eek ly hours and w eek ly ea rn in g s in m ea t-p a ck in g in d u s tr y ,
b y wage district , sex , and sk ill , D ecem ber 1 9 8 7
Males
Total
Wage district
Females
Total
Skilled
Semi
skilled
Un
skilled
Average weekly hours
United States.................. .......... ...................
Northern wage district................... .......
Southern wage district........................ .
42.5
42.6
41.9
42.9
42.9
42.4
43.1
43.1
43.5
43.1
43.1
43.0
42.3
42.5
40.4
40.0
40.3
38.0
$24.80
25.80
17.37
$19.91
20.58
13.97
Average weekly earnings
United States.................................................
Northern wage district._____ ________
Southern wage district_______ ______ _
$27.57
28. 43
20.79
$28. 69
29.59
21.69
$34. 41
35.29
27.73
$28.07
28.92
21.19
Annual Earnings, 1937
Wage earners who were employed throughout 1937 in the meat
packing industry averaged $1,437 in annual earnings. Such workers
constituted three-fifths (59.6 percent) of the total for whom annual
data were obtained. The average annual earnings of employees who
worked 9 months or more amounted to $1,369. This group comprised
85.4 percent o f all wage earners covered by the annual data. These
averages, however, apply only to workers found on the pay roll of
the plants surveyed by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in December
1937, who were employed by the same establishment for one or more
pay-roll periods during that year.
The survey of hourly earnings covered 258 establishments, with
49,235 wage earners. However, annual data were obtained for 230
plants and 46,978 employees.11
The coverage for hourly earnings was selected with great care, in
order to make it representative of the total industry, taking into con
sideration geographical distribution, size of community, corporate
affiliation, size of establishment, product, and unionization. As re
gards annual data, the omission of 28 plants makes the sample less
balanced, especially since all but 2 12 of these establishments belong
to the small companies. On the other hand, the coverage of the small
companies is still large, including as many as 157 plants with 11,638
employees.13 Moreover, an analysis shows that the sample of the
small companies is fairly well distributed from the standpoint of each
o f the factors considered.
Along with the data on annual earnings for each wage earner,
there was obtained the number of pay-roll periods worked during
the calendar year 1937. The latter information made it possible,
as in other surveys, to classify the employees as follows: (1) Those
11
There were 47,149 workers scheduled for hourly earnings in these 230 establishments.
The small difference between this number of employees and th at covered by the annual
data is accounted for by some casual laborers and other workers for whom annual figures
were not easily available.
“ No annual earnings data were obtained in 2 establishments belonging to the “Big
Four” packers.
13 One interm ediate plant in the South is included in the small companies.
257
MEAT-PACKING INDUSTRY
working during each pay-roll period throughout the year; (2) those
working 9 months or more; (3) those working 6 months or more;
and (4) those working any part o f the year. Except for the
figures covering employees who worked each pay-roll period in the
year, the data for those working 9 months or more are the most
significant from the standpoint of presenting the total annual earn
ings received from the industry for the year. This is due to the
fact that in most instances, if one works 9 months or more in a
given plant during the year, his opportunity to obtain work in
other establishments is very small.
V a ria tio n s b y S e x an d S k ill
Considerable differences are found in the annual earnings of
workers classified on the basis of sex and skill. (See table 7.) Males
averaged $465 more than females among employees who worked
throughout the year, and the difference between the two sexes for
those whose work was spread over 9 months or more was almost
as large, namely $456. Taking employees who worked 12 months,
the difference between skilled and semiskilled males amounted to
$314, which may be compared with only $125 between semiskilled
and unskilled males. The respective figures for employees who
worked 9 months or more were $314 and $132.
Likewise, there was considerable variation in the stability of
employment among workers classified by sex and skill. O f the total
employees for whom annual data were obtained, the proportion
working throughout the year amounted to 61.9 percent for males and
43.6 percent for females. Among males, the percentages were 70.5
for skilled, 64.6 for semiskilled, and 49.6 for unskilled employees.
I f the group is enlarged to include all those who worked 9 months
or more, the difference in the percentages between males and females
is much less pronounced, the respective figures being 86.4 and 78.6
percent. The percentages for males were 93.1 for skilled, 89.1 for
semiskilled, and 75.6 for unskilled employees.
T able 7. —
A v era g e an n u al earnings in m ea t-p a ck in g in d u s try , 1 9 8 7 , b y sex , sk illt
and wage district
Average annual earnings of employees whose work extended over—
12 months
Bex
and skill
9 months or more
6 months or more
Any part of year
North South
North South
North South
North South
ern
ern United ern
ern United ern
ern
ern United ern
United wage
wage
wage
wage wage
wage
wage
wage
States dis
dis States dis
dis
dis States dis
dis States dis
trict
trict
trict
trict
trict
trict
trict
trict
Total.............. $1,437 $1,459 $1,199 $1,369 $1,394 $1,122 $1,326 $1,353 $1,068 $1,235 $1,264
Males.............
Skilled........
Semiskilled.
U n s kille d Females.........
1,480
1,736
1,422
1,297
1,015
1,502
1.762
1,443
1,320
1,035
1,239
1,481
1,183
1,029
785
1,422
1,687
1,373
1,241
966
1,447
1.716
1,398
1,266
989
1,173
1,423
1,125
970
746
1.383
1,662
1,343
1,184
919
1,412
1,693
1,371
1,214
940
1,115
1,393
1,075
899
713
1,292
1,614
1,276
1,039
841
1,323
1,649
1,306
1,072
859
$967
1,007
1,321
997
746
658
258
WAGES AND HOURS
Men’s Neckwear Industry—Earnings and Hours, 19391
The men’s neckwear industry includes the manufacture o f men’s
and boys’ four-in-hand, bow, and other neckties, scarfs, and mufflers
not made in knitting mills. It is a relatively small industry, having
provided employment for an average o f 10,152 wage earners in 289
establishments in 1937, the last year for which Census o f M anufac
tures data are available.
The industry is characterized by small factories, generally located
in or near large cities. New Y ork City is the largest producing area,
although for a number o f years it has been losing factories to the out
lying commuting area. Neckwear plants, in common with the needle
trades in general, are extremely mobile, since their machinery and
housing needs can be supplied easily and the type o f labor required
can be trained in a short time.
Most manufacturers o f men’s neckwear make only the one product,
although there are a few, generally large plants, which also produce
shirts, robes, or other furnishings, such as garters, suspenders, belts,
etc. The principal overlapping o f product is found in the manu
facture o f men’s scarfs, which are extensively produced in women’s
neckwear factories as well as in establishments where the major
product is men’s or boys’ neckties.
The Bureau’s survey o f the industry included 120 establishments in
20 States, and covered 4,940 workers. The wages and hours data for
most plants were taken from representative pay rolls for the first 3
months o f 1939, a m ajority o f them falling between January 15 and
March 15. Female workers predominate in the industry, comprising
about 86 percent o f the total labor force, if one may judge from the
sample covered in this survey.
There were form erly a great many home workers in the industry.
A t the time o f the Bureau’s survey, however, home work had been
either prohibited or placed under regulation in all States o f any im
portance in the industry. The survey indicated that only about 5
percent o f the employees o f all plants covered were home workers.2
Union agreements were found in 51 o f the plants covered, which
employed 38 percent o f the workers.
Average H ourly Earnings
Nearly four-fifths (78.4 percent) o f all employees surveyed were on
straight piece work, with no guaranteed wage other than the 25-cent
legal minimum under the Fair Labor Standards Act. The range o f
individual employees’ earnings in the neckwear industry was unus
ually wide, considering the comparative simplicity o f the occupational
structure o f the industry. This wide dispersion was due largely to
extreme regional differences.
A distribution o f employees according to individual hourly earn
ings shows almost 65 percent were paid less than the average (table
1). However, there were no very pronounced concentrations o f
workers in any single earnings class.
1 Abstract of article in the M onthly Labor Review for February 1940, prepared by
Frances M. Jones and George E. Votava, of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
2 Wages and hours data for home workers are not included in the tabulations presented
in this article, since it is not possible to obtain accurate inform ation concerning hours of
work for this class of employees.
259
M E N ’ S NECKWEAR INDUSTRY
T a b l e 1 .— Percentage d istribution o f m en 's neckw ear workers b y average h ou rly
earnings and by sex, 1 9 3 9
Average hourly earnings
All
workers Males
(in cents)
Under 17.5_____________
17.5 and under 22.5______
22.5 and under 25.0______
25.0 and under 27.5______
27.5 and under 30.0______
30.0 and under 32.5______
32.5 and under 35.0______
35.0 and under 37.5_____
37.5 and under 40.0______
40.0 and under 42.5______
42.5 and under 47.5______
47.5 and under 52.5______
52.5 and under 57.5______
57.5 and under 02.5______
62.5 and under 67.5______
0.1
.6
.7
9. 5
5.6
6.5
7.1
8.2
7.7
7.7
10.7
8.8
6. 5
3.8
3.5
0.1
.1
5.7
1.7
2.7
2.4
3.6
3.6
5.0
6.4
4.9
6.0
3.0
5.0
Fe
males
0.1
.7
.8
10.0
6.2
7.1
7.9
8.9
8.3
8.1
11.7
9.5
6.5
4.0
3.2
Average hourly earnings
All
(in cents)
workers Males
67.5 and under 72.5_____
2.0
72.5 and under 77.5_____
1.6
77.5 and under 82.5. ___
1.5
82.5 and under 87.5_____
1.0
87.5 and under 92.5_____
1.3
92.5 and under 100.0_____
1.0
100.0 and under 110.0____
1.5
110.0 and under 120.0___
.9
120.0 and under 130.0____
.4
130.0 and under 140.0____
.9
.9
140.0 and over__________
Total...................... 100.0
Number of workers_____ 4. 940
Average hourly earnings. $0. 470
4.0
3.7
3.6
3.2
6.2
4.3
8.0
4.9
2.2
5.3
4.4
100.0
697
$0. 710
Fe
males
1.7
1.3
1.2
.7
.5
.5
.4
.2
.1
.1
.3
100.0
4, 243
$0.427
There was a very wide difference between the average hourly earn
ings o f male and female workers. However, as male employees con
stitute only a seventh o f all wage earners, it was the women’s earnings
that influenced most the average o f the industry.
New Y ork City proper, excluding the commuting area, had by
far the highest wages in the industry, the average hourly earnings
o f all workers being 74.2 cents. Average earnings in the remainder
o f the country were 43.1 cents an hour for all workers, or 31.1 cents
lower than the average for New Y ork City proper.
Hourly earnings were generally higher in union than in nonunion
establishments, although there were numerous nonunion factories
paying wages as high as, if not higher than, the prevailing rates in
their respective labor markets. The average difference in favor o f
union plants in the country as a whole was 10.2 cents an hour, or
23.5 percent greater than the nonunion figure.
Table 2 presents wage and hour data for the principal occupational
groups.
T
a b l e
2 . — A verag e h ou rly earnings, w eekly hours, and w eekly earnings o f m en 's
neckw ear workers, 1 9 3 9 , by sex and occupation
Sex and occupation
All workers------------------------------------------------- ------------ --------Males ______________________ - _________________________
Cutters and markers___________________________________
Sewing-machine operators______________________________
Pressers..____________________ _______________________
Packers, boxers, and folders____________________________
Plant clerks.--------------------------------------------------------------Miscellaneous skilled workers, production and maintenance
departments________________________________________
Miscellaneous semiskilled and unskilled workers, produc
tion, maintenance, and service departments-----------------Females______________ ____ ________ ______________ ______ Sewing-machine operators_____________ _____ _________
Slip stitchers, hand__________________________ __________
Slip-stitch machine operators_______________ ______ _____
Basters, hand----------------------------- ------ ---------- ---------Miscellaneous hand sewers_____________________________
Pressers------------------------- -------------------------------------------Turners------------------- ------------- ------------------------------------Trimmers and cleaners..... .......................................- ....... ..
Examiners------------------------------ ----------------------------------Packers, boxers, and folders------- ------ ------ --------- -----------Plant clerks-------------------------- ------ --------- ---------------------Learners___________ _______ ________ _______ ____ _______
Miscellaneous skilled workers, production department---Miscellaneous semiskilled and unskilled workers, produc
tion, maintenance, and service departments____________
Number
of
workers
Average
hourly
earnings
Average
weekly
hours
4,910
697
213
121
106
44
113
$0. 470
. 710
.846
.935
.728
.399
.504
34.7
37. 6
38.4
28.4
35. 6
41.7
42.6
$16. 32
26. 70
32.48
26. 54
25. 93
16. 65
21. 47
43
1.013
41.0
41. 56
57
4, 243
1, 158
1, 148
179
216
113
534
253
181
48
188
62
40
52
.328
.427
.457
.448
.432
.424
.419
.414
.392
.351
.409
.332
.381
.265
. 544
42.2
34. 3
34.1
33.8
34.4
31.7
34.6
34.4
30.7
34.2
37.4
38.5
40.9
35. 1
41.0
13.84
14. 62
15. 61
15.15
14. 86
13. 47
14. 50
14.21
12.01
12.01
15. 32
12. 78
15. 57
9. 30
22.27
71
.341
37.4
12. 75
Average
weekly
earnings
260
WAGES AND HOURS
Only 2.5 percent o f all employees surveyed worked overtime at
extra rates, and their total earnings were increased by slightly less
than 2 cents an hour over their earnings at regular rates. The aver
age o f this group o f employees who had some overtime pay was 39.8
cents an hour at regular rates, and 41.7 cents when overtime pay is
averaged over the week’s work. The inclusion of these extra earnings
in the aggregate wages of all employees made a difference of only
one-tenth of a cent in the average hourly earnings o f all workers.
W eekly H ours and Earnings
The 5-day week predominated in the men’s neckwear industry,
and the full-time, or normal, hours of work per week ranged from 30
to 44 in the first half of 1939. A substantial proportion of the em
ployees, however, were not working full time in the first half of
1939. The shortest full-time workweek of any significant number
o f plants was 36 hours, but about 40 percent of the wage earners
worked less than 36 hours during the 1-week pay-roll period covered.
The actual hours worked by another 20 percent were 36 and under
40 per week, and about 15 percent worked exactly 40 hours. An
other 15 percent worked exactly 44 hours, then the legal maximum
at regular rates o f pay, and 2.7 percent worked longer than 44 hours.
Average actual hours per week for all wage earners were 34.7.
Weekly earnings for the hours actually worked of all employees in
the men’s neckwear industry averaged $16.32 in the first half of 1939.
About three-fifths of the wage earners earned less than the average,
however, and more than three-fourths (78.0 percent) received below
$20. Almost a fifth (18.9 percent) were paid under $10. The latter
represents, in most cases, earnings for part-time work. The average
weekly earnings o f female workers were $14.62; o f male, $26.70.
*###+###
Men’s Robe Industry—Earnings and Hours, 19381
The production of men’s and boys’ bath, lounging, and beach robes,
dressing gowns, lounge suits, house coats, and similar articles of ap
parel constitutes a relatively small and not well-defined industry. As
a matter of fact, these products are manufactured to some extent in
practically all of the apparel-industry divisions presented by the Cen
sus of Manufactures. There is, however, a small group of factories
in which the manufacture of men’s and boys’ robes and related prod
ucts constitutes the sole or major production. It is this last group of
establishments that the Bureau’s survey covered, and they will be re
ferred to hereafter as the men’s robe industry.
The survey covered 24 plants and 1,353 workers, which is estimated
to be approximately half of the employment in firms that produced
men’s and boys’ robes as a major product during the 1938 season.
The New York City metropolitan area is represented in the sample
by 33.5 percent of the workers, the remainder o f the Eastern States
* A bstract of article in the M onthly Labor Review fo r March 1940. prepared by Frances
M . Jones and George E. Votava, of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
261
M E N ’S ROBE INDUSTRY
by 55.7 percent, and the Middle Western and Pacific States by 10.8
percent.
Collective bargaining with employees is common practice in the
New York City area, and it is also found to some extent in other
regions.
The piece-work method of wage payment is not found in men’s
robe factories to the extent that it exists in most of the other divisions
of the needle trades. Little more than a third of the workers in the
Bureau’s survey were paid straight piece rates. The bundle system
of production is used in most plants making men’s robes. Only two
of ithe establishments surveyed had the line system for stitching opera
tions, another used a progressive bundle system, and one employed
the tailor system of production.
Average H ourly Earnings
The average hourly earnings of the 1,353 workers covered by the
Bureau’s survey in the men’s robe industry were 46.2 cents in the
fall of 1938. Individual hourly earnings, however, covered a wide
range (table 1), owing to sex, regional, and occupational differences.
T
able
1.—
Percentage d istribution o f m en 's robe workers according to average h ou rly
ea rn in g s , by sex y 1 9 3 8
Average hourly earnings
All
(in cents)
workers Males
Under 22.5_______ ______
22.5 and under 25.0..........
25.0 and under 27.5______
27.5 and under 30.0...........
30.0 and under 32.5______
32.5 and under 35.0...........
35.0 and under 37.5......... .
37.5 and under 40.0........
40.0 and under 42.5...........
49 fS atiH n nr1«r 47 H
47.5 and under 52.5......... _
52.5 and under 57.5.........
57.5 and under 62.5...........
62.5 and under 67.5...........
67.5 and under 72.5...........
0.4
.3
12.8
6.4
13.4
5.8
13.8
5.2
3.9
7.3
6.1
5.0
3.2
3.0
1.8
0.6
3.6
1.5
6.4
4.8
5.1
3.0
3.3
5.1
5.7
3.6
6.7
5.5
5.7
Fe
males
0.4
.4
15.7
8.0
15.6
6.2
16.3
6.0
4.1
8.0
6.2
5.4
2.1
2.3
.6
Average hourly earnings
All
(in cents)
workers Males
Fe
males
72.5 and under 77.5
77.5 and under 82.5
82.5 and under 87.5
87.5 and under 92.5
92.5 and under 100.0
100.0 and under 120.0___
120.0 and under 140.0___
140.0 and under 150.0___
150.0 and over_________
1.7
1.3
.8
1.6
1.2
2.2
.7
2.0
.1
4.2
3.9
3.0
5.1
3.6
8.3
2.4
8.3
.6
0.9
.4
.l
.4
.4
.3
.2
Total___________
100.0
100.0
100.0
N umber of workers
1,353
Average hourly earnings. $0,462
331
$0,704
1,022
$0.380
The average hourly earnings of male workers exceeded those of
females by 85.3 percent. Males earned an average o f 70.4 cents,
which is 24.2 cents higher than the industry average; females averaged
38.0 cents, or 8.2 cents below the average for the industry.
Regional Differences
The New York City metropolitan area showed the highest hourly
earnings in the men’s robe industry. The average in this region was
62.9 cents, or two-thirds more than that for the remainder o f the
country, and over one-third higher than the total industry average.
More than one-half of the plants in the New York City metropolitan
area had higher average hourly earnings than the highest-wage estab
lishment outside of that district.
Despite the relatively high wage level, there is considerable diver
sity in earnings within the New York City metropolitan area. The
262
WAGES AND HOURS
lowest-wage plant had an average of 33.0 cents, the highest 81.4
cents.2 A t least two factors contribute to the wide range of plant
averages in this region. One is collective bargaining, the other is the
class of product manufactured.3 All the plants with union agree
ments had higher averages than the highest-wage nonunion establish
ment. Furthermore, in union plants, wages are scaled according to
class of garment, the class being determined by the wholesale price
of the garment. The minimum wage paid in the manufacture of
the highest-price class is approximately 75 percent greater than the
minimum in the lowest-price class of garment.4
O c c u p a tio n a l D iffe r e n c e s
Table 2 presents wage and hour data for the principal occupational
groups for the country as a whole.
T
a b l e
2 .— Average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings of men's
robe workers, by sex and occupation, 1988
Sex and occupation
Number
of workers
Average
hourly
earnings
Average
weekly
hours
Average
weekly
earnings
All occupations____________________________________
1,353
$0.462
38.0
$17.53
Males________ _____ _______________________________
Cutters, markers, and spreaders 1____________ ...
Sewing-machine operators_______________________
Pressers_______________________________________
Plant clerks____________________________________
Miscellaneous skilled workers... ________________
Miscellaneous semiskilled and unskilled workers...
331
77
73
67
24
27
63
.704
.957
.783
.615
.518
.779
.437
39.0
40.0
38.4
34.3
42.7
42.7
40.8
27.50
38.24
30.03
21.13
22.12
33.24
17. 83
Females__________ .. _____________________ _______
Sewing-machine operators... .. _______ . . . ___
Hand sewers___________________________________
Trimmers and cleaners_________________________
Pressers_____ ______ _______________ ______
Packers, boxers, and folders_____________________
Plant clerks. . . . .
______ ______ ___________
Miscellaneous workers____ ______________________
1,022
682
56
73
14
69
14
114
.380
.386
.445
.345
.359
.323
.333
.389
37.6
37.3
36.0
38.5
41.1
42.9
34.6
36.2
14. 30
14.40
15.99
13.28
14. 75
13.86
11.51
14.07
1 These occupations were grouped, because the duties involved are often combined in one job.
I n c re a s e i n H o u r l y E a rn in g s F r o m O v e r t im e R a te s
The figures thus far cited have referred only to basic hourly earn
ings. i. e., wages earned at regular rates of pay. The inclusion of extra
earnings for overtime in the aggregate wages of all employees in
creased the average hourly earnings for the industry by only fourtenths of a cent. As the longer hours were worked by a larger pro
portion of males than females, the average for all males was increased
by i y 2 cents, and the average for females by a tenth of a cent.
2 These plants are comparable w ith respect to operations perfornied, both being contract
stitching establishments.
3 Because of the lack of data concerning the class of garment manufactured, inform ation
obtained in the survey is not conclusive as to whether or not there is a m aterial difference
in the wage levels of plants making men’s robes in New York C ity proper and the outlying
commuting area, when the union factor is eliminated.
4 Hearings to consider the recommendations of Industry Committee No. 2 for the Ap
parel Industry, November 27, 1939 (Official Report of Proceedings Before the Wage and
Hour Division, pp. 1056-1057).
MILK CONDENSERIES
263
M ilk Condenseries— Wages and H ours, 19381
The major product of the 161 condenseries reported as operating in
the United States in 1938 was evaporated milk, though some plants
also made one or both of the two other forms of preserved milk— con
densed milk and dry milk. A survey made by the United States
Women’s Bureau in March and April 1938 covered 3,143 workers in
113 plants, all but 137 of the employees being men. The plants were
located in 20 States and included the major producers in each State
and some smaller plants in the more important of the States in the
production of evaporated milk.
Weekly Hours
The majority of the condenseries visited operated on a schedule of
more than 40 hours per week. The scheduled hours reported by 14
plants were 40 a week; by 34 plants, 44 hours; by 5 plants, between
44 and 48 hours; by 31 plants, 48 hours; and by 9 plants, between 48
and 63 hours. The other 20 plants had irregular hours. A 6-day
week was reported by 74 plants and a 7-day week for some employees
by 39 plants, including 6 with a 7-day week for the plant.
Hourly and Weekly Earnings
Wages were on a time-rate basis in all but three plants. Payment
according to production, but with a guaranteed time-rate minimum,
was in effect in these three plants.
H o u rly earnings.— The median hourly earnings (midpoint) for the
2,926 workers in the 112 condenseries for which hours were reported
were 50.1 cents and the mean (arithmetic average) was 48.8 cents.
Over seven-tenths of the employees earned from 40 to 60 cents an
hour.
A comparison by occupations reveals that the highest hourly earn
ings (57.3 cents) were in the can-manufacturing department, and
that the operating engineers had the next highest earnings (53.6 cents).
Workers in the department where the fresh milk was received and
tested, and operators of the milk-processing machines averaged 49.7
and 49.3 cents an hour, respectively.
The general utility and warehouse men earned an average of 48.3
cents an hour, and workers in the can-filling and packing department
had the lowest average (45.3 cents).
W eek ly earnings .— The week’s earnings recorded in the survey
included actual earnings for all work, including overtime. Of the
113 condenseries scheduled, 52 reported pay for overtime, 30 at
the rate of time and one-half and 22 at straight time. The median
week’s earnings ($23.50) were approximately the same as the mean
($23.25). A large majority of the workers (71.2 percent) earned
$20 or more in the week, and two-fifths (40.4 percent) earned $25
or more.
Among the States, California plants had the highest
proportion (71 percent) of the workers earning $25 or more. This
was due to higher hourly rates and also to the large proportion
1 From the M onthly Labor Review for February 1939.
264
WAGES AND HOURS
working 48 hours or more. With the exception of a few States
where the difference in the hours of work of many workers affected
the week’s earnings, the ranking of the States in week’s earnings
was the same as in hourly earnings.
■########
M illinery Industry— Earnings and H ours, 1937-381
The millinery industry is highly seasonal, and in consequence
employment is extremely variable and annual earnings of the workers
are low.
Frequent style changes, a demand for low-priced hats,
excessive competition, and inadequate resources of the manufac
turers are some of the factors which have affected adversely the
economic welfare of both employers and employees in the industry.
In 1935 and 1936, when most manufacturing industries showed gains
in employment, pay rolls, average earnings, salaries, and profits, the
reverse was true in the millinery industry. There was no gain in
employment, average earnings increased only slightly, and average
salaries of officials and average net profits declined.
This singularly unfavorable economic condition led to a joint
request by employers and employees to the United States Secretary
of Labor for a comprehensive study of the industry. A Nation
wide survey of the industry was, in consequence, made by the United
States Women’s Bureau in the spring of 1938, but was limited to
firms which had been in business at least 11 months during 1937
and the spring of 1938.2
Em ploym ent Conditions
The manufacture of millinery is carried on in 12 major produc
tion areas.8 In 1937 there were over 800 manufacturers in the in
dustry, who employed an average of 22,000 workers and did a gross
business of over $91,000,000. The industry has two peaks of pro
duction in the year (the spring peak of 15 weeks, and the fall peak
of 0 weeks), 14 very dull weeks, and 14 transition weeks in which
preparations are being made for the busy season or production is
reduced as orders fall off. The manufacturer must make enough
during the peak seasons to carry him and the continuous overhead
through the dull season and for some part of the transitional weeks.
The worker, also, even though he may work each week in the year,
must plan to make his earnings in the busy seasons spread over the
dull and transitional periods.
Only a little over one-quarter (26.7 percent) of the workers on
the pay rolls in 1937 worked the 46 weeks or more that may be con
sidered as regular employment. Almost one-half of the workers
worked less than 20 weeks; these obviously represent, it is said, the
extras employed for short periods by individual firms.
Table 1 shows the amount of employment secured by employees
in the different occupations in 1937.
1 Abstract of an article in the M onthly Labor Review for August 1939, by M a ry Ander
son, Director, Women’s Bureau.
2 See U. S. Women’s Bureau B ulletin No. 1 6 9 : Conditions in the M illin e ry Industry in
the United States, Washington, 1939.
*N e w York City, up-State New Y ork and Connecticut, northern New Jersey, Philadel
phia and Trenton, Massachusetts, South A tla n tic area, Texas, Illin ois, Cleveland, D etroit,
and Milwaukee, Missouri, Los Angeles, and San Francisco.
265
MILLINERY INDUSTRY
T
able
1, —
N u m b er o f w eeks w orked b y em p lo yees in the m illin ery in d u stry in 1 9 8 7 ,
b y occup ation
Occupation
Percent of total employees who workedEmploy
ees with
weeks
14, and 20, and
4, and
worked Under 4 under 8 8, and
under 13 13 weeks under 20 under 2
reported weeks
weeks
weeks
weeks
weeks
All occupations_____ _____ __________
26,798
22.1
10.0
8.1
1.3
7.4
6.0
Blockers.............................. .......................
Cutters.......................................................
Operators.......................... ..................... .
Trimmers.................... ................. ............
Oeneral factory...................................... .
All nonproductive..................................
2,886
310
5,132
11,501
3,508
3,461
11.4
18.7
16.6
26.0
30.0
18.5
7.7
11.3
10.1
8.7
16.1
10.1
7.3
5.8
10.2
6.3
11.1
8.6
1.2
1.9
1.5
1.1
1.7
1.3
6.4
4.2
10.6
6.3
7.6
7.0
4.5
4.8
9.6
4.9
5.1
6.8
Percent of total employees reported who worked27, and 33, and
40, and 46, and
26 weeks under 33 under 39 39 weeks under 46 under 52 52 weeks
weeks
weeks
weeks
weeks
All occupations ________ _______ _____
0.8
3.8
4.4
0.9
8.5
17.2
9.5
Blockers..____ __________ ___________
Cutters__________ ___________________
Operators________ ________ __________
Trimmers_________ ____________ _____
General factory........................................
All nonproductive....... .............................
.5
.3
1.3
.6
.5
1.0
3.8
1.3
4.9
3.9
3.2
3.1
4.6
1.0
4.7
4.9
3.4
3.7
.9
.3
1.1
1.1
.6
.5
10.3
8.1
8.3
10.6
4.2
4.5
23.4
17.7
14.7
19.7
9.7
14.6
18.1
24.5
6.4
5.8
6.8
20.4
Factors in the industry which are capable of improvement include
oversupply of workers, excessive competition, lack o f scientific busi
ness organization, and imperfect factory management. Effective
cooperation and systematic effort of employers and employees, through
a strong union o f employees (such as already exists) and a strong
association o f employers, are necessary to bring about improvement
in these factors. An organized effort toward lengthening seasons,
through consumer aid, and assessing style trends far enough in
advance to allow planning o f each season’s production, would, it was
suggested, tend to stabilize employment and advance the economic
interests of the industry.
H ourly Earnings
With some exceptions, productive workers in the millinery industry
are paid on a piece-rate basis. In union shops every effort is made,
in fixing rates, to insure the same returns to the worker regardless
of the great variation in the work, and a minimum scale o i week’s
wages is stated in union contracts. The productivity of the worker
depends on the style and price of the hat, the amount of work involved,
etc., the trimmer’s output being generally larger on the cheaper hats
than on the more expensive ones.
In San Francisco, because of the character and volume of the work,
all workers are paid a weekly rate. In other areas, cutters and gen
eral factory workers are paid on a time basis. Blockers usually, and
sewing-machine operators occasionally, work as a “ corporation” ; i. e.,
from two to four workers pool their earnings, each receiving a certain
sum for the week.
Hourly earnings in the various areas are shown in table 2.
266
WAGES AND HOURS
T a b l e 2 . — A verag e h ou rly earnings o f m illin ery workers in a week o f M a r c h 1 9 3 8 ,
b y areas
Median
hourly
earnines
Average
hourly
earnings
Number of
employees
Area
All areas................................................ ............. ....................
7,525
$0,909
$0.778
New York City________________________ ________ ____._
Up-State New York and Connecticut_______________ ____Northern New Jersey________: ______ ____ ______________
Philadelphia and Trenton._____ _______ ________________
South Atlantic area______________ _____________________
Texas.___ __________ ________ ________________________
Illinois_______________ ________________________ _____
Cleveland, Detroit, and Milwaukee_________ _______ _____
Missouri.._____ ___ _____ ______________ ______________
San Francisco........................ ....... .........................................
4,162
71
1.080
.726
.718
.783
.524
.368
.784
.670
.732
.538
.896
.592
.688
.719
.506
.356
.680
.652
.715
.485
285
211
76
349
1, 232
367
570
202
W eekly Earnings
Average weekly earnings of millinery workers in 1937 ranged from
$16.11 for general factory workers to $39.04 for cutters. In the week
o f maximum employment, average earnings varied from $17.32 for
general factory workers to $60.14 for blockers, but in the week of
minimum employment earnings had dropped so that the range was
from, $8.74 for trimmers to $31.12 for cutters. In all the productive
occupations, average earnings were higher in New York City than
in the other productive areas. The earnings of the nonproductive
force did not vary much during the year, averaging a little more than
$24 a week. Weekly earnings in the various occupations in 1937
are shown in table 3.
T a b l e 3 . — N u m b e r o f w orkers and w eek ly ea rn in gs o f m illin e ry w orkers in 1 9 3 7
Number of workers
Weekly earnings
Occupation
Average
Maxi
mum
Mini
mum
Average
Maxi
mum
Mini
mum
All employees 1.................... .......... ................
14,837
17,883
9, 723
$23.54
$32.55
$15.60
Blockers......................................... ..................
Cutters_______ _______ __________________
Operators..........................................................
Trim mers........................ ........................ .
General factory workers...............................
Nonproductive workers ............................
2,009
218
2,654
6,461
1,411
1, 739
2,402
258
3,855
7,500
3, 932
1,989
1,509
170
1, 522
3,857
926
3,429
36.96
39.04
30.31
16.44
16.11
24.20
60.14
48.11
45.36
24.34
17.32
24.23
16.57
31.12
17.10
8.74
14.69
24.16
1 Includes designers, not shown separately.
*Includes foremen, shipping, and office.
Annual Earnings
To only 19 percent of the workers on the pay rolls in 1937 had the
firms paid as much as $1,000 in the year. Only a little more than
one-third had received as much as $600. As many as 10,000 workers
received less than $100 during the year, and there were 3,000 who
received less than $10. Blockers had larger earnings than those in
other occupations.
A percentage distribution of millinery workers in the various occupa
tions, by annual earnings, is presented in table 4.
267
MOTORTRUCK DRIVERS AND HELPERS
T able 4.— P ercen tag e
d istribu tion o f m illin e ry w ork ers b y a n n u a l ea rnings in 1 9 8 7
and b y occu p ation
Year’s earnings
All
Cutters
occu Block
ers
pations
Oper
ators
Trim
mers
General
factory
workers
All non
produc
tive
occupa
tions
Under $10______ ________________________
$10 and under $25_______________________
$25 and under $50____________
. .
$50 and under $75_________ __ _________
$75 and under $100______________________
$100 and under $200_________ ______ _____
$200 and under $300______ ______________
9.5
7.9
6.6
4.3
3.3
8.8
6.2
4.0
3.4
3.8
2.6
2.4
6.0
4.3
0.9
6.4
6.4
2.3
2.3
8.1
4.6
3.9
4.9
5. 3
4.0
3.0
8.0
/. 4
14.6
9.5
6.6
4.0
2.9
8.0
5.7
11.9
13.1
11.1
7.8
5.6
12.5
7.2
3.9
6.3
6. 5
4.5
3.4
11.2
6.9
$300 and under $400_____________________
$400 and under $500_____________________
$500 and under $600___________________ _
$600 and under $700_____________________
$700 and under $800.____________________
$800 and under $1,000___________________
$1,000 and under $1,500__________________
5.3
5.2
5.2
5.1
5.3
8.6
9.5
4.2
3.0
3.0
2.6
6.0
15.4
5.2
2.0
2.9
1.7
1.4
3.8
15.4
7.0
7.0
6.4
5.4
4.5
7.4
11.7
5. 1
5.9
6.1
6.1
7.0
10.9
6.8
4.7
3.6
2.9
4.2
3.8
5.3
4.8
4.8
3.6
3.8
3.7
4.6
8.2
14.7
$1,500 and under $2,000__________________
$2,000 and under $2,500______ __ ________
$2,500 and under $3,000__________________
$3,000 and under $3,500________________
$3,500 and under $4,000____
$4,000 and under $4,500_______
$4,500 and under $5,000_______ _ _ _
$5,000 and over____ _______ _____ ___ __
4. 2
2.8
1.3
14.8
11.9
5.8
1.9
.9
13.6
10.4
8.1
3. 5
.9
6. 7
5. 1
1.9
.6
1. 3
6.4
3.2
1.7
1.1
1.0
Total reported.............
.4
.2
.1
0)
.1
100.0
3.3
.7
.2
0)
(0
.2
.1
0)
(0
.3
.2
.4
0)
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
1 Less than a twentieth of 1 percent.
Motortruck Drivers and Helpers—Union Wages
and Hours, 19401
The term “truck drivers” covers a heterogeneous group of occupa
tions, such as drivers of building and excavating trucks, coal trucks,
ice trucks, general hauling and transfer trucks, delivery trucks hauling
various and miscellaneous commodities, and express and freight
trucks. Each truck-driving occupation and each size and type of
truck usually has a different wage rate. Furthermore, there is great
variation in the terminology used to describe the different occupations.
For these reasons it is impossible to make an intercity classification by
types. The data on all truck driving in all cities studied, therefore,
are treated as for one trade in this study, division being made only
between drivers and helpers.
Wage payments for drivers doing local hauling, or making local
deliveries which do not involve sales functions, are almost universally
established on a time basis. Most frequently the agreements specify
hourly rates, although daily or weekly wage scales are not uncommon.
In order to achieve comparability, these daily and weekly wage scales
have been converted as far as possible to an hourly basis.
Agreements covering route drivers, particularly those handling
bakery products, beer, laundry, and milk, commonly classify the
drivers as salesmen. Ordinarily the compensation of these drivers
is specified as a weekly guaranty plus various commissions based upon
1 Abstract of article in the Monthly Labor Review for February 1941, prepared by
Frank S. McElroy, of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
505364 0 - 43 - 18
268
WAGES AND HOURS
the volume o f deliveries or collections. Similarly the agreements cov
ering road drivers commonly specify either trip or mileage rates rather
than hourly wage scales. All quotations specifying such commission,
trip, or mileage wage scales, which could not be converted to an hourly
basis, have been excluded from the computations upon which this
report is based.
The average hourly wage rate of union motortruck drivers in 71
cities2 was 80.5 cents on June 1, 1940. The average rate for union
helpers was 66.1 cents per hour and the average for drivers and helpers
combined was 78.3 cents per hour. Actual rates for drivers ranged
from 26.7 cents per hour for milk drivers during their first 6 months of
employment as route builders in Norfolk, Va., to $1,413 per hour for
drivers of 3-axle fruit trucks in Newark, N. J. Helpers’ rates ranged
from 30 cents per hour for beer drivers’ helpers in Charleston, W. Va.,
and for freight-truck helpers in Dallas, Tex., to $1,125 per hour for
helpers on theatrical-equipment trucks in New York City.
H ourly Wage Rates
Over 78 percent o f the union motortruck drivers for whom hourly
wage rates were specified in the cities studied, had rates between 65
cents and $1.05 per hour. Rates of less than 65 cents per hour applied
to 13.4 percent of the drivers, but only 2.4 percent had rates of less
than 50 cents per hour. Rates of $1.05 per hour and higher were
specified for 8.1 percent of the drivers, but only eight-tenths of 1 per
cent had rates as high as $1.20 per hour.
Nearly 83 percent o f the helpers had hourly rates between 50 and
85 cents. The rate of 60 cents per hour was particularly significant
in the helper classifications, over 13 percent of the total membership
being reported as having that specific rate. Rates of less than 50 cents
per hour applied to 9.3 percent o f the helpers, but only 2.1 percent had
scales o f under 40 cents. In the upper wage-rate brackets, 1.4 percent
of the helpers had rates of $1 per hour or higher and 6.6 percent had
rates between 85 cents and $1 per hour.
T
able
1,—
P ercen ta g e d istribu tion o f u n io n m otortruck drivers and h elpers b y h o u rly
ra tes , J u n e 1 , 1 9 4 0
Driv Driv
ers and ers
helpers
Help
ers
Classified hourly rate
Average hourly rate.............. $0.783 $0. 805
$0.661
Percent of members whose
rates were—
80 and under 85 cenf;s.. .
85 and under 90 cents.. .
90 and under 95 cents.. .
95 cents and under $ 1 ...
$1 and under $1.05..........
$1.05 and under $1.10___
$1.10 and under $1.15___
$1.15 and under $1.20___
$1.20 and under $1.25___
$1.25 and under $1.30___
$1.30 and under $1.35___
$1.35 and over..................
Classified hourly rate
Percent of members whose
rates were—
Under 35 cents_________
35 and under 40 cents.. .
40 and under 45 cents.. .
45 and under 50 cents.. .
50 and under 55 cents.. .
55 and under 60 cents.. .
60 and under 65 cents.. .
65 and under 70 cents.. .
70 and under 75 cents.. .
75 and under 80 cents.. .
0.2
.3
1.1
1.9
4.0
3.9
7.4
9.5
10.9
16.9
0.1
.1
.9
1.3
2.8
3.5
4.7
9.4
10.9
17.9
0.6
1.5
2.2
5.0
10.7
6.4
22.6
10.4
10.8
12.3
‘ Less than a tenth of 1 percent.
2 See footnote 2, p. 46, for list of cities covered in 1940.
Driv
ers and Driv
helpers ers
11.8
7.2
6.3
5.2
6.3
3.6
1.7
1.0
.4
.3
.1
0)
12.2
8.1
6.8
5.9
7.3
4.2
1.9
1.2
.4
.3
.1
0)
Help
ers
9.5
2.2
3.4
1.0
.8
.2
.4
269
MOTORTRUCK DRIVERS AND HELPERS
Overtime Rates
Time and one-half was specified as the initial overtime rate in 73
percent of the quotations for drivers and in 80 percent of the quota
tions for helpers. In respect to membership, this overtime rate applied
to 63 percent of the drivers and to 76 percent of the helpers. (See
table 2.)
T
a b l e
2 ,—
O vertim e rates provided f o r m otortruck d rivers and helpers i n
a greem en ts , J u n e l f 1 9 4 0
Drivers and helpers
Overtime rate
Drivers
u n io n
Helpers
Percent Number Percent Number Percent
Number of
mem
of mem
of mem
of quota bers cov of quota bers
cov of quota bers cov
tions
tions
tions
ered
ered
ered
No penalty rate provided________________
Time and one-third.................... ...................
Time and one-half..........................................
Double time............................. ......................
Other penalty rates. .....................................
Overtime prohibited............................. ........
338
40
1,628
8
146
21
10.8
3.7
65.1
.3
19.6
.5
292
26
1,286
7
125
18
46
14
342
1
21
3
11.7
3.6
63.3
.3
20.7
.4
5.7
4.3
76.2
.1
13.1
.6
Maximum W eekly Hours
The average full-time weekly hours in effect for union drivers and
helpers in the 71 cities was 47.2 on June 1, 1940. For drivers the
average full-time week was 47.4 hours; for helpers the average was
46.3 hours. The higher average for drivers resulted mainly from the
fact that helpers were not generally included in the quotations covering
road drivers, whose hours were usually longer. The basic workweek
of 43.6 percent o f the drivers was 48 hours. (See table 3.) A con
siderable number of drivers were also reported as having normal work
weeks o f over 40 but less than 44 hours. To a large extent these were
42-hour scales established in conformity with the provisions of the
Fair Labor Standards Act. Relatively few drivers were reported as
having normal workweeks of less than 40 hours or of more than 60
hours.
T
a b l e
3 .—
P ercen tage d istribu tion o f u n io n m otortruck d rivers a nd h elpers , b y hours
p er w eek , J u n e 1 , 1 9 4 0
Classified hours per week
Driv
ers
and
help
ers
Driv
ers
Help
ers
Average weekly hours..........
47.2
47.4
46.3
Percent of members whose
hours per week were—
Less than 40___________
40......... .................... ........
Over 40 and under 4 4 ...
44......... ............. ................
Over 44 and under 48__
48.— .................................
.4
12.7
5.3
12.5
4.1
44.4
.3
12.9
5.0
11.8
3.8
43.6
.8
11.6
6.6
16.0
5.6
50.0
Classified hours per week
Percent of members whose
hours per week were—
Over 48 and under 5 1 ...
51_______ ______________
Over 51 and under 5 4 ...
54.........................
Over 54 and under 6 0 ...
60......... ........ ....................
Over 60.............................
Driv
ers
and
help
ers
Driv
ers
1.3
7.8
.9
5.5
1.7
3.3
.1
1.4
9.1
.7
5.6
1.9
3.8
.1
Help
ers
0.9
.6
1.9
5.0
.6
.4
270
WAGES AND HOURS
Trend o f Wage and H our Scales
Data based upon comparable quotations for the trucking industry,
from which inferences relating to trends may be drawn, are available
only for the past 4 years. Since 1936, however, the movement of
wage rates has been consistently upward and that of allowed weekly
hours has been generally downward.
In 1937 the wage rates of union truck drivers and helpers were 6.6
percent higher on the average than in 1936. The 1938 survey showed
an average increase of 3.6 percent over 1937, and in 1939 the reports
indicated a further rise ox 2.2 percent over 1938. Proportionately,
the rise of 2.0 percent between June 1, 1939, and June 1, 1940, indi
cated by the reports upon which this study is based, was less than that
shown in any of the 3 preceding years.
The year-to-year changes in allowed weekly hours since 1936 have
all been small. In 1937 the weekly hours of drivers and helpers, on
the average, were 0.9 percent less than in 1936. In 1938 the average
was unchanged from 1937, but in 1939 the reports indicated an aver
age decline of 0.9 percent from 1938. Similarly the comparable
reports obtained in 1940 indicated a further decrease of 0.9 percent
from the average allowed hours of 1939.
*#++#####
Office Workers—Earnings, 1937, 1938, and 1940
N ew Y ork State Factories, October 19401
Weekly earnings of office workers in factories of New York State
averaged $35.04 in October 1940. The average for male workers
was $45.25, practically double the $22.88 received by women. O f
fice workers received higher pay than shop workers in all industry
groups except water, light, and power. The difference between o f
fice and shop earnings was much greater for men than for women,
men averaging $32.62 in the shops as compared with $45.25 in offices,
while women averaged only $4.71 more in offices than in shops.
T
able
1.— E m p l o y m e n t ,
p a y ro lls , and average w eek ly ea rnings in representative
N e w Y o r k State fa c to ries , October 1 9 4 0
Industry
Number of em Amount of pay Average weekly
ployees
roll
earnings
All industry groups______________ 71___________________
49,780
$1,744,310
$35.04
Stone, clay, and glass__________________________________
Metals and machinery_________________________________
Wood manufactures_________ ________ _______________
Furs, leather, and rubber goods________________________
Chemicals, oils, paints, etc____________________________
Pulp and paper------------------------------------------------------------Printing and paper goods__________ ___________________
Textiles_______________________________________________
Clothing and millinery__________ ____________________
Food and tobacco_____________________________________
_______
Water, light, and power____ ________________
996
20, 372
1,378
3,145
4,448
540
7,596
2, 288
3,841
3, 708
1,468
31,160
778, 789
44,022
84,471
170,157
18, 715
272, 737
62,059
102,601
124, 650
54,949
31.29
38.23
31.95
26.86
38. 25
34.66
35.91
27.12
26. 71
33.62
37.43
The number of employees, total pay rolls, and average weekly
earnings o f office employees in representative factories in New York
State in October 1940 are shown in table 1, by industry groups. The
figures are from the New York Department o f Labor’s annual report
on office workers’ earnings, published in its Industrial Bulletin
1 From the Monthly Labor Review for February 1941.
OFFICE WORKERS
2 7 1
(Albany) for November 1940. The employees covered in the survey
included clerks, stenographers, bookkeepers, accountants, cashiers,
stock clerks, office managers, and superintendents, and also such
technical employees as draftsmen, chemists, and other laboratory
assistants doing routine work. Salesmen and executives were omitted.
Table 2 gives average weekly earnings of men and of women in
factory offices of New York State in October 1940.
T
a b l e
2 .—
A v era g e w eek ly earnings o f m en and w o m en in fa c to r y offices, October 1 9 4 0
Men
Industry group
New
York
City
Total
State
All industry groups______________________
Stone, clay, and glass
_ - . . _____
Metals and machinery___________________
Wood manufactures_____________________
Furs, leather, and rubber goods__________
Chemicals, oils, paints, etc___
_______
Pulp and paper_________________________
Printing and paper goods
Textiles_________________________________
Clothing and millinery__________________
Food and tobacco___ ___________________
Water, light, and power____ ____________
Women
$45.25
(9
46.30
42.95
38. 76
53.85
0)
45.02
38.06
37.24
42. 27
(9
Total
State
Upstate
$43. 56
$46.05
0)
42.63
38.28
38.19
36. 58
(9
48. 60
40. 99
37. 23
45. 58
(0
$22.88
(9
(9
47.04
44. 78
39. 22
59. 74
0)
38. 53
37.07
37. 34
35. 75
22.28
20.63
20. 75
24.35
0)
24. 57
20.60
22.65
23.84
0)
(9
New
York
City
$24.08
0)
24.05
21.00
21.91
23.87
Upstate
$22.03
(9
21.83
20. 51
19.27
24.61
(9
(9
(9
(9
25. 58
21.19
23. 30
25.38
22.56
20.40
20. 56
22.17
1 Separate earnings not computed because of small number of employees.
N ew Y ork City, 1937 and 19382
Weekly salaries of office workers in New York City averaged $31.12
in a pay period falling in May or June 1938, according to a survey
made by the industrial bureau of the Merchants’ Association of New
York (New York City) covering 316 employers and 44,334 workers.
The highest average salary for any occupation was $55.27 for ac
countants, and the lowest average, $21.92 for file clerks. Some ac
countants, however, received as little as $20 and others as much as
$147.50 per week, while the range for file clerks was from $11 to $60.
The lowest rate for any occupation, $10, was found in a miscellaneous
office group, and the highest, $230.77, in the group of chief and super
visory clerks. The low, high, and average salaries for the different
occupation groups are shown in the table below.
T
a b l e
3.
—
W e e k ly salaries o f office workers in N e w
Occupations
All occupations----------------------------------------Accountants_____________________________
Auditors.-------- ----------------------------------------Bookkeepers, machine operators_________
Bookkeepers, nonmachine operators______
Stenographers and secretaries, male_____ .
Stenographers and secretaries, female_____
Typists— _______ ________________________
Dictaphone operators____________________
Telephone operators______________________
Office-machine operators_______________ __
Chief and supervisory clerks________ ____
File clerks________ _____ _________________
Other office occupations__________________
Number
of com
panies
reporting
316
190
90
181
227
89
297
204
80
280
193
253
217
283
Number
of em-v
ployees
covered
Y o rk C it y , M a y - J u n e 1 9 3 8
Weekly salaries
Low
44,334
953
499
848
1,316
396
5,617
2, 870
515
1,172
2, 464
3, 339
1,794
22, 551
$10.00
20. 00
17.50
15. 00
13.85
12.00
14.00
12. 00
15. 00
13.00
14.00
15. 00
11.00
10. 00
High
$230. 77
147. 50
138. 50
82. 50
92. 31
109. 61
96.15
55.00
38. 08
61.25
70. 00
230. 77
60.00
175. 00
Average
$31.12
55. 27
51. 65
25. 61
30. 32
34. 94
30. 37
22.83
25.15
23. 65
24. 53
52. 07
21.92
29. 95
The report of the Merchants’ Association for 1938 did not contain
information on numerical distribution of office workers among the
3 From Monthly Labor Review, January and November 1938.
272
WAGES AND HOURS
various salary brackets, as was the case with that for 1937. The
data on distribution given in the 1937 report are therefore reproduced
in table 4.
T a b l e 4 . — D istr ib u tio n o f clerical w orkers in N e w
Y o r k C i t y , b y sa la ry g r o u p s ,
M a y 1937
Bookkeepers
Earnings group
Number of reporting companies........................
Number of employees covered...........................
Weekly earnings of—
Over $300.........................................................
$225.00 to $300.00...........................................
$200.00 to $224.99............................................
$175.00 to $199.99............................................
$150.00 to $174.99.......................... .................
$140.00 to $149.99...........................................
$130.00 to $139.99.........................................__
$120.00 to $129.99............................................
$110.00 to $119.99..........................................
$100.00 to $109.99.......................... .................
$90.00 to $99.99........ _.......... ..........................
$85.00 to $89.99.............................._................
$80.00 to $84.99...... .........................................
$75.00 to $79.99................................................
$70.00 to $74.99................................................
$65.00 to $69.99..................................... ..........
$60.00 to $64.99................................................
$55.00 to $59.99..................................... ..........
$50.00 to $54.99................................................
$45.00 to $49.99................................................
$40.00 to $44.99...............................................
$35.00 to $39.99................................................
$30.00 to $34.99...... .........................................
$25.00 to $29.99-.........................................
$20.00 to $24.99...............................................
$15.00 to $19.99............................................
$10.00 to $14.99................. .......... .............. .
Less than $10................................ ...............
Earnings group
Number of reporting companies.......................
Number of employees covered...........................
Total
297
43.592
1
3
2
4
12
10
15
30
40
82
121
105
143
246
226
371
557
665
1,136
1,531
2,585
3,864
7,554
8,131
8,699
7,147
311
1
Ac
count
ants
Audi
tors
178
1,061
88
491
Ma
chine
oper
ators
Others
Male
168
926
215
1,306
86
342
1
1
2
2
7
9
12
7
9
16
14
21
28
34
46
77
57
61
51
20
15
2
Dicta
Typists phone
oper
ators
Tele
phone
oper
ators
81
435
262
1,079
1
1
2
1
15
10
14
54
139
372
229
88
i Includes department heads.
1
3
9
59
325
555
877
963
28
4
1
14
70
123
167
53
1
8
9
44
178
370
320
147
1
1
1
3
5
6
17
17
46
76
91
151
233
255
250
148
5
1
4
1
1
5
1
3
6
7
9
15
27
40
94
69
46
12
1
4
2
3
7
10
27
42
71
143
202
377
604
1,380
1,325
852
356
7
Office- Chief
AD
ma
and
other
File
chine super clerks
clerical
oper
visory
occupa
ators clerks1
tions
178
2,178
1
22
281
5,413
1
Weekly earnings of—
Over $300........ ...............................................
$225.00 to $300.00............................................
$200.00 to $224.99 . . .
......................
$175.00 to $199.99 .......................................—
$150.00 to $174.99............................................
$140.00 to $149.99........................ ...................
$130.00 to $139.99
___
$120.00 to $129.99............................................
$110.00 to $119.99................................. .........
$100.00 to $109.99................... ............. .........
$90.00 to $99.99
.......................................
$85.00 to $89.99 ............................ .................
$80.00 to $84.99................................................
$75.00 to $79.99-.
.............................
$70.00 to $74.99................................................
$65.00 to $69.99............... .......... .....................
$60.00 to $64.99................... ...........................
$55.00 to $59.99.............................. ..................
$50.00 to $54.99........................... ...................
$45.00 to $49.99...............................................
$40.00 to $44.99................................................
$35.00 to $39.99.................................. - ..........
$30.00 to $34.99............... .................... ..........
$25.00 to $29.99...............................................
$20.00 to $24.99................................................
$15.00 to $19.99................................................
$10.00 to $14.99..........
.
. .
.
Less than $10_______________ ______ ____
Fe
male
2
2
4
9
8
27
18
36
49
38
57
58
62
104
171
148
75
78
65
43
6
199
2,838
Stenographers
and secretaries
2
1
3
9
30
70
298
598
782
380
5
222
3,034
1
1
1
1
10
5
10
21
20
45
56
53
75
118
105
175
245
268
369
392
524
224
179
104
22
10
209
1,904
260
22,585
1
1
2
4
1
3
5
13
36
68
195
267
533
751
32
1
3
4
18
17
23
18
47
52
79
157
201
392
545
1,249
2,400
4,334
4,008
4,563
4,231
234
1
PAPERBOARD INDUSTRY
273
Paperboard Industry—Hourly Earnings,
NovembervDecember 19391
As defined for the purpose of this survey, the paperboard industry
includes the manufacture of container boards, boxboards, building
boards and papers, rag felts, and related products. The survey also
included the preparation o f pulp from waste paper, straw, and rags,
but it did not cover departments in which wooa-pulping operations
were performed. The first processing of waste paper, straw, and rags
for paperboard purposes is usually done in the paperboard mill, and
consequently it forms an integral part o f paperboard manufacture.
Most o f the wood pulp used, however, is supplied by independent
pulp mills, as few or the board plants engage in the primary pulping
operations on this raw material. For this reason, the wood-pulp
departments found among the plants scheduled were excluded from
the coverage. The definition excludes paper, with the exception o f
heavy building papers. Some of the establishments scheduled also
make various types of paper in addition to paperboard.
The survey covered 16,332 wage earners, employed in 134 establish
ments. The selection of plants to be scheduled was made in such a
way as to obtain a representative cross section of the industry. A c
cordingly, a description o f the characteristics of the establishments
surveyed will indicate the outstanding features o f the industry as a
whole.2
The paperboard industry is widely distributed in the United States.
In terms o f wage earners scheduled, Michigan, in the Lake region,
is the most important State, with 9.9 percent of the total. Next in
size, however, is Louisiana, with 9.2 percent of the workers covered.
O f almost equal importance are the States of New York, Illinois,
New Jersey, and Ohio.
Most o f the establishments in the paperboard industry are rela
tively small in size, as measured by employment. Although the
single-plant company predominates, a number o f important pro
ducers have two or more plants. Several large companies have mills
in nearly every important producing area. The majority o f the
paperboard plants are in relatively small communities.
A v e r a g e H o u r ly E a r n in g s
Hourly earnings of all wage earners covered by the survey averaged
59.8 cents in November-December 1939. Wide variations in hourly
earnings were found, however, among the different plants and in the
various sections o f the country. Because o f the wide variety of
products covered by the survey, it is very difficult to develop any
positive relationship between type o f product and average hourly
earnings. In many instances, an apparent product difference is
obscured by variations caused by size of establishment, geographical
location, etc.
The following table shows the geographical differences in wage
levels. Average hourly earnings ranged from 48.5 cents in the East
Central region to 73.8 cents in the Pacific region.
1
Abstract of artic le in the M onthly Labor Review for M ay 1940, prepared by H . E.
Riley, of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
* The reports of the U nited States Census of Manufactures do not show separate data
for the paperboard industry.
274
WAGES AND HOURS
Percentage distribution of paperboard workers by average hourly earnings and region ,
Novem ber-Decem ber 1939
Average hourly earnings
Under 30.5 cents................
30.5 and under 31.5 cents..
31.5 and under 32.5 cents..
32.5 and under 33.5 cents..
33.5 and under 34.5 cents..
34.5 and under 35.5 cents..
35.5 and under 36.5 cents..
36.5 and under 37.5 cents..
37.5 and under 38.5 cents..
38.5 and under 39.5 cents..
39.5 and under 44.5 cents..
44.5 and under 49.5 cents. _
49.5 and under 54. 5 cents..
54.5 and under 59.5 cents..
59.5 and under 69.5 cents..
69.5 and under 79.5 cents..
79.5 and under 89.5 cents. .
89.5 and under 99.5 cents..
99.5 and under 124.5 cents.
124.5 and under 149.5 cents
149.5 cents and over..........
Total........................
Number of workers _____
Average hourly earnings...
United
States
North
eastern
region
East
Central
region
0.6
.1
0)
.2
.1
. .8
2.2
1.2
1.2
.5
8.9
11.0
13.1
15.4
22.9
10.4
0.3
.1
.1
.2
.4
0.1
1.3
2.1
16.6
10.8
3.3
20.6
12.0
7.0
6.5
11.3
4.0
1.3
2.3
.4
.4
South
ern
region
M id
western
region
3.3
.3
.1
.3
.2
3.7
11.3
.7
2.7
1.1
24.6
14.1
8.5
6.2
7.1
4.2
3.6
3.4
3.5
1.0
.1
0.1
0)
0)
.2
.1
Lake
region
Pacific
region
0.7
.1
.2
.2
5.1
.3
9.4
10.7
12.3
17.3
18.2
19.7
29.9
27.5
14.2
10.9
7.5
5.5
2.7
1.6
2.1
3.0
.2
.2
.1 ............ .
0.1
1.6
49.3
24.6
10.5
8.1
5.6
2.6
.4
.1
0)
6.2
12.6
16.7
20.3
21.8
10.4
5.5
2.5
2.1
.5
.3
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
16,332
$0. 598
4,990
$0. 606
972
$0. 485
2,986
$0. 528
3,994
$0.611
2.418
$0. 642
972
$0. 738
5.5
2.8
.2
1 Less than one-tenth of 1 percent.
Union organization is fairly extensive in the paperboard industry.
O f the 134 plants surveyed, 48, or about one-third, had agreements
with international unions. The proportion of wage earners employed
in plants having agreements ranged from 22.2 percent of the total
scheduled in the Northeastern region to virtually 100 percent in the
Pacific States.
Wage levels generally tended to be higher in union than in non
union plants. In the Northern area (including all but the East Cen
tral and Southern regions), for example, 18 o f the 69 nonunion plants
had averages of under 50 cents an hour, whereas none of the 42 mills
having union contracts showed averages below that amount. On the
other hand, 19 union, as compared with 13 nonunion establishments,
averaged 65 cents or more. In the East Central and Southern re
gions, 12 of the 17 nonunion plants averaged under 55 cents. O f
the 6 union establishments, however, only 2 had averages under
this figure.
*##+##+#
Paper Products, Converted, Industry—Hourly
Earnings, January 19401
Hourly earnings of wage earners in the converted paper-products
industry averaged 54.6 cents in January 1940. Males averaged 61.5
cents, as compared with 41.6 cents for females.
General averages, however, convey little information about the
wage structure in this industry, which is in reality a combination of
separate industry groups. The variety of wage levels among the
1Abstract of article in the Monthly Labor Review for May 1941, prepared by H. E. Riley,
of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
CONVERTED PAPER PRODUCTS INDUSTRY
2 7 5
several groups is indicated by the fact that average hourly earnings
ranged from 79.8 cents in plants making automobile panel boards to
45.7 cents in plants making twisted paper products.
For the purposes of this study, the definition of the converted
paper products industry was defined, in general, to include the manu
facture of all products which have as a basic component, pulp, paper,
or paperboard, and the manufacture of all like products in which
synthetic materials such as cellophane, pliofilm, or synthetic resin
used in sheet form is a basic component.
Reports of the Census of Manufactures do not contain comparable
figures on number of wage earners or amount of wage payments. It
is believed, however, that the number of wage earners exceeds 150,000.
The manufacture of paper products has occupied an increasingly
important place in the industrial picture. Paper has been intro
duced as a substitute for wood, metal, glass, and fabrics, in the manu
facture of such different articles as shipping boxes, automobile body
parts, hats, towels, bags, and containers for liquids.
Scope o f Survey
The data on earnings and hours of work that form the basis of
this report were obtained through a field survey conducted by the
Bureau of Labor Statistics in the early part of 1940. The survey
included approximately one-third of the wage earners in the industry.
These workers were employed in a representative group of establish
ments selected for careful study.
For most of the plants, data were secured for a pay-roll period
during the months of January or February 1940. The schedules for
some establishments, however, cover a pay-roll period during the
months of November and December 1939.
As indicated earlier, the converted paper products industry manu
factures a wide variety of articles having few characteristics in com
mon. So diverse are these products as well as the conditions under
which they are manufactured that a general picture of the wage struc
ture of the entire industry has little meaning. Accordingly, the
plants dealt with in this report have been classified into 29 broad
groups; these include 28 fairly distinct product categories and one
miscellaneous group which embraces plants making products not else
where classifiable and not sufficiently important to warrant separate
consideration.
The industry includes plants in all parts of the United States. New
York was the most important State, with 19.1 percent of all wage
earners covered. Massachusetts ranked second, with 8.9 percent, but
was only slightly ahead of Pennsylvania and Illinois, each of which
had 8.5 percent of the employees scheduled.
The large majority of the establishments covered by the survey were
located in large metropolitan areas. Among the 807 establishments
scheduled, 360 were in places of 1,000,000 population and over, 208
were in communities of 250,000 to 1,000,000,101 in cities of 50,000 and
under 250,000, 89 in communities of 10,000 and under 50,000, and only
49 in places of under 10,000 population.
Measured by number of wage earners, including not only workers on
paper products but also those in departments making other items, the
276
WAGES AND HOURS
establishments in the converted paper products industry range from
under 20 to over 2,500 in number of employees. Of the 807 establish
ments covered in the survey, 214 employed under 21 workers, 204 had
21 to 50,140 had 51 to 100,140 had 101 to 250, 44 had 251 to 500, 48 had
501 to 1,000 and 22 had 1,000 and over.
The survey included 702 establishments whose output fell within a
single product classification. Of the remaining 105 plants surveyed,
85 made two products, 14 were classified in three product groups, and
6 made products falling in four different categories. The most com
mon combination involved set-up and folding boxes.
The survey included independent paper converters, self-contained
converters, and consumer plants. The independent converters use only
purchased paper and paperboard, whereas the self-contained mills
both make the primary paper or board and convert it into the final
product. The consumer plants are those establishments that make
converted paper products mainly for the use of a parent or controlling
company. Typical in the latter group are the box departments of
hosiery mills, hat factories, and breakfast-cereal establishments.
Of the 807 establishments surveyed, all but 151 were independent
converters. The latter number included 103 self-contained plants and
48 consumer plants.
Only 176 of the plants surveyed were reported as having agreements
with national labor unions. Labor organization was most extensive in
New York State, where 52 of the plants scheduled had agreements.
The States of California and Pennsylvania ranked next, each having
18 union plants. Some union organization was found in nearly all of
the States in which a substantial number of plants were covered.
Union organization was likewise widespread in terms of product
groups, being found in nearly all of the branches.
A v e r a g e H o u r ly E a r n in g s
In view of the different characteristics exhibited by the various
product groups surveyed, it is apparent that a single average or even
an inclusive wage distribution is of little value in presenting a picture
of the wage structure in the converted paper products industry.
Whereas the general average for the industry was 54.6 cents, table 1
shows that average hourly earnings of the wage earners surveyed
varied from 79.8 cents in the automobile panel-board plants to 45.7
cents in plants making twisted-paper articles.
Further evidence as to variations in earnings among production units
making different products is furnished by table 2, which shows the
distribution of individual employees’ earnings for all branches of the
industry combined and separately for the 7 major industry branches.
An outstanding example is found’ in the distribution for set-up paper
boxes. Of the 9,478 workers scheduled in this branch, one-eighth (12.4
percent) were receiving exactly 30 cents an hour. This concentration
doubtless reflects the 30-cent minimum wage which was in effect at the
time of the survey under provisions of the Fair Labor Standards
Act.
277
CONVERTED PAPER PRODUCTS INDUSTRY
T able
1.—
A v era g e h o u rly ea rn in gs o f e m p lo ye es in converted
in d u s t r y , J a n u a r y 1 9 4 0 , b y prod uct and sex
Number of employees
p a p er-p ro d u cts
Average hourly earnings
Product
Total
Males Females Total
Males Females
59,879
37,821
22,058
$0,546
$0,615
$0,416
Adding-machine rolls and similar products__________
165
Auto panel board...................... ..................................... 1,069
Blank books, tablets, and index cards.______________ 2,789
Cans, tubes, cores, and related products ___________
2,792
Carbon paper________ _______ _____________________
211
Commercial envelopes____________________________
3,556
Corrugated and solid fiber shipping containers______ 10,363
Die-cut specialties______, ________ _____ _____ ______
515
Expanding envelopes and related products__________
429
Folding paper boxes______________ ________________
8,393
Glazed and fancy paper___________________________
691
Gummed paper_______ ____ ______________________
1,199
Lace-paper and fluted-paper products____ _________
836
Milk-bottle caps and hoods________________________
573
Miscellaneous rolls and wrapping specialties________
734
Paper, cellophane, and glassine bags_______________
3,141
Paper cups_______ _______________________________ 1, 461
Photo mounts____________________________________
279
Sandpaper_______________________________________
756
Sensitized paper__________________________________
557
Set-up paper boxes________________________________ 9,478
Shipping sacks___________________________________
1,386
Stationery..... ..................... ...................... ..................... 1,209
Tags and labels________ __________________________
1,211
Tissue products___ ____ _______________ __________
2,296
Twisted-paper products__________ _________________
763
W aterproof paper_________ _________ ______________
329
Waxed paper____ ___ ____ ___ ______ _____________ _ 1,644
Paper products not elsewhere classified ____________
1,054
145
823
1,583
1,847
146
1,750
8,171
360
187
6,388
612
1,017
464
468
540
1,696
791
141
705
381
3,331
680
496
761
1,343
606
303
1,483
603
20
246
1,206
945
65
1,806
2,192
155
242
2,005
79
182
372
105
194
1,445
670
138
51
176
6,147
706
713
450
953
157
26
161
451
.514
.798
.531
.481
.579
.550
.562
.566
.481
.594
.572
.596
.476
.546
.574
.528
.565
.513
.665
.647
.464
.513
.482
.587
.519
.457
.594
.660
.513
.531
.828
.615
.524
.658
.660
.589
.638
.593
.642
.584
.624
.570
.572
.643
.622
.661
.605
.677
.711
.579
.593
.571
.684
.578
.486
.609
.684
.591
.357
.696
.412
.390
.393
.434
.449
.385
.383
.425
.465
.446
.352
.416
.370
.409
.439
.410
.484
.507
.395
.418
.414
.408
.427
.342
.394
.431
.396
All products_______ ____ _____ _____ ________ ______
T able 2. —
P ercentage distribu tion o f e m p lo ye es i n converted p a p er-p ro d u cts in d u s tr y ,
J a n u a r y 1 9 4 0 , b y average h o u rly ea rn in g s and prod uct
Average hourly earnings
Paper,
Com Corrugated
cello
All
and solid Folding phane,
mercial
prod enve fiber ship paper
and
ping con boxes glassine
ucts
lopes
tainers
bags
0.4
5.7
1.6
3.3
7.2
4.3
8.7
12.8
12.1
9.3
7.2
6.4
5.1
3.9
2.8
2.3
2.0
1.5
1.6
.9
.5
.5
0)
3.5
.8
1.1
7.0
2.8
13.7
22.0
12.0
7.1
5.1
3.4
3.8
3.1
3.1
2.3
2 .6
1.6
2.4
1.3
.5
.8
Total...............................
100.0
Total number of workers.........
59,879
Under 30.0 cents___ _________
Exactly 30.0 cents.................
30.1 and under 32.5 cents_____
32.5 and under 35.0 cents..........
35.0 and under 37.5 cents...... .
37.5 and under 40.0 cents...... ..
40.0 and under 42.5 cents_____
42.5 and under 47.5 cents_____
47.5 and under 52.5 cents.........
52.5 and under 57.5 cents_____
57.5 and under 62.5 cents.........
62.5 and under 67.5 cents...... ..
67.5 and under 72.5 cents..........
72.6 and under 77.5 cents..........
77.5 and under 82.5 cents..........
82.5 and under 87.5 cents.........
87.5 and under 92.5 cents........ .
92.5 and under 100.0 cents____
100.0 and under 110.0 cents......
110.0 and under 120.0 cents......
120.0 and under 130.0 cents......
130.0 cents and over..................
Less than a tenth of Xpercent.
Set-up
paper
boxes
Ship
ping
sacks
5.2
2.5
4.4
8.8
4.0
11.5
9.4
19.3
6.3
3.9
7.2
4.3
2.9
2.1
1.9
1.9
1.6
1.2
.7
.4
.5
1.6
12.4
3.4
7.2
11.2
7.7
9.4
13.6
9.7
6.3
3.6
2.5
2.5
2.6
1.4
1.4
1.2
.9
.6
.4
.2
.2
0.1
5.5
.1
3.6
11.8
.9
7.2
30.4
9.7
8.7
6.1
4.7
3.5
2.5
.8
1.2
1.2
.2
.9
.6
.1
.2
0.4
3.6
1.5
5.0
6.0
3.5
6.6
13.1
18.0
12.3
6.3
10.3
6.9
2.2
1.9
1.3
.5
.4
.1
0)
Tissue
prod
ucts
3.0
.8
.8
4.4
3.3
8.0
12.3
14.2
11.8
10.4
9.4
7.0
4.5
3.1
2.3
1.8
1.3
.9
.4
.2
.1
0.5
4.7
.7
1.8
5.3
2.4
8.5
9.6
11.6
10.3
9.5
8.5
4.8
5.0
3.0
2.4
2.5
2.5
2.5
1.8
.8
1.3
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
3,556
10,363
8,393
3,141
9,478
1,386
2,296
0)
0)
.1
278
WAGES AND HOURS
Regional Differences
Many of the product groups include too few plants or employees to
warrant detailed analysis in terms of other factors that may influence
wages. For purposes of regional comparisons, sufficient information
is available to permit the analysis of only 7 of the major industry
branches. The regional averages for these groups are shown in
table 3.
T a b l e 3 .— Average hourly earnings in selected product groups in converted paperproducts industry, January 1 940, by region
United
States
Product
Commercial envelopes__________________ ______ _
Corrugated and solid fiber shipping containers_____
Folding paper boxes_____________________________
Paper, cellophane, and glassine bags______________
Set-up paper boxes______________________________
Shipping sacks
- . __ ___ _____ -- ____
Tissue products--------------------------------------------------
$0.550
.562
.594
.528
.464
.513
.519
North
eastern
region
M id
western
region
$0.551
.559
.572
.570
.477
.486
.434
$0.554
.574
.630
.475
.438
1.566
.571
Western Southern
region
region
$0.641
.674
.705
.601
.540
.615
$0.488
.470
.428
.463
.372
.461
.474
* Includes 1 plant in the Western region.
It will be observed that in each of these groups wage levels were
highest in the West.2 Furthermore, in every case but one, the lowest
averages were found in the South.
To a considerable degree the regional differences in average hourly
earnings reflect the influence of other factors. One of these is the
extent of collective bargaining. Union organization was sufficiently
extensive in three of the major industry branches to afford some indi
cation of the effects of labor agreements on wage levels. A distribution
o f the plants surveyed in these branches, classified by plant average
hourly earnings and unionization, is shown in table 4. From this
tabulation it is clearly evident that the wage level is generally higher
in union than in nonunion plants. The West, which showed the highest
wage levels in these products, also had a substantially higher propor
tion of union establishments among those surveyed.
T a b l e 4 .— Distribution of plants in converted paper-products industry by average
hourly earnings and unionization, for selected product groups, January 1940
Plant average hourly earnings
Corrugated and solid
fiber shipping con
tainers
Union
Under 35.0 cents_________________
35.0 and under 40.0 cents______ __
40.0 and under 45.0 cents__________
45.0 and under 50.0 cents__________
50.0 and under 55.0 cents__________
55.0 and under 60.0 cents__________
60.0 and under 65.0 cents__________
65.0 and under 70.0 cents____ _____
70.0 cents and over... - - - - - - .. .
Total______________________
Nonunion
2
5
9
6
4
4
2
9
17
9
17
22
3
4
1
30
84
Folding paper boxes
Union
Non
@FedFRASER