Full text of Handbook of Labor Statistics : Handbook of Labor Statistics, 1936 Edition : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 616

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Handbook o f Labor Statistics
1936 Edition

Bulletin

616

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
B U R E A U O F L A B O R S T A T IS T IC S




tJNlTEb STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS
♦

Com m issioner, Isador Lubin
C h ief Statistician, Sidney W . W ilcox
C h ief E conom ist, A . F. H inrichs
C hief, Editorial and R esearch, H ugh S. H anna
A dm inistrative O fficer, H e n ry J. Fitzgerald
D IVISIO N S A N D CHIEFS
Wages, H ours, and W orkin g C onditions, Jacob Perlman
Em ploym ent and P ay R olls, L ew is E. T a lb ert
Wholesale Prices, J. M . C utts
R etail Prices, Stella S tew art
Cost o f L ivin g, Faith M . Williams
C onstruction and Public E m ploym ent, H erm an B. B y e r
A ccidents, S w e n K jaer
Industrial R elations, F lorence Peterson
Labor L a w In form ation , Charles F. Sharkey
L abor In form ation B ulletin, Boris Stern
M achine T abulation , John J. M ahaney




U N IT E D S T A T E S D E P A R T M E N T OF L A B O R
F ra n ces P e rk in s, Secretary
B U R E A U O F L A B O R S T A T IS T IC S
Isador L u b in , Com m issioner

+

Handbook o f Labor Statistics
1936 Edition

Bulletin 7^o. 616

U N IT E D S T A T E S
G O V E R N M E N T P R I N T I N G O F F IC E
W A S H I N G T O N : 1936

F o r sale b y t h e S u p e rin te n d e n t o f D o c u m e n ts , W a s h in g ton , D . C«




P rice $1.25




Contents
Page

Introduction____________________________________________________________
Apprenticeship:
National apprentice-training program______________________________
Apprenticeship in Wisconsin_______________________________________
Apprenticeship plan in Oregon_____________________________________
Arbitration and conciliation:
Labor adjustment agencies under the N. I. R. A ___________________
National Labor Board, 1933___________________________________
National Labor Relations Board and associated boards________
National Longshoremen’s Labor Board____________________
National Steel Labor Relations Board_____________________
Textile Labor Relations Board____________________________
Automobile Labor Board______________________________________
Petroleum Labor Policy Board________________________ ________
National Labor Relations Act, 1935________________________________
United States Board of Mediation (railroads), 1931 to 1934_________
National Mediation Board (railroads), 1934________________________
Emergency boards under Railway Labor Act, 1930 to 1934_________
Industrial Commission of Colorado_________________________________
Conciliation work of the United States Department of Labor_______
Board of reference on wage dispute in anthracite industry, 1932-33. .
Child labor:
Child labor in the United States, 1933______________________________
Child labor in the United States, 1934______________________________
Status of child-labor amendment, 1935_____________________________
White House Conference report on child labor, 1932________________
Transient boys in the United States, 1932__________________________
Child labor in the sugar-beet fields_________________________________
Employment of children in newspaper and magazine distributing___
Industrial accidents to employed minors in California in 1932_______
Cooperative movement:
Cooperative movement in the United States in 1933________________
Status of cooperative societies under industrial codes_______________
Condition of labor banks, June 30, 1935____________________________
Status of building and loan associations, 1933 and 1934_____________
Wisconsin act providing for the teaching of cooperation____________
Cooperative self-help movement:
Cooperative self-help among the unemployed_____ _____
Cost of living:
Changes in the cost of living in the United States__________________
Changes in cost of living in the United States and foreign countries. Cost of living of Federal employees in Washington, D. C __________
How Federal employees spent their incomes in the year ending
June 30, 1933_______________________________________________
Adjustment of Federal salaries to the cost of living_____________




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Cost of living— Continued.
New study of money disbursements of wage earners and lower-salaried
clerical workers__________________________________________________
Results of international cost-of-living inquiry, 1930-31______________
Minimum wage rates of Ford Motor Co. in Detroit and in
European cities______________________________________________
Comparative food costs in various countries________________________
Standard of living of families in Amalgamated Housing Corporation
dwellings________________________________________________________
Incomes and expenditures of street-car men’s families_______________
Typical family budgets of executive, clerk, and wage earner in San
Francisco, November 1934_______________________________________
California budget for dependent families, 1934--------------------------------Chicago estimated budget for a self-supporting family, March 1932, _
Cost of living of wage-earning women in Richmond, Va_____________
Employment services:
Organization of United States EmploymentService________________
Affiliated State employment services___________________________
National Reemployment Service___________________________________
Operations of the United States Employment Service_______________
Regulation of fee-charging employment agencies____________________
Cost of placements by public employment offices___________________
California_____________________________________________________
Wisconsin_____________________________________________________
Employment statistics and conditions:
Trend of employment and pay rolls in the United States____________
Available statistics on employment____________________________
Private employment___________________________________________
Trend of employment in manufacturing industries_________
Trend of employment in trade, public utility, mining, and
service industries_______________________________________
Trend of employment in building construction_____________
Trend of employment on steam railroads__________________
Public employment____________________________________________
Employment in the Federal service________________________
Employment on construction projects financed by Public
Works Administration__________________________________
Employment on construction projects financed by The Works
Program_______________________________________________
Employment on construction projects financed from regular
governmental appropriations____________________________
Employment on construction projects financed by the Re­
construction Finance Corporation_______________________
Employment on public roads______________________________
Work created by material orders placed___________________
Emergency conservation work_____________________________
Emergency-work program_________________________________
Employment created by Civil Works Administration______
Employment and earnings in manufactures, 1899 to 1933___________
Fluctuations in employment in Ohio, 1914 to 1934__________________
Number of persons employed per farm in the United States, January
1929 to October 1935____________________________________________
Farm labor supply and demand, 1929 to 1935______________________
Character of unemployment statistics for the United States_________




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CONTENTS
Employment statistics and conditions— Continued.
Surveys of employment and unemployment________________________
Federal unemployment survey of 1930_________________________
State and local surveys of unemployment______________________
Family unemployment________________________________________
Buffalo, N. Y ___________________________________
Bridgeport, Conn_________________________________________
Syracuse, N. Y ___________________________________________
Analysis of unemployed on relief, October 1933_____________________
Employment status of urban population on public relief, May 1934__
Unemployed casual laborers in Duluth_____________________________
Labor history of unemployed in Philadelphia, 1931_________________
Conditions in families of the unemployed in Philadelphia, May 1932.
Readjustment of workers displaced by plant shut-downs____________
Rural factory industries as employers of farm labor_________________
Location of manufactures as affecting employment opportunities____
Homework and sweatshops:
Relation between industrial homework and industrial depressions___
Homework under the National Recovery program__________________
Growth of sweatshop conditions during the depression______________
Housing and building operations:
Building construction in principal cities of the United States, 1931 to
1935_____________________________________________________________
Value of contracts awarded for construction financed from Federal
funds, 1933 to 1935______________________________________ _______
Elapsed time in building construction______________________________
Relative cost of material and labor in building construction, 1931-32_
Causes of seasonal fluctuations in the construction industry_________
Employment in the construction of a sample apartment house______
Public aid to housing in the United States__________________________
Federal measures______________________________________________
State legislation_______________________________________________
Housing conditions in American cities, 1934________________________
Housing and health________________________________________________
Tax exemption and low-cost housing in New York City_____________
Housing situation in Philadelphia, spring of 1934___________________
Attitudes toward home ownership and tenancy_____________________
Immigration, emigration, and naturalization:
Administration of immigration, emigration, and naturalization laws.
Immigration and emigration, by months, July 1, 1930, to March 31,
1935_____________________________________________________________
Immigration into the United States, 1820 to 1934__________________
Admissions under Immigration Act of 1924, deportations, and citizens
departed overseas________________________________________________
Naturalization of aliens____________________________________________
Increase of Mexican population in the United States, 1920 to 1930_ „
Industrial accidents and safety:
Sources of industrial-accident statistics_____________________________
Accidents in manufacturing industries, 1933________________________
Accident statistics of National Safety Council for 1934_____________
Accident record, by industry_______________________________________
Aircraft operation_____________________________________________
Coal mines____________________________________________________
Coke ovens____________________________________________________




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VI

CONTENTS

Industrial accidents and safety— Continued.
Accident record, by industry— Continued.
Construction industry, New York C ity---------------------------------------Federal Government employees__________________________________
Iron and steel industry__________________________________________
Metal mines__________________________________________________
Metallurgical works___________________________________________
Petroleum_________________
Portland cement manufacturing________________________________
Quarries_______________________________________________________
Steam railways________________________________________________
Telegraph messengers__________________________________________
Relation between accidents and cost of building construction_______
Safety codes and standard safe practices___________________________
Code standards for safety and health in manufacturing industries and
in mercantile establishments_____________________________________
Industrial disputes:
Strikes and lockouts in the United States__________________________
Report of board of inquiry for cotton textile industry, 1934_________
Industrial health:
Federal and State agencies concerned with problems of industrial
health______ ________
Recent studies of industrial diseases and poisons___________________
Cadmium poisoning___________________________________________
Carbon tetrachloride as an occupational hazard________________
Ethylene oxide: Effects of exposure to vapors__________________
Hydrocyanic-acid gas absorption through the skin_____________
Miners’ nystagmus: Third report of British committee_________
Nitrocellulose lacquers and their hazards_______________________
Osmium tetroxide (osmic acid) hazards________________________
Pneumoconiosis: Danger of delayed development_______________
Pulmonary asbestosis__________________________________________
Radioactive substances as a cause of malignant growths________
Silicosis among underground miners as an engineering problem. _
Silicosis: Three acute cases____________________________________
Silicosis in the granite and foundry industries of Massachusetts.
Silicosis and tuberculosis among miners in Oklahoma, Kansas,
and Missouri________________________________________________
Skin disease from Brazilian walnut wood_______________________
Sulphur dioxide: Effects of prolonged exposure_________________
Vitreous enameling hazards____________________________________
Wood industry: Occupational diseases_________________________
Health of workers in dusty trades__________________________________
Effects of different temperatures on health and efficiency___________
Test of a dust eliminator___________________________________________
Occupational-disease legislation in the United States________________
Insurance and benefit plans (other than unemployment insurance):
Types of insurance and benefit plans_______________________________
Public provision for pensions for the blind in 1934__________________
Amount of life insurance in the United States______________________
Life insurance of organized labor___________________________________
Industrial group insurance in 1933_________________________________
Industrial pension plans in the depression__________________________
Teachers’ retirement systems in the depression_____________________
Work of employees’ mutual benefit associations_____________________




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CONTENTS

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Insurance and benefit plans (other than unemployment insurance)— Con.
Status of industrial mutual benefit associations in 1931_____________
Savings and stock-ownership plans_________________________________
Effect of the depression on employee stock ownership__________
Employee savings and investment plans_______________________
Investment by industrial employees in building and loan associa­
tions________________________________________________________
Benefit payments by standard national and international unions___
International labor Organization:
The International Labor Organization______________________________
International labor conventions____________________________________
Labor conditions in outlying areas:
Wages and labor conditions in Alaska______________________________
Fishing industry______________________________________________
Mining industry_______________________________________________
Strikes in 1934________________________________________________
Unemployment and unemployment relief______________________
Labor conditions in Hawaii________________________________________
Labor conditions in the Philippine Islands__________________________
Wages, 1933___________________________________________________
Retail prices and cost of living in Manila, 1933________________
Unemployment in the Philippine Islands, 1931 and 1933_______
Adjustment of wage complaints, 1929-33______________________
Labor disputes, 1933__________________________________________
Labor organizations, 1929 to 1933_____________________________
Migration of Philippine labor to Hawaii, 1929-33______________
Labor conditions in Puerto R ico___________________________________
Hours and earnings in various industries, 1933-34______________
Homework in the needle trades________________________________
Standard of living and retail prices of fo o d -J __________________
Adjustment of wage claims, 1933-34___________________________
Industrial disputes, 1933-34___________________________________
Legislation in behalf of Puerto Rican labor____________________
Labor organizations:
Trade-union membership and organization_________________________
Collective agreements, 1931-34____________________________________
Legislation regarding the union label_______________________________
.Anti-injunction laws and laws relating to antiunion contracts_______
Anti-injunction legislation_____________________________________
Laws relating to antiunion contracts___________________________
Labor standards:
Division of Labor Standards of United States Department of Labor.
Conferences on uniform labor standards____________________________
Governors’ Conference on Unemployment, Albany, January 1931.
Eastern Interstate Conference, Harrisburg, June 1931__________
Eastern States Conference, Boston, January 1933______________
Atlanta Conference on Social Legislation, December 1933______
First National Conference on Labor Legislation, Washington,
D. C., February 1934______________________________________
Michigan Labor Legislation Institute, March 1934_____________
Conference on Labor Standards, Washington, D. C., December
1934________________________________________________________
Southern Regional Conference on State Labor Legislation and
Economic Security, Nashville, January 1935_________________



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vra

CONTENTS

Labor standards— Continued.
Second National Conference on Labor Legislation, Asheville,
October 1935__________________________________________
Interstate compacts affecting labor and industries__________________
Labor standards for domestic employees_____________________________
Management policies:
Hiring and separation methods in American factories_______________
Employees’ suggestion systems_______________________________________
Selling by employees_______________________________________________
Medical services and costs:
Final report of Committee on the Costs of Medical Care____________
Cost of medical services____________________________________________
Costs of medical care among different types of families_____________
Institutional care for convalescents_________________________________
Experiment by Mutual Benefit Association in freedom of choice of
physician________________________________________________________
Medical care for trade-unionists in Los Angeles____________________
Los Angeles City Employees’ Health Clinic________________________
Appointment of occupational health council in Massachusetts________
Work of Union Health Center, New York C ity_____________________
Medical service of Chicago Truck Drivers’ and Chauffeurs’ Union_
_
Minimum wage:
Status of minimum-wage legislation and administration_____________
National Recovery Administration— Labor aspects:
National Industrial Recovery Act, 1933____________________________
Extension of National Industrial Recovery A ct____ ____________
The President’s Reemployment Agreement_________________________
Modifications of the President’s Reemployment Agreement____
Organization and procedure of the National Recovery Administra­
tion_______________________________________________________________
Analysis of labor provisions of N. R. A. codes______ _______________
Orders and rulings relating to N. R. A. codes_______________________
Collective bargaining under the National Industrial Recovery Act__
Activities of Industrial Appeals Board______________________________
Voluntary agreements under the National Industrial Recovery Act__
National Recovery Administration terminated______________________
Employment, hours, earnings, and production, January 1933 to Jan­
uary 1935_________________________________________________________
Labor conditions under industrial codes____________________________
Report on labor conditions in the automobile industry_________
Changes in hours and wages in the cotton-garment industry____
Labor conditions in cotton-garment industry in Pennsylvania__
Labor conditions in Connecticut needle trades________________________
Report on scrip payment of wages and company stores_____________
Wage restitutions secured by National Recovery Administration____
Decision of Supreme Court on National Industrial Recovery Act___
Negro in industry:
The Negro in agriculture and industry at the beginning of the depres­
sion_______________________________________________________________
Economic status of the Negro in 1933______________________________
Physical impairment among Negro factory workers___________________
The Negro in West Virginia in 1932________________________________
Wages of Negroes in industry in the District of Columbia__________
Relative efficiency of Negro and white workers_______________________




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CONTENTS
Occupation statistics:
Occupational changes since 1850___________________________________
Distribution of gainfully employed persons, 1930___________________
“ White-collar” workers____________________________________________
Farm population and migration to and from farms_________________
Old-age pensions and retirement:
Public old-age pensions in the United States________________________
Old-age assistance system for the United States_____________________
Public old-age pension legislation in the United States as of December
1, 1935______________________________
Experience under State old-age pension acts in 1934________________
Operations of Federal civil-service retirement and disability fund,
1934_________________________________________ ___________ _______
Railroad employees’ retirement law of 1934 declared unconstitu­
tional.------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------Old-age pensions paid by labor organizations in 1933 and 1934______
Older worker in industry:
Employment of older persons in department stores_________________
Report on age as related to unemployment, 1933___________________
Prices— Retail and wholesale:
Retail prices in the UnitedStates_________________________________
Retail prices of food__________________________________________
Retail prices of coal__________________________________________
Retail prices of gas___________________________________________
Retail prices of electricity____________________________________
Retail prices of food in the United States and in foreign countries_
_
Wholesale prices in the United States______________________________
Trend of wholesale prices, 1801 to 1935________________________
Wholesale prices in the United States and in foreign countries______
Prison labor:
Prison labor in the United States, 1932_____________________________
Report on competition of prison labor with cotton-garment industry. _
Laws relating to prison labor_______________________________________
State compact on prison-made goods under the National Recovery
Administration__________________________________________________
Regulations regarding importation of convict-made goods__________
Productivity of labor:
Productivity of labor and industry, technological changes, and labor
displacement____________________________________________________
Agriculture____________________________________________________
Amusement industry__________________________________________
Bituminous-coal industry______________________________________ ,
Cigar industry_________________________________________________
Electric-lamp industry_________________________________________
Electric light and power industry______________________________
Iron and steel industry________________________________________
Iron and steel industry— Sheet department____________________
Leather industry______________________________________________
Lumber industry______________________________________________
Petroleum-refining industry____________________________________
Road building_________________________________________________
Slaughtering and meat-packing industry_______________________
Steam-railroad transportation__________________________________
Telephone and telegraph industries____________________________




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Productivity of labor— Continued.
Productivity of labor and industry, etc.— Continued.
Tire industry________________________ ______ __________________
United States Postal Service_____________________________________
Influence of nonmechanical factors on productivity_________________
Recreation and leisure tim e:
The use of leisure time_____________________________________________
Recreational facilities provided by park systems in the United States._
Community recreation in the United States, 1933___________________
The public school as a factor in the utilization of leisure time________
Leisure-time activities and desires____________________________________
Sickness and death statistics:
Causes of illness in 9,000 families___________________________________
Mortality experience of International Typographical Union, 1932____
Occupational diseases in Massachusetts in 1930_____________________
Occupational poisons and diseases in New York, 1934______________
Occupational diseases in Ohio, 1934________________________________
Decline in mortality from pellagra among wage earners_____________
Health of insured wage earners during 1934________________________
Incidence of illness among adult wage earners______________________
Effect of the economic depression upon health______________________
Effect of depression on life expectancy of industrial policyholders____
Occupational death rates in 1930___________________________________
Mortality rates of coal miners______________________________________
Cases of industrial anthrax, 1929 to 1933___________________________
Social security program:
Committee on Economic Security______________ ____________________
Federal Social Security Act, August 1935___________________________
Membership of Social Security Board______________________________
Status of State legislation in regard to Federal Social Security Act, as
of January 1, 1936______________________________________________
Tennessee Valley Authority— Labor aspects:
Labor and the Tennessee Valley experiment________________________
Turn-over of labor:
Standard procedure for computing labor turn-over__________________
Labor turn-over, January 1931 to December 1935__________________
Studies of labor turn-over in selected industries_____________________
Unemployment insurance and relief:
Operation of unemployment benefit plans and unemployment insur­
ance in the United States_______________________________________
Unemployment-insurance system for the United States_________
„ Private unemployment-benefit plans____________________________
State laws providing for unemployment insurance or reserves..
Operation of Wisconsin unemployment-compensation act______
Report of Senate Committee on Unemployment Insurance_________
Reports on plans for State unemployment insurance or reserves_____
Report of California State Unemployment Commission________
Report of Connecticut Unemployment Commission____________
Recommendation for system of compulsory unemployment re­
serves in Massachusetts_____________________________________
Minnesota plan for unemployment reserves____________________
Report of Ohio Commission on Unemployment Insurance______
Report of committee on unemployment reserves, Pennsylvania. .
Report of Virginia Advisory Commission on Unemployment
Insurance—_____ - _______________________________ ___________




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CONTENTS

XI

Unemployment insurance and relief— Continued.
Plan for stabilization of industry by president of General Electric C o -.
Unemployment-insurance systems in foreign countries, 1931-34____
Dismissal compensation in American industry______________________
Spread-the-work movement__________________________________________
Spreading-work program of President Hoover’s conference of
August 1932__________________________________________________
Plan of National Committee on Industrial Rehabilitation______
Survey of spread-the-work movement, 1932____________________
New Hampshire plan for reemployment________________________
Purposes and policies of Public Works Administration________________
Federal emergency relief work_______________________________________
Federal work-relief act of 1935_______________________________________
Works program under relief act of 1935____________________________
Subsistence homesteads for industrial and rural workers at the end of
1934__________________________________
Civilian Conservation Corps_________________________________________
Work of the Civilian Conservation Corps, 1933-35____ ________
Educational program of the Civilian Conservation Corps_______
Employment status of former members of Civilian Conservation
Corps, 1933 and 1934____________________________________
Company loan plans for unemployed workers_______________________
Vacations with pay:
Vacations with pay________________________________________________
Vacation policies in 1933_____________________ _____ ____ _____ _____
Vacation practices and policies in New York City in 1932__________
Vacations with pay for wage earners_________________________________
Wages and hours of labor:
Wages and hours of labor__________________________________________
Wage studies of the Bureau of LaborStatistics______________________
Hours per week and hourly earnings, by industries, 1932 to 1935___
Per capita weekly earnings, by industries_____________________________
Wages and hours in various industries and trades__________________
Air transportation— Hours and earnings, 1933________
Anthracite mining— Hours and earnings, 1931_________________
Baking industry— Earnings and hours, 1933 and 1934__________
Bituminous-coal mining— Hours and earnings, 1931 and 1933_
_
Boot and shoe industry— Hours and earnings, 1932____________
Building construction— Wage rates on P. W. A. projects, No­
vember 1934________________________________________________
Cigar industry— Wages and costs in York County, Pa., July
1934____
Cigarette, smoking- and chewing-tobacco industries— Wages and
hours in Virginia and North Carolina, July 1934. _1_________
City school systems— Salaries, 1934-35________________________
Civil employees in field service of Navy Department and Marine
Corps— Wages, 1934------------------------------------------------------------Common labor— Entrance wage rates, July 1931 to July 1934. „
Common street laborers— Wages and hours, 1932______________
Cotton-textile industry— Wage rates and weekly earnings,
1933-34....................................................... ............................- ..........
Domestic service— Wages and hours in Philadelphia, 1932-------




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Wages and hours of labor— Continued.
Wages and hours in various industries and trades— Continued.
Dyeing and finishing of textiles— Hours and earnings, 1930 and
1932—___________
Electric-railway workers— Earnings in 1932____________________
Factory workers— Earnings in New York State, 1914 to 1935_
_
Farm labor— Wages, 1910 to 1936_____________________________
Farm workers— Piece-rate wages in harvesting of crops, 1934—
Farm workers— Wage rates and annual earnings in the onion
fields of Ohio, 1934__________________________________________
Fire departments of principal cities— Salaries and hours, 1934__
Foundries and machine shops— Hours and earnings, 1933______
Foundries— Hours and earnings of stove molders and mounters,
1934______________________________
Furniture industry— Hours and earnings, 1931__________________
Gasoline filling stations— Hours and earnings, 1931_____________
Glass industry— Hours and earnings, 1932_____________________
Hosiery and underwear industries— Hours and earnings, 1930
and 1932____________________________________________________
Hosiery industry— Hours and earnings in manufacture of boys’
golf hose, 1934______________________________________________
Iron and steel industry— Hours and earnings, 1933_____________
Leather industry— Hours and earnings, 1932___________________
Men’s clothing industry— Hours and earnings, 1932____________
Metalliferous mining— Hours and earnings,1931________________
Motor bus and truck transportation (intercity) industries—
Hours and earnings, July 1933_______________________________
Motor-vehicle industry— Hours and earnings, 1932------------------Motor-vehicle repair garages— Hours and earnings, 1931_______
Newspapers— Salaries and working time of editorial employees,
1934_____
Office workers— Earnings in New York State factories, October
1934_______________________________________________________
Office workers— Salaries in various industries in New York State,
1935._____
Paper mills— Wages and hours in Michigan, 1934______________
Petroleum industry— Wages and hours, 1933-34_______________
Police departments in principal cities— Salaries and hours, 1934, _
Portland cement industry— Hours and earnings, 1932__________
Pottery industry— Hours and earnings, 1932___________________
Public libraries— Salaries, December 1934______________________
Rayon and other synthetic yarn manufacturing— Hours and
earnings, 1932______________________________________________
Retail stores— Earnings, 1933__________________________________
Retail stores— Comparative wages in chain and independent
stores, 1929 and 1931_______________________________
Sawmills— Hours and earnings, 1932___________________________
Seamen— Wages, 1934_________________________________________
Shirt industry— Hours and earnings, 1933______________________
Silk and rayon industry— Wages and earnings, 1933 and 1934__
Silk and rayon weavers— Rates of pay, April 1934_____________
Slaughtering and meat-packing industry— Hours and earnings,
1931.........................................................- ..........................................
Steam-railroad employees— Earnings, 1931 to 1934_____________




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930
931
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935
938
940
945
946
949
950
956
961
961
970
974
977
979
981
985
987
990
992
993
994
997
999
1004
1007
1008
1010
1013
1014
1016
1018
1021
1025
1027
1033

CONTENTS
Wages and hours of labor— Continued.
Wages and hours in various industries and trades— Continued.
Taxicab drivers— Earnings in Ohio, 1934_______________________
Taxicab drivers— Earnings in Washington, D. C., 1931-33_____
Union scales of wages and hours of labor, 1933__________________
Woolen and worsted goods manufacturing— Wage rates and
weekly earnings, 1932-34____________________________________
General wage changes_____________________________________________
Index numbers of wages per hour, 1840 to 1934________________
Average wage and salary payments in Ohio, 1918 to 1933__________
Employment and earnings of heads of families in Denver, 1929 and
1933__________________________________________________
Movement toward the shorter workweek prior to the National In­
dustrial Recovery A ct___________________________________________
Extent of 5-day week in American industry in 1932____________
Experience of manufacturing company with 5-day week________
Forty-hour week established by Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey,
1932________
Operation of 6-hour day in plants of the Kellogg Co___________
Six-hour shifts of India Tire & Rubber Co., 1932_______________
Six-hour shifts in plants of Owens-Illinois Glass Co., 1932______
The 5-day week in the Government Printing Office____________
Report on proposed 6-hour day for railroad employees_________
Legal restrictions on hours of labor of men in the United States, as of
January 1, 1936_________________________________________________
Collection of wage claims by State labor offices_____________________
Establishment of wage-collection division in New Jersey Department
of Labor__________
Wage-payment plans in Connecticut factories______________________
Share of labor in the national income, 1929-34_____________________
Statistics of national income, 1929-32_________________________
Statistics of national income, 1933 and 1934___________________
Income reported for income-tax purposes for year 1934________
Family allowances_________________________________________________
Women in industry:
Woman workers during the depression_____________________________
Unemployment among women in the early years of the depres­
sion________________________________________________________
Woman workers in 1932_______________________________________
Influence of depression on expenditures of business women-------Marital condition of gainfully occupied women in 1930_____________
Trend of women’s wages in New York, 1929-31____________________
Wages of women and minors in laundries in New Hampshire, 1933. Employability of destitute women in Philadelphia, 1933____________
Employment of women in clerical work, 1931-32___________________
Workmen’s compensation:
Workmen’s compensation in the United States, as of January 1,1936.




XIH
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1044
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1056
1056
1057
1060
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1062
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1064
1064
1067
1067
1068
1068
1070
1079
1082
1082
1084
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1088
1089
1090
1093
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1098
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1102
1103
1107
1108
1110
1117




Preface
T h is issue of the Handbook of Labor Statistics, dealing with the
years 1931 to 1935, covers a period of great significance to American
labor. During this period the importance of data dealing with labor
matters was reflected in the vastly increased demand made upon the
Bureau of Labor Statistics and similar agencies for information on
wages, hours of labor, prices, cost of living, industrial relations, and
other subjects coming within the field of the Bureau’s activities.
This demand has been in large part met by the various publications
of the Bureau, particularly the Monthly Labor Review, which not
only presents the results of the Bureau’s original work but also seeks
to follow the more significant studies made by other authoritative
agencies. However, over a period of yeurs the supply of many of
these publications becomes exhausted. To provide in reference form
the basic data accumulated over a period of time, this series of Hand­
books was devised. The present volume is the fourth of the series.
It brings together a digest of all of the material published by the
Bureau since the issue of the 1931 Handbook insofar as such material
seems to be of permanent value.
The preparation of this volume has involved the cooperation of
practically all the division chiefs of the Bureau. The detailed* work
of planning, assembling, and editing has been done in the Editorial
Division, under the immediate direction of Florence E. Parker,
assisted by Grace F. Felker, Estelle Stewart, Anice L. Whitney,
Mary T. Waggaman, and Margaret H. Schoenfeld.




I s a d o r L u b i n , Commissioner.

xv




UNITED

STATES

DEPARTMENT

OF

LABOR

Bulletin o f the

Bureau o f Labor Statistics
N um ber 616

W A S H IN G T O N

M a y 1936

Handbook o f Labor Statistics
1936 Edition

Introduction
HE present edition of the Handbook of Labor Statistics is the
fourth to be prepared by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. The
first, published in 1927 as Bulletin No. 439, brought into summarized
form such of the earlier published material of the Bureau as seemed
to be of permanent value. The 1929 edition (Bulletin No. 491) and
the 1931 edition (Bulletin No. 541) contained similar summarizations for the intervening intervals of 2 years each. It was hoped to
continue the Handbook as a regular biennial publication, but limita­
tions upon the Bureau’s printing funds made this impossible. The
present 1936 edition, therefore, covers a 5-year period.
In these 5 years, much has happened of great significance to labor.
With the lengthening of the depression, the condition of the American
worker sank lower and lower, until in the early part of 1933 it seemed
that all the gains of the preceding decades of struggle were to be lost
and that possibly the whole economic structure of the country was
to go down in collapse. Then the upturn came, and slowly but stead­
ily industrial activity quickened, employment increased, pay rolls
grew in size, and under the operation of the National Industrial Re­
covery Act and other recovery measures there occurred many new and
extremely important developments of vital concern to labor. These
changes and developments are pictured in records of the period,
as summarized in this volume.
It is also of interest to note that the putting into effect of the re­
covery policies of the Government created a practical need for statisti­
cal reporting such as had not been experienced in the past. The fram­
ing of the various codes of fair competition required very complete
information on employment, unemployment, wages, hours of labor,
and other labor factors—more complete, in many cases, than was
readily available. As a result, it came to be realized in a rather vivid
manner that there was not in existence the necessary machinery for

T

19205— 36--------2




1

2

INTRODUCTION

currently gathering much of the desired information in the compre­
hensive manner that the new conditions demanded. This machinery
has now been greatly expanded and improved, but very much still
remains to be done before labor statistics in the United States are of
a form, fullness, and timeliness to be of the greatest service.
On certain subjects the available data are satisfactory, or at least
reasonably so; on other subjects of great importance the information
at command is far from satisfactory. The Bureau of Labor Sta­
tistics, and also other similar agencies are conscious of these gaps, and
are attempting, to the best of their ability, to reduce such gaps as
regards both size and number.
The general form of this Handbook follows closely that observed
in the preceding Handbooks. There are, of course, repetitions of sub­
ject titles, but there is no repetition of articles except in those cases
where important later data have made revision necessary and de­
sirable. Taken together, the four Handbooks constitute, it is be­
lieved, a useful abbreviation of most of the published work of the
Bureau of Labor Statistics. The material presented in this volume
and in the preceding editions of the Handbook represents in large
part the original work of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, but this is
by no means entirely the case, as the Bureau does not attempt to
cover certain fields of interest to labor which are already adequately
covered by other official agencies. It does attempt, however, in its
Monthly Labor Review to follow such of the activities of other
agencies, both official and nonofficial, as have a labor interest, and in
the preparation of this volume it has drawn upon these sources.




A P P R E N T IC E SH IP

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




3




National Apprentice-Training Program
N D ER authority granted to the Secretary of Labor by Executive
order, a Nation-wide apprentice-training program was formally
inaugurated in June 1934, to operate through an extensive series of
committees. This administrative machinery consists of: (1) Federal
Committee on Apprentice Training; (2) State committees on appren­
tice training; and (3) trade advisory committees.^
1.
The Federal Committee on Apprentice Training is composed of
representatives of the Department of Labor, the Office of Education
of the Department of the Interior, and the National Recovery Ad­
ministration. Its duties involve advising the Secretary of Labor in
the exercise of powers necessary to promote the apprentice program
and to secure the observance of the standards set forth in the regu­
lations promulgated by the Secretary of Labor.
This committee has since its inception brought about the appoint­
ment of State committees on apprentice training in 43 States and the
Territory of Hawaii, and has served these committees in a number
of ways. For example, it has drafted a sample contract form, and,
through its field representatives, has guided the State committees in
their work of promoting apprentice training.
2.
The State committee on apprentice training is composed of
representatives of organized labor, organized employers, the State
department of labor, the State board for vocational education, and
the United States Employment Service.
On December 15, 1935, 43 State committees had been organized,
and plans had been formulated and approved by the Secretary of
Labor in 41 of these 43. The plans include provision for approval of
apprentice contracts, observance of the minimum standards of ap­
prentice training set up by the President and the Secretary of Labor,
supervision of apprentices, and the granting of diplomas to apprentices
upon completion of their training period.
3.
Trade advisory committees are composed of representatives of
employers and workers in the various occupations. Their purpose
is to make recommendations and give guidance to the State commit­
tees on such important matters as the quota of apprentices to be
allowed an individual employer, the length of the apprentice period,
and the schedule of processes to be taught the apprentice.
The national apprentice-training program calls for written contracts,
or indentures. These contracts vary in detail with the different types
of occupation to be taught, but each must state specifically the kind
of training to be given, the length of the apprenticeship, the hours
to be devoted to general instruction and to training on the job, and
the wages to be paid to trainees. Minimum standards approved by
the Secretary of Labor constitute an essential part of the indenture
agreement. These standards are: (1) An apprenticeship period of
not less than 2,000 hours nor more than 10,000 hours. (2) Of these,

U




5

6

APPRENTICESHIP

144 hours each year must be devoted to group instruction on general
as well as technical subjects under the direction of public authorities.
(3) Beginning wage must, ordinarily, be not less than 25 percent of
the basic rate for journeymen in the locality, the wage to be increased
periodically so that the average rate for apprentices for the entire
period of the apprenticeship shall be not less than 50 percent of the
journeymen’s basic wage.

Apprenticeship in Wisconsin

W

H ILE the Industrial Commission of Wisconsin is maintaining
its apprenticeship department and continuing its promotional
work in the interest of adequate training for workers in the skilled
trades, the Wisconsin apprentice system has suffered materially from
the economic depression. In its report for the biennium 1932-34
the industrial commission says (p. 76):
When the world-wide depression started in 1929 it played havoc with appren­
ticeship, as might be expected. Previous to 1929 there were normally about
3,500 approved indentures in force at one time and 700 to 800 new indentures
annually were not uncommon. On June 30, 1934, this number had dwindled
from 3,500 to 1,223.

One of the strongest features of the Wisconsin system, so far as
protection of the apprentice is concerned, is the obligation placed upon
the employer to furnish continuous employment throughout the
indenture term, and to pay for the time spent in school during the
working day, as required by the Wisconsin apprenticeship law. In
a period of depression and slack work this requirement could, of
course, become sufficiently burdensome to account for the decreased
enrollment reported by the State agency.
With the May 1932 issue of the Wisconsin Apprentice, the indus­
trial commission suspended indefinitely the publication of the monthly
paper devoted to the interest of the boys under indenture and to the
development of the Wisconsin training program. In announcing the
suspension of the Wisconsin Apprentice because of administrative
changes and as an economy measure, the supervisor of apprenticeship
said that the action should not be interpreted as indicating a lessened
interest on the part of the State in its indentured apprentices.
The Wisconsin apprenticeship system, established in 1912 and
reorganized in 1915, was designed to make it certain that every
apprentice shall have a real chance to learn his chosen trade, and
also that, in order that he may acquire the technical knowledge
required, he shall be permitted to attend the public schools on the
employer’s time for a minimum of 400 hours during his apprenticeship.
To accomplish this, the employer and the apprentice sign written
agreements, setting forth the term of apprenticeship, the processes
or branches of the trade to be taught, and the wages to be paid.
These indentures are signed in triplicate, and one copy must be filed
with the Wisconsin Industrial Commission in Madison. The appren­
tice is thenceforth subject to the supervision of the commission, which
sees that the agreement is carried out or may, if need arises, allow
it to be canceled. If the term of training is satisfactorily completed,
the commission gives the learner a diploma certifying the fact. The
vocational schools give courses helping prospective apprentices to



7

APPRENTICESHIP IN WISCONSIN

find their proper pursuit; and local advisory committees have been
set up in various trades, consisting of several journeymen and an
equal number of employers, to take immediate supervision of the
admittance and training of learners.
In its official publication, Wisconsin Labor Statistics, for July
1932, the industrial commission gave some data as to the situation
in the State from the early days of the system. The following table
shows the number of apprenticeship contracts approved each year
from 1912 to 1931, and also the number canceled, the number carried
to completion, and the number as to the disposition of which no records
exist. Employment conditions, as the official report points out, very
directly affect the opportunity for apprenticeship training. The
depression periods of 1921, 1924, 1927, and 1929-32 each recorded
a very pronounced setback with regard to the number of new inden­
tures issued.
APPR EN TICESH IP IN D E N T U R E S IN W ISCO N SIN , 1912 TO 1931

Year

Total...................................... ............. ............. ................................
1912..........................................................................................................
1913..........................................................................................................
1914..........................................................................................................
1915............................................................................................ ......... ...
1916..........................................................................................................
1917........................................................... ..............................................
1918............................................................................................ ......... .
1919..........................................................................................................
1920..........................................................................................................
1921..........................................................................................................
1922..........................................................................................................
1923..........................................................................................................
1924

1925...........................................................................................................
1926...........................................................................................................

1927_______ .....
1928
________
1929

1930

_

1931

Number Number
approved canceled

Carried No record
to com­
of dis­
pletion
position

9,231

3,835

3,406

468

5
15
21
188
429
515
332
350
563
421
662
798
778
821
794
679
656
755
376
73

2
8
9
103
236
277
157
186
259
225
303
357
372
372
317
226
176

2
7
12
80
181
221
162
145
265
151
307
384
345
384
384
235
90
47
4

1

189

58
3

5
12
17
13
19
39
45
52
57
61
64
48
28
4
3

Proportion of Contracts Completed
F or the period 1912 to 1926 the total number of contracts approved
was 6,672, of which 3,030 were carried through to completion and
3,183 (or 48 percent) were canceled, while for 433 (6 percent) the dis­
position was unknown. In considering these proportions the duration
of the apprenticeship term (in m ost cases 4 years) must be remembered.
Also, it m ust be borne in mind that m ost of those entering apprentice­
ship are rather young to make a lasting decision affecting their
whole future life.
An apprenticeship indenture may turn out to be an exploratory adventure in
which the apprentice reaches the conclusion that his aptitudes, abilities, and
interests are not suitable to the requirements of the trade undertaken b y him.
The period of the first 3 months of an apprenticeship term is generally considered
as a try-out or probationary period. Experience shows that approximately
one half of all cancelations of indentures are made within the first year of appren­
ticeship and that most of these occur within the 3 months' probationary period.




8

APPRENTICESHIP

The proportion of indentures carried through to completion varies
considerably in the different trades.
Of all apprenticeship-indenture contracts issued during the 15-year period,
1912 to 1926, the proportion of all contracts completed stands a t 51 percent for
the building trades, 45 percent for metal trades, 50 percent for the printing
trades, 49 percent for the garment trades, 47 percent for the railroad trades,
34 percent for the automotive trades, and 39 percent for a group covering all
other trades. Among the building trades the proportion of all contracts com­
pleted stands as follows: Bricklayer and mason, 60 percent; carpenter, 25
percent; electrician, 43 percent; painter and decorator, 50 percent; plasterer,
44 percent; plumber, 51 percent; sheet-metal worker, 64 percetit.

Distribution of Apprenticeships by Industries
T he distribution of the completed contracts corresponded closely
with that of the contracts approved, though the building and miscel­
laneous trades showed slightly less than their proportion of completions.

In considering the distribution of the apprentices, the report pointed
out that the number of learners in a trade may greatly exceed the
number of apprentices. Many young people enter a trade informally,
picking it up as best they may. As to the marked differences in the
number of apprentices in the various trade groups, several reasons
were assigned.
Chief among them is the degree of interest the membership of a craft takes in
the problem of apprenticeship. The metal-trades group has shown an active
interest in trade training for more than 25 years, and in fact, was largely respon­
sible for the enactment of Wisconsin’s first apprenticeship law in 1911. As a
result of this interest the metal trades have thus far indentured a total of 5,154
learners, as against 1,413 in the building trades.
The extent of organization of the workers in a trade may be mentioned as
another reason why a trade makes a good or bad showing in the number of
learners indentured. No matter how concerned leaders among journeymen or
employers may be over the apprenticeship situation in their trades, they are
powerless to effect a lasting remedy until the membership is better organized.
Low trade standards likewise can materially affect apprenticeship conditions.
When a trade is overflowing with inefficient workmen, wages naturally are low
and, since anyone with only a smattering of trade knowledge and experience
seems able to find a place in the trade, there remains no incentive for a boy to
bind himself to serve an apprenticeship covering a period of years.

Apprenticeship Plan in Oregon
H E Legislature of Oregon passed a law in 1931 (Acts of 1931,
ch. 101) relating to the training of apprentices which is in most
respects essentially the same plan as that of Wisconsin. A State
apprenticeship commission was created by the act, consisting of the
State superintendent of public instruction, the State labor commis­
sioner, and a member of the State industrial accident commission
designated by the Governor. This commission was given the duty,
“ jurisdiction and authority, to * * * make rules and regulations
and such general and/or special orders as shall be necessary to carry
out the intent and purpose” of the act.
No report of the operation of the act has so far been made public.

T




A R B IT R A T IO N A N D C O N C IL IA T IO N

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




9




Labor Adjustment Agencies Under the N. I. R. A.
AS A R ESU LT of the National Industrial Recovery Act and re-

J T j L lated legislation the need developed for a far more comprehen­

sive system for the adjustment of labor disputes than had previously
existed. The first major step in this direction was the creation in
August 1933 of the National Labor Board. This board continued
as the principal national agency to deal with labor disputes until it
was superseded in June 1934 by the National Labor Relations Board.
In addition, from time to time provision was made for the creation of
special labor boards of adjustment and policy making for particular
industries or for particular problems—such as the National Steel Labor
Relations Board, the Textile Labor Relations Board, the National
Longshoremen’s Labor Board, and the Petroleum Labor Policy Board.
In June 1934 the former United States Mediation Board, created
in 1926 to handle railroad labor disputes, was superseded by a new
board known as the “ National Mediation Board” , with a somewhat
different scope of activity from that of the superseded Mediation
Board.
The Conciliation Service of the United States Department of Labor
had its work considerably expanded as a result of various develop­
ments under the N. R. A., but, in general, its activities continued to
be primarily concerned with conciliation and not with arbitration or
with the rendering of decisions regarding labor policies.
Much of the work of these national agencies was necessarily of a
character which does not lend itself to statistical measurement or
public record. A brief description of the principal agencies of the
type referred to, and also, where available, a resume of their activities,
are given below.
N a tio n a l L a b o r B o ard, 1933
S h o r t l y after the creation of the National Recovery Administra­
tion the Industrial and Labor Advisory Committees of that organiza­
tion recommended the establishment of a National Labor Board.
Such a board was created on August 5, 1933, and consisted of Sen­
ator Robert F. Wagner, chairman, Leo Wolman, Walter C. Teagle,
William Green, John L. Lewis, Gerard Swope, and Louis E. Kirstein.
The powers and functions of this board were as follows:

1. To settle by mediation, conciliation, or arbitration all controversies between
employers and employees which tend to impede the purposes of the National
Industrial Recovery Act: P ro v id ed , how ever , That the Board may decline to
take cognizance of controversies between employers and employees in any field
of trade or industry where a means of settlement, provided by agreement, in­
dustrial code, or Federal law, has not been invoked.
2. To establish local or regional boards upon which employers and employees
shall be equally represented, and to delegate thereto such powers and territorial
jurisdiction as the National Labor Board may determine.
3. To review the determinations of the local or regional boards where the
public interest so requires.
4. To make rules and regulations governing its procedure and the discharge of
its functions.




11

12

ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION

Regional Labor Boards .— Up to March 3, 1934, 19 regional labor
boards for the purpose of settling local controversies had been ap­
pointed by the National Labor Board in the following cities: Atlanta,
Ga.; Boston, Mass.; Buffalo, N. Y .; Chicago, 111.; Cleveland, Ohio;
Detroit, Mich.; Indianapolis, Ind.; Kansas City, Mo.; Los Angeles,
Calif.; Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minn.; Newark, N. J.; New Orleans,
La.; New York, N. Y .; Philadelphia, Pa.; Pittsburgh, Pa.; St. Louis,
Mo.; San Antonio, Tex.; San Francisco, Calif.; and Seattle, Wash.

Activities
P r e l i m i n a r y figures show that from the inception o f the National
Labor Board on August 5, 1933, to July 1, 1934, over 2,000,000
workers were directly affected by cases handled by the National
Labor Board and its 19 regional boards established throughout the
country and that, of the total number, 1,800,000 persons were either
returned to work, kept at work, or had their disputes adjusted. Of
4,277 cases handled, 3,532, or 83 percent, were settled by the boards.
Settlements effected by agreement represented approximately twothirds of the settlements. Cases pending on July 1 numbered 416.
The primary cause of complaint in 2,741 cases, or 64 percent of the
total of 4,277 cases handled, was alleged violation of section 7 (a) o f
the National Industrial Recovery Act dealing with labor’s right to
collective bargaining.

N a tio n a l L a b o r R elations B oard and Associated Boards
B y E x e c u t i v e order of June 29, 1934, the National Labor Re­
lations Board was established in accordance with the authority
vested in the President under title I of the National Industrial Re­
covery Act and under joint congressional resolution approved June
19, 1934. The Board took over the functions of the National Labor
Board on July 9, 1934, when its membership, composed of Lloyd K.
Garrison, chairman, Harry A. Millis, and Edwin S. Smith, took office.
Francis Biddle later replaced Lloyd Garrison as chairman. The
decisions of the National LaboreRelations Board were not to be
subject to Executive review, and its work was to be confined to dis­
putes involving the right of labor to collective bargaining, the hold­
ing of elections for labor representation, voluntary arbitration, and
investigation of complaints of discriminatory practices affecting labor.
Decisions of the Board were to be transmitted to the President
through the Secretary of Labor. This Board functioned for about
1 year, and was re-created by the National Labor Relations Act of
July 1935. (See p. 18.)
Under the resolution referred to above, Congress left it to the dis­
cretion of the President to establish either a board or boards to handle
disputes. Under this authority the President appointed three
special boards, as follows:
The National Longshoremen’s Labor Board was named on June 26,
1934, by Executive order. Its membership included Rt. Rev. Edward
J. Hanna, chairman; O. K. Cushing, and Edward F. McGrady.
The board was authorized to make investigations in connection with
the longshoremen’s strike on the Pacific coast. It was to cease to
exist when, in the opinion of the President, it had completed its
duties.




LABOR ADJUSTMENT AGENCIES UNDER N. I. R. A.

13

The National Steel Labor Relations Board was formed under Execu­
tive order of June 28, 1934, its membership comprising Chief Justice
Walter P. Stacy, North Carolina Supreme Court, chairman; Admiral
Henry A. Wiley, and James A. Mullenbach. The board was author­
ized to report to the President on labor relations, to mediate differ­
ences, to determine the fairness of collective bargaining, and to reach
decisions by secret ballot.
The Textile Labor Relations Board, the appointment of which was
recommended by the Board of Inquiry for the Cotton Textile Industry
in its report to the President, was appointed in September 1934. Its
powers and duties in the textile field were similar to those of the National
Labor Relations Board and the National Steel Labor Relations
Board in their respective fields. The Board was given authority to
administer, in addition to section 7 (a) of the National Recovery Act,
other labor provisions of the cotton, silk, and wool codes. The orig­
inal membership of the Board consisted of Chief Justice Walter P.
Stacy, Admiral Henry A. Wiley, and James A. Mullenbach.

Activities of National Labor Relations Board
D u r in g the period from July 9,1934, to June 16,1935, the National
Labor Relations Board handed down 227 decisions. Several of the
cases carried more than one complaint and some decisions were
reaffirmations, supplements, or amendments to previous decisions.
One hundred and twenty of these decisions involved charges of
discrimination or discharge due to union affiliation or activity. In 96
of these cases the companies were found to have violated section 7
(a) of the National Industrial Recovery Act, and in practically every
instance were ordered to reinstate the employees who had been
discharged, or who had struck as a result of the dispute, discharging
those who had taken their places if necessary. In case the state of
business was such that immediate reinstatement could not be effected,
discharged workers were to be placed upon a preferential list and re­
employed according to seniority as rapidly as conditions would allow.
In a number of cases it was ruled that the company should reimburse
employees for wages lost through their discriminatory discharge.
Companies were ordered to cease all interference with the workers’
right to organize and to notify all employees that they should be free
from discrimination for any union activity.
Twenty-four cases were dismissed, as the complaints that dis­
charges were made on account of union affiliation or activity were not
adequately supported. In several cases the Board recommended
that the companies demonstrate their good faith by reinstating, or
placing upon a preferential list, the employees discharged or on strike.
In 21 cases the companies involved were charged with failure to
bargain collectively with their employees. In 15 of the decisions the
companies were found guilty of violation of section 7 (a) and were
ordered to bargain collectively, upon request, with the duly chosen
representatives of the employees. Any employees who had been
discharged were ordered reinstated to their former positions with the
same rights as previously enjoyed.
Six cases charging failure to bargain collectively were dismissed,
the evidence being insufficient to sustain the complaints of the em­
ployees. In three of these cases the Board, while not convinced by




14

ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION

the evidence that the company had failed to bargain collectively,
recommended that the companies demonstrate their good faith by
reinstating the men who had gone on strike as a result of the contro­
versy, displacing those workers hired to take the strikers’ places if
necessary.
Twenty-eight decisions ordered the companies to recognize the
organization representing the majority of their employees for the
purpose of collective bargaining, and to proceed immediately to bar­
gain with such persons or organizations and endeavor to reach a
collective agreement. The companies were instructed to remove all
support of any nature from any other association or employee plan.
Discharged employees or those on strike, were ordered reinstated, a
preferential list being kept in cases in which it was not possible to
reemploy the men immediately.
Seven cases requesting recognition were dismissed, the Board
deciding that the units petitioning for recognition did not represent
a majority of the employees, or did not constitute a proper bargaining
unit.
Thirty-six elections were ordered to determine by what persons or
organizations the employees desired to be represented in collective
bargaining. Eight of these decisions were reaffirmations of previous
orders for election, and four decisions amended election orders.
Nine petitions for elections were denied, the Board not deeming it
in the public interest to hold elections in such cases.
In one case a petition to set aside the results of an election was
denied.
Twelve decisions ruled that the companies had violated section 7
(a) by interfering with, restraining, and coercing their employees in
self organization and in the designation of their representatives for
collective bargaining, through requiring employees as a condition of
employment to join any company union or refrain from joining any
labor organization of their own choosing, locking out members who
refused to join a company union, requiring employees to sign a con­
tract by which it was agreed not to strike, refusing to take back
employees discharged because of organizing other workers to strike,
and discharging an employee for endeavoring to represent himself
and other employees in the matter of a wage-rate discussion. Com­
panies involved were ordered to reinstate discharged workers and
strikers, to withdraw all support from any company union or any
other employee association and cease soliciting membership in such
organizations, and to notify employees that they would not be dis­
criminated against in any of their activities for self-organization or
other activities for the purposes of collective bargaining or other
mutual aid or protection.
In one case the Board was called upon to determine which unit in a
system represented the employees for collective bargaining. The
Board did not pass upon a seniority question raised in tins case,
declaring such to be outside its jurisdiction.
Two awards were made granting slight increases in wages.
An award was made by the Board, acting as arbitrator, whereby,
for the purpose of spreading work, the company was ordered to
retain the present crew during any month when the production was
sufficient to make it possible for the crew to obtain 20 hours of work
a week. Reduction of force was only to be allowed in order to make
20 hours of work for those employees left.



LABOR ADJUSTMENT AGENCIES UNDER N. I. R. A.

15

By one award, a company was ordered to reinstate 5 employees,
2 of them with back pay; transfer 10 employees; place 5 on a prefer­
ential list to be reemployed according to seniority, and to observe the
seniority rules. Two employees involved were not granted transfer.
National Longshorem en’s Labor Board

A b r i e f summary of the three decisions rendered by the National
Longshoremen’s Labor Board in October 1934 are given below. (More
extended summaries are given in the Monthly Labor Review of
December 1934.)
Longshoremen— Portland, Seattle, San Francisco, and Los Angeles.—

On October 12, 1934, the National Longshoremen’s Board rendered a
decision in the controversy between the International Longshore­
men’s Association, acting on behalf of various locals whose members
perform longshore labor, on the one hand, and the Waterfront Employ­
ers of Seattle, Portland, and San Francisco, and the Marine Service
Bureau of Los Angeles, on the other hand. Three issues were sub­
mitted to the Board, as follows: An increase in the basic wage rate
from 85 cents to $1 per hour; limitation of hours of work to 6 per
day and 30 per week; hiring and dispatching through the Interna­
tional Longshoremen’s Association halls, under the regulations estab­
lished by a joint committee. The Board awarded a basic wage rate
of not less than 95 cents per hour for straight time, and not less than
$1.40 per hour for overtime work; a 6-hour day and a 30-hour week;
and ordered that the hiring of all longshoremen should be through halls
maintained and operated jointly by the International Longshoremen’s
Association, Pacific coast district, and the respective employers’ asso­
ciations. The hiring and dispatching of all longshoremen were ordered
to be done through one central hiring hall in each of the ports of
Seattle, Portland, San Francisco, and Los Angeles, with such branch
halls as the labor relations committee should decide.
Grain handlers— Portland, Oreg.; Seattle and Vancouver, Wash .—

An award was made by the National Longshoremen’s Board on Octo­
ber 17, 1934, in a dispute between the International Longshoremen’s
Association, acting on behalf of various locals whose members per­
form labor as grain handlers, and Kerr Gifford & Co., Inc., Northern
Wharf & Warehouse Co., and Northwestern Dock and Elevator Co.,
employing grain handlers at Portland, Oreg.; Seattle and Vancouver,
Wash. The issues submitted to the Board were basic rate of wages,
hours of work, and hiring and dispatching. The Board awarded a
wage rate of not less than 80 cents per hour for straight time, and not
less than $1.20 per hour for overtime work; a 6-hour day and a 30-hour
week. The demand with respect to hiring was not made effective;
the parties to the award were to make provision by agreement regard­
ing methods of hiring.
Dock and terminal workers— Portland, Oreg.—This dispute was be­
tween the Pacific Coast District Local No. 38 of the International
Longshoremen’s Association, acting on behalf of its Portland local,
whose members perform labor on docks or terminals, and the Inter­
state Terminals, Ltd.; Luckenbach Steamship Co., Inc.; Christenson
Hammond Line; Oceanic Terminals; International Stevedoring Co.;
McCormic Steamship Co.; and Supples Dock, Inc. On October 17,
1934, the National Longshoremen’s Board awarded a wage rate of
not less than 70 cents an hour for straight time and not less than




16

ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION

$1.05 per hour for overtime work; a 6-hour day and a 30-hour week.
The demand with respect to hiring was not made effective; the parties
to the award were to make provision by agreement regarding methods
of hiring.
N a tion al Steel L ab or R ela tion s B oard
F o r t y - t w o cases were acted upon by the National Steel Labor
Relations Board from its organization by Executive order of June
28, 1934, up to June 30, 1935. Upon the suspension of the N. R. A.
codes the Attorney General on May 30, 1935, advised that all cases
then pending in the Federal cpurts arising under the Recovery Act
and Public Resolution No. 44 should be dismissed. This resulted
in the temporary suspension of the activities of the Steel Board.
The Board’s activities up to the end of June extended into many
phases of labor relations in the iron and steel industry, including
investigation, hearing, and determination of charges of interference,
restraint, or coercion of employees in the exercise of their collective­
bargaining rights under section 7 (a) of the National Industrial
Recovery Act, and in article IV, section 1, of the iron and steel code,
and discharge of employees in violation of their rights as defined
therein. Settlements were brought about in mediation and concilia­
tion of disputes and elections were held to choose representatives for
purposes of collective bargaining, but the Board was not called upon
to arbitrate in any case.
T extile L abor R ela tion s B oard
T h e Textile Labor Relations Board from its formation September
26, 1934, to the close of the year 1934 received more than 1,600 com­
plaints involving 579 mills. As shown in the Board’s first quarterly
report, submitted to the President of the United States on January
4, J.935, all these complaints charged discrimination in putting em­
ployees back to work following the strike which lasted from Septem­
ber 1 to 24, 1934.
Fifty-two hearings involving complaints against 48 mills were held—
19 before regional labor boards, 23 before field examiners, and 10
before the Textile Labor Relations Board.
The Board issued final decisions in six cases. In two of these cases
the complaints were continued, with the consent of both parties in­
volved, for the purpose of further negotiations looking to a complete
adjustment. In one case an election was held under the supervi­
sion of the Textile Labor Relations Board, and the result of the elec­
tion was certified to the employer and the employees. Another case
was referred to the N. R. A. Compliance Division for removal of the
Blue Eagle.

A u to m o b ile L a b o r B o a rd
T h e Automobile Labor Board was appointed as part of the terms of
settlement when the President settled a threatened strike in the auto­
mobile industry on March 25, 1934. The body took up its work on
March 29 in Detroit, Mich., at a time when both employers and em­
ployees were apprehensive as to the immediate future of the industry.
By the Executive order creating the Board, jurisdiction was limited




LABOR ADJUSTMENT AGENCIES UNDER N . I. R . A.

17

to the automobile-manufacturing industry, and to disputes in the
automotive-parts industry in which both parties agreed to bring the
case before the Board and abide by its decisions. Seniority rules,
determining the order of lay-off and rehiring, were adopted by the
Board on May 18, 1934, in pursuance of the strike settlement effected
by the President, and on the basis of the Board’s own knowledge of
the conditions in the' industry. The procedure followed by the Board
was to settle existing strikes in the industry, dispose of claims of dis­
crimination as quickly as possible, and obtain recognition of the em­
ployees’ right to representatives of their own choosing for purposes
of collective bargaining.
During the first 10 months of its operation the Automobile Labor
Board settled 11 strikes (affecting some 30,000 workers directly or in­
directly) in the automobile manufacturing industry and one in the
automotive-parts industry; considered over 2,000 cases dealing with
seniority rights of individuals or groups or claims of alleged discrimi­
nation; and participated in numerous conferences on the establish­
ment and operation of collective bargaining.1 In addition, 10 pri­
mary elections and 7 final elections were held, with a total eof
75,268 votes cast for employee representation in collective bargaining
with employers.
In all, from March 29, 1934, to February 5, 1935, 2,035 cases came
to the Board for settlement from 21 cities in various sections of the
country and from 54 different plants. The disposition of these cases
was as follows:
Total number of cases__________________________________________________ 2, 035
Returning to work without a hearing___________________________________ 1, 061
Complaints withdrawn, dropped, or lapsed______________________________
550
Decisions issued by the Board__________________________________________
199
Decisions to be issued by the Board____________________________________
12
Cases awaiting a hearing_______________________________________________
13
Cases awaiting reply from complainant_________________________________
139
61
Cases awaiting reply from company____________________________________

After 10 months of activity and on the basis of its experience, the
Board was of the opinion that “ discrimination caused by union activ­
ity or union membership is not a problem of any magnitude at the
present time and has not been for some time in the past.”
Collective bargaining was stated to be the major issue to be dealt
with, and the Board believed that employer-employee relationships
had been improved during the year. Collective bargaining was viewed
as a peaceful process, requiring patience and understanding. It was
believed that employers and employees had made a good deal of
progress in learning what their rights and duties were under the law
and the orders of the Board and in adjusting their policy thereto.
Following the announcement of the Board on December 7, 1934,
that elections would be held for choice of employee representatives
throughout the industry, 10 primary and 7 final elections were held.
Votes were cast in the 10 primaries by 90 percent of those eligible
to vote and 94 percent of those working on the day of the election.
The Board endeavored to secure freedom from coercion and complete
secrecy. Up to February 5, 1935, primary elections had been held
in 12 plants of different companies. A total of 53,771 votes were
1National Recovery Administration. Press release of Feb. 17, 1935. Report of the Activities of the Auto­
mobile Labor Board from Mar. 27, 1934, to Feb. 5, 1935.

19205— 36-------3




18

ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION

cast of which 40,953 were unaffiliated, 5,440 were for employees’ asso­
ciations, and 5,410 were for the two principal union organizations,
while the remainder were scattered among different organizations.
P e tro le u m L a b o r P o licy B o a rd
E s t a b l i s h m e n t of a Labor Policy Board to advise the Secretary
of the Interior, Harold L. Ickes, as Oil Administrator, on matters
affecting workers in the oil industry was announced on November
24, 1933. As originally set up, the Board was bipartisan. However,
because of the refusal of the representative chosen for labor to serve,
a reorganization was effected on December 19, 1933, establishing an
impartial board of three members. Based on oral instructions from
the Administrator the Board formulated its duties and functions to
include: (1) Advising the Administrator in determining policies
affecting labor and in interpreting and applying code labor provisions;
(2) acting on compliance cases and recommending appropriate
enforcement measures; (3) investigating labor disputes and acting
in mediation, conciliation, and arbitration cases (the latter only
upon joint request of parties to a dispute); (4) handling cases arising
under section 7 (a) dealing with collective bargaining, holding elections
for employee representation, and related work; and (5) carrying
out research in order to advise on labor policies and the effects of the
code on employment, wages, and purchasing power.
Up to the time of the decision of the United States Supreme Court
holding the code-making powers in the Recovery Act unconstitu­
tional, the Board had acted on 2,862 out of 3,945 complaints filed
alleging violations of the wages and hours provisions of the petroleum
code; of those handled 1,458 were adjusted and in 922 no violation
was found. Complaints under section 7 (a) numbered 77, of which
7 were withdrawn. No evidence of coercion was found in 22 cases,
35 were settled, and 13 remained unadjusted when the Board’s work
was brought to a close.
Since removal of the code work, the Board has undertaken a survey
of the petroleum industry. New data on employment, pay rolls, hours
of labor, and weekly earnings are to be collected and data already
available in the studies of the Bureau of Labor Statistics analyzed.

National Labor Relations Act, 1935
R ESID EN T ROOSEVELT on July 5, 1935, signed an act
designed to “ diminish the causes of labor disputes burdening or
obstructing interstate and foreign commerce.” By virtue of this
act the National Labor Relations Board was re-created, for the express
purpose of settling labor disputes and guaranteeing the right of col­
lective bargaining. In accomplishing the latter object the law
declares certain activities of employers “ unfair labor practices.”
Briefly, these practices are (1) to interfere with, restrain, or coerce
employees in organization or collective bargaining; (2) to dominate
or interfere with the formation or administration of any labor organ­
ization; (3) to encourage or discourage membership in any labor
organization b y discrimination in the matter of hiring, or period,
term, or condition of employment; (4) to discharge or discriminate
against an employee because of the filing of charges against an em-

P




NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS ACT, 1935

19

ployer; and (5) to refuse to bargain collectively with representatives
of the employees.
In preventing any person from engaging in an unfair labor practice,
the Board has exclusive power under the act to issue a complaint
upon such person, with the charges and a notice of hearing before the
Board. The Board is granted the right to invoke the aid of the courts
to compel compliance with its orders and may petition any circuit
court of appeals of the United States for assistance in effecting its
orders. On the other hand, any person aggrieved by a final order of
the Board may obtain a review of such order in any circuit court of
appeals. The Board is clothed also with investigatory powers, and
any of its members has the power to issue subpenas and require the
attendance of witnesses. Violations of the authority of the Board
are punishable by fine or imprisonment or both. The right to strike
is preserved.
Like section 7 (a) of the National Industrial Recovery Act of June
16, 1933, the new National Labor Relations Act declares a similar
purpose and object, in enacting the law, that “ employees shall have
the right to self-organization, to form, join, or assist labor organiza­
tions, to bargain collectively, through representatives of their own
choosing, and to engage in concerted activities, for the purpose of
collective bargaining or other mutual aid or protection.”
Denial by employers of the right of collective bargaining of the
employees, the legislative intent of the act declares, “ leads to strikes
and other forms of industrial strife and unrest.” These in their
nature have the “ effect of burdening or obstructing” interstate and
foreign commerce. By the enactment of such a law it has been the
declared policy of the Government to eliminate the causes obstructing
interstate commerce, “ by encouraging the practice and procedure of
collective bargaining.”
At the time President Roosevelt signed the law he issued a state­
ment relative to the purposes of the law, noting particularly that the
National Labor Relations Board would be an independent quasi­
judicial body. The President also stressed the fact that the Board
“ will not act as mediator or conciliator in labor disputes. The
function of mediation” , he said, “ remains, under the act, the duty of
the Secretary of Labor and of the Conciliation Service of the Depart­
ment of Labor.”
The President pointed out also that the judicial function and the me­
diation function “ should not be confused ” , and that “ compromise, the
essence of mediation, has no place in the interpretation and enforce­
ment of the law.” The purpose of the act, the President said, should
not be misinterpreted. While it may eventually eliminate one major
cause of labor disputes, “ it will not stop all labor disputes” , the
President said, and “ it does not cover all industry and labor, but is
applicable only when violation of the legal right of independent self­
organization would burden or obstruct interstate commerce.”
Accepted by labor, capital, and the public in a cooperative spirit and
“ with a sense of sober responsibility” , the new law, the President
concluded, “ should serve as an important step toward the achieve­
ment of just and peaceful labor relations in industry.”
On August 23, 1935, the President named the following persons as
members of the National Labor Relations Board as reconstituted
under the 1935 act: J. Warren Madden, chairman; J. M. Carmody,




20

ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION

and Edwin S. Smith; their terms of office to be 5, 3, and 1 year,
respectively.

United States Board of Mediation (Railroads),
1931 to 1934
H E Railway Labor Act of 1926 created a special board, known
as the United States Board of Mediation, to handle disputes which
the carriers and employees were unable to settle in conference. In
cases where mediation failed, the law directed that the board should
endeavor to induce the parties to submit their controversy to arbi­
tration. The arbitration body in such cases should be composed of
3 or of 6 members, as determined by the parties, one-third of whom
should represent the carriers, one-third should represent the em­
ployees, and one-third should be neutral. If the representatives of
the carriers and employees failed to name the neutral member or
members, it became the duty of the Board of Mediation to appoint
them. If all measures for mediation and arbitration failed, the
President was empowered to appoint a special emergency board to
investigate the dispute and report its findings within 30 days. The
board was superseded in July 1934 by the National Mediation Board.
The Board of Mediation dealt with two classes of disputes—cases
involving rates of pay, rules, or working conditions submitted direct
to the Board for mediation or arbitration; and grievances involving
the application of rules or discipline, which were first submitted to
an appropriate adjustment board but not settled by such board.
The first class of disputes was referred to as “ cases” , while the second
class was referred to as “ grievance cases.”

T

Activities
T h e Board began operations in July 1926. Up to June 30,1934,967
cases had been submitted to the Board, and 876 of these cases had
been disposed of. During the same period 1,715 grievance cases were
submitted to the Board, 1,489 of which had been disposed of. For
the 4 years ended June 30, 1934, the Board disposed of 430 cases
involving rates of pay, rules, or working conditions, and 1,324 griev­
ance cases.
The following table gives the number of cases of all kinds disposed
of, by method of settlement, from July 1 , 1930, to June 30, 1934:
N U M B E R OF CASES DISPOSED OF, 1930-31 TO 1933-34, B Y M E T H O D OF S E T T L E M E N T
1930-31

1931-32

1932-33

1933-34

Total settlements..................................................... .........

54

170

95

111

430

Mediation agreement.--..................................................
Arbitration agreement.....................................................
Withdrawal through mediation................................... .
Withdrawal without mediation........................ ............
Retired for refusal to arbitrate.......................................
Board action.......................................................................

24
4
12
8
0
6

45
4
0
69
47
5

23
3
14
9
0
46

17
9
26
0
50
9

109
20
52
86
97
66

Total settlements...............................................................

248

234

344

498

1,324

Mediation agreement....................................................
Arbitration agreement.................................................—
Withdrawal through mediation....................................
Withdrawal without mediation.....................................
Board action.......................................................................

74
113
68
1
2

94
47
0
59
34

107
37
90
13
97

64
260
77
0
97

339
457
225
73
230

Method of settlement
C ases

Total

G rievance cases




EMERGENCY BOARDS UNDER RAILWAY LABOR ACT

21

National Mediation Board (Railroads), 1934
H E National Mediation Board was created by Public Act No.
442, Seventy-third Congress (approved June 21, 1934), and super­
seded the United States Board of Mediation on July 21, 1934.
It is the purpose of the National Mediation Board to provide for
theeprompt disposition of disputes arising between the carriers and
their employees. The Board is directed to carry out the following
provisions of the act:

T

(1)
To avoid any interruption to commerce or to the operation of any carrier
engaged therein; (2) to forbid any limitation upon freedom of association among
employees or any denial, as a condition of employment or otherwise, of the right
of employees to join a labor organization; (3) to provide for the complete inde­
pendence of carriers and of employees in the matter of self-organization to carry
out the purposes of this act; (4) to provide for the prompt and orderly settlement
of all disputes concerning rates of pay, rules, or working conditions; (5) to pro­
vide for the prompt and orderly settlement of all disputes growing out of grievances
or out of the interpretation or application of agreements covering rates of pay,
rules, or working conditions.

The National Mediation Board cooperates in the adjustment of
disputes with the National Railroad Adjustment Board, also created
by Public Act No. 442, which is composed of 18 representatives of
the carriers and 18 representatives of employees.

Emergency Boards Under Railway Labor Act, 1930 to
1934
HE Federal Railway Labor Act of 1926 provided that an emer­
gency board might be established by the President of the United
States if a railroad labor dispute could not be settled in accordance
with the other provisions of the law and if, in the judgment of the
Board of Mediation, such dispute threatened “ to interrupt interstate
commerce to a degree such as to deprive any section of the country of
essential transportation service.7 The decisions of this Board were
7
not to be compulsory, but the act provided that after the creation of
the board and for 30 days after its report had been made, “ no change,
except by agreement, shall be made by the parties to the controversy
in the conditions out of which the dispute arose.”
Brief summaries of the findings of eight emergency boards appointed
from July 1,1930, to the end of 1934, are given below. More extended
summaries of these reports appeared in the Monthly Labor Review, as
indicated, and the findings of earlier boards will be found in the former
editions of the Handbook of Labor Statistics.
Delaware cfe Hudson Railroad .—An emergency board appointed on
March 5, 1934, to investigate and adjust the dispute between the
Delaware & Hudson Railroad and its engineers, firemen, and train­
men, made its report on March 31, 1934. During 1932 the carrier
notified the representatives of its emplo)^ees that it wished to intro­
duce new agreements, establishing different rules and working con­
ditions and changing the old hours and mileage basis of pay to a
monthly rate. The employees agreed with the understanding that the
agreements were to be in effect for 1 year, at the expiration of which
either party might petition for negotiations for the revision of objec­
tionable features, and that, failing a satisfactory adjustment, there
would be a return to the old agreements. At the end of the trial

T




22

ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION

period the employees sought to return to the old agreements, but this
was opposed by the carrier. The emergency board formulated the
following plan of settlement: (1) That the parties would agree to go
back to the old contracts on April 1, 1934; (2) that grievance cases
and claim for back time of trainmen and the other matters listed in.
the strike ballot would be submitted to a committee of 4, 2 to be
selected by the carrier and 2 by the brotherhoods representing the
employees, each side to pay the cost of its representatives, and deci­
sion of a majority of the committee to be binding; (3) that should the
committee for any reason fail to decide any of the cases, such undecided
cases would be submitted to an umoire to be selected by the com­
mittee or to be appointed by the Railroad Board of Mediation in
case the committee should not be able to agree upon an umpire. The
decision of the umpire was to be final and binding. The carrier
accepted the first point of the board’s proposal, but refused to accede
to its second and third recommendations. The carrier expressed its
willingness to review, upon presentation through its regular pre­
scribed channels, the seven major points or any of the listed cases in
the strike ballot. In view of this expression of the carrier, and in
order to afford the Brotherhood of Trainmen an opportunity to decide
whether it wished to prosecute claims arising after the termination
of the experimental period, August 1, 1933, under the old agreement
or the new agreement, the remaining questions in difference between
the parties were either withdrawn without prejudice or removed
from further consideration of the emergency board. (Monthly Labor
Review, May 1934.)
Denver & R io Grande Western Railroad. —The emergency board
appointed February 1, 1934, to investigate the dispute between the
Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad and its engineers, firemen,
conductors, and trainmen, made its report on February 28, 1934.
The strike vote of the employees grew out of an accumulation of
grievances, 75 in number. Upon the suggestion of the board, the
parties agreed to withdraw 17 cases and to let the matters involved
therein remain in status quo until January 1, 1935. During the
proceedings the parties agreed to the settlement of 13 other cases,
leaving 45 cases to be decided by the board. The majority of these
grievances were caused by a change in rules by the carrier without
previous notice to the employees. In other cases the grievances had
been referred to the Western Train Service Board of Adjustment, and
its decisions had not been made effective by the carrier. In some cases
the board found that the grievance had not been submitted for adjust­
ment or mediation. The board in its report suggested that griev­
ances should be submitted through the orderly processes prescribed
by the agreements between the employees and the carrier and by the
Railway Labor Act, and pointed out the need for cooperation between
the carrier and the employees in adjusting grievances, concluding
that the controversies could be settled as suggested in the report.
(Monthly Labor Review, April 1934.)
K ansas City Southern R ailw ay. —An emergency board to investi­
gate the wage dispute between the Kansas City Southern Railway and
its engineers, firemen, conductors, and trainmen, was appointed on
June 12, 1933. The carrier and these employees were parties to the
so-called “ Chicago agreement” of January 31, 1932, which provided
for a 10-percent deduction from the wages of the employees during




EMERGENCY BOARDS UNDER RAILWAY LABOR ACT

23

the year beginning February 1, 1932. On December 31, 1932, the
agreement was extended to October 31, 1933, on most of the railroads.
The Kansas City Southern Railway Co. was not a party to the ex­
tension agreement, but continued to make the 10 percent deduction
under the terms of a mediation agreement entered into February 23,
1933. On April 5, 1933, the carrier served notice of cancelation, on
May 15, 1933, of all contracts covering rates of pay, rules, and work­
ing conditions. On April 6, 1933, it declared its intention of placing
in effect on May 16, 1933, new rates of pay, rules, and working condi­
tions. Conferences and mediation were unsuccessful, and on June
6, 1933, the employees voted overwhelmingly to strike. On July 12,
1933, the emergency board reported its findings, pointing out the
employees’ belief that acceptance of the company’s demands would
mean “ a complete breakdown of the many years of efforts of organ­
ized railroad labor and would be and become an opening wedge
toward the ultimate breakdown of these conditions upon all the other
railroads in this country.” In deference to the wish of the President
“ for peace between labor and employer while the country is trying
to regain prosperity ” , expressed in a letter to its president, the carrier
postponed putting into effect the proposed new schedule until early
in 1934, continuing in the meantime under the existing rates of pay,
rules, and working conditions. (Monthly Labor Review, October
1933.)
Louisiana & Arkansas R ailw ay .—The emergency board appointed
April 16, 1931, to investigate a dispute between the Louisiana &
Arkansas Railway and its shop-craft employees, reported its findings
on May 5, 1931. The controversy began with a notice by the carrier
to the shop-craft organizations, on September 15, 1930, of its desire
“ to abrogate and revise the present schedule covering rates of pay
and working conditions of the shop-craft employees.” On October
4, 1930, the employees requested the services of the United States
Board of Mediation. The board assigned O. B. Colquitt and Edwin
P. Morrow to straighten out the dispute, but the railroad officials
refused to consider any settlement except on their own terms. On
February 9, 1931, the carrier put into effect the proposed changes in
wages, a new schedule of rules embodying the changes proposed at
the meeting October 1, and also a number of additional changes,
some of them very important, of which there had been no previous
notice. This led to a strike vote by the employees and the creation
of the emergency board.
The board in its report stated that the action of the carrier of Feb­
ruary 9, 1931, in putting into force new rules and changes in working
conditions, wholly without the notice required by the Railway Labor
Act, was illegal under section 6; that the carrier should restore the
standard rates of wages and rules governing working conditions pre­
vailing on its line in September 1930; that if the carrier refused to
restore former conditions it should submit to arbitration; that if the
carrier refused to do one or the other, the board could not urge upon
the craftsmen the duty of agreeing to the conditions imposed by the
action of the carriers on February 9, 1931, as that would be equiva­
lent to saying that one who obeys a particular law is at a disadvantage
with respect to one who disregards it. The board further said, “ If
the opportunity is offered the carrier to mediate or arbitrate the con­
troversy it should accept it; and if not presented it should seek it.”
(Monthly Labor Review, August 1931.)



24

ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION

Louisian a, Arkansas & Texas Railw ay Co. of Texas.—The findings
and recommendations of the emergency board appointed July 26,1933,
to investigate the dispute between the Louisiana, Arkansas & Texas
Railway Co. of Texas and its engineers, firemen, conductors, and
trainmen, were reported August 26, 1933. On April 18, 1933, the
carrier gave notice, effective May 20, 1933, of the cancelation of the
agreement then in effect and of its intention to inaugurate new rates
of pay, rules, and working conditions. The carrier refused to deal
with the employees’ organizations collectively and insisted upon deal­
ing with each organization separately, contrary to the general custom
of the road. After mediation had failed, arbitration was suggested.
The employees agreed but the carrier declined, and immediately put
into effect its proposed schedule of rates of pay, rules, and working
conditions. By an overwhelming vote the employees decided to
strike unless a suitable settlement was made. The pay of these em­
ployees had been reduced 15 percent on August 24, 1931. The board
decided that the schedule of rates of pay, rules, and working condi­
tions in effect prior to June 3, 1933, should be restored by the carrier.
(Monthly Labor Review, October 1933.)
Louisiana <& Arkansas, and Louisiana, Arkansas c Texas R a il­
fe
ways. —On March 10, 1932, an emergency board was appointed to
investigate several wage disputes between the Louisiana & Arkansas
and the Louisiana, Arkansas & Texas Railways, and their employees
The report of the board on March 29, 1932, was briefly as follows:
The wages of the colored brakemen of the Louisiana & Arkansas
seniority district were substantially reduced by an agreement entered
into October 15, 1930. On January 4, 1932, notice was given by the
carrier that, effective February 5, 1932, the company would abrogate
the agreement and reduce wage rates 10 percent. The 10-percent
reduction was put into effect March 1, 1932, after unsuccessful efforts
at mediation, and after arbitration had been refused by the carrier.
The board found that the employees were thus left “ without any
contract with the carrier governing rates of pay, rules, and working
conditions,” and that “ this runs counter to section 2 of the Railway
Labor Act.” The controversy of the shop-craft employees on the
Louisiana & Arkansas Railway involved a reduction of wages and a
revision of working rules put in effect February 9, 1931, and an addi­
tional 10-percent reduction as of March 1,19 32. The board directed
the carrier to adjust the controversy or submit to arbitration. The
engineers, firemen, conductors, and trainmen of the Louisiana &
Arkansas and the Louisiana, Arkansas & Texas Railways were noti­
fied by the carriers on December 21, 1931, that a reduction of 15
percent (later changed to 10 percent) would go into effect on January
23, 1932. The rates had already been reduced 15 percent on August
24, 1931. The board, believing that the wages of the employees on
this road should not be out of line with customary wages in similar
lines of employment, suggested that at least the second reduction
should be withdrawn. The wages of the flagmen employed on the
Louisiana Railway & Navigation Co. seniority district of the Louisi­
ana & Arkansas Railway were reduced at the time of the general
notification from $5.62 to $3.84 per day, or nearly 32 percent. The
board found that white flagmen on other lines in the same territory
still received the standard wage of $5.62 per day, subject to the 10percent cut. A 10-percent reduction would place the wage of these




EMERGENCY BOARDS UNDER RAILWAY LABOR ACT

25

flagmen at $5.06 per day, and the board recommended that this rate
should be adopted. In the case of the colored train porters, brakemen, and switchmen of the Louisiana Railway & Navigation Co.
seniority district, the carrier offered in evidence an agreement with
these employees effective January 1, 1932, covering their rates of pay,
which tended to show a voluntary settlement of their differences.
(Monthly Labor Review, May 1932.)
Mobile & Ohio R ailroad .—The emergency board appointed on
November 25, 1933, to investigate the dispute between the Mobile &
Ohio Railroad and certain of its employees, including train dispatchers,
engineers, firemen, trainmen, maintenance-of-way employees, and
shopmen, made its report on December 9, 1933. On June 22, 1932,
the carrier served notice upon the Brotherhood of Maintenance of
Way Employees of a deduction from their basic rates of pay. The
dispute was referred to the United States Board of Mediation, but
mediation failed. The carrier declined arbitration and served
notice of election to cancel the Chicago agreement of January 31,19 32,
so far as it concerned maintenance-of-way employees. A reduction
in the basic rates was then ordered, unskilled laborers south of the
Ohio River being reduced 4 cents an hour, and those north of the river
5 cents an hour; the 10-percent deduction under the Chicago agree­
ment was continued. Considering the reduction in the basic rates
and the further deduction of 10 percent by the Chicago agreement,
the men north of the Ohio River received a reduction in wages amount­
ing to 27.3 percent and those south of the river 37.5 percent; of the
575 section men and laborers affected, nearly 400 received a wage of
only 15 cents an hour. On July 6, 1932, the carrier notified its em­
ployees engaged in transportation service of a second deduction of 10
percent, tms being a deduction of 10 percent from the basic rates of
the employees at the time the Chicago agreement was made and
additional to the 10-percent deduction provided in that agreement.
Various conferences between the management and the employees
were without result.
A mediation agreement was accepted on September 12, 1932,
effective from September 16, 1932, to February 1, 1933, in pursuance
of which further negotiations were entered into in January 1933.
These failed, and mediation was sought by the carrier and assented
to by the employees. This mediation failed, and on November 25,
1933, the officers of the brotherhoods called a strike to go into effect
December 1, 1933. The emergency board decided that the workers
sustained their contention that the wage reduction was in violation
of the Railway Labor Act, and that the men were entitled to a resto­
ration of rates to the basis of the Chicago agreement of January 31,
1932. The board stated that it was for the carrier to devise the ways
and means. Borrowing might be necessary, but whether aid should
come from a private loan, from a subsidy, or from governmental
agency, or through a merger or grouping of the road with some other
system, was not important so far as the result was concerned.
(Monthly Labor Review, March 1934.)
Southern Pacific Lines in Texas and Louisiana .—An emergency board
was created November 23, 1933, to investigate a dispute between the
Southern Pacific Lines in Texas and Louisiana and its engineers,
firemen, conductors, and trainmen. The employees claimed that
more than 300 grievances were pending, and that decisions of griev-




26

ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION

ances by adjustment boards were ignored by the company. When
mediation failed, the employees proposed arbitration of all the dis­
putes, but the company refused. A strike vote showed that a
majority of the employees favored a strike on November 25, 1933.
About 3,000 employees were involved. The emergency board,
after a session of 8 days, induced the management and the four
transportation brotherhoods to agree on a method for settling their
controversy over working conditions. This agreement authorized
the emergency board to take testimony on 3 points at issue; 5
were referred to the Southwestern Train Service Board for adjust­
ment; 3 employees involved in discipline cases were to be rein­
stated without prejudice; and the remaining questions in dispute
were to be submitted to arbitration. On December 16, 1933, the
emergency board reported its findings on the three grievance cases
upon which it heard testimony. No new or general principle was
involved in these cases. (Monthly Labor Review, January 1934.)

Industrial Commission of Colorado

A

LAW was passed in Colorado in 1915 which provided that all
industrial disputes occurring in Colorado and involving four or
more workers must be held in abeyance until the State industrial
commission holds hearings and renders a decision. The Industrial
Commission of Colorado was created to administer the act. The
jurisdiction of the commission continues until after a final hearing
and award or until a prior voluntary termination of the dispute.
The law provides that “ employers and employees shall give the
industrial commission and the one to the other at least 30 days’ prior
written notice of an intended change affecting conditions of employ­
ment or with respect to wages or hours. ”
The industrial commission was given no compulsory powers and
its decision is not binding unless both parties to the dispute have
previously selected the commission as arbitrator.
Summaries of the decisions of the commission which come to the
attention of the Bureau are carried in the Monthly Labor Review
from time to time.

Conciliation Work of the United States Department of
Labor
HE work of the Conciliation Service of the Department of Labor
is that of mediation in labor disputes. It is the general policy of
Conciliation Service to respond promptly at a request from either
employers, employees, or from the public affected by an industrial
dispute.
In many cases Federal commissioners assigned to a trade dispute
have found local committees or agencies using their good offices in an
effort to terminate the controversy. In such instances the commis­
sioners of conciliation have cooperated with the local agencies.

T




27

WAGE DISPUTE IN ANTHRACITE INDUSTRY

Data supplied to the Bureau of Labor Statistics by the Conciliation
Service show that during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1931, con­
ciliators handled 582 cases of trade disputes, strikes, threatened
strikes, and lockouts. These cases came from 37 States of the Union
and involved 379,585 workers directly and indirectly. During the
fiscal year ending June 30, 1932, 759 cases were handled by the
conciliators. These cases came from 45 States and the District of
Columbia and involved, directly and indirectly, 449,169 workers.
During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1933, the conciliators handled
833 cases. These cases came from 47 States and the District of
Columbia and involved, directly and indirectly, 476,919 workers.
During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1934, the conciliators handled
1,140 cases. These cases came from 44 States, the District of Colum­
bia, and Alaska, and involved 916,720 workers directly and indirectly.
The 1,007 cases handled during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1935,
came from 40 States, Alaska, and the District of Columbia, and in­
volved 785,077 workers directly and indirectly.
The following table gives a summary of the number of cases handled,
and their disposition, for each of the fiscal years, 1931 to 1935:
N U M B E R A N D DISPOSITION OF CASES H A N D L E D B Y U N IT E D STATES CONCILIATIO N SERVICE, 1931-35
Cases—

1931

1932

1933

1934

1935

Total cases....... ..................... ................. ............ ............ .

582

759

833

1,140

1,007

Adjusted__________________________________________
TTnahlft to adjust___
_ ___
_ _ ___

385
52
82
63

640
55
15
49

774
24
18
17

885
72

749
76
23
79
80

P ending

Unclassified___ ____ __________ _______________ ____
Referred tn other agencies

49
134

Board of Reference on Wage Dispute in Anthracite
Industry, 1932-33
HE board of reference appointed November 3, 1932, in the wage
controversy between the United Mine Workers of America and the
anthracite operators was unable to agree on the question submitted
to it as to the necessity for a 35-percent cut in the wages of the mine
workers.
The wage agreement between the anthracite operators and the
United Mme Workers of America entered into August 8, 1930,
extended the provisions of the agreement of February 17, 1926, for
the period beginning September 1, 1930, and ending April 1, 1936.
Under the terms of this agreement it was provided that not oftener
than once in any year either party might, in writing, propose modi­
fications in the wage scales of the contract, The agreement provided
also that where the parties failed to reach an adjustment in any issue
in controversy, the matter should be referred to a board of two men.

T

The board shall be obligated, within 90 days after appointment, to arrive at a
decision on all issues in controversy, and to that end shall formulate their own
rules and methods of procedure and may enlarge the board to an odd number, in
which event a majority vote shall be binding.

In August 1932, the operators proposed to modify the wage scales
by a reduction of 35 percent. Conferences were held from September




28

ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION

6 to October 4, but no agreement was reached by the committees
representing the miners and the operators. On November 3, 1932,
Frank Morrison and George Rublee were appointed as members of
the reference board.
The representatives of the operators and the United Mine Workers
submitted briefs. The time of the board to report was extended
from the limit of 90 days to not later than March 1, 1933. The
members were unable to arrive at a decision, however, and made
individual reports on March 1, 1933.
Mr. Morrison in his report made the following statement:
Economic recovery, as a matter of fact, depends upon the restoration of pur­
chasing power to the 12 to 15 millions of American workers of all classes who are
now without employment. When this is done, the demand for anthracite will
be revived, old markets will be restored, and new markets acquired.
It is clear from the testimony submitted to the board, that freight rates and
distributive costs absorb a large proportion of the price paid by wholesale and
retail consumers of anthracite.
What is of fundamental importance to the future prosperity of the industry is
the meeting of the operators and United Mine Workers in a spirit of complete
cooperation for its permanent development. To this end I recommend that the
procedure proposed by the United Mine Workers of America in their statement
to the board of December 5, 1932, be adopted as follows:
1. The joining of the board, the operators, and the mine workers in a request
to the Interstate Commerce Commission that it institute an emergency inquiry
as to the reasonableness of the anthracite freight rates.
2. To utilize paragraph 5 of the present agreement dated August 8, 1930,
which provides for a joint permanent committee of 12 men, equally divided
between the operators and the mine workers, to work for improvement in the
industry.

Mr. Rublee closed his report with the following paragraph:
Both parties to this proceeding are dependent on the industry and have a
common interest in preserving it. The fact that the effort through the creation
of this board to take a forward step in that common interest has ended in a
deadlock does not relieve you of the necessity of finding a solution. You cannot
suffer your industry to disintegrate. When you come together again in another
effort, for that will surely happen, let me urge the mine workers to consider whether
it would not be in their real interest to contribute a dollar a ton to the rescue of
the industry, and let me as strongly urge the operators to do all in their power to
enable them to assure the mine workers that their contribution will be multiplied
several times and promptly passed on to the consumer. I believe that coopera­
tion of this kind is indispensable for a solution of the industry.




C H IL D L A B O R

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition







Child Labor in the United States, 1933

I

N 1921 the Federal Children’s Bureau first began systematically to
collect and analyze statistics of employment certificates issued to
children going to work in various States and cities throughout the
United States. Annual reports of the number of certificates issued
are received by the Children’s Bureau from a steadily increasing num­
ber of State and city issuing offices. Although not all children going
to work receive certificates, either because the law does not require it
or because they go to work illegally, and although reports are not re­
ceived from all the certificating officers, the number reporting is large
enough to indicate the trend in the numbers of children going to work,
and the extent of their employment for the intercensal years.
With the passage of the National Industrial Recovery Act in June
1933 a new method of setting labor standards—among them childlabor standards—was introduced. Through the codes of fair com­
petition adopted by agreement between employers and the National
Recovery Administration and approved by the President, child-labor
standards were set up, to be effective throughout an industry without
regard to the State in which it was located.
The first code set up under the National Recovery Administration—
that for the cotton-textile industry, effective July 17, 1933—pro­
hibited the employment of children under 16. Other industries
adopted codes with the same prohibition, and in September the Presi­
dent’s Reemployment Agreement, applying to industries whose codes
were still pending, extended widely the application of a 16-year mini­
mum; however, this agreement permitted part-time employment of
children 14 or over, but not in factory work and only outside of school
hours, for not more than 3 hours a da,y. The end of 1933 found more
than a hundred codes adopted, all setting up the standard of a 16-year
minimum for full-time employment, and as a rule requiring the same
wages and hours for minors as for adults.
These changes in industrial regulations, which raised child-labor
standards in all except four States, had their most pronounced effect
upon the very occupations in which employment certificates are gen­
erally required. Issuing officers and State labor officials gave wide­
spread cooperation in the enforcement of these standards, both by re­
fusing to issue employment certificates to children under 16 and by
providing facilities for the issuance of age certificates to those of legal
age as a protection to the employer.
Thus various conditions, of which unemployment was one, accen­
tuated the downward trend in the number of employment certificates
issued to children between 14 and 16 that has manifested itself during
the past decade and that has been especially marked since 1929. The
number of these children receiving first regular certificates and the
rate of issuance per 10,000 children of these ages are shown in table 1
for 41 representative cities reporting every year from 1927 to 1933.




31

32

CHILD LABOR

It is believed that these figures indicate the trend of child labor in
urban districts, although they are not entirely comprehensive for
several reasons. They are limited to children who go to work for the
first time in industries for which certificates are required—that is,
manufacturing, mechanical, and mercantile industries, and messenger
service in most States, and domestic service in a few States and cities—
and only rarely include children who go to work in street trades or
agriculture. Obviously, also, the figures are affected by the degree
of enforcement of the certificate law. It should be noted that the
decrease in the number of certificates issued (table 1) is affected by
the fact that for the past 4 years unemployment has reduced the work
opportunities for children mainly in occupations for which certificates
are usually required.
T able 1 .—C H IL D R E N 14 A N D 15 Y E A R S OF AGE R E C E IV IN G FIRST R EG U LA R E M P L O Y ­
M E N T C ER T IF IC A T E S A N D R A T E PER 10,000 OF THESE AGES IN 41 CITIES, 1927 TO
1933 i
Children 14 and 15
years of age receiving
certificates
Year
Number

1927......................................................... .
1928.........................................................1929........ .................................................
1930........ .................................................
1931...........................................................
1932..........................................................
1933...........................................................

71,655
67,199
71,857
49,082
37,051
27,556
17,042

Rate per
10,000 chil­
dren of
these ages
978
893
930
619
460
336
210

i Population according to 1930 census. Cities included are: Atlanta, Baltimore, Bridgeport, Buffalo,
Chattanooga, Chicago, Denver, Detroit, Erie, Fort Wayne, Grand Rapids, Hartford, Indianapolis, Kansas
City (Kans.), Knoxville, Los Angeles, Louisville, Lowell, Lynn, Milwaukee, Minneapolis, Nashville,
New Haven, New York, Oakland, Omaha, Peoria, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Providence, Rochester
(N. Y .), St. Paul, San Francisco, Scranton, Somerville (Mass.), South Bend, Springfield (Mass.), Wash­
ington (D. C.), Wichita, Wilmington (Del.), and Yonkers.

Number of Certificates Issued
Children 14 and 15 Years of Age
I n t h e States and cities reporting to the Children’s Bureau,1
35,480 children 14 and 15 years of age obtained first regular employ­
ment certificates and left school for work in 1933. In addition, such
certificates were issued to 270 children in places where it was not pos­
sible to know whether the children were actually leaving school,2 be­
cause there was no provision for a special kind of certificate for work
during vacation and outside of school hours. In areas reporting for
all 3 years the number of certificates issued in 1933 was 73 percent
less than in 1929, and 31 percent less than in 1932. As has been
pointed out, the downward trend in the number of children of these
ages receiving certificates that manifested itself throughout the de­
pression years received added impetus during the last half of 1933 from
the wide-spread prohibition of employment of children under 16 under
the N. It. A. eMost of the industries for which employment certifi­
cates are required were affected either by codes of fair competition
1 18 States and the District of Columbia; 78 cities with 50,000 or more population in 16 other States.
1 1 State; 1 city in 1 other State.




CHILD LABOR IN 1933

33

under the National Recovery Administration or by the regulations of
the President’s Reemployment Agreement, under both of which fulltime employment of children under 16 was prohibited. After they
went into effect, therefore, the only work opportunities open to boys
and girls of 14 and 15 in industries for which permits were required
were as a rule in the comparatively few establishments not displaying
the Blue Eagle or not yet covered by codes, and—in some localities—
in domestic and personal work, frequently in the child’s own home.
In spite of the curtailing effect of the codes and the President’s
Reemployment Agreement, there were actual increases in the number
of children receiving certificates in 1933 as compared with 1932 in
6 States and 11 cities in other States. These increases, though in
some localities quite small, totaled 1,544. In view of the fact that no
upturn in business conditions was reported during the first few months
of 1933 and comparatively few certificates were issued in these
localities during the last 4 months, it would seem that even a short
period of increase in business activity may be immediately reflected
in an increase in child labor.
The drop between 1929 and 1933 was much more pronounced in
some localities than in others. In areas reporting 50 or more certifi­
cates in 1929, 8 States and 28 cities in 11 other States showed a drop
of 80 to 100 percent in the number of 14- and 15-year-old children.
In the District of Columbia, 2 States (New York and North Carolina),
in 6 cities (Lawrence, Lowell, Los Angeles, Wilmington, Pittsburgh,
and Huntington), and in 5 other States, the drop was between 60 and
80 percent, whereas in 1 State (Connecticut) the drop was less than
50 percent. A few other localities had decreases, but in these the
number of certificates issued in 1929 was very small.
Fourteen is the minimum age required by law for general employ­
ment in all the States that report the number of certificates issued,
except Maine, Michigan, and Rhode Island, which have a 15-year
minimum, and Ohio, which has a 16-year minimum.3
From the localities having a 14-year age minimum there was a
report as to age for 33,416 children receiving first regular certificates.
Of these 8,640 (26 percent) were 14 years of age when they started
full-time employment. Because of conditions prevailing for the past
several years, it might have been expected that 1933 would show a
large decrease in the proportion of these younger children leaving
school for work. However, 14-year-old children still constituted
23 percent of the 14- and 15-year-old children receiving certificates in
1933 as compared with 29 percent in 1929.
The proportion of children 14 years of age receiving employment
certificates during the years for which the Children’s Bureau has
information has been smallest in States requiring completion of the
eighth grade before children of this age are allowed to go to work.
In States having this requirement only 20 percent of the children
obtaining certificates in 1933 were 14 years of age, and in States
having this requirement but permitting exemptions 21 percent of the
children; whereas in the States with a lower educational standard,
40 percent of the children were 14 years of age. However, even among
States with the same legal standard, the percentages vary, indicating
that the demand for child labor and other factors also play a part in
determining the age at which boys and girls go to work.
* In 1933 Wisconsin passed a law raising the minimum age for employment during school hours to 16.

19205— 36------ i




34

CHILD LABOR
Minors 16 and 17 Years of Age

The issuance of certificates to boys and girls 16 years of age and
over is a regular practice in about one-third of the States from which
reports either for entire States or for certain cities were received. In
these localities 4 52,397 minors 16 and 17 years of age received
certificates in 1933.
In the States and cities reporting for 1929, 1932, and 1933 the
number of certificates issued to this age group decreased 47 percent in
1933 as compared with 1929, but increased 14 percent in 1933 over
1932. This increase may reflect greater opportunities for employ­
ment, due not only to accelerated industrial and commercial activity,
but probably also to the exclusion of children 14 and 15 years of age
during the last 4 months of the year from occupations formerly open to
them. Jobs that lent themselves to the employment of minors under
18 had to draw nearly all their workers from the older age group during
this period.
The change from 1932 to 1933 in the number of minors 16 and 17
years of age receiving certificates in the States reporting varied from a
decrease of 24 percent in Oregon and 14 percent in Wisconsin to an
increase of 13 percent in New York and 37 percent in Alabama; in
the cities in other States increases of more than 100 percent were
reported for 3’ cities and 50 to 100 percent for 6 cities. Decreases
were reported for a number of cities, in two of these amounting to
more than 50 percent.
The number of minors 16 and 17 years of age receiving first regular
employment certificates and the rate of issuance per 10,000 minors
of these ages are shown in table 2 for 15 representative cities reporting
each year from 1927 to 1933.
T a ble 2 .—M INOR S 16 A N D 17 Y E A R S OF AG E R E C E IV IN G FIR ST R EG U LA R E M P L O Y ­
M E N T CE R T IF IC A T E S A N D R AT E PER 10,000 OF THESE AGES IN 15 CITIES, 1927 TO
19331
Minors 16 and 17 years
of age receiving cer­
tificates
Year
Number

1927
____________________________
1928
_ „
...
1929
.
______________________
1930
____________________________
1931
1932
____________________________
1933___________________________________

25,444
26,646
34,533
25,106
21,349
18,518
20,346

Rate per
10,000
minors of
these ages
1,256
1,289
1,637
1,168
976
833
922

1 Population according to 1930 census. Cities included are Buffalo, Columbus, Dayton, Grand Rapids,
Milwaukee, New Orleans, New York, Niagara Falls, Rochester, Saginaw, San Francisco, Springfield
(Ohio), Toledo, Yonkers, and Youngstown. Figures for Buffalo, Milwaukee, New York, Niagara Falls,
Rochester, and Yonkers are for 16-year-old minors; law does not require certificates for minors 17 years of
age.
4

4 States and the District of Columbia; 51 cities in 8 other States.




CHILD LABOR IN 1933

35

Education of Children Going to Work
Children 14 and 15 Years of Age

O f t h e 26,565 14- and 15-year-old children for whom last grade
completed was reported in 1933, 66 percent had completed the eighth
or a higher grade. In a number of States completion of the eighth
grade is required by law before children 14 and 15 years of age can ob­
tain a certificate for full-time work. In a few States it is required only
for 14-year-old children, and in others neither 14- nor 15-year-old
children are required to come up to this standard. Practically all
the children receiving certificates in the States in which completion of
the eighth grade is required for both 14- and 15-year-old children had
gone this far in school, as compared with 52 percent of the children
receiving certificates in the States having a lower standard for children
of these ages. In the latter group of States 26 percent of the children
receiving certificates had not gone beyond the sixth grade, and only
16 percent had completed one or more years of high school, whereas in
the former group all the children had completed at least the sixth
grade, and 44 percent had completed one or more years of high school.
In the States and cities that reported grade completed for boys and
girls separately, 70 percent of the girls receiving work certificates, as
compared with 60 percent of the boys, had completed the eighth or a
higher grade.
It is encouraging that each year since 1927 the percentage of children
completing at least the eighth grade in a comparable group of States
and cities has increased; it was 59 percent in 1927, 61 in 1928, 63 in
1929 and 1930, 65 in 1931, 67 in 1932, and 72 in 1933. This trend is
no doubt due in part to the raising of legal standards and, at least in
recent years, to lack of work opportunities, but it also reflects a
tendency to keep children in school longer and in this way to prepare
them better for their future work and for citizenship.
Minors 16 and 17 Years of Age

The 1933 reports show that, as would be expected, the percentage
that had completed the eighth or a higher grade was larger in the 16and 17-year-old group (81 percent) than in the 14- and 15-year-old
group (66 percent).
Sex of Children Going to Work
I n t h e group of States and cities reporting for the 6-year period
1927 to 1932 the percentage of boys among all children of 14 and 15
receiving employment certificates decreased from 57 in 1927 to 48
in 1932. e Tins decrease continued in 1933, the percentage dropping
to 41; this is probably due in part to the restrictions on the employ­
ment of minors during the last few months of that year in manufac­
turing and mechanical industries—an important field for boys—and
the tendency for young girls to displace older workers in domestic
service.
Among all the 16- and 17-year-old minors receiving employment
certificates in 1933 for whom sex was reported, 50 percent were girls,
as compared with 52 percent in 1932. In the localities reporting
over the 7-year period, 1927 to 1933, there was also a decrease—50




36

CHILD LABOR

percent to 47 percent. From 1927 to 1932 there was a trend from
boys to girls in the older group similar to that in the younger group,
but in 1933 this tendency was reversed. This shift may be due to a
slightly greater increase during the last 4 months of 1933 in the
opportunities for boys of 16 and 17 years than for girls of the same
ages in occupations requiring employment certificates.
Occupations of Children on Going to Work
Children 14 and 15 Years of Age

As h a s been pointed out, most of the industries in which certificates
are required for employment of children under 16 were affected during
a considerable part of 1933 by the minimum-age standards of the
codes of fair competition or of the President's Reemployment Agree­
ment. This fact accentuated the shift reported in recent years
toward the miscellaneous types of employment that are often unregu­
lated by State law—domestic service, street trades, certain types of
messenger work and personal service, agriculture, etc. The proba­
bility is that this shift is even greater than is indicated by the figures,
because in a large number of States employment certificates are not
required for many of these miscellaneous kinds of work.
Of the 13,751 children 14 and 15 years of age for whom information
concerning occupations was received in 1933, 29 percent were first
employed in manufacturing and mechanical occupations, 13 percent
in mercantile establishments, and the rest in other types of work,
including public messenger and delivery service, office work, domestic
and personal service, and miscellaneous jobs. A larger proportion of
boys than of girls started to work in manufacturing and mechanical
occupations (boys 33 percent, girls 27 percent) and in mercantile
establishments (boys 24 percent, girls 6 percent).
In the group of States and cities reporting for 1929 and 1933 the
number of children 14 and 15 years old entering manufacturing and
mechanical occupations decreased 92 percent from 1929 to 1933 and
the number entering mercantile occupations, office work, and mes­
senger occupations decreased 89, 95, and 91 percent, respectively; on
the other hand, there was only a 52-percent decrease in the number
entering personal and domestic service.
In localities reporting occupations entered by children first going
to work in 1932 and 1933 a smaller proportion of the 14- and 15year-old children were certificated for employment in mercantile
occupations, office work, and messenger work in 1933 than in 1932,
and a much larger proportion in 1933 than in 1932 for employment
in miscellaneous occupations including domestic and personal service.
No significant change was observed in the percentage of children
entering the manufacturing and mechanical industries, although in
comparable localities 3 percent began work in manufacturing and
mechanical industries during the last 4 months as compared with 31
percent during the entire year. In the last 4 months of the year
only 15 percent went into the various types of industrial and com­
mercial employment that in general were subject to the N. R. A.
codes, as compared with 50 percent for the entire year. More than
half the certificates issued after September 1 were for work in the
child's own home.




CHILD LABOR IN 1934

37

Minors 16 and 17 Years of Age

Of the 26,943 minors 16 and 17 years of age for whom information
concerning occupation was received, 30 percent were first employed
in manufacturing and mechanical occupations, 17 percent entered
mercantile establishments, and 53 percent went into other types of
work, including public messenger and delivery service, office work,
domestic and personal service, and miscellaneous jobs. As in the
younger group, a larger proportion of boys than of girls began work
in manufacturing and mechanical occupations (boys 31 percent,
girls 29 percent) and in mercantile work (boys 21 percent, girls 14
percent). In the localities reporting for the 7-year period there was
apparent a shift from manufacturing industries to domestic and
personal service even greater among these older boys and girls than
among the 14- and 15-year-old children.
In the localities reporting for the 2 years 1932 and 1933 the propor­
tion entering manufacturmg and mechanical industries increased
significantly, whereas the proportion entering mercantile occupations,
office work, and miscellaneous occupation groups (including domestic
and personal service) correspondingly decreased. There was prac­
tically no change in the proportion entering messenger service.

Child Labor in the United States in 1934

R

EPORTS of first regular employment certificates issued to
children in 1934, while the N. R. A. was still in effect, indicate
that, due to the 16-year minimum of the codes, employment of
children under 16 in industry and trade practically disappeared,
notwithstanding a general rise in factory employment.
In the 19 States, the District of Columbia, and the 78 cities in 17
other States from which the Children’s Bureau received reports in
1934, only 14,157 children 14 and 15 years of age obtained first regular
employment certificates in that year, most of these children leaving
school to go to work in domestic and personal service or other work
not covered by the codes. Between 1932, before the N. R. A. was in
effect, and 1934 there was a decrease of 72 percent in the employment
certificates issued to children of these ages, and between 1929 and
1934 a decrease of approximately 90 percent for the localities report­
ing in both years.
There were 57,742 minors 16 and 17 years of age who received
employment certificates in 1934 in the 4 States, the District of
Columbia, and 55 cities in 9 other States reporting to the Bureau, in
which the issuance of certificates to minors of these ages is a regular
practice. In the States and cities reporting for 1929, 1932, and 1934,
there was a decrease of 41 percent between 1929 and 1934 in the
number of certificates issued to minors of this age group, but an
increase of 27 percent between 1932 and 1934. This increase may
reflect greater opportunities for employment, but undoubtedly it
reflects also the fact that jobs which previously lent themselves to
the employment of minors under 16 years of age were filled during 1934
by workers 16 years and over.




38

CHILD LABOR

As regards schooling, a higher percentage of the 16- and 17-year-old
group (83 percent) than of the 14- and 15-year-old group (74 percent)
had completed the eighth or a higher grade.
Of the 6,735 children 14 and 15 years of age for whom information
as to occupations was received in 1934, only 1 percent, in contrast
with 29 percent in 1933, were first employed in manufacturing and
mechanical occupations, 4 percent in mercantile establishments, and
nearly all the rest in domestic and personal service. The boys and
girls of 16 and 17 years, however, entered much the same types of
work as in 1933, though the trend away from manufacturing and
mechanical occupations and into miscellaneous work which was noted
in the preceding years continued. In 1934, 21 percent entered manu­
facturing and mechanical work as compared with 34 percent in the
preceding year, and 29 percent in 1932.
More detailed data as to child labor in 1934, which was received too
late for inclusion in this edition of the Handbook, is published in the
Monthly Labor Review for December 1935 (p. 1477).

Status of Child-Labor Amendment, 1935

D

URING the 3 years 1933 to 1935 the movement to make Federal
regulation of employment of children under 18 years of age pos­
sible by means of a constitutional amendment made important prog­
ress. This was due in large part to a desire to preserve as a permanent
policy the child-labor prohibitions of the National Recovery Adminis­
tration codes.
The child-labor amendment, which was submitted to the country
in 1924, reads:
S e c t i o n 1. The Congress shall have power to limit, regulate, and prohibit
the labor of persons under 18 years of age.
S e c . 2. The power of the several States is unimpaired by this article except
that the operation of State laws shall be suspended to the extent necessary to
give effect to legislation enacted by Congress.

In the 3 years following the passage of the amendment by Congress,
5 States ratified it. Thereafter, with the exception of Colorado,
which ratified in 1931, no State took favorable action upon the
proposed amendment until 1933. Economic depression, the fact
that in some cases children were obtaining work when adults could
not, and the example and influence of the code prohibitions of child
labor, all combined to stimulate anti-child-labor sentiment to such
a degree that during 1933 ratification of the amendment was secured
in 14 States. Some of these States had previously rejected the
proposal, but later reversed their decisions. These 14 States were
followed by 4 more in 1935. Hence the number of ratifications on
June 30, 1935, was 24.
The States which have already ratified, and the year of ratification,
are as follows:




WHITE HOUSE CONFERENCE, 1932
Arkansas______________________
Arizona_______________________
California_____________________
Colorado______________________
Idaho_________________________
Illinois________________________
Indiana_______________________
Iowa--------------------------------------Maine_____________
Michigan______________________
Minnesota____________________
Montana_______________________

1924
1925
1925
1931
1935
1933
1935
1933
1933
1933
1933
1927

New Hampshire_______________
New Jersey___________________
North Dakota_________________
Ohio__________________________
Oklahoma_____________________
Oregon________________________
Pennsylvania__________________
Utah__________________________
Washington___________________
West Virginia_________________
Wisconsin_____________________
Wyoming_____________________

39
1933
1933
1933
1933
1933
1933
1933
1935
1933
1933
1925
1935

White House Conference Report on Child Labor, 1932
HE White House Conference on Child Health and Protection,
organized under the auspices of President Hoover, met in Wash­
ington in November 1930, with an attendance estimated at several
thousand coming from all over the Union. The field covered was
divided into four general sections—medical service, public health
service and administration, education and training, and the whole
question of the handicapped. Under the general subject of education
and training a subcommittee on child labor was appointed, which
published in 1932 a complete report of its findings with a series of
recommendations which might serve as a guide to legislators and
child-welfare workers everywhere in surveying the needs of the indi­
vidual situations with which they must deal and in meeting them
adequately. Four general phases of the subject were recognized:
(1) Employment of children in nonagricultural occupations; (2)
employment of children in agriculture; (3) hazardous occupations,
industrial accidents, and workmen’s compensation for injured minors;
and (4) administrative problems with reference to laws affecting the
employment of minors.
In the recommendations of the committee it was recognized that
certain economic, social, and educational measures were needed in
addition to adequate legislative restrictions and safeguards in order to
protect young workers from the dangers of employment at too early
an age or under adverse conditions. It was therefore urged that
special attention be given to the solution of the problems of adult
unemployment, farm economics, and a living wage, “ since an income
earned by the chief wage earner of the family sufficient to maintain a
decent standard of living is basic to a normal solution of the problem
of child labor as it is to other problems of child welfare.” As numerous
studies of working children have shown that for large proportions of
young workers causes connected with school have furnished the chief
motive for leaving school to go to work, especially for pupils of some­
what limited mental ability, it was urged that as a child-labor measure
some content of education be found and provided for these children
which will mean real development for them, since the early years of
adolescence when they are likely to leave school for employment are
the very years when they are most in need of guidance. In the field
of legal regulation it was recommended that standards be set up for
all lands of gainful employment of children, but that special con­
sideration be given to proper types of control in certain employments,
such as industrial homework and street trades, now largely unregu-

T




40

CHILD LABOR

lated. Specifically it was proposed that no child under 16 should be
permitted to leave school for work; that school attendance be required
for children up to 16 years of age; that higher age minima should be
set for occupations physically or morally hazardous; that no minor
under 18 should work more than 8 hours a day or 44 hours a week,
or at night; and that all children under 18 should be required to obtain
employment certificates before going to work and be required to have
a certificate of physical fitness from a public physician. Special regu­
lation of street work, with the consideration of a minimum age of 16
for newspaper selling, the prohibition of industrial homework, and
the consistent application of provisions of the general child-labor law
to canneries, work outside school hours, and work in theatrical exhi­
bitions and moving pictures were recommended. It was also pointed
out that among the child-labor problems are those involving interstate
relations, as for example, the problem of the migrant worker, and that
the general progress toward the goal of establishing adequate stand­
ards for the health and protection of all working children would be
enormously facilitated by a national minimum standard.
Employment of Children in Agriculture
T h is section of the report pointed out that in several respects agri­
culture presented the most serious child-labor problem in the United
States at that time. It involved more child workers than all other
occupations together (61 percent of the total number of working
children 10 to 16 years old); it included a large number of younger
children (87 percent of all working children 10 to 14 years old); it
employed thousands of children as migratory workers; it presented
difficult problems of control and, even more than industrial work, it
interfered seriously with school attendance. The development of
agriculture into a large-scale industry had led to the employment of
thousands of children, sometimes on their parents’ farms but often
among strangers or in migratory camps, under conditions almost as
undesirable as any found in unregulated industrial employment.
The difficulties which confronted attempts to curb child labor in agri­
culture were the popular view that farm work for children is healthful;
the economic status of the general farming population; the sentiment
against interfering with the parent’s control over the child; the
seasonal nature of the work; the administrative difficulties involved
in enforcing legislation for children working in scattered rural dis­
tricts, and to a considerable extent outside school hours; the limita­
tions of State jurisdiction; and the local prejudice against furnishing
school facilities for migratory children.
For all these reasons, approach to the regulation of employment
was made by the committee through recommendations looking to the
extension of more adequate school-attendance requirements and
facilities to rural children and their efficient enforcement. Changes
in rural educational organization and administration recommended
by the subcommittee on rural schools, of the committee on the school
child, of the White House Conference were endorsed.
It was insisted that rural children should be afforded educational
opportunities equivalent to those afforded city children, that the age
and attendance standards for schooling should be the same for both
groups, and that districts should be responsible for the schooling of
migratory children.




WHITE HOUSE CONFERENCE, 1932

41

Hazardous Occupations, Industrial Accidents, and Workmen’s Compensation
T h is se ctio n p resen ted a su m m a ry a n d a n a lysis o f w o r k m e n ’ s
co m p e n s a tio n law s as th e y a ffe ct m in o r w ork ers, an d also o f leg a l
reg u la tion s a ffe ctin g th e e m p lo y m e n t o f m in o rs in h a za rd o u s o c c u p a ­
tion s, w ith a ta b u la r su m m a ry o f a v a ila b le sta tistics o f a ccid e n ts to
m in o r w ork ers.

The scarcity of information on industrial accidents to minors was
pointed out and it was urged that the States develop a program for
continuous study of all industrial injuries to minors under 18. It
was also recommended that the employment of such children under
16 as may be permitted to work in a restricted list of occupations
should be prohibited on or in connection with machinery of any kind,
and that minors of 16 and 17 should be prohibited from employment
on dangerous machinery not guarded at the point of operation, or in
the operation of elevators, or in other occupations proved by accident
records to be hazardous to them. Power should be given to State
labor boards to determine what occupations are dangerous and to
prohibit employment of minors therein. In regard to provisions
relating especially to minors in workmen’s compensation laws, it was
urged that in all States not yet having such laws legislation be passed
providing (1) that the employee’s future earning capacity be con­
sidered as the basis for computing compensation to minors for per­
manent disability, and (2) that minors injured while illegally employed
should be brought under the workmen’s compensation law, and that,
in addition, provision should be made for the payment of extra
compensation in such cases.
Administration of Laws Affecting the Employment of Minors
A l t h o u g h one or another of the aspects of administration of childlabor laws had been treated in various studies and surveys, this report
for the first time brought together in brief compass and in one place
the accumulated experience, under different laws and in different
places, in dealing with all the different phases of administration and
enforcement. The necessary correlation between the issuance of
employment certificates, the proper enforcement of school-attendance
laws, and the inspection of establishments and imposition of penalties
for violation, is clearly indicated. The report consisted in great part
of a discussion and criticism of administrative procedure and methods
possible under different types of law, illustrated by such examples of
actual practice as could be found. The extent of the problem was
shown by the unevenness of enforcement, which, the report pointed
out, was so great that in many places one or another provision of the
law was probably being violated for a majority of the children at work.
Administrative recommendations included adequate legal provi­
sions as to employment-certificate issuance, including standards for
evidence of age and proof of physical fitness; the enforcement of school
attendance, with special attention to the problems of school attendance
of children in rural districts and of the education of the so-called
“ migratory” child workers; methods of inspection adapted to good
enforcement; provision of official personnel qualified by education,
experience, and training, adequately compensated and appointed
under the merit system, such personnel to be sufficient in number for




42

CHILD LABOR

effective certificate issuance, school-attendance enforcement, and in­
spection; and supervision by State agencies in the development of
effective administration of each of these activities.

Transient Boys in the United States, 1932

I

N TH E spring of 1932 the United States Children's Bureau under­
took a survey of conditions relative to boys under 21 who had taken
to the road, either seeking employment which they could not find in
their own community, or simply driven forth by the want at home.
Lack of time and means prevented a complete statistical study, but
the survey brought to light some striking conditions.
The purpose of the survey was to secure as definite information as
possible as to how many boys were leaving their own homes and
wandering through the country, what local communities were doing
to take care of them, whether local resources were adequate to the
demand, and how the boys were actually faring. Material was sought
through correspondence with chiefs of police and executives of com­
munity chests or councils of social agencies in 25 cities in different
parts of the country, and through field visits to certain points in the
South and Southwest.
One of the first points noted was the break-down of the approved
method of handling transients, which had been carefully built up
through the years preceding the depression. A cardinal point of that
method was that each case should receive individual attention, that
if the transient had a valid claim on any given community he should,
if possible, be returned to that community, and that if he had no such
claim or if for any reason he could not be returned, an effort should be
made to secure for him a job or the training which would enable him
to take a job, and to fit him, as far as possible, into the new environ­
ment. Under existing conditions this program had become in many
instances impossible.
Communities do not have the funds to pay transportation to the place of
established responsibility. Many communities lack even the resources necessary
to maintain transients during the period required to make an investigation in a
distant area. Hence there has been a wide-spread relapse into the vicious prac­
tice of “ passing o n ” , due to the sheer inadequacy of local resources. At the
same time social agencies are confronted with a transient problem that transcends
anything the country has yet known. The numbers of wandering families,
unattached men and women, and boys and girls, vastly exceed those of former
years. And the make-up of the groups has changed radically. The traditional
single transient of earlier years was the seasonal laborer, the “ knight of the
road” , commonly called the “ h obo” , and the occasional runaway boy or adven­
turous youth. Today young men and boys who would normally be at work or
in school predominate.

Number of Young Transients
O n l y indications could be secured as to the number of such young
transients. Local observers gave estimates which seemed to show
that the problem was more serious than had been supposed.
Men and boys swarm on every freight m such numbers that the railroad police
would be helpless to keep them off. Along the route of the Southern Pacific
many small towns in Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona reported the daily passing
of about 200 men and boys during the winter and spring. The Santa Fe at
Albuquerque averaged 75 a day. From September 1, 1931, to April 30, 1932, the




TRANSIENT BOYS, 1932

43

Southern Pacific, with 9,130 miles of track, recorded 416,915 trespassers eject­
ed. * * * In Kansas City, in May, the railroad men emphatically stated
that a conservative estimate of the men and boys riding the freights through
that city at that time was 1,500 per day. In general, the estimates as to what
proportion of these freight riders are under 21 clustered in the neighborhood of 20
to 25 percent. This is borne out by the sample counts where ages were recorded.

Reports from shelters and other local agencies confirmed these esti­
mates. The Volunteers of America in Phoenix, Ariz., fed and lodged
1,529 different boys under 21 during the 3% months ending April 4,
1932. Yuma fed approximately 30,000 men and boys at its soup
kitchen from November 1 to March 15, of whom at least one-fifth
were estimated to have been under 21. At El Paso, Te±, during
April and May, the Salvation Army reported feeding and lodging
9,551 men and boys, of whom 2,059 were under 21.
There was much testimony that these boys, who came from prac­
tically every State in the Union, represented, in the main, substantial
American families. High-school students were not uncommon among
them, and the class of professional wanderers was not conspicuous.
Social workers, police, and railroad men, who are in constant touch with these
boys, assert their belief that the overwhelming majority of them are young men
and boys who would normally be in school or at work; that they are “ on the road”
because there is nothing else to do— sometimes because sheer pride will not
permit them to sit idle at home— sometimes because support for the whole family
came from a relief agency and was wholly inadequate properly to feed the younger
children; that they are, on the whole, not of the habitual hobo or criminal types.

Treatment Received
F o r th e m o s t p a r t th e co m m u n itie s th ro u g h w h ich th e y p a ssed w ere
to o h e a v ily b u rd e n e d w ith th e ca re o f th eir o w n u n e m p lo y e d to b e ab le
to g iv e th ese w a n d erers in te llig e n t an d e ffe ctiv e aid .
The local agency charged with service to transients will usually give him
lodging for one night and two meals. Then he must move on. In the urban
centers the time limit is sometimes a little longer. But m the whole mass of
evidence assembled the universality of the policy of keeping these wanderers m ov­
ing stands out conspicuously. Shelter facilities range all the way from a base­
ment jail devoid of sanitary arrangements or from permission to sleep in the
sandhouse on railroad property, where the warmed sand lends some degree of
comfort on a frosty night, up to a well-regulated lodging house, with beds equipped
with fresh linen, and with bathing arrangements and a place to launder soiled
clothing. In cities where conservation of resources is a primary consideration,
the food given the transients has sunk to a dead level of monotony. Coffee,
bread, beans, and an occasional vegetable stew constitute the menu at station
after station. Occasionally persons with imagination and initiative have found
ways to vary this diet at a little increase in cost. Riding freights and hitch­
hiking are hard on clothes and shoes. Cities are now providing little help in
this line to nonresidents. Medical care for those sick as a result of exposure or
hardship is practically not to be had until the sufferer is in an obviously serious
condition. Except in a very few* of the larger cities no case work, even of the
most rudimentary character, is attempted. In most places a simple form of
registration, varying greatly from place to place, is all that is undertaken.

The effect of such conditions upon boys, many of them accustomed
to decent standards of living, needed no elaboration, and the survey
did not labor the point. Instead, it pointed out briefly the lines along
which improvement was needed. Community action, both preventive
and protective, was called for. The first object of the preventive
program was to induce the boys to stay at home. Where work could
not be found, more adequate relief was one measure indicated; others
were plans for keeping up the morale of energetic boys in their enforced




44

CHILD LABOR

idleness, such as diversifying and enlarging school curricula, institut­
ing trade courses when possible, making all the school, equipment for
recreational and vocational training available for evening use by com­
munity groups, opening gymnasiums, athletic fields, and parks to wider
use, and establishing special projects suitable to local circumstances.
Along the lines of protective action each community should plan for
more careful treatment of the youthful transients stranded within
thhir bounds. Provision should be made for food and shelter of
acceptable standards, for registration and interviewing, and for a
training program for those who cannot be sent home and who should
not be passed on. Not all cities could afford to undertake such a
program, but some might, and each center of this kind would help
to diminish the proportions of the problem.

Child Labor in the Sugar-Beet Fields
HE report (1934) of the committee appointed by the Secretary of
Labor to study economic conditions in the sugar-beet industry
brought together data on labor conditions and policies and production
costs, which had been gathered by various agencies over a period of
14 years. Data on current wages were secured through the coopera­
tion of county agents of the Extension Division of the United States
Department of Agriculture in the sugar-beet growing areas.

T

Organization of the Industry
T h e sugar-beet grower operates under contract for both his labor
and his crop. The initial contract is with the sugar refiner, under
which the refiner, or processor, agrees to take the crop and supervise
its cultivation. Under the contracts of most of the larger processing
companies, the grower receives half the proceeds from the sale of the
sugar from his beets, less the selling expenses. The contract guaran­
tees a minimum price for the crop.
The grower then makes contracts for the hand labor necessary to
cultivate and harvest the crop, under which the laborers agree to do
the hand work on a stipulated number of acres at a set price per acre.
Bonuses are sometimes added if the production per acre is higher than
a fixed amount.
Hand labor is required for three processes: Blocking and thinning
in the spring; hoeing and weeding during the summer; and pulling
and topping in the fall. The thinning process is done chiefly by
children, who crawl on hands and knees from bunch to bunch throwing
out the superfluous seedlings. This work is done under pressure and
frequently for long hours per day, since it must be done at an early
stage of the plant’s development.

Labor Conditions
T h e migratory contract laborers in the sugar-beet fields are usually
foreigners. In Michigan many are north Europeans (Germans and
Russians); in Colorado they are largely Latin Americans or Mexicans;
while in California a fairly large proportion of Hawaiians, Filipinos,
and Japanese are employed. Living conditions and standards are




NEWSPAPER AND MAGAZINE DISTRIBUTING

45

those commonly found where agricultural laborers are housed in
groups in or near the premises. The usual quarters of a family of
beet workers consist of a tent, a shack, or an adobe house of 2 rooms,
each 12 feet square. Surveys which have been made have found
families averaging 6 persons, and occasionally as many as 12, living
in these overcrowded and inadequate quarters, with scant attention
being paid to sanitation or cleanliness.
The working season is from about the middle of April to the first of
November as a rule. In the spring and fall, during the periods of
greatest activity the workday is generally 10 to 12 and often 14 hours
one*.
Child labor has always been an outstanding feature of beet work.
Rarely does an individual without a family undertake a contract.
Children as young as 10 and 11 years of age work regularly in the
beet fields, for the same hours as adults, and are kept out of school for
this purpose. In a study made in 1920, 85 percent of the children
were found to be working 9 to 14 hours a day in thinning, and 75
percent from 9 to 13 hours in pulling and topping.
Children of these families miss a great deal of time from school.
In Colorado numbers leave school in the middle of April to do the
thinning, and do not return until the middle of November, after the
harvest is over.
In the summer of 1933, children under 16 numbered 14,743 out of a
total of 110,354 contract workers employed on the 1933 crop.

S

Wages
C o l o r a d o is the leading sugar-beet-growing State. In 1920, ac­
cording to a Children's Bureau study, the average contract price to
workers in the Colorado beet fields was $33.71 an acre, the highest
ever paid. One-third of the families studied received between $800
and $1,200 for their summer's work, 29.6 percent received less than
$800, and the median earnings for the season were $1,002.55. The
average rate per acre in 1924 was $23.72; in 1933 it was $12.37.
Rates as low as $8 an acre were reported in the 1933 survey made by
county agents of the Department of Agriculture. Moreover, the
low-wage condition of recent years has been aggravated by the dif­
ficulty which workers have had in collecting the amounts due them.
The average rate per acre in 1933 for the country as a whole, based
upon reports from the county agents covering approximately half the
workers, was $13.87. An average income of $312 for the season was
indicated in a brief survey by the National Child Labor Committee
in 1933, substantiated by the reports from the county agents.

Employment of Children in Newspaper and Magazine
Distributing
N ORDER to provide a factual basis for determination of standards
governing the employment of children in newspaper and periodical
distribution, the Children's Bureau of the United States Department
of Labor, in cooperation with the Research and Planning Division of
the National Recovery Administration and upon the request of that

I




46

CHILD LABOR

agency, made a rapid sample field survey of children under 16 years
of age engaged in this work.5
The survey covered 4,210 children in 17 cities 6 and was conducted
with the advice of school authorities and of officials enforcing streettrade regulations, in order to cover neighborhoods in which children
were known to be engaged in this work. In most of the schools
selected, which included parochial as well as public schools, a canvass
was made of all the children under 16 years of age engaged in news­
paper or magazine distribution. In this way a representative sample
of children in this type of street work was obtained. The schedule
covered age at last birthday, and the number of hours worked and
actual net earnings during the week preceding the interview. Be­
cause of important differences in conditions of work and employment
policies between street work and route work, the study divided
newsboys into sellers and carriers. Magazine work was not so divided,
however, because no hard-and-fast lines could be drawn between
delivering to regular customers and selling.
Neither the Newspaper Publishing Code nor the Graphic Arts
Code set a minimum age for carriers, and only the Graphic Arts Code
limited the age of sellers, which it placed at 14. The study was con­
fined to children under 16, as that is the group to which child-labor
regulations are usually applied. The codes limited night work for
sellers but not for carriers, and while they stipulated that any work
must be done outside school hours they set no actual limitation on
total hours. Night work for sellers was prohibited between 7 p. m.
and 7 a. m. from October 1 to March 31, and between 8 p. m. and
7 a. m. from April 1 to September 30.
Comparisons were made between conditions in 1934 and in 1922-26,
as earlier and more extensive studies had been made by the Children’s
Bureau during those years in four of the cities covered in 1934.
Comparing these two sets of data, the report found a striking ten­
dency on the part of newspaper distributors to employ older children,
while the practice of using very young children in magazine distribu­
tion had increased markedly.
Newspaper Sellers
N e w s p a p e r sellers are younger than the carriers, and they work
much later at night, although early morning hours are not usual.
While the median age of sellers in the 1934 study was more than a
year higher than that in the earlier studies, the average age of 1,259
sellers interviewed in 1934 was under 14 years. Sixteen percent
were under 12, 4 percent being under 10.
The 1934 survey showed that a notable improvement in the matter
of night selling had taken place in some places, although 54 percent
of the children were reported as working until 7 p. m. or later in the
evening on both school days and Saturday. Just one-fourth of the
newsboys in all cities worked until 8 p. m. or later on school days, and
34 percent on Saturday; 80 of the total number of newspaper sellers
* U. S. Department of Labor. Children's Bureau. Publication No. 227: Children Engaged in News­
paper and Magazine Selling and Delivering. Washington, 1935.
e Atlanta, Ga.; Baltimore, M d.; Buffalo, N . Y .; Chicago, HI.; Des Moines, Iowa; Detroit, Mich.; Fall
River, Mass.; Los Angeles, Calif.; Louisville, Ky; Memphis, Tenn.; New Haven, Conn.; Omaha, Nebr.;
Paterson, N . J.; San Francisco, Calif.; Washington, D. O.; Wilkes-Barre, Pa.; and Youngstown, Ohio.




47

NEWSPAPER AND MAGAZINE DISTRIBUTING

interviewed did not quit selling until 10 or after during the week,
and on Saturday night 99 boys worked between 10 p. m. and mid­
night, and 49 until midnight or later.
Median weekly earnings and median weekly hours by age groups
showed that the youngest boys worked the longest hours and earned
the least.
E a r n in g s

All ages____________________________________________ $1.41
Under 12 years____________________________________
12 and 13 years____________________________________
14 and 15 years____________________________________

H ou rs

15.6

. 82 17. 8
1. 30 15. 4
1. 82 15. 4

Irrespective of age, 17 percent of the 1,208 boys reporting earnings
earned less than 50 cents for the week studied, 36 percent earned less
than $1, two-thirds of them earned less than $2, and only 7 percent
earned $4 or more.
While the survey was intended to cover mainly earnings and hours,
much related material dealing with working conditions was obtained
during the interviews with persons connected with various aspects of
the study. Evidence gathered in that manner suggested that progress
had been made since the days of the previous studies in eliminating
some of the most unwholesome influences surrounding the newsboy
in the course of his work.
Newspaper Carriers
N e w s p a p e r carriers are subject to even less stringent regulations
through street-trade laws and ordinances than are newspaper sellers,
and the N. K. A. codes fixed no minimum age for this group. Never­
theless, the report stated that some newspapers had adopted the
policy of taking on no carriers under 14, and a few, none under 16.
The depression, also, had tended to raise the age of the carriers, be­
cause boys unable to find other work had kept their routes. Nearly
everywhere the investigators1 found large numbers of high-school
boys and some college students still serving papers. This general
trend toward older carriers was reflected in the proportion of children
under 12 (in the group under 16), which had dropped from 30 percent
in the 1922-26 period to 6 percent in 1934. Sixty-one percent were
14 and 15 years of age as compared to 32 percent in the earlier
studies.
Early morning deliveries on week days were reported by only 16
percent of the carriers, but among those who had morning routes,
44 out of 69 in one city started work before 4 a. m. and the remainder
before 5 a. m. Of the boys who started delivery some time between
3 and 5 a. m., 14 were 13 years old and 10 were 12 years old.
The time consumed in the actual delivery of papers was, on the
average, a little more than an hour a day. But, the report points out,
the “ little-merchant” system, which had become the employment
policy of most newspaper publishers, influenced both hours and earn­
ings. Time must be spent in soliciting new subscribers and holding
those disposed to discontinue their subscriptions, in making collections,
and in keeping records and accounts. As a result of the littlemerchant system, the report says “ the carrier boy is often considered
the paper’s chief agent in building up circulation” , although it
“ often entails a task out of all proportion to the pay and to the matu-




48

CHILD LABOR

rity of a grade-school boy.” Delivering took very few of the boys
(6 percent) as much as 15 hours a week, but when the time spent in
soliciting, collecting, and keeping records was included, it was found
that 24 percent of the boys spent 15 hours or more a week, and 10
percent spent 20 hours or more a week.
Earnings were affected by the little-merchant system, because as a
rule the boy bought the papers outright at wholesale rates and had to
pay his bill weekly. He collected from his customers weekly, bi­
weekly, or monthly, and was moreover responsible for the collection of
bad debts without, in most cases, having the authority to suspend
delivery to nonpaying subscribers. For the week scheduled, the
median earnings for an the newspaper carriers included in the study
were $1.87. The distribution of weekly earnings was as follows:
P e rc e n t

Total reported_____________________________________

100

Less than 50 cents_________________________________
50 cents, less than $1_______________________________
$1, less than $2____________________________________
$2, less than $3____________________________________
$3, less than $4____________________________________
$4, less than $5____________________________________
$5 or more___________________________________________

11
16
26
21
13
7
6

These earnings were frequently subject to deductions aside from
inability to collect from subscribers. Fining systems were used by
some circulation managers, by which fines were assessed for such
matters as nondelivery, failure to attend a district meeting or coming
in late, or for complaints against the boy by subscribers for any
reason. Purchase of equipment was also required in some cities, and
a common practice was to require that the boys buy and carry with
them extra papers, which, the managers explained, were necessary
to replace stolen, wet, or torn copies. The complaints of the boys
against this practice, however, suggested that its primary purpose
was to increase circulation.
Bonuses, contests, prizes, and the like were constantly held out to
the carriers as incentives to enlarge their routes. One practice,
according to the report, was particularly objected to by teachers,
parents, and social agencies. This was the holding of rallies in the
evening at which the district manager gave a “ pep talk” and then
sent the boys out in crews to canvass given neighborhoods.
Magazine Sellers and Carriers
C h i l d r e n engaged in magazine distribution were, as a group,
younger than either newspaper sellers or carriers, 10 percent of those
studied being under 10 years of age, 33 percent under 12, and 80
percent under 14. Both hours and earnings varied greatly. Hours
were determined by the field covered—that is, whether the child
delivered only to customers, canvassed houses and apartments in
his own neighborhood, or sold in downtown areas, office buildings,
restaurants, etc. Hours were longest in the latter case, and often
extended into the night. The following information was given for
a group of 315 children who sold only weekly publications:




49

INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS IN CALIFORNIA

Weekly earnings of—
Less than 10 cents_________________________________
10 cents, lessthan 20_____________________________
20 cents, lessthan 30_____________________________
30 cents, lessthan 40_____________________________
40 cents, lessthan 50_____________________________
50 cents, lessthan $1_____________________________
$1 or more________________________________________

N u m ber
of
ch ildren

78
92
48
39
10
36
12

R ange of
w eekly
hours

%-21%
%-24%
%-17%
%-25%
%-23
1-17%
3-20%

Earnings represented commission on sales, which, for the 5-cent
weeklies, was generally 1% cents a copy and for monthly magazines,
from 3 to 6 cents a copy. The chief incentive, however, was admitted
by the distributors and the children to be the prizes rather than the
small earnings. Some children, according to report, worked for
prizes only, and some received no money at all unless they sold the
stipulated number of copies. To illustrate, “ an 8-year-old boy put
in 21 hours, covering 6 days, and had no cash earnings. He had
spent 2 weeks making the 24 sales required for earning a bag of
marbles. He was about to begin working for money.”

Industrial Accidents to Employed Minors in California
in 19327

E

ACH year minors in considerable numbers are injured in the
course of their employment. When an injury to a minor results
in permanent disability, he suffers a lifelong handicap which may
affect him not only physically and financially, but psychologically.
Efforts to protect minors against occupational hazards through
improved child-labor legislation must be based on information con­
cerning industrial hazards and the severity of injuries. The data
following are based on records of accidents filed with the California
Industrial Accident Commission, and information was obtained
concerning minors under 18 years of age who were injured in the course
of employment in California during the calendar year 1932— age,
sex, occupation, cause of injury, nature and severity of injury, cost of
medical care, and amount of compensation paid.
The California compensation law requires detailed reports of all
accidents (including agricultural accidents) causing disability lasting
beyond the day of injury, or requiring medical treatment other than
first aid. California is one of the few States in which minors who
sustain permanent injuries receive compensation based upon what
they would probably have earned in the future had they not been
injured, rather than upon their earnings at the time of their injury.
Finally, California accident statistics show what happens to minors
between 16 and 18 years in a State in which the child-labor law fails
to protect this group from hazardous employment. Although the
California child-labor law prohibits minors under 16 from employment
in a fairly comprehensive list of dangerous occupations and processes,
once a child is past 16 years of age, any occupation, no matter how
dangerous, is open to him.
7 Summary of article by Marian Faas Stone in Monthly Labor Review, November 1934 (p. 1078). This
study was made in consultation with the Industrial Division of the U. S. Children’s Bureau.
1 9 2 0 5 — 36--------5




50

CHILD LABOR

Provisions of California Compensation Law
I f a n employee in California sustains “ any injury or disease arising
out of his employment” , he is entitled to medical and surgical treat­
ment and hospital care at the employer’s expense up to an amount
deemed reasonable by the industrial accident commission which
administers the workmen’s compensation act. If his disability lasts
more than 7 days, he is entitled to compensation—65 percent of his
average weekly wages (but not less than $4.17 nor more than $25 a
week) for a period varying according to the nature and duration of
the injury. In certain cases of permanent and severe disability the
payments continue for life. No distinction is made by the law
between injuries sustained by minors in the course of legal employ­
ment and those sustained in the course of illegal employment.
If injury to a minor results in a permanent disability—loss of
fingers, toes, arms, or legs—or results in impairing the use of a member,
compensation is based upon the degree to which his future earning
power is impaired. “ Average weekly earnings” in such cases are
deemed to be the weekly sum that under ordinary circumstances the
injured person would probably earn at the age of 21 in the occupation
in which he was employed at the time of the injury or in any occupa­
tion to which he would reasonably have been promoted if he had not
been injured. Although an injured minor is never fully compensated
for his loss, the “ probable future earnings” clause often results in
doubling or tripling the amount he would otherwise have received.

Number, Age, and Sex of Injured Minors
T h e total number of accidents reported to minors under 18 in 1932
was 618. All but 10 of these cases were closed by April 1, 1933, and
it is the 608 closed cases that are considered in the report. Compen­
sation was denied in six cases on grounds that the accident was non­
industrial, and therefore outside the jurisdiction of the compensation
law.
Of the 608 injuries to minors, 535 were sustained by boys and 73 by
girls. Of these injuries, 76 percent occurred to young people 16 or 17
years of age, 15 percent to children 14 or 15, 7 percent to children 12
or 13, and 3 percent to children under 12. Four of the injured children
were less than 10 years old; the youngest was a girl of 8 years.
The chief danger to girls seems to be in manufacturing industries, in
which 63 percent of all the injuries to girls occurred, followed by
domestic and personal service with 12 percent of the total and trade
with 11 percent. As far as is known, none of the girls suffered perma­
nent disability. Among the boys there were 6 deaths and 13 cases of
permanent partial disability ranging from a 1-percent to a 37-percent
disability.
Of the 504 temporary disabilities 48 percent lasted more than 1
week; 34 percent longer than 2 weeks; 19 percent longer than 4 weeks;
and 6 percent 8 weeks or more. In 85 cases the degree or duration of
disability was not reported.
In spite of the greater legal protection afforded to the boys and girls
under 16 than to those of 16 and 17, accidents to minors under 16 were
often more serious than those to the older ones. Four of the 6 deaths
occurred in the younger group. The proportion disabled for more than




51

INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS IN CALIFORNIA

7 days was somewhat higher for those under 16 than for those over 16.
Evidently there are still gaps in the measures designed to protect the
younger group. The most serious permanent disabilities, however,
occurred in the older group.
Causes of Accidents
e T h e most serious accidents, judged by the fatalities, permanent
disabilities, duration of temporary disabilities, and amounts paid for
medical service and for compensation, were attributed to the following
causes: Vehicles, machines, “ explosions, burns, etc.” , handling
objects, and falls of persons. Although fewer serious injuries resulted
from hand tools, stepping on or striking against objects, falling objects,
animals, and miscellaneous causes, a third of all the accidents reported
as occurring to minors during the year were ascribed to these causes,
and one of these accidents left a permanent partial disability.

Occupational Distribution of Injured Minors

•

T h e fiv e p rin cip a l h a za rd s en u m era ted o cc u r r e d ch ie fly in th e fo l­
lo w in g o c cu p a tio n s : C lerica l, m essenger, a n d d e liv e ry serv ice, a n d
tra n sp orta tion , m a n u fa ctu rin g a n d m e ch a n ica l in d u stries, a g ricu ltu re,
a n d trad e.

Clerical, messenger, and delivery service, and transportation.—Of the
169 accidents in the clerical, messenger, delivery, and transportation
group, 70 happened to newspaper carriers, 47 to “ outside” messen­
gers, and 32 to boys working on trucks. Four newspaper carriers,
all under 16 years of age, were killed, but were declared ineligible for
death benefits. The reasons are worth noting, for they point to sig­
nificant weaknesses in the compensation law. One case was barred
under a clause in the law that exempts independent contractors,
including persons engaged in selling or delivering newspapers and
periodicals, when the title to such newspapers and periodicals has
passed to the person so engaged. Three cases were declared ineligible
on the ground that the minor left no dependents.
F o u r n e w sb o y s w h o r e c e iv e d serious in ju ries in th e co u rse o f their
e m p lo y m e n t w ere d e cla re d in elig ib le fo r co m p e n sa tio n o n th e g ro u n d
th a t th e y w ere in d e p e n d e n t c o n tra cto rs , n o t e m p loyees.

Of all disabilities lasting 8 weeks or longer, about half (14 out of
31) occurred in the clerical, messenger, and delivery group, involving
newspaper carriers, outside messengers, and truck helpers.
Of a total of 138 vehicular accidents reported, 65 happened to boys
who were riding bicycles at the time of the accident. Three deaths
resulted, and 10 temporary disabilities lasting more than 4 weeks.
Twenty-eight of the 65 boys in bicycle accidents were under 16, and
40 were 16 or 17 years old. The five motorcycle accidents all happened
to 17-year-old boys.
M anufacturing and mechanical industries.—In spite of sharply
reduced employment in manufacturing and mechanical industries,
the group still ranked second among the major occupational groups
in the number of accidents occurring to minors in 1932.
It is significant that in the food-products industries—which in
general have been affected relatively little by unemployment—about
the same number of minors were injured in 1932 as in 1927. In 1932
food processing ranked as the most dangerous manufacturing industry



52

CHILD LABOR

for minors in California, and most of these accidents occurred in
canneries.
In 1932 four of the injuries in food industries left permanent partial
disabilities. The most serious of these, rated as a 14%-percent disa­
bility, happened to a 17-year-old apprentice in a bakery while he was
cleaning a dough mixer in motion.
Most of the cases of occupational disease reported were forms of
dermatitis caused by handling fruit or vegetables in the process of
canning.
The most serious disability to any minor whose injury was reported
in this study occurred to a printer’s apprentice, aged 16. While
operating a printing press the boy caught his right hand in the press,
crushing the hand and rendering it almost useless.
Agriculture. —Agriculture, an important occupation in California,
is one for which accident statistics are available in few States. In
point of number of accidents, agriculture was in 1932 the third most
dangerous industry; for boys alone it ranked second. In 1932 no
permanent partial disabilities were reported in agriculture, but a
large proportion of the minors who lost more than 8 weeks’ working
time were injured in agriculture, and there was one fatality—a 16year-old boy fatally burned when the gasoline tank of a farm tractor
exploded. This case was declared outside the jurisdiction of the
compensation law and neither burial expense nor death benefit was
allowed.
Agricultural hazards were varied, as is shown by the fact that
among the principal causes of injury were handling objects and
stepping on and striking against objects (44 cases), vehicles (19),
falls of persons (16), animals (16), hand tools (15), “ explosions,
burns, etc.” (7). Machines caused 4 accidents. Agriculture includes
a large number of distinct occupations, and the reported accidents
occurred in connection with such diverse activities as herding cattle,
picking fruit, cultivating cotton, sawing wood, and felling trees.
Trade.—Ninety-two accidents, 15 percent of all those reported in
1932, occurred to minors employed in trade. Although mercantile
establishments are commonly thought of as safe, it is a curious fact
that the chief hazards in manufacturing also occur with marked
frequency in trade. Handling objects, hand tools, stepping on or
striking against objects, and machinery caused the most numerous
and most serious accidents.
Public and professional, personal, and domestic service.—Although
the accidents occurring in public and professional, personal, and
domestic service for the most part caused disabilities of short dura­
tion, they were responsible for 1 fatality and for 2 permanent partial
disabilities. Both of the permanent disabilities were due to gross
negligence on the employer’s part.
Cost of Accidents
T h e total number of cases covered by this study for which ex­
penditures for medical, surgical, and hospital care were reported
was 493; the total expenditure was $16,105.13, or $32.66 per child.
Accidents caused by machinery cost the most for treatment—$51.71
per case. Next came accidents caused by vehicles, with an average
expenditure of $46.61 per case. It should be borne in mind, however,




INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS IN CALIFORNIA

53

that in a number of cases of serious accident caused by vehicles no
compensation was paid, because it was held that they were not covered
by the law. Accidents caused by hand tools and by falls also neces­
sitated per-capita expenditures slightly above the average for acci­
dents as a whole.
Fifty-two percent of all the reported injuries in employments
covered by the law were compensable; that is, the disability lasted
longer than 7 days. In the 222 cases for which the amounts paid in
compensation were reported, a total of $13,874.22 was paid, or $62.50
per case. The largest amounts were paid in compensation for 31
injuries caused by machines—close to $8,000, or more than half the
total disability indemnities. Minors injured in accidents caused by
vehicles received less in compensation, a total of $2,000 distributed
over 67 cases, but this is in part due to the fact that the law per­
mitted many accidents to carriers to go uncompensated. “ Explo­
sions, burns, etc.” , occasioned compensation payments totaling
$1,288 for 12 cases.
Accidents causing permanent partial disabilities, 8 of which were
caused by machinery, involved the largest expenditures, as 5 of the
fatal accidents, in which cases payments under the law would have
been large, were declared ineligible for death benefit.
Minors Injured While Illegally Employed

As h a s been pointed out, no distinction is made by the California
workmen’s compensation act between injuries sustained by minors
in the course of legal and of illegal employment. Fifteen boys under
16 years of age were injured while driving or cranking motor vehicles
or delivering goods from them—employment which is prohibited by
an order of the industrial commission under the child-labor law.
Of these 15 boys, 5 were employed by farmers or ranchers, 7 by dairies,
2 by grocery stores, and 1 by a distributor of magazines. Five minors
who were injured by machinery appear to have been illegally
employed.
In addition, several accidents which appeared to involve illegal
employment cannot be satisfactorily so classified, as the necessary
facts are not fully established.







COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition







Cooperative Movement in the United States in 1933
HE Bureau of Labor Statistics made its first statistical study of
the cooperative movement in the United States in 1920. That
study covered only the consumers’ societies and the collective-buying
activities of the farmers’ marketing organizations. In each of the
years 1925 and 1929 similar surveys were made, which covered not
only distributive societies but also housing, credit, and workers’
productive associations. A fourth study covered the operations in
1933.1 Except where otherwise noted, the data below are taken from
the 1933 study.
During the early part of the century a slight revival of interest in
consumers’ cooperation took place. This gradually increased in
intensity, reaching its crest in the years of high prices during and
immediately following the World War, when about two-fifths of the
consumers’ societies were formed. A large part of these were short­
lived, however, due to inexperience and inability to meet the rapidly
falling prices in 1920-21. During the general depression that
followed, the societies generally experienced very difficult times.
At the time when the Bureau’s last previous survey was made
(covering the year 1929) the societies were just recovering from the
losses sustained during the depression of 1921. Even in 1929, how­
ever, societies in the textile, mming, and railroad centers were report­
ing difficulties caused by unemployment of their members, with its
accompanying loss of buying power. Discord over political questions,
notably communism, was causing considerable trouble and resulting
in loss of membership and business in some places; this came to a head
in 1930, causing a schism in a number of societies and the formation
of several new organizations by dissenting minority groups.
The reports received in connection with the latest survey showed
the now familiar conditions of sudden and unexpected losses by both
societies and their members from the bank failures of the depression
period, the consequent unusual demands upon the societies for credit,
the continuously increasing unemployment, and the loss of purchas­
ing power of members due to short-time work or total unemployment,
or to wage cuts. These conditions caused the failure of a consider­
able number of the societies. Nevertheless, the sounder and more
stable societies survived, and these, it is worthy of note, were even
able to effect substantial savings for their members. In spite of or
perhaps because of the depression, which has necessitated recourse to
any measures which promise a way out of present difficulties, many
new societies have been formed.

T

1

The results of the surveys were published as Bulletins Nos. 313, 437, 531, and 612.




57

58

COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT

In the distributive field, both retail and wholesale, the outstanding
features of the past 4 years have been the emergence of the coopera­
tive oil associations as one of the most important factors in the con­
sumers’ cooperative movement and the formation of National
Cooperatives, Inc., a wholesale organization now dealing only in
petroleum products but expected to develop into a national wholesale
association for the whole consumers’ movement.
The credit societies have continued to expand in both the legisla­
tive and organization fields.
While the cooperative productive enterprises continue to form a
very small part of the cooperative movement as a whole, they have
held their ground remarkably well during the depression.
Table 1 gives summary data for the various types of organizations
included in the study.
T a ble 1.— OPERATIONS OF COOPER ATIVE SOCIETIES IN 1933

Type of society

Consumers’ societies:
Local societies:
Store societies......................
Distributive departments
of marketing associations
Gasoline and oil associa­
tions...................................
Bakeries................................
Creameries........... . . ..........
Restaurants and boarding
houses.......................... .
Laundries-----------------------Funeral associations______
Publishing societies............
Water-supply societies----Trucking associations........
Insurance societies.............
Housing societies................
Hospitals..............................
Total, local societies..
Wholesale societies handlingHousehold supplies____
Gasoline and motor o ils...
Educational organizations:
National.........................
Regional........................
Total, consumers’ socie­
ties..... ............................

Total
num­
ber of
socie­
ties
listed

Num­
ber of
socie­
ties
report­
ing

Number
of mem­
bers

Paid-in share
capital

878

Reserves

Total
resources

235

76,160

$2,774,664

$1,865,751

$10,881,422

176

35

6,590

635,826

240,728

1,224,170

616

398
4

127,243
2,618
3,950

2,395,677
33,845
845,700

1,378,571
19,701
143,525

5,770,907
228,825
1,188,477

4,752

92, 233
550
29,001
43,750
14,800
1,905

214,262

324,350
836
58,334
207,466
19,631
3,151

10

3

1

20
1

8
1

38
7
i7

20

1

22
1

3,321
419
368
(3
)
100,395
840
1 , 602

<1,815

725

328,278

7,899,009

3,882,805

22,848,039

11
10

4
5

6636
6288

560,132
141,353

146,326
226,456

1,207,169
725,128

1

1

1

9
48

9
1
2
1

7

f
{

10

7,451
11,660
(2
)
1,156

950,058
81,000

2,940,470

81,498
26
549

<1,847

737

6 328,304

8,600,494

4,255,587

24,780,336

Credit unions.............................
Workers’ productive societies.

2,016
18

1, 772

22,457,861
1,234,704

2,372,711
504,590

35,496,668

8

359,646
1,181

Grand total......................

<3,881

2,517

6689,131

32,293,059

7,132,888

60,277,004

i Includes 1 electricity-supply society.
2 1 society reported a deficit of $3,250.
314 cooperative societies are members of this association.
< Does not include 2 garages, 1 cleaning and dyeing society, and 4 social and recreational associations
from which no reports were received.
» Number of affiliated societies.
6 Individuals; does not include 2,471 societies affiliated to wholesales and educational bodies.




59

MOVEMENT IN UNITED STATES IN 1933
T a ble 1 .—O PER ATIONS OF COO PER ATIVE SOCIETIES IN 1933— Continued

Type of society

Amount of
business
done, 1933

Consumers’ societies:
Local societies:
Store societies....................... $14,372,118
Distributive departments
of marketing associa­
2,325,434
tions...................................
Gasoline and oil associa­
21,017,855
tions...................................
408,366
Bakeries_________________
1, 773, 582
Creameries_______________
Restaurants and boarding
398,942
houses..............................
8,005
Laundries ____________
56, 276
Funeral associations--------61,742
Publishing societies______
6,525
Water-supply societies___
2,463
Trucking associations........
43 112,144,062
Insurance societies..............
44 344,562
TTrinsing snn.iat.ios
TTnspitals
1414,960
Total, local societies........
Wholesale societies handling—
Household supplies_______
Gasoline and motor oils. __
Educational organizations:
National
_
_ _
Regional_________________
Total, consumers’ socie­
ties..... ............................

Net gain,
1933

Amount of Amount re­ Num­
interest
turned in ber of
em­
paid on
patronage
ploy­
share capi­
refunds,
1933
tal, 1933
ees

$224,167

$46,381

37,252

13,698

1,698,977
io 7,967
io 25, 601

91,906

7,161
io 140
2,496
io 902
io 603
1,156

4,016

$169,701 71,314
4,302

Amount
paid in
wages,
1933

$1,232,343

8 139

121,760

1,054,590 91,117
116
385

1,047,088
161,578
675,000

1,382

133

23,782

76
72

132,693
5,959
14,185
32,850
01
)
517
115,664
44,762

8

13
25

1,185

(Jj)

152,934,892

1,935, 996

157,186

1, 253, 757

3,400

3,584,399

2,787, 230
5,961,496

103,429
63,933

18,487
4,265

65,096
43,056

10 1

203

132,057
295,246

4
161, 683,618

2,103,358

179,938

Credit unions____________________ is 28, 217,457
3,629,470
Workers’ productive societies_____

io 66,663
io 86,938

999,293

193, 530, 545

2, 256,959

1,179, 231

Grand total...................... .......

7 Not including 29 part-time employees.
8 Not including 2 part-time employees.
9 Not including 5 part-time employees.
10 Loss.
114 part-time employees, paid $1,400.

3,708

4, Oil, 702

1,097

12
13
14
15

1,361,909

772,073

1, 361,909

4,805 | 4,783,775

Not including 1 part-time employee.
New insurance written.
Total income for year.
Loans made during year.

Consumers* Societies
Local Societies

T a b l e 2 gives comparative data for each of the years in which the
Bureau has made a general survey of the consumers’ cooperative move­
ment. As the remarkable development of the gasoline and oil asso­
ciations since 1926 affects the averages decidedly, the table shows
separately data for all types of societies (including the oil associations)
and for retail store societies which form the other most important
group of organizations.
Average membership per society has, as the table shows, shown a
steady increase. A considerable rise is shown from 1929 to 1933.
Whether this was due to the hard times of the past few years, impress­
ing upon purchasers the need of making the family income stretch as
far as possible, or to increased efforts by societies to bring in new
members, the data at hand do not indicate. The store societies
showed a particularly gratifying increase, the average membership
increasing by one-third during the 4-year period.
Share capital per society shows a continuous fall since 1920 for all
societies combined. That of the store societies, however, increased




60

COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT

somewhat from 1929 to 1933. A decline was also registered in share
capital per member. For both groups of societies shown in the table
average reserve funds increased during the period 1929-33, due pos­
sibly to the desire of the societies to insure the business stability of
the organization in these uncertain times.
The business done in 1933 by the local consumers’ societies aggre­
gated $40,431,308, nearly three-fourths of which was done by organi­
zations in the North Central States. The store societies and the oil
associations, being the two largest groups, naturally accounted for the
greatest proportion of sales (about 88 percent of the total). While
there were 5 societies each of which had sales of more than half a
million dollars, nearly 60 percent of the organizations reporting had a
business for the year amounting to less than $50,000. During the
4-year period 1930-33, the local consumers’ societies covered by the
study had total sales of more than $158,000,000. As might be
expected during this depression period, average sales per society
decreased each year, falling from $109,000 in 1930 to $60,000 in 1933.
Of 534 societies which reported the results of their trading operations
for 1933, 449 had a gain of $2,072,302, while 85 sustained a loss of
$136,306. Altogether there was thus a net saving of $1,935,996,
which represented 5.5 percent if figured on sales and 23.5 percent if
figured on capital stock. The importance of the oil associations is
shown by the fact that whereas their business formed 52 percent of
the total consumers’ cooperative business, their net earningis formed
about 87 percent of the total earnings. In spite of the adverse busi­
ness conditions the societies were able to effect, during the 4-year
period, trading gains amounting to $7,419,999; of this amount
$5,609,601 was accounted for by the oil associations.
Many societies paid no interest on share capital for 1933; 259,
however, were able to do so, but of these 56 failed to report the amount
paid in interest. The 203 societies reporting paid the sum of $157,186.
During the period 1930-33 interest paid on stock amounted to
$631,423.
Refunds on patronage—the outstanding feature of the consumers’
cooperative movement—were paid on the 1933 business by 265
societies, in the sum of $1,229,975. During the 4-year period $4,438,619 was paid in this way.
Thus, as the figures show, during the worst depression that the
present generation has known, when most investments have made
little or no return, the cooperative societies have been able to save for
their members, in interest and patronage rebates, more than 5 million
dollars.




61

MOVEMENT IN UNITED STATES IN 1933

T able 2 .—D E V E L O P M E N T OF CONSUM ER S’ COOPER ATIVE SOCIETIES, 1920 TO 1633
All societies
Item

Retail store societies

1920
1925

1929

1933

1925

1929

1933

Number of societies reporting.
1,009
656
422
695
431
479
235
Membership:
Total__ ______ __________
260, 060
139,301
204, 368
225, 441
119,760
123,317
76,160
310
336
303
Average per society______
269
389
293
407
Employees:
4 4, 046
e 3, 252
2,2 2 2
Number_________________
1,314
(3
)
(3
)
(3
)
Average per society______
7
7
5
(3
)
(*)
Share capital:
Total------ ------- ---------------- $11,290,973 $6,499, 574 $7,987,090 $6,867,951 $5,255, 534 $4, 653,197 $2,774,664
$16, 455
$13, 607
$12, 352
$14, 518
$12,149
Average per society--------$12,966
$17,056
Average per member 1 ___
$68
$45
$37
$63
$46
$59
$43
Reserve funds:
Total—---------------------------- $1, 614,483 $2,407,676 $4, 324,375 $3,882,805 $2,168,190 $2,875,296 $1,865,751
$12,522
$5,142
$9,442
$9,956
$9,266
Average per society______
$7, 379
$7,261
Amount of business:
Total______ _____________ $80,104,935 $49,710,788 $64,665,369 $40,431,308 $40,745,610 $37,697,560 $14,372,118
$103, 751 $100,964 $100, 725
$60,435
$96, 647
$90,619
$62,760
Average per society--------Net earnings: 3
$446,824 $1, 582,100 $2,980,481 $1,935,996 $1,291,309 $1,305,671 $224,167
Total________ ___________
$2,828
$4,262
$1,144
$4,753
$5,257
$3,625
$3,637
Average per society______
Rate (percent) computed
Sales------------------------Share capital................
Interest paid on share capital:
Amount_________________
Average per society______
Patronage refunds:
Total_________ ____ ______
Average per society---------

3.0

(3
)
(3
)

(3
)

(3
)
(3
)

(3
)
(3
)

$350,354
$5,092

5.5
23.5

00

(3
)
$337, 587
$895

$157,186
$774

$753, 791 $1,408,879 $1, 229,975
$4, 562
$4,943
$4, 641

3.8
26.8

1.7
8.9

$173,217
$568

$46,381
$760

$693,777
$4,564

$169,701
$2,926

4.0
(3
)
00

(3
)
$683,726
$4,440

1 Based on societies which reported both capital and membership.
2 After deducting losses of those societies which sustained a loss.
3 No data.
4 And 7 part-time employees.

* And 41 part-time employees.

Housing societies.—Reports were received from 21 cooperative hous­
ing societies owning apartment buildings; of these 13 were in Brooklyn
and 8 were in Manhattan and the Bronx. Details of operation of
these societies are given in table 3.
T a ble 3 .— SHAREH OLDER S, T E N A N T S, A N D ASSETS OF CO O PER ATIVE A P A R T M E N T
SOCIETIES, E N D OF 1933

Cooperative apartment
buildings in—
Total

Item
Brooklyn

Number of shareholders (members)............ .................... ..........
Number of apartments occupied by—
Members
___ __ __________ ____________________
Nonmembers
_____ ________ ______ __ ____________
Paid-in share capital_______________________ __ ________ ___
Value of apartment buildings:
Original_______________________ _____________ ____________
Present_______________
_____________ ____________ ____
Total assets_________________ _____ _________________________

Manhattan
and Bronx

331

295

626

229
114
$400, 540

255
89
$499,518

484
203
$900,058

$1,502,220
$1,072,329
$763,070

$1,790,531
$1, 557,334
$1,456,740

$3,292,751
$2,629,663
$2,219,810

Insurance societies.—Reports were received from 7 insurance asso­
ciations. Of these, 3 write fire insurance (1 on farm property only
and 1 on furniture and houses), and 3 write life insurance (2 of these
also write health and accident insurance). The seventh organization
is Clusa Service, the insurance service of the consumers’ cooperative
societies federated in the Cooperative League; its function is “ to buy



62

COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT

insurance from existing insurance carriers to the best advantage of
the assured.” The insurance so purchased includes employees’ bonds,
and fire, casualty, and life insurance, and annuities.
The statement below shows the salient data concerning these in­
surance societies for 1933:
Number of societies_______________________________
7
Number of policyholders at end of year___________
100, 395
New insurance written in 1933____________________
$6, 007, 152
Total insurance in force at end of year____________ $112, 144, 062
Premium income, 1933___________ ________________
$803, 496
Claims paid, 1933_________________________________
427, 803
Dividends returned to policyholders----------------------$23, 782
Number of employees_____________________________
76
Amount paid in wages____________________________
$115, 664
Central Consumers’ Organizations

Federated cooperation is exemplified by two types of societies—■
the cooperative leagues, which are purely educational and propaganda
bodies, and the cooperative wholesale societies, which are commercial
organizations. Both types of organizations are owned and controlled
by the constituent local cooperative societies. The wholesales are
capital-stock associations whose shares are held by the member socie­
ties, but the leagues are nonstock organizations financed by dues paid
by the locals.
The chief development of the past decade has been the formation
of wholesale societies handling only petroleum products. The first of
these was the Midland Cooperative Wholesale, formed (as the Min­
nesota Cooperative Oil Association) in 1927. Another significant step
was the formation, in 1933, of National Cooperatives, Inc. Profiting
from the experiences of 1919-21 and the disastrous failure of the
wholesale organization started then with the idea of its becoming a
Nation-wide wholesale, the new wholesale is proceeding cautiously,
acting rather as jobber than as wholesaler, and doing joint buying of
petroleum products, tires, etc., for the six district wholesales which
are its members and backers.
Table 4 gives comparative data for 1929 and 1933. The striking
feature of this table is the rapid development of the cooperative oil
wholesales.
T a ble 4 .—D E V E L O P M E N T OF COOPER ATIVE W H O LESALE SOCIETIES, 1929 A N D 1933
Wholesale societies handling—
Item

Household supplies
1929

Number of societies reporting. ...........................................
6
Number of affiliated societies___________ ______________
351
Number of retail branches____________________________
34
Number of unaffiliated customers. ...................................
20
Share capital_________________________________________
$483,312
Reserve funds________________________________________
$135,308
Amount of business..... ......................................... ............... $10,371,060
Net gain____________________________________ _____
$297, 111
Amount returned in patronage refunds,..........................
$225,500
Interest paid on share capital................................. ...........
$26,864
Number of employees...........................................................
132
Amount paid in w ages..................................... .................
(9

1933

1929

4
636
13
$560,132
$146,326
$2,787,230
$103,429
$65,096
$18,487
10 1

$132,057

* No data.
f 1 society returned 15 percent of the gross profits, amount not reported.




Gasoline and motor oils
1933
2

45

(9
(9

195

$757,274
$12,720

(9

$206
5

(9

5
288
37
88

$141,353
$226,456
$5,961,496
$63,933
$43,056
$4,265
203
$295,246

63

MOVEMENT IN UNITED STATES IN 1933

Credit Societies
T h e s e credit societies, commonly called “ credit unions” in the
United States, are organizations of persons perhaps the majority of
whom do not have and may never have had any banking connections.
They are designed to fill the credit needs of workingmen and other
small borrowers who can find few other sources of credit at moderate
rates.
e Cooperative credit societies have increased very greatly in number
since 1925. On the other hand, a considerable number have gone out
of existence since the Bureau's last general survey, covering the year
1929. To what extent these dissolutions were the result of the de­
pression the data at hand do not show. The reports indicate, how­
ever, that some of the dissolutions were those of societies formed
among the employees of firms which have failed since 1929.
However, notwithstanding that nearly 300 credit unions reported
as having ceased operations since 1925, the number of organizations
in business at the end of 1933 was five times that at the end of 1925,
having risen from slightly over 400 to more than 2,000. Some 50
percent of these were started from 1931 to 1933.
The membership more than tripled in the same time, having in­
creased from a little over 100,000 to nearly 360,000. Possibly due to
the formation of the many new, small societies, the average size of
society decreased, having fallen from 612 members in 1925 to 320
members in 1929 and to 215 members in 1933. More than two-fifths
of the whole number reporting had fewer than 100 members.
While the average assets per society were small—less than $5,000,
in the case of more than 50 percent of the societies—4 associations
were found whose assets were $1,000,000 or more. The total re­
sources of the societies reporting were $35,496,668 at the end of 1933.
Table 5 shows the development of the cooperative credit movement
in each of the years 1925, 1929, 1932, and 1933:
T a ble 5 .—D E V E L O P M E N T OF C R ED IT -U N IO N M O V E M E N T IN SPECIFIED Y E A R S ,
1925-33

Item
Total number of societies.......................................
Number reported for....................................... .......
Membership:
Total...................................................................
Average per society....... ..................................
Share capital:
Amount..............................................................
Average per member______ ‘______________
Guaranty funds.............................. ............ ............
Loans during year:
Total amount....................................................
Average per society— ............... ...................
Average per loan..............................................
Loans outstanding at end of year............. - .........
1 No data.




1932

1929

1925

1933

419
176

974
838

1,612
1,472

2,016
1, 772

107,779
612

264,908
320

301,119
216

359,646
215

$10, 706,099
$99
0)

$24,065, 407
$92
$2,079,450

$21, 708,328
$70
$2,110,815

$22,457,861
$62
$2,372, 711

$20,100,356
$116,187
$381
$13,390,423

$24,548,353
$58,310
$350
$30,811,582

$16,375,952
$16,475
$156
$24,826, 291

$28, 217,457
$22,811
$138
$26,391,683

64

COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT

Workers* Productive Societies
W o r k e r s ’ productive enterprises, i. e., businesses owned and
operated by the workers themselves, form an interesting though small
part of the cooperative movement in the United States. Although
this has seemed to be a diminishing phase of cooperation in this coun­
try, the rate of decrease has been much smaller during the depression
years than might have been expected, there having been a net loss of
only two societies since 1929.
Comparison with earlier years shows a gain in average numbers
employed, in average share capital, and in average amount of sales.
While business fell off very decidedly from 1929 to 1931 in most lines
of cooperative production, the recovery registered from 1931 to 1933
was such as to raise the average sales in the latter year above the 1929
level. Reserves have decreased since 1929.- Profits practically dis­
appeared in 1933, only 3 of the 8 societies being able to show a gain on
the year’s operations.
It is the practice in the workers’ productive societies to return to
the shareholders the gains remaining after provision has been made
for reserves, depreciation, etc. During the 3 years from 1930 to 1932,
the societies reporting returned in these bonuses the sum of $105,498.
No bonus was paid by any of the societies in 1933.
Comparative data for 1925, 1929, and 1933 are given in table 6.
T able 6 .—D E V E L O P M E N T OF W O R K E R S’ PR O D U CTIVE SOCIETIES IN 1925, 1929, A N D
1933.

Item
Total number of societies________ ____________________________
Number of societies reporting___ ___________________________
Shareholders:
Number________________________________________________
Number employed—______ _____________________________
Nonshareholder employees_____ ____ _______________________
Share capital:
Amount__________________ _____________________________
Average per society................. ..................................................
Surplus and reserves:
Amount________________________________________________
Average per society _ .________________ ____ _____________
Business:
Amount__________________ ________ _____________________
Average per society........ ................................ ......... ..............
Profits:
Amount_____________________________ __________________
Average per society______ ______________________________
Bonuses to shareholders:
Amount_______ _____ - ________________ . ______________
Average per society___ ________ ________ _______________

1925

1929
39

1933
20
11

18

21

2,438
465
807

1,405
421
236

1,181
447
650

$1,025, 509
$51,275

$808, 230
$73,475

$1, 234, 704
$154,338

$653, 590
$72,621

$800,139
$100, 007

$504, 590
$63,074

$4, 573, 329
$238, 596

$3,847, 666
$349,788

$3,629,470
$483,684

i $229,458
$16, 390

i $153,370
$30, 674

»$86,938
2 $17,388

$109, 470
$27,368

$48,635
$9,727

8

i Net, after deducting losses.
* Loss.

Status of Cooperative Societies Under Industrial Codes
H R EE orders were issued during the period of effectiveness of
the N. R. A., designed to clarify certain points regarding the
status of cooperative societies under the codes.
The first was an Executive order, issued October 24, 1933, which
exempted all “ bona fide and legitimate cooperative organizations”

T




STATUS OF SOCIETIES UNDER INDUSTRIAL CODES

65

from provisions in industrial codes which were intended to prohibit
the payment of patronage refunds. The order read as follows:
In a number of codes of fair competition which have heretofore been approved
or submitted for approval pursuant to title I of the National Industrial Recovery
Act; approved June 16, 1933, there have been included provisions designed to
limit or prohibit the payment or allowance of rebates, refunds, or unearned discqunts, whether in the form of money or in any other form, and the extension to
certain purchasers of services or privileges not extended to all purchasers under
similar terms and conditions. Question has arisen as to whether provisions of
such tenor do not preclude the payment of patronage dividends to members by
bona fide and legitimate cooperative organizations, including farmers* cooperative
associations, corporations, or societies, hereinafter designated farmers* coopera­
tives.
Pursuant to the authority vested in me by title I of the National Industrial
Recovery Act, upon due consideration of the facts, and upon the report and recom­
mendation of the Administrator,
I,
Franklin D. Roosevelt, President of the United States, do hereby order that
no provision in any code of fair competition, agreement, or license which has
heretofore been or may hereafter be approved, prescribed, or issued pursuant to
title I of the National Industrial Recovery Act, shall be so construed or applied as
to prohibit the payment of patronage dividends in accordance with law to any
member by any bona fide and legitimate cooperative organization, including any
farmers’ cooperative, duly organized under the laws of any State, Territory, or
the District of Columbia, or of the United States, if such patronage dividends
are paid out of actual earnings of such cooperative organization and are not
paid at the time when such member makes a purchase from such cooperative
organization.

In order to answer questions that arose concerning the scope and
meaning of the order of October 24, 1933, the President on February
17, 1934, issued a second order ruling that no code should be so con­
strued as to make it a violation of the code to sell to or through a
bona fide cooperative organization or to sell through any intervening
agency to such a cooperative association. The text of the order was
as follows:
1. No provision in any code of fair competition, agreement, or license which
has heretofore been or may hereafter be approved, prescribed, or issued pursuant
to title I of the National Industrial Recovery Act, shall be construed or applied
so as to make it a violation o f any code of fair competition to sell to or through any
bona fide and legitimate cooperative organization, including any farmers* co­
operative, duly organized under the laws of any State, Territory, or the District
of Columbia, or of the United States, or to sell through any intervening agency to
such cooperative organization.
2. No such code of fair competition shall be construed or interpreted so as to
prevent any shell cooperative organization from being entitled to receive, and/or
distribute to its members as patronage dividends or otherwise the proceeds or
benefits directly or indirectly derived from any discount, commission, rebate, or
dividend (a) ordinarily paid or allowed to other purchasers for purchases in whole­
sale or middleman quantities or (6) paid or allowed pursuant to the requirements
or provisions of any code of fair competition to other purchasers for purchases in
wholesale or middleman quantities.
3. The Administrator for Industrial Recovery is hereby authorized to deter­
mine, after such hearings and proceedings as he may deem necessary, whether, in
any doubtful case, an organization is or is not a bona fide and legitimate coopera­
tive organization entitled to the benefits and protection of this order.

The third order was an administrative order issued October 12,
1934, by the National Recovery Board. It provided that no code
provision should be interpreted to prohibit payment of a brokerage
commission to a bona fide cooperative association for services for
which brokerage may properly be paid. The text of this adminis­
trative order was as follows:
19205— 36--------6




66

COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT

Pursuant to Executive Order No. 66Q6-A, dated February 17, 1934, no pro­
vision of any code of fair competition heretofore or hereafter approved under
[title I] of said act shall be so construed or applied as to make it a violation of
any such code for any member of any industry to pay or allow a brokerage com­
mission to any bona fide and legitimate cooperative organization performing
services or engaged in functions for which other persons may properly be paid
such a commission. In determining whether a cooperative organization is
performing such services and functions no cognizance shall be taken of the fact
that the said cooperative organization will distribute its actual earnings, whether
acquired in the form of brokerage commissions or otherwise, to its members in
the form of patronage dividends, notwithstanding also the fact that the members
who in due course may receive a part of said brokerage commission as a patronage
dividend may be the purchasers of the product or service with which the said
commission was realized.

Condition of Labor Banks, June 30, 1935
H ERE were four labor banks in operation on June 30, 1935, with
combined deposits of $17,262,281 and total resources amounting to
$19,692,385. Data for each of the banks are shown in the following
table, supplied by Prof. J. Douglas Brown, of Princeton University:

T

T a ble 1.—C O N D IT IO N OF LABOR BAN K S AS OF JUNE 30, 1935

Share
capital

Bank

Surplus
and undi­
vided prof­
its

Deposits

Total
resources

Amalgamated Trust & Savings Bank, Chicago, HI—
Union National Bank, Newark, N . J...............................
Amalgamated Bank of N. Y ., New York, N . Y _______
Telegraphers’ National Bank, St. Louis, M o . . .............

$200,000
375.000
650.000
500.000

$63,635
32,414
23,970
156,924

$4,225,094
2, 730,661
5,807,859
4,498,667

$4,779,391
3,198,559
6 , 547,224
5,167,211

Total............... ....................... .............. .......................

1,725,000

326,943

17,262,281

19,692,385

Table 2 shows the deposits and resources of each of the four banks
since its formation. As the table shows, the peak of both deposits
and resources was generally reached in 1929 or 1930. The Amalga­
mated Bank of Chicago had, however, by June 1935, surpassed its
1929 figures in both deposits and resources.
T a ble 2 .—D E V E L O P M E N T OF SPECIFIED LABOR BAN K S SINCE T H E IR F O R M A T IO N
Deposits
Amalgamated Banks
End of—
New York
1922...........
1923-........
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1929 *.........
1930 8.........
1931».........
1032
1933
1934
1935 3____

Chicago

Union
National
Bank,
Newark,
N . J.

Total resources
Teleg­
Amalgamated Banks
raphers’
National
Bank,
St. Louis, New York
Chicago
Mo.

$991,411
$3,075,564 i"$2‘ 664,"913"
"$2,294,'044" 1,948,853
13,874,276 2,444,247
.....................
4,256,704 1 4,279,456
..................... 2,586,116 $1,262,233 5,558,630
5,795,808
6,429,437
7,824,520
..................... 2,837,296 2,303,289 6,275,498
8,642,113
8,449,885
..................... 3,077,356 3,383,154 6,585,574
9,305,424
11, 717,589
..................... 2,959,739 3,586,153 6,275,876 13,128,004
11,673,794 3,329,833 3,565,601 6,341,251 13,315,804
11,349,764 2,526,560 3,674,030 6,659,455 12,845,579
7,984,888 2,313,945 3,740,404 6,473,062
9,364,798
4,305,104 2,034,372 2,460,129 4,748,983
5,247,200
* 4,832,884 2,357,331
.....................
2,298,216 5,850,074 <5,506,616
5,568,713
..................... - 3, 722,499 3,009,005 4,628,071
6,408,153
5,807,859 4,225,094 2,730.661 4,498,667
6,547,224
1 Nov. 15.

* June 29.

1 June 30.

Union
National
Bank,
Newark,
N . J.

Teleg­
raphers’
National
Bank,
St. Louis,
Mo.

$1,291,411
2,498,616
$3,916,061
2,816,117
5,097,249
2,951,637 $1,"646,*365" 6,428,847
3.460.024 2,678,289
7,217,466
3.460.024 3,803,678
7,749,265
3,363,215 4,107,747
7,489,608
3,756,301 4,017,884
7,563,956
3,033,182 4,325,401
7,701,328
2,723,810 4,406,597
7,420,366
2,420,164 3,578,880
5,963,696
2 ,759,379 3,406,891
6,980,469
4,280,469 3,602,272
5,756,377
4,779,391 3,198,559
5,167,211
* Jan. 13. 1934.

Table 3 shows the trend of the labor banking movement since 1920.



67

BUILDING AND LOAN ASSOCIATIONS

T a ble 3 .— D E V E L O P M E N T OF LABOR BANKS IN T H E U N IT E D STATES, 1920 TO 1933 »
Number
of banks

Date

Share capital

Surplus and
undivided
profits

2
4
10
18
26
36
35
32
27

$960,000
1,280,000
2,050,473
4,222,230
6,441,267
9,069,072
8,914,508
8,282,500
7,537,500

$194,446
255,869
742,689
1,353,022
1,891,757
3,467,829
3,837,377
3,747,176
3,821,205

$2,258,561
9,970,961
21,901,641
43,324,820
72,913,180
98,392,592
108,743,550
103,290,219
98,784,369

$3,628,867
12,782,173
26,506,723
51,496,524
85,325,884
115,015,273
126,533,542
119,818,416
116,307,256

22
14
11
7
4
4
4

6,687,500
4,112,500
3,912,500
2,537,500
1,725,000
1,725, 000
1, 725, 000

3,807,579
3,105,336
2,952,878
905,896
436,421
313,433
326,943

92,077,098
59,817,392
50,949,570
22,662,514
15,338,505
15,899,849
17,262,281

108,539,894
68,953,855
59,401,164
28,564,797
18,653,355
19,168,718
19,692,385

Dec. 31—
1920...................................................
1921....... .............................- ..........
1922............. ................... ..................
1923..........................- ....................
1924.................................................
1925 2......................................... .
1926____ ___________ ___________
1927............................. ....................
.1928....... .......... ................... ............
June 30—
1929_______ __________ _________
1930.................................................
1931________ ___________________
1932.................................................
1933 3
................................................
1934.................. ............. .................
1935_____ ______________________

Deposits

Total
resources

1 Data are from Princeton University, Industrial Relations Section, Report on Labor Banking Movement
in the United States, Princeton, 1929, p. 277, and additional new material furnished by the university to the
Bureau of Labor Statistics.
2 Amalgamated Bank of Philadelphia not included.
* Dec. 31.

Status of Building and Loan Associations, 1933
and 1934

D

A TA furnished to the Bureau of Labor Statistics by the United
States Building and Loan League (Cincinnati) show that at the
end of 1933 there were in the United States 10,727 building and loan
associations with a combined membership of 9,224,105, and resources
aggregating $6,977,531,676. From 1932 to 1933 there was a decline
of 270 societies, 890,687 members, and $772,959,408 in assets.
The following table shows the number of associations and their
membership and resources in 1933:
T a b l e 1.—M E M B E R SH IP A N D ASSETS OF B U ILD IN G A N D LO AN ASSOCIATIONS IN
1933, B Y STATES

State

Num­
ber of Number
asso­ of mem­
cia­
bers
tions

Alabama.....................
39
Arizona.......................
2
Arkansas----------------55
California...................
182
Colorado...............
52
44
Connecticut________
Delaware___________
43
District of Columbia.
28
Florida............. ..........
59
Georgia.......................
40
Hawaii........................
11
14
Idaho...........................
Illinois.........................
889
Indiana.......................
380
74
Iowa.......... ..................
Kansas........................
150
Kentucky...................
164
99
Louisiana....................
36
Maine.........................
Maryland 1
................. 1,000
Massachusetts...........
227
Michigan......... .........
65
Minnesota..— , ........
75
44
Mississippi.................
233
Missouri.....................
Montana.....................
27
83
Nebraska___________
i Figures estimated.




33,480
1,600
30,213
350.000
50,000
31, 534
19,430
96,785
10,370
18,443
28,012
9,550
782.300
341, 700
60,072
155,152
170.300
166, 241
25,930
283.000
436,920
185,267
96,179
6,274
207,950
25,800
176, 500

Total assets

$23,843,533
600,000
25,794,298
359,894,896
35,340,471
25,607,678
15,257,369
90,533,000
13,129,227
6,891,548
5,288,989
6,272,313
394,648,000
246,333,779
41,789,377
106,960,685
110,937,465
143, 656,771
23,967,428
185,000,000
502,873,869
142,693,028
39,038,245
10,943,600
169,255,761
15,026,454
111, 876, 652

State

Num­
ber of Number
asso­ of mem­ Total assets
cia­
bers
tions

Nevada.......................
5
2,281 $1,246,345
New Hampshire.......
29
16,152 13,761,730
New Jersey 1.............. 1,532
970.000 1,050,000,000
4,316,562
New Mexico________
16
4,500
New York..................
293
481,928 394,643,465
North Carolina_____
209
74,182 68,439,937
22
North Dakota.........
22,251 12,054,641
Ohio.............. ..............
737 1,968,129 895,028,774
90
Oklahoma................
129,339 99,238,441
22
Oregon............... .........
31,400 18,228, 564
Pennsylvania— ........ 2,908
884,065 957,791,288
8
Rhode Island_______
47,898 33,691,232
South Carolina 1
____
98
18,000 20,000,000
South Dakota............
20
5,844,910
9,650
42
25,640 18,993,047
Tennessee---------------Texas...........................
139
137,700 100,393,588
Utah............................
21
34,000 23,029,669
Vermont_ _________
_
14
5,600
5,418,676
Virginia___________
89
59,100 53, 652,977
Washington________
66
200.000 61,510,158
60
West Virginia............
50,200 33,612,941
184
Wisconsin........ ..........
238,238 245,291,106
Wyoming...................
8
14,850
7,889,189
Total, 1933____ 10,727 9,224,105 6,977,531,676
Total, 1932____ 10,997 10,114,792 7,750,491,084

68

COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT

At the end of 1934 the number of associations fell to 10,353, the
membership to 8,226,478, and the total assets to $6,330,746,385.
During the year, however, 567 associations were formed under the
Federal Home Loan Bank Act; these had at the end of the year
143,732 members and assets of $119,678,007. Thus, the number of
both types of societies at the end of 1934 was 10,920, the membership
was 8,370,210, and the total assets amounted to $6,450,424,392.
The development of the movement since 1920 is shown in table 2:
T able 2 .—STATUS OF B U ILD IN G A N D L OAN ASSOCIATIONS, 1920 TO 1934
Year

1920,............... ... .......... ............................................................
1921_______ ___________ __________________________ ____
1922................................... ........................................................
1923...................... .................................. ........... ..................
1924,.....................................................................................
1925,...................... ....................... ....................... ___................
1926,____________ ___________________________ _________
1927_______ ___________________________________ _______
1928_____ ________ _____ _______________________ ____
1929__ _______ __________ _____________________________
1930 i_________________________________________________
1931 i....................... ............................ ............ ......... ..............
1932 i___________________ ________________ _____________
1933 1______________________ ______________ ___________
1934 2........................................................................................

Number of
associations
8,633
9,255
10,009
10,744
11,844
12,403
12,626
12,904
12,666
12,342
11,777
11, 442
10,997
10, 727
10,920

Membership

4,962,919
5,809,888
6,864,144
7,202,880
8,554,352
9,886,997
10,665, 705
11,336, 261
11,995,905
12, 111, 209
12,350,928
11,338,701
10,114, 792
9,224,105
8,370,210

Total assets

$2,519,914,971
2,890,761,621
3,342, 530,953
3,942,939,880
4, 765,937,197
5,509,176,154
6,334,103,807
7,178,562,451
8,016,034,327
8,695,154,220
8,828,611,925
8,417,375, 605
7,750,491,084
6,977, 531,676
6,450,424,392

1 Figures include Hawaii.
a Figures include Hawaii and associations formed under Federal Home Loan Bank Act.

Wisconsin Act Providing for the Teaching of
Cooperation
HE Wisconsin Legislature early in August 1935 passed an amend­
ment to the statutes, requiring the giving of courses in agricul­
tural and consumers’ cooperation throughout the public-school
system of Wisconsin, from the State university downward. Hereafter
no certificates are to be granted for the teaching of courses in eco­
nomics, the social studies, or agriculture unless the applicant’s course
of training has included the subject of cooperation.
The text of the act is as follows:

T

1. Subsection (1) of section 40.22 of the statutes is amended to read:
(40.22) (1) Reading, writing, spelling, English grammar and composition,
geography, arithmetic, elements of agriculture and cooperative marketing,
history and civil government of the United States and of Wisconsin, citizenship,
and such other branches as the board may determine shall be taught in every
common school. All instruction shall be in the English language, except that
the board may cause any foreign language to be taught to such pupils as desire
it, not to exceed 1 hour each day.
S e c . 2. Four new subsections are added to section 40.22 of the statutes to
read:
(40.22) (11) C oo p era tio n .— Every high school and vocational school shall pre­
scribe adequate and essential instruction in cooperative marketing and con­
sumers’ cooperatives.
(12)
T eacher training ..— The governing boards of the university State teachers’
colleges and county normal schools shall provide in their respective institutions
adequate and essential instruction in cooperative marketing and consumers’
cooperatives.
S e c t io n




WISCONSIN ACT

69

(13) T ex t m aterial .— The State superintendent of public instruction and the
dean of the college of agriculture at the State university shall cooperate in the
preparation of outlines to be used by teachers in the courses offered under sub­
sections (11) and (12) and they shall have power to request the assistance of any
teacher or professor in any of the schools of the State in the preparation of such
outlines. They may also make a recommended list of material now in pamphlets
or books for guidance to teachers of these courses.
(14) T each ers1 certificates .— In granting certificates for the teaching of the
courses in economics, the social studies, and agriculture, adequate instruction
in cooperative marketing and consumers1 cooperatives shall be required.
S ec . 3. This act shall take effect September 1, 1935.







COOPERATIVE SELF-HELP MOVEMENT

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




71




Cooperative Self-Help Among the Unemployed
HE so-called “ self-help” movement is a development of the
depression. It originated spontaneously from the initiative of
the more self-reliant of the unemployed who wished to maintain
themselves independently of relief. The first such group was the
Unemployed Citizens’ League formed in Seattle during the summer
of 1931. The exchange of the members’ labor for food (principally
vegetables) was the primary activity of the organization at first.
The news of the success of this group spread, and soon similar organi­
zations sprang up in various sections of the United States, but
especially in the Western and Pacific States.
Since that time many groups have been formed, some of which dis­
solved after a short time, others survived for longer periods, and many
are still active.
Grants of Federal funds authorized by the Federal Emergency
Relief Act of 1933 made possible in a number of cases extended
activities of a productive nature. At the end of 1933 grants had been
made to 29 associations with a combined membership of nearly 60,000.
A year later (January 1935) the number of grant organizations in
operation had risen to 162 but their membership was 15,733. At
the end of October 1935 there were 215 groups under grant, having
a membership of 14,614. No information is available regarding the
number of members of nongrant self-help associations throughout
the United States.1
From August 1933 to October 31, 1935, aid had been extended to
self-help organizations in 26 States, 2 Territories, and the District of
Columbia. In addition, $300,000 had been allotted to the Tennessee
Valley Authority, to be used in assisting the formation of cooperative
enterprises in the region of its activities. Altogether, grants made
during the 27 months totaled $3,157,613, of which $1,636,594 had
been expended or obligated on October 31, 1935. These funds were
intended and have been used mainly for the purchase of productive
equipment and raw materials. The value of such equipment and
inventories on October 31, 1935, was $1,129,866.
Up to October 31, 1935, the self-help groups which had received
Federal assistance had supplied their members with goods and serv­
ices amounting to $3,164,887. During the first 10 months of 1935
members received goods and services valued at $1,216,647, and had
given their members employment aggregating 9,047,923 man-hours.
Their activities are estimated to have saved the public nearly threefourths of a million dollars from January to October 1935. It is cal­
culated that this amount would have been required, in addition to the
Federal grants, to furnish support to those members who would have
had to resort to public relief. Altogether, it is estimated that the
self-help groups have effected relief savings totaling $2,278,287.

T

1
In California, where the movement has been much more extensive than in other States, it was estimated
that 40 percent of the self-help membership in May 1935 was in nongrant groups. (Kerr, Clark, and Taylor,
Paul S.: The Self-Help Cooperatives in California. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1935.)




73

74

COOPERATIVE SELF-HELP MOVEMENT

Nearly one-third of the organizations which have received Federal
assistance and more than one-fourth of the members are in Caliform a.
The next largest number of organizations and members is found in
Utah. The number and percent of self-help groups under grant, and
of their membership, at the end of October 1935, are shown in table 1.
T a ble 1.—N U M B E R A N D P E R C E N T OF SELF-H ELP GROUPS U N D E R G R A N T, A N D OF
T H E IR M E M B E R SH IP , OCT. 31, 1935, B Y STATES
Organiza­
tions

Organiza­
tions

Members

State
Num­ Per­
ber cent
Alabama.......................
California......................
Colorado.......................
District of Columbia. .
Florida..........................
Idaho............. ...............
Indiana..........................
Iow a.............................
Louisiana......................
Michigan......................
Missouri....... ................
Nebraska......................

Members

State
Num­
ber

Per­
cent

2.3
36.3
4.2
1.4
.5
13.0
.5
1.4
.9
3.7
3.3
.9

987
4,380
290
261
61
1,247
108
233
149
338
515
101

6.8
30.0
2.0
1.8
.4
8.5
.7
1.6
1.0
2.3
3.5
.7

5
78
9
3
1
28
1
3
2
8
7
2

Num­ Per­
ber cent
New York....................
North Carolina...........
Ohio...............................
Oregon..........................
Pennsylvania...............
Tennessee.....................
Utah..............................
Virginia.........................
Washington..................
West Virginia..............
Total...................

Num­
ber

0.5
.5
.5
.5
1.9
1.4
12.6
.5
12.6
.9

117
1,571
20
13
995
304
574
675
846
829

0.8
10.7
.1
.1
6.8
2.1
3.9
4.6
5.8
5.7

215 100.0 14,614

100.0

1
1
1
1
4
3
27
1
27
2

Per­
cent

The first Federal grant for self-help purposes was made August 11,
1933. From that time up to the close of 1935 a total of $3,157,613
had been allocated for the use of these groups of unemployed. Table
2 shows the amount granted each month since August 1933.
T a ble 2 .—GR ANTS TO SELF-H ELP COOPERATIVES B Y M O N TH S, AU G U ST 1933 TO
D E C E M B E R 1935

Year and month

Amount of
grants

Total grants, August 1933 to Decem­
ber 1935..........- ........................ .............. 1 $3,157,613
1933—August________________________
September, , , ________________
October___________ _______ ____
November_____________________
December_____________________
1934—January_____________ ____ _____
February______________________
March_________ ______________
April._____ ____ ______ _______
July.................................................
August................. ..........................

64.000
2,000
71,700
13,900
111, 744
46,320
340,610
30.000
96,125
112, 765
147,830
63, 721
3155,961

Year and month

1934—

September.
October.—
November.
December.
1935— January - . .
February..
March........

April.........

M ay...........
June...........
July............
August___
September.
October___
November.
December.

Amount of
grants
$96,688
125,957
26,436
37,316
59,207
45,122
152, 554
152,914
104,909
14,163
281, 532
35,900
268,335
483,485

i Includes $16,420 (not shown in items) transferred from cattle-program fund in Colorado.
3 Does not include $42,118 granted for self-help in Texas in August 1934 but transferred to general relief
fund in June 1935.
3 No grants made.

California and Michigan are the two leading States as regards size
of grants, the funds allotted to groups therein forming one-fifth and
one-tenth, respectively, of the total grants. The total amounts
granted up to the end of 1935, by States, and the amount which had
been expended or obligated at the end of October are shown in table 3.




COOPERATIVE SELF-HELP AMONG THE UNEMPLOYED

75

T able 3 —T O TA L F E D E R A L G R ANTS M A D E TO SELF-HELP COOPERATIVES, AUGUST
1933 TO D E C . 31, 1935, A N D T O TA L E X P E N D E D A N D O BLIG ATED TO OCT. 31, 1935

Federal grants, August 1933 to Dec.
31,1935
State
Total
amount

Percent

Expended
and obligated
to Oct. 31,
1935

7.8
20.6
5.6
.7
.7
7.7
1.4
.7
.2
1.3
10.7
1.9
.3
6.2
.4
.6
.1
4.1
2.8
.1
1.1
2.0

Utah..................................... ............................................ .........................
Virginia............. .........................................................
...................
Washington_____________ ______ ______________ _____ ________ _
_
West Virginia—.............................................................. _.........................

$247,813
1649,148
176,541
21,763
23,682
241,865
45,777
21,065
7,538
40,000
339,397
61,400
8,178
196,300
11,150
17,500
3,500
129,797
88,577
3,900
34,073
64,638
(8
)
99,979
95,685
158,723
43,425

3.2
3.0
5.0
1.4

$111,112
618,592
133,998
1,047
7,510
141,081
37,175
14,811
7,538
17,129
148,076
58,989
7,655
13,291
4,116
10,543
(2) •
(2
)
69,773
2,890
23,454
18,141
(3
)
3,285
68,226
80,306
37,856

Total........ ........................................ ....................... .................
Puerto Rico.................. ................................................. ..........................
Virgin Islands....... .............................. ................................................ ...
T . V. A .............................................................. ........................................

2,831,413
1,000
25,200
300,000

89.6
(*)
.8
9.5

1,636,594
(*)
(2
)
(2
)

3,157,613

100.0

1,636,594

Alabama................................................................................................ .
California............... ............ ................................................................ . .
Colorado...... ........ ............... ........................... ............................ ...........
District of Columbia..............................................................................
Florida.... . ............... ...............................................................................
Idaho.................... .............................................................. .....................
Indiana........................ ................................................................... ..........
Iowa...........................................................................................................
Kansas.... ......................................................... . _ ........................... .
Louisiana__________________ ______ _____________ _______ _______
Michigan............................... ............................................... ..................
Minnesota............... ....................... ..................................... ......... .........
Mississippi________ ______________________ i .......................... ..........
Missouri— ______ __________ _
........... ...................................
Nebraska__________ ______________________ ______________ ______
New Jersey_______ _________________ ____ ________ ____ ____ ___
New York................. .................... .............................. ...................... .
North Carolina............................
....................................................
Ohio.......................... ............................................. ...................................
Oregon.................................................................... ........ .........................
Pennsylvania_________ ______ _ ___________ _____ ______________
Tennessee.................... ...................................... ......................................

Grand total

_____________________________________________

1 Does not include funds made available by State.
2 Reports incomplete.
3 Grant of $42,118 made in August 1934, transferred to general relief funds in June 1935.
4 Less than Ho of 1 percent.







COST OF LIVING

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




77




Changes in the Cost of Living in the United States

I

N D E X numbers showing changes in the cost of goods purchased
by wage earners and lower-salaried workers have been published
for a number of years by the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
These index numbers are constructed by pricing at each date the
goods and services which were shown by a study covering 1917-19
to be most important in the family spending of wage earners and
lower-salaried workers. At that time 12,096 families in 92 cities
were interviewed in regard to their expenditures. The data were
published in Bulletin No. 357: Cost of Living in the United States.
From this material weights for individual items of food, clothing, fuel
and light, house-furnishing goods, and miscellaneous items, and group
weights for combining the separate indexes into an index of total
cost of living were derived.
The food prices used in this compilation were drawn from retailprice quotations secured in 51 cities. These quotations were obtained
from a representative number of grocers, meat dealers, bakers, and
dairymen in each city. Fuel and light prices, including gas, elec­
tricity, coal, and other fuel and light items, were obtained by mail
from regular correspondents. All other prices were secured in 32
cities by personal visits of representatives of the Bureau.
Prices of men’s and boys’ clothing were secured on 31 articles.
The principal articles were suits, overcoats, hats, caps, overalls,
shoes, rubbers, repair of shoes, underwear, and furnishings. Prices
of women’s and girls’ clothing were taken on 37 articles, including
coats, dresses, shoes, rubbers, repair of shoes, hosiery, underclothing,
and yard goods used in making aprons.
The number of dwellings for which rents were secured varied from
400 in Mobile to 2,500 in New York City.
The 20 furniture and house-furnishing articles on which prices were
obtained included living-room furniture, dining room and bedroom
suites, rugs, linoleum, household linens, bedding, sewing machines,
stoves, brooms, refrigerators, and kitchen tables.
The miscellaneous group of items included transportation costs,
motion pictures, newspapers, medical and dental services, hospital
care, spectacles, laundry, cleaning supplies, barber service, toilet
articles and preparations, telephone rates for residential service, and
tobacco products.
For each of the items included in the clothing, house-furnishing
goods, and the miscellaneous groups, 4 quotations were secured in
each city except in New York where 5 quotations were obtained.
For items such as street-car fares, telephone rates, and newspapers,
four quotations were not always possible.
Since 1919, when the indexes were first computed, certain changes
in the list of goods priced have been made as a result of fundamental
changes in consumer purchasing habits, but comparisons from one
pricing period to another are based on the cost of goods of identical
kind and quality.




79

80

COST OF LIVING

These index numbers present changes in the cost of the goods and
services purchased by families of wage earners and lower-salaried
workers from time to time in the 32 cities surveyed. They cannot
be used to measure differences in the cost of these goods from city
to city. Insofar as possible the kind and quality of the goods priced
in each city have been maintained constant throughout the period
in which the Bureau has been gathering retail prices, but the quality
of the goods priced varies from city to city with the purchasing
habits of moderate-income families in these cities.
There are serious technical obstacles in the way of determining the
cost of the same level of living from one part of the country to another.
Differences in climate and custom make it difficult to determine what
goods must be included in the budgets which would provide the same
level of living in, for example, New Orleans and Boston. And even
if such budgets had been agreed upon, the problem of pricing goods
of identical quality in different communities would not have been
solved. Most consumers’ goods are not graded according to standard
specifications, and even store buyers are frequently ignorant of the
technical description of the goods they buy and sell.
The 1917-19 study still furnishes the most recent comprehensive
data on consumption weights, and on that account these weights,
used in the series of index numbers presented hereafter, still represent
goods purchased by wage earners and lower-salaried workers at that
period. A new study of family expenditures was begun in the latter
part of 1934. This will provide weights reflecting present-day con­
sumption more completely. Pending a basic change in consumption
weights three methodological changes were incorporated in the indexes
at the March 1935 pricing period and revisions were carried back to
the base years.
These changes are as follows: (1) In the food-cost indexes {a) the
application of revised weights to food prices from 1919 when prices
for 42 foods first became available, and (6) the inclusion from January
1935 of a much larger number of foods than were used previously in
the calculation of the food-cost indexes, (2) a change in the method
of combining group indexes to obtain the index of the cost of all items
in each city, and (3) the combination of the indexes for given cities
into a composite index for the larger cities of the United States by
means of weights representing the population of the metropolitan
areas where retail prices are collected, and of adjacent metropolitan
areas where prices are considered to move in a similar fashion.
Changes in the Cost of Living for the Country as a Whole, 1913-35
F r o m the figures for the 32 cities a combined index number has been
computed, and this combination is assumed to be fairly representative
of the United States as a whole. The index number for the United
States has been based on the year 1913, and all changes have been
calculated on this basis.
Table 1 gives index numbers showing changes in the cost of living
for the United States as a whole (32 cities combined) for the periods for
which surveys have been made by the Bureau.




81

CHANGES IN THE UNITED STATES

T a ble 1 —IN D E X E S OF COST OF GOODS PURCH ASED B Y W A G E EAR N ER S A N D
L O W E R -SA L A R IE D W O R K E R S IN 32 L AR GE CITIES OF T H E U N IT E D STATES CO M ­
B IN E D , 1913 TO O C T O B ER 1935
Index numbers (1913=100)
Date
All items

Food

Clothing

Rent

HouseFuel and furnish­
light
ing goods

Miscel­
laneous

Average, 1913......... .....................

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

December 1914________________
December 1915________________
December 1916. ______ _________
December 1917...........................
December 1918_____ ________
June 1919_____________________
December 1919............ .
......
June 1920_________ ____________
December 1920_______________
M ay 1921____ _____ __________
September 1921_______________
December 1921_______________
March 1922____ ______________
June 1922__________ _____ __ September 1922_______________
December 1922............ . ...........
March 1923___________________
June 1923._____ _____
_____
September 1923_______________
December 1923 _________ ____
March 1924____ ______ _______
June 1924_____________________
September 1924_______________
December 1924________________
June 1925_____________________
December 1925_______________
June 1926__________ _______ _
December 1926 ______________
June 1927____________ _______
December 1927______________
June 1928________________ ____
December 1928..................___ __
June 1929_____________________
December 1929_______ _____ .
June 1930__________ _________
December 1930 _______________
June 1931_______ ____ _______
December 1931____ __________
June 1932..____ ______________
December 1932 ___ ____ __
June 1933_____________________
December 1933______________ .
June 1934. ___________ _______
November 15, 1934 ___________
March 15, 1935 _______________
July 15, 1935__________________
October 15,1935___ _________

102.7
104.7
116.6
138.3
166.9
171.1
191.4
211.3
195.6
179.1
177. 2
174.8
168.8
169.0
168.0
170.3
170.0
171.8
174.5
174. 7
172.5
172.3
172.9
174.3
176.7
181.3
178. 7
178.3
177. 7
175.1
172.9
173.3
172.8
173. 7
170.3
163. 6
153.9
148.4
138.9
133. 5
129. 8
134. 6
136. 5
137.8
140.4
140. 2
140.7

105.0
105.0
126.0
157.0
187.3
185.9
200.4
231.6
183.3
151.8
161. 7
157.9
148.1
151.5
147.9
153.2
149.9
154.0
159.4
157.7
151.9
152.1
154.1
157.7
165.1
176.1
172.6
171.3
172.2
165.8
162.4
163.6
164.3
167.5
160.4
145.9
127.7
120.8
107.2
102.6
102.8
110.0
116.1
119.1
126.3
127.1
127.1

101.0
104.7
120.0
149.1
213.4
231.1
286.3
302.6
271.1
233.0
201.3
192.5
183.8
180.3
178.2
178.4
181.0
181.4
182.9
182.8
182.2
180.6
178.7
177. 5
176.9
175.8
174.2
172.7
171.0
168.7
168.4
167.4
166.6
165.6
164.3
158.1
149.7
139.3
131.9
124. 7
122.8
136. 7
139.8
139. 7
139.9
139.6
140.1

100.0
101.5
102.3
100.1
105.3
109.6
119.0
129.2
142.5
150.9
151.9
154.4
154.1
154.6
154.9
156.0
156.8
158.4
159.9
162.3
163.2
164.9
165.1
165. 6
165.1
165.0
163.5
162.8
161.1
159.4
157.2
155.5
153.5
151.9
149.8
146.7
142.1
136.6
127.8
118. 3
108.7
104.0
102.1
102.0
101.8
102.1
103.1

101.0
101.0
108.4
124.1
146.0
144.2
153.1
169.3
192.0
182.2
181.6
183.4
178.1
177.2
186.6
189.0
187.7
182.7
184.8
187.2
185.0
180.8
183.1
184.3
181.4
196.0
185.2
191.4
184.8
187.0
181.6
185.3
180.2
184.2
178.1
182.2
174.2
177.0
165.0
166.9
157.8
167.3
162.9
165.4
165.9
157.8
163.0

104.0
110.6
127.8
150.6
205.0
218.0
257.8
287.2
278.3
239.7
216.3
210.5
199.1
195.5
195.8
201.8
211.0
215.5
215.7
215.6
214.0
208.4
206.7
207.7
205.2
205.0
200.9
198.6
195.8
195.0
191.0
189.8
189.1
188.4
186.1
178.4
166.2
156.9
143.4
137.5
137.8
154.1
157.2
158.3
159.4
159.8
161.4

103.0
107.4
113.3
140.5
163.3
168.0
185.4
197.8
205. 8
205.8
204.4
203.4
200.1
198.4
197.9
197.3
197.5
197.6
198.6
199.4
198.9
199.1
199.1
199.8
201.1
201.6
201.5
202.1
202.8
203.7
203.6
205.0
205.4
206.1
206.8
206.3
205.0
203.1
200.2
197.1
192.3
193.0
192.7
192.9
193.1
192.8
192.6

Changes in Individual Cities
C h a n g e s in the cost of living as a whole are shown in tables 2 and
3 in the form of percentage changes, which have been calculated from
the earliest base period for each city. The figures given are for
December at least of each year through 1924, semiannually thereafter
until November 1934, and for three periods in 1935. Studies in the 32
cities did not all begin in the same year. Therefore, the percentage
changes shown in table 2 cover 19 cities and are computed from
December 1914.

19205— 36------- 7




82

COST OF LIVING

T a b l e 2 .—P E R C E N T A G E INC REASE i OVER D E C E M B E R 1914 IN COST OF GOODS PU R ­
CH ASED B Y W A G E EAR N ER S A N D L O W ER -SAL AR IED W O R K E R S IN 19 LAR G E
CITIES
New England
Date

Boston,
Mass.

December 1915____ __________
December 1916_______________
December 1917____ __________
December 1918_______________
June 1919_________ __________
December 1919.
_____
June 1920_____________________
December 1920_______________
M ay 1921____ ________________
September 1921_______ _____
December 1921_____. . _______
March 1922___________________
June 1922_________ ____________
September 1922 _______ ______
December 1922________________
March 1923-_____
________
June 1923 ___________________
September 1923 ______________
December 1923, __________ ._
March 1924___________________
June 1924_____________________
September 1924 _____________
December 1924 _ _________ . .
June 1925-___________________
December 1925._______________
June 1926-________________ . .
December 1926___________
June 1927____ ________________
December 1927
_________
June 1928________________ ____
December 1928___ ___________
June 1929_____________________
December 1929. . . ________
June 1930______________ _______
December 1930_____________ _
June 1931___________ ________
December 1931 _____ ________
June 1932____ _______________
December 1932___ ___________
June 1933.. __________________
December 1933___ ___________
June 1934______ ____________
November 15, 1934_________ __
March 15, 1935._______________
July 15, 1935________________ _
October 15, 1935_____ _______

Portland, Buffalo,
N. Y .
Maine

1.3
14.5
35.4
64.7
65.6
85.0
103.7
91.6
71.3
71.0
68.9
61.0
59.4
60.3
64.0
63.0
63.1
67.6
68.8
64.4
63.7
66.1
67.1
66.4
76.1
71.3
72.8
70.2
70.7
66.2
68.5
66.3
69.4
64.9
60.3
49. 3
45. 6
34. 5
31. 2
28.0
33.1
35.8
36.9
38.4
38.1
38.5

December 1915_______________ _________
December 1916- _____________________ .
December 1917_____________________ ___
December 1918________________ ________
June 1919. _______________ ____________
December 1919________ . . . ... .......... . . . .
June 1920 _____________________________
December 1920______ __________________
May 1921_______________________________
September 1921__________________________
December 1921________________________ .
March 1922................................. ...................
June 1922_____ ____ ____________________
September 1922_______________________ .
December 1922____ _____________________
March 1923______________________________
June 1923_______________ _______________
September 1923__________________________
December 1923________________________ March 1924________- ____________________
June 1924________________________________
September 1924........................... ...................




0 .2

12.6
34.6
67.0
70.9
88.1
108. 2
•90.2
71.6
71.3
68.0
61.9
60.6
61.6
63. 5
64. 7
64.1
65.9
66.8
64.4
62.4
63.6
64.5
64.9
70.9
68.9
68.5
68.3
66.3
63.8
65.5
65.1
66.3
63.0
58.0
50.6
45.9
38.2
32. 2
30.2
36.7
38.4
39.8
40.2
41.1
40.7
East
North
Central
(con.)—
Detroit,
Mich.

Date

i Figures in italics represent decrease.

Middle Atlantic

3.3
20. 7
46.4
75.0
82.6
105.0
136.1
118.3
95.3
90.0
84.5
78.1
79.0
78.4
80.3
82.2
79.7
88.6
87.3
86.0
86.3
84.4

3.3
20.7
44.8
74.9
80.3
96.6
119.0
98.4
81.4
80.4
77.9
73.3
72.6
73.5
75.5
75.2
78.3
82.1
80.9
78.8
78.0
79.0
80.3
84.3
89.2
89.1
87.6
86.9
84.0
83.7
82.7
83.2
83.9
81.4
72.9
62.8
55.1
48.8
41.8
38.6
42.6
45.0
44.5
47.5
48.3
47.5

East North Central

Phila­
delphia,
Pa.

York,
N. Y.
1.7
14.0
38.8
69.4
72.6
94.7
110.1
97.0
80.2
79.5
80.2
72.0
72.8
72.0
75.7
74.2
75.1
77.5
79.1
75.3
75.3
75. 7
78.7
78.5
86.1
81.9
82.5
81.0
82.2
78.2
79. 6
78.9
80.4
75.6
71.5
62.0
56.6
49.6
44.0
38.8
43.1
45.4
46.0
48.6
47.6
48.2

Chicago,
111.

1.3
13.6
39.0
67.4
71.9
89.3
109.2
95.5
78.3
75.6
74.0
69.8
70.4
66.3
69.8
70.2
73.5
75.4
75.0
73.3
73.9
73.5
76.8
80.8
85.3
84.4
83.9
81.7
79.9
77.8
75.2
74.6
75.8
71.8
65.9
57.8
51.9
41.4
35.2
31.9
37.9
40.6
40.1
41.5
41.5
42.3

2.4
16.4
35.2
63.4
66.9
89.5
108.3
89.0
79.5
77.9
75.3
69.4
69.8
69.8
71.4
71.8
73.7
76.8
76.9
76.0
77.4
78.1
79.1
82.3
85.6
83.2
83.2
82.7
78.5
76.2
76.8
76.2
77.6
74.1
66.6
56.6
50.3
37.3
30.8
26.0
28.9
29.5
30.9
35.7
35.3
35.5

1.9
16.6
38.4
66.2
73.4
93.7
118.9
107.5
90.6
86.1
82.3
72.9
73.5
71. 5
75.6
76.8
81.0
83.6
82.4
80.7
79.8
80.8
80.7
84. 7
86.1
86.3
84.9
85.2
80. 5
80.1
78.1
79.1
77.6
77.7
69.3
58.4
53.1
46.2
38.8
36.5
40.1
42.8
43.0
47.6
47.7
47.9

Savan­
nah, Ga.

Washing-

Cleve­
land,
Ohio

South Atlantic
Balti­
more,
Md.
(2
)
16.1
43.9
75.4
77.9
92.6
114.1
95.0
79.6
79.3
75.8
71.9
71.9
70.1
72.6
73.1
76.9
78.5
77.3
75.8
76.3
75.3

Jackson­ Norfolk,
Va.
ville, Fla.
0.8
11.6
35.3
65.9
70.9
91.9
109.6
96.8
80.3
75.5
72.0
66.0
64.8
62.7
64.8
64.5
65.8
68.1
68.4
66.8
65.1
67.5

2 Change less than 0.05 percent.

0.6
12.5
39.9
79.1
84.5
105.5
125.6
108.5
89.1
86.3
81.0
74.7
72.9
70.8
70.7
70.9
73.3
75.0
72.7
71.8
69.8
70.3
3April 1919.

0 .8

12.0
36.0
68.5
71.6
88.8
101.9
90.6
73.0
68.9
63.7
56.4
56.3
55.5
56.5
56.3
56.4
56.6
55.8
54.5
53.1
53.7

D. C.
0.8
12.3
41.7
64.5
3 62.3
4 75.5
95.4
79.0
61.5
63.9
59.9
55.3
56.5
54.6
56.3
55.5
59.7
60.8
59.4
57.4
57.4
57.4

4 November 1919-

83

CHANGES IN THE UNITED STATES

T a b l e 2 .—P E R C E N T A G E IN C REASE i OVER D E C E M B E R 1914 IN COST OF GOODS PUR’
CH ASED B Y W A G E E AR N ER S A N D L O W ER -SAL AR IED W O R K E R S IN 19 L AR GE
CITIES—Continued

Date

December 1924____ _____________________
June 1925______________________________ _
December 1925_________________________
June 1926________________________________
December 1926__________________________
June 1927_______________________________
December 1927__________________________
June 1928— _____________ _______________
December 1928__________________________
June 1929................ .............. ............ ..............
December 1929____ _____________________
June 1930— ____ __________ ___________—
December 1930__________________________
June 1931_______ _______________________
December 1931__________________________
June 1932________________________________
December 1932. ________________________
June 1933___ __________________________
December 1933__________________________
June 1934________________________________
November 15, 1934______________________
March 15, 1935______________ ________
July 15, 1935_____________________________
October 15, 1935. _ ______ ______________

Date

December 1915______ _____ _____ ______
December 1916. _ _ _ ___ ______________ _
December 1917__________ _______
_____
December 1918_____ _______ _ _________
June 1919_„_____ ____________ _________
December 1919______________________ ___
June 1920_____________________ _________
December 1920_____ __ ._ . _______
May 1921_______________________________
September 1921_________________________
December 1921 _
___ ___ __ _
March 1922______________________________
June 1922__________ ____________ ______
September 1922___ _________ ________
December 1922_________ _____________ .
March 1923____________________________
June 1923__________________ _________ _
September 1923_________________________
December 1923_________ _______________
March 1924______________________________
June 1924 ______________________________
September 1924________ ________________
December 1924__ ___ __ ______________ _
June 1925_________ _____________ _ _ ___
December 1925. ______ _________________
June 1926________ __________ _________
December 1926. ___________ _____ ______
June 1927____________ _________________
December 1927. __ ______________________
June 1928________ ______________ _____
December 1928. _____________ _________
June 1929___________________________ _ _
December 1929______ __ __ ___ _________
June 1930_____________________ _________
December 1930. ___________ ___________
June 1931_________ _____________________
December 1931________________________ _
June 1932....... ............ ............. ............ ..........
December 1932........ ...
........ ..................
June 1933___ _____ ___ ______________
December 1933_______________ ___________
June 1934__________ ____________________
November 15,1934________ __
_______
March 15, 1935__________________________
July 15, 1935....................................................
October 15, 1935___________________ ______
1 Figures in italics represent decrease.




East
North
Central
(con.)—
Detroit,
Mich.
84.2
88.1
91.1
88.8
86.9
87.3
81.5
79.1
79.3
80.8
80.3
76.1
64.3
53.3
43.7
33.2
26.3
22.2
28.7
33.1
33.9
38.2
39.7
41.3

South Atlantic
BaltiIMde'
76.7
80.7
85.2
83.4
81.8
81.1
77.6
77.5
75.8
76.9
78.3
76.6
69.9
61.0
55.9
46.7
41.7
37.8
44.4
45.5
47.0
48.8
49.8
50.3

Jackson­
ville, Fla.

Norfolk,
Va.

Savan­
nah, Ga.

Washing­
ton,
D . C.

67.4
68.6
81.9
83.8
81.7
76.7
72.0
66.5
65.6
63.9
62.1
58.6
52.9
44.1
37.0
28.6
24.0
20.2
27.3
29.2
30.2
31.3
32.6
33.0

71.9
72.9
78.1
75.4
74.8
76.4
73.1
71.8
72.3
72.0
73.5
70.4
64.6
54.8
48.6
40.1
35.8
30.9
39.6
42.3
43.0
44.7
44.0
45.1

53.7
55.9
61.6
•59.6
58.4
57.6
55.9
54.6
55.5
54.3
54.1
51.1
45.3
39.1
31.3
23.3
19.5
16.3
22.0
22.9
23.8
24.7
25.1
26.5

59.3
61.6
65.5
64.6
63.5
60.2
58.7
55.9
57.2
57.9
57.8
55.3
51.0
42.8
38.7
30.8
26.2
24.6
30.5
32.4
33.9
36.0
36.5
37.7

Pacific
East
West
South
South
Central- Central— Los An­
San
Portland,
Mobile, Houston,
geles,
Francis­
Oreg.
Ala.
Tex.
Calif.
co, Calif.
0 .2

12.1
39.4
68.9
73.2
91.7
107.6
92.6
72.8
70.7
65.8
59.0
59.1
58. 7
60.2
59.7
61.0
63.0
63.0
60.6
58.8
62.1
64.0
65.5
70.7
69.2
69.5
68.9
66.9
65.3
66.0
64.6
65.7
62.8
55.7
44.9
39.0
28.9
25.5
22.0
29.2
29.0
32.0
34.0
33.2
33.9

0 .3

13.9
38.6
66.9
71.8
94.4
107.3
98.4
77.5
73.9
72.1
67.1
65.9
65.4
67.5
65.4
66.6
67.8
69. 2
66. 7
63.9
65.8
67.9
69.4
72.1
67.6
68.4
65.1
65.5
62.4
63.8
63. 5
65.5
61.3
53.3
44.4
40.0
27.9
21. 2
20.2
26. 7
27.2
31.5
33.1
31.4
33.3

1.9

7.0
26.6
54.6
60.3
82.0
99.4
93.8
80.3
78.4
78.5
76*6
76.1
75.2
76.3
75.5
78.5
80.0
81.7
80.7
78.5
79.4
77.7
80.0
80.1
73.3
73. 7
74.7
72.1
67.9
71.3
69.6
69.4
65.2
58.8
48.6
45.5
36.2
31.7
26.0
29.9
29.1
32.9
35.1
34.5
34.8

S .7

0 .9

3.8
25.9
59.2
65.1
81.5
101.8
79.6
63.7
62.7
60.4
55.6
55.2
57.2
58.0
57.1
57.4
58.8
60.1
58.2
56.3
57.2
57.6
59.0
59.3
57.3
56.7
56.6
54.0
51.4
52.3
50.4
51.6
50.4
41.8
35.2
31.2
22.4
19.0
15.0
17.7
19.4
22.7
24.7
24.7
25.4

7.5
25.7
52.9
58.8
76.0
89.5
78.7
64.1
62.7
62. 5
58. 5
57.8
56. 7
58.1
56.1
57.7
60.2
61.8
58.0
57.9
58.7
59.9
63.4
65.4
61.8
62.1
62.4
61.0
59.4
61.5
60.3
60.7
57.4
52.1
43.7
39.1
31.9
29.2
25.9
30.1
31. 2
34.3
34.9
33.4
34.5

Seattle,
Wash.
1.0

6.4
28.4
67.5
75.3
98.4
114.3
95.2
82.8
77.8
74.3
71.0
70.4
69.3
68.9
64.3
69.3
70.8
70.4
68.9
70.1
69.2
70.0
74.3
74.7
72.5
71.4
73.1
68.5
67.7
6 8 .0

69.0
69.8
68.5
59.2
54.1
48.8
39.7
34.0
33.2
34.9
35.6
37.8
40.1
40.3
40.2

84

COST OF LIVING

Table 3 gives similar information for 13 cities for which reports
were begun in December 1917. This date is therefore used as the base
in computing the percentage changes.
T a ble 3 .—PER C E N T A G E INC REASE i OVER D E C E M B E R 1917 IN COST OF GOODS P U R ­
CHASED B Y W A G E EAR N E R S A N D SA L A R IE D W O R K E R S IN 13 LARGE CITIES
Middle Atlantic
Date

December 1918_______________
June 1919_____________________
December 1919_____ ________
June 1920________ ______ ______
December 1920_______________
May 1921_____________________
September 1921__________ ____
December 1921..................... .......
March 1922________ __________
June 1922_________ ____________
September 1922______ ____ ____
December 1922........................ .
March 1923-------- ---------- ---------_
June 1923............... .......................
September 1923..........................
December 1923.............................
March 1924........... - ............ .........
June 1924............... .......................
September 1924. _______ _______
December 1924.............. ..............
June 1925_____________________
December 1925_____________
June 1926____ ________________
December 1926________________
June 1927 ............... .....................
December 1927_______________
June 1928_________ ___________
December 1928............................
June 1929_________ ____________
December 1929___ ____________
June 1930-............. .......... ..........
December 1930-----------------------June 1931________ ____________
December 1931_________ _____
June 1932_____________________
December 1932_______________
June 1933.......................................
December 1933............................
June 1934_____________________
November 15, 1934____________
March 15, 1935________________
July 15, 1935__________ ________
October 15, 1935________ ______

Pitts­
burgh,
Pa.
19.5
22.3
35.7
50.6
39.5
29.1
26.3
24.1
19.6
20.1
19.6
21.1
21.1
23.7
24.5
23.8
22.6
24.6
25.1
26.1
28.7
30.9
29.6
29.2
29.0
26.7
25.1
26.5
26.1
25.4
23.4
17.4
10.7
6.0
1 .6

• 4.8
8.4
4.8
2 .8
2 .7
.9
.9

•4

1 Figures in italics represent decrease.
2 Change less than 0.05 percent.




East North Central

Scranton, Cincin­
Pa.
nati, Ohio

22.8
27.0
38.3
56.2
40.6
30.7
29.5
28.7
23.8
24.7
22.2
24.6
24.9
26.3
27.8
28.2
26.5
26.1
27.3
28.5
31.3
36.1
33.7
33.3
32.9
31.5
30.6
30.9
30.3
30.5
27.1
22.2
14.0
9.8
2.8
.2
2 .6

2.7
3.8
3.6
5.2
5.5
6.3

16.9
22.2
35.3
51.5
35.4
23.6
21.2
17.0
14.5
16.4
14.6
14.9
16.2
18.8
19.4
18.8
19.2
19.1
19.1
19.4
25.8
26.6
27.1
26.2
28.4
23.3
24.0
23.0
24.7
25.9
24.3
19.2
11.9
7.7
./
8 .9
6 .6
2 .9
1.6
.8

2.6
1.3
1.9

Indian­
apolis,
Ind.
18.8
21.7
36.9
56.4
37.8
25.0
25.2
20.7
17.6
19.8
19.2
19.8
21.0
22.1
24.4
21.8
21.0
21.0
22.3
22.4
24.1
26.8
25.1
24.2
25.6
20.7
20.3
19.6
19.6
20.8
19.3
12.8
4.8
.4
6 .6
9 .2
10. 4
7 .8
5 .5
6 .1
8 .1
8 .8
2 .9

West North Central

Kansas
City, Mo.

19.1
19.8
37.8
53.9
40.2
29.2
26.5
24.6
18.1
18.0
16.7
17.7
17.9
17.5
18.5
18.8
17.6
16.2
15.9
16.8
18.6
20.4
19.6
17.3
17.3
13.2
13.3
12.7
12.5
13.7
12.0
9.1
4.7
.3
6.9
9.4
11.1
9.7
8 .8
6 .7
5 .8
6. A
5 .6

Minne­
apolis,
Minn.

St. Louis,
Mo.

15.4
18.5
32.9
47.6
38.2
26.2
25.1
24.2
20.5
20.9
18.1
20.4
20.6
20.5
20.7
21.8
21.1
19.4
18.3
19.7
20.1
24.0
23.6
21.5
21.9
18.4
18.7
17.6
18.0
19.3
18.1
13.3
8.0
4.3

16.6
18.1
34.0
53.6
36.7
25.5
25.5
21.6
18.5
19.6
18.0
19.1
19.6
20.8
22.8
22.5
22.0
21.5
21.8
22.9
26.2
28.9
28.4
27.8
28.3
24.2
23.4
23.0
24.1
25.1
22.6
16.6
9.0
3.4

2 .5
5 .8
10.1
5 .7
4 .6
4 .1
2 .1
1 .8
2 .1

2. 1
6 .0
7 .5
5 .1
8 .1
2 .2

.2

.4

(2
)

85

CHANGES IN THE UNITED STATES

T able 3 .—P E R C E N T A G E IN C R E A SE i OVER D E C E M B E R 1917 IN COST OF GOODS PU R ­
CH ASED B Y W A G E E AR N ER S A N D L O W ER -SAL AR IED W O R K ER S IN 13 LAR GE
CITIES—Continued

South Atlantic

East South Central

West
South
Central

Mountain

Date
Atlanta,
Ga.

December 1918__________________________
June 1919_______________________________
December 1919__________________________
June 1920_____________________________ _
December 1920__________________________
May 1921_______________________________
September 1921--------------------------------------December 1921---------------------------------------March 1922_____________________________
June 1922________________________________
September 1922---------------------------------------December 1922_________________ _______
March 1923.:___________________________
June 1923____ ________________________ _
September 1923---------------------------------------December 1923__________________________
March 1924__________________ _________
June 1924________________________________
September 1924__________________________
December 1924________________________ ,
June 1925_______________________________
December 1925. ________________________
June 1926________________________________
December 1926__________________________
June 1927_______________________________
December 1927_______________________ __
June 1928_______________________________
December 1928___ : _____________________
June 1929_______________________________
December 1929__________________________
June 1930_______________________________
December 1930_______ ____________ ______
June 1931________________________________
December 1931____ ______________________
June 1932_________________________ ______
December 1932. . . . ____________________
June 1933________________________________
December 1933__________________________
June 1934___ . . . _____
. . . . ---------November 1934_____ ___________________
March 1935______________________________
July 1935____________________ __________
October 1935____________________________

19.5
24.6
36.7
51.5
37.0
24.7
21.7
18.2
14.9
15.3
14.5
14.1
14.5
15.5
17.1
15.3
13.7
13.8
13.9
14.1
17.6
20.4
19.0
16.9
19.4
13.6
14.6
14.3
13.0
12.8
8.8
4.1
2 .2
7 .6
12.1
1 6 .7
1 7.4
13.5
12.2
tO . 7
9 .2
9 .3
7 .9

Rich­
mond,
Va.
17.5
20.7
32.2
48.5
33.0
20.6
22.0
19.6
15.8
16.4
14.4
15.2
15.4
17.4
19.3
18.3
16.8
15.6
16.8
17.4
19.5
24.2
23.4
21.3
21.5
17.6
17.9
16.2
15.2
16.3
15.7
10.2
3.9
1.0
5 .3
1 0 .3
10.8
5 .9
4 .6
3.7
2 .3
2 .6
1 .4

Birming­
ham, Ala.

16.9
20.7
35.6
48.8
34.4
23.7
22.7
17.8
13.4
13.4
13.2
14.1
14.4
16.3
16.8
17.3
16.0
14.6
16.3
17.5
19.7
22.1
20.8
19.9
18.2
17.3
15.3
14.4
13.7
12.8
10.6
4.8
5 .3
9 .7
1 6.8
1 9 .6
21.1
1 7 .7
16.7
1 3 .9
1 3.7
13.1
11.7

Mem­
phis,
Tenn.

New Or­ Denver,
leans, La.
Colo.

18.0
23.1
37.7
52.5
41.9
29.3
29.5
26.7
22.4
22.5
21.9
21.5
22.4
23.4
24.2
24.1
22.6
21.3
22.2
22.7
24.0
26.5
24.4
23.4
23.3
19.8
19.1
19.6
19.8
19.3
18.4
12.7
5.3
1.3

17.5
19.3
33.3
42.7
36.7
26.0
25.6
24.7
23.0
21.5
20.3
20.2
19.5
20.2
21.6
22.1
21.3
19.2
20.4
22.3
22.2
24.2
21.6
22.8
23.1
21.5
20.1
21.1
19.5
20.3
17.6
12.6
3.5
2.7

5 .0
8 .9
9.7
6.1
5 .0
2 .7
1 .9
3.1
2 .9

3 .5
5 .6
8 .3
3 .8
3 .8
1 .5
.3
.3

1.0

20.3
26.2
40.1
55.6
41.3
31.3
30.1
28.0
23.4
24.1
21.9
23.5
23.1
24.5
25. 1
25.3
22.2
22.2
21.8
23.7
26.9
27.1
25.8
24.4
25.1
19.7
19.2
19.6
19.9
20.1
18.7
13.2
7.5
3.0
2 .8
6 .2
7 .5
5 .5
3 .3
1 .9

.8
.8
.5

i Figures in italics represent decrease.

The revised indexes of the cost of goods purchased by wage earners
and lower-salaried workers are now constructed quarterly, for each
of the 32 cities surveyed, and for these cities combined, using an average
of the years 1923-25 as the base (100). The new base was chosen in
order to make these indexes comparable with others frequently used
in conjunction with the cost-of-living index (notably the Bureau’s
indexes of employment and pay rolls and the indexes of industrial pro­
duction published by the Federal Reserve Board). The indexes for
the 32 cities and for these cities combined as of October 15, 1935, on
the 1923-25 base, are presented in table 4.
The new indexes on the 1923-25 base are comparable with the
figures published in tables 5 and 6 of the Bureau of Labor Statistics
pamphlet (serial no. R. 258), on Changes in Cost of Living, July 15,
1935, which show changes in costs from earlier dates. Persons
desiring indexes on the earlier bases may secure them by writing to
the Bureau of Labor Statistics.




86

eosf or1living

T a ble 4 —IN D E X E S OF THE COST OF GOODS PU R CH ASED B Y W A G E EAR N E R S A N D
L O W ER -SAL AR IED W O R K ER S, OCTO BER 15, 1935
[Average 1923-25=100]

Region and city

Average, 32 cities________ ____
New England:
Boston___________________
Portland, Maine........ Middle Atlantic:
Buffalo___________________
New Y o r k -,-____________
Philadelphia______________
Pittsburgh_ _____________
_
Scranton_
_ ____________
East North Central:
Chicago________________ Cincinnati________________
Cleveland________________
Detroit______________ ____
Indianapolis______________
West North Central:
Kansas City______________
Minneapolis________ ______
St. Louis__________ ______
South Atlantic:
________ ______
Atlanta_
Baltimore - _______ _____
Jacksonville -__ ______
Norfolk_______________ -Richmond________________
Savannah_ _____________
_
Washington, D. C________
East South Central:
Birmingham
- __ ____Memphis
__ _________
Mobile_______ - __________
West South Central:
Houston__________________
New Orleans_____ - _____
Mountain: Denver___________
Pacific:
Los Angeles _____________
Portland, Oreg___ _______
San Francisco___ ________
Seattle_ _________- - ____
_

All items

Food

Clothing

Rent

HouseFuel and furnish­ Miscella­
light
neous
ing goods

80.7

80.2

78.0

63.3

88.0

77.0

96.6

82.9
85.0

77.7
78.7

83.3
80.4

75.7
77.1

85.4
88.3

77.1
85.0

98.2
103.2

81.6
83.4
80.9
79.6
82.8

79.0
82.0
81.5
78.9
77.5

75.9
78.3
73.6
76.2
79.7

64.9
75.2
65.3
60.7
73.3

101.0
88.2
83.9
99.3
84.2

79.5
74.6
76.3
75.5
84.3

98.5
96.4
95.9
96.8
99.0

76.1
84.5
81.5
75.9
79.1

80.2
83.8
78.9
79.6
78.3

72.1
76.5
79.6
77.6
74.7

50.6
72.9
58.9
54.1
57.2

89.6
92.8
99.6
83.3
88.5

69.9
83.0
74.0
76.3
80.8

98.7
96.9
102.2
89.8
93.0

80.1
81.3
81.2

81.1
83.2
83.2

76.6
76.8
78.2

58.0
63.6
55.1

81.8
91.0
86.5

74.7
79.3
83.1

97.2
95.1
100.3

79.6
84.7
78.9
84.1
83.6
81.2
86.3

78.5
84.4
78.4
80.2
77.5
81.8
84.9

80.1
78.7
78.7
84.4
83.2
81.3
76.9

58.7
70.5
54.9
62.7
68.6
58.7
84.8

71.6
86.8
88.1
83.1
82.0
81.9
86.0

86.0
75.3
79.1
81.1
87.0
81.7
80.0

93.1
103.2
90.2
103.3
99.5
95.7
97.3

75.3
78.7
82.1

73.6
76.9
76.2

81.8
83.3
86.5

47.6
54.5
62.9

81.5
82.2
70.4

74.4
84.0
81.1

92.2
94.3
99.7

79.4
81.4
80.9

77.4
82.9
85.3

74.1
75.5
75.9

65/3
70.5
56.6

73.9
76.5
73.1

80.5
82.5
84.0

94.7
90.1
97.3

75.2
79.3
84.0
82.2

72.6
76.6
80.9
77.0

81.6
77.8
86.4
84.5

44.9
53.4
69.6
61.7

103.6
83.7
84.4
92.6

75.1
77.6
78.9
84.3

91.6
98.2
98.0
96.4

Changes in Cost of Living in the United States and
Foreign Countries
HE trend of cost of living in the United States and certain
foreign countries for June and December 1932, 1933, 1934, and
March, July, and October 1935 is shown in the following table. In
cases where data for October 1935 are not available, the latest infor­
mation is given and the month noted. The number of countries
included varies according to the available information.
A general index and index numbers for the individual groups of
items are presented for all countries shown with the exception of
Australia, Ireland, the Netherlands, Peru, South Africa, and Yugo­
slavia. Four countries publish a general index and an index number
for food only.
Caution should be observed in the use of the figures because of
differences in the base periods, in the number and kind of articles in­
cluded, and the number of localities represented. There are also
very radical differences in the method of the construction and calcu­
lation of the indexes.

T




87

CHANGES IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES

IN D E X N U M B ER S OF COST OF L IVIN G FOR SPECIFIED PERIODS FOR T H E U N IT E D
STATES A N D C E R T A IN FOREIGN CO U N TR IES

Country......................

United
States

Austra­
lia (30
towns)

Austria,
Vienna

Belgium

Canada

Czecho­
China,
Shanghai slovakia,
Prague

Estonia,
Tallinn

Food,
clothing,
fuel and
Food,
Food,
Food,
Food,
light,
clothing,
Food,
Food,
Food,
rent,
clothing, clothing, clothing,
fuel and clothing, clothing,
Commodities includ­
fuel and
fuel and fuel and clothing,
houserent,
light,
fuel and
ed............................... furnishlight,
fuel, rent,
light,
light,
miscel­
rent,
light,
sundries
rent,
rent,
rent,
ng goods, laneous
miscel­
rent, etc.
sundries1 sundries
miscel­
laneous sundries *
laneous
(revised)

Computing agency

Bureau
of Labor
Statistics

Base period................. 1913-100
General:
1932—June...........
December,.
1933—June...........
December..
1934—June............
December..
1935—March........
July.......... October___
Food;
1932—June...........
December1933—June...........
December—
1934—June...........
December—
1935—March____
July............
October___
Clothing:
19 3 2 -—
June______
December—
1933—June______
December1934—June.........
December1935—March........
July______
October___
Fuel and light:
1932—June______
December—
1933—June.........
December—
1934—June______
December—
1935—March.___
July______
October___
Rent:
1932—June______
December1933—Junel_____
December1934—June______
December1935—March........
July............
October___

1923-27
-1,000

Ministry
Domin­
of Labor ion Bu­
and
reau of
Social
Statistics
Welfare

National
Bureau
Tariff
Office of of Statis­
Com­
Statistics
tics
mission

July 1914 1921-100 1926-100
-100

1926-100

July 1914 1913-100
-100

138.9
133.5
129.8
134.6
136.5
4 137.8
140.4
140.2
140.7

3 835
3 811
3 803
3 805
3 818
3 820
3 824
3 836

109
107
106
106
105
105
104
105
106

179.7
187.9
177.2
183.3
168.5
174.5
164.7
174.8
185.5

81.0
79.5
77.0
77.9
78.0
78.9
78.8
78.8
80.4

121.3
108.0
105.4
102.6
98.5
110.4
104.8
105.2
103.9

103.6
103.8
102.7
99.6
84.7
82.7
83.3
86.5
85.5

95
89
85
90
88
85
87
87
93

107.2
102.6
102.8
110.0
116.1
4 119.1
126.3
127.1
127.1

803
759
759
769
777
794
795
812
827

113
109
106
104
102
100
98
102
103

143.8
156.9
143.4
153.6
134.0
144.0
130.8
143.8
159.5

62.1
64.0
62.2
66.6
67.6
69.3
69.5
69.3
72.4

107.3
84.5
84.1
79.8
75.4
90.4
85.7
90.3
86.3

101.4
102.3
98.8
92.7
79.6
75.8
76.7
83.5
81.4

80
75
74
79
77
72
76
76
83

131.9
124.7
122.8
136.7
139.8
4 139. 7
139.9
139.6
140.1

162
162
159
157
157
157
157
157
157

236.1
231.9
225.2
222.3
215.9
212.0
206.6
214.1
215.1

71.9
69.2
66.1
69.2
70.1
71.0
70.3
69.9
71.6

98. 3
92.0
89.5
87.4
83.4
82.7
80.7
77.9
77.6

100.5
96.1
95.4
95.4
81.0
82.1
83.0
83.0
83.2

141
136
120
134
129
129
128
131
135

165.0
166.9
157.8
167.3
162.9
4 165.4
165.9
157.8
163.0

104
105
105
112
109
109
109
109
109

173.8
177.0
164.9
161.7
151. 7
149.6
149.8
155.0
154.1

90.7
89.1
87.7
87.3
87.2
88.4
88.7
84.7
86.5

131.7
128.7
115.9
114.4
101. 2
113.7
123.3
101.8
116.3

117.5
117.4
114.7
114.7
95.6
96.2
96.2
93.7
94.7

65
64
57
60
60
62
54
56
65

127.8
118.3
108.7
104.0
102.1
4 102.0
101.8
102.1
103.1

28
28
28
28
29
31
31
31
31

398. 5
397.5
394.8
393.1
392.2
391.2
389.8
391.6
392.0

93.9
90.0
84.0
80.4
79.7
80.3
80.3
81.4
82.6

107.3
108.8
109.8
110.2
110.3
111.4
111.4
111.4
111.0

54.4
64.4
54.9
54.9
45.7
45.7
45.7
45.7
45.7

144
135
120
114
112
112
112
112
116

In schillings.




Bureau
Federal
of Cen­ ’ Statis­
sus and
tical
Statistics Bureau

a Gold.

3 Quarter.

4 November.

88

COST OF LIVING

IN D E X N U M B E R S OF COST OF LIVIN G FOR SPECIFIED PERIODS FOR TH E U N IT E D
STATES A N D C E R T A IN FOREIGN CO U N TR IES—Continued

France,
Paris

Country,..................... Finland

Germany Hungary

India,
Bombay

Ireland

Italy,
Milan

Nether­
lands,
Amster­
dam

Food,
Food,
Food,
Food,
Food,
Food,
Food,
clothing, clothing, clothing, clothing, clothing, clothing, clothing,
Food,
Commodities includ­
fuel and fuel and all com­
fuel and fuel and fuel and
fuel and
light,
ed............................... fuel, rent,
light,
light,
light,
light,
modities
light,
light,
rent, sun­ rent, sun­
rent, sun­ rent, sun­
taxes, etc.
rent
rent
dries
dries
dries
dries
Commis­
sion for
study of
cost of
living

Federal
Statisti­
cal Bu­
reau

Computing agency—

Ministry
of Social
Affairs

Base period.................

January- January1913-14=
June
June
1914=
1914=
100
100
100

General:
1932—June______
December..
1933—June............
December1934—June............
December1935—March........
July............
October___
Food:
1932—June............
December1933—June............
December1934—June______
December1935—March____
July.......... .
October___
Clothing:
1932—June............
December. _
1933—June______
December1934—June........ .
December1935—M arch.. .
July..........
October___
Fuel and light:
1932—June______
December1933—June. i ____
December. .
1934—June............
December..
1935—March........
July......... .
October___
Rent:
1932—June............
December. ,
1933—June............
December..
1934—June............
December..
1935—March........
July,
October___




Depart­ Munici­
Central
ment of pal Ad­
Labor
Office of Industry Industry
Statistics
and Com­ minis­
tration
merce

1913=
100

July
1914=
100

July
1914=
100

Bureau
of Sta­
tistics

January1911-13=
June
100
1914=100

1,003.4
1,021.1
985.3
990.6
965.8
1,001.2
979.0
996.0
1,021.3

3 535
s 516
3 516
3 526
3 522
3 504
3 494
3 469

120.5
118.2
118.0
120.6
120.5
122.2
122.2
124.3
122.8

98.9
94.8
92.1
87.8
90.4
88.2
89.4
92.8
93.0

107
110
104
98
95
99
98
101
103

s 159
3 155
3 148
3 156
3 149
3 157
3 153
3 156
3 162

471.7
468.0
446.7
449.9
419.3
423.8
422.9
430.3

140.9
140.2
137.4
142.5
139.9
138.8
136.7
s 135.8
s 135.6

871.0
910.2
881.7
881.2
852.0
922.1
884.6
908.9
947.1

3 567
3 531
3 532
3 548
3 644
3 516
3 494
3 466

115.6
112.9
113.7
117.8
117.8
119.1
118.8
122.9
119. 6

93.3
86.7
84.4
74.3
79.6
75.7
78.2
84.7
84. 2

99
103
95
88
85
90
89
93
94

3 144
3 135
3 126
3 140
3 129
3 143
3 136
3 140

438.0
433.9
402.9
408.9
383.3
390.5
389.8
397.4

119.2
119.2
116.5
128.3
123.1
122.3
118.3
5 117.6

979.1
978.2
963.6
958.6
958.0
957.7
956.7
956.3
959.4

3

499
3 499
3 499
3 504
3 504
3 490
3 490
3 490

112.0
107.3
105.8
108.2
109.8
116.1
117.2
117.8
118.4

111.2
109.1
101.3
104.4
101.7
101.7
101.7
101.7
103.6

115
116
115
111
111
114
114
112
112

371.8
366.1
347.7
347.6
329.3
331.4
331.4
352.5

865.9
887.4
878. 1
897.1
898.8
896.7
922.3
913.4
938.6

3 592
3 617
3 585
3 613
3 563
3 595
3 592
3 533

125.4
128.0
125.1
128.0
124.6
127.5
127.6
124.6
126.8

136.6
133.7
128.8
133.7
135.2
133.7
133.1
132.7
134.6

137
137
136
136
136
136
136
136
136

403.6
394.4
393.3
392.2
382.2
388.5
382.9
384.4

1,263.9
1,252.0
1,132.1
1,132.1
1,082.6
1,082. 6
1,082.6
1,101. 2
1,101.2

3 360
3 375
375
3 375
3 375
3 375
3 400
3 363

121.4
121.4
121.3
121.3
121.3
121.2
121.2
121.2
121.3

86.3
86.3
86.3
86.3
86.3
86.3
86.3
86.3
86.3

158
158
158
158
158
158
158
158
158

445.1
490.5
488.9
491.0
431.9
431.7
431.1
431.1

3 Quarter.

3

« For preceding month.

89

CHANGES IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES

IN D E X N U M B ER S OF COST OF LIVIN G FOR SPECIFIED PERIODS FOR T H E U N IT E D
STATES A N D C E R T A IN FOREIGN C OU N TR IES—Continued
United
King­
dom

Yugo­
slavia,
Beograd

New
Zealand

Norway

Peru,
Lima

South
Africa

Sweden

Switzer­
land

Food,
clothing,
Commodities includ­
fuel,
ed.............................
light,
rent.
sundries

Food,
clothing,
fuel,
light,
rent,
sundries

Food,
clothing,
rent,
sundries

Food,
fuel,
light,
rent,
sundries

Food,
clothing,
fuel and
light,
rent,
taxation,
sundries

Food,
clothing,
fuel,
light,
rent,
sundries

Food,
clothing,
Food,
fuel,
clothing,
light,
fuel and
rent,
light
sundries

Office of Office of Board of
Census
Social
Investi­
and
gations Statistics Welfare

Federal
Labor
Office

Ministry National
of Labor
Bank

Country .....................

Census
Central
Computing agency... and Sta­ Statisti­
tistics
cal Office
Office

1914 1913=100
Base period................. 1926-30= July100
=
1,000
General:
1932—June...........
December.
1933—June...........
December.
1934—June______
December .
1935—March........
July______
October___
Food:
1932—June______
December.
1933— June______
December .
1934—June______
December .
1935—March........
July............
October___
Clothing:
1932—June______
December .
1933—June...........
December.
1934—June______
December.
1935—March._ __
July______
October___
Fuel and light:
1932— June______
December.
1933— June______
December.
1934— June__ _.
December 1
1935— March____
July______
October___
Rent:
1932- -June
December.
1933- -June.
December.
1934—June______
December.
1935—March. __
July______
October___
3 Quarter.




1914=
1,000

July 1914 June 1914 July 1914
=100
=100
=100

1926=
100

*839
*806
3 796
*800
*812
*811
3 826
3 386
3851

149
148
147
146
148
149
149
151
153

152
150
149
148
151
150
152
152
153

1,179
1,146
1,148
1,174
1,164
1,157
1.157
1,156
1,146

3 157
3 156
3 153
3 154
3 153
3 155
3 155
* 156
3 157

138
134
131
131
129
129
127
128
129

142
143
136
143
138
144
141
143
145

75.1
74.3
74.5
74.2
70.9
69.4
70.7
68.0
69.9

778
713
723
751
778
792
819
826
875

133
132
130
129
132
134
135
140
142

144
137
138
140
149
146
148
147
147

963
926
989
1,050
1,041
1,021
1,024
1,019
998

3125
3 125
3 119
3 123
3 120
3 125
3 124
3 129
s 131

125
120
116
117
115
114
112
115
117

123
125
114
126
117
127
122
126
128

77.0
76.0
75.3
73.5
72.2
70.9
72.6
71.0
72.5

*826
*784
* 821
*823
» 833
*834
* 831
*829
3 825

144
143
142
143
144
144
144
143
145

159
147
150
150
158
167
167
170
173

3 168
3 167
3 163
3 163
3 165
3 167
3 168
3 167
3 167

127
122
117
115
115
115
115
114
112

190
188
185
185
188
188
188
188
185

71.2
70.5
77.1
78.0
76.9
74.8
73.7
71.2
70.7

*
*
*
*

978
954
894
849
* 856
*835
* 837
3 874
3 876

146
142
139
137
136
138
138
139
141

149
3 144
139
3 136
3 136
3 136
3 137
3 137
3 138

121
121
118
119
116
116
115
113
113

170
173
168
170
168
170
173
168
170

81.1
78.7
75.2
75.7
73.4
73.7
73.2
71.4
71.5

3 816
3 795

172
172
172
168
168
166
166
166
166

3206
s 206
202
202
3 202
3 201
3 201
3 198
3 198

187
187
184
184
182
182
182
180
180

154
155
156
156
156
156
156
158
158

768
761
758
761
3 766
3 776
3 776
3
3
3
3

3

3

155
155
150
150
146
146
153
153
156

3
3

do

COST OF LIVING

Cost of Living of Federal Employees in
Washington, D. C.
HE Economy Act of March 20, 1933 (H. R. 2820), directed the
President of the United States to reduce salaries of Federal
employees in accordance with the reduction in the cost of living until
that reduction equaled 15 percent of basic salaries or salaries in effect
when the act was passed. The act further empowered the President
to restore salaries when changes in the cost of living warranted such
action. The base period for the index of living costs to be calculated
in connection with the administration of the act was specified as the 6
months ending June 30, 1928.
The section of the law providing for such an index number was as
follows:

T

The President is authorized to investigate through established agencies of the
Government the facts relating to the cost of living in the United States during
the 6-month period ending June 30, 1928, to be known as the base period, and
upon the basis of such facts and the application thereto of such principles as he
may find proper, determine an index figure of the cost of living during such period.
The President is further authorized to make a similar investigation and determina­
tion of an index figure of the cost of living during the 6-month period ending
December 31, 1932, and each 6-month period thereafter.

It was decided to make an original investigation of the expenditures
of only those Federal employees in Washington. This investigation
would provide weights for indexes of the cost of living of the em­
ployees in that city, which could be used in connection with the
index for the cost of living of wage earners for the entire United States
in settling the salary question.
The computation of such an index number raised a number of
questions. How did Federal employees spend their incomes in 1928?
How did Federal employees spend if single? Did single men divide
their disbursements in the same way as single women? It was
reasonable to suppose that the disbursements of employees living as
single individuals would be quite different from those of married
employees, but there were no figures showing exactly what their
disbursements were when there was a given income to be spent.
There were no figures showing the effect upon disbursements when
there were only two in the family and both were working outside the
home, or when a woman was the sole support of one or more children.
Other studies had shown the general effect of size of family and of
amount of income on spending, but data on the combined effect of
large families and small incomes and of smaller families and larger
incomes among Federal employees living in Washington were lacking.
H o w Federal Em ployees Sp en t T h e ir Incom es in th e Y e a r
E n d in g J u n e 30, 1933
A c c o r d i n g l y , in connection with the administration of this act,
the Bureau of Labor Statistics with the cooperation of the Bureau of
Home Economics of the Department of Agriculture undertook a
study of the money disbursements of Federal employees living in
Washington, D. C., in the fall of 1933.




91

FEDERAL EMPLOYEES IN WASHINGTON, D. C.

Data on basic salary, living arrangements, and family composition
of Federal employees were secured by means of a questionnaire cir­
culated in all Government departments, and answers were received
from 50,573 of the approximately 66,000 Federal employees working
in Washington during the fall of 1933. After an analysis of the
figures from this questionnaire, it was decided to investigate the
disbursements of employees of the chief types of family organization
and civil-service classifications within the important salary groups,
selecting individual cases by lot from within these representative
groups.
Employees living as single individuals and eating their meals at
restaurants and boarding houses were chosen from among those with
basic salaries from $1,500 to $2,000, and employees living in family
groups were chosen from among families of 5 different types, 1 type
with basic salaries from $1,000 to $1,500, 3 with basic salaries from
$1,500 to $2,000, and 1 with basic salaries from $3,000 to $4,000.
Altogether, 489 Federal employees were included in the investi­
gation—47 men and 76 women living as single individuals, and 276
men and 90 women living in family groups.
Complete figures on disbursements of all kinds for the year 1932-33,
and more fragmentary data for 1927-28 were obtained from 366
Federal employees living in family groups and 123 employees living
as single individuals. Further material on expenditures for certain
specified items in the first 6 months of 1928 was collected from a
larger number of employees.
The following table presents the average disbursements of these
employees and their families in the year ending June 30, 1933, based
on 459 schedules from the following groups: 47 men and 76 women,
living as single individuals, with basic salaries of $1,500 to $2,000,
from all civil-service groups; and the families of 105 employees in the
custodial service, with basic salaries from $1,000 to $1,500; a total
of 127 employees in the clerical-administrative-fiscal service, with
basic salaries from $1,500 to $2,000, representing three family types;
and 104 families of employees in the professional service with basic
salaries from $3,000 to $4,000.
AVE R A G E D ISB U R SEM EN T S, D U R IN G T H E Y E A R E N D IN G JUNE 30, 1933, OF F E D E R A L
E M P LO Y E E S L IV IN G AS SINGLE IN D IV ID U A LS, A N D F AM ILIES OF F E D E R A L E M PLOYEES IN W A SH IN G T O N , D. C.
Single indi­
viduals: All
branches of the
civil service

Federal employees and their families:
Employees in the—

Item
Men

Number of Federal employees______________
Number of families______ __ ________ ___
Average size of family, in persons___________

47

Women

Custo­
dial
service1

76. 108
105
5. 25

Clerical-administrativefiscal service
Profes­
sional
service2
Type 12 Type 2 3 Type 3 *
44
44
3.14

26
26
2.69

84
57
2. 00

104
104
3.30

1 Families consisting of husband and wife and children under 16 years of age and sometimes others, with
1 or more contributors to money income.
2 Families consisting of husband and wife only, of husband and wife and children under 16 years of age,
and sometimes others, with husband only contributor to money income.
:i Families consisting of a woman Federal employee and a dependent child or children under 16 years of
age of whom she was sole support.
* Families consisting of husband and wife only, both contributing to money income.




92

COST OF LIVING

A V E R A G E D ISB U R SEM EN T S, D U R IN G T H E Y E A R EN D IN G JUNE 30, 1933, OF F E D E R A L
E M P LO Y E E S L IVIN G AS SINGLE IN D IV ID U A LS, A N D FAM ILIES OF F E D E R A L E M ­
PLOYEES IN W A SH IN G T O N , D. C.—Continued
Am ount
Single indi­
viduals: All
branches of the
civil service

Federal employees and their families:
Employees in the—

Item
Men

Women

Custo­
dial
service

Clerical-administrativefiscal service
Typel

Total expenditures and savings. ______ . . .
Current expenditures:
F ood,,_____ ____________ _____________
Clothing__________________ ____ _______
Housing__ _____________ ______________
Household operation
__ __ ______
Furnishings and equipment______ __
Transportation__
______ .
Personal care________________________ __
Medical care___________________________
Recreation_______________ _____________
Formal education______________________
Vocation__________ __________________ ...
Community welfare
____________ _ __
Gifts and contributions to persons out­
side the family_____________ _ _____
Miscellaneous items____________ - ____
Savings:
Life insurance____ _____________________
Retirement fund______________________,
Other savings and investments_________

Profes­
sional
service

Type 2 Type 3

$1,779

$1,752

$1, 567

$1, 797

$1, 743

$3,535

$3,378

440
147
250
95
6
124
29
62
171
30
2
47

392
196
254
50
19
103
33
59
59
8
2
72

442
156
360
172
40
69
26
64
60
7
1
14

409
143
447
181
46
107
27
62
66
9
(«)
18

431
186
438
165
42
82
31
J 83
47
18
1
11

617
334
557
278
135
309
67
126
153
20
9
78

666
288
594
358
131
266
45
167
137
18
8
65

125
22

243
35

20
16

39
6

34
10

283
53

114
18

64
61
104

57
61
109

44
50
26

63
60
114

83
59
22

163
95
258

208
114
181

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

24.8
8.3
14.1
5.3
.3
7.0
1.6
3. 5
9.6
1.7
.1
2.6

22.3
11.2
14.5
2.8
1.1
5.9
1.9
3.4
3.3
.5
.1
4.1

28.2
10.0
22.9
11.0
2.6
4.4
1. 7
4.1
3.8
.4
(•)
.9

22.7
8.0
24.9
10.1
2.6
5.9
1. 5
3.5
3. 7
.5
(6)
1.0

24.6
10.7
25.0
9.5
2.4
4.7
1.8
4.8
2. 7
1.0
.1
.6

17.4
9.4
15.8
7.9
3.8
8.7
1.9
3.6
4.3
.6
.3
2.2

19.7
8.5
17.6
10.6
3.9
7.9
1.3
4.9
4.1
.5
.2
1.9

7.0
1. 2

13.9
2.0

1.3
1.0

2.2
.3

2.0
.6

8.0
1. 5

3.4
.5

3.6
3.4
5.9

3.3
3.5
6.2

2.8
3. 2
1.7

3. 5
3.3
6.3

4.8
3. 4
1.3

4.6
2.7
7.3

6.2
3.4
5.4

P ercen t
Total expenditures and savings_____________
Current expenditures:
Food- __________ _______________________
Clothing_________________ ______________
Housing___ __ ____________________ ____
Household operation___________________
Furnishings and equipment,. ________
Transportation__________
_
Personal care__ ___________
Medical care_____________ __ __________
Recreation______________________________
Formal education_______
____________
Vocation____________ ________ __ ___
C ommunity welfare________________ _.
Gifts and contributions to persons out­
side the family_____
__ .
_____
M iscellaneous items
Savings:
Life insurance__ _______________________
Retirement fund____ _ ________________
Other savings and investments___ ____
* Less than 50 cents.
6 Less than 0.05 percent.

Preliminary reports of the study appeared in the Monthly Labor
Review for March and July 1934.




93

FEDERAL EMPLOYEES IN WASHINGTON, D. C.

A d ju s tm e n t of Federal Em ployees’ Salaries to th e C ost of L iv in g

On t h e basis of the study made in Washington, D. C., index num­
bers were computed for major categories of expenditure, with the
first 6 months of 1928 as a base.
These index numbers for families of three categories of Federal
employees and for Federal employees living as single individuals are
shown for December 1933 and June 1934, and for all employees for
March 1933, December 1933, and June 1934, in the following table.
The indexes for March 1933 for the separate groups of Federal em­
ployees were published in the Monthly Labor Review for July 1934,
and for June 1934 in the August 1934 Monthly Labor Review.
IN D E X E S OF T H E COST OF GOODS PURCH ASED B Y F E D E R A L EM P LO Y E E S FOR
M A R C H 1933, D E C E M B E R 1933, A N D JUNE 1934
[First 6 months of 1928=100]
Employees living in family groups

Commodity group

Other em­ Employees
Custodial
employees
ployees
with basic
with basic with basic
salaries of
salaries less salaries less $2,500 and
than $2,500 4 than $2,5002
over 3

Employees
living as
single in­
dividuals

All employees

De­
De­
De­
De­
De­
cem­ June cem­ June cem­ June cem­
March cem­ June
ber
1934 ber
1934 ber
1934 ber J
1934
1933
ber
1934
1933 4
1933 4
1933 4
1933 4
1933 4
All commodity groups________
Food______ ______ ___________
Clothing______________________
Housing_________ ___________
Household operation__________
Furnishings and equipment___
Transportation_______________
Personal care_________________
Medical care________ __ __ ___
Recreation____________________
Formal education_____________
Life insurance.. . . ____________
Retirement fund______________

82.8

83.9

84.8

86.5

84.9

86.3

88.0

88.8

69.6 72.4 71.6 75.5 70.6 72.7 82.4 83.1
85.3 87.5 83.1 85.0 83.8 85.5 82.4 83.7
88.3 87.7 89.0 89.2 89.2 90.0 85.8 85.9
88.5 86.1 88.0 86.5 86.5 85.1 95.2 94.9
87.3 91.2 87.3 91.2 87.2 91.3 87.9 92.7
94.8 96.9 88.0 91.8 86.4 90.7 94.6 96.3
93.1 86.6 87.8 84.2 89.7 86.5 86.9 85.3
97.9 98.2 95.8 96.0 95.3 95.5 96.5 96.6
94.4 97.4 91.7 93.8 90.3 93.3 93.7 95.7
110.1 110.1 108.7 108.7 107.1 107.1 108.7 108.7
105.5 106.1 105.5 106.1 105.5 106.1 105.5 106.1
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

85.2

86.5

70.9 72.8
67.1 83.4
91.6 88.6
87.2 87.9
71.3 87.3
87.7 88.6
89.9 88.5
96.0 95.9
91.4 91.9
107.8 108.1
105.3 105.5
100.0 100.0

75.5
85.1
88.8
86.5
91.3
92.2
85.2
96.0
94.3
108.1
106.1
100.0

82.7

1 Average size of family 5.25 persons.
2 Average size of family 2.56 persons.
3 Average size of family 3.30 persons.
4 Revised figures.

The all-employees’ index is constructed by combining the indexes
for employees living in family groups at different salary levels and
for employees living as single individuals, weighted according to the
distribution of Federal employees living in Washington, D. C.,
among these categories.
On the basis of the findings of this investigation, the 15 percent
reduction of salary for Federal employees remained in effect until
February 1934 when the reduction was decreased from 15 to 10 per­
cent by act of Congress. In July 1934 Congress further cut the
reduction from 10 to 5 percent, and in April 1935 full pay was restored.




94

COST OF LIVING

New Study of Money Disbursements of Wage Earners
and Lower-Salaried Clerical Workers

I

N TH E fall of 1934 the Bureau of Labor Statistics began a new
study of the purchases of employed wage earners and lowersalaried clerical workers throughout the United States.
The first purpose of the general investigation was to provide a basis
for revising and extending the Bureau's current indexes of the cost
of goods purchased by wage earners and lower-salaried clerical workers.
These indexes now represent changes in the cost of those commodities
and services shown to be most important in the family expenditures
of this group by a study covering 1917-19. A number of studies of
consumer purchasing have been made since that time by various
agencies, but they have not been sufficiently extensive or coordinated
to provide the data needed either for revising the Bureau's cost-ofliving indexes or for estimating present-day consumer demand.
Content of the Investigation
D e t a il e d information is being obtained on the amount and the
regularity of the income of representative urban workers, on their
purchases of goods, on other types of money disbursements (repay­
ment of debts accumulated in previous years, investments in life
insurance, and savings as such), the kinds of merchandising outlets
at which they buy, the time of year at which they purchase specific
goods, the kind of housing facilities they have, and the conditions
under which they pay for purchased homes. From about one-quarter
of the families interviewed records of food consumption are being
secured in such form as will make it possible to evaluate the nutri­
tional content of the food consumed in relation to the needs of the
families studied.

Methods of the Investigation
T h e data are secured by the “ schedule method." Interviewers
visit the workers and their families with carefully prepared schedules,
and obtain detailed estimates of money income and outgo during
the past year. This method has the advantage of being relatively
inexpensive as compared with securing personal and household ac­
counts from a representative sample of wage earners and lowersalaried clerical workers. It also provides more accurate information
than either a mailed questionnaire or a shorter schedule filled out in a
personal interview, which does not include enough information to
make possible a balance of receipts and disbursements. The detailed
data on food purchases and consumption are obtained by a weekly
record kept for each family for four different seasons of the year.
These accounts are being supervised by trained field workers who
make daily visits to the families during the weeks when the records
are kept.

Selection of Sample
I t is planned to study the expenditures of single individuals and
of family groups in representative cities and towns of over 2,500
population throughout the United States, coordinating the infor­
mation secured with similar data for farm and small-town groups,
which the Bureau of Home Economics of the Department of Agri-




INTERNATIONAL INQUIRY

95

culture is obtaining. The number of communities to be studied
will depend in part on the results shown by the data secured in the
early stages of the investigation. These data are being analyzed to
determine whether there are significant differences in the purchasing
habits of wage-earner and lower-salaried clerical groups in cities of
different size in the same general area, and in cities of approximately
the same size but with different economic characteristics. The frag­
mentary data on purchasing habits now available do hot make it
possible to say how far data for one city of a given size and type in
a given region may be used as representative of other cities in that
region.
Priority is being given to the study of the consumption of family
groups. In some cities data regarding expenditures of single indi­
viduals will also be secured.
The families being studied are chosen to represent a cross section
of the employed wage earners and lower-salaried clerical workers.
Although the Bureau recognizes the importance of data on purchases
by higher-salaried clerical workers, professional persons, managers
and officials, and those in business for themselves, the limited funds
available have made it necessary to confine the project to the wageearner and lower-salaried clerical groups.
It is important that the data which will be used as a basis for com­
puting index numbers of the living costs of these groups should not
reflect the distorted spending of families whose incomes have been
abnormally low and irregular because of unemployment. The sample
studied does not include families who received relief during the year
covered, or families in which there has not been at least 1 earner who
had a minimum of 3K days’ employment in each of 36 weeks during
the year. Families with incomes under $500 a year have also been
omitted from the study.1

Results of International Cost-of-Living Inquiry,
1930-31
H E results of an international cost-of-living inquiry carried on
during 1930 and 1931 by the International Labor Office were
presented in a report of that office entitled “ International workingclass living costs.” This inquiry was originally undertaken by the
International Labor Office at the request of the Ford Motor Co., which
desired information regarding the extent to which cost of living varied
in certain European cities, where it had established or contemplated
establishing plants, in relation to the city of Detroit, in order that it
might consider the possibility of fixing its minimum wage rates in
its European factories at levels which would secure for the employees
in such plants living standards equivalent to those of its Detroit
employees.
The first step was to ascertain just how the Detroit employees lived.
The United States Bureau of Labor Statistics undertook this part of
the inquiry, and in the early part of 1930 made a survey covering a

T

1
Since this article was written, late in 1935, another study of money disbursements has been undertaken
by the Bureau of Labor Statistics as a Works Progress Administration project in cooperation with the
National Resources Committee and the United States Department of Agriculture. In this investigation,
data on family incomes and family purchases will be obtained from groups with very low incomes and
with higher incomes up to $10,000.




96

COST OF LIVING

group of 100 families, in which the husband was employed by the Ford
Motor Co. at, or approximately at, the minimum of $7 per day estab­
lished by that company, and during the preceding year had worked
approximately 250 days. Each of these families consisted of a
husband, wife, and two or three children. The 100 families were thus
quite homogeneous both as regards composition and income. The
average expenditure of these families was $1,720 during the year 1929.
A report giving the full results of this survey was published in the
Monthly Labor Review for June 1930 and summarized in the 1931
Handbook (Rul. No. 541). This report showed how the total annual
expenditure of $1,720 was distributed, giving for each item of food,
clothing, etc., the average amount of money spent and also, with a
few unavoidable exceptions, the exact quantity of goods or services
obtained for the money spent.
The next step was to ascertain what the Detroit standard of living,
i. e., the quantities of goods and services consumed by the Detroit
employees, would cost in the European cities. This phase of the
inquiry was carried on by the International Labor Office, which enlisted
the cooperation of the national statistical organizations in the several
countries. Many difficulties were encountered. In general, however,
there was involved only one problem of a seriously controversial
character. This had to do with the question of substituting items,
especially certain food items, for those in the Detroit budget in order
to meet possible differences in national or racial habits of consumption.
The difficulty was in determining whether existing differences in con­
sumption habits were due to real differences in taste or merely to
differences in income.
The International Labor Office, in the report giving the results of
its European inquiries, stated that this problem of “ consumption
habits ” was thoroughly examined, and that, while local standards
were taken into account, this was done in such a way as to obviate the
objection that such procedure would bias the results.
The results of the inquiry by the International Labor Office are
shown in the accompanying table. In it the cost of living in Detroit
is taken as the base or 100, and the relative cost of living in each of
14 European cities is shown as a percentage of the Detroit base. For
certain cities no single figure could be agreed upon, and for these,
minimum and maximum figures are given. Further, it is to be noted
that while the inquiries in the various cities were necessarily made at
various periods during 1930 and 1931, the attempt has been made to
bring all the figures to a uniform time base (January 1931) by utilizing
the available information as to changes in the cost of living in the
several cities, including Detroit.
Because of the difficulties involved, the International Labor Office,
in submitting the results of its inquiry, emphasized its limitations and
the possibility of error.




97

INTERNATIONAL INQUIRY

R EL ATIV E COST OF L IV IN G IN D E T R O IT A N D C E R T A IN EU R O PEAN CITIES,
J AN U AR Y 19311

City

Index of
cost of
living

Detroit, M ic h ........... .
Stockholm. Sweden____
Frankfort, Germany___
Cork, Irish Free State. _
Copenhagen, Denmark.

100
99-104
85-93
85
83-91

City

Berlin, Germany............
Helsinki, Finland_____
Paris, France_____ ____
Marseilles, France.........
Manchester, England-.

Index of
cost of
living
83-90
83
80-87
75-81
70-74

City

Rotterdam, Netherlands
Antwerp, Belgium_____
Warsaw, Poland_______
Istanbul, Turkey____
Barcelona, Spain______

Index of
cost of
living
65-68
61-65
67
65
58

1 The International Labor Office stated that the figures in this table were subject to revision.

M in im u m W age Rates of F o rd M o to r Co. in D e tro it and in
European Cities
B y t h e time the results of the international cost-of-living inquiry
became available in 1931 the economic depression in the United States
and in most countries of Europe had become so acute that further
thought of the practical application of the findings of the inquiry was
indefinitely postponed. Nevertheless, considerable interest attaches
to a comparison of the wage rates actually paid by the Ford Co. in
European cities at that time, with the rates as they would have been
if they had been fixed solely on the basis of relative cost of living.
For the purpose of such comparison, the Ford Motor Co. furnished
the Bureau of Labor Statistics with the actual hourly rates being
paid on August 1, 1931, to unskilled labor in its European plants
then in operation. The accompanying table shows these actual
wage rates and also shows what the wage rates would have been in
several foreign cities if established solely on the basis of relative living
costs as computed in the report of the International Labor Office. To
the extent that these computed living-cost relatives are accurate, the
adjusted wage rates would have given the workers in each of the
European cities the same general standard of living as that obtained
by the Detroit employees who in August 1931 averaged 86 cents per
hour, or $6.88 per day of 8 hours. In the wage computations shown,
conversions into United States currency were made on the basis of the
par value of the various currencies, those being in general effect at
the time (August 1931) to which this comparison relates.
Owing to changes in the plants of the Ford Co., the cities in which
branches were established were not, in all cases, the same as those in
which it was contemplated establishing branches at the time the costof-living inquiry was undertaken. For convenience of reference,
however, the table was made to include all cities for which either costof-living data or wage rates, or both, were available.

19205— 36--------8




98

COST OF LIVING

CO M PAR ATIVE COST OF L IVIN G A N D W AG ES PER D A Y A N D PER HOUR OF U N ­
SK ILLED W O R K ER S IN FORD PLANTS IN SPECIFIED CITIES

Wage per hour
City

Index of
relative
cost of
living

Detroit______________________________ ___
Antwerp____
_________________ _______
Barcelona,-_____ ___________
____
Cologne_______________ ______________ _
Copenhagen_ _______________________ __
_
Cork___________________________ _______
_ _________ ________ ____
Frankfort___
Genoa. ____________ ________________ ____
Helsinki____________________________ ____
Istanbul.. __________________ ___ ______
Manchester, _ ________ _____ ___________
Marseilles_____________________ _____ __
Rotterdam.________ __________ __________
Stockholm__
____ ____ ______________
Warsaw_____
_ . ________________ . .

100
61-65
58
83-90
83-91
85
85-93
83
65
70-74
75-81
80-87
65-68
99-104
67

Adjusted
to cost
of living

Aug. 1,
1931

$0.86
.26
.33
.45
.69
.44
.27
.38
.32
.53
.29
.41
.43

Wage per 8-hour day

Aug. 1,
1931

$0.86
. 52-. 56
.50
. 71- 77
. 71- 78
.73
. 73- 80
.71
.56
. 60-. 64
. 65-. 70
. 69-. 75
. 56-. 58
. 85-. 89
.58

$6.88
2.08
2.64
3.60
5.52
3. 52
2.16
3.04
2.56
4.24
2. 32
3.28
3.44

Adjusted
to cost
of living
$6.88
4.16-4.48
4.00
5. 68-6.16
5.68-6.24
5.84
5.84-6.40
5.68
4.48
4.80-5.12
5.20-5.60
5. 52-6.00
4.48-4.64
6.80-7.12
4.64

i The Ford Co. plant is located at Asnieres, near Paris.

Comparative Food Costs in Various Countries

A

COMPARISON of the cost of certain important foodstuffs in
various countries, prepared by the International Labor Office
and based on official prices communicated by the competent statistical
authorities in each country, was given in the International Labor
Review for April 1933.
The accompanying table shows in terms of United States currency
the relative cost in October 1932, in each of 21 countries, of an “ inter­
national basket of provisions” consisting of 14 commodities for which
the International Labor Office had information as to actual prices in
all of the countries listed. The money cost and the index numbers in
the table have been computed at the par value of the national cur­
rencies and also at the exchange rate. The fluctuating rates of
exchange in 1932 render approximate all figures expressed in a common
currency. The 14 items comprising the basket, and the weight of
each (representing approximately the average amount consumed by
an adult man per week) are as follows: Bread, 3.75 kilograms;1 flour
(wheaten), 0.80 kilogram; butter, 0.17 kilogram; beef, 0.45 kilogram;
mutton, 0.10 kilogram; pork, 0.20 kilogram; bacon, 0.15 kilogram;
potatoes, 2.02 kilograms; sugar, 0.45 kilogram; coffee (or tea), 0.07
kilogram; cheese, 0.09 kilogram; rice, 0.20 kilogram; milk, 2.40 liters;2
and eggs, 3% (number). The “ basket” is believed by the Interna­
tional Labor Office to represent the approximate average proportions
in which the various articles are consumed by the working classes in
different countries.
1 Kilogram=2.2 pounds.




2 Liter=1.06 quarts.

STANDARD OF LIVING IN AMALGAMATED DWELLINGS

99

COST OF A “ FOOD B A S K E T ” IN VARIOUS COUNTR IES, IN T E R M S OF U N IT E D
STATES C U R R E N C Y , OCTOBER 1932

Country

Localities
covered

Cost of the “ food
b a s k e t ’ * in
Index numbers
United States (United States=100)
currency

At par

United States_______________ _________ _____
Austria________ ________ ____ __ ______ ______
Belgium___________ ______ __ ___________
Canada__________ _ __
_
_ _ __
Czechoslovakia______________
_ ________ __
Denmark_______________ ___________________
Estonia____ ___________________ __________ _
France_____ . . ____ ________________________
Germany.. _ ___________________ __________
Great Britain_________ _____________________
Hungary_________ _ ___________ ______ ______
Irish Free State.. . . . _______ __________
...
Italy_________________ _______
_ ______
Latvia_________ _______ . . . ___ _____________
Netherlands____ ____ __ ________ ______
Norway_________________________________ ___
P oland___ __ ______ _ ____________________
Portugal._____ ____
_ ____________________
Sweden___ _______________ __
................. .
Switzerland__________________________________
Yugoslavia---------- ------------------------------------------

51 towns_____
3 towns______
Brussels_____
6 towns
3 towns...........
Copenhagen. _
2 towns___ __
6 towns______
6 towns___
7 towns____
Budapest
3 towns______
6 towns
4 towns..
Oslo....... .........
4 towns. . ___
Lisbon_______
3 towns.
4 towns______
4 towns______

$1.74
1.52
1.06
1.53
1.23
1.34
.71
1.56
1.33
1. 54
1.16
1.57
1.60
.92
1. 23
1.44
.75
1. 72
1.50
1.02

At ex­
change
rate1
$1.74
21.28
3 1.05
1.40
1.23
.88
4 71
.
31.56
1.33
1.07
1.16
31.09
* 1.55
.92
1.23
.92
.75
1.20
1.13
1.50
5.79

At par

100
87
61
88
71
77
41
90
76
89
67
90
92
53
71
83
43
99
86
59

At ex­
change
rate
100
74
60
80
71
51
41
90
76
61
67
63
89
53
71
53
43
69
65
86
45

1In October 1932 except where otherwise noted.
2Based on Zurich exchange rate in November 1932.
3 Based on exchange rate in November 1932.
4Based on exchange rate in July 1932.
3Based on exchange rate in December 1932.

Standard of Living of Families in Amalgamated Hous­
ing Corporation Dwellings

A

SU R V E Y of the standard of living among 400 families living in
the Amalgamated Housing Corporation dwellings, covering the
year 1930, was made by the State Board of Housing of New
York.3 The persons studied were living under model housing condi­
tions, had small incomes, a common cultural background, and a com­
munity interest arising out of the cooperative features of the dwell­
ing project.
The data for the study were obtained by means of questionnaires
filled out by experienced investigators and from records of the coop­
erative stores as to the quantity of food, etc., purchased by the
apartment dwellers.
Composition and Characteristics of Families
T he average size of a family was 3.74 persons. Two-fifths of the
families were composed of 3 persons or less, 36 percent of 4 persons,
and 23 percent of 5 or more persons.

The 400 families had 686 children living at home. Sixty-eight per­
cent of 677 of these children were 15 years of age and under.
The average age of 679 children was 12 years. Fifty percent of
the fathers and 65 percent of the mothers were under 40 years old.
3New York. State Board of Housing. Report on the Standard of Living of 400 Families' in a Model
Housing Project, by Asher Achinstein. [New York], 1931.




100

COST OF LIVING

The average age of the fathers was 41.4 years and of the mothers 38.4
years.
While 91.8 percent of the children were born in the United States,
only 8.9 percent of the fathers and 11 percent of the mothers were
native born. Three-fifths of the parents were Russian born, while
10 percent each were born in Austria and in Poland.
Thirty percent of the heads of families were garment workers, 10
percent were in professional services, 8 percent were building-trades
workers, 8 percent were shopkeepers, jobbers, and other business
men, and the remainder were in various occupations.
Time Lost, Earnings, and Income
T he amount of time lost by the chief wage earner on account of
unemployment, part-tim e work, and disability is shown in table 1.
The average loss of time during 1930 for 368 persons was 9.9 weeks.
T able 1 .—N U M B E R OF W E E K S LOST B Y CH IEF W A G E E AR N ER S B E C A U SE OF
U N E M P L O Y M E N T , P A R T -T IM E W O R K , A N D D IS A B IL IT Y

Full-time unem­
ployment
Number of weeks idle
Number

Part-time unem­
ployment

Disability

Percent
of all
chief
wage
earners

Number

Percent
of all
chief
wage
earners

Number

Percent
of all
chief
wage
earners

All groups-----------------------------------------------

148 ’

40.2

98

26.6

19

5.2

Less than 5 weeks_______________________
5 to 9 weeks..
_
- - - - - - - 10 to 14 weeks___ _____ _________________
15 to 19 w eeks____________ _____________
20 to 24 weeks_______________ _____ __ _ _
25 to 30 weeks____ _________ _____________
30 weeks and over_____
__________ __

18
32
48
17
10
11
12

4.9
8. 7
13.0
4.6
2.7
3.0
3.3

6
23
28
12
16
8
5

1.6
6. 2
7.6
3.3
4.3
2.2
1.4

10
5
2

2.7
1.4
.5

1
1

.3
.3

Practically one-fourth of the breadwinners earned less than $40 per
week when working full time and 85.1 percent earned under $65 per
week. The average estimated weekly earnings per full-time working
week were $52.88. The incomes of 39.3 percent of the chief bread­
winners were under $2,000 for the year and of 2 percent were $5,000
and over.
When the total family income, including earnings of father, mother,
and children, contributions of boarders, etc., in 390 families are con­
sidered, the number of families with an income of less than $2,000 fell
to 26.6 percent of the total and the number with $5,000 and over rose
to 3.3 percent. The average family income was $2,621.31. The
chief wage earner contributed 86.8 percent of the family income, the
other 13.2 percent being derived from earnings of the rest of the family,
contributions from boarders, etc.
Expenditures
F ood constituted the largest single item of expense for all 400
families, being 33 percent of the total expenditure. The distribu­
tion of expenditures by major groups appears in table 2.




101

STREET-CAR MEN’S FAMILIES
T a ble 2 —D IST R IB U T IO N OF E X P E N D IT U R E S B Y M AJOR CLASSES
Percent of
total ex­
penses

Item

Average
expenses
per family

All items_______________ __________

$2,879.69

100.0

Food_______________________________
Clothing_______ ___________________
Rent_______________________________
House operation____________________
All others-----------------------------------------

949.35
309.38
531. 53
206.24
883.19

33.0
10.7
18.4
7.2
30.7

An average of $6.68 less per month was paid for rent by 381 families
in the Amalgamated dwellings than in their previous dwellings.
A distribution of expenditures by major items and according to
size of expenditures appears in table 3:
T able 3 .—PE R C E N T OF T O T A L E X P E N SE S SPENT FOR MAJOR ITEM S, CLASSIFIED
B Y A M O U N T OF F A M IL Y E X P E N D IT U R E

Family expenditure

Food

Clothing

Rent

House
operation All others

Total

Average_____________________ ____ ______

33.0

10.7

18.4

7.2

30.7

100.0

$1,000 to $1,499______ ______ ____________
$1,500 to $1,999__________________ ____
$2,000 to $2,499__________________________
$2,500 to $2,999__________________________
$3,000 to $3,499__________________________
$3,500 to $3,999__________________________
$4,000 to $4,499____________ ______ ______
$4,500 to $4,999__________________________
$5,000 and over__________________________

34.5
37.7
37.0
35.8
32.9
31.2
30.2
28.6
25.2

6.2
7.7
8.9
9.9
11.3
11.9
13.7
14.0
11.7

33.1
25.7
22.4
19.2
16.6
15.9
14.8
13.1
12.4

7.7
7.9
7.0
6.8
6.6
7.3
6.7
6.8
8.1

18.5
21.0
24.7
28.3
32.6
33.7
34.6
37.5
42.6

100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0

Incomes and Expenditures of Street-Car Men’s
Families
H E budgets of 98 street-car men’s families were studied by the
Heller Committee for Research in Social Economics, of the Univer­
sity of California, for the purpose of ascertaining the “ spending ways”
of a group of semiskilled workers and their dependents.4 The incomes
and expenditures of these 98 San Francisco (East Bay region) families
for the year ending with June 1925 were secured through the coopera­
tion of the Oakland division of the Amalgamated Association of
Street and Electrical Railway Employees.
Street-car employees in general have the advantage of steady em­
ployment thoughout the year. A majority of the men and their
wives in the families studied were American born. Most of the for­
eigners were from English-speaking countries, and all of them had
been in this country long enough to have families. The standard of
living, therefore, the report declares, may be safely considered as
American. The average man and wife in the group studied were
between 30 and 40 years of age. The typical family included no
adult dependents (other than the wife), no gainfully employed chil­
dren, and no boarders or lodgers. The average man earned between

T

4 California, University of. Cost of Living Studies IV: Spending Ways of a Semiskilled Group.
Berkeley, 1931. (Publication in Economics, vol. 5, no. 5.)




102

COST OF LIVING

$1,600 and $1,800 per annum, the mean earnings for the group being
$1,658.25, as shown in table 1:
T a ble 1 . —IN C O M E OF FAM ILIES OF ST R E ET-C AR M E N

Number
of fam­
ilies re­
porting

Source of income

Average amount for
families reporting

Average per family
for group of 98

Mean

Median

Mean
amount

Percent
of total

Total income-------- ------- ------- ------------- - . -----

98

$1,886.26

$1,789.55

$1,886.26

100.00

Man’s regular earnings.............. ..........................
Other income............... —--------------------------------Man’s supplementary earnings----------------Wife’s earnings__________________________
Children’s earnings______________________
Boarders and lodgers____________ _______
Property.........- ------- ---------------------------- Money gifts------ --------------------------------------Sick benefits.......................................... ..........
Other------ ----------------- ---------------- -------------

98
71
14
16
14
22
19
17
12
14

1,658.25
314.72
93.17
302.34
172. 71
295. 54
183. 73
29.74
112.20
138. 61

1,705.12
165.58
22.80
90.00
51.00
280.50
84.00
15.00
36.00
42.50

1,658.25
228.01
13.31
49.36
24.67
66.35
35.62
5.16
13.74
19.80

87.9
12.1
.7
2.6
1.3
3.5
1.9
.3
.8
1.0

In 71 of the 98 families the regular earnings of the husband were
increased by income from some other source, but these supplements
were ordinarily not large. In the typical household the earnings of
the husband constituted 90 percent or more of the total income, and
the additional income from all sources was under $200. Two-thirds
of the wives earned nothing during the year, and 15 percent of
the children made contributions to the family exchequer. Moreover,
the additions made by two-thirds of these children were less than $100
each per child. Only one family in five owned income-producing
property, and the returns therefrom were generally small.
The average expenditures for the various items in the 98 family
budgets are shown in table 2:
T a ble 2 .—A V E R A G E E X P E N D IT U R E FOR SPECIFIED IT E M S OF F A M IL Y B U D G E T S ,
JUNE 1924 TO JUNE 1925

Expenditure
Item of expenditure

Number
of families
reporting

Amount

Percent

Mean

Median

Mean

Median

Total expenditures__________________________

98

$2,109.40

$2, 059.79

100.0

100.0

Food_____ _______ _________ __________ ____
_
Clothing_____ _______________________________
Shelter_________________________ ________ ___
House operation_________________ __________
Furniture and furnishings____ ______________
Miscellaneous_________ ______________ ______
Automobiles_________ ____ _____________
Investment and savings_________________
Medical care_________________ - __ _____
Recreation—_____________ ____ _________
Dependents__________ _______
__ ____
Incidentals_________________ _____ _______
Associations__ ;___ _________________ ____
Gifts _ __ _____________________________
Tobacco____ __________________ _________
Education__ ____________________ ______
Church — ______ __ _________ ______
Bicycles _______ __ __________ ________
Charity_______ _________________________

98
98
98
98
96
98
29
95
93
94
6
98
98
89
62
91
55
.4
83

789.80
239. 32
373.19
145. 35
75:87
487.42
188. 73
113.95
91.56
67.15
67.00
56.86
32.88
28.69
27.80
25.20
11.80
8.66
2.29

780.00
215.85
337. 60
136.65
50. 05
426. 68
88.00
74.28
67.00
32.87
58.00
33.85
26.10
21.00
26. 00
13.00
10.40
9. 75
1.00

38.0
11.2
17.9
7.0
3.6
22.4
8.0
5.2
4.3
3.0
3.0
2.6
1.6
1.4
1.4
1.2
.6
.7.4
;1

38.0
10.6
17.6
6.7
2.4
21.1
4.5
3.4
3. 2
1. 6
2. 4
1.8
1. 2
1.0
1.1
.6
.5
.4
.1




STREET-CAR MEN'S FAMILIES

103

The expenditures reported for the average family during the year
exceeded the average income. In at least 40 percent of the house­
holds there was a deficit, met by recourse to savings or occasionally
by borrowing.
The heaviest expense in budgets of wage earners with incomes
similar to those of the street-car men is food. In these families it
averaged 38 percent of the total expenditures and sometimes was more
than 50 percent. Ninety percent of the families were found to be
above standard on food allowances.
The average amount spent for clothing by these families was found
to be less than the estimated necessary expenditures in 1925 for San
Francisco families of various sizes living at a standard of health
and comfort.
Housing conditions on the whole were good because of the suburban
conditions of the East Bay region. Half of the families owned their
homes; 70 percent of these were still paying off mortgages. All but
one-sixth of the families lived in separate dwellings. Housing costs
varied widely.according to whether the family owned its house clear,
was paying installments, or was renting. The most common rentals
were between $20 and $30 a month.
Light and fuel averaged approximately $6 per month. Expendi­
ture for telephones was reported by only 34 families and a number of
these shared with another family.
The entire burden of the housework was borne by the wives. In
40 families no laundry was given out in the 12 months covered, and
only 15 of the 98 families paid laundry charges for the regular weekly
heavy flat work of the household. Only 7 of the 98. families reported
anything for service, the chief reliance in times of sickness bemg on
relatives and neighbors.
The heavy proportion of the income spent for bare necessaries
brought down to about 22 percent of the income the amount available
for the miscellaneous group of expenses. Only 26 families owned
automobiles. The usual investments were a life-insurance policy of
$2,500 or less, savings of some kind, one share of company stock,
union sickness insurance, or insurance in a mutual-benefit association
which included premiums in the dues.
The average expense for medical care was between $65 and $100
a year—not enough to provide adequately for dental and preventive
attention. The monthly expenditure of the average family on com­
mercial amusement, ordinarily the movies, was from $2 to $3. Under
their wage agreement the carmen were entitled to a vacation of 2
weeks without pay, but only 24 families could afford to go out of town.
Every man, of course, paid his monthly union dues, which amounted
to $1.50. Membership in other organizations, principally mutual
benefit associations, was reported by 59 families. Carfare and
barbers’ fees averaged respectively about $1.50 and $1 per month.
The usual contribution to charity was $1 a year, while the contribu­
tions to church, although constituting a slightly higher percentage of
the family budget, were reported by fewer families. Only six stated
that they made allowances to outside dependents, but the amounts
were quite substantial.
The “ average” street-car man’s family, it was stated, had enough
to eat and was comfortably housed.




104

COST OF LIVING

Aside from the inability to make provision against old age and
death, the outstanding hardship of these families, according to the
report, was inadequate medical care. Their income and possibly
their pride barred them from attending free clinics, but at least 50
percent of these families needed medical attention for which they were
unable to raise the money.

Typical Family Budgets of Executive, Clerk, and Wage
Earner in San Francisco, November 1934
H R EE quantity and cost budgets for San Francisco, priced for
November 1934, were given in a report of the Heller Committee
for Research in Social Economics, of the University of California.5
These budgets were not household accounts but pictured, respectively,
what the committee considered to be typical spending customs of a
wage earner and his family, a clerk and his family, and an executive
and his family.
The equable climate of San Francisco keeps down the fuel bill
and eliminates the need for special winter and summer clothing.
Domestic help, however, is considerably more expensive in that city
than in other parts of the country.
The committee realized that the allowance in the budgets for invest­
ment was not sufficient to meet grave emergencies or provide for the
retirement or death of the head of the family.

T

The allowance for medical care is undoubtedly low. The accepted consensus
of opinion today agrees that it is impossible for the average family in any class
adequately to provide against the larger emergencies of illness. In other words,
it is admitted that the allowance given here cannot be expected to cover the
occasional serious operation or the needs of the family with continuous doctor’s
bills. In case of an operation or a long illness, either drastic economies in the
whole scale of living or debt are the only alternatives.

These budgets, it was explained, give a generalized scheme of ex­
penditure for a wide income class and the variations in emphasis in
spending are very real within each class. The committee believed,
however, that the differences ironed out to approximately the type of
spending herewith depicted.
Since 1929, in a period of shifting prices, the committee decided
“ to preserve the continuity of the index value of the budgets, i. e., has
chosen to maintain a measure of the changing cost of living, at the
expense of certain desirable revisions in the content of the budgets to
bring the standard which they represent up to date.”
« California, University of. Heller Committee for Research in Social Economics. Quantity and Cost
Budgets. Berkeley, February 1935. (Mimeographed.) For similar budgets for November 1933, see
Monthly Labor Review, May 1934 (p. 1260).




105

TYPICAL FAMILY BUDGETS IN SAN FRANCISCO

T a ble 1.— A M IL Y BU D G ETS FOR E X E C U T IV E , C L E R K , A N D W A G E E A R N E R , BASED
F
ON PRICES IN SAN FRANCISCO, N O V E M B E R 1934
Clerk

Executive
Item

Wage earner
Per­
cent of
total
cost

Annual
cost

Total cost1___________

Replacements__________ __________
Upkeep.........
__
______ __
Wife_______________
.
Replacements____ _
_ _ ________
Upkeep______________
________
Boy of 11______
. .
_
v
Replacements. __ ___ ___
Upkeep_____ ____
______________
Girl of 5_________ _ _ _
Boy of 2 ___ __ . . . __________________
Shelter_____ ___________ _____________
Housing__________
House operation__________
______ _
Light and fuel. .................. . . __ __
Service____ ____________ _ ________
Other__________________
Furniture and furnishings- .....................
Miscellaneous_______ _____ ________________
Care of person ____________ __________
Leisure-time activities _. ____________
Automobile upkeep 3 _
_.
__________
Carfare_____________ . . .
Investment________________________
Life insurance... _____________________
Medical care 5___ __
__
Association dues____________ ______ . . .
Education_______________ _______ _____
Church and charity______ _____________
Incidentals______ _______ ____________

Annual
cost

Per­
cent of
total
cost

Annual
cost

$5,590.88

___ _______

Income tax1_______ ____ _____________ _____
Food........... ................. ............... .............. ..........
Meals at home____ _____
Husband’s lunches............... ........... ..........
Clothing and upkeep_ ........................ ___ __

Per­
cent of
total
cost
100.0

$2,033.41

100.0

$1,544.16

100.0

49.86
835.24
682.24
153.00
705.94
198.66
179.32
19.34
329.49
322.90
6.59
89.68
83.88
5.80
88.11

.9
15.0
12. 2
2.8
12.6
3. 5
3. 2
.3
5.9
5.8
.1
1.6
1.5
.1
1.6

(>)
32.2

si. l
16. 6
10.2
3.2
3.9
3.1
4.3
40.4
1.6
8.7
8.0
.7
11.1

(*)
29.5
24. 2
5.3
17.7
4.9
4.6
.3
5.9
5.7
.2
2.8
2.6
.2
2.2
1.9
27.9
16. 2
7.6
4.4

(>)
496.76

1, 741.16
929.51
569.82
180.88
217.88
171.06
241.83
2,258.68
89.35
487. 41
444. 79
40.00
4 620.00

(2
)
599.43
491.43
108.00
360.24
99.77
92.92
6.85
119.09
115.99
3.10
57. 65
53. 53
4.12
44.54
39.19
568.26
330.00
154.56
88.84

226.56
63.06
59.60
3.46
61.26
58.82
2.44
83.05
38.81
4.24
32.30
26.89
449.68
270.00
123.90
78.40

14.7
4.1
3.9
.2
4. 0
3.8
.2
2.8
2.5
.3
2.1
1.7
29.1
17. 5
8.0
5.1

65. 72
83.70
505.48
47.15
170.20

3.2
4.1
24.9
2.3
8.4

45.50
55.78
371.16
39.27
123.76

2.9
3.6
24.0
2.5
8.0

275.00
36.00
101.13
105.00
60.00

65.00

45.00

2.9

6.4
3.7

65.00
75.00

4.2
4.9

5.13
18.00

4.9
.6
1.8
1.9
1.1

2.9

130.00
75.00

.3
.9

5.13
18.00

.3
1.2

1 Income tax figured on total of budget exclusive of State sales tax. Sales tax on executive’s budget, 1 per­
cent of total or $56.24 per annum; on clerk’s budget, 1.4 percent of total or $28.72 per annum; on wage earner’s
budget, 1.4 percent of total or $21.64 per annum.
2 No income tax paid.
3 Does not include initial cost or depreciation.
4 This sum allows for a $10,000 life insurance policy and small savings to meet emergencies, serious illnesses
costing more than the amount allowed for medical care, and the purchase of a new car. The budget does
not include adequate provision for the retirement or death of the breadwinner.
5 Routine care only. Cost of major operations and prolonged illness must come from savings or from
e conomies elsewhere.

Percentage increases in above budgets, 1933-34, are shown in table 2.
T a ble 3 .—P E R CEN T AG E INCREASES IN BUDGETS OF E X E C U T IV E , C L ER K , A N D
W A G E E A R N E R , 1933-34 i

Percentage change in budgets of—
Item
Executive

Clerk»

Wage earner

Total cost________________ _____ _______ ______________

+ 2 .5

+ 3 .5

+ 3 .2

Income tax_________ _________ ____ _________________
Food_____ ____ _________________________ _____________
Clothing and upkeep............................................................
Shelter_____ _________________________ ________________
Miscellaneous______________ ____ ___________ _________

—20.5
+ 5 .4
+ 1 .8
+ 4 .6
+ .7

+ 6 .0
+ 4 .4
+ 3 .3
+ .2

+ 7 .4
+ 5 .1
+ .7
+ .1

1 Including State sales tax.
2 The budget published in 1933 by the committee was reduced $36 as a result of an error in calculating
rents. (See p. 27 of article under review.)




106

COST OF LIVING

California Budget for Dependent Families, 1934
HE following budget for dependent families, based on prices for
San Francisco as of November 1934, was prepared by the Heller
Committee for Research in Social Economics:6

T

BU D G E T FOR D E P E N D E N T F AM ILIES, BASED ON PRICES AS OF N O V E M B E R 19341

Item

A. Required for all households:
Electricity, fuel, minimum cleaning
supplies, e tc ,................................. .
B. Add rent for—
Family of 3________________________
Family of 4________________________
Family of 5____ ___________________
Family of 6_____ ____________ ____ _
Larger families (approximately)____
C. Add per person to cover all expenses
except rent and general household
expenses:
Man employed-,_____ ____________
Man unemployed__________________

Cost per
month

$7.32
18.00
18.00
22.50
22.50
As paid

17.96
13.36

Cost per
month

Item

C. Add per person to cover all expenses
except rent and general household
expenses—Continued.
Woman (housewife)__________
_ _
Boy 16 to 20 (employed) 2_______ __
Girl 16 to 20 (employed) 2-__ _ _ ___
Boy 14 to 15_______________________
Girl 14 to 15________________________
Boy 9 to 13____________ __ ___
Girl 9 to 13___________ ____ ________
Boy 6 to 8___________ _____________
Girl 6 to 8__________________________
Child 3 to 5_______________
Child 1 to 2 ,_______ _____________

$14.04
26. 57
25.82
18.89
16.63
13.65
13.50
11.07
10.61
9.29
9. 38

i Including sales tax.
3
Using food allowance for children 16-18. Children of 19 and 20 require less food, but this is probably
offset by the demand for more spending money.

The following example is given for computing a budget for a
dependent family of 5—man (unemployed), wife, boy of 11, girl of 6,
boy of 3:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.

General household expenses_______________________
Rent_____________________________________________
Man (unemployed)_______________________________
W ife_____________________________________________
Boy of 11_________________________________________
Girl of 6 __________________________________________
Boy of 3__________________________________________

$7. 32
22. 50
13. 36
14.04
13.65
10. 61
9.29

Per month_______________________________________
Per year_________________________________________

90. 77
1, 089. 24

Without the sales tax this annual budget would be $16.68 less, or
$1,072.56.

Chicago Estimated Budget for a Self-Supporting
Family, March 1932
HE following estimated minimum monthly budget for a selfsupporting family consisting of father, mother, child of 13, child
of 10, and child of 7 in Chicago is reproduced from the fourth revised
(March 1932) edition of the Chicago Standard Budget for Dependent
Families, prepared under the supervision of the division on family
welfare of the Council of Social Agencies of Chicago:

T

« California, University of. Heller Committee for Research in Social Economics.
Budgets. Berkeley, February 1935. (Mimeographed.)




Quantity and Cost

W AG E-EARN ING WOMEN IN RICHMOND

107

Food:
M an______________________________________________________________ $8.70
Woman___________________________________________________________
6. 95
Child______________________________________________________________ 8. 05
Child______________________________________________________________ 6. 75
Child______________________________________________________________ 5. 85
Total___________________________________________________________ 36. 30
Plus extra allowance_______________________________________________ 2. 00
Total, food _____________________________________________________ 38. 30
Clothing and toilet articles:
~== ■
Man_______________________________________________________________
3.75
Woman_____________________________________________________________ 3.00
Child_______________________________________________________________ 3.50
Child_______________________________________________________________ 3.00
Child_______________________________________________________________ 2.50
Total___________________________________________________________

15.75

Fuel: Average for the year, computed from schedule (two stoves, gas and
electricity used)_____________________________________________________ 10. 50
Household supplies and furnishings_____________________________________ 5. 50
Car fare: For wage earner and two trips per w-eek by housewife (70 fares
at 3 for 20 cents)____________________________________________________
4. 67
Care of health: Doctor, dentist, drugs__________________________________
7. 00
Savings and insurance__________________________________________________ 10. 00
3. 00
Education: School expenses, newspapers, magazines, books, etc_________
Recreation: Picture shows, car fare to parks, etc_______________________ 4. 00
Organization and church dues__________________________________________ 3. 00 *
Incidental and emergency expenses: Moving, accidents, loss of wages by
4. 00
illness and change of position, etc____________________________________
Total (without rent)________________________ ___________________ 105. 72
The expense of suitable housing must be added to this estimate. Five rooms
at least will be needed for a family of this description, as three bedrooms will be
necessary.
This estimate is based on the assumption that the father of the family is the
only wage earner. If the mother also leaves her home for outside work the
expenses will be increased, as she will have additional needs for clothing and car
fare. Other items, especially food and clothing, will also be higher if the mother
is not devoting her full time to the management and work of the household.

A small amount over the estimated minimum for food will be re­
quired, it is stated, if the purchaser lacks knowledge of food values
in proportion to their cost. The allowance for clothing is based on
the assumption that the housewife is able to do mending and plain
sewing. The amount estimated for household supplies and furnish­
ings “ covers only the upkeep of a household equipment that is
complete.”

Cost of Living of Wage-Earning Women in Richmond,
Va. 7

D

A TA concerning the cost of living of wage-earning women in
Richmond, Va., were collected in the early summer of 1931
by the School of Social Service of William and Mary College. Budgets
were secured for 71 girls (all of whom were at least 75 percent selfsupporting), covering their income and expenditures for the year
ending March 31, 1931. The United States Bureau of Labor Sta­
tistics assisted with advice and by inspection of the budgets, and
7 See Monthly Labor Review, October 1932 (p. 972), for a more detailed report of this study.




108

COST OF LIVING

compiled the report. Although this investigation was limited in
scope, and is incomplete in some respects, it is believed that the
results were fairly representative of living conditions among working
women.
Characteristics of Workers
Age and conjugal condition .—Sixty-nine percent of the woman
workers canvassed were in the 20-to-30-year age group, the average
for all being 24 years. The ages of the 47 clerical workers ranged
from 17 to 45 years and averaged 25 years, and those of the factory
workers ranged from 17 to 35 and averaged 22 years. The age of
the women living at home averaged 23 years and that of the women
living away from home 26 years. One of the workers was a widow,
2 were married but not living with their husbands, and 68 were single
women.
Length oj time in city and in industry. —Eighteen women had
lived in Richmond less than 5 years, 16 from 5 to 10 years, 18 from
10 to 20 years, and 19 from 20 to 29 years, the average number of
years for the 47 clerical workers being 12.5 years, for the 24 factory
workers 11.7 years, and for all the women 12.2 years. Thirty-five
women were living at home and 36 were living away from home.
For 36 women the number of years spent in industry was less than
5 years, for 25 women from 5 to 10 years, and for 10 women from 10
• to 22 years, the average for the 47 clerical workers being 6 years, for
the 24 factory workers 4.6 years, and for all women 5.6 years.
Education. —All of the 71 women reported grade-school education,
averaging 7.1 years. Sixty-five had an average of 3.3 years in high
school and 17 an average of 2.2 years in college, there being 40 who
were high-school graduates and 4 who were college graduates.
Twenty-four women averaged 1 year at business day school and four
women had business training, averaging 2.3 years, in night school.
Degree of self-support .—No woman was included unless she was at
least 75 percent self-supporting. Assistance from their families
when employed as well as when unemployed was received by 26, or
37 percent, divided equally between clerical and factory workers.
Of these women 14 lived at home and 12 away from home.
For the 13 clerical workers this assistance had an average value of
$72 for the year and for the 13 factory workers $34, while for all 26
women it was $53. The average earnings, as distinguished from
total income, of the 13 clerical workers receiving family assistance
were $884, and of the 13 factory workers, $660.

Earnings and Income
T h e earnings of the 47 clerical workers ranged from $480 to $1,560
and averaged $1,082, while the total income from all sources ranged
from $520 to $1,659 and averaged $1,145. For the 24 factory workers
the earnings ranged from $420 to $1,230 and averaged $667, while
the income ranged from $441 to $1,267 and averaged $705. Con­
sidering all 71 woman workers, the earnings averaged $942 and the
income $996, the earnings being 94.5 percent of the income. In
only two instances was a secondary line of work undertaken by the




109

WAGE-EARNING WOMEN IN RICHMOND

women. One clerical worker earned $180 as a singer, and a factory
worker earned $30 as an operator in a beauty parlor during evenings.
Table 1 shows the average earnings and the average income for the
71 wage-earning women in Richmond.
T a ble 1.—AVE R A G E Y E A R L Y EAR N IN G S A N D IN C O M E OF W A G E -E A R N IN G W O M E N
IN R IC H M O N D , V A., B Y IN C O M E GROUPS
Number of
workers
Income group
Cler­
ical

Weeks worked

Earnings

Cler­ Fac­
Fac­ Total ical tory Total
work­ work­
tory
ers
ers

Clerical
workers

Factory
workers

Total

$666.87

$941.69

515.00
492.25
682.20
669.03
870. 89
829.31
1,035. 78
1,250.93 1,230.00
1,440. 92

498.45
673.42
856.04
1,035.78
1,248.60
1,440. 92

All incomes________ ______________

47

24

71

50.2

46.3

48.9 $1,082.03

Under $600________________________
$600 and under $800_______________
$800 and under $1,000______________
$1,000 and under $1,200___________
$1,200 and under $1,400____________
$1,400 and under $1,700____________

3
5
9
9
8
13

8
10
5

11
15
14
9
9
13

49.3
46.4
50.3
51.1
51.8
50.3

45.0
45.5
49.5

46.2
45.8
50.0
51.1
51.3
50.3

1

48.0

Income from other sources

Total income

Income group
Clerical
workers
All incomes_____

_______ . . . ______

Under $600___________________________
$600 and under $800__________________
$800 and under $1,000_____ ___________
$1,000 and under $1,200________ ___
$1,200 and under $1,400_______________
$1,400 and under $ 1 ,7 0 0 .._____ _______

Factory
workers

$63.43

$37.91

$54.80

$1,145.46

$704. 78

$996.49

36.17
59. 75
53. 36
61.90
39.89
93. 64

23.08
42.85
51.93

26.65
48.48
52.85
61.90
39. 56
93. 64

551.17
741.95
924.25
1,097. 68
1,290. 82
1, 534. 56

515.33
711.88
881.24

525.10
721.90
908.89
1,097. 68
1,288.17
1,534.56

37.00

Total

Clerical
workers

Factory
workers

1, 267.00

Total

Time Lost During Year

A t o t a l of 1,265.5 days of lost time during the year was reported
by the 71 women studied, 21 clerical workers reporting an average of
23.1 days and 20 factory workers an average of 39 days. The aver­
ages for all the clerical and all the factory workers were 10.3 and 32.5,
respectively. The greatest proportion of lost time for both clerical
and factory workers was from unemployment—36.4 percent for
clerical workers and 73.5 percent for factory workers— the period
of unemployment ranging from 12 to 54 days for clerical employees
and from 22 to 72 days for factory employees. Twenty-four factory
and forty-two clerical workers reported no change of position during
the year. One clerical worker, however, had 7 different positions,
two had 3, and two had 2 positions.
Vacations without pay, ranging from 6 to 12 days for clerical work­
ers and from 5}i to 48 days for factory workers, accounted for 24.5
and 15.3 percent, respectively, of the lost time.
Table 2 shows the number and percent of days lost for all workers,
by causes.




110

COST OF LIVING

T a ble 2 .—N U M B E R A N D P E R C E N T OF D AY S LOST PER Y E A R B Y W O M A N W O R K E R S
IN R IC H M O N D , V A., B Y CAUSES
Days lost by cler­
ical workers

Days lost by fac­
tory workers

Days lost by all
workers

Cause
Number

Percent
of total

Total causes.___________________________

486

100.0

Unemployment. _________________ _____
Vacation without pay____ ______________
Illness_______________________ ___________
Other. _ _____________________ __________

177
119
108
82

36.4
24.5
22.2
16.9

Percent
of total

Percent
of total

Number

77m

100.0

1,2 6 5 %

100.0

573

73.5
15.3
9.7
1.4

750

59.3
18.8
14.5
7.3

Number

u m

76
11

238%

184
93

Expenditures
P r i m a r y expenses, consisting of board, room, food, fuel, light, a n d
laundry, formed 42.2 percent of the total expenditures for a ll workers.
The amount expended for these items by the factory workers ($313.59)
was lower than that expended by the clerical workers ($459.73), but
formed a larger percentage of the total expenditures of the factory
employees. The same was true of clothing, next in importance.
Primary expenses and clothing absorbed 70.6 percent of the total
expenditures.
There was only a small difference in the amounts expended for
health in the two groups, the average for all the women being $28.24,
or 2.9 percent of the expenditures. For recreation and amusement
both the amount and percentage of total expenditures were higher
for the clerical group and averaged 4.7 percent of the total expendi­
tures for all workers.
The clerical workers spent more than four times as much for edu­
cation and advancement as the factory workers, the percent of yearly
expenditures being 2.9 higher. For all women the average amount
was $38.72, or 4.0 percent of the yearly expenditures.
A comparison of the six major items of expenditure for. these
working women during the year is presented in table 3.
T a ble 3 —A V E R A G E A M O U N T A N D P E R C E N T OF SPECIFIED IT E M S OF Y E A R L Y
E X P E N D IT U R E
GROUP

OF W O R K IN G W O M E N IN R IC H M O N D , VA., B Y O CC U PATIO N AL

Clerical workers
(47)—average in­
come, $1,145.46

Factory workers
(24)—average in­
come, $704.78

Total workers
(71)—average in­
come, $996.49

Item of expenditure
Average
yearly
expense

Percent
of yearly
expense

Average
yearly
expense

Percent
of yearly
expense

Average
yearly
expense

Total expenditures-------------- ------------------- $1,109. 58

100.0

$700.58

100.0

$971.33

100.0

459.73
306.16
28. 96
57.22
51.98
205. 53

41.4
27.6
2.6
5.2
4.7
18.5

313.59
216.41
26.83
23.11
12. 75
107.88

44.8
30.9
3.8
3.3
1.8
15.4

410.33
275.83
28.24
45. 69
38.72
172. 52

42.2
28.4
2.9
4.7
4.0
17.8

Primary expenses 1---------------------------------Clothing______ __ ______________________
Health----------------------------------------------------Recreation and amusement--------------------Education and advancement _______ . . .
Miscellaneous—. ________________ ____ _

1 Board, room, food, fuel, light, and laundry.




Percent
of yearly
expense

111

WAGE-EARNING WOMEN IN RICHMOND

For the group with an income under $600, 52.1 percent of all ex­
penditures was for primary expenses, while for the highest income
group, $1,400 and under $1,700, 38.3 percent of their expenditures
were for primary expenses. For all incomes, clothing absorbed 28.4
percent of the total expenditures, varying as between the income
groups from 24.8 percent to 31.7 percent.
The expense for health for the different income groups varied from
$14.01 to $37.71. The cost of recreation and amusement tended to
increase with advanced income, but the percent of expenditures for
these purposes varied around 5 for most of the income groups. The
expenditure for education and advancement increased in amount and
also in percent of expenditures as the incomes advanced, the amount for
all groups averaging 4 percent of the total expenditures. Miscel­
laneous expenditures rose as the income increased.
A summary of expenditures by income groups is presented in table 4.
T a ble 4.—AVER AG E A M O U N T AN D P E R C E N T OF Y E A R L Y E XPEN SES OF W A G E -E A R N ­
IN G W O M E N IN R IC H M O N D , VA., SPENT FOR PR INCIPAL IT E M S OF COST OF LIVIN G ,
BY IN C O M E GROUPS
Average expenditures for—

Income group
women

Pri­
mary
expenses

Cloth­
ing

Health

Recre­
ation
and
amuse­
ment

Edu­
cation
and ad­
vance­
ment

Miscel­
laneous

All incomes....................... .......................

71

$410.33

$275.83

$28.24

$45.69

$38. 72

$172. 52

Under $600__________________________
$600 and under $800__________________
$800 and under $1,000___________
$1,000 and under $1,200... _________
$1,200 and under $1,400______________
$1,400 and under $1,700______________

11
15
14
9
9
13

285.96
301. 26
380.57
483.49
535.00
536. 52

152.71
229. 69
269.42
286. 94
312. 39
407.14

30.25
30. 01
27.46
24. 57
14. 01
37. 71

12.34
35.68
43.12
39. 79
60. 64
81.97

6.84
12.59
21.37
41. 31
79.87
84. 25

6l7l6
116.50
177.25
195. 61
256.53
252.15

Percent of total expenditures
All incomes________________ _______

71

42.2

28.4

2.9

4.7

4.0

17.8

Under $600____ _____________________
$600 and under $800______
________
$800 and under $1,000________________
$1,000 and under $1,20 0 ______________
$1,200 and under $1,400____ _________
$1,400 and under $1,700_________ ____

11
15
14
9
9
13

52.1
41.5
41.4
45.1
42.5
38.3

27.8
31.7
29.3
26.8
24.8
29.1

5.5
4.1
3.0
2.3
1.1
2.7

2.3
4.9
4.7
3.7
4.8
5.9

1.3
1.7
2.3
3.9
6.4
6.0

11.1
16.1
19.3
18.3
20.4
18.0

Thirteen women lived on their income but saved nothing, while 23
women had living expenses above their income and ended, the year
with an average deficit of $70.79. There were 35 women who lived
on less than their income and were able to save an average of $97.57
each. Considering the 71 woman workers the average surplus was
only $48.10.







EMPLOYMENT SERVICES

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition

19205— 36--------9




113




Organization of United States Employment Service
HE present United States Employment Service was created as a
bureau of the Department of Labor under Public Act No. 30
passed at the special session of the Seventy-third Congress, commonly
known as the “ Wagner-Peyser Act.” The new service replaced a
previously existing Federal employment service of the same name,
which operated offices throughout the country independently of the
State employment services.
Under the present law the United States Employment Service is
charged with the duty of promoting and developing a national sys­
tem of employment offices for men, women, and juniors “ who are
legally qualified to engage in gainful occupations” ; to maintain a
veterans’ bureau; a farm placement service; and a public employ­
ment service for the District of Columbia; and to assist in establish­
ing public employment offices in the several States and political sub­
divisions thereof in which there shall be located a veterans’ employ­
ment service. The Federal agency is charged also with the duty to
“ assist in coordinating the public employment offices throughout the
country and in increasing their usefulness by developing and pre­
scribing minimum standards of efficiency, assisting them m meeting
problems peculiar to their localities, promoting uniformity in their
administrative and statistical procedure, furnishing and publishing
information as to opportunities for employment and other informa­
tion of value in the operation of the system, and maintaining a sys­
tem for clearing labor between the several States.”
The law provides for the appointment of a Federal advisory council.
This board is composed of representatives of employers and employees
and the public for the purpose of formulating policies and the deter­
mining of problems relating to employment. An organization of
similar State advisory councils is required for the various affiliated
State employment services.
The original appropriation for the United States Employment
Service provided $1,500,000 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1934,
and $4,000,000 for each fiscal year thereafter, up to and including the
fiscal year ending June 30, 1938. Thereafter the amount of the
appropriation is to be determined by Congress, as may be deemed
necessary.
Funds appropriated for the Employment Service must be used in
accordance with the terms of the act to promote the establishment and
maintenance of a national system of public employment offices.
Seventy-five percent of the amount authorized by the Wagner-Peyser
Act is to be apportioned by the Director among the several States in
the proportion which their population bears to the total population of
the United States. No payment shall be made to any State until an
equal amount has been appropriated and made available for that year
by the State. Provision was made, however, for the apportionment
115

T




116

EMPLOYMENT SERVICES

of money to the close of the fiscal year 1935 to States which have no
State system of public employment offices and to States which have
established employment offices but have failed to establish a coopera­
tive system.
Affiliated State E m p lo y m e n t Services
S t a t e s desiring to receive benefits under the act must accept the
provisions of the *National act and designate a State agency with the
necessary powers to enable it to fulfill the basic requirements of the
law and to meet the operating standards of the United States Employ­
ment Service. Detailed plans must be submitted to the Director
and full reports of operations and expenses rendered.
On June 30, 1935, at the end of the second year of operation, 25
States and the District of Columbia, which maintains a public employ­
ment service, were affiliated with the United States Employment
Service. A total of 184 operating offices were operated on that date
with personnel of 1,451, not including temporary or suboffices and
auxiliary personnel carried from relief funds. In addition a head­
quarters administrative office is maintained in each State. While
the territory embraced by the States and the District of Columbia
whose employment services are affiliated with the United States
Employment Service constitutes 52.1 percent of the total area of the
country and contains 65.3 percent of the total population, in general
only the larger urban centers within those States are directly served
by offices of the State services. As a result, 46,391,357 people, 37.8
percent of the total population of the country, have direct access
to offices of the State employment services, but only 9.8 percent of
the country’s area is served by these offices. In all States save one,
where the coverage of the State service is complete, areas not served
by the State employment service are served by offices of the National
Reemployment Service. On June 30, 1935, 2,369,999 persons were
actively seeking employment through the affiliated State employment
services.
The 25 States operating employment services affiliated with the
United States Employment Service on June 30, 1935, are listed below:

Arizona
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Louisiana

Massachusetts
Minnesota
Missouri
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
Ohio

Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Virginia
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming

National Reemployment Service
H E National Reemployment Service is an emergency agency of
the United States Employment Service, which was established
under authority of Public Act No. 30, Seventy-third Congress,
approved June 6, 1933. Originally, the National Reemployment
Service was set up as a result of regulations and ruJes promulgated by
the Special Board for Public Works (June 22, 1933) to meet the needs

T




OPERATIONS OF U. S. EMPLOYMENT SERVICE

117

for “ agencies designated by the United States Employment Service” ,
to supply lists of workers eligible under Public Act 67, Seventy-third
Congress, approved June 16, 1933 (title II, sec. 206, subsec. 4).
The Service continues to function as a placement agency under title
II of the National Industrial Recovery Act, and the rules and regula­
tions of the Public Works Administration governing the procurement
of labor on projects prosecuted by or under the direction of that
Administration. The Service also functions under the terms of the
Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935 (Public Res. No. 11,
74th Cong.), approved April 8, 1935, and Executive Order No. 7060,
dated June 5, 1935.
The National Reemployment Service is operated under the direc­
tion of the United States Employment Service, through directors in
the States, and through district offices (each covering several counties),
and through temporary branch offices within these districts. Its
headquarters are in the Department of Labor at Washington, D. C.
On June 30, 1935, the National Reemployment Service was operat­
ing 501 district offices and 1,268 branch offices. This plan of opera­
tion will be maintained under the new Works Progress Administration
program; however, the organization is kept flexible so as to permit of
ready contraction or expansion as the situation warrants.
Section II of Executive Order No. 7060 “ Prescribing Rules and
Regulations Relating to Procedure for Employment of Workers under
the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 19 35” , dated June 5,
1935, provides as follows:
Persons shall be eligible for employment on projects who (a) are registered with
the employment offices designated by the United States Employment Service in
accordance with the administrative order issued May 22, 1935, by the Federal
Emergency Relief Administrator and (b) were receiving public relief in May
1935: P r o v id e d , how ever , That as the various occupational classes in such group
are exhausted through employment, other persons who (1) become eligible for
public relief subsequent to May 1935, and (2) are certified to the Works Progress
Administration and the United States Employment Service by the State emer­
gency relief administrations, may be added to the list of those.eligible for such
employment.

The National Reemployment Service functions, as regards the
Works Progress Administration, in accordance with this section of the
above-mentioned Executive order in States and in areas served by
that agency. State employment services affiliated with the United
States Employment Service are designated for such functions in the
areas which they serve.
The National Reemployment Service continues to serve the Federal
Emergency Administration of Public Works, the Bureau of Public
Roads, other public works agencies, and private employers.

Operations of the United States Employment Service
July 1, 1933, to June 30, 1934

A

D ET A ILED record of the first year’s activities of the United
States Employment Service under its present organization is
given in a report issued in 1934 under the title “ Twelve and a Half
Million Registered for Work.” The following account briefly sum-




118

EMPLOYMENT SERVICES

marizes the more important developments of the year. Major oper­
ating totals, for the year by States, appear in the table on page 124.
The 12 months' activity during the fiscal year July 1, 1933-June
30, 1934 fell into three definite periods—pre-C. W. A., C. W. A., and
post-C. W. A.
During the 4 months of the pre-C. W. A. period, applications for
employment rose from 106,123 in July to 795,773 in October. In all,
1,990,355 persons registered with the Service during its first 4 months
of operation. Placements during the period numbered 404,947, of
which 325,608 were of men and 79,339 were of women.
The Civil Works program began in mid-November and in the next
2 y2 months nearly 9,000,000 persons registered for work: 2,351,026
in November, 4,719,421 in December, and 1,892,147 in January. By
the end of January nearly 11,000,000 persons had applied for jobs and
during the next 2 months, the total was raised to 11,720,913 individual
registrations. These applicants were not only registered but were
interviewed and classified on the basis of their experience and training.
All persons were classified occupationally and selected for referral to
openings on the basis of this classification.
Placements during the period of C. W. A.' activity, which terminated
except for scattered projects on March 31, 1934, reached a total of
5,041,583 in number, the great mass of which were on C. W. A. projects.
Placements included 4,696,301 men and 345,282 women. During this
period of large-scale C. W. A. activity the Employment Service reached
its greatest size, in December 1933 employing a staff of 18,538 persons
and operating 3,446 offices including the units of both the National
Reemployment Service and the affiliated State employment services.
Following the termination of the C. W. A. program the field organi­
zation of the Employment Service was reduced in line with its decreased
volume of activity in many areas, and efforts were increasingly turned
toward securing the placement of persons in private employment,
although large numbers of placements on P. W. A. projects continued
to be made. During this period the volume of new registrations was
lighter than during C. W. A. activity. The 914,061 applications
received during the 3 months, April through June, brought the total
for the first year's operations to 12,634,974, more than 10 percent of
the Nation's population. This is one of the greatest mass registra­
tions of persons for a particular purpose ever made. On June 30,
1934, 7,627,375 of these registered persons were actively seeking
employment through the Service.
At the end of June 1934, the total personnel of the Service had
been reduced to 5,496 persons and the number of offices to 829.
Operating on a district rather than a county basis the organization
continued to make available employment facilities to all but remote
communities despite its reduced size. State employment services
operated 181 offices and the National Reemployment Service, 648.
Placements during the 3 months, April through June, numbered
1,504,993, of which 1,347,250 were men and 157,743 were women.
In the course of the 12 months ended June 30, 1934, the Employ­
ment Service made a total of 6,951,523 placements. Of these place­
ments 4,123,925 were on Civil Works Administration projects, 1,403,358 were on public works and public roads projects, 1,305,873 were in




OPERATIONS OF U. S. EMPLOYMENT SERVICE

119

private employment, and 118,367 were in governmental service, either
local, State, or Federal. Men were placed in 6,369,159 jobs and
women in 582,364.
July 1, 1934, to June 30, 1935
» D e v e l o p m e n t of its vast organization into a closely-knit, inte­
grated Nation-wide employment exchange system was the principal
aim of the United States Employment Service during its second year
of operation. In line with this objective, offices of the Service were
further brought into the district plan of organization, standards of
personnel and technique improved, research projects carried forward,
and the Service more closely tied in with the regular economic life of
the Nation.
The Employment Service during the second year continued to ful­
fill its function as placement agency for Public Works Administration
projects. Offices were maintained at all points necessary to provide
the labor supply for these projects; the normal district plan of the
Service being modified to the extent necessary to serve directly every
project. Primary emphasis, however, was placed upon building up
the permanent place of the Service in the industrial community. An
extensive program of field visits was carried on to acquaint employers
with the functions of the Service and every effort made to improve
private employer relations. The results of this program should
become increasingly evident in future years.
In May 1935 the Employment Service was assigned the responsi­
bility of registering and occupationally classifying all employable
persons on relief so that they would have opportunity to be placed in
private employment. Under the plan of the Works Program author­
ized under the Relief Act of 1935, all original referrals for assignment
on projects are to be made through the Employment Service. The
physical organization of the Service will be expanded to meet this
requirement during the life of the program. While registration of
relief clients not previously in the files did not get under way until
June, over 660,000 new registrations were received during that
month, the highest total since January 1934, during the Civil Works
Administration period.
During the 12 months ended June 30, 1935, offices of the Service
registered and classified 4,115,779 new individual applicants, bringing
the total registration for the 2 years to 16,750,753. During the year
2,781,375 placements were made. On June 30, 1935, there were
6,720,423 persons actively seeking employment through the Service.
Major operating totals for the year are given in the table on page 124.
On the basis of tabulations covering operations through April, it
is estimated that the year’s placements contained 1,500,000 place­
ments in public works of all kinds, 1,111,000 in private employment,
and the balance of the placements in governmental service. Place­
ments in public works include employment in construction and repair
work conducted by State and local governmental units, and by private
contractors on such work, as well as on Public Works Administration
projects. Placements in private industry were made in all types of
jobs, ranging from common labor to highly skilled and professional
and technical positions.
In all placements, the established policy that no referrals are made
to openings where strikes are in progress without notice of the strike




120

EMPLOYMENT SERVICES

to the applicant, and that no person is called in for such referral, was
followed.
A brief description of some of the activities carried in the develop­
ment of improved standards and techniques follows.
Junior Placement Service
T h e Wagner-Peyser Act charges the United States Employment
Service with the duty of promoting and developing a national system
of employment offices for men, women, and juniors. Although the
organization of services for juniors has progressed slowly, recognition
has been given to the problem. Mr. W. Frank Persons, Director of
the United States Employment Service, in the “ Foreword” of the
May issue of the Employment Service News, calls attention to the
importance of specialized services for junior applicants and to the
pressing nature of the problem at the present time. This foreword
reads:
Securing appropriate employment for juniors requires superior skill and a high
degree of social consciousness on the part of the employment office personnel.
This is true both because of the extremely formative nature of early working
experiences and because the problem has acquired unforeseen proportions within
the past few years.
Whether the schools or the public employment offices are to assume the major
responsibility for the placement of young people must be determined by prac­
tical considerations in each community. In either case, success depends upon
the fullest cooperation between these agencies. The schools must give the employ­
ment service the benefit of their previous experience with the applicants, and
the employment service must help the schools in matters of technique and
organization.

While at present (July 1935) only the most general estimate can be
made, it is probable that between 2,000,000 and 3,000,000 people,
18 to 24 years of age, inclusive, are neither at school nor employed.
During each month 25,000 to 30,000 people under 21 years of age
register for placement at State and National Reemployment Service
offices. The majority of them go through the regular registration
procedure—are interviewed by an interviewer in one of the divisions
of the employment office and classified on the basis of their past
experience, which in most cases is very limited, or on the basis of some
specific training which they have had. Many of them are classified
as recent graduates without experience. Because of inexperience,
these young applicants must frequently be passed over in referring
persons to openings which come to the employment offices. In the
4 months, December 1934 to March 1935, although applicants under
21 years of age comprised 15.6 percent of the total of new applicants,
only 10.8 percent of the total placements were of persons in this age
group.
It has long been recognized that beginning workers profit by guid­
ance at the time of placement and by assistance in making the transi­
tion from school to employment. In a number of localities excellent
services for junior applicants have been established. New York
State, prior to its affiliation with the United States Employment
Service, was operating a well-developed service for young people, and
upon affiliation the Junior Service participated in the advantages of
the cooperative arrangement. Through an agreement of affiliation
between the Pennsylvania State Employment Service and the Board
of Public Education of Philadelphia, the Junior Employment Service




OPERATIONS OF U. S. EMPLOYMENT SERVICE

121

of Philadelphia has been able to increase its scope and its usefulness.
Likewise Junior Employment Services of Los Angeles, Calif., and St.
Paul, Minn., organized by the board of education, have become affil­
iated with their respective State employment services. A Junior
Counseling Service has been organized in the District of Columbia
Public Employment Center to give guidance to all applicants under
21 years of age. A number of other States are formulating plans for
the establishment of Junior Services or for the affiliation of existing
school placement services with the State.
Clearance
T h e Wagner-Peyser Act among other requirements specifies that
provision be made for “ maintaining a system for clearing labor be­
tween the several States.” The United States Employment Service
has approached the problem primarily from the standpoint of secur­
ing qualified applicants for existing unfilled openings when qualified
applicants are unavailable within the locality where the order
originates.
Information about unfilled openings is reported by successive stages
to cooperating employment offices in such increasingly wider areas as
may be necessary to develop the desired applicants. Offices nearest
the place of employment are given first opportunity to submit informa­
tion about their applicants, but, if necessary, every office in a State,
group of States, or the country as a whole, may be requested to coop­
erate in the search for suitable applicants.
Under present economic conditions, with an over-supply of workers
registered in most occupational categories, it might be assumed that
a system designed to assure greater mobility of the labor market
would be of little value. However, early in the Public Works Admin­
istration program it developed that most communities from time to
time suffered from shortages of certain types of skilled workers.
The present clearance system which is now being developed to serve
both Government projects and private industry is an outgrowth of
the experience gained in transferring workers required on Public
Works projects.

Veterans' Placement Service
O n J u l y 1 , 1934, the Veterans* Placement Service of the United
States Employment Service was operating to serve the employment in­
terests of veterans in every State in the country. At that time a
veterans* placement representative had been appointed to supervise
placements of veterans in 39 of the 48 States, and in the District of
Columbia. During the year ended June 30, 1935, additional appoint­
ments were made in all the remaining States.
Preliminary reports show that during the fiscal year ended June 30,
1935, 232,183 veterans registered with offices of the United States
Employment Service for the first time and over 369,031 placements
were made. These figures are reflected in the reduction of the active
file of unemployed veterans to a total of 443,372 on June 30, 1935.
During the fiscal year of 1934, 853,852 veterans were placed in em­
ployment, a large number of whom were employed under the Civil
Works program. During the fiscal year 1935 there was a gradual
tapering off of projects sponsored by the Public Works Adnunistra-




122

EMPLOYMENT SERVICES

tion, on which veterans are entitled to legal preference, largely account­
ing for the reduction in the total number of veteran placements.
There was, however, a steady and gratifying increase in placements
of veterans with private employers. Placements with private em­
ployers usually indicate employment of a more permanent nature.
Occupational Research Program
I f a p u b l i c employment office is to make placements which will
render maximum service to both employers and employees, it must
have accurate information regarding (1) the characteristics or qualifi­
cations that are found in those workers who are performing with maxi­
mum efficiency on each job, and (2) the characteristics or qualifica­
tions possessed by each applicant coming to the employment office
for a job. The Division of Standards and Research of the United
States Employment Service has therefore organized an Occupational
Research Program, which is engaged in (1) analyzing jobs, and in (2)
analyzing the qualifications of workers who are most efficient on
various jobs.
While the results of these studies are being published for use in
public employment offices, they will probably be very useful in the
training and guidance of young workers and in the reclassification of
occupations in terms of common human characteristics. The fifteen
or twenty thousand job titles now in general use are in terms of the
machine used, the product produced, and the industry served. Social
planning of an intelligent sort would seem to require the availability
of a much smaller number of titles referring to the characteristics of
the workers, which is an ultimate objective of the present research
program.

Use of Tests in Guidance and Counseling
I n c o n n e c t i o n with the Junior Counseling Division of the District
of Columbia Public Employment Center, use is being made of certain
objective tests of vocational ability and aptitude. This service to
District of Columbia young people who do not have adequate work
histories is under the close supervision of the Occupational Research
Program of the United States Employment Service. The purpose of
the work, in addition to its service to young people, is to evaluate
existing techniques and to suggest and try out modifications of them.
The District of Columbia Employment Center is, in these matters,
serving as a laboratory for the entire service.

Statistical Program
O n e of the most comprehensive sources of detailed information
concerning the unemployed population of the country is furnished by
the statistics gathered by the United States Employment Service.
Succeeding a system of simple weekly reports of operating totals,
used during the first year of operations, a comprehensive statistical
program was instituted in July 1934 which, in addition to operating
records, provides detailed information with respect to every person
registered or placed. The program has been designed with a dual
purpose: First, to provide accurate records of the work of Employment
Service offices to serve as an administrative guide, and, secondly, to
provide a comprehensive source of information concerning the charac-




OPERATIONS OF U. S. EMPLOYMENT SERVICE

123

teristics of the unemployed group throughout the country and an
indication of some of the more important unemployment trends.
The daily reports of transactions indicate for each applicant or
person placed, his occupational classification and the type of industry
in which he was formerly employed or in which he is being placed, and
such personal details as age, color, sex, length of unemployment (in
the case of applicants), veteran status, relief status, and additional
pertinent information as specially desired from time to time.
Beginning July 1, 1935, it is planned to add a report of starting
wages and hours in the case of all placements to the list of regular
monthly tables.
By means of mechanical tabulation of these standard reports,
monthly Nation-wide summaries of the material are prepared regu­
larly. These summaries provide valuable source material concerning
such vexing problems as the extent of unemployment among youth,
the much discussed “ 40-year deadline” of employment, displacement
of men by women, average length of unemployment in various occu­
pations, employment trends in various industries, and similar prob­
lems of general interest. The report of beginning wages and hours
will offer one of the few sources of current information on prevailing
wage rates and hours of labor.
Employment Service statistics, while not directly a report of total
unemployment, provide the largest single detailed sample regularly
available covering both relief recipients and nonrelief workers. Regu­
lar weekly summaries of the number of men and women registered for
jobs in each county are available with a lag of but 5 days from the
date of reporting. It is planned to secure at quarterly intervals
during the fiscal year beginning July 1, 1935, a detailed analysis of
this supply of workers, giving an occupational inventory of all avail­
able registered job seekers. With the classifications by sex, age,
color, etc., reported for these workers, this labor inventory should
provide a continuing representative sample census of unemployment.
The following tables are prepared regularly by mechanical tabula­
tion, broken down geographically by States and by cities and districts
within the States:
(a) For all new applicants:
1. Veteran status according to sex and color.
2. Length of unemployment in months, according to sex, color, and veteran
status.
3. Age in years, according to sex, color, and veteran status.
4. Industrial background according to sex, color, and. veteran status of the
applicant.
5. Occupational background according to sex, color, and veteran status of the
applicant.
(b) For all placements:
6. Veteran status according to sex and color.
7. Age according to sex, color, and veteran status.
8. Industry in which placement made, according to sex, color, and veteran
status of the person placed.
9. Occupation in which placement made, according to sex, color, and veteran
status of the person placed.
(c) For canceled openings.
10. Reason for cancelation.




124

EMPLOYMENT SERVICES

Plans for amplification of regularly tabulated information com­
mencing July 1, 1935, include the following:
1. Inclusion of a report of the number of persons on relief in tables 1 through
9, above.
2. Monthly reports of starting wage rates and hours of work, classified by
occupations, for placements.
3. Detailed quarterly reports giving the sex, color, age, length of unemploy­
ment, relief status, color, industrial background, occupation, etc., of all persons
actively seeking employment through the United States Employment Service.
It is expected that renewals of inactive applications will bring the number of per­
sons covered in this report to a total of approximately 10,000,000.
A C T IV ITIE S OF U N IT E D STATES E M P L O Y M E N T SERVICE
Year July 1, 1933, to June 30, 1934
State

Year July 1, 1934, to June 30, 1935 i

New ap­
plications

United States----------------------Alabama.,....................... .
Arizona------------------ ------------Arkansas_________ ________ .
California___ w
----------------------Colorado------------------------------Connecticut_________________
Delaware - ---------------------------Florida______________________
Georgia_____________________
Idaho___________ _________
Illinois______________________
Indiana_____________________
Iowa--------------------------------- . .
K a n s a s ..._____ ___________
Kentucky___________________
Louisiana.----------------Maine___. . .
-----------------Maryland_______ . . . -----------Massachusetts---------- ------- Michigan------- ------------------ —
Minnesota---- ----------- ----Mississippi__________________
Missouri____________________
Montana-------- -------------------Nebraska___________________
Nevada___________________ _
New Hampshire______ _____
New Jersey...............................
New Mexico____ ___________
New York__________________
North Carolina_____________
North Dakota_____________
Ohio_________________ ______
Oklahoma___________________
Oregon_____________________ .
Pennsylvania-----------------------Rhode Island.......... ..................
South Carolina_______ ____ _
South Dakota----------------------Tennessee-----------------------------Texas_______________________
Utah_______ ____ ____________
Vermont-------- ----------------------Virginia__________ ________ _
Washington_________________
West Virginia____ __________
Wisconsin____ _______ ____
Wyoming__________ ______ _
District of Columbia...............

Place­
ments

Active file
as of
June 30

New ap­
plications

Place­
ments

12,634,974

6,951,523

7,627,375

4,115,779

2,781,375

6,720,423

193, 513
35,972
167,407
234,231
74,627
65, 245
9,360
94, 786
58,565
191,273
221,157
184,687
130,877
105,427
120,423
96,364
44, 722
66, 734
165,756
126,356
233,441
177,051
246,699
63, 751
121,969
20,953
36,998
120,083
34,493
257,247
121,108
134, 361
274,667
275,645
78,978
752,430
10,069
93,602
83,651
113,754
435,255
62,200
34,418
204, 791
128,478
94,107
302, 783
25,827
25,232

133, 563
27,075
43,341
470,967
71,691
48,991
15,804
133,763
200,471
42,600
183, 584
230,391
81,468
149, 507
264, 730
150,452
24,045
105, 377
318,007
329,087
188,401
114,896
216,959
51,921
67, 208
9,631
19,462
121,315
39,016
878,482
92,130
37,507
314,717
228,132
98,215
900,037
50,468
146,821
103,192
166,327
175,806
31,893
14, 955
126,893
164,729
108, 692
82,116
13,684
38,856

76,499
30,284
82,808
152,383
40,837
62,932
7,928
50,859
109,386
15,440
227,396
90, 543
55,892
55, 674
37,812
50,550
18, 331
50, 666
98,136
77,203
95,979
37,053
159,559
18,543
35,740
11,277
16, 784
172,158
15,877
451,121
79,329
19,696
242,241
40,866
28,856
644,699
16,569
47,655
18,818
69,026
184,101
15,455
10,241
59,249
37,958
51,329
95,928
9,818
38,295

42,662
19,335
60, 714
131,301
32,891
36,654
10, 508
56, 244
57, 314
25,351
138,866
57,008
71,491
60,220
31,460
26,003
12,946
30,254
52,250
48, 508
135,816
50,309
97,271
53, 798
60,601
12,160
24,340
46,347
18,971
155,988
74,622
26, Oil
129, 776
47,944
43,218
221, 542
10,333
59,878
34,319
32,201
151,476
31,293
11,254
62,077
45,003
33.023
75.853
13,939
20,032

110,658
36,202
90,967
145,481
73,389
51,917
11,763
89,368
226,918
31, 417
207,648
156, 781
83,028
158,896
113, 584
157,367
23,641
84, 595
214,210
129,763
88. 576
103,272
213,020
31,884
73, 740
5, 365
24,973
238,366
35, 651
754,884
97,813
31,807
243,947
71,697
83,967
1,148,191
43,900
133,262
61,262
214,398
257,453
35,112
14,910
102,820
160,539
118,668
77,108
10,611
45,634

430,949
55,496
319,397
615,807
153,290
145,021
15,563
183,063
256,859
43,155
603,668
347,708
186,427
165,892
253, 767
189,739
65, 787
117,637
401,375
292,652
422,125
366,482
323,945
51,533
135, 507
26,410
49,547
351,855
57,044
702,615
215,664
113, 616
700,992
450,365
124,540
1,050,014
56,133
249,534
116,991
304,988
584,801
88,070 ,
31,354
281,623
227,594
169,495
434,209
35,883
68,793

Preliminary report; subject to revision.




Active file
as of
June 30

COST OF PLACEMENTS

125

Regulation of Fee-Charging Employment Agencies

M

OST States have legislated to regulate fee-charging employment
agencies. Commonly such statutes require bonding and licens­
ing, and attempt to eliminate certain undesirable practices such as
fee splitting, collusion between agent and employer, and the misrep­
resentation of working conditions to applicants seeking employment.
In Brazee v. M ichigan (1916), 241 U. S. 340, the Supreme Court held
that an act providing for the licensing, bonding, and regulation of
employment agencies was a valid exercise of police power by the
State. Subsequently, in Adam s v. Tanner (1917), 244 U. S. 592, the
court passed upon a statute which forbade employment agents from
receiving fees from workers for whom they found employment. The
statute did not, however, prohibit the collection of fees from em­
ployers. The court held that the statute, in forbidding the collection
of fees from persons desiring to work, destroyed defendant’s occupa­
tion as agent for workers seeking employment, and therefore violated
the due-process clause of the fourteenth amendment. Finally, in a
third case, R ibn ik v. M cB rid e (1928), 277 U. S. 350, it was held that
inasmuch as the fee-charging agency was not a business affecting the
public interest, any attempt to limit the fees charged was uncon­
stitutional as seriously infringing upon freedom of contract.

Cost of Placements by Public Employment Offices
C a lifo rn ia

D

URING the biennium which closed June 30, 1932, the Division
of State Free Employment Agencies of California spent $203,437,
according to the report of the State department of industrial relations
for that period. Within these 2 years the number of jobs filled was
191,424, the average cost per placement being $1.06, which was
considerably higher than for any of the 5 previous bienniums, the
figures for which are: 1920-22, 54 cents; 1922-24, 36 cents; 1924-26,
46 cents; 1926-28, 54 cents; and 1928-30, 61 cents. This rise in cost
in the biennial period 1930-32 is attributed to the severe industrial
depression. When there is a great dearth of jobs the number of
placements naturally falls, and yet “ the organization that was built
up during good times must be retained, prepared to meet the demand
for jobs when employment conditions change for the better.”
It is estimated, however, in the report that if the 191,424 jobs
secured free of charge through the State employment offices had been
obtained through private employment agencies the cost to clients
would have been $853,751.04, on the basis that the average cost to
workers per placement through such private offices was $4.46 in the
biennium 1930-32.
W isconsin
T h e total expenditures by State and local governments in support
of the 10 public employment offices of Wisconsin for 4 annual periods
are given in the accompanying table from the biennial report of the
industrial commission of that State for 1930-32.




126

EMPLOYMENT SERVICES

E X P E N D IT U R E S B Y STATE A N D LOCAL G O V E R N M E N T S ON AC C O U N T OF PUBLIC
E M P L O Y M E N T OFFICES IN W ISCO N SIN , 1928-31
Expenditures by—
Year
State gov­
ernment

Local gov­
ernments

Total

1928............................................ ....................... $42,549.40
1929.......................................................... .......
41,432.85
1930........................................ ............................
42, 638. 60
1931.................................................................... 41,703.61

$15,149.17
16,648.62
16,129.06
18,104.14

$57,698.57
58,081.47
58,767. 66
59,807. 75




Number of
persons
placed

100,316
101,183
52,021
40,660

Average
cost per
person
placed

$0.58
.57
1.13
1.47

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND
CONDITIONS

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




127




Trend of Employment and Pay Rolls in the United
States
Available Statistics on E m p lo y m e n t

M

O NTHLY statistics regarding trend of employment and pay
rolls for the United States are compiled by Federal agencies
for the following employment groups:
1. Private employment:
(a)
Manufacturing industries .—Data compiled by the Bureau of
Labor Statistics for 90 industries; indexes, with a decreasing number of
industries, run back to 1919.
(b)
Trade , 'public-utility , mining, and service industries .—Data
compiled by the Bureau of Labor Statistics for 16 industrial groups:
Anthracite mining; bituminous-coal mining; metalliferous mining;
quarrying and nonmetallic mining; crude-petroleum producing;
telephone and telegraph; electric light and power and manufactured
gas; electric railroad and motor-bus operation and maintenance;
wholesale trade; retail trade; hotels; laundries; dyeing and cleaning;
banks; brokerage; and insurance. Indexes for these groups, where
available, begin with 1929.
(c)
Building construction.—Data compiled by the Bureau of Labor
Statistics since 1931.
(d) Steam railroads .—Data on employment compiled by the Inter­
<
state Commerce Commission and published by the Bureau of Labor
Statistics.
2. Public employment:
(a) Federal service.—Data as to the executive departments of the
United States Government tabulated by the Bureau of Labor Statistics
from reports furnished by the United States Civil Service Commission.
(6) Employment created by Public Works Administration fu n d .—
Data tabulated from reports secured by the Bureau of Labor Statistics
from the agencies administering the Federal public-works funds or
direct from the contractors.
(c)
Emergency-work program .—Data secured by the Bureau of
Labor Statistics from the Federal Emergency Relief Administration.
id) Emergency conservation work .—Data secured by the Bureau of
Labor Statistics from the Director of Emergency Conservation Work.
(e) Public roads {other than those financed from public works fu n d s ).—
Data compiled by the Bureau of Public Roads of the Department of
Agriculture.
(/) Reconstruction Finance Corporation construction projects.—Data
compiled by Bureau of Labor Statistics from reports secured direct
from contractors.
(g) Construction projects financed from regular governmental appro­
priations .-—
Data compiled by Bureau of Labor Statistics from reports

secured direct from contractors or Government agency.
19205— 36--------10




129

130

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

Current statistics concerning changes in employment in various
States or city localities are also collected and published monthly by
State, university, or banking organizations as follows: Arkansas,
California, Delaware, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Indiana, Maryland,
Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, New Jersey, New York, Ohio,
Oregon, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Wisconsin, Federal
Reserve Bank of Philadelphia, Federal Reserve Bank of San Fran­
cisco, and University of Texas. With the exception of the States
of Iowa, Minnesota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, and Rhode Island, the
above cooperate with the Federal Bureau in collecting employment
and relevant data.
Coverage and Methods of Compiling
F o r steam railroads and the public-employment groups, the cover­
age is complete; that is, all the employees in the groups are covered
in the reports. In the other industrial employment groups it is
impracticable for the Bureau of Labor Statistics to secure reports
from all establishments. The selection of the sample and the methods
of collecting and compiling the data are, therefore, matters of consider­
able interest. Briefly stated, the practice of the Bureau on these
points is as follows:
The basic material concerning employment and pay rolls in manu­
facturing industries and in the 17 nonmanufacturing groups is obtained
from reports furnished by representative establishments in all sections
of the country. The Federal Bureau is assisted in the collection of
these data by 13 cooperating agencies, most of which are State
departments of labor.
Questionnaires are mailed to each establishment on the 15th of each
month requesting information as to the pay-roll period ending nearest
the 15th day of the month. The questionnaire asks for an enumera­
tion of the concern’s principal products or the kind of business in
which it is engaged, the dates covered by the pay period reported, the
amount of pay roll, the total number of persons who worked any part
of the period, and the total man-hours worked by the employees
reported. Also, for purposes of verification, a request is made for
the reason for any marked increase or decrease in total pay roll or
number of employees, and for a statement concerning any change
made in rates of wages. Each report is inspected upon its arrival;
and if the pay-roll total is for a period longer than 1 week, the equiv­
alent pay roll for 1 week is computed. Where necessary, reports
are returned to the senders for correction or amendment.
The Bureau’s aim has been to secure a coverage of approximately
50 percent of the employees in manufacturing industries in each
State, as recorded by the Census of Manufactures, thereby main­
taining the geographical distribution of employees in the several
industries on an equitable basis.
Although equal coverage and distribution by States has also been
the aim m nonmanufacturing industries, this has not as yet been
achieved due to the difficulties encountered in contacting smaller
concerns, as in retail trade, for instance.
In selecting establishments to represent each industry, care has
been exercised to secure in each geographic division a number of both
large and small establishments, and if there are two or more branches
of an industry, the same care has been exercised to maintain the ratio
of representation from each branch.




TREND OF EMPLOYMENT AND PAY ROLLS

131

The number of employees, the pay-roll total, and the man-hours
worked for each establishment are entered on an office record card
which has space for the 12 months of each of 3 years. Punched cards
are prepared from these record cards, and employment, pay-roll,
and man-hour totals for all reporting establishments in each industry
for both the current month and the month immediately preceding are
secured. From these totals, percentages of change over the month
interval are obtained, and from these percentage changes the index
of the current month for each industry is built up from the index of
the preceding month.
Percentages of change over the year interval are computed from the
indexes of the current month and the same month of the preceding
year.
Changes in per-capita earnings are computed and tabulated by
industries, comparisons being made between the current month and the
the preceding month and between the current month and the cor­
responding month of the preceding year; wage changes also are
brought together and tabulated by industries.
Tabulations are also prepared showing changes in average hours
worked per week and average hourly earnings.
Index numbers of employment and pay-roll totals are published for
each of the 90 manufacturing industries, for each of the 14 major
groups and 2 subgroups of manufacturing industries, for combinations
of these groups into durable and nondurable goods divisions, and for
all manufacturing industries combined, together with indexes for each
of the nonmanufacturing groups surveyed other than banks, brokerage,
insurance, and building construction.
P rivate E m p lo y m e n t
T ren d o f E m p lo y m e n t in M a n u fa ctu rin g In du stries

T h e Bureau of Labor Statistics’ survey of factory employment and
pay rolls covered 24,649 establishments in 90 manufacturing industries
in April 1935. These establishments employed in that month 3,889,488
wage earners, whose combined weekly earnings totaled $82,358,206.
The reporting establishments employed slightly more than 50 percent
of all factory wage earners.
In the early part of 1934 a revision was made in the methods of
weighting the index numbers for manufacturing industries. The series
of general indexes previously published had been computed on a vary­
ing number of industries which had been expanded as additional funds
became available to carry on this portion of the Bureau’s work.
This series of index numbers, when compared with biennial census
trends, showed a pronounced bias over an extended period of time.
To eliminate this bias, the indexes were adjusted to conform to the
trend shown in biennial census reports. Such adjustment makes
allowance for new establishments coming into the industry or old
establishments dropping out over the period for which census data
are available, and the adjusted indexes show the trend in each industry
and for all manufacturing as a whole rather than the trend in
representative establishments.
Another reason for revising the general indexes of employment and
pay roll was to improve the method of constructing the general
indexes. The index numbers of total factory employment and pay




132

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

rolls had been computed previously by weighting each of the manufac­
turing industries by the number of employees or amount of annual
earnings paid in the year 1925. The revised series of general indexes
is computed by weighting the 14 group indexes, which in turn were
obtained by weighting each of the separate industries within the group.
At the time the weighting system was revised, it was also decided to
shift the index base from the 12-month average 1926 as 100 to the
average for the 3-year period, 1923-25. The broad base was selected
as preferable to the single-year base, not only because the broad base
minimizes any unusual condition which would greatly affect the rela­
tive position of any industry on a single-year base, but also places the
Bureau’s indexes on a base similar to other indexes of employment,
pay rolls, and production constructed by a number of official and
private organizations.
Table 1 shows the general indexes of employment and pay rolls in
manufacturing industries, adjusted to conform with biennial census
reports through 1931, for each of the months from January 1919 to
December 1935, and yearly averages from 1919 to 1935.
T able 1.—G E N E R A L IN D E X E S OF E M P L O Y M E N T A N D P A Y ROLLS IN M A N U F A C ­
T U R IN G IN D U STR IES, B Y M O N TH S—JA N U A R Y 1919 TO D E C E M B E R 1935
[3-year average 1923-25=100]
E m p lo y m e n t
Month and year

Jan.

1919______________
1920______________
1921..........................
1922______________
1923______________
1924______________
1925_________ ____
1926______________
1927______________
1928______________
1929_______ ______
1930---------------------1931______________
1932_________ _____
1933______________
1934_____ ________
1935............ ... ..........

105.3
114.9
81.0
82.5
100.7
100.2
96.3
100.5
98.2
95.0
100.8
97.3
79.6
68.7
60.2
73.4
78.8

Feb. Mar. Apr.
102.0
113.7
82.6
84.6
102.5
101.5
98.1
101.5
99.7
96.5
102.9
97.4
80.3
69.5
61.1
77.8
81.4

102.4
116.0
83.2
85.9
104.6
101.7
98.8
102.1
100.2
97.6
104.1
96.9
80.7
68.4
58.8
80.9
82.5

102.5
114.5
82.1
85.8
105.0
99.9
98.7
101.4
99.6
97.1
105.3
96.3
80.7
66.1
59.9
82.4
82.6

May June July Aug. Sept.
103.1
112.0
81.9
87.9
105.3
96.8
98.1
100.4
99.1
97.0
105.3
94.8
80.1
63.4
62.6
82.5
81.2

104.3
111.1
81.0
89.8
106.0
93.8
98.0
100.3
99.1
97.8
105.6
92.9
78.4
61.2
66.9
81.1
79.7

106.9
108.5
79.8
88.2
104.9
91.0
97.8
99.4
98.1
97.7
106.1
89.5
77.0
58.9
71.5
78.8
79.7

109.7
108.8
81.2
91.4
105.2
92.1
99.5
101.4
99.3
100.1
107.9
88.8
77.1
60.1
76.4
79.6
82.0

Oct.

Nov.

111.3
103.7
84.1
97.0
104.5
95.3
102.2
103.1
99.6
102.6
107.7
87.7
74.4
64.4
79.6
78.4
85.3

112.6
97.4
84.2
99.0
103.2
94.8
101.8
101.4
97.4
101.7
103.6
84.6
71.8
63.4
76.3
76.9
85.0

Dec. Aver­
age
114.4
89.7
83.3
100.5
101.4
96.1
101.5
100.0
96.1
101.2
99.8
82.3
71.0
62.1
74.5
78.1
84.6

107.2
108.2
82.3
90.6
104.1
96.5
99.4
101.2
98.9
98.9
104.8
91.5
77.4
64.1
69.0
78.8
82.2

92.0 94.8 99.9 104.7 102.2 106.7 114.0
124.2 119.3 121.6 119.8 115.8 107.0 98.0
75.4 71.7 73.9 73.4 72.6 71.7 73.3
80.5 78.5 83.0 87.0 89.5 93.4 95.7
107.5 103.3 103.8 104.3 106.6 104.5 102.9
92.4 85.7 89.3 92.5 95.1 93.7 97.6
98.7 96.8 99.3 98.8 104.6 104.6 105.2
103.3 99.0 103.4 104.4 107.6 104.1 103.5
102.4 98.5 101.9 101.4 102.1 98.5 99.5
101.7 99.0 103.3 104.7 108.2 105.0 105.6
111.2 107.2 112.0 112.9 112.4 104.1 100.7
92.3 84.3 83.3 84.1 82.2 76.8 75.2
69.7 66.2 65.9 63.4 61.3 58.1 57.6
43.4 39.8 40.6 42.9 44.7 42.9 41.5
47.2 50.8 56.8 59.1 59.4 55.5 54.5
64.9 60.5 62.2 58.0 61.0 59.5 63.2
66.4 65.4 69.7 72.2 75.0 74.5 76.6

97.4
117.1
76.2
81.3
103.3
96.1
100.6
103.8
101.8
102.4
109.1
88.7
67.5
46.1
48.5
61.9
70.3

111.7
107.5
83.4
94.5
105.7
94.4
101.5
103.4
100.5
102.2
109.0
89.6
77.4
63.3
80.0
75.9
83.7

P a y rolls
1 9 1 9 -......................
1920..........................
1921................. .........
1922______________
1923...........................
1924______________
1925______ ________
1926________ _____
1 9 2 7 - .- ...................
1928..............„ .........
1929_____ _________
1930..........................
1931...........................
1932...........................
1933------------- --------1934...........................
1935...........................

95.3
117.2
82.8
69.6
94.6
98.8
95.4
100.9
98.4
96.0
102.3
95.9
70.0
53.5
39.5
54.0
64.3




89.6
115.5
81.3
72.4
97.9
104.1
100.8
105.0
104.4
101.2
109.3
98.8
74.3
54.6
40.2
60.6
69.1

90.0
123.7
81.7
74.9
102.5
104.1
102.4
106.5
105.7
102.5
111.6
98.8
75.6
53.1
37.1
64.7
70.8

89.2
120.9
79.0
73.8
103.8
101.8
100.0
104.4
104.5
100.5
112.6
97.7
74.4
49.5
38.8
67.3
70.8

90.0
122.4
77.3
77.2
107.3
97.5
100.7
103.1
104.0
101.3
112.9
95.4
73.4
46.8
42.7
67.1
68.5

133

TREND OF EMPLOYMENT AND PAY ROLLS

Indexes of Employment and Pay Rolls, by Industries, 1929-34

I n table 2 are shown the average yearly indexes of employment
and pay rolls from 1929 to 1934, for each of the 14 major manufac­
turing groups, the 2 subgroups, and the 90 separate manufacturing
industries included in the Bureau’s survey.
T a ble 2 .—A V E R A G E Y E A R L Y IN D E X E S OF E M P L O Y M E N T A N D PAY-R O LL TO TALS
IN M A N U F A C T U R IN G INDUSTR IES, 1929-34
[3-year average (1923-25)=100]
1929
Industries

Em­
ploy­
ment

1930

Em­
Pay ploy­
roll ment

1931

1932

1933

1934

Em­
Pay ploy­
roll ment

Pay Em­
ploy­
roll ment

Pay
roll

Em­
ploy­
ment

Pay
roll

Em­
ploy­
ment

29.1

58.6

36.2

69.0

49.0

Pay
roll

Iron and steel and
their products, not
Including machinery. 103.6 107.8

89.3

85.7

69.7

55.0

53.3

103.2 109.6

90.3

87.7

68.4

53.6

51.5

24.8

58.5

35.4

69.7

49.2

114.0 122.0
87.8 85.2

0)
80.4

(0
75.3

74.2
71.5

56.2
55.1

60.8
45.5

33.8
24.2

71.0
39.2

42.1
19.7

78.1
51.1

54.3
27.8

Blast furnaces, steel
works, and rolling
mills____________
Bolts, nuts, washers,
and rivets_________
Cast-iron pipe_______
Cutlery (not includ­
ing silver and plat­
ed cutlery) and
edge tools_________
Forgings, iron and
steel....... ...................
Hardware___________
Plumbers’ supplies...
Steam and hot-water
heating apparatus
and steam fittings..
Stoves______________
Structural and orna­
mental metalwork.
Tin cans and other
tinware___________
Tools (not including
edge tools, machine
tools, files, and
saws)___ _______
Wirework___________

89.5

0)

(0

74.2

60.4

67.6

46.8

65.1

42.8

77.6

55.4

0)
88.6
0)

(0
81.6
(0

41.9
70.3
65.1

32.5
58.9
48.0

35.8
55.1
51.1

19.9
35.5
27.6

40.8
55.8
58.2

25.0
36.1
31.1

54.6
62.7
58.4

39.4
47.0
32.6

92.4
98.8

78.3
83.1

69.0
74.3

67.1
69.4

46.3
53.4

46.5
57.3

24.7
35.0

49.5
68.7

26.4
43.9

47.6
87.2

29.9
60.1

111.2 112.8

98.9

94.2

76.0

61.5

50.8

31.1

46.1

26.3

56.8

38.9

83.7

83.3

73.8

67.3

78.7

70.6

90.7

84.4

51.1
80.6

46.5
90.3

32.2 48.9
61.9 103.3

34.7 59.8
75.7 124.4

49.9
101.0

87.5

87.8 97.8
101.7 106.9
92.5 87.2
91.6
99.3

104.3 113.6

(0

0)

107.6 117.8
124.2 129.3

0)
0)

(0
(0

Machinery, not In­
cluding transporta­
tion equipment____ 125.9 134.2 104.6 102.2
Agricultural imple­
ments................ .......
Cash registers, add­
ing machines, and
calculating
ma­
chines_____________
Electrical machinery,
apparatus, and sup­
plies..........................
Engines,
turbines,
tractors, and water­
wheels.. . . ........ .......
Foundry and ma­
chine-shop prod­
ucts...........................
Machine tools_______
Radios and phono­
graphs____________
Textile
machinery
and parts_________
Typewriters
and
parts_____ ____ ___

60.4
95.6

78.3

63.9

56.3

36.1

58.9

37.9

77.7

57.2

147.9 160.0 110.7 106.9

62.3

51.9

39.2

32.4

44.5

37.7

75.1

77.7

120.8 137.3

87.3

69.1

75.4

50.6

79.5

56.4 102.0

79.4

127.3 134.4 107.1 109.3

80.9

68.7

56.8

37.1

51.3

33.6

63.9

47.7

125.3 138.9 106.1 107.2

68.1

54.0

42.4

24.0

44.8

25.7

69.7

45.7

111.3 117.9 94.2 89.0
167.2 187.6 126.0 121.9

69.7
74.7

55.4
61.5

50.4
40.5

31.1
27.5

52.6
41.7

32.8
28.7

68.0
69.0

49.6
53.4

85.4 203.5

116.5

0)

0)

96.5 100.0

62.7 151.4

71.2

66.0

61.3

54.3

48.7

35.4

61.1

47.0

69.1

54.4

0)

0)

77.8

60.0

58.7

35.2

62.7

42.4

94.4

81.1

80.2

70.2

66.3

52.3

56.0

40.7

54.2

39.5

82.9

68.6

353.1 354.8 253.7 251.0 298.5 269.5 332.5
Aircraft_____________ 525.2 501.5
(9
0)
Automobiles________ 111.3 111.6 80.3 65.7 71.0 53.4 60.8 42.3 59.8 42.8 93.2
Cars, electric and
steam railroad_____ 63.1 63.1 54.7 53.2 29.6 25.4 26.3 23.5 25.4 20.5 43.4
5.8 31.1
8.9 15.6
Locomotives............... 56.8 58.3 52.3 51.5 28.0 18.1 19.4
Shipbuilding............... 101.3 109.7 107.3 113.5 83.0 76.8 66.0 52.5 55.4 38.9 70.2

288.2
76.1

204.5 202.9 141.0 139.8 124.4
88.1

96.7

121.1 130.1

Transportation equip­
m ent...................... . 103.5 105.4

i Data not available.




40.8
13.7
54.9

134

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

T able 2*—AVE R A G E Y E A R L Y IN D E X E S OF E M P L O Y M E N T A N D PAY-R OLL T O TALS
IN M A N U F A C T U R IN G IN D U STR IES, 1929-34—Continued
[3-year average (1923-25)=100]
1929
Industries

Railroad repair shops..
Electric railroad
Steam railroad______

Em­
ploy­
ment

Em­
Em­
Pay ploy­ Pay
Pay
roll ment roll ploy­ roll
ment

82.6 90.4
87.8 97. 2
82.2 89.8

73.4
85.8
72.4

76.1
93.0
74.8

(*)

(9

(9

(9

121.5 128.3

96.6

88.7

98.2 102.2
111.4 113.3
104.2 110.6

0)
0)
0)

92.6

96.5

91.3

99.4

Nonferrous metals and
their products____ _ 111.4 116.4
Aluminum manufac-

tures....................... 138.4 150.0
Brass, bronze, and

copper products___
Clocks and watches
and time-recording
devices........... ..........
Jewelry........................
Lighting equipment ._
Silverware and plated
ware---------------------Smelting and refining—copper, lead,
and zinc....................
Stamped and enameled ware..................

97.4
Furniture___________ 111.9 114.0
Lumber:
Millwork..........
84.6 83.5
Sawmills________ 87.7 90.7
Turpentine and rosin. 126.0 98.2
Brick, tile, and terra
cotta______ _______
Cement_____ ________
Glass-----------------------Marble, granite, slate,
and other products _
Pottery............... .........
_____

Carpets and rugs.
Cotton goods____
C o tto n sm a ll
wares_________
Dyeing and fin­
ishing textiles..
Hats, fur-felt____
Knit goods............
Silk and rayon
goods.............. .
Woolen and wor­
sted goods_____

1933

Em­
Em­
ploy­ Pay ploy­
ment roll ment
53.4
71. 7
52.0

42.7
64.3
41.2

74.0

63.1

58.1

90.2

81.3

64.3

74.9

60.3

(0
(0
0)

74.3
74.1
65.3

(9

(9

0)

(9

1934

Em­
Pay
ploy­
roll ment

Pay
roll

52.0
66. 3
50.9

41.7
55.1
40.8

55.5
66. 0
54.7

48.1
58.0
47.5

39.1

62.0

41.5

74.3

56.0

42.1

71.8

50.9

71.2

54.4

57.8

35.8

64.1

41.3

74.6

53.9

62.2
65.6
60.4

54.5
57.6
49.5

35.4
43.5
38.8

51.7
55.5
51.4

34.4
39.6
38.7

70.1
67.5
64.4

55.7
52.2
51.9

65.3

54.3

54.3

37.2

55.6

36.2

68.9

50.3
42.1

54.4

45.9

45.3

27.3

50.7

29.2

68.1

85.4

76.8

69.8

49.0

76.5

52.3

86.6

72.9

76.1
89.0

72.6
80.7

66.3
73.7

46.6
59.2

41.1
57.8

25.1
34.8

44.2
61.7

26.4
36.3

48.7
63.0

32.7
41.9

64.4
67.6
(0

61.1
67.6
<9

51.1
41.1
88.6

42.0
33.6
47.5

35.6
26.1
71.9

21.7
14.2
32.7

34.5
28.7
83.6

19.5
16.0
36.3

36.8
33.4
97.2

23.3
21. 4
50.1

93.7

80.2

76.9

63.7

53.9

44.6

29.1

45.0

27.6

62.8

35.5

91.5 84.7
90.3 92.9
96.7 100.9

72.2
84.6
83.8

62.2
83.4
82.9

50.2
65.8
71.5

35.2
56.9
66.6

29.6
44.9
58.9

14.0
27.7
45.9

27.0
41.1
69.8

12.0
22.2
52.9

29.7
49.3
89.8

16.0
30.6
71.8

98.7 104.0
94.7 91.4

C)
1
82.9

0)
74.1

72.2
72.3

68.8
66.4

43.2
57.0

31.8
35.1

33.7
60.2

20.7
35.8

30.7
69.0

19.4
44.7

99.4
90.1
90.1

92.9
86.0
74.2
80.7

85.6
79.4
59.7
69.4

87.2
80.3
67.5
74.5

75.1
70.2
54.3
61.0

76.7
71.9
52.0
67.8

53.5
50.9
32.2
44.6

87.9
86.2
60.6
87.5

61.2
62.2
42.6
62.1

91.2
89.5
66.7
92.9

71.2
70. 9
50.1
73.0

(9

0)

81.7

76.8

68.7

52.4

77.4

58.8

82.1

•67.2

121.8 124.8 112.0 108.7 103.3 101.2
105.3 112.3
89.6 82.5
(9
(9
112.5 129.8 102.9 108.6 96.0 92.2

89.3
71.7
94.1

72.3 94.8
57.6 77.5
75.5 102.2

73.6 106.2
65.8 80.1
81.4 107.6

84.2
74.3
98.6

93.8

Textiles and their
products____ ______ 104.8 105.2
F ib r in s

64.1
79. 3
62.9

1932

61.7
80. 2
60.4

120.5 125.6 106.3 104.9

Lumber and allied
products.................... 95.4

Stone, clay, and glass
products................ —

1931

1930

99.2
96.2
96.1

97.4 102.1

87.2

68.7

46.4

75.5

51.8

75.4

60.0

82.6 80.1 67.2 60.5 67.1 57.3 59.5
Wearing apparel... 113.3 111.0 105.0 93.6 99.6 80.7 84.8
Clothing, men’s .. 103.2 95.8 91.4 74.7 84.9 62.8 74.4
Clothing, wom­
en’s___________ 146.8 142.6 142.2 127.9 135.8 110.5 110.4
Corsets and allied
91.3 89.6 88.0
garments______ 89.2 97.0
(9
(9
M en’s fu rn ish ­
ings............. ....... 132.7 145.5
120.1 109.5 99.2
<9
(9
Millinery_______ 101.3 104.0 91.3 88.6 83.7 79.2 76.3
Shirts and collars. 109.1 109.2 102.7 90.3 104.0 82.7 90.5

41.3
55.5
42.3

78.2
88.2
80.3

54.5
55.7
47.3

72.4
91.1
84.0

52. 5
67. 7
57.9

103.8 105.6

Leather and its m anu­
factures_______ _____ 98.5
Boots and shoes_____
Leather......................
» Data not available.




96.7
91.1

99.0
95.6
92.8

95.1

91.2
90.2
84.6

82.3
78.3
83.0

86.9

84.3
85.3
76.9

74.8

72.1
70.2
72.5

79.0
81.7
69.1

73.9 110.0

68.0 116.1

84.9

74.0

71.0

90.1

81.4

67.0 101.5
65.2 75.9
61.0 99.0

62.7 101.6
57.9 70.4
72.1 99.8

70.6
60.6
89.7

83.3

62.9 87.8
61.5 87.0
66,8 .91.1

73.9
71.7
80.2

58.1
58.5
56.0

88.9

83.9
81.3

135

TREND OF EMPLOYMENT AND PAY ROLLS

T a ble 2.—A V E R A G E Y E A R L Y IN D E X E S OF E M P L O Y M E N T A N D P AY -R O L L TO TALS
IN M A N U F A C T U R IN G IN D U ST R IES, 1929-34—Continued
[3-year average (1923-25) = 100]
1929
Industries

Em­
ploy­
ment

Pay
roll

1930

1931

1932

Em­ Pay
ploy­
ment roll

Em­ Pay
ploy­ roll
ment

Em­ Pay
ploy­ roll
ment

Food and kindred
products..................... 112.8 113.9 109.4 108.9
Baking.................. ....... 123.6
101.3
Butter
100.3
Canning and preserv134.6
Confectionery........
101.7
Flour............................ 80.6
Ice cream................... . 96.0
S la u g h te r in g and
meat packing_____ 96.7
Sugar, beet......... ........ 91.2
Sugar refining, cane.. 94.3

1934

1933
Em­
ploy­
ment

Em­
Pay ploy­
roll ment

Pay
roll

97.4 93.0 86.4
125.3 121.5 123.7 112.6 109.0 101.2
85.5 83.1 74.0
106.1
C
O
0)
82.0 79.1 75.3
102.5
(0
0)

74.2 94.4 76.2 106.5
88.6 101.2 82.7 113.2
64.3 127.9 118.0 163.2
65.7 76.1 58.7 80.0

92.4
95.5
156.2
60.3

129.4 138.8 126.7 106.1
103.7 92.1 93.3 82.0
85.7 73.9 78.7 68.1
102.7 89.0 93.0 76.0

91.5
77.5
66.7
76.9

74.8
74.2
65.1
64.5

64.9
59.9
55.9
56.4

90.3
79.7
67.7
62.9

75.5 101.8
59.5 80.0
53.9 76.5
48.6 71.4

99.6
68.5
63.4
56.4

96.3
(0
89.7

84.1
75.8
80.3

82.2
68.1
79.6

79.8
76.7
74.2

65.2 87.6
56.2 102.6
68.7 78.6

67.7 103.7
73.7 84.7
67.0 86.4

90.5
61.0
70.1

81.8

78.3

72.7

72.1

60.1

64.0

47.3

59.7

42.5

62.6

47.1

68.0
86.0

Chewing and smok­
ing to b a c c o and
snuff................. .......
Cigars and cigarettes.

92.1
C)
1
92.3

83.9

Tobacco
manufac­
tures.........................

101.5
90.3
91.4

71.3
83.1

69.8
79.4

71.3
72.9

71.9
72.1
96.3
81.8
89.5

69.0
58.9
97.3
79.0
82.1

76.2
62.5
85.0
70.5
82.4

66.0
45.0
74.8
60.1
61.7

74.5
57.9
86.2
77.0
90.3

63.1 75.6
39.9 60.9
69.3 94.8
62.7 84.9
64.9 105.3

67.4
44.6
79.6
75.4
79.2

85.8

73.4

79.4

62.5

85.7

72.0

92.8

88.6

93.3

80.0

98.5

87.4

70.4
63.0

94.7
87.2

74.3 108.6
71.9 108.1

89.4
92.4

Paper and printing.-. 111.3 119.5 108.0 114.6

Boxes, paper.............
97.9 102.9 90.7 91.6
Paper and pulp____ 106.1 112.5 102.5 104.6
Printing and pub­
lishing:
Book and job___ 113.1 118.7 110.9 115.6 100.7 99.1
Newspapers and
periodicals____ 111.0 121.8 109.9 119.4 101.8 108.0

Chemicals and allied
products-................. 115.6 121.0 109.5 112.2

95.1
85.1

91.8
84.2

84.0
72.9

84.5

88.5

89.7

79.0

87.2

74.2

83.4

76.2

124.4 108.2 116.3 103.2 105.3
102.0 79.7 74.7 80.4 66.9
108.3 111.0 104.2 78.8 73.4
129.6
94.4 90.3
0)
0)
129.2 124.9 130.4 106.2 105.8

90.3
66.4
62.4
82.2
96.1

82.4
45.3
49.6
66.8
85.4

90.7
76.3
82.5
85.7
99.8

81.0
52.3
55.8
64.3
83.1

101.1
93.6
106.4
100.3
111.1

92.1
71.6
79.3
79.0
94.3

220.2 242.2 214.1 241.9 188.4 217.0 140.4 281.9 178.8 307.6
96.7
87.4 90.2 83.3 75.0 89.8 73.3 100.4
0)
(0
115.1 85.9 84.7 73.9 62.5 65.4 44.9 73.9 50.2 82.9

215.4
87.2

Chemicals___________ 109.2 120.0
and meal.................. 109.0
Druggists' prepara116.4
Explosives...... ............ 95.3
Fertilizers___________ 113.4
. 122.3
124. 4
Rayon and allied
products__________ . 244. 4
Soap________________ . 88.6
111. 0
Rubber products.
Rubber boots and
. 102.1
shoes_______

118.9

99.5 103.5
«

105.6

82.0

than boots, shoes,
tires, and inner
tubes................ ........ . 120. 3 126.4
Rubber tires and
inner tubes....... ...... 110 0 113.2

79.0

.

.

(0

0)

77.4

63.2

48.6

52.5

37.7

0)

102.3

89.9

94.1

79.3 1 64.9

56.2

57.1

50.9

42.5

63.7

54.0

48.8

70.0 112.2

79.5 122.4

94.3

37.7

41.7

75.2

56.4

64.7

i Data not available.

T ren d o f E m p lo y m e n t in T rad e, P u b lic U tility, M in in g , an d Service
In du stries

I n t a b l e 1 is shown the “ sample” covered by the Bureau of Labor
Statistics in its survey of nonmanufacturing industries in April 1935,
other than building construction, which is discussed in a separate
section (see p. 140). The coverage in several of these nonmanufac­
turing industries, particularly wholesale and retail trade, is not as
comprehensive as is desired. A special Civil Works Administration
project carried out in the early part of 1934 for the purpose of in­
creasing the list of establishments reporting to the Bureau resulted
in a marked increase in the number of reporting firms in the whole-




136

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

sale and retail trade groups. Additional reports were also added
to a number of other industries, improving the sample previously
surveyed.
T a ble 1.—E M P L O Y M E N T A N D PAY ROLLS IN N O N M A N U F A C T U R IN Q IN D U S T R IE S ,
APR IL 1935

Industrial group

Number of Number of Amount of
establish­ employees
pay roll
on pay
ments
(1 week)
roll April
reporting
April 1935
1935

All nonmanufacturing industries______ ___________________________
Coal mining:
Anthracite.______ _____________________________________________
Bituminous_____________________________________________ ______
Metalliferous mining______________________________________________
Quarrying and nonmetallic mining________________________________
Crude-petroleum producing_______________________________________
Public utilities:
Telephone and telegraph______________________________________
Electric light and power and manufactured gas________________
Electric-railroad and motor-bus operation and maintenance___
Trade:
Wholesale_____________________________________________________
Retail------------------------------------------- ------- -----------------------------------General merchandising____________________________________
Other than general merchandising_________________________
Hotels (cash payments only) 1
_____________________________________
Laundries_________________________________________________________
Dyeing and cleaning___________ ______ ____________________________
Banks..______ ____________________________________________________
Brokerage_________________________________________________________
Insurance_________________________________________________________

96,601

2,626,759

$61,374,909

160
1,459
259
1,127
301

73,070
237,894
30,470
30,549
30,314

2,019,392
3,705,401
683,059
491,284
887,220

9,760
2,760
479

259,747
242,729
134, 711

7,220,591
7,376,154
3,794,636

16,820
54,543
3,558
50,985
2,416
1, 339
726
2,962
364
1,126

296, 015
879,495
380,363
499,132
143, 834
73, 613
17,767
95,294
10,246
71,011

7,984,039
17,808,710
6, 677,254
11,131,456
1,962,181
1,143,289
334,162
3,027,434
353,958
2,583,399

1 The additional value of room, board, and tips cannot be computed.

Index numbers of employment and pay-roll totals for 15 non­
manufacturing industries are presented in table 2. These index
numbers show the variation in employment and pay rolls by months,
from January 1929 to December 1935, in all nonmanufacturing indus­
tries except the laundry and dyeing and cleaning industries, for which
information over the entire period is not available. The Bureau
has secured data concerning employment and pay rolls for the
index base year 1929 from establishments in these industries, and
has computed index numbers for those months for which data are
available from the Bureau’s files. These indexes are shown in this
tabulation.
The Bureau formerly presented indexes of employment and pay
rolls for the banks, brokerage, insurance, and real-estate group,
but this was discontinued in March 1934. Fluctuations in employ­
ment in the banking industry, due to the closing of many banks
throughout the country, were not adequately reflected m these
indexes, and the sample surveyed in the real-estate industry was not
sufficiently comprehensive for the purpose intended. The survey of
employment in real estate was dropped entirely in February 1935.




137

TREND OF EMPLOYMENT AND PAY ROLLS

T able 2 .—IN D E X E S OF E M P L O Y M E N T A N D P A Y ROLLS FOR N O N M A N U F A C T U R IN G
INDUSTR IES, J AN U AR Y 1929 TO D E C E M B E R 1935
[12-month average, 1929=100)
Anthracite mining
Employment

Month
1929
January___
February, __
March_____
April______
M ay......... .
June...........
July..............
August........
September„
October____
November..
December..
Average..

1930

1931

1932

1933

Pay rolls
1934

1935

1929

1930

100.7
122.1
90.8
88.3
99.0
80.7
64.7
78.4
103.8
133.9
100.5
137.2

105.8 89.3
121.5 101.9
78.5 71.3
75.0 75.2
98.8 76.1
94.3 66.7
84.0 53.7
78.8 56.4
91.6 64.9
117.2 91.1
98.0 79.5
100.0 78.4

105.7 102.1
106.0 106.9
98.0 82.6
100.7 84.1
103.7 93.8
92.9 90.8
83.2 91.6
91.1 80.2
101.9 93.8
106.1 99.0
104.0 97.2
107.1 99.1

90.6
89.5
82.0
85.2
80.3
76.1
65.1
67.3
80.0
86.8
83.5
79.8

76.2
71.2
73.7
70.1
66.9
53.0
44.5
49.2
55.8
63.9
62.7
62.3

52.5
58.7
54.6
51.6
43.2
39.5
43.8
47.7
56.8
56.9
61.0
54.5

64.1
63.2
67.5
58.2
63.8
57.5
53.6
49.5
56.9
58.5
60.7
61.6

62.9
64.4
51.4
52.6
53.5
56.8
49.4
38.7
46.0
58.8
46.6
57.3

93.4

80.5

62.5

51.7

59.6

53.2 100.0

100.0

95.3

1931

1932

1933

1934

1935

61.5
57.3
61.2
72.0
58.0
37.4
34.5
41.4
47.0
66.7
51.0
56.2

43.2
56.8
48.8
37.4
30.0
34.3
38.2
46.6
60.7
61.6
47.8
44.3

73.2
65.8
82.4
51.7
64.0
53.3
42.3
39.7
47.0
48.3
51.2
52.3

57.5
64.3
38.9
49.9
49.5
66.0
37.5
28.3
38.2
55.9
28.4
55.4

75.4

53.7

45.8

55.9

47.5

73.3
68.3
65.2
58.6
54.4
52.4
50.4
50.6
53.6
56.2
54.6
52.3

47.0
47.0
46.8
33.9
30.7
27.3
24.4
26.4
30.2
37.8
38.0
37.7

36.1
37.2
30.7
26.6
26.9
29.2
33.6
43.3
44.1
44.1
50.7
50.8

51.3
54.6
58.9
51.4
54.4
55.1
49.7
50.4
51.4
57.6
58.3
57.0

59.6
66.1
67.5
45.0
49.1
64.7
35.9
45.8
60.1
69.8
65.5
69.5

57.5

35.6

37.8

54.2

58.2

Bituminous-coal mining
January___
February,
March_____
April.........
M ay_______
June_______
July_______
August____
September.,
October____
November,,
December,.
Average..

106.4 102.5
107.7 102.4
106.8 98.6
100.2 94.4
96.6 90.4
94.7 88.4
94.1 88.0
95.7 89.2
97.2 90.5
98.8 91.8
101.0 92.5
101.4 92.5

93.9
91.5
88.8
85.9
82.4
78.4
76.4
77.0
80.4
81.3
81.1
81.2

80.8
77.4
75.2
65.5
62.6
60.5
58.6
59.4
62.4
67.0
69.4
70.0

69.8
69.3
67.6
63.7
61.2
61.3
63.2
68.6
71.8
68.0
74.8
75.4

75.8
76.1
77.8
72.2
76.7
76.7
77.0
77.1
78.2
79.3
79.8
79.7

80.0
81.1
81.6
74.3
75.3
77.9
70.0
73.4
77.1
74.3
76.1
79.1

93.4

83.2

67.4

67.9

77.2

76.7 100.0

100.0

106.1 101.4
116.6 102.1
108.6 86.4
89.2 81.7
91.9 77.5
90.0 75.6
85.6 68.9
92.8 71.1
98.6 74.9
106.8 79.4
106.0 79.1
108.2 77.7
81.3

Metalliferous mining
January.......
February.
March_____
April______
M ay_______
June_______
July_______
August____
September __
October____
November—
December—

93.1
94.6
97.0
100.6
100.8
103.8
101.5
103.2
102.1
101.9
103.0
98.5

95.7
92.3
90.9
89.3
87.5
84.6
80.5
79.0
78.1
77.2
72.8
70.1

68.3
65.3
63.5
63.9
62.4
60.0
56.2
55.8
55.5
53.8
52.8
51.2

49.3
46.9
45.0
43.3
38.3
32.2
29.5
28.6
29.3
30.5
31.9
33.3

32.4
31.5
30.0
29.4
30.0
31.5
33.0
36.8
38.9
40.7
40.6
40.6

39.6
40.3
39.8
41.7
40.8
41.0
39.9
42.7
42.3
43.3
43.2
44.4

44.3
44.3
<5.0
46.0
44.4
46.0
45.2
46.3
48.9
51.6
52.6
53.5

88.0
91.8
99.1
104.6
104.6
105.6
99.0
100.1
102.0
103.1
102.2
99.7

92.7
92.5
90.8
88.3
85.6
81.6
71.9
71.0
69.9
68.6
63.4
59.9

55.0
54.6
52.8
51.4
49.3
46.1
41.3
40.2
40.0
37.4
35.1
34.3

29.7
27.8
26.5
25.0
23.8
20.1
16.9
16.5
17.0
18.0
18.7
18.7

18.1
17.8
17.4
16.4
17.0
18.3
19.0
21.9
23.9
25.9
25.6
26.2

25.4
26.0
25.9
27.2
25.6
26.7
25.1
27.0
25.9
28.2
28.5
29.4

30.1
29.9
30.9
31.8
31.4
31.5
31.1
33.4
35.4
38.7
39.6
43.2

Average,.

100.0

83.2

59.1

36.5

34.6

41.6

47.3 100.0

78.0

44.8

21.6

20.6

26.7

33.9

Quarrying and nonmetallic mining
January____
February, __
March_____
April.......... .
M ay.............
June.............
July.......... .
August____
September—
October.......
November—
December,.

91.6
91.9
96.0
99.6
104.1
106.6
104.7
106.7
106.6
103.6
98.6
90.1

79.6
79.8
83.0
87.4
90.8
90.3
89.9
89.3
87.7
84.7
78.3
70.2

64.4
66.6
70.0
76.1
75.0
72.3
71.0
68.9
66.6
64.5
59.3
53.9

48.9
47.4
46.0
48.6
50.6
49.5
49.5
51.1
52.4
52.4
49.4
42.3

35.1
34.8
35.1
39.3
43.4
47.3
49.5
51.6
52.6
53.2
51.1
45.3

39.7
38.8
42.0
48.7
54.3
56.6
55.6
54.7
53.3
51.8
49.5
42.1

36.9
37.3
40.5
45.3
49.5
50.4
50.9
51.0
50.0
50.0
46.7
43.1

85.9
88.9
95.0
100.5
107.1
110.5
104.7
110.3
109.8
105.8
96.0
85.4

71.9
73.5
80.0
85.4
90.2
90.9
85.5
85.8
82.5
79.3
66.8
59.9

50.4
54.4
58.2
62.6
62.3
60.1
57.3
55.1
51.2
48.7
43.3
36.9

30.2
29.6
28.7
30.0
32.3
30.0
29.1
29.7
30.5
30.1
27.1
22.1

18.1
17.4
17.8
20.2
23.8
27.5
28.4
29.9
29.3
31.2
28.3
24.4

21.3
21.0
24.1
29.9
35.0
37.0
35.0
34.0
32.4
32.1
29.4
23.6

20.8
22.2
24.9
28.9
32.8
33.8
34.4
36.3
35.4
36.5
32.1
29.7

Average,. 100.0

84.3

67.4

49.0

44.9

48.9

46.0 100.0

79.3

53.4

29.1

24.7

29.6

30.6




138

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

TABLE 2 .— IN D E X E S OF E M P L O Y M E N T A N D P A Y ROLLS FOR N O N M A N U F A C T U R IN O

IN D U STR IES, JA N U A R Y 1929 TO D E C E M B E R 1935—Continued
[12-month average, 1929=100]
Crude petroleum producing
Month

Employment
1929

1930

1931

1932

1933

Pay rolls
1934

1935

1929

1930

1931

1932

1933

1934

1935

January___
February-..
March_____
April............
M ay.............
June.............
July..............
August.........
September..
October.......
November..
December. .

90.0
90.4
89.6
97.6
93.9
104.1
106.0
113.2
108.9
107.9
101.1
97.0

92.7
90.8
89.3
86.8
89.8
90.2
89.9
87.7
85.0
85.2
83.6
77.4

74.8
73.2
72.2
69.8
67.8
65.0
65.3
62.4
61.2
60.4
57.6
58.2

54.9
54.4
51.4
54.9
54.5
54.2
55.4
57.4
56.2
56.8
56.5
57.2

57. 2
57. 0
56. 5
56. 8
56. 9
58. 0
59. 5
60. 8
66. 2
70. 6
72. 2
75. 0

73.2
72.4
72.8
74.0
76.7
80.0
81.6
82.7
81.8
79.5
78.8
78.7

74.9
74.2
74.0
74.9
76.0
76.7
77.4
76.3
75.1
74.7
73.0
72.2

93.1
99.0
97.4
96.7
92.4
99.4
100.7
104.7
110.7
100.1
103.8
102.1

94.0
88.6
91.3
86.6
85.4
87.1
88.5
86.0
84.0
82.6
80.0
77.2

71.5
70.0
73.2
66.3
64.7
62.7
59.2
56.3
55.2
54.4
52.0
54.9

46.5
46.9
43.2
44.5
47.1
44.8
44.6
42.9
41.9
42.5
42.4
41.7

39. 9
41. 7
42. 5
40. 1
41. 6
40. 6
42. 2
42. 5
44. 4
50. 1
50. 3
53. 2

53.0
50.5
52.5
53.4
66.4
56.9
60.0
61.2
59.7
60.8
59.0
59.5

65.5
54.9
56.0
56.7
57.8
59.2
59.9
58.9
60.9
57.9
56.9
59.9

Average..

100.0

87.4

65.7

55.3

62. 2

77.7

75.0 100.0

85.9

61.7

44.1

44. 1

56.9

57.9

Telephone and telegraph
January-----February...
March..........
April............
M ay.............
June.............
July..............
August........
September..
October.......
November..
December. .
Average..

94.3 101.6
95.3 100.2
96.5 99.4
97.8 98.9
100.4 99.7
101.5 99.8
102.6 100.0
103.7 98.8
102.5 96.8
101.9 94.5
101.9 93.0
101.8 91.6

90.5
89.2
88.6
88.1
87.4
86.9
86.6
85.9
85.0
84.1
83.5
83.1

83.0
82.0
81.7
81.2
80.6
79.9
79.1
78.1
77.4
76.2
75.5
74.8

74.6
73.9
73.2
72.3
70.1
69.2
68.5
68.1
68.3
68.7
68.9
69.4

70.2
69.8
70.0
70.2
70.2
70.4
71.0
71.0
70.9
70.3
69.9
69.7

70.5
70.0
69.8
69.7
70.0
70.2
70.3
70.5
70.4
70.0
69.8
69.6

105.1
101.9
105.8
103.4
103.2
103.4
106.6
102.5
102.2
100.9
97.9
101.3

96.3
94.8
97.9
95.0
94.1
95.0
93.3
92.3
92.1
91.6
89.7
92.7

89.1
89.6
88.2
83.4
82.8
82.1
79.6
79.1
75.9
75.7
74.3
73.5

71.7
71.9
71.6
67.8
68.5
66.6
66.7
66.1
64.6
67.0
67.7
67.7

69.0
67.9
70.4
68.8
71.4
71.3
72.3
74.0
72.2
74.9
72.2
73.2

73.9
72.9
75.3
73.1
73.7
74.4
75.7
75.5
73.8
74.9
74.9
75.6

97.9

86.6

79.1

70.4

70.3

70.1 100.0 102.9

93.7

81.1

68.2

71.5

74.5

88.4
86.0
85.4
82.4
84.2
80.5
78.7
76.7
74.7
74.4
73.2
73.2

73.0
71.6
71.9
69.4
69.9
69.9
70.0
70.9
71.8
76.2
74.5
74.4

73.8
74.4
75.6
76.8
77.6
77.8
81.1
79.9
79.3
80.6
79.6
78.3

78.0
78.3
79.4
79.0
79.8
79.8
81.5
82.8
84.5
84.4
83.4
86.0

79.8

72.0

77.9

81.4

100.0

94.5
93.0
98.7
98.3
99.4
100.0
104.1
101.8
100.4
105.1
101.2
103.9

Electric light and power and manufactured gas
January-----February...
March..........
April............
M ay.............
June.............
July..............
August........
September—
October.......
November..
December..
Average..

99.6
98.8
99.7
100.7
103.4
104.6
105.9
106.4
105.2
104.8
103.4
103.2

99.2
97.8
96.7
97.1
97.6
97.2
96.7
95.9
94.7
92.7
91.3
90.3

89.3
87.2
85.5
84.8
84.0
83.2
82.3
81.5
81.0
79.9
79.1
78.4

77.7
77.4
76.9
76.9
76.9
77.3
77.5
78.1
80.3
82.2
82.6
81.8

82.2
81.2
81.7
82.4
83.1
84.0
85.0
85.6
85.8
85.8
85.5
83.6

82.7
82.2
82.3
82.6
83.3
83.9
84.8
86.8
86.9
87.4
87.6
86.8

100.0 103.0

95.6

83.0

78.8

83.8

84.8 100.0 104.3

92.9
92.6
92.8
95.9
98.4
100.7
103.2
105.4
105.5
105.7
104.7
102.5

91.7
91.8
94.5
95.5
98.1
100.4
102.3
103.8
106.6
106.0
104.1
105.8

99.7 98.6
100.4 99.7
102.1 102.4
102.6 97.6
104.5 98.7
107.8 98.3
106.7 97.4
106.6 96.2
106.1 94.3
105.6 93.2
103.7 93.3
106.3 91.2
96.7

Electric-railroad and motor-bus operation and maintenance *
January----February. „
March.........
April............
M ay.............
June----- -----July..............
August........
September. _
October.......
November..
December..

99.7
99.1
97.0
98.5
100.4
101.2
102.2
102.2
101.4
100.5
99.4
98.3

97.1
95.1
94.4
95.2
95.2
94.8
95.3
92.9
91.8
91.0
89.3
88.8

86.9
86.6
86.4
86.8
85.9
85.3
85.6
84.8
84.0
82.7
81.5
79.9

79.5
78.9
77.6
78.0
76.9
76.5
75.6
74.1
73.5
72.3
71.8
71.4

70.6
70.4
69.8
69.5
69.1
69.3
69.4
69.5
69.7
70.6
71.0
70.8

70.5
71.0
71.7
72.2
72.6
73.2
73.1
72.8
72.5
72.2
71.8
71.0

71.2
71.0
71.3
71.4
71.6
71.7
71.5
71.2
71.0
71.1
71.1
70.5

98.7
97.6
98.0
99.5
101.0
101.7
101.9
102.0
101.5
100.0
98.4
99.8

97.8
95.7
95.4
97.1
96.0
97.0
95.6
92.1
90.5
88.9
87.7
88.6

85.6
87.1
88.1
86.6
85.1
84.8
83.3
81.9
81.2
79.0
79.7
77.8

75.4
74.8
73.6
71.8
72.2
70.2
66.4
63.8
62.5
61.5
61.7
61.9

60.9
60.6
59.4
58.1
58.2
58.0
57.4
58.2
57.8
59.8
59.4
59.6

59.2
60.1
62.2
62.9
63.0
63.2
63.8
62.8
62.4
63.0
61.8
62.3

62.9
63.1
63.4
63.3
63.6
63.9
63.4
63.3
64.0
64.1
63.8
66.1

Average..

100.0

93.4

84.7

75.5

70.0

72.1

71.2 100.0

93.5

83.4

68.0

58.9

62.2

63.7

i
Not including electric-railroad car building and repairing; see pp. 133? 134, Transportation Equipment
and Railroad Repair Shops groups in table 2.




139

TREND OF EMPLOYMENT AND PAY ROLLS

T a ble 2 .—IN D E X E S OF E M P L O Y M E N T A N D P A Y ROLLS FOR N O N M A N U F A C T U R IN Q
IN D U ST R IES, J A N U A R Y 1929 TO D E C E M B E R 1935— Continued
[12-month average, 1929=100]
Wholesale trade
Month

Employment
1929

January___
February.,March.........
April............
M ay_______
June...........
July.......... August........
September, _
October.......
November..
December..
Average,,

1930

1931

1932

1933

Pay rolls
1934

1935

1929

1930

1931

1932

1933

1934

1935

97.7 100.0
96.9 98.4
97.3 97.6
97.9 97.1
99.0 96.6
99.2 96.2
100.4 95.7
101.3 94.6
101.9 94.4
102.9 93.7
102.9 92.1
102.6 91.5

88.9
87.6
86.7
86.7
86.3
86.3
85.9
85.6
85.1
84.2
83.1
82.6

80.7
79.7
78.6
77.6
76.6
75.6
75.2
74.9
75.6
76.2
76.0
75.4

73.6
72.4
71.3
71.5
72.2
73.9
75.1
77.9
80.3
81.7
81.6
81.5

80.6
81.2
81.8
82.1
82.8
82.3
82.2
82.5
83.5
84.3
85.1
85.0

84.2
84.6
84.0
83.2
82.5
82.1
82.1
82.7
83.7
85.7
86.4
86.8

96.7
96.4
98.5
97.8
99.0
98.6
100.5
100.0
103.3
102.7
101.9
104.7

99.9
98.1
99.4
97.5
96.9
98.1
95.4
92.9
92.8
92.0
90.0
90.2

86.3
87.1
87.7
83.7
83.2
82.5
81.6
80.3
79.5
77.9
77.6
75.6

71.8
70.1
68.8
66.3
67.1
63.5
61.9
60.3
60.1
60.8
60.1
59.3

58.3
55.1
53.5
52.4
53.8
53.7
55.5
57.2
58.7
62.4
60.5
60.9

60.3
61.0
62.0
63.1
62.6
62.8
63.8
62.7
63.6
64.5
64.2
64.8

63.9
64.6
65.2
64.8
64.6
64.6
64.6
64.8
67.2
66.8
66.9
68.6

100.0

85.8

76.8

76.1

82.8

84.0 100.0

95.3

81.9

64.2

56.8

63.0

65.5

95.7

Total retail trade
January-----February. __
March_____
April______
M ay.........
June_______
July_______
August____
September,.
October____
November..
December. _

97.2 100.2
95.4 97.3
97.4 96.6
97.6 98.1
98.6 98.8
99.3 96.9
97.3 93.0
93. 7 91.5
100.6 94.3
102.0 95.6
10A2 96.8
111.9 102.5

Average. _ 100.0

96.8

92.3
89.3
89.2
91.3
90.8
90.7
84.2
81.2
83.3
85.2
84.8
90.6

80.3
78.3
78.6
78.7
77.2
76.3
73.1
71.8
74.2
76.3
75.4
80.9

72.1
70.4
68.9
73.3
72.1
73.2
71.0
75.4
80.6
83.3
83.9
89.1

79.8
79.6
81.5
82.5
82.9
82.6
79.0
77.8
81.7
82.6
83.7
91.1

79.5
79.2
80.2
83.5
82.2
82.2
79.3
78.0
81.8
83.8
84.6
92.9

95.9
95.1
97.3
97.2
98.2
99.8
98.8
99.2
101.7
103.2
103.3
109.7

99.8
97.7
97.0
97.9
99.4
97.9
92.8
89.4
91.5
92.6
92.4
95.4

88.1
86.4
86.8
87.5
86.8
86.7
81.3
77.9
78.3
78.9
78.3
80.4

71.9
69.1
68.5
67.7
65.5
62.7
59.2
56.9
58.3
59.7
58.6
60.4

54.7
51.8
49.0
52.0
51.3
52.2
51.0
54.9
58.7
61.6
61.4
64.0

59.0
58.8
59.8
61.2
61.5
61.4
60.1
58.4
60.6
61.9
61.9
66.2

59.7
59.3
60.4
62.5
62.0
62.5
60.5
59.3
62.5
63.2
63.4
69.3

87.7

76.8

76.1

82.1

82.3 100.0

95.3

83.1

63.2

55.2

60.9

62.1

78.1
73.1
73.1
72.3
70.5
67.6
61.3
58.5
64.3
67.7
67.9
79.2

61.4
57.1
53.4
60.8
59.3
60.6
56.4
62.4
71.8
75.3
76.1
90.1

71.1 73. 5
68.9 72.3
71.5 74.1
74.0 77.5
74.5 76.3
73.9 76.7
69.5 72.0
66.9 69.5
74.0 77.2
77.3 79.8
80.2 82.0
99.0 104.5

69.5

65.4

75.1

78.0

Retail tradei General merchandising
—
98.5 95.9 92.1 84.8 76.4 86.6 87.3 100.0 95.8 90.3
J a n u a r y _____
February. _. 94.5 92.2 89.3 81.2 73.0 85.0 86.2 97.2 92.7 87.1
March_____
96.1 91.9 90.8 82.6 70.7 90.1 88.6 98.5 92.3 88.0
95.5 95.9 93.0 82.7 80.7 91.0 94.4 94.8 94.9 88.8
April_____
97.1 94.4 92.8 82.1 78.5 92.0 91.3 95.8 93.8 88.5
M ay_______
96.5 91.5 91.4 80.3 79.9 90.6 91.2 96.7 93.4 87.9
June_______
92.2 86.0 84.7 74.1 74.7 83.0 85.5 96.1 87.7 82.3
July_______
91.5 82.5 81.6 71.5 78.4 81.2 83.1 92.9 83.7 78.7
August____
September, _ 96.6 89.6 88.7 78.7 89.0 91.5 92.2 97.4 89.0 83.9
October------ 101.7 94.0 92.1 83.7 93.6 94.2 97.1 101.7 92.6 85.3
November. _ 108.0 97.4 94.1 84.6 97.0 99.9 101.6 105.0 94.6 86.9
December-_ 131.7 118.1 116.2 104.7 118.9 128.4 131.7 123.9 108.5 100.7
Average. _ 100.0

94.1

92.2

82.6

84.2

92.8

94.2 100.0

93.3

87.4

Retail trade—Other than general merchandising
January___
February. ._
March..........
April............
M ay.............
June.............
July.......... August........
September. .
October____
November. _
December __
Average..

96.9 101.3
95.6 98.7
97.7 97.8
98.1 98.7
99.0 100.0
100.0 98.3
98.7 94.8.
100.6 93.8;
101.6 95.5i
102.1 96.0i
103.2! 96.7'
106.7' 98.4 :

92.4
89.3
88.8
90.9
90.3
90.5
84.1
81.1
81.9|
83.4:
82.3I
83.9I

100. C1 97.5> 86.7'




78.0
78.2
79.3
80.3
80.5
80.5
77.9
76.9
79.1
79.5
79.4:
81.3i

79.1
77.6
77.5
77.6
75.9
75.2
72.8
71.91
73.0i
74.3i
73.0l
74.01

71.0
69.7
68.4
71.3
70.4
71.5
70.0
74.6
78.4
80.6i
80.4:
81.3i

75.2!

74.01 79.2!

77.4
77.3
78.0
80.7
79.8
79.8
77.7
76.7
79.1
80.3
80.1
82.7

95.1 100.6
94.7 98.7
97.1 98.0
97.7 98.5
98.7 100.6
100.5 98.8
99.4 93.8
100.5 90.6
102.6 92.0
103.5 92.6
103.0i 92,0i
106.81 92.7’

87.7
86.2
86.5
87.2
86.5
86.4
81.1
77.7
77.2
77.6
76.5
76.2!

70.6
68.3
67.5
66.7
64.5
61.7
58.8
56.6
57.1
58.1
56.7
56.5i

53.3
50.7
48.1
50.2
49.7
60.5
49.9
53.4
56.0
58.8
58.3
58.6

56.5
56.7
57.4
58.5
58.8
58.8
58.2
56.6
57.8
58.7
68.1
59.4

56.9
56.6
57.6
59.4
69.0
59.5
58.1
57.2
59.4
59.8
59.6
62.0

79.1 100.01 95.7’

82.2!

61.9i

53.1

58.0i

58.8

140

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

T a ble 2.—IN D E X E S OF E M P L O Y M E N T A N D P A Y ROLLS FOR N O N M A N U F A O T U R IN O
IN D U ST R IES, J A N U A R Y 1929 TO D E C E M B E R 1935—Continued
[12-month average, 1929=100]
Year-round hotels
Month
1929
January____
February,, ,
March..........
April............
M ay_______
June_______
July_______
August------September,,
October____
November,,
December- ,
Average,,

Pay rolls

Employment
1930

1931

1932

1933

1934

1935

1929

1930

1932

1933

1934

1935

98.7 99.8
101.4 102.7
102.4 102.5
100.6 99.2
100.1 98.8
99.2 97.7
99.1 95.9
97.8 94.1
99.2 93.1
101.0 93.4
100.9 91.4
99.7 89.1

87.8
89.0
88.6
86.0
85.1
82.2
79.9
77.5
77.1
76.7
74.5
72.6

70.5
69.5
68.1
66.1
64.2
61.0
57.5
54.9
54.9
55.8
54.9
53.9

52.2
52.1
49.8
48.4
49.1
49.4
49.4
49.6
51.5
53.4
52.7
54.9

57.2
60.9
62.2
62.7
62.9
62.9
61.5
60.2
61.0
62.7
62.4
62.2

62.2
63.5
63.9
63.6
63.7
63.5
62.1
62.0
63.1
64.3
64.8
64.2

96.5

81.4

60.9

51.0

61.6

63.4

90.7
89.6
89.6
90.9
90.5
91.2
91.5
88.6
88.0
85.6
82.6
81.0

80.0
76.7
75.0
74.7
73.9
71.8
69.4
66.9
65.8
64.1
61.9
61.4

60.7
58.1
55.4
56.6
57.1
59.4
58.7
60.3
63.5
62.5
60.7
61.1

61.7
61.7
62.7
64.4
66.9
68.3
68.2
66.6
65.9
64.8
63.7
63.3

63.9
64.1
64.6
65.5
66.6
68.2
70.9
69.2
67.9
67.1
66.7
67.5

88.3

70.1

59.5

64.9

66.8

97.8 99.7
99.5 101.1
100.2 99.9
99.9 98.5
99.9 98.2
100.1 97.3
99.7 96.1
100.5 95.2
101.5 94.6
101.2 94.6
101.2 92.2
98.4 90.1

90.5
90.4
90.2
90.0
88.9
87.0
85.7
84.2
84.2
83.5
81.5
79.5

78.8
78.6
78.5
77.9
76.2
74.0
72.0
70.7
70.8
71.4
70.6
69.4

68.8
68.6
67.2
67.2
68.2
69.5
69.6
70.4
72.4
73.0
72.3
73.9

76.4
78.9
80.4
81.5
81.8
81.9
80.4
80.0
80.0
80.9
80.6
80.0

80.3
81.1
80.8
81.1
81.6
81.3
80.3
80.7
81.1
81.6
81.5
80.8

100.0

86.3

74.1

70.1

80.2

81.0 100.0

96.5

1931

Laundries
January___
February__
March_____
April______

94.3
93.7
93.2
94.3
94.1
94.8
95.6
94.0
93.0
91.8
89.8
88.8

July_______
August____
September,
October____
November,,
December, _
Average-,

100.0

—

88.2
86.3
85.4
85. 4
84.8
84.4
83.6
82.2
81.9
80.7
79.4
79.1

78.6
77.5
76.1
76.5
76.6
79.2
79.5
81.1
82.6
81.3
78.4
78.4

78.5
78.4
79.2
80.5
82.1
84.0
84.6
83.7
82.9
81.7
80.3
79.5

79.6
79.6
79.7
80.0
81.1
82.3
84.4
84.2
83.0
81.9
81.3
81.1

93.1

83.5

78.8

81.3

81.5 100.0

—

Dyeing and cleaning
82.1
80.7
81.3
88.4
89.3
91.4
91.1
86.4
88.0
87.0
83.2
78.4

January_
_
February __
March_____
April______
J u l y .,____
August____
September,
October____
November,,
December, _
Average,.

100.0

—

75.8
74.4
74.4
76.9
78.0
78.6
76.1
73.4
76.9
76.0
72.0
69.5

67.4
65. 6
65.8
74.9
75.7
79.1
76.6
76.8
81.9
81.6
76.1
70.5

68.1
68.1
72.4
79.9
84.3
84.9
80.5
78.6
80.0
80.3
75.8
72.4

70. 3
69.6
72.5
79.9
80.9
83.6
81.7
79.4
82.1
80.4
76.3
73.4

73.7
71.2
71.7
81.9
82.1
84.5
81.8
75.9
78.3
77.2
70.8
64.4

62.4
59.0
58.5
62.5
63.8
62.4
56.9
53.4
57.9
55.8
49.6
45.9

44.2
40.2
38.9
51.7
51.0
53.7
50.0
50.0
57.1
57.4
52.5
47.3

46.8
46.3
51.7
60.8
65.1
64.1
58.9
56.7
59.0
59.1
53.9
51.1

50.4
49.8
53.5
61.9
61.7
65.7
61.5
58.2
63.1
61.1
55.4
52.9

85.6

75.2

74.3

77.1

77.5 100.0 ..........

76.1

57.3

49.5

56.1

57.9

T ren d o f E m p lo y m e n t in B u ild in g C o n stru ctio n

T h e Bureau of Labor Statistics has compiled monthly reports on
the trend of employment in the building-construction industry since
1931.
Monthly reports are received from approximately 11,000 firms, in
34 States and the District of Columbia, engaged in public and private
building-construction projects not aided by public-works funds.
Work on roads, bridges, docks, etc., is not included.




141

TREND OF EMPLOYMENT AND PAY ROLLS

The firms are asked to report one pay period nearest the 15th of
the current month, giving the total number of employees, the total
number of man-hours worked, and the total amount of pay roll
earned by these employees during the given pay period. For pur­
poses of comparison, all data are reduced to a 1-week basis if not al­
ready so reported. The collection of man-hour data from establish­
ments in this industry did not begin until January 1934.
No index has been published for the reason that the Bureau began
this study on the monthly trend of employment in the building-con­
struction industry in a year when operations were abnormally low.
The scope and character of the monthly survey of the building con­
struction industry are shown in the following report for April 1935:
E M P L O Y M E N T , P A Y ROLLS, HOURS, AN D EAR N IN G S IN TH E B U IL D IN G C O N STR U CTIO N IN D U ST R Y , AP R IL 1935

Average
hourly
earnings 1

Percentage change
from March 1935

+ 1 .0

28.4

+ 2 .9

82.0 - 1 .1

Alabama: Birming­
ham______________

- 6 .7

17.91

+ 5 .6

27.8

-.4

64.4 + 4 .0

+ 8 .7

D o lla r s

D o lla r s

California:
Los Angeles_____
San FranciscoOakland . _ _
Other localities...
The State_____

79

409 -1 1 .7

20

785

26
20

827

m

+ 3 .7
+ 1 2 .1
+ 4 8 .2
+ 1 5 .8

7, 327

Percentage change
from March 1935

Number April 1935

23.00

Percentage change
from March 1935

All localities________ 10,395 77,025 +11.0 1, 771,815 +12.1

Locality

Percentage change
from March 1935

Percentage change
from March 1935

Average
hours per
week per
man 1

Amount April 1935

Average
weekly
earnings

Pay rolls

i Amount April 1935

Number April 1935

Number of firms reporting

Employment

Amount April 1935

[Figures in italics are not compiled by the Bureau of Labor Statistics but are taken from reports issued
by cooperating State bureaus]

C e n ts

2 1 .2 0

+ 4 -7

2 9 .7

-.3

7 1 .4

+ 5 .2

1 9 ,7 9 4
1 0 ,3 8 0

1 5 .6
+ 7 4 .6

2 3 .9 3
1 9 .0 8

+ 3 .1
+ 1 7 .8

2 7 .5
2 3 .7

- 2 .5
+ 1 2 .9

8 7 .1
8 0 .5

+ 4 -1

4 6 ,8 1 9

+ 2 1 .9

7 9 .5

+ 5 .9

1 6 ,6 4 5

+

+ 6 .0

2 1 .7 2

+ 5 .3

2 7 .3

Colorado: Denver___

185

595

+ 9 .0

12,366 +10.8

20.78

+ 1 .7

27.2

+ 8 .8

76.2 - 3 .8

Connecticut:
Bridgeport______
Hartford________
New Haven.........

119
248
142

413 +14.7
792 +13.6
655 +13.7

9,138 + 8 .0
17,319 +12.9
15,122 +11.2

22.13
21.87
23.09

- 5 .9
-.6
- 2 .2

29.4
30.3
30.3

+ 3 .5
+ 3 .4
+ .3

75.2 - 9 .2
71.7 - 4 .0
76.4 - 2 .4

The State.........

509 1,860 +13.9

41,579 +11.2

22. 35

- 2 .4

30.1

+ 2 .4

74.1 - 4 .6

Delaware: Wilming­
ton—
District of Columbia.

97 1,054 +35.5
412 3,819 + 8 .6

23,321 +46.8
95,002 +10.2

22.13
24.88

+ 8 .4
+ 1 .4

31.2
30.0

+ 9 .9
+ 5 .3

71.0 - 1 .4
82.9 - 3 .7

3,136
13,645

+ 8 .3
+ .6

17.92
20.13

+ 1 .5
- 6 .9

29.3
28.2

+ 4 .3
- 3 .1

61.2 - 2 .5
71.5 - 3 .9

Florida:
Jacksonville_____
Miami____ ______
The State.......

66

2 ,1 5 6

+ 6 .7
+ 8 .1

39
65

175
678

104

853

+ 7 .8

16, 781

+ 2 .0

19.67

- 5 .4

28.4

- 1 .7

69.3 - 3 .9

820

+ 6 .9

14,141 +10.0

17.25

+ 2 .9

27.7

- 1 .8

61.6 + 3 .4

Georgia: Atlanta........

123

Illinois:
Chicago...............
Other localities. _

127
103

3 ,1 3 7

+ 3 7 .4
+ 8 .6

31, 022
53, 550

230

4 ,3 9 4

+ 1 5 .5

8 4 ,5 7 2

The State.........

1 ,2 5 7

+35.8

24.68

-1 2 .2

1 7 .0 7

- 1 .2
-1 9 .2

(2
)
(2
)

(2
)
(2
)

(2
)
00

<)
2
(2
)

+ .9

1 9 .2 5

-1 2 .7

(2
)

(2
)

(2
)

(2
>

1 Averages computed from reports furnished by 10,001 firms.
2 Data not available.




-• 4

142

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

E M P L O Y M E N T , P A Y BOLLS, HOURS, A N D E A R N IN G S IN T H E BU ILD IN G C ONSTR UCTION IN D U S T R Y , AP R IL 1935—Continued

Indiana:
Evansville.-........
Fort Wayne........
Indianapolis____
South Bend.........
The State.........

+42.0
+12.3
+10.3
+38.7

Percentage change
from March 1935

Amount April 1935

Percentage change
from March 1935

Number April 1935

Average
hourly
earnings 1

C e n ts

21.59 +24.9
20. 64 + 6 .9
23.23 + 5 .0
21.15 +11.3

29.2 +25.9
25.7 + 2 .4
29.7 + 6 .8
28.7 +14.3

74.8
80.4
78.3
73.7

- 0 .1
+ 4 .6
- 1 .6
- 2 .5
-.9

+ 8 .1

35,752 +17.4

22.40

+ 8 .5

29.0

+ 9 .8

77.5

432 +23.1
226 + 6 .1

10,391 +33.9
4,579 +21.2

24.05 + 8 .7
20.26 +14.2

28.5
27.5

+ 4 .4
+ 8 .3

84.9 + 4 .7
73.6 + 5 .4

295 1,596
81
55

6,584
4,314
21,956
2,898

Percentage change
from March 1935

Percentage change
from March 1935

Amount April 1935

Percentage change
from March 1935

Number April 1935

305 +13.8
209 + 5 .0
945 + 5.1
137 +24.5

Average
hours per
week per
man 1

D o lla r s

D o lla r s

58
70
135
32

Iowa: Des M oines...
Kansas: Wichita____
Kentucky:
Louisville.............
Louisiana:
New Orleans.......
Maine: Portland___
Maryland:
Baltimore_______
Massachusetts: All
localities_____ ____

675

Michigan:
Detroit_________
Flint___________
Grand Rapids . . .

471 4,210 +12.9
51
213 +70.4
103
368 +24.7

The State_____

625 4,791 +15.4

Minnesota:
Duluth_________
Minneapolis.. . .
St. Paul................

Average
weekly
earnings

Pay rolls
1

Number of firms reporting

Locality

Employment

Amount April 1935 |

[Figures in italics are not compiled by the Bureau of Labor Statistics but are taken from reports issued
by cooperating State bureaus]

133

673

+ 8 .2

13, 591 +12.8

20.19

+ 4 .2

29.2

+ 3 .2

68.2 + 1 .0

116
83

888 +3 .1
270 +35.7

15,072 - 2 .9
5,401 +38.0

16.97
20.00

- 5 .8
+ 1 .7

27.7
26.5

- 2 .8
+ 4 .3

61.4 - 3 .0
75.4 - 2 .7

107

50
190
138

1,4 10

-7 .1

4 ,4 8 2

+ 1 1 .7

+ 3 .8

1 9 .4 9

+ 1 1 .7

2 7 .7

+ 6 .9

7 1 .9

+ 4 .7

+ 1 2 .9

2 8 .8 2

+ 1 .0

2 8 .9

+ 4 .0

8 2 .5

- 2 .7

109,393 +5. 4
3,804 +69.4
6,620 +23.6

25.98
17.86
17.99

- 6 .6
- .6
-.9

32.4
+. 3
26.3 +11.9
28.6 + 1 .8

80.0 - 7 .2
68.0 -1 1 .1
63.0 - 2 .3

119,817

+ 7 .5

25.01

- 6 .9

31.9

+ .3

78.4 - 7 .3

184 - 3 .7
907 +24.6
711 + 7 .9

3,891
- 2 .0
20,322 +35.9
16,136 + 5 .7

21.15
22. 41
22.69

+ 1 .7
+ 9 .1
- 2 .0

28.6
28.8
28.3

- 2 .4
+ 6 .7
- 3 .1

74.3 + 4 .5
77.7 + 2 .1
80.2 + .6

2 7 ,4 8 4
1 0 5 ,5 6 7

378 1,802 +14.2

40,349 +18.0

22. 39

+ 3 .3

28.6

+ 1 .4

78.3 + 1 .6

Missouri:
Kansas City 3___
St. Louis..............

234 1,204
531 2,513

+ 3 .1
+ 4 .3

30,372
65,345

+ 3 .9
+ 6.4

25. 23
26.00

+• 8
+ 2 .0

28.9
26.7

+ 4 .0
+ 5.1

87.6 - 3 .0
97.4 - 2 .9

The State_____

765 3, 717

+ 3 .9

95, 717

+ 5 .6

25. 75

+ 1 .6

27.4

+ 4 .6

94.1 - 2 .8

21,503 +34.2

21. 57

-.5

30.5

+ 2 .0

70.4 - 2 .5

2 7 .8
2 6 .7

-.7

The State_____

Nebraska: Omaha.. .

157

New York:
New York C ity Other localities-.

582
831

The State.........
North
Carolina:
Charlotte.................

997 +34.9

2 7 .4

(« )

9 8 .9

16.90 -1 3 .3

28.5

+ 7 .5

59.3 + 5 .5

22.78 +13.1
24.68 +10.4
24.63
-.9
21.43
+• 9
26.03 +14.8

27.6 +14.0
29.8 +10.8
24.3 - 1 .6
26.3
-.4
26.3 + 2 .7

82.5 - 1 .1
82.8 - . 2
101.4 + . 2
81.4 + 1 .2
99.1 +12.1

24. 37

27.0

2 9 1 ,8 1 0
1 8 7 ,5 4 8

+ 8 .1
+ 1 6 .2

2 9 .8 8
2 2 .6 0

9 1 3 1 5 ,8 6 1

+ 1 1 .0

4 2 9 ,3 5 8

+ 1 0 .6

2 7 .0 9

46

311 +12.7

82
346 +35.2
403 2,230 +28.9
610 2,252 +27.5
142
461 +17.6
402 - 1 .7
83

The State.........

1,320 5,691 +25.0

5, 255 +27.7
7,882
55,030
55,460
9,880
10,463

+52.9
+42.3
+26.3
+18.7
+12.8

138,715 +31.7

1 Averages computed from reports furnished by 10,001 firms.
3 Includes both Kansas City, Mo., and Kansas City, Kans.
4 Less than Ho of 1 percent increase.
8 No change.
6 Includes Covington and Newport, Ky.




(5)

1 0 7 .5
8 4 .6

+ 8 .1
+ 1 6 .0

Ohio:
Akron...... ............
Cincinnati6.........
Cleveland.......... .
Dayton-------------Youngstown____

(4
)

(» )

9 ,7 6 6
6 ,0 8 5

+ . 1
- . 4

+ 5 .3

+ 4 .7

90.3

+ .7
- .1

+ .4

143

TREND OF EMPLOYMENT AND PAY ROLLS

E M P L O Y M E N T , P A Y ROLLS, HOURS, A N D EAR N IN G S IN TH E B U IL D IN G CONSTR U CTIO N IN D U ST R Y , APR IL 1935—Continued

Employment

Average
weekly
earnings

Pay rolls

ja

Average
hours per
week per
man 1
Number April 1935

b
0

Amount April 1935

[Figures in italics are not compiled by the Bureau of Labor Statistics but are taken from reports issued
by cooperating State bureaus]

Average
hourly
earnings1
Percentage change
from March 1935

Amount April 1935

Percentage change
from March 1935

Percentage change
from March 1935

Percentage change
from March 1935

i

Amount April 1935

Locality

Percentage change
from March 1935

Number April 1935

o
2

Oklahoma:
Oklahoma City,.
Tulsa___________

84
47

The State.........

131

660

+ 8 .7

13,177 +30.0

19.97 +19.5

27.6 +17.9

71.6 + 2 .0

Oregon: Portland___

158

867

+ 1 .2

20,350 +12.9

23.47 +11.5

27.6 +10.4

85.1

IS . 1 8
2 1 .1 7
2 4 .8 0

1 7 .7
8 0 .1
2 7 .0
2 9 .8
8 2 .9
8 0 .1

+ 2 2 .9

Pennsylvania: 7
Erie area............._
Philadelphia area
Pittsburgh area—
Reading area___
Scranton area___
Other areas_____
The State_____
Rhode Island:
Providence-.......... .
Tennessee:
Chattanooga____
Knoxville_______
Memphis_______
Nashville.........

D o lla r s

D o lla r s

21
849
191
40
29
255
885

447 + 8 .0
213 +10.4

221
2 ,7 2 2
1 ,2 4 6
226
184
1 ,9 6 6

+ 8 8
+ 1 5
+ 2
+ 4 4
+ 2 6
+ 1 0

.9
.7
.6
.9
.9
.8

2 ,9 1 8
6 7 ,6 2 8
8 0 ,2 5 1
4 ,1 7 6
4 ,8 8 0
8 8 ,5 1 9

6 ,5 6 4

+ 1 8 .0

1 8 7 ,8 1 7

253 1,279 +16.4
31
36
72
77

8,984 +36.2
4,193 +18.3

229 +10.1
372 +26.5
336 + 6 .0
549 +35.6

+ 4 8
+ 2 1
+ 2
+ 5 1

.7
.6
.0
.2

C e n ts

20.10 +26.2
19.69 + 7 .2

+ 1 1 .0
+ 5 .1

2 1 .0 0

+ 2 .9

2 9 .8

+ 4 -S

7 2 .9

(»)

2 5 , 942

+20.1

20. 28

+ 3 .2

27.6

+ 2 .6

73.1

+ .3

2,962
5,608
6,392
7,800

+32.8
+19.3
+22.4
+31.9

12.93 +20.5
15.08 - 5 .7
19.02 +15.5
14. 21 - 2 .7

23.0 +19.2
24.9 + 4 .6
(5)
27.2
26.8 +13.6

56.2
60.5
70.0
53.1

+ 1 .1
- 9 .8
+15.3
-1 4 .1

15.32

25.8

29.1 + 1 .7
24.8 + 2 .1
+ .4
28.6
29.4 +18.1

65.3 + .6
68.7 +4 .1
69.5 - 2 .5
56.5 - 1 .4

28.7

+ 3 .2

66.1 - 1 .2

+ 7 .6

29.2

+ 7 .7

77.1

- 5 .0
+ 6 .8
- 5 .1
+ 1 .6

18.85' + 1 .8
16.99 + 6 .0
19.80 - 1 .9
16.65 +16.6

460 2,452

46,331

- 3 .8

18. 90

+ 2 .0

5,029 +20.3

22. 55

66
117

The State........... .
Washington:
Seattle...............—
Spokane...... ........
Tacoma............
The State_____
West Virginia:
Wheeling............. .
Wisconsin: All lo­
calities_____ ______

+ 3 .8

-.5

381
781

- 5 .7
+ 5 .8

6,800
14,474

+ .5
- .4

17.85
18.53

+ 6 .6
- 5 .8

27.0
28.7

+ 5 .5
-.7

66.2 + 1 .2
64.5 - 5 .3

183 1,162

+ 1 .8

21, 274

-.1

18.31

- 1 .8

28.1

+ 1 .4

65.0 - 3 .3

+. 9
14,191
8,174 +64.0
3,841 -1 5 .5

21.97
25.23
20.43

- 1 .9
+ 7 .8
+ 5 .6

23.2
28.8
23.2

+ 4 .0
+ 3 .2
+ 6 .9

94.7 - 6 .0
87.7 + 4 .2
88.2 - 1 .0

26, 206 +11.0

22. 63

+ 3 .2

24.8

+ 6 .9

91.4 - 3 .2

147
59
80

646 + 2 .9
324 +52.1
188 -2 0 .0

286 1,158
54
148

+ 7 .6

201 +15.5
1 ,9 2 6

- 7 .0

4,429 +48.8
3 8 ,0 3 9

- 5 .7

1 Averages computed from reports furnished by 10,001 firms.
1 No change.
7 Each separate area includes from 2 to 8 counties.




+ .6

59.3 - 4 .2

15, 743
2,260
22,785
5, 543

223 +17.4

+ 6 .8

+ 8 .4

188
835 - 6 .7
24
133
+. 8
167 1,151 - 3 .2
81
333 -1 2 .8

67

- . 6
+ .6
+ 2 .1
- 5 .0

+ 1 6 .3

22, 762 +26.0

Virginia:
Norfolk - Ports mouth.............
Richmond______

1 .7
2 .1
2 .7
8 .2
2 .7
4 .5

1 8 .4 8
2 8 .5 3
1 9 .5 9

216 1,486 +21.4

- 5 .6

7
7
9
6
7
6

+ .9

+ 5 9 .4
+ 1 8 .2

The State.........

The State........

+ 6 .4
- 1 .1
+ 1 0 .2
+ 1 8 .8
+ 1 .7

72.6 + 1 .3
69.7 + 3 .1

- . 4
+ 4 .4
+ 2 5 .6
+ 2 .1

Texas:
Dallas____ _____
El Paso-------------Houston...... ........
San Antonio____

U t a h : Sal t L a k e
C ity,____ ________

27.2 +24.2
28.2 + 6 .0

22.03 +28.8
19. 75

+ 1 .8

30.6 +20.9

71.9 + 6 .4

80.4

6 8 .5

+ 2 .7

- 2 .0

144

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS
T ren d o f E m p lo y m e n t o n S tea m R a ilroad s

T h e monthly trend of employment from January 1923 to December
1935 on class I railroads—that is, all roads having operating revenues
of $1,000,000 or over—is shown by index numbers published in the
following table. These index numbers, constructed by the Interstate
Commerce Commission, are based on the 3-year average, 1923-25, as

100.
IN D E X E S OF E M P L O Y M E N T ON CLASS I R AILR OADS IN T H E U N IT E D STATES , JAN­
U A R Y 1923 TO D E C E M B E R 1935
[3-year average, 1923-25=100]
1927

1928

1929

1930

1931

1932

1933

1934

1935

98.4 96.7 95.5 95. 6 95.2
98.6 96.9 95.3 95. 8 95.0
100.4 97.3 95.1 96. 5 95.6
101.9 98.8 96.5 98. 6 97.1
104.8 99.1 97.7 100. 0 99.1
107.1 97.9 98.5 101. 3 100.7
108.2 98.0 99.3 102. 6 100.7
109.2 98.9 99.5 102. 4 99.2
107.7 99.6 99.7 102. 5 98.8
107.1 100.7 100.4 103. 1 98.5
105.0 98.9 98.9 101. 0 95.5
99.1 96.0 96.9 98. 0 91.7

89.1
88.7
89.7
91.5
94.4
95.8
95.4
95.5
95.1
95.2
92.7
89.5

88.0
88.6
89.8
91.9
94.6
95.8
96.3
97.1
96.5
96.6
92.8
88.5

86.1
85.2
85.3
86.7
88.3
86.3
84.5
83.5
82.0
80.2
76.9
74.8

73.5
72.6
72.7
73.4
73.8
72.7
72.3
71.0
69.2
67.6
64.4
62.5

61.1
60.2
60.5
59.9
59.6
57.7
56.3
54.9
55.7
56.9
55.8
54.7

53.0
52.7
51.5
51.8
52.5
53.6
55.4
56.8
57.7
57.4
55.8
54.0

54.1
54.6
55.9
56.9
58.5
59.0
58.7
57.8
57.3
56.6
54.8
53.8

53.7
54.2
54.8
54.7
55.8
56.8
57.0
56.6
56.5
56.9
55.8
155.1

92.7

93.1

83.3

70.6

57.8

54.4

56.5

55.7

Month

1923

January__________
February____ _____
March____________
April_____________
M ay_____________
June......... ................
July_____ ________
August___________
September......... ___
October__________
November________
December...... .........

Average________ 104.0

1924

98.2

1925

97.8

1926

99.8

97.3

1 Preliminary.

P u b lic E m p lo y m e n t 1
E m p lo y m e n t in th e Federal Service

A m o n t h l y summary of employment and pay rolls in the various
branches of the United States Government from January 1934 to
October 1935 is shown in the following table.
E M P L O Y M E N T A N D P A Y ROLLS FOR T H E U. S. G O V E R N M E N T FRO M JA N U A R Y 1934
TO OCTOBER 1935
Executive service
Month

1934
JanuaryFebruary—
March____
April........ .
M ay______
June--------July---------August___
September
October,. .
November
December1935
January.—
February..
March____
April..........
M ay..........
June--------July...........
August___
September
October_
_

Num­
ber of
em­
ploy­
ees

Military service Judicial service

Legislative
service

Num­
Num­
Num­
Amount of ber of Amount of ber of Amount ber of Amount
em­
em­
of pay
pay roll
pay roll ploy­ of pay
ployroll
roll
ployees
ees

622,217 77,837,656 253,097 18,382,945
625,882 83,920,879 253,599 19,365,135
639,244 85,293,397 254,634 18,240,513
660,166 85.717.306 255,211 18,454,878
676,090 90,417,107 254,982 18,397,551
675,592 92,356,363 255,227 18,739,952
687,324 95,988,326 256,350 19,587,571
692,288 99,325,903 256,625 19,689,866
696,980 99.675.306 257,355 19,986,672
698,391 102,136,722 258,187 19,102,969
689,938 101, 552,860 260,300 20,945,771
685,975 101,518,200 259,968 20,125,003

1,780
1,742
1.854
1,904
1,913
1,881
1,750
1,690
1, 777
1,846
1.885
1,861

417,000
430,843
443,505
432,401
442,896
439,170
434.736
439,014
486,410
453.217
451,653
446,130

4, 777
4,784
4,799
4,797
4,794
4,810
4,645
4,655
4, 653
4,632
4,630
4,648

966,193
1,020,803
1,022,808
1,020,924
1,035,106
1,039,198
1.073.348
1,072,406
1,070,956
1,070,290
1,070,881
1,057,996

20,362,067
20,102,126
19,977,791
19,898,971
21,462,144
21,364,278
20,689,446
20,846,275
21,834,559
21,893,635

1.830
1,812
1.831
1,859
1,879
1.854
1,766
1,732
1,829
1.885

462,895
452,717
454,664
475,804
474.736
449.217
473,044
470,939
487,976
494,927

4,722
4,735
4,759
4,830
4,877
4,871
5,014
5,147
5,137
5,120

1,077,401
1,080,686
1,086,807
1,153,325
1,160,191
1,154,868
1.181.349
1,204,204
1,206,041
1,210,304

688,221
695,020
699,617
710,456
712, 592
718,236
731,551
771,464
794,679
811,974

98,341,481 261,254
98,935,699 260,478
100,984,938 258,650
106,744,129 256,491
107,751,801 254,340
109,300,324 258,410
111, 272,210 261,067
115,998,516 269,459
116,266,624 275,964
119,867,437 281,654

Total
Num­
ber of
em­
ploy­
ees

Amount
of pay
roll

881,871
886,007
900,531
922,078
937, 779
937,510
950,069
955,258
960,765
963,056
956,753
952,452

97,603,794
104.737.660
105,000,223
105,625,509
110.292.660
112, 574,683
117,083,981
120,527,189
121, 219,344
122,763,198
124,021,165
123,147,329

956,027 120,243,844
962,045 120.571.228
964,857 122, 504,200
973,636 128.272.229
973,688 130,848,872
983,371 132,268,687
999,398 133,616,049
1,047,802 138,519,934
1,077,609 139,795,200
1,100,633 143,466,303

1 Data in this section are as of October 1935. Later information concerning public employment may be
had in the Monthly Labor Review and in the Employment and Pay Rolls pamphlet.




TREND OF EMPLOYMENT AND PAY ROLLS

145

E m p loy m en t o n C on stru ction P ro je cts F in an ced b y P u b lic W orks
A d m in istra tion 1

T h e Federal Emergency Administration of Public Works (P. W. A.)
was established under title II of the National Industrial Recovery Act
of June 16,1933, and extended until June 30, 1937, by the Emergency
Relief Appropriation Act of 1935.
« Construction projects financed by the Public Works Administration
are divided into two classes: Federal projects and non-Federal proj­
ects. Federal construction projects are financed entirely by allot­
ments made by the Public Works Administration to the various
agencies and departments of the Federal Government. The work is
performed either by commercial firms, which have been awarded con­
tracts, or by day labor hired directly by the Federal agencies.
Non-Federal projects are financed by allotments made by the
Public Works Administration. Most of the allotments have been
made to the States and their political subdivisions, but occasionally
allotments have been made to commercial firms. In financing projects
for the States or their political subdivisions from funds appropriated
under the National Industrial Recovery Act, the Public Works
Administration makes a direct grant of not more than 30 percent of
the total construction cost. When funds provided under the Emer­
gency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935 are used to finance a non-Fed­
eral project, as much as 45 percent of the total cost may be furnished
in the form of a grant. The remaining 55 percent or more of the cost
is financed by the recipient. When circumstances justify such action,
the Public Works Administration will provide the grantee with the
additional funds by means of a loan. Allotments to commercial
enterprises are made only as loans. All loans made by the Public
Works Administration carry interest charges and have a definite date
of maturity. Collateral posted with the Public Works Administration
to secure loans may be offered for sale to the public. In this w&y a
revolving fund is provided which enlarges the scope of the activities
of the Public Works Administration.
Commercial loans have been made, for the most part, to railroads.
Railroad work financed by loans made by the Public Works Adminis­
tration falls under three headings: (1) Construction work in the
fonn of electrification, laying of rails and ties, repairs to buildings,
bridges, etc.; (2) building and repairing of locomotives and passenger
and freight cars in shops operated by the railroads; and (3) loco­
motive and passenger- and freight-car building in commercial shops.
Table 1 shows employment, pay rolls, and man-hours worked on
construction projects financed from Public Works funds, by months,
from July 1933 to October 1935.
1 Monthly figures referred to in this section are as of the 15th of the month.

1 92 0 5 — 36— — 11




146

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

T a ble 1.—E M P L O Y M E N T A N D P A Y ROLLS, JULY 1938 TO OCTOBER 1935, ON PROJECTS
F IN A N C E D FR O M PU BLIC -W O R K S FU N D S
[Subject to revision]
Maximum
number
of wage
earners 1

Year and month

Amount of
pay rolls

Number of
man-hours
worked

$559, 555,415

908,678,434

267
4,719
39,535
146,747
255,512
300, 758

26,433
131, 937
1,784,996
6, 353,835
11,552, 547
13,091,587

35, 217
206,990
3,296,162
12,029,751
21,759,245
24,391, 546

.751
.637
.542
.528
.531
.537

3 202; 100
1,628,537
4 23,351,160
24,568,577
25,702, 750

298,069
311,381
307,274
382, 220
506,056
610,752
644, 729
629,907
575,655
527,883
503,985
410,236

12,646,241
14,348,094
14,113,247
18,785,405
25,942,387
33,808,429
34,845,461
36,480,027
32,758,795
30,263,279
30, 664,356
23,655,422

23,409,908
26,544,346
25,501,446
32,937,649
46,052,698
59,873,309
60,736,768
61, 925,300
53,427,096
47,910,342
49,004, 023
36,238,781

.540
.541
,553
.570
.563
.565
.574
.589
.613
.632
.625
.653

24,206,352
25, 269,537
«69,766,559
»68,526,223
6 50,468,427
«60,797,939
« 53,377,997
e 54,192,443
6 50,878,000
6 51, 756, 945
55,044,382
6 45, 766,286

304, 723
272,273
281,461
333,045
394,875
414,306
405,332
394, 509
344,520
308,632

18,462,677
16,896,475
17,400,798
20,939,741
24,490,087
25,386,962
24,96S, 785
25,292,656
22,772,317
21,692,439

27,478,022
25,144,558
26,008,063
31,>387,712
36,763,164
38,800,178
37,845,047
37,133,989
32,478,773
30, 358,351

.672
.672
.669
.667
.667
.654
.660
.681
.701
.715

6 30,746,857
29,264,484
27,276,566
31,645,166
»36,893,840
6 42,017,642
41,936,424
* 46,954,714
40,988,896
34,608,853

July 1933 to October 1935, inclusive 2__
1933
July--------------------------------------------------August________ _____________________
September........... .............. .......................
October................ . . ...... .................
November____________________ _______
December._____ _____________________
1934
January_____________________________
February.________________ ___________
M arch...______ _____________________
A p ril.._____ _________ _______________
May-------- -----------------------------------------June-................- ---------------- -----------------July............................ - ..............................
August................................... ...................
September____ ____________ _________
October >______ _____________________
November1.............. .......... .....................
December 2...... ........................ ................
1935
January____________ ________________
February.. ----------- ---------------------------March__________________________
April._____ ___________________ _____
M ay___________________________ _____
June----------- ------------------------------------- July____________________ ____________
August----- --------------------------------------- September •
........... ............................. . . .
October «__________________________

Average
earnings
per hour

Value of ma­
terial.orders
placed

$0.616 $1,047,837, 646
<*)

i Maxi:mir number employed during any 1 week of the month by each contractor and Government
n
Hgeney doing force-account work. Includes weekly average for public-roads projects.
3 Orders pi iced during July and August 1933, except public-roads projects included in October 1933.
4 Includes orders for materials placed for naval vessels prior to October 1933.
5 Includes orders placed by railroads for new equipment.
e Includes data for wage earners employed on projects under jurisdiction of P. W . A. which were financed
from E. R. A. A. 1935 funds.

The amount of pay rolls and the value of material orders placed for
projects financed from Public Works Administration funds from July
1933 to October 1935 is given, by type of project, in table 2.
T able 3 .—P A Y ROLLS AN D VALU E OF M A T E R IA L ORDERS PLACED FOR PROJECTS
F IN A N C E D FROM P. W . A. FUNDS, JULY 1933 TO OCTOBER 1935, B Y T Y P E OF PROJECT
Value of material orders placed

Amount of pay rolls
Type of project
Federal
All projects.-.............
Building construction
Public roads 5_
_
River, harbor, and
flood control_____
Streets and roads-----Naval vessels________
Reclamation._______
Forestry____________
Water and sewerage
systems........ .......... _
Railroad construction
Railroad shop work _ _
Miscellaneous........... .

NonFederal

Total

Federal

NonFederal

Total

$400, 688,966 i $146,283,962 i $546,972,928 2 $670,196,426 3 $377,641,220 <$1,047,837,646
32,976,662
170,429,088
61,740,784
14,978,507
48,743,475
41,050,537
10,109,495
1,460,187
i§, 200, 231

54,895,035

17,145,098

37,045,151
19,310,211
14, 703,833
3,184,634

87,871,697
170,429,088

62,168,361
285,416,154

61,740,784
32,123, 605
48,743,475
41,050, 537
10,109,495

102,113,881
11,287,833
78,239,600
79,625,738
4,877,613

38, 505,338
19,310,211
14, 703,833
22, 384,865

2,272,995
244,194,251

119,074,474

26,351,010

72,693,336
41,162,542
47,159, 238
3 71,200, 620

181,242,835
285,416,154
102,113,881
37,638,843
78,239,600
79,625,738
4,877,613
74,966,331
41,162,542
47,159, 238
4 115,394,871

1 Excludes pay rolls for railroad-car and locomotive shops.
2 Includes orders placed for miscellaneous equipment items.
3 Includes orders placed by railroads for new equipment, $60,522,801.
4 Includes orders placed for miscellaneous equipment items and by railroads for new equipment.
• Estimated by the Bureau of Public Roads,




147

TREND OF EMPLOYMENT AND PAY ROLLS

E m p loy m en t on C o n stru ctio n P ro je cts F in an ced b y T h e W orks P rogram 1
W o r k was started in July 1935 on construction projects financed by
The Works Program. This program was inaugurated by the Presi­
dent in a series of Executive orders by authority of Public Resolution
No. 11, approved April 8, 1935. Employment created by this pro­
gram includes employment on Federal projects and employment on
projects operated by the Works Progress Administration. Federal
projects are those conducted by Federal agencies which have received
allotments from The Works Program fund. Projects operated by
the Works Progress Administration are those projects conducted
under the supervision of the W. P. A.
Employment, pay rolls, and man-hours worked on projects financed
from The Works Program from the beginning of the work in July
1935 to October 1935 are given in table 1.
T a b l e 1.—E M P L O Y M E N T A N D P A Y ROLLS, JULY TO OCTO BER 1935, ON PROJECTS
F IN A N C E D B Y T H E W ORKS PR O G R AM i
[Subject to revision]

Month and year

Maximum
Average Value of
number of Amount of Number of earn­
material
wage-earn­ pay rolls man-hours ings per orders
worked
placed
ers 8
hour
Federal projects

July to October 1935, inclusive.................... ..........
July................. ............................................................
A ugust..______ __________________________ ____
September_____________________________________
October________ ______________________________

$11,490,625
5,131
32,672
76,524
129,064

24,880,439

276,839
1,215,990
3,754,773
6,243,023

603,318
2,791,802
7,815,795
13,669,524

$0,462 $15,643,864
.456
.436
.480
.457

164,004
1,684,347
4,071,945
9,723,568

Projects operated by Works Progress Administration
$38,224,668

August to October 1935, inclusive____ _________
August____________________________ __________
September_____________________________________
October____________ __________________________

113,299
259,315
502,876

80,872,157

3,291,324
11,728, 579
23,204,765

5,977, 766
24,517,735
50,376,656

$0,473 $13,241,431
.551
.478
.461

3,202,136
2,089,324
7,949,971

1 P. W . A. projects financed from E. R. A. A. 1935 funds are included in tables covering projects under
the jurisdiction of the Public Works Administration.
8
Maximum number employed during any 1 week of the month by each contractor and Government
agency doing force-account work.

The types of projects financed by The Works Program and the
employment at the site of construction are illustrated by table 2.
This table gives a detailed record, by type of project, of employment,
pay rolls, and man-hours worked on projects financed by The Works
Program for the month of October 1935.
1 Monthly figures referred to in this section are as of the 15th of the month, unless otherwise expressly
stated.




148

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

T able 3 .—E M P L O Y M E N T A N D P A Y ROLLS ON PROJECTS F IN A N C E D B Y TH E W O R K S
P R O G R AM , OCTOBER 19351
[Subject to revision]
Number of wage
earners
Type of project
Maximum Weekly
number
employed2 average

Amount of
pay rolls

Aver­
Number
Value of
age
of man­
material
earn­
orders
hours
ings per placed
worked
hour

Federal projects
All projects__________________ ____ ___
Building construction-------------------------Electrification____________ ____ _______
Forestry______________________________
Grade-crossing elimination------------------Heavy engineering------------------------------Plant, crop, and livestock ConservationProfessional, technical, and clerical........
Public roads---------------------------------------Reclamation-------------- ------- -----------------River, harbor, and flood control----------Streets and roads_________ ____ _______
Water and sewerage----------------------------Miscellaneous___________ - ............. .

129,064 119,609
19,456
177
20,016
1,321
62
20,989
4,867
7,766
20,717
22,404
6,181
693
4,415

17,758
168
19,186
1,116
52
19,141
4,867
6,686
20,495
19,861
5,631
686
3,962

$6,243,023 13,669,524

$0,457

$9,723,568

1,951,643
14,566
2,320,776
107,696
2,662
2,676,319
597,494
650,790
1,476,968
2,608,199
721,871
83,392
457,148

.490
.395
.417
.385
.664
.358
.593
.416
.520
.543
.388
.369
.414

1,120,958
52,864
00
107,996
3,382
244,265
95,597
294,297
4,818,864
2,353,620
222,995
23,691
385,039

956,918
5,755
968,117
41,492
1, 768
959,094
354,186
270,828
768,043
1,416,827
280,061
30,740
189,194

Projects operated by Works Progress Administration
All projects____________________ _____
Highway, road, and street
- - __
Public building_______________________
Housing-. _______________ ___________
____________ ____
Recreational facilities ®
Conservation__________________________
Publicly owned or operated utilities 7___
Rural electrification and electric utiliTransportation____________ ___________
Professional, technical, and clerical-- -Sewing, canning, gardening, etc, ____
Sanitation and health_____________ ___
Not elsewhere classified_____ _________

* 502,876

$23,204,765 50,376,656

197,919
49, 513
2,936
101,174
23,339
32,290

7,137,911 18,452,613
3,259,655 5,564,860
216,346
346,110
5,215,251 10,150,117
681,257 1,937,914
1,517,580 3,312,919

.387
.586
.625
.514
.352
.458

2,752,692
1,020,736
2,916
2,141,870
540,107
790,454

50,386
1,008,125
4,169,580
806,076
3,445,465
1,132,491

.541
.435
.663
.344
.366
.362

4,689
270,966
143,648
49,632
47,488
184,773

501
9,930
33,742
8,692
31,602
12,180

27,269
438,498
2,762,853
276,997
1,260,682
410,466

$0,461 5
$7,949,971

1 P. W . A. projects financed from E. R. A. A. 1935 funds are included in tables covering projects under
the jurisdiction of the Public Works Administration.
3 Maximum number employed during any 1 week of the month, by each contractor and Government
agency doing force-account work.
3 Data not reported.
* This total differs from the sum of individual items since 942 employees worked on more than 1 type
of project.
5 Value of material orders placed during the month ending Oct. 31, 1935.
6 Exclusive of buildings.
7 Exclusive of electric utilities.

E m p loy m en t o n C on stru ction P rojects F in an ced fr o m R egu lar G ov ern m en ta l
A p p rop ria tion s 1
T h e following table presents a monthly record of employment
data on construction projects financed from regular governmental
appropriations from August 1934 to October 1935. The Bureau
does not have statistics covering projects which were under way
prior to August 1934.
1 Monthly figures referred to in this section are as of the 15th of the month.




149

TREND OF EMPLOYMENT AND PAY ROLLS

E M P L O Y M E N T ON C O N ST R U C T IO N PROJECTS F IN A N C E D F R O M R EG U LAR
G O V E R N M E N T A L APPR OPR IATIONS, A U G U ST 1934 TO O CTO BER 1935

Month

August 1934 to October 1935.

Amount of Number of
pay rolls man-hours
worked

Aver­
age
earn­
ings
per
hour

Vahieof
material
orders
placed

$22,495, 544

Num­
ber of
wage
earn-

35, 215,977

$0.639

$43,861,443

1934
August------------------------------September_________________
October____________________
November_________________
December_________________

5,601
. 9,800
. 13,593
. 18,211
. 16,276

329,440
493,363
689, 604
1,014,945
859,998

557, 747
773,685
1,103,523
1,690,488
1,468,741

.591
.638
.625
.600
.586

150,506
842,292
982,835
3,334,648
1,966,441

1935
January__________________
February______ ___________
March.................___..............
April_____________________
M ay__________ ___________
June________ _____________
J u ly ,-.,,._____ ___________
August___________________
September__________ _____
October___________________

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

669,199
704,190
862,886
1,389,583
1,599,937
1,904,454
1,890,209
2,694,822
3,199,785
4,193,129

1,062,118
1,102,864
1,359,043
2, 210,893
2,370,925
2,842,470
2,752,801
4,137,008
5,066,873
6,716,798

.630
.639
.635
.629
.675
.670
.687
.651
.632
.624

3,163,946
1,962,087
2,709,912
2,562,404
2,704,333
2,960, 270
3,079,618
4,459, 551
5,801,445
7,181,155

12,784
13,106
14,659
22,270
23,057
26,191
25,788
36,491
45,592
59,091

E m p loy m en t o n C o n stru ctio n P rojects F in an ced b y th e R e c o n str u ctio n
F in an ce C orp oration 1
M on th ly
statistics of employment, pay rolls, and man-hours
worked on projects financed by the Reconstruction Finance Corpora­
tion from April 1934 to October 1935 are given in the following table.
E M P L O Y M E N T A N D P A Y ROLLS ON PROJECTS F IN A N C E D B Y TH E R ECO N STR U C­
T IO N F IN A N C E CORPORATION, A P R IL 1934 TO OCTOBER 1935

Month

April 1934 to October 1935..

Amount of Number of
pay rolls man-hours
worked

Aver­
age
earn­
ings
per
hour

Value of
material
orders
placed

$24,548,736

Num­
ber of
wage
earners

33, 799,688

$0.726

$45,227,263

1934
April..........
M ay...........
June______
July............
August----September.
October.. .
November.
December.

18,731
19,429
19,022
17,475
17,221
16,809
17,482
16,502
14,321

1,516,915
1,649,920
1,676,075
1,612,848
1,697,161
1,637,047
1,596,996
1,621,468
1,337,719

2,308,580
2,358,966
2,314,136
2,141,945
2,282,181
2,203,881
2,181,846
2,233,928
1,859,226

.657
.699
.724
.753
.744
.743
.732
.726
.720

2,357,408
2,143,864
2,230,065
2.402.174
2,384,887
2,579,969
2.274.174
2,856,371
2,440,620

1935
January..................................
February................................
March.....................................
April............ ..........................
M ay................................. .
June........................................
July........ ...............................
August....................................
September..............................
October..................................

11,180
10,373
9,586
10,300
10,506
11,901
9,581
9,415
9,301
9,192

1,054,708
1,048,593
890,333
1,007,424
1,100,977
1,191,336
1,001,653
1,020,208
957,846
952,790

1,484,190
1,457,662
1,253,493
1,389,072
1,522,959
1,592,744
1,349,064
1,367,071
1,271,475
1,269,273

.711
.719
.710
.725
.723
.748
.742
.746
.753
.751

3,966,718
5,028,547
1,072,886
2,517,175
2,287,090
3,998,576
1,495,108
965,174
1,016, 202
1,228,928

1 Monthly figures referred to in this section are as of the 15th of the month.




150

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS
E m p loy m en t o n P u b lic R oads

T h e number of employees engaged in the construction and mainte­
nance of public roads, Federal, non-Federal, and State, by months,
from January 1933 to October 1935, is given in the following table.
N U M B E R OF EM P LO Y E E S E N G A G E D IN CO N STR U CTIO N A N D M A IN T E N A N C E OF
ROADS U N D E R JURISDICTION OF BU R EAU OF PUBLIC ROADS, J AN U AR Y 1933 TO
OCTOBER 1935
Number of employees
State

Federal
Financed from—

Month

Total

75,498
78,215
95,704
122,256
139,831
152,276
129,205

Regular
govern­
mental
appropriations 1

P. W .A
funds 3

115,047
154,016
185,860
174,358

75,498
78,215
95,704
122,256
139,831
152,276
129,205
107,193
80,164
57,079
38,286
21,519

July_________
August--------September_
_
October_____
November___
December___

7,824
2,649
1,496
2,232
4,227
4,892
5,030
3,933
3,018
2,911
4,023
3,157

1935
January_____
February___
March______
April________
M ay___ _____
June________
July________
August______
SeptemberOctober_____

90,146
77,696
87,039
114,980
155,359
180,778
176,320
162,340
130,436
122,984

1,796
1,229
1,406
1,961
3,393
4,788
5,777
8,645
13,878
28,775

88,350
76,467
85,633
113,019
151,966
175,990
170,543
153,695
115,053
87,946

New

Main­
tenance

39,906
36,352
37,891
40,560
47,540
54,388
61,428
60.365
62.366
58,711
63,379
46,810

151,039
140,689
145,618
137,066
142,767
152,941
141,644
158,237
160,560
171,302
170,830
140,863

670
3,456
5,101
8,321
10,679
13,044
14,683
14,670
16,346
11, 276

146,330
154,165
141,887
181,969
262,644
323,201
319,514
280,247
230,179
192,498
180,677
132,668

Total

190,945
177,041
183,509
177,626
190,307
207,329
203,072
218,602
222,926
230,013
234,209
187,673

The
Works
Program
funds 2

161,835
149,276
152,212
157,621
194,532
208.599
213,980
233,810
250,271
240,243
225, 557
176.599

25,345
22,311
19,985
21,510
27,161
37,642
45,478
53,540
61,865
71,008
66,106
41,919

136,490
126,965
132,227
136, 111
167,371
170,957
168,502
180,270
188,406
169,235
159,451
134,680

6,448
3,561
3,960
8,083
12,176
12,485
14,721
16,416
13,019
12,676

143,820
140,149
126, 540
159,677
163,465
169,076
184,401
204,090
196,618
187,714

23,537
17,940
18,391
24,193
27,924
30,823
35,826
40,130
40,431
40,390

120,283
122,209
108,149
135,484
135,541
138,253
148,575
163,960
156,187
147,324

4,018
34,883
96, 937
147,574
152,839

154,154
156,814
143,383
184,201
266,871
328,093
324,544
284,180
233,197
195,409
184, 700
135,825

NonFederal
financed
from
P. W . A.
funds 2

January_
_
February..
March____
April_____
M ay...........
June...........
July______
August----September.
October—
November.
December .
1934
January_____
February____
March_______

111, 211

______
______
...........
...........
...........
...............
...........
...........
1,505
6,263

1 Also included in table showing employment created by regular governmental appropriations from
August 1934.
2 Also included in tables showing employment created by each designated construction program financed
from Federal funds.

W ork Created b y M aterial O rders Placed

A su m m ar y of the estimated man-months of employment created
in fabricating materials under the various programs is shown in the
following table.
The estimates are made only for labor required in the fabrication of
material in the form in which it is to be used. No estimate is made
of the labor required in producing the raw material or in transporting




151

TREND OF EMPLOYMENT AND PAY ROLLS

it to the point of manufacture—for example, in manufacturing struc­
tural steel the only labor counted is that occurring in the fabricating mills. No estimate is made for the labor created in mining, smelting,
and transporting the ore; nor for the labor in the blast furnaces, the
open-hearth furnaces, or the blooming mills.
N U M B E R OF M A N -M O N T H S OF LABOR C R E A T E D IN F A B R IC A TIO N OF M A T E R IA L
PURCH ASED FROM F E D E R A L FUNDS
Number of man-months—
From beginning of program
to—

Program

Month end­
ing Oct. 15,
1935

Oct. 15, 1935 Sept. 15,1935
Total_____________

_

3, 792,117

3, 595,407

196, 710

Public Works Administration-.. _______________ ___________
Reconstruction Finance Corporation________________________
Regular governmental_______ ______________________________
The Works Program:
Federal construction____________________________ ____ _
Federal professional, technical, and clerical______________
Operated by Works Progress Administration____________

_____________________ _________

3,424,326
1 136,065
2 137, 531

3. 311,160
1 131,817
2 115,480

113,166
4, 248
22, 051

47, 092
921
46,182

18, 790
540
17, 620

28, 302
381
28, 562

1 For period beginning Mar. 15, 1934.
2 For period beginning July 1, 1934.

E m ergency C on servation W ork

E m e r g e n c y Conservation Work (familiarly known as Civilian Con­
servation Corps) was authorized by Congress on March 31, 1933.
Employment and pay rolls in Emergency Conservation Work from
May 1933 to October 1935 are given, by months, in the following
table.
E M P L O Y M E N T A N D P A Y ROLLS IN E M E R G E N C Y CO N SER VATIO N W O R K , M A Y
1933 TO OCTOBER 1935
Month

Employees

Pay roll

1933
M ay__________
June__________
July____ _____
August-----------September____
October.........
November____
December_____

191,380
283, 500
316,109
307,100
242,968
294,861
344, 273
321, 701

$6,388, 760
9,876, 780
11,482, 262
11, 604,401
9, 759, 628
12,311,033
14, 554,695
12,951, 042

1934
January---------February_____
March...........
April_________
M ay__________
June__________
July__________

331, 594
321,829
247. 591
314. 664
335. 871
280,271
389,104

13, 581, 506
13,081, 393
10,792,618
13,197,012
14,047,826
12,641, 571
16,033,071

Month

Employees

Pay roll

1934
August____ _____________
September...... ............ .......
October_________________
November........ ..................
December__________

385,340
335,788
391,894
387,329
350,028

$16,364,048
15,023,183
16,939,922
16,622,374
15,415,071

1935
January......... ................. ..
February______________
March...... ...........................
April____ ________________
M ay____ _______ ________
June__________ _
--- July____________ _______
August...............................
September.,
_______
October........ .......................

398,692
373,850
294,955
368, 537
385,192
427, 556
480,586
590,362
534,057
550,650

16,757,883
16,320,803
14,188,097
16,401,114
17,719,018
19,766,881
22,074, 577
26, 235,863
24,404,708
24,830, 752

E m erg en cy -W ork P rogram
T h e emergency-work program consists of projects authorized by
the Federal Emergency Relief Administration after March 1934. In
the latter part of 1935 this program of providing employment through
relief-work projects was being rapidly curtailed as The Works Program
got under way.




152

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

Employment and pay rolls on the emergency-work program, by
months, from March 1934 to October 1935, are presented in the fol­
lowing table.
E M P L O Y M E N T A N D P A Y ROLLS FOR W O R K E R S ON E M E R Q E N C Y -W O R K P R O G R A M ,
M A R C H 1934 TO OCTOBER 19351

1934
March...............
April____ ______
M ay__________
June...................
July...................
August........... .
September........
October.............
November........
December.........

Number of
employees

Amount of
pay roll

22,934
1,089,762
1,362,014
1,504,838
1,725,466
1,924,066
1,950,108
1,996,822
2,159,038
2,324,894

Month

$842,000
38,416,747
42,669,240
42,423,574
47,352,424
54,914,792
50,288,868
53,901,325
62,833,046
62,335,691

Month

1935
January,, _
February..
March____
April.........
M ay______
June______
July...........
August___
September.
October___

Number of Amount of
employees
pay roll

2,472,091
2,459,730
2,402,018
2,308,838
2,228,546
2,021,060
1,928,772
1,411,350
644,639

$71,683,578
63,621,526
62,865,956
62,344,399
64,559,740
54,382,876
53,136,833
38,977,577
21.147.711
17.630.711

1
Wage earners in this report represent the number that worked any part of month. These employees
are allowed to work each month until a certain specified maximum amount is reached, and then they are
relieved by other workers taken from the relief rolls.

E m p lo y m e n t C reated b y Civil W ork s A d m in istra tio n

T h e Public Works Administration, early in November 1933, made
an allotment of $400,000,000 to the Civil Works Administration to be
expended for providing employment during the winter months. As
can readily be seen, it takes some time for types of projects included
under the regular Public Works Administration to get under way.
Legal obstacles in many States had to be overcome, plans had to be
drawn, and even after the starting of work, considerable time elapsed
before any great number of men could be employed on any job. In
order to bridge the gap between the awarding of the contract and
maximum employment on public-works projects, the Civil Works
Administration was created. The duty of this agency was to put
people to work on new projects at once.
The greater part of the workers under the Civil Works Adminis­
tration were taken from the relief rolls throughout the United States.
These employees were engaged in repairing buildings and bridges, in
street and road work, working on slum-clearance projects, land­
scaping, mosquito eradication, etc.
The following table shows the number of Civil-Works employees on
the pay rolls and the amounts of pay rolls for weeks ending November
30 and December 28, 1933, and January 25, February 22, March 29,
April 26, and May 31, 1934, by geographic divisions.




EMPLOYMENT AND EARNINGS IN MANUFACTURES

153

N U M B E R OF E M P LO Y E E S A N D A M O U N TS OF P A Y ROLLS ON C IVIL W O R K S PROJECTS
NO V. 30 A N D D E C . 28, 1933, A N D JAN. 25, FEB. 22, M A R . 29, APR . 26, A N D M A Y 31, 1934
Week ending Nov.
30, 1933

Week ending Dec.
28, 1933

Week ending Jan.
25, 1934

Week ending Feb.
22, 1934

Geographic division
Employ­
ees

Pay roll

Employ­
ees

Pay roll

Employ­
ees

Pay roll

Employ­
ees

Pay roll

United States........... 1,471,200 $14,854,212 3,457,460 $46,177,842 4,054 684 $47,481,015 3,466,810 $39,947,760
New England...........
Middle Atlantic___
East North Central.
West North Central
South Atlantic.........
East South CentralWest South CentralMountain. _.............
Pacific........................

63,601
208,251
313,059
130,291
219,832
109,276
299,731
43,300
83,859

687,377
2,340,853
3,844,417
1,389,484
1,916,840
826,769
2,695,361
446,726
706,385

154,082 2,116,321
519,052 6,863,116
877,837 13,987,171
387,044 5,269,990
451,008 4,755,065
276,000 2,945,877
431,064 4.427,763
126,069 2,184,061
235,304 3,638,478
Week ending Mar.
29, 1934

240,226 3.052.837
744,804 9.890.838
837,303 11,837,407
462,730 5,504,064
556,067 5,288,764
341,613 2,811,468
494,110 4,023,100
136,271 1,827,638
241,560 3,244,899
Week ending Apr.
26, 1934

212,008 2,593,778
690,018 8,703,585
713,014 10,014,341
396,805 4,072,898
468,568 4,474,609
257,533 2,016,107
394,466 3,657,761
121,730 1,626,044
212,668 2,788,637
Week ending M ay
31, 1934

Geographic division
Employ­
ees

Pay roll

Employ­
ees

Pay roll

Employ­
ees

Pay roll

United States................................. ............... 1,935,699 $26,966,448

56,164 $1,138,705

8,893

$226,416

New England.................................................
Middle Atlantic...........................................
East North Central............................... .......
West North Central....... ....................... .......
South Atlantic...................... ........................
East South Central.......................................
West South Central......................................
Mountain...................................................
Pacific.................................... ........................

4,901
9,818
9,325
4,634
11,460
4,610
4,265
2,521
4,630

596
1,000
3,470
755
910
472
628
199
863

15,610
23,834
94,299
18,279
22,537
11,181
13,187
5,402
22,087

139,445
558,939
442,517
171,334
168,264
106,654
173,035
57,815
117,696

2,000,017
8,206.762
6,896,610
2,160,633
1,914,362
1,156,151
1,884,779
976,381
1,770.753

87,336
197,736
229,076
99,641
210,922
91,436
76,091
54,855
91,612

Starting late in November, the Civil Works Administration, within
2 weeks time, had given employment to nearly 1,500,000 people. By
the latter part of January the employment had grown to over
4,000,000. From that date the decrease was rapid until by May 31
less than 9,000 were on the pay rolls. By this time the Civil Works
program was practically completed, the Emergency Work Relief
program being then under way.

Employment and Earnings in Manufactures, 1899 to
1933
H E Census of Manufactures for 1933 permits of some interesting
comparisons of employment, wages, etc., in manufacturing indus­
tries in the United States in that year with conditions in earlier census
years. In the following table such comparison is made for each of
the years for which a manufacturing census was taken from 1899 to
1933, for the principal items reported by the census, together with
the estimated population in each of these years and certain figures
derived from the basic data as given by the Census Bureau. The
derived figures, computed by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, are those
shown in column 4 (average annual earnings per wage earner),
column 8 (value added per wage earner), column 10 (horsepower per

T




154

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

wage earner), column 11 (percent wages are of value added by manu­
facture), and column 13 (wage earners per 100,000 population).
The figures cited for average annual earnings (column 4) must be
used with great caution, as noted by the Census Bureau:
The average number of wage earners is based on the numbers reported for the
several months of the year. This average probably exceeds somewhat the number
that would have been required for the work performed if all had been continuously
employed throughout the year, because of the fact that manufacturers report the
number employed on or about the 15th day of each month, as shown by the pay
rolls, usually taking no account of the possibility that some or all of the wage
earners may have been on part time or for some other reason may not actually
have worked the entire month. Thus it becomes necessary to give equal weight
to full-time and part-time wage earners in calculating the average, and therefore
the average overstates somewhat the amount of full-time employment. For this
reason the quotient obtained by dividing fche amount of wages by the average
number of wage earners cannot be accepted as representing the average wage
received by full-time wage earners. In making comparisons between the figures
for 1929 and those for 1931 [and 1933], the likelihood that the proportion of parttime employment was larger in the later than in the earlier year should be taken
into account,
EM P LO Y E E S, E AR N IN G S, PR O D U CTIO N , A N D H O R SEPO W ER IN M A N U F A C T U R IN G
EST AB L ISH M EN T S IN T H E U N IT E D STATES IN E A C H OF T H E CENSUS Y E A R S ,
1899 TO 1933 i

Census year

Average Cost of mate­
Number
Wage
annual rial, containers,
earners
of estab­
Wages for year earnings fuel, and pur­
lish­
(average
chased elec­
per wage
ments number)2
tricity 3
earner
1

2

3

1899___________________
1904_________ _______—
1909___________________
1914___________________
1919______________ _____
1921____________ _______
1923___________________
1925_________________ . .
1927..................................
1 9 2 9 ...._____ _________
1931,.......... ....................
1933........................ — -

207,514
145,033
175,142
177, liO
214,383
196,267
196,309
187,390
191,866
210,959
174,136
141,776

4,712, 763
5,362, 030
6,472,616
6,896,190
9,000,059
6,946,570
8,778,156
8,384,261
8,349,755
8,838,743
6 ,5il, 647
6,055,736

$2,008,361,119
2,610,444,953
3,427,037,884
4,067, 718, 740
10,461,786,869
8,202,324,339
11,009,297,726
10,729,968,927
10,848,802,532
11,620,973,254
7,225,587,464
5,261,576,029

1899.____ _____________
1904___________________
1909__________ ____ —
1914......... ............. ..........
1919______________ ____
1921— ____ — .............
1923____ . . . . ______ . . . .
1925_____ _____________
1927___________________
1929____________ ____ _
1931................................ .
1933_____ _____ _______

100.0
69.9
84.4
85.3
103.3
94,6
94.6
90.3
92.5
101.7
83.9
68.3

100.0
113.8
137.3
146.3
191.0
147.4
186.3
177.9
177.2
187.5
138.2
128.5

100.0
130.0
170.6
202.5
620.9
408.4
648.2
634.3
640.2
678.6
359.8
262.0

4
$426
487
529
590
1,162
1,181
1,254
1,280
1,299
1,315
1,110
869

Value of
products

5

6

$6, 575,851,491
8, 438,860, 722
12,064,573,039
14, 278, 333,194
37, 232,702,390
25,321,055,346
34,705,697,749
35,935,647,704
35,133,136,889
38,549,579,732
21,420,124,017
16,748,438,977

$11,406,926,701
14, 617, 774,351
20,449,588,023
23,987,860, 617
62,041,795,316
43,653,282,833
60,555,998,200
62,713,713,730
62,718,347,289
70,434,863,443
41,333,108,998
31, 358,840,392

100.0
128.3
183.5
217.1
566.2
385.1
527.8
546.5
534.3
586.2
325.7
254.7

100.0
128.1
179.3
210.3
643.9
382.7
530.9
549.8
549.8
617.5
862.4
274.9

Index numbers
100.0
114.3
124.2
138.5
272.8
277.2
294.4
300.5
304.9
308.7
260.6
204.0

1
Figures for 1933 do not include data for “ coflee and spices, roasting and grinding” and “ peanuts,
walnuts^ and other nuts, processed or shelled” industries.
* Not including salaried officers and employees.
8
The aggregates for cost of materials and value of products include large but indeterminable amounts of
duplication due to the use of the products of some industries as materials by others. This duplication
occurs, as a rule, between different industries, and is not found to any great extent in individual industries.




155

FLUCTUATIONS IN EMPLOYMENT IN OHIO

E M P LO Y E E S, E A R N IN G S, PR O D U C T IO N , A N D H O R SEPO W ER IN M A N U F A C T U R IN G
E STABLISH M EN TS IN T H E U N IT E D STATES IN EA C H OF T H E CENSUS Y E A R S ,
1899 TO 1933—Continued.

1899............— ...............
1904_______ __________
1909.......................... .
1914____________ ____ _
1919____ _____________
1921_____ ____________ i
1923............... .................
1925..____ ___________
1927__________________
1929____ ________ ____
1931____ _____________
1933_______ __________

Value
added
per
wage
earner

Horsepower
(rated ca­
pacity) of
power
equip­
ment

Horse­
power
per
wage
earner

Per­
cent
wages
are of
value
added

Population
(estimated)

Wage
earners
per
100,000
popula­
tion

7

Census year

Value added
by manu­
facture

8

9

10

11

13

13

$4,831,075,210
6,178,913,629
8,385,014.984
9,709,527,423
24,809,092,926
18,332, 227,487
25,850,300,451
26, 778, 066, 026
27,585, 210,400
31,885,283, 711
19,912,984,981
14, 610,401,415

$1,025
1,152
1,295
1,408
2,757
2,639
2,945
3,194
3,304
3,607
3,058
2, 413

9,960,980
13,296,394
18,551, 737
22,290,899
29,327,669

2.11
2.48
2.87
3.23
3.26

(*)
33,094,228
35, 772, 628
38,826,681
42,931,061

0)
3.77
4. 27
4.65
4.86

41.6
42.3
40.8
41.9
42.1
44.8
42.6
40.1
39.3
36.5
36.3
36.0

74,799,000
82,601,000
90,691,000
97,928,000
105,003, 000
108,208,000
111, 537,000
114,867,000
118,197,000
121, 526,000
124, 070, 000
125, 693, 000

6,301
6,491
7,137
7,042
8, 571
6,420
7,870
7,299
7,064
7, 273
5,248
4,818

100.0
127.9
173.6
201.0
513.5
379.5
535.1
554. 3
571.0
660.0
412. 2
302.4

100.0
112.4
126.3
137.4
269.0
257.5
287.3
311.6
322.3
351.9
298.3

100.0
101.7
98.1
100.7
101.2
107.7
102.4
96.4
94.5
87.7
87. 3
86. 5

100.0
110.4
121.2
130.9
140.4
144.7
149.1
153.6
158.0
162.5
165. 9
168.0

100.0
103.0
113.3
111.8
136.0
101.9
124.9
115.8
112.1
115.4
83.3
76.5

(* )
0)

(« )

(4
)
Index numbers

1899..................................
1904__________________
1909.,___________ ____
1914______ ___________
1919__________________
1921__________________
1923_____ ____________
1925__________________
1927__________________
1929__________________
1931__________________
1933__________________

235. 4

100.0
133.5
186.2
223.8
294.4

100.0
117.5
136.0
153.1
154.5

332.2
359.1
389.8
431.0

178.7
202.4
220.4
230.3

4 Data not obtained in census.

Fluctuations in Employment in Ohio, 1914 to 1934

O

HIO has a law under which all employers in the State who regu­
larly employ three or more persons make annual reports to the
Department of Industrial Relations of Ohio. Information covered
includes the number of persons classed as wage earners, clerical
workers, and salespeople (not traveling) employed by them each
month, and the total amount of money paid in salaries and wages.
Reports are received from all mines and quarries, irrespective of the
number of employees. The law applies to all industries and employ­
ments except interstate transportation and Government establishments.
Prior to 1924 this law covered only establishments employing five or
more persons. Hence the material for the years 1914 to 1924 is not
so inclusive as that collected since January 1, 1924. The workmen’s
compensation law of Ohio applied first to employers of five or more
persons, but was amended in 1924 to include those employing three
or more. Thus two avenues by which volume of employment in
Ohio may be determined have been in continuous existence since 1914.
Moreover, the list of establishments reporting volume of employment
and pay rolls are carefully checked year by year with those carrying
workmen’s compensation insurance,




156

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

The detailed information made available because of this legal
requirement in Ohio is undoubtedly the most comprehensive source
material in the country for measuring the fluctuation of employment
over a long series of years and for the entire geographic area of an
industrial State. It also includes unusually extensive data on clerical
workers and salespeople. It is in fact remarkably inclusive.
The Bureau of Labor Statistics has published articles and statistical
compilations on fluctuations of employment as shown by the Ohio
figures in Bulletin No. 553, Fluctuation of Employment in Ohio, 1914
to 1929, and in the Monthly Labor Review.1 The following statisti­
cal presentation is based upon Bulletin No. 553 and subsequent data
for 1930, 1931, 1932, 1933, and 1934.
The chief industries covered in table 1 are manufactures, construc­
tion, agriculture, mining and quarrying, service,2 wholesale and retail
trade, and transportation and public utilities. Employees within
these industries are classified in three groups—wage earners; book­
keepers, stenographers, and office clerks; and salespeople (not
traveling).
Table 1, covering all industries, gives for each of the occupational
groups, for each sex and for both sexes combined, the number em­
ployed in the month of maximum and of minimum employment, in
all establishments reporting for each year from 1914 to 1934.
1Issues of April 1930, March 1932, December 1933, February 1935, and January 1936.
2 Service includes advertising, banks, barbers, bowling alleys and parks, garages, hospitals, hotels, laun­
dries and dry cleaners, office buildings, professional, restaurants, schools and colleges, social agencies, the­
aters, and services not otherwise classified.




T able 1.—M A X IM U M A N D M IN IM U M E M PLO YM EN T IN OHIO, 1914 TO 1934, IN ALL INDUSTRIES E X C E P T M IN IN G AN D Q U AR R YIN G , B Y S E X
AND G EN ER AL OCCUPATION GROUPS
W a g e earners

1914.
1915.
1916.
1917.
1918.
1919.
1920.
1921.
1922.
1923.
1924.
1925.
1926.
1927.
1928.
1929.
1930.
1931.
1932.
1933.
1934.




15,144
19,043
21,038
23,108
24,298
25,064
28,833
24,871
25,810
27,418
31, 715
34,605
37,159
39,635
40,972
43,160
44,283
43,168
40,134
38,678
39,744

Males
Maximum
Number

Month

520,377 March___
641,942 December.
791,732 November
841,435 June..........
846,087 August___
848,478 December.
905,398 June_____
596,858 January...
760,159 December.
837,221 June_____
789,457 April_____
837,381 October.. .
875,444 September
836,494 June_____
869,270 September
916,978 July______
808,416 May_____
655,327 — do______
533,129 January...
631,662 September
703,398 June_____

Both sexes

Females
Minimum

Number

Month

456,275
487,020
652,933
778,608
772,970
728,824
704,389
574,033
548,049
743,620
730,615
744,327
787,792
749,785
725,946
782,529
662,335
556,108
483,374
446,104
584,921

December.
January.. _
— do....... ...
...d o --------— do--------February.
December.
July______
January. . .
...d o ______
July______
January...
— do......... .
December.
January...
December.
...d o ____^
...d o ______
August___
March___
January...

Maximum
Number

Month

90,968 February.
102,400 December.
118,728 November
127,121 October. __
152,513 November
150,078 December.
151, 746 June_____
121,451 November
134,750 December.
149,655 June.........
148,403 March___
160,576 October. ..
168,944 — do...........
172,279 . —d o..........
178,214 ...d o — . . .
191,212 September
168,570 April_____
151,764 September
135,547 April....... .
148,453 October.. .
152,631 M ay_____

Minimum
Number
82,689
91,329
102,914
119,996
123,358
130,044
124,916
113,365
114.067
136,164
137,779
144,391
154,712
156,733
157,861
174,078
152,454
139,669
122,770
118,609
134.067

Month
December.
January...
— do...........
M ay_____
January.. _
M ay_____
December.
January...
...d o ______
— do______
July....... .
January.. .
— do______
— do......... .
— do....... .
...d o ______
December.
— do..........
August___
March___
January...

Maximum
Number

Month

610,869 March___
744,342 December.
910,460 November
963,604 June..........
994,475 August___
998,556 December.
1,057,144 June..........
715,816 November
894,909 December.
986,876 June____
937,274 April_____
997,957 October.. .
1,040,932 September
1,000,737 June_____
1,045,255 October. . .
1,099,880 July...........
976,911 M ay..........
806,662 — do...........
668,089 February.
779,943 September
854,680 June..........

Minimum
Number

Month

538,964
578,349
755,847
899,575
896,328
862,701
829,305
688,666
662,116
879,784
868,394
888,718
942,504
913,961
883,807
958.450
814,789
695,777
606,144
564,713
718,988

December.
January.
Do.
Do.
Do.
February.
December.
July.
January.
Do.
July.
January.
Do.
December.
January.
December.
Do.
Do.
August.
March.
January.

FLUCTUATIONS IN EMPLOYMENT IN OHIO

Year

Number
estab­
lish­
ments
reportmg

<1

T able 1.—M A X IM U M A N D M IN IM U M E M P L O Y M E N T IN OHIO, 1914 TO 1934, IN A LL IN D U STRIES E X C E P T M IN IN G A N D Q U AR R YIN G , B Y SEX
AN D GENERAL OCCUPATION GROUPS-Continued

M
Ol

00
B ookkeep ers, stenographers, and office clerks

1914.
1915.
1916.
1917.
1918.
1919.
1920.
1921.
1922.
1923.
1924.
1925.
1926.
1927.
1928.
1929.
1930.
1931.
1932.
1933.
1934.




15,144
19,043
21,038
23,108
24,298
25,064
28,833
24,871
25,810
27,418
31,715
34,605
37.159
39,635
40,972
43.160
44,283
43,168
40,134
38,678
39,744

Males
Maximum
Number

Month

35,521 August—
41,127 December.
48,856 — do..........
52,764 August—
55,512 June_____
64,169 December.
68,957 July..........
59,934 January...
59,987 December.
65,986 August. . .
68,218 April.........
71,374 November
74,574 August....
76,309 September
79,460 December.
85,400 August___
90,948 April_____
79,942 January-.
70,667 ...do______
70,364 December,
74,711 — do...........

Females
Minimum

Number
34,581
37,274
43,096
49,668
52,056
53,778
62,385
54,417
54,759
61,813
67,497
68,572
71,862
73,876
75,288
80,662
87,593
74,286
64,199
64,626
70,261

Month
November
February.
January—.
*
— do..........
December.
January...
December.
— do..........
January...
— do_____
— do........ .
...d o ..........
— do______
— do______
...d o _____
...do....... .
December.
...do_____
...d o ..........
April.........
January...

Maximum
Number
24,805
28,930
35,132
42,121
54,628
60,195
66,571
57.626
58,143
64,278
66.627
71,104
75,017
77,173
79,591
86,644
86,206
78,118
71,333
66,454
71,267

Month
March___
December.
— do...........
...d o ...........
November
December.
July..........
January...
December.
...d o ______
...d o ..........
— do______
...d o ...........
— do______
...d o ______
November
January...
— do______
...d o ______
December,
— do______

Both sexes
Minimum

Number
23,658
26,642
31,018
37,453
45,299
55,204
61,873
53.237
53,188
60.237
65,374
67,465
71,169
74,745
74,694
82,076
81,743
72,853
65,766
62,192
67,113

Month
November
January...
. . . do...........
. . . do...........
— do...........
— do______
December.
October...
January. . .
— do______
— do______
...d o ______
— do______
— do______
— do....... ...d o ______
November
December.
November
April_____
January...

Maximum
Number
59,555
70,057
83,988
94,137
107,030
124,364
135,528
117,560
118,130
130,090
134,542
142,463
149,474
153,296
159,051
171,791
177,070
158,060
142,000
136,818
145,978

Minimum

Month

Number

Month

March___
December.
...d o...........
November
A ugust...
December.
July...........
January—.
December.
. . . do...........
April_____
December.
...d o ______
...d o...........
...d o...........
August___
March___
January—
...d o ______
December,
— do______

58,239
63,926
74,114
87,121
99,427
108.982
124,258
107,660
107,947
122,050
132,871
136,037
143,031
148,621
149.982
162,738
169,515
147,139
130,028
126,818
137,374

November.
January.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
December.
October.
January.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
December.
Do.
November.
April.
January.

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

Year

Number
estab­
lish­
ments
report­
ing

Salespeople (not traveling)




16,144
19,043
21,038
23,108
24,298
25,064
28,833
24,871
25,810
27,418
31,715
34,605
37,159
39,635
40,972
43,160
44,283
43,168
40,134
38,678
39,744

15,169
17,690
19,626
20,991
20,588
24,564
25,790
25,271
27,923
30,947
36,000
38,397
42,273
43,549
47,734
54,724
39,466
39,776
36,787
41,072
42,873

December.
--.do...........
- - d o ...........
— do______
March___
December,
— do...........
— do...........
—_do______
. —do______
— do______
— do______
__ do______
— do...........
...d o ______
— do..........
...d o ______
December.
—-do______

14,435
16,108
17,797
19,969
19,557
20,573
24,028
23,859
24,076
27,212
32,628
34,499
38,357
39,951
42,228
48,489
38,074
37,942
35,721
34,744
37,913

February _
-.-d o ______
- —do--------January—
October.—
January—
— 4 e ..........
...d o ______
--.d o ______
, —do______
- —do...........
---d o ,.........
__ do___ _
---d o______
do___
- —do______
August___
January__
August___
January__
. —do...........

18,472
19,901
24,192
24,607
26,573
29,403
30,446
27,828
31, 750
34,578
36,363
39,267
40,416
43,315
46,822
47,137
42,557
40,692
35,733
39,901
45,037

December.
- —do...........
. —do..........
- —do...........
...d o ______
— do...........
— do______
— do...........
— do...........
— do...........
— do...........
...d o ...........
__ do___ _
...d o ______
__ do______
— do______
do
do
— do......... .
do
...d o.'.........

13,511
14,101
16,481
17,962
20,508
22,859
23,786
20,643
21,351
23,580
25,750
27,002
27,264
29,023
29,135
30,923
29,554
29,193
25,549
24,939
27,964

August___
— do..........
— do...........
February--.d o ...........
...d o ---------.-d o —.......
August.,—
February.
. —do______
August—
February.
August___
February _
__ do _ __
...d o ______
August___
February.
August—
March___
January—

33,641
37,591
43,818
45,598
47,068
53,967
56,236
53,099
59,673
66,525
72,363
77,664
82,689
86,864
94,556
101,861
82,006
79,790
72,397
80,973
87,910

Deceinber,
— d o - .......
— do...........
— do______
...d o ...........
— do...........
, —do___—
...d o ______
...d o ______
— do--------...d o ..........
— do— —
do
...d o _____
do
— do­
do
do
— do______
. do.
— do...........

27,967
30,445
34,405
38,023
40,237
43,506
47,923
44,727
45,471
51,028
58,947
61,708
65,760
69,095
71,599
79,566
67,628
67,142
61,270
59,816
65,877

August.
February
August.
January.
February.
August.
February.
Do.
January.
Do.
February.
Do.
Do.
January.
August.
February.
August.
March.
January.

FLUCTUATIONS IN EMPLOYMENT IN OHIO

1914_____ ____________ _____
1915____ ___________________
1916____ _____ _____ - ..........
1917__________ ________ ____
1918________________________
1919................... - .......................
1920.................................. ........
1921________________________
1922__________ _____________
1923_______ ________________
1924,................. ......... ..............
1925____ ________ __________
1926_____ __________________
1927___________ ____________
1928_____ ________ _________
1929. - __________ ______ ____
1930____ ___________________
1931________________________
1932________________ ____ _
1933. ..........................................
1934....... ....................................

C
Jt

CD

160

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

Minimum employment for wage earners of both sexes is shown to
occur, with few exceptions, during the winter months. The peak,
while showing no such regularity, occurs chiefly during the spring
months—April, May, and June—for men, and during the autumn
months—September, October, and November—for women. Among
clerical workers also, January and February are slack months, but
December brings increased employment to women and in some years
to men as well. December is almost uniformly the peak month for
salespeople of both sexes. The pronounced increase in the number
of saleswomen employed during December as compared to the mini­
mum number represents, of course, the employment opportunities
which the holiday season offers women.
Table 2 shows the percent of variation from maximum employ­
ment in the three occupational groups for each year, 1914 to 1934,
for the most important industrial divisions and for all industries
combined.
T a ble 2.—PERCENT OF VARIATION FROM M AXIM U M EMPLOYMENT IN GENERAL
OCCUPATION GROUPS IN OHIO, 1914 TO 1934, BY SEX, FOR SPECIFIED INDUSTRY
GROUPS AND FOR ALL INDUSTRIES COMBINED
Bookkeepers, stenographers, and. office
clerks

Wage earners

Salespeople (not
traveling)

Industry group and year
Males

Manufactures:
1914______ ______ ______
1915______________ ____
1916— - ............................
1917— _____ _________
191,8_______ ___________
1919..........- .......................
1920____ _______________
1921...................................
1922_____ _____________
1923_____ ______ _______
1924______ ____________
1925........ ...........................
1926...................- ..............
1927........ ...........................
1928...................................
1929...................................
1930..........- .......................
1931............. - ...................
1932...................................
1933................. — ............
1934..................................
Service:
1914..........- .........- ............
1915...................................
1916..................................
1917........................ - .........
1918........................ - .........
1919........................... — 1920___________________
1921______ ____ _______
1922....................- ............
1923........................- .........
1924...................................
1925...................................
1926...................................
1927...................................
1928...................................
1929...................................
1930...................................
1931...................................
1932...................................
1933...................................
1934...................................

Fe­
males

Both
sexes

Males

Fe­
males

Both
sexes

Males

Fe­
males

14.0
24.7
15.9
3.9
6.2
14.0
29.1
9.7
29.5
9.4
16.1
7.3
6.7
9.8
12.3
16.4
19.6
16.6
14.8
34.7
17.6

11.8
12.7
13.9
7.2
22.6
17.5
24.6
10.7
17.6
9.2
11.3
11.5
9.4
10.5
14.2
12.8
12.7
12.2
11.7
27.5
15.1

13.0
23.0
15.6
3.2
8.3
14.5
27.4
7.8
27.7
9.4
15.4
7.9
6.3
8.5
12.3
15.0
18.5
15.4
14.0
33.4
17.2

4.1
10.6
13.0
6.8
5.3
16.1
15.0
13.3
9.6
6.1
2.1
3.6
3.3
2.2
4.5
5.5
5.0
9.5
11.3
12.7
7.3

3.2
9.2
12.6
12.4
19.8
8.5
14.0
10.1
8.9
6.2
1.2
4.4
5.1
2.7
5.1
5.1
7.9
9.9
9.7
10.6
7.1

3.0
10.1
12.8
8.4
8.3
12.8
14.6
11.9
9.3
6.1
1.6
4.0
4.1
2.4
4.8
5.3
6.1
9.7
10.5
11.6
7.2

2.5
4.8
5.7
4.2
4.1
13.7
5.6
3.6
8.5
7.8
5.8
8.5
6.0
4.4
6.9
6.1
3.5
3.3
4.4
9.6
8.9

10.1
8.8
7.9
16.5
9.7
18.6
8.7
6.8
17.1
14.2
12.4
5.0
8.7
9.9
12.3
8.4
4.7
4.2
5.0
12.5
13.6

3.9
4.1
5.5
5.2
3.0
14.7
6.3
3.7
10.2
9.1
6.0
7.9
6.4
5.4
7.3
6.4
3.6
2.8
4.3
10.0
9.2

5.7
15.1
14.1
9.5
13.0
12.1
11.4
7.5
16.9
15.5
10.3
11.7
11.4
10.6
12.4
12.8
11.2
9.7
8.1
12.4
12.6

6.8
6.6
9.1
9.3
8.4
5.9
7.9
5.1
9.0
11.2
6.3
6.9
8.7
6.5
6.3
7.4
6.6
7.8
7.8
3.0
7.3

6.2
11.5
12.2
9.4
9.5
9.7
9.8
6.5
13.2
13.8
8.7
9.8
9.3
9.0
9.8
10.3
9.3
8.9
7.0
8.5
10.1

3.4
8.1
13.2
6.3
8.8
17.0
11.4
4.0
7.0
7.7
3.2
5.5
4.1
3.3
4.8
5.3
3.3
4.8
8.5
3.7
3.3

4.3
7.4
14.0
9.1
21.5
7.6
11.7
5.2
7.1
6.9
3.7
4.7
6.1
3.4
4.8
5.5
4.1
5.4
7.7
3.0
4.7

3.9
7.5
13.5
7.9
9.6
12.3
11.4
3.3
7.7
7.1
3.4
4.9
5.2
3.4
4.8
5.4
3.4
5.0
8.1
2.9
4.1

10.1
13.0
19.7
9.7
16.8
11.9
13.8
11.1
22.8
16.5
13.0
12.0
12.6
10.8
6.8
13.2
18.3
12.8
8.6
19.7
17.6

0)
26.0
23.8
16.5
14.5
5.6
18.2
11.3
15.7
10.7
7.9
15.0
11.5
14.1
13.8
15.4
(J)

15.5
14.2
18.7
9.4
15.5
9.4
14.4
9.0
21.7
15.8
12.2
12.2
12.4
10.9
7.0
13.1
15.2
11.7
7.7
18.2
17.0

i Not computed because of small number involved.




0)

Both
sexes

161

FLUCTUATIONS IN EMPLOYMENT IN OHIO

T a b l e 2.—PERCENT OF VARIATION FROM M AXIM U M EMPLOYMENT IN GENERAL
OCCUPATION GROUPS IN OHIO, 1914 TO 1934, BY SEX, FOR SPECIFIED INDUSTRY
GROUPS AND FOR ALL INDUSTRIES COMBINED—Continued
Bookkeepers, stenographers, and office
clerks

Wage earners

Salespeople (not
traveling)

Industry group and year
Males

Trade, wholesale and retail:
1914...................................
1915...................................
1916............. ............ .........
1917...................................
1918............................... 1919...................................
1920...................................
1921...................................
1922............................... .
1923........................ .........
1924........ .......................1925........................ ..........
1926_______ ___________
1927_______ ___________
1928........................ ..........
1929................. - ................
1930................. .................
1931____ ______ _______
1932............................ .
1933............................... 1934,............................—
Transportation and public
utilities:
1914...................................
1915______________ ____
1916___________________
1917............. ................. 1918................................. 1919............................— .
1920................. ..........— 1921— ..............................
1922............. ................. 1923............................... 1924________ ________ 1925-____ _____________
1926____________ _____ 1927.............................. 1928.....................- .......... 1929....................- ............
1930_____ _____________
1931............................— .
1932...................................
1933............. ................... .
1934_____ _____ _______
All industries:
1914..............................—
1915........ .......................1916____________ ____ 1917_____ _____________
1918........... ......................
1919.......................... .........
1920...................................
1921-.................................
1922........................ - .........
1923.....................— .........
1924____ ______ _______
1925........ .........................
1926................. ............. 1927.....................- .........1928............... — - ............
1929............................... 1930_______ ___________
1931................. — ............
1932...................................
1933............... ...................
1934.................................

Fe­
males

Both
sexes

Males

Fe­
males

Both
sexes

Males

Fe­
males

7.6
12.1
12.4
3.9
5.9
15.8
6.1
4.4
14.9
9.8
7.7
8.8
8.9
6.5
9.3
8.2
3.5
2.9
4.7
17.2
8.2

19.6
22.2
20.4
11.4
18.0
13.6
9.9
16.1
24.0
21.2
19.5
17.7
22.0
16.3
17.7
17.8
13.7
19.0
18.8
29.9
24.5

6.6
13.1
13.5
3.8
3.5
15.3
5.8
4.5
16.7
11.7
9.3
10.5
11.1
8.3
10.7
10.2
4.3
3.3
5.9
19.6
11.2

2.1
6.1
7.2
2.1
10.4
15.7
5.4
5.8
6.7
6.1
3.5
2.3
4.1
3.5
5.9
4.8
3.5
4.3
3.4
7.7
5.0

5.4
7.5
10.4
10.1
10.7
9.9
4.8
7.0
8.9
7.5
3.9
6.9
7.2
8.2
8.5
8.0
5.9
6.0
8.1
12.8
8.2

3.6
6.6
8.9
6.0
3.8
12.0
4.8
6.6
8.1
6.9
3.7
5.4
6.2
6.7
7.7
6.9
4.9
5.4
6.6
11.1
7.1

6.6
10.2
10.8
6.7
7.9
17.4
7.2
6.7
14.3
12.8
10.9
11.1
10.9
10.6
14.2
14.1
6.4
4.4
4.9
17.5
12.6

28.0
30.4
33.5
27.9
23.8
23.0
22.7
26.9
33.6
32.9
30.4
32.5
34.3
34.4
39.1
35.8
32.2
29.7
29.8
38.6
38.9

19.7
21.6
24.5
19.7
17.8
20.5
16.6
18.7
25.9
24.7
21.0
23.7
24.3
24.1
28.6
25.8
21.1
18.6
18.5
28.7
27.4

22.9
22.0
20.8
12.2
7.9
9.2
12.9
7.5
19.5
17.2
10.4
18.9
15.0
11.3
17.9
13.0
12.4
9.2
7.1
10.7
10.2

'7.1
7.8
12.6
13.0
9.1
8.6
11.2
5.4
6.2
8.0
5.2
9.3
1.5
7.1
7.0
7.9
13.3
12.8
17.3
15.6
4.9

20.0
19.6
18.9
12.0
6.0
5.5
12.5
6.0
16.1
15.4
9.0
16.5
12.3
10.3
15.4
11.9
12.0
9.6
9.2
9.6
9.3

8.0
11.1
10.2
5..0
16.4
13.3
4.7
4.2
8.6
10.4
3.9
8.1
5.6
9.3
9.7
7.7
4.8
5.2
7.2
5.3
9.9

4.3
11.3
10.7
21.6
22.5
2.9
10.6
6.6
7.6
6.8
3.2
7.5
4.3
4.7
11.0
10.6
7.5
4.7
6.8
3.7
5.9

5.9
11.1
9.7
9.3
9.0
6.8
7.8
5.0
7.4
8.0
2.5
7.6
4.5
6.7
10.2
8.9
5.9
5.0
7.0
3.2
6.8

13*2
10.1
7.7
26.7
10.8
18.7
5.2
9.3
13.0
35.1
14.8
18.4
7.5
12.6
14.4
7.1
8.9
12.3
15.3
19.6
13.6

0)
0)
0)
0)
0)
(!)
0)
0)
0)
(!)
(1)
0)
0)
0)
(!)
0)
0)
0)
0)
0)
0)

13.5
10.1
6.6
21.8
4.3
15.3
4.4
10.0
13.3
35.3
14.7
21.1
8.4
13.9
14.8
7.5
10.0
12.4
15.1
18.5
15.5

12.3
24.1
17.5
7.5
8.6
14.1
22.2
3.8
27.9
11.2
7.5
11.1
10.0
10.4
16.5
14.7

9.1
10.8
13.3
5.6
19.1
13.3
17.7
6.7
15.3
9.0
7.2
10.1
8.4
9.0
11.4
9.0
9.6
8.0
9.4
20.1
12.2

11.8
22.3
17.0
6.6
9.9
13.6
21.6
3.8
26.0
10.9
7.3
10.9
9.5
8.7
15.4
12.9
16.6
13.7
9.3
27.6
15.9

2.6
9.4
11.8
5.9
6.2
16.2
9.5
9.2
8.7
6.3
1.1
3.9
3.6
3.2
5.3
5.5
3.7
7.1
9.2
8.2
6.0

4.6
7.9
11.7
11.1
17.1
8.3
7.1
7.6
8.5
6.3
1.9
5.1
5.1
3.1
6.2
5.3
5.2
6.7
7.8
6.4
5.8

2.2
8.8
11.8
7.5
7.1
12.4
8.3
8.4
8.6
6.2
1.2
4.5
4.3
3.0
5.7
5.3
4.3
6.9
8.4
7.3
5.9

4.8
8.9
9.3
4.9
5.0
16.2
6.8
5.6
13.8
12.1
9.4
10.2
9.3
8.3
11.5
11.4
3.5
4.6
2.9
15.4
11.6

26.9
29.1
31.9
27.0
22.8
22.3
21.9
25.8
32.8
31.8
29.2
31.2
32.5
33.0
37.8
34.4
30.6
28.3
28.5
37.5
37.9

16.9
19.0
21.5
16.6
14.5
19.4
14.8
15.8
23.8
22.1
18.5
20.5
20.5
20.5
24.3
21.9
17.5
15.9
15.4

18.1

15.1
9.3
29.4
16.8

i Not computed because of small number involved.

------ 12

19205—36




Both
sexes

26.1

25.1

162

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

Number of Persons Employed per Farm in the United
States, January 1929 to October 1935
HE average number of family members and hired workers em­
ployed per farm in the United States, as reported to the United
States Department of Agriculture, is shown in the following table,
compiled from figures published by that Department in its periodical
Crops and Markets, for each month for which data were available
from January 1929 to October 1935.

T

A V ER AG E N U M B E R OF PERSONS E M P LO Y E D PER F A R M IN TH E U N IT E D STATES,
JAN U AR Y 1929 TO OCTOBER 1935
Jan.

Kind of labor and year
Family labor:
1929_________________
,1930-------------- -----------1931............. ............... .
1932........ ........ ............ 1933_________ _______1934________ ________
1935________ ________
Hired labor:
1929............. .................
1930-------------------------1931...............................
1932............. .................
1933...............................
1934________ _____ _
1935...........................
Family and hired labor
combined:
1929____ ____________
1930--------------------------1931_________________
1932________ ________
1933...............................
1934_________ _______
1935_________________

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May June

July Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

2.17
2. 22
2.11
2.17
2.11
2.09
2.16

2.07
2.21
2. 23
2.17
2.15
2.16
2.15

2.18
2.23
2.23
2.18
2.14
2.17
2.11

2.33
2.38
2.34
2.30
2.22
2.23
2.12

2. 36
2.34
2.31
2.26
2. 25
2.16
2.12

2.65
2.55
2.46
2.37
2.34
2.27
2.23

2.61
2.64
2.53
2.49
2.37
2.37
2.33

2.65
2.48
2.48
2.36

2.50
2.49
2.48
2.37

2.09
2.36
2.36
2.18

2.27
2.19
2.23
2.09

2.26
2.27

2.24
2.24

2.41
2. 42
2.50
2.31
2.25
2.17
2.14

2.04

2.01

.80
.80
.77
.71
.74
.73
.65

.91
.95
.96
.77
.69
.67
.69

1.06
.92
.96
.83
.79
.80
.72

1.14
1.09
1. 02
.93
.86
.80
.79

1. 21
1.25
1.11
.96
.96
.92
.89

1. 39
1.36
1. 25
1.09
1. 01
1. 02
.98

1.30
1. 26
1. 23
1.01

1. 24
1.19
1.17
L 01

1.10
1.09
1.04
.89

1.00
.93
.81
.77

.87
1.01

.88
.96

1.53
1.22
1.19
1. 09
1. 05
.94
.96

.80

.66

3.09 3.39
3.17 3.30
3.19 •3.29
2.95 3.13
2.83 3.01
2.84 3.03
2.84 2.84

3.50
3.43
3.33
3.19
3.11
2.96
2.91

3.86
3.80
3. 56
3.33
3.30
3.19
3.12

3.99
3.99
3.78
3.58
3. 38
3.39
3.31

3.95
3. 75
3. 71
3.37

3.74
3.69
3.64
3.38

3.19
3.44
3.40
3.06

3.27
3.12
3.04
2.86

3.13
3.28

3.12
3.20

3.94
3.64
3. 69
3.40
3.30
3.11
3.10

2.84

2.67

.92
.95
.85
.7 4 '
.72
.64
. 65
3.08
3.16
2.96
2.91
2.83
2.73
2.80

2.87
3.00
3.00
2.88
2.89
2.89
2.81

Dec.

Farm Labor Supply and Demand, 1929 to 1935

D

A TA on farm labor supply and demand are issued quarterly by
the United States Department of Agriculture in connection
with its mimeographed press releases on farm wage rates and are also
printed in the periodical Crops and Markets. The following table,
compiled from figures published by that Department, shows the
relative supply of and demand for farm workers expressed as a per­
centage of normal, and the supply expressed as a percentage of the
demand, from April 1929 to October 1935.
F A R M LABOR SUPPLY A N D D E M A N D APR IL 1929 TO O CTO BER 1935

Year and month

1929— April............. ..........
July______________
October. ____ ___
1930—January__________
July............... ..........
October__________
1931—January.________
April_______ ______
July____ __________
October...................

1932—January.

April-------------------July............... ..........
October...................




De­
Supply, mand, Supply,
percent
percent percent
of
of de­
of
normal normal mand
93.6
92.3
91.8
96.7
99,0
103.4
105.9
113.8
112.9

11 1 .1

113.4
120.9

122.2

123.6
123.6

90.3
90.8
88.6
84.2
84.8
81.4
75.2
66.6
71.1
73.4
68.9
60.5
63.2
62.0
60.8

103.7
101.7
103.6
114.7
116.8
127.0
140.8
171.0
158.8
151.3
164.6
199.8
193.4
199.2
203.3

Year and month

1933—January__________
April_____________
July______________
October_____ _____
1934—January................ .
July____ _________
October ________
1935—January...................
July______________
October__________

De­
Supply,
mand, Supply,
percent percent percent
of
of de­
of
normal normal mand
127.3
125.8
116. 2
111.4
108.7
107. 0
105. 7
104.7
104.1
101.4
95.7
94.7

53. 8
58. 9
65. 5
68.1
62.7
69.4
70. 0
68.5
66.8
73.4
80.5
80.2

236. <
213. 5
177. 5
163.6
173.4
154. 2
151. 0
152. 9
155. 8
138. 1
118.9
118.1

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

163

Character of Unemployment Statistics for the United
States
HE desirability of having authoritative, up-to-date unemploy­
ment statistics for the United States has become more and more
evident as a result of the depression. The existing statistics are
recognized as being very inadequate.
The latest Nation-wide survey was the one made as part of the
Federal census of April 1930. Based largely on the results of this
survey and of a supplementary survey of 19 cities made in January
1931 by the United States Census Bureau, and on the trend of em­
ployment statistics of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics,
various unofficial estimates regarding the number of unemployed
in the United States have been made. Also on similarly incomplete
data, a few State and local agencies have attempted unemployment
estimates for their respective States and cities. These, however, are
all recognized as rather unsatisfactory. In 1934, however, State-wide
censuses were made in Massachusetts and Pennsylvania. Certain cf
the more important surveys and estimates of recent years are reported
below.

T

Censuses and Surveys of Unemployment
Federal Censuses

As n o t e d above, the latest Nation-wide enumeration of the unem­
ployed in the United States was made as part of the Federal census
of April 1930. The Federal censuses of 1880, 1890, 1900, and 1910
also mcluded information on unemployment, although the results of
the inquiries on this particular subject were published only for the
1890 and 1900 censuses, and the data secured are not in comparable
form with the data of the 1930 census. The 1920 census schedule
contained no question on unemployment.
In the 1930 census inquiry was made as to actual unemployment
on the day previous to the enumerator's call.
The unemployed were divided into the following classes:
A. Persons out of a job, able to work, and looking for a job.
B. Persons having jobs but on lay-off without pay, excluding those sick or
voluntarily idle.
C. Persons out of a job and unable to work.
D. Persons having jobs but idle on account of sickness or disability.
E. Persons out of a job and not looking for work.
F. Persons having jobs, but voluntarily idle without pay.
G. Persons having jobs and drawing pay, though not at work (on vacation,
etc.).

The April 1930 census reported 2,429,062 persons as unemployed
in class A—that is, out of a job, able to work, and looking for a
job— and 758,585 in class B—l. e., persons having jobs but tempo­
rarily laid off without pay. The detailed returns were published by
the Bureau of the Census in a 2-volume report.3
Volume I contains the United States summary and the returns
(first published as separate State bulletins) for seven classes of
unemployment, by sex, for States, and for cities with a population
of 50,000 or over. For the States and these cities, classes A and B
are reported by sex, color, nativity, weeks idle, reasons for idleness,
aU. S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. Fifteenth Census of the United States:
1930 Unemployment. Volumes I and II. Washington, 1931 and 1932.




164

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

5-year age groups, ability to speak English, family relationship, and
industry groups. For the States and cities in the South these data
are given separately for Negroes. For counties and urban places
with a population of 10,000 to 50,000, classes A and B are reported
by sex only.
Volume II, General Report, presents classes A and B, by sex and
occupation, for States and for cities with a population of 100,000 or
more. For the country as a whole, and to some extent for smaller
areas, certain characteristics of these two classes of the unemployed,
such as color, nativity, time idle, age, and marital status are reported
in tables arranged to bring out salient facts bearing on the unem­
ployment problem; for example, period of idleness by reason for
idleness.
In January 1931 a special census of unemployment was conducted
covering the following 19 cities: Boston, Buffalo, New York City
(Bronx Borough, Brooklyn Borough, Manhattan Borough), Phila­
delphia, Pittsburgh, Cleveland, Dayton, Chicago, Detroit, Duluth,
Minneapolis, St. Louis, Birmingham, New Orleans, Houston, Denver,
Seattle, Los Angeles, and San Francisco. The unemployment data
for these cities were tabulated for all unemployment classes by sex,
and for classes A and B by sex, color, nativity, period of idleness,
reason for idleness, age, industry groups, occupation, and marital
condition. The results are published in volume II of the 1930
General Report on Unemployment.
The 1931 edition of the Handbook of Labor Statistics (Bui. No.
541) contains the returns from the 1930 census of unemployment
by classes and sex for the United States and by States and geographic
divisions, and also a summary of the data for the 1931 census of 19
cities. (Analyses of the returns of the 1930 Federal census of unem­
ployment by industry groups, age, reasons for idleness, and family
relationship are givenonp. 167 of the present edition of the Handbook.)
Other Surveys of Unemployment 4

In addition to the Federal censuses of unemployment, efforts have
been made from time to time to ascertain the extent of unemployment
in a number of different localities. These surveys have usually not
been initiated until it was realized that there was a serious decline
in the labor market or until unemployment conditions became
actually acute. Thus the large increase of the number of the jobless
led to the surveys of unemployment in various cities in 1915 by the
Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. in cooperation with the United
States Bureau of Labor Statistics.5 Again, the grave unemployment
situation in 1921 was the reason for the two investigations of unem­
ployment made in that year by the United States Employment
Service—one in January, including 182 cities, and the other in Sep­
tember, covering 280 cities.6 That same year the Ohio State Uni­
versity department of economics made a complete canvass of the
unemployed in carefully selected sections of Columbus. Similar
surveys were conducted in that city for the following 4 years.7
4
F o r earlier sources of unemployment statistics, see U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bui. No. 109:
Unemployment Statistics and Work of Employment Offices, Washington, 1913.
5 U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bui. No. 172: Unemployment in New York City, Washington, 1915,
and Bui. No. 195: Unemployment in the United States, Washington, 1916.
• President's Conference on Unemployment, September 26 to October 13,1921. Report. Washington,
7
U . S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bui. No. 409: Unemployment in Columbus, Ohio, 1921 to 1925. Wash­
ington, 1926.




CHARACTER OF UNEMPLOYMENT STATISTICS

165

In 1922 the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics published a
bulletin (no. 310) entitled “ Industrial Unemployment: A Statistical
Study of Its Extent and Causes” , in which an attempt was made to
coordinate and interpret the fragmentary data available at the period
the bulletin was prepared.
In 1928 and early in 1929, despite the country’s apparent prosperity,
the rapid spread of unemployment was so obvious that various surveys
were inaugurated, some of them being conducted at specified months
or seasons for several successive years. A house-to-house canvass in
Baltimore was made in 1928,1929, and 1930 by the office of the Mary­
land Commissioner of Labor Statistics in cooperation with the city’s
police department.8 In Cincinnati also a house-to-house canvass
was carried on in 1929, 1930, and 1931.9 Outstanding among the
sample surveys of unemployment were those made in Philadelphia
under the auspices of the Research Department of the Wharton
School of Finance and Commerce, University of Pennsylvania, in
the spring, 1929 to 1933, and those conducted in Buffalo sponsored
by the New York State Department of Labor 10 in November 1929
to 1933.
As the depression deepened, surveys and studies of the jobless
multiplied, one of the most extensive being that of the Metropolitan
Life Insurance Co. in December 1930, including 355,759 workers in
213,787 families of the company’s policyholders. The investigation
covered 46 of the larger cities of the United States.11 An interesting
feature of the report of the investigation is a comparison of the 1930
findings with those of the company’s survey in 1915.
Other local unemployment studies, based on sample surveys, are
described in the 1931 Handbook of Labor Statistics (Bui. No. 541)
and in later articles in this section of the present Handbook.
Reports on Unemployment Among Trade-Union Members
M a s s a c h u s e t t s and New York are the only States that reported
for any length of time on unemployment among trade-union members,
and both of them discontinued the collection of these statistics shortly
after the current compilation of employment statistics from repre­
sentative establishments was undertaken by the United States Bureau
of Labor Statistics.
Since March 1928 the American Federation of Labor has been
publishing in one of its official organs, the American Federationist,
monthly reports on percent of unemployment among trade-union
members.12 These figures are at present given for 24 cities, and for
the building trades, the printing trades, and “ all other trades.” 13
The weighted figure for all trades for September 1934 was 20.3 per­
cent as compared to 22.4 percent in September 1933 and to the follow­
ing percentages in September 1932, 1931, and 1930, respectively:
24.8, 19.4, and 14.6.
8U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bui. No. 541: Handbook of Labor Statistics, 1931 Edition. Wash­
ington, 1931, p. 172.
• Idem, p. 186.
101930-33 studies were also sponsored by Buffalo Foundation.
11U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bui. No. 541: Handbook of Labor Statistics, 1931 Edition. Wash­
ington, 1931, p. 165.
1
2
Figures are also published in the Federation’s Monthly Unemployment Report, and in less detail in
mimeographed press releases on unemployment.
*
2 For method of compilation, see American Federationist, Washington, March 1928, p. 329.
3




166

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

Estimates of Unemployment
Official Estimates

O c c a s io n a l l y estimates of the number of the unemployed in the
United States as a whole have been made by Federal authorities.
Conspicuous among them was the announcement made in the depres­
sion of 1921, and adopted by the President’s (Harding) Conference
on Unemployment in September of that year, that there were at that
time “ variously estimated from three and a half to five and a half
millions unemployed.” 14
In January 1931, the United States Secretary of Commerce esti­
mated, on the basis of the results from the 1931 special census of
unemployment in 19 cities, that there were 6,050,000 persons in this
country able and willing to work who were unable to secure jobs.
Subsequent estimates of the unemployed in the United States have
been based on more or less fragmentary sources. From the monthly
trend of employment reports of the United States Bureau of Labor
Statistics, and using the United States census reports as bases, fairly
accurate estimates of the number of persons unemployed can be made
for many of the industries covered by these reports—such as manu­
facturing and mining. For steam-railroad transportation also, exact
data on employment are available. For agricultural workers, how­
ever, as well as for most professional workers and for the larger group
of domestic and other service employees, there is either no information
or it is very unsatisfactory.
Unofficial Estimates

Various private estimates of unemployment for the United States
have been made. Included in those covering a long period of years
are the figures presented in Real Wages in the United States,
1890-1926 (p. 46), by Paul H. Douglas, m which such estimates are
attempted for each of the years from 1897 to 1926, for manufacturing,
transportation, building trades, and mining.
In the report of the Committee on Recent Economic Changes,
published in 1929, estimates are presented (p. 879) as to the average
minimum volume of unemployment among nonagricultural wage and
salary earners in the United States, 1920 to 1927. These minimums
vary from as low as 1,401,000, or 5.1 percent of the nonagricultural
wage and salary workers, in 1920, to 4,270,000, or 15.3 percent, in
1921. However, in 5 of the 8 years covered the percentages of
unemployed are under 6.4.
Among other organizations making estimates of unemployment
are the American Federation of Labor, the National Industrial
Conference Board, the Alexander Hamilton Institute, and the
Cleveland Trust Co.
1 President’s Conference on Unemployment, Sept. 26 to Oct. 13,1921.
4




Report.

Washington, 1921, p. 19.

167

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

Surveys of Employment and Unemployment
Federal U n e m p lo y m e n t Survey of 1930

A

SU R V EY of unemployment in the United States was made by
the Bureau of the Census in April 1930 as a part of the regular
decennial census of population, and in January 1931 a similar survey
was made by the same bureau for 19 cities. The results of these two
surveys were published in summary form in the 1931 edition of the
Handbook of Labor Statistics (Bui. No. 541). With the exception of
the census of persons on relief and the surveys of Bridgeport, Conn.,
Lancaster, Pa., and Springfield, Ohio, there have been no later Federal
censuses of unemployment (i. e., up to the end of 1935), but additional
analyses of the 1930 survey, published by the Bureau of the Census
since the issue of the 1931 Handbook, contain much information
regarding the composition of the unemployed in 1930 as regards
industry groups, age, reasons for idleness, and family relationship. A
summarization of these data is given below.
Unemployment, April 1930, by Industry Groups, Age, Reasons for Idleness, and
Family Relationship
T h e total number of gainful workers (persons 1 0 years old and over
reporting a gainful occupation) in the United States in April 1930
was 48,832,589, comprising 38,053,795 males and 10,778,794 females.
Of these, 2,429,062, or 5.0 percent, were returned as out of a job, able
to work, and looking for a job (class A 15) on the day preceding the
taking of the census. Of the male gainful workers, 2,058,738, or 5.4
percent, were returned as jobless (class A), while of the female gainful
workers 370,324, or 3.4 percent, were jobless.
The returns for classes A and B are shown in table 1 by main
industry groups, by sex, together with the number of gainful workers
in each group.
T a ble 1.—U N E M P L O Y M E N T R ETUR N S FOR CLASSES A A N D B, A N D N U M B E R OF
G AIN FU L W O R K E R S, 1930, B Y IN D U S T R Y GROUPS

Gainful workers
Industry group

Class A : Persons out
of a job, able to
work, and looking
for a job

Class B: Persons
having jobs but
on lay-off without
p a y , excluding
those sick or vol­
untarily idle

Males

Females

Males

Females

Males

Females

All industries......................................

38,053,795

10,778,794

2,058,738

370,324

627,407

131,178

Agriculture.......... ................................
Forestry and fishing...........................
Extraction of minerals— ...................
Manufacturing and mechanical in­
dustries................... ..........................
Transportation-...................................
Trade.....................................................
Public service (not elsewhere classi­
fied)...................................................
Professional service.............................
Domestic and personal service____
Industry not specified........................

9,568,347
266,876
1,147,770

913,976
3,249
10,294

105,536
19,627
90,460

5,632
221
298

26,555
8,292
98,553

5,594
77
181

11,901,247
3,990,875
5,820,642

2,416,288
447,730
1,716,384

1,013,772
199,220
195,757

108,838
8,608
55,712

336,477
73,027
32,224

76,265
1,898
10,960

934,581
1,663,049
1,662,707
1,097,701

123,323
1,762,795
3,149,391
235,364

21,841
42,285
88,254
281,986

1,458
33,043
122,178
34,336

5,960
9,099
11,499
25,721

414
9,867
22,981
2,941

The 1930 census reported the unemployed in 7 classes, of which the more significant were, A, those
able to work and looking for a job, and B, those having jobs but temporarily laid ofi. The other 5 classes
covered persons who, for various reasons, were either unable to work or not seeking jobs.




168

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

Table 2 summarizes the returns for the United States in classes A
and B, by sex and age groups, with percent of distribution in each
class and sex:
T a b l e 2 .—N U M B E R A N D P E R C E N T OF U N E M P L O Y E D , 1930, B Y AG E GROUPS
N u m ber

Class A : Persons out of a job, able
to work, and looking for a job
Age group

Class B : Persons having jobs
but on lay-off without pay,
excluding those sick or vol­
untarily idle

Males

Females

Total

Males

Females

Total

All ages.....................................................

2,058,738

370,324

2,429,062

627,407

131,178

758,585

10 to 14 years............................................
15 to 19 years............................................
20 to 24 years............................................
25 to 29 years............................................
30 to 34 years.... .......................................
35 to 39 years............................................
40 to 44 years............................................
45 to 49 years............................................
50 to 54 years............................................
55 to 59 years............................................
60 to 64 years...........................................
65 to 69 years............................................
70 years and over.....................................
Unknown..................................................

1,520
192,176
331,428
243,397
203,800
211,265
197,425
188,078
162,589
129,096
97,042
62,226
37,171
1,525

939
75,070
83,255
50,504
35,327
33,479
25,960
22,232
17,114
12,057
7,740
. 4,259
2,117
271

2,459
267,246
414,683
293,901
239,127
244,744
223,385
210,310
179,703
141,153
104,782
66,485
39,288
1,796

889
50,097
92,174
80,012
69,804
72,645
66,454
59,427
48,167
35,920
25,565
15,752
10,162
339

764
26,717
27,645
17,042
12,826
12,609
10,388
8,216
6,193
4,031
2,544
1,416
712
75

1,653
76,814
119,819
97,054
82,630
85,254
76,842
67,643
54,360
39,951
28,109
17,168
10,874
414

P e rc e n t
All ages.....................................................

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

10 to 14 years............. ..............................
15 to 19 years...........................................
20 to 24 years............................................
25 to 29 years............................................
30 to 34 years............................................
35 to 39 years............................................
40 to 44 years............................................
45 to 49 years............................................
50 to 54 years............................................
55 to 59 years............................................
60 to 64 years...........................................
65 to 69 years............................................
70 years and over....................................
Unknown___________________________

0.1
9.3
16.1
11.8
9.9
10.3
9.6
9.1
7.9
6.3
4.7
3.0
1.8
.1

0.3
20.3
22.5
13.6
9.5
9.0
7.0
6.0
4.6
3.3
2.1
1.2
.6
.1

0.1
11.0
17.1
12.1
9.8
10.1
9.2
8.7
7.4
5.8
4.3
2.7
1.6
.1

0.1
8.0
14.7
12.8
11.1
11.6
10.6
9.5
7.7
5.7
4.1
2.5
1.6
.1

0.6
20.4
21.1
13.0
9.8
9.6
7.9
6.3
4.7
3.1
1.9
1.1
.5
.1

0.2
10.1
15.8
12.8
10.9
11.2
10.1
8.9
7.2
5.3
3.7
2.3
1.4
.1

Table 3 summarizes the returns for classes A and B, by sex, reason
for idleness, and family relationship. Of the returns in class A, 47.7
percent of the males and 9.8 percent of the females were returned as
heads of families, while in class B, 59.1 percent of the males and 9.4
percent of the females were family heads. The other returns repre­
sented persons who were either related members of families, or lodgers,
boarders, or members of one-person or of “ partnership” families.




169

SURVEYS OF EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT

T a ble 3 .—REASONS FOR IDLENESS, A N D F A M IL Y R ELATIO N SH IP, OF U N E M P L O Y E D ,
1930
Class A : Persons out of a job,
able to work, and looking for a
job

Subject

Males
Reason for idleness:
Voluntary absence______________
Personal disability..........................
Family reasons.................................
Weather conditions.........................
Breakdown of plant or equipment.
Seasonality (off season)..................
Economic conditions.......................
Industrial policy..............................
Labor disputes.................................
Immediate or superficial reasonsDissatisfaction..................................
Miscellaneous............................... .
Reason not reported.......................

Females

Total

Class B: Persons having jobs
but on lay-off without pay,
excluding those sick or vol­
untarily idle
Males

Females

Total

30,262
101,177
4,869
4,074
3,746
324,176
619,792
87,354
7,774
787,257
73,248
4,618
10,391

12,612
37,096
5,834
128
679
43,334
96,376
14,816
1,026
131,894
23,672
525
2,332

42,874
138,273
10,703
4,202
4,425
367,510
716,168
102,170
8,800
919,151
96,920
5,143
12,723

9,935
26,668
7,737
97,369
238,625
9,603
5,868
222,295
3,942
1,229
4,136

8,709
1,109
1,022
19,548
50,686
1,800
637
45,662
853
133
1,019

18,644
27,777
8,759
116,917
289,311
11,403
6,505
267,957
4,795
1,362
5,155

Total..............................................

2,058,738

370,324

2,429,062

627,407

131,178

758,585

Family relationship:
Head of family.................................
Related member of family.............
Lodger, etc........................................

981,591
703,414
373,733

36,322
257,814
76,188

1,017,913
961,228
449,921

370,919
178,226
78,292

12,326
102,225
16,627

383,245
280,451
94,889

Total..............................................

2,058,738

370^324

2,429,062

627,407

131,178

758,585

State and Local Surveys of U n e m p lo y m e n t

A n u m b e r of surveys to determine the extent of unemployment have
been made during the past few years. At least two of these have been
State-wide censuses of unemployment (Massachusetts and Pennsyl­
vania), but the majority of studies have been city-wide only.
In the following table are data showing the extent of various indi­
vidual surveys and the extent of unemployment disclosed. More
detailed data may be found in the Monthly Labor Review.16
E X T E N T OF U N E M P L O Y M E N T AS DISCLOSED B Y SUR VEYS IN VARIOUS LO CALITIES
Percent of
workers

Sample covered by survey
Locality covered by survey

Date of survey
Class

State surveys:
Massachusetts___
Pennsylvania........
Local surveys:
Bridgeport, Conn.
Buffalo, N . Y .......
Cincinnati, Ohio..
Lancaster, Pa.......
Lincoln, Nebr___
Louisville, K y —
Philadelphia <___
Pittsburgh <..........

January 2, 1934-

All employables..

1,808,840

February 1934...

____do__...............

3,455,169

First quarter, 1934November 1933____

------ do......... ............... .
Selected areas............. .

M ay 1934................
Total gainful workers.
____do......... ..................
First quarter, 1934
November 1933___
10 representative areas.
March-May 1933___ All employables______
February 1934___
Employables................
-d o -

Springfield, Ohio.

First quarter, 1934.

Syracuse, N . Y___
i

November 1933____

Employed full time.

Number

2 Employed part time.

. . — do.............................
_do_
7 representative areas.

Em­ Unem­
ployed ployed
1 65.5
2 9. 6
55.6
2 16.3

73.9
61,466
/1 57.4
15,729 V 13.9
f i 62.6
203,030 X 2 15. 6
75.8
25,613
/ 1 66.6
3,684 X 2 10.6
65.9
107,978
53.3
876,236
<14.1
49.5
283,589
2 14.0
i 58.9
27,416
2 9.3
1 60.8
7,302
2 19.8

8 Includes those on relief work.

8 24.9
28.1
26.1
28.7

21.8
24.2

22.8
84.1
32.6
36.5
31.8
19.4

< Preliminary results.

w Massachusetts: December 1934 (p. 1332); Pennsylvania: September 1935 (p. 618); Bridgeport: March
1935 (p. 626); Cincinnati and Lincoln: March 1934 (p. 524): Louisville: M ay 1934 (p. 1055); Philadelphia:
October 1934 (p. 862); Pittsburgh: October 1934 (p. 865); Springfield: April 1935 (p. 878); and Syracuse:
April 1932 (p. 770).




170

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

F a m ily U n e m p lo y m e n t
U n em p lo ym en t is generally considered in terms of individuals, but
considerable interest also attaches to the question of unemployment by
family groups.
B uffalo, N. Y.w
T h e data used as a basis for this study of family groups were
obtained in the city of Buffalo, N. Y., in early November 1931, in
connection with the third annual study of unemployment in that city.
The Buffalo study included all males 18 years of age or over (except
students) and all females 18 years of age or over who were usually
employed. The data presented in the first section of table 1 concern
9,620 family groups, of which 1,522, or 15.8 percent, had no one
employed. However, of these 1,522 family groups there were 110 in
which the family member or members usually working but not at
that time employed were voluntarily unemployed. Eliminating these
110 family groups yields the figures shown in the second section of the
table, which refer to 9,510 family groups.
Of the 9,510 family groups with one or more members desiring work,
1,412, or 14.9 percent, were families in which no one was employed,
and 1,815, or 19.1 percent, were families with but one member working
part time. Thirty-four percent of the 9,510 family groups either had
no member employed or had but one member working part time.
In 1,907, or 20.1 percent, of the family groups either no one was
employed or only one member was employed and was working less
than half time.
In the Buffalo study the employment status of roomers (but not
persons furnished meals only) was reported on the schedules. Of the
families reporting no member employed, approximately 1 in 16 had
one or more roomers, and of the families reporting only one member
working part time almost exactly 1 in 20 had one or more roomers.
Unemployment is generally most serious, from the standpoint of
family support, when the normal head of the family is without work.
This discussion includes 63 family groups of related persons sharing
living arrangements but not having a definite family head. They
constitute less than seven-tenths of 1 percent of the total involved and
were therefore not segregated in this analysis.
Of the 1,412 family groups in which no one was employed there
were 7 which had no head. There were also 25 families which
showed involuntary unemployment of one or more members but in
which the head was unemployed of his own volition. Deducting
these, there were 1,380 families in which the head was involuntarily
unemployed and in which no one else was working.
There were 1,815 family groups having one person employed part
time. Of these there were seven families which had no head. Of
the remaining 1,808 family groups the head was employed part
time and was the only person employed in 1,696 families. In 112
families the head was unemployed and one other member of the
family was employed part time.
Combining these two classifications, it is seen that there were
3,076 family groups in which the head was either (a) involuntarily
unemployed (and no one else was working) or (6) the sole worker
and employed only part time. These 3,076 families constituted just
it Digest of article by Frederick E. Croxton in Month Jy Labor Review, May 1932 (p. 1034).




171

SURVEYS OF EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT

under one-third of the families having a head and having one or
more members desiring work.
The following table shows family employment status in selected
areas in Buffalo:
F A M IL Y E M P L O Y M E N T STATUS IN SELECTED AREAS IN BU FFALO , N O V E M B E R 1931

All family groups
Family groups having—

Family groups with
one or more mem­
bers d esirin g
work

Number

Percent
of total

Number

All family groups....... .......................................................................

9,620

100.0

9,510

No one employed____________ ________________________ _____
1 person working part time___________________ __________ ____
Less than H time_________________ __________ _____ _____
H time or more__________ _____ _________________________
Fraction not reported____________________________ _______
2 or more persons working part time________ _______ _________
1 person working full time________ ____ ________ ____ ________
2 or more persons working full time_______ _____ _____________
2 or more persons working full and part time_________________

1,522
1,815
495
1,316
4
220
4,114
1,191
758

15.8
18.9
5.1
13.7
(0
2.3
42.8
12.4
7.9

Percent
of total

1,412
1,815
495
1,316
4
220
4,114
1,191
758

,

100.0
14.9
19.1
5.2
13.8
0)

2.3
43.3
12.5
8.0

1 Less than Ho of 1 percent.

B ridgeport, C o n n .1
8
T h e following data were obtained in the census of unemployment
made by the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics in cooperation with the
U. S. Bureau of the Census during the first quarter of 1934.
Some 33,332 families in the survey had one or more gainful workers.
Of these, 17,405 had only 1 such worker, 9,409 had 2, and other
families, in diminishing number, had up to 9 or more gainful workers.
The following table shows the extent of unemployment among the
breadwinners of these family groups. In this tabulation the unem­
ployed include those reporting “ no work” and those on relief work.
This table shows that the larger the number of gainful workers in
the family, the greater the proportion unemployed. In only about
20 percent of the families with 1 gainful worker was that worker
unemployed, whereas in 91 percent of the families with 6 gainful
workers there were unemployed workers. The families with 7, 8,
and 9 gainful workers were too few in number to warrant the draw­
ing of conclusions, but they appear to affirm the above observation.
P E R C EN T AG E D IST R IB U T IO N OF F AM ILIES A CC O R D IN G TO N U M B E R OF G AIN F U L
W O R K ER S A N D N U M B E R OF U N E M P L O Y E D , IN B R ID G EPO R T , CO N N ., FIRST
Q U AR TER OF 1934
Number of gainful workers
in family

Num­
ber of
families

Percent of families with specified number of unemployed
1 or

8 or

1 or more gainful workers... 33,332

63.0

37.0

27.4

1 gainful worker.....................
2 gainful workers................ .
3 gainful workers....................
4 gainful workers....................
5 gainful workers....................
6 gainful workers....................
7 gainful workers....................
8 gainful workers....................
9 gainful workers or m ore...

78.2
56.6
37.8
24.9
15.0
9.0
4.6

21.8

21.8

17,405
9,409
4,000
1,689
623
157
43
4
2

43.4
62.2
75.1
85.0
91.0
95.4
100.0

100.0

7.1

1.9

0.5

33.2 10.2
35.6 20.2
34.3 22.9
27.3 27.1
17.8 26.1
23.3
50 ( 25.0
50.0

6.4
13.0
16.9
22.9
23.3

4.9
9.5
16.6

11.6

1 Digest of article in Monthly Labor Review for March 1935 (p. 626).
8




11.6

4.2
5.7
18.6

1.9
4.7

25.0
50.0

172

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

Syracuse, N. Y .1
8
T h e information used as a basis for this study was secured as
part of the general survey of unemployment in Syracuse in November
1931.
The table on page 173 shows data concerning 4,637 family
groups, of which 634, or 13.7 percent, reported no one employed.
Of these 634 families, however, there were 55 which, while reporting
no one employed, also reported that those persons unemployed
were voluntarily so. These 55 family groups have been eliminated
from the data shown in the second part of the table.
Of the 4,582 family groups with one or more members desiring
work, 579, or 12.6 percent, were families in which no one was em­
ployed, and 766, or 16.7 percent, were families with but one member
working and that person working only part time. Just under 30
percent of the 4,582 families had either no member employed or
but one member working part time. In 833, or 18.1 percent, of
the family groups, either no one was employed or only one member
was employed and that one was working less than half of usual full
time.
Data were collected on the schedules of the employment status
of roomers, but not of persons furnished meals only. Of the families
which reported no member employed, approximately 1 in 13 had
I or more roomers, and of the families reporting only 1 member
working part time almost exactly 1 in 20 had 1 or more roomers.
Included in the present analysis are 55 family groups of related
persons sharing living arrangements but not having a definite head.
Because of the small number of such groups they were not segregated
for separate study.
Among the 579 family groups reporting no one employed there were
II which had no head. There were also four families which reported
involuntary unemployment of one or more members, but in which
the head of the family was unemployed of his own volition. Deduct­
ing these 15 family groups leaves 564 families in which the head of
the family was involuntarily unemployed and in which no one else
was working.
The family groups having one person employed part time numbered
766. e Of these there were two families which had no head. e Of the
remaining 764 family groups the head was employed part time and
was the only person employed in 649 families, while in 115 families
the head was unemployed and some other member of the family was
employed part time.
Combining two classifications reveals 1,213 family groups in which
the head was either (a) involuntarily unemployed (and no one else
was working), or (6) the sole worker and employed only part time.
These 1,213 families amounted to a little over one-fourth of the
families having a head and having one or more members desiring
work.
The following table shows family employment status for the families
enumerated in the seven selected areas in Syracuse.
Digest of article by John Nye Webb and Frederick E. Croxton in Monthly Labor Review for June
1932 (p . 1286).




173

ANALYSIS OF UNEMPLOYED ON BELIEF
F A M IL Y E M P L O Y M E N T STATUS IN SYRACU SE, N O V E M B E R 1931

All family groups

Family groups with 1
or more members de­
siring work

Family groups having—
Number

Percent

Number

Percent

All family groups___ ____________________ - , , , ..........__

4,637

100.0

4,582

100.0

No one employed____ _________________________________
1 person working part time, ___________________ ______
Less than
time__________ - - __ ______________
time or more______________ ____ ________________
Fraction not reported_____ ________ ____________„
2 or more persons working part time____ __________ „
, _ _ _ _____
1 person working full time_____ __
2 or more persons working full time______ - _____
2 or more persons working full and part time_________

634
766
254
493
19
95
2,318
512
312

13.7
16.5
5.5
10.6
.4
2.0
50.0
11.0
6.7

579
766
254
493
19
95
2,318
512
312

12.6
16.7
5.5
10.8
.4
2.1
50.6
11.2
6.8

Analysis of Unemployed on Relief, October 1933
UN EM PLO YM EN T relief census was
the
A N Federal Emergency Relief Administration in conducted by The
L
October 1933.

following data are taken from the report of that census.
In three States approximately one-fourth of the whole population
was on relief in October 1933, while the average for the United States
was approximately 10 percent and the proportion for 7 States was
5 percent or under. The percentage of the population of each State
on relief at that time is shown by table 1, the States being listed in
the descending order of percentages.
T a ble 1 —P E R C E N T T O T A L PERSONS IN R ELIEF FAM ILIES, OCTOBER 1933, W E R E OF
PERSONS IN EACH ST ATE, 1930 CENSUS

State
Florida________________
South Carolina ___ __
West Virginia.
Arizona ________
Kentucky_____________
Oklahoma_____________
Alabama___ _________
Louisiana_______- ..........
Pennsylvania________ _
South Dakota_________
Utah............... ..................
Michigan______________
Montana______________
Ohio_________ ________
Mississippi____________
Illinois________________
United States__________

Percent
25.2
23.2
22.3
18.9
18.1
17.9
17.2
15. 5
14.3
14.3
12.8
12. 6
12.3
11.4
11.3
10.7
10.3

State
New York____ ________
Arkansas____ _________
Georgia________________
Kansas________________
Delaware______________
Indiana________________
Wisconsin______ ______
New Jersey,,_________
Maryland...... ... .......... .
Washington___________
North Carolina________
Colorado___ __________
District of Columbia_
_
M assachusetts_________
Nevada____ __________
Tennessee_____________

Percent
9.8
9.7
9.5
9.4
9.3
9.2
8. 7
8. 5
8.3
8. 2
8.0
7.8
7. 7
7.7
7.4
7.3
7.1

State
North Dakota_________
Rhode Island ________
California
________ __
New Mexico
, _____
Minnesota....... ........... .
Connecticut__________
Missouri_______________
Oregon________________
M a in e ,_____ __________
New Hampshire_______
Nebraska______________
Vermont,, ___________
Virginia_______________
Wyoming_ ___________
_

Percent
6.9
6.8
6.6
6.6
6.4
6.3
5.9
5.6
5.5
5.0
4. 5
4.4
4.0
3.4
2.7
2.3

The immensity of the Federal relief problem is indicated by the
number of families aided in the various States, as shown in table 2.




174

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

T able 3 .—N U M B E R OF FAM ILIES R E C E IV IN G PUBLIC U N E M P L O Y M E N T R E L IE F ,
OCTOBER 1933, B Y STATES

State

Pennsylvania __ ___
New York___________
Illinois. . _________
O hio____ _ ________
Michigan __________
California_________ __
Oklahoma__ ________
T e x a s.._____________
Florida_____ _____
.
Kentucky___________
Alabama___ ________
Massachusetts______
South Carolina______
West Virginia
___
New Jersey
Louisiana
___ ____
Indiana______________

Number
of
families
324,461
311,983
234,727
202,865
152,679
118,264
107,237
105,045
102,432
98,883
98.648
89,848
89,326
86,342
84,452
76,751
76.649

Number
of
families

State

Georgia ___________
Wisconsin___________
Missouri __________
North Carolina_____
Mississippi_________
Arkansas____________
Kansas..
_________
Minnesota__________
Tennessee___________
Washington_________
Maryland___________
Connecticut______
Colorado________ ___
South Dakota
____
Arizona_____________

69,588
67,352
57,165
56,041
54,559
48,331
46,221
45,358
39,312
37,877
35,051
31,817
23,961
22,815
22,382
20,427

Number
of
families

State

Montana____________
Oregon______________
Utah..............................
Virginia_____________
Nebraska__________ _
District of Columbia.
Rhode Island________
North Dakota_______
Maine_______________
New Mexico_________
Delaware____________
Idaho________________
New Hampshire_____
Nevada______________
Vermont_____________
Wyoming.......... ..........

18,882
16,666
16,354
14,983
13,844
12,228
10,684
10,020
8,884
6,587
5,862
5,433
5,030
2,946
2,817
1,482

Over 50 percent of the families on relief were in 8 States and over
33 percent in 4 States—Pennsylvania, New York, Illinois, and Ohio*
The average percentage of persons on relief in the principal cities was
above that for the United States as a whole, and generally speaking,
above the percentages on relief in the States in which these cities
were located.
The proportion of the colored population on relief was almost
double the proportion of the white population receiving such aid, as
reported in table 3. The proportion of children in the relief group
was considerably in excess of the percentage of children in the general
population, especially in the age ^roup 6 to 13. The percentage of
persons over 65 years of age on relief was below the proportion of all
persons in that age group. The percentage on relief of Negroes oyer
65 years old was 20.5, while the proportion of the Negro population
of all ages on relief was 17.8 percent.
T a ble

3 .—P E R C E N T PERSONS ON R ELIEF, OCTOBER 1933, IN SPECIFIED AG E
GROUPS W E R E OF A L L PERSONS IN THESE AGE GROUPS, 1930 CENSUS, B Y COLOR
OR RACE

Age group

Percent of
all persons
on relief

Percent of Percent of
all whites all Negroes
on relief
on relief

Percent of
all other
races on
relief

Under 1 year ___________________ __________________
1 to 5 years _________ ________________ _____________
6 to 13 years________ _____________________________ ____
14 to 15 years . . - _________________________________
16 to 17 years..........................- _______ ____________ ___
18 to 24 years________ _______ ________________________
25 to 34 years........ ..................... ...........................- ............ .
35 to 44 years__________________________________ ______
45 to 54 years_______________ ___________ ___ _________
55 to 64 years _________
___ ___________ ____ ______
65 years and over_____________________________________

10.8
13.7
14.3
12.7
11.8
9.2
8.5
8.9
8.8
7.7
7.2

10.2
12.8
13.3
12.0
11.1
8.6
7.7
8.1
8.0
6.9
6.3

16.1
20.7
21.9
18.8
17.0
14.3
15.5
16.7
16.9
17.9
20.5

10.4
14.5
16.6
15.6
12.8
10.4
10.3
11.0
11.8
12.3
14.3

All ages 1___________________________ __________

10.3

9.5

17.8

12.8

i Including those of unknown ages.




STATUS OF URBAN POPULATION ON RELIEF

175

In a few of the States in which there are large numbers of Negroes
the percentage of the white population on relief was higher than that
of the Negroes. In all cities in which there is a considerable number
of Negroes, however, the percentage of this race on relief was substan­
tially above that for the white people.
There were fewer families of 2 to 4 persons and more families of 5
or more persons among relief cases than in the general population,
although among the Negroes the proportion of small families on relief
was approximately the same as the percentage of small families in the
general population. One-person families constituted 13 percent of all
relief families and more than 3 percent of persons on relief. The
average percentage of one-person families in large cities was a little
higher than the average for the United States.

Employment Status of Urban Population oh Public
Relief, May 1934 2
0

O

F TH E urban families in the United States receiving relief from
public funds—Federal, State, and local—83 percent had in May
1934 at least one member who was employable and 17 percent had no
member able to work, according to the findings of the division of
statistics, research, and finance of the Federal Emergency Belief
Administration. Its survey covers 79 cities, including typical urban
areas, so that the percentages and averages based on these findings
are applicable to the urban relief rolls of the whole country.
For purposes of the survey employable persons were defined not
only as being able to work and looking for a job, but with the further
qualifications of being between 16 and 65 years old, actively seeking
work and not incapacitated.
Ninety-two percent of the employables, thus defined, formerly had
jobs, while 66 percent of them had worked 5 years or more at their
ordinary occupation. The 8 percent who had never worked but
were seeking jobs were chiefly those who had reached the working
age during the depression, and practically all were under 25 years of
age.
The 17 percent of the families in which there was no employable
person were lacking in such breadwinners for different reasons and
circumstances. In some families all of the members were either too
young or too old to be employed, while in others the adults had
physical handicaps likely to prevent them from ever securing or
holding jobs to maintain themselves and their dependents. In many
families the only possible employable was a woman whose children
required her care during working hours.
The Federal Emergency Relief Administration stresses the impor­
tance of these data as a basis for planning for future social security.
The 17 percent of the relief families in the urban population who had
no employable members included mainly those who will probably
remain more or less permanently in need of some kind of aid. On the
other hand, the 83 percent of the relief families with one or more
employable members constituted those capable of self-support when
jobs become available.
2 Data are from press releases of Federal Emergency Relief Administration, Nov. 15, 1934, and Jan. 7,
”
14, 15, 23, and 28, 1935.




176

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

Applying the percentages to the figures for September, * * * it is revealed
that approximately 2,100,000 of the 2,500,000 families contained at least one
person who was able to work and looking for a job.
The 2,100,000 families and the additional nonfamily individuals receiving
relief in cities comprise a total of approximately 3,500,000 employable workers
between the ages of 16 and 65, who are actively seeking work, and who are not
incapacitated.

Research indicates that the large majority of these 3,500,000 urban
workers were wholly fitted to obtain and hold jobs when times are
normal. Not only had these persons had work experience previous
to the depression, but over 90 percent of those with such experience
had held nonrelief jobs at one period or another in the course of the
depression and nearly 50 percent had held such employment in 1933
or 1934.
The following tables cover 28 of the 79 cities. These 28 cities
include 4 cities of over 1,000,000 population—Chicago, Detroit,
Los Angeles, and New York; 5 cities in the eastern region, 6 cities in
the southern region, and 9 cities in the central region with from 250,000
to 1,000,000 population; and 4 cities in the western region with from
100,000 to 1,000,000 population.
Table 1 gives the employment status as of May 1934 of households
and of total relief population in the 28 cities.
T a ble 1 .—E M P L O Y M E N T STATUS OF R EL IEF HOUSEHOLDS A N D OF T O T A L R E L IE F
POPULATION IN SPECIFIED CITIES, M A Y 1934
Relief households

Relief population

Percent with—

City and region

Per­
Per­
No
1 or
mem­
No
cent
cent
All
more
mem­
unem­
em­
bers
mem­
relief ployed
em­
bers
house­ at non­ ployed,
bers in ployed, em­
seek­
holds
non­
ployed
ing
relief
relief but 1 or or seek­
work
more
em­
ing
seek­
ploy­
ing
work
ment
work

Chicago.................... ....................... .......
Detroit.............................................. .
Los Angeles-.................... ....................
New York-...........................................

14
20
12
11

73
77
83
83

13
3
5
6

P ercen t

Pernot
seek­
ing
work

Total

P ercen t

100
100
100
100

7
10
7
5

55
53
59
59

38
37
34
36

100
100
100
100

Average..................- .......... .........

13

80

.7

100

6

58

36

100

Eastern region:
Boston....... .............................. .......
Buffalo.............................................
Pittsburgh............................... .......
Providence......................................
Rochester........................................

9
18
12
13
17

74
71
79
82
73

17
11
9
5
10

100
100
100
100
100

5
10
6«
6
8

56
53
58
61
52

39
37
36
33
40

100
100
100
100
100

Average........................................

13

76

11

100

7

56

37

100

Southern region:
Atlanta............................................
Baltimore........................................
Birmingham, Ala..........................
Houston..........................................
New Orleans..................................
Washington, D. C........ ................

23
24
16
16
8
15

65
66
75
67
87
70

12
10
9
17
4
15

100
100
100
100
100
100

14
13
8
9
4
9

56
52
64
58
65
58

30
35
28
33
31
33

100
100
100
100
100
100

Average.......................................

18

71

11

100

10

59

31

100




177

STATUS OF URBAN POPULATION ON RELIEF

T a ble 1 —E M P L O Y M E N T STATUS OF R E L IE F H OUSEH OLDS A N D OF T O T A L R E L IE F
P O PU LATIO N IN SPECIFIED CITIES, M A Y 1934— Continued
Relief households

Relief population

Percent with—
Per­
Per­
No
1 or
mem­
cent
cent
No
more
bers
mem­
em­
unem­
mem­
em­
All
ployed ployed,
bers in ployed, bers
em­
relief at non­ seek­
non­
ing
but 1 or ployed house­ relief
relief
work
more or seek­ holds
work
em­
seek­
ing
ploy­
ing
work
ment
work

City and region

Central region:
Akron.............................................
Cincinnati.......................................
Cleveland........................................
Indianapolis....................................
Kansas City, M o.......................—
Milwaukee...................................
Minneapolis______ ____________
St. Louis______________________
St. Paul.............................. ............

20
20
20
18
26
20
17
25
24

70
71
70
72
62
72
70
66
63

10
9
10
12
12
8
13
9
13

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

11
11
10
9
16
10
10
14
14

Average______________________

21

69

10

100

Western region:
Oakland..........................................
Salt Lake City....... .......................
San Diego.............. - .......................
San Francisco__________________

17
11
18
19

79
72
76
72

4
17
6
9

15

74

11

Average_____________________

Per­
cent
not
seek­
ing
work

Total

P ercen t

P e rc e n t

56
60
60
53
50
53
56
50

33
29
35
31
31
40
37
30
36

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

12

55

33

100

100
100
100
100

8
6
9
12

58
54
56
60

34
40
35
28

100
100
100
100

100

8

56

36

100

55

Data on the ages of the heads of households on relief—important
in connection with plans for the reemployment of such persons—
are given in table 2.
T a ble 2 .—P E R C E N T A G E D IST R IB U T IO N OF H EA D S OF R E L IE F HOUSEHOLDS
AC C O R D IN G TO AGES, M A Y 1934

Percent of heads of relief households who were—
City and region

24 years
of age
and
under

25-34
years
of age

35-44
years
of age

45-54
years
of age

Heads of
relief
house­
55 years holds of
of age
and over all ages
P e rc e n t

Chicago______ ____________________ ______
Detroit................................................ ...........
Los Angeles_______ _____________________
New York______________ ________________

4
2
6
3

20
15
24
24

30
35
27
32

25
33
24
24

21
15
19
17

100
100
100
100

Average__________ _________________

5

22

31

25

17

100

Eastern region:
Boston______________ ________________
Buffalo......................... ...........................
Pittsburgh__________________________
Providence_____ ____________________
Rochester—................................... ..........

4
6
4
6
3

19
19
23
21
19

25
30
29
30
30

24
25
24
25
27

28
20
20
18
21

100
100
100
100
100

Average.................................................

5

20

28

25

22

100

Southern region:
Atlanta......................................................
Baltimore...... ...........................................
Birmingham, Ala....................................
Houston................................................. .
New Orleans_________________ ______
Washington, D. C..................................

6
6
6
4
8
9

24
26
25
22
27
29

27
31
29
25
29
27

21
21
22
21
23
19

22
16
18
27
13
16

100
100
100
100
100
100

Average............................... ..................

7

26

28

21

18

100

19205— 36--------13




178

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

T abld 3 .—P E R C E N T A G E D IST R IB U T IO N OF HEA DS OF R E L IE F H O U SEH O LD S A CC O R D IN G TO AGES, M A Y 1934—Continued

Percent of heads of relief households who were—
City and region

24 years
of age
and
under

25-34
years
of age

Central region:
Akron........................................................
Cincinnati................................................
Cleveland.................................................
Indianapolis.............................................
Kansas City, M o....................................
Milwaukee...............................................
Minneapolis.............................................
St. Louis...................................................
St. Paul.....................................................

6
5
5
5
6
3
5
4

35-44
years
of age

18
25
19
21
18
24
20
22
20

7

45-54
years
of age

28
27
31
26

55 years
of age
and over

28
27

26
21
26
22
25
24
25
23
26

21
21
19
26
27
18
27
22
23

25
28
25

Heads of
relief
house­
holds of
all ages

P e rc e n t

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

Average.................................................

6

21

27

24

23

100

Western region:
Oakland....................................................
Salt Lake City.........................................
San Diego....... .........................................
San Francisco..........................................

4
5
5

4

22
22
22
22

30
22
27
26

25
20
25
26

19
31
21
22

100
100
100
100

Average..............................................—

5

22

25

23

25

100

Table 3 discloses that very substantial percentages of workers 16
to 64 years of age on relief have had long experience in their usual
occupations, the proportion of such persons with experience of 4 %
years or more in their usual occupations in each of the 5 groups of
cities included in the tabulation being 63 percent or over.
T a ble 3 .— P E R C E N T A G E

D IST R IB U T IO N OF R ELIEF W O R K E R S AC C O R D IN G TO
L E N G T H OF E X P E R IE N C E A T USUAL OCCU PATIO N , M A Y 1934
Average percent of relief workers
With work experience of specified
number of months

Groups of cities
Never
worked

Chicago, Detroit, Los Angeles, and New York___
Eastern region (Boston, Buffalo, Pittsburgh,
Providence, Rochester)________________________
Southern region (Atlanta, Baltimore, Birming­
ham, Houston, New Orleans, Washington)____
Central region (Akron, Cincinnati, Cleveland,
Indianapolis, Kansas City, M o., Milwaukee,
Minneapolis, St. Louis, St. Paul).—.....................
Western region (Oakland, Salt Lake City, San
Diego, San Francisco)...............................................

Total

174
Less
Un­
and
than 6 6-17 18-53 54-173 over known
P er­
cent

8

4

5

18

37

27

11

4

5

17

35

28

6

3

5

18

40

27

1

100
100

1

100

6

5

6

18

38

25

2

100

6

5

5

19

37

26

2

100

Unemployed Casual Laborers in Duluth
N TH E spring of 1931 the University of Minnesota Employment
Stabilization Research Institute undertook an analysis of unem­
ployed casual laborers in Duluth.21 The investigation covered 287
men.

I

1 University of Minnesota. Employment Stabilization Research Institute. Bulletins, Vol. I, No. 3:
1
The Duluth Casual Labor Group, by Alvin H . Hansen, Marion R. Trabue, and Harold S. Diehl.
Minneapolis, 1932.




UNEMPLOYED CASUAL LABORERS IN DULUTH

179

The casual workers in Duluth, it was reported, constituted a special
group within the labor market. The great majority of them were
homeless men who made that city their headquarters during their
periods of unemployment. Formerly these men had been able to
tide themselves over seasonal idleness, their jobs in the lumber camps,
in the mines, and on the Lakes providing sufficient remuneration for
this purpose.
A g e , marital status, occupational experience, etc.—The median age of
the 287 casual laborers was 49, while 66 percent were 40 to 69 years of
age and 4 percent were above 70 years of age. It is pointed out, how­
ever, that the group was not altogether typical, as a substantial num­
ber of younger men who had been unemployed in the winter had left
Duluth by the time the tests were given.
The distribution according to marital status was as follows: Single,
77 percent; widowers, 9.1 percent; divorced or separated, 4.5 percent;
and married 9.1 percent. The total number of children of the 66 men
who were or had at one time been married was 89—an average of
1.35 per marriage.
At the time of the investigation only six of this unemployed group
were members of labor organizations and not more than 22 of the
others had ever been affiliated with a union.
Of the 287 men, 94 were native-born citizens; 55 had received their
first papers; 48 their second papers.
Over two-thirds had been connected with Duluth for more than 10
years, while more than 20 percent had made that city their head­
quarters for 30 years or over. The remaining men had been in Duluth
less than a year.
E d u c a tio n . — Twenty-six of these men had had no formal schooling whatever,
and 23 had had less than 2 years. At the other extreme 22, according to their
statements, had had 10 years or more of school. One-third reported 8 years
or more, while more than one-fourth had had less than 4 years. More than
40 percent had had less than 6 years. The median number of years of schooling
reported was 6.7.
Seventeen had had vocational training of some value, 12 very slight vocational
training, but 90 percent had had none at all. Nineteen had had some evening
work in citizenship training or English. Thirteen (4.6 percent) were unable
to speak English, and 11 (3.8 percent) were able to speak only a little English
or at least to speak it very poorly. Eighty-two (28.6 percent) could not read
English, while 21 (7.3 percent) could read only a little. As many as 125 (43.6
percent) could not write English, while 22 (7.6 percent) could write very poorly.

The following table shows the number and percentage of men who
had at some time occupied skilled positions.
T YPES OF PREVIOUS E M P L O Y M E N T OF U N E M P L O Y E D
D ULUTH
Occupational class
Nonmanual work..........................................
Supervisory work.........................................
Skilled labor...................................................
Semiskilled labor..........................................
Unskilled labor exclusively—.....................

Number
1
5
35
32
214

CASUAL LABORERS IN

Percent
0.3
1.7
12.2
11.2
74.6

The most usual method of securing a job was direct application to
the company. Next in order, but of much less importance, were the
free public employment exchanges and the fee-charging agencies, the
two types being used almost equally. Relatives, friends, and news-




180

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

paper advertisements had been of little assistance to these men when
they were seeking employment.
For the years just prior to the present depression the modal wages
reported for work in the woods were $30 to $40 a month, including
board and lodging, and for railroad work, between 35 and 40 cents
per hour. Men who had been employed on lake boats reported
monthly wages of $75, including room and board, and firemen on lake
transportation had been paid $105 per month with room and board.
Approximately 85 percent of these casuals lost, as a matter of
course, up to 4 months per annum. Ordinarily 8 months of employ­
ment out of 12 was regarded as wholly satisfactory. A large pro­
portion reported that generally they had no trouble in finding work
when they desired it, indicating that they did not object to some
months of idleness. Over two-thirds of the men who gave information
on this point stated that usually they did not take odd jobs during
temporary periods of idleness. Approximately 7 percent could be
considered as “ chronically unemployed.”
Of the 269 who reported on the length of time they had been unem­
ployed during the current depression, 26 percent had been out of
work less than 4 months; 61 percent, less than 8 months; 80 percent,
less than 12 months; 93 percent, less than 18 months, and 96 percent,
less than 2 years. The remaining 4 percent had been without work
for over 2 years.
An amazingly large majority of these casuals looked upon the
existing protracted period of unemployment as the only one of
significance. Again and again statements were made that “ no
serious unemployment difficulty had been experienced prior to the
present depression. Less than 10 percent were impressed with any
previous unemployment that could be characterized as really severe.”
Physical and medical findings .—The personal hygiene and habits of
living of this unemployed group were far from what they should be,
according to the investigators. The results were clearly evident
from the physical examinations. Many of the men showed symptoms
which required medical attention. Over 65 percent of the group had
impaired vision and about 7 percent defective hearing. Foci of in­
fection, such as septic roots of teeth, pyorrhea, extreme dental caries,
and chronic throat and nose infection were exceedingly prevalent and
resulted in greatly lowered vitality. Such conditions which may well
bring about chronic invalidism could have easily been averted by
personal hygiene and proper dental and medical care.
In a few cases major illnesses were found, such as Bright’s disease,
diabetes, tuberculosis, heart disease, etc., which were not only im­
pediments to employment but acutely demanded medical service.
Syphilis was diagnosed clinically in 5 of these men and by positive Wassermann
reactions in 14 others. Nine of these cases never had been diagnosed before.
Syphilis is a disease which, although truly curable if properly treated in its early
stages, is usually a menace to society and tends to produce years of invalidism
and dependency of the one infected if it progresses unrecognized and untreated
as it was doing in most of these individuals.
Many other conditions, such as painful flat feet, physical deformities, hernias,
skin diseases, etc., were discovered, which, although not menacing to life itself,
distinctly limit the ability of certain individuals to carry on manual labor. A
considerable number of these defects and diseases could have been prevented and
some still could be corrected or improved by proper medical care.




LABOR HISTORY OF UNEMPLOYED IN PHILADELPHIA

181

The final classifications of the examining physicians indicated that
one-fourth of the men less than 60 years old and two-thirds of the men
above 60 were physically unfitted to do the only class of work for
which they had experience or training. Furthermore, many other
men in the group had physical diseases and defects that reduced their
working capacity.
More physical limitation for employment was reported for men who
had been without jobs for over 12 months than among the men who
had been unemployed for less than 4 months. From the viewpoint of
society this means, the investigators hold, that persons with physical
handicaps, many of which could be prevented or corrected, “ tend to
become dependent upon society for even the minimum essentials of
life over long periods of time.”

Labor History of Unemployed in Philadelphia, 1931

A

REPORT published in 1933 gives the labor history and experi­
ence of 8,722 persons employed on made work in Philadelphia.2
2
The information was gathered by jobless men allocated to the work in
1931 through the interest of the Philadelphia Emergency Work Bureau
of the Committee for Unemployment Relief. The survey was carried
out under the supervision of the director of the Philadelphia Commu­
nity Council. Data were also secured from 1,439 applicants for work
relief in the same city.
Summaries of the findings of these two complementary studies are
presented below.
Study of Persons Employed on Made Work
I r r e s p e c t i v e of whether they were native white, foreign-born
white, or colored, the percentage of persons in this group who lacked
school training was very much greater than the proportion of illiterates
for comparable groups in Pennsylvania as a whole. Their educational
attainments, however, were not entirely inadequate, and the fact
that some of them had schooling far beyond the average for the
community was an evidence that their difficulties were not altogether
due to lack of education.
Stability on the jo b .—So far as length of service is a test of success on
the job, this group on made work had a good record, only about 5
percent of the whites and 9 percent of the colored being classed “ as
casual workers who had never had a steady job.” More than onehalf of the whites and approximately one-third of the colored had
held the same jobs for 5 years or over. Service records not uncom­
monly reached 10, 20, 30, and up to 45 years. Stability on the worker’s
part is no assurance against cyclical unemployment, however.
Workers who had been with the same concerns for many years found
themselves laid off with men who had only a few months’ service.
Only a negligible proportion of those on made work seemed to have
definitely failed on their former jobs. Considerably over ninetenths of the men were jobless as a result of business conditions beyond
their control.
1
3
Pennsylvania, University of. Wharton School of Finance and Commerce. Industrial Research
Department. Ten Thousand Out of Work, by Ewan Clague and Webster Powell. Philadelphia, 1933.




182

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

Wages .—The previous wages of these people compared quite
favorably with the wages of others in similar occupations in the State.
The average full-time weekly earnings reported for the whites were
$32 while those for the colored were $25, no deduction being made
for short time or lay-offs during the year.
The weekly earnings of college graduates were more than 60 percent
above those of the men who had no formal education, and in addition
employment among the former was much more stable.
Industry’s responsibility .—Over 3,000 Philadelphia firms were
represented by one or more ex-employees among the 8,722 workers
included in the survey.
Some large firms were very heavily represented, six of them being
charged with over 11 percent of all the men surveyed in this study, or
with 14 percent of those men who could be assigned. A total of 29
firms, each laying off 25 or more workers, contributed over 30 percent
of the assignable workers. At the other extreme there were 2,368
firms with one man each.
So far as the data contained in this study are concerned, the con­
struction industry had the heaviest responsibility for unemployment.
It was represented by two and one-half times as many men as its
proportion of the normal gainfully employed population of the city.
Manufacturing furnished slightly more unemployed than its normal
share of the gainfully employed would have justified.
Most of the workers were common, semiskilled, or skilled laborers.
Approximately 15 percent of the whites and 5 percent of the colored
were able to do work of a supervisory, clerical, professional, etc.,
character. Most of the workers had lost their jobs toward the close
of the summer of 1930. Approximately 94 percent had become
unemployed since the summer of 1929. Temporary jobs played an
insignificant part in keeping up incomes when no permanent employ­
ment was available.
Prevention of destitution.—According to the report under review it
is basically important to have one or more additional wage earners
in the family as a protection against destitution when the principal
wage earner has no job. While the families of those on made work
were larger than the average Philadelphia family, a very high per­
centage of them had but one wage earner.
On the other hand, 53 percent of the whites and nearly 70 percent of the
Negroes had been able to rely partly upon unpaid rent. Commercial borrowing,
help from friends and relatives, and credit at stores were used freely by both
the white and the colored group. The renting of rooms or doubling up with
relatives occurred in about 10 percent of the families. On the other hand, the
wages earned by members of the family who were not regular wage earners, or the
amounts received through pensions, bonuses, and occasional jobs by the chief
wage earner were not important. Finally, about 40 percent of the whites and
60 percent of the Negroes had had to resort to charity before they obtained
made work.

The investigator found that home ownership was no great pro­
tection against destitution. e Although the proportion of home
owners among the white families of the group of workers covered was
less than half that in the population as a whole, there was a substantial
percentage of home owners in the group.
It was found that home ownership was negligible among the Negroes, and
was nearly three times as prevalent among the foreign-born as among the native
white Americans. On the other hand, the native-born white and the colored
yrprkprjg showed a much greater proportion of owners of automobiles. Among




LABOR HISTORY OF UNEMPLOYED IN PHILADELPHIA

183

the colored this was five times as prevalent as home ownership; among the
native whites 50 percent greater, while among the foreign-born it was only about
one-fifth as common as home ownership. A comparison of home ownership
and income brings out very clearly the fact that smaller incomes are a decided
bar to ownership; the larger the family income, the higher the proportion of
home-owning families.

Persons who had only recently come to Philadelphia were among
the first to need assistance after they were unemployed, as they
had fewer local friends and resources.
Study of Financial Resources of Applicants for Made Work
S o m e w h a t less th a n 50 p e r c e n t o f th e fa m ilie s o f th e 1,114 w h it e
a p p lic a n t s f o r m a d e w o r k h a d s a v in g s a c c o u n t s , 50 p e r c e n t h a d
in s u r a n c e , a n d a p p r o x im a t e ly 25 p e r c e n t o w n e d th e ir o w n h o m e .

The percentages were very much the same for the 325 Negro families
for savings and insurance, but very different for home ownership.
Except for the last, the principal difference between the two races
was in the amounts of the reserves. Approximately 25 percent of the
whole group of families had no reserves whatever.
Home ownership .—Of 278 families owning or buying homes only 7
realized immediate cash on them in the face of emergency. The
remaining 271 families were too overburdened with mortgages to be
able to get loans on rapidly dwindling equities. The families were
far in arrears in their mortgage interest, taxes, and monthly pay­
ments. “ The attempt to own a home constituted a serious drain
on the resources of these families just at the time when they needed
them most for basic necessities.” In this regard the Negroes were
not so unfortunate as they had not put their scant earnings into
real property. The foreign born were most seriously affected, as so
many of them were home buyers.
Life insurance was also found to be very inadequate protection
in times of unemployment. Out of 560 American-born white and
Negro families, only 34 were able to get loans or cash in on their
policies. Approximately one-half of these policyholders lost their
insurance entirely while they were unemployed.
Self-help period of unemployment.—Savings were found by the
investigators to be the only worth-while kind of reserves in periods
of economic depression and unemployment. The average savings in
the families under consideration were sufficient to carry them for 6
weeks. Approximately nine-tenths of all families borrowed money
or deferred paying bills during these 6 weeks. This provided about
50 percent of the total amount available for essentials. These debts
or credits meant 3 months’ independence for the average family.
The resources of the Negroes were only half those of the whites.
The former were not only reduced to a much lower standard of living
during the self-help period of unemployment but were more likely
to have recourse sooner to relief agencies.
All families were forced to reduce their standards of living drastically, the
white to a minimum health level for the bare necessities, the colored to a minimum
health level for food alone.
Both groups tried hard to get along by themselves, through the economic
use of every resource, the constant search for temporary income, repeated re­
ductions in the standards of living, and help from relatives and friends.




184

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

Conditions in Families of the Unemployed in
Philadelphia, May 1932
TH time its annual Philadelphia unemployment survey of
A T MayE1932 was being planned by the industrial research de­
L

partment of the Wharton School of Finance and Commerce, it was
decided to make also a survey of family conditions. The 35,471
families included in the unemployment investigation, however, were
too many to interview in regard to their detailed conditions, so a
sample of 9,591 families was selected as reasonably representative of
the larger group, which in turn was representative of the city as a
whole. The findings of this survey made by the industrial research
department in cooperation with the service committee for professional
and business women are presented in Special Report No. 5 (Feb. 23,
1933) of the department.
Table 1 shows the number and percent of families included in the
survey who were in distress and the reasons for such distress, also
the estimated number of families in the city suffering from each
kind of distress, on the assumption that the findings of the survey
are representative of Philadelphia as a whole.
T a ble 1 . - N U M B E R A N D PER C EN T OF F AM ILIES IN DISTRESS IN P H ILA D E L P H IA ,
M A Y 1932, B Y K IN D OF DISTRESS
Families in distress
Disclosed by survey

Kind of distress

Number

Percent

Estimated
number in
city

Insufficient food__ _____________________ ____ ________________ -Insufficient clothing______________ ___________ ______ _„_____ ____
Insufficient heat________ _______________________________________
Evicted for unpaid rent_________________________ ___ __________
Lack of medical attention_______________________________________
Loss of home ownership_________________ _________ ______ ______
Loss of furniture________________________________________________

997
824
1,112
349
348
340
110

10.4
8.6
11.6
3.6
3.6
3.6
1.1

47,800
39,500
53,300
16,500
16,800
16,700
5,300

Total in distress__________________________________________
No distress—
___ •____________________________ _____ ___________

3,434
6,157

35.8
64.2

164,700
295,300

Total, all families_______ _____ ______________

9,591

100.0

460,000

— ..

“ Insufficient heat” was reported when the family was found to
have no cooking heat or was obliged to wear extra wraps in the home.
Many houses had no heat at all except while meals were being cooked.
Other families had to use their neighbors’ stoves to cook the meager
food supplied them by relatives, friends, or relief organizations.
Some families had to remain in bed a substantial part of the colder
days to keep warm.
Of the 9,591 families covered by the investigation, 1,478, or 15.4
percent, had insufficient food, clothing, or home heat when the survey
was made. Many families were suffering from 2 of these 3 types
of distress and there were other families inadequately provided with
all 3 necessaries.
Lack of needed medical attention was reported by 3.6 percent of the families
surveyed. This percentage represents an estimated 17,000 families in the city.
It may be asked why a family should lack medical care when free attention is
obtainable at several hospitals and clinics in the city. The answer is that many




185

FAMILIES OF UNEMPLOYED IN PHILADELPHIA

families have no means of transportation; others do not know of the free service
available; some have never had to rely on free medical attention and are reluctant
to seek it for the first time; and, finally, the hospitals and clinics hesitate to grant
free service to families that are not pauperized. Families in this latter group
present the most serious problem of all. Many of these families could pay for
needed medical attention, but only by foregoing other needs that they consider
more essential. As a consequence they postpone obtaining the needed medical
attention, hoping, in many cases vainly, that a few months later the family will
be able to afford medical attention without so great a sacrifice of other needs.

In table 2 the percentage and number of families who received
and gave specified types of help during the depression are reported.
It will be noted that 19.7 percent of the families had spent all their
savings, that 18.4 percent directly helped relatives or friends, and
that 9.8 percent shared their homes with others. Of the group
suffering from insufficient food, clothing, or heat, 39 percent were
reported as unable to pay store bills.
T a ble 2 — SOURCES A N D FORM S OF ASSISTANCE R E C E IV E D A N D A ID G IVEN B Y
FAM ILIES IN P H ILAD EL PH IA

Families with—
Total
families

Insufficient
food, clothing,
or heat

Other distress

No distress

Source and form of assistance received
and help given
Per­
Per­
Per­
Per­
cent
Esti­
cent
Esti­
cent
cent
Esti­
Esti­
based mated based mated based mated based mated
on
number
on number on number on number
sur­
in city
sur­ in city sur­ in city sur­ in city
vey
vey
vey
vey
Families........................................................

100.0

460,000

100.0

70,840

100.0

17.6
6.8
15.2

80,874
31, 278
70,132

34.4
13.9
39.0

24,369
9,847
27,628

38.5
15.6
28.3

36,128
14,639
26,557

6.9
2.3
5.4

20,377
6,792
15,947

13.4
23.2

61,440
106, 794

25.5
58.1

18,064
41,158

39.3
69.0

36,879
64,750

2.2
.3

6,497
886

19.7
14.0
22.5

90,695
64, 297
103,520

28.4
4.1
34.1

20,119
2,904
24,156

25.8
5.0
29.5

24,211
4,692
27,683

15.7
19.2
17.5

46,365
56,701
51,681

5.6
23.6
3.0
.6
3.9

25,546
108,494
13,594
2,767
17,788

15.6
60.5
9.5
1.9
6.9

11,051
42,858
6,730
1.346
4,888

12.3
69.0
7.0
1.2
10.6

11,542
64,730
6,569
1,126
9,947

1.0
.3
.1
.1
1.0

2,953
886
295
295
2,953

18.4
9.8

84,585
44,921

11.2
13.9

7,934
9,847

9.3
12.2

8,727
11,448

23.0
8.0

67,924
23,626

93,840 100.0

295,320

So u rce o f assistance

Borrowed from—
Relatives and friends..........................
Other sources......................... ..............
Unpaid store bills---------------------------------Received help from—
Relatives and friends................... .......
Welfare agencies.................................
Spent savings—
All...........................................................
Part.............................................. ..........
No savings................................ ............
K in d o f h elp received

Money. .......................................... ..............
Food.................................................... ..........
Clothing........................................................
Work relief............ ......................................
Other help.......................................... ..........
K in d o f h elp given others

Direct help to relatives or friends............
Shared home with others ..........................

According to table 3, the average weekly income of all the surveyed
families specifying income was $14.09, while that of the families
with insufficient food, clothing, or heat was $3.98. The group with
no distress averaged $19.94.




186

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

T a ble 3 .—P E R C E N T OF FAM ILIES SU R V E Y E D H A V IN G SPECIFIED W E E K L Y IN C O M E
IN PH ILAD ELPH IA, M A Y 1932 i

Families with—
Weekly income

Insufficient
food, cloth­ Other dis­ No distress
tress
ing, or heat

Total

P e rc e n t

P ercen t

P e rc e n t

No income. _____ ____________________________________
t.n $3 .
.
_
$3.01 to $5........................................................... ..........- .........
$5.01 to $10...............................................................................
$10.01 to $15.................................................................. ..........
$15.01 to $20...............................................................— .........
$20.01 to $25............................................................................
$25.01 to $35....................................................... .....................
$35.01 to $50............................................................................
$50.01 to $75............................... ................— .......................
$75.01 to $100............................................................. .............
Over $100______________ _________ _____ ______________
T Tp

59.2
6.4
6.2
13.2
6.5
4.6
2.4
1.2
.3
.0
.0
.0

P e rc e n t

13.3
1.0
2.2
11.4
13.4
16.1
12.7
17.7
8.8
2.6
.6
.2

48.6
8.4
7.5
16.5
7.7
4.6
3.3
2.2
1.0
.2
.0
.0

28.7
3.6
4.0
12.8
11.0
11.6
8.9
11.6
5.7
1.6
.4
.1

Total___________________________________ _______

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

Average income______________________________________

$3.98

$5.36

$19.94

$14.09

i Includes only families specifying income.

e The average percentage decrease in income for all families at the
time of the survey compared with their income when all employable
members were employed was 71.6, as shown in table 4. The average
decrease in income for the group with insufficient food, clothing, or
heat was 88.8 percent.
T a ble 4 .—PR ESEN T (M A Y 1932) F A M IL Y IN C O M E CO M PAR ED W IT H IN C O M E W H E N
A L L E M P L O Y A B L E M E M B E R S W E R E LAST E M P L O Y E D
Families with—
Insufficient food,
clothing, or heat

Other distress

No distress

Total

Income per week
Specify­ Average Specify­ Average Specify­ Average Specify­ Average
ing de­ decrease ing de­ decrease ing de­ decrease ing de­ decrease
creases in in in­ creases in in in­ creases in in in­ creases in in in­
income
come
income
come
income
come
income
come
P e rc e n t

P e rc e n t

P e rc e n t

98.9

P e rc e n t

P e rc e n t

Total.........................................

88.8

98.0

87.6

P e rc e n t

92.3

57.6

None.........................................
Up to $3...................................
$3.01 to $5.................................
$5.01 to $10...............................
$10.01 to $15.............................
$15.01 to $20.............................
$20.01 to $25.............................
$25.01 to $35.............................
$35.01 to $50.............................
$50.01 to $75________________

100.0
100.0
100.0
97.4
100.0
100.0
100.0
90.0
100.0

100.0
90.0
84.0
71.0
56.0
45.0
42.0
34.0
21.0

100.0
100.0
94.9
100.0
98.9
92.2
100.0
91.3
88.9
100.0

100.0
89.0
84.0
73.0
59.0
49.0
45.0
39.0
36.0
58.0

100.0
100.0
97.0
96.8
96.7
94.0
91.8
89.9
80.9
87.7
78.6
75.0

100.0
85.0
78.0
67.0
51.0
47.0
37.0
34.0
32.0
31.0
27.0
47.0

$75.01 to $100 . _ __________
O ver $100._
. .

P ercen t

94.0
100.0
100.0
97.1
97.8
98.4
94.3
93.0
90.0
81.4
88.0
78.6
75.0

P e rc e n t

71.6
100.0
88.9
82.0
69.4
53.0
47.0
38.0
34.2
32.0
31.8
27.0
47.0

Of all the families included in the survey, 45.8 percent owned or
were purchasing homes. About one-fourth of the group of families
with insufficient food, clothing, or heat owned their homes. Of the
families in this group who owned or were buying homes, 90.5 percent
had mortgages, 71.5 percent were in arrears in their mortgage pay­
ments, and 64.7 percent were behind in their taxes. Slightly over 77
percent of the renters in the same group were back in their rent.



EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

187

Readjustment of Workers Displaced by Plant ShutDowns
HE fact that the major part of the burden of industrial change
as exemplified by the permanent closing of factories falls upon
the workers, even in spite of well-organized community and company
efforts to minimize the effect of the enforced unemployment, is shown
by a study of what happened to workers in two rubber-manufacturing
plants located in New Haven and Hartford, Conn., who became un­
employed when the plants were permanently closed.23 The study
extended over a period of 3 years and was carried out as two separate
but related investigations, the first covering a period of 11 months
after the shut-down of the plants,24 during which time employment
opportunities were approximately normal, and the second covering
the following 2 depression years.
The New Haven plant was closed in April 1929 and the Hartford
plant in August of the same year, these shut-downs occurring as a
result of a general program of the United States Rubber Co. for con­
solidating scattered small plants into a few major factories. About
2,200 workers were displaced in the two factories, and as the closing
of these factories involved dismissing such a large number of workers
at the same time, and also since pensions and a dismissal wage were
paid to certain of the long-service workers, the shut-downs offered an
unusual opportunity to study the readjustment of displaced industrial
workers, as well as the influence of the payment of a dismissal wage
upon such readjustment.
The L. Candee & Co. factory in New Haven, manufacturing rubber
footwear, was the oldest rubber manufacturing plant in the United
States and had an unusual number of long-service employees. Much
of the work was individual in character, the work of some departments
consisting almost entirely of hand work. About 60 percent of the
workers were women. More than half of the workers were Italians
and many married couples worked there, while many of the younger
workers were related to the older employees, so that in a sense the
plant formed a community by itself. The Hartford Rubber Works
was a tire manufacturing plant, and its processes were more mechan­
ized and specialized. The employees were practically all men, many
of them single, and there was no single nationality predominating as
in New Haven, although native second-generation Americans formed
the largest single group—about one-fourth of the total. The New
Haven plant closed at a time when business was still good and when
there were opportunities to find other work, but the Hartford plant
closed shortly before the onset of the depression so that opportunities
for securing employment soon ceased.
Upon the notice of the impending shut-down the New Haven com­
pany took steps to assist in the readjustment of the employees. Work­
ers were allowed to take time off to look for work during the 4 weeks
which elapsed between the announcement and the final closing of the
plant, while the employment department made every effort to place

T

is Yale University. Institute of Human Relations. After the Shut-Down. Part 1.—The readjustment
of industrial workers displaced by 2 plant shut-downs, by Ewan Clague and Walter J. Couper. Part 2.—
Former L. Candee workers in the depression, by E. Wight Bakke. New Haven, 1934.
1 A summary of the earlier study was published in the April 1931 issue of the Monthly Labor Review
*
(P.69).




188

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

workers in other plants, eligible workers were retired from service
under the existing pension plan, and for all other long-service workers
a dismissal wage of 1 week7 pay at current earnings was given for
s
each year of service if they had had at least 15 years7 service or if
they were 45 and had had 10 or more years of service. Under this
provision 116 employees, or about 15 percent, received payments
ranging from $137 to $2,088, with a median of about $400. At the
Hartford plant the same procedure was followed and pensions and
dismissal wages were paid on the same basis. However, the number
eligible for pension was very small and 126 employees, or about 10
percent, received a dismissal wage.
As the number of workers, therefore, who were eligible for pensions
and for dismissal wage varied so much in the two plants, and there
was so much variation in other factors, the shut-down of the plants
offered an excellent opportunity for a comparative study of the degree
of success with which these workers adjusted themselves to the change
and to trace the influence upon that adjustment of such factors as
age, nationality, skill, dismissal wage, community efforts to assist
readjustment, and the general employment condition in the industrial
area.
Composition of the Groups Studied
I n t h e survey of the two groups of workers, 729 were listed in New
Haven and 1,105 in Hartford, schedules being secured for 244 men and
428 women in New Haven and 8 women and 526 men in Hartford.
Age and sex were important factors in the securing of the proportion­
ately larger number of schedules in New Haven, as that plant had an
overwhelming majority of women at the younger ages as well as a
high proportion of older workers, neither of which classes is as mobile as
the group of younger men in Hartford, who accounted for a large part
of the unsecured schedules since they had in most cases undoubtedly
left the city in their search for work. Also the distinctly family con­
stitution of the Candee plant was a factor in decreasing the mobility
of these workers even among the younger men.
While both of the plants employed a great many foreign-born
workers as well as first-generation native-born, the nationality of the
workers did not appear to have been of any great importance in
indicating a tendency toward migration, but it was rather the dif­
ference between business conditions in the two places, New Haven
not having had any high degree of prosperity in the preceding years
while Hartford had been industrially prosperous for many years,
and had, therefore, furnished an attractive labor market, especially
for men drifting from the depressed textile centers of New England.
The basic factor, therefore, in the relative mobility of the working
forces of the two plants, appeared to be an economic one—the con­
dition of business. The migratory workers of Hartford were the ones
who were missed in the survey, and this fact is considered to make the
results more directly comparable, as it made for a greater similarity
in the groups in the two places.
An analysis of the service records of the workers showed that about
37 percent of the force in New Haven had worked 10 years or more on a
total working-time basis—that is, exclusive of shut-downs and tem­
porary absences—while 121 had exceeded 15 years, and 87 had records
of 20 years and over. The average length of service in this plant was




READJUSTMENT OF WORKERS DISPLACED

189

9.9 years while in Hartford the average was only 5.4 years, in the
latter plant there being only a handful of extra-long-service workers
and a very large proportion of men in the groups under 2 years. In
many instances in Hartford the short-service workers were not the
younger employees as in New Haven, but were older workers, even
over 40 years of age, who had recently joined the force.
Length of Time Out of Work

A c l a s s if ic a t io n of the workers according to the period of time
which elapsed before a permanent job was secured showed that in
Hartford only 9 of the 534 workers surveyed did not try to find work,
while among the 672 in New Haven there were 84 who did not try to
find new jobs. The difference between the two places in the number
seeking jobs was largely due to the sex differences in the working
forces of the two plants. In New Haven 69 women (for the most part
because they were housewives or older women who had decided to
retire from industry) and 15 men did not look for other work, while
in Hartford only 9 were recorded as not looking for work.
In New Haven, of the 228 men seeking work, 140 secured their first
permanent job in somewhat less than 3 months, while of the 358
women looking for work 231 found work within that period. In
Hartford 305 of the 523 who sought work were placed within 3 months.
In this tabulation jobs which were strictly temporary were not
counted, but jobs which were given and accepted in good faith on a
permanent basis were considered as permanent even though the
worker was laid off later because of slack work.
There seemed to be little difference between the sexes in the time
it took to find the first job, but there was a very decided difference
when the age of workers was taken into account, as a very definite
handicap was evident for workers over 45. Of all men over this age
seeking work, only 43 percent found jobs within the 3 months, while
71 percent of those workers under 45 were permanently placed.
Among the women the corresponding percentages were 44 and 67.
In many cases these first placements were not permanent, as 43 per­
cent of the Hartford men lost their first job after varying periods of
service, over half of them being unemployed again within about
2 months. In New Haven only 46 percent of those finding work were
still employed on their first job at the close of the survey. The total
loss of working time amounted to 40 percent of the available working
time for New Haven workers during the 11 months and to 43 percent
for the Hartford workers in a period of about 10 months. But on the
closing date of the survey the majority of those who had actively
sought work had a more or less satisfactory job, slightly over 70 per­
cent in Hartford and almost 74 percent in New Haven being employed
on that date while others had had work some time during the period.
Reduced Earnings of Displaced Workers
T h e amount of unemployment, however, does not measure the total
losses of the workers, as the earnings were much reduced. The average
weekly earnings of the New Haven men on the best-paid jobs they
were able to secure after the shut-down were barely more than 80 per­
cent of the rubber-company rates with a still greater loss among the
women, while among the Hartford workers a greater decline was




190

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

suffered, the average on the new job being approximately 70 percent
of former earnings. For the workers in New Haven the net effect of
unemployment upon incomes in a period of about 1 year after the
shut-down was a loss of about 50 percent of their income during the
preceding year with the rubber company. This difference was largely
made up for workers receiving the dismissal wage; although their
earnings losses were more severe than for the others, the dismissalwage payments brought their total income up to more than 83 percent
of their income during the preceding year.
The families of these workers had been able to get along during the
>eriod with very little recourse to relief from the social agencies. A
arge number either owned their own homes or were in the process of
purchasing them, and insurance was very widely held. The use of
credit figured rather largely in carrying some of the families through the
unemployment period. The debts were in the form of commercial
loans, borrowings from friends or relatives, credit given by the mer­
chants, or back rent due to the landlord. In New Haven only 20
families applied for relief at any time during the period.
In summing up the result of the study it is said that it is clear—

{

The major part of the burden of industrial change, if these two cases are typical,
falls upon the workers. Despite the efforts which were made by the company
and by the community in each case, the majority of the workers had to take care
of themselves, and suffer whatever losses were involved. Neverthless, the pay­
ment of a dismissal wage to a selected group of workers was of material benefit to
them and their families during the readjustment. The results of its use in these
two cases were so uniformly good as to justify its extension to other workers and
other industries.
For example, there were many workers at both the New Haven and Hartford
plants who might well have been entitled to a dismissal wage on the basis of
their investment of time and skill with the company— men and women who fell
short of the service required (10 years for workers 45 years and over, and 15 years
for others) in order to qualify. A minimum of 5 years would have brought into
the fold a large group of middle-aged and younger workers who were markedly
handicapped in making the readjustment. On the other hand, the authors of
the report believe there is every reason for keeping the dismissal wage entirely
distinct from unemployment insurance. The former is essentially an indemnity
for the probably permanent loss of job and skill; the latter is to cover the tem­
porary readjustment involved in changing jobs. The experiences of the United
States Rubber Co. workers serve to emphasize the fact that the dismissal wage
must take its place as a most important device for the establishment of greater
security for the industrial worker.

Study of Workers in the Candee Plant
T h e extended study covering the former New Haven workers dur­
ing the entire 3-year period showed that there was a steady decline
among these workers in working time and wages. The readjustment
shown by the first study during the 11-month period was not one
toward steady work but to a set of jobs which produced a decreasing
amount of work and wages in each succeeding year. The older men
were found to be in a particularly unfavorable position, and the best
records were made by the groups aged 30 to 44 years. There was a
decline in average earnings from the 1928 figure of $1,250.41 for the
men and $761.89 for the women to $557 and $385.73, respectively,
during the third year following the lay-off. The burden fell heavily
on the skilled men, whose average earnings by the third year had
fallen to $34 less than those of the unskilled and $98 less than those
of the semiskilled men. This fact apparently indicates that the




RURAL FACTORY INDUSTRIES

191

qualities which help men to rise to skilled jobs and high wages while
they are at work do not assist them to readjust satisfactorily to new
jobs, and that the readjustment entails the acceptance of work of
less skill and at lower wages with its resulting blow to the worker's
standard of living and status.
The report states that the cumulative effect of the loss of jobs and
wages was felt by the entire community, some of this loss being
evidenced in the growth of antisocial attitudes, and in the ill effects
on health, on initiative, and on industrial efficiency as well as on family
life. In spite of the fact that the company and the community
attempted to fill the gap caused by lack of wages with terminal wages,
pensions, and charity, “ the fact stands out that the 3 years found the
workers themselves bearing 65 percent, 88 percent, and 86 percent of
that burden, respectively. In spite of the efforts of the company and
the community, it is still the worker himself who must drastically
revise his standard of living, search for alternative methods of mainte­
nance when he faces unemployment, and through such efforts shoulder
most of the load. In spite of mounting relief funds, unemployment
is still predominantly the workers' problem."

Rural Factory Industries as Employers of Farm Labor

E

M PLO YM EN T opportunities for farm people in small factories
in the smaller towns and in the open country were disclosed by
a study of 138 factories in 15 States, made by the United States
Department of Agriculture,2 the data for the most part covering
6
the year 1931.
The factories taken for study fell in 3 groups: 102 factories and 2
shops, each valued at $200,000 or less; 19 plants valued at over $200,000 each; and 15 barrel factories on the Eastern Shore of Maryland
and Virginia.
All but 10 of the 104 plants of the first group were in operation at
the time the study was made, but of these 10, 8 were strictly seasonal
in character and operated only part of the year, while 2 had been
closed for several months because of the depression. Six additional
factories were run intermittently, generally opening up only as orders
were received. The remainder were m operation practically the entire
year, though not all of their employees were kept continuously on a
full-time basis.
Table 1 shows the extent of the employment offered by the plants
valued at $200,000 or less.
l* U. S. Department' of Agriculture.




Circular No. 312: Rural Factory Industries.

Washington, 1934.

192

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

T a ble 1.—E M P L O Y M E N T FU RN ISH ED B Y R U R A L FACTO RIES V A L U E D A T $200,000
OR LESS, CLASSIFIED B Y IN D U S T R Y , 1931»

Number of employees in factories producing—
Item
Textiles

Season of employment:
Spring.....................................
Summer.................................
Fall....................................... .
Winter...................................
Maximum employed during
year 2
..........................................
Workers employed—
Full time:
Living on farms............
Living elsewhere..........
Total.................- .........
Part time:
Living on farms______
Living elsewhere..........
Total........................ .
All employees:
Living on farms............
Living elsewhere..........
Total............................

Food
Forest
products products

Leather
Clay
and
and
leather
glass
products products

Miscel­
laneous

Total

5,759
5,764
5,738
5, 726

1,687
1,664
1,724
1,712

105
871
355
195

1,734
1,717
1,717
1,694

196
216
226
176

69
62
68
61

9,550
10,294
9,828
9,564

6,016

1,769

981

1,734

226

69

10,795

1,591
3,906
5,497

456
1,167
1,623

32
73
105

325
1,352
1,677

64
132
196

6
55
61

2,474
6,685
9,159

134
385
519

43
103
146

317
559
876

4
53
57

30
30

1
7
8

499
1,137
1,636

1,725
4,291
6,016

499
1,270
1,769

349
632
981

329
1,405
1,734

64
162
226

7
62
69

2,973
7,822
10,795

1 For all but 1 factory for which 1929 data were secured.
2 The maximum number exceeds the total reported for any 1 season, since not all of these industries
reached a peak of employment during the same 3-month period.

Employees living on farms constituted 27.5 percent of the total
number of persons working in the 104 factories. They obtained about
as much work proportionally as employees living elsewhere, since 83.2
percent of the former and 85.5 percent of the latter were reported as
full-time workers.
The average number of days’ employment in the factories and the
average daily wage for employees living on farms and elsewhere are
shown in table 2.
T a ble 2 .—A V E R A G E N U M B E R OF D A Y S OF E M P L O Y M E N T A N D A V E R A G E D A IL Y
W AG ES IN R U R A L FACTORIES V A L U E D A T $200,000 OR LESS IN 19312

Item

Textiles

Forest
Food
products pro ducts

Leather Clay and
and
glass
leather
products products

Miscel­
laneous

Number of days worked
Employees living—
On farms:
Male...........
Female____
Elsewhere:
Male...........
Female____

236
244

219
256

98
65

271
273

248
245

235

251
240

221
241

97
102

268
273

222
245

259
267

Average daily wage
Employees living—
On farms:
Male,..........
Female.......
Elsewhere:
Male...........
Female____

$2.86
1.93

$2.42
2.20

$2.14
1.54

$3.10
2.47

$3.06
2.48

$2.70

2.96
1.96

2.42
1.76

2,12
1.82

3.10
2.47

3.32
2.48

2.38
2.25

1 For all but 1 factory for which 1929 data were secured.

There were 19 factories valued at over $200,000. Table 3 shows
the employment opportunity offered by these plants:



193

LOCATION OF MANUFACTURES

T a ble 3 .—E M P L O Y M E N T FU R N ISH ED B Y R U R AL FACTO RIES V A L U E D A T OVER
$200,000 IN 1931
Number of employees in factories producing—
Item
Textiles

Season of employment:
Spring.....................................................................
Summer..................................................................
Fall.........................................................................
Winter
Maximum employed during the year 1
......................
Workers employed—
Full time:
Living on farms..............................................
Living elsewhere - - .........................................
Total.............................................................

Metal
Forest
Paper
products products products

Total

3,554
3,764
3,619
3,993
4,218

2,700
2,510
2,522
2,704
2,713

650
610
610
650
650

429
429
429
429
429

7,333
7,313
7,180
7,776
8,010

599
2,780
3,379

332
2,143
2,475

65
545
610

26
403
429

1,022
5,871
6,893

Part time:
Living on farms........... .................................
Living elsewhere____________ __________
Total.............................................................

132
707
839

7

40

231
238

All employees:
Living on farms..............................................
Living elsewhere.............................................
Total.............................................................

731
3,487
4,218

339
2,374
2,713

179
938
1,117

40
105
545
650

26
403
429

1,201
6,809
8,010

1 The maximum number exceeds the total reported for any one season since not all of these industries
reached a peak of employment during the same 3-month period.

Average daily wages ranged from $1.60 to $6.00 for male employees
and from $1.50 to $3.00 for females.
The 15 barrel factories on the Eastern Shore depended mainly upon
local farmers for the market for their product, which was used in
shipping the potato crop of the region. There were 223 employees in
the spring (chiefly after May 1) of 1930, 239 in the summer, 18 in the
fall, and 7 in the winter, although during fall and winter the workers
retained worked only intermittently.
The foremen of these barrel factories were usually white men (eight
being farm operators also), and the laborers were mostly Negroes.
The wages of the latter were commonly on a piecework basis, and
ranged from $2.00 to $4.25 per day in 1930.
The report states that these small-town and rural factories were
benefiting the farm people in the following ways: (1) By enabling
them to sell some of their farm products to the factories as raw mate­
rials for manufacturing purposes; (2) by full- or part-time employ­
ment at the factories; (3) by enabling them to perform certain steps in
the manufacturing processes in their own homes or in small farm
shops; (4) through profits on their investments in the factory; and
(5) by selling foodstuffs and possibly other farm products on local mar­
kets that have been expanded because of the presence of the factory.

Location of Manufactures as Affecting Employment
Opportunities

I

N a study of the location of manufactures in the United States
covering the period 1899-1929, the Employment Stabilization
Research Institute of the University of Minnesota 2 found that during
6
8 Minnesota, University of. Employment Stabilization Research Institute. The location of manu­
6
factures in the United States, 1899-1929, by Frederick B. Garver, Francis M . Boddy, and Alvar J. Nixon.
19205— 36--------14




194

EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS AND CONDITIONS

the 30-year period there has been a movement toward greater employ­
ment density in the States west of Pennsylvania. In New England
there has been either a smaller rate of increase or a decline. In 1929
the greatest concentration of industry was found in New England
(Vermont excepted), the Middle Atlantic States (including Delaware),
and the East North Central States. This area, termed by the authors
of the study “ the manufacturing belt of the United States ” , contained
approximately 70 percent of all industrial wage earners between 1925
and 1929. In general, the location of manufactures is found to be
closely associated with that of the coal fields. The location of iron
and steel industries likewise influences the location of industry.
Manufacturing is slowly tending to become dispersed more nearly
in accordance with population, the evidence shows. This is partly
accounted for by the development of new manufactures, such as the
making of ice cream, bread baking, and printing and publishing, near
the point of consumption. The hardware and woolen and worsted
industries remain highly localized, however, while others, such as boots
and shoes and cotton textiles, are tending to follow the distribution of
population. Automobile production is highly concentrated both as
to geographic location and in respect to population. Industries
developing where population is particularly dense include perishable
commodities, clothing, boots and shoes, and foundry machine shops.
Sparseness of manufacture characterizes the Plains region between
the Rocky Mountains and the western boundaries of those States
stretching from Louisiana to Minnesota, a region wholly without
bituminous coal or anthracite in the northern part but having vast
deposits of natural gas and petroleum in the southern part and minor
fields in the extreme northwest. This is, of course, a section sparsely
and only recently settled and largely agricultural.
Food industries are located with regard to location of raw materials,
location of markets, and the technical character of the raw materials
and of the products, the authors find. For example, flour mills and
meat-packing establishments locate close to the wheat and corn-hog
areas; they are also drawn toward the markets, this factor making for
centering production in Buffalo and Chicago. However, no uniform
tendency toward concentration and dispersion exists, meat packing
having remained concentrated up to 1919 but showing a slight tendency
toward dispersion thereafter, while flour milling and butter and
cheese making have steadily become more concentrated.
Textile industries have not followed the same trends. The woolen
and worsted industry has remained in the New England and the
Middle Atlantic States in a period when the cotton industry has
gradually changed from New England to the South. The making of
wearing apparel is concentrated but less so than the basic manufac­
tures of textiles. Nor do the various manufactures of wearing apparel
have their origin in the same localities as the basic manufactures of
textiles.
It is not evident to the authors of this study, on the basis of facts
disclosed, whether or not the manufacturing industries are approach­
ing stability of localization. Textiles, excluding wool, and the impor­
tant basic industry, iron and steel, are still unsettled in location.




HOMEWORK AND SWEATSHOPS

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




195




Relation Between Industrial Homework and Industrial
Depressions

I

S TH ER E any relation between an industrial depression and the
extent to which industrial homework is practiced? If so, is it
sufficiently marked to be perceptible, and in what direction does it
appear? The division of women in industry of the New York State
Department of Labor, becoming interested in this question, made
an inquiry covering the period 1911 to 1930 and published the results
in its official organ, the Industrial Bulletin, for February 1932.
It might reasonably be supposed, it was pointed out, that home­
work would increase as times grow hard. Women who cannot leave
their families to work in factories might apply for homework as other
workers lose their positions, and employers who see their returns
falling off might send out homework in increasing volume as a means
of reducing factory costs. To test this assumption the division
prepared a table covering the period mentioned, showing for each
year the index number of employment of all factories in New York
State, of all factories in the men’s clothing industry, and of home­
workers in licensed tenements. The figures under this last head
were based on the reports of the homework inspectors, who regularly
inspect each tenement licensed for homework and report the number
of persons engaged in such work at the time of the inspection. The
information thus obtained is not wholly satisfactory, but may be
taken to show the general trend. Two regular inspections are made
a year.
The following table shows the results obtained:
COURSE OF F A C T O R Y E M P L O Y M E N T A N D OF H O M E W O R K IN N E W Y O R K STATE
1911 TO 1930
Index numbers (average
1925-1927 = 100) of—

Year

Index numbers (average
1925-1927=100) of—

Num­
ber of
Home­ home­
work
workers in inspec­
tors
Men’s licensed
cloth­
tene­
ing in­ ments
dustry

Factory em­
ployees

All in­
dus­
tries
1911,............. .......
19 1 2
1913

1914......................
1 915
191ft
1 9 1 7 ____
1 918
1 919

1920......................




97
100
117
122
124
116
120

99
99
108
111
104
97
110

83
86
84
71
76
73
87
132
127
120

8
10
10
14
14
14
14
18
18
18

Year

All in­
dus­
tries

1921
1 922

1923......................
1924........... ..........
1925......................
1926......................
1927......................
1928—
___
1929-............... .
1930...............—

Num­
ber of
Home- home­
work
work­
ers in inspec­
Men’s licensed tors
cloth­
tene­
ing in­ ments
dustry

Factory em­
ployees

94
101
112
102
101
101
97
93
98
86

97
105
110
101
102
101
97
94
94
83

102
72
86
109
105
103
91
97
77
77

197

11
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20

198

HOMEWORK AND SWEATSHOPS

Apparently in periods of depression homework falls off more
sharply than factory work, although marked fluctuations in home­
work seem to have lagged somewhat behind those in factory work,
except for the present depression in which homework led in the
decline. Both business prosperity and business depression are
definitely reflected in the volume of homework, but the relation is
direct. Some of the factors influencing it are thus summarized.
It would seem, then, that there is a direct relation between the volume of
factory work and that of homework. There are various factors which must
influence this relationship. In some industries certain processes in the manu­
facturing or finishing of factory-made articles have lent themselves readily to
homework. In these cases homework has long held a definite place in the
industry and is expanded or curtailed as the volume of factory work itself in­
creases or diminishes. It is undoubtedly true that there are other industries
in which homework is substituted for factory work during a depression. In still
others, homeworkers constitute a reserve labor supply and as such are the first
workers to be dispensed with when business becomes dull. With their plants
and machinery in existence manufacturers in such industries are anxious to keep
their factory workers employed. Instead of increasing homework as a sub­
stitute for factory work at such times, they rely upon homework as a means of
expanding production beyond the capacity of their plants during periods of
greater activity.

Homework Under the National Recovery Program
V ID EN C E S of hardships worked upon some classes of labor
under code provisions prohibiting homework led the President
to issue an order on May 15, 1934, permitting homework to be done
by certain persons under specified conditions, provided a certificate
for each homeworker, issued in accordance with instructions of the
United States Department of Labor, was obtained from the State
agency designated by the Department as the certifying medium.
Joint application from the homeworker and the employer was re­
quired, and certificates were granted only to the following classes of
persons:

E

(1)
A homeworker who is suffering from a physical defect, injury, or illness
not of a contagious nature, which physically incapacitates such homeworker for
work in a factory or other regular place of business.
(2)
A homeworker whose services are absolutely essential at home to care for
another person who is either bedridden or an invalid, and neither person is suffer ing from a contagious disease.
(3)
A homeworker who was accustomed to this method of earning a living
before the code prohibition went into effect and is too old to be able to make an
adjustment to factory routine. (No able-bodied person under 50 shall be con­
sidered too old to make this adjustment.)

In Pennsylvania the special-exemption certificates required by the
Executive order were issued by the bureau of women and children
of the State department of labor and industries. In a report on
industrial homework in that State under the N. R. A., the bureau
stated that by March 1, 1935, it had issued 190 such certificates, 88
on account of disability, 49 to aged workers, and 53 to workers needed
at home to care for invalids. The special significance of the infor­
mation acquired through the issuance of these exemption certificates—
that is, the tendency of certain industries to apply for exemption—
was not minimized, in the opinion of the bureau, by the small number
involved. In this connection the report stated that the men’s neck­
wear industry, which employed only 2 percent of the homeworkers




HOMEWORK UNDER THE N. R. A.

199

reported in September 1933, had, in March 1935, 30 percent of the
workers to whom special -exemption certificates had been issued.
Not all codes prohibited home manufacture, however, and while
gains were made in the control of homework under the National
Recovery Administration, the preliminary report of a study made
by the United States Department of Labor showed that homeworkers
in the summer and fall of 1934 still received far less than a living
wage and worked excessively long hours. 1
The Department of Labor’s study was made between June and
November 1934, a year after the earliest codes became effective.
Some of the codes did not include provisions for the regulation of
homework, others set the rates of pay for homeworkers below the
rates for factory employees, and others established the same rate for
home and other workers by implication in the definitions of
“ employee” given. It was found that even where the codes had
raised the piece rates of homeworkers they still did not approximate
those of factory help. This is also true of the individual earnings of
homeworkers, which with few exceptions were on a lower level than
earnings of factory workers. Two industries studied, glove and lace
manufacturing, made a better showing as regards hourly earnings of
homeworkers than did the other industries. This was attributed in
part to the efforts of these two industries to regulate homework.
However, the efforts of the lace industry to limit working time and
employment of children in the home were found to have been unsuc­
cessful. In this particular industry the code authority conscien­
tiously tried to obtain reports on hours and persons employed but
had not been able to prevent the abuses mentioned. The report
states: “ This failure, like the failure to raise earnings, has been due
in part to the fact that piece rates have been set too low and in part—
in one branch of the industry, at least—to the use of the contract
system; but in general it is due to the inherent difficulties of regu­
lating homework.”
Granting that “ bootlegging” of homework continued under codes
that prohibited the practice, the report under review stated that
the volume of homework had been reduced after the prohibitions
became effective. Difficulty was encountered in locating home­
workers in the course of this study, in contrast with earlier periods
when it was necessary only to walk along the streets in certain areas
to see entire families at work in their homes.
Experience of manufacturers who had brought homeworkers into
their plants in accordance with code provisions indicated that the
necessary adjustments were not so great as was at first anticipated.
The presence of workers in the shops had facilitated the shipment of
orders, made it easier to correct mistakes, and contributed to the
development of more efficient methods of production. Employers
who had experienced these improvements believed that if homework
had been prohibited in all codes alike, so that no group of employers
would enjoy an unfair advantage over others, the abolition of home­
work would have been satisfactory.
The findings in this study, as summarized in the original report,
follow.
* U. S. Department of Labor. A Study of Industrial Homework in the Summer and Fall of 1934:
A Preliminary Report to the National Recovery Administration. (Mimeographed.)




200

HOMEWORK AND SWEATSHOPS

Summary of Findings
T h e study included interviews with 1,473 families containing 2,320
individual homeworkers. These families were located in 7 widely
scattered States, and were doing work for 24 industries. Eightyseven percent of the families were engaged on work for 9 industries:
Knitted outerwear (454); lace (217); infants' and children's wear
(138); art needlework (109); fresh-water pearl button (100); dolls'
dresses (86); tags (76); embroidery, etc. (51); gloves (50).
Although the majority of codes provided that the labor provisions
should apply to all persons working in the industry, only a few code
authorities gave special attention to the problem of obtaining com­
pliance with these standards for industrial homeworkers.
The findings of this study made a full year after the N. R. A. had
been set up indicate that standards for industrial homeworkers have
not been raised to anything approaching the level of factory standards.
Earnings, whether measured by the hour or the week, are extremely
low, inhumanly long hours are still permitted, and child labor is still
prevalent in the homework industries where children can profitably
be employed. One-third of the homeworkers making dolls' dresses,
and 8 percent of the homeworkers engaged on lace, were children
under 16. Of all the 2,282 homeworkers in all industries whose ages
were reported 8 percent were under 16 years of age.
Only 9 percent of the homeworkers for whom hourly earnings were
reported earned as much as 30 cents an hour, and only 5 percent
earned as much as 35 cents an hour— the hourly minimum rate gen­
erally set by the codes.
Hourly earnings were less than 10 cents an hour for a majority of
workers included in the study. The proportion earning under 10
cents an hour was 79 percent in knitted outerwear, 91 percent in
infants' and children's wear, and 78 percent in fresh-water pearl
button carding. Eighteen percent of the homeworkers earned less
than 5 cents an hour. In certain industries this proportion was very
much higher—67 percent of the workers knitting and crocheting
infants' wear, and 47 percent of those sewing and embroidering
infants' and children's dresses, earned less than 5 cents an hour.
Earnings above 15 cents an hour were comparatively frequent
only in gloves, lace, and art needlework.
Thirty-five percent of the chief homeworkers worked more than
usual code hours—40 a week; in one industry the proportion working
at least 50 hours in a week was as high as 57 percent. Instances
were found of workers who had labored for 70 and 80 hours a week,
knitting boucle dresses for women, or sewing and embroidering dresses
for children.
In 62 percent of the families interviewed a single person did home­
work; however, among the 1,473 families interviewed there were 2,320
individual workers, and in some families there were as many as 5 and 6
persons who regularly assisted the chief homeworker. Weekly
earnings were reported for the family doing homework as a group
regardless of the number who worked in that family. Half the
families received less than $3 a week from their homework. Only
6 percent received as much as $13 a week, which is the minimum
generally set by the codes for a single worker.




201

HOMEWORK UNDER THE N. R. A.

Two of the industries studied, lace and gloves, offered examples
of specific regulation of homework. In the lace industry regulations
issued by the code authority were designed to assure homeworkers
the same hours and earnings as those of factory workers; namely,
$13 a week and not more than 40 hours. In the glove industry a
minimum-wage scale had been adopted which gave homeworkers
rates 10 percent lower than those paid inside workers.
The following findings for the lace industry indicate that although
conditions under codes were better than in unregulated industries the
efforts to regulate made little progress in achieving the goal set:
(1) Only a fifth of the chief homeworkers on lace were earning as
much as 30 cents an hour (the code minimum was 32% cents).
(2) Seventeen percent of these homeworkers were working 50
hours a week or longer, although in one branch of the industry work
was slow; in lace cutting where more work was available this pro­
portion was much higher—29 percent.
(3) In 60 percent of the families doing lace at least 2 persons did
homework; in 22 percent of the families at least 3 persons worked.
A total of 425 persons were found working in 217 families, although
each homeworker was required to sign an agreement intended to
assure that only 1 person would do the work.
(4) Eight percent of the lace homeworkers (419 reported age) were
less than 16 years old (the code abolished child labor).
(5) Only one-third of the families had weekly earnings amounting
to $10 a week or over in spite of the fact that several persons com­
monly worked, and that hours as high as 60 and 70 a week were
reported by some workers (the code minimum was $13 a week).
In industries where there had been no special efforts at regulation
earnings were a great deal lower, and hours were limited only by the
amount of work the homeworker could obtain.
Table 1 shows the distribution of hourly earnings for the chief
homeworker for the 1,044 persons who reported on this item.
T a ble 1.—N U M B E R A N D P E R C E N T OF T O T A L CHIEF H O M E W O R K E R S CLASSIFIED
B Y H O U R L Y EAR NING S

Hourly earnings of chief
homeworker

Number

Percent
distribu­
tion

Total
______ ___________
Total reported
__ _______

1,473
1,044

100

Under 2 cents_______________
2 and n^der 4 cents
-4 and ifn^nr ft eents
fi and under 8 cents

20
91
164
152
151
168

2
9
16
15
14
16

8 and. under 10 cents— — —

10 and under 15 cents




Hourly earnings of chief
homeworker

15 and under 20 cents________

Number

45 cents or more____________

100
63
44
39
19
10
23

Not reported________________

429

20 and under 25 nents_ _ , _
OK a r iz l nnHflf OU UOll t o - . - . . 4SO o l l Li LI11vl OX QH

30 and under 35 cents________
35 and under 40 cents________

40 and under 45 eents

Percent
distribu­
tion
10
6
4
2
1
2

202

HOMEWORK AND SWEATSHOPS

Table 1 shows that only 5 percent of the total number of workers
received as much as 35 cents an hour, the usual code minimum-wage
rate.
In table 2 the distribution of the chief homeworkers is by the num­
ber of hours worked per week.
T a ble 2 ,—N U M B E R A N D P E R C E N T OF T O T A L CH IEF H O M E W O R K E R S CLASSIFIED
B Y W E E K L Y W O R K IN G T IM E

Weekly hours worked by
chief homeworker

Number

Percent
distribu­
tion

Total .........................................
Total reporting.........................

1,473
1,069

100

Under 20 hours..... ...................
20 and under 30 hours.............
30 and under 40 hours.............
40 and under 50 hours.............

240
196
207
172

22
18
19
16

Weekly hours worked by
chief homeworker

50 and under 60 hours_______
60 and under 70 hours. ...........
7fi and under 80 hours
_ _ .
80 hours or over_______ _____
Not reported______ _

_

Number

86
86
57
25

Percent
distribu­
tion
8
8
5
2

404

In spite of the intermittency of homework, with interruptions for
household duties, nearly one-half of the chief homeworkers devoted
35 hours or over per week to the work, and approximately one-fourth
worked 50 hours or over.
Homeworkers on Relief
I m p r o v e m e n t in earnings of homeworkers under the N. It. A.
codes was not sufficient in many cases to offset increased living costs
and the burden of continued unemployment of the major breadwinners
of the homeworking families. In consequence, many of these families
were on the public-relief rolls. The Bureau of Women and Children
of the Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry found in its
annual survey 2 of industrial homework in that State that in January
1935 one-fourth of the Philadelphia homeworkers reported by manu­
facturers of infants’ and children’s wear were from families who were
receiving relief, according to a check made with the relief agencies.
Similarly, in Connecticut, of the 129 families covered in a survey 3
of homework in the fabricated-metal industry, 47 percent were receiv­
ing aid from public relief in addition to their earnings, a condition
which the report held to be representative of the condition of home­
workers throughout the fabricated-metal industry. According to the
public relief rolls of the towns in which the industry is centered, 173
families, or 40 percent of the entire 438 families employed in home­
work, were receiving public aid during at least part of the year before
the study was made.

Growth of Sweatshop Conditions During the
Depression
OMPARATIVELY early in the depression social workers and
officials of State labor departments reported from different parts
of the country the reappearance and rapid growth of conditions in
industry which it was thought had been definitely abolished by law

C

1 Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry. Industrial Homework in Pennsylvania Under the
N . R. A. Harrisburg, March 1935. (Mimeographed.)
* Connecticut Department of Labor. Report of the Commissioner of Labor for the period ended June
30, 1934.




GROWTH OF SWEATSHOPS DURING DEPRESSION

203

and public opinion, such as illegally long hours, low pay, and violation
of protective labor legislation. The deterioration in working condi­
tions was stressed at a conference on Present Day Child Labor Prob­
lems, held in Washington, D. C., in December 1932.*
Frances Perkins and Joseph M. Tone, commissioners of labor of New York and
Connecticut, respectively; Beatrice McConnell of the Pennsylvania Department
of Labor; Edward F. Me Grady of the American Federation of Labor; Courtney
Dinwiddie of the National Child Labor Committee; and others, testified to the
appearance of a new variation of the old sweatshop, with unbelievably low wages
and long hours for children as well as adults. A relentless pressure on labor
standards was pictured.

Conditions in Various States
I n C o n n e c t ic u t the worst conditions seem to have been found in
the garment-making industry, in which “ runaway shops” were
responsible for a serious situation. -As early as 1929 the Connecticut
Chamber of Commerce noted a movement of factories, not confined
to the garment-making trades, from other States to Connecticut to
take advantage of the easier labor laws there, the trend being princi­
pally from New York State. At that time the movement was looked
upon as something to be encouraged. By 1931, however, the influx
of responsible establishments had apparently come to an end, and the
advent of a runaway shop had come to be recognized as a serious evil,
embodying the old-time abuses of the sweatshop. The State deputy
commissioner of labor, in an article published in the Pennsylvania
Labor Herald of November 19, 1932, thus described its method of
operation:
The sweatshop owner, however, still works out of and for New York. From
the New York manufacturers he receives shirts, underwear, or dresses, all cut,
ready for sewing. He brings them to some low-rent loft or abandoned factory
in which he has installed a few sewing machines and there hires women and girls
at pitifully low wages to do the sewing.
He has no capital invested in raw materials; little in anything. His entire
equipment can be moved overnight when he decides to skip town without paying
his wages or other bills.
Some of these employers literally pay no wages at all. Under the pretense of
hiring learners they get the girls to work for nothing for 2 or 3 weeks till they
learn the business. At the end of this period the girls are discharged and replaced
with another group of deluded learners. The employer thus gets his labor for
nothing.
Others, not quite so brazen, pay unmistakably low rates. The girls are lucky
if they get $3 at the end of a hard week and are rolling in wealth if their pay check
amounts to $6.

In addition, sanitary conditions were reported as bad and violations
of the hours law as frequent, although Connecticut permitted a 55hour week. The State commissioner of labor, speaking before the
Washington conference, said:
Employers have been known to punch the time cards of their employees, thus
showing a legal number of hours, while the employees, including minors, worked
overtime. Cases were found in which children worked 80 hours or more a week.

In Massachusetts attention was called especially to the situation
through the efforts of the State minimum-wage commission to enforce
the minimum-wage law:
An investigation made by the Massachusetts Minimum Wage Commission last
spring disclosed that rates as low as 10 cents— and in one case, 5 cents— an hour
4 U. S. Children's Bureau. Summary of the Conclusions of the Conference on Present Day Child Labor
Problems, December 1932. (Mimeographed.)




204

HOMEWORK AND SWEATSHOPS

were paid to girl workers in Fall River; hundreds were earning less than $5 a week.
In 5 plants investigated, manufacturing men's furnishings, women’s underwear,
house dresses, children’s dresses, only 5 employees earned more than $15 a week.
Of 1,616 employees in 13 plants making women’s apparel, 71 percent earned less
than $10 a week and 97 percent earned less than $15 a week. In one of the worstpaid shops hourly rates ranged from 10 cents to 16 cents an hour; the earnings
of these workers, if employed for a full week of 48 hours, would range from $4.80
to $7.68 a week. Practically all the shops paying these low wages had started
business in the town since the beginning of the present depression. Many
factories of similar character have been established in other Massachusetts cities
during this period. In New Bedford, for instance, it was found that wages paid
were even lower than in Fall River, and check-ups at later dates revealed that,
even after investigation by the minimum-wage commission, wages were contin­
uing downward.

Miss Perkins, then State industrial commissioner of New York,
stressed the fact that “ the jobs at present open to boys and girls
between 14 and 16 years of age offer practically nothing worth-while
from the standpoint either of training or earnings.”
So far as factory jobs for adolescents are concerned, one of the greatest diffi­
culties is the increase of very low-paid piecework. One order which came to a
junior office recently called for girls to clean men’s pants in a men’s clothing
shop. During the first few weeks the employer paid a salary of $7 a week.
From then on, however, payment was by the piece, at the rate of one-half cent
for each pair of pants cleaned. According to the girls placed on this work, it
takes about 5 minutes to clean a pair of pants. This means an hourly rate of 6
cents. In a 48-hour week, providing work came in steadily, the net earnings
would be $2.88.

From Pennsylvania, Maryland, and New Jersey also came com­
plaints of sweatshop conditions, especially where young workers were
concerned.
The Washington conference, which approached the problem from
the child-welfare point of view, planned a program for the emergency,
calling for an improvement in hour and age regulations for child
workers, for a stricter control over the employment of minors in
hazardous occupations, and for mandatory minimum-wage legislation
for minors under 18. To make these improvements effective, it held
that bureaus of women and children should be established in State
labor departments, or, if they already exist, should be strengthened,
and that business firms should be required to register with State labor
departments to facilitate inspection.




HOUSING AND BUILDING OPERATIONS

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




205




Building Construction in Principal Cities of the United
States 1931 to 1935

D

ATA concerning building permits issued are collected monthly
by the Bureau of Labor Statistics from all cities in the United
States having a population of 10,000 or over. Previous to the year
1933, information was collected only from cities having a population
of 25,000 or over.
The Bureau issues a monthly pamphlet showing, by geographic
divisions, the number and estimated cost of new residential buildings,
of new nonresidential buildings, of additions, alterations, and repairs,
of total building operations, and of the number of families provided
for.
Reports are also issued annually showing, by cities, the number and
estimated cost of each of the different kinds of buildings for which
permits are issued in the cities from which schedules are received.
For the calendar year 1934, schedules were received from 819 cities
having a population of 10,000 or over.
Comparable data for 355 identical cities are herein presented for the
years 1931 and 1932. This information is limited to cities having
a population of 25,000 or more.
Beginning with January 1933, however, the Bureau extended the
scope of its work on this subject to include cities having a population
of 10,000 or more. Therefore, to include the building activity of cities
having a population of 10,000 or more, data are also shown for 819
comparable cities for the years 1933 and 1934.
The cost figures shown in the following tables are for buildings only.
No land costs are included. Only buildings within the corporate
limits of the cities enumerated are shown. The States of Illinois,
Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, and Penn­
sylvania, through their departments of labor, are cooperating with
the Bureau of Labor Statistics in the collection of these data.
Trend in Expenditures for Building Construction, September 1929 to December 1935
T a b l e 1 gives index numbers showing families provided for and
expenditures for building operations, by months, from September
1929 to December 1935.




207

208
T a ble

HOUSING AND BUILDING OPERATIONS

1

.—IN D E X N U M B E R S OF F AM ILIES PR O VID ED FOR A N D OF IN D IC A T E D
E X P E N D IT U R E S FOR B U ILD IN G OPERATIONS, SE P T E M B E R 1929 TO D E C E M B E R
1935
[Monthly average, 1929=100]
Indicated expenditures for—

Year and month

Families
Addi­
Total
provided New resi­ New non- tions, al­
residenbuilding
dential
terations construc­
tial build­
buildings
and re­
ings
tion
pairs

1929
September.......................................... ................................
October_______ _____________ _____________ _________
November...................... .............. ............ .........................
December................ ................................. — ....................

70.2
64.4
51.7
35.9

63.7
61.6
44.8
30.2

81.3
107.9
89.6
74.3

95.0
115.2
95.2
66.1

73.7
85.7
68.1
51.7

1930
January. ............................. .............. —...........................
February.............................................................. ..............
March........... — ...............................................— ............
April................... ........................ ..........- ............ .............
M ay-------------- ------------------------------- ------- -----------------June----------------- -------------------- --------------------------------July.............................................. ......................................
August................... ...................... ...................... - ............
September................................................ ........................
October— .........................................—............ ...............
November........................ ...................................... ..........
December------------------------------ ----------- ---------------------

34.2
43.0
57.1
62.0
59.6
54.4
49.9
48.7
51.3
58.3
52.9
45.0

29.4
34.7
47.2
51.0
48.5
45.1
44.1
43.4
44.4
44.9
42.5
37.6

64.3
51.8
87.1
100.1
90.7
82.5
86.7
67.2
73.8
53.5
54.4
64.3

55.1
57.5
77.5
81.8
84.5
74.6
77.4
58.6
64.2
58.1
37.8
53.5

46.1
44.1
66.4
73.8
69.3
63.3
64.8
54.4
58.2
49.7
46.3
50.1

1931
January........................................ .....................................
February.............................................................................
March....................................... ........... ............................
April.......................................... — ............................... —
M ay...................................................................—..............
June.............................................. ......................................
July.............................................. ......................................
August.................................................................................
September____ _______ ____________________________
October— ................. ............... .......... .......... ...................
November............. ........................ ...................................
December....................................... ...................................

39.1
40.3
53.4
64.6
51.7
43.4
35.8
36.6
30.1
33.7
23.8
14.7

30.8
30.3
40.7
48.6
39.8
33.4
27.6
33.5
24.8
25.4
19.0
11.8

43.4
43.8
76.4
73.9
58.5
41.7
53.7
63.9
41.8
34.8
32.7
32.9

55.5
48.6
58.0
65.2
53.0
56.5
57.8
48.3
41.0
39.8
33.6
27.3

38.9
37.9
57.1
60.6
48.8
39.4
41.7
47.3
33.5
30.8
26.2
22.3

1932
January..............................................................................
February................................... ........................................
March.................................................................................
April..................... - ...........................................................
M ay.............................................................................. .......
June....................................... ...................... ....................
July........ ..........................................................................
August................................................................................
September................................. ........................................
October............................... ............................................—
November...........................................................................
December............................................................................

14.4
13.0
15.4
13.4
11.3
10.6
8.2
9.7
10.8
9.5
6.4
5.0

10.2
9.1
10.7
9.7
7.9
7.9
5.6
6.8
7.5
6.6
4.9
3.6

25.0
16.5
18.1
25.0
39.3
24.6
16.1
15.7
11.4
12.6
21.8
17.3

25.8
26.7
27.0
32.0
27.3
28.2
22.6
24.9
21.7
22.8
14.9
13.7

18.2
14.3
15.7
18.8
23.3
17.3
12.0
12.6
10.7
11.0
13.0
10.5

1933
January.......... ...................... .............................................
February........ ..................................... ........................ .
March............. ....................................................................
April...................................................................... ..............
M ay.................................................................. .......... .........
June....................................................................... ..............
July.....................................................................................August.................................................................................
September.......................... .................... ............ ..............
October...............................................................................
November............. ............. ...................... ...................
December........................... ............................................-

4.9
5.6
7.2
7.4
11.9
12.3
10.2
8.9
11.8
6.5
12.1
6.7

3.4
4.6
4.2
4.6
8.1
8.8
8.0
7.1
8.6
5.2
8.6
4.6

26.8
8.9
6.9
9.9
33.8
11.5
10.9
10.4
12.8
13.1
10.3
13.8

16.2
14.2
20.9
22.6
29.8
33.3
26.7
29.4
25.5
30.1
18.3
23.5

14.7
7.9
7.8
9.5
21.7
13.8
12.2
11.9
13.1
12.1
11.0
11.1




209

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IN PRINCIPAL CITIES

T a ble 1 . —IN D E X N U M B E R S OF FAM ILIES PR O VID ED FOR A N D OF IN D IC A T E D
E X P E N D IT U R E S FOR BU ILD IN G OPERATIONS, SE P T E M B E R 1929 TO D E C E M B E R
1935— C ontinued
Indicated expenditures for—
Families
Addi­
provided New resi­ New non- tions, al­
Total
residenfor
dential tial build­ terations building
construc­
buildings
and re­
ings
tion
pairs

Year and month

1934
January____________________ ____ _________________
February________________________________________ March____ ________________________ ____ __________
April______ _____ _________________ _______________
M ay_____ _________________________________________
June_____ ______________ __________________________
July_______________ _______________________________
August____ _____ _____ ___________________________
September.................. .................... .
........ _............ .
October____________________________________________
November_________________________________________
December___________ ______ ______ ________________

3.7
3.8
7.2
9.0
10.2
7.2
7.8
7.6
7.4
9.9
8.2
5.4

2.8
3.2
5.7
6.7
7.3
5.3
5.3
5.4
5.7
6.8
5.9
4.0

10.5
10.3
10.9
13.6
20.4
12.6
16.8
17.0
12.6
16.4
16.1
10.2

24.2
22.2
27.0
30.1
36.4
34.4
35.8
34.1
32.0
43.5
31.2
23.2

8.9
8.7
10.8
12.8
16.7
12.4
14.2
14.1
12.3
16.0
13.7
9.3

1935
January.............. ................................................... ............
February___ ____ _________________________________
March., ____________________________ ______ _____
April____ _______ _________________________________
M ay_____ _________________________________________
June_________________ _______ _____________________
July______________ _______ ________________________
August____ _______________________________________
September_________________________________________
October_________________________________ _________ _
November_________________________________________
December______________________ __________________

7.3
8.5
16.6
18.9
20.0
20.8
20.6
20.6
19.0
24.5
22.6
15.5

• 5.1
5.6
11.4
13.0
14.2
16.1
15.3
15.5
14.2
19.1
16.9
12.9

11.1
13.9
18.6
21.2
19.9
24.4
22.2
32.5
25.2
27.4
26.8
32.7

27.9
29.7
41.6
45.5
47.2
43.6
50.9
54.8
46.8
50.9
39.3
35.6

10.9
12.5
19.2
21.6
22.0
24.3
24.1
28.5
24.0
28.2
25.0
24.2

Amount and Cost of Building, 1931 to 1935
T a b l e 2 shows the total number of new buildings and the estimated
cost of each of the different kinds of new buildings for which permits
were issued for each year 1931 to 1935. The data for 1931 and 1932
cover 355 identical cities; those for 1933 and 1934 cover 819 identical
cities; and those for 1935 cover 811 cities.
T a ble 3 .—N U M B E R OF BU ILD IN G S A N D COST OF B U ILD IN G C O N STR U CTIO N FOR
W H IC H P E R M IT S W E R E ISSUED, 1931-35
3 5 5 identical cities
Buildings for which permits were issued
1931

Kind of building

1932

Num­
ber
Residential buildings:
1-family dwellings.............................................................
2-family dwellings.________________________________
1-family and 2-family dwellings with stores com­
bined.......................................................................... .
Multifamily dwellings_________ _________________ _
Multifamily dwellings with stores combined.............
Hotels.............................................. ............ ..................... .
Lodging houses................................................. ................
All other............................................................................
Total.................................... ...........................................

19 2 0 5 — 31




15

Cost

Num­
ber

54,769
5,604

$260,160,285
38,869,831

22,226
1,648

$85,438,316
10,078,284

541
2,172
99
19
10
91

3,952,649
132,901,079
9,452,626
2,112,633
335,800
9,829,934

236
430
32
6
12
18

1,462,010
13,024,528
563,000
205,000
132,300
1,678,192

63,305

457,614,837

24,608

112,581,630

Cost

210

HOUSING AND BUILDING OPERATIONS

T a ble 2 . —N U M B E R OF BUILDINGS A N D COST OF B U ILD IN G C O N ST R U CT IO N FOR
W H IC H PER M IT S W E R E ISSUED, 1931-35—Continued
8 5 5 identical cities — Continued
Buildings for which permits were issued
1931

Kind of building
Num­
ber

1932

Cost

Nonresidential buildings:
Amusement buildings________
Churches............................. ........
Factories and workshops..........
Public garages.............................
Private garages...........................
Service stations_________ _____
Institutions,..............................
Office buildings........................
Public buildings______________
Public works and utilities........
Schools and libraries__________
Sheds.......................... ...............
Stables and barns____________
Stores and warehouses________
All other............ r____ ________

550
495
1,536
1,090
81,002
3,884
247
283
407
491
575
9,630
268
7,123
2,677

Total............................. ............

110,258

Total new buildings..............
Additions, alterations, and repairs.

173,563
238,448
412,011

1,322,622,058

Grand total, all buildings.

Num­
ber

Cost

373
266
815
354
44,172
3,249
117
135
225
313
205
10,186
281
4,707
1,397

$12,709,193
9,064,325
17,572,871
2,626,601
10,630,807
6,728,645
16,805,722
10,316,101
106,459,208
25,648,660
43,858,016
2,525,008
324,936
25,928,014
5,495,030

662,888,013

66,795

296,693,137

1,120,502,850
202,119,208

91,403
197,482

409,274,767
109,957,878

288,885

519,232,645

$24,078,018
18,967,885
48,841,646
11,108,302
24,014,561
10,500,297
58,426,078
107,125,643
129,180,308
43,962,932
113,696,583
2,897,432
487,579
66,816,236
2,784,513

8 1 9 identical cities
. 1933
Residential buildings:
1family dwellings.................... ............. ......
2family dwellings_______ _______________
1-family and 2-family dwellings with stores com­
bined........................................................................ ......
Multifamily dwellings_____ ______________________
Multifamily dwellings with stores combined...........
Hotels.............................
Lodging houses........... .
All other....................... .

1934

22,358
1,267

$84,987,866
7,134,113

20,396
977

$78,994,055
5,841,003

259
364
17
2
15
22

1,312,039
28,828,177
208,508
102,500
103,860
1,009,709

216
320
23
3
6
49

1,013,207
18,947,496
510,800
160,000
24,350
2,450,670

24,304

123,686,772

21,990

107,941,581

437
324
1,046
380
40,938
3,057
87
111
169
251
98
12,863
496
5,215
545

5,296,579
5,742,525
20,653,069
2,005,631
9,255,892
7,062,800
20,863,575
5,551,977
36,889,256
57,534,914
11,866,192
3,230,973
407,077
25,459,327
1,043,705

603
401
1,163
515
37,935
3,002
124
164
351
393
482
12,378
686
5,424
1,104

10,277,168
5,808,220
18,150,747
3,362,514
9,104,102
9,520,811
13,034,008
14,370,968
41,432,384
14,558,905
36,529,900
3,441,317
1,120,814
33,505,266
1,561,817

Total..........................................

66,017

212,863,492

64,725

215,778,941

Total, new buildings.............
Additions, alterations, and repairs.

90,321
236,967

336,550,264
130,506,357

86,715
264,506

323,720,522
168,910,014

Grand total, all buildings.—

327,288

467,056,621

351,221

492,630,536

Total...........................
Nonresidential buildings:
Amusement buildings.
Churches........................ ..............
Factories and workshops..........
Public garages.............................
Private garages............................
Service stations.................... ......
Institutions. ...............................
Office buildings..... .....................
Public buildings.........................
Public works and utilities........
Schools and libraries..................
Sheds...........................................
Stables and barns. ....................
Stores and warehouses...............
All other.......................................




211

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IN PRINCIPAL CITIES

T able 2 .—N U M B E R OF BUILD IN G S A N D COST OF B U ILD IN G CO N STR U CTIO N FOR
W H IC H PER M ITS W E R E ISSUED, 1931-35— Continued
8 1 1 C ities
Buildings for which
permits were issued

Buildings for which
permits were issued
Kind of building

Kind of building

1935
Num­
ber

62
12
16
78

Total................................

Num­
ber

Cost

Residential buildings:
1family dwellings............. $201,953,620
49,001
2-family dwellings_________
2,047 11,126,852
1- and 2-family dwellings
381
1, 629,941
with stores combined____
Multifamily dwellings........
1,461 69,176,309
Multifamily dwellings with
stores combined— ............
Hotels____________________
Lodging houses.....................
All other__________________

1935

3, 259,150
328,039
72,047
3, 681,273

Nonresidental buildings—
Continued.
Service stations.....................
Institutions............................
Office buildings.....................
Public buildings..............—
Public works and utilities—
Schools and libraries............
Sheds...... ................................
Stables and barns.................
Stores and warehouses.........
All other.................................

Cost

3,642 $11,098,439
111 21,121,907
216
8,429,935
451 77,005,494
391 26,534,078
434
12,039
523
7,000
899

55,244,178
3,561,207
586, 268
42,909,331
1,872,984

53,058 291, 227,231

Nonresidential buildings:
Amusement buildings.........
Churches_________________
Factories and workshops—
Public garages............ ..........
Private garages......................

Total................................
569
486
1,584
567
50, 527

12,550,678
7,310, 651
32,324, 740
3,770, Oil
12,410,326

79,439 316,730,227

Total, new buildings—
Additions, alterations, and
repairs.....................................

132,497 607,957,458
317,626 228,546, 659

Grand total...................

450,123 836, 504,117

Families Provided for, 1931 to 1935
T a b l e 3 s h o w s th e n u m b e r o f fa m ilie s p r o v i d e d f o r in e a c h o f th e
d iffe r e n t k in d s o f d w e llin g s f o r w h ic h p e r m it s w e r e is s u e d d u r in g th e
c a le n d a r y e a r s 1931, 1932, 1933, a n d 1934.
T able 3 .— N U M B E R A N D PER C E N T A G E OF F A M IL Y D W E L L IN G U NITS PR O VID ED ,
1931-34
[355 identical cities in 1931 and 1932; 819 identical cities in 1933 and 1934]
Number of new dwellings for
which permits were issued

Families provided for

Kind of dwelling
1931

1932

1933

1934

1931

1932

1933

1934

All dwellings..................................................... 63,185 24,572 24,265 21,932 106,077 30,386 34,870

29,908

1-family dwellings............................................. 54,769 22,226 22,358 20,396
_
2-family dwellings..............................■............ 5,604 1,648 1,267
977
1-family and 2-family dwellings with stores
combined........................................................
541
236
259
216
Multifamily dwellings........ ............................. 2,172
430
364
320
Multifamily dwellings with stores com­
bined...............................................................
99
32
17
23

20,396
1,954

54,769 22,226 22,358
11,208 3,296 2,534
762
37,103

307
4,404

318
9,570

262
7,135

2,235

153

90

161

During 1935, permits were issued in 811 cities for 52,952 dwellings,
which were planned to house 76,515 families. Of these 76,515
dwelling units, 49,001 or 64 percent were in 1 -family dwellings,
21,870 or 28.6 percent were in apartment houses, 4,094 were in
2-family dwellings, 1,100 were in apartment houses with stores com­
bined, and 450 were in 1- and 2-family dwellings, with stores
combined.




212

HOUSING AND BUILDING OPERATIONS

FAMILY DWELLING UNITS PROVIDED
AS INDICATED BY BUILDING PERMITS
Thousands0
/

Dwellings

257 Identical Cities

Thousands

°SDwellings

500

500
E 23

M ULTI-FAM ILY DWELLINGS

ONE-FAMILY DWELLINGS

450

450
M B

TWO-FAMILY DWELLINGS

400

400

350

350

300

300

250

200

200

150

100

1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 !92Q 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935

U .S . BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS




BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IN PRINCIPAL CITIES

213

Table 4 shows the number and percentage distribution of families
provided for in the different kinds of dwellings in 257 identical cities,
for the years 1921 to 1935.
T able 4 .—N U M B E R A N D P E R C E N T OF F AM ILIES PR O VID ED FOR IN D IF F E R E N T
K IN D S OF D W E L L IN G S IN 257 ID E N T IC A L CITIES, 1921 TO 1935
Number of families provided for in—
Year
1-family
dwellings

1921.......................
1922.......................
1923.......................
1924.......................
1925.......................
1926.......................
1927.......................
1928.......................
1929.......................
1930.......................
1931____ _______
1932............ ..........
1933............ ..........
1934.......... ............
1935____________

130,873
179,364
207,632
210,818
226,159
188,074
155,512
136,907
98,164
57,318
48,330
19,528
14, 437
13,397
31,030

Percent of families provided for in—

Multi­
All classes
2-family
family
dwell­
dwellings 1 dwellings 2 of ings
38,858
80,252
96,344
95,019
86,145
64,298
54,320
43,098
27,813
15,145
11,310
3,400
2,124
1,457
3,023

54,814
117,689
149,697
137,082
178,918
209,842
196,263
208,673
118,417
52,859
38,538
4,453
9,318
7,209
21,757

224,545
377,305
453,673
442,919
491,222
462,214
406,095
388,678
244,394
125,322
98,178
27,381
25,879
22,063
55,810

1-family
dwellings

Multi­
2-family
family
dwellings 1 dwellings 2

58.3
47.5
45.8
47.6
46.0
40.7
38.3
35.2
40.2
45.7
49.2
71.3
55.8
60.7
55.6

17.3
21.3
21.2
21.5
17.5
13.9
13.4
11.1
11.4
12.1
11.5
12.4
8.2
6.6
5.4

24.4
31.2
33.0
30.9
36.4
45.4
48.3
63.7
48.5
42.2
39.3
16.3
36.0
32.7
39.0

1 Includes 1-family and 2-family dwellings with stores.
2 Includes multifamily dwellings with stores.

Expenditures for Building Operations, 1921 to 1935
T a b l e 5 shows the estimated expenditures for new residential build­
ings, for new nonresidential buildings, for additions, alterations, and
repairs, and for total building operations in 257 identical cities, for
the years 1921 to 1935, together with the estimated population as of
July 1 each year; the number of families provided for; the ratio of
families provided for to each 10,000 of population; and index numbers
of each of these items, and of families provided for weighted by
population.
T able 5 .—E ST IM A T E D E X P E N D IT U R E S FOR B U ILD IN G C O N STR U CTIO N , FAM ILIES
PR O VID ED FOR, A N D IN D E X N U M B E R S TH E R E O F IN 257 ID E N T IC A L CITIES, 1921 TO
1935
New residential
buildings

New nonresidential buildings

Additions, alterations, and repairs
Estimated
expendi­
tures

Total building
operations

Year
Estimated
expendi­
tures
1921—
1922—
1923—
1924
1925
1926
1927—
1928—
1929—
1930—
1931—
1932—
1933—
1934—
1935—

..........
...................
...................
____________
__________
____________
__________
__________
____________
....... ..........
__________
__________
..................
.................
__________
__________
__________
.................




Index
num­
ber

Estimated
expendi­
tures

$937,352,739
1,612,352,921
2,000,986,900
2,070,276,772
2,461,546,270
2,255,994,627
1,906,003,260
1,859,429,751
1,433,111,774
601,269,847
426,270,111
103,452,079
91,298,433
76,370,924
211,987,850

100.0
172.0
213.5
220.9
262.6
240.7
203.3
198.4
152.9
64.1
45,5
11.0
9.7
8.1
22.6

$635,775,199
876,276,713
1,070,596,718
1,137,631,080
1,343,880,884
1,300,840,876
1,231,785,870
1,135,549,986
1,146,958,101
849,386,873
622,830,444
275,788,958
183,065,712
164,627,281
260,093,152

Index
num­
ber

Index Estimated
num­
expendi­
ber
tures

Index
num­
ber

100.0 $282,651,791 100.0 $1,855,779,729 100.0
137.8 297,310,776 105.2 2,785,940,410 150.1
168.4 359,678,980 127.3 3,431,262,598 184.9
178.9 300,358,735 106.3 3,508,266.587 189.0
211.4 232,635,185 82.3 4,038,062,339 217.6
204.6 270,091,701 85.6 3,826,927,204 206.2
193.7 340,815,932 120.6 3,478,605,062 187.4
178.6 309,719,975 109.6 3,304,699,712 178.1
180.4 353,047,656 124.9 2,933,117,531 158.1
133.6 249,018,794 88.1 1,699,675,514 91.6
98.0 188,884,738 66.8 1,237,985,293 66.7
43.4 102,249,230 36.2 481,490,267 25.9
28.8 108,025,306 38.2 382,389,451 20.6
25.9 135,688,065 48.0 376,686,270 20.3
40.9 183,132,408 64.8 655,213,410 35.3

214

HOUSING AND BUILDING OPERATIONS

T a ble 5 .—E ST IM A T E D E X P E N D IT U R E S FOR B U ILD IN G CO N STR U CTIO N , F AM ILIES
PROVIDED FOR, A N D I N D E X N U M B E R S T H ER EO F IN 257 ID E N T IC A L CITIES, 1921 TO
1935—Continued
Population

Year

Families provided for

As estimated
by Census
Bureau

1921.....................................
1922.....................................
1923.....................................
1924.....................................
1925.....................................
1926.....................................
1927.....................................
1928.....................................
1929.....................................
1930.....................................
1931....................................
1932.....................................
1933.....................................
1934.....................................
1935.....................................

Index
number

36,575,118
37,511,516
38,447,913
39,384,311
40,320,708
41,257,106
42,058,897
42,767,125
43,665,235
144,850,467
45,896,339
46,647,939
47,411,849
(3
)
(*)

100.0
102.6
105.1
107.7
110.2
112.8
115.0
116.9
119.4
122.6
125.5
127.5
129.6
(3
)
(3
)

Index
number

Number

Ratio to each
10,000 of popu­
lation

100.0
168.0
202.0
197.3
218.8
205.8
180.9
173.1
108.8
55.8
43 7
12.2
11.5
9.8
24.9

61.4
100.6
118.0
112.5
121.8
112.0
96.6
90.9
56.0
27.9
21.4
5.9
5.5
*4.7
3 11.8

224,545
377,305
453,673
442,919
491,222
462,214
406,095
38o,678
244,394
125,322
98,178
27,381
25,879
22,063
55,810

Index
number
adjusted
to popu­
lation
100.0
163.7
192.2
183.2
198.4
182.4
157.3
148.1
91.1
45.5
34.8
9.6
8.9
3 7.6
3 19.2

1Actual enumeration.
1 No estimate made.
3 Based on 1933 population.

Average Cost of Dwellings per Family, 1921 to 1935
T a b l e 6 shows the average cost per family unit, each year 1921 to
1935, of housing accommodations of each type for which permits
were issued in the 257 identical cities from which reports were received.
The cost figures from which these averages were computed are as
stated by the prospective builder on applying for his permit to build.
Mo land costs are included. There may be a profit or loss between
the cost to the owner and the cost to the purchaser.
T able 6 .—A V E R A G E COST OF N E W D W E L L IN G S i PER F A M IL Y IN 257 ID E N T IC A L
CITIES, 1921 TO 1935
[This table does not attempt to show the change in the cost of erecting an identical building, but it does
show the change in the cost of such building as was erected]

Average cost of new dwellings per family

Index numbers of cost of dwellings per
family (1921=100)

Year
1-family
dwellings

1921...............
1922...............
1923-.............
1924...............
1925...............
1926...............
1927________
1928...............
1929...............
1930...............
1931...............
1932...............
1933—...........
1934..............
1935_______

$3,972
4,134
4,203
4,317
4,618
4,725
4,830
4,937
4,915
4,993
4,834
3,943
3,844
3,801
4,228

Multi­
All classes 1-family
2-family
family
dwell­ dwellings
dwellings3 dwellings3 ofings
$3,762
3,801
4,159
4,336
4,421
4,480
4,368
4,064
4,020
3,924
3,607
3,250
3,110
3,316
2,955

$4,019
3,880
4,001
4,418
4,289
4,095
4,170
4,129
4,402
3,857
3,644
3,011
3,040
2,612
3,201

$3,947
4,005
4,127
4,352
4,464
4,422
4,449
4,407
4,566
4,385
4,225
3,705
3,494
3,381
3,759

1 Includes only cost of the buildings.
1 Includes 1-family and 2-family dwellings with stores.
1 Includes multifamily dwellings with stores.




100.0
104.1
105.8
108.7
116.3
119.0
121.6
124.3
123.7
125.7
121.7
99.3
96.8
95.7
106.4

MultiAll classes
2-family
family
dwell­
dwellings3 dwellings3 of ings

.

100.0
101.0
110.6
115.3
117.5
119.1
116.1
108.0
106.9
104.3
95.9
86.4
82.7
88.1
78.5

100.0
96.5
99.6
109.9
106.7
101.9
103.8
102.7
109.5
96.0
90.7
74.9
75.6
65.0
79.6

100.0
101.5
104.6
110.3
113.1
112.0
112.7
111.7
115.7
111.1
107.0
93.9
88.5
85.7
95.2

CONSTRUCTION FINANCED FROM FEDERAL FUNDS

215

Prices of Building Materials, Wages, and Rents, 1921 to 1935
T h e Bureau of Labor Statistics collects monthly the wholesale
prices of building materials and from such figures computes index
numbers. Retail prices paid by builders are not available, but it is
believed that the trend of retail prices follows closely that of wholesale
prices.
The index numbers shown in table 7 for wage rates in the building
trades are for union labor only. In many cities the building trades
are highly organized, while in others there is considerable nonunion
labor. The Bureau has no data concerning the wages of nonunion
workers.
Information concerning rents is collected by the Bureau semi­
annually in 32 cities.
T able 7 —IN D E X N U M B E R S OF BU ILD IN G E X P E N D IT U R E S , M A T E R IA L PRICES,
U N IO N W AG ES, A N D R ENTS, 1921 TO 1935

Year

1921..................................................
1922...........................................................................
1923......................................... ....................................
1924.................................................................... ........
1925_______ ____________ _____________________
1926....................... ........... ........... .......................... .
1927.................................................. .............. ............
1928................... .................... ....................................
1929.......................... .................... ............................
1930............................................................................
1931.......................................... .............. ...................
1932......................................... ............ .......................
1933.............................................. .............................
1934............................................................................
1935............................................. ..........................

Estimated
expenditures
for building
operations in
257 identical
cities
100.0
150.1
184.9
189.0
217.6
206.2
187.4
178.1
158.1
91.6
66.7
25.9
20.6
20.3
35.3

Wholesale
prices of
building
materials

100.0
99.9
111.6
105.0
104.4
102.7
97.2
96.6
97.9
92.3
81.4
73.3
79.1
76.7
87.6

Union wage
rates per hour
in the build­
ing trades

100.0
93.4
103.6
112.2
116.3
124.0
128.5
129.0
130.6
136.2
137.9
117.5
116.0
(’)
(»)

Rent (32
cities)1

100.0
102.9
105.6
109.3
109.8
108.8
107.0
104.5
102.0
99.3
94.1
84.4
72.7
68.1
•68.1

1 The revised index has been computed by weighting the indexes computed for individual cities by the
population represented by each.
3 No data collected.
• Preliminary.

Value of Contracts Awarded for Construction Financed
From Federal Funds, 1933 to 1935
H E value of contracts awarded and force-account work started
on construction projects financed from Federal funds from
July 1933 to October 1935 is given in the following table, by type of
construction. The table also includes certain “ white-collar” projects.

T




216

HOUSING AND BUILDING OPERATIONS

VALU E OF CO N T R A C T S A W A R D E D A N D FO R C E -A C C O U N T W O R K S T A R T E D ON
CO N STR U CTIO N A N D W H IT E -C O L L A R PROJECTS F IN A N C E D F R O M F E D E R A L
FUNDS, JULY 1933 TO OCTOBER 1935 i
Public Works Administration

Type of construction

Total

Regular
govern­
The Works
mental
Program 2
appropria­
tions 3

Non-Federal
Federal
N . I. R. A. E. R. A. A.
1935 4

All types___________________ $3,116,884,746 $286,231, 228 $330,546,368 $1,635,376,758 $841,303,060 $23,427,332
Building................. ............. .
F o r e s t r y ._
___________
Hydroelectric power plants. _
Naval vessels_______________
Plant, crop, and livestock
eontrol
Public roads:
....... _ .
Roads
Grade-crossing elimina-

4

582,405,719 30,471,575 55,503,513 161,063,015 324,055,026 11,312,590
1,496,902
709,130
Electrification4_____________
693,995
93,777
16,075,165
29,932,665 13,857,500
2,344,800
2,344,800
393,723,489
146,807,834 246,915,655
18,270,758

18,270,758

657,865,131

17,307,457

5,429,907

5,429,907

201,293,643
242,167,892

66,476,932

574,080, 742

44,094,719

3,321,255

194,635,420

518,792,563 120,398,379
6,503,210
138,045,327
217,992,012
746,709
17,905,934 17,905,934
89,218,004
8,191,150

46,783,969
5,510,755
501,043

Railroad construction and
Reclamation
________ __
River, harbor, and flood
nnntrnl
Streets and roads6_________
Water and sewerage systems.
White-collar projects 6 _____
Miscellaneous______________

201,293, 643

4,947,072

116,498

15,309
351,594,906
35,818,295 88,705,758 1,507,309
5,995,049 200,479,378 10,269,833
49,198,511

26,769,255

112,016

1 Based on figures received up to Jan. 15,1936.
2 July 1935 to October 1935. Does not include data for that part of The Works Program operated by the
Works Progress Administration.
3 July 1934 to October 1935.
4 July 1935 to October 1935.
3 August 1935 to October 1935.
3 Other than those reported by the Bureau of Public Roads.

Elapsed Time in Building Construction
H E following is a summary of the results of an inquiry made
by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1932 to ascertain the length
of time elapsing (1) between the date of issue of a building permit and
the date work was started on the building, and (2) between the date
work was started and the date the building was ready for occupancy.
The study covered the permits for new construction issued in 14
representative cities in 1931. For purposes of comparison the results
of a similar previous investigation covering 10 of these cities in 1929
are also given. Data for each of these cities separately and other
detailed data were published in the Monthly Labor Review for
January 1933 (p. 158).
JNo data were collected concerning additions, alterations, and
repairs, and the studies were further restricted by the omission of such
buildings as private garages, sheds, stables, and barns, which though
large in number were low in value. In the 1931 analysis, also, 243
buildings (slightly more than 2 percent of the total) were eliminated
because construction was not carried to completion, due to lack of
funds or to other causes; by far the largest number of these were
one-family dwellings.

T




217

ELAPSED TIME IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

The objects of these studies were to determine—
(1) How many permits were allowed to lapse or were canceled.
(2) How soon work was available in the construction of the building
after issuance of the permit.
(3) The length of time for which employment was available on the
different types of buildings.
Lapses and Cancelations
T a b l e 1 s h o w s , f o r 1929 a n d 1931, th e v a lu e o f la p s e d p e r m it s a n d
th e p e r c e n t t h e y f o r m o f th e t o t a l e s t im a t e d c o s t o f p e r m it s f o r all
b u ild in g s in c l u d e d in th e s t u d y in 10 s e le c t e d c itie s , b y k in d s o f
b u ild in g s .
T a ble 1.—V ALUE A N D P E R C E N T OF LAPSED PER M ITS IN 10 CITIES, B Y K IN D S OF
BU ILD IN G S, 1929 A N D 1931
Estimated cost

Lapsed permits

Kind of building

Estimated cost
1929

Percent

1931
1929

1931

1929

1931

All buildings____________________________ $404, 560,994 $184,336, 713 $8,879,850 $6,077,200

2.2

3.3

1family dwellings_____________
2-family dwellings____ ___________________
Apartment buildings__________ ________
Public buildings________________________
Commercial buildings___________________

.6
.5
8.0
1.0
.5

2.8
4.5
8.6
.5
2.8

70,121,310
21,879,042
84,069,012
93,579,822
134,911,808

35,128,155
12,104,150
39,867,460
70,355,071
26,881,877

432,350
114,700
6,702,500
957,000
673,300

970,950
538,700
3,425,500
386,500
755,550

In 1929 the value of buildings for which permits were canceled or
allowed to lapse in these 10 cities was $8,879,850, or 2.2 percent of
the value of all buildings included in this study, as compared with
$6,077,200, or 3.3 percent, in 1931. The value of lapsed permits was
greater in 1931 than in 1929 in the case of 1-family dwellings, 2-family
dwellings, and commercial buildings, but less in the case of apartment
* houses and public buildings.
Table 2 shows the number of lapsed permits in these 10 cities and
the percent such permits form of the total, by kinds of buildings.
T a ble 2 .—N U M B E R A N D P E R C E N T OF LAPSED P E R M IT S IN 10 CITIES, B Y K IN D S OF
BUILDINGS, 1929 A N D 1931
Number

Lapsed permits

Kind of bulling

Number
1929

Percent

1931
1929

1931

1929

1931

All buildings.......................... ....................... ................

19,316

10,832

186

387

1.0

3.6

1-family dwellings----- -----------------------------------------2-family dwellings.........................................................
Apartment buildings..................................................
Commercial buildings...................... ..........................
Public buildings.................................. .......................

13,073
2,472
1,207
2,189
375

7,152
1,511
618
1,365
186

96
20
45
21
4

196
68
45
72
6

.7
.8
3.7
1.0
1.1

2.7
4.5
7.3
5.3
3.2




218

HOUSING AND BUILDING OPERATIONS

In these 10 cities, permits were issued during 1931 for 10,832
buildings of the type considered in this study. Of this number 387, or
3.6 percent, lapsed or were canceled. During 1929, only 1 percent of
the permits issued were canceled. The percentage of cancelations
was also larger in 1931 than in 1929 for each class of buildings studied.
The highest percentage of lapses occurred in permits for apartment
houses.
Lag Between Issue of Permit and Start of Work

T able 3 shows the number of buildings on which work was started
during 1929 and 1931 in these 10 cities, by kinds of buildings, and by
the number of days elapsing between the issue of the permit and the
starting of work on the excavation.
T able 3 —N U M B E R OF N E W BUILD IN G S ST A R TE D D U R IN G 1929 A N D 1931 IN 10 C IT IE S ,
B Y K IN D S OF BUILDINGS A N D B Y PERIOD B E T W E E N ISSUE OF P E R M IT A N D
C O M M E N C E M E N T OF E X C A V A T IO N
Total permits

Number of permits issued for—
Days between
date of permit
and start of
excavation

2-family
dwellings

1929
1 and under...
2 and under 4.
4 and under 6.
6 and under 8.
8 and under 10
10 and under 13
13 and under 16
16 and under 19
19 and under 22
22 and under 26
26 and under 31
31 and under 36
36 and under 41
41 and under 51
51 and under 61
61 and over___

1-family
dwellings

1929

1931

5,843 2,037 1,216
280
2,281 1,376
218
1,358 1,045
171
1,038
818
502
106
508
373
120
529
106
481
279
53
217
247
43
167
95
36
150
49
11
114
34
55
16
28
13
34
13
11
56
49
12
12
37
41
28
79

454
295
180
136
87
84
48
32
15
19
6
50
5
9
7
16

1931

Apart­
ment
buildings

Commer­
cial
buildings

1929 1931 1929
451 186
191 107
93 86
101 69
58 28
64 31
49 20
38
9
25
9
12
6
19
3
11
5
2
6
9
3
6
3
29
6

823
356
242
153
98
106
79
41
42
41
46
28
27
16
17
53

Public
build­
ings

1931 1929 1931
454 150
241 46
150 42
108 27
75
9
60 15
52 10
32
8
16
8
13 11
17 10
21
6
11
4
13
8
8
5
22 12

67
30
15
12
7
8
6
7
4
3
3
9
2
4
1
2

Number

Percent

1929

1931

1929

8,483
3,154
1,953
1,490
779
834
725
387
285
250
200
128
84
100
77
201

3,198
2,049
1,476
1,143
699
556
405
297
139
90
63
101
33
78
31
87

44.3
16.5
10.2
7.8
4.1
4.4
3.8
2.0
1.5
1.3
1.0
.7
.4
.5
.4
1.1

1931
30.6
19.6
14.1
10.9
6.7
5.3
3.9
2.8
1.3
.9
.6
1.0
.3
.7
.3
.8

Total___ 12,977 6,956 2,452 1,443 1,162 573 2,168 1,293 371 180 19,130 10,445 100.0 100.0
Average period
per building
7.4 10.2 6.5
5.6
6.7
9.8
8.1 13.0 10.9
6.6
6.9 .......... ..........
6.5
(days)............

During 1929 permits were issued for 19,130 buildings, and the
average period which elapsed between the issuance of the permit and
the starting of work on the building was 6.6 days. In 1931 the aver­
age lag was 6.9 days.
Lag Between Start of Work and Completion of Building

T able 4 shows the number and percent of buildings on which worjk
was started during 1929 and 1931 in 10 cities, by kind of buildings
and by days elapsing between the date work was started on the
excavation and the date the building was completed.




219

ELAPSED TIME IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

T able 4 .—NUMB-ER OF N E W BUILDINGS ST A R TE D D U R IN G 1929 A N D 1931 IN 10 CITIES
B Y K IN D OF BUILDINGS A N D B Y PERIOD B E T W E E N C O M M E N C E M E N T OF E X CA V A TIO N A N D CO M P L E TIO N OF B U ILD IN G
Number of permits issued for—
1-family dwellings

2-family dwellings

Days between start of excavation
and completion of building

Apartment
buildings
Brick

Frame
1929

Frame

1931

1929

1931

30 days and under..........................
53
31 to 45 days.............. .....................
414
46 to 60 days. ............... .................
992
61 to 75 days.................................... 1,444
76 to 90 d a y s .................................. 1,259
91 to 105 days..................................
844
106 to 120 days.................. ..............
606
121 to 150 days.................................
709
151 to 180 days.................................
450
181 to 210 days.................................
305
211 to 240 days.................................
98
241 to 270 days................................
87
271 to 300 days.................. - ............
31
301 to 330 days.................................
29
331 to 365 days.................................
15
366 to 395 days.................................
14
396 days and over...........................
20

55
379
929
1,052
695
471
312
314
149
66
43
20
24
16
10
11
33

1
5
16
75
188
401
441
1,269
803
906
530
276
263
118
141
104
70

2
15
60
156
244
310
297
544
256
226
57
107
13
24
10
18
38

4
28
153
289
328
260
187
179
121
62
22
8
7
5
5
5
1

Total....................................... 7,370
Average period per building
(days)............................................
98.4

4,579

5,607

2,377

1,664

88.8

177.6

142.7

103.3

1929

Brick

1931

1929

1931

4
42
114
142
167
103
75
83
38
21
5
2
1
2
2
1
6

6
12
31
79
87
179
156
88
50
31
14
10
22
5
18

2
15
23
57
84
100
126
56
65
40
2
1
5
49
1
9

1
21
50
111
152
133
194
155
122
64
33
26
23
22
18
37

808

788

635

1,162

573

96.7 171.5 156.2

163.1

143.5

Commercial
buildings
1929

1931

Public build­
ings
1929

1931

1931

1
11
39
61
74
71
108
100
41
19
9
17
11
3
2
6

Total permits

Number of permits issued for—
Days between start of excavation
and completion of building

1929

Number

1929

1931

Percent

1929

1931

30 days and under............................
31 to 45 days..........................................
46 to 60 days...........................................
61 to 75 days...... ....................................
76 to 90 days..........................................
91 to 105 days.......................... ..............
106 to 120 days......................................
121 to 150 days........................ .............
151 to 180 days—...................................
181 to 210 days—...................................
211 to 240 days.......................................
241 to 270 days.......................................
271 to 300 days— ..................................
301 to 330 days......................................
331 to 365 days— ..................................
366 to 395 days............. ........................
396 days and over.................................

130
189
286
292
265
191
165
232
153
83
49
37
19
19
16
11
31

195
222
197
152
121
90
59
80
57
32
27
18
10
8
7
1
17

16
19
16
21
15
18
17
36
38
31
28
18
23
8
17
13
37

2
2
4
3
7
14
8
20
21
11
14
16
7
7
12
4
28

204
656
1,490
2,183
2,197
1,945
1,636
2,798
1,876
1,597
841
490
383
212
238
170
214

258
663
1, 330
1,567
1,352
1,146
922
1,275
677
462
205
174
73
73
93
38
137

1.1
3.4
7.8
11.4
11.5
10.2
8.6
14.6
9.8
8.3
4.4
2.6
2.0
1.1
1.2
.9
1.1

2.5
6.3
12.7
15.0
12.9
11.0
8.8
12.2
6.5
4.4
2.0
1.7
.7
.7
.9
.4
1.3

Total............................................
Average period per building (days) _.

2,168
107.6

1,293
88.0

371
198.4

180
235.6

19,130
132.0

10,445
111.2

100.0

100.0




220

HOUSING AND BUILDING OPERATIONS

Work was started during 1931 on 10,445 buildings of the type
selected for this study and on 19,130 buildings in 1929. It required
an average of 111.2 days to complete these buildings in 1931 as
against 132 days in 1929.

Relative Cost of Material and Labor in Building
Construction, 1931-32

A

ST U D Y of the relative cost of material and labor in building
construction in 15 cities during 1931 and 1932 was made by
the Bureau of Labor Statistics, along the same lines as a study made
in 1928 of 4 cities. Information was compiled from records kept by
representative contractors in these 15 cities. The Bureau’s agents
selected typical buildings in the residential and nonresidential groups
and data were obtained from both the primary contractors and the
subcontractors who did work on the buildings. Altogether informa­
tion was obtained for 204 buildings.
In every city except Duluth data were obtained for 6 ordinary
dwelling houses, 2 apartment houses, and 6 nonresidential buildings.
In most cities the nonresidential quota consisted of 2 stores, 2 office
buildings, and 2 factories or warehouses; when such were not ob­
tainable substitutions were made of buildings as nearly like these as
possible. Sufficient data for nonresidential buildings could not be
obtained in Duluth.
The cost figures given in the present article represent only the actual
cost of the building from the time excavation started. They do not
include overhead expenses, profits, cost of land, finance charges, or
architect’s fees. The cost of material is its actual cost as delivered
on the job, including freight and hauling. The labor costs are actual
wages paid to labor on the job and do not include any shop labor,
such as that involved in the making up of millwork, the cutting of
stone at the quarries, or fabrication in the mills.
Relative Cost of Material and Labor in New Buildings
T a b l e 1 shows the percent that the cost of labor and of material
each formed of the total cost of construction of residential and non­
residential buildings, in each of the 15 cities from which data were
obtained, the weighted total of all buildings in each of these cities,
and for the 15 cities combined. In this weighting the residential
and nonresidential totals for a city were weighted by the proportional
cost of such classes as shown by building permits issued in the city
during 1931 and the first 7 months of 1932.




221

RELATIVE COST OF MATERIAL AND LABOR

T a ble 1 . —P E R C E N T OF T O T A L COST OF C O N ST R U C T IO N OF BU ILD IN G S C H AR G E­
ABL E TO LABOR A N D M A T E R IA L IN 15 SPECIFIED CITIES

Percent chargeable on—
Residential
buildings

City

Mate­
rial

Labor

Nonresidential
buildings
Mate­
rial

Labor

Both types

Mate­
rial

Labor

All 15 cities combined................................. .......................

62.7

37.3

64.3

35.7

63.6

36.4

Atlanta, Ga__________ _____________________ ______
Boston, M ass,________ ______________________________
Chicago, 111________________ _________________________
Dallas, Tex_____________ ____________________________
Duluth, M inn____ ___________________________ ______
Indianapolis, Ind_________________________________
Little Rock, Ark..................................................... ..........
New Orleans, La_______________________ _____________
New York, N . Y ______________________ ____________
Roanoke, Va________ ________________________________
Saginaw, Mich_______ _______________________________
St. Louis, M o_______________________________ ______
Salt Lake City, Utah__________ _____________________
Seattle, Wash____________ ___________________________
Trenton, N . J_________ _____________________________

70.1
56.9
65.1
74.0
66.3
59.7
67.7
69.4
59.6
64.1
66.5
63.0
65.6
57.5
59.0

29.9
43.1
34.9
26.0
33.7
40.3
32.3
30.6
40.4
35.9
33.5
37.0
34.4
42.5
41.0

71.4
59.8
61.4
72.1
(i)
63.9
73.5
68.9
63.1
67.0
64.8
64.1
65.6
63.7
62.8

28.6
40.2
38.6
27.9
(i)
36.1
26.5
31.1
36.9
33.0
35.2
35.9
34.4
36.3
37.2

71.0
59.0
62.3
72.8

29.0
41.0
37.7
27.2

62.5
71.5
69.0
61.3
65.9
65.3
63.7
65.6
61.2
62.2

37.5
28.5
31.0
38.7
34.1
34.7
36.3
34.4
38.8
37.8

1 Data for nonresidential building not obtained.

Table 2 shows the highest and lowest percentage of labor and
material costs for individual residential and nonresidential buildings,
by cities.
T a ble 3 .—H IG H EST A N D L O W EST P E R C E N T A G E OF LABO R A N D M A T E R IA L COSTS
FOR IN D IV ID U A L BU ILD IN G S, 1932, B Y CITIES
Residential buildings
Material cost

Nonresidential buildings

Labor cost

Material cost

Labor cost

City
High­ Lowest High­ Lowest High­ Lowest High­ Lowest
est per­ per­
est per­ per­
est per­ per­
est per­ per­
centage centage centage centage centage centage centage centage
Atlanta, G a_______ ________________
Boston, Mass............... ............ ............
Chicago, 111____ ____________________
Dallas, Tex...... ............ ............ ..........
T)ninth, Minn
Indianapolis, Ind__________________
Little Rock, Ark___________________
New Orleans, La— _____ __________
New York, N . Y .......... ............ ..........
Roanoke, V a----------------------------------Saginaw, Mich............... ............. .......
St. Louis, M o_________ ____________
Salt Lake City, Utah...... ............ .......
Seattle, Wash.............. ........ ................
Trenton, N . J __....................... ..........

73.8
60.9
65.9
80.2
70.1
72.3
71.2
73.1
67.8
69.3
67.8
70.4
67.9
68.5
62.7

63.5
43.8
60.3
68.8
62. 3
56.3
62.3
60.8
57.2
59.6
54.1
55.7
61.8
55.5
52.4

36.5
56.2
39.7
31.2
37.7
43.7
37.7
39.2
42.8
40.4
45.9
44.3
38.2
44.5
47.6

26.2
39.1
34.1
19.8
29.9
27.7
28.8
26.9
32.2
30.7
32.2
29.6
32.1
31.5
37.3

78.8
62.1
67.5
74.8

62.8
55.1
54.2
66,8

37.2
44.9
45.8
33.2

21.2
37.9
32.5
25.2

67.7
78.5
75.1
66.3
71.3
71.4
70.4
70.4
65.5
64.7

61.5
69.1
61.0
52.9
61.4
55.6
57.4
63.2
58.9
54.2

38.5
30.9
39.0
47.1
38.6
44.4
42.6
36.8
41.1
45.8

32.3
21.5
24.9
33.7
28.7
28.6
29.6
29.6
34.5
35.3

It was found that the proportion of labor and material costs varied
considerably on different buildings within each city. For example, in
New York City the highest proportionate labor cost on any residen­
tial building was 42.8 percent, and the lowest 32.2, while the highest
labor cost on any nonresidential building was 47.1 percent, and the
lowest 33.7. In Indianapolis one residential building had a labor
cost of 43.7 percent, while another had a labor cost of only 27.7
percent.



222

HOUSING AND BUILDING OPERATIONS

The highest proportion of the total expenditures going for material
on any one residential building occurred in Dallas (80.2 percent) and
the lowest percentage was in Boston (43.8). The highest propor­
tionate labor cost on any one building in the same class of building
also was found in Boston (56.2 percent).
In nonresidential building the highest percentage chargeable to
material on an individual building occurred in Atlanta, Ga., and the
lowest in New York City. The highest labor percentage on an
individual building in the nonresidential group occurred in New York
and the lowest in Atlanta.
How the Building Dollar Goes
T a b l e 3 shows the percentage that the cost of each class of work
in building forms of the total cost of residential building in each of
the cities and for all 15 cities combined. These figures include both
labor and material.
T able 3 .—PER C E N T A G E T H A T COST OF EA C H CLASS OF W O R K FORM S OF T O T A L
COST OF R E SID E N T IA L BU ILD IN G S, B Y CITIES
[These figures include material and labor]
Percent of total cost chargeable to specified class of work in—
Class of work

Chi­
cago,
111.

Dal­
las,
Tex.

Atlan­
ta, Ga.

Bos­
ton,
Mass.

Excavating and grading-----------------Brickwork--------------------------------------Carpenter work------------------------------Tile work__________________________
Concrete work_____________________
Electric wiring and fixtures________
Heating and ventilating___________
Plumbing---------------------------------------Plastering and lathing_____________
Painting-----------------------------------------Papering n _
rT
_
Roofing------------------------------------------Miscellaneous

1.3
10.3
44.2
3.2
4.2
4.6
8.8
9.5
5.6
4.4
.3
3.5

1.6
13.9
27.4
4.6
4.8
3.8
6.9
9.6
9.5
5.2
.4
2.1
10.2

0.3
15.4
17.2
3.8
22.1
5.0
5.9
10.3
7.6
3.1
1.4
.4
7.7

0.9
7.1
52.9
2.9
5.1
4.7
1.0
11.4

Total___________________ ____

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

9.6
.3
3.4
.7

Du­ Indian­
luth,
apolis,
Minn.
Ind.

Little
Rock,
Ark.

New
Or­
leans,
La.

1.0
14.4
45.1
1.9
4.8
3.6
1.2
11.1
7.9
4.8

0.5
7.1
39.7
4.3
6.6
5.1
8.5
12.0
6.1
5.6

2.8
1.2

0.9
17.6
23.6
3.4
13.3
2.8
6.0
9.6
8.7
4.0
.3
1.1
8.6

4.1

4.1
.6

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

2.3
9.6
41.0
1.7
8.3
2.7
9.0
9.0
6.9
5.4

Percent of total cost chargeable to specified class of work in—
Class of work

Excavating and grading........... .........
Brickwork_________________________
Carpenter work____________________
Tile work__________________________
Concrete work--------------------------------Electric wiring and fixtures________
Heating and ventilating____________
Plumbing--------------- -----------------------Plastering and lathing.........................
Painting___________________________
Papering
Roofing____________________________
Miscellaneous

Total.............................. —




All 15
cities
com­
bined

New
York,
N. Y.

Roa­
noke,
Va.

Sagi­
naw,
Mich.

St.
Louis,
Mo.

Salt
Lake
City,
Utah

Seat­
tle,
Wash.

Tren­
ton,
N . J.

2.9
22.7
23.5
4.1
5.5
4.0
4.8
9.7
12.6
4.4

1.3
9.3
41.5
1.2
5.2
4.5
9.9
10.2
6.8
4.0

0.6
11.5
40.2
2.9
4.5
6.7
7.7
9.6
5.6
5.5

0.9
20.3
28.1
3.8
10.8
3.7
6.2
10.2
7.0
3.8

1.4
6.9
26.4
3.2
15.6
4.7
7.1
10.9
7.8
4.3

1.5
4.3

6.1

2.2
3.0

2.2
3.0

1.5
14.0
32.9
4.5
8.1
4.8
9.6
10.0
6.2
3.5
2.8
2.1

1.5
10.1

1.7
21.4
28.2
3.3
5.8
2.7
9.6
8.5
8.9
4.0
.1
4.4
1.4

1.3
14.8
27.3
3.5
11.7
4.5
6.6
10.1
8.2
4.2
.5
1.8
5.5

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

223

RELATIVE COST OF MATERIAL AND LABOR

In these 15 cities together, carpentry work accounted for a larger
part of the building dollar than any other item in residential building
(27.3 cents), while papering accounted for the smallest portion (fivetenths of 1 cent). Brickwork, concrete work, and plumbing each also
represents more than 10 cents of each dollar spent. In Chicago con­
crete work took a larger portion of the building dollar than carpentry
work. The low heatmg costs in Dallas, Tex., and Little Rock, Ark.,
are accounted for by the fact that most residences do not have a
central heating plant.
Table 4 shows the percentage that the cost of each class of work
forms of the total cost of nonresidential building.
T a ble 4. —PER C E N T A G E T H A T COST OF EA C H CLASS OF W O R K FO RM S OF T O T A L
COST OF N O N R E SID E N T IA L BUILD IN G S, B Y CITIES
[These figures include material and labor]
Percent of total cost chargeable to specified class of work in—
Class of work

E x c a v a t in g a n d g r a d in g
■Rrinkwnrk
C a r p e n t e r w o r k -.
T ile w n r k _
_
C rm n rete w o r k
_
S t r u c t u r a l steel
Elen.trio, w ir in g a n d fix tu r e s
H e a t in g a n d v e n t ila t in g , _
P lu m b in g ,

_

___

__ ____

Plastering and lathing_____ _______________
Painting___________________________________
R n n fin g
G la s s a n d g la z in g
E le v a t n r s
M is n e lla n e n n s ..................... .......... ..........,
T ota l _ .

Chi­

At­
B os­
lanta, ton,
Ga.
M ass.

„ _. _

cago,

111.

In­
New
Dallas, d ia n ­ Little
Or­
Tex. apolis,
leans,
Ark.’
Ind.
La.

1.4
17.3
5.6
2.1
21.9
11.9
5.4
4.8
5.9
4.3
1.7
1.9
.6
8.2
6.9

2.6
18.9
6.8
2.4
16.4
11.1
8.3
7.7
4.1
4.4
2.0
1.2
1.1
2.8
10.4

3.6
13.2
8.9
4.0
22.3
4.4
6.1
11.0
5.2
4.0
2.2
3.0
1.0
2.9
8.2

2.0
18.7
10.4
2.1
9.4
13.5
6.8
4.1
4.7
4.5
3.9
.4
1.4
10.8
7.4

0.7
21.0
8.2
3.4
19.3
1.4
4.8
7.6
7.5
6.6
1.2
1.1
1.7
6.8
8.7

1.4
24.0
24.6
.3
16.1
6.5
1.2
.2
1.6
6.4
2.9
7.5
1.7

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

New
Y ork ,
N. Y .

5.6

5.2
12.2
17.4
2.5
13.6
6.8
6.9
7.4
5.9
8.9
2.1
4.4
1.3
1.2
4.2

2.6
20.7
1.7
1.3
15.7
13.4
5.2
5.8
6.1
3.7
.8
1.0
1.0
12. 5
8.7

100.0

100.0

100.0

Percent of total cost chargeable to specified class of work in—
Class of work

All 14
cities
com­
bined

Mich.

St.
Louis,
Mo.

Salt
Lake
City,
Utah

4.4
17.5
5.9
1.5
22.1
9.0
6.9
4.5
2.8
4.1
1.0
1.3
1.2
3.4
14.4

2.1
16.1
10.0
1.6
14.0
8.1
5.8
8.6
5.0
4.6
1.6
3.4
1.8
6.2
11.0

1.9
13.4
4.4
.8
32.4
6.3
9.4
6.3
5.2
3.5
1.3
.6
1.3
7.2
5.9

2.7
11.3
25.3
.8
15.4
5.9
7.8
6.8
6.9
4.5
2.5
3.4
3.4
3.0
.3

2.5
14.7
10.2
1.2
25.4
2.5
5.7
6.3
4.4
4.9
1.8
1.1
2.0
9.5
7.8

4.2
24.0
4.1
1.8
11.2
13.1
3.7
9.4
4.9
4.5
1.8
1.4
.6
2.5
12.6

2.5
17.2
6.4
1.7
20.7
8.7
6.6
6.6
5.2
4.3
1.6
1.3
1.3
7.6
8.3

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

Roa-

Sagi-

Va.'

Excavating and grading____________________
Brickwork__________________________________
Carpenter work____________________________
Tile work------ ---------------------------------------------Concrete work--------------------------------------------Structural steel--------------------------------------------Electric wiring and fixtures_________________
Heating and ventilating____________________
Plumbing__________________________________
Plastering and lathing______________________
Painting____________________________________
Roofing--------------------------------------------------------Glass and glazing-----------------------------------------Elevators-----------------------------------------------------Miscellaneous______________________________
Total_________________________________

TrenSeattle, ' ton,
Wash.
N . J.

For nonresidential building, the largest portion of the building
dollar (20.7 cents) went for concrete work and the lowest (1.3 cents)
for roofing and also for glass and glazing. In 5 of the 14 cities from
which data were collected concrete work accounted for a larger portion
of the building dollar than any other item in construction work. In




224

HOUSING AND BUILDING OPERATIONS

6 cities brickwork accounted for the largest percentage, while in 3
cities, carpentry work was the most costly item.
There were a few differences in the processes involved in the
erection of residential and nonresidential buildings. In residential
building, papering is included. There is no papering in nonresidential
buildings. Glass and glazing is a separate item in nonresidential
building, while in residential building the millwork comes already
glazed and this item is therefore included under carpentry work in
this class of building. Structural steel and elevators are shown
separately in nonresidential building. In residential building these
items were not of enough importance to show separately.

Causes of Seasonal Fluctuations in the Construction
Industry

A

SU R V E Y to determine the causes of the seasonal fluctuations in
the construction industry was made by the Bureau of Labor
Statistics in 1931. The primary purpose was to ascertain to what
extent such fluctuations, with their disastrous effects upon the
employment of labor, were due to actual climatic difficulties and,
whatever the causes, what might be done to improve the situation.
The survey was made by a special agent of the Bureau, who visited
and interviewed leaders of the construction industry in the following
cities: Chicago, 111.; Milwaukee, Fond du Lac, and Eau Claire, Wis.;
Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minn.; Atlanta, Ga.; and New Orleans,
La. The persons interviewed were requested to express their opinions
in the form of personal letters to the Bureau, and the report of the
agent and the opinions of the architects, builders, and real-estate
men interviewed were incorporated in the report of the survey which
was published in the Monthly Labor Review for September 1931.
A summary of this report follows.
Winter Operations in the Construction Industry in the Northern States
T h e rigorous winter weather which normally prevails in the
States of Illinois, Wisconsin, and Minnesota is no longer a serious
problem to the construction industry in these States. Twenty
years ago the advent of the first frost in November would bring with
it a complete cessation of activities in all lines of construction work.
Not only would no new building projects be started during the
months of November to March, but even jobs already begun in the
late summer or early fall but not yet completely enclosed before the
arrival of winter would be shut down until the coming of spring.
The situation now presents an entirely new aspect. During the
war and immediately afterward many builders were compelled to
carry on a large proportion of their work during the winter months in
order to complete their projects within the time limits set by their
contracts. They soon discovered that the cold weather, in itself, pre­
sented no physical obstacles which could not be overcome by means
of more diligent supervision and a certain amount of protection of
the work against snow and ice. Additional experimentation soon
convinced them that even the operations which are most adversely




SEASONAL FLUCTUATIONS IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

225

affected by freezing temperatures, namely, the pouring of concrete
and the masonry work on the exterior or the shell of the building, can
easily be safeguarded by the simple device of heating the water and
the aggregates in the process of mixing the concrete and by protecting
the newly concreted section of the structure by means of canvas
enclosures and artificial heat supplied by coke- or oil-burning sala­
manders.
The trend in favor of winter work in the construction industry
received a further stimulus from the report of President Harding’s
Committee on Unemployment which, under the leadership of Presi­
dent Hoover, then the Secretary of Commerce, made a special study
of seasonal fluctuations in the construction industry. The report was
published in 1924. The committee found that winter construction
work had been carried on with considerable success in all parts of the
country, and that the workmanship and the cost of winter operation
did not compare unfavorably with any other season of the year. In
prefacing the report President Hoover therefore declared: “ The
seasonal character of the construction industries is a matter of custom
and habit, not of climatic conditions.” The findings of the committee
were taken up by the various trades and associations connected with
the construction industry, and a strong movement grew up with the
purpose of further extending winter operations in order to mitigate
the seasonal fluctuations in the construction industry.
In the present survey in Illinois, Minnesota, and Wisconsin an
attempt was made to ascertain (1) the extent of building operations
carried on by the firm, number of years’ experience in the business,
and the territory covered; (2) the type of building specialized in
(industrial plants, commercial buildings, apartment houses, bunga­
lows, etc.); (3) the extent of winter operations carried on; (4) the
principal difficulties and disadvantages to builder and to owner in
carrying on winter operations; (5) the methods of pouring concrete,
laying brick, etc., used by the firm to overcome the difficulties offered
by winter weather and to guarantee the soundness and safety of the
building erected during the winter; (6) the extra costs involved in
carrying on construction during the winter; (7) the comparative
efficiency of labor in winter and summer building; (8) the principal
advantages of winter building to builder and to owner; (9) whether
the firm, on the basis of its experience in winter operations, advocates
or disapproves of operations during the winter months and reasons
therefor; (10) any helpful information on the problem of winter
operations, particularly as to the possible effect on the stabilization
of the construction industry.
Some of the outstanding facts disclosed by the opinions of the
representative organizations and individuals in this section of the
country were as follows:
(1) Winter weather was not regarded as a deterrent to building
operations in the case of the major types of buildings, such as large
offices, industrial plants, large apartment buildings, etc., which require
a year or more for completion.
(2) On major operations, architects and general contractors carry
on construction work irrespective of the season of the year and even
in subzero weather. The majority of the contractors in this section
of the country had had several years of experience with winter work
and knew the precautions necessary for winter operations.
19 2 0 5 — 36-------16




226

HOUSING AND BUILDING OPERATIONS

(3) The precautions and the equipment needed for winter work are
comparatively simple and have now become fairly standardized.
(4) The extra expenses involved in protecting winter work against
the weather are comparatively small and represent but a small frac­
tion of the total building cost. The exact amounts vary considerably
with the nature of the project and the severity of the winter season.
Some of the architects and contractors were of the opinion that this
extra cost is in some measure overcome by the lower costs on other
items; they pointed out that the price of materials is lower in the winter ;
that the contractor may voluntarily reduce his profit on a winter job
in order to keep his organization intact and his men employed, while
the workmen will often accept a lower rate for year-round work.
Some were even of the opinion that the extra measures necessary to
protect the job in winter are no greater or more expensive than those
necessary, because of heat and rain, to protect it in the summer.
(5) There was no definite agreement among the builders as to the
comparative efficiency of labor in winter work. Very few contractors
contended that they get as much work from a given workman during
the cold season as at milder seasons of the year, as the worker is
hampered by cold and by the extra clothing which he must wear.
The majority of contractors, however, were of the opinion that the
average efficiency of the men hired during the winter months is
higher than the summer average. This is due to the fact that, since
work is slack during the winter months, the employer has a large
supply of labor from which to choose. Only the best workmen,
therefore, are retained.
(6) In the construction of smaller buildings, and particularly of
the smaller houses, the season of the year is still an important factor.
The opinion of architects and builders in this field was more or less
divided. Some favored winter operations in all buildings, while others
were opposed to winter work on houses as uneconomical and more or
less hazardous. Those in favor of winter work on this class of building
believed that the person who has his house built in the off season has
a decided advantage because of lower costs of materials, lower charges
by the contractor, a higher grade of labor, etc. They stated, also,
that a house built in the winter under the proper precautions is as
well constructed as one built in the summer. Others, on the con­
trary, were of the opinion that winter costs are enough higher to make
a prospective home builder hesitate to undertake the construction
of his new house in the winter.
(7) The architects and the contractors no longer need to be edu­
cated as to the practicability of winter construction work. The
amount of winter operations in the construction industry, however,
will be determined by the extent toward which the general public, and
particularly the prospective builders, are educated to the safety,
feasibility, and desirability of building in the off season.
Fluctuations in the Construction Industry in the Southern States
I n v i e w of the fact that cold weather no longer plays an important
role in the construction industry, even in the sections of the country
which are affected by a prolonged and moderately severe winter
season, the question arose as to the other factors which are directly
or indirectly responsible for the continuation of seasonal fluctuations
in the building trades. The survey of the Bureau of Labor Statistics




SEASONAL FLUCTUATIONS IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

227

was therefore extended to include the construction industry in Atlanta,
Ga., which is known to have a comparatively mild and short winter
season, and in New Orleans, La., where freezing weather is rare.
The monthly figures of building permits issued, as published by
the Bureau of Labor Statistics, show the volume of construction in
these two cities to be considerably smaller during the months of
December, January, and February than at any other season of the
year. This trend is not uniform, however, and it is not yet clearly
established as to the extent to which the figures of contracts awarded
in any one month actually measure the building operations carried
on during that month. It was decided, therefore, not to accept the
cessation of building operations during the winter months as an
established fact, but to ascertain in the interviews with the repre­
sentative architects and builders in these two cities (1) whether the
locality really is affected by a recurrent winter stoppage in the con­
struction industry, and (2) if so, the principal causes of the cessation
of operations in the construction industry during the winter months.
The outstanding facts disclosed by the survey in Atlanta and New
Orleans w^re:
(1)
The attitude of the representative architects and builders in
the city of Atlanta toward the question of winter building was not uni­
form. They agreed that there is a decided diminution in building
operations during the months of December, January, and February
of each year. They also agreed that one of the principal causes for
the winter slump in building activities is the fact that the city of
Atlanta has only one renting or leasing date, which falls on September 1.
All prospective commercial and home builders plan their operations
so as to have the building completed by that date. This condition
throws the bulk of building operations on the spring and summer
months, for very few, even of the larger residences, require more
than 8 months for building.
A large number of the builders, however, also insisted that the ces­
sation of building activities during the winter months is also due to
a very large degree to the weather conditions in Atlanta during those
months. They stated that while the spells of cold weather in Atlanta
are very brief and not particularly severe, there is more rain in the
months of January and February than in other months of the year.
The frequent rains, alternating with an occasional cold and freezing
temperature at this time of the year, make it almost impossible to
proceed with any outside work. Besides, very few of the builders
in Atlanta had had experience in building during the cold season,
and they were not provided with the equipment necessary for winter
operations.
There were some among the architects and builders who claimed
that the causes of the winter slack period in Atlanta are entirely psy­
chological, due to a general tendency of the public to begin thinking
about building a home only with the arrival of warm weather. It
is their view that an additional 1 or even 2 renting dates during the
year and an educational campaign in favor of the year-round
building operations would lessen the seasonal fluctuations in the
building trades in Atlanta. The builders would then be called upon
to perform a certain proportion of their work during the winter
season and would thus be given an opportunity to show whether or
not it is physically impossible to build in Atlanta during the winter
season.



228

HOUSING AND BUILDING OPERATIONS

(2)
In contrast with the situation in Atlanta, the representative
architects and builders in New Orleans were fairly unanimous in their
views on winter building. It was generally admitted that New Orleans
suffers from a definite falling off of building operations during the
winter months, but it was also generally agreed that the winter weather
has absolutely nothing to do with this condition. Some architects and
builders even claimed that conditions in the winter are more con­
ducive to efficient workmanship in the construction industry than
the hot summer weather. Nevertheless, the bulk of the construction
work is concentrated during the late spring and summer months.
This concentration is due to the single leasing date in New Orleans,
which is October 1. Not only are all the new projects planned so as
to be completed by that date, but nearly all of the repair work is
done during the summer months in anticipation of the renting season.
A movement was started several years ago to inaugurate an addi­
tional leasing date in the spring, but so far without any results. It
was the unanimous opinion of the architects, general contractors, and
subcontractors in the city of New Orleans that the fluctuations in
the construction industry in that city will not be done ^way with
until the single leasing date has been replaced by 2 or even 3 annual
renting dates.
What Can Be Done to Stabilize the Construction Industry
C o n s t r u c t io n work is very important in the industrial life of a
community and a successful attempt to eliminate, or at least to miti­
gate, the seasonal fluctuations in the construction industry will of
necessity prove beneficial not only to the construction industry but
also to the country as a whole. The opinions of leading men in the
construction industry who were interviewed show that the seasonal
fluctuations in the industry are due not so much to weather conditions
as to old popular notions and customs which have been in existence
in the separate communities for years past, and which now prove to
be the stumbling block in the way of a more regulated development
of the industrial life of the community.
Certain elements in the construction industry will always remain
seasonal in the colder regions of the country. It is impossible to build
roads and to pave streets during the cold winter months. But it has
been sho^n that it is not impossible to build offices and houses during
the winter months. An educational campaign such as was carried
on in the city of St. Paul during the winter months of 1925-26 may
help to induce the prospective office and house owner to build when
he is ready and not to wait until everybody else begins building.
Again, such cities as Atlanta, Ga., and New Orleans, La., in which
the existence of a single leasing date in the fall is responsible for the
concentration of the construction work during the summer months,
could and should establish 2 and, if necessary, 3 leasing dates
in order to spread the building activities over the entire year. It is
the prospective owner of the building who needs to be educated, and
an educational campaign started simultaneously in a number of cities
may help considerably to straighten out the seasonal ups and downs
in the construction industry, and to that extent also mitigate the social
evils caused by these fluctuations.




HOUSING AND BUILDING OPERATIONS

229

Employment in the Construction of a Sample
Apartment House
H E United States Bureau of Labor Statistics made in 1932 a
study of the man-hour productivity in the construction of an
apartment house in Washington, D. C. The project selected for
study was of reinforced concrete faced with brick and tile, five stories
in height, and containing 117 apartments and a lobby. It was located
in a popular residential district. The dwelling units ranged in size
from 1 room, kitchenette, and bath, to 5 rooms and 2 baths.
The moving of dirt was started on September 9, 1931, and on
April 1, 1932, the apartments were ready for occupancy; thus the job
was largely one of winter construction. The winter was mild and,
as a result, the work was carried on without complete loss of any
whole day. No labor disturbances occurred during the course of the
work.
The study was undertaken to determine the amount of work in
terms of man-hours done by each occupation or trade, in a building
of this size and type, the rotation of each class of work, the duration
of work for each occupation on the job, the number of men employed
each day, and the progress of each trade as shown by man-hours
worked per week in relation to the total man-hours worked by that
trade. So far as known this is a pioneer study of this character.

T

Day-by-Day Employment
T a b l e 1 sh ow s th e n u m b e r o f m e n e m p lo y e d d a y b y d a y in th e
co n s tru ctio n o f th e a p a rtm e n t h o u s e , fr o m th e b e g in n in g t o th e
c o m p le tio n o f th e jo b .

The fluctuation in employment, all trades combined, during the
period of construction is depicted by table 1. The greatest number
of men working on any one day was 230—on November 4. The
largest number of man-hours worked in a single day occurred on
November 5, when 229 men put in 2,067 hours’ work. Generally,
any work done on Sunday was done by laborers, but on several
Sundays some men in the skilled trades also worked. On Monday,
November 30, there was rain, necessitating the stopping of work by
bricklayers and plasterers and their laborers; this accounts for the
decrease in number employed on that day as compared with the
previous Saturday.




230

HOUSING AND BUILDING OPERATIONS

T able 1.—N U M B E R OF M E N E M P L O Y E D ON T H E B U ILD IN G EACH D A Y , SEP T E M B E R
9, 1931, TO APR IL 2, 1932

Num­
ber of
men

Date

12
14
19
17
0
16
11
6
8
23
20

Sept. 17

_ ____

Sept. 21
Sept. 22

____

Sept.
Sept.
flept,
Sept.
flw
pt.

____
_____

Date

nn.t.. ai
____
N<vy- 11,
N7vg- 2 ..
Nnv. 3
____
Nov. 4..................

Dec. 4...................
Dec. 5 .................

139
3 26
220
218
230
229
213
157
»15
198
185
195
217
206
167
33
187
178
186
187
187
147
0
161
161
158
136
154
109
19
67
164
160
164
152
97

Den. 6 1

a

Dec. 7__________
Dec. 8...................
Dec. 9........ ..........
Dec. 10.................
Dec. 11.................
Dec. 12.... ............
Dec. 13 i...............
Dec. 14.................
Dec. 15.................

190
197
146
204
214
148
a 15
210
220
211
214
210
122
0
161

Nov. 7__________
Nov. 8 i ................
Nov. 9 _ . . .
_

o

_____

25
26

9.7 l
28
20

_____

Sept. 30
Ortt. t

Oct.

2

Ofit. 3
Ofit. 4 1

................

Oct. 5....................
Oct. 6....................
Oct. 7 ...............
Ont. 8

Oct. 9 ...............
Oct. 1 0 ................
Hot 11 1

Oct. 12.................
Oct. 13..................
Oct. 1 4 ................
Oct. 1 5 ...............
Oct. 16..................
Oct. 17..................
Oct. 18 1...............
Oct. 19..................
Oct. 20..................
Oct. 21.................
Oct. 22..................
Oct. 23..................
Oct. 24..................
Oct. 25 1
...............
Oct. 26..................
Oct. 27..................
Oct. 28..................
Oct. 29..................
Oct. 30..................

32
31
26
35

39

8
0
45
66
55
84
105
49
0
95
99
103
115
95
73
0
102
119
87
101
102
84
0
111
123
116
126
121
95
a 16
134
142
149
160
185

Num­
ber of
men

Nnv
Nov.
Nov.
Nnv
Nov.
Nnv,
Nnv,
Nov.
Nov.
Nov.
Nov.

13
14................
15 i_______
16
_ _ .
17_________
18
19 . _
20................
21................
22 i_______
23................

N n v . 24.
N n v . 25 .
N n v. 26
_

Nov. 27................

N n v . 28
NOV. 29 1..............
N n v. 30
Den. 1

Dec. 2........ ..........
D e c. 3

Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.

_

17.................
18.................
19.................
20 i— ..........
21.................

1 Sunday.
1 All unskilled workers.

18

Date

Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
Dnn.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
Dec.

Num­
ber of
men

22_________
23_________
24____ ____
25_________
26
271
...............
28.................
29........ .........
30_________
31_________

Jan. 3 i.................

Jan.7___________
.Tan.8_ _
_
Jan. 9....................
Jan.101________
Jan. 11
....
_
Jan.14_...............
Jan. 17 a..............
Jan. 18_ ...............
Jan. 19.................
Jan. 20....... ..........
Jan. 21_________
Jan. 22_ ............. .
Jan. 23..... ............
Jan. 24 1...............
Jan.25__.............
Jan. 26__________
Jan.27__.............
Jan. 28__________
Jan. 29.................
Jan. 30__________
J a n .3 1 1

Feb. 1__________
Feb. 2...................
Feb. 3...................
Feb. 4...................
Feb. 5........ ..........
Feb. 6_.............
Feb. 7 i_________
Feb. 8__________
Feb. 9_.................
Feb. 10-...............
Feb. U -._ ...........

145
153
127
0
20
0
114
137
141
138
35
61
0
160
159
145
153
146
77
32
145
139
137
133
132
64
a4
121
128
122
126
125
78
*6
120
106
104
105
86
50
0
79
80
83
75
64
33
a 14
73
70
75
76

Date

Feb. 12.................
Feb. 13.................
...............
Feb. 141
Feb. 15.................
F ab .16
Feb. 17.................
Feb. 18.................
Feb. 19.................
Feb. 20.................
Feb. 2 1 1
...............
Feb. 22.................
Feb. 23.................
Feb. 24.................
Feb. 25.................
Feb. 26
Feb. 27—..............
Fab. 28 l
Feb. 29................
Mar. 1..................
M a r . 3_ ____ _

M a r. 7___
M ar. 8 _

.. _

Mar. 9..... .............
M a r. 10
M a r . 11

Mar. 12_____ _ .
Mar. 13 i..............
M ar.
M ar.
M ar.
M ar.
M a r.
M a r.

14
15
16
17
18
19

„
_

56
56
39

Mar. 20 1_______
M ar.
M a r.
M ar.
M a r.
M a r.
M a r.

21_.._
22
23
24
25
26

_

Mar. 27 i
M ar
M ar.
M ar
M a r.

28
29 _
30
31

Apr. 1 ___ __ _

0

54
52
37
37
30
19
0
16
13
14
8
4
3

1 5 skilled tradesmen, 10 laborers.
4 4 skilled tradesmen, 5 laborers.

Time Spent on Each Class of Work
T a b l e 2 sh ow s th e n u m b e r o f m a n -h o u rs sp e n t o n ea ch class o f
w o rk an d th e p e rce n t ea ch fo r m e d o f th e to ta l m a n -h o u rs w o r k e d on
th e b u ild in g .




EMPLOYMENT IN CONSTRUCTION OF APARTMENT HOUSE

231

T a b l e 2 .—N U M B E R OF M AN-H OUR S SPENT ON EAC H CLASS OF W O R K , A N D P E R ­
C E N T OF T O TA L T IM E

Man-hours
worked

Man-hours
worked
Class of work

Class of work
Per­
Num­ cent of
ber
total

All classes of work................... .

164,161

100.0

Excavating.......... ......................
Carpentry form......... ...............
Carpentry form, helpers_____
Pile driving....................... ........
Concrete and cement work__
Electrical work....... ................ .
Steam fitting.............................
Plumbing—............ ..................
Reinforced-steel work..............
Elevator construction............ .
Refrigeration..............................
Bricklaying_________________
Bricklaying, helpers.............
Stone masonry______________
Carpentry, rough.................... .
Carpentry, rough, helpers___
Sheet-metal work......... .......... .

691
12,119
14,548
2,456
11,440
3,427
5,900
8,788
3,190
1,015
1, 716
10,466
11,930
712
3, 395
4,551
1,109

.4
7.9
9.4
1.6
7.4
2.2
3.8
5.7
2.1
.7
1.1
6.8
7.7
.5
2.2
3.0
.7

Nb T ‘

W aterproofing..................... .............
Plastering
Plastering, helpers.............................
Bricklaying, partition wall..............
Bricklaying, partition wall, helpers.
Ventilation..........................................
Lathing........ ........................................
Roofing........ ........................................
Carpentry, trim............................... .
General labor........................... ..........
Tile laying......................... ............. .
Mosaic and terrazzo w ork..............
Weather stripping....... .....................
Carpentry, parquet floors...............
Painting...............................................
Paper hanging......................... ..........
Screens_________ _________________
Shades................................................ .

183
5,959
5,071
5,060
7,013
342
1,171
640
3,414
7,693
2,427
5,431
2,064
3, 711
4, 313
1,712
414
90

Per­
cent
of
total
0.1
3! 3
3.3
4.5
.2
.8
.4
2.2
5.0
1.6
3.5
1.3
2.4
2.8
1.1
.3
.1

Carpentry work (form, rough, trim, and the laying of parquet
floors) accounted for the largest percentage of man-hours worked by
any skilled trade group, being 14.7 percent of the total.
Table 3 gives the limiting dates of each class of work, the average
number of men employed in each class of work (when working), and
the total man-hours, and shows, for some of the kinds of work, a
measurement of the work done and the output per man-hour.
An attempt was made to show wherever possible the quantity of the
work done (in terms of a standard unit of measurement) and the pro­
ductivity per man-hour. For some classes of work it was impossible
to determine a proper unit measurement of work— as for instance, for
general labor. In certain other occupations, while a unit was used,
it does not typify all classes of work done by workers in those occupa­
tions.
The man-hours worked by the skilled men in the respective trades
were added to the man-hours worked by helpers and laborers to
complete such type of work and the quantity of work done was divided
by the sum of the man-hours. As an example, the hours worked by
plasterers, lathers, and plasterers’ laborers were added and the number
of square yards of work done was divided by the total number of
hours, to find the square yards of work per man per hour.




232

HOUSING AND BUILDING OPERATIONS

T able 3 .—T E R M IN A L D A T E S, A V E R A G E N U M B E R OF M E N A T W O R K , M A N -H O U R S
W O R K E D , A N D OUTPUT ON SPECIFIED CLASSES OF W O R K
Date of—

Aver­
age
Man­
num­
hours
ber of worked
men
on job

Class of work
Finish

Start

Excavating.................................
Pile driving,..............................
Concrete and cement work—
Carpentry form— ...................
Carpentry form, helpers.........
Reinforced-steel work..............
Electrical work..........................
Steam fitting..............................
Plumbing............................... .
Elevator construction.............
Refrigeration..............................
Bricklaying................................
Bricklaying, helpers.................
Stone masonry.....................
Carpentry, rough.....................
Carpentry, rough, helpers___
W aterproofing................... .......
Plastering...................................
Lathing—...................................
Plastering, helpers.......... .........
Bricklaying, partition wall-—
Bricklaying, partition wall,
helpers.....................................
Sheet-metal work.......... ..........
Ventilation_________ ________
Roofing.......................... .........—
Carpentry, trim........................
General labor_____ __________
Mosaic and terrazzo work___
Tile laying,...............................
Weather stripping_____ ______
Carpentry, parquet floors___
Painting.......................... ..........
Paper hanging...........................
Screens........................................
Shades______________________

Sept.
Sept.
Oct.
Sept.
Sept.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Nov.
Nov.
Nov.
Nov.
Nov.
Nov.
Nov.
Nov.

9
18
1
10
11
2
1
1
1
12
12
27
27
6
6
11
17
18
30
18
20

Sept.
Oct.
Mar.
Nov.
Nov.
Nov.
Mar.
Mar.
Mar.
Mar.
Mar.
Dec.
Dec.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Mar.
Feb.
Mar.
Jan.

17
8
31
24
26
23
23
23
23
29
30
24
24
6
21
21
5
18
17
18
28

10
18
18
22
26
11
4
6
9
2
4
26
24
5
7
5
3
10
3
8
11

Nov.
Nov.
Nov.
Dec.
Dec.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Feb.
Feb.
Mar.
Mar.

20
20
23
7
14
4
4
4
4
18
15
15
15
15

Jan.
Feb.
Feb.
Dec.
Mar.
Mar.
Apr.
Mar.
Feb.
Mar.
Mar.
Mar.
Mar.
Mar.

28
6
5
18
31
31
2
11
26
22
26
12
31
22

10
5
3
8
5
15
7
8
6
9
14
6
4
3

Quantity of work
done

691 5,129 cu. yds..........
2,456 581 piles_____ _____
11,440
12,119 34,350 cu. yds------14,548
3,190
3,427 2,828 outlets...........
5,900
8,788
1,015
1,716
10,466 j 774,342 brick & tile11,930
712 1,350 cu. ft..............
3,395
4, 551
183 42,538 sq. ft.............
5,959
1,171 52,000 sq. yds.........
5,071
5,060
11,320 sq. yds-------7,013
1,109
342
640 25,500 sq. ft.
3,414
7,693
5,431 4,200 sq. ft________
2,427 7,325 sq. ft..............
2,064 1,285 openings........
3,711 70,000 sq. ft_______
4,313
1,712 21,791 sq. yds.........
414 1,252 screens...........
90 1,250 shades______

Output per
man-hour

7.5 cu. yds.
0.2 pile.
0.8 cu. yd.
0.8 outlet.

35.0 brick & tile.
2.0 cu. ft.
230 sq. ft.
4.3 sq. yds.
0.9 sq. yd.

39.8 sq. ft
0.8 sq. ft.
3.0 sq. ft.
0.6 opening.
18.5 sq. ft.
12.7 sq. yds.
3.0 screens.
13.9 shades.

Weekly Fluctuations in Employment on Specified Classes of Work
T a b l e 4 sh ow s th e tim e sp e n t ea ch w e e k in ea ch class o f w o rk .
T able 4 .—M AN -H O U R S SPENT EA C H W E E K ON SPECIFIED CLASSES OF W O R K
Man-hours worked in week ending—
Class of work
Sept.
12

Sept.
19

Sept.
26

Oct.
3

Oct.
10

Oct.
17

Oct.
24

Oct.
31

All classes of work__________

518

655

1,338

3,150

4,552

5,199

6,104

8,355 11,032

9,893

Excavating............. ..................
Carpentry, form____________
Helpers.............................
Pile driving.......... ...................
Concrete and cement work. _
Electrical work.____________
Steam fitting_______________
Plumbing__________________
Reinforced-steel work_______

442
34
42

249
52
161
193

142
346
850

614
1,145
814
366
27
54
68
62

1,146
1,441
599
950
104
25
70
217

1,731
1,575

2,123
1,776

1,937
2,081

2,052
2,264

1,715
2,173

1,102
120
94
116
426
3
32

1,255
136
84
266
429
3
32

1,774
160
128
552
747
3
32
484
457

1,741
160
176
697
522
4
112
1,693
1,513
60
38

1,274
160
256
701
499
4
120
1,392
1,330
156
76
37

iRlftvatnr m n s t r u n t in n ____

Refrigeration_______________
Bricklaying............................
Helpers_________________
Stone masonry_____________
Carpentry, rough___________
Helpers........... ...................




Nov.
7

Nov.
14

233

EMPLOYMENT IN CONSTRUCTION OF APARTMENT HOUSE

T able 4 .—M AN -H O U BS SPEN T EACH W E E K ON SPECIFIED CLASSES OF W O B K —
Continued
Man-hours worked in week ending—
Class of work
N ov.
21

Dec.

Dec.

Dec.

5

12

19

Jan.

Jan.

Jan.

Jan.

Jan.

16

Dec.
N 28V *

23

30

26

All classes of work.............................. 8 ,4 1 7 7,1 1 9 6 ,498 9 ,014 9 ,8 5 4 4 ,6 7 2 4,8 6 7 6 ,748 6 ,0 1 5 5 ,6 4 7
C a r p e n t r y , fo r m

_„ „ _ _

513
Helpers____________________ 1,324
C o n cre te an d nem ant w o rk
1,031
Electrical work..............................
160
Steam fitting..................................
241
Plumbing............................... ........... 704
R e in fo r c e d -s t e e l w o r k _
258
E le v a t o r c o n s t r u c t io n
3
R e fr ig e r a tio n
.
_
120
B r i c k l a y in g
.
_
_
1 ,573
H e lp e r s
1 ,142
S ton e m a so n ry _
184
C a rp en try , rou gh
___
____
399
Helpers.....................................
122
Sheet-metal work..........................
3
W a t e r p r o o fin g
43
Plastering........................................
161
Helpers.....................................
144
Bricklaying, partition w a ll ............ 193
Helpers.....................................
99

Ventilation____________ ______

60
220
163
160
211
498
30
120
1,129
1,336
148
670
198
120
25
416
220
679
736
80

L a t h in g . _
R o o fin g _

33
160
456
584
84
120
959
1,293
64
278
503
136
42
231
175
568
712
100

Carpentry, t r i m ...................................
General labor__________________

1,015
160
656
656

286
168
552
604

35
128
419
413

112
87
72
144
1,082 1,551
1,751 1,969
24
16
361
359
519
551
132
132
24
192
658
96
540
733
768
957
869
64
80
120
104
320
320
64

69
24
603
724
24
244
164
105
21
338
174
416
515

4 ,6 7 9

160
160
240
54

204
420
*88

174
552
100

300
68

880
880
206
402

128
502
391

152
160
240
48

128
467
346

475
400
290
676

160
205
299

65

415
16
395
484
108
22
592
376
416
781

20
297
701
80
6
780
770
564
794

64

64

224

175

120

320
360
227
472
48
96

192

192

386
301
216
192
396

334
857
265
244
396

303
315
260
590
396
396

219
302
279
582
396
396

T i l e l a y in g _
_
M o s a i c a n d terra zzn w o r k , _

Weather stripping_____________
Carpentry, parquet floors______

Man-hours worked in week ending—
Class of work
F eb.
6

All classes of work...................

F eb.
13

F eb.
20

Feb.
27

Mar.

Mar.

Mar.

Mar.

Apr.

5

12

19

26

2

3 ,2 2 7

3 ,483

4 ,1 8 5

4,779

4,331

4 ,0 6 3

3,031

2 ,0 4 8

688

Excavating_________________
Carpentry, form____________
H e lp e r s

Pile driving__________ ______
Concrete and cement work..
Electrical work_____________
S t e a m f it t i n g .
P lu m b in g _
R e in fo r c e d -s t e e l w o r k

Elevator construction_______
Refrigeration_______________

160
160
240

96
160
200

96
160
200

96
160
200

96
160
160

96
60
80

212
96
34
23

203

160
160
240
80
19

80

80

68
89

30
78

225

59
49

72
216

7
112

200
140

160
160

160
140

120
120

295
1,0 6 0
272
369
120
440
742
528

249
682
280
506

197
469
188
650

168
443

100
278

24
110

429

223

192

412
742
576

396
742
480

392
742

603

192
81

182
9

B r i c k l a y in g
H e lp e r s

Stone masonry______________
C a r p e n t r y , rn n g h
H e lp e r s
S h e e t -m e t a l w o r k ___
W a t e r p r o o fin g
P la s t e r in g
H e lp e r s

__ ___

37

.

116
184

80
96

80
96

Bricklaying* partition wall-H e lp e r s
V e n t ila t io n
L a t h in g
R o o fin g

. ..
70
56
_ -

_- -

Carpentry, trim................. .
General labor............................
T i l e l a y in g

Mosaic and terrazzo work___
Weather stripping__________
Carpentry, parquet floors___
Painting
.
___ . _ __
P a p e r h a n g in g
S creen s
_
Shades _




.

24

24

185
738
260
406
120
396

232
1 ,010
263
578
120
440

274
1 ,128
144
470
120
443
742
128

-

__

40

Total

154,161
691
12,119
14,548
2 ,4 5 6
11,440
3,427
5,9 0 0
8 ,7 8 8
3 ,1 9 0
1,015
1,716
10,466
11,930
712
3 ,3 9 5
4 ,5 5 1
1 ,109
183
5 ,9 5 9
5,071
5 ,0 6 0
7 ,0 1 3
342
1,171
640
3 ,414
7 ,6 9 3
2 ,427
5,431
2 ,0 6 4
3 ,711
4 ,3 1 3
1 ,712
414
90

234

HOUSING AND BUILDING OPERATIONS

The maximum weekly number of hours worked by all trades was in
the week ending November 7, when 11,032 man-hours were worked.
During that week, while only two occupations reached their actual
peak in hours worked, five other classes of work were nearly at their
maximum. The total number of man-hours put in on these seven
classes of work in that week represents over nine-tenths of the total
hours for the week. Of the 13 kinds of work carried on during that
week, what is known as the “ concrete group” (concrete and cement
work, form carpentry, helpers on form carpentry, and reinforcedsteel work) was responsible for 6,579 of the 11,032 man-hours worked
during the week.

Public Aid to Housing in the United States
Federal M easures

W

ITH IN the past several years Congress passed three meas­
ures designed to improve housing conditions, relieve distressed
home owners, and stimulate building. These were the Home Loan
Bank Act, the Home Owners Loan Act, and the Federal Housing Act.
Several additional measures, while directed primarily toward the
relief of unemployment and the creation of new employment, have
indirectly aided housing by encouraging, by loans or grants of Federal
funds, the construction of new dwellings. Thus, the Emergency
Relief and Construction Act of 1932 authorized the use of Federal
funds for assistance to low-cost housing and slum clearance; the
National Industrial Recovery Act, approved June 16, 1933, provided
loans and grants for public works (including housing), and author­
ized the formation of agencies to promote subsistence-homestead
projects as part of a program of redistribution of surplus popula­
tion; the Federal Emergency Relief Act, approved May 12, 1933,
permitted grants of Federal funds for unemployment relief; and the
rural rehabilitation program inaugurated as part of the relief work
included the use of funds for the construction of low-cost dwellings in
‘‘ rural-industrial communities. ’ ’
Housing Under Relief and Recovery Measures
Emergency R elief and Construction A ct of 1 9 3 2 . —The Reconstruc­
tion Finance Corporation, set up under this act, made only one
housing loan. This was a 5 percent loan of $8,022,000 made to a
private limited-dividend corporation. It involved the construction
of Knickerbocker Village, consisting of the two 12%-story buildings
furnishing housing accommodations for 1,593 families at an average
rental of $12.50 per room per month. This project was completed
during 1934. The housing activities of the Reconstruction Finance
Corporation ceased with the passage of the act of 1933.
National Industrial Recovery Act, 1 9 3 3 . —Several agencies formed
under this act included housing in the scope of their activities. These
were the Housing Division and the Public Works Emergency Hous­
ing Corporation of the Emergency Administration for Public Works
(P. W. A.), and the Division of Subsistence Homesteads in the United
States Department of the Interior.




PUBLIC AID TO HOUSING IN THE UNITED STATES

235

Assistance to housing by the Housing Division of the Public Works
Administration has been of two types: (1) Loans to private limiteddividend corporations for housing construction, and (2) housing
projects undertaken directly by the Division itself or by “ duly
authorized and properly constituted public bodies and groups organ­
ized not for profit but for public service.”
(1) On the first class of projects the loans bear 4 percent interest
and the period of amortization is 25, 30, and 35 years, according as
the buildings are of nonfireproof, semifireproof, or fireproof con­
struction. The funds for this type of loan were exhausted early in
1935. The Housing Division plans to exercise supervision over the
leases, in order to insure that low-income families will benefit. Prob­
ably the way in which this will be done will be through a check on the
annual incomes of the proposed tenants; families would not be
accepted if the rentals in the project formed less than a specified
percentage of the annual family income.
Loans have been made by the Public Works Administration for
7 private limited-dividend housing projects, aggregating $10,971,600
and planned to provide quarters for some 3,000 families. All had
been completed and were either occupied or ready for tenancy by
the end of September 1935.
(2) Loans to public housing authorities bear 3 percent interest
and run for not to exceed 60 years; the Public Works Administrator
makes an outright grant of 45 percent of the cost of the projects.
In all cases the plans must meet the approval of the Housing Division
as to types of construction, floor and air space, lighting, sanitary
facilities, rental requirements, etc.
Up to December 18, 1935, 50 Federal low-cost housing projects
had been announced, to provide for more than 25,000 families. Funds
allotted to these totaled about 130 million dollars. Of the 50 Federal
projects, 47 were under contract.
Approximately $150,000,000 was allotted for housing purposes by
the Public Works Administration.
The Division of Subsistence Homesteads was allotted $25,000,000
to be used in setting up experimental homestead projects. Up to
the end of December 1934, the Division had approved 62 projects, for
43 of which it had allotted $12,879,900 of its funds; 19 other projects
had received tentative allotments aggregating $3,797,570. Forty of
the projects publicly announced provided for homesteads for 5,004
families. (For an account of the homestead projects of this Division,
see article (p. 847) in section on Unemployment Insurance and Relief.)
Under a reorganization effected early in 1935, the Division was
transferred to the new Resettlement Administration. In the latter
part of 1935 that body started development of the first of a group of
“ green-belt” communities; this project is located at Beltsville, Md.,
near Washington, D. C., and is expected to cost $5,500,000.
Federal Emergency R eliej A ct , 1 9 3 3 .—As part of the rural rehabili­
tation program inaugurated by the Federal Emergency Relief
Administration (F. E. R. A.) several rural industrial settlements
have been built. These were entirely new settlements, and the
settlers were families chosen from public relief rolls. Although the
families are on a rental basis, it is expected that some plan will be
worked out by which they will be permitted to purchase the houses
on a long-term basis. These settlements were designed to provide




236

HOUSING AND BUILDING OPERATIONS

accommodations for some 950 families. (An account of these rural
industrial homestead projects is given in the section on Unemploy­
ment Insurance and Relief.) This work was taken over by the Re­
settlement Administration on its creation in 1935.
Relief Act of 1 9 3 5 .—The appropriation act approved April 8, 1935,
provided $450,000,000, to be used for housing, with the stipulation
that the President should allot the sum in his discretion until June 30,
1937. Allotments have been made from this appropriation to con­
tinue and expand the work on housing by Federal agencies that
existed prior to the passage of the act, but no statement has been
made as to the scope of the new work to be undertaken by the Rural
Resettlement Division of the Resettlement Administration at the
close of 1935.
Progress Under Direct Housing Measures
Home Loan Ban k A ct , 1 9 3 2 .—This act is administered by the Home
Loan Bank Board.
For the purposes of the act the United States is divided into
from 8 to 12 districts, in each of which a Federal home-loan bank is
established. Membership in these district banks is open, upon sub­
scription of a certain amount of the bank’s stock, to building and
loan associations, savings and loan associations, cooperative banks,
homestead associations, insurance companies, or savings banks.
As amended, the act provides that these agencies may obtain Federal
advances on amortized home loans of 6 years’ maturity or longer, up
to 65 percent of the unpaid principal of the loan and 60 percent of
the value of the property securing the loan; on other home-mortgage
collateral, advances are restricted to 50 percent of the unpaid principal
and 40 percent of the value of the property. If mortgages furnished
as collateral for advances have been insured under the National
Housing Act, the home-loan bank may advance up to 90 percent of
the unpaid principal. A lending organization which becomes a
member of the system—and so, eligible to advances—must subscribe
for home-loan-bank stock in an amount equal to 1 percent of the
aggregate unpaid principal of its home-mortgage loans, but in any
case must subscribe not less than $1,500.
On December 5, 1935, there were 3,441 building and loan associa­
tions, mutual savings banks, and life insurance companies which had
become members of the Federal home-loan-bank system, of which 99
percent were of the savings and loan type. Of the current credit thus
built up, $95,595,000 was outstanding in advances to member organi­
zations on that date.
An analysis of the loans made in December 1934 to borrowers from
the local building and loan associations formed under the Federal
act showed that 55 percent was for refinancing mortgages, 20 percent
was for new construction, 15 percent for the purchase of existing
dwellings, and 10 percent for the reconditioning of houses.
Home Owners Loan A ct , 1 9 3 3 .—The administration of this act is
in the hands of the Home Owners Loan Corporation, under the super­
vision of the Home Loan Bank Board. This law is designed for the
benefit of home owners threatened with the loss of their homes
because of inability to meet amortization payments, taxes, etc.




PUBLIC AID TO HOUSING IN THE UNITED STATES

237

Loans made by the Corporation are of three kinds:
(а) Those in which the holder of the mortgage agrees to accept the
Corporation’s bonds; these are limited to 80 percent of the appraised
value of the property, mature in not to exceed 15 years, and bear
interest at not over 5 percent.
(б) Cash loans on mortgaged homes for which the holder will not
accept Corporation bonds; these are limited to 40 percent of the value
of the property and bear interest at not to exceed 6 percent.
(c) Cash loans on mortgaged homes (to make repairs, meet taxes,
etc.), allowable up to 50 percent of the value of the property. The
authority of the Corporation to make such loans is limited to 3 years.
Within a year after the signing of the Home Owners Loan Act,
June 13, 1933, the Home Owners Loan Corporation had advanced
in bonds and cash for distressed home owners the sum of $923,416,733,
on 306,887 dwellings. The average loan per dwelling, up to July
1934, was $3,013. At the end of the first full year of operation
(Sept. 7, 1934) the Corporation had closed 505,070 loans, and had
advanced $1,513,100,612, of which about $150,000,000 was paid in
cash in the various communities. Some $103,300,000 was paid into
local treasuries to liquidate arrears of taxes and assessments, and the
Corporation pointed out, in a statement issued September 19, 1934,
that “ these sums have reduced tax delinquencies which were serious
in some instances, permitting countless communities to meet their
pay rolls for schools, police, and other services and to take care of
other obligations.” More than $20,274,000 had been expended for
the repair and remodeling of the homes on which loans were made,
“ providing employment for thousands of men in the building trades
and stimulating transportation and the manufacture and sale of con­
struction materials of many kinds.”
The passage early in 1934 of legislation guaranteeing the principal
as well as the interest of the bonds facilitated the work of the Cor­
poration, and during the late spring and early summer loans were con­
cluded at the rate of about 15,000 per week.
Under the National Housing Act, passed June 27, 1934, an ad­
ditional $900,000,000 in bonds for the refunding of past mortgages—
making a total of $3,100,000,000 in resources of the Corporation—was
made available.
From its organization on June 13, 1933, to October 26, 1934, the
Corporation had made loans aggregating $1,828,083,114 to 608,109
home owners in all parts of the country. During the week ending
with that date new applications numbered 6,981, the lowest figure
for any week since the Corporation had been in operation. This was
construed as “ evidence that the peak of home-owner relief need has
passed and that Federal aid is giving way to active resumption of
lending operations by private financial institutions. ”
On November 13, 1934, the Corporation announced that it would
receive no more applications for loans and (of those received) would
act upon only those which had proceeded as far as the legal division.
In the spring of 1935 Congress extended the lending powers of the
Corporation by voting it an additional sum of $1,750,000,000. The
Corporation announced that it would immediately resume opera­
tions, dealing first with the 283,889 applications approved but on
which loans had been withheld because of lack of funds.




238

HOUSING AND BUILDING OPERATIONS

Loans made up to November 28, 1935, numbered 953,195 and
totaled $2,882,733,143. Only 97,972 applications were pending at
that time, or approximately 5 percent of those received. More than
half of the applicants for assistance had been granted loans.
National Housing A ct , 1 9 3 4 .—This act is administered by the
Federal Housing Administration. As developed by that agency the
activities have been of two types:
(1) A temporary program, scheduled to end December 31, 1935,
but extended to April 1, 1936, providing for short-term loans for the
modernization of home properties— a measure designed to increase
employment in the building trades. The Administration does not
itself make loans; it merely insures lending institutions against any
losses incurred, up to 20 percent of the total so loaned by any one
lending institution. The underlying idea is that this insurance will
take the place of the property security ordinarily required for loans.
The total liability that may be incurred by the Federal Housing
Administration is limited to $200,000,000.
The home-modernization credit plan depends primarily on the
personal character and earning power of the borrower. Lending
institutions are not required to make any loan, but the Federal Hous­
ing Administration will insure the lending agency against loss provided
the following requirements are met:
(а) The borrower must own the property on which the improve­
ments are to be made.
(б) There must be no liens against the property. As regards tax
liens the original regulation was amended in a ruling of September 6,
1934, permitting the lending agency to use its own judgment as to
whether unpaid taxes should bar the making of the loan.
(c) Any mortgage on the property must be in “ good standing” ,
i. e., the property owner must be fulfilling the terms of the mortgage.
Exceptions are permitted, even in case of delinquent owners, however,
provided there is written agreement between mortgagor and mortga­
gee that foreclosure will not take place during the term of loan.
(d) The prospective borrower’s annual income must be at least
five times the amount of the annual payments which he agrees to
make.
(e) The borrower must agree that the money will be used entirely
for repairs, alterations, and improvements to his property and that
he will repay the loan in monthly installments. (A farmer borrower
may arrange to pay off the loan when he receives the proceeds of the
sale of his crops, livestock, etc.)
No security is required. The term of the loan runs from 1 to 3
years, and in exceptional cases to as long as 5 years. Loans insured
may not exceed $50,000 each (to improve apartments, hotels, etc.).
Up to the end of 1934 there were 11,936 financial institutions which
had qualified to make modernization loans.
(2) A long-time program to assist responsible citizens in purchasing
homes under a “ mutual mortgage plan” , by which the Administration
insures first mortgages on dwellings used primarily as residences. It
may also insure first mortgages on low-cost housing projects of
Federal, State, or municipal agencies or private limited-dividend
corporations.




PUBLIC AID TO HOUSING IN THE UNITED STATES

239

As of December 9, 1935, the Federal Housing Administration an­
nounced that 646,940 modernization and repair notes had been in­
sured for a total of $234,105,461; that 62,359 home mortgages selected
for appraisal and with fees paid totaled $240,597,352; and that 15
mortgages on low-cost housing projects accepted for insurance totaled
$27,030,234, making a grand total of $501,733,047.
State Legislation
S t a t e legislative enactments in the field of housing are a compara­
tively recent development. The earliest piece of housing legislation
was that of Puerto Rico (1921) which in its homestead act authorized
the Commissioner of the Interior to construct low-cost houses for
workmen. The next act was that of New York, passed in 1927. No
other legislation in this field was passed until 1932 when three States
passed housing laws. In 1933, 16, and in 1934, 2 housing measures
were enacted. B y 1935, 14 States had laws authorizing the forma­
tion of limited-dividend corporations for the erection of dwellings,
and 16 jurisdictions had legislation creating a State housing authority
or providing for the establishment of local housing authorities.
All of the States which passed measures authorizing the formation
of limited-dividend corporations set up boards or commissions.
These have broad powers as to the methods of financing, rates of
profit, rents, sales prices, and design, construction, and operation of
housing projects.
Fifteen cities and one county 1 set up local housing authorities with
power to acquire land and construct, sell, lease, or operate housing
projects.
The majority of the recent housing laws were passed to allow
States and municipalities to receive funds from the Federal Govern­
ment, and the housing activities carried on under them are included
in the section (p. 234) relating to Federal housing measures.
Concerning housing undertaken and carried out independently of
Federal loans, under State housing commissions, data are available
for New York only and relate only to projects undertaken before the
inauguration of the Federal program.
At the end of 1934 the New York State Board of Housing reported
that 11 projects had been completed under its supervision providing
quarters for 1,947 families, at an average rental of $10.76 per room.
There were six other projects approved by the board and proceeding
under its jurisdiction, all of which had been recipients of Federal
loans. Data regarding the effect of the tax-exemption feature of the
act upon the provision of low-cost housing are given in the article
on page 244.
1 Los Angeles, Calif.; Washington, D. C.; St. Clair County, 111.; Lexington, K y.; Detroit, Mich.; New
York City, Schenectady, and Buffalo, N . Y .; Cleveland, Columbus, Dayton, Toledo, Warren, and
Youngstown, Ohio; Columbia, S. C.; and Milwaukee, Wis.




240

HOUSING AND BUILDING OPERATIONS

Housing Conditions in American Cities, 1934
UBSTANDARD living conditions were found to be wide-spread
in 64 cities of the United States covered in the real propertyinventory by the United States Bureau of Foreign and Domestic
Commerce. Overcrowding, houses going or gone into disrepair, and
deficiencies in plumbing, heating, and lighting facilities were some of
the unfavorable conditions found.
The Bureau’s survey was undertaken as a Civil Works Adminis­
tration project for white-collar workers and was a complete census of
residential structures in 64 cities so selected as to give a representative
cross-section of urban America. One or more cities and both large
and small communities were taken in every State, so that there was a
wide range of industrial activities. The field work was done during
the period December 1933 to March 1934.
Data were obtained for 2,633,135 dwelling units, nearly 40 percent
of which were occupied by their owners. Nearly 80 percent were
single-family dwellings, 13 percent were two-family structures, and
all other types (including apartment buildings) formed 8 percent of
the total. The small proportion of multiple-family dwellings was
probably due to the large number of smaller cities covered.
On the basis of the facts revealed in the survey, the typical American
home is described as follows:

S

The typical American home may be described as a single-family dwelling, about
19 years old, of wood or frame construction, containing five rooms. It is equipped
with either bathtub or shower, indoor water closet, uses electricity for lighting
and gas for cooking. For the country as a whole, reliance is placed predomi­
nantly upon heating stoves for heat, although over 31 percent of all dwelling
units use warm-air furnaces. Coal is the principal fuel used.

Characteristics of Housing Accommodations
T h e owner-occupied dwellings, it was found, were considerably
larger than the average rented quarters. Over 83 percent of all
single-family homes occupied by their owners had five or more rooms,
as compared with only 63 percent of the rented dwellings.
More than 90 percent of the homes were equipped with electricity
for lighting and some 69 percent used gas for cooking.
The absence of sanitary plumbing on a larger scale than is commonly
realized was one of the outstanding facts revealed by this study.
There were 449,627 homes (17 percent) which had no indoor toilet
facilities and 612,977 (23 percent) which had no bath.
Considerable differences were found between the relative propor­
tions of owner-occupied dwellings and of rented dwellings as regards
household facilities, as table 1 shows.




241

HOUSING CONDITIONS IN AMERICAN CITIES

T a ble 1 —P E R C E N T OF D W E LL IN G S IN 64 CITIES W H IC H H A D SPECIFIED HOUSE­
HOLD CONVEN IEN CES

Percent having specified
convenience
Type of convenience
Total

Mechanical refrigeration_____________
Lighting by—
G a s........................ ..................... .......
Electricity_______________ _______
Cooking by—
Gas.......... ........... ............................
Electricity______________________
Indoor water closet_ __________ ____
_
Bath______________________________

Owneroccupied
units

Rental
units

17.0

21.0

14.4

.2
90.6

.2
95.4

.2
87.5

69.4
3.9
82.9
76.7

72.7
5.3
86.8
83.8

67.3
3.0
80.4
72.1

While the value of owner-occupied homes ranged from under $1,000
to $20,000 and over, the typical valuation of the single-family owneroccupied dwellings was from $3,000 to $4,999, nearly 30 percent being
in this value class.
Of the entire group of 860,465 single-family homes occupied by
their owners, 54 percent were mortgaged. The proportion mortgaged
varied from city to city—from 16 percent in Frederick, Md., to 76
percent in Waterbury, Conn.
Table 2 shows the distribution of the rental units according to the
monthly rent charged. In some cases these amounts covered such
items as garage, refrigeration, etc. It is evident from the table that
the rents in the multiple dwellings are higher than those in the
single-family dwellings.
T able 2 .—D IST R IBU T IO N OF R E N T A L D W E LL IN G S IN 64 CITIES A C C O R D IN G TO
GROSS M O N T H L Y R EN TS i

All rental units

Single-family
dwellings

Gross monthly rental1
Number
All rates_____ ________

________ ____ __

Under $10.00________________________ ________
$10-$14.99............................................................
$15-$19.99_______ __________________ ____ ____
$20-$29.99____________________________________
$30-$49.99____________________________________
$50-$74.99____________________ _______________
$75-$99.99_______________ ____________________
$100 and over__________ ________ ______ ______
Not reported and rent free___________________

All other (multi­
ple-family) dwell­
ings

Percent Number Percent Number Percent

1,597,208

100.0

676,341

100.0

920,867

100.0

248,650
292,202
284,173
413,522
272,104
49, 725
8,111
4,709
24,012

15.6
18.3
17.8
25.9
17.0
3.1
.5
.3
1.5

138,290
137,247
112,517
151,443
96,703
19,587
3,721
2,601
14,232

20.5
20.3
16.6
22.4
14.3
2.9
.6
.4
2.1

110,360
154,955
171,656
262,079
175,401
30,138
4,390
2,108
9,780

12.0
16.8
18.6
28.5
19.1
3.3
.5

.2

1.1

1 Includes any concessions, such as refrigeration, garage, etc.

Adequacy of American Housing
T h e data gathered throw some light on the question of the ade­
quacy of the living quarters of the American people. Of the prop­
erties canvassed in the survey, 58,747 were in such bad condition as
to be unfit for habitation and yet 41,891 of these were occupied at the
time of the survey. There were 204,228 vacant structures but of
these 16,856 Q percent) were unfit for use and only 51,558 (25.3
8.3
1 92 0 5 — 36--------17




242

HOUSING AND BUILDING OPERATIONS

percent) were in good repair. Furthermore, 30,600 of the vacant
dwellings had been unoccupied for 2 years or more and 26,159 others
for from 1 to 2 years. The report comments, as to this, that “ it is
reasonable to assume that most of these properties are deteriorating
and are probably in need of major repairs, if they are not already
beyond profitable repair.”
The data showed that 17.1 percent of the dwellings had an average
of more than 1 person per room. There were 379,434 dwellings
(15.6 percent) with an average of 1 to 2 persons per room, and 6,120
dwellings (0.3 percent) with more than 3 persons per room.
The survey disclosed that there were 183,200 extra families, sharing
quarters with householders, who expected to set up separate estab­
lishments of their own as soon as conditions improved. Of these
extra families, 88,187 were sharing owner-occupied dwellings and
95,013 were sharing rented structures.

Housing and Health

Q

U IT E definite evidence that if slum districts in cities were
eliminated and houses provided which meet adequate sanitary
requirements, there would be a favorable effect on the future
health of the population is provided by a study 2 by the United States
Public Health Service of the relationship between housing and health.
This evidence is based in part on the much higher mortality and sick­
ness rates in the slums, a fact which has been recognized for many
years, and upon the causal conditions of impure water supply, insani­
tary toilets, lack of sewer connections, overcrowding, lack of light and
of adequate ventilation, excessive dampness, dilapidation, and lack of
screening against flies and mosquitoes, which are generally found in
slum areas and in the tenement districts of large cities and the blighted,
poor areas of most urban communities.
Studies both in this country and abroad have shown that the
relation of excessive sickness and mortality rates to the conditions
in the slum or overcrowded districts of large cities is most clearly
shown for infant mortality, pulmonary tuberculosis, and perhaps
pneumonia, although in certain areas other diseases such as typhoid
fever, diphtheria, scarlet fever, rickets, hookworm disease, etc.,
show a connection with these conditions. Among these studies is
one by the United States Children's Bureau, which found on the basis
of 23,000 birth records in eight cities that the death rate of infants
was two and one-half times as great in homes with two or more persons
per room as in homes with less than one person per room. With
regard to overcrowding, a study in Detroit showed that, with an aver­
age number per room of 0.9 person or more, the deaths from all causes
were 10.9 per 1,000 as compared with 9.5 deaths with an average
number of persons per room of 0.7 or less. Death rates of infants
ranged from 86 per 1,000 births under the most crowded conditions
to 62 per 1,000 where there was the least crowding, while the death
rates per 100,000 population were very much greater for tuberculosis
among persons living under crowded conditions and considerably
8
Britten.

Public Health Reports, Nov. 2, 1934;




The Relation Between Housing and Health, by Rollo H .

HOUSING AND HEALTH

243

higher for pneumonia and diphtheria. A classification of census
tracts in Cleveland on the basis of equivalent monthly rental showed
that the 1930 death rate, after adjustment for age and sex, varied
from 15 to 1,000 population in the lowest of the 12 economic areas
to 7.2 per 1,000 in the highest. The average rentals in these areas
varied from less than $20 per month in the lowest to $75 or more in
the highest. Although these figures are important in indicating in a
general way the effect of slum areas or bad housing, many complicating
factors enter into them, such as density of population, race, tenement
flats, proportion renting dwellings, age distribution, marital condition,
unemployment, illiteracy, juvenile delinquency, and birth rate.
Proof that some of this excess in the death rates is due to sub­
standard housing is shown by data from Liverpool, England, in which
the deaths in the slum areas are compared with those in municpal
houses constructed for the same type of population. The figures,
which are averages for the years 1923-29, show that the infant mor­
tality was 98 per 1,000 births for the entire city, 131 for corporation
tenements, and 171 for a slum area, while the deaths from all causes
per 1,000 population were respectively 13.9, 18.2, and 28.4 and the
deaths from pulmonary tuberculosis per 100,000 population were
123, 164, and 299. These figures show mortality rates in the slum
district greatly in excess of those in the municipal houses, although
in turn the latter are definitely higher than for the city generally.
These figures are made even more significant by the fact that in the
slum area regular sanitary measures are carried out, such as inspection
by the sanitary staff, systematic cleaning of streets and sewers, and
the provision of baths and washhouses, and the operation of infantwelfare centers and clinics in close proximity to the area, showing that
nothing short of demolition would prevent the continuance oi high
death rates. A pure water supply and sanitary disposal of sewage
are frequently lacking in slum districts, and both are of the utmost
importance; where wells or cisterns are used or water is not actually
piped into dwellings there is a continuing risk of epidemic disease,
and the lack of proper toilet facilities, coupled with insanitary disposal
of sewage, may result in the prevalence of typhoid fever, dysentery,
various diarrheal diseases, summer complaints of infants, and in some
parts of the country, hookworm.
Overcrowding and the Spread of Disease

families in slum areas live under overcrowded conditions
it is considered that the excess of contact diseases in these areas is
due not so much to overcrowding in the individual flat or house as to
the general congestion of the area, which results in congregation of
young children in the hallways of tenements, in the streets, etc.
There are many diseases which are spread from close personal con­
tact, primarily by secretions from the mouth and nose through
droplet infection, these diseases including the common cold, sore
throat, bronchitis, influenza, the common diseases of childhood,
cerebrospinal fever, pneumonia, and tuberculosis. The effect of
congestion and overcrowding in the past on the prevalence of such
epidemic diseases as plague, smallpox, cholera, and typhus fever has
been very great, and it is evident that the slum areas present a real
menace, not only to the inhabitants of these areas, but to other parts
of the population.
W

h il e




244

HOUSING AND BUILDING OPERATIONS

Lack of adequate ventilation and light, also characteristic of slum
areas, may play a part in the occurrence of such diseases as tuber­
culosis and rickets, while inadequate screening against flies and mos­
quitoes may be reflected in the rate for typhoid fever and diarrheal
diseases and, in the South, in malaria, while ratproofing, which is
almost unknown in the worst sections of our cities, is an important
public health measure in districts where there is a possibility of the
contraction of plague from rodents.
There are no statistics of the extent to which dilapidation of houses,
which has been increasing during the depression, has increased the
danger of accidents in the home nor of the loss of life in slum areas
from fire, although it is evident that houses or tenements which are so
dilapidated as to make repairs uneconomic must offer many accident
hazards, while the continual occurrence of fatal fires in tenement
houses in large cities is recognized as a hazard resulting from con­
struction antedating the passage of strict building ordinances.

Tax Exemption and Low-Cost Housing in New York
City
N JU N E 1927, New York City adopted an ordinance remitting
local taxes for a period of 20 years on model tenements erected by
limited-dividend corporations, provided they met certain specifica­
tions. A State law passed a year earlier had exempted such build­
ings from State taxes, if they were finished before 1937, to the same
extent that local taxes might be remitted. The reports of the State
housing board 3 give data as to the amount and kind of housing pro­
vided under the legislation of 1926 and 1927 and discuss the most
common objections against encouraging the provision of housing by
tax exemption, showing how far these are applicable to the limiteddividend housing projects of recent years.

I

Amount and Kind of Housing Supplied by Limited-Dividend Corporations
T h e State law of 1926 provided that in order to secure tax exemp­
tion, the limited-dividend corporations must erect their buildings
under the supervision of the State housing board and in accordance
with its specifications. The work completed under this law consists
of 11 different projects, comprising 1,918 apartments used for dwelling
purposes, with a total of 7,356 rooms, including 44 dining alcoves and
11 bathrooms counted as half rooms. Five other projects were ap­
proved by the State housing board.
Under the terms of the State
law, these projects were all conservatively financed, with a view to
making them attractive for investment rather than for speculative
purposes. The average rent may not be more than $12.50 per room
per month, and dividends may not exceed 6 percent. If, after due
provision for management, maintenance, and amortization, returns
would permit a larger dividend, rents must be reduced. The State
board of housing exercises a close supervision over plans and construc3 New York State Board of Housing Report, Albany, 1932 (Legislative document (1932) No. 84); Report,
Albany, 1933 (Legislative document (1933) No. 112).




T A X EXEM PTION AND LOW-COST HOUSING IN N EW YORK

245

tion and enforces standards as to size of rooms, coverage of area, pro­
vision of light and air, cross ventilation, sanitation and the like, far
superior to those usually found in low-rental buildings. Generally
speaking, the board’s approval is limited fc sites which are large enough
o
and so situated as to permit the development of projects with low
coverage and in accordance with modern principles of site planning.
Looking upon it as a duty to prove that superior types of dwellings
are possible at relatively low cost, the board will not approve any proj­
ect which is not suitably adapted to its surroundings and which is not
so planned as to secure adequate light and air and necessary privacy
for every apartment. In general, apartments may be only two rooms
deep, thus securing complete through ventilation, and in the large
projects, a number of valuable facilities are provided, such as clubrooms, playgrounds, and the like.4
Rentals
T h e 11 co m p le te d p r o je c ts co m p ris e d 1,936 a p a rtm e n ts c o n ta in in g

7.384 rooms, excluding those occupied by superintendents or used for
commercial purposes and 45 bathrooms counted as half rooms in 2
projects. The monthly rent of the apartments in 1932 ranged from
betweenj$15 and $20 charged for each of two 2-room apartments, to
between $75 and $80 for ten 5-room apartments, the average monthly
rent per room varying from $9.30 to $16.67.
A rental of $12.50 per room per month is looked upon as the out­
side limit of what the average worker can pay for housing. Of the
7.384 rooms listed, 90 percent were within this limit, two-thirds were
under $11, and one-quarter were under $10. The board looked upon
this as a demonstration that, by means of large-scale economies and
careful planning, excellent housing can be provided, even in a large
city, at rentals within the reach of the great mass of workers.
Some Effects of Tax Exemption
I n d iscu ssin g this topic it is emphatically stated that tax exemp­
tion without careful regulation is not desirable.
Without the proper safeguards tax exemption will neither lower rents nor im­
prove standards. Unfortunately, a striking illustration of this situation was
witnessed in New York City during the last decade, when the city of New York
took advantage of the amendment to the State law wdiich granted municipalities
the right to exempt from taxes residential buildings whose construction was begun
before April 1, 1924. The result, as we have pointed out in the previous reports,
was the production of 1- and 2-family dwellings of decidedly inferior quality,
mostly in Brooklyn and Queens, at rents that were considerably above the price
that could be paid by families with modest incomes.

But, given proper regulation, tax exemption indubitably aids in
the production of desirable housing at lower rents than could be
afforded otherwise. Without it, rents in the housing provided by
the limited-dividend corporations would have to be increased from
$1.27 to $3.18 per room per month.
The principal factor producing the variations shown in the room rental in­
creases is the difference in the average room sizes. Buildings with smaller
rooms experience the lowest savings and those with the larger rooms the greatest
4
Descriptions of some of these buildings were given in the Monthly Labor Review, August 1928 (p. 1),
and September 1929 (p. 106).




246

HOUSING A N D BUILDING OPERATIONS

savings. In other words, limited-dividend companies that provide the highest
accommodations to tenants— as measured by room sizes— receive the greatest
benefits from tax exemption.

Cost of Tax Exemption to the Municipality

I n co n sid ering the effect of tax exemption upon the city’s revenues,
it must be remembered that the exemption is not upon the total cost
of the site and building combined, but upon either the cost or ap­
praised value, whichever is the lower, of the improvements. The
actual amount granted in tax exemptions by New York City to the
State Board of Housing projects was $43,427 in 1929, $60,386 in 1930,
$131,834 in 1931, and $179,557 in 1932, a total of $415,203 for the
3 years. Considering only the financial aspect, attention is called
to the fact that this is, at least in part, offset by the fact that opera­
tion of limited-dividend corporations tends to improve the neighbor­
hood in slum areas and to accelerate the building up of new localities
in outlying regions, with increasing revenues to the city.
Furthermore, it is doubtful that the city will really lose any revenue at all
over a period of years. The experience of the board reinforces these conclusions.
* * * The assessed valuation of land in the Amalgamated Housing Corpora­
tion was increased by more than 250 percent since 1927; the Academy Housing
Corporation by over 130 percent; the Brooklyn Garden Apartments by about
60 percent; Farband Housing Corporation by 80 percent; and the Schnurmacher
projects on the lower East Side by about 15 percent. The average increase in
land assessments for the 9 projects is 53 percent above the assessment placed
on the land when acquired.

The board feels that the sum lost through tax exemption is a small
amount to pay for the advantage of securing improved housing at
rentals the worker can meet, and for the demonstration these projects
afford of the fact that the provision of housing in New York has been
allowed to develop along unnecessarily expensive and undesirable lines.
Every structure erected in terms of the board’ s standards is a challenge to
the community to rid itself of a system that provides homes by letting the small
owner hold the bag while the land developer parcels out the city’s undeveloped
land into 20 or 25 foot lots, the second mortgagee charges the hard-pressed owners
an interest of 9 to 15 percent, the builder erects ugly rows of single and 2-family
houses, and apartment houses crowd the land to the maximum permitted by law.

Housing Situation in Philadelphia, Spring of 1934
AD housing conditions affecting a considerable proportion of the
housing facilities in Philadelphia were disclosed by a survey
carried on by the State Emergency Relief Administration as a publicworks project.5 This survey was similar to the real property inven­
tory of the United States Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce
in 64 cities but covered a number of additional points.6
For purposes of the study the city was divided into 11 districts, and
2,700 enumerators visited more than 460,000 households during April
and May 1934.
Of the 507,667 family dwelling units for which data were obtained,
458,581 were occupied and only 49,086 (9.7 percent) were vacant.

B

* Pennsylvania. State Emergency Relief Administration. Department of Research and Statistics.
Bulletins Nos. 1-18: Philadelphia Real Property Survey. Philadelphia, 1934 and 1935.
6 Philadelphia was not included in that survey. For a summary of that inventory see p. 240, and Monthly
Labor Review, March 1935 (p. 723).




247

HOUSING SITUATION IN PHILADELPHIA

These family accommodations were fairly evenly distributed between
rented and owned dwellings, 293,710 being rental units (of which
244,624 were occupied) and 213,957 being units occupied by the
owners. Of the structures occupied by the owners, 77,468 were
owned free of encumbrance, 135,257 were mortgaged, and data were
not available for the remaining 1,232.
It was found that there were 26,470 extra families living with the
householders in the dwellings visited.
Slightly over 1 percent of the structures were more than 100 years
old, 18.5 percent were between 50 and 100 years old, 27.7 percent
were between 30 and 50 years of age, while 40.8 percent had been
constructed during the past 30 years, and age data were not obtained
for 11.8 percent. Over 90 percent of the dwellings were in good con­
dition or could be made so with minor repairs. There were, however,
14,188, or 3.3 percent, which were unfit for habitation, and only
5,668 of these were vacant, so that it is evident that at the time of
the survey families were living in 8,520 dwellings which were regarded
by the investigators as unfit for use.
Somewhat under 95 percent of the dwellings fronted on a major
street (i.e., those over 20 feet in width), 3.1 percent on a minor
street, 1 percent on a dead-end street, 0.3 percent on an alley, 0.8
percent on a court, and 0.2 percent on a tunnel.
Hot-air and hot-water heat were the most common, but 44,843 of
the 433,796 dwellings were heated by stove and 2,984 had no heating
facilities whatever.
Gas was used for cooking in 91.8 percent and electricity for lighting
in 94.3 percent of the dwellings.
Nine-tenths (89.8 percent) of the buildings were supplied with both
hot and cold water and 9.5 percent had cold water only. There were,
however, 1,524 structures (0.4 percent) which had water piped only
to the yard, and 2,048 (0.5 percent) which had no water connections
at all and had to depend on neighbors for the supply. About 90
percent had bathrooms. Dwellings having water-closets in the yard
formed 9.1 percent of the total and those having privy vaults 1 percent.
In the section with the worst housing conditions—the east central
section—there were 2,927 dwellings without either water-closets or
privy vaults.
The gross monthly rentals of the rental units are shown in the
statement below.
N beT of
um
dw ellin g s

Total dwellings_________________________________________ 244, 624
Monthly rental of—
Under $10____ ____________________________________
$10 to $19.99_____________________________________
$20 to $29.99_____________________________________
$30 to $49.99_____________________________________
$50 to $69.99_____________________________________
$70 to $99.99____
$100 and over_______________ ______________________
Rate not reported__________________________________




9,504
57, 163
91, 924
64, 336
13, 430
3, 344
2, 542
2, 381

248

HOUSING AND BUILDING OPERATIONS

Attitudes Toward Home Ownership and Tenancy

A

STUDYof attitudes toward home ownership and tenancy, made
with a view to finding an explanation of the apartment-house
movement, was published in the Journal of Land and Public Utility
Economics (Chicago) for August 1931, as part of an article entitled
“ Apartment-house increases and attitudes toward home ownership” ,
by Coleman Woodbury. The locality of the study was the city of
Chicago and its metropolitan region, but some information is also
given for adjacent towns in Illinois. The social classes covered by
the survey included the so-called “ white-collar workers” , as repre­
sented by the employees of the People’s Gas & Light & Coke Co. of
Chicago; well-to-do professional and business men, members of the
City Club of Chicago; the lower-paid professional classes, found
among the faculty and staff members of Northwestern University,
including full-time teachers and members of the faculties of the
professional schools; organized skilled and semiskilled workers, as
represented by the secretaries and delegates of trade unions in Chicago
and in towns outside of Chicago; and a miscellaneous class of workers,
mostly unorganized, living on the west side of Chicago.
The information presented in the article is based on 1,882 question­
naires obtained in the latter part of 1930, 53.9 percent thereof having
been furnished by owners and 46.1 percent by renters. Twenty-five
percent were from employees of the gas company, of whom 46.2 per­
cent were owners and 53.8 percent renters; 23.6 percent from City
Club members, of whom 60.4 percent were owners and 39.6 percent
renters; 16 percent from organized labor, of whom 61.8 percent were
owners and 38.2 percent renters; 15.6 percent from Northwestern
University faculty and staff members, of whom 39.9 percent were
owners and 60.1 percent renters; and 19.8 percent from the “ mis­
cellaneous” workers, of whom 60.3 percent were owners and 39.7
percent renters.
The following table shows the distribution of owners and renters
by income groups:
D IST R IB U T IO N OF O W NERS A N D R EN TE R S B Y IN C O M E GROUPS
Owners
Income group

Total

Renters

Percent
Percent
Number of income Number of income Number
group
group

Percent
of total

All groups______________ ________________

1,014

53.9

868

46.1

1,882

100. C

Under $1,800____________________________
$1,800 to $3,000____________ _____________
$3,000 to $5,000__________________________
$5,000 to $7,500____________ _____________
$7,500 to $10,000________ _______ _________
Over $10,000...................................... — .........
Unclassified.....................................................

215
330
118
95
74
169
13

54.6
53.1
41.3
48.7
64.9
68.1
54.2

179
291
168
100
40
79
11

45.4
46.9
58.7
51.3
35.1
31.9
45.8

394
621
286
195
114
248
24

20.9
33.0
15.2
10.4
6.1
13.2
1.3

Of the home renters, 60.3 percent of those replying to the question­
naire lived in apartment houses or in apartment hotels (6.6 percent in
the latter), 23.8 percent in 2-family houses, and 15.4 percent in single­
family houses. Of the home owners, 6.6 percent lived in multifamily
dwellings, 13.9 percent in 2-family houses, and 78.8 percent in single­
family houses.




ATTITUDES TOWARD HOME OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY

249

Seventy-eight percent of the renters and 29 percent of the owners
had lived less than 5 years at their present addresses. The mobility
of residence of the renters appeared to be characteristic of renters as a
whole and not of apartment dwellers alone, as 70.1 percent of a sample
of renters of single-family houses had lived at their present address less
than 5 years as compared with a corresponding percentage for apart­
ment renters of 79.8 percent and for renters of 2-family houses of 77.8
percent.
The absence of children was found more frequently among renters
than among home owners, 44.7 percent of the renters covered by the
study having no children as compared with 22 percent of the home
owners. Of the home owners who had children, 54.4 percent had two
or more children, while only 29.7 percent of the renters had families of
this size, although it is noted that renters living in single-family and
2-family houses had almost as many children as the owners living in
these types of dwellings. Only 29.1 percent of the renters of singlefamily houses were childless and 45.5 percent had two or more chil­
dren; of the renters of 2-family houses, 26.6 percent had no children and
43.5 percent had two or more children.
Reasons for Home Ownership or Tenancy
A m o n g the owners, the welfare of the children was most frequently
given as the chief consideration leading to home ownership, followed,
m the order named, by safety of investment; forced saving; amenities,
such as working around the house, making gardens, etc.; protection
and security; lack of play space in apartment districts; and noise in
apartment districts. The prevalence of these reasons for owning a
home had about the same rank in the different occupational and in­
come classifications, welfare of children holding first place, in every
income class, and amenities and protection and security ranking
fairly constantly in about fourth or fifth place, except that protection
and security did not occur among the leading seven reasons given in
the higher-income groups. Investment considerations held high rank
in the lower-income groups, but were superseded in the higher-income
groups by reasons which stressed the “ undesirable physical charac­
teristics of most apartment-house districts.” When the considera­
tions entering into home ownership were classified under three heads—
(1) financial reasons, (2) family-welfare reasons, and (3) negative,
antiapartment reasons—it was found that there were 1,016 citations
in the first classification, 1,226 in the second, and 321 in the third.
The following reasons for renting instead of owning a dwelling were
those which received most frequent mention:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Renting is cheaper than owning.
Financing costs of owning too high.
Tax burden on owners too heavy.
Investment in house too fixed.
Renting increases freedom.
Installment payments on house are dangerous.
Owned house a poor investment.
Costs incidental to purchase of house too high.
Land value too high.
Renting increases bargaining power.

Reasons 4 to 8 are said to have been given with about the same
frequency. The first reason cited in every income group, except




250

HOUSING AND BUILDING OPERATIONS

that of persons receiving under $1,800, was that “ renting is cheaper
than owning.” The cost of financing the purchase of a house was the
chief consideration in the income group under $1,800 and came second
in the income group $1,800 to $3,000 and fourth in the group $3,000 to
$5,000, but was well down the list in the higher-income groups. Ex­
pense and investment reasons made up 75 percent of the total num­
ber of reasons given, 48 percent being expense reasons and 27 percent
investment reasons. The lowest percentage of expense and invest­
ment reasons occurred among the City Club members and the highest
percentage among the unskilled laborers. The ease with which renters
can adjust the size of their living quarters to changes in the size of the
family was emphasized by those with incomes of over $10,000.
Only 14 percent of the 913 owners wished to sell and to become
renters, while 53 percent of the 785 renters wished to become owners,
thus clearly indicating that “ the increase in multifamily houses in
the Chicago region is not caused by a wholesale change of attitude
toward the relative advantages of home ownership and home
tenancy.”
The article emphasizes that the following should be kept in mind:
The findings of the study relate solely to conditions in and about
Chicago, a city which has had a very rapid recent growth; the informa­
tion was obtained during one of the deepest business and industrial
depressions in the history of the country; the sample “ does not give
sufficient weight to the lower-income groups” ; the means of securing
the list of persons to whom the questionnaire was sent “ unavoidably
weighted the sample with the more stable and ‘ settled’ classes of the
population” ; many persons may question the degree of accuracy with
which most people can analyze their reasons for any line of action; and
that the opinions regarding home ownership and tenancy should be
treated as opinions and not as established facts.




IMMIGRATION, EMIGRATION, AND
NATURALIZATION

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




261




Administration of Immigration, Emigration, and
Naturalization Laws
HE immigration and naturalization laws of the United States
are administered by the Immigration and Naturalization Service
of the United States Department of Labor. Data regarding the
immigration movement and naturalization of aliens are compiled
monthly by the Immigration and Naturalization Service, this office
being a reorganization and merger of the former Bureau of Immigra­
tion and Bureau of Naturalization. The figures and text in this
section are taken from the above-mentioned sources.

T

Immigration and Emigration by Months, July 1, 1930,
to March 31, 1935
A B LE 1 shows the inward and outward passenger movement for
the fiscal years ending June 30, 1931, 1932, 1933, and 1934, and
for July 1934 to March 1935. In table 2 is shown the net increase or
decrease of population through permanent immigration and emigra­
tion of aliens, for the fiscal years 1932, 1933, and 1934, according to
the country of last residence in the case of immigrants, and of future
residence in the case of emigrants. Table 3 gives for 19 31,19 32,19 33,
and 1934, for immigrants and emigrants, the principal States of
intended future or last permanent residence, respectively, and also
their occupational status, sex, age periods, and marital condition.
Over two-thirds of the immigrants admitted dining the fiscal years
1932, 1933, and 1934 had no occupation, being mainly women and
children under 16 years of age, the vast majority of whom came to
join their near relatives in this country.

T




253

able

1

. IN W A R D AN D OUTWARD PASSENGER M O V E M E N T FROM JULY 1, 1930, TO M AR C H 31, 1935
—
Inward

Outward

United
States
citizens
arrived

Total

Immigrant

Nonimmi­
grant

1930-31
July______________________
August— ------------------------September_____ __________
October._________ ________
November________________
December_____ _________
January..................................
February...............................
March________ ___________
April_________ ___________
M ay............... .......................
June-------- -------- ----------------

13,323
14,816
17,792
13,942
9,209
6,439
4,091
3,147
3,577
3,470
3,799
3,534

16,466
19,724
29,359
23, 304
13,032
9,939
8,724
9,065
12,767
14, 289
14,062
12,809

29,789
34,540
47,151
37,246
22,241
16, 378
12,815
12,212
16,344
17,759
17,861
16,343

38,822
69,957
80,900
40,702
22,381
28,535
19,844
27,508
34,861
28,281
22,518
25,588

68,611
104,497
128,051
77,948
44, 622
44,913
32,659
39,720
51, 205
46,040
40,379
41,931

Total.......... ....................

97,139

183,540

280,679

439,897

1931-32
July------- ------------------- ------August................................. September________________
October_____ _____________
November........ ..................
December______ ______ ___
January___________________
February........................... .
March_______________ ___ _
April--------------------- -----------M ay____ ______ ____ _____
June_________________ ____

3,174
4,090
5,017
3,913
2,899
2,642
2,220
1,984
2,103
2,469
2,479
2,586

12,361
16,580
20,940
17,096
9,832
8,086
7,242
7,346
9,248
11,266
10,579
8,719

15,535
20,670
25,957
21,009
12,731
10,728
9,462
9,330
11,351
13,735
13,058
11,305

Total.......... - .................

35,576

139,295

174,871

Total

Aliens de­
barred
from
entering 2

Aliens departed

United
States
citizens
departed

Total

Aliens de­
ported
after
landing 2

Emigrant

Nonemi­
grant

881
837
929
854
734
806
693
689
597
809
1,001
914

4,818
5,245
5,100
5,352
4,951
5,450
4,397
4,720
4,693
5,647
5,616
5,893

22,588
29,166
24,604
22,938
19,285
17,603
17,169
16,170
12; 751
14,346
15,602
16,812

27,406
34,411
29,704
28,290
24,236
23,053
21,566
20,890
17,444
19,993
21,218
22,705

55,366
88,372
56,526
32,988
24,420
21,140
24,885
33,172
3 2 ,278
24,418
23.242
29,579

82,772
122,783
86, 230
61, 278
48,656
44,193
46,451
54,062
49,722
44,411
44,460
52,284

1,440
1,208
1,552
1,526
1,405
1,377
1,517
1,210
1,726
1,897
1,767
1,517

720,576

9,744

61,882

229,034

290,916

446.386

737,302

18,142

30,944
59,372
62,581
32,427
16,823
16,932
17,158
19,829
22,012
23,261
19,233
18,690

46,479
80,042
88,538
53,436
29,554
27,660
26,620
29,159
33,363
36,996
32,291
29,995

761
657
684
806
573
485
577
392
445
580
540
564

7,428
9,541
8,733
10,857
11,318
10,727
8,550
6,188
6,239
6,746
8,577
8,391

20,450
23,009
20,393
16,525
14,271
17,370
14, 693
9,691
10,097
9,886
13,262
14,715

27,878
32,550
29,126
27,382
25,589
28,097
23,243
15,879
16,336
16,632
21,839
23,106

46,961
65,895
42,247
35,016
23,224
24,351
25,016
22,920
24,718
19,980
22,152
28,357

74,839
98,445
71,373
62,398
48,813
52,448
48,259
38,799
41,054
36,612
43,991
51,463

1,681
1,584
1,446
1,663
1,525
1,336
1,537
1,505
2,112
1,633
1,597
1,807

339,262

514,133

7,064

103,295

184,362

287,657

380,837

668,494

19,426

Total

IMMIGRATION, EMIGRATION, AND NATURALIZATION

Aliens admitted

Period




254

T

2,079
2,719
3,129
2,388
2,006
1,846
1,511
1,277
1,393
1,300
1,694
1,726

10,534
14,107
21,348
14,407
8,681
7,132
6,627
6,311
8,029
8,455
11,615
10,414

12,613
16,826
24,477
16,795
10,687
8,978
8,138
7,588
9,422
9,755
13,309
12,140

28,006
54,070
60,258
28,058
14,879
13,259
14,159
17,005
18,414
18, 539
20,029
18,325

40,619
70,896
84,735
44,853
25,566
22,237
22,297
24,593
27,836
28,294
33,338
30,465

561
605
596
590
428
424
270
505
300
372
409
467

11,328
8,783
8,856
7,788
8,031
8,040
5,019
4,345
4,287
4,409
4,002
5,193

24,089
20,141
17,290
14,776
13,062
13, 233
11,793
8,587
7,327
8,909
10, 561
13,953

35,417
28,924
26,146
22,564
21,093
21, 273
16,812
12,932
11, 614
13, 318
14, 563
19,146

59,298
57,887
38,368
28,854
22,129
20,461
19,792
19,097
16,682
16,012
17, 727
22,238

94,715
86,811
64,514
51,418
43,222
41,734
36,604
32,029
28,296
29,330
32,290
41,384

2,100
1,946
1,643
2,103
1,580
1,604
1,220
1,102
1,640
1,780
1, 519
1,628

Total................... ............

23,068

127,660

150,728

305,001

455,729

5,527

80,081

163,721

243,802

338, 545

582,347

19,865

1933-34
July....................... - ........ —
August...........- .......................
September..........—........ —
October.. ...............................
November.........................—
December..............................
January--------- ---------- ..........
February............................—
March_______________ ____
April.................... ......... —
M ay------------------ --------------June..........- .......................-

1,830
2,628
2,961
3,004
2,251
2,324
1,843
1, 714
2,324
2,432
3,126
3,033

10,306
13,927
18,893
15,737
8,655
8,414
7,763
6,990
9,043
11,012
12,712
10,982

12,136
16,555
21,854
18,741
10,906
10,738
9,606
8,704
11,367
13,444
15,838
14,015

24,453
43,525
46,528
25,675
13,179
11,979
11,848
15,334
20,795
22,249
19,479
18, 213

36,589
60,080
68,382
44,416
24,085
22,717
21,454
24,038
32,162
35,693
35,317
32,228

564
536
602
542
456
323
338
291
375
478
427
452

5,256
5,120
3,784
3,856
3,232
3,187
2,907
2,077
2,304
2, 730
2,343
2,975

17,768
14,623
12,416
13,345
9,039
9,550
10, 798
7,951
7,777
10,759
11, 272
12,103

23,024
19, 743
16, 200
17, 201
12, 271
12, 737
13, 705
10,028
10,081
13,489
13, 615
15,078

42,135
37, 626
27,137
23, 285
14, 597
10,707
13,936
18,433
14,899
22,349
18,003
18,984

65,159
57,369
43,337
40,486
26,868
23,444
27,641
28,461
24,980
35,838
31,618
34,062

1,138
995
846
929
770
685
570
564
632
475
683
592

29,470

134,434

163,904

273,257

437,161

5,384

39,771

137,401

177,172

262,091

439,263

8,879

2, 777
4,004
3,585
3,586
3, 386
2,561
2,424
1,948
2,401

11,018
16,461
20, 545
15,622
9,572
7,760
8,350
7,088
10,164

13,795
20,465
24,130
19,208
12,958
10,321
10,774
9,036
12,565

24,065
49, 341
43,927
24,976
15,091
12,388
14, 443
15,474
20,470

37,860
69,806
68,057
44,184
28,049
22, 709
25,217
24,510
33,035

517
499
475
547
458
400
359
346
361

3,515
3,785
4, 710
3,630
4,354
3,853
2,943
2, 226
2,460

13,940
18,508
16,867
13,295
13, 269
10, 338
11,096
8,940
9,286

17,455
22, 293
21, 577
16,925
17, 623
14.191
14,039
11,166
11, 746

26, 642
48, 696
37, 533
20,825
18, 542
13,942
17,016
17, 628
16, 665

44,097
70,989
59,110
37,750
36,165
28,133
31,055
28, 794
28,411

657
659
606
655
709
732
618
651
540

26,672

106,580

133,252

220,175

353,427

3,962

31,476

115,539

147,015

217,489

364, 504

5,827

Total........................ —
1934-35
July..................... ...................
August........................ ..........
September________________
October........... ................—
November_____ ____ _____
December......... .................—
January....... ..........................
February.......... ......... ..........
March...................... .............
Total 9 months_______

i Debarred aliens not included among arrivals, as they were-not permitted to enter.
* These deportees (exclusive of temporary visitors across land borders and seamen permitted to ship foreign one-way) are included among aliens departed.

255




IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION, JULY 1930-MARCH 1935

1932-33
July.......................—..............
August..................- ........ —
September........ ........... ........
October.---------------------------November.............................
December..............................
January........................... —
February.............................. .
March..................................
April................................ .......
M ay........................- ..............
June...................................—

256

IMMIGRATION, EMIGRATION, AND NATURALIZATION

T a ble 8 .—IM M IG R A N T ALIENS A D M IT T E D A N D E M IG B A N T ALIEN S D E P A B T E D ,

YE A R S E N D IN G JUNE 30, 1932, 1933, A N D 1934, B Y COU N TRIES OF LAST P E R M A N E N T
OR IN T E N D E D F U TU R E R ESID EN CE , W IT H EXCESS OF ADM ISSIONS (+ ) A N D OF
DEPARTURES( -)
1932

1934

1933

Country
Ad­
De­
mitted parted Excess

Ad­
De­
mitted parted

Ad­
De­
mitted parted
Albania................... ...................
Austria................................. .
Belgium------------- -----------------Bulgaria............................ .........
Czechoslovakia--------------------Denmark....................................
Estonia.......................................
Finland-------------- -----------------France-------- ------------------------Germany................... .......... .
Great Britain:
England................... ..........
Scotland............................ Wales----------- -----------------Greece---------------- -----------------Hungary.....................................
Irish Free State________ ____
Italy................................... .........
Latvia.—............... ...................
Lithuania............. . ..................Netherlands......... .....................
Northern Ireland_________
Norway............. - .......................
Poland----------- ----------------------Portugal---------- --------------------Rumania------------------------------Russia.........................................
Spain_______ _______________
Sweden---------------------- ------Switzerland-------------------------Yugoslavia------ --------------------Other Europe----------------------Total, Europe......... —

Excess

245
301
229
65
494
262
32
100
854
2,670

122
452
676
157
1,862
582
74
764
2,572
5,533

+123
-151
-447
-9 2
-1,368
-320
-4 2
-664
-1,718
-2,863

129
228
133
23
294
166
18
108
571
1,919

105
348
554
153
1,122
333
58
579
1,702
5,131

+24
-120
-421
-130
-828
-167
-4 0
-471
-1,131
-3,212

160
310
176
40
644
127
49
150
707
4,392

36
158
277
95
481
200
36
273
1,096
3,502

+124
+152
-101
-5 5
+163
-7 3
+13
-123
-389
+890

1,374
633
50
877
446
441
6,662
69
191
231
98
348
1,296
248
465
244
445
328
235
508
138

7,019
4,370
311
1,406
783
2,457
4,866
61
411
780
621
1,686
2,408
1,003
768
1,524
2,998
2,930
778
1,814
313

-5,645
-3,737
-261
-529
-337
-2,016
+1,796
+8
-220
-549
-523
-1,338
-1,112
-755
-303
-1,280
-2,553
-2,602
-543
-1,306
-175

712
228
39
532
285
266
3,477
50
118
174
72
202
1,332
90
247
164
198
142
163
174
129

7,100
4,739
304
1,277
469
2,804
6,270
41
330
628
649
1,602
1,675
2,166
530
515
2,815
1,822
537
1,048
285

-6,388
-4,511
-265
-745
-184
-2,538
-2,793
+9
-212
-454
-577
-1,400
-343
-2,0 7 6
-283
-351
-2,617
-1,6 8 0
-374
-874
-156

891
375
39
605
284
327
4,374
54
149
186
116
235
1,032
225
247
205
297
195
193
184
242

3,845
1,970
188
644
245
1,228
3,047
21
114
286
411
866
785
502
318
218
1,168
625
328
523
140

-2,9 5 4
-1 ,5 9 5
-1 4 9
-3 9
+39
-901
+1,327
+33
+35
-100
-295
-631
+247
-277
-7 1
-1 3
-871
-4 3 0
-135
-339
+102

52,101 -31,522 12,383 47,691 -35,308 17,210 23,626

-6,416

20,579

China.................................... .
Japan............................ ..............
Palestine....................................
Syria............................................
Other Asia........................ .........

750
526
163
253
239

3,384
813
123
117
481

-2,634
-287
+40
+136
-242

Total, Asia— ............... -

1,931

4,918

-2,987

148
75
47
162
120

3,551
1,074
157
147
621

-3,403
-999
-110
+15
-501

552

5,550

187
86
66
164
94

2,372
842
204
64
290

Excess

-2,1 8 5
-756
-138
+100
-196

-4,998

597

3, 772

-3,175

Canada....................................... 7,927
76
Newfoundland_____ ______
2,171
Mexico...................................
West Indies..............................- 1,029
672
Central America.......................
702
South America. ........... ...........
Other America..........................

1,989 +5,938
192
-116
37,074 -34,903
3,463 -2,434
-184
856
2,209 -1,507
1
-1

6,135 1,705 +4,430
52
122
-7 0
1,936 19,110 -17,174
862 2,995 -2,133
507
776
-269
433 1,695 -1,262
5
-5

7,873
72
1,801
861
443
355
4

1,529
84
6, 501
2,247
521
1,055
2

+6,344
-1 2
- 4 , 700
-1 ,3 8 6
-7 8
-700
+2

Total, America.............. 12,577

45, 784 -33,207

9,925 26,408 -16,483 11,409 11,939

-530

Africa..........................................
Australia............................... —
New Zealand............................
Pacific Islands..........................

186
191
100
12

221
147
88
36

-3 5
+44
+12
-2 4

71
79
43
15

209
152
52
19

-138
-7 3
-9
-4

104
83
47
20

168
131
30
105

Total, others................. .

489

492

-3

208

432

-224

254

434

-180

Grand total..................... 35,576 103,295 -6 7 , 719 23,068 80,081 -57,013 29,470 39, 771

-10,301




-6 4
-4 8
+17
-8 5

257

IMMIGRATION INTO UNITED STATES, 1820-1934

T a ble 3.—IM M IG R A N T ALIENS A D M IT T E D A N D E M IG R A N T ALIEN S D E P A R T E D ,

YEAR S E N D IN G JUNE 30, 1931, 1932, 1933, A N D 1934, B Y PR IN CIPAL STATES OP I N ­
T E N D E D F U TU R E OR LAST P E R M A N E N T R ESID EN CE , OCCUPATIONS, S E X , A G E ,
A N D M A R IT A L CO N D ITIO N
Immigrants

Emigrants

Item
1932

1933

1934

1931

1932

1933

3,382
875
1,902
2,507
2,253
1,982
12,200
918
1,926
1,246
573
5,812

1,972
486
1,196
1,548
1,627
1,216
8,039
541
1,219
1,153
355
3,716

2,388
654
1,584
1,779
2,298
1,507
10,921
792
1,444
1,116
626
4,361

7,463
719
2,934
1,646
4,277
2,702
21,458
1,767
2,756
7,891
846
7,423

19,780
1,207
4,591
2,368
5,549
4,501
30,239
2,604
4,282
11,668
986
15, 520

12,126
1,133
3,984
3,246
5,332
4,140
28,650
1,818
3,740
5,037
986
9,889

5,387
502
1,906
1,455
2; 055
1,677
16,439
844
1,626
2,795
668
4,417

97,139

35,576

23,068

29,470

61,882 103,295

80,081

39,771

Professional_____ __________________
4,773
Commercial_____ ________________ _ 2,393
Skilled_________ ___________________ 13,549
Farmers______ ______ _____ _______
2,743
Servants_____ _____ _______________
9,740
Laborers,_____ _____ _____ ________
7,925
3,004
Miscellaneous_____________________
No occupation____ _______ ________ 53,012

2,538
1,133
2,831
403
1,232
1,372
1,003
25,064

1,631
785
2,375
292
550
978
911
15,546

2,128
1,275
3,180
425
805
1,346
1,182
19,129

2,363
2,143
9,281
1,471
3,956
18,049
2,821
21,798

2,827
2,771
13,301
2,115
5,317
35,619
3,334
38,011

2,367
2,374
11,125
1,531
4,979
26,499
2,881
28,325

2,085
1,798
5,457
1,035
2,870
9,984
1,747
14,795

M a le ................................................ __ 40, 621 13,917
____ ______________________ 56, 518 21,659
Female,

9,219
13,849

12,101
17,369

40,857
21,025

66,859
36,436

51,852
28,229

24,481
15,290

6,781
6,055
8,933
5,451
2,466
5,890

4,131
3,390
6,205
3,764
1,674
3,904

5,389
4,008
7,459
5, 111
2,409
5,094

5,241
4,499
15,392
13,675
8,074
15,001

8,977
7,191
24,723
24,102
14,505
23,797

5,867
4,149
18,273
19,992
11,788
20,012

2,554
2,010
8,277
9,436
5,823
11,671

16,392
16,863
2,161
160

9,652
11,848
1,461
107

13,120
14,311
1,875
164

28,378
30,960
2,466
78

44,302
53,493
5,390
110

33,684
42,551
3,711
135

16,640
21,091
1,920
120

1931

1931

S ta te

California............................................... 7,788
Connecticut_____ _________________
2,164
Illinois_________ ____________________ 5,850
Massachusetts-____ _______________
7,225
Michigan............... .......... .....................
5,591
New Jersey,--_____________________
6,381
New York____ ______________ _
35,867
Ohio........................... ............................. 2,889
Pennsylvania.-...............- ________
6,359
Texas____ _____ ______ _____________ 1, 799
Washington__________________ ____
1,707
Other States_______________________ 13,519
Total___________________ ____
O c c u p a tio n

Sex

A g e

Under 16 years______ ____ ________ 17,320
16 to 21 years______________________ 21,156
22 to 29 years___ __________________ 25,956
30 to 37 years__________________ ____ 14,097
38 to 44 years__________________ ____ 5,891
45 years and over.......... ....................... 12,719
M a r i t a l c o n d itio n

Single____________ _________________ 56,564
Married________ __________________ 35,700
Widowed__________________ _______
4,573
Divorced............ ............. ............ .........
302

Immigration into the United States, 1820 to 1934

R

ECORDS of immigration into the United States began with the
year 1820. Table 1 shows the immigration, by periods, from
1820 to 1934, by certain important geographical divisions and countries,
with comparative percentages. Over the whole period of 115 years
the total immigration was 37,947,265, of which 18,387,132, or 48.5
percent, came from northern and western Europe. The great influx
from southern and eastern Europe came during the years 1901 to 1914,
since which time the immigration from that division has been greatly
reduced. The drastic decrease in immigration since the unrestricted
pre-World-War period is vividly revealed by a comparison of presentday immigration with that for September 1913, one of the 4 years
when over a million immigrants arrived from Europe. In that
single month, more immigrants were admitted at the port of New
York from Austria-Hungary, Italy, or the Russian Empire than are
now admitted at all ports from all countries during an entire year.
From 1901 to 1910, the annual average immigration from Europe was
19 20 5 — 36-------18




258

IMMIGRATION, EMIGRATION, AND NATURALIZATION

813,602, or 92.5 percent of the total, while in 1934 that continent
contributed but 17,210 immigrants, or 58.4 percent, of the total.
The total immigration for the last 3 years was 88,114, which is less
than one-fourth of the annual average immigration in the decade
1921-30. A drastic influence in restricting immigration has been
the regulation in force since 1930 under which immigration visas
are denied to prospective immigrants if it is believed they may
become public charges in the United States. This particularly
excludes aliens without jobs (unless of substantial financial status),
.while the alien contract labor law excludes aliens with jobs. As a
result, the stream of immigration has been reversed, and since Decem­
ber 1930 the emigrants or alien residents of this country leaving for
intended future permanent residence abroad have outnumbered the
immigrant aliens admitted for permanent residence in the United
States. In the last 3 years, about five emigrants departed for every
two immigrants admitted.
T able 1.—IM M IG R A T IO N TO T H E U N IT E D STATES F R O M N O R T H E R N A N D W E S T E R N
EUROPE, SO U T H ER N A N D E A ST E R N EUROPE, ASIA, C A N A D A A N D N E W F O U N D L A N D , M E X IC O , W E S T IN D IE S, A N D O T H ER CO U N TR IES, B Y SPECIFIED PER IO D S
A N D YE A R S *
Number from—

Period or year

Total
number
of immi­
grants

Europe
Northern
and
western2

Southern
and
eastern 2

103,119
489,739
1,592,062
2,431,336
2,031,642
2,070,373
3,778,633
1,643,492
1,910,035
997,438
1,284,023
55,240

3,389
5,949
5,439
21,324
33,628
201,889
958,413
1,915,486
6,225,981
3,379,126
1,193,830
56,841

Asia
Total

Canada
and New­
West
found­ Mexico Indies
land 3

Other
coun­
tries *

3,998
2,486
4,818
13,624
6,599 12,301
41,723
3,271 13,528
59,309
3,078 10,660
153,878
2,191
9,046
383,640
5,162 13,957
1,913 29,042
393,304
3,311
971 33,066
179,226 49,642 107,548
742,185 219,004 123,424
924,515 459,287 74,899
9,241
44,318
5,248

79,387
82,075
73,255
7,940

Total,
18201934. 37,947,265 18,387,132 14,001,295 32,388,427 909,620 2,941,519 765,177 436,717

505,805

1820-30............
1831-40......... .
1841-50............
1851-60...........
1861-70______
1871-80............
1881-90______
1891-1900........
1901-10............
1911-20...........
1921-30............
1931-34............

151,824
599,125
1,713,251
2,598,214
2,314,824
2,812,191
5,246,613
3,687,564
8,795,386
5,735,811
4,107,209
185,253

106,508
15
495,688
48
1,597,501
82
2,452,660 41,455
2,065,270 64,630
2,272,262 123,823
4,737,046 68,380
3,558,978 71,236
8,136,016 243,567
4,376,564 192,559
2,477,853 97,400
112,081
6,425

33,999
70,865
57,146
31,052
19,809
13,347
16,928

20,002

1921.................
1922____ ____
1923.................
1924.................
1925.................

805,228
309,556
522,919
706,896
294,314

138,551
79,437
156,429
203,346
125,248

513,813
136,948
151,491
160,993
23,118

652,364
216,385
307,920
364,339
148,366

25,034
14,263
13,705
22,065
3,578

72,317
46,810
117,011
200,690
102,753

30,758
19,551
63,768
89,336
32,964

13,774
7,449
13,181
17,559
2,106

10,981
5,098
7,334
12,907
4,547

1926.................
1927........ .........
1928.................
1929.................
1930.................

304,488
335,175
307,255
279,678
241,700

126,437
126,721
116,267
114,469
97,118

29,125
41,647
42,246
44,129
50,320

155,562
168,368
158,513
158,598
147,438

3,413
3,669
3,380
3,758
4,535

93,368
84,580
75,281
66,451
65,254

43,316
67,721
59,016
40,154
12,703

3,222
4,019
4,058
4,306
5,225

5,607
6,818
7,007
6,411
6,545

1931.................
1932.................
1933.................
1934.................

97,139
35,576
23,068
29,470

34,719
7,762
4,792
7,967

27,190
12,817
7,591
9,243

61,909
20,579
12,383
17,210

3,345
1,931
552
597

22,183
8,003
6,187
7,945

3,333
2,171
1,936
1,801

2,496
1,029
862
861

3,873
1,863
1,148
1,056

See footnotes at end of table.




259

IMMIGRATION INTO UNITED STATES, 1820-1934

T able 1 .—IM M IG R A T IO N TO T H E U N IT E D STATES F R O M N O R T H E R N A N D W E S T E R N
EU R OPE, SO U T H E R N A N D E A ST E R N EUROPE. ASIA. C A N A D A A N D N E W F O U N D ­
L A N D , M E X IC O , W E S T IN D IE S, A N D OTHER^COUNTRIES, B Y SPECIFIED PERIODS
A N D YE A R S i—Continued
Per cent from—
Europe
Period or year
Northern
and
western 3

Southern
and
eastern 3

1820-30.............
1831-40....... .
1841-50.............
1851-60.............
1861-70........—
1871-80.............
1881-90.............
1891-1900 ____
1901-10_______
1911-20.______
1921-30........... .
1931-34_______

68.0
81.8
93.0
93.6
87.8
73.6
72.0
44.6
21.7
17.4
31.3
29.8

2.2
1.0
.3
.8
1.4
7.2
18.3
51.9
70.8
58.9
29.0
30.7

T o ta l,
18201934...

48.5

1921____ _____
1922....... ..........
1923..................
1924...,............
1925____ ____ _

17.2
25.7
29.9
28.8
42.6

1926...............1927............. —
1928..................
1929........... — .
1930..................
1931..................
1932..................
1933..................
1934..................

Asia
Total

70.2
82.8
93.3
94.4
89.2
80.8
90.3
96.5
92.5
76.3
60.3
60.5

1.6
2.8
4.4
1.3
1.9
2.8
3.4
2.4
3.5

36.9

85.4

63.8
44.2
29.0
22.8
7.9

81.0
69.9
58.9
51.6
50.5

41.5
37.8
37.9
40.9
40.2

9.6
12.4
13.7
15.8
20.8

35.7
21.8
20.8
27.0

28.0
36.1
32.9
31.4

Canada
and New­
foundland3

1.6
2.2
2.4
2.3
6.6
13.6
7.5
.1
2.0
12.9
22.5
23.9

2.4
3.1
4.6
2.6
3.1
1.2

51.1
50.2
51.6
56.7
61.0

1.1
1.1
1.1
1.3
1.9

63.7
57.9
53.7
58.4

3.5
5.4
2.4
2.0

Mexico

3.2
1.1
.2
.1
.1
.2

West
Indies

Other
countries4

.6
3.8
11.2
5.0

2.6
2.1
.8
.4
.4
.5
.6
.9
1.2
2.2
1.8
2.8

22.4
11.8
3.3
1.2
.9
.5
.3
.6
.9
1.4
1.8
4.3

7.8

2.0

1.1

1.3

9.0
15.1
22.4
28.4
34.9

3.8
6.3
12.2
12.6
11.2

1.7
2.4
2.5
2.5
.7

1.4
1.7
1.4
1.8
1.5

30.7
25.3
24.5
23.8
27.0

14.2
20.2
19.2
14.4
5.2

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.5
2.2

1.8
2.0
2.3
2.3
2.7

22.8
22.5
26.8
27.0

3.4
6.1
8.4
6.1

2.6
2.9
3.7
2.9

4.0
5.2
5.0
3.6

* No official records were made of the influx of foreign population to this country prior to 1820. Although
the number of immigrants arrived in the United States from the close of the Revolutionary War up to
1820 is not accurately known, it is estimated by good authorities at 250,000.
For 1820 to 1867 the figures are for alien passengers arriving; for 1868 to 1903, for immigrants arriving;
for 1904 to 1906, for aliens admitted; and for 1907 to 1934, for immigrant aliens admitted. The years from
1820 to 1831 and 1844 to 1849, inclusive, are those ending September 30; from 1833 to 1843 and 1851 to 1867
those ending December 31; and beginning with 1869 and thereafter those ending June 30, The other
periods cover 15 months ending December 31, 1832; 9 months ending December 31, 1843; 15 months ending
December 31, 1850; and 6 months ending June 30, 1868.
3 Northern and western Europe comprises Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Iceland, Luxemburg
(1925 to 1934), Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, and England, Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and
United Kingdom not specified. Southern and eastern Europe comprises the other countries on that
continent.
3 From 1820 to 1898 includes all British North American possessions.
4 Includes Central and South America, Africa, Australia, Pacific Islands, and countries not specified.

Table 2 gives, in the order of numerical importance, the countries
from which the largest number of immigrants came, together with the
peak year of immigration therefrom, during the whole period of 115
years. Table 3 shows the principal sources of immigration in each
decade since 1820. These tables deal solely with immigration. Data
for emigration and net increase or decrease of population are not
available for years earlier than 1908. Table 4 gives this information
for specified periods from 1908 to 1934.




260

IMMIGRATION, EMIGRATION, AND NATURALIZATION

T able 8 .—PR IN CIPAL SOURCES OF IM M IG R A T IO N TO T H E U N IT E D STATES, T O T A L
IM M IG R A T IO N T H E R E F R O M , A N D PE A K Y E A R , D U R IN G 116 Y EAR S B EG IN N IN G
1820 AN D E N D IN G JUNE 30, 19341

Country

Total, 115
years

Peak
year

Germany______________ ______________________________ ____________ ____
Italy.—I...................................................................................................................
Ireland_________________________________________________________________
Great Britain...... .......... .............................. .......................... ................... ............
Austria-Hungary_______________________________________________________
Russia_____________________ ____________________________________________
Canada and Newfoundland_____________________________________________
Sweden______________________________________________________________ _
Norway_________________________________________________________________
Mexico__________ . _________________________________________ ___________

5,927,275
4,679,107
4,587, 566
4,239,173
4,135,830
3,342,939
2,941,519
1,215,451
802,180
765,177
586,337
446,463
425,266
404,993
379,480
360,643
333,576
291,623
276,983
253,820
248,343
168,281
154,966
154,477
116,684
109,068

1882
1907
1851
1888
1907
1913
1924
1882
1882
1924
1851
1924
1907
1921
1882
1913
1882
1883
1907
1921
1882
1921
1921
1913
1924
1921

West Indies_____________________________________________________________
Greece__________________________________________________________________
Poland__________________________________________________________________
China___________________________________________________________________
Turkey_________________________________________________________________
Denmark_______________________________________________________________
Switzerland_____________________________________________________________
Portugal________________________________________________________________
Netherlands__________________________________ ______ ____________ _____
Rumania........................................ ............ ................................ ........................ .
Belgium________________________________________________________________
South America____________________________________________________ ______
Czechoslovakia________________________________________________________

Number

250,630
285,731
221,253
108,692
338,452
291,040
200,690
64,607
29,101
89,336
20,126
17,559
36,580
95,089
39,579
38,083
11,618
12,751
30,226
19,195
9,517
23,818
25,817
7,405
9,270
40,884

i During early years, mainly prior to 1920 and particularly for Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Russia,
figures given cover arrivals from countries as then constituted. Separate figures for Poland not given from
1899 to 1919. Beginning with 1920, Poland, and Czechoslovakia for the first time, shown separately in
immigration statistics. During early years, Canada and Newfoundland shown as British North American
possessions. Prior to 1900 (mainly from 1830 to 1870) number for United Kingdom not specified included
with Great Britain. From 1820 to 1868, immigration from Sweden included with number given for Norway.

T a ble 3 .—PR IN CIPAL SOURCES OF IM M IG R A T IO N TO T H E U N IT E D STATES, A N D
N U M B E R OF IM M IG R A N T S T H E R E F R O M D U R IN G E A C H D E C A D E F R O M

1820-

Three principal sources

Country
1820-30........
1831-40........
1841-50........
1851-60........
1861-70 ___
1871-80........
1881-90........
1891-1900—
1901-10........
1911-20........
1921-30........

Second highest

Highest

Decade

Number

Country

Number

64,338 Great Britain____
27,489
152,454
207,381 Germany________
434,626
780,719 ____ do____________
914,119
Germany............... 951,667 Ireland...................
___ do........................ 787,468 Great Britain____
606,896
718,182 ........d o . . . . .............. 548,043
........do......................
807,357
........do....... .............. 1,452,970 ........do....... ..............
651,893 Austria-Hungary. _ 592,707
Italy........................
Austria-Hungary— 2,145,266 Italy........................ 2,045,877
921,201
Italy........................ 1,109,524 Russia.....................
924,515 Mexico.................... 459,287
Canada and New­
foundland.
Ireland....................
........do....... ..............

Third highest
Country

Number

France_____ _____
8,868
Great Britain____
75,810
____ do____________
267,044
423,974
____ do....... ..........
Ireland___________
435,778
........do____________
436,871
____ do....... ..............
655,482
Russia.....................
505,290
........do— ................ 1, 597,306
Austria-Hungary..
896,342
Italy........................
455,315

1 Prior to 1900 (mainly from 1830 to 1870) number for United Kingdom not specified included with Great
Britain. During early years, or prior to 1910, Canada and Newfoundland shown as British North Ameri­
can possessions. Canada shown separately beginning with 1925. From 1899 to 1919 Poland is included
with Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Russia. Countries added to the list since the beginning of the
World War are therefore included with the countries to which they belonged. The figures for 1906 include
32,897 persons returning to their homes in the United States. This year was the first in which aliens return­
ing to the United States were recorded by country of last permanent residence instead of country whence
they came, and since this year aliens reporting their residence as the United States have been shown in
immigration statistics as nonimmigrants.




ADMISSIONS UNDER IMMIGRATION ACT OF 1924

261

T a ble 4 .- N E T IN C REASE OR D E C R E A SE OF PO PU LATIO N , B Y A D M ISSIO N A N D
D E P A R T U R E OF A LIEN S, 1908-34, B Y PERIODS A N D YE A R S
Admitted

Departed

Period or year
Immigrant Nonimmi­
grant
Years ending June 30:
1908-10............................
1911-20............................
1921-25............................
1926-30............................
1931-34............................

2,576,226
5,735,811
2,638,913
1,468,296
185,253

Total, 27 years--------- 12,604,499
1926.................................
1927.................................
1928.................................
1929.................................
1930.................................
1931.................................
1932..................................
1933.................................
1934.................................

490,741
1,376,271
782,898
991,983
584,929

Total

Emigrant Nonemi­
grant

Total

Increase
(+ ) or de­
crease (—)

672,327 1,495,638 +1,671,329
3,066,967
823,311
7,112,082 2,146,994 1,841,163 3,988,157 +3,123,925
3,421,811
716,839 1,414,236 +2,007,575
697,397
932,863 1,280,542 +1,179.737
2,460,279
347,679
770,182
285,029
714,518
999,547
-229,365

4,226,822 16,831,321 4,300.410 4,877,710 9,178,120 +7,653,201
76,992
73,366
77,457
69,203
50,661
61,882
103,295
80,081
39,771

304,488
335,175
307,255
279,678
241,700
97,139
35,576
23,068
29,470

191,618
202,826
193,376
199,649
204,514
183,540
139,295
127,660
134,434

496,106
538,001
500,631
479,327
446,214
280,679
174,871
150,728
163,904

Calendar years:
1918-20........ .................... 1,071,836
1921-30............................ 3,741,286
1931-34............................
129,631

468,360
1,778,181
554,083

1,540,196
5,519,467
683,714

Total, 17 years______ 4,942,753

2,800,624

7,743,377 1,818,385 2,747,885 4,566,270 +3,177,107

1926..................................
1927........ ........................
1928..................................
1929.................................
1930..................................
1931..................................
1932................................
1933.................................
1934..................................

336,295
323,885
290,297
268,941
180,251
43,353
28,008
23,899
34,371

204,095
197,010
197,385
204,786
200,718
156,611
130,609
127,383
139,480

540,390
520,895
487,682
473,727
380,969
199,964
158,617
151,282
173,851

150,763
180,142
196,899
183,295
221,764
229,034
184,362
163,721
137,401

227,755
253,508
274,356
262,498
272,425
290,916
287,657
243,802
177,172

h268,351
[-284,493
[-226,275
[-226,829
[-173,789
-10,237
-112,786
-93,074
-13,268

604,051
394,937
998,988
+541,208
936,374 1,688,397 2,624,771 +2,894,696
277,960
664,551
942,511
-258,797

73,179
75,122
77,599
53,173
52,930
89,570
97,517
51,690
39,183

163,271
193,750
194,509
198,442
238,055
204,868
174,935
137,871
146,877

236,450
268,872
272,108
251,615
290,985
294,438
272,452
189,561
186,060

+303,940
+252,023
+215,574
+222,112
+89,984
-94,474
-113,835
-38,279
-12,209

Admissions Under Immigration Act of 1924, Deporta­
tions, and Citizens Departed Overseas
A B LE 1 gives for specified periods the number of aliens admitted,
by classes, under the Quota Act of 1924; and table 2 shows the
annual quotas allotted the different countries, as well as the number
of quota immigrants admitted. Table 3 shows the number of aliens
deported from 1916 to 1934 for various causes under the immigration
laws, and* table 4, covering American citizens departed overseas in
the calendar year 1934 mainly for a vacation abroad, shows the
classes of ocean travel, immediate destination, and flag of vessel or
carrier.

T




262

IMMIGRATION, EMIGRATION, AND NATURALIZATION

T a b l e l .-A L I E N S A D M IT T E D U N D E R TH E IM M IG R A T IO N A C T OF 1924, AS A M E N D E D ,
Y E A R S E N D IN G JUNE 30, 1925-34, B Y CLASSES
Classes

1925-30 i

1931

1932

1933

Under section 3:
Government officials, their families, attendants, servants,
and employees............. - .................................. ....................
Temporary visitors for business...........................................
Temporary visitors for pleasure...... ....................................
In continuous transit through the United States.—........
To carry on trade under existing treaty_________ _______

32,302
123,404
228,758
159,607
6,913

4,973
17,150
38,486
32,169
1,095

3,844
13,741
26,724
28,678
837

4,053
11,360
25,539
22,693
653

4,363
13,068
36,765
23,687
552

550,984

93,873

73,824

64,298

78,435

1,966
65,024
58,065
538,959
767,557
3,767
1,041
3,562
1,521
2,773

527
9,684
7,053
91,442
21,139
184
52
383
144
226

296
5,779
3,415
67,057
9,328
84
49
291
81
132

1,232
3,643
1,783
62,610
7,475
54
20
204
41
57

1,021
4,348
2,522
55,169
8,183
39
15
196
69
97

878
258
144
10,831
4,647
913
1,008
121
23
204

109
38
43
1,538

100
35
21
1,266

45
19
14
877

61
28
24
1,048

27
2
97

25
105

25
10
101

23
3
134

Total..............................- .........- ............................................. 1,463,262 132,688

88,064

78,210

72,986

12,983

8,220

12,483

Grand total....... ........................................................... ......... 2,917,365 280,679 174,871 150,728

163,904

Total.............................................. ................. ....................
Under section 4:
Husbands of United States citizens____________________
Wives of United States citizens 2
------------------------------Children of United States citizens 2_________ ________
Returning residents................................................ ................
Natives of nonquota countries----------------------- --------------Their wives2................................. ....................................
Their children2............................................................. .
Ministers of religious denominations__________ ____ ____
Wives of ministers................................................. ...............
Unmarried children of ministers..............- ...........................
Professors of colleges, academies, seminaries, or univer­
sities............................................................- ............ .............
Wives of professors............- ..................... ..................... .........
Unmarried children of professors________ ____ __________
Students-..................................................................................
Veterans of the World War___________________________
Wives of veterans______________________________________
Unmarried children of veterans________________________
Spanish subjects admitted into Puerto Rico___________
American Indians born in Canada_____________________
Women who had been United States citizens. .................
Miscellaneous..................... .......... ................................. .........

Under section 5: Quota immigrants (charged to quota)_____

903,119

54,118

1934

6

1 Total for 1925-30 does not include 1,349 aliens admitted in 1925, who arrived prior to July 1, 1924, or
before the immigration act of 1924 went into effect.
2 Wives and unmarried children practically all born in quota countries.

T a ble 2 .—A N N U A L QUOTAS U N D E R TH E N A T IO N A L ORIGINS PLAN OF IM M IG R A T IO N

A C T OF 1924, AS A M E N D E D , A N D ALIENS A D M IT T E D AS QUOTA IM M IG R A N T S ,
Y EAR S E N D IN G JUNE 30, 1930-34, B Y C O U N T R Y OR R EG IO N OF BIRTH
Quota immigrants admitted in—
Nationality, or country or region of birth

Annual
quota
1930

110
100
Albania-------------- ------------------------------------------------------1
100
Andorra
_________________________________________
1,413
1,417
Austria------- ------------- ------------------------------------------------1,118
1,304
Belgium-------------------------------------------------------------------100
95
Bulgaria............... ..................... ..................... .....................
2,874
2,898
Czechoslovakia---------- --------------------------------------------100
112
Danzig, Free City of------------------------------------------------1,181
1,144
Denmark__________________ ________________________
116
112
Estonia........ - ----------------------------------------------------569
559
Finland________________ ____ ______ _________________
2,812
France.................................................................................... 3,086
Germany___________________________________________ 25.957 27,119
Great Britain and Northern Ireland:
f18,480
England____________________ __________________
1 7,860
Northern Ireland------------- ------- --------------------------121,917
Scotland_______________________________ ____ ____
l 2,018
Wales....................................................................... .
307
362
Greece------------------- --------------------------------------------------864
869
Hungary..........................- ............ - ....................... — .........
100
41
Iceland. ...................- ...........................................................
Irish Free State..................................................- ................ 17,853 19,692
5,802
5,610
Italy........................................................................................
236
202
L a tv ia ..................................................................................
T/iA(»h ten s tei n
_ ____ _______ ______
9
100
386
398
Lithuania...................................- ...........................- ............




1931
81
524
524
52
1,448
52
516
71
300
1,226
10,100
5,972
1,586
4,875
501
308
624
22
6,780
4,245
138
7
305

1932

1933

102
1
187
117
11
304
6
209
15
69
288
2,086

75

57

121
59
11
171
10
123
17
72
257
1,324

229
104
17
389
8
101
36
114
308
3,515

772
89
266
44
108
187
2
282
1,109
29
1
96

933
137
443
53
200
209
2
322
1,362
48

1, 213
104
723
59
141
329
5
452
2,012
43

1
181

1934

124

263

ADMISSIONS UNDER IMMIGRATION ACT OF 1924

T a ble 3 .—A N N U A L QUOTAS U N D E R T H E N A T IO N A L ORIGINS PLAN OF IM M IG R A T IO N

A C T OF 1924, AS A M E N D E D , A N D ALIENS A D M IT T E D AS QUOTA IM M IG R A N T S ,
Y E A R S E N D IN G JUNE 30, 1930-34, B Y C O U N T R Y OR R EG IO N OF BIRTH-Continued
Quota immigrants admitted in—
Nationality, or country or region of birth

Annual
quota
1930
96
4
2,788
2,546
6,456
433
670
2,231
45
332
3,204
1,605
65
782
809

41
5
1,142
1,156
2,841
433
497
1,537
15
263
1,247
797
20
523
379

150,501 137,016

Luxemburg.
Monaco___ .
Netherlands.
Norway.
Poland. _
Portugal.
Rumania.
Russia_____
San Marino.
Spain...........
Sweden........
Switzerland.
Turkey____
Yugoslavia___
Other Europe.

1931

2,150
614
1,717

153,774 141,497

100
100
3,153
2,377
6,524
440
377
2,712
100
252
3,314
1,707
226
845
0)

Total EuropeOther quota regions-------------------------------American colonies of European countries.
Total, all countries.............................

i 1,423
i 1,850
0)

1932

1933

1934

185
260
917
201
318
528

4
3
128
141
961
69
236
309

136
155
1,138
166
199
407

191
290
132
33
252
50

164
105
122
34
105
28

228
153
133
39
110
142

51,153

12,022

7,634

11,719

1,344
477
1,144

530
281
150

392
127
67

433
172
159

54,118

12,983

8,220

12,483

7

2

1 Annual quota for colonies, dependencies, or protectorates in other Europe, Asia, Africa, Pacific Islands,
and America, included with the allotment for the European country to which they belong.

T a b l e 3 .—AL IEN S DEPO R TE D 1FR O M T H E U N IT E D STATES U N D E R W A R R A N T PRO­
C E ED IN G S, YE A R S E N D IN G JUNE 30,1916-34, B Y PR IN CIPAL RACES A N D B Y CAUSES,
W IT H C O M PAR AT IVE P E R C EN T AG ES
Aliens deported duringRace and cause

1916-20 1921-25| 1926-301 1931

1932 | 1933 | 1934

Number
Chinese____________
Dutch and Flemish _
English.......................
French........................
German.......................
Irish.............................
Italian.......................
Mexican....................
Scandinavian............
Scotch..... ...................
Spanish.......................
Other races.................

Race

615
125
1,624
684
275
617
610
4,092
434
405
199
2,353

1,517 1,133
468 1,149
2,896 6,439
1,665 3,141
1,636 4,176
1,288 2,856
2,453 3,569
6,001 21,943
968 2,687
1,095 2,221
1,040 1,921
7,400 12,495

2,573
205
1,078
554
806
699
1,145
7,772
474
549
502
3,508

405
98
602
481
354
391
583
3,860
186
272
135
1,512

12,033 28,427 63,730 18,142 19,426 19,865

Total..

398
243
1,195
585
1,156
635
724
8,335
720
535
394
3,222

2,380
202
1,243
587
935
671
1,055
7,049
513
513
599
3,679

8,879

C a u se

Public charges from insanity and other causes ex­
isting prior to entry._______ _____ _______________
Mentally or physically defective at time of entry.
Criminal and immoral classes.......................................
Entered without proper immigration visa under
Immigration Act of 1924.____ __________________
Remained longer than permitted____ _____________
Miscellaneous causes.................................................... .
Total-

4,145
960
9,060

578
374
2,719

492
615
2,804

534
522
2,796

369
293
2,094

2,723 28,981
5,466
7,279 17,241 15,118

6,205
2,835
5,431

8,167
3,284
4,064

9,099
3,148
3,766

3,611
986
1,526

12,033 28,427 63,730 18,142 19,426 19,865

8,879

1,361
419
2,974

3,165
666
4,632

Percent

Criminal and immoral classes..
Miscellaneous causes...............
Total....




11.3
3.5
24.7
60.5

11.1
2.4
16.3
70.2

6.5
1.5
14.2
77.8

3.2
2.0
15.0
79.8

2.5
3.2
14.4
79.9

2.7
2.6
14.1
80.6

4.1
3.3
23.6
69.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

264

IMMIGRATION, EMIGRATION, AND NATURALIZATION

T a ble 4 .—U N IT E D STATES CITIZENS D E P A R T E D FR O M A M E R IC A N TO FO REIG N
SEAPORTS D U R IN G C A L E N D A R Y E A R 1934. B Y CLASS OF O CEAN T R A V E L , FLAG
OF C A R R IER , A N D F O R EIG N D E ST IN A T IO N OR C O U N T R Y OF D E B A R K A T IO N
Flag of carrier

Class of travel
Destination
First
class

Total............................................

Second Tourist Third
third
class
class

Total i United Foreign
States

8,950
6,409
1,899
1,012
818
357
323

348
291
162
36
3,270

11,532
8,020
5,785
2,525
3,606
667
1,396

6,315
5,781
9,549
4,570
9,391
1,291
2,539

35,383
26,672
19,723
8,323
21,220
2,320
4,773

7,528
6,092
3,078
1,875
698

27,855
20,580
16,645
6,448
20,522
2,320
4,773

3,609
427
271
972
7,378
3,893
9,268
7,315
9,605
2,155

1,227
711
936
382
753
382
57
692
121
143

4,390
193
362
110
137
18
300
127
1,054
273

6,230
2,482
4,738
507
345

17,250
5,421
8,147
3,736
12,550
39,105
20,563
18,516
15,167
5,867

2,027
3,346
1,851
2,751
9,077
1,043
19,670
11,231
13,238
3,800

15,223
2,075
6,296
985
3,473
38,062
893
7,285
1,929
2,067

95,149 364,661

9,511

40,495

54,920 264,736

87,305

177,431

44,341
20,320

1,139
8,372

6,214
34,281

6,706 87,305
48,214 177,431

England.................................................. 8,238
6,171
France.....................................................
Germany................................................
2,328
180
Ireland........................................ - .........
Italy......................................................... 4,135
5
Norway____________________________
. 515
Sweden_______ ________
_______
Other Europe, including Mediter­
1,794
ranean portsa
.....................................
1,608
China......................................................
1,840
Japan........................... . . ............ . .........
1,765
Other Pacific____________ ________
Canada and Mexico............................. 3,937
Bermuda_____________ ___________ 34,812
Cuba................................. ..................... 10,328
Other West Indies............................... 10,097
4,263
Central America...................................
3,133
South America......... ............................

Flag of carrier:
United States.. .............................
Foreign____ ___________________

Cabin

28,905
66,244

610
285
124
163

1 Includes departures overseas via Canadian seaports.
1 Northern Africa and Near East.
* Includes 9,608 aircraft (cabin) passengers, principally from Miami to West Indies.

Naturalization of Aliens
ECTIO N 8 of the basic Naturalization Act of June 29, 1906, pro­
vides that no alien shall be naturalized who cannot speak the
English language, unless physically unable to do so. The only other
exception to this requirement is made in the case of declarants who
take up Government homesteads. The alien who files his petition
for citizenship must sign his petition in his own handwriting. How­
ever, there is no requirement of law that the alien sign his declaration
of intention, and, under the regulation, the declaration may be signed
by mark if the declarant is unable to write. The principal law govern­
ing racial limitation of naturalization in this country is found in
section 2169, United States Revised Statutes (2d ed., 1878, U. S. C.,
title 8, sec. 359), which reads:

S

The provision of this title [naturalization] shall apply to aliens being free white
persons, and to aliens of African nativity and to persons of African descent.

The number of naturalization certificates issued during the 6 fiscal
years ending June 30, 1929 to 1934, is shown in table 1, b y countries
of former allegiance, and in table 2 by geographical divisions and
States of residence, and sex. Table 3 shows, for the fiscal years 1924
to 1934, the number of aliens denied naturalization, b y principal
reasons for denial, also number of petitions for naturalization dis­
posed of and percent thereof denied.
In the 28 fiscal years 1907 to 1934, a total of 6,320,987 declarations
of intention to become citizens (first papers) and 3,935,987 petitions
for citizenship (second papers) were filed, and 3,521,022 certificates of
citizenship were issued. The peak year and number were as follows:
Declarations, 440,651 in 1917; petitions, 256,858 in 1919; and certifi­
cates, 233,155 in 1928. Beginning with July 1922 the statistics show



265

NATURALIZATION OF ALIENS

the country of origin or former allegiance of the aliens naturalized.
Italy, British Empire, Poland, Russia, and Germany, in the order
given, were the principal countries of former allegiance, natives of
these five countries comprising two-thirds of the total naturalized in
the 12 years from 1923 to 1934. Of the total for this period, 79.3
percent were males and 20.7 percent females. In 1923, only four of
every hundred aliens naturalized were females.
Out of every 100 persons naturalized from 1907 to 1934, 57 were in
the North Atlantic States, chiefly New York, Pennsylvania, Massa­
chusetts, and New Jersey; about 28 were in the North Central States,
principally Illinois, Michigan, and Ohio. The Western States, mainly
California and Washington, had about 9, and the combined South
Atlantic and South Central States less than 6, out of every 100 per­
sons naturalized during the last 28 years.
T a ble 1.—A LIENS A D M IT T E D TO CITIZENSH IP D U R IN G FISCAL Y E A R S E N D IN G
JUNE 30, 1929 TO 1934, B Y N A T IO N A L IT Y A N D S E X
Year ending June 30—
Nationality
1929
Albania........ ............... .......................................
Austria........................................................... .......
Belgium.................................................. ..............
British Empire.....................................................
Bulgaria '
_ _
Czechoslovakia.......................................... ..........
Danzig, Free City of........._................................
Denmark.................... ...........................................
Estonia.................................................................
Finland..................................................................
France___________ _____
Germany............... ...............................................
Greece......................... .......................... .............
Hungary...................... .....................................
Italy......................................................................
Latvia............................................. ......................
Liechtenstein.................. .....................................
Lithuania........ .....................................................
Luxemburg....................................................... .
Monaco..................................................................
Netherlands................................ .......................
Norway___________________ ________________
Poland...................................................................
Portugal............. .......... .........................................
Rumania____________________ ______________
Russia....... ...........................................................
San Marino...........................................................
Spain............................. .........................................
Sweden......... ................................ .......................
Switzerland.............................. ....................
Yugoslavia...................................... ..........
China.................................................................. .
Japan_____________ ____ _______________ __
Palestine............................................ .................
Persia_________ ____ _______________________
Syria........ ...............................................................
Turkey........... .......................................................
Other Asia.............................................................
Mexico...................... .............................. ..............
West Indies....................................... ...................
Central America...................................................
South America......................................................
Africa........ ....................................... ....................
Philippine Islands.............................................
Repatriated Americans.............. .............. .........
Countries not specified i_________ _____

1930

1931

1932

1933

1934

510
4,154
1,013
41,014
273
9,215
30
2,095
112
1,447
1,240
16,700
6,253
4,824
44,843
853
21
3,249
110

294
2,476
637
32,519
214
4,832
53
1,482
178
1,149
877
17,592
3,172
4,421
22,756
399
99
1,893
69

217
1,970
564
37,046
200
4,032
63
1,445
143
1,265
905
17,854
2,335
2.224
20,886
405
6
1,900
81

1,180
2,813
15,401
824
2,524
9,521
1
594
4,836
1,225
3,319

194
126
1,089
3,610
9
164
76
92
332
45
27
4,143
501

152
69
717
2,333
2
176
74
53
348
43
53
2,800
342

125
76
588
1,550
4
178
90
358
363
39
29
2,427
318

1,134
2,788
14,280
792
2,093
7,621
1
551
4,087
1,217
2,974
1
3
95
68
491
1,257
2
248
82
58
333
24
16
2,354
489

158
1,765
422
31,529
121
3,150
43
1,147
96
918
830
16,405
1,704
1,592
16,331
334
4
1,612
41
1
749
2,165
12,091
645
1,716
6,747
1
611
3,019
893
2,065
83
54
89
46
397
1,000
18
278
99
56
347
50
19
1,922

133
1,589
413
30,008
125
3,105
47
1,220
88
927
860
18,008
1,727
1,633
17,053
275
9
1,460
37

2,100
3,311
31,801
764
5,817
18,291
5
808
5,963
1,931
5,573

359
3, 217
747
32,128
213
6,942
100
1,652
236
1,251
1,167
15,762
4,011
3,787
31,551
619
23
2,466
67
2
1,696
2,752
22,596
800
3,932
12,994
2
635
4,848
1,424
4,236

798
2,161
12,392
727
1,617
6,072
4
649
3,028
956
2,132
33
89
68
56
397
917
35
346
105
65
380
66
25
1,839

Total, all countries................................... 224,728 169,377 143,495 136,600 113,363 113,669
tv
t

l

SeX

167,665 120,572 106,715
Female
____________________ ________________ 67,063 48,805 36,780

Total,
1929-34
1,671
15,171
3,796
204,244
1,146
31,276
336
9,041
848
6,957
5,879
102,321
19,202
18,481
153,420
2,885
162
12,580
405
3
7,657
15,990
108,561
4,652
17,699
61,246
14
3,848
25,781
7,646
20,299
117
146
723
441
3,679
10,667
70
1,390
526
682
2,103
267
169
15,485
1,650
901,232

82,465
31,204

651,611
249,621

Civilian.................................................................. 224,197 167,637 140,271 136,598 112,368 110,867
Military..................................................................
2
1,740
3,224
995
2,802
531

891,938
9,294

i Nationality not recorded; naturalized in outlying possessions.




95,901
40,699

78,293
36,070

266

IMMIGRATION, EMIGRATION, AND NATURALIZATION

T a ble 3 .—C ER T IF IC AT ES OF N A T U R A L IZA T IO N ISSUED, Y E A R S E N D IN G JUNE 30,
1929 TO 1934, B Y GEOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS, STATES OR O U T LY IN G POSSESSIONS,
A N D SEX

Division and State of residence

1929

1930

1931

1932

1933

5,363
780
17,230
621
17,451
78,591
20,220
2,222
362

4,420
831
12,283
509
12,708
59,552
13,258
1,612
331

3,665
353
12,356
387
9,290
46,061
10,966
1,620
192

3,662
450
14, 727
479
10,298
41,834
9,023
1,590
277

3,444
407
10,306
358
7,572
44,650
6,693
1,037
319

3,064
371
8,636
372
7,129
45, 722
6,802
948
202

Total_______________________________ _______ 142,840 105,504

84,890

82, 340

74, 786

73,246

North Atlantic:
Connecticut_______ _______________ ________
Maine__________________ ___ _
_ _____
Massachusetts______ _____________ ___________
_____________New Hampshire
_______________
New Jersey__________________________________
New York.___ _____ ______ ________ ___________
Pennsylvania______ __________________________
Rhode Island_________________________ _______

1934

South Atlantic:
Delaware_________________________________ ___
District of Columbia-.__ ____ _ _ _ _ ____ ___
Florida____________________ ______ ____ _______
Georgia________________ __ ________ _______
Maryland_____________________ _____________
North Carolina_______________________________
South Carolina.-- __ ________ _______ ___ ___
Virginia___________________ ______ ______ _____
West Virginia,- _
_ _______

190
476
726
156
1,003
168
106
327
1,115

121
423
462
146
728
76
49
198
639

144
366
378
83
761
92
46
153
461

120
369
301
87
556
29
39
114
347

85
269
298
67
385
20
24
86
182

111
362
268
60
475
40
31
101
218

Total______ ________________________________

4,267

2,842

2,484

1,962

1,416

1,666

North Central:
Illinois_______________ ______________________ 22,469
Indiana________________________________ ____ _ 1,850
1,352
433
Kansas_____ ___ _____________________________
Michigan___ ________________ _ _____________ 12,586
Minnesota__ _____ __ _______________________ 3,347
2,243
Missouri_____________ _________ _ ________
Nebraska___________________ ______ ___ ___ ___
1,070
North Dakota_ _ _______________ _________
_
437
Ohio_____ ______________ ____ ________________
9,470
409
South Dakota________ _____________________
Wisconsin___ _________ _____ ______ _________ 3,608

16,422
1,391
1,057
245
10,203
2,720
1,578
744
477
7,671
308
3,076

13,850
1, 328
940
286
11,437
2,241
1,139
689
319
5,811
287
2, 584

12,252
1,080
759
216
11,857
1,996
1,108
560
309
4,585
279
2,204

7,880
752
523
202
7,482
1,417
892
343
208
3,469
124
2,014

6,949
863
441
192
9,110
1,475
779
356
294
3,488
166
2,161

59,274

45,892

40,911

37, 205

25,306

26,274

224
60
261
349
82
158
176
764

68
51
172
240
33
134
123
557

85
29
147
220
54
135
120
673

m
37
120
171
44
118
87
486

51
28
65
198
23
88
59
501

46
24
104
181
23
81
83
549

2,074

1,378

1,463

1,167

1,013

1,091

143
10,552
609
144
478
Montana__________________________ _________
132
Nevada_____________ ___________ __________
New Mexico..
_ ____________ _____ ___ _ __
90
722
Oregon________________ ____ _________________
Utah_____ _______ ____ ______________________
382
2,294
Washington.. _________ ____ ______________ ___
226
Wyoming_______________ ____ _______________

109
9,084
464
132
363
98
78
675
266
1,968
182

136
9,245
360
112
379
99
60
661
168
2,062
147

174
9,369
425
114
371
103
69
563
173
1,899
177

147
7,264
225
91
289
114
47
446
147
1,597
117

151
7,463
315
100
271
78
42
514
175
1,672
110

Total___________________________ ___________ 15,772

13,419

13,429

13,437

10,484

10,891

240
140
113
8

223
74
45

166
98
54

161
220
98
10

95
201
59
3

155
246
98
2

501

342

318

489

358

501

Grand total________________________________ 224,728 169,377 143,495 136,600 113,363

113,669

Total______________________________________
South Central:
Alabama_______________ _________ _________
Arkansas___ _____________________ _______ _
Kentucky_________ ________
________ _____
Louisiana__________ __ _______ __ _ _____ ____
Mississippi— _____________ ___ ____________ _
Oklahoma__________________________________ .
Tennessee_________________________ _______ _
Total_____ _________________________________
Western:
Arizona....... .............. __ _______________ ___
California____________________________________
Colorado_____________________ _________ ___

Insular possessions:
Alaska_________ ______ __________________ ____
Hawaii_______________________________________
Puerto Rico__________________________________
Virgin Islands________________________________
Total................................................................

Sex:

Male________________________________________ 167,665 120,606 106,715
Female—...................... ........................................ . 57,063 48,771 36,780




95,901
40,699

78,293
35,070

82,465
31,204

267

INCREASE OF MEXICAN POPULATION, 1920-30

T ab le 3 .— CERTIFICATES OF NATURALIZATION DENIED (CIVILIAN AND MILITARY

IN CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES), YEARS ENDING JUNE 30, 1924 TO 1934,i BY
PRINCIPAL REASONS FOR DENIAL, AND COMPARATIVE PERCENTAGES
Petitions for
naturalization
disposed of

Reasons for denial

Year

1924________
1925________
1926________
1927________
1928________
1929________
1930....... ........
1931........ .
1932________
1933________
1934________

Dec-

Not of
good
moral
char­
acter

Unfa­
vor­
able
draft
status
or dis­
loyalty

don
of in­
ten­
tion
in­
valid

946
1,108
988
1,115
1,240
1,424
916
746
793
584
200

5,001
3,299
1,595
582
416
217
50
47
23
5
13

559
351
427
490
686
478
184
148
99
50
19

Peti­
Not
Un­
tion­ Fail­
suffi­ able
er’s
ciently to
In- motion ure to
con­
famil­ pro­ comiar
duce pe- for dis- tinue Other
rea­
con- com­
with wit­ tent
Ameri­ nesses wit­ tinu- pletion sons
ance of nat­
can in­ or de­ nesses (with­ urali­
stitu­ posi­
draw­ zation
tions tion
als)
1,882
2,678
3,090
1, 536
1,812
1,670
1,193
1,102
824
988
66

171
161
225
217
359
278
182
171
137
114
31

1,489
1,206
1,000
1,324
1,131
1,241
671
316
274
138
68

Total___ 10,060 11,248 3,491 16,841 2,046 8,858
Percent of to­
tal denials..

9.0

10.0

3.1

15.1

2.0

8.0

PerTotal

Number

18,324
15, 613
13, 274
11,946
12,479
11,848
9,068
7,514
5,478
4,703
1,133

158,664
168,070
159,605
211,750
245,634
236,075
178,103
150,691
141,589
117,708
114,301

11.5
9.3
8.3
5.6
5.1
5.0
5.1
4.9
3.9
4.0
1.0

5,593 39,550 13,693 111,380 1,882,190

5.9

671
1,051
480
581
588
722
444
297
274
270
215

5.0

5,162
4,338
4,409
4,481
4, 625
4,201
4,177
3,811
2,161
2,031
154

35.5

2,443
1,421
1,060
1, 620
1,622
1,617
1,251
876
893
523
367

12.3

100.0

denied

5.9

1Exclusive of military for 1924; figures for years prior to 1929 include Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and
Virgin Islands.

Increase of Mexican Population in the United States,
1920 to 1930
HE economic and social aspects of the immigration of Mexican
labor to this country in recent years give an additional interest
to the census returns for 1930 on the Mexican people in the United
States.
These figures show that from 1920 to 1930 the Mexican population
in this country increased from 700,541 to 1,422,533, or 103 percent.
Because of the growing importance of this element in our population
it was given a separate classification in the 1930 census. In preced­
ing censuses the Mexicans were included in the white population.
The enumerators for the latest census, however, were instructed in
effect to classify as Mexican “ all persons bom in Mexico, or having
parents bom in Mexico, who are not definitely white, Negro, Indian,
Chinese, or Japanese.” According to these directions, 65,968 persons
of Mexican birth or parentage were scheduled as white in 1930 and
1,422,533 as Mexican.

T

Using as a basis the 1920 returns for persons born in Mexico and persons hav­
ing one or both parents born in Mexico, it was estimated that there were in that
year 700,541 persons who would have been classified as Mexican under the 1930
instructions.1

It will be noted from the following table 2 that the three States
with the largest Mexican population in both 1920 and 1930 are
1United States Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. Fifteenth Census of the United
States: 1930. Population bulletin. United States Summary. Composition and Characteristics of the
Population. Washington, 1931, p. 7.
* Idem, pp. 27 and 32.




268

IMMIGRATION, EMIGRATION, AND NATURALIZATION

Arizona, California, and Texas, which, combined, accounted for 82
percent of the Mexicans in this country in 1930.
M EXICAN POPULATION IN THE UNITED STATES, BY DIVISIONS AND STATES, 1920
AND 1930
1930
Division and State.or section
Geographic divisions:
New England____________ ________________ ____
Middle Atlantic_______ ______________________ .
East North Central________ ____ _______________
West North Central_______ ____________________
South Atlantic_________________________________
East South Central____ ____ ___________________
West South Central____________________________
Mountain_____________________________________
Pacific____ ___________________________ _____ _
Total............... ............................................... .
New England:
___
________
Maine_______ ________ _
New Hampshire_________ ______ _____ __________
V erm on t_______________________ _________ .
Massachusetts________________________ ______ _
Rhode Island_____________________________ ____
Connecticut___________________________________
Middle Atlantic:
New York_______________________ _______ ______
New Jersey____________________________________
Pennsylvania__________________________________
East North Central:
Ohio__________________ ____________ ______ ____
Indiana____ __________________ _________ _____ _
Illinois________________________________________
Michigan....................... .................................. .........
Wisconsin....... ................ ............ ............ ................
West North Central:
Minnesota_______________________________ _____
Iowa____________ _________________________ ___
Missouri____ ___ ____ _________________________
North Dakota_____________________ ____ _______
South Dakota________ _
_____________ _____
Nebraska_______ ___ ____ ___ _______ ___________
Kansas_______________________ ________________
South Atlantic:
Delaware______________________________________
Maryland....................................................................
District of Columbia..................................................
Virginia......................................................... .............
West Virginia.......................................... .............. .
North Carolina...................... ...................................
South Carolina....................................... ....................
Georgia......................................................................
Florida..______________________________________
East South Central:
Kentucky____ _________________ _______________
Tennessee.................................. ........... .............. —
Alabama...................... ............ - ........— ..................
West Southcentral:
Arkansas........................................ .............- ........... Louisiana..................... ............ ...................... - ........
Oklahoma.................................. .............- ......... ......
Texas_____________ _____________ _____________
Mountain:
Montana....................................- ........... - ..................
Idaho................... ...................... ........................ ......
Wyoming...................................................... .............
Colorado---------------------------------------------------------New Mexico------- --------------------------------------------Arizona------------------------------------------------- --------Utah--------------------- ----------------------------------------Nevada.._____________________________________
Pacific:
Washington------------------------------------------ ----------Oregon---------- --------- -------------------- ------ -----------California------ --------------------- -------------------- -----Sections:
The North------ ----------------------- ------------------------The South.................................................................
The West........................— ------ ------------- -----------

1920 1

84
3,215
7, 583
25, 674
384
381
399,550
141,494
122,176
700,541

Males

Females

Total

69
4,550
37,907
22,925
425
790
358,151
132,905
200,952
758,674

38
2,207
20,410
16,880
266
613
337,845
116, 409
169,191
663,859

107
6,757
58,317
39,805
691
1,403
695,996
249,314
370,143
1,422, 533

2
1
1
57
4
19

43
6
20

2
1
1
23
4
7

2
1
1
66
10
27

1,479
255
1,481

1,879
295
2,376

1,019
159
1,029

2,898
454
3,405

942
725
4, 334
1,344
238

2,806
6,708
18,216
8,529
1,648

1,231
2,934
10, 690
4,807
748

4,037
9,642
28,906
13,336
2,396

350
2,888'
3,383
42
95
2,746
16,170

2,069
2,380
2,834
376
481
3,585
11, 220

1,557
1,915
2,155
232
335
2,736
7,950

3, 626
4, 295
4,989
608
816
6,321
19,150

30
47
35
38
55
10
6
44
119

24
38
41
20
155
8
4
38
97

18
26
16
102
2
5
9
88

24
56
67
36
257
10
9
47
185

98
54
74
155

53
16
27
694

35
9
42
527

88
25
69
1,221

278
2,620
7,977
388,675

248
2,392
4,434
351,077

161
2,160
2,920
332,604

409
4,552
7,354
683,681

269
1,128
2,000
14,340
32,794
88,464
1,202
1,297

1,766
907
4,582
30,824
30,775
59,102
2,728
2,221

805
371
2,592
26,852
28, 565
55,071
1,284
869

2,57?
1,278
7,174
57,676
59, 3 0>
4
114,173
4,012:
3,090s

384
616
121,176

477
1,247
199, 228

85
321
168,785

562
1,568
368,013

36,556
400,315
263,670

65,451
359,366
333,857

39,535
338,724
285,600

104,986
698,090
619,457

i Estimated. In the censuses preceding that of 1930, the Mexicans for the most part were included in the
white population.




INCREASE OF MEXICAN POPULATION, 1920-30

269

According to the reports of the United States Commissioner General
of Immigration for the fiscal years ending June 30 ,1931 and 1932, the
number of Mexican emigrant aliens recorded as departing from the
United States in these 2 years was 51,398, while only 4,301 Mexican
immigrant aliens were admitted. These figures are very far from
telling the whole story of the exodus of Mexicans from the country
as a result of the depression. The following extracts from the reports
of the United States Commissioner General of Immigration, mentioned
above, are of interest in this connection:
From numerous sources it has been reported that the departures of Mexicans
to their own country in the past year, of which we have no complete records,
have reached large proportions. Communities in the Far West and Southwest
have aided in this repatriation to relieve their charity burdens, but from many
parts oi the country Mexicans and their families have gone back because of
continued lack of employment in this country, the attraction of home ties, and
the belief that they can providentially obtain assistance from their relatives or
others.
An unrecorded but impressive number of Mexicans have returned home in the
past year [fiscal year ending June 30,1932], with the help of the Mexican Govern­
ment itself or through the efforts and aid of cities, towns, and charitable organi­
zations. They have been going across the border in streams with their small
belongings. The Immigration Service had not the facilities to keep count of this
hegira.







INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




271




Sources of Industrial-Accident Statistics
HE principal sources of information and statistical data on indus­
trial accidents in the United States are (1) Federal add State
governmental agencies dealing with labor, (2) the National Safety
Council, and (3) employers’ associations in a few industries.
Among the governmental agencies those in the Federal service are:
Bureau of Labor Statistics, Children’s Bureau, Division of Labor
Standards, and Women’s Bureau of the Department of Labor; Bureau
of Chemistry and Soils of the Department of Agriculture; Bureau of
Air Commerce, and Bureau of Navigation and Steamboat Inspection
of the Department of Commerce; Bureau of Mines of the Department
of the Interior; Bureau of Yards and Docks of the Department of the
Navy; Bureau of the Public Health Service of the Department of the
Treasury; Office of the Chief of Engineers, Department of War; Inter­
state Commerce Commission; Office of the Federal Coordinator of
Transportation; and United States Employees’ Compensation Com­
mission. State mediums for the collection of industrial accident
statistics are the State departments of labor and State industrial
commissions, workmen’s compensation commissions, and State mining
departments. To be sure not all States are equally equipped for the
collection of accident data, and the data are still far from being uni­
form and comparable. But, generally speaking, in the chief industrial
States some agency discharges that function to a fairly comprehensive
extent.
Before compensation for accidents in industry had been inaugurated
in the United States, the Bureau of Labor Statistics had been making
an annual study (begun in 1910) of accidents and accident preven­
tion in the iron and steel industry. Accident experience in this
industry has been collected annually directly from the plants con­
cerned, and has been published from time to time in bulletins of the
Bureau and in the Monthly Labor Review. The purpose of this
continuous study has been to set up the average experience as a
standard by which a given section of the industry might determine its
relative standing in the matter of accident occurrence, to determine
by year-to-year presentation whether the trend of accidents is in the
direction of increase or decrease, to show by suitable examples the
possibilities of accident prevention when the problem is attacked with
intelligence and vigor, and to afford illustrative material for use in the
prosecution of accident-prevention campaigns.
Having secured the cordial cooperation of the iron and steel in­
dustry to such an extent that accident reporting is now regular and
complete, and susceptible of analysis for the application of accidentprevention measures, the Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1926 began
the collection, on a comprehensive scale, of industrial accidents in
selected manufacturing industries. Starting with 1,282 establish­
ments employing 555,996 full-year workers and representing 24

T

273
19 2 0 5 — 36




-19

274

INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY

industry groups, the scope of this work has been expanded to include
30 industry groups, and with a corresponding increase in the number
of establishments, 55 percent of the workers in those industries are
now covered in the Bureau’s industrial accident data.
Another Federal agency dealing with general industrial accident
statistics is the United States Employees’ Compensation Commission.
This body administers compensation laws covering three distinct
groups of workers: (1) Federal employees; (2) longshoremen and
harbor workers; and (3) workers in private employment in the District
of Columbia. Annual reports of the Commission give statistical
presentations of the accident record of each of these three groups,
analyzing the number of injuries by industry (or branch of the
service, in the case of Federal employees), extent of disability, cause,
time lost, fatal and nonfatal, etc.
In those industrial States—notably California, Illinois, New Jersey,
New York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania—in which the agency administer­
ing the compensation law is a unit of the State department of labor,
the statistical work connected with compensation and accidents is a
major part of the duties of the statistical bureaus of the department.
In Massachusetts and some of the other States, on the other hand, the
agency administering the compensation law is entirely distinct from
the department of labor and industries. In States which provide
additional compensation for illegally employed minors injured at
work, special compilations of accidents to all minors are made to
facilitate the application of the penalizing provision.
Accident statistics of the agencies so far discussed deal with general
employment. Another group of agencies is concerned with accidents
in specific industries. Statistics of accidents in mining and quarrying
are on the whole more generally and adequately compiled than are
those relating to accidents in other industries. State mine inspection
machinery, whether operating independently or through the State
department of labor, affords a special avenue for the collection of in­
formation concerning mine accidents. In fact, in most mining States,
all accidents must be reported to the industrial accident board and
to the mine regulating agency of the State. Publication and to some
extent analysis of mine accidents are quite generally made by the
different State mine inspection agencies, either as separate reports
on that specific subject, or as part of the annual report of the State
body.
The Federal Bureau of Mines also issues an annual series of reports
on mine accidents. In coal mining, only fatalities were reported prior
to 1930, when the Bureau began to compile nonfatal injuries. These
data are compiled from reports voluntarily furnished by coal-mining
companies, supplemented by data from the State mine inspectors and
published annually. Annual reports of all fatal and nonfatal acci­
dents in metal mines and quarries are published by the Bureau of
Mines, which receives the data direct from the operators except in
California, where the State industrial commission compiles the sta­
tistics and furnishes them to the Federal bureau; in Alaska, where
reports for metal mines are furnished by the Territorial mine inspec­
tor; and in Arizona and Idaho, where reports for metal mines are
furnished through the State mine officials. Accident records of coke
ovens and metallurgic plants are similarly compiled and issued
annually by the Bureau of Mines, usually in its technical paper
series.



ACCIDENTS IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES

275

Carriers in interstate transportation are required by law to report
all accidents to the Interstate Commerce Commission. These re­
ports are compiled by the Bureau of Statistics of the Commission,
which publishes a monthly summary of accidents, a quarterly report
on accident statistics, and an annual accident bulletin. This bulletin
is a complete survey of railway accidents occurring during the year,
with an analysis of their causes, and presents in addition the accident
records of the reporting carriers.
Among the nongovernmental agencies collecting and disseminating
accident statistics, the National Safety Council covers the widest
field. It receives reports on accidents and man-hour exposure di­
rectly from its members, and also has contact with many sources of
information concerned with public, home, and industrial accidents.
Of these, safety organizations in industrial establishments affiliated
with the National Safety Council, insurance companies, and State
and city health departments are the most important agencies con­
cerned with industrial accidents. The statistical committee of the
National Safety Council issues annually a publication dealing with
“accident facts” which presents the year's accident record as deter­
mined by the National Safety Council through its various reporting
agencies. It also publishes annually a series of pamphlets showing
detailed information for each industrial group of its members.
A few employers' or manufacturers' associations have developed
facilities for keeping record of accidents in the industries they repre­
sent. The department of accident prevention of the American
Petroleum Institute compiles and publishes annually a summary of
injuries in the industry and reviews of fatalities. Statistics of injuries
and deaths in cement manufacture are published annually by the
Portland Cement Association in its Accident Prevention Magazine.

Accidents in Manufacturing Industries, 1933

F

IG U R ES collected and compiled by the Bureau of Labor
Statistics in its annual survey of accidents in manufacturing
industries show an increase for 1933 in frequency rates but a decrease
in severity rates.
An average of 22.17 injuries was sustained in the combined industries
during 1933 for every 1,000,000 man-hours worked, as against 19.55
in 1932, an increase in the frequency rate of 13.4 percent. An
average of 2.59 days was lost through the injuries received in 1933,
including standard schedule allowances for deaths and permanent
disabilities, for every 1,000 man-hours worked as against 2.86 in
1932, a decrease in the severity rate of 9.4 percent.
Continued curtailment of industrial activity was responsible for a
further reduction in employment during 1933, and the diminished
exposure to the hazards of industrial fife naturally resulted in a sub­
stantial reduction in the total number of industrial injuries, but, as
shown by the frequency rates of the Bureau, the total number of
injuries did not decline so rapidly as the man-hours of exposure.
The difference in the frequency rates for the 2 years is presumably,
at least ,in part, due to a let-up in safety activities—a common but
unfortunate result of economy programs—so that unsafe conditions
or practices were not eliminated or improved. Such neglectjwould



276

INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY

naturally, lead to a proportionate increase in accidents and, aside
from the standpoint of human relations, would in the end prove far
more expensive than the cost of the necessary safety work involved.
Other information received by the Bureau shows that, while the
usual accident-prevention work was continued in many establish­
ments, safety activities were curtailed greatly in others through
reduction in safety personnel and maintenance personnel, or in funds
for upkeep and repair of working places.
The question of continued and energetic accident-prevention work
is especially important at the present time. Renewed industrial
activity, with the attendant employment of many workers in tasks
with which they are not familiar, will greatly increase the occupa­
tional hazards, even where conditions are rendered as safe as possible.
Reduction or laxness in safety work will increase these hazards still
further, exact their toll of injuries and suffering, and prevent efficient
and economic operation of the industry.
A distribution of accident frequency and severity rates for the
combined manufacturing industries in 1933, by extent of disability,
is shown in table 1, with comparable yearly rates for the 7 previous
years. These rates were computed from the records for all establish­
ments covered by the survey of the Bureau, and weighted according
to the total number of wage earners employed in each of the industrial
groups, as given in the reports of the United States Bureau of the
Census.
These rates differ somewhat from the rates published by the National
Safety Council in the 1933 edition of Accident Facts. (See p. 279.)
The differences are presumably due mainly to the weighting employed
in the Bureau study and the difference in industries, plants, and
occupations covered in the two surveys. The report of the National
Safety Council covers the experience of its member establishments,
all of which are presumably interested and active in safety promotion,
and consequently may present more favorable rates than the survey
of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the coverage of which is probably
more general in character. Also, the National Safety Council
includes in its figures industries other than manufacturing, and
clerical employees as well as wage earners.
T able 1.—A C C ID E N T F R E Q U E N C Y A N D S E V E R IT Y R ATES IN M A N U F A C T U R IN G
IN D U ST R IE S, 1926 TO 1933 (W A G E EA R N E R S O N LY)

Deaths

Permanent
disability

Temporary
disability

Total

Frequency
Year

Fre­
quen­
cy
rate

1926________ ____________ 0.16
1927_____________________ .17
1928____________ ________ .18
1929..................................... .15
1930____________ ________ .17
.15
1931____ ______ ____ _____
1932.....................................
.17
.14
1933--..____ ____________




Se­ Fre­ Se­
ver­ quen­ ver­
ity
cy
ity
rate rate rate

0.98
1.05
1.08
.91
1.06
.90
1.00
.85

1.27
1.22
1.32
1.38
1.41
1.30
1.45
1.39

1.18
1.12
1.16
1.12
1.34
1.35
1.50
1.36

Fre­
quen­
cy
rate

22.73
21.21
21.02
22.45
21. 50
17.40
17.93
20.64

Se­
ver­
ity
rate

0.46
.41
.40
.40
.42
.34
.36
.38

Rate

Per­
cent of
change,
as com­
pared
with
preced­
ing
year

24.16
22.60
22.52
23.98
23.08
18.85
19.55
22.17

-6 .5
-.4
+6.5
-3 .8
-18.3
+3.7
+13.4

Severity

Rate

2.62
2. 58
2.64
2.43
2.82
2.59
2.86
2.59

Per­
cent of
change,
as com­
pared
with
preced­
ing
year

-1 .5
+2.3
-8 .0
+16.0
-8 .2
+10.4
-9 .4

277

ACCIDENTS IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES

The industrial accident surveys of the Bureau are limited to wage
earners and do not include clerical employees, as the accident hazard
for that group is entirely different. The surveys covered approxi­
mately 33 percent of the total wage earners in the respective industrial
groups in 1926, 34 percent in 1927 and 1928, 38 percent in 1929, 56
percent in 1930, 64 percent in 1931, 56 percent in 1932, and 55 percent
in 1933.
Comparable frequency and severity rates for the individual indus­
tries were in former years computed from records of establishments
in States which furnished data for all accidents resulting in disability
extending beyond the day of injury. Some of the important States
covered in the surveys supply reports only of compensable accidents,
excluding all temporary injuries which do not result in disability
extending beyond the waiting period for compensation.1 Other
States omit special types of injuries.2
Beginning with 1933 frequency and severity rates were computed
from records of all cooperating establishments, based on the number of
injuries actually reported and the missing number of injuries deter­
mined by the Bureau. It must, however, be taken into consideration
that it has not been possible to obtain the same percentage of coverage
in all of the industries, so that neither the number of man-hours
worked nor the actual number of accidents in any one industry is
comparable with the same item for another industry. Only the
frequency rates and severity rates are comparable. The individual
rates for 1933 are shown in detail in table 2.
T able 3 .—N U M B E R OF A C C ID E N T S A N D A C C ID E N T F R E Q U E N C Y A N D SE V E R IT Y
RATES FOR W A G E E AR N ER S IN SPECIFIED IN D U ST R IES, 1933
[Frequency rates are based on 1,000,000 hours’ exposure, severity rates on 1,000 hours’ exposure]

Industry

Agricultural im­
plements..............
Automobiles______
Automobile tires
and rubber goods.
Boots and shoes—
Brick, tile, and
terra cotta............
Carpets and rugs _ _
Chemicals...............
Cotton goods..........
Electrical machin­
ery, apparatus,
and supplies........
Fertilizers-...........
Flour, feed, and
other grain-mill
products________
Foundry and ma­
chine-shop prod­
ucts................... .
Furniture________
Glass________ _____
Hardware________
Iron and steel..........

Temporary
Permanent
Death
Total
disability
disability
Manhours
worked
Fre­ Se­
Fre­ SeFre­ Se­
Fre­ Se­
(thou­ Num­ quen­ ver­ Num­ quen­ ver­ Num­ quen­ ver­ Num­ quen­
ber of
ber of
ber of
sands) ber of cy
ity
ity cases cy
ity cases c y
cy
ity cases
cases rate rate
rate rate
rate rate
rate

18,651
365,433

2
26

0.11 0.64
.07 .42

87,804
201,236

9
8

.10
.04

22,438
25,355
58,723
366,963

13
0
9
11

.15
.03

179,787
12, 214

14
7

32,752

5

.15

134,836
81,082
80, 730
11,767
656,196

20
3
8
0
110

.15
.04
.10

26
408

570 30.56 0.53
5,264 14.40 .27

598 32.06 2.09
5,698 15. 59 1.54

.50
.33

1,490 16.98
1,366 6.79

.36
.11

1,560 17. 77 1. 47
1,467 7. 29 .68

1.39 0. 92
1.12 .85

.61
.24

61
93

.58 3.48
.92
.18

30
28
41
209

1.34 1.78
1.10 1.03
.70 .77
.57 .47

911 40.60
174 6.86
788 13.42
4,925 13. 42

.67
. 12
.24
.23

954 42. 52 5.93
202 7.96 1.15
838 14.27 1.93
5,145 14.02 .88

.08 .47
.57 3.44

200
16

1.11 .92
1.31 1.09

1,730 9. 62
496 40.61

.19
.78

1,944 10.81 1.58
519 42. 49 5.31

.91

48

1.47 2.30

965 29.46

.55

1,018 31. 08 3. 76

.89
.22
.59

295
201
60
27
776

.17 1.00

.69
.46

2.19 2.00 3, 572
2.48 1.68 1,668
.74 .85 1,706
292
2. 29 1.36
1.18 .97 12,277

26.49
20. 57
21.13
24.82
18. 71

.48 3,887
.30 1,872
.34 1, 774
.38
319
.41 13,163

28.83
23.09
21.97
27.11
20.06

1 Wisconsin, 3 days; Illinois, Michigan, New Jersey, and New York, 1 week; Alabama, 2 weeks.
2 California, temporary injuries; Oklahoma, fatal injuries.




3. 37
2.20
1.78
1.74
2.38

278

INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY

T a ble 2 .—N U M B E R OF A C C ID E N T S A N D A C C ID E N T F R E Q U E N C Y A N D S E V E R IT Y
R ATES FOR W A G E E A R N E R S IN SPECIFIED IN D U S T R IE S , 1933— Continued

[Frequency rates are based on 1,000,000 hours’ exposure, severity rates on 1,000 hours’ exposure]

Industry

Death
Man­
hours
worked
Fre­
(thou­ Num­ quen­
sands) ber of
cases cy
rate

Leather..... ..............
58,637
Logging.................
14, 695
Lumber—planing
mills____________ 26,009
L u m b e r— saw ­
mills___________
69, 453
Paper and pulp___ 159,400
Petroleum refining. 93, 254
Pottery........... ......... 25, 238
Shipbuilding, steel. 32, 709
Slaughtering and
meat packing___ 201,426
Stamped and en­
ameled ware........ 35,950
32,082
Stoves......................
Woolen goods......... 104,472
Machine tools____
13,135
Steam fittings, ap­
paratus, and sup­
22,464
plies............... .......

5
26

Temporary
disability

Permanent
disability
Fre­
Se­
Num­
ver­ ber of quen­
cy
ity cases
rate
rate

0.08 0. 51
1.77 10. 62

40
58

Total

Fre­ Se­
Fre­ Se­
Se­
ver­ Num­ quen­ ver­ Num­ quen­ ver­
ber of
ity ber of
ity
ity cases
cy
cy
rate rate cases rate rate
rate

0.68 0.74
3.95 7.17
3.42 3.50

1,332 22.72 0.34
1,229 83. 63 1.93
914 35.14

1,013 38.94 6.46

10

.38 2.31

89

24
26
30
3
7

.35 2.07
.16 .98
.32 1. 93
.12 .71
.21 1.28

241
215
120
12
51

22

.11

.66

331

1.64 1.48

5,769 28.64

.44

6,122 30. 39 2.58

3
3
5
1

.08
.09
.05
.08

.50
.56
.29
.46

86
72
109
14

2. 39 1.37
2.24 1. 52
1.04 1.15
1.06 .59

642
980
1, 522
237

17.86
30.55
14. 57
18.04

.29
.57
.24
.39

731
1,055
1, 636
252

2

.09

.53

21

335 14.91

.24

3.47
1. 35
1.29
.47
1.56

.93

4.94
1.58
1.64
.40
1.36

.90

3,918
3, 367
1,112
403
574

.65

1,377 23.48 1.59
1,313 89.35 19. 72

56. 41 1.05
21.12 .39
11. 92 .28
15.97 .33
17.55 .33

4,183
3, 608
1,262
418
632

60.23
22.63
13. 53
16. 56
19.32

20. 33
32.88
15.66
19.18

8.06
2.95
3.85
1.44
2.97

2.16
2.65
1.68
1.44

358 15.93 1.67

The survey covered 29 manufacturing groups up to 1929, when
separate figures became available for logging operations, which were
previously included in the classification “ Lumber—sawmills.” A new
classification, “ Logging” , was therefore added in 1929, making 30
groups in all. The separation is very noticeable in the accident rates
for sawmills, which dropped sharply in 1929 through the elimination
of the more hazardous logging operations.
Sixteen of the thirty industrial groups followed the combined trend
and experienced increases in frequency rates and decreases in severity
rates in 1933, as compared with 1932. Eight other groups experienced
increases in both rates, while 4 other groups experienced decreases in
both rates, and 2 other groups experienced decreases in frequency
rates and increases in severity rates.
In frequency rates the increases ranged from 0.04 for boots and
shoes to 9.03 for hardware, and the decreases ranged from 0.41 for
steam fittings, apparatus, and supplies to 10.95 for logging. In
severity rates the increases ranged from 0.02 for woolen goods to 2.82
for planing mills, and the decreases ranged from 0.07 for automobiles
and for automobile tires and rubber goods to 7.91 for logging.
Fourteen of the thirty industries present frequency rates higher
than the average (22.17), with logging showing the worst experience
(89.35) and sawmills next (60.23). Logging also shows the worst
experience in severity rates (19.72), sawmUls again being second
(6.06). Nine other industries also show severity rates exceeding the
average (2.59).




INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY

279

Accident Statistics of National Safety Council for 1934
A C C ID E N T S in the United States during 1934 were responsible for
101,000 deaths and 9,720,000 nonfatal disabling
injuries, according to the 1935 edition of Accident Facts, the annual
statistical publication of the National Safety Council. The wage loss,
medical expense, and overhead cost of insurance (which does not
include the amount of compensation paid) involved in these deaths
and injuries are estimated by the council to aggregate $2,400,000,000.
On the basis of reports from the United States Bureau of the
Census and various other sources, the estimated division of the 101,000
deaths attributes 16,000 to occupational accidents, 36,000 to motorvehicle accidents, 34,500 to home accidents, and 17,500 to public
accidents not involving motor vehicles. The figures stated for occu­
pational deaths include 3,000 which occurred in accidents involving
motor vehicles and which are included under that classification also,
but the duplication has been eliminated in the total. As the cor­
rected figures for 1933 show a total of 91,087 deaths, the estimate for
1934 presents an increase of nearly 11 percent, which is attributed to
5,000 additional motor-vehicle fatalities, 4,500 additional home
fatalities, combined with 1,500 additional fatalities occurring in gain­
ful employment.
Occupational Accidents
j T a .#
approximately

F i g u r e s developed by the Council from all available data place
the number of accidental deaths in various kinds of gainful employ­
ment at 16,000, an increase of 10 percent from the 1933 total (14,500).
An approximate distribution allocates 1,900 to manufacturing; 2,300
to construction, including Government projects; 2,000 to transporta­
tion and public utilities; 3,800 to trade and service industries; 1,600
to mining, quarrying, and oil and gas wells; and 4,400 to agriculture.
The number of nonfatal disabling injuries, determined by using
the relative proportion of deaths to injuries as found in reports of
industrial concerns to the council, is given as 61,000 resulting in
permanent disability and 1,300,000 resulting in temporary disability,
a total of 1,361,000.
Loss of wages through occupational death and injury is estimated
at $460,000,000; medical expense, including hospital and surgical
fees, at $40,000,000, and the overhead cost of insurance at $100,000,000.
The figures for wage loss include schedule charges for death and perma­
nent disabilities, as adopted by the International Association of
Industrial Accident Boards and Commissions. These two types of
injuries are consequently given full economic values, which exceed
compensation payments.
Extracts from insurance records and records of State industrial
commissions are presented, as well as a summary of the experience
of establishments reporting injury rates direct to the National Safety
Council. This summary shows an increase in the index numbers for
frequency rates of reporting companies from 41.2 in 1933 to 43.2 in
1934 (5 percent), and an increase in the index numbers for severity
rates from 60.6 in 1933 to 63.4 in 1934 (4 percent). The index
numbers, which are based on 1926 rates as 100, show that the increase
in rates was caused principally by a larger number of deaths and
permanent disabilities.




280

IN D U S T R IA L

A C C ID E N T S

AND

SAFETY

INJUR Y F R E Q U E N C Y A N D S E V E R IT Y RATES OF 3,866 IN D U S T R IA L U N ITS REPO R TIN G TO T H E N A T IO N A L S A F E T Y COU N C IL FOR 1934, B Y IN D U S T R Y
Frequency Severity
rates (per rates (per
1,000,000
hours’ ex­ 1,000 hours’
exposure)
posure)

Number
of units

Man-hours
worked
(thousands)

All industries 1
________________________________________

3,866

4,343,740

15.29

1.70

Automobile___________________________________________
Cement______________________________________ ________
Chemical_____________________________________________
Clay products________________________________ _______
Construction. __ ________________ - - ______________
Electric railway. _________________ ________________
Food______ __________ _______________________________
Foundry_____________________________________________

57
114
254
41
84
49
342
95
43
36
44
275
55
76
160
168
57
216
128
47
613
135
71
48
184
116
64
152
23
100

216,346
29,866
217, 509
12,008
105,730
96,196
245, 547
50,300
50,079
8,546
19,825
356,878
108,715
168,108
112,725
63, 264
84,777
143,277
605, 390
24,923
651, 273
11,187
21,645
133,880
124,949
361,323
48,697
167,044
19, 513
28, 553

22.24
6.50
10.30
24.82
31.89
19.29
16.42
23.42
9.84
5.03
83.83
9.33
12.14
38. 62
15. 02
51.45
10. 30
19. 07
14.31
6. 38
10.54
17.34
27. 67
9. 25
14.07
10.81
15.36
9. 73
3.13
14.99

1.28
3. 89
1.81
1.80
4.32
1.83
1.18
2. 21
1.04
.83
4.80
.83
1.85
1.46
1.41
10.19
1.46
1.95
1.69
.89
1. 68
3. 53
.78
.80
1. 30
2.20
.95
.60
.05
.91

Industry

Laundry_____________________________________________
Lumber______________________________________________
Machinery___________________________________________
Marine_______________________________________________
Meat packing____________________ __________________
Metal products, miscellaneous________________________
M ining__ __ ______________________________________ _
Nonferrous metals____________________________________
Paper and pulp_______________________________________
Petroleum____________________________________________
Printing and publishing______________________________
Public utilities________________________ ________ _____
Quarry_______________________________________________
Refrigeration_________________________________________
Rubber______________________________________ _______
Sheet metal___________________ ______________________
Steel_________________________________________________
Tanning and leather__________________________________
Textile________________________________________ ______
__ _________________________________
Tobacco__ ____
Woodworking_______________________________________

1 Include miscellaneous industries, not shown separately, and eliminate duplication between marine and
. troleum industries.

The rates for all of the combined reporting industrial units in 1934
are given as 15.29 (per 1,000,000 man-hours) for frequency rates and
1.70 (per 1,000 man-hours) for severity rates. These figures are
based on reports from 3,866 industrial units, working 4,343,740,000
man-hours during the year. The rates for the individual industries
present a wide variation, ranging from 3.13 to 83.83 for frequency
rates and from 0.05 to 10.19 for severity rates, as shown in the pre­
ceding table.

Accident Record, by Industry
A irc ra ft O p e ra tio n

IGURES published by the Aeronautics Branch of the United
States Department of Commerce 3 show that the 101 accidents
occurring in American-operated scheduled transport service during
1933 resulted in the death of 10 pilots, copilots, or members of air­
craft crews, severe injury to 4, and minor injuries to 17, while 109
others who were involved in the accidents received no injuries what­
ever. Of a total of 250 passengers involved in the same accidents,
8 lost their lives, 3 were severely injured, 29 suffered minor injuries,
and 210 were not injured.

F

®Air Commerce Bulletin, Mar. 15, 1934.




A C C ID E N T

RECORD, BY

IN D U S T R Y

281

In 1933 the airlines flew 54,642,545 miles, or 541,015 miles per
accident, as compared with 442,895 miles per accident in 1932. A
decided improvement is noted when the record for 1933 is compared
with that of 1928, when 86 accidents occurred during the 10,673,450
miles flown, an average of only 124,110 miles per accident. A total
of 568,940 passengers was carried during 1933, with an aggregate of
198,800,079 passenger-miles.
More than one-half of the accidents occurred during ordinary
voluntary landings (34) and forced landings (27). Causes of the
1933 accidents were divided as follows: Personnel errors, 18.38 per­
cent; power-plant failures, 23.76 percent; airplane failure, 18.56
percent; weather, 22.47 percent; airport and terrain, 10.89 percent;
miscellaneous, 3.96 percent. In another 1.98 percent the causes
were undetermined or doubtful.
C o a l M ines
S t a t is t ic s
of accidents occurring in coal mines during 1932,
published by the United States Bureau of Mines in its bulletin No.
380 4 shows that injuries during the year, totaling 60,179, resulted
in 1,207 fatalities, 79 permanent total disabilities, 1,449 permanent
partial disabilities, and 57,444 temporary disabilities.
The number of workers declined from 589,705 in 1931 to 527,623
in 1932, a reduction of 10.5 percent. The average days of operation
also declined from 168 in 1931 to 149 in 1932, a reduction of 11.3
percent, resulting in a decrease in the total number of man-hours
worked from 804,394,130 in 1931 to 636,391,330 in 1932, a reduction
of 20.9 percent. The number of deaths dropped from 1,463 in 1931
to 1,207 in 1932, a decline of 17.5 percent, making a slight increase
in the fatality rate per million man-hours worked (from 1.82 in
1931 to 1.90 in 1932), or an increase of 4.3 percent. The nonfatalinjury rate shows a decided reduction from 99.89 in 1931 to 92.67
in 1932, a decline of 7.2 percent.
While 958 of the 1,207 fatal accidents occurred in the bituminouscoal mines, 4,844 of the total bituminous-coal mines operated the
entire year without a fatal accident, although they employed 66.2
percent of the workers and produced 70.0 percent of all bituminous
tonnage. A distribution by States shows that the coal mines in
Alaska were operated without loss of life during the year, while the
highest fatality rate was established by New Mexico (7.49 per 1,000,000 man-hours worked). Tennessee presented the lowest nonfatalinjury rate (42.76) and Texas the highest (196.52).
The only figures available for nonfatal injuries are for the years
1930,1931, and 1932. Table 1 shows the number of workers employed,
the number of man-hours worked, production, and the number of
workers killed, by 5-year periods from 1911 to 1930 and by >ears
from 1926 to 1932.
4
United States Bureau of Mines. Bulletin 380: Coal-Mine Accidents in the Unites States, 1932, by
W . W . Adams and L. E. Geyer. Washington, 1934.




282

INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY

T able 1 .—E M P L O Y M E N T , P R O D U CTIO N , A N D F A TA L IT IE S IN COAL M IN ES, 1911 TO
1932
Men kille<d
Period or year

Number of
men em­
ployed

1911-15— . _______ _________
1916-20_________ ________—
1921-25____________________
1926-30______ ______________
1926_______________________
1927______ _________________
1928_____ _________________
1929..........— ____ _________
1930-------------------- --------------1931____ ___________________
1932__________ ____________

3,695,847
3,801,904
4,059,014
3,499,541
759,033
759,177
682,831
654,494
644,006
589,705
527,623

Man-hours

Production
(short tons)

Rate per Rate per
1
,000,000
1,000,000
Num­
man-hours
tons
ber
worked
mined

6,991,812,000
7,388,822,000
5,849,631,000
5,878,704,781
1,352,840,000
1,219,079,000
1,135,543,000
1,168,551,000
1,002,691,781
804,394,130
636,391,330

2,646,030,795
3,131,929,644
2,794, 733,483
2,977,484,316
657,804,437
597,858,916
576,093,039
608,816,788
536,911,136
441,750,978
359,565,093

12,583
12,097
11,077
11,175
2,518
2,231
2,176
2,187
2,063
1,463
1,207

worked

1.80
1.64
1.89
1.90

1.86

1.83
1.92
1.87
2.06
1.82
1.90

4.76
3.86
3.96
3.75
3.83
3.73
3.78
3.59
3.84
3. 31
3.36

Table 2 shows the number of workers employed, days worked,
number of fatalities, and production per man, by 5-year periods from
1906 to 1930.
T able 2 .—N U M B E R OF W O R K E R S, N U M B E R OF F A T A L IT IE S , A N D P R O D U C T IO N IN
COAL M IN E S, 1906 TO 1930

Men employed

Period or year

1906-10
1911-15
1916-20
1921-25
1926-30

(average)1......... ............
(average).......................(average)........................
(average)_____________
(average)_____________

Average
production
per man

Men killed

Produc­
Deaths
tion per
age
per
death
days
million
Rate
Equiva­ active
(short Tons Tons
per
tons
Num­
Actual
lent
tons)
1,000
per
per
number 300-day
ber 300-day
year day
workers
workers
675,067
739,169
760,381
811,803
699,908

484,454
541,489
599,781
484,071
485,139

215
220
237
179
208

2,658
2,517
2,419
2,215
2,235

5.49
4.65
4.03
4.58
4.62

169,719
210,253
258,944
252,346
266,521

i Figures for 1906 to 1909, inclusive, are only for States under inspection service.
average days active were estimated by the Bureau of Mines.

668
716
824
689
853

3.10
3.26
3.48
3.85
4.10

5.89
4.76
3.86
3.96
3. 75

Figures for 1909 as to

Underground operations accounted for 1,355 fatalities and 73,312
nonfatal injuries in 1931, and 1,115 fatalities and 52,759 nonfatal
injuries in 1932. Fatal injuries in shaft or open-cut operations totaled
30 in 1931 and 30 in 1932, while the nonfatal injuries were 1,187 in
1931 and 1,301 in 1932. In surface operations, 78 fatal and 5,850
nonfatal injuries occurred in 1931, and 62 fatal and 4,912 nonfatal
injuries in 1932. Falls of roof or face accounted for 836 of the under­
ground deaths and 21,733 of the underground nonfatal injuries in 1931,
and in 1932 for 612 deaths and 14,808 nonfatal injuries. The next
principal cause of underground injuries was mine cars and locomo­
tives, which were responsible for 237 deaths and 15,437 nonfatal
injuries in 1931, and for 179 deaths and 11,118 nonfatal injuries in
!932.
Fatality rates for bituminous-coal mines and anthracite mines are
shown in table 3, which contains rates for each type and both types
combined, by years, from 1925 to 1932.




283

ACCIDENT RECORD, BY INDUSTRY

T a ble 3 .—F A T A L IT Y R ATES FOR BITU M IN O U S-CO AL A N D A N T H R A C IT E M IN ES, 1925
TO 1932

Bituminous-coal
mines
Year

1925...................... ............................................
1926....................................................................
1927....................................................................
1928.................................................................
1929........................ .................... .......... ..........
1930........................................ ............. ...........
1931...................................... .............................
1932............................... ............ ......................

Per 1,000
300-day
employ­
ees
4.79
4.86
4.60
4.90
4.63
5.26
4.42
4.85

Per

1,000,000
tons
mined

3.53
3.60
3.36
3.45
3.19
3.46
2.83
3.09

Anthracite mines

Per 1,000
300-day
employ­
ees
4.12
3.37
3.94
3.85
4.24
4.22
4.43
3.83

Per

1,000,000
tons
mined

6.47
5.36
6.11

5.93
6.53
6.40
6.42
4.99

All mines

Per 1,000
300-day
employ­
ees
4.65
4.50
4.43
4.64
4.54
5.00
4.42
4. 60

Per

1
,000,000
tons
mined

3.84
3.83
3.73
3.78
3.59
3.84
3.31
3.36

Coke Ovens
A c c o r d in g to reports of the United States Bureau of Mines on
coke-oven accidents,6 the coking industry has been materially affected
by the general business depression. The number of workers employed
decreased 20 percent between 1930 and 1931, and 23 percent between
1931 and 1932. Working days and man-hours were reduced pro­
portionately.
Some improvement was noted in accident prevention, although the
death rate was higher in 1932 than in 1931. The death rate per
thousand 300-day workers dropped from 1.22 in 1930 to 0.50 in 1931,
a reduction of 59 percent, but rose again to 1.01 in 1932, an increase
for the year of 102 percent.
A gradual change in production methods is shown by the report for
1930. The operation of beehive ovens has been declining steadily for
a number of years, with a corresponding increase in the use of by­
product ovens.
The main causes of fatal accidents in coking are railway cars, burns,
coke cars and motors, and suffocation from gases. The largest num­
ber of nonfatal injuries in 1930 was caused by falls of persons, with
burns, handling of objects, hand tools, and falling objects as other
principal causes, in the order named.
Table 1 shows the number of employees, days worked, fatalities,
and lost-time nonfatal inj uries at all coke ovens in the United States,
by years, from 1916 to 1931.
» United States Bureau of Mines. Technical paper 508: Coke-Oven Accidents in the United States Dur­
ing the Calendar*Year 1930,$by W . W . Adams and L. Chenoweth, Washington, 1931; and Technical paper
559: Coke-Oven Accidents in the United States During the Calendar Year 1932, by W . W . Adams and
L. Chenoweth, Washington, 1933.




284

INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY

T a ble 1 N U M B E R OF E M P LO Y E E S, D A Y S OF LABOR P E R F O R M E D , F ATA L IT IE S , A N D
.—

LO ST-TIM E N O N F A T A L INJURIES A T COKE OVENS IN T H E U N IT E D STATES, 1916 TO
1931
Fatalities

Men employed
Average
days of
operation

Year

1916____________ ______
1917_____________ ____
1918____ _____________
1919__________________
1920__________________

Actual
number

Equiva­
lent in
300-day
workers

324
329
329
289
319

31,603
32,417
32,389
28,741
28,139

34,119
35,595
35,476
27, 674
29,921

Days of
labor per­
formed

Nonfatal injuries

Total

Per 1,000
300-day
workers

Total

Per 1,000
300-day
workers

10,235,674
10,678,429
10,642,688
8,302,059
8,976,214

45
76
73
53
49

1. 32
2.14
2.06
1.92
1. 64

5,237
6,713
7,792
4,031
3, 415

153.49
188.59
219.64
145.66
114.13

319

30,658

32, 557

9, 767,013

59

1. 82

5,438

167.02

1921........... ....................
1922__________ ________
1923......... ............... .
1924__________________
1925______ _____ - .........

257
284
324
303
310

16,204
19,278
23,729
20,451
23, 254

13,868
18. 236
25, 627
20,681
24,054

4,160, 298
5,470,939
7, 688,160
6, 204, 448
7,216, 239

17
29
45
24
28

1.23
1.59
1.76
1.16
1.16

1,853
1, 710
2,593
1,645
1,696

133.62
93. 77
101.18
79.54
70.51

Average________

299

20, 583

20,493

6,148,017

29

1.40

1,899

92.68

315
337
336
344
347

23,115
20,667
19,390
22,459
19,855

24,288
23,223
21,710
25, 724
22,936

7, 286, 605
6,967,035
6, 512,929
7,717, 306
6,880,895

51
25
17

2.10

1,922
1, 285

28

.86
1.22

1,012
1, 329
1,022

79.13
55.33
46.61
51. 66
44.56

Average________

335

21,097

23, 576

7,072,954

29

1.23

1, 314

55.73

1931................................

350

15,564

18,163

5,448,923

9

.50

534

29.40

Average_______

1926...............- ..............
1927....... .........................
1928....... - .....................
1929....... .............. - .........
1930____ _____________

22

1.08
.78

Table 2 shows the number of employees, days worked, fatalities,
and lost-time nonfatal injuries, by States, for 1932. Previous to 1932
frequency rates were based on exposure of one thousand 300-day
workers, but in 1932 the base was changed to 1,000,000 man-hours
worked.
T able 2 .—N U M B E R OF E M P L O Y E E S, D A Y S OF LABO R P E R F O R M E D , F A TA L IT IE S,

A N D L O ST -T IM E N O N F A T A L INJURIES A T COKE OVENS IN T H E U N IT E D STATES,
1932, B Y STATES

Men em­
ployed,
actual
number

Days of labor
performed

United States...................................... ........

12,002

4,158,664

346

14

320

Alabama_______ _______ _________________

619
1,119
656
667
909
292
1,514
1, 111
2,451
105
132
630
1,797

216,013
377,138
239,628
244,122
332,523
89,710
554,009
396,935
796,939
36,399
22,446
213,549
639,253

349
337
365
366
366
307
366
357
325
347
170
339
356

1

17
19
8
18
29
12
57
21
59
4
3
4
69

State

Illinois________________________________
Indiana_______________________ ____ ___
Massachusetts_________________________
Michigan_____________ ____ ____ ______
Minnesota_____________________________
New York...___________ _____ _________
Ohio............. ................................................
Pennsylvania- __............... ..........................
Tennessee_____________________________
Virginia_______________________________
West Virginia..............................................
Not segregated..... .......................................




Average
days of Fatalities Nonfatal
injuries
operation

2
1
4
2
2
1
1

285

ACCIDENT RECCED, BY INDUSTRY

C o n s tru c tio n In d u s try , New Y o r k C it y
A c c id e n t frequency and severity rates in the building construction
industry of New York were appreciably reduced during 1931, accord­
ing to the Building Trades Employers’ Association of that city.6
The records for 1931 cover 300 firms in 27 different trade organiza­
tions, with 14,136 employees who worked 28,051,058 man-hours.
The combined frequency rate for 1931 was 40.99, while the combined
frequency rate for all reporting employers in 1930 was 42.50. The
combined severity rate for 1931 was 3.03, as against a severity rate for
all reporting employers in 1930 of 3.82. The entire year’s work was
completed without a lost-time accident by 163 firms in 26 different
groups with 2,237 employees who worked 4,333,742 man-hours.
Table 1 shows the average number of employees in each trade group
in 1931, with accident frequency and severity rates for 1929, 1930, and
1931.
T a ble 1.—A C C ID E N T FR E Q U E N C Y A N D SE V E R IT Y RATES IN B U ILD IN G CO N STR U C­
T IO N IN N E W Y O R K C IT Y , 1929, 1930, A N D 1931

Trade group

All groups.......................... ................... ...........................
Allied Building Metal Industries...............................
Asbestos Contractors’ Association________________
Carpenters’ Association, Master__________________
Cement Workers, Masters’ League of— ........ ........
Composition Roofers and Waterproofers..................
Cut Stone Contractors’ Association..........................
Elevator Manufacturers’ Association........ ...............
General contractors............................. ..................... .
Glass Association, The Stained and Leaded....... .
Glass Dealers’ Association, The Window and PlateHeating and Piping Contractors---------------------------Lighting Fixture Manufacturers’ Council..... ..........
Marble Industry Employers’ Association_________
Metal Door and Window Association_____________
Metallic Furring and Lathing Association________
Mosaic and Terrazzo Employers’ Association_____
Painters and Decorators, Association of Master___
Parquet Flooring Association of Brooklyn___ ____
Parquet Flooring Association of New York.............
Plasterers’ Association, Contracting______________
Plumbers (Division No. 1), Association of MasterRefrigerator Manufacturers’ Association—...............
Rigging Contractors’ Association................................
Roofers and Sheet Metal Workers..............................
Stone Setters’ Association, Contracting.....................
Tile Contractors’ Association—...................................
Individual members.......................................................

Severity rates (per
1,000 man-hours’
exposure)

Aver­
age
num­
ber of
em­
ploy­
ees,
1931

Frequency rates
(per 1,000,000 man­
hours’ exposure)

1929

1930

1931

1929

1930

14,136

42.36

42.50

40.99

3.49

3.82

1,303 35.78 38.56 32.97
328 64.10 55.99 56.40
365 38.03 41. 69 34.87
663 102.79 107.72 71.16
154 37.69 94.03 135.69
290 30.03 18.58 32.13
962 55.07 85.93 49.73
4,960 59.63 42.53 45.30
.00
.00
.00
36
89 32.29 38.60 59.42
694 22.88 12.92 43.97
1 1 9.20 10.73 4.24
0
730 20.02 16.64 24.62
115 35.19
5.93 16.72
191 35.75 32.18 21.70
184
8.65
.00 2. 61
349 21.51 14.33 14.41

0.77
.54
7.16
13.24
.57
1.09
7.83
5.17

2.00

2

127
479
607
36
50
703

120

253
245

5. 26
35.83
24.53
13.17

12.12

37.78
31.57
34.43
43.48

.00

5.06
64.48
60.70
11.46
27.81
40.23
149.89
23.70
55.43

.00

4.60
65.37
56.50

.00

21.30
17.16
64.10
2.16
29.29

1.29
1.28
18.05
1.65

.22
12.00
3.62
.00
.00

.79
.58

.85
.15

.30
.32
.18
.18
1.23

5.60
.23
.51

.68

.14
5.00
.56
.55
1.30
.90
.60
.38
3.68

.20

.00
.00
.01

1.26
6.35
1.27
.34
4.17
5.89
17.08
.58
2.33

1931

3.03

2.68
.87

20.88
13.45
11.75

1.22

4.06
1.70

.00
1.20
.00
2.12
.05
.11
.15
.66
.00
.01

5.41

1.44
.55

.00

2.54
4.74
1.07

.01

.48

Data relating to the group of identical establishments are given in
table 2, which shows the average number of employees for 1931, by
trade groups, with accident frequency and severity rates for 1929,
1930, and 1931. Forty-seven of these firms, in 18 different trade
groups (with 2,176 employees who worked 4,182,689 man-hours),
completed the 3 years without a lost-time injury.
• Building Trades Employers’ Association of the City of New York. Committee on Accident Preven­
tion. Bulletin No. 13: Industrial Accident Facts, 1932 ed. New York, 2 Park Avenue, April 1932.




286

INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY

T a ble 2 .—A C C ID E N T F R E Q U E N C Y A N D S E V E R IT Y R ATES IN B U IL D IN G C O N ST R U C ­
TIO N IN N E W Y O R K C IT Y , FOR FIR M S R EPO R TIN G FOR A L L 3 Y E A R S , 1929, 1930,
A N D 1931

Trade group

All groups________ ________________________ _____
Allied Building Metal Industries......... .....................
Asbestos Contractors* Association----------------- ------Carpenters* Association, Master........ ............ ............
Cement Workers, Masters’ League of________ . . .
Composition Roofers and Waterproofers__________
Cut Stone Contractors’ Association______ ________
Elevator Manufacturers’ Association........ . . . i _____
General Contractors.-------------- -----------------------------Glass Association, The Stained and Leaded_______
Heating and Piping Contractors__________________
Lighting Fixture Manufacturers’ Council............ _
Marble Industry Employers’ Association.................
Metallic Furring and Lathing Association________
Painters and Decorators, Association of Master—
Parquet Flooring Association of New York----------Plasterers’ Association, Contracting______________
Plumbers (Division No. 1), Association of Master.
Refrigerator Manufacturers’ Association__________
Rigging Contractors’ Association--------------------------Roofers and Sheet Metal Workers________________
Tile Contractors’ Association.......................................
Individual members................................ .....................

Aver­
age
num­
ber of
em­
ploy­
ees,
1931

Frequency rates (per
1,000,000 man-hours’
exposure)

1930

1931

7,673 144.73 247.08
939

10

254
410
141
283
942
1,969
24
223

11
0

667
160
177
9
268
408
18
4
334
134
198

1929

Severity rates (per
1,000 man-hours’
exposure)

1929

1930

46. 65

4.43

4.82

3.95

38.35 38.86 40. 61
64.10 157.34 336.53
44.31 53. 27 40.70
111.89 114.95 88
.47
31.08 109.99 139.14
29.20 15. 59 32. 94
55.05 83.24 50. 27
59. 53 40. 27 57.26

0.84
.54
9.09
13.70
.49
1.09
7.99
7.24

2.29
3.40
1.85
14. 65
1.74
.17
12.72
4.44

3.67
9.27
30.57
19.90
13. 34
1.25
4.14
2.41

.00
.00

30.93

.00

38.84
18.89
13.17

19.93
21.69
15. 41
34. 25
14.36
26.96
64. 58
45.38
28. 39

29.29
34.43
56.42

47.33
8.63
47.96

15.17
37. 72
20.57

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00
.00
.27
.20
.49
.00

31. 65
4.24
23.34
18.02
20.49

1.15

68. 76
59. 93

5.84
.31
.55

24. 51
4. 66
23.93

.58
.38
1.98

.00

.00
.00

.00

.00
.21

.03
6.32
.54
2.67
.08
.91
.38

.86
.00

.40
.17
2.48

1931

.00

.49
.04
2.15
.09
.51

.00

.95
.60

.00
.00

.40
.03
.57

i Average number of employees in 1929,12,174.
* Average number of employees in 1930,10,802.

The 1,150 injuries to workers in all reporting establishments during
1931 included 8 deaths, 35 cases resulting in permanent disability, and
1,107 in temporary disability. The frequency of injuries shows that
347 cases were caused through handling objects, 187 through fells of
persons, 167 through stepping on or striking against objects, 162
through falling objects, 105 through using hand tools, 64 through
machinery, 17 through explosives, and 10 through poisonous sub­
stances, while the other 91 were due to miscellaneous causes. The
greatest severity rate is for falls of persons, which accounted for 45
percent of the time loss. Handling objects was responsible for 19
percent, and falling objects for 15 percent.
Federal G o v e rn m e n t Em ployees
I n ju r y frequency rates, computed by the Bureau of Labor Statistics
from injuries reported by civilian employees in Federal service for the
years 1921 to 1932, show that 19 workers were killed and 2,112 injured
in 1932 for every 100,000,000 man-hours worked, as compared with
28 killed and 1,485 injured in 1921 per 100,000,000 man-hours worked.
There was consequently a decrease during the 12 years of 32.1
percent in fatal injury rates, but an increase of 42.2 percent in nonfatal
injury rates.
In this study the Bureau has succeeded for the first time (through
the cooperation of the various branches of the Federal service) m
obtaining practically complete data on actual man-hour exposure for




ACCIDENT RECORD, BY INDUSTRY

287

each year of the period from each branch of the service. This made
it possible to revise the rates previously published for 1921-27, which
had been based on an assumed uniform 8-hour workday, as well as to
compile new rates for 1928-32 on an actual man-hour basis.
It was, however, found necessary to continue computation based
on the total number of injuries reported to the United States Em­
ployees’ Compensation Commission, which includes not only injuries
resulting in disabilities extending beyond the day of injury (disabling
injuries), but also those requiring medical attention other than firstaid treatments but not involving any time loss. Accurate figures for
disabling injuries are not available by year of occurrence, but the
number of these seemingly ranged from 62 to 78 percent of the
reported nonfatal injuries. Inclusion of the injuries requiring medi­
cal attention consequently increases the frequency rate for the non­
fatal injuries from 22 to 38 percent over the rate published in other
studies of the Bureau, in which the rates were based on disabling
injuries only. Proper allowance must therefore be made when com­
paring the rates for Government employees with other rates.
The increase in nonfatal rates, however, supports conclusively the
suggestions which have appeared in the annual reports of the United
States Employees’ Compensation Commission about the desirability
of a well-directed and sustained accident-prevention program in the
Federal civilian service.
While this class of employment is ordinarily considered as essen­
tially clerical, and consequently not subject to special accident haz­
ards, large divisions of the work involve dangers fully comparable to
those encountered in many of the most hazardous private enterprises.
Notable among these is the Forest Service of the Department of
Agriculture, in which numbers of workers are employed in connection
with the suppression of forest fires, the Reclamation Service of the
Department of the Interior and the Engineer Department of the
Army, with large numbers of employees engaged in construction
work.
Work in the arsenals of the War Department and the navy yards of
the Navy Department is comparable in danger with similar work in
private industries. Work of a manual character is also performed in
other branches of the Federal service but, with two exceptions, safety
regulations for the manual workers as well as for the clerical employees
are left to the discretion of the individuals or of the supervisors.
One of the two exceptions is the Department of the Navy, which in
1921 established an Office of Safety Engineering, in charge of a
department safety engineer and with a local safety engineer in each of
the 37 navy yards and stations. Efforts were at first devoted to
^safeguarding the physical causes of injury—installation of safety
devices, elimination of dangerous conditions, and equipment of protec­
tive clothing. An educational program was added later, and in 1931
the safety movement was further stimulated through competitive
awards. As a result, the frequency rate for the two-thirds of the
civilian employees of the Department, which come under the juris­
diction of the Office of Safety Engineering, has been greatly reduced




288

INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY

each year. In 1929 reports were received of 20.59 disabling injuries
per 1,000,000 man-hours work, in 1930 of 17.69, in 1931 of 16.08, and
in 1932 of 10.06.7
A large portion of the work performed in navy yards equals that of
foundries and machine shops in private industry. The frequency rate
obtained by the Bureau of Labor Statistics for this industry was
33.69 in 1929, 26.50 in 1930, 26.09 in 1931, and 23.79 in 1932, decidedly
higher than the rates for the navy yards and other naval stations.
Shipbuilding, another of the activities, also presents considerably
higher rates in private industry—23.59 in 1929, 29.66 in 1930, 36.89
in 1931, and 26.11 in 1932.
The other exception is the Government Printing Office, where
health and safety provisions for employees have been carefully devel­
oped and maintained by the administration, with the assistance of an
efficiently organized hospital department under the direction of a
medical and sanitary officer. Complete physical examination, includ­
ing tests of vision and hearing, are made of all new employees and
physical qualifications are important factors in assigning employees
to suitable tasks.
In spite of the manual work performed, the experience of the
Government Printing Office shows proportionately fewer injuries, in
each year from 1922 to 1932, than in any other branch of the service.
Its frequency rates are also considerably less than the average fre­
quency rates quoted by the National Safety Council for its members
in the printing and publishing industry, presumably the best-regulated
private establishments of similar character. The average frequency
rates (per 1,000,000 man-hours) shown by the National Safety
Council were 13.52 in 1928, 12.23 in 1929, 9.67 in 1930, 9.12 in 1931,
and 6.87 in 1932, and these rates were for disabling injuries only.
The frequency rates (per 1,000,000 man-hours) computed for the
Government Printing Office were 3.94 in 1928, *4.62 in 1929, 4.96 in
1930, 3.34 in 1931, and 3.67 in 1932. These rates, however, included
injuries requiring only medical attention other than first-aid treat­
ment, so are approximately 30 percent higher than if computed on
the same basis as the rates of the National Safety Council.
7 According to later information the rate was reduced to 7.06 disabling injuries per 1,000,000 man-hours
worked in 1933.




289

ACCIDENT RECORD, BY INDUSTRY

Table 1 shows the number of fatal and nonfatal accidents reported
to the United States Employees’ Compensation Commission, and
frequency rates for these, computed on the basis of man-hour exposure
as obtained from the respective departments for all Government
services, from 1921 to 1932. Table 2 gives the same information for
1932 for different branches of the service. The number of employees
shown in the tables is the average number for each department as re­
ported by the Civil Service Commission, but is not used for computing
the rates.
T a ble 1.—N U M B E R OF INJURIES A N D IN JU R Y F R E Q U E N C Y R ATES IN A L L B R AN CH ES
OF T H E F E D E R A L C IV IL IA N SER VICE, 1921 TO 1932

[Based on number of injuries reported to United States Employees’ Compensation Commission]

Number of injuries
Year

Average
number of
employees

Frequency rates (per

1,000,000 hours’ exposure)

Fatal

Total

3,578

1921-32..............................................
1921....................................................
1922....................................................
1923....................................................
1924....................................................
1925....................................................
1926....................................................
1927...................................................
1928...................................................
1929....................................................
1930....................................................
1931....................................................
1932...................................................

Non­
fatal i
260,100

263,678

0.24

17.66

17.90

344
349
265
268
305
263
358
307
334
292
262
231

18,046
17,910
17,727
20,270
20,386
19,264
20,189
21,882
25,356
25,777
28,176
25,117

18,390
18,259
17,992
20,538
20,691
19,527
20,547
22,189
25,690
26,069
28,438
25,348

.28
.30

14.85
15.36
15.03
16.96
16. 57
15.56
16.38
17.41
19.71

15.13
15.66
15.25
17.18
16.82
15.77
16.67
17.65
19.97
20.35
22.61
21.31

567,757
542,562
543,404
555,265
565,323
568,990
574,751
587,017
601,150
598,644
611,729
583,427

Fatal
Nonfatal
injuries injuries 1

.22
.22
.25
.21
.29
.24
.26
.23

20.12
22.40
21.12

.21

.19

Total

1Includes medical cases.
T a ble 2 .—N U M B E R OF INJURIES A N D IN JU R Y F R E Q U E N C Y R ATES IN VARIOUS
B R AN C H ES OF T H E F E D E R A L C IV IL IA N SERVICE IN 1932, B Y D E P A R T M E N T S A N D
SERVICES

Number of injuries
Branch of Service

Number
of em­
ployees
Fatal

Department of Agriculture__________________
Department of Commerce___________________
Government Printing Office_________________
Department of Interior______ _______________
Department of Labor________ ______________
Department of the Navy_______ ____________
Post Office Department_________ ___________
Department of the Treasury_________________
Department of War....................... ......................
District of Columbia.................. .........................
Other services............................. ....................... .

19 2 0 5 — 36----- 20




27,280
19,829
4,897
17, 302
5, 723
47, 064
287,032
52,438
49,863
10,584
61,415

Non­

31
9

3,427
555

4
36
34

123
1,096
8,107
1,080
7,064
700
1,667

fatal

1
36
10 1, 262

1
1

64
31

Total

3,458
564
37
1,272
127
1,132
8,141
1,091
7,128
700
1, 698

Frequency rates (per
1,000,000 hours’ ex­
posure)

Fatal
in­
juries

0.55

.22
.10

.29
.39
.39
.05

.12

.65
.25

Non­
fatal
in­
juries
60.86
13.79
3. 57
36. 45

12.02
12.01

13. 35
11. 31
71.98
34.33
13.30

Total

61. 41
14.01
3. 67
36.74
12.41
12.40
13.40
11.43
72,63
34.33
13.55

290

INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY

Iro n a nd Steel In d u s try

A r e v i e w of the data on accidents in the iron and steel industry
in the quarter of a century during which the Bureau of Labor Statis­
tics has been collecting data, reveals some very interesting trends.
Since 1907 a remarkable decline has taken place in accident rates
in this industry. In that year 82.06 workers were being killed or
injured for every 1,000,000 man-hours worked and 6.9 days’ working
time was being lost by injured employees for every 1,000 man-hours
worked. Since that year the general tendency in both severity and
frequency of accidents has been downward, although in occasional
years the rates have swerved upward. Considerable increases in
the frequency of accidents took place from 1911 to 1912, from 1915
to 1917, and from 1927 to 1929. Minor increases occurred from
1919 to 1920, from 1921 to 1923, from 1930 to 1931, and from 1932
to 1933. Large increases in time loss (indicating a greater severity
of accidents) took place from 1911 to 1913 and from 1915 to 1917,
while slight rises were shown from 1921 to 1924, from 1925 to 1926,
from 1928 to 1929, and from 1932 to 1933.
The periods showing increases in rates were also characterized by
increased activity in the industry, indicating that expansion in opera­
tions has been an important factor in the rise of injury rates, possibly
augmented by changes in methods.
During the course of the 27-year period covered by the present
review the number of accidents per 1,000,000 man-hours worked
had been reduced 75.6 percent (from 82.06 to 20.06), while the time
lost through accident, per 1,000 man-hours, had been cut 65.6 percent
(from 6.90 to 2.38 days). The year 1932 witnessed the attainment
of an all-time low mark as regards frequency of accident in this
industry. The lowest point yet recorded for severity of accidents
occurred in 1928 when only 2.15 days per 1,000 man-hours worked
were lost as a result of accident; the year 1932, while not equaling
the record of 1928, was very close to it, with a time loss of 2.19 days
per 1,000 hours’ exposure.
While these changes were taking place in the accident record of
the industry as a whole, the trends in the individual departments of
the industry were by no means uniform, even though generally in
the downward direction. The best record in lowering the number
of accidents was shown by the Bessemer converters, where the fre­
quency rate was reduced from 134.09 in 1907 to only 3.25 in 1929
(a year when the rate for the industry as a whole rose sharply).
While the rate for that department had since that time advanced
to 11.62 in 1932, it dropped to 9.69 in 1933, so was still 92.8 percent
below the 1907 level. Other remarkable declines in frequency
rates had taken place in the plate mills (from 113.64 in 1907 to 11.93
in 1930 and 13.63 in 1933) and in unclassified rolling mills (from 113.74
in 1910 to 17.46 in 1930 and 20.58 in 1933).
Because of lack of detailed data during the earlier years, the
changes in rates from 1907 to 1933 can be determined for only 10
departments. Table 1 shows the frequency and severity rates for
these and for the other departments for the earliest available years,
and for 1933.




291

ACCIDENT RECORD, BY INDUSTRY
T a ble

1.—F R E Q U E N C Y A N D

SE V E R IT Y R ATES IN T H E IR O N A N D ST EEL I N D U S T R Y CO M PAR ISON OF C U R R E N T A N D E A R L IE S T R A T E S A V A IL A B L E

Department and year

The industry:
1907.................... ..................
1933_________ ___________
Blast furnaces:
1907....................
.
1933............... ........ _ .
Bessemer converters:
1907________ ____________
.
1933___ v .
Open-hearth furnaces:
1907________ ___________
1933............. .
_ _
Foundries:
1907_____ _______
...
1933..........................
Heavy rolling mills:
1907________________
1933______ __________
Plate mills:
1907........ ....................
1933._____ ___________
Sheet mills:
1907_______ _____________
1933.............. ..............
Tube mills:
1907............. ..........
1933.................... ............ .
Fabricating shops:
1907......................................
1933— .................................
Mechanical departments:
1907...................... ................
1933.............. ......... . . .
1907._______ ________
-_
1933...____ _____________
Unclassified rolling mills:
1910. ______ ______________
1933_____________________

Fre­
quency
rates
(per1,000,000
hours’
expo­
sure)

Severity
rates
(per 1,000
hours’
expo­
sure)

82.06
20.06

6.90
2.38

101 32
15.14

16.03
5.65

134.09
9. 69

5.35
4.11

104.45
14.52

14.49
4.10

64.96
44. 25

3.46
3.20

65.26
10.18

4.85
1.69

113. 64
13.63

9.08
3.12

42.81
20.27

4.10
2. 29

96.32
15.84

3.12
1.15

94.34
42.76

9.50
3.74

84.05

11.66

3.96
2.43

66.72
10.51

7. 50
1.96

113. 74
20.58

4.98

77.53
13.23

4.28
2.24

62.69
7.41

4.20
3.01

60.33
8.77

1.91
1.37

38.63
14.29

1 21
.

2.11

W i r e d r a w in g :

1910_____________________
1933_____________________
Electrical departments:
1910............... .......................
1933____________ ________
Bar mills:
1915......................................
1933-.-............... ............. .
Rod mills:
1915____________ ________
1933______________ _______

5.34

Department and year

Woven wire fence:
1915.................... ..................
1933.......................................
X oiIq oTifl Qtonlftc*
TU U
ll Q O U U ouctpico*
1915_________ ___________
1933................. .
Axle works:
1915_________ ___________
1933......................................
Car wheels:
1915............................ .........
1933_________ ___________
Docks and ore yards:
1915................. ....................
1933......................................
Puddling mills:
1917...................... ... ............
1933............
.............
Forge shops:
1917_______ _____________
1933..........
_
Power houses:
1917.................... - .............
1933............... ............ ..........
Hot mills:
1923............... .
.............
1933...........
Cold rolling:
1926......................................
1933.................
Crucible furnaces:
1930............................... .......
1933..................... ... ............
Electric furnaces:
1930...................... - ..............
1933.............
Wire springs:
1930____ ________________
1933_____________________
Stampings:
1930_______ _____________
1933__________ __________
Galvanizing and tinning:
1932___________ _________
.................
1933-.Cold drawing:
1932.....................................
1933............... .......... ............
Bolts and nuts: 1933 ______
Miscellaneous:
1907.....................................
1933 _______
______

Fre­
quency Severity
rates
rates
(per 1,000
(per
1,000,000 hours’
expo­
hours’
sure)
expo­
sure)

65.29

12.66

1.72
3.02

41.83
7.19

3.32
1.82

38.39
28.79

3.39
.76

22.28
40.28

.98
2.38

26.08

2.86

2.41
.03

47.07
62. 93

1.65
1.45

80.30
27.84

4.40
2.37

16.40
5.11

4.40
.25

43. 45
17.26

1.51
1.77

38.92
21.36

1.21

39.21
10.74

1.18
.45

35.12
52.87

3.07
.67

29.91
34.26

2.32
.87

23.58
41.67

2.02

6.23
9.33

.75
.81

26.82
23.45
22.59

3.99

75.59
18.18

5.17
2.18

1.92

2. 58

1.21
1.44

While the exposure for the individual years is of considerable
volume, it is naturally affected by local and temporary conditions,
such as a catastrophic occurrence. A more satisfactory picture of
the trend in accident rates, therefore, is presented by combining
exposures and accidents for several years. Table 2, which shows a
5-year moving average for the industry as a whole and for specified
important departments from 1907 to 1933, affords a comparison of
the relation between these departments and the industry.
Comparison of the first period, 1907-11, with that of 1929-33
shows that the industry as a whole and all of the specified depart­
ments, except foundries, present a notable reduction in frequency
rates. Practically continuous decreases were shown by the industry
as a whole and by all the departments covered, except foundries.




292

INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY

Foundries show a relatively low rate for the early period (53.17),
but the rate advanced during the next six periods and reached 70.12
in 1913-17. While it declined again, the decrease did not keep pace
with that of other departments, and the 1933 rate was more than
double the average rate for the entire industry.
Severity rates declined from 1907-11 to 1928-33 in the industry as
a whole and also in all of the specified departments.
The period 1929-33, as compared with the period 1928-32, shows
an increase in frequency rates for the industry as a whole and for 3
departments, but with decreases for the other 4 departments and
increases in severity rates for the industry as a whole and for all the
specified departments.
T able 13.—A C C ID E N T RATES FOR T H E IR ON A N D STEEL IN D U S T R Y A N D FOR
SPECIFIED IM P O R T A N T D E P A R T M E N T S , B Y 5-YEAR PERIODS
F req u e n c y rates (p er 1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 h o u rs1 exp osu re)

Period

1907-11_____________
1908-12_____________
1909-13_____________
1910-14____ _________
1911-15_____________
1912-16_____________
1913-17_____________
1914-18_____________
1915-19— ...................
1916-20— ____ ______
1917-21_____________
1918-22________ ____
1919-23_____________
1920-24______ ______
1921-25_____________
1922-26_____________
1923-27_____________
1924-28_____________
1925-29_____________
1926-30_____________
1927-31____ ______
1928-32_____________
1929-33................ .......

The in­
dustry

69.2
65.1
62.1
59.22
54.85
53.84
49.92
44.28
41.66
41.04
39.67
36. 73
35. 21
33.83
31.45
30.74
27.79
25.04
24.22
22. 27
21.08
21.06

21.21

Besse­
Blast fur­ mer con­
naces
verters
70.69
56.21
61.48
59.16
51.97
50.35
45.63
41.24
38.96
37. 72
35.54
34.03
32.74
30.61
28.99
28.65
27.37
25.23
22.80
22.38
20.84
19. 77
18.72

104.88

101.20
95.70
89.79
77.71
76.13
68.27
60.43
57.66
53.11
46.94
36.98
30.53
24.90
18.32
16.74
14.96
11.97

8.66
8. 71

7.06
7.42
7.54

Openhearth
furnaces

Found­
ries

83.12
80.52
76.57
76.42
69.28
68.16
60.11
54.05
50.56
47.35
44.85
41.56
36.33
32.82
30.14
28.43
25.57
22.32
20.06
17.57
16.24
15.62
15.59

53.17
58.74
63.14
63.59
65.21
67.69
70.12
64.74
62.31
63.18
63.11
60.44
61.76
62.72
63.12
62.79
61.19
57.82
57.19
51.02
47.50
45.78
45.59

Heavy
rolling
mills
61.31
56.51
50.98
46.02
39.41
37.26
32.14
31.13
33.95
31.41
29.87
27.63
24.24
21.48
18.61
17.06
15.15
13.05
10.81
9.94
9.76
9.78
10.04

Plate
mills

Sheet
mills

69.71
91.08
55.90
49.94
44.66
41.54
36.61
39.81
39.25
38.43
37.58
36.68
31.44
29.33
26. 77
25.59
21. 33
18.49
16.91
15.28
14. 35
15.11
15.26

47.92
51.83
51.34
51.02
48.07
47.37
41.32
35.81
32.72
33.72
33.43
35.21
35.75
34.83
33.03
30.40
25. 29
23.93
22.82
19.39
18.15
18.58
18.02

5.11
6.18
3.90
3.78
3.14
2.85
2.59
2.61
2.57
2.59
2.53
2.47
2.44
2.35
2.53
2.60
2.54
2.25
2.39
2.23
2.12
2.11
2.40

2.83
2.72
2. 75
2.58
2.21
2.27
2.10
1.78
1.60
1.82
1.75
1.88
2.09
2.16
1.95
1.82
1.50
1.43
1.48
1.42
1.51
1.73
1.79

S e v er ity rates (p er 1 ,0 0 0 h o u rs’ exposu re)

1907-11____________
1908-12____________
1909-13____________
1910-14____________
1911-15____________
1912-16____________
1913-17— ...........— _
1914-18____________
1915-19.......... ...........
1916-20____________
1917-21____________
1918-22____________
1919-23____ _______
1920-24____________
1921-25.....................
1922-26____________
1923-27____________
1924-28________ —
1925-29____________
1926-30— - ................
1927-31— - ................
1928-32— ................
1929-33......................




5.0
4.3
4.4
3.79
3.49
3.57
3. 60
3.49
3.58
3.45
3. 32
3.07
2.87
2.76
2.69
2.74
2.62
2.49
2.41
2.39
2.35
2.34
2.39

8. 55
7.88
7.67
7.04
6. 37
6.10
5.75
5.53
6.03
5.67
5.48
5.49
4.98
4.50
4.64
4.72
4.62
4. 51
3.92
3.96
3.74
3.53
3.81

7.54
6.86
6.74
6.43
5. 30
6.18
7.15
6.96
7.01
6.28
5.42
3.95
3.25
2.74
3.24
4.05
4.20
4.18
4.05
3.79
2.60
2.92
3.35

7.47
7. 32
6.98
6.68
5.98
5.83
5.39
6.14
6.56
6.09
5.82
5.33
4.67
4.16
4.03
4.66
4.78
4.42
4.43
4.43
3.93
3.80
3.94

3.16
3.51
3.71
3.65
3.86
3.76
4.01
3.74
3.56
3.23
3.17
2.69
2.66
2.74
3.08
3.16
3.18
2.98
3.02
2.90
2.86
2.82
3.09

4.60
4.32
4.01
3.78
3.42
3.46
3.61
3.82
4.14
3.47
3.28.
2.85
2.45
2.37
2.64
2.68
2.65
2.51
2.22
2.08
2.09
1.99
2.05

293

ACCIDENT RECORD, BY INDUSTRY

Experience of Selected Group of Establishments
A decided contrast to the experience of the industry as a whole is
presented by the data covering the special group of establishments
for which separate frequency rates have been published yearly, as
these show an increase in frequency rates from 5.3 in 1927 to 9.1 in

1933.
Except for 1916, the frequency rates for this group showed a con­
tinuous decline from 1913 to 1927, and it is therefore somewhat
surprising that gradual increases have occurred since then in this
special group that embodies the best practices and the most pro­
nounced success in accident prevention. Even in 1933, however,
after slight increases in 6 successive years, the frequency rate for
this group was only 9.1, as against 18.1 for the industry as a whole.
Table 3 presents the experience of the six companies included in
the group, by the principal product of each company and for the
entire group, by years, from 1913 to 1933.
T able 3.—ACCIDENT FREQUENCY RATES (PER 1,000.000 HOURS' EXPOSURE) FOR A
SELECTED GROUP OF PLANTS, 1913 TO 1933, BY PRODUCT AND YEAR

Year

1913______ ___________________
1914______ ___________________
1915__________________________
1916______ _________ __________
1917____ _____________ ________
1918.,_______ _________________
1919___________________ ______
1920_______ __________________
1921_____ ____________________
1922_____________________ ____
1923___ _____ ________________
1924____ _____________________
1925_________ _________________
1926____ ______________________
1927._____ ____________________
1928___ ____ _____________ ____
1929_________________ ______
1930______ ____________________
1931_____ _____________________
1932_________ _________________
1933........ .......................................

Fabri­
cated
prod­
ucts

100.3
59.0
53.5
52.1
51.3
38.2
32.8
35.3
28.4
33.8
32.6
33.4
27.4
24.3
18.0
19.7
21.4
21.3
24.0
24.5
18.8

Sheets

Wire and
its prod­
ucts

Miscellaneous steel
products
Total

Tubes
Group A Group B

61.6
47.2
37.3
34.0
33.9
25.9
25.8
22.7
17.5
16.9
17.2
10.3
11.4
9.4
8.4
8.7
10.7

6.0
7.4
8.2
10.0

59.3
46.2
52.4
48.2
32.5
18.8
12.5

27.2
12.5

7.5
7.9
7.9

6.1

12.0
6.2

4.2
3.9

3. 5

4.0
3.1
5.0
4.4
5.2
7.2

10.8
12.4
10.2
9.1
9.1
8.9

7.1
7.0
5.1
4.0
3.6
2.5
2.3
3.0
3.8
5.0
3.8
3.9

70.9
50.7
51.9
67.6
51.3
42.0
39.7
35.3
15.8
14.5
13.9

11.8
9.8
6.6
5.1
5.3
5.3
9.0
8.4

10.1
11.2

41.3
27.6
23.0
28.2
20.5
31.4
23.0
18.6

12.1
10.8
9.8
7.9
3.7
3.8
2.7
2.4
3.2
7.3
7.4
6.7
8.7

60.3
43.5
41.5
44.4
34.5
28.8
26.3
23.1
13.2
13.1

12.8
10.2
8.2
6.8
5.3
5.6

6.2
7.7
7.8

8.1
9.1

In order to get a more intimate view of the changes which have
occurred in these establishments since the safety movement was
inaugurated, it is necessary to consider not only the frequency rates
for the various companies but also the changes in the rates for causes
of accidents. As shown in table 4, a notable decline occurred in the
rate of accidents for each of the general-cause groups from 1913 to
1933.




294

INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY

T able 4 .—A C C ID E N T F R E Q U E N C Y RATES (PER 1,000,000 HOURS’ EXPO SU R E) IN A
SEL EC T ED GROUP OF PLANTS, 1913 A N D 1933, B Y CAUSE OF A C C ID E N T

Cause of accident

Frequency rates (per 1,000,000
hours’ exposure)
1913

All causes...................................................................................
M a c h in e r y
V e h ic le s
_
H o t s u h s t a n e e s ____ _

_

_

Falls of persons________________________________________
Falling material, not handled by injured.........................
H a n d t o o ls a n d h a n d lin g o f o h je o t s

Miscellaneous........................................ ................................

Percent of
decrease

1933
60.3
7.3
2.3
5 .4
4 .5

1.2

26.7
12.9

9.1

84.9
71.2
82.6
88.9
77.8
91.7
85.0
93.0

2.1
.4
.6
1.0
.1
4 .0

.9

Handling of objects was responsible for nearly half of the injuries
in both 1913 and 1933. During the interval the frequency rate for
this principal cause group dropped from 26.7 to 4.0 injuries per
1,000,000 hours’ exposure, a decrease of 85.0 percent. The decreases
for the other cause groups ranged from 71.2 to 93.0 percent, while
the general average reduction was 84.9 percent.
A more extended analysis of the accident causes is presented in
table 5 which shows the frequency rates in detail, by cause, for 1913
(the earliest year for which data are available) and by year from
1920 to 1933. An analysis of this kind is extremely valuable for
accident-prevention purposes. It indicates the relative importance
of the causes, points out the special channels for corrective measures,
and also helps to determine whether the accident-reduction effort has
been successful in all phases of the various processes.
T a ble 5 .—A C C ID E N T F R E Q U E N C Y R ATES (PER 1,000,000 HOURS’ EX PO SU R E) FOR A
SE L E C T E D GROUP OF IR O N A N D STEEL PLAN TS, 1913 A N D 1920 TO 1933, B Y Y E A R
A N D CAUSE OF A C C ID E N T
Cause of accident

1913 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933

All causes.........................................- 60.3 23.1 13.2 13.1 12.8 10.2 8.2 6.8 5.3 5.6 6.2
Machinery.........................................
7.3 3.4 *179 *273 "273 T o "176 T 6 173 "173 *173
Other than cranes..................... 3.8 1.5 .9 1.1 1.0 .8 .7 .7 .5 .5 .5
2.5 1.0 .6 .7 .7 .6 .5 .5 .4 .4 .4
Caught in............................
.1
. 1 .1 . 1 . 1 0) 0) 0) 0) 0)
.1
Breaking________________
Struck by load.................... 1.2
.4 .2 .3 .2 .2 .2 .2 .1 .1 0)
Hoisting apparatus..................
3.5 1.9 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.2 .9 .9 .8 .8 .8
Overhead cranes................ 2.8 1.5 .8 1.0 1.1 1.0 .7 .7 .6 .6 .6
Locomotive cranes............
.2 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1
.3
Other............................ .......
.4
.2 .1 .1 . 1 .1 . 1 . 1 .1 .1 .1
Vehicles.............................................
2.3 1.1 .5 .4 .6 .5 .3 .3 .2 .2 .2
Hot substances.................................
5.4 2.4 1.2 1.1 1.2 .9 .6 .5 .5 .3 .4
Electricity..................................
.5
.3 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 .3 0) 0)
Hot metal...................................
3.6 1.7 .9 .7 .9 .6 .4 .3 .3 .2 .3
Steam, hot water, etc..............
.4 .2 .3 .2 .2 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1
1.3
Falls of persons................................
4.5 2.5 1.7 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.1 1.0 .7 .7 .8
From ladders.............................
.3
.1 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 0) 0) 0)
From scaffolds...........................
.2 .2 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1
Into openings_______________
.2 . 1 . 1 0) . 1 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0)
Slipping nr stumbling
3.8 2.1 1.4 1.3 1.1 1.1 .9 .8 .6 .6 .7
Falling material, not handled by
injured _
1.2 .2 .1 .1 .1 . 1 .1 .1 0) . 1 0)
Hand tools and handling of ob26.7 10.4 6.5 5.8 5.4 3.8 3.4 2.9 2.0 2.3 2.7
Objects dropped in handling. 11.2 4.4 2.6 2.6 2.3 1.9 1.6 1.2 .9 .9 1.2
3.4 1.3 .7 .6 .7 .5 .4 .3 .2 .3 .3
Caught between material___
.6 .4 .4 .4 .2 .2 .2 .1 .2 .2
Hand trucks, etc......................
1.9
2.5 1.1 .8 .8 .5 .3 .3 .3 .2 .2 .2
Strain in handling....................
Objects flying from tools........
.2 .1 .1 .1 .1 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0)
Slivers, sharp edges, etc___ _
3.8 1.5 1.1 .6 .6 .3 .4 .4 .3 .4 .4
Hand tools.................................
3.7 1.4 .8 .7 .8 .6 .5 .5 .3 .3 .4
Miscellaneous................................... 12.9 3.1 1.3 1.9 1.8 1.6 1.1 .4 .6 .7 .8
Asphyxiating............................
.1 .1 0) .1 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0)
.3
Objects flying from material,
striking body.........................
.8 .3 .1 .1 .3 .2 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1
Objects flying from material,
2.9 1.1 .5 .4 .2 .3 .2 .1 .1 .1 .2
striking eye_______________
.1 .1 .1 .1 .1 0) 0) .1 .1 .1
.9
Heat__________________ _____
Other........................................... 8.0 1.5 .5 1.3 1.1 1.0 .8 .2 .3 .4 .4
* Less than Mo of 1 percent.




7.7 7.8 8.1 9.1
1.5 "177 "179 T I
.5 .8 .8 .9
.4 .5 .5 .7
0) . l 0) 0)

.1
1.0
.7
.2
,1

.2
.8
.1
0)
.3 .2
.4 .5
0) .1
.3 .3
.1 .1
1.0 1.0
0) .1
.1 . 1
0) 0)
.9 .8
.l

.9

.1

.2
1.1
.8
.2
.1
.3
.6

.2
1.2
1.0
.1

.1
.4

.6
.1 .1
.4
.1 . 1
1.0 1.0
.1 .1
. 1 0)
0) .1
.9 .8
0) .1
.4

3.6 3.6 3.5 4.0
1.9 1.8 1.6 1.7
.7 .7 .8 .7
.2 .1 .1 .3
.2 .2 .2 .3
0) 0) 0) 0)
.2 .2 .2 .4
.4 .6 .6 .6
.8 .7 .7 .9
.1
0) 0) 0)

.1 0) .1
.2 .1 .2 .1
.1 0) 0) .1

0)

.5

.5

.4

.5

295

ACCIDENT RECORD, BY INDUSTRY

M e ta l M ines
T h e United States Bureau of Mines in its report on metal-mine
accidents for the year 1932 8 states that in the calendar year 1932
the metal-mining industry made a more favorable accident-prevention
record than in any other year since 1911, when the Bureau first
began to publish yearly records of accidents. The accident-frequency
rate covering nonfatal injuries was the best ever recorded, and the
fatality rate was lower than for any other year except 1928 and 1931.
Due to the unfavorable economic conditions that prevailed during
1932 the number of men employed at the mines was smaller than in
previous years, as were also the average number of workdays per
man and the total number of man-hours worked by all employees.
The number of workers killed in 1930 was 271, which was 79 less
than in 1929, while the actual number of nonfatal injuries was 15,594,
or 7,498 less than in 1929. Accidents during 1931 resulted in 158
deaths and 8,709 nonfatal injuries. In 1932, 107 deaths and 5,014
nonfatal lost-time accidents were reported. The fatality rate (per
1,000,000 man-hours worked) was lowered from 1.17 in 1930 to 1.01
in 1931, and increased again to 1.16 in 1932. The nonfatal-injury
rate diminished steadily from 67.07 in 1930 to 55.76 in 1931 and
54.48 in 1932.
The fatality rate for men employed underground increased slightly
in 1932 as compared to 1931, and the injury rate remained stationary;
both the fatality and injury rates for open-cut mining increased; the
fatality rate for surface employees increased and the injury rate
declined.
The following table shows the number of workers employed, the
number killed and injured, and fatal and nonfatal injury rates in the
different groups of metal and nonmetallic-mineral mines (except coal
mines) in 1930, 1931, and 1932.
E M P L O Y M E N T A N D A C C ID E N T S IN M E T A L M IN ES A N D N O N M E T A L L IC -M IN E R A L
M IN E S (E X C E P T COAL), 1930 TO 1932
Men employed

Men killed

Aver­
age
days
active

Actual
number

Equiva­
lent
number
of 300day
workers

Num­
ber

1930
All types............. ..........................................

270

103,233

92,900

Copper_____ ____________________________
Gold, silver, and miscellaneous metal___
Iron__________ ___ ______________________
Lead and zinc (Mississippi Valley)_____
Nonmetallic mineral....................................

298
269
263
215
264

27,692
27,045
29,410
8,524
10,562

27,501
24, 252
25,744
6,123
9, 280

Type of mine

Men injured

Per
1,000
300day
work­
ers

Num­
ber

271

2.92

15,694

167.86

76
109
69
10
7

2.76
4.49
2.68
1.63
.75

5,321
5,813
2,096
1,081
1,283

193.48
239.69
81.42
176. 55
138.25

Per
1,000
300day
work­
ers

8 United States Bureau of Mines. Bulletin 377: Metal Mine Accidents in the United States During
the Calendar Year 1932, by William W . Adams. Washington, 1934.




296

INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY

E M P L O Y M E N T A N D A C C ID E N T S IN M E T A L M IN E S A N D N O N M E T A L L IC -M IN E R A L
M IN E S (E X C E P T COAL), 1930 TO 1932—Continued
Men employed

Men killed

Men injured

Aver­
age
Rate per
Rate per
days Actual Man-hours Num­ 1,000,000 Num­ 1,000,000
active number worked
ber hours’ ex­ ber
hours’
exposure
posure

Type of mine

1931
All types_____ __________________________

231

80,940 156,177,859

158

1.01

8,709

55. 76

Copper..................................................... .......
Gold, silver, and miscellaneous metal.......
Iron............................................ - .................
Lead and zinc (Mississippi Valley)______
Nonmetallic mineral......................... ..........

258
248
202
189
227

19,687
24,343
21,786
6,175
8,949

41,019,314
48,632,722
39,121,025
9,463,502
17,941,296

51
58
28
10
11

1.24
1.19
.72
1.06
.61

2,580
3,825
774
689
841

62.90
78. 65
19.78
72.81
46. 88

1932
All types................................... .....................

208

53,288

92,038,326

107

1.16

5,014

54.48

Copper..........................................................
Gold, silver, and miscellaneous metal____
Iron..................................................................
Lead and zinc....................................... .........
Nonmetallic mineral..................................

240
237
148
171
201

9,555
21,094
11,954
3,999
6,686

18,608,421
40,165,270
15,908,514
5,531,228
11,824,893

23
61
7
9
7

1.24
1. 52
.44
1.63
.59

859
2,988
264
375
528

46.16
74. 39
16. 59
67.80
44. 65

In 1932 South Dakota employed 1,473 men for 3,829,054 man-hours
without a fatal accident. The best nonfatal-injury record for 1932
was achieved in Minnesota, where the frequency rate was 14.06
injuries per million man-hours of exposure. The total number of
men employed in mining in that State was 3,511, and they worked
6,258,736 man-hours with only 88 lost-time accidents.
M e ta llu rg ic a l W orks
A c c o r d in g to a report by the United States Bureau of Mines on
accidents in the metallurgical industry,9 the safety activities of the
operating companies resulted in 1932 in a reduction of industrial
accidents which exceeded the decrease in employment. The average
death rate for the industry in 1932 was 0.43 per thousand 300-day
workers, as against 0.56 in 1931 and the average nonfatal-injury rate
was reduced from 48.36 per thousand 300-day workers in 1931 to
45.31 in 1932.
The following table shows the number of workers employed, the
number killed and injured, and fatal and nonfatal-accident rates in
1931 and 1932, by type of plant. Ore-dressing plants include stamp
mills, sampling works, slime plants, lixiviation, leaching, cyanide, and
flotation mills. Smelting plants include blast, reverberatory, and
roasting furnaces, converters, casting department, and refineries.
Iron blast furnaces are not included. Auxiliary works include yards,
shops, construction, etc.
• United States Bureau of Mines. Technical Paper 557: Accidents at Metallurgical Works in the United
States During the Calendar Year 1932, by William W . Adams. Washington 1934.




297

ACCIDENT RECORD, BY INDUSTRY

E M P L O Y M E N T A N D A C C ID E N T S A T M E T A L L U R G IC A L PLAN TS IN T H E U N IT E D
STATES, 1931 A N D 1932
Men employed

Industrial group and year

Ore-dressing plants:
1931____ _______________________
1932________ _________ _________
Smelting plants:
1931________ ____________________
1932________ ___________________
Auxiliary works:
1931_____ ______________________
1932____ _______________________

Average
days ac­
tive

Men killed

Men injured

Equiva­
Actual lent num­ Num­ Per 1,000 Num­ Per 1,000
300-day
300-day
ber of
ber
number
ber
300-day
workers
workers
workers

260
215

8,867
5,925

7,699
4,248

6
0

0.78

439
259

57.02
60.97

315
276

11,993
8,920

12,595
8,197

6
7

.48
.85

601
330

47. 72
40.26

316
269

8,078
6, 719

8,513
6,029

4
1

.47
.17

353
248

41.47
41.13

P etro leu m
T h e annual summary of injuries in the petroleum industry for
1932, published by the Department of Accident Prevention of the
American Petroleum Institute, states that in the previous 6 years
the frequency rate (the number of disabling injuries per million hours
worked) had been reduced 60 percent, and the severity rate (the
number of days lost, as a result of such injuries, per thousand hours
worked) had been reduced 28 percent.
It is clearly shown that this reduction was a decided financial
saving to the industry. The total number of injuries reported in
1932 was 6,949, but, had injuries occurred in 1932 at the rate pre­
vailing in 1927, the number would have been increased by 10,698.
It is estimated that the average cost of a disabling injury in the
petroleum industry is $300, and on that basis the 60-percent reduc­
tion in the number of injuries means a saving of $3,209,400 in the
year 1932 alone.
An aggregate of 565,760,000 man-hours worked during 1932 was
reported to the institute by 101 companies, with a total of 6,949
disabling injuries and a time loss of 1,078,629 days. Consequently,
the average frequency rate for 1932 was 12.28, as compared with
14.14 for 1931, a decrease of 13 percent, while the severity rate for
1932 was 1.91, as compared with 2.06 for 1931, a decrease of 7
percent.
The departments included by the institute under its classification
of the industry consist of refining, marketing, production, natural
gasoline, pipe line, marine, and miscellaneous, and the figures ob­
tained by it cover the clerical help as well as the wage earners. The
following table shows the number of fatal and nonfatal disabling
injuries reported by the 101 companies in 1932, with frequency and
severity rates, by departments:




298

INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY

F A T A L A N D N O N F A T A L D ISAB LIN G INJURIES IN T H E P E T R O L E U M IN D U S T R Y ,
1932, B Y D E P A R T M E N T S
[Frequency rates based on 1,000,000 hours’ exposure, severity rates on 1,000 hours’ exposure]
Nonfatal cases

Fatal cases 1
Number of
man-hours

Department

Fre­
Num­ quen­ Se­
Num­
cy verity
ber
ber
rates rates

Frecy
rates

Total cases

Fre­
Se­
Se­
Num­ quen­ verity
verity
ber
cy
rates
rates rates

All departments________

2 565,760,000

125

0.22

1.33

6,824

12.06

0.58

6,949

12.28

1.91

Refining.____ ___________
Marketing— ----------------Production_____________
Natural gasoline-----------Pipe line---------- ------- -----Marine_________________
Miscellaneous__________

146,082,000
231,178,000
91,930,000
9,885,000
35,241,000
15,843,000
35,598,000

43
27
36
3
8
5
3

.29
.12
.39
.30
.23
.32
.08

1.77
.70
2.35
1.82
1.36
1.89
.50

1,273
2,007
2, 292
149
602
232
269

8. 72
8. 68
24.93
15.08
17.08
14.64
7.56

.53
.26
1.38
1.49
.87
.67
.22

1,316
2,034
2,328
152
610
237
272

9.01
8.80
25.32
15.38
17.31
14.96
7.64

2.30
.96
3.73
3.31
2.23
2. 56
.72

1 Includes permanent total disability.
1 Not exact sum of items, but as given in report.

P o rtla n d C e m e n t M a n u fa c tu rin g
S t a t is t ic s of injuries occurring in the cement manufacturing
industry in 1932, compiled by the Portland Cement Association and
published in its Accident Prevention Magazine for the second quarter
of 1933, shows a reduction in both frequency and severity rates in
1932 as compared with 1931.
Table 1 shows the accident experience for the industry, by years,
for the 5-year period 1928 to 1932, converted to conform to the
standard measurement of 1,000,000 man-hours’ exposure for fre­
quency rates and 1,000 man-hours’ exposure for severity rates.
T able 1.—N U M B E R OF INJURIES A N D A C C ID E N T F R E Q U E N C Y A N D S E V E R IT Y
RATES IN C E M E N T M A N U F A C T U R IN G , 1928 TO 1932, B Y YE A R S
[Frequency rates are based on 1,000,000 hours’ exposure, severity rates on 1,000 hours’ exposure]

Year

1928.................. ..........
1929________________
1930________________
1931________________
1932— .......................

Num­
ber
of estab­
lish­
ments
report­
ing
136
138
128
100
112

Fatal cases

Nonfatal cases

Number of
Se­
Fre­
man-hours Num­ quen­ ver­ Num­ Freber
ber
cy
cy
ity
rates rates
rates
85,796,645
75,739,429
69,727,954
38,099,084
27,939,634

33
37
18
17
5

0.38
.49
.26
.45
.18

2.31
2.93
1. 55
2.68
1.07

877
686
420
197
125

10.23
9.06
6.02
5.17
4.47

Total cases

FreSever- Num­
ber
cy
rates
rates
1.41
1.28
.92
.63
.73

910
723
438
214
130

10.61
9.55
6.28
5. 62
4. 65

Serates
3.72
4.21
2.47
3.31
1.80

The average frequency rate for the industry shows a constant
decline throughout the period and, like the average severity rate,
dropped to an all-time low level in 1932. The severity rate, how­
ever, fluctuated considerably from year to year, indicating that
minor injuries are being controlled at a faster rate than the more
severe accidents.
A total of 57 out of the 112 establishments reporting for 1932 com­
pleted the year without a disabling injury, while 30 others reported
only 1 injury each.
A distribution is shown in table 2, by nature of injury and by
cause, of the injuries given for 1932 in table 1, together with 10



299

ACCIDENT RECORD, BY INDUSTRY

other injuries listed on reports that were not included in the former
tabulation.
T

able

3 .—D IST R IB U T IO N OF INJURIES IN C E M E N T M A N U F A C T U R IN G , 1932, B Y
N A T U R E OF IN JU R Y A N D CAUSES OF AC C ID E N T S

Number
of cases

Item

All injuries____________ ______
Nature of injury:
Fatalities___________________
Permanent partial disabilities..
Fractures___________________
Severe cuts, bruises, burns, etc.
Infections_____ _____________
Eye injuries, temporary______
Minor cuts, bruises, burns, etc.
Causes of accidents:
Caught between objects....... —
Cement dust________________

140
6
16
33
46
9

8
22
18
3

Item

Number
of cases

Causes ofnsinns
accidents—Continued. *
F .ypl

7

........................... ....
F a llin g o b je c t s
F e lls
F l y i n g m a te r ia l
H eat
.
..... _
H o t su b sta n ces.
M a c h in e r y
O b je c t s h a n d le d
S tr a in s fr o m l i f t i n g ___
.
. ..

21
30

O th e r ca u ses

14

Trucks, rolling stock, etc__________

9

2

8

8
14
5

1

Q uarries
T h e quarry industry, according to the most recent report on quarry
accidents issued by the Bureau of Mines,10 is making fair progress in
accident prevention and safety work in spite of serious economic diffi­
culties experienced by most companies during 1932. B y reducing the
fatality rate to a figure below that for 1931 the quarry industry estab­
lished the best accident rate thus far achieved for fatal accidents. The
rate for nonfatal accidents was also more favorable than that in any
year for which complete records are available.
Employment as measured by number of workers declined 18 per­
cent, and as measured by man-hours 30 percent, between 1931 and
and 1932. Average working time during 1932 was 195 days or 1,648
man-hours. Fatal accidents numbered 32, and nonfatal lost-time
injuries, 3,574, giving a fatality rate of 0.34 and an injury rate of
38.14 per million man-hours of exposure.
Table 1 gives fatality and injury rates by severity of injury, from
1923 to 1932. As accident rates per million man-hours of exposure
are not available for years prior to 1931, rates in this table are shown
per thousand 300-day workers. Average figures for the 5-year period
1923-27 reveal an accident rate for the quarry industry of 170.6
per thousand 300-day workers, a rate which for the 5-year period
1928-32 had been reduced 30.7 percent, or to 118.1.
T

able

1 . — F A T A L IT Y

A N D INJURY R ATES IN Q U AR R Y IN D U S T R Y , P E R T H O U SAN D
300-DAY W O R K ER S, B Y SE V E R IT Y OF IN JU R Y, 1923 TO 1932
Total
1928-32

Severity of injury

Total
1923-27

1928

1929

1930

All injuries........................ ..........

170. 586

131.411

129.782

109.761

106. 038

97.336

118.138

Fatal__________ ______________
Permanent total1.......................
Permanent partial2...................
Temporary8....... .........................
Average number of 300-day
workers per year....... ........... .

1.720
.165
5. 004
163. 697

1. 463
.160
4. 279
125. 509

1.646
.065
3.853
124. 218

1. 532
.175
3. 692
104. 362

1.179
.309
3. 652
100.898

.864
.054
2.915
93.503

1.406
.152
3.785
112.795

83, 607

81,325

76, 559

68, 531

51,755

37,047

63,043

. 1931

1932

1 Permanent total disability: Loss of both legs or arms, 1 leg and 1 arm, total loss of eyesight, paralysis
or other condition permanently incapacitating workman from doing any work of a gainful occupation.
2 Permanent partial disability: Loss of 1 foot, leg, hand or eye, 1 or more fingers, 1 or more toes, any
dislocation where ligaments are severed, or any other injury known in surgery to be permanent partial
disability.
8 Disability for more than remainder of day of accident.
1 United States Bureau of Mines. Bulletin 376: Quarry Accidents in the United States During the
0
Calendar Year 1932, by William W . Adams. Washington, 1934.




300

INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY

Table 2 shows the number of men employed, number killed, and the
number injured in the quarry industry, 1911-30 by 5-year periods, and
1926-32 by years.
T

able

2.—N U M B E R OF M E N E M P L O Y E D , N U M B E R K IL L E D A N D IN JU R ED , A N D
F A T A L A N D N O N F A T A L IN JU R Y R ATES IN QUARRIES, 1911 TO 1932
Men employed

Period or year

Aver­
age
days
active

Men injured

Men killed

Equiva­
Actual lent num­
ber of
number
300-day
workers

Per
1,000
300-day
work­
ers

Num­
ber

Number

Per 1,000
300-day
workers

(average)................................
(average)................................
(average).......... ___............ .
(average)_________________

240
259
263
268

103,803
80,682
86,967
87,705

83,206
69,630
76,377
78,277

182
146
136
128

2.19
2.10
1.78
1.64

7,438
11,161
13,247
10,891

89.39
160.29
173.44
139.13

1926___________ __________________
1927..................... ..................................
1928....................... .............................1929______________________________
1930............................. ..................— _
1931.............................................. .........
1932......................................- .........— -

271
271
272
268
255
224
195

91,146
91,517
89,667
85,561
80,633
69,200
56,866

82,361
82,609
81,325
76,559
68,531
51,755
37,047

154
135
119
126
105
61
32

1.87
1.63
1.46
1. 65
1. 53
1.18
.86

13,201
13,459
10,568
9,810
7,417
5,427
3, 574

160.28
162.92
129.95
128.14
108.23
104.86
96.47

1911-15
1916-20
1921-25
1926-30

The apparently low rate for nonfatal injuries in the period 19 11-15
is attributed to incomplete data for the years 19 11-13 concerning
minor injuries.
Falls or slides of rock or overburden were the leading cause of fatal
injuries, but ranked seventh as a cause of nonfatal injuries. Other
principal causes of death were explosives, machinery, and falling
objects. Nonfatal injuries were chiefly due to handling material,
flying objects, machinery, falls of persons, and haulage.
Table 3 shows the percentage of fatalities and nonfatal injuries for
1932, by causes, segregated according to place of occurrence.
T

able

P E R C E N T A G E D IST R IB U T IO N OF CAUSES OF F A T A L A N D N O N F A T A L IN ­
JURIES IN T H E Q U A R R Y IN D U S T R Y , 1932, W IT H F R E Q U E N C Y RATES

3 .—

Number killed

Cause of accident

Percent of—

Number injured

Per million
man-hours

Percent of—

Per million
man-hours

Grand
total
Open quarry:
Fall or slides of rock or over­
burden______________________
Handling material_____________
Hand tools_________ ____________
Explosives_____________________
Haulage___________________ ____
Falls of persons________________
Falling objects (other than 1
and 2)__________ ____________
Flying objects_ _______________
_
Electricity_____________________
Drilling and channeling (by
machine or hand)____ ______
Machinery____________________
Stepping on nails, etc__________




Class
total

Grand
total

Class
total

Grand
total

Class
total

Grand
total

18.75

35.29

0.064

0.171

12.50
6.25
6. 25

23.52
11. 77
11. 77

.043
.021
.021

.114
.057
.057

5.79
17.15
2.74
1.09
4.70
4.59

10.18
30.14
4. 82
1.92
8.26
8. 06

2.209
6.541
1.046
.416
1.793
1.750

5.894
17.454
2.790
1.111
4.783
4. 670

6. 25

11. 77

.021

.057

1. 87
7. 41
.34

3.29
13.03
.59

.715
2.828
.128

1. 908
7. 545
.342

3.12

5.88

.011

.028

2.83
3.81
.31

4.96
6.68
.54

1.078
1.451
.117

2.876
3.872
.313

Class
total

301

ACCIDENT RECORD, BY INDUSTRY
T

3 . — P E R C E N T A G E D IST R IB U T IO N OF CAUSES OF F A T A L A N D N O N F A T A L IN ­
JURIES IN T H E Q U A R R Y IN D U S T R Y , 1932, W IT H F R E Q U E N C Y R ATES—Continued

able

Number killed

Percent of—

Number injured

Per million
man-hours

Percent of—

Per million
man-hours

Cause of accident
Grand
total

Class
total

Grand
total

Class
total

Total...... ......................................

Grand
total

0.15
. 79
6. 59

0.022
, 171
1.430

0.085

56. 91

100.00

21. 705

57.914

2. 24
5. 35
3.02
. 70
. 53
3. 97

5. 63
13. 43
7. 59
1. 76
1. 34
9. 99

.854
2. 038
1.153
.267
.203
1.515

1. 451
3.464
1.958
.453
.345
2. 575

7. 31
15. 75
18. 49
5.49
13. 22

1.110
2. 390
2. 807
.832
2.006

1.886
4.062
4. 769
1. 414
3.409

100. 00

15.175

25. 786

.28

8.47

. 107

2. 905

. 75
. 25
.03
. 31

22. 88
7. 63
. 85
9. 32

. 288
.096
.011
. 117

7. 844
2. 615
. 290
3.196

. 14

4. 24

.053

1. 453

. 17
.25
.03

5. 08
7. 63
. 85

. 064
.096
.011

1. 743
2. 615
.290

.20

5. 93

.075

2.034

. 25
.64

Other causes___________________

Class
total

0.08
. 45
3. 75

Open quarry—Continued.
Boiler and air-tank explosions.--

Grand
total

7. 63
19. 49

.096
.245

2. 615
6.682

3. 30

100. 00

1. 259

34. 282

3. 30

100.00

1. 259

34.282

53.13

100.00

0.181

0.484

15.63

38.46

.053

.091

9.38
3.12

23.08
7. 69

.032
.011

. 055
.018

3.12

7. 69

.011

.018

Other causes___________ _______

6. 25
3.12

15.39
7.69

.021
.011

.036
.018

2. 91
6. 27
7. 36
2.18
5. 26

Total............... .............. .......... ...

40. 62

100.00

. 139

.236

39.79

3.12

50.00

.011

.290

3.12

50. 00

.011

.290

In outside works:
Haulage.................................. .......
Machinery____________________
Hand tools_____________________
Stepping on nails, etc...... ............
Electricity.......................... ............
Falls of persons____ ___________
Falling objects (rocks, timbers,
etc.)_______________ ____
Flying objects................................
Handling materials____________

Underground quarry:
Fall of rock from roof or wall___
Rock while loading at working
face or chute___________ _____
Hand tools......................................
Explosives_________________
Haulage_______________________
Falling down chute, winze,
raise, or stope________________
Run of rock from chute or
pocket_____________ ______
Drilling____ ______ _____________
Electricity_______________ ______
Machinery (other than loco­
motives or drills)_____________
Mine fires______________________
Suffocation from natural gases. _
Inrush of water______ _________
Stepping on nails, etc__________
Handling materials (other than
rock)_________________________
Other causes___________________
Total underground (exclud­
ing shaft)__________________
Total underground (including
shaft)_________ ____________
Grand total_____

__________

6. 25

100. 00

.021

.581

6. 25

100. 00

.021

.581

100.00

.341

100.00

Class
total

3 815
".

38.139

Ste am R ailw ays
A c c o r d in g to a summary and analysis of railway accidents, pub­
lished by the Bureau of Statistics of the Interstate Commerce Com­
mission, for the calendar year 1932, 4.19 persons were killed and 15.89
were injured per 1,000,000 locomotive-miles in train and trainservice accidents on steam railways in the United States during 1932,
as compared with 3.71 persons killed and 15.32 injured during 1931.




302

INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY

Train accidents were responsible for 183 deaths and 997 nonfatal
injuries, including 63 deaths and 326 nonfatal injuries to employees
on duty. Train-service accidents accounted for 4,341 deaths and
16,160 nonfatal injuries, of which 367 deaths and 6,861 nonfatal
injuries were sustained by employees on duty. Non train (including
industrial) accidents resulted in 223 deaths and 12,062 nonfatal
injuries, of which 127 deaths and 10,227 nonfatal injuries occurred
to employees on duty. Nonfatal injuries to employees include only
those causing disability of.more than 3 days.
The total number of deaths in all types of accidents was 4,747 in
1932, as against 5,099 in 1931, a decrease of 6.9 percent. The total
number of nonfatal injuries in all types of accidents was 29,219 in
1932, as against 35,656 in 1931, a decrease of 18.05 percent. Loco­
motive-miles dropped from 1,308,807,762 in 1931 to 1,079,670,099
in 1932, a decrease of 17.51 percent, a larger decline than shown for
fatalities but smaller than shown for nonfatal injuries.
The number of employees killed while on duty in either train, trainservice, or nontrain accidents declined from 488 in 1931 to 430 m
1932, or 11.89 percent, while the number injured declined from 9,433
in 1931 to 7,187 in 1932, a decrease of 23.81 percent. Man-hours
for all employees are not available, but man-hours for class I roads
dropped from 2,930,657,000 in 1931 to 2,286,561,000 in 1932, a de­
crease of 21.98 percent.
Part of the summary, showing the total number of persons and
the number of employees on duty killed and injured in 1931 and
1932, by type of accident and cause, is shown in the following table:
PERSONS K IL LE D A N D INJURED IN S T E A M -R A IL W A Y A C C ID E N T S IN T H E U N IT E D
STATES, 1931 A N D 1932
Total persons
Killed

Type of accident, and cause

1931

1932

39
108
8
0
74

Train accidents:
Collisions____________________________
Derailments..............................................
Locomotive-boiler accidents..................
Other locomotive accidents........ .........
Miscellaneous*--------- -------------------------Total, train accidents______________

34
77
3
1
68
183

485
583
8
6
126
1,208

20
9
6
12
2
71
520
1,445

229

Train-service accidents:
Coupling or uncoupling cars or loco­
12
motives________ ____________________
Coupling or uncoupling air hose..........
13
Operating locomotives........................ . .
7
Operating hand brakes...........................
18
Operating switches................- ................
0
Contact with fixed structures________
60
Getting on or off cars or locomotives. _
447
Accidents at highway grade crossings. 1,720
Struck or run over, not at public cross­
ings...................................... .................... 1,730
Miscellaneous.................. ................, ___
617
Total, train-service accidents............ 4, 624

Employees on duty

Injured
1931

Killed

1932

Injured

1931

1932

358
526
5
3
105
997

33
42
8
0
9
92

30
26
3
1
3
63

169
189
8
3
45
414

117
171
5'
3
30
326

394
175
1,406
824
245
335
4,096
4,533

307
123
1,042
593
210
284
3,946
3,911

12
13
7
18
0
18
28
13

20
9
6
12
2
17
34
9

394
175
1,406
824
245
232
1,879
33

307
123
1,042
593.
210
165
1, 549*
36

1,590
666
4,341

1,022
5,819
18,849

911
4,833
16,160

165
122
396

128
130
367

179
3, 652
9, 019

139
2, 697
6,861

20,057

17,157

488

430

9,433

7,187

1931

1932

Total, train and train-service acci­
dents---------- ---------------- ------- ---------

4,853

4,524

Accident rate (train and train-service) per
1,000,000 locomotive-miles...... ...................
Total nontrain (including industrial) acci­
dents________ __________________________

3. 71

4.19

15. 32

15.89

0. 37

0.40

7. 21

6. 66

246

223

15, 599

12,062

156

127

13,521

10,227

5,099

4,747

35,656

29,219

557

22,954

17,414

Grand total, all accidents__________
Percent of decrease in total accidents,
1931-32.______________________ _______




1

6.90

18.05

644

_1

13. 51

24.14

ACCIDENT RECORD, BY INDUSTRY

303

Te le g ra p h Messengers 1
1
T h e Advisory Committee on Employment of Minors in Hazardous
Occupations, appointed in connection with the White House Confer­
ence on Child Health and Protection, requested the United States
Children’s Bureau to make a special inquiry into the accident ex­
perience of messengers and errand boys. The inquiry was confined
to telegraph messengers in view of the practical difficulties of obtaining
such information for errand and delivery boys, most of whom are em­
ployed by small grocery stores and similar establishments, of which
few, if any, keep records adequate for the purpose of such a study.
All of the telegraph messengers are employed by two large companies,
the Western Union Telegraph Co. and the Postal Telegraph Co., both
of which have a complete and accurate system of records relating to
their inj ured employees.
The Western Union Co. tabulates annual statistics of accidents to
messengers and calculates the ratio of accidents per 100 messengers
employed, grouping together all accidents, including those as a result
of which no time is lost from work. The Postal Telegraph Co. com­
piles an annual summary of accidents occurring to all its employees
but does not distinguish between messengers and others. As the
information compiled by the companies was insufficient for the pur­
pose of the present inquiry, an analysis of the records of accidents oc­
curring in 1 year to messengers employed by the two companies was
made by the Children’s Bureau. The most recent year for which
complete records were available (1931) was selected for study. The
selected year is not in all respects representative, however, for con­
ditions for street safety appear to have been unusually favorable in
1931.
According to information furnished by the two telegraph companies
together they employed in the United States in the early part of 1932
some 17,000 messengers. Of these, the companies stated, approxi­
mately two-thirds were bicycle messengers, 30 percent were foot mes­
sengers, and 4 percent used motorcycles or automobiles as a method
of transportation.

Lost-time Accidents in 1931
Num ber of injuries and extent of disability .— According to the
analysis of the records of the companies made by the Children’s Bu­
reau, 1,570 lost-time accidents occurred to telegraph messengers
during 1931— 1,067 to Western Union messengers and 503 to Postal
Telegraph messengers. A little more than half of the injuries resulted
in disability of 7 days or less; the rest (735) involved longer and more
serious disabilities. These included 6 deaths, at least 12 permanent
injuries, and 192 disabilities of at least 1 month’s duration (table 1).
» Abstract of article on Accidents to Telegraph Messengers, by Ellen Nathalie Matthews, of the United
States Children’s Bureau, in the Monthly Labor Review, January 1934, p. 14.




304

INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY

T a ble 1 —E X T E N T A N D D U R A T IO N OF D ISA B IL IT Y F R O M L O ST-T IM E INJURIES

SUSTAINED B Y M ESSENGER S E M P L O Y E D B Y T H E W E S T E R N U N IO N A N D POSTAL
T E LE G R A P H COS. D U R IN G 1931
Lost-time injuries

Extent and duration of disability

Western Union
Co.

Postal Telegraph
Co.

Total

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent
All lost-time injuries__________ __ ____________
Extent and duration reported....................... .......
Disability of 7 days or less__________ _____
Disability of 8 days or more,............. ............
Fatal....... ................................................... .
Permanent partial disability__________
Disfigurement......................................
Other....................................... ...........
Temporary disability........ ........... ..........
8 days and under 1 month_________
1 month and under 3 months______
3 months or more................................
Extent and duration not reported ____

503

1,067
1,044
541
503
4
8
2
6
491
361
114
16
23

100
52
48
(i)
1
0)
1
47
35
11
2

1,570

500
268
232
2
4
3
1
226
164
56
6
3

1,544
809
735
6
12
5
7
717
525
170
22
26

100
54
46
0)
1
1

(0

45
33
11
1

0)
0)

100
52
48
1
1
46
34
11
1

1 Less than 1 percent.

Injuries ^and types of service.— Foot messengers suffered the fewest
accidents in proportion to the number employed; motorcycle messen­
gers, the most. The ratio of lost-time accidents to Western Union
messengers in 1931 was 4 per 100 for foot messengers, 11 per 100 for
bicycle messengers, and 44 per 100 for motorcycle messengers. Such
information as is available for the Postal Telegraph Co. indicates the
same trend. According to officials of the latter company, the accident
rate for motorcycle messengers (based on all accidents, including those
in which no time was lost) has been found to be as high as 75 per 100,
in consequence of which the use of motorcycles was being eliminated
as fast as possible and automobiles substituted.
Not only in frequency, but also in severity, accidents to foot messen­
gers are the least serious. All the six fatalities shown in the Children's
Bureau analysis occurred either to bicycle messengers (4) or to motor­
cycle messengers (2). These groups were the worst sufferers also
in the length of time the messengers were disabled following their
accidents.
Causes of accidents.—Motor vehicles were the most frequent causes
of accidents to messengers in general, and also to all groups of mount­
ed messengers. All the fatalities, half of the permanent injuries,
and all but 2 of the 22 temporary injuries lasting 3 months or more
were caused by automobiles or trucks. Falls caused the largest num­
ber of accidents to foot messengers. Fifty-five percent of the injuries
to bicyle messengers, the largest occupational group, resulted from the
bicycle's being struck by or colliding with an automobile or truck, and
38 percent resulted from the messenger's being thrown from his bicycle
through some accident occurring to the bicycle itself, such as skidding
on a wet pavement, catching in car tracks, or breaking of some part of
the machine. However, where the bicycle itself was reported as the
cause of accident, motor vehicles were at times indirectly responsible,
as the accidents occurred as a result of the messenger being forced out
of his course or having to change his course quickly in order to get out
of the way of a larger and faster-moving vehicle.




ACCIDENTS AND COST OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

305

Amounts received by injured messengers.—The average sum paid in
accident benefits or compensation by the Western Union Co. was
$19.30. The compensation for 37 percent of the injuries was less than
$5; for 80 percent, less than $25; and for only 3 percent, $100 or more.
In considering these figures it should be borne in mind that a large pro­
portion of the injured messengers receiving benefits from this com­
pany had not been incapacitated for more than 7 days. The average
payments made to Postal Telegraph messengers were somewhat larger,
because the company paid benefits only to those whose disability lasted
7 days or longer.
The benefits paid reflect, of course, the low wages paid immature
workers in an occupation requiring no skill, special training, or previous
experience. A weekly wage of less than $10 was received by 61 percent
of the Western Union messengers and by 53 percent of the Postal Tele­
graph messengers injured in 1931.

Relation Between Accidents and Cost of Building
Construction
E ST IM A T
of
the
A Nconstruction E that the total costoverindustrial accidents in dol­
industry amounts to
a quarter of a billion
l

lars a year was presented at the general meeting of the National Con­
ference on Construction, held in Washington, October 13-14 ,19 32, in a
report of the Committee on Elimination of Waste and Undesirable
Practices.
The direct losses for which employees are compensated were figured
by the committee as over $54,000,000 a year, based on $7,000,000,000
worth of new construction yearly, allowing 40 percent as the cost of
labor and applying the average insurance premium rate and the aver­
age paid-claim ratio. The additional cost of the indirect losses—loss
oi employee’s time, stoppage of work, shifting of men and foremen,
investigating the accidents, loss in morale, repairing property damage,
minor noncompensable injuries, etc.—were placed at four times the
direct losses, the ratio ordinarily accepted for industry, though it was
stated that certain checks on construction accidents indicated it to be
even higher.
It was pointed out that the costs of building operations are seri­
ously affected, in addition to the human misery and suffering involved
and the burden imposed on society by these accidents, and that the
number of both fatalities and less serious injuries has been growing.
The trouble, according to the committee, is that progress in me­
chanical methods has not been accompanied by a corresponding
development in supervisory methods. The real causes of the acci­
dents are not known, and the industry has no practical plan for
accident prevention. While this industry has an excellent educational
safety program, it does less actual accident-prevention work than
some other industries, such as steel, textile, food, clothing, and mining,
although the hazards equal or even exceed the hazards of such
industries.
The committee advised that the remedy consists in the systematic
and orderly combination of accident-prevention work with super­
visory routine, on a basis of facts recorded in a more intimate, regular,
and effective manner. It stated that faulty instruction, lax discipline,
1 92 0 5 — 36--------21




306

INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY

unsafe practices, inattention, and physical and mental impairment,
or inefficiency are some of the real causes, and produce 88 percent of
all injuries. According to a survey, faulty instruction alone (no
instruction and instruction not enforced) is responsible for nearly 50
percent of the injuries. These causes, the committee declared, are
the very things which construction executives are able to control, and
do control in relation to quality, speed, and volume of the work. It
was suggested that safety practices be made a part of the task of fore­
men ana superintendents, not simply in the passive role of reporting
accidents but in the active role of preventing them, and that they
should be rated with some reference to their safety records.
The report referred to the efforts of some associations, which have
resulted in gratifying reductions of accidents for their members, but
stated that, in the last analysis, the problem calls for specific action by
the individual employer himself. He must, through cooperation with
his insurance carrier, analyze accident-producing conditions, determine
the real cause of the predominating injuries, place responsibility upon
his executive and supervisory staff for the correction of such causes,
make an issue of the matter, and follow through until satisfactory
improvement is made.

Safety Codes and Standard Safe Practices
promotion of
A MONG the most important developments in the movement to
accident prevention and safety in industry is the
l

establish and enforce safety codes and standard safe practices.
Early laws dealing with industrial accidents concerned themselves
in most instances with specific hazards, generally in relation to machine
operation. The scope of safety legislation was limited to requiring
the installation of mechanical safeguards on certain types of machines
or to the regulation of power transmission. This left an enormous
field of potential accidents still unprotected, and while perhaps in­
juries resulting from dangerous machines decreased in number,
industrial accidents as a whole not only did not decrease but steadily
increased with the growth of industry and increased production.
The rigidity of the prevailing type of law, dealing as it did only with
mechanical safeguards, made it impossible to keep pace with changing
equipment and standards, and at the same time tied the hands of
the enforcing agents whose jurisdiction was limited to the adminis­
tration of a specific statute.
That condition still exists in many States, but most of the leading
industrial States have adopted a plan which permits flexibility and
progress, and are thus freed from the deterring effects of specific
legislation. This plan is the conferring of legislative authority upon
the State agency administering the labor laws as a whole or the work­
men’s compensation act, granting to that agency power to adopt
and enforce safety rules and regulations and to issue orders having
the same force as legislative enactments. This is done by the passage
through the State legislature of an enabling act which confers wide
powers upon the State department in dealing with industrial safety.
Authority to issue regulations complementing the labor laws is
held to some degree by a number of State labor agencies, but its




SAFETY CODES AND STANDARD SAFE PRACTICES

307

importance in relation to accident prevention is especially marked
in California, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsyl­
vania, and Wisconsin, where authority is exercised by the formulation,
promulgation, and enforcement of safety codes, and the development
of safe practices.
A variation of this plan, which might be considered a midway
stage in the evolution from the early practice of fixed legislation to the
new idea of promulgating flexible codes, was adopted by the 1932
session of the Virginia Legislature. A safety code commission was
created, consisting of a commissioner of labor, a member of the indus­
trial commission (administering the workmen’s compensation act)
and the State health commissioner. The duty of the code commission
as set forth in the law is to study and investigate all phases of safety
in industry and to make recommendations to the legislature, for
enactment into law, of industrial safety measures.
General advisory committees composed of employers, employees,
and representatives of the State labor agency constitute the code­
making bodies in the States using the code method. If possible,
technical experts and safety engineers are included. Where a scien­
tific staff is employed by the State department of labor, as in New
York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania, these technically trained men serve
in an advisory and consultative relation to the code-making bodies.
Research work and analysis of actual accidents in the fields to be
covered are also assigned to the scientific bureaus, to aid in the deter­
mination of proper measures and standards.
Research work in connection with code-making and accidentprevention programs is carried on by a number of agencies, both
Federal and State. Accident investigations are primarily research
to determine causes as a means of prevention— to establish, for exam­
ple, whether a guard failed or why it failed, whether the guard pro­
vided was inadequate or in itself constituted a hazard. The accident
investigations made by the Interstate Commerce Commission, the
United States Bureau of Mines, and the United States Steamboat
Inspection Service, are directed primarily toward determination of
causes and location of danger points and failures; fixing responsibility
is a secondary consideration. Similarly, accident statistics as com­
piled by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the Interstate Commerce
Commission, the Bureau of Mines, and the various statistical bureaus
of State labor agencies, have a definite place in planning safety codes
and in furnishing a basis for intensive work on the danger spots shown
by the figures.
Another important phase of research is the laboratory and experi­
mental work conducted by scientific agencies. Much of the safety
efforts of the Bureau of Mines center around its work in the experi­
mental field. Studies and tests of explosives used in mining have
resulted in the development of “ permissible explosives” which reduce
the danger of fire and dust explosions. Surveys and experiments
involving mine equipment, lighting, ventilation, and safe practices
in general are constantly conducted by and through the 11 experiment
stations of the Bureau of Mines throughout the country, and in the
experimental mine which it owns and operates.
Dust explosions in manufacturing plants, grain elevators, flour
mills, and other establishments subject to dust hazards, have been
extensively studied by the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils of the




308

INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY

United States Department of Agriculture, which has developed
methods of prevention.
National Safety Codes
O u t of the diversity of safety codes and regulations as adopted
locally by the code-making States grew the movement for national
codes which is promoted by scientific, engineering, and industrial
organizations, acting through the American Standards Association
and the American Society of Safety Engineers, which is the engineering
section of the National Safety Council, and by the International Asso­
ciation of Industrial Accident Boards and Commissions and the
International Association of Governmental Labor Officials, which
are semipublic organizations composed of officials of State compensa­
tion commissions and State labor departments.
The American Standards Association is a national industrial stand­
ardization body composed of representatives of trade associations,
technical societies, and departments of the Federal Government.
The chief purpose of the organization is to bring together manufactur­
ers, distributors, consumers, technical specialists, regulatory bodies,
and any others directly concerned with a particular standardization
project, providing a procedure under which these agencies may work
together to establish standards satisfactory to all. A large part of
the work of the American Standards Association has been in the
safety code field.
The Bureau of Labor Statistics, chiefly through its membership
in the associations of administrators of safety laws, takes an active
part in the effort to secure general recognition and adoption of the
national safety codes. While in no case have the codes promulgated
by unofficial agencies been accepted as standard for State use in
entirety, several States have adopted such of the provisions, in whole
or in part, as meet their needs. Oklahoma and Utah, for example,
make fairly wide use of the American Standards Association codes.
New Jersey and Pennsylvania accept national codes as standard,
and modify them in drafting their own codes to meet local conditions
and needs. In a few less industrial States—Iowa and Kansas among
them—where legislation or lack of it leaves the inspectors considerable
latitude in issuing safety orders, the standards set by the national
codes are used as the basis for the corrections and improvements
in existing working conditions which the factory inspectors direct.
In still others the use of the national program by State agencies is
confined to the educational value attached to scientifically constructed
standards.
Industrial safety codes developed by the American Standards
Association have been published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics of
the United States Department of Labor. The practice in the past
in this connection has been to publish codes drawn up by committees
on which the Bureau or the Department of Labor holds membership.12
12
Safety codes published as bulletins of the Bureau of Labor Statistics are: No. 336, Safety Code for
the Protection of Industrial Workers in Foundries; no. 350, Rules Governing the Approval of Headlighting
Devices for Motor Vehicles; no. 351, Safety Code for the Construction, Care, and Use of Ladders; no. 375,
Safety Code for Laundry Machinery and Operations; no. 382, Code of Lighting: School Buildings; no.
410, Safety Code for Paper and Pulp Mills; no. 430, Safety Code for Power Presses and Foot and Hand
Presses; no. 447, Safety Code for Rubber Mills and Calenders; no. 451, Safety Code for Forging and HotMetal Stamping; no. 463, Safety Code for Mechanical Power-Transmission Apparatus—first revision; no.
509, Textile Safety Code; no. 512, Code for Identification of Gas-Mask Canisters; no. 519, Safety Code for
Wood-working Plants, as revised 1930; no. 527, Safety Code for the Use, Care, and Protection of Abrasive
Wheels; no. 556, Code of Lighting: Factories, Mills, and Other Work Places (revision of 1930); no. 562, Safety
Codes for the Prevention of Dust Explosions.




CODE STANDARDS FOR MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES

309

The Bureau of Standards of the United States Department of Com­
merce, which has been active in promoting a national safety program,
and has been represented on code-drafting committees, particularly
in connection with electricity and gas appliances, has published some
of the American standard codes affecting workers which the American
Standards Association has adopted.

Code Standards for Safety and Health in Manufactur­
ing Industries and in Mercantile Establishments

T

H E codes adopted under the National Industrial Recovery Act
generally contained provisions requiring employers to provide
safe and healthful conditions of employment. The customary
clauses regulating this obligation were the following:
Every employer shall provide for the safety and health of his employees during
the hours and at the place of their employment.
Standards for safety and health shall be submitted by the code authority to the
Administrator for approval within 6 months after the effective date of the code.

In office order 71 of March 14, 1934, the manner in which the pro­
vision is to be executed was outlined. To assist the individual code
authorities in meeting these requirements the Committee on Standards
for Safety and Health in the National Recovery Administration 13
approved the following minimum standards for safety and health in
manufacturing industries, to which were to be added any additional
standards required for the specific hazards of the individual industry,
and in mercantile establishments.
Minimum Standards for the Safety and Health of Workers in Manufacturing
Industries
G eneral p r o v is io n s .— These requirements shall not supersede any legal require­
ment which stipulates higher standards.
The minimum requirements set forth shall apply to all installations made after
the date of adoption of these regulations, and to all existing installations and con­
ditions which are not in accordance with these regulations, provided that where
safety equipment has been provided, such equipment may remain in use until
such time as it needs to be replaced, upon a proper showing to the Administrator
that the devices afford adequate protection.
The code authority, subject to the approval of the Administrator, may modify
these requirements in particular cases only where the regulations are shown for
any reason to be impracticable and/or not warranted by the protection afforded,
provided equivalent or better protection is secured by other means.
In all cases where a specific safety code is cited as minimum requirements, it
is understood that such a code is subject to revision according to subsequent
developments, and that any changes shall be acted upon by the code authority
within 30 days after the receipt of such revision. All action shall be reported to
the Administrator for approval.
In practically all establishments certain special operations are necessary which
are not actual operations belonging to the individual industry. Where this
occurs, the safety and health standards for the specific industries of which they
are a part shall be observed for such operations.
1.
L ig h tin g .— Minimum requirements for the illumination of manufacturing
operations shall be in accordance with the suggested regulations in part 3 of the
Code of Lighting: Factories, Mills, and Other Work Places ( A - l l ) , approved by
the American Standards Association.
1
8
For the appointment, purpose, and make-up of this committee, see Monthly Labor Review, April
1934 (p. 805).




310

INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY

2. Ventilation , temperature, humidity, and air space.— Suitable atmospheric
conditions shall be maintained in workrooms, by natural or artificial means, to
avoid stagnant or vitiated air, excessive heat or cold, too rapid variations of tem­
perature, excessive humidity or dryness, and insufficient air supply, as well as
harmful drafts. Specific rules shall be provided for each industry.
3. Sanitation.— Minimum requirements for drinking water, cleanliness of
workrooms, disposal of waste, personal-service rooms, toilet facilities, washing
facilities, dressing rooms, and lunch rooms shall be in accordance with the pro­
visions of the Safety Code for Industrial Sanitation in Manufacturing Establish­
ments (Z -4 ), approved by the American Standards Association.
4. Fire prevention and protection.— (a) All factory buildings shall be provided
with at least two exits from each floor. These shall be remote from each other
and be clearly marked.
(h)
Buildings of more than two stories in height and having only one inside
stairway shall be provided with an outside stairway. All wall openings along the
stairway or directly below it shall be protected by self-closing solid doors or wireglass windows.
(c) Inside stairways should preferably be enclosed for their entire length with
walls of masonry or other fire-resistive material.
(d) Exit doors shall remain unlocked during working hours.
(e) Fire doors shall be kept free from all obstructions.
(/) Buildings constructed after the effective date of these regulations shall be
provided with exits in accordance with the Building Exits Code (A -9 ), approved
by the American Standards Association.
(g) All factory buildings shall be provided with some means for fire extinguish­
ment. Such equipment shall conform to the standards of the National Fire
Protection Association.
(h) All processes involving serious explosion and flash-fire hazards shall be
conducted in segregated buildings, where the equipment should be arranged so
that only a few employees are exposed to the hazard at one time— except as
prescribed in regulations for particular industries.
(i) Flammable liquids having a flash point less than 100° F., in quantities
exceeding 5 gallons, shall be stored only in separate buildings of fire-resistive
construction, or in rooms of fire-resistive construction isolated from the remainder
of the building by fire walls and self-closing fire doors, except as prescribed in
regulations for particular industries.
(j) Electric wiring and equipment shall be installed in conformity with the
National Electrical Code (C -l), approved by the American Standards Associa­
tion.
(k) Tall brick or concrete chimneys, and buildings housing large quantities of
explosives, shall be equipped with lightning rods conforming to the Code for
Protection Against Lightning (C -5 ), approved by the American Standards
Association.
5. Dust, fum es, and gases.— All dust, fumes, and gases incident to industrial
operations shall be removed at the source whenever possible, and discharged in
such manner that injury to persons or property is averted and no nuisance is
created. Minimum requirements for such removal from workrooms shall be in
accordance with the provisions of Rules Relating to the Removal of Dust,
Gases, and Fumes, adopted by the New York Department of Labor, November
20, 1930.
6. Contact with poisonous or harmful materials or substances.— All workers
exposed to possible external or internal contact with poisonous or other harmful
material or substances shall be furnished suitable personal protective equipment,
such as gloves, boots, aprons, special garments, tight-fitting goggles, respirators,
or hoods. Where possible injury to the heads or eyes is involved, the mechanical
protection of such parts shall be in accordance with the Safety Code for the
Protection of the Heads and Eyes of Industrial Workers (X -2 ), approved by the
American Standards Association.
7. Machine guarding.— (a) Minimum requirements for the safeguarding of
moving parts of equipment used in the mechanical transmission or power, includ­
ing prime movers, intermediate equipment, and driven machines, but excluding
points of operations, shall be in accordance with the provisions of the Safety Code
for Mechanical Power Transmission Apparatus (B-15), approved by the American
Standards Association. *
(6) Points of operation of working machines shall be properly safeguarded,
not only to protect the operator but also to protect others who might come in
contact with same, including careless or thoughtless persons. Hand tools, for




CODE STANDARDS F O R MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES

311

the purpose of eliminating hazards at points of operations, shall be provided
when practical, and in such event the use of such hand tools shall be mandatory.
Specific rules shall be provided for each industry.
8. Machines and hand tools.— (a) Machines shall not be operated with guards
or shields removed, nor when any protective equipment is not functioning prop­
erly. Employees shall be instructed to report promptly any defective machinery.
(b) Handles of hand tools shall be sound, tight, and free from splinters, sharp
edges, and roughness.
(c) The use of defective tools, such as mushroomed chisels, and wrenches with
sprung jaws is prohibited.
9. Protective clothing against 'physical injuries.— (a) Suitable types of protective
clothing in good condition shall be furnished to workers exposed to injury hazards
from physical contact with materials, such as goggles for protection against flying
objects or metal splashes, safety hats or helmets, and safety shoes for protection
against falling objects, fire-resisting leggings for protection agaist molten metal,
leather or asbestos aprons for protection against fire, gloves for protection against
sharp edges, spliinters, or electric shocks, etc.
(b) Safety belts shall be furnished for protection against falls during dangerous
overhead work.
10. Safeguarding o f other working equipment.— (a) Minimum requirements for
the installation, operation, ancLmaintenance of electrical wiring and equipment,
aside from the fire hazard, shall be in accordance with the provisions of the
National Electrical Safety Code (C -2), approved by the American Standards
Association.
(&) Minimum requirements for the construction, operation, and maintenance
of elevators, dumbwaiters, and escalators shall be in accordance with the pro­
visions of the Safety Code for Elevators, Dumbwaiters, and Escalators (A-17),
approved by the American Standards Association.
(c) Minimum requirements for the construction and use of ladders shall be in
accordance with the provisions of the Safety Code for the Construction, Care,
and Use of Ladders (A -14), approved by the American Standards Association.
11. Housekeeping and operating rules.— (a) Aisles and passageways shall be
kept clean, and free of materials, containers, rubbish, or other obstructions.
If not otherwise obvious, aisle limits shall be plainly marked.
(b) Foremen shall be instructed to utilize artificial light before daylight fades
to the intensity of the artificial light.
(c) Lighting fixtures shall be cleaned often enough to keep the intensity of
illumination above the prescribed minimum values. Where dependence is placed
on daylight, windows shall be kept clean enough to fulfill their purpose.
id) Floors and other walkway surfaces shall be kept in good repair, free from
accumulations of oil and water. All dangerous projections from walkways shall
be eliminated.
(e) Materials shall be piled so that they will not easily fall, or be displaced by
vibration or jolts.
if) Fire extinguishers shall be kept in operable condition, and protected from
freezing. If of the soda-acid type they shall be recharged at least once a year.
ig) Discarded material of an inflammable nature shall be placed in self-closing
metal containers which shall be emptied at least once daily.
(h) Flammable material shall not be stored under stairways.
(i) Fire drills should be held periodically in buildings of three or more stories,
to avoid panic in the event of fire.
(j ) Smoking shall be prohibited in all workrooms or stockrooms of any estab­
lishment in which explosives or readily combustible material is used, handled,
or stored, and in other places where there is an equal fire hazard.
12. Building equipment and/or construction.— (a) Wall openings, floor openings,
platforms, runways, and other places from which objects or persons might fall
shall be equipped in conformity with the Safety Code for Floor and Wall Open­
ings, Railings and Toeboards (A-12), approved by the American Standards
Association.
(6) Where passageways are located over conveyors or moving machinery,
bridges with railings shall be provided.
(c)
On stairways, ramps, elevator landing platforms, and similar places where
slipping may be especially hazardous, the walkway surface shall be provided
with a nonslip surface.
id) Aisles and passageways shall be sufficiently wide to permit the operation of
hand trucks without likelihood of striking walls, columns, materials or other
objects.




312

INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY

(e) Sufficient space shall be provided around the individual machines or process
units to allow for normal operation, adjustments, ordinary repairs, and for
materials supplied, in process, or completed.
(/) Suitable seats, with backs where practicable, shall be provided for all
workers whose duties can be performed in a sitting posture. Such seats shall
be adjusted to provide comfort for the workers.
(g) Requirements relating to steam boilers shall be in accordance with the
Boiler Codes of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
(h) It is recommended that machinery which might cause unusual vibration
or excessive noise be mounted on foundations especially designed for the purpose,
as by the use of shock-absorbing material.
13. Instruction of employees.— (a) All employees shall be instructed in the
hazards incidental to the work engaged in, both in regard to the individual and
to fellow workers. Workers who are transferred to other unaccustomed tasks
shall be instructed in the hazards incidental to the new class of work.
(6) Workers shall be instructed in the use of and the necessity of using the
personal protective equipment provided in these minimum requirements, and
employers shall take steps to require the employees to use such equipment.
14. Medical aid.— (a) In every establishment where one or more persons are
employed, suitable first-aid equipment shall be provided free of expense to the
employees and available for use in case of injury.
(b) Employers shall require all employees to apply promptly for first-aid treat­
ment for all injuries sustained at work.
(c) In every establishment one or more persons, in proportion to the size and
needs of the establishment, shall have a complete course in first aid, at least
equivalent to that prescribed by the United States Bureau of Mines or the
American Red Cross, and all employees, so far as practical, shall likewise be given
such a course.
(d) In every establishment where 100 or more persons are employed suitable
accommodations, for which a physician or a trained nurse shall be responsible, shall
be provided for the treatment of persons injured or taken ill on the premises.
15. Physical examination.— (a) If exposed to substances hazardous to health,
the worker shall be given physical examination at such intervals as to insure that
precautions can be taken to safeguard his health. The physical examination shall
be performed by some impartial person or agency mutually acceptable to the
employers and employees and subject to the disapproval of the Administrator,
and means should be taken to insure that conditions found in this physical exami­
nation after employment shall not be used to the detriment of the worker.
(b) All workers should be given a physical examination previous to employ­
ment and at intervals of not exceeding a year during employment.
16. Report of injuries. — (a) Every employer shall keep a record of all injuries
which cause death or disability, or require medical attention other than first-aid
treatments, received by his/her employees in the course of their employment, on
standard forms approved by the Administrator.
(6) Reports of such injuries shall be sent to the code authority on standard
forms approved by the Administrator, to be used for analysis of causes and
prevention of similar injuries. Reports shall be made available to the Admin­
istrator at his request.

Minimum Standards for the Safety and Health of Workers in Mercantile
Establishments
General provisions

T hese requirements shall not supersede any legal requirement which stipulates
higher standards.
The minimum requirements set forth shall apply to all installations made after
the date of adoption of these regulations, and to all existing installations and
conditions which are not in accordance with these regulations, provided that
where safety equipment has been provided, such equipment may remain in use
until such time as it needs to be replaced, upon a proper showing to the Adminis­
trator that the devices afford adequate protection.




CODE STANDARDS FOR MERCANTILE ESTABLISHMENTS

313

The code authority, subject to the approval of the Administrator, may modify
these requirements in particular cases only where the regulations are shown for
any reason to be impracticable and/or not warranted by the protection afforded,
provided equivalent or better protection is secured by other means.
In all cases where a specific safety code is cited as minimum requirements, it
is understood that such a code is subject to revision according to subsequent
developments, and that any changes shall be acted upon by the code authority
within 30 days after the receipt of such revision. All action shall be reported to
the Administrator for approval.
Special provisions

1. Lighting.— The illumination shall be in accordance with the suggested reg­
ulations given in part 3 of Code of Lighting: Factories, Mills, and Other Work
Places ( A - l l ) , approved by the American Standards Association.
2. Ventilation and sanitation.— The sanitation and ventilation shall be in
accordance with suggested requirements in the Safety Code for Industrial San­
itation (Z-4.1), approved by the American Standards Association.
3. Manufacturing processes.— If any manufacturing process is carried on upon
the premises of a mercantile establishment, the standards of safety and health
applicable to the corresponding manufacturing industry shall be complied with.
4. Fire prevention and protection.— (a) All mercantile buildings of more than
2 stories in height shall be provided with at least 2 exits from each floor, 1 of
which may be an elevator. These shall be remote from each other and be
plainly marked. Exits should be located so that no point on a floor is more
than 150 feet from an exit. Exception: Buildings of fire-resistive construction
or equipped with automatic sprinklers, with ground plan not exceeding 6,000
square feet.
(b) Inside stairways should preferably be enclosed for their entire length with
walls of masonry or other fire-resisting material.
(c) Exit doors shall remain unlocked from the inside during working hours.
(d) Fire doors shall be kept free from all obstructions.
(e) Every hinged door which serves as an exit for more than 30 persons shall
open outward, but shall not obstruct the passageway of other exits or from other
floors.
(/) Mercantile buildings of more than two stories in height, if not of fire-resistive
construction, or equipped with automatic sprinklers, shall be provided with exits
and stairways conforming to the requirements of section 22 in the Building Exits
Code (A -9 ), approved by the American Standards Association. All store buildings
constructed after the effective date of these regulations shall comply with the
above code.
(ig) Mercantile buildings shall be provided with some form of fire extinguish­
ment in conformity with the standards of the National Fire Protection Association.
(h) Electric wiring and equipment shall be installed in conformity with parts 1
and 30 of the National Electrical Code ( C - l ) , approved by the American Standards
Association.
5. Elevators and escalators.— Construction, installation, maintenance, and oper­
ation of elevators, dumbwaiters, and escalators shall be in conformity with the
requirements of the Safety Code for Elevators, Dumbwaiters, and Escalators
(A -17), approved by the American Standards Association.
6. Building construction and equipment.— (a) On stairways, ramps, elevator
landing platforms, and other places where slipping may be especially hazardous,
the walkway surface shall be provided with a nonslip wearing surface.
(b) Steam boilers and other heated pressure vessels shall be in accordance with
the Boiler Code of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
(c) It is recommended that machinery (such as elevator machines) which might
cause unusual vibration or excessive noise be mounted so as to avoid such a condi­
tion, as by the use of shock-absorbent material.
(d) Suitable seats, with backs where practicable, shall be provided for all work­
ers whose duties can be performed in a sitting position. Such seats shall be of a
type to provide comfort for the workers.
7. Operating rules.— (a) Aisles and passageways shall be kept clean and free of
materials, containers, rubbish, or other obstructions.
(6) Artificial light meeting the requirements of section 1 shall be turned on
before daylight fades to the specified intensity.
(c) Lighting fixtures shall be cleaned often enough to keep the intensity of
illumination above the prescribed minimum values. Where dependence is placed
on daylight, windows shall be kept clean enough to fulfill their purpose.




314

INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS AND SAFETY

Floors and other walkway surfaces shall be kept in good repair, free from
accumulations of oil and water. All dangerous projections from walkways shall
be eliminated.
(e)
Materials shall be piled so that they will not easily fall, or be displaced by
vibration or jolts.
(/) Fire extinguishers, fire hose, and automatic sprinklers shall be kept in oper­
able condition. Fire extinguishers shall be protected from freezing, and if of the
soda-acid type they shall be recharged at least once a year. The approach to
fire hose and fire extinguishers shall be kept free from obstructions. Fire doors
shall not be obstructed.
(g) Discarded material of a flammable nature shall be placed in self-closing
metal containers which shall be emptied at least once daily.
(h) Flammable material shall not be stored under stairways.
(i) No unnecessary accumulation of combustible materials shall be permitted.
8. A u x i li a r y o ccu p a tio n s .— The standards of safety and health established by
other code authorities for particular industries shall apply to such work in mer­
cantile establishments as would be included in such other industry if carried on
alone, such as packing and unpacking goods, crating, shipping, motor trucking,
repair work, storage and warehousing, and public services.
9. R ep o rts o f i n ju r ie s .— Records of all injuries or illnesses occurring while at
work, which cause death or disability, or require medical attention other than
first aid, shall be kept by the employer on standard forms approved by the Admin­
istrator, and reports of same made monthly to the code authority, to be used for
analysis of causes and accident prevention. Such reports shall be available to
the Administrator.
N ote.— The specific safety codes for individual operations, referred to in these
standards, may be obtained from the American Standards Association, 29 West
Thirty-ninth Street, New York, N. Y.
W (d)




INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




315




Strikes and Lockouts in the United States
HE Bureau of Labor Statistics has been compiling statistics of
strikes and lockouts in the United States since 1916. As there
is no legal requirement for the reporting of such disputes, certain ones
undoubtedly escape the Bureau’s attention, but it is believed that all
the larger and more significant disputes are recorded. The Bureau’s
compilations do not include strikes or lockouts involving less than
6 persons or lasting less than 1 day. As a matter of recording, it is
impossible to treat strikes and lockouts separately.
In November 1934 the Bureau reorganized its work on statistics of
strikes and lockouts, changes being made in the collection of source
data and in method of interpretation and classification. For purposes
of comparison, a revision of the data for all strikes and lockouts since
1927 is being made. Reclassification for the year 1934, which was
completed too late for inclusion herein, was published in the January
1936 Monthly Labor Review.
Table 1 indicates the number of strikes and lockouts, number of
workers involved, and total man-days idle during each year since
1916. Indexes using 1929 as the base year are also given.

T

T a ble 1.—STRIKES A N D LOCKOUTS, 1916-34

Number of strikes
and lockouts

Workers involved
in strikes and
lockouts

Year
Begin­
ning in
year

1916—
1917—
1918—
1919—
1920—
1921—
1922—
1923—
1924..
1925—
1926—
1927—
1928—
1929—
1930—
1931..
1932..
1933—
1934 K

.

.
.

3,755
4,438
3,344
3,568
3,290
2,380
1,088
1,553
1,240
1,298
1,032
734
629
903
653
894
808
1,562
1,740

In prog­
ress dur­
ing year

Begin­
ning in
year

0)

Index (1929=100.0)

Total mandays idle Number Workers
Total
involved
during
of strikes in strikes man-days
strikes and
In prog­
and
idle
and
lockouts
lockouts
during
ress dur­
lockouts
begin­
ing year
strikes
begin­
ning in
and
ning in
year
lockouts
year

349,434
438,374
687
357,145
934
266,305
230,463
674
160,457
158,114
284,443
901
279,299
244,144
829
242,826
1,574
812,137
813,134
1,770 1,353,608 1,392,860

37,799,394
31,556,947
9,975,213
2,730,368
6,386,183
6,462,973
14,818,846
19,308,650

415.8
491.5
370.3
395.1
364.3
263.6
120.5
172.0
137.3
143.7
114.3
81.3
69.7
100.0
72.3
99.0
89.5
173.0
192.7

151.6
155.0

378.9
316.4

100.0

100.0

68.6

27.4
64.0
64.8
148.6

121.2
105.4
352.4
587.3

i No information available.
i Preliminary, subject to change as additional information becomes available.




317

318

INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES

Geographical Location of Strikes and Lockouts
T h e State in which disputes occurred and their number by State
and geographical region, 1927 to 1933, are given in table 2:
T a ble 2 — STRIKES A N D LOCKOUTS B E G IN N IN G IN EA C H Y E A R ,1927-33, B Y S T ATE A N D
SECTIO N OF C O U N T R Y
State and section 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933
United States___

734 629 903 653 894 808 1,562

1
Alabama..............
Alaska__________
Arizona_________
Arkansas_______ •
California_______
20
Colorado...............
5
Connecticut........
27
2
Delaware_______
District of Coliimhia
6
Florida_________
1
Georgia_________
minnis
Indiana_________
Iowa......................
Kansas_________
Kentucky_______
Louisiana_______
Maine...................
Maryland............
Massachusetts—
Michigan.............
Minnesota
Mississippi..........
Missouri..............
Montana..............
Nebraska____ —Navada
_
New HampshireNew Jersey,........

44
16

6
1
1
2
2

3
9
70
7

1
1
2

1
3

1

16
5

1
1

1

2
28
1

1

2
2
1

6
2

40
13

52
34
5
5
7

8
2
4
3
5

8

95
7
3

14

13 " I s
3
3

3

8

7
13
77
16
9

4
3

2
2
37
20
5
1
29
5
7

1
0

45
14

6
1 1
14 "~8 17 1
1
3
2 4 7
2
2
1
4
4
1
3

59

46

76

55

1
2
2

4

22
2

23
4
18

24
3

2
1

7
42
4
52

6

6
2
2

14
7
18

38 ~~42
18 16
13
6
3
4 1
0

90
18
9
3

1

4
3

1

2
3
8

61
9
9

2
2
1

6

3
7
76
9
5

2

17

18
5

3
77

78

1
8

2

1

8
6
8

9

157
25
9

8
1

37

28

11
1

State and section 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933
"Npw Maxinn
T.
1
1 1
"N ow Vnrlr
T
237 220
181
North Carolina._
1 17 5 2 22
7
North Dakota_
_
Ohin
2 27 41 33 54 36
1
OTrlnhnma
1 6 4
3
3
3
Dragon
10 6 7 2 7 4
Pennsylvania___ 123 113 184 113 149 109
23
1
Rhode Island___
9 17 10 20 1
2 1 6
South Carolina.
16
1
1
_
South Dakota_
7
Tennessee
4
6
6 4
Taras
5
9
6 1
2 6
5
1
1
1
U t a h ................—
Vermont
1 i 1 1
1 3 5 3 2 1
Virginia
9 13 10
6 17 7
Washington___
3
West Virginia—
2 13 32 8
Wiseonsin
3 ~~8
6 9 13 8
1
1
3
Wyoming_______
Interstate
6 1 ~~~7 1 2 3
0

2
25

1
1
8

85
366
46
35

17
4

1

4
18

21
1
2
12
2
3

N orth of the
Ohio and east
of the Missis­
sippi
.
587 520 728 524 715 650 1,225
South of the
Ohio and east
of the Missis­
sippi __ _. _.
49 18 60 60 57 61 170
West of the Mis­
92 81 108 68 1
sissippi..............
20 94 164
6 1
0 7 1 2 3
3
Interstate.............

The number of disputes in cities in which 25 or more disputes
occurred in any year, 1927 to 1933, is shown in table 3:
T a ble 3 .—STRIK ES A N D LOCKOUTS IN CITIES IN W H IC H 25 OR M O R E OCCU RRED IN
A N Y Y E A R , 1927-33

City

1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933

Baltimore, M d ___ 7
Boston, Mass........ 22
Bridgeport, Conn- 5
Buffalo, N . Y ........ 3
Chicago, 111........... 29
Cincinnati, Ohio—
Cleveland, O hio-. 5
Denver, Colo____
2
Detroit, Mich___
5
Fall River, Mass— 8
Hartford, Conn—t
1
Holyoke, Mass___
2
Jersey City, N. J „
Kansas City, M o.
2
Lynn, Mass_____
3
Milwaukee, Wis—
Newark, N. J____
4
New Orleans, La— 1




10 8 7
19
9 1
1
2
1
8 8 2 3
1
1 32 18 2
1
1 4 3 4
10 11 1
1 3
1
3
3
3 10 "id" 2
17
2 5 4
1 2 3

7
24
3

3

1
2
9
2

15

3
3 —f

2
8
1
13
5

4

3
4
16
4

~~2

6
2

3
7

8
1

6
1

17
3
23

6
2
1

3
5

2
1
8
5
6
3
9
5

6
22
6
2
1

53
5
23
3
13
14

6

4
3

8
8

4
24
4

City

1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933

New York, N . Y - 127
Paterson, N . J----5
Philadelphia, P a„ 23
Pittsburgh, Pa___ 8
Providence, R. I~
9
1
Rochester, N . Y _ _ 1
San
Francisco,
Hnlif
7
St. Louis, M o____ 1
0
1
Seattle, Wash.......
Springfield, Mass.
Toledo, Ohio
Trenton, N . J____
2
Wilkes-Barre, Pa_ 8
Worcester, Mass— 2
Y oungstown,
Ohio....................

90 113
1 23
0
22 73

6 1
1
2 4
2 5
2 5
5 12
4
2
2
1 2
1 6
8 3
2 1
1 1

89 167 135
7 12 14
33 36 34
9 19 1
0
5
3
5
2 5 3

6
1 10
0
1 6 3
2
3
2 ~~3~ 3
3
2
3
2
1 2 2
5
6 3

3
4

4

113

22

98
17

1
1
5

3

22
6
3

4
7

2
1

319

UNITED STATES, 1916-34

Sex of Workers in Strikes and Lockouts
T a b l e 4 shows the number of strikes each year, 1927 to 1933, by
sex of workers involved:
T a ble 4 .—STRIKES A N D LOOKOUTS B E G IN N IN G IN E A C H Y E A R , 1927-33, B Y S E X OF
EM PLO YEES

Number of strikes and lockouts beginning in—
oca

vi pciouuo mvuivuu
1927

1928

1929

1930

1931

1932

1933

All persons______________ ________________

734

629

903

653

894

808

1,562

Males only________________________ „_____
Females only____________ ________________
Both sexes_________ ______________________

587
15
132

450
15
164

590
22
291

488
15
150

634
14
246

562
15
231

732
33
797

Causes of Strikes and Lockouts
T h e principal causes of the disputes beginning in each year, from
1927 to 1933, are given in table 5:
T a ble 5.—P R IN C IP A L CAUSES OF STRIKES A N D LOCKOUTS B E G IN N IN G IN EA C H
Y E A R , 1927-33

Number of strikes and lockouts beginning in—
Cause of dispute
1927

1928

1929

1930

1931

1932

All causes.

734

629

903

653

894

808

1,562

Increase of wages...................................
Decrease of wages..................................
Increase of wages and decrease of hours.
Decrease of wages and increase of hours.
Other causes involving wages________
Decrease of hours................... ...............
Increase of hours___________________
Other causes involving hours_________
Recognition of unions_______________
Recognition and wages______________
Recognition and hours...................... .
Recognition, wages, and hours_______
Recognition and other conditions_____
General conditions................. ...............
Discharge of employees_____________
Unfair products.................... . ............
Sympathy...................... ...................
Jurisdiction and protest........................
Other conditions............... -..................
Not reported........................................ .

142
57
43
1
85
20
3
9
119
20
2
7
23
47
50
3
23
13

98
53
27
1
113
6
3
5
71
22
2
14
16
17
68
7
8
33
75

101
72
75
2
125
16

62
122
53
4
62
5
1
8
120
24
3
18
5
30
46
3
12
28
47

52
264
10
7
157
6
2
6
116
36
3
20
37
18
42
1
21
19
77

54
307
14
2
148
4
2
3
101
15
2
7
5
32
42

309
136
107
2
372

6
17
47

10
16
123




67

23
92
60
1
26
100
95
41
2
20
21
41

1
2

6
168
82
4
70
30
31
91
2

320

INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES

Size of Strikes and Lockouts
T h e size o f d is p u t e s c la s s ifie d b y n u m b e r o f p e r s o n s in v o l v e d is
s h o w n in ta b le 6:
T a ble 6 .—STRIK ES A N D LOCKOUTS B E G IN N IN G IN EA C H Y E A R , 1927-33, CLASSIFIED
B Y N U M B E R OF PERSONS IN V O L V E D

Number of strikes and lockouts beginning in
Number involved
1927

1928

1929

1931

1930

1932

1933

Total involved_____________________________

734

629

903

653

894

808

1,562

6 to 10 persons______________________________
11 to 25 persons_____________________________
26 to 50 persons_____________________________
51 to 100 persons.__________________________
101 to 250 persons._________________________
251 to 500 persons._________________________
501 to 1,000 persons_________________________
1,001 to 10,000 persons_______________________
Over 10,000 persons._______________________
Not reported_______________________________

83
158
137
112
106
60
45
31
2

61
155
126
82
71
47
34
49
4

63
188
160
156
151
86
46
52
1

64
146
135
88
107
60
27
25
1

116
181
169
151
137
73
29
34
4

96
178
162
129
119
61
31
29
3

74
229
209
268
328
213
118
114
9

The term “ establishment” as used in this report is a working place
as distinguished from “ company” , since the latter term frequently
involves many individual or distinct units. Even on this basis such
information is very difficult to obtain. Such data as the Bureau
has been able to obtain on this subject is shown in table 7:
T a ble 7.—D IST R IB U T IO N OF STRIK ES A N D LOCKOUTS B E G IN N IN G IN EA C H Y E A R ,
1927-33, B Y N U M B E R OF E ST A B L ISH M E N T S IN V O L V E D

Number of strikes and lockouts beginning in—
Number of establishments
involved

1929

1928

1927

1930

1931

1932

1933

Tot-tV AStablisbmftofs
*

734

629

903

653

894

808

1,562

1......................................................
2........................................... ..........
3......................................................

453
36
18
16
14
163
34

427
24
20
18
17
95
28

639
38
37
9
46
134

460
42
12
10
20
109

686
41
24
13
19
111

580
45
23
19
12
129

1,129
97
46
36
23
231

4...............................................

5.....................................................
Not reported

_______________

Termination of Strikes and Lockouts
T h e number of disputes ending in each year, 1927 to 1933, and the
result of their termination is shown in table 8:
T a ble 8 .—RESULTS OF STRIKES A N D LOCK OUTS E N D IN G IN E A C H Y E A R , 1927-33
Number of strikes and lockouts ending in—
Result
1927

1928

1929

1930

1931

1932

1933

Total.......................................................................

639

656

913

667

880

817

1,544

In favor of employers_______________________
In favor of employees—_____________________

169
235
129
29

272
197
160
3
14
1 10

367
267
226
3
33
* 17

294
167
159

410
241
186

353
218
218

464
475
571

27
$20

21
3 22

16
3 12

15
3 19

C o m p ro m is e

Employees returned pending arbitration____
Jjlfifiriiot.innn.1 nr prnf.A,st
......... . ........
Not reported_______________________________
Result of 7 strikes undetermined.




77

a Results of 16 strikes undetermined.

3 Results undetermined.

321

UNITED STATES, 1916-34

Duration and Results of Strikes and Lockouts

A c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , by States, of disputes beginning in 1933, together
with workers affected, and their average duration and results, is shown
in table 9. From this table it may be readily ascertained where most
strikes occurred, and also how they were settled, as well as their aver­
age duration.
T a ble 9.—STRIKES A N D LOCKOUTS IN 1933 A N D A V E R A G E D U R A T IO N A N D RESULTS,
B Y STATES
Beginning in 1933
State
Number

Workers
affected

All States..... ................................

1,562
22
2
7
42
4
52
2
14
7
18
1
90
18
9
3
8
9
6
8
157
25
9
8
37
1
28
111

4,313
307
595
19,694
398
14,239
310
854
9,105
6,186
13
30,841
4,168
3,608
40
1,440
2,740
405
5,648
79,619
14,209
3,648
1,957
11,361
18
16,006
60,977
788
197,903
9,788
175
14,952
800
2,691
255,746
9,672
10,905
2,196
112
20
411
3,980
1,608
4,462
867
512
1,850

Average
duration
(days)

I n d ia n a

_ .

K an sas .

...
.

.

....... .

Kentucky____________________
Louisiana_____________________
Maine________________________
Maryland____________________
Massachusetts.............................
M ic h ig a n
M in n e s o t a
M i s s i s s i p p i .................................

M issouri.....................................
M o n ta n a

......

New Hampshire.........................
New Jersey___________________
N e w M e x ico
......
New York....................................
N o r t h C a r o lin a
N orth D a k ota
O h io

Oklahoma_

______________

2

201
25
1
85
1

8

O re g o n

Pennsylvania....... ......................
Rhode Island...............................
S o u t h C a r o lin a
T en n essee

___

Texas
Utah

... _

V erm ont
V ir g in ia

Washington.................................
W e s t V ir g in ia
W is c o n s in
W y o m in g
I n t e r s ta te

366
46
35
17
4
1
4
18
21
12
12
2

3

16
38
13
16
5
13
4
11
10
13
8
17
12
35
11
17
12
5
12
10
13
15
5
19
41
15
19
44
16
13
15
10
3
27
16
12
8
14
11
6

8

In favor
of em­
ployers

In favor
of work­
ers

Compro­
mised

464

812,137

Alabama............... .......................
Arizona....................................... .
Arkansas— ........ ... .......... .........
California................. ...................
Colorado.......... ............ ...............
Connecticut.................................
Delaware-.....................................
District of Columbia.................
Florida—.......................................
Georgia— .....................................
Idaho..... .......................................
Illinois...........................................

Terminated in 1933

475

571

6

7

8

I
13
3
15

1
5

5
24
1
21

2

3

2

10
35
12
2
1
2
1
1
4
51
9
5
3
14
5
34
1
46
11
27 ,
1
4
82
9
17
9
1

15

Other­
wise

34

2

6
2
4

I
2
1
1

5

34
2
3

18

4

4
3
3
2
45
10
1
2
12
9
34
71
5

4
4

2
2
5
2
2
58
6
3
3
8
1
13
38
1
80

8

32

3
138
26
14
5

3

2
1
4
4

1
26

1
127
9
4
3
1

1

8
1

2

1

7
13
9

3
4
6
2
3

4
5
4
3

19

2

1

11
11

1

1

10
9
6
6

1

1

Table 10 is a corollary to table 13, giving the same data by indus­
trial groups that appear in table 13, by States. This table will enable
the reader to analyze the severity of industrial disturbances in any
particular group.

19 2 0 5 — 36-------2 2




322

INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES

T a ble 10 .—AVE R A G E D U R A T IO N A N D RESULTS OF STRIKES A N D LOCKOUTS IN 1933,
B Y IN D U S T R Y OR O CCUPATIO N
Beginning in 1933
Industry or occupation

Terminated in 1933
Aver­
age
dura­ In favor In favor Com­
Other­
tion
of em­
of
pro­
(days) ployers workers mised
wise

Num­
ber

Workers
affected

All industries or occupations..........................

1,562

812,137

Auto, carriage, and wagon workers..............
Bakers_________ __________________________
Barbers------------------- . . . ------- --------------------Brewery workers___________ ______________
Brick and tile workers--------- --------------------Broom and brush workers________________
Building trades_______ ____________________
Car builders__ ________ __________________
Chauffeurs and teamsters-------------------------Clerks and salesmen______________________
Clothing------- ------------------- -----------------------Coopers..............................................................
Electric- and gas-appliance workers..........—
Farm labor_______________________________
Fishermen________________________________
Food-------------------- -----------------------------------Furniture---------------- --------------------------------Glass...................................................................
Hotel and restaurant workers_____________
Iron and steel-.______ ___________________
Jewelry----------------------------------------------------Laundry--------------------------------------------------Leather............................................................
Light, heat, power, and water------------------Longshoremen--------------- --------------------------Lumber..............................................................
Metal---------------------- --------------------------------Miners................................................................
Motion-picture operators and theatrical
workers-------------------------------------------------Oil
and chemical workers---------- -----------Paper manufacturing-------- -----------------------Pottery___________________________________
Printing and publishing---------------- ------- —
Rubber---- ------------------ -----------------------------Shipbuilding---------------—------- -------------------Slaughtering, meat cutting and packing—
Steamboatmen___________________________
Stone________________ _____________________
Municipal employees_____________________
Teachers--------------------------------------------------Textiles..------------------------------------------------Tobacco---------------------------------------------------Other occupations-------------------------------------

18
38
4
3
9
2
113
1
40
4
347
8
13
23
2
29
57
7
8
10
8
8
36
1
8
12
91
113

13,048
10,769
1,574
66
1,399
121
21,556
50
26,802
549
279,835
243
5,512
16,032
84
7,353
10,546
2,231
307
3,562
5,008
1,575
19,012
300
2,591
1,535
15,885
167,465

17
15
5
20
10
33
15
5
13
38
16
14
9
9
7
8
15
8
31
9
24
8
17
3
8
14
16
17

21
4
11
3
17
16
3
11
1
8
22
2
315
21
94

1,211
702
5,579
121
1,014
4,622
3,666
5,385
14
1,010
6,687
229
135,660
10,392
20,835

23
14
14
12
3
7
15
8
2
16
4
17
16
15
11

464

475

571

7
13

3
14
2

7
10
3
1
3

2
3
1
32

3
1
31

70
2
5
10

9
1
150
3
4
2

11
17
1
3
2
2
2
13

7
15
1
2
3
3
3
14

2
4
27
41

1
3
29
29

8

39
1
13

13

118
1
4
10
2
10
24
5
1
5
2
3
9
1
5
5
32
39

8

9
2
4

2

2
1
5
2
1
3
3
3

18

2
1
10
5
5
1
5
11

2
7
2
80
7
24

91
4
33

34

1
1
1

2
2

6
8
3
1
4
139
9

2
2

The way in which strikes were settled as related to the length of
the disputes is given in table 11.
T a ble 1 1 —N U M B E R OF STRIKES A N D LOCKOUTS T E R M IN A T E D IN 1933, B Y R ESU L T
A N D PERIOD OF D U R A T IO N

Duration

In favor
of em­
ployers

In favor
of em­
ployees

Compro­
mised

Other­
wise
settled

Total

Total______ _______________________________________

464

475

571

34

1,544

1 to 6 days_________________________________________
7 to 14 days_________________________________ ______
15 to 28 days_________________________ _____ _______
29 days and over—........ —...............................................

232
99
79
64

223
116
81
55

248
143
99
81

8
8
10
8

711
366
269
198

Table 12 indicates the average duration of disputes each year,
1927-33, although on a basis not strictly comparable throughout the
years.




323

BOARD OF INQUIRY FOR COTTON-TEXTILE INDUSTRY

T a ble 1 2 .—T O TA L A N D A V E R A G E D U R A T IO N OF STRIKES A N D LOOKOUTS E N D E D
IN EA C H Y E A R , 1927-33

Duration (days)
Disputes
for which
duration is
reported

Year

Average
per dis­
pute

Total

1927— .................................................................................................................
639
15,865
24
1928......................................................................................................................
656
17,997
27
1929......................................................................................................................
913
18,507
20
12,292
667
1930........................................................................... ........ ..................................
18
16
14,154
1931..........- ..........................................................................................................
880
1932——........ .......................................................................................................
817
13,246
16
1,544
21,695
1933......................................................................................................................
14

The classified period of duration of disputes, 1927-33, is shown in
table 13.
T a ble 1 3 . —STRIKES A N D LOCKOUTS E N D IN G IN E A C H Y E A R , B Y CLASSIFIED
PERIODS OF D U R A TIO N , 1927-33

Number of disputes ending in—

Number of disputes ending in—

Duration

Duration
1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933

Total disputes... 639 656 913 667 880 817 1,544
1 day.....................
2 days...................
3 days...................
4 days...................
5 days...................
6 days...................
7 days...................
8 days...................
9 days.......... .........
10 days.................
11 days.................
12 days.................
13 days..................

61
38
49
22
29
45
17
18
19
18
24
29
16

95 139
56 72
50 67
39 46
27 44
44 48
14 37
13 29
11 25
21 21
15 19
21 43
12 17

66
53
54
39
27
32
36
36
19
20
15
14
10

99 127
75 64
74 68
47 33
52 33
52 36
27 34
28 17
28 17
27 26
25 25
21 17
13 14

142
160
104
107
92
106
61
48
47
43
55
40
32

1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933
14 days.................
io to A a&ys____
o
19 to 21 days____
22 to 24 days____
25 to 28 days........
29 to 31 days........
32 to 35 d a y s...—
36 to 42 days........
43 to 49 days........
50 to 63 days........
64 to 77 days........
78 to 91 days____
92 to 200 days___
Over 200 days___

10
30
21
18
23
22
26
19
20
28
16
5
15
1

7
36
13
12
21
14
9
21
11
23
12
14
30
15

15
42
29
19
28
17
19
26
28
19
19
13
25
7

17
43
14
18
22
14
15
18
14
25
18
14
12
2

13
45
37
39
43
17
14
25
16
32
12
5
14

14
54
36
26
42
19
14
28
17
27
9
6
14

40
100
60
50
59
26
28
38
28
43
15
8
12

Since 1926 the Bureau has omitted from tabulation strikes of less
than 6 workers and those lasting less than 1 day. A general sum­
mary of these minor strikes for 1933 shows 79 involving less than 6
workers, 28 of which occurred in the bakery trades and 11 in the
building trades, the remainder being scattered among 15 other trade
groups. Of the 56 disputes lasting less than 1 day, the largest
number in any one group was 9, which occurred in textiles; the others
were distributed among 22 other groups.

Report of Board of Inquiry for Cotton Textile Industry,
1934
BOARD of Inquiry for the Cotton Textile Industry was
appointed on September 5, 1934, 2 days after the beginning of
the textile strike, called September 3. The strike was formally
voted at the convention of the United Textile Workers in New York
about the middle of August. Later in August the Cotton Textile
National Industrial Relations Board offered its services as mediator.

A




324

INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES

This offer was rejected by the union, which stated that it had no
further confidence in the ability of that Board to meet the situation.
The National Labor Relations Board, undertaking to bring about
an agreement before the strike was called, invited representatives
of the union and of the Cotton Textile Institute to a joint conference
in Washington. The union accepted the invitation, but the Cotton
Textile Institute declined to attend. Later the National Labor
Relations Board held a series of conferences with each side separately
in the hope of finding a formula that would avert the strike. In this
it was unsuccessful.
The fundamental issues involved in the strike were as follows:
1. Recognition o f the union and methods of collective bargaining.
2. M achinery for handling complaints of violation of section 7 (a) and other
labor provisions of the code.
3. Hours and wages.
4. The stretch-out.

The Board of Inquiry, composed of John G. Winant, chairman;
Marion Smith; and Raymond V. Ingersoll, was “ authorized and
directed to inquire into complaints of the workers and the problems
of the employers in the cotton, wool, silk, rayon, and allied textile
industries; to consider ways and means of meeting such problems
and complaints; and, upon request by the parties, to act as a board
of voluntary arbitration.”
The Board held its first meeting on September 7. On September
8 the United Textile Workers offered to submit all issues in controversy
to arbitration by the Board on certain terms and conditions. The
Board immediately called the heads of the Cotton Textile Institute
to Washington to consider the possibilities of this proposal. On
September 11 and 12, the Board conferred with a group of repre­
sentative employers, and urged the employers to agree to arbitration,
offering to attempt to work out terms for such arbitration that would
be mutually satisfactory. The employers refused to arbitrate, where­
upon the Board proceeded to complete its inquiry into the basic issues
involved.
The Board conferred with representatives of parties to the contro­
versy; it received such statistical data and other information as any
of the parties desired to submit to it; it conferred with officials of
the National Recovery Administration, the Cotton Textile National
Industrial Relations Board, the Bureau of Labor Statistics, and
other governmental agencies; it collected through this and other
means available information bearing on the issues of the strike and
the problems of the industry; it engaged a committee of technical
experts to make an independent study of the technical features of
the stretch-out system.
The following is a summary of the recommendations of the Board.
1.
For the m ore adequate protection of labor’s rights under the collective
bargaining and other labor provisions o f the code, there shall be created under
Public R esolution No. 44 an impartial board o f three to be known as the “ Textile
L abor Relations B oard” which shall be provided with an adequate staff and other
facilities. This Board shall have powers and duties in the textile field similar
to those exercised b y the National Labor Relations Board and the Steel Labor
R elations B oard in their respective fields, and shall have authority to administer,
in addition to section 7 (a), other labor provisions of the cotton, silk, and w ool
codes.




BOARD OF INQ UIRY FOR COTTON-TEXTILE INDUSTRY

325

2. In order to obtain necessary data upon the ability of the cotton, silk, and
w ool textile industries to su pport an equal or greater num ber of employees at
higher wages, it is recom m ended that the President direct the Departm ent of
Labor and, in accordance with section 6 (a) of the R ecovery A ct, the Federal
Trade Commission to investigate and report on these m atters at the earliest
possible tim e.
3. For the purpose of regulating the use o f the stretch-out system in the cotton,
wool, and silk industries it is recom m ended that the respective codes be amended
1o provide that a special com m ittee be created under the Textile Labor R elations
B oard to supervise the use o f the stretch-out; that until February 1, 1935, no
em ployer shall extend the work load of any em ployee, except in special circum ­
stances with the approval of the stretch-out com m ittee; that the stretch-out
com m ittee shall have pow er to investigate present work assignments and where
it finds im proper speeding up of work require reduction accordingly; that the
stretch-out com m ittee shall recom m end to the President not later than January
1, 1935, a permanent plan for regulation of the stretch-out, under which employers
shall be required to secure approval of an impartial agency prior to increasing the
work load of the em ployees, which plan when approved b y the President after
such notice and public hearing as he m ay prescribe shall becom e effective as part
of the code.
4. T o aid in the enforcem ent of code provisions relating to wages above the
minimum and to serve as an aid and guide in making collective agreements, it
is recom m ended that the D epartm ent o f Labor be directed to study definitions
and classifications of occupations and existing wages for such occupations, and
that the inform ation thus collected be made available to labor and management
in the industry.
Conclusion.— The findings and recomm endations here subm itted to you are
based on as comprehensive and careful a survey as the situation perm itted.
T he Board is confident that these findings and recom m endations are fair and
reasonable, that they meet the basic sources of the difficulty and that th ey offer
the possibility of a just and lasting settlement. W e believe further that they
provide a sound basis for that “ united action of labor and m anagem ent” con­
tem plated b y the R ecovery A ct and the recovery program.
W e therefore earnestly hope that the United Textile Workers will call off the
strike on the basis of these recomm endations. A t the same time we request
the em ployers in the industry to take back the workers now on strike w ithout
discrimination.

Upon the report of the Board, the United Textile Workers called
off the strike. The President appointed the Textile Labor Relations
Board (see p. 16), the Bureau of Labor Statistics began a survey of
hours, earnings, and occupations in the principal textile industries,1
and the Federal Trade Commission initiated a survey of the financial
condition of the textile plants, to ascertain their ability to grant
shorter hours and higher wage rates.
1 See pp. 921,1021, and 1051 for summaries qf studies by the Bureau of the cotton-textile industry, the silk
and rayon industry, and woolen and worsted goods manufacturing.







INDUSTRIAL HEALTH

U. S. Bureau o f Labor Statistics Bulletin N o. 616
H andbook of L abor Statistics: 1936 edition




327




Federal and State Agencies Concerned with Problems
of Industrial Health
H E principal divisions of the Federal Government concerned with
harmful working conditions and the health of industrial workers
are the Public Health Service, United States Treasury Department;
the Bureau of Mines, Department of the Interior; and the Bureau of
Labor Statistics and the Division of Labor Standards, Department of
Labor. These organizations have made extensive studies and issued
numerous reports dealing with different phases of industrial health,
with special emphasis upon protective and preventive measures.

T

Public Health Service and United States Bureau of Mines
T h e work of the Industrial Hygiene Division of the United States
Public Health Service and the investigation of industrial hazards by
the United States Bureau of Mines which has been carried on by the
health division of that Bureau were centered in the United States
Public Health Service in the summer of 1933. Owing to decrease in
funds available to the Bureau of Mines, the Health Division was
recessed at the end of the fiscal year 1933. However, investigations
and research by the Bureau on the dustiness of mine air and its effect
on health were subsequently carried out.
Recent studies by the Public Health Service include investigation of
industrial dermatitis among the employees in the rubber, canning,
cigar-making, cotton-milling, sirup-manufacturing, and rayon indus­
tries, with a view to determing the irritants causing the outbreaks.
Studies of industrial dusts in relation to the health of workers in
dusty trades have included surveys in the marble-, talc-, slate-, and
granite-quarrying and anthracite industries, air abrasive blasting, and
the size frequency of industrial dusts, while industrial-poisohing
studies have dealt with the lead hazard in a storage-battery plant, the
health hazard of radium-dial painting, the toxicity of osmium
tetroxide, and the effect of inhalation of benzol vapors. During
1933 a study was begun to determine the effect of the dust of anthra­
cite mines on the health of workers. The study of the frequency
of sickness among industrial employees was continued for the twelfth
consecutive year.
The Bureau of Mines studied during 1933 the toxicity and health
hazards of the vapors of 10 chemicals, most of which represent new
developments in the production of organic chemicals from coal and
petroleum products. The information obtained was a basis for
promoting safety in the manufacture, distribution, and use of these
products. Studies also were made of injury from industrial dusts,
and two reports on the Picher (Okla.) investigation of silicosis among
miners of the tri-State district of Oklahoma, Kansas, and Missouri,
were published. This study, which had been carried on for a number
of years, was discontinued June 30, 1933.




329

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United States Bureau of Labor Statistics
T h e Bureau of Labor Statistics was one of the first organizations
in this country to study occupational hazards and diseases and to
endeavor to reduce the casualties from the use of hazardous processes
and substances among workmen. In the attempt to safeguard the
workers, investigations have been made of special hazards in different
industries and active steps have been taken in a number of instances
to secure the desired reforms in the processes employed or the materials
used. The field for research in hazards connected with industrial
processes is almost unlimited, as new uses for known hazardous sub­
stances or the use of new chemical combinations may present unreal­
ized or unknown dangers.
Among the special studies published in the industrial accidents and
hygiene series are included the various bulletins on lead poisoning
in different industries, and studies of the poisons used in the rubber
industry, in the manufacture of explosives, and in the manufacture of
coal-tar dyes and dye intermediates, as well as studies of the hazards
from dusts and fumes, from phosphorus in the manufacture of fire­
works, from the anthrax bacillus, etc. These and other bulletins have
formed the contribution of the Bureau to existing knowledge in regard
to the specific hazards of industry and to the safeguarding of workers
who are exposed in the course of their employment to contact with
these dangerous substances. One report relating to hazardous occu­
pations was published in 1933—Bulletin No. 582: Occupation hazards
and diagnostic signs. This bulletin deals with the hazards involved
in exposure to abnormalities of temperature and humidity, compressed
air, dampness, defective illumination, dust, infections, radiant energy,
repeated motion, pressure, and shock, and a large number of poisonous
substances.
United States Division of Labor Standards

The Division of Labor Standards is issuing a series of brochures
on occupational diseases which contain a list of the occupations in
which there is exposure to a specific hazard and a brief summary of
the symptoms produced by exposure and of preventive measures.
State Bureaus

A f e w of the States have industrial hygiene divisions equipped to
study the effect of employment upon health. Included in such
bureaus are the division of industrial hygiene which is under the
department of labor in New York, and in Ohio the bureau of occupa­
tional diseases which is a part of the department of health. The
Ohio bureau was established December 1 , 1932, to take over the
functions of the former division of industrial hygiene, but its activi­
ties have been much curtailed. New Jersey has a bureau of hygiene
and sanitation in the labor department; in Pennsylvania there is
a hygiene and sanitation section in the bureau of industrial standards,
which is part of the State department of labor. The work carried
out by these bureaus includes in New York the publication of articles
on specific industrial hazards in the Industrial Bulletin published
monthly by the department, while reports of special investigations
are also published from time to time. Among the hazards to which
the division of industrial hygiene has directed its attention are dust




STUDIES OF INDUSTRIAL DISEASES AND POISONS

331

hazards, including studies of silicosis, poisoning from carbon monoxide,
wood alcohol, lead, and lacquers, and various chemicals. The division
of women in industry has also made studies of the hazards to which
women are exposed in different industries. The Pennsylvania hygiene
and sanitation section was formed to deal with the problem of health
as affected by employment. It receives reports of cases of indus­
trial diseases, investigates such reports, and supplies suggestions for
removing the conditions producing these diseases in individual cases.
It also receives information on health hazards in general, studies
conditions producing such hazards, or initiates studies of related
problems. If such studies require technical knowledge and equip­
ment not available in the department, organizations or individuals
are called upon to assist in the necessary research. The results of
such investigations are published in special bulletins and if the investi­
gation reveals definite dangers the hygiene and sanitation section
recommends methods of eliminating them by means of regulations
based on the findings and developed and issued by the department.

Recent Studies of Industrial Diseases and Poisons
H E Bureau of Labor Statistics follows developments in the field
of industrial hygiene through the medium of the. Monthly Labor
Review, digests appearing in this publication of investigations by
scientific organizations and of articles appearing in the various
medical and scientific journals. Summaries are given below of the
more important articles which have appeared since the publication of
the 1931 edition of the Handbook of Labor Statistics (Bui. No. 541).

T

C a d m iu m Poisoning

A s t u d y of cadmium poisoning, made by Dr. Leon Prodan at the
Harvard School of Public Health, covers the history and uses of
cadmium and its pathologic effects. The results of the study were
published in the April and May 1932 issues of the Journal of Indus­
trial Hygiene.
Although cases of cadmium poisoning were reported more than
70 years ago, extensive industrial use of cadmium did not develop
until after the World War when cadmium plating was introduced.
Cadmium occurs usually with zinc and, until 1817, no distinction was
made between the two metals. Up to the time of the present study,
attempts by investigators to produce cadmium poisoning in animals
have been made generally by oral administration of cadmium or by
subcutaneous or intravenous injections, although all the cases of
cadmium poisoning reported in the literature on industrial poisoning
have occurred by absorption through the respiratory system.
Cadmium is a white metal, having a bluish tinge and a bright
luster, which is capable of taking a high polish. It is harder than
tin but softer than zinc and is insoluble in water but soluble in acids.
Upon being heated in the air it burns readily and gives off a brown
fume of cadmium oxide. The principal compounds of cadmium
are the oxide, sulphate, sulphide, chloride, iodide, and bromide.
Cadmium does not occur in nature in an uncombined condition but
is nearly always found in relatively small quantities in zinc ores,
and is a byproduct in the reduction of these ores. Cadmium is
used as a constitutent in many alloys with low melting point for




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INDUSTRIAL HEALTH

the preparation of amalgams and the preparation of its salts. Cad­
mium plating is in several respects superior to nickel and other
metal plating. In addition to its use for plating, cadmium is used
in the manufacture of alkaline storage batteries, standard cells (as
mercury-cadmium alloy), high-temperature resistors, and cadmium
vapor lamps. It is also used in certain pigments called lithopones.
The principal health hazards are found in the manufacture of
cadmium and the handling of the compounds; these hazards arise
in the processes which produce exposure to dust and fumes. It is
not known yet how great a hazard is presented by plating after the
cadmium is in solution. So far, no effect of the solution has been
observed except that upon coming in contact with the skin it causes
the skin to turn black.
Prior to the present study the published results regarding experi­
mental cadmium poisoning showed that relatively small doses were
fatal to various experimental animals, and that the metal had a
direct paralyzing effect on the central nervous system and on the
vasomotor system, induced vomiting, and had a general toxic effect
when given orally or introduced into the general circulation. When
cadmium is taken into the body, the experiments also showed, it has
a tendency to be stored in the liver and kidneys, and its elimination
by way of the kidneys and gastrointestinal tract is very slow. When
absorbed through the respiratory system, cadmium was found to
cause pneumonia and sometimes pleural effusion. The blood showed
a decrease in hemoglobin content in the feeding experiments and an
increase when the cadmium was absorbed through the respiratory
system, while in both cases there was an increase in the polymor­
phonuclear leukocytes.
As has been stated, cadmium used industrially is absorbed princi­
pally through the respiratory system and to a certain extent through
the gastrointestinal tract. The most common form of poisoning
is the acute respiratory form arising from exposure in manufacturing
and handling cadmium compounds. Due to the emetic effect of
cadmium, serious gastrointestinal poisoning probably does not occur
in man. Direct contact with cadmium does not cause poisoning,
since it is not absorbed through the unbroken skin.
C a rb o n Te tra ch lo rid e as an O cc u p a tio n a l H a za rd
T h e health hazards resulting from the industrial use of carbon
tetrachloride were discussed in an article by Dr. Elizabeth B. Bricker
in Labor and Industry, August 1931, published by the Pennsylvania
Department of Labor and Industry.
The types of injury arising from exposure to carbon tetrachloride
include skin injuries and injuries to the general health, the kind of
injury depending on the method of use of the compound and the
kind and degree of the exposure of the individual.
The principal uses for carbon tetrachloride are as a fire-extinguishing
agent and as a solvent. Because it is noninflammable and its vapors
are very heavy it is used for extinguishing small fires, where it acts
as a smothering agent by shutting off the supply of oxygen to the
fire. When used as a fire extinguisher in small enclosed spaces, gases
are generated which cannot escape easily and may be concentrated
in dangerous quantities. Fatalities from the use of carbon tetra­
chloride under such conditions have been reported.




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333

The risk of fire from flammable solvents is greatly reduced by the
mixture of such solvents with carbon tetrachloride. The health
hazards when it is used in this way are those arising from the various
constituents of the compounds. Carbon tetrachloride is used as a
solvent to remove fats, oils, and other materials from their combina­
tions, a principal use of this kind being in the dry-cleaning industry,
where it is used for the preservation or the restoration of the cloth
or other material, or it may be used in the separation of desirable
constituents, such as oils, from seeds or bones, the oils being recovered
later from the carbon tetrachloride.
The other important use as a solvent is to hold together the ingredi­
ents of compounds such as rubber cements, floor and furniture waxes,
shoe polishes, etc., so that they may be easily applied, leaving the
polish, cement, or other compound in the desired location after the
carbon tetrachloride has evaporated.
The affinity for fats, inherent in carbon tetrachloride as a result
of its solvent properties, is shown by its effect on the skin of work­
men where the work requires contact with this material for any
length of time. These effects depend both upon the length of the
exposure and the susceptibility of the individual. The effect of
carbon tetrachloride on the skin is to cause it to become red and dry,
and, if the contact is long continued, to cause cracks in the skin which
open the way to infections.
Injuries to the general health from the inhalation of air containing
large amounts of carbon tetrachloride range from temporary ill
effects to prolonged illness or death. The most common symptoms
of exposure to carbon tetrachloride are irritation of the eyes, nose,
and throat; nausea; dizziness; headache; confusion; excitement; and,
with prolonged exposure, loss of appetite and mental dullness.
The extent of the danger of exposure to small amounts to carbon
tetrachloride over long periods of time is not fully determined but
until more is known about these effects Doctor Bricker recommends
that the following precautions should be used in its handling:
1. It should be used in completely enclosed systems as far as practicable.
This is a simple problem in some processes, as in the extraction of fats for their
eventual recovery, but more difficult of attainment in others.
2. When completely enclosed processes are not feasible an exhaust system
should be installed with at least one outlet near the floor (as the vapors are
heavier than air). This system should be kept in operation constantly as long
as the liquid is exposed to the air and for some time after such exposure has
ceased so that the room or compartment may be rid of all residual vapors.
3. A careful watch should be kept on all persons who are, in the slightest
degree, exposed to the breathing of these vapors. They should preferably be
under the care of a physician who is accurately informed on the nature of the
material in question. On the slightest indication of ill health arising from the
use of this compound, the worker should be transferred to a job in which he is
in no way exposed to it.

E th yle n e O x id e : Effects of Exposure to Vapors

A s t u d y of the effects of ethylene-oxide gas, one of the newer
chemical products coming into industrial use, was made by the
United States Bureau of Mines.1
1 United States Public Health Service. Public Health Reports, Aug. 8,1930, pp. 1832-43: Acute response
of guinea pigs to vapors of some new commercial organic compounds. IV . Ethylene oxide, by C. P. Waite
and others.




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INDUSTRIAL HEALTH

Ethylene oxide is used as an intermediate in the synthesis of other
compounds such as methyl, ethyl, and butyl cellosolve and as a
fumigant either alone or mixed with carbon dioxide. A fumigant was
being marketed at the time of the study under the trade name
“ Carboxide” , which contained 1 part ethylene oxide and 8 parts
carbon dioxide.
Ethylene oxide is a colorless gas at ordinary room temperature.
It possesses a mild sweetish odor and is readily soluble in water.
The study showed only the acute effects produced upon guinea pigs
by a single exposure and the experiments were planned to give infor­
mation relative to the concentration and periods of exposure which
produce slight, moderate, or serious response.
The symptoms exhibited by the animals subjected to the test were,
in the order of occurrence, nasal irritation; eye irritation; bloodtinged, frothy, serous exudate from nostrils; unsteadiness on feet,
and staggering; inability to stand; respiratory disturbances; dyspnea
and gasping; and death. Most of these symptoms were produced
with exposure to concentrations of 8.5 to 0.3 percent by volume.
Exposure to 0.13 and 0.06 percent caused eye and nose irritation and
no distinct symptoms resulted from exposure to 0.025 percent. In
animals dying within a few hours following exposure the principal
pathological findings were marked irritation of the respiratory system,
while in those dying 2 to 6 days after exposure lobar and lobular
pneumonia and parenchymatous changes in the kidneys were found.
Death occurred in a few minutes in animals exposed to 5 to 10 percent.
While exposure to 0.3 to 0.6 percent of the vapor for 30 to 60 minutes
was found to be dangerous to the life of the animals exposed, 0.3
percent was the maximum which could be borne for 60 minutes
without serious disturbances, and 0.025 was found to be the maximum
allowable concentration for several hours without serious effects.
From the standpoint of relative toxicity for concentrations causing
acute injury, ethylene oxide is said to be less harmful than hydrogen
chloride and sulphur dioxide and more harmful than chloroform and
carbon tetrachloride, and similar to ammonia. The odor of ethylene
oxide is not strong enough to give distinct warning of harmful con­
centrations in the air but it causes intolerable irritation to the eyes
and nose when present in high concentrations, and moderate though
distinct irritation in comparatively safe concentrations. In order to
avoid serious injury, however, this irritation must be taken as
warning of a dangerous atmosphere.
H y d ro c y a n ic -A c id Gas A b so rp tio n T h r o u g h the S k in
A t t e n t i o n was called to the possibility of poisoning from hydro­
cyanic gas by absorption through the skin, in an article by Philip
Drinker, in the Journal of Industrial Hygiene, January 1932.
Although a few writers have mentioned the possibility of cutaneous
absorption of the gas, in general little attention has been given to
the danger of poisoning in this way. To show the necessity, there­
fore, for taking precautions in the use of this fumigant against the
possibility of skin absorption, the following case in which three men
narrowly escaped serious poisoning is cited:




STUDIES OF INDUSTRIAL DISEASES AND POISONS

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Three men were wearing gas masks in an atmosphere containing approximately
2 percent of hydrocyanic-acid gas and the masks were given excellent respiratory
protection. After 8 or 10 minutes, however, the men felt symptoms of marked
dizziness, weakness, and throbbing pulse. They immediately left the poisonous
atmosphere and were just in time to avoid collapse and unconsciousness. Marked
weakness and high pulse rate,’ together with a headache, persisted for several
hours after exposure, and the men were incapacitated for 2 or 3 days. However,
recovery was apparently complete at the end of that time.

In several instances the medical literature on industrial diseases
mentions the possibility of absorption of the gas through the skin, the
writer states, although four of the well-known works on this subject
do not refer to such a hazard. The absence of information in these
four generally used books is regarded as proof that this action of the
gas is generally unknown. Since 1928, however, the United States
Bureau of Mines has required a label to be placed on canister masks
approved for use against hydrocyanic-acid gas, stating that while the
canister will give respiratory protection in atmospheres containing
2 percent hydrocyanic-acid gas, it is not safe to submit to such high
concentrations, since the gas is absorbed through the unprotected
skin of the body and in that manner will produce poisoning.
M in e rs ’ N y s ta g m u s : T h i r d R eport of B ritis h C o m m itte e 2
T h e first Miners’ Nystagmus Committee in Great Britain was dis­
solved in 1926 after having made two reports, which were published
in 1922 and 1923. That committee found that the principal symptom
of miners’ nystagmus—involuntary oscillation of the eyeballs—was
the result of deficient illumination and that the most important
measure of prevention, therefore, was to secure adequate lighting for
the miner at work. It was shown, also, that there was a definite
psychoneurotic condition in most cases. The present committee
agreed with these conclusions, but in view of the fact that there has
been no reduction in the number of cases receiving compensation for
this disability, greater attention was given in the study to the nervous
or psychological factors connected with the development of the
disease.
In Great Britain the incidence of new cases of miners’ nystagmus
to the number of men employed underground has risen, although not
steadily, from 0.049 percent of the total number employed below
ground at coal mines in 1908 to 0.41 percent in 1930. In the latter
year there were 10,638 persons (both old and new cases) who were
receiving compensation for this cause out of a total of 742,000 workers
employed below ground in coal mines.
e The term “ miners’ nystagmus” , as used for purposes of certifica­
tion for compensation, includes conditions other than those directly
referable to the oscillations of the eye, and it was the opinion of the
committee that the standard of incapacity is not easily determined.
The oscillation of the eyeballs is not in itself a trustworthy test of
incapacity, since in many cases men with this symptom are efficient
workmen, and on the other hand the absence of this symptom, if
there are symptoms of a nervous or psychological kind present, is not
adequate proof of fitness for work.
2 Great Britain.
London, 1932.




Medical Research Council.

Third Report of the Miners’ Nystagmus Committee.

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INDUSTRIAL HEALTH

In the discussion of the illumination factors in the causation of the
disease, it is stated that when the human eye loses the power to adapt
itself to seeing objects in a very dim light the individual suffers from
so-called “ night blindness.” While this is a frequent early symptom
of miners’ nystagmus it is by no means certain that night blindness
is always due to loss of dark adaptation, as it may be a nervous
symptom. It has been found in laboratory experiments that the
point at which the vision of the normal eye changes to adapt itself
to dim illumination is at a light equivalent to 0.0068 foot-candle, a
foot-candle denoting the illumination derived from one standard candle
at a distance of 1 foot. As it is the amount of light reflected into the
eye that determines clearness of vision, and as coal absorbs from 88
to 97 percent of all incident light, the standard brightness of 0.0068
foot-candle must be increased 10 times for coal absorbing 90 percent,
and 20 times for coal absorbing 95 percent of the light. From the
experiments it is concluded that, considering varying conditions,
the degree of illumination to be aimed at should be one of 0.25 footcandle.
The ocular symptoms of nystagmus noted among miners include
defect of visual acuity, night blindness, intolerance of light, and
forced ocular movements with tremors of the head and limbs, together
with disordered action of the heart. All of the ocular conditions, with
the exception of oscillation of the eyeballs and the subjective move­
ment of objects, are described in the literature on the psychoneuroses,
many cases occurring as hysterical symptoms in soldiers during the
World War. The neurasthenic symptoms noted among miners which
are most common are sleeplessness, headache, depression, and fear
of the dark. The obsessional symptoms, however, which are the most
serious, are frequently withheld for fear of ridicule.
In safety-lamp pits oscillation of the eyeballs is present in men who
are working efficiently and who make no complaint, in some instances
the incidence of such oscillations being as high as 34 percent of the
men employed. In typical cases the first symptom of disability is the
apparent movement of objects, the miner complaining that lights
dazzle him and dizziness and headache result. The question of
psychoneurotic factors is not present at this stage but, if the disability
develops further, what at first sight appeared to be purely an ocular
disorder takes on the aspect of a psychoneurosis. The oscillation
may then disappear and the condition becomes similar to that known
during the war as “ shell shock.” In the latter disorder, the report
states, the assumption, on insufficient evidence, that physical forces
produced nervous symptoms did so much harm that the term “ shell
shock” was prohibited; in miners’ nystagmus it is not sufficiently
recognized that the attribution of nervous symptoms to a physical
cause is a probable factor in the evolution of the compensated disease.
Recent work carried out by the British Industrial Health Research
Board has shown that the problem of psychoneurotic illness in indus­
try is a general one and it is of the utmost importance that the
psychological aspects not only of this disability among miners but of
similar conditions in other occupations should bd fully recognized.
In regard to suitable treatment, it is said,- the first step is to combat
the belief that the psychoneurotic symptoms are a direct physical
result of the oscillation of the eyeballs, and that recognition of the




STUDIES OF INDUSTRIAL DISEASES AND POISONS

337

validity of the mental symptoms will aid in the removal of their
expression in the physical sphere. This will give the patient the con­
fidence which is necessary for relief of his symptoms.
Nitrocellulose Lacquers and T h e ir H aza rd s

in the April 1932 issue of the Industrial Bulletin, pub­
lished by the New York Department of Labor, describes the composi­
tion of nitrocellulose lacquers and shows the relative hazards of the
different constituents.
The general use of nitrocellulose or pyroxylin lacquers for spray
painting and dipping has revolutionized the painting industry and has
resulted in a change in working conditions, with new health hazards
and possible fire hazards from the volatile ingredients.
The ordinary lacquer contains five basic parts, having the following
uses in the production of the lacquer: (a) Nitrocellulose, forming about
10 percent of the lacquer, gives a waterproof quality, hardness, and
durability; (6) solvents and diluents, 77 percent, dissolve the nitro­
cellulose and gums and give quick-drying properties; (c) gums or resins,
5 percent, thicken the lacquer and increase its adhesive properties;
(d ) softeners or “ plasticizers” , 5 percent, prevent brittleness; (e) pig­
ments or coloring materials, 3 percent, give color and add to the dura­
bility of the coating. It is seen from the percentages given for the
different materials that the volatile ingredients form about 77 per­
cent, by weight, of the material, and the amount of volatile matter is
still further increased before use by the addition of other solvents or
diluents of the same nature, called “ thinners” , in the proportion of
1, 2, or 3 parts of thinner to 1 part of lacquer.
Nitrocellulose, prepared by treating cotton or some other form of
cellulose with nitric acid, is made up in different types of compounds
which vary as to solubility, viscosity, and nitrogen contents. These
different types of nitrocellulose are used for coating different kinds of
materials. They are highly flammable, are unstable, and if subjected
to high temperatures, are liable to spontaneous ignition. The danger
of fire forms the principal hazard from the nitrocellulose.
The pigments in most lacquers do not form a special hazard as they
are free of lead, with the possible exception of the yellow, green, and
orange lacquers, and some metal primers and surfacers. Some of the
more common pigments in use are zinc oxide, titanium oxide, whiting,
barium sulphate, aniline lake colors, aluminum or bronze powders,
and prussian blue.
The gums and resins most used are rosin, elemi, dammar, copal,
kauri, and ester resins. These products offer no industrial hazard.
“ Plasticizers” or softeners such as the nondrying castor or rapeseed
oils, or high boiling phosphate, phthalate, or tartrate esters are prac­
tically nonvolatile and are also considered free from health hazards.
The solvents and diluents in lacquers present the chief hazards to
be found in the use of these coating products. The principal solvents
used are: Acetone, amyl acetate, butyl acetate, ethyl acetate, ethylene
glycol monoethyl ether, ethylene glycol monomethyl ether, ethylene
glycol monoethyl ether acetate, iso amyl acetate, iso propyl acetate,
methyl acetate, mythyl oxybutrate, pentacetate, secondary butyl
acetate. The diluents used include amyl alcohol, wood alcohol,
denatured ethyl alcohol, benzol, butyl alcohol, petroleum naphtha,
secondary butyl alcohol, toluol, and xylol.
An

a r t ic l e

19 2 0 5 — 36-------2 3




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INDUSTRIAL HEALTH

The solvents are mainly esters produced by the combination of the
various alcohols with acetic acid. In general, these liquids are lighter
than water, colorless, volatile, varying in boiling point from about
134° F. to 338° F., and the majority of them have a choking effect
when breathed. The hydrocarbons and alcohols are diluents and in
general, are, like the solvents, readily volatile liquids, which are color­
less, lighter than water, and vary in boiling point, and are considered
the most harmful of the different constituents of the lacquers. Until
a few years ago benzol was the principal diluent, but with an under­
standing of its extreme toxicity it has been largely replaced by others,
the principal one in use now being petroleum naphtha. However, all
lacquer vapors are toxic, or at least narcotic, if inhaled in a sufficiently
concentrated state for a long enough period of time.
O s m iu m Tetro xid e (O s m ic A c id ) H aza rd s
A n a r t i c l e on the toxicity of osmium in the May 1933 issue of the
Journal of Industrial Hygiene gave the results of various animal ex­
periments with this metal which, it was said, has comparatively few uses
in the industries and the arts at present, but may possibly develop
much wider industrial use.
The element osmium has, at present, four principal uses, which are,
in the order of their importance, in the manufacture of pen tips, as a
fixing and staining agent in pathological and histological work, in the
manufacture of electrical contacts, and in fingerprinting. In addition
to the exposure of persons engaged in these activities, there is a rather
limited group of chemists and metallurgists who are engaged in re­
fining the natural alloys and preparing the compounds of osmium for
commercial purposes.
The metal is extremely hard and, because of this and its high
melting point, it is used in making pen tips and electrical contacts,
while the tetroxide is employed in its other uses. Metallic osmium
when heated in air or oxygen or acted upon by oxidizing agents forms
osmium tetroxide. When the metal is in the form of osmium sponge
or powder, osmium tetroxide, the so-called “ osmic acid” , is developed
slowly at room temperature. This oxide is highly volatile, is some­
what soluble in water, and the solution gives off osmium tetroxide
without application of heat. All the hazards connected with the use
of osmium are the result of this tendency to form the toxic volatile
osmium tetroxide.
There are two types of poisoning—the acute and subacute forms—
but this study dealt only with acute poisoning. The objective
symptoms are produced by the action of the irritant gas directly upon
the exposed mucous surfaces and skin and upon the entire respiratory
tract, and by its indirect action on the kidneys. The principal effects
in man are acute conjunctivitis, inflammation of the cornea, ulcer
of the cornea, inflammation of the trachea, bronchitis, pneumonia,
nephritis, and dermatitis.
As already stated, the metallic osmium, when exposed to the air in
the form of sponge, forms the toxic tetroxide even at room tempera­
ture, and the metal in the form of a natural osmium-iridium alloy or
the prepared alloy also gives off osmium tetroxide at the slight heat
required for annealing.




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339

The experimental study proved the serious effects of the poison
upon the respiratory system, pulmonary lesions being the cause of
death in the experimental animals, although it is said that from the
standpoint of industrial medicine the eye effects are of much greater
importance. Cases of permanent blindness have been reported, and
visual defects have been attributed to the vapor, but the majority
of the cases present only the condition produced by minute amounts.
The effect of exposure of the experimental animals to varying
amounts of the osmic acid was to cause death in periods varying from
30 hours to 4 days, according to the degree of exposure. All of the ani­
mals showed evidence of acute irritation shortly after the beginning of
exposure, soon becoming semicomatose, but recovering to an apparently
normal condition soon after exposure ceased. However, after varying
intervals, evidence of pulmonary involvement developed which lasted
until death occurred.
It is stated that, in view of the hazard connected with heating
metallic osmium or its oxides in air, adequate protective measures
should be taken. Ordinarily protection can be afforded, it is said,
by a reliable down draft, preferably through a spray of 10 percent
sodium hydroxide, which absorbs the oxide and recovers enough of
the osmium to make it economically worth while. If there is exposure
to minute quantities only, airtight goggles protect the eyes sufficiently,
while for larger quantities a good gas mask with an “ allservice ”
canister gives adequate protection.
P neum oconiosis; D anger of Delayed Developm ent
T h e danger of the delayed development of silicosis, either with or
without tuberculosis involvement after short exposure to silica dusts,
was pointed out in an article in the Journal of the American Medical
Association for June 6, 1931.
It has been the general conclusion that, although there is great
variation in individual susceptibility and consequently in the length
of exposure necessary to produce clinical and roentgenographic evi­
dence of the existence of silicosis, it is rare for the disease to develop in
persons who have not been exposed for many years. This conclusion
is due to the fact that practically all of the studies of silicosis have
been made among groups of men still employed in dusty trades. Such
studies have shown an average duration of exposure of approximately
10 years. Statistics of this kind, however, do not show the late effect
of short exposures; that is, dmong men who change to nondusty
trades without having developed symptoms of the disease. Several
isolated cases of silicosis or silicosis and tuberculosis which developed
long after the original exposure ceased have been reported by different
writers, among them being a number of South African miners, who
showed no evidence of silicosis when they left work to go to war but
had definite symptoms of silicosis when they returned several years
later.
In this article the writers reported four cases of silicosis or silicosis
and tuberculosis which developed many years after exposures which
were relatively short. In the first case there had been an exposure of
only 4 months in drilling in a lead mine 23 years before. Although the
roentgenograms showed spots throughout both lungs, there was no
definite evidence of tuberculosis and many examinations of the sputum
failed to show tubercle bacilli. The rapid development of severe




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INDUSTRIAL HtiALTS

symptoms which included an afternoon fever, epigastric distress after
meals, and progressive loss of weight followed a bad cold which
settled in the chest.
The second case was that of a hotel porter who had been employed
for 2 years, 16 years before the beginning of symptoms, in a foundry in
which his job was cleaning bathtubs with a sand blast. His symptoms,
which began with a slight cough, were typical of silicosis and tubercu­
losis. As in the previous case an infection seemed to be the precipitat­
ing factor. The roentgenogram was characteristic of third-stage
pneumoconiosis and the infection was definitely tuberculous.
In the next case a laborer developed symptoms of silicosis 14 years
after an exposure of 4 years during which he had worked as a grinder
in a knife shop without taking any precautions against the dust
hazard. Since that employment he had been engaged in nondusty
work. He had been in good health throughout the years since his
first employment until he developed an acute upper respiratory infec­
tion of the influenza type. This developed into an extensive bron­
chitis and X-rays taken at this time showed extensive pneumoconiosis,
but there was no evidence of tuberculosis. As in the other two cases
the onset of symptoms coincided with an acute respiratory infection.
The remaining case was that of a laborer who had worked as a
knife grinder on a sandstone for 10 years, after which he had been
employed in work which did not present a dust hazard. But at the
end of 10 years, during which he had shown no symptoms of silicosis,
he was exposed to a tubercular infection, the onset of his symptoms
coinciding with the infection with the tubercle bacillus.
In conclusion, the writers stated that while most of the clinical and
statistical studies of silicosis have been made on persons still employed
in dusty trades, the present report of four cases of silicosis or silicosis
and tuberculosis which developed many years after the occurrence of
relatively short exposures to silica dust suggests the necessity of revis­
ing the opinion as to the length of exposure necessary to produce the
disease.
P u lm o n a ry Asbestosis
A n a r t i c l e on the clinical, radiological, and pathological features of
pulmonary asbestosis, by Dr. Philip Ellman, published in the Journal
of Industrial Hygiene, July 1933, presents evidence of the greatly in­
creased risk of tuberculosis among persons suffering from asbestosis.
Until recently it has been rather generally believed that complication
of tuberculosis with asbestosis was somewhat rare and that this was a
significant difference from the situation as regards silicosis, in which the
danger of the development of tuberculosis has been fully recognized.
The clinical features of the disease are given as the slow develop­
ment of a characteristic type of fibrosis in which the patient may be
comparatively free from symptoms for several years, usually from 5
to 15, although the writer has had cases following exposure of 1 to 3
years or less. The delayed effects of exposure to asbestos dust are
also pointed out, in some cases years elapsing after the worker has
left the industry before symptoms occur. The chief symptoms are
dyspnea (difficult breathing), which is one of the earliest evidences,
occurring at first only on exertion; cough of a harsh, nonproductive
character often associated with fleeting chest pains; loss of appetite;
cyanosis, amounting in these cases to a pronounced deadening of the




STUDIES OS' INDUSTRIAL DISEASES AND POISONS

341

skin, varying from mild bronzing to slight blueness; emaciation, with
a loss of weight out of all proportion to the physical signs; and clubbing
of the fingers in the more advanced cases. Asbestos corns form a
characteristic skin lesion. These are produced by asbestos fibers
which penetrate the skin and form corns on the hands and arms and
even the legs.
Upon examination the chest shows limited expansion, even below
1 inch, the movement being especially limited at the bases, where the
fibrosis commences. The fibrosis extends upward in the more ad­
vanced cases, but is usually confined to the lower and middle zones
of the lungs, and the apices are frequently retracted.
Radiography, which the writer thinks the most reliable diagnostic
aid, generally discloses the presence of a fine diffuse fibrosis. When
tuberculous infiltration complicates asbestosis, it can usually be
detected and distinguished from the underlying fibrosis just as in
cases of silicosis.
The highly characteristic golden-yellow asbestosis bodies found in
the sputum and fibrosed lungs of asbestos workers have bulbous en­
largements at the extremities somewhat resembling dumbbells and have
been found by various observers to vary in length from 20 to over 200
microns.3 An asbestos fiber forms the core of each body and the goldenyellow material covering each fiber contains an iron substance derived
from body tissues. The writer stated these bodies were found at all
autopsies upon cases of pulmonary asbestosis. The bodies are found
either singly or in clumps in the lung tissue, but in the sputum they
are usually found singly or in groups of 2 or 3. It is a remarkable fact
that the asbestosis bodies persist in the sputum for years even after
short periods of exposure.
Although the question of the complication of silicosis with tubercu­
losis has been rather an open one, it has been shown recently in animal
experiments that silica and asbestos dusts belong to a group of active
substances which produce lesions when introduced into the sub­
cutaneous tissues. Both produce serious pulmonary fibrosis and both
assist the growth of tubercle bacilli. Clinical evidence, the writer
states, would seem to support this experimental work, as there is
little doubt that an increasing number of cases of tuberculosis are
being seen in persons exposed to asbestos dust. These cases, it is
said, may not be met with in an examination of workers at work with
no symptoms, but are found oftener among persons who have left
work and are attending clinics. The writer states that among 17 of his
own definite cases of asbestosis, the majority of whom were not at
work, 6 had tuberculosis, 4 of these cases being active, and that his
own limited experience tends to show that tuberculosis, as a compli­
cation of asbestosis, is by no means uncommon. The existence of this
risk leads him to conclude “ that no person with tuberculosis in any
form should be allowed to enter the industry, nor should any one in
whom tuberculosis at a later stage is detected be permitted to con­
tinue in the industry. The risk here is to the other workers, as well
as to themselves/’
In regard to the probable course of the disease it is said the period
between exposure to the dust and a fatal termination is only about
one-half of that of silicosis. The asbestos dust taken into the lungs
* M icron=1/25400 inch.




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INDUSTRIAL HEALTH

produces the pulmonary fibrosis as the result either of actual mechani­
cal trauma or of a toxic effect similar to that exerted by silica in cases
of silicosis. The disease is a progressive one and, if sufficient dust is
present, ends fatally, usually from some intercurrent complication
such as acute bronchopneumonia or phthisis. The difficult breathing
present in persons with established cases of asbestosis is usually out of
proportion to the clinical evidences of the disease, while in silicosis in
general the dyspnea becomes manifest only upon exertion even in
cases of advanced fibrosis. In conclusion it is said the pulmonary
asbestosis is a progressive disease with a bad prognosis and that its
treatment can be only symptomatic.
Radioactive Substances as a Cause of M a lig n a n t G ro w th s
V a r io u s studies of the effects of the industrial uses of radioactive
materials were made following the discovery in 1924 of a new occupa­
tional disease occurring in radium-dial painters in New Jersey. The
occupational aspects of the disease have been covered fairly completely
through the study by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics 4
and other investigations. Dr. Harrison S. Martland, chief medical
examiner of Essex County, N. J., who has been associated with the
treatment and examination of many of these cases and has published
numerous discussions of the findings in the cases, published an article 5
on the occurrence of malignancy in radioactive persons, which includes
a general review of data gathered in the study of the radium-dial
painters.
The method of poisoning in these cases was by ingestion as a result
of the general practice of pointing the brushes in the mouths. The
girls affected by the radium had swallowed the paint for periods of
from 1 to 4 years or more. Most of this paint was rapidly eliminated
through the gastro-intestinal tract, but a small amount “ was con­
tinually absorbed and eventually stored as an insoluble sulphate in
particulate or colloidal form in the main organs of the reticulo­
endothelial system and, above all, in the bones.” The deposits in the
bones were spread over the entire body, but there has been shown to
be an irregular distribution in the individual bones with often a con­
centration especially in the dense outer layer of the bone. Once
deposited in the bones, the radioactive material discharged its radia­
tions year after year with practically no diminution. Autopsies in
these cases have shown that lethal amount of radioactive substances
ranged from 10 to 180 micrograms estimated as radium element,
distributed over the entire skeleton. Because of the fact that dial
painters usually lived several years after leaving this work, the radio­
active substances found at death were limited to the bones, the organs
(like the liver and the spleen) which store the substance having
eliminated practically all these deposits. In former dial painters who
are still living and who are suffering from the radium poisoning, it is
estimated that the amounts of radium in the body are from 2 to 15 to
20 micrograms. It is possible to detect such small amounts in the
living person only by the use of electrometers.
4Monthly Labor Review, June 1929, pp. 20-61. A study of these cases by the U. S. Public Health Service
was also made.
6 The Occurrence of Malignancy in Radioactive Persons, by Harrison S. Martland, M . D . Reprinted
from the American Journal of Cancer, New York, October 1931.




STUDIES OF INDUSTRIAL DISEASES AND POISONS

343

The rays emitted by the deposits in the bones are about 92 percent
alpha and only 8 percent beta and gamma. The injury in these
occupational cases, therefore, is from the alpha rays, a type of radiation
which has never before been known to occur in human beings. Alpha
particles are said to be the most potent and destructive agent known
to science. They are discharged from the nuclei of the parent
radioactive atoms at an initial velocity equal to 12,000 to 18,000
miles per second. Biologically these rays are more destructive than
either beta or gamma rays, the relation being 10,000 to 100 to 1, so
that radioactive elements in such small quantities that the beta and
gamma rays are practically harmless will produce intense physiologic
effects through their alpha radiations. Mesothorium, which was
largely used in luminous paint, in equilibrium with radiothorium emits
five alpha particles as compared to four from radium, and also the
alpha rays have a greater velocity and penetration than those of
radium. In order to show the infinitesimal amount of radioactive
substance necessary to destroy life, the following illustration is given:
“ A milligram of radium bromide is not much larger than a small grain
of sand. One microgram is only one-thousandth as large, is invisible,
and cannot be detected by any known chemical method. It is neces­
sary to have only 10 micrograms, or one one-hundred-thousandth
of a gram, distributed over the entire skeleton to produce a horrible
death years after it has been ingested.”
In addition to the 18 fatalities, there are said to be some 30 former
employees of the New Jersey plant who were either suffering from
typical symptoms of radium poisoning in 1931 or who because of their
radioactivity might develop crippling or fatal lesions at any time. It is
not known, of course, how many girls who have gone to other parts of
the country may have died as a result of this poisoning, as the symp­
toms are so insidious and confusing that it is probable the cases would
not be properly diagnosed.
Differences Between the Early and Late Cases
T h e r e appears to be a decided difference in the effects of the radio­
activity between what Dr. Martland designates as the early and the
late cases. In the first 13 deaths, which occurred from 1922 to 1928
and which had developed in from 4 to 6 years after the girls had left
employment, the cases were characterized by the development of
jaw necroses and anemias. In these cases the preponderance of
mesothorium is considered to have been the cause of the intense
radiation osteitis (inflammation of the bone) which most often
appeared in the mouth, where the added possibility of bacterial
infection aided the development of extensive and intractible necrosis
of the jaw. In these cases there was also a leukopenic anemia of the
regenerative type. In the late cases, in which from 6 to 7 years have
elapsed since the termination of exposure, the patients seem to have
escaped the extensive necroses of the jaw and the fatal anemias,
but instead show chronic crippling bone lesions. These lesions are
most frequently present in bones which are most subject to weight,
pressure, and trauma. In these cases, while the anemias are of the
same regenerative type, they are milder. The difference in the
symptomatology of the early and late cases appears, from the electroscopic studies on radioactive persons during life and after death, to be




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INDUSTRIAL HEALTH

due to the preponderance of mesothorium or of radium. In the early
cases mesothorium predominated, while in the late cases only radium
has been detected in the post-mortem examinations. This is an
interesting point, since there is said to have been at first a strong
tendency among some of those interested in the production and
therapeutic use of radium to place the entire blame on mesothorium.
The occurrence of two deaths from bone sarcomas, one in 1924 and
the other in 1927, were reported in 1929. Since the end of 1929 there
have been three more deaths from bone sarcomas, and three other
cases have been reported. One of these cases is that of a dial painter
who in 1925 was described as a healthy case, but who since then
sustained a spontaneous fracture of the femur, at the site of which an
osteogenic sarcoma developed. In another case in which a similar
fracture was sustained, the fracture failed to unite and a sarcoma was
suspected, while in the third case an osteogenic sarcoma was found
in one of the pelvic bones. Dr. Martland states that “ it would now
appear that we have reached a point when we will no longer encounter
the anemias and jaw necroses seen in the earlier cases, but instead the
girls will appear with terrible, usually rapidly growing, embryonal or
anaplastic osteogenic sarcomas, the result of radioactivity.n
In describing radiation osteitis, the author says:
In a radioactive dial painter who has, for example, 10 micrograms of radio­
active substances deposited as insoluble sulphates in the entire skeleton, there
are constantly being ejected about 370,000 space-occupying alpha particles a
second, with a speed approximating 18,000 miles per second. This bombardment
which I have designated as an internal bombardment is continuous, and will last
for an indefinite period. For instance, in the year 3491 A. D., the skeleton will
still be giving off 185,000 alpha particles per second.

The effect of this bombardment is to cause successive changes in
the bone and the marrow. In the first stage, owing to the change in
the type and character of the blood cells, a hyperplastic red marrow
is formed and the change in the type of the blood cells thrown into
the blood stream causes a blood picture similar to Addisonian anemia.
The second stage of the radiation osteitis is the formation of patchy
areas over the skeleton which can with difficulty be distinguished from
sarcoma and in which areas the sarcoma arises, while finally in the
third stage the marrow is replaced by a noncellular fibrous tissue and
the bones become soft, partially decalcified, and bone deformities and
spontaneous fractures are likely to occur.
Other Cases of Radium Poisoning
I n a d d i t i o n to the fact that the internal alpha radiation has this
effect upon the development of malignancy in bones, an interesting
point was brought out in connection with the incidence of primary
carcinoma of the lungs in the cobalt miners of Schneeberg, Saxony,
and in the pitchblende mines of Joachimsthal, Bohemia. About 1930
or 1931 the possibility had been suggested that the radioactive
element in the ores mined in these localities was responsible for the
lung cancer in these workers. The fact that an occupational disease
existed among these workers has been recognized for centuries. An
official investigation was made several years ago in which 154 miners
were subjected to modern methods of diagnosis. During the period
of study (3% years) 21 of the miners died, and in 13 cases, or 62 per­
cent, a diagnosis of carcinoma of the lung was established at the




STUDIES OF INDUSTRIAL DISEASES AND POISONS

345

autopsy. Many theories have been advanced as to the cause of these
cancers, but in view of the fact that the ore is radioactive and there
is a certain amount of radioactivity in the air of these mines, together
with the points of similarity between the carcinomas of the miners
and the sarcomas of the radium-dial painters, it is now believed that
the radioactive emanation is the causative factor.
Conclusions
I n s u m m i n g up the studies Dr. Martland states that the findings
indicate that it is important to have proper medical supervision over
the use of radium and X-rays for therapeutic purposes, and govern­
mental control over industries and occupations in which there is
exposure to radioactive substances. The use of these substances for
treatment, he believes, should be confined to hospitals and institutions
which specialize in and are competent to handle such treatments,
while in their industrial use there should be strict control and, if the
exposure cannot be reduced to a safety minimum, the procedure
should be changed, or, if this cannot be done, the industry should be
discontinued.

Silicosis A m o n g U n d e rg ro u n d M in e rs as an En gin e e rin g
P roblem
A n y or all dusts may be injurious to health, and the principal factor
in dust disease is the quantity breathed, so that, while some damage
may be caused by solution or chemical processes, the main cause is
physical rather than chemical. These conclusions were expressed in
a paper presented before the construction section of the National
Safety Council at Chicago, 111., on October 2, 1933, by Daniel
Harrington, chief, Health and Safety Branch, United States Bureau
of Mines.6
It is asserted that the solution of this serious and wide-spread
industrial health problem is consequently an engineering problem
and should be readily accomplished through cooperative efforts of the
engineer, the worker, and the employer.
The paper discusses both quality and quantity of dusts in showing
the possible injury from any kind of dust if present in the air in
minute form and breathed in large quantity over long periods
of time, though it is admitted that hard, sharp, and insoluble material,
such as flint or silica, may be more harmful than coal, limestone, or
shale dust, if present in similar quantities. Reference was made to
examinations of coal miners, disclosing nasal, throat, or bronchial
trouble, and even miners’ consumption.
Attention is also called to the attitude of some employers, who deny
the existence of any dust diseases among their employees, and of the
miners themselves, who frequently oppose all attempts at physical
examinations or the use of any remedial equipment or methods. It is
claimed that there appears in many instances a concerted effdrt to
hide the facts.
6Occupational Disease Hazard of Silocosis in Construction Operations, and Its Prevention. Published
by permission of the Director, United States Bureau of Mines. Washington, 1933. (Mimeographed.)




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INDUSTRIAL HEALTH

Measures listed as essential for the prevention of dust diseases are:
Use of water in drilling, or in sprinkling surfaces, or in connection
with processes; adequate ventilation to remove fine dust particles in
the air; installation of best available equipment for the prevention of
dust formation; physical examination of workers and transfer of
affected persons to nondusty operations; and disinterested investiga­
tions to obtain dependable data for use in the regulation of conditions.
Silicosis: T h re e A cu te Cases
A l t h o u g h the danger of the development of chronic silicosis after
long-continued exposure to silica dust has been known for many
years, it is only within a recent period that the hazard of short ex­
posure to dusts containing silica has been recognized. Three cases of
acute silicosis were reported,7 which developed in a factory manufac­
turing scouring soaps or powders.
The first case reported is that of a young man who was employed
in November 1928 to mix dry silica and soap in an open machine.
No protective measures were taken and he worked, therefore, in a
very dusty atmosphere. He continued at this work without protec­
tion and in the summer of 1930 an irritative dry cough and labored
breathing developed. These symptoms became rapidly worse, and
in January 1931, 26 months after beginning employment in this plant,
he was incapacitated for work. An X-ray of the chest at that time
showed advanced silicosis. The case was reported to the authorities
and in March the machines in the plant were condemned and pro­
duction stopped. Upon admission of the patient to the hospital in
October 1931, tests for the presence of tubercle bacilli were negative
but the roentgenograms showed that the middle four-fifths of both
lung fields were obliterated and that only the apexes of the lungs and
the portions just above the diaphragm were receiving air. The
patient was placed in an oxygen tent to relieve the labored breathing
but lived only 18 days after entering the hospital. At autopsy the
lungs were found to be about half the normal size, the middle portions
of the lungs being shrunken and fibrotic and of almost the hardness of
stone. Upon being cut, these parts of the lung were found to be very
firm and gritty.
The second case was that of a middle-aged workman who had been
employed for 10 years as a foreman in the same plant prior to being
placed in charge, in December 1926, of two new machines used to
mix silica and soap. He assisted in the operation of these machines
but spent several hours daily in other parts of the plant. Eight
months later difficult breathing and a cough developed, which pro­
gressed until he was capable of only a limited amount of work. In
June 1930, he was seriously ill with pneumonia, his case requiring a
long period of convalescence, and in December 1931, after contracting
an ordinary cold, he was admitted to the hospital. No tubercle bacilli
were found in the sputum, but an X-ray of the chest showed that the
uppef two-thirds of the right lung were dense and slightly mottled,
and that there were also areas of denseness in the left lung. The
findings of the examination indicated advanced silicosis. Death
occurred about a week after admission to the hospital but an autopsy
was not obtained.
7
Journal of the American Medical Association, Apr. 23, 1932, pp. 1439,1441: Acute Silicosis, by Earle M .
Chapman, M . D.




STUDIES OF INDUSTRIAL DISEASES AND POISONS

347

The third case, that of a man aged 27, was first seen in November
1931. This man had worked at the same mixing machines as the
other two for about 9 months in 1927, and from March 1928 until the
latter part of 1930. During the last year that he worked in the
plant he suffered from dyspnea and a cough with mucopurulent spu­
tum which was profuse in damp weather. The clinical examination
indicated that the patient had acute silicosis although the X-ray
picture failed to establish a positive diagnosis. Hypertrophy of the
heart was revealed, however, by the radiograph and this was con­
sidered to be due to the increased resistance and loss of elasticity in
the pulmonary vascular bed. This finding was important in arriving
at a diagnosis of the disease in this patient.
In commenting upon the three cases, Dr. Chapman said that the
appearance of respiratory symptoms after 8, 21, and 29 months'
exposure to an alkaline dust of high silica content shows a more
rapidly severe silicosis than is usual, although a fully developed case
of the disease after 8 months' exposure has been reported in a lens
grinder who was exposed to pure quartz dust for this length of time.
The rapidly fatal cases of two young girls who were employed in
England in packing a similar cleaning powder are also eited.8 The
severity of the respiratory symptoms is said to be shown by the
marked decrease in the vital capacity in the three cases, in the first
of which the loss was greater than is usually seen in cases of uncom­
plicated cardiac failure.
Silicosis in the G ra n ite and F o u n d ry Ind u strie s of
M assachusetts

A s p e c i a l commission established by the Legislature of Massa­
chusetts and approved by the Governor on July 12, 1933, to
investigate the problems of diseases caused by dust in the granite and
foundry industries, of protection against such diseases, and of com­
pensation insurance in these industries and for industrial diseases in
general, submitted its report9 to the general court of Massachusetts
on February 1, 1934.
The commission found that conditions in the three-hundred-andodd granite establishments of the State with regard to control of
harmful dusts were extremely bad and that, with the exception of one
building in a single plant, a safe workplace could not be found any­
where. It concluded that the dust-control installation in this build­
ing proved that the dust hazard can be almost eliminated in prac­
tically any type of granite-cutting operation through intelligent
engineering principles combined with adequate maintenance and
supervision. Proper exhaust ventilation is advocated.
While conditions were found generally better in the foundry indus­
try, the survey showed that the recognized methods of dust control
were not followed in many of the 227 plants, and were inadequately
maintained in even the best-equipped establishments. The com­
mittee recommended substitution of nonhazardous processes where
possible, isolation of the hazardous processes, and the use of approved
respiratory devices.
8See Monthly Labor Review, December 1930, pp. 93-95.
9Massachusetts. Special Industrial Disease Commission. Report to the General Court. Boston, Feb­
ruary 1934. (House No. 1350.)




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INDUSTRIAL HEALTH

In accordance with the resolve providing for the investigation, the
committee recommended that legislation be enacted—
1. Authorizing the department of labor and industries to prepare
and issue preventive rules and regulations.
2. Requiring operators in the granite and foundry industries to
procure revocable certificates of compliance.
3. Making workmen’s compensation compulsory in the granite,
foundry, and other hazardous industries.
4. Requiring carriers writing workmen’s compensation insurance to
accept undesirable but insurable risks, and providing equitable dis­
tribution of occupational disease losses among such companies.
5. Providing for physical examination of workers in the granite and
foundry industries, and for financial and other assistance for such
workers found physically unfit to continue in such employment.
6. Restricting compensation coverage for pulmonary disability.
7. Authorizing the department of labor and industries to make
investigations.
8. Authorizing payment of fees to physicians for reports of disease.
9. Authorizing the commissioner of insurance to approve merit
rating and restricting the cancelation of workmen’s compensation
insurance policies.
10. Establishing a division of occupational hygiene in the depart­
ment of labor and industry.
11. Adding a medical staff to the division of adult hygiene of the
department of public health.
12. Establishing a medical board of review.
13. Authorizing the department of industrial accidents to prepare
statistics on occupational injuries.
The committee had been created as a result of the realization of the
silicosis menace. A constant increase in claims for disability from
silicosis in the granite industry of the State had caused advances in
compensation-insurance premium rates from $2.84 per $100 of pay roll
before December 5, 1927, to $10 in 1930 and later to $12. Even this
rate was inadequate. B y the spring of 1933 nearly every insurance
company had withdrawn from the field, and (with the exception of a
few firms) coverage could be obtained only at a rate based on expected
total incapacity of the workers then employed within a 10-year
working period. This rate was regarded by the employers as beyond
their means, and the employees were consequently deprived of insur­
ance against the results of occupational disease and of the means of
reimbursement through the workmen’s compensation law in cases of
injury through accident.
A partial investigation of granite establishments had been made in
1932 by the department of labor and industries. This was extended,
dust counts were made, equipment was inspected, and operations were
analyzed. Physical examinations were made of 961 of the 2,100
granite workers and of 1,614 of the 6,700 foundry workers in the State.
The survey disclosed that 146, or 15.2 percent, of the 961 granite
workers examined suffered from silicosis; 73, or 7.6 percent, from sili­
cosis complicated with tuberculosis; 13, or 1.4 percent, from tubercu­
losis. Additional silicosis suspects numbered 122, or 12.7 percent;
and 4 others, or 0.4 percent, were considered as tuberculosis suspects;
leaving 603 workers, or 62.7 percent of the total examined, classed as
negative, but including 71 workers whose X-ray films were unsatis­
factory.



STUDIES OE INDUSTRIAL DISEASES AND POISONS

349

X-ray examinations of foundry workers showed 143, or 8.8 percent,
with silicosis; 42, or 2.6 percent, with silicosis and tuberculosis; 14, or
0.9 percent, with tuberculosis; 175, or 10.9 percent, as silicosis sus­
pects; and 10, or 0.6 percent, as tuberculosis suspects; leaving 1,230,
or 76.2 percent, negative.
It was found the presence of silicosis, uncomplicated or combined
with tuberculosis, is positively correlated with the duration of exposure
and dust concentration among the granite workers; and that tubercu­
losis was the final cause of death in more than one-third of all granite
workers, a proportionate mortality three times that in foundry workers
and four times that in all males of 20 years or over.
Among foundry workers silicosis was found to be less frequent and
also less advanced in degree; but, while the proportionate mortality
from tuberculosis was above the general average, the final cause of
death in about one-fourth of all foundry workers was pneumonia.
Silicosis and Tub erculo sis A m o n g M in e rs in O k la h o m a , Kansas,
and M is s o u ri1
0

A s t u d y of the prevalence of silicosis and tuberculosis among
miners in the tri-State mining district, located in southwestern Mis­
souri, southeastern Kansas, and northeastern Oklahoma, was made
by the United States Bureau of Mines in cooperation with the Metro­
politan Life Insurance Co. and the Tri-State Zinc and Lead Ore
Producers Association.
Two reports, issued in 1933, dealt with the data obtained by physical
examination of men employed in the lead and zinc mines of the Picher
mining district of Oklahoma and Kansas. A small clinic was estab­
lished at Picher in 1924, and in 1927 the facilities of the clinic were
enlarged so that the necessary examinations and treatment could be
given.
The reports cover the years ended June 30, 1928 and 1929, the
number of men given physical examinations in the 2 years being 7,722
and 8,853, respectively. In 1928, 1,647, or 21.3 percent of those
examined, were definitely diagnosed as having silicosis, while 267 were
diagnosed as having silicosis complicated with tuberculosis, and 104 as
having tuberculosis without silicosis. Of the 5,113 men examined in
1929, 1,116, or 21.8 percent, were found to be suffering from silicosis,
138 from silicosis complicated with tuberculosis, and 46 from tuber­
culosis alone. Only 2,999 of the men examined in 1928 were at work
in the mines in 1929.
Silicosis has been divided arbitrarily into various stages in different
countries. In the United States it is divided into three stages: (1)
That in which there are definite physical signs of damage to the lungs
from the dust; (2) that in which the capacity for work is impaired by
the disease, though not seriously; and (3) that in which the capacity
for work has been seriously and permanently impaired.
The subjective symptoms of the disease, particularly in the early
stages, are vague and less frequent than would be expected from the
X-ray findings. The incidence of cases with a cough increases with
advance in silicosis or in silicosis and tuberculosis. Difficult or labored
breathing has long been considered the major symptom of silicosis.
The presence of this symptom is noticeable in the first and second
io
U. S. Bureau of Mines. Technical Papers Nos. 545 and 552: Silicosis and Tuberculosis Among Miners
of the Tri-State District of Oklahoma, Kansas, and Missouri. Washington, 1933.




350

INDUSTRIAL HEALTH

stages; it is always present in third-stage cases, and many show distress
on the least exertion. The incidence of dyspnea increases when sili­
cosis becomes complicated with tuberculosis. With the advance in
the silicosis the dyspnea becomes more severe and in the final stage the
fight for breath overshadows all other symptoms. In uncomplicated
cases of silicosis there is little expectoration but this increases if the
silicosis becomes complicated with tuberculosis or other infection.
Hemorrhage is more general in silicotics than would be expected,
amounting to 3.12 percent in advanced cases, but although the men
believe the blood is from the lungs, in many cases it comes from the
nose, and throat. The incidence of this symptom increases when the
silicosis becomes complicated with tuberculosis. Loss of strength in
silicotics is believed to be due to the dyspnea and not to muscular
weakness as is the case in tuberculosis. Various gastro-intestinal
symptoms, such as are commonly grouped under the term “ indiges­
tion” , are common, but the symptom of this type most frequently
mentioned is loss of appetite. Pain in the anterior part of the chest is
a common symptom although the pain is vague and flitting. Night
sweats are reported occasionally but it is considered doubtful if they
are associated with uncomplicated silicosis. Head and chest colds are
frequent in cases of silicosis, the percentage of those complaining of
frequent colds ranging from 24.23 in first-stage silicosis to 48.85 in
third-stage silicosis. None of these symptoms are constant findings
but one or more are usually present, especially in the later stages of the
disease.
It is stated in the report that “ the appearance of perfect health
with marked pathology revealed by X-ray examination is a symptom
of considerable diagnostic importance. Silicotics appear healthy,
have ruddy complexions and red lips, are unusually muscular, and
stand more erect than the average person. The data obtained tend to
confirm these observations and further to show that even after silicosis
becomes complicated with tuberculosis marked emaciation and anemia
are not noted as frequently as in tuberculosis uncomplicated with
silicosis.”
An interesting point brought out by the examinations was the rela­
tion of coal dust to the development of silicosis. It has been thought
by some authorities that coal dust is not only harmless but prevents
silicosis. Of the men examined in the 2-year period, 1,244 had for­
merly worked in coal mines. It was found that there was “ a definite
increase in the incidence of silicosis among former coal miners and a
small increase in silicosis plus tuberculosis and in uncomplicated
tuberculosis for both years. The total number of years the former
coal miners worked in coal and hard rock before silicosis developed
approximates closely the number worked by hard-rock miners, but
the period the ex-coalminers worked in hard rock before silicosis
developed was much shorter than for men who had worked in hard
rock only.”
S k in Disease fro m B ra z ilia n W a ln u t W ood
A n o u tb r ea k of dermatitis early in 1931, in a cabinetmaking plant
employing about 100 men, led to an investigation 11 of the causes by
1 U. S. Public Health Service. Public Health Reports, Aug. 14,1931.
1
Contact with Brazilian Walnut Wood, by Louis Schwartz, senior surgeon.




Dermatitis Venenata Due to

STUDIES OF INDUSTRIAL DISEASES AND POISONS

351

the United States Public Health Service. At the time the cases
occurred the men were working on Brazilian walnut.
The cases, 11 in all, developed in from 2 days to 2 weeks from the
beginning of exposure. The workers who were mainly affected were
those who came in contact with the sawdust and those who sand­
papered the wood. In addition to those who developed the dermatitis,
many of those working in the room developed a coryza and sneezing
while at work. The first symptoms were burning and itching of the
face and eyelids, which in some cases were limited to those parts but in
others spread to the hands, neck, and other exposed parts of the body.
In general, the men were not incapacitated for work but recovered after
a few weeks, from which it appeared that a tolerance to the wood
might be developed in susceptible individuals. In some cases there
was swelling of the face and eyelids and the itching and burning was
accompanied by a papular, scaly eruption. The dermatitis was so
severe in three cases that work had to be given up for a time.
Patch tests of the irritative quality of the sawdust were made on
three volunteers. There was a positive reaction under the patch at
the end of 24 hours in each case, which varied from a mild redness of
the skin with a few small blisters, which lasted only 1 day, to a very
marked erythema lasting more than a week.
S u lp h u r Dioxide— Effects of Prolonged Exposure
T h e common use of sulphur dioxide as a refrigerant, with its conse­
quent introduction into the household, together with the continual or
frequent exposure of workers to sulphur dioxide in certain trades,
notably the refrigerator industry, led to a study 12 designed to show
the extent of residual or permanent damage, if any, occurring among
persons subject to such exposures. The study was carried out in the
factory of one of the large manufacturers of electric refrigerators.
Conditions for the study were found to be highly satisfactory, since
there was a large number of workers who had had long exposure to
a known basic concentration of the gas as well as frequent exposure to
high concentrations for short periods.
One hundred subjects were chosen for examination on the basis of
severity and duration of exposure, 47 of whom had had from 4 to 12
years of exposure. The majority of these workers came from the sul­
phur storage and distributing department, the refrigerating-unit
charging department, and the repair department.
The charging department, from which a large proportion of the
exposed subjects were taken, had had an effective ventilating system
and a system of air analysis since 1927, and since that time the con­
centration of gas in the atmosphere had been lower and subject to
smaller fluctuations. An analysis of the air of this room during August
1929 showed a range of about 8 to 45 parts per million parts of air,
while in the winter months when the windows are closed the concentra­
tions were somewhat higher. The average concentration was also
increased during periods of rush production and when inexperienced
workers were being trained. The concentrations were generally higher
in the storage and distributing department than in the charging depart­
ment, with an average of about 30 parts per million. In the charging
12
The Journal of Industrial Hygiene, M ay 1932, pp. 159-173: On the Effects of Prolonged Exposure to
Sulphur Dioxide, by Robert A. Kehoe, Willard F. Machle, Karl Kitzmiller, and T. J. LeBlanc.




352

INDUSTRIAL HEALTH

and discharging departments and particularly in the repair depart­
ment there was liability, also, to brief but temporarily unendurable
exposure to sulphur dioxide from which the operator was obliged to
escape.
Exposure to sulphur dioxide results generally in acclimatization;
that is, the acquirement of the ability to endure the customary basic
exposure without great increase in the initial symptoms. The time
necessary for acclimatization varied considerably but in the exposed
group it was found that about 80 percent had become acclimatized.
The symptoms among the exposed group were divided into three
classes: Initial symptoms which developed before acclimatization,
symptoms arising from the minimum or usual exposure either with
or without acclimatization, and the symptoms arising from heavy
exposure.
The initial symptoms are confined to the respiratory tract, the most
frequent symptoms being irritation of the upper respiratory tract, fol­
lowed by coughing, hemorrhage from the nose, constriction in the
chest, and spitting of blood, the clinical importance of the symptoms
being almost the exact reverse of the order in which the symptoms
appear. A comparison of the general symptoms among the two
groups showed that many symptoms had no significance but there was
a significant increase among the exposed group of shortness of breath
upon exertion, increased fatigability, altered sense of taste or smell,
and increased sensitivity to other irritants.
It was found that exposure to the sulphur dioxide under the condi­
tions prevailing in the plant produced two separate sets of symptoms;
first, irritation of the upper respiratory tract, which is first acute,
becoming subacute or chronic; and second, systemic symptoms of a
mild type such as are associated with any type of increased acid
absorption or production in the tissues. In this connection “ the
high degree of correlation shown between the systemic symptoms and
the frequency of severe exposures indicates that the human organism
has a high degree of adaptability to a regular moderate exposure, and
that it suffers no apparent injury from such an exposure. In the case
of intense exposures, even though they occur frequently, there is no
evidence of damage of a serious or permanent type.”
There was no evidence that the persistent chronic rhinitis and phar­
yngitis which was present in many of the exposed group caused the
development of chronic disease of the lungs and bronchi and it was
considered, from the absence of such results, that the irritation of the
upper respiratory tract was not regularly associated with infectious
processes but that the persistent “ colds” reported by many of the
subjects were not colds in the ordinary sense but a chronic catarrh
due to chemical irritation.
The roentgenograms showed that there was no appreciable residual
injury to the lungs and bronchi resulting from inhalation of the sulphur
dioxide, although there can be no doubt that there is injury to the
pulmonary epithelium when high concentrations are inhaled. On the
basis of the numbers examined and the variety of exposure to which
they were subjected, it was concluded that there is no appreciable
health hazard in frequent or more or less continuous exposure to endur­
able concentrations of sulphur dioxide, and that the effects of exposure
to unendurable concentrations under conditions which allow of quick
escape are negligible.




STUDIES OF INDUSTRIAL DISEASES AND POISONS

353

V itre o u s E n a m e lin g H aza rd s

A s t u d y 13 of the hazards to which women are exposed in vitreous
enameling in the stove industry, made by the United States Women’s
Bureau, covered the enamel departments of 45 factories employing a
total of 1,330 women.
The facts in the study were brought out through an inspection of
the work places; the determination of the lead content in the enamel
used, whenever this was possible; and interviews with a large number
of women in their homes to determine, if possible, the effect the work
had had upon their health. Altogether 686 women were interviewed.
The women employed in enamel work fell into two groups—those
applying an enamel spray, not all of which contained lead, and those
employed as brushers who remove the excess of enamel after it has
dried. The sprayers are subjected to the greatest lead exposure, as
much of their work is done on cast iron which is covered with lead
enamel, while the brushers are chiefly employed on sheet iron on
which a leadless enamel is used. Comparisons were made* there­
fore, between the sprayers and brushers, as it seemed probable that
if there was any marked difference between these two groups of
women employed in the same establishments it could be assumed
that the lead was largely responsible. It must be remembered,
however, that the comparison is not between a perfectly normal
group and a group exposed to lead but between two groups of varying
degrees of exposure. In spite of this fact, it was considered that the
figures were decidedly significant. Thus, the report states:
Over 50 percent more sprayers than brushers complained of a metallic or sweet-»
ish taste, indigestion, constipation, and menstrual disturbance. Other findings
are that illness among the sprayers with symptoms suggestive of lead poisoning
was more prevalent than any other form, although in general industrial experience
the common cold always leads in frequency. The sprayers had a higher rate of
absences due to ill health than had the brushers, 18.5 percent of the sprayers
who left work doing so because of illness, while only 8.8 percent of the brushers
gave illness as the cause. A rather ominous finding is this: That among the spray­
ers, those between 16 and 18 years yielded the highest percentage of illness sugges­
tive of lead poisoning.

It has been shown by studies in this country and abroad that there
is greater susceptibility to lead poisoning among young persons. In
the industry studied it was found that more than one-fourth of the
women covered were under 20 years of age and more than half were
between 20 and 30 years; also an unusually large proportion of the
women were married, which is regarded as a serious feature of the
report as it has been known for more than a century that lead is a
race poison.
Of a total of 670 women reporting on whether or not they had
symptoms indicative of lead poisoning, 198 reported that they had one
or more symptoms. About one-third of these women reported a
single symptom, but more than one-fourth reported five or more.
Among those reporting 3 or more symptoms the 3 occurring most
frequently were loss of weight, indigestion, and metallic or sweet
taste. There was a considerable difference in the relative frequency
of certain symptoms among the sprayers and among the brushers, a
very much larger proportion of sprayers having constipation, indiges1 U. S. Women’s Bureau.
3
Washington, 1932.
19205— 36-------- 24




The Employment of Women in Vitreous Enameling, by Ethel L. Best.

354

INDUSTRIAL HEALTH

tion, nervousness, menstrual disturbance, metallic or sweet taste,
and loss of appetite. Among the brushers the two symptoms which
were most common were loss of weight and headache.
Dr. Alice Hamilton in the preface to the report states:
We may as well face the fact that the enameling of stoves, an industry of rapid
growth and with probably a great future expansion, is one which subjects a large
number of women to the danger of lead poisoning and that these women are not
under present conditions efficiently protected against the danger. Even under the
best conditions and supervision there will always be some danger; and therefore
the most practical suggestion which can be made to the men at the head of the
industry is that they substitute leadless enamel for lead enamel, a change which
is greatly facilitated by the change from cast iron to sheet metal, which has
already been made by a number of manufacturers.

W ood In d u s try : O ccup atio n a l Diseases
A n a c c o u n t of the effects of exposure of workers to the dusts or
resin of different woods was given in the September-October 1931
issue of the Bulletin of the International Union of Woodworkers
(Berlin).
Although it has been demonstrated repeatedly that many species of
wood, especially those growing in the Tropics, contain active poisons,
the actual number of cases of disease reported from this cause has
always been relatively small. The relative infrequency of diseases
reported as due to this cause is accounted for by the slow action of
many of the poisons, with the result that the cause of the disease is
lost sight of, and also by the fact that many physicians are not familiar
with the occupational conditions under which the disease was con­
tracted and do not, therefore, associate it with the occupation. It has
been difficult to carry out systematic research, because many tropical
woods have not been accurately classified and also because many of
these woods, although they are quite different botanically, are mar­
keted under the same commercial name either because their appearance
is similar or they are alike in some specific technical quality. There
is also a difference in individual susceptibility to the poisonous proper­
ties in these woods, some persons being entirely immune to their
effects, while in others the susceptibility is either constitutional or
is gradually acquired by working with the woods.
The most frequent symptoms of poisoning from wood are the various
forms of skin diseases. The skin affection may vary from a slight
reddish irritation to a general eczema. Eruptions resembling measles
or scarlet fever are often accompanied with intense itching and
pain, and when healing takes place there is scaling of the skin, which
may be repeated several times. Local lesions generally appear first
on all directly exposed parts of the body, but may spread to other
parts of the body either through absorption through the skin or by
being carried by the hands. In the more serious cases there may be
discharge of pus and scab formation, and in such cases there may be
digestive disturbances, including diabetes, kidney complaints, etc.,
and tuberculosis. Among the other general effects of the poisonous
woods are palpitation of the heart, shortness of breath, and dizziness.
Persons who have once suffered from eczema may develop a hyper­
sensitiveness, so that even working in a room where the poisonous
woods are being handled may cause a return of the disease. In some
cases even working with ordinary harmless woods will cause a recur­
rence, and in such cases the only remedy is complete change of work.




STUDIES OF INDUSTRIAL DISEASES AND POISONS

355

The harmful effect of the poisonous woods is due to the volatile
poisonous oils and alkaloids which they contain.
Among the woods which are recognized as being poisonous or
which are considered potentially harmful because of the elements
they contain are the following:
The wood of the date and coconut palms, which has dark stripes on
a white ground, and the almost black wood of the Tabago palm are all
marketed under the name of “ zebra wood.” These woods are used in
mosaic work and for buttons and walking sticks. They are believed
to be poisonous but may have been confused with zebrano or zebra
wood, which comes from Jamaica.
Moule wood (also known as “ iroko” , “ odum wood” , “ bang wood” ,
or “ momangi” ) is decidedly poisonous, causing irritation of the skin
and eyelids. This wood is considered one of the best building and
furniture woods from West Africa, being used as a substitute for teak.
Ironwood coming from the West Indies causes vomiting and inflam­
mation of the skin.
The fibrous inner bark of various members of the magnolia family,
including the wood of the tulip tree, contains a poisonous alkaloid.
West Indian greenheart, a very hard wood resembling lignum-vitae,
contains an alkaloid called “ bebeerine” which causes nausea, diarrhea,
and spasms.
A hard yellowish-red wood called “ Hydrangea paniculata” , used
in making tobacco pipes, is considered to contain a poison which has
an irritating effect on the mucous membranes.
Red gum, sometimes called “ amber wood” , or “ satin walnut” ,
causes blisters on the skin which, however, neither itch nor smart.
A large number of trees belonging to the Leguminosae family con­
tain poisonous properties. These include Indian rosewood or blackwood, one of the most valuable cabinet woods, which causes itching
and urticarial eruption; a hard, yellowish-brown wood—cytisus alpinus—which comes from central Europe and contains a powerful
poison, cytisine, which may cause inflammation of the throat, nausea,
stomach and head aches, retention or suppression of urine, giddiness,
and unconsciousness; and partridge or panako wood coming from
Brazil and Guiana, which contains an element irritating to the skin.
Saponine, which causes inflammation of the skin and general func­
tional disturbances, is found in an East Indian variety of ebony
known as “ siris” (or “ sirsa” ) wood, in Indian “ purple” or “ violet”
wood, and in African “ rose” or “ black” wood. From West Africa
comes a wood of reddish color used for veneering, which is called
“ red-water tree” , “ ordeal tree” , or “ sassy bark.” This wood con­
tains a strong poison which affects the heart. This poison is used
by the natives for ordeals or for poisoning arrows. It causes nausea,
headache, shortness of breath, a slowing down of the heart action,
dizziness, and loss of sensation in mucous membranes which are
directly exposed to it. The dark coccoloba from Central America
used in the manufacture of knife handles, brush tops, and similar
articles, may cause irritation of the skin with intense itching.
Satinwood from Guiana and the Antilles and ironwood from
Jamaica cause papulo-vesicular eruptions. Other trees of the Xanthoxylum or rue family are poisonous, arresting the sensory powers
of organic tissues and causing heart paralysis. One of the best
known of this species is zebrano or zebra wood from Jamaica. Aus-




356

INDUSTRIAL HEALTH

tralian moa or moha wood, a hard kind of teak, is suspected of being
poisonous, but there is a possibility of its having been confused with
certain Ceylon and Malabar varieties of teak which are also marketed
under the name of moa. Indian satinwood is said to be probably
the first wood to have received scientific study of its toxic effects.
This is a heavy wood of sandy color containing an alkaloid called
“ chloroxylonin” , which causes intensely itching papulovesicular erup­
tions. The dermatitis may be accompanied by nervous irritability.
The white wood of Excoecaria agallocha, belonging to the Euphor­
bia family, contains a corrosive milky juice which may cause danger­
ous ocular irritation.
A beautiful reddish Indian wood called “ renghas wood” contains a
strong poison which causes itching eruptions and even wounds. Se­
vere cases of eruptions have been reported in persons using chairs
made from this wood which were several years old. The resin of
this wood contains caustic cardol compounds. Another member of
this species (Melanorrhea curitisii) causes burning pain, inflamma­
tion, pustules, fever, and general disturbances within 24 hours from
the beginning of exposure, and its toxic action is so strong it may
even cause death. In workers handling the timber it causes ulcers
which are difficult to heal. The sumach species of North America,
which belong to this family, are also extremely poisonous.
Amboyna wood, a very valuable cabinet wood of reddish-yellow
color, causes itching skin lesions.
Teak from Ceylon, which is sometimes marketed as moa or bassia
wood and which resembles mahogany, may cause very painful inflam­
mations of the skin, accompanied by swelling and the formation of
scabs. The poisoning is the result of the action of the nonsaturated
resinous acids which are present in a free state. Teak, or djati, which
is the color of chocolate, causes severe skin lesions which may last
some weeks.
Ebony from Bombay, Makassar, and Ceylon, belonging to the
Diospyros group, is likely to cause vesicular eruptions.
African boxwood, which is used in the manufacture of shuttles and
musical instruments, contains an alkaloid which causes paralysis of
the nerve cells; inflammation of the conjunctiva, respiratory passages,
nasal mucous membrane, and larynx; and shortness of breath, head­
ache, and mental depression.
West Indian greenheart, also called “ green ebony” , is used for
making walking sticks and for high-grade cabinetwork. Inflamma­
tion of the skin in those handling this wood is caused by the non­
saturated resinous acids which are present in the wood in a free
state. Other species of this wood are harmful on account of the alka­
loids which they contain.
Other woods which are suspected of being poisonous are East
Indian ironwood and the valuable brownish-red ironwood, or king’s
wood, which comes from Sumatra.




INDUSTRIAL HEALTH

357

Health of Workers in Dusty Trades

G

R A N IT E cutters showed by far the highest disability rate, espe­
cially for pulmonary tuberculosis; respiratory disease rates were
relatively high for anthracite miners and for employees of the Port­
land cement plant studied. The 8-day and longer respiratory disease
rates were not much above the average for male industrial workers
generally in the studies of other types of dust; that is, soft-coal min­
ing, a textile plant, silverware manufacturing, and street cleaning.
The above facts are shown in a series of six studies on the effects of
specific types of dust on the health of workers, completed in 1933 by
the United States Public Health Service, the results of which were
briefly summarized in the November 17, 1933, issue of Public Health
Reports. The dusts covered in the studies include cement dust,
siliceous dust in the granite-cutting industry, carbon dust in the
anthracite and bituminous coal industries, vegetable dust in cottoncloth manufacturing, dusts from silverware manufacturing processes,
and municipal dust to which street cleaners are exposed.
Physical examinations and X-rays were made of groups of workers
who were observed over a considerable period of time in order to
determine the character and severity of sickness they experienced so
that the illnesses could be correlated with occupational environment.
Dust determinations were of a uniform character so that it was pos­
sible to obtain a fairly accurate estimate of the dustiness of the
occupations, the upper and lower limits, and the changes which
might take place especially at different seasons of the year. Sick­
ness records were kept for each person in a group, and workers who
showed any evidence of lung pathology were placed in a special group
for further examination. In most of these special cases X-rays were
made of the chests and sputum examinations were made where
necessary.
The frequency of cases of respiratory disease causing disability for
more than 1 week was used as an index of the effect of dust exposure,
as it placed the emphasis upon the more serious disabilities and facili­
tated comparison with other industrial groups.
The nature of the respiratory diseases differed among perons exposed
to different types of dust. Thus, in granite-cutting plants the rate for
pulmonary tuberculosis was very high, in the hard-coal group the
rates were highest for influenza and bronchitis, and there was an
unusual frequency of influenza among employees of the cement plant,
in spiteeof the fact that there was no epidemic of consequence during
the periods in which records were kept.
An association between the amount and character of dust in the
working atmosphere and the health of the workers was shown by
the physical examinations and the X-ray findings. Serious physical
impairment was found where the workers were exposed for long
periods to large amounts of dust containing a high percentage of
quartz. In industries where the dust concentration and quartz per­
centage were relatively low only a mild fibrosis was found which in
most cases could not be regarded as due to the particular dust.
The following table gives estimates of the degree of the dust hazard
in the different studies.




358

INDUSTRIAL HEALTH

S U M M A R Y OF D E G R E E OF D U ST H AZAR D AS SH O W N IN SIX STUDIES B Y T H E
U N IT E D STATES PUBLIC H E A L T H SERVICE

Study

Granite cutting:
(a) Hand pneumatic
operators.
(6) Surface-machine
operators, etc.
(c) General air..............
(d) Less than general
air.
Anthracite:
Rock drillers--------------Miners and miners’
helpers.

Bituminous coal:
Rock drillers..... ........ . .

Average
dust
count in Average
millions percent­
age of
of
free
particles,
silica
per cubic (quartz)
foot
of air

59
36

20
9

Other character­
istics of dust

Degree of hazard^ (under conditions
as observed in each study)

(Great excess of pulmonary tubercu­
losis after 15 years or more expo
(Remainder mostsure; silicosis in from 2 to 10 years.
35 < ly c o m b in e d (Silicosis after prolonged exposure;
l with silica.
no excess of tuberculosis.
Negative except for occasional non­
disabling silicosis.

82

31

232

1.5

Siliceous rock_____ Data insufficient; other studies
show severe hazard.
Carbon and inor­ Dyspnea and other signs of pneu­
ganic matter.
moconiosis; excess sickness from
respiratory conditions; excess
mortality from influenza, pneu­
monia and possibly tuberculosis .

78

54

Sandstone________

Loaders and machine
men.

112

1.2

Carbon....................

Cement................... - ............

26

6-8

Primarily lime___

Cotton-cloth manufactur­
ing.
Silverware manufacturing.
Municipal.............................

5
4

1.7

Vegetable and sili­
ca.
Metal arid other...
Not determined...

7

Data insufficient; other studies in­
dicate severe hazard.
Generalized fibrosis chiefly linear
in character; excess mortality
from influenza and pneumonia.
Some early pneumoconiosis; excess
of diseases of upper respiratory
tract and of influenza.
Negative.
Do.
Do.

Effects of Different Temperatures on Health and
Efficiency

A

PAM PHLET issued by the Metropolitan Life Insurance Co.14
deals with the air conditions and temperatures which con­
tribute to the comfort and efficiency of workers.
The harmful effects of air conditions on the human body are the
result of abnormal deviations in its physical properties, such as air
pressure, gaseous constituents, and the piesence of impurities such
as dusts, disease-producing bacteria, and toxic gases. The physical
properties of the air which determine the comfort or discomfort felt
by the human body are the temperature, the moisture content, and
the rate of air movement. Formerly it was believed to be necessary
to control the air temperature only, without regard to its moisture
content or rate of movement, and certain degrees of temperature
were, therefore, recommended as standards. But it is now under­
stood that the moisture and air movement are also important. In
order that the human body may maintain a constant temperature,
the clothing must provide adjustable insulation for downward tem­
peratures, or provision must be made for adjusting the temperature of
rooms, while for the upward range of temperature the body must be
able to give off to the environment the excess of body heat. Prac­
tically all the excess of body heat is given off by radiation, by con1
4 Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. Policyholders Service Bureau. Industrial Health Series No. 5: Air
Conditions and the Comfort of Workers. New York [1932].




EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURES ON HEALTH AND EFFICIENCY

359

vection— that is, by diffusion through the motion of currents of air—
and by evaporation. The amount lost in each of these ways is deter­
mined by the temperature, the moisture content of the air, and the
amount of air movement. When the temperature of the environment
rises the radiation and convection decrease until, when the outside
temperature reaches that of the body, all loss by radiation and con­
vection is stopped and evaporation of water from the body surface
alone remains. When the surrounding temperature is higher than
that of the body the conditions are reversed and heat passes from the
air to the body.
It seems impossible to maintain a temperature for a group of
individuals which is acceptable to everyone, so that within a certain
range it is desirable to maintain the temperature of the work place
or other location at a point which is satisfactory to the larger number,
leaving the others to accommodate themselves to the selected condi­
tions by adjustment of clothing.
In winter it has generally been considered that a temperature range
between 68° and 72° F. is desirable for sedentary workers. It is
also considered advisable to provide a fair percentage of moisture in
the air, both because air low in moisture content tends to dry up the
mucous membranes of nose, throat, and lungs, thus lowering the
resistance of these organs to infection, and because it has been demon­
strated that comfort demands higher temperatures when the per­
centage of moisture is low. Excessive humidity, on the other hand,
is undesirable because it interferes with the normal evaporation of
moisture from the skin. A range of relative humidities between
40 and 60 percent is considered to be practicable and acceptable and
an air movement of about 25 to 35 linear feet per minute is regarded
as usually satisfactory. In summer the maintenance of such tem­
peratures indoors is undesirable whenever the out-of-door tempera­
ture is excessively high, because of the sensations of intense heat or
of chill experienced on leaving such a building. On this account the
indoor temperature should not be reduced more than 10° to 15° below
the outside temperature under maximum outside conditions.
Engineers have correlated the physiologic responses of the body to
a great variety of environmental temperature conditions and have
decided upon the temperature, humidity, and air-motion combinations
which give equal sensations of warmth or cold. The index of these
conditions has been named the “ effective temperature.”
Experiments on human subjects exposed to unusual temperatures
and humidities under accurately controlled conditions have shown
that these persons lost physiological efficiency beyond certain tem­
perature limits. The upper limit for a man at rest and in still air
is about 90° F., saturated or effective temperature. This upper limit
is raised to about 95° if an air circulation equal to 200 feet per minute
is set up, due to the cooling effect of air motion, and the limit is raised
still higher if the air velocity is doubled. If physical work is done
it was found that the limit of heat which can be endured physiologi­
cally falls considerably below 90° and if muscular work of .90,000
foot-pounds an hour is performed the limit is about 80° effective
temperature. These temperature limits will be slightly modified by
seasonal variations and differences in clothing. Above these tem­
perature limits the mechanism of the body becomes affected by the
overheating; while the body makes strenuous efforts to resist the rise




360

INDUSTRIAL HEALTH

in its temperature by evaporation from the surface through perspira­
tion, the limit of the effect of this action is reached in temperatures
exceeding the above limits, with the result that physiological reactions
occur.
The most apparent of these reactions occurs in the circulatory
systems, evidently starting with the rise in skin temperature. There
is an increase in the heart rate, flushing of the skin, and profuse
sweating, and as sweating continues the volume of the circulatory
blood supply may be substantially reduced through loss of water
from the blood. As this results in insufficient blood returning through
the veins, the heart compensates for the loss by beating faster. It
is considered probable that under these circumstances the surface
blood vessels fail to maintain their tension as shown by the fall of the
diastolic (dilation) blood pressure and the rise in the systolic (con­
traction) blood pressure. A rise in the body temperature accompanies
these changes in the circulation.
The degree of discomfort felt by the subjects of the experiments
appeared to be better determined by the increase in the pulse rate
than by the rise in body temperature. When the pulse rate exceeded
135 beats a minute, the subjects complained of discomfort, headache,
palpitation of the heart, and extreme thirst, and became restless and
irritable. With an increase in the pulse rate to over 160 beats a
minute, the condition became distressing and unbearable, with dizzi­
ness and confusion, followed frequently by nausea and numbness or
soreness of the face. Increase in the severity of the test beyond this
point caused a feeling of “ floating in the air” and the experiments
were stopped because of fear of heat stroke.
There was a slight increase in internal temperature when the sub­
jects left the test chamber, but the pulse rate dropped rapidly and
there was immediate improvement in their condition which returned
to normal in a short time. The principal after effect was lassitude and
extreme thirst, although the free drinking of water during the ex­
posures apparently had little or no effect on delaying the other physio­
logical reactions.
The necessity for controlling unfavorable temperature conditions
is shown by these few examples of the many changes which occur
within the human body when subjected to conditions which prevent
the usual loss of surplus body heat. Even when these body changes
are very slight it has been found that the disturbances of the body
functions exert a marked effect on human efficiency. The experi­
ments showed that the maximum amount of work was performed
between the effective temperature limits of 40° and 75°. At a
temperature of 100° with a relative humidity of 30 percent, subjects
could perform four times as much work as they could when the
humidity was 100 percent, while with the ordinary summer-day
humidity, 60 percent, five times more work was performed in a tem­
perature of 90° than in one of 120°. When the effective temperature
of the environment is below the temperature of the body, air move­
ment has a beneficial effect, but when it is above body temperature
air movement increases the discomfort.
If comfortable working conditions are to be maintained in industries
where various sources of heat exist, such as furnaces, power-driven
machinery, etc., the air within the building must be carried off and
replaced by cooler air. The use of hoods or exhausts for the removal
of local heat at the source is desirable or it is possible to locate many



TEST OF A DUST ELIMINATOR

361

of the sources of heat, such as boiler or fire rooms and hot-water or
steam pipes, away from the working places of employees not concerned
in such operation, or heat radiation can be minimized sometimes by
insulation—a satisfactory method in the case of furnaces. In the
case of other sources of heat, artificial ventilation may be required to
supplement natural ventilation, but the problems differ in different
places and may require the services of engineers qualified in the
science of ventilation and air conditioning. The report states that
the proper distribution of air within the occupied area is very impor­
tant, and reliable information on the subject, especially as regards
avoidance of drafts, is lacking, so that further research along this line
is desirable. Measures for the removal of dusts and smoke or toxic
fumes or gases from work places are required, such measures depending
upon the particular hazard in the different industries.

Test of a Dust Eliminator
ACCOUNT of
of a dust
A Ndrilling was givenaintest Industrial eliminator to be used in rock
the
Bulletin, June 1931, published
l

by the Industrial Commissioner of New York State. The test was
made under the joint auspices of the State department of labor,
Metropolitan Life Insurance Co., Harvard School of Public Health,
and the George J. Atwell Corporation, one of whose engineers is the
inventor of the device. The test was carried out in the rock forma­
tion at Fourth Avenue and Twenty-fourth Street, New York City.
As silicosis has been an increasingly important hazard in New York
City, owing to the large amount of excavation which is being carried
on at all times, a committee was appointed by Miss Frances Perkins,
State industrial commissioner, in 1929, for the purpose of making a
scientific study of the subject. The invention of the dust eliminator
was the outgrowth of the work of this committee. In commenting
on the test, Miss Perkins stated that silicosis is a prevailing disease
among a certain class of workers in New York, and that no other place
except perhaps the diamond mines of South Africa has so great a
silicosis hazard. The rock formations in New York and the vicinity
contain varying amounts of silica, samples taken from eight localities
in Manhattan where excavating was being done showing a total silica
content varying from 56 to 94 percent, and a free silica content
ranging from 1 to 84 percent.
The new machine is planned to remove the dust of 60 drills at one
time and represents the first attempt to reduce the rock-dust hazard
by suction, masks and wet drilling having previously been the
methods of protection used. The device has a metal hood through
which the drill passes and the dust caused by the bite of the drill is
sucked through a pipe into metal reservoirs where it is settled by
water sprays and is washed away with the water. The machine not
only protects the workers from the inhalation of dust, but is also a
measure of economy, as it allows the operation of the drills at full
power instead of the reduced power which is necessitated without
the eliminator on account of the great amount of dust created. Ex­
perimental tests have shown that with the use of the dust-eliminating
machine not more than 4 percent of the silica dust remains in the air,
which is not enough to create a hazard for the workers.




362

INDUSTRIAL HEALTH

Occupational-Disease Legislation in the United States

W

H ILE workmen’s compensation laws are in operation in 46 of
the 48 States,15 only 12 States compensate for occupational
disease. In addition, however, such coverage is extended to em­
ployees under the workmen’s compensation law of the District of
Columbia, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the Philippine Islands, and to
employees covered by the Federal Employees’ Compensation Act and
the Longshoremen and Harbor Workers’ Act. Thus, although no
provision was made in the workmen’s compensation acts as first
adopted in the United States, by gradual liberalization of the laws,
18 jurisdictions now compensate for occupational diseases by one
method or another. In the remainder of the jurisdictions occupational
diseases are excluded from compensation by express language in the
act or by interpretation of the courts. In four jurisdictions (Min­
nesota, New Jersey, Ohio, and Puerto Rico) specific occupational
diseases which are compensable are listed, following the method used
in the workmen’s compensation laws of several European countries
while the New York law now compensates for all occupational dis­
eases instead of covering a definite list of diseases as it formerly did.
In Illinois certain lead processes are covered. Kentucky, while it
excludes diseases except where the disease is the natural and direct
result of a traumatic injury by accident, covers “ injuries or death due
to inhalation in mines of noxious gases or smoke.” By an act of the
1934 legislature of Kentucky, employers and employees engaged in
certain industries may voluntarily subject themselves with respect
to the disease of silicosis caused by the inhalation of silica dust.
Another method of compensating occupational diseases is to include
such diseases generally, while a third way is using the word “ injury”
instead of “ accident” in the law. The Massachusetts Legislature
adopted the word “ injury” for “ accident” , and the courts have held
that an injury may be anything that disables a man for work. Several
other jurisdictions have followed the Massachusetts adoption of the
word “ injury” rather than “ accident” in their compensation laws.
The Philippine act allows compensation when an employee con­
tracts any illness directly caused by the employment or which is the
result of the nature of the employment.
The details of the laws were given in the Monthly Labor Review,
June 1934 (pp. 1349-1363).
is No workmen’s compensation laws in Arkansas and Mississippi.




INSURANCE AND BENEFIT PLANS (OTHER
THAN UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE)

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
H andbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




363




Types of Insurance or Benefit Plans
PEEH EN SIVE insurance
plans
the protection
of
people against various
such as
C O Mthe workingunemployment, or benefitphysicalforhazardsbeen es­
sickness, accident,
old age, and death have

tablished or fostered by the governments in many countries. Prior
to the enactment of the Federal Social Security Act in August 1935,
social legislation in the United States was confined principally to the
laws providing for compensation for industrial accidents and for care
of the indigent aged. The protection of the workers against the other
contingencies of life and employment had been left in the past to
voluntary action, either through actual insurance or through benefit
plans of various kinds. Following is a brief summary of the status of
certain of the more important phases of this subject in the United
States.
State Systems
A l m o s t all of the States, as well as the Federal Government, have
established comprehensive plans for compensation for injuries due to
industrial accidents, including, in a number of States, occupational
diseases. These are described in detail in the section on Workmen’s
Compensation (p. 1117). In a maj ority of the States, old-age pensions
have been provided for by State legislation, this relief, however, being
extended to the indigent aged without reference to industrial employ­
ment. This subject is covered in the section on Old Age Pensions and
Retirement (p. 593).

Establishment Plans
M a n y industrial establishments have provided for their employees
in case of death, sickness, or other misfortune, while a number have
maintained unemployment-benefit plans during and prior to the de­
pression. A discussion of the latter systems is given in the section on
Unemployment Insurance and Relief (p. 815).

Trade-Union Benefit Plans
V a r i o u s trade-unions make provision for the payment of fixed
benefits to their members in case of death, sickness, etc. In addition,
the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers has its own in­
surance organization, known as the Union Cooperative Insurance
Association, and the American Federation of Labor has established a
cooperative insurance company known as the Union Labor Life In­
surance Co.
The following articles in this section contain certain recent data on
the subject of insurance or benefit plans, pensions for the blind, indus­
trial pensions, and teachers’ retirement systems, not included in the
references cited above.
365




366

INSURANCE AND BENEFIT PLANS

Public Provision for Pensions for the Blind in 1934
Experience Under State Acts in 1934

O

F 24 blind-pension systems provided for by State laws at the
end of 1934, those of 7 (Arkansas, Connecticut, Maine, Min­
nesota, Missouri, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania) were in State-wide
operation and the coverage in 4 others (California, Colorado, New
York, and Wisconsin) was 95 percent or more.
In 5 States (Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Nevada, and Utah) the
coverage was less than 20 percent. In the States with optional acts
only one-third of the counties, having 35.6 percent of the States’
population, had adopted the system, as contrasted with about seveneighths of the counties, having 92.8 percent of the States’ popula­
tion, under mandatory acts. These counties had paid blind allow­
ances to 31,093 persons, in a total amount, during 1934, of $6,724,876.
The allowances averaged $20.01 per person per month, and ranged in
the various States from 83 cents to $33.12.1
The maximum monthly amounts allowed ranged in the various
States from $12.50 in New Hampshire to $50 in California, Kansas,
Nevada, and Utah. It was found, however, that in no State did the
average allowance approach the maximum. In 8 States the grants
averaged less than half of the maximum payable under the act, in 8
States the average paid was between one-half and two-thirds of the
maximum, and in 6 States it was more than two-thirds of the largest
amount allowable. California appeared to have been the most gen­
erous, its average allowance of $33.12 being about 30 percent higher
than that of Illinois, whose pensions were next in size. The industrial
States of California, Illinois, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, and
Pennsylvania all paid allowances of more than $20 per month. On
the other hand, Ohio, also important in industrial development, paid
benefits averaging only $10.04, or less than half that of the rest of the
industrial group. Arkansas, where the pensions averaged only 83
cents per month, could not be said to be paying “ pensions.” In that
State blind persons receive a flat allowance of $10 per year.
Comparison with the census figures shows that slightly over fourfifths of the blind population in the States with pension acts were in
receipt of allowances in 1934.
The above data were collected in the course of a survey by the
Bureau of Labor Statistics covering all of the 24 States which had
blind-pension acts on the statute books at the end of 1934. Where
possible the information was. obtained through the cooperation of
State officials, but in 12 States2 having county systems and requiring
no reports to any State office the data were secured directly from the
counties. Reports were received for 1,153 (83.4 percent) of the 1,382
counties, of which 915 had adopted the pension system.
The territorial extent of the system, the pension roll, and the
amount spent in 1934 are shown, by States, in table 1.
i In Connecticut, where the act authorizes the State board of education for the blind to assist blind persons
in any way that it sees fit, $22,820 was disbursed to 374 persons in allowances during 1934. In Minnesota
the State board of control has similar authorization; during the year ending June 30, 1934, the sum of
$149,175 was spent for the care of 442 blind persons. The information for these 2 States was received too
late for incorporation into totals and averages.
2 Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, Ohio, Utah,
and Washington.




367

PENSIONS FOR THE BLIND

T a ble 1 —S U M M A R Y OF OPERATIONS U N D E R BL IN D -P E N SIO N L A W S , 1934
Counties in
State
State

Year
of pas­
sage of
law

Arkansas_____ _____ ______________________
1931
California_______ _______ _________________
1929
Colorado____ _________ _______ ____________ 1925
Idaho.-________ __________________________
1917
Illinois-__________ ________________________
1903
Iowa____ _________ _______________________
1915
Kansas------------------ ------- --------------------- ------1911
Kentucky_________ _______________________
1924
Louisiana____ ____________________ ______
1928
Maine____________ ____ __________________ 7 1915
Maryland_________________________________
1929
Missouri__________________________ ______
1923
Nebraska_________________________________
1917
Nevada_____ _______ _____ ________________ 1925
New Hampshire__________________________
1915
New Jersey______ ________________________
1931
New York:
New York City_______ ____________
Rest of State 13________________________
Ohio__________ __________________________
1898
Pennsylvania_____________________________
1933
Utah_______ _____________________ _____
1931
Washington_____ _________________________
1933
Wisconsin_________________________________
1907
TotaU7- , ............................ ....................
1 17 counties.
2 62 counties.
8 72 counties.
4 1 additional county paid pensions during part of
year.
6 14 counties.
6 Approximate.
7 Reenacted in 1933.
8 Includes 2 counties which had adopted system
and were maintaining persons at State school or
workshop for blind, but paid no pensions during
year.
9 4 counties.

Total

75
58
63
44

Counties having pension
system

Number Number
reported at end of
1934
for

75
58
63
38
73
78
73
50
64
16
16
115
80
14
5

64
73
18
4 13
54
16
»7
115
4 45
4
5

21

21

67
29
39
71

71
67
15
28
71

71
67
3
15
67

1,382

1,153

915

Number
of pen­
sioners,
end of
1934

102

99
105
120

64
16
24
115
93
17
10
21

75
53
53

1,165
3,179
701
186
2 4,484
956

21

66
8 383

420
922
62
4,336
io 325
12 3

79
372
f
1

88

1,490
is 710
5,152
4,142

Amount
spent in
pensions,
1934

$11,650
1,085,408
140,287
1 16,989
2 1,323,615
8 158,562
8,996
8 42,129
8 63,000
148,317
9 7,817
1,265,832
n 45,103
12 600
8,797
92,103
14 400,000

8 185
1,854

183,670
620,393
1 651,228
6
2,105
5 25,808
422,467

31,093

6,724,876

21

1
0*44 counties.
n[42 counties.
1 2 counties.
2
11
3 Year ended June 30, 1934.
1 |Partly estimated.
4
is As of June 30, 1934.
1 June-December 1934.
6
1 Does not include 374 pensioners and disburse­
7
ments amounting to $22,820 in Connecticut nor 442
pensioners and disbursements of $149,175 in Minne­
sota, as reports for those States were received too
late for inclusion.

Development Under Optional and Mandatory Systems

As would be expected, blind pensions are more widely in use in
those States having mandatory acts than in those where adoption
is optional with the county officials. The coverage (i. e., the propor­
tion of the State population in counties with the system) was con­
siderably greater under the mandatory laws—92.8 as against 35.6 per­
cent. Five of the mandatory plans were State-wide and in four others
there was a coverage of 95 percent or more. In contrast, among
the States in which the adoption of the plan is optional with the
counties, not one had a coverage of as much as 75 percent and in two
States it was under 15 percent. The details are shown, by States,
in table 2.




368

INSURANCE AND BENEFIT PLANS

T a ble 2 . —E X T E N T A N D COVER AGE OF BLIND-PEN SION S SYSTEM S IN 1934, B Y
T Y P E OF L A W

Counties with pension system
in 1934 i
State and type of law

Number
Population of of coun­
ties in
State, 1930
State

Percent
of State
popula­
tion

Number

Population

73
18
13

71.3
15.8
14.9
15.3
69.9
10.7
18.6

C o u n ty o ptional

Iowa_____ _________________ ________________
Kansas
___________________________ ______
Kentucky______________________________ _ _
Maryland _________ _______________ ______
Nebraska_____________________ __________
Nevada__________________________ _________
Utah
__________________________________
Total________________________________

24
93
17
29

27

44
4
3

1,761,747
297,874
389,245
249,478
962, 589
9,784
94, 255

10,574,921

487

162

3,764,972

35.6

1,854,482
5,677,251
1,035, 791
445,032
7,630,654
2,101,593
797,423
3, 629,367
465,293
4,041,334
12,588,066
6,646,697
9,631,350
1, 563,396
2,939,006

75
58
63
44

75
53
53

10 0 .0

102

67
54
16
115
5

1,854,482
5,653,144
1,002,499
279,593
6 , 575,730
(3
)
797,423
3,629,367
185,889
4,041,334
4 11,948,755
5,589,976
9,631,350
602,409
2,889,438

2,470,939
1,880,999
2,614,589
1,631,526
1,377,963
91,058
507,847

99
105
120

M a n d a to ry

Arkansas________ __ ______________________
California___ __ _ _ ________ ___________ _
Colorado _ _ ______________________ ________
Illinois_____________ _______________ ________
Louisiana________ ___________ _ __________
Maine_____________________ ________________
Missouri______________ _____________ ____
New Hampshire___________________ _______
New Jersey_______ _______________________
New York_________________________________
Ohio_______________ ___________ ___________
Pennsylvania________ _______________ _ __
Washington__________ __________ ________
Wisconsin_________________________________

. 64
16
115
10
21

62
88

67
39
71

21

21

55
71
67
14
67

99.6
96.8
62.8
8 6 .2

(3
)

10 0 .0
10 0 .0

39.9
10 0 .0

4 95.0
84.1
10 0 .0

38.5
98.3

Total________________________________

61,046,735

895

754

54,681,389

6 92. 8

Grand total____________ ____________

71,621, 656

1, 382

916

58, 446, 361

5 84.1

1Includes those which had adopted system and those in which pensions had been paid at some time
during year, even though not paying at end of year.
2 Includes 2 counties which had adopted system and were maintaining persons at State school or work­
shop for blind, but which paid no pensions during year.
3 No data.
4 Estimated.
6 Not including Louisiana.

Average Allowances Paid in 1934
T h e blind pensions paid in 1934 averaged $20.01 per month, or
$240.12 per year. In 8 States the grants averaged less than half of
the maximum payable under the act, in 8 States the average paid was
between one-half and two-thirds of the maximum, and in 6 States it
was more than two-thirds of the largest amount allowable. Arkansas,
where the pensions averaged only 83 cents per month, cannot be said
to be paying “ pensions.” In that State blind persons receive a flat
allowance of $10 per year.




369

PENSIONS FOR THE BLIND

T a ble 3 .—COM PAR ISON OF A V E R A G E PENSIONS A C T U A L L Y PAID IN 1934 W IT H
M A X IM U M PAYABLE UNDER LAW

Average pension

Maximum payable
under law

Per
month

Per year

Per year

Kansas_____ ____ _____________________ _ _ __
Kentucky_____ _____ __________________________
Louisiana____________ ___________ _____________
Maine__________________ _______ _______ ______
Maryland____ ___________________________________
Missouri______________________________
__ __
___
Nebraska______________ __________________
Nevada_____________________ _______ _ „
New Hampshire_____________________ ___________
New Jersey____ _____ __________ ___ ____________
New York___________ ______________________ ____
Ohio_____ ________________________
. . .
Pennsylvania____________ ______________________
Utah........................................ ........
......
.
Washington_______________ ________________ __
Wisconsin_______ ________________________________

$0.83
33.12
15.47
16.46
25.75
13.89
11.36
9.17
12.50
13.33
11.84
24.33
11.77
16.67
9.28
21.98
21.93
10.04
23.30
8 . 35
11.63
19.40

$10 .0 0
397.44
185.64
197.55
308.97
166.73
136.30

$300.00
600.00
300.00
240.00
365.00
300.00
600.00
250.00
300.00
300.00
250.00
300.00
300.00
600.00
150.00
480.00
300.00
400.00
360.00
600.00
400.00
360.00

Total (weighted)....................... . . . __________

2 0 .0 1

240.12

State

Arkansas________ _____ _________________________
California________________________________________
Colorado____________________________________ ____
Illinois____ _______ ______________________________

1 10 .0 0

150.00
160.00
142.13
291.94
141.28
200.00

111. 35
263. 76
261.15
120.42
279.60
100.24
139.50
232.80

Per
month
$25.00
50.00
25.00
20.00

30.42
25.00
50.00
20.83
25.00
25.00
20.83
25.00
25.00
50.00
12.50
40.00
25.00
33.33
30.00
50.00
33.33
30.00

Range of
individual
monthly
grants

$0.83
$5.00-50.00
0)
10.00-25.00
1.00-30.42
4.00-25.00
5.00-25.00
1.33-20.83
(i)
(i)
3.33-20.00
0)
5.00-25.00
(0

8.00-12.50
0)
„
0)
1.25-35.00
(0

3.00-20.00
3.00-40.00
0)
1.00-50.00

1 No data.

Extent and Cost of Pensions
A c c o r d i n g to the census of 1930, there were 38,045 blind persons
in the 22 States listed in table 4. The reports to the Bureau of
Labor Statistics show that in 1934 there were in those States 31,093
blind persons who were receiving assistance under the acts. In other
words, 81.7 percent of those so afflicted were receiving public aid.
Table 4 shows, for individual States, the proportion of total popula­
tion and of blind population who were receiving pensions in 1934. It
will be noted that in several States the number of pensioners in 1934
exceeds the total blind population reported in 1930. As to this the
Committee on Economic Security commented as follows: “ The 1930
census listed 63,489 people as being blind. The Census Bureau itself,
however, recognizes that this is an understatement of jthe number of
people who are blind. In all probability there are not less than 100,000 people in the United States who are blind in the sense that they
have no useful vision whatsoever.” 3 Also, it is undoubtedly true not
only that the number of blind persons has increased somewhat in
the period since 1930, but that the whereabouts of many more blind
have been discovered who were not heretofore known or reported in
the census. In Wisconsin, where a State office has made periodic
censuses, it is reported that the known blind population increased 24
percent from 1930 to 1934.
In some States the low percentage of blind persons receiving allow­
ances may be due partly to the fact that some blind are being cared
for in other ways, as through old-age pensions or public relief.
*U. S. Congress. Senate Report No. 628, to accompany H . R. 7260 (74th Cong., 1st sess.). Washington,
1935,|p. 22.

1 9 2 0 5 — 36--------25




370

INSURANCE AND BENEFIT PLANS

T a ble 4 .—IN C ID E N C E OF B L IN D PENSIONERS IN T O T A L PO PU LATIO N A N D IN B L IN D
POPULATION, 1934

Number
of pen­
sioners,
1934

State

Arkansas____ ______________________ _________ _______
California________ ___________________________ ________
Colorado__________ __________________________________

1,165
3,179
701

Illinois_____________________

Pensioners
per 10,000
of popu­
lation i

4,484
956

6.3
5.6
7.0
3.1
6.9
5.4

86

________________________

____________ __
Kansas_____________ ____________
Kentucky__________ _____ _________ ________________
Louisiana______________ ___________________________
Maine_________ _______________________________________
Maryland________ ______, _____ ___ __________ ____
Missouri__________ __________________________________
Nebraska____________ _________________________________
Nevada_______________________________________________
New Hampshire____ __________________________________
New Jersey________________ ____ __ _ ______ __________
New York______ __ _____________________ __________
Ohio__________________________________________________
Pennsylvania_ ___ _________________________________
Utah_____________ ___________________________________
Washington____ _________________________ ___________
Wisconsin____ __ __________________ ____ ___________
Total.__________________________________________

2,200

(3)

1 ,1 0 1

9.8

11.6

3.0
1.2

3.5
3.9
4.2
.9
1 .8

Percent
pensioners
formed of
blind pop­
ulation

2,597
751
156
4,490
1,577
1,246
1,977
1,252
626
799
3,879
552
64
251

2 .2

66

383
420
922
62
4,336
325
3
79
372

Blind
popula­
tion,
1930 2

1 ,2 2 2
4 4,418

5,152
4,142

9.2
4.3

21

2 .2

185
1,854

3.1
6.4

4,154
4,373
238
792
6 1,530

31,093

5.3

38,045

105.8
122.4
93.3
55.1
99.9
60.6
5.3
19.4
33.5
147.3
7.8
1 11 .8

59.0
4.7
31.4
30.4
4 16.1
124.0
94.7
8 .8

23.4
12 1.2

81.7

1 Figures relate only to counties having pension system.
2 Census data.
* No data.
4 Exclusive of New York City.
» State report gives 3,742 as number of blind in Wisconsin in 1934.

Blind pensions cost an average of 11 cents per capita of population
in 1934. The per capita cost ranged from sixth-tenths of 1 cent in
Arkansas to 35 cents in Missouri.
T a b l e 5 .—PER CA P ITA COST OF B L IN D PENSIONS IN 1934

State

Arkansas___ _______
California- - .................
Colorado ___________
Illinois_______________
Iow a._..........................
Kansas______________
Kentucky.....................

Cost per
capita of
popula­
tion in
counties
with
system
0)
$0.19
.14
.06
.21
.09
.03
.11

State

Maine_______________
Maryland.....................
Missouri_____________
Nebraska____________
Nevada______________
New Hampshire.........
New Jersey__________
New York___________

Cost per
capita of
popula­
tion in
counties
with
system
$0.19
.04
.35
.05
.08
.05
.02
.05

State

Ohio...............................
Pennsylvania...............
Utah____ ____________
Washington_________
Wisconsin.-.................
Total—. ...........

Cost per
capita of
popula­
tion in
counties
with
system
$0.11
2 12
.
.02
.04
.15
.11

1 H o of 1 cent.
2 Computed on basis of full year of operation.

Table 6 shows the sources from which pensions were paid in 1934.




371

PENSIONS FOR THE BLIND
T a b l e 6 .—SOURCES F R O M W H IC H B LIN D PENSIONS W E R E PAID IN 1934
Amount paid in pensions in 1934
from—
State
State funds
Arkansas......................................................
California............................ ........................
Colorado______________________________
Illinois i........................................................

$11,650
542,704
65,000
486,402

Kansas_______________________________
Kentucky_____________________________
Louisiana........ ................_..................... .
Maine..................................... ............... .
148,317
Maryland.....................................................
Missouri__ ______ _____________________ 2 1,265,831
Nebraska______________ _______________
Nevada________________ ______________
New Hampshire.....................................
6,064
New Jersey_______________ ____________
3 1,013
New York................... ................................
Ohio...... .............................. ........................
Pennsylvania.............................................
651,228
Utah..............................................................
Washington..................................................
Wisconsin........................... ........................
50,000
Total ..................................................
3,228,209

County
funds
$542,704
75,287
16,989
823,343
158,562
8,996
42,129
63,000
7,817
45,103
600
2,733
91,090
583,670
620,393
2,105
25,808
372,467
3,482,796

Total
$11,650
1,085,408
140,287
16,989
1,309,745
158,562
8,996
42,129
63,000
148,317
7,817
2 1,265,831
45.103
600
8,797
92.103
583,670
620,393
651,228
2,105
25,808
422,467
6 , 711,005

Percent of
State aid
provided
for by
State law

Percent actually
paid in 1934
from—
State County
funds funds

10 0 .0

10 0 .0

50.0
50.0

50.0
46.3

50.0
53.7
10 0 .0

50.6

37.1

62.9
10 0 .0
10 0 .0
10 0 .0
10 0 .0

10 0 .0

10 0 .0

10 0 .0

10 0 .0

10 0 .0
10 0 .0
10 0 .0

68.9

31.1
98.9

3 1.1

10 0 .0
10 0 .0
10 0 .0

10 0 .0

33.3

11.8

10 0 .0
10 0 .0

48.1

88.2
51.9

1 Data are for 60 counties which reported as to amounts furnished by State and counties.
2 Includes oculist’s fees.
3 Cost of administration.

State Legislation Relating to Pensions for the Blind, as of August 1, 1935
A l l o w a n c e s for the blind, provided for by legislative enactment
and payable out of public funds, considerably antedate old-age pen­
sions in the United States. No workable act for old-age pensions was
passed in any jurisdiction until 1915 (Alaska) nor in any State until
19234 whereas the first blind-pensions act (that of Ohio) was passed
in 1898 and is still on the books. Illinois was the next to act, passing
its blind-pensions law in 1903; Wisconsin passed one in 1907; Kansas
in 19 11; and Minnesota in 1913. In 1915 three States passed measures
providing assistance to the blind. From that time until 1930 laws
were passed as follows: 2 in 1917, 1 in 19 2 1;5 1 each in 1922, 1923,
and 1924; 2 in 1925, 1 in 1928, and 2 in 1929. Three acts were passed
in 1931, 2 in 1933, and 3 during the first 7 months of 1935. By the
end of July 1935 there were 27 laws providing for the payment of
either pensions or relief allowances to the blind. In most of the acts,
the allowances are termed pensions, but those of Maryland, New
York, and Washington provide for relief.
The Kansas act only incidentally provides for benefits to the blind.
Under its terms allowances are to be paid to persons totally disabled.
For the purposes of the act total disability is that caused by the
loss of both hands, both feet, or both eyes, or by any other condition
wholly disabling the person from performing any manual labor.
Of the 27 acts, 18 are of the mandatory type, 2 merely empower a
State body to pay allowances if it chooses to do so, while 7 leave the
adoption of the system to the discretion of the county authorities.
Table 7 shows the principal provisions of the State laws.
4 Arizona passed an old-age pension act in 1914 but it was declared unconstitutional before it could go
into effect.
8 Connecticut; act providing for education of blind was passed in 1918, but section authorizing pensions
was not added until 1921.




T a ble 7.—PR IN CIPAL2PR 0 VISIONS OF STATE LAWS PROVIDING FOR ALLO W AN CES FOR TH E BLIN D AS OF AU G . 1, 1935

to

Eligibility requirements

State

Type of
law

Maximum
pension

Required period
of—
Age

Residence
Citiin—
ship

State

Definition of
blindness

Maximum property
limitation

Administered by—

Funds pro­
vided b y -

Citation

Coun­
ty

California............... ...d o ........... $600 per year.

16

10

1 1

Income, $1,000 a year;
assets $3,000.2

Colorado________ __ do___ _

40

5

1

Means insufficient for
support.

Y r.

Connecticut_____

M andatory.

Optional

$300 per year.

(3
)

Means insufficient for
support.

$30permonth-

/M an d a - \ $20 per
/ month.
1 tory.

Chancery court of dis­
trict under State
Confederate pension
board.
County board of super­
visors under depart­
ment of social wel­
fare.
County board of su­
pervisors under State
com m ission for
blind.
State board of educa­
tion for blind. •

........do_______________
021
X
1818 J

67

021
Illinois__________ ___do........... $365 per year.
)
V 18 } ( 3

10

3 ........do...........................

1

(Income, $465 per
3 \ year ($1,000 if mar- ......................................
l ried).
I
Means insufficient for Vision so defective as
support.
to prevent self-sup­
port.
1
Income, $300 per year.

« 15

5

Optional. _ ........do.............
V is } — .
Kansas__________ ...d o ........... $50 per month8 2 1

10

2

Kentucky,,.......... — do.......... $250 per year.

(9
)

10

5

Income, $400 per year;
assets, $2,500.

$300 per year.

60

5

10 i

Income, $300 per year.

Maine___________ ___do_____ ____ do.............

21

Maryland_____ _

18

Indiana__________ __.do........... $300 per year.

21
021

Louisiana............ -




M anda­
tory.

Optional— $250peryeari1
-

5

10

(3
)

67

Loss of sight of both
eyes.
Destitute of useful
vision.

Means insufficient for. Less than Ho of nor­
mal vision.
support.
___ do
—
_
Vision so defective as
to prevent self-sup­
port.

State,.

Castle’s Ann. Supp.
to 1931, ch. 140, secs.
8189a-8189ml.

State, half; Gen. Laws, 1931, Act
No. 775.
county,
half.
— do...........

Acts of 1925, ch. 60 (as
amended, 1927, ch.

66).

Gen. Stat., Rev. of
State__
1930, sec. 1048.
/Code, 1932, secs. 30County probate court. County- — i 3201 to 30-3206.
Smith-Hurd, 1931, ch.
23, secs. 279-287a (as
/County commission- (State, half;
\ county,
1 ers.7
amended, 1933, p.
l half.
210).
State board of indus­ State......... Acts of 1935, ch. 164.
trial aid for the
blind.
/County board of suCode, 1931, ch. 272.
jc o u n ty ..
1 pervisors.
County commission­ — do_____ Rev. Stat., 1923, ch.
19, secs. 244, 245.
ers.
____ do............................ — do_____ Carroll’s Stat., 1930,
secs. 1893-alO to 1893al3.
Gen. Stat., 1932, secs.
County police jury, Parish,.
9592,9593.
under State board
for blind.
Acts of 1933, ch. 1, secs.
State department of State___
218-225.
health and welfare.
Ann. Code, Supp. 1929,
Local authorities and County.
art. 30, secs. 15-23.
Maryland
Work­
shop for Blind.

INSURANCE AND BENEFIT PLANS

21

Y r.
5

Y r.

$25 per month.

Arkansas________

00

do

No limit6- —

(3
)

M andatory.

$300 per year.

21

Nebraska.............

Optional.. $25 per month

s s

Minnesota
Missouri________

$150 per year.

New Jersey..........

$480 per year.

65

1 ........ d o - - - ....................
1 ____ do..... ..........

Destitute
vision.

County commission­ }County_—
ers.
___ do________
__ do...........

of

useful

___ do________________

(IS)

$400 per year,

do _

(3
)

County judge of pro­
bate court, under
S ta te commission
for blind.

1 ........ d o .........................

5

21

$300 per year,

Ohio....................

5

d o .......................

Vision so defective as
to prevent self-sup­
port.

Oklahoma............ _—do______ $300 per year_

21

65

____ do......................... . Vision so defective as
to prevent self-sup­
port.

Pennsylvania___ — do______ $30 per month

21

10

____ do........................... Less than H o of nor­
mal vision.

Utah.......... _____

Optional- $600 per year,

16

67

Washington____

Manda­
tory.

$400 per year1
*

18

64

Wisconsin,.......... —_do______ $360 per year1
5

18

6 10

Wyoming_______ — do______ $30 per month”

21

10

1

Income, $1,000 a year_
Means insufficient for
support.

1

H
o

__ do...........

Mason’s Minn. Stat.,
1927,secs. 4616-4617-1.
Rev. Stat., 1929, secs.

(

Comp. Stat., 1929, secs.
68-126, 68-127 (as

amended,1933, ch.21).
Comp. L., 1929, secs.
2313-2321.
Pub. L., 1926, p. 422.

3
State department of — do.1 —
Acts of 1931, ch. 17.
in s titu t io n s and
agencies.
State commission for ___do_......... Acts of 1922, ch. 185 (as
amended, 1923, ch.
blind.
129).
County commission­ — do______ Code, 1932, secs. 29652967.
ers.
State commission for State, re­ Acts of 1935, ch. 24.
adult blind.
imburs­
ed in
full by
county.
Acts of 1933 (1st spec,
Mothers’
assistance State
sess.), Act No. 61.
fund of county, un­
der State depart­
ment of welfare.
County commission­ County,— Rev. Stat., 1933, secs.
19-5-68 to 19-5-77.
ers.
........ do............................ -_-do______ Acts of 1933, ch. 102.
____ do....... ...................

Less than
or ^ o o
of normal vision.

state

County department
of public welfare,
under State depart­
ment.

State, H ;
county,

Wis. Stat., 1931, secs.
47.08 to 47.09.

State.........

Acts of 1935, ch. 129.

“ But may be raised to $350 in special cases.
13 But the State pays all of the cost of administration,
is Must have lost sight since becoming a resident,
it $600 in case of couple, both blind.
1 $480 if both blind and deaf.
8
1 $780 if both blind and deaf.
6
1 $50 if head of a family.
7
• Required period of residence in United States.
1 Except in case of husband and wife, both blind, not over $30 per month.
•But counties with population of 160,000 are authorized to contribute.

373

1 6 months, if a resident of State when became blind.
3 Clear of encumbrance.
• Required, but no period specified.
< Males.
* Females.
6 Or have lost sight since becoming a resident.
3 Bureau of public welfare in counties having over 500,000 population.
• But any amount over $25 must be specifically authorized by vote of electorate.
• “ Adults.”
1
6 Residence in parish.




Vision so defective as
to prevent self-sup­
port.

I n c o m e , $480 per
year.1
6
Means insufficient for
support.

State board of control. State •___

Light perception only.

PENSIONS FOR THE BLIND

New York............ — do..........

In c o m e , $600 per
year; assets, $5,000.

(Means insufficient for
1 support.
62 ........ d o , . , ............. ......

\
/

$600 per year.
!b j
1o ®

Nevada.................
New Hampshire- M an d a -

____ do............................

65
6 10

374

INSURANCE AND BENEFIT PLANS

In several States the application for an allowance must be supported
by sworn statements from other persons testifying that the facts are
as set forth in the application. In Maine and Washington two such
witnesses are required; in Wisconsin two “ freeholders” of the county;
in New York two “ disinterested witnesses” who have resided in the
county for 1 year; in Illinois, Iowa, Kentucky, and Utah, by two “ rep­
utable citizens of the county” ; and in California, Idaho, Nevada, and
New Hampshire, by two reputable citizens of the county, one of
whom must be a physician.
The payment of blind allowances to persons having relatives able
to support them is prohibited under the acts of Colorado, Indiana,
Kansas, Louisiana, Maryland, Missouri, Nebraska, New Jersey, Utah,
Washington, and Wisconsin.
Inmates of public charitable institutions are excluded from benefits
in California, Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maine,
Minnesota, Missouri, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Utah, and Wiscon­
sin. Colorado also excludes inmates of private charitable institu­
tions, Maine and Wisconsin inmates of penal institutions, Oklahoma
and Pennsylvania persons confined in houses of correction, and
Missouri inmates of either penal or insane institutions. The Maine
and Oklahoma laws, however, specifically provide that after leaving
the institution a person may receive an allowance. The law of
Washington excludes “ wards of the United States Government.”
Professional beggars are denied assistance in California, Indiana,
Kentucky, Maryland, Minnesota, Missouri, Oklahoma, Utah, Wash­
ington, and Wisconsin. Persons who refuse training or other meas­
ures designed to make them self-supporting are ineligible for benefits
in Missouri.
Relief is discontinued in New York if the pensioner marries another
blind or partially blind person. In Minnesota, in cases of husband
and wife, both of whom are blind and whose marriage took place
after the passage of the act, the amount of the allowance is limited
to $30 per month.
Provision of Funds
O f t h e 27 la w s p r o v id in g fo r a llo w a n ce s fo r th e b lin d , o n ly 10
co n ta in sp e cific p r o v is io n s re g a rd in g th e so u rce o f th e fu n d s n ecessa ry
to fin a n ce th e sy ste m .

B y county .—In eight States (Idaho, Illinois, Kentucky, Louisiana,
New Hampshire, New Jersey, Ohio, and Oklahoma) the counties are
authorized to pay blind allowances from the general county funds, and
in Iowa from either the general funds or from the poor funds. A
special tax on taxable property is authorized in five States (California,
Maryland, Nevada, Utah, and Washington). While the Maryland act
permits a tax on such property at whatever rate is necessary to raise
the funds needed, in the other four States the levy is limited to a
certain rate based on the assessed valuation—in California and Wash­
ington to 0.2 mill per dollar of the assessed valuation, in Nevada to 5
cents per $100, and in Utah to 0.1 mill per dollar.
B y State .—In 15 States the counties must bear all of the cost.
State aid for the system of blind allowances is provided for in the acts
of eight States. In Wisconsin the law provides that the State shall
contribute one-third of the cost; in California, Colorado, and Illinois,
one-half; and in Arkansas, Connecticut, Indiana, Maine, Missouri,




AMOUNT OF LIFE INSURANCE IN THE UNITED STATES

375

Pennsylvania, and Wyoming, all. While the act of Maine provides
that all of the cost of the allowances specified shall be met by the
State, it also specifically permits the counties to augment these
allowances from their own funds. In Minnesota the cost of aid to
the blind is met from funds appropriated by the State, but counties
with population of 150,000 and an assessed valuation of over $300,000,000 are authorized to meet part of the expenditures from their
general funds.
In New Jersey no State aid is given, but the entire cost of the
administration is borne by the State.
Only five acts detail the method to be used in raising the funds:
Arkansas by a tax of $10 per table per year on the operation of billiard
and pool rooms, Illinois by a tax of 0.1 mill per dollar on the assessed
valuation of taxable property, Missouri by a similar tax of 3 cents
per $100, Wisconsin by a property tax at a rate sufficient to raise
the funds necessary, and Wyoming by taxes on liquor. In the other
States the money presumably comes from the general funds of the
State.
National Provision Under Social Security Act
T h e Federal Social Security Act, approved August 14, 1935,
provides for Federal grants in aid to States having approved blindpension systems. For a summary of the provisions of that act
regarding blind pensions, see page 779.

Amount of Life Insurance in the United States
REPORT issued in 1932 by the Committee on the Costs of
Medical Care6 gave data on the extent of life-insurance protec­
tion in the United States. The study was undertaken in order to
show the extent to which American families are attempting to protect
themselves from uncertain financial burdens through the various
forms of life insurance and by means of Christmas savings plans.
At the close of 1929, the latest year for which information was
available, the report stated, the face value of policies in force totaled
almost $113,000,000,000, which was approximately three times the
total amount carried in all other countries. The premiums collected
on these policies by the life-insurance companies from their 67,000,000
policyholders amounted to about $3,500,000,000, or 4 percent of the
national income, while more than $2,000,000,000 was paid in that year
to policyholders and their beneficiaries. In 1926 payments were made«
on account of the deaths of about 500,000 policyholders, which was
about one-third of the total deaths in the United States.
Life insurance is primarily a measure of family protection, by means
of which the family hopes to bridge over the period of adjustment
following the loss of earnings of the holder of the policy. There are
many forms of life-insurance policies which combine this basic prin­
ciple with various provisions covering other contingencies, but in
most cases family protection is the basic motive in the purchase of the
insurance. The three main types of life-insurance policies—ordi-

A

6 Committee on the Costs of Medical Care. The Extent and Adequacy of Life-Insurance Protection in
the United States, by Mary Dublin. Washington, 910 Seventeenth Street N W ., 1932.




376

INSURANCE AND BENEFIT PLANS

nary, group, and industrial—in their different variations accounted
for approximately 90 percent of the total insurance in force at the time
of the study. The major part of this insurance was written by
commercial “ old line” companies, less than 9 percent being carried
by fraternal and assessment companies.
Ordinary insurance includes term, endowment, and whole-life
policies. This type of insurance formed only about 24 percent of the
total number of policies, but the value of the policies amounted to 67
percent of the total for all policies. Group insurance, which provides
for blanket coverage of an industrial group, was in force for approxi­
mately 5,500,000 workers, and its value amounted to about 9 percent
of the value of all the insurance in force. Industrial insurance is
sold in small amounts, and the premiums are paid in small weekly or
monthly installments. Such policies formed 68 percent of all the
policies issued, but their value was only about 16 percent of the face
value of all insurance. All these types of insurance carried by the
commercial companies are organized on a legal reserve basis; that is,
in conformity with the State laws, which require such companies to
maintain an adequate reserve fund at all times. Much of the fraternal
insurance also is now reorganized on a legal-reserve basis. This
insurance amounts to about 8 percent of the face value of all policies,
while assessment insurance constitutes less than 1 percent.
An idea of the adequacy of the insurance provisions can be obtained
only by ascertaining the amount of insurance purchased by individual
families of different income classes. Few such studies have been
made, but one carried out by the Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. in
1924 covered 11,649 families, averaging 4.6 persons, in which indus­
trial insurance was carried by some member of the family. These
families were considered fairly representative of the insured working
classes of the country. In this group the average coverage on the
head of the family, including nearly 1,400 fathers who carried no
insurance, was $1,276; and excluding the heads of families not carrying
insurance, the average was $1,450. Of the total number carrying
insurance, 20.9 percent had less than $500 of insurance; 37.7 percent,
less than $1,000; and 88.6 percent less than $3,000. Approximately
one-third of the insured fathers carried only industrial insurance,
amounting to an average coverage of $485. From these figures it is
seen that these families had very small amounts of insurance to
substitute for the earnings of the father in the event of his death.
In discussing the adequacy of the insurance carried, as disclosed
by thee average amounts of policies, the writer quotes Dublin and
Lotka in The Money Value of a Man, in which they state:
Where the insured is a breadwinner, it is the value of the future incom e to the
fam ily that is lost, and life insurance is intended in a measure to compensate this
loss. * * * Under ideal conditions, the am ount of the insurance should be
equivalent to the value to his fam ily of the man’ s net future earnings; that is,
the sum of m oney which, invested at current rates of interest, would be sufficient,
b y the use o f part o f the principal, as well as the interest each year, to keep his
fam ily on the same, or nearly the same, level after his death as it would have been
during his normal lifetime. In actual practice it is quite im possible to have such
com plete coverage.

A table computed by the same authors, taking into account the
changes in earning power with the passage of time, the relative per­
centage of persons gainfully occupied, the expectation of life, the cost
of the man’s own support, and other factors, shows that a normally




INDUSTRIAL GROUP INSURANCE IN 1933

377

healthy man of 50 years of age whose annual earnings during his
period of greatest earning were $1,000 should be worth $5,700 to his
family, exclusive of his living expenses for the rest of his life. On the
same basis a man whose maximum earning capacity was $1,500 should
be worth $9,900 at the age of 50; one whose earning capacity was
$2,000 should be worth $13,800; and $2,500, $17,450. These figures
show how inadequate the insurance protection is in most cases.
Although Christmas savings plans would not appear to have much
relationship to investment in life insurance, as a matter of fact, very
large sums are accumulated in this way, a large part of which is in­
vested in permanent savings or insurance. In December 1930,
8,000 banking institutions distributed $632,000,000 to about 11,000,000 members of the Christmas savings clubs, of which it is estimated
only 38 percent was used for Christmas purchases, most of the
remainder being used in the payment of debts, taxes, etc., or invested
in insurance or savings funds.

Life Insurance of Organized Labor
H E Union Labor Life Insurance Co. was organized by the
American Federation of Labor in 1925 and is owned by the
unions affiliated to the federation.
Its report for 1933 7 shows the following:

T

Incom e for year______________________________________________________
$872, 857
Payments to policyholders during year______________________________
507, 845
Insurance in force:
6, 978, 601
Individual policies______________________________________________
Group policies___________________________________________________ 44, 567, 700
C apital_______________________________________________________________
375, 000
Surplus_______________________________________________________________
460, 336
T otal assets D ec. 31, 1933__________________ _________________________ 1, 852, 166
Increase in assets during year_______________________________________
220, 915
Increase in surplus during year______________________________________
22, 383

Industrial Group Insurance in 1933
H E total value of group-insurance policies in the United States
at the end of 1933 was estimated to be nearly $10,000,000,000,
according to a study 8 published by the National Industrial Confer­
ence Board in 1934. The estimate was based on the records of eight
of the large life-insurance companies which had written more than 90
ercent of all the group policies then in force, the value of the group
fe insurance outstanding in these companies at the close of 1933
amounting to $8,951,000,000. Included in this total were policies
amounting to $744,000,000 for accidental death and dismemberment,
while in addition these companies had policies outstanding for $16,000,000 of weekly benefits for group accident and health insurance
and monthly retirement incomes aggregating $8,500,000.

T

S

7 Given in official organ of the United Association of Journeymen Plumbers and Steamfitters of the
United States and Canada, March 1934.
s National Industrial Conference Board. Recent Developments in Industrial Group Insurance. New
York, 1934.




378

INSURANCE AND BENEFIT PLANS

Group insurance was first introduced in 1911, and the periods of
greatest increase in the volume of insurance written were in 1914,
when the country was getting organized to meet war production, and
in 1917, when the United States entered the war. Decreases in the
amount of insurance in force took place in the depression years of
1921, and 1932 and 1933, although for the entire period from 1912
to 1933 the average annual rate of increase was 11.8 percent.
The total number of policies carried by the 8 companies at the end
of 1933 was 15,125, 14,488 of which were in companies employing
1,000 or fewer employees, with an average coverage in these com­
panies of 121 employees per policy. There were 506 policies in force
m companies employing between 1,000 and 5,000, with an average
coverage of 2,056 per policy; 115 policies in companies employing
from 5,000 to 25,000, with an average coverage of 8,959; and 16
policies in companies employing more than 25,000 workers, with an
average number of 41,029 covered per policy. The total number of
employees covered by the 15,125 policies was 4,487,377. These
figures show the surprisingly large number of relatively small com­
panies which have purchased group life insurance. However, while
the number of policies and amounts of insurance in force decline fairly
steadily with the increase of company size, the average amount of
insurance per employee increases with the increase in the size of the
establishments. Thus, it appears that the average protection
afforded to employees of very large establishments is 55.4 percent
greater than that given to employees in plants of less than 1,000
workers. The average insurance protection for all groups combined
was $1,828, while the range in the four groups was from $1,577 in the
group of small plants to $2,451 in the group of largest plants.
Although there were a large number of cancelations resulting from
the depression, the value of policies in force at the end of 1933 totaled
51.7 percent more than in 1926 and more than in any year prior to
1929. As there is a direct relation between pay rolls and employ­
ment and the volume of group life insurance, it was to be expected
that the unprecedented depression would result in drastic reductions
in the amount of such insurance carried by the companies. Though
the cancelations of policies amounted to more than 3 billion dollars
in the past 3 years, new sales held up so well that the net loss in policies
between 1930, the peak year, and 1933 amounted to only about 14
percent. One insurance company reported that financial troubles of
insured employees were the cause of 60 percent of its group life can­
celations, while 20 percent were transfers of policies to another com­
pany or to another type of plan; another insurance company stated
that among the small companies it was found that cancelations were
frequently caused by reductions in the number of employees below the
minimum of 50 eligible employees required for a group life policy.
In addition to the purchase of group life insurance by industries,
group policies are also issued covering accident and health insurance
providing weekly benefits for temporary or permanent disability
caused by nonoccupational accident or diseases, and for accidental
death and dismemberment, the latter type of insurance never being
sold alone but always in conjunction with group life insurance oi
group accident and health insurance. A fourth, and the newest
development in the group-insurance field, is the provision of group
annuities which have been developed to meet a growing need for con-




379

INDUSTRIAL PENSION PLANS IN THE DEPRESSION

tractual pension plans guaranteeing a retirement income to employees
during their old age. A total of 226 group annuity and pension
policies was reported by the 8 insurance companies at the close of 1933,
with a total of 193,796 employees covered by this form of insurance.
A form of group-insurance policies which is said to enjoy increasing
popularity among employers and employees is that known as a
“ blanket policy” or a “ package plan” in which two or more of the
four types of group insurance are combined in a single contract. In
such a case a single pay-roll deduction from individual employees is
required for the different coverages. Although, the report says, the
employer signs a contract with the insurance company to cover each
type of risk to be insured, from the employee’s viewpoint it is a single
contract which protects him and his dependents against all his eco­
nomic hazards except unemployment.

Industrial Pension Plans in the Depression

I

N AN exhaustive study of industrial pension plans published by
the Industrial Relations Counselors, Inc., in 1932,9 a section was
devoted to developments since July 1, 1929. From that date up to
April 30, 1932, the limit of the period studied, new plans were estab­
lished at an almost unprecedented rate, the only period of greater
activity having been 1916 to 1920, when war conditions prevailed.
The distribution and character of the new plans were as follows:
N U M B E R OF IN D U ST R IA L PENSION PLANS EST ABL ISH ED F R O M JU LY 1, 1929, TO
AP R IL 30, 1932, B Y IN D U S T R Y GROUP A N D K IN D OF PL A N
Noncon­
tributory

Contribu­
tory

Composite

All industries_____ __________________________________

4

62

3

69

Public utilities__________________________ ___________
Manufacturing_________________
___________________
Banking and insurance_______________________________
All other industries_______ __ ______
___________

2
2

1

3

3
39
18
9

Industry group

34
18
9

Total

Employment records, secured for 59 of the 69 companies which had
established these plans, showed that 3 of those having noncontribu­
tory plans normally employed 4,604 workers, 53 having contributory
plans employed 22,943, and the 3 with composite plans employed
8,136.
There was a decided trend during this period from the noncontribu­
tory toward the contributory systems. Twelve companies with non­
contributory systems had changed to contributory or composite plans,
and 2 others had merged with companies having contributory
features, so that the net result was a subtraction of 14 plans from the
noncontributory group and an addition of 12 to the contributory and
composite group.
Forty-five systems, 28 noncontributory and 17 contributory, were
discontinued or suspended during this period. The procedure in
this respect differed.
» Latimer, Murray Webb. Industrial Pension Systems in the United States and Canada.
Industrial Relations Counselors, Inc., 1932.




New York,

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INSURANCE AND BENEFIT PLANS

Some had been abolished completely, payments to existing pen­
sioners having ceased and further grants being stopped; in other
instances no additional retirements would be made, but employees
already retired would continue to receive their pensions, though, in
certain cases, at a reduced rate. Other companies would grant pen­
sions in the future, when eligibility requirements were met, to employ­
ees of a specified age and service at the date of change, and still others,
to all employees in the service on such date. In certain companies ex­
tension of credits for service had been stopped, though employees
might be retired upon an allowance equal to the credits previously
earned. Finally, entire operation of their plans as to both retirements
and credits had been suspended by some corporations, although the
suspensions, at the latest report, were indicated to be temporary.
Apparently there has been an increased realization of the danger of
maintaining a pension system from current income. In 1932 about
62 percent of the pension plans, as compared with 50 percent in 1928,
had commenced funding operations. The reserves built up by 434
companies reporting on their systems were estimated as having
reached $625,000,000 by January 1, 1932. Also, there had been an
increased use of insurance to safeguard the plans.
General Trends
T h e r e have thus been two tendencies, apparently contradictory,
since 1929. An unusually large number of new plans had been
established, pension funds had been accumulated, and pension
rights had been insured, so that the status of employees with refer­
ence to their rights under pension systems had been perceptibly
improved. On the other hand, schemes already in existence had been
given up at a more rapid rate than ever before, and numerous com­
panies had reduced the scale of pension benefit or otherwise deliberallzed their plans. This contradiction, however, it is pointed out, is
more apparent than real. The new plans had been adopted in the
main by small companies which in the early stages of the depression
were comparatively unaffected. Also, they were so planned as to
lighten, as far as possible, the burden upon the employer. e
The tendency toward making pension plans less expensive for the
employer, while accentuated by the depression, is, in part at least,
due to a growing realization of the burden a system imposes. It is
usually estimated that it takes from 30 to 40 years, or even more,
according to the terms of the plan, for a pension system to reach its
maximum of expense. With some 8 or 10 exceptions, no existing
systems antedate 1900, so that what they mean in terms of cost is
only beginning to make itself felt.
Also, guaranteeing the future pensions demands the setting aside
of large sums. B y the beginning of 1932 it was estimated that funds
to the amount of probably $625,000,000 had been accumulated for
this purpose, of which 90 percent was trusteed or held by insurance
companies.
Attitude of Employees
e T h e most significant aspect of the movement toward deliberaliza­
tion is held to be “ the success obtained in enlisting the cooperation of
employees accustomed to the offer of pensions without any direct
contributions from themselves.” Employees, it is reported, will



TEACHERS’ RETIREMENT SYSTEMS IN THE DEPRESSION

381

support.plans much less favorable to themselves than the earlier type
if a few features on which they lay special stress are embodied.
Prominent among these are the return with interest of their deposits
in the event of withdrawal, the guaranty of the pension, and a
stipulation that funds paid into the pension system shall not in any
case revert to the employer. Also, they specially favor the inclusion
of a benefit for total and permanent disability, a gradation of contribu­
tions according to age at entry, and a provision of optional annuity
forms at retirement.
While this is true, it is also apparent that employees are desirous
of securing some more inclusive form of pension system than one
offered by an individual company.

Teachers’ Retirement Systems in the Depression
H E continuance and stability of State retirement systems for
teachers were threatened during the depression by proposals
advanced in State legislatures and by other groups, while decreased
school resources or attempts to revise school finance systems hindered
the introduction of new retirement legislation and the revision of
unsatisfactory systems. A report by the National Education Asso­
ciation 10 describes the effects of the depression on the operation and
organization of teacher-retirement systems between 1930 and 1934,
as reported by secretaries of 16 State teacher-retirement systems, as
well as significant trends in retirements, income, and investment
experience of State systems.
Prior to 1930 there were 22 State-wide teacher-retirement systems
in effect. Since that time legislation has been enacted in New
Mexico estabhshing a retirement system and a very restricted teachers’
pension law has been enacted in Florida. The Territory of Alaska
which formerly had a retirement system has discontinued it.
The charge has been made in recent years, it is stated in the report,
that in some instances school boards have used retirement regulations
as a means of removing from the active pay roll the older, more
experienced, and higher-salaried teachers in order to substitute
younger, less experienced teachers at lower salaries. From the
reports received in this inquiry it appeared that there was some
foundation for the charge, although it is pointed out that this does
not constitute any argument against a retirement system, since
without such a system the situation of experienced teachers who are
unjustly dismissed would be worse than under a pension system.
While a number of retirement systems reported that attempts to
reduce salary budgets had resulted in the retirement of teachers
earlier than would normally be the case, the report states that it is
not safe to conclude that all increases in the number of retirements
during the past 4 years have resulted from economic pressure on school
budgets, since in systems recently established there will naturally be
an increase from year to year. An increase in the number of retire­
ments since 1930 on the age basis was reported by 10 systems, two
secretaries reporting definitely that older teachers had been forced
out of the service.

T

io
National Education Association.
the Depression. Washington, 1934.




Committee on Retirement Allowance.

Retirement Systems ig

382

INSURANCE AND BENEFIT PLANS

Eight systems reported an increase in the number of disability
retirements, while one system reported a decrease in such retirements,
and one secretary reported that disabled teachers seemed reluctant
to give up even when it would be to their advantage and that of their
pupils.
In general, there were few legislative changes in the systems during
the 4-year period. In Washington the period of service which must
be rendered within the State as a basis for ordinary retirement was
lengthened. The Minnesota system was revised to permit a relatively
early retirement age. Bills to establish a compulsory retirement age
or to lower existing retirement ages, which were introduced in several
States, failed of enactment.
Two State systems are entirely supported by public funds, but in
the others the teachers pay either a specified amount or a percentage
of their salaries toward their future annuities. In 1934, it is said,
the average salary of teachers, principals, and supervisors was prob­
ably about 26 percent below the average salary received in 1930.
Salary arrears were reported in a number of cities and States. In all
of these States and cities the teachers contribute to the support of
the retirement plan, but the systems financed wholly by teachers’
contributions were naturally most adversely affected by the salary
reductions. As annuities are in some cases related to the teacher’s
average salary over a few years immediately preceding retirement,
the benefits of teachers nearing retirement were in such systems
affected by the reduction in salaries which had taken place. Two
State legislatures in 1933, however, provided that temporary salary
reductions should not affect benefits or contributions.
While the retirement funds receive support from public funds in all
but 3 of the State systems, it was found that public expenditures
in the case of 8 systems for which this information was available
did not constitute much over 1 percent of the cost of government.
Lowered incomes from members’ deposits or contributions were
reported by several of the systems, due to the retrenchment program
in the schools, decrease in the rate of assessment, or to reduced
salaries.
It is pointed out in the report that as the accumulated reserve
increases in States operating under the actuarial-reserve plan, increas­
ing difficulty will be met in convincing State legislatures of the neces­
sity for making further State appropriations. One State in which
the accumulated reserve amounted to more than $95,000,000 had met
with this difficulty and stated that “ as the reserve increases, it
becomes increasingly necessary to educate State legislators in regard
to the necessity for the accumulation of these large reserves.” How­
ever, bills to postpone or eliminate payment of public funds to
established teacher-retirement systems were unsuccessful in legisla­
tive sessions in California, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Washington, and
Wisconsin.

Work of Employees’ Mutual Benefit Associations
HE National Conference on Mutual Benefit Associations, which
was organized in the spring of 1928 by representatives of industrial
and business establishments throughout the country, conducted a

T




EMPLOYEES’ MUTUAL BENEFIT ASSOCIATIONS*

383

study in 1 9 3 111 of the activities of these associations, the results of
which were tabulated and analyzed by the United States Public
Health Service. The information was collected through question­
naires sent 1,500 firms which were thought to have employees’
organizations for sickness insurance. Replies were received from 602
companies. Of these, 223 stated that they had no form of mutual
benefit association; 27 reported that the association had been dis­
continued; 23, that there had never been an association but that
sickness insurance was being purchased by these firms from life
insurance companies; and 14, that they had relief departments or
sick-benefit plans operated and financed entirely by the company.
The information furnished by the remaining 315, therefore, formed
the basis for this report.
The possibilities in the mutual benefit association for usefulness in
the field of preventive medicine have been realized to a certain extent
in recent years, and the primary purpose of the study, therefore, was
to ascertain how much had been done for members beyond the simple
payment of cash benefits in case of sickness.
Mutual benefit associations are not new. The average age of 312
associations was 21 years, while 2 percent of them were established
more than 50 years ago. The largest number in any one group was
found in the 10- to 14-year-old group. It is evident, therefore, that
benefit associations have had a sufficiently long experience to have
passed the experimental stage.
The scale of benefits paid by the associations ranged from less than
$3 per week to $25 and over, while several paid a fraction of the
wages ranging from one-half to full pay, only two associations, how­
ever, paying the latter amount. Many associations have more than
one class of benefit, and the rate of payment to female members is
frequently less than that paid to males. About one-fourth of the
benefit classes in the different funds paid less than $7 per week;
approximately one-half, from $7 to $13; and the remainder, more than
$13 per week. Benefits of $9 to $ 11 per week were more frequent than
any other amounts. Few of the associations considered the cash
benefits adequate when they were less than $5 per week, but a
majority of those in the different benefit classes paying from $5 to $13
per week stated that the benefits appeared to be sufficient. How­
ever, of those replying to the questionnaire and giving their title or
position, about 67 percent appeared to belong to the executive branch
of the company, so that these opinions in general represent those of
company officers rather than those of the wage earners.
The benefit periods also varied widely, ranging from 5 weeks to 2
years for those reporting the maximum period for which benefits were
paid. The report stated that from the wide amount of variation in
the plans it appeared that the establishments in working out their
systems for sickness relief exercised too much individualism and that
a moderate amount of standardization might be advantageous from
several points of view.
1 United States Public Health Service. Public Health Report, Sept. 4,1931: A Survey of the Work of
1
Employees’ Mutual Benefit Associations, by Dean K . Brundage.




384

INSURANCE AND BENEFIT PLANS

Suggested Changes in Benefit Scales
W h il e a majority of those reporting did not favor a change in the
scale of benefits, it appeared from the comments on this point that
a fairly wide difference between the benefit scale and the wage scale
was desirable in order to prevent malingering. It was regarded as
somewhat surprising, in view of the importance apparently attached
to the question of malingering, that only two companies suggested the
advisability of payment of part of the cost of hospitalization without
changing the weekly rate of cash benefits.
The principal changes in benefits proposed related to the amount
under a single scale of dues and benefits, the amount in proportion to
wages either as a definite percentage or in classes according to wages,
the maximum period for which benefits may be paid, and the size of
the death benefit. Many of the companies were in favor of paying
benefits in proportion to wages, either as a definite percentage of the
wage or according to a classification corresponding to the principal
wage groups.

Opinions as to Effectiveness of Associations in Improving Employees* Health
I n r e p l y to the inquiry regarding any improvement in employees’
health which could be ascribed to the mutual benefit association, 5
percent of the companies stated that the association was not organ­
ized for health improvement. It was the opinion of 32 percent of
the total number of 227 replying to this question that there had been
no improvement or important health results, while 20 percent stated
that there were no data available by which improvement could be
measured. Ninety-seven firms, or 43 percent, thought that the
work of the association had been instrumental in improving health
conditions.
A smaller proportion of the companies thought that absences on
account of illness had been reduced as a result of the work of the
benefit association. Two companies, on the other hand, reported an
increase in absenteeism due to sickness. In companies which found
there had been a reduction in absences it was ascribed to the provision
of proper medical attention and care, or to a reduction in the unneces­
sary absences and in malingering through the work of visiting nurses
or investigators.
To improve the health of its members was not regarded as a function
of the society by 6 reporting funds, but 118 offered suggestions for
increasing its effectiveness in this regard. Among the suggestions
were included the provision of periodic health examinations and insti­
tution of a program of health education, including lectures and periodic
bulletins. Several thought that dues should be increased to cover
necessary surgical operations and dental, optical, and other corrective
services.
In summing up the results of the study it was stated that there was
some evidence in recent years of a tendency to develop new fields of
usefulness for the members of the association, such as securing for them
better surgical and medical care, and the institution of preventive
measures. However, only a small fraction of the benefit associations
were making any attempt to improve health conditions among their
members. They were still in the main insurance organizations, and




INDUSTRIAL MUTUAL BENEFIT ASSOCIATIONS IN 1931

385

as such, it is said, seldom erred on the side of over-insurance. Practi­
cally no attempt had yet been made to insure against uneven costs of
treatment of different diseases, and ordinarily a serious surgical case,
or one requiring radium treatment, for example, received no larger
cash benefits than other cases which involved the same loss of time.
If, however, insurance was adjusted to the uneven costs of treating
different diseases, the report stated, the fear of malingering would be
dispelled.

Status of Industrial Mutual Benefit Associations in
1931
HE effect of the development of the newer agencies of relief for
employees, such as workmen’s compensation and group insurance,
upon the activities of industrial mutual benefit associations formed the
subject of a study in 1931 by the National Industrial Conference
Board.12
In spite of the fact that these newer forms of insurance against the
contingencies of accident, sickness, and death have had such a decided
growth in recent years, the study showed that they have exerted only
a slight effect upon the activities of the benefit associations. The
investigation covered 398 companies with active associations, 388 of
which furnished total employment and association membership data.
These companies employed approximately 1,119,000 workers, of whom
824,940, or about 74 percent, were members of the mutual benefit
associations. As many of the associations covered in the study were
included in one made in 1922, it was possible to compare tendencies in
1931 with conditions in the earlier year.
It appeared probable, with the rapid development of group insur­
ance, that the mutual benefit association would be forced to surrender
its place to the commercial insurance company, but from the study it
did not seem that this had occurred. The insurance companies have
made considerable progress in the field of industrial life insurance,
but benefit associations continue to carry the sickness and accident
risks, and even where insurance companies have entered this field the
benefits provided by them supplement rather than take the place of
those provided by the association. Nothing in the information
secured in connection with the study indicated, it was stated, that
mutual benefit associations were losing the important place they have
held for years in the industrial relations program, and the fact that
they have held their own “ through a period that has witnessed the
rise and fall of a variety of industrial-relations theories and projects
bears witness to their success in filling a recognized need.”
In response to altered economic conditions there was a general
tendency to increase benefits in those, associations providing fixed
benefits, while a method of adjusting the benefits in a measure to
individual needs is found in the graduated scale based on the normal
wages or earnings.
A trend toward the contraction rather than the expansion of the
activities of benefit associations was shown, so that instead of taking
a part in the control or direction of other industrial relations activities

T

1
2 National Industrial Conference Board, Inc. The Present Status of Mutual Benefit Associations. New
York, 1931.
19 2 0 5 — 36-------26




386

INSURANCE AND BENEFIT PLANS

it is more and more becoming the practice for the associations to con­
fine their activities to the provision of insurance against disability.
The study also showed that associations were giving increasing (con­
sideration to the actuarial aspects of their plans, with the result that
their finances showed increasing soundness.

Savings and Stock-Ownership Plans
Effect of th e Depression on E m p lo ye e S to ck O w n e rsh ip 1
3

H E Industrial Relations Section of Princeton University has
followed the trend of employee stock ownership since 1926, when
its first report on the movement was issued. The sharp declines in
stock prices after the crash in 1929, when hundreds of thousands of
employees were involved in the purchase of more than a billion dollars of
stock, necessitated rapid readjustment in the administration of stockpurchase programs, and this study was made to ascertain what effect
the depression had had on the form of the plans or their continuance.
Fifty plans, from among the large number regarding which material
had been collected for several years up to 1933, were selected for study,
these plans providing, it is said, a fair cross section of the stock-pur­
chase movement. The general conclusion drawn from the study is
that few plans have been successful. It is said that “ even at this
time it is a safe conclusion that both employers and employees have
lost more from the movement as a whole than has been gained in
improved morale and dollars saved.”
During the years immediately preceding the depression employee
stock ownership attracted much attention, and it was the rather
general opinion of employers and students of the subject that these
plans offered the worker a generous opportunity to share in the
prosperity of the industry and to identify himself with it as an investor
as well as an employee— an opportunity which was generally regarded
as being to the employee’s advantage. It was even thought by cer­
tain writers and observers of social and economic trends “ that com­
pany stock-purchase plans might bring about such increased owner­
ship and control of industry by the workers as would amount to an
economic revolution.” It became apparent, however, that for
various reasons it was improbable that employees could or would
care to secure any effective control of their employing companies,
the principal reason being the narrow margin for saving possessed
by the majority of employees even in ordinary times and, conse­
quently, the small amount which individual employees could invest
in the purchase of shares. It was said to be probable, on the other
hand, that the increasing diffusion of the ownership of stock served
to promote the centralization of control in industry.
The rapid increase in the number of employee stock-ownership
plans was due first of all to the desire to stimulate employee thrift at
a time when earnings, even in terms of real wages, had risen con­
siderably, so that it was possible for at least the better-paid groups
to save with some degree of regularity. Employers were sincere m
believing that stock-ownership plans offered a desirable means for

T

1
3 Princeton University. Industrial Relations Section. Employee Stock Ownership and the Depression,
by Eleanor Davis. Princeton, 1933.




SAVINGS AND STOCK-OWNERSHIP PLANS

387

employees to save, particularly as they offered the possibility of
increased value of the investment, and in years as prosperous as
those preceding the end of 1929 it seemed improbable that any con­
siderable part of the original investment would be lost or that it would
be impossible to liquidate securities quickly and without loss. Among
other and less important reasons for the inauguration of these plans
was the tendency, in industrial relations as elsewhere, toward imitation.
The growth of the stock-participation movement was not without
opposition, however, as organized labor has always opposed it and
writers and students of economic developments—both opponents and
friends of the movement—pointed out the necessity for caution
regarding the kinds of stock to be sold to employees and the safe­
guards which should be thrown around such an investment.
Effect of the Decline in Security Prices
E x a m i n a t i o n of the market prices of the stocks sold under the 50
plans covered in the study shows that in most cases they had fallen
below—in some cases very much below—the selling prices to em­
ployees. The median July stock-market quotations of 35 stocks
sold to employees by 31 of the 50 companies .showed an average of
98% in 1926, 107 in 1927, 108% in 1928, and 115 in 1929, from which
time the prices dropped to 107 in 1930, 72 in 1931 and 14% in 1932.
By the end of December this price had risen to 18% but was still 80
points below the 1926 median selling price. The losses to employees
represented by these figures were very large and to such losses must
be added lay-offs, part-time employment, and lower wage rates also
suffered. While employee stockholders included many who were
not wage earners in manufacturing industries and who might be able
to hold their stock during a period of low prices, in general the greatly
reduced wages made it difficult, if not impossible, for such employees
to hold their stock for better prices. The loss of savings had been
shown to have been one of the serious elements in the unemployment
situation and this, together with reduced earnings, was reflected in
company action with regard to stock-ownership plans. Of the 50
plans on which the study is based, 31 had been given up or suspended,
due to a large extent to the falling prices of securities sold to em­
ployees and the reductions in employee income.

Provisions Protecting Employees* Investments
T h e plans for stock purchase by employees usually contain one
or more provisions for the protection of funds invested in them
against declines in price. During the years 1930-32 these safe­
guards in some cases proved inadequate; in other cases they cost the
companies a great deal or involved them in heavy risks; and in a few
cases they afforded genuine protection up to the time of the study
and to that extent justified the sale of company stock to employees.
Provisions for cancelation of subscriptions are very important in a
period when market prices are declining. These provisions depend to
a large extent upon the methods by which the company secured the
stock for sale to the employees. If the usual method of purchase of
stock by the trustees at the outset to fill the total subscription is
followed, the loss in case of a decline is much greater than it would
be if stock is purchased only as it is paid for. Thirty of the fifty plans




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INSURANCE AND BENEFIT PLANS

covered provided for the cancelation of the subscription on the
request of the employee, but in some cases it was provided that
cancelation must be for reasons satisfactory to the trustees and in
others it was apparent that withdrawals by those remaining in
service were not looked upon with favor.
Other measures taken to protect the employee investors included
temporary suspension of payments in case of lay-off or part-time
employment; loans to employees on stock or subscription payments
as collateral; and guaranty of the return of the purchase price of
paid-up stock. The repurchase guaranty or the contribution of a
substantial percentage of the cost of the stock sold to employees, it.
is said, involves a company in large liabilities or expenditures, but
“ may well be considered the minimum protection to be afforded the
rank and file employee investing his savings in industrial stocks under
a company-sponsored plan. ”
Conclusions
I t w a s found, as a result of the study, that comparatively few
changes of importance had been incorporated in employee stockownership plans as a result of the depression. There were, however,
some fairly perceptible trends apparent. The clearest and perhaps
the most important was the tendency toward plans limited to selected
groups of executive employees. This was shown by the fact that
15 of the plans were more or less clearly limited to higher-paid or
executive groups, and that 8 of these were established fairly recently.
In two of these cases earlier general plans were given up and this
plan substituted, while in several other instances the general plan
had been retained but had been temporarily suspended.

E m p lo ye e Savings a nd In v e s tm e n t Plans

A s t u d y of savings and investment plans for employees of indus­
trial establishments was made in 1932 by the industrial relations
section of Princeton University.1* The beneficial effects of such plans
were evident during the depression when the possession of savings,
which had been acquired through the encouragement of the em­
ploying companies, furnished a degree of security to employees tem­
porarily laid off or put on part time. It is believed that the realiza­
tion of the extent to which such savings aided employees suffering
from the depression will stimulate renewed interest in the establish­
ment of such plans when employment conditions improve. Although
industrial planning and the regularization of production and employ­
ment offer the best assurance against unemployment, in many in­
dustries it is impossible so to stabilize production as to be able to
guarantee employment or to provide unemployment benefits. Com­
pany savings plans, either with or without employer contributions,
therefore, are said to provide flexible, effective machinery for helping
employees to protect themselves against economic hardships and thus
in a measure offset the lack of stable employment conditions.
In general, the companies have been largely responsible for the
development of the thrift plans, although employees have often co1
4 Princeton University. Industrial Relations Section. Company Plans for Employee Savings and
Investment. Preliminary draft, mimeographed. Princeton, 1931.




SAVINGS AND STOCK-OWNERSHIP PLANS

389

operated from the beginning and shared in the operation of the plans.
The support of the plans by the companies has ranged from written
and verbal endorsements to regular company contributions to the
savmgs fund. The interest of the employees in the funds has been
maintained through carrying out carefully planned campaigns at
regular intervals^ the payment of additional interest to employees
who continue their savings over a specified time, and pay-roll deduc­
tions to encourage regularity of payments.
Credit for the growth of industrial thrift plans in the past decade
is due, also, to the efforts of the employees themselves, since saving
is not easy when the margin above necessities is small. Installment
buying has developed rapidly and has made it easy for the American
workingman to spend beyond his means. In spite of the difficulties
in the way of saving, however, the number of thrift plans has grown
steadily although attitudes toward saving have changed. Saving
for the sake of saving is no longer advocated, but, instead, saving
with a view to being able to purchase the things one really wants
and needs instead of spending on things that really do not matter.
The experience with thrift plans expecially during the depression
period has shown that there is danger of encouraging employees to
undertake too much or to make investments in which there is too
large an element of risk. Employees whose financial situation and
prospects make it unwise to take risks should be encouraged to
invest only in plans in which safety is assured, even though the
return is lower.
Savings Plans in Cooperation with Banks
T h e most easily operated and most popular type of savings plan
is operated in connection with local savings banks. In this type of
plan participation by employees is made easy through the deduction
of the amount the employee wishes to save from his weekly wages
and the deposit of this sum to his account in the savings bank. The
success of the savings plan also demands that deposits in the fund
shall be made with as great regularity as possible.
In general, savings plans conducted in cooperation with banks
have the very definite advantage of putting a minimum of responsi­
bility on the company and of leaving the care of the funds to the
bank, which specializes in the care of money.
Employer-Employee Savings Funds
I n th e second type of industrial thrift plan, the savings are accu­
mulated in a fund handled by the employer alone, or by the employer
and employees jointly. These plans usually concern savings rather
than investment funds and aim at the encouragement of short-term
accumulation of means to meet unusual expenses or to make special
purchases rather than at the investment of funds on a longer term
basis. In addition to enabling employees to meet such expenses,
this type of savings plan protects long-term investments toward
which employees are making regular payments, such as the purchase
of a home or of company stock.




390

INSURANCE AND BENEFIT PLANS

Long-Term Savings Funds Receiving Contributions from Employers
P l a n s for long-term investment by employees generally take the
form of building and loan associations, extra pension or insurance
plans, purchase of company stock, or purchase of diversified securities
by means of an investment trust, or in some cases long-term savings
funds to which contributions are made by the employer. There are
two general types of the latter class of plans— those in which the
employer’s contribution is a fixed percentage of the amount deposited
by the employee, and those in which the employer deposits a set
amount or a set percentage of the profits of the business, this amount
being credited to the accounts of members according to their deposits.
The latter type is a combined thrift and profit-sharing plan, but if
the employee receives stock of the company in return for his deposits
and as his share of the company’s contribution the plan should be
classified as a stock-purchase plan rather than a savings plan.

In v e s tm e n t b y In d u s tria l Em ployees in B u ild in g and L o a n
Associations

A s t u d y published in 1932 by the industrial relations section of
Princeton University, on the use of building and loan associations in
company programs for employee savings and investment, discussed
these systems from the standpoint of the need for financial security
among American workmen. The long-continued period of unem­
ployment through which we have been passing has shown the neces­
sity for assisting employees to provide reserves sufficient to meet
protracted curtailment or entire loss of earnings. “ During the past
two decades” , the report states, “ workmen’s compensation and
minimum wages have been definitely allocated to the fields of legis­
lation and private initiative, respectively. The next decade will
probably see the test whether the financial security of the individual
employee can remain outside the field of legislative action. The
results of that test, while much influenced by the length of the present
depression, are largely in the hands of American employers.”
Building and loan associations are well adapted to the needs of
employees earning a moderate salary or wage, as payments for asso­
ciation shares may be made in small amounts, which, however, amount
to substantial sums when carried out over a long period. Assistance
to employees in keeping up their payments is rendered by many
companies through pay-roll deductions. The earnings on shares,
which are automatically credited and compounded on divided dates
in the majority of building and loan associations, add materially, over
a period of years, to the value of the investment.
A twofold service may be offered to employees by the building and
loan association, as it provides opportunity to accumulate a substan­
tial reserve and it makes loans to members for the purchase or con­
struction of homes which may be repaid in small but regular amounts.
The association thus assists in the solution of two problems in which
the employer has an interest— the promotion of habits of thrift
among employees and home ownership.
There are several types of building and loan association plans, and
those established in connection with individual enterprises follow the
same general plans as those of independent associations. All types
of associations include, as their basic operation, the sale of shares



SAVINGS AND STOCK-OWNERSHIP PLANS

391

of the association at a fixed *par value, for which the subscribers make
regular payments, called “ dues.” The associations' earnings are
derived from membership fees, fines for failure to pay dues on time,
and interest on investments, and in some cases from premiums
charged on loans.
While the main features of the different plans are similar, the
details vary considerably. The plans may be divided into the serial
plan, in which stock is issued in series at regular intervals and in
which all the dues are pooled and loans made from the common
fund; the permanent plan, in which subscriptions to shares may be
made at any time and the earnings are credited and accounts kept
on an individual basis instead of m series; the Dayton plan, which
differs from the permanent plan in the provision for optional payment
of dues, no fines or forfeitures, and the introduction of paid-up
shares; the permanent capital plan, which provides for issuance of a
special type of share, subscribed and paid for by the founders of the
association, which guarantees a definite stipulated return upon the
regular shares of the association.
The associations, whatever the type of plan, usually sell one or
more of the following types of shares: (1) Installment shares, which
are paid for in regular installments as in the serial and permanent
plans, or varying amounts as in the Dayton plan; (2) prepaid
shares, sometimes called “ single payment” shares, in which the investor
pays a lump sum for each share considerably less than its par value
and allows the money to remain with the association until the earnings
bring it up to its par value; (3) paid-up or full-paid shares, which
were originally shares upon which all payments had been made and
which were left with the association; from this developed the sale
of shares for a single cash payment, upon which dividends are paid,
but commonly at a lower rate than on installment shares; (4)
juvenile shares, which are sold to minors in a large number of States;
(5) guaranty stock or permanent contingent-reserve stock on which
no dividends are paid until the stipulated rate is paid on the regular
shares.
While the provisions in regard to withdrawal of funds before the
end of the investment period vary in the different types of plans, in
general there is some limitation on the right of withdrawal either
through the practice (authorized by law) of requiring varying periods
of notice of the intention to withdraw deposits or through the imposi­
tion of a fee or forfeiture of some share of the earnings of the fund.
Early withdrawals, therefore, have two principal effects—a loss to
the investor and the difficulty which the association may have in
paying withdrawal requests during a period of depression. In asso­
ciations having a large proportion of members exposed to the risks
of unemployment, part time, or reduction in wages, the members
may need their savings badly, but the associations may be in no
position to meet wholesale withdrawal requests, since their regular
income from dues is likely to be greatly reduced.
“ Those interested in building and loan associations as a medium
for employee savings should recognize the fact” , the report states,
“ that during a time of financial strain dues paid on installment
shares may be unavailable for some time. This is not to argue that
building and loan associations are not exceedingly safe institutions,




392

INSURANCE AND BENEFIT PLANS

but to conclude that they are better suited to the savings needs of
those employees who are in a position to make long-term rather than
demand deposits.”

Benefit Payments by Standard National and
International Unions

U

NIONS as well as the Government have had to face the problem
of relief for the unemployed as a public responsibility. The
shrinking incomes of the employed make their former generous
fraternal contributions a most difficult problem. Between 1932 and
1933, and again between 1933 and 1934, the total amount paid out in
benefits of all types by standard trade unions decreased approximately

$ 11,000,000.
The expenditures for the various types of benefits for 1934 as com­
pared with the 5 preceding years are reported in the following table.
The outstanding feature of this table is the tremendous increase in
the sums spent for unemployment relief, rising from about one-quarter
of a million dollars in 1929 to over $19,970,000 in 1932; a figure
which, because of continued loss of income on account of increased
unemployment, could not be maintained, as evidenced by the sharp
drop in 1934.

B E N E F IT S PAID B Y N A T IO N A L A N D IN T E R N A T IO N A L T R A D E UN IO N S 1929-34, BY
T Y P E OF B E N E F IT *
Type of benefit

1929

1930

1931

1932

1933

1934

All types of benefit.—............. $32,242,446 $36,697,980 $39,961,873 $51,448,349 $40,692,113 8$28,840,644
Sickness......... ............................
Death........................................
U nemployment ........................
Old-age.......................................
Disability-.................................
Miscellaneous_________ _____

2,831,937
17,598,287
276,718
4,883,028
2,707,188
3,945,288

3,649,703
18,527,095
3,311,280
5,910,995
3,234,067
2,064,840

2,220,975
17,132,023
9,146,724
6,090,743
3,671,380
1,700,028

2,308,040
17,674,384
19,970,557
6,148,302
4,006,891
1,340,175

1,665,266
14,780,206
13,784,043
4,678,636
4,837,730
946,231

1,023,314
15,011,044
4,467,802
3,912,940
3,176,014
1,409,530

1 Figures are given to the nearest dollar. Data are from the report of the executive council of the American
Federation of Labor to the conventions of the specified years.
3 Not the sum of the items, but as given in the report.




INTERNATIONAL LABOR ORGANIZATION

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin N o. 616
H andbook o f Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




393




The International Labor Organization
Affiliation of the United States with the International Labor Organization

H E Congress of the United States passed a joint resolution in
June 1934, authorizing the President to accept membership in
the International Labor Organization on behalf of the United States
Government. Under this authorization, the President on August 20,
1934, formally accepted the invitation of the International Labor
Organization to become a member of that body.
Purpose of the International Labor Organization .—The International
Labor Organization was created at the close of the World War for
the purpose of securing improved and more uniform labor standards
for the workers of various countries. The animating reasons as then
set forth were: First, that injustice and hardship to large numbers of
workers are potent causes of unrest and are thus perils to world
peace; and, second, that the failure of any nation to adopt humane
conditions of labor is an obstacle in the way of other nations which
desire to improve their own conditions.
The general conference of the Organization, which for a number of
years has met annually, is composed of delegates designated by each
of the member States. Each State is entitled to 4 delegates, 1
representing employers, 1 the workers, and 2 the government con­
cerned. Representation is thus essentially tripartite, and this tri­
partite character carries through all the work of the conference, its
committees, and also the Governing Body.
The function of the conference is to formulate proposals regarding
labor standards. The proposals are referred to as draft conventions.
It requires a two-thirds majority of the conference to adopt a draft
convention. If such adoption takes place, the proposal is submitted
to the competent authorities of the member States for their attention.
If a State approves a draft convention it is, of course, bound by its
terms. If it disapproves, no obligation at all rests upon it. In
other words, the conference acts as a meeting ground for discussing
and drafting proposals. The only obligation resting on the partici­
pating governments is that of formally transmitting any proposals
on which the conference can agree by a two-thirds vote to the com­
petent national authorities for their approval or disapproval. The
conference has, however, an additional significance in that, repre­
senting as it does the various economic groups in a very large number
of countries, any agreement arrived at by substantial majorities may
be assumed to reflect in some degree the current of world opinion and
may also have an influence upon such opinion, and thus ultimately
upon State action.
The International Labor Office (often referred to simply as the
Office) is the secretarial and research branch of the International
Labor Organization. The Office is under the control of a Governing

T




395

396

INTERNATIONAL LABOR ORGANIZATION

Body of 32 members, consisting of 16 government representatives and
8 representatives each for employers and workers. This body meets
four times a year and, among other duties, establishes, subject to the
ultimate control of the conference, the items to be placed on the
agenda of the conference.
United States observers at the 19 3 8 and 19 8 4 conferences.— Prior to
the affiliation of the United States, this country had on two occasions—
1933 and 1934— accepted the invitation of the International Labor
Organization to send “ observers” to the annual conferences of the
organization. These observers were given the privilege of partici­
pating in the conference discussions but, of course, had no vote on
any of the matters which came up for discussion.
The 1933 delegation of observers consisted of Miss Mary Anderson,
Director of the United States Women’s Bureau, chairman; Edwin S.
Smith, the Commissioner of Labor of Massachusetts; William H.
Stead, then secretary of the Minnesota Employment Stabilization
Institute; and Hugh Frayne, general organizer of the American Federa­
tion of Labor. The delegation of observers to the 1934 session of
the conference was composed of the following persons: Elmer F.
Andrews, Industrial Commissioner of New York State; Hugh S.
Hanna, of the United States Department of Labor; E. Arthur Bald­
win, vice president of the International General Electric Co.; John
L. Lewis, president of the United Mine Workers of America; and
Mrs. Arthur Bullard, woman representative.
Representation at the 19 8 5 conference.—The 1935 conference was
attended by representatives of 52 member States, including for the
first time the United States of America, the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics, and Afghanistan. Germany withdrew from the Organi­
zation some 2 years ago and is now the only important industrial
State which is not a member of the International Labor Organization.
Of the 52 States represented, 34 had complete delegations; that is
to say, the delegation consisted of 2 government representatives and
1 representative each of employers and workers. Practically all
countries of major industrial importance were included in this group.
The incomplete delegations were largely from more distant and less
industrially developed countries.
The United States delegates were: For the Government, Miss
Grace Abbott, former Chief of the United States Children’s Bureau,
and Walton H. Hamilton, member of the National Industrial Re­
covery Board; for the employers, Sam A. Lewisohn of the Miami
Copper Co. (substitute for Henry Dennison, president of the Dennison
Manufacturing Co., who was unable to attend); and, for labor, Daniel
W. Tracy, president of the International Brotherhood of Electrical
Workers. A limited number of technical advisers were attached to
each of these groups.
The 1935 conference had before it an unusually full program or
agenda, covering such a wide range of subjects as the 40-hour week,
prohibition of employment of females in underground mines, the
maintenance of the pension rights of migrant workers, the revision
of an earlier coal-mine convention, of 1931, the special problems of
unemployed young persons, protective measures in the recruitment
of native labor, and the matter of holidays with pay.




THE INTERNATIONAL LABOR ORGANIZATION

397

Accomplishments of 1935 Conference
T h e results of the 1935 conference may be briefly summarized as
follows:
1. A draft convention approving the general principle of a maxi­
mum working week of 40 hours, with maintenance of wage standards.
2. A draft convention establishing a maximum work week of 42
hours in automatic glass-bottle making.
Similar draft conventions concerning the 40-hour week in
public works, building construction, iron and steel manufac­
ture, and coal mining failed to secure the necessary two-thirds
vote, but, by special action, all four industries were placed on
the agenda of the 1936 conference.
3. A draft convention establishing an international system for the
maintenance of pension rights for migrant workers.
4. A draft convention prohibiting the employment of females in
underground work in mines of all kinds.
5. A partial revision, on certain technical points, of the hours of
labor (coal mines) convention of 19^1.
6. A recommendation 1 regarding the unemployment of young
persons, the most significant feature being the proposal that the
school-leaving age and the age of entering employment be fixed at
not less than 15 years.
7. Preliminary discussion of the subjects of (a) holidays with pay
and (6) labor recruitment in colonial ajid similar territories.
Both of these items were placed on the agenda of the 1936
conference for the framing of draft conventions, and question­
naires on these subjects were drafted for the purpose of secur­
ing the attitudes of governments as a basis for consideration
at the next conference.
8. A number of resolutions, introduced by individual delegates,
were approved. Several of these provided for placing certain items—
such as workers’ right to association—on the agenda of subsequent
conferences. Three were requests that the International Labor
Office make special studies of (a) the truck system and similar wagededuction practices; (6) nutrition, as regards its importance as a
matter of adequate feeding of the workers and also as regards its
influence on agricultural production; (c) agricultural conditions, i. e.,
conditions of rural life and labor generally.
9. Acceptance by the Organization of an invitation of the Chilean
Government to hold a regional labor conference, covering the Western
Hemisphere, at Santiago, Chile, in the latter part of 1935.

International Labor Office

As n o t e d above, the International Labor Office is the secretarial
and research division of the International Labor Organization.
Article 396 of the constitution of the International Labor Organiza­
tion provides that the functions of the International Labor Office
shall include:
The collection and distribution of information on all subjects relating to the
international adjustment of conditions of industrial life and labor, and particu­
larly the examination of subjects which it is proposed to bring before the con1 A “ recommendation” differs from a “ convention” in that formal ratification is not requested. The
recommendation form is used in cases, such as the present one, where the proposals made are of a character
that do not lend themselves to the precision of formulation necessary in the case of conventions.




398

INTERNATIONAL LABOR ORGANIZATION

ference with a view to the conclusion of international conventions, and the con­
duct of such special investigations as may be ordered by the conference.
It will prepare the agenda for the meetings of the conference.
It will carry out the duties required of it by the provisions of this part of the
present treaty in connection with international disputes.
It will edit and publish in French and English, and in such other languages as
the Governing Body may think desirable, a periodical paper dealing with prob­
lems of industry and employment of international interest.
Generally, in addition to the functions set out in this article, it shall have such
powers and duties as may be assigned to it by the conference.

From the foregoing, the functions of the Office are construed as
falling into four main groups:
1. It prepares the agenda of the Governing Body and the conference, and attends
to the execution of their decisions.
2. It conducts research into a wide field of industrial and economic problems.
3. It issues a series of periodical and other publications containing information
on social and industrial affairs, including international comparative studies on
various questions.
4. It maintains relations with associations and institutions concerned with
industrial and social affairs, collects information with regard to current events
and movements in the world of labor, and supplies such information to inquirers.

Before the International Labor Organization began the promotion
of international standards, preparation for action in the field of labor
legislation with special regard to unemployment had been established
in Europe through broadening from local to national effort in the
principal industrial countries in the latter years of the last century.
The first efforts were directed to the improvement of the statistics of
unemployment through the Work of the International Statistical
Institute, and later an international congress on unemployment held
at Milan in 1906 recommended periodic reports of work and unem­
ployment by all industries, the establishment of free public employ­
ment agencies, the provision of optional or compulsory unemploy­
ment insurance, and governmental subsidies to employment bureaus
established by workers. International conferences on legislation for
the protection of workers had resulted in the establishment of an
International Labor Office at Basel in 1901. This unofficial move­
ment toward cooperation was made official by the inclusion of a labor
section in the peace treaty and the establishment of the International
Labor Organization.

International Labor Conventions 2
H E conventions of the International Labor Organization are a
form of treaty by which governments belonging to the Organiza­
tion may mutually commit themselves to adopt specified minimum
standards for the treatment of labor. Each government ratifying a
convention engages to secure observance of certain standards within
its own immediate territory and to extend their application, in com­
plete or modified form, to colonies and other areas under its control,
as conditions of life and labor in those places warrant.
The conventions are adopted in draft form by conferences of the
Organization and subsequently communicated, for presumptive
ratification, to all member governments. B y the terms of member­
ship the governments are required to submit them to their treaty-

T

* Summary of article by Alice S. Cheyney, of the Washington branch of the International Labor Office,
in the April 1934 Monthly Labor Review.




INTERNATIONAL LABOR CONVENTIONS

399

making authorities for consideration, but are not required to ratify
them. Each convention comes into effect when it has received the
number of ratifications which it specifies as necessary to bring it into
operation or at the end of a given time after receiving such ratifica­
tions. It is binding both among the governments that ratify it before
it comes into effect and those that ratify it at any subsequent time.
After a specified trial period any government may, after due notice,
withdraw its ratification, and the operation of each convention, in all
countries that have ratified it, must be reviewed at intervals with
special reference to the desirability of general revision. The stand­
ards established are minimum standards only and it is expressly
stated in the constitution of the International Labor Organization
that no government shall “ be asked or required, as a result of the
adoption of any recommendation or draft convention by the confer­
ence, to lessen the protection afforded by its existing legislation to the
workers concerned.”
Each member government is entitled to send four delegates to
the conferences of the Organization in which draft conventions are
adopted. Two of these delegates are spokesmen for the government
and are appointed entirely at the discretion of the government itself;
the other two speak for employers and workers respectively and are
“ chosen in agreement with the industrial organizations, if such organi­
zations exist, which are most representative of employers or work
people, as the case may be, in their respective countries.” Each
delegate has one vote; spokesmen for governments may vote under
all circumstances, but if in any government's delegation there is a
spokesman for the employers but not one for the workers, or vice
versa, the one “ nongovernment" delegate may take part in discussion
but may not cast a vote. While the representatives of employers'
and workers' organizations are spoken of as nongovernment delegates,
for convenience in distinguishing groups in the conference they, no
less than government delegates, must hold credentials from their
government, since governments alone have direct and responsible
membership in the Organization.
In the first 15 years of the existence of the International Labor
Organization its conferences adopted 40 draft conventions. Of these,
14 deal with various types of social insurance for industrial workers,
agricultural workers, and others; 7 with regulation of child labor of
various sorts; 5 with limitations on hours and times of work; 4 with
the prevention of industrial accidents and diseases; 3 with provision
of public employment offices; 2 with the engagement and repatriation
of seamen; and 1 each with the subjects of industrial employment of
women at night, the right of agricultural workers to organize, inspec­
tion of emigrants, minimum wage-fixing machinery, and forced or
compulsory labor.
At the end of 1933, 33 of these 40 conventions had received a
combined total of 578 ratifications. A series of 6 conventions dealing
with old-age, invalidity, and widows’ and orphans' insurance, and 1
convention dealing with employment agencies, all adopted in June
1933, had been before member governments tooshort a time to have
received ratification; the 1 convention adopted in 1931, and 1 of the
2 adopted in 1932, had received but 1 ratification each, and while the
other 1932 convention had received the 2 ratifications necessary to
bring it into operation, the year's waiting period required before it




400

INTERNATIONAL LABOR ORGANIZATION

can take effect had not elapsed since the second ratification. Con­
sequently there were at that time 30 international labor conventions
actually in effect.
Of these 30 conventions, 15, or an even half, had each been ratified
by from 20 to 30 governments; 6, or an even fifth, had been ratified
by from 15 to 19 governments; and of the remaining 9, 6 had each
been ratified by from 10 to 14 governments, and 3 by less than 10
governments. Of the 66 ratifications given during the last half of
1933, 10 were of conventions which, although adopted more than 10
years ago, are still receiving ratifications.
In addition to the ratifications already in effect, there had been
registered 11 “ conditional” or “ delayed” ratifications. A condi­
tional ratification is one that is registered to take effect when and if
ratification is accorded by certain specified governments. By
registering a conditional ratification a government may indicate its
willingness to enforce the observance of a given standard without
committing itself to inaugurate such enforcement in advance of
similar action by commercial competitors. A delayed ratification
is one registered to come into effect at the end of the period which the
ratifying government thinks will be necessary for adjustment of its
own law and practice to the maintenance of the standards defined in
the convention.
Twenty-nine more ratifications had been approved by national
treaty-making authorities but had not been formally registered, while
92 ratifications had been recommended to treaty-making authorities
by other branches of governments.
The total of 578 ratifications consummated is almost exactly onethird of the 1,740 ratifications which would have been given if every
one of the 58 governments belonging to the Organization had ratified
each of the 30 conventions on which there has been full time for ac­
tion—the conventions adopted before 1931. But the subject is not
one for simple arithmetic. While no conventions are adopted by
the conference with special reference to a limited number of countries,
all standards adopted being minimum standards for universal ob­
servance wherever applicable, some convention standards have no
practical relevance to the life of some member countries.
There are, for example, 7 conventions which deal with some aspect
of the employment of seamen or with control of employment of young
persons in seagoing service and 2 which deal with prevention of acci­
dents to dockers— a total of 9 conventions which apply in one way
or another to seafaring or work about ships. And there are 7
countries belonging to the Organization which have no coast either
on the ocean or on any inland sea; these are Austria, Bolivia, Czecho­
slovakia, Hungary, Luxemburg, Paraguay, and Switzerland. Ratifi­
cation of conventions referring to seafaring by coastless countries can
have no practical effect whatever on observance of the standards set
up by such conventions. Two of these countries have, as a matter
of fact, given a total of 9 ratifications to conventions relating to
seafaring—thus giving them their platonic approval. But the absence
of the other 54 ratifications hypothetically due from the coastless
countries obviously does not represent any gap in the application of
the internationally approved minima. This is the extreme instance
of irrelevancy. Various degrees of irrelevancy of other conventions
to the conditions of particular countries are in various degrees
responsible for failure to ratify.



INTERNATIONAL LABOR CONVENTIONS

401

There are, indeed, 10 governments belonging to the Organization
which at the end of 1933 had not ratified any conventions whatever.
These governments are those of Ethiopia, Guatemala, Haiti, Hon­
duras, Iraq, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Salvador, and Siam. While
they might find some of the minimum standards set up by the con­
ventions to be applicable in their countries, these are, in the main,
relatively undeveloped industrially, with a relatively primitive inte­
gration of economic life; the absence, up to that time, of the 300 rati­
fications which might have come from them does not represent a
failure of coverage for convention standards in the ratio suggested by
300 to 1,740.
Finally, some of the countries belonging to the International Labor
Organization are federal countries in which social legislation is the
affair of the constituent States and cannot ordinarily be made the
subject of international commitment on the part of the federal gov­
ernment. , Up to the end of 1933 Canada and Australia had ratified
respectively only 4 and 5 conventions—dealing with matters within
the competence of the central government—although the terms of other
conventions are generally met by the laws of their several Provinces.
Making allowance for irrelevancies and for obstacles to ratification
which are due to forms of government, the number of consummated
ratifications and of pending ratifications already approved by treaty­
making authorities would seem to be about one-half of the number
which could be registered and could take practical effect. But the
proportion is of little significance except as indicating in a general
way the part played by international commitments in establishing
minimum legal standards for the treatment of labor.
No strict arithmetical calculation is possible as to the degree of
coverage thus far secured for the minimum standards set up by the
conventions. Plainly, even a strict accounting in terms of ratification
given to applicable conventions and of provincial legislation in federal
countries would fail on two points to give a significant reckoning.
First, from an international point of view, ratifications by large and
small countries are of different importance. Secondly, from any prac­
tical point of view the significance of ratification depends entirely on
the enforcement which follows it. Moreover, conventions vary in the
importance of their provisions accordingly as these affect large or
small proportions of the population of any country, as they affect
conditions of life and labor in minor or in major ways, and as they
affect the costs of production which are reflected in terms of inter­
national competition. On none of these points is any statistical gen­
eralization possible, but on all of them some light is thrown by the
complex record of ratification..
Ratification by a large country which plays an important part in
world markets is more important both in its direct effect as measured
by the number of people living under the laws of that country and in
its indirect effect through the conditioning of international trade,
than is ratification by a little country with a smaller population and
less external trade. Large contributions to the total of ratifications
have been given by countries which do not play important roles on
the international stage; at the end of 1933 Bulgaria and Luxemburg,
for example, had each ratified 27 conventions. On the other hand,
countries industrially and commercially important have not been
backward in ratification; Great Britain and France had each ratified
19205— 36--------27




402

INTERNATIONAL LABOR ORGANIZATION

18 conventions; Germany had ratified 17, and Italy 19. The Scandi­
navian countries, Holland, and Poland, had ratified from 10 to 17
each, and Czechoslovakia had ratified 12. In the Orient, Japan had
ratified 12 conventions and India 13. The more important countries
of South America were in general not among the early ratifiers, but
in the last few years they have been registering ratifications at an
increasing rate; at the end of 1933 Uruguay had given 30 ratifications,
Colombia 24, Chile 19, Argentina 9, and Venezuela 4, and in Brazil
and Mexico ratification or prehminary legislation had been in process.
The matter of enforcement is naturally difficult to assay, but,
generally speaking, the countries most highly developed industrially
are the best prepared to enforce social legislation, and complaints of
nonenforcement most often come from within countries where indus­
trial organization is comparatively rudimentary.
The relative importance of the conventions may vary with the type
of effects under consideration, whether these are national or inter­
national, social or political, immediate or long range. Figures are
here altogether useless.




LABOR CONDITIONS IN OUTLYING
AREAS

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




403




Wages and Labor Conditions in Alaska
HE following information regarding industrial conditions in
Alaska is taken from the Governor’s reports for 1930-31,1931-32,
1932-33, and 1933-34.

T

F is h in g In d u s try
I n 1933 there were 2 1,695 persons employed in the Alaskan com­
mercial fisheries. Of this industrial group, 11,359 were whites,
5,562 natives, 2 ,214 Filipinos, 969 Japanese, 905 Mexicans, 597
Chinese, 57 Negroes, and 32 miscellaneous (Kanakas, Koreans, and
Puerto Ricans). The persons employed in these fisheries in the 3
preceding years numbered in 1930, 2 7 ,5 6 8 ; in 1931, 2 2 ,5 7 7 ; and in
1932, 20,122.

The fishing industry is carried on almost entirely in the coastal
sections of the first and third judicial divisions. The work season
lasts from 4 to 8 months, being dependent upon the nature and situa­
tion of the fishery.
In the first judicial division, which includes all of the southeastern
part of the Territory, from 35 to 50 percent of the labor supply is
secured from residents of the Territory, approximately 10 percent of
those so secured being native Indians. Further labor needs are met
by importation from the States for the fishing season only.
The reduced scale of wages adopted in the fishing industry in 1931
was again effective in the 1932 season. Daily wages in general
cannery labor secured locally were as follows:
D A IL Y W A G E S OF G E N E R A L C A N N E R Y LABOR IN FISH IN G IN D U S T R Y , 1930-32, B Y
D IST R IC T A N D SE X
1930

District and sex

1931-32

First judicial district:
Women___________
Third judicial district:
W omen..

_

_

_

___________________________________________________________

$3.50-$5.00
2.00- 3.50

$3. 00-$4. 25
1.70- 3. 00

2.50- 5.00
2.00- 4.00

2.15- 4.25
1. 70- 3.40

All other labor in the fishing industry is on a monthly or seasonal
basis.1
M in in g In d u s try
I n 1932 there were about 3,754 men employed in the mining indus­
try, or approximately 216 over the number reported for 1931. This
was accounted for by the greater activity in gold mining and the
reopening of the Tokeen marble quarry. Operations at copper mines,
however, were further curtailed, only 143 men being employed m 1932
compared with 208 in the preceding year.
i In connection with the 1930-31 figures it was stated that in most cases board was furnished in addition
to wages.




405

406

LABOR CONDITIONS IN OUTLYING AREAS

During 1932 about 2,180 men were engaged in connection with
placer mining, 1,496 in lode mining, and 78 in coal mining.
The following table shows the wage scales for the more important
lode mines of the coastal regions in 1930-31.
W A G E S IN C E R T A IN A L A SK A N L ODE M IN E S , 1930-31

Occupation

Machine-drill men_________________
Machine helpers............. ....................
Muckers________ ____ __________ __
Timbermen_____ ___________________
Trackmen_________________________
Pipemen___________________________
Carpenters________ ________________

Per 8-hour
shift
$4.00-$6.00
4 .00-5.00
4.10- 5.25
5.00- 6.00
4.50- 5. 25
5.00- 5.50
5. 50- 7.00

Occupation

Blacksmiths.... ................... ..................
Carpenters’ helpers________________
T tlfm b-sm iths’ h e lp e r s

Hoisting engineers_________________
Cagers_____________________________
___________
Laborers— __ __

Per 8-hour
shift
$5. 75-$7. 00
4. 00- 5.00
4.00- 5. 50
4. 00- 5. 75
4. 35- 5. 25
3 .5(£ 5. 00

From the above wages deductions of $1 to $1.50 per day were
made for board, and of $1.50 to $2.40 per month for hospital and
medical care.
According to the Governor’s report for the fiscal year 1932-33,
labor conditions in the mining industry in Alaska differ greatly with
the location of the mines and the character of the work. General
labor in placer mining received board and from 50 to 80 cents per
hour, 8 to 10 hours constituting a shift. The cost of board per day
ranged from $1.50 in the Cook Inlet region to $4 in the remote parts
of the Territory such as Koyukuk and Shushana. Skilled workers’
wages ranged from $5 per day and board for oilers to $13 per day and
board for dredge masters.
Coal miners’ wages were quite uniform.
Underground coal miners and timbermen received $8.60 per day; underground
laborers, trammers, and rope riders, $7.80 per day; and outside labor, $o.50 per
day. Fire bosses were paid $250 per month and foremen from $250 to $300 per
month. Deductions from the above wages were made for board at rates of from
$1.50 to $2 per day.

Strikes in 1934
O n J u n e 9, 1934, Alaskan shipping, which had been tied up for
about a month as a result of a strike of shipping employees and long­
shoremen, was released in. time to load the cannery ships and move
them to their destinations. Another Alaskan shipping tie-up, as a
result of a strike, began on June 22, 1934. Operations were resumed
on July 6 through Tacoma, and the strike ended on July 31.

U n e m p lo y m e n t and U n e m p lo y m e n t Relief
I n r e v i e w i n g conditions in Alaska in 1931 and 1932 the Governor
reported many workers unable to secure normal employment. A
survey of the larger communities showed an exceptional number of
'obless persons, and in the summer the situation was made more acute
>y the migration of workers from the Pacific Coast States. A con­
certed attempt was made to check this influx, but many of these
job seekers paid no attention to warnings.
Over 1,200 barrels of flour were allotted by the American Red Cross
for distribution through various Alaskan chapters, and some of the
local authorities prepared additional requisitions.

t




WAGES AND LABOR CONDITIONS IN HAWAII

407

Every community was reported as strenuously endeavoring to
meet its own particular relief problem. A number of projects for
the improvement of Alaskan rivers and harbors had been approved.
Some of these undertakings were not completed at the time of the
report and others had not been begun.
The unemployment situation in the Territory during 1932 and 1933
was declared to be “ one of the major problems confronting Federal
and Territorial officials, as well as local communities.”
Local public welfare programs were inaugurated in several districts during the
winter of 1932-33 to relieve this condition. Unsatisfactory market conditions
for fishery products and for base metals caused widespread unemployment among
persons usually engaged in these industries. However, toward the latter part of
the fiscal year, an upward trend of prices for products from these industries gave
promise of enabling them again to operate on a profitable basis with a normal
supply of labor employed. By the National Reforestation Act passed by Con­
gress March 31, 1933, funds were allotted for emergency conservation work in
the States and Alaska. Allotments to employ 325 men in Alaska were made,
and the matter of organizing and supervising this work was delegated to the
Forest Service.

The benefits of the Civil Works Administration became effective in
Alaska on December 8, 1933, and continued until April 26, 1934.
Slightly over $526,000 was expended in this connection. Less than
10 percent of this amount was expended for materials and a little over
1 percent for administrative purposes. In December 1933, 2,144
men were employed on civil works; the next month 3,326 men were
employed; but by April 1934 the number%was reduced to 1,004.
According to the Governor’s report for the fiscal year ending June
30, 1934, “ not since boom placer-gold days did Alaska begin a season
with as rosy an outlook as that begun this last spring.” Information
from practically all sections of the Territory on employment was
favorable.

Labor Conditions in Hawaii

I

N CO M PLIANCE with the organic law of the Territory of Hawaii,
entitled “ An act to provide a government for the Territory of
Hawaii” , the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1930 made
a study of the commercial, industrial, social, and sanitary conditions
of the laboring classes in the Territory. A summary of the results
was given in the 1931 edition of the Handbook of Labor Statistics
(Bui. No. 541), and the full report was published as Bulletin No. 534
of this Bureau. No first-hand investigation in these islands has since
been made. However, the Bureau has published data for Honolulu
since 1930 in its regular reports on retail prices and building permits,
the reports on retail prices also including figures for other localities in
the Territory.
The following table, taken from the annual report of the Governor
of Hawaii for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1934, shows distribution
by race, sex, and citizenship, of the workers on 38 Hawaiian planta­
tions.




408

LABOR CONDITIONS IN OUTLYING AREAS

D ISTR IBU TIO N OF E M P L O Y E E S ON P A Y ROLLS OF 38 H A W A IIA N P L A N TA T IO N S IN
JUNE 1934, B Y RACE, SE X , A N D CITIZEN SH IP

American Nonciti­
zens
citizens

Race

Men:
Anglo-Saxon__________________ _________ ___________________ ______
Chinese______________________ _________________ ____________________
Filipino_____________________________________________________________
Hawaiian _______ __
__
__________ ___ ___
Japanese___________________
_____________ ______________________
Korean_________________________________________ ____ ____________ ___
Portuguese______________ __________________ _____ ________________
Puerto Rican__________________________ _ __________ _ ____________
Spanish_______________________________________ ________________
All other,- ___________________
______ _________________ _______

Total em­
ployees
on pay
rolls

891
114
93
857
4,183
55
1,971
736
38
37

86
504
29, 228
6,534
467
292
98
53
18

977
618
29, 321
857
10, 717
522
2,263
834
91
55

8,975

37, 280

46, 255

Women:
Japanese________ ___________________________________________________
All other.— ___ ___________________ ________________________________

516
163

826
103

1,342
266

Total women_________ ____ _______________________________________

679

929

1, 608

1, 010
101
4,864
93

49
3
6
277

1, 059
104
4,870
370

Total men_______________________________ _ ____________ ________

Minors:
Regular, male______ ________ _______________________________ ________
Regular, female____________ ________________________ ________________
School and vo ca tion al-______ _____________________________________
Emergency, part time_______________________ _____ _______________
Total minors______ ___________________ ________ ______ ___________

6,068

335

6,403

Grand total. _ _________________________ _________________________

15, 722

38, 544

54, 266

Labor Conditions in the Philippine Islands

A

G EN ER A L report on industrial conditions in the Philippine
Islands was published by the United States Department of
Commerce in 1927. Excerpts from the part of that report which
dealt with labor conditions were given in the 1929 edition of the
Handbook of Labor Statistics. For the 1931 edition of the Handbook
data were taken from the Statistical Bulletin of the Philippine
Islands, 1928 and 1929, the annual report of the Governor General of
the Islands, and Bulletin No. 27 of the Philippine Bureau of Labor,
published in 1930. The sources of the following article, unless other­
wise specified, are the unpublished twenty-fourth and twenty-fifth
annual reports of the Philippine Bureau of Labor.
Wages, 1933
W h il e 50.7 percent of the industrial and commercial workers in
Manila were reported as receiving daily wages of 1 peso or less in 1933,
approximately 85 percent of these classes of workers in the Provinces
were being paid such wages.
The distribution by wage groups of industrial and commercial
workers in the Philippines in 1933 is given in table 1.




409

LABOR CONDITIONS IN PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

T a ble 1.—D A IL Y W A G E S IN IN D U ST R IA L A N D C O M M E R C IA L E ST A B L ISH M E N T S IN
TH E C IT Y OF M A N IL A A N D PROVINCES OF T H E PHILIPPIN E ISLANDS IN 1933
[Peso= about 50 cents in United States currency]
Provinces

City of Manila
Number of adult wage
earners

Wage group

Males Females Total
All wage groups....................................

Percent Number of adult wage Percent
earners
of
of
total
total
wage
wage
earners Males Females Total earners

29,297

6,607 i 35,927

100.00

15,053

189

15,242

100.00

1 peso and under....... ........................... 12,974
Over 1 to 1.50 pesos..............................
6,542
Over 1.50 to 2 pesos..............................
5,299
Over 2 to 2.50 pesos..............................
1,973
Over 2.50 to 3 pesos..............................
940
729
Over 3 to 3.50 pesos..............................
165
Over 3.50 to 4 pesos..............................
Over 4 pesos...........................................
675

5,232 i 18,229
725
7,267
561
5,860
56
2,029
30
970
729
165
3
678

50.74
20.23
16.31
5.65
2.70
2.03
.45
1.89

12,838
2,037
102
36
8
9
4
19

183
6

13,021
2,043
102
36
8
9
4
19

85.43
13.41
.67
.24
.05
.05
.03
.12

i Includes 23 minors.

The working hours which prevailed in commerce and industry in
the city of Manila in 1933 are recorded in table 2.
T a ble 2 .— PR E V A IL IN G HOURS OF LABOR IN IN D U ST R IA L A N D C O M M E R C IA L E ST A B ­
L ISH M E N T S IN T H E C IT Y OF M A N IL A , 1933
Wage earners
Daily hours

Num­
ber

All hours________________________

35,927

100.00

6 hours and under_______________
7 hours__________________________
8 hours........... ........................ ..........

614
202
7,172

1.71
.56
19.96

Wage earners

Per­
cent

Daily hours

Num­
ber

9 h n n rs
10 h o u r s

11

hours___________________ _____
12 hours and over_______________

22,042
3 ,634
263
2 ,0 0 0

Per­
cent
6 1 .35
1 0 .12
.7 3
5 .5 7

In the third session of the ninth Philippine Legislature a law was
enacted (Act No. 4123) limiting the number of working hours per day
to 8 for wage earners habitually doing hard labor which requires great
physical effort or performing labor under normally difficult, dangerous,
or unhealthful conditions.
Table 3 shows that the average daily wages, in 1933, of skilled and
semiskilled laborers in the engineering and public works of the city of
Manila ranged from 1.30 to 6 pesos.
T a ble 3 .—A V E R A G E D A IL Y W AG ES OF SK ILLED A N D SE M ISK IL LE D LABO RERS E M ­
P L O YE D IN T H E E N G IN E E R IN G A N D PUBLIC W O R K S OF T H E C IT Y OF M A N IL A ,
JUNE 30, 1933
[Peso= about 50 cents in United States currency]
Occupation

Daily
wage

Occupation

P e so s

Assistant inspectors____
Assistant masons______
Assistant mechanics___
Assistant storekeepers..
Assistant tinners______
Blacksmiths _________
Caretakers___ _______
Carpenters______ _____
Chainmen.___________
Chauffeurs____________
Checkers______________
Chief auto mechanics__
Divers_________________
Dog catchers__________
Draftsmen........................




3.30
1.75
2.66
1.70
1.40
2.16
2.13
2.14
2.37
2.17
2.40
6.00
3.50
1.30
2.00

Daily
wage

Occupation

P eso s

Drivers_________ _____ _
Firemen_______________
Foremen______________
Foremen-carpenters-----Foremen-masons______
Foremen property in­
spectors_____________
Foreman storekeepers . .
Gardeners. ___________
Grave diggers__________
Inspectors_____________
Instrument m e n ._____
Janitors_______________
Laborers_______________
Leathermen..................

2.20
1.69
3.33
3.33
3.50
3.60
4.00
1.90
1.58
4.28
3.20
3.60
1.53
2.60

Daily
wage
P e so s

Machinists____________
Masons________________
Mechanics_____________
Operators....... ..................
Painters_______________
Plumbers______________
Plumber-tinners_______
Prison guards__________
Storekeepers. __________
Subforemen___________
Tinners________________
Toolkeepers___ ________
Truckmen_____________
Watchmen____________

2.45
2.03
2.70
1.90
1.88
2.33
2.04
1.94
2.40
1.87
1.80
1.90
2.00
1.58

410

LABOR CONDITIONS IN OUTLYING AREAS

Average daily wages of agricultural laborers in the Provinces of
the Philippine Islands in 1933 were as follows:
Adults:
Males____________________________
Females__________________________
Minors:
Males____________________________
Females__________________________

N u m b er o f
laborers

A v e ra g e
d a ily
w age
(pesos )

846,666
324, 982

0.62
. 36

232,474
123,561

.3 4
.2 6

Salaries in the Philippine Civil Service, 1928-32
T h e average salaries of the regular permanent personnel of the
Philippine civil service, 1928 to 1932, are recorded m table 4, taken
from the Statistical Handbook of the Philippines, 1932.
T able 4 .—SALARIES OF R E G U L A R A N D P E R M A N E N T PER SO N N EL OF T H E PHILIP­
PIN E CIVIL SER VICE, 1928-32
[Peso= about 50 cents in United States currency]
Average salaries

Officers and employees

Filipinos

Americans
Year
Amer­
icans

Filipinos

Total

United
States cur­
rency

Pesos

1928.......... .......... ............
1929.................................
1930............ .....................
1931.............................. 1932.......... ......................

494
471
456
446
427

19,606
20,332
21,248
21,720
21,823

20,100
20,803
21,704
22,166
22,250

4,298.25
4,471.75
4,502.06
4,418.64
4, 342.00

$2,149.13
2,235.88
2,251.03
2,209. 32
2,171.00

United
States cur­
rency

Pesos

$639.60
641.99
620.88
642.60
640.00

1,279.20
1,283.98
1,241.75
1, 285.09
1,280.00

R etail Prices a nd Cost of L iv in g in M a n ila , 1933
T h e average retail prices of various articles of food in the markets
of the city of Manila for 1933 and the 4 preceding years are reported
in table 1.
T able 1.—A V E R A G E R E T A IL

PRICES OF FOODSTUFFS IN T H E M A R K E T S OF T H E
C IT Y OF M A N IL A , 1929-33

[Peso= about 50 cents in United States currency]
Article
Cereals and grains;
Coffee..____________________ ____________________
M ongo.._____ ___________ _______________________
Rice___________ _________ ________________________
Fish and other sea products:
Bangos___________________________________________
Candole__ _______________________________________
Crab.................... ..................... .................... ..................
Shrimp............ .................................................................
Fowls:
Chicken. _______ _______ _____________ __________
_
Hen___________ _____________________________ ____
Rooster____ ___________ ______________ _________
_
Fruits:
Bananas “ latundan” . _____ _____________________
Coconut_________________________________________
Lemons____ _____________________________________
Papaya........ ................................................... ................
1 Liter=0.908 dry quart.




1929

Unit

1930

1931

1932

1933
P eso s

P eso s

P e so s

P eso s

Liter 1
____ ^0/93
__ do______
. 17
.42
Ganta 2_
_

0.79
. 15
.32

0.65
. 11
.24

0.49
. 11
.21

0.41
. 11
. 21

One______
d o ____
___do_____
Hundred—

.40
.37
.24
3. 30

.44
.36
.27
3.75

.42
.28
. 13
3.86

.34
. 19
. 16
3. 38

.28
.23
.26
3.40

One _,
...d o ..........
...d o _____

.46
1.04
1.07

.47
1.01
.98

.39
.92
.91

.31
.74
.73

. 27
. 71
.56

Hundred
One______
HundredOne..........

.80
.06
1.00
.12

.75
.06
.49
.11

.72
.04
.42
.09

.62
.03
.38
.05

,50
.03
.40
.04

* Ganta=2.71 quarts.

411

LABOR CONDITIONS IN PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
T

1 .— AVERAGE

able

R E T A IL PRICES OF FOODSTUFFS IN T H E M A R K E T S
C IT Y OF M A N IL A , 1929-33—Continued
1929

1930

1931

1932

1933

P esos

P esos

P esos

0.90
.83

0.88
.79

Pesos
0.76
.68

P esos

0.96
.83

One...........
Bunch___
HundredFive..........
Kilo s........
Hundred—
One...........
__ do______

.02
.04
1.87
.09
. 12
1.00
.26
.22

.02
.05
1.69
.07
.12
.87
.19
.19

.02
.06
1.61
.05
. 11
.94
.17
.15

.02
.06
1.25
.05
.09
.83
.09
. 10

.02
.05
1.00
.06
. 10
.90
. 10
.10

Hundred—
...d o ..........
.d o_____
Can...........
Kilo 8........
Liter 1

4.00
4.00
5.00
.37
.32
.05

3.48
4.03
4.88
.37
.26
.04

2.55
3.16
4.51
.36
.19
.03

2.27
3.00
4.36
.35
. 16
.02

3.00
3.00
4.00
.32
.14
.02

Unit

Article
Meat:
Beef, fresh_______________________________________
Pork_____________________________ ______________
Vegetables:
Armogosa___________________________ __________
Beans, native________________________ _____ ______
Eggplant________________________________________
Onions, Bombay_________________________________
Potatoes. - ______ ________________________________
Potatoes, sweet__________________________________
Squash, red______________ _______________ ____
Squash, white____
_____________________
Miscellaneous:
Eggs, Chinese................................................... ..........
Eggs, duck_______________________________________
Eggs, native hens________________________________
Milk, condensed_________________________________
Sugar, brown____________________________________
Salt, white.......................................................................

OF T H E

Kilo 8........
__ do......... .

0.64
.59

1 Liter=0.908 dry quart.
» Kilo=2.2046 pounds.

Table 2 gives data on the cost of living of laborers in the city of
Manila, 1933.
T

able

2 . —A V E R A G E

M O N T H L Y COST OF L IV IN G OF LABO RERS IN T H E C IT Y OF
M A N IL A , 1933
fPeso=about 60 cents in United States currency]

Item

Single

Married *

P e so s

P eso s

All items____________________

16.82

46.09

Food________________________
Sholtor
uuultvl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lighting__________ __________
Instruction____ ____________

8.23

27.53

.4 5

4.12
.94

Item

Single
P eso s

Married1
P e so s

Clothing.................. ............ .
■R rflftt.irm
on
Miscellaneous__________ ____

2.27
2.84

3.27
1.25
4.94

Earnings____________________

17.35

41.37

i Earning 2 or more pesos a day.

U n e m p lo y m e n t in th e P h ilip p in e Islands, 1931 and 1933
T h e reflex of the business depression in the Philippine Islands,
according to the report of the Governor General for 1931, was most
serious in Manila, the principal industrial center in the archipelago.
In July 1931 nearly one-fourth of the laborers in the cigar and
cigarette industry were laid off. In other industries, among them
the embroidery, shoe, abaca, copra, oil, and desiccated coconut
industries, there had been either a big reduction in the number of
workers or the factories had been completely closed.
Based on a survey of the police department, the number of jobless
in Manila was estimated in the Governor’s report as being 12,000.
Those making the survey, it was stated, were very much handicapped
by many persons refusing to state their work status.
The following factors were cited as favorable features in the Philip­
pine unemployment situation:




412

LABOR CONDITIONS IN OUTLYING AREAS

1. The expansion in “ the construction of substantial structures and
office buildings ” which furnished work for a considerable number of
persons in the city.
2. The harvest season in the Provinces near Manila, which not
only curtailed the movement of rural workers to the town but also
attracted transient residents of Manila back to their Provinces for
labor in the fields.
3. The release of funds for public works during 1931 also furnished
employment for thousands who would otherwise have been jobless.
Despite the above-listed features the Governor declared at this
period that “ in view of the large number of people who have no
work, the situation calls for the adoption of certain transient measures
calculated to afford employment to those who are willing to earn their
daily bread.”
According to an unemployment survey of 1933, and estimates based
on the returns, there were 98,109 unemployed persons in the Philip­
pine municipalities, including the city of Manila, in which 7,554 were
reported unemployed.
A d ju s tm e n ts of W age C o m p la in ts , 1929-33
M ore than 22,000 pesos in unpaid wages, etc., were collected
during 1933 by the Philippine Bureau of Labor in 977 cases handled
by it. The table below records the activities of that bureau, 1929
to 1933, in adjusting claims and complaints with reference to unpaid
wages and certain other labor difficulties coming within the jurisdiction
of that office.
A D JU STM EN T OF CLAIM S A N D C O M PLAIN TS B Y PHILIPPIN E B U R E A U OF L A B O R ,
1929-33
[Peso= about 50 cents in United States currency]

Year

Number of
cases

Number of
wage
earners
involved

Adjustment
Favorable

1929.....................................................................
956
1,630
560
2,172
1,125
575
1930.....................................................................
1,099
2,177
526
1931....... ............................................................
1932......... ...........................................................
919
1,734
368
977
1,964
435
1933........... ..........- .............................................

Unfavor­
able

396
550
573
551
542

Amount
collected

P e so s

22,611.79
18,967.94
21,509.75
14,858.32
22,724.69

L a b o r Disputes, 1933
N e a r l y twice as many strikes occurred in the Philippine Islands
in 1933 as in 1932 and almost twice as many workers were involved
as in the former year. Wages continued to be the chief cause of
controversy. The following statistics on strikes and other industrial
disputes in the Philippines for 1933 are from the twenty-fifth annual
report (unpublished) of the Philippine Bureau of Labor for the calen­
dar year 1933.




413

LABOR CONDITIONS IN PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

STRIK ES A N D O TH ER IN D U ST R IA L DISPUTES ADJU STED T H R O U G H IN T E R V E N ­
T IO N OF PHILIPPINE BU R E A U OF LABO R , 1929-33

Number
of indus­
trial dis­
putes

Year

Number
of workers in­
volved

26
36
45
31
59

Causes of conflict

4,939
6,069
6,976
4,396
8,066

1929.......................... ......................................1930............. ................................... ................ 1931_________ ___________________________
1932______ _____ _________________________
1933_________ ______________________ _____

Other
causes

Wages

Adjustment in
favor of—
Workers

13
14

25
24
30

10
11

20

13
22

Employ­
ers

17
14
33

7
29

16
25
28
17
26

L a b o r O rg a n iza tio n s, 1929 to 1933
M o r e than 83,000 persons were members of labor organizations in
the Philippine Islands in 1933. From 1929 to 1933 union member­
ship increased about one-third. Membership data are "given in the
accompanying table.
N U M B E R A N D M E M B E R SH IP OF LABOR OR GANIZATIO N S IN T H E PH ILIPPINE
ISLANDS 1929-33
Number of
organizations

Year

Number of
members

116

62,366
78,871
96,041
4 327,149
83,109

1929....................................................
1930....................................................
1931....................................................
1932....................................................
1933....................................- ............

1 12 2
8 110

3 116

» 14 4

1 No returns from 13 labor unions,
i No returns from 10 labor unions,
s No returns from 7 labor unions.
4
Large increase due to membership of communist organization which for the first time reported its mem
bership of 265,000.
» No returns from 6 unions.

M ig ra tio n of P h ilip p in e L a b o r to H a w a ii, 1929-33
D u r in g the 5 years from 1929 to 1933 the number of Filipinos
migrating to Hawaii had fallen off from over 8,000 almost to the
vanishing point. The number returning to the islands from Hawaii,
however, had with the exception of 1932 remained fairly constant.
In 1932 the number returning was almost double that of any other
year. Data for each of the 5 years are given in the table following.
M IG R A T IO N OF FILIPINOS TO A N D F R O M H A W A II, 1929-33
From Hawaii

To Hawaii
Year
Men

Women

Minors

Total

Men

Women

Minors

Total

1929-33........................

19,568

734

932

21,234

18,872

1,509

3,478

23,859

1929.............................
1930.............................
1931.............................
1932.............................
1933.............................

8,189
7,185
4,083
97
14

134
253
265
58
24

46
377
420
58
31

8,369
7,815
4,768
213
69

3,402
2,897
3,552

241
192
217
516
343

348
324
393
1,428
985

3,991
3,413
4,162
8,155
4,138




6 ,2 11

2,810

414

LABOR CONDITIONS IN OUTLYING AREAS

Labor Conditions in Puerto Rico

N

O FIRST-H AND investigation of labor conditions in Puerto
Rico has. been made by the United States Bureau of Labor
Statistics since the surveys in 1901 and 1905, published, respectively,
in its Bulletins Nos. 34 and 61. In 1919, however, the United States
Employment Service issued a report on labor conditions in Puerto
Rico, and in 1923 the United States Children's Bureau published a
report entitled “ Child Welfare in the Insular Possessions of the
United States: Part I, Puerto Rico." In 1924 Public Health Bul­
letin No. 138 (Tuberculosis Survey of the Island of Puerto Rico,
Oct. 11, 1922, to Apr. 18, 1923) was issued by the United States
Public Health Service. Bulletin No. 117 of the United States
Children's Bureau, The Effect of Tropical Sunlight on the Develop­
ment of Bones of Children in Puerto Rico, published in 1933, includes
a section on economic conditions and diet of the Puerto Ricans, and
Bulletin No.*118 of the United States Women's Bureau, The Employ­
ment of Women in Puerto Rico, gives data on wages in various
industries.
The annual reports of the Governor and of the Commissioner of
Labor of Puerto Rico contain important current information.
According to the 1930 census, the population of Puerto Rico was
1,543, 913, of whom 1,146,719 were white. This enumeration also
showed 771,761 males and 772,152 females on the island. The aver­
age number of inhabitants per square mile was 449.5; and the average
number of persons to a family, 5.3. The industrial distribution of
gainfully occupied persons 10 years of age and over in the same census
year is shown in the following table:
N U M B E R OF G A IN F U L W O R K ER S 10 YE A R S OLD A N D OVER IN PU ER TO RICO IN 1930,
B Y G E N E R A L OCC U PATIO N AL DIVISIONS A N D S E X
General occupational division

Males

Females

All occupational divisions_______________________________________________

378,033

125,777

503,810

Agriculture______________________________________________________________
Forestry and fishing___________________ ________________________________
Extraction of minerals___________________________________________________
Manufacturing and mechanical industries........- ------------------ --------------------Transportation and communication_____________________________________
Trade_______________________ __________________________________________
Public service (not elsewhere classified)__________________________________
Professional service___________________________________ __________________
Domestic and personal service_______________ __ _ _____ _____ __ ___
Clerical occupations_____________________________________________________

249,845
934
321
43,986
19,067
36,105
4,925
5,825
9,530
7.495

11,944
3

261,789
937
322
109,832
19,521
38,000
4,974
11,486
46,954
9,995

1

65,846
454
1,895
49
5,661
37,424
2,500

Total

Of 236,914 children 10 to 15 years old in Puerto Rico in 1930,
according to the census of that year, 23,044, or 9.7 percent, were
“ gainfully occupied", 16,498 of these young workers being native
whites.
The information which follows, except where otherwise noted, is
taken from the annual report of the Commissioner of Labor of Puerto
Rico for 1933-34.




415

LABOR CONDITIONS IN PUERTO RICO

H o u rs and E a rn in g s in V a rio u s In d u strie s, 1933-34
A v e r a g e earnings and hours in various industries are presented
in considerable detail in the annual report of the Commissioner of
Labor of Puerto Rico for the fiscal year 1933-34, from which the follow­
ing data have been selected. The highest actual weekly earnings in
that year in the industries reported in the following table are $10.05
for males in transportation for an average of 48.1 hours actually
worked per week.
AVER AGE EAR N IN G S A N D HOURS OF LABOR IN VARIOUS IN D U STR IES IN PU ER TO
RICO, 1933-34

Industry

Num­ Num­ Aver­
age
ber of
days
estab­ ber of
employ­ (starts)
lish­
ees
per
ments
week

Average hours
per week

Full
time

Actu­
ally
worked

Average earnings

Per week
Per
hour

Full
time

Actual

C ents

Building trades: Males................... .
Coffee planting:
Males
_T
____ _ .
__
Females_____________________ —
Girls.
_
Fruit industry:
Fruit planting:
Males
Females____________________
Fruit packing:
Males
Females___________________
Furniture making: Males..................
Hat manufacturing:
Males
Females_______________________
Needlework industry:
Children's garments:
M ales,
.
Females __
Handkerchief and art linens:
Males
Females_ _________________
_
Ladies’ underwear:
Males______________________
Females___________________
Men’s clothing:
Males
_
_
.
Females____________________
Miscellaneous:
Males______________________
Females_________ __________
Sugar industry:
Sugar factories:
Males______________________
Females___________________
Sugar planting:
Males.................................. .
Females____________________
Boys______________________
Tobacco industry:
Tobacco planting:
Males................ ... ............. .
Females____________________
_________
Boys__________
Tobacco stripping:
Males______________________
Females___________________
Cigar factories:
Males______________________
Females___________________
Transportation: Males
Wharf workers: Males_____________




24

330

5.0

49.6

43.3

19.8

$9.82

$8.59

38
28
9
1

792
338
25
2

4.5
4.4
4.0
6.0

52.0
48.4
48.4
48.0

38.2
33.3
33.3
48.0

5.5
4.8
2.9
2.5

2.86
2.32
1.40
1.20

2.12
1.61
.99
1.20

25
2
5

994
28
8

4.3
2.1
3.0

48.5
48.0
54.7

35.0
15.8
27.4

8.3
4.4
4.3

4.02
2.11
2.35

2.93
.70
1.19

19
10
3
2

343
87
7
128

2.7
2.7
3.3
5.4

51.5
51.5
56.6
45.7

20.5
21.6
28.3
41.4

8.2
5.2
5.3
13.3

4.22
2.68
3.00
6.07

1.68
1.13
1.49
5.53

4
4

231
207

4.4
4.3

44.7
44.2

32.2
31.1

26.3
19.3

11.75
8.53

8.49
6.01

7
11

32
956

5.3
4.8

46.1
47.0

41.1
37.8

23.5
8.4

10.83
3.95

9.66
3.18

19
33

166
952

5.3
4.9

47.6
46.8

41.5
39.9

10.7
7.8

5.09
3.65

4.42
3.13

7
24

49
1,558

5.2
4.9

48.0
47.6

40.9
38.0

16.8
7.9

8.06
3.76

6.89
3.02

18
18

171
713

4.5
4.5

43.5
44.7

35.9
34.7

18.6
13.5

8.09
6.03

6.68
4.70

26
26

58
1,259

4.6
5.0

47.2
47.8

36.7
38.6

15.1
8.7

7.13
4.16

5.55
3.38

39
7

8,582
35

5.8
5.3

76.1
55.1

64.4
44.0

14.0
10.7

10.65
5.89

9.04
4.71

74
7
26

18,463
25
301

4.4
4.7
5.0

48.6
51.5
47.9

37.9
39.5
39.5

11.7
7.6
8.8

5.68
3.91
4.21

4.44
2.99
3.47

63
57
10

1,438
1,338
78

4.7
4.4
5.0

51.1
47.9
48.0

39.8
34.9
39.3

5.3
4.4
3.6

2.70
2.11
1.73

2.10
1.53
1.41

35
35

980
8, 596

5.9
5.5

53.3
48.0

52.1
43.3

10.3
6.9

5.48
3.31

5.39
2.98

6
3
8
4

466
255
1,556
735

4.9
4.6
5.9
1.6

46.1
44.4
53.2
60.2

38.3
36.2
48.1
13.9

22.2
14.2
20.9
30.1

10.23
6.30
11.12
18.12

8.49
5.16
10.05
4.20

416

LABOR CONDITIONS IN OUTLYING AREAS

H o m e w o rk in th e Needle Tra d es

A s t u d y of home work in the island’s needle trades was made m
the winter of 1933-34 under the joint auspices of the United States
and Puerto Rican Departments of Labor. The results are embodied
in Bulletin No. 118 of the United States Women’s Bureau: The Em­
ployment of Women in Puerto Rico. In the course of this survey
visits were made to 252 homes, and 323 workers were interviewed.
Their earnings ran from less than 25 cents to $4 per bundle of work.
Approximately one-fourth of the women reported that they had fin­
ished their last bundle of work in 2 or 3 days, and a few within a day,
while another fourth took 6, 7, or 8 days for the completion of thenrespective bundles. The proportion of these 323 workers paid speci­
fied amounts were as follows:
E a r n in g s p er bun dle

P e rc e n t o f
w o m en

Less than 25 cents___________________ 19. 2
25 and less than 50 cents_______________ 23.2
50 cents and less than $1_______________ 27.6
$1 and less than $2_____________________ 22.0
$2 or more____________________________
8.0

The finest kind of embroidery was required in some bundles; in
others the work called for was coarse. Only 9 women earned $3 per
bundle, and the highest amount was $4, earned by a girl who worked
diligently for 2 weeks embroidering silk slips.
The estimated earnings per hour on the last bundle of these 323
women were reported to be as follows:
H o u r l y ea rn in g s

Less than
1 and less
2 and less
3 and less
4 and less
5 and less
6 and less
7 and less

P e rc e n t o f
hom ew orkers

1 cent_____________________31. 4
than 2 cents_______________ 31. 1
than 3 cents_______________ 21. 2
than 4 cents______________ 10. 2
than 5 cents______________ 2. 7
than 6 cents______________ 2. 1
than 7 cents______________
.3
.9
than 8 cents______________

The foregoing estimates “ must be accepted with some caution as
there were no written records of time worked. ”
About 50 percent of the 123 women sewing on handkerchiefs were
earning approximately 1 cent pel hour, 30 percent were making 2 cents
per hour, and a very few as much as 6 cents.
For the whole group of 323 homeworkers interviewed, including
those engaged on household linens, cotton nightgowns, silk lingerie,
dresses, and men’s shirts and pants, the earnings were even lower than
those of the handkerchief workers.
Commissions to agents, which averaged about 22 percent, substan­
tially reduced the earnings of homeworkers.
The most amazing example of how this system can work was that of a subagent
distributing work on children’s dresses. The contractor was paying 41 cents a
dozen for outside labor. The agent retained 10 cents as his commission, the sub­
agent 16 cents as his commission, which left 15 cents for the homeworker.




LABOR CONDITIONS IN PUERTO RICO

417

Unfair practices were reported, among them the payment of workers
in groceries, delays in furnishing work, and the retention of wage in­
creases by the agent. On the other hand, contractors were worried
by the workers' delays in returning work, by spoiled goods, and by con­
stant rate cutting on the part of New York firms.
S ta n d a rd of L iv in g and R etail Prices of Food
I n t h e investigation made in 1927 on the effect of tropical sunlight
on the development of bones of children in Puerto Rico made by the
United States Children's Bureau, the results of which were published
in 1933 as Publication No. 217 of that office, the following statements
were made:
The economic condition of the great majority of the native Puerto Ricans is
extremely poor, and this fact unquestionably plays a major role in the generally
poor physical condition of the people, and of the children in particular, as will be
shown later. A large proportion of the men are employed in the various agricul­
tural pursuits of the island, but they own no land and move about from plantation
to plantation as the various crops need planting or harvesting. Wages for such
work are very low, and the supply of laborers is very large. The standard of
living, at the same time, is so low that it is possible for a family to exist on an
unbelievably small income. In the rural districts the farm laborer usually lives
in a hut on the plantation where he works. He may or may not be allowed to
cultivate a small piece of land about his hut. If he does have the opportunity,
he may raise a few banana trees or have a small truck garden. The fact, how­
ever, that these farm laborers do not own the land on which they build their
houses and that they move frequently from plantation to plantation with the
rotation of crops prevents them from having either the desire or the time to cul­
tivate the land around their huts to any extent.
The economic situation is such that many families do not have common neces­
sities, such as an adequate diet and a house equipped with beds, chairs, tables,
cookstove, cooking utensils, and proper sanitary arrangements. Living is, on the
whole, so simple that it requires little effort. There is no heating problem, the
children need little or no clothing, and the adults need only enough to cover them;
few persons in the rural districts wear shoes. A few cents a day suffices to pro­
vide the rice and beans that are the basis of the diet. The wide scattering of
the rural population through the hills of the island makes the distribution of
perishable foods difficult. Milk, eggs, and fresh meat are not available to the
majority of people in the rural districts. In the cities the conditions are little
better, for wages are low, and though milk, eggs, and meat are more easily
obtained there, these foods are comparatively little used because of their high
price.
The poverty of the Puerto Ricans affects the health of the children primarily
through the resulting inadequacy of their diet, especially with respect to milk.
The importance of milk as an indispensable part of the diet of all growing children
and df pregnant and laotating mothers is well recognized everywhere today, but
in Puerto Rico not nearly enough milk is either produced or imported to supply
the needs of the children or of the mothers.

The table following gives the average retail prices of food in Puerto
Rico for the last 6 months of 1934.

19205— 36------28




418

LABOR CONDITIONS IN OUTLYING AREAS

A V E R A G E R E T A IL PRICES OF FOOD IN PUER TO RICO, SECO N D H A L F OF 1934
Price

Article

Unit

Annato, achiote_______________
Bananas, large________________
Bananas, s~m
aii________________
Beans, Mexican_______________
Beans) red____________________
Beans, string__________________
Beans, white__________________
Beef...................................... ..........
Bread_____ ____________________
_
Butter_ _________ ___________
Cabbage_ ____________________
_
Carrots________________________
Charcoal______________ ________

Pound
100___ —II
100.............

Article

Unit

Price

Cents

— do...........
__ do______
__ do______
__ do______

— do...........
__ do...........
— do...........
5 -g a llo n
can.
Chicken meat_________________ Pound___
Coconuts, dry_________ _______ 1____ _____
Codfish_______ _______________
Coffee, best grade________ ____ __ do______
Coffee, second grade------ ------- —do...........
__ do______
Cornmeal_____________________ __ do______
Dates_________________________ Can______
1............... .
Flour, wheat_______ ____ ______ Pou nd..—
TTftftd
Garlic— ______________________
Guava paste__________________
— do.
Lard, mixed_______________ ___ — do______
Lard, pure____________________ __ do______
Lettuce_____________ ________ Head_____
“ Malanga” _________ - ______
Milk, condensed______________ Can

-III

13.0
49.1
27.6
7.9
6.3
6.0
6.2
13.9
7.3
38.0
6.0
6.0
11.4
38.0
3.0
8.4
28.0
24.0
2.7
3.0
18.0
2.4
4.3
1.0
16.0
17.3
8.5
9.4
5.0
1.4
18.3

C ents

Milk, evaporated______________ 4 -o u n c e
4.3
can.
8.6
Milk, fresh____________________ Quart........
44.8
Oil, mixed..................................... — do...........
60.5
Oil, olive______________________ — do...........
10.0
Okra.--__________ ____________ D o z e n
5.2
Onions_____________ ____ ______ Pound___
_________
1.0
Oranges, sour_________________ 1
_________
1.5
Oranges, sweet_________ ______ 1
5.4
Peas, black-eyed______________ Pound___
3.9
Peas, pigeon, dry--------- ------------ — do...........
4.3
Peas, pigeon, fresh____________ ...d o ...........
1.0
Peppers_______________________ 1. ...............
_______ 260.0
Plantain______________________ 100
15.8
Pork........ ..................... .................. Pound___
Pork, salt_____________________ ___do......... . 10.0
2.4
Potatoes, Irish________ ________ — do...........
1.5
Potatoes, sweet________________ — do......... .
— do______
3.7
Rice, broken______________ ____
6.0
Rice flour_______________ ______ __ do______
4.9
Rice, whole______ ____ ________ „ _ d o ______
12.0
Salmon.______________________
3.0
S a lt........................ ........... .......... Bag______
10.0
Soup meat_________________ . . Pound___
35.0
Strawberries__________________ Package__
5.0
Sugar, best grade______________ Pound___
3.9
Sugar, second grade___________ — do...........
3.0
Sugar, third grade_______ ____. ___do______
2.3
Tania, Yautia_________________ ...d o ...........
2.9
Tomatoes______________ ______ ...d o ...........
8.7
— do______
Vermicelli_____________________
2.5
Yam __________________________ ...d o ______

A d ju s tm e n t of W age C la im s , 1933-34
T h e wage protection and claims bureau of the Puerto Rican
Department of Labor takes wage-claims cases to court only when
its friendly offices fail. The following table gives statistics on wage
claims for the fiscal year 1933-34.2
A D JU STM E N T OF W A G E CLAIM S IN PUERTO RICO, 1933-34
Number of
claims

Results

Amount of

nlftims

All claims........................

1,900

$29,401.50

Collected.........................
Withdrawn.....................
Rejected...................... .
Abandoned.....................
Pending (June 30,1934)

1,252
83
181
267
117

10,677.55
1,645.00
5,382.77
6,928.12
4,768.06

In d u s tria l Disputes, 1933-34
T h e Puerto Rican Mediation and Conciliation Commission was
more active in the fiscal year 1933-34 than any previous 12-month
period.2 In that year there were 123 strikes and other industrial con­
troversies on the island involving over 72,000 persons. Among the
most important of these disputes were the general strike of long* Puerto Rico.
Juan, 1935.

Department of Labor.




Annual Report of the Commissioner of Labor, 1933-34.

San

LABOR CONDITIONS IN PUERTO RICO

419

shoremen, the general strike of needleworkers, and the strike of the
machine operators of the Puerto Rico American Tobacco Co.
The greatest number of conflicts occurred in the bread-making
industry in which there were 22 strikes and 6 controversies, none of
these, however, involving over 100 workers. The greatest number of
persons involved in any one of the 123 strikes was 12,000 workers in
the men’s clothing industry. Two of the strikes in the sugar industry
involved, respectively, 9,000 and 9,500 workers. Most of the dis­
putes were of brief duration.
As an outcome of an agreement entered into in 1933-34 by the
Sugar Producers Association and the Free Federation of Workingmen
in Puerto Rico, industrial peace prevailed on the sugar plantations
during the entire period of the grinding season of that year, and a
production of 1,100,000 tons of sugar was reported—a figure not
reached in any other year in the Puerto Rican sugar industry.
Legislatio n in B ehalf of P u e rto R ica n L a b o r
Creation of Department of Labor

A D e p a r t m e n t o f L a b o r was created in Puerto Rico by a Federal
act approved February 18,1931 (Public, No. 677, 71st Cong.), amend­
ing the act of March 2, 1917, which provided a civil government for
that island. Previous to this amendment there was a bureau of labor
in the Puerto Rican Department of Agriculture and Labor.
The head of the newly created department is designated the com­
missioner of labor, and “ is appointed by the Governor, by and with
the advice and consent of the Senate of Puerto Rico” , for a 4-year
term. The commissioner of labor has charge of such government
bureaus and branches as are now in existence or to be legally estab­
lished “ to foster and promote the welfare of the wage earners of
Puerto Rico; to improve their working conditions; and to advance
their opportunities for profitable employment.”
Provision for Vocational Education and Civilian Rehabilitation
U n d e r a Federal act approved March 3, 1931 (Public, No. 791,
71st Cong.), Puerto Rico is entitled to share in the benefits of the act
of 1917 (and amendments) providing for the promotion of vocational
education and for cooperation with the States in such promotion. In
this connection authorization is given for an appropriation from the
United States Treasury for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1932, and
for each subsequent year the sum of $105,000, to be available for
allotment to Puerto Rico upon conditions specified in the law.
It is also provided in the same act that Puerto Rico shall be entitled
to share in the benefits of the act of June 2, 1920, “ to provide for the
promotion of vocational rehabilitation of persons disabled in industry
or otherwise and their return to civil employment.” An appropria­
tion of $15,000 per annum was authorized for the 2 years beginning
July 1, 1931, as an allotment to Puerto Rico to aid in the carrying on
of activities looking to the converting of the physically handicapped
into efficient wage earners.




420

LABOR CONDITIONS IN OUTLYING AREAS

Homestead Division in Department of Labor
O n M a y 15, 1933, a joint resolution was approved by the Legisla­
ture of Puerto Eico “ to create the Homestead Division in the Depart­
ment of Labor, transferring to such division all the faculties, powers,
and duties which, in accordance with Act No. 53, approved July 11,
19 21” , were formerly vested in the Homestead Commission. The
purposes of this 1921 act were:
T o authorize the construction of houses for artisans and laborers with funds of
the people of Puerto Rico; provide for the leasing of same, with a right to the
ownership thereof; to improve the conditions of such lands of the people of Puerto
Rico as may be selected for the construction of said houses and for the formation
of farms; promote the creation of farms to be leased to farm laborers and to grant
them title thereto, and for other purposes.




LABOR ORGANIZATIONS

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




421




Trade-Union Membership and Organization
OTH depression and recovery are reflected in the fluctuations
in membership of American trade unions in the past few
years, and an unusual fluidity has developed in the structure
of the organizations themselves. The tendency is toward broad­
ening the base of the individual unions, a trend that is finding
expression in actual and proposed amalgamations and in an increasing
number of independent unions, most of them organized on the princi­
ple of industrial unionism.
In the 5 years since the publication of the 1931 edition of the
Handbook of Labor Statistics the average annual paid-up member­
ship of the American Federation of Labor has varied thus:

B

1931,____________________ 2,889,550
1932______________________ 2,532,261
1933______________________ 2, 126, 766

1934_____________________
1935_____________________

2,608,011
3,045,347

The membership reported for 1933 was the smallest since 1916.
Renewed interest in organization followed the enactment of the
National Industrial Recovery Act, however, and resulted in the
creation of new unions and increased membership in most of the
established organizations. In some this increase was spectacular.
Based on their voting strength in the 1934 convention as compared
to 1933, some affiliated national and international unions showed
membership gains ranging from 100 percent to a fortyfold increase.
Data are not available on the membership, in the years 1931-34,
of unions not affiliated with the American Federation of Labor.
The Bureau of Labor Statistics, during 1935, collected material
for a revision of its Handbook of American Trade Unions, which had
not been published since 1929. Authentic information is therefore
available for 1935 upon the number and membership of all organiza­
tions of national scope and significance with which the Bureau could
get in touch. These numbered 156, of which 110 are affiliated with
the American Federation of Labor, and 46 are independent. Their
aggregate membership, as reported to the Bureau, was 4,517,498,
exclusive of the Canadian membership in American unions.
In presenting this figure of 4,500,000 as the approximate strength
of organized labor in the United States, attention is particularly
directed to the fact that it does not include the unknown factor of
the numbers organized into independent local groups, which some­
times attain substantial membership. The Bureau of Labor Statis­
tics has no foundation upon which to base an estimate of the numeri­
cal strength of organized groups that have no national entity.




423

424

LABOR ORGANIZATIONS

Classified by major industrial groups, the membership of labor
unions in 1935 was, in round numbers, as follows:
Extraction of minerals____________________________________
694, 500
Manufacturing and mechanical industries:
Building trades_______________________________________
692, 000
Cigar and tobacco manufacture_______________________
19, 000
Clay, glass, and stone________________________________
64, 400
Clothing industries______________ _______ _____________
515, 500
Food and liquor______________________________________
126, 000
Iron and steel________________________________________
10, 000
Machinery industries (including transportation equip­
ment) _____________________________________________
344,800
Metal industries (except iron and steel)_______________
10, 300
13, 000
Leather industries (except shoes and gloves)__________
Paper manufacture______________•____________________
_
35, 500
Printing_________________________________________ ____
163, 500
Textile industries_____________________________________
108, 000
Other (including rubber and radio)___________________
19, 300
Transportation and communication_______________________ 1, 014, 900
Professional and semiprofessional__________________________
183, 800
Government service_______________________________________
354, 200
180, 200
Personal service and distributive trades___________________

Changing Policies and Forms of Organization
T h e changes which have taken place within the past few years in
organizing policies, fields, and mediums are perhaps of greater
interest and significance than fluctuations in membership. Indus­
tries which have heretofore seemed impervious to the doctrine of
unionism have responded to organizing campaigns conducted by
both the American Federation of Labor and independent groups
since 1933. A number of the old craft unions, moreover, have
extended their jurisdictions and broadened their fields in the effort
to combat encroachments from new organizations that have no
craft boundaries or traditions.
In fact, the greatest increase in organization in the past 5 years
has been among semiskilled and unskilled workers in the massproduction industries and in the rapidly developing fields such as
radio, aviation, and the manufacture of heavy electrical equipment.
Of tne 25 national and international unions covered in the 1935
survey which were not in the 1929 edition of the Handbook of Ameri­
can Trade Unions (Bui. No. 506), 11 were created after the passage
of the National Industrial Recovery Act in 1933. These 11 new
organizations, with an approximate membership of 160,000, are:
Federation o f Architects, Engineers, Chemists and Technicians
A utom obile and M etal W orkers’ Union o f Am erica
International Union United Autom obile W orkers 1
Federation of Flat Glass W ork ers1
National Leather Workers
Industrial Union o f Marine and Shipbuilding Workers
American Newspaper Guild
American R adio Telegraphists’ Association
U nited R ubber W orkers 1
United Shoe and Leather Workers
Brotherhood o f U tility Em ployees

Independent industrial organizations.—A significant development
in the trade-union movement is the growth of independent industrial
unionism. In the past that tendency has been definitely radical in
iAffiliated with the American Federation of Labor.




TRADE-UNION MEMBERSHIP AND ORGANIZATION

425

inception, and industrial unions heretofore have in large part been
the result of “ left-wing” secession movements. A change in that
situation is clearly indicated as an accompaniment of the impetus
of the past 3 years toward organization, and several of the inde­
pendent industrial unions in the foregoing list are neither secessionist
nor conspicuously radical in inception. Some of them have grown
out of company unions, and others seem to be an expression of
dissent from the craft autonomy theory of the American Federation
of Labor on the part of workers in industries in which craft unionism
has not succeeded in holding a strong following. Tanneries and
shipyards are among the industries in which independent industrial
umons have been organized by workers previously unaffiliated with
any of the older organized groups.
Industrial union movement in American Federation of Labor.—In
the 1935 convention of the American Federation of Labor a minority
report of the committee on resolutions which declared “ for the organi­
zation of workers in mass-production and other industries upon
industrial and plant lines, regardless of claims based upon the ques­
tion of jurisdiction” , received more than one-third of the total vote
of the organizations represented at the convention. Since then,
a “ Committee for Industrial Organization” has been formed by
supporters of the minority report, to work, within the American
Federation of Labor, for the organization of the semiskilled and
unskilled workers, particularly in the mass-production industries,
and their identification with the labor movement through the Ameri­
can Federation of Labor, but as industrial and not craft-limited
unions.
Trade Union Unity League.—The Trade Union Unity League,
organized in 1929, was a federation of a group of “ left-wing” industrial
unions the organization of which began during 1927-28. The most
important of these were the National Miners’ Union, the National
Textile Workers, the Needle Trades’ Workers Industrial Union, the
Marine Workers’ Industrial Union, the Food Workers’ Industrial
Union, and the Steel and Metal Workers’ Industrial Union. Organiz­
ing efforts of the Trade Union Unity League and its component indus­
trial unions were directed chiefly toward the unskilled and semi­
skilled, particularly in the mass-production industries. The basic
unit of organization was the “ rank and file” shop committee. The
membership of the league reached its maximum early in 1934, when
an affiliated membership of 125,000 was reported. The largest union
was the Needle Trades Workers’ Industrial Union, with 30,000
members.
In 1935 the Trade Union Unity League, in a convention held in
New York, decided upon the formal dissolution of the League as a
left-wing trade-union center, and the disbanding of its affiliated
organizations. This movement had begun as early as 1933, when the
members of the National Miners’ Union returned to the United Mine
Workers, and had been more generally carried out during the months
immediately preceding the 1935 convention. Since then, formal
announcement of the dissolution of the affiliated Trade Union Unity
League organizations has been made through the official journals of
those that maintained such publications, and their members have
been urged to join the American Federation of Labor unions in their
respective jurisdictions.




426

LABOR ORGANIZATIONS

“ White Collar'* Organizations
O r g a n i z a t i o n among workers in the so-called “ white collar” occupa­
tions is increasing both in numbers and in scope. The growth of
employment in public service is reflected in expanding membership
in the unions in the Federal service, and in the creation of new unions
in that field. The 1935 survey of trade unions listed 18 public-service
unions. The American Federation of Government Employees was
organized in 1932 to supplant, within the American Federation of
Labor, the National Federation of Federal Employees, which with­
drew its affiliation in that year. The newer orgamzation is now ex­
panding its jurisdiction to include State, county, and municipal
employees, who, when organized, have heretofore held membership in
local unions directly affiliated with the American Federation of
Labor. Dualism is to a considerable extent a characteristic of publicservice organizations, particularly in the United States Post Office.
The membership of unions in the “ white collar” , or at least nonmanual, occupations in 1935 was approximately 675,000, which was
about evenly divided between independent unions and those affiliated
with the American Federation of Labor. This figure represents the
membership of the following groups: Railway clerks, railway teleg­
raphers, newspaper editorial employees, public servants (exclusive
of fire fighters and a few small units of manual workers in the Post
Office Department), actors, musicians, radio operators, public-utility
employees (telephone and telegraph), retail clerks, and stenographers
and office workers (estimated).
Both in 1934 and in 1935 the unions of workers in these groups
affiliated with the American Federation of Labor controlled 12 percent
of the total voting strength represented by national and international
unions in the conventions.

Collective Agreements, 1931-34
H ER E is no requirement or practice in the United States regard­
ing the filing of local agreements with a central agency, and
therefore no central depository where such agreements may be found.
The Bureau of Labor Statistics attempts to secure copies of all im­
portant collective or trade agreements entered into between employers
and employees, as they are consummated. Summaries of those
obtained are published from time to time in the Monthly Labor
Review. It is not possible to summarize in this brief space all the
agreements received by the Bureau subsequent to the publication of
the 1931 edition of the Handbook of Labor Statistics (Bui. No. 541).

T

Legislation Regarding the Union Label

I

N 1932, a Federal law was enacted (47 Stat. L. 50) authorizing
associations of employees in the District of Columbia to adopt
a device to designate the products of the labor of their members,




LEGISLATION REGARDING THE UNION LABEL

427

to punish illegal use or imitation of such device, and for other purposes.
This act therefore provides a “ union label law” for the District of
Columbia very similar to the laws passed by 44 States, which secure
to labor organizations the right to register, use, and protect from
counterfeit or unauthorized use the trade marks or labels chosen by
them to distinguish the products of union labor from other goods or
manufactured articles.
The development of the use of union labels is divided by some writ­
ers into three periods. The first period was marked by the introduc­
tion of the use of a label in 1875 by the cigarmakers in California.
This was a result of the keen competition between the white cigarmakers and the Chinese laborers, and it appears to have had consider­
able influence, for some time, in diverting trade from the Chinese to
the white shops. The second period covered the adoption of the
label by other trade unions (largely through the influence of the
Knights of Labor) as a means of combating particular forms of com­
petition to which the members of these umons were subject. The
third stage was that in which widespread use of the labels began to be
made as a matter of general union policy. The movement spread
rapidly and the use of labels became popular with unions whose
products were of such a nature that labels could easily be attached.
Some organizations, such as those of the granite cutters, stonemasons,
and glass-bottle blowers, found the use of labels difficult, but the
majority of the unions found the label useful and soon adopted it.
If the union label was to be an effective instrument, it was neces­
sary that the union be able to prevent its use by other persons not
members of the union.
In some States injunctive relief against counterfeiting was denied
and in others, when allowed, was not sufficient to stop the practice.
Therefore agitation was made for the enactment of legislation sub­
jecting the counterfeiter to criminal prosecution. Laws allowing
criminal punishment were passed immediately in several States
and other States soon followed. At the beginning of 1935, 44 of the
States had enacted union-label laws, Mississippi, New Mexico, North
Carolina, and North Dakota being the four States which had not
done so.
Most of these laws contain similar provisions; i. e., that any union
may register its label, after paying the registration fee; that any
person counterfeiting such label is guilty of a misdemeanor and shall
be subject to a fine varying from $100 to $500 or to imprisonment
varying from 3 months to 1 year.
The constitutionality of legislation of this type has been repeatedly
sustained.2
In Perkins v. Heert, where the question of unjust discrimination
was raised, the New York Court of Appeals said:
The label authorized was by a general and not a local act. No particular
association or union has been given the exclusive privilege of adopting a label,
but every association or union of every kind of working men or women is given
the right to adopt its own label, which may indicate its own workmanship. It
consequently follows that whatever discrimination there may be is authorized,
and, therefore, not unjust, and that the privilege granted under the general law
is in accord with public policy.
2 Cohen v. P e o p le , 149 111. 486, 37 N . E. 60; State v. B is h o p , 128 Mo. 373, 31 S. W . 9; P e r k in s v. H eert, 158
N . Y . 306, 53 N . E. 18; C om m onw ealth v. N o rto n , 23 Pa. C. C. R. 386; Seab o ld v. C o m rs ., 187 Pa. 318; T ra cey
v. B a n k e r , 170 Mass. 266.




428

LABOR ORGANIZATIONS

The courts have also held that such laws are not a violation of the
fourteenth amendment to the Constitution, as there is neither a
deprivation of property without due process of law nor a denial of
equal protection of the laws to all citizens.

Anti-Injunction Laws and Laws Relating to Antiunion
Contracts
A n t i-I n ju n c t io n Legislation
Federal Act of 1932

A

F E D E R A L anti-injunction law (Code 1934, title 29, ch. 6) was
approved on March 23, 1932. The purpose of this law, which
is commonly referred to as the Norris-LaGuardia Act, is “ to define
and limit the jurisdiction of courts sitting in equity.”
The Federal law, in brief, provides as follows: Section 1 forbids
any Federal court to issue an injunction except in accordance with the
act. Section 2 declares the public policy of the United States in
labor disputes, and assures the employee’s right to collective bargain­
ing. Antiunion contracts are outlawed by section 3, and such con­
tracts are made unenforceable in any Federal court. Sections 4 and
5 relate to injunctions prohibiting persons from doing certain acts
either singly or in concert. Officers of associations are no longer
held responsible for the unlawful acts of individuals, by section 6,
while section 7 prescribes the procedure, namely, that no injunction
shall be issued, except after a hearing of the testimony of witnesses
in open court, with an opportunity for cross-examination, and only
after the findings of fact by the court. By the provisions of section
8, an effort to settle disputes must be made before injunctive relief
will be granted. Section 9 provides that when an injunction has been
issued it shall include only a prohibition of such specific acts as have
been expressly complained of and are expressly included in the find­
ings of fact made by the court. Sections 10 and 11 provide for the
right of appeal and trial by jury. A demand for the retirement of a
judge is permitted by section 12, whenever an attack has been made
upon his character or conduct, or if made elsewhere than in the pres­
ence of the court. Various definitions are set forth in section 13,
while sections 14 and 15 contain the usual provision relating to the
constitutionality of the act and the repeal of all conflicting acts.
History of Anti-Injunction Legislation

A b r ie f chronological history may be of value in understanding the
present status of this type of legislation. It is generally reported
that the first injunction m the United States was issued in about 1883.
It was not, however, until 1895, when the case of I n re Debs was
derided by the United States Supreme Court (158 U. S. 564) that the
principle was firmly established that the power to issue injunctions
and punish their violation, as for contempt, was inherent in the courts.
A case of much importance to labor was the so-called Danbury
Hatters’ case (.Loewe v. Lawlor, 208 U. S. 274), decided in 1908. This
case was brought under the Sherman Antitrust Act of July 2, 1890.




ANTI-INJUNCTION AND ANTIUNION-CONTRACT LAWS

429

The act provides among other things that “ any person who shall be
injured in his business or property by any other person or corporation
by reason of anything forbidden or declared to be unlawful by this act
may sue * * * and shall recover threefold the damages by him
sustained * *
Accordingly, a hat manufacturer of Danbury,
Conn., recovered triple damages for losses due to a boycott of his goods
in an interstate shipment.
While the Sherman Antitrust Act was held applicable to labor dis­
putes shortly after its passage, it was not until the Danbury Hatters'
case that a damaging situation for labor loomed and agitation was
then made to remedy the effects of the court decision. Finally, in
1914, the so-called “ Clayton A ct” was passed by the Congress of the
United States. B y the provisions of this act the labor of a human
being was declared “ not a commodity or article of commerce.” Labor
organizations were especially exempted from the antitrust laws by the
Clayton Act.
The Clayton Act, which sought to regulate the issue of injunctions,
has been construed in several cases which showed the line that was
drawn between the powers of the courts and the intent of Congress as
expressed in the act (Duplex Printing Press Co. v. Deering, 254 U. S.
443; American Steel Foundry Co. v. Tri-City Trades Council, 257 U. S.
184).
Section 20 of the Clayton Act was before the Supreme Court in a
case involving the secondary boycott in which an injunction had been
granted restraining certain labor unions from maintaining a secondary
boycott in New York to compel a Michigan manufacturer of printing
presses to unionize his factory. The Supreme Court held that the
secondary boycott was illegal and that the injunction had been prop­
erly granted. In its opinion the Court Said that “ the emphasis placed
on the words ‘lawful’ and ‘lawfully’, ‘ peaceful’ and ‘ peacefully’, and
the references to the dispute and the parties to it, strongly rebut a
legislative intent to confer a general immunity for conduct violative
of the antitrust laws, or otherwise unlawful” {Duplex Co. v. Deering
(1921), 254 U. S. 443, 473).
In the same year, but in the following term of court, Mr. Chief
Justice Taft delivered an opinion in a case involving section 20 of the
Clayton Act in which an injunction had been granted enjoining,
among other things, picketing of a plant in which a strike existed and
said:
It is clear that Congress wished to forbid the use by the Federal courts of their
equity arm to prevent peaceable persuasion by employees, discharged or expectant,
in promotion of their side of the dispute, and to secure them against judicial
restraint in obtaining or communicating information in any place where they
might lawfully be. This introduces no new principle into the equity jurisprudence
of those courts. It is merely declaratory of what was the best practice always.
Congress thought it wise to stabilize this rule of action and render it uniform
{A m e r ic a n F o u n d rie s v. T r i -C i t y C o u n cil (1921), 257 U. S. 184, 203).

The construction placed upon section 20 of the Clayton Act by the
United States Supreme Court saved the constitutionality of the law.
One week after the decision of the court in the Tri-City Council case,
Mr. Chief Justice Taft delivered an opinion holding substantially the
same provision, found in the Arizona statute, unconstitutional and
void, because of the construction placed upon it by the Arizona Supreme
Court. The Supreme Court, speaking through the Chief Justice, said
that the construction placed upon the words by the Arizona Supreme




430

LABOR ORGANIZATIONS

Court was as far from the meaning of section 20 of the Clayton Act as
if they were in wholly different languages. The Supreme Court said
that the effect of the ruling of the Arizona court under paragraph 1464
of the Arizona Code (Rev. Stat. 1913) was that “ loss may be inflicted
upon the plaintiffs' property and business by ‘ picketing ' in any form if
violence be not used, and that, because no violence was shown or
claimed, the campaign carried on, as described in the complaint and
exhibits, did not unlawfully invade complainants' rights", and that “ a
law which operates to make lawful such a wrong as is described in
plaintiffs' complaint deprives the owner of the business and the prem­
ises of his property without due process, and cannot be held valid under
the fourteenth amendment" (Truax v. Corrigan (1921), 257 U. S.
312, 324,328).
This interpretation of the Clayton Act practically amounted to
making the act a nullity as the Court held the act made no change in
the law as it existed prior to the passage of the act. This construction
caused agitation for a Federal law broad enough to cover the general
situation arising out of labor disputes. It resulted in the enactment of
the Norris-LaGuardia anti-injunction law.
State Legislation
I n t h e following 21 States anti-injunction laws had been enacted
by the end of 1935: Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana,
Kansas, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota,
Montana, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Oregon, Pennsyl­
vania, Utah, Washington, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. Some of the
laws provide specifically that no injunction shall be issued without
previous notice and an opportunity to be heard in open court—
as for example the laws of Kansas and Pennsylvania. Several of the
States have laws containing provisions similar to those contained in
section 20 of the Clayton Act; for example, Arizona, North Dakota,
or Washington.
The States which have enacted laws on this subject during the past
few years have followed the major provisions of the Federal anti­
injunction law. The Colorado, Idaho, Indiana, Louisiana, Maryland,
Minnesota, New York, North Dakota, Oregon, Utah, and Wyoming
acts define the public policy of the State relative to collective bar­
gaining and contain specific restrictions limiting the jurisdiction of
equity courts in litigation growing out of labor disputes.
Citations of the anti-injunction laws of the various States follow:
A r iz o n a . — Code 1928, sec. 4286.
C olora do. — Acts of 1933, ch. 59.
Id a h o . — Acts of 1933, ch. 215.
I ll in o i s . — Smith-Hurd, Rev. Stats. 1931, ch. 48, sec. 2a.
In d ia n a . — Acts of 1933, ch. 12.
K a n s a s . — Gen. Stats. 1923, sec. 60-1104.
L o u is ia n a . — Acts of 1934, ch. 203.
M a i n e . — Acts of 1933, ch. 261.
M a r y l a n d . — Acts of 1935, ch. 574.
M a ssa c h u setts. — Acts of 1934, ch. 381; Acts of 1935, ch. 407.
M in n e s o ta . — Gen. Stats. 1927, sec. 4256 (as amended 1929, ch.

ch. 416.
M o n ta n a . — Rev. Code, 1921, sec. 9242.
N e w J e r s e y . — Acts of 1926, ch. 207.




260), Acts of 1933,

ANTI-INJUNCTION AND ANTIUNION-CONTftA'CT LAWS
N e w Y o r k . — Acts of 1935, ch. 477.
N o r th D a k o ta . — Acts of 1935, ch. 247.
O reg on . — Code 1930, secs. 49-902 to 49-903; Acts of 1933, ch.
P e n n s y lv a n ia . — Acts of 1931, No. 311, p. 926.
U ta h . — Rev. Stats. 1933, secs. 49-2-6 to 4 9-2-8; Acts of 1933,
W a s h in g to n . — Rem. Rev. Stats. 1931, secs. 7612-7614; Acts of

ch. 7.

W is c o n s in . — Stats. 1931, secs. 133.05— 133.08 and
W y o m i n g . — Acts of 1933, ch. 37.
U n ited Sta tes. — Code 1934, title 29, secs. 52, 53

431

355.
ch. 15.
1933-34 (ex. ses.),

268.18 to 268.30.
(Clayton Act) and Code 1934,

title 29, secs. 101-115 (Norris-La Guardia Act).

Law s R e la tin g to A n tiu n io n C o n tra cts
S e c t io n 3 of the Federal anti-injunction law outlaws antiunion con­
tracts. Prior to the enactment of the Federal law, the State of Wis­
consin passed a law in 1929 with a similar provision; this was the
first law of its kind to be enacted in any American State. In general,
the acts on this subject declare that an employment contract con­
taining an agreement whereby either party undertakes not to join,
become, or remain a member of any labor organization or of any
employer organization is contrary to public policy and therefore void.

Decisions of the United States Supreme Court
T h r ee cases have been decided by the United States Supreme
Court directly involving the antiunion contract. {Adair v. United
States (1908), 208 U. S. 161; Coppage v. Kansas (1915), 236 U. S. 1;
and Hitchman Coal & Coke Co. v. Mitchell (1917), 245 U. S. 229.)
The Adair case involved the criminal prosecution of a railway fore­
man for discharging a railway employee because of his being a member
of a labor organization.
The question presented to the Court was, “ May Congress make it
a criminal offense against the United States—as by the tenth section
of the act of 1898 it does—for an agent or officer of an interstate
carrier, having full authority in the premises from the carrier, to dis­
charge an employee from service simply because of his membership
in a labor organization” (208 U. S. 171)? The Court held that “ as
the relations and the conduct of the parties toward each other was
not controlled by any contract other than a general agreement on
one side to accept the services of the employee and a general agree­
ment on the other side to render services to the employer—no term
being fixed for the continuance of the employment—Congress could
not, consistently with the fifth amendment, make it a crime against
the United States to discharge the employee because of his being a
member of a labor organization” (208 U. S. 176). In concluding its
opinion the Court said that “ this decision is therefore restricted to
the question of the validity of the particular provision in the act of
Congress making it a crime against the United States for an agent
or officer of an interstate carrier to discharge an employee from its
service because of his being a member of a labor organization”
(208 U. S. 180).
The Coppage case involved a law of the State of Kansas providing a
penalty for coercing or influencing or making demands upon or re­
quirements of employees, servants, laborers, and persons seeking
employment (Kansas Acts of 1903, ch. 222).




432

LABOR ORGANIZATIONS

Coppage, superintendent of a railway company, requested an
employee to sign an agreement to withdraw from a labor union while
in the employ of the railway, and, on the refusal of the employee,
discharged him from the service of the company. Coppage was
charged with the violation of the statute above quoted and was found
guilty. eThe Supreme Court of the United States pointed out the
distinction between the A d a ir and the Coppage cases in its statement
that “ while the statute that was dealt with in the A d a ir case contained
a clause substantially identical with the Kansas act now under con­
sideration—a clause making it a misdemeanor for an employer to
require an employee or applicant for employment, as a condition of
such employment, to agree not to become or remain a member of a
labor organization— the conviction was based upon another clause,
which related to discharging an employee because of his membership
in such an organization; and the decision, naturally, was confined to
the case actually presented for decision” (236 U. S. 1 1 ) ; The penalty
imposed in the A d a ir case was on the ground of the discharge of an
employee because of his being a member of a labor organization. The
Coppage case involved a penalty imposed “ not for the discharge,
but for the attempt to coerce an unwilling employee to agree to forego
the exercise of the legal right involved as a condition of employment ”
(236 U. S. 40). The Court held the Kansas act “ as construed and
applied so as to punish with fine or imprisonment an employer or his
agent for merely prescribing, as a condition upon which one may se­
cure employment under or remain in the service of such employer,
that the employee shall enter into an^ agreement not to become or
remain a member of any labor organization while so employed, is
repugnant to the ‘ due-process’ clause of the fourteenth amendment,
and therefore void” (230 U. S. 26). Reviewing the effect of the Adair
and Coppage decisions, it must be noted that both the Federal and
the State acts held unconstitutional, provided criminal punishment for
the violation of the statute. Though an attempt was made to dis­
tinguish between a statute imposing a penalty for membership in a
labor union and punishment for discharging an employee because of
failure to agree to an antiunion contract, the cases are similar in that
they both involve criminal punishment.
The Hitchman case affirmed a decree granting an injunction against
attempts to organize employees who had agreed that they would not,
while in the service of their employer, become members of a union
and if they joined the union^would withdraw from their employment.
The case involved the application of the common law of West Vir­
ginia. No statute was involved in the decision of the case. The
Court held that, upon all the facts involved in the particular case
before it, the purpose to be attained and the methods resorted to by
the organizers were unlawful. Apparently the conclusion as to the
purpose and methods was largely influenced by the agreement of the
employees that they would not, while in the service of the employer,
become members of a union and if they joined the union would
withdraw from their employment (245 U. S. 229, 263).
No decision has been rendered by the Supreme Court on a law
which simply declares such a contract contrary to public policy, and
it is assumed that such a law would be upheld as valid legislation.




ANTI-INJUNCTION AND ANTIUNION-CONTRACT LAWS

433

State Antiunion-Contract Legislation

U p to the close of 1935, 17 States had enacted laws providing that
the agreement of an employee not to join a labor organization is
contrary to public policy, and most of the laws provide in addition
that the agreement shall not afford any basis for the granting of legal
or equitable relief by any court. Citations of the various antiunioncontract laws follow:
A r iz o n a . — Acts of 1931, ch. 19.
C a lifo rn ia . — Acts of 1933, ch. 566.
C olorado. — Acts of 1931, ch. 112; Acts of 1933, ch. 59.
Id a h o . — Acts of 1933, ch. 215.
I llin o is . — Acts of 1933, p. 588.
In d ia n a . — Acts of 1933, ch. 12.
L o u is ia n a . — Acts of 1934, act no. 202.
M a r y la n d . — Acts of 1935, ch. 574.
M a ssa c h u setts. — Acts of 1933, ch. 351.
M in n e s o ta . — Acts of 1933, ch. 416.
N e w Y o r k . — Acts of 1935, ch. 11.
N orth D a k o ta . — Acts of 1935, ch. 247.
O h io . — Acts of 1931, p. 562.
O regon . — Acts of 1931, ch. 247; Acts of 1933, ch. 355.
P e n n sy lv a n ia . — Acts of 1933, ch. 219.
U ta h . — Acts of 1933, ch. 15.
W is c o n s in . — Stats. 1931, secs. 103.46 and 268.19.
U n ited S ta tes. — Code 1934, title 29, sec. 103.

19 2 0 5 — 36-------29







LABOR STANDARDS

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




435




Division of Labor Standards of the United States
Department of Labor
H E promotional and constructive work dealing with labor stand­
ards which the United States Department of Labor has since its
creation tried to carry on has been handled in various ways. For
example, interstate and regional conferences on uniform labor legis­
lation came directly under the Office of the Secretary, cooperation
with agencies dealing with standards of safety and health was a
function of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, while the Women’s Bureau
was concerned with movements toward standardizing working condi­
tions for women.
In July 1934 a new division was created to concentrate and unify
these efforts. This new agency is the Division of Labor Standards.
Its primary purpose is to serve as a rallying point for the work and
activities of State departments of labor, Federal agencies, organiza­
tions, and individuals interested in securing improvements in the
working and living conditions of wage earners and their families.
A major objective of the Division of Labor Standards is to assist
in harmonizing State labor laws, wherever practicable, in order that
workers in one State may receive the same measure of protection and
benefits as workers in another State. To that end the Division is
regularly represented in the meetings of the Commission on Inter­
state Compacts Affecting Labor Legislation which was organized in
1933, the object of which is to secure compacts and agreements upon
minimum standards of labor legislation and enforcement. This
movement got under way with the calling of a regional conference
of Southern States in January 1935 (summarized on p. 443) and,
later, of the three Pacific Coast States and Nevada. A less direct
approach is the advisory service which the Division offers legislators,
labor and social-welfare organizations, and governmental agencies in
connection with drafting bills and in analyzing bills introduced into
State legislatures and other law or code-making bodies. By means of
a legislative reporting service, the Division receives copies of all labor
bills currently introduced into State legislatures, and thus keeps
abreast of developments in all sections of the country.
Of equal importance is the work of the Division of Labor Standards
in promoting safety and health among the industrial workers of the
country. The aim of the Division in this capacity is to stimulate
State activity in the safety and health field as a permanent function of
Stateedepartments of labor. In disseminating information as to
technical methods of accident control and the elimination of health
hazards, the Division utilizes and adapts research findings and
studies wherever possible. This work is done under the immediate
supervision of an experienced safety engineer. Participation of the
Department of Labor in the development and drafting of safety and
health codes sponsored by the American Standards Association will
be through the new Division.

T




437

438

LABOR STANDARDS

Among the activities of the Division of Labor Standards since its
organization in July 1934 are the initiation of a proposal for unifying
and organizing accident-prevention programs within the Federal
departments, some of which are engaged in extensive construction
work, and surveys of safety conditions at Boulder Dam and Coulee
Dam, undertaken at the request of the Interior Department.

Conferences on Uniform Labor Standards
ET W E E N January 1931 and October 1935 a series of conferences
was held for the general purpose of establishing uniform stand­
ards in labor and social legislation and securing closer cooperation
among State and Federal officials in the development of recovery
programs. In the order of their occurrence these conferences, which
were attended by governors or their representatives and State and
Federal labor officials, were:
(1)
Governors' conference on unemployment called by Governor
Roosevelt of New York and held in Albany, January 23-25, 1931,
attended by the Governors of Connecticut, Massachusetts, New
Jersey, New York, Ohio, and Rhode Island and a representative of
the Governor of Pennsylvania.1
(2)
Eastern interstate conference on labor legislation held at Harris­
burg, Pa., June 18-19, 1931, at the invitation of Governor Pinchot
of Pennsylvania and attended by representatives of the labor depart­
ments of 10 eastern States and the Federal Government. States in
addition to the 7 attending the earlier conference were Delaware,
Maryland, and West Virginia.2
(3)
Conference called by Governor Ely of Massachusetts at Boston,
January 27-28, 1933, attended by labor officials of the United States
Government and the States of Connecticut, Maryland, New Hamp­
shire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania for the purpose
of considering means of making effectual the recommendations of the
Harrisburg conference.3
(4)
Southeastern interstate conference on social legislation held in
Atlanta, Ga., December 13, 1933. This was attended by business,
industrial, political, and labor leaders and State labor officials repre­
senting Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, and Tennessee,
and by the United States Secretary of Labor and other officials of the
United States Department of Labor.4
(5)
First national conference on labor legislation called by the
Secretary of Labor and held in Washington, D. C., February 14-15,
1934. This conference was composed of delegates appointed by the
governors of 39 States, from the State departments of labor, and State
federations of labor.5
(6)
Michigan Labor Legislation Institute held at Lansing, Mich.,
March 26, 1934, attended by State government officials, industrial
and civic groups, labor organizations, and the Secretary of Labor.6

B

1 Report of proceedings in Monthly Labor Review, March 1931, p. 64.
2 Idem, Aug. 1931, p. 42.
3 Idem, Mar. 1933, p. 95.
4 Idem, January 1934, p. 95.
8 Idem, April 1934, p. 779.
6 Idem, M ay 1934, p. 1047.




CONFERENCES ON UNIFORM LABOR STANDARDS

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(7) Conference on labor standards called by the Secretary of Labor
and held in Washington, D. C., December 14, 1934, attended by
representatives of various State departments of labor and dele­
gates from a great variety of civic, religious, political, and welfare
organizations.
(8) Southern regional conference on State legislation and economic
security held in Nashville, Tenn., January 20-21, 1935. This was
attended by 50 representatives appointed by the governors of 12
States at the invitation of the Secretary of Labor and representatives
of organized labor. The 12 participating States were Alabama,
Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North
Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Viiginia.7
(9) Second national conference on labor legislation, convened by
the Secretary of Labor at Asheville, N. C., October 4-5, 1935,
attended by delegates from 40 States, and officials of Federal and
State Governments.8
G o ve rn o rs’ Conference on U n e m p lo y m e n t, A lb a n y , Ja n u a ry 1931
P r o g r a m s and procedure were similar in all these conferences. The
first one, limited to governors, covered fewer problems tnan the
others, being confined largely to discussion of measures to stabilize
industry and employment, and of unemployment insurance. On the
latter subject the statement issued by the governors on the closing
day of the session said that while “ no action was taken committing
either them or their respective States to any program of unemploy­
ment insurance” , it was nevertheless “ unanimously felt that the sub­
ject deserves further immediate study.” To that end it was decided
that in future meetings the group would “ examine unemployment
reserves or insurance as a preventive or relief for unemployment,
setting forth in their report the following information” :
(а) The experience of European nations with compulsory and
voluntary unemployment insurance.
(б) American experience with voluntary unemployment reseives
or insurance.
(c) Possible or proposed American variations, corrections, and
improvements if a general system by States should be adopted. This
would cover safeguards against the dole, coverage by private insurance
companies, group insurance, private industrial companies’ insurance,
and governmental supervision.
It would cover also both voluntary and compulsory forms.

Eastern Inte rstate Conference, H a rris b u rg , J u n e 1931
W o r k m e n ’ s compensation, industrial health and safety, and
protective legislation for women and minors occupied much of the
time at the Harrisburg conference.
The recommendations of the committee on workmen’s compensa­
tion covered a number of technical points making for uniformity,
such as standard measurements for permanent partial disabilities
and uniform compensation rates, and the adoption of certain general
principles. To liberalize workmen’s compensation laws the com­
mittee recommended that they be made applicable to all occupational
7Report of proceedings in Monthly
8Idem, November 1935, p. 1247.




Labor Review, March 1935, p. 670.

440

LABOR STANDARDS

diseases and that coverage be extended to all hazardous occupations
in which one or more persons are employed. To strengthen adminis­
trative procedure the committee recommended that the industrial
boards or compensation commissions of the several States be given
sole jurisdiction as to questions of fact, and that appeals to appellate
courts be permitted only on questions of law.
The committee on industrial hygiene made both general and
specific recommendations covering minimum standard requirements
of ventilation, temperature, lighting, sanitary facilities, cleanliness,
first-aid equipment, and the provision of protective devices and
measures necessary for the prevention of any and all occupational
diseases. In the determination of specific standards the committee
advised that the highest standards in existing labor laws be con­
sidered, and suggested consultation with the United States Public
Health Service, the American Public Health Association, the Ameri­
can Standards Association, the National Safety Council, and other
similar organizations. The committee also recommended uniform
legislation making the reporting of all occupational diseases manda­
tory upon physicians handling such cases, and upon all employers
having knowledge of the existence of occupational diseases among
their employees.
The most accepted standards governing the employment of women
and minors, covering daily and weekly hours, rest periods, prohibition
of night work, etc., were put forward as minimum requirements,
with the additional recommendation that bureaus of women and
children be established within the State departments of labor to carry
on scientific investigations of the changing problems arising in indus­
try ; that each State set up and enforce minimum standards of exper­
ience and training for its inspectorial force; and that the work of
enforcing the woman and child labor laws and of handling the various
problems relating to the welfare of woman and child workers be
assigned to inspectors especially equipped to perform those specialized
tasks.
Recognition of the fact that the statistical work of a labor depart­
ment is fully as important as its other functions was urged, and the
need for adequate appropriations for bureaus of labor statistics was
emphasized. The conference recognized also the desirability of
uniform methods of collecting and presenting labor statistics, out­
lined fields in which statistical data should be collected in conformity
with approved standards, and urged the United States Bureau of
Labor Statistics “ to draft a model form of law for the direction and
guidance of the State bureaus.”
Eastern States Conference, B oston, J a n u a ry 1933
E ig h t e e n months later the Governor of Massachusetts called a
conference to determine what progress had been made toward carrying
out the recommendations of the Harrisburg meeting, and to coordinate
the various activities seeking legislation “ governing the hours of
employment of women and minors.”
As announced in the final report, the standards adopted by the
Boston conference were essentially the same as those approved at
Harrisburg, “ yet once again and more insistently than ever before
we urge their immediate enactment into legislation. * * * We




CONFERENCES ON UNIFORM LABOR STANDARDS

441

assert that the future welfare and stability of our social order must
rest upon the greater protection of our workers and the further reduc­
tion of the working day. * * * The period which has elapsed
since the Harrisburg conference has made us immeasurably more
conscious of the need for the adoption of the whole of the program
adopted there. It has also forced us to realize the especial urgency
of any measures that would tend to increase purchasing power or
increase employment.”
The Boston conference emphasized particularly the need for mini­
mum-wage legislation and recommending “ a mandatory minimumwage law for women and minors ” , it urged “ that it be adopted
promptly in every State.” During 1933, 5 of the 9 States represented
at that conference (Connecticut, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New
York, and Ohio) enacted similar laws requiring that women and
minors be paid such wages as shall adequately compensate the worker
for services rendered and provide proper and healthful living.
A tla n ta Conference on Social Legislation, Decem ber 1933
T h e conference of Southeastern States was held in December 1933,
after the national recovery program had begun to take definite form.
This meeting unanimously approved the nine objectives set forth
by the Secretary of Labor, and created a permanent committee to
“ devise and propose harmonious standards of labor legislation for
presentation to the legislatures of the States represented at this
conference.” The nine objectives are: (1) Permanent limitation of
hours of labor, (2) prohibition of child labor, (3) fixing of standard
minimum wages for women, (4) safe and healthful working condi­
tions, (5) provision for the aged, (6) some form of unemployment
reserves, (7) adequate workmen’s compensation laws, (8) free public
employment exchanges, and (9) adequate administration of labor
laws and improved labor conditions.
F irs t N a tio n a l Conference on La b o r Legislation W a sh in g to n ,
D . C ., F e b ru a ry 1934
T h e Washington conference of February 1934 was more represent­
ative in scope than the regional conferences, as it was national in
character and was attended by representatives of 39 States. It had
also a more comprehensive agenda, covering, in addition to the
subjects in the earlier meetings, provisions for old age and workers’
housing. Among the recommendations adopted was one designed
“ to make permanent the social and economic advantages of the
limitation of hours under which industry is operating under the
N. R. A.” by securing the enactment of State laws “ to conform as
nearly as possible to the general standards adopted in the codes.”
One topic fully discussed at the Harrisburg and Boston confer­
ences was public employment exchanges. The plan toward which
efforts were then directed had since been virtually adopted in the
national program set up by the United States Employment Service
under the so-called “ Wagner-Peyser A ct” of 1933. Hence the
approach to this problem at the Washington conference was, first,
to secure the acceptance of the provisions of the Federal act by non­
cooperating States, and secondly, to encourage and strengthen the
system in the cooperating States.




442

LABOR STANDARDS

Committee reports and recommendations on the most important
problems discussed are fully presented in the April 1934 issue of the
Monthly Labor Review. The conference plan of stimulating State
action on labor legislation was strongly endorsed, and annual gather­
ings, both national, and regional, were recommended.
M ic h ig a n La b o r Legislation In s titu te , M a rc h 1934
U n d er the stimulus of the national conference and at the instigation
of the Michigan delegates to that meeting, the Michigan Labor
Legislation Institute was held at Lansing on March 26, 1934. The
Institute was composed of representatives of the various departments
of the State government, the Michigan Federation of Labor and its
affiliated local trade unions, manufacturers and business groups, the
Consumers’ League, and a number of women’s organizations. The
Secretary of Labor was invited to attend and to address the con­
ference. As her part of the program she reviewed and summarized
the discussions, and recommended additions and amendments to
existing labor legislation in Michigan. The conference closed with
a resolution, unanimously adopted, calling upon the Governor to
direct the Michigan Department of Labor and Industry to make an
intensive study of the work of the National Conference on Labor
Legislation with a view to recommending to the next session of the
legislature measures which would raise the labor legislation of
Michigan to the level urged by the Washington conference. Refer­
ence was made specifically to several items, among them minimumwage and unemployment-insurance legislation, a shorter workday
and work week for women and minors, and administrative machinery
through which the State might cooperate with the Federal Govern­
ment in the enforcement of N. R. A. codes.
Conference on La bo r Standards, W a sh in g to n , D . C .,
Decem ber 1934
T he immediate objective of this conference was the establishment
of cooperation between national organizations and the newly created
Division of Labor Standards of the United States Department of
Labor and the bringing about of higher standards for the protection
of workers in the different States. The agenda covered the same
questions relating to economic security as were treated in previous
conferences and in her address Secretary Perkins urged the members
of the conference to stick to realities, declaring that since the N. R. A.
had furnished a demonstration of the practicability of the abolition of
child labor, a shorter working week, and minimum wages, “ no
reasonable American wants to go back to the old system of unregu­
lated hours, wages, and child labor.”
The conference went on record as favoring the establishment, insofar
as possible, of the following measures: The 40-hour week, 8-hour day,
5-day week; minimum-wage laws for women and minors with the hope
of the eventual establishment of minimum-wage laws for both sexes;
ratification of the child-labor amendment in the States which had not
yet ratified it, and an immediate program for the elimination of
industrial homework, liberalization of workmen’s compensation abts,
and prompt enactment of some form of unemployment-insurance and
old-age-pension legislation.




CONFERENCES ON UNIFORM LABOR STANDARDS

443

S o u th e rn Regional Conference on State L a b o r Legislation and
E co n o m ic S e cu rity, N ashville, J a n u a ry 1935
O n e of the major purposes of this conference, as of all the interstate
and regional conferences, as the Secretary of Labor outlined them,
was to find a general level in a labor legislative program. The
Secretary of Labor and the Director of the Division of Labor Stand­
ards led the open discussion on the various problems of labor legis­
lation with which the conference was concerned. After a series of
round-table discussions led by officials of the departments of labor
of several of the participating States, recommendations were adopted
of which the following are summaries.
Child-labor standards.—Adoption of the Federal child-labor amend­
ment; State acts to provide 16-year minimum work age (18-year
minimum for hazardous employment); requirement of employment
certificates up to 18 years; maximum 40-hour week and 8-hour day;
double compensation for illegally employed minors, and provision for
conservation of compensation benefits paid to minors.
M inim um wages, limitation of hours , nightwork , and industrial
homework.—Enactment by the States of mandatory minimum-wage
laws for women and minor workers, based on standard bill drafted by
the National Consumers’ League, providing that minimum rates,
when set, be not less than $12 per week; State laws fixing a maximum
8-hour day, a 40-hour week, and 1 day of rest in 7, for both men and
women; requirement by States of a uniform method of keeping
records of hours and wages by employers and reporting of such data
as a means of enforcing hours legislation and of providing a basis
for legislative studies; enactment of State legislation to abolish nightwork, with appropriate provision for continuous-process industries;
that industrial homework be placed under State regulation, with the
thought of ultimate abolition of homework; that the State labor
departments include a division for enforcement of regulations per­
taining to women in industry.
W orkm en’s compensation, occupational-disease legislation , safety
and sanitation.—Commission form of administration as distinguished
from court administration; extension of compensation insurance to all
employments with three or more workers, excepting only agriculture
and domestic service; provision of adequate medical staff for com­
missions for impartial adjudication of medical questions; provision
for self-support of workmen’s compensation administration through
assessments against insurance carriers and self-insurers; requirement
for posting ample security b y authorized self-insurers; compensation
insurance for occupational diseases; standard of compensation pay­
ments based on 66% percent of average weekly wage; adoption of a
plan by relief administrations whereby specific payment for injury,
in lieu of workmen’s compensation, may be given to workers on
public-works projects; appropriations to departments of labor
sufficient to carry on an industrial safety educational program, in
order to reduce casualties and compensation cost.
Unemployment and old-age assistance; State labor departments.—
Legislation by the States represented in conference containing the
principles of unemployment compensation embodied in H. R. 4142
(labor representatives at conference desired to be recorded as in
favor of an unemployment-insurance system not requiring contribu-




444

LABOR STANDARDS

tions from employees); State legislation adopting the principles em­
bodied in Senate bill 1130 providing for old-age security; creation by the
States now without labor departments of such administrative organiza­
tions, and the development and strengthening of those now existing.
Employment services.—Acceptance by the Southern States that
have not heretofore done so of the provisions of the Wagner-Peyser
Act before July 1, 1935, with adequate appropriations; employment
service administrators urged to cooperate with employers ’ and
employees’ organizations.
Second N a tio n a l Conference on L a b o r Le gislatio n , Asheville,
O ctober 1935
T h e second national conference on labor legislation was held after
the adoption of several of the measures toward which preceding con­
ferences had been working—especially the Wagner-Peyser Act estab­
lishing a Federal-State employment system and the Social Security
Act providing for unemployment insurance and old-age pensions.
Discussion of those subjects accordingly dealt primarily with State
participation and means of securing the most effective cooperation
between State and Federal Governments. Administration of State
unemployment compensation through the medium of the State
agency responsible for the enforcement of other labor laws was
recommended. Where State commissions are formed for the pur­
pose, the conference urged that a representative of the State employ­
ment service be appointed.
Each topic on the agenda was assigned to a committee, whose
recommendations were then adopted by the entire conference.
Among these were:
Old-age pensions.—The committee recommended an age limit of
60 to 65 years, without property limitations, and a flexible sum of
not less than $30 a month. The committee also recommended a
system of Federal annuities purchasable by persons ineligible for oldage pensions.
M inim um wage.—The committee on minimum wage reiterated pre­
vious recommendations that States having no minimum-wage legisla­
tion “ make this an immediate objective” , and that the minimum-wage
principle and awards, where made, be applied to homework industries.
Child labor.—A series of minimum standards in the employment of
young persons and redoubled efforts to secure full ratification of the
Federal child-labor amendment were among the recommendations of
this committee.
Industrial homework.—Legal regulation of industrial homework pat­
terned after the homework provisions of some of the N. R. A. codes
was urged. Because of evidence that the practice of sending home­
work across State lines is spreading, the committee recommended
that the “ United States Department of Labor be asked to continue
to investigate the extent and nature of the passage of homework goods
in interstate commerce and explore the possibilities of Federal legisla­
tion to control this practice.”
Industrial health and safety.—State authorities administering labor
laws should, in the judgment of the conference, have complete
authority to formulate and enforce industrial rules or codes, con­
forming substantially to nationally approved standards, for adequate
protection to the workers against hazards to health and safety.



INTERSTATE COMPACTS AFFECTING LABOR

445

Wage 'payment and wage collections.—After discussing the serious­
ness of the increasing problems presented by the failure of employers
to pay wages owed to employees, the committee recommended that
the Secretary of Labor form a committee to attempt to develop proper
types of legislative remedy, including, where necessary, that of making
failure to pay wages an extraditable offense.
H ousing .—Declaring that the “ objective in housing is an adequate
supply of good dwellings, so distributed as to location, type, size, and
cost as to meet the needs of the population, and, so far as possible, its
desires” , the conference outlined methods for achieving that objective.
These methods are: (1) Demolition of all unfit dwellings; (2) repair and
proper maintenance of dwellings that are fit or that can economically
be made fit; and (3) erection of an adequate supply. The function of
Federal, State, and local Governments in that field was declared to
be to enforce standards and facilitate development.
Federal-State cooperation.—The conference reaffirmed recommenda­
tions for cooperation between the Federal and the various State
departments of labor adopted at the first national conference (Wash­
ington, February 1934). It recommended further that a method of
clearing of industrial problems through the United States Department
of Labor be adopted by the State departments, and that the Secretary
of Labor select an advisory committee for the promotion of coopera­
tion between the United States Department of Labor and the States.

Interstate Compacts Affecting Labor and Industries

O

N M A Y 29, 1934, the first interstate compact on minimum wage
was signed at Concord, N. EL, by seven northeastern industrial
States.9
The first attempt to establish Uniform minimum standards for em­
ployment conditions was made at a conference of northeastern officials
at Albany, N. Y., on January 23-24, 1931. A second meeting at
Harrisburg, Pa. (June 18 -19 ,19 31),10 was followed by a conference in
Boston, Mass. (Jan. 27-28, 1933).11 At both of these meetings the
possibility of forming interstate compacts affecting labor and in­
dustries was discussed. In 1933, the Massachusetts Legislature, by
resolve (ch. 44), provided for a commission on interstate compacts
affecting labor and industries.12
Under the Constitution of the United States as contained in article
1, section 10, permission may be granted to the States to enter into
compacts with each other with the consent of Congress. An inter­
state compact is a “ formal agreement or contract between two or
more States on matters of mutual concern which requires for its
effectiveness ratification by the legislatures of the States party to the
agreement, and in addition the consent of Congress either expressed
or implied.” Such compacts are not new in the United States, since
this method has been resorted to many times when questions of State
boundaries were involved, or when two or more States were concerned
e New Hampshire. Commission on Interstate Compacts Affecting Labor and Industries.
Compacts in the Field of Labor Legislation. Concord, 1935.
i° See Monthly Labor Review, August 1931 (pp. 42-49).
ii Idem, March 1933 (p. 537).
12 Idem, April 1934 (p. 835).




Interstate

446

LABOR STANDARDS

with waterways, bridges, etc. The compact theory in the field of
labor legislation, however, is comparatively new.
In the late summer of 1933, following the conference in Boston in
January, Senator Parkman, chairman of the Massachusetts Com­
mission on Interstate Compacts Affecting Labor and Industries,
addressed a communication to Governor Winant, of New Hampshire,
inviting him to appoint a similar commission to negotiate with the
Massachusetts commission. Later in the year, upon the recommen­
dation of the Governor of New Hampshire, a conference was held in
Boston by the governors of the New England States to discuss the
matter of appointing commissions on interstate compacts in these
States. As a result of this conference, Governor Winant, on Novem­
ber 29,1933, appointed the New Hampshire Commission on Interstate
Compacts Affecting Labor and Industries. This commission was
appointed temporarily to negotiate with similar commissions in other
States, until the legislature should convene.
The membership originally consisted of 5 persons, and later was
increased to 7 persons in order to give representation to the shoe
and textile industries of the State. In addition to these the commis­
sion included representatives of labor, industry, the legislature, and
the public. The members of the New Hampshire commission received
no pay, but were allowed their expenses in connection with the work.
Later, similar commissions were appointed in Rhode Island and
Maine, and subsequently the Governors of Connecticut, New York,
Pennsylvania, and New Jersey appointed representatives to attend
joint conferences and negotiate with the commissioners from the other
States. The State of Vermont was represented at two meetings of
the conference.
The conference grouped its objectives under two heads; namely, (1)
the subjects needing immediate attention, such as minimum wages,
hours of labor, nightwork, and child labor, and (2) a program for
long-range action, containing such subjects as workmen’s compensa­
tion, unemployment insurance, private employment agencies, and
the health and safety of employees.
The report of the New Hampshire Commission on Interstate Com­
pacts Affecting Labor and Industries shows that six meetings were
held, and in addition to these meetings several members of the com­
mission arranged a number of other conferences. Two members of
the commission were in attendance at all the meetings of the interstate
conferences. The first joint conference was held in Boston on Decem­
ber 5, 1933, and was followed by similar meetings at Providence,
Albany, Concord, Hartford, Portland, Harrisburg, and again at
Providence on December 14, 1934. On this date a conference of
representatives of governors of the States in the compact group
drafted a program for presentation to the joint conference. It
included recommendations for action by the several States, provisions
for an act by Congress approving compacts on labor legislation by
the States, ratification of the child-labor amendment by the States,
and recommendations for State laws in support of the National
Industrial Recovery Act. The committee also recommended that the
joint conference of commissions prepare compacts on minimum wage,
child labor, nightwork, and industrial homework.
The first interstate compact for establishing uniform minimum
standards for conditions of employment was on uniform minimumwage legislation. Five of the 8 States mentioned in the Massa


INTERSTATE COMPACTS AFFECTING LABOR

447

chusetts resolve had minimum-wage laws and as 4 of these 5
States already had the standard bifi, it was decided to recommend
this type of legislation for the compact. A minimum-wage law, there­
fore, was drafted to be submitted to the States as a basis for legislation
on the subject.
The minimum-wage compact consists of three parts; the first gives
the reasons for a compact on labor legislation; the second provides
the machinery to make the compact effective; and the third outlines
the principles of minimum-wage legislation to be enacted by the
States. The compact on minimum wage is of the “ open” type and
becomes effective when ratified by two or more signatory States and
approved by Congress. The conference also considered the “ closed”
type, that is, one requiring ratification “ by a definite number of
States, and possibly by certain specified States.”
In recognition of Governor Winant’s assistance in the compact
movement, the minimum-wage compact—the first interstate compact
on labor legislation—was signed at the State capitol in Concord,
N. H., on May 29, 1934. The States represented at the meeting were
Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York,
Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island. The United States Department
of Labor was also represented, as well as the American Legislators*
Association. Interest in the movement was manifested by President
Roosevelt and the Secretary of Labor, Frances Perkins.
The compact on minimum wage has generally become known as
the “ Concord compact.” The Legislature of Massachusetts ratified
the compact in June 1934. The original compact was filed in the office
of the Department of State in Washington, and a certified copy has
been given to each signatory State.
The report indicates that although child labor was the next subject
for compact action, definite action was deferred so that there would
be no conflict with the Federal child-labor amendment presented to
many of the States during 1935. The conference, the report states,
is at present engaged on a compact on hours of labor. The New
Hampshire group has also been in contact with the National Commis­
sioners on Uniform State Laws and has outlined a policy for future
guidance.
Interstate compacts affecting labor and industries should be a great
advantage to industrial States in that the ratifying of a compact by
adjacent States with similar industrial interests removes unfair
differentials in the labor laws of competing States, and not only gives
protection to employees and greater permanence to the labor legisla­
tion, but also prevents the migration of workers to other States or the
coming of industries into the State in order to escape more stringent
regulations elsewhere.
The New Hampshire report observes:
As a State that is largely industrial in character with a higher percentage of
its workers employed in industry than any other State with the sole exception of
Rhode Island, and with many of its industries competing with those of neighboring
States, New Hampshire should find the compact method of distinct value. The
migration of factories and workers from New Hampshire to other States represents
a definite loss to the State. Although this may to some extent be Offset by new
factories that come here from outside, the general effect of such shifting of plants
and workers is disrupting to the industrial life of the community and to the State.




448

LABOR STANDARDS

Labor Standards for Domestic Employees

D

OMESTIC service has always been peculiarly unresponsive to
movements to improve standards of labor. Besides being a
wholly unorganized occupation, it is almost universally excluded
from the benefits of protective labor legislation. Practically the
only step toward introducing standards of wages, hours, and working
conditions for domestic employees has been taken by some of the
placement agencies which deal with employers of household labor.
This effort is the entirely informal and advisory one of making recom­
mendations to prospective employers as to conditions they should
maintain and to applicants for work as to minimum provisions for
wages, hours, and living arrangements which they should accept.
The Women’s Bureau of the United States Department of Labor
undertook a survey13 to find out just what standards are recommended
by these placement agencies. Much of the data received refer to
standards set for girls and young women working their way through
secondary schools and colleges.
Summary of Standards

A m i n i m u m wage was set by most of the standards for full-time
workers, both adult and junior. For adult workers this commonly
ranged from $13 to $40 a month, with board and room furnished the
employee in most cases. Hourly rates ordinarily varied from 35 to
50 cents. Other provisions frequently occurring were definite speci­
fications as to the amount of time the worker should have off, the
payment of carfare if the worker does not live in, and the furnishing
of a private room if she does stay at the home of her employer.
For full-time adult workers a definite limit to the hours of work
expected is included in only two sets of standards. For part-time
workers, however, the standards deal largely with the number of
hours of work, since they generally apply to girls working in return
for their board and room. In most of the standards set for cdllege
students 21 to 28 hours of work a week is considered equivalent
to board and room. Between 21 and 28 hours is set by seven of the
nine placement agencies for girls attending secondary schools, and
several require in addition a cash payment of about $10 a month.
With reference to standards specifically for regular workers in
household occupations, two commercial agencies covered by the
study make definite efforts to improve working conditions for their
applicants. One of these, by charging a fee to both employer and
employee, assumes the responsibility of supplying reliable help to
employers and secures work at a certain wage for employees. The
hourly wage scale for various jobs which this agency requires is:
H o u r ly rate
(cents)

General houseworker________________________________________
Expert cook (not to be employed less than 6 hours)__________
Expert waitress (not to be employed less than 4 hours)______
Cook and serve (1 worker) _ _________________________________
House opening; heavy cleaning_______________________________
Dressmaking____________________________________
1
3 U. S. Department of Labor. Women's Bureau.
for Household Employees. Washington, 1934.




40
60
50
50
50
50

Bulletin No. 112: Standards of Placement Agencies

LABOR STANDARD FOR DOMESTIC EMPLOYEES

449

The second commercial agency not only aids household employers
to solve their household problems but sets the following employment
standards, and follows up placements by talks with the employer
and the employee, separately, about 2 weeks after placement and by
a further check about 3 months later.
1. W a g e .— “ A living wage for every employee” with additional compensation
for skilled workers.
2. T im e o ff .— At least 1 hour a day and 1 whole day or 2 half days or the equiva­
lent a week. (A 54-hour week is recommended.)
3. L iv in g con d itio n s .— A private room and access to a modern bathroom.

Among State employment agencies, two reported that they investi­
gate the homes of prospective employers before making a placement,
and others reported that they make specific recommendations, while
many of them undertake some follow-up work. In some cases this
takes the form of personal interviews in which inquiries about wages
and working conditions are made.
Conclusions

As i n t e r p r e t e d by the Women’s Bureau, the study indicates
that in spite of the lack of legal regulations for household employ­
ment, some placement agencies are helping to improve the terms and
conditions of employment of household employees, and that in some
communities a number of employment agencies are cooperating in
this respect. At the same time the Bureau points out that most
of the standards which have been formulated are inadequate for the
protection of domestic workers.
One of the most difficult of their problems— the length of the working day and
week— is not even mentioned in several of the standards for full-time workers.
However, the existence of standards of any sort is of itself encouraging and the
fact that standards are used by various types of placement agencies in many parts
of the country suggests that more such agencies could take action of this kind.
The cooperation of several agencies in a community in the use of standards is an
especially promising development. Finally, conditions in this employment show
the need of legislative regulation for household employees.

19205— 36------ 30







MANAGEMENT POLICIES

United States Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




451




Hiring and Separation Methods in American Factories

A

SU R V EY of the employment methods in use in a group of repre­
sentative manufacturing establishments was made by the
Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1932. The survey was limited pri­
marily to ascertaining to what extent various employment and per­
sonnel methods were in use, and did not attempt a descriptive or
critical analysis of these methods.
The inquiry covered 224 establishments having a total of 387,826
employees and representing 31 industries. However, because of the
limited number of establishments covered in certain of these indus­
tries, and in order to avoid possible identification of individual estab­
lishments, the data obtained were assembled in 10 industry groups.
Table 1 shows, by industry groups, the number of establishments
scheduled, and the number and percent of male and female employees
in such establishments. The only industry besides clothing which
employed more women than men was the textile industry in the
North, in which 50.7 percent of all employees were women.
T a b le 1.—N U M B E R A N D P E R C E N T OF M A L E A N D F E M A L E E M P L O Y E E S , B Y
IN D U S T R Y GROUPS
Employees
Number
ofestab­
lish­
ments

Industry group

Male

Female
Total

Number

Percent

Number

Percent

All industries........................................................

224

309,437

79.8

78,389

20.2

387,826

Automobiles and parts________ ____________
Clothing,_____ ____________________________
Food products_______ ______________________
Iron and steel and their products___________
Lumber and its products____________ ______
Miscellaneous_________________________ ____
Petroleum refining_________________________
Boots and shoes________ ____________________
Textiles—North______________________ ______
Textiles—South ........................... .......................

11
13
23
45
20
41
9
15
19
28

46,995
5,915
22,390
107,911
9,707
49,972
18, 590
20,180
12,191
15,586

94.1
41.8
83.3
92.0
96.0
75.8
98.5
66.0
49.3
57.6

2,960
8,240
4,490
9, 435
407
15,912
281
12,654
12, 552
11,458

5.9
58.2
16.7
8.0
4.0
24.2
1.5
34.0
50.7
42.4

49,955
14,155
26,880
117,346
10,114
65,884
18,871
32,834
24, 743
27,044

Plant Employment Offices

As s h o w n in table 2, 146, or 65.2 percent, of the 224 establishments
visited had a central employment office. The other 78 plants had
no such office, and in these plants labor was hired directly by the
foremen and superintendents. The percentage of plants having cen­
tral employment offices varied greatly in the different industry groups.
In most of the plants which had a central employment office the
employment manager or personnel director had full power to hire
employees. In a few plants, however, while it was necessary for men
seeking jobs to do so through the employment office, this was merely
for the purpose of an interview, such office sending them to the various




453

454

MANAGEMENT POLICIEb

foremen who had sent in a request for help, and the latter doing the
actual hiring.
T able 3 .—N U M B E R A N D P E R C E N T OF FIR M S H A V IN G C E N T R A L E M P L O Y M E N T
OFFICES, B Y IN D U ST R IES
Establishments
Establishments
Number
with central
without central
of
employment offices employment offices
establish­
ments
Number Percent Number Percent

Industry

All industries............... ........... .......... .............................

224

146

65.2

78

34.8

Automobiles and parts.................. ............ .............. .......
Clothing........................................ ................................ .
Food products........ .......................... ...............................
Iron and steel and their products----------------------------Lumber and its products___________________________
Miscellaneous______________________________________
Petroleum refining_________________________________
Boots and shoes___________________ _____________
Textiles—North___________ _________ _____________
Textiles—South....................................................... ........

11
13
23
45
20
41
9
15
19
28

11
6
19
41
12
29
8
3
12
5

100.0
46.2
82.6
91.1
60.0
70.7
88.9
20.0
63.2
17.9

7
4
4
8
12
1
12
7
23

53.8
17.4
8.9
40.0
29.3
11.1
80.0
36.8
82.1

Methods of Recruiting Labor
O f t h e 224 firms visited, 68 used public or private employment
agencies at least part of the time in recruiting labor. Twenty-seven
of the sixty-eight firms used public employment agencies only, i. e.agencies maintained from public funds, either Federal, State, or mu,
nicipal; 15 used private employment agencies only, and the remaining
26 used both public and private agencies. Very few of the firms using
employment agencies depended entirely on this method for recruiting
labor.
One hundred and fifty-six firms recruited their labor without the
help of any established employment agencies, the majority of them
hiring through applications on file in their offices, while some hired
through labor unions, some used newspapers, and some obtained new
employees through the medium of their regular employees.
The men’s clothing industry, where unionized, hired practically all
its labor through local unions.

Physical Examinations
O f t h e 224 p la n ts v is ite d in this s tu d y , 114, o r 50.9 p e r c e n t,
req u ired a p h y s ic a l e x a m in a tio n o f all p r o s p e c tiv e e m p lo y e e s .

The examinations differed considerably m strictness and varied
with the requirements of the positions to be filled. For the most
part, causes for rejection were infections and contagious diseases,
hernia, bad varicose veins, and heart disease. In most establish­
ments prospective employees with bad eyesight were required to have
their vision corrected by glasses.
Some establishments had reexaminations at stated periods and a
number of establishments had their own hospitals where employees
are examined and given medical service at a much lower cost than
would be possible otherwise. Many firms required vaccination
against smallpox. A few plants had set up an exceptionally high
standard of physical requirements for employees, demanding a very
rigid physical examination of the applicant and including questions



455

HIRING AND SEPARATION METHODS

as to the personal habits and past medical history of both the applicant
and his family.
T ab le 3 .—N U M B E R A N D P E R C E N T OF EST A B L ISH M E N T S R EQ U IR IN G PH Y SIC AL
E X A M IN A T IO N S , B Y IN D U STR IES
Establishments requiring physi­
cal examinations for—

Industry

All employees

Num­
ber

Per­
cent

Part of
employees
Num­
ber

Per­
cent

Establishments
requiring no
physical
examinations

Total

Per­
cent

Num­
ber

All industries........................................................

114

50.9

8

3.6

102

45.5

224

Automobiles and parts...........—.........................
Clothing___________________________________
Food products______________________________
Iron and steel and their products............. .......
Lumber and its products___________________
Miscellaneous...... ................................................
Petroleum rftflning_________________________
Boots and shoes..............................- ....................
Textiles—North---------------------------- --------------Textiles—South ---------- ------- ------- ------------------

7
3
14
37
10
23
9
2
5
4

63.6
23.1
60.9
82.2
50.0
56.1
100.0
13.3
26.3
14.3

1
0
0
2
0
2
0
1
1
1

9.1

3
10
9
6
10
16
0
12
13
23

27.3
76.9
39.1
13.3
60.0
39.0

11
13
23
45
20
41
9
15
19
28

4.4
4.9
6.7
5.3
3.6

80.0
68.4
82.1

Intelligence, Aptitude, and Efficiency Tests
O n l y 14, or 6.3 percent, of the plants visited had adopted any kind
of intelligence, aptitude, or efficiency tests (table 4). Some of these
tests were very simple, while others were quite elaborate. A New
England company required intelligence tests for all applicants seeking
positions in the office, and an aptitude test, such as a card-dropping
test which is scored for both accuracy and speed, for jobs in the
factory. For certain positions this company also required a fingerdexterity test, i. e., putting pegs in holes both by hands and with
tweezers. Some establishments required aptitude tests only for
positions where employees handled expensive material.
All firms which had adopted intelligence and efficiency tests stated
that the results have justified their use.
T

able

4 — NUM BER

OF E STABLISH M EN TS R EQUIR IN G IN T E L L IG E N C E , A P T IT U D E ,
OR E F F IC IE N C Y TESTS, B Y IN D U STR IES
Number of estab­
lishments

Industry

Number of estab­
lishments
Industry

Using
tests

All industries_____________ _______
Percent of total____________

Not
using
tests

Total

14
6.3

210
93.7

224
100.0

Using
tests

Lumber and its products. . .
Miscellaneous_____________

1
8

19
33

20
41

1
1
0

14
18
28

15
19
28

Total

P
a

Automobiles and parts____
Clothing--..............................
Food products.......................
Iron and steel and their
products................................




1
0
0

10
13
23

11
13
23

1

44

45

A f vr oliA u m r c ifi i imD r . - ________ _
e v A c i i in V A i n i o g
Boots and shoes........ .............. ...

Not
using
tests

Textiles—North_____ _____
Textiles—South_ ___
_

456

MANAGEMENT POLICIES

Age Limit for Hiring

A m a x i m u m age limit beyond which no employees were hired had
been adopted by 71, or 31.7 percent, of the plants visited. As shown
in table 5, these 71 plants had a total of 108,475 employees on their
pay rolls, which was 28.0 percent of the total number of employees in
all plants. Four of the plants had a maximum age limit under 40;
in 41 plants it was between 40 and 46; and in 26 plants, 46 or over.
The other 153 plants stated that they had no definite maximum hiring
age, but in practically all of these plants employment managers
stated that the requirements for the job determined the age policy,
and in most cases they admitted that not many men over 50 would
be hired, except in cases requiring specially skilled employees where
it would be impossible to secure young men.
Various reasons were given for the adoption of a maximum hiring
limit. A number of firms stated that group insurance rates were
higher when older employees were hired. Some felt that the older
men could not meet the standards of production required. One
company stated that it trained all its own employees. In southern
cotton mills another factor caused older men to be given jobs. There
the family is very often the hiring unit, and if an older worker has
several children in such jobs, the man may be hired regardless of his
age, in order to obtain the services of the other members of his family,
but is usually given a sweeper’s or a watchman’s job.
Many of the companies which had not definitely adopted a set
maximum hiring age limit stated that there was a decided tendency
against hiring older men.
Whenever a pension plan had been adopted by a firm there was
invariably a maximum hiring age.
table

5 .—N U M B E R A N D P E R C E N T OF EST AB L ISH M EN T S A N D OF E M P L O Y E E S
T H E R E IN W H IC H H A V E A M A X IM U M H IR IN G AG E, B Y IN D U STR IES

Establishments—

Industry

Employees in establishments—

Having
Not having
maximum r r m iim n in
age limit
age limit
for hiring for hiring To­
tal
Num­ Per­ Num­ Per­
ber cent ber cent

All industries..................

71 31.7

Automobiles and parts.
Clothing..... .....................
Food products................
Iron and steel and their
products-.....................
Lumber and its prod­
ucts.............. j................
Miscellaneous.................
Petroleum refining------Boots and shoes..............
Textiles—North..............
Textiles—South..............

1 9.1
6 46.2
6 26.1

Having

Not having

m a iim n m

m a x in in m

age limit
for hiring

age limit
for hiring

Num­
ber

Per­ Num­
cent
ber

1,087 2.2
7,487 52.9
6,050 22.5

40
Un­ and 46
der un­ and
40 der over
46

Per­
cent

48,868 97.8
6,668 47.1
20,830 77.5

49,955
14,155
26,880

4

41

26

0
0
1

0

2
3

1
4
2

21 46.7

24 53.3

45

37,888 32.3

79,458 67.7 117,346

0

14

7

4
10
7
5
4
7

16
31
2
10
15
21

20
41
9
15
19
28

2,525
17,321
12,786
8,291
8,949
6,091

7,589
48,563
6,085
24,543
15,794
20,953

10,114
65,884
18,871
32,834
24,743
27,044

0
1
0
1
1
0

2
7
17
2
1
3

2
2
0
2
2
4

20.0
24.4
77.8
33.3
21.1
25.0

80.0
75.6
22.2
66.7
78.9
75.0

25.0
26.3
67.8
25.3
36.2
22.5

75.0
73.7
32.2
74.7
63.8
77.5

* 35 years for women in 1 case; 45 years for men, who form majority of employees.




Total

153 68.3 224 108,475 28.0 279,351 72.0 387,826
10 90.9 ~ i i
7 53.8 13
17 73.9 23

Number of
establish­
ments in
which age
limit for em­
ployment is—

457

HIRING AND SEPARATION METHODS

Separation Methods
T a b l e 6 shows the number of firms that record reasons for em­
ployees quitting their jobs and the number that attempt to adjust
difficulties and retain employees. It was found that 166, or 74.1
percent, of the 224 plants visited had some sort of an interview with
an employee when he quit, and obtained from him, if possible, the
reason for his leaving.
A number of establishments had a “ works council” ; that is, a body
representing both the employees and the employer, the employees’
representatives being elected by themselves. In plants having this
system, whenever a grievance occurred that could not be settled by
the foreman and the employee, the works council reviewed and de­
cided the case. The decision in most cases, however, was not bind­
ing, being only a recommendation to the management.
Some companies stated that in the case of trouble between a good
worker and the foreman they would transfer the employee to another
department. Manjr others, however, stated that if it were impossible
to smooth out the difficulties between the foreman and his employee,
the employee would be allowed to quit regardless of his efficiency.
T able 6 .—N U M B E R OF EST AB L ISH M EN T S R E C O R D IN G REASONS FOR L E A V IN G
JOBS A N D N U M B E R M A K IN G A N A T T E M P T TO ADJUST D IF F IC U L TIES A N D R E T A IN
EM P LO Y E E S, B Y IN D U STR IES
Number of establishments that—

Industry

Do not
Do not
Make an
Record rea­
record
attempt to make an
sons for
attempt to
reasons for
adjust
leaving
adjust
leaving
difficulties
difficulties

Total

All industries____________________________
Percent of total______
_______________

166
74.1

58
25.9

167
74.6

57
25.4

224
100.0

Automobiles and parts____________ ______
Clothing_________________________________
Food products__________________ ________
Iron and steel and their products________
Lumber and its products________
Miscellaneous____________________________
Petroleum refining_________ ______ ______
_
Boots and shoes__________________________
Textiles—N orth_________________________
Textiles—South___________________
___

10
7
17
42
13
30
9
10
14
14

1
6
6
3
7
11
0
5
5
14

10

1
4
5
3
9
6
1
6
4
18

11
13
23
45
20
41
9
15
19
28

9

18
42
11
35
8
9
15
10

Table 7 shows the number and percent of establishments in which
the power to discharge was vested in the foreman, employment
manager, or higher official. In 96, or 42.9 percent, of the plants
included in this study the foreman had the right to discharge em­
ployees without review by higher authority. Most of the plants in
which the foreman had the right to discharge stated that unless this
policy were followed the workers lost respect for the foreman’s
authority and consequently were less efficient.




458

MANAGEMENT POLICIES

T able 7.—N U M B E R A N D P E R C E N T OF E ST AB L ISH M EN T S IN W H IC H T H E PO W ER
TO DISCHARGE IS V E ST E D IN F O R E M A N , E M P L O Y M E N T M A N A G E R , OR O TH ER
E X E C U T IV E , B Y IN D U STR IES
Establishments in which discharge is made by—

Foremen

Industry

Num­
ber

Per­
cent

Employment
managers
Num­
ber

Per­
cent

Higher officials

Total
estab­
lish­
ments

Per­
cent

Num­
ber

All industries_____________ _________________

96

42.9

49

21.9

79

35.3

224

Automobiles and parts....................... ................
Clothing.............................. .......... ............ ..........
Food products________________________ _____
Iron and steel and their products______ _____
Lumber and its products___________________
Miscellaneous................. ................................... .
Petroleum refining...............................................
Boots and shoes................... ...................... .........
Textiles—North....................................................
Textiles—South............ ...................................

3
3
10
14
13
14
0
9
8
22

27.3
23.1
43.5
31.1
65.0
34.1
0
60.0
42.1
78.6

6
4
3
13
3
10
2
2
4
2

54. 5
30.8
13.0
28.9
15.0
24.4
22.2
13.3
21.1
7.1

2
6
10
18
4
17
7
4
7
4

18.2
46. 2
43.5
40.0
20.0
41.5
77.8
26.7
36.8
14.3

11
13
23
46
20
41
9
15
19
28

Table 8 shows the basis on which employees are selected for reten­
tion when it is necessary to lay off men. In 116 firms, or 51.8 per­
cent of the total, it was stated that retention was based solely on
efficiency; 41 plants, or 18.3 percent, stated that seniority was the
governing factor in retaining employees; and 46 firms, or 20.5 per­
cent, stated that the family responsibility of the worker was given
primary consideration.
T ab le 8 .—N U M B E R A N D P E R C E N T OF EST AB L ISH M EN T S W IT H SPECIFIED L A Y OFF POLICY, B Y IN D U STR IES
Number of establishments in which retention is based on—
Industry

Family
responsi­
bility

Other
factors

Total

Efficiency

Seniority

All industries__ _________________________
Percent of total__________________________

116
51.8

41
18.3

46
20.5

21
9.4

224
100.0

Automobiles and parts___________________
Clothing___ ______ ______________________
Food products___________________________
Iron and steel and their products-_______
Lumber and its products_________________
Miscellaneous___________ ________________
Petroleum refining_______________________
Boots and shoes____________________ ______
Textiles—N orth.................................. ...........
Textiles—South................................................

2
6
15
23
8
26
7
11
10
8

4
3
6
13
3
5
0
2
3
2

5
0
1
6
7
4
1
2
2
18

0
4
1
3
2
6
1
0
4
0

11
13
23
45
20
41
9
15
19
28

Separation or Dismissal Bonuses
T a b l e 9 sh ow s th a t 8 p e rce n t o f th e p la n ts in c lu d e d in th is s tu d y
p a id som e s o rt o f s e p a ra tio n w a g e to m e n w h o w ere la id o ff th ro u g h
n o fa u lt o f th eir o w n an d th a t th ese p la n ts h a d 15 p e rce n t o f th e to ta l
n u m b e r o f e m p lo y e e s o n th eir p a y rolls.

The amount of the dismissal wage reported varied greatly. One
establishment gave a month’s pay to all employees with service of
from 3 to 5 years, 2 months’ pay for service of from 5 to 10 years,
and 3 months’ pay for service of over 10 years. Another gave no




459

HIKING AND SEPARATION METHODS

bonus to unskilled workers but gave 2 weeks’ pay to all skilled
workers regardless of length of service.
T a ble 9 .—N U M B E R OF EST AB L ISH M EN T S P A Y IN G A SEPAR ATIO N BONUS A N D
N U M B E R OF E M P LO Y E E S TH E R E O F , B Y IN D U STR IES
E sta b lish m e n ts
paying separa­
tion bonus

E s ta b lis h m e n ts
not paying sepa­
ration bonus

Total

Industry
Number Number Number
of em­
of estab­
of em­
ployees lishments ployees

Number

Number
of em­
ployees

Number

18

58,073
15.0

206
92.0

329,753
85.0

0
0

1
1
13
22

49,955
14,155
22,835
88,434
10,114
48,553
13,762
32,834
24,521
24,590

All industries...... ................- ------- ------------Percent of total_____ ____________________

8.0
0
0
1
4
0
7
2
0
1

Automobiles and parts...............................
Clothing...................... ................... ................
Food products_____________ ___________
Iron and steel and their products...............
Lumber and its products________________
Miscellaneous__________ ________________
Petroleum refining______ _____ __________
Boots and shoes—-----------------------------------Textiles—North_________________________
Textiles—South____ _____________________

3

4,045
28,912

0

17,331
5,109

0
222

2,454

41

20

34
7
15
18
25

224

387,826

1
1

49,955
14,155
26,880
117,346
10,114
65,884
18,871
32,834
24,743
27,044

100.0

100.0
13
23
45

20

41
9
15
19
28

Finding New Positions for Employees Laid Off

Of t h e plants scheduled, 78, or 34.8 percent, attempted to find
positions for men who were laid off through no fault of their own
(table 10). Some of these firms limited their attempts to other estab­
lishments in their own organizations; others sought to find positions
with other companies in the community.
T able 10 .—N U M B E R

OF E STABLISH M EN TS A T T E M P T IN G TO
EM P LO Y E E S LAID OFF, B Y IN D U STR IES
Number of establish­
ments—

Industry

At­
Not at­
tempt­ tempt­
ing to ing to Total
find
find
jobs
jobs

All industries_____________
Percent of total___________

78
34.8

146
65.2

Automobiles and parts.......
Clothing__________________
Food products____________
Iron and steel and their
products....... ............. .......

6
2

5'

3

1
1
20

22

23

224

100.0
1
1
13
23

FIN D

JOBS

FOR

Number of establishments—
Industry

Lumber and its products . .
Miscellaneous------------------Petroleum refining....... .......
Boots and shoes__________
Textiles—North_____ ____
Textiles—South__________

At­
Not at­
tempt­ tempt­
ing to ing to Total
find
find
jobs
jobs

6

18
5
4
5
7

14
23
4

1
1
14
2
1

20
41
9
15
19
28

45

Turn-Over and Length of Service
F o r 93 of the plants covered by the survey, data were obtained
regarding the length of service of employees who had been separated
from the pay roll during the year 1930. These data, analyzed by
cause of separation and by length of service, are presented in table 11.
These firms had an average of 194,042 employees on their pay rolls
during 1930. During that year 102,703 employees were separated
from the pay rolls; 34,029 of this number quit, 7,624 were discharged,
and 61,050 were laid off.




460

MANAGEMENT POLICIES

The total separation rate for these companies was 52.9; the quit
rate was 17.5, the discharge rate 3.9, and the lay-off rate 31.5. Of
the 34,029 employees who quit during 1930, 11,485 or more than
one-third, had been on the pay rolls less than 3 months, while only
4,445 employees who had been in the service of the company 5 years
or more quit. Of the total number discharged during the year, more
than one-third had worked for the company less than 3 months.
Oyer 61,000 men were laid off during 1930 by these 93 firms. Of
this number, 19,966, or 10.3 percent of the total number employed,
had been on the pay rolls less than 3 months, and only 3,122, or 1.6
percent of such total, for longer than 5 years.
There was a marked difference in the total separation rate in the
different industries, figures by individual industries not being shown
in this summary but being given in full in the November 1932
Monthly Labor Review.
T able 1 1.—N U M B E R A N D P E R C E N T OF EM P LO Y E E S S EPAR AT ED FRO M P A Y ROLLS
IN 93 M A N U F A C T U R IN G EST AB L ISH M EN T S, 1930, B Y L E N G T H OF SER VICE A N D
CAUSE OF SEPAR ATION
Quits

Discharges

Length of service
Num­
ber

Per­
cent

Num­
ber

Per­
cent

Total

Lay-offs
Num­
ber

Per­
cent

Num­
ber

Per­
cent

Total______ _______________ ______

34,029

17.5

7,624

3.9

61,050

31.5

102,703

52.9

Under 3 months_________ ________
3 and under 6 months____ ________
6 months and under 1 year________
1 year and under 2 years__________
2 and under 5 years__________ ____
5 years and over,.............. .................

11,485
4,658
4,822
4,446
4,173
4,445

5.9
2.4
2.5
2.3

2,582
1,168
1,396
1,075
825
578

1.3

19,966
8,693
11,274
10,050'
7,945
3,122

10.3
4.5
5.8
5.2
4.1

34,033
14,519
17,492
15,571
12,943
8,145

17.5
7.5
9.0

2.2
2.3

.6
.7
.6
.4
.3

1.6

8.0
6.7
4.2

Employees’ Suggestion Systems

A

REPORT containing an analysis of employees’ suggestion
systems, based on the plans of more than 100 companies, was
issued in 1932 by the Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. These plans,
the report stated, in utilizing the practical experience and specialized
knowledge of individual employees serve primarily as a direct source
of ideas which will be of benefit to the firm, but they also have the
less obvious effect of stimulating the interest of employees in the work
of the company and of improving the general morale. Also, through
encouraging employees to think, an excellent groundwork is laid for
training and some firms which follow the policy of filling higher posi­
tions from the general force use suggestion systems as a guide to
eligibility for advancement.
There are three types of suggestion systems—continuous, contest,
and a combination of the two. In the first type, suggestions may be
made at any time, while in the contest type the submission of sug­
gestions is limited to a specified period. Continuous plans are found
more frequently but some companies believe that restricting the period
during which ideas may be presented results in an improvement in
the quality and quantity of suggestions. Under the contest type of
plan the attention of the employees is concentrated upon the contest,
while it is thought that after a continuous plan has been in operation
some time the interest of the employees in the plan gradually declines.




SELLING BY EMPLOYEES

461

In order to avoid the submission of a large number of impractical
ideas, employers frequently find it desirable both to define what is
considered a suggestion and to specify the subjects regarding which
ideas are desired. One company states that “ the basis of a sug­
gestion should be a new idea or a new application of an old idea.”
Similar statements appear in a number of suggestion handbooks and
many companies print lists of topics on which ideas are desired and
for which awards will be made.
It is necessary, in the establishment of a suggestion plan, to deter­
mine what employees shall be eligible to participate. In general the
plans are restricted to employees below the rank of foreman or depart­
ment head, although one company is cited which encourages sugges­
tions from foremen, assistant foremen, subforemen, and all super­
visors and department heads, while another company not only per­
mits every employee to make suggestions and receive awards but
also awards a prize to the foreman whose department makes the ihost
valuable suggestion during a campaign.
Suggestions which are found worth while are generally paid for in
cash, but some companies make other awards such as certificates,
photographs, jewelry, and banners, and sometimes both cash and
prizes are given. The amounts of the cash awards usually vary
according to the value of the suggestion, frequently being fixed at a
percentage of the estimated savings for the first year, with a fixed
maximum, and where the saving is intangible the rewards may be
made according to the grade of the suggestion. If the system is con­
ducted on a contest basis there is often a scale of awards graduated
according to the value of the suggestion.
Since delay in distributing awards has a tendency to create a
feeling among the workers that the management is not interested in
the workers' ideas, most plans endeavor to reduce the length of time
between the submission of an idea and the payment of the reward
to a minimum, although in some instances the granting of the awards
is made a special feature of some formal function during the year.
It has been found that the percentage of acceptable suggestions
ranges from 20 to 50 percent.
The motive behind the suggestion systems of most companies is said
to be the hope of obtaining profitable ideas, and unless such plans
can be expected to result in definite savings few executives will
favor them. However it has been found that the intangible benefits
are often of major importance and suggestions relative to public rela­
tions policies, for example, may be of very definite value to the
company.

Selling by Employees
HE movement to use employees in the nonselling part of the
organization in various industries to supplement the sales effort
of the ordinary sales force was the subject of a study by the Metro­
politan Life Insurance Co. published in 1932. Plans used by 87
companies in the United States and Canada were studied and
summarized.
The plans seem to have been inspired by the idea that, as all em­
ployees have a certain number of relatives, friends, and acquaintances,

T




462

MANAGEMENT POLICIES

if these employees can be converted into salesmen and their friends
into customers the sales will be correspondingly augmented. It
was estimated by one company that even the humblest employee is
acquainted with 50 or more possible customers among such persons
as the various trades people and fellow lodge and church members.
On this basis even small firms with as few as 5 or 10 employees would
have from 500 to 1,000 readily available prospects for the organiza­
tion’s products or services, and one company with 9,500 employees
on the pay roll estimated that, on this basis, it should have at least
half a million such possible customers.
Examples of the successful outcome of these plans are cited in the
report. Thus, the annual report of the president of an important
corporation for the year 1931 stated that as it was evident from the
beginning of the year that one of the greatest problems would be the
maintenance of adequate revenue, plans were developed for participa­
tion in the sales service in all departments. As a result, during the
year the sales by employees other than members of the sales force
amounted to 10 per employee, with the result that the revenues of the
company in a year when the business level was so low, were nearly as
large as those of the preceding year. Another company reported
that in the same year 76,546 sales were made by employees—an aver­
age of 4.77 sales for every employee then on the pay roll. Other
instances include the sale of 262,698 units in a 30-day campaign
by the nonselling employees of a large corporation; the sale of $1,200,000 worth of goods in a 25-day campaign by the 4,400 employees of a
second corporation; and in the first 10 months of 1931 an addition of
$34,000,000 yearly revenue to a third corporation by the 350,000
nonselling employees. Similar successful results were reported by
many smaller organizations.
In addition to the direct benefits in actual sales, the indirect results
included a better knowledge on the part of the employees of the
products and problems of the companies, so that the employees
gained a better idea of the relation of their work to that of the whole
organization. Also, in numerous instances, previously unsuspected
selling ability was discovered and promotions were made as a result.
It was found that this method of increasing business was not
necessarily limited to a few types of business, as among the 87 com­
panies included in the survey a variety of enterprises was represented.
These included retailers, ranging from oil-service stations and coal
and lumber dealers to department and chain specialty stores; banks;
public utilities; railroads; oil refiners; and manufacturers of many
types of consumers’ goods.
Various methods of carrying out the selling campaigns were fol­
lowed, including direct house-to-house solicitation; the prospectcard plan by which the card is left with the prospective customer
and the sale completed by the regular salesmen or dealers; and the
patronage card and informal boosting plan wdiich has been followed
principally by the railroads. Under this plan whenever an employee
makes a purchase he hands out a patronage card stating that he is
enabled to make the purchase because he is on the pay roll of the rail­
road in question and that it is hoped that the seller will return the
favor by using the railroad for travel and for the handling of shipments.
It was emphasized by companies maintaining an employee selling
plan that even the most carefully organized plan cannot succeed




SELLING BY EMPLOYEES

463

unless steps are taken to insure the cooperation of the employees and
to maintain employee enthusiasm. In addition to the steps taken to
educate the employees as to the products to be sold and methods of
selling, a number of companies reported that in order to help the
employees they carried the campaign to the public. As a means of
introducing the new employee-salesmen to the public some companies
run a series of advertisements in the newspapers and use wmdow
displays, store cards, and special sales tables. Special publicity
“ stunts” are also used to acquaint the public with the products being
sold by employees. It was reported that the means taken to acquaint
the public with the purposes of the campaign make the job much
simpler for the employee, as he found the sales resistance broken
down and prospects much easier to locate and sell.







MEDICAL SERVICES AND COSTS

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition

19 2 0 5 — 36------3 1




465




Final Report of Committee on the Costs of Medical
Care 1
H E Committee on the Costs of Medical Care, which was organ­
ized in 1927 to study all the aspects of the question of the costs
of medical service, submitted its final report, containing the recom­
mendations of the majority group as well as those of 2 minority
groups and of 2 members who presented separate personal statements,
in the latter part of 1932.
The majority report represents the conclusions of 35 members out
of the total of 48 persons representing the fields of private practice,
public health, medical institutions and special interests, the social
sciences, and the general public, who composed the committee at
the close of its work. The first minority report was made by 8
physicians engaged in private practice and 1 layman, while the
second was submitted by the 2 members of the dental profession who
were members of the committee.
The recommendations of the committee were as follows:

T

1.
The committee recommends that medical service, both preventive and
therapeutic, should be furnished largely by organized groups of physicians,
dentists, nurses, pharmacists, and other associated personnel. Such groups
should be organized, preferably around a hospital, for rendering complete home
office, and hospital care. The form of organization should encourage the main­
tenance of high standards and the development or preservation of a personal
relation between patient and physician.
2.
The committee recommends the extension of all basic public-health services—
whether provided by governmental or nongovernmental agencies— so that they
will be available to the entire population according to its needs. Primarily this
extension requires increased financial support for official health departments and
full-time trained health officers and members of their staffs whose tenure is de­
pendent only upon professional and administrative competence.
3.
The committee recommends that the costs of medical care be placed on a
group-payment basis, through the use of insurance, through the use of taxation,
or through the use of both these methods. This is not meant to preclude the
continuation of medical service provided on an individual-fee basis for those
who prefer the present method. Cash benefits, i. e., compensation for wage
loss due to illness, if and when provided, should be separate and distinct from
medical services.
4.
The committee recommends that the study, evaluation, and coordination
of medical service be considered important functions for every State and local
community, that agencies be formed to exercise these functions, and that the
coordination of rural with urban services receive special attention.
5.
The committee makes the following recommendations in the field of pro­
fessional education: (o) That the training of physicians give increasing emphasis
to the teaching of health and the prevention of disease, that more effective efforts
be made to provide trained health officers, that the social aspects of medical
practice be given greater attention, that specialties be restricted to those specially
qualified, and that postgraduate educational opportunities be increased; (b) that
dental students be given a broader educational background; (c) that pharma­
ceutical education place more stress on the pharmacist’s responsibilities and
opportunities for public service; (d) that nursing education be thoroughly rei
Committee on the Costs of Medical Care. Final report.
The University of Chicago Press, 1932.




Medical Care for the American People.

467

468

MEDICAL SERVICES AND COSTS

molded to provide well-educated and well-qualified registered nurses; (e) that
less thoroughly trained but competent nursing aides and attendants be provided;
(/) that adequate training for nurse-midwives be provided; and (g ) that oppor­
tunities be offered for the systematic training of hospital and clinic administrators.

The group presenting the first minority report was in agreement
with many of the conclusions and recommendations of the majority
group, but in general protested against the extension of Government
competition in the practice of medicine. It recommended that Gov­
ernment practice of medicine should be restricted to the care of the
indigent, to the promotion of public health, to the support of the
Army and Navy medical departments and certain other Government
services, and to the care of veterans suffering from service-connected
disabilities and diseases, with the exception of tuberculosis and nervous
and mental diseases.
The second minority report stated that the two members signing
agreed with the majority of the committee in recognizing existing
professional and social trends in the practice of medicine which
necessitate substantial changes in the manner in which medical
service is rendered and paid for. While accepting the fact that an
increased amount of medical service should and will be rendered
through profession? 1 organizations rather than by individual prac­
titioners working independently, the members signing this report
stated that they wished strongly to emphasize the necessity of main­
taining professional standards and the position of the general prac­
titioner during a period of rapidly changing medical services.

Cost of Medical Services

E

X P E N D ITU R ES on the part of the public for physicians’
services and for hospitalization was the subject of an article by
Dr. Michael M. Davis in the New England Journal of Medicine,
April 14, 1932.
It has been estimated on the basis of various studies made by the
Committee on the Costs of Medical Care that the total annual ex­
penditure in the United States for the care and prevention of disease
amounts to about $3,250,000,000. While this figure seems large,
the writer points out that it amounts to less than 4 percent of our
estimated total annual income.
Complaints from both the public and the medical and allied pro­
fessions regarding the economic aspects of medical service are said
to be caused not so much by the total amount of all sickness bills
as by certain characteristics of these expenditures. The expenditures
for sickness, for example, differ in important respects from other
items in the family budget, as it is impossible to plan with any degree
of certainty for the cost of sickness.
An analysis of the expenditure for different types of medical care
shows that the amount spent for organized preventive work is less
than $100,000,000, or only $1 for prevention to nearly $35 spent for
cure. It is considered that a better development of preventive serv­
ices would materially reduce the total of suffering and of expenditure
resulting from disease. Drugs, medicines, and appliances account
for from 20 to 25 percent of the total amount spent, of which approxi­
mately $500,000,000 is spent for worthless or harmful materials. The




COST OF MEDICAL SERVICES

469

payments for physicians7 services amount to less than 30 percent of
the total, while about 10 percent more is paid for dentists7 services.
The bills of physicians and dentists together form the largest single
item, but constitute less than half the annual outlay for the care of
sickness. The cost of maintenance of hospitals, amounting to about
$730,000,000, is met by taxes, income from endowments and current
charitable gifts, and from the payment by individuals for hospital
service rendered, the latter amounting to about $350,000,000 annually.
Among the various items of the health bill there is found to be a
fairly even distribution of expenditures among families for drugs and
medicines, but the amounts spent for professional services—doctors,
dentists, and nurses—have a very uneven distribution, more than
half of such costs being borne by less than 15 percent of the families.
This inequality in expenditure is even greater in respect to hospitali­
zation costs. Total charges to the paying hospital patients for insti­
tutional* services, professional fees, and special nursing amount to
about $750,000,000 per year, and this amount falls upon only about
4 percent of the population. “ No family of moderate means” ,
Dr. Davis says, “ can tell in advance whether or not one of its
members will fall next year within that unlucky 4 percent. These
face a bill which on the average runs about $150 for each hospitalized
illness and which may run to several times that figure. If a family
could only know in advance that this emergency would befall them,
they might be able to budget against the expenditure. But sickness
is not predictable.7
7
It is said to be a matter of some dispute whether or not hospital
charges are too high in relation to the cost of good service, but that
the costs of hospital care are a burden has been recognized in all
countries having well-developed hospital systems. In most European
countries the majority of the hospitals are government institutions
and the cost of maintenance is paid in part by the general public
through taxation, while much of the remainder of the expense is paid
from the insurance funds to which generally both workers and em­
ployers contribute. Denmark, which has one of the best hospital
systems in the world, supports the hospitals almost entirely out of
taxes. The largest part of hospital care in Great Britain is also
provided by the Government, and the famous “ voluntary7 hospitals
7
of London and other large cities are maintained for the most part by
endowments and gifts. In the United States nearly all of the hospitals
for mental disease and for tuberculosis are maintained through taxa­
tion, as well as about a third of the general hospital beds. Distribu­
tion of the expense of hospital care so that it is borne by the com­
munity as a whole and does not fall so heavily on the individual, can
be obtained, therefore, by means of taxation and insurance, in the
latter case the individual retaining more direct responsibility.
The cost of hospital care weighs especially heavily on the so-called
“ middle classes7— the persons of moderate means who are not willing
7
to receive charity from either government or individuals and who
constitute a large proportion of the patients paying for the services
they receive from hospitals, physicians, and surgeons. Although the
cost of hospitalization falls heavily on the individual who needs
extended medical and hospital care, various studies have shown that
the average incomes of physicians are not large. Two measures have
been proposed which aim at stabilizing and increasing the physicians7




470

MEDICAL SERVICES AND COSTS

income from his paying hospital patients and at the same time assist­
ing persons of moderate means to budget against the expense of
hospitalized illness. The first plan, called the “ middle-rate plan” , is
designed to stabilize professional fees and hospital charges so that
the patient and his family can learn approximately the total cost of
his hospital illness at the time he is admitted. To do this it is neces­
sary for the medical staff of the hospital to reach an agreement with
the hospital administration so that professional fees and hospital
charges will be handled by the admitting office in accordance with
agreed schedules. The second plan, that of hospital insurance,
implies the first but goes beyond it by conserving and increasing the
patient's paying power. A group of persons paying regularly into a
common fund operated on sound insurance principles will always be
assured of the means to meet the expenses incidental to hospitaliza­
tion and of medical and surgical care.

Costs of Medical Care Among Different Types of
Families

A

P R E LIM IN A R Y report2 issued by the Committee on the Costs
of Medical Care covered the expenditures for all types of medi­
cal expenses among 4,560 families in different sections of the country.
The final report,3 covering 8,758 families, which was published in
1933, although presenting the data in greater detail, agrees in general
with the findings of the preliminary report. The study, which pro­
vides information as to the incidence of illness, the expenditures that
are made for its prevention and care, the individuals or agencies
providing the care, and the distribution of expenditures among families
of various economic levels, was started in the spring of 1928, with the
collaboration of the medical societies, health officers, and publichealth nurses of 15 States and 3 cities outside of these States. Fifteen
thousand families, 156 health officers and health departments, and
320 nurses cooperated in the study, and it is believed that the facts
presented are reasonably representative of conditions throughout
the country. The study covered families living in large and small
cities, towns, and rural areas. Hospital facilities were available in
some of the towns, but in other cases the towns were dependent for
hospital care and other institutional facilities upon cities within a
radius of from 20 to 60 miles.
As a preliminary to the investigation, a house-to-house canvass was
made by public-health nurses to explain the purposes of the study and
interest the families in keeping systematic records of all illnesses and
expenditures. Visits to the cooperating families were made at in­
tervals throughout the 12-month period of observation, in order to
obtain histories of the illnesses that had occurred and other data as
to charges and expenditures. The data secured cover the history of
each illness in a family during the observation period, the type and
amount of medical care received, and the costs of such care. All
cases of illness which disabled a person for at least 1 day or for which
2 Committee on the Costs of Medical Care. The Costs of Medical Care: Preliminary Report, by Nathan
Sinai and Margaret C. Klem. Washington, 910 Seventeenth Street, N W ., 1930.
8See p. 467.




471

COSTS OF MEDICAL CARE AMONG FAMILIES

any medical service of any kind was rendered were included, and any
disorder for which drugs costing 50 cents or more were purchased was
considered as an illness. Costs were included for nursing; dental
and eye care; treatment by osteopaths, chiropractors, and Christian
Science practitioners; professionally prescribed or self-prescribed
medication; laboratory work; health examinations and immuniza­
tions and other items; and free work of all kinds, as well as minor
ailments for which no attention of any kind is secured, were also
recorded. It is pointed out that the distribution of families accord­
ing to income levels results only from the attempt to secure as large
a statistical sample in each group as possible, without taking into
consideration the proportionate number in specified income groups
in the population of the United States. In the preliminary report
the proportion of families in the lower income group was smaller than
obtains for the country at large. The families were arranged in four
broad income groups, although in the final report they were divided
into seven groups.
From the data assembled it is shown that the charges for medical
care increase steadily with income. For families with incomes under
$2,000, the average charge per family was $71.48, while for families
with incomes over $5,000 the average expenditure was $311.06 per
annum.
Table 1 shows the average charges for medical care during a 12month period among 4,560 families in 13 States:
T

able

1 .— AVERAG E

CH ARGES FOR M E D IC A L CAR E PER F A M IL Y A N D PER INDI*
V ID U A L D U R IN G A 12-MONTH PERIOD, B Y IN C O M E GROUPS

Number of
families

Income group

Average
number of
persons per
family

Average charges

Per family

Per
individual
$15.28
22.77
32.70
76.86

Under $2,000......... ........................................ ..........
$71.48
1,788
4.7
$2,000 to $3,000.......................................................
.
1,372
102.76
4.5
$3,000 to $5,000..........................................................
723
4.5
145.63
$5,000 and over........ ................................................
311.06
677
4.0

The uneven distribution of costs is shown in table 2, which gives
the percentage of families in different income groups incurring ex­
penses for medical care within specified amounts.
T

3 . — P E R C E N T A G E D ISTR IB U TIO N OF FAM ILIES IN D IF F E R E N T IN C O M E
GROUPS A C C O R D IN G TO CHARGES FOR M E D IC A L CARE PER F A M IL Y FOR A 12M O N T H PERIOD

able

Income group

Under $2,000..........................
$2,000 to $3,000.......................
$3,000 to $5,000.......................
$5,000 and over......................




Percent of families with charges in following ranges
Num­
ber of
$500- $1,000families Under $25-$49 $50-$99 $100$250$25
$249
$499
$999
$2,499

1,788
1,372
723
677

40.2
26.7

22.1
11.1

19.8
18.9
13.3

10.6

20.9
23.1
20.5
14.6

13.8

4.1

1.0

28.4
28.0

10.5
17.3

2.7
4.4
11.4

22.2

6.2

0.2
.2
.8
6.4

$2,500
and
over

0.6

472

MEDICAL SERVICES AND COSTS

Institutional Care for Convalescents
ROVISION of institutional care for convalescents, especially
among the wage-earning and low-salaried classes, was the sub­
ject of a special report 4 by the Committee on the Costs of Medical
Care.
The problem of convalescence involves both the question of proper
medical care and provision of a suitable place for the care of persons
recovering from a serious operation or illness whose home surroundings
are not conducive to quick recovery. The housing and family con­
ditions of a very large number of persons are such that ease, quiet,
proper food, and peace of mind cannot be secured at home. The
housewife returning from a hospital usually finds it necessary to take
up her household duties at once and the breadwinner feels it neces­
sary to resume work at the earliest possible moment, so that as a
result many patients discharged from hospitals suffer relapses or
setbacks and in some cases permanent ill effects from the lack of the
needful convalescent care.
The provision of convalescent homes for the care of such cases is
the more necessary because the average stay of a patient in a hospital
is gradually being reduced. In the large cities it usually does not
exceed 11 or 12 days, and in case of childbirth the usual period of
hospitalization is 10 days. Comparatively few patients have re­
covered sufficiently upon leaving the hospital to be able to resume
their ordinary routine at once, and this shortening of the average
period of hospitalization renders more imperative the provision of
facilities for convalescence. Aside from the fact that the hospital
beds are needed for the acutely ill, it is far more expensive to care for
convalescent patients in the hospital than in a convalescent institu­
tion. The average hospital cost is $5 per day, and in the convales­
cent homes only about $2. This latter charge may increase when the
standard of the convalescent homes is raised to approximate modern
standards of convalescent care but, the writer says, it should never
be more than about half of what it costs to maintain a patient in a
hospital.
As not every sick person needs hospital care, so also not every
patient needs institutional care for convalescence, and adequate
studies of the reasonable requirements are, therefore, needed. Accord­
ing to present information 12 convalescent beds should be provided
for every 100 hospital beds but it is possible there is need for upward
revision of this standard. There were at the time of the report (1930)
about 300 convalescent homes in the United States distributed among
33 States.
Until recently, the writer says, convalescence as a medical problem
has received little attention. The question of the kind and amount of
medical supervision needed in convalescence institutions depends
upon the types of cases treated. The best arrangement is believed
to be that in which the convalescent home is definitely linked with
the medical service of a hospital. It is also stated that a certain
degree of specialization is desirable if the best results are to be ob­
tained, as about 25 percent of the patients require a special regimen
or special diet, or special treatment. Even in the communities which

P

* Committee on the Costs of Medical Care. Institutional Convalescence, by E. H. Lewinskl-Corwin
Washington, 910 Seventeenth Street N W ., 1930.




FREEDOM OF CHOICE OF PHYSICIAN

473

maintain many convalescent institutions, it is said, the adjustment
of the accommodations to the needs of the locality has not been
attempted in any serious way, and while many more homes are
needed, there is sdso needed “ an intelligent policy with regard to the
best fulfillment of their purpose.”

Experiment by Mutual Benefit Association in Freedom
of Choice of Physician
ACCOUNT of a
experience in allowing
A Nmembers of a mutualyear’s successful freedom of choice in the
benefit society
l

selection of physicians and dentists was reported in the Journal of the
American Medical Association, June 10, 1933.
The mutual benefit association which carried out this plan was
organized in 1930 among employees of Spaulding Bakeries, Inc.,
Binghamton, N. Y., wholesale bakers of bread and cake products,
the medical service being arranged for at first on a contract basis.
After the association was organized it became apparent that some
of the members would prefer to go to their own physicians for treat­
ment, and it was found that some were actually doing so while pay­
ing dues to the association. Officials of the company realized also
that local physicians not connected with the association were opposed
to this type of organization. They felt that this opposition was
justified and, as the employees in general appreciated the benefits
and services provided by the association, it was decided to reorganize,
offering freedom of choice of a physician as a basic feature rather
than to suspend activities.
It was provided that the plan was to continue for a year, since there
was considerable doubt as to whether or not it could be operated
successfully. At the close of the experimental period in April 1933
it was found that the original reserve which had been built up during
the period the first plan was in operation not only remained un­
touched but had been substantially increased, and it was expected,
therefore, that the activities of the association would be maintained
indefinitely and possibly extended to the eight other plants operated
by the company in New York and Pennsylvania.
The association uses the facilities of community medical service
agencies, and a member of the association has the privilege of consult­
ing any physician he may choose. An employee who is sick obtains
a form from the secretary of the association which he presents to the
physician, or if he is unable to call at the office for the form he reports
the fact later to the secretary. Both house and office calls are
allowed.
The members receive both medical and surgical care, including
major and minor operations; eye, ear, nose, and throat service; X-ray
examination; dental service limited to X-rays and extraction; and
laboratory and ward service in the hospital not to exceed 30 days in
any 1 year at the rate of $3 per day. Benefits are not paid during
hospitalization, but are paid when the patient leaves the hospital,
except in the case of surgical operations. Tuberculosis sanitariums
or institutions for the care of chronic diseases are not included, how­
ever, under the term “ hospital. ” The prevailing medical and dental




474

MEDICAL SERVICES AND COSTS

fees in the community are paid by the association, and although a
committee of physicians was appointed to pass on bills which seemed
to be exorbitant, there had been no occasion to consider this question.
Benefits based on the rate of dues are paid to members absent from
work on account of sickness for a maximum of 10 weeks in any 1
year. The maximum which may be spent on any one member for
medical services in any 1 year is $350, house and office calls being
limited to $50 and dental service to $25.
The dues of the association are based on the wages received, and
the employees are divided into four classes, the dues ranging from
20 cents per week for class 1 to 45 cents for class 4. The weekly
benefits are, respectively, $7.50, $10, $15, and $20.
During the first year's operation of the plan 65 different physicians
and 25 dentists were consulted by the members.

Medical Care for Trade-Unionists in Los Angeles
H E Union Labor Benefit League, a voluntary nonprofit organi­
zation to provide medical care for trade-unionists and their
families was organized in Los Angeles in December 1929, becoming,
it is stated, “ the largest single union-labor organization in the State
of California. "
Membership in the league is open only to trade-unionists in good
standing in a bona fide labor organization. Dues of $1.50 per month
are payable at the same time that the union dues are paid. With the
funds thus accumulated the league engages the services of physicians,
surgeons, dentists, etc. No officials of the league itself receive any
remuneration for their services; all of the funds go for the provision
of benefits for members.
For the sum of $1.50 per month each member and the wholly
dependent members of his family (wife, children, and parents) are
entitled to physical examination and prescriptions at the central
medical offices; medical service at home when the patient is too ill
to go to the doctor's office (provided the patient lives not more than
12 miles from the central medical offices); minor surgical operations
which can be performed at the medical offices; major operations
(except for diseases of the brain and spinal cord) performed at the
hospital; treatment of diseases of eye, ear, nose, and throat; obstet­
rical service (at hospital only); clinical laboratory service; any dental
service ordered by the physician; hospital service for ailments start­
ing 90 days after becoming a member of the league; and medico-legal
service in case of “ justifiable litigation." For X-ray service, eye­
glasses, physiotherapy, dentistry not ordered by the physician, arti­
ficial limbs, etc., a nominal charge is made.
The secretary of the league stated that 151 local unions in Los
Angeles and vicinity had affiliated with the league and that a branch
chapter had been established in Santa Barbara, with which all of the
local unions had affiliated. There were in 1931, according to the
secretary, more than 10,000 members in the league.
The report of the league for the first half of 1930 shows that 23,913
treatments were given and in 794 other cases surgical operations
were performed. Of the patients treated, 10,053 were men, \5,385
were women, and 5,108 were children.

T




OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH COUNCIL

475

The amount paid in dues was $29,644, while the league estimated
that the services given would, at the regular minimum medical rates,
have cost $104,434, representing a saving to members of $74,790 for
the 6.months.

Los Angeles City Employees’ Health Clinic 6

A

H EALTH clinic in charge of the hospitalization and insurance
services for employees of the Department of Water and Power,
Los Angeles, Calif., is maintained by the employees of that branch
of the city government.
The clinic, which was started in 1929, occupies a two-story building
with more than 50 rooms. It is in charge of 2 physicians of stand­
ing—one of whom does all the major operations— and they have
associated with them 18 graduate physicians, including various
specialists. The clinic also employs 10 nurses, 2 laboratory techni­
cians, and 5 office employees.
About 2,000 employees of the water and power department were
members of the organization in 1931. Other city groups had also
joined, so that the total membership at that time was approximately
6,500. The monthly fee of $2 is deducted from the employee’s pay.
This fee entitles members to free medical care, operations, dressings,
medicine, and hospitalization, while all dependents of members are
given free medical and surgical care, but pay the actual cost of
hospitalization, nurses, and medicine. Hospital cases are not cared
for at the clinic but are sent to one of the city hospitals.
At the end of 2 years’ operation of the clinic a check-up of the
results was made through the various division and subdivision heads,
and it was agreed that there had been a marked increase in efficiency
on the part of the personnel, less absenteeism because of prolonged
illness, and a notable improvement in morale and esprit du corps,
the better morale no doubt being largely attributable to the fact
that employees are freed from the usual worries as to finances in the
case of illness.

Appointment of Occupational Health Council in
Massachusetts 6
N ADVISORY body to
health
A L council was established be known as the occupationalDepart­
in 1932 in the Massachusetts

ment of Labor and Industries. The council was to be concerned
with the occupational health problems of the State, the study of
which was inaugurated with the appointment of an occupational
hygienist. The members of the council were to include prominent
representatives of public health and industrial medical services, labor
unions, employers’ organizations, social and welfare organizations,
and insurance companies.
e Information secured from D . S. Parkes, in charge of hospitalization and insurance services for employees
of the Department of Water and Power, Los Angeles, Calif,
e Industry, Boston, Mass., July 16, 1932, p. 5.




476

MEDICAL SERVICES AND COSTS

In commenting upon the purpose of the council, the commissioner
of the department said:
We propose to give ourselves the benefit of the best advice obtainable from
individuals and institutions concerned with the health of the working population,
and we believe it no less important that these interests be kept informed of the
work which we are doing. I do not anticipate the need for frequent meetings
of the group as a whole, but hope rather for the counsel of its members as it is
needed, their criticism as it is called for, and their support as it is merited.
With all regard for the pressing necessity of extreme economy in government,
I am confident that this new undertaking of the department will more than
justify itself in the reduction of disease arising from inadequately protected
industrial occupations in the Commonwealth.

Work of Union Health Center, New York City
HE Union Health Center 7 was established in 1913 by the joint
board of sanitary control in the women’s garment trades and the
institution was taken over in 1920 by the International Ladies Gar­
ment Workers’ Union, at which time the center moved into its own
building. In 1925 the dental department was established in a separate
building some blocks from the main building. In 1928 the facilities
of the organization were opened to all trade-union members and about
30 additional labor organizations became affiliated with it. During
that year the Union Health Center was endorsed by the Central
Trades and Labor Council. In 1936 there were 37 labor organizations
affiliated with the institution. The Center, now located at 275
Seventh Avenue, has 40,000 square feet of floor space.
The Union Health Center was organized for the purpose of providing
medical and dental services at a reasonable cost to members of
organized labor and their families, and also to give health information
to and spread health education among these workers. The services
rendered include medical clinics held twice daily, a dental department
which is the largest industrial clinic in New York City, special clinics
under specialists in different branches of surgery and medicine, a
completely equipped physiotherapeutic department where light and
thermal treatments are given by a specialist, a chemical laboratory
equipped to make the various kinds of tests, an X-ray department, and
a completely furnished drug store where prescriptions are compounded
at a cost ranging from 25 to 50 cents each. Additional health care is
provided through arrangements made for the care of the sick and con­
valescent in sanitariums and other institutions. The Union Health
Center also conducts the physical examinations required by many
of the unions for membership, and has charge of the certification for
cash sick benefits of members of those unions which have sickness
insurance.
The Center is a nonprofit organization. Moderate fees for medical
attention are charged to members of affiliated unions, and a slight
additional charge is made to members of nonaffiliated unions. If
members of affiliated unions are unemployed they receive free treat­
ment when it is requested by the secretaries of their unions.

T

7The Union Health Center, The Health Department of Organized Labor, 1913-31, New York, 131 East
Seventeenth Street, 1931; The New York Times, Jan. 5, 1936.
4




CHICAGO TRUCK D RIVERS' AND CHAUFFERS' UNION

477

The staff includes 40 physicians, all of whom have had at least
10 years’ medical experience. Twelve of these physicians, who were
added in 1935, visit the homes of workers who are too ill to go to
the Center for treatment. During 1935, 55,000 patients were treated,
a little more than half of whom were in the garment trades. Lectures
on personal health and factory hygiene are provided for as part of
a $100,000 educational program launched last October. For this
expert medical care and instruction in healthful living the union
member pays 35 cents a month in addition to his regular union dues.
This entitles him to 10 weeks’ medical treatment, including medicines
and visits by the doctor if he is seriously ill, or to indefinite treatment
in the clinic. For these services the unit of the union to which he
belongs receives a bill.

Medical Service of Chicago Truck Drivers* and
Chauffeurs* Union

A

M ED ICA L insurance plan providing complete medical service
which is said to have benefited both workers and employers
through improved health, greater efficiency, and the removal from
the workers of the financial worry of sickness and reduction in lost
time has been provided for members of the Chicago Truck Drivers’
and Chauffeurs’ Union, Local 705, and their families since 1930.
In April of that year a medical center with specialists in charge of the
different departments and with complete and modern equipment
was placed in operation, according to a pamphlet entitled “ A Humani­
tarian Service ” , which was issued in 1933 by the union.
The clinic provides full medical care, including minor and major
operations and complete hospitalization where it is needed. The
medical insurance plan under which this service is rendered is financed
by a yearly fee of $10 for each member and of $1 per year each for
members’ wives and children. The opportunity to secure medical
care at these rates has been accepted by so large a proportion of the
membership that 15,000 persons receive medical treatment each year
and approximately 1,600 more receive hospital care.
The center occupies 10 rooms in a central location and has facilities
to handle from 75 to 100 patients daily. The staff consists of 4
physicians and 2 graduate nurses and the center is equipped with
modern X-ray apparatus and equipment for making basal metabolism
and other tests, and has a completely equipped operating room. The
type of treatment given at the office, which is open from 9 a. m. to
8 p. m., includes surgical dressings, light and heat treatments, basal
metabolism tests, X-ray treatments and pictures, the giving of
preventive serums for contagions, reduction of fractures, examina­
tions, etc. A maternity service is also maintained, so that complete
care is given before and after childbirth, with regular supervision
of the care of infants. In cases which require hospitalization, through
arrangement with one of the city hospitals, patients are given hospital
care under the attendance of one of the physicians of the center
without additional charge. During the first 9 months of 1933 the
center took care of 697 surgical cases and 124 fractures.







MINIMUM W AG E

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




479




Status of Minimum-Wage Legislation and
Administration
H E 1931 edition of the Handbook of Labor Statistics (Bui. No.
541), in its review of minimum-wage laws and court decisions
affecting them (pp. 446-449) said that “ the history of minimum-wage
legislation * * * has been most discouraging to its advocates ”
because of the barrier of unconstitutionality which the movement en­
countered.1 At that time, out of 17 minimum-wage laws which had
been enacted between 1912 and 1923, 3 had been repealed (those of
Nebraska, Texas, and Utah); 3 had been declared unconstitutional
by the Supreme Court of the United States (those of Arizona, Arkan­
sas, and the District of Columbia); and those of Kansas and Puerto
Rico had been nullified by action of the local courts following the
decision of the United States Supreme Court.
The Colorado law was not operative, because no appropriation was
made to enforce it. Thus only eight laws survived at all (in Cali­
fornia, Massachusetts, Minnesota, North Dakota, Oregon, South
Dakota, Washington, and Wisconsin), and most of them were con­
siderably modified as the result of adverse court decisions. The
Minnesota law was limited by amendment to minors, and the word­
ing of the Wisconsin statute was changed to avoid conflict with the
Supreme Court decision. Instead of establishing a “ minimum wage ” ,
the amended law prohibited an “ oppressive wage” and declared that
“ any wage lower than a reasonable and adequate compensation for
services rendered shall be deemed oppress!ve.” The Massachusetts
law was not mandatory, and hence was not subject to the charge
of confiscatory legislation under which the mandatory type had been
declared unconstitutional. Massachusetts depended upon the weight
of public opinion to secure compliance with wage awards under its
law. While the California law is mandatory, it has to a great degree
been supported by the employers to whom it applies and apparently
for that reason it has, so far, not been challenged. That is true to
some extent in Washington and Oregon also. The South Dakota
law fixes the minimum wage which must be paid to workers to whom
it applies and assumes that violations will be reported to State authori­
ties. Administration of the North Dakota law, which is the same
type of legislation as that of Oregon, is seriously crippled for want of
adequate appropriation and enforcement machinery.
This, briefly, was the situation at the end of 1932. From the be­
ginning of 1933, however, minimum-wage legislation literally took a
new lease on life, promoted by the National Consumers’ League and
other civic groups, and by economists and State labor and welfare
officials. These agencies have worked for the adoption of a standard
uniform bill sponsored by the National Consumers’ League. Either

T

i See Handbook of Labor Statistics, 1931 edition (Bui. No. 541), p. 446, and 1024r-26 edition (Bui. No. 439)
p. 391, and Monthly Labor Review, December 1933 (p. 1344), for reviews and citations of court cases involv­
ing minimum-wage laws; also Women’s Bureau of the U. S. Department of Labor Bui. No. 61: The Devel­
opment of Minimum Wage Laws in the United Statefc, 1912-27; and Bui. No. 137: Summary of State Hour
Laws for Women and Minimum Wage Rates.

481

19206—36------32




482

MINIMUM W AGE

verbatim or in slightly modified form, that bill was enacted into law
during the legislative year 1933 in six States: Connecticut, Illinois,
New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York,2 and Ohio.3 In addition,
Utah, which had in 1929 repealed a minimum-wage law, reenacted
one which closely follows the California statute. In 1934 Massa­
chusetts repealed its old law and enacted one of the standard type.
This new legislation is devised to surmount the constitutional
obstacle encountered by previous efforts to insure woman workers a
living wage. It does not attempt to regulate wages generally.
Rather, the position is declared that “ it is against public policy for
any employer to employ any woman or minor in an occupation
* * * at an oppressive and unreasonable wage * * * and
any contract, agreement, or understanding for or in relation to such
employment shall be null and void.” An “ oppressive and unreason­
able wage” is defined as one “ which is both less than the fair and
reasonable value of the service rendered and less than sufficient to
meet the minimum cost of living necessary for health.”
Proceedings to determine a “ fair wage” through the medium of a
wage board are to be instituted on petition from a given number of
citizens or whenever, in the opinion of the enforcing agency, “ a sub­
stantial number of women or minors in any occupation or occupations
are receiving oppressive and unreasonable wages as defined.” In
establishing a minimum fair wage for any occupation, the responsible
official of the State labor agency administering the law and the wage
board summoned by him may, without being bound by any technical
rules of evidence or procedure, (1) take into account all relevant cir­
cumstances affecting the value of the service or class of service
rendered, and (2) be guided by like considerations as would guide a
court in a suit for the reasonable value of services rendered, where ser­
vices are rendered at the request of an employer without contract as
to the amount of wages to be paid, and (3) consider the wages paid
in the State for work of like or comparable character by employers
who voluntarily maintain minimum fair wage standards.
Administration
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of all the minimum-wage laws in force July 1,
1935, is assigned to the State labor agency of the respective States.
These agencies together with the divisidn or official immediately con­
cerned with administering and enforcing minimum-wage legislation
are shown in the analyses of the laws of the separate States which
follow.

Enforcement
T h e 1929 edition of the Handbook of Labor Statistics (Bui. No. 491)
contains (pp. 521-526) an analysis of procedure and enforcement
which still applies to the older laws. The Industrial Commission of
Wisconsin continues to enforce the minimum rates based upon the
cost of living which it established under the original act on the ground
that any lower rate would be “ oppressive” and hence illegal under the
amended act. But for years little effort has been made in Wisconsin
or California to do more than maintain, through pay-roll inspection,
* Act declared unconstitutional by New York Court of Appeals in T ip a ld o v. M o reh ea d .
s See Monthly Labor Review, June, July, and August 1933, for complete text, and December 1933 for
comparative texts and general discussion.




STATUS OF LEGISLATION AND ADMINISTRATION

483

hearings, conferences, and advice, the specific rates established by
the various wage decrees issued before the movement was slowed
down, first by adverse court decisions and later by unemployment and
general wage reductions.
Wage decrees under the older systems are enforceable as law, but
police power has never been the instrument relied upon to secure com­
pliance with minimum-wage laws. On the other hand, the various
administrative agencies have, within the limits of the appropriations
and the staffs available for the purpose, kept close track of the opera­
tion of the law and have secured a fair degree of cooperation and
obedience.
The methods used to check up on compliance or noncompliance are
practically the same in all jurisdictions. The chief points of differ­
ence lie in the extent and frequency of the inspections, which in turn
depend largely upon the money and agents available. These methods
are the investigation of complaints, the examination of pay rolls by
agents of the State office, and the submission by employers of certified
copies of pay rolls to the State office. The third method is the only
one used in North Dakota; in California and to some extent in Minne­
sota and Wisconsin it is used to supplement direct examination of
pay rolls. By that means California obtains pay rolls covering all
employees subject to the minimum-wage law, and can then center its
work of direct examination by field agents upon given industries,
areas, or seasons which may require special attention.
The new legislation which is being enacted combines the directory
feature of the old Massachusetts law, which depends upon publicity
and public sentiment to exert sufficient pressure to force compliance
with wage decrees, and the mandatory feature of the other minimumwage laws. After a wage rate is set by a wage board, the administer­
ing State official promulgates a “ directory order” establishing that
rate for the occupation at issue. Any employer suspected of noncom­
pliance with the directory order is summoned, after due notice, to a
hearing, at which he is called upon to show cause why his name should
not be published for disregarding a wage order and failing to pay his
employees a “ fair wage.” If after a given time, which varies from 3
months in Ohio to 9 in Illinois, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and New
York, compliance has not been secured, another hearing is held, after
which the order may be made mandatory. Noncompliance then
becomes a misdemeanor and is punishable as such. In such circum­
stances, employees affected by the refusal of the employer to pay the
fixed minimum may collect back pay.
It is, of course, too soon to attempt to estimate results under the new
laws. They have, in any event, served to revive interest in that type
of legislation and to supplement the minimum-wage movement of the
National Recovery Act.
Analysis of Minimum-Wage Laws
T h e following analysis of State minimum-wage laws deals with those
in effect July 1, 1935. The Connecticut law, which is based on the
National Consumers’ League standard bill, is the only one of that type
listed, but the analysis of the statute in that State may, in all its essen­
tial features, be regarded as applying equally to Illinois, Massachu­
setts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York,2 and Ohio.

8

Act declared unconstitutional in T ip a ld o v. M o reh ead .




484

MINIMUM W AGE
C a liforn ia

Citation.— Deering’s General Laws 1931, act 3613.
Classes covered.— Women; minors (females under 21 years of age, males under

18 years of age).
Exceptions.— Women physically defective by age or otherwise may be granted
special licenses, renewable every 6 months. Apprentices: Special wages set by
commission during specified period of apprenticeship.
Occupations or industries covered.— Those in which women and minors are
employed.
Administering body.— Industrial welfare commission of five members (one a
woman) appointed by governor for 4 years.
Method of selecting occupation or industry to be considered by this body.— At discre­
tion of commission. Investigation conducted by examining papers, books,
witnesses, and by holding public hearings.
Method of arriving at wage award.— Commissioner convenes wage board com­
posed of representatives of employers and employees in trade in question, with
member of commission as chairman; after investigation the board reports to com­
mission the minimum wage it deems necessary. After public hearing commis­
sioner fixes minimum wage for the trade.
Means of enforcing award; penalty.— Refusal to comply with the law a misde­
meanor. Employee may recover back wages and costs.
Principles by which amount of award is determined.— Amount must be adequate
to supply necessary cost of proper living, and to maintain health and welfare of
workers.
C olora do
Citation.— Compiled Laws 1921, sections 4262-4283.
Classes covered.— Women; minors (either sex, under 18 years of age).
Exceptions.— Women physically defective or crippled by age or otherwise or less

efficient than those of ordinary ability may be granted special licenses stating
wage; number so licensed must not exceed one-tenth of total employed in estab­
lishment.
Occupations or industries covered.— Any occupation (construed to include
“ any and every vocation, trade, pursuit, and industry” ).
Administering body.— Industrial commission of three members (not more than
one each representing employees and employers), appointed by governor, with
consent of senate, for 6 years.
Method o f selecting occupation or industry to be considered by this body.— At dis­
cretion of commission or at request of not less than 25 persons engaged in the
occupation. Investigation conducted by examining books, papers, and witnesses,
and by holding public hearings.
Method of arriving at wage awards.— Commission may itself investigate and set
minimum wage for an occupation, or it may establish wage board composed of
members of commission and not more than three representatives of employers
concerned, of female employees, and of public. Representatives of employers and
the employees to be elected by their respective groups; at least one member of
every group to be a woman. Wage board investigates and reports to commission
a minimum wage which commission may accept or reject.
Means of enforcing award; penalty.— Refusal to comply with law a misde­
meanor. Employee may recover back wages and costs.
Principles by which amount o f award is determined.— Wage must be adequate to
supply necessary cost of living and to maintain health, and must be a sufficient
living wage for women and minors of ordinary ability.
C o n n e c t ic u t4
Citation.— Cumulative Supplement (1931, 1933) to the General Statutes, 1930,
title 24, chapter 131a, sections 620b-633b.'
Classes covered.— Women; minors (either sex, under 21 years of age).
Exceptions.— Women or minors (including learners or apprentices) with earning
capacity impaired by age, physical or mental deficiency, or injury, may obtain
special license authorizing wage lower than established minimum for fixed period.
4
The law of Connecticut was modeled on the standard minimum-wage bill sponsored by the National
Consumers’ League. The minimum-wage laws of the following States also follow the Consumers’ League
standard, bill, and therefore are not analyzed here: Illinois (Acts of 1933, p. 597, as amended 1935, p. 840),
Massachusetts (Acts of 1934, ch. 308, as amended 1935, ch. 267), New Hampshire (Acts of 1933, ch. 87), New
Jersey (Acts of 1933, ch. 152), New York (Acts of 1933, ch. 584), and Ohio (Acts of 1933, p. 502).




STATUS OF LEGISLATION AND ADMINISTRATION

485

Occupations or industries covered.— Any sweatshop occupation (defined as
industry, trade, business, or occupation paying unfair and oppressive wages, but
not including domestic service in employer’s home or labor on farm).
Administering body.— Commissioner of labor and director of minimum wage
division which may be set up in department of labor.
Method of selecting occupation or industry to be considered by this body.— At discre­
tion of commissioner or director, or at request of 50 or more residents of the State.
Method of arriving at wage award.— Commissioner, after conferring with
director, appoints wage board composed of not more than three representatives
each of employers and of employees concerned (to be selected as far as practicable
from nominations by respective groups), and of public. After studying evidence
and information in commissioner’s possession, board must, within 60 days of its
organization, submit report, including recommended minimum fair-wage stand­
ards for women and minors in occupation. The commissioner may acceptor
reject this report.
M eans of enforcing award; penalty.— Noncompliance with mandatory order
makes employer liable to fine or imprisonment or both. Each week in any day
of which an employee is paid less than rate set by order, constitutes a separate
offense as to each employee so paid. Employee may recover back wages and
costs.
Principles by which amount o f award is determined.— Wage must be sufficient to
meet minimum cost of living necessary for health.
M in n esota
Citation.— General Statutes 1923, sections 4210-4232.
Classes covered.— Women; minors (females under 18 years of age, males under

21 years of age).
Exceptions.— Women physically defective may obtain license fixing wage lower
than established minimum. Licensees not to exceed one-tenth of number
employed in establishment.
Occupations or industries covered.— Any occupation (defined as any business,
industry, trade, or branch of a trade).
Administering body.— Industrial commission of three members, appointed by
governor with advice and consent of senate for 6 years.
Method of selecting occupation or industry to be considered by the body.— At dis­
cretion of commission or at request of 100 persons engaged in the occupation.
Investigations conducted by examining papers, books, witnesses, and by holding
public hearings.
Method of arriving at wage awards.— Commission may itself investigate and
determine a minimum wage for occupation in question, or it may establish
advisory board composed of not less than 3 nor more than 10 representatives
each of employers and of employees in occupation, and 1 or more representatives
of public (but no more representatives of public than in either one of the other
groups). At least one-fifth of board must be women and public group must
contain at least one woman. After examination of books and witnesses board
recommends minimum wage, which commission may accept or reject.
M eans o f enforcing award; penalty.— Refusal to comply with law a misdemeanor.
Employee may recover back wages and costs.
Principles by which amount of award is determined.— Amount must be adequate
to supply living wage for women and minors of ordinary ability.
N orth D akota
Citation.— Supplement (1913-25) to Compiled Laws 1913, chapter 5, article
lib , sections 396bl-396bl6 as amended 1935, ch. 162).
Classes covered.— Women; minors (either sex, under 18 years of age).
Exceptions.— Females physically defective by age or otherwise (or apprentices
or learners in occupation usually requiring such) may be granted special license
authorizing wage lower than established minimum.
Occupations or industries covered.— Any occupation (defined as business, indus­
try, trade, or branch thereof, but not including agricultural or domestic service).
Administering body.— Commissioner of agriculture and labor.
Method of selecting occupation or industry to be considered by this body.— At
discretion of commissioner. Investigation conducted by examining papers, books,
and witnesses, and by holding public hearings.




486

MINIMUM W AGE

M eth o d o f arrivin g at wage a w ards. — Commissioner organizes conference com­
posed of not more than three representatives each of employers and of employees
in the occupation in question, and of public, and one or more commissioners.
Conference investigates and recommends minimum wage, which bureau may
accept or reject.
M e a n s o f en forcin g a w a rd ; 'penalty. — Refusal to comply with order of commis­
sioner is unlawful and punishable by fine or imprisonment, or both. Employee
may recover back wages and costs.
P r in c ip le s b y which a m ou n t o f aw ard is d eterm in ed . — Wage must be adequate to
supply necessary cost of living and maintain woman workers in health. Reason­
able wages for minor workers.

O regon
Citation.— Code 1930, sections 49-301, 49-324 (as amended 1931, ch. 394;

1933 (2d spec, sess.) ch. 88).
Classes covered.— Women; minors (either sex, under 18 years of age).
Exceptions.— Women physically defective or crippled by age or otherwise may
obtain license fixing wage lower than established minimum.
Occupations or industries covered.— Any occupation (defined as any and every
vocation, pursuit, trade, and industry).
Administering body.— State welfare commission of three members, appointed
by governor for 4 years.
Method of selecting occupation or industry to be considered by this body.— At
discretion of commission. Investigation conducted by examining papers, books,
and witnesses, and by holding public hearings.
Method of arriving at wage awards.— Commission organizes conference composed
of not more than three representatives each of employers and of employees in the
occupation and of public, and one or more commissioners. Conference investi­
gates and recommends minimum wage, which commission may accept or reject.
Means of enforcing award; penalty.— Refusal to comply with law a misdemeanor
and punishable by fine or imprisonment or both. Employee may recover back
wages and costs.
Principles by which amount of award is determined.— Wage must be adequate to
supply necessary cost of living and to maintain health.
S ou th D akota
Citation.— Compiled Laws 1929 (as amended 1931, ch. 173), sections 10022A-

10022E.

Classes covered.— Women and girls over 14 years of age.
Exceptions.— Women mentally or physically deficient or disabled may obtain

permit authorizing wage lower than established minimum. Apprentices: Indus­
trial commissioner must be notified of each apprentice and give permission for
his employment.
Occupations or industries covered.— Any factory, workshop, mechanical or
mercantile establishment, laundry, hotel, restaurant, or packing house.
Administering body.— Industrial commissioner appointed by governor for 2
years.
Method of selecting occupation or industry to be considered by this body.— Not
specified.
Method of arriving at wage awards.— Minimum wage fixed by law.
Means of enforcing award; penalty.— Refusal to comply with law a misdemeanor
punishable by fine or imprisonment, or both. Employee may recover back wages
and costs.
Principles by which amount o f award is determined.— Wage must be amount
which equals a living wage.
U tah

(The law of Utah is similar to that of California summarized on page 484,
except in regard to the classes of workers covered and the body empowered to
administer law. These headings and the citation follow.)
C ita tio n . — Acts of 1933, chapter 38.
C la sses covered. — Women; minors (either sex, under 21 years of age, but com­
mission not authorized to fix minimum wages and maximum hours for males
between 18 and 21).
A d m in is te r in g b o d y. — Industrial commission of three members, appointed by
governor for 4 years.




STATUS OF LEGISLATION AND ADMINISTRATION

487

W a sh in g ton
C ita tio n . — Remington’s Revised Statutes 1931, sections 7623-7641.
C la sses covered. — Women; minors (either sex, under 18 years of age).
E x c e p tio n s. — Women physically defective or crippled by age or otherwise

(or
apprentices in occupation usually requiring such) may secure license authorizing
wage lower than legal minimum.
O ccu p a tio n s or in d u stries covered. — Occupations, trades, and industries.
A d m in is te r in g b o d y. — Industrial welfare committee, composed of director of
labor and industries (appointed by governor with consent of senate and holding
office at his pleasure), supervisor of industrial insurance, and supervisor of indus­
trial relations (appointed by director of labor and industries), and supervisor of
women in industry (appointed by supervisor of industrial relations with approval
of director of labor and industries).
M e th o d o f selecting o ccu p ation or in d u s try to be con sidered b y this b o d y. — At
discretion of commission. Investigation conducted by examining papers, books,
witnesses, and by holding public hearings.
M eth o d o f a rrivin g at wage a w a rd s. — Commission organizes conference composed
of equal number of representatives of employers and employees in occupation in
question and one or more representatives of public (but no more representatives of
public than in either one of the other groups), and a member of commission. Con­
ference recommends minimum wage, which commission may accept or reject.
M e a n s o f en fo rcin g a w a rd s; p e n a lty. — Payment of wages less than standard
minimum or refusal to comply with law a misdemeanor. Employee may recover
back wages and costs.
P r in c ip le s b y w hich a m o u n t o f aw ard is d eterm in ed . — Amount must be a reason­
able wage, not detrimental to health and morals and sufficient for decent main­
tenance of women.
The Washington law was declared unconstitutional on November 9, 1935, as
far as adult women are concerned. (P a r is h v. W e s t Coast H o tel C o., Superior
Court of Washington, Nov. 9, 1935.)
W iscon sin
C ita tio n . — Statutes 1931, sections 104.01-104.125,
C la sses covered. — Women; minors.
E x c e p tio n s. — Adult women unable to earn minimum

may obtain license fixing
lower wage. Employer may obtain license to pay adult females wage lower than
established rate, if he establishes satisfactorily that he is unable to pay such wage.
Minors unable to earn “ a living wage” may obtain license fixing lower wage
commensurate with their ability.
O ccu p a tio n s or in d u stries covered. — Every person in receipt of, or entitled to,
any compensation for labor performed for any employer.
A d m in is te r in g b o d y. — Industrial commission whose members are appointed by
governor, with advice and consent of senate, for 6 years.
M e th o d o f selecting o ccu p ation or in d u s try to be con sidered b y this b o d y. — At
discretion of commission or on verified complaint filed by any person.
M eth o d o f a rriving at wage aw a rd s. — Commission organizes advisory wage board,
selected to represent fairly employers, employees, and public. Living wage
determined by commission and advisory board shall be the legal minimum wage.
M e a n s o f en fo rcin g a w a rd s; p e n a lty. — Payment of wages in violation of any
order of commission deemed violation of law, unless it can be proved that the
order was unreasonable. Every day an order is not complied with is a separate
offense.
P r in c ip le s b y which a m ou n t o f aw ard is d eterm in ed . — Amount must be a “ living
wage” , i. e., sufficient to maintain employee under conditions consistent with his
welfare. Wage must not be oppressive (defined as “ lower than a reasonable and
adequate compensation for services rendered” ).







NATIONAL RECOVERY ADMINISTRATION
LABOR ASPECTS

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




489




National Industrial Recovery Act, 1933
HE National Industrial Recovery Act was approved by Presi­
dent Roosevelt on June 16, 1933. It continued in full effect
until the decision of the United States Supreme Court on May 27,
1935, terminated that portion of the act under which the various
codes of fair competition had been established. (See Decision of
Supreme Court on the National Industrial Recovery Act, p. 563.)
The act declared the existence of a national emergency “ productive
of wide-spread unemployment and disorganization of industry, which
burdens interstate and foreign commerce, affects the public welfare,
and undermines the standards of living of the American people.”
The objectives of the act were declared to be: The removal of obstruc­
tions “ to the free flow of interstate and foreign commerce” ; the pro­
motion of cooperative action among trade groups and between labor
and management; the elimination of unfair competitive practices;
the promotion of the “ fullest possible utilization of the present pro­
ductive capacity of industries ” , and the avoidance of undue restriction
of production; and lastly, the increasing of the purchasing power of
the people and thereby their ability to consume industrial and agri­
cultural products.
The period of effectiveness of the new act was limited to 2 years,
but it could be ended sooner by a proclamation of the President or
by a joint resolution of Congress. The financing of the Public Works
program was to be by a Federal bond issue amounting to $3,300,000,000; and corporation, gasoline, and other taxes for interest and
sinking-fund requirements were also provided.
The act was divided into three parts: Title I provided a program
for industrial recovery; title II concerned public works and construc­
tion projects; while title III merely amended the Emergency Relief
and Construction Act of 1932.
Title I of the law permitted the members of any trade or industry
or subdivision thereof to formulate a code of fair competition. Such
code had to be approved by the President, and upon such approval
it became binding upon the entire industry or subdivision, and its
provisions were thereafter to be “ the standards of fair competition.”
During the existence of the law any code (agreement or license)
approved under its provisions, and any action complying with the
provisions of the code, were to be exempt from the provisions of the
antitrust laws of the United States.
Section 7 of title I prescribed that every code of fair competition
should recognize the right of employees to bargain collectively through
representatives of their own choosing. Every code was also required
to include provisions as to maximum hours, minimum wages, and
other conditions of employment, and to contain the added condition
that “ no employee and no one seeking employment shall be required
as a condition of employment to join any company union or to
refrain from joining, organizing, or assisting a labor organization of
his own choosing.”

T




491

492

N. R. A.— LABOR ASPECTS

Section 7 of title I also provided that employers and employees
should be given every opportunity to establish by mutual agreement
standards of hours, wages, and working conditions; but where no
such mutual agreement was approved by the President, he was author­
ized to investigate the labor practices, policies, wages, hours, etc., in the
trade or industry and to prescribe a limited code of fair competition.
The complete text of title I of the National Industrial Recovery
Act follows:
T itle I.— I ndustrial R ecovery
Section 1. D ecla ra tion o f p o lic y . — A national emergency productive of wide­
spread unemployment and disorganization of industry, which burdens interstate
and foreign commerce, affects the public welfare, and undermines the standards
of living of the American people, is hereby declared to exist. It is hereby de­
clared to be the policy of Congress to remove obstructions to the free flow of
interstate and foreign commerce which tend to diminish the amount thereof;
and to provide for the general welfare by promoting the organization of industry
for the purpose of cooperative action among trade groups, to induce and maintain
united action of labor and management under adequate governmental sanctions
and supervision, to eliminate unfair competitive practices, to promote the fullest
possible utilization of the present productive capacity of industries, to avoid
undue restriction of production (except as may be temporarily required), to
increase the consumption of industrial and agricultural products by increasing
purchasing power, to reduce and relieve unemployment, to improve standards
of labor, and otherwise to rehabilitate industry and to conserve natural resources.
Sec. 2. A d m in is tr a tiv e agen cies. — (a) To effectuate the policy of this title,
the President is hereby authorized to establish such agencies, to accept and
utilize such voluntary and uncompensated services, to appoint, without regard
to the provisions of the civil service laws, such officers and employees, and to
utilize such Federal officers and employees, and, with the consent of the State,
such State and local officers and employees, as he may find necessary, to pre­
scribe their authorities, duties, responsibilities, and tenure, and, without regard
to the Classification Act of 1923, as amended, to fix the compensation of any
officers and employees so appointed.
(b) The President may delegate any of his functions and powers under this
title to such officers, agents, and employees as he may designate or appoint, and
may establish an industrial planning and research agency to aid in carrying out
his functions under this title.
(c) This title shall cease to be in effect and any agencies established hereunder
shall cease to exist at the expiration of 2 years after the date of enactment of
this act, or sooner if the President shall by proclamation or the Congress shall by
joint resolution declare that the emergency recognized by section 1 has ended.
Sec . 3. C od es o f f a i r co m p etitio n . — (a) Upon the application to the President
by one or more trade or industrial associations or groups, the President may
approve a code or codes of fair competition for the trade or industry or sub­
division thereof, represented by the applicant or applicants, if the President
finds (1) that such associations or groups impose no inequitable restrictions on
admission to membership therein and are truly representative of such trades or
industries or subdivisions thereof, and (2) that such code or codes are not designed
to promote monopolies or to eliminate or oppress small enterprises and will not
operate to discriminate against them, and will tend to effectuate the policy of this
title: P r o v id e d , That such code or codes shall not permit monopolies or monopo­
listic practices: P ro v id ed fu rth e r, That where such code or codes affect the services
and welfare of persons engaged in other steps of the economic process, nothing in
this section shall deprive such persons of the right to be heard prior to approval by
the President of such code or codes. The President may, as a condition of his
approval of any such code, impose such conditions (including requirements for
the making of reports and the keeping of accounts) for the protection of consumers,
competitors, employees, and others, and in furtherance of the public interest, and
may provide such exceptions to and exemptions from the provisions of such code,
as the President in his discretion deems necessary to effectuate the policy herein
declared.
(b) After the President shall have approved any such code, the provisions
of such code shall be the standards of fair competition for such trade or industry
or subdivision thereof. Any violation of such standards in any transaction in or




NATIONAL INDUSTRIAL RECOVERY ACT

493

affecting interstate or foreign commerce shall be deemed an unfair method of
competition in commerce within the meaning of the Federal Trade Commission
Act, as amended; but nothing in this title shall be construed to impair the powers
of the Federal Trade Commission under such act, as amended.
(c) The several district courts of the United States are hereby invested with
jurisdiction to present and restrain violations of any code of fair competition
approved under this title; and it shall be the duty of the several district attorneys
of the United States, in their respective districts, under the direction of the
Attorney General, to institute proceedings in equity to prevent and restrain such
violations.
(d) Upon his own motion, or if complaint is made to the President that abuses
inimical to the public interest, and contrary to the policy herein declared are
prevalent in any trade or industry or subdivision thereof, and if no code of fair
competition therefor has theretofore been approved by the President, the Presi­
dent, after such public notice and hearing as he shall specify, may prescribe and
approve a code of fair competition for such trade or industry or subdivision
thereof, which shall have the same effect as a code of fair competition approved
by the President under subsection (a) of this section.
(e) On his own motion, or if any labor organization, or any trade or industrial
organization, association, or group, which has complied with the provisions of this
title, shall make complaint to the President that any article or articles are being
imported into the United States in substantial quantities or increasing ratio to
domestic production of any competitive article or articles and on such terms or
under such conditions as to render ineffective or seriously to endanger the main­
tenance of any code or agreement under this title, the President may cause an
immediate investigation to be made by the United States Tariff Commission,
which shall give precedence to investigations under this subsection, and if, after
such investigation and such public notice and hearing as he shall specify, the
President shall find the existence of such facts, he shall, in order to effectuate the
policy of this title, direct that the article or articles concerned shall be permitted
entry into the United States only upon such terms and conditions and subject to
the payment of such fees and to such limitations in the total quantity which may
be imported (in the course of any specified period or periods) as he shall find it
necessary to prescribe in order that the entry thereof shall not render or tend
to render ineffective any code or agreement made under this title. In order to
enforce any limitations imposed on the total quantity of imports in any specified
period or periods, of any article or articles under this subsection, the President
may forbid the importation of such article or articles unless the importer shall have
first obtained from the Secretary of the Treasury a license pursuant to such regu­
lations as the President may prescribe. Upon information of any action by the
President under this subsection the Secretary of the Treasury shall, through the
proper officers, permit entry of the article or articles specified only upon such
terms and conditions and subject to such fees, to such limitations in the quantity
which may be imported, and to such requirements of license, as the President
shall have directed. The decision of the President as to facts shall be conclusive.
Any condition or limitation of entry under this subsection shall continue in effect
until the President shall find and inform the Secretary of the Treasury that the
conditions which led to the imposition of such condition or limitation upon entry
no longer exists.
(f) When a code of fair competition has been approved, or prescribed by the
President under this title, any violation of any provision thereof in any trans­
action in or affecting interstate or foreign commerce shall be a misdemeanor and
upon conviction thereof an offender shall be fined not more than $500 for each
offense, and each day such violation continues shall be deemed a separate offense.
Sec . 4. A g re em en ts and licen ses. — (a) The President is authorized to enter
into agreements with, and to approve voluntary agreements between and among,
persons engaged in a trade or industry, labor organizations, and trade or indus­
trial organizations, associations, or groups, relating to any trade or industry, if
in his judgment such agreements will aid in effectuating the policy of this title
with respect to transactions in or affecting interstate or foreign commerce, and
will be consistent with the requirements of clause (2) of subsection (a) of section 3
for a code of fair competition.
(b) Whenever the President shall find that destructive wage or price cutting
or other activities contrary to the policy of this title are being practiced in any
trade or industry or any subdivision thereof, and, after such public notice and
hearing as he shall specify, shall find it essential to license business enterprises
in order to make effective a code of fair competition or an agreement under this




494

N. R. A.— LABOR ASPECTS

title or otherwise to effectuate the policy of this title, and shall publicly so an­
nounce, no person shall, after a date fixed in such announcement, engage in or
carry on any business, in or affecting interstate or foreign commerce, specified
in such announcement, unless he shall have first obtained a license issued pur­
suant to such regulations as the President shall prescribe. The President may
suspend or revoke any such license, after due notice and opportunity for hearing,
for violations of the terms or conditions thereof. Any order of the President
suspending or revoking any such license shall be final if in accordance with law.
Any person who, without such a license or in violation of any condition thereof,
carries on any such business for which a license is so required, shall, upon convic­
tion thereof, be fined not more than $500, or imprisoned not more than six months,
or both, and each day such violation continues shall be deemed a separate offense.
Notwithstanding the provisions of section 2 (c), this subsection shall cease to be
in effect at the expiration of 1 year after the date of enactment of this act or
sooner if the President shall by proclamation or the Congress shall by joint reso­
lution declare that the emergency recognized by section 1 has ended.
Sec . 5. S u s p e n s io n o f antitrust law s.— While this title is in effect (or in the
case of a license, while section 4 (a) is in effect) and for 60 days thereafter, any
code, agreement, or license approved, prescribed, or issued and in effect under
this title, and any action complying with the provisions thereof taken during such
period, shall be exempt from the provisions of the antitrust laws of the United
States.
Nothing in this act, and no regulation thereunder, shall prevent an individual
from pursuing the vocation of manual labor and selling or trading the products
thereof; nor shall anything in this act, or regulation thereunder, prevent anyone
from marketing or trading the produce of his farm.
Sec . 6. L im ita tio n s u p o n a p p lica tio n o f title.— (a) No trade or industrial asso­
ciation or group shall be eligible to receive the benefit of the provisions of this
title until it files with the President a statement containing such information
relating to the activities of the association or group as the President shall by
regulation prescribe.
(b) The President is authorized to prescribe rules and regulations designed to
insure that any organization availing itself of the benefits of this title shall be
truly representative of the trade or industry or subdivision thereof represented
by such organization. Any organization violating any such rule or regulation
shall cease to be entitled to the benefits of this title.
(c) Upon the request of the President, the Federal Trade Commission shall
make such investigations as may be necessary to enable the President to carry
out the provisions of this title, and for such purposes the Commission shall have
all the powers vested in it with respect of investigations under the Federal Trade
Commission Act, as amended.
Sec . 7. C o n d itio n s , etc .; lim ited code p rescribed .— (a) Every code of fair com­
petition, agreement, and license approved, prescribed, or issued under this title
shall contain the following conditions: (1) That employees shall have the right
to organize and bargain collectively through representatives of their own choosing,
and shall be free from the interference, restraint, or coercion of employers of
labor, or their agents, in the designation of such representatives or in self­
organization or in other concerted activities for the purpose of collective bar­
gaining or other mutual aid or protection; (2) that no employee and no one
seeking employment shall be required as a condition of employment to join any
company union or to refrain from joining, organizing, or assisting a labor organi­
zation of his own choosing; and (3) that employers shall comply with the maxi­
mum hours of labor, minimum rates of pay, and other conditions of employment,
approved or prescribed by the President.
(b) The President shall, so far as practicable afford every opportunity to
employers and employees in any trade or industry or subdivision thereof with
respect to which the conditions referred to in clauses (1) and (2) of subsection (a)
prevail, to establish by mutual agreement, the standards as to the maximum
hours of labor, minimum rates of pay, and such other conditions of employment
as may be necessary in such trade or industry or subdivision t ereof to effectuate
the policy of this title; and the standards established in such agreements, when
approved by the President, shall have the same effect as a code of fair competition,
approved by the President under subsection (a) of section 3.
(c) Where no such mutual agreement has been approved by the President, he
may investigate the labor practices, policies, wages, hours of labor, and con­
ditions of employment in such trade or industry or subdivision thereof; and upon
the basis of such investigations, and after such hearings as the President finds
advisable, he is authorized to prescribe a limited code of fair competition fixing




NATIONAL INDUSTRIAL RECOVERY ACT

495

such maximum hours of labor, minimum rates of pay, and other conditions of
employment in the trade or industry or subdivision thereof investigated as he
finds to be necessary to effectuate the policy of this title, which shall have the
same effect as a code of fair competition approved by the President under sub­
section (a) of section 3. The President may differentiate according to experience
and skill of the employees affected and according to the locality of employment;
but no attempt shall be made to introduce any classification according to the
nature of the work involved which might tend to set a maximum as well as a
minimum wage.
(d)
As used in this title, the term “ person” includes any individual, partner­
ship, association, trust, or corporation; and the terms “ interstate and foreign
commerce” and “ interstate or foreign commerce” include, except where other­
wise indicated, trade or commerce among the several States and with foreign
nations, or between the District of Columbia or any Territory of the United
States and any State, Territory, or foreign nation, or between any insular posses­
sions or other places under the jurisdiction of the United States, or between any
such possession or place and any State or Territory of the United States or the
District of Columbia or any foreign nation, or within the District of Columbia or
any Territory or any insular possession or other place under the jurisdiction of
the United States.
Sec. 8. A p p lic a tio n o f A g ric u ltu r a l A d ju s tm e n t A c t . — (a) This title shall not be
construed to repeal or modify any of the provisions of title I of the act entitled
“ An act to relieve the existing national economic emergency by increasing agri­
cultural purchasing power, to raise revenue for extraordinary expenses incurred
by reason of such emergency, to provide emergency relief with respect to agri­
cultural indebtedness, to provide for the orderly liquidation of joint-stock land
banks, and for other purposes” , approved May 12, 1933; and such title I of said
act approved May 12, 1933, may for all purposes be hereafter referred to as the
“ Agricultural Adjustment A ct.”
(b)
The President may, in his discretion, in order to avoid conflicts in the
administration of the Agricultural Adjustment Act and this title, delegate any
of his functions and powers under this title with respect to trades, industries, or
subdivisions thereof which are engaged in the handling of any agricultural com­
modity or product thereof, or of any competing commodity or product thereof,
to the Secretary of Agriculture.
S e c . 9. O il regu la tion . — (a) The President is further authorized to initiate
before the Interstate Commerce Commission proceedings necessary to prescribe
regulations to control the operations of oil pipe lines and to fix reasonable, com­
pensatory rates for the transportation of petroleum and its products by pipe
lines, and the Interstate Commerce Commission shall grant preference to the
hearings and determination of such cases.
(b) The President is authorized to institute proceedings to divorce from any
holding company any pipe-line company controlled by such holding company
which pipe-line company by unfair practices or by exorbitant rates in the trans­
portation of petroleum or its products tends to create a monopoly.
(c) The President is authorized to prohibit the transportation in interstate
and foreign commerce of petroleum and the products thereof produced or with­
drawn from storage in excess of the amount permitted to be produced or with­
drawn from storage by any State law or valid regulation or order prescribed
thereunder, by any board, commission, officer, or other duly authorized agency
of a State. Any violation of any order of the President issued under the pro­
visions of this subsection shall be punishable by fine of not to exceed $1,000, or
imprisonment for not to exceed 6 months, or both.
S e c . 10. R u le s a nd regu la tion s. — (a) The President is authorized to prescribe
such rules and regulations as may be necessary to carry out the purposes of this
title, and fees for licenses and for filing codes of fair competition and agreements,
and any violation of any such rule or regulation shall be punishable by fine of
not to exceed $500, or imprisonment for not to exceed 6 months, or both.
(b) The President may from time to time cancel or modify any order, approval,
license, rule, or regulation issued under this title; and each agreement, code of
fair competition, or license approved, prescribed, or issued under this title shall
contain an express provision to that effect.

Labor provisions regarding construction under title I I .—The launching
of a $3,300,000,000 construction program and the appointment of an
administrator were provided for under title II of the act. The con­
templated projects under the program of public works included public




496

N. R. A.— LABOR ASPECTS

highways and buildings, conservation and development of natural
resources, projects carried on by public authority or with public aid
to serve the interests of the general public, and construction, etc.
(under public regulation), of low-cost housing and slum-clearance
projects.
Provisions of title II of particular interest to labor were those
relating to the establishment of minimum rates in contracts and bids
for Federal-aid highway projects, such rates to be predetermined by
the State highway department. All contracts let for construction
projects were required to contain provisions—
* * * (1) that no convict labor shall be employed on any such project; (2)
that (except in executive, administrative, and supervisory positions), so far as
practicable and feasible, no individual directly employed on any such project
shall be permitted to work more than 30 hours in any 1 week; (3) that all employees
shall be paid just and reasonable wages, which shall be compensation sufficient
to provide, for the hours of labor as limited, a standard of living in decency and
comfort; (4) that in the employment of labor in connection with any such project,
preference shall be given, where they are qualified, to ex-service men with
dependents and then in the following order: (A) To citizens of the United States
and aliens who have declared their intention of becoming citizens, who are bona
fide residents of the political subdivision and/or county in which the work is
to be performed, and (B) to citizens of the United States and aliens who have
declared their intention of becoming citizens, who are bona fide residents of the
State, Territory, or District in which the work is to be performed: P r o v id e d , That
these preferences shall apply only where such, labor is available and qualified to
perform the work to which the employment relates; and (5) that the maximum of
human labor shall be used in lieu of machinery wherever practicable and con­
sistent with sound economy and public advantage.

In requesting the passage of the industrial recovery legislation by
Congress the President in his message of May 17, 1933, stated:
M y first request is that (I) the Congress provide for the machinery necessary
for a great cooperative movement throughout all industry in order to obtain
wide reemployment, to shorten the work week, to pay a decent wage for the
shorter week and to prevent unfair competition and disastrous overproduction.
Employers cannot do this singly or even in organized groups, because such
action increases costs and thus permits cutthroat underselling by selfish competi­
tors unwilling to join in such a public-spirited endeavor.
One of the great restrictions upon such cooperative efforts up to this time has
been our antitrust laws. They were properly designed as the means to cure the
great evils of monopolistic price fixing. They should certainly be retained as a
permanent assurance that the old evils of unfair competition shall never return.
But the public interest will be served if, with the authority and under the guid­
ance of government, private industries are permitted to make agreements and
codes insuring fair competition. However, it is necessary, if we thus limit the
operation of antitrust laws to their original purpose, to provide a rigorous licensing
power in order to meet rare cases of noncooperation and abuse. Such a safeguard
is indispensable.

Industrial coverage of title I .—The National Industrial Recovery
Act did not list the specific industries and trades to be placed under
codes except that provision was made for avoidance of any conflict
that might arise between this act and the Agricultural Adjustment
Act enacted a month earlier, May 12, 1933. The National Recovery
Administration in putting the act into effect, proceeded on the theory
that all industry and trade, including public utilities and communi­
cations, should be made subject to codes. Motor transportation and
transit fines were regarded as within this jurisdiction but railroad
transportation was not included, on the assumption that all questions
dealing with the railroads should properly be handled by the Federal
Coordinator of Transportation designated under the Emergency Rail­
road Transportation Act, 1933, as the agent “ to investigate and




NATIONAL INDUSTRIAL RECOVERY ACT

497

consider means, * * * of improving transportation conditions
* * * the stability of railroad labor employment and other im­
provement of railroad labor conditions and relations * *
To avoid conflict between the Recovery Act and the Agricultural
Adjustment Act the President was authorized to delegate to the
Secretary of Agriculture any of his functions under the National
Industrial Recovery Act with respect to trades or industries engaged
in handling any agricultural commodity, an authorization of which
the President availed himself. Under the two acts it was the purpose
to do for agriculture what the National Industrial Recovery Act alone
was designed to accomplish for industry. Code making, with the
establishment of minimum standards for working conditions, the
right of employer and labor groups to act together, and the control of
unfair competitive practices, was open to agriculture and industry
alike.
According to the Agricultural Adjustment Act the term “ basic
agricultural commodity ” means wheat, cotton, tobacco, and milk and
its products, and any regional or market classification, type, or grade
thereof. The right was reserved to the Secretary of Agriculture to
exclude from the provisions any such commodity, or classification,
type, or grade thereof, if he should find after proper investigation and
hearing that the provisions in that regard could not be effectively
administered for any period.
During the early months of operation of these two acts the responsi­
bility for codes of fair competition for all agricultural commodities
was jointly held by the Secretary of Agriculture and the Adminis­
trator for Industrial Recovery with both officials submitting reports
to the President endorsing the code presented for his approval.
Hearings as to the labor provisions of such codes were held by the
National Recovery Administration in accordance with the standards
laid down in the original legislation.
The President in a formal pronouncement made changes in the
jurisdiction over agricultural codes (Executive order, Jan. 8, 1934).
Under this order certain codes were to remain under joint jurisdiction
of the Agricultural Adjustment Administration and the National
Recovery Administration; others were transferred in their entirety to
the National Recovery Administration but with the Secretary of
Agriculture giving written approval of trade practice and related
provisions; and others were transferred to the National Recovery
Administration without restriction.
The National Recovery Administration listed, in a release of
January 9, 1934, the following codes which were to be retained by the
Agricultural Adjustment Administration and the National Recovery
Administration jointly:
Anticholera hog serum.
Butter.
Cheese.
Cigarette manufacturers.
Corn millers.
Corn products.
Cotton exchange, New York.
Cotton exchange, New Orleans.
Cotton traders.
Cottonseed crushing.
Cottonseed-oil refining.
1 9 2 0 5 — 36------- 33




- -Egg and poultry.
Feed, hay, and straw distributors.
Feed manufacturers.
Fruits and vegetables, fresh.
Grain, country elevators.
Grain exchanges.
Grain, flour milling.
Grain, terminal elevators.
Hog exchanges.
Ice cream.
Linseed oil.

498

N. R. A.— LABOR ASPECTS

Livestock marketing agency industry.
Maltsters.
Meat packers.
Milk, evaporated.
Milk, fluid.
Naval stores.
Oleomargarine.
Poultry breeders.
Rice.
Stockyards operators.

Sugar exchanges.
Sugar (beet) producing.
Sugar refining.
Tobacco, cigar manufacturing.
Tobacco leaf dealers.
Warehouse, cotton.
Warehouse, refrigerated.
Warehouse, rice.
Warehouse, tobacco.
Warehouse, wool and mohair.

Codes to be transferred to the National Recovery Administration
but for which the Agricultural Adjustment Administration was to give
approval of trade-practice provisions, etc., were:
Beans (dried), shippers.
Brooms, manufacturing.
Canners.
Feed, retail.
Florists.
Hides and skins, dealers.
Peanuts, millers.
Pecan distributors.
Pecan shellers.

Pickle packing.
Pop-corn manufacturing.
Potato-chip manufacturing.
Preserves.
Rendering.
Seed producing and shippers.
Soybean-oil ^manufacturing.
Vinegar manufacturing.

Codes to be handled in their entirety by the National Recovery
Administration included all those not falling in the foregoing classes.
The National Recovery Administration and the insular possessions .—
According to a ruling rendered by the Attorney General of the United
States on December 2, 1933, the Philippine Islands were declared
not to fall under the provisions of the National Industrial Recovery
Act, but goods imported from the Philippine Islands into the United
States were subject to the import provisions in section 3 (e) of the act.
By an order of the National Recovery Administration, issued in
July 1934, the way was prepared for industries and trades in Hawaii
and Puerto Rico to enter into agreement with the Administrator,
much as industry within the United States was blanketed under the
President’s Reemployment Agreement pending adoption of individual
codes. The same order fixed the effective dates of codes in Hawaii
and Puerto Rico and provided for modifications of codes, the applica­
tion of which might result in inequities in these Territories.
The order read as follows:
(1) Trades and industries in Hawaii and Puerto Rico are exempted until
September 1 from codes heretofore approved. They are exempted from codes
hereafter approved for a period of 6 weeks following the approval dates. Such
exemptions may be terminated or extended for a trade or industry as hereafter
provided or as the deputy administrator for such Territory shall order.
(2) This order shall not affect (a) exceptions or exemptions heretofore or
hereafter granted a specified trade, industry, person or persons, and (b) any
code or modification of a code for a trade or industry or subdivision thereof in
Hawaii or Puerto Rico.
(3) At any time before the expiration of an exemption under paragraph (1) of
this order application may be made by trade or industrial associations or groups
in Hawaii or Puerto Rico for (a) modification of such code in its application to
such Territory or (b) the approval of a separate code for such trade or industry
in such Territory.
(4) At any time before the expiration of an exemption under paragraph (1)
any person directly affected and claiming application of the code in the Territory
will be unjust to him * * * may be given an opportunity for a hearing
* * * and application of the code for the Territory may be stayed, if justice
requires, for all similarly affected, pending determination of the issue.
(5) An exemption under paragraph (1) shall, if the deputy administrator for
the Territory shall so order for a trade or industry in that Territory, have effect
only as to those who enter into an agreement (somewhat similar to the President’ s
Reemployment Agreement) with the Administrator.




PRESID EN T'S REEMPLOYMENT AGREEMENT

499

(6)
Persons participating in any application provided for in paragraphs (3)
or (4) of this order who require N. R. A. labels before such labels can be issued
under a code of fair competition * * * shall be entitled to such labels if
they have entered into and are complying with such an agreement. They may
obtain such labels from the code authority concerned or from the deputy admin­
istrator for Hawaii or for Puerto Rico. These administrators are hereby au­
thorized to issue such labels. Those for Hawaii shall be marked “ H ” and those
for Puerto Rico, “ P R .”

Extension of N a tio n a l In d u s tria l Recovery A c t
F o l l o w i n g the action of the Supreme Court terminating the code­
making powers of the President certain provisions of title I of the
Recovery Act were extended until April 1, 1936. This was provided
for by Public Resolution No. 26, Seventy-fourth Congress (S. J.
Res. 113), adopted on June 14, 1935, or 2 days before the Recovery
Act would otherwise have expired. The resolution reads:
Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives o f the United States of America
in Congress assembled, That section 2 (c) of title I of the National Industrial

Recovery Act is amended by striking out “ at the expiration of 2 years after the
date of enactment of this act” and inserting in lieu thereof “ on April 1, 1936.”
S e c t i o n 2. All the provisions of title I of such act delegating power to the
President to approve or prescribe codes of fair competition and providing for the
enforcement of such codes are hereby repealed: Provided , That the exemption
provided in section 5 of such title shall extend only to agreements and action
thereunder (1) putting into effect the requirements of section 7 (a) including
minimum wages, maximum hours, and prohibition of child labor; and (2) pro­
hibiting unfair competitive practices which offend against existing law, including
the antitrust laws, or which constitute unfair methods of competition under the
Federal Trade Commission Act, as amended.

The President’s Reemployment Agreement
IT was
speed
placing industry under
A S codes wasearly recognized thatand thatinthe drafting of individual
extremely desirable
l

codes, with the necessary public hearings, etc., would take con­
siderable time, the President, in July 1933, decided to ask employers
of the country generally to agree to adopt a temporary schedule of
minimum wages and maximum weekly hours pending adoption of
regular codes for their particular industries. Accordingly, an agree­
ment designated as the “ President’s Reemployment Agreement”
(popularly referred to as the “ blanket code” ) was drawn up and
sent to employers requesting voluntary cooperation in the movement
to put men to work and increase earnings. The original agreement
became effective September 1, 1933, and expired on December 31,
but the President invited employers to enter into a further agree­
ment, under the then existing terms, for an additional 4-month period,
from January 1 to April 30, 1934. Thereupon, such employers as
were not under codes were invited to continue under the President’s
Agreement until codification of their industries should take place.




500

N. R. A .— LABOR ASPECTS

The text of the Reemployment Agreement follows:
P r e s id e n t ’ s R

eem ploym ent

A

greem ent

(Authorized by section 4 (a), National Industrial Recovery Act)

During the period of the President’s emergency reemployment drive, that is
to say, from August 1 to December 31, 1933, or to any earlier date of approval
of a code of fair competition to which he is subject, the undersigned hereby agrees
with the President as follows:
(1) After August 31, 1933, not to employ any person under 16 years of age,
except that persons between 14 and 16 may be employed (but not in manufac­
turing or mechanical industries) for not to exceed 3 hours per day and those
hours between 7 a. m. and 7 p. m. in such work as will not interfere with hours
of day school.
(2) Not to work any accounting, clerical, banking, office, service, or sales
employees (except outside salesmen) in any store, office, department, establish­
ment, or public utility, or on any automotive or horse-drawn passenger, express,
delivery, or freight service, or in any other place or manner, for more than 40
hours in any 1 week and not to reduce the hours of any store or service operation
to below 52 hours in any 1 week, unless such hours were less than 52 hours per
week before July 1, 1933, and in the latter case not to reduce such hours at all.
(3) Not to employ any factory or mechanical worker or artisan more than a
maximum week of 35 hours until December 31, 1933, but with the right to work
a maximum week of 40 hours for any 6 weeks within this period; and not to employ
any worker more than 8 hours in any 1 day.
(4) The maximum hours fixed in the foregoing paragraphs (2) and (3) shall
not apply to employees in establishments employing not more than two persons
in towns of less than 2,500 population, which towns are not part of a larger trade
area; nor to registered pharmacists or other professional persons employed in
their profession; nor to employees in a managerial or executive capacity, who
now receive more than $35 per week; nor to employees on emergency mainte­
nance and repair work; nor to very special cases where restrictions of hours of
highly skilled workers on continuous processes would unavoidably reduce pro­
duction but, in any such special case, at least time and one-third shall be paid
for hours worked in excess of the maximum. Population for the purposes of
this agreement shall be determined by reference to the 1930 Federal census.
(5) Not to pay any of the classes of employees mentioned in paragraph (2)
less than $15 per week in any city of over 500,000 population, or in the immediate
trade area of such city; nor less than $14.50 per week in any city of* between
250,000 and 500,000 population, or in the immediate trade area of such city;
nor less than $14 per week in any city of between 2,500 and 250,000 population,
or in the immediate trade area of such city; and in towns of less than 2,500
population to increase all wages by not less than 20 percent, provided that this
shall not require wages in excess of $12 per week.
(6) Not to pay any employee of the classes mentioned in paragraph (3) less
than 40 cents per hour unless the hourly rate for the same class of work on July
15, 1929, was less than 40 cents per hour, in which latter case not to pay less than
the hourly rate on July 15, 1929, and in no event less than 30 cents per hour.
It is agreed that this paragraph establishes a guaranteed minimum rate of pay
regardless of whether the employee is compensated on the basis of a time rate
or on a piecework performance.
(7) Not to reduce the compensation for employment now in excess of the
minimum wages hereby agreed to (notwithstanding that the hours worked in
such employment may be hereby reduced) and to increase the pay for such
employment by an equitable readjustment of all pay schedules.
(8) Not to use any subterfuge to frustrate the spirit and intent of this agree­
ment which is, among other things, to increase employment by a universal
covenant, to remove obstructions to commerce, and to shorten hours and to raise
wages for the shorter week to a living basis.
(9) Not to increase the price of any merchandise sold after the date hereof
over the price on July 1,1933, by more than is made necessary by actual increases
in production, replacement, or invoice costs of merchandise, or by taxes or other
costs resulting from action taken pursuant to the Agricultural Adjustment Act,
since July 1, 1933, and, in setting such price increases, to give full weight to
probable increases in sales volume and to refrain from taking profiteering advan­
tage of the consuming public.




PRESIDENT'S REEMPLOYMENT AGREEMENT

501

(10) To support and patronize establishments which also have signed this
agreement and are listed as members of N. R. A. (National Recovery Adminis­
tration) .
(11) To cooperate to the fullest extent in having a code of fair competition
submitted by his industry at the earliest possible date, and in any event before
September 1, 1933.
(12) Where, before June 16, 1933, the undersigned had contracted to purchase
goods at a fixed price for delivery during the period of this agreement, the under­
signed will make an appropriate adjustment of said fixed price to meet any
increase in cost caused by the seller having signed this President's Reemployment
Agreement or having become bound by any code of fair competition approved
by the President.
(13) This agreement shall cease upon approval by the President of a code to
which the undersigned is subject; or, if the N. R. A. so elects, upon submission
of a code to which the undersigned is subject and substitution of any of its pro­
visions for any of the terms of this agreement.
(14) It is agreed that any person who wishes to do his part in the President's
reemployment drive by signing this agreement, but who asserts that some par­
ticular provision hereof, because of peculiar circumstances, will create great and
unavoidable hardship, may obtain the benefits hereof by signing this agreement
and putting it into effect and then, in a petition approved by a representative
trade association of his industry, or other representative organization designated
by N. R. A., may apply for a stay of such provision pending a summary investi­
gation by N. R. A., if he agrees in such application to abide by the decision of
such investigation. This agreement is entered into pursuant to section 4 (a) of
the National Industrial Recovery Act and subject to all the terms and conditions
required by sections 7 (a) and 10 (b) of that act.

M odifications of th e President’s R e e m p lo ym e n t A gree m e nt
C e r t a i n modifications were made from time to time in the terms of
the original Reemployment Agreement, the more important ones
being as follows:
Limitation of hours of labor of factory workers to 8 5 per week .—In
the original agreement workers could be employed for a maximum of
40 hours during 6 weeks prior to the close of the year 1933. An
Executive order of October 1, 1933, modified this section to read:

(3) Not to employ any factory or mechanical worker or artisan more than a
maximum week of 35 hours until December 31, 1633; and not to employ any
worker more than 8 hours in any 1 day.

Application of agreement in small establishments and small towns.—
In the President’s order of October 23, 1933, application of the Re­
employment Agreement, and of codes as well, in small establishments
and small towns was changed in the following particulars:
The provisions of the President’s Reemployment Agreement, issued July 27,
1933, shall not be held to apply to employers engaged only locally in retail trade,
or in local service industries (and not in a business in or affecting interstate com­
merce) who do not employ more than 5 persons and who are located in towns of
less than 2,500 population (according to the 1930 Federal census) which are not
in the immediate trade area of a city of larger population, except so far as such
employers who have signed the President's Reemployment Agreement desire
to continue to comply with the terms of said agreement after the date of this
order; and this release of such employers who have heretofore signed the Presi­
dent’s Reemployment Agreement shall be further extended so as to release to the
same extent all such employers of obligations not voluntarily assumed under the
provisions of a code of fair competition approved by the President. This exemp­
tion is intended to relieve small business enterprises in small towns from fixed
obligations which might impose exceptional hardship, but it is expected that all
such enterprises will conform to the fullest extent possible with the requirements
which would be otherwise obligatory upon them.

Overtime work.—The maximum-hours provisions of the President’s
Reemployment Agreement were modified to permit the necessary




502

N. E . A .— LABOR ASPECTS

overtime work during 2 consecutive weeks in connection with year-end
inventories, provided one and one-half times the regular hourly rate
was paid for hours exceeding the daily and weekly maximums. This
modification was ordered on December 18, 1933, by the Adminis­
trator on recommendation of the Compliance Board, this body
pointing out that provision for taking inventories provided under the
codes was not made a part of the original Reemployment Agreement.
Definitions of “ executives” and “ managers ”—In order to prevent
evasions and the giving of meaningless titles to minor employees to
exempt them from the hours provisions under the President’s Re­
employment Agreement and modifications thereof, the Administrator
made the following statement defining “ manager” and “ executive” :
In the President’s Reemployment Agreement it is provided that the maximum
hours shall not apply “ to employees in a managerial or executive capacity who
now receive more than $35 per week.”
There are provisions in various codes excepting from the limitation upon hours
of those described as “ managers” or “ executives” and complaint has been
received that in many instances employees are classified as “ managers” or
“ executives” either for the purpose, or with the result, of exempting them from
limitations upon hours. It has not been the intention of the Administration in
approving such exceptions to provide for the exemption of any persons other than
those who exercise real managerial or executive authority, which persons are
invested with responsibilities entirely different from those of the wage earner and
come within the class of the higher salaried employees.
It will be presumed that no employee receiving less than $35 per week will be
classified as a “ manager” or “ executive” so as to be exempt from any provision
of any code regulating the maximum hours of work permitted in a trade or indus­
try. Violations of the requirements of any code, as here interpreted, should be
reported to the National Recovery Administration.

Substandard workers .—Exemption of physically or mentally defec­
tive workers from the minimum wage provisions of the Reemploy­
ment Agreement was permitted under prescribed conditions:
A person whose earning power is limited because of physical or mental defect,
age, or other infirmity, may be employed on light duty below the minimum wage
set by the President’ s Agreement, if the employer obtains from the State authority
designated by the United States Department of Labor a certificate authorizing
his employment at such wages and for such hours as shall be stated in the certifi­
cate. State authorities will be guided by the instructions of the United States
Department of Labor in issuing certificates to such persons.

Substitutions allowed fo r individual industries and firm s. —In connec­
tion with the President’s Reemployment Agreement, whereby em­
ployers voluntarily agreed to abide by certain fixed minimum wages
and maximum hours pending adoption of specific codes for their
respective industries, the policy was adopted of permitting certain
substitutions in the labor provisions adopted. Early action to obtain
such substitutions was taken in the textile industries, many of which
were brought under the labor provisions of the cotton-textile code by
Executive order, pending the adoption of their own codes. A large
group of additional industries applied and received authorization to
operate under the wages and hours provisions of codes filed with the
National Recovery Administration but which had not been approved.
In certain cases, also, individual firms were granted certain “ pro­
visional” exemptions when it was felt that full compliance would
work undue hardship.
Agreements not superseded.—Where contractual relations existed it
was ruled that the President’s Reemployment Agreement would not
supersede the provisions as to wages and hours mutually agreed to by
employers and employees through collective bargaining.




N. R. A .— LABOR ASPECTS

503

Organization and Procedure of the National Recovery
Administration

W

ITH the signing of the Recovery Act the President named
Hugh S. Johnson as National Recovery Administrator. A
Special Industrial Recovery Board was also appointed under the
chairmanship of the Secretary of Commerce and having as members
the Attorney General, the Secretaries of the Interior, Agriculture, and
Labor, arid the Chairman of the Federal Trade Commission, a body
whose functions and personnel were taken over by the National
Emergency Council on December 19, 1933. Three special advisory
boards were established—i. e., a Labor Advisory Board appointed by
the Secretary of Labor, an Industrial Advisory Board appointed by
the Secretary of Commerce, and a Consumers’ Advisory Board—to
act in an advisory capacity to the Administrator and his assistants
and to see that the respective groups so represented should be heard
in deliberations of the National Recovery Administration through
representatives of their own choosing. A National Recovery Review
Board was added subsequently to advise on matters affecting small
industries. This Board was replaced by the Industrial Appeals
Board on July 14, 1934, created to hear complaints against codes
and to protect small businesses (see p. 535).
Starting with this nucleus, a working organization was evolved, with
the Administrator acting as the immediate agent of the President, but
with the power to approve codes or modify existing code provisions
concentrated in the President’s hands. This procedure was later
altered somewhat, the President, by Executive order of December 30,
1933, empowering the Administrator to approve codes for industries
with 50,000 or fewer employees and also to approve any amendment
or modification of existing code provisions. In turn the Administrator
early in April 1934 delegated these powers to a subordinate adminis­
trative officer who was authorized to act on all matters not requiring
the personal attention of the Administrator.
The organization outlined above remained unchanged until Sep­
tember 1934, when General Johnson resigned and a board system of
administration was established. This action was taken by the Presi­
dent in Executive orders of September 27, 1934. By these orders two
committees to direct future progress of recovery measures were named.
The Industrial Emergency Committee, originally created on June 30,
1934, was given duties in connection with the coordination of relief
measures, public works, and labor disputes, and the determination of
administrative policies in connection with the National Industrial
Recovery Act.
Members of the Industrial Emergency Committee were designated
as follows: The Secretary of the Interior, the Secretary of Labor, the
Chairman of the National Industrial Recovery Board, the Adminis­
trator of Agricultural Adjustment, the Administrator of Federal
Emergency Relief, and the director who served the Industrial Emer­
gency Committee prior to its reorganization, Donald R. Richberg.
The National Industrial Recovery Board was authorized to admin­
ister title I of the Recovery Act. This board took over the duties of
the National Recovery Administrator.
The National Industrial Recovery Board was originally made up
of five members: S. Clay Williams, former president of the Reynolds




504

N. R. A.— LABOR ASPECTS

Tobacco Co.; Arthur D. Whiteside, president of Dun & Bradstreet,
Inc.; Sidney Hillman, president of the Amalgamated Clothing
Workers; Leon C. Marshall, former college professor and labor
specialist; and Walton H. Hamilton, professor of constitutional law
at Yale University. The Board was empowered to elect a chairman
and executive secretary from its membership, both of whom were to
serve at the pleasure of the Board. The legal adviser and the
economic adviser were named ex-officio members of the Board.
The President reconstituted the National Industrial Recovery
Board on March 21, 1935, when he named one additional representa­
tive each of employers and employees to serve and appointed Donald
R. Richberg as a member and acting chairman to fill the vacancy
created by the resignation of S. Clay Williams on March 22. The
following members were continued: A. D. Whiteside, Sidney Hillman,
Leon C. Marshall, and Walton Hamilton. In addition to Mr. Rich­
berg, the new appointees were William P. Witherow and Philip
Murray. By this action the President enlarged the regular member­
ship of the Board and discontinued the two ex-officio members named
in the original order which placed the administration of the National
Industrial Recovery Act under a board instead of a single adminis­
trator. The ex-officio members previously joining in the Board’s
deliberations were the economic and legal advisers of the National
Recovery Administration.
B y Executive Order No. 7075 of June 15, 1935, the National Recov­
ery Administration was reorganized and the Board terminated in
pursuance of the provisions of the Recovery Act and the joint resolu­
tion amending it. The Office of Administrator was again created in
connection with the continuance of the administration of title I of
the Recovery Act. James L. O’Neill was named Acting Administra­
tor and the powers previously accorded the Board were conferred
upon him. At the same time the Division of Review was established
to analyze the experience under codes; the Division of Business Coop­
eration was formed as an aid to maintenance of standards of fair
competition; and the Advisory Council— composed of Charles Edison,
Howell Cheney, Philip Murray, William Green, Emily Newell Blair,
and Walton H. Hamilton—was provided.
The offices were later supplemented when the President re-created
the Office of Adviser on Consumers’ Problems by order of July 30,
1935, made the adviser a member of the National Emergency Council,
and named Walton H. Hamilton to the office; and on September 26,
when the Office of Coordinator for Industrial Cooperation was created
and George L. Berry appointed for the position by the terms of the
order. The duties of the Coordinator were described as including
supervision of conferences of employers, labor, and consumers dealing
with problems of recovery, and related subjects and coordinating
changes within the Recovery Administration.
The reorganization of the Advisory Council and an extension of its
duties were announced by the National Recovery Administration on
October 7, 1934. The council, originally formed to bring together
the views of the National Recovery Administration’s three advisory
boards—the Industrial, Labor, and Consumers’ Advisory Boards—
was composed of three representatives from each. The new council
retained the same total membership of nine, but each of the advisory
bodies was allowed one representative less and the three^positions




ORGANIZATION AND PROCEDURE OF N . R . A .

505

left open were filled by one representative chosen from the legal
division, one from the research division, and a third, known as a
special assistant, designated by the National Industrial Recovery
Board, acting as chairman.
The duties of the Advisory Council were to act in an advisory
capacity, as the name of the council implies, and to make specific
recommendations on matters of policy, the latter having formerly
come within the province of the Assistant Administrator for Policy.
Code Making
T h e usual procedure in the framing of codes was as follows: The
draft of a code was submitted to the N. R. A. by the trade association
or associations within a particular industry. Public hearings were held
before a deputy administrator, at which all parties concerned were
privileged to appear and make suggestions for changes. The Labor
Advisory Board, the Industrial Advisory Board, and the Consumers’
Advisory Board were also consulted. Thereupon, a final draft of a
code was framed by the deputy administrator and submitted to the
Administrator. If approved by him, it was then submitted to the
President, and if, in turn, approved by the President, with or without
modifications, was promulgated as a code applicable to the entire
coverage of that industry.
Administration of Codes
U n d er each code, there was created an administrative body
known as the “ code authority.” This code authority was made up
primarily of employer representatives but with representation of the
Government in all cases, and with labor representation occasionally,
such as in the bituminous-coal, men’s clothing, and hosiery industries,
all of which are industries in which collective bargaining had been
more or less prevalent for many years.
The National Recovery Administrator on November 5, 1933,
clarified the position and duties of code authorities, trade associations,
and other agencies of industrial self-government under the National
Industrial Recovery Act as follows:
The function of code administration lies primarily with the code authority
provided for in each code. Nevertheless, it is the responsibility of the National
Recovery Administration that the code be administered. Whenever, as in the
bituminous-coal code, an industry is organized for self-discipline that function
will be accorded it. But in many instances industries are not so organized that
they have machinery appropriate to the adjustment of complaints of violations
of the trade practice, and other provisions of their codes.
The organization of very few industries is at this time appropriate for the
adjustment of complaints of violations of the labor provisions of codes. While,
in every case, where the authority is organized, adjustment of fair trade practices
will be left to the code authorities, as a general rule the code provides no plan for
the adjustment of their labor provisions. The code authority will be permitted
to function on labor disputes when provision is made for adequate representation
of labor on all committees, boards, or other agencies set up to entertain and
adjust complaints by employees against their employers for violations of labor
provisions.

Penalties for Noncompliance with Codes
I n a d d i t i o n to the statutory provisions of the act penalizing
employers for noncompliance with codes (see sec. 3 (e) and (f)) the
Federal Government, as a regular purchaser of the goods of industry
and in connection with expenditures for public works, such as those




506

N. R . A .— LABOR ASPECTS

made through the Public Works Administration, required code com­
pliance as a condition for letting contracts. This matter was ruled
on in an Executive order of March 14, 1934, which required duly
executed certificates of compliance with codes to which the respective
businesses were subject to be filed with bids for Government work.
Collective Agreements with the Force of Codes
S e c t io n 7 (b) of the National Industrial Recovery Act authorized
the President, insofar as practicable, to afford employers and employ­
ees opportunity to establish mutual contracts governing working
standards. Such agreements when approved by the President became
effective and had the same force as codes approved under subsection
(a) of section 3. Section 7 (b ) follows:
The President shall, so far as practicable, afford every opportunity to employers
and employees in any trade or industry or subdivision thereof with respect to
which the conditions referred to in clauses (1) and (2) of subsection (a) prevail,
to establish by mutual agreement, the standards as to the maximum hours of
labor, minimum rates of pay, and such other conditions of employment as may
be necessary in such trade or industry or subdivision thereof to effectuate the
policy of this title; and the standards established in such agreements, when ap­
proved by the President, shall have the same effect as a code of fair competition,
approved by the President under subsection (a) of section 3.

Collective agreement in bituminous-coal industry. —The first collective
agreement affecting a large number of workers and having the same
significance for the industry as the code itself was the Appalachian
agreement, covering a large section in the bituminous-coal industry.
Under the Appalachian agreement working hours were fixed to con­
form with the code hours, the code minimum scale of wages was
supplemented by rates for classes of employees not covered by the
incomplete code scale, tonnage rates were set, and regulations were
made governing checkweighmen, settlement of disputes, safety
practices, etc. This agreement was the forerunner of others made
throughout the various regions of the coal industry and in other
industries as well.
Labor agreement under the construction code.—The construction
industry code provided for collective-bargaining agreements to be
drawn up between employees and employers and submitted to the
Board for approval. A collective-bargaining agreement1 between
tile setters and their employers in certain counties of Pennsylvania,
Ohio, and West Virginia was announced by the National Industrial
Recovery Board on May 2, 1935.
The agreement, which covered 17 counties in Pennsylvania, 16
in West Virginia, and 3 in Ohio, provided for a maximum 40-hour,
5-day week, and 8-hour day, with regular hours from 8 a. m. to 4:30
p. m. The minimum wage was fixed at $1 an hour for all counties
except Allegheny County, where the minimum hourly rate was
$1.25. All overtime was to be paid for at double the regular rates.
The volume of work in these localities had declined so greatly
between 1929 and 1933 that average annual earnings of employees
had dropped from $2,000 in 1929 to about $198 in 1933. The Board
considered, therefore, that the establishment of uniform rates of pay,
uniform hours of work, and improved conditions of employment
would benefit the industry as well as employers and consumers.
i

National Recovery Administration.




Press release no. 11166, M ay 2 ,1935.

ORGANIZATION AND PROCEDURE OF N. R . A .

507

Several collective-bargaining agreements between employers and
employees in the fa in tin g , paper hanging , and decorating division of
the construction industry were also announced by the National
Industrial Recovery Board.
In the Pittsburgh area of Allegheny County, Pa., the agreement2
provided for a 40-hour, 5-day week, and 8-hour day, with regular
work hours from 8 a. m. to 5. p. m. The minimum wage was set at
$1.20 per hour for painters, decorators, and paper hangers, $1.25 an
hour for grainers, from $15 to $35 per week for apprentices, increas­
ing annually during the 3-year apprenticeship. Overtime was to
be paid at double the regular rate.
In Pennsylvania in Centre County and all of Clearfield County,
except the city of Du Bois and the townships of Sandy, Bell, Huston,
Union, and Bloom, the maximum hours 3 were fixed at 40, with a
6-day week, and 8 hours per day with regular daily working hours from
8 a. m. to 4:30 p. m. The minimum wage rate for painters, paper
hangers, and decorators was 60 cents per hour, with the scale for
apprentices ranging from 30 cents per hour for the first year to 50
cents an hour for the third year.
In New Jersey in the region of Montclair, Bloomfield, Glen Ridge,
Verona, Caldwell, Essex Falls, Roseland, North Caldwell, West
Caldwell, and Cedar Grove the agreement4 provided for the 40-hour,
5-day week, and 8 hours per day, with the working hours from 8
a. m. to 4:30 p. m. The minimum rate for painters, paper hangers,
and decorators was $1 per hour, with the scale for apprentices ranging
from 25 percent of that wage for the first half year to 75 percent for
the sixth half year, and 10 cents an hour additional for shift work.
Overtime was to be paid at time and one-half the regular rates.
In Texas in nine counties—Smith, Upshur, Rusk, Henderson, Wood,
Gregg, Cherokee, Anderson, and Van Zandt—the agreement5 pro­
vided for the 40-hour, 5-day week, and 8-hour day, with working
hours from 8 a. m. to 5 p. m. The minimum wage for journeymen
was fixed at 82% cents, with the scale for apprentices ranging from
40 percent of the minimum rate for the first year, to 80 percent for
the third year, and 5 cents additional for shift work. Overtime was
to be paid for at the rate of time and one-half.
In Travis County, Tex., the agreement6 provided for a maximum
40-hour, 5-day week, and 8-hour day, with regular work hours from
8 a. m. to 5 p. m. The minimum hourly wage for painters, paper
hangers, and decorators was fixed at $1, for handicapped persons at
70 cents, and for apprentices from 40 to 70 percent of the regular wage,
increasing each 6 months of the period of apprenticeship. Overtime
was to be paid for at one and one-half times the regular rate, and
double the regular rate was paid for emergency work on holidays.
The agreement7 in Denver County, Colo., and an area embraced
in a 15-mile radius from the north, east, and south boundaries of the
county, and the entire counties of Jefferson, Clear Creek, and Gilpin,
to the southwest, northwest, and west, provided for a maximum 35hour, 5-day week, and 7-hour day, with regular working hours from
8:30 a. m. to 4:30 p. m. The minimum rate for painters, paper
3 National Recovery Administration. Press release no.
3 Idem, Press release no. 11239, May 10, 1935.
* Idem, Press release no. 11231, May 10, 1935.
3 Idem, Press release no. 11237, May 10, 1935.
6Idem, Press release no. 11261, May 11, 1935.
7Idem, Press release no. 11238, May 10,1935.




11262, M ay 11, 1935.

508

N. R. A.— LABOR ASPECTS

hangers, and decorators was $1.10 per hour, with the scale for appren­
tices ranging from 25 percent of the journeyman’s wage for the first
year to 75 percent for the third year. Overtime was to be paid for at
the rate of time and one-half.
An agreement8 in Hamilton County, Ohio, and Kenton and Camp­
bell Counties, Ky., provided for a maximum 40-hour, 5-day week, and
8-hour day from April to September, inclusive, and a 35-hour, 5-day
week, and 7-hour day in other months, the working hours being from
8 a. m. to 5 p. m. in the summer period and from 8:30 a. m. to 4:30
p. m. in the winter. The minimum wage was fixed at $1.20 per hour
for painters, paper hangers, and decorators, and $1.32% an hour for
spray-machine operators. Apprentices received from 25 to 75 per­
cent of the journeyman’s wage, an increase being given each 6 months.
Overtime during January, February, and March was to be at the
regular rate, while in the other months it was paid for at one and onehalf the regular rate with double pay for work between 6 p. m. Satur­
day and 8 a. m. Monday.
Applications by employees and employers in two divisions under the
construction code in several Connecticut townships for a 6 months’
reduction in code minimum skilled-wage provisions received the
approval of the National Industrial Recovery Board, May 10, 1935.9
The area affected embraced the townships of Salisbury, North
Canaan, Canaan, Sharon, Cornwall, Kent, and Warren, in the county
of Litchfield. Under the code the rate for skilled workers in the
plumbing contractors’ division in the area was fixed at $1.20 per hour
and 50 cents an hour for unskilled workers. The application, sub­
mitted by 16 individual firms and 22 journeyman plumbers, claiming
to represent the entire industry in the area, asked for a rate of 75 cents
per hour for skilled workers and 40 cents per hour for unskilled work­
ers, as it was stated 75 cents an hour was the average wage rate for
skilled labor in the area. The 75-cent minimum rate for skilled
workers was established by the decision, but the 50-cent rate for
unskilled labor was unchanged.
In the heating, piping, and air-conditioning contractors’ division in
the same area the Board granted a reduction of the skilled wage rate
from $1.20 an hour to 90 cents an hour. The applicants in presenting
the petition submitted that the journeymen who do heating, piping,
and air-conditioning work were also engaged in plumbing work under
the same prevailing average community wage. They pointed out
that the area in question consisted largely of dairy farms and was
situated at some distance from large towns. The reduction was
granted, with the provision that accurate employment records should
be kept by each member and should be filed with the Board not less
than 15 days after the termination of the 6-month period; not less
than 30 days before the expiration of the period members should
present to the deputy administrator good cause why the wage reduc­
tion should not be discontinued; full publicity should be given the
Board’s order; and all industry members should fully comply with all
other provisions of the code.
A collective-bargaining agreement10 in the plumbing contracting
division of the construction industry in six townships of Lake County,
8

National Recovery Administration. Press release no. 11265, M ay 13, 1935.
• Idem, Press release no. 11249, May 10, 1935.
Idem, Press release no. 11284, May 14, 1935.




ORGANIZATION AND PROCEDURE OF N. R. A.

509

and all of Porter County, Ind., provided for the maximum 8-hour day
and 40-hour, 5-day week, with regular hours from 8 a. m. to 4:30 p. m.
The minimum-wage rate of journeyman plumbers was set at $1.20
an hour with a sliding scale for apprentices ranging from 25 percent
of the journeyman’s wage for the first year to 85 percent in the fifth
year. Time and one-half the regular rate was to be paid for overtime.
Special Machinery for the Textile Industry
Establishment of textile planning committee.—A textile planning
committee was organized in February 1935 by the National Recovery
Administration.11 As its name implies, this committee was set up to
formulate long-range plans taking into account the relative compet­
itive positions of the cotton, rayon, silk, and wool divisions of the
industry. The committee’s duties included removing discrepancies
between codes and study of the import and export situation of textiles.
This body was not established as an investigating agency, but rather
for the purpose of giving all interests an opportunity to come together
to prevent a further increase in producing facilities over the existing
market requirement.
Nominations to the committee made by the National Recovery
Administration included three members of the National Industrial
Recovery Board, Arthur D. Whiteside, Sidney Hillman, and Leon
Henderson; the fourth nomination was Prentiss Coonley, adminis­
trator of the Textile Division of the National Recovery Administra­
tion. These representatives met with officials of the United States
Department of Labor and the Textile Labor Relations Board on
February 26 to designate the permanent membership of the textile
planning committee, as it was at first thought appointments might be
made from other bodies. However, on March 4 it was announced
that the four original nominees of the National Recovery Administra­
tion would make up the committee. The Textile Labor Relations
Board believed that inasmuch as it might have to adjudicate disputes
arising under code provisions it would not be wise to assist in their
establishment. The Department of Labor was not represented on
the textile planning committee but was to cooperate with it and keep
itself informed on the work being carried on.
Work assignment boards.—Work assignment boards were set up in
the cotton, wool, and silk textile industries by Executive orders of
October 16, 1934, and a fourth order promulgated on the same date
provided for a common chairman for the three bodies so established
and outlined the rules and regulations under which they should
operate.12 This action was in conformity with the recommendations
of the board of inquiry for the cotton-textile industry and represented
an effort on the part of the Administration to prevent increases in the
speed of operation of machinery and the number of machines tended
by individuals, known as the “ stretch-out” , pending investigation
and the establishment of sound and adequate organization for the
regulation of work assignments.
By the terms of the respective orders covering the cotton, silk, and
wool textile industries, board membership was limited to three persons
1 National Recovery Administration. Press release no. 10265, Feb. 26, 1935; Textile Planning Com­
1
mittee, Press release no. 1, Feb. 26,1935, no. 2, Mar. 4, 1935, and no. 4, Mar. 5, 1935.
12 Executive Orders Nos. 6875, 6876, 6877, and 6878, Oct. 16, 1934.




510

N. R. A .— LABOR ASPECTS

to be named by the Textile Labor Relations Board and including an
impartial chairman, one representative of employers in the specific
textile division, and one representative of employees.
Cotton and silk boards.—For the cotton and silk textile industries
the orders provided that prior to February 1, 1935, no employer might
make any change in work assignments for any class of employees
whereby the work load was increased over that existing on September
21, 1934.
The board was empowered to require a reduction in the individual
load if it found that the task as set required “ excessive effort. ” Both
boards had authority to issue rules and regulations and to appoint
agents to investigate and make recommendations on procedure.
Wool board.—The order creating the Wool Textile Work Assign­
ment Board made that body responsible for administering paragraph
2 of section 3 of the wool-textile code, which stated that no employee
should be required to do any work beyond the standard prevailing for
the particular job on July 1, 1933.
Buies and regulations fo r the three boards.—In the order establishing
rules and regulations for the cotton, silk, and wool textile work assign­
ment boards the President stated that all matters involving products of
more than one branch of the textile industry must be handled jointly
by the work assignment boards of the affected industries. The boards
were authorized to study the actual operation of the “ stretch-out” in
representative plants, including those they might select and others
designated by the code authority affected and the United Textile
Workers of America. Recommendations were to be submitted to
the President before January 1, 1935, for the regulation of work
assignments. Unless cause was shown to the contrary, the order
specified that the following principles were to be observed in making
recommendations:
(a) No employer shall increase the work assignments of any class of work until
he has secured authorization therefor from the district impartial chairman
(appointed by the textile work assignment board) of the district in which the
mill operates. The district impartial chairman shall authorize extensions of work
assignments only if the following conditions have been complied with:
(i) The employer has filed with the district impartial chairman and with the
representatives of the employees affected a petition for authorization of extension
of work assignments. The petition shall include a sworn statement on a form to
be provided by the textile work assignment board indicating the conditions
which have been established at the mill as the basis for extension.
(ii) A period of 6 weeks has elapsed since the filing of the petition.
(iii) Either (a) the representatives of labor affected have not filed a protest to
the proposed extension before the end of the 6-week period, or (b) if such protest
has been filed, there has been a public hearing, with such investigation by the
district impartial chairman or his agents as he may deem advisable, and the impar­
tial chairman finds that the conditions which have been maintained throughout
the 6-week period justify the extension.

If any employer failed to maintain existing standards of work assign­
ments, this was deemed sufficient cause for denial of a petition. Upon
employee petition the district impartial chairman might investigate
labor assignments established and require a reduction if indicated.
Decisions of the district impartial chairman were subject to appeal of
the appropriate textile work assignment board, whose decisions were
final.




ANALYSIS OF LABOR PROVISIONS OF CODES

511

Analysis of Labor Provisions of N. R. A, Codes1
3
HE several hundred industrial codes adopted under the National
Industrial Recovery Act contained many differences as regards
the standards set up for labor. Nevertheless, an examination of these
codes shows the existence of important similarities and rather definite
tendencies for many of the labor provisions to group themselves around
certain modes or norms, such, for instance, as: A minimum hourly
rate of from 30 to 40 cents for unskilled labor; a maximum working
week of 40 hours in productive industries, with additional allowances
for periods of concentrated demand; more favorable terms for produc­
tive factory employees than for office staffs, and less advantageous
conditions for maintenance workers than for either of these groups;
compensation for overtime work at rates of 1% to 1% the regular hourly
pay; and elimination of child labor below the age of 16 in nonhazardous
employment and below the age of 18 on work considered either hazard­
ous or unhealthful.
In this article the provisions of the various codes are analyzed so
as to bring out the points of similarity and dissimilarity and to discover
trends toward uniformity in the labor provisions. Because of the
great complexity of the labor terms in a number of the codes (such as
those establishing several differential rates according to type of labor,
location, population, sex, etc.), not all codes have been included in the
tabular material presented here. However, even though the tabula­
tions are not exhaustive, study of the various codes shows that the sam­
ple used is sufficiently representative to give a correct picture of code
standards. In no case have averages been computed, the intention
being to show the norms about which the codes tended to center and
the variations from the commonly found provisions. The analysis
deals primarily with the conditions established for directly productive
labor, office employees, and maintenance men. Employees excepted
from the protection of code labor standards are considered insofar as
the terms of their employment have been the subject of Executive or
administrative order.
The analysis takes into account all amendments to the original codes
that were available when this study was undertaken, such as the
hours-reduction amendments to the bituminous coal, and to the cotton
garment and millinery codes, and the increase in working hours under
the automobile manufacturing code, as well as the less spectacular
extensions of overtime rates of pay and of provisions increasing the
age limit for employment in some cases.
In considering code labor standards it must be kept in mind that
where a State law established higher standards than those laid down
under the recovery legislation, the State law had precedence. Con­
tracts mutually agreed to between employers and employees were like­
wise binding.
Various changes took place in code making after the beginning of
operation under the Recovery Act. In early codes, effort was con­
centrated on securing a framework upon which to build. It was con­
stantly urged that clarifying amendments might be added after
approval. Early codes, for instance, very largely neglected to estab-

T

i* Summary of article by Margaret H. Schoenfeld, published in the Monthly Labor Review, March 1935
(pp. 574^603).




512

N. R. A.— LABOR ASPECTS

lish detailed overtime pay rates. Such omissions tended to be cor­
rected in later codes and there was some revision of existing codes to
cover such points.
Numerically important groups of employees who were not under
codes at the end of 1934 included those employed in anthracite and
precious-metal mining, shipping, public utilities, slaughtering and
meat packing, and cigarette manufacturing. In several of these cases,
however, the industry was operating under the President's Reemploy­
ment Agreement as modified to meet individual industrial needs.
This agreement was introduced on September 1, 1933, in order that
industry and trade might be temporarily blanketed under fixed labor
and other standards, thus avoiding the delay attendant upon individual
codification. The electric light and power, gas operating utilities,
telegraphic and telephone communications, meat packing, and ciga­
rette manufacturing industries were (at the end of 1934) still operating
under the President's Reemployment Agreement as modified, but
neither the mining nor the shipping industry employees - were so
covered.
Extent of Codification
U p to the middle of December 1934, 535 industrial codes had been
approved under the National Industrial Recovery Act.14 This number
did not include about 175 supplementary codes which operated in con­
nection with certain of the master codes. These supplements-—the
more important of which were those for the construction, cotton, tex­
tile, fabricated metal, and machinery and allied products industries
and the wholesaling or distributing trade—usually had exactly the
same labor provisions as those fixed by the master code. In addition,
labor provisions were approved for 18 agricultural processing industries
or trades falling under the joint jurisdiction of the Agricultural Adjusment Administration and the National Recovery Administration dur­
ing the period mentioned. A few subdivisions of industry that it was
first expected would be treated separately were, from time to time,
brought under the terms of existing codes. This meant merely the
elaboration of the definition of the industry in question. The desire
to keep the number of individual codes at a minimum also led to
withdrawal of at least one code, and the transfer of the industry
concerned (cinders, ashes, and scavenger trade) to coverage under
other codes.
The monthly load of code approvals reached its peak in the period
from October 1933 to March 1934; thereafter there was a rapid
decrease.
Many of the large employing industries were codified in the latter
part of 1933. These included the cotton textile code with an esti­
mated coverage16 of about 500,000 workers; the petroleum code with
700,000; bituminous coal, with 500,000; retail trade, with about 2,900,000; fabricated metal products, with 400,000; and retail food,
with 600,000 persons. No exact figures were available as to the total
coverage of the 535 codes here reviewed. The National Recovery
Administration estimated in a report issued in February 193416
14
At the end of 1934 the total had increased to 541 but the 6 additional codes were not available in time for
inclusion in this analysis.
18
U. S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Trade Association Section, chart no. 5, July 10,
1934.
16 Report on the operations of the National Recovery Act, p. 7.




ANALYSIS OF LABOR PROVISIONS OF CODES

513

that codification of American industry under the industrial selfgovernment program contemplated by the act was 90 percent com­
pleted.
Wages Under the Codes
I n s p i t e of the general restriction of wage provisions to unskilled
labor, over two-thirds of the industries operating under the 535 ap­
proved codes secured approval of terms which set separate rates for
different groups of productive plant employees and office personnel.
Even among the 168 approved codes which provided the same rates of
‘pay for factory and office employees, 98 included some form of wage
differential, either on the basis of size of community, geographic area,
sex, or a combination of these factors, or by recognizing such differ­
ences as between light and other work, or by authorizing a lower wage
rate for a certain proportion of the unskilled than for the remaining
group. Two major groups in the working force, roughly differenti­
ated in the codes as (1) factory or “ general” workers and (2) office
employees or “ others” were generally covered. The first group in­
cluded largely the productive working force of plants, attendants in
service trades, and sales clerks in retail and wholesale trades. Under
some codes it included the office staff as well—that is, the accounting,
clerical, and office employees. Where separate minimum rates of
pay were set for the office force, it was stated in certain codes that the
rate quoted applied to office workers as such; in other codes the rates
listed were stated to be for “ others” and, by eliminating the classes
for which wage rates had been quoted, the term “ others” was nar­
rowed down to the office force.
Seventy of the 168 codes which established the same minimum
wage for factory and office employees fixed a single minimum, with no
differentials of any kind, while the next largest group, 47 in number,
provided for a differential based upon geographic area. The most
frequently found geographic differential was that between the North
and the South, with a higher rate of pay in the North; but a number
of codes differentiated as regarded minimum-wage rates between
metropolitan eastern areas and western areas and between the South
and other portions of the United States. The definition of the South
varied considerably and led to much dissatisfaction, especially in
border-line States, such as Maryland, which was rated as a southern
State in some codes and as a northern State in others. While codes
with a differential by size of community (17) did not form a very
substantial percentage of the particular group of 168 codes, this type
of differential was of frequent occurrence in other code groups, and
was doubtless in part due to the official support which was early given
to it in the President’s Reemployment Agreement, which recognized
a limit of $12 a week in towns of less than 2,500 population as against
one of $15 a week in cities of 500,000 or over or in the immediate trade
areas of such cities. This provision was followed without change in
many codes, but under others was modified to provide minimum rates
of $9 or $10 to $15 or $16 per week. Also, the incorporation of a
North-South differential of $1 in combination with the “ size of
community” gradations was not unusual.
Under the codes with differentials by sex only (9) and by sex in
combination with geographic area (10) and with size of community
(3), 5- to 10-cent higher hourly rates of pay were usually established
for men, with the stipulation, however, that where women did the
19 2 0 5 — 36-------34




514

N. R. A.— LABOR ASPECTS

same work as men they should receive equal pay. In five codes the
differentials were based on light and other work, percentages of labor
force, occupation, or sex and division of industry. Rate differentials,
whatever their basis, generally amounted to between 5 and 10 cents
per hour.
M odal Minimum Wages

As indicative of actual minimum-wage levels for unskilled labor
under the codes, table 1 is presented. This table classifies the minimum-wage provisions in the 70 codes which set a single minimum wage
for factory and office employees, in the 124 codes which set a single
minimum for factory or “ general ” workers, and in the 199 codes which
set a single minimum for office employees or “ others.” None of the
70 codes in the first group— those which fixed a single minimum rate
for all employees— are included in the other two groups shown in the
table. There is, however, considerable duplication between the
second and third classifications shown, as many codes provided for a
flat rate for all factory or general workers and another for all office
or other employees.
T

able

1 . — D ISTR IBU TIO N

OF CODES ESTABLISH ING SINGLE M IN IM U M R A T E OF PAY
FOR A LL E M P LO Y E E S A N D FOR SPECIFIED GROUPS
Codes providing—
Single but separate rates for-

Minimum rate of pay

Single rate for all
employees

Number
Hourly rate 1 of—
30 cents______
32^6 cents------35 cents______
37H cents____
40 cents______
Over 40 cents,.
Weekly rate of—
$12, ............... ...
$13_,........ ........
$13.50________
$ 1 4 -..........
$15..........: ____
$16____ ______
$17 and over,,
Total............

Percent

Factory or “ gen­
eral” workers
Number

Percent

1.4
18.6
28.6
4.3
17.1

1.6

1.5
.5
1.5
.5

1

31
129
27
3

.~
5
15.6
64.8
13.6
1.5

100.0

199

100.0

1.6

7.1
1.4
1.4

100.0

Percent

1.6

"""IT

70

Number

0.8
2.4
12.9
2.4
67.0
8.9

2.9
12.9

Office employees or
“ others”

.8

124

i A number of codes stipulated that if the rate of pay was lower in 1929 the code rate be reduced to
the 1929 level provided it did not fall below a given sum, usually 5 to 10 cents less than the rate provided
in the code terms.

Table 1 shows that a larger number of industries simplified wage
standards for office help than for factory workers (199 as against 124),
and that a single minimum was more prevalent in codes for each of
these groups of employees than was a single minimum for both factory
and office together (70). Also, it appears that under those codes
which provided either a single rate for all workers or a single rate for
office workers (constituting half of the total industries under codes),
wage rates were confined almost exclusively to the intervals between
30 and 40 cents per hour, whether the rates were given directly on an




515

ANALYSIS OF LABOR PROVISIONS OF CODES

hourly basis or, if given on a weekly basis, were reduced to an hourly
rate on the basis of a 40-hour working week, which was the prevailing
maximum. In those codes where a single hourly wage rate applied
to all employees, the modal hourly rate was 35 cents, and almost equal
percentages of the total number of codes had hourly rates above and
below 35 cents. In those codes where a single but separate rate was
provided for factory or “ general” workers, practically all rates were
on an hourly basis, with 83 codes, representing 67 percent of the total,
concentrated at 40 cents an hour. Rates for office workers or “ others ”
under those codes with a separate but single minimum for such work­
ers were in most cases on a weekly basis, with a prevailing weekly re­
turn of $14 to $16. The modal pay was $15 a week, or 37K cents
an hour if reduced to an hourly standard on a 40-hour week basis,
and the codes in this group represented 64.8 percent of the total.
The productive and clerical forces enjoyed higher wages under the
codes which fixed minimum rates of pay for each group separately
than under those which established a single rate for all employees,
the modal return being 40 cents for factory employees considered by
themselves, $15 a week (37K cents an hour) for office employees taken
as a class, and only 35 cents an hour where all employees were subject
to the same wage provisions. Thus it would appear that simplification
of code wage provisions was at the expense of the workers affected.
Another significant feature of the table is the fact that minimum-wage
rates tended to be somewhat higher for the productive group of
laborers than for the office workers.
Provisions for Wages of Less Than 30 Cents an Hour

The codes covered in table 1 were selected for analysis because of
the simplicity of their wage provisions. They indicate, in a broad
way, the prevailing minimum-wage provisions under the National
Industrial Recovery Act. It so happens, however, that the group
does not include a single code which fixed a wage of less than 30 cents
an hour or $12 a week; this is due to the fact that the 94 industries
with wages of less than these amounts all operated under codes which
had more than one minimum wage for the classes of workers dealt
with in table 1.
The degree to which industries were authorized to pay hourly rates
of less than 30 cents or weekly rates below $12, is shown in table 2.
The figures in table 2 apply to regular workers within the respective
industries and do not cover the pay of apprentices or learners, for
whom special provisions were established.
T a ble 3 .—CODES SE T TIN G M IN IM U M RATES OF LESS T H A N 30 CENTS A N HOUR OR
$12 PER W E E K

Minimum rates of pay

Hourly rate of—
Under 15 cents______________
15 and under 20 cents____ -_
20 and under 25 cents________
25 and under 30 cents________
Weekly rate of—
$ 2 .... ............................................
$6 ___________________________




Num­
ber of
codes

1

Per­
cent of
total

1 .0

3
19
49

3.1
19.6
50.5

1
1

1 .0
1 .0

Minimum rates of pay

Weekly rate of—
$8 and under $9_________ _„„
$9 and under $10............ ..........
$ 10 and under $ 1 1 .................
$ 1 1 and under $ 1 2 .......... ..........
Total___ -

__________

Num­
ber of
codes

Per­
cent of
total

2

2 .1

9
4
8

9.3
4.1
8.3

97

10 0 .0

516

N. R. A .— LABOR ASPECTS

The 97 codes which fixed for one or more classes of employees, a
minimum-wage rate of less than 30 cents an hour or of $12 a week,
formed 18.1 percent of the total of 535 codes approved. Of those
establishing wage rates on an hourly basis the great majority (49)
were in the class paying 25 and under 30 cents an hour. Next in
numerical importance were the 19 codes with minimum rates between
20 and 25 cents. It is significant to find, however, that a wage as
low as 14 cents an hour was sanctioned in one code (the laundry
trade); that in two industries (pecan shelling and raw peanut milling)
a wage of 15 cents an hour could be paid for light work; and in one
other (cotton pickery) a rate of 18 cents an hour was authorized for
female labor in general. Where the rate was fixed on a weekly basis
the modal group was $9 and under $10 and the codes falling within
this group were principally those governing branches of the retail
trade, in which it was customary to approve codes allowing for mini­
mum rates varying according to geographic area, population, and store
hours, with a differential of $1 below the regular minimum weekly
rate for the South. The eight code provisions listed in the table which
permitted minimum weekly rates of between $ 11 and $12 concerned
chiefly clerical workers, especially office boys and girls and messen­
gers, a provision having been written in several codes permitting such
employees to receive 80 percent of the regular minimum for office
help, which under these particular codes was $14. The four codes
which authorized minimum wages below $9 a week were for home­
workers in the needlework industry of Puerto Rico ($2 per week),
bootblacks in the shoe-rebuilding trade ($6 per week), who were also
entitled to tips, service employees in small towns in the South
employed under the restaurant code ($8.08 per week), and office boys
in the surgical dressing distributing trade ($8.80 per week).
Wages for Other Than Unskilled Labor

Few codes established minimum rates of pay for labor above the
unskilled class. In fact, only 35 codes (6.5 percent of the total) made
any such provision. Of these 35, more than half covered branches of
the men’s and women’s clothing industry, which are experienced in
collective bargaining and therefore accustomed to fixing standards of
pay by occupation. Among other industries for which minimum rates
were cited for skilled employees were the bituminous-coal, graphic arts,
legitimate theatrical, motion-picture, and structural steel and iron
industries. The most that was done to protect the wages of skilled
workers under the majority of codes was to write into the labor pro­
visions a general statement that the wage differentials between
occupational classes be maintained. The clauses of the codes devoted
to this purpose took many forms and did not necessarily insure
equality of treatment as between codes, the terminology being so
indefinite in certain cases as to permit varying interpretations. One
example of this was the provision, commonly found, that “ equitable
adjustments” of pay schedules of employees paid above the minimum
should be made within 30 days of the effective date of the code. More
satisfactory from the standpoint of enforcement and interpretation
were the provisions whereby (1) employers were obligated to make
adjustments of wages in the brackets above the code minimum so
that existing differentials were maintained and (2) wages might not




ANALYSIS OF LABOR PROVISIONS OF CODES

517

be reduced notwithstanding any reduction in the full-time working
week.
The cases cited of unusually low minimum rates of pay, it will be
noted, were for special classes of labor, that is, those employed on
light work or in occupations that ranked higher than apprenticeship
but did not require the same ability as was necessary in factory and
office employment. Nevertheless, if the original codes are examined
it appears that many of the provisions authorizing an hourly wage of
less than 30 cents covered plant or office employees in some particular
geographic area, usually in the South, or employees of firms in small
towns. Such rates, it may be added, more often applied to female
than to male labor. Only in a few codes did the low rates referred to
apply exclusively to occupations such as helpers, porters, outside
workers, cleaners, etc. In some cases a lower rate was established for
watchmen, but where this occurred the weekly earnings might equal
or exceed the pay of other classes because of the longer hours usually
worked by this class of labor.
The figures in table 1 (see p. 514) indicate that code rates in excess
of 40 cents an hour existed but were not prevalent. Exceptional
codes such as that for the motion-picture laboratory industry, with a
general minimum of 50 cents an hour, and the print-roller and printblock industry code, in which the lowest rate was 75 cents an hour,
furnish examples of unusually high code standards. Some of the high
rates are accounted for by the fact that only a relatively skilled class
of labor was employed or by the fact that the industry was small and
in a favorable position financially.
An important reason for the infrequent occurrence of code provi­
sions establishing minimum wages for skilled labor was the Recovery
Act itself which in section 7 (b) stated that the President should
afford every opportunity to employers and employees to agree
mutually to standards of working conditions which, when approved
by the President, would have the same effect as a code of fair compe­
tition. It is evident that extensive adoption of collective agreements
under section 7 (b) would promote the purposes of the recovery
legislation not only by supplementing the wage structure for indi­
vidual industries but also by fixing standards governing such matters
as vacations, terms of employment for checkweighman, and detailed
apprenticeship regulations.
Although action under section 7 (b) was not wide-spread, neverthe­
less in several of the large man-employing industries, notably the
bituminous-coal industry and various branches of the construction
industry, a substantial beginning was made in supplementing codes
with collective agreements governing working conditions.
Hours of Labor Under the Codes
I n c o n t r a s t with the code wage provisions, which covered for the
most part only the unskilled classes of labor, restrictions upon working
time affected all but a small group of administrative employees and
executives falling in the higher earnings brackets and certain service
employees whose working time it was found difficult to control.
In attempting to restrict working time, most codes distinguished
between different classes of employees, the two principal classes being
factory or “ general” workers and the clerical, accounting, or office




518

N. R. A.— LABOR ASPECTS

force. In some instances sales and service employees were classified
with the office workers and in a few codes office workers were classed
as “ others” , but these distinctions are not covered in the present
analysis. Also, in many codes separate provision governing working
time was not made for the clerical forces; they fell under the heading
of “ general” workers, as did also productive workers in industry, the
sales forces of the various branches of retail and wholesale trade, and
the attendants in hotels, restaurants, barber shops, and billiard rooms.
Special limits were often placed on the working time of such groups as
chauffeurs, truckmen, engineers, firemen, repairmen, watchmen, and
shipping clerks, as well as upon the hours of other employees not
specifically noted in the following analysis.
Weekly Working Time

Slightly over 10 percent of the 535 codes established a single maxi­
mum number of hours applicable to all classes of labor subject to the
hour restrictions of the respective codes. All codes except that for
fur-trapping contractors made provision for the working time of
factory workers or those classed as “ general” and a small number
established a separate maximum for each of these classes. In 41
percent of the total number of codes the hours of the office employees
were separately provided for, and 74 percent of all the codes made
special provision for one or more groups of the maintenance or service
employees— engineers, firemen, shipping crews, truckmen, and
watchmen.
T a ble 3 .—D IST R IB U T IO N OF CODES AC C O R D IN G TO M A X I M U M W O R K IN G T IM E
A N D CLASS OF E M P LO Y E E S CO VER ED

Codes
setting
same maxi­
mum for
Maximum number of hours per week.
all labor

Codes setting specified maximum for—
Factory or
general
workers

Office
employees

Firemen or
engineers
or both

Watchmen

Num­ Per- Num­ Per­ Num­ Per­ Num­ Per­ Num­ Per­
ber cent
ber cent
ber cent
ber
ber cent
27 hours - __ ___
- - -- - ___ 32 hours
_____
_________
35 hours___ ________- ___
__ - ____
36 hours
__
371 ^ h o u rs._
_
40 hours___________________ ___________
40 hours, averaged over various periods.
40 hours, with peak allowances..............
42 hours__ _______________ ____________
44 hours------------- --------------------------------

1
1

i
1
1

1 .8
1 .8
1 .8

2.5
3.9
14

1

0.5
6
1
1

3.0
.5
.5

4
79

2 .0

2
1

39.9

14

19

9.6

31

15.7
.5

21
2

18

32.7

12
20

2 1 .8

147
92

36.5

222

27.5
17.2
41.6

72
92
37

2

3.6

5

.9

8

32.5
41.7
16.7
.9
3.6

6

2.7

2

0.3
.6

.3
3.9

1

.2

1

.3

1

.2

11

3.0
68.3

4

.7

11

55 100.0

.2
2 .2

1

54 hours___ _____ ______ - ____ ____
56 hours________________ _ __________
Combinations of hours:
Under 40 hours___________________
40 hours and over------ --------------------

2 .1

2 534 100.0

2
1

2

.6

27

7.6

1 .0

8
2
1

.9
.5

221 100.0

i Includes 4 codes providing for 60 and 4 for 64 hours.
3 Not including the fur-trapping code which has no hours limitations.




1

12

_
______ .
45 hours . . ______
46 hours___ _____
_ _ _ ____ __ _
48 hours . . .
. __
_________ __
50 hours__ ____________
__ __ ____
52 hours. ____ __ ______ __
___ ___

Total------ ---------- ------------------------

0 .2
.2

13

4.0

46

23.3

54

15.1

198 100.0

357

100.0

1 244

ANALYSIS OF LABOR PROVISIONS OF CODES

519

In table 3, the code provisions regarding maximum working time
are classified according to kind of labor covered. A subdivision was
made in the case of codes providing for a 40-hour work week, to show
those making provision for a flat 40-hour week, those permitting extra
time at peak periods, and those allowing the averaging of hours over
a specified period. This separation was not made for the other hour
groups.
Modal weekly hours for all labor, for factory or “ general ” labor and
office workers were concentrated at 40 per week. The flat 40-hour
week was favored less than the 40-hour week either with special
allowances for periods of peak or concentrated demand or with the
privilege of averaging working time over given periods of weeks or
months as long as the 40-hour average was maintained. While the
codes establishing the same maximum for all labor covered provided
the flat 40-hour week and the 40-hour week with peak allowances
more frequently than the average 40-hour week, the modal group of
code provisions for factory or general workers was 40 hours per
week with peak allowances and that for office employees 40 per week
averaged over various periods. The distributions for factory or
general and office employees show a high degree of concentration
at 40 hours per week with the flexible modifications mentioned.
To curb the practice of averaging hours, an order was promulgated
by the National Recovery Administration in July 1934, stating that
where flexibility was desired definite tolerances on an hourly or
daily basis should be provided with overtime pay for the excess
working time. This action was taken because the averaging pro­
visions had proved unsatisfactory and difficult to enforce. Under
the terms of the order, codes already approved were exempt from
arbitrary modification and the changes were left to be made as
conditions indicated the need. With few exceptions the codes
approved after the order was issued provided flexibility through
peak allowances rather than by averaging. Under the codes as
originally approved, the period over which working time could be
averaged was in isolated cases as long as an entire year, but the
predominant period was 6 months, with many variations, however,
ranging from 1 to 6 months or from 2 to 13 weeks; the 13-week period
was quite frequent. Even though, under the averaging provisions,
the weekly working time was usually limited to a maximum of 48
hours, it became apparent that by allowing such wide latitude regular­
ization of employment was hampered. This accounted for the support
by the National Recovery Administration of peak-period allowances
as an alternative measure. When peak-period allowances were
written into codes it was the practice to permit 8 hours per week above
the regular schedule, or a 48-hour week, during 6 or 8 weeks in each
6-month period.
Three of the 55 codes setting the same maximum hours for all
employees covered (the bituminous coal, pasted shoe stock, and the
undergarment and negligee industry codes) provided weekly working
time of less than 40 hours. This group represented 5.4 percent of the
total. In addition the motor-vehicle retailing and wholesale auto­
motive trade codes (forming 3.6 percent of the total) both established
a general maximum of 44 hours. The maximum for factory or
general workers was less than 40 hours per week in 7.9 percent of
the total codes and in excess of that amount in 5.8 percent and for




520

N. R. A.— LABOR ASPECTS

office employees these percentages were 1.4 and 7.7, respectively.
The above figures indicate the relatively favored position of labor
where a single maximum was established.
Factory or “ general” labor was in general subject to more stringent
hours limitations than were office workers. Codes fixing maximum
hours of less than 40 per week for factory or “ general” workers
covered a variety of industries. The cast-iron soil pipe industry
had the distinction of providing the lowest weekly maximum (27
hours), and the bituminous road-material industry was next, with
32 hours. The remaining industries with weekly hours of less than
40 were concentrated in the group between 35 and 37% hours per
week, and included in substantial number various branches of the
clothing industry, such as the manufacture of blouses and skirts,
cotton garments, dresses, furs, men’s clothing, men’s neckwear,
merchants’ and custom tailoring, millinery, and undergarments and
negligees. Also included in this latter group were such large employ­
ing industries as bituminous coal and electrical manufacturing and
at least one of the important heavy industries—shipbuilding. How­
ever, in a number of the codes with normal weekly working limits of
less than 40 hours, systems of peak-period allowances and averaging
hours were permitted, just as in the codes with higher weekly hour
limits.
The great majority of the retail, service, and wholesale trades
operated under codes which permitted weekly working time in
excess of 40 hours. Hotels and restaurants were allowed up to 54
hours a week and the bowling and billiard code established a 52-hour
week. A number of branches of retail trade had sliding scales of
working time, from 40 to 48 or 56 hours per week, depending upon
the customary store hours of the particular business. For whole­
sale trade the allowances were less liberal, some of the codes placing
a 40-hour maximum on weekly employment and others allowing
44 or 48 hours, with the proviso that flexibility might be obtained
either through averaging hours or by working extra hours in periods
of peak demand. A number of the automotive trades (including
motor-vehicle retailing and storage), transit, household-goods storage,
and trucking also had hours in excess of 40 per week. A small
number of codes established different maximum hours on a seasonal
basis (i. e., retail solid fuel, 40 per week for 4 months and 48 per
week for 8 months) or permitted an average over a biweekly period
(fishery industry, 90 hours in 2 weeks) or set different maximums
on a geographic basis (salt, 42 hours per week, 48 per week, in the
South and California).
It is significant that the three codes which established hours limita­
tions below 40 per week for office employees were codes that also
provided relatively favorable standards for factory or “ general”
workers. On the other hand, where schedules in excess of 40
hours per week were fixed for office employees, the maximum for
factory or “ general” workers was usually lower. For example, of
the eight codes with a 44-hour week for office workers, either with
or without some allowance for flexibility, six provided a 40-hour
week for factory or “ general” workers, one a 37K-hour week, and
only one a 44-hour week.




ANALYSIS OF LABOR PROVISIONS OF CODES

521

Table 3 shows that the modal working week for engineers or fire­
men or both was 44 hours. In many cases the 44-hour week was
allowed by reason of a 10-percent tolerance above the regular 40
hours established for factory employees. In addition to the 79 codes
with provisions for engineers, etc., falling within the 44-hour group,
27 codes provided for 168 hours in a 4-week period for this class of
labor, which when reduced to a weekly basis also yielded an average
working week of 44 hours. Four percent of the total number of
codes specifying the hours that engineers or firemen might work
fixed a maximum of 40 hours, either with or without provisions for
flexibility, and of the eight codes with such restrictions, three were
for clothing trades (hats, infants’ and children’s wear, and men’s
neckwear). A very substantial number of codes (15.7 percent of
the total) permitted the employment of engineers or firemen for a
maximum of 48 hours. Among the codes with a 56-hour week for
engineers or firemen (4 percent of the total), the working week was
in most instances identical with that permitted for watchmen.
The modal working week for watchmen was 56 hours. Certain
codes, such as those for the subdivisions of the concrete industry
and for sandstone and crushed stone, provided a working week as
high as 60 or 64 hours and in only a single instance (the men’s neck­
wear industry) was the watchman’s working week limited to 40
hours. By the terms of one group of codes, listed in the table as
“ combinations of hours” , watchmen were subject to a 42-hour
limitation by means of an averaging provision that made it possible
for the men to work in pairs, each working 36 and 48 hours alternately.
Daily Working Time and Days per Week

The 8-hour day and 6-day week prevailed under approved codes
for the rank and file of labor. There were instances in which the
8-hour day was accepted as the normal working time, but the maxi­
mum allowable was raised to 9 so that peak requirements might be
met, especially for office work. Under the small number of codes
establishing a week of less than 40 hours, working days of 7 or 7 %
hours in length were found. With these exceptions code variations
from the 8-hour day were largely provided for maintenance men,
including engineers, firemen, and watchmen, and the limit in some
cases was as high as 12 hours in 24.
Certain codes stipulated a 5-day week. However, as already
indicated, provisions were quite common which permitted either that
labor might be employed for hours in excess of the regular maximum
during specified periods in the year or that the working time might
be averaged over given periods as long as the weekly average stipu­
lated by the code was maintained. As such provisions were usually
predicated on an 8-hour day and a maximum working week of 48
hours, either with or without the payment of overtime for the 8
hours in excess of the regular weekly working time, it was necessary
that the code terms should be so framed that a sixth day of labor
couldlbe required of workers in any week even though under normal
conditions they worked only 5.




522

N. R. A.— LABOR ASPECTS

Machine-Hour Limitations and Control of Plant Working Time
S u p p l e m e n t in g the regulation of the spread and regularization of
working time for the individual, code limitations in some instances
were placed on the number of hours’ operation of machines and the
total plant-working time. Experimental work was also carried on
with respect to restricting the speed of machine operation and the
installation of new machinery. The possibilities and the effects of
the latter phases of production control were considered, particularly
in the textile industry under the work-assignment boards set up by
Executive order. Regulations of this kind were difficult to enforce.
Provisions limiting machine-hours and plant-working time formed
the basis for curtailment of working time by given percentages or
for total shut-down of the industry for limited periods. It is sig­
nificant that all of these measures of control were employed in large
part in the production of textiles and garments, industries recognized
as suffering from a serious overcapacity in productive equipment.
Among the codes approved in later months there were propor­
tionately fewer with a plant or machine-hour limitation than during
the earlier period of code making. Of the 535 approved codes here
analyzed, only 8 percent contained one or more provisions limiting
number of shifts, machine-hours, days of operation, or hours to be
worked in any 1 day; of the 409 codes approved at the end of April
1934, 12 percent were in this class. The most common method of
achieving such limitations was to limit the number of shifts per day.
Codes setting limits of one or two shifts were equally numerous as
may be seen in the following tabular analysis:
N u m ber

Limitation of shifts to—
° f codes
1 per day______________________________________ 18
2 per day______________________________________ 17
1 and 2 shifts in combination__________________
2
Limitation of hours of operation—
Per week______________________________________
6
Per day_______________________________________
1
Limitation of days per week________________________
1
Total_______________________________________

45

Codes limiting operation on the basis of shifts represented 3.7 out
of the total of 45. The codes having allowances for a combination
of shifts were those covering underwear and allied products industry
(permitting 1-shift operation of sewing machines and 2-shift operation
of knitting machines) and the knitted outerwear industry (allowing
2 shifts for productive machinery and 1 shift for others, or 1 shift for
all). Among the 6 codes specifying the number of hours that might
be worked in a week, 1 set the limit at 40 hours per week averaged
over 6 months, 1 at 52 hours per week, 2 at 80 hours per week with an
exception for a subdivision of 1 industry, and 2 at 144 hours per week,
the restriction in 1 instance being placed on paper machines only and
in the other on plant operation. Other codes, in considerable number,
fixed the hours between which work might be carried on, particularly
for women, and in the retail and whosesale trades store hours were
established as a basis for working time of employees. These provi­
sions are not here listed but the foregoing tabulation shows the variety
in methods of production control and makes it clear that such limita­
tions did not necessarily apply to the entire plant but might cover
only certain machines or departments.



ANALYSIS OF LABOR PROVISIONS OF CODES

523

Provisions for Overtime Pay
T h e need for establishing rates of pay for overtime work arose from
the very general occurrence of provisions permitting an extension
of the regular working time either by allowing hours to be averaged
over specific periods or by fixing definite additions to the usual sched­
ule in periods of concentrated demand. Such extensions were
sometimes regarded as part of the usual scheduled hours but more
often they were considered overtime for which extra compensation
had to be paid. A few codes established overtime pay only for em­
ployment on Sundays or special holidays. Whatever the definition
of overtime used, the principle of extra pay for such employment
was recognized in 86 percent of the approved codes.
Time and a half was the rate at which overtime was most generally
compensated, with time and a third ranking next in frequency. A
small number of codes authorized double rates in certain skilled occu­
pations, or the prevailing rate in a given district, or sometimes
granted compensatory free time during the regular working hours.
Some codes established several hourly overtime rates of pay, depend­
ing upon the class of workers compensated.
Overtime pay was granted to factory or “ general” workers under
more codes (318) than to any other class of employees. Those en­
gaged in emergency maintenance and repair work formed the second
largest group so compensated (258). For watchmen, engineers, and
firemen, overtime pay was provided in only a small number of codes
(80). Extra compensation was least often established for office
workers (23); the reason for this is evident when it is remembered
that it was a more common practice to average the hours of office
employees than to set a flat maximum or to provide for peak allow­
ances and that the extra hours worked in one period were offset by
shorter hours at another time. The lack of extra-pay provisions for
watchmen, engineers, and firemen is also explained, at least in part,
by the unusually long hours fixed as their regular working time.
Time and a half was somewhat more common than time and a
third as overtime compensation for the factory or “ general” employee
and the emergency maintenance and repair workers, but the latter
rate was more usual for watchmen, engineers, and firemen, and for
office or sales employees. In no instance was factory employees’
overtime paid for at regular rates, but for the 3 other classifications
of employees regular rates were provided for under 2 or more codes
(5 codes, in the case of watchmen, engineers, or firemen). On the
other hand, the prevailing rate appeared for factory employees in
only two industries, namely, daily newspaper and graphic arts. In
one industry double the hourly rate was authorized for overtime
employment.
Of the small number of codes that did not provide for overtime pay,
a few either prohibited such employment or made no allowance for
employment beyond the scheduled maximum. However, it was more
usual to find that the codes that did not grant overtime pay were so
planned that extra hours might be worked under the averaging provi­
sions or peak-season allowances permitting extra working time during
fixed periods.




524

N . R . A .— LABOR ASPECTS

Control of Child Labor
A g e 16 was the accepted minimum for employment of minors
under codes, but higher age limits were established for industries
and occupations with peculiar hazards. Notable exceptions to the
general 16-year minimum occurred in the codes covering the various
branches of retail trade and the distribution of periodicals. Under
the retail codes, while minors of 14 and 15 could be employed, their
hours were restricted to 3 per day, so timed as not to conflict with
school hours, or to 1 day of 8 hours each week. Under the dailynewspaper and graphic-arts codes the 3-hour per day limit was also
established and was applicable to minors of 14 and 15. The theatrical
and radio codes stipulated that, to fill child parts, employment of
minors under 16 might be arranged by special permission.
More than three-fourths (78.5 percent) of all the codes set 16 years
as the minimum age in any employment and 18 years in occupations
having peculiar hazards. A total of 357 codes fixed the minimum
age for employment at 16, with a further requirement that in hazard­
ous or unhealthful occupations no minor under 18 might be employed.
In 63 codes the 18-year minimum applied to employees in manufac­
turing or processing, and those operating machinery or engaged in
mining or underground work, while the 16-year standard was fixed
for office or nonmanufacturing employees. Codes having a flat
16-year minimum made up the next largest single group (79); of
these all but 16 were approved before the close of 1933, i. e., before
the higher exemption mentioned became general. The small group
of 13 codes that prohibited employment of any minors under 18
included the following industries: Bur esque theater, coal dock,
concrete masonry, concrete-pipe manufacturing, natural cleft stone,
pyrotechnic, quicksilver, railway brass car and locomotive bearings
and castings manufacturing, rock and slag wool, shower door, slate,
wiping cloth, and wrecking and salvage. The highest standards
were placed on employment in the bedding, motor bus, processed or
refined fish oil, and salt producing industries, for which the general
minimum was age 16 and the standard in special fields was 21.

Control and Exemptions of Miscellaneous Labor Groups
I n t h e course of operations under the National Industrial Recov­
ery Act certain extracode agencies and principles were established
to deal with special industrial situations that appeared to threaten
the equalization of competitive conditions for all units of private
business operating under codes. The problems referred to included
the exemption of retail and service trades from code limitations under
given conditions, the control of apprenticeship standards, employ­
ment of handicapped persons, homework, wage payments in scrip,
and prison labor. By Executive action authorized under title I of
the Recovery Act, principles governing some of these points were
laid down which did not always apply if there was code provision,
but did serve to fix conditions of employment if this had not been
done under code terms.




ANALYSIS OF LABOR PROVISIONS OF CODES

525

Retail and Service Trade Exemptions from Codes

It was customary to blanket under codes all industries or trades
covered by the definition of the industry given in the code, making no
exceptions for individual firms that, because of size, location, or other
reasons (including shortage of labor), were unable to conform with the
requirements fixed. In order to secure a postponement in putting the
provisions into effect or to remove any unit from the necessity of com­
plying with the code requirements, it was usually necessary to make
application to the National Recovery Administration, and the plea
might be granted or refused on the basis of findings. However, two
groups of industry and trade were exempt from certain limitations
under codes: (1) Retail trades and service industries in towns of less
than 2,500 population for which the exemption extended to all labor
provisions except those controlling the employment of child labor
and the statutory requirements for collective bargaining, but it was
required that the provisions setting forth fair trade practices be
observed; and (2) service trades, which were exempt from the fairtrade-practice provisions of codes but were subject to the labor pro­
visions in their entirety. The second group included such trades as
motor-vehicle storage and parking, bowling and billiard, cleaning and
dyeing, shoe rebuilding, advertising-display installation, advertising
distributing, and barber-shop trades, irrespective of the size of com­
munity in which the business was operating. It is apparent that the
result of these two classes of exemptions was to place certain small
units in the service trades, i. e., in towns of less than 2,500 population,
outside the limits of both the labor and fair-trade-practice provisions
commonly imposed under codes; the single exception was that re­
strictions on employment of child labor must be observed. Local
trade-practice agreements might be entered into if supported by 85
percent of the members of the trade.
The first action taken to exempt the service trades from the fairtrade-practice provisions was an Executive order of May 26, 1934,
which left to the Administrator the designation of particular service
trades to be exempted; the Administrator on May 28 named the
service trades listed in the preceding paragraph. On August 13,1934,
the Administration moved to bring the still uncodified service trades
under labor standards, by announcing that employers would be cir­
cularized through the post office. The employers were asked to sign
applications for official copies of the code “ Blue Eagle’7 and the labor
provisions affecting them, this action and display of the “ Blue Eagle”
being accepted as evidence of compliance with code labor provisions.
Apprenticeship Provisions

A good many industries endeavored to control the working con­
ditions of apprentices and learners through codes, by laying down
limits as to duration of the apprenticeship period, restricting the
number of apprentices to be employed, and fixing special wage rates
for such labor. Provisions of this kind lacked uniformity, the learning
periods set ranging from 6 weeks to 6 months, with allowances up to
1 year. The permitted number of apprentices was sometimes fixed
on a percentage basis, as 5 to 10 percent of total workers or total
productive workers. The rates of pay of apprentices were usually 70,
80, or 90 percent of the code minimum for regular workers. Failure




526

N. R . A .— LABOR ASPECTS

to include standards for apprentices resulted in confusion except in
the industries whose apprenticeship-training programs antedated the
National Recovery program.
By Executive order of June 27, 1934, new rules were prescribed
governing the employment of apprentices which made it possible to
employ an apprentice at less than code rates or for hours in excess of the
code allowance upon permission from the agency designated by the
Secretary of Labor and a certificate permitting such employment
under the approved training program. The term “ apprentice” as
defined in the order meant a person of at least 16 years of age who
had entered into a written contract with an employer providing for
at least 2,000 hours of reasonably continuous employment under an
approved training program. Under this order the Federal Com­
mittee on Apprentice Training was established,18 with the Secretary
of Labor as chairman; the membership included one representative
and one alternate from the Office of Education of the Department
of the Interior, the Department of Labor, and the National Recovery
Administration. The Committee advised the Secretary of Labor in
the exercise of its powers under the Executive order and in enforcing
the standards and regulations.
The Secretary of Labor issued regulations on August 14, 1934,
authorizing the Committee to proceed with the preparation of basic
standards for use in developing apprentice-training programs. These
regulations provided that standards might vary according to occu­
pation or industry but must include, in addition to the requirements
established by the President, provisions that: (1) The apprentice­
training period might not be less than 2,000 nor more than 10,000
hours of reasonably continuous employment; (2) at least 144 hours
must be devoted to group instruction on general as well as technical
subjects, under direction of public authorities, and that this time be
included in the maximum working hours prescribed in the applicable
code, except that where the maximum was 40 hours or less per week
the hours devoted to study might in the discretion of the appropriate
authority be in addition to the regular hours, but with 44 hours per
week the absolute maximum including hours of instruction; and
(3) the beginning wage must ordinarily not be less than 25 percent of
the basic rate for journeymen in the locality, and must be increased
periodically so that the average rate for apprentices would be not less
than 50 percent of the journeyman's basic wage for the entire period
of apprenticeship.
The Secretary of Labor ordered the Committee to study existing
State agencies with a view to making recommendations as to the
designation of these or other agencies either regional, local, general,
or special, to supervise training. Any agency so designated was
required to place training and education of apprentices first on its
program and adopt basic standards at least as strict as those of the
Secretary of Labor. It was specified that such agencies must be
authorized to issue certificates to apprentices and must work out and
enforce a plan to supervise apprentice training subject to approval of
the Secretary of Labor and make full use of the service of the Federal
Committee on Apprentice Training.
These regulations did not apply to an employer operating under a
code having apprentice-training provisions that had been or might be
approved by the Secretary of Labor.
is For report on activities of this committee, see p. 5.




ANALYSIS OF LABOR PROVISIONS OF CODES

527

Provisions for Handicapped Workers

An Executive order of February 17, 1934, made possible the em­
ployment of handicapped workers under all codes. Prior to that
time provisions for such employment had been written into codes but
without standardization as to rates of pay or proportion of such
employees in the labor force. In some cases the codes exempted the
handicapped from all the labor standards established. The Presi­
dent’s order did not replace the existing code provisions but made it
possible for employers, operating under codes which contained no
provision for the employment of the handicapped, to take on such
workers, and gave the United States Department of Labor power to
designate State officials to issue certificates to handicapped workers
permitting employment at less than code rates. The Secretary’s
Committee on Minimum Wage was made the administrative agent of
the Department of Labor. In a memorandum of April 11, 1934, sent
to State officials authorized to issue certificates to handicapped
workers, the Committee announced that under codes not fixing con­
ditions of employment for handicapped workers the rates of pay
would be 75 percent of the code minimum and these workers could
not exceed 5 percent of the total number of employees. Handicapped
workers paid in accordance with code provision were required to be
certificated by the proper State agency but could be kept at work
pending the issuance or refusal of the certificate.
A doctor’s certificate was required for all persons employed as
handicapped workers before the State certificate was issued. Persons
so classified had actually to have some infirmity resulting from age,
physical or mental defects, or injury that impaired their earning
capacity.
Certificates could not be given to employees simply because they
were found to be slow or inefficient, or to individuals with some physi­
cal or mental defect that did not affect earning power in the special
occupation in which they were engaged. The Secretary’s Committee
on Minimum ffa^e sought to introduce uniform safeguards, keeping
these factors in mind.
The principle was also established that the reduction in the wage
paid to handicapped persons should be proportionate to the reduction
in their efficiency, and indiscriminate application of the 75-percent
rate, regardless of the degree of disability, was barred as inequitable.
Employers were required to report, to the agencies designated to
issue certificates for handicapped workers, any cases of employment of
severely injured persons on light work who were being compensated
for partial disability, including a report on the wages paid, the date of
beginning work, and the date when the employee returned to his
regular employment. The State agency could order such work to be
discontinued.
Provisions for Homework

In the clothing industries, where homework has long been a factor
in undermining the level of wages and keeping working hours long, a
determined effort was made either to prohibit homework entirely by
code agreement or to subject it to the same limitations that existed
under factory operation. e The first step was toward abolition of the
practice of homework, either outright or by stages, with a certain
proportion of the homeworkers to be dropped at given intervals (as




528

N. R . A .— LABOR ASPECTS

under the code for the leather and woolen knit glove industry).
Later, the National Recovery Administration set up a special com­
mittee to determine a homework policy. Upon the basis of this com­
mittee’s findings, an Executive order was issued May 15, 1934, per­
mitting homework at the applicable code wage for persons incapacitated
for factory work by reason of injury, etc., persons responsible for the
care of a person who was bedridden or invalided, and workers ac­
customed to this method of earning a living before code limitations
became effective. The order applied to all codes except those covering
the handling of food and allied products. Under codes providing for
the gradual elimination of homework, the terms of the Executive order
did not come into force until after the date the code prohibitions
became completely effective.
The administration of this order was in the hands of the Secretary’s
Committee on Minimum Wage, and certificates for homework were
issued by State agencies designated by the United States Department
of Labor upon joint application of the employer and the homeworker.
It was required that the homeworker should be certificated by the
State agency determined by the United States Department of Labor,
and must be free of contagious diseases and maintain certain stand­
ards of sanitation. If at any time investigation showed that the
reason for permitting homework had ceased to exist certificates might
be revoked. While there was no rule as to the number of workers
who might be given homework, agents issuing certificates were
cautioned to use restraint.
Rates paid to homeworkers should yield as much as rates paid for
the same work done in the factory. All materials and findings should
be supplied by the employer and delivered and returned without
expense to the worker. No deductions might be made for spoiled
work. The homeworker was required to pledge himself not to allow
other persons to assist in any part of the homework. The assignment
of more work than it was possible to complete in the applicable code
hours was prohibited.
Payment of Wages in Scrip

A large number of codes specified that payment of wages should be
made either in currency or by check. In many industries this did not
involve a departure from established custom, but it was a significant
feature in a code such as that for the bituminous-coal industry, where
labor has long sought to obtain cash wage payments in order to
become free from the necessity of trading at company stores. Codes
for certain of the distributive trades contained a provision that scrip
would be accepted up to a stated date, thus allowing time for a study
of the economic and social effects of such wage payments.
A special committee of three was appointed by the National
Recovery Administrator in March 1934 to investigate both scrip
payments of wages and receipts of scrip by retailers in lieu of cash.
The committee reported as regards company stores and wage pay­
ments in scrip (see p. 561). The effectiveness of the code provisions
on these points was postponed on several occasions to permit
additional study of the findings and did not come into operation
during the life of the codes.




ORDERS AND RULINGS

529

Prison Labor

Under certain codes approved in the early months of operation
under the Recovery Act, provisions were adopted laying down the
principle that the output of penal, reformatory, or correctional
institutions should enter the open market only on a basis fairly
competitive with similar merchandise not so produced.
Because of the economic and social questions involved, this led to a
movement to control the manufacture and sale of such goods along
State lines, and a “ compact” was drawn up for adoption by the
States. This compact was approved by the President in April 1934
and was approved by the majority of States before the end of the
year. Under its terms working hours in prison shops might not exceed
those established for competing private industry (and in no case
exceed 40 per week) and goods might not be sold below the fair current
price prevailing in the markets where normally sold. In fixing prices,
it was required that the cost of production of the prison goods should
be computed, taking into account the same allowances for labor and
overhead paid in domestic, private industry on competing and com­
parable products. This action removed from the jurisdiction of codes
all questions involving the production of prison-made goods, while at
the same time placing prison industries on a fair competitive basis and
making it possible for the selling trades to handle the products of
prisons.
The whole question of prison labor was reopened in connection with
the revision of working standards under the cotton-garment industry,
by the Executive order of October 12, 1934. The committee named
under this order to study prison-labor competition in the manufacture
of cotton garments stated in its report that the basic aims of labor
were incompatible with the purpose of the prison compact and that
nothing short of complete withdrawal of prison goods from competitive
markets and a program of prison production for State use would settle
the controversy. Strict adherence to the prison-labor compact was
recommended until a long-range plan could be worked out. An outline
for such a plan was placed before the Administration by the committee.
The Federal Prison Industries Corporation was afterward appointed
to consider ways of securing greater variety in the goods produced by
the prisons so that prison competition would not rest so heavily
upon any one industry, such as the manufacture of cotton garments.

Orders and Rulings Relating to N. R. A. Codes

A

FEW of the more important orders affecting general policies to
be followed in enforcing code provisions are summarized below.
Working Conditions

Code provisions supersede less favorable u nion conditions .—Compli­
ance with code requirements in cases in which labor standards
arrived at through collective bargaining and incorporated in joint
agreement were lower than those established under the applicable
codes was required by a ruling by the National Recovery Adminis­
tration, and its order was upheld in a decision of the Industrial
192 0 5 — 36--------35




530

N . R . A .— LABOR ASPECTS

Appeals Board rejecting an appeal of a trucking company in New
Jersey. The decision in question was announced by the National
Recovery Administration on March 15, 1935. The Board held that
its decision was not inequitable in that employers who paid wages
in excess of the code minimum when the code became effective were
neither aided nor injured. Other employers were uniformly brought
up to a minimum standard of wage payment.
Wages
Restrictions on wage paym ents below code m in im u m .—Employers
who entered the electrical-manufacturing industry after July 15,
1929, were not empowered to pay hourly wages below the code
minimum of 40 cents as provided under the terms of article III (b)
of the code which permitted payment of the minimum as of July
15, 1929, but not less than 32 cents an hour if the rate for the same
class of work on the earlier date was lower. In announcing this
ruling on March 7, 1935, the National Industrial Recovery Board
emphasized the original purpose of the code—that employers who
could show on their books that the 1929 wage was lower than 40
cents an hour were entitled to claim the right to pay the lower rate.
Companies entering the industry later and having no such records
could not automatically avail themselves of the exception. All em­
ployers, however, had the right to apply to the National Recovery
Administration for exemption from the code wage provision if they
could show that they occupied an unfair competitive position with
respect to a particular class of employees as compared with workers
similarly employed by a competitor.
B on u s considered as part o f wage.—By an administrative ruling of
the National Recovery Administration made in September 1934
bonuses paid to workers in the cotton-textile industry prior to adop­
tion of the Recovery Act were to* be calculated as part of the em­
ployees’ wages. The question arose in connection with an order
requiring a certain mill to raise wages as of July 17, 1933, by a fixed
percentage. In complying, the mill did not take into consideration
the 5- and 10-percent bonuses allowed to employees in addition to
the fixed rate of pay.
The National Recovery Administration ruled as follows:

1. By wage is meant the total compensation received for the class of work
performed by the employee. Hence the bonus must be included in the calcula­
tion of the wage.
2. The week immediately prior to July 17, 1933, is to be used in determining
the wage received for the longer work week. The wage for that week should be
taken to mean the total compensation the employee received that week, or would
have received that week had he worked the full number of hours customarily
worked in said mill.
P a y authorized f o r work interruptions beyond workers9 control .—
Workers employed under coded industries should be paid for inter­
ruptions of work beyond their control when required by employers
to be present and ready for work, according to an administrative
order of the National Industrial Recovery Board issued late in
December 1934. Four causes of interruption were listed over which
the employee presumably had no control: Breakdowns, delays, time
spent waiting for materials or waiting for the loading or unloading
of railroad cars or other vehicles of transportation, and interruptions
in activity due to other causes.




ORDERS AND RULINGS

531

Piecework compensation to be commuted at least once a week.—A
ruling regarding compensation in codified industries operating under
a piecework system provided that the amount of compensation be
computed at least once in 7 consecutive days and yield not less than
the minimum hourly rate of pay established in the applicable code
multiplied by the number of hours worked in the period. This
ruling was a part of an interpretation of the National Industrial
Recovery Board, made in January 1935, relative to code provisions
extending minimum hourly rates of pay to pieceworkers.

Homework
Shops established in homes declared in violation oj code provisions .—
Any shop set up in private apartments, rooms, or living quarters
was declared a violation of code provisions if the code in question
provided for the abolition of homework. This principle was stated
m an administrative order of the National Industrial Recovery
Board dated January 28, 1935. The ruling did not apply to home­
work carried on under the provisions of the Executive order (6711-A )
dated May 15, 1934, whereby persons were allowed to engage in
homework at the same rates of pay as were granted for the same
kind of work performed in factories.

Apprentices
Clarification oj terms oj employment jo r learners and apprentices .—
The terms, “ day” , “ week” , “ month” , and “ year” , as used in
industrial codes, were interpreted to mean the respective calendar
periods, plus any loss in normal full working time due to interrup­
tions in plant operation or individual failure on the part of employees
to work. This was announced by the National Recovery Adminis­
tration on March 16, 1935, in order to facilitate interpretation of
the code terms governing employment of learners and apprentices
and to make it possible to apply the codes with greater uniformity.

Sheltered Workshops
Sheltered workshops not to exceed work quota in strike periods .—
Sheltered workshops, in which contract work is done for manufac­
turers involved in labor disputes, agreed not to undertake to produce
more than their average quota of work during periods of industrial
conflict. This agreement was reached between the National Shel­
tered Workshop Committee, representing 200 institutions and 25,000
mentally or physically handicapped workers, and the National
Recovery Administration in the fall of 1934.
It should be remembered that sheltered workshops are those oper­
ated by welfare or charitable institutions to give employment to
persons handicapped physically, mentally, or socially, and while the
employees are paid for their labor the workshops are not operated
for profit. Such establishments were exempt from code provisions.




532

N . R . A .— LABOR ASPECTS

Collective Bargaining Under the National Industrial
Recovery Act

T

H E right of labor to bargain collectively through representatives
of its own choosing was guaranteed in section 7 (a) of the Na­
tional Industrial Recovery Act in the following terms:

Every code of fair competition, agreement, and license approved, prescribed,
or issued under this title shall contain the following conditions: (1) That em­
ployees shall have the right to organize and bargain collectively through repre­
sentatives of their own choosing, and shall be free from the interference, restraint,
or coercion of employers of labor, or their agents, in the designation of such
representatives or in self-organization or in other concerted activities for the
purpose of collective bargaining or other mutual aid or protection; (2) that no
employee and no one seeking employment shall be required as a condition of
employment to join any company union or to refrain from joining, organizing, or
assisting a labor organization of his own choosing; and (3) that employers shall
comply with the maximum hours of labor, minimum rates of pay, and other
conditions of employment approved or prescribed by the President.

A great deal of controversy, however, arose in regard to the interpre­
tation of this section, both in code making and code enforcement.
Early in the history of the National Recovery Administration certain
of the major industries inserted in their proposed codes the so-called
“ merit clause” whereby industry declared its right to select, retain,
or advance employees on the basis of individual merit. The president
of the American Iron and Steel Institute withdrew the merit clause
from the iron and steel code at the opening of the public hearing
affecting that industry, at the same time stating that the position of
industrial leaders as to desirability of such a provision was unchanged.
Less than 3 weeks later the same question arose in connection with the
automobile-industry code, but this industry maintained its position
with respect to the “ merit clause” and it was written into the
approved code. The exact wording follows:
Without in any way attempting to qualify or modify, by interpretation, the
foregoing requirements of the National Industrial Recovery Act, employers in
this industry may exercise their right to select, retain, or advance employees on
the basis of individual merit, without regard to their membership or nonmember­
ship in any organization.

In approving the automobile code the Labor Advisory Board made
a statement that this was done “ with the understanding that no
section or sentence contained therein modifies, qualifies, or changes
section 7 (a) of the National Industrial Recovery Act and, furthermore,
that the sentence in the code following section 7 (a) does not establish
a precedent to be followed in the preparation or acceptance of any
other code.
In succeeding months the question of enforcing the terms of section
7 (a) became increasingly acute, and in March 1934 there was a
threatened stoppage in the automobile industry to secure union recog­
nition. The strike was postponed at the request of the President,
who, on March 25, 1934, proposed certain terms of settlement, which
were agreed to by the parties concerned. The President’s settlement
was based on the rights accorded labor under section 7 (a) of the
National Industrial Recovery Act which, reduced to plain language,
he considered to mean: “ (a) Employees have the right to organize
into a group or groups; (b) when such group or groups are organized
they can choose representatives by free choice, and such representatives
must be received collectively and thereby seek to straighten out disputes



COLLECTIVE BARGAINING

533

and improve conditions of employment; (c) discrimination against
employees because of their labor affiliations, or for any other unfair
or unjust reason is barred.” Earlier interpretations of section 7 (a)
were based on acceptance of majority will. In this settlement minori­
ties were given voting power proportionate to their strength.
The fundamental bases of settlement were set forth as follows:
1. The employers agree to bargain collectively with the freely chosen represent­
atives of groups and not to discriminate in any way against any employee on the
ground of his union labor affiliations.
2. If there be more than one group each bargaining committee shall have total
membership pro rata to the number of men each member represents.
3. National Recovery Administration to set up within 24 hours a board,
responsible to the President of the United States, to sit in Detroit to pass on all
questions of representation, discharge, and discrimination. Decision of the
Board shall be final and binding on employer and employees. Such a board to
have access to all pay rolls and to all lists of claimed employee representation
and such board will be composed of—
(a) A labor representative; (b) an industry representative; (c) a neutral.
In cases where no lists of employees claiming to be represented have been
disclosed to the employer, there shall be no basis for a claim of discrimination.
No such disclosure in a particular case shall be made without specific direction of
the President.
4. The Government makes it clear that it favors no particular union or par­
ticular form of employee organization or representation. The Government’s
only duty is to secure absolute and uninfluenced freedom of choice without
coercion, restraint, or intimidation from any source.
5. The industry understands that in reduction or increases of force, such
human relationships as married men with families shall come first and then
seniority, individual skill, and efficient service. After these factors have been
considered no greater proportion of outside union employees similarly situated
shall be laid off than of other employees. By outside union employees is under­
stood a paid-up member in good standing, or anyone legally obligated to pay up.
An appeal shall lie in case of dispute on principles of paragraph 5 to the board of
three.

On March 27 the membership of the board of three for the automo­
bile industry was announced by the National Recovery Administra­
tor; namely, Leo Wolman, chairman and neutral representative;
Richard Byrd, labor r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ; and Nicholas Kelly, industry
representative.
The Houdc Case
P r o b a b ly the next most significant step in the struggle on the
interpretation of section 7 (a) occurred in August 1934, when the
National Labor Relations Board handed down its decision in the
H ou de Engineering Corporation case .
This case came before the National Labor Relations Board upon
complaint of the union that, although it had been chosen as the
collective agency by a majority of the company’s employees at an
election conducted by the National Labor Board, the company de­
clined to recognize the union as the collective-bargaining agency for
all the employees eligible to vote in the election. The company
insisted that under section 7 (a) of the Recovery Act it was obligated
to bargain collectively not merely with the union but also with the
organization voted for the minority of employees.
After hearings on the complaint of the union before the Buffalo
Regional Labor Board and the National Labor Board, an election was
ordered to be held in the plant on March 23, 1934. The election
resulted in 1,105 ballots for the union and 647 for the association,
with about 400 not voting.




534

N . R . A .— LABOR ASPECTS

After the election the company met every week or two on Satur­
day mornings, first with the association’s committee and then with
the union committee. In the opinion of the Board, the company’s
policy of dealing first with one group and then with the other resulted,
whether intentional or not, in defeating the objects of the statute.
The Board commented on the situation, in part, as follows:
The President, in creating the National Steel Labor Relations Board by Exec­
utive order on June 28, 1934, * * * directed that where elections were held:
“ The person, persons, or organization, certified as the choice of the majority of
those voting shall be accepted as the representatives of said employees for the
purpose of collective bargaining * *
This Board, therefore, stands upon the majority rule. And it does so the more
willingly because the rule is in accord with American traditions of political democ­
racy, which empower representatives elected by the majority of the voters to speak
for all the people.
In concluding this opinion the Board wishes to indicate the limits beyond which
it does not go. The rule here announced is to be applied, in the language of the
Executive order of June 28 just referred to, “ without denying to any employee or
groups of employees the right to present grievances, to confer with their employ­
ers, or to associate themselves and act for mutual aid or protection.7
7
The rule does not compel employees to join th,e organization representing the
majority. It does not establish a closed shop, nor necessarily lead to a closed
shop; that being a matter for negotiation.

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

Subject to these qualifications, the Board confines itself to holding that when
a person, committee, or organization has been designated by the majority of em­
ployees in a plant or other appropriate unit for collective bargaining, it is the
right of the representative so designated to be treated by the employer as the
exclusive collective-bargaining agency of all employees in the unit, and the em­
ployer^ duty to make every reasonable effort, when requested, to arrive with
this representative at a collective agreement covering terms of employment for
all such employees.

The decision of the Board was as follows:
F in d in g s .— The Houde Engineering Corporation has violated section 7 (a) by
interfering with the self-organization of its employees, impairing their right of
collective bargaining and refusing to bargain collectively within the meaning of
that section, in that, first, it negotiated without intending to reach a collective
agreement, and, second, it negotiated with the association after the employees
had, by majority vote, designated the union as their exclusive agency.
E n fo r c e m e n t .— Unless within 10 days from the date of this decision the Houde
Engineering Corporation notifies the Board in writing that it recognizes the
United Automobile Workers7 Federal Union No. 18839, as its employees7 exclu­
sive agency for collective bargaining, and that, when requested by the union, it
will enter into negotiations with the union and endeavor in good faith to arrive
at a collective agreement covering terms of employment of all employees within
the class which was permitted to vote at the election of March 23, 1934, the case
will be referred to the National Recovery Administration and to the enforcement
agencies of the Federal Government for appropriate action.

Although the Houde case did reach the courts (U . S . v. Houde E n g i­
neering Corporation , 9 Fed. Supp. 833), final litigation was stopped by

the Schechter decision, which held that the code features of the
National Recovery Act were unconstitutional. However, it is to be
noted that the Supreme Court did not, in the Schechter case, pass upon
the constitutionality of section 7 (a) itself.
The principle of majority rule enunciated by the Labor Board in
the Houde decision was incorporated into the National Labor Rela­
tions Act of July 5, 1935 (Public 198, sec. 9a).




VOLUNTARY AGREEMENTS

535

Activities of Industrial Appeals Board
URING its first 7 months 44 appeals were heard by the Indus­
trial Appeals Board,19 the larger portion of which involved
questions other than those dealing with discrimination against small
enterprises. The Board took office on August 1, 1934, and was
created “ tt> act on all complaints of inequitable application of codes
to small enterprises or otherwise.” After hearing complaints the
procedure followed by the Industrial Appeals Board was to recom­
mend to the National Industrial Recovery Board action to be taken.
The recommendations became official determinations if and when
approved by the Recovery Board.
Of the 44 appeals heard, 42 had been sent to the National Industrial
Recovery Board and 2 were still pending when the report was made
public. An additional 10 cases were awaiting hearing before the
Industrial Appeals Board. The National Recovery Administration
was upheld in 28 of the cases decided; in 9 it was recommended that
there be modification of prior action or that the cases be remanded
for further action; and in the remaining 5 cases the National Recovery
Administration rulings were reversed, with the recommendation that
appeals be granted. In all but a single case the National Recovery
Administration followed the recommendations made.
The cases dealt in large part with code provisions governing wages
and hours, the classifications of appellants, and interpretation of the
code requirements. There were hearings on a variety of other sub­
jects including machine-hour limitations, provisions as to apprentices
and learners, and actions of administrative officials. Appeals were
made by 33 industries.

D

Voluntary Agreements Under National Industrial
Recovery Act

W

ITH the discontinuance of code making under the terms of
title I of the Recovery Act the President sought to open the
way for the adoption of voluntary agreements fixing labor conditions
in connection with trade-practice agreements.
The Federal Trade Commission was therefore authorized by Execu­
tive order of September 26, 1935, to approve trade-practice agree­
ments in conformity with the National Industrial Recovery Act, and
joint resolution of June 14, 1935, amending it, provided the agree­
ments contained labor provisions putting into effect the requirements
of section 7 (a) of the Recovery Act. This authority was granted
with the further requirement that such labor provisions must be
approved by the President.
The order reads:
By virtue of and pursuant to the authority vested in me by section 2 (a) and
section 2 (b) of title I of the National Industrial Recovery Act (48 Stat. 195),
certain provisions of which title were extended until April 1, 1936, by the joint
resolution of June 14, 1935 (Public Res. No. 26, 74th Cong.), I hereby delegate
to the Federal Trade Commission all authority vested in me by said act and
resolution to approve such trade-practice provisions as are permitted by clause
numbered 2 of the proviso of section 2 of said joint resolution and submitted in
voluntary agreements pursuant to section 4 (a) of said title of said act: P ro v id ed ,
19

National Recovery Administration.




Press release no. 10368, Mar. 6 , 1935.

536

N. R. A .— LABOR ASPECTS

That such approval shall not be given by the Federal Trade Commission unless
such agreements contain labor provisions putting into effect the requirements
of section 7 (a) of the said National Industrial Recovery Act and after such
labor provisions have received my approval.

Up to November 1, 1935, hearings were held by the National
Recovery Administration on the labor provisions of three such trade
agreements. The industries for which voluntary labor- standards
were reviewed are the wholesale tobacco trade, candle manufacturing,
and expanding and specialty paper products.
In all three instances a 40-hour week was proposed with exceptions
for certain classes of workers. Wages ranged from 25 to 40 cents an
hour, and child labor was prohibited for those under 16 in all occupa­
tions and under 18 in work that was hazardous or unhealthful. The
principle of freedom to bargain collectively through representatives
of the employees’ choosing was written into each agreement. None
of these agreements had received final approval up to December 15.

National Recovery Administration Terminated
Y E X E C U T IV E order of December 23, 1935, the National
Recovery Administration and the Office of Administrator were
terminated and four divisions of the organization were transferred
to other branches of the Federal Government. This order was
effective January 1, 1936, for the duration of the recovery legislation,
that is, until April 1, 1936. The Divisions of Review and Business
Cooperation and the Advisory Council were transferred to the Depart­
ment of Commerce, and the consumers’ division, including its entire
personnel, was placed in the Department of Labor.

B

A ctivitie s and Decisions of Special La b o r Boards

(See section on “ Arbitration and Conciliation” , p. 9)

Employment, Hours, Earnings, and Production,
January 1933 to January 19352
0
RO M INENT in the policies formulated in 1933 and 1934, alike
in legislation and in the administration of the laws, were the
various provisions relating to labor. Particularly important were
the statutory principles and the regulations, embodied largely in
codes, relating to hours, wages, and collective action between groups
of workers and their employers. These provisions were designed
particularly to eliminate unfair practice and child labor, to increase
employment, and to expand the purchasing power of the wage earners.
The program was an outgrowth of the progressive increase of unem­
ployment and decline of income, combined with disparity in its dis­
tribution, and the consequent undermining of the basis of production
in the purchasing power of the principal groups of consumers.

P

20
The article by Witt Bowden, of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, of which this is a summary, was pub­
lished in the Monthly Labor Review, March 1935 (pp. 541-573).




EMPLOYMENT, HOURS, ETC., JANUARY 1933-35

537

The most notable changes in the status of labor as indicated by the
information collected and compiled by the Bureau of Labor Statis­
tics were probably those connected with hours of labor and hourly
earnings. Average weekly hours in the manufacturing industries de­
clined about one-sixth (16.1 percent) from June 1933 to June 1934,
and in manufacturing industries and 13 nonmanufacturing industries
combined,21 about one-seventh (13.9 percent). Average hourly earn­
ings increased during the same period, in manufacturing industries,
almost one-third (31.1 percent); and in manufacturing industries and
13 nonmanufacturing industries combined, almost one-fourth (23.7
percent). Changes after June 1934 were slight. On the basis of
average weekly hours and average hourly earnings in manufacturing
and 13 nonmanufacturing industries combined, per capita weekly
earnings showed an increase from June 1933 to June 1934 of 6.5 per­
cent. On the basis of reports of employment and pay rolls in manu­
facturing industries (these reports covering a larger proportion of
establishments than in the case of average weekly hours and average
hourly earnings) per capita weekly earnings during the same period
showed an increase in manufacturing industries of 13.4 percent.
In manufacturing industries, employment in terms of number of
workers increased from June 1933 to June 1934 more than one-fifth
(21.1 percent) and in terms of total man-hours, less than 2 percent.
Pay rolls increased 37.3 percent, although it should be noted that
earlier there had been a much more serious decline in weekly wage
payments than in employment. The volume of output in terms of the
Federal Reserve Board’s index of production in manufactures de­
clined 10 percent, although, as is pointed out later (p. 542), it is prob­
able that the index for June 1933 showed an unavoidable upward
bias.
On the basis of the data contained in table 2, comparisons between
various periods may readily be made, not only for the aggregates
but separately for various industries. Additional comparisons are
made in table 1, and the various tables include information relating
to nonmanufacturing industries, cost of living, wholesale prices, and
other items.
Summary of Changes

I n t a b l e 1 (p. 538) the percentages of change in average weekly
hours, number of employees, and various other items are computed
from indexes based on the average for 1932 as 100. The indexes
are given in table 2. The percentages of change in the several items
of table 1 are shown (1) for 1933 as compared with 1932; (2) for 1934
as compared with 1932; (3) for June 1934 as compared with June
1933 (approximately the first year of the operation of codes); and (4)
for January 1935 as compared with January 1933. On the basis of
table 2, similar comparisons may readily be made between any other
periods included in the table, not only for the group as given in the
first section but for any of the industries given in the later sections
of the table.
2i
Nonmanufacturing industries reporting employment data to the Bureau of Labor Statistics are an­
thracite mining, bituminous-coal mining, metalliferous mining, quarrying and nonmetallic mining, crudepetroleum producing, telephone and telegraph, power and light, electric-railroad and motor-bus operation
and maintenance, wholesale trade, retail trade, laundries, dyeing and cleaning, and hotels, and a group of
enterprises classified as banks, brokerage, insurance, and real estate. The last group is not included in
tables 1 and 2 .




538

N. R. A .— LABOR ASPECTS

T ABL E 1 .—P E R C E N T OF C H AN G E IN HOURS, E M P L O Y M E N T , EAR N IN G S, A N D P R O ­
D U CT IO N IN SPECIFIED IN D U ST R IES R EPO R TIN G TO T H E U N IT E D STATES
BU R EAU OF LABOR STATISTICS
Percent of change in—
Industry

Aver­ Num­ Total
age
ber of
man­
weekly
em­
hours ployees hours

Pay
rolls

Per
Aver­
Aver­
capita
age
age
weekly hourly Produc­ man­
tion
earn­
earn­
hour
output *
ings
ings

(1) From 1932 to 1933 (annual averages)
- 0 .3
Manufacturing industries...................
Manufacturing and 13 nonmanufac­
- 2 .4
turing industries combined---------Blast furnaces, steel works, and roll­
+ 2 1 .2
ing mills-....................................... .
+ 6 .3
Agricultural implements................. .
Electrical machinery, apparatus,
+ 7 .4
and supplies----------------------- --------Automobiles------------------------------------ +13,1
+ 4 .5
Sawmills------------ ------------- --------------Cement____________________________ -1 5 .5
Carpets and rugs----------------------------- +25.7
-2 .9
Cotton goods................................ .........
+ 1 .5
Woolen and worsted goods-------------- 2 .0
Leather--------- --------------------------------- 8.6
Flour.................... ...................... ...........
-5 .7
Slaughtering and meat packing------Cigars and cigarettes----------------------+. 1
- 6 .0
Petroleum refining...........................
- 4 .1
Rubber tires and inner tubes---------+ 3 .8
Anthracite m in i n g --------- ------------Bituminous-coal mining-----------------+ 9 .6
Crude-petroleum producing------------5 .7
-1 0 .3
Telephone and telegraph— ...........
-4 .1
Retail trade....................... ....................

+ 7 .6

+ 7 .3

+ 5 .1

- 2 .3

- 1 .9

- 5 .3

—% 7

+13.5
+13.5

+37.7
+ 2 0.7

+42.7
+16.4

+25.6
+ 2 .6

+ 1 .1
-2 .5

-9 .7
- 1 .6
+ 10 .0
- 8 .5
+16.5
+29.1
+31.5
+17.7
+ 4 .0
+ 9 .8
-7 .4
+ 4 .0
+13.3
-1 7 .3
+. 7
+ 12.5
- 11.0
-.9

- 3 .0
+11.3
+ 15.0
-2 2 .7
+46.4
+25.4
+33.5
+15.3
- 4 .9
+ 3 .5
- 7 .3
- 2 .2
+ 8 .7
-1 4 .2
+10.4
+ 6 .1
- 2 0 .2
- 5 .0

-9 .4
+ 1 .2
+12.7
-1 9 .9
+32.3
+ 39.2
+31.9
+19.3
- 3 .6
+ 3 .8
-1 1 .4
- 2 .7
+ 10 .6
-1 4 .7
+ 6 .2

+ .3
+ 2 .8
+ 2 .5
-1 2 .5
+13.6
+ 7 .8
+ .3
+ 1 .4
- 7 .3
- 5 .5
-4 .2
- 6 .4
- 2 .4
+ 3 .1
+ 5 .5
- 11.1
—5.5
-1 1 .9

- 4 .3
- 9 .5
- 6 .4
+ 4 .2
-5 .9
+14.3
- 1 .8
+ 1 .5
+ 2 .1
- 2 .2
- 2 .9
- 1 .7
+ 1 .0
- 1 .9
- 4 .3

0

—15.9
-1 2 .7

0

+19,

+ 11

+72

+25

+40
+28
-1 8
+46
+25
+35
+17
+ 1
+ 10

+26
+ 11
+6
1
1
+0
+0
+6
+6

+5
+4
+14
-7
+7
+14

+13

+24

+8

+ 92

+24

+ 10 0

+22

+ 5 .0
- 5 .9

+6
+6

+14
-3
+7

(2) From 1932 to 1934 (annual averages)
Manufacturing industries..................
Manufacturing and 13 nonmanufac­
turing industries combined---------Blastfurnaces, steel works, and roll­
ing mills............................................
Agricultural implements.............—
Electrical machinery, apparatus,
and supplies--------------------------------Automobiles_________ _________ —
Sawmills--------- --------------- ------- -------Cement____________ _______________
Carpets and rugs----------------------------Cotton goods---------------------------------Woolen and worsted goods............. .
Leather...................................................
Flour......................................... .............
Slaughtering and meat packing........
Cigars and cigarettes------ ---------------Petroleum refining_________________
Rubber tires and inner tubes---------Anthracite mining-------------Bituminous-coal mining-----Crude-petroleum producing.
Telephone and telegraph - . .
Retail trade.........—.........—

- 6 .8

+ 2 2 .8

+14.4

+34.3

+ 9 .4

+ 16.0

+ 1 .0

- 8 .9

+10.9

+14.4
+16.1

+35.3 +54.8 +98.4
+91.6 +122.4 +139. 8

+46.6
+ 25.2

+28.0
+12.3

+12.9
+ 6 .7
- 6 .5
-1 8 .4
+ 11.1
- 2 1 .8
-1 5 .8
-1 1 .7
-1 9 .5
- 11.6
- 6 .8
-1 3 .9
- 8 .4
+ 6 .5
+ 4 .8
-2 0 .9
-9 .0
-1 1 .4

+12.4
+53.3
+27.8
+ 9 .8
+28.3
+37.0
+21.7
+31.8
+17.5
+ 29.9
- 2 .6
+15.7
+31.7
- 4 .6
+14.5
+40.5
- 11.1
+ 6 .8

+14.3
+16.4
+17.7
+. 6
+21.3
+19.5
+ 4 .4
+ 8 .6
- 3 .5
+ 6 .9
+ 1 .8
- 4 .6
+13.6
+ 9 .1
+ 32.9
- 8 .2

+ 5 .3
+ 8 .0
+ 2 2 .0
+25.7
+18.2
+ 53.0
+23.6
+ 23.0
+ 19.7
+ 15.7
+ 9 .9
+13.8
+24.7

+26.9
+63.6
+19.5
- 10 .4
+42.5
+ 7 .1
+ 2 .5
+16.4
- 5 .4
+14.8
-9 .2
-.4
+ 20 .6
+ 1 .6
+ 2 0 .0
+ 11.1
-1 9 .1
- 6 .4

1-28.5
K78.4
[-50.4
hlO.3
h55.5
[-63.7
K27.1
[-43.2
[-13.4
h38.8
-.9
+10.4
+49.6
+ 4 .1
+ 52.2
+ 29.0
- 11.8
-3 .6

- .8

-9 .7

- .2

+28.1
+ 17.8
+ 9 .8
+ 4 .0

+28
+2

+7
+14

+41
+9

- 1
+2

-3
+8
+8
+8

+24
+15

+27

+19
+15
+17
+16

+13
-3
+4

+8
- 1

1 Rough approximations based on ratios of Federal Reserve Board’s production indexes to indexes of
man-hours derived from reports to the Bureau of Labor Statistics. See comments on p. 542.




539

EMPLOYMENT, HOURS, ETC., JANUARY 1933-35

TA B L E 1 .—P E R C E N T OF CH AN G E IN HOURS, E M P L O Y M E N T , E A R N IN G S, A N D PROD U C T IO N IN SPECIFIED IN D U STR IES R EPO R TIN G TO T H E U N IT E D S T A T E S
BU R EAU OF LABOR STATISTICS—Continued
Percent of change in—
Industry

Aver­ Num­
Total
age
ber of
man­
weekly
em­
hours ployees hours

Pay
rolls

Aver­
Per
Aver­
capita
age
age
weekly hourly Produc­ man­
tion
earn­
earn­
hour
ings
ings
output

(3) From June 1933 to June 1934
Manufacturing industries...................
Manufacturing and 13 nonmanufacturing industries combined______
Blast furnaces, steel works, and rolling m ills.--_________ ____________
Agricultural implements....................
Electrical machinery, apparatus,
and supplies.......................................
Automobiles_______________________
Sawmills__________________________
Cement____________________________
Carpets and rugs----------------------------Cotton goods____ _____ ___________
Woolen and worsted goods_________
Leather______ _____________________
Flour------------------- --------------------------Slaughtering and meat packing____
Cigars and cigarettes_____ _________
Petroleum refining_________________
Rubber tires and inner tubes______
Anthracite mining______ •_________
Bituminous-coal mining___________
Crude-petroleum producing-.............
Telephone and telegraph___________
Retail trade______________
___

-1 6 .1

+ 2 1 .1

+37.3

+13.4

+31.1

+ 6 .5

+ 1 .6

-1 3 .9

+23.7

- 2 .6
-.3

+44.9
+90.4

+41.1 +98.0
+85.1 +129.8

+36.6
+20.7

+42.2
+22.5

- 3 .8
-2 0 .9
- 2 0 .1
- 8 .0
-2 0 .3
-4 0 .9
-3 1 .9
-1 8 .6
-1 7 .5
-1 5 .7
-1 4 .9
-1 2 .4
-2 9 .0
+ 1 .7
- 4 .4
-2 2 .5
+ 2 .4
—13.2

+37.9
+83.6
+28.6
+27.0
+ 2 1 .2
+ 4 .5
-1 9 .0
+ 1 2 .8
+16.5
+22.3
+ 2 .7
+15.0
+25.7
+45.6
+25.2
+37.9
+ 1 .7
+12.9

+32.6
+45.2
+ 2 .7
+16.8
- 3 .4
-3 8 .2
-4 4 .9
- 8 .1
- 3 .8
+ 3 .1
-1 2 .7
+. 7
- 10 .8
+47.9
+19.7
+ 6.9
+4 .1
- 2 .1

+16.0
+ 1.8
+25.4
+24.2
+11.5
+ 2 .4
- 1 .4
+ 1 .8
+ 8 .3
+ 9 .8
+ 6 .5

+19.0
+28.2
+55.1
+39.1
+40.4
+69.2
+ 48.4
+29.2
+29.3
+28.0
+23.9
+19.6
+34.8
+ 2 .1
+52.4
+24.2
+ 2 .9
+19.7

+59.9
+86.9
+61.1
+57.7
+35.1
+ 7 .0
- 2 0 .1
+14.8
+26.2
+34.4
+ 9 .4
+14.3
+ 23.0
+55.4
+ 88.8
+40.1
+ 7 .1
+17.7

- .6
- 2 .2

+ 6 .7
+50.8
+ 1 .5
+ 5 .3
+ 4 .2

-10

-10

+20

-1 5

+26

-1 3

-2 0

-2 2

+13
+3
-4 6
-5 5
- 1

-7
-3
-2
+ 1

-4
+7
-1 3
-1 6
+7
-4
-6

+13
0

-2 6
+5
+5
-4

-1 7
-2 9
-12
-10

+38

+9

+162

+40

+118
+26
+9

+23
-5
+5
+15

(4) From January 1933 to January 1935
Manufacturing industries...................
Manufacturing and 13 nonmanufac­
turing industries combined ........
Blast furnaces, steel works, and roll­
ing mills............... ....................... .......
Agricultural implements___________
Electrical machinery, apparatus,
and supplies_____ _____
Automobiles.- __________ ________
Sawmills______ ___________________
Cement— ________ __
_ ________
Carpets and rugs__________________
Cotton goods______ ________________
Woolen and worsted goods_________
Leather.................... ............... ..............
Flour-------------------- -------------------------Slaughtering and meat packing____
Cigars and cigarettes_______________
Petroleum refining...............................
Rubber tires and Inner tubes__ . . .
Anthracite mining______ ___________
Bituminous-coal mining___________
Crude-petroleum producing________
Telephone and telegraph
R e t a i l tr a d e

+24.2

+27.6

+ 11.5

+20.4

+24.2 +49.0 +85.2 +158.9
+21.5 +134. 6 +185.4 +236.2

+73.5
+43.2

+41.1
+20.3

+81.8 +94.1
+78.4 +137.4
+32.1 +81.9
+ 3 .1 +30.1
+45.9 +107.9
+ 4 .3
+81.6
+23.4 +72.0
+ 19.0 +66.4
- 4 .7
+ 20 .8
+ 40.2
+ 1 .5
- 6 .4
+ 19.8
+ 1 .7 +19.6
+60.8 +122.9
+33.6 +33.1
+14.3 +65.1
+39.1
- 3 .1
- 6 .9
+ 3 .1
- 1 .5
+ 9 .7

+31.6
+25.8
+35.4
+14.0
+ 53.2
+38.6
+ 2 1 .8
+25.4
+ 1 .0
+15.3
+16.9
+ 1 .9
+55.7
+11.3
+44.0
+ 6 .3
+ 9 .1
—2 . 1

+ 8 .3
+31.4
+36.3
+32.7
+ 39.6
+71.6
+40.1
+47.6
+29.4
+32.4
+ 27.7
+24.2
+38.4
-.3
+44.8
+42.8
+13.8
+13.5

-3 .7

+30.6

+25.8

+62.3

—7.4

+23.3
- 5 .5
- 1 .7
-9 .8
+ 7 .5
-2 0 .4
- 1 2 .6
-1 0 .3
-2 0 .3
-1 6 .5
- 8 .7
-1 3 .3
+ 1 2 .2
+ 11.6

-.2

-2 6 .0
—1 .6
—1 2 .0

+47.4
+88.9
+34.3
+14.1
+35.7
+31.0
+41.2
+32.8
+19.4
+21.5
+ 2 .5
+17.3
+43.4
+19.8
+14.6
+30.9
—5.5
+11.9

+68
+ 11
2 + 2 .7

2+25
-5
-9
+20

2+17
2 + 10 0

+47
+29
+22

+6
2+ 2
2 + 10
0
-10

+28

2+7
2 +41
+ 10

+13
+27

2 From December 1932 to December 1934.

The following analysis of tables 1 and 2 applies only to manufac­
turing industries as a whole and to these combined with the 13
nonmanufacturing industries mentioned on page 537. It is necessary
to note that many of the nonmanufacturing groups (as construction,
steam railroads, domestic service) are not included and the aggregate
is not to be regarded as representative of these omitted groups, since
adequate information relating to most of them is not available.



540

N. ft. A.— LABOR ASPECTS

Average weekly hours in 1933 as compared with 1932 in terms of
annual averages were substantially the same in manufacturing indus­
tries but 2.4 percent lower in manufacturing industries and the 13
nonmanufacturing industries combined. In 1934 as compared with
1932 in terms of annual averages there were declines of 6.8 percent in
manufacturing industries and 8.9 percent in all of the industries
included in table 1. From June 1933 (immediately preceding the
adoption of the President’s Reemployment Agreement and the first
codes) to June 1934, there was a decline of 16.1 percent in average
weekly hours in manufacturing industries and 13.9 percent in the
combined industries. In January 1935 as compared with January 1933
there was a decline of 3.7 percent in manufacturing industries and of
7.4 percent in manufactures and the 13 nonmanufacturing industries
combined.
Number of Employees

The number of employees in manufacturing industries increased
7.6 percent in 1933 as compared with 1932; 22.8 percent in 1934 as
compared with 1932; 21.1 percent in June 1934 as compared with
June 1933; and 30.6 percent in January 1935 as compared with
January 1933.
No attempt has been made to construct composite indexes of
employment and pay rolls for manufacturing and nonmanufacturing
industries. In the first place, the statistics of some of the nonmanu­
facturing industries which report to the Bureau of Labor Statistics
are not so adequately representative as in manufacturing industries.
In the second place, the data as reported from the various industries
are not entirely comparable as to classes of employees included. In
manufacturing industries and in some of the nonmanufacturing indus­
tries wage earners only are included, while in some of the nonmanu­
facturing industries all employees are included.
While adequate information is not available relating to many of
the nonmanufacturing groups of employment, efforts have been made
to ascertain the changes on the basis of comparable samples in as large
a group of industries as possible during the period from January 1933
to January 1935. This group includes manufacturing industries, the
17 nonmanufacturing industries listed on page 537, and building con­
struction. On the basis of the best available information, the number
of employees in these industries as a whole increased 16 percent from
June 1933 to June 1934 and 18 percent from January 1933 to January
1935. These increases compare with corresponding increases in
manufacturing industries of 21 percent from June 1933 to June 1934
and 31 percent from January 1933 to January 1935.
Total Man-Hours

On the basis of the index of average weekly hours and the index of
number of employees in manufacturing industries it is possible to
ascertain approximately the rate of change in total man-hours in
manufacturing industries. The index of total man-hours thus derived
shows the following increases: 7.3 percent in 1933 as compared with
1932; 14.4 percent in 1934 as compared with 1932; 1.6 percent in
June 1934 as compared with June 1933; and 25.8 percent in January
1935 as compared with January 1933.




EMPLOYMENT, HOURS, ETC., JANUARY 1933-35

541

Pay Rolls

The index of pay rolls given in the first section of table 2 indicates the
following changes in manufacturing industries: From 1932 to 1933,
an increase of 5.1 percent; from 1932 to 1934, an increase of 34.3
percent; from June 1933 to June 1934, an increase of 37.3 percent;
and from January 1933 to January 1935, an increase of 62.3 percent.
Available information indicates that in manufacturing industries
combined with the 17 nonmanufacturing industries listed on page 537
and with building construction, total weekly pay rolls increased 24
percent from June 1933 to June 1934 as compared with a 38-percent
increase in manufacturing industries. The increase from January
1933 to January 1935 is estimated to have been 27 percent as compared
with a 62-percent increase in manufacturing pay rolls.
The comparatively high rate of increase of weekly wage payments,
as based on the 1932 average, must be viewed in the light of the fact
that weekly wage payments in 1932 were on a very much lower level
than was the number of employees. If the averages of employment
and pay rolls for 1929 are taken as the bases, employment in manu­
factures declined 39 percent by 1932; while pay rolls declined 58
percent. Although the rate of increase in pay rolls after 1932 was
more rapid than the rate of increase in employment, pay rolls still
lagged seriously behind employment as compared with the period
before the depression.
Per Capita Weekly Earnings

In 1933 as compared with 1932, per capita weekly earnings in
manufacturing industries declined 2.3 percent; and in manufactures
and the 13 nonmanufacturing industries combined, 5.3 percent. In
1934 as compared with 1932 the increases in the two groups of indus­
tries were 9.4 percent and 1.0 percent. In June 1934 as compared with
June 1933 per capita weekly earnings increased 13.4 percent in manu­
facturing industries and 6.5 percent in the combined groups. In
January 1935 as compared with January 1933 the increase in manufac­
turing industries was 24.2 percent and in the two groups combined,
11.5 percent.
Changes in per capita weekly earnings must be viewed in the light
of reductions in average weekly hours and of increases in the cost of
living.
Average Hourly Earnings

In 1933 as compared with 1932, average hourly earnings declined
1.9 percent in manufacturing industries and 2.7 percent in the aggre­
gate as represented in the tables. In 1934 as compared with 1932
there were increases of 16.0 percent and 10.9 percent. In June 1934
as compared with June 1933 the increases were 31.1 percent and 23.7
percent, respectively, in the two groups of industries. In January
1935 average hourly earnings in manufactures were 27.6 percent
higher than in January 1933 and for the same period 20.4 percent
higher in manufactures and the 13 nonmanufacturing industries
combined.
The figures of average weekly hours, average hourly earnings, and
per capita weekly earnings indicate that the codes had a much more
noticeable effect in manufacturing industries than in the nonmanu­
facturing industries which report to the Bureau of Labor Statistics,




542

N. R. A .— LABOR ASPECTS

although there are notable exceptions. In all of the industries com­
bined, representing more than half of the wage earners of the country,
and including most of the industries in which the codes were most
readily applicable, per capita weekly earnings showed an increase of
only 1 perceht in 1934 as compared with 1932—an increase which was
not so great as the change in the cost of living. From the point of
view of the effects of the codes, June 1933 or the period immediately
preceding the adoption of codes may be compared with June 1934 or
with periods subsequent to the adoption of codes.
Production

The Federal Reserve Board's index of physical production in manu­
facturing industries, not adjusted to seasonal variations, shows the
following changes: From 1932 to 1933, an increase of 19 percent;
from 1932 to 1934, an increase of 24 percent; from June 1933 to June
1934, a decline of 10 percent; and from January 1933 to January 1935,
an increase of 38 percent.
The extreme upturn of the index of production in the summer of
1933, as shown in table 2, represents for the most part the level of
production not in manufactures as a whole but in the basic or primary
commodities, such as textiles and iron and steel. Manufacturers
concerned with the later stages of fabrication were then buying in
large quantities in the expectation of code restrictions, a rise in prices,
and a general upturn in business activity. The purchases then made
greatly stimulated the primary manufactures, but there were no
proportionate increases at the time in many of the industries concerned
with later stages of fabrication. For the most of these industries
there are no adequate indexes of production, and in consequence the
general index for manufactures is based more largely on the output
in the primary industries than on the output in the industries con­
cerned with later stages of production. A comparison of the indexes
of total man-hours and of production in manufactures as given in the
first section of table 2 apparently supports this interpretation.
Productivity of Labor

Man-hour output in manufactures as shown in table 2 increased
11 percent in 1933 as compared with 1932 and 8 percent in 1934 as
compared with 1932. It seems probable that actual man-hour out­
put in 1933 was not greater than in 1934. A rapid upturn in amount
of production from a low level such as existed in 1932 is naturally
accompanied by an increase in man-hour output, even when there
are no technological improvements. This is due to the fact that such
an increase in the amount of production makes possible a more ade­
quate utilization of the existing facilities for mass production. But
according to the index of physical production, the average output
in 1934 was above that of 1933 and the efficiencies of mass production
should have been available at least to the same extent as in 1933.
Furthermore, there was a progressive improvement of the facilities
for production. There is reason for believing, therefore, that the
high average man-hour output in 1933 as shown by the index is in
part a result of an upward bias in the index of production.
It must be noted that the correlation of man-hours and production
for deriving a productivity index is a rough approximation only.




543

EMPLOYMENT, HOURS, ETC., JANUARY 1933-35
T

2 .—CH ANGES IN E M P L O Y M E N T , HOURS, E AR N IN G S, PROD CTIO N , A N D M A N ­
HOUR OUTPUT IN SPECIFIED INDUSTR IES, JA N U A R Y 1933 TO J A N U A R Y 1935

able

[1932=100]

Month

Average weekly
Index of
hours
number Index of Index of
total
of em­ man­ weekly
pay
Num­ Index 1 ploy­ hours 3 rolls3
ees 2
ber

Index of Average hourly
Index of
earnings
per
Index of man­
capita
produc­ hour
weekly
tion *
out­
earn­
put 6
ings 2 Cents Index 1

M a n u fa c tu r in g in d u stries
1933—January........
February___
March______

37.5
38.1
36.6
38.0
40.8
42.6
42.5
38.5
36.2
35.8
34.4
34.2
37.9

97.9
99.7
95.5
99.4
106.8
111.5
111.3
101.5
95.8
94.9
91.6
91.0
99.7

93.9
95.3
91.7
93.4
97.7
104.4
111.5
119.2
124.8
124.2
118.9
116.1
107.6

90.2
95.8
97.4
97.4
96.1
93.6
89.6
91.2
89.3
91.8
91.1
94.3
93.2

114.4

July...............
August_____
September..
October........
November...
December...
1 2 months.

33.7
35.8
36.3
36.2
35.4
34.8
33.4
33.9
33.3
34.3
34.1
35.2
34.7

1935—January........

35.2

94.3

July...............
August..........
September. .
October____
November..
December...
1 2 months .
1934—January____
February___
March______

91.9
95.0
87.6
92.8
104.3
116.4
124.1

85.7
87.2
80.5
84.2
92.6
102.4

12 1.0

123.2
128.2
128.9
120.4
118.2
105.2

119.6
117.9
108.9
105.7
107.3
103.2
116.1

1 1 0 .2

1 2 2 .8

1 1 0 .0

124.0
118.3

113.1
105.6

1 2 2 .2

112 .2

119.8
12 1.8
1 2 2 .8

109.1
114.9
114.4

117.1
131.5
140.6
146.0
145.6
140.6
131.2
134.9
125.8
132.3
129.1
137.1
134.3

12 2 .6

115.6

139.0

12 1.2

126.1
128.4
128.5
126.4

12 2 .8

125.1
123.5
118.3

91.3
91.5
87.8
90.1
94.8
98.1
98.8
103.4
102.7
103.8
101.3
1 0 1 .8

97.7

42.6
42.3
43.4
42.7
42.2
41.8
41.9
48.2
50.9
52.1
51.9
52.5
46.0

93.1
91.9
91.4
90.5
89.3
89.0
89. 7
101.7
108.2
109.8
110.7
111.4
98.1
112.4
113.1
115.3
116.2
116.7
117.8
117.6
118.3
117.1
117.1
118.1
116.0
118.8

102.4
108.5
111.5
113.7
113.3

109.4

53.2
53.0
53.1
54.1
55.1
54.9
55.6
55.7
55.9
55.3
55.4
56.0
54.8

113.4

56.4

1 11 .2

106.8
108.8
106.3
108.3
107.8
112 .6

112 .6

100

98
92
108
127
146
154
141
133
12 1
111

106
119

111

119
130
135
141
141
132
113
113
111

116
114
12 2

124

108

138

1 Derived by use of percentages of change in identical establishments. The establishments reporting
weekly hours and hourly earnings vary from month to month, and for this reason the percentages of change
as given in table 1 are computed from the index based on monthly changes in identical establishments.
In most industries there has been a progressive increase in the number and representative character of the
reporting establishments, and the later figures are more adequate than those for the earlier period. In a
few industries, as crude petroleum, reports for certain months have been so inadequate that considerable
divergencies occur between the basic figures and the indexes, and both must be regarded as approximations
derived from the best available information.
2 The indexes of number of employees and weekly pay rolls are based on larger samples than are the
indexes of average weekly hours and average hourly earnings, and for this reason are used for deriving the
index of per capita weekly earnings, except in the case of the second section of the table, where the indexes of
average weekly hours and average hourly earnings are used.
3 Derived by multiplying the index of average weekly hours by the index of number of employees. The
result is a rough approximation, due to the fact that the sample of average weekly hours includes only 78
industries out of the total of 90 represented in the index of number of employees and to the fact that a smaller
number of establishments report average weekly hours.
4 The Federal Reserve Board’s index, without seasonal adjustment, converted to the 1932 base.
3 This index is subject to important qualifications which make it only a rough approximation. It is
believed, for instance, that the index of production for the summer months of 1933 is above the actual level
of production due to the effect of cotton, iron and steel, and other basic products in overweighting the com­
posite estimate of production, and that this exaggerates the index of productivity for 1933.




544

N. R. A .— LABOR ASPECTS

T a ble 3 .—CH ANGES IN E M P L O Y M E N T , HOURS, E A R N IN G S , P R O D U CT IO N , A N D

M AN -H O U R OUTPUT IN SPECIFIED IN D U ST R IES, JA N U A R Y 1933 TO JA N U A R Y 1935—
Continued
[1932=100]
Average weekly hours
Month
Number

Index 6

Index of Average hourly earnings
per capita
weekly
earnings 6
Index•
Cents

M a n u fa c tu r in g in d u stries a n d 1 8 n o n m a n u fa ctu r in g in d u stries com b in ed
1933—January............................ .....................
February................................_..............
March....................................................
April..................................... ............. .
M ay............................... ........................
June.........................................................
July............................ .............................
August...........................- .............. .........
September............................. ................
October........... - ..................... ................
November_______ __________________
December....................................... .......
1 2 months......................................
1934—January..................................................
February................................ ................
March...... ......................................... ___
April.......... .............................................
M ay........................................................
June............................... ....................... .
July...................................................... .
August...................................................
September..............................................
October..................................................
November........ ......................................
December.............. ................................
1 2 months........... ................................
1935—January.......... .................................

41.1
41.0
40.2
40.8
42.3
43.3
43.1
39.6
38.0
37.8
37.1
37.7
40.2
37.0
37.7
37.9
37.8
37.4
37.0
36.7
36.5
36.2
37.1
36.8
37.8
37.2
37.5

99.7
10 0 .2

97.5
98.7
102.5
105.0
104.4
96.6
92.4
92.0
90.1
91.6
97.6
89.9
91.9
93.0
92.7
91.9
90.4
89.4
90.0
89.5
91.2
90.5
93.0
91.1
92.3

93.8
93.3
90.0
90.2
93.3
94.9
95.0
97.5
97.4
98.7
96.2
95.6
94.7
97.5
10 0 .0
1 0 1 .0
1 0 2 .2
1 0 2 .1
10 1 .1

100.5
10 0 .6

100.4
102.3
101.4
103.0
1 0 1 .0

104.6

46.1
45.0
45.3
44.6
44.3
43.9
43.8
49.4
51.5
52.5
51.9
51.2
47.5
53.9
53.6
53.6
54.5
55.1
55.2
55.7
56.3
56.1
56.1
56.4
55.7
55.2
57.1

94.1
93.1
92.3
91.4
91.0
90.4
91. U
100.9
105.4
107.3
106.6
104.4
97.3
108.4
108.8
108.6
1 1 0 .2
1 11 .1
1 11 .8

112.4
1 11 .8
112 .2
112 .2
112 .0
1 1 0 .8

110.9
113.3

6 See footnote to this column, p. 543.

Changes Affecting Purchasing Power and Cost of Production
F r o m the point of view of the individual worker, the significance
of changes in average hourly earnings and in per capita weekly earn­
ings as given in previous tables depends on the relative purchasing
power of his earnings. Changes in the purchasing power of the
income of wage earners and lower-salaried workers are measured
approximately by the cost-of-living index constructed in June and
December22 of each year by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Total
pay rolls are important from the point of view of production and
business activity, which depends vitally on the income of the larger
groups of consumers. The effect of changes in aggregate pay rolls
on volume of production varies with changes in purchasing power,
which, as in the case of individual earnings, are measured approxi­
mately by the cost-of-living index. From the point of view of the
employer’s interest in labor cost as an element in the cost of produc­
tion, wage rates and hourly earnings are particularly significant, and
in the case of manufacturers and other industrial employers are likely
to find expression in part in changes in wholesale prices. Even more
significant in connection with the cost of production is cost per unit
of output, and this in turn is vitally affected by changes in volume of
production.
Some of these various factors, which must be considered in analyzing
and interpreting the figures presented in tables 1 and 2, are given in
a In 1934, November.
a




545

EMPLOYMENT, HOURS, ETC., JANUARY 1933-35

table 3, relating to per capita weekly earnings, average hourly earnings,
cost of living, industrial production, and wholesale prices of nonagricultural commodities. Changes are shown by months from January
1933 to January 1935 in percentages of the average for 1932.
T

3 . — CHANGES IN SPECIFIED PER CAPITA W E E K L Y E A R N IN G S A N D A V ER AG E
H O U R L Y EAR N IN G S, IN D U ST R IA L PR O D U CTIO N , W H O LESALE PRICES OF NON*
A G R IC U L T U R A L C O M M O D IT IE S, A N D COST OF L IV IN G SINCE 1932

able

Index numbers (average 1932=100) of—
Per capita weekly
earnings
Month

In manu­
factures
and 13
In manu­ nonmanfacturing *ufacturindustries ing in­
dustries
com­
bined

1933—January..............................
February __
March__________________
April___
M ay____________________
June....................................
July............................... .....
August_________________
September.........................
October,.......... ...............
November______________
December..........................
12 months.......................

91.3
91.5
87.8
90.1
94.8
98.1
98.8
103.4
102.7
103.8
101.3
101.8
97.7

93.8
93.3
90.0
90.2
93.3
94.9
95.0
97.5
97.4
98.7
96.2
95.6
94.7

1934—January, ........... ........... .
February_______________
March__________________
April...... .......... .................

102.4
108.5
111.5
113.7
113.3
111.2
106.8
108.8
106.3
108.3
107.8
112.6
109.4

97.5
100.0
101.0
102.2
102.1
101.1
100.5
100.6
100.4
102.3
101.4
103.0
101.0

113.4

104.6

July
August...... ............ ............
Septem ber.,,,_________
October_________________
November.,......................
December______________
12 months.......................
1935—January________________

Average hourly
earnings
Whole­
In manu­ Indus­ sale prices
of nonfactures
trial
Cost of
apriculand 13
living 1
tural
In manu­ nonman­ produc­
tion2
facturing ufactur­
commod
industries ing in­
ities
dustries
com­
bined
3 96.2

93.4

98.3
95.3

99.3

101.2
99.5

93.1
92.0
91.4
90.5
89.3
89.0
89.7
101.7
108.2
109.8
110,7
111.4
98.1

94.1
93.1
92.3
91.4
91.0
90.4
91.0
100.9
105.4
107.3
106.6
104.4
97.3

100
100
94
105
123
142
150
141
133
122
113
108
119

95.0
93.3
93.4
93.3
95.8
98.7
103.5
105.4
107.9
108.9
108.6
108.3
101.0

112.4
112.6
113.1
115.3
116.2
116.7
117.8
117.6
118.3
117.1
117.1
118.1
116.0

108.4
108.8
108.6
110.2
111.1
111.8
112.4
111.8
112.2
112.2
112.0
110.8
110.9

120
130
134
138
139
131
114
114
114
117
116
120
123

109.8
111.4
111.6
111.6
112.2
112.6
112.6
113.9
114.8
113.6
113.8
113.9
112.6

118.8

113.3

1 The annual cost-of-living indexes are constructed by averaging the figures for the preceding December
and for June and December, the June figures being given a weight of 2.
1 Federal Reserve Board’s index of manufactures and minerals combined, unadjusted to seasonal varia­
tions.
* December 1932.

In table 3 the cost-of-living index as constructed by the Bureau of
Labor Statistics may be compared with the Bureau’s figures of per
capita weekly earnings. In each case the average for 1932 is equal to
100. The cost-of-living index is based on data for December and
June, except for 1934, when figures were collected for November
rather than for December.
The cost of living declined more rapidly during the extreme defla­
tion of the early months of 1933 than did per capita weekly earnings.
There was a decline in the number of workers employed during the
same period, so that total pay rolls declined more rapidly than per
capita weekly earnings. The increase in per capita weekly earnings
in manufacturing industries from January to June 1933 was caused by
19205— 36--------36




546

N. R. A .— LABOR ASPECTS

increases in average weekly hours. Average hourly earnings were
somewhat lower in June 1933 than in the preceding January, both
in manufacturing industries and in the 13 nonmanufacturing indus­
tries. After June 1933 the increases in per capita weekly earnings
were caused by increases in hourly earnings. Average weekly hours
during the period underwent considerable declines. In the manu­
facturing industries, per capita weekly earnings in November 1934
were 7.8 percent above the 1932 level, while the cost of living was
only 1.2 percent higher. In the manufacturing and nonmanufac­
turing industries, per capita weekly earnings in November 1934 were
only 1.4 percent above the 1932 level, thus merely keeping pace with
the change in the cost of living. For many individuals and groups
of workers, earnings declined in terms of cost of living.
The rise in the cost of living in 1934 as compared with 1933 was
undoubtedly due in considerable part to the drought of 1934. This
is indicated by the fact that the outstanding increases in the various
items making up the cost-of-living index were foods and clothing,
and since June 1934 primarily foods.
The cost-of-living index is based on studies in 1918 of family
budgets of wage earners and lower-salaried workers. These studies
are used as a basis for giving comparative weights to the items
commonly included in family budgets. In 1934 provision was made
by Congress for an urgently needed revision of the family-budget data.
It is necessary to qualify the use of a cost-of-living index, even
when based on adequate budgetary data. There are wide variations
in the types of items entering into the budgets of various individuals
and classes and wide divergencies in the prices of the same items in
different sections of the country. There is indeed no possible single
cost-of-living index that is applicable to all types of workers, and
there is no practicable method of converting the general average of
wages in terms of dollars and cents into exact terms of purchasing
power applicable to all individuals or groups. While the purchasing
power of income is one of the considerations on which judgment as
to adequacy of income must be based, a cost-of-living index is not
to be regarded as supplanting various other economic and social con­
siderations essential to a sound determination of wages. Among
these considerations is the maintenance of purchasing power in the
hands of main groups of consumers.
In addition to the indexes of per capita weekly earnings and cost
of living in table 3, there are also indexes of industrial production,
including manufactures and minerals; of wholesale prices of nonagricultural commodities; and of average hourly earnings, which
enter directly into computations of the labor costs of production.
The coverage of the indexes of prices and production is not identical
but the groups of commodities included are as nearly identical as is
possible on the basis of available classifications. Wholesale prices
advanced more rapidly than the retail prices which enter into the
cost-of-living index, and also more rapidly than per capita weekly
earnings. The rise in wholesale prices was somewhat smaller than
the increase in average hourly earnings in manufacturing industries
and somewhat greater than the advance in average hourly earnings in
the combined groups (manufacturing and 13 nonmanufacturing
industries).




EMPLOYMENT, HOURS, ETC., JANUARY 1 9 3 3 -3 5

547

While changes in average hourly earnings directly affect the cost
of production, a more important consideration in connection with
the labor cost of production is the cost per unit of output. This in
turn is vitally affected by changes in the volume of production.
Available information does not make possible a valid indication of
changes in the labor cost per unit of output for the combined industries
represented in the index of industrial production, but the increases
in the volume of production as indicated in table 3 undoubtedly
tended materially to counteract the effect on unit costs of increases
in average hourly earnings. On the basis of the Bureau of Labor
Statistics’ index of weekly pay rolls and the Federal Reserve Board’s
index of production in manufacturing industries, as presented in
table 4, it appears that labor cost per unit of output declined 11 per­
cent in 1933 as compared with 1932 and increased 9 percent in 1934
as compared with 1932. When compared with 1929, labor cost per
unit of output in 1932 had declined 21 percent, and in 1933, 29
percent. In 1934 the labor cost per unit of output was still 14 percent
below the 1929 average. These figures, it is important to note, are
rough approximations based on the not entirely comparable index
of pay rolls in manufactures as constructed by the Bureau of Labor
Statistics and of production as constructed by the Federal Reserve
Board.
Changes in Selected Industries

A t a b u l a t i o n o f t h e d a t a f o r s e p a r a te in d u s tr ie s s h o w s t h a t c h a n g e s
in a v e r a g e w e e k ly h o u r s w it h in a g iv e n in d u s t r y w e r e d u e t o flu c ­
t u a t io n s m th e v o lu m e o f o u t p u t as w e ll as t o r e g u la t io n s in th e c o d e s .

In the manufacture of agricultural implements, for example, the
average weekly hours early in 1933 were already below the hours
provided by the code, due to the extremely low level of production,
and in June 1934 hours were no longer than in June 1933. A similar
situation existed in anthracite and bituminous-coal mining. Changes
in average hourly earnings, on the other hand, were largely due to
the regulations contained in the codes.
The comparatively slight effects of codes on most of the nonmanu­
facturing industries are illustrated by the telephone and telegraph
industry and by retail trade. In the telephone and telegraph industry,
changes from June 1933 to June 1934 include a 2.4-percent increase
in average hours worked per week and an increase of only 2.9 percent
in average hourly earnings. The number of employees increased 1.7
percent; total man-hours, 4.1 percent; weekly pay rolls, 7.1 percent;
and per capita weekly earnings, 5.3 percent. The comparatively
slight change in the telephone and telegraph industry is in part
attributable to the fact that the industry had not adopted a code
but operated under the President’s Reemployment Agreement.
In retail trade, average weekly hours were reduced 13.2 percent,
and average hourly earnings were increased 19.7 percent, while per
capita weekly earnings were increased 4.2 percent. In January 1935
per capita weekly earnings were 2 percent lower than in January
1933.23 In contrast with most of the nonmanufacturing industries,
bituminous-coal mining was notably affected by code regulations.
a The figures of the telephone and telegraph industry, retail trade, and some of the other nonmanu­
8
facturing industries include executives and salaried employees and are therefore not entirely comparable
with figures of wage earners in other industries, due to the relatively high rate of compensation of executives
and salaried employees and to the comparative stability of their employment and earnings.




548

N. R . A .— LABOR ASPECTS

In this industry there was a 5 1-percent increase in per capita weekly
earnings in June 1934, as compared with June 1933, and a 44-percent
increase in January 1935, as compared with January 1933. These
unusually large increases were due mainly to the fact that average
weekly hours were already, before the adoption of codes, below the
code requirements, combined with the fact that unusually large
increases in wage rates followed the adoption of codes.
The exceptional rise in employment and pay rolls in the manu­
facture of agricultural implements in January 1935, as compared
with January 1933, was due to the extremely low level of production
in the earlier period. In automobiles, and to a less extent in blast
furnaces, steel works, and rolling mills, the increase in production
and pay rolls in January 1935, as compared with January 1933, is
attributable in part to an unusual concentration of production in
January 1935. This also probably gives to the combined figures
for manufacturing industries a slight upward bias.
Changes Since 1929
P r i m a r y interest in recent changes has been focused on the extent
of recovery from the depression. In order that the effects of public
policies for reinforcing the economic foundations of production and
employment may be viewed in perspective, it is necessary to compare
present conditions not only with the extremes of 1932 and the early
months of 1933 but as well with earlier conditions. It is true, of
course, that there was unemployment even in the most prosperous
years and that standards of living were often meager as well as
insecure. It is also true that wages had lagged behind many other
forms of income. Nevertheless it is desirable again to attain the
volume of production, employment, pay rolls, and per capita earnings
that prevailed in 1929. Table 4, based on the situation in the manu­
facturing industries as it existed in that year, shows the percentage
changes since 1929 in the number of employees, amount of weekly
pay rolls, per capita weekly earnings, and production in manufac­
turing industries, and also the cost of living.
T a ble 4 —CH ANGES IN E M P L O Y M E N T , P A Y ROLLS, PER CA P ITA W E E K L Y EAR N IN G S,
A N D PR O D U CTIO N IN M A N U F A C T U R IN G IN D U ST R IE S A N D IN COST OF L IVIN G
SINCE 1929
Index numbers (average 1929=100) of—
Year or month

Number
of em­
ployees

1929________________________________________________

i< m

1933________________________________________________
ICKM

1933—January 1
1924—January

1

193*)—January 1

-............... .

_.

100
61
66
75
57
64
70
77
75

Weekly Per capita
weekly
pay rolls earnings
100
42
45
57
36
43
50
59
59

100
69
68
75
63
68
71
77
78

Cost of
living i

100
80
77
80
77
75
79
80
81

Produc­
tion

100
53
63
66
53
77
63
70
73

i Cost-of-living index is for December 1932 and 1933 and November 1934. The annual index is computed
by combining the figures for June and December and the preceding December (November in 1934), June
being given a weight of 2.




EMPLOYMENT, HOURS, ETC., JANUARY 1 9 3 3 -3 5

549

In 1932, 39 out of each 100 workers employed in manufacturing
industries in 1929 had been displaced; and by January 1933, 43 out of
each 100. Many of those who were still employed had only part-time
employment. B y January 1934, 13 of the 43 had been reemployed;
and by January 1935, 18. Out of every 100 employed in 1929, 25
remained unemployed in January 1935. These comparisons must be
qualified by the fact that more people were of working age and a
larger proportion needed jobs than in 1929.
The decline in pay rolls was greater than in employment, and after
January 1933 there was a more rapid advance. Each $100 weekly
wage payment made by employers in the manufacturing industries in
1929 was reduced to $42 in 1932 and to $36 in January 1933. By
January 1934 the $36 had been increased to $50; and in January 1935,
to $59. If pay rolls are adjusted to the cost-of-living index of the
Bureau of Labor Statistics, the $36 of January 1933 may be regarded
as approximately equal to $47 in 1929; the converted value of the $50
of January 1934 becomes $63; and the $59 of January 1935, $72.
Those who retained employment suffered extensive declines in per
capita weekly earnings, which, in 1932, were 69 percent of per capita
weekly earnings in 1929; and in January 1933, 63 percent. By
January 1934 they had risen to 71 percent, and by January 1935 to
78 percent of the 1929 average. Because of the lower cost of living,
the average individual who retained his job received only 18 percent
less per week in January 1933 than during 1929, and the increases
in the per capita weekly earnings thereafter reduced the difference
between current earnings and those of 1929. For the year 1934 per
capita weekly earnings, when expressed in terms of cost of living, were
6 percent below the level of 1929.
For each 100 units of output in manufacturing industries produced
per month in 1929, only 53 were produced per month in 1932 and the
same number in January 1933. By January 1934 there was an ad­
vance to 63 after a decline from a much higher level during the pre­
ceding summer; and by January 1935 there was an advance to 73.
A return of production in manufacturing industries to the 1929 out­
put would require an advance beyond January 1935 from 73 to 100.
In nonmanufacturing employments, the changes cannot be indi­
cated with the same degree of assurance as in manufacturing indus­
tries. On the basis of reports to the Bureau of Labor Statistics from
the 17 nonmanufacturing industries mentioned on page 537, it is
estimated that the average number of employees in these industries
in January 1933 was 32 percent less than the average for 1929; while
in manufacturing industries the number was 43 percent less; and in
the two groups combined, 37 percent less. Average weekly pay rolls
in January 1933 in the 17 nonmanufacturing industries were 39 per­
cent less than the average for 1929; in manufacturing industries, 64
percent less; and in the two groups combined, 50 percent less. During
the same period, per capita weekly earnings declined 11 percent in the
17 nonmanufacturing industries, 37 percent in manufactures, and 22
percent in the two groups combined. There was thus a considerably
smaller reduction alike in number of employees, in weekly pay rolls,
and in per capita weekly earnings in these 17 nonmanufacturing in­
dustries as a group than in the manufacturing industries.
These comparisons must be qualified by the fact that in several of
the nonmanufacturing industries it is not possible to separate wage




550

N. R . A .— LABOR ASPECTS

earners and their compensation from salaried employees and salaries.
Wage earners are more vitally affected by technological changes; their
employment is more dependent on the maintenance of a stable volume
of output; and their earnings fluctuate more widely due to part time,
curtailment of hours, and reduction in rates of pay. Because of these
circumstances, the comparisons of changes in employment and earn­
ings show a greater divergence between the manufacturing industries
and the nonmanufacturing industries than actually existed. But the
comparatively slight decline in the estimates of employment and earn­
ings in these nonmanufacturing industries is not due entirely to the
inclusion in some of the industries of executives and salaried workers.
Technological changes have been less prominent in nonmanufacturing
industries as a whole than in manufactures, although many of the
nonmanufacturing industries, as the communications group, have
undergone changes which vitally affect man-hour output, and this in
turn affects employment and pay rolls unless there is an increase in
total output which counteracts the effect of the rise in man-hour out­
put. In the nonmanufacturing groups, especially the service indus­
tries, it is usually necessary to maintain a comparatively large staff
even though the demand for service is small, and when there is an
upturn in demand, there is likely to be a comparatively small increase
in employment and pay rolls. This is indicated by the estimates of
changes in employment and earnings since January 1933. In manu­
factures there was an increase of 31 percent in number of employees
from January 1933 to January 1935; in manufactures and the 17 non­
manufacturing industries combined, an increase of 18 percent; and in
the 17 nonmanufacturing industries as a whole, an increase of only 10
percent. In connection with pay rolls the contrast is even more
noticeable. From January 1933 to January 1935 there was a 62percent increase in weekly pay rolls in manufacturing industries; a
27-percent increase in manufactures and the 17 nonmanufacturing
industries combined; and only 10 percent in the 17 nonmanufacturing
industries as a whole.
Progress toward a return to the 1929 level of employment advanced
both in the manufacturing industries and in the 17 nonmanufacturing
industries till, within each of these groups in January 1935, 75 percent
of the workers in 1929 were employed. As for the extent of recovery
in weekly pay rolls, in manufacturing industries pay rolls in January
1935 were 59 percent of the 1929 average; in the 17 nonmanufacturing
industries, 67 percent, and in the two groups combined, 63 percent.
In January 1935, per capita weekly earnings in manufacturing indus­
tries were 78 percent of the 1929 average; in the 17 nonmanufacturing
industries, 89 percent; and in the two groups combined, 84 percent.
If changes in the cost of living are taken into account, per capita
weekly earnings in January 1935 were substantially the same as in
1929. Cost of living in November 1934, the latest month for which
figures are available, was 19 percent below the 1929 level. On this
basis, the average wage earner in manufacturing industries in January
1935 received, in terms of purchasing power, 96 cents for each dollar
earned in 1929; the average employee in the 17 nonmanufacturing
industries, including salaried workers in a few industries, received
$1.10 in real wages for each dollar earned in 1929; and in the two
groups combined, $1.04.




LABOR

C O N D IT IO N S

UNDER

CODES

551

The conclusion to be drawn from the above comparison of employ­
ment and pay rolls in manufacturing industries and in the 17 non­
manufacturing industries which report to the Bureau of Labor
Statistics is obviously to the effect that the decline from 1929 to
January 1933 was greater in the manufacturing industries than in the
17 nonmanufacturing industries combined, and that after January
1933 there was a more rapid expansion of employment and pay rolls
in the manufacturing industries than in the 17 nonmanufacturing
industries. By January 1935 both groups of industries were employ­
ing about 75 percent as many wage earners as in 1929 and their
combined weekly pay rolls, on the basis of adjustments to the cost of
living, were somewhat more than 75 percent of the 1929 pay rolls.
There remain certain other important nonmanufacturing industries
not included in the comparison. In the case of class I steam railroads,
total employment by January 1932 had declined to 57 percent of the
average employment in 1929. After making small gains in certain
months thereafter, employment on class I steam railroads had declined
by January 1935 to about 56 percent of the 1929 level. Thus in this
important industry there was no net gain in employment 2 years after
January 1933. In the construction industries an even more serious
condition has prevailed. In public service, which includes such groups
as public-school teachers, postal employees, the armed forces, police­
men, and firemen, the losses were not so severe as in manufacturing
industries. In other branches of employment, such as domestic
service, not included in the 17 nonmanufacturing industries reporting
to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, there is not enough information to
determine whether changes since 1929 have been greater or less than
in the employments included in the above comparisons. It should be
repeated that emergency employment and pay rolls financed by
public funds are not included in these comparisons.

Labor Conditions Under Industrial Codes
R e po rt on L a b o r C o n d itio n s in th e A u to m o b ile In d u s try

D IR EC ED by
November
A S NationalTRecoverythe President onits Research 21, 1934, the
L
Board, through
and Planning

Division and with the collaboration of the Bureau of Labor Statistics,
made a study of the possibilities of regularizing employment and
improving conditions of labor in the automobile industry. A pre­
liminary report summarizing the outstanding findings of the investiga­
tion made by the National Recovery Administration was released
February 28, 1935.
The investigation showed that the present system of crowding
production into a few months of the year causes substantial loss of
efficiency, involving excess overhead due to limited employment of
plant capacity, excessive labor turn-over, cost of training new em­
ployees, inefficiency because of extra shifts, wastage and spoilage, and
higher cost of materials and dies on a rush-order basis.
The report suggested that the aim of the industry should be regular
employment for the maximum number of workers rather than sporadic
employment for a greater number at the peak and a smaller group
during the low periods of production. It expressed the belief that




552

N. R . A .— LABOR ASPECTS

the feeling of economic security, if coupled with a less harsh drive on
the daily job, should return dividends of cash to automobile company
stockholders as well as social dividends to the community at large.
Findings as to Labor Conditions
T h e Recovery Administration’s principal findings concerning labor
conditions in the automobile industry were as follows:
1. Labor unrest exists to a degree higher than warranted by the depression.
2. The foreman’s power and the gap between the workers and the executive
are important causes of labor unrest.
3. Espionage systems exist.
4. Irregularity of employment has increased in recent years.
5. Depression competition has spurred the speed-up beyond economic capability
to produce day by day.
6. Automobile workers are considered old at 40.
7. Hourly earnings are high; annual incomes are low.
8. Relatively few employees obtain supplementary earnings from other sources
during lay-offs.
9. The privilege of averaging hours on an annual basis is neither necessary nor
desirable.

Changes in H o u rs and Wages in th e C o tto n -G a rm e n t In d u s try

A r e d u c t i o n in working hours of 10 percent and a commensurate
increase in rates of pay became operative under the code for the cottongarment industry on December 1, 1934, in conformity with the recom­
mendations of a special committee created to investigate the justi­
fication of such a change. The revision in the cotton-garment code,
whereby hours were reduced from 40 to 36 per week without a reduc­
tion in the weekly wages of $12 per week in the southern area, and
$13 per week in the northern area, was originally ordered by the
President on August 21, 1934, to take effect 14 days later. On
September 28 the amendment was stayed by Executive order until
October 15 to allow the National Industrial Recovery Board adequate
opportunity to investigate the facts and make recommendations with
respect to proposed changes. Those members of the industry who
protested the amendment of the code expressed their willingness to
abide by the decisions of an impartial committee on the matters
involved, and the President therefore stated in issuing the stay that
the National Industrial Recovery Board should appoint a committee
of three impartial members to hear protests, investigate the facts, and
report its recommendations by October 10.
Appointees to the special committee were D. M. Nelson, Willard E.
Hotchkiss, and W. Jett Lauck.
The report of the special committee was made public on October
16.24 In reviewing the issues submitted to it the committee held
hearings at the instance of the code authorities of the dress manu­
facturing and men’s clothing industries. These industries operated
under working schedules more favorable to labor than did the cottongarment industry under the original code provisions and the projected
change in the cotton-garment code was undertaken, therefore, to
harmonize the conditions in cotton-garment manufacture with those
obtaining in these competing industries. The committee reviewed
existing records and considered new facts and viewpoints.
2 National Recovery Administration.
*




Press release no. 8314.

LABOR CONDITIONS UNDER CODES

553

The position of the code authority, as interpreted by the committee,
was that employment in the cotton-garment industry was relatively
heavy during the late phases of the depression before adoption of the
code. This was due to the fact that low purchasing power made the
buying of other than low-priced merchandise impossible. During this
period unrestricted competition led to low wages, long hours, and
related evils. With code adoption the industry reported that the
differential between costs of production of cotton garments and
competing goods was narrowed, with the result that other products
were bought, and the volume of cotton-garment sales dwindled,
causing a loss in employment.
In the course of its deliberations the committee found that the cost
of a 49-cent work shirt, to cite one example, would be raised by not
more than 5 cents under the proposed code amendment. The com­
mittee also held the view that bringing substandard industries up to
the standards of competing industries was an important objective and
that the public interest and industrial stability demand that official
approval should not be given to “ pockets of production under lower
labor standards along the competitive border line of industries whose
codes enforce higher labor standards.” The committee stated that
the only material change in practice that the code amendment made
necessary was the filing of all piece rates with the code authority
in order that sufficient standardization could be introduced to assure
integrity of the piece-rate structure. Inequities resulting a& between
high- and low-standard producers under the amendment were regarded
as no greater than would result from any general ruling. For these
reasons the committee agreed that the amendment should be sustained.
A need for study of the competition of prison-made goods, the
effect of the prison-labor compact, and production in sheltered work­
shops was recognized and it was recommended that a commission be
set up for this purpose, to report not later than December 1. Accord­
ingly, the National Industrial Recovery Board announced the crea­
tion of a special committee of three on November 5, whose duties were
outlined as including study of competition between products of the
cotton-garment industry and products of sheltered workshops and
between products of the industry and those of prison labor.25 The
committee was further directed to study the operation of the prisonlabor compact.2 Wholesale exemptions from code provisions were
6
opposed and the committee urged that nothing be done that might
undermine the efforts of the code authority in the field of securing
code compliance.
L a b o r C o n d itio n s in C o tto n -G a rm e n t In d u s try in P ennsylvania
T h e cotton-garment code, as applied in the State of Pennsylvania
in February 1934, advanced the position of labor by the elimination
of child labor, a general reduction of working hours, and an increase
in weekly earnings for the majority of the workers. It did not
benefit the minority group of higher-paid workers materially, and
relatively few persons were found to be receiving over the minimum
wage of 32 % cents per hour fixed by the code. Part-time work pre­
vailed in the industry, with nearly three-fourths of the employees
25 National Recovery Administration. Press release no. 8647, Nov. 5,1934.
26 For the report of this board, see under section on “ Prison Labor” (p. 702).




554

N . R. A .— LABOR ASPECTS

working fewer than 40 hours per week and two-thirds earning less
than $13 per week, the code minimum for full-time employment.
These were the findings in a study made by Elizabeth S. Johnson, of
the Bureau of Women and Children, Department of Labor and Industry
of Pennsylvania.2
7
The author of the study stated that the survey was made before the
compliance machinery of the National Recovery Administration was
in full operation, but after the necessary period of adjustment to the
code. Therefore, the failures to comply with code labor provisions,
which affected three-fourths of the plants with respect to wage provi­
sions and involved 1,070, or 12 percent, of the employees, in the plants
studied, were regarded as willful. The findings of the study in
this respect were that the National Recovery Administration had
4
attained or closely approached its major objectives” , but that “ em­
ployers who refuse to pay fair wages have found numerous subter­
fuges by which they can dodge the minimum-wage provisions of the
codes.” Other instances of noncompliance included falsification of
hours records, classification of experienced workers as learners in
order to pay below the scheduled rates of pay, and taking advantage of
the code provision whereby handicapped workers might be employed
at less than code rates without separating the actually handicapped
from the able-bodied workers.
For purposes of comparison the figures obtained in a study by the
bureau of women and children in October 1932 2 were drawn upon
8
throughout the analysis of the information collected in the later survey.
In the 1934 study information was obtained from representative
plants in the cotton-garment industry throughout the State of Penn­
sylvania which manufactured shirts and cotton dresses principally
and, in fewer instances, work clothing, pajamas., and other cotton
garments. Plants were selected at random, with the exception of a
few that were included upon request of the Cotton Garment Code
Authority. Among the 12,130 persons in the 114 plants covered,
10,800 were women and 1,300 were men.
While most of the pay-roll data were for the pay period ending in
February 1934, some figures were for periods between December 1933
and April 1934. Executives, office, and maintenance workers were
not included in the study.
Child Labor
A mong the 12,130 persons for whom records were obtained, only 2
were children under 16 years of age. Both of these minors had been
employed prior to code adoption and had been allowed to be retained.
In the 1932 study of the clothing industry, it was found that 1 of
every 25 employees was a child of under 16. However, it was con­
sidered by the writer that the general adoption of the minimum wage
was doubtless as potent a factor in the elimination of child labor as
was the child-labor prohibition itself.
” Pennsylvania. Department of Labor and Industry. Labor and Industry, September 1934, pp. 3-6,16'
MIdem, February 1933: Hours and Earnings in the Textile and Clothing Industries of Pennsylvania,
October 1932.




555

LABOR CONDITIONS UNDER CODES

Hours of Work
C o l l e c t i o n of statistics showing hours of work was complicated by
the absence of records and the inaccuracy and falsification of certain
existing records. The data upon which the report was based revealed
a great reduction in working time and almost universal acceptance of
the 40-hour standard work week established under the code, as
compared with a work week of 59 hours or longer that existed in 1932.
An analysis of records for 88 firms and 8,930 employees showed that
the majority of employees worked fewer than 40 hours per week; only
one-fourth of the total worked 40 hours; and 71 percent were recorded
as employed part time. Seasonal conditions were held partially
accountable for short time in this period.
The figures indicated a general absence of overtime work, only 3.3
percent of the total number employed being recorded as working in
excess of 40 hours per week. The dress industry led in the proportion
of workers employed overtime, with 15.5 percent of the total working
over 40 hours per week. This percentage was almost identical with
the percentage working in excess of 54 hours found in the 1932 study
of women’s clothing workers. The excess was therefore laid to lack
of proper business organization and not to any set limit on the working
week.

Earnings
M e d i a n weekly earnings of all employees showed a 50-percent
increase between the period of the 1932 and 1934 studies, or from
$7.51 to $11.25. Median weekly earnings of women in 1934 were
$10.95, as compared with $13.62 for men. The following table gives
the number of men and women in 1934 and of all workers covered in
1932 and in 1934, classified by weekly earnings.
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c o t t o n -g a r m e n t w o r k e r s a c c o r d i n g t o w e e k l y e a r n
i n g s , OCTOBER 1932 AND FEBRUARY 1934

February 1934

Weekly earnings

Women

Men
Num­
ber

Per­
cent

Num­
ber

Per­
cent

­

October 1932
All workers
Num­
ber

Per­
cent

All workers
Num­
ber

Per­
cent

Under $5.............................................__
$5 and under $10___________ ________
$10 and under $13.................................
$13 and under $15__________________
$15 and over______________________

54
207
203
274
452

4.5
17.4
17.1
23.0
38.0

1,515
2,804
2,675
1,991
1,209

14.9
27.5
26.2
19.5
11.9

1,569
3,011
2,878
2,265
1,661

13.8
26.4
25.3
19.9
14.6

3,294
5,584
1,913
662
1,229

26.0
44.0
15.1
5.2
9.7

Total____ __________________

1,190

100.0

10,194

100.0

11,384

100.0

12,682

100.0

Median__________________________

$13.62

$1C
1.95

$11.25

$7.51

The table shows that barely one-third of the women covered in
1934 received as much as $13 a week, the code minimum for full­
time work, while the men receiving the minimum weekly rate or over
represented two-thirds of all the men covered. For all workers in
1934 the percent receiving $13 and over was 34.5, as compared with
14.9 in 1932. Wages below $13 per week in 1934 indicated the prev­
alence of short working time and also the presence of code exemptions
and violations. It was stated in the report that the effect of the




556

N. R. A.— LABOR ASPECTS

minimum wage on lower-paid workers had been more helpful to women
than to men. Women’s median earnings increased $3.41 between
1932 and 1934 and those of men $3.31; on a percentage basis the in­
crease was 45 for women and 32 for men. As between branches of
the cotton-garment industry, weekly earnings showed considerable
variation in the 1934 study. In shirt manufacture, where part-time
work was prevalent, the median earnings amounted to $10.91 a week
in contrast with $12.14 in dress manufacture and $12.28 for other
cotton garments.
Analysis of the records for 92 plants having usable records showed
that 30 percent of the total employees received exactly 32% cents an
hour, the code minimum. This was in large part the result of piece
rates established to yield the minimum wage to the worker having
average speed. Slow workers were unable to earn the minimum wage
and this made it necessary to pay them the difference between their
earnings and the minimum specified. Workers so compensated rep­
resented one-fifth of those for whom information as to hourly earnings
was obtained and two-thirds of the group who were paid an hourly
rate of 32% cents. In general, among every 6 cotton-garment workers
studied, 1 received less than 32% cents an hour, 2 received exactly
32% cents, 2 received between 32% and 40 cents, and 1 received 40
cents or over.* Men earned the 32%-cent hourly rate as often as
women, but 19 percent of the women were paid less than that amount
as compared with 8 percent of the men. Earnings of 50 cents an
hour or more were reported for 3 percent of the women and 21 per­
cent of the men, men having the occupations, such as cutting, which
require skill, and are therefore more highly paid.
As between shirt and dress factories, the differences in hourly earn­
ings were great. Three times as large a proportion of employees in
the dress industry earned less than 32% cents as in the shirt industry,
the percentages being 43.8 and 15.1, respectively. The study dis­
closed further that low wages were more typical in contracting shops
manufacturing goods for other concerns than in regular manufacturing
shops. In the brackets of higher pay the situation was reversed, with
manufacturers’ employees paid above the minimum rate of pay,
representing 54 percent of the total, as compared with 47 percent m
contract shops.
Handicapped Employees
U n d e r the cotton-garment code, provision was made for employ­
ment of handicapped persons to a total of 10 percent of the employees.
When this study was made no certification or registration of the handi­
capped was required, nor was a minimum rate of pay for such workers
established. Only 73 firms out of the 114 covered by the survey
registered handicapped persons on their pay rolls. These firms
employed 591 persons designated as handicapped, which represented
6 percent of the total employed by the 73 firms and 5 percent of those
employed by the 114 plants. In eight firms the number of handi­
capped exceeded 10 percent of employees, the allowable quota.
Because of the absence of a code provision as to the minimum wage
of handicapped workers they received less than the code minimum
even for learners. Out of 466 persons, 51 percent earned less than 25
cents an hour and 17 percent earned less than 20 cents.




LABOR CONDITIONS UNDER CODES

557

Learners
T h e r e was found to be wide-spread abuse of the code provision
permitting employment of learners. A total of 506 persons ap­
peared on the pay rolls as learners. Investigation disclosed that
2 out of 3 of the employees^so classified were not really learners,
having had more than 6 weeks’ experience. Moreover, in 16 out of
57 plants employers were found to be employing more than the allow­
able quota of learners. For all plants with learners the percentage of
learners was 7. More than one-fourth of the learners received less
than 24% cents an hour, the minimum rate of pay under the code,
and 10 percent received less than 20 cents an hour.

L a b o r C o n d itio n s in C o n n e c tic u t Needle Tra d e s
W o m a n workers in two branches of the needle trades in Connecticut
benefited materially from changed conditions in the clothing industry
after the adoption of the N. R. A. codes, according to studies made
by the minimum wage division of the Connecticut Department of
Labor. These studies cover the women’s dress industry 2 and the
9
manufacture of shirts.30 In the case of the dress industry, the latest
report supplements the findings of a similar study made by the depart­
ment in 1933 and covers practically the same establishments.
Changes that took place in working conditions in the 12-month period
are therefore easily noted. The basis of comparison of conditions in
shirt manufacture in 1934 is the study of the shirt industry made by
the United States Department of Labor, which included a representa­
tive number of shirt factories and workers in Connecticut during 1
week in June 1933.31 (See p. 1018.)
The very considerable improvement in hours and earnings which,
these latest studies show, took place between 1933 and 1934, is cred­
ited by the State department of labor “ to the effect of the National
Industrial Recovery Act and the unionization of the labor market.”
In 1933 none of the dress shops in the State was organized, while due
to intensive organizing activities of the International Ladies’ Garment
Workers’ Union after the passage of the National Industrial Recovery
Act the State agency found that in 1934, “ 37 out of the 42 plants
covered by the survey were under union control.” Similarly, while
the shirt industry was wholly unorganized in 1933, by 19344“ the
Amalgamated Clothing Workers’ Union had organized a large part of
the labor market in this industry in Connecticut” , and 13 of the 18
factories were organized.

Dress Industry

A s t r i k in g change in wage rates, hours, and earnings in “ one of
the most sweated industries in the State” is shown by the two sets
of figures collected by the State agency, one in 1933 and the other
in 1934. Both studies covered 1 week in the busy season. The data
for 1933 are based upon a study of 46 percent of the dressmaking
plants then registered and operating in Connecticut, employing 1,800
2 Connecticut. Department of Labor. Minimum Wage Division. Hours and Earnings in the Women's
9
Dress Industry, 1933 and 1934. Hartford, 1935. (Mimeographed.)
3 Idem. Hours and Earnings in Connecticut Shirt Factories, 1933 and 1934. Hartford. 1935. (Mimeo­
0
graphed.)
3 See Monthly Labor Review, September 1933 (pp. 499-510).
1




558

N. R. A .— LABOR ASPECTS

women and girls; those for 1934 cover 51 percent of the registered
total, employing 2,881 women and girls.
Three codes were involved in the study— the cotton-garment code,
which required a minimum wage of $13 for a maximum work week of
40 hours; the blouse and skirt code, with a somewhat higher min­
imum wage and a 35-hour week; and the dress code, which fixed a
minimum rate for each occupation and called for a maximum 35-hour
work week. Most of the plants in the survey operated under the
dress code.
Median earnings of the workers in all plants studied in 1934 were
$16.52 in the week covered, an increase of 63 percent over the 1933
median, $10.11. In 1933, 49 percent of the total number of female
employees received less than $10 in a peak week of 50 hours, while
in 1934 only 8 percent received as little as this for a peak week of
35 hours. Those who received less than $5 per week comprised only
2 percent of all the employees studied, as compared with 14 percent
in the preceding year. While in 1934 a fraction over one-third (33.8
percent) of all the employees included in the survey received wages
as high as $20 or more per week, in 1933 only 4 percent earned that
much. In the same year 63 percent of the employees earned $15 or
more a week, as compared with 17 percent in 1933.
The percentage distribution, by classified weekly earnings, in a
representative busy week in each year is shown in table 1.
T a ble 1 —P E R C E N T A G E D IST R IBU T IO N , B Y CLASSIFIED W E E K L Y EA R N IN G S , OF
W O M E N IN W O M E N ’S DRESS IN D U S T R Y IN C O N N E C T IC U T , 1933 A N D 1934
1934
Amount earned in 1 week

Number of
employees

Total____ _____________________________________________

2,881

Less than $5__________ ___________ ___________________
$5 and less than $10_______ _________________________
$10 and less than $15___________ ______ ________________
$15 and less than $20__________ ________________________
$20 and over__________________________________________

52
179
843
834
973

1933

Percent of
total

Number of
employees

100.0
1.8
6.2

1,800

100.0

242
635
618
230
75

13.8
35.1
' 34.2
12.7
4. 2

29.3
28.9
33.8

Percent of
total

Median earnings, by occupations, are shown in table 2. One
outstanding feature of these data, in addition to the substantially
higher earnings, is the extent to which the spread between high-paid
and low-paid occupations has been narrowed, since the poorest paid
workers profited most under the code. With regard to the extent of
increased earnings under the code rates and union scales, it is interest­
ing to note that the lowest median earnings in 1934 were 20 percent
higher than the median earnings of the highest-paid occupation in
1933.
T a ble 2 —M E D IA N W E E K L Y E A R N IN G S OF W O M E N IN W O M E N ’ S DRESS IN D U S T R Y
FOR 1 W E E K IN 1933 A N D 1934, B Y O CC U PATIO N
1934
Occupation

Number of
employees

1933
Median
earnings

Number of
employees

Median
earnings

Percent of
increase

All occupations__________________________

2,881

$16.52

1,800

$10.11

63

Machine operators. _____________________
Finishers________________________________
Cleaners___________________ ______________
Prossers__________________________________
All o t h e r s .----------- ---------------------------------

1,819
486

19.84
13.78
14.31
18.86
14. 62

1,157
343
105
65
130

11.39
7.02
6.70
11.50

74
96
113
64
83




210

82
284

8.00

LABOR CONDITIONS UNDER CODES

559

Moreover, earnings in 1933 were based on a working week averag­
ing 50 hours, while in 1934 the week had been shortened to 35 hours.
Differences were found in the median earnings and hours in union
and nonunion shops, and in shops working under different codes.
The median earnings for union shops were $16.85 for a 35-hour week,
and for nonunion $13.75 for 40 hours. Most of the nonunion plants
make cotton garments, and the code governing that branch of the
industry allowed a maximum working week of 40 hours. Earnings
were lower under the cotton garment and the blouse codes than under
the dress code, averaging $15.61 in the first instance and $16.91 in
the second.
The women’s dress industry in Connecticut maintained, during
1934, the expansion of the past few years. In 1933, 72 establishments,
employing about 3,000 persons, were registered with the State labor
department as dress factories. That number had increased to 82 in
1934, and the total number of employees was approximately 5,000.
Most of these workers were women. Of the 3,120 employees covered
in the 1934 study, 2,881, or 92 percent, were women. Basing esti­
mates on those for whom age data were obtained, a large percentage
of the 2,881 were between 16 and 21 years of age.
Shirt Industry
M e d ia n weekly earnings of woman workers in the shirt industry
in Connecticut advanced 73.2 percent between 1933 and 1934, while
working hours for a busy week decreased from 48 and 50 in 1933 to
40 or less in 1934. The industry operated under the cotton garment
code, which set a minimum wage of $13 for a 40-hour maximum work
week.
In making a study of shirt factories to determine, by comparison
with the United States Department of Labor survey of 1933, the
effect of the N. R. A. and other stabilizing factors, the minimum
wage division of the Connecticut Department of Labor covered 18 of
the 25 registered shirt factories in the State, employing 2,706 wage
earners. The earlier study gave data for 10 shops with 2,262 wage
earners.
Workers in shirt manufacture are predominantly young women
and girls, as shown by both studies. Children under 16, who in 1933
constituted 4 percent of the total, had been eliminated by 1934, but
42.7 percent of all woman employees in the 18 factories studied in
1934 were under 21, and 10.3 percent were under 18 years of age.
Average earnings in a busy week in 1933 were $7.80; in 1934 the
average wage was $13.51, or slightly more than the code minimum.
In 1933, 72 percent of the workers, and in 1934, only 14 percent
earned less than $10 for a full week. Comparative median weekly
earnings in 1933 and 1934 are shown in table 3, which segregates the
wages of the two most important occupations—machine operation
and pressing.




560
T

able

N. R. A.— LABOR ASPECTS
3 . — M E D IA N

EA R N IN G S OF W O M E N IN SHIRT FACTO RIES IN C O N N E C T IC U T
FOR 1 W E E K IN 1933 A N D 1934, B Y O CCU PATIO N
Percent
increase

Occupation

1934

1933

All occupations______________

$13.51

$7.80

73.2

Operators____________________
Pressers_______ _____________
Miscellaneous_________ ______-

13.45
14.15
13.18

8.00
8.40
6.20

68.1
68.7
110.8

The State agency studied hours and earnings for a representative
week in both the busy and the dull season. In the dull week, 96
percent worked less than 40 hours and 89 percent less than 30 hours,
and the median of hours worked was only 15.5. On the face of this
showing the report concedes the reasonableness of the manufacturers’
contention that a 36-hour week would be better suited to the shirt
industry. The wide difference in earnings between the busy and the
dull week in 1934 is shown in table 4.
T

able

4 .—C O M P A R A T IV E M E D IA N EA R N IN G S FOR 1 W E E K IN BU SY A N D D U L L SEA­
SONS IN SHIRT IN D U S T R Y IN C O N N E C T IC U T , 1934, B Y O CCU PATIO N
Busy week
Occupation

Number
employed

Dull week

Median
wage

Number
employed

Median
wage

________ ________________________

2,706

$13.51

2,566

$5.64

Operators_______________
__________________________
Pressers____ ____________________
__________________
Cutters and machinists 1______________________________
Miscellaneous
__
_______
_____________________

1,724
514
70
398

13.45
14.15
19.00
13.18

1,615
494
65
392

4.94
7.14
14.33

All occupations___

6.00

1 Men.

A record of the actual hours worked was obtained for only a small
group in 1933, but by 1934 fairly accurate records were available in
consequence both of code requirements and a clause in the Connecticut
Minimum Wage Act (Acts of 1933, ch. 131a, sec. 630-b), which re­
quires that “ each employer of women and minor workers shall keep
a true and accurate record of the hours worked by each.” Data
available in 1933 gave 17 cents as the median hourly rate of woman
workers in the shirt factories keeping time records; in 1934 the
median hourly rate had more than doubled, as 36 cents was the average
rate for that year.
Scheduled working hours in 1933 were 48 to 50 per week, although
64 percent of those for whom time records were available worked less
than 48, and 26 percent worked less than 44. In a busy week in
1934, 57.4 percent worked less than the 40-hour week established
by the code and 15 percent worked less than 30 hours.
Differences in earnings as between occupations, communities, and
contracting and direct manufacturing plants which the 1933 study
developed are shown by the 1934 survey to be very largely eliminated
for the busy week, but to persist during the dull season.
In view of continued very low earnings in the dull season, the
Connecticut Department of Labor feels that “ the income of wage
earners in shirt factories cannot yet be considered adequate.” More-




SCRIP PAYMENT OF WAGES AND COMPANY STORES

561

over, in spite of improved labor standards, State agents found that
half the plants visited were not paying all employees the wage re­
quired by the code. Some of the violations involved handicapped
workers or learners, some of whom were receiving even less than the
special lower rate permitted by the code, and others, while receiving
the code rate for special workers had not been granted exemptions as
such by the Connecticut Department of Labor, as required by the
code. The percentage of learners to total labor force was higher in
some instances than the code permitted.
While dull seasons, and even part-time work during the busy season,
are characteristic of the shirt industry, actual unemployment is not.
The Connecticut study reports only 5 percent reduction in working
force during the dull week as compared to the busy week.
In 1934 half the shops studied had not closed down completely at any time,
while the remaining half were closed from 1 to 3 weeks. It appears, then, that
the average wage earner in a shirt factory at present works nearly every week
somewhere between 38 hours, the median for the busy week, and 15 hours, the
median for the slow week.

Report on Scrip Payment of Wages and Company
Stores
ITED acceptance
its par value,
I IMrecommended by of scrip, at not less thanappointed by was
Ji
the special committee
the

National Recovery Administration on March 16, 1934, to study socalled “ company stores” and wage payments in other than lawful
currency.32 This committee was named in accordance with the
provisions of the retail trade code and was required to report its
findings to the National Recovery Administration not later than
December 1. Following submission of the report, code provisions
governing scrip were stayed on several occasions and the last stay,
announced on April 30, 1935, was made effective “ subject to further
order.” (Press release no. 11131.)
The study, of the committee was limited to company stores in
mining, quarrying, lumbering, railroading, and manufacturing indus­
tries. The field investigation was made in 10 eastern States where
company-store and scrip payments are most common. Information
was obtained for 150 commissaries and 100 neighboring independent
stores and 35 commissaries were chosen at random to check the
representativeness of the data.
Recommendations of the committee were made under two separate
groupings, the first of which dealt specifically with proposals for
change in the provisions of the retail trade code covering scrip pay­
ments and receipt and the second with recommendations “ designed
to carry out the spirit of the first group” and to “ indicate some con­
siderations involved in correcting some of the evils which now exist
in connection with the company-store and scrip system.”
It was proposed that the retail trade code be changed to allow
company stores or retail stores to “ collect by offset in the form of
scrip, book credit, or otherwise ” an amount equal to as much as
25 percent of the pay of an individual in any pay period. By the
3 National Recovery Administration.
3
19205— 36--------37




Press release no. 8673, Nov. 10, 1934.

562

N. R. A.— LABOR ASPECTS

terms of the retail trade code as approved, “ a negotiable instrument
issued by any individual or private profit organization in payment of
wages shall be accepted only if it is payable in cash within 1 month
of the date of issue” , and no retailer may extend credit in goods,
etc., to other than its own employees engaged exclusively in the
retail trade, upon any employer’s guaranty or pursuant to a wagededuction arrangement with said employer, unless such privileges are
available to all retailers. The recommendations of the committee
also included a change in the code provisions, stating that scrip might
be accepted for cash only at its par or face value.
To insure equitable application of the provisions for scrip payments
and acceptance of scrip for cash the committee suggested the adoption
of regulations which would—
(1) Insure that the worker receive a reasonable portion of his wages in cash
on each pay day;
(2) Limit the pay period to 1 week, and limit pay hold-backs to a maximum of
1 week;
(3) Prohibit any employer of labor from requiring an employee to trade at
the company store; and
(4) Prohibit the payment of wages due in any form other than lawful money
or pay checks.

N a tio n a l Recovery A d m in is tra tio n R e port on In d u s tria l
H o m e w o rk

(See section on “ Homework and Sweatshops,” p. 198)

Wage Restitutions Secured by National Recovery
Administration

W

AG E restitutions to the amount of over $3,000,000, represent­
ing the difference between wages paid and actual earnings,
were made through the efforts of National Recovery Administration
field offices, according to a statement released by the Director of
Compliance and Enforcement on February 12, 1935.33 Of this amount
it was estimated that over $1,000,000 was restored before June 16,
1934, and the remainder of the restitutions are a matter of record for
the period since that date. The record also shows that wage restitu­
tions made after June 16, 1934, involved 21,083 cases of which 756
arose under the President’s Reemployment Agreement and the
remainder under codes. In all 87,922 individuals benefited by the
payment of back wages.
In addition, authenticated reports of code authorities showed wage
restitutions in excess of half a million dollars.
3 National Recovery Administration.
3




Press release no. 10075, Feb. 12,1935.

N. R. A .— LABOR ASPECTS

563

Decision of Supreme Court on the National Industrial
Recovery Act
HE Supreme Court of the United States, on May 27, handed
down its decision in the case of Schechter v. United States, holding,
in effect, that the codes of fair competition established pursuant to
the National Industrial Recovery Act were unenforceable, that
insofar as that act purported to delegate to the President the power
to make such codes it was unconstitutional, and that the attempt to
regulate through a code certain methods of business, including the
wages and hours of employees engaged in such purely intrastate
activity as slaughtering poultry and selling it in a local market, was
likewise unconstitutional.
The Court’s ruling on the delegation point would alone have been
sufficient to dispose of the case and cause a reversal of the conviction
of the defendants for code violations. In deciding that legislative
power had been unconstitutionally delegated to the executive, Mr.
Chief Justice Hughes said in his opinion:

T

Section 3 of the Recovery Act is without precedent. It supplies no standards
for any trade, industry, or activity. It does not undertake to prescribe rules of
conduct to be applied to particular states of fact determined by appropriate
administrative procedure.
Instead of prescribing rules of conduct, it authorizes the making of codes to
prescribe them. For that legislative undertaking, section 3 sets up no standards,
aside from the statement of the general aims of rehabilitation, correction, and
expansion described in section 1. In view of the scope of that broad declaration,
and of the nature of the few restrictions that are imposed, the discretion of the
President in approving or prescribing codes, and thus enacting laws for the govern­
ment of trade and industry throughout the country, is virtually unfettered. We
think that the code-making authority thus conferred is an unconstitutional
delegation of legislative power.

The Chief Justice then took up the question of the application of
the code to intrastate transactions and asked two questions. First,
were these transactions “ in” interstate commerce?
The undisputed facts thus afford no warrant for the argument that the poultry
handled by defendants at their slaughterhouse market was in a “ current” or
“ flow ” of interstate commerce and was thus subject to congressional regulation.
The poultry had come to a permanent rest within the State. It was not held,
used, or sold by defendants in relation to any further transactions in interstate
commerce and was not destined for transportation to other States.

The second, and more important, question was: Did the defend­
ants’ transactions (including wage payments and working hours)
directly affect interstate commerce, thus becoming subject to Federal
regulation? This led to the necessity of drawing a distinction as to
what transactions had a “ direct” effect upon interstate commerce and
what had only an “ indirect” effect. Said the Court:
Direct effects are illustrated by the railroad cases * * * e. g., the effect
of failure to use prescribed safety appliances on railroads which are the highways
of both interstate and intrastate commerce, * * * the fixing of rates for
intrastate transportation which unjustly discriminate against interstate com­
merce.

For further examples, the Court drew upon labor cases arising
under the Antitrust Act. The opinion stated that where a combina-




564

N. R. A.— LABOR ASPECTS

tion or conspiracy intended to restrain interstate commerce (Coronado
Coal Co. v. United M in e W orkers, 268 U. S. 295) the direct effect was
clear. On the other hand, “ Where that intent is absent, and the
objectives are limited to intrastate activities, the fact that there may
be an indirect effect upon interstate commerce does not subject the
parties to the Federal statute, notwithstanding its broad provisions.”
Having made this point, the Chief Justice elaborated it further by
selecting from Industrial Association v. United States (268 U. S. 64),
a case involving a labor combination in the building trades, the follow­
ing language for quotation: “ The acts here complained of spent their
intended and direct force upon a local situation—for building is as es­
sentially local as mining, manufacturing, or growing crops. * * * ”
The Court rejected the arguments of the Government that Federal
regulation is justified because hours and wages affect prices, and
because interstate competition prevents the States, individually,
regulating hours and wages. “ It is not the province of the Court to
consider the economic advantages or disadvantages of such a central­
ized system. It is sufficient to say that the Federal Constitution does
not provide for it.”
Similarly, the Court rejected the argument that the legislation was
justified by an emergency, saying: “ Extraordinary conditions do not
create or enlarge constututional powers.”
Taking the decision as a whole, it amounted to holding all codes
invalid on the delegation point, and particular provisions of the live
poultry code invalid on the further ground that they regulated trans­
actions which neither were in nor directly affected interstate com­
merce. The implications of the dicta on the commerce point were
susceptible of various interpretations.




NEGRO IN INDUSTRY

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




565




The Negro in Agriculture and Industry at the
Beginning of the Depression
OR a long while agriculture was almost the only field opened
freely to colored workers, but during the World War the demand
for industrial labor drew numbers of them from the South to the
manufacturing centers of the North, and within the South, from the
country to the city. After the war, it became evident that there
had not been a simple return to the old order, and with a view to
discovering what permanent changes had been made, a brief survey
of the economic position of the Negro was undertaken by T. J.
Woofter, Jr., of the University of North Carolina. The survey was
made under a grant from the Julius Rosenwald Fund of Chicago, and
the results were issued under date of June 1930. The following
summary of the report has reference to conditions as they existed in
1930 or earlier.

F

Summary and Recommendations
T h e colored and white populations of the rural South, the report
found, were both increasing rapidly in an area which, under the
methods of agriculture in use, would not support adequately those
already living there. Conditions were not easy for either race, but
the Negro shared the difficulties of the white farmer and had some
additional ones of his own.
The Negro farmer is first of all a part of the general southern agricultural
system and as such he relies upon the one-crop system, is enmeshed in the tenant
organization, is dependent upon exorbitant credit facilities, and has, up until
recently, been subject to unsatisfactory market conditions. As a one-crop man
he is subject to ruinous fluctuations in the price of cotton and tobacco, and does
not raise a sufficient proportion of his own food and feed. As a tenant the
farmer assumes a small part of the''risks of farming and gets a small part of the
profits. The progress made by Negroes in climbing the tenant ladder up to
1910 has been reversed by the desertion of the farms for the city. * * *
Because these sudden fluctuations in price make it hard to get ahead, large
proportions of the farmers are constantly in debt, and for their production credit
they pay as high as 37 percent.
Notwithstanding these adverse conditions, it is possible to find in many com­
munities of the South energetic Negro farmers who are making a living for their
families. The problem is to encourage these and extend their number so that
those who have a special ability for farming may remain and prosper in agri­
culture.

To this end, the report advised strengthening agricultural education
in the schools, extending the work of the farm demonstration agents
and the Federal Vocation Board, special efforts on the part of all
cooperative enterprises to include Negro farmers, experiments to
discover better and more economic methods of handling production
credit, efforts to strengthen the present communities of Negro land­
holders and to increase their size, efforts to promote more selfsustaining agriculture, and further research,




567

568

NEGRO IN INDUSTRY

In the local communities the most effective agencies for improving methods of
production and for giving information on cooperative movements and credit
facilities are the farm and home demonstration agents. Negro agents are
especially effective in reaching Negro farmers. There were in 1929, 329 Negro
agents. This is not a sufficiently large number, by several hundred, to supply
the many Black Belt counties which have a sufficient number of Negro farmers
to benefit from their services. The problem here is the creation of sufficient local
interest in the counties to secure the necessary local appropriations, since a part
of the support comes from the county, a part from the State, and a part from
the Federal Government.

Status of the Negro in Industry
I n r eg ar d to the Negro’s industrial position, the investigation dis­
closed that since 1910 there had been a double movement. In the
southern cities white men had been competing for the skilled work
Negroes formerly did there and Negroes had moved northward, enter­
ing a wide range of urban occupations. Constructive programs
designed to fit the Negro more efficiently into the industrial system
must take account of many factors. The following suggestions were
made as to what such programs might include:
1. The application of the quota system to Mexican immigrants
might protect the Negro from the special competition he meets in
the Southwest and Midwest.
2. The situation as to unions should be bettered by a more effective
policy on the part of the American Federation of Labor in urging the
organization of Negroes by the internationals and locals and by the
abatement of discriminatory practices by these bodies.
3. Trained personnel workers or counselors in vocational and
educational guidance should be established in Negro high schools,
and special efforts should be made to bring about such a basis of
cooperation between industry and education as shall be profitable to
both.
4. Industrial educational facilities, supported by public funds and
aided by such agencies as the Julius Rosenwald Fund and the General
Education Board, should be extended.
5. Employment bureaus should be developed which will pay
special attention to the needs’ of Negro labor. “ Public employment
offices, financed from public funds, cannot afford to overemphasize
the needs of any one group of citizens. But the efficiency of these
offices in handling the Negro is often increased by the addition of a
Negro secretary to meet the needs of the group.”

Economic Status of the Negro in 1933
CO N FER EN CE on the economic status of the Negro was held
in Washington in May 1933, under the auspices of the Julius
Rosenwald Fund, with an attendance largely of economists and soci­
ologists, both colored and white, from all parts of the country.
Although no final summing up of the proceedings was presented,
there was rather general agreement on some salient points.
It was held to be well established that the Negro’s economic status
had improved distinctly within the last 40 years. The census of 1890
showed that, of the gainfully employed Negroes at that time, 87 per­
cent were either in agriculture or in domestic and personal service,

A




ECONOMIC STATUS IN 1933

569

and only 13 percent in all other pursuits. In 1930 the proportion in
other pursuits had risen to 34.7 percent, and Negroes were found in
practically all the occupations listed. While in many lines they are
handicapped by discriminations against them, nevertheless their
number is noticeably increasing in those pursuits requiring some
skill, initiative, experience, and general training.
Again, it is rather generally agreed that in the industries in which
the Negro has gained a foothold he has not, during this depression,
suffered disproportionately from unemployment. He has suffered,
just as the white worker has, but he has not lost ground relatively,
and his unemployment has been due to economic rather than to
racial factors.
However, the fact that the race is still largely found in two of the
great occupational groups which have suffered severely, agriculture
and personal and domestic service, has led to a larger amount of
unemployment among the colored than among the whites and has
forced them to appear in disproportionate numbers among the seekers
of relief. Negro women, in particular, have been hard hit by unem­
ployment because of the extent to which they have been engaged in
household service, a kind of work in which more easily and quickly
than in almost any other an employer may retrench when income
falls off. Among the Negroes it is not uncommon for married women
to be wage earners, so that their unemployment is 'at once reflected
in the family income. Consequently, the colored family is under a
greater strain, and there is danger of its serious disorganization. The
social needs of colored children, the unemployment of the women as
well as of the men, and the stresses thrown upon the family, were
brought out as interrelated factors, not merely matters of individual
suffering.
In the matter of relief it was agreed that in most parts of the
country there had been no discrimination against the Negro from
either public or private sources. In a few places the relief standards
were reported as being lower for the colored than for the white, but
this was unusual. For the causes mentioned above, unemployment
has been more widespread among the Negroes, and they have formed,
therefore, a larger proportion of those needing relief than they do of
the general population.
For the future it was held that there must be a strong and con­
tinuous effort to hold what the Negro has already gained and to secure
further advances. Farming in the South should present some special
advantages, but at present the Negro who wishes to take it up is
handicapped by inability to secure good land in acreages suited to
his needs, by lack of familiarity with improved methods, by poor
equipment, and by lack of credit facilities, as well as by the disadvan­
tages which affect farmers in general just now. Agricultural schools
and courses, demonstration farms, and county or community agents
of their own race were advocated. If to these were added opportuni­
ties to secure at a reasonable price something better than marginal
land, fair credit facilities and instruction as to how to use them,
county or community activities which would give the small farmer
some chances of education for his children, hospitalization and
medical care for his family and himself, and reasonable provision
against the more serious disadvantages of his present isolated position,
the drift to the city would probably be stopped, and the Negro would




570

NEGRO IN INDUSTRY

find a field of activity congenial to his character and beneficial alike
to himself and the country as a whole.
It was urged that better and more abundant opportunities for
education and training in both the industries and the professions
should be offered, and that along with these should go continuous
effort to break down the unwritten restrictions which now operate to
keep colored workers out of many callings.
In the immediate future, it was suggested, there was serious danger
that, as industry revived, the Negro might not be reemployed in pro­
portion to his numbers. Competition would be severe, and wherever
a group found it could use race discrimination to increase its own
chances it would be very apt to do so. Strong efforts should be made
to guard against this. Under the reorganization measures receiving
the approval of Congress, it was pointed out, both employers and
organized labor were to receive various concessions and to be subject
to certain regulations; some definite measures for the recognition
and absorption of colored labor might well be added as the plans
evolved. Obviously, a number of agencies must be set up to develop
policies and procedure with regard to public-works programs, the
administration of credit agencies, the regulation of private business,
the promotion of building projects, and the like.
One suggestion offered was that the Negroes should undertake
cooperative experiments, using their own labor power and their own
demands as consumers to build up self-sustaining or nearly selfsustaining communities, and to secure better opportunities for self­
development. Another called for the establishment of fact-finding
agencies to discover potential demands for Negro labor and to secure
more diversification of employment within the race.
The conference closed on a note of hopefulness. The president of
the Julius Rosenwald Fund pointed out that this is apparently the
first major depression in which the Negro’s unemployment has been
due to economic factors with the racial element either altogether
lacking or of small importance, and that this says much for the gain
in standing which has been made. Also he considered that the out­
look for the future is good. Politically the Negro is gaining in power,
and his possibilities from an economic standpoint are beginning to be
appreciated. His potential buying power offers business a new and
important opportunity. “ An increase in employment and of stand­
ards of living among Negroes would increase the buying power of the
country by more than the total amount of our present exports. The
greatest undeveloped market for American goods is the 12,000,000
Negroes in our midst.”

Physical Impairment Among Negro Factory Workers
HE Heart Council of Greater Cincinnati has made several studies
of physical impairment among different groups of workers, one
of which is a report based on data derived from physical examina­
tions of 1,032 Negro industrial workers in that city.1 The men
included in the study volunteered for the examination and repre-

T

1 The Journal of Industrial Hygiene (Baltimore), M ay 1931: Physical Impairment Among 1,000 Negro
Factory Workers, and Cardiovascular Impairment Among 1,000 Negro Factory Workers, by Floyd P.
Allen, M . D.




PHYSICAL IMPAIRMENT AMONG FACTORY WORKERS

571

sented the rank and file of these workers, there being no requirement
except that they should be 20 years of age or over. The majority
were employed at work requiring little mental effort but requiring
moderately hard physical labor, nearly half of the men working as
ordinary laborers. The men were employed in 13 factories, con­
siderably more than half working in foundries and in the manufacture
of roofing materials.
The mortality rates of the colored are, in general, much higher
than among whites and, while all the conditions causing these higher
death rates are not definitely established, it is indicated by recent
studies that environment and ignorance of personal hygiene are the
most important causes. The writer^ states that from available
records it appears that the Negroes thrive best in the South and that
health conditions were best in the days of slavery, when the majority
lived under rural conditions to which they could most readily adapt
themselves. After the Civil War the Negro race was left to its own
resources and during this period of readjustment suffered an appalling
loss of life from disease. During the past two decades the situation
among them has improved, although it is still unsatisfactory. Since
the World War large numbers have migrated to the North where the
colder climate, poor housing, and low incomes, with the resulting
limitation of food and clothing, have been factors in the high mor­
tality rate. In Cincinnati in the 10 years ending in 1929 the Negro
population has increased from 7 to 11 percent of the total population,
the total number of Negroes in the city now being in excess of 48,000.
The high mortality rate among this group had been a matter of
concern to the various official and voluntary welfare organizations
of the city and as a result of the work of these agencies there has been
a downward trend in the mortality rates. While there is much
information available, therefore, as to sickness rates and causes of
illness among these people, until about 1930 comparatively little
had been known of the physical condition of those who are apparently
well. In addition to the present study by the Heart Council, the
Anti-Tuberculosis League was having X-ray examinations made of
the chests of a large number of the same group of workers. On
account of the interest of the council in diseases of the circulatory
system it was desired to include a sufficiently large representation
of the older workers but, as in a similar study among white machine
and hand tool operators, it was found that a majority were under
45 years of age, both studies reflecting in a small way the tendency
in industry to eliminate the older men.
The medical history of each worker was taken as a preliminary to
the physical examination and it was found, as was to be expected,
that the acute infectious diseases led as causes of previous illnesses.
Only 139 of the number had been vaccinated within the preceding 5
years and 421 were found never to have been successfully vaccinated.
More than one-quarter of the group had never visited a dentist and
627 secured dental care only in emergencies. Six men stated that
they visited a dentist twice a year. The dental examinations showed
that more than three-fourths of the men were in need of dental care,
many having infected gums. Uncorrected visual defects were also
numerous; complete correction was observed in only seven cases, and
in some instances glasses were worn only for the sake of appearance.
Sinus disease was found in about one-fourth of the group and cases
of enlarged tonsils were numerous.



572

NEGRO IN INDUSTRY

The rate for diseases of the heart and blood vessels was very high
in this group, 55.6 percent of the men presenting cardiovascular
lesions. The presence of these lesions was definitely associated with
overweight, particularly among those under 40 years of age. The
rate for the entire group was one and six-tenths times the rate for
2,000 white workers in the same locality. This difference was found
to approximate closely the ratio of colored to white deaths in Cin­
cinnati in the 10-year period ending in 1929. A high percentage of
these workers did not know that they had any significant heart
defect and were also ignorant of the other major physical defects
which were found among them.
To sum up, of the total group only 1 was found who could be
considered practically free from defect, 88 had minor defects only,
911 had significant defects, and 996 possessed defects, either minor or
significant, which were unknown to them. It was considered by the
examiners that all but a few of these workers would benefit by early
medical care. It was a matter of wonder to the physicians making
the examination that many of these men could continue at work
daily at tasks requiring from moderate to great physical exertion.
In fact, however, the writer states, it is a matter of knowledge “ that
many of them break down relatively early in life as a result of serious
physical defects. Tuberculosis, syphilis, and the degenerative
diseases are still exacting a large toll of life among these people, so
great in fact that comparatively few survive to reach old age,”

The Negro in West Virginia in 1932

W

E S T VIR G IN IA offers in some respects a more hopeful
field for Negroes than those States in which agriculture offers
colored workers their chief opportunity. Mining, West Virginia’s
greatest industry, has never been closed to them, and the popu­
lation figures of the State show that they take advantage of the
opening it gives them. A report issued by the Bureau of Negro
Welfare and Statistics of West Virginia, covering the period 1929 to
1932, shows that during the decade 1 9 2 0 -3 0 , the Negro population
of the State rose from 86,345 to 114,913, an increase of 33.1 percent.
An attempt is made in the report to give a general review of the
position of the Negro in West Virginia during the period covered.
Occupational Distribution
I n 1930 the colored population of the State aged 10 years and over
numbered 89,921, of whom 52.5 percent were gainfully employed.
“ This exceeds the native white population’s percentage by a little
more than 10 percent and is behind the foreign-born whites’ percent­
age” by 10 percent. Considering only the male workers, by far the
largest group was found to be in the coal-mining industry, which
employed 22,300. Next came the group engaged in transportation,
numbering 3,451, most of whom were employed by the railroads.
Domestic and personal service, with 3,354, employed almost the
same number as transportation. Professional service accounted for
1,296, trade for 1,031, and agriculture for 1,655. The building trades
employed 826, chemical and allied industries 502, blast furnaces and




NEGRO IN WEST VIRGINIA 1932

573

steel rolling mills 391, and other iron and steel industries 545. The
remainder were scattered, hardly any industry or trade being without
a few representatives. For women, domestic and personal service
was the principal line of industry, employing 7,062, of whom 1,053
were in hotels, restaurants, and the like. The next largest group,
996, was found in professional and semiprofessional service, 105
carried on independent hand trades, and 103 were in wholesale and
retail trades.
In the coal mines, the report states, the Negro has proved a valuable
worker, adjusting himself to an amicable relationship with employees
of other racial groups within the industry, and being regarded as
a “ dependable worker and a contented member of society in the
coal-mining communities.” Among the railway systems in the State,
the Norfolk & Western is the largest employer of Negro labor.
In this company's shop at Bluefield as hostlers, helpers, and on the yards as
brakemen, freight handlers, baggagemen, commissary workers, and train porters,
the Negro represents an appreciable percentage of that company's labor per­
sonnel. Officials of the Norfolk & Western system give favorable testimony to
the efficiency, promptness, and dependability of their Negro employees.

There are very few Negroes in business for themselves in West
Virginia, and as employers they are a negligible factor. Negro
businesses are confined largely to the operation of restaurants, hotels,
cleaning and pressing shops, drug stores, billiard rooms, barber shops,
and an occasional grocery.
Our survey shows that the number of Negro-operated businesses has largely
decreased during the period covered by this report. This has been due largely
to the depression that has also affected all other business. But as most Negrooperated business is operated by only a few people, this decrease has had no
appreciable effect upon the question of unemployment. His commercial and
financial poverty preclude the possibility of employment of any appreciable
numbers within his own group.

A study of the individual business concerns which had disappeared
during the depression showed, naturally enough, that they were in
the main the smaller enterprises, the larger enterprises being better
able to weather the storm.
Home Ownership in 1930
T h e 1930 census showed that of 26,274 Negro families in West
Virginia, 4,900, or 18.7 percent, owned their own homes. The
desire to own a home is reported to be strong among the colored
people, and many who are not yet able to accomplish it have bought
or are buying lots on which to build as soon as their means permit.
Unfortunately, this desire has been taken advantage of by unscrupu­
lous real estate promoters and salesmen, who sold the Negroes
property “ which was often grossly misrepresented as to topography,
location, and value.”

Effects of the Depression
T h e colored people of West Virginia suffered severely from unem­
ployment during the depression, but at the time this report was
prepared (December 1932) the director of the bureau believed that
they had not suffered disproportionately. Apparently they had not
been discharged in favor of workers of another race or color.




574

NEGRO IN INDUSTRY

Reports reached this bureau from time to time of organized efforts to induce
employers to replace their colored employees with those of the other group. In
every case where a specific instance was named the office investigated. The
charge was not substantiated in a single case. A certain veterans’ organization
making a drive for the unemployed was so accused. A State-wide investigation
failed to support the accusation. These charges, no doubt, were but the product
of a hysteria of fear peculiar to the stress of the times.

Lack of employment led among the Negroes, as among those of
other races, to the familiar evils of overcrowding, insufficient nourish­
ment, and bad living conditions generally, with the accompanying
risks of increased susceptibility to tuberculosis, a growth in juvenile
delinquency, and similar unfortunate developments. This will tend
to leave the race with an increased handicap, even when the depression
is over.
This bureau, recognizing the facts stated herein, and the keen competition
that does and must necessarily face the colored worker in the immediate future,
has developed a plan of assistance. This plan calls for the organization in the
more populous centers of a group of the most intelligent and public-spirited
Negroes whose mission among other things will be as follows:
To cooperate with employers of labor by furnishing upon request the names of
competent and efficient Negro workers.
To find new jobs for Negroes, wherever possible, in fields where he is at present
barred solely on account of race.
To instruct the Negro, already employed, by means of lectures, etc., that
“ the job is the thing” , to the end that his increased efficiency will make him a
more valuable investment to his employer and thus safeguard himself against
displacement.

The bureau has found, it is stated, that work along these lines can
be handled more successfully by local groups than by means of a
central office. A group of the kind contemplated has already been
formed in Charleston, and others are to be developed.
The report contains also a general survey of the position of the
Negro in West Virginia, including educational opportunities, religious
and cultural facilities, welfare and correctional institutions, and
other particulars bearing upon his status and the possibilities open
to him.

Wages of Negroes in Industry in the District of
Columbia
SU R V E Y of the employment of Negroes in the District of Co, lumbia in 1931 was made under the auspices of the Association
for the Study of Negro Life and History, Inc., in cooperation with
the Committee for Improving the Industrial Condition among
Negroes in the District of Columbia.2 Wages were reported by 200
firms, some of them employing large numbers of Negroes. Accord­
ing to the findings for one group of establishments, 15 were paying their
Negro workers between $18 and $20 a week; in 11 firms the median
weekly wage scale for such workers varied from $15 to $18; in 2 others,
from $12 to $15, while in 4 establishments median wages ranged from
$8 to $10 a week. Of 19 firms, excluding hotels, which reported
monthly wages, 4 paid their Negro employees between $75 and $80
per month; 3 from $65 to $70; 2 from $60 to $65; and 1 from $55 to
2 Greene, Lorenzo J., and Callis, Myra Colson, The Employment qi Negroes in the District of Columbia.

A

Washington, 1931.




WAGES IN DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA

575

$60. The median wage scale for Negro workers in 5 establishments
was under $50 per month.
The median earnings of the second largest group of Negro workers
for whom pay-roll data were available ranged from $20 to $25 per
week, or from $1,040 to $1,300 per annum and were in 30 different
types of industries. These laborers were employed by 66 of the 200
firms. These earnings, however, included average wages of a few
Negroes with responsible jobs for which the remuneration was higher.
In 25 other establishments the median wages for Negroes was found
to be from $25 to $40 per week, 10 of these concerns paying between
$25 and $27.50. Among them were cleaners and dyers, dairies, feed
companies, lumber yards, a machine company, and a storage ware­
house. In half a dozen other concerns the weekly wage scale was
between $30 and $35. The median wages per week in one plant ran
from $35 to $40. In these cases the Negroes were doing skilled work,
some of them being bakers, one a foreman, some were employed in
the production section of an ice-cream plant, and others as truck
drivers for a chain grocery. The latter had increased their weekly
earnings, however, by overtime work, at the time of the survey. The
highest average wages for common labor were being paid by concerns
employing Negroes in large numbers for rough work. Such concerns
included street-railway companies, contracting, engineering, build­
ing and paving companies, and cement firms. Laborers received
from 21 of these companies wages running from $4 to $4.50 per day
or from 42% to 50 cents per hour. On the other hand, two contracting
companies paid from 30 to 35 cents per hour.
Wages paid by individual laundries will better serve to portray a more exact
picture and also to account in part for industrial laxity of the workers. In one
laundry wages ranged from $10 to $15 a week; in another from $11 to $23, in a
fourth from $8 to $22, the women working 8 hours and the men from 10 to 12
hours a day; in a fifth laundry $10 a week was the average; in other laundries the
weekly wages varied from $10 to $20 and from $12 to $13. The Negro men
receive the highest wages, for they are the washers, foremen, cleaners, pressers,
dyers, and, in a few cases, delivery men. Yet some of the girls and women do
fairly well either as pieceworkers on semiskilled or skilled processes. Shirt
ironers, for instance, in the second largest laundry in town, received from $12 to
$15 a week. A bonus of 25 cents an hour was also given each worker doing more
than a certain required amount of work.
In other cases Negroes worked on a piece basis. On this work the apt and
industrious employee could make a fair salary ranging from $12 to $15 a week.

In nine of the most outstanding hotels in Washington, D. C.,
reporting earnings for Negro workers, their average wage was $40.35
per month and in none of these establishments was the average median
monthly wage over $55. Bell boys received the lowest median month­
ly wage, $30, their monthly wages ranging from $10 to $35. The
montMy wage of waiters was $35, head waiters, of course, receiving
more. Dish washers were being paid from $35 to $40; maids, $40 to
$60; housemen, $60 to $75; and captains, $80 to $90. Hotel workers,
however, are allowed one or two meals a day, and the tips of those in
contact with guests frequently exceed their wages.
Higher wages were paid Negroes on skilled and responsible jobs,
notably in the building trades. Most of the cement finishers were
Negroes, and the majority of them earned 62% cents per hour, the
union scale being $1.25.




576

NEGRO IN INDUSTRY

Negro butchers and sausage makers, however, were receiving from
$32 to $50 per week; Negro bakers, $35 and up; and spotters in
laundries, from $30 to $45.
No basis for a comparison of average wages by race in Washington
was obtained.
Only in 12 cases did employers actually assert that for the same work Negroes
and whites receive the same pay. As one contractor expressed it, “ If whites
and blacks do the same work the pay is the same.” “ Colored and white workers
doing the same work get the same pay,” added the sales manager of a large real
estate company with 200 Negroes on its pay roll. This firm hired both white
and Negro elevator operators, janitors, and charwomen. “ Where both races do
the same type of work,” concluded a high official of a street railway company,
“ they are graded from 40 cents to 50 cents per hour.” In most of these places
whites have but recently begun to divide this rough work with the blacks;
hence, they are more or less compelled to accept the same wages paid Negroes.
In but two cases did employers admit at difference in wage levels as between
white and Negro workers. There no doubt were others, but such information
was withheld. In the above-mentioned instances, incidentally, qualifying cir­
cumstances, such as seniority, entered.

Relative Efficiency of Negro and White Workers
H E findings of several inquiries concerning the efficiency of Negro
labor as compared to white labor are brought together in an
article in the December 1934 issue of the American Federationist, by
Robert C. Weaver, associate adviser on economic status of Negroes,
United States Department of the Interior.
These findings are regarded as of special interest in view of the fact
that since the setting up of the President's recovery program there
has been a great deal of discussion on the relative efficiency of colored
workers. In the South particularly it has been reported that Negroes
are not so efficient as the white workers and that as a consequence it
is “ impossible and uneconomic" for employers in that part of the
United States to pay these colored workers as much as white laborers.
According to the author of the article here reviewed, there is no
direct evidence to support or refute the statement. In his judgment,
however, there are some pertinent data on the subject in question,
although he doubts whether the efficiency of labor is scientifically
measurable by race. He declares that up to the present no such
studies have been made. The results of some investigations of the
attitudes of employers on the matter and some additional data for a
single industry are, however, available.
Among the inquiries cited in this article in the American Federa­
tionist is one made by the Chicago Commission on Race Relations in
1920. That body reported that 71 employers interviewed considered
the Negro as efficient as white workers and 22 reported the Negro as
less efficient; the first group, however, included nearly all of the large
employers of Negroes.
The following table is a compilation of the results of three other
inquiries as to employers' opinions on the relative efficiency of Negro
labor.

T




577

RELATIVE EFFICIENCY

E F F IC IE N C Y A N D R E G U L A R IT Y OF NEGROES AS C O M P A R E D TO W H IT E W O R K E R S ,
A C C O R D IN G TO OPINIONS OF E M P LO Y E R S

Efficiency and regularity

De­
Detroit Bureau of* Pennsylvania Pub­
partment of
Government Re­
lic Welfare sur­
search survey1
vey8

J. Tinsley Willis

survey3

Number Number Number Number Number Number
of firms
of firms
of firms
reporting employed reporting employed reporting employed
Degree of efficiency:
More efficient_____________________
Same efficiency___________ . . . . . ._
Less efficient-. - -.
______
Not reported___________ ______ ____
Total............................. ...................
Degree of regularity:
More regular______________________
Same regularity_________ ____ _____
Less regular____ _______ ____ _____
Not reported____ _________________
Total............................................i

Feldman, Herman.

11
68
24
17
120

5,102
12,631
2,729
1,109
21,571

7

199
8,864
4 11,587
921
21,571

68
33
12
120

Racial Factors in American Industry.

14
32 .
10

1,780
6,400
1,120

56

9,300

3
28
25

431
6,321
2,548

56

9,300

New York, 1931, p. 60.

1
3
0
3
7
0
5
1
1
7

1,200
13,677
454
15,331
12,754
2,177
400
15,331

Data are for 1926.

8Johnson, Charles. The Negro in American Civilization. New York, 1930, pp. 70, 71.
8Willis, J. Tinsley. Negro Labor in the Tobacco Industry in North Carolina. An unpublished master's
thesis at New York University, 1932, pp. 46, 47. Data are for 1930.
4 “ Recent migration was felt to be responsible for the high rate of irregularity Labor turn-over for
Negro employees was thought to be generally less than that for white employees.”

Commenting on these findings, Mr. Weaver says:
Although these data speak for themselves, a word should be said by way of
explanation. In the first place, statistical material can never tell the whole
picture. The Negro is not offered the same inducement to increase his efficiency
as is his white prototype. Working conditions in the South are particularly
unfavorable and in all sections of the country there are few inducements for
efficiency by way of better jobs which act upon the colored workers. Thus
employer assertion of equal efficiency for Negro workers assumes greater impor­
tance and significance. It means that in spite of the traditional attitude toward
the Negro, and in the face of the smaller likelihood of promotion that presents
itself to colored workers, their labor has so proved its worth that it is judged to
be as efficient as that of another group which has enjoyed and does enjoy greater
advantages. This evidence points to the potentialities of Negro labor, if it is
treated in a more just and sympathetic manner.

In Mr. Weaver’s judgment, the closest approximation to a valid
investigation of the efficiency and regularity of Negro labor is Miss
Alma Herbst’s study of the meat-packing industry in Chicago, pub­
lished in 1932. Miss Herbst covers the “ typical” establishment
having the Bedeaux wage-payment system, under which, after stand­
ard output is fixed, any worker exceeding it gets a premium. The
accompanying tabulation presents some of her findings. The data
are only for employees affected by the Bedeaux premium system.
EAR NINGS OF W H IT E A N D N EGR O M A L E E M P LO Y E E S AS A F F E C T E D B Y B E D E A U X
P R E M IU M W A G E P A Y M E N T i

Weekly premiums
Under

$ 2 . 5 0 . . . ___________ __________ ____________________ ______________ __ _ _ . . .
$ 2 .5 0 -$ 4 .9 9 _______ _______________________________ ___________________________
$ 5 -$ 7 .4 9 .......... ....................................................................................................................
$ 7 .6 0 -$ 9 .9 0 ______________ __________ _____________________ _________ __________________
$10
______
________ _________________
_________________________________

and over
_____
No nremiums
Total __
1

_____________ ______ _____

White Negro
workers workers
230
111
31
20

8

102
502

Include only those whose wages are affected by Bedeaux premium wage payment.
19205— 36--------38




49
30
16
12

Total

0

279
141
47
32
16
102

115

617

8

578

NEGRO IN INDUSTRY

Fifteen and one-tenth percent of the white women eligible for pre­
miums, as contrasted with 6.5 percent of Negro women of the same
group, failed to receive these extra payments. The portions
awarded premiums up to $5 were approximately the same for both
races, but 16.3 percent of the Negro women, as compared to 8.8 percent
of the white women, getting premiums had extra earnings of $5 per
week.
The sources cited in the article under review seem to indicate a
tendency for the employers to feel that the Negro’s regularity is less
satisfactory than his- efficiency. By way of explanation of this atti­
tude, the author states that Negroes are as a rule hired to do unpleas­
ant work which is frequently casual and that they are also marginal
laborers with a slight hold on their jobs. These facts, in addition to
the fact that the type of labor which falls to the lot of colored workers
is of the kind that ordinarily has a higher turn-over, regardless of
the race of those doing such labor, throw considerable light on the
tendency toward irregularity. “ For the most part” , the author says,
“ this is an occupational and not a racial characteristic.” It is found
among Negroes because of their job distribution. He concedes how­
ever, that there is a racial factor in this irregularity. The Negroes,
he reports, find advancement based on ability very difficult and
consequently have recourse to new jobs in order to improve their
economic status. Moreover, “ the greater degree of irregularity seems
to have been, in part, an attribute of the post-war period.” Again,
rural workers find it no easy matter to adapt themselves to urban
industry. The southern textile manufacturers have noted this tend­
ency to irregularity in recently recruited white labor for the cotton
mills. “ There are evidences to the effect that Negroes, as they gain
more industrial experience, are reducing the degree of their irregu­
larity.” For example, in 1930 the North Carolina employers testified
more favorably along this line than the Detroit employers at an
earlier date.
The above analysis, according to the author, seems to show certain
tendencies.
It seems to point out that the Negroes’ efficiency varies in proportion to the
favorableness of their working conditions. In addition, the Negro has become
efficient in industries in the period since the World War. The evidence supplied
by his employers and by an independent investigation is to the effect that ^e is
as efficient as the white worker. When one considers the occupational distribu­
tion of colored workers, it seems that the irregularity of Negroes is about on a
par with that for whites. In light of these findings, certain conclusions can be
drawn. There is no reason for setting the wage for the Negro below that for
white workers. Pleas for separate minimum wages for colored workers in the
codes of fair competition rest upon a traditional attitude toward Negro labor.
The assumption of lesser efficiency for Negroes has not been proved, and all the
evidence we have about relative efficiency seems to refute the assertion.




OCCUPATION STATISTICS

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




679




Occupational Changes Since 1850
H E decennial reports of the occupational census of all persons 10
years of age and over in the United States, published by the Bureau
of the Census beginning with the year 1850, the first year in which the
population was classified by occupations, furnished the basis of a study
of occupational shifts, made by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, of which
this is an abstract.1 While employees in most of the trades increased
in actual numbers from one census period to another, many of them
show relative decreases when compared with the change in population.
The population increased from 23,191,876 in 1850 to 122,775,046 in
1930, and it is only by considering the changes in the occupations
with relation to this increase in population that the real significance
of such changes becomes apparent.
Attention must be called to the fact that many of the trades or
occupations of the present day are not strictly comparable with the
same trades or occupations in 1850. New tools, new methods, differ­
ent products, all tend to change the trade as well as the number of
persons employed in it. Also, unfortunately, occupations have not
always been treated alike in the several decennial census reports.
Different occupational terms and combinations thereof are used, and
some occupations which were shown separately for a few years have
drifted into “ all others” in later years, rendering comparison
impossible.
As a result of these and other factors the figures presented should be
accepted only as representative of general trends and not as absolutely
accurate measurements.
The occupations for which figures are presented have been arranged
under seven groups: Agriculture, forestry, and fishing; extraction of
minerals; manufacturing and mechanical industries; transportation;
professional service; domestic and personal service; and clerical occu­
pations. It was not possible to include all the occupations reported
by the census, as in many cases they are of no particular significance
in any year and many of them could not be traced on a comparable
basis through the various reports. The occupational terms used in
the table are designed to cover the material for all years, although
they may not be the exact terms used in any census report. Wherever
necessary, combinations have been made in order to maintain the
comparison from year to year. The figures cited show the number of
employees per million of population.
The most conspicuous occupational change revealed by the figures
in the following table is that to which attention has been frequently
called, the consistent shift during the entire period from agricultural
to other pursuits. Motor tractive power, electricity, and improved
implements and methods are making agricultural work less burden-

T

i

See Monthly Labor Review, November 1933, p. 1017.




581

582

OCCUPATION STATISTICS

some but more productive, and the very great decline in the number
of persons employed in agricultural pursuits has in a large measure
been due to these technological changes. Technical changes in other
industries have also resulted in divorcing the farmer’s occupation from
a variety of processes formerly done on the farm, such as slaughtering,
coopering, the making of certain implements, and the preparation of
certain foods. Furthermore, industrial and commercial wage levels
and the attractions of city life have drawn many away from the farm
to the city.
N U M B E R OF E M P LO Y E E S PER M IL LIO N OF POPULATIO N , B Y O C C U PATIO N , AS
SH O W N B Y CENSUS OF OCCUPATIONS, 1850-1930
Occupation

1850

I860

1870

1880

1890

1900

1910

1920

1930

A g r ic u ltu r e , fo re s try , a n d
f is h in g

Agriculture1........................ . . 103, 568 106,129 153,436 152, 585 133,904 134, 579 134,696 100,896 85, 294
Agricultural laborers___
225,305 74,848 66, 271 47, 723 57,449 65,047 37,544
Farmers and planters___ 2103,097 79,809 77,320 84,318 83,904 74,606 64,231 57,550
Gardeners, nurserymen,
florists, vine growers,
872
366
697
1,153
3,015
2,955
1,117
1,406
etc....................................
Stockraisers,
drovers,
105
1,124
1,256
herders, etc...................
318
879
1,271
396
1,118
Lumbermen, raftsmen, wood
651
865
1, 582
1,422
491
614
1,753
1,826 1,321
choppers, etc............... .........
742
500
Fishermen and oystermen—
486
844
825
703
597
956
907
E x t r a c tio n o f m in e r a ls

Quarry operatives...................
Miners, coal and metallifer­
ous............................. ............
Oil and gas well operatives..

83

131

352

302

598

455

879

427

532

3,338

4,699

3,945
99

4,670
146

5, 554
145

6,959

237

8,758
278

8,351
809

6,064
857

451
718
3,677
180
2,327
612
4,438
1, 111
8,937
1,084

881
823
3,444
255
2,043
440
3,870

8,440
980

1,310
956
3,262
339
2,525
620
3,392
571
9,714
754

247
851

110

91
358
797

132
545
691

1,072
1,042
2,869
410
1,962
465
2,741
469
7,693
490
667
147
658
528

1,294
974
2,533
487
1,842
518
2,836
456
8,884
275
« 1,307
152
892
246

1,364
927
1,847
701
1,314
362
2,879
431
8,394
180
2,014
142
784
189

755
1,147
1,013
407
1,518
571
2,482
472
7,570
92
2,283
158
588
62

1,215
1,420
670

2,284
2,016
655

3, 355
2,813
970

3,919
3,508
717

8,052
5,016
389

8, 006
7, 586
209

6,731
5, 215
186

M a n u f a c t u r in g a n d m e c h a n i­
c a l in d u s tr ie s

80
1,760
Apprentices...... .............. .........
615
604
Bakers...................... ................
3,587
Blacksmiths............................. 3 4,308
105
Boilermakers_____ ____ _____
68
Brick and stone masons------f 2,011
Plasterers................................. } 2,733 i
417
5,644
Boot and shoe workers..........
5,348
Cabinetmakers.......................
1,611
1,131
7,992
Carpenters and joiners--------8,509
1,884
Coopers.....................................
1,387
Electricians________________
95
88
Engravers.................................
11
1
140
Glassworks operatives--------982
814
Harness and saddle workers .
Iron and steel workers, in­
cluding blast-furnace, roll­
ing-mill, foundry, etc., em­
528
ployees...................................
800
1,039
1,394
Machinists........................ .......
607
631
Marble and stone cutters___
Millers and millworkers
(grain, flour, and feed)____
1,199
1,186
Painters, glaziers, and var1,215
1,659
nishers...................................
Paper and pulp mill opera­
128
tives. .....................................
146
Paper hangers.......................... }
f
64
112 i
102
Upholsterers............................
63
87
Pattern and model makers..
Plumbers, gas and steam
191
81
fitters............... ............... .
179
Potters and pottery workers.
110
Printers, compositors, press­
men, lithographers, book­
788
944
binders, etc...........................
19
62
Roofers and slaters...... ..........
Rubber factory operatives__
7
15
Steam engineers and firemen
510
(stationary)..........................
(«)
See footnotes at end of table.




1,010

1,078

1 066
,

839

534

396

468

316

2,208

2,563

3,494

3,632

3, 635

3,017

4,261

323
65
149
103

427

442
197
408
164

478
287
406
198

737
278

1,012

208
116

289
131

387
144

899
237

1,285
71

1,726
80
127

2,260

1,588

101
888

100

220

256

177
280
262

1,094
231
419
242

1,214

212

1,613
277

1,956
277

1,937
281

257

2,394
118
288

2,552
153
477

2,339
108
1, 302

2,551
193
896

2,220

2,941

3,722

3,651

3,123

112

583

CHANGES SINCE 1850

N U M B E R OF E M P L O Y E E S PER M IL L IO N OF POPU LATIO N , B Y O CC U PATIO N , AS
SHOW N B Y CENSUS OF OCCUPATIONS, 1850-1930—Continued
Occupation

1850

1860

1870

1880

1890

1900

1910

1920

1930

M a n u fa c tu rin g a n d m echani­
cal in d u stries— Continued

Structural-iron w o rk ers,
building__________________
Tailors, tailoresses, seam­
stresses, dressmakers, mil­
liners, etc..............................
Tanners, curriers, and tan­
nery workers........................
Textile workers7.....................
Tinsmiths
and tinware
workers and coppersmiths.
Tobacco and cigar-factory
operatives.............................
Wagon and coach makers.
Wheelwrights.........................

124

178

236

(6
)

8,045

6,585

8,357

10,884

10,652

10,712

6,662

4, 421

646
1,925

446
1,686

744
4,842

595
6,015

625
5,442

561
7,087

591
8,162

565
9,097

373
7,796

582

615

847

920

935

925

848

467
673
1, 323

681
618
1,040

1,044
1,101
543

1, 536
995
311

1,773
549
204

1,730
(5
)
178

1,826
376
41

3,132
2,468

3,541

5,854

7,092

8 1,059 81,034
1,706
182
35

1,012
34

498

2,697

7,920

4,826

3,975

1,240

T ran spo rta tio n

Chauffeurs..............................
Draymen, hackmen, team­
sters, drivers, etc........... —
Conductors, brakemen, and
other railroad employees
(not clerks)...........................
Locomotive engineers and
firemen.............................. .
Motormen, conductors, and
other street railway em­
ployees (not clerks)............
Sailors and deck hands_____

1,757
208

1,163

3,995

4,707

f 6,080
l 1,104

6,714
1,409

11,378
1,877

10,914
1,904

7,749
1,371

3,044

2,142

132
1,470

238
1,198

593
888

920
795

1,667
506

1,634
519

1, 220
527

P ro fe ssio n a l service

Architects...................... ..........
Chemists, assayers, and met­
allurgists.................. ............
Clergymen,.............................
Photographers and daguerreotypists________ _______ _
Dentists..................... ..............
Lawyers, judges, and justices,
Physicians and surgeons___
Technical engineers........ .......

26

40

52

67

128

39

181

172

179

20
1,157

20
1,194

20
1,138

39
1,290

72
1,401

116
1,469

177
1,283

312
1,204

302
1,212

40
126
1,032
1, 757

100
178
1,081
1, 751

196
203
1,057
1,618

199
246
1, 279
1, 708

318
278
1,424
1, 665
69

355
390
1, 506
1,737
57

346
435
1,247
1.643
97

324
531
1,159
1,372
129

322
579
1,308
1,253
184

2,045

3,049

D om estic an d p erso n a l service

Barbers, hairdressers, and
manicurists..........................
Servants, housekeepers,
stewards, stewardesses, etc,
Laundry operatives...............
Cleaning, dyeing, and press­
ing shop workers.................

259
(6
)

354

621

894

1,350

1,725

2,123

318,696

25,337

21,492

23, 111

22, 579
29

20,113
122
16

16,285 21, 577
114
196
20

72

C lerica l occupations

Clerks, stenographers, type­
writers, bookkeepers, ac­
countants, etc......................
Clerks and salesmen and
saleswomen in stores..........

4,369

f 1,926
5,933 1 6,139

2,999
7,691 }l6,117

20,793 f!6 ,569
\13,748

26,691 30,336
14, 565 19,469

11930 census classifications do not allow for detail of agricultural occupations as shown in previous years*
1 Figures are not available for slaves who formed a considerable part of agricultural and domestic labor
in 1850 and 1860.
3Includes a few whitesmiths.
* Estimated by Bureau of Census in 1920.
8Reported under another designation.
8Not shown, as males only were reported.
7Including spinners, weavers, warpers, loom fixers, scourers, bleachers, dyers, knitters, etc., of cotton,
wool, worsted, silk, linen, and hosiery.
8Includes sheet-metal workers.




584

OCCUPATION STATISTICS

In recent years the use of minerals has become more and more
indispensable and the technical progress of these industries has kept
pace with their importance, resulting in a steady growth in produc­
tion. The expansion of the coal and iron industries increased the
number of miners employed from 3,338 per million of population in
1850 to 8,351 in 1920. Although mechanization has not been as
rapid in coal mining as in certain other industries, recent technical
improvements have led to a reduction in labor requirements which,
combined with the development of other kinds of industrial power,
resulted in a decrease in the number of miners per million of popula­
tion from 8,351 in 1920 to 6,064 in 1930. On the other hand, the
growth of the oil and gas industries raised the number of employees
of oil and ga,s wells from 99 per million of population in 1870, the
first year for which separate returns were made, to 857 in 1930.
Greater productivity has made it possible for the relatively smaller
increase in persons employed in manufacturing industries to provide
for the more rapidly expanding industrial population. Manufactur­
ing and mechanical occupations have thus suffered a relative shrinkage.
The building trades have experienced a considerable change since
1850. This is not surprising when consideration is given to the dif­
ference in buildings of today and those of 80 years ago. In the
early days lumber was the easiest as well as the cheapest material
with which to build, and most buildings were of wood. Today,
however, almost all large buildings are constructed of brick, con­
crete, steel, or stone, while even the inside finish of wood is not so
much used as formerly. These materials are also in common use
among home builders, especially in the cities. Fabrication has trans­
ferred much of the hand work to the factory. Although the new
technology of recent years has entered construction work and reduced
the amount of hand work, yet machinery has made but little inroad
in the highly skilled crafts.
The use of steel for framing accounts for the new trade of struc­
tural-iron worker which was shown separately for the first time in
1910. Stone, to a large extent, is now cut and polished at the quarry
by machinery, only the finer work being done by hand. The result
of the introduction of these machines was first noticeable in the
census returns for 1910.
The bathroom, a luxury enjoyed by few families in 1850, has now
become almost a necessity. Only 81 plumbers per million of popula­
tion were employed in 1850, as against 1,937 in 1930.
Electric lights were unknown in 1850, while now practically all
large buildings and an increasing percentage of homes are equipped
with electricity for lighting, as well as for the numerous electrical
appliances on the market. As a result, 2,283 electricians per million
of population were reported in 1930, as compared with 667 in 1900,
the first year in which a separate return was made for this trade.
The principal woodworking shop crafts have decreased amazingly
in recent decades. Wagon and coach making, an important trade in
1850, is almost extinct, and wheelwrights are no longer separately
enumerated in the census returns. The cooper’s trade, a very neces­
sary one in 1850, is also fast disappearing, as steel drums, pails, sacks,
and other containers have been substituted for the old wooden barrel.




DISTRIBUTION OF GAINFULLY EMPLOYED IN 1930

585

The decrease of cabinetmakers from 1,611 per million of population
in 1850 to 472 in 1930 is probably due more to the growth of the fac­
tory system of manufacturing than to the introduction of machinery.
More desks, tables, chairs, etc., are made today than ever before, but
most of them are made in the factory. Therefore, the decrease shown
in this occupation represents the decrease of hand cabinetmakers and
not of the trade generally.
Bakers have nearly doubled in number per million of population
since 1850. At that time there were but 615, in comparison with
1,147 in 1930. This increase is due largely to the substitution of
bakery foods for the home-made variety.
Steam-railroad employment rose almost unchecked until 1910, when
a relative decline set in which has continued. Locomotive engineers
and firemen were shown separately for the first time in 1890, when
1,104 per million of population were employed. This number in­
creased to 1,904 in 1920, but by 1930 it had dropped to 1,371, the
lowest since 1890.
During the three decades following the introduction of electric cars,
a rapidly increasing number of persons were required in the operation
of street railways; but as in the case of steam railroads, the number
needed fell off relatively between 1910 and 1920 and has dropped
rapidly since that time.
Sailors and deck hands have grown fewer and fewer relatively with
the decrease in American ships. Our shipping industry was quite im­
portant in 1850, and there were 3,044 sailors per million of popula­
tion. B y 1930 this number had shrunk to 527. Since 1910 the num­
ber has kept pace with the population and has shown a slight increase.
In the professional group of occupations there has been much
growth during the last 80 years. Few professions have declined, and
there has been a steady growth in many of the older professions and
a rapid extension of some of the newer ones.

Distribution of Gainfully Employed Persons, 1930

O

U T of a total population of 122,775,046 enumerated in the 1930
census, 48,832,589, or 39.8 percent, were classed as gainfully
occupied workers 10 years of age and over. This figure repre­
sents the normal working population, irrespective of the extent of
unemployment at the time the census was taken.
In the following tables this normally employed population is classi­
fied to show the number of gainful workers by sex, by main industry
groups, by occupational divisions, and by age distribution.
Table 1 gives the number of gainful workers 10 years of age and
over, by sex and in relation to the total population, for the 5 census
years 1900-30:




586

OCCUPATION STATISTICS

T a ble 1.—N U M B E R OF G AIN FU L W O R K ER S IN T H E U N IT E D STATES, B Y S E X , 1900-30
Total

Males

Females

Item

Year

Total population...................................... ............ ........

1930
1920
1910
1900

122,775,046
105,710,620
91,972,266
75,994,575

62,137,080
53,900,431
47,332,277
38,816,448

60,637,966
51,810,189
44,639,989
37,178,127

Persons 10 years old and over......................................

1930
1920
1910
1900

98,723,047
82,739,315
71,580,270
57,949,824

49,949,798
42,289,969
37,027,558
29,703,440

48,773,249
40,449,346
34,552,712
28,246,384

48,832,589
41,614,248
38,167,336
29,073,233
39.8
39.4
41.5
38.3
49.5
50.3
63.3
50.2

38,053,795
33,064,737
30,091,564
23,753,836
61.2
61.3
63.6
61.2
76.2
78.2
81.3
80.0

10,778,794
8,549,511
8,075,772
5,319,397
17.8
16.5
18.1
14.3
22.1
21.1
23.4
18.8

Gainful workers (persons reporting a gainful
occupation)................................... .............. ................

Percent of total population...................................

Percent of population 10 years old and over___

1930
1920
1910
1900
1930
1920
1910
1900
1930
1920
1910
1900

«

Main Industry Groups
C l a s s if ic a t io n of gainful workers by industry groups, shown in
table 2, was made for the first time in the 1930 census. In this indus­
trial classification, all persons whose services are employed in a given
industry are classified under that industry. In the occupation classi­
fication, on the other hand, all clerical workers are classified in a
group by themselves, without regard to the industry in which they
are employed, and certain other important occupations are likewise
placed as a whole in that general group where they are usually or
most frequently found.
T able 2 »
—G AIN FU L W O R K E R S IN TH E M A IN IN D U S T R Y GROUPS, B Y S E X , FOR T H E
U N IT E D STATES, 1930
Percent
Industry group

Males

Females
Male

Fe­
male

All industries . ................... —----------------------

38,053,795

10,778,794

100.0

100.0

Agriculture............................. - ------- -----------Forestry and fishing.......................................
Extraction of minerals...................................
Manufacturing and mechanical industries.
Transportation................................................
Trade................................................................
Public service (not elsewhere classified)—
Professional service........................................
Domestic and personal service....................
Industry not specified................................. .

9,568,347
266,876
1,147,770
11,901,247
3,990,875
5,820,642
934,581
1,663,049
1,662,707
1,097,701

913,976
3,249
10,294
2,416,288
447,730
1,716,384
123,323
1,762,795
3,149,391
235,364

25.1
.7
3.0
31.3
10.5
15.3
2.5
4.4
4.4
2.9

8.5
.1
22.4
4.2
15.9
1.1
16.4
29.2
2.2

Occupational Groups
T h e number of gainful workers in 1930, classified by occupational
divisions and by sex, is shown in table 3, together with the same data
from the census of 1910 and of 1920. Comparisons of the three decades
develop some significant changes. For example, although the total
number of gainful workers 10 years of age and over increased from
38,167,336 in 1910 to 48,829,920 in 1930, or 27.9 percent, the gainful
workers in agriculture decreased from 12,388,309 to 10,471,998, or




587

DISTRIBUTION OR GAINFULLY EMPLOYED IN 1930

15.5 percent. Striking shifts in the occupations of working women
are shown in the fact that the percentage of female workers in agri­
culture was 22.4 in 1910, 12.7 in 1920, and 8.5 in 1930. The per­
centage of gainful female workers in domestic and personal service
was 31.3 in 1910 and fell to 25.6 in 1920, swinging upward again to
29.6 in 1930. At the same time the percentage of women employed
in clerical occupations increased from 7.3 in 1910 to 18.5 in 1930.
T able 3 .—GAIN FU L W O R K E R S 10 Y EAR S OLD A N D OVER, B Y G E N E R A L DIVISIONS OF
OCCUPATIONS A N D S E X , FOR T H E U N IT E D STATES, 1910, 1920, A N D 1930
Percent distri­
bution

Number

Percent
of total

Census year and general division
of occupations
Males

1910
Agriculture_____ ___________________
Forestry and fishing...... ................. .....
Extraction of minerals______ _______
Manufacturing and mechanical in­
dustries........................................ ........
Transportation and communication.
Trade.......................................................
Public service (not elsewhere speci­
fied)..................................................... .
Professional service................................
Domestic and personal service...........
Clerical occupations....................... .

Fe­
Fe­
Males males Total Males males

10, 581,685
241,249
964,075

1,806,624 12,388,309
241,806
557
1,094
965,169

35.2
.8
3.2

22.4

32.5
.6
2.5

85.4
99.8
99.9

14.6
.2
.1

8,835,698
2,549,922
3,160,562

1,820,847 10,656, 545
115,347 2,665,269
472,703 3,633, 265

29.4
8.5
10.5

22.5
1.4
5.9

27.9
7.0
9.5

82.9
95.7
87.0

17.1
4.3
13.0

426,606
976,523
1,225, 395
1,129,849

4,836
734,752
2,530,403
588,609

1.4
3.2
4.1
3.8

.1
9.1
31.3
7.3

1.1
4.5
9.8
4.5

98.9
57.1
32.6
65.7

1.1
42.9
67.4
34.3

8, 075,772 38,167,336 100.0 100.0 100.0

78.8

21.2

1, 083,146 10,665,812
270, 214
673
2,864 1,090,223

29.0
.8
3.3

12.7

25.6
.6
2.6

89.8
99.8
99.7

10.2
.2
.3

1,930,352 12,831,879
224,270 3,096,829
671,983 4,257, 684

33.0
8.7
10.8

22.6
2.6
7.9

30.8
7.4
10.2

85.0
92.8
84.2

15.0
7.2
15.8

738,525
2,171,251
3,379,995
3, 111, 836

2.2
3.5
3.6
5.1

.1
11.9
25.6
16.6

1.8
5.2
8.1
7.5

98.6
53.2
35.3
54.3

1.4
46.8
64.7
45.7

100.0 100.0 100.0

79.5

20.5

All occupations........................ . 30,091,564
1920
Agriculture............................................ . 9,582,666
F o r e s t r y a n d fis h in g
_
269,541
E x t r a c t io n o f m in e ra ls
1,087,359
Manufacturing and mechanical in­
dustries................................................ 10,901, 527
Transportation and communication.. 2,872, 559
Trade................................................ ....... 3,585, 701
Public service (not elsewhere classi­
fied).................................................
727,939
Professional service______ __________ 1,154, 221
Domestic and personal service______ 1,193,313
Clerical occupations___________ ____ 1,689,911
All occupations_______________ 33,064,737
1930
Agriculture.......................................... .
Forestry and fishing________________
Extraction of minerals______________
Manufacturing and mechanical in­
dustries.............................................
Transportation and communication..
Trade................................ ......................
Public service (not elsewhere speci­
fied).................................................
Professional service........ ......................
Domestic and personal service_____
Clerical occupations______ ______ _

Total

Females

10,586
1,017,030
2,186,682
1,421,925

431,442
1,711,275
3,755,798
1,718,458

8,549,511 41,614,248

9,562,059
250,140
983, 564

909,939 10,471,998
250,469
329
984,323
759

25.1
.7
2.6

8.5

21.4
.5
2.0

91.3
99.9
99.9

8.7
.1
.1

12,224,345
3,561,943
5,118,787

1,886,307 14,110,652
281,204 3,843,147
962,680 6,081,467

32.1
9.4
13.4

17.5
2.6
9.0

28.9
7.9
12.5

86.6
92.7
84.2

13.4
7.3
15.8

856,205
3,253,884
4,952,451
4, 025,324

2.2
4.5
4.7
5.4

.2
14.2
29.6
18.5

1.8
6.7
10.1
8.2

97.9
53.1
35.8
50.6

2.1
46.9
64.2
49.4

All occupations............................ 38,077,804 10,752,116 48,829,920 100.0 100.0 100.0

78.0

22.0

838, 622
1,727,650
1,772,200
2,038,494

17,583
1,526,234
3,180,251
1,986,830

Age Distribution
T a b l e 4 gives for 1930 the proportion, and also the percentage dis­
tribution, of gainfully occupied persons in the total population of the
United States 10 years of age and over, by age groups. Because of the
expanding interest in problems relating to the ages of gainfully oc­
cupied persons, the tabulation of the occupational data gathered in the
1930 census carries 18 age groups for States and for cities of 100,000 or
more, while the tabulation of occupational returns for the 1920 census
was limited to 10 age groups.




588

OCCUPATION STATISTICS

T a ble 4.—PROPORTION OF PERSONS G A IN F U L L Y OCCU PIED , B Y A G E A N D S E X ,
1930

Percent distribution
of gainfully occupied

Males

Census year and age

Females

Per­
cent
Total num­ gain­
ber
fully
occu­
pied

Per­
cent
Total num­ gain­
fully
ber
occu­
pied

Per­
cent
Total num­ gain­
fully
ber
occu­
pied

Fe­
Males males

Both sexes

Total

10 years and over____

49,949,798

76.2

48,773, 249

22.0

98,723,047

49.5

100.0

100.0

100.0

10 to 13 years________
14 years______ _______
15 years_____________
16 years_____________
17 years........ - ..............
18 and 19 years-------20 to 24 years------------25 to 29 years..............
30 to 34 years________
35 to 39 years-----------40 to 44 years________
45 to 49 years________
50 to 54 years.. ____
55 to 59 years____ . .
60 to 64 years________
65 to 69 years________
70 to 74 years________
75 years and over____
Unknown.....................

4,862,291
1,206,486
1,154,648
1,181,920
1,157,150
2,264,107
5,336,815
4,860,180
4,561,786
4,679,860
4,136,459
3, 671,924
3,131,645
2,425,992
1,941,508
1,417,812
991,647
915, 752
51,816

3.3
9.2
16.3
32.7
49.9
70.7
89.9
97.0
97.6
97.7
.97.6
97.2
95.7
93.0
86.8
75.7
57.5
32.3
59.9

4,760,201
1,175,899
1,141,051
1,185,395
1,138,672
2,329,172
5,533,563
4,973,428
4,558,635
4,528,785
3,853, 736
3,370,355
2,844,159
2,219,685
1,809, 713
1,352,793
958, 357
997,444
42, 206

1.5
4.0
7.6
17.0
27.5
40.5
42.4
31.0
24.4
23.1
21.9
21.0
19.7
17.3
14.7
11.4
7.6
4.0
31.8

9, 622,492
2,382,385
2,295,699
2,367,315
2,295,822
4,593,279
10,870,378
9,833,608
9,120,421
9,208,645
7,990,195
7,042,279
5,975,804
4, 645,677
3, 751, 221
2,770,605
1,950,004
1,913,196
94,022

2.4
6.6
11.9
24.8
38.8
55.3
65.7
63.6
61.0
61.0
61.1
60.7
59.5
56.8
52.0
44.3
33.0
17.5
47.3

0.4
.3
.5
1.0
1.5
4.2
12.6
12.4
11.7
12.0
10.6
9.4
7.9
5.9
4.4
2.8
1.5
.8
.1

0.7
.4
.8
1.9
2.9
8.8
21.8
14.3
10.4
9.7
7.9
6.6
5.2
3.6
2.5
1.4
.7
.4
.1

0.5
.3
.6
1.2
1.8
5.2
14.6
12.8
11.4
11.5
10.0
8.8
7.3
5.4
4.0
2.5
1.3
.7
.1

Table 5 shows the proportion of gainful workers in the older age
groups of the population of the United States for 1920 and 1930.
T a ble 5 —PROPORTION OF G A IN F U L W O R K E R S IN O LD ER AG E GROUPS OF POP­
U L A TIO N , 1920 A N D 1930

Percent of gainful workers
1920

Age group
Males
20 to 24 years____________________________
25 to 44 years___________________________
45 to 64 years____________________________
65 years and over-------------------------------------

91.0
97.2
93.8
60.1

Females
38.1
22.4
17.1
8.0

1930
Total

Males

63.9
60.7
58.2
34.3

89.9
97.5
94.1
58.3

Females
42.4
25.4
18.7
8.0

Total
65.7
61.7
58.0
33.2

“ White-Collar Workers” 2
N PR E SE N T-D A Y discussions of social problems reference is fre­
quently made to the “ white-collar workers ” , but there seems to be
no generally accepted concept of just what workers the white-collar
group includes. Evidently something other than wearing a white
collar brands one a white-collar worker. Indeed, membership in the
group is determined by the kind of work done rather than by the kind
of clothes worn. Perhaps the white-collar workers may be roughly
defined as those engaged in clerical and kindred work. This definition
excludes, on the one hand, proprietors, managers, officials, and profes­
sional persons, and, on the other hand, the “ overalls and apron”
workers—the skilled, the semiskilled, and the unskilled manual work-

I

s Abstract of an article in the Monthly Labor Review, March 1934, p. 501, by Alba M . Edwards, Ph. D .,
United States Bureau of the Census.




589

*‘WHITE-COLLAR*, WORKERS

ers. The white-collar workers, in other words, are the clerical assist­
ants to our executives, our officials, and our business and professional
men. They do the office work, type the letters, keep the records and
accounts, and answer the telephones. They tend the stores and the
shops, sell insurance and real estate, carry the mail, and transmit
messages by telegraph, telephone, and radio. In fact, they do all the
various types of clerical and kindred work.
In table 1 are listed those occupations reported in the 1930 census
which seem to fall under the term “ white-collar” occupations. While,
owing to the nature of the census classifications, this list doubtless
includes some workers who are not strictly white-collar workers and
excludes others who do fall within this group, it is believed that the
net number of such inclusions and omissions is negligible.
T able 1 —OCCUPATIONS OF W H IT E -C O L L A R W O R K E R S, B Y S E X , 1930 i
Occupation
All occupations________________________ _................................... .
•

Males

Females

Total

4,877,235

3,072,220

7,949,455

1
Inspectors, scalers, and surveyors (log and timber camps)_________
2,184
2,183
Baggagemen and freight agents (railroad)___ ______________ _____
16
16,361
16,377
Ticket and station agents (railroad)___________________ _____ ____
25,370
1,790
27,160
Agents, express companies___________________ ______ : ________ _
74
4,102
4,176
Express messengers and railway mail clerks,. ____________ _ __
8
25,608
25,600
Mail carriers.__........ . ___ ________________________________________
121,333
120, 204
1,129
_________ Radio operators _______________ ________
______________
46
4,955
4,909
Telegraph messengers___________ _ _ . . .
........ ...............
15,997
179
16,176
67,821
Telegraph operators___________________________ ___________________
51,699
16,122
13, 625
235, 259
248,884
Telephone operators_____________ ___________ _____ _________ .
Advertising agents____ _________ __________________ _____ ________
49,020
43, 364
5,656
163,147
238,844
401,991
“ Clerks” in stores..._______________ ___________________________
3,942
Commercial travelers___________________________ ____ __ _
223,732
219,790
Decorators, drapers, and window dressers_____________________ ____
13,911
20,149
6,238
Inspectors, gagers, and samplers (trade)_____ ____________ _______
10,923
16,743
5,820
243,974
12,953
Insurance agents__________________________ ____ ________________ _
256,927
38,576
417
Newsboys_________________________________________________________
38,993
31,308
203,119
234,427
Real-estate agents_______________________ ________________ _______
Salesmen and saleswomen__________________________ ____ _________
560,720
2,069,003
1,508,283
Abstracters, notaries, and justices of peace_________ _____________
1,908
9,848
11,756
220
2,656
Architects’, designers’, and draftsmen’s apprentices______________
2,436
Apprentices to other professional persons________________________ _
3,861
74
3,935
3,002
14,515
11,513
Officials of lodges, societies, etc___________ ________ _____________
7,700
Technicians and laboratory assistants____ __________ _____________
15,988
8, 288
12,945
770
13,715
Dentists’ assistants and attendants___ ____________________________
502
1,363
1,865
Librarians’ assistants and attendants___ _____ __________________ _
14,042
689
13,353
Physicians’ and surgeons’ attendants— __________ _____________
182,630
13,477
196,107
Agents, collectors, and credit men_______________ ___ _____ ________
447,937
482,711
930,648
Bookkeepers, cashiers, and accountants_ __________________ _____
_
1,997,000
1,290,447
706,553
Clerks (except “ clerks” in stores)__________________ ____ _________
81,430
8,949
90,379
Messenger, errand, and office boys and girls_______________ ________
36,050
775,140
811,190
Stenographers and typists— _______________ _ __________________
i Compiled from Fifteenth Census (1930), Reports on Population, vol. V, ch. 1, table 1.

As shown in table 1, of the nearly 8,000,000 white-collar workers in
1930, 4,877,235, or 61.4 percent, were males and 3,072,220, or 38.6
percent, were females. Males outnumbered females in most of the
occupations, but females greatly outnumbered males as telephone
operators, bookkeepers and cashiers, stenographers and typists, and
attendants to professional persons.
In table 2 the white-collar group is classified according to color and
nativity. The great majority (89.4 percent in 1930) are native white
persons. Foreign-born white workers formed only 9.2 percent of the
total, Negroes only 1 percent, and other races only 0.4 percent. In
1930 native whites were especially numerous among female telephone
operators (95.8 percent of the total), among female librarians’ assist­
ants and attendants (94.7 percent of the total), and among female




590

OCCUPATION STATISTICS

stenographers and typists (94.5 percent of the total), which is doubt­
less explained by the fact that it is very important that the employee
speak English clearly.
T a ble 2 —COLOR, N A T IV IT Y , A N D S E X OF W H IT E -C O L L A R W O R K E R S , 19301
White-collar workers

Sex and class of population

Total gainful
workers
Number

Percent
distribu­
tion

Percent
of all
gainful
workers
in class

Males:
Native white_________ _______ ________ _________
Foreign-born white____________________________
Negro_________________________ _________________
Other races____________ ___________ _ __________

27,511,862
6,255,071
3,662,893
647,978

4,262,882
528,593
62,138
23,622

87.4
10.8
1.3
.5

15.5
8.5
1.7
3.6

Total_______________ ______________ ____________

38,077,804

4,877,235

100.0

12.8

Females:
Native white______________________ _______________
Foreign-born w hite______________________________
Negro_____________ _____________________________
Other races_____ _________________________*________

7,661,508
1,156,056
1,840,642
93,910

2,840,835
20,, 611
20,531
8,243

92.5
6.6
.7
.3

37.1
17.5
1.1
8.8

T otal,-......... ................. .............................. ................

10,752,116

3,072,220

100.0

28.6

Both sexes:
Native white_____________________________________
Foreign-born white______ ____ ___________________
Negro____ ____________ ___________________________
Other races..._________ ___________________________

35,173,370
7,411,127
5,503,535
741,888

7,103,717
731,204
82,669
31,865

89.4
9.2
1.0

.4

20.8
9.9
1.5
4.3

Total_______________________ . ________________

48,829,920

7,949,455

100.0

16.3

i Compiled from Fifteenth Census (1930), Reports on Population, vol. V, ch. 3, table 3.

Statistics showing the marital condition of male white-collar
workers are not available. Of the female workers in 1930, 68.7 per­
cent were single,3 22.6 percent were married, and 8.7 percent were
widowed or divorced.4 The proportion of single women was far
larger in this group than among all gainfully occupied females— 68.7
percent, as against 54.5 percent.
The importance of white-collar workers in our gainfully employed
population is evidenced by the fact that in 1930 almost 1 worker in
every 6 (16.3 percent) was in this group. Among native white
workers 20.8 percent belonged to this group, the percentage being
15.5 for males and 37.1 for females. They comprised 9.9 percent
of the foreign-born white workers and only 1.5 percent of the Negro
workers.
More significant perhaps than the present size of the white-collar
group is its remarkable growth. As shown in table 3, during the 60
years from 1870 to 1930 it increased from approximately 366,752 to
7,949,455, an increase of 2,067.5 percent. And the proportion of the
total gainful workers belonging to this group was over five times as
large in 1930 (16.3 percent) as in 1870 (2.9 percent).
* Including those whose marital condition was not reported.
* Percentages based on figures compiled from Fifteenth Census (1930), Reports on Population, vol.V, ch.

4, table 6, and ch. 5, table 10.




591

FARM POPULATION AND MIGRATION
T able 3 .—N U M B E R OF W H IT E -C O L L A R W O R K E R S , B Y S E X , 1870 TO 1930 »
Males

Census
year

Total
gainful
workers

White-collar
workers

Number

1870 2
—
18802
—
1890 2
—
1900 3
—
1910 «...
19203—
1930— -

10,669,635
14,744,942
19,312,651
23,753,836
30,091,564
33,064,737
38,077,804

355,252
615,345
1,219,040
1,730,033
2,749,887
3,519,907
4,877,235

Both sexes

Females

Percent
of total

Total
gainful
workers

3.3 1,836,288
4.2 2,647,157
6.3 4,005,632
7.3 5,319,397
9.1 8,075,772
10.6 8,549,511
12.8 10,752,116

White-collar
workers

Number

11,500
40,958
169,673
439,024
1,085,926
2,198,342
3,072,220

Percent
of total
0.6
1.5
4.2
8.3
13.4
25.7
28.6

Total
gainful
workers

White-collar
workers

Number

12,505,923
17,392,099
23,318,183
29,073,233
38,167,336
41,614,248
48,829,920

Percent
of total

366,752
656,303
1,388,713
2,169,057
3,835,813
5,718,252
7,949,455

2.9
3.8
6.0
7.5
10.0
13.7
16.3

1 U. S. Census Reports: Reports on Population, 1930, vol. V, ch. 1, table 1; Special Report on Occupa.
tions, 1900, tables 111, IV, ana 1; Report on Population, 1890, part II, table 78; Report on Population,
1880, table X X X I I A; Report on Population and Social Statistics, 1870, table X X I X .
2 Number of “ white-collar” workers shown for this year includes an estimate involving somewhat less
than 2 percent of the total.
3 “ Apprentices to other professional persons” and “ Technicians and laboratory assistants” , principally
classified with workers in manufacturing pursuits prior to 1930, were estimated as numbering 8,099 males
and 5,183 females in 1920 and 5,399 males and 3,455 females in 1910.

The increase between 1870 and 1930 in the number of female whitecollar workers was particularly large, from about 11,500 to 3,072,220,
or 26,615 percent; and the proportion of the total female gainful
workers engaged in white-collar pursuits increased from about 0.6
of 1 percent in 1870 to 28.6 percent in 1930. In 1870 males formed
a very large proportion (about 96.9 percent) of the group, and they
far outnumbered the females in each white-collar pursuit. In 1930,
however, females formed 38.6 percent of all the workers in this group
and outnumbered the males in several pursuits. The remarkable
growth of this group during the 30-year period (from 7.5 to 16.3 per­
cent of the total gainful workers) suggests that the group may con­
tinue to increase in relative importance, and present many social and
economic problems.

Farm Population and Migration to and from Farms

F

ARM population in the United States on January 1, 1935, was
the highest on record, being estimated at 32,779,000 persons by
the Bureau of Agricultural Economics, in an article published in the
May 1935 number of Crops and Markets issued by the United States
Department of Agriculture. The increase in total farm population
in both 1933 and 1934, however, is attributed to a surplus of births
over deaths, as the movement away from farms in both years was
greater than that farmward. It is estimated that 994,000 persons
moved from farms to cities, towns, and villages in 1934 as compared
with 783,000 persons moving to farms. The migration away from
farms was lower than in any other year since 1920 and that toward
farms, lower than since 1921. From 1920 to 1929, inclusive, there
was a net movement away ranging from 336,000 to a peak (in 1922)
of 1,137,000. In the 3 years 1930 to 1932 the net migration farmward increased from 17,000 to 533,000.
Among the reasons mentioned by the Bureau of Agricultural
Economics for the decrease in movement toward farms are improve-




592

OCCUPATION STATISTICS

ment in nonagricultural employment opportunities, more adequate
unemployment relief, and the growing difficulty of finding available
housing on farms.
The following table shows the estimated movements to and from
farms, 1920 to 1934, and the farm population on January 1 of each
year from 1920 to 1935.
E ST IM A T E D M O V E M E N T S TO A N D FRO M FARM S,i 1920-34, A N D F A R M PO PU LATIO N
ON JAN. 1, 1920-35

During year

19201921.
1922.
1923.
1924.
1925.
1926.
1927.
1928.
1929.
1930.
1931.
1932.
1933.
1934.
1935.

Persons
arriving at
farms from
cities,
towns, and
villages
560.000
759.000
1.115.000
1.355.000
1.581.000
1.336.000
1.427.000
1.705.000
1.698.000
1.604.000
1.740.000
1.683.000
1.544.000
951.000
783.000

Persons
leaving
farms for
cities,
towns, and
villages

Net move­
ment from
farms to
cities,
towns, and
villages

896.000
1.323.000
2.252.000
2.162.000
2,068,000
2.038.000
2.334.000
2.162.000
2, 120,000
2,081,000
1.723.000
1.469.000

336.000
564.000
1,137,000
807.000
487.000
702.000
907.000
457.000
422.000
477.000
3 17,000
3 214,000
8 533,000
227.000
211.000

1.011.000

1,178,000
994.000

i Births and deaths not taken into account,
a Enumerated by U. S. Bureau of the Census.
3 Net movement from cities to farms, a reversal of the earlier trend.
< Estimated by Bureau of Agricultural Economics.




Farm popu­
lation,
Jan. 1

a 31,614,269
31.703.000
31.768.000
31.290.000
31.056.000
31.064.000
30.784.000
30.281.000
30.275.000
30.257.000
<30,169,000
4 30,585,000
<31,241,000
<32,242,000
<32,509,000
< 32,779, 000

OLD-AGE PENSIONS AND RETIREMENT

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition

1 9205— 36




-39

593




Public Old-Age Pensions in the United States
H E old-age pension movement in the United States dates from
1914, when an act providing for pensions for aged dependent
citizens was placed on the statute books in Alaska. Hindered in
several States by adverse court decisions, the movement was slow in
getting under way and it was not until 1923 that proponents of public
pensions succeeded in obtaining the passage of legislation in Montana.
From that time onward additional States gradually entered the pen­
sion field, but progress was slow until 1930.
At the end of 1930 there were 30 laws on the statute books. Most
of this early legislation was of the optional type which left the adop­
tion of the system to the vote of the commissioners in the various
counties. Passage of the act did not therefore necessarily mean
any actual extension of benefits. In several States the act either
remained entirely inoperative or was put into effect only in one or
two counties.
The development of the pension movement accelerated considerably
after 1930, and most of the new legislation was of the mandatory
type. There was a net gain of 5 States in 1931 and of 11 States in
1933. In 1934— an “ off” legislative year—another State legislated
in this field; during this period, also, amendments were made in
existing optional laws in several States to make them mandatory.
Several States early in 1935 passed pension legislation in anticipation
of Federal action in this field and several others made amendments
to existing acts. These enactments and those passed later in the
year, after the passage of the Federal act, brought the total pension
acts to 41 by December 31, 1935.

T

Old-Age Assistance System for the United States
HE Federal Social Security Act, passed August 14, 1935, pro­
vides for old-age assistance on a national scale and for Federal
aid to States having approved systems. The provisions of this act
are summarized in the section on “ Social Security Program” (p. 779).

T




595

596

OLD-AGE PENSIONS AND RETIREMENT

Public Old-Age Pension Legislation in the United
States as of December 1, 1935
RIOR to 1935, 28 States and 2 Territories had enacted old-age
pension laws.1 During the legislative year of 1935, such laws
were passed in 11 additional States 2 and the District of Columbia.
A number of States already having old-age pension laws on their
statute books amended the law, and in 8 States (Maryland, Michigan,
Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, Oregon, Washington, and
Wyoming) the original act was repealed by the legislature and a new
law was enacted. The Florida old-age pension law was approved on
June 5, 1935, the day following the adoption of a Senate joint resolu­
tion (S. J. Res. No. 170) providing for a referendum to amend section
3 of article 13 of the constitution of the State, permitting the payment
of pensions to the aged, infirm, and unfortunate citizens of the State.
The Legislature of Arkansas passed an old-age pension law, to take
the place of the law passed in 1933, which was declared unconstitu­
tional by the State supreme court because of the method used in
financing the pension fund. Likewise, in Missouri efforts to provide
assistance to the aged needy of the State were successful during
1935. In 1932 a constitutional amendment was passed in this
State authorizing the adoption of an old-age pension law. Fol­
lowing the ratification of the amendment, enactment of legislation
was attempted in 1933, but the bill passed only one branch of the
legislature. The Legislature of Minnesota amended the State oldage pension act, but the State attorney general declared the legisla­
tion invalid due to the inadvertent inclusion of an unapproved
amendment. The voters of Oklahoma on September 24, 1935, voted
down a proposal to amend the State constitution (referred to the
people by H. J. Res. No. 6, Acts of 1935) to permit the payment of
old-age pensions of not more than $15 per month, but adopted an
initiated petition for the payment of a pension not to exceed $30.3
In many of the States, old-age pension legislation assumed the prob­
ability of the enactment of a Federal social security law, while in
some States it was provided that changes might be made in the law
so as to conform to any Federal requirements. Noticeably apparent
in the old-age pension laws enacted or considered in 1935 was the
modification of citizenship and residence qualifications as conditions
precedent to the receiving of benefits.
To provide a ready comparison of the systems adopted in the
several States the following table, which presents the principal
features of each law, has been prepared.

P

1 For the principal provisions of these laws see Monthly Labor Review, June 1934 (pp. 1339-1342).
2
Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Florida, niinois, Mississippi, Missouri, Oklahoma, Rhode Island,
Texas, and Vermont.
i
This was held invalid by the State supreme court because the manner in which it was presented was
not according to law.




PROVISIONS OF OLD-AGE PENSION LAWS IN THE U N IT ED STATES, AS OF D EC EM B E R 1, 1935
Required period of—
Age

Maximum
pension

Maximum property
limitations

Residence
Citizen­
ship
State

Y e a rs

Y e a rs

1S5

($35 a month,
f i 65
Alaska___________ ___do______ \ 2 60 1 males; $45 a
} m o n th ,
l females.
70 $30 a month...
Arizona__________ ___do______

(3)

25

( 3)

35

Arkansas_________ ...d o ...........

65

4 70 ........do..............

$35 a month—

Colorado_________ __ do______

65

$1 per day

Connecticut........... — do______

65

$7 per week.. _

Delaware— — — „ do—

-

65

$25 a m onth-_

District of Colum­ _„d o....... bia.

65

No limit

(3
)

15

(3)
( 3)

<*65
65

$35 a month °..
$30 a month—_

Idaho____________ — do...........

65

$25 a month—.




County old-age pen­
sion commissioners.

Acts of 1933, ch. 34.

State department of
public welfare and
county public wel­
fare boards.
County or city and
county boards of
supervisors.

67 percent by State;
33 p e r c e n t by
county.
State and county.........

( 6)

Real property, $3,000;
personal property,
$500.

15

15

1

( c ) ............ ............. ..........................

715

5

5

( 3)

5

10

15

10

1

Income, $400 a year...
Assets, $1,500_________

3

Income, $300 a year_
_

County commission­
ers.

Half by county, or
city and county;
half by State.
State............................

Bureau of old-age as­ ____do.6..
sistance.
State old-age welfare ____d o...
commission.
Board of commis­ Congress.
sioners through des­
ignated agent.
0
State board of pensions State.1 .............. ...........
County commission- County or city and
county.
County probate judge
and county commis­
sioners.

County.........................

Comp. Laws 1933, secs.
1781-1826 (as amend­
ed 1935, ch.47).

Acts of 1935, Act No.

Deering’s Gen. L. 1931,
act 5846 (as amended
1933, ch. 840; 1935, ch.
633).
Acts of 1933, chs. 144
and 145 (as amended
1935, ch. 171).
Acts of 1935, p. 117.
Acts of 1931, ch. 85.
Public, No. 319.
Acts of 1935, ch. 17141.
Rev. L. 1935, ch. 259
(as amended 1935,
series D-159, 160).
Code 1932, secs. 30-3101
to 30-3125.

597

See footnotes at end of table.

Acts of 1935, ch. 448.

Assets, $300 6........... .

is 5

F lo r id a 8___ __
Optional._
Hawaii__________ _ M a n d a ­
tory.

One-fourth by State,
one-fourth
by
county, half by Fed­
eral Government.
Territory.......................

1

65

(3)

Income, $360 a year___ State department of
public welfare and
county governing
board.
Board of trustees of
A l a s k a Pioneers’
Home.
Income, $300 a year.. .

1

5

__ do______

California_____ _

Citation

Y e a rs

(3
)

M andatory.

Funds provided by—

County

$30 a month ° .

Alabama_________

Administered by—

PUBLIC OLD-AGE PENSIONS IN THE UNITED STATES

Type of
law

State

598

PROVISIONS OF OLD-AGE PENSION LAWS IN THE U N ITED STATES, AS OF D E C E M B E R 1, 1935—Continued
Required period of—
State

Type of
law

Age

Maximum
pension

Maximum property
limitations

Residence
Citizenship

Y e a rs

Illinois_______ __

M anda-

Indiana___ ______ ...d o ______
...d o _____

65

$30 a month—

70

$180 a year___

65

$25 a month—.

Kentucky________

Optional—

70

M andatory.

65

$ 1 a day______

15

Maryland______ __ ...d o ______

Massachusetts____ ...d o ..........

70

15

Y e a rs

is 5

15

Income, $360

15

15

10

10

15

( 3)

65 ........do......... .

Y e a rs

1

( 3)

Assets, $2,000 ($3,000
if married); income,
$300 a year.
Income, $400 a year;
assets, $2,500.
Assets, $300

15
6

$30 a month...

(3 )

10

Minnesota / ............ — do..........

65 ........do...............

(“ )

Mississippi» _____ ...d o ______

65




*7 0

Assets, $3,500e—

1

165

15

5

(18)

_____

Assets, $1,000... _____

is 5

No limit_____

Michigan_________ ...d o ..........

Citation

County

125

( 3)

$250 a year___

Maine____________

( 3)

Funds provided by—

State department of
tory.
public welfare and
county old-age se­
curity board.
County commission­
ers.
County boards under
State commission.
County judge________
Town and city boards
under supervision of
State department of
health and welfare.
Department of old-age
pensions and relief
and county welfare
boards.
County or city board
of public welfare.

County boards and
State welfare depart­
ment.
Assets, $5,000......... ...... County commission­
ers under supervi­
sion of State board
of control.
Assets, home valued County departments,
at $1,000. State depart­
under
ment of emergency
relief.

Half by State, half Acts of 1935, p. 259 (as
amended 1935, spec.
by Federal Govern sess., H. B. 1 ).
ment.
Half by State; half by Acts of 1933, ch. 36.
county.
State_________________ Acts of 1934, spec, sess.,
ch. 19 (as amended
1935, ch. 55).
County_______ ______ Carroll’s Stats. 1930,
art. 15, ch. 34, secs.
9381— to 938i—
1
7.
Half by State; half by Acts of 1933, ch. 267.
cities, towns, and
plantations.
Two-thirds by State,
one-third by county.

Acts of 1935, ch. 592.

Two-thirds by county
or city, one-third by
State.

Gen. L . 1932, ch. 118A
(as amended 1932,
ch. 259; 1933, chs.
219, 285, 328; 1935,
ch. 494).
Acts of 1935, no. 159.

State___________ _____
Half by State; half by
county.
State _______________

Supp. 1934 to Mason’s
Stats. 1927, ch. 15 (as
amended 1935, ch.
357).
Acts of 1935 (spec,
sess.), S. B. 2.

OLD-AGE PENSIONS AND RETIREMENT

State

Administered by—

70

$30 a month
(couple, $45
a month).

(3
)

is 5

Montana_________ ...d o ..........

65

No limit..........

(3
)

15
3

Nebraska_________ ...d o ..........

65

$30 a month.

(3
)

is 5

Nevada__________

65

$ 1 a day.. . . .

New Hampshire— M a n d a tory.
New Jersey_______ - . d o _____

70

$30 a m onth-.

(3
)

15
5

70

$ 1 a d a y ..___

(3
)

15

1

New York.............. ...d o ...........

70

No limit

_

(3
)

10

1

North Dakota____ ...d o ______

68

$150 a year___

(3
)

20

Ohio________ ____ ... do_____

65

$25 a mouth
(couple, $50
a month).

(3
)

15
5

f i 60
Oklahoma*,—........ — d o . - — .
l 2 55 j$30 a month__

(3
)

15
3

Oregon 16................ _„_do....... .

65 ____ do________

(3
)

15
8

Pennsylvania_____ — do......... .

70 ____ do.*___

Rhode Island_____ ...d o ....... .

65 ____ do________

Optional..




15
(1 )
7

1

Income, $350 a year.. .

10

Assets, $3,000---___

Assets, $3,000-_-_____

(18)

Acts of 1935, p. 308.

County; State to re­
imburse not to ex­
ceed 75 percent.

Acts of 1935, ch. 170.

State_________________

Acts of 1935 (spec,
sess.), H. B. 17.

County . ___________

Comp. L. 1929, secs.
5109-5136; Acts of
1935, ch. 138.

State,
5
percent;
county, 95 percent.
One-fourth by county,
three-fourths
by
State.

Acts of 1935, ch. 127.

Assets, $3,000 ($4,000 if
married: i n c o me ,
$300 a year (couple,
$600).

Assets, $5,000_________

Local boards under
State department of
welfare.
Local directors of pub­
lic aid under State
department of pub­
lic welfare.

15
15
3

____ do_______________

Public welfare officials, Half by city or county,
under supervision of
half by State.
State department of
social welfare.
State and county State -_
___ ___ boards of public wel­
fare.
County boards under __ do_____ _____ _
supervision of State
division of aid for
aged.
Commission for old- ____ d o ......... .................
age pensions and se­
curity.
County relief com­ H a l f b y F e d e r a l
mittee under State
Government, half
relief committee.
by State.

Income, $150 a year.
1

State board of mana­
gers of eleemosyna­
ry institutions and
county old-age as­
sistance boards.
County old-age pen­
sion commission un­
der State old-age
pension commission.
C o u n t y pensi on
boards under State
old-age pension com­
missioner.
State and county
boards of relief work
planning and pen­
sion control.
County commission­
ers.
State division of oldage relief and county
welfare boards.

State . .

________

__ do_______ _________

Acts of 1931, ch. 219 (as
amended 1932, ch.
262; 1933, ch. 149;
1935, chs. 108, 213).
Acts of 1930, ch. 387 (as
amended 1934, ch.
815).
Acts of 1933, ch. 254.
Adopted 1933 by refer­
endum vote (amend­
ed 1935 (spec, sess.)
H. B. 558).
Initiative petition no.
144, adopted Sept. 24,
1935.
Acts of 1935, ch. 407
(amended 1935 (spec,
sess.) ch. 50).
Act no. 64 (spec, sess.,
1933).
Acts of 1935, ch. 219.

599

See footnotes at end of table.

15

Assets, $1,500 (couple,
$2 ,000).

PUBLIC OLD-AGE PENSIONS IN THE UNITED STATES

Missouri................. ...d o ..........

600

PROVISIONS OF OLD-AGE PENSION LAWS IN THE U N ITED STATES AS OF D E C E M B E R 1, 1935—Continued
Required period of—
State

Type of
law

Age

Maximum
pension

Maximum property
limitations

Residence
Citizenship

Y ears

Manda­
tory.
Utah........................ ...d o ...........

65

$30 a month...

65

$25 a m onth...

(3
)
15

5

65

$30 a month
(couple, $45
a month).

(3
)

1 5
3

Washington______ ...d o ...........

65

$30 a month—

(3
)

65 $ 1 a d a y ..__
65 ____ do...............

15
(3
)

10
155

65

(3
)

1 5
3

Assets, $5,000; income,
$360 (couple, $7,500,
income, $720).
Income during past
year, $300.
Income, $360 a year (if
married, $500); as­
sets, $2,500 (if mar­
ried, $4,000) .i®

15
3

West Virginia........
Wisconsin________

Vermont_________ ...d o ...........

Optional..
Manda­
tory.

Wyoming________ ...d o ...........

$30 a month...

Old-age
assistance
commission.

Half by State, half
by Federal Govern­
ment.
County.______ ____

Acts of 1935 (2d spec,
sess.), H. B. 26.

Y ears

15

Citation

County

Y ears
is 5

Funds provided by—

10

Assets, $5,000.

____

Income, $360 a year___

County commission­
ers.
O l d - a g e assistance
commission;
local
officials.

State, provided Fed­
eral Government re­
imburses one-half.

Department of public ____ do................ .
welfare.
County court________ Cnnntv ____ _
State pension depart­ Payments by county.
ment and county
State to refund 80
board.
percent.
County board of pub­
lic welfare under de­
partment of public
welfare.

County; State to re­
fund 50 percent.

Rev. Stats. 1933, secs.
10-12-1 to 19-12-18.
Acts of 1935, no. 82.

Acts of 1935, ch. 182.
Acts of 1931, ch. 32.
Stats. 1931, ch. 49 (as
amended 1933, chs.
375, 458; 1935, chs.
391, 554).
Acts of 1935, ch. 101.

8 Home up to $2,500 excluded.
° For veterans of the War Between the States, $50 is the maximum.
6 Annual State tax of $2,100,000 imposed on the several towns of the State.
6
With adoption of Federal Act, State residence 5 years within 9 immediately preceding.
7 Required period of residence in United States.
« Applicant having property in excess of $2,500 must offer to assign all to pension
fund, but may retain home in which he resides, valued at $2,500 or less.
8 Must be approved by referendum of the people.
d Act covers persons infirm physically regardless of age. They may not receive
9 $60 where more than 1 member of family living together come under the act.
Federal aid until 65 years of age.
1 Counties are authorized to raise contributory funds.
0
« Or $1,000 in personal property, with $500 in household goods excepted.
1 Also domicile for 9 years immediately preceding.
8
/ The amendment of 1935 was declared invalid by the attorney general.
1 Within 10 years immediately preceding.
3
» A temporary measure effective until Mar. 1, 1.936.
1 Citizen of United States or resident of State for over 25 years.
4
h Held invalid by State supreme court.
1 Within 9 years immediately preceding.
8
» And $15 per month to other persons in the same family entitled to assistance.
1 Act becomes operative on passage of Federal legislation making funds for old-age
6
1 Males.
assistance available to State.
8 Females.
1 Citizenship required, or residence in United States for 20 years.
7
8 Citizenship required but no period specified.
1 Residence required but no period specified.
8
4 Until 1940; 65 thereafter.
8 $1,000 in value of borne excluded.
9




OLD-AGE PENSIONS AND RETIREMENT

State

Administered by—

OLD-AGE PENSIONS AND RETIREMENT

601

Experience Under State Old-Age Pension Acts in 1934 3
H E greatest territorial expansion, in terms of actual effectiveness
of the system, yet experienced since the introduction of the
public pension system in the United States occurred during 1934.
At the end of the year pension systems were in actual operation in
the whole or part of 25 States and 2 Territories, including within
their borders 56 percent of the total population of the United States.
At the end of the previous year old-age benefits were being paid in
only 17 States and 1 Territory, having 32 percent of the population.
The number of paying counties increased during 1934 from 351 (45
percent of the total counties in States having pensions) to 924 (64
percent). This was due mainly to the putting into force of the
State-wide systems in Colorado, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, North
Dakota, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. At the close of 1934, 11 systems
were in State-wide operation, as compared with only 4 in 1933.
Within States where the systems were operative in greater or less
degree in both years, the pension plan was extended to 48 additional
counties, the number rising from 350 to 398. Thirty-four of the new
pension counties, however, were in one State—Minnesota—where
the act became mandatory at the beginning of 1934.
The acts of Kentucky and West Virginia remained without effect
in 1934 as in 1933, while the Maine law, passed in 1933, could not be
enforced because of the legislature’s failure to provide funds.
Of the 30 acts on the statute books in 1934, only 7 were optional
with the counties, and 2 of these voluntary plans were inoperative.
In the optional States, counties having the plan in effect included
only 48.2 percent of the population. In the mandatory States,
on the other hand, the coverage was 93.5 percent.
More than twice as many persons received old-age assistance in
1934 as in the previous year, the number having risen from 115,547
to 236,205. The financial outlay, however, did not increase at
anywhere near the same rate as the number of pensioners. Expendi­
tures rose from $26,167,017 in 1933 to $32,313,515 in 1934, an increase
of only 23 percent as against 104 percent in number of beneficiaries.
The inevitable result was a marked decrease in the average monthly
pension, the rate falling from $19.34 to $14.69, or 24 percent.
Although individual pensions were reported equaling or even (in
two instances) exceeding the maximum allowable under the State
law, the average monthly allowances paid in even the most liberal
States were only about two-thirds of the legal maximum. They
ranged in the different States from 69 cents in North Dakota to
$26.08 in Massachusetts. Six States paid pensions amounting to $20
or more per month, but 14 paid less than $10. The amount of the
pension is theoretically based upon the need and circumstances of the
pensioner. It is known, however, that many counties have simply
divided the available funds equally among the pensioners without
regard to individual requirements. In large part this is undoubtedly
due to the fact that in many jurisdictions funds have been so inade­
quate as to make impossible the payment of even subsistence benefits
to any considerable number of persons.

T

3 Summary of article by Florence E. Parker in Monthly Labor Review, August 1935 (p. 303).




m

OLD-AtiE PENSIONS AND RETIREMENT^

Upon the basis of the data reported, it appears that State-aided
systems are relatively the most generous, with State systems next
in order. In 1934 the smallest allowances were provided in States
in which the whole cost was borne by the county treasury. Average
allowances under the State systems increased 12.6 percent from 1933
to 1934. Under the other two types of plans they declined—0.8
percent under the State-aided plans and 9.3 percent under the county
systems. In 1934, 49.8 percent of the money spent for pensions was
contributed by the counties and 50.2 percent by the States.
With the pension roll increasing and the funds either actually
decreasing or increasing at an appreciably lower rate than the pen­
sioners, the financing of the pension plans continued in 1934 to be the
chief problem facing legislators and pension authorities. The special
taxes, such as per capita and property taxes, imposed by some of the
newer acts seem not to have fulfilled the hopes of their proponents.
Of the State systems with such financing provisions (Iowa, Michigan,
Nebraska, North Dakota, and Wyoming) only one— that of Iowa—
had sufficient revenue to pay allowances of as much as $10 per month,
and in 2 of the States the benefits averaged less than $5. In Iowa
the act did not go into full force until July 1, 1935; benefits were paid,
beginning in November 1934, only in especially urgent cases. It
appears that the most adequate support is accorded to the pension
system in States where the cost is met from the general funds of the
State, rather than from the proceeds of a special levy. The actual
collections from such special taxes frequently fall far below the esti­
mated yield and the pension plan, of course, suffers accordingly.
The cost per capita of population averaged 60 cents in 1934,
ranging in the various States from 2 cents in Michigan to $1.24 in
Colorado. Alaska had a per capita cost of $1.83.
Judged by the three criteria of coverage, benefits, and proportion
of persons of pensionable age being cared for, the systems of Arizona,
Massachusetts, and New York ranked highest in 1934. At the other
end of the scale were those of Idaho, Minnesota, Nebraska, Nevada,
Utah, and Washington.
The above findings were disclosed by the regular annual survey of
pension experience which has been conducted by the Bureau of Labor
Statistics since 1928. This 1934 study covered all of the 30 States
having legislation providing for assistance to aged needy persons.
Reports were obtained for 1,393 (96 percent) of the 1,445 counties in
the 30 States.
The status of the movement at the end of each year since 1923 is
shown in table 1.




603

EXPERIENCE UNDER STATE ACTS IN 1934
T

1.—DEVELOPMENT OF OLD-AGE PENSION MOVEMENT SINCE 1923

able

Counties with pension
system
Number of
laws on
books

Year

1923______________________________________
1924........... .................
1925_____ ____ _____ ___ _______________
1926________ _____________________________
1927____________________ _______________
1928_____________________________________
1930______________________________________
1931_____________________________________
1932______________________________________
1933_____________________ _______________
1934_______ ____ _________________________

Percent
of total
counties
in States
with law

Number 1

33
41

2
2

55

Number of
pensioners

518
723

Amount
disbursed
in pen­
sions

$49,595
107,648

2 44
2 48
2 50

68
2 34
2 37
2 38

2 1,165
2 1, 255

2 145,577
2 229,979
2 231,468

56
141
271
297
351
924

4
5
7
7
13
18
18
29
30

16
30
39
42
45
64

1,519
10,648
76,663
102,896
115,547
236, 205

298,254
1,800,458
16,258,707
25,116,939
26,167,017
32, 313,515

2 $17

1 Each of the 4 judicial districts of Alaska is considered as a county.
2 Figures are for 3 jurisdictions (Alaska, Montana, and Wisconsin) only; each of the 4 judicial districts of
Alaska is considered as a county.
Pension Situation in 1934
S u m m a r y d a t a a re g iv e n in t a b le 2.
T

able

2

~SUMMARY OF OPERATIONS UNDER OLD-AGE PENSION ACTS, 1934

State

Arizona_____________ _________________
California-----------------------------------------------Colorado_______________ ______________
Delaware-----------------------------------------------Idaho----------- -----------------------------------------Indiana..........— ---------- --------------------------Iow a..----------- ----------------------------------------Kentucky_____ _____ _____ _______
__
Maine__________
_______ __ _____, _.
Maryland...............- ------- ------------------------Massachusetts------- ------------- ------------------ Michigan........ .............................
Minnesota---------------------- -----------------------Montana------ ------- ---------------------------------Nebraska.......... ...............- ------- ---------------Nevada...... ................. : ------------------- . . . New Hampshire---------- --------------------------New Jersey------- ---------- --------------------------New York__________
---------North Dakota----------------------------------------Ohio____________________ _______ --- --Oregon____________
___ ____________ Pennsylvania___________________________
Utah____________________________________
Washington.,
___ -- - - - - - - ____
West Virginia
__ _
Wisconsin—. — ---------------------- ------------W y o m in g ,______ _____ ________________
Continental United States_ ______
_
A la s k a .,____ _____________________ . . .
Hawaii---------------------------------------------------total_______________________

Year of
passage
of
present

1933
1929
1933 2
1931
1931
1933
1934
1926
1933
1927
1930
1933
1929
1923
1933
1925 H
1931
1931
1930
1933
1933
1933
1933
1929
1933
1931
1925
1929

Counties in State

Total

Number
reported
for

Counties having pension systems
Number Number of
pensioners
at end
at end of
of 1934
1934

14
58
63
3
44
92
99

12

12

58
63
3
44
92
99

57
63
3
32
89
99

120

120

16
24
14
83
87
56
93
17

16
24
» 14
83

21

10

10
21

88

88

Amount
paid in
pensions,
1934

9

62
53

77

56
80
13
62
53

82
9

13

14
56

40
44
24
2
10
20

62
53

88

36
67
29
39

36
67

35
67

30

8
12

55

71
18

$427,527
i 4,288,508
4 1,256, 190
193,231
138,440
» 1,134, 250
7 220,000

267
io 21,473
3,557
4,425
2,780
926

65,228
n 5, 628, 492
103,180
1 577, 635
2
177,426
13, 577,
1, 552
311, 829
1, 773, 320
12,650,828
24, 259
is 1,434,416
1 639,296
6
1 386, 717
7
86 , 416
103,408

7

1, 483
11, 401
51,834
3,914
36,543
1 6, 525
6
18,261
902
1,588

55

71

1,820
19, 619
3 10, 098
1,583
1, 712
23, 533
e 8,300

23
1,437
1929 is
1933
4
19 4

20

1.385
19

4

4

8

17
917
19 4

3

2,127
719
235,397
454
354
236. 205

459,146
82,732
32,177,603
108,485
27,427
32, 313,515

924
1, 393
Grand
1, 445
10 As of Mar. 31, 1935.
1 Estimated on basis of State disbursements.
n Year ending Apr. 30, 1934.
2 Original act passed in 1927.
12 38 counties.
2 55 counties.
4 Estimated on basis of returns by individual is Includes 1 county which ceased payment in
November 1934.
counties and report of State disbursements.
11 First act, passed in 1923, was repealed the same
511 months ending Nov. 5, 1934.
6 4.589 actually on roll Dec. 31, 1934; others put year.
i5 Last 6 months of 1933.
on roll later, payments being retroactive to Nov. 1,
io 32 counties.
1934.
I7 Month of December 1934.
7 Estimated; last 2 months of 1934 only.
is Original act passed in 1915.
81 county and city of Baltimore.
9 But system is on a city and town, not county, if Number of judicial districts.
basis.




604

OLD-AGE PENSIONS AND RETIREM ENT

Development Within Identical States, 1933 and 1934
C o m p a r i n g only the States in which the law was in effect in both
1933 and 1934 the latter year showed a gain of 48 counties and of
more than 17,000 old people cared for. Over $2,000,000 more was
expended for pension purposes.
In all but three States the number of recipients of old-age assistance
increased, in some States very markedly. The amount paid in
benefits also rose in all but four States. In Nevada and Utah a
deciease in disbursements was accompanied by a corresponding
decrease in number of beneficiaries. In New York and Wyoming,
however, the expenditures fell in spite of an increase in the pension
roll.
The 1933 and 1934 operations are compared in table 3 for the 17
States in whicii the act was in effect in both years.
T

able

3 .— N U M BE R

OF AD O P T IN G COUNTIES, N U M B E R OF PEN SIO N ER S, A N D
A M O U N T PAID IN PENSIONS IN ID E N T IC A L STATES, 1933 A N D 1934

State

Number of
Number of pension­
counties
ers at end of—
with system
1933

Arizona............. ......................................... ............
California-------- ------------------------------------- --------Colorado_____________________________________
Delaware-------------------------------------------------------Idaho---------- ---------------------------------------------------Maryland------ -------------------------------------------Massachusetts_______________________________
Minnesota________ __________________________
Montana______ ______________________________
Nevada----------------- __ ---------------------------------New Hampshire____
_______
___________
New Jersey___________________________________
New York____________________________________
Utah_________ ________________________________
Wisconsin_______ ___________________ ________
Wyoming____ _______________________________
Total.................................. ..................... .
Total, excluding Massachusetts________
Alaska_______________ _______________________
Grand total_____________ ____________

1934

1933

17

17

1,624
14,604
8,705
1,586
1,090
141
18,516
2,655
1,781
23
776
9, 015
51,106
930
1,969
643

346
332

394
380

115,164
96,648

12

12

57
54
3
29

57
63
3
32

1

2

14

14
40
44

6

45
2
8

2
10
20

19
62
9

62
<8
8

8

4

4

350

398

383~
115, 547

Amount paid in
pensions

1934

1933

1934

1,820
19,619
1 10,098
1,583
1,712
267
21,473
4,425
2,780
7
1,483
11,401
51,834
902
2,127
719

$170,512
3,502,000
172,481
188,740
114,521
50,217
3 5,628,492
420,536
155,525
3,320
122,658
1,375,693
13,592, 080
95, 599
395,707
83,231

$427,527
4,288,508
1,256,190
193,231
138,440
65,228
C)
577,635
177,426
1,552
311,829
1,773,320
12,650,828
86,416
459,146
82,732

132,250
110,777

26,071,312
20,442,820

22,490, 008
22,490, 008

454

95,705

108,485

132,704

26,167,017

22,598,493

i 55 counties.
* Year ending Apr. 30, 1934.
3 No data.
* Includes 1 which ceased payment in September 1934.

Development Upder Optional and Mandatory Laws, 1934
T h e lis t o f m a n d a t o r y a c t s h a s g r o w n lo n g e r w it h e a c h s u c c e s s iv e
y e a r a n d t h a t o f o p t io n a l la w s s h o r te r , as n e w m a n d a t o r y a c t s h a v e
b e e n p a s s e d a n d o ld v o lu n t a r y o n e s a m e n d e d t o m a k e t h e m c o m ­
p u ls o r y .




605

EX PERIEN CE UNDER STATE ACTS IN 1934
T

able

DEVELOPMENT OF PENSION SYSTEMS UNDER OPTIONAL AND MANDA­
TORY ACTS, 1934

4 .—

Counties reporting pension
system in 1934
Population
of State, 1930

State and type of law

O ptional

_____ _____
Hawaii____________________
Kentucky_
_
__ _ _
Maryland L
___
_ _____
___ _
Montana______ __ _ _________ ___ _
_ _ _ __
Nevada_______ ___________
West Virginia_________ ________ _________
__ ________
Wisconsin 2_____ ____________
Total_________ __ ___ __________ __
M a n d a to ry

Alaska________________ _______________ ____
Arizona_______ ______ __
________ _____
California— _______
____ __
___ _______
Colorado___ __ ______ __
_______ ___
_____________________
Delaware, _____ __
Indiana____ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

___ ______

__

Maine______________ __________ _ _ ______
Massachusetts_____ ________ _ _ _ _
Michigan___ __ ______________
Minnesota— __ ___ ________________ ____
Nebraska___ __ ________ _. _ _
__ ___
New Hampshire,__ ___________ __________
New Jersey____ ___________
_____________
New York_____ ________________ ________
North Dakota, _ ______ ________ ____ ____
Ohio____________ ___ ________
Oregon_______
_______ _______ _____ ___
Pennsylvania._______ __________ _________
Utah_____________________________________
Washington,
___ _____ _____________
Wyoming___ __ __________ ____________ _
Total

_______ ______________

__

Grand to ta l.________ __ _ ___________

368,336
2,614,589
1,631,526
537,606
91,058
1,729, 205
2,939,006

Number
of
counties
in State

Number

4

3

312,190

84.8

2

883,972
383,845
4, 656

54. 2
71.4
5.1

120

24
56
17
55
71

44
2

Population

Percent
of State
popula­
tion

8

1,100,385

37.3

59

2, 685, 048

3 48. 2

4

59,278
399,992
5, 677, 010
1,035,791
238, 380
346,948
3,129,895
2, 470,939

10 0 .0

9,911,326

347

59, 278
435, 573
5, 677, 251
1, 035, 791
238,380
445,032
3,238,503
2,470, 939
797,423
4, 249, 614
4,842,325
2, 563,953
1,377,963
465, 293
4,041,334
12, 588,066
680,845
6, 646, 697
953, 786
9, 631,350
507,847
1,563,396
225, 565

4
14
58
63
3
44
92
99
16
14
83
87
93
62
53
88
36
67
29
39
23

62
53
88
35
67
8

64,736,204
74,647,530

12

57
63
3
32
89
99
14
56
40
24

91.8
10 0 .0
10 0 .0
10 0 .0

78.0
96.6
10 0 .0
10 0 .0

17

4, 249, 614
4, 210,341
1,820, 531
323, 285
465, 293
3,970,525
12, 588, 066
680,845
6,646, 697
930,950
9, 631,350
352,403
361,008
183,146

1,098

865

59,772, 287

4 93. 5

1,445

924

62,457,335

89.9

10
21

10
20

12

86.9
71.0
23. 5

10 0 .0

98.2

10 0 .0
10 0 .0
10 0 .0

97.6
10 0 .0

69.4
23.1
81.2

1 State act optional; made compulsory for Allegany Comity by special act of 1933.
2 Became mandatory July 1, 1935.
3 Not including States (Kentucky and West Virginia) in which acts were inoperative; if those States
are included, percentage is 27.1.
4 Not including State (Maine) in which act was inoperative; if that State is included, percentage is 92.3.
Size of Monthly Allowances
A v e r a g e monthly allowances ranged in 1934 from 69 cents in
North Dakota to $26.08 in Massachusetts. In 14 jurisdictions the
monthly average was less than $10, in 21 less than $20, and in only 6
was it $20 or over. The average monthly payments in the important
industrial States of California, Massachusetts, New York, and
Pennsylvania were closely grouped in amount, with Massachusetts
leading the others by from $5 to $6. New Jersey, another leading
industrial State, has always paid pensions considerably below those
of its neighbor, New York. Ohio, of course, was just getting its
system under way and its experience is too short to permit judgment
as to the liberality of the allowances.
In 16 States the actual pension was less than half and in the other
States about two-thirds of the maximum.
The size of the pensions paid in 1933 and 1934, as compared with
the maximum payable under the act, is shown in table 5.




606

OLD-AGE PENSIONS AND RETIREM ENT

T a ble 5.—A V E R A G E PENSIONS PAID IN 1933 A N D 1934, AS C O M P A R E D W IT H THOSE
A L LO W A B L E U N D E R A C T

Maximum
payable
under act

State

Average monthly
pension
1933

_____________
Arizona________________________
California________ _____ _ _
______
Colorado_______ _ _ _ _ _
Delaware_________________ _______________ ___ _
Indiana______________________

_

___ , _

$30.00
30.41
30.41
25.00
25.00
15.00
25.00
30.41
(2
)
30.00
30.41
25.00
20.00
30.41
32. 50
30.41
(2
)
12.50
25.00
30.00
30.00
25.00
30.00
30.41
30.00

____

Maryland________ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _
Massachusetts—. _______
_ _ _ _ ...............
Michigan_________ _____________________________
Minnesota_________________ __ _ _ _ _ ...................
Montana_______________
____ _________ ________
Nebraska_________ _
_
Nevada______________
New Hampshire... _ _
_
_____
__ _
New Jersey__ ______ _ _ _ _
_______
New York____________ ______________ _ _
North Dakota...... .................................. .......
Ohio................................ ...
_
__________
Oregon
________
Pennsylvania_______
Utah_________ ___________________________________
Washington.... ... .......................................
Wisconsin____ _________ ________________ ___ _
Wyoming_____ _____ ____________________
____
Average (weighted)..... .......... ............ ................
Alaska__________________________ ________________
Hawaii______ _____________ ______ ________________

1934

16. 75
10.79

$19.57
20.21
9.74
9.91
6.74
4. 50
13.25
22.64
26. 08
9.99
10.97
5.32
1.22
18.48
17. 51
14.87
20. 65
.69
6.54
8.16
21.18
7.98
5.43
19.95
9.59

8:
0).
0).
$5 to $30.
0).
0).
$3 to $35.
0).
$2 to $15.
0).
(i).
1 .
(i).
(i).
0).
0).
0).
$2 to $20.
$4 to $30.
0).
$2.50 to $35.

29.90
24.35
13.20
7.28
15.00
13.17
14.97
21. 55

8. 56

$5 to $30.
0).
$1.50 to $30.

19.33

* No limit.

14.68

$1.50 to $35.

20.82

25.00
7.06

(i).
(1).

19.34

3 35.00
15.00

Grand average (weighted) ...............................
1 No data.

$9.01
21.50
8.59
9.79
8.85

Range of indi­
vidual monthly
grants, 1934

14.69

0).

8 Men; women $45.

The data are rearranged in table 6 to show the size of allowances
paid under the different types of pension systems.
T able 6.—COM PAR ISON OF B E N E F IT S PAID U N D E R C O U N T Y , S T A T E -A ID E D , A N D
STATE SYSTEM S IN 1933 A N D 1934
Average monthly
pension
State and type of system
1933

Maryland_____ _________ _ _ _
Minnesota._ __________ _
___
Montana. _ _____ ________ _
Nebraska_________________ _
Nevada_____________ _______
New Hampshire------------------------Oregon____________ _________
Utah______ _____________________
Washington. _________________
Wyoming________________ _____
Average (weighted)_______
Average, identical States
(weighted). __________
State-aided

10.79

$7.06
6.74
22.64
10.97
5.32
1.22
18.48
17. 54
8.16
7.98
5.43
9.59

10.86

8.60

10.86

9.85

9.01
21. 50

19.57
20.21
4.50
26.08

$8. 85
29. 90
13. 20
7.28
15.00
13.17
8. 56

s y s te m s

Arizona............................ .............
California_____________
____ __
Indiana_________________________
M assachusetts_______________
_




24.35

1933

1934

$14.97
21.55
16.75
21.17
21.17

$14.87
20. 65
19. 95
18. 06
21.01

Alaska______________ ________ 20.82
Colorado— _________________ 8. 59
Delaware___ ___ _____________ 9. 79
Michigan. ___ _ ______
North Dakota _ _ ___ ____ _
Ohio____________ _ __ __
Pennsylvania______ ._ _ ____
Average (weighted)____ . 9. 21
Average, identical States
(weighted)____________ 9. 21

25.00
9.74
9.91
13. 25
9.99
.69
6. 54
21.18
10.87

1934

C o u n ty system s

Hawaii_________________________

State and type of system

Average month­
ly pension

State-aided system s— Continued
New Jersey ______________ ___
New York. __________ _____
Wisconsin__________ ______
Average (weighted) _______
Average, identical States
(weighted)____________
State system s

10.33

607

EXPERIENCE UNDER STATE ACTS IN 1934

Cost of Pensions in 1933 and 1934
T h e steady increase in the number of pensioners in relation to
population, shown in previous years, was continued in 1934 (table 7),
except in those States where the natural increase was influenced by
other factors, such as financial stringency. The pension roll is of
course also affected by general or local economic conditions and by
the incidence of aged in the State population.
T a ble 7.—T R E N D OF PENSION ROLL A N D PER C APITA COST, 1930 TO 1934 1
Number of pensioners per 10,000 Annual cost per capita of popu­
population in—
lation 2 in—
State
1930
Arizona_____________ _______ ________
California................... . _____________
Colorado
_______ _
Delaware______

1931

1932

1933

15

17
5
63
25

22
29
66
38

41
26
95
67
36

7
6

12
2
26

2
40

2
44

22

12
26

24
29

25
46

75

37
8
38

57
19
28
43

36
19
27
41

30

28

29

28

9
16

15
19

18
28

18
34

28

39

36

38

(4
)

.64

.77

.81

.60

53

61

65

77
11

1.45

1.44

1.51

1. 61

1.83
. 09

Indiana______________ ____________
Kentucky________ _________________
Maryland. _
Massachusetts______ ________________
Michigan________ .
Minnesota....................... __ __________
Montana_____________ ______________
Nebraska_________ ____________________
Nevada__ ________
New Hampshire................ .......
New Jersey______ ____________________
New York_____ ___________ _________
North Dakota_______ _
........
Ohio.............................................................
Oregon___________
Pennsylvania..............
. . .
Utah_______ ____________________ ____
Washington_____
Wisconsin, ........... ..........
Wyoming________ _
______________
Total__________ ______ _________
Alaska......................... .............................. .
Hawaii_____________________________ _

(<)
57

1934

1930

1931

1932

1933

1934

46
$0.45 $1.07
.76
35 $0.27 $0.43 $0. 56
.62
.29
. 19 ' 1.24
105
.79
.79
66
.56
.81
.44
49
.40
.40
75
.36
34
.53
.04
.12
3
.10
.06
.04
.06
. 07
51
.43 1.05 1.27
(3
)
.02
8
.32
24
.09
.34
.39
.46
72
.37
.42
.41
.43
.04
29
15 1. 35
.80
.98 1.25
.33
.67
32
.07
.25
.30
.45
29
.34
.42
41
1.00
.95 1. 23 1. 08
.04
57
55
.43
.69
70
19
.48
.30
.25
26
.16
.29
.26
44
.37
.42
19
.34
. 15 '.26
.36
.44
.45
39
.37
.25
.16

1 Based only upon counties in which act was in operation.
8 Computed on basis of full year, even though system was actually in operation only part of year.
8 No data.
4 Not computed for this year.

Allocation of Financial Responsibility
O f t h e 28 States and 2 Territories which had old-age pension or
assistance acts at the end of 1934, 8 had laws under which the whole
cost of the system was to be borne by the State or Territory. In 14
acts the payments were to be made by the county, but in 2 of these the
city or town of residence of the beneficiary was required to reimburse
the county; in one of these States (Washington), although the pension
act itself placed the whole cost upon the counties, a later act extended
some State aid. In 8 acts joint provision of funds by State and county
was required, and in 1 of these States the cities or towns were required
to reimburse the county for sums spent in pensions.
Thus, some degree of financial responsibility was laid upon the
counties by the laws of 21 States, and in 16 jurisdictions State funds
were to be drawn upon wholly or partly.




608

OLD-AGE PENSIONS AND RETIREMENT

The amounts and proportions actually supplied from State and
county funds in 1934 are shown in table 8.
T able 8 .—PROPORTION OF COST OF OLD-AGE PENSIONS BO RN E B Y STATES A N D
B Y COUNTIES IN 1934

Amount paid in pensions from—
State
State
funds

County
funds

Total

Arizona____ ______________________
California_________________________
Colorado__________________________
Delaware__________________________

$286,004
2,144,254
925,500
193,231

$141,523
2,144,254
330,690

Indiana___________________________

567,125
i 220,000

$427,527
4,288,508
1,256,190
193,231
138,440
1,134,250
220,000

Maine_____________________________
Maryland_________________________
Massachusetts________________ ___
Michigan______________ _________
Minnesota________________________
Montana______
________________
Nebraska_________________________
Nevada___________________________
New Hampshire __________ ______
New Jersey_______________________
New York_________________________
North Dakota_______ ____________
_ .
____
Ohio______
Oregon___________ _______________
Pennsylvania
_____
_ ______
Utah.......................................................
Washington_______________________
Wisconsin________ _______________
Wyoming___ __ ________ _ ____ __

138,440
567,125

27,292
75,000

86,416
76,116
384,146
82,732

65,228
5,628,492
103,180
577,635
177,426
13,577
1,552
311,829
1,773,320
12,650,828
24,259
1,434,416
639,296
386,717
86,416
103,408
459,146
82,732

Total...........................................

16,152,418

16,025,185

108,485
27,427

108,485
27,427

67.0
50.0
100.0
100.0

66.9
50.0
73.7
100.0

50.0
100.0
50.0

50.0
100.0

33.3
100.0

33.3
100.0

32,177,603

Alaska____________________________
Hawaii____________________________

Percent actually
Percent
of State paid in 1934 from—
aid pro­
vided for
County
State
by State
funds
funds
law

1,876,164
103,180

2 233,872
1,329,990
6,325,414
24,259
1,434,416

65,228
3,752,328
577,635
177,426
13,577
1, 552
77,957
443,330
6,325,414
639,296

386,717

75.0
50.0
100.0
100.0

3 50.0
75.0
50.0
100.0
100.0

100.0

100.0

(4
)
33.3

26.4
16.3

100.0

100.0

50.2

33.1
50.0
26.3
100.0
50.0
100.0
66.7
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
3 25.0
25.0
50.0
100.0

100.0
73.6
83.7

100.0
49.8

100.0

1 Estimated; last 2 months of 1934.
2 State and Federal funds.
325 percent was paid from Federal relief funds.
*Pension act does not provide for State aid but another act created special fund, from proceeds of tax on
horse racing, to be used for pension system.

Relative Adequacy of State Pension Systems

A p e n s i o n system can be said to be adequate when (1) it covers the
whole population for which it was designed, (2) it pays benefits suffi­
cient to maintain the beneficiaries in modest comfort, and (3) it
extends such benefits to all of the qualified needy aged in its jurisdic­
tion who do not require institutional care.
In order to test the adequacy of the State systems which were in
effect in 1934, table 9 brings together the data on the above three
points. The figures as to the proportion of persons of pensionable
age who were receiving pensions at the end of 1934 are by no means
conclusive nor comparable State by State, for the extent of depend­
ency may and does vary from State to State, but they are given as a
possible indication of the relative extent to which the problem of oldage care is being met.




609

FEDERAL CIVIL-SERVICE RETIREMENT FUND

T a ble 9 .—COVER AGE, B EN EF IT S, A N D PROPORTION OF PERSONS OF PEN SIO N AB LE
AGE A ID E D IN 1934

State

Arizona______________ _______________ ___________
California____________ _____
__
__ _
Colorado___ _____ __________________________.
Delaware_________________________ _____________
Idaho________________ _______________ ___________
Indiana_______________ ________
M aryland..______ _____________________________
Massachusetts____ _________ ____________________
Michigan_________________ ___________________
Minnesota_______ ______ _ _ _
Montana_____________________ ________ ___ .
Nebraska___________________________ ___ __
___
Nevada________________ _________________________
New Hampshire________ ___________
New Jersey— ____ ___________________ ___ ___ ___
New York______ _ ________________________ _ ___
North Dakota_________ ____________________ _ ___
Ohio_______________________________________
Oregon______________ __________ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Pennsylvania___________________ ___________ ____
Utah............. .....................
Washington________ _____________________________
Wisconsin_______________________ __________ ____
Wyoming________________________________ _______
Total_____ _____________ _________________
Alaska__________________________ ________________
Hawaii___________________________________ ___ ___

Coverage:
Percent of
State popu­
lation in
counties
with systems
91.8
100.0
100.0
100.0
78.0
96.6
100.0
54.2
100.0
86.9
71.0
71.4
23.5
5.1
100.0
98.2
100. 0
100.0
100.0
97.6
100.0
69.4
23.1
37.3
81.2

Average
monthly
pension

Percent pen­
Applica­
sioners
formed of
tions pend­
population
ing at end
of pension­
of year
able age

$19.57
20.21
9.74
9.91
6.74
4.50
13.25
22.64
24.42
9.99
10.97
5.32
1.22
18.49
17. 51
14.87
20.65
.69
6.54
8.16
21.18
7.98
5.43
19.95
9.59

l 21. 7
9.3
l 17.8
9.5
l 9.8
l 17.5
6.2
i .5
3 13.7
i 2.8
l 6.6
l 27.1
i 4.6
i 2.8
5.8
1 10.3
13.9
4 17.4
8.8
l 17.1
6.3
i 5.7
i 6.8
i 5.1
i 10.2

89.9

14.68

9.7

100.0
84.8

25.00
7.06

(2
)

851

(2
)

1,775
43
(2
)
(2
)
2,900
1,216
(2
)
(2
)
(2
)
(2)
(2)
(2
)
2,551
5,438
(2
)
54,003
(2
)
(2
)
(2
)
(2
)
(2
)
(2
)

(2
)
(2
)

1 Estimate on basis of population in reporting counties.
3 No data.
* Mar. 31, 1935.
4 Computed on basis of estimated population 68 years of age and over.

Operations of Federal Civil-Service Retirement and
Disability Fund, 1934
ORE
were added
the roll of the Federal
civil-service retirement
the
year 1933-34
M duringannuitants (14,477) fund during1,to1922,fiscalJune 30, 1928.
than
the entire 6 years from July
to

There were 2,604 terminations during the fiscal year, and the net
increase, therefore, was 11,873, the largest since the establishment of
the fund. At the end of the year there were 44,708 annuitants on the
roll, as compared with 32,835 on June 30,1933. These and the follow­
ing data are from the Annual Report of the Administrator of Veterans’
Affairs for the year ending June 30, 1934, which covers the operation
of the civil-service retirement fund established under the Federal
Retirement Act.
The 14,477 annuitants added to the roll were retired for the follow­
ing causes: Age, 2,770; disability, 2,505; voluntary separation after
30 years’ service (within 2 years of statutory retirement age), 1,652;
involuntary separation after 30 years’ service, 7,080; and involuntary
separation with less than 30 years’ service, 470.
Males predominated among the annuitants on the roll June 30,
1934, forming 91.2 percent of the total number. Over two-fifths
(42.8 percent) of the female annuitants had been retired for disability,
while only 17.8 percent of the male annuitants had been retired for
this cause.
19 2 0 5 — 36------- 40




k

.

610

OLD-AGE PENSIONS AND RETIREMENT

Of the 2,604 cases removed from the roll during the year (as com­
pared with 2,212 in 1933), 2,473 were terminated because of death and
131 for other causes.
Of the 44,708 annuitants on the roll on June 30, 1934, the distribu­
tion according to cause of retirement was as follows: Age, 22,969; dis­
ability, 8,941; for voluntary separation after 30 years’ service, 3,944;
involuntary separation after 30 years’ service, 6,993; and involun­
tary separation with less than 30 years’ service, 1,861.
The average annuity paid to those on the roll June 30, 1934, was
$989.89, as compared with $965.16 in 1933. The number receiving
$1,200 per annum was 13,772, or 30.8 percent of the total number, as
compared with 11,783, or 35.9 percent on June 30, 1933. The annual
value of the retirement roll as of June 30, 1934, was $44,232,754, as
compared with $31,691,029 the preceding year.
On June 30, 1934, the balance in the civil-service retirement and
disability fund was $262,561,643. The receipts to the credit of the
fund during the fiscal year totaled $60,258,810 as compared with
$61,246,091 the preceding year. Of these receipts $28,740,451 repre­
sented deductions from the compensation of employees (including
service-credit payments), $10,518,359 was interest on investments,
and $21,000,000 was appropriated by Congress. The receipts repre­
senting deductions from compensation of the employees were $1,753,341 less than in 1933 and $3,112,255 less than in the peak year 1932,
“ thus reflecting a continued decrease in the number of employees
entitled to the benefit of the retirement act.”
On the basis of the results of its 5-year valuation of the fund as of
June 30, 1930, which did not take into consideration the cost of the
provision for compulsory retirement for age added by the act of June
30, 1932, or the provision for involuntary retirement after 30 years’
service added by the act of June 16, 1933, the Board of Actuaries
in its thirteenth annual report transmitted to Congress January 10,
1934, came to the conclusion that “ as of June 30, 1930, the annual
appropriation which should be made by the Government to meet its
liability to the fund for both the normal cost and the accrued liability
was $52,053,664. This appropriation by the Government would be
necessary for approximately 68 years from 1930, after which time
the annual appropriation would be reduced to the normal or con­
tinuing cost of $20,638,850.”

Railroad Employees* Retirement Law of 1934 Declared
Unconstitutional
H E United States Supreme Court, in a 5 to 4 decision on May 6,
1935, declared unconstitutional the Railroad Employees’ Retire­
ment Act of June 27, 1934.4 (Railroad Retirement Board v. Alton
Railroad Co.} 295 U. S. 330.)

T

Principal Features of Retirement Act
T h e Railroad Employees’ Retirement Act proposed a pension system
applicable to all employees of railroad carriers subject to the Inter«48 U. S. Stat. L. 1283, 73d Cong.
January 1935 (pp. 76, 77).




See also Monthly Labor Review, August 1934 (pp. 363-367)*

RAILROAD EMPLOYEES’ RETIREMENT LAW

611

state Commerce Act. The act provided that a fund was to be created
by compulsory contributions of present and future employees and the
carriers, the carrier contribution to be equal to twice the contribution
of the employees of such carrier and the percentage amount of em­
ployee contribution to be determined by an independent govern­
mental agency to be known as the “ Railroad Retirement Board.”
Until this agency should determine otherwise, the amount of deduc­
tion was fixed at 2 percent of the employees’ wages.
Section 1 (b) of the act provided that the classes of persons eligible
for the annuities should be: (1) Employees of any carrier on the date
of passage of the act; (2) those who subsequently become employees
of any carrier; (3) those who within 1 year prior to the date of enact­
ment were in the service of any carrier. Persons in any of these three
classes would be eligible upon reaching 65 years of age, whether in the
service of the carrier or not. Provision might be made for continued
employment after 65, provided the employer and employee agreed,
but upon reaching age 70 retirement was compulsory. If an employee
had served a total of 30 or more years in the employ of one or more
carriers, irrespective of whether the service was continuous or not,
he had the option at any time, between the ages of 51 and 65, to
retire and thus receive an annuity. However, the annuity in such
cases was to be reduced by one-fifteenth for each year the employee
lacked of being age 65, unless such retirement was due to mental or
physical disability. Those in official positions could not be forced
to retire until 5 years after the effective date of the act. The amount
payable monthly was determined by multiplying the number of years
of service, not exceeding 30, by graduated percentages of the em­
ployee’s average monthly compensation. This applied whether the
service was performed before or after the act was adopted, whether
the employee was in the employ of one carrier or several, and irrespec­
tive of whether the service was continuous or not. Provision was
also made for the repayment ta the estate of a deceased employee of
the amount contributed to the fund with 3 percent compound interest
less any annuity sums paid to the employee.
Majority Opinion
T h e principal question for determination in this case by the
Supreme Court was whether the act which established a retirement
system for railroad employees was such a regulation of commerce
between the States as would come under article 1, section 8, clause 3,
of the Constitution of the United States— that Congress shall have
the power to regulate commerce among the several States.
The Court considered first the provisions of the law affecting former
employees. It was shown that about 146,000 persons fell within the
class and included those “ who have been retired, who have resigned
to take other gainful employment, who have been discharged because
their positions were abolished, who were temporarily employed, or
who left the service for other reasons.” The Retirement Board
stated that this proviso was made “ to assure those on furlough, or
temporarily relieved from duty subject to call, the benefit of past
years of service, in the event of reemployment, and to prevent the
carriers from escaping their just obligations by omitting to recall these
persons to service.” In answer to this the Court said that—




612

OLD-AGE PENSIONS AND RETIREMENT

It is arbitrary in the last degree to place upon the carriers the burden of gratui­
ties to thousands who have been unfaithful and for that cause have been sepa­
rated from the service, or who have elected to pursue some other calling, or who
have retired from the business, or have been for other reasons lawfully dismissed.
And the claim that such largess will promote efficiency or safety in the future
operation of the railroads is without support in reason or common sense.
* * * Plainly this requirement alters contractual rights; plainly it imposes
for the future a burden never contemplated by either party when the earlier
relation existed or when it was terminated.

It was shown that the statute would take from the future earnings
of the railroads amounts to be paid for services already compensated
according to contractual obligations, “ with no thought on the part
of either employer or employee that further sums must be provided
by the carriers.” This provision, the Court said—
is not only retroactive in that it resurrects for new burdens transactions long
since past and closed; but as to some of the railroad companies it constitutes a
naked appropriation of private property upon the basis of transactions with
which the owners of the property were never connected. Thus the act denies
due process of law by taking the property of one and bestowing it upon another.

The Court showed that no specified length of service was required,
although the annuity was reduced if the total term of employment
was less than 30 years.
The Court next considered certain general features of the retire­
ment act which were believed to be in violation of the fifth amend­
ment to the United States Constitution. It was shown that under
the pension scheme, the draft upon the fund was at a given rate,
while contributions of the several carriers to sustain the fund were at a
“ disparate rate.” The Court said that this resulted from the basic
theory of the act, which is that “ all persons in the service of the rail­
roads are to be regarded as employees of the one employer” , as
announced in the report of the Senate subcommittee which considered
the legislation in the beginning.
In justification of the pooling feature of the act, the Retirement
Board cited the Railroad Transportation Act of 1920 and several
decisions of the Supreme Court. The argument advanced for the
pooling arrangement was that the railroads and the public have a
common interest in efficient railroad operation as a whole, and so it is
necessary that all carriers contribute to the cost of a scheme designed
to serve the common end. To support this claim several cases were
cited by the Board, which the Court severally analyzed.
While not prepared to say whether the act, if otherwise constitu­
tional, would be invalid due to the enormous cost involved, the
Court said:
The recited facts at least emphasize the burdensome and perhaps destructive
effect of the contraventions of the due process of law clause which we find exist.
Moreover, they exhibit the inconsistency of the petitioners’ position that the law
is necessary because in times of depression the voluntary systems of the carriers
are threatened by loss of revenue. It is difficult to perceive how the vast increase
in pension expense entailed by the statute will, without provision of additional
revenue, relieve the difficulty experienced by some railroads in meeting the
demands of the plans now in force.

In addition to agreeing with the lower court respecting the disregard
of due process in many of the provisions of the act, the Supreme
Court also was in agreement regarding the inseparability of certain
of the sections. The statute contained a section that invalid provisions
shall not destroy the entire law. The majority opinion pointed out




RAILROAD EMPLOYEES’ RETIREMENT LAW

613

that while the law was invalid because several of its inseparable
provisions contravened the due-process clause of the Constitution,
it was also invalid for another reason— “ the act is not in purpose or
effect a regulation of interstate commerce within the meaning of the
Constitution.”
The Court also considered the several purposes of the act as con­
tained in section 2 (a), such as employment opportunities and the
relief of aged employees, and referred to the assertion of the railroads
and the admission by the Board “ that though these may in and of
themselves be laudable objects, they have no reasonable relation to
the business of interstate transportation.”
Taking up the question of the superannuation of the railway
employees, the Court found that the parties were not in agreement.
In disposing of the question, however, the Court considered seriously
and at length the apparent disagreement.
We may, for present purposes, assume that ‘ 1superannuation ” as petitioners
use the term— i. e., the attainment of 65 years— is as great or greater in the rail­
road industry than in comparable employments. It does not follow, as contended,
that the man of that age is inefficient or incompetent. The facts indicate a con­
trary conclusion. Petitioners say the seniority rules and the laying off of younger
men first in reducing forces, necessarily tend to keep an undue proportion of
older men in the service. They say this tendency has long been marked in the
railroad industry and has been most noticeable in recent years of depression when
forces have been greatly reduced. But what are the uncontradicted facts as to
efficiency and safety of operation? Incontrovertible statistics obtained from the
records of the Interstate Commerce Commission show a steady increase in safety
of operation during this period of alleged increasing superannuation.
Indeed, one of the petitioners, and one of their most important witnesses, has
written, referring to railroads:
“ Experience seems to have proved, moreover, that older workers cause fewer
accidents than do younger; hence there is little necessity for removing them on
that ground.”
There is overwhelming evidence in the record to the same effect. All that
petitioners offer on the subject in their brief is: “ In an industry having as many
hazardous occupations as the railway industry, improvement in personnel con­
ditions is likely to mean increased safety.” We think it is not unfair to say that
the claim for promotion of safety is virtually abandoned.
How stands the case for efficiency? Here again the record without contradic­
tion demonstrates that in step with the alleged progressive superannuation on the
railroads their operations have increased in efficiency. The trial court found, and its
finding is not assigned as error: “ Railroads were, when the act was enacted, and
are now, operated efficiently and safely and more efficiently and much more
safely than at any time in history.”
Lastly the petitioners suggest that diminution of superannuation promotes
economy, because younger and lower-paid men will replace the retired older men.
But the argument is based upon inadvertent disregard of the wage structure of
the carriers, especially in the train and engine service, whereby contract compen­
sation is based not on age but upon the nature of the duties performed. The
replacement of one by another who is to do the same work will therefore beget
no saving in wages.
When to these considerations is added that, as heretofore said, the act disre­
gards fitness to work, pensions the worker who retires at his option before any
suggested superannuation, irrespective of skill or ability, pensions those who are
presently compelled by the law to retire, irrespective of their fitness to labor, and
grants annuities to those who are discharged for dishonesty or gross carelessness,
it becomes perfectly clear that, though the plan may bring about the social
benefits mentioned in section 2a of the act, it has and can have no relation to the
promotion of efficiency, economy, or safety by separating the unfit from the
industry. If these ends demand the elimination of aged employees, their retire­
ment from the service would suffice to accomplish the object. For these purposes
the prescription of a pension for those dropped from service is wholly irrelevant.
The petitioners, conscious of the truth of this statement, endeavor to avoid its
force by the argument that social and humanitarian considerations demand the
support of the retired employee. They assert that it would be unthinkable to




614

OLD-AGE PENSIONS AND RETIREMENT

retire a man without pension and add that attempted separation of retirement
and pensions is unreal in any practical sense, since it would be impossible to
require carriers to cast old workers aside without means of support. The supposed
impossibility arises from a failure to distinguish constitutional power from social
desirability. The relation of retirement to safety and efficiency is distinct from
the relation of a pension to the same ends, and the two relationships are not to be
confused.
In final analysis, the petitioners’ sole reliance is the thesis that efficiency
depends upon morale, and morale in turn upon assurance of security for the
worker’s old age. Thus pensions are sought to be related to efficiency of trans­
portation, and brought within the commerce power. In supporting the act the
petitioners constantly recur to such phrases as “ old-age security” , “ assurance of
old-age security” , “ improvement of employee morale and efficiency through
providing definite assurance of old-age security” , “ assurance of old-age support” ,
“ mind at ease” , and “ fear of old-age dependency.” These expressions are
frequently connected with assertions that the removal of the fear of old-age
dependency will tend to create a better morale throughout the ranks of employees.
The theory is that one who has an assurance against future dependency will do
his work more cheerfully, and therefore more efficiently. The question at once
presents itself whether the fostering of a contented mind on the part of an employee
by legislation of this type is in any just sense a regulation of interstate transpor­
tation. If that question be answered in the affirmative, obviously there is no
limit to the field of so-called regulation. The catalog of means and actions which
might be imposed upon an employer in any business, tending to the satisfaction
and comfort of his employees, seems endless. Provision for free medical attend­
ance and nursing, for clothing, for food, for housing, for the education of children,
and a hundred other matters, might with equal propriety be proposed as tending
to relieve the employee of mental strain and worry.

The majority opinion finally concluded that the act—
is an attempt for social ends to impose by sheer fiat noncontractual incidents
upon the relation of employer and employee, not as a rule or regulation of com­
merce and transportation between the States, but as a means of assuring a
particular class of employees against old-age dependency. This is neither a
necessary nor an appropriate rule or regulation affecting the due fulfillment of
the railroads’ duty to serve the public in interstate transportation.

The judgment of the lower court declaring the act unconstitutional
was therefore affirmed.
Minority Opinion
M r . C h i e f J u s t i c e H u g h e s rendered a strong dissenting opinion
in which he was joined by three of the other justices. The minority
Justices regretted that the majority raised “ a barrier against all
legislative action of this nature by declaring that the subject matter
itself lies beyond the reach of the congressional authority to regulate
interstate commerce.” In place of a unitary retirement system, the
minority thought another sort of plan could be established. How­
ever, the Chief Justice observed that—
no matter how suitably limited a pension act for railroad employees might be
with respect to the persons to be benefited, or how appropriate the measure of
retirement allowances, or how sound actuarially the plan, or how well adjusted
the burden, still under this decision Congress would not be at liberty to enact
such a measure. That is a conclusion of such serious and far-reaching impor­
tance that it overshadows all other questions raised by the act. Indeed, it makes
their discussion superfluous. The final objection goes, as the opinion states,
“ to the heart of the law, even if it could survive the loss of the unconstitutional
features” which the opinion perceives. I think that the conclusion thus reached
is a departure from sound principles and places an unwarranted limitation upon
the commerce clause of the Constitution.




RAILROAD EMPLOYEES’ RETIREMENT LAW

615

The Chief Justice was of the opinion that the morale of the railroad
employees has an important bearing upon the efficiency of the trans­
portation service, and “ that a reasonable pension plan by its assur­
ance of security is an appropriate means to that end.”
The minority opinion considered especially the question of whether
the provisions of the retirement act violated the due-process clause of
the Federal Constitution, and its relation to the establishment of a
pooling system for all railroads. The Chief Justice said that “ the
objection encounters previous decisions of this court”, and continued
by referring to previous decisions:
We have sustained a unitary or group system under State compensation acts
against the argument under the due process clause of the fourteenth amendment.
(M o u n t a in T im b er C o. v. W a s h in g to n , 243 U. S. 219).
The Washington com­
pensation act established a State fund for the compensation of workmen injured
in hazardous employment, and the fund was maintained by compulsory contri­
butions from employers in such industries. While classes of industries were
established, each class was made liable for the accidents occurring in that class.

The minority opinion considered also the class of persons to be
benefited, and stated:
In considering these objections we should have regard to the explicit pro­
vision of the act as to severability. It states that if “ any provision” , “ or the
application thereof to any person or circumstances” , is held invalid, “ the remain­
der of the act or application of such provision to other persons or circumstances
shall not be affected.” This, of course, does not permit us to rewrite the statute
but it does allow the excision of invalid provisions, or inclusions, which can be
severed without destroying its structure.

In considering the details of the pension plan, especially with regard
to the basis of the allowances and the computation, the minority
group was of the opinion that Congress could make its choice as to
any basis of selection, either upon length of service or age, or both.
An examination of pension plans in operation reveals a variety of possible
methods, and Congress was entitled to make its choice. As a basis for the
allowance, Congress could select either age or length of service, or both. In
the selection of any age, or any period of service, anomalies would inevitably
occur in particular applications. Extreme illustrations can always be given
of the application of regulations which require the drawing of a line with respect
to age, time, distances, weights, sizes, etc. To deny the right to select such
criteria, or to make scientific precision a criterion of constitutional authority,
would be to make impossible the practical exercise of power.

In determining that the decree of the lower court should be reversed,
the minority group, speaking through the Chief Justice, concluded:
The power committed to Congress to govern interstate commerce does not
require that its government should be wise, much less that it should be perfect.
The power implies a broad discretion and thus permits a wide range even of mis­
takes. Expert discussion of pension plans reveals different views of the manner
in which they should be set up and a close study of advisable methods is in prog­
ress. It is not our province to enter that field and I am not persuaded that
Congress in entering it for the purpose of regulating interstate carriers, has
transcended the limits of the authority which the Constitution confers.

[Following the decision of the court declaring the act unconstitu­
tional, Congress enacted a new retirement law (Public Acts 399 and
400) for the benefit of employees engaged in interstate commerce by
railroad. Up to the end of 1935 this act had not been passed upon by
the Supreme Court.]




616

OLD-AGE PENSIONS AND RETIREMENT

Old-Age Pensions Paid by Labor Organizations in 1933
and 1934
URING the past few years the subject of old-age pensions for
members has received a large amount of attention from labor
organizations. Several have considered the advisability of adopting
pension systems, while others, faced with the problem of raising funds
from diminished revenues, may have to curtail or abolish these bene­
fits or place the whole scheme on an insurance basis.
The reports of the executive council of the American Federation of
Labor show that both in 1933 and in 1934 there were 15 national
unions which paid old-age benefits to the amount of over $4,000,000.
The amounts so paid by the individual organizations in 1933 and 1934
are shown below:

D

1933

Bricklayers____________________________________________ $414, 621
Bridge and structural-iron workers_____________________
46, 699
Carpenters____________________________________________
259, 458
Electrical workers_____________________________________
148, 669
Fur workers----------------------------------------------------------------2, 720
Ladies’ garment workers_______________________________
9, 500
Locomotive engineers______________________________
232, 832
Locomotive firemen and enginemen____________________
202, 415
Printers_______________________________________________ 2, 110, 853
Printing pressmen_____________________________________
114, 862
Quarry workers________________________________________
1, 750
Railroad trainmen_____________________________________
940, 282
121, 110
Railway conductors___________________________________
Sheep shearers_________________________________________
2, 465
Street-railway workers_________________________________
70, 400
Total.
i Not reported.




4,

678, 636

1934

$414,621
44,658
101, 757
206,380
3,920
7,800
67,405
287,853
2, 180, 087
130,352
1,250
682,041
p)
2,410
162,000
4, 292, 534

OLDER W ORKER IN INDUSTRY

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




617




Employment of Older Persons in Department Stores 1
HE Massachusetts Commission on the Stabilization of Employ­
ment, in planning its research program for 1931-32, proposed a
study of workers in various lines of employment in which it hoped
“ to demonstrate kinds of work that may be performed satisfactorily
by older workers, and to throw light upon types of work experience
that enable some older workers to continue in employment longer
than their fellows.” The project here reported is a part of that larger
program. It is a study of the employment of older employees in
Springfield department stores, made in March and April 1932 under
the direction of the economics department at Mount Holyoke
College by students in the course in social statistics.

T

Scope of Study
S p r in g fie ld is the third city in size in Massachusetts, with a
population of 149,900 in 1930. It has been the leading trade center
of western Massachusetts since colonial days.
The three stores chosen for this study are the largest in the depart­
ment-store group, and have long been established in the city of
Springfield. One of them opened for business in 1874, one in 1875,
and the third in 1906. All are independent units, general department
stores, and handle merchandise of about the same grade.
When on account of the depression the reduced volume of trade
made it impossible to carry the whole force on full time, part-time
employment and “ vacations” rather than dismissals were resorted
to by all of these stores. All three carried smaller numbers on their
pay rolls in 1931 than in 1930, the decrease in the average number
employed varying from 5 to 11 percent. Although the numbers
employed were consistently smaller in 1931, the spread was greatest
during the earlier part of the year and continued through the Easter
trade. This trade, together with that of the Christmas holidays,
showed the peaks characteristic of those periods almost everywhere.
The group studied included all employees over 45 years of age on the
pay rolls of the three stores, a total of 344. Detailed information was
secured through personal interviews with 241 of these employees.
The number seen individually amounted to more than four-fifths of
the age group in two of the stores, but to only slightly more than half
in the third. The interviews were arranged by the personnel depart­
ments and took place in the stores during the day.
1 Summary of article by Amy Hewes, of Mount Holyoke College, in the October 1932 Monthly Labor
Review (p. 773).




619

620

OLDER W O RK ER IN INDUSTRY

Character of Group Studied
Proportion of Older Workers

T h e r e is no “ old age at 40” among retail-store employees. None
of the managements would admit any deadline of employability.
The proportion of older workers was larger than would be found in
almost any manufacturing establishment, indicating that a longer
earning life characterized mercantile employment.
From one-fourth to one-fifth of the total staff in each of these stores
was composed of persons over 45. While the total percentage of older
workers in each store was approximately the same, the composition
of these older groups differed as to sex. Women were in the majority
in the total force of all the stores, but over half of the older employees
in one establishment were men. In the others men were, respectively,
one-third and two-fifths of the older group.
Age

Although the largest groups of older employees interviewed were
persons between 45 and 50, this group formed less than one-third
(30.7 percent) of the whole number. A fourth of the total were
between 50 and 55, and 23 percent were over 60.
Probably among the employees over 70 there were many whose
former service rather than present efficiency constituted the claim on
the job. Many were still known to customers who did not wish to
break old connections and who really valued the knowledge of their
taste and requirements which rested on long association. Also, the
long connection with the establishment in some cases constituted a
moral claim which the employer did not disregard.
Educational Experience

Successful store service requires intelligence and an elementary
education. Nearly one-half (46.9 percent) of the older employees
had attended grade schools only, about two-fifths (41.9 percent) had
benefited by at least some high-school education and less than a
tenth had received either some college or vocational education.
Specialized training for retail selling is given by the personnel depart­
ments of the stores, but it may safely be said that the majority of the
older employees learned “ on the job” , by dint of observation and help
from fellow employees. No specific educational requirements'were
fixed as a condition of employment.
Occupational Background

The first jo b .—Further indication of the character of the group of
older employees is indicated by their first jobs as paid workers. More
than two-fifths (43 percent) began with store work. The others
started their wage-earning experience in widely varied employment.
Jobs as far removed from store work as those of bartenders, cowboys,
carpenters, brick masons, chauffeurs, and farmers were reported as the
first experience of the older men. Some of the women began to earn
when very young, as factory hands in Lowell and Fall River or in
domestic service. Others were assistants to dressmakers or did
sewing independently.




EMPLOYMENT IN DEPARTMENT STORES

621

As the statement following shows, some of the older employees
became wage earners very early. All except 37 were over 14 when
they started to work. In 40 cases the employees held no paid position
until after 25 years of age. In the case of women this late beginning
was caused more often by early marriage than by an extensive period
of training.
N u m ber of

Age at first employment:
em ployees
3
5 to 9 years i __________________________________
10 to 14 years_________________________________ 34
15 to 19 years_________________________________ 111
20 to 24 years_________________________________
49
25 to 29 years_________________________________
13
12
30 to 34 years_________________________________
35 to 39 years_________________________________
5
40 to 44 years_________________________________
6
45 years and over_____________________________
4
Not reported__________________________________
4
Total_______________________________________ 241

Other principal employment.—As an indication of the characteristics
of the group studied, previous employment over a considerable period
is more significant than either education or the first job, since the
former was rarely vocational and the latter seldom a matter of
deliberate choice. Consequently, inquiry was made concerning
earning experience other than merchandising, and was limited to the
employment of longest duration in the history of each employee.
The full job history of each individual was unobtainable since many
persons were unable to remember every position held, but it was
assumed that the period of longest employment would always be
remembered.
It is significant that almost half (103, or 43 percent) had had their
whole earning experience in stores or had held no other positions
except of very short duration. The second largest number, 48, had
worked in factories for their other principal employment and the
third largest group, 23, in domestic work (including in this group
waitresses, matrons, nurses, and housekeepers).
Length of merchandising experience.—A number of the older em­
ployees had accumulated many years of merchandising experience.
Nearly two-fifths had been engaged in store work for over 20 years,
and 19 persons for more than 40 years. Only a fourth had worked
in stores less than 10 years. Clearly the present tenure of job of this
group is associated with long experience in the same line of work.

Present Employment
T h e rem a in d e r o f th e s tu d y w as co n c e r n e d w ith c o n d itio n s o f
p resen t e m p lo y m e n t o f th e g r o u p o v e r 45 y e a rs o f age, a n d p a r tic u la r ly
w ith th ose a sp e cts w h ich a ffo rd e d an e x p la n a tio n o f th e e m p lo y e e ’s
cla im o n th e p o s itio n h eld .

Age when employed.—It was necessary to test the hypothesis that
the present job was held in a large proportion of cases by persons who
had been employed by the company when they were young. It
proved to be true (see table 1) that considerably more than half the
number were hired on their present job before they were 45; it was also
clear that the group represented persons who were easily employable
even after that age. More than a third were taken on after their




622

OLDER W ORKER IN INDUSTRY

forty-fifth birthday and 13 persons were employed after reaching the
age of 60. The largest group, 68 persons between 40 and 45 years of
age when hired, furnished abundant evidence of lack of prejudice
on the part of retail-store managers against hiring older persons.
T

able

1

.— AGE

OF E M P LO Y E E S A T T IM E W H E N H IR E D ON PR E SE N T JOB

Number of employees
Age group

Female

Male

Total

All ages_______ _________________ _____________ ___________________

87

154

241

20 to 24 years............................. ................. .............. ................. ................
25 to 29 years..._____ ___________ __________________________ ______
30 to 34 years..-______ _________________________________ ___________
35 to 39 years_____________________ _________________________________
40 to 44 years__________________ ___________________________________
45 to 49 years.._ _____________ _________ __________________________
50 to 54 years.. _________ ___________ ______________________________
55 to 59 years. ____ __ _______________________________________ ______
60 to 64 years.. _______________________________________________ ___

3

2

5
15
19
44
68
38
25
14
13

7

8

5
5

14
39
46
22
13
5
5

22

16

12
9

8

Occupational distribution .—A grouping of these older employees by
their present occupation (table 2) showed that just about half (49
percent) were engaged in actual selling. This is the same proportion
that the selling force formed of the total force for all ages in the three
stores. The proportion would be only slightly higher if the buyers
over 45 who also act as salespeople were included. Older women who
were selling outnumbered the older men, but women also outnumbered
men in the entire force and in the other occupational groups except
among the shipping-room employees, janitors, and the miscellaneous
group (including truck drivers, stock clerks, and floor managers).
T

able

2 . — O CC U PATIO N AL

D IST R IB U T IO N OF E M P L O Y E E S , B Y S E X
Number of employees

uccupauon
Males

Females

Total

All occupations.— ______________ _____ ____________________________

87

154

241

Sales persons________________________________ ___________ _
_ ___
Buyers___ ________________________________________ ________________
Janitors and attendants__________ _________ ___________ ____ ____
Work-room employees________________ ___________________________
Shipping-room employees_____________ ______________________ ____
Lunch-room employees______________________________ ____ _______
Office employees_______________ ____ _____________________________
Others.................... ....................... ............................... ..................... ..........

21
9
12
5
13
3
2
22

98
16
7
12
1
10
6
4

119
25
19
17
14
13
8
26

An occupational distribution of the older employees by age shows
only a slight relation between age and the kind of work done. In the
office force (which furnished the single example of a preference for
younger persons) the employees were all under 60. The lunch-room
employees were all under 65. But in the selling force proper there
were employees of all ages up to and including the seventies.




623

EMPLOYMENT IN DEPARTMENT STORES
Tenure of Present Job

The older employees formed a staple part of the total force. As
shown in the statement below, half of them had held their present
positions more than 10 years at the time of the interviews and nearly
a fifth for more than 20 years. It is important to note, however, that a
fifth of the group were able to secure employment less than 5 years
ago, although they were then over 40 years of age.
N u m b er of

Length of present job:
em ployees
Under 5 years__________________________________________ 46
Under 1 year__________________________________
4
1 and under2 years_______________________________
6
2 and under3 years_______________________________
12
3 and under4 years_______________________________ 15
4 and under 5 years________________________________
9
5 to 9 years___________________________________________ 72
10 to 14 years________________________________________
53
15 to 19 years________________________________________
27
20 to 24 years________________________________________
14
25 to 29 years________________________________________
21
30 years and over______________________________________
8
Total______________________________________________ 241

The long tenure of present position which characterized so many of
the older employees was consistent with the fact that it covered the
greater part of their total merchandising experience. More than half
of the older employees had spent at least 80 percent of their entire
period of store employment with the same company.
Transfers Within the Establishment

The older employees who had been in the same establishment for a
long time had not required many transfers to easier jobs. Threequarters were still holding the same position to which they were
first appointed. Moreover, the percentages of employees who had
never been transferred were almost as large among the older employees
as among the younger. The necessary adjustment apparently came
in expending on the same job a little less energy as the years passed,
rather than by surrendering it for another.
None of the stores in which these employees worked had a regular
pension system, but each store was taking care of a number of former
employees. The lack of a pension system may explain part of the
willingness to retain on the pay roll some of the oldest employees.
The stores were in agreement, however, that the group over 45
included many of their most valued employees.
Conclusion
A p i c t u r e has been presented of the retention of substantial pro­
portions of older men and women in retail selling long past the time
when their age would have been an insurmountable obstacle to the
earning of a livelihood in many other occupations. It must be remem­
bered that the stores covered in this report all belong to the type of
large establishment which has been characteristic of departmentstore history in this country—establishments in which the founders
and their successors (usually members of their families) have been
well-known residents of their communities and thoroughly identified
with the policies of the stores which bore their names. Although the



624

OLDER W O R K E R IN IN DUSTRY

leading department stores in most of our cities still belong to this
group, the field is now being shared to an important extent with
chain-store organizations. The employment policies which have been
associated with the success of the older stores, and in particular the
policy of retaining the older employees, may not be followed by stores
whose relation to the community is only a link in a wider organiza­
tion. Their practice may not be determined to the same extent by
special recognition of years of loyal service which was often made by
the older department stores. The conspicuous fact about the present
s t u d y , however, was not that the older employees had succeeded in
building up claims to their jobs, but that their service was regarded
as efficient, in spite of (and often because of) their age. This was
emphasized many times by store superintendents and personnel
managers.
Insofar as the employees studied are representative, their experi­
ence indicates far better employment opportunites for older employees
in retail selling than exist in the manufacturing industries. This is
probably due in large part to the relatively smaller demands made
by their occupations on physical vigor, but it is doubtless also due to
fewer changes in technique.
During the past 20 years many of the tasks performed by skilled
mechanics have changed so much that skill acquired in the beginning
of the period is no longer valuable to the persons possessing it. Mean­
while the clerks who sell in stores continue to do their work in much
the same way. Changes in financial organizations, advertising, and
m methods of display, which have in many ways transformed retailing,
have required little alteration in the way in which a clerk meets a
customer and closes a sale. His success still depends on the nature of
the personal contact he can establish. The training which the
stores now give their employees in the art of selling merely points
out the psychology of what has been done m the past by intelligence
and happy intuition. Consequently, nothing in the nature of their
occupation makes it inevitable that store employees should suffer the
“ technological unemployment” to which employees in many manu­
facturing occupations have been liable.

Report on Age as Related to Unemployment, 1933
HE Joint Legislative Committee on Unemployment of New York
State transmitted to the legislature, under date of January 7,
1933, a special report on the Older Worker in Industry, prepared by
Solomon Barkin, under the auspices of the continuation committee
of the New York State Commission on Old Age Security. This
report was issued as Legislative Document (1933) No. 66, and takes
up in detail the history of the development of public realization that
the elderly worker has a special difficulty to face, gives data as to the
attitude of employers toward older employees, based on answers to a
questionnaire circulated in New York, and considers what steps
should be taken to help those who find themselves handicapped by
advancing years.

T




AGE AS RELATED TO UNEMPLOYMENT

625

Situation in New York State
T h e investigation made in New York showed much the same results
as similar inquiries in California, Maryland, and elsewhere. The
existence of discrimination was clearly shown:
One out of every five concerns in New York State manufacturing industries
had adopted maximum age-hiring limits which barred older applicants from
practically all jobs in the establishment. Of the latter group, 29 percent had
formal maximum-age hiring rules, while 71 percent had informal maximum-age
hiring policies which in effect resembled the formal rule. In terms of the number
of employees, it may be observed that four-tenths of the employees were engaged
by concerns which maintained maximum-age hiring limits either of a formal or
informal character. There is therefore little doubt that a substantial proportion
of the possible openings for employment in New York State manufacturing
industries were completely closed to the older applicant.

The most common age limit for men was 45 years. “ In fact, 57
percent of the age limits were set at 45 years or less and 83.3 percent
at 50 years or less. The ages set for women are regularly lower.
Forty years or less appears to be the general rule.”
In other respects, also, the situation was similar to that found in
other States. Large concerns were more apt than small ones to have
age hiring limits and to enforce them rigidly. The reasons assigned
for setting limits were the well-known ones: Some kinds of work were
wholly unsuited to elderly men; the older worker was more liable to
accident or mischance; his inclusion increased the cost of such welfare
plans as group insurance, employee retirement, and disability bene­
fits ; he was a less desirable employee on account of physical and mental
loss of vigor and adaptability, and the like.
One exception, however, to the usual rule of discrimination against
the older worker was noted. If an employee could maintain his position
with the same employer until he had grown old, there was a distinct
reluctance to discharge him, and he was apt to be kept on while
younger men were let go. If, however, he was once discharged his
chance for being rehired was not so good as that of the younger man.
Examining in detail the statistical information available as to the
older workers, the report presented the following conclusions:
Not only are increasingly larger proportions of older persons de­
clared unemployable in profit-making enterprises, but those who are
still considered employable experience greater amounts of unemploy­
ment and idleness than the average gainfully employable person.
The rates for the older person rise consistently through all of the
older age groups except that the rate of unemployment begins to
decline after 65 years. The result of modern industrial hiring and
separation policies and the present methods of distributing work
opportunities is to impose an unusually heavy economic burden upon
the older persons. Despite the fact that they include a larger propor­
tion of permanent members of the work force than any of the other
age groups, they count more unemployed among their numbers than
the average age group. Furthermore, the older the population group
which is considered, the smaller becomes the proportion of the
temporarily unemployed, and the larger the class of the “ chronically
unemployed.” Many older individuals become drags on the labor
market. Acute depression or low industrial activity in individual
branches of employment result in the separation of even those per­
manent employees who had maintained their position and who were
1 9205— 36-------- 41




626

OLDER WORKER IN INDUSTRY

separated by the employers with some compunction. The older em­
ployees with long service, unlike other handicapped groups, are,
however, not the first to be fired. But the chances for reemployment
of the older unemployed persons are comparatively small, particularly
if unemployment is widespread. When the amount of employment
increases, they will be among the last to enjoy its advantages.
Methods of Lessening the Hardships of the Elderly Worker
A l o n g this line little of importance has been done. Individual em­
ployers here and there have undertaken measures designed to discover
defects and infirmities at an early stage, and if such are found, may
either aid the worker to secure remedial treatment, or may alter his
work to some job better suited to his condition. Without under­
taking physical examination of this kind, some employers as a worker
grows older will transfer him to some less strenuous kind of work, or
make some changes in the conditions or terms of his employment to
suit the situation. Some companies have made special studies of
their processes to discover and list the types of work suitable for
employees whose full usefulness has declined, and reserve these jobs
for them. The percentage of such jobs found in these plants ranges
between 4 and 6 percent.
The pressing nature of the problem with some concerns has led them to cen­
tralize the work which can be done by the older person in a separate department.
The duties which usually are assigned to them call for inspection and salvage of
parts or finished goods, the maintenance of equipment, and the repair of rejected
parts. However, some companies also have found it possible to use their older
workers at the production of special articles.

Several States have undertaken special work to aid the middle-aged
and elderly to secure work. The departments of labor of Pennsyl­
vania and California have carried on campaigns to secure lists of
firms that would not refuse to hire men on account of age “ when they
are physically and mentally able to meet the requirements of the
positions for which their services may be required.” In both States
a number of employers registered, but critics say that few of the
important larger concerns are found on these lists.
The report suggested that there was need for a comprehensive
program for dealing with the handicapped worker, whether his handi­
cap was age, physical or mental defect, or recognizable misfortune
such as blindness, invalidity, and the like. Much, however, might
be done for the elderly and middle-aged workers before the commu­
nity was prepared to embark on such a far-reaching program of
protection and care.
Use of Employment Exchanges for Benefit of Older Workers
A n y real help to the older worker must center in the effort to place
him in some particular job. This involves a knowledge of the jobs
available or possibly available in his locality—or elsewhere, if he is
transferable—and a careful examination of the work qualifications
and personal peculiarities of the individual considered in the light of
the job requirements. It is impossible for the average worker him­
self to have the wide knowledge of the industrial field, of the specifi­
cations of each particular job, and of his own fitness in relation to
them, which is needed for his successful placement. “ The constantly




AGE AS RELATED TO UNEMPLOYMENT

627

increasing problem of employment adjustment, arising from the rapid­
ity of industrial change, and the complete helplessness of the indi­
vidual in meeting it impose upon society the need of providing specific
directions for the adjustment process.” A public employment serv­
ice is a practical necessity for dealing with the problem, and at this
point there is a distressing lack of facilities.
Scrapping Age Prejudice

A g r e a t difficulty in the way of the employment of the elderly is
the suspicion that the individual shares the disabilities which are
popularly supposed to characterize his age group. The most effec­
tive way of overcoming this difficulty is to prove in the case of any
given individual that he does not share these disabilities. This the
worker cannot do alone, since his own statement is not convincing
and recommendations from former employers are apt to be heavily
discounted.
The only agency that can fulfill this function satisfactorily is the State employ­
ment exchange. The occupational history of the individual worker will prove of
inestimable value in determining his qualities, and enable the officials of the
exchange to assure the employer concerning the exact qualifications of the worker.

The exchange must do more than study the worker’s qualifications;
it must understand the employer’s real needs. Industrial managers
often fail to describe the demands of individual jobs with sufficient
clearness and accuracy, and the worker therefore may find himself
confronted with requirements he had no reason to anticipate.
The State department of labor should come to the aid of industry in develop­
ing these job specifications. In the last analysis the employer must be instructed
in defining his needs and in adapting the labor supply to his conditions.

Organization of the Labor Market
A n e m p l o y m e n t exchange may connect the individual employer
and employee, but there is need also for an agency to direct the general
flow of labor as well as to cover the immediate placement of the sepa­
rate worker. Such a body should study and regulate the whole dis­
tribution of labor, and while its field would be wide, it would have a
special bearing upon the present problem.
From the point of view of the interest of the older worker, there are several
special benefits which he may derive from such a set-up. In the first place, the
bureau may take over the study of the problem of the older worker. In the sec­
ond place, it may divert the new supplies of labor from the very fields in which
the older person is now entrenched. The younger and more plastic groups would
assume the duty of adapting themselves to new industrial developments. The
older groups would be given preference for the jobs which can be performed satis­
factorily and efficiently by the older individuals. Their position at such employ­
ments would thus be secured. One final benefit may result. The employment
exchanges will delegate agents for the purpose of stimulating the hiring of older
workers for jobs at which they can be profitably employed. The findings of the
public officials studying employment adjustments for the older worker would
serve as a guide to the efforts of these agents in securing jobs. The latter would
attempt to do for the unemployed older worker that which a sense of obligation
on the part of the management induces it to do for its own veteran workers.







PRICES—RETAIL AND WHOLESALE

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




629




Retail Prices in the United States
R e tail Prices of Food

T

H E Bureau of Labor Statistics of the United States Department
of Labor has since 1913 collected retail prices of food, and com­
piled and issued average retail prices and indexes of retail costs of food.
Prior to August 15, 1933, prices were secured as of the 15th of each
month. Since August 15,19 33, the prices have been secured biweekly.
From time to time the work has been expanded to include additional
cities and articles, and revisions have been made in the number of
foods and in the methods and base periods used for computing indexes
of food costs. The retail price reporting service of the Bureau now
covers 51 localities, scattered throughout the continental United
States. Retail prices are secured for 87 foods. Prices of 41 foods are
reported monthly from Honolulu and other localities in Hawaii.
Prior to October 1935, index numbers, based on the average for the
year 1913 as 100, were weighted by consumption, representing pur­
chases of foods priced. These indexes were based on prices of 22 foods
from 1913 to the end of 1920 and 42 beginning with January 1921.
(See p. 635.) In October 1935 the following revision in method was
made: the base period was changed from 1913 to the 3-year average,
1923-25, as 100; the number of foods was increased to 84; consumption
weights, representing purchases of all foods, were computed for each of
the 51 cities; and the indexes for the United States were computed
from the total of the weighted costs for all cities combined with the
use of population weights.
This article completes the old series of indexes, with 1913 as the
base, or 100, and gives prices through 1934. It also presents for all
cities combined the revised indexes for specified months from 1919 to
the latter part of 1935.
At the beginning of the year 1913 retail prices of food were being
collected by the Bureau from 39 cities, as follows:
Atlanta, Ga.
Baltimore, Md.
Birmingham, Ala.
Boston, Mass.
Buffalo, N. Y.
Charleston, S. C.
Chicago, 111.
Cincinnati, Ohio.
Cleveland, Ohio.
Dallas, Tex.
Denver, Colo.
Detroit, Mich.
Fall River, Mass.
Indianapolis, Ind.
Jacksonville, Fla.
Kansas City, Mo.
Little Rock, Ark.
Los Angeles, Calif.
Louisville, Ky.
Manchester, N. H.




Memphis, Tenn.
Milwaukee, Wis.
Minneapolis, Minn.
Newark, N. J.
New Haven, Conn.
New Orleans, La.
New York, N. Y.
Omaha, Nebr.
Philadelphia, Pa.
Pittsburgh, Pa.
Portland, Oreg.
Ptovidence, R. I.
Richmond, Va.
St. Louis, Mo.
Salt Lake City, Utah.
San Francisco, Calif.
Scranton, Pa.
Seattle, Wash.
Washington, D. C.
631

632

PRICES— RETAIL AND WHOLESALE

The following cities were added to the list on the dates named:
St. Paul, Minn., June 1913.
Springfield, 111., May 1914.
Butte, Mont., January 1915.
Rochester, N. Y., May 1916.
Columbus, Ohio, June 1916.
Bridgeport, Conn., October 1916.

Mobile, Ala., April 1918.
Norfolk, Va., April 1918.
Houston, Tex., May 1918.
Peoria, 111., May 1918.
Portland, Maine, June 1918.
Savannah, Ga., January 1920.

For most of the 39 cities retail prices of certain articles from 1890
to 1903 were published in the Eighteenth Annual Report of the
Commissioner, of Labor Statistics and were continued in subsequent
bulletins.1
The number of items for which prices have been collected has varied
throughout the period. Reports covered 23 foods prior to January
1919, at which time the number was increased to 42. Beginning with
August 1933 additional foods were priced from time to time until
March 1934, when 78 articles were covered in the Bureau’s reports.
On January 2, 1935, the number was increased to 87 foods. Weight­
ing factors are not available for all of the foods for which prices have
been collected, hence certain articles have not been included in the
weighted indexes.
Retail prices of food are collected from retail dealers. The stores
are selected by agents of the Bureau from those patronized largely by
wage earners and lower-salaried workers. Prices are secured from
every type of store— the neighborhood store, the downtown store, the
department store, and the chain store—provided wage earners con­
stitute a large part of the patronage. Some of the stores are credit and
delivery, some are cash and carry, and some are cash and delivery.
The list of stores covered is not constant, but when one firm drops
out permanently, another firm similar in kind is selected to replace
it. Also, as the wage-earning population of a city shifts, stores are
selected in new localities to preserve the representative character of
the prices.
Effort is made to secure quotations on similar grades of commodities
in the different cities covered. There are, however, local customs
which must be considered when any comparison is made of the prices
in the different cities. In making comparisons of prices in one city
with those in another, due consideration should be given to the
following facts:
1. The trade demands and is furnished more expensive grades of articles in
some cities than in others.
2. The cities covered are widely separated; some in localities near the source
of supply, while others are a considerable distance from the source, making it
necessary to include in the prices a greater charge for transportation.
3. Methods and costs of doing business vary greatly in different localities, due
to several causes.
4. Special caution should be observed in the comparison of meat prices, as
the method 2 of cutting in most New England cities eliminates the cut known
as “ sirloin” ; also the amount of trimming of the different cuts differs in accord­
ance with demands by the retail trade in the various cities.
1 Bulletins covering retail prices and issued by the Bureau of Labor Statistics are nos. 59, 65, 71, 77, 105,
106, 108, 110, 113, 115, 125, 132, 136, 138, 140, 156, 184, 197, 228, 270, 300, 315, 334, 366, 396, 418, 445, 464, and
495. A history of the Bureau’s investigations of retail prices will be found in Bulletin No. 396.
8 See Bulletin No. 495 (pp. 14-21.)




RETAIL PRICES IN UNITED STATES

633

Index Numbers of Food Costs, 1935

I n 1935, as noted above, the method of combining retail prices into
an index of the cost of food to wage earners and lower-salaried workers
was changed in order to secure a more accurate representation of
foods of different types. At the same time the number of items
used for computing the index was increased from 42 to 84,3 and the
base period changed from 1913 to an average of the years 1923-25.
The previous method of weighting average prices by purchases of
the specific foods for which prices are secured gave an inadequate
representation to the price movements of meats, fruits, and vege­
tables, and overweighted dairy products, cereals, and eggs. The
new weights for the 84 items were prepared by grouping the data on
food expenditures, bringing together the amounts spent for foods
considered to move similarly in price, and weighting the prices of a
given group of foods not by expenditures for the specific foods priced
alone, but by expenditures for the entire group.
An examination of detailed figures on average quantities of food
purchased in different cities in 1918-19 showed much diversity of
food consumption from city to city. Accordingly, insofar as adequate
figures were available, revised weights were computed for the foodcost index for each city in which prices are secured, based on the food­
purchasing habits of that city. An article in the Monthly Labor
Review for September 1935 explains in detail the methods used in
securing these revised weights.
The revised food-cost index for the United States—that is, for the
51 cities combined—is computed from the sum of the food costs for
the cities weighted by population. Heretofore the number of quota­
tions secured in any city varied roughly with the population of that
city, and it has been customary, after weighting for each city the
chain-store and independent-store prices, to average without further
weighting all the quotations secured for each food priced, and to
multiply these average prices by weights representing average
quantities purchased in the United States.
In the revised indexes, food costs for each city are weighted accord­
ing to the population, not only of the metropolitan areas where the
retail-price information is collected, but also of adjacent metropolitan
areas where prices*are considered to move in similar directions. This
method of computing the indexes for the 51 cities combined permits
the calculation of an average price for the United States for each of
the 84 foods weighted both by family purchases in the cities repre­
sented and by the populations affected. Average prices so calculated
were first published by the Bureau as of October 8, 1935.
Biweekly indexes for 84 foods from January to October 1935 will
be recomputed by the new method, and comparable indexes based
on 42 foods will be computed for all reporting periods from 1919 to
1935. These revised indexes are not comparable with those previous­
ly published for 42 foods on the 1913 base. Due to the amount of
work involved, only a limited number of the new indexes are available
3
Articles added in 1935 are: Hominy grits, whole wheat bread, rye bread, cake, soda crackers, beef liver,
veal cutlets, loin roast, strip bacon, whole ham, salt pork, breast of lamb, lamb chuck, lamb rib chops,
pink salmon, cream, apples, lemons, green beans, carrots, celery, lettuce, spinach, sweetpotatoes, canned
peaches, canned pears, canned pineapple, canned asparagus, canned green beans, tomato soup, dried
peaches, blackeyed peas, dried lima beans, cocoa, chocolate, lard compound, salad oil, mayonnaise, peanut
butter, corn sirup, molasses, and strawberry preserves.




634

PRICES— RETAIL AND WHOLESALE

at the time this publication goes to press. Others will be published
from time to time as computations are completed. These new series,
both on the 1923-25 and the 1913 bases, are shown in table 1.
T

able

1.—IN D E X E S OF R E T A IL FOOD COSTS FOR 51 LAR G E R CITIES OF T H E U N IT E D
STATES C O M B IN E D , R EVISED

Date

1919—Mar. 15................
.Tune 15
Sept. 15................
Dec. 15.................
1920—Mar. 15, .............
June 15
Sept. 15................
Dec. 15_________
1921—Mar. 15.............__
May 15.................
June 15_________
Sept. 15............ —
Dec. 15.................
1922—Mar. 15................
June 15_________
Sept. 15................
Dec. 15,...............
1923—Mar. 15_________
June 15_________
Sept. 15_.......... .
Dec. 15_________
1924—Mar. 15. .............
June 15_________
Sept. 15________
Dec. 15_________
1925—Mar. 15....... .........
June 15__...........
Sept. 15_________
Dec. 15........... .
1926—Mar. 15_________
June 15—.............
Sept. 15................
Dec. 15_________
1927—Mar. 15................
June 15_________
Sept. 15________
Dec. 15____ ____
1928—Mar. 15....... .........
June 15_________
Sept. 15................
Dec. 15............. —

Index as
pre­
viously
pub­
lished,
1913=
100.0

1913=
100.0

192325=
100.02

175.3
184.0
188.3
196.6
200.0
218.7
203.7
177.9
156.1
144.7
156.1
153.1
149.9
138.7
140.7
139.7
146.6
141.9
144.3
149.3
150.3
143.7
142.4
146.8
151.5
151.1
155.1
159.0
165.5
159.9
159.7
158.5
161.8
153.8
158.5
154.0
155.9
151.4
152.6
157.8
155.8

176.0
185.9
189.7
200.4
210.8
231.6
205.3
183.3
161.8
151.8
152.7
161.7
157.9
148.1
151.5
147.9
153.2
149.9
154.0
159.4
157.7
151.9
152.1
154.1
157.7
158.4
165.1
168.3
176.1
172.8
172.6
168.4
171.3
162.8
172.2
163.9
165.8
161.9
162.4
167.2
163.6

111.0
117.3
119.7
126.4
133.0
146.1
129.6
115.7
102.1
95.8
96.4
102.1
99.7
93.5
95.6
93.3
96.7
94.6
97.2
100.6
99.5
95.9
96.0
97.3
99.5
100.0
104.2
106.2
111.1
109.0
108.9
106.2
108.1
102.8
108.7
103.4
104.7
102.1
102.5
105.5
103.2

Index as
revised 1
Date

1929-Mar. 15. ..............
June 15_________
Sept. 15................
Dec. 15_________
1930—Mar. 15_________
June 15_________
Sept. 15________
Oct. 15_________
Dec. 15_________
1931—Mar. 15_________
June 15.................
Sept. 15________
Dec. 15_________
1932—Mar. 15....... ........
June 15_________
Sept. 15________
Dec. 15............... .
1933—Mar. 15_________
June 15............... .
Sept. 12________
Dec. 15_________
1934—Mar. 13_________
June 15—_...........
Sept. 11, ........... .
Oct. 9__________
Nov. 15_________
1935—Jan. 2__________
Mar. 12_________
Mar. 26_________
Apr. 9........ ..........
July 2...................
July 16........ .........
Sept. 24________
Oct. 8............ ...
Oct. 22.......... .......
Nov. 19_________
Dec. 3__________
Dec. 17.................
Dec. 31_________

Index as
pre­
viously
pub­
lished,
1913=
100.0
153.0
154.8
160.8
158.0
150.1
147.9
145.6
144.4
137.2
126.4
118.3
119.4
114.3
105.0
100.1
100.3
98.7
90.5
96.7
107.0
104.4
108.2
108.9
116.8
115.6
115.0
115.9
121.7
121.7
124.1
121.8
121.7
124.0
124.0

Index as
revised 1

1913=
100.0

160.7
164.3
171.1
167.5
161.7
160.4
155.8
155.0
145.9
134.8
127.7
127.7
120.8
112.0
107.2
105.6
102.6
94.7
102.8
113.8
110.0
115.3
116.1
122.1
120.1
119.1
120.1
126.1
126.5
128.8
127.4
127.1
126.6
126.6
127.6
127.4
129. 2
130.0
130.0
130.7

192325 =
100.02
101.4
103.7
108.0
105.7
102.0
101.2
98.3
97.8
92.1
85.1
80.6
80.6
76.2
70.7
67.6
66.6
64.7
59.8
64.9
71.8
69.4
72.7
73.3
77.0
75.8
75.2
75.8
79.6
79.8
81.3
80.4
80.2
79.9
79.9
80.5
80.4
81.5
82.0
82.0
82.5

1 Total costs representing purchases of all foods for individual cities are combined with the use of popu­
lation weights.
2 Computed with revised weights and based upon prices of 42 foods prior to Jan. 1, 1935, and of 84 foods
since that date.

Index numbers of the average retail cost of food in 51 large cities
combined for those dates in 1935 for which revised indexes have been
computed are shown by commodity groups in table 2.




635

RETAIL PRICES IN UNITED STATES
T

able

55.—IN D E X E S

OF R E T A IL FOOD COSTS IN 51 L AR G E CITIES C O M B IN E D ,! BY
C O M M O D IT Y GROUPS, ON SPECIFIED D A T E S IN 1935 a
[1923-25=100.0]

Ce­
reals
Dairy
All
and
Month of 1935 foods
bakery Meats prod­
ucts
prod­
ucts

Eggs

Apr. 9.............
Apr. 23...........
M ay 7............
M ay 21 ..........
June 4__........
Sept. 24_____
Oct. 8.............
Oct. 22............
Nov. 5............
Nov. 19..........
Dec. 3.............
Dec. 17...........
Dec. 31......... .

60.7
61.8
64.9
65.9
65.9
82.3
83.8
85.8
86.7
84.9
82.8
80.5
77.2

81.3
82.0
81.6
81.4
82.0
79.9
79.9
80.5
80.4
81.5
82.0
82.0
82.5

92.3
92.2
92.4
92.9
92.3
92.7
93.4
94.4
94.9
95.0
95.3
95.4
95.6

95.1
96.5
96.9
98.0
99.9
102.2
101.3
100.6
97.1
97.2
97.4
97.1
98.2

80.3
79.3
76.8
75.6
74.5
73.2
73.5
74.4
75.1
77.5
78.2
78.8
79.4

Fruits and vegetables

Total

Fresh

Can­
ned

66.7
68.9
67.7
66.2
67.9
52.3
51.7
53.4
55.4
58.7
60.7
61.3
62.7

65.3
67.8
66.4
64.7
66.6
49.3
48.8
50.7
53.1
56.8
59.2
59.8
61.4

84.4
84.2
84.4
84.3
84.4
80.9
79.9
79.9
79.8
80.0
79.7
79.6
79.6

Beverages
and
Dried choc­
olate

62.7
63.1
63.0
62.8
62.9
61.0
60.7
60.0
59.4
59.0
58.4
58.5
58.6

71.6
71.3
71.0
70.6
70.8
68.3
68.1
68.0
67.8
67.8
67.5
67.6
67.6

Fats
and
oils

Sugar
and
sweets

80.6
80.9
81.0
80.9
81.5
87.4
87.2
86.3
85.1
83.5
83.1
82.3
81.2

62.7
63.0
64.2
64.6
64.9
66.5
66.7
66.9
67.1
67.0
66.7
66.5
66.4

i
The indexes for individual cities, computed by weights representing purchases of all foods, are
combined with the use of population weights,
a Computed with revised weights and based upon prices of 84 foods.

Index Numbers of Food Prices, 1913-34
I n c o n s t r u c t i n g the index numbers of retail food prices issued
by the Bureau from 1921 to 1934 average annual prices for the United
States were computed for each of 42 articles by dividing the sum of all
prices for an article in the 51 cities by the total number of reporting
firms. The average price of each article was.then multiplied by a
figure denoting the average annual family consumption of that
article in the United States as shown by an investigation conducted
by the Bureau in 1918-19.4 The products for the several articles thus
obtained were next added, giving the cost of a year’s supply of these
foods when purchased by a family at the retail prices shown. The
result was then reduced to a percentage of the corresponding result
for the year 1913, taken as the base. Monthly index numbers have
been constructed in the same manner as the yearly index numbers
by using average monthly prices instead of average yearly prices,
the year 1913 being the base period in all cases.
For the years 1913 to 1920 the index numbers were uniformly
computed from the prices of 22 food articles.5 In 1921, when the
number of articles was increased to 42,6 the following plan was
adopted: It was assumed that the total cost of the 42 articles, if this
information had been obtained, would have shown the same per­
centage of change from 1913 to December 1920 as was shown by the
22 articles. Therefore, the index number for the 22 articles in Decem­
ber 1920, which was found to be 177.85, was accepted as the index
number for the 42 articles. The money cost of the 42 articles in
December 1920 was found to be $461.51. The ratio of the money
cost to the relative cost in December 1920 was therefore 461.51 to
177.85, or 1 to 0.3854. For each month since December 1920 the
index number has been obtained by multiplying the money cost of
the 42 articles by the constant ratio, 0.3854. The resulting index
* See U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bui. No. 357.
R e These are sirloin steak, round steak, rib roast, chuck roast, plate beef, pork chops, bacon, ham, lard,
F
hens, flour,[cornfmeal, eggs, butter, milk, bread, potatoes, sugar, cheese, rice, coffee, and tea.
• Articles addedfin 1921 are lamb, canned salmon, evaporated milk, oleomargarine, vegetable lard sub­
stitute, rolled oats, corn flakes, wheat cereal, macaroni, navy beans, onions, cabbage, baked beans, canned
com, canned peas, canned tomatoes, prunes, raisins, bananas, and oranges.




636

PRICES— RETAIL AND WHOLESALE

numbers are comparable with the index numbers for years and months
prior to January 1921 on 22 articles.
Table 3 shows indexes of the average retail cost of 42 foods in 51
large cities combined, by commodity groups, by years 1919 to 1934,
inclusive, and by reporting periods for 1934.
T

able

3 —IN D E X N U M B E R S OF FOOD GROUPS IN T H E U N IT E D STATES ON SPECIFIED
D ATES
[1913=100]

All
foods

Period

1Q1Q

1920..........................................
..........................................
1099.

............................ .............
1924 .........................................
1925 .........................................
1926............. ...........................
1927..........................................
1928 .........................................
1929 .....................................
1930 .........................................
1931.........................................
1932..........................................
1933..........................................
1934 .........................................
T a n .2
_ __ _ ______
Jan. 16________________
.Tan. 30
_ .
_
Feb, 13.............................
Feb. 27.............................
............................
Mar. 27_______________
Apr. 10________________
Apr. 24________________
M a y 8 ..

. _

M a y 22 .
June 5_________________
June 19______ _________
July 3_____ ___________
July 17..............................
July 31..............................
An|. 28

Sept. 11_______________
Sept. 25_______________
Oct. 9 -..............................
Oct. 23..............................
Nov. 20............................
Dec. 4....... .............. .........
Dec. 18.............................

185.9
203.4
153.3
141.6
146.2
145.9
157.4
160.6
155.4
154.3
156.7
147.1
121.3
102.1
99.7
110.8
104.5
105.2
105.8
108.3
108.1
108.5
108.0
107.4
107.3
108.2
108.4
108.4
109.1
109.6
109.9
110.4
111.8
115.3
116.8
116.4
115.6
115.4
115.3
114.9
114.6
114.3

Cereals Meats

Dairy
prod­
ucts

184.2
198.0
232.1
185.7
158.1
179.8
1921
159.3
150.3
1923
156.9
149.0
160.4
150.2
176.2
163.0
175.5
171.3
170.7
169.9
167.2
179. 2
164.1
188.4
158.0
175.8
147.0
135.9
121.1
116.0
126.6
102.7
117.1
147.9
142.4
100.8
142.5
102.3
103.0
142.8
143.3
106.7
143.4
107.8
143.4 13
Mar. 109.1
144.7
109.7
144.7
1x0.5
144.0
112.6
144.2
114.9
144.4
115. 3
116.1
145.7
146.5
117.8
146.6
120.0
120.5
147.7
120.2
149.0
121.1
149.6
129.2
150.8
133.8
151.6
151.7
131.7
128.4
152.0
126.4
151.8
152.1
122.6
150.9
120.6
150.9
119.9
120.1
150.9

176.6
185.1
149.5
135.9
147.6
142.8
147.1
145.5
148.7
150.0
148.6
136.5
114.6
96.6
94.6
102.2
95.7
96.0
95.9
102.6
101.8
102.3
101.1
99.7
99.0
99.9
99.9
100.4
101.1
101.1
100.8
101.6
103.4
105.6
105.4
105.3
105.4
105.4
107.6
108.4
108.5
108.8

Eggs

182.0
197.3
147.5
128.6
134.8
138.5
151.0
140.6
131.0
134.4
142.0
118.8
91.9
78.8
75.6
86.7
89.3
86.7
85.8
81.1
74.8
71.6
71.3
69.5
68.1
67.5
67.8
68.7
71.3
73.6
76.2
80.9
87.8
95.3
99.4
102.0
103.5
109.0
113.9
116.2
1U.8
108.1

Fruits
and
vege­
tables

Sugar
and
sweets

Bever­
ages

205.4
276.9
174.9
171.8
169.9
159.8
188.1
216.6
186.5
159.7
172.6
179.9
126.6
106.6
116.6
121.9
124.4
130.4
133.5
135.0
137.5
136.6
133.7
130.3
130.5
131.7
132. 2
127.0
124.1
121.7
119.0
116.0
116.1
118.0
117.4
114.3
110.8
108.4
105.3
104.2
103.4
103.6

207.1
354.6
147.7
111.4
186.5
170.4
134.3
129.2
136.8
133.5
124.6
117.6
108.9
98.3
104.1
107.9
106.1
104.2
104.2
107.4
104.4
104.7
106.3
106.2
104.4
104.7
104.7
103.3
104.8
106.4
109.7
111.2
109.7
109.5
109.6
109.7
109.7
109.8
109.8
108.3
108.3
107.0

135.9
146.1
118.8
110.0
121.7
135.9
157. 2
156.5
150.2
152.2
151.9
131.4
114.1
103.2
93.1
96.0
92.5
92.4
92.6
92.7
93.4
94.5
95.0
95.9
95.3
96.0
96.4
96.6
96.5
96.0
96.4
96.6
96.9
97.4
97.5
98.0
98.2
98.5
98.2
98.2
98.4
98.2

Fats
and
oils

222.3
199. 1
138.4
112.3
133.2
141.3
155.2
150.9
138.1
133.9
132.4
124.7
101.3
75.1
70.2
80.0
70.9
70.9
71.2
71.6
73.1
73.4
73.8
73.6
73.4
73.0
73.2
73.5
74.9
75.6
75.9
76.6
78.2
83.9
89.7
91.3
92.2
93.0
93.6
95.2
96.0
98.4

Table 4 shows for the United States (51 cities combined) average
retail prices of specified food articles for the 15th of each month, 1931
to August 1933, and for the date nearest to the 15th for September
1933 to December 1934 for which the information was collected. In
all cases where the information is available, prices are shown for the
year 1913 for purposes of comparison.




637

RETAIL PRICES IN UNITED STATES

T able 4 .—A V E R A G E R E T A IL PRICES OF SPECIFIED FOOD A R T IC L ES FOR T H E
U N IT E D STATES (51 CITIES C O M B IN E D ), B Y M O N TH S, 1913 A N D 1931 TO 1934 i

Article and year

Sirloin steak:
1913.......................... .pound..
1931.......................... — do___
1932.......................... — do___
1933.......................... ...d o ___
1934.......................... — do___
Round steak:
1913.......................... — do—
1931.......................... — do—
1932.......................... — do___
1933.......................... ...d o ___
1934..........................
Rib roast:
1913.......................... — do___
1931.......................... — do___
1932.......................... — do— .
1933.......................... — do___
1934.......................... — do___
Chuck roast:
1913.......................... — do___
1931.......................... — do___
1932.......................... — do___
1933.......................... — do___
1934.......................... — do----Plate beef:
1913.......................... — do----1931.......................... — do___
1932.......................... — do—
1933.......................... — do—
1934........................ — do—
Lamb, leg of:
1913.......................... — do___
1931.......................... - —do___
1932.......................... — do___
1933.......................... — do___
1934.......................... — do___
Lamb rib chops: 1934. _ „ d o ___
Lamb breast: 1934____ — do—
Lamb chuck or shoulder: 1934
pound_
Pork chops:
1913.......................... - —do___
1931.......................... — do___
1932.......................... — do___
1933...................... . „ -d o ___
1934.......................... — do___
Pork loin roast: 1934— — do— .
Bacon, sliced:
1913.......................... — do— .
1931.......................... — do___
1932.......................... —.do___
1933....... .................. — do___
1934.......................... — do___
Ham, sliced:
1913.......................... — do___
1931.......................... - —do___
1932.......................... ...d o ___
1933.......................... —.do___
1 9 3 4 ....................... -.-d o ----Ham, whole: 1934____ — do___
Ham, picnic: 1934____ — do___
Salt pork: 1934............. — do___
Veal cutlets: 1934
do___
Roasting chickens:
1913.......................... -„ d o ___
1931.......................... — do—
1932.......................... — do—
1933.......................... -_-do___
1934.......................... ...d o ___
Salmon:
Canned pink: 1934
16-oz. nan
Canned red:
1931................... —_do___
1932................... , —do___
1933................... -„ d o ___
1934................... ...d o ___
See footnote at end of table.




A v­
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. erage
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
for

Cta.

C ta . Cta.

Cta.

Cta.

Cta.

23.8
42.5
34.9
28.9
128.1

23.9
41.0
33.2
28.5
128.5

24.7
40.3
33.0
28.2
128.8

25.5
40.0
33.4
28.0
129.6

20.5
37.5
30.1
24.9
124.4

20.6
35.9
28.4
24.2
124.7

21.3
35.2
28.5
24.3
125.0

34.9
28.6
24.2
125.6

18.8
31.5
25.7
21.2
120.0

18.8
30.5
24.4
20.9
120.3

19.4 20.0 20.0 20.1 20.2
30.3 29.7 29.1 28.3 28.3
24.4 24.3 23.8 23.5 24.9
20.8 20.6
21.3 20.9
120.5 120.8
122.4 i 22.6

14.9
24.4
18.5
15.3
U4.8

14.9
23.3
17.3
14.9
U4.9

15.6
22.7
17.3
15.0
115.1

11.1
16.7
12.3
10.4
19.9

11.3
15.9
11.8
10.0
110.2

11.8 12.2 12.2 12.2 12.2
15.5 16.1 14.5 13.6 13.4
11.6 11.6 11.1 10.7 11.2
10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 9.6
U0.4 110.5
110.3

18.0
31.4
24.1
21.7
121.5

18.5
31.1
23.7
21.7
124.3
131.0
110.3

19.1
31.0
24.9
21.6
124.7
131.8
110.7

25.6
39.5
33.0
28.4
131.2

22.2 22.2 22.6
34.5
28.4
24.6
127.2

Cta.

25.9 26.4
38.7 39.2
32.8 35.3
29.7 29.8
132.01 32.9

33.7
28.4
25.8
128.2

16.1
21.7
17.0
15.1
116.1

16.3
20.9
16.9
15.4
116.4

117.7 118.1

19.4
31.2
25.0
21.4
127.6
135.6

110.7 111.5

19.4 19.7
30.6 30.0
24.3 24.9
22.7 22.3
127. 21 26.2
135. 135.0
35.5
ill. 41 11.0

U8.1 120.2 U9.8

Cta.

26.3
39.4
34.4
130.1
134.8

Cta.

Cta.

25.7 25.4
38.6 37.3
33.1 31.4
129.91 28.8
133.8 131.4
23.1
33.6
28.9
125.9
129.8

Cta.

25.1
36.3
29.9
127.8
131.3

Cta.

25.4
39.4
33.3
29.0
31.3

22.8 22.6 22.3

32.3
27.1
125.0
127.7

31.3 34.4
25.8
124.2
127.4

20.2 20.1 20.0 19.8 19.9 19.8
28.5 28.3 28.0 27.3 26.7 28.9
24.6 24.3 23.7 22.9 22.1 24.1
21.4 120.9 121. 0i 20.4 119.9 20.9
124.3 124.0 123.1 122.8 22.1

122.6

16.4 16.5 16.4
20.8 20.8 20.9
18.1 18.0 17.8
15.2 15.5 115.3
U6.6 116.5 118.3

110.2 110.5

20.2
31.3
25.6
21.3
125.2
132.4

26.4
39.5
34.9
30.2
132.9

23.2 23.2 23.2
34.4 34.6 34.4
30.2
31.0
5 126.2
.5
26.1
129.01 29.01 30.8

20
.8
122.0

16.2
22.3
17.4
15.0
115.5

Cta.

16.4
20.7
17.3
U5.3
U7.9

16.3 16.2
19.6
16.6 15.8
115.1 114.8
117.0 116.9

20.2

16.0
21.5
17.3
15.2
16.3

12.2 12.3 12.3 12.4 12.4 12.1

13.3 13.5 13.5 13.3 13.1 14.3
11.2 11.2 11.3 11.1 10.7 11.3
9.9 19.9
19.9 19.7 10.0
U0.4
ill. 61 11.4 111.5 10.7

111.8

18.9 18.7
29.6 28.8
24.0 23.4
22.4 122.3
124.7 125.5
133.
33.21 33.8
110.3

110.1

18.4 18.5 18.5 18.9
27.5 26.1 24.9 29.5

22.1 21.3 21.0 23.7

$21.9 121.2 120.7
124.7 123.3 123.6
132.1 130.4 130.8
U0.1 110.3

110.8 110.6

21.8
24.9
32.6

10.6

U9.3 118.2 118.8 118.2 117.4 117.6 18.3

20.8 21.7 21.9 22.8 22.6 21.5 20.3 21.0

18.7
29.8
20.9
16.5
120.0

18.9
27.6
19.1
17.6
123.7
U9.1

20.3 21.6
29.4 29.7
21.5 21.5
19.0 17.8
124.6 123.7
119.8 >19.0

20.9
30.1
19.9
18.0
124.3
119.5

29.4
19.7
18.5
124.5
119.5

31.8
25.5
18.2
125.5
120.4

33.3
23.3
19.7
125.8

32.2
23.8
121.7
132.4
120. 6i 27.0

123.7

25M

25.5
39.2
26.1
20.8
123.7

26.1
38.6
25.7
21.0
125.1

26.8
38.1
24.9
20.9
125.8

26.9
37.
23.9
21.3
125.9

27.3
36.9
23.2
22.5
127.4

28.0
37.0
23.7
23.3
129.2

28.3
36.6
23.9
23.2
129.8

27.8 27.2
34.3 32.1
23.2 22.5
123.3 123.3
135. 0i 33.3

26.7 27.0
30.3 6.4
21.6 24.1
123.1 22.3
133.4

25.1
50.6
37.6
28.9
131.4

25.4
49.3
36.7
28.5
132.0
U7.4
111.9
U4.4
130.1

26.0
48.0
36.6
29.1
132.8
118.4
113.4
115.1
130.3

26.5
47.2
36.3
28.8
133.3
118.6
U3.9
115.0
130.4

26.7
46.5
35.3
29.
133.9

27.3
45.9
34.9
31.5
137.3

28.4 28.1
46.1 45.
35.7 35.2
32.7 132.4
39.6 142.8
123.9
15.6 117.5
117. 21 21.6
130.5 132.6

27.6
44.2
34.0
132.3
142.0
125.4
U7.3

26.5
39.7
30.3
131.3
139.4
123.1

20.2
32.7
27.9
21.4
122.4

20.7
31.7
27.1
21.3
123.4

21.4
32.0
27.3
21.2
124.0

21.9 21.7
31.1 30.8
24.1 23.
21.4 21.0
124.21 23.7

21.5
30.9
23.1
20.7
124.0

40.2
27.4
21.4
123.4

28.1
46.1
36.0
32.1
138.7
U8.8
123.5
113.8 114.6 i 15.
115.1 115.8 116.6
130.9 130.7 130.8

22.2 22.2

32.6
26.6
21.4
124.7

31.7
25.7
21.5
125.4

121.8

28.1
36.2
23.6
123.1
134.6

21.5
30.9
23.5
120.4
125.1

29.3 25.0 21.8
21.5 20.2 17.6
122.2 119.8
127.4 124.4 124.3
122.5 119.8 119.7

26.9
41.8
31.7
132.0
139.8
123.3
115.9
122.2 121.9
132.3 131.1

29.1

21.2
19.6
25.0
20.3

45.9
35.0
30.8
36.9
21.5
115.7 14.8
122.3 17.6
131.0 30.9

20.6 20.8 21.3
29.9 29.2 28.6 31.0
23.1 22.4 21.2 24.6
120.5 120.0 119.9 20.9
125.1 124.4 124.5
21.2

114.3 114.2 U4.3 114.2U4.2 1 14. 2 1 14.1 U4.0 U3.9 113.6 113.4 14.2
34.4
29.4
19.4
120.9

34.3
28.9
19.0
121.2

34.2
28.5
18.5
121.1

34.0
28.1
18.3
121.3

29.9 29.6 .32.6
33.8 33.6 33.4 32.9 31.3
26.9 25.8 24.6 21.8 20.6 20.0 19.6 19.5
18.6 19.0 19.4 19.9 120.4 120.8 120.9 120.8 19.6
.4 121.4 121.2 121.2 21.3
121.4

12i.312i.512i.412i

638

PRICES— RETAIL AND WHOLESALE

T a ble 4 —A V E R A G E R E T A IL PRICES OF SPECIFIED FOOD A R T IC L E S FOR T H E
U N IT E D STATES (51 CITIES C O M B IN E D ), B Y
Continued.

Article and year

M O N TH S, 1913 A N D

1931 TO 1934—

Av­
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. erage
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
for
year

a s . Cts. a s . Cts. a s . a s . Cts. a s . a s . Cts. Cts. C ts.
Lard, pure:
1913................. ..........pound. _ 15.4 15.4 15.6 15.8 15.8 15.8 15.9 16.1 16.1 16.0 15.9 15.8
1931................. ............. do___ 15.7 14.5 14.2 14.2 13.5 13.0 13.0 12.8 12.6 12.4 12.2 11.2
1932................. ............_do___ 10.1 9.4 9.1 8.7 8.3 7.8 8.5 8.9 9.1 9.0 8.7 8.1
8.1 7.7 7.9 7.9 8.9 9.7 10.1 10.0 19.6 19.6 19.8 19.4
1933_________ ............. do___
1 9.4 19.7 110.2 110.3 U0.1 U0.3 110.5 111.3 114.4 114.8 115.1 115.6
1934-........... ............. do—
19.2 19.6 19.5 19.5 19.5 19.7 U0.2 111.8 U2.4 113.0 U3.9
Lard compound: 1934— _do—
Vegetable lard substitute:
_______ do------ 15.4 15.4 15.6 15.8 15.8 15.8 15.9 16.1 16.1 16.0 15.9 15.8
1913...........
23.8 23.7 23.7 23.4 23.3 23.3 23.2 23.3 23.0 22.7 22.4 22.0
1931............... . ............. do—
1932................. ............d o ____ 21.9 21.7 21.5 21.4 20.7 19.6 19.3 19.1 19.0 19.1 18.9 18.8
1933................. ..........- d o — . 18.7 18.5 18.5 18.4 18.5 18.5 18.7 19.0 U9.0 U9.0 U9.1 U9.0
1934........... . - ..........-do___ U9.2 119.1 119.2 119.1 119.1 U9.1 U8.9 118.9 U9.1 119.4 119.6 119.8
Oleomargarine:
1931................. _______ do.— 23.7 22.7 21.9 21.2 19.6 19.0 18.4 18.1 18.3 18.8 18.9 18.8
1932................. _______ do___ 18.0 16.5 15.9 15.4 15.1 14.9 14.5 14.6 14.5 14.3 14.3 14.5
1933................. ............d o ___ 13.4 12.7 12.4 12.3 12.8 13.0 13.3 13.7 U3.6 113.4 U2.8 112.5
1934............. ........... -do___ U2.5 112.5 112.6 U2.6 U2.6 U3.3 U3.6 U3.4 114.2 U4.6 U5.5 116.0
Eggs, fresh:
1913............ ______ dozen.. 37.3 31.5 26.4 25.2 26.3 27.9 29.9 33.0 37.7 41.6 49.7 47.6
1931_________ ........ ...d o ___ 36.1 27.2 28.5 27.4 24.8 25.8 28.6 31.9 33.8 37.9 39.7 38.5
29.6 24.2 21.1 20.0 20.0 20.8 22.8 26.8 29.5 34.6 37.6 39.9
1932_________ _______ do—
1933_________ ........ -..d o ___ 32.4 21.4 19.8 18.4 20.3 20.0 24.3 25.3 128.3 132.5 136.1 132.1
1934................. ............. do___ 129.9 128.0 124.7 124.0 123.3 124.6 126.3 130.3 134.3 135.7 140.1 137.3
Butter:
40.9 41.2 41.4 40.4 35.9 35.2 34.8 35.4 37.7 38.2 38.7 39.7
1913...........
1931_________ ............-do___ 37.7 36.3 37.3 35.2 31.2 30.9 31.7 34.4 36.8 39.9 37.3 36.5
1932................. _______ do___ 32.3 29.5 29.5 26.8 25.1 24.1 23.9 26.8 26.9 26.7 27.5 29.8
1933................. _______ do— _ 27.1 24.8 24.8 25.4 28.2 28.1 31.0 27.2 127.9 128.3 128.4 124.1
1934............. . ............. do___ 125.5 130.3 131.9 129.3 129.6 130.3 130.1 132.1 132.9 132.1 135.1 135.4
Cheese:
22.2 22.2 22.1 22.0 21.9 21.8 21.9 22.0 22.1 22.4 22.5 22.5
1913............. . _______ do—
1931................. _______ do___ 32.1 31.2 30.3 29.3 27.4 26.5 26.2 26.5 27.0 27.1 26.8 26.2
1932............. _______ do— _ 25.5 24.4 23.8 23.3 22.5 22.3 22.0 22.6 22.7 22.6 22.4 22.4
1933................. ............. do___ 22.3 21.3 20.9 21.0 22.3 23.1 23.6 23.6 123.5 123.4 122.8 122.3
1934.— .......... _______ do___ 122.0 123.3 124.1 124.1 123.3 123.6 123.7 123.6 124.4 124.0 123.9 124.1
Milk, fresh:
1913_________ ______ quart, _ 8.9 8.9 8.9 8.9 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.9 9.0 9.1 9.1
1931_________ _______ do___ 13.3 13.0 12.9 12.6 12.3 12.0 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.0 12.0 11.6
1932................ _______ do___ 11.5 11.4 11.3 11.0 10.8 10.8 10.7 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.6 10.4
1933................. _______ do___ 10.4 10.3 10.1 10.1 10.0 10.2 10.4 10.9 ill.O 111.1 i l l . l 111.2
1934............. - _______ do— 111.1 111.5 i l l . l 111.1 i l l . l 111.2 U1.2 U1.3 111.5 111.7 111.7 111.7
Milk, evaporated:
1931................. -14^£-oz. can__ 8.9 8.7 8.6 8.5 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.0 7.9 8.0 8.0 8.0
8.0 7.9 7.6 7.5 7.3 6.8 6.5 6.3 6.1 6.1 6.0 6.5
1932................. _______ do___
1933................. _______ do___
6.6 6.6 5.9 5.8 6.5 6.7 6.8 6.9 i 6.9 16.8 16.8 i 6.8
1934____ ____ _______ do___ i 6.8 i 6.8 i 6.8 i 6.8 i 6.8 i 6.8 i 6.7 i 6.8 i 6.8 i 6.7 i 6.7 i 6.7
Cream: 1934
nint
114.1 114.2 114.1 114.1 114.2 114.4 114.4 114.3 114.2
Flour, wheat, white:
1913................. _____ pound-3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3
1931............... ........ -.-d o ___
4.0 4.0 3.9 3.8 3.7 3.7 3.6 3.4 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3
1932................. _______ do___
3.3 3.3 3.2 3 2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.0 2.9
1933................. _______ do___
2.9 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.4 3.4 4.0 4.8 14.9 14.9 14.8 14.7
1934................. ............. do___ 14.7 14.8 14.8 14.8 14.7 14.9 14.9 15.0 15.1 15.1 15.1 15.1
Corn meal:
1913................. ............. do___
3.0 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.1
1931................. ............-do____ 5.1 5.0 5.0 4.8 4.6 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.4 4.2 4.1
1932................. ............. do___
4.0 4.0 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.8 3.9 3.8 3.7 3.6 3.5
1933................. ............. do___
3.5 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 14.0 13.9 14.0 14.0
1934.................
14.2 14.3 14.3 14.3 14.3 14.4 i 4.4 14.5 i 4.6 14.7 14.8 14.8
Rolled oats:
1931................. - ..........do— ,
8.5 8.4 8.3 8.2 8.0 8.0 8.0 7.9 7.9 7.9 7.8 7.9
1932................. ............. do___
7.7 7.7 7.7 7.6 7.6 7.6 7.6 7.5 7.4 7.4 7.3 5.9
1933................. ............. do___
5.7 5.6 5.5 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.9 6.2 16.4 16.5 16.5 i 6.6
1934................. ............. do—
i 6.5 16.7 16.6 16.7 16.7 i 6.7 16.8 16.9 17.0 17.2 17.3 17.4
Corn flakes:
1931.............. 8-oz. package..
9.3 9.3 9.2 9.1 9.0 8.9 8.8 8.8 8.9 8.9 8.8 8.7
1932................. ............. do___
8.6 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.6 8.6 8.5 8.4 8.4 8.5 8.5 8.5
1933................. ..............do___
8.5 8.6 8.3 8.3 8.2 8.2 8.3 8.5 18.7 18.7 18.9 18.9
1934................. ............. do___ 19.0 19.0 19.0 19.1 19.1 18.4 18.4 18.3 18.3 18.4 18.4 18.5
Wheat cereal:
1931..............28-oz. package— 25.2 25.2 24.9 24.5 24.1 24.0 23.9 24.0 23.4 23.3 23.1 23.0
1932................. ............. do___ 22.8 22.8 22.7 22.6 22.5 22.5 22.5 22.5 22.5 22.4 22.4 22.3
1933................. ..............do___ 22.4 22.3 22.2 22.3 22.3 22.4 22.8 23.4 123.7 123.9 124.0 124.1
1934................. ..............do___ 124.2 123.9 124.3 124.3 124.2 124.2 124.2 124.3 124.2 124.3 124.3 124.3

See footnote at end of table.




Cts.

15.8
13.3
11.7

10.6
15.8
23.2

20.1

18.7
19.2

15.2
13.0
13.5
34.5
31.7
26.1

35.4
27.4
27.3
31.0
22.1
28.1
23.0
22.5
23.7
12.3
10.9
10.6
11.3

6.7
14.2

4.6

8.1

8.6
8.5
8.7

24.1
22.5
23.0
24.2

639

RETAIL PRICES IN UNITED STATES
T

4 . — A V E R A G E R E T A IL PRICES OF SPECIFIED FOOD A R T IC L E S FOR T H E
U N IT E D STATES (51 CITIES C O M B IN E D ), B Y M O N TH S, 1913 A N D 1931 TO 1934—

able

Continued.

Article and year

Av­
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. erage
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
for
year

Rice:
Cts. a s . a s . O s . a s . a s . a s . a s . a s . a s .
as. as.
1913-................... . . . pound.. 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.7 8 .7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7
1931...................... ........ do___
8.9 8.9 8.6 8.4 8.3 8.2 8.1 8 . 1
8.0 7.8 7.5 7.4
1932...................... ........ do___
7.4 7.3 7.1 6.9 6.7 6.6 6.6 6 .5 6.5 6.4 6.2 6.0
1933...................... ........ do___
5.9 5.8 5.7 ! 5.7 5.8 6.0 6.2 6.4 16.6 16.8 16.9 17.0
1934...................... ........ do___ 17.5 17.7 1 7 . 8 17.9 17.9 18.1 18.2 18.2 18.3 18.3 18.2 18.1
Macaroni:
1931...................... ........ do___ 18.2 18.0 17.7 17.4 17.1 16.9 16.6 16.5 16.4 16.2 16.1 16.0
1932...................... ____ do—
16.0 15.7 15.6 15.5 15.4 15.4 15.2 15.2 15.1 15.1 14.9 14.8
1933...................... ........ do___ 14.7 14.6 14.5 14.4 14.4 14.4 14.9 15.5 115.6 115.8 U5.8 115.8
1934...................... ........ do— 115.6 U5.5 115.5 115.6 115.6 115.6 U5.6 115.7 U5.8 115.9 115.8 115.8
Bread, wheat, white
1913______ _____ ........ do—
5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6
1931...................... ........ do----8.2 8.0 7.9 7.7 7.7 7.6 7.5 7.4 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.2
1932........- .......... ........ do___
7.1 7.0 7.0 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.8 6.8 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.6
1933..................... ........ do___
6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.5 6.6 7.2 7.6 17.7 18.0 18.0 17.9
1934-................... ........ do___ 17.9 17.9 17.9 18.0 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.4 18.3 18.3
Bread, rye:
1933.................— ........ do—
18.5 18.6 18.6 1 8.6
1934..................... ........do___ 18.6 18.5 i§ .6 18.6 18.6 18.7 18.8 18.8 18.9 18.9 18.9 18.9
1 8.6 1 8.6 1 8.7 1 8.7 18.7 1 8.8 1 8.9 1 8.9 1 9.0 1 9.0 1 9.0
Bread, whole wheat: 1934. do___
Cake, pound: 1934.. ____ do—
122.2 122.2 122.2 122.6 122.6 122.7 122.9 122.8 122.7 122.8
Apples: 1934.............. ....... do.—
16.1 16.3 16.4 16.9 17.2 17.1 16.0 15.7 1.5.6 15.7 15.9
Bananas:
1931...................... ___ dozen— 29.1 28.7 28.7 27.8 26.6 26.1 25.7 24.1 23.9 24.0 24.4 24.8
1932...................... ........do___ 23.8 23.7 23.5 23.6 23.2 22.9 23.0 22.7 22.2 21.7 21.9 22.9
1933...................... ........do—
23.0 22.7 22.0 22.7 22.4 23.6 24.8 24.0 25.1 124.6 124.0 124.8
1934.................... ........do___ 124.1 123.2 123.0 122.1 122.5 122.9 123.2 123.5 123.6 123.9 122.8 122.3
Lemons: 1934______ ........do—
128.2 128.6 128.1 127.2 132.2 131.7 130.5 128.9 127.9 127.5 127.2
Oranges:
1931...................... ____ do___ 32.5 31.5 32.3 33.1 37.8 37.6 38.2 37.3 36.5 37.2 35.3 31.3
1932...................... ........ do—
29.6 30.1 30.7 31.9 33.0 33.5 32.8 30.7 30.4 30.5 30.7 28.5
1933...................... ........do___ 27.1 26.5 25.2 25.2 26.0 28.0 28.5 29.1 128.7 129.8 127.6 125.8
1934............... — ........do___ 127.8 127.0 127.6 127.7 129.7 139.4 138.1 137.5 137.0 135.9 133.5 128.8
Beans, green: 1934— . . . pound..
112.8 113.5 113.0 112.3 17.6 18.1 1 1 0 . 0 18.6 17.9 112.7 114.3
Cabbage:
4.3 4.3 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.0 3.7 4.0 3.6 3.2 3.0 3.4
1931-................... ........ do___
1932...................... ........ do___
4.1 4.3 5.6 6.4 6.6 5.4 3.3 3.0 2.6 2.4 2.3 2.5
2.9 3.1 3.5 4.0 5.2 4.6 4.8 4.5 13.6 13.3 13.6 14.3
1933...................... ........ do___
1934...................... ........do___ 14.7 14.2 13.8 13.5 13.7 1 3.3 13.4 13.6 13.3 12.9 12.6 1 2.8
Carrots: 1934............. ___bunch..
15.9 15.7 15.5 1 5 . 6 15.4 15.0 14.9 15.0 14.9 15.0 15.8
Celery: 1934........... .. ........stalk..
19.5 19.7 19.7 19.8 112.8 111.3 19.6 19.1 18.3 18.8 19.5
18.4 18.1 18.2 1 1 0 . 1 19.5 18.2 19.5 19.6 1 8 . 8 18.1 19.3
Lettuce: 1934.......... ........head..
Onions:
1931........ .............. — pound— 3.9 3.6 3.5 3.6 4.6 4.8 4.9 4.3 4.3 4.3 4.4 5.2
1932............... ... ........ do—
6.6 7.1 8.6 10.3 6.7 4.7 4.2 3.6 3.0 2.8 2.6 2.7
1933...................... ........do—
2.7 2.6 2.8 3.2 3.9 4.6 4.8 4.3 1 3.9 13.5 1 3.4 1 3.8
1934...................... ........ do—
14.5 14.7 14.5 14.4 1 4.5 14.9 1 4.9 1 4.5 14.2 13.8 13.9 1 4.1
Potatoes:
1913....................... ____ do___
1.6 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.8
2.9 2.7 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.7 1.8
1931.................... ........ do___
1932...................... ........do___
1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.8 2.0 1.9 1.7 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.5
1.5 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.7 2.3 3.6 3.5 13.1 12.5 12.3 1 2.3
1933.................... ........do___
1934...................... ........ do___ 12.6 12.8 13.0 1 2.7 1 2.7 1 2.3 1 2 . 1 1 2 .0 12.1 1 1.9 1 1.7 1 1.7
do _
1 4.7 1 4.8 1 5.1 1 5.3 1 6 . 1 1 6.7 1 6 . 1 1 4.7 1 3.9 1 3.8 1 4.4
Sweetpotatoes: 1934
Spinach: 1934— ........ ........ do___ ........ 17.4 17.1 16.7 1 6.8 15.9 16.7 18.8 18.3 16.8 16.7 18.9
Peaches:
1933 _________ No. 2U can _
117.0 117.1 117.4 117.4
1934...................... ........ do___ 117.6 U7.7 117.8 118.0 U8.1 U8.2 118.3 118.6 118.9 119.2 119.4 119.3
Pears:
1933
........ do—
120.5 120.6 120.6 120.4
1934................. ... ........do___ 120.7 120.6 120.8 120.8 121.0 121.0 121.1 121.4 121.8 122.3 122.5 122.6
Pineapple: 1934........ ____ do___
121.6 121.8 121.9 122.0 122.1 122.2 122.4 122.6 122.7 122.6 122.6
Asparagus: 1934____ No. 2 can..
1^3.0 123.1 123.3 123.5 123.5 123.9 123.8 124.3 124.4 124.6 124.7
Beans green, 1934... ........do___ ........ U1.7 111.8 111.8 U1.7 111.8 111.5 111.6 111.7 111.9 111.9 111.9
1931....................... ........do___ 14.7 14.5 14.3 13.9 13.6
1932...................... ........do___ 11.5 11.3 11.1 10.8 10.8
10.0 9.8 9.8 9.7 9.8
1933...................... ........do—
1934...................... ........ do___ ill.O ill.O U1.3 111.3 111.3
Peas:
1931...................... ........ do___ 15.5 15.4 15.0 14.6 14.1
1932...................... ........do___ 13.4 13.2 13.1 13.1 12.9
1933...................... ........ do___ 12.6 12.6 12.5 12.7 12.7
1934...................... ........ do___ 115.0 U6.1 U6.4 U 6 .5 116 .6

See footnote at end of table.




13.3 13.2 13.2 13.0 12.6
10.6 10.5 10.5 10.4 10.3
9.8 9.9 10.3 110.5 110.8
111.3 111.3 U1.3 111.5 111.9

12.1
10.2
110.9
112.3

11.9
10.2
110.9
112.4

as.
8.7
8.2
6.7
6.2
8.0
16.9
15.3
15.0
15.7
5.6
7.6
6.8
7.1
8.2
8.7
22! 6
6.3
26.2
22.9
23.7
23.1
29.0
35.1
31.0
27.4
32.9
10.4
3.8
4.0
3.9
3.5
5.3
9.8
8.9
4.3
5.2
3.6
4.4
1.7
2.3
1.7
2.3
2.3
4.9
7.0
18.4
21.4
22.2
23.8
11.8
13.4
10.7
10.2
11.5

13.9 13.9 13.9 13.8 13.7 13.6 13.5 14.2
12.8 12.7 12.7 12.7 12.6 12.7 12.6 12.9
12.8 12.8 13.0 113.3 113.5 113.6 113.6 13.0
116 .6 1 16 .6 U 6 .8 117.1 117.1 117.3 117.3

1 6 .6

640
T

PRICES— RETAIL AND WHOLESALE

4 . — A V E R A G E R E T A IL PRICES OF SPECIFIED FOOD AR T IC L E S FOR T H E
U N IT E D STATES (51 CITIES C O M B IN E D ), B Y M O N TH S, 1913 A N D 1931 TO 1934—
Continued.

able

Article and year

Av­
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. erage
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
for
year

Tomatoes:
C 8 a$. as. as. as. as. as. as. as. as. as. Os.
t.
1931.................... .No. 2 can.. 11.2 11.1 10.8 10.5 1 0 . 2 10.1 10.1 10.0 9.9 9.8 9.7 9.6
9.5 9.5 9.6 9.5 9 .5 9.5 9.5 9.4 9.1 9.0 8.8 8.7
1932..................... ..........do___
8.6 8.6 8.5 8.5 8. 7 9.0 9.1 9.4 19.6 19.8 19.8 19.9
1933..................... ..........do___
19.9 U0.5 U0.5 110.6 1 1 0 . 6 110.5 110.5 110.4 110.3 110.3 110.4 U0.4
1934..................... ..........do—
Pork and beans:
1931..................... ,20-oz. can— 10.5 10.3 10.0 9.7 9.4 10.3 10.3 10.4 10.4 10.3 10.2 10.2
1932..................... .16-oz. can.. 8.5 8.3 8.0 7.9 7. 4 7.2 7.0 7.0 7.0 6.9 6.8 6.8
6.6 6.5 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.8 1 6.8 1 6.8 1 6.8 1 6.8
1923..................... ..........do___
1934.................... ..........do___ 16.7 i 6.9 1 6.8 1 6.7 1 6 . 7 1 6.7 1 6.6 1 6.6 1 6.7 16.9 1 6.9 1 6.9
U5.0 115.3 U5.4 115.5 115.5 115.5 U5.3 115.5 1 15.7 116.0 116.1
Peaches, dried: 1934 ___ pound..
Prunes:
12.9 12.7 12.4 12.1 12.1 11.8 11.8 11.7 11.6 11.1 10.7 10.5
1931..................... ..........do—
1932..................... ..........do___ 10.3 10.2 9.9 9.6 9.4 9.4 9.3 9.3 9.1 8.9 8.8 8.9
8.9 8.9 8.8 8.8 9.0 9.2 9.4 9.8 UO.l 110.4 110.6 110.7
1933..................... ..........do___
1934..................... ........ .do___ U0.8 Ul.O 111.3 111.4 111.4 111.5 111.6 111.7 111.5 111.5 111.4 111.4
Raisins:
1931..................... ..........do___ 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.2 11.0 11.1 11.3 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.4 11.5
1932..................... ..........do___ 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.4 10.7 9.9 9.6
9.5 9.3 9.2 9.1 9.1 9.2 9.2 9.3 19.4 19.4 19.3 19.1
1933..................... ........ _do___
1934..................... ..........do___ 19.3 19.3 19.4 19.5 1 9.6 19.6 19.7 1 9.7 1 9.7 19.7 19.7 19.7
i 7.6 1 7.5 1 7.5 17.4 1 7.3 1 7.3 17.5 1 7.6 18.0 1 7.9 18.0
Blackeyed peas: 1934........ do—
Lima beans: 1934.. ..........do___ ........ 19.5 19.6 19.7 1 9.6 19.6 19.6 19.7 19.9 19.9 1 9.9 19.9
Navy beans:
9.2 8.9 8.7 8.4 8.2 8.0 7.9 7.8 7.6 6.7 6.3 6.2
1931..................... ..........do___
5.8 5.6 5.3 5.2 5.1 5.0 5.0 4.9 5.0 4.9 4.6 4.4
1932..................... ..........do—
4.3 4.1 4.1 4.4 5.1 5.3 5.5 6.0 1 6.3 1 6 .2 1 6.0 15.9
1933..................... ..........do—
1934..................... ..........do----- 15.7 15.8 15.9 1 6.8 1 5.7 1 5.7 15.7 1 5.8 16.0 1 6.5 1 6.3 16.1
Sugar, granulated:
1913..................... ..........do___
5.8 5.5 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.3 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.5 5.4 5.4
1931..................... ..........do___
5.9 5.9 5.8 5.7 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.7 5.7 5.6 5.6 5.5
1932..................... ........ -do___
5.4 5.3 5.2 5.1 4.9 4.9 5.0 5.1 5.1 5.1 5.1 5.1
5.1 5.0 5.0 5.1 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 1 5.7 1 5.7 1 5.6 1 5.5
1933..................... ..........do—
1934..................... ..........do___ i 6.4 1 5.6 1 5.4 1 5.5 15.4 1 5.4 15.7 15.7 1 5.7 1 5.7 1 5.6 1 5.5
112.7 U2.7 112.5 112.5 112.5 112.6 112.7 112.9 113.0 113.2 113.3
Corn sirup: 1934,.. -24-oz. can—
Molasses: 1934____ -18-oz. can—
113.1 J13.6 U3.6 113.8 U3.8 114.1 114.1 113.9 U3.9 113.9 1J3.9
Coffee:
1913___________ ___ pound „ 29.9 29.8 29.8 29.8 29.8 29.8 29.8 29.8 29.8 29.7 29.8 29.7
1931..................... ..........do___ 37.8 37.3 36.3 34.6 33.5 33.1 32.5 32.4 32.4 32.1 31.8 31.5
1932..................... ..........do—
31.1 31.0 30.8 30.5 30.0 29.7 29.7 29.6 30.1 30.3 30.1 29.7
1933..................... ..........do—
28.7 27.8 27.4 27.3 27.0 27.0 27.0 27.0 126.7 126.6 126.6 126.4
1934..................... ..........do— 126.3 126.4 127.0 127.5 127.5 127.6 127.5 127.6 127.7 128.0 128.0 127.9
Tea:
1913..................... ..........do___ 54.3 54.3 54.3 54.3 54.4 54.4 54.4 54.4 54.5 54.5 54.5 54.5
76.7 76.5 76.0 75.2 74.5 74.4 74.7 75.4 75.8 75.6 75.1 75.1
1931..................... ..........do—
1932..................... ........ -do___ 74.1 73.6 73.3 72.4 72.0 71.0 70.3 70.1 69.9 68.5 68.1 67.8
1933..................... ..........do___ 67.2 66.1 65.2 64.8 64.4 63.5 64.1 64.5 166.0 166.8 167.0 167.6
1934..................... ..........do___ 168.3 168.4 169.1 169.7 169.9 170.4 170.8 171.4 172.1 172.1 172.1 172.8
Peanut butter: 1934..........do___
116.2 U6.3 U6.4 116.5 116.6 U6.7 116.8 116.9 U7.0 117.6 117.9
Salt, table: 1934.... ..........do___
1 4.5 14.5 14.4 1 4.5 14.4 14.3 14.3 14.3 14.3 14.3 14.3
Bonn, tom a to 1034 10V6 oz. can
18.4 1 8.1 18.1 1 8.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.1 18.1 18.1 1 8 . 2
Tomato juice: 1934
13>£-oz. can..
8.6 18.5 18.5 18.6 18.7 18.7 18.7 18.7 18.8 18.5 18.6

as.

10.3
9.3
9.1
10.4
10.2
7.4
6.6
6.8
15. 1
11.8
9.4
9.6
11.4
11.3
11.1
9.3
9.6
7.6
9.7
7.8
5.1
5.3
5.9
5.5
5.7
5.1
5.4
5.6
12.8
13.7
29.8
33.8
30.2
27.1
27.4
54.4
75.4
70.9
65.6
70.5
16.8
4.4
8.1
8.6

i Since the fall of 1933 prices have been collected biweekly and are shown for the following dates: 1933,
Sept. 12, Oct. 10, Nov. 21, and Dec. 19; 1934, Jan. 16, Feb. and Mar. 13, Apr. 10, M ay 8, June 19, July 17,
Aug. 14, Sept. 11, Oct. 9, Nov. 20, and Dec. 18.

Table 5 shows by index numbers the trend in the retail cost of food
in the United States by years from 1890 to 1934. In addition, the
percentage of increase in each year as compared with the preceding
year is shown.




641

RETAIL PRICES IN UNITED STATES

T a b l e 5 .—IN D E X N U M B E R S A N D P E R C E N T A G E OF CH AN G E IN Y E A R IN R E T A IL
COST OF FOOD FOR T H E U N IT E D STATES, B Y Y EAR S, 1890-1934
[1913=100.0]

PerIndex
Year num­ age of
ber change
in year
1890.......
1891.......
1892.......
1893.......
1894.......
1895.......
1896___
1897.......
1898.......
1899___
1900
1901.......

69.6
70.6 +1.4
69.3 -1 .8
71.0 +2.5
67.8 -4.5
66.5 -1.9
64.9 -2.4
65.4 +.8
67.1 +2.5
67.7 +.8
.....................
68.7 +1.5
71.5 +4.1

Year
1902.......
1903.......
1904___
1905.......
1906.......
1907___
1908.......
1909.......
1910.......
1911.......
1912___

Per­
cent­
num­ age of
ber change
in year
75.4
75.0
76.0
76.4
78.7
82.0
84.3
88.7
93.0
92.0
97.6

+5.8
- .5
+1.3
+ .5
+2.9
+4.2
+2.8
+5.2
+4.8
-1.1
+6.1

Per­
Index cent­
num­ age of
ber change
in year

Year
1913___
1914.......
1915.......
1916___
1917___
1918.......
1919___
1920.......
1921___
1922.......
1923___

100.0
102.4
101.3
113.7
146.4
168.3
185.9
203.4
153.3
141.6
146.2

+2.5
+2.4
-1.1
+12.2
+28.8
+15.0
+10.5
+9.4
-24.6
-7 .6
+3.3

Year
1924.......
1925___
1926.......
1927.......
1928.......
1929___
1930___
1931.......
1932.......
1933___
1934.......

Per­
Index cent­
num­ age of
ber change
in year
145.9
157.4
160.6
155.4
154.3
156.7
147.1
121.3
102.1
99.7
110.8

—0.2
+7.9
+2.0
-3.2
- .7
+1.6
-6.1
-17.5
-15.8
-2.4
+11.1

Table 6 shows the relative retail prices of 34 important articles of
food. Retail prices have been collected for 23 of these foods since
1913, for 4 since 1915, and for 7 since 1919. In order to show price
trends retail prices for the base year 1913 were secured in 1934 from
newspapers for the 11 items for which prices had not been collected
in 1913.
Relative prices are shown by years 1913 and 1920 to 1934, inclusive,
and also for the periods of 1931, 1932, 1933, and 1934.
T a ble 6 .—R E L A TIV E R E T A IL PRICES OF PR IN CIPAL AR T ICL ES OF FOOD, B Y YEAR S
1913 A N D 1920-34, A N D B Y PERIODS FOR 1931-34
[1913 = 100.0]
Year and
period

Sirloin Round Rib
steak steak roast

1913.................
1020
_
1921.................
1922................

100.0
177.1
154.3
144.8
150.2
151.6
155.6
159.6
166.4
188.3
199.1
184.8
154. 3
129.6
113.0
122.9

100.0
167.7
147.0
139.4
143.4
145.5
149.5
153.0
158.1
176.8
185.4
172.7
146. 0
121.7
105.6
111.6

100.0
163.8
132.5
123.1
126.3
130.0
135.0
140.6
1926
148.1
174.4
186.9
170.0
134.4
108.1
95.0
101.9

168.2
161.0
157.8
156.5
154.7
151.1
154.3
155. 2
154.3
150.7
144.8
140.4

159.1
154.0
153.0
150.0
147.0
142.9
142.9
143.9
142.9
141.4
137.9
134.8

135.0
127.4
127.8
128.3
127.4
127.4

129.8
123.2
123.2
122.7
120.2
118.7

100.0
172.1
152.8
147.2
1Q23
153.9
1924.............
155.9
159.8
1925.............
................. 162.6
1927................. 167.7
188.2
1928.............
1929................. 196.9
1930-............
182.7
1931.............
155.1
1932................. 131.1
1933............... . 114.2
1934................. 123.2
1931:
167.3
Ffth
161.4
158.7
157.5
M ay______ 155.5
152.4
J u ly ,
154.3
Aug_______ 155.5
Sept_______ 155.1
Oct________ 152.0
146.9
Dec_______ 142.9
1932:
137.4
Feb............. 130.7
129.9
131.5
M ay............ 129.9
June............ 129.1

1 9205— 36-------- 42




Chuck Plate
roast
beef

Pork Bacon, Ham, Lamb,
chops sliced sliced leg of Hens

Milk,
fresh Butter

100.0
151.2
118.2
105.8
106.6
109.1
114.1
120.7
127.3
157.0
172.7
155.4
118.2
93.4
82.6
88.4

100.0
201.4
166.2
157.1
144.8
146.7
174.3
188.1
175.2
165.7
175.7
171.0
138.6
101.0
93.3
119.0

100.0
193.7
158.2
147.4
144.8
139.6
173. 0
186.3
174.8
163.0
161.1
156.7
134.8
89.3
82.6
107.0

100.0
206.3
181.4
181.4
169.1
168.4
195. 5
213.4
204.5
196.7
204.1
198. 5
170. 6
130.1
114.5
137.2

100.0
207.9
178.3
193.7
194.2
196.3
204.2
206.3
205.8
208.5
212.2
185.7
156.1
125.4
115.3
131.7

100.0
209.9
186.4
169.0
164.3
165.7
171.8
182.2
173.2
175.6
188.4
166.7
145.5
115.5
98.1
113.6

100.0
187.6
164.0
147.2
155.1
155.1
157.3
157.3
158.4
159.6
160.7
157.3
138.2
122.5
119.1
127.0

100.0
183.0
135.0
125.1
144.7
135.0
143.1
138.6
145.2
147.5
143.9
120.4
92.4
71.5
71.3
80.9

152.5
145.6
141.9
139.4
135.6
130.6
130.0
130.0
130.6
129.4
126.3
122.5

138. 0
131.4
128.1
124.8
119.8
112.4
110.7
109.9
111.6
111.6
109.9
108.3

141.9
131.4
140.0
141.4
143.3
140.0
151.4
158.6
153. 3
139.5
119.0
103.8

148.9
145.2
143.0
141.1
139.3
136.7
137.0
135.6
134.1
127.0
118.9
112.2

188.1
183.3
178.4
175.5
172.9
170.6
171.4
171.4
169.5
164.3
155.4
147.6

166.1
164.6
164.0
165.6
165.1
161.9
158.7
156.6
152.4
145.5
138.1
131.7

153.5
148.8
150.2
153.1
148.8
146. 0
144.6
145.1
145.1
140.4
137.1
134.3

149.4
146.1
144.9
141.6
138.2
134.8
136.0
136.0
136.0
134.8
134.8
130.3

98.4
94.8
97.4
91.9
81.5
80.7
82.8
89.8
96.1
104.2
97.4
95.3

115.6
108.1
108.1
108.8
106.3
105.6

101.7
97.5
95.9
95.9
91.7
88.4

99.5
91.0
102.4
102.4
94.8
93.8

101.5
96.7
95.2
92.2
88.5
85.9

139.8
136.4
136.1
134.9
131.2
129.7

127.5
125.4
131.7
135.4
132.3
128.6

131.0
127.2
128.2
124.9
120.7
113.1

129.2
128.1
127.0
123.6
121.3
121.3

84.3
77.0
77.0
70.0
65.5
62.9

642

PRICES— RETAIL AND WHOLESALE

T a b l e 6 .—R E L A T IV E R E T A IL PRICES OF P R IN C IPAL AR T IC L ES OF FOOD, B Y YE A R S.
1913 A N D 1920-34, A N D B Y PERIODS FOR 1931-34— Continued

Year and
period
1932—Con.
July.............
Aug.............
Sept............
Oct..............
Nov......... —
Dec.............
1933:
Jan. 15........
Feb. 15........
Mar. 15___
Apr. 15........
M ay 15-----June 15____
July 15........
Aug. 15-----Aug. 29-----Sept. 12----Sept. 26----Oct. 10____
Oct. 24........
Nov. 7------Nov. 21----Dec. 5_____
Dec. 19____
1934:
Jan. 2_........
Jan. 16........
Jan. 30........
Feb. 13____
Feb. 27........
Mar. 13___
Mar. 27___
Apr. 10.......
Apr. 24.......
M ay 8_____
May 22____
June 5------June 19____
July 3..........
July 17........
July 31........
Aug. 14____
Aug. 28____
Sept. 11___
Sept. 25___
Oct. 9..........
Oct. 23........
Nov. 6------Nov. 20___
Dec. 4_____
Dec. 18____

Year and
period

1913.................
1920
...
1921
..
1922
...
1923
...
1924
...
1925
...
1926
...
1927
...
1928
...
1929
...
1930
...
1931
...
1932
...
1933
...
1934
..

Sirloin Round Rib
steak steak roast

Chuck Plate
roast
beef

131.7
127.0
123.8
116.9
112.7

107.4
105.9
108.2
107.1

114.8
114.8
114.3
112.7
113.2

110.5
105.7
93.8
94.3

79.3
77.0
77.8
77.4
78.9
83.3
86.3
85.9
86.3
85.6
85.9
86.3
86.3
86.3
86.3
85.6
85.6

90.1
97.5
98.3
95.9
95.0
95.9
94.2
94.2
95.0

94.8
95.2
94.8
112.9
113.8
117.1
114.8
112.9
114.8
115.7
113.8
113.3
116.7
123.8
121.4
119.0
122.9
154.8
154.3
135.7
130.5
128.6
120.5
116.2
113.8
115.7

87.0
86.7
87.8
87.8
90.0
93.0
94.8
95.6
95.9
95.9
96.3
98.9
101.5
105.6
108.1
109.3
110.4
118.9
128.1
129.3
129.6
127.0
124.4
123.3
123.3
123.7

121.9
123.0
123.8
124.2
126.0
127.9
132.3
138.7
142.8
143.9
146.1
147.2
153.2
159.1
159.9
156.1
153.5
149.8
148.0
146.1
146.5

128.6
130.7
130.7
132.8
133.3
139.7
146.0
147.1
148.7
143.9
142.3
138.6
132.3
130.7
132.8
134.9
133.3
130.7
127.0
124.3
123.3
123.8
124.9

Eggs, Bread,
fresh white Flour

Corn
meal

Rice

Pota­
toes

Cab­ Onions Beans, Beans,
with
navy pork
bage

125.8
124.2
122.7
119.7
115.7

111.6

113.1
112.5
111.3
108.1
103.8
98.8

92.6
92.6
92.6
93.4
91.7
88.4

113.8

111.7
108.5
109.0
108.5
110.3
115.7
117.0
118.8
119.7
117.5
117.0
116.1
115.7
114.3

107.1
105.6
105.1
104.0
105.1
107.6
105.6
108.1
107.1
105.6
106.1
106.1
105.1
105.1
103.0
102.5
100.5

95.6
93.1
93.8
93.8
94.4
96.3
95.0
96.9
96.9
95.6
96.3
95.6
95.6
95.6
94.4
93.8
92.5

86.0

82.6
82.6
82.6
82.6
82.6
79.3
81.8
81.8
81.8
81.8
83.5
83.5
82.6
81.8
81.0
80.2

99.5

91.9
92.5
92.5
93.1
93.8
94.4
95.0
96.9
98.8

79.3
81.8
82.6
84.3
84.3
85.1
84.3
84.3
84.3

112.1

111.0

109.0
108.5

108.3

107.6
109.4
109.9

109.4

110.6
101.0
111.0
101.5
112.2 110.8 102.5
113.4 111.7 103.5
113.4 112.1 103.5
115.0 112.6 104.5
116.5
119.3

114.8
118.8

105.1
108.6

126.0
128.3
129.5
129.1
129.5
133.1
137.0
136.2
133.1
130.7
126.4
123.6
124.0
123.2

126.5
128.7
130.0
130.0
130.0
133.6
138.1
137.7
133.6
130.5
126.5
124.2
123.3
122.9

113.1
113.6
114.1
114.1
114.1
117.2
122.7
124.2

122.8 122.0 111.1 100.6
123.6 123.8 112.1 101.3
125.2 125.1 112.1 101.9

Cheese Lard

110.8 120.2

133.8
132.7
130.9
126.4
117.8

139.0
138.1
135.4
129.6
121.5
115.7

116.9
117.3
118.9
117.3
118.5
118.5
117.7
116.1
115.4
113.4

121.4

Milk,
fresh Butter

87.8
88.5
87.0
85.9
83.3
80.0

139.0
137.4
135.4
130.3
123.6
117.7

112.2
111.0
110.2
111.8

Pork Bacon, Ham, Lamb, Hens
chops sliced sliced leg of

121.2

120.7
117.2
116.7
115.7
115.2

102.5
103.1
103.8
103.1
103.1
107.5
114.4
115.6
111.9

110.6

108.1
106.3
105.6
105.6

86.8
85.1
86.0
86.0
86.0
86.8
86.0
86.0

111.0

113.3
102.4
96.2
83.8
78.6
83.8
90.5
84.8
85.7

88.1

86.7
93.8
100.9
103.3
113.3
112.9

110.0

112.6 111.1

110.0
117.1
119.3

121.6

122.7
120.4

120.8
120.1
119.0
119.3
119.0
117.8
116.4

116.7
116.7
117.5
119.0

120.1

120.1

118.0
118.5
121.7
118.0
117.5
115.9
113.8
112.7

112.2
111.1
109.5

110.1
113.8
120.1

108.5
110.3
108.5
105.2
99.5
100.5

100.0

99.5
100.5
100.9
100.5
98.6
97.2
96.2
95.8
98.1
96.2
96.2
95.3
93.9
93.0
93.4
100.9
105.2
107.0
109.9
110.3
112.7
114.6
116.0
116.4
119.2
119.2
114.1
113.6
110.3
111.3
111.3
112.7
115.0
117.8

120.2
117.8
116.4
114.6
114.6
114.6
115.0

119.1
116.9

62.4
70.0
70.2
69.7
71.8
77.8

116.9
115.7
113.5
113.5
112.4
114.6
116.9
122.5
123.6
123.6
123.6
124.7
124.7
124.7
124.7
125.8
125.8

70.8
64.8
64.8
66.3
73.6
73.4
80.9
71.3
72.6
72.8
73.4
73.9
73.6
74.2
74.2
73.1
62.9

125.8
124.7
123.6
129.2
125.8
124.7
124.7
124.7
124.7
124.7
124.7
124.7
125.8
125.8
125.8
127.0
127.0
128.1
129.2
130.3
131.5
130.3
131.5
131.5
131.5
131.5

68.7
79.1
80.7
83.3
80.2
76.5
75.2
77.3
77.3
78.6
79.1
79.1
78.6
79.4
83.8
87.7
85.9
84.3
83.8
85.1
89.6
91.6
91.6
92.4

118.0
119.1

120.2

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
188.2 186.7 197.4 205.4 245.5 216.7 200.0 370.6 278.3 295.8 200.0
153.9 113.9 147.5 176.8 175.8 150.0 109.2 182.4 217.4 229.2 143.9
148.9 107.6 128.7 155.4 154.6 130.0 109.2 164.7 200.0 329.2 173.7
167.0 112.0 134.8 155.4 142.4 136.7 109.2 170.6 234.8 266.7 193.0
159.7 120.3 138.6 157.1 148.5 156.7 116.1 158.8 226.1 250.0 173.7
166.1 147.5 151.0 167.9 184.8 180.0 127.6 211.8 221.7 295.8 178.9
165.6 138.6 140.6 167.9 181.8 170.0 133.3 288.2 252.2 250.0 163.2
170.1 122.2 131.0 166.1 166.7 173.3 123.0 223.5 230.4 266.7 163.2
174.2
171.9
158.8
127.1
104.1

101.8
107.2




117.7
115.8
107.6
84.2
55.7
57.0
74.1

134.5
142.0
118.8
91.9
78.8
75.7
86.7

162.5
160.7
155.4
135.7
121.4
126.8
146.4

163.6
154.5
142.4
109.1
97.0
118.2
148.5

176.7
176.7
176.7
153.3
126.7
123.3
150.0

114.9
111.5
109.2
94.3
77.0
71.3
92.0

158.8
188.2

211.8
135.3
100.0
135.3
135.3

217.4
221.7
239.1
165.2
173.9
169.6
152.2

258.3
283.3
208.3
179.2
216.7
150.0
183.3

207.0
245.6

201.8
136.8
89.5
93.0
103.5

65.8

66.6

100.0

137.1
118.4
108.6
106.1
103.7

101.2
97.1
93.9
93.9
96.3
89.8
83.3
75.5
67.3
69.4

643

RETAIL PRICES IN UNITED STATES

T a b l e 6 . —R EL A TIV E R E T A IL PRICES OF PR IN CIPAL A R T IC L ES OF F O O D ,B Y Y E A R S,
1913 A N D 1920-34, A N D B Y PERIODS FOR 1931-34r-Continued
Year and
period

1931:
Jan......... —
Feb.............
Mar.............
Apr ...........
M ay............
June______
July.............
Aug.............
Sept_______
Oc't-_..........
Nov_______
Dec.............
1932:
Jan..............
Feb.............
M ar_______
Apr.............
M ay............
June............
July_______
Aug..........Sept............
Oct_______
N ov............
Dec.............
1933:
Jan. 15........
Feb. 15.......
Mar. 15— .
Apr. 15.......
May 15___
June 15.......
July 15........
Aug. 15____
Aug. 29____
Sept. 12___
Sept. 26___
Oct. 10____
Oct. 24........
Nov. 7........
Nov. 21___
Dec. 5_____
Dec. 19........
1934:
Jan. 2..........
Jan. 16........
Jan. 30____
Feb. 13____
Feb. 27____
Mar. 13___
Mar. 27___
Apr. 10____
Apr. 24........
May 8.........
May 22___
June 5------June 19____
July 3_____
July 17........
July 31____
Aug. 14-----Aug. 28____
Sept. 11___
Sept. 25___
Oct. 9_........
Oct. 23____
Nov. 6____
Nov. 20___
Dec. 4.........
Dec. 18.......

Cheese Lard

Eggs, Bread, Flour
fresh white

Com
meal

Rice

Pota­
toes

Beans,
Cab­ Onions Beans, with
navy pork
bage

145.2
141.2
137.1
132.6
124.0
119.9
118.6
119.9
122.2
122.6
121.3
118.6

99.4
91.8
89.9
89.9
85.4
82.3
82.3
81.0
79.8
78.5
77.2
70.9

104.6
78.8
82.6
79.4
71.9
74.8
82.9
92.5
98.0
109.9
115.1
111.6

146.4
142.9
141.1
137.5
137.5
135.7
133.9
132.1
130.4
130.4
130.4
128.6

121.2
121.2
118.2
115.2
112.1
112.1
109.1
103.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0

170.0
166.7
166.7
163.3
153.3
150.0
150.0
150.0
150.0
146.7
140.0
136.7

102.3
102.3
98.9
96.6
95.4
94.3
93.1
93.1
92.0
89.7
86.2
85.1

170.6
158.8
158.8
164.7
164.7
141.2
135.3
129.4
117.7
105.9
100.0
105.9

187.0
187.0
178.3
178.3
178.3
173.9
160.9
173.9
156.5
139.1
130.4
147.8

162.5
150.0
145.8
150.0
191.7
200.0
204.2
179.2
179.2
179.2
183.3
216.7

161.4
156.1
152.6
147.4
143.9
140.4
138.6
136.8
133.3
117.5
110.5
108.8

85.7
84.1
81.6
79.2
76.7
84.1
84.1
84.9
84.9
84.1
83.3
83.3

115.4
110.4
107.7
105.4
101.8
100.9
99.5
102.3
102.7
102.3
101.4
101.4

63.9
59.5
57.6
55.1
52.5
49.4
53.8
56.3
57.6
57.0
55.1
51.3

85.8
70.1
61.2
58.0
58.0
60.3
66.1
77.7
85.5
100.3
109.0
115.7

126.8
125.0
125.0
123.2
123.2
123.2
121.4
121.4
119.6
119.6
119.6
117.9

100.0
100.0
97.0
97.0
97.0
97.0
97.0
93.9
93.9
93.9
90.9
87.9

133.3
133.3
130.0
130.0
130.0
130.0
126.7
130.0
126.7
123.3
120.0
116.7

85.1
83.9
81.6
79.3
77.0
75.9
75.9
74.7
74.7
73.6
71.3
69.0

100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
105.9
117.6
111.8
100.0
88.2
88.2
82.4
88.2

178.3
187.0
243.5
278.3
287.0
234.8
143.5
130.4
113.0
104.3
100.0
108.7

275.0
295.8
358.3
429.2
279.2
195.8
175.0
150.0
125.0
116.7
108.3
112.5

101.8
98.2
93.0
91.2
89.5
87.7
87.7
86.0
87.7
86.0
80.7
77.2

86.7
84.7
81.6
80.6
75.5
73.5
71.4
71.4
71.4
70.4
69.4
69.4

100.9
96.4
94.6
95.0
100.9
104.5
106.8
106.8
105.9
106.3
106.3
105.9
105.0
104.5
103.2
103.6
100.9

51.3
48.7
50.0
50.0
56.3
61.4
63.9
63.3
62.0
60.8
60.8
60.8
60.1
60.8
62.0
60.8
59.5

93.9
62.0
57.4
53.3
58.8
58.0
70.4
73.3
76.0
82.0
87.8
94.2
97.1
100.3
140.6
101.7
93.0

114.3
114.3
114.3
114.3
116.1
117.9
128.6
135.7
135.7
137.5
141.1
142.9
142.9
142.9
142.9
141.1
141.1

87.9
87.9
90.9
93.9
103.0
103.0
121.2
145.5
151.6
148.5
148.5
148.5
145.5
145.5
145.5
145.5
142.4

116.7
113.3
113.3
113.3
116.7
120.0
123.3
126.7
130.1
133.3
133.3
130.0
130.0
130.0
133.3
133.3
133.3

67.8
66.7
65.5
65.5
66.7
69.0
71.3
73.6
73.6
75.9
77.0
78.2
78.2
79.3
79.3
80.5
80.5

88.2
88.2
94.1
94.1
100.0
135.3
211.8
205.9
194.1
182.4
164.7
147.1
135.3
135.3
135.3
129.4
135.3

126.1
134.8
152.2
173.9
226.1
200.0
208.7
195.7
173.9
156.5
152.2
143.5
139.1
139.1
156.5
169.6
187.0

112.5
108.3
116.7
133.3
162.5
191.7
200.0
179.2
170.8
162.5
154.2
145.8
141.7
141.7
141.7
145.8
158.3

75.4
71.9
71.9
77.2
89.5
93.0
96.5
105.3
107.0
110.5
110.5
108.8
105.3
105.3
105.3
103.5
103.5

67.3
66.3
65.3
65.3
65.3
66.3
67.3
69.4
69.4
69.4
70.4
69.4
70.4
70.4
69.4
70.4
69.4

100.0
99.5
101.8
105.4
108.1
109.0
109.5
109.0
106.8
105.4
105.9
106.3
106.8
106.8
107.2
106.8
106.8
110.0
110.4
109.5
108.6
107.2
107.7
108.1
108.6
109.0

58.9
59.5
59.5
61.4
63.9
64.6
65.2
65.2
65.2
63.9
63.9
63.9
65.2
65.8
66.5
67.7
71.5
82.9
91.1
93.0
93.7
93.7
93.0
95.6
96.2
98.7

89.3
86.7
85.8
81.2
74.8
71.6
71.3
69.6
68.1
67.5
67.8
68.7
71.3
73.6
76.2
80.9
87.8
95.4
99.4
102.0
103.5
109.0
113.9
116.2
114.8
108.1

141.1
141.1
141.1
141.1
141.1
141.1
142.9
142.9
142.9
142.9
142.9
144.6
144.6
144.6
146.4
148.2
148.2
150.0
150.0
150.0
150.0
150.0
150.0
148.2
148.2
148.2

142.4
142.4
142.4
145.5
145.5
145.5
145.5
145.5
142.4
142.4
142.4
145.5
148.5
148.5
148.5
148.5
151.5
151.5
154.5
154.5
154.5
154.5
154.5
154.5
154.5
154.5

140.0
140.0
146.7
143.3
143.3
143.3
143.3
143.3
143.3
143.3
150.0
143.3
146.7
146.7
146.7
146.7
150.0
150.0
153.3
153.3
156.7
156.7
160.0
160.0
160.0
160.0

83.9
86.2
86.2
88.5
89.7
89.7
89.7
90.8
89.7
90.8
90.8
90.8
92.1
94.3
94.3
94.3
94.3
95.4
95.4
95.4
95.4
94.3
95.4
94.3
94.3
93.1

141.2
152.9
158.8
164.7
170.6
170.6
164.7
158.8
158.8
158.8
158.8
147.1
135.3
129.4
123.5
117.6
117.6
123.5
123.5
117.6
111.8
105.9
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0

200.0
204.3
195.7
182.6
169.6
165.2
160.9
152.2
152.2
160.9
160.9
152.2
143.5
139.1
147.8
152.2
156.5
152.2
143.5
134.8
126.1
117.4
113.0
113.0
113.0
121.7

175.0
187.5
195.8
195.8
195.8
187.5
187.5
183.3
187.5
187.5
183.3
183.3
204.2
212.5
204.2
195.8
187.5
183.3
175.0
166.7
158.3
154.2
158.3
162.5
166.7
170.8

101.8
100.0
101.8
101.8
103.5
103.5
101.8
101.8
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
101.8
101.8
105.3
108.8
114.0
114.0
112.3
110.5
108.8
107.0

66.3
68.4
69.4
70.4
70.4
69.4
70.4
68.4
67.3
68.4
68.4
68.4
68.4
68.4
67.3
67.3
67.3
68.4
68.4
69.4
70.4
70.4
70.4
70.4
70.4
70.4




644

PRICES— RETAIL AND WHOLESALE

T able 6 .—R E L A T IV E R E T A IL PRICES OF PR IN CIPAL A R T IC L E S OF FOOD, B Y YEAR S
1913 A N D 1920-34, A N D B Y PERIODS FOR 1931-34— Continued
Year and
period

1913......................
1920......................
1921......................
1922......................
1923......................
1924......................
1925-....................
1926......................
1927......................
1928......................
1929......................
1930......................
1931......................
1932......................
1933......................
1934......................
1931:
Jan...................
Feb..................
Mar.................
Apr..................
M ay.................
June.................
July.................
Aug..................
Sept____ ____
Oct...................
Nov.................
Dec..................
1932:
Jan...................
Feb..................
Mar.................
Apr..................
M ay.................
June.................
July.................
Aug..................
Sept.................
Oct...................
N ov.................
Dec...............—
1933:
Jan. 15.........
Feb. 15............
Mar. 15...........
Apr. 15............
M ay 15............
June 15............
July 15.............
Aug. 15........ —
Aug. 29............
Sept. 12...........
Sept. 26...........
Oct. 10.............
Oct. 24.............
Nov. 7.............
Nov. 21...........
Dec. 5_______
Dec. 19............
1934:
Jan. 2...............
Jan. 16.............
Jan. 30.............
Feb. 13............
Feb. 27............
Mar. 13...........
Mar. 27...........
Apr. 10............
Apr. 24............
May 8.............
M ay 22............
June 5..............
June 19............
July 3— ____
July 17............
July 31............

Corn,
Peas, Toma­ Bana­
Or­
toes,
canned canned canned nas
anges Prunes

Rai­
sins

Sugar

Tea

Coffee All ar­
ticles 1

100.0
157.4
138.3
131.9
130.9
136.2
151.1
140.4
134.0
135.1
134.0
129.8
113.8
91.5
87.2
101.1

100.0
134.2
124.6
123.7
123.7
127.2
128.9
122.8
117.5
117.5
116.7
114.0
100.0
90.4
91.2
121.1

100.0
143.9
118.3
130.5
125.6
129.3
132.9
118.3
117.1
114.6
126.8
119.5
100.0
90.2
89.0
101.2

100.0
288.9
262.1
235.3
247.1
241.2
233.3
230.1
222.2
217.0
211.1
198.7
171.2
149.7
154.9
151.0

100.0
210.7
165.3
191.3
166.0
146.7
185.3
169.0
169.7
193.3
144.3
191.0
117.0
103.3
91.3
109.7

100.0
240.2
169.2
171.8
163.2
149.6
147.9
145.3
130.8
117.1
131.6
140.2
100.9
80.3
82.1
97.4

100.0
269.8
281.1
217.0
166.0
145.3
136.8
138.7
134.0
124.5
111.3
112.3
106.6
104.7
87.7
90.6

100.0
352.7
145.5
132.7
183.6
167.3
130.9
125.5
132.7
129.1
120.0
112.7
103.6
92.7
98.2
101.8

100.0
134.7
128.1
125.2
127.8
131.4
138.8
141.0
142.5
142.3
142.6
142.5
138.6
130.3
120.6
129.6

100.0
157.7
121.8
121.1
126.5
145.3
172.8
171.1
162.1
165.1
164.8
136.2
113.4
101.3
90.9
91.9

100.0
203.4
153.3
141.6
146.2
145.9
157.4
160.6
155.4
154.3
156.7
147.1
121.3
102.1
99.7
110.8

125.5
123.4
121.3
118.1
116.0
112.8
112.8
112.8
110.6
107.4
103.2
101.1

108.8
107.9
105.3
102.6
99.1
97.4
97.4
97.4
96.5
96.5
95.6
94.7

109.8
108.5
104.9
102.4
100.0
98.8
98.8
97.6
96.3
95.1
95.1
93.9

190.2
187.6
187.6
181.7
173.9
170.6
168.0
157.5
156.2
156.9
159.5
162.1

108.3
105.0
107.7
110.3
126.0
125.3
127.3
124.3
121.7
124.0
117.7
104.3

110.3
108.5
106.0
103.4
103.4
100.9
100.9
100.0
99.1
94.9
91.5
89.7

106.6
106.6
106.6
105.7
103.8
104.7
106.6
105.7
106.6
107.5
107.5
108.5

107.3
107.3
105.5
103.6
101.8
101.8
101.8
103.6
103.6
101.8
101.8
100.0

141.0
140.6
139.7
138.2
136.9
136.8
137.3
138.6
139.3
139.0
138.1
138.1

126.8
125.2
121.8
116.1
112.4
111.1
109.1
108.7
108.7
107.7
106.7
105.7

132.8
127.0
126.4
124.0
121.0
118.3
119.0
119.7
119.4
119.1
116.7
114.3

97.9
95.7
94.7
91.5
91.5
90.4
89.4
89.4
88.3
87.2
87.2
87.2

93.9
93.0
92.1
92.1
90.4
89.5
89.5
89.5
89.5
88.6
89.5
88.6

92.7
92.7
93.9
92.7
92.7
92.7
92.7
91.5
89.0
87.8
85.4
85.4

155.6
154.9
153.6
154.2
151.6
149.7
150.3
148.4
145.1
141.8
143.1
149.7

98.7
100.3
102.3
106.3
110.0
111.7
109.3
102.3
101.3
101.7
102.3
95.0

88.0
87.2
84.6
82.1
80.3
80.3
80.3
79.5
77.8
76.1
75.2
76.1

108.5
108.5
108.5
108.5
108.5
107.5
108.5
109.4
107.5
100.9
93.4
90.6

98.2
96.4
94.5
92.7
89.1
89.1
90.9
92.7
92.7
92.7
92.7
92.7

136.2
135.3
134.7
133.1
132.4
130.5
129.2
128.9
128.5
125.9
125.2
124.6

104.4
104.0
103.4
102.3
100.7
99.7
99.7
99.3
101.0
101.7
101.0
99.7

109.3
105.3
105.0
103.7
101.3
100.1
101.0
100.8
100.3
100.4
99.4
98.7

85.1
83.0
83.0
83.0
83.0
83.0
84.0
87.2
88.3
89.4
90.4
91.5
92.6
92.6
92.6
93.6
92.6

88.6
88.6
87.7
89.5
89.5
89.5
89.5
91.2
93.0
93.0
93.0
94.7
94.7
95.6
95.6
95.6
95.6

84.1
84.1
82.9
82.9
85.4
87.8
89.0
91.5
91.5
93.9
95.1
95.1
96.3
96.3
95.1
95.1
96.3

150.3
148.4
143.8
148.4
146.4
154.2
162.1
156.9
160.1
164.1
166.0
160.8
161.4
156.9
156.9
160.1
162.1

90.3
88.3
84.0
84.0
86.7
93.3
95.0
97.0
96.3
95.7
99.7
99.3
99.0
95.7
92.0
88.7
86.0

76.1
76.1
75.2
75.2
76.9
78.6
80.3
83.8
85.5
86.3
88.0
88.9
90.6
90.6
90.6
91.5
91.5

89.6
87.7
86.8
85.8
85.8
86.8
86.8
87.7
88.7
88.7
88.7
88.7
88.7
88.7
87.7
87.7
85.8

92.7
90.9
90.9
92.7
96.4
98.2
100.0
101.8
101.8
103.6
103.6
103.6
103.6
101.8
101.8
101.8
100.0

123.5
121.5
119.9
119.1
118.4
116.7
117.8
118.6
119.1
121.3
122.1
122.8
123.0
123.2
122.4
123.0
124.3

96.3
93.3
91.9
91.6
90.6
90.6
90.6
90.6
90.9
89.6
89.3
89.3
89.3
89.3
89.3
88.9
88.6

94.8
90.9
90.5
90.4
93.7
96.7
104.8
106.7
107.1
107.0
107.4
107.3
106.6
106.7
106.8
105.5
103.9

93.6
93.6
94.7
93.6
95.7
95.7
95.7
95.7
95.7
95.7
95.7
95.7
95.7
95.7
95.7
95.7

100.0
105.3
113.2
113.2
115.8
114.9
116.7
115.8
115.8
116.7
117.5
116.7
116.7
116.7
116.7
117.5

96.3
96.3
101.2
102.4
102.4
102.4
102.4
103.7'
103.7
103.7
103.7
104.9
102.4
102.4 *
102.4
102.4

164.1
157.1
151.6
151.6
154.2
150.3
147.1
144.4
146.4
147.1
145.1
145.8
149.7
150.3
151.6
152.9

90.0
92.7
92.7
90.0
90.3
92.0
92.7
92.3
92.3
99.0
109.7
114.0
131.3
129.7
127.0
123.0

92.3
92.3
94.0
94.0
95.7
96.6
96.6
97.4
96.6
97.4
98.3
98.3
98.3
99.1
99.1
99.1

87.7
87.7
87.7
87.7
88.7
88.7
88.7
89.6
89.6
90.6
90.6
90.6
90.6
90.6
91.5
91.5

100.0
98.2
98.2
101.8
98.2
98.2
100.0
100.0
98.2
98.2
98.2
96.4
98.2
100.0
103.6
105.5

124.8
125.6
125.6
125.7
126.7
127.0
127.4
128.1
126.7
128.5
129.0
129.8
129.4
128.5
130.1
130.7

88.6
88.3
88.6
88.6
89.3
90.6
91.3
92.3
91.9
92.3
92.6
92.6
92.6
92.3
92.3
92.3

104.5
105.2
105.8
108.3
108.1
108.2
108.0
107.4
107.3
108.2
108.4
108.4
109.1
109.6
1C9.9
110.4

122 articles 191:3-20; 42 a
articles 19121-34.




645

RETAIL PRICES IN UNITED STATES

T a ble 6 -R E L A T I V E R E T A IL PRICES OF P R IN C IP A L A R T IC L E S OF FOOD, B Y Y E A R S ,
1913 A N D 1920-34, A N D B Y PERIODS FOR 1931-34—Continued

Year and
period

Corn,
Peas, Toma­ Bana­
toes,
canned canned canned nas

1934:
Aug. 14............
Aug. 28............
Sept. 11...........
Sept. 25...........
Oct. 9...............
Oct. 23.............
Nov. 6.............
Nov. 20...........
Dec. 4..............
Dec. 18............

95.7
96.8
97.9
98.9
101.1
103.2
104.3
104.3
105.3
105.3

117.5
119.3
120.2
120.2
120.2
121.1
121.1
121.1
121.1
121.1

101.2
101.2
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
101.2
101.2
101.2
101.2

Or­
anges Prunes

Rai­
sins

Sugar

Tea

125.0
124.0
123.3
123.3
119.7
131.3
124.7
111.7
101.0
96.0

91.5
91.6
91.5
91.5
91.5
91.5
91.5
91.5
91.5
91.5

103.6
103.6
103.6
103.6
103.6
103.6
103.6
101.8
101.8
100.0

131.3
132.9
132.5
132.9
132.5
132.7
132.9
132.5
133.3
133.8

153.6
149.7
154.2
156.9
156.2
154.9
152.3
149.0
147.1
145.8

100.0
100.0
98.3
98.3
98.3
97.4
98.3
97.4
97.4
97.4

All ar­
Coflee ticles 1

92.6
93.0
93.0
93.6
94.0
94.3
94.0
94.0 <
'
94.0
93.6

111.8
115.3
116.8
116.4
115.6
115.4
115.3
114.9
114.6
114.3

1 22 articles 1913-20; 42 articles 1921-34.

Year-to-year price changes are more accurate when made on rela­
tive prices and index numbers than on actual prices. This is true
because of minor changes in the number of reporters and allows for
adjustments in differences of package contents of the several items.
Table 7 shows by cities the changes since 1913 in the retail prices
of food for specified periods covered by the Bureau in 1931, 1932,
1933, and 1934.
For 39 cities comparisons for each period are made with the average
for the year 1913 as shown in index numbers of the weighted retail
cost of food. For the remaining 12 cities for which prices were not
collected for the year 1913 the comparisons are made on the weighted
cost of food for the first year for which prices were collected, as indi­
cated in the footnotes.
T a ble 7 — P E R C E N T A G E OF CH AN G E SINCE 1913 IN R E T A IL COST OF FOOD B Y CITIES
A N D FOR T H E U N IT E D STATES, B Y M O N T H S A N D Y E A R S , 1931-34

City and year

United States:
1931............ ____
1932____ _____
1933 1 .................
19341.................
Atlanta:
1931...................
1932....................
1933 1 .................
19341............... .
Baltimore:
1931...................
1932...................
1933 1 ............. .
19341.............
Birmingham:
1931...................
1932...................
1933 1 .................
19341 .................
Boston:
1931...................
1932...................
1933 1 .................
19341 .................
Bridgeport:8
1931...................
1932...................
1933 1 .................
19341 _________




Year

Jan.
15

Feb. Mar. Apr.
15
15
15

May June July Aug. Sept
15
15
15
15

+21.3 +32.8 +27.0
+ 2 .1 + 9 .3 + 5 .3
- . 3 - 5 .2 - 9 .1
+10.8 + 5 .2 + 8 .3

+26.4
+ 5 .0
- 9 .5
+ 8 .2

+24.0
+ 3 .7
- 9 .6
+ 7 .4

+21.2 +33.3 +27.6
.0 + 6 .0 + 2 .3
- 3 .3 - 8 . 0 -1 2 .4
+ 7 .6 + .5 + 3 .8

+26.3
+ 2 .3
-1 4 .2
+ 4 .7

+25.6 +21.4 +19.8 +19.6 +19.2
+ 1 .4 + .7
-.4
+ .1
-1 3 .8 - 9 .5 - 4 .2
+ .9 + 4 .9
+ 3 .8 + 5 .9 + 5 .9 + 7 .1 + 8 .9

+24.4
+ 3 .2
+ 1 .0
+11.4

+26.4
+ 3 .4
-1 0 .4
+ 5 .3

+22.2
+ 4 .9
-1 0 .5
+ 5 .4

+18.5
+ 1 .3
- 6 .7
+ 6 .3

+23.8
+ 6 .4
+ 6 .8
+16.2

-1 3 .5
-2 4 .7
-3 5 .2
-2 4 .4

-1 4 .1
-2 4 .4
-3 7 .4
-2 3 .4

-1 4 .9
-2 6 .6
-3 6 .2
-2 4 .5

-1 7 .1
-2 8 .5
-3 5 .0
-2 4 .0

1Same as footnote at end of table.

+24.9
+ 4 .8
+ 9 .3
+18.7

+14.5 +16.1 +16.3
-.9
- 1 .9
+ .8
- 2 .4
+ .9 + 3 .7
+ 4 .0 + 5 .9 +10.0

+34.9 +28.8 +27.9 +25.0 +21.3 +20.1 +21.4
+ 9 .7 + 5 .6 + 4 .7 + 3 .6 + .4
- . 1 + 3 .5
- 1 .9 - 7 .4 - 8 .2 - 9 . 0 - 6 .9 - 1 .9 + 7 .4
+ 5 .4 + 8 .4 + 8 .0 + 6 .0 + 8 .0 +10.4 +11.2

-1 5 .8 - 9 . 7
-2 7 .1 -2 2 .2
-2 9 .7 -3 1 .4
-2 1 .0 -2 5 .1

Nov. Dec.
15

+21.0 +18.3 +19.0 +19.7 +19.4 +19.1 +16.7 +14.3
+ 1 .3
- . 6 - 1 .3
+ .4
+• 8 + .3
+ . 1 + 1 .0
- 6 .3 - 3 .3 + 4 .8 + 6 .7 + 7 .0 + 7 .3 + 6 .8 + 3 .9
+ 8 .3 + 8 .8 + 9 .7 +13.5 +16.6 +15.6 +14.9 +14.3

+26.6 +39.1 +32.5 +32.1 +29.4 +25.3 +23.0
+ 5 .9 +13.9 + 8 .3 + 7 .2 + 6 .4 + 2 .3 + 2 .5
+ 3 .5
-.4
- . 7 - 5 .8 - 5 .8 - 6 .7 - 2 .8
+17.9 +10.8 +12.9 +15.8 +12.7 +14.5 +14.6
+19.8 +36.6 +30.6
+ 1 .2 + 7 .1 + 2 .4
- 2 .5 - 7 .3 -1 0 .8
+ 9 .6 + 5 .0 + 4 .6

Oct.
15

-1 7 .6
-2 9 .5
-3 2 .0
-2 3 .6

-1 8 .1
-2 7 .4
-2 6 .7
-2 1 .6

+17.6
- 1 .4
+ 5 .4
+14.8

+15.3
- 2 .3
+ 4 .1
+15.4

+15.3
- 3 .7
+ 2 .9
+13.2

+11.9
-4 .9
+ 2 .4
+14.1

+24.7
+ 5 .7
+10.5
+24.3

+24.2
+ 4 .6
+13.4
+22.7

+20.5
+ 3 .8
+12.4
+22.5

+18.5
+ 3 .2
+ 9 .5
+21.3

+15.8 +14.6 +13.2 +10.1
- 1 .7
-.1
+ . 1 -.9
+ 3 .0 + 3 .6 + 4 .0 + 2 .3
+17.0 +15.6 +13.6 +14.4

+23.7
+ 2 .8
+ 7 .9
+13.2

+23.7
+ 2 .2
+ 8 .6
+15.9

+25.1
+ 2 .6
+ 8 .4
+15.2

+23.9
+ 2 .2
+ 8 .1
+13.7

+17.9
+ 1 .6
+ 3 .6
+11.1

-1 6 .8
-2 8 .1
-2 5 .1
-2 1 .1

-1 6 .1
-2 8 .3
-2 4 .3
-1 8 .6

-1 5 .8
-2 7 .2
-2 3 .6
-1 9 .7

-1 7 .8
-2 8 .4
-2 4 .5
-1 8 .3

-1 9 .0
-2 9 .8
-2 6 .2
-2 0 .0

2 Since 1917.

646

PRICES— RETAIL AND WHOLESALE

T a ble 7.—P E R C E N T A G E OF C H AN G E SINCE 1913 IN R E T A IL COST OF FOOD B Y CITIES
A N D FOR T H E U N IT E D ST ATES, B Y M O N T H S A N D Y E A R S , 1931-34—Continued

City and year

Jan.
15

Feb. Mar. Apr.
15
15
15

Buffalo:
1931 ___
+23.6 +33.9 +29.0 +27.5
1932 ___
+ 5 .2 + 7 .6 + 3 .5 + 7 .5
1933 i_____
+ 3 .7 - 2 .1 - 7 . 2 - 7 .3
19341_____
+15.5 + 9 .7 +14.4 +14.8
Butte:3
+ 6 .9 +11.7 + 9 .4 + 7 .5
1931 ___
1932 ___
-1 0 .6 + .9 - 4 .7 - 7 .6
-1 6 .0 -1 7 .0 -2 0 .6 -2 0 .4
1933 1_____
1934^_____
- 7 .6 -1 6 .7 -1 3 .7 -1 3 .9
Charleston:
+26.1 +38.1 +32.6 +32.0
1931 .....
1932 ___
+ 6 .1 +14.9 +11.0 + 9 .6
- . 1 - 2 . 7 - 8 .4 -1 0 .7
1933 i_____
+10.4 + 8 .8 + 8 .9 + 8 .6
1934 i_____
Chicago:
+33.6 +44.9 +38.8 +36.9
1931 ... .
+11.2 +19.0 +13.8 +16.3
1932 ... .
+ 4 .2 - 2 .3 - 4 .9 - 5 .8
1933 i_____
+13.6 +10.0 +13.0 +10.7
19341_____
Cincinnati:
+28.6 +41.1 +35.2 +33.5
1931 .....
1932 .....
+ 1 .0 +13.1 + 6 .0 + 5 .6
- . 4 - 4 .9 - 8 .7 - 9 .8
1933 i........
+12.1 + 5 .2 + 7 .8 + 8 .2
1934 i_____
Cleveland:
+16.4 +28.2 +23.5 +23.8
1931 ___
- 2 .8 + 4 .3 + 1 .5 - 1 .3
1932 .....
- 4 .4 -1 1 .9 -1 5 .3 -1 4 .7
1933 i........
+ 9 .0 + 2 .8 + 4 .8 + 6 .1
1934 i_____
Columbus:2
-2 4 .1 -1 3 .6 -1 8 .7 -1 8 .6
1931 ... .
-3 5 .8 -3 1 .1 -3 4 .2 -3 2 .9
1932 ... .
-3 6 .6 -4 1 .2 -4 3 .6 -4 3 .8
1933 1 ........
-2 6 .0 -3 1 .7 -3 0 .3 -2 9 .3
1934 i_____
Dallas:
+17.3 +34.1 +28.1 +25.7
1931 ___
- 2 .6
1932 ..............................+ 5 .9
+ .9
+ .4
- 4 .2 - 9 .6 -1 4 .3 -1 4 .8
1933 i_____
1934 i_____
+ 7 .8 + 2 .2 + 3 .8 + 3 .7
Denver:
+10.4 +18.4 +11.9 +12.1
1931 .....
- 4 .4
1932 ___
- . 8 - 2 .9 - 2 .6
- 5 .1 - 7 .1 -1 2 .9 -1 3 .2
1933 i........
1934 i_____
+ 4 .5 - 2 .6
+ .7
+ .2
Detroit:
+21.6 +34.5 +26.9 +27.2
1931 .....
- 3 .7 + 5 .1
-.5
-.5
1932 ___
- 2 .1 -1 0 .4 -1 3 .3 -1 3 .4
1933 i........
1934 i_____
+12.2 + 5 .2 + 7 .5 + 8 .4
Fall River:
+18.3 +27.9 +22.1 +22.2
1931 .....
+ 1 .2 + 7 .7 + 4 .4 + 4 .3
1932 ___
- 2 .1 - 6 . 0 -1 0 .1 -1 1 .5
1933 i_____
1934 i........
+ 9 .6 + 3 .9 + 5 .9 + 6 .2
Houston:4
1931
... . -3 7 .9 -3 0 .7 -3 4 .8 -3 5 .2
1932
..
-4 8 .6 -4 2 .3 -4 4 .7 -4 5 .6
1933 i............— -4 9 .2 -5 3 .1 -5 5 .0 -5 2 .3
1934 i_________ -4 1 .1 -4 5 .3 -4 4 .2 -4 3 .6
Indianapolis:
1931
.. +16.5 +28.8 +20.5 +22.3
1932
... - 2 .8 + 2 .5
+ .5
-.5
1933 1....................
- 5 .8 -1 2 .2 -1 5 .7 -1 5 .9
1934 i_________ + 5 .0
—.3 + 1 .8 + 4 .0
Jacksonville:
1931................... +14.3 +27.6 +22.6 +20.1
1932.................. - 6 . 2 + 1 .4 - 5 . 4 - 5 .1
1933 i_________ - 8 .8 -1 4 .0 -1 7 .8 -1 9 .7
1934 i_________ + 3 .0 - 2 . 2
+ .1 - 1 .8
City:
+20.9 +31.6 +26.1
1931
________________________+26.8
1932
.....
+ .1 + 6 .6 + 2 .3 + 2 .6
1933 i................. - 1 .5 - 6 .1 - 8 . 6 - 8 .8
19341................. +10.6 + 3 .2 + 5 .9 + 6 .8

Kansas

i Same as footnote at end of table.




M ay June July Aug. Sept.
15
15
15
15
15

+26.1
+10.8
- 7 .3
+12.5

+23.7 +21.0 +21.5
+ 6 .6 + 4 .7 + 6 .6
-3 .2
+ .4 + 9 .8
+11.9 +15.5 +15.8

+ 6 .6
- 9 .3
-2 1 .5
-1 1 .3

+ 5 .9
-1 1 .7
-1 7 .1
-1 3 .1

+29.5
+ 8 .4
- 8 .5
+ 8 .1

+25.1 +23.2 +23.3
+ 6 .5 + 4 .4 + 4 .6
- 7 .0 - 5 .5 + 1 .2
+ 7 .1 + 7 .1 + 8 .2

+22.6
+ 6 .3
+13.0
+16.7

+22.9
+ 4 .3
+12.6
+21.4

Oct.
15

+23.3
+ 4 .5
+12.1
+19.5

Nov. Dec.
15 '
15

+20.7
+ 2 .7
+11.7
+18.1

+10.3
+ 3 .8
+ 8 .4
+18.3

+ 6 .3 + 6 .2 + 6 .7 + 6 .4 + 5 .4 + 4 .6 + 3 .8
-1 2 .0 -1 2 .2 -1 3 .0 -1 3 .4 -1 5 .0 -1 5 .6 -1 5 .2
-1 6 .3 - 9 . 4 -1 1 .6 -1 8 .3 -1 4 .0 -1 4 .5 -1 6 .4
- . 8 - 1 .8
-1 0 .3 - 7 .0 - 6 .6 - 1 .9 - 2 . 4
+23.9
+ 4 .0
+ 6 .7
+ 9 .7

+23.9
+ 4 .0
+ 8 .0
+14.6

+23.6
+ 3 .3
+ 7 .9
+15.2

+19.1 +17.8
+ 1 .1
+ .1
+ 8 .0 + 9 .3
+15.2 +14.6

+34.4
+10.4
+12.9
+15.9

+34.5 +32.1 +30.1
+13.8 + 9 .3 + 8 .6
.0 + 2 .4
- 3 .6
+ 8 .6 + 9 .0 +12.5

+32.2
+11.2
+12.5
+13.3

+33.8
+ 9 .9
+11.0
+20.0

+31.3
+ 9 .5
+10.0
+17.8

+29.3
+ 7 .9
+10.5
+16.9

+26.3
+ 2 .3
+ 8 .0
+17.1

+31.2 +27.8 +25.7
-.6
+ 1 .1 - 1 .0
- 9 . 6 - 7 .1 - 3 .3
+ 8 .0 + 8 .2 + 8 .7

+26.8 +26.9 +26.0
+ 1 .2 - 1 .4 - 2 . 2
+ 5 .5 + 6 .9 + 6 .1
+10.6 +11.6 +15.9

+25.6
- 3 .7
+ 8 .6
+15.1

+23.2
- 3 .5
+ 9 .1
+15.5

+19.7
- 2 .6
+ 1 .3
+15.7

+19.3 +18.1 +13.3
- 1 .9 - 3 .4 - 4 .1
-1 5 .3 -1 1 .9 - 7 .9
+ 5 .7 + 5 .8 + 5 .8

+13.8 +15.2 +14.3 +12.3 + 9 .5 + 7 .1
- 1 .1 - 3 .0 - 4 .6 - 6 . 2 - 7 .5 - 8 . 2
+ 3 .8 + 6 .8 + 5 .6 + 5 .5 + 3 .2 + .7
+ 8 .1 + 9 .8 +14.5 +12.6 +11.2 + 9 .6

-1 8 .9
-3 4 .2
-4 3 .3
-3 1 .1

-2 1 .1
-3 6 .7
-4 0 .9
-3 0 .2

-2 2 .7
-3 6 .4
-3 9 .1
-2 9 .7

-2 3 .3
-3 5 .0
-3 1 .3
-2 7 .5

-2 2 .8
-3 7 .0
-3 0 .8
-2 6 .8

-2 3 .1
-3 7 .1
-2 9 .6
-2 3 .3

-2 3 .4
-3 8 .1
-2 9 .7
-2 4 .6

-2 5 .0
-3 9 .2
-3 1 .9
-2 5 .5

-2 6 .0
-3 9 .1
-3 3 .3
-2 5 .8

+19.8 +15.4 +12.2 +11.8 +13.0 +11.6 +11.8 +10.5 +12.7
+ 1 .0 - 1 .9 - 7 .6 - 6 .9 - 6 .0 - 5 .6 - 4 .6 - 4 .4 - 3 .8
- . 5 + 3 .9 + 3 .8 + 2 .5 + 4 .5 + 3 .2
-1 3 .1 - 9 .2 - 6 .0
+ 3 .7 + 3 .6 + 4 .9 + 8 .1 + 7 .6 +14.7 +13.2 +14.4 +15.3
+ 8 .5 +10.3 +10.5 + 9 .6 + 9 .5 + 7 .6 + 5 .7
- 6 .5 - 5 .1 - 4 .7 - 5 .0 - 5 .3 - 5 .8 - 5 . 2
- . 2 + 1 .2 + .5
- 6 .9 + 1 .8
- . 7 -3 .0
+ 3 .9 + 1 .9 + 4 .0 +10.4 +12.0 +11.0 +11.4

+11.6 + 9 .1
- 4 .6 - 5 .3
-1 2 .7 - 9 .0
- 1 .4
+ .1

+25.9 +23.7 +18.3 +17.6 +20.9
- 3 .6 - 6 .3 - 4 .5
+ .6 - 4 .2
-1 3 .8 - 9 . 2 - 6 .0 + 5 .4 + 7 .0
+ 9 .7 +10.8 +14.0 +13.0 +14.4

+21.8
- 5 .9
+ 8 .8
+18.3

+18.1
- 7 .8
+ 7 .8
+15.4

+21.5 +18.1 +14.5 +15.6 +15.0 +16.4 +17.5
+ 2 .8 + .6 - 1 .6
0
+ .5
- . 3 - 1 .1
-1 2 .9 - 9 . 6 - 6 .4 + 5 .0 + 6 .4 + 5 .5 + 6 .7
+ 5 .1 + 6 .3 + 7 .5 + 9 .7 +10.9 +16.2 +14.0

+16.0 +13.3
- 2 .4 - 2 .7
+ 5 .1 + 3 .1
+14.1 +11.3

-3 7 .6
-5 0 .0
-5 1 .5
-4 4 .1

+18.7
- 1 .1
-1 7 .7
+ 3 .4

+15.1 +12.7 +15.1 +16.1 +14.8 +13.8 +10.2 + 8 .7
- 4 .6 - 4 .0
+ .4 - 1 .7 - 5 .1 - 5 .6 - 7 .5 - 6 . 6
-1 3 .8 - 7 . 2 + 3 .8 + 5 .9 + 4 .4 + 1 .2 + 1 .2 - 2 . 0
+ 3 .9 + 4 .3 + 4 .7 + 5 .6 + 9 .8 + 7 .4 + 3 .4 + 7 .6

+15.5 +14.3 +12.7
-5 .5 -7 .2 -7 .2
-1 8 .0 -1 4 .3 -1 2 .4
- 1 .9 - 1 . 7
+ .2
+26.0
+ 1 .3
-8 .1
+ 5 .6

-3 9 .1
-5 0 .2
-4 5 .4
-4 1 .7

+11.0
-8 .5
+ 3 .1
+12.6

-3 5 .7
-4 7 .4
-5 2 .6
-4 3 .4

-3 9 .9
-5 0 .1
-5 1 .0
-4 3 .8

-3 9 .9
-5 0 .7
-4 6 .7
-4 1 .8

+12.6
-9 .0
+ 6 .3
+13.6

-3 9 .8
-4 9 .6
-4 5 .8
-3 8 .0

-4 0 .0
-5 0 .0
-4 5 .8
-3 7 .7

-4 1 .9
-5 2 .1
-4 5 .1
-3 8 .0

-4 0 .8
-5 1 .7
-4 5 .2
-3 7 .3

+11.3 +11.5 +11.6 +10.9 + 8 .4 + 5 .3
- 9 . 2 - 5 .7 - 6 .2 - 7 .4 - 8 .4 - 9 .1
- . 9 -2 .2
- 4 .8 - 2 .0
-.2
-.3
+ 3 .4 + 5 .0 + 9 .2 + 9 .1 + 8 .2 + 9 .4

+22.6 +19.8 +19.1 +17.7 +17.4 +17.4 +14.2 +13.5
- 1 .1 - 2 .2 - 3 .9 - 2 . 0 - 1 .3
- . 7 -1 .3 - 1 .5
- 6 . 0 - 1 .8 + 3 .6 + 5 .4 + 5 .7 + 3 .5 + 2 .7
+. 3
+ 7 .5 + 7 .9 + 9 .2 +14.4 +18.1 +15.1 +14.2 +14.5

3 Since 1917.

3 Since 1915.

4 Since 1919.

647

RETAIL PRICES IN UNITED STATES

T a ble 7 .—PERCENTAGE OF CHANGE SINCE 1913 IN RETAIL COST OF FOOD BY CITIES
AND FOR THE UNITED STATES, BY MONTHS AND YEARS, 1931-34—Continued
City and year

Little Rock:
1931...................
1932...................
19331.................
19341.................
Los Angeles:
1931...................
1932...................
19331.................
19341.................
Louisville:
1931...................
1932...................
1933 i.................
19341............. .
Manchester:
1931....................
1932...................
1933 i.................
1934 i.................

Memphis:
1931...................
1932................19331............... .
1934 i............... .

Milwaukee:
1931...................
1932...................
19331.................
19341............... .

Year

f 12.8
- 8 .9
-1 1 .4
+ 3 .3

Feb.
15

Jan.
15

-4-25.4
-2 .0
-1 8 .7
- 1 .0

Mar.
15

•
4-18.9 -4-19.5
- 6 .6 - 7 . 0
-1 9 .3 -2 0 .0
-.2
- 1 .1

May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. I

j

15

15

15

15

15

15

+13.3 + 10.0 +10.4 + 8 .6 -HO. 4
H
- 7 .8 - 9 .5 -1 4 .6 -1 0 .3 - 8 .8 - 8 .5
--19.9 -1 7 .1 -1 6 .7 -1 0 .7 - 3 . 0 - 3 .1
- 1 .3 - 2.0 - 2.8 - 1.2 + 3 .2 +11.1

+ 9 .8 + 5 .5 + 6.0 + 7 .8 -+10.2
+14.5 +10.5 +18.2 +15.5 ■
- . 4 - 4 .0 - 7 .2 - 7 .4 - 10.1 -1 0 .3 -1 4 .6 - 7 . 7
- 6 .6 + 2 .7
+ . 2 + 1 .9
- 6 .6 - 8 .2 -1 3 .0 -1 2 .5 --15.1 -1 3 .5 - 11.6
7.5 - 5 .7
- . 6 + 3 .5
- 2 .1 - 6 .2 -6 .1 - 5 .6 - 6 .5
+14.3 +26.8 +20.4
- 4 .6 + 3 .1 - 1 .0
- 4 .3 -1 1 .5 -1 5 .3
+ 7 .9
+ .2 + 2 .3
+20.8
+ 2 .4
+ .6
+13.6

+14.7 +11.9
+18.6 - 1 .2 - 2 .9 - 4 .6 - 7 .3
-1 4 .9 --1 3 .2 - 9 .4 - 6.0
+ 4 .9 + 3 .9 + 6.2 + 5 .2

2.8 +.7
8.2

+.9

1931................... +22.8 +34.3 +28.7
1932................... + 1 .0 +10.4 + 6 .3
19331................. - 2 .3 - 8 .0 -1 3 .3
19341.............. +12.9 + 7 .5 + 9 .7

Mobile:4
1931................1932...................
19331...........
19341............. .

Newark:

-3 7 .8 -3 0 .8
-4 9 .2 -4 5 .3
-5 0 .5 -5 2 .1
-4 5 . 2 -4 7 .4

-3 5 .4
-4 7 .9
-5 4 .3
-4 6 .6

—. “
7

15

+ 8 .6 + 8 .9 •
- 7 . 5 - 5 .8 + 1 .3 +• 1 - 5 .1
+ 6 .4 + 6 .5 ■

6.2

+20.6
+1 .1
+ 8 .3
+15.7

+ 8 .4 + 7 .8
- 7 .9 - 6.8
-.5
+ 1 .0
+13. H
+18.2 H
+ 1 .5 + .2
+ 8 .3 + 5 .9
+16.1 H

$+10. 4 +10.2 +10.2 + 7 .1 + 5 .0
' - 6 .6 - 6 .6 - 7 .6 - 8 . 2 - 9 . 6
l - . 7 - 1 .1
-.7
- . 4 - 1 .3
5 + 7 .2 +12.1 + 9 .4 + 8 .9 + 9 .2

-+-25.1 +23.7 + 21.8
+ 8 .3 + 4 .6 + 3 .3
- 5 .2 - 2.1
+ 8 .9 + 10.0 + 11.2

5+24.5
) + 2 .9
$ +11.8
2 +12.7

+23.2
+ 2 .2
+ 9 .8
+18.9

+22.1
+ 2 .0
+ 7 .0
+20.3

+19.3 + 1 .3
+ 9 .2 + 3 .9
+19.7 -

-+23.8 +21.9 + 21.0
•
+ 2 .4
-.7
-13. r - 9 .9 - 6.1
+9.< +10 9 + 12.

2 +21.8
2 - 1 .7
) + 6 .7
L+15.2

+20.3
- 1 .9
+ 4 .4
+20.5

+19.7
- 1 .5
+ 6 .9
+17.9

+ 1 7 .0 - 1 .7 - 1 . 9
+ 6 .1 + 4 .7
+ 1 5 .4 -

36.3
-3 6 .0
-4 7 .4 -47. -4 9 .8 -5 1 .1
-5 4 .3 53.9 -5 3 .4 -5 2 .2
-4 7 .0 -4 6 .9 -4 7 .2 -4 7 .3

2 -3 8 . 6
7 -5 0 .0
1 -4 7 . 5
4 -4 4 .7

-3 8 .4
-5 0 .1
-4 6 .4
-4 2 .1

-3 9 .1
-5 0 .0
-4 7 .5
-4 2 .3

-4 0 .2
-5 0 . 2
-4 7 . 5
-4 3 .1

+23.7 +19.8
+ 5 .8 + 4 .8
- 7 .0 - 3 .5
+12.4 + 11.2

0 +22.5
5 + 4 .3
3 + 6 .0
5 +13.0

+22.5
+ 5 .1
+ 6 .5
+16.0

+24.4 +18.7 +5. 3 + 5 .1 + 2.0
+ 9 .8 + 8 .2 + 5 .4
+15.6 + 1 6 .0 -

+25.4 +23.5
+ 8.8 + 7 .3
- 2 .9
+13.5 +14.8

5 +25.0 +26.1
7 + 7 .3 + 6 .9
2 +12.8 +12.3
1 +18. 2 +23.3

+24.0 +33.4 +28.1 +26.9
+ 5 .3 +13.7 + 8 .7 + 9 .3
+ 2 .4 - 4 .6 - 5 .3 - 6 .5
+15.8 + 7 .3 + 9 .3 +10.6

Minneapolis:

+12.3 + 9 .8
- 3 .3
-13.9 -1 0 .7
+ 1 .7 + 2.2

15

+ 9 .1 + 5 .4 - 8 .7 ■
-10. 6 - 3 .3 - 2 . 4
+ 8 .5 + 7 .0 •

+12.7 +11.4 +11.1
- 6 .8 - 7 .4 - 8 .3
! + 3 .9 + 5 .8 + 3 .6
: + 9 .4 +12.3 +11.7

i +22.2 +22.0
+20.3 +18. 5
+28.7 +23.1 +23.2 - 1.0
+ 3 .6 + 2 .6
+ 7 .3 + 3 .9 + 3 .9 +
- 3 .9 - 9 .1 - 9 .3 - 9 .7 - 7 .5 - 3 .0 +9. i + 9 .4 + 8 .5
+9.11+13.7' +14. 7 +16.9
+ 8 .5 + 8 .7 + 7 .5 +
+ 5 .8

+12.5 +25.4 +17.7 +15.9 -f 15.3
- . 2 - 1 .5 - 3 .0
- 5 .1 + 1 .2
- 8 . 3 -1 3 .9 -1 7 .2 -1 7 .6 --17.5
+ 5 .2
-.8
+ .8 + 1 .8

15

+27.3
+ 5 .1
-1 4 .4
+ 9 .4

0

0

1.6

1931................... + 2 3 . 0 + 3 0 . 9 + 2 7 . 0 + 2 6 . 2 +24.8
+ 5 . 8 + 9 . 6 + 6 . 6 + 6 . 7 + 8.6
1932............... ..
- .1
-1 .5
- 9 . 8 - 10.2
1 9 3 3 1.....................
-8 .1
1 9 3 4 1..................... + 1 3 . 0 + 6 . 1 + 9 . 2 + 1 0 . 1 + 9 .8

New Haven:
1931........................ + 2 7 . 5 + 3 8 . 6 + 3 3 . 7 + 3 1 . 4
1932........................ + 9 . 5 + 1 8 . 8 + 1 3 . 9 + 1 3 . 8
- 7 .7
1933 i ..................... + 4 . 3 + 1 . 5 - 4 . 0
1 9 3 4 1_____ _____ + 1 7 . 9 + 1 2 . 2 + 1 4 . 1 + 1 4 . 2

New Orleans:
1931........................ + 1 7 . 9 + 3 2 . 3 + 2 6 . 7 + 2 3 . 8
1932........ ............... + 4 . 4 + 9 . 3 + 6 . 5 + 5 . 4
- 3 .8
-8 .9 -8 .9
1933 i ..................... - 1 . 2
1 9 3 4 1 . . . .............. + 1 0 . 6 + 3 . 6 I + 7 . 5 + 8 . 6

New York:

+28.7
+ 12.2
- 5 .8
+12.7

1

+• 1

+20.5 +15.8 + 12.1
+ 3 .9
- . 9 - 4 .3
- 11.1 - 8 .3
- 6.1
+ 7 .3 + 7 .0 + 6.0

+26.0
+ 6 .4
+13.7
+21.6

+ .6

- -41.6
■

+24.1 + 4 .7 + 4 .5
+ 1 1 .8 +21.0 •

1 +13.9 +15.7 +14.6 +13.2 ■
9 -.3
- . 9 - 2 .6 - 1.1
+ .8
6 + 5 .2 + 7 .4 + 6 .2 + 5 .9 + 4 .3
4 + 9 .8 +16.3 +17.3 +16.3 +15.7

1931........................ + 2 7 . 9 + 3 7 . 0 i + 3 3 . 2 ! + 3 1 . 0
1932........................ + 1 0 .2 + 1 5 .6 i + 1 0 . 8 I + 1 1 . 5
1933 i ..................... + 6 . 4 + 2 . 6i - 3 . 0 i - 3 . 9
. a! + 1 6 . 5 i + 1 6 . 5
1 9 3 4 1 . . . .............. + 1 8 .4 +

+28.8
+ 11.2
- 3 .3
+16.1

+27.3
+ 10.0
+ 1.6
+17.3

+24.9
+ 8 .7
+ 3 .4
+18.5

5 +26. 5 +26.9 +28.1 +24.4
3 + 9.2 + 9.2 + 9.8; + 9 .0
9 +11.2 +12.4: +16. 3l +14.1
7 +17. a +21. 0I +20.3! +20.8
i

+19.4
+ 6 .3
+ 10.6
+19.8

- 3 6 . f i - 2 8 . f i ! - 3 2 . fii - 3 3 . 7
-4 5 .4 - 4 0 .7 r -4 3 .0 1- 4 4 . 4
-4 9 .8 1 -5 0 .1 - 5 4 . 4t - 5 5 .1
- 4 3 . C - 4 6 . al - 4 5 . 4t - 4 3 . 6
i

-3 4 .3
-4 5 .0
-5 5 .2
-4 4 .8

-3 7 .6
-4 6 .1
-5 3 .4
-4 4 .0

-3 8 .4
-4 6 .5
-5 2 .4
-4 4 .7

9 -3 8 .8 1-3 8 .2 ! -3 8 .5 ! -3 9 .1
3 -4 6 . C -4 5 . 7' -4 6 . 5 -4 6 .6
1
l
6 -4 7 .5 ! -4 6 . a -4 5 . C -4 4 .9
t
1
1 -4 2 . $ - 3 9 .7 r -40.4l -4 0 .7
1

-4 1 .2
-4 8 .9
-4 6 .4
-4 0 .7

12

Norfolk:4

1931........................
1 9 3 2 ......................
1933 i ......................
1 9 3 4 1.....................

Omaha:

1931
...... . + 1 4 .4 l + 2 5 .1 l + 1 8 . C + 1 9 . 3
1
+ .3
1932
...... - 4 . : r + 3 .7 r + 1 .4 l
1033 1
—6.8 \ —14. (5 — 17 . 1 > — 17. 7
1 9 3 4 1.................... . + 6 . 7r + . ] l + 4 .C ) + 3 . 8

Peoria:4

1931....................... .
1932....................... .
1933 i .................... .
1 9 3 4 1.....................

1

- 3 7 . 4 [ — 30.
-4 7 .5 l - 4 4 .
-4 8 .]L-5 1 .
-4 2 .5 2 - 4 3 .

(2 - 3 3 . ( 5 - 3 3 . 7
() - 4 5 . 5 l - 4 5 . 1
() - 5 3 . () - 5 3 . 1
)
$ -4 4 .1 L - 4 3 . 4

+17.4 +14.4 +14.0
- 1 .7 - 5 .6 - 7 .7
-1 6 .0 -1 2 .5 - 7 .8
+ 2.8 ’ + 3 .0 + 5 .0

8 +14. a +12 .7 r +11 .7 r + 8 .6 + 6.2
\
5 -8 .5 $ —6. £ - 6 . : r - 9 .0 - 9 .0
>
8 +1.5S -1 .4 t + i . i L + .5 - 1.2
8 +9. a +14. f>+ n . iL+11.2 + 11.6
i

-34.2
-45.8
-5 1 .1
-4 3 .8

6 -38.5r -39.4t -4 0 . () -4 0 .9
2 -4 7 . ? -48.5$ —48. 1 ) -4 9 .0
5
6 -43.1L-4 4 . < -44.4l -4 3 .7
5
1 -4 0 .:r -38.52 -4 0 .]L-4 0 .0

-3 8 .3 -3 9 .1
-4 7 .9
48.0
-5 0 .4 -4 9 .1
-4 4 .2 -4 1 .8

Philadelphia:
1031
____ . + 2 8 . () + 3 4 . < + 3 0 .1 L + 2 9 . 9 +29.5 +27.5 +26.3
2
1032_________ + 5 .8 $ +11. ($ + 8 .1 $ + 8 . 6 + 7 . 0 +5.1 + 4 .7
1033 1 ________ + 2 .2 2 — 3.52 - 7 . 4 l — 7 .5 - 8.2 - 4 . 5 - 1.0
19341............... ..+18.1$+10.1J +16. (1+16.9 +16.9 +18.3 +17.4
* Same as footnote at end of table.




-4 1 .8
-4 8 .6
-4 5 .4
-4 2 .6

3+27.12 +26.52+27.41+24.8 +22.3
0 +4.52 +4.15 + 5 .]L + 2 .5 +.5
L
0 + 6 . 4l +11. ] +10 . 1 $ +11.2 + 8.2
4+18.12+23.4i +20. ] +18.7 +18.7
L
< Since 1919.

648

PRICES— RETAIL AND WHOLESALE

T a b l e 7.—P E R C E N T A G E OF CH A N G E SINCE 1913 IN R E T A IL COST OF FOOD B Y CITIES
A N D FOR T H E U N IT E D ST ATES, B Y M O N TH S A N D Y E A R S , 1931-34—Continued

City and year

Pittsburgh:
1931...................
1932...................
1933 i.................
19341— ...........
Portland, M aine:4
1931.................
1932...................
1933 i.................
1934 i.................
Portland, Oreg.:
1931...................
1932...................
1933 i.................
1934 i.................
Providence:
1931...................
1932...................
1933 i.................
19341.................
Richmond:
1931...................
1932...................
1933 i.................
1934 i— ............
Rochester:3
1931...................
1932...................
1933 i.................
19341............. .
St. Louis:
1931...................
1932...................
1933 i.................
1934 i.................
St. Paul:4
1931...................
1932...................
19331...........
1934 i____ ____
Salt Lake City:
1931...................
1932...................
1933 i.................
1934 i.................
San Francisco:
1931...................
1932...................
19331............. .
1934 i— ............
Savannah:8
1931...................
1932...................
1933 i.................
1934 i.................
Scranton:
1931...................
1932...................
1933 i.................
19341
.................
Seattle:
1931...................
1932...................
1933 i.................
19341,...............
Springfield, 111.:3
1931...................
1932...................
1933 i.................
1934 i.................
Washington:
1931...................
1932...................
19331.................
19341
.................

Year

Jan.
15

Feb. Mar. Apr.
15
15
15

May June July Aug. Sept.
15
15
15
15
15

Oct.
15

+21.7 +32.3 +27.3
- . 3 + 6 .3 + 3 .1
- 3 .1 - 9 .3 -1 3 .0
+10.5 + 5 .2 + 6 .5

+27.2
+ 3 .0
-1 2 .7
+ 9 .4

+25.1 +22.4 +19.6 +19.8 +20.0 +19.6 +17.6
+ 2 .0 - 1 .9 - 2 .8 - 2 .3 - 2 .0 - 1 .4
-.9
-1 1 .5 - 7 .6 - 5 .9 + 2 .5 + 3 .8 + 3 .9 + 5 .3
+ 8 .0 + 9 .6 +10.3 + 8 .3 +10.7 +13.4 +12.3

-3 3 .1
-4 2 .4
-4 4 .5
-3 8 .3

-3 2 .1
-4 0 9
-4 9 .2
-4 0 .2

-3 2 .8
-4 0 .9
-4 8 .8
-4 1 .9

-3 4 .3
-4 2 .4
-4 7 .2
-4 1 .5

-3 4 .9
-4 3 .1
-4 6 .0
-3 8 .8

+ 9 .2 +14.5 +12.3 +11.0 + 8 .4 + 8 .9
- 4 .2
+• 1 - 1 .5 - 2 .7 - 3 . 0 - 3 .3
- 8 .7 - 9 .8 -1 4 .5 -1 4 .9 -1 6 .3 -1 2 .0
+ .8 - 6 .4 - 3 .5 - 4 .0 - 5 .4 - 5 .1

+ 9 .3
- 6 .5
- 9 .8
- 3 .0

+23.3
+ 3 .8
+ 1 .9
+12.4

-2 8 .9
-3 9 .4
-4 6 .4
-4 2 .0

-3 1 .5
-4 0 .9
-4 8 .5
-4 1 .0

-3 3 .1
-4 2 .0
-4 0 .6
-3 8 .1

-3 2 .0
-4 2 .9
-4 0 .2
-3 7 .1

-3 2 .9
-4 3 .5
-4 1 .0
-3 5 .3

-3 3 .4
-4 3 .7
-4 1 .3
-3 6 .9

+ 8 .2 + 7 .9 + 8 .0 + 7 .5
- 5 .6 - 5 .4 - 5 .1 - 4 . 9
- 4 .3 - 4 .1 - 3 .3 - 4 . 0
- . 7 + 1 .4 + 4 .9 + 6 .6

+32.5 +26.9 +24.9 +23.0 +19.9 +18.0 +1.9.8
+10.4 + 5 .4 + 6 .0 + 5 .6 + 3 .3 + 2 .9 + 4 .1
- 1 .3 - 6 .2 - 7 .3 - 8 .0 - 4 .6
- . 7 + 8 .5
+ 6 .3 +11.9 + 8 .7 + 6 .7 + 7 .3 + 8 .3 +11.1

Nov.
15

Dec.
15

+15.8 +11.7
- 2 .8 - 3 .5
+ 4 .3 + 2 .1
+15.2 +15.0
-3 3 .6
-4 4 .6
-4 1 .1
-3 6 .8

-3 6 .6
-4 4 .7
-4 2 .9
-3 8 .2

+ 7 .1 + 7 .1
- 7 . 2 - 5 .9
- 5 . 5 - 7 .2
+ 7 .6 + 4 .2

+23.3
+ 3 .0
+ 9 .1
+12.9

+24.4
+ 2 .2
+ 9 .0
+18.2

+24.5
+ 1 .6
+10.1
+16.9

+24.0 +18.5
+ 1 .7
-.1
+8. 5 + 5 .8
+16.4 +12.8

+25.4 +39.4 +32.5 +31.9 +27.3 +24.9 +22.1
+ 4 .7 +13.2 + 9 .1 + 7 .4 + 6 .5 + 2 .7 + 1 .6
+ 1 .8 - 1 .7 - 8 . 2 - 8 .1 - 8 .5 - 4 .8 - 2 .2
+16.0 + 9 .0 +11.9 +13.2 +12.9 +13. 3 +14.3

+21.1
+ 3 .0
+ 4 .1
+14.8

+21.4
+ 4 .0
+ 7 .9
+17.4

+21.6
+ 3 .0
+10.9
+24.0

+21.5
+ 4 .7
+12.0
+21.2

+20.2
+ 2 .0
+10.1
+20.4

+18.6
+ 1 .1
+ 9 .0
+20.4

-2 1 .2
-3 2 .5
-3 4 .5
-2 5 .6

-1 3 .9
-2 8 .5
-3 8 .2
-3 0 .0

-2 3 .8
-3 2 .2
-2 9 .7
-2 5 .1

-2 3 .5
-3 2 .1
-2 9 .4
-2 4 .8

-2 3 .1
-3 4 .2
-2 8 .3
-2 1 .7

-2 2 .8
-3 4 .6
-2 8 .3
-2 3 .0

-2 4 .2
-3 4 .8
-2 9 .0
-2 4 .1

-2 5 .2
-3 5 .7
-3 1 .1
-2 4 .6

+23.7
+ 2 .6
+ 1 .4
+14.2

+34.5 +29.8 +29.8 +27. 6
+10.7 + 7 .9 + 7 .1 + 5 .1
- 5 .9 - 9 .6 - 8 .7 - 8 .6
+ 7 .3 +10.9 +11.6 +10.5

-1 5 .9
-3 0 .5
-4 0 .9
-2 7 .6

+17.6 +28.7 +21.4
- 2 .0 + 6 .4 + 3 .0
- 4 .5 - 9 .4 -1 3 .2
+10.7 + 4 .0 + 7 .1

-1 7 .9
-3 0 .5
-4 1 .3
-2 7 .0

-1 7 .3
-3 1 .3
-4 1 .3
-2 7 .7

-2 3 .4
-3 3 .4
-3 9 .6
-2 7 .0

-2 4 .2
-3 4 .0
-3 7 .4
-2 5 .2

+24.4 +21.7 +23.1 +22.6 +21.0 +19.8 +16.5 +13.7
+ 2 .3 + .2 + 1 .1
+ .5
- . 2 - 1 .8
+ . 1 -.7
- 4 .1
- . 1 + 8 .7 +11.8 +10.2 + 7 .9 + 7 .4 + 4 .7
+ 9 .6 +11.6 +11.7 +15.4 +21.6 +19.0 +18.5 +17.6

+22.3 +19.2 +18.3 +16.6 +18.9 +16.7 +14.4 +13.7 +10.6
+ 1 .5
- . 3 - 1 .2 - 3 .0 - 1 .6 - 5 .0 - 5 .7 - 5 .8 - 5 .8
-1 5 .8 -1 4 .7 -1 1 .9 - 8 .3 + 4 .1 + 2 .2 + 1 .6 + 2 .4 + 3 .7
+ 7 .6 + 6 .4 + 7 .5 +10.2 +12.6 +12.0 +15.8 +14.4 +13.2

+10.0
- 6 .4
+ 2 .7
+12.4

+ 6.1 +11.4 + 8 .7 + 8 .7 + 6 .5 + 6 .0 + 7 .1 + 5 .7 + 6 .0 + 5 .2 + 4 .7 + 2 .9 + 1 .0
-1 1 .7 - 5 .6 - 7 .7 - 9 .2 -1 0 .7 -1 0 .9 -1 2 .9 -1 2 .8 -1 5 .8 -1 4 .6 -1 2 .8 -1 4 .2 -1 3 .1
-1 3 .4 -1 7 .8 -2 1 .6 -2 1 .2 -1 9 .8 -1 7 .0 -1 2 .3 - 7 .6 - 7 .1 - 9 .9 - 8 .5 - 7 .0 -1 0 .9
- 3 .8 -1 0 .7 - 6 .9 - 6 .5 - 7 .6 - 7 .8 - 5 .6 - 5 .4 - 3 .9
+ .2 + 2 .0 + 2 .2 + .9
+22.5
+ 7 .3
+ 4 .6
+13.5

+33.1 +28.7 +26.8 +23.8
+12.2 +10.3 +10.0 + 9 .7
+ 2 .2 - 1 .6 - 2 .2 - 1 .3
+ 4 .4 + 9 .8 +10.5 + 8 .9

+22.8
+ 7 .3
+ 1 .6
+ 8 .9

+20.9 +21.0
+ 4 .4 + 3 .2
+3. 4 + 6 .7
+10.8 +11.5

+17.3
+ 4 .4
+ 9 .5
+13.9

+19.5
+ 5 .5
+10.2
+17.1

+20.3
+ 6 .3
+ 8 .8
+18.5

+18.9
+ 7 .0
+10.3
+21.1

+15.1
+ 7 .2
+ 6 .3
+18.1

-4 2 .3
-5 1 .9
-5 2 .9
-4 6 .9

-3 7 .0
-4 8 .1
-5 4 .7
-5 0 .0

-4 1 .8
-5 2 .8
-5 6 . 9
-4 8 .8

-4 2 .8
-5 3 .8
-5 5 .4
-4 8 .4

-4 4 .1
-5 3 .2
-5 0 .3
-4 8 .0

-4 3 .1
-5 1 .8
-4 8 .4
-4 7 .1

-4 4 .0
-5 2 .0
-4 8 .5
-4 4 .3

-4 4 .2
-5 2 .6
-4 8 .2
-4 4 .5

-4 5 .7
-5 3 .2
-4 9 .1
-4 4 .7

-4 6 .3
-5 3 .1
-5 0 .0
-4 4 .7

+28.4
+ 8 .3
+ 6 .2
+15.4

+40.9 +33.9 +31.0 +30.1 +27.3 +25.5
+15.4 +11.0 +10.6 +11.0 + 8 .8 + 6 .9
+ 2 .0 - 2 .5 - 3 .4 - 3 .8
- . 6 + 2 .2
+12.9 +14.9 +15.7 +14.3 +15.3 +14.7

+25.1
+ 6 .6
+12.0
+15.0

+26.0
+ 6 .0
+13.5
+18.2

+27.2
+ 5 .8
+13.4
+20.6

+27.6
+ 5 .9
+13.8
+17.8

+25.5 +21.6
+5. 2 + 4 .9
+14.0 +12.0
+16.4 +17.3

-3 9 .2
-5 0 .3
-5 6 .9
-4 8 .8

-3 9 .6
-5 1 .3
-5 7 .5
-4 8 .1

-4 0 .1
-5 1 .4
-5 7 .7
-4 8 .4

+17.4 +23.4 +19.9 +20.0 +19.0 +18.7 +16.7 +15.1 +15.7 +15.2 +15.5 +14.4 +13.2
- . 3 - 1 .3 - 2 .1 - 1 .8 - 1 .3
+ 1 .5 + 6 .9 + 4 .9 + 4 .5 + 4 .6 + 2 .8
+ .8 + 1 .1
- 1 .3 - 5 .9 - 9 .8 - 9 .6 - 7 .6 - 3 .1
+ . 3 + 3 .5 + 4 .7 +5. 3 + 3 .3 + 3 .1
.0
+ 7 .1 + 1 .6 + 5 .1 + 5 .0 + 3 .2 + 2 .9 + 3 .5 +5. 2 + 6 .6 + 9 .8 +11.1 +13.1 +11.5
+13.8 +28.4 +23.0 +21.5 +15.9 +12.7 +10.6 +11.2 +10.9 +10.5 + 7 .6 + 5 .8
-5 .1
+ .5 - 2 .5 - 2 .0 - 2 .7 - 5 .5 - 6 .8 - 5 .9 - 6 .1 - 6 .6 - 7 .3 - 8 .6
- 5 .9 -1 1 .7 -1 4 .6 -1 5 .5 -1 2 .5 -1 1 .2 - 7 .5 + 2 .3 +3. 3 + . 9 - . 6
-.2
+ 4 .3 - 1 .2
+ .5 + 2 .0 + .7
+ .6 + 2 .7 + 3 .2 + 6 .1 +10.1 + 7 .5 + 6 .8
+31.0
+ 8 .1
+ 5 .7
+18.0

+43.3 +35.9 +36.0 +34.1 +31.0 +27.7
+15.1 +10.1 +10.5 + 9 .8 + 6 .2 + 6 .1
+ 1 .4 - 2 .8 - 2 .7 - 4 .5
+ .2 + 2 .7
+10.6 +14.4 +14.8 +13.7 +16.0 +16.9

+28.5
+ 8 .1
+8. 5
+16.8

+29.9
+ 8 .7
+10.7
+17.5

+29.8
+ 7 .9
+13.3
+25.6

+28.3 +25.1
+ 7 .4 + 5 .8
+14.8 +14.6
+23. 5 +24.1

+ 3 .5
- 8 .2
- 4 .1
+ 7 .8
+22.1
+ 2 .3
+10.3
+22.9

1 Since the fall of 1933 prices have been collected biweekly and are shown for the following dates: 1933—
Sept. 12, Oct. 10, Nov. 21, and Dec. 19; 1934—Jan. 16, Feb. and Mar. 13, Apr. 10, May 8, June 19, July 17.
Aug. 14, Sept. 11, Oct. 9, Nov. 20, and Dec. 18.
a Since 1917.
3 Since 1915.
4 Since 1919.
£
Since 1914.
8 Since 1920.




649

RETAIL PRICES IN UNITED STATES

For a number of years the Bureau has made a comparison by index
numbers in the cost of the groups of cereals, meats, and dairy products.
No index had been calculated for the remaining items included in the
“ All foods ” index. These items have been brought together under the
caption of “ Other foods” and an index number calculated back to 1913.
The items included in the several groups are:
C ereals. — Bread, flour, corn meai, lice, rolled oats, corn flakes, wheat cereal,
and macaroni.
M e a t s .— Sirloin steak, round steak, rib roast, chuck roast, plate beef, pork
chops, bacon, ham, hens, and leg of lamb.
D a i r y p rod u cts. — Butter, cheese, fresh milk, and evaporated milk.
Other f o o d s .— Canned salmon, oleomargarine, lard, vegetable lard substitute,
eggs, navy beans, potatoes, onions, cabbage, beans with pork, canned corn, canned
peas, canned tomatoes, sugar, tea, coffee, prunes, raisins, bananas, and oranges.

An explanation of the method used in calculating these indexes is
found on page 6 of Bulletin No. 495.
Table 8 shows the index numbers for each of the groups, together
with the index for all foods, by years from 1913 to 1934 and by periods
for 1931 to 1934. These indexes are based upon average prices for
the year 1913 as 100.
T a ble 8.—IN D E X N U M B ER S OF R E T A IL PRICES OF FOOD, B Y C O M M O D IT Y GROUPS,

B Y YE A R S, 1913-30, A N D B Y Y EAR S A N D PERIODS, JA N U A R Y 1931 TO D E C E M B E R
1934
[1913=100]

Year and
month

1913,...............
1914,...............
1915.................
1916.................
1917..........
1918.................
1919............... .
1920.................
1921.................
1922_________
1923.................
1924,...............
1925____ ____
1926_________
1927_________
1928........ ........
1929............. 1930.................
1931.................
Jan...........
Feb..........
Mar.........
Apr..........
M ay........
June........
July.........
Aug.........
Sept.........
Oct..........
Nov.........
Dec..........
1932............. Jan..........
Feb..........
Mar.........
A pr.........
M ay........
June........
July.........
Aug.........
Sept.........
Oct..........
Nov.........
Dec..........

Cere­ Meats
als

100.0
106.7
121.6
126.8
186.5
194.3
198.0
232.1
179.8
159.3
156.9
160.4
176.2
175.5
170.7
167.2
164.1
158.0
135.9
147.1
144.6
142.4
138.9
137.7
136.3
134.3
132.0
130.2
129.8
129.1
127.8
121.1
126.4
125.0
124.3
122.9
122.6
122.5
121.2
120.4
119.2
119.0
118.0
114.8




100.0
103.4
99.6
108.2
137.0
172.8
184.2
185.7
158.1
150.3
149.0
150.2
163.0
171.3
169.9
179.2
188.4
175.8
147.0
159.5
153.4
152.5
151.4
149.3
145.7
147.8
149.1
147.7
142.7
135.4
129.3
116.0
123.4
117.3
118.9
118.6
115.3
113.4
122.6
120.1
119.2
114.6
109.1
103.2

Dairy Other
prod­ foods
ucts
100.0
97.1
96.1
103.2
127.6
153.4
176.6
185.1
149.5
135.9
147.6
142.8
147.1
145.5
148.7
150.0
148.6
136.5
114.6
123.6
120.2
120.5
116.5
110.2
108.3
109.6
111.9
114.3
117.0
114.4
114.4
96.6
106.5
102.9
101.9
97.4
94.3
92.6
91.4
93.1
93.5
93.8
93.9
95.9

100.0
103.8
100.1
125.8
160.4
164.5
191.5
236.8
156.1
147.0
154.3
154.3
169.8
175.9
160.8
152.4
157.0
148.0
115.9
130.1
120.3
119.7
118.3
115.7
112.3
112.9
113.9
112.9
113.1
112.9
112.6
98.6
105.4
100.8
99.9
100.3
97.2
96.2
94.8
95.1
94.5
97.5
98.2
100.4

All
foods

100.0
102.4
101.3
113.7
146.4
168.3
185.9
203.4
153.3
141.6
146.2
145.9
157.4
160.6
155.4
154.3
156.7
147.1
121.3
132.8
127.0
126.4
124.0
121.0
118.3
119.0
119.7
119.4
119.1
116.7
114.3
102.1
109.3
105.3
105.0
103.7
101.3
100.1
101.0
100.8
100.3
100.4
99.4
98.7

Year and
month

1933..........
Jan. 15- —
Feb. 1 5 Mar. 15. .
Apr. 1 5 M ay 15__
June 15-_
July 15—
Aug. 15_ _
Aug. 29_ _
Sept. 12_ _
Sept. 26-.
Oct. 10—
Oct. 24—
Nov. 7 -._
Nov. 21_ _
Dec. 5----Dec. 19—
1934.................
Jan.2___
Jan. 16—
Jan. 30—
Feb. 13—
Feb. 2 7 Mar. 13-_
Mar. 27_.
Apr. 10—
Apr. 2 4 M ay 8 - - M ay 22__
June 5—
June 19-_
July 3—
July 17—
July 31—
Aug. 14_ _
Aug. 28, _
Sept. U -_
Sept. 25__
Oct. 9— Oct. 23—
Nov. 6 --Nov. 2 0 ..
Dec. 4----Dec. 18—

Cere­ Meats
als

126.6
112.3
112.0
112.3
112.8
115.8
117.2
128.0
137.8
138.8
140.2
142.7
143.8
143.3
143.4
143.5
142.5
142.0
147.9
142.4
142.5
142.8
143.3
143.4
143.4
144.7
144.7
144.0
144.2
144.4
145.7
146.5
146.6
147.7
149.0
149.6
150.8
151.6
151.7
152.0
151.8
152.1
150.9
150.9
150.9

102.7
99.9
99.0
100.1
98.8
100.1
103.7
103.5
105. 7
106.9
104.4
107.8
107.3
106.3
105.9
104.1
101.2
100.4
117.1
100.8
102.3
103.0
106.7
107.8
109.1
109.7
110.5
112.6
114.9
115.3
116.1
117.8
120.0
120.5
120.2
121.1
129.2
133.8
131.7
128.4
126.4
122.6
120.6
119.9
120.1

Dairy
prod­ Other All
foods foods
ucts
94.6
93.3
90.3
88.3
88.7
92.2
93.5
97.7
96.5
97.5
97.8
97.9
98.6
98.4
98.6
98.5
98.7
94.7
102.2
95.7
96.0
95.9
102.6
101.8
102.3
101.1
99.7
99.0
99.9
99.9
100.4
101.1
101.1
100.8
101.6
103.4
105.6
105.4
105.3
105.4
105.4
107.6
108.4
108.5
108.8

98.3
94.1
84.8
84.3
84.3
89.0
94.9
110.3
110.2
109.2
109.4
107.2
105.9
104.7
105.2
106.5
105.0
103.8
105.4
104.6
105.8
106.7
106.5
105.7
104.8
104.1
102.7
102.1
102.4
102.7
101.2
101.2
101.2
101.4
101.9
103.8
107.2
108.8
108.7
108.1
108.8
109.0
109.3
108.8
107.2

99.7
94.8
90.9
90.5
90.4
93.7
96.9
104.8
106.7
107.1
107.0
107.4
107.3
106.6
106.7
106.8
105.5
103.9
110.8
104.5
105.2
105.8
108.3
108.1
108.5
108.0
107.4
107.3
108.2
108.4
108.4
109.1
109.6
109.9
110.4
111.8
115.3
116.8
116.4
115.6
115.4
115.3
114.9
114.6
114.3

650

PRICES— RETAIL AND WHOLESALE

R etail Prices of C oal
R e t a i l prices of coal were collected on the 15th of each month,
June 1920 to July 1935, inclusive, and quarterly beginning with
October 1935 from each of the 51 cities from which retail-food prices
are obtained. The prices quoted are for coal delivered to consumers
but do not include charges for storing the coal in cellar or bins where
an extra handling is necessary.
Average prices for the United States for bituminous coal and for
stove and chestnut sizes of Pennsylvania anthracite are computed
from the quotations received from retail dealers in all cities where
these coals are sold for household use. The prices shown for bitu­
minous coal are averages of prices of the several kinds. In addition
to the prices for Pennsylvania anthracite, prices are shown for Colo­
rado, Arkansas, and New Mexico anthracite in those cities where
these coals form any considerable portion of the sales for household
use.
Table 1 shows for the United States both average and relative
prices of Pennsylvania white-ash anthracite coal, stove and chestnut
sizes, and of bituminous coal on January 15 and July 15 ,19 13 to 1930,
and for each month from January 15, 1931, to July 15, 1935, and for
October 1935. An average price for the year 1913 has been made from
the averages for January and July of that year. The average price
for each mcfnth has been divided by the 1913 average price to obtain
the relative price.
T a ble 1.—A V E R A G E A N D R E L A T IV E PRICES OF COAL FOR T H E U N IT E D STATES
ON SPECIFIED D AT ES FROM JA N U A R Y 1913 TO OCTO BER 1935
Pennsylvania anthracite, white ash

Bituminous

Chestnut

Stove
Year and month
Average
price

1913 * Average for year___________________
January____________________________
July
. . . . . . .
1914* January
. _ _.
July_______________________________
1915* January____________________________
July;.________ ______________________
1916: January____________________________
July_____________________ __________
1917: January____________________________
July.........................................................
1918: January____________________________
July_________________ ______________
1919: January____________________________
July............ .............................................
1920: January____________________________
July______ _________________________
1921: January____________________________
July,____________ __________________
1922: January- _________________________
July_______________________________
1923: January. _________________________
July........................................................
1924: January _ _______________________
July_______________________________
1925: January____________________________
July...... ..................................................
1926: January____________________________
July.........................................................

i Insufficient data.




Relative
price
(1913
= 100)

$7.73
7.99
7.46
7.80
7.60
7.83
7.54
7.93
8.12
9.29
9.08
9.88
9.96
U. 51
12.14
12.59
14.28
15.99
14.90
14.98
14.87
15.43
15.10
15. 77
15.24
15.45
15.14
0)
15.43

100.0
103.4
96.6
100.9
98.3
101.3
97.6
102.7
105.2
120.2
117.5
127.9
128.9
149.0
157.2
162.9
184.9
207.0
192.8
193.9
192.4
199.7
195.5
204.1
197.2
200.0
196.0
(i)
199.7

Average
price

Relative
price
(1913
= 100)

Average
price

$7.91
8.15
7.68
8.00
7.78
7.99
7.73
8.13
8.28
9.40
9.16
10.03
10.07
11.61
12.17
12.77
14.33
16.13
14.95
15.02
14.92
15.46
15.05
15.76
15.10
15.37
14.93
0)
15.19

100.0
103.0
97.0
101.0
98.3
101.0
97.7
102.7
104.6
118.8
115.7
126.7
127.3
146.7
153.8
161.3
181.1
203.8
188.9
189.8
188.5
195.3
190.1
199.1
190.7
194.2
188.6
0)
191.9

$5.43
5.48
5.39
5.97
5.46
5.71
5.44
5.69
5.52
6.96
7. 21
7.68
7.92
7.90
8.10
8.81
10.55
11.82
10.47
9.89
9.49
11.18
10.04
9.75
8.94
9.24
8.61
9.74
8.70

Relative
price
(1913
= 100)

100.0
100.8
99.2
109.9
100.6
105.2
100.1
104.8
101.6
128.1
132.7
141.3
145.8
145.3
149.1
162.1
194.1
217.6
192.7
182.0
174.6
205.7
184.7
179.5
164.5
170.0
158.5
179.3
160.1

651

RETAIL PRICES IN UNITED STATES

T a ble L—AVE R A G E A N D R E L A TIV E PRICES OF COAL FOR T H E U N IT E D STATES
ON SPECIFIED D A T E S F R O M J A N U A R Y 1913 TO O CTO BER 1935—Continued
Pennsylvania anthracite, white ash
Stove
Year and month

Bituminous

Chestnut
Relative
price
(1913
= 100)

Average
price
1927: January.
July.........................................................
1928: January................ ..................................
July........................ ................................
1929: January___________________________
J u ly .-'...... .......... ............. ...................
1930: January. ..................... ......................
July............................ ............................
1931:
January.................... ...............................
February................................ .................
March. J__...............................................
April.........................................................
July..... .................................
August—......................... .......
September___________ ____ ________
October_______ _________________
__
November_______________________ __
December............. .......... ................. __
1932:
January.................................
February. ...................... .......
March. _ _________
April...................... ..................
M ay________ __________________
June_ ______ _______
_
July..... ......................... .
August_______ _________ _
September_____ ____ _______________
October_________________ ________
November__________________________
December.................................... ..........
1933:
January.................... ...............
February_________ ______
March. .................... ................
April____ _____ _____________
M a y ._________ _____________
J u n e ..._____ __________
J u ly ____________________________
August____ ____________________
September___________ _______________
October______ _________________
November______________________
December____ ______________
1934:
January ................. ..............................
February__________ ______. .
March____________ __________ _______
April......................................................
M ay........................ ............. .
June...... ..................... .............
July ............... ............. .................
August_________ ______ ______ _
September_ _____ _______________
_
October.................. ................................
November.........................................
December. _______________________
1935:
January................................... ............. .
February....................... ........... ...........
March________ ___________

July...........................................................
October...................... ..............................

Relative
price
(1913
= 100)

Average
price

Relative
price
(1913
= 100)

Average
price

$15.66
15.15
15.44
14.91
15.38
14.94
15.33
14.84

202.7
196.1
199.8
192.9
199.1
193.4
198.4
192.1

$15.42
14.81
15.08
14.63
15.06
14.63
15.00
14.53

194.8
187.1
190.6
184.9
190.3
184.8
189. 5
183.6

$9.96
8.91
9.30
8.69
9.09
8 62
9.11
8.65

183.3
163.9
171.1
159.9
167.2
158.6
167. 6
159.1

15.12
15.09
15.09
14.45
14.22
14.33
14. 61
14.76
14.97
15.00
15.00
15.00

195.8
195.3
195.4
187.0
184.0
185.5
189.1
191.1
193.8
194.2
194.2
194.2

14.88
14.85
14.85
14.39
14.19
14.31
14.59
14.73
14.93
14.97
14.96
14.97

188.1
187.6
187.7
181.8
179.4
180.8
184.3
186.1
188. 7
189.1
189.1
189.1

8.87
8.83
8.71
8.46
8.04
8.00
8. 09
8.11
8.17
8.22
8.23
8.19

163. 2
162.5
160.3
155.8
148. 0
147.3
148.9
149.3
150. 3
151.3
151.4
150.8

15.00
14.98
14.54
13.62
13.30
13. 36
13.37
13.50
13.74
13.79
13.83
13.87

194.2
193.9
188.2
176.3
172.2
173.0
173.0
174.8
177.9
178.5
178.9
179.5

14.97
14.95
14.45
13.46
13.11
13.16
13.16
13. 28
13. 52
13.58
13.60
13. 65

189.1
188.9
182.6
170.0
165. 6
166.3
166.2
167.9
170.8
171. 5
171.9
172.5

8.17
8.14
8.01
7.85
7. 60
7.53
7.50
7.52
7.54
7. 60
7.59
7.51

150.3
149. 7
147.4
144. 5
139.9
138.6
138. 0
138.4
138.7
139.9
139.7
138.3

13.82
13.75
13.70
13. 22
12.44
12.18
12.47
12.85
13. 33
13.44
13.46
13.45

178.9
178.0
177.3
171.1
161.0
157.6
161.3
166.3
172.5
174.0
174.3
174.0

13.61
13.53
13.48
13.00
12.25
12.00
12. 26
12.65
13.12
13.23
13.26
13.24

171.9
171.0
170.4
164.3
154.8
151. 6
155.0
159.8
165.8
167.1
167.5
167. 2

7.46
7.45
7.43
7.37
7.17
7.18
7.64
7.77
7.94
8.08
8.18
8.18

137.3
137.0
136. 7
135.6
132.0
132.1
140.7
143.0
146.0
148. 7
150.6
150. 6

13.44
13.46
13.46
13.14
12.53
12.60
12.79
13. 02
13. 25
13.32
13.25
13.22

174.0
174.3
174.2
170.1
162.2
163.0
165. 5
168.5
171.4
172.4
171.6
171.1

13.25
13.27
13. 27
12.94
12.34
12.40
12.60
12.83
13.05
13.11
13.04
13.02

167.4
167.7
167.6
163.5
155.9
156.7
159.2
162.1
164.9
165.7
164.8
164.5

8.24
8.22
8.23
8.18
8.13
8.18
8.23
8.30
8.31
8.35
8.35
8.36

151.6
151.3
151. 5
150. 5
149. 5
150.5
151. 5
152.7
153.0
153.6
153. 7
153.8

13. 21
13.22
13. 21
12.67
11.90
11.82
12.06
13.04

171.0
171.1
171.0
164.0
154.0
153.0
156.1
168.8

13.01
13.02
13.01
12.47
11.70
11.63
11.86
12.83

164.4
164.5
164.4
157.6
147.8
146.9
149.9
162.1

8.37
8.39
8.39
8.24
8.11
8.05
8.12
8.41

154.0
154.4
154.4
151.7
149.2
148.1
149.3
154.7

The average retail prices of coal for household use in 51 cities as of
the 15th of January, April, July, and October, 1931 to 1934, as
reported by local dealers in each city for the different types of coal,
are shown in table 2.




T able 2.—AVER AG E R ETAIL PRICES OF COAL PER TON OF 2,000 POUNDS FOR SPECIFIED M O N TH S, 1931 TO 1934, B Y CITIES
1932

1931
City, and kind of coal

1933

1934

Atlanta, Ga.:
Bituminous, prepared sizes.............................................
Baltimore, M d.:
Pennsylvania anthracite:
Stove............................................................................
Chestnut............. ......... .............................................
Bituminous, run of mine: High volatile........................
Birmingham, Ala.:
Bituminous, prepared sizes............................................
Boston, Mass.:
Pennsylvania anthracite:
Stove.................. ........ ...............................................
Chestnut......................................................................
Bridgeport, Conn.:
Pennsylvania anthracite:
Stove.................................. .........................................
Chestnut......................................................................
Buffalo, N . Y .:
Pennsylvania anthracite:
Stove............................................................................
Chestnut......................................................................
Butte, Mont.:
Bituminous, prepared sizes.............................................
Charleston, S. C.:
Bituminous, prepared sizes.............................................
Chicago, 111.:
Pennsylvania anthracite:
Stove.............................................................................
Chestnut......................................................................
Bituminous, prepared sizes:
High volatile...............................................................
Low volatile...............................................................
Bituminous, run of mine: Low volatile........................
Cincinnati, Ohio:
Bituminous, prepared sizes:
High volatile...............................................................
Low volatile................................................................
Cleveland, Ohio:
Pennsylvania anthracite:
Stove.............................................................................
Chestnut......................................................................




Apr.
15

July
15

Oct.
15

Jan.
15

Apr.
15

July
15

Oct.
15

Jan.
15

Apr.
15

July
15

Oct.
15

Jan.
15

Apr.
15

July
15

Oct.
15

$7.60

$6.66

$6.67

$6.78

$6.46

$5.73

$5.64

$6.20

$6.12

$6.15

$5.55

$6.92

$7.02

$7.02

$6.52

$7.02

14.25
13.75
7.75

14.00
13.50
7.82

13.50
13.25
7.61

14.00
13.75
7.50

14.00
13.75
7.36

11.50
11.25
6.93

12.25
11.75
6.86

13.25
12.75
6.86

13.25
12.75
6.86

13.25
12.75
6.86

11.92
11.67
6.79

13.25
13.00
7.50

13.25
13.00
7.64

13.25
13.00
7.54

12.50
12.25
7.29

13.00
12.75
7.36

7.38

6.54

6.36

6.46

6.31

5.33

4.96

5.13

5.07

4.41

4.68

6.00

6.07

6.06

6.24

6.29

16.25
15.75

14.75
14.75

14.95
14.95

15.10
15.10

15.00
15.00

13.35
13.10

13.25
13.00

13.75
13.50

13.75
13.50

13.75
13.50

13.20
12.95

13.75
13.50

13.75
13.50

13.75
13.50

13.25
13.00

13.75
13.50

14.75
14.75

14.00
14.00

14.00
14.00

14.00
14.00

14.13
14.13

13.00
13.00

13.00
13.00

13.00
13.00

12.75
12.75

12.75
12.75

13.25
13.25

13.75
13.75

13.75
13.75

13.75
13.75

13.25
13.25

13.50
13.50

13.79
13.29

12.40
12.40

13.00
13.00

13.40
13.40

13.40
13.40

11.75
11.50

11.88
11.63

12.49
12.24

12.42
12.21

11.42
11.21

11.90
11.65

12.85
12.60

12.85
12.64

11.85
11.60

12.41
12.16

12.90
12.65

10.48

10.49

10.49

10.13

9.98

9.84

9.89

9.75

9.72

9.71

9.71

9.70

9.75

9.79

9.80

9.80

9.67

9.67

9.67

9.50

9.50

9.50

9.50

8.67

8.67

8.67

8.62

9.92

9.92

9.92

9.92

10.00

16.40
16.30

16.40
16.30

16.25
16.25

16.75
16.75

16.75
16.75

16.75
16.75

15.30
15.05

15.75
15.51

15.75
15.50

16.14
15.92

13.04
12.83

13.98
13.77

13.99
13.79

13.99
13.79

13.23
12.98

13.82
13.57

8.09
11.89
8.00

7.93
11.46
7.75

7.54
10.36
7.23

7.89
11.36
7.48

7.92
11.41
7.47

7.86
10.41
7.23

7.53
9.22
6.95

7.20
9.98
7.17

7.25
9.98
7.19

7.47
9.52
7.16

7.50
9.39
6.99

8.09
10.57
7.78

8.21
10.83
7.76

8.18
10.79
7.71

8.03
9.77
7.71

8.24
10.01
7.71

6.30
8.53

5.05
7.03

5.30
7.28

5.75
8.00

5.75
8.00

4.75
6.50

5.00
6.75

5.25
7.50

5.25
7.50

4.75
6.25

5.13
6.60

6.06
7.83

6.10
8.00

5.69
7.39

5.85
7.50

5.85
7.50

14.56
14.44

14.56
14.44

14.06
13.94

14.38
14.31

14.38
14.31

14.44
14.31

13.63
13.38

13.69
13.44

13.69
13.44

13.69
13.44

11.50
11.25

12.44
12.19

12.38
12.13

12.38
12.13

11.85
11.60

12.48
12.23

PRICES— RETAIL AND WHOLESALE

Jan.
15




6.81
9.93

6.67
9.25

6. 53
8.79

6.64
9.32

6.61
9.14

6.56
9.21

6.19
8.00

6.64
8.36

5.52
8.18

5.47
7.80

6.32
7.82

6.34
9.07

6.20
9.00

6.34
9.00

6.90
8.76

6.75
8.79

6.09
8.13

5.43
7.17

5.54
6.75

5.27
7.25

5.35
7.08

5.25
6.67

5.15
6.25

5.04
6.67

4.92
6.50

4.65
5.75

5.03
6.17

6.15
7.54

6.11
7.54

5.78
7.04

6.12
7.42

6.47
7.70

15.00
12.58

15.00
12.58

13.50
11.92

13.50
10.83

14.00
10.50

14.00
10.00

14.00
10.00

14.00
10.00

14.00
10.75

14.00
10.75

13.50
10.00

13.50
10.00

14.00
10.50

14.00
10.50

13.50
10.00

13.50
10.25

15.25
15.25
10.21

15.25
15.25
9.57

15.13
15.13
8.23

14.63
14. 63
8.13

15.00
15.00
8.21

14.88
14.88
7.87

14.75
14.75
7.95

14.50
14.50
7.61

14.50
14.50
7.02

14.19
14.19
6.92

14.50
14.50
7.37

15.00
15.00
7.66

15.58
15.58
8.03

15.50
15.50
8.04

15.50
15.50
8.18

15.50
15.50
7.81

14.92
14.92

14.50
14.50

14.50
14.50

14.50
14.50

14.50
14.50

13.67
13.58

12.92
12.71

13.29
13.13

13. 33
13.17

13.29
13.00

11.46
11.46

12.58
12.36

12.71
12.45

13.13
12.88

11.59
11.59

12.27
12.15

7.41
9.24
7.50

6.94
8.16
7.13

7.03
7.94
7.13

6.50
8.12
6.88

6.38
7.61
6.75

6.04
6.61
6.25

5.91
6.95
6.31

6.03
7.26
6.50

5.80
6.96
6.38

5.82
6.69
6.00

6.11
6.81
5.99

6.90
7.55
6.70

6.86
7.89
7.02

7.17
8.51
7.92

7.17
8.52
7.98

7.17
8.52
7.98

16.50
16.25

15.00
15.00

15.25
15.25

16.00
16.00

16.00
16.00

14.00
13.75

14.25
14.00

14.50
14.25

14.50
14.25

14.50
14.25

13.50
13.25

14.50
14. 25

14.50
14.25

14.50
14.25

13.83
13.58

14.50
14.25

17.50
12.20

16.50
11.40

16.00
10.20

16.00
10.60

15.67
10.80

15.00
10.20

14.00
9.20

14.67
9.60

14. 67
10.50

14.33
9.60

14.33
9.60

14.67
11.60

14.50
11.60

14.00
10.80

14.00
10.80

14.50
11.25

5.93
9.17
7.05

5.93
9.17
7.00

5.82
8. 25
6.70

5.73
8.25
6.60

5.71
8.04
6.60

5.54
7.96
6. 55

4.79
6.71
5.55

5.07
7.71
6.05

5.05
7.42
6.05

5.03
7.00
5.94

5.26
7.05
6.38

5.83
8.25
7.13

5.99
8.20
7.00

5.96
8.10
6.94

6.16
7.95
7.00

6.42
8.55
7.45

10.00

10.00

10.00

10.00

10.00

10.00

9.00

9.00

9.00

9.00

9.00

11.13

11.13

10.63

10.13

11.13

12.44
13.50
6.79

12.44
13.50
6.71

11.38
12.50
6.27

11.38
12.83
6.12

11.38
12.83
6.04

11.38
12.67
6.12

10.63
12.17
5.75

10.75
12.25
5.64

10.50
12.17
5.61

10.50
12.50
5.61

10.33
12.00
5.61

10.50
12.50
5.61

10.50
12.58
5.85

10.41
12.22
5.97

10.53
11.60
6.30

10.78
11.40
6.31

13.50
10.05

13.00
9.90

12.00
9.00

11.50
8.72

12.00
9.22

12.25
8. 72

11.75
8.17

10.75
8.28

10.75
8.22

10.50
7.72

10.25
7.50

10.50
8.17

10.50
8.33

10.50
8.33

10.50
8.17

10.50
8.17

16.50

16.50

15.50

16.25

16. 25

16.25

15.13

16. 25

16.25

16.25

15.25

17.30

17.04

16.78

16.27

16.78

6.24
8.75

4.93
7.50

5.08
7.75

5.05
8.00

5.23
8.31

4.73
6.75

4.68
6.75

4.68
7.25

4.64
7.25

4.51
6.75

4.62
6.88

5.61
7.94

5.46
7.83

5.20
7.25

6.16
7.92

6.25
7.79

RETAIL PRICES IN UNITED STATES

Bituminous, prepared sizes
High volatile............... ..............................................
Low volatile................................................................
Columbus, Ohio:
Bituminous, prepared sizes:
High volatile...............................................................
Low volatile................................................................
Dallas, Tex.:
Arkansas anthracite: Egg__...........................................
Bituminous, prepared sizes.............................................
Denver, Colo.:
Colorado anthracite:
Furnace, 1 and 2 mixed............................................
Stove, 3 and 5 mixed.................................................
Bituminous, prepared sizes...... ......................................
Detroit, Mich.:
Pennsylvania anthracite:
Stove............................................................................
Chestnut.................. ..................................................
Bituminous, prepared sizes:
High volatile..............................................................
Low volatile....................................... .......................
Bituminous, run of mine: Low volatile.................. .
Fall River, Mass.:
Pennsylvania anthracite:
Stove............................................................................
Chestnut.....................................................................
Houston, Tex.:
Arkansas anthracite: Egg___.........................................
Bituminous, prepared sizes.............................................
Indianapolis, Ind.:
Bituminous, prepared sizes:
High volatile...............................................................
Low volatile..........................................................
Bituminous, run of mine: Low volatile.......................
Jacksonville, Fla.Bituminous, prepared sizes...................................... .
Kansas City, Mo.:
Arkansas anthracite:
Furnace.......................................................................
Stove No. 4............ ........ ................................. ........
Bituminous, prepared sizes.............. ............................
Little Rock, Ark.:
Arkansas anthracite: E g g ............... .............................
Bituminous, prepared sizes............... ............................
Los Angeles, Calif.:
Bituminous, prepared sizes......................... ..................
Louisville, K y.:
Bituminous, prepared sizes:
High volatile...............................................................
Low volatile......... .....................................................

0
oo

01

T able 3 .—A VER AGE R ETAIL PRICES OF COAL PER TON OF 2,000 POUNDS FOR SPECIFIED M O N TH S, 1931 TO 1934, BY CITIES— Continued
1931

1932

1933

1934

City, and kind of coal
Jan.
15




July
15

Oct.
15

Jan.
15

Apr.
15

July
15

Oct.
15

Jan.
15

Apr.
15

July
15

Oct.
15

Jan.
15

Apr.
15

July
15

$16.83 $15.50 $16.00 $16.33 $16.50 $14.50 $14.50 $14.83 $14.83 $14.83 $14.00 $15.00 $15.00 $15.00 $14.50
16.83 15.50 16.00 16.33 16.50 14.50 14.50 14.83 14.83 14.83 14.00 15.00 15.00 15.00 14.50.

Oct.
15

$15.33
15.33

7.44

7.66

7.03

6.89

6.78

6.82

6.94

5. 67

5.68

5.67

5.57

6.68

7.18

7.15

7.20

7.18

15.75
15.50

15. 75
15.50

15.65
15.61

16. 05
16.05

16.05
16.05

15.05
14.80

14.45
14.20

15.05
14.80

15.05
14.80

14.05
13.80

12.54
12.29

13.25
13.00

13.25
13.00

13.25
13.00

12.66

12.91

13.55
13.30

7.70
10.57

7.70
10.60

7.45
9.75

10.01 10.01 10.01

7.48

7.45

7.45

6.97
8.75

6.97
9. 29

6.94
9.29

6.88

7.01
9.09

7.52
9.62

7.51
9.83

7.51

9.29

10.11

7.98
10.36

7.98
10.70

16.90
16.90

16.90
16.90

17.61
17.61

18.05
18.05

18.05
18.05

16.60
16.35

16.75
16. 50

17.25
17.00

17.35
17.10

14.95
14.70

14.04
13.79

15.50
15.25

15.50
15.25

14.45
14.10

15.05
14.80

15.80
15.55

9.85
12.63

9. 61
12.63

9.91
12.34

9.88
12.54

9.78
12. 54

9.34
12.04

9. 62
11.87

9. 60
11.85

9.56
11.79

9.03
11.50

9.11
11. 52

9.91
12.24

9.93
12.17

9.93
12.17

10.18
12.96

10.31
12.97

9.59

8.38

8.25

8.84

8.88

8.13

7.31

7.16

7.32

6.95

6.65

8.46

8.44

8.48

8.05

8.64

13.90
-13.40

12.70
12.70

13.30
13.32

13.55
13.55

13.55
13.55

11.75
11.50

11.75
11.50

12.19
11.94

11.88 10.00

12.13

10.25

11.69
11.44

12.70
12.45

12.75
12.50

11.75
11.50

12.15
11.90

13.20
12.80

14. 90
14.90

14.90
14.90

14.55
14.55

14.80
14.80

14.90
14.90

13.75
13.75

13.65
13.65

13.65
13.65

13.90
13.90

13.85
13.85

12.90
12.90

13.90
13.90

13.90
13.90

13.90
13.90

13.15
13.15

13.65
13.65

10.93

8.07

8.07

9.93

9.93

9.93

8.07

8.07

8.57

8.29

8.07

9.07

10.10 10.10

9.60

9.93

14.17
13. 67

12.92
12.92

13.46
13.46

13.88
13.88

13.83
13.83

11.67
11.42

12.02

12.46

12. 21

11.89
11.64

11.70
11.45

11.82
11.57

12.60
12.35

12.60
12.35

11.30
11.05

11.45

11.20

12.45

11.77

15.00
15.00

15.00 14.00
15.00 ; 14.25

14.50
14.50

14.50
14.50

14.50
14. 50

12.50
12.50

13.00
13.00

13.00
13.00

13.00
13.00

12.50
12.50

14.00
14.00

14.00
14.00

14.00
14.00

13.00
13.00

13.50
13.50

12.20

PRICES— RETAIL AND WHOLESALE

Manchester, N. H .:
Pennsylvania anthracite:
Stove.................................................................. - ........
Chestnut......................................................................
Memphis, Tenn.:
Bituminous, prepared sizes.......................................... .
Milwaukee, Wis.:
Pennsylvania anthracite:
Stove.........- .........- .....................................................
Chestnut........... .......................... ..............................
Bituminous, prepared sizes:
High volatile-------------------- --------------------------------Low volatile..................... ............ .............................
Minneapolis, Minn.:
Pennsylvania anthracite:
Stove.............................. ............ ..................... .........
Chestnut--------- ------------- -----------------------------------Bituminous, prepared sizes:
High volatile........................- .....................................
Low volatile............................ .................................
Mobile, Ala.:
Bituminous, prepared sizes.............................................
Newark, N. J.:
Pennsylvania anthracite:
Stove............ ........................................... ...................
Chestnut.................................... ........ ........ ..............
New Haven, Conn.:
Pennsylvania anthracite:
Stove................................. - .......................... ..............
Chestnut.................................... ................. ..............New Orleans, La.:
Bituminous, prepared sizes--------- ---------------------------New York, N. Y .:
Pennsylvania anthracite:
Stove....... ................- ---------- --------------------------------Chestnut------------------------------------------ ---------------Norfolk, Va.:
Pennsylvania anthracite:
Stove---- ---------- ------- -----------------------------------------Chestnut-----------------------------------------------------------

Apr.
15

7.38
10.00
7.00

7.38
9.00
7.00

7.00
9.00
7.00

6.50
8.50
6.50

7.00
9.00
7.00

6.50
7.50
6.50

6. 50
8.00
6.50

6.50
8.00
6.50

6.50
8.00
6.50

6. 50
7.50
6.38

7.50
9.00
7.50

8.00
9.50
8.00

8.00
9.50
8.00

8.00
9.00
7.50

8.00
9.50
7.88

9. 68

9.45

9.04

9.00

8.77

8.74

8.73

8. 77

8.35

8.30

8.30

8.52

8.59

8.59

8.61

8.55

6.43

6.33

6.13

6.12

6.25

6.10

6.10

6.11

6.09

6.25

5.98

6.46

6.55

6.45

6.56

6.73

14.00
13.50

12.25
12.25

12.75
12.67

13. 50
13. 50

13.50
13.50

11.00
10.75

11.00
10.75

11.75
11.50

11.75
11.50

10. 75
10.50

11.38
11.13

12.25
12.00

12.25
12.00

11.25
11.00

11.25
11.00

11.25
11.00

14.50
4.91

14.50
4.73

14.00
4.86

14.00
4.86

14.00
4.47

13.75
4.46

12.88
4.04

12.88
4.00

12.75
3.26

12.63
3.47

11. 50
3.45

12.38
4.86

12.75
4.72

13.00
4.75

12.75
4.47

12.75
4.20

16.80
16.80

15.84
16.80

16.32
16.32

16.80
16.80

16.80
16. 80

14.88
14.64

15.36
15.12

15.84
15.60

15.84
15.60

12.97
12.73

13.98
13. 73

14.50
14. 25

14.50
14.25

14.50
14.25

14.00
13.75

14.50
14.25

13.38

13.21

12.54

12. 51

12.07

11.98

11.96

11.86

11. 52

11.40

11.60

12.96

12.71

12.71

12.67

11.59

U6.00 114.75 115. 25 1 15. 75 115.75 U4.00 114.00 114. 50 114. 75 U4.75 113.45 114.75
U6.00 114.75 115.25 115. 75 115.75 113.75 113. 75 114.25 114. 50 114. 50 113. 20 114. 50

14.75
14.50

15.00
14.75

14. 63
14.38

14.75
14.50

15.00
15.00

15.00
15.00

14.00
14.00

14. 50
14. 50

14.50
14. 50

14.00
14.00

12.88
12.88

13.38
13. 38

13.50
13.50

13.50
13.50

12.75
12.75

13.75
13. 75

14.00
14.00

14.00
14.00

12.50
12.50

13.00
13.00

8.75
9.83
7.50

8.75
9.83
7.50

7.67
8. 31
6.75

8.17
8.81
7.25

8.00
8.80
7.25

7. 25
8.05
6.75

6. 67
7.43
6.39

6.83
7.98
6.71

6.83
8.08
6.75

6.83
8.08
6.75

7.17
7. 65
6. 50

7.33
8.40
6.75

7.83
8.88
7.25

7.83
8.88
7.25

7.50
8.37
7.00

7.67
8.87
7.75

14.50
14.00

13.38
13.38

13.78
13.78

14.38
14.38

14. 38
14. 38

12. 50
12. 25

12.38
12.13

13.38
13.13

13.25
13.00

12.50
12.25

12.10
11.85

13.10
12.85

13.10
12.85

13.10
12.85

12.60
12.35

13.10
12.85

16. 23
15.98
6. 40

16.20
15.95
5.86

16.47
16.47
5. 51

16.72
16.66
5.70

16.47
16.47
5.57

16.47
16.47
5.61

14. 72
14. 72
5.16

15.16
15.16
5.45

15. 22
15.22
5.44

15.22
15. 22
5. 39

13.91
13.66
4. 67

13.91
13. 72
5. 50

13.91
13. 72
5.54

13.97
13.72
5.59

13.65
13.53
6.44

13.70
13.51
5.63

16.90
16.90

16.90
16.90

17.65
17.65

18.05
18.05

18.05
18.05

16.60
16. 35

16.75
16. 50

17.35
17.10

17.35
17.10

14.95
14.70

14.05
13.80

15. 50
15.25

15.50
15.25

14.45
14.20

15.00
14.75

15.80
15.55

9. 58
12. 66

9.70
12.80

9.60
12. 51

9.60
12.56

9.60
12. 56

9.36
12.06

9.55
11.87

9. 40
11. 87

9.40
11.86

8. 70
11. 53

8.83
11. 62

10.00
12.33

9.78
12.33

9.78
12.33

10.15
13.16

10.15
13.10

8.47

7.58

7.63

7.63

7.58

7. 54

7.39

7.39

7.01

6. 99

7.00

7. 79

7.80

7.38

7.37

7.38

1The average price of coal delivered in bins is 50 cents higher than here shown.




7.00
9.00
7.00

RETAIL PRICES IN UNITED STATES

Bituminous, prepared sizes:
High volatile..............................................................
Low volatile............................ .......... ........................
Bituminous, run of mine: Low volatile____ ____ ___
Omaha, Nebr.:
Bituminous, prepared sizes............................................
Peoria, 111.:
Bituminous, prepared sizes.............................. .............
Philadelphia, Pa.:
Pennsylvania anthracite:
Stove..... .......... ......................................... ................
Chestnut.................. _............ ....................................
Pittsburgh, Pa.:
Pennsylvania anthracite: Chestnut________________
Bituminous, prepared sizes________________________
Portland, Maine:
Pennsylvania anthracite:
Stove.............. ................... ......................... ............
Chestnut— ...................... ............................. ..........
Portland, Oreg.:
Bituminous, prepared sizes________________________
Providence, R. I.:
Pennsylvania anthracite:
Stove---------------------------------------------------------------Chestnut_______________________ _________ ____
Richmond, Va.:
Pennsylvania anthracite:
Stove--------------------------------------------------------------Chestnut_____________________________ _____ _
Bituminous, prepared sizes:
High volatile______________________________ ___
Low volatile____________________ ___________
Bituminous, run of mine: Low volatile_____________
Rochester, N. Y .:
Pennsylvania anthracite:
Stove__________________________________________
Chestnut_______ _____ ________________________1
St. Louis, Mo.:
Pennsylvania anthracite:
Stove_________________ _____ __________________
Chestnut___________________, __________________
Bituminous, prepared sizes......... ................. .................
St. Paul, Minn.:
Pennsylvania anthracite:
Stove....................................................................... .
Chestnut...................................................................
Bituminous, prepared sizes:
High volatile____ _________________ _____ ______
Low volatile________________ ___ ________ _____
Salt Lake City, Utah:
Bituminous, prepared sizes................................ ..

Practically all coal is delivered in bin.

05

Ol

Or

able

656

T

2 .—AVER AGE R ET AIL PRICES OF COAL PER TON OF 2,000 POUNDS FOR SPECIFIED M O N TH S, 1931 TO 1934, B Y CITIES—Continued

1932

1931
City, and kind of coal
Jan.
15

2 All coal sold in Savannah is weighed by the city.
s Per ton of 2,240 pounds.




July
15

Oct.
15

Jan.
15

Apr.
15

July
15

Oct.
15

Jan.
15

Apr.
15

July
15

Oct.
15

Jan.
15

Apr.
15

July
15

$26.00 $26.00 $25.00 $26.00 $26. 00 $26.00 $25.00 $25.00 $25.00 $25.00 $25.00 $25.63 $25.63 $25.63 $25.63
25.75 25.50 24. 50 25. 50 25. 50 25. 50 24. 50 24.50 24. 50 24. 50 24. 50 25.11 25.11 25.11 25.11
17.00 17.00 16.00 17.00 17.00 17.00 15.00 15.00 15.00 15.00 15.00 16.06 16.06 16.06 15.04

Oct.
15

$25. 63
25.11
15.04

2 8.44 210.04 210.04

29.70

2 9.53

2 10.03

8.85
8.60

7.81
7.56

8.44
8.19

8.63
8.38

2 10.53

2 9. 62

2 9. 62

29. 28

2 8. 53

2 8 . 53

2 8. 28

2 8.45

2 8. 28

2 8.06

10.18
9.88

9.30
9. 28

9.80
9.78

10. 30
10. 28

10.05
10.03

8.55
8. 28

8. 63
8. 35

9. 27
9.00

8.93
8.68

8. 65
8.40

10. 79

10.88

9.80

10. 62

10. 54

10.24

9.01

9.86

9.79

9.94

9. 38

9.69

9.92

9.93

9.78

9.82

4.34

4.34

4.34

4. 34

4.34

4.34

4. 39

3. 79

3. 68

3.79

3. 75

4.06

4.06

4.08

4.10

4.54

12.76 314.91 315.40 315.40 313. 36 313. 56 314.46 314.46 314.12 313. 30 314.45 314.45 314.45 313.70
12.76 314.91 315.40 315.40 313.06 313.26 314.15 314.15 313.83 313.04 314.15 314.15 314.15 313.40

3 14.30
314.00

315.73
315. 23
3 8. 61
311.43
3 7.81

7.39 3 8. 36 38.46 3 8.46 3 8. 29
9. 32 310.77 311.04 310. 54 3 9.86
6.98 3 7.77 3 7.75 3 7.75 3 7.50

3 8. 29 3 8.29 3 8.18 3 8.14
3 9.86 310.21 310.13 310.02
3 7. 50 3 7.50 3 7.50 3 7.38

A charge of 10 cents per ton or half ton is made.

8.06
7. 81

8.81
8.56

3 8.06 3 8.69 3 8.64 3 8.64 3 8. 56
3 9.47 310. 31 310.31 310.19 310.00
3 7. 40 3 7.88 3 7.98 3 8.02 3 8.02

This additional charge has been included in the above price,

3 9.00
3 10.47
3 8.02

PRICES --R E T A IL AND WHOLESALE

San Francisco, Calif.:
New Mexico anthracite: Cerillos e g g ---........... ..........
Colorado anthracite: Egg__________________________
Bituminous, prepared sizes........................ .......... ........
Savannah, Ga.:
Bituminous, prepared sizes.................................. ..........
Scranton, Pa.:
Pennsylvania anthracite:
Stove__________ ____________________ _______ _
Chestnut____________________________________ —
Seattle, Wash.:
Bituminous, prepared sizes______ ______ _____ _____
Springfield, 111.:
Bituminous, prepared sizes------ ---------- --------------------Washington, D. C.:
Pennsylvania anthracite:
Stove______________ _______ ________ _________
Chestnut___________________________ _____ ____
Bituminous, prepared sizes:
High volatile__________________________ ________
Low volatile________________________ ________
Bituminous, run of mine: Mixed___________________

Apr.
15

t934

1933

657

RETAIL PRICES IN UNITED STATES

R etail Prices of G as
T h e net price per 1,000 cubic feet of gas for household use in each
of 51 cities for specified months from April 1913 to November 1934
is shown in the following tables. In table 1 the average family con­
sumption of manufactured gas is assumed to be 3,000 cubic feet per
month. In cities where a service charge or a sliding scale is in opera­
tion, families using less than 3,000 cubic feet per month pay a some­
what higher rate than here shown, while those consuming more than
this amount pay a lower rate. The figures here given are believed to
represent quite closely the actual monthly cost of gas per 1,000 cubic
feet to the average wage-earner’s family. Prices for natural gas and
for manufactured and natural mixed gas are shown in table 2 for
those cities where it is in general use. These prices are based on an
estimated average family consumption of 5,000 cubic feet per month.
T

1 — N E T PR ICE PER 1,000 CUBIC F E E T OF M A N U F A C T U R E D GAS BASED ON
A F A M IL Y CONSU M PTIO N OF 3,000 CUBIC F E E T , IN S PECIFIED M O N TH S FR O M
AP R IL 1913 TO N O V E M B E R 1934, B Y CITIES

able

Apr.
15,
1913

City

Atlanta___________
Baltim ore........... .
Birmingham..........
Boston....................
B u tte.___________
Charleston, S. C.__
Chicago__________
Cleveland...........
Denver....................
Detroit...... ..............
Fall River...............
Houston__________
Indianapolis______
Jacksonville...........
Manchester---------Memphis........... .
Milwaukee_______
Minneapolis______

Mobile__________

Newark...............
New Haven______
New Orleans_____
New York________
Norfolk....................
Omaha.....................
Peoria____________
Philadelphia-........
Portland, M aine._
Portland, Oreg___
Providence.............
Richmond...............
Rochester.......... .
St. L ouis...............
Paul..................
Salt Lake City___
San Francisco____
Savannah................
Scranton.................
Seattle____________
Springfield,
Washington, D. C .
Honolulu, Hawaii.

St.

111___

June Dec.
15,
15,
1929 1929

June Dec.
15,
15,
1930 1930

June Dec.
15,
15,
1931 1931

$1.00 $1.43 $1.43
.90
.85
.85 $0.85 $0.85 $0.85
1.00
.80
.80
.80
.80
.80
.81 1.18 1.16 1.16 1.16 1.16
1.49 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10
1.10 1. 55 1. 55 1.55 1.55 1.45
.80
.98
.98
.98
i.98
i.98
.80 1.25 1.25 1. 25 1. 25 1. 25
.85
.75
.79
.79
.79
.79
.79
.80 1.15 1.14 1.14 1.14 1.14
1.00
.60
.95
.95
.95
.95
.95
1.20 1.92 1.92 1.92 1.92 1.92
1.10 1.34 1. 34 1.34 1. 34 1.34
1.00
.75
.82
.82
.82
.82
.82
.85
.89 1.05
.89
.96
.96
1.10 1. 76 1. 76 1. 76
1.00 1.20 1. 21 1. 21 1.21 1. 21
.90 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.13
1.10
.84 1.25 1. 24 1. 24 1. 24 1.24
1.00 1.33 1. 32 1. 32 1. 32 1.32
1.15
.95
.95
.95
.88
.88
.90 1. 20 1.20 1. 20 1. 20 1.20
1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
.95
1.10 1.42 1.42 1.42 1.42 1.42
.95 1.17 1.17 1.17 1.17 1.17
.85 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.13
.90 1.29 1.29 1. 29 1. 29 1.29
.95 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
.80 1.11 1.11 1.11 1.11 1.11
.90
.90
...9 5
.90
.90
.90
.87 1. 51
.90
.90
.75
1.45 1.45 1.45 1.45 1.45
'"."95" 1.40 1.40 1.40 1.40 1. 40
1.00 1.45 1.45 1.43 1.43 1.43
1.00 1.25 1.25 1. 25 1. 25 *1. 25
.93 1.00 1.00 1.00
.95
.95
1. 77 1.77 1.77 1.77 1.77

June Dec. June Dec.
15,
15,
15,
15,
1932 1932 1933 1933

June Nov.
15,
15,
1934 1934

$0.85 $0.85 $0.85 $0.85 $0.85 $0.85
.80
.80
.80
.80
.80
.80
1.16 1.16 1.16 1.16 1.16 1.16

$0.85
.80
1.16

1.45

1.45

1.45

1.45

1.45

1.40

1.40

1.25

1.25

1. 25

1.25

1.25

1.25

1.25

.79
1.14

.77
1.14

.77
1.14

.77
1.14

.79
1.14

.79
1.14

.79
1.14

.95
1.92
1.34

.95
1.92
1.34

.95
1.92
1. 34

.95
1.92
1. 34

.95
1.92
1.34

.95
1.92
1.34

.95
1.92
1. 34

.82
.96

.82
.96

.82
.96

.82
.96

.82
.96

.82
.96

.82
.96

1. 21
1.13

1. 21
1.13

1. 21
1.13

I. 21
1.13

I. 21
1.13

1. 21
1.13

1. 21
1.13

1.24 1. 23 1.23 1. 21 1. 22 1. 21
1. 32 1. 32 1. 28 1.18 1.18 1.18
.79
.79
.79
.79
.79
.76
il. 19
.88
.95
.95
.88
.88
.88
1.42 1.42 1. 42 1.42 1.42 1.42
1.17 1.17 1.17 1.17 1.17 1.17
1.13 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.13
1. 29 1. 29 1. 29 1.29 1. 29 1. 29
1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
31. 10 31. 10 41.30 n . 30 41. 30 <1.30
.90
.90
.90
. 90
. 90
.90

1. 21
1.18
.71
.88
1.42
1.17
1.13
1.29
1.00
4 1.30
.90

1.45
1.40
1.43
2 1 . 25
.95
1.77

1.45
1.40
1.43

1.45
1.40
1.48

1.45
1.40
1.48

1.45
1.40
1.42

1.45
1.40
1.48

1.45
1.40
1.48

.93
1.73

.85
1.73

.85
1.68

.85
1. 68

.85
1.68

.85
1. 68

1 Price based on 15.9 therms, which is the equivalent of 3,000 cubic feet of gas of a heating value of
530 British thermal units.
2 Price based on 17 therms which is the equivalent of 3,000 cubic feet of gas of a heating value of 565 British
thermal units.
3 Price based on 18 therms which is the equivalent of 3,000 cubic feet of gas of a heating value of 600 British
thermal units.
4 Price based on 24 therms which is the equivalent of 3,000 cubic feet of gas of a heating value of 800 British
thermal units.

19205— 36-------43




658
T

PRICES— RETAIL AND WHOLESALE

2 .—N E T PRICE PER 1,000 CUBIC F E E T OF N A T U R A L GAS A N D OF M IX E D M A N U ­
FAC T U R E D A N D N A T U R A L GAS BASED ON A F A M IL Y C O N SU M PTIO N OF 5,000 CUBIC
F E E T, IN SPECIFIED M O N TH S F R O M AP R IL 1913 TO N O V E M B E R 1934, B Y CITIES

able

Apr.
15,
1913

City

June Dec.
15,
15,
1929 1929

June Dec.
15,
15,
1930 1930

June Dec.
15,
15,
1931 1931

June Dec.
15,
15,
1932 1932

June Dec.
15,
15,
1933 1933

June Nov.
15,
15,
1934 1934

Atlanta__________
$1.17 $1.09 $1.09 $1.09 $1.09 $1.09 $1.09 $1.09 $1.09
Buffalo,.................. $0.30 $0.65 $0.65
.65
.65
.65
.65
.65
.65
.65
.65
.65
Butte_____________
.70
.70
.70
.70
.70
.70
il. 32 il. 32 il. 32 il. 32 il. 30 il. 30
Chicago__________
Cincinnati______ _ .30
.75
.75
.75
.75
.75
.75
.75
.75
.75
.75
.75

$1.09
.65
.70
i 1.30
.75

Cleveland________
Columbus...............
Dallas____________
Denver........... ........
Houston________ _

.30
.30
.45

.60
.48
.79
.99
.75

.60
.48
.79
.99
.75

.60
.48
.79
.99
.75

.60
.48
.79
.99
.75

.60
.48
.79
.99
75

.60
.48
.79
.99
.75

.60
.48
.79
.99
.75

.60
.48
.79
.99
.75

.60
.55
.79
.99
.75

.60
.55
.79
.99
.75

.60
.55
.79
.99
.75

.53
.55
.79
.96
.75

Kansas City______
Little Rock_______
Los Angeles______
Louisville________
Memphis_________

.27
.40

.95
.65
.84
.45
.97

.95
.65
.84
.45
.95

.95
.65
.84
.45
.95

.95
.65
.84
.45
.95

.95
.65
.84
.45
.95

.95
.65
.84
.45
.95

.95
.65
.84
.45
.95

.95
.65
.84
.38
.95

.95
.65
.82
.45
.95

.95
.65
.79
.45
.95

.95
.65
.79
.56
.95

.95
.65
.79
.58
.95

.95

.95

.95

1.24
.95

1.24
.95

1.24
.95

.60

.60

.60

.60

.60

1. 24 1. 24 1.24 1.24 1. 24
.95
.95
.95
.95
.95
21.95 21. 95 21. 95 21.95 21. 95
.60
.60
.60
.60
.60
.60

1.24
.95
21.95
.60

.99

.99
.97

.99
.97

.99
.97

.99
.97

.99
.99
.99 1.01 1.01
.97
.97
.97
.97
.97
22.00 22.00 22.00 22.00 21.28

1.01
.97
2 1. 28

.65
—

Mobile. _________
New Orleans_____
Peoria____________
Pittsburgh_______

.28

Salt Lake City___
San F r a n c i s c o .
Springfield, 111------

1 Price based on 40 therms which is the equivalent of 5,000 cubic feet of gas of a heating value of 800 British
thermal units.
2 Price based on 50 therms which is the equivalent of 5,000 cubic feet of gas of a heating value of 1,000
British thermal units.

From the prices quoted on manufactured gas, average prices have
been computed for all of the cities combined and are shown in table 3
for specified months of each year from 1913 to 1934. These prices
are based on an estimated average family consumption of 3,000 cubic
feet.
Relative prices have been computed by dividing the price in each
year by the price in April 1913.
T

3 .— A V E R A G E A N D R E L A TIV E N E T PRICE OF M A N U F A C T U R E D GAS, BASED
ON A F A M IL Y C O N SU M PTIO N OF 3.000 CUBIC F E E T, FOR T H E U N IT E D STATES, IN
SPECIFIED M O N TH S 1913 TO 1934

able

Date

Apr. 15,1913........ .......... ..........
Apr. 15, 1914..............................
Apr. 15,1915.............................
Apr. 15,1916................—..........
Apr. 15,1917________________
Apr. 15,1918.............................
Apr. 15, 1919..............................
Apr. 15,1920.............................
M ay 15,1921........................ .
Sept. 15, 1921........... .................
Dec. 15,1921________ ______
Mar. 15, 1922........... .................
June 15, 1922.......... .............. .
Sept. 15, 1922...................... .......
Dec. 15, 1922________________
Mar. 15, 1923____ ____________
June 15, 1923___ _____________
Sept. 15, 1923____ ____________
Dec. 15, 1923________________
Mar. 15,1924________________
June 15, 1924................... ..........
Sept. 15, 1924..............................




Average Relative
net price
price
per 1,000 (April 1913
=100)
cubic feet
$0.95
.94
.93
.92
.91
.95
1.04
1.09
1.32
1.31
1.30
1.29
1.27
1.26
1.25
1.25
1. 24
1.24
1.25
1.24
1.24
1.24

100.0
98.9
97.9
96.8
95.8
100.0
109.5
114.7
138.9
137.9
136.8
135.8
133.7
132.6
131.6
131.6
130.5
130.5
131.6
130.5
130.5
130.5

Date

Dec. 15, 1924______ __________
June 15, 1925________________
Dec. 15, 1925____ ____________
June 15, 1926____ ____________
Dec. 15, 1926____ ____________
June 15, 1927______ __________
Dec. 15, 1927______ __________
June 15, 1928...... .......................
Dec. 15, 1928..................... .........
June 15, 1929.......... .......... .........
Dec. 15,1929........ ............... .
June 15, 1930_ ______________
_
Dec. 15, 1930____ ____________
June 15, 1931___ ____ ________
Dec. 15,1931____ ____________
June 15, 1932________________
Dec. 15, 1932________________
June 15, 1933...... .......................
Dec. 15, 1933______ __________
June 15, 1934________________
Nov. 15, 1934________________

Average Relative
net price
per 1,000
(April
cubic feet 1913=100)
$1.24
1.23
1.23
1.23
1.22
1.22
1.22
1.21
1.22
1.22
1. 21
1.21
1.18
1.18
1.15
1.15
1.15
1.14
1.14
1.14
1.14

130.5
129.5
129.5
129.5
128.4
128.4
128.4
127.4
128.4
128.4
127.4
127.4
124.2
124.2
121.1
121.1
121.1
120.0
120.0
120.0
120.0

RETAIL PRICES IN UNITED STATES

659

Gas Prices, October 1935
R e s i d e n t i a l rates for gas are secured quarterly from 50 cities.
For many years past these rates have been used for computing aver­
age prices based on the consumption of 3,000 cubic feet of manu­
factured gas and of 5,000 cubic feet of natural gas.
A new method of reporting prices of gas for household use has
recently been developed and is presented here. Under this method
prices for all cities are based on a definite number of heat units,
instead of the variable number of heat units represented by 3,000 or
5,000 cubic feet of gas of widely different heating values. Total net
monthly prices and average prices per thousand cubic feet and per
therm have been computed for each city for four service classifications
which include appliances most generally used for domestic purposes.
These prices are based on consumption factors representing the
heating value of the gas expressed in therms (1 therm equals 100,000
British thermal units). The services and consumption factors used
for computing prices are: Range, 10.6 therms; range and manualtype water heater, 19.6 therms; range and automatic-storage or
instantaneous water heater, 30.6 therms; and range, automatic-storage
or instantaneous water heater, and refrigerator, 40.6 therms.
These blocks of consumption have been determined from a careful
analysis of reports representing conditions in all sections of the United
States. They have been approved by engineers in the utility field as
typical of the average use of gas for each service for a five-room house.
Prices based on these blocks of consumption provide a means of com­
paring the cost for a specific service in each of the 50 cities.
The amount of gas used for various services is affected by local
practices and conditions. This is particularly true of cities located
in the natural gas fields where low prices encourage a generous use
for the services covered in this report and, in addition, promote the
use of radiant-type heaters. In cities served with manufactured
gas, generated from fuel shipped from a considerable distance, the
tendency is toward a conservative use of the product. These dif­
ferences, however, do not detract from the value of a comparison of
prices based upon a definite standard of consumption.
The number of cubic feet used for computing prices varies from
city to city in accordance with the heating value of the gas. The
heating value for the cities covered in this report ranges from 500
to 600 British thermal units for manufactured gas and from 800 to
1,150 British thermal units for natural gas or mixed manufactured
and natural gas.
Although the heating value of natural gas is greater than that of
manufactured gas, the efficiency per British thermal unit that can
be utilized by the customer is somewhat less because of the sluggish
nature and lazy flame of natural gas. No adjustment has been
made for this difference in efficiency. Should further study indicate
the need for such an adjustment, it will be included in later reports.
The total monthly bill for gas and prices per thousand cubic feet
and per therm for each of the 50 cities on October 15, 1935, are shown
in table 4.
Specifications used as the basis for computing prices are those
applicable to a five-room house, consisting of living room, two bed­
rooms, dining room, and kitchen, as shown in the rate schedules.




TABLE 4 .—T O TA L N E T M O N T H L Y BILL A N D PRICES PER THOUSAND CUBIC F EET A N D PER T H E R M FOR SPECIFIED AM O U N TS OF GAS BASED
ON RATES AS OF OCT. 15, 1935, B Y CITIES
Average monthly consumption in cubic feet, and total net
monthly bill

Average net monthly price
Per thousand cubic feet for—

Range, 10.6
therms

Cubic
feet
New England:
Boston..........................
Fall River. - ...............
Manchester.................
New Haven................
Portland, Maine........
Providence..................
Middle Atlantic:
Buffalo.........................
Newark........................
New York: *
Bronx....................
Brooklyn..............
Manhattan..........
Queens..................
Richmond............
Philadelphia...............
Pittsburgh..................




Price
D ollars

Range'and
water heater
(manual type),
19.6 therms

Cubic
feet

M
M
M
M
M
M
M

528
528
528
525
628
525
510

2,010
2,010
2,010
2,020
2,010
2,020
2,080

2.51
2.31
2.53
2.85
2.41
3.03
2.57

3,710
3,710
3,710
3,730
3,710
3,730
3,840

X
M

900
525

1,180
2,020

.77
2.69

M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
N
N
N

537
537
537
537
537
537
537
637
537
530
1,130
1,100
1,100

1,970
1,970
1,970
1.970
1.970
1,970
1,970
1.970
1.970
2,000
940
960
960

2.32
2.32
2.35
2.45
2.59
2.32
2.32
2.32
3,12
1.80
3 1.00
3 1.00
3 1.00

Price
D ollars

Range and
automatic
storage or
instanta­
neous water
heater, 30.6
therms

Cubic
feet

4.21
4.27
4.06
4.82
4.11
5.16
4.16

5,800
5,800
5,800
5,830
5,800
5,830
6,000

2,180
3,730

1.42
4.31

3,650
3,650
3,650
3,650
3,650
3.650
3.650
3,650
3,650
3,700
1,730
1,780
1,780

4.28
4.28
3.98
4.07
4.40
4.28
4.28
4.28
5.12
3.25
1.04
1.07
1.07

Price

Range, auto­
matic storage
or instanta­
neous water
heater, and
refrigerator,
40.6 therms

Cubic
feet

Price

Range,
Range auto­
and
matic
Range
Range
auto­
stor­
and
and
water matic age or
water
stor­ instan­
Range heater age or taneous
heater
Range
(man­
con­
(man­
con­
instan­ water
sum­
ual
ual
taneous heater, sum­
ing
type)
type)
ing
and
water
con­
10.6
con­
refrig­
10.6
therms sum­ heater erator
con­
therms sum­
ing
ing
sum­
con­
19.6
19.6
ing
therms
therms
30.6
ing
therms
40.6
therms

D o llars D ollars D ollars D o llars D o llars

D o llars

Per therm for—

Cents

Cents

Range
and
auto­
matic
stor­
age or
instan­
taneous
water
heater
con­
sum­
ing
30.6
therms

Range,
auto­
matic
stor­
age or
instan­
taneous
water
heater,
and
refrig­
erator
con­
sum­
ing
40.6
therms

Cents

Cents

5.76
5.69
5.94
5.67
6.20
6.49
6.10

7,690
7,690
7,690
7,730
7,690
7,730
7,960

7.27
7.20
7.64
6.92
8.09
8.03
7.86

1.25
1.15
1.26
1.41
1.20
1.50
1.24

1.13
1.15
1.09
1.29
1.11
1.38
1.08

0.99
.98
1.02
.97
1.07
1.12
1.02

0.95
.94
.99
.90
1.05
1.04
.99

23.7
21.8
23.9
26.9
22.7
28.6
24.2

3,400
5,830

2.21
6.06

4,510
7,730

2.93
7.29

.65
1.33

.65
1.16

.65
1.04

.65
.94

7.3
25.4

7.2
22.0

7.2
19.8

7.2
18.0

5,700
5,700
5,700
5,700
5,700
5,700
5,700
5,700
5,700
5,770
2,710
2,780
2,780

6.69
6.69
5.97
6.06
6.59
6..69
6.69
6.69
7.11
5.00
1.63
1.67
1.67

7,560
7,560
7,560
7,560
7,560
7,560
7,560
7,560
7,560
7,660
3,590
3,690
3,690

8.86
8.86
7.76
7.86
8.58
8.86
8.86
8.86
8.90
6.61
2.15
2.21
2.21

1.18
1.18
1.19
1.24
1.31
1.18
1.18
1.18
1.58
.90
1.06
1.04
1.04

1.17
1.17
1.09
1.12
1.21
1.17
1.17
1.17
1.40
.88
.60
.60
.60

1.17
1.17
1.05
1.06
1.16
1.17
1.17
1.17
1.25
.87
.60
.60
.60

1.17
1.17
1.03
1.04
1.13
1.17
1.17
1.17
1.18
.86
.60
.60
.60

21.9
21.9
22.2
23.1
24.4
21.9
21.9
21.9
29.4
17.0
9.4
9.4
9.4

21.8
21.8
20.3
20.8
22.4
21.8
21.8
21.8
26.1
16.6
5.3
5.5
5.5

21.9
21.9
19.5
19.8
21.5
21.9
21.9
21.9
23.2
16.3
5.3
5.5
5.5

21.8
21.8
19.1
19.4
21.1
21.8
21.8
21.8
21.9
16.3
5.3
5.4
5.4

21.5
21.8
20.7
24.6
21.0
26.3
21.2

18.8
18.6
19.4
18.5
20.3
21.2
19.9

17.9
17.7
18.8
17.0
19.9
19.8
19.4

PRICES— RETAIL AND WHOLESALE

Region and city

Heat­
ing
value
per
Kind cubic
foot in
of
gas1 Brit­
ish
ther­
mal
units

OS
OS

Rochester..................._
Scranton.................. __
East North Central:
Chicago.................. .
Cincinnati...................
Cleveland........... ........
Columbus-.................

Portland, Oreg...........
San Francisco.............
Seattle4......................-

537
520

1,970
2,040

1.97
3.10

3,650
3,770

3.65
4.97

5,700
5,880

5.56
7.08

7,560
7,810

7.05
9.01

1.00
1.52

1. 00
1. 32

.98
1.20

.93
1.15

18.6
29.2

18.6
25.4

18.2
23.1

17.4
22.2

X
N
N
N
N
M
M
M
N
N

800
800
900
1,030
1,030
530
570
520
1,000
1,000

1,330
1,330
1,180
1,030
1,030
2,000
1,860
2,040
1,060
1,060

1.93
.98
3.75
3.75
3.75
1.71
1.77
1.73
2.12
1.91

2,450
2,450
2,180
1,900
1,900
3,700
3,440
3,770
1,960
1,960

3. 33
1.74
1.10
1.05
.91
3.16
3. 27
3.03
3.46
3.36

3,830
3,830
3,400
2,970
2,970
5,770
5,370
5,880
3,060
3,060

4.69
2.64
1.77
1.63
1.43
4.93
5.10
4.61
5.15
4.65

5,080
5,080
4,510
3,940
3,940
7,660
7,120
7,810
4,060
4,060

5.39
3.40
2.38
2.17
1.89
6.55
6.76
6.02
6.05
5.56

1.45
.74
.64
.73
.73
.86
.95
.85
2.00
1.80

1. 36
.71
.50
.55
.48
.85
.95
.80
1.77
1.71

1.22
.69
.52
.55
.48
.85
.95
.78
1.68
1. 53

1.06
.67
.53
.55
.48
.86
.95
.77
1.49
1. 37

18.2
9.2
7.1
7.1
7.1
16.1
16.7
16.3
20.0
18.0

17.0
8.9
5.6
5.3
4.6
16.1
16.7
15.5
17.7
17.1

15.3
8.6
5.8
5.3
4.7
16.1
16.7
15.1
16.8
15.3

13.3
8.4
5.9
5.3
4.7
16.1
16.7
14.8
14.9
13.7

N
X
M
X
M

1,000
800
550
800
550

1,060
1,330
1,930
1,330
1,930

1.35
1.96
1.54
2.03
1.74

1,960
2,450
3,560
2,450
3,560

2.17
3.09
2.43
3.31
3.20

3,060
3,830
5,560
3,830
5,560

3.12
4.47
3. 53
4.88
5.00

4,060
5,080
7,380
5,080
7,380

3.98
5.68
4. 53
6.17
6.64

1.27
1.47
.80
1. 53
.90

1.11
1.26
.68
1. 35
.90

1. 02
1.17
.63
1.27
.90

.98
1.12
.61
1.21
.90

12.7
18.5
14.5
19.2
16.4

11.1
15.8
12.4
16.9
16.3

10.2
14.6
11.5
15.9
16.3

9.8
14.0
11.2
15.2
16.4

N
M
M
M
M
M
M
X

980
500
550
535
530
525
575
600

1,080
2,120
1,930
1,980
2,000
2,020
1,840
1,770

1.78
1.80
2.70
4.03
2.40
2.63
2. 30
1. 55

2,000
3,920
3,560
3,660
3,700
3,730
3,410
3,270

2. 70
3. 33
4.98
6.34
4.36
4.78
4.26
2.77

3,120
6,120
5,560
5,720
5,770
5,830
5, 320
5,100

3.77
4.78
7.18
8.20
6.62
7. 43
6.65
4.20

4,140
8,120
7,380
7,590
7,660
7,730
7,060
6,770

4.38
6.08
9.00
9.88
8. 51
9.82
8.83
5.49

1.65
.85
1. 40
2.04
1.20
1.30
1.25
.88

1. 35
.85
1. 40
1.73
1.18
1.28
1. 25
.85

1. 21
.78
1.29
1.43
1.15
1.27
1. 25
.82

1.06
.75
1.22
1.30
1.11
1.27
1.25
.81

16.8
17.0
25.5
38.0
22.6
24.8
21.7
14.6

13.8
17.0
25.4
32.3
22.2
24.4
21.7
14.1

12.3
15.6
23.5
26.8
21.6
24.3
21.7
13.7

10.8
15.0
22.2
24.3
21.0
24.2
21.7
13.5

M
N
N
N

500
900
975
960

2,120
1,180
1,090
1,100

1.70
.92
1.52
2. 33

3,920
2,180
2,010
2,040

3.14
1.43
2.49
3.60

6,120
3,400
3,140
3,190

4.90
2.06
3.61
5.02

8,120
4,510
4,160
4,230

6. 50
2.64
4.23
5.70

.80
.78
1. 39
2.12

.80
.66
1.24
1.76

.80
.61
1.15
1. 57

.80
.59
1. 02
1. 35

16.0
8.7
14.3
22.0

16.0
7.3
12.7
18.4

16.0
6.7
11.8
16.4

16.0
6.5
10.4
14.0

N
N
N
N

1,015
1,000
1,000
950

1,040
1,060
1,060
1,120

1.28
1.19
1.10
1.26

1,930
1,960
1,960
2,060

1.88
1.77
1.61
2.10

3,010
3,060
3,060
3,220

2.61
2.49
2.22
3.15

4,000
4,060
4,060
4,270

3.28
3.14
2.78
4.09

1. 23
1.12
1.04
1.13

.97
.90
.82
1.02

.87
.81
.73
.98

.82
.77
.68
.96

12.1
11.2
10.4
11.9

9.6
9.0
8.2
10.7

8.5
8.1
7.3
10.3

8.1
7.7
6.8
10.1

N
N
N

850
830
865

1,250
1,280
1,230

1.81
2.18
2.12

2,310
2,360
2,270

2.29
3.34
3.26

3,600
3,690
3,540

2.87
4.19
4.15

4,780
4,890
4,690

3.40
4.82
4.86

1.45
1. 70
1.72

.99
1.42
1.44

.80
1.14
1.17

.71
.99
1.04

17.1
20.6
20.0

11.7
17.0
16.6

9.4
13.7
13.6

8.4
11.9
12.0

N
N
M
N
M

1,100
1,100
570
1,150
500

960
960
1,860
920
2,120

1.26
1.26
2.34
1.38
3.25

1,780
1,780
3,440
1,700
3,920

1.82
1.82
3.98
2.05
5.67

2,780
2,780
5,370
2,660
6,120

2.51
2.51
5.96
2.86
5.33

3.690
3.690
7,120
3,530
8,120

3.14
3.14
7.63
3.60
6.46

1.31
1. 31
1.26
1. 50
1. 53

1.02
1.02
1.16
1.21
1.45

.90
.90
1.11
1.08
.87

.85
.85
1.07
1.02
.80

11.9
11.9
22.1
13.0
30.7

9.3
9.3
20.3
10.5
28.9

8.2
8.2
19.5
9.3
17.4

7.7
7.7
18.8
8.9
15.9

i The different kinds of gas are indicated as follows: M , manufactured; N, natural; and X , mixed manufactured and natural.
3 Prices include 2 percent sales tax.
3 Minimum charge.
4 Prices include 3 percent sales tax.
* Prices include 1 percent sales tax.




RETAIL PRICES IN UNITED STATES

Detroit4......................
Indianapolis................
Milwaukee..................
Peoria.........................
Springfield..................
West North Central:
Kansas C ity».............
Minneapolis. ........... .
Omaha.......................
St. Louis 5... ...............
St. Paul.......................
South Atlantic:
Atlanta........................
Baltimore....................
Charleston, S. C ____
Jacksonville................
Norfolk........................
Richmond................. Savannah....................
Washington................
East South Central:
Birmingham,,...........
Louisville4..................
Memphis....................
Mobile.........................
West South Central:
Dallas..........................
Houston...... ...............
Little Rock2
...............
New Orleans...............
Mountain:
Butte...........................
Denver2...... ........ .......
Salt Lake City3.........
Pacific:
Los Angeles......... .......

M
M

05

662

PRICES— RETAIL AND WHOLESALE

R etail Prices of E le c tric ity
T h e following table shows for 51 cities the net rates per kilowatthour of electricity used for household purposes on June 15 and De­
cember 15 for the years 1931, 1932, and 1933, and on June 15 and
November 15, 1934. These rates were published each year in con­
junction with the cost-of-living study. For the cities having more
than one tariff for domestic consumers the rates are shown for the
schedule under which most of the residences were served.
Several cities have sliding scales based on a variable number of
kilowatt-hours payable at each rate. The number of kilowatt-hours
payable at each rate in these cities was determined for each customer
according to the watts of installation, either in whole or in part, in
the individual home. The number of watts so determined is called
the customer’s “ demand.” Footnotes applicable to these cities are
shown in the table.
T

able

1 .— N ET

PRICE PER K IL O W A T T -H O U R FOR E L E C T R IC IT Y FOR H O USEH OLD
USE FOR 51 CITIES IN SPECIFIED M O N TH S OF 1931, 1932, 1933, A N D 1934
1931

City

Measure of consumption per
month

First 25 kilowatt-hours.................
Next 35 kilowatt-hours.................
Next 140 kilowatt-hours...............
Excess_________________________
Baltimore............. First 50 kilowatt-hours.................
Next 175 kilowatt-hours...............
Birmingham........ First 4 kilowatt-hours per room.
Next 6 kilowatt-hours per room.
Boston................... First 2 kilowatt-hours per 10 0
square feet of floor area.
Next 70 kilowatt-hours.................
Excess.......... ....................................
Bridgeport---------- First 400 kilowatt-hours...............
Buffalo--------------- First 15 kilowatt-hours or le ss...
Next 45 kilowatt-hours............—
Excess............ ..................................
Butte______ _
First 25 kilowatt-hours_________
Next 25 kilowatt-hours,........... .
Next 100 kilowatt-hours...............
Charleston, S. C . First 30 kilowatt-hours.................
Next 40 kilowatt-hours_________
Chicago_________ First 3 kilowatt-hours per room.
Next 3 kilowatt-hours per room.
Excess........ .....................................
Cincinnati______ First 5 kilowatt-hours per room,
minimum, 20 kilowatt-hours.
Next 5 kilowatt-hours per room,
minimum, 20 kilowatt-hours.
Excess.......... ..............................
Cleveland:
Company A — First 240 kilowatt-hours...............
Excess..............................................
Company B „ Service charge.................................
First 600 kilowatt-hours...............
Columbus......... . First 30 kilowatt-hours.................
Next 60 kilowatt-hours.................
First 800 kilowatt-hours...............
D allas-............. Denver, _........ . . . First 40 kilowatt-hours.................
Atlanta____ ____

N e x t 30 k ilo w a t t -h o u r s

Excess...............................................
Detroit.............. — First 3 kilowatt-hours per active
room, minimum, 3 rooms.
Next 50 kilowatt-hours............... .
Excess.................................. ...........
F a ll River
First 25 kilowatt-hours_____
Next 75 kilowatt-hours_________

See footnotes at end of table.




1932

1933

1934

June Dec.
15
15

June Dec.
15
15i

June Dec.
15
15i

June Nov.
15
15

C ents Cents Cents Cents Cents Cents C ents Cents
6.5
6.5
6.5
210 0 .0 210 0 .0 210 0 .0 2 10 0 .0 a 100.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
*5.0 *5.0 *5.0 *5.0 8 6 .0
3.0
3.0
3.0
6 3.0 6 3.0 6 3.0 6 3.0 6 4.5

1.5
5.0
3.4
6.5
5.0
7.5

1.5
5.0
3.4
6.5
5.0
7.5

1.5
5.0
3.4
6.5
5.0
7.0

5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
5.3
5.3
ii 5.5 ii 5. 5
5.3
5.3
12 5.0 12 5.0 1 5.0 12 5.0 12 5.0 12 5.0
2
3
3
3
1 4.0 1 4.0 1 4.0 1 4.0 1 4.0 1 4.0
3
3
3
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5

5.0
3.0
5.3
75.0
3.8
1.5

5.0
3.0
5.3
75.0
3.8
1.5

8 .0

8 .0

8 .0

4.0
3.0
8.5

4.0
3.0
8.5

6.0

6 .0

8 6.7 8 6.7
8 3.4 «3.4
10 7 .7 1 0 7 .7

7.5

8 .0

7.5

8 .0

7 3.0
8 6.7
5.0
3.4
9 3.4 »3.4
io 7 .7 io 7 .7 1 7.7
0
8 6.7

7.5

8 .0

7.5

8 .0

7.5

8 .0

4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
io 9.0 io 9.0 io 9.0 io 9.0 io 9.0

4.0
3.0
8.5
6 .0

7.0
7.6
7.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
1 * 10 .0 i* 10 .0 1 * 10 .0 1 * 10 .0 1 * 10 . 0 1 * 1 0 .0 1 * 10 .0

7.0
5.0
3.0
5.0

6
1 5.0 is 5.0 1 5.0 1 5.0 1 5.0 1 5.0 1 5.0
8
8
5
6
6

3.0

7.0
5.0
3.0

7.0
5.0
3.0

7.0
5.0
3.0

7.0
5.0
3.0

3.0

2 .0

4.0
io 5.0 1 5.0 1 5.0 1 5.0
6
6
6
4.0
4.0
2 .8
1 4.0 1 4.0 1 4.0 1 4.0
7
7
7
7
2 .8
2 .8
30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0 15.0 15.0 15.0
2.9
2.9
3.0
3.0
2.9
3.0
3.0
* 6 .0 * 6 .0 < 6 .0 * 6 .0 * 6 .0 < 6 .0 * 6 .0
8
1 5.0 1 5.0 1 5.0 is 5.0 1 5.0 is 5.0 is 5.0
8
8
8
6 .0
6 .0
5.8
5.8
5.8
5.8
6 .0
6 .0
1 7.0 is 7.0
9
6 .0
6 .0
6 .0
6 .0

4.0

3.0

3.0

6 .0

6 .0

5.0
9.0

5.0
9.0

3.0

5.0
9.0

3.0

5.0
9.0

3.0

3.0

2 .8

15.0
2.9
5.0
4.5
5.5
6 .0

5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
9.0 20 Q.o 20 9 .0 20 9 .0

3.6
2.3

3.6
2.3

3.6
2.3

3.6
2.3

3.6 203.6 20 3.6 20 3 .6
2.3 20 2 .3 20 2.3 20 2.3

8 .0

8 .0

8 .0

8 .0

8 .0

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

8 .0

5.0

8 .0

8 .0

5.0

5.0

663

RETAIL PRICES IN UNITED STATES
T

1 .—N E T PRICE PER K IL O W A T T -H O U R FOR E L E C T R IC IT Y FOR HOUSEHOLD
USE FOR 51 CITIES IN SPECIFIED M O N TH S OF 1931, 1932, 1933, A N D 1934— Continued

able

1931
Measure of consumption per
month

City

Houston................ First 3 kilowatt-hours per room,
minimum, 4 rooms.
Next 100 kilowatt-hours...............
Indianapolis......... First 100 kilowatt-hours------------Next 100 kilowatt-hours........ .......
Jacksonville_____ First 500 kilowatt-hours________
Kansas City........ First 5 kilowatt-hours per room,
minimum, 3 rooms.
Next 5 kilowatt-hours per room.
Excess................... ...........................
Little Rock.......... Service charge for 4 rooms or less;
for each additional room, 10
cents is added.
First 6 kilowatt-hours per room.
Next 6 kilowatt-hours per room.
Next 200 kilowatt-hours...............
Los Angeles_____ First 35 kilowatt-hours................
Next 140 kildwatt-hours..........—
Louisville-............ First 40 kilowatt-hours.................
Excess--------------------------------------Manchester.......... First block: 3 rooms, 15 kilowatthours; 4 rooms, 18 kilowatthours; 5 rooms, 21 kilowatthours; 6 rooms, 24 kilowatthours; 7 rooms, 27 kilowatthours; 8 rooms, 30 kilowatthours.
Second block: Number of kilo­
watt-hours equal to first block.
Memphis_______ First 10 kilowatt-hours per room,
minimum, 4 rooms.
Next 500 kilowatt-hours________
Excess....................................... .......
Milwaukee........... First 9 kilowatt-hours for each of
the first 6 active rooms, plus
first 7 kilowatt-hours for each
active room in addition to the
first 6.
Next kilowatt-hours up to a
total of 150 kilowatt-hours.
Excess..............................................
First 3 kilowatt-hours per room,
Minneapolis____
minimum, 2 rooms.
Next 3 kilowatt-hours per room_.
Excess------------------ --------------------Mobile................. First 4 kilowatt-hours per room.
Next 6 kilowatt-hours per room.
Next 300 kilowatt-hours------------Newark................. First 20 kilowatt-hours.................
Next 20 kilowatt hours.................
Next 10 kilowatt-hours_________
Excess..............................................
New Haven......... First 400 kilowatt-hours. - ........ .
Nfiw Orleans
Service charge__________________
First 50 kilowatt-hours.................
Next 50 kilowatt-hours-------------Next 150 kilowatt-hours.............
New York:
Company A „ 10 kilowatt-hours or less...............
Next 5 kilowatt-hours______ . _

1932

June Dec.
15
15

June Dec.
15
15

1934

1933

June Dec. June
N15
° V*
15
15

Cents Cents Cents Cents Cents Cents Cents Cents
7.0

6.0

6.0

4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
<6.5 <6.5 <6.3 <6.3 <6.3 4 6.3
2 6.0 2i 6.0 21 6 .0 21 6 .0 21 6 .0 21 6 .0
i
7.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
6.5
6.5
6.5
6.5
6.5
6.5

4.0
5.8
5.0
7.0
6.5

4.0
5.8
5.0
7.0
6.5

4.5
2.5
50.0

4.5
2.5
50.0

7.0

4.5
2.5
50.0

7.0

4.5
2.5
50.0

7.0

4.5
2.5
50.0

7.0

4.5
2.5
50.0

7.0

4.5
2.5
50.0

4.5
2.5
50.0

7.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
2 3.0 *2 3.0 22 3.0 22 3.0 22 3.0 22 3 .0 22 3.0
2
3.0
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.8
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
3
3
3
5.0 20 5.0
2 7.6 2 7.6 2 7.6 2 7.6 2 7.6 2 7.6
3
3
3
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0 20 3.0
3.0
3.0
10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0

6.0
5.5

5.5

3. 0
1.5
6.2

3.0
1.5
6.2

6.0

6.0

6.0

6.0

is 8.0 is 8 .0 is 8.0 1 7.0 is 7.0 is 7.0
5

6.0

6.0

6.0

5.0
6.2

5.0
6.2

4
4
2 5.0 2 5.0 2 5 .0
4
5.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
6.2
6.2
6.2
6.2

2.9

2.9

2.9

2.9

2.9

2.9

2.9

2.9

1.9
8.6

1.9
8.6

1.9
7.6

1.9
7.6

1.9
7.6

1.9
7.6

1.9
7.6

1.9
7.6

7.1
7.1
2.9
2.9
2 80.0 2 80.0
5
5
2 5.0 2 5.0
6
6

7.1
2.9
6.5
5.0
2.5
9.0
7.0
6.0
3.0
5.3
25.0
2 9.1
8
2 7.8
7
6.5

7.1
2.9
6.5
5.0
2.5
9.0
7.0
6.0
3.0
5.3
25.0
7.5
4.0
2.5

7.1
2.9
6.5
5.0
2.5
9.0
7.0
6.0
3.0
5.3
25.0
7.5
4.0
2.5

7.1
7.1
7.1
2.9
2.9
2.9
5
80. 0 25 80. 0 2 80.0
2 5.0 2 5.0 2 5.0
6
6
6
6 3.0 6 3.0 6 3.0
9.0
9.0
9.0
7
2 8.0 2 8.0
7
8.0
7.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
5.3
ii 5.5 ii 5.5
25.0 25.0 25.0
2 9.1 2 9.1 2 9.1
8
8
8
2 7.8 2 7.8 2 7.8
7
7
7
6.5
6.5
6.5

25

6 3 .0

6 3 .0

9.0
9.0
7.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
3.0
3.0
5.3
5.3
25.0 25.0
2 9.1 2 9.1
8
8
2 7.8 2 7.8
7
7
6.5
6.5

2 7.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
9
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
n 9.5 n 9.5 11 9.5 95.0 95.0 95.0 95.0
1
Company B__ 10 kilowatt-hours or less............... 1 9.5
0
8.0
3 9.0 3 9 .0
0
Next 24 kilowatt-hours_________
8.0
3 4.0 31 4.0
1
4.0
4.0
Next 86 kilowatt-hours_________
2
Company C__ 10 kilowatt-hours or less............... 3 7.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
Next 5 kilowatt-hours__________
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
Excess.._______________________
6.5
6.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.0
7.0
7.0
N orfolk............... First 100 kilowatt-hours...............
5.5
5.5
5.5
5.5
5.5
5.5
5.5
5.5
Omaha........... .......... First 10 kilowatt-hours per room.
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
Next 160 kilowatt-hours.......... ..
3
3
Peoria___________ 10 kilowatt-hours or less________ 3 9.0 3 9.0 33 9.0 33 9.0 83 9.0 75.0 75.0 75.0
5.0
5,0
5.0
4
4
4
4
Next 6 kilowatt-hours per active 3 6.0 3 6.0 3 6.0 3 6.0 34 6 . 0
room.
2
2
2
3.0
3.0
3.0
Next 24 kilowatt-hours per ac­ 22 3.0 12 3 . 0 2 3.0 2 3.0 2 3.0
tive room.
EXAASS

See footnotes at end of table.




________________ _

664

PRICES— RETAIL AND WHOLESALE

NET PRICE PER KILOWATT-HOUR FOR ELECTRICITY FOR HOUSEHOLD
USE FOR 51 CITIES IN SPECIFIED MONTHS OF 1931, 1932, 1933, AND 1934—Continued

T able

1 .—

City

N e x t 150 k ilo w a t t -h o u r s

P itts b u r g h

__

_

E xcess

E xcess

.

1933

1934 '

June Dec. June Dec. June Dec. June Nov.
15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

Philadelphia:
Company A— 10 kilowatt-hours or less...............
Next 40 kilowatt-hours.................
Company B „ First 20 kilowatt-hours.................
Next 20 kilowatt-hours.................
Next 10 kilowatt-hours________
Excess_______________________
First 15 kilowatt-hours________
Next 20 kilowatt-hours.................
Portland, Maine. First step: 3 rooms, 15 kilowatthours; 4 rooms, 18 kilowatthours; 5 rooms, 21 kilowatthours; 6 rooms, 24 kilowatthours; 7 rooms, 27 kilowatthours; 8 rooms, 30 kilowatthours.
Second step: 3rooms, 35 kilowatthours; 4 rooms, 42 kilowatthours; 5 rooms, 49 kilowatthours; 6 rooms, 56 kilowatthours; 7 rooms, 63 kilowatthours; 8 rooms, 70 kilowatthours.
Portland, Oreg.:
Company A .. First 30 kilowatt-hours for a
connected load of 600 watts
or less; for each additional 25
watts of connected load add 1
kilowatt-hour.
N e x t 15 k i lo w a t t - h o u r s

1932

1931

Measure of consumption per
month

Cents Cents Cents Cents Cents Cents Cents Cents

75.0 75.0 75.0 75.0 75.0 75.0
36 6.0 36 6.0 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5
22 3.0 22 3.0
3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
9.0 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.0
8.0 8.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0
7.0 7.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0
3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
36 8.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0
37 5.5 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
27 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0

75.0
36 6.0
22 3.0
9.0
27 8.0
3.0
36
37 5.5
27 4.0
3.0
8.0

75.0
36 6.0
3.0
9.0
*7 8.0
3.0
36 8.0
37 5.5
27 4.0
3.0
8.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

2.0
5.5

2.0
5.5

2.0
5.5

2.0
5.5

2.0
5.5

2.0
5.5

2.0
5.5

2.0
5.5

g .O

.......

22

3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8
Company B__ First 30 kilowatt-hours for a 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5
connected load of 600 watts
or less; for each additional 25
watts of connected load add 1
kilowatt-hour.
Next 40 kilowatt-hours................. 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
Excess. ______________________ 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8
2 50.0 2 50.0 50.0 50.0 50.0 50.0 50.0 50.0
Providence_____
Next 60 kilowatt-hours................. ii 6.5 ii 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5
4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
Next 30 kilowatt-hours________
Richmond______ First 100 kilowatt-hours_______ 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.0 7.0 7.0 6.5 6.5
Rochester______ 12 kilowatt-hours or less_______ 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.0 5.0 5.0
Next 48 kilowatt-hours.............
Next 40 kilowatt-hours................. 4.0 4.0 38 4.0 38 4.0 39 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
St. Louis:
Company A .. First 32 kilowatt-hours________ 40 6.7 40 6.7 40 6.7 40 6.7 40 6.7 4.8 4.8 4.8
Next 168 kilowatt-hours............... 22 2.4 22 2.4 22 2.4 22 2.4 2*2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4
Company B__ First 25 kilowatt-hours................ 41 6.7 41 6.7 4i 6.7 4i 6.7 4i 6.7 4.3 4.3 4.3
Next 150 kilowatt-hours_______ 22 2.4 22 2.4 22 2.4 22 2.4 2 2 2 . 4 2.4 2.4 2.4
St. Paul___ ____ First 3 kilowatt-hours per room, 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6
minimum 2 rooms.
Next 3 kilowatt-hours per room.. 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1
Excess_______________________ 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9
Salt Lake City— Service charge including 11 kilo­ 90.0 90.0 90.0 90.0 90.0 4290.0 4*90.0 4*90.0
watt-hours.
Excess_______________________ 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0
San Francisco___ Service charge________________ 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0
First 30 kilowatt-hours for 6 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5
rooms or less, 5 kilowatt-hours
added for each additional
room.
Next 140 kilowatt-hours............... 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5
Savannah______ First 25 kilowatt-hours............ . 2100.0 2100.0 2100.0 2100.0 2100.0 *100.0 6.5 6.5
Next 35 kilowatt-hours................. 4 6.0 <6.0 4 6.0 4 6.0 *6.0 4 6.0 5.0 5.0
Next 140 kilowatt-hours_______ 6 3.0 6 3.0 6 3.0 6 3.0 6 3.0 6 3.0 3.0 3.0
First 50 kilowatt-hours________ 2100.0 2100.0 *100.0 *100.0 *100.0 *100.0 7.0 7.0
Excess............................................... ii 5,0 ii 5,0 ii 5,0 ii 5,0 ii 5,0 ii 5.0 5.0 5.0
N e x t 40 k ilo w a tt-h o u r s
E xcess
_
__
_____

3 k i lo w a t t -h o u r s o r le s s

_____

_

_

38

S cra n to n

____

See footnotes at end of table,




38

665

RETAIL PRICES IN UNITED STATES
T

1 — N E T PRICE PER K IL O W A T T -H O U R FOR E L E C T R IC IT Y FOR HO U SEH O LD
USE FOR 51 CITIES IN SPECIFIED M O N TH S OF 1931, 1932, 1933, A N D 1934— Continued

able

1931
City

Measure of consumption per
month

1932

1933

1934

June Dec.
15
15

June Dec.
15
15

June Dec.
15
15

June Nov.
15
16

Seattle:
Cents
Company A._ First 40 kilowatt-hours.................
5.5
2.0
Next 200 kilowatt-hours...............
Company B__ First 40 kilowatt-hours.................
5.5
2.0
Next 200 kilowatt-hours...............
Springfield, 111.:
6.0
Company A .. First 30 kilowatt-hours.................
Next 30 kilowatt-hours................. 4 3.0
3
Next 40 kilowatt-hours_________
Company B._ First 30 kilowatt-hours.................
6.0
Next 30 kilowatt-hours................. 4 3.0
3
Next 40 kilowatt-hours_________
Washington......... First 50 kilowatt-hours................. ii 4.2
Next 50 kilowatt-hoUrs_________
Honolulu, Hawaii First 100 kilowatt-hours...............
8.0

Cents Cents C ents C ents Cents Cents

5.5
2.0
5.5
2.0

5.5
2.0
5.5
2.0

5.5
2.0
5.5
2.0

5.5
2.0
5.5
2.0

5.5
2.0
5.5
2.0

5.5
2.0
5.5
2.0

6.0
4 3.0
3

5.0
4.0
3.0
6.0
4.0
3.0
3.9
3.8
7.5

5.0
4.0
3.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
3.9
3.8
7.5

5.0
4.0
3.0
6.0
4.0
3.0
3.9
3.6
7.5

5.0
4.0
3.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
3.9
3.6
7.5

5.0
4.0
3.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
3.9
3.3
7.5

6.0
4 3.0
3
n 4.2
8.0

C ents

5.5
2.0
5.5
2.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
3.9
3.3
7.5

I Federal tax of 3 percent is applicable to rates for Dec. 15, 1932, and June 15,1933.
3 Service charge.
* Service charge including 5 kilowatt-hours.
4 First 50 kilowatt-hours.
8 Next 25 kilowatt-hours.
6 Next 150 kilowatt-hours.
7 Next 145 kilowatt-hours.
8 First 20 hours’ use of demand; minimum, 25 kilowatt-hours. The demand is the maximum normal
rate of use of electricity in any half-hour period of time. It may be estimated or determined by the com­
pany from time to time according to the customer’s normal use of electricity and may equal the total
installation reduced to kilowatts.
8 Next kilowatt-hours equal to 8 times the consumption at the primary rate; minimum, 200 kilowatthours.
1 First 100 kilowatt-hours.
0
II All current.
1
8
First 60 hours’ use of demand. The demand shall be calculated at 25 percent of the total number of
lamp sockets rated at 40 watts each, minimum 250 watts, plus 2^$ percent of the rating of heating and
cooking devices of 1,500 watts or over, and 25 percent of other devices larger than one-half horsepower.
1 Next 120 hours’ use of demand as shown in note 12.
3
1 Service charge per room.
4
1 First 6 kilowatt-hours per room; minimum, 4 rooms.
8
1 First 40 kilowatt-hours.
8
1 Next 200 kilowatt-hours.
7
1 Next 75 kilowatt-hours.
8
1 First 15 kilowatt-hours.
8
8 Plus State tax of 3 percent.
0
3 Next 50 kilowatt-hours.
1
3 Excess.
3
8 First 30 kilowatt-hours plus balance of consumption up to 6 kilowatt-hours per room.
8
8 Next 6 kilowatt-hours per room, minimum 4 rooms.
4
8 Service charge for house of 3 rooms, consumption of 5 kilowatt-hours included. Ten cents extra is
8
charged for each additional room; not more than 10 rooms counted.
8 Next 45 kilowatt-hours.
8
8 Next 30 kilowatt-hours.
7
8 First 20 kilowatt-hours.
8
8 First 1,000 kilowatt-hours.
8
3 Next 21 kilowatt-hours.
0
8 Next 89 kilowatt-hours.
1
8 First 60 hours’ use of demand. The demand, when not determined by meter, has been computed at
8
50 percent of total installation in residences, each standard socket being rated at 50 watts, and all other
outlets being rated at their actual kilowatt capacity.
8 First 4 kilowatt-hours per active room.
3
8 Next 4 kilowatt-hours per active room.
4
8 Next 38 kilowatt-hours.
8
8 First 10 kilowatt-hours.
8
8 Next 20 kilowatt-hours.
7
8 Next 90 kilowatt-hours.
8
8 Next 34 kilowatt-hours.
8
4 First 9 kilowatt-hours per active room.
0
4 Four rooms or less, 18 kilowatt-hours; 5 or 6 rooms, 27 kilowatt-hours; 7 or 8 rooms, 36 kilowatt-hours.
1
4 Plus State tax of 2 percent.
8
4 Next 70 kilowatt-hours.
3

Electricity Prices, October 1935
R e s id e n t ia l rates for electricity are secured quarterly from 51
cities. Rate schedules applicable to domestic consumption since 1913
in each of these cities have been published by the Bureau of Labor
Statistics.



666

PRICES— RETAIL AND WHOLESALE

In November 1934 a method was devised for reporting typical bills
and prices per kilowatt-hour for electricity. These bills are com­
puted from the rate schedules for each city and are based upon the
requirements of a five-room house, including living room, dining room,
kitchen, and two bedrooms. They represent the use of 25 kilowatthours and 40 kilowatt-hours for lighting and small appliances: 100
kilowatt-hours for lighting, appliances, and refrigeration; and 250
kilowatt-hours for lighting, appliances, refrigeration, and cooking.
Since these bills are computed upon identical consumption blocks,
comparisons of prices can be made between cities. These bills do not,
however, measure the variations in cost insofar as it is affected by
differences in average family consumption in the various cities.
Total and unit net monthly prices of electricity for each of 51 cities
as of October 15, 1935, are shown in table 2.
The specifications used as the basis for application of rates are:
Floor area: 1,000 square feet.
Connected load:
W atts
Lighting and appliances_____________________________________
700
Refrigeration_______________________________
300
Cooking__________________________________________________ 6, 000
Measured demand:
Lighting and appliances_____________________________________
600
Refrigeration_______________________________________________
100
Cooking__________________________________________________ 2, 300
Outlets: Fourteen 50-watt.
Active room count: In accordance with schedule of rates.
T a ble 3 .—T O T A L A N D U N IT N E T M O N T H L Y PRICES OF SPECIFIED AM O U N TS OF
E L E C T R IC IT Y BASED ON R ATES AS OF OCT. 15, 1935, B Y CITIES
[P=private utility, M=municipal plant]
Total net monthly price

Net monthly price per kilowatt-hour

New England:
Boston........................ P -Bridgeport................. P ~
Fall River..................P „
Manchester............—P ~
New Haven............... P._
Portland, Maine___ P ~
Providence.................P__
Middle Atlantic:
Buffalo................ .......P—
Newark...................... P ~
New Y o rk :1
Bronx................ P -.
P -.
Brooklyn_______P „
Manhattan_____P ~
Queens................ P ~
P -.
Richmond.......... P_.
Philadelphia. ........... P . .
Pittsburgh................. P—
Rochester................... P—
Scranton.....................P._

Light­
Light­
ing, ap­ ing, ap­
pliances, pliances,
Lighting and
refrig­
and
small appliances
erator,
refrig­
and
erator
range

Light­
Light­
ing, ap­ ing, ap­
pliances, pliances,
refrig­
and
erator,
refrig­
and
erator
range

25 kilo­
watthours

Region and city

Lighting and
small appliances

40 kilo­
watthours

100 kilo­ 250 kilo­
wattwatthours
hours

100 kilo­ 250 kilo­
wattwatthours
hours

$1.55
1.31
1.75
2.00
1.31
1.88
1.87

$2.30
2.05
2,60
2.80
2.05
2.63
2.81

$5.10
4.87
5.20
5.00
4.87
4.73
5.60

$9.60
8.90
9.35
8.00
8.90
7.73
9.63

6.2
5.3
7.0
8.0
5.3
7.5
7.5

1.13
1.92

1.70
2.60

3.06
4.50

5.31
8.75

1.79
1.79
1.79
1.79
1.79
2.17
2.19
1.50
1.25
1.59
1.63

2.55
2.55
2.55
2.55
2.55
3.26
3.17
2.25
2.00
2.26
2.45

4.90
4.90
4.90
4.90
4.90
6. 38
5.62
4. 25
4.00
4.56
4.85

8.21
8.21
8.21
8. 21
8.21
13.01
9.09
7.50
8.50
7.81
9.35




40 kilo­
watthours

C ents

i Prices include 2 percent sales tax.

25 kilo­
watthours

C ents

Cents

C ents

6.8
5.1
6.5
7.0
5.1
6.6
7.0

5.1
4.9
5.2
5.0
4.9
4.7
5.6

3.8
3.6
3.7
3.2
3.6
3.1
3.9

4.5
7.7

4.3
6.5

3.1
4.5

2.1
3.5

7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
8.7
8.8
6.0
5.0
6.4
6.5

6.4
6.4
6.4
6.4
6.4
8.2
7.9
5.6
5.0
5.7
6.1

4.9
4.9
4.9
4.9
4.9
6.4
5.6
4.3
4.0
4.6
4.9

3.3
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.3
5.2
3.6
3.0
3.4
3.1
3.7

667

RETAIL PRICES IN UNITED STATES

T able 2 .- T 0 T A L A N D U N IT N E T M O N T H L Y PRICES OF SPECIFIED A M O U N T S OF
E L E C T R IC IT Y BASED ON R ATES AS OF OCT. 15, 1935, B Y CITIES— Continued
[P=private utility, M=municipal plant]
Total net monthly price

Region and city

Lighting and
small appliances

Net monthly price per kilowatt-hour

Light­
Light­
ing, ap­ ing, ap­
pliances,
pliances, refrig­
Lighting and
and
small appliances
erator,
refrig­
and
erator
range

Light­
Light­ ing, ap­
ing, ap­ pliances,
pliances, refrig­
and
erator,
refrig­
and
erator
range

100 kilo­ 250 kilo­
wattwatthours
hours

100 kilo­ 250 kilo­
wattwatthours
hours

25 kilo­
watthours
East North Central:
.................... P_„
Chicago2
Cincinnati................. P_.
Cleveland...................P__
M__
Columbus................ -P -M__
Detroit3..................... P_.
Indianapolis.............. P._
Milwaukee.................P._
Peoria......................... P_.
Springfield, 111.......... P_.
M__
West North Central:
Kansas City *............P._
Minneapolis.............. P „
Omaha....................... P—
St. Louis 5 ................P -„
P-_
St. Paul............................
South Atlantic:
Atlanta:
Immediate..........P -.
_
Inducement6_ P__
Baltimore...................P_.
Charleston, S. C.:
Immediate..........P—
Objective6_____ P__
Jacksonville............. M „
Norfolk.......................P._
Richmond................. P „
Savannah.................. P__
W ashington________ P__
East South Central:
Birmingham:
Immediate..........P ~
Objective ®
..........P ~
Louisville 7................ P -.
Memphis................... P „
Mobile:
Present................ P -.
Objective«..........P „
West South Central:
Dallas______________ P -.
Houston.....................P__
Little Rock
..........P._
New Orleans............ P_.
Mountain:
Butte.......................... P—
Denver 1-_ ................. P._
Salt Lake City 1 ____ P ..
Objective ® ............
....
Pacific:
Los Angeles............... P ~
P._
M Portland, Oreg................ P._
P San Francisco...................P_.
Seattle—............................ P—
M__

3

40 kilo­
watthours

$1.51
1.13
1.00
.88
1.25
1.00
1.43
1.44
1.41
1.50
1.25
1.25

$2.04
1.58
1.60
1.31
1.95
1.58
1.99
2.30
1.90
2.01
1.90
1.90

$3.75
2.88
4.00
3.05
4.50
3.80
3.65
4.80
3.60
3.57
3.90
3.02

$8.02
5.88
9.88
7.40
8.50
8.30
7.12
8.53
6.48
6.32
6.90
4.80

6.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
5.0
4.0
5.7
5.8
5.6
6.0
5.0
5.0

5.1
4.0
4.0
3.3
4.9
4.0
5.0
5.8
4.8
5.0
4.8
4.8

3.8
2.9
4.0
3.1
4.5
3.8
3.7
4.8
3.6
3.6
3.9
3.0

3.2
2.4
4.0
3.0
3.4
3.3
2.8
3.4
2.6
2.5
2.8
1.9

1.65
1.66
1.38
1.20
1.08
1.75

2.32
2.18
2.20
1.73
1.44
2.30

4.04
3.80
4.25
3.16
2.88
4.00

7.83
6.79
8.15
6.28
5.76
7.15

6.6
6.6
5.5
4.8
4.3
7.0

5.8
5.5
5.5
4.3
3.6
5.8

4.0
3.8
4.3
3.2
2.9
4.0

3.1
2.7
3.3
2.5
2.9
2.3

1.62
1.45
1.25

2.37
2.12
2.00

4.67
3.95
4.18

8.32
6.57
8.98

6.5
5.8
5.0

5.9
5.3
5.0

4.6
4.0
4.2

3.3
2.6
3.6

1.93
1. 71
1.75
1.50
1.50
1.63
.98

2.90
2.54
2.70
2.25
2.25
2.38
1.56

5.60
4.62
4.95
4.80
4.80
4.57
3.50

9.84
7.24
7.95
7.80
7.80
8.32
5.67

7.7
6.8
7.0
6.0
6.0
6.5
3.9

7.3
6.4
6.8
5.6
5.6
6.0
3.9

5.6
4.6
5.0
4.8
4.8
4.6
3.5

3.9
2.9
3.2
3.1
3.1
3.3
2.3

1.55
.98
1.29
1.38

2.30
1.56
2.06
2.20

4.05
3.20
3.91
4.25

7.60
6.95
8. 55
8.75

6.2
3.9
5.2
5.5

5.8
3.9
5.2
5.5

4.1
3.2
3.9
4.3

3.0
2.8
3.4
3.5

1. 55
1.45

2.30
2.13

4.05
3.95

7.60
6. 58

6.2
5.8

5.8
5.3

4.1
4.0

3.0
2.6

1.38
1.30
2.14
1.88

2.20
1.90
2.96
2.85

4.60
4.30
5.20
5.50

8.40
8.28
8.79
10.25

5.5
5.2
8.6
7.5

5.5
4.8
7.4
7.1

4.6
4.3
5.2
5.5

3.4
3.3
3.9
4.1

2.00
1.53
1.92
1.63

2.60
2.45
2.99
2.30

. 4.50
4.90
4.92
3.83

8.00
9.49
7.85
7.14

8.0
6.1
7.7
6.5

6.5
6.1
7.5
5.8

4.5
4.9
4.9
3.8

3.2
3.8
3.1
2.9

1.20
1.25
1.20
1.38
1.38
1.53
1.25
1.25

1.81
2.00
1.81
1.95
1.95
2.10
2.00
2.00

3.31
5.00
3.31
3.39
3.39
4.20
3.20
3.20

6.31
7.00
6.31
6.09
6.09
7.85
6.08
6.10

4.8
5.0
4.8
5.5
5.5
6.1
5.0
5.0

4.5
5.0
4.5
4.9
4.9
5.3
5.0
5.0

3.3
5.0
3.3
3.4
3.4
4.2
3.2
3.2

2.5
2.8
2.5
2.4
2.4
3.1
2.4
2.4

25 kilo­
watthours

40 kilo­
watthours

C en ts

C en ts

C ents

C en ts

i Prices include 2 percent sales tax.
2 Prices include free lamp-renewal service.
Prices include free lamp-renewal service and 3 percent sales tax.

* Prices include 1 percent sales tax.
3 Prices include free lamp-renewal service and 1 percent sales tax.

• The “ inducement” rate in Atlanta and “ objective” rate in Charleston, S. C., Birmingham, Mobile,
and Salt Lake City are designed to encourage greater use of electricity.
2 Prices include 3 percent sales tax.




668

PRICES— RETAIL AND WHOLESALE

Retail Prices of Food in the United States and in
Foreign Countries

T

HE index numbers of retail prices of food published by certain
foreign countries have been brought together with those of the
United States Bureau of Labor Statistics in the accompanying table.
The base period for the different series of indexes is as given in the
original reports.
The number of articles included in the index numbers of the dif­
ferent countries is widely variable, and no attempt has been made
to correlate the results. The figures are here published merely to
show price trends and not actual differences in prices in the several
countries. They should not, therefore, be considered as closely
comparable one with another.
In certain instances the figures are not absolutely comparable from
month to month over the entire period. These variations are due
both to slight changes in the list of commodities included and the
number of localities covered on successive dates. Caution should be
observed in the use of the figures because of these differences.
The table shows the trend in the general cost of food for each year
from 1926 to 1934, and for all months for which this information is
available from January 1933 to December 1935.




669

RETAIL PRICES IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES

I N D E X N U M B E R S OF R E T A IL FOOD PRICES IN T H E U N IT E D STATES A N D IN
F O R EIG N COUNTR IES
Country.

United
States

Australia

Austria

Belgium

Bulgaria

Canada

China

Czecho­
slovakia

Ministry
Bureau of Bureau of Federal of Indus- General Domin­ National Central
Census
Director ion Bu­
Tariff
r try.
Computing agency.
Labor
Statistics Labor,
of Statis­ reau of Commis­ Bureau of
Statistics and Sta­ Bureau
Statistics
tistics
and Social
tics
Statistics
sion
•Welfare
Number of localities.

51

30

Vienna

59

12

69

Shanghai

Prague

Commodities in­
cluded....................

42 foods

441 foods
and grocedes

18 foods

33 foods

35 foods

46 foods

24 foods

35 foods

1913

1923-27
(1000)

July 1914

1921

1926

1926

1926

July 1914

Base=100.

1926.
1927.
1928.
1929.
1930.
1931.
1932.
1933.
1934.

160.6
155.4
154.3
156.7
147.1
121.3
102.1
99.7
110.8

1027
1004
989
1047
946
830
801
754
786

116
119
119
122
118
108
110
104
101

8 170.7
3 207. 5
3 207.4
3 218.4
2 208.6
3 176.4
3 149.9
2 149.8
2142.5

100.0
97.8
102.5
106.4
86.7
68.0
62.8
59.7
59.6

100.0
98.0
98.6
101.0
98.6
77.3
64.3
63.7
69.4

100.0
106.7
92.1
98.4
118.8
107.5
101.3
86.9
86.4

8 117.8
8 126.2
8 125.5
8 123.1
114.3
104.2
99.0
95.7
79.4

94.8
90.9
90.5
90.4
93.7
96.7
104.8
8 106.9
8 107.2
8 107.0
8 106.8
8 104.7

747
742
734
746
750
759
754
767
768
764
750
769

106
103
103
103
103
106
104
104
104
104
104
104

154.4
156.1
150.4
147.7
143.0
143.4
144.0
146.6
151.2
153.3
153.6
153.6

62.9
63.3
63.1
61.8
60.6
60.2
60.9
60.4
60.4
60.7
61.6
62.4

62.8
60.6
60.4
61.3
61.9
62.2
63.2
67.8
65.9
65.4
65.8
66.6

87.3
94.8
92.3
85.2
86.0
84.1
86.3
90.0
88.0
88.1
83.2
79.8

100.4
99.3
94.9
94.1
96.8
98.8
96.8
95.2
94.2
94.2
94.6
92.7

8 105.2
8 108.2
8 108.3
8 107.4
8 108.3
8 108.8
8 110.0
8 113.6
8 116. 6
8 115. 5
8 115.1
8 114.5

767
771
774
791
798
777
779
789
791
805
795
794

104
102
101
101
100
102
100
100
101
101
102
100

150.3
146.8
141.1
136.5
132.1
134.0
136.8
143.3
146.1
149.4
150.0
144.0

62.9
64.0
62.7
61.5
60.9
60.7
61.7
60.8
61.0
61.8
62.1
62.1

67.7
69.4
72.9
71.0
68.6
67.6
68.4
69.3
68.8
69.4
69.9
69.3

78.0
80.4
75.0
74.2
74.4
75.4
90.2
102.8
106.7
98.9
89.7
90.4

92.9
91.3
75.9
75.5
76.8
79.6
79.6
78.9
77.1
77.1
76.1
75.8

8 118.1
8 122.2
8 121.7
8 124.7
8 124.3
8 123.4
8 121.6
8 122.7
8 124.0
(»)
(6)
09

800
798
795
795
802
805
812
820
826
827

100
99
98
97
98
103
102
101
101
103
103
102

142.0
138.2
130.8
133.4
136.0
141.4
143.8
146.6
154.3
159.5

61.4
62.3
60.7
60.3
59.6
60.0
61.1
59.1
59.1
59.6

68.8
69.2
69.5
68.6
68.7
69.3
69.3
71.3
70.9
72.4
73.2
73.7

90.8
91.0
85.7
88.6
88.6
89.5
90.3
88.6
89.8
86.3
90.3
88.9

75.5
76.2
76.7
76.8
78.3
82.7
83.5
83.6
81.8
81.4
81.0
81.6

1933
January____
February...
March..........
April............
M ay.............
June.............
July..............
August.........
September..
October........
November..
December...
1934
January____
February___
March..........
April............
M ay.............
June.............
July..............
August.........
September..
October____
November..
December..
1935
January. . .
February..
March........
April..........
M ay...........
June...........
July............
August___
September.
October___
November.
December.

i 46 until third quarter of 1932.
3 Computed average.
3 July.
8 Average.
8 Comparable indexes are not available. For revised indexes of 84 foods, see p. 634.




670

PRICES— RETAIL AND WHOLESALE

IN D E X N U M B E R S OF R E T A IL FOOD PRICES IN T H E U N IT E D STATES A N D
IN F O R EIG N CO U N TR IES—Continued

Germany Hungary

India

Commis­ Federal
Bureau of Ministry sion of Statistical Central
Computing agency.. Statistics of Social
Office of
Cost of
Bureau Statistics
Affairs
Living

Labor
Office

Country.

Estonia

Number of localities. Tallinn
Commodities
eluded.

Finland

France

21

Paris

72

14 foods

Foods

37 foods

Budapest Bombay

Ireland

Italy

Depart­
Office
ment of
Industry Provin­
cial of
and Com­ Economy
merce
105

Milan

29 foods

18 foods

in-

Base=100.

52 foods

1913

January- January- October
June 1914 June 1914 1913-July
1914

118
112
120
126
103
90
80
77
76

1926.
1927.
1928.
1929.
1930.
1931.
1932.
1933.
1934.

1107.8
1115.1
1150.2
1123.5
971.2
869.0
897.3
894.0
875.8

75
74
75
73
74
74
77
81
81
77
78
79

894.1
883.5
869.8
868.0
867.8
881.7
907.1
919.9
920.1
923.2
911.0
881.2

78
79
78
79
79
77
77
75
73
72
72
72

853.4
843.1
865.3
853.8
850.5
852.0
854.6
884.2
885.7

74
77
76
76
75
73
76
76
77
83
83
83

908.3
893.8
884.6
886.1
875.7
887.5
908.9
934.5
930.4
947.1
943.2
936.4

12 foods

1913

17 foods

July 1914 July 1914 JanuaryJune 1914

144.4
151.9
153.0
155.7
145.7
131.0
115.5
113.3
118.3

542

110.3
109.7
109.5

113.3
124.8
127.7
124.1
105.1
96.2
91.2
80.7
77.0

2152
2 151
3143
2 146
2134
2102
101
93
87

86.5

2529
2536
2539
2584
2609
2611
2 548
2 538
2 533

101

86.2

98

84.7
84.4
79.2
77.8
77.3
73.7
72.2
74.3

93
91
95
95
94
94
91
92
88

179
170
160
147
141
131
135

654.7
558.7
517.0
542.8
519.3
451.9
431.0
406.8
392.7

1933
January,. _
February..
March.......
April..........
M ay...........
June...........
July______
August___
September.
October___
November.
December.

532
530
548

112.8

113.7
113.5
113.4
114.4
115.9
117.1
117.8

130

426.1
422.8
416.6
405.1

126
129
140

402.4
391.2
401.5
405.1
400.5
408.9

1934
January...
February..
March.......
April..........
M ay______
June______
July............
August___
September.
October___
November.
December.

94L7
922.1

548
544
525
516

117.6
117.2
116.5
116.4
116.1
117.8
120.0
120.7
119.2
119.3
119.5
119.1

74.8
76.1
75.7
76.1

119.4
119.5
118.8
119.0
120.2
120.6
122.9
123.2
120.9
119. 6
119.9
120.9

75.8
76.9
78.2
78.0
78.2
79.8

79.6
77.2
77.9
77.9
77.7
76.0
75.7

86
85
84
83
85
87
87
90
91
92
90

133
129
134
143

421.9
407.9
406.8
404.8
391.7
383.3
383.5
376.7
377.8
381.1
386.7
390.5

1935
January.-,
February—
March........
April..........
M ay...........
June...........
July............
August___
September.
October___
November.
December.
2Computed average.




494
491
466

83.6

88

90
89
88
90
92
93
94
94
94
96
96

132

386.8
389.9
389.8
393.2
392.6

140

397*. 4
402.3

136

150

671

RETAIL PRICES IN FOREltiN COUNTRIES

IN D E X N U M B E R S OF R E T A IL FOOD PRICES IN T H E U N IT E D STATES A N D
IN F O R EIG N COUNTR IES—Continued

Country,.

Computing agency—

New
Zealand

Number of localities. Amster­
dam

Central
Bureau
of Sta­
tistics

25

Bureau
of Sta­
tistics

Norway

and Sta­
tistics
Office

Nether­
lands

31

Warsaw

Poland

South
Africa

United
Switzer­
land
Kingdom

Board of
Social
Welfare

Federal
Labor
Office

Ministry
of Labor

34

Central Office of
Census
Statisti­ and Sta­
cal Office
tistics

Sweden

509

28 foods

14 foods

Commodities in­
cluded....................

15 foods

58 foods

89 foods

25 foods

20 foods

Base=100..

1911-13

1926-30
( 1000)

July 1914

1928

( 1000)

2161.3
2163.0
2166.4
2162.4
2150.2
2135.8
2 119.2
2 120.4
2 123.6

1026
983
1004
1013
974
845
775
732
774

8198
8175
168
158
152
139
134
131
133

102.0

116.5

707
727
712
714
727
723
732
741
746
753
751
751

130
130
130
130
130
130
132
133
132
132
130
129

57.4
58.6
60.0
60.4
60.0
59.5
60.4
65.3
56.0
55.9
55.9
56.5

971
987
1029
1052
1050

750
763
769
777
780
778
780
774
771
771
780
792

128
128
128
130
130
132
133
136
135
135
134
134

54.8
55.3
54.6
55.0
52.6
61.2
51.5
52.1
51.4
51.4
49.4
48.6

1035
1038
1038
1054
1055
1041
1032
1035
1027
1039
1028
1021

"m

798
821
819
824
829
835

133
134
135
135
136
138
140
141
140
142
142
142

48.7
48.0
47.4
47.2
48.5
49.6
52.6
51.7
52.2
52.4
52.0
48.7

1021

124

1023
1024
1030
1034
1039
1019
1008
1003
998
1006

1926..
1927..
1928..
1929..
1930..
1931..
1932..
1933..
1934-

88.5

100.0
97.0
83.7
73.9
64.9
58.0
52.3

1914

21178
21185
21169
21153

*1101

21049
2 958
2 985
2 1037

49 foods

July 1914 June 1914 July 1914

2158
2152
2154
2150
2140
2131
2 125

160
158
157
156
152
141
125
117
115

164
160
157
154
145
130
125
120
125

123

118
117
116
116
116
116
116
116
117
117
117
117

123
122
119
115
114
114
118
119

2121
2 122

1933
January___
February-..
March.........
April.......... .
M ay............
June........... .
July............ .
August____
September,.
October.......
November..
December..

121.1
"mi"

931
938
950
966
976

119
120
123

122

123
126
126

1934
January___
February.
March.........
April............
M ay.............
June.............
July.............
August........
September..
October.......
November..
December..

125.5
123.1
123.6

122.1

"

120

125

117
116
115
115
115
115
115
114
114
114
115
114

124
122
120

118
116
117
122

123
126
125
127
127

1935
January.........
February___
March............
April..............
M ay...............
June...............
July................
August...........
September—
October_____
November—
December___




"nil"

"ml"
"ml"

837
875
873

8Computed average.

113

112

112
"l26
”129

"lil"
8July.

111
111

113
115
116
116
117
118
118

125
124
122
119
118

120
126
126
125
128
131
131

672

PRICES— RETAIL AND WHOLESALE

Wholesale Prices in the United States

W

H OLESALE prices in representative markets of the country
are collected either daily, weekly, or monthly by the United
States Bureau of Labor Statistics for approximately 2,500 individual
items. In some cases prices for a particular grade or quality of an
article of special importance are obtained in several different localities
in order to show the influence of local conditions. In other instances
prices for several different grades of important articles are obtained
in the same locality. In either case the quotations constitute an
individual price series. Of the total number of items included in
the Bureau’s compilation, 784 are used in constructing the series of
weighted index numbers.
Approximately 50 percent of the price quotations are obtained
from standard trade journals. This applies particularly to articles
classed as farm products, foods, metals, and chemicals and drugs.
In most instances weekly prices are taken. For the remainder of
the items prices are obtained directly from manufacturers or sales
agents, officials of boards of trade, and other confidential sources.
For a limited number of articles averages for the month represent an
average of daily quotations or an average for all sales during the
month.
As far as possible the quotations for the various commodities are
secured in their primary markets. For example, the prices quoted
for livestock and most animal products, as well as for most of the
rains, are for Chicago; flour prices are mainly for Kansas City,
linneapolis, and St. Louis; pig iron and steel for Pittsburgh, etc.
For those commodities whose prices are quite stable or are not subject
to daily and weekly changes, only once-a-month prices are taken.

f

Method of Computing Index Numbers
T h e average price of each article in the base year was multiplied
by the estimated quantity of that article marketed for the two
preceding census periods. The several products thus obtained were
then added together, giving the approximate value in exchange for
the base year of all articles in the group or in the total list of com­
modities. Similarly, aggregates wei*e likewise made for each period
by multiplying the average price by the quantity marketed and
adding the results. The index number of each period was then
obtained by comparing the aggregate for such period with the aggre­
gate for the base period, which was taken as 100.0.
The weighting factors used are changed when the results of the latest
census of manufactures are available. These weighting factors repre­
sent a simple average of the quantities reported as marketed during
the latest two census periods, to which has been added the average of
the imports for consumption for corresponding dates.
The weekly index number of wholesale commodity prices was begun
by the Bureau in January 1932. In the construction of these indexes
the same list of commodities is used as in the calculation of the
monthly and yearly indexes. The same weighting factors are em­
ployed and the indexes are constructed by the use of the same method,
namely, the aggregative method.




673

WHOLESALE PBICES IN UNITED STATES

T r e n d of W holesale Prices, 1801 to 1935
T h e trend of wholesale prices in the United States since the begin­
ning of the last century is shown by the figures in table 1. The
index numbers for the years 1801 to 1840 are arithmetic means of
unweighted relative prices of commodities as published in Bulletin
No. 367 (pp. 235-238). The index numbers for 1841 to 1889 also
are arithmetic averages of unweighted relative prices and have been
taken from the Report of Committee on Finance of the United States
Senate on Wholesale Prices, Wages, and Transportation, March 3,
1893 (52d Cong., 2d sess., Rept. No. 1394, pt. 1, p. 9). As originally
published, these figures were computed with 1860 as the base year.
They are here converted to the 1926 base. The prices used are in
currency and the number of commodities varies from approximately
150 in the earlier years to 250 in the later years of the period.
The index numbers from 1890 to 1935 are the Bureau’s regular
weighted series. In using the data in this table it should be borne
in mind that the figures in the three series here joined are not strictly
comparable, since they are based on different lists of commodities in
different markets and are, moreover, unweighted for the years prior
to 1890. They are believed, however, to reflect with a fair degree of
accuracy wholesale-price changes in general over the period stated.

T able 1.—IN D E X

N U M B E R S OF W H O LESALE PRICES, B Y Y E A R S ,

1801 TO 1935

[1926=100.0]
Year

18011802180318041805180618071808180918101811181218131814181518161817181818191820..
1821182218231824182518261827-

Index
num­
ber

111.8

91.8
93.9
101.5
104.2
102.2
96.0
93.9
98.7
107.7
104.9
106.3
123.6
154.6
121.5
103.5
104.2
102.2
89.7
76.6
73.2
75.2
71.8
71.1
71.8
71.1
71.8

Year

1828____
1829____
1830____
1831____
1832.........
1833.........
1834____
1835.........
1836____
1837____
1838____
1839____
1840____
1841____
1842____
1843.........
1844____
1845____
1846____
1847____
1848.........
1849____
1850.........
1851____
1852____
1853____
1854____

Index
num­
ber

68.3
67.6
65.6
70.4
71.1
70.4
65.6
74.6
83.5
82.8
79.4
83.5
71.1
70.5
65.7
61.8
62.1
62.6
64.8
64.9
61.8
60.1
62.3
64.5
62.5
66.4
68.8

Year

1855.
1856.
1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863.
1864.
1865.
1866.
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874.
18751876.
1877.
1878.
187918801881.

Index
num­
ber

Year

68.9
68.9
68.5
62.0
61.0
60.9
61.3
71.7
90.5
116.0
132.0
116.3
104.9
97.7
93.5
86.7
82.8
84.5
83.7
81.0
77.7
72.0
67.5
61.7
58.8
65.1
64.4

1882.........
1883-—-1884.........
1885.........
1886____
1887____
1888____
1889____
1890.........
1891____
1892____
1893____
1894____
1895____
1896____
1897____
1898____
1899____
1900____
1901____
1902____
1903.........
1904____
1905____
1906____
1907____
1908____

Index
num­
ber

Year

66.1 1909.
64.6 1910.
60.5 1911.
56.6 1912.
56.0 1913.
56.4 1914.
57.4 1915.
57.4 1916.
56.2 1917.
55.8 1918.
52.2 1919.
53.4 1920.
47.9 1921.
48.8 1922.
46.5 1923.
46.6 1924.
48.5 1925.
52.2 1926.
56.1 1927.
55.3 1928.
58.9 1929.
59.6 1930.
59.7 1931.
60.1 1932.
61.8 1933.
65.2 1934.
62.9 1935.

Index
num­
ber

67.6
70.4
64.9
69.1
69.8
68.1
69.5
85.5
117.5
131.3
138.6
154.4
97.6
96.7
100.6
98.1
103.5
100.0
95.4
96.7
95.3
86.4
73.0
64.8
65.9
74.9
80.0

In table 2 the index numbers of wholesale prices as computed by the
Bureau for the 10 major groups of commodities have been extended
back to 1890, the earliest year for which wholesale prices were col­
lected by the Bureau. While results here given prior to 1913 are
necessarily based on a smaller number of commodities than are those
for the years since 1913, they may be considered comparable for
all practical purposes.
1 9205— 36-------- 44




674

PRICES— RETAIL AND WHOLESALE
T

able

3 . — IN D E X

N U M B E R S OF W H O LESALE PRICES, 1890 TO 1935
[1 926= 100 .0]

Hides
and
Textile
leather prod­
prod­
ucts
ucts

Fuel
and
light­
ing

Metals
and
metal
prod­
ucts

57.8
54.6
55.2
54.1
46.1
44.3
43.1
42.9
44.9
47.7

38.1
37.0
34.8
35.3
34.3
40.3
39.5
33.9
34.5
41.2

105.3
92.2
84.0
76.8
65.7
70.4
71.2
65.0
65.3
100.0

46.5
44.2
41.7
41.6
39.8
38.8
38.9
37.4
39.6
43.6

73.2
74.0
74.6
72.7
65.5
64.7
65.0
70.9
77.4
81.1

49.9
50.4
48.1
48.1
45.3
43.5
43.4
42.5
44.0
45.0

97.9
94.3
86.6
89.0
86.4
88.9
90.2
92.5
93.4
97.4

56.2
55.8
52.2
53.4
47.9
48.8
46.5
46.6
48.5
52.2

49.4
48.9
50.8
49.9
49.7
53.9
57.7
58.0
55.6
61.5

53.3
48.1
49.4
52.8
62.9
54.1
58.7
63.5
54.8
56.5

46.3
44.6
51.8
60.3
53.3
49.6
52.0
54.4
63.7
51.6

98.0
93.1
91.0
90.2
79.9
89.1
102.4
109.8
86.3
84.5

46.2
44.3
45.3
46.7
45.0
48.1
54.0
56.8
52.0
53.7

82.1
84.2
86.5
84.1
84.1
82.3
76.8
78.5
79.6
79.9

48.9
48.9
49.2
50.9
50.3
49.7
51.3
55.0
51.6
51.7

102.0
93.4
88.1
98.9
109.5
117.4
115.3
108.2
97.8
129.6

56.1
65.3
68.9
69.6
59.7
60.1
61.8
65.2
62.9
67.6

64.9
62.0
66.8
64.2
64.7
65.4
75.7
104.5
119.1
129.5

60.2
58.8
64.5
68.1
70.9
75.5
93.4
123.8
125.7
174.1

58.4
55.5
65.7
57.3
54.6
54.1
70.4
98.7
137.2
135.3

47.6
46.7
51.4
61.3
56.6
51.8
74.3
105.4
109.2
104.3

85.2
80.8
89.5
90.8
80.2
86.3
116.5
150.6
136.5
130.9

55.3
55.3
55.9
56.7
52.7
53.5
67.6
88.2
98.6
115.6

82.0
81.6
80.7
80.2
81.4
112.0
160.7
165.0
182.3
157.0

54.0
52.7
53.0
56.3
56.8
56.0
61.4
74.2
93.3
105.9

152.7
108.6
106.4
93.1
89.9
86.9
100.6
122.1
134.4
139.1

70.4
64.9
69.1
69.8
68.1
69.5
85.5
117.5
131.3
138.6

150.7
88.4
93.8
98.6
100.0
109.8
100.0
99.4
105.9
104.9

137.4
90.6
87.6
92.7
91.0
100.2
100.0
96.7
101.0
99.9

171.3
109.2
104.6
104.2
101.5
105.3
100.0
107.7
121.4
109.1

164.8
94.5
100.2
111.3
106.7
108.3
100.0
95.6
95.5
90.4

163.7
96.8
107.3
97.3
92.0
96.5
100.0
88.3
84.3
83.0

149.4
117.5
102.9
109.3
106.3
103.2
100.0
96.3
97.0
100.5

150.1
97.4
97.3
108.7
102.3
101.7
100.0
94.7
94.1
95.4

164.7
115.0
100.3
101.1
98.9
101.8
100.0
96.8
95.6
94.2

141.8
113.0
103.5
108.9
104.9
103.1
100.0
97.5
95.1
94.3

167.5
109.2
92.8
99.7
93.6
109.0
100.0
91.0
85.4
82.6

154.4
97.6
96.7
100.6
98.1
103.5
100.0
95.4
96.7
95.3

88.3
64.8
48.2
51.4
65.3
78.8

90.5
74.6
61.0
60.5
70.5
83.7

100.0
86.1
72.9
80.9
86.6
89.6

80.3
66.3
54.9
64.8
72.9
70.9

78.5
67.5
70.3
66.3
73.3
73.5

92.1
84.5
80.2
79.8
86.9
86.4

89.9
79.2
71.4
77.0
86.2
85.3

89.1
79.3
73.5
72.6
75.9
80.5

92.7
84.9
75.1
75.8
81.5
80.6

77.7
69.8
64.4
62.5
69.7
68.3

86.4
73.0
64.8
65.9
74.9
80.0

Farm
prod­
ucts

Foods

1890...........
1891...........
1892...........
1893...........
1894,..........
1895...........
1896...........
1897...........
1898...........
1899...........

50.4
54.2
49.5
51.3
44.6
43.9
39.6
42.5
44.9
45.8

55.5
54.8
51.0
54.7
48.2
47.3
44.1
45.5
47.8
47.7

47.5
47.9
47.2
45.1
43.0
49.4
45.2
45.9
48.3
49.4

1900...........
1901...........
1902...........
1903...........
1904...........
1905...........
1906...........
1907...........
1908...........
1909...........

50.5
52.8
58.4
55.6
58.5
56.4
57.3
62.2
62.2
69.6

50.8
50.5
53.3
52.0
54.0
55.1
53.4
57.0
58.7
62.6

1910...........
1911...........
1912...........
1913...........
1914...........
1915...........
1916...........
1917...........
1918...........
1919...........

74.3
66.8
72.6
71.5
71.2
71.5
84.4
129.0
148.0
157.6

1920...........
1921...........
1922...........
1923...........
1924...........
1925..........
1926...........
1927._____
1928______
1929...........
1930...........
1931...........
1932...........
1933...........
1934...........
1935______

Year

All
Build­ Chemi­ Houseing
Miscel­ com­
cals and furnish­ laneous modi­
ing
mate­
drugs
goods
ties
rials

Since 1913 the 10 major commodity groups have been broken down
into subgroups comprising a smaller number of closely related items.
Table 3 shows index numbers by groups and subgroups by years from
1913 to 1935, and by months from January 1931 to December 1935.




675

W HOLESALE PRICES IN U N ITED STATES
T

3 . — IN D E X N U M B E R S OF W H O L ESAL E PRICES B Y GROUPS A N D SUBGROUPS
OF CO M M O D IT IES, B Y YE A R S, 1913-35, A N D B Y M O N TH S, JA N U A R Y 1931 TO
D E C E M B E R 1935
[1926=100.0]

able

Farm products
Year and month
Grains

Live­
Other
farm
stock
and
prod­
poultry ucts

Foods
All
farm
prod­
ucts

Butter,
cheese,
and
milk

Cereal
prod­
ucts

Fruits
and
vege­
tables

All
foods

Meats

Other
foods

59.8
62.6
57.6
66.4
92.9
115.2
117.6
108.0
77.4
76.6
76.2

65.9
66.0
71.0
83.3
116.1
123.8
138.0
157.9
94.3
93.6
99.6

64. 2
64.7
65.4
75.7
104.5
119.1
129.5
137.4
90.6
87.6
92.7

1913...........................
1914______ _______
1915..........................
1916...........................
1917................... .......
1918______ ________
1919______________
1920______________
1921____ _________
1922______________
1923______________

71.1
77.1
93.8
99.6
170.4
168.6
177.4
176.4
89.1
85.0
88.0

73.2
74.6
68.8
82.8
119.4
141.0
148.7
125.1
78.2
83.2
77.7

70.8
66.7
63.3
78.4
116.2
142.1
153.0
155.3
93.8
103.4
116.7

71.5
71.2
71.5
84.4
129.0
148.0
157.6
150.7
88.4
93.8
98.6

65.9
62.9
62.4
69.7
91.5
110.3
125.1
125.2
97.5
91.4
103.4

1924______________
1925_________ _____
1926______________
1927........ .................
1928........ ............... .
1929_________ _____
1930____ __________
1931_______________
1932...........................
1933............ .............
1934...........................
1935_____ _________

100.6
118.3
100.0
100.9
107.3
97.4
78.3
53.0
39.4
53.1
74.5
82.5

79.3
98.9
100.0
98.9
105.4
106.1
89.2
63.9
48.2
43.4
51.5
85.1

114.2
114.5
100.0
99.2
105.8
106.6
91.1
69.2
51.4
55.8
70.5
73.4

100.0
109.8
100.0
99.4
105.9
104.9
88.3
64.8
48.2
51.4
.65.3
78.8

94.5
101.1
100.0
103.9
105.5
105.6
95.5
81.8
61.3
60.7
72.7
79.8

100.0
94.4
93.6
88.0
81.5
73.1
66.4
75.0
88.7
94.1

100.0
96.7
96.5
97.8
96.6
72.4
58.0
61.7
67.5
63.6

75.7
93.3
100.0
92.7
107.0
109.1
98.4
75.4
58.2
50.0
62.9
94.5

100.0
104.5
100.0
98.0
97.6
93.9
80.9
69.8
60.7
61.1
66.6
77.7

91.0
100.2
100.0
96.7
101.0
99.9
90.5
74.6
61.0
60.5
70.5
83.7

62.4
60.4
59.3
59.5
59.6
56.0
49.0
44.8
44.2
44.3
51.3
47.0

75.2
69.6
70.7
70.3
64.1
61.9
63.0
67.0
61.0
57.6
55.7
51.7

75.3
73.6
74.2
73.4
71.5
70.8
71.3
67.3
65.4
64.2
63.1
61.2

73.1
70.1
70.6
70.1
67.1
65.4
64.9
63.5
60.5
58.8
58.7
55.7

83.7
83.0
83.5
80.6
78.1
78.8
80.6
82.2
84.6
86.1
80.7
79.8

75.7
75.5
74.5
74.3
74.6
74.3
71.5
70.9
70.3
70.6
73.1
72.2

76.9
74.2
74.3
76.2
76.1
76.4
74.2
73.4
71.0
68.2
65.1
63.5

88.4
83.6
82.0
79.9
74.4
71.3
73.4
76.0
73.6
71.1
67.7
63.2

74.5
71.1
71.4
69.9
67.9
68.5
70.6
69.6
68.5
69.7
68.0
67.2

80.7
78.0
77.6
76.3
73.8
73.3
74.0
74.6
73.7
73.3
71.0
69.1

46.7
46.1
43.5
44.5
42.6
37.7
36.7
38.2
37.4
34.4
33.2
31.7

53.4
50.3
51.4
49.2
44.4
46.7
54.1
52.8
51.2
45.0
41.9
38.7

54.8
52.7
52.1
51.2
49.6
48.2
48.4
50.8
52.1
52.1
53.9
51.3

52.8
50.6
50.2
49.2
46.6
45.7
47.9
49.1
49.1
46.9
46.7
44.1

67.8
64.1
64.2
61.6
59.6
57.4
58.2
60.2
60.6
60.5
62.3
59.5

71.0
69.6
68.3
68.2
68.1
66.8
65.7
66.0
65.8
64.1
62.7
61.7

62.2
61.8
62.3
62.3
61.5
62.4
59.7
55.6
52.5
52.2
52.4
52.8

61.9
59.5
61.4
59.8
56.5
56.0
62.0
61.9
60.9
56.4
53.7
49.4

61.9
59.4
57.1
55.8
54.9
55.4
68.5
62.1
64.6
65.4
67.7
66.1

64.7
62.5
62.3
61.0
59.3
58.8
60.9
61.8
61.8
60.5
60.6
58.3

32.9
32.7
36.0
44.8
52.8
57.4
73.4
64.6
63.9
58.2
61.3
60.4

37.8
40.1
43.0
41.0
46.8
46.6
47.4
45.9
46.7
45.4
41.2
38.0

48.7
44.2
45.3
46.7
51.8
56.2
63.7
62.5
61.2
61.2
64.3
64.3

42.6
40.9
42.8
44.5
50.2
53.2
60.1
57.6
57.0
55.7
56.6
55.5

55.2
52.4
50.9
53.1
58.8
63.1
66.1
65.7
65.8
66.0
67.2
65.1

60.9
60.4
62.7
65.9
69.3
70.7
83.3
84.8
84.7
85.0
85.8
84.7

53.0
52.4
54.3
57.8
58.8
63.9
75.6
71.1
66.8
62.5
61.7
63.0

49.5
50.2
50.5
50.3
52.3
52.4
50.8
51.0
51.5
51.0
48.2
46.0

60.1
54.1
55.8
56.6
60.4
61.1
63 7
62.6
64.5
64.4
66.4
63.4

55.8
53.7
54.6
56.1
59.4
61.2
65.5
64.8
64.9
64.2
64.3
62.5

1931
January...................
February_________
March____________
April........................
M ay______________
June______________
July____ _________
August.....................
September......... .
October............ .......
November...............
December________
1932
January...................
February.................
March......................
April................. .......
M ay................ .........
June.........................
July........................
August.....................
September________
October.......... .........
November........... .
December...............
1933
January...................
February......... .......
March_____ ______
April............... .........
M ay.........................
June.................... .
July................. .........
August.....................
September..............
October...................
November...............
December...............




676

PRICES— RETAIL AND WHOLESALE

T a ble 3 .—IN D E X N U M B E R S OF W H O L ESAL E PRICES B Y GROUPS A N D SUBGROUPS
OF CO M M O D IT IES, B Y Y EAR S,
D E C E M B E R 1935—Continued

1913-35,

AND

BY

M O N TH S,

Farm products
Year and month
Grains

Other
Live­
stock
farm
and
prod­
poultry ucts

JANUARY

1931 TO

Foods
All
farm
prod­
ucts

Butter,
cheese,
and
milk

Cereal
prod­
ucts

Fruits
and
vege­
tables

Meats

Other
foods

All
foods

1934
63.7
63.2
62.3
58.8
63.9
72.4
74.8
86.0
88.1
85.0
87.2
91.5

41.1
48.2
49.5
49.2
47.8
48.3
48.8
56.2
64.1
55.3
54.0
57.2

67.4
68.3
67.7
65.7
65.0
69.4
70.5
73.1
74.4
75.4
75.8
75.1

58.7
61.3
61.3
59.6
59.6
63.3
64.5
69.8
73.4
70.6
70.8
72.0

65.0
69.1
68.9
66.5
67.1
73.0
74.8
77.3
76.2
77.1
78.6
79.6

85.8
85.7
85.3
84.8
87.3
89.2
88.9
91.0
91.9
91.0
91.0
92.2

68.0
71.7
71.6
67.9
68.2
70.1
68.2
65.6
66.0
67.6
65.3
62.4

48.9
53.3
56.5
57.3
60.0
62.2
63.4
69.4
76.6
70.0
68.4
69.0

64.0
64.1
63.5
62.1
60.8
62.8
64.5
68.9
70.0
71.0
74.0
74.3

64.3
66.7
67.3
66.2
67.1
69.8
70.6
73.9
76.1
74.8
75.1
75.3

88.8
87.4
82.8
87.9
83.2
76.9
78.3
79.3
83.5
86.4
77.9
76.6

January...................
February.................
March____________
April........................
M ay.........................
June.........................
July..........................
August.....................
September..............
October...................
November..............
December................

73.3
78.4
85.8
85.9
87.6
84.8
82.8
91.6
92.0
86.6
83. 1
87.4

76.6
76.8
72.1
74.5
75.0
74.3
72.9
71.4
70.4
70.3
73.5
72.8

77.6
79.1
78.3
80.4
80.6
78.3
77.1
79.3
79.5
78.2
77.5
78.3

83.5
87.0
82.9
84.9
77.7
74.6
74.0
75.7
76.0
77.0
81.1
83.7

91.6
91.9
92.1
93.3
92.3
90.5
92.7
94.6
96.8
98.9
97.2
97.2

62.8
63.6
63.2
67.3
66.3
68.7
65.1
60.5
60.0
59.1
63.2
63.7

81.6
87.9
91.6
94.3
97.0
94.5
93.3
102.0
102.9
97.1
94.3
97.5

76.2
77.2
73.4
76.2
77.7
77.2
76.7
78.6
80.8
81.2
80.8
77.5

79.9
82.7
81.9
84.5
84.1
82.8
82.1
84.9
86.1
85.0
85.1
85.7

1935
January...................
February.................
March......................
April........................
M ay.........................
June.........................
J u ly .......................
August.....................
September...............
October...................
November...............
December...............

Hides and leather products

Year and month

Boots
and
shoes

1913
1914
191*5

1916...........................
19 1 7
191 8
1919
192 9
1921
192 2

1923...........................
1924.............. u..........
1925...........................
1926...........................
1927...........................
1928...........................
1929...........................
1930...........................
1931...........................
1932...........................
1933...........................
1934...........................
1935...........................

Textile products

All
Other
hides
Hides
and
leather
and
Leather prod­ leather
skins
ucts
prod­
ucts

54.5
56.3
58.6
69.1
91.5
97.9
134.7
151.1
111.5
98.1
99.1
98.4
100.5
100.0
102.6
109.9
106.3
102.0
93.7
86.1
90.2
98.1
98.0

106.8
113.4
126.2
151.5
201.3
194.2
267.4
206.7
89.5
115.8
117.6
110.2
118.7
100.0
120.3
148.6
112.7
91.0
60.2
42.1
67.1
68.6
80.8

69.1
72.5
75.8
107.2
141.9
135.3
187.5
188.2
111.7
105.2
104.1
99.8
104.8
100.0
109.2
126.3
113.2
101.3
86.2
65.1
71.4
75.0
80.1

50.8
51.4
55.3
64.5
85.3
97.2
133.1
140.8
118.6
113.5
103.7
103.7
102.8
100.0
102.8
108.2
106.4
105.5
101.4
90.1
81.1
86.6
85.0

68.1
70.9
75.5
93.4
123.8
125.7
174.1
171.3
109.2
104.6
104.2
101.5
105.3
100.0
107.7
121.4
109.1
100.0
86.1
72.9
80.9
86.6
89.6

95.1
95.0
94.9
94.8
94.8

64.4
57.7
62.1
62.0
62.6

90.8
89.0
88.4
88.4
88.1

102.3
102.0
102.0
101.6
101.4

88.7
86.9
87.6
87.5
87.6

Cloth­ Cotton
ing
goods

100.0
95.8
93.2
90.0
86.2
75.9
63.0
72.2
82.5
79.8

58.0
56.0
52.3
68.7
98.7
146.6
147.5
190.7
99.5
104.3
116.9
114.7
110.0
100.0
97.1
100.4
98.8
84.7
66.1
54.0
71.2
86.5
83.4

79.1
79.1
78.1
76.9
76.9

73.5
73.1
72.4
71.4
69.2

Knit
goods

Silk Woolen
and
and worsted
rayon goods

100.0
91.9
90.1
88.5
80.0
60.9
51.6
58.9
63.2
61.8

71.8
71.3
68.3
87.1
98.4
116.4
145.5
162.7
110.5
121.0
129.5
103.1
104.5
100.0
87.1
83.7
80.4
60.2
43.5
31.0
30.6
26.7
30.2

53.7
50.5
55.0
70.4
101.7
138.6
124.3
153.7
91.9
95.7
107.5
106.8
110.2
100.0
97.8
100.1
88.3
79.0
68.2
57.7
69.3
79.7
76.1

64.8
64.5
63.8
60.7
60.7

49.0
47.0
45.8
43.4
41.4

73.7
73.5
71.8
69.0
68.5

1931
January...................
February...... ..........
March......................
April.....................„
M ay.........................




677

WHOLESALE PRICES IN UNITED STATES
T

3 . — IN D E X N U M B E R S OF W H O LESALE PRICES B Y GROUPS A N D SUBGROUPS
OF CO M M O D IT IES, B Y Y EAR S, 1913-35, A N D B Y M O N TH S, J A N U A R Y 1931 TO
D E C E M B E R 1935—Continued

able

Hides and leather products

Year and month

Boots
and
shoes

1931
June....... .................
July— ....................
August,...................
September________
October...................
November..............
December.—..........

Textile products

All
Other hides
Hides
and
leather
and Leather
prod­ leather
skins
ucts
prod­
ucts

Cloth­ Cotton
ing
goods

Knit
goods

Silk Woolen
and
and
rayon worsted
goods

94.6
93.5
93.5
93.5
93.1
92.5
89.2

65.5
72.7
69.1
58.6
50.0
49.0
48.8

87.8
89.8
90.3
83.4
80.7
78.8
78.6

101.4
101.4
101.4
101.1
101.1
101.1
99.7

88.0
89.4
88.7
85.0
82.5
81.6
79.8

76.3
76.1
75.9
75.5
73.9
72.6
70.8

67.6
66.8
64.0
61.5
59.7
58.1
56.4

59.8
60.0
59.2
59.2
59.2
59.0
59.5

41.9
43.8
43.7
43.5
41.7
41.8
39.0

68.0
67.4
67.4
65.7
64.6
64.2
63.9

88.8
88.5
88.5
88.4
88.4
87.5
84.4
84.4
84.4
84.6
84.2
83.8

49.0
46.1
44.7
40.8
35.7
32.5
33.5
39.3
48.2
49.6
46.1
41.7

77.5
76.5
73.4
67.2
60.6
58.7
60.0
60.0
63.2
64.1
61.9
59.2

98.9
98.8
98.8
98.0
97.9
96.4
83.7
82.3
81.5
81.9
81.9
81.9

79.3
78.3
77.3
75.0
72.5
70.8
68.6
69.7
72.2
72.8
71.4
69.6

69.6
69.4
66.1
64.9
62.9
62.2
60.9
61.0
61.8
62.5
62.2
62.5

55.8
56.4
56.2
55.1
52.9
51.0
50.0
52.6
57.9
56.2
53.6
51.7

55.8
55.8
54.9
51.9
50.5
49.6
47.8
48.5
50.4
50.9
51.0
49.3

37.7
36.5
33.5
31.3
29.1
27.5
26.2
29.5
32.6
30.8
29.5
29.3

63.3
63.1
62.7
59.7
58.3
55.0
53.6
53.4
56.7
56.5
55.3
54.2

83.3
83.3
83.2
83.2
83.6
85.5
88.3
96.1
98.9
98.9
99.0
98.6

43.0
40.9
41.4
45.8
67.3
81.4
88.7
91.5
84.1
71.2
70.1
74.9

57.1
55.3
55.6
57.2
68.3
74.3
78.0
82.5
85.4
83.2
79.3
80.1

78.2
77.9
77.9
77.2
77.2
78.5
80.0
81.2
84.6
85.1
87.9
87.6

68.9
68.0
68.1
69.4
76.9
82.4
86.3
91.7
92.3
89.0
88.2
89.2

61.9
61.2
61.3
61.4
61.9
64.5
70.6
74.4
81.1
84.8
88.0
87.9

50.1
49.1
50.0
50.7
57.9
67.1
80.2
93.5
91.3
88.8
86.0
85.5

48.4
48.3
47.1
47.2
48.0
50.9
55.2
69.4
74.8
74.7
72.5
71.2

27.0
25.6
25.5
26.3
29.1
35.2
37.9
34.6
34.5
32.0
30.4
29.6

53.4
53.2
53.2
53.3
61.5
68.8
72.3
78.9
82.7
84.5
84.4
84.3

98.5
98.4
98.5
98.5
98.5
98.4
98.0
97.9
97.9
97.7
97.3
97.2

77.2
78.0
73.4
76.7
73.5
70.1
66.6
57.4
60.4
59.7
63.1
67.4

79.9
80.1
79.7
78.4
76.3
75.3
75.1
71.3
70.6
70.5
70.8
71.8

87.0
86.9
86.7
86.7
86.8
86.8
86.8
86.8
86.5
85.9
85.7
85.7

89.5
89.6
88.7
88.9
87.9
87.1
86.3
83.8
84.1
83.8
84.2
85.1

87.5
87.2
87.2
85.7
82.7
82.6
81.9
79.5
79.7
79.1
78.4
78.4

86.5
88.6
89.1
88.2
86.3
86.0
85.1
86.4
87.8
86.6
84.4
84.3

70.6
67.0
65.6
64.2
65.3
62.8
59.5
59.3
59.9
60.5
61.0
61.9

29.7
31.0
29.4
28.4
26.5
25.0
24.5
24.4
24.3
24.8
25.8
27.1

84.3
84.3
84.0
82.0
81.0
80.8
80.7
78.9
78.0
74.8
74.1
74.0

97.1
97.2
97.2
97.2
97.2
97.3
97.8
98.3
98.3
98.8
99.6
100.1

71.1
69.6
66.6
71.2
76.1
78.0
79.8
80.4
83.8
92.9
96.0
96.5

74.3
74.6
74.2
74.9
79.6
80.5
80.2
80.2
83.0
86.6
88.1
87.6

85.0
84.6
84.6
84.6
84.4
84.4
84.4
84.4
84.5
85.0
86.3
87.1

86.2
86.0
85.4
86.3
88.3
88.9
89.3
89.6
90.9
93.6
95.0
95.4

78.4
78.5
78.5
78.5
78.5
80.7
80.7
80.5
80.8
80.8
80.7
81.0

84.1
83.3
82.4
81.8
82.7
82.5
82.0
82.5
83.2
84.6
85.8
86.0

63.5
63.6
62.5
61.6
60.4
59.6
59.9
60.2
61.6
63.2
63.2
62.2

28.6
28.1
27.3
27.6
27.6
27.2
27.9
31.0
32.9
35.1
35.0
33.7

73.8
73.6
73.1
73.1
73.5
75.6
76.4
76.4
76.9
79.1
80.7
81.0

1932
January—...............
February.................
March......................
April........................
M ay.........................
July..........................
August.....................
September..............
October_________ •
_
November...............
December.,............
1933
January—...............
February................
March......................
April........................
M ay........... ..............
June....... .................
July..........................
August.....................
September________
October...................
November________
December________
1934
January.—.............
February...... ..........
March____________
April—.....................
M ay.........................
June....... ..................
July— .....................
August—.................
September-.............
October...................
November...............
December...............
1935
January.—..............
February...... ..........
March......................
April.........................
M ay.........................
June..........................
July............. ............
August.....................
September...............
Ofitohpir . _ .
November________
December................




678

PRICES— RETAIL AND WHOLESALE

T a ble 3 .—IN D E X N U M B E R S OF W H O LESALE PRICES B Y GROUPS A N D SUBGROUPS
OF C O M M O D IT IES, B Y Y EAR S,
D E C E M B E R 1935—Continued

1913-35, A N D

Textile products—
Continued

BY

M O N TH S, JA N U A R Y

1931 TO

Fuel and lighting

Year and month
Other
All
textile Anthra- Bitumitextile
products products cite coal nous coal
1913.
1914.
1915.
1916.
1917.
1918.
1919.
1920.
1921.
1922.
1923.

62.7
55.0
60.3
81.9
132.2
169.7
124.2
104.5
63.1
70.8
77.4

57.3
54.6
54.1
70.4
98.7
137.2
135.3
164.8
94.5
100.2
111.3

1924.
1925.
1926.
1927.
1928.
1929.
1930.
1931.
1932.
1933.
1934.
1935.

87.1
104.1
100.0
98.2
95.4
93.1
84.2
75.1
67.9
72.5
73.1
68.5

106.7
108.3

100.0
95.6
95.5
90.4
80.3
66.3
54.9
64.8
72.9
70.9

58.9
59.6
59.5
63.9
72.4
82.3
75.8
92.5
92.5
95.3

100.8

38.1
34.8
33.9
55.5
98.4
81.4
79.8
165.4
77.7
113.1
113.4

98.6
99.7
100.0
96.3
91.7
90.1
89.1
91.1
88.4
82.2
80.1
79.7

99.7
96.5
100.0
100.3
93.6
91.3
89.4
84.6
82.0
82.8
94.5
96.7

Coke

Electric­
ity

78.1
78.4
78.3
78.0
76.5
79.4

46.3
37.5
37.8
52.0
106.6
100.9
84.4
162.3
90.6
119.1
118.8
97.2
97.7

100.0

Gas

98.2
115.6
110.3
104.8

100.0

102.9
101.9

Petro­ All fuel
leum
and
products lighting
73.3
65.8
54.1
87.3

112.1
135.3
128.0
183.5
104.4
102.9
82.6
83.5
95.0

61.3
56.6
51.8
74.3
105.4
109.2
104.3
163.7
96.8
107.3
97.3
92.0
96.5

100.0

100.0

100.0

102.9
96.6
94.5
97.7
98.8
104.7
94.3
91.8
87.8

98.0
94.9
93.1
97.3
98.7
101.3
97.5
93.4
89.3

72.7
72.0
71.3
61.5
39.5
45.4
41.0
50.5
51.3

95.8
95.8
94.6
96.1
99.0
101.9
103.5
103.2
103.4

50.4
50.2
41.8
37.4
35.9
30.7
30.3
37.5
38.9
39.2
42.5
39.6

73.3
72.5

83.7
83.7
81.5
81.5
81.5
81.5
81.5
81.4
81.1

99.9
94.5
95.9
93.7
98.0
98.6
97.9
98.4
100.6
102.1
103.4
104.1

80.5
80.4
80.4
79.8
77.1
76.9
76.3
76.7
76.7
76.7
75.6
75.3

107.5
104.8
104.4
103.5
106.1
105.5
105.8
104.4
103.4
104.6
103.1
104.1

98.6
98.0
97.5
99.1
103.0
106.3
108.3
107.0
107.6
104.4

38.8
38.6
39.8
45.5
47.2
48.2
49.7
48.9

100.0

47.4
48.2
45.0

67.9
68.3
67.9
70.2
70.7
71.6
72.3
72.1
70.8
71.1
71.4
69.3

75.3
75.2
75.2
75.2
75.2
75.3
76.0
77.4
79.7
82.6
83.2
83.6

103.2
102.9
100.5
98.3
94.6
91.4
89.4

96.7
96.6
96.6
97.5
99.5
101.7

90.4
92.3
93.8
94.0

99.5
101.5
100.5
94.6
92.2

38.7
34.3
33.1
32.5
31.2
34.4
41.3
40.9
49.6
52.7
51.6
51.6

94.4
84.6
84.6
84.0
82.4
77.7
77.9
84.8

88.6

88.3

83.0
78.5
67.5
70.3
66.3
73.3
73.5

1931
January— .
February—
March____
April..........
M ay...........
June______
July........... .
August----September.
October___
November.
December.

77.2
77.8
77.0
76.2
76.7
75.5
75.2
74.4
74.1
72.4
72.5
71.3

70.9
70.0
68.2
67.4
66.6

88.9
88.9
88.4
86.4
87.5

88.1
87.8
86.0

65. 5
64.5

92.2
94.3

83.5
83.7
83.9

62.2
60.8

94.2
94.8

83.7
83.8

59.6
59.5
58.0
56.1
54.3
52.7
51.5
52.7
55.6
55.0
53.9
53.0

94.8

87.7
88.7

84.4
84.3
83.5
82.7
82.0
81.8
81.6
81.3
81.1
81.1

88.7

80.2

51.9
51.2
51.3
51.8

88.7
88.7
88.3
81.4
78.5
76.8
77.9
79.2
82.0
81.8
81.8
81.5

79.8
79.4
79.3
78.1
78.3
78.3
81.0
83.6
84.7
89.8
90.7

83.8
83.8

10 .8
0
100.1
98.2

65.4
65.3
62.9
62.9
66.5
67.4
67.8
69.4
68.3

1932
January—
February..
March____
April......... .
M ay...........
June..........
July........... .
August___
September.
October___
November.
December.

70.7
69.7
69.5
68.2
67.2
66.7
66.5
67.4

68.6
67.7
67.1

66.6

85.6
85.3
84.5

86.0

96.5

1933
January— .
February..
March____
April_____
M ay...........
June.......... .
July______
August___
September.
October___
November.
December.




66.3

66.2

66.7
67.5
70.7
73.6
76.7
77.8
76.5
75.3
75.8
75.9

61.5

68.0
74.6
76.9
77.1
76.8
76.4

88.8

100.2

66.0

63.6
62.9
61.5
61.5
65.3
65.5
70.4
73.6
73.5
73.4

679

WHOLESALE PRICES IN UNITED STATES
T

3 —IN D E X N U M B E R S OF W H O L E SA L E PRICES B Y GROUPS A N D SUBGROUPS
OF CO M M O D IT IE S, B Y Y EAR S, 1913-35, A N D B Y M O N TH S, JA N U A R Y 1931 TO
D E C E M B E R 1935—Continued

able

Textile products—
Continued

Fuel and lighting

Year and month
Other
All
Bitumi­
textile
textile Anthra­
products products cite coal nous coal

Coke

Electric­
ity

Petro­ All fuel
leum
and
products lighting

Gas

1934
76.9
77.8
78.5
78.9
77.3
74.8
69.6
69.7
69.1
68.5
68.5
68.6

76.5
76.9
76.5
75.3
73.6
72.7
71.5
70.8
71.1
70.3
69.7
70.0

81.5
81.2
81.2
78.1
75.7
76.9
78.6
79.9
81.3
82.0
82.1
82.3

90.8
91.1
91.1
93.7
94.6
95.0
95.7
96.2
96.3
96.4
96.4
96.5

83.5
83.5
83.4
84.3
84.5
85.0
85.6
85.6
85.6
85.6
85.6
85.6

92.3
91.8
88.5
88.3
88.9
90.6
92.4
92.6
95.2
94.5
94.0
93.1

90.8
89.3
89.4
92.2
95.6
97.5
99.2
99.2
99.3
96.9
92.4
89.3

51.1
50.3
48.7
49.4
50.7
50.6
51.3
51.6
51.3
50.4
50.5
49.8

73.1
72.4
71.4
71.7
72.5
72.8
73.9
74.6
74.6
74.6
74.4
73.7

68.8
68.6
67.7
67.5
68.2
68.9
69.1
69.1
69.9
68.3
68.5
68.1

January..................
February................
March.....................
April.......................
M ay........................
June.........................
July.........................
August....................
September..............
October...................
November..............
December...............

70.3
70.1
69.4
69.2
69.4
70.1
70.2
70.9
71.8
72.9
73.4
73.2

82.3
82.3
81,1
75.5
73.0
74.0
77.0
78.6
80.6
82.5
83.0
82.9

96.3
96.4
96.3
95.4
95.7
96.1
96.5
96.0
96.2
98.0
98.5
98.7

86.4
88.8
88.8
88.7
88.7
88.7
88.6
88.6
88.6
88.8
88.9
89.6

89.9
90.3
88.3
87.8
88.7
90.2
87.8
86.7
87.5
86.3
86.2
84.9

87.6
87.7
88.6
88.0
92.0
95.2
94.0
91.8
91.9
89.0
86.6
84.5

48.8
48.7
49.8
51.0
52.2
53.2
52.9
52.4
50.6
50.1
52.5
52.8

72.9
72.5
73.0
72.8
73.1
74.2
74.7
74.1
73.0
73.4
74.5
74.6

1935
January...................
February................
March.....................
April........................
M ay........................
June.........................
July.........................
August....................
September..............
October...................
November________
December...............

Metals and metal products

Year and month

Farm
equip­
ment

Iron
and
steel

All
Motor Non- Plumb­ Other metals
metal
and
vehi­ ferrous ing and
cles metals heating prod­ metal
ucts
prod­
ucts

1913..........................
1914..........................
1915.........................
1916.........................
1917......... - ............ 1918______________
1919..........................
1920..........................
1921.........................
1922......... ...............
1923— ........ ...........

72.9
73.1
71.2
71.0
86.3
114.0
113.8
111.9
111.4
88.2
98.8

70.9
61.4
64.7
109.7
176.7
147.0
130.0
157.1
109.4
98.1
117.3

147.5
125.0
115.5
107.6
110.4
121.0
142.5
160.7
143.4
116.6
108.7

88.9
76.3
108.6
160.2
165.7
144.4
118.9
118.3
78.3
83.5
95.3

1924..........................
1925..........................
1926.........................
1927______________
1928..........................

105.7
100.4
100.0
99.7
99.3
98.7
95.0
92.1
84.9
83.5
89.6
93.7

109.4
102.2
100.0
94.2
93.5
94.9
89.1
83.3
79.4
78.6
86.7
86.7

107.5
105.3
100.0
100.4
102.9
106.7
100.3
94.8
94.1
90.2
95.9
93.9

93.0
101.4
100.0
92.8
94.0
106.1
82.4
61.9
49.8
59.6
67.7
68.6

1929„

1930.........................
1931..........................
1932..........................
1933
1934

_

_____

1935..........................




Building materials

Brick
and
tile

Ce­
ment

Lum­ Paint
mate­
ber
rials

53.7
53.8
54.2
56.3
62.3
74.2
81.5
100.9
97.6
94.7
103.3

100.0
92.0
95.1
95.0
88.6
84.7
66.8
67.1
72.6
68.9

90.8
80.2
86.3
116.5
150.6
136.5
130.9
149.4
117.5
102.9
109.3

38.9
38.8
39.1
42.4
50.2
66.7
91.9
118.4
105.7
99.4
103.6

59.6
55.0
51.0
65.4
80.3
94.6
102.3
117.2
110.8
103.5
107.9

54.0
49.9
48.7
65.1
72.2
83.5
113.0
165.2
88.9
99.1
111.8

50.8
50.7
54.8
77.1
95.3
121.9
140.3
148.1
83.9
93.8
101.3

101.7
100.5
100.0

106.3
103.2
100.0
96.3
97.0
100.5
92.1
84.5
80.2
79.8
86.9
86.4

103.4
100.1
100.0
95.7
95.6
94.3
89.8
83.6
77.3
79.2
90.2
89.4

105.7
102.6
100.0
96.7
95.9
91.8
91.8
79.4
77.2
86.1
93.2
95.3

99.3
100.6
100.0
93.1
90.5
93.8
85.8
69.5
58.5
70.7
84.5
81.1

99.7
109.3
100.0
96.3
93.1
94.9
90.5
79.4
71.1
73.3
79.5
79.8

680
T

PRICES— RETAIL AND W HOLESALE

3 .- I N D E X N U M B E R S OF W H O L ESAL E PRICES B Y GROUPS A N D SUBGROUPS
OF C O M M O D ITIES, B Y Y EAR S, 1913-35, A N D B Y M O N TH S, JA N U A R Y 1931 TO
D E C E M B E R 1935—Continued

able

Metals and metal products

Year and month

Building materials

All
Motor Non- Plumb­ Other metals
and
vehi­ ferrous ing and metal
cles metals heating prod­ metal
ucts
prod­
ucts

Farm
equip­
ment

Iron
and
steel

94.4
94.3
94.3
94.3
94.3
94.2
94.2
94.3
94.1
85.6
85.5
85.6

85.5
85.6
85.4
84.1
83.8
83.5
82.7
82.4
82.3
81.7
81.5
81.0

95.1
69.5
94.4
68.4
94.0
69.3
March
94.5
67.5
94.5
63.3
94.2
61.2
94.7
61.4
60.1
94.7
95.4
59.0
95.4
54.9
95.2
54.7
95.2
53.8

87.4
86.6
86.6
86.6
86.6
86.6
86.8
83.8
82.6
81.6
81.4
79.9

85.5
85.1
85.0
85.0
84.9
84.9
84.9
84.9
84.9
84.7
84.6
84.5

79.9
79.3
79.7
80.1
80.0
79.8
77.2
78.7
79.7
80.4
79.4
78.8

95.3
95.3
95.3
93.8
93.8
93.8
95.3
95.3
92.7
92.7
92.7
93.0

55.4
52.7
50.5
49.3
48.3
47.5
47.0
48.5
51.6
50.7
49.1
48.3

74.1
65.8
64.4
64.4
64.4
66.7
67.1
67.1
66.8
67.5
67.5
67.5

84.5
83.1
83.1
83.1
83.0
83.0
83.0
83.2
83.2
83.7
83.7
85.1

78.5
77.3
76.4
75.7
75.2
76.2
77.7
78.6
80.3
82.4
81.5
83.6

91.3
90.9
90.9
90.4
90.4
90.4
90.4
90.4
90.4
90.9
90.9
90.9

46.4
46.2
47.9
49.2
56. 6
63.2
67.6
68.2
68.5
67.0
68.0
66.6

62.8
59.4
59.4
59.4
61.3
67.4
69.4
70.3
74.7
74.7
73.7
72.5

85.2
85.2
85.2
85.2
91.1
91.1
92.0
92.0
92.0
92.0
91.9
92.7

83.6
86.3
86.3
87.3
90.2
88.6
86.7
86.6
86.5
86.2
86.0
85.6

96.9
97.8
97.8
97.8
97.3
95.0
94.6
94.6
94.7
94.7
94.7
94.6

66.1
65.8
66.3
68.0
68.1
68.5
68.8
68.9
68.4
68.1
67.7
67.5

92.7
93.6
93.6
93.6
93.6
93.6
93.6
93.6
93.7
93.7
94.6
94.6

85.7
86.1
86.0
86.0
86.6
87.1
87.0
87.1
86.8
86.9
87.0
86.9

94.1
93.6
93.6
93.6
94.4
94.7
94.7
94.7
94.3
92.9
93.8
93.6

67.6
67.2
67.1
68.2
69.2
69.1
66.1
66.9
68.6
70.9
71.3
70.6

Paint
Lum­ mate­
ber
rials

Brick
and
tile

Ce­
ment

86.9
86.5
86.4
85.7
85.0
84.4
84.3
83.9
83.9
82.8
82.6
82.2

87.0
86.3
85.0
83.9
83.7
83.7
83.4
82.9
82.6
82.6
81.4
80.0

90.3
87.9
84.1
81.0
79.7
77.7
75.8
75.8
75.8
75.1
74.6
74.6

76.4
74.0
74.7
73.4
69.4
68.5
67.2
66.9
66.9
65.2
65.9
65.8

83.2
80.5
81.4
81.2
80.2
80.0
79.6
78.4
77.6
77.0
77.5
76.6

81.8
80.9
80.8
80.3
80.1
79.9
79.2
80.1
80.1
80.3
79.6
79.4

79.3
79.3
79.3
78.4
77.4
76.1
75.9
75.2
75.4
75.3
75.4
75.1

75.2
75.3
75.0
75.0
75.0
77.1
77.3
79.0
79.0
79.0
79.0
81.1

65.6
62.9
61.5
60.0
59.5
57.6
56.9
55.5
56.3
56.6
56.6
56.5

75.4
75.1
75.4
74.7
73.9
73.3
66.8
67.2
68.2
68.3
68.5
68.1

78.2
77.4
77.2
76.9
77.7
79.3
80.6
81.2
82.1
83.0
82.7
83.5

74.9
75.1
74.9
75.0
75.2
77.0
78.2
81.5
82.6
84.6
84.7
85.7

81.2
81.8
81.8
81.8
81.8
81.8
88.2
90.3
90.8
91.2
91.2
91.2

55.9
56.4
57.8
57.9
59.6
67.4
75.9
79.4
82.0
84.2
86.5
88.0

68.1
68.0
68.4
68.9
70.7
71.9
77.9
77.5
77.3
76.1
76.3
77.5

72.5
72.7
72.7
76.2
75.0
75.1
75.0
75.0
71.6
68.1
68.8
68.8 ............

85.5
87.0
87.1
87.9
89.1
87.7
86.8
86.7
86.6
86.3
86.2
85.9

86.6
87.2
88.5
90.7
91.2
91.1
91.3
91.3
91.3
91.2
91.2
91.2

93.9
93.9
93.9
89.7
89.4
93.9
93.9
93.9
93.9
93.9
93.9
93.9

87.4
87.3
86.4
87.2
85.9
86.3
85.3
81.8
82.3
82.0
81.2
81.2

78.4
79.3
79.7
79.8
80.3
80.3
79.8
79.9
79.5
79.4
78.8
78.8

68.0
67.1
67.2
67.1
67.1
66.2
68.8
71.1
71.1
71.1
71.1
71.1 ............

85.8
85.8
85.7
85.9
86.6
86.9
86.4
86.6
86.6
86.5
86.9
86.8

91.1
90.6
90.2
89.7
89.3
89.2
89.1
89.0
88.8
88.3
88.3
88.9

93.9
93.9
94.4
94.9
94.9
94.9
94.9
94.9
94.9
95.5
95.5
95.5

79.9
80.5
79.9
79.9
79.8
81.6
81.7
82.0
82.1
82.0
81.8
81.5

79.0
78.8
79.4
79.2
79.9
79.8
79.1
78.6
80.8
81.9
80.3
80.0

1931
____
January.
February________
____ ______
April.......................
July.........................
August..................
September_______
October..................
November.............
December..............

.......

1932
January..................
February________
March....................
April.......................
M ay........................
July_____________
August
_______
September.............
October_
_
November............December..............

.......
.......

1933
January..................
February
March.....................
April.......................
July.........................
August...................
September_______
October..................
November.............
December________

.......

1934
J a n u a ry...._____
February...............
March........ ............
June........................
July , . r.
August__________
September.............
October
.
__
November.............
December..............
1935
January________
February...............
M arnh
April.......................
M ay
______
June........................
July
August
September.............
October..................
November.............
December___ r—




.......

___

.......

681

WHOLESALE PRICES IN UNITED STATES
T

3 . — IN D E X N U M B E R S OF W H OLESALE PRICES B Y GROUPS A N D SUBGROUPS
OF CO M M O D IT IES, B Y YEAR S, 1913-35, A N D B Y M O N TH S, JAN U A R Y 1931 TO
D E C E M B E R 1935—Continued

able

Building materials—Continued
Year and month

Plumb­
ing and
heating

1913..........................
1914..........................
1915..........................
1916..........................
1917..........................
1918..........................
1919..........................
1920..........................
1921..........................
1922,........................
1923..........................
1924..........................
1925..........................
1926..........................
1927..........................
1928..........................
1929..........................
1930..........................
1931..........................
1932..........................
1933..........................
1934..........................
1935..........................

Struc­
tural
steel

Chemicals and drugs

All
Other
Drugs Fertiliz­
and
building building Chemi­
pharma­ er ma­
ma­
ma­
cals
terials
terials
ceuticals terials

Mixed
fertiliz­
ers

All
chemi­
cals and
drugs

77.1
60.0
65.3
128.9
190.8
153.2
128.7
144.4
104.4
88. 5
123.7

63.1
59.7
65.1
87.8
114.0
121.0
116.8
135.0
111. 1
95.3
105.5

56.7
52.7
53.5
67.6
88.2
98.6
115.6
150.1
97.4
97.3
108.7

89.4
91.0
127.8
196.9
187.6
187.3
145.8
166.5
108.9
97.2
100.6

56.6
60.8
82.9
88.8
108.3
130.2
113.7
119.8
96.2
93.3
95.7

85.5
78.3
133.7
205. 2
228.0
236.9
191.8
211.6
117.9
102.3
102.5

84.3
85.5
92.0
142.2
137.7
195.0
221.7
177.1
162.5
119.0
107.4

80.2
81.4
112.0
160.7
165.0
182.3
157.0
164.7
115.0
100.3
101.1

100.6
92.0
95.1
95.0
88.6
84.7
66.8
67.1
72.6
68.9

114.2
102.2
100.0
94.7
95.2
98.1
87.3
83.1
80.9
83.1
90.8
92.0

104.0
100.4
100.0
95.4
96.7
97.7
93.3
84.8
79.5
82.7
90.3
90.1

102.3
101.7
100.0
94.7
94.1
95.4
89.9
79.2
71.4
77.0
86.2
85.3

102.2
104.1
100.0
99.6
100.5
99.1
93.7
83.0
79.5
79.6
79.6
86.9

95.8
97.7
100.0
88.4
72.6
71.5
68.0
62.8
57.7
56.3
72.1
73.9

92.6
98.8
100.0
96.2
94.6
92.1
85.6
76.8
66.9
65.9
67.1
66.3

95.9
100.4
100.0
93.0
97.3
97.2
93.6
82.0
69.3
64.5
72.5
70.6

98.9
101.8
100.0
96.8
95.6
94.2
89.1
79.3
73.5
72.6
75.9
80.5

87.4
86.6
86.6
86.6
86.6
86.6
86.8
83.8
82.6
81.6
81.4
79.9

83.0
84.3
84.3
84.3
84.3
84.3
84.3
81.7
81.7
81.7
81.7
81.7

87.8
87.8
87.6
86.9
86.3
85.4
83.7
83.7
82.6
82.0
81.9
81.5

83.8
82.5
82.5
81.5
80.0
79.3
78.1
77.6
77.0
76.1
76.2
75.7

88.3
86.6
86.4
85.1
83.9
83.5
82.4
80.5
79.8
79.7
80.6
80.8

65.3
65.2
64.8
63.4
63.2
62.6
62.1
61.9
61.7
61.6
61.3
61.0

81.4
81.1
80.8
80.6
80.5
79.8
78.7
74.4
74.2
70.2
70.1
70.1

90.4
89.1
88.7
83.5
82.8
82.4
80.2
78.7
77.6
77.2
77.7
77.1

84.5
83.3
82.9
81.3
80.5
79.4
78.9
76.9
76.3
75.6
76.1
76.1

74.1
65.8
64.4
64.4
64.4
66.7
67.1
67.1
66.8
67.5
67.5
67.5

77.3
77.9
79.7
81.7
81.7
81.7
81.7
81.7
81.7
81.7
81.7
81.7

81.0
80.2
80.6
80.2
78.2
77.6
77.9
78.3
79.9
80.0
80.1
80.1

74.8
73.4
73.2
72.5
71.5
70.8
69.7
69.6
70.5
70.7
70.7
70.8

80.6
80.8
80.9
79.7
79.1
78.6
78.9
79.7
79.8
79.8
79.7
79.7

60.6
60.1
59.7
58.9
58.7
58.3
57.6
57.0
56.6
55.9
55.0
54.7

69.9
69.8
68.6
70.1
69.4
68.0
66.8
66.4
63.6
63.4
63.5
63.1

75.5
73.7
73.2
71.1
69.0
69.0
68.8
68.3
66.9
66.5
65.6
65.6

75.7
75.5
75.3
74.4
73.6
73.1
73.0
73.3
72.9
72.7
72.4
72.3

62.8
59.4
59.4
59.4
61.3
67.4
69.4
70.3
74.7
74.7
73.7
72.5

81.7
81.7
81.7
81.7
81.7
81.7
81.7
81.7
82.4
86.8
86.8
86.8

79.4
78.5
78.4
77.9
78.8
80.6
83.3
85.0
85.9
87.1
88.4
88.6

70.1
69.8
70.3
70.2
71.4
74.7
79.5
81.3
82.7
83.9
84.9
85.6

79.3
79.0
79.3
79.5
80.9
81.5
80.3
79.6
78.8
78.6
79.2
79.2

54.9
54.8
54.8
54.6
55.0
55.5
56.8
57.6
56.8
56.8
58.4
59.0

62.3
61.5
61.9
62.9
66.8
68.0
68.6
69.0
66.6
67.6
67.8
68.1

62.7
62.4
60.1
60.0
63.1
63.0
63.3
64.4
67.8
68.3
68.5
69.9

71.6
71.3
71.2
71.4
73.2
73.7
73.2
73.1
72.7
72.7
73.4
73.7

72.5
72.7
72.7
76.2

86.8
86.8
86.8
86.8

89.8
90.3
89.9
90.4

86.3
86.6
86.4
86.7

78.8
78.8
79.0
78.6

65.2
71.5
71.9
72.2

68.4
69.2
69.5
68.7

71. 2
72.5
72.6
72.7

74.4
75.5
75.7
75.5

1931
January.... ..............
February_________
March.....................
April........................
M ay...... .................
June.........................
July.........................
August....................
September............ .
October..................
November..............
December........... .
1932
January..................
February..............
March_____ _____
April.................. .
M a y ........................
June.........................
July.........................
August.................. .
September..............
October...................
November..............
December..........
1933
January.... ..............
February................
March. ...................
April........................
M ay................... .
June.........................
July.........................
August....................
September..............
October...................
November_______
December...............
1934
January...................
February................
March.....................
April........................




682
T

PRICES— RETAIL AND W HOLESALE

3 . — IN D E X N U M B E R S OF W H O L ESAL E PRICES B Y GROUPS A N D SUBGROUPS
OF C O M M O D IT IE S, B Y Y EAR S, 1913-35, A N D B Y M O N TH S , J A N U A R Y 1931 TO
D E C E M B E R 1935—Continued

able

Building materials—Continued
Year and month

Chemicals and drugs

Other
All
Drugs Fertiliz­
building building Chemi­
and
ma­
ma­
pharma­ er ma­
cals
terials
terials
ceuticals terials

All
chemi­
cals and
drugs

Plumb­
ing and
heating

Struc­
tural
steel

75.0
75.1
75.0
75.0
71.6
68.1
68.8
68.8

94.5
94.5
92.5
92.0
92.0
92.0
92.0
92.0

92.0
92.0
90.9
90.0
89.8
89.3
89.4
89.8

87.3
87.8
87.0
85.8
85.6
85.2
85.0
85.1

78.6
78.6
78.5
79.2
80.3
81.1
80.9
82.2

72.8
73.1
73.0
72.7
72.7
73.5
73.5
73.4

66.4
67.9
67.6
64.8
66.4
65.7
64.6
65.3

73.2
73.4
72.8
73.0
73.0
73.0
73.5
73.7

75.4
75.6
75.4
75.7
76.5
77.1
76.9
77.8

68.0
67.1
67.2
67.1
67.1
66.2
68.8
71.1
71.1
71.1
71.1
71.1

92.0
92.0
92.0
92.0
92.0
92.0
92.0
92.0
92.0
92.0
92.0
92.0

90.3
90.3
90.1
89.4
89.8
90.0
89.7
90.1
90.3
90.5
90.6
90.0

84.9
85.0
84.9
84.6
84.8
85.3
85.2
85.4
85.9
86.1
85.8
85.5

84.5
86.5
88.1
87.2
87.5
86.3
84.6
84.3
86.9
88.3
88.4
87.7

73.1
73.1
73.0
73.8
74.2
74.3
74.0
73.8
73.8
74.2
74.7
74.7

66.5
66.2
66.3
66.0
65.9
65.7
65.7
66.8
67.2
67.2
67.5
64.5

73.3
72.8
72.8
72.9
73.1
74.5
68.6
68.1
67.8
67.9
67.6
67.7

79.3
80.4
81.5
81.0
81.2
80.7
78.7
78.6
80.2
81.1
81.2
80.6

1934
M ay.........................
June........................
July....... ..................
August______ _____
September.,..........
October...................
November..............
December.. ............

Mixed
fertiliz­
ers

1935
January...................
February. ..............
M a r c h ........... .......
April........................
M ay........................
June........................
July.........................
August....................
September..............
October...................
November..............
December...............

House-furnishing goods

Year and month

Fur­
nish­
ings

Miscellaneous

All
Auto
houseFurni- furnish­ tires
and
ing
tubes
goods

Cattle
feed

Paper
and
pulp

Rub­
ber,
crude

Other
miscellaneous

All
miscellaneous

All
com­
modi­
ties

1913............ - ...........
1914...........................
1915_______________
1916...........................
1917______________
1918................. .........
1919______________
1920______________
1921_______________
1922______________
1923______________

47.9
48.7
47.1
54.8
70.3
94.5
101.4
128.5
103.3
97.0
104.8

70.7
70.6
70.9
72.8
81.7
93.3
114.7
165.6
129.9
114.6
116.7

56.3
56.8
56.0
61.4
74.2
93.3
105.9
141.8
113.0
103.5
108.9

207.2
173.1
155.1
160.4
198.0
229.2
209.2
232.5
179.0
115.4
109.5

82.2
87.6
89.1
95.5
140.2
146.2
185.7
184.3
89.2
107.3
118.5

59.4
58.2
56.7
89.0
112.7
106.7
115.1
181.8
107.6
91.6
102.8

170.2
135.2
135.4
150.0
149.2
124.4
100.7
72.6
34.4
36.0
61.3

64.4
64.5
64.3
68.5
78.6
107.6
120.5
150.2
107.5
100.4
102.0

93.1
89.9
86.9
100.6
122.1
134.4
139.1
167.5
109.2
92.8
99.7

69.8
68.1
69.5
85.5
117.5
131.3
138.6
154.4
97.6
96.7
100.6

1924______________
1925_________ _____
1926______________
1927______________
1928______________
1929______________
1930____ __________
1931______________
1932______________
1933_______ _______
1934______________
1935...........................

103.4
102.2
100.0
97.4
93.7
93.6
91.4
82.2
75.4
76.6
84.1
84.2

107.9
104.6
100.0
97.7
96.7
95.0
94.0
88.0
75.0
75.1
79.0
77.0

104.9
103.1
100.0
97.5
95.1
94.3
92.7
84.9
75.1
75.8
81.5
80.6

92.6
98.6
100.0
74.9
63.4
54.5
51.3
46.0
41.1
42.1
44.9
45.7

110.2
112.7
100.0
117.8
138.1
121.6
99.7
62.7
46.0
57.9
89.4
88.3

100.7
105.2
100.0
93.8
91.4
88.9
86.1
81.4
75.5
76.6
82.7
80.0

54.3
149.9
100.0
77.9
46.4
42.3
24.5
12.8
7.3
12.2
26.5
25.4

100.8
99.6
100.0
98.8
96.9
98.4
95.5
88.0
83.7
76.2
82.1
80.0

93.6
109.0
100.0
91.0
85.4
82.6
77.7
69.8
64.4
62.5
69.7
68.3

98.1
103.5
100.0
95.4
96.7
95.3
86.4
73.0
64.8
65.9
74.9
80.0

84.9
84.6
84.5
84.2
83.6
83.4
82.8
81.7
81.2
79.8
79.7
76.6

92.1
92.0
91.9
91.9
90.4
89.8
89.1
88.6
84.6
82.4
82.3
80.6

88.3
88.1
88.0
87.9
86.8
86.4
85.7
84.9
82.7
81.0
80.9
78.5

47.2
46.9
46.9
46.9
46.9
46.0
46.0
46.0
46.0
46.0
46.0
40 8

75.0
71.6
82.1
81.2
67.9
61.1
55.8
50.8
44.0
49.4
59.8
53.9

83.6
83.1
82.6
82.1
81.5
80.7
80.6
80.6
80.7
80.5
80.8
80.8

17.1
16.1
16.0
13.3
13.7
13.3
13.2
11.2
10.6
10.2
9.6
9.5

89.9
89.3
89.6
89.3
88.5
88.2
88.6
86.4
86.7
86.9
86.7
85.9

72.2
71.5
72.0
71.5
70.5
69.7
69.7
68.3
68.2
66.6
68.7
66.8

78.2
76.8
76.0
74.8
73.2
72.1
72.0
72.1
71.2
70.3
70.2
68.6

1931
January................. .
February_________
March____________
April_____ ________
M ay............ ............
June--------------------July........ - ................
August........ ............
September-----------October------- --------November............. December................




683

WHOLESALE PBICES IN UNITED STATES

T a ble 3.—IN D E X N U M B E R S OF W H O L ESAL E PRICES B Y GROUPS A N D SUBGROUPS
OF C O M M O D IT IE S, B Y Y E A R S , 1913-35, AN D
D E C E M B E R 1935—Continued.
House-furnishing goods

Year and month

Fur­
nish­
ings

BY

M ON TH S, JANUARY

1931 TO

Miscellaneous

All
Auto
Furni­ house­
furnish­ tires
ture
and
ing
tubes
goods

Cattle
feed

Paper
and
Pulp

Rub­
ber
crude

Other
miscellaneous

All
mis-

cel-

All
com­
modi­
ties

laneous

1932
January...................
February................
March____________
April_______ ______
M ay______________
June______________
July.................. — .
August___________
September________
October__________
November...............
December________

76.1
75.9
75.4
75.4
75.5
75.4
75.1
74.8
74.7
74.7
74.7
74.7

79.5
79.5
79.1
77.4
74.1
74.0
73.0
72.6
72.7
72.8
72.7
72.7

77.7
77.5
77.1
76.3
74.8
74.7
74.0
73.6
73.7
73.7
73.7
73.6

39.7
39.5
39.2
39.2
39.2
39.6
40.1
40.1
42.7
44.6
44.6
44.6

53.0
48.2
52.4
53.4
45.9
42.1
42.2
47.4
45.9
42.7
40.8
37.1

78.0
76.7
76.8
76.8
76.5
76.2
76.2
76.3
75.5
73.4
73.4
73.0

9.3
8.6
7.2
6.6
6.7
5.8
6.1
7.9
8.2
7.3
7.2
6.8

85.2
84.4
84.6
84.5
84.6
84.6
84.5
84.2
83.2
82.1
81.5
81.3

65.6
64.7
64.7
64.7
64.4
64.2
64.3
64.6
64.7
64.1
63.7
63.4

67.3
66.3
66.0
65.5
64.4
63.9
64.5
65.2
65.3
64.4
63.9
62.6

73.5
72.9
72.9
71.7
72.0
73.6
75.1
78.6
80.5
82.8
82.8
82.9

72.3
71.9
71.8
71.6
71.6
73.4
74.6
76.8
78.4
79.8
79.4
79.3

72.9
72.3
72.2
71.5
71.7
73.4
74.8
77.6
79.3
81.2
81.0
81.0

44.6
42.6
41.3
37.4
37.6
40.1
41.4
43.2
43.2
43.2
43.2
43.2

38.2
40.6
47.3
49.5
54.4
55.8
82.4
78.0
64.2
60.4
63.5
60.3

72.0
72.1
72.2
70.6
70.7
73.5
78.1
81.0
82.2
82.4
82.5
82.5

6.5
6.1
6.3
7.4
10.2
12.6
16.3
14.9
14.9
15.6
17.5
18.0

76.8
73.3
72.6
72.7
74.0
75.0
76.3
77.8
78.1
78.6
78.4
79.0

61.2
59.2
58.9
57.8
58.9
60.8
64.0
65.4
65.1
65.3
65.5
65.7

61.0
59.8
60.2
60.4
62.7
65.0
68.9
69.5
70.8
71.2
71.1
70.8

82.9
83.0
83.2
83.5
84.1
85.1
84.8
84.6
84.8
84.4
84.3
84.2

78.8
79.2
79.8
79.9
80.1
79.0
78.5
78.9
78.8
79.0
78.4
78.2

80.8
81.0
81.4
81.6
82.0
82.0
81.6
81.8
81.8
81.7
81.3
81.2

43.2
43.5
44.6
44.6
44.6
44.6
44.6
44.7
44.7
44.7
47.5
47.5

68.5
73.4
79.6
76.1
72.5
86.9
88.8
104.0
100.7
97.6
108.2
123.1

83.0
82.7
82.7
83.6
83.7
83.5
82.4
82.4
82.4
82.4
82.1
81.5

18.9
21.4
22.8
24.6
27.7
27.7
29.9
31.7
31.5
28.6
26.6
26.4

81.8
83.2
83.2
83.2
83.6
83.1
82.3
81.0
81.4
81.1
80.8
80.7

67.5
68.5
69.3
69.5
69.8
70.2
69.9
70.2
70.2
69.7
70.6
71.0

72.2
73.6
73.7
73.3
73.7
74.6
74.8
76.4
77.6
76.5
76.5
76.9

84.3
84.1
84.1
84.2
84.1
83.9
84.0
84.0
84.0
84.2
84.7
84.7

78.2
77.2
77.3
77.1
77.1
77.1
76.8
77.0
76.9
76.9
77.1
77.1

81.2
80.7
80.7
80.7
80.6
80.5
80.4
80.5
80.5
80.6
81.0
81.0

47.5
47.5
46.6
46.3
45.0
45.0
45.0
45.0
45.0
45.0
45.0
45.0

116.2
109.0

81.5
80.9
80.6
80.4
80.0
79.7
79.7
79.7
79.7
79.7
79.4
79.2

26.5
26.2
23.5
23.7
24.9
26.0
25.0
24.5
24.0
26.0
27.1
27.2

80.4
80.1
80.1
79.0
79.4
80.1
80.1
80.0
80.0
80.2
80.2
80.2

70.7
70.1
69.2
68.7
68.7
68.4
67.7
67.3
67.1
67.5
67.4
67.5

78.8
79.5
79.4
80.1
80.2
79.8
79.4
80.5
80.7
80.5
80.6
80.9

1933
January_________
February_________
March............ .........
April_____________
M ay_____________
June.................... .
July______________
August_____ ______
September....... .......
October__________
November________
December________
1934
January...................
February_________
March____________
April--------------------M ay______________
June_____________
July______________
A u g u s t,,____ __
September....... . __
October_________
November________
December_______
1935
January__________
February_________
March____________
April........................
M ay______________
June_________ _ _
J u l y ____ _______
August___________
September..............
October__________
November________
December...... .........

102.2

104.9
107.0
92.2
78.6
71.3
67.9
71.6
69.1
70.8

Since January 1932 the Bureau has constructed a weekly index
number. This index number is calculated for the 10 major commodity
groups and for all commodities other than farm products and foods.
Table 4 shows the weekly indexes for the periods for which they have
been calculated through December 1935.




684
T

able

PRICES— RETAIL AND WHOLESALE
4 . — IN D E X

N U M B E R S OF W H OLESALE PRICES B Y GROUPS OF C O M M O D IT IE S,
B Y W E E K S , 1932 T H R O U G H D E C E M B E R 1935
[1926=100.0]

Week
ending—

1932
Jan. 2..............
Jan. 9.............
Jan. 16............
Jan. 23............
Jan. 30............
Feb. 6_...........
Feb. 13...........
Feb. 20...........
Feb. 27...........
Mar. 5........ —
Mar. 12_____
Mar. 19..........
Mar. 26..........
Apr. 2.............
Apr. 9_______
Apr. 16...........
Apr. 23...........
Apr. 30______
M ay 7............
M ay 14..........
M ay 21..........
M ay 28...........
June 4.............
June 11...........
June 18...........
June 25...........
July 2.............
July 9.............
July 16...........
July 23...........
July 30..........Aug. 6............
Aug. 13...........
Aug. 20..........
Aug. 27..........
Sept. 3............
Sept. 10_____
‘ Sept. 17..........
Sept. 24........ .
Oct. 1.............
Oct. 8.............
Oct. 15...........
Oct. 22............
Oct. 29............
Nov. 5............
Nov. 12..........
Nov. 19..........
Nov. 26..........
Dec. 3_______
Dec. 10...........
Dec. 17...........
Dec. 24...........
Dec. 31...........
1933
Jan. 7.............
Jan. 14............
Jan. 21............
Jan. 28............
Feb. 4_______
Feb. 11...........
Feb. 18...........
Feb. 25...........
Mar. 4______
Mar. 11..........
Mar. 18..........
Mar. 25..........
Apr. 1.............
Apr. 8.............
Apr. 15...........
Apr. 22...........
A pr. 29

......

M ay 6............

Hides Tex­
Farm
and
tile
prod­ Foods leather prod­
ucts
prod­ ucts
ucts

All
com­
modi­
Fuel Metals Build­ Chem­ Houseties,
furand
and
ing
icals nish- Mis­
less
cella­ farm
light­ metal mate­ and
ing
prod­ rials drugs
neous prod­
ing
goods
ucts
ucts
and
foods

All
commodties

54.6
55.6
55.5
54.6
51.1
52.1
50.7
50.9
51.2
50.9
51.0
51.6
50.5
49.5
49.7
50.1
49.7
48.8
47.9
47.8
47.1
46.3
45.6
45.8
45.4
46.4
46.9
48.1
48.7
47.8
48.4
47.9
49.4
49.9
49.5
50.4
50.4
49.2
49.3
49.5
48.8
47.4
47.0
46.2
45.9
46.6
48.3
47.3
46.8
44.7
44.7
44.3
43.7

68.7
67.7
66.7
65.7
63.1
63.0
62.4
62.9
62.9
62.7
62.9
62.4
62.4
61.7
61.4
61.3
61.0
61.0
60.2
59.9
59.1
59.3
58.6
58.6
58.5
59.5
60.1
60.7
61.2
61.0
61.5
61.9
62.5
61.8
61.6
61.6
62.3
62.1
62.1
62.0
61.5
60.7
60.8
60.1
59.3
60.2
61.3
61.6
60.7
58.7
58.8
58.4
57.9

79.5
79.7
79.6
79.7
79.2
79.1
78.5
78.1
77.9
77.9
77.9
77.7
76.3
75.8
75.6
75.6
74.4
73.9
73.3
73.3
72.2
72.1
72.0
71.5
71.2
70.1
70.0
69.2
68.5
68.5
69.3
69.9
70.2
70.6
70.8
70.6
71.4
72.4
73.2
73.3
73.0
72.5
72.8
72.2
71.6
71.3
71.4
71.4
71.1
70.8
69.3
69.1
69.1

60.5
60.4
59.6
60.1
60.1
60.0
59.9
59.9
59.7
59.1
59.0
58.8
58.7
58.4
67.7
57.2
56.8
56.5
56.5
56.1
55.8
55.4
54.8
54.3
53.6
53.5
52.4
51.9
51.5
51.3
51.4
51.5
52.1
52.7
53.0
54.2
55.1
55.2
55.4
55.3
55.3
54.9
54.7
54.5
54.2
54.0
53.6
53.4
53.0
52.8
53.0
52.8
52.5

67.8
67.7
67.8
68.0
68.2
68.1
68.0
67.8
67.8
67.9
68.7
69.1
69.1
69.5
69.8
71.7
71.7
72.0
71.7
71.6
71.4
71.4
71.3
71.3
71.6
71.8
72.6
73.3
72.8
72.8
72.8
73.0
72.9
72.8
72.7
72.2
71.9
71.8
71.7
71.7
71.3
71.3
71.9
72.8
72.8
72.2
72.0
72.1
71.9
71.6
71.5
69.5
69.0

82.3
81.9
81.7
81.7
81.6
81.3
81.0
80.9
80.9
80.6
80.8
80.7
80.6
80.8
80.2
80.1
80.2
80.2
80.2
80.1
79.9
79.8
79.9
79.9
79.9
79.8
79.8
80.1
80.3
79.0
79.1
79.2
79.4
80.1
80.0
80.2
80.4
79.6
80.1
80.0
80.1
80.1
80.3
79.9
79.9
79.8
79.6
79.5
79.5
79.4
79.3
79.3
79.3

76.0
75.2
74.7
74.9
74.7
73.8
73.3
73.2
73.6
73.4
73.4
73.4
73.3
73.1
72.9
72.4
72.2
72.4
71.7
71.7
71.8
71.3
71.0
71.0
70.9
70.7
70.3
70.7
69.7
69.5
69.5
69.6
69.4
69.6
69.6
69.9
70.2
70.4
70.7
70.6
70.5
70.5
70.5
70.6
70.7
70.6
70.7
70.7
70.5
70.6
70.6
70.9
70.8

76.4
76.2
75.8
75.8
75.8
75.8
75.7
75.5
75.7
75.2
75.3
75.1
74.9
74.4
74.3
74.5
74.5
74.4
74.0
73.7
73.6
73.4
73.2
73.1
73.0
72.9
72.7
73.0
73.0
73.0
73.2
73.4
73.4
73.5
73.0
73.2
73.0
73.0
72.9
73.0
72.9
72.7
72.7
72.4
72.4
72.2
72.7
72.7
72.5
72.3
72.3
72.3
72.2

78.5
78.5
78.7
78.7
78.7
78.7
78.7
78.7
78.6
78.6
78.6
78.6
78.6
78.3
78.2
78.2
78.2
76.3
76.2
75.9
75.9
75.9
75.8
75.6
75.7
75.7
75.7
75.6
75.6
75.6
75.0
74.9
74.9
74.9
74.9
74.8
74.6
74.6
74.6
74.6
74.1
72.5
72.5
72.5
72.5
72.5
72.5
72.5
72.5
73.5
73.5
73.5
73.5

66.6
66.6
66.0
65.5
65.0
64.9
64.5
64.7
64.6
64.6
64.8
64.7
64.6
64.7
64.6
64.8
64.8
64.6
64.7
64.6
64.4
64.1
64.0
64.0
64.0
64.2
64.5
64.2
64.3
64.3
64.5
64.5
64.7
64.7 ,
64.4
64.7
64.5
65.1
64.9
64.5
64.1
63.9
63.9
63.9
63.8
63.6
63.6
63.5
63.5
63.3
63.2
63.2
63.1

72.1
71.7
71.8
71.8
71.7
71.5
71.3
71.2
71.2
71.0
71.2
71.2
71.1
71.1
70.9
71.3
71.1
71.0
70.8
70.7
70.5
70.3
70.1
70.1
70.0
70.0
70.1
70.3
70.0
69.7
69.7
69.9
70.0
70.2
70.2
70.4
70.5
70.4
70.6
70.5
70.3
70.2
70.3
70.4
70.3
70.1
70.0
69.9
69.8
69.6
69.5
69.0
68.8

68.3
68.1
67.9
67.6
66.7
66.7
66.2
66.3
66.3
66.2
66.5
66.5
66.2
65.9
65.7
66.0
65.8
65.5
65.1
64.9
64.5
64.3
64.0
63.8
63.7
64.0
64.4
64.8
65.0
64.5
64.7
64.8
65.2
65.4
65.2
65.5
65.7
65.4
65.5
65.4
64.9
64.4
64.4
64.1
63.9
64.0
64.2
64.0
63.6
63.1
63.0
62.5
62.2

43.8
45.2
43.0
41.3
40.2
41.2
41.9
40.8
40.6
42.7
43.4
43.6
43.4
44.0
44.5
44.6
46.4
47.8

58.1
58.2
56.0
54.1
53.6
54.4
54.3
53.7
53.4
55.0
54.8
55.4
54.7
55.3
55.7
56.2
58.1
58.2

68.9
69.2
69.0
68.6
68.3
68.1
67.9
67.6
67.6
67.5
68.1
68.8
68.7
68.5
68.3
69.1
71.8
73.3

52.7
52.3
51.9
51.8
51.4
51.0
51.0
50.7
50.6
50.7
51.1
51.1
51.0
50.9
50.9
51.4
52.4
53.7

68.1
67.8
67.6
65.2
64.7
64.7
64.4
64.3
64.4
63.9
63.7
63.6
63.2
62.9
62.6
62.4
62.5
62.1

79.1
79.0
78.2
78.2
78.1
77.9
77.6
77.4
77.4
77.2
77.5
77.4
77.0
76.7
76.9
76.8
77.6
77.5

70.7
70.6
70.3
70.2
70.0
69.6
69.6
69.9
70.1
70.0
70.1
70.2
70.4
69.9
70.4
70.2
70.5
70.8

72.0
72.1
71.9
71.9
71.8
71.4
71.4
71.3
71.3
71.4
71.5
71.7
71.6
71.3
71.2
71.3
72.0
72.4

73.3
73.3
72.8
72.8
72.8
72.7
72.7
72.7
72.7
72.3
72.3
72.3
72.3
72.3
72.2
72.2
72.3
71.7

61.4
61.5
60.8
60.8
60.8*
60.6
59.7
59.6
59.6
59.2
59.3
59.3
57.7
57.6
57.9
57.7
58.6
58.8

68.2
68.1
67.6
67.0
66.8
66.6
66.3
66.2
66.2
66.0
66.1
66.1
65.7
65.5
65.6
65.5
66.2
66.4

61.9
62.0
61.2
60.4
60.0
60.2
60.1
59.7
59.6
60.2
60.4
60.5
60.1
60.1
60.3
60.4
61.5
61.9




685

W HOLESALE PRICES IN UNITED STATES
T

able

4 . — IN D E X

N U M B E R S OF W H O LESALE PRICES B Y GROUPS OF CO M M O D IT IES,
B Y W E E K S, 1932 T H R O U G H D E C E M B E R 1935— Continued
[1926-100.0]

Week
ending—

Hides Tex­
Farm
and
prod­ Foods leather tile
ucts
prod­ prod­
ucts
ucts

All
com­
modi­
ties,
All
Fuel Metals Build­ Chem­ House- Mis­
and
furcom­
less
and
ing
icals
nish- cella­ farm modi­
light­ metal mate­ and
ing
prod­
neous prod­
ties
ing
rials drugs goods
ucts
ucts
and
foods

1933
M ay 13..........
M ay 20..........
M ay 27..........
June 3.............
June 10...........
June 17...........
June 24...........
July 1.............
July 8.............
July 15...........
July 22...........
July 29...........
Aug. 5............
Aug. 12..........
Aug. 19..........
Aug. 26..........
Sept. 2............
Sept. 9............
Sept. 16..........
Sept. 23..........
Sept. 30........ .
Oct. 7_______
Oct. 14______
Oct. 21______
Oct. 28______
Nov. 11..........
Nov. 18_____
Nov. 25........ Dec. 2_______
Dec. 9_______
Dec. 16______
Dec. 23......... .
Dec. 30...........
1934
Jan. 6.............
Jan. 13............
Jan. 20. ..........
Jan. 27............
Feb. 3.............
Feb. 10...........
Feb. 17...........
Feb. 24...........
Mar. 3______
Mar. 10..........
Mar. 17..........
Mar. 24..........
Mar. 31..........
Apr. 7.............
Apr. 14...........
Apr. 21...........
Apr. 28...........
May 5............
May 12_____
M ay 19_____
M ay 26-—.—
June 2..........
June 9.............
June 16...........
June 23..____
June 30...........
July 7.............
July 14______
July 21...........
July 28...........
Aug. 4.......... .
Aug. 11_____
Aug. 18_____
Aug. 25_____
Sept. 1—........

49.0
50.9
52.4
53.2
52.5
52.8
53.2
56.9
58.5
61.1
62.7
59.6
58.7
58.5
57.5
58.2
57.1
56.6
55.9
59.3
58.0
57.5
56.7
54.2
55.6
55.5
55.6
58.7
56.8
55.9
56.0
55.9
54.8
56.0

59.1
59.9
60.3
61.0
61.0
61.0
61.4
62.6
62.9
65.9
66.5
66.1
65.1
64.9
64.4
65.0
65.3
65.0
65.1
65.9
64.9
65.0
64.8
63.7
64.2
64.2
65.0
65.4
63.9
63.2
63.3
63.0
61.6
62.5

75.8
77.9
78.9
79.9
80.9
82.8
83.5
83.3
83.7
85.4
87.8
88.3
90.4
91.4
90.9
92.8
92.9
92.8
92.0
92.0
91.9
91.8
88.8
88.8
87.7
87.6
87.5
88.5
88.9
89.1
89.0
88.6
89.2
89.6

54.0
55.3
56.2
57.5
58.7
60.2
61.5
62.2
64.1
66.5
68.3
68.4
70.8
72.9
74.1
74.2
74.2
73.9
75.5
76.4
76.3
76.3
76.2
76.2
76.3
76.1
76.0
75.8
75.8
75.4
75.9
76.0
76.0
76.0

61.3
61.2
61.0
61.1
60.8
61.4
63.6
64.3
65.7
66.7
66.8
67.0
66.6
66.8
66.5
66.7
67.2
67.6
72.5
72.8
72.6
73.4
73.8
74.0
74.5
74.6
74.7
74.5
73.9
73.8
74.5
74.2
74.4
74.5

77.9
77.9
78.1
78.2
78.7
78.9
78.9
79.2
79.9
80.6
80.7
80.8
80.8
80.8
80.8
81.2
81.4
81.7
81.7
81.8
82.0
82.4
82.3
82.0
82.4
82.5
83.4
83.5
83.5
83.4
83.3
83.1
83.2
83.3

70.8
71.1
71.5
71.8
72.9
73.4
74.2
75.9
77.0
78.8
79.1
80.1
80.9
80.7
80.8
80.7
81.0
81.4
82.0
82.3
83.2
83.7
83.9
83.6
83.5
83.8
84.4
84.7
85.1
85.2
85.3
85.3
85.3
85.4

72.6
72.9
73.2
73.2
73.8
73.8
73.6
73.5
73.0
72.9
73.2
73.4
73.4
73.1
72.9
72.5
72.2
72.3
72.1
72.1
72.2
72.7
72.7
72.6
72.7
72.6
73.2
73.5
73.8
73.7
73.6
73.4
73.4
73.3

71.8
71.9
71.9
71.9
72.4
72.8
72.8
73.2
73.6
74.0
74.3
74.6
75.4
76.0
76.4
76.9
77.0
78.6
78.7
78.8
79.4
81.1
81.2
81.3
81.3
81.3
82.2
82.1
82.0
82.0
81.8
81.7
81.9
81.9

59.0
58.9
58.8
59.2
59.5
60.6
61.1
62.1
62.9
63.5
64.6
65.1
65.0
65.2
65.5
65.2
65.2
64.9
64.8
65.1
65.1
65.0
65.0
64.9
65.2
65.3
65.4
65.4
65.4
65.3
65.6
65.6
65.5
65.6

66.5
66.8
67.0
67.3
67.8
68.5
69.4
70.1
71.1
72.2
72.9
73.2
73.6
74.1
74.2
74.4
74.6
74.8
76.1
76.5
76.6
77.1
77.0
77.0
77.1
77.2
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.4
77.6
77.5
77.6
77.6

62.3
63.0
63.3
63.8
64.0
64.5
65.1
66.3
67.2
68.9
69.7
69.2
69.2
69.4
69.3
69.6
69.7
69.7
70.5
71.5
71.1
71.3
71.1
70.4
70.9
70.9
71.2
71.7
71.0
70.7
70.9
70.8
70.4
70.8

57.4
58.6
59.0
59.5
60.5
61.4
62.1
61.2
62.0
62.0
62.0
61.4
61.4
60.4
60.5
59.7
59.1
59.1
60.5
59.6
60.1
60.6
60.7
63.7
65.8
64.8
64.1
64.5
66.1
64.5
66.6
67.3
68.9
71.8
73.5

62.7
64.2
64.6
65.0
65.7
66.8
67.4
67.0
67.5
68.1
67.7
67.3
66.5
66.1
65.8
66.6
66.6
66.6
67.3
67.2
67.4
67.7
67.6
70.2
71.3
70.9
71.0
70.8
71.2
70.8
71.8
72.2
74.1
75.6
76; 6

90.0
90.2
90.3
90.4
90.5
90.5
90.4
90.1
89.8
89.0
88.8
88.8
89.4
89.5
89.8
89.7
89.6
89.5
89.3
88.5
88.0
87.7
87.2
87.6
88.1
88.2
87.9
87.6
87.0
86.1
85.1
84.6
84.2
84.6
84.5

76.0
76.1
76.4
76.4
76.5
76.4
76.6
76.7
76.6
76.3
76.0
76.0
75.8
75.7
75.5
75.2
75.0
74.1
73.5
73.5
73.1
72.7
72.7
72.5
72.5
71.8
71.5
71.4
71.6
71.4
71.1
70.8
71.1
71.1
71.3

74.3
74.4
74.2
74.0
73.9
73.9
73.8
73.6
73.5
73.0
72.6
72.4
72.4
72.6
72.9
73.1
73.5
72.7
73.0
73.2
73.4
73.7
73.8
73.7
73.4
73.3
74.2
73.8
74.7
74.7
74.7
75.3
75.2
75.2
75.1

83.3
83.7
85.1
84.7
85.1
85.0
85.0
85.0
85.1
86.4
86.5
86.4
86.4
86.5
86.9
87.0
88.3
88.7
88.8
88.7
88.7
88.7
87.8
88.0
87.1
87.0
86.9
86.4
86.4
86.3
86.2
85.9
85.9
85.9
85.9

85.5
85.6
86.5
86.2
86.4
86.3
86.7
86.6
86.5
86.2
86.2
86.2
86.3
86.7
86.5
86.3
87.1
87.4
87.4
87.0
87.2
87.6
87.8
87.7
87.6
87.8
87.5
86.9
87.4
86.7
87.1
86.5
86.4
86.4
86.3

73.3
73.5
75.0
75.1
75.0
75.1
75.4
75.4
75.4
75.7
75.8
75.8
75.8
75.5
75.4
75.5
75.3
75.3
75.3
75.4
75.3
75.3
75.4
75.4
75.5
75.8
75.7
75.5
75.6
75.6
75.5
75.5
75.9
76.0
76.3

81.7
81.7
81.7
81.7
81.8
81.9
81.9
82.1
82.3
82.5
82.4
82.5
82.5
82.5
82.8
83.1
83.0
83.1
83.0
83.0
83.9
83.6
83.4
83.4
83.2
83.2
83.1
83.1
83.0
83.0
83.0
82.8
82.9
82.9
82.9

65.9
66.2
67.5
68.1
68.4
68.5
68.6
68.5
68.6
68.8
69.2
69.2
69.3
69.7
69.6
69.3
69.2
69.6
70.1
69.7
69.7
69.6
70.0
70.3
70.5
70.1
69.9
69.9
70.0
70.1
69.9
70.1
70.3
70.1
70.3

77.6
77.9
78.6
78.5
78.7
78.7
78.7
78.7
78.6
78.7
78.6
78.6
78.6
78.7
78.9
78.8
79.2
79.0
79.1
79.0
79.0
79.0
78,9
78.9
78.7
78.5
78.6
78.3
78.6
78.5
78.4
78.4
78.4
78.4
78.4

71.0
71.7
72.3
72.4
72.8
73.3
73.7
73.4
73.6
73.8
73.7
73.5
73.4
73.3
73.3
73.3
73.5
73.4
73.8
73.5
73.7
73.9
73.8
74.6
75.0
74.8
74.7
74.5
75.1
74.7
75.1
75.4
76.1
76.9
77.5




686

PRICES— RETAIL AND WHOLESALE

T a ble 4 .—IN D E X N U M B E R S OF W H O LESALE PRICES B Y GROUPS OF C O M M O D IT IE S ,
B Y W E E K S , 1932 T H R O U G H D E C E M B E R 1935— Continued
[1926=100.01

Week
ending—

1934
Sept. 8............
Sept. 15..........
Sept. 22..........
Sept. 29..........
Oct. 6.............
Oct. 13-........ Oct. 20............
Oct. 27............
Nov. 3............
Nov. 10..........
Nov. 17..........
Nov. 24..........
Dec. 1.............
Dec. 8_______
Dec. 15______
Dec. 22...........
Dec. 29...........
1935
Jan. 5.............
Jan. 12............
Jan. 19______
Jan. 26............
Feb. 2.............
Feb. 9.............
Feb. 16...........
Feb. 23...........
Mar. 2............
Mar. 9............
Mar. 16_____
Mar. 23..........
Mar. 30..........
Apr. 6.............
Apr. 13...........
Apr. 20...........
Apr. 27...........
May 4__........
May 11_____
May 18--------M ay 25______
June l - _ ........
June 8_______
June 15...........
June 22______
June 29______
July 6.............
July 13...........
July 20...........
July 27...........
Aug. 3---------Aug. 10..........
Aug. 17_........
Aug. 24..........
Aug. 31..........
Sept. 7............
Sept. 14..........
Sept. 21..........
Sept. 28..........
Oct. 5.............
Oct. 1 2 .„_
Oct. 19______
Oct. 26............
Nov. 2........ .
Nov. 9............
Nov. 16..........
Nov. 23..........
Nov. 30..........
Dec. 7.............
Dec. 14...........
Dec. 21...........
Dec. 28...........

Hides Tex­
Farm
and
tile
prod­ Foods leather prod­
prod­
ucts
ucts
ucts

All
com­
modi­
Metals
All
Chem­ House- Mis­
ties,
Fuel
furand Build­ icals
com­
less
and metal
ing
nish- cella­ farm modi­
light­ prod­ mate­ and
ing
ties
ing
rials drugs goods neous prod­
ucts
ucts
and
foods

74.3
73.7
73.6
72.8
71.0
71.0
70.9
70.8
69.9
71.1
71.5
70.6
71.1
71.7
71.1
71.2
72.6

77.2
76.2
76.7
76.0
75.2
74.8
74.9
75.4
75.4
75.9
75.5
75.0
75.0
74.9
75.4
75.4
76.3

84.6
84.8
84.9
84.9
84.3
84.4
84.6
84.5
84.4
84.9
84.9
84.9
84.9
85.0
85.7
86.4
86.6

70.6
70.6
70.8
70.7
70.2
70.1
70.0
69.9
69.5
69.4
69.3
69.3
69.3
69.3
69.4
69.7
69.7

75.4
75.5
75.5
75.5
75.5
75.4
74.8
75.0
74.9
75.6
76.1
75.6
75.7
76.0
75.2
75.0
74.7

85.9
85.9
85.7
85.7
85.7
85.6
85.6
85.5
85.5
85.4
85.3
85.3
85.3
85.4
85.4
85.5
85.5

86.3
85.9
85.4
85.3
85.4
85.2
85.0
85.2
84.9
85.1
85.0
84.9
84.9
85.1
85.0
84.7
84.9

76.3
76.5
76.8
77.0
77.3
77.1
77.2
77.2
76.9
76.8
77.0
77.1
77.4
77.8
78.0
78.1
78.3

82.9
83.0
83.1
83.1
82.8
82.8
82.8
82.8
82.8
82.7
82.7
82.7
82.7
82.4
82.4
82.5
82.5

70.6
70.7
70.4
70.3
70.1
69.7
69.7
69.8
69.6
70.5
70.6
70.6
70.8
71.0
71.2
71.1
71.1

78.5
78.5
78.4
78.4
78.2
78.1
77.9
78.0
77.8
78.1
78.3
78.1
78.2
78.3
78.2
78.2
78.1

77.8
77.5
77.5
77.2
76.6
76.4
76.2
76.2
76.0
76.6
76.7
76.3
76.5
76.7
76.7
76.7
*77.1

75.6
77.2
76.7
79.0
78.3
78.1
79.2
79.9
80.0
80.0
79.2
77.6
77.5
78.6
81.0
81.8
81.7
81.1
80.8
80.9
81.5
80.7
79.9
79.9
78.0
77.1
78.0
77.7
77.2
77.1
78.4
79.7
80.3
80.7
79.2
79.9
81.2
81.3
80.9
79.5
80.1
79.5
78.6
77.4
77.5
77.8
78.2
78.5
79.1
79.2
77.3
78.4

78.5
79.7
79.8
80.9
81.5
82.3
83.1
83.2
82.5
82.1
82.6
81.1
81.8
82.9
84.5
85.3
85.4
84.9
84.1
83.8
84.3
84.4
83.7
83.4
82.5
81.6
81.9
82.0
82.0
82.2
83.4
84.2
85.4
86.1
86.0
85.9
86.4
86.2
86.6
85.3
85.7
85.6
84.8
83.8
84.1
84.9
85.8
85.9
86.4
85.8
85.3
85.3

86.8
86.9
86.8
86.8
86.8
86.6
86.7
86.8
86.6
86.4
86.0
85.8
85.7
85.6
85.9
86.5
87.9
88.0
88.1
88.4
89.5
89.9
89.1
89.4
89.3
89.6
89.8
89.8
89.8
90.1
90.0
90.1
90.1
90.2
90.4
90.5
91.6
91.8
91.8
92.6
93.8
94.4
95.1
95.1
95.6
95.8
95.7
95.5
94.8
95.4
96.2
96.4

70.0
70.0
70.0
70.0
69.9
69.6
69.7
69.7
69.4
69.3
69.0
68.8
68.8
68.7
68.8
69.0
68.8
68.7
68.7
68.8
69.4
69.3
69.3
69.1
69.7
69.7
69.7
69.9
69.8
69.9
70.0
70.1
70.5
70.7
70.9
71.0
71.2
71.3
71.6
71.7
72.1
72.5
72.8
72.7
72.8
73.0
73.1
72.9
72.9
72.8
72.7
72.8

74.1
74.2
74.0
74.3
74.4
74.3
74.0
73.9
73.9
73.8
73.8
74.0
74.2
74.1
74.0
74.0
74.3
74.4
74.4
74.2
74.1
74.4
74.7
74.9
74.7
74.8
74.9
75.3
75.3
75.2
75.0
75.4
75.4
75.4
75.4
74.6
74.7
74.8
74.5
74.6
74.1
74.2
74.3
74.3
75.5
75.6
75.7
75.9
75.9
75.7
75.7
75.6

85.6
85.6
85.3
85.2
85.2
85.2
85.1
85.1
85.0
85.1
85.0
84.9
85.0
85.0
85.0
85.1
85.2
85.2
85.2
85.3
85.6
85.6
85.6
85.9
85.9
86.1
85.7
85.7
85.7
85.7
85.8
85.8
85.8
86.0
86.0
86.0
86.0
86.3
86.2
86.3
85.8
85.9
85.9
85.9
86.2
86.3
86.4
86.3
86.4
86.3
86.2
85.9

84.6
84.8
84.8
84.9
84.9
84.7
84.6
84.8
84.7
85.0
84.6
85.0
84.9
84.3
84.5
84.3
84.4
84.9
84.7
84.8
84.9
84.9
85.1
85.3
85.1
84.9
84.8
85.0
84.9
85.1
85.3
85.0
85.1
85.1
85.3
85.4
85.3
86.3
86.1
86.1
86.1
86.2
85.9
85.6
85.7
86.0
85.8
85.4
85.4
85.3
85.2
85.1

79.1
79.6
79.8
80.0
80.2
80.4
80.4
81.0
81.6
81.6
81.5
80.9
80.4
80.2
80.5
80.7
80.8
80.8
80.7
80.8
81.0
80.8
80.7
80.4
80.0
79.5
79.5
79.5
79.5
78.4
78.5
78.5
78.7
79.3
79.0
79.2
78.9
79.2
79.3
80.2
80.7
81.1
81.3
81.1
81.1
81.1
80.9
81.0
80.7
80.5
80.2
80.0

82.3
82.2
82.1
82.1
82.2
82.3
82.1
81.9
81.9
82.0
81.9
81.9
81.9
81.9
81.9
81.9
82.0
82.0
82.0
82.0
82.0
82.0
81.8
81.7
81.7
81.8
81.8
81.8
81.8
81.9
81.9
81.7
81.7
81.7
81.8
81.8
81.8
81.7
81.7
81.8
81.8
81.8
81.9
82.0
82.1
82.1
82.1
82.1
82.2
82.2
82.2
82.2

71.9
71.0
70.7
70.6
70.2
70.1
70.2
70.2
69.9
69.8
69.0
68.8
68.8
68.4
68.4
68.7
68.9
68.9
68.9
69.0
69.0
69.0
68.9
68.4
68.4
68.0
68.0
67.8
67.6
67.5
67.5
67.5
67.2
67.2
67.1
66.8
66.9
67.0
67.2
67.2
67.5
67.6
67.4
67.5
67.4
67.4
67.4
67.5
67.4
67.4
67.5
67.5

78.0
78.1
77.9
77.9
77.9
77.8
77.7
77.7
77.6
77.5
77.3
77.3
77.3
77.2
77.2
77.3
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.6
77.8
77.8
77.8
77.9
77.9
77.9
77.8
78.0
77.9
77.9
77.9
78.0
78.0
78.1
78.1
77.9
78.0
78.2
78.2
78.3
78.2
78.4
78.4
78.4
78.9
79.0
79.0
79.0
78.9
78.9
78.8
78.8

77.9
78.6
78.5
79.0
79.1
79.1
79.4
79.6
79.6
79.6
79.4
78.8
78.9
79.2
79.9
80.3
80.3
80.1
79.9
80.0
80.3
80.2
79.9
79.8
79.3
78.9
79.1
79.2
79.1
79.2
79.6
80.1
80.5
80.8
80.5
80.4
80.8
81.0
81.0
80.5
80.7
80.7
80.3
79.8
80.1
80.4
80.6
80.8
80.9
80.8
80.4
80.6




687

WHOLESALE PRICES IN UNITED STATES

Purchasing Power of the Dollar at Wholesale

T able 5 shows the purchasing power of the dollar in terms of whole­
sale commodity prices by groups of commodities and for the all-com­
modities group, by years from 1913 to 1935 and by months from
January 1931 to December 1935. The figures in this table are recip­
rocals of the index numbers. To illustrate, the index number
representing the level of all commodities at wholesale in December 1935
with average prices for the year 1926 as the base, is shown to be 80.9.
The reciprocal of this index number is 0.01236 which, translated into
dollars and cents, becomes $1,236. Thus table 5 shows that the
dollar had increased its buying value from $1 in 1926 to $1,236 in
December 1935 in the purchase of all commodities at wholesale.
T a ble 5 —PU R CH ASIN G P O W ER OF T H E D O L LAR B Y GROUPS OF CO M M O D ITIES,
1913 TO D E C E M B E R 1935
[1926=$1,000]

Year and
month

All
com­
modi­
Hides
Metals Build­ Chem­ Houseties
All
Farm
furand Textile Fuel
and
Mis­
and
ing
com­
icals
less
prod­ Foods leather prod­
nish- cella­
light­ metal mate­
farm modi­
and
ucts
prod­ ucts
prod­
ing
ing
rials drugs goods neous prod­
ties
ucts
ucts
ucts
and
foods

1913................. $1.399 $1.558 $1,468 $1.745 $1.631 $1.101 $1.764 $1,247 $1.776 $1.074 $1,429
1914................. 1.404 1.546 1.410 1.832 1.767 1.247 1.898 1.229 1.761 1.112 1.606
1915................. 1.399 1.529 1.325 1.848 1.931 1.159 1.869
.893 1.786 1.151 1.471
1916................. 1.185 1. 321 1.071 1.420 1.346
.858 1.479
.622 1.629
.994 1.133
1917...........
.808 1.013
.949
.664 1.134
.775
.957
.606 1.348
.819
.876
1918...........
.676
.840
.796
.729
.916
.733 1.014
.744
.803
.549 1.072
1919.................
.772
.574
.959
.764
.635
.739
.865
.944
.719
.637
.776
1920.................
.664
.584
.607
.611
.728
.669
.666
.607
.705
.597
.620
1921................. 1.131 1.104
.916 1.058 1.033
.851 1.027
.885
.870
.916
.953
1922............. .
.998
.932
.972 1.028
.956
.966 1.078
1.066 1.142
.997
.977
1923................. 1.014 1.079
.898 1.028
.915
.920
.989
.918 1.003
.960
.959
1924.................
1925.................
1926.................
1927.................
1928............. .
1929...........
1930...........
1931_________
1932...........
1933.................
1934............... .
1935_________
1931
January.........
February____
March............
April......... .
M ay.............
June________
July......... .......
August______
September. . .
October_____
Novem ber...
December___
1932
January..........
February___
March______
April......... .
M a y _______
June........ .......
July................
August______
September. . .
October..........
November.. .
December___

$1.433
1.468
1.439
1.170
.851
.762
.722
.648
1.025
1.034
.994

1.000
.911
1.000
1.006
.944
.953
1.133
1.543
2.075
1.946
1. 531
1.269

1.099
.998
1.000
1.034
.990
1.001
1.105
1.340
1.639
1.653
1.418
1.195

.985
.950
1.000
.929
.824
.917
1.000
1.161
1.372
1.236
1.155
1.116

.937
.923*
1.000
1.046
1.047
1.106
1.245
1.508
1.821
1.543
1.372
1.410

1.087
1.036
1.000
1.133
1.186
1.205
1.274
1.481
1.422
1.508
1.364
1.361

.941
.969
1.000
1.038
1.031
.995
1.086
1.183
1.247
1.253
1.151
1.157

.978
.983
1.000
1.056
1.063
1.048
1.112
1.263
1.401
1.299
1.160
1.172

1.011
.982
1.000
1.033
1.046
1.062
1.122
1.261
1.361
1.377
1.318
1.242

.953
.970
1.000
1.026
1.052
1.060
1.079
1.178
1.332
1.319
1.227
1.241

1.068
.917
1.000
1.099
1.171
1.211
1.287
1.433
1.553
1.600
1.435
1.464

1.003
.975
1.000
1.064
1.076
1.092
1.174
1.333
1.425
1.404
1.276
1.284

1.019
.966
1.000
1.048
1.034
1.049
1.157
1.370
1.543
1. 517
1.335
1.250

1.368
1.427
1.416
1.427
1.490
1. 529
1.541
1.575
1.653
1. 701
1.704
1.795

1.239
1.282
1.289
1.311
1.355
1.364
1.351
1.340
1.357
1.364
1.408
1.447

1.127
1.151
1.142
1.143
1.142
1.136
1.119
1.127
1.176
1. 212
1.225
1.253

1.403
1.410
1.429
1.466
1.484
1.502
1.504
1.527
1.550
1.587
1.608
1.645

1.364
1.379
1.464
1.529
1.531
1.590
1.590
1.504
1.484
1.475
1.441
1.464

1.151
1.156
1.157
1.167
1.176
1.185
1.186
1.192
1.192
1.208
1.211
1.217

1.193
1.212
1.212
1. 227
1.250
1.261
1.280
1.289
1.299
1.314
1.312
1. 321

1.183
1.200
1.206
1.230
1.242
1. 259
1.267
1.300
1.311
1. 323
1.314
1.314

1.133
1.135
1.136
1.138
1.152
1.157
1.167
1.178
1.209
1.235
1.236
1.274

1.385
1.399
1.389
1.399
1.418
1.435
1.435
1.464
1.466
1.502
1.456
1.497

1.266
1.277
1.295
1.318
1.332
1.350
1.353
1.348
1.353
1.372
1.361
1.383

1.279
1.302
1.316
1.337
1.366
1.387
1.389
1.387
1.404
1.422
1.425
1.458

1.894 1.546
1.976 1.600
1.992 1.605
2.033 1.639
2.146 1.686
2.188 1.701
2.088 1.642
2.037 1.618
2.037 1.618
2.132 •1.653
2.141 1.650
2.268 1.715

1.261
1.277
1.294
1.333
1.379
1.412
1.458
1.435
1.385
1.374
1.401
1.437

1.678
1.681
1.724
1.783
1.842
1.898
1.942
1.898
1.799
1.818
1.855
1.887

1.473
1.464
1.473
1.425
1.414
1.397
1.383
1.387
1.412
1.406
1.401
1.443

1.222
1.236
1.238
1.245
1.248
1.252
1.263
1.248
1.248
1.245
1.256
1.259

1.337
1.362
1.366
1.379
1.399
1.412
1.435
1.437
1.418
1.414
1.414
1.412

1.321
1.325
1.328
1.344
1.359
1.368
1.370
1.364
1.372
1.376
1.381
1.383

1.287
1.290
1.297
1. 311
1.337
1. 339
1.351
1.359
1.357
1.357
1.357
1.359

1.524
1.546
1.546
1.546
1. 553
1. 558
1. 555
1.548
1.546
1.560
1.570
1.577

1.395
1.403
1.410
1.410
1.420
1.427
1.435
1.427
1.420
1.425
1.433
1.449

1.486
1.508
1.515
1.527
1.553
1.565
1.550
1.534
1.531
1.553
1.565
1.597




688

PRICES— RETAIL AND WHOLESALE

T a b l e 5 .—PU R CH ASIN G P O W ER OF T H E D O L L A R B Y GROUPS OF CO M M O D IT IE S,
1913 TO D E C E M B E R 1935
[1926=$1,000]
All
com­
modi­
Metals Build­ Chem­ HouseHides
All
ties
furMis­
and
Farm
and Textile Fuel
com­
icals
less
ing
and metal
Year, month, prod­ Foods leather prod­
nish- cella­ farm modi­
light­ prod­ mate­ and
and week
ing
neous prod­
prod­ ucts
ucts
ties
ing
rials drugs goods
ucts
ucts
ucts
and
foods
• **-T

1933
January.........
February____
March............
April...............
M a y .—..........
June...............
July................
August...........
September.—
October-------Novem ber...
December___
1934
January.........
February___
March............
April...............
M ay...............
June................
July................
August...........
September...
October_____
November . . .
December___
1935
January_____
February___
March............
April...............
M a y ..............
June________
July..... ..........
August...........
September_
_
October..........
November___
December___

$2,347 $1.792 $1.451 $1,927 $1.515 $1,279 $1.427 $1.397 $1.372 $1.634 $1,486
2.445 1.862 1.471 1.953 1.572 1.292 1.433 1.403 1.383 1.689 1.515
2.336 1.832 1.468 1.949 1.590 1.295 1.422 1.404 1.385 1.698 1.520
2.247 1.783 1.441 1.931 1.626 1.300 1.425 1.401 1.399 1.730 1.531
1.992 1.684 1.300 1.789 1.656 1.287 1.401 1.366 1.395 1.698 1.504
1.880 1.634 1.214 1.626 1.626 1.261 1.339 1.357 1.362 1.645 1.451
1.664 1.527 1.159 1.471 1.531 1.241 1.258 1.366 1.337 1.563 1.385
1.736 1.543 1.091 1.340 1.527 1.232 1.230 1.368 1.289 1.529 1.350
1.754 1.541 1.083 1.300 1.420 1.218 1.209 1.376 1.261 1.536 1.314
1.795 1.558 1.124 1.297 1.359 1.205 1.192 1.376 1.232 1.531 1.295
1.767 1. 555 1.134 1.302 1.361 1.209 1.178 1. 362 1.235 1.527 1.295
1.802 1.600 1.121 1.309 1.362 1.198 1.168 1.357 1.235 1.522 1.290

$1,639
1.672
1.661
1.656
1.595
1.538
1.451
1.439
1.412
1.404
1.406
1.412

1.704
1.631
1.631
1.678
1.678
1.580
1.550
1.433
1.362
1.416
1.412
1.389

1.555
1.499
1.486
1.511
1.490
1.433
1.416
1.353
1.314
1.337
1.332
1.328

1.117
1.116
1.127
1.125
1.138
1.148
1.159
1.193
1.189
1.193
1.188
1.175

1.307
1. 300
1.307
1.328
1.359
1.376
1.399
1.412
1.406
1.422
1.435
1.429

1.368
1.381
1.401
1.395
1.379
1.374
1.353
1.340
1.340
1.340
1.344
1.357

1.170
1.149
1.148
1.138
1.122
1.140
1.152
1.153
1.155
1.159
1.160
1.164

1.159
1.155
1.157
1.153
1.145
1.139
1.149
1.166
1.168
1.174
1.176
1.175

1.344
1.325
1.321
1.325
1.326
1.323
1.326
1.321
1.307
1.297
1.300
1.285

1.238
1.235
1.229
1.225
1.220
1.220
1.225
1.222
1.222
1.224
1.230
1.232

1.481
1.460
1.443
1.439
1.433
1.425
1.431
1.425
1.425
1.435
1.416
1.408

1.277
1. 271
1.274
1.272
1.267
1.279
1.276
1.277
1.277
1.282
1.282
1.282

1.385
1.359
1.357
1.364
1.357
1.340
1.337
1.309
1.289
1.307
1.307
1.300

1.289
1.264
1.277
1.244
1.241
1.277
1.297
1.261
1. 258
1.279
1.290
1. 277

1.252
1.209
1.221
1.183
1.189
1.208
1.218
1.178
1.161
1.176
1.175
1.167

1.160
1.163
1.171
1.159
1.133
1.125
1.120
1.116
1.100
1.068
1.053
1.048

1.422
1.427
1.441
1.445
1.441
1.427
1.425
1.410
1.393
1.372
1.362
1.366

1.372
1.379
1.370
1. 374
1.368
1.348
1.339
1.350
1. 380
1.362
1.342
1.340

1.166
1.166
1.167
1.164
1.155
1.151
1.157
1.155
1.155
1.156
1.151
1.152

1.178
1.176
1.178
1.182
1.179
1.172
1.174
1.171
1.164
1.161
1.166
1.170

1.261
1.244
1.227
1.235
1.232
1.239
1.271
1.272
1.247
1.233
1.232
1.241

1.232
1.239
1.239
1.239
1.241
1.242
1.244
1.242
1.242
1.241
1.235
1.235

1.414
1.427
1.445
1.456
1.456
1.462
1.477
1.486
1.490
1.481
1.484
1.481

1.287
1.292
1.294
1.295
1.289
1.282
1.282
1.284
1. 285
1.277
1.269
1.271

1.269
1.258
1.259
1.248
1.247
1.253
1.259
1.242
1.239
1.242
1.241
1.236

Index Numbers of Specified Groups of Commodities
I n t a b l e 6 th e p rice tre n d sin ce 1913 is sh o w n fo r th e fo llo w in g
g ro u p s o f co m m o d itie s :
R a w m ateria ls .— All farm products (67 quotations), bananas, cocoa beans,
coffee (2 quotations), copra, pepper, hides and skins (7 quotations), raw silk
(4 quotations), hemp, jute, sisal, coal (6 quotations), crude petroleum (3 quota­
tions), iron ore (2 quotations), scrap steel, gravel, sand, crushed stone, crude
sulphur, phosphate rock, nitrate of soda, tankage, crude rubber (3 quotations);
total, 109.
S e m im a n u fa ctu red articles .— Oleo oil, raw sugar, vegetable oil (6 quotations),
leather (7 quotations), print cloth (2 quotations), tire fabric (2 quotations),
cotton yarn (5 quotations), rayon (4 quotations), silk yarn (6 quotations),
worsted yarn (3 quotations), artificial leather (2 quotations), jute yarn (2 quota­
tions), bar iron (2 quotations), steel bars (3 quotations), steel billets, malleable
castings, pig iron (7 quotations), wire rods, skelp, steel strips, aluminum, anti­
mony, ingot copper, pig lead, nickel, quicksilver, brass rods, copper rods, silver,
pig tin, pig zinc, barytes, butyl acetate, carbon black, iron oxide black, Prussian
blue, ethyl acetate, chrome green, copal gum, chinawood oil, linseed oil, rosin,
turpentine, whiting, yellow chrome, plaster, tar, pine oil, camphor, opium, wood
pulp (4 quotations), paraffin wax; total, 93.




689

WHOLESALE PRICES IN UNITED STATES

F in ish e d 'products .— Butter (18 quotations), cheese (3 quotations), milk (3
quotations), cereal products (28 quotations), canned fruit (6 quotations), dried
fruit (6 quotations), canned vegetables (7 quotations), meats (14 quotations),
beverages (3 quotations), powdered cocoa, fish (6 quotations), glucose, grape
jam, lard, molasses, oleomargarine, peanut butter, salt, tomato soup, cornstarch,
granulated sugar, edible tallow, tea, vegetable oil (2 quotations), vinegar, shoes
(21 quotations), other leather products (6 quotations), clothing (20 quotations),
cotton goods (except print cloth, tire fabric, and yarn) (26 quotations), knit goods
(9 quotations), woolen textiles (15 quotations), burlap, rope (3 quotations),
thread (2 quotations), twine (3 quotations), coke (4 quotations), electricity, gas,
fuel oil (2 quotations), gasoline (5 quotations), kerosene (2 quotations), agricul­
tural implements (31 quotations), angle bars, augers, axes, reinforcing bars,
steel barrels, boiler tubes, bolts (4 quotations), butts, sanitary cans, chisels, files,
hammers, hatchets, knives, knobs, locks, nails, pipe (3 quotations), planes,
plates, rails, rivets (2 quotations), saws (2 quotations), steel sheets (3 quotations),
spikes, structural steel, terneplate, tieplates, tinplate, vises, wire fence (4 quo­
tations), wood screws, motor vehicles (7 quotations), babbitt metal, lead pipe,
brass sheets, copper sheets, zinc sheets, solder, brass tubes, wire (2 quotations),
plumbing and heating (8 quotations), brick and tile (12 quotations), cement, lath
(2 quotations), lumber (16 quotations), shingles (2 quotations), prepared paint
(6 quotations), paint materials (9 quotations), asphalt, building board (2 quo­
tations), doors, frames (2 quotations), glass (4 quotations), lime (2 quotations),
sewer pipe, prepared roofing (4 quotations), slate roofing, window sash, acid (12
quotations), alcohol (3 quotations), aluminum sulphate, ammonia (2 quotations),
anilin oil, arsenic, baking powder (2 quotations), benzene, bleaching powder,
borax, calcium compounds (4 quotations), coal-tar colors (4 quotations), copperas,
copper sulphate, cresote oil, formaldehyde, logwood extract, naphthalene, potash,
quebracho extract, sal soda, salt cake, granulated salt, sodium compounds (5
quotations), tallow, toluene, caffeine, castor oil, chlorine, chloroform, cream of
tartar, epsom salts, glycerine, iodine, menthol, peroxide of hydrogen, phenol,
potassium iodide, quinine sulphate, soda phosphate, strychnine, zinc chloride,
ammonia sulphate, ground bones, kainit, manure salts, muriate potash, sulphate
potash, superphosphate, mixed fertilizers (6 quotations), housefurnishing goods
(61 quotations), automobile tires and tubes (3 quotations), cattle feed (4 quo­
tations) , boxboard (3 quotations), paper (4 quotations), wooden barrels, batteries
(2 quotations), caskets (2 quotations), cigar boxes, matches (2 quotations),
mirrors, lubricating oil (4 quotations), pipe covering, rubber heels (2 quotations),
rubber hose, rubber overshoes, shipping cases, soap (5 quotations), starch, tobacco
products (5 quotations); total, 582.

T a b l e 6.—IN D E X

N U M B E R S OF W H O LESALE PRICES OF SPECIAL GROUPS
C O M M O D IT IE S A N D A L L C O M M O D IT IE S, 1913 TO D E C E M B E R 1935

OF

[1926=100.0]
All com­
Semimodities
Farm
NonagriRaw
manufac­ Finished less farm All com­
products cultural materials
tured
products products modities
articles
and foods

Year and month

1913__________________________
1914__________________________
1915__________________________
1916______________________
1917_____ _____________________
1918__________________________
1919_______________ ____ ______
1920__________________________
1921__________________________
1922_____ _____________________
1923__________________________

71.5
71.2
71.5
84.4
129.0
148.0
157.6
150.7
88.4
93.8
98.6

69.0
66.8
68.5
85.3
113.1
125.1
131.6
154.8
100.1
97.3
100.9

68.8
67.6
67.2
82.6
122.6
135.8
145.9
151.8
88.3
96.0
98.5

74.9
70.0
81.2
118.3
150.4
153.8
157.9
198.2
96.1
98.9
118.6

69.4
67.8
68.9
82.3
109.2
124.7
130.6
149.8
103.3
96.5
99.2

70.0
66.4
68.0
88.3
114.2
124.6
128.8
161.3
104.9
102.4
104.3

69.8
68.1
69.5
85.5
117.5
131.3
138.6
154.4
97.6
96.7
100.6

1924______ ___________ ________
1925__________________________
1926................................................
1927__________________________
1928__________________________
1929__________________________
1930__________________________
1931__________________________
1932__________________________
1933_____ ____________________
1934............................................. .
1935_______ ______ ____________

100.0
109.8
100.0
99.4
105.9
104.9
88.3
64.8
48.2
51.4
65.3
78.8

97.1
101.4
100.0
94.6
94.8
93.3
85.9
74.6
68.3
69.0
76.9
80.2

97.6
106.7
100.0
96.5
99.1
97.5
84.3
65.6
55.1
56.5
68.6
77.1

108.7
105.3
100.0
94.3
94.5
93.9
81.8
69.0
59.3
65.4
72.8
73.6

96.3
100.6
100.0
95.0
95.9
94.5
88.0
77.0
70.3
70.5
78.2
82.2

99.7
102.6
100.0
94.0
92.9
91.6
85.2
75.0
70.2
71.2
78.4
77.9

98.1
103.5
100.0
95.4
96.7
95.3
86.4
73.0
64.8
65.9
74.9
80.0

1 9 2 0 5 -3 6 -




45

690

PRICES— RETAIL AND WHOLESALE

T a ble 6 .—IN D E X N U M B E R S

OF W H O L E SA L E PR ICES OF SPECIAL GROUPS OF
C O M M O D IT IE S A N D A L L C O M M O D IT IE S, 1913 TO D E C E M B E R 1935—Continued
[1926=100.0]

Year and month

1931: January...............................
February________________
March...... .............. ...........
April....................................
M ay____ _______________
June_____________ _______
July_____________________
August.................................
September................... .......
October..............................
November..........................
December......... .................
1932: January...............................
February-...........................
M arch.. .............................
April................................—
M ay............... ....................
June............................ .........
July. ................................
August........... .....................
September..........................
October. ..............................
November ..........................
December..........................
1933: January...........................
February. ........................ .
March................................ .
April......... ...........................
M ay............... .....................
June__________ _______
J u ly ................. ............... .
August.................................
September. ........................
October...............................
November___ ____ ______
December........................ .
1934: January...............................
February............................
March_ ____ __________
_
April____________________
M ay.....................................
June........ ....................... .
July_____________________
August........... .....................
September................ .........
October................ ..............
Novem ber.......... .............
December........... ................
1935: January...............................
February............................
March.................................
April........... ........................
M ay....................................
June____________________
July......................................
August.............. .................
September........................
October_____ ____________
November.........................
December...........................

All com­
Semi­
modities
manufac­ Finished less farm All com­
Farm
Raw
Nonagritured
products products modities
products cultural materials
articles
and foods
73.1
70.1
70.6
70.1
67.1
65.4
64.9
63.5
60.5
58.8
58.7
55.7
52.8
50.6
50.2
49.2
46.6
45.7
47.9
49.1
49.1
46.9
46.7
44.1
42.6
40.9
42.8
44.5
50.2
53.2
60.1
57.6
57.0
55.7
56.6
55.5
58.7
61.3
61.3
59.6
59.6
63.3
64.5
69.8
73.4
70.6
70.8
72.0
77.6
79.1
78.3
80.4
80.6
78.3
77.1
79.3
79.5
78.2
77.5
78.3

79.3
78.2
77.2
75.7
74.5
73.4
73.5
73.9
73.4
72.6
72.6
71.3
70.3
69.6
69.3
68.9
68.1
67.8
68.0
68.5
68.7
68.1
67.5
66.5
64.9
63.7
63.8
63.7
65.4
67.4
70.7
72.0
73.7
74.4
74.2
74.0
75.0
76.1
76.2
76.2
76.6
76.9
76.9
77.8
78.4
77.6
77.7
77.8
78.9
79.4
79.5
79.9
80.0
80.0
79.8
80.6
80.8
80.9
81.1
81.3

72.7
70.6
69.5
68.3
66.5
64.7
64.3
64.1
62.7
61.5
62.0
60.2
58.3
56.9
56.1
55.5
53.9
53.2
54.7
55.7
56.2
54.6
54.2
52.1
50.2
48.4
49.4
50.0
53.7
56.2
61.8
60.6
61.7
61.8
62.4
61.9
64.1
66.0
65.9
65.1
65.1
67.3
68.3
71.6
73.9
72.1
72.2
73.1
76.6
77.4
76.6
77.5
77.6
76.4
75.8
77.1
77.3
77.1
77.2
77.7

73.7
73.0
72.9
71.5
69.8
69.3
69.3
68.3
66.7
65.2
64.9
63.7
63.1
61.9
60.8
59.6
68.1
57.6
55.5
57.9
60.7
60.7
58.9
57.7
56.9
56.3
56.9
57.3
61.3
65.3
69.1
71.7
72.9
72.8
71.4
72.3
71.9
74.8
74.3
73.9
73.7
72.9
72.7
72.6
71.8
71.5
71.1
71.0
71.2
71.7
71.8
72.3
73.5
73.9
72.8
73.2
74.4
76.3
76.2
75.2

81.5
80.3
79.6
78.3
76.9
76.0
76.1
76.4
75.9
75.1
74.8
73.3
72.1
71.4
71.5
71.1
70.3
70.0
70.5
70.7
70.4
69.6
69.3
68.4
66.7
65.7
65.7
65.7
67.2
69.0
72.2
73.4
74.8
75.4
75.2
74.8
76.0
77.0
77.2
77.1
77.8
78.2
78.2
79.2
80.1
79.2
79.3
79.5
80.8
81.5
81.7
82.3
82.4
82.2
82.0
83.0
83.1
82.7
82.7
83.1

79.0
78.3
77.2
75.9
75.1
74.1
73.9
74.2
73.9
72.9
73.5
72.3

78.2
76.8
76.0
74.8
73.2
72.1
72.0
72.1
71.2
70.3
70.2
68.6

71.7
71.3
70.9
70.9
70.4
70.1
69.7
70.1
70.4
70.2
69.8
69.0
67.3
66.0
65.8
65.3
66.5
68.9
72.2
74.1
76.1
77.2
77.2
77.5
78.3
78.7
78.5
78.6
78.9
78.2
78.4
78.3
78.3
78.0
78.0
78.0
77.7
77.4
77.3
77.2
77.6
78.0
78.0
79.9
77.8
78.3
78.8
78.7

67.3
66.3
66.0
65.5
64.4
63.9
64.5
65.2
65.3
64.4
63.9
62.6
61.0
59.8
60.2
60.4
62.7
65.0
68.9
69.5
70.8
71.2
71.1
70.8
72.2
73.6
73.7
73.3
73.7
74.6
74.8
76.4
77.6
76.5
76.5
76.9
78.8
79.5
79.4
80.1
80.2
79.8
79.4
80.5
80.7
80.5
80.6
80.9

Wholesale Prices in the United States and in Foreign
Countries
N D E X numbers of wholesale prices of the Bureau of Labor Statis­
tics of the United States Department of Labor, and those of certain
foreign countries, have been brought together in the following table in
order that the trend of prices in the several countries may be compared.
The base periods here shown are those appearing in the original sources

I




691

WHOLESALE PRICES IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES

from which the information has been drawn, in certain cases being the
year 1913 or some other pre-war period. Only general comparisons
can be made from these figures, since, in addition to differences in the
base periods, and the kind and number of articles included, there are
important differences in the composition of the index numbers them­
selves. Indexes are shown for the years 1926-34 inclusive, and by
months since January 1933.
IN D E X N U M B E R S OF W H O LESALE PRICES IN T H E U N IT E D STATES A N D IN FO REIG N
COUNTRIES
Country.....................

United
States

Bureau
Computing agency— of Labor
Statistics

Australia Austria

Belgium

Bulgaria

Canada

Bureau
of
Census
and
Statistics

Federal
Statis­
tical
Bureau

Ministry
of Labor
and
Social
Welfare

General
Statis­
tical
Bureau

Domin­ General
ion
Statis­
Bureau
tical
of
Bureau
Statistics

Chile

China

National
Tariff
Commis­
sion,
Shanghai

1926
(100)

1911
(1000)

JanuaryJune

April

Base period...............

1914
(100)

1926
(100)

1926
(100)

1913
(100)

1926
(100)

Commodities______

784

92

47

(Paper)

(Gold)
55

567 1

(Paper)

(Silver)
155 2

1914
(100)

125

100.0
95.4
96.7
95.3
86.4
73.0
64.8
65.9
74.9

1832
1817
1792
1803
1596
1428
1411
1409
1471

123
133
130
130
117
108
112
108
110

744
847
843
851
744
626
532
5pl
473

100.0
102.4
109.8
117.0
94.6
79.1
70.3
61.8
63.6

100.0
97.7
96.4
95.6
86.6
72.1
66.7
67.1
71.6

195.5
192.4
166.9
152.2
230.4
346.0
343.6

100.0
104.4
101.7
104.5
114.8
126.7
112.4
103.8
97.1

January......... - ..........
February. - _______
March_____
April______________
M ay
June
--July_______________
August.
Septem ber..---------October____________
November------------December---------------

61.0
59.8
60.2
60.4
62.7
65.0
68.9
69.5
70.8
71.2
71.1
70.8

1344
1330
1333
1358
1406
1439
1455
1464
1481
1445
1414
1436

108
106
107
107
108
109
111
108
108
109
108
108

521
512
504
501
502
507
506
501
496
489
485
484

63.5
62.5
61.0
61.5
62.1
61.3
62.6
60.9
62.4
61.0
62.1
60.8

63.8
63.5
64.3
65.3
66.7
67.5
70.5
69.5
68.9
67.9
68.9
69.0

346.0
344.7
343.4
351.2
357.6
357.8
353.2
355.8
351.5
338.5
330.2
322.0

108.6
107.6
106.7
104.5
104.2
104.5
103.4
101. 7
100.4
100.3
99.9
98.4

January.....................
February...............
March............. ..........
April............
May______
June...............
July_________
A ugust,.
September..-............
October......................
November..........
December---------------

72.2
73.6
73.7
73.3
73.7
74.6
74.8
76.4
77.6
76.5
76.5
76.9

1456
1452
1459
1471
1456
1463
1483
1500
1493
1493
1470
1459

109
110
113
112
110

484
483
478
474
470
472
471
474
470
467
466
468

59.1
62.6
61.7
61.6
63.0
64.2
64.2
65.7
65.5
66.2
64.8
63.8

70.7
72.1
72.1
71.3
71.1
72.0
72.0
72.2
71.9
71.3
71.1
71.1

328.6
331.4
336.9
342.6
343.1
351.7
352.5
354.1
352.6
344.2
343.3
341.8

97.2
98.0
96.6
94.6
94.9
95.7
97.1
99.8
97.3
96.1
98.3
99.0

January.....................
February.................
March........................
April.........................M ay...........................
June............................
July............- ..............
August.......................
September—, ............
October____________
November_________
December. _ __ __

78.8
79.5
79.4
80.1
80.2
79.8
79.4
80.5
80.7
80.5
80.6
80.9

1459
1451
1443
1444
1458
1466
1479
1498
1495
1498

472
466
464
531
552
555
553
552
560
574
582
579

64.5
64.3
64.2
66.0
64.7
64.3
64.2
64.0
64.4

71.4
71.9
72.0
72.5
72.3
71.5
71.5
71.6
72.3
73.1
72.7
72.6

346.7
340.3
336.7
334.9
339.3
339.6
342.4
343.3
346.2

99.4
99.9
96.4
95.9
95.0
92.1
90.5
91.9
91.1
94.1
103.3
106.3

1926______________
1927______________
1928__ __________
1929._____ _______
1930______________
1931____ _________
1932______________
1933___ __________
1934______________
1933
______
----- ----------------------------------------1934

..
..............
______
............
_____
-------------

.......

1935

no
no
no

108
108
109
109

no

109
109
109
no
111
112
111
11

109
109
109

Revised for commodities since January 1934.




66.6

* Quotations, 154 since January 1932.

692

PRICES----RETAIL AND WHOLESALE

IN D E X N U M B E R S OF W H O LESALE PRICES IN T H E U N IT E D STATES A N D IN FO REIG N
COUNTR IES—Continued
Country.

CzechoSlovakia

Den­
mark

Finland

France

Ger­
many

India

Italy

Japan

Nether­
lands

Central Statist!- Central General Federal Depart­
Bank of Central
Statisti­ Statisti­ ment, Riccardo Japan, Bureau
Computing agency, Bureau cal De- Bureau
Bachi
partof Sta- cal Bu­ cal Bu­
etc.,3
of Sta­
of StaTokyo
tistics
tistics
tistics
ment
reau
reau Calcutta
1926
. (100)

1913
(100)

1913
(100)

July
1914(100)

1913
(100)

October
1900(100)

1913
(100)

(Paper)
126

400

72

(Paper)
140

56

48

July
1914(100)

1913
(100)

Commodities.

(Gold)
69

118

1926.
1927.
1928.
1929.
1930.
1931.
1932.
1933.
1934.

<944
<968
<969
<913
118.6
107.5
99.5
96.3
83.9

163
153
153
150
130
114
117
125
132

100
101
102
98
90
84
90
89
90

695
642
645
627
554
502
427
398
376

134.4
137.6
140.0
137.2
124.6
110.9
96.5
93.3
98.4

148
148
145
141
116
96
91
87
89

602.0
495.3
461.6
445.3
383.0
328.4
303.7
279.5
273.0

236.7
224.6
226.1
219.8
181.0
153.0
161.1
179.5
177.6

145
148
149
142
117
97
79
74
78

96.6
96.3
95.5
94.6
96.3
98.3
98.3
97.4
96.5
96.2
95.7
95.0

117
124
123
122
123
123
125
126
128
127
128
129

90
89
89
88
88
89
90
90
90
90
90
89

411
404
390
387
383
403
401
397
397
397
403
407

91.0
91.2
91.1
90.7
91.9
92.9
93.9
94.2
94.9
95.7
96.0
96.2

88
86
82
84
87
89
91
89
88
88
88
89

292.0
286.3
281.3
279.1
278.8
281.2
278.9
278.3
275.8
274.1
272.9
275.3

185.0
179.6
177.4
176.2
176.8
179.6
182.1
180.0
182.4
180.4
178.7
175. 5

75
74
72
71
72
73
73
73
75
75
76
77

94.6
94.3
*81.1
6 80.8
8 80. 2
6 80.5
6 85.1
8 83.9
684.0
6 83.8
584.2
584.2

130
131
129
128
128
128
129
134
135
135
136
135

90
90
90
89
89
89
89
90
90
90
90
90

404
400
394
387
381
379
373
370
365
357
356
344

96.3
96.2
95.9
95.8
96.2
97.2
98.9
100.1
100.4
101.0
101.2
101.0

90
89
88
89
90
90
89
89
89
89
88
88

275.7
274.6
275.2
273.1
272.6
272.2
269.8
271.4
269.9
271.8
274.1
275.9

175.5
177.5
176.9
176.9
176.2
174.5
174.1
176.9
179.2
181.8
181.1
181.1

79
80
79
79
77
76
77
78
77
77
77
78

6 84.5
5 85.1
«85. 3
5 84.9
«85.7
5 86.1
5 88.0
«86.0
6 85.9
5 85.6
5 86.2
5 86.2

135
135
132
132
131
130
131
134
136
139
139
139

90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
91
92
91

350
343
335
336
340
330
322
330
332
342
348
354

101.1
100.9
100.7
100.8
100.8
101.2
101.8
102.4
102.3
102.8
103.1
103.4

94
90
87
88
91
91
91
89
89
93
92

277.2
278.4
288.3
296.1
302.3
307.8
310.1
322.9
329.6
351.3

181.5
184.1
183.5
182.3
182.4
180.2
180.2
182.9
188.9
194.0
193.6
191.9

78
77
75
76
75
75
74
73
75
78
78

Base period.

120

1933

January___
February...
March------April--------M ay______
June______
July_______
August------September..
October____
November.
December-..
1934

January___
February.. ..
March_____
April______
M ay______
June______
July----------August____
September..
October____
November..
December...
1935

January___
February. _.
March_____
April---------M ay______
June______
July_______
August____
September..
October____
November..
December...

3 Department of Commercial Intelligence and Statistics.
< Paper, revised.
5 New gold parity.




693

WHOLESALE PRICES IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES

IN D E X N U M B E R S OF W H O LESALE PRICES IN T H E U N IT E D STATES A N D IN FO REIG N
C OU N T R IE S—Continued

Country.

New
Zealand, Norway
revised

Computing agency.

Census
and
Statis­
tics
Office

Base period.

1909-13

Commodities..

Central Central
Bank
Office
of Sta­
of
Reserve tistics

South
Africa

United
Sweden Switzer­ King­
land
dom

Yugo­
slavia

Federal
Labor
Depart­
ment

Board
of
Trade

Na­
tional
Bank

1930
(100)

1926
(100)

»200

55

Office
of Cen­
sus and
Statis­
tics

Board
of
Trade

1910

( 100)

( 100)

( 100)

( 1000)

1913
(100)

180

95

(Paper)
58

238

188

160

1553
1478
1492
1488
1449
1346
1297
1308
1330

1933
January_____
February___
March______
April_______
M ay________
June________
July....... ........
August_____
September. _
October_____
November..
December—

1266
1315
1316
1315
1323
1321
1327
1325
1317
1317
1318
1320

1934
January_____
February___
March______

1336
1339
1340

M ay________
June________
July------------August______
September . . .
October_____
November...
December___

1340
1337
1336
1342
1337
1338
1340
1338

1935
January_____
February___
March______
April_______
M ay___ l___
June________
July________
August_____
September. _
October_____
November. _.
December___

1345
1360
1365
1367
1371
1382
1395
1403
1430
1446
1428

1332

1913

1913

1928

203.2
202.6
191.9
185.7
178.0
175.1
170.3
180.2
188.1

100.0
96.3
85.5
74.6
65.5
59.1
55.8

172.2
172.1
173.7
178.6
178.4
180.0
181.0
182.1
184.2
186.6
186.3
186.9

59.3
60.4
59.8
59.9
59.6
60.1
60.6
57.9
58.1
57.9
57.6
57.6

122

186.8
186.6
184.1

123
123
123
124
127
126
127
126
125

187.8
189.8
188.8
191.4
190.9
187.9
187.0
185.3

57.8
57.6
57.3
56.8
56.0
55.8
55.9
55.8
55.0
54.4
53.6
53.4

125
125
126
125
125
126
127
128
128
130
130
131

186.3
188.2
191.2
190.6
190.4
191.5
190.7
188.6
186.7
188.0
188.1

157
149
137

122

122
122
124

122

121
121

121

121

121
121
122
123
123
122

122
120

122

187.4

6 Revised for commodities since January 1930.




Poland

( 1000)

1926.
1927.
19281929.
19301931..
1932..
1933..
1934..

April_______

Central
Bureau
of Sta­
tistics

Peru

52.7
52.2
52.1
52.2
52.7
52.6
52.9
53.6
54.2
54.5
54.4
54.7

July
(100)

77

1387
1395
1354
1305
1155
1119
1032
1047
1143

149
146
148
140
122
111
109
107
114

144.5
142.2
144.6
141.2
126.5
109.7
96.0
91.0
89.8

100.0
87.8
85.6
85.7
88.1

100.0
103.4
106.2
100.6
86.6
72.9
65.2
64.4
63.2

983

106
106
105
105
106
106
108
108
109
109
110
110

91.3
90.1
90.0
91.1
91.6
91.2
91.7
90.9
90.8
90.7
91.0
91.3

84.7
83.5
82.7
82.8
84.3
86.2
86.8
87.2
87.8
87.5
87.6
87.6

67.6
68.4
67.0
66.3
64.9
66.1
63.7
60.7
60.7
61.5
63.1
62.3

112
112
112
113
113
114
114
114
114
114
115
115

91.8
91.4
90.9
89.6
89.0
89.0
88.9
89.8
89.1
89.6
89.4
89.0

88.8
89.2
88.2
87.7
87.2
87.9
87.3
89.0
88.4
87.8
87.5
87.8

62.9
63.6
63.3
63.0
64.1
65.6
62.8
61.1
63.2
63.6
62.7
62.3

115
115
115
115
115
116
116
115
115
117
118
118

88.3
87.6
86.4
87.1
87.6
88.6
89.9
91.4
92.2
93.3

88.3
88.0
86.9
87.5
88.2
88.4
88.0
88.4
89.6
91.1
91.2
91.4

64.5
63.9
63.0
62.9
64.0
63.9
63.3
64.8
67.8
70.0
71.2
71.6

1013
1072

"Im

1193

'Im
1102

'1169
1074
l044

1080




PRISON LABOR

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




695




Prison Labor in the United States, 1932
HE extent and character of prison labor in the United States
have been surveyed by the United States Bureau of Labor Sta­
tistics at intervals of 9 or 10 years. The latest survey, covering 1932,
while similar in methods to the earlier ones, was considerably broader
in scope, city and county jails being included as well as Federal and
State prisons. The city and county jails were found to be important
as regards number of prisoners, but of minor importance as producers
of goods, and consequently the report of the purvey, which is pub­
lished in full in Bulletin No. 595 and here summarized, deals primarily
with Federal and State institutions.

T

Federal and State Prisons
T he survey covered 12 Federal and 116 State prisons, the latter
including 1 county and 1 city prison which house State prisoners under
an arrangement with the respective State. The report for each insti­
tution covered the latest fiscal year for which data were available, in
the majority of cases ending in the latter part of 1932. The data
were obtained by agents of the Bureau from the records either of the
institution or of the contractor manufacturing goods under the con­
tract and piece-price systems.
In these 128 prisons, 158,947 prisoners were confined during 1932
as compared with 84,761 in 1923.1 This was an increase of 87 percent
during the 9-year period, while the increase in the general population
during the same period was only 12 percent.
Table 1 shows, by States, the number of prisoners and the value
of prison products in State and Federal prisons in 1932 as compared
with 1923:
T a ble 1 .—N U M B E R OF PRISONERS A N D V A L U E OF PRISON PR ODUCTS IN STATE
A N D F E D E R A L IN ST IT U TIO N S, 1923 A N D 1932, B Y STATES

Average number of
prisoners
Class of prisons, and State
1923
State prisons:
Alabama________________________
A r iz o n a ,.-___ __________ , , Arkansas______ ____ ________ --California_______________________
Colorado________________________
Connecticut-------------------------------Delaware_____ _______ , , , , ,
District of Columbia____________
Florida__________________________
Georgia_________________________
Idaho...... ..........................................
Illinois................................................
Indiana................... ..........................

2,988
383
1, 295
3,841
1,003
916
350
539
1,426
3,822
280
4,450
2,946

1932

4,837
591
1,425
7, 675
1, 369
1, 378
527
1,580
2,786
4,197
307
10,453
6,309

Average number
of prisoners em­
ployed at pro­
ductive labor
1923

2,553
56
1,053
2,541
795
528
245
220
1,028
3,698
42
2,531
1,369

1932

3,763
225
867
4, 394
354
738
312
676
1,739
3,328
203
4,577
3,780

Value of articles
produced

1932

1923

$6,153,387
69, 573
300,623
1,463,332
922,378
2, 421,119
431,661
297,479
2,199,796
5,084,188
20,045
1,320,687
1,702,369

$5,525,751
262,116
232,409
2,651,567
137,187
698,804
226,018
712,020
2,205,647
4,962,727
198,613
2, 030,032
2,233,989

i The year of the Bureau’s latest previous study.




697

698

PRISON LABOR

T able 1.—N U M B E R OF PRISONERS A N D V AL U E OF PRISON PRO D U CTS IN STATE
A N D F E D E R A L IN ST IT U TIO N S, 1923 A N D 1932, B Y STATES—Continued

Average number of
prisoners
Class of prisons, and State
1923

1932

Average number
of prisoners em­
ployed at pro­
ductive labor
1923

1932

Value of articles
produced

1923

1932

State prisons—Continued.
Iowa....................................................
Kansas...............................................
Kentucky..........................................
Louisiana...........................................
Maine....................- ............ .............
Maryland..........................................
Massachusetts................... .............
Michigan 1
.........................................
Minnesota.........................................
Mississippi—....................... - ..........
Missouri............... - ................... .......
Montana................................... .......
Nebraska............- ..................... .......
Nevada........ ....................................New Hampshire...........................__
New Jersey.......................................
New Mexico.....................................
New York.........................................
North Carolina................................
North Dakota..................................
Ohio.............................................. —
Oklahoma.........................................
Oregon.......................................... —
Pennsylvania.......... ........................
Rhode Island....................... ............
South Carolina............................. —
South Dakota........... - .....................
Tennessee............. - ...........................
Texas.....................—.........................
Utah— ..........................................
Vermont............................................
Virginia________________________
Washington......................................
West Virginia........................ ..........
Wisconsin.................... .....................
Wyoming..........................................

1,851
1,225
2,043
1,596
338
1,495
1,964
3,381
1,488
1,572
2,828
340
805
147
138
1,850
399
6,512
1,102
220
4,128
2,051
424
4,336
570
537
309
1,691
3,474
188
344
1,439
1,094
1,645
1,188
399

2,904
2,731
3,575
2,782
515
2,586
3,586
9,735
2,449
2,104
4,981
615
1,212
265
179
3,349
560
11,485
2,877
417
8,941
4,117
851
6,314
657
1,142
524
2,941
5,550
312
430
3,719
1,976
2,642
2,554
420

1,400
881
1,696
1,110
278
1,212
966
2,110
875
1,252
1,813
119
627
30
100
503
193
2,395
935
122
1,751
1,271
163
987
329
452
232
1,359
2,749
39
243
857
302
1,281
782
264

1,988
1,326
2,407
1,644
152
1,341
1,781
4,164
1,321
1,370
2,222
107
830
74
140
1,421
263
4,321
1,834
197
3,886
2,064
352
2,148
421
459
405
2,063
4,462
37
266
2,944
566
1,555
1,502
278

$2,051,389
807,453
6,961,220
257,992
454,154
2,771,143
1,161,921
3,637,829
2,664,253
779,571
4,426,097
71,874
677,947
22,769
218,000
409,363
37,175
1,789,397
1,638,233
374,448
1,323,291
1,940,751
129,402
1,148,163
1,458,471
381,302
267,731
2,120,055
925,291
86,847
615,280
2,303,610
215,604
2,879,329
2,558,562
1,716,325

$2,721,769
657,364
3,115,445
979,230
33,435
2,099,867
2,002,267
4,203,736
2,989,332
393,663
3,103,964
194,853
866,226
71,473
186,577
1,210,588
59,217
3,780,581
805,211
436,967
2,290,190
979,592
265,301
2,492,075
464,788
393,797
528,415
1,609,161
1,371,572
16,573
291,816
3,828,290
368,684
2,592,645
1,565,052
259,565

Total.............................. ...............

79,350

145,421

48,336

77,267

73,668,879

71,306,061

Federal prisons:
Georgia (Atlanta)........................ .
Kansas (Leavenworth)...................
Washington (McNeil Island).......
9 prisons not covered in 1923.........

2,479
2,454
478

3,526
3,229
943
5,828

2,066
1,270
127

1,626
1,032
285
2,066

1,992,779
283,943
151,359

1,566,898
932,936
410,351
1,153,225

Total...............................................

5,411

13,526

3,463

5,009

2,428,081

4,063,410

Grand total........................ ..........

84,761

158,947

51,799

82,276

76,096,960

75,369,471

i Includes the Detroit House of Correction, in existence but not studied in 1923.

While there was an increase in the number of prisoners employed
at productive work from 51,799 in 1923 to 82,276 m 1932, the decline
in the proportion of total prisoners productively employed, which be­
gan many years ago, continued, the percent in 1885 being 75; in 1895,
72; in 1923, 61; and in 1932, 52 or about one-half. In the State pri­
sons 53.1 percent of the prisoners were employed at productive labor
in 1932, as against 37 percent in the Federal prisons. The percent
employed in ordinary prison duties was 31.6 in State institutions, and
51.9 in Federal prisons. The remainder of the prisoners were either
sick or idle.
The productive work of the prisoners in State and Federal prisons
is carried on under several systems. These systems are: (1) Contract
system, under which an outside contractor contracts with the insti-




699

UNITED STATES IN 1932

tution for the labor of the prisoners, during which time the institution
houses, clothes, feeds, and guards, etc., the prisoners; (2) piece-price
system, which is nearly the same as the contract system except that
under the piece-price system the contractor agrees to pay a specified
price per unit of output rather than a stipulated price per day as
under the contract system; (3) State account system, by which the
State engages the prisoners in productive enterprises and sells the
product on the open market and assumes all business risks; (4) Stateuse system, where the institution carries on the business of produc­
tion, but the use or sale of goods is limited exclusively to State depart­
ments and agencies; (5) public works and ways system, under which
the prisoners are engaged in the construction and repair of public
works and ways rather than in the production of goods for consump­
tion; (6) lease system, under which the State leases the prisoners to
a contractor for a specific amount per man per day, and the contractor
is usually given exclusive control of the prisoners.
The lease system has apparently disappeared from practice, no
instances of its use being found either in 1923 or 1932. The 1932
survey showed a continued increase in the State-use system at the
expense of the other systems. In 1932 no less than 65 percent were
working under the State-use system (including public works and
ways) as compared with 55 percent in 1923, 33 percent in 1914, and
26 percent in 1905.
The percent of all the prisoners employed at productive work, and
the respective percents of those employed at productive work under
the different systems, are shown in table 2:
t a b l e 3 .—P E R C E N T OF PRISONERS E M P L O Y E D A T P R O D U CT IVE LABOR U N D E R

D IF F E R E N T SYSTEM S IN SPECIFIED Y E A R S
System
Prisoners employed at productive labor under—
Lease system____________________________________
Contract system________________________________
Piece-price system. _ ___________________________
State-account system____________________________ 1
>
State-use system_________________________ _____
Public works and ways system
_______________
Total_________________________________________
Percent of all prisoners_________________________

1885

1895

1905

1914

1923

1932

19
34
14

126

(
133 ]
1

9
36
8
21
18
8

4
26
6
31
22
11

0
12
7
26
36
19

0
5
11
19
42
23

100
75

100
72

100
65

100
(2
)

100
61

100
52

26
40
8

1 No separation made of State account, State use, and public works and ways system in this year.
* Not reported.

In 1932 the total value of the goods manufactured by the 82,276
State and Federal prisoners employed at productive work was ap­
proximately $75,000,000 as compared with $76,000,000 in 1923. If
allowance is made for the general decline in wholesale prices, instead
of the nominal decrease shown the actual output of prison-made goods
appears to be considerably greater in 1932 than in 1923.
The largest number of prisoners—approximately 19,000, or 23
percent—were engaged in the manufacture of clothing, more than
22,000,000 shirts, valued at over $8,000,000, being produced in 1932.
Another important item was binder twine, with a total value of some
$4,000,000 in the same year. Some 36,000,000 automobile license
tags were made in 1932 by prison labor.




700

PRISON LABOR

Table 3 shows the number of prisoners employed at productive
labor in State and in Federal institutions, and the value of prison
production therein, for 1923 and 1932, by groups of commodities.
T a b l e 3 .—N U M B E R OF PRISONERS E M P L O Y E D A T P R O D U CTIVE LABO R A N D VALU E
OF GOODS P R O D U CED IN ST A TE A N D F E D E R A L IN ST IT U TIO N S, 1923 A N D 1932, B Y
C O M M O D IT Y GROUPS

Class of prison and group of commodities produced

Average number of
prisoners employed
at productive labor
1923

State prisons:
Agricultural implements....... .........
Agricultural implements, parts. __
Bakery products, commercial____
Baskets--............................ ..............
Brooms, brushes, and mops______
Clay, cement, and stone products.
Clothing_________________________
Coal mining_____________________
Coffee roasting__________________
Construction____________________
Farm, garden, and dairy_________
Furniture and furnishings----------Harness, pieces---------------------------Harness, sets____________________
Highway markers------- ----------------Land development______________
Laundry, commercial____________
Lumber and timber products____
Metal products__________________
Printing and binding------------------Repair and shop work___________
Soap and soap powder___________
Sugar--------- --------------------------------Textiles and textile products_____
Other manufactured products.
Miscellaneous labor only____
Total.
Federal prisons:
Bakery products, commercial____
Brooms, brushes, and m ops,____
Clay, cement, and stone products.
Clothing____________ _____________
Construction_____ ______________
Farm, garden, and dairy_________
Furniture and furnishings_______
Land development______________
Laundry, commercial____________
Lumber and timber products____
Printing and binding____________
Repair and shop work___________
Textiles and textile products____
Other manufactured products___
Miscellaneous labor only________
Total.
Grand total.

1932

83.0
108.0
12.0

147.6
25.3
25.7
209.6
671.0
5,145.1
19,029.7
1,057.0
6.0
16,471.4
17,991.8
3,976.7
51.5
21.8
207.4
999.6
203.1
340.1
2,136.1
957.6
315.4
61.2
124.0
6,511.1
146.8
31.0
302.2
101.2

48,336.0

77,267.0

163.0
100.0
575.0
2.411.0
10.656.0
1.965.0
2.0
9.077.0
11.858.0
3.208.0
93.0
235.0
32.0
348.0
1,113.0
521.0
845.0
4,793.0

22.0

6.0

45.0
254.0
762.0
298.0
16.0

33.0
338.0
1,683.0

10.0
155.0
134.0
1,039.1
1,034.0
980.0
49.3
192.0
138.0
26.0
82.0
61.0
969.6
89! 0

28.0
3,463.0
51,799.0

5,
82,276.0

Value of goods produced

1923

1932

8,098,086
14,069
63,200
81,416
60,000

$485,066
87,600
35,577
57,546
897,948
1,575,222
21,044,782
312,018
59,974
23,583,052
6,475,079
2,784,257
123,918
30,210
267,188
469,616
90,561
231,989
3,006,423
673,435
122,663
135,666
179,566
8,059,910
70,691
43,782
346,318
56,004

73,668,879

71,306,061

$236,765
15,454
36,234
1,816,189
1,527,788
28,970,139
4,105,424
29,040
15,295,076
5,693,630
3,030,096
213,210
316,940
103,466
27,567
914,887
2,146,230
324,254
434,118
115,601

2,396
9,372
186,436
130,001
137,939
7,932

6,369
204,515
1,718,304
24,817

12,622
283,081
34,252
797,491
1,064,745
306,290
20,274
41,740
113,945
13, 230
54,365
16,077
1,201,548
54,306
49,444

2,428,081

4,063,410

76,096,960

75,369,471

The nominal working hours of 1.3 percent of the prisoners em­
ployed at productive labor were less than 24 per week, and of 55.2
percent 44 or less per week, while 21.8 percent worked 60 hours or
over per week.
In California 2,413 of the 4,394 prisoners, and in Illinois 4,168 of
the 4,577 prison inmates, worked less than 36 hours per week, and
in New York 3,163 of a total of 4,321 worked less than 40 hours per
week. In contrast all the prisoners in the State prisons in Alabama,
Georgia, Louisiana, and Mississippi, and 1,817 of the 1,834 prisoners
in North Carolina worked 60 hours per week.



701

UNITED STATES IN 1932

Sixty-six of the 116 State prisons paid money compensation to
all or part of the inmates, 48 paid no compensation of any kind, and
2 allowed credit on the sentences for prisoners doing certain kinds
of work. Seven of the Federal prisons paid wages to prisoners and
five did not. The pay in most of the institutions was nominal,
ranging from 2 to 15 cents per day, though a few prisons had con­
siderably higher rates.
County and City Prisons

T he Bureau’s survey of county and city prisons covered 2,721
(or 88.6 percent) of the 3,072 counties in the United States and all
of the 92 cities having a population of 100,000 or over.
The 2,721 reporting counties had a total prison population of
44,014. Of these, 18.8 percent were engaged in road work; 5.4
percent in farm, garden, or dairy work; and 5.4 percent in other
productive work.
Of the 92 cities having a population of 100,000 or over, 39 have no
city jails other than those used as detention quarters, sentenced
prisoners being confined in the county jail. In the other 53 cities
11,446 prisoners were confined. Of this number 5.3 percent were
engaged on road work, 7.9 percent at farm, garden, and dairy work,
and 18.6 percent at other productive work.
The number of prisoners under sentence in county and city jails
reported as employed is shown in table 4, by type of work.
T a ble 4 .—N U M B E R OF PRISONERS U N D E R SEN TEN CE IN C O U N T Y A N D C IT Y JAILS
IN T H E U N IT E D STATES R EPO R TED AS E M P L O Y E D , 1932-33, B Y T Y P E OF W O R K

Prisoners employed at specified type of
work in—
Type of work

County prisons

City prisons

Number

Percent

Number

All types of work------ ------- -------------------------------------------------------

44,014

100.0

11,446

100.0

Ordinary prison duties, or idle, sick, or invalid-----------------------Road work______________________________ _______ - ---------- - - Farm, garden, and dairy work-------------------------- -------------------Other work------ ---------- -----------------------------------------------------------

30,968
8,260
2,395
2,391

70.4
18.8
5.4
5.4

7,806
608
907
2,125

68.2
5.3
7.9
18.6

Percent

While most of the county and city jails were either not engaged
in manufacturing activities or doing so on a very limited scale, in
13 prisons manufacturing was being done on a large scale. The total
value of all articles produced in 12 of these prisons during the year
was $567,619, of which 86.7 percent was for sale and 13.3 percent for
use in State institutions. Approximately 21 percent of the prisoners
were employed in such work. The average number of prisoners
employed and the value of the articles produced in county and city
jails during the year are shown in table 5.




702

PRISON LABOR

T a ble 5 .—N U M B E R OF PRISONERS E M P L O Y E D A N D VAL U E OF GOODS M A N U F A C ­
T U R ED A N D SOLD D U R IN G Y E A R IN C O U N T Y A N D CITYJ AILS, B Y C O M M O D IT Y
GROUPS
Value of articles—
Average
number
of inmates
engaged

Group of commodities produced

Produced

Sold

Used in
State in­
stitutions

All groups of commodities........... - ..................................

1,080

$567,619.20

$491,893.04

$75,726.16

Brooms, brushes, etc_________________ ______ _______
Clothing__________ ________________________ ________
Furniture and furnishings_________ ________ - ..............
L um ber____________________________________________
Repair and shop work— ----------------------------------------- _
Textiles and textile products....................................... .

168
i 46
3859
5

319,936.25
25,273. 26
205,927.53
2,100.00
10,568.51
3,813. 65

286,325.00
(2
)
202,827. 53
(2
)
2,740.51
(2
)

33,611.25
25,273. 26
3.100.00
2.100.00
7,828.00
3,813.65

2
1

4 26

1 Includes 19 who were also engaged in the manufacture of furniture and furnishings and textiles and 7
who were also employed on textiles.
2 None sold.
3 Includes 19 who also worked on clothing and textiles.
< 19 of these were also employed on clothing and furniture and furnishings and 7 on clothing.

Report on Competition of Prison Labor with CottonGarment Industry
O R EA L solution of the prison-labor problem other than complete
withdrawal of prison-made products from competitive trade and
commerce was seen by the special committee appointed to study the
competition of products of prison labor 2 with those of the cottongarment industry. This committee was named in accordance with
the Executive order of October 12, 1934, which reduced working time
and increased wages in the cotton-garment industry. Although the
prison-labor compact3 was drawn up as a result of a real desire to
solve the problems arising out of competition of prison-made goods and
had been fairly administered, the committee found that it had failed
to meet the existing needs. This is true because (1) the basic aims of
labor were incompatible with the purposes of the compact; (2) the
cotton-garment industry regarded it as unworkable, thereby making
it so, since the cooperation of this industry would be essential to
success of the compact; and (3) other industries feared the competition
of prison-made goods, should the market for prison products expand
into new fields under the N. R. A. label. The committee believed,
however, that pending the development of a comprehensive regulatory
system governing the products of prison labor the compact was the
best instrument of control. With this in mind, it was believed
essential that the compact should be whole-heartedly supported and
that only its ultimate purpose should be modified. State use of
prison-made goods was recommended by the committee. If these
products were kept off the general market, the committee pointed
out, the price structure would not be affected by this type of produc­
tion, and the labor involved would not enter into direct competition
with free labor, thus preventing any demoralization of the wage
structure for free labor.
Testimony heard by the committee showed that the competition of
prison goods created present and potential problems for the cotton-

N

2 Report of committee, Nov. 26,1934.
3 See p. 705, post.




(Mimeographed.)

COMPETITION W ITH COTTON-GARMENT INDUSTRY

703

garment industry that called for immediate attention and relief.
Owing to the overexpanded condition of the cotton-garment industry,
prison activity in this field endangered the existence of that industry.
Withdrawal of the cotton-garment industry from its code as a result
of such competition, the committee stated, would be a disaster for
labor, as it would mean a return to sweatshop conditions. This was
to be avoided at any cost, and cooperation was necessary so that the
cotton-garment industry might be rehabilitated, even though this
might temporarily increase prison idleness and add to the cost of
prison maintenance.
The committee outlined its plan for solving the problem, recom­
mending that the National Industrial Recovery Board use its good
offices to secure from the President a fund of $50,000,000 from the
Public Works Administration to help the States reorganize their prison
industries so that they might not compete in the open market. The
committee hoped in this way to “ end the prison-labor controversy
which has burdened American industrial and political fife for so long
a time.” Until such time as the reorganization of the prison industries
could be effected, it was suggested that the National Industrial
Recovery Board seek to establish a system whereby the Federal
Emergency Relief Administration would purchase goods from the
prisons or utilize prison labor to manufacture garments that might
be needed, whichever was deemed preferable. Such purchases were
to be scheduled on a declining scale so that all orders might cease at
the end of 2 years. Accompanying this program the committee
recommended that the Blue-Eagle label be withdrawn from prison
goods or that it be modified to read “ prison made.” It was the
opinion of the committee that the Prison Labor Authority should be
continued and that any loss in funds accruing to that body from the
withdrawal of the label or its modification should be made up from
funds set aside by the Public Works Administration. Where indus­
tries compete with prison goods, it was recommended that an Execu­
tive order be promulgated empowering the National Industrial
Recovery Board to require the Prison Labor Authority and the code
authorities of industries affected by prison goods to enter into agree­
ments each time a change in price or costs occurred. If this were not
accomplished voluntarily, an impartial chairman was to be desig­
nated to see that an agreement was reached. It was suggested that
the National Industrial Recovery Board, the Prison Labor Authority,
and code authorities establish a quota system limiting the produc­
tion of prison goods for the open market at the level of production
existing at the time the prison-labor compact came into existence.
To meet fully the new conditions the committee recommended that
all State, county, and city institutions producing for the open market
subscribe to the compact if they had not already done so.
Action Resulting from Committee’s Recommendations
A c t i n g upon the recommendations of the committee, the National
Industrial Recovery Board announced on December 3, 1934, that it
had designated two of its members and a division administrator to
conduct negotiations with the Federal Emergency Relief Administra­
tion looking toward the utilization of prison-made clothing by the
latter body.4 The Board deferred action on the other recommenda* National Recovery Administration.




Press release no. 9078, Dec. 3, 1934.

704

PRISON LABOR

tions submitted pending the collection of further data, legal and other
opinions.
On December 6, 1934, the Attorney General of the United States
announced that the President had appointed five persons as the board
of directors of the Federal Prison Industries Corporation, the ap­
pointees being: Sanford Bates, Thomas A. Rickert, John J. Miller,
M. L. Brittain, and Sam A. Lewisohn. It was stated that this body
would use its influence to secure greater variety in the goods produced
by prisons, in order that no one industry, such as the manufacture of
cotton garments, would bear more than its share of the competition
of prison-made products.

Laws Relating to Prison Labor

W

H ILE regular work is generally recognized as being beneficial
to prisoners, much opposition has arisen to the sale of prisonmade goods in the open market. This opposition is due to the fact
that no matter what system is used in the production of such goods,
prison labor competes to some extent with free labor.
The various States have therefore attempted by legislation to regu­
late the sale of prison-made goods. Generally, the laws have specified
the kinds of work on which prisoners may be employed, the system
under which they may not be employed, and in many instances the
conditions of employment. The Bureau of Labor Statistics has in
Bulletin No. 596 brought together the provisions of the laws having
direct application to the nature of the employment, the method of
work, the disposition of the product, the earnings allowed prisoners,
and similar regulations immediately affecting the employment of
State, county, and municipal prisoners. The courts, however, held
that such laws could apply only to goods produced in prisons within
the State, as goods arriving from a prison in another State, were, in
fact, in interstate commerce and therefore beyond the regulatory
powers of the individual States.5
Because of the inability of the States to regulate or prohibit the
sale of convict-made goods coming into the State through the channels
of interstate commerce, efforts were made over a period of 25 years
to have Congress enact some form of legislation to curb the traffic in
prison-made goods between the States. The fruition of these efforts
materialized in 1929 in the passage of the Hawes-Cooper Convict
Labor Act (45 Stat. 1084). This act divests convict-made goods of
their interstate character, thereby enabling the States to enact statutes
regulating or prohibiting the sale of such goods within the State.
The act was approved by the President on January 19, 1929, and
became effective 5 years from that date, namely January 19, 1934.6
Up to December 1935, the following States had taken advantage of
this act to pass laws either prohibiting or regulating the sale of prisonmade goods shipped into the State: Arizona, Arkansas, California,
Colorado, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Massa­
chusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska,
New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio,
»See P e o p le v. H a w k in s (51 N . E. 257); P h illip s v. R a n e y (198, N . Y . 539); A r n o ld v. Y a n d e r s (47 N . E.
50); and the advisory opinion rendered by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court in 1912.
6The constitutionality of this act was upheld by the United States Supreme Court, Mar. 2, 1936.




STATE COMPACT UNDER N . R . A .

705

Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Texas, Utah,
Virginia, and Washington.
An early attempt was made by the State of Alabama to have the
Federal convict-labor law declared unconstitutional as being a burden
on interstate commerce or as depriving the States of property without
due process of law. The United States Supreme Court, however,
refused to hear the case presented because of multifariousness in the
pleading and because a sufficient cause was not shown in the bill
{Alabama v. Arizona et al., 291 U. S. 286). In declining to hear the
case the Court refused to express an opinion as to the constitutionality
of the law, as declaratory judgments or advisory opinions are not
rendered by that Court.
An act (Public, No. 215, 74th Cong.), approved by the President
July 24, 1935, makes it a Federal offense to transport, or cause to be
transported, any prison-made goods (except commodities manufac­
tured in Federal prisons for use of the Federal Government) into any
State in violation of any law of such State. Violations of the act are
punishable, upon conviction in any court having jurisdiction of crime
within the district where the offense was committed or from or into
which the goods were transported, by a fine of not more than $1,000
and forfeiture of the goods.

State Compact on Prison-Made Goods Under the
National Recovery Administration
COMPACT of fair competition governing the manufacture and
use of prison-made goods, approved by the National Recovery
Administrator, had, at the beginning of November 1934, been ratified
by the following 30 States: Alabama, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida,
Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Mary­
land, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska,
New Hampshire, New York, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania,
Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Vermont,
West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. It was also ratified by the
proper authorities of the District of Columbia and the Department of
Justice.
Under the agreement, working hours in prison shops were not to
exceed those established for competing private industry, and prisonmade goods were not to be sold below the fair current price in the
markets where normally sold. In computing the cost of production
of prison-made goods for the purpose of fixing prices, the same al­
lowances for labor and overhead paid in private industry on competing
and comparable products were to be taken into account. The terms
of the agreement did not apply to prison-made goods used only in taxsupported institutions, nor to “ the construction of public works or
ways financed wholly from funds of the State or its political sub­
divisions.”
The administration of the compact was by a committee known as
the “ Prison Labor Authority” , consisting of 9 members, 6 elected
annually by representatives of the signatory States and 3 being
Presidential appointees representing labor, industry, and consumers,
respectively.

A

19205— 36------ 16




706

PRISON LABOR

Regulations Regarding Importation of Convict-Made
Goods
HE importation of goods made by convict labor or forced or in­
dentured labor is prohibited by section 307 of the Tariff Act of
1930 (ch. 497, 46 Stat. 590), approved by the President on June 17,
1930. That section in part provides that:

T

All goods, wares, articles, and merchandise mined, produced, or manufactured
wholly or in part in any foreign country by convict labor or/and forced labor
or/and indentured labor under penal sanctions shall not be entitled to entry at any
of the ports of the United States, and the importation thereof is hereby prohibited,
and the Secretary of the Treasury is authorized and directed to prescribe such
regulations as may be necessary for the enforcement of this provision.

The above-quoted provision did not become effective until Jan­
uary 1, 1932, and the provision is not applicable if production of such
goods in the United States is not equal to consumptive demands.
Under the terms of the provision, “ forced labor ” is defined to mean
4
'all work or service which is exacted from any person under the
menace of any penalty for its nonperformance and for which the
worker does not offer himself voluntarily.”
On November 24, 1930, the Treasury Department, by authority
granted in said section 307, promulgated regulations against the
importation of convict-made goods. The regulations in general pro­
vide that all importers and shippers must show that importations
from all countries are not produced by convict labor.




PRODUCTIVITY OF LABOR

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




707




Productivity of Labor and Industry, Technological
Changes, and Labor Displacement
HE Bureau of Labor Statistics for several years has been making
special studies of man-hour productivity of labor as a means of
measuring, over a period of time, the effect upon output of the changes
brought about by increased mechanization and use of power in
industry, improvements in processes and methods of work, greater
managerial ability, standardization of product, and elimination of
waste; and of determining the actual displacement of labor and
decreased employment opportunities resulting from the increased
per capita output which has attended these various technological
changes. Most of the Bureau’s productivity studies are first-hand
investigations of the various industries.
Summaries are presented below of all the important studies of this
character published by the Bureau since the 1931 edition of the
Handbook (Bui. No. 541) and up to the latter part of 1935. A digest
of all the Bureau’s data on the subject up to November 1932, with the
exception of its material on agriculture, was published in the Novem­
ber 1932 Monthly Labor Review (p. 1031).
Although the terms “ productivity of labor” , “ labor displacement” ,
and “ technological changes” in industry have become current in
recent years, and are much more widely understood than when the
Bureau began its studies, it may be of service to give here the Bureau’s
interpretation of these terms.
“ Productivity of labor” means work done in a given time; ordi­
narily it is best expressed as the output per man per hour, although
it may be stated as output per man per day, per crew, per week, etc.
The advantage of using man-hour output as a basis of measurement
is that it is more precise and exact then the others. The “ produc­
tivity” of labor must be clearly differentiated from the “ efficiency ” of
labor, or from any term which is narrowed down to express only the
output due to the ability and willing cooperation of the workers
themselves.
In determining productivity, the laborer is simply used as the unit
of measurement in expressing the technical progress or decline of an
industry over a period of time, regardless of whether the changes in
output were due to new machinery, managerial skill, or better work
by the employees.
The phrase “ technological change” is defined to include all change,
whether in the nature of the product, method of production, type of
labor, hours worked, or machinery and equipment used, which re­
sults in higher productivity per man-hour.
Usually the object of technological changes is to reduce the labor
cost of operation. This reduction is measured by the difference in
the labor requirements per unit of output before and after the change
in technology took place, which may or may not result in the imme709

T




710

PRODUCTIVITY OF LABOR

diate elimination of jobs or workers from the plant. It produces a
surplus of labor time, and unless there is a corresponding increase in
the total output, some workers will eventually be eliminated as a
direct result of the technological change. This condition, which the
Bureau calls “ labor displacement” , is frequently referred to also as
“ technological unemployment. ”
A g ric u ltu re
T h e Yearbook of Agriculture for 1932 (pp. 4 1 1 -4 5 5 ) contains a
series of articles written by experts of the Department of Agriculture,
in which the progress of farm mechanization is traced, its more im­
portant economic and social effects indicated, and the principal
limitations upon further development explained. Following is a
brief summary of the facts and conclusions set forth in these articles.1
The history of American agriculture has been especially character­
ized by a rapidly increasing utilization of improved tools and imple­
ments, beginning with the substitution of the metal for the wooden
plow, the invention of the first reaping machines during the fii^t
quarter of the nineteenth century, and, more recently, the rapid
replacement of animal by mechanical power. The progress of farm
mechanization has been marked throughout by a relative increase
in the amount of farm equipment required per acre of land cultivated
and by a corresponding or greater reduction in the man-labor require­
ment.
The most important factors limiting farm mechanization are the
demand for and the selling price of farm products. On the whole,
mechanization results in an increased total output. It also results
in an increased output per unit of labor applied.
The progress of farm mechanization has been very uneven in the
several geographical areas of the United States. A similar inequality
is observed among the principal farm industries— the growing of
small grains, the production of corn, the dairy industry, etc. Geo­
graphically, there has been most progress in the semi-arid regions of
the Great Plains, and least in the New England States and in the
old South; while as among industries, the greater progress appears
in the growing of small grains, and the least in dairying.
All things considered, the Great Plains region has offered the most
favorable opportunities for the carrying on of large-scale mechanized
farming. Between 1919 and 1929 the number of tractors on Great
Plains farms increased from 82,000 to 274,000; trucks from 27,000
to 100,000; and automobiles from 500,000 to 1,000,000, while the
number of horses and mules decreased 13 percent.
In the Corn Belt, conditions especially favoring farm mechaniza­
tion are gentle topography, fertile soils, a climate favorable to the
growing of a number of different crops, and comparatively large
farms. The extent of the progress in mechanization in this region
is indicated both by the increase in the number of tractors and trucks
and in the decrease in the number of horses and mules between 1910
and 1930. Although in 1930 there was only 1 "tractor for every 3
farms in States of maximum corn production, only 1 to every 4 farms
in Ohio and Indiana and 1 to 10 in Missouri, yet this is higher than
i See Monthly Labor Review, March 1933, p. 511.




TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES AND LABOR DISPLACEMENT

711

the average for the entire country, which is 1 tractor to every 7 farms.
The utilization of mechanical equipment on Corn Belt farms varies
with the size of the farm. Moreover, improvements in general farm
technique have been such that there would have been in any case
some reduction in the power requirement per acre.
A general summary of the effects of farm mechanization in these
areas is given in the 1932 report of the Secretary of Agriculture, which
says in part:
With modern equipment one man can now handle 160 acres or more in the
Corn Belt, as compared with an average of only about 80 acres a few years ago.
Two- and four-row cultivators handle nearly 2 and 4 times as much corn as
the old 1-row cultivator handled. Two-row mechanical corn pickers, with 2
men to run them, do as much work as 6 hand pickers. Duck-foot cultivators
and row weeders almost eliminate the necessity for plowing in the summer fallow
wheat areas of the West, and increase materially the summer fallow handled by
one man. In the Great Plains a 16-foot combine harvests and threshes 35 to 40
acres of wheat a day. One such harvester can handle 500 acres of grain in 15
days. In 1928 the cost of harvesting an acre in Kansas by the combine was about
$2.20, as compared with $3.50 for harvesting with a header and thresher, and
$4.40 for harvesting with a binder and thresher. Nearly 66,000 combines were
sold in the United States in the period 1927-30. In Kansas the number of
combines increased from 2,796 in 1923 to 16,631 in 1929. Combines are now
used in every State in which small grains are of any importance. In the Missis­
sippi Delta, with modern power machinery only 30 to 35 hours of man labor are
required to grow an acre of cotton ready to pick, as compared with 80 hours
under the old 1- or 2-mule system. In haying, 1 man, with a tractor-drawn
mower and a side-delivery rake, covers 25 acres a day, or 50 times the area 1
man could cut and rake a century ago. If the windrow needs turning, it can be
done with a tractor and the side-delivery rake. Production costs are reduced
also by the use of better seed and more fertilizer, and by more scientific handling
and feeding of livestock. In the Southeastern States yields of both corn and
cotton have been greatly increased through the use of winter legumes.

The relative slowness in mechanized development on dairy farms
is due chiefly to the fact that 50 percent of the total labor requirement
on specialized farms is for taking care of the herd, and that the greater
part of this labor is of a kind that renders mechanization especially
difficult. Milking requires approximately one-half of the work in­
volved in the care of the dairy herd. This one operation, when done
by hand, limits to 10 or 12 the number of cows that can be kept per
worker. Many of the farms using milking machines have not yet
fully adapted the size of their farms and other factors so as to attain
the maximum relative efficiency. Another way in which labor re­
quirements on dairy farms have been reduced is by the installation
of mechanical equipment in the production of feed for the cows, and
of supplementary crops grown in connection with dairying operations.
The effect of mechanization upon labor requirements in the dairy­
ing industry as a whole is indicated by the fact that from 1909
to 1929 crop acres handled per worker increased in nearly all the
dairying States. In Vermont the increase was from 26 in 1909 to
30 in 1929; in New York, from 25 to 31; and in Wisconsin, from 31 to
36 crop acres per worker. But a part of this increase is to be ascribed
to factors other than mechanization.
As in the case of the Corn Belt farms, only a small percentage of
the dairying industry has thus far been mechanized.
In the South, farm mechanization has been retarded by a number
of factors, some of which are peculiar to that region, such as the
character of the labor supply and the prevailing system of culti­
vation. With an abundance of cheap labor the “ cropper” system




712

PRODUCTIVITY OF LABOR

of cultivation in the growing of cotton has prevailed, under which
the plantations are cultivated in small areas, almost entirely by
hand and mule power. In the old South this system stands in the
way of combining fields so as to facilitate mechanical cultivation;
and the cropper system is in large part bound up with the necessity
of picking cotton by hand. A number of cotton-picking machines,
according to unbiased observers, are nearing practicability. Cane
planters and harvesters have also been invented that have possi­
bilities of success.
Labor Displacement in Agriculture

A n e a r l i e r study, based on secondary sources and published in
the Monthly Labor Review, October 1931, covering the same field
and developing practically the same productivity rates, gives addi­
tional data upon labor displacement resulting from increased
mechanization.
In this study comparisons are made between the still undeveloped
methods of 1850 and the mechanized processes of the present. Some
of the conclusions reached as to actual and potential elimination of
man-power in large-scale industrialized farming are here briefly
summarized.
The labor efficiency of the latest improved plowing equipment as
compared with the 1-man, 2-horse plow is 5,900 percent, and the
labor displacement is 98.3 percent.
In 1850 the labor cost of preparing the seedbed and planting
corn was 13.8 man-hours per acre. The standard requirement for
planting corn with a motorized planter is 3.6 man-hours. This is
a gain in production per unit of man labor of 289 percent over 1850
and a labor displacment of 60 percent.
When harvesting and threshing are combined in a single opera­
tion, the results in labor saving are almost beyond belief. Com­
bines operated by 5 men have cut as high as 100 acres per day.
At this rate, the labor requirement for cutting, threshing, and deliver­
ing the wheat, sacked or in the bin, is only 0.5 man-hour per acre.
Estimating an average of 50 acres per day for the larger combines,
the labor requirement for both harvesting and threshing is only 1
man-hour per acre. The gain in efficiency per unit of labor of the
most modern method over the most primitive is 4,700 percent, and
the labor displacement 98 percent.
The Ohio Agriculture Experiment Station gives the per-acre labor
requirement (1920-24) for husking and cribbing corn from the stalk
by hand as 8.66 man-hours, while with the shredder it is 6.13 man­
hours, a gain in efficiency of 71 percent and a labor displacement
of 29 percent. The United States Department of Agriculture found
that one man could pick by hand 59 bushels of corn in a day. With
a mechanical picker, operated by one man, from 69 to 102 bushels
were harvested in a day. An average of these figures shows a gain
for the machine of 26 bushels per day, or 44 percent. The labor
requirement is 0.17 man-hour per bushel where the corn is picked
by hand, and 0.118 man-hour where the machine is used. The
labor displacement is 0.052 man-hour per bushel, or about 30 per­
cent. The labor requirement for shelling 100 bushels of corn by
hand in 1895 was 166.67 man-hours, with the hand machine it was
33 man-hours, and with the power machine 1.67 man-hours. The




TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES AND LABOR DISPLACEMENT

713

gain in efficiency per unit of labor is therefore 9,800 percent, and
the labor displacement 99 percent.
The hand-labor requirement for harvesting an acre of hay averages
11 man-hours, that of machines available in 1927, 1.6 man-hours.
These figures represent a 60 percent gain in efficiency over the machine
methods of 1895, and of 1,200 percent over the hand methods of
1850, indicating the improvement in the efficiency of hay-harvesting
machines achieved during the last 30 years. The labor displace­
ment of the 1927 machines as compared with the hand methods of
1850 is approximately 84 percent.
From the beginning of agricultural mechanization until the year
1910, there was no net decrease in the number of farm workers,
taking the country as a whole, although there was continuous labor
displacement. Between 1880 and 1910 there was, in fact, an in­
crease of approximately 3,000,000, or 37.6 percent, in the number
of farm workers. During this same period there was a technological
displacement, as measured in terms of crop-acres cultivated per
worker, of approximately 40 percent. This would have resulted
in the release from the industry of 3,400,000 workers during these
years, except for the fact that conditions favoring the expansion
of the industry enabled it to absorb the whole of the displacement.
Not only was this absorption accomplished, but the industry took
on an additional 3,000,000 workers.
From 1919 to 1927, the technological displacement was approxi­
mately 23 percent, and the decline in agricultural employment 7
percent. If none of the agricultural workers technologically displaced
during this period had been reemployed in the industry, 2,530,000
would have had to find employment elsewhere or remain unemployed.
The actual number who were shifted out of the industry was 800,000.
When the migration of farm labor indicated by the shrinkage
in total farm population between 1920 and 1927 is taken into con­
sideration, it appears that a much larger number of workers must
have left the farms. If it is assumed that 3 out of 5 of the more than
3 000,000 persons who left the farms during these years were in search
of employment, or would have been unemployed if they had remained
on the farms—not a high estimate, when it is remembered that a
large percentage of the migrants were between the ages of 18 and
25 years—it will appear that the shrinkage in farm employment
between 1920 and 1927 was approximately 2,000,000 workers.
A m u s e m e n t In d u s try

A s t u d y of the effects of technological changes in the amusement
industry2 showed that the extent of displacement depended largely
upon the kind of theater, and ranged from none at all to practical
elimination of certain classes of workers, musicians chiefly. The
amusement industry is made up of several independent but closely
related units, such as legitimate drama, musical comedy, vaudeville,
and motion pictures. While technical advances have been made for
facilitating and improving stage performances, these for the most
part require for their operation an increased rather than a decreased
labor force.
3 See Monthly Labor Review, August 1931, p. 1.




714

PRODUCTIYITT OF LABOR

Changes introduced into the motion-picture theater, however, have
been revolutionary. The introduction of sound in connection with
pictures displaced musicians entirely in small theaters and resulted
in about 50 percent loss of employment among theatrical musicians
in general, in spite of the fact that motion-picture theaters of the
de luxe type have kept their concert orchestras intact.
Sound pictures also completed the elimination of the legitimate
theater outside the large cities. Stock companies, which in 1929
numbered 140 throughout the country, were reduced to 80 by Decem­
ber 1, 1930. Vaudeville houses as distinct from motion-picture
theaters presenting vaudeville performances have practically ceased to
exist, except for a very few “ burlesque ” houses still operating in
some large cities.
A further technological development in the amusement field, radio
broadcasting, affords a degree of compensation for displacement
by furnishing employment to musicians, and to a less extent, to
individual performers.
Washington, D. C., was selected for an analytical study 3 of the
effects of the sound picture on the industry and the individual workers
affected by the change. It was found that the introduction of
sound pictures into the motion-picture theaters of that city was
accompanied by substantial increases in the earnings of licensed
machine operators, and by the elevation of assistant and apprentice
operators to journeyman status. Musicians, however, lost their
jobs because of the installation of mechanical musical devices. In
the white theaters about 60 percent and in the colored houses 91
percent were thus thrown out of employment. Some 30 percent
of these “ technological casualties” were reabsorbed into the musical
profession, on either a full-time or part-time basis.
B itu m in o u s -C o a l In d u s try
T h e output per man per day in the bituminous-coal industry in­
creased 40.2 percent between 1910 and 1929, and 46.2 percent between
1910 and 1930, according to a study of employment and productivity
in relation to mechanization made by the Bureau of Labor Statistics.4
The data are based upon reports of the United States Bureau of
Mines and upon a first-hand field survey of a small group of mines in
Illinois, Pennsylvania, and Wyoming using mechanical loaders.
Undoubtedly many factors other than technological changes con­
tributed to the increased productivity noted. Among these factors
are a tendency toward better attendance, stricter observance of
working hours, and improved personnel methods, often in conjunction
with introduction of mechanized mining processes; the shutdown or
abandonment of many of the least efficient mines, due to the depres­
sion in the industry, and a reduction in nonproductive development
work both underground and on the surface; and the opening up of
newer mining districts with relatively higher rates of output per man
per day. In considerable part, however, this increased productivity
must be attributed to improve mining technology.
The best available measure of productivity in the coal industry is
the average number of tons produced per man per day, a figure

3Monthly Labor Review,

November 1931, p. 1.
* Idem, February 1933, p. 256.




TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES AND LABOR DISPLACEMENT

715

arrived at by dividing the total tonnage produced by the number of
man-days worked in a given period. Although the unit of product
(the ton) is satisfactory from the statistical standpoint, the “ manday” in this industry is not an exact quantity, owing to the fact that
mines do not keep an actual day-to-day record of the employees’
attendance or working time.
With few exceptions the average output per man per day has
increased steadily, the rate of increase between 1920 and 1930 having
been greater than between 1910 and 1920 and the index of output
per man per day (base 1910-14) having risen to 107.0 in 1915-19,
119.8 in 1920-24, and to 129.0 in 1925-29.
The man-day output of all mine labor increased from 3.46 net tons
in 1910 to 4.85 net tons in 1929 and to 5.06 net tons in 1930; this is
an increase of 40.2 and 46.2 percent, respectively, over 1910. During
the same period the number of persons employed dropped from
555,533 to 502,993, and then to 493,202. Had the man-day output
remained at the same level as in 1910, 722,584 persons, instead of the
493,202 actually employed, would have been required to produce the
1930 tonnage in 187 days (the average number of days of operation
in that year); while for the 1929 output 706,032, instead of 502,993
persons, would have been required.
A number of factors have contributed to the increased productivity
of mine labor. The greatest single cause is, undoubtedly, the intro­
duction of power equipment adapted to mining requirements, i. e.,
the machine cutter, power drills for shot holes, electrically operated
pumps, the power-driven steam shovel, the mechanized loader and
conveyor, the electrically driven mine car, and in some sections
improved mechanical cleaning apparatus. Improvement in tech­
nology and the spread of established labor-saving methods are going
forward at a remarkable rate. Other elements contributing to
increased productivity include improved mine management and
layout, the tendency toward developing mines to the optimum size,
shutdown of less efficient mines, removal of operations to better
mine locations, and more effective use of labor.
Many of the improvements in methods and mechanization cannot
be measured statistically in relation to their effect on employment
opportunities. For the strip mines and the mines using mechanical
loaders, however, sufficient data are available for the purpose. These
two classes of mines have high rates of productivity, their output per
man-day in 1930 being 13.92 and 7.16 tons, respectively, whereas the
output per man-day of all the bituminous mines in 1930, excluding
these two classes, was only 4.76 tons. At this latter rate of produc­
tivity (4.76 tons) 525,240 persons would have been required for the
1930 production instead of the 493,202 actually employed.
Strip Mining
B it u m in o u s coal mined from the surface, by stripping methods,
amounted to 19,842,359 tons, or 4.3 percent of the total product, in
1930. This constitutes 15 times the total production stripped in
1914, the first year for which statistics are available, and 7 times the
1915 total. Output per man per day in power strip pits increased




716

PRODUCTIVITY OF LABOR

from 5.1 tons in 1914 to 16.2 tons in 1930, as compared with an
increase from 3.71 to 5.06 tons for the bituminous industry as a whole.
The rise in output per man per day was 217.6 percent for stripping
operations and 36.4 percent for all operations during this 17-year
period.
Increased Use of Loading Equipment

T he loading of coal on mine cars for removal from the working
place has always constituted one of the most labor-consuming proc­
esses connected with mine operation. Loaders have always formed
the most numerous class among mine laborers, constituting 58.5
percent of all underground laborers in over 1,900 mines for which the
United States Coal Commission secured earnings data in 1921.
Accordingly, the perfecting of equipment to reduce the amount of
labor needed for this process is a technological advance that presages
increasing man-day productivity and a further reduction in labor
requirements.
Not only the tonnage mechanically loaded, but also the number of
mines using mechanical loaders and the number of such loaders in
use, show a significant increase. Up to the present, mechanization
of this character has made considerable progress in Illinois, Pennsyl­
vania, Indiana, Kentucky, West Virginia, Alabama, Montana, Utah,
and Wyoming. In Illinois alone 22,846,000 tons were mechanically
loaded in 1930 out of the United States total of 46,982,000 tons, and
Pennsylvania ran second with 7,035,000 tons. The importance of
mechanical loading in Montana, Illinois, Wyoming, Indiana, Utah,
and Alabama is shown by the fact that 57.0, 48.0, 47.7, 32.3, 20.3,
and 13.4 percent, respectively, of the 1930 production was mechan­
ically loaded.
In the absence of statistics showing the productivity rates in all
mines where loading is mechanized, the Bureau of Labor Statistics
obtained, through direct inquiry from a group of operators, infor­
mation as to the changes in productivity rates since hand shoveling
has been partially or almost entirely superseded by mechanical
loading. This inquiry covered a few relatively large mines in Illinois,
Pennsylvania, and Wyoming, where mechanical loaders and conveyor
systems are in use, producing about 5,653,000 tons of coal in 1931
and having an average of 4,000 employees on their combined pay rolls.
Although it cannot be stated with certainty that the increase in
productivity found to have taken place in this sample group of mines
is characteristic of what has occurred in all mines using mechanized
loading and conveyor systems, it is believed that the increase here
shown is not unduly high. Table 1 shows output per man per day
for typical periods before and after mechanization of loading, and the
percent of increase or decrease in productivity that has resulted from
the change.




TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES AND LABOR DISPLACEMENT

717

T a b l e 1.— CH ANGES IN P R O D U C T IV IT Y RATES U N D E R M E C H A N IC A L L O A D IN G AS
CO M P A R E D W IT H H A N D L O AD IN G IN E IG H T IN D IV ID U A L M IN E S

Thickness of
seam

Mine

Output (tons) per man per day
Before After
mechani­ mechani­ Percent of
change
zation zation

Mines fully mechanized:
Mine A ________________________________________ 6 feet or over ___
M ineB ___________ _______ ____________________ ____do_____ __
Mine C ________________________________________ ........d o ________
Mine D ____ ____________________________ ______ ____do_________
Weighted average........ .......... .......... ...................
Mines partially mechanized:
Mine E ______________ ____ _________________ Under 6 feet
Mine F_____ _ _ _____ __ ___
.do _
Mine G __ __________ ______ . . ___
6 feet or over ___
Mine H _______ ________________________________ ........do...................
Weighted average, all mines__________________
Weighted average, mines A-G ________________

7.0
4.9
7.8
5.8

(2
)
(2
)
5.4
8.4

13.5
8.8
12.2
8.7

+92.9
+79.6
+56.4
+50.0
i +65.7

6.7 8 +20.0-25. 0
4.9 8 +20.0-25.0
+ 9 .3
5.9
7.4
-1 1 .9
i +46.8
i +53.4

1 Weighted on basis of production after mechanization and percent of increase in productivity.
8 No data.
8 Operator’s estimate.

As between the individual mines there has been little uniformity
in the rate of increase obtained through mechanization. In mine A,
for example, output per man per day increased by 92.9 percent, which
means the displacement of practically one man out of every two,
whereas in mine D the increase was 50 percent. Again, while the
average output for mine A was only 21 percent higher than in mine D
prior to mechanization, it was 55 percent higher after the loading was
mechanized.
Labor Productivity in 1931
F o r 1931 an increase in output per man per day in the bituminouscoal industry, accompanied by a decline in working time, employ­
ment, and total production, is shown in the preliminary statistics
published by the United States Bureau of Mines.6 In 1931 the output
per man per day amounted to 5.30 tons as compared with 5.06 tons
in 1930. Table 2 shows output per man per day in the industry in
1913, 1923, and 1928 to 1931, and also the average days worked and
men employed, and total production in these years. Index numbers
have been calculated, using the figures for 1913 as the base, or 100.
t a b l e 2 .—A V E R A G E N U M B E R OF D A Y S W O R K E D A N D M E N E M P L O Y E D A N D T O T A L

A N D M A N -H O U R P R O D U CT IO N IN T H E B ITU M IN O U S-CO AL IN D U S T R Y IN SPECI­
FIED YE A R S

Year

Average
number
of days
worked

______* _________________
1913............ 1923________________________
_____ _________
1928__________________________________________
1929_________
___
. . _______
1930______________________________ _____ _____
1931_______
........................

232
179
203
219
187
160

Average
number
of men
employed
571,882
704,793
522,150
502,993
493,202
450,213

Production
(tons)
478,435,297
564,564,662
500,744,970
534,988,593
467,526,299
382,089,396

Output
per man
per day
(tons)
3.61
4.47
4.73
4.85
5.06
5.30

Index numbers (1913=100)
1913_____________________________________ ____
1923__________________________________________
1928_________ _____________________- ..................
1929............................................................................
1930....................................................... - .............. .
1931.............. ..............................................................

100.0
77.2
87.5
94.4
80.6
69.0

<U. S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of Mines.
and L. Mann. Washington, 1932. (Mimeographed.)




100.0
123.2
91.3
88.0
86.2
78.7

100.0
118.0
104.7
111.8
97.7
79.9

100.0
123.8
131.0
134.3
140.2
146.8

Bituminous Coal Tables, 1931, by F. G. Tryon

718

PRODUCTIVITY OR LABOR

As between 1913 and 1931 the greatest drop occurred in average
number of days worked, the index in the later year being 69.0 as
compared with 100.0 in 1913. The employment and production
indexes have shrunk to practically the same extent, the respective
indexes in 1931 being 78.7 and 79.9, respectively. However, in the
years between 1913 and 1931 these two indexes have not been char­
acterized by the same movement, the production indexes, for example,
having risen to 104.7 in 1928 and 111.8 in 1929, years when the
indexes of employment fell below 100.0, or to 91.3 and 88.0 .respectively.
In contrast with the other indexes shown in table 2 the indexes of
output per man per day have increased steadily, the increase between
1913 and 1923, or from 100.0 to 123.8, being only slightly greater than
that for the period from 1923 to 1931, or from 123.8 to 146.8. Thus
output per man per day has increased by almost as much in the 8
latest years for which statistics are available (1923-31) as in the
preceding 10-year period (1913-23). A further significant fact shown
in these statistics is that the year-to-year increase in output per man
per day has been more rapid in years of depression, i. e., 1930 and
1931, than in the year of more active coal demand, 1929.
C ig a r In d u s try

A s t u d y of technological changes in the cigar industry, with special
reference to the machine now being used in the making of long-filler
cigars, was made by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and published in
the Monthly Labor Review of December 1931 (p. 1275).
The first successful machine for the making of a completely headed
long-filler cigar was patented and placed in operation in 1917. Such
was its success that the number of these machines in operation showed
a material increase from year to year, and it is estimated that approxi­
mately 50 percent of the United States output of long-filler cigars is
now manufactured on these machines.
The output of the machine is about twice that of the hand workers,
and it carries out all the necessary operations for the complete manu­
facture of a long-filler cigar, from the feeding of the filler leaf into the
machine by the first operator to the inspection of the cigar by the
last operator.
Each machine requires 4 employees— 1 filler feeder, 1 binder layer,
1 wrapper layer, and 1 inspector—and the part-time services of a
mechanic and an oiler.
Mass production by machinery has changed the industry from small
hand plants to large-scale factories, frequently located in small
communities, instead of in cities as were the hand plants. In 1930,
0.46 percent of the factories produced 49.8 percent of'all the cigars
manufactured. It is estimated that 21,356 employees had been
displaced by 1932.
E le c tric -L a m p In d u s try
T e c h n o l o g i c a l changes and employment in the electric-lamp
industry from 1920 to 1931 are treated in Bulletin No. 593 of the
Bureau of Labor Statistics, a summary of which follows.
The various parts of an electric lamp are produced in separate
plants, or at least in separate departments. In the making of these
various parts and also in assembling them, hundreds of technological




TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES AND LABOR DISPLACEMENT

719

changes affecting employment have recently been introduced. Two
developments are of outstanding importance. One of these is the
group or unit system of manufacture. The underlying principle is
the coordination and synchronized operation of the various related
parts of a production unit, and it is extensively applied throughout
the industry. A typical instance is the high-speed unit lampassembly machine in five sections for (1) stem making, (2) *stem
inserting, (3) filament mounting, (4) sealing the mount in the bulb
and exhausting the air, and (5) attaching the base. The second
outstanding technological development is the perfecting of a widely
used mechanism operated electrically by a main cam shaft and a
complicated series of secondary driving cams.
The time required per lamp in lamp-assembly plants in 1920 was
0.099809 man-hour, and in 1931, 0.022743 man-hour, a reduction of
77.2 percent. Stated reciprocally, in terms of the number of lamps
produced per man-hour, the number in 1920 was 10.018 lamps, and
in 1931, 43.968 lamps. With 1920 as the base, or 100, the index of
productivity of labor increased to 438.9 in 1931.
For the entire industry, including the nonmanufacturing divisions,
the index of productivity ranged from 100 in 1920 to approximately
340 in 1929 and 329 in 1931.
The rate of productivity of labor in each of the four main classifica­
tions of the electric-lamp industry in 1920, 1929, and 1931, based on
less extensive data than the lamp-assembly figures given above, is
shown in the following table:
R A T E OF P R O D U C T IV IT Y OF LABOR IN TH E M A IN CLASSIFICATIONS OF T H E ELECT R IG -LAM P IN D U ST R Y , 1920, 1929, A N D 1931
Classification

1920

1929

1931

All classes of the industry_________ ___________ _____________

100

340

329

Lamp-assembly plants................................. ...................................
Manufacturing of parts______ _________ ________ ____________
Equipment divisions___________________ ______ _____________
Nonmanufacturing divisions________________________________

100
100
100
100

448
349
166
192

457
324
167
175

The effects of improved machinery in multiplying the productivity
of labor are illustrated in a remarkable manner by the data for the
making of 25- and 40-watt glass bulbs for large electric lamps. These
may be regarded as typical of the standardized types. The effects
of the more important steps in the transition from hand production
to automatic production are clearly shown by means of typical
samples of output. The index of output per man-hour from 1916
to 1932 runs from 100 to 8,645.5—more than an eighty-six-fold in­
crease—in the case of 25-watt bulbs, and from 100 to 7,171.3—nearly
a seventy-two-fold increase—in the case of 40-watt bulbs.
E le ctric L ig h t and Power In d u s try
O n e o f the Bureau of Labor Statistics studies of technological
changes covers the electric fight and power industry.® Special
emphasis was given to the effects of these changes upon labor.
So great has been the increase in output per employee in this
industry that, at a conservative estimate, it would require between
• See Monthly Labor Review, August 1932, p. 249.




720

PRODUCTIVITY OF LABOR

75 and 100 percent more operating and maintenance employees to
produce, transmit, and distribute the present output, using the same
sizes and types of equipment and with the same output per employee
found 15 or 20 years ago.
There has, however, been little, if any, actual displacement of
labor except, as in most other industries, through the curtailment that
took place as a result of the current depression. In most instances
in which positions have been abolished because of the installation of
larger units or automatic devices, the employees affected, generally
speaking, have been absorbed through the tremendous expansion of
the industry in recent years. Another labor-absorbing factor has
been the increased number of activities undertaken to give reliable
and uninterrupted service.
Expansion of the industry has resulted in an increased output per
employee of 260 percent as between 1902 and 1927. The principal
reasons for this greatly increased productivity are (1) increased size
and efficiency and improved construction of the generating units,
boilers, and auxiliary equipment, resulting in a proportionately
smaller number of employees per unit of equipment; and (2) long­
distance transmission, mass production from centralized establish­
ments, and the elimination of small local generating plants.
Iro n and Steel I n d u s t r y 6
T h e Bureau of Labor Statistics early in 1935 made a study of the
total man-hours required in the manufacture of steel. The analysis
was based on the experience of 15 representative steel mills at a time
when they were operating at from 55 to 60 percent of capacity.
Analysis was made of the amount of labor expended in the produc­
tion of pig iron as well as in the manufacturing process.
The labor requirements per gross ton of pig iron were found to be
as follows:
Mining:
fyfcin-houTs
Iron ore, including cinder, etc__________________________ 1. 8
Coal___________________________________________________ 2. 4
Fluxing material_______________________________________
.2
Total_______________________________________________

4 .4

Transportation:
Iron ore_______________________________________________
Coal___________________________________________________
Fluxing material_______________________________________

2. 0
1. 6
.5

Total________________________________________________

4. 1

Manufacturing:
Blast-furnace operation________________________________
Converting coal to coke________________________________

2. 3
1. 2

Total_______________________________________________

3. 5

Grand total_________________________________________

12. 0

In the aggregate, the production of all the additional materials used
in the manufacture of steel, together with additional labor required in
transportation and manufacture, accounts for 5 or more man-hours of
« Summary of articlelby Bernard^H. Topkis and H. O. Rogers in the Monthly Labor Review, May 1935
(P .U 5 5 ).




TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES AND LABOR DISPLACEMENT

721

employment. This brings the total labor requirements per gross ton
of steel ingots to 17 man-hours. Of the total additional man-hours of
employment created in the production of steel ingots, approximately
3 are allocated to manufacture and 1 each to transportation and
extraction.
The man-hours required in the manufacture of semifinished and
certain important groups of finished steel products are summarized in
table 1.
T a ble 1 . —A V E R A G E M AN -H O U R S R EQ U IR ED PER GROSS T O N OF ST EEL PRODUCTS,
W IT H PLANTS O PER AT IN G A T FR O M 55 TO 60 P E R C E N T OF C A P A C IT Y
Number of man-hours required
Product
Total

Extrac­
tion

Trans­
porta­
tion

Coke
manu­
facture

Manu­
facture

Admin­
istra­
tive 1

Average, all products______________________

53.00

7.75

8.00

1.50

34.43

1.32

Billets and slabs _____ _______________________
Structural shapes, in rolled form, not fabricated.
Wire rods........................................... ......................
Plates, sheared and universal__________________
Concrete reinforcing bars_____ _________________
Standard rails, including fastenings. _________
Bar steel (merchant steel bars, light shapes, etc.).
Hoops and bands___ __________________________
Wire, drawn_____ _____________________________
Sheets, all grades___________________________ . .
Wire fencing__________________________________
Wire nails__________ ________________________
Pipe and tubing_______________________________
Steel car wheels (rolled)_______________________
Railroad axles_______________ __________________
Wire, flat, including steel in strips_____________
Tin plate—terneplate_____________________ . . .
Fabricated structural work____________________

29.03
33.91
35.60
36.54
36.97
38.54
39.35
42.00
51.19
58.19
60.37
61.61
62.72
63.97
64.07
67.00
80.63
84.00

6.69
7.27
6.92
7.96
7.38
7.80
7.85
7.85
7.17
8.70
7.38
7.48
9.00
9.75
10.28
8.43
8.64
8.00

6.48
7.04
7.70
7.70
7.64
7.55
7.60
7.60
8.04
9. 62
8.24
8.24
9.02
9.44
10.15
9.46
9.56
8.95

1.33
1.45
1.38
1.58
1.47
1.55
1.56
1.56
1.43
1.73
1.47
1.49
1.80
1.94
2.05
1.68
1. 72
1. 60

13.98
17.46
18.85
18.56
19.70
20.82
21.49
24.04
33.23
36.68
41.63
42.70
41. 26
41.20
40.00
45.62
58.39
62.95

.55
.69
.75
.74
.78
.82
.85
.95
1.32
1.46
1.65
1.70
1.64
1.64
1.59
1.81
2.32
2.50

1 Includes salaried workers, sales force, and other general administrative employees. The allocation of
man-hours to the respective classes of finished products is obviously to some extent made arbitrarily.

With the mills operating at from 55 to 60 percent of capacity, the
table shows that for all finished steel products combined an average
of 53 man-hours per ton is required. But wide variations are shown
in requirements for the different products, depending upon the degree
of fabrication. Structural shapes, for example, which in the manu­
facturing process are only a short step in advance of blooms, require
only 33.91 man-hours per ton. On the other hand, 84 man-hours are
necessary to produce a ton of finished fabricated structural-steel work.
It should also be noted that the study does not take into account
the electric furnaces where high-test steels and specialized products
are manufactured.
One of the most interesting findings of the study is that the labor
requirements depend largely upon the rate of operation. Most of the
modern steel mills are designed for high-speed volume production.
They are most efficient when operating close to capacity and when
the operating rate slows down there is a marked increase in the labor
requirements per ton of output.
Table 2 shows how the man-hours required in the production of
steel increase as the rate of operation declines. The results shown in
this table are based on statistics published by the American Iron and
Steel Institute.
19205— 36------- 47




722

PRODUCTIVITY OF LABOR

T a ble 2 .—VAR IATIO N S IN M AN -H O U R S R EQ U IR ED IN M A N U F A C T U R IN G A GROSS

T O N OF F INISH ED ST EEL PR ODUCTS A T SPECIFIED RATES OF P L A N T O P E R A T ­
IN G C A P A C IT Y i
[Average for all finished steel products]
Actual average man­
hours

Index of man-hours
required

Percent of total plant capacity
Manufac­
ture
55 to 60 percent______ ________ ________________________
50 to 55 percent—_____________ ________________________
45 to 50 percent......................................................................
40 to 45 percent.................. .......... .............. ..........................
35 to 40 percent......................................................................
30 to 35 percent........................ .................................. ............
25 to 30 percent........................................................ ..............
20 to 25 percent.................. .......... .........................................

Adminis­
tration

Manufac­
ture

34.43
36.15
38.22
40.63
42.34
43.73
45.10
46.48

1.32
1.47
1.73
1.94
2. 25
2. 65
2.92
3.26

100
105
111
118
123
127
131
135

Adminis­
tration
100
111
131
147
170
201
221
247

1 Does not include transportation and extraction.

Iro n and Steel In d u s try — Sheet D e p a rtm e n t
P r o d u c t i v i t y of labor in the sheet department of the iron and
steel industry showed a steady gain in average output per man-hour
from 1925 to 1929, except in the annealing operations.7 For bar
shearing, the increase was from 1.893 net tons per man-hour in 1925
to 2.200 in 1929; for cold rolling, from 1.159 to 1.480 net tons; for
sheet pickling, from 0.702 to 0.857 ton; and for hot rolling, from 0.072
to 0.077 ton. In the annealing department the gain in output per
man-hour was more than offset by the increased labor time required
to meet the increasing demand for full-finished sheets of deepdrawing quality.
Among the factors affecting productivity are the substitution of
machinery for labor, better-designed machinery, improvement in
management, working conditions, etc. In general, however, the real
gain in labor productivity due to improvement in technology and
management was obscured by the increase in labor time required in
the production of high-grade sheets for use in the manufacture of
automobile bodies, electric refrigerators, and metal furniture.

Le a th e r In d u s try
T h e displacement of labor in the five major branches of the leather
industry in the United States resulting from recent changes in equip­
ment, processes, and management represents a gross loss of 16,277
employment opportunities from 1923 to 1931.8 Almost one-third of
this labor displacement can be attributed directly to the increase in
hourly output. The main cause of the greater man-hour productivity
was undoubtedly improved management of labor.
The quantity output per hour in the leather industry has risen
materially since 1923. This increase ranges in the various branches
from a little over 4 percent in the manufacture of sheepskins to more
than 27 percent in the manufacture of side leather. For the whole
industry the increase may be placed at approximately 15 percent.
This change is not, of course, great in comparison with some other
American industries whose methods have of late years been subject
7 See Monthly Labor Review, January 1932, p. 19.
8 Idem, September 1932, p. 1.




TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES AND LABOR DISPLACEMENT

723

to spectacular alteration; and the number of men displaced has been
kept down by the fact that the leather industry has never been one of
great volume from an employment standpoint. Nevertheless this
supplies a clear-cut case of labor displacement in recent years, where
there seemed to be little reason to look for it because technological
development has not been an important factor in the industry, and
skilled hand labor is still a requisite. Most of the machines now in
use in tanneries had been introduced in much their present form at
least 30 or 40 years ago, hence mechanization has played only a small
part in increasing output. The principal cause of the increase has
been the improved management of labor and the accompanying
taking up of slack in the expenditure of the time of the labor force.
The estimated displacement between 1923 and 1931 due to greater
efficiency was 6,685 workers.
Lu m b e r In d u s try 9
D a t a regarding man-hour rates of production for the lumber and
timber products industry in California, Oregon, and Washington in
1929 were collected by the Bureau of the Census in its biennial census
of manufactures for that year. The study was confined to large mills,
as only establishments which reported products valued at $100,000 or
more were covered by the Census Bureau.
The measure of physical output in the lumber industry is a thousand
board-feet. Efficiency, as measured by man-hour productivity, de­
pends largely upon the extent of mechanization. In fact, the most
reliable indicator of efficiency in this industry is horsepower per wage
earner employed, the increase in productivity with increase in horse­
power per wage earner being appreciable. Thus Oregon, where the
average horsepower per wage earner was 7.1, ranked highest in pro­
ductivity, showing an average output of lumber, in thousand boardfeet, of 0.062 per man-hour. The lowest output per man-hour was
0.035 in California, where the average horsepower per wage earner
was 5.5. Washington, while showing a somewhat lower average
horsepower per wage earner employed than California (5.2), had a
higher productivity rate (0.052 per man-hour). These figures apply
to mills which did their own logging. The average output of lumber
(in thousand board-feet) per man-hour in mills which bought their
logs was 0.084 in California, 0.129 in Oregon, and 0.131 in Washington.

P e tro le u m -R e fin in g In d u s try
S t a t is t ic s dealing with the petroleum-refining industry as pre­
sented in the Census of Manufactures for 1929 make possible an
analysis of man-hour productivity in that industry.10 The figures
cover 146 establishments, of which 90 are “ cracking” plants— that is,
those which break up the crude oil primarily to produce gasoline; and
56 are plants producing lubricating oil and grease as well as gasoline.
An analysis of the cracking plants by States and groups of States
shows that California, the State with the highest productivity (12.279
barrels of oil per man-hour), paid the highest average hourly wage,
82.7 cents, but had the lowest wage cost, 6.7 cents per barrel of oil
8See Monthly Labor Review, October 1932, p.
1 Idem, December 1932, p. 1283.
0




818.

724

PRODUCTIVITY OF LABOR

refined. On the other hand, the two-State group of Arkansas and
Louisiana showed a productivity of only 2.737 barrels per man-hour
and paid 22.3 cents as wages for each barrel of oil refined, the highest
labor cost shown in the table. These differences in productivity and
wages are accompanied by a striking range in the figures for horse­
power per wage earner. California, with the highest rate of produc­
tivity and lowest unit labor cost, reported 32.58 used horsepower for
each wage earner employed, whereas Arkansas and Louisiana, with the
lowest productivity and highest unit labor cost, reported only 4.27
used horsepower per wage earner.
The same general situation is shown by the figures in the section
covering the 56 plants producing lubricating oils and greases (in
addition to gasoline). California, with the highest productivity, of
8.767 barrels per man-hour, had the lowest average unit labor cost,
9.0 cents per barrel refined, whereas the five-State combination of
Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Ohio, and West Virginia showed the
lowest productivity of 3.400 barrels per man-hour and the highest
labor cost of 18.6 cents per barrel.
B y a different classification of the 146 establishments, man-hour
productivity on the basis of the quantity of oil produced is developed.
For the gasoline-producing plants, the average productivity of those
refining less than 4 barrels per man-hour was 2.792 barrels, at an
average wage cost of 20.6 cents per barrel, whereas for those refining
6 or more barrels per man-hour the average productivity was 9.892
barrels, at an average wage cost of only 6.7 cents per barrel. In other
words, the productivity of the latter was 3%0times that of the former,
but the wage cost was less than one-third that of the former, and the
horsepower per wage earner 3Xo times as great.
Road B u ild in g
C o m p a r a t i v e productivity and efficiency of employees and ma­
chinery in the building of concrete roads in 1919, 1925, and 1931, are
shown by the records of a road-building contractor in Illinois.11
On the basis of number of cubic yards of dirt moved and number
of hours consumed by the subgrading crew in cutting the channel in
the roadbed for the concrete slab, the excavation of a cubic yard of
dirt required an average of 0.97 man-hour in 1919; 0.63 man-hour in
1925; and 0.45 man-hour in 1930. Thus, the productivity of the
crew in 1925 was 54 percent more than in 1919; in 1930 its produc­
tivity was 40 percent more than in 1925 and 115 percent more than in
1919. The increased productivity per man-hour in 1925, as compared
with 1919, and in 1930, as compared with 1925 and 1919, was due
primarily to the introduction and increasing use of labor-saving
machinery and the increased skill of the crew in the operation of the
machinery.
The paving crew includes employees engaged in delivering materials
to the mixer, in mixing, laying, and finishing the concrete road. This
crew completed a cubic yard of concrete in an average of 5.17 man­
hours in 1919, 4.25 man-hours in 1925, and 3.27 man-hours in 1930.
Thus, its productivity in 1925 was 21.6 percent more than that in
1919, the productivity in 1930 was 29.9 percent more than that in
1925 and 58.1 percent more than that in 1919. In the case of this
ii See Monthly Labor Review, November 1932, p. 1026.




TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES AND LABOR DISPLACEMENT

725

crew, also, the increase in productivity was due to more efficient laborsaving machinery and increased skill in the operation of the machinery.
A street rebuilding job in Washington, D. C., was studied1 to
2
determine the various processes and operations involved, the size
and character of the crews, and the kind of machinery called for in
each process. Where possible, man-hour performance was reported.
Under modern labor-saving methods the work of paving streets is
considerably subdivided. The main operations, in the sequence in
which they are performed, are the breaking up and removal of the
old pavement, the removal of old curb and setting of the new, the
grading of the roadbed, the pouring of the concrete base, the laying
of the gutter, and finally the application of the binder and finish
coats.
The rebuilding work includes also the repair of such sidewalk along
the curb and street intersections as it is necessary to break.
A compressor machine used in road-repair and repaving work,
driven by a gasoline motor and equipped with air-compressor drills,
cutter, spade, sprayer and blower, is manned by an operator and one
or two laborers. The air-compressor drill will in less than 35 minutes
break a hole in an old paving large enough to permit the spade to
begin operating; the same work would require 3 hours of one man's
time with a sledge hammer and pick. A power shovel, of 1% cubic
yards' capacity, will dig up and dump 93 cubic yards of paving per
hour, which is the equivalent of the labor of 62 men working 1 hour
with hand shovels.
On a road-building job in which the most modern road-building
machinery was used, the average number of cubic yards of concrete
mixed and poured per man-hour was 0.943.
A ditch-digging machine operated by 1 man, preceded by a laborer
to clear the way for the machine, will dig 22 cubic yards of trench
per man-hour, an output which would require 44 men working by
hand.
S la u g h te rin g and M e a t-P a c k in g In d u s try 1
3
I n 1932 the Bureau of Labor Statistics made a study of labor
productivity in certain departments of 3 large and 3 medium-sized
slaughtering and meat-packing establishments in the United States.
In these establishments cattle-killing, hog-killing, hog-cutting, calf­
killing, and sheep-killing departments were studied. The period
covered was 1914-31 for the large plants and 1921-31 for the medium­
sized plants.
The average number of men employed in 1931 in the departments
studied was 3,336. Of this number, 2,072 were in the large plants
and 1,264 in the medium-sized plants.
In the large plants, from 1914 to 1919, productivity per man-hour
decreased in all the departments except sheep killing and in some
instances continued below the 1914 level until 1921 and later. From
1921 to 1931 the trend in productivity was rather regularly upward,
reaching the highest point of the period in 1931. The net gain in
man-hour efficiency (as shown by production per head) from 1914 to
1931 was lowest in the cattle-killing department (5.7 percent) and
highest in the sheep-killing department (61.0 percent).
1 Details in Monthly Labor Review, December 1931, p.
8
1 See Monthly Labor Review, November 1932, p. 1018.
8




1265.

726

PRODUCTIVITY OF LABOR

This increase in efficiency was secured in various ways: Elimination
of waste motion, frequently increasing output with no increased effort
on the part of the workers; change of layout rendering unnecessary the
transfer of the product from one part of the plant to another during
processing; combination of two jobs, each involving much idle time,
so that one worker may do both; adoption of production bonuses, or
other incentive plans, etc.
There was, of course, a corresponding loss in employment oppor­
tunities in these large plants. It would have required 2,585 men
working at the 1914 rate of productivity to do the work which required
2,072 men to do in 1931; there was thus a loss of 513 full-time jobs
(or 19.8 percent) from 1914 to 1931. The number of employment
opportunities lost during the period 19 21-31 was even greater than
during the period 19 14 -31; thus it would have required 2,752 men
working at the 1921 rate to do the work done in 1931 by 2,072 men— a
loss of 680 full-time jobs, or 24.7 percent.
In the medium-sized plants, it would have required 2,020 men work­
ing at the 1921 rate of production to do the work of 1,264 men working
at the 1931 rate, a loss of 756 jobs, or 37.4 percent.
The net result was that in 1931 there were 513 fewer employment
opportunities in the large plants and 756 fewer in the medium-sized
plants than there would have been had there been no increase in
man-hour production over that of 1914 and 1921.
S te a m -R a ilro a d T ra n s p o rta tio n 1
4
T e c h n o l o g ic a l improvements in the railroad industry have been
extremely varied, and have made possible the maintenance of traffic
facilities and the handling of a given amount of traffic with a con­
stantly diminishing amount of labor. Locomotives and cars have
been increased in size, capacity, durability, and ease of operation.
Rails and ties have been improved as to quality of materials, dura­
bility, and resistance to impact of rolling stock. Roadbeds have been
made sturdier and less dependent on maintenance work. Mechanical
devices, such as mobile power units, rail layers, tie tampers, and track
and right-of-way cleaners, have greatly reduced the amount of work
required for the maintenance of ways and structures. In the mainte­
nance of equipment and stores, the amount of work has been reduced
by the improved quality and capacity of engines and cars and by the
modernizing of machine shops, car shops, roundhouses, etc. In con­
nection with communications and the control of train movements,
the principal changes have involved automatic signals, interlocking
plants, and centralized traffic control for combining the functions of
issuing train orders and the handling of signals and switches. Highway-crossing protection has included the extension of automatic
signals and grade separations. Administrative and clerical employees
have been most vitally affected by office appliances, such as calcu­
lating machines, by methods of management, and by mergers and
consolidations.
The ultimate economic basis on which the railroad system rests is
revenue traffic. In the final analysis the product of railroad labor,
and, therefore, its productivity, must be expressed in terms of revenue
1 Abstract of a series of articles by Witt Bowden on Productivity, Hours, and Compensation of Railroad
4
Labor, appearing in the Monthly Labor Review as follows: Pt. 1, All Employees, December 1933; pt. 2,
Classes Other Than Transportation Employees, January 1934; pt. 3, Transportation Employees, February
1934.




TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES AND LABOR DISPLACEMENT

727

traffic, which is a standard measurement. The usually accepted unit
of passenger service is the passenger-mile, that is, the carrying of 1
passenger 1 mile. Similarly, in freight service the basic unit is the
ton-mile, the carrying of 1 ton 1 mile. In combining passenger- and
ton-miles, the passenger-miles may be weighted in accordance with
their approximate comparative importance, the weight used herein
being 2.6, and added to ton-miles, the sum commonly being described
as revenue traffic units.
However, the effects of technological changes on the amount of
labor required in railroad operation are to be found not so much in
the productivity of labor in terms of revenue traffic as in the smaller
amount of labor required for maintaining traffic facilities. In regard
to labor as a whole, the transportation traffic unit is probably the most
adequate measure of services necessitated by the fact that trains
must run and other facilities for handling passengers and freight must
be maintained, whether revenue traffic is heavy or light. The trans­
portation traffic unit15 is an approximate measure of the amount of
service normally rendered by railroad workers to their employers in
maintaining facilities for traffic, as distinguished from the amount of
revenue traffic handled for patrons of the railroads.
For all employees except executive groups, indexes of man-hour
productivity in terms of revenue traffic units, of transportation
traffic units, and of car-miles to the number of man-hours worked are
shown in table 1.
T a ble 1 .—IN D E X E S OF M A N -H O U R P R O D U C T IV IT Y , IN ,T E R M S OF SPECIFIED UNITS,
OF A L L E M P LO Y E E S E X C E P T E X E C U T IV E GROUPS, CLASS I R AILR O AD S, 1916-32
[1926=100]

Year

Trans­
Revenue portation
traffic
traffic
units
units

1916............... ..........
1917____ __________
1918______________
1919______________
1920____ __________
1921_______ _______
1922______________
1923______________
1924_______________

73.4
77. 0
76.0
80.6
81.8
83.1
86.5
89.4
91.8

83.8
84.9
85.6
91.4

Carmiles

71.4
68. 5
63. 4
68.3
68.2
81.0
82.0
84.3
90.2

Year

1925______________
1926 _____________
1927 ____________
1928______________
1929_______________
1930______________
1931..................... .
1932 ......................

Trans­
Revenue portation
traffic
traffic
units
units
96.9
100. 0
99.8
104.8
106. 7
106.7
107. 4
105.0

96.8
100.0
102.7
109.1
111.3
117.3
125.3
130.5

Carmiles

96.6
100.0
102.9
110.1
112.1
116.6
123.6
126.3

With 1926 as the base year, man-hour productivity, as expressed
by the indexed ratios of revenue traffic units to man-hours, rose from
73.4 in 1916 to 83.1 in 1921, and to 107.4 in 1931, and declined to
105.0 in 1932. The ratios of transportation traffic units to man-hours
ranged from 83.8 in 1921 to 130.5 in 1932. The ratios of car-miles
to man-hours ranged from 71.4 in 1916 to 81.0 in 1921, and 126.3
in 1932.
Taking revenue traffic units as a measure of output and 1921 as
the base year, and assuming a constant ratio of revenue traffic units
to man-hours, the number of man-hours required in 1932 would have
is The formula for transportation traffic units or equated gross ton-miles was developed by the American
Railway Engineering Association, and in its simplest form consists of freight ton-miles (including cars)
X I; freight locomotive ton-miles X2; and passenger car miles X144. (See A. R. E. A ., Proceedings, vol.
31, pp. 1144, 1145; and A. R. E. A ., Manual, 1929, pp. 1421-1435. See also testimony of Otto Beyer, in
Interstate Commerce Commission, Ex parte 106, vol. 6, p. 2070 and passim (hearings on proposed 6-hour
day).)




728

PRODUCTIVITY OF LABOR

been about 2,782,000,000 instead of 2,201,000,000, the number
actually employed.
Taking transportation traffic units as a measure of services rendered
by employees in maintaining facilities for handling revenue traffic,
and assuming a constant ratio of transportation traffic units to man­
hours, the number of man-hours required in 1932 would have been
about 3,429,000,000, instead of 2,201,000,000, the number actually
employed. The difference, 1,228,000,000 man-hours, is an approxi­
mate indication of the effects of technological changes on the amount
of employment.
For many classes of railroad employees there is no adequate unit-,
such as the transportation traffic unit, for comparison with revenue
traffic. For subdivisions of employees, the amount of revenue traffic
is itself misleading unless used in comparison with some other unit
indicating the amount of service normally required for maintaining
facilities for revenue traffic. In connection with those groups of
employees whose services are of such nature as to make possible
approximate measurement in terms other than revenue traffic,
comparisons of man-hour productivity in terms of revenue traffic
and of other units are shown in table 2, the figures being reduced
to index form with 1926 as the base year, or 100.
T a ble 2 — IN D E X E S OF M A N -H O U R P R O D U C T IV IT Y OF SPECIFIED GROUPS OF R A IL ­
ROAD LABOR , IN T E R M S OF SPECIFIED U N IT S, CLASS I R AILR O AD S, 1922-32
[1926=100]
Group, and specified unit
Maintenance of way and struc­
tures:
Revenue traffic units__________
Transportation traffic units___
Maintenance of equipment and
stores:
Revenue traffic units_________
Transportation traffic units___
Machinists:
Revenue traffic units__________
Transportation traffic units___
Carmen:
Revenue traffic units, _______
Car-miles,................. .......... ... ,,
Road passenger employees:
Revenue passenger miles______
Passenger train miles__________
Road freight employees:
Revenue ton-miles____________
Freight train miles____________

1922 1923 1924

1925

1926

93.6 97.6 97.9 101.8 100.0
91.9 93.4 97.5 101.6 100.0

1927

1928

1929

1930

1931

1932

96.0 101.2 100.6 105.7 115.7 123.2
98.8 105.3 104.9 116.3 135.1 153.1

86.7 81.5 88.1
85.1 78.0 87.7

94.4 100.0 102.8 109.1 112.2 114.5 118.0 117.9
94.2 100.0 105.8 113.5 117.1 126.0 137.7 146.5

90.8 80.9 88.5
89.2 77.4 88.1

95.0 100.0 101.2 106.4 109.6 109.4 108.9 104.3
94.9 100.0 104.1 110.7 114.3 120.3 127.1 129.7

83.3 77.9 87.0
81.7 74.5 86.6

93.1 100.0 104.3 109.3 111.6 118.0 124.9 126.8
92.9 100.0 107.3 113.8 116.4 129.9 145.7 157.6

97.7 101.3 98.0
92.2 92.7 95.1

99.7 100.0 97.6 95.6 95.4 88.2 83.2 77.5
97.7 100.0 102.0 105.0 106.5 109.7 113.0 117.0

81.6 83.5 90.1 96.4 100.0 103.4 111.2 114.1 119.1 121.2 116.4
93.3 91.0 97.6 100.0 100.0 103.0 108.2 109.2 116.1 125.0 130.8

Tele ph o ne and Tele g ra p h In d u strie s
T elep h on e In du stry

T h e complete substitution of the dial telephone system for the
manual system, as analyzed by the Bureau of Labor Statistics,16
will apparently decrease employment opportunities for operators
about two-thirds. In 1921 dial telephones formed 2.7 percent of
the total number in the Bell system. The number of operators in
the Bell system was 118,470, and they handled an average of 1,260,619,367 calls (local and toll combined) per month, or 10,641 per
operator. In 1930, 31.9 percent of the total number of telephones
I®See Monthly Labor Review, February 1932, p. 235.




TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES AND LABOR DISPLACEMENT

729

in the Bell system were dial operated, and 143,979 operators were
employed. They handled an average of 2,270,756,065 calls per
month, or 15,771 per operator, an increase of 48.2 percent over the
operator productivity of 1921.
If the number of connections demanded in 1930 had been made
manually on the basis of the output per operator prevailing in 1921,
69,421 additional operators would have been needed. Hence the
lost employment opportunities represented by actual installations
is 32.5 percent. With the extension of the dial program, however,
the percent of loss of employment opportunities will not keep pace
with the percent of automatic installations, because operators will
still be needed for special services, long-distance connections, etc.
Private-Wire Systems 17
P r i v a t e - w i r e systems include private telephone exchanges,
railroad wires, leased wire circuits of news agencies, the lines of
brokers and investment bankers, networks used for transmitting
radio programs, and wires used for interior communication in indus­
trial establishments, institutions, etc. Private branch exchange
telephones, while increasing in number, have continued in practically
the same ratio to the total number of telephones in the Bell system
since 1921, constituting about 19 percent of the total. In large cities
the proportion of private branch exchanges is much larger than for
the entire country. The number of operators required to handle
private branch exchange business was estimated by telephone officials
in 1931 at 135,000 for exchanges connected with the Bell system, and
at 145,000 for the entire country. Information on the extent of
transition from manual to dial operation in private exchanges is not
readily available, but it has not been so material as in the public
exchanges. Private telephone employment has thus provided oppor­
tunities for telephone operators displaced by the machine in the
wider field of public service. With the progressive extension of
automatic operation to private exchanges, however, those oppor­
tunities will necessarily shrink.
T eleg ra ph In du stry

A s t u d y of labor displacement due to technological changes in
telegraphy was made by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, covering
the various branches of the industry. The results were published
in a series of articles in the Monthly Labor Review, March to July
1932. A brief digest of each of these articles is presented here.
Commercial Telegraphy 18
T h e printer telegraph has reduced the proportion of Morse teleg­
raphers in commercial telegraph offices to 21.5 percent of all oper­
ators. B y 1931 printer circuits accounted for nearly 90 percent of
all commercial-message handlings of one large company. In the
principal telegraph offices the productivity of printer operators
averages about twice that of Morse operators, with a resulting
technological displacement of about 50 percent. This means not
1 See Monthly Labor Review, July 1932, p. 9.
7
i» Idem, March 1932, p. 501.




730

PRODUCTIVITY OF LABOR

only the elimination of the skilled Morse telegrapher but the sub­
stitution of women for men. The training required to operate a
printer telegraph is practically the same as for operating a typewriter,
and any good typist can operate a teletype.
At the end of June 1931, in all the commercial telegraph offices of
the major companies, 3,678 Morse manual operators, constituting
21.5 percent of the total number of operators, were employed. Of
these 3,678 Morse operators, 83.9 percent were men. Multiplex
printer operators numbered 5,127, or 30.1 percent of the total number
of operators. Women comprised 83.6 percent of the multiplex
printer operators. The largest single group was the simplex printer
operators, who numbered 8,249 and represented almost half (48.4
percent) of the total number employed. Of these, 66.6 percent were
women. In 1931 women constituted 60.8 percent of the total of all
classes combined, while in 1902, when the Morse system was used
exclusively, only 22.3 percent of the operators were women.
One leading telegraph company instituted training schools to give
Morse operators the opportunity to learn the simplex method of
telegraphy. At the end of July 1931, as a result of that policy, 31.2
percent of the total number of simplex operators employed in func­
tional offices were former Morse operators. Of the male simplex
operators so employed 58.8 percent had changed from the Morse to
the new system.
Ticker Telegraphy 19
T h e new high-speed ticker for handling stock-market quotations
is a most remarkable labor-saving mechanism. For example, on a
given day, with 17 operators it automatically printed the New York
stock-exchange quotations on 8,623 stock tickers in 43 States and
Territories, and in Canada, with circuits in 377 cities. The 17
operators also handled the transmission of bond quotations which
were automatically recorded on 928 bond tickers.
In 1890 some 395 tickers were in daily use in the financial district
of New York City, employing 8 operators and 12 other employees.
In 1930 the number of tickers had increased to 3,812, the number of
operators to 17, and the total number of employees to 157. Taking
1890 as the base, or 100, the index of changes in output per operator
ranged from 100 in 1890 to 1,695 in 1930, practically a 1,600 percent
increase, while the productivity of all employees combined ranged
from 100 in 1890 to 459 in 1930, more than a 350 percent increase.
Taking 1920 as the base, or 100, the index of productivity of operators
more than tripled, ranging from 100 in 1920 to 3 11 in 1930, while the
index for all employees ranged from 100 in 1920 to 145 in 1930. On
the basis of 1890 productivity, 288 operators instead of 17 would be
required for the output of 1930; on the basis of 1920 productivity,
53 operators would be required for the output of 1930.
Actual displacement, however, exceeds hypothetical displacement.
Outside of a few great centers, particularly the financial district of
New York, both the transmission and reception of market quotations
were formerly handled by Morse telegraphers who served newspapers
and brokers’ offices. This service has now been almost entirely elim­
inated by the use of tickers and teletype service. Reception in many
brokers’ offices is now handled by the “ teleregister” , a device which
is See Monthly Labor Review, June 1932, p. 1269.




TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES AND LABOR DISPLACEMENT

731

automatically displays market changes in customers7offices, and by a
magnified and illuminated projection of the moving ticker tape on
a screen. By 1931 teleregisters had been installed in more than
200 brokers7 offices as far west as Chicago, with remoter installa­
tions planned, all handled by a single operating center in New
York City. The extent of displacements as a result of these
various technological changes cannot be measured statistically, but
in the aggregate it is very large.
Transmission of News 20
M o r s e telegraphers engaged in the transmission of news have in
the past 15 years been largely superseded by operators of the printer
telegraph (teletype). This instrument is operated very much like a
typewriter and not only sends messages but prints them upon receiv­
ing machines, thus eliminating the telegrapher at the receiving end,
because reception is automatic. The sending machine in teletype
operation can transmit to as many receiving machines as its circuit
carries. The speed of the printer is about twice that of the Morse
operator.
Because of the growth of press associations, chain newspapers, and
news-feature syndicates, all of which call for large sending organiza­
tions, the number of Morse operators engaged in newspaper work
increased from 1,114 in 1915 to 1,549 in 1922. After the latter year
the adoption of. the printer telegraph (teletype), which had been
introduced in 1915, grew rapidly. By 1931 only 586 Morse operators
were employed by the principal news organizations. Teletype
operators, on the other hand, who had numbered only 11 in news
work in 1915, had increased to 335 in 1931. If Morse operators were
required to render service equivalent in speed and sustained effort to
that now possible with the teletype, 3,737 telegraphers would be
necessary to do the work now done by 243 printers (i. e., 335 operators
reduced to an equivalent full-time basis). “ Expressed in another
way, the productivity of the operator of the printer telegraph is
more than 15 times as great as the productivity of the Morse operator
in this particular field.7 Fewer than 40 Morse telegraphers employed
7
by press associations were retained as printer operators.

Railroad Telegraphy 21
T e l e p h o n e s , printer telegraphs, automatic block-signal systems,
interlocking machines, and centralized traffic-control systems used in
the movement of trains are rapidly eliminating the telegraph formerly
used to transmit train orders and are thus displacing Morse operators.
Printer-telegraph machines used in handling freight-yard traffic are
displacing not only Morse telegraph operators but messengers.
Information relating to train movements and orders, formerly fur­
nished to the dispatching service by telegraphers and telephoners,
now comes through moving lights on a miniature railway system or
by an automatic graph which provides a permanent record. Employ­
ment in the train-movement group known as telegraphers, telephoners,
and towermen declined from 27,226 in 1921 to 18,185 at the close of
1931, a decline of 33.2 percent. Messengers and office assistants,
2 See Monthly Labor Review, April 1932, p. 753.
0
Idem, May 1932, p. 1017.




732

PRODUCTIVITY OF LABOR

who were affected 'by the use of the telephone and teletype on local
and intraoffice circuits, dropped from 6,819 in 1921 to 4,642 at the
end of 1931, or 31.9 percent. The decline in employment level
between 1921 and 1931 of the entire group of railroad employees
classed as communications group, which has been most definitely
affected by the technological changes under discussion, was 24.2
percent.
A centralized traffic-control installation governing 43 miles of single
and 19 miles of double track took over the handling of 131 signals and
switches and dispensed with 16 operators. A centralized trafficcontrol ipachine installed in an interlocking tower regulated traffic on
30.3 miles of single track and displaced 7 telegraphers; in a similar
instance involving 33.7 miles of road 11 operators were released.
Where train orders are transmitted by teletype there may be no
numerical displacement, but typists take the place of skilled Morse
operators. Telephony in railroading is passing from manual to
automatic operation through the dial system.
T ir e In d u s try
S in c e 1914 the man-hour output of six representative tire-manu­
facturing plants which, in 1931, produced 59.8 percent of the total
output of pneumatic tires in this country has risen 581.05 percent.
The rise was steady but comparatively slow until 1929, when the
index of man-hour output, based on 1914 as 100> stood at 506.25.
In 1930 it jumped to 581.03, which is an increase of nearly 75 points
above 1929, and in 1931 it made even a larger jump to 681.05, register­
ing an increase of 100 points over 1930.
These are some of the facts disclosed by the Bureau of Labor
Statistics in its study of labor productivity and labor employment in
the tire industry.2 The tire industry offers an instance in which the
2
increased productivity of labor was due more to the so-called “ evolu­
tionary ” small change in production than to any revolutionary change
in the process of tire manufacturing. Essentially there has been but
one major change in the manufacture of pneumatic tires, and that
occurred when the core process of tire building gave way to the flatdrum process. In some plants this change occurred as early as 1919.
Among the factors other than technological changes which have con­
tributed to increased output may be mentioned the sharp reduction
in labor turn-over, the elimination of the less efficient machines and
less efficient workers, and the introduction of “ motion time studies.”
It is frankly admitted by the managers and engineers in charge of
operations that during the last year these motion time studies have
been, more than any other factor or factors, responsible for the
increased output per man-hour.
The output per man per hour, measured in terms of tires produced,
rose from 0.70 tire in 1922 to 0.82 tire in 1924. It declined to 0.80
tire in 1925, a circumstance that can be attributed to the experimenta­
tion with balloon tires, which made their first appearance late in 1924.
Beginning with 1926, the man-hour output showed a continuous rise,
somewhat slow until 1929, but accelerating decidedly in 1930 and
particularly in 1931. The increase is even more noticeable if the man1 U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bui. No. 585.
3
1252.




See also Monthly Labor Review, December 1932, p.

TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES AND LABOR DISPLACEMENT

733

hour output is measured in terms of weight. In 1922 the average
output per man per hour was 11.28 pounds. In 1925, although the
number of tires produced per man-hour declined slightly, there was a
considerable increase in the number of pounds produced per man­
hour. This, of course, was due to the fact that the ballon tire required
a larger amount of rubber and fabric than the average high-pressure
tire. From 1926 through 1931 the output in pounds per man-hour
showed a trend similar to that of the man-hour output of tires, but
the increase was more rapid. Thus, from 1926 to 1927 the index of
man-hour output of tires rose 7.20 points, while that of man-hour
output in pounds rose 14.17 points. From 1930 to 1931 a very
considerable rise occurred in man-hour output, the index of tire output
registering a gain of 25.08 points and that of pounds output a gain of
27.33 points. During the period from 1922 to 1931 the man-hour
output of tires nearly doubled and that of pounds nearly tripled.
Actual production and output per man-hour in pounds and volume
of technological labor displacement in the plants studied, from 1922
to 1931, are shown in the following table:
A C T U A L PRO D U CTIO N A N D VO L U M E OF TEC H N O L O G IC AL LABOR D IS P L A C E M E N T
IN 6 R E P R E SE N TA TIV E T IR E PLAN TS, 1922-31, B Y YE A R S
Increase or decrease com­
pared with previous
year in—

Actual production

Year

Techno­
Net increase logical
or decrease displace­
in man­
ment, in
man­
hours
hours

Total out­
put

Total man­
hours

Output
per
man­
hour

Total out­
put

Man-hours,
caused by
change in
total output

1

2

8

4

5

6

7

+29,322,000
+33,319,000
+108,375,000
+35,275,000
+98,129,000
+152,691,000
+49,392,000
-117,080,000
-35,997,000

h2,388,000
h2,622,000
h7,870,000
1-2,140,000
h5,215,000
[-7,283,000
1-2,167,000
-5,135,000
-1,376,000

+266,000
+1,730,000
+5,699,000
-3,433,000
+1,440,000
+4,018,000
-718,000
-9,001,000
-5,016,000

2,122,000
892,000
2,171,000
5,573,000
3,775,000
3,265,000
2,885,000
3,866,000
3,640,000

+353,426,000

+23,174,000 -5,015,000 28,189,000

Pounds

1922____________
1923____ _______
1924____________
1925____________
1926........ .............
1927...................
1928.................
1929____ _______
1930____________
1931.......... ...........

Pounds

295.222.000
324.544.000
357.863.000
466.238.000
501.513.000
599.642.000
752,333,000
801,725,000
684.645.000
648.648.000

Cumulative ef­
fects, 1922-31 1_

26.165.000
26.431.000
28,161,000
33,860,000
30,427,000
31,867,000
35,885,000
35,167,000
26,166,000
21,150,000

11.28
12.28
12.71
13.77
16.48
18.82
20.97
22.80
26.17
30. 67

Pounds

i Result obtained by subtracting total decrease from total increase.

Between the peak of 1928 and 1931 the six plants dropped as surplus
labor 14,735,000 man-hours, or 41 percent of their 1928 total. Of the
men who lost their jobs because of this labor surplus, 71 percent were
technologically unemployed and the remaining 29 percent were
unemployed because of a drop in the total production of the six
plants.
U n ite d States Postal Service
E f f ic ie n c y in the handling of mails by the United States Postal
Service has been shown by the Bureau of Labor Statistics23 to have
been promoted in recent years both by mechanization and by im­
proved administrative methods. Mechanical tables, canceling and
» See Monthly Labor Review, October 1932, p. 745, and Bulletin No. 574 of the U. S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics.




734

PRODUCTIVITY OF LABOR

postmarking machines, automatic conveyors, and automotive trans­
portation are among the mechanical devices which have been insti­
tuted to expedite the handling and distribution of both letter and
package mail.
The index of productivity in the Postal Service increased from a
base of 100.0 in 1908 to 171.8 in 1930, declining, because of falling off
in business, to 163.4 in 1931. The index of total volume of output
handled rose from 100.0 in 1908 to 265.2 in 1930 and fell to 294.4 in
1931.
Estimating output on the basis of 1908 efficiency, at which time the
average output per employee was 82,086 units, 196,623 more em­
ployees would have been required to handle the peak load of 1930 than
were actually employed, and in 1931, 171,739 more workers would
have been necessary. Thus, the percent of employment opportuni­
ties lost through greater efficiency in the Postal Service increased from
9.2 percent in 1910 to 40.2 in 1926 and 41.8 in 1930. The decrease in
the amount of postal business brought the figure for 1931 below that
of 1926, or to 38.8 percent.

Influence of Nonmechanical Factors on Productivity
HE significance of nonmechanical factors in increasing labor
productivity and thereby affecting the volume of employment is
discussed in an article in the November 1933 issue of the Monthly
Labor Review. An abstract of this article follows.
While machinery and mechanical power have been from the begin­
ning of the modern industrial era the more obvious, and especially
the more dramatic factors making for industrial efficiency and
progress, there are other factors that from the beginning, though not
so obvious nor so dramatic, have been possibly of equal importance.
Many discoveries have been made and many processes invented and
utilized which would have been of very great benefit even in the*
absence of elaborate machinery or mechanical power. Indeed, the
contributions of the science of chemistry to industrial efficiency have
been and still are in many respects more important than the develop­
ment and application of mechanical power as such. Moreover,
machine production is largely dependent upon these discoveries and
processes; while, on the other hand, many of the contributions of
industrial chemistry are relatively independent of mechanical agencies.
During recent years, these discoveries of the chemists, together with
equally important discoveries of the physicists, have even tended
greatly to reduce both the volume of machine equipment and the
quantity of mechanical energy required per unit of output.
As early as 1928 it was noted that the progress in industrial efficiency
which had been achieved in this country during the post-war decade
was due in very large part to factors other than the increase in ma­
chine equipment or in the number of power units utilized. Now that
additional data have become available it is even more apparent that,
this is true. Recent investigations have indicated that the volume
of machinery and equipment replacement in manufacturing indus­
tries during the decade 1919-29 was hardly, if at all, greater than
normal.2 This implies that a considerable part of the increased
4

T

s^The Business Week, Aug. 24,1932, p. 14,.




INFLUENCE OF NONMECHANICAL FACTORS

735

efficiency that marked the period must have been due to other than
mechanical causes.
Among the causes other than machinery equipment and power con­
tributing to the large increases in total output and in output per
worker during recent years are the following:
(1) A more adequate and a more even flow of raw materials to the
manufacturing industries.
(2) More easily workable materials, better adaptation of materials
to purposes of manufacture, and standardization of materials.
(3) A faster and more even flow of products from the mines, the
farms, and the factories to markets, reducing inventories and obviat­
ing the congestion of goods in warehouses.
(4) Improved factory layout and machine assembly, and more
efficient utilization of machinery and equipment.
(5) More economical distribution and application of power.
(6) Improved working conditions and better adjustment of work­
ing time.
(7) Better organization of the working force, including personnel
selection and distribution.
(8) More effective application of the energy and skill of workers
(rationalization of movements, etc.).
(9) Direct increase in individual efficiency.
It is known that most of these factors were operative during the
period under consideration, but in most cases it is impossible to
determine their relative importance.
Among the human factors making directly for increased efficiency
are the following: (1) Improved organization and management; (2)
increased energy, skill, or diligence on the part of operatives; (3)
selection of personnel and organization of the working force; (4)
cooperation between management and operatives; (5) adaptability
to and liking for the job; (6) incentives—wages, bonuses, profit
sharing, etc.
Other important factors that are either relatively independent of
the machine set-up, or that greatly add to its efficiency, are conditions
with regard to (a) safety; (6) light and sound; (c) ventilation and
temperature (air conditioning); (d) fitness and accessibility of tools;
(e) working conveniences—seating, work benches, tables, etc.; (/)
routing of materials to and from machines, and from one worker to
another; (g) machine set-up, assembly and control; (h) synchroniza­
tion of operations and processes.
In most cases where the working shift has been shortened, there has
been an increase in the per-hour performance of labor. This is
naturally to be expected, since monotony, fatigue, and exhaustion
through too greatly prolonged activity are apt not only to slow up
the performance of the operative but to entail considerable losses in
spoilage, breakage, and damage to tools or machinery. But it is not
so easily understandable that not only the output per hour but the
output per day, week, or year may be and often has been increased
by shortening the working time. Perhaps the most notable example
of this is found in the experience of the iron and steel industries in
changing from the 10- and 12-hour to the 8-hour shift.
While there has been no such general change from a longer to a
shorter working time in any other large industrial group as in the iron
and steel industries, nor sufficient data indicating such changes as




736

PRODUCTIVITY OF LABOR

have been made, information is available which tends strongly to
indicate that in most cases the shortening of the work day or week
results in an increased man-hour output.
Another nonmechanical factor making for increased industrial
efficiency is that of standardization. In general, standardization
aims at uniformity of materials, products, or methods, or the simplifi­
cation of processes, whenever output can be increased thereby or
waste eliminated.
Machinery and mechanical power, instead of being the controlling
factors in modern industrial progress, have been merely the principal
instrumentalities by which progress has been achieved. Throughout
the entire development in this country, and even back to the begin­
ning of the modern industrial age in the Old World, the moving forces
making for economic progress have been scientific research, invention,
organization, management, and cooperation. These have throughout
been motivated by a persistent striving for individual and social
betterment, which, as achieved, has reacted to aid and accelerate
economic progress, by raising standards of living, improving working
conditions, increasing the energy and skill of workers, and facilitating
cooperation between workers and employers.




RECREATION AND LEISURE TIME

C S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
J.
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition

737
1 9 2 0 5 -3 6 -




•48




The Use of Leisure Time
HE gradual curtailment of working hours which had been taking
place for some years prior to the World War, but which was
accelerated in the years following its close, has become of increasing
social importance since the beginning of the depression. Whether
the increased leisure is a result of the shorter workday or a result of
unemployment, it is generally recognized that if this leisure is to
represent an asset to the Nation it is essential that opportunities for
its use in a manner which will benefit the individual as well as the
community in general should be provided.
Leaders in education, industry, government, and other fields agree
that this new leisure, if wisely spent, presents a rich opportunity for
individual happiness and development. A great responsibility,
therefore, rests upon the community to provide both suitable training
for the wise use of leisure and adequate opportunities for enjoying
and participating in wholesome recreation activities.

T

Recreational Facilities Provided by Park Systems in the
United States
HE importance of the movement for the preservation and
development of park recreation areas, which has been in progress
for many years, has been receiving increasing recognition during
recent years, with the result that more and more emphasis is being
laid upon the provision and use of these facilities. A survey cqnducted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and the National Recrea­
tion Association shows the accomplishments of the different types of
communities in the provision of park and recreation centers and in
supplying the special services and leadership which are necessary
to make them fully useful. This article summarizes certain of the
results of this survey, the full report having been published by the
Bureau.1
Land permanently dedicated to park use is essential to a wellbalanced outdoor community recreation program. A large percent­
age of the public outdoor recreation facilities in American cities today
is provided by public park and recreation departments.
Although the park movement has undergone many changes, there
is probably no other respect in which the present-day park system
differs more widely from that of earlier years than in the type and
scope of its service to the people. The first parks were for passive
and semipassive forms of recreation; today they are also used for a
limitless variety of active recreation. The early attempts to provide
active play facilities were to meet the needs of children; today a
large percentage of these facilities is for young people and adults.

T

i
U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bui. No. 565: Park Recreation Areas in the United States, 1930. Wash­
ington, 1932.




739

740

RECREATION AND LEISURE TIME

Not so many years ago the park season lasted only a few months;
in recent years the park has become a year-round recreation center.
Even today in many cities park authorities consider that their field
of service is limited to park properties; on the other hand, many
park systems provide recreation leadership and service throughout
the entire city—in schools, churches, and private property, as well
as within the parks. It is largely because of these changes, many
of which have developed gradually, that the well-organized park
department is prepared today to make a vital contribution to the
solution of the leisure-time problem.
Recreation and Unemployment
I n t i m e s of business depression it is often urged that municipal
appropriations for recreation service be reduced, and occasionally
the cry is raised that they should be eliminated. Fortunately
officials in most American cities today realize that the need for whole­
some community recreation activities is increased and not decreased
during such periods, not only because of the greater amount of
leisure but because people out of work cannot afford to indulge in
various forms of commercial amusements.
One of the greatest contributions which parks have made and are
continuing to make in the present period of depression is the provid­
ing of work opportunities for large numbers of “ relief workers.”
There is perhaps no type of municipal service in which it is possible
to employ to advantage as large numbers of unskilled workers as in
improving park properties. In dozens of cities funds raised for unem­
ployment have been used to employ men for this work. New York
is an example of such use of unemployment funds, valuable service
having been rendered in the parks of each borough.

Municipal Park Acreage, 1930
L a n d d e d ic a t e d p e r m a n e n t ly t o p a r k a n d r e c r e a t io n u se is a f u n d a ­
m e n t a l a n d e s s e n tia l f a c t o r in a ll p a r k s e r v ic e a n d th e a c q u is it i o n o f
p r o p e r t ie s is a p r e lim in a r y s t e p t o th e e s t a b lis h in g o f p a r k fa c ilit ie s
an d program s.

A total area of 308,804.87 acres was reported in the 1930 study,
representing the city-owned park properties in 898 communities of
5,000 or more population. Some 250 communities which reported a
total of nearly 37,000 acres of parks in 1925-26 2 failed to submit
information for use in the later study. A conservative estimate of
the municipal park area in 1930 in towns and cities of more than 5,000
population is therefore 350,000 acres. According to their officials,
174 communities did not have a single park.
Many communities of less than 10,000 people have as yet failed
to make any provision for parks and recreation areas. Nearly 28
percent of the 448 municipalities with 5,000 to 10,000 inhabitants
submitting data in this study reported having no parks. It is prob­
able that a large percentage of those failing to report also totally
lack park areas. Probably the school playgrounds in these com­
munities provide some facilities for outdoor play and recreation, but
there can be little doubt that there is a great need for added recrea­
tion areas in the towns and small cities.
a U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bui. No. 462: Park Recreation Areas in the United States. Washington,
1928.




RECREATIONAL FACILITIES OF PARK SYSTEMS

741

A study of the ratio of parks to population in cities of various sizes
reveals that the greatest shortage of park space is in the largest centers.
There is, however, no definite relationship between the size of a city
and the ratio of its park acreage to population.
One of the most striking and encouraging facts revealed in the study
was the tremendous increase in municipal park acreage since 1925.
Although in many large cities population increased faster than park
acreage it is significant that in 3 of the 6 largest cities in the coun­
try—New York, Chicago, and Cleveland—park acquisitions more
than kept pace with population growth.
Types of Park Properties
A l t h o u g h the total park acreage in a city is the simplest measure­
ment of the extent to which the city has provided parks, it does not
indicate the adequacy of the city’s park system. A well-balanced
park system requires not only ample park area but also a sufficient
number of properly located parks of various types providing a variety
of uses. Among the types of properties included in such a system
are small in-town parks, children’s playgrounds, neighborhood parks,
neighborhood playfields, large parks, and parkways.
Authorities differ in their opinions as to the number, size, and distri­
bution of the various types of areas comprising an adequate park
and recreation system. There is considerable agreement, however,
that a greater number of children’s playgrounds are needed than of any
other type, the next in number needed being the neighborhood parks
and neighborhood playfields. Most of the other kinds of properties
are likely to be few in number and their location dependent upon
local factors such as topography, transportation facilities, population
density, and the availability of suitable land and water areas.

Park Workers
F o r t h e maintenance of the vast properties comprising city park
systems, for the operation of their facilities, and for the leadership
essential to the varied recreation programs, a great staff of workers
is needed. Naturally the personnel required is dependent largely
upon the park acreage, the nature and extent of its development,
and the kinds of service rendered to the public. In the large park
systems a highly organized staff is needed, whereas in the smaller
communities having only one or two parks of limited acreage no spe­
cial park workers are required. In these communities the necessary
maintenance work is often done by workers with the street, public
works, or other department. Although some of the park authorities
in the larger cities and many in the smaller cities failed to report the
number of workers, a total of 44,431 persons employed for park service
was reported.




742

RECREATION AND LEISURE TIME

Park Expenditures
E x p e n d i t u r e s for public services is a question of much general
interest, especially during the present period. Since parks in many
cities comprise the largest and most valuable of municipal properties
information concerning their cost is of considerable importance.
Park expenditures may be roughly classified under two types: (1)
Capital expenditures or outlays for land, improvements, and struc­
tures; (2) operating expenditures, including the cost of maintaining
properties and of providing the various types of park service. In
cities where the park system is being extended and developed the
former items will be large, but in well-established systems which are
not being expanded most of the funds are spent for operation.
In the Bureau’s study, information concerning park expenditures
was received from more than 700 cities. That 1930 expenditures for
park purposes exceeded $100,000,000 is one of the outstanding findings
of the study. The large percentage of this amount spent for salaries
and wages is another item of special significance in the present
situation, indicating as it does the importance of parks as a means of
providing employment. Capital expenditures totaling nearly $200,000,000 in 416 cities during the 5-year period 1926-30 indicate the
importance of parks in city fiscal planning and also the marked
impetus given to the park movement during the period. The extent
to which funds for these outlays are secured from bond issues is
illustrated by the amount of bond issues reported by 148 cities
during these years, namely, $153,000,000.

Sources of Park Funds
S i n c e the establishment and operation of city parks are almost
universally recognized in the United States as municipal functions,
it is assumed that the expense of providing this service should be
met from public funds. An analysis of the reports from 647 cities
shows that more than 80 percent of the money which was made
available for park purposes in these cities in 1930 came either directly
or indirectly from public taxation. The most common method of
raising money for parks in 1930 was through city appropriations.
Among the sources of park revenue which supplement municipal
funds in many cities are gifts, concessions, fees and charges, and the
sale of property. In recent years charges for the use of special
recreation facilities such as golf courses, bowling greens, swimming
pools, and skating rinks have resulted in a considerable income to
park departments or municipalities.

County Parks
D u r i n g the quarter century following the establishment of the
first “ municipal park” in America, many cities acquired park areas,
and several of them made considerable progress in the development
of municipal park systems. The movement for county parks, on
the other hand, developed very slowly.
In 1930 the total number of counties that had established parks was
74, indicating that during the more recent years there had been a
marked growth in the movement for county parks. The total park




COMMUNITY RECREATION IN 1033

743

acreage in 1930 was 108,484.94, representing an increase of 60 percent
over that reported 5 years earlier. The nearly 39,000 acres in county
parks reported as acquired during the 5-year period 1926-30 repre­
sented more than one-third of the total acreage.
It seems probable that the same factors which have brought about
the establishment of parks in so many counties during the later
years will continue to give impetus to the movement. With the
growth of cities and the increasing difficulty in securing at a reasonable
price within the city limits large areas suitable for park and recreation
use, there has been a tendency, as mentioned before, for cities to
acquire tracts outside and often at a considerable distance from the
city. Since such areas serve not only the people in the city acquiring
the park but also those in the surrounding region, and since the
county is often the governmental unit controlling the region, it is
reasonable that the expense of acquiring, improving, and operating
the parks should be met by the county. As might be expected, the
forms of recreation carried on in county parks are for the most part
less highly organized than in the city areas.
Parks in Metropolitan Districts
U n t i l recent years the opportunities which people have had for
taking part in recreational activities or enjoying areas of natural
beauty have been limited to those in the vicinity of their homes,
except on rare occasions or during vacation periods. The shorter
working day, the 5-day week, rapid transit lines, the automobile, and
good roads have helped to make it possible for people to go farther
afield for their recreation. The establishment of regional and
county planning commissions and associations which have conducted
surveys and educational campaigns, emphasizing parks as an essential
feature of the regional or county plan, has been an important factor
in bringing about the acquisition of additional parks in several
metropolitan regions. It is probable that to an increasing extent,
especially in the large cities, future park planning will be based upon
regional rather than municipal needs and will involve the cooperation
of all communities in the region.

Community Recreation in the United States, 1933
IG N IFICA N T trends “ suggest an increased use of national
income for educational, recreational, and cultural pursuits—
those concerned not with the production of goods, but with the
provision of opportunities for more abundant living.” The 1933
report of the National Recreation Association,3 from which the above
statement was taken, covers the public recreation facilities, leader­
ship, expenditures, and programs of American municipalities, and
recreation programs provided by industrial concerns and other
private organizations for the use of the entire community. A total

S

3 Recreation (New York), May 1934, pp. 53-63.




744

RECREATION AND LEISURE TIME

of 1,036 cities 4 reported on their activities in this field during the year
as compared with 1,012 in 1932.
The number of workers, employed as leaders for community recrea­
tion activities, who were paid from regular funds was reported by
761 cities to be 21,085, of whom 2,346 were employed throughout the
year. In addition to these workers, 179 cities reported 7,283 leaders
paid from emergency funds, of whom 1,405 were employed full time
throughout the year. Volunteer workers to the number of 13,482
were reported by 335 cities, approximately 50 percent more than
were reported in 1932.
The salaries and wages for leaders and other services were reported
by 682 cities as $12,485,011.04, while in addition there was extensive
use of emergency funds for the payment of salaries. The total
expenditure for recreation as reported for 1933 was $27,065,854.28,
a decrease of 3.7 percent from the amount spent in 1932. As emer­
gency funds, following the inauguration of the C. W. A., were not
available until the end of 1933, these funds do not figure largely in
the expenditures for the year.
A total of 15,038 play areas and centers under leadership were
reported, of which 551 were open in 1933 for the first time. The
recreation facilities provided for the cities furnishing the information
included 7,434 outdoor playgrounds, 777 recreation buildings, and
3,702 indoor recreation centers, part of these facilities being provided
for colored residents. The total yearly attendance of participants
and spectators at outdoor playgrounds was reported by 499 cities as
233,780,307, while the attendance at indoor recreation centers in
226 cities was 22,408,193. These figures do not include the millions
of persons using the athletic fields, bathing beaches and swimming
pools, golf courses, summer camps, and other recreation areas.
The sources of support of the community recreation activities and
facilities were principally municipal and county funds, public and
private funds, and fees and charges. Approximately 81 percent of
expenditures, the source of which was reported, was derived from
taxation.

The Public School as a Factor in the Utilization of
Leisure Time
IN C E there is now more leisure for the majority of people than
ever before in the world’s history and all signs point to still more
in the near future, the attention of many is being turned to the
problem of the utilization of this free time and the best agencies to
be employed for its satisfactory use.
A study 5 made for the National Recreation Association deals with
the schools as an important factor in the use of leisure time. Since
schools are supposed to train for life, and leisure is an increasing
segment of fife, the purpose of this study was to ascertain if the

S

4 A report for the year 1934 received subsequent to the preparation of this article shows a very great exten­
sion of recreation facilities, the number of cities and towns reporting such facilities having risen to 2,190.
A corresponding increase was reported in the number of men and women employed as leaders, while total
expenditures for recreation were $41,864,630.
8National Education Association. The New Leisure Challenges the Schools, by Eugene T . Lies. Wash ington, 1201 Sixteenth Street, 1933.




PUBLIC SCHOOL AS A FACTOR

745

public schools of the country are sufficiently alive to their opportuni­
ties in this respect. It is said that the educational world has been
evidencing a growing interest in the problem of leisure and in addi­
tion a growing concern as to whether the schools are doing all that
they can or should do to fit young people to face a comparatively
new social situation. The records show that considerable advances
have been made in the last quarter of a century, and particularly
since the World War, in stressing studies, such as music, dramatics,
physical activities, reading, art, and the handicrafts, which are of
importance when people use their leisure recreationally. Also, in
1918 when the National Education Association promulgated its
“ seven objectives of education” one of the seven was “ training for
the worthy use of leisure.” While at first these objectives were
connected with secondary education alone, they were rather quickly
accepted as applicable to all education, although, as yet, the schools
have not attained a full realization of the possibilities of their use
in the training for leisure. It is said, however, that educators have
come to see more and more clearly the growth values, particularly
the character values, inherent in play and recreation, rightly handled;
and by some, the use of the spirit of play, in the creative sense, in
the schools is regarded as a psychological necessity for effective edu
cation. In addition to the development of this field during school
hours the public schools have in many places expanded their pro­
grams to take in after-school recreational activities, summer recrea­
tion, and general community recreation, although the extent of
their use in this manner is dependent upon financial limitations upon
school authorities and the existence of other leisure-time agencies
in individual communities.
Emphasis in the study under review is naturally placed upon
leisure in its recreational aspects, since the basic nature of the work of
the association is recreation and also because most people do use their
free time in recreational ways. The study covered the public schools
in cities of 5,000 and over, all grades through the high school being
included, and in addition progressive schools under private auspices
were taken into consideration insofar as their practices and ideals
were affecting the public schools. Personal visits were made to
36 large and small public-school systems, most of which it was known
were doing things worthy of study, and questionnaires were sent to
1,448 school systems, usable returns being received from 418.
Preparation for leisure through physical education as a conscious
major objective is said to be increasing throughout the public-school
system. At present 35 States have laws requiring physical educa­
tion, although there are still only 18 State directors and 3 acting
directors. In the high-school programs in the advanced school
systems it was found that more activities of the types which can be
continued in later life were carried on than was formerly the case.
Music, dramatics, and art and handicrafts are activities carried on
in the schools which carry over into later life as leisure-time activi­
ties, such activities having developed greatly during the past few years.
Evening schools which offer opportunities for adult education, it was
found, are not maintained as largely as facilities would warrant.
Shops and laboratories of junior and senior high schools offer a great
resource which is too little used in the field of adult education. In a
number of the cities community centers are maintained parallel with




746

R E C R E A T IO N

AND

L E IS U R E

T IM E

their night schools and in them the tendency is to include oppor­
tunities of cultural and recreational types while the regular evening
schools program is devoted exclusively to academic, vocational, and
citizenship courses.
In a number of States, the State departments of education have
in recent years been vigorously promoting adult-education programs,
among these States being Pennsylvania, Connecticut, California, Ala­
bama, Delaware, and the District of Columbia. In these localities
adult illiteracy is being attacked and general academic and cultural
opportunities are being increasingly promoted.
It is stated in the report that in general there is a gradually grow­
ing sentiment among school authorities in favor of extension of the
service of school systems to the adults of the community. This is
based on economic, educational, and sociological reasons. On eco­
nomic grounds it is considered that greater use should be made of the
costly school plants than is done by conducting only the regular day
program; on educational grounds it is the view that youth and
adults are educable beyond the intellectual status which they have
attained at any particular time and the school system should provide
opportunities, therefore, for those who wish them no matter what
their age; while on sociological grounds the view is held that there is
“ need of effort to substitute integrating for the many present-day
disintegrating forces in society, also to promote neighborliness and
cooperation, to enhance happiness and health, to provide opportunity,
under informal conditions and in an atmosphere of freedom, for
indulging in activities that should give satisfaction to thwarted per­
sonalities, to those who desire self-expression and enlargement in
physical, mental, manual, and aesthetic pursuits.”
In summing up the objectives which should be striven for in every
community recreation system, it is said that it should be the aim to
serve people of all ages; the service should function for the entire
year and not during the summer or some other season only, and it
should include special advisory service and at times also leadership
for homes, institutions, and organizations. Community centers
with both indoor and outdoor facilities should be located at strategic
points and facilities should be provided for games and sports. It is
considered that it should be possible to draw freely upon the school
facilities, and arrangements should also be made to utilize special
facilities in churches, clubs, etc., at least occasionally, if not through­
out the year. It is regarded as desirable that some division of the
city government should be in control of the community recreation
system; whether that division should be the park department, the
board of education, or a special recreation commission, it is said,
depends upon a variety of factors in the individual community.

Leisure-Time Activities and Desires

H

OME activities not involving any expense were the most usual
types of leisure-time activity engaged in during 1933, though the •
movies and swimming were also included. This was shown by a
study by the National Recreation Association,6 undertaken to
6

193,4.

National Recreation Association.
(Mimeographed.)




The Leisure Hours of 5,000 People.

New York, 315 Fourth Avenue,

Ac t iv it ie s a n d

d e s ir e s

747

determine what people were doing in their free time, what changes had
occurred in the use of their free time during that year, and what
they would really have enjoyed doing if given the opportunity.
The study was made by means of questionnaires, sent to persons in
29 cities of different types and sizes, to which 5,002 replies were re­
ceived. The report was based on these replies and also upon inter­
views with individuals and various agencies. More than 80 percent of
the replies were from persons 21 years of age or older. Of those reply­
ing as to their employment status, 43 percent were employed full
time, 28 percent part time, and the remainder either occasionally or
not at all.
The home activities which were the most usual types of leisure-time
activity included reading, writing letters, and listening to the radio.
As such a large proportion of the activities reported were in the home,
it seemed that, if it could be assumed that people were doing the
things they most enjoyed, the recreational facilities and leadership
provided by public and private agencies were of relatively small
importance. A study of people’s desires, however, indicated that this
was not the case. It was found that in comparison with previous
years, leisure-time activity was more largely centered in the home, the
cost of outside activities having been the determining factor in this
change. The greatest relative net increase in outside activities was
found in activities of an educational or social nature, many of which
were free or available at low cost. It appears, therefore, that the things
which people were doing were not what they most wanted to do but
what they were able to do with the limited resources at their disposal.
The free-time interests and activities of 1,646 persons in Boston and
Newark were analyzed on the basis of their employment status. Of
these persons, 60 percent were employed full time, 22 percent part
time, 9 percent occasionally, and 8 percent not at all. There was little
difference among the four groups in their participation in home activi­
ties, but in outside activities the part-time and occasionally employed
groups were most active, while the unemployed group recorded the
lowest participation.
The outstanding facts brought out by the study may be summed up
as follows:
(1) The home is the center for a large and increasing percentage of leisure-time
activity for large numbers of people.
(2) The average number of activities taken part in outside the home, especially
often, is relatively small and did not increase during the past year.
(3) To a considerable degree leisure-time activity at the present time is largely
determined by low cost and availability, rather than by the real desires of people.
(4) The expressed desires of large numbers of individuals can be realized only as
opportunities are made available through community provision for them.
(5) The limited evidence available indicates that people working comparatively
short hours but with reasonable security are utilizing their leisure increasingly in
a wider range of varied activities than are people of any other employment status.
(6) Age, sex, and marital status are factors which have a considerable and
varying influence upon people’s leisure-time activities and desires.







SICKNESS AND DEATH STATISTICS

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




749




Causes of Illness in 9,000 Families
HE most comprehensive survey ever made in the United States
to ascertain the causes and incidence of illness was carried out
under the direction of the Committee on the Costs of Medical Care
in the years 1928 to 1931. The survey covered 8,758 white families,
comprising 39,185 individuals, in 18 States, the actual canvassing
being done by health-department or other visiting nurses in the
different communities.1
The persons covered by this survey were somewhat of a selected
group as regards medical attention, since, as the study was made
through the cooperation of State and local health departments and
visiting nurses, the data were necessarily confined to localities having
such services.
The information secured by the investigators furnished a complete
record of illness and of medical and dental care in the families sched­
uled for an entire year, and included the cause of the illness, date of
onset, duration of illness, and many and detailed facts about the
nature and extent of medical care of various kinds by different
practitioners and institutions. The average number of calls on a
family was 5 or 6 a year, but some received as few as 4 and others as
high as 8 visits, with additional calls in some cases to check up
incomplete records.
Although the period of observation for each family was 12 con­
secutive months, the date of the observation periods ranged from
February 1928 to June 1931, the peak being reached in December
1929. As only about one-fourth of the families were under observation
during the rather extensive influenza epidemic in the last of 1928 and
the first of 1929, the respiratory-illness records were not unduly
affected by the inclusion of this epidemic period.
A comparison of certain characteristics of this group with those of
the general population as given in the census of 1930 shows that a
comparatively large proportion of the group lived in large cities and
also that the mean size of the surveyed families was somewhat larger
than those of the general population. The modal white family in
the United States in 1930 consisted of only 2 persons, while in the
surveyed group it consisted of 4 persons. The surveyed group
also showed an excess of children and a deficiency of older persons as
compared with white persons in the general population. As no
one-person families were included in the study, the excess of children
is partly accounted for bjr this fact.
As family income is of vital importance in any study of the character
and extent of medical service, the families included were chosen so as
to afford a reasonably adequate sample of different income levels.
Forty-eight percent of the families had incomes of less than $2,000,
and of these 15.1 percent received less than $1,200 per year.

T

1 U. S. Public Health Service.
sand Families, 1928-31.




Public Health Reports, Mar. 24, 1933: Causes of Illness in Nine Thou­

751

752

SICKNESS AND DEATH STATISTICS

In the study, illness was defined as any symptom, condition or
disorder which lasted 1 or more days for which medical service was
received and any condition for which drugs costing 50 cents or more
were purchased. Dental service, eye refractions, immunizations,
and health examinations were not included, however, in the tabula­
tions. Illnesses which had their onset prior to the observation period
but extended into it were included, as frequently the onsets of chronic
conditions are so gradual and the durations so long that the accumu­
lated cases causing illness during the period were considered as far
more important than the few chronic cases which could be identified
as having their original onset within the period. A second attack,
within the year, of a more or less chronic condition was tabulated as
a second illness, so that the data refer to illnesses rather than cases
of disease. Any continuous period of sickness was counted as one
illness even though more than one cause of illness was diagnosed.
An exception to this rule was made, however, for persons few in
number having some chronic condition which lasted throughout the
year when some acute condition developed, such as colds, indiges­
tion, etc.
The causes of illness were necessarily those reported by the member
of the household giving the information, but the doctor’s check on the
diagnosis was obtained for 64 percent of the cases seen by a practi­
tioner, or in 51 percent of the total number of cases.
Considering all illnesses in the sense of continuous periods of sick­
ness, only 4.3 percent of those reported in this study were abulated
as due to more than one cause. Although this number was small it
is necessary to know the method of selecting the cause tabulated as
primary, as the word “ primary” as used in discussions of the causes
of death has two more or less logical meanings; that is, primary, or
first time, as in measles or pneumonia, and primary in importance, as
in heart disease and rheumatism. As a result of this confusion of
terms the general rules followed in selecting the primary cause were
to designate as primary, acute conditions with common complications,
and to give preference to acute conditions over an attack of a chronic
condition, while the condition or disease most specifically associated
with the period of sickness was preferred over a minor condition which
preceded or accompanied it. In case of death, however, an exception
was made to these rules and the cause of death was classified as
primary or contributory strictly according to the rules adopted by
the Division of Vital Statistics of the United States Bureau of the
Census.
The number of illnesses (sole or primary only) totaled 850 per 1,000
persons under observation, while the rate for illnesses that caused
absence from work or school or other usual occupation for 1 or more
days was 516, and for illnesses that caused the patient to go to bed,
434 per 1,000 persons. In other words, 61 percent of the illnesses
reported were disabling and 51 percent necessitated 1 or more days
in bed. Of all the cases reported 79 percent were attended by a
physician or other practitioner.
Diseases of the respiratory system caused the largest number of
illnesses, the rate for colds and bronchitis being 156.1 per 1,000
persons and for influenza and grippe 86.1 per 1,000, while tonsillitis,
laryngitis, and other throat diseases exclusive of tonsillectomy had
a rate of 53.4 per 1,000. Accidental injuries occupied third place,




INTERNATIONAL TYPOGRAPHICAL UNION

753

with a rate of 74.7 per 1,000; gastritis, indigestion, and other stomach
conditions showed a rate of 41.7; measles, 24.4; conditions arising out
of pregnancy and childbirth, 23.6 ear and mastoid diseases, 23.5;
rheumatism, neuralgia, neuritis, etc., 22.7; tonsil and adenoid opera­
tions, 21.8; and diarrhea and enteritis, 21.5. A large number of
disease conditions had rates of less than 20 per 1,000. As the rates
are based solely on the frequency of cases, serious conditions like
pneumonia, heart diseases, kidney diseases, etc., fall rather far down
in the list.
A tabulation of the cases which caused the patient to go to bed for
1 or more days, but which is also based on the frequency of cases and
in no way represents their severity, shows the principal causes of ill­
ness of sufficient severity to cause loss of time from work, school, or
other occupation. It was found that the three most frequent causes
of disabling cases were those in the so-called “ minor” respiratory
class. The fourth most disabling condition was caused by accidents,
while indigestion, measles, and tonsil and adenoid operations are the
other three diagnoses with rates for disabling cases above 20 per 1,000,
with the next rate, 13 per 1,000, for ear and mastoid conditions. The
figures show, therefore, that minor respiratory diseases are the most
frequent causes of illness, whether the total rate, the rate for disabling
cases, or the rate for bed cases is considered.

Mortality Experience of International Typographical
Union, 1932 2
H E report on the mortality experience of the International
Typographical Union for the year 19 323 showed that the average
dues-paying membership of the organization was 75,086—a decline
of nearly 3,000 from the previous year. The number of deaths from
all causes, however, was 1,181, equivalent to a rate of 15.7 per 1,000
as against 15.3 for 1931.
Table 1 gives the membership, the total number of deaths, and the
mortality rate per 100,000 members, 1925 to 1932.

T

T a ble 1 —G E N E R A L M O R T A L IT Y A M O N G M E M B E R S OF IN T E R N A T IO N A L
T Y P O G R A P H IC A L U NION, 1925-32

Deaths
Year

Member­
ship
Number

1925____________________
1926.____ ______________
1927____________________
1928____________________
1929____________________
1930____________________
1931____________________
1932____________________

71,372
72,704
74,829
75, 738
76,015
77,507
77,757
75,086

Rate per
100,000
members

880
913
1,002
913
1,090
1,129
1,193
1,181

1.233.0
1.255.8
1.339.1
1,205.5
1.433.9
1,456. 6
1,534.3
1.572.9

2 By Frederick L. Hoffman, consulting actuary of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Co.
3 Data for previous years were presented in Bui. No. 427 and in the Monthly Labor Review, issues of
July 1927, April 1928, March 1929, M ay 1930, July 1931, and June 1932.
19205— 36-------- 49




754

SICKNESS AND DEATH STATISTICS

The average age at death in 1932 was 60.3 years, compared with
59.6 years for 1931, 54.3 for 1921, and 49.1 for 19 11. Obviously the
proportion of printers of advanced age in the total is gradually in­
creasing, which accounts in part for the change in the incidence of
the chronic diseases of adult life.
The report shows that pulmonary tuberculosis declined to the
lowest figure on record, except that for 1927, or 60 deaths, equivalent
to a death rate of 79.9 against 121.9 in 1925. Cancer increased from
a rate of 88.0 in 1926 to 154.5 in 1932, the highest figure on record
in the experience of the organization. This marked increase in
cancer conforms to the general increase in the American cancer death
rate for American cities, which also in 1932 reached the highest
figure on record, or 117. This rate, of course, is not strictly com­
parable with the mortality of the labor organization in which mem­
bership is limited to persons of adult age. There was a slight decline
in the mortality from diabetes and a slight increase in deaths from
nephritis. There was 1 death from lead poisoning in 1932, after 3
years during which no deaths occurred. Of special interest in this
connection is table 2, giving the total deaths for printers from lead
poisoning in the United States registration area, reported to the
Census Office, 1914 to 1931, numbering in the aggregate 98, of which
44 occurred during the last 9 years as compared with 54 for the
first 9 years.
T a ble 3 .—D E A T H S OF PR IN TER S FROM LE A D POISONING, U N IT E D STATES
R EG IST R A TIO N A R E A , 1914-31

Year

Deaths

1 9 1 4 _________
1915...................
1916...................
1917...................
1918...................

5
4

11
4

2

Year
1919...................
1920...............—
1921...................
1 9 2 2 _i..............
1923...................

Deaths
7
4

10
7

10

Year
1924...................
1925...................
1926.............—
1927...................
1928...................

Deaths
3
5

2

Year
1929...................
1930...................
1931...................

Deaths
6
5
6

3
4

There were no deaths from alcoholism during the 3 years, 1930-32, and
only 3 deaths during the preceding 4 years. Deaths from cirrhosis
of the liver, however, increased from 3 to 13, but how far this is
attributable to alcoholism cannot be stated. There was a gratifying
decline in pneumonia from 108 in 1931 to 89 in 1932 and also in the
same period a slight decline in deaths from ulcer of the stomach from
5 to 4, in appendicitis from 10 to 8, and in hernia from 5 to 1.
Deaths from cerebral hemorrhage (table 3), however, increased
from 73 in 1931 to 93 in 1932, while deaths from general paralysis
remained at the same figure, 32. There was a slight decline from
4 to 2 in deaths from paralysis of the insane, but an increase in
angina pectoris from 13 to 32 and a marked decrease in deaths from
other heart diseases from 265 to 150.




755

OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES IN MASSACHUSETTS

T a ble 3 .—M O R T A L IT Y F R O M SPECIFIED CAUSES PER 100,000 M E M B E R S OF
IN T E R N A T IO N A L T YP O G R A P H IC A L U N IO N , 1926-32
Cerebral
hemorrhage

General
paralysis

Paralysis of the
Angina pectoris
insane

Other heart
diseases

Year
Deaths

1926..........................
1927..........................
1928..........................
1929..........................
1930..........................
1931..........................
1932..........................

47
59
55
85
83
73
93

Rate
Rate
Rate
Rate
Rate
per
Deaths
Deaths
per
per
Deaths
per
Deaths
per
100,000
100,000
100,000
100,000
100,000
64.6
78.6
72.6
111.8
107.1
93.9
123.9

20
53
30
30
36
32
32

27.5
70.8
39.6
39.5
46.4
41.2
42.6

15
7
3
1
7
4
2

20.6
9.4
4.0
1.3
9.0
5.1
2.7

25
16
15
17
17
13
32

34.4
21.4
19.8
22.4
21.9
16.7
42.6

197
164
173
211
221
265
150

271,0
219.2
228.4
277.6
285.1
340.8
199.8

Occupational Diseases in Massachusetts in 1930
H ER E were 389 cases of industrial diseases (including 4 fatalities)
investigated during 1930, according to a report of the division of
industrial safety of the Massachusetts Department of Labor.4 The
majority of cases occurred among men, only 41 cases being reported for
women. There was one fatality during the year due to anthrax.
Other fatal cases in which the cause was not so clear-cut or which were
disputed by the insurance company were a case of pneumonoconiosis
occurring in the granite-cutting industry; a case of pulmonary tuber­
culosis, this worker also having been employed in the granite industry;
and a case diagnosed as actinomycosis but in which the attending
physician stated there was only a casual relation between injury and
death.
The following table shows the number of investigated cases of occu­
pational disease by cause:

T

CASES OF O CC UPATIONAL DISEASE IN V E ST IG A T E D IN M ASSACH U SETTS IN Y E A R
E N D IN G NOV. 30, 1930
Number of cases
Disease
Males
All occupational diseases_____________________ ____________________
Dermatitis______________ ____ _____________ ________ ____ ________
Gas and fume poisoning___________________________________________
Lead poisoning____________________________________________________
Anthrax......................... ............. ............................ .......................... .........
Pneumonoconiosis________________________________________________
Other dust p o is o n in g __________________________________________________ ____
Tuberculosis.... ............ ........................................ .......................................
Chrome poisoning....... .......... ................................... ................. ...............
All other______________________________ ___ ___________ ______ .
1 Including 4 fatalities.

Females

Total

i 348

41

i 389

192
70
45
29

31
7
1

223
77
46
29

2

28
8
26

28
6
26
5

27

5

27

1 Including 1 fatality.

The increasing frequency of industrial dermatitis is shown by the
fact that more than 57 percent of the cases investigated were due to
this cause. The majority of cases resulted from contact with dye­
stuffs, various oils and greases, acids, and dusts, such as soap powders.
The next most important causes of occupational disease were poisoning
from gases and fumes and lead poisoning. The largest number of
4
Massachusetts.
1930. Boston, 1931.




Department of Labor and Industries.

Annual Report for the Year Ending Nov. 30,

756

SICKNESS AND DEATH STATISTICS

cases of gas and fume poisoning occurred in garages as a result of
inhalation of carbon monoxide, and the painting industry and the man­
ufacture of storage batteries were responsible for half of the 46 cases of
lead poisoning.

Occupational Poisons and Diseases in New York, 1934
increase of
A Nclosed undernearly 25 percent in the occupational-disease cases
the workmen’s compensation law in 1934 over the
l

figures for 1933 was reported by the New York Department of Labor
in the annual report6of the division of industrial hygiene. The total
number of cases acted upon was 1,012, as compared with 830 in 1933.
An enlarged schedule of diseases listed in the law as compensable,
together with an improved method of recording such claims, accounted
for the apparent increase in cases, as on the former basis of com­
putation the total for 1934 would be about the same as for 1933.
Less than half (439) of the total number of claims in 1934 was allowed,
although of the 573 claims disallowed about half may have involved
illness or disability due to occupational disease. Of these cases, 31.6
percent were ruled out because the disability was brief in duration and
17.8 percent because the poison causing the disease was not covered by
the act; in some of the cases there was no medical evidence, in others
the claimants did not appear, and in still others there were legal or
other reasons why the claim could not be allowed.
It is pointed out in the report that the figures for occupational dis­
eases offer only a slight indication of the wide-spread but undetermined
injury done to industrial workers by the various forms of dust, fumes,
and gases in industry. While occupational diseases appear from the,
statistics to be comparatively few when considered in relation to indus­
trial accidents, it has been shown statistically that many classes of
industrial workers die 7 or 8 years earlier than agricultural workers.
This, it is considered, is due to the industrial disease hazards which,
while not definite enough to show the necessary causal relation, lower
resistance and thus render workers more liable to pulmonary and other
diseases.
The reports for the State are divided for the first time into two
districts, the New York City area and up-State. While the number
of cases reported is about the same for the two areas, there were strik­
ing differences due to variation in exposure. Thus, for example, cases
of lead poisoning showed a slight increase for the State but a substan­
tial decrease in the New York City area.
The following table gives a summary of the occupational-disease
cases disposed of in New York State during the year 1934:
CASES OF O CC U PATIO N AL POISONS A N D DISEASES IN N E W Y O R K STATE T E R M I­
N A T E D IN 1934
Total

Allowed

Disallowed

Area
Number

Percent

Total cases...................... ...............................

1,012

100.0

439

43.6

573

56.4

Up-State...........................................................
New York City..............................................

493
519

48.4
51.6

200
239

40.5
46.0

293
280

59.5
54.0

8 New York Industrial Bulletin, January 1935.




Number

Percent

Number

Percent

DECLINE IN MORTALITYjFROM PELLAGRA

757

Occupational Diseases in Ohio, 1934

O

CCUPATIONAL diseases in Ohio, as reported by Dr. Emery R.
Hayhurst, acting chief of the Bureau of Occupational Diseases,
reached the highest point in 1934— 1,556 cases—since the reporting
law became operative in 1920. The total of 1,556 cases, as compared
with 1,258 in 1933 and 1,382 in 1929, represented an increase, respec­
tively, of 23.7 percent and 12.6 percent, the causes of the increase
being due, it was considered, to the employment of more persons in
certain hazardous lines, to the return to work of unemployed persons,
to greater interest in the possibility of compensation and payment of
medical fees, and to the stimulation of interest among physicians by
the bureau. No additions had been made to the list of compensable
diseases during the year under review.
Of the 1,556 cases reported in 1934, 1,415 were compensable and
141 noncompensable, the compensable cases covering 13 of the 22
afflictions which under the law are required to be reported. Women
were affected in 290 of the cases reported.
The most important disease in the compensable group, from the
point of number affected, was dermatitis, which accounted for 913
cases in 1934; 194 of these occurred among women. The principal
causative agents were oils and cutting compounds; alkalies and
cleaners; gasoline and other petroleum products; paints, enamels,
etc.; rubber products; bakelite, plants, woods, etc.; lime and portland
cement; dyes and dyed goods; plating solutions; chromium com­
pounds; hides, leather, and furs; and textiles. Lead cases reported
numbered 162 and occurred in the following industries: Storage
batteries, paints, dry colors, and painting; lead manufacture and
recovery; caskets and vaults; sanitary ware; pottery; brass and bronze;
automobiles; rubber; and printing and publishing; with a small
group of two or less in miscellaneous industries.
Of the 1,556 occupational diseases reported in 1934, 327 occurred
chiefly through inhaling the substance, 933 by way of the skin, 228
through strain, 27 through friction, and 41 through other and nonspecified means.

Decline in Mortality from Pellagra Among Wage
Earners
REPORT of the death rates from pellagra in the United States
in 1930 and 1931 was contained in the Statistical Bulletin, June
1932, published by the Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. From the
available data it appears that there was a decline in mortality from
this cause during these years, at any rate for the wage-earning popula­
tions of the cities in those States in which pellagra is an important
cause of death. The mortality rate from this cause had dropped
also among the general population in three Southern States where
pellagra has been an important cause of death.
It is considered very remarkable that the mortality rate for the
disease did not rise, in view of the unfavorable business conditions
which prevailed during the 2 years and especially in 1931. Pellagra
is a disease caused by a diet deficient in the vitamins normally found
in fresh, lean meat, milk, and yeast, and the reduced incomes result-

A




758

SICKNESS AND DEATH STATISTICS

ing from wide-spread unemployment which would make these foods
less readily obtainable would be expected to have the effect of making
sickness and death from pellagra more common.
No continuous trend is shown for the death rate from pellagra
among the industrial policyholders of the Metropolitan Life Insurance
Co. for the 2 1-year period 1911 to 1931, but the highest death rates,
4.7 and 5.9 per 100,000 for ages 1 to 74, occurred in the years 1914
and 1915, respectively, which were years of below-average business
conditions. Since that time, however, the higher mortality rates
have not coincided with periods of reduced employment. The death
rate from pellagra began to decline during the World War when em­
ployment was general and wages were high, and this downward
tendency continued to 1924 when the rate was 1.3 per 100,000. After
that there was an upward trend to a rate of 2.5 in 1928 and 1929,
but a decrease to 2.2 in 1930 and 1.9 in 1931—a decline which was
in line with the decline in the general death rate.
There is a pronounced sex and color incidence shown in the mortality
figures, the mortality among females exceeding that among males in
both the white and colored, but with a very much greater excess
among the colored. The mortality rate for colored persons of both
sexes is very much greater also than of white persons, running from
two to five times that of the white groups. The heaviest death toll
from pellagra is exacted in the South, and particularly among that
section of the Negro population which lives largely on an unbalanced
diet. It is said that it is probable that the reason the death rate did
not increase during 1930 and 1931 is partly, at least, the result of
the consumption of brewers’ yeast distributed by health departments.

Health of Insured Wage Earners During 1934
N EW record for low mortality was established among the many
millions of industrial policyholders of the Metropolitan Life
Insurance Co. during 1934, according to the annual report published
in the Statistical Bulletin, January 1935. The crude death rate (ages
1 and over) fell from 8.41 per thousand in 1933 to 8.33 in 1934, and
when correction is made for the higher average age of the policyholders
the drop is still greater, or from 8.03 to 7.87, a decrease of 2 percent.
These figures show that health conditions were maintained at a high
level among insured wage earners in the United States and Canada,
there having been no interruption during the 5 years of economic dis­
turbance in the downward trend of mortality over more than 2
decades.
Among these industrial policyholders an increase of 12.56 years in
the expectation of life at birth was recorded for the year 1933, as
compared with 19 11-12 , the expectation of life in the earlier period
being 46.63 years, as compared with 59.19 years in 1933. In the same
period the gain among the general population was only 8.22 years.
Thus the industrial policyholders had reached a life expectancy very
similar to that of the general population, in spite of the fact that this
group and their families live largely in urban areas where death rates
are higher than in rural areas and that in this group there is much
greater exposure to the special hazards of industry than among the
population at large. Particular improvement in mortality rates

A




INSURED WAGE EARNERS DURING 1934

759

occurred among children and young adults, although some improve­
ment was registered also among insured persons at the older ages.
New minimum death rates were established in 1934 for five diseases
(diphtheria, tuberculosis, diarrheal conditions, chronic nephritis, and
diseases of the maternal state) and for two types of violent death
(accidental drownings and railroad accidents). The previous min­
imum for machinery accidents was maintained, while the death rate
for homicides, 6 per 100,000, was the lowest on record except in 1920.
The most important achievement of the year was the reduction in
the tuberculosis death rate, to a new minimum of 59.6 per 100,000.
This figure represented a reduction of 8.4 percent from the figure for
1933, being among the largest year-to-year drops ever recorded among
the industrial policyholders. The new figure for the insured industrial
population is only slightly higher than that for the general population.
In comparison with the year 19 11, when the company began to record
mortality rates by individual causes of death, there has been a decline
of 73.5 percent in the tuberculosis rate. The heaviest mortality from
this cause has also shifted from the age group 35 to 39 years to the 55
to 59 years group. There was a slight rise in the death rate for the
four principal diseases of childhood combined, due to increased mor­
tality from measles and whooping cough, but the rate for each of these
diseases was extremely low, showing a drop of 68 percent from the
rate 10 years earlier. The greatest interest in these diseases lies in the
reduced rate for diphtheria which only a decade ago caused as many
deaths as measles, whooping cough, and scarlet fever combined, but
in 1934 ranked third among the four. In spite of an epidemic of
poliomyelitis in California and other Western States, the death rate
was the lowest ever recorded for this disease. The influenza death
rate was the lowest since 1921, but the pneumonia death rate increased
somewhat in 1934. The mortality from conditions arising out of
pregnancy and childbirth continued to decline, while the rates for
diarrheal diseases and chronic nephritis reached new low points.
Although there was a rise in the crude death rate for cancer it was
much smaller than in the 2 preceding years, and when allowance is
made, through adjusted rates, for the shift toward a higher average
of insured lives, there was no increase at all in 1934 as compared with
1933. A time series of the crude death rates, it is said, gives an
exaggerated picture of the increase in cancer, since cancer deaths are
concentrated in later life. In general, the death rates from cancers
which are directly visible, and therefore easily diagnosed, have de­
creased, while the rates for cancers of some of the internal organs,
where diagnosis is more difficult, have increased. A slight increase in
the crude death rates for heart disease was shown in 1934, although
adjustment based on the higher age levels of the policyholders indi­
cated a slight decline in the disease. Diabetes also showed a new
high in the crude death rate and a slight decline after adjustments
were made for the higher ages at which this disease occurs. The first
full year since the repeal of prohibition was not marked by any
increase in deaths from alcoholism and in fact there was a drop of 9
percent among white policyholders.
There were fewer suicides, the lowest number since 1929, 9.6 per
100,000, being recorded. This reflected the upward turn of the
economic tide, although the same economic improvement brought with
;t an increase in accidents and automobile fatalities, due tojgreater




760

SICKNESS AND DEATH STATISTICS

exposure to the hazards of industry in the first case and in the second
to the increase in 1934 in the volume of motor-vehicle traffic. The
total number of automobile fatalities in the general population in
1934 was nearly 35,000.

Incidence of Illness Among Adult Wage Earners
ST U D Y of the incidence of illness among wage-earning adults
based on the morbidity experience among a number of industrial
groups at various periods and some studies among the general popula­
tion, was published in the November and December 1930 issues of the
Journal of Industrial Hygiene.
As there is more or less vagueness in the term “ case” of sickness, it
was defined for the purposes of the study in terms of a “ waiting pe­
riod”.; that is, cases were included if they lasted longer than a certain
minimum period, such as 1, 2, or 3 days, a week, etc., it being con­
sidered that in most cases comparisons of sickness are valid if based
on an identical waiting period. Of nearly as great importance as the
unit of measurement in comparisons of industrial sickness rates is
the provision, or lack of provision, for sick leave, since it has been
shown to have a decided effect upon the sickness distribution. A
comparison of the frequency of absence on account of sickness in two
companies, one of which paid wages during disability while the other
did not, showed a relatively high rate for cases of short duration in
the company which pays during sickness, while in the second company
the larger proportion of cases were found among those of longer dura­
tion. In the company in which full wages were paid a check on
malingering was made, the company physician calling on all those
who reported themselves as unable to work on account of illness.
Over a 3-year period during which a large percentage of the cases
lasting 1 or 2 days were diagnosed it was found that malingering was
a negligible factor in the apparently high rate of short-period illnesses.
The most frequent causes of disability are the respiratory diseases
(colds, influenza, bronchitis, and tonsillitis) and digestive diseases,
while the most frequent causes of death are the break-down of the
circulatory system, the kidneys, and the lungs; the nervous diseases;
and malignant diseases such as cancer. The ratio of the ordinary
respiratory diseases to death in a general population group has been
shown to be 300 to 1 and of diseases and disorders of the digestive
system the ratio was about 200 to 1, while the ratio of illnesses due to
the degenerative diseases, cancer, etc., was only about 10 cases to 1
death. From these figures it will be seen that mortality statistics
do not present a true picture of the general ill health of the people
as a whole.
Statistics of the frequency of different diseases lasting 1 week or
longer among a group of industrial sick-benefit associations, having a
combined membership of 100,000 to 150,000, have been compiled by
the United States Public Health Service since 1920. These figures
have shown the great preponderance of the respiratory diseases and
diseases of the digestive system among the causes of sickness.

A




ILLNESS AMONG ADULT WAGE EARNERS

761

Factors Affecting Rate of Disabling Sickness
I n d u s t r i a l groups differ markedly from the general population in
age grouping, the younger adult ages predominating. It has been
estimated that in the manufacturing industries of the country as
many as 80 percent of the men are below the age of 45, and that
probably 90 to 95 percent of the women are below that a§je. Also,
there is evidence that industrial workers are not representative of the
general population from a health standpoint but represent, on the
whole, a rather favorably selected group. Between the ages of 15
and 50 the sickness rates, it has been shown, tend to rise more rapidly
in the general than among the industrial groups. After the age of
50, however, the frequency of disabilities among industrial workers
lasting more than 1 week increases fairly rapidly, as does also the
number of days lost per man per year. There is some evidence that,
in addition to the fact that more serious diseases naturally tend to
occur among older persons, some loss of recuperative ability begins
to show even in the early thirties.
Absence on account of illness is more frequent among female em­
ployees than among males. The mutual benefit associations' records
showed that the frequency of disability lasting longer than 1 week
among women was 50 percent higher over a 7-year period than
among the men, and that the rate for a majority of the disease groups
was higher among the women.
There is little information relative to racial susceptibility, but such
data as are available indicate that immigrants from warm regions such
as Greece and Italy may be more liable to attack from respiratory
diseases than immigrants from northern Europe or natives of this
country.
Comparisons of such statistics as are available of sickness accord­
ing to marital status indicate that for women both the frequency and
the severity rates are higher among the married than among the
single. Although it is not possible to determine definitely the reasons
for these differences, the report states that it is quite probable “ that
the double duty of the married industrial worker, i. e., the factory job
in addition to the homekeeping job, involving as it frequently does
the strain of childbearing and the care of children as well as the house­
work itself, may result in overwork sufficient to predispose to illness
of any nature, and may thereby exact a toll of incapacitation much
greater than that experienced by the single woman in industry."
Alcoholism is of comparatively little importance in some industries,
while in others it has a decided influence on the sickness rate. It is
often prevalent among workers subjected to especially arduous work­
ing conditions. Therefore, reduction in drinking among industrial
employees, the writer says, may be closely connected with an improve­
ment in working and hygienic conditions.

Industrial Selection
S i c k n e s s r a te s m a y b e e x p e c t e d t o b e s o m e w h a t lo w e r f o r a n in ­
d u s t r ia l g r o u p th a n f o r th e g e n e r a l p o p u la t io n , s in c e th e in d u s tr ia l
g r o u p is m a d e u p o f in d iv id u a ls w h o a re o r d in a r ily a b le t o e n g a g e in
w o r k , w h ile th e g e n e r a l p o p u la t io n in c lu d e s m a n y in v a lid s a n d p e r s o n s
w it h p h y s ic a l im p a ir m e n t s s e r io u s e n o u g h t o p r e v e n t in d u s tr ia l e m -




762

SICKNESS AND DEATH STATISTICS

ployment. The securing of comparable data is difficult, since there
is no satisfactory way of ascertaining when a person not employed is
actually disabled by sickness and would have remained at home on
account of illness if he had been employed at the time. Also, in in­
dustrial establishments it is comparatively easy to obtain an exact
record of absences from work on account of sickness, while in a general
population this can be secured only by repeated house-to-house can­
vasses, and even then some of the shorter sicknesses may be forgotten
in the intervals between visits. The study of the incidence of sickness
in Hagerstown, Md., made by the United States Public Health Serv­
ice in 1921, serves, however, m the present study for a comparison of
sickness rates with a group of workers employed in a rubber factory.
For both groups the sickness incidence for the age period 20 to 24 was
taken as the basis of comparison of the trend in the age curves of
illness. In the general population the trend was steadily upward,
while among employees of the rubber company the frequency rates,
based on disabilities lasting 2 working days or longer, rose more
slowly from age 25 to 40, declined from then to age 60, after which the
upward trend in frequency of disability was resumed.
From the evidence in these studies that illness frequency failed
to increase with age as rapidly among industrially employed persons as
among those in the general population, it is suggested that there may
be a tendency for the sickly to give up their employment, thus pro­
viding a more favorably selected group from the standpoint of health
in middle age and beyond than is found among those in the earlier
years of industrial life. Proof of a process of the survival of the fittest
was afforded by the recent experience of a public service company in
Massachusetts, which was considering the advisability of compulsory
retirement of all employees over 70 years of age. It was found from
the sickness records of the company that the amount of sickness
among its employees over the age of 70 compared very favorably with
that of younger age groups.
The report states that if a process of selection of this sort is really
going on in industry, lower sickness rates among persons with the
longer service should be expected in those industries which are rela­
tively free from health hazards. Records of a rubber manufacturing
company in Ohio show that the frequency of disabling sickness de­
creased markedly among persons with the longer employment in the
industry, the rate being more than four times as high among those
with less than 3 months* service as among persons having more than
5 years* service. More complete records from a public-utility com­
pany in New England giving the sickness incidence by age groups
show definitely lower rates of sickness for both males and females in
each age group up to 55 and over for employees having more than 5
years* service as compared with those having less than 5 years*
service.
I n fu r t h e r p r o o f o f th e t h e o r y t h a t a p r o c e s s o f s e le c t io n is g o in g
o n t h r o u g h th e s e lf-e lim in a t io n fr o m a n in d u s t r y o f th o s e le s s a d a p t e d
p h y s ic a lly t o th e p a r t ic u la r w o r k o r w o r k in g c o n d it io n s in v o l v e d , it
w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d t h a t th e fr e q u e n c y r a te o f d is a b lin g s ic k n e s s w o u ld
b e h ig h e r a m o n g th o s e w h o q u it th a n a m o n g th o s e w h o r e m a in e d ,
p r o v i d e d th e r e w a s n o h e a lt h h a z a r d w h ic h in c r e a s e d th e s ic k n e s s
r a t e im m e d ia t e ly a m o n g th o s e w h o r e m a in e d .
D a t a c o v e r in g f o r m e r
e m p lo y e e s o f a P o r tla n d c e m e n t p la n t a n d a g r o u p o f a n t h r a c it e c o a l




EFFECT OF ECONOMIC DEPRESSION

763

miners, both of which are dusty trades but in which the effects of the
dust inhalation are delayed, showed greater frequency of disability
of 2 days or longer from respiratory disease among those who quit than
among those who remained at work up to a period of about 8 years’
service. After that time the respiratory rates were more nearly
equal in the two groups, as the effect of the dust hazard began to
appear even in those relatively the most immune to its effects.
Occupational Health Hazards
R e c o r d s of disability from sickness are available for a few dusty
trades. The highest sickness frequency was found among a group of
gold miners, and the highest respiratory disease rate among the gran­
ite cutters of Vermont. High frequency rates for respiratory dis­
eases were found in each of four dusty trades—gold mining, anthra­
cite mining, granite cutting, and cement manufacturing. A very
definite excess in the incidence of influenza and grippe was shown in
the four dusty trades. There was a high incidence of rheumatism
among both the gold and coal miners, and diseases of the skin were
unusually prevalent in all the dusty trades studied, except granite
cutting.
In spite of the unusually favorable selection of workers in the steel
industry, due to the fact that the nature of the work demands only the
stronger types of men, pneumonia is unusually high in this industry.
In a study by the Public Health Service, it is shown that cases of
influenza and pneumonia are abnormally frequent in the blast­
furnace, coke-oven, and open-hearth departments, and in the openhearth department, bronchitis as well. In each of these departments
there is a heat hazard together with exposure to extremely wide varia­
tions in temperature.

Effect of the Economic Depression Upon Health
H E continued decline in mortality rates throughout the several
years of severe economic distress led to the impression among
many that the depression either had not adversely affected the
health of the American people, or that any ill effects from it had been
prevented by an efficient public-health system and program of social
relief. In order to determine, therefore, the actual conditions among
the depression poor, a study was made in 1933 by the United States
Public Health Service and the Division of Research of the Milbank
Memorial Fund, covering income, employment, and illness among
about 12,000 families in 10 cities. In addition, a study of diet and
housing conditions was made among a small group of families in each
surveyed city, and school children in enumerated families were
examined in two of the cities. The report under review includes
only provisional sickness data in three of the canvassed cities—
Birmingham, Detroit, and Pittsburgh.6
The districts selected for the survey were in the poorer sections of
the cities, both well-to-do and slum areas being avoided as not con­
taining a large enough representation of persons able and willing to

T

6
U. S. Public Health Service. Public Health Reports, Oct. 13, 1933: Sickness and the Economic
Depression; Preliminary Report on Illness in Families of Wage Earners in Birmingham, Detroit, and
Pittsburgh, by Q. St. J. Perrott, Selwyn D . Collins, and Edgar Sydenstricker.




764

SICKNESS AND DEATH STATISTICS

work but having a high rate of unemployment at the time of the
canvass. As even in these poorer districts there were families still in
reasonably comfortable circumstances (i. e., with adequate food,
clothing, and shelter), such families served as a control group whose
illness record could be compared with that of families which had
been in a state of comparative poverty for one or more years pre­
ceding the survey. In the selected districts every family was included
unless information was refused, which was rarely the case.
The information was secured by house-to-house visits and included
data regarding the occupation, income, and regularity of employ­
ment of each wage earner for each year from 1929 to 1932; the na­
tionality, racial stock, and education of husband and wife; birth date,
sex, and marital status; and illness of each member of the family
during the 3 months prior to the enumeration visit, together with
the extent of medical, hospital, nursing, and dental care received.
In the 3 cities studied schedules were secured from about 3,500
white families, and the data for 2,566 of these families, including
11,330 individuals, were found to be sufficiently complete to permit
of their use. The persons included in the study were largely of the
wage-earning class. In 1932 the chief wage earner in 18 percent of
the families was without employment throughout the year. Taking
into consideration all the wage earners in the family, however, in 1929
only 1 percent of the families had no employed workers, 16 percent
had only part-time workers, and 83 percent had one or more full-time
workers (including 2 percent in which the wage earner was living on
income or pension). In 1932 the corresponding percentages were
12, 40, and 48, the per capita and family income, of course, following
the same downward trend as the employment rates.
For the purpose of the inquiry, income included all receipts from
any source; salary, royalties, interest, pension, earnings, borrowed
funds, gifts, and public and private relief, in which was included the
value of weekly food tickets from welfare institutions in cases where
these were given. Among the group surveyed it was found that
25.2 percent had a total family income of less than $1,200 in 1929,
while in 1932, 69.3 percent of the families were in this class; only
9.1 percent had incomes in excess of $2,000 in 1932 as compared with
40.3 percent in 1929.
Income Changes
I n t h e study, classification of the households was made on the
basis of family income per capita rather than total family income,
since the latter figure takes no account of the size of the family. The
surveyed group was divided into three parts—families having an
income under $150 per capita per year being designated as “ poor” ;
those with from $150 to $424 as “ moderate” ; and those with $425
and over as “ comfortable.” In 1929 the “ poor” group constituted
only 10.3 percent of the total, but in 1932 it accounted for 45.1 per­
cent, while the “ comfortable” group dropped from 47.1 percent of the
total in 1929 to 13.3 percent in 1932. There was no great change in
the percentage in the “ moderate” class in 1932, but this is accounted
for by the fact that as some dropped to the low income group others
from the higher income group took their places.
It was shown that only about one-fourth of the individuals in
families economically “ comfortable” in 1929 remained so in 1932,




EFFECT OF ECONOMIC DEPRESSION

765

and nearly an equal number had become “ poor” . More than half
of those in moderate circumstances in 1929 had fallen into the “ poor”
class by 1932 and 9 out of 10 persons who were classified as “ poor”
in 1929 remained in that class throughout the 4 years. It is ap­
parent, therefore, that very few persons had any increase in income
during the depression and a very large proportion of the group
suffered a drop in income.
Illness Rates and 1932 Income
T h e s e classifications of the families into groups having different
types of economic history during the depression were used as the
basis for comparing illness rates. While a large number of groups
defined by an economic status might be used, the present report,
because of the relatively small number of individuals included,
limits the division to six categories depending upon whether or not
the economic status had changed during the period.
The first group included individuals experiencing lowered family
income per capita between 1929 and 1932, and was divided as follows:
(1) Comfortable in 1929 and poor in 1932; (2) moderate in 1929 and
poor in 1932; (3) comfortable in 1929 and moderate in 1932.
The second group included individuals who had not experienced
lowered family income between 1929 and 1932 and were classified as
comfortable, moderate, or poor in both 1929 and 1932.
Inquiry was made as to illness from all diseases and accidents, in­
cluding mild as well as severe cases, covering the 3-month period
prior to the enumerator’s visit. As the sickness reports depended
upon the memory of the informant, usually the housewife, it is con­
sidered that the records of disabling cases are probably better meas­
ures of real sickness than are the total cases, since the cases causing
disability are more likely to be accurately and completely reported.
The illness cases were grouped according as their onset was prior
to the survey period or within that period, and in each group the
total number of cases is shown; the .number of disabling cases, con­
sisting of those which prevented the carrying on of usual activities;
and the number of cases in which the patient was confined to bed
for one or more days. All bed cases were included in the disabling
class.
The illness rates are for the 3-month period of the survey, and
were not reduced to an annual basis. The canvass in each of the
three cities required from 3 to 4 weeks and the dates of the canvass
were between March 20 and May 15, 1933, for all three cities.
The rate was lower among the higher-income groups for illnesses
which had their onset within the survey period, but the group of ill­
nesses that had their onset prior to the survey period shows no rela­
tion to income, being largely chronic cases. The disabling-case rate
for illnesses within the survey period among the two lower-income
groups (under $250) was 35 percent higher and the bed-case rate
47 percent higher than among the group having an annual family
income per capita of $425 and over. Thus it appears evident that
the persons in the poor group were more subject to illness than those
in more comfortable circumstances.
A comparison of the illness rates of persons with diminishing in­
comes and those with unchanged income during the period 1929-32




766

SICKNESS AND DEATH STATISTICS

showed an incidence of disabling illness 60 percent higher among
persons who were comfortable in 1929 but poor in 1932 than among
the group of persons who were comfortable throughout the period.
The group which had dropped from comfortable to moderate showed
a 15 percent higher disabling-illness rate than the comfortable group
which had experienced no drop in income during the 4 years, while
those families which had dropped from moderate to poor showed
about the same illness rate as the group which had remained in mod­
erate circumstances. When total illness rates are considered, these
same trends are apparent and even the addition of the group of
largely chronic cases bears out the fact that a relatively large drop in
economic status appears to be connected with a high illness rate.
Unemployment and Illness

T he already established relationship between the incidence of
illness and unemployment was confirmed by the study as the illness
rate was found to be highest in the families having no employed
workers (122 disabling cases per 1,000) and lowest in the households
having full-time workers (88 per 1,000). The group with no em­
ployed workers had a higher illness rate than the group with annual
per capita income under $150; that is, 122 as against 103 disabling
cases per 1,000 persons.
Conclusion
T h e authors purposely refrained from drawing general conclusions
from the findings of the study, it is pointed out, as it is obvious
that from the experience recorded in the samples surveyed in three
cities only, no estimate can be made as to how large a proportion of the
entire wage-earning population in urban areas in the United States has
suffered increased illness. However, for the localities surveyed it is
shown that the highest rate of illness occurred in the group which was
in reasonably comfortable circumstances in 1929 but which had
dropped to comparative povertyin 1932, while the group of individuals
who might be described as “ chronically poor” , that is, persons who
were poor even in 1929, showed a relatively low sickness rate as
compared with those who had become poor as a result of the economic
depression. The rate of disabling illness reported from families of the
unemployed was 39 percent higher than that of the group having
full-time wage earners and 25 percent higher than that of the group
containing part-time but no full-time workers.

Effect of Depression on Life Expectancy of Industrial
Policyholders
HE expectation of life of the industrial policyholders of the
Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. showed continued improvement
throughout the depression years, 1929 to 1933, according to a report
published in the company’s statistical bulletin for February 1935.
This improvement, however, did not continue evenly but proceeded
at a slackening rate. In 1929 the life expectancy of the entire group
at birth was 55.78 years. In 1930 it had increased by 1.58 years; in
1931 the gain was 0.54 year; and in 1932, 0.90 year. In 1933, however,

T




LIFE EXPECTANCY OF INDUSTRIAL POLICYHOLDERS

767

the gain over the preceding year was only 0.39 year, the expectation
of life in that year standing at 59.19 years. The greatest gain, there­
fore, was made in the first year of the depression and the smallest in
the fourth year. Data for the year 1934 were not complete, but
provisional figures indicated that the life expectancy would be greater
than in 1933. The great improvement in the life span is shown by
the fact that in 19 11-12 the life expectancy at birth among the indus­
trial policyholders was only 46.63 years.
It has been a matter of surprise, the report states, that during these
years of economic depression mortality rates and the corresponding
expectation of life have continued to improve. It was to be expected
that the economic strain of the past few years would have an adverse
effect on health and that this would be shown by at least some increase
in the death rate. It has been suggested that although there actually
have been adverse influences on health these effects have not yet been
apparent in the death rate. It is argued, however, against this point
that while there can be no doubt that some of the ill effects of economic
hardships may not produce results immediately fatal, the influence
on mortality should be felt after a period of 5 years in so sensitive an
instrument as a life table.
In the period from 1921 to 1929 the expectation of life varied some­
what irregularly but was, throughout, below the level of 1930 to 1933.
The lowest life expectancy recorded in the period was 54.55 years in
1923 and the highest 56.42 in 1927.
LIFE E X P E C T A N C Y A T SPECIFIED AGES A N D PERIODS, B Y COLOR A N D SE X , A M O N G
IN D U ST R IA L PO LICYH O LD ER S OF M E T R O P O L IT A N LIFE IN SU R AN CE CO.
Life expectancy (in years) in specified periods
White
Age

Colored

Total persons
Males

Females

Males

Females

192519251930o 19251933 1930- 28 1933 mds ­ 28 1933 1930- 28 1933 33 1925- 1933 1930- 192533
33
28
33
28
10 years------------------15 years____________
20 years............... .......
25 years.......................
30 years............. .........
35 years.................
40 years........ ...........
45 years........ ..............
50 years------------------55 years...... ............ .
60 years......................
65 years........ .......... .
70 years______ _____

54.42 53.84 52.36 53.00 52.75 51.67 57.01 56. 53 55.10 46.44 45.61 44.84 48.31 47.36 45.89
49.74 49.21 47.73 48.35 48.13 47.14 52.27 51.83 50.46 41.98 41.23 40.61 43.81 43* 03 41.75
45.24 44.78 43.55 43.83 43.65 42.74 47.68 47.30 46.09 37.94 37.35 36. 91 39.90 39.33 38.28
40.92 40.54 39.49 39.43 39.28 38.49 43.26 42.96 41.93 34.14 33.75 33.48 36.28 as. 91 35.06
36.70 36.38 35.46 35.10 34.98 34.27 38.93 38. 67 37.79 30.50 30.19 29.98 32.63 32.42 31. 71
32.54 32.27 31.46 30.86 30.79 30.00 34.63 34.39 33.65 26.99 26.71 26.56 28.99 28.89 28.34
28.47 28.25 27.57 26.78 26.76 26.18 30.37 30.16 29.55 23.59 23.37 23.28 25.45 25.45 25.00
24.54 24.38 23.84 22.90 22.93 22.48 26. 21 26.04 25.55 20.35 20.25 20.18 22.09 22.19 21.79
20.84 20.71 20.27 19.35 19.37 18.99 22.22 22.09 21. 71 17.47 17.36 17.21 18.90 19.11 18. 74
17.36 17.27 16.89 16.10 16.12 15.76 18.45 18.36 18.04 14.77 14.64 14.45 15.86 16. 21 15.86
14.15 14.10 13.79 13.14 13.18 12.85 14.98 14.94 14.69 12.27 12.15 11.93 13.13 13.59 13.27
11. 35 11.30 11.05 10.57 10.57 10.26 11.98 11.94 11.75 10.12 9.97 9.85 10.82 11.33 10.99
8.94 8.88 8. 71 8.29 8.32 8.08 9.42 9.38 9.27 8.37 8.14 8.09 8.85 9.44 9.10

The above table gives the expectation of life among industrial
policyholders at every fifth year of age from 10 to 70, by color and sex,
for the year 1933, and the averages for the period from 1930 to 1933
and for the period from 1925 to 1928. The year 1929 was omitted
because it represented a transition from a period of prosperity to one
of depression. The table shows that, without exception, the rates
were better in the depression period, 1930 to 1933, than in the pros­
perity period, 1925 to 1928, for each color, sex, and age category.




768

SICKNESS AND DEATH STATISTICS

The results of this study of life expectancy among industrial
policyholders are confirmed by a series of life tables covering the
mortality in the general population in the United States compiled by
the same agency. These figures show that the expectation of life at
birth in the general population was 59.57 years in 1930, 60.26 years in
1931, 61.07 years in 1932, and 61.26 years in 1933. Although the
tables for the last 3 years are necessarily based on estimates of the
population they are regarded as giving an essentially correct inter­
pretation of the facts. It is seen, therefore, from these figures, as well
as from the table covering the industrial policyholders, that the years
of depression show highly favorable mortality conditions, with an
improvement each year throughout the period.

Occupational Death Rates in 1930 7
HE mortality rates among employed persons in 10 States in
which occupation returns were sufficiently complete to justify
their compilation have been computed by statisticians of the National
Tuberculosis Association and the United States Bureau of the Census.
The study covers gainfully occupied males between the ages of 15 and
64, and the data include a table showing all deaths occurring among
the gainfully occupied in the 10 selected States—Alabama, Connec­
ticut, Illinois, Kansas, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New Jersey,
New York, Ohio, and Wisconsin—one covering the entire classifica­
tion of occupations according to the United States Census Bureau
index of occupations, numbering 532, and tables including all deaths
among the gainfully occupied and deaths in those occupations in
which the number was at least 500. The occupational data were, in
general, narrowed down to the latter grouping, as it was decided that
rates covering slnaller groups would be subject to the variations
inherent in small numbers.
Because of the fact that the occupation has generally not been
satisfactorily reported on death certificates, preliminary studies were
made to determine the adequacy of these reports, a comprehensive
educational campaign was carried on among State and city registrars
of vital statistics and undertakers who fill out the occupational
inquiries on death. certificates, and a pamphlet published by the
Bureau of the Census, giving information on occupations and outlining
the need and importance of death rates by occupation, was distributed
largely through State registrars to a large number of persons. These
steps, together with the use by a number of States of a new form of
death certificate in which the occupational data are more specific,
paved the way for better reporting for purposes of the study.
It was at first intended to use mortality data for a 3-year period, but
for various reasons it was found necessary to limit the period to the
year 1930. The 10 States included in the study have 38 percent of
the total population of continental United States, and the gainfully
occupied men in these States comprise 39 percent of all gainfully
employed men. Various factors affect a study of this kind, such as
the frequent changing of occupations particularly as a result of ill
health or old age, with the result that at death there may be little or

T

7
National Tuberculosis Association. Death Rates by Occupation, Based on Data of the United States
Census Bureau, 1930. Edited by Jessamine S. Whitney. New York, 50 West Fiftieth Street, 1934.




769

OCCUPATIONAL DEATH RATES IN 1930

no connection between the occupation last engaged in and the one
which was the cause of disablement. Also, in addition to the effect
on survival of the hazards of different occupations, there is the effect
of economic or social status, or of different standards of living. Difficultiesearise when an attempt is made to classify an occupation by
economic status, since there may be many different classes within
one general classification. In making such classifications, however,
the economic status of the majority of the group must, of necessity,
be the standard.
In table 1 the occupied males have been grouped in seven main
classes consisting of professional persons; proprietors, managers, and
officials; clerks and kindred workers; skilled workers and foremen;
semiskilled workers; unskilled workers; and agricultural workers.
Although agricultural workers do not represent an economic class in
the same sense as do the other six groups, inclusion of farmers with
proprietors, managers, and officials, and of farm workers with un­
skilled workers, would distort the mortality rates of these groups.
At the time the Federal census was taken in April 1930, 14,013,367
men between the ages 15 to 64, inclusive, were employed in the 10
States, and during the calendar year 1930 the deaths of 121,951
occupied men were recorded, giving an average general death rate
of 8.7 per 1,000. Standardized death rates based on the age distri­
bution of all gainfully occupied males in the 10 States were computed,
since some occupations, such as watchmen, for example, have a
preponderance of old, while others have mainly young, men.
Table 1 shows specific and standardized death rates for the seven
social-economic classes, by age groups, including all deaths reported
in the 10 States between the ages of 15 and 64, inclusive.
T a ble 1.—N U M B E R OF D E A T H S, A N D D E A T H RATES PER 1,000, FR O M A LL CAUSES
A M O N G G AIN F U L L Y OCCUPIED M ALES 15 TO 64 YE A R S OF AG E IN 10 STATES, BY
AGE GROUPS A N D SOCIAL-ECONOM IC CLASSES, 1930
Age groups
15 to 24 years

25 to 44 years

Social-economic class
Gainfully
occupied
males

Deaths

All classes......................................................

2,735,630

8,615

Professional men...........................................
Proprietors, managers, and officials_____
Wholesale and retail dealers...............
Others.....................................................
Clerks and kindred workers....................
Agricultural workers...................................
Skilled workers and foremen..... ................
Semiskilled workers.....................................
Manufacturing.......................................
Others......................................................
Unskilled workers........................................
Factory and building construction
laborers................................................
Other laborers..... ..................................
Servant classes..............................................

82,656
72,972
44,773
28,199
616,637
474,090
333,936
634,348
382,099
252,249
520,991

187
227
143
84
1,420
1,304
1,018
2,019
1,122
897
2,440

275,205
167,524
78,262

1,560
528
352

19205— 36----- 50




Specific Gainfully
death
rates (per occupied
males
1,000)

Deaths

Specific
death
rates (per
1,000)

3.15 7,148,481

39,299

5.50

2.26
3.11
3.19
2.98
2.30
2.75
3.05
3.18
2.94
3.56
4.68

372,415
787,122
378,960
408,162
1,130,413
816,463
1,524,979
1,323,657
709,263
614,394
1,193,432

1,291
3,277
1,760
1,517
4,645
3,117
7,431
8,101
4,443
3,658
11,437

3.47
4.16
4.64
3.72
4.11
3.82
4.87
6.12
6.26
5.95
9.58

5.67
3.15
4.50

568,684
393,913
230,835

7,200
2,332
1,905

12.66
5.92
8.25

770

SICKNESS AND DEATH STATISTICS

T a ble 1 .—N U M B E R OF D E A T H S, A N D D E A T H RATES PER 1,000, FR O M A L L CAUSES
A M O N G G A IN F U L L Y OCCUPIED M ALES 15 TO 64 Y E A R S OF AG E IN 10 STATES, B Y
AGE GROUPS A N D SOCIAL-ECONOM IC CLASSES, 1930—Continued
Age groups
45 to 64 years

Total

Social-economic class
Gainfully
occupied Deaths
males

Specific
Stand­ Specific
death Gainfully
death
rates occupied Deaths ardized rates
death
(per
males
(Per
ratesi
1,000)
1,000)

All classes....................................................... 4,129,256

74,037

17.93 14,013,367 121,951

8.70

8.70

Professional men...........................................
Proprietors, managers, and officials..........
Wholesale and retail dealers................
Others......................................................
Clerks and kindred workers.......................
Agricultural workers.................................
Skilled workers and foremen........ - ..........
Semiskilled workers.....................................
Manufacturing.......................................
Others......................................................
Unskilled workers.........................................
Factory and building construction
laborers.................................................
Other laborers........................................
Servant classes..............................................

181,537
566,331
268,782
297,549
469,427
717,777
867,077
585,757
353,897
231,860
741,350

2,950
8,936
4,722
4,214
7,728
9,058
14,833
12,161
7, 528
4,633
18,371

16.25
15.78
17.57
14.16
16.46
12.62
17.11
20.76
21.27
19.98
24.78

636,608
1,426,425
692, 515
733,910
2,216,477
2,008,330
2,725,992
2,543,762
1,445,259
1,098,503
2,455,773

4,428
12,440
6,625
5,815
13,793
13,479
23,282
22,281
13,093
9,188
32,248

7.00
7.38
8.17
6.65
7.40
6.21
8.12'
9.86
10.03
9.62
13.10

6.96
8.72
9. 57
7.92
6.22
6.71
8.54
8.76
9.06
8.36
13.13

338,652
262, 210
140,488

11,139
4,051
3,181

32.89 1,182,541
823,647
15.45
22.64
449,585

19,899
6,911
5,438

17.26
8.18
11.76

16.83
8.39
12.10

1 Standardized according to age distribution of all gainfully occupied males in 10 selected States.

Table 2 compares the rates for gainfully occupied males in selected
occupations with those for all males in the 10 selected States and all
males in the United States registration area.
T a ble 2 .—D E A T H RATES FR O M SPECIFIED CAUSES PER 100,000 M A LE S , 1930
Death rates per 100,000 males, 15
to 64 years of age
10 selected States

Cause of death

All males
in United
States reg­
istration
area

All males

Gainfully
occupied
males in
selected
occupations

All causes.--______________________________________________________

897.9

872.4

906.5

Diseases of the heart______________________________________________
Tuberculosis, all forms____________________________________________
Tuberculosis of the respiratory system____________________________
Other forms of tuberculosis_______ ________________________________
Cancer and other malignani tumors____________ ________________
Pneumonia_______________________________________________________
Nephritis______________ _________________________________________
Cerebral hemorrhage and softening of the brain............ .......................
Suicide_______________________________________________ ____________
Appendicitis____________ ________________________________________
Accidental traumatism by fall____________________ _________________
Diabetes mellitus_________________________________________________
Ulcer of the stomach and duodenum........ ...............................................
Cirrhosis of the liver______________________________________________
Alcoholism (acute or chronic)______ ________ ________ ____________
Hernia, intestinal obstruction_________________________________ _ _
Accidental burns (conflagration excepted)_______________ _________
Accidental absorption df poisonous gas____ ______ ____ ____________
Acute rheumatic fever, chronic rheumatism, osteoarthritis, and
gout_____________________________________________________________
All other causes___________________________________________________

159.7
99. l
91.4
7.7
65.9
63.6
63.1
49.2
30.9
20.1
16.0
11.5
11.5
9. 2
8.8
8.0
4.4
3.9

170. 5
92.4
84.6
7.7
77.9
63.7
56.8
43.9
31.9
19.7
18.7
12.5
12.2
10. 2
10. 5
7.8
3.9
5.3

174.4
95. l
87.4
7.8
81.3
69.0
57.6
41.7
35.2
20.7
19. 3
12.0
13. 5
10.6
11.9
8.4
4.1
5.9

2.6
270.4

2.9
231.5

2.6
242.9




MORTALITY RATES OF COAL MINERS

771

The mortality rate from all causes for the group in selected occupa­
tions is shown to be slightly higher than that for either of the other
two groups, due largely to higher rates for heart disease, cancer,
pneumonia, and suicide in the employed group. The highest rates
for the chronic incapacitating diseases such as tuberculosis, nephritis,
and cerebral hemorrhage not immediately fatal were found among
“ all males” , due, it is considered, to the fact that many suffering from
these diseases are unemployable for long periods. Alcoholism and
cirrhosis of the liver, and ulcer of the stomach and duodenum were
somewhat higher in the employed group, while the rates for acci­
dents, except for accidental burns, were also higher than for the other
two groups. The report states that “ although, when the entire popu­
lation is considered, tuberculosis is now seventh in rank in the country
as a whole as a cause of death, this table shows that it is the second
cause of death among men aged 15 to 64 years in the United States,
and also the second cause of death among gainfully occupied men in
the same age group.”

Mortality Rates of Coal Miners
HIGH rate of mortality among coal miners—both anthracite and
bituminous—from diseases of the respiratory system was shown
in a study8published by the United States Public Health Service. The
data for anthracite miners were obtained from the death records of
the city of Wilkes-Barre for the period 1915-23 and for the smaller
cities and towns in that region for varying periods between 1906 and
1925. The data on mortality for bituminous miners were supplied
by the United States Bureau of Mines.
Since the number of men in the occupation among whom the
deaths occurred is not known and adequate occupational histories of
the decedents are lacking, mortality rates cannot be based on the
number of miners known to be living at a given time, and it is neces­
sary to base the rates on proportionate mortality; that is, the per­
centage of deaths from any given cause. “ Since the mortality from
all causes will not be the same” , the report states, “ in any two groups
compared, the percentage of deaths from a specific disease is not an
altogether reliable index of the mortality from that cause. Real differ­
ences in mortality may be deduced, however, from rather wide differ­
ences in the proportion of deaths from a given cause in one group of
decedents as compared with another group at the same ages.”

A

Mortality Rates of Anthracite Miners

A l a r g e proportion—39 percent—of the deaths among coal miners
at ages 15 to 65 in the Wilkes-Barre region were due to accidents, as
compared with 10 percent of the deaths of nonminers from this cause
in the same age group. In order to avoid obscuring any excessive
death rate from any given disease, therefore, the deaths from accidents
were not included in the mortality data. It was found, after excluding
deaths from accidents, that a relatively high proportion of deaths from
influenza and pneumonia occurred among anthracite miners, the pros U. S. Treasury Department, Public Health Service.
Coal Miners, by Dean K . Brundage. Washington, 1933.




Public Health Bulletin No. 210: Mortality of

772

SICKNESS AND DEATH STATISTICS

portion being 39.8 percent among coal miners as against 25.3 percent
among males in Wilkes-Barre and vicinity who had been employed in
other occupations. The proportionately higher death rate from this
cause prevailed also in 1918, the year of the great influenza epidemic
when the percentages were 82.1 among coal miners as against 61.3
among other adult males. In 1920, when there was another but less
severe epidemic, the rates were 40.4 and 26.9, respectively, and in
other years, between 1906 and 1925, the rates were 23.9 and 13.4,
The latter figures cover 2 years in which there were minor epidemics,
but the total number of years covered is so large that the effect of
these years on the rates is comparatively small. Although the rates
were naturally much lower in the nonepidemic years, the rates from
influenzarpneumonia were relatively more unfavorable to the anthra­
cite miners in those years.
It is well known that there was heavy excess mortality in the 1918
epidemic at the younger adult ages, especially in the 25 to 35 year
group. While the highest proportion of deaths in the anthracite
groups as well as in the general population occurred at these ages,
the mortality was relatively greater among the miners between the
ages of 45 and 65 than at ages below 45. This indicates, it is stated,
that the hard-coal miners possessed less resistance to the disease
than did other males of the same ages in the same localities. Approx­
imately the same condition obtained in the epidemic year of 1920.
During the period 1906-25, exclusive of 1918 and 1920, the heaviest
excess mortality from influenza-pneumonia among the miners occurred
between the ages of 45 and 65, the ages at which the slow effect of an
industrial dust hazard usually becomes apparent. As a matter of
fact, the report states, “ the conclusion appears inescapable that the
older anthracite coal miners are exceptionally liable to death from
influenza and pneumonia, not only during heavy outbreak of epidemic
influenza, but also during interepidemic periods. ”
A study of mortality among Welsh coal miners in a district mining
mainly anthracite, in which the death rates were standardized to
eliminate differences due to the age composition of the groups, showed
that the rate from influenza and pneumonia among hewers and getters
of coal was 44 percent higher in the years 1921-23 than among men
of similar social status in England and Wales as a whole. These
figures appear to confirm the conclusion reached in the Wilkes-Barre
study that hard-coal mining seems to involve an abnormal mortality
from influenza and pneumonia.
A higher relative mortality among anthracite miners in this country
than among the general population is shown also for respiratory
tuberculosis. The percentage of deaths from this cause after deaths
due to accidents, influenza, pneumonia, and anthracosis or miners’
asthma were excluded, w 18.1 males in anthracite mining between
~as
the ages of 15 and 65 and 12.7 for males in other industries. The
standardized death rate among hewers and getters in the South
Wales coal field did not show with certainty that these workers
suffer an excess of mortality from tuberculosis of the lungs, but in the
absence of actual death rates for American miners the proportion of
deaths from tuberculosis was computed for Welsh miners in the same
way as for the Wilkes-Barre group, accidents, influenza, pneumonia,
and pneumoconiosis being omitted. This showed that 30.1 percent
of the deaths among Welsh anthracite miners resulted from tubercu-




MORTALITY RATES OF COAL MINERS

773

losis of the respiratory system, as compared with 21.9 percent among
other men of the same social class. In both Wales and Wilkes-Barre
the proportion of cases was 1.4 times the rate of that for the popula­
tion group with which they were compared. As the figures for
Wilkes-Barre cover about 4.5 times the number of hard-coal miners
included in the English data, it appears that greater reliance may be
placed on the ratio of 1.4 shown for Wilkes-Barre, and that Pennsyl­
vania anthracite miners may therefore have a significantly high death
rate from respiratory tuberculosis, although this cannot be proved
in the absence of knowledge of the number of miners among whom
the deaths occurred. An excess of tuberculosis, it is said, may be
expected in view of the rock drilling necessary in connection with the
actual coal mining, which often results in exposure to quantities of
dust containing free silica.
Bringing the disease data for all respiratory diseases together, it
was found that the proportion of deaths from this cause among the
anthracite miners was 57.6 percent as compared with 37.2 percent
among other men in the community at the same ages. Among the
Welsh miners it was found that the mortality for the ages 16 to 65
was 53 percent for all respiratory diseases and 38.2 among males in
the same social class.
Rates for nonrespiratory diseases do not show any significant
differences between miners and the other groups, although somewhat
higher rates are shown among miners in this country for certain of
the so-called “ degenerative” diseases. The outstanding feature in
the data for both Wilkes-Barre and Wales is said to be the extraor­
dinary mortality from influenza and pneumonia both during influenza
epidemics and at other times.
Mortality of Bituminous-Coal Miners
T h e mortality records of bituminous-coal miners relate to the
States of Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, and Wyoming, but Illinois was
considered separately as data were not available according to 10-year
age groups. As in the anthracite study, all deaths from accidents
were excluded.
The study showed that influenza and pneumonia caused 31 percent
of the mortality among coal miners aged 16 to 70 in Indiana, Missouri,
and Wyoming, as compared with 19 percent among both farmers and
all males at these ages in the same localities. The rates in 1918, the
year of the great epidemic, were 55 percent among miners, 27 percent
among farmers, and 34 percent among all other males. Among the
bituminous workers the greatest excess mortality in 1918 in compar­
ison with the general population was experienced at ages 40 to 60.
This excess mortality was also experienced among the older miners
in the epidemic year of 1920. In interepidemic years, however, the
differential mortality from influenza and pneumonia among bituminous
miners was greatest at ages 16 to 40.
A rather favorable condition in regard to respiratory tuberculosis
in the mining group was shown, as the rate was lower than for all
other males up to the age of 60, although between the ages of 60
and 70 it was slightly higher.
The mortality figures for bituminous-coal miners in Illinois,
although not on a strictly comparable basis, showed little difference
from the rates for miners in the other three States.




774

SICKNESS AND DEATH STATISTICS

In England and Wales, while the rate for tuberculosis among
hewers and getters of soft coal was generally favorable, there was an
excess mortality rate for bronchitis among these workers. The
favorable rate for tuberculosis, however, offset the unfavorable death
rates for the other respiratory diseases, so that the mortality from
respiratory disease as a whole was about the same as for others in the
same social class.
In summing up the data for the anthracite and the bituminous
groups, the report states that the percentage of deaths caused by all
respiratory diseases was higher among the soft-coal miners than among
other males at the same ages in the coal-producing counties in Indiana,
Missouri, and Wyoming, in spite of their more favorable tuberculosis
mortality, and an even larger proportion of deaths from these causes
was found among the anthracite miners in Pennsylvania.

Cases of Industrial Anthrax, 1929 to 19339
HE incidence of industrial anthrax showed no apparent dimi­
nution in manufacturing industries during the 5-year period,
1929-33, while there was a continuing increase in the occurrence of
this disease in agriculture and stock-handling, according to a report
presented by a special committee at the 1934 convention of the Ameri­
can Public Health Association. A decrease in tannery anthrax was
reported, but this was considered to be due more to decreased
industrial activity than to improved conditions. Increase in the
number of cases of wool anthrax had continued, and two cases of
shaving-brush anthrax were reported.
The committee sent questionnaires to the health departments, or
vital statistics departments, of all the 48 States, 39 of which replied
to the inquiry. Of the 39 States reporting on the question, 30 stated
that one or more cases had occurred in the period from January 1, 1929,
to December 31, 1933; in 19 States the cases were reported by cause.
During the period 342 cases were reported, the source of the infection
being determined in 225 cases.
The accompanying table shows the cause, by States, in those cases
of anthrax in which the cause was determined.
The general fatality rate based on the total number of cases re­
ported was 19 per 100 in 1929, 23 in 1930, 17 in 1931, 41 in 1932, and
20 in 1933. The number of deaths reported per year in States report­
ing more than 10 cases increased in the period 1929-33 as compared
with the years 1927 and 1928, in Delaware, Massachusetts, and Texas,
and the number of cases reported per year increased in these same
States and in California. In California and Texas the cases were said
to be probably all agricultural in origin, although Texas did not report
by source of infection.
Wool anthrax, which was responsible for a total of 67 cases in 7
States, was said to be caused probably by cheap imported wools.
Anthrax in tanneries was reported in 73 cases, and 2 cases in freight
handlers of skins and hides were also reported. Agricultural anthrax,
which was reported by 14 States, was responsible for 58 cases.

T

®American Public Health Association Year Book, 1934-35. Report of Committee on Industrial Anthrax
at the 1934 meeting of the American Public Health Association. New York, 50 West 50th Street, 1935.




775

CASES OF INDUSTRIAL ANTHRAX
SOURCE OF IN F E C T IO N OF A N T H R A X CASES, 1929-33

Number of cases of anthrax reported as arising from infection from—

State

Total
num­
ber of
cases

Total....................................
Percent of total..................

225
100

Arizona_________ _______
California_______ _______
Colorado........... .................
Connecticut_____________
Illinois.................................
Indiana........ .......................
Kansas__________ _______
Louisiana_______ _______
Maine__________ _______
Maryland..........................
Massachusetts__________
Minnesota______ ____ ___
New Jersey_______ _____
New York______________
North Carolina..................
Ohio______________ _____
Pennsylvania___________
Vermont_________ ______
Virginia...............................

1
20
1
8
2
2
1
15
1
1
43
2
25
50

1
1
48
1
2

Skins
and
hides,
tan­
neries

73
32

Wool

Ani­
mals,
agri­
cul­
ture

Hair
and
fur

Trans­
porta­
tion
of ani­
mal
prod­
ucts

Brushes

67
30

58
26

15
7

5
2

4
2

1

2

1
20
1
4
1
1

1
1
15
1

Labora­
tory in­
fections

2
1

16

9

4
36

1
1

17

2

1 Less than one-half of 1 percent.
2 Shaving-brush cases.

1

43
2

10

8

1
1
2

1

21

1

1

4

0)

21

31
37

Leather

2
1

1
1

1
1

3 Possibly due to fertilizer.
4 2 of these cases probably due to wool.

The method of treatment was reported in 143 cases, and it was found
that there is less and less use of any form of operative interference.
Antianthrax-serum injections, intravenous, intramuscular, and local,
with or without other specific agents such as antiseptics and mercurochrome, are the methods most frequently chosen. Of 143 cases in
which the method of treatment was reported, 124 were treated with
serum; in 81 of these cases serum alone was used, while in the re­
mainder serum was combined with one or more other methods of
treatment such as cautery, excision, incision, antiseptics, and mercurochrome. In 4 cases serum was combined with arsenicals; in 5 cases
arsenicals were used without serum, while in 10 cases no serum or
arsenicals were used but the treatment consisted of excision, alone or
with cautery, and incision, alone or with antiseptics. Unfortunately,
because of lack of data, it was impossible to correlate the treatment
with the outcome of cases. Treatment with serum injections, if used
early and freely, is said usually to give excellent results. The newer
method of intravenous injection of some form of organic arsenic, with
or without serum, which is becoming more and more popular in Europe
is being used by comparatively few clinicians here.
Agricultural anthrax is still definitely on the increase, while wool
anthrax is a definite menace in several manufacturing States. In
general, except in a few States, there is no tendency toward a decrease
in the number of fatalities; this is due, it is thought, to the increasing
number of cases of anthrax in agriculture where serum is less readily
available and where infection is with large numbers of vegetable forms
rather than with spores.




776

SICKNESS AND DEATH STATISTICS

There seems to be general agreement among writers on the subject
that if a bacteriologic diagnosis cannot be made from stained smears,
culture and animal inoculation should be resorted to. Double and
multiple infections occur at times and it is possible that there may be
recurrences, although they are not usual. The presence of bacteria
in the blood is a late occurrence in pulmonary anthrax. Nervous
tissue is especially receptive to anthrax infection and meningeal
infections may cause death with no local lesions.
It appears from the literature on the subject that wool and wool
clothing are not infrequent sources of origin of anthrax infection.
Textile-mill machinery may become infected and the infection may
thus be transmitted in the process of manufacture or through the
manufactured materials.




SOCIAL SECURITY PROGRAM

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




777




Committee on Economic Security
H E Committee on Economic Security was created by President
Roosevelt late in June 1934 in an Executive order issued shortly
after he pointed out in a message to Congress that the chief objective
of the administration was “ the security of the men, women, and
children of the Nation.” The committee was charged with the task
of studying the problem of economic security for the individual as
the basis for formulation of sound legislation.
The Secretary of Labor, Frances Perkins, was chairman of the
committee. Other members were Secretary of the Treasury Henry
Morgenthau, Attorney General Homer S. Cummings, Secretary of
Agriculture Henry A. Wallace, and Federal Emergency Relief Admin­
istrator Harry L. Hopkins. Dr. Edwin E. Witte, executive director
of the committee, was in charge of the research and assembling of
the basic data for the committee. The committee had the assist­
ance of a technical board composed of 20 authorities in the Govern­
ment service having special knowledge of the various phases of
economic security, an advisory council composed of representative
citizens, and seven other advisory groups.
The Committee submitted its report and recommendations to the
President on January 15, 1935, and these were made public on
January 16. The basic principles laid down in the report were
embodied in the social security bills introduced in the United States
Congress.

T

Federal Social Security Act, August 1935
H E principal features of the Federal Social Security Act, as
approved by the President on August 14, 1935, are given in the
following summary:
(1) States having noncontributory old-age assistance plans which
have been approved by the Social Security Board, shall receive Fed­
eral assistance in providing for aged needy individuals. The State
plans may not require an age limit in excess of 65 years after the year
1939, but prior to 1940 the limit may be as high as 70 years. Federal
aid is limited to $15 per month per individual plus certain appropria­
tions fqr administration.
(2)
A Federal old-age annuity system is created by which qualified
individuals are assured benefits upon reaching the age of 65, or on
January 1, 1942, whichever is later. The maximum pension under
this plan is $85 per month. The pension is not payable to persons,
even after they reach 65, while they have regular employment.
(3)
States having approved systems of unemployment compensation
will receive assistance in administering their unemployment com­
pensation laws. An unemployment trust fund will be established

T




779

780

SOCIAL SECURITY PROGRAM

by the Secretary of the Treasury to receive the moneys deposited
therein by the State unemployment funds. An excise tax is levied
on the pay rolls of employers who have employed 8 or more persons
for 20 weeks in the calendar year. The taxpayer may credit against
this tax 90 percent of the amount paid into an unemployment fund
under a State law. It is provided that a State system may follow
either the individual reserve system or the plan for pooled funds.
(4) In order to furnish assistance to needy dependent children, States
having approved plans may receive Federal assistance. Eligi­
bility for aid depends upon the law of the particular State, but no
plan will be approved if it has a more stringent residence requirement
than residence in the State for 1 year immediately preceding the appli­
cation for aid or residence by the mother for 1 year immediately pre­
ceding the birth of such a child. The age limit is 16 years.
(5) Grants are made to States for maternal and child-health services
for the purpose of enabling each State to take proper steps for the
promotion of the health of mothers and children. This service is to
include proper medical and other care for crippled children.
(6) The vocational rehabilitation of the physically disabled is pro­
vided for in cooperation with the States and Hawaii.
(7) Adequate public health services shall be maintained, a fixed
sum being appropriated for division among the States by the Surgeon
General of the Public Health Service. The amount allotted to the
States shall be determined on the basis of need and the special health
problems. Provision is also made for investigation of diseases and
problems of sanitation.
(8) State plans for the assistance of needy individuals who are
permanently blind will receive Federal assistance. Persons who are
receiving old-age assistance are not eligible for aid.
A more detailed analysis of the law follows.
Grants to States for Old-Age Assistance
S t a t e old-age assistance plans, in order to secure the approval of the
Board, must be effective in all political divisions of the State; must
provide for financial participation by the State; and must be
administered or have the administration supervised by a single State
agency. Methods of administration must be satisfactory to the
Board. Until July 1937 the requirement of State financial participa­
tion is inapplicable to States whose constitutions prevent such
participation.
The State plans, in order to receive the approval of the Board, may
not require an age limit in excess of 65 years, although, effective until
January 1, 1940, an age requirement of as much as 70 may be imposed.
The residence requirement may not exclude persons who have resided
in the State for 5 years during the 9 years, and continuously for 1 year,
immediately preceding the application for old-age assistance, nor
may any citizenship requirement be prescribed which excludes any
citizen of the United States.
The act authorizes the appropriation in each fiscal year of a sum
sufficient to carry out the purposes of the act.
Payment to States.—The Secretary of the Treasury is directed to pay
to each State having an approved plan for old-age assistance, for each
quarter an amount, to be used exclusively for this purpose, equal to




FEDERAL SOCIAL SECURITY ACT

781

one-half the amount expended by the State, but not to exceed an
expenditure per individual in excess of $30 a month, plus 5 percent of
this amount to be used for the costs of administration of the State
plan or for old-age assistance or for both. Assistance to inmates of
public institutions and persons under 65 will not be matched.
Federal Old-Age Benefits
A n a o l d - a g e reserve account” is created in the Treasury of the
United States, for which an amount sufficient as an annual premium
to provide for the payments required under this title shall be appro­
priated for each fiscal year beginning with the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1937. This amount is to be determined on a reserve basis,
and based upon such tables of mortality as the Secretary of the
Treasury shall from time to time adopt, and upon an interest rate
of 3 percent per annum compounded annually. Amounts credited
to the account not required to meet current withdrawals shall be
invested in interest-bearing obligations guaranteed as to both principal
and interest by the United States. Any obligations acquired for the
account must be acquired on such terms as to provide an investment
yield of not less than 3 percent per annum.
Old-age benefit payments are payable to persons employed in any
service performed within the United States, under the Federal oldage benefit system, with the exception of agricultural labor, domestic
service in a private home, casual labor not in the course of the
employer’s trade or business, Federal employment, employment for a
State or a political subdivision, employment as a member of the crew
of a vessel, and employment in any organization operated exclusively
for religious, charitable, scientific, literary, or educational purposes or
for the prevention of cruelty to children or animals, no part of the net
earnings of which accrues to the benefit of any private shareholder
or individual.
Qualified individuals, as defined above, shall be entitled to receive
with respect to the period beginning with the date on which they
attain the age of 65, or on January 1, 1942, whichever is the later, and
ending on the date of death, an old-age benefit payable as nearly as
practicable in equal monthly installments. If the total wages after
December 31, 1936, and before the age of 65 was attained did not
exceed $3,000, the old-age benefit shall be at a monthly rate of onehalf of 1 percent of the total wages, but if the total wages were more
than $3,000 the benefit will be at a monthly rate equal to one-half
of 1 percent of $3,000, plus one-twelfth of 1 percent of total wages
between $3,000 and $45,000, and one twenty-fourth of 1 percent of
total wages in excess of $45,000 but in no case shall the monthly rate
so computed exceed $85. Qualified individuals receiving wages in
regular employment after reaching the age of 65 shall have the oldage benefit reduced by an amount equal to 1 month’s benefit for each
calendar month in which any such regular employment occurs.
Payments amounting to 3% percent of the total wages paid after
December 31, 1936, will be made to the estate of individuals dying
before reaching the age of 65.
Individuals not qualified for benefits will upon reaching the age of
65 receive a lump sum equal to 3% percent of the total wages received
with respect to employment after December 31, 1936, and before




782

SOCIAL SECURITY PROGRAM

attaining the age of 65, and any part of such payment which is not
paid before death will be paid to the estate of such individuals.
The term “ qualified individual” means any person who is eligible
for old-age benefit by reason of his type of employment, who is at
least 65 years of age, has received a total of not less than $2,000 in
wages after December 31, 1936, and before reaching the age of 65,
and has received wages with respect to employment on some 5 days
after December 31, 1936, and before he attained the age of 65, each
day being in a different calendar year.
Taxes with Respect to Employment
E v e r y regular worker (excluding farm labor, domestic service,
etc.) must pay a tax on the wages received by him after December 31,
1936, amounting to 1 percent for the calendar years 1937 to 1939, to
1% percent from 1940 to 1942, 2 percent during the years 1943 to 1945,
2% percent during the years 1946 to 1948, and 3 percent after Decem­
ber 31, 1948. This tax will be deducted from his wages by his
employer. These taxes may not be deducted by the taxpayer in
computing his net income for the Federal income tax.
An excise tax, which is equal to and is calculated on the same basis
as that for the employees, is imposed upon employers on wages paid
after December 31, 1936.
The term “ wages” means all remuneration for employment up to a
maximum of $3,000 from a single employer in a single year. The
term “ employment ” includes all qualified individuals performing
services for an employer as defined above.
The taxes shall be paid in such ways as may be prescribed by the
Commissioner of Internal Revenue, including the making and filing of
returns, or by stamps, coupons, tickets, etc.
Grants to States for Unemployment Compensation Administration
T h e law authorizes an appropriation of $49,000,000 for each fiscal
year after the year ending June 30, 1936, to be used in assisting the
States in the administration of their unemployment compensation
laws.
The Social Security Board shall from time to time certify to the
Secretary of the Treasury for payment to each State which has an
approved unemployment compensation law such amounts as the
Board determines to be necessary for the proper administration of the
law during the fiscal year in which the payment is made. The amount
will be based on the population of the State, the estimated number of
persons covered by the State law, and the cost of proper administra­
tion of the law, together with any other relevant factors.
Immediate payment shall be made of all money received in the
unemployment fund of a State to the Secretary of the Treasury, to
the credit of the unemployment trust fund; and all money requisi­
tioned by the State agency from the fund must be expended in the
payment of unemployment compensation, exclusive of costs of
administration.
Unemployment Trust Fund
A n u n e m p l o y m e n t trust fund is established by the law, which
authorizes the Secretary of the Treasury to receive all moneys de-




FEDERAL SOCIAL SECURITY ACT

783

posited therein by the State unemployment funds. These deposits
may be made directly to the Secretary of the Treasury or to any
Federal Reserve bank or member bank of the Federal Reserve
System designated by him for such purpose. Such portion of the
fund as is not required to meet current withdrawals shall be in­
vested in interest-bearing obligations of the United States or in
obligations guaranteed as to both principal and interest by the
United States.
The fund must be invested as a single fund, but a separate book
account must be maintained for each State agency. The Secretary
of the Treasury shall pay out of the fund to any State agency such
amount as it may requisition but not to exceed the amount stand­
ing to the account of the agency at the time of payment.
Tax on Employers of Eight or More
O n a n d after January 1, 1936, any employer who has had a total of
eight or more individuals in his employ during 20 days in the calendar
year, each day being in a different calendar week, shall pay for that
year an excise tax equal to the following percentage of total wages:
With respect to employment during the calendar year 1936, 1 percent;
2 percent for the year 1937; and 3 percent with respect to employment
after December 31, 1937. The taxpayer may credit against this tax
the amount of contributions with respect to employment during the
taxable year paid by him into an unemployment fund under a State
law, but the total credit may not exceed 90 percent of the tax against
which it is credited.
In addition to the credit allowed, a taxpayer may be allowed an
additional credit when his contribution rate under a State law is
lower for any taxable year than that of another employer subject to
the law if the Board finds that—
(1) Such lower rate, with respect to contributions to a pooled fund,
is permitted on the basis of not less than 3 years of compensation
experience;
(2) Such lower rate, with respect to contributions to a guaranteed
employment account, is permitted only when his guaranty of employ­
ment was fulfilled in the preceding calendar year,, and such guaranteed
employment account amounts to not less than 7% percent of the total
wages payable by him, in accordance with such guaranty, in the
preceding calendar year;
(3) Such lower rate with respect to contributions to a separate
reserve account is permitted only when compensation has been
payable throughout the preceding calendar year, when such an account
amounts to not less than 5 times the largest amount of compensation
paid from such account within any 1 of the 3 preceding calendar
years, and when the account amounts to not less than 7% percent
of the total wages paid by him and any other employers contributing
to the account in the preceding calendar year. If these conditions
are not fulfilled the additional credit will be reduced by an amount
corresponding to the ratio to such additional credit that the amount of
contributions made at the lower rate bears to his total contributions.
The term “ reserve account” means a separate account in an unem­
ployment fund maintained by an employer or group of employers for
the payment of unemployment compensation to persons in the em-




784

SOCIAL SECURITY PROGRAM

ployment of such employer. A “ pooled fund” is an unemployment
fund, or any part thereof, in which all contributions are mingled and
undivided and from which compensation is payable to all eligible
individuals. A “ guaranteed employment account” is a separate
account in an unemployment fund maintained by an employer or
group of employers under which there is guaranteed in advance to all
employees 30 hours of wages for each 40 calendar weeks in 12 months,
with 1 weekly hour deducted for each added week guaranteed. A
probationary period of 12 weeks or less may be imposed before any
individual is covered by the guaranty. Under such a plan the
employer must give security or assurance to the State agency for
the fulfillment of the guaranty.
The term “contributions” means payments required by a State
law to be made by an employer into an unemployment fund, to the
extent that such payments are made by him without any part thereof
being deducted or deductible from the wages of individuals in his
employ.
Employment under the unemployment compensation section of the
act covers any service of whatever nature performed within the
United States, with the exception of agricultural labor, domestic
service in a private home, work performed for members of the family
of an individual, service as an officer or member of the crew of a
vessel, Federal services, employment b y a State or a political sub­
division thereof, and service in organizations operated exclusively for
religious, charitable, scientific, literary, or educational purposes or
for the prevention of cruelty to children or animals, no part of the net
earnings of which inures to the benefit of any private shareholder or
individual.
Certification of State laws .—The Social Security Board shall approve
within 30 days any State law submitted to it if it finds the act
provides that: Compensation is to be paid through State public
employment offices or such agencies as the Board may approve; no
compensation shall be payable for unemployment within 2 years
from the date when contributions are first required; all money
received in the unemployment fund shall immediately be paid to
the credit of the unemployment trust fund in the United States
Treasury; all money withdrawn from the unemployment trust fund
by the State agency shall be used solely in the payment of com­
pensation, exclusive of costs of administration; and compensation
shall not be denied to any otherwise eligible individual for refusing
to accept new work if the position is due directly to a labor dispute,
if the wages, hours, or other working conditions are substantially
less favorable than those prevailing for similar work in the locality,
or if as a condition of employment the individual would be required
to join a company union or to resign from or refrain from joining any
bona fide labor organization. The legislature must retain the power
to amend or repeal the law at any time.
Taxes are collected by the Bureau of Internal Revenue and returns
must be made by each employer not later than January 31 next
following the close of the taxable year.
No person required under a State law to make contributions to
an unemployment fund may be relieved from such contributions on
the ground that he is engaged in interstate commerce.




FEDERAL SOCIAL SECURITY ACT

785

Grants to States for Aid to Dependent Children

I n o r d e r to enable each State to furnish financial assistance as far
as practicable to needy dependent children there is authorized to be
appropriated for each fiscal year a sum sufficient to carry out this
purpose. These sums will be used for making payments to States
which have submitted, and had approved by the Social Security
Board, State plans for aid to dependent children.
A State plan must cover all political subdivisions of the State, must
provide for financial participation by the State, and must provide for
its administration or supervision by a single State agency, which must
report in such form as the Social Security Board may from time to
time require.
No plan may be approved which imposes as a condition of eligi­
bility a residence requirement which denies aid to any child who has
resided in the State for 1 year immediately preceding the application
for aid, or who was born within the State within 1 year immediately
preceding the application if its mother has resided in the State for
1 year immediately preceding the birth.
The Secretary of the Treasury shall pay to each State which has
an approved plan an amount for each quarter equal to one-third of
the total sums expended during the quarter, but not to exceed $18
per month for any dependent child, or $12 per month for each addi­
tional dependent child in the same home.
The term “ dependent” child means a child under the age of 16 who
has been deprived of parental support or care by reason of the death,
continued absence from the home, or physical or mental incapacity of
a parent and who is living in the home of relatives.
Grants to States for Maternal and Child Welfare
Maternal and child-health services.—For the purpose of enabling
each State to extend and improve, as far as practicable in each State,
services for promoting the health of mothers and children, especially
in rural areas and in areas suffering from severe economic distress, an
appropriation of $3,800,000 is authorized for each fiscal year. The
sums made available under this appropriation are to be used in making
payments to States which have submitted plans for such services
approved by the Chief of the United States Children’s Bureau.
Out of the sums appropriated for each fiscal year the Children’s
Bureau shall allot $20,000 to each State and such part of $1,800,000
as the number of live births in each State bears to the total number
of live births in the United States in the latest calendar year for
which the Bureau of the Census has statistics. In addition the sum
of $980,000 is allotted to the States, apportioned according to the
financial need of each State in carrying out its State plan as determined
by the number of live births in the State.
The allotments to the States paid by the Secretary of the Treasury
to each State having maternal and child-health services shall be equal
to one-half of the total sum expended during each quarter subject to
the amount of the allotments made available by the law.
Services fo r crippled children .—For the purpose of enabling each
State to extend and improve services for locating crippled children,
and for providing medical, surgical, corrective, and other services and
19 2 0 5 — 36 -------5 1




786

SOCIAL SECURITY PROGRAM

care, and facilities for diagnosis, hospitalization, and aftercare, for
children who are crippled or suffering from conditions which lead to
crippling, the sum of $2,850,000 will be appropriated for each fiscal
year to be used for making payments to States having plans approved
by the Chief of the Children’s Bureau. An allotment of $20,000
shall be made to each State for each fiscal year according to the need
of each State as determined by the Bureau, any allotment remaining
unpaid at the end of a fiscal year being available to such State until the
end of the second succeeding fiscal year.
Child-welfare services.—For the purpose of enabling the United States,
through the Children’s Bureau, to cooperate with State public-wel­
fare agencies in establishing, extending, and strengthening, especially
in predominantly rural areas, public-welfare services for the care of
homeless or neglected children, there is authorized to be appropriated
for each fiscal year the sum of $1,500,000. Of this sum $10,000 will
be allotted to each State for use by cooperating State public-welfare
agencies on the basis of plans^developed jointly by the State agency
and the Bureau, and the remainder to each State on the basis of such
plans not to exceed such part of the remainder as the rural population
bears to the total rural population of the United States.
Vocational rehabilitation.—In order to enable the United States to
cooperate with the States and with Hawaii in extending and strength­
ening their programs of vocational rehabilitation of the physically
disabled and to continue to carry out the purposes of the act of June
2, 1920, as subsequently amended, a limited appropriation is author­
ized for the fiscal years ending June 30, 1936 and 1937, in addition
to the amount of the existing authorization and for each fiscal year
thereafter the sum of $1,938,000, $5,000 of which shall be apportioned
to the Territory of Hawaii and the remainder to the several States.
Public Health Work
F o r th e purpose of assisting States, counties, health districts, and
other political subdivisions of the States in establishing and main­
taining adequate public health services, including the training of
personnel for such work, the sum of $8,000,000 is authorized to be
appropriated for each fiscal year.
The amount allotted to the States by the Surgeon General of the
Public Health Service shall be determined on the basis of the popula­
tion, the special health problems, and the financial need of the respec­
tive States. The allotments shall be made by the Surgeon General
with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury after consultation
with a conference of State and Territorial health authorities. An
additional $2,000,000 is provided for expenditure by the Public Health
Service for investigation of diseases and problems of sanitation, and
for the pay of the personnel engaged in such work.

Grants to States for Aid to the Blind
I n order to enable each State to furnish financial assistance to
needy individuals who are blind, there is authorized to be appropri­
ated for each fiscal year a sum sufficient to carry out this purpose.
The sums made available shall be used for making payments to
States which have submitted plans for aid to the blind, approved
by the Social Security Board.




STATUS OF STATE LEGISLATION

787

A State plan, in order to be approved, must be in effect in all
political subdivisions of the State, must provide for financial partici­
pation by the State, and must be administered or supervised by a
single State agency. No aid will be furnished any individual under
the plan who is receiving old-age assistance. No plan shall be
approved which excludes any resident of the State who has resided
therein 5 years during the 9 years immediately preceding the ap­
plication for aid and 1 year immediately preceding the application,
or imposes any citizenship requirement which excludes any citizen
of the United States.
From the sums appropriated, the Secretary of the Treasury shall
pay to each State having an approved plan, each quarter, an amount
equal to half the sums expended by the State for the blind, with a
maximum of $30 per individual, and 5 percent of that amount which
shall be used in administering the plan.
Administration
T h e l a w provides for the establishment of a Social Security Board,
to be composed of three members appointed by the President, by and
with the advice and consent of the Senate, not more than two of
whom shall be of the same political party. The terms of the mem­
bers of the Board are 6 years, but the terms of the members first taking
office shall expire, one at the end of 2 years, one at the end of 4 years,
and one at the end of 6 years.
The Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of Labor, and the
Social Security Board, respectively, shall make and publish such
rules and regulations as may be necessary to the efficient adminis­
tration of the functions with which each is charged under the act.
The act provided for specific appropriations for the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1936, but these were not passed by the Congress.

Membership of Social Security Board
HE appointment of the three members of the Social Security
Board who will have charge of the administration of the Social
Security Act of August 14, 1935, was announced by President Roose­
velt, August 23. John G. Winant, former Governor of New Hamp­
shire and at the time of his appointment assistant director of the
International Labor Office, Geneva, was appointed for the term of 6
years. Arthur J. Altmeyer, Second Assistant Secretary of Labor,
was appointed to fill the 4-year term, and Vincent Morgan Miles,
attorney, of Arkansas, received the appointment for the 2-year
term. The terms of all members after the expiration of the initial
appointments will be 6 years.

T

Status of State Legislation in Regard to Federal Social
Security Act as of January 1, 1936

A

STA TE, in order to participate in any of the benefits provided
under the Federal Social Security Act, must comply with cer­
tain minimum requirements. Many States during 1935 anticipated



788

SOCIAL SECURITY PROGRAM

the enactment of a Federal security law and amended their laws
accordingly.
Old-age 'pensions.—Title I of the Federal act extending grants to
States for old-age assistance provides that the Social Security Board
shall not approve any plan which sets the age of eligibility at more
than 65 years. A transitional period— 1935 to 1940—is, however,
provided, during which the eligible age may be set at 70 years.
Twenty-five of the thirty-nine States which up to December 1,19 35,
had enacted old-age pension laws set the age requirement at 65 years,
12 States at 70 years, 1 at 68 years, and 1 at 60 years for males and
55 for females. In two States (Arkansas and Michigan) the legis­
lature has provided that after 1940 the age requirement shall be
reduced to 65 years. The Territories of Alaska and Hawaii and the
District of Columbia have a 65-year minimum age; the Alaska pro­
vision applies to males only, the age of females being fixed at 60 years.
In many of the States, during the 1935 legislative session, residence
and citizenship requirements were enacted or amended to bring the
act within the purview of the Federal act. Heretofore, the State
laws have generally required a definite period of citizenship and resi­
dence. Many acts now retain the requirement of citizenship, but
specify no period. In California the amended law requires, contin­
gent upon the adoption of the Federal act, a State residence of 5
years within 9 years 1 immediately preceding the date of application
for aid. Alabama, Illinois, Iowa, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Missis­
sippi, Missouri, Nebraska, New Hampshire, and Texas also require
State residence of 5 out of 9 years immediately preceding application,
and Iowa requires that a recipient shall have been domiciled within
the State for 9 years immediately preceding application. In Mary­
land, Montana, Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont, Wash­
ington, and Wyoming pensioners must have resided in the State 5
years within 10 years immediately preceding the application.
States which comply with the Federal requirements will be entitled
to assistance from the United States Government up to a maximum
of $15 per person per month.
Unemployment insurance .—Prior to 1935, only one State (Wiscon­
sin) had enacted an unemployment-insurance law. During the
legislative year of 1935 eight other States (Alabama, California,
Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, Oregon, Utah, and
Washington) and the District of Columbia enacted such legislation,
all of which acts except those of Alabama, the District of Columbia,
and New York were contingent upon the enactment of Federal legis­
lation. North Carolina enacted legislation authorizing the creation
of an agency to administer an unemployment-insurance system, pro­
vided an act setting up such a system was enacted by the Federal
Government; no definite unemployment-insurance system is set up
by this legislation, but the State agency is given the right to receive
benefits from the Federal Government and to provide rules and regu­
lations necessary for the proper administration of an unemployment
insurance system.
Seven of the State plans are based on the State-wide pooling of
funds, while two (Utah and Wisconsin) set up an individual company
reserve system.

1 Requirement of Federal act.




STATUS OF STATE LEGISLATION

789

B lin d pensions.—Provisions for payment of benefits to blind per­
sons—matching State pensions up to a maximum of $15 a month—
are also included. Blind pension laws had, up to December 1935,
been enacted in 30 States and the District of Columbia.
Benefits fo r dependent children (:mothers’ pensions).—For mothers’
pensions, the Federal Government will give to the States a grant
equal to one-third of the total amount spent. Laws for the payment
of mothers’ pensions are on the statute books of all of the States
except Georgia and South Carolina. However, in some of the States
the law is in effect only in certain counties.
Other benefits.—Under the Social Security Act the Federal Govern­
ment will assist the States in public-health problems, maternal and
child-health work, child-welfare service, and vocational rehabilitation
of the physically handicapped.

State and P rivate Provision for Social S e cu rity

(See sections on “ Insurance and Benefit Plans (Other than Unem­
ployment Insurance)” ; “ Old-Age Pensions and Retirement” ; and
“ Unemployment Insurance and Relief” )







TENNESSEE VALLEY A U T H O R IT Y LABOR ASPECTS

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin N o. 616
H andbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




791




Labor and the Tennessee Valley Experiment

A

SOCIAL experiment which touches the lives of wage earners at
many points and which may have far-reaching results for the
Nation as a whole is being carried on in the Tennessee Valley. This
experiment was authorized by Congress by an act passed May 18,
1933. Under the terms of this act a corporation, the Tennessee
Valley Authority (T. V. A.), was set up, with extremely wide powers of
government but “ possessed of the flexibility and initiative of private
enterprise.” Among the functions which it is empowered to perform
are “ the generation and sale of power, the building of dams, power
plants and transmission lines, the development of fertilizers, and,
under the immediate direction of the President, a program of social and
economic planning with the aim of promoting the social and economic
welfare of the region and of the Nation. This more general program
includes soil erosion, forestry, the balancing of agriculture and indus­
try, the better and fuller use of mineral resources, and such problems
as the vocational adjustment of unemployed men and women to new
or more productive fields of work.”
Characteristics of the Tennessee Valley
T h e area of the Tennessee Valley Authority embraces the whole
Tennessee Valley—a region some 600 miles in length, comprising over
40,000 square miles in the seven States of Alabama, Georgia, Ken­
tucky, Mississippi, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia. More
than 2,000,000 people live within this area. While it has great natural
resources—waterpower and minerals—it is today distinctly an agri­
cultural district, and the towns and cities depend almost entirely on
the surrounding farming country. There are, however, a number of
industries which have developed.
This area falls naturally into several subdivisions: (1) The moun­
tains of the headwaters, especially of the eastern tributaries in Virginia
and North Carolina; (2) the valley of East Tennessee, where, with
cheap electricity, there is the possibility of great industrial expansion;
(3) the narrow gorge through the Cumberland Plateau, with its coal
and iron resources; and (4) at the extreme southern end, the great
Alabama Valley surrounding Muscle Shoals.
The points at which work is being carried on by the Authority are
Muscle Shoals, Joe Wheeler Dam, and Norris Dam. Whereas the
other two dams are what are called run-of-the-river dams, Norris Dam
is primarily for storage and can impound a year’s rainfall, which can be
released to the dams below as needed, more than doubling in this
manner the prime power available at Muscle Shoals and the other
dams.
These dams will be utilized both in the generation of electric power
and in flood control.




793

794

TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY— LABOR ASPECTS

Employment and Labor Policies

A s t a t e m e n t issued March 14, 1934, placed the total number of
persons employed on Tennessee Valley Authority projects on that date
at over 5,500. This figure did not include approximately 1,900
Civil Works Administration employees working under the supervision
of the Tennessee Valley Authority nor the 5,400 men in 25 Civilian
Conservation Corps camps engaged in reforestation and soil-erosion
projects planned and supervised by the Tennessee Valley Authority
forestry division. An allotment of $3,343,000 from the Civil Works
Administration offered 16,500 additional jobs, but after some 9,000
new workers had been hired the Civil Works Administration program
was curtailed.
At the end of August 1935, the Tennessee Valley Authority had
about 17,000 employees.
The merit system has been used in the selection of the employees.
Appointments to nonprofessional positions—skilled workmen, helpers,
and unskilled workers—have been made from those taking a civilservice examination.
After long discussion with employees and their representatives a
general policy to be followed in labor matters was formulated. This
policy was announced on August 28, 1935. Under this policy no
person under 16 years of age will be employed. All appointments,
promotions, demotions, transfers, and dismissals are to be made on
the basis of merit and efficiency as determined by intelligence, ability,
skill, training, and experience, and without regard to “ political belief
or affiliation.” No appointments involving nepotism are to be made.
The right of supervisors to terminate the employment of any
worker under their supervision, for just cause, is recognized. The
cause of dismissal must be stated in writing and a copy sent to the
personnel division and to the employee (upon request). Dismissals
must be approved by the personnel division. If requested by the
employee within 10 days of the date of termination, a hearing must
be held.
Wages and hours oj labor.— It is provided that the prevailing wage
shall be paid and that in determining this wage “ due regard shall be
given to those rates which have been secured through collective agree­
ment by representatives of employers and employees.”
On this basis the following hourly scale of wages was set for
employees of the Tennessee Valley Authority engaged on construction
work in connection with Norris and Wheeler Dams:
H ea v y construction
w o rk

Skilled labor____

R ese rv o ir
clearance

$1. 00

$0. 85
. 50
. 62%
.37 %

Semiskilled labor.
Unskilled la b or. _

. 45

The work of the Tennessee Valley Authority is partly in the central
area and partly in the southern area. The above rates are somewhat
lower than those set by the Public Works Administration for the
central area (including Tennessee) and somewhat higher than those
for the southern area (including Alabama). The advantages afforded
for the workmen at Norris Dam, however, in the way of dormitories,
homes, transportation, recreation, and training are considerably
greater than those provided at Wheeler Dam. Since men will be




LABOR AND TENNESSEE VALLEY EXPERIMENT

795

moved back and forth between the two dams, as needed, it seemed
wiser to have the same wage rate for both places.
Under the new policy rates of pay are to be determined on the basis
of occupational classification, in order to assure comparable rates for
comparable work. Schedules so set up are to be published and made
available to all employees.
In classifying jobs, due recognition is to be given to intelligence,
skill, training, and experience, and allocations are to be made on the
basis of the duties to be performed. Annually rated positions are to
be classified with due regard to standards and rates of pay in the
Federal classified service.
“No discrimination in occupational classification or in rates of pay
shall be made on the basis of sex or race.”
Laborers and mechanics are, as before, to be paid the rates prevailing
in the vicinity for work of a similar nature. All contracts to which
the Tennessee Valley Authority is a party and which require the
services of laborers and mechanics in the construction, repair, etc., of
buildings, dams, or other projects shall provide for the payment of
prevailing rates. Any cases of dispute as to the prevailing rate which
cannot be settled in conference by the management and the repre­
sentatives of the employees are to be referred to the Secretary of
Labor, whose decision shall be final.
Schedules of rates for all types and classes of work are to be pub­
lished. They shall designate the minimum rates for both hourly and
annual employees. Provision may also be made for special rates of
pay for partially disabled persons or for intermittent service. Pay
schedules are to be open for revision not oftener than once a year.
Proposed changes are to be studied in joint conference of management
and representatives of employees.
For all classes of employees the regular daily hours of work are not
to exceed 8 in any 24-hour period. They are to be so arranged as to
provide at least 1 day’s rest in every 7, such day to be Sunday, if
possible. Schedules of hours are to be posted so as to be available to
employees.
Hourly rated employees may be required to work in 1, 2, 3, or 4
shifts, as the work requires.
During periods of marked unemployment, hours of work are to be
kept as low as is consistent with efficiency in production and reason­
able minimum income.
Overtime.—As a matter of good management and efficiency, the
supervisory staff is expected to make every effort to keep overtime at a
minimum. Warning is given that excessive amounts of overtime
will be regarded as “indicative of inefficient supervision and work­
manship.”
Authorized overtime and work done on the day of rest and on cer­
tain specified holidays by hourly employees are to be paid for at the
rate of time and a half. All such time worked by persons employed
on an annual basis is to be added to the employees’ annual leave.
Accidents .—Employees injured in the course of the work are entitled
to the benefits of the Federal Employees’ Compensation Act of 1916.
M edical and health program .—All employees on construction projects
are required to pass a physical and medical examination, besides
being vaccinated for smallpox and givbn typhoid inoculations,




796

TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY— LABOR ASPECTS

All injuries receive immediate and adequate attention at wellequipped first-aid stations, and sanitary conditions surrounding the
workmen on the job are watched carefully.
Employee-employer relationship .—The right of employees of the
Authority to be represented by persons or organizations of their own
choosing is expressly recognized. The Administration pledges that in
the exercise of this right the employees shall “ be free from any and
all restraint, interference, or coercion on the part of the management
and supervisory staff” , and that there shall be no discrimination
because of membership or nonmembership in any organization.
. Employee representatives are to be chosen by “ the majority of
the employees as a whole, or of any professional group, or craft, or
other appropriate unit.” Any dispute as to who are the “ duly
authorized representatives” is to be considered by the labor relations
staff of the T. V. A. personnel division. Upon written agreement by
the parties, the division may conduct an election and designate the
persons entitled to participate. In case of failure of the division to
adjust the matter, it may turn the case over to the National Labor
Relations Board for settlement.
No changes in rules defining labor standards or conditions of
employment may be made without at least 30 days’ written notice
nor until the employees’ representatives have had opportunity to
confer with representatives of the management.
Cases of disagreement between an employee and the management,
growing out of grievances or the interpretation or application of the
regulations covering labor standards and other employment conditions,
are to be handled “ through established supervisory channels, up to
and including the designated chief supervisory officer concerned.”
If the employee fails to obtain prompt and satisfactory adjustment he
may appeal to the central office of the personnel division.
The development of employee-management cooperation through
joint conferences is expected. The Authority’s governing board
announces that when the other features of the labor policy have been
put into practice the board will then entertain plans for establishing
such joint conferences. It is suggested that the following matters
might be considered in conference: Elimination of waste in construc­
tion and production; conservation of materials, supplies, and energy;
improvement in quality of workmanship and services; promotion of
education and training; correction of conditions making for grievances
and misunderstandings; encouragement of courtesy in the relations of
employees with the public; safeguarding of health; prevention of
hazards to life and property: betterment of employment conditions;
and strengthening of the morale of the service.
Housing and Community Life
M u s c l e S h o a l s , Wheeler Dam, and Norris Dam present three
different aspects as regards housing. The workmen at Muscle Shoals
are drawn from the labor supply of Florence, Tuscumbia, and Sheffield
Ala. These men live in town and return to their homes there each
night. No housing problem is therefore involved.
At Wheeler Dam, the same is true for the majority of the workmen,
but a construction camp is provided for approximately 1,000 men.




LABOR AND TENNESSEE VALLEY EXPERIMENT

797

At Norris Dam, housing had to be provided for the labor force.
In addition to the construction camp there is in process of building a
permanent community— the town of Norris, Tenn. This town was
designed primarily to house the 2,000 or more men who will be
employed for the next few years in the construction of the dam.
By the end of June 1934 construction had been finished or was
nearing completion on housing accommodations for 357 families.
All but 50 of these were single-family houses. Of the 50 other
dwellings, 30 were low-cost apartments in five 2-story apartment
houses, and 10 were duplex houses. Dormitory facilities for 700
unattached men had also been provided.
It was originally planned to build single-family houses of excellent
design, brick and frame construction, rather completely equipped.
Sharp advances in the cost of materials and wage rates, and pressure
for rapid completion brought the average total cost per house to about
$5,200 per house, a sum considerably in excess of the original esti­
mated cost. Rents were set at about $31 per house per month, for
the 151 houses in this group. Experimentation to provide lower-cost
housing resulted in the building of 119 single-family and 10 duplex
houses made of cinder blocks. These proved to be durable, attractive,
and low in maintenance cost; and the direct cost of labor and materials
averaged about $2,300 per unit. One experimental steel house was
erected. Ten small houses were built by a cooperative workers’
productive association of stonemasons and carpenters “ at costs
competitive with Authority work.” Twenty-six farm houses pur­
chased with the land were reconditioned.
Each house has a lot averaging about a third of an acre, with a
frontage of about 75 feet and a depth of some 200 feet. It is explained
that this narrow frontage tends to reduce the cost of roadways, sewer
and water mains, and street lighting per homestead. The depth of
the lot, however, provides space for vegetable and flower garden and
lawn.
The residences are grouped in a center area, about which is a belt
of additional garden land available free in plots of about 4 acres each
to those householders who wish to raise a larger proportion of their
food. Beyond that there will be community forest or woodland.
As the town is being built by the United States Government and
will, when finished, be the property of the Government, no houses
will be sold. All will be occupied on a rental basis.
The whole will be a planned community, molded into the natural
contours of the land on which it is built. Dead-end streets will be
used wherever possible, to prevent through traffic. In the general
landscaping, native shrubs and trees will be used. As to the houses,
also, types common to the region, which have been developed to meet
its particular conditions, are being employed.
Adjacent to a 14-acre public recreation ground will be a community
center, as the planning of proper social, religious, and community
life for the town is also part of the program. A recreation hall will
serve the construction camp and town as a community center. This
hall will include a library, games, and a combined gymnasium and
meeting room. Talking pictures, for both educational and recrea­
tional purposes, will be given in this room, which will also be used
for lectures and entertainments. A single (cooperative) store serves
the needs of the town in groceries, drugs, dry goods, hardware, etc.




798

TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY— LABOR ASPECTS

Away from the traffic, but so located that a section of the park can
be used as a playground, will be the public school. A hospital will
be built on a low ridge apart from the center of town but easily
accessible. There is a modern cafeteria equipped to serve 1,000
meals an hour.
The town, being on Government property, will be governed and
policed by the Federal Government.
Supplemental Employment and Training Therefor
O p p o r t u n it ie s for vocational training are provided at both Norris
and Wheeler Dams, keeping in mind the interest and capacity of the
individual and the vocational opportunities and needs which seem
to have significance in the social order. Those who participate in
the training do so voluntarily. On June 30, 1934, there were 600
workers who were taking training at Norris, and a smaller number
at Wheeler Dam.
The program will be coordinated with the plans of the Tennessee
Valley Authority to encourage a better utilization of the resources of
the valley and to eliminate many of the wastes now apparent. Thus
in the upland regions of the valley, poor farming practice and lack of
adequate forestry are causing much of the soil to be washed away.
Several projects are being developed which will be demonstrations
of good practice along these lines. Thus, a small dairy farm is to be
operated at Norris where grasses and hay crops will be substituted
for the corn crops which have been a factor in the deterioration of
the soil. This dairy, together with a small pasteurizing plant and
creamery, will form a service industry for the whole community and
serve as an illustration of provision by a small industry of higher
standards of living and of effective utilization of products locally
available.
Most of the vocational training will be associated with actual going
enterprises of this sort. Men who desire training in dairying, for
instance, may arrange a schedule of training to coincide with their
free periods at the dam.
At the edge of town, near the dairy farm, is a poultry plant, which
furnishes part of the supplies for the cafeteria and is a much-needed
market for the surrounding area. The main purpose is not to run
a business but to demonstrate a special kind of business operation
and to provide practical study of poultry production and marketing
practice. Ultimate aims are the raising of the standards of egg pro­
duction and consumption and the furnishing of an example of a
rural occupation which can be set up economically in a region where
large-scale farming is limited.
A farm garden of about 50 acres will be another center of training,
and 2 small tree nurseries to be used in studying methods of raising
crop-bearing trees and shrubs are being started. These trees will be
propagated as a source of food supply for both the population and the
livestock.
'Plans for other agricultural projects are in progress. On the
Tennessee Valley Authority farm enterprises it is hoped to include
studies and demonstrations in farm wood lots and forests, in land
terracing, in special pasture and cover crops, in farm mechanics, in




LABOR AND TENNESSEE VALLEY EXPERIM ENT

799

agricultural accounting and management, in farm buildings, and in
rural electrification.
As it is estimated that the Tennessee Valley contains twice as
many people in rural areas as are necessary for agriculture there, the
development of such local industries will be fostered as will make
possible the manufacture of more of their own goods for consumption
and to carry on the processing of a larger share of local products.
Shops will be established to provide instruction and practice in a
wide variety of useful trades essential to life on the farm and in rural
communities. These will include woodworking, automotive trades,
general metal and electrical work, etc. These shops will be part of
the general program of developing appropriate industries to coordinate
with the agricultural resources of the valley and will furnish facilities
for employees to prepare for work in such industries.
Other normal operations of the construction camp and town will
provide training. Thus, the cafeteria, general store, tourist camp,
and small utility shops will be used for training purposes.
For technical employees who wish to continue some study along
with their work, but lack the necessary funds for additional college
work, the Authority has made provision for a limited amount of
technical training which engineering employees may take for a small
fee.
For the benefit of the housewives, one dwelling is planned to be a
home demonstration center and will be occupied by a person skilled
in home management.
Tennessee Valley Associated Cooperatives
I n J a n u a r y 1934 the Federal Emergency Relief Administration
allotted $300,000 to be used for the organization of cooperative asso­
ciations of various kinds in the Tennessee Valley. The Tennessee
Valley Associated Cooperatives, Inc., has been incorporated as a
subsidiary of the Tennessee Valley Authority to carry these plans
into effect. Among the associations planned are associations for
marketing eggs and milk, and perhaps later some small industries.
The employees already have a cooperative bank, a cooperative
laundry, a cooperative shoe-repair and clothes-pressing service, and
a cooperative store, and will soon have a cooperative dairy and a
cooperative chicken-raising enterprise. Cooperative credit societies
(credit unions) have been formed at several of the projects.
The formation of cooperative societies for the distribution of power
purchased from the Tennessee Valley Authority by the farmers is
also to be encouraged.
A small cooperative store has been established at Norris which
sells the output of the various mountain handicraft groups in Ken­
tucky, Tennessee, and North Carolina.







TURN-OVER OF LABOR

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition

19205— 36-------52




801




Standard Procedure for Computing Labor Turn-Over
turn-over is
to both employers and workers. To
1 A B0Remployer therecostlyexpense involved in inter viewing and hir­
J the
is an

ing the new man. There is always an uncertainty as to his ability and
efficiency, which entails a greater amount of supervision than is given
to an older employee. The new man cannot be trusted fully until his
capacity is known and he frequently spoils material while learning.
The worker is likely to lose wages between jobs; frequently he must
learn new methods even though he continues in the same trade. If he
changes occupations he seldom earns as much on the new job until he
has become skilled.
The amount of labor turn-over in American industry is of interest
to employers, workers, and the public. The Bureau of Labor Statis­
tics collects and publishes monthly figures on labor turn-over which
cover more than 5,000 manufacturing establishments employing ap­
proximately 2,000,000 workers. The figures are rates or indexes, com­
puted from the average number of employees and the number of
accessions and separations during the month.
A general rate is published each month for manufacturing industries
as a whole, based on reports received at present from about 2,500
employers in 144 different lines of manufacture. A balanced pro­
portion is given to the several industries included in this general rate.
In addition, the Bureau has expanded its monthly inquiry to such
an extent in 12 industries that separate rates are now being published
for them. These 12 industries collectively represent approximately
4,000 establishments. A due proportion of the establishments in
these several lines is included in the general index.
The definitions used by the Bureau are as follows:
An accession means the hiring of a new employee or the rehiring of an old
employee.
A separation is a termination of employment of any of the three following
kinds: Quits, lay-offs, and discharges.
A quit is termination of employment, generally initiated by the worker because
of his desire to leave, but sometimes due to his physical incapacity.
A discharge 1 is a termination of employment at the will of the employer, with
prejudice to the worker because of some fault on the part of the worker.
A lay-off 1 is a termination of employment at the will of the employer, without
prejudice to the worker. A permanent lay-off, a long lay-off, an indefinite lay­
off, and a short definite lay-off with the name of the worker removed from the
pay roll, are counted by the Bureau as lay-offs, but a short, definite lay-off with
name of the worker remaining on the pay roll is not counted as a separation. (It
is recognized that some companies retain persons on the pay roll and give them
extended vacations when business is slow; other companies take them off the pay
roll but promise to reemploy them when there is work. This variation in policy
interferes with complete comparability in the monthly reports received from the
companies, and causes some distortion in the general lay-off rate.)
1There are prevalent two conceptions of the use of the terms “ lay-o£E,, and “ discharge.” Some persons
differentiate between them on the basis of the degree of permanence, a lay-off being thought of as a tem­
porary separation and a discharge as a permanent separation. The Bureau has adopted the definitions
described in the paragraphs above (i. e., a lay-off being a termination of employment without prejudice to
the worker, while a discharge involves prejudice to the worker) because these usages are common among
employers and personnel workers in industry.




803

804

TURN-OVER OF LABOR

A quit on the part of a worker is generally due to—
a. Dissatisfaction as to wages, hours, working conditions, or labor policies.
b. The opportunity to get a more desirable position.
c. A desire not to work anywhere.
d. Sickness, disability, old age, or death.
A discharge of a worker is generally due to his—
a. Incompetence.
b. Insubordination.
c. Violation of rules.
d. Dishonesty.
e. Misfit— physical or mental.
/. Laziness.
A lay-off of the worker may, among other causes, be due to—
a. Lack of orders.
b. Lack of material.
c. Change in product.
d. Break-down of plant.
e. Reorganization of force.
/. Release of temporary help.
g. Introduction of labor-saving machinery.

Method of Collection
E ach month the Bureau sends out a questionnaire and gets from
its correspondent establishments the following information for the
month just closed:
1. Number of separations during period—
a. Number of quits.
b. Number of discharges.
c. Number of lay-offs.
d . Total separations.
2. Number of accessions during period.
3. Number of factory workers on pay roll—
a. At beginning of period.
b. At end of period.

The purpose of the last two questions is to get an approximate
number on the pay roll. This is determined by adding the number
at the beginning of the period and at the end of the period and dividing
by two. Some plants are able to furnish the average of daily counts
of the number on the pay roll. Others can furnish an average of the
number on the weekly pay roll.
The reporting establishments are requested to omit office employees,
when practicable, but to include temporary help, part-time workers,
and employees in training. This inclusion is desired in order to show
the degree of stability of employment as it affects all workers.
Methods of Computing
T h e items of separation and accession are divided by the average
number on the pay roll to get the rate per 100 employees for the
month. In compiling the rates the actual numbers for the several
establishments are added and the general rates computed from the
grand total. Thus each establishment has an influence or “ weight”
in the rate in proportion to its size.
If an equivalent annual rate is desired, the monthly rate can be
multiplied by 11.77 if the month has 31 days; by 12.17 if it is a 30-day
month; by 13.04 if it is a 28-day month; and by 12.62 if it is a 29-day
month.
In comparing monthly rates the number of days in the month
should be considered, as no adjustment is made in the monthly rate




805

JANUARY 1931 TO DECEM BER 1935

because of the number of its days. With the adjustment in the
equivalent yearly rate this latter figure affords a more exact com­
parison as between months.

Labor Turn-Over, January 1931 to December 1935
A V E R A G E labor turn-over rates in representative American factoX A ries for the years 1931, 1932, 1933, 1934, and 1935 are shown in
table 1. The monthly rates show the number of changes in the
month per 100 employees on the pay roll. The form of average used
in compiling these rates is the weighted arithmetic mean.
T a ble 1.—M O N T H L Y A N D A N N U A L LABOR T U R N -O VER RATES (PER 100 EM PLO YEES)
IN R E P R E SE N T A T IV E FACTORIES IN 144 IN D U STR IES, JA N U A R Y 1931 TO D E C E M B E R
1935
Class of rates and year
Quit rate:
1931______ ______ ________
1932________________ _____
1933________________ ____
1934.....................................
1935____ _________________
Discharge rate:
1931______ _______________
1932______ _______________
1933_____________________
1934_____________________
1935........ ............................-

Year Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

11.39 0.74 0.74 0.94 1.14 1.12
8.34 .71 .71 .86 .91 .68
10.66 .65 .49 .53 .63 .84
10.67 .90 .85 .93 1.11 1.01
10.37 .76 .73 .75 .93 1.21

1.02 1.10 1.05 1.16 1.00 0.72 0.66
.66 .63 .67 .76 .65 .54 .56
1.03 1.25 1.22 1.65 .87 .78 .72
.94 .70 .75 1.55 .73 .62 .58
.83 .90 .86 1.05 .89 .77 .69

2.72
1.96
2.49
2.24
2.29

.19
.19
.15
.18
.18

.20
.18
.13
.19
.18

.26
.21
.14
.21
.17

.31
.22
.15
.23
.20

.28
.16
.18
.22
.17

.23
.14
.26
.18
.20

.25
.14
.26
.19
.20

.22
.14
.31
.19
.21

.24
.14
.27
.16
.19

.21
.14
.24
.19
.21

.17
.15
.22
.15
.20

.16
.15
.18
.15
.18

1931_____ _______________
1932_____________________
1933_____________________
1934_____ _____ — .......... .
1935_____________________

34. 27
41.68
32.23
36.26
30.08

1.95
2.45
2.76
2.35
2.10

1. 75
2.43
3.78
1.85
1.88

1.75
3. 30
3.93
2.08
2. 32

1.96
4.60
2.00
2.04
2.60

2.43
4.27
1.34
3.65
3.00

3.84
4.83
1.18
3.48
3.46

3.32
4.47
1.98
2.96
2.57

2.40
3.04
1.87
3.56
2.70

4.22
3. 57
2.34
3.41
1.95

5.01
2.67
3.47
4.38
2.03

3.03
2.70
3.79
3.78
2.58

2.61
3.35
3.79
2.72
2.89

1931_____________________
1932________________ ____
1933........ — ............ ............
1934_____________________
1935_____________________

48.38
51.98
45.38
49.17
42.74

2.88
3. 35
3.56
3.43
3.04

2.69
3. 32
4.40
2.89
2.79

2.95
4.37
4.60
3.22
3.24

3.41
5.73
2.78
3.38
3.73

3.83
5.11
2.36
4.88
4.38

5.09
5. 63
2.47
4.60

4.49

4.67
5.24
3.49
3.85
3. 67

3.67
3.85
3.40
4.50
3. 77

5. 62
4.47
4.26
5.12
3.19

6.22
3.46
4.58
5.30
3.13

3.92
3.39
4.79
4. 55

3.55

3.43
4.06
4.69
3.45
3.76

1931_____________________
1932_____ _______________
1933____ _________________
1934_____ ________________
1935_____________________

36.59
39.82
65.20
56.91
50.05

2.97
4.15
3.48
5.81
6. 33

2.82
2. 75
2. 56
6. 71
4.23

3.67
2. 75
2.22
6. 33
3.79

3.06
2. 76
4.87
5.18
3.63

2.79 2.41
2.59 2.70
7. 21 10. 21
4.19 3.58
3.01 3.18

3.02
3.01
9.48
3. 71
4.17

2.60
4.21
8.59
3.24
4.60

3.58
5.04
5.53
3. 61
4.95

2.75
3.72
3.97
4.09
5.23

3.63
3.07
3. 71
4.32
3.63

3. 29
3.07
3.37
6.14
3.30

Lay-off rate:

Total separation rate:
Accession rate:

For 1935, as compared with 1934, both the separation rate and the
accession rate show a moderate decline of about the same magnitude.
While the accession rate exceeded the total separation rate for the
year 1934, it was lower than for 1933. The quit and the discharge
rates varied slightly and the lay-off rate for the year increased.
Table 2 shows for the years 1931, 1932, 1933, 1934, and 1935 the
annual quit, discharge, lay-off, and accession rates for automobiles,
boots and shoes, brick manufacturing, cotton manufacturing, found­
ries and machine shops, furniture, iron and steel, men’s clothing, saw­
mills, and slaughtering and meat packing.
In 1934 the automotive industry registered the highest annual quit
rate during the 5-year period of any of the 10 industries. In 1931 the




806

TURN-O VER OF LABOR

sawmill industry showed the highest discharge rate for the same period.
The highest lay-off rate shown in 1934 occurred in the slaughtering
and meat-packing industry; the lowest in iron and steel. During 1934
the accessions exceeded the separations in 6 out of the 10 industries.
In each of the 10 industries more people were hired in 1933 than
were separated from the pay rolls. In only 2 of these 10 industries
were there more people hired than lost their jobs in 1932. In the
other eight industries more people were separated from the pay rolls
than were hired. In 1931 the separations exceeded the accessions in
all the industries. All 10 industries except men’s clothing and boots
and shoes had a higher quit rate in 1933 than in 1932. Four of the 10
industries had a higher discharge rate during 1933 than during either
of the two previous years. The 1933 lay-off rate, however, was lower
in 7 of the 10 industries than during the two preceding years.
During 1933, among these 10 industries, cotton manufacturing
showed the highest quit rate and foundries and machine shops the
lowest. The automotive industry showed the highest discharge rates,
while the lowest discharge rate occurred in the iron and steel industry.
The highest lay-off rate was registered in brick manufacturing and the
lowest in the iron and steel industry. Brick manufacturing showed
the highest and men’s clothing the lowest accession rate.
In all the years the Bureau has been compiling labor turn-over data,
except in 1933, the iron and steel industry has shown the lowest sepa­
ration and accession rates. In 5 out of the 10 industries the hiring
and the separation rates exceeded 50 percent each year. This would
indicate that each year in 5 of the major industries in the United
States, for every 100 employees on the pay roll 50 or more were sep­
arated from the service and 50 others were added, either as rehires or
as new employees.
T a ble 2 .—M O N T H L Y A N D A N N U A L LABOR TU R N -O V E R RATES PER 100 E M P L O Y E E S

IN R E P R E SE N TA TIV E PLAN TS IN 10 SPECIFIED IN D U ST R IES, JA N U A R Y 1931 TO
D E C E M B E R 1935,
A u to m o b iles

Class of rates and
year
Quit rate
1931............ .......
1932...................
1933...................
1934...................
1935...................
Discharge rate:
1931...............
1932...................
1933............ .
1934...................
1935...................
Lay-off rate:
1931...................
1932.............
1933...................
1934...................
1935...................
Total separation
rate:
1931__________
1932____ ______
1933_____ ____
1934....................
1935____ ______
Accession rate:
1931...................
1932...................
1933..................
1934...................
1935...................

Year

Jan.

Feb. Mar. Apr.

May June July

Aug. Sept.

Oct.

Nov. Dec.

12.03
10.04
14.89
21.76
15.04

0.54
.89
.98
2.82
1.96

0. 74
.83
.55
3.23
1.62

1.09
1.70
.57
3.49
1. 61

1.46
1.24
.87
3.31
1. 61

1.40
.91
1.08
2.45
1.36

0.90
.78
1. 27
1.58
.92

0.99
.68
1.42
.98
.72

1.10
.68
1.52
.82
.70

1.00
.60
2.28
.59
.79

0.85
.40
1.69
.53
1.18

0.85
.62
1.19
.65
1.42

1.11
.71
1.47
1.31
1.15

3. 55
2.55
5. 46
4.97
3.26

.18
.28
.41
.64
.37

.21
.28
.29
.68
.29

.39
.35
.17
.69
.28

.44
.20
.32
.74
.37

.39
.21
.34
.52
.29

.21
.18
.51
.41
.21

.33
.11
.54
.29
.21

.30
.13
.45
.24
.19

.21
.13
.37
.14
.13

.29
.17
1.34
.16
.29

.27
.23
.35
.13
.33

.33
.28
.37
.33
.30

72.81
82.70
76. 62
85 17
50.33

2. 63 1. 71 1. 71
3. 73 3.28 5.26
3.78 12.90 15.42
3.22 2.43 3.79
1. 72 2.33 2.57

1.86 3.07 10.57 6.89 3.48
7.13 5.85 5.42 12.46 9.98
2. 42 1.52 1.53 3.10 3.30
4. 66 12.85 10.80 6.38 9.90
2.28 5. 53 9.47 5.02 11.81

12.54 19.47
12.19 6.89
10.03 14.28
13.31 12.31
2.19 2.21

6. 36
6. 37
4.75
3.25
2.85

2.52
4.14
3.59
2.27
2.35

88.39
95. 29
96.97
111.90
68.63

3.35 2. 66 3.19
4.90 4.39 7.31
5.17 13. 74 16.16
6. 68 6. 34 7.97
4. 05 4.24 4.46

3. 76 4.86 11.68 8.21 4.88
8. 57 6.97 6.38 13.25 10.79
3. 61 2. 94 3.31 5.06 5.27
8. 71 15.82 12.79 7.65 10.96
4. 26 7.18 10.60 5.95 12.70

13. 75 20.61
12.92 7.46
12.68 17.31
14.04 13.00
3.11 3.68

7.48
7.22
6.29
4.03
4.60

3.96
5.13
5.43
3.91
3.80

2.88 5.16 4.23
2.67 5.44 9.15
7.83 6.10 6.20
2.61 2.53 5.31
4.00 10.32 17.46

16.51
10. 79
13.63
17.30
7.89

13.72
12.79
18.26
27.48
4.67

72.95 2.92 4.12 7.76 5.21
83.43 9. 39 4.17 5.83 6.11
117.01 10. 39 3.51 4.01 12.92
139.95 25. 51 20.17 16.62 11.77
84.65 17.61 5.76 5.26 5.32




3.41 2.91 4.12
8. 36 6.37 2.36
8. 73 13.00 12.43
4.24 3.48 2.93
1.95 1.95 2.46

807

JANUARY 1931 TO DECEMBER 1935
T

3 . — M O N T H L Y A N D A N N U A L LABOR T U R N -O VER RATES PER 100 EM P LO Y E E S
IN R E P R E SE N T A T IV E PLANTS IN 10 SPECIFIED IN D U ST R IES, JA N U A R Y 1931 TO
D E C E M B E R 1935— Continued

able

B o o ts and shoes
Class of rates and
year
Quit rate:
1931...................
1932...................
1933...................
1934...................
1935...................
Discharge rate:
1931...................
1932...................
1933...................
1934...................
1935...................
Lay-off rate:
1931...................
1932...................
1933...................
1934...................
1935...................
Total separation
rate:
1931...................
1932...................
1933...................
1934...................
1935...................
Accession rate:
1931...................
1932...................
1933...................
1934...................
1935...................

Year

Jan.

Feb. Mar. Apr.

May June

July

Aug. Sept.

Oct.

Nov. Dec.

19.11
11.55
11.55
10.46
7.93

1.23
1.10
.76
.88
.62

1.27
1.21
.72
1.64
.63

1.58
1.46
.86
1.49
.66

1.97
1.07
.80
.78
.59

1.57
.76
.79
.92
.68

1.61
.86
.89
.79
.59

2.27
.81
1.22
.86
.89

2.18
.89
1.43
.76
.88

2.30
1.16
2.07
.64
.72

1.20
.92
.60
.55
.61

0.87
.57
.65
.47
.44

1.06
.74
.76
.68
.62

4.46
2.74
2.93
2.64
2.25

.37
.27
.17
.23
.25

.31
.31
.22
.27
.26

.50
.41
.19
.33
.22

.42
.26
.16
.25
.16

.49
.18
.16
.19
.17

.40
.19
.21
.21
.15

.53
.20
.33
.30
.23

.44
.23
.42
.25
.22

.43
.22
.47
.17
.17

.22
.16
.20
.11
.12

.15
.14
.16
.12
.15

.20
.17
.24
.21
.16

28.74
26.22
25.06
25.37
23.97

1.88
1.21
1.44
1.40
1.20

1.23
.87
1.15
.99
.96

1.16
2.43
1.52
1.46
1.24

1.53
2.99
1. 61
1.56
2.15

2.37
3.35
1.28
2.08
3.93

1.85
3.07
1.12
3.19
2.36

1.40
1.24
.96
.95
1.10

1.80
1.24
1.83
2.30
1.67

2.94
1.40
2.07
2.33
2.32

6.02
2.13
2.89
3.25
1.87

4.13
3.29
4.64
3.63
3.22

2.43
3.00
4.55
2.23
1.95

52.31
40.51
39.54
38.47
34.15

3.48
2.58
2.37
2.51
2.07

2.81
2.39
2.09
2.90
1.85

3.24
4.30
2.57
3.28
2.12

3.92
4.32
2.57
2. 59
2.90

4.43
4.29
2.23
3.19
4.78

3.86
4.12
2.22
4.19
3.10

4.20
2.25
2.51
2.11
2.22

4.42
2.36
3.68
3.31
2.77

5.67
2.78
4.61
3.14
3.21

7.44
3.21
3.69
3.91
2.60

5.15
4.00
5.45
4.22
3.81

3.69
3.91
5. 55
3.12
2.72

50.29
39.64
46.36
41.55
38.21

4.48
4.84
3.67
5.96
5.48

5.88
4.99
3.75
6.09
3.63

4.92
4.10
2.90
4.40
2.42

4. 34
1.60
3.17
2.46
1. 21

4.95
.92
4.27
2. 22
1.65

5.18
2.49
5.25
3.53
6.15

7.16
3.89
8.06
4.37
5.17

4.15
3.84
5.25
1.90
2.44

2.00
5.68
2.41
1.09
1.65

1.01
2.28
2.35
1. 21
1.65

2.62
1.93
1.54
2.61
2.16

3.60
3.08
3.74
5. 71
4.60

B ric k s

Quit rate:
1931.................
1932...................
1933...................
1934...................
1935...................
Discharge rate:
1931...................
1932.................
1933...................
1934.............
1935...................
Lay-off rate:
1931.................
1932...................
1933...................
1934...................
1935...................
Total separation
rate:
1931...................
1932...................
1933...................
1934.................
1935............ .
Accession rate:
1931...................
1932...................
1933...................
1934............ .
1935...................

0.86
0)
.26
0.31
.28
.15
.74
.70
.36 11.42

1.77
.28
.35
.55
2.37

0.80
.34
.62
2.16
.55

0.93
.23
.75
2.64
.47

0.80
.22
.94
.55
.69

1.34
.40
1.02
.80
.72

0.49
.26
.59
1.06
.67

0.50
.19
.36
.38
.67

0.29
.17
1.00
.51
.55

.61
.37
.08
.21
.05

.66
.17
.20
.21
.29

.44
.20
.18
.22
.15

.50
.13
.17
.08
.13

.33
.13
.13
.15
.18

.33
.12
.40
.08
.19

.14
.17
.07
.17
.20

.55
.18
.08
.16
.13

.41
.05
.13
.16
.30

3.41
6.43
11.61
19.45

0)
0.43
.25
.75
.55

0)
0.32
.12
.77
.43

3.01
1.95
2.40
1.83

0)
.66
.21
.30
.04

0)
.45
.11
.31
.09

0)
132. 78 16.62
96.42 6.83
96.67 3.98
74.58 8.32

0)
8. 47
7.49
3.93
4.49

4.01
(0
4.64 11.50
5.28
8.47
5.29 3.91
5.05 5.87

0)
139. 20 17.71
104.80 7.29
110.68 5.03
95.86 8.91

0)
9.24
7. 72
5.01
5. 01

5.48 11.08 6.69 9. 33 8. 77 10.33 10.67 11.22 16.37
0)
5.33 12.13 8.45 13.57 10.41 9.10 9.72 11.83 10.68 21.03
8.81 5.64 4.14 4.43 6.19 6.27 12.67 11.64 14.49 15. 51
6.34 4.86 6.98 9.19 10.94 10.65 16.43 10.17 11.31 13.77
5.49 17.34 8.58 6.68 7.90 6.87 6.89 6.36 6.93 8.90

(0
.38
.19
.35
.08

8.65 5.45 7.90
8.00 13.03 10.05
3.59 3.63 5.27
6.22 6.81 8.22
5.92 5.98 7.30

7.64 8.66 10.04 10.17 15.67
8. 75 9.20 11.40 10.31 20.81
5.20 11. 25 10.98 14.05 14.38
9.95 15.55 8.94 10.77 13.10
6.00 5.98 6.49 6.13 8.05

8.68 7.89 6.67 6.02 7.72
0)
0)
0)
92.72 4.57 6.60 10.36 7.82 10.45 8.95 7.91 8.98
126.80 9.66 6. 73 7,88 10.61 18.89 27.63 11.58 10.25
108.98 15.71 9.82 8 41 10.33 9.50 7.14 6.26 6.69
106.62 10.10 11.42 11.81 9.92 15.77 7.91 8.03 7.62

* Rates not available.




4.39 5.06 6.70
8.90 6.66 7.67
5.25 6.65 6.08
4.39 11.95 10.76
7.50 6.78 5.31

3.33
3.85
5.59
8.02
4.45

808
T

TURN-OVER OF LABOR

2 —M O N T H L Y A N D A N N U A L LABOR T U R N -O VER R ATES PER 100 E M P LO Y E E S
IN R E P R E SE N T A T IV E P LAN TS IN 10 SPECIFIED IN D U ST R IES, J A N U A R Y 1931 TO
D E C E M B E R 1935— Continued

able

Cotton
Class of rates and
year
Quit rate:
1931...................
1932..............—
1933............ — _
1934__________
1935__________
Discharge rate:
1931__________
1932.................
1933__________
1934__________
1935_____ ____
Lay-off rate:
1931...................
1932__________
1933...................
1934............ — _
1935__________
Total separation
rate:
1931.................
1932__________
1933____ _____
1934................1935.......... .........
Accession rate:
1931__________
1932............ .
1933__________
1934__________
1935__________

May June

July Aug. Sept.

Oct.

Nov. Dec.

1.64
1.03
1.92
1.20
1.26

1.53
.90
2.22
1.31
.98

1.25
.64
2.70
1.30
.97

1.48
.95
2.26
.88
1.87

1.57
1.36
2.02
.85
1. 36

1.65
1.42
1. 75
6.49
1. 34

1.42
1.33
1. 32
1.12
1.24

1.19
1.13
1.14
.93
1.11

1.23
.89
1.02
.78
.83

.36
.34
.23
.34
.33

.43
.30
.43
.26
.26

.37
.22
.37
.30
.26

.46
.26
.43
.28
.25

.40
.23
.51
.32
.27

.38
.24
.58
.27
.31

.36
.29
.46
.33
.28

.35
.20
.34
.31
.28

.34
.30
.35
.29
.25

.34
.28
.27
.24
.20

1.87
2.33
3. 77
1.53
2.38

2.00
3.06
4.16
1.87
4.31

2.52
6.65
1.51
3.93

2.30 2.24
6.35 10.36
.61
.77
5.63 5.11
4.03 6.44

3.07
4.13
2.48
1.89
3.88

2.29
1.17
3.12
2.39
2.08

2.38
1.57
2.88
2.46
1. 62

3.70
1.73
2.74
3.37
2.14

3.67
3. 22
4.58
4.09
2.48

3.96
3.36
3.19
2.31
3.52

4.00
3.83
3.85
3.85
3.34

3.21
3.69
5.24
3. 20
3.62

3.72
4.55
5.43
3. 38
5. 71

4.59
7.98
3.86
3.68
5.45

4. 20 3.95
7.47 11.26
3.36 3.74
7.24 6.69
5.27 7.66

4.95
5.31
5.25
3.09
6.02

4.24
2.77
5.72
3.51
3. 75

4.39
3.28
5.09
9.28
3.24

5.47
3.26
4.40
4.80
3. 66

5.20
4. 65
6.07
5. 31
3.84

5.53
4.53
4.48

3. 57
5. 25
4.88
6.57
4.74

3.91
4.73
3.82
5.90
3. 56

4.47
3.50
3.46
4.86
3.92

4.69 3.51 2.66 4.62 4.70 4.36
2. 27 1.96 2.51 7.68 12.41 12.92
7.35 13.48 14.09 17.54 5.21 4.70
3.35 3.18 3.54 3.67 3.03 3.60
2.99 2.65 3.46 4.68 5.50 6.68

3.84
5.80
3.59
8.05
5.82

4.15
4.49
2.86
3.93
4.17

2.90
3.96
2.58
4.01
4.16

Year

Jan.

Feb. Mar. Apr.

16.32
13.11
20.08
18. 62
13.98

1.00
1.19
1.51
1.31
.99

1.00
1.12
1.18
1.28
.96

1.36
1.15
1.04
1.17
1.07

4. 53
3. 24
4. 56
3. 73
3.25

.40
.34
.30
.40
.28

.34
.24
.29
.39
.28

32.60
46.23
31.85
35.01
38.88

2.60
2.30
2.04
2.14
2.07

53.45
62.58
56.49
57.36
56.11
47.38
67.48
83.56
53.69
52.33

2 .2 2

3 .3 3

4.55

F o u n d ries and m ach in e sh op s

Quit rate:
1931........ ..........
1932____ ______
1933...................
1934...................
1935...................
Discharge rate:
1931................1932............— _
1933............ — ,
1934...................
1985................Lay-off rate:
1931__________
1932............ ...
1933..............—
1934........ ..........
1935........ ..........
Total separation
rate:
1931........ ..........
1932.......... .........
1933...................
1934____ _____
1935.................
Accession rate:
1931........ ..........
1932...................
1933................1934...................
1935...................

7.58
3.71
6.19
8.20
9.06

0.52
.42
.24
.66
.61

0.55
.36
.22
.75
.71

0.90
.46
.26
1.38
.70

0.96
.29
.33
.90
.78

0.77
.39
.38
.79
.74

0.69
.31
.63
.66
.86

0.68
.29
.72
.52
.77

0.55
.27
.89
.56
.80

0.70
.27
.82
.51
.98

0.56
.23
.54
.56
.79

0.39
.22
.53
.46
.75

0. 31
.20
.63
.45
.57

2.74
1.23
2.00
2.37
3.07

.22
.15
.04
.19
.21

.22
.12
.07
.17
.23

.25
.12
.09
.26
.24

.36
.12
.08
.28
.30

.25
.14
.16
.29
.25

.25
.12
.25
.25
.39

.20
.08
.19
.20
.19

.22
.09
.28
.15
.25

.30
.08
.27
.13
.23

.16
.06
.24
.16
.30

.19
.07
.17
.17
.25

.12
.08
.16
.12
.23

43.35
41.45
31.36
37.76
28.51

2.32
3.14
2.62
2.49
2.08

2.10
2.98
3.72
1. 55
2.00

2.72
3.55
2.83
1.87
1.96

3. 29
4.27
2.24
1.83
2.74

4.91
3.93
1.50
3.61
3.23

4.44
4.74
1.84
4.27
3.55

4. 71
3.43
1.56
2.80
3.11

3.78
3.24
1.91
3.94
2.06

3.13
3.34
2.42
5.62
1.76

4.45
2.42
3. 26
4.63
2.40

3.82
3.29
4.34
2.78
1.65

3. 68
3.12
3.12
2. 37
1.97

53.67
46.39
39.55
48.33
40.64

3.06
3.71
2.90
3.34
2.90

2.87
3.46
4.01
2.47
2.94

3.87
4.13
3.18
3.51
2.90

4.61
4.68
2. 65
3.01
3.82

5.93
4.46
2.04
4. 69
4. 22

5.38
5.17
2.72
5.18
4.80

5.59
3.80
2.47
3.52
4.07

4.55
3.60
3.08
4.65
3.11

4.13
3.69
3.51
6.26
2.97

5.17
2.71
4.04
5.35
3.49

4.40
3.58
5.04
3.41
2.65

4.11
3.40
3. 91
2. 94
2.77

30.81
30.23
63.40
58.88
53.62

2.93
3.23
2.71
6.25
6.77

2.96
2.52
1. 73
6.34
5.29

3.38
2.94
2.12
7.48
5.35

3.08
2.00
4.38
6.46
4.70

2.94
2.54
5.69
4.95
3. 72

1.95 2.63 2. 20
1.88 2.14 2.35
8.80 10.05 10. 55
4.19 3.58 2.72
3.47 3.65 4.22

3.04
3.27
6.54
2.60
4.29

2.36
2.64
4.44
4.19
4.52

1.89
2.44
3.32
4.10
4.51

1.95
2.28
3.07
6. 02
3.13




809

JANUARY 1931 TO DECEMBER 1935

T a ble 2 —M O N T H L Y A N D A N N U A L LABOR TU R N -O V E R R ATES PER 100 EM P LO Y E E S

IN R EPR E SE N TA TIV E PLAN TS IN 10 SPECIFIED IN D U ST R IES, J A N U A R Y 1931 TO
D E C E M B E R 1935—Continued
F u rn itu re

Class of rates and
year
Quit rate:
1931__________
1932____ ______
1933____ _____
1934__________
1935____ _____
Discharge rate:
1931.......... ........
1932__________
1933____ _____
1934____ _____
1935__________
Lay-off rate:
1931.......... .........
1932__________
1933............ .
1934...................
1935__________
Total separation
rate:
1931............ .
1932...............
1933__________
1934__________
1935__________
Accession rate:
1931__________
1932__________
1933__________
1934__________
1935__________

Year

Jan.

Feb.

Mar. Apr.

May June

July

Aug. Sept.

Oct.

Nov. Dec.

9.71
5.20
9.31
7.42
8. 57

0.55
.38
.34
.58
.40

0.57
.63
.23
.59
.46

0.80
.64
.31
.49
.72

0.95
.53
.75
.62
.60

1. 05
.47
1. 36
.60
.62

0.81
.52

1.13
.42
1.07
.41
.60

0.94
.54

0.96

0.40

4. 02
1.79
3.72
2.77
2.72

.25
.16
.14
.27
.28

.34
.34
.26
.23

.37
.27

.12

.51
.15
.08

.25
.16

.25
.25

.22

.33
.07
.32

.20

.11
.21

.19

.18

50.96
54.88
53.28
50.24
33.91

4.84
5.86
5.61
5.24
3.45

3.86
4. 35
3.29
4.03
2.36

4. 52
6.19
5.78
3.97
2. 37

3. 31
5.72

64.69
61.87
66.31
60.43
45.20

5.64
6.40
6.09
6. 09
4.13

4.77
5.32
3.78
4.85
3.02

55.55
50.36
85.81
58.69
57.28

5.24*
4.00
3. 36
5. 52
6. 50

5. 51
4.69
3. 31
5.14
5.41

1.06
.36

1.22 1.02
.86 .49

1.21

.22
.68

1.45
2.23

.59
.71

0.49
.28
.61
.43
.64

.26

.29

.38

.53

.23

.79
.18
.26

.51
.15
.29

2.00

.21

.51
.31
.45

.53

.61

.43

.30

.16
.27
.17

.28
.37
.24

4.83

2.67
3. 71
2. 64

3.83
4.96
1.60
3.08
1.69

3.03
2.44
1. 36
3.43
1.81

2.95
1.59

4.66
3.82

5. 72
5.95
1. 56
4.48
2. 66

3.57
1. 56

3.88 5.17 5.02
3.07 5.89
3.83 10.36 12.52
3.62 4.44 6.01
2.24 3.31 6.00

5.69
7.10
6. 21
4. 71
3.34

4.77
6.40
3. 51
5.50
4.61

7.02
6.58
3.03
5.29
3.46

6.32
7.34
4.05
4.84
3.34

4.94
5.58
2.90
3.94
2.54

4.47
2.93
2.85
4.02
2.63

4.15
2.24
3.76
5.24
4.02

5.13 6.04 5.75
2.34 3.47 6.17
5.30 11.48 13.35
4.39 5.02 6.54
3. 21 4.24 6.66

4.78
3.63

4.66 3.81
3.70 3.44
8.85 10.09
4. 25 5. 54
3.08 3. 75

1.88

5.40
5.46

2.68

.12

6.86

.10

.31
.07
.42
.18

.22

.11
.22

2.02

.12

.12

.22
.21

4.89 5.62 4.89 5.77
3. 21 3.74 6.59 7.50
9.37 12.42 15.73 11.43
6.38 6
.37 4.79 4.44
4. 55 6 47 5.93 5.90
.

4.36
5.05
3.87
3. 52
5. 71

2.91
1.76
2.73
3.33
2.38

3.11
3. 05
2.77
4. 01
2.14

0.86

I r o n and steel

Quit rate:
1931____ _____
1932____ _____
1933__________
1934__________
1935__________
Discharge rate:
1931__________
1932__________
1933__________
1934_____ ____
1935__________
Lay-off rate:
1931__________
1932__________
1933__________
1934__________
1935__________
Total separation
rate:
1931__________
1932__________
1933__________
1934.................
1935__________
Accession rate:
1931__________
1932__________
1933...................
1934...................
1935__________

9. 39
7.10
7. 67
8.92
9.42

0.71
.55
.38
.82
.57

0.72
.55
.25
.67
.73

0.71
.53
.31
.73
.75

0.89
1
.37
.34

0.87
.53
.34

.62

.77

1.24

.09
.05
.03
.08
.07

.15
.07
.04
.07
.07

.12

.15

.04
.03
.13
.06

.11
.06
.11

.05
.14
.09
.15

.03
.23

.06

.07
.07
‘ .11
.05

.08

.10

1.36
1.48

1.03
1.72

1. 38
1.03
1.48
.57
.89

1.90
5.68
.91
.52
1.27

2.16
4.94
.99
.67
.70

2.65
3.30
.73
1.17
1.59

1. 74
2.25
.37
3.74
.78

2.67
1.56
.94
2.84
1.45

.65
1.19
3.39
.96

2.80
2.71
1.44
4.41
1.59

3.80
2.17
2.32
3.94
2.47

2.53
1.06
2.33
4.03
1.90

3.19
2.37
2.52

2.32
.68 1.06 1. 77
5.86 12. 25 13. 75
5.44 3. 72 1.12
1. 55 1.10 2.64

.94
1.32
8.43
1.07
4.03

1.41
1.17
3.74
.98
2. 61

1. 51
2.08
1.79
1.92
2.50

.66

1.28
1.07

1.02

1.00

.94
.90

.86 1.12
.86
.11
.15

21.18
26.89
17. 52
19. 91
12.44

2.20 1.88
1.45
.54

.82
.62

31.81
34. 65
26.47
29.90

2.16
2.08
2.61
2. 35
1.18

1.90
2.34
2.17
1. 56
1.42

2. 21
1.60
1.82
1.43
1.70

2.94
7.16
1.31
1.63
1.95

3.18
5. 54
1.40
1.64
1. 52

3.62
4.29
1. 77
2.38
2. 60

2.52
1. 71
1.47
2.48
5.13

2.24
1.27
2.05
3. 25
2.78

2.03
1.34
.73
4.85
1.78

1.69
2.77
2.67
5.44
1 26
.

1. 57

1.20

22.88
20.12

17.86
54.91
33.98
29.58




0.94
.43
.84
.56
.73

1.03
.56
1.15
.94
.92

0.79
.36
.97
.60
.85

0.78
.38
.85
.63

0.64
.36
.73
.62
.79

0.54
.54
.61
.37
.71

.12

.10

.08
.05
.17
.04
.09

.06
.05

.12
.04
.11

.06
.04
.09
.07
.08

.05
.05
.07
.06

1.66

1.41
1.45
2. 22
1.70
1.29

1.80
1.23
2.87
1.78
1.35

1. 42
1.60
1.74
1.26

2.25

2.50
1.63
3.69
2.47

2.01

2.22

2.19
2.42
1. 79
1.81

1.78
.61
.84
1.65
2.51

.91
2.08
1.33
2.06
1.69

.11

.05
.23
.16

1.12

1.88

.10

1.00

810

TURN-OVER OF LABOR

T a ble 2 .—M O N T H L Y A N D A N N U A L LABOR T U R N -O V E R R ATES PER 100 E M P L O Y E E S
IN R E P R E SE N T A T IV E P L A N T S IN 10 S P E C IFIE D IN D U ST R IE S, J A N U A R Y 1931 TO
D E C E M B E R 1935—Continued
M e n 's clothing
Class of rates and
year
Quit rate:
1931...................
1932...................
1933...................
1934...................
1935...................
Discharge rate:
1931..................
1932...................
1933...................
1934...................
1935...................
Lay-off rate:
1931...................
1932.................
1933...................
1934...................
1935...................
Total separation
rate:
1931...................
1932...................
1933...................
1934...................
1935...................
Accession rate:
1931...................
1932.................
1933...................
1934...................
1935...................

Year

Jan.

Feb. Mar.

Apr.

May June July

Aug. Sept. Oct.

II. 25
9.92
9.20
9.47

0)
1.06
.45
.75
.76

0)
0.98
.66
.68
.72

(*)
0.94
.63
.59
.83

1.40
1.06
.75
.81
.90

1.39
1.13
.79
.92
.67

1.32
.88
.99
1.13
.74

1.12
.75
1.32
1.07
.95

1.30
.65
1.22
1.05
.93

1.27
1.52
.77
.72
.85

0.95
.58
.85
.64
.83

0.66
.66
.89
.42
.77

0.84
1.04
.60
.42
.52

1.07
1.43
1.16
1.41

0)
.08
.07
.11
.10

0)
.11
.03
.10
.17

(0
.11
.04
.12
.21

. 12
.05
.22
.09
.18

. 15
.05
.10
.17
.18

.23
.03
.11
.15
.07

.23
.04
.12
.09
.10

. 12
.04
.23
.07
.15

. 12
.07
.18
.07
.09

.13
.03
.12
.07
.06

.07
.05
.15
.06
.05

.09
.41
.06
.06
.05

31.69
26.80
31.48
28.86

0)
1.22
1. 72
2.54
.96

0)
1.84
1.20
.72
1.08

0)
2.40
2.82
.85
1.35

2.20
6.63
.83
1.47
3.44

1.46
4.91
1.82
4.09
4.97

.56
3.38
.56
1.68
3.73

.97
1.44
.81
2.15
1.51

1.51
.72
3.32
1.57
1.23

1.26
.56
2.77
5.43
1.56

1.50
.93
1.85
2.23
2.54

5.38
3.31
4.44
3. 73
2.66

5.44
4.35
4.66
5.02
3.83

44.01
38.15
41.84
39.74

0)
2.36
2.24
3.40
1.82

0)
2.93
1.89
1.50
1.97

0)
3.45
3.49
1.56
2.39

3.72
7.74
1.80
2.37
4.52

3.00
6.09
2.71
5.18
5.82

2.11
4.29
1.66
2.96
4.54

2.32
2.23
2.25
3.31
2.56

2.93
1.41
4.77
2.69
2.31

2.65
2.15
3.72
6.22
2.50

2.58
1.54
2.82
2.94
3.43

6.11
4.02
5.48
4.21
3.48

6.37
5.80
5.32
5.50
4.40

45.73
45.13
38.81
46.78

0)
6.20
4.41
5.42
8.53

0)
2.05
2.48
5.69
4.06

0)
1.89
1.65
3.25
4.48

3.22
1.77
3.07
2.37
3.26

3.10
2.33
4.89
1.86
2.83

4.05
2.22
7.79
4.01
4.12

4.16
6.04
6.44
2.57
4.47

3.05
7.90
4.20
2.21
3.26

1.74
7.45
2.61
2.36
2.26

2.10
2.72
2.49
3.02
3.14

1.62
3.05
1.69
3.03
2.74

3.66
2.11
3.41
3.02
3.63

1.79 1.73
.87
.76
1.60 1.40
1.29 1.49
2.33 17.18

1.13
.84
1.69
1.58
3.43

1.35
1.02
1.77
1. 52
1.68

2.03
.93
2.04
1.14
1.67

1.45
.54
2.48
.95
2.75

1.23
.84
1.37
1.16
1.44

0.93
.69
1.09
.94
1.33

0.60
.68
1.27
.94
1.04

27
.44
.51
.43
.33

.26
.43
.25
.28
.30

Nov. Dec.

S a w m ills

Quit rate:
1931............ .
1932...................
1933...................
1934...................
1935...................
Discharge rate:
1931............ .
1932...................
1933...................
1934...................
1935............ .
Lay-off rate:
1931............ .
1932...................
1933...................
1934...................
1935............ — .
Total separation
rate:
1931...................
1932...................
1933...................
1934.................
1935................. .
Accession rate:
1931............ .
1932...................
1933...................
1934...................
1935...................

16.17
9.48
17.11
14.41
35.87

0.97
.94
.78
1.04
.95

1.22
.48
.63
1.06
.99

1.74
.89
.99
1.30
1.08

5.53
4.10
5.09
5.40
4.36

.43
.39
.43
.61
.36

.50
.46
.32
.46
.28

.51
.39
.42
.51
.39

46
.35
.25
.50
.35

.50
.30
.33
.51
.25

.33
.24
.51
.47
.30

.32
.15
.62
.33
.44

.95
.27
.53
.49
.48

.49
.24
.51
.50
.46

.51
.44
.41
.31
.42

85.89
77.38
51.94
67.99
53.20

8.02
5.90
4.50
4.20
3.04

4.56
5.87
5.14
2.54
3.22

4.56
6.27
6.32
3. 21
4.79

7.17
4.77
2.98
3.01
3.89

6.43
6.29
2.23
9.39
3.88

8.70
8.59
1.98
5.86
3.53

5.35
4.86
2.01
5.61
3.61

6.01
5.85
3.54
8.51
3.92

8.09
4.52
4.31
5.56
3.90

7.69
6.24
4.97
6.08
5.44

8.65 10.64
3.58 14.64
5.72 8.64
6.38 7.20
6.53 7.45

107.59
90.96
74.14
87.80
93.43

9.42
7.23
5.71
5.85
4.35

6.28
6.81
6.09
4.06
4.49

6.81
7.55
7.73
5.02
6.26

9.42 8.66 10.16
5.99 7.35 9.67
4.83 3.96 4.18
4.80 11.39 7.91
6.57 21.31 7.26

7.02 8.99 10.03
6.03 7.05 5.30
4.40 6.11 7.30
7.46 10.14 7.01
5.73 6.07 7.11

9.43
7.52
6.75
7.55
7.30

9.85 11.52
4.71 15.75
7.32 9. 76
7.75 8.86
8.19 8.79

81.16
75.30
108.79
93.35
103.89

9.99 7.44 7.07 7.21 7.97 6.41 4.53 5.81
7.24 5.60 6.86 7.61 6.45 6.37 4.91 4.98
8.23 4.60 5.95 9.26 15.54 18.21 15.09 10.34
8.31 10.82 11.62 11.15 7.55 7.63 6.38 6.21
9.81 7.70 7.97 10.05 8.84 8.19 17.55 12.79

7.43
6.95
4.49
7.27
5.12

6.39
5.26
4.34
4.35
4.67

1 Rates not.available.




5.95
8.78
8.84
6.76
8.88

4.96
4.29
3.90
5.30
5.32

811

STUDIES IN SELECTED INDUSTRIES

T a b l e 2 .— M O N T H L Y A N D A N N U A L LABO R T U R N -O V E R R A T E S P E R 100 E M P L O Y E E S
IN R E P R E S E N T A T IV E PL AN TS IN 10 SP E C IF IE D IN D U S T R IE S , J A N U A R Y 1931 TO
D E C E M B E R 1935— Continued

S lau gh terin g and m eat p a ck in g
Class of rates and
year
Quit rate:
1931...................
1932...................
1933...................
1934...................
1935...................
Discharge rate:
1931...................
1932...................
1933...................
1934...................
1935...................
Lay-ofi rate:
1931...................
1932...................
1933...................
1934...................
1935...................
Total separation
rate:
1931...................
1932...................
1933...................
1934...................
1935...................
Accession rate:
1931...................
1932...................
1933...................
1934...................
1935...................

Year

Jan.

Feb. Mar.

Apr. M ay June July

Aug. Sept.

15.61
10.48
11.38
13.72
9.01

1.29
.91
.64
.85
.67

1.56
1.34
.63
.80
.89

1.41
.93
.59
.90
.61

1.42
.95
.66
.81
.58

1.35
.91
.95
1.06
.75

1.36
.95
1.13
1.26
.58

1.38
.77
1.16
1.33
.72

1.18
.74
1.40
1.80
1.13

1.27
.89
1.63
2.11
.82

1.06
.75
.97
1.39
.77

1.24
.62
.81
.66
.82

1.09
.72
.81
.75
.67

5.47
3.91
4.58
4.61
2.80

.61
.36
.23
.26
.24

.68
.49
.27
.26
.26

.37
.34
.21
.32
.24

.47
.35
.30
.29
.28

.43
.31
.42
.37
.22

.52
.34
.48
.40
.20

.49
.34
.40
.40
.28

.39
.34
.48
.68
.24

.36
36
.62
.46
.20

37
.25
.35
.56
.21

.36
.21
.45
.35
.26

.42
.22
.37
.26
.17

60.18 4.40 6.48 6.88
68.77 4.92 7.29 7.60
70.33 4.37 6.53 5.00
111. 97 5.99 10.23 10.40
94.18 14.49 12.15 9.87

5.02
5.11
3.84
6.06
8.19

4.13
4.50
3.96
4.37
7.00

3.90
6.98
3.24
7.87
4.90

5.59
5.26
5.29
4.20
5.55

4.56
5.33
4.83
7.01
6.65

3.78 4.43 4.72 6.29
3.89 5.18 6.30 6.41
7.00 8.73 7.70 9.84
7.12 22.27 12.71 13.74
6.10 5.09 6.47 7.72

81.26 6.30 8.72 8.66
83.16 6.19 9.12 8.87
86.29 5.24 7.43 5.80
130.30 7.10 11.29 11.62
105.99 15.40 13.30 10.72

6.91
6.41
4.80
7.16
9.05

5.91
5.72
5.33
5.80
7.97

5.78
8.27
4.85
9.53
5.68

7.46
6.37
6.85
5.93
6.55

6.13
6.41
6.71
9.49
8.02

5.41 5.86 6.32 7.80
5.14 6.18 7.13 7.35
9.25 10.05 8.96 11.02
9.69 24.22 13.72 14.75
7.12 6.07 7.55 8.56

80.02 9.50
75.92 6.09
112.26 6.46
133.42 10.69
87.51 8.61

6.31 6.92 6.08 6.46 5.06 5.73
5.92 7.60 7.11 6.83 6.15 7.21
7.41 10.21 9.94 10.51 19.78 11.64
6.76 10.97 11.95 15.41 15.30 16.35
8.71 8.61 5.66 6.37 7.10 6.19

5.02
6.14
5.71
9.14
5.85

5.19
4.45
4.80
7.02
7.07

Oct. Nov. Dec.

7.39 8.10
6.29 6.18
7.56 10.79
9.16 11.57
9.01 8.28

8.26
5.95
7.45
9.10
6.05

Studies of Labor Turn-Over in Selected Industries
N ADDITION to the current reports on labor turn-over, the
Bureau of Labor Statistics has from time to time prepared special
studies of labor turn-over in particular industries. These studies
have been published in the Monthly Labor Review as follows:
Automobile industry, 1931 and 1932 (June 1933, p. 1316); boot and
shoe industry, 1931 and 1932 (October 1933, p. 893); cotton manu­
facturing, 1931 and 1932 (November 1933, p. 1152); foundries and
machine shops, 1931 and 1932 (February 1934, p. 347); iron and
steel industry, 1932 and 1933 (June 1934, p. 1393); furniture manu­
facturing, 1932 and 1933 (August 1934, p. 400); slaughtering and meat
packing, 1932 and 1933 (November 1934, p. 1164); men’s clothing
industry, 1932 and 1933 (March 1935, p. 709); and sawmills, 1933 and

I







UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE
AND RELIEF

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin N o. 616
H andbook of L abor Statistics: 1936 edition




813




Operation of Unemployment-Benefit Plans and Unem­
ployment Insurance in the United States
N EM PLO YM EN T insurance in the United States prior to the
enactment of the Federal Social Security Act was a matter
largely of private initiative, only one State—Wisconsin—having passed
legislation on the subject, although a number of States had considered
such legislation. Private unemployment benefit plans established
either by employers or by trade-unions or by joint agreement had
been in effect for some years. With the enactment of Federal legis­
lation, however, the question of benefit payments in the event of
unemployment passed into a new phase.

U

U n e m p lo y m e n t-In s u ra n c e System for th e U n ite d States
T h e Federal Social Security Act of August 14, 1935, which con­
templates on a national basis the establishment of unemployment
insurance, old-age annuities, and other security measures, is described
in the section on “ Social Security Program” (p. 777).

Private U n e m p lo y m e n t-B e n e fit Plans
T h r e e studies of unemployment-benefit systems have been m a d e
by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the first in 1931, the second in the
latter part of 1932, and the third in 1934. A brief review of the history
of unemployment-benefit plans in the United States follows.
According to the Bureau’s information, 26 joint agreements had
been concluded between employers and members of the trade unions
which provided for the payment of unemployment^benefits or guar­
anteed a certain minimum of employment. Of these plans only five
were in existence in 1934.
Twenty-three company plans had been established, of which some
plans covered more than one company or plant. Of these 23 company
plans, 16 were in operation in 1934. Two new company plans were
announced after 1932, one by the Wm. Wrigley Jr. Co. of Chicago,
which was put in operation in March 1934, and one made effective in
April 1934 by a company which asked to have its name withheld.
A total of 48 trade-union plans were listed in the 1931 study. Of
these, 3 were maintained by international unions and 45 by local
unions. Forty-one trade-union plans were known to be in operation
in 1934, although many of them had been continued only with the
greatest difficulty. Three plans were started after the first study was
made and a total of 10 had been given up, while 3 former joint agree­
ments were added to the local plans. Two local plans, formerly
listed, had not been heard from, and one trade-union did not wish a
statement of its operations included.
In the 1931 study it was estimated that 65,000 workers were covered
by the joint agreements, approximately 50,000 by the company plans,




815

816

UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE AND RELIEF

and about 45,000 by the trade-union plans, or a total of about 160,000
persons. The Bureau has no satisfactory information as to the cover­
age in 1934, but it is probable that it was considerably smaller than
in 1931.
Table 1 lists all the company plans and joint agreements of which the
Bureau had knowledge, showing the date of establishment and, in cases
in which the plan had been given up, the date of discontinuance.
U N E M P L O Y M E N T -B E N E F IT PLANS IN T H E U N IT E D STATES

Name and address of firm and type of plan

Plan in
Date of es­
tablishment force May
1934
of plan

Date of
discon­
tinuance

C o m p a n y p la n s

Dennison Manufacturing Co., Framingham, Mass.:
Unemployment-benefit fund______________________________
Employment guaranty__________________________________
Columbia Conserve Co., Indianapolis, Ind.: Employment guaranty.
Dutchess Bleachery, Inc., Wappingers Falls, N. Y.: Unemploy­
ment-benefit fund.
Rockland Finishing Co., Garnerville, N. Y.: Unemploymentbenefit fund.
United Diamond Works, Inc., Newark, N. J.: Unemploymentbenefit plans.
Crocker-McElwain Co. and Chemical Paper Mfg. Co., Holyoke,
Mass.: Employment guaranty.
John A. Manning Paper Co., Troy, N. Y.: Unemployment-benefit
plan.
Behr-Manning Corporation, Watervliet, N. Y.: Unemploymentbenefit plan.
S. C. Johnson & Son, Racine, Wis.: Unemployment-benefit plan...
Leeds & Northrop, Philadelphia, Pa.: Unemployment-benefit fund,
Procter & Gamble Co., Cincinnati, Ohio: Employment guaranty~
American Cast Iron Pipe Co., Birmingham, Ala.: Unemploymentbenefit plan.
Brown & Bailey Co., Philadelphia, Pa.: Unemployment-benefit
fund.
Consolidated Water Power & Paper Co., Wisconsin Rapids, Wis.:
Unemployment-benefit plan.
Samarkand Co., San Francisco, Calif.: Employment guaranty........
General Electric Co.:
Unemployment-benefit fund (electrical apparatus manufactur­
ing, 12 plants).
Employment guaranty (lamp works, 12 plants)_________ ____
Fond du Lac, Wis., 3 companies: Unemployment-benefit fund.......
Rochester, N. Y., 8 companies_____________ __________________
Hill Bros. Co., Hudson, Mass.:
Seasonal unemployment---------------- ----------- ----------- ---------Unemployment and retirement fund.............................. ...............
J. I. Case Co., Racine, Wis.: Unemployment-benefit fund_______
Minnesota Mining & Manufacturing Co., St. Paul, Minn.: Unem­
ployment-benefit fund.
Wm. Wrigley Jr. Co., Chicago, 111.: Employment assurance plan..
Company A: Guaranteed employment.................................................

1916

1932
1932

1931

1017
1919

Yes.
1923

1920

1931

1921
1920

Yes.

1922

Yes.

1922

Yes.

1922
1923
1923
1924

Yes.
1932

Y e s .
1926
1932

1927

1929

1929
1929

Yes.

1930

Yes.

1931
1930
1931

YesYes,
Yes-

1931
1934
1931
1932

Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.

1934
1934

Yes.
Yes.

J o i n t agreem ent p la n s

United Wall Paper Crafts of North America (guaranteed employ­
ment).
Men’s clothing industry:
Chicago, 111_________ _____________-........ ........ ........ ................
New York, N. Y_________________________ ______________
Rochester, N. Y ________________________________________
Women’s garment industry, Cleveland, Ohio.....................................
Lace industry:
Kingston, N. Y .................--,.................................... ........................
Scranton, Pa------------------------------------------- -------------------- _
Wilkes-Barre, Pa., Branch No. 2................................ .....................
Philadelphia, Pa.:
John Bromley & Sons, Inc., and Local No. 1.......................
John Bromley & Sons, Inc., and Local No. 18.......................
Cloth hat and cap industry:
New York Joint Council-....................................... .........................
Local No. 6, Philadelphia, Pa_........................................................
Local No. 5, Chicago, 111....................................................................
Local No. 7, Boston, Mass................................................................
Local No. 8, Baltimore, Md....................... ....................................
1Date unknown—probably 1930.
2Date unknown—between 1927.and 1930.




1894
1923
1928
1928
1921

0)

Yes
Yes.
Yes.
1932

1923
1923
1924

1932

1924
1926

1929
1929

1924
1924
1924
1925
1925

193i"

1932

Yes.

)

(2
)

817

OPERATION OF UNEMPLOYMENT-BENEFIT PLANS

UNEMPLOYMENT-BENEFIT PLANS IN THE UNITED STATES—Continued
Name and address of firm and type of plan

Date of es­ Plan in
Date of
tablishment force May discon­
of plan
1934
tinuance

J o in t a g reem en t p la n s — Continued
Cloth hat and cap industry—Continued.
Local No. 10, St. Paul, Minn_____________________________
Local No. 16, Milwaukee, Wis____________________________
Local No. 22, Scranton, Pa_______________________________
Straw-hat industry, New York, N. Y.: *
Local No. 45______ _________ ___________________________
Local No. 3______ ______________________________________
Cleaning and dyeing industry:
Chicago, 111., Local No. 17742_____________________________
St. Louis, Mo., Local No. 17920__________________________
Seaboard Air Line R. R. and maintenance-of-equipment employees
(guaranteed employment).
Full-fashion hosiery industry_________________________________
Leather Goods Manufacturers and International Pocketbook
Workers’ Union.
Upholstery Weavers and Workers’ Union No. 25, Philadelphia, Pa-.

1923
1925
1925
1924
1925
1925
1927
1928
1930
1931
1931

(2)
(2)
(2)
1932
1932
1929
1929
0)
1931
1933
(5)

2 Date unknown—between 1927 and 1930.
3 These 2 locals were merged in 1931.
4 Date unknown.
6 On account of great amount of unemployment never made effective.
During the years 1932 and 1933 benefits were quite generally re­
duced or plans modified in such a way as to conserve the funds, and
in many instances the funds were maintained only with the greatest
difficulty. One company plan, that of the Dennison Manufacturing
Co., was suspended. No disbursements from the fund were made
after June 1, 1932, although there was a balance in the fund of
approximately $15,000. The employees’ committee considered re­
suming payments from the unemployment fund in October 1932, but
decided at that time to suspend payments indefinitely. Although
there had been a certain amount of unemployment in the company
from that time the committee did not regard it as sufficient to warrant
resuming operation of the fund. There were, therefore, 16 plans in
operation in 1934, and of this number 8 had been started since 1929.
Six of the joint agreements for the payment of unemployment bene­
fits had been discontinued. These included the agreement between
the employers and the Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union in Cleveland,
Ohio, which was not in active operation in 1933 and was not expected
to be included in the 1934 general agreement; the agreement between
the International Pocketbook Workers’ Union and the Industrial
Council df Leather Goods Manufacturers under which benefits were
paid until November 1933 when the fund was practically exhausted;
the agreement covering members of the Upholstery Weavers and
Workers’ Union No. 25 of Philadelphia, Pa., which was never put into
operation, owing to the depressed condition of the industry; the
agreement between employers and the members of the Cloth Hat, Cap,
and Millinery Workers’ International Union, New York City,, under
which no payments were made for 2 years and which was not included
in the 1934 agreement; the agreement in the straw-hat industry
between employers and Local No. 3, New York City; and the agree­
ment between the United States Lace Curtain Mills and the Amalga­
mated Lace Operators of America, Branch No. 8, which was suspended
in October 1932 with the hope of renewing it at some future time.
The joint agreements between the Bromley Co. and the lace-curtain
weavers and the Levers machine operators were in reality being con19205— 36--------53




818

UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE AND RELIEF

tinned as local trade-union plans. The company had never definitely
abrogated the agreements and made loans to the locals, but since
no regular contributions had been made by the company after 1929
and there had been no new agreements, the plans could hardly be
classified as joint agreements.
Three trade-union plans were discontinued after 1932, while in
several cases benefits were suspended for either short or long periods
because of the exhaustion of funds. In many cases work was shared
and frequently extra assessments were necessary in order to pay bene­
fits, even though in a great many cases the amount of the benefits had
been much reduced. In general every effort had been made by these
funds to maintain the benefit plans and give the greatest amount of
assistance to members, and the fact that the funds had been of real
help was shown by the general determination to continue them even
in the face of such heavy odds.
State Laws P ro v id in g for U n e m p lo y m e n t Insuran ce or Reserves
U p to December 1935 there were nine States 1 having laws provid­
ing for either unemployment insurance or unemployment reserves.
Eight of these laws were enacted in 1935.
The law of North Carolina was merely a brief enabling act giving
the governor and council the power to designate a commission or
department to administer a system of unemployment insurance in
the event of the enactment of an unemployment insurance law by the
United States Congress. With the exception of the North Carolina
act, however, the laws bear a marked similarity, the principal differ­
ence being that some of them provide for State-wide pooled funds for
the payment of unemployment insurance while others set up compul­
sory individual company reserves. Under the latter system an em­
ployer’s account may be used only to pay benefits to his own em­
ployees, and he is liable only to the amount of his reserve fund.
Most of the State laws cover employers employing 4 or more em­
ployees for certain weeks in the preceding year, but in some instances
the minimum number of employees is 10. Farm labor is generally
excluded, and in a few States there are such employment exclusions
as domestic employees, public officers, teachers, employees in inter­
state commerce, and employees of nonprofit, religious, etc., organiza­
tions. Total unemployment and partial unemployment are usually
defined and covered by the laws, while some States also take care of
seasonal unemployment and unemployment of part-time workers.
Some of the States exact an employer contribution of a percentage
on the employer’s pay roll only, while others also exact a small con­
tribution from the employee’s pay. In some instances the latter
contribution may be voluntary. The rate of employer contributions
ranges from 1 to 3 percent. Usually the deductions are made for a
year before benefits are payable.
Residence or employment within the State for a specified time is
generally necessary to make one eligible, and the following causes of

1 For the laws of New York, Utah, Washington, and Wisconsin, see Monthly Labor Review for May
1935 (p. 1195); for that of New Hampshire, see Monthly Labor Review for July 1935 (p. 38): for that of
California, see Monthly Labor Review for August 1935 (p. 335). Three States—Alabama, Massachusetts,
and Oregon—and the District of Columbia subsequently enacted such legislation. (See Monthly Labor
Review, October 1935 (p. 926) and November 1935 (p. 1184).)




OPERATION OF UNEMPLOYMENT-BENEFIT PLANS

819

unemployment usually make one ineligible for the benefits: (1) Un­
employment due to a labor dispute still in active progress; (2) unem­
ployment because of employee’s misconduct; (3) unemployment
because employee refused suitable employment. Benefits are usually
50 percent of wages, with maximum and minimum amounts specified.
All the States provide for public employment offices with which
the employee must register when unemployed and through which
the benefits are paid. Of the laws enacted in 1935, all provide for
State-Federal cooperation when a Federal unemployment insurance
law is passed.
O p era tio n of W isconsin U n e m p lo y m e n t-C o m p e n s a tio n A c t 2
T h e Wisconsin Unemployment Reserves and Compensation Act
which became law on January 29, 1932, did not take State-wide and
compulsory effect until July 1, 1934, when contributions by employers
to their various unemployment-reserve funds were started. During
the period from January 1932 to June 1934 only the provisions relating
to approved voluntary plans were in actual effect, although through­
out this period the industrial commission, pursuant to legislative
mandate, sought “ to assist employers in the establishment of volun­
tary plans for unemployment compensation in conformity with the
standards prescribed by law.” Also during the law’s first 2 years of
operation the commission employed consultants to draft plans meet­
ing the standards specified by the law for the assistance of those
employers who might desire to submit voluntary plans and took other
steps to encourage suitable voluntary action by employers.
Although a substantial number of voluntary plans were submitted
in late 1932 and early 1933 with a view to reaching the prescribed
minimum number of employees which would preserve the voluntary
nature of the law, many employers marked time during this period
because of possible postponement of the act. During the period
while the enforcement of the law was in abeyance, due to the de­
pressed condition of industry, an amending law was enacted clarifying
the original act and postponing contributions until July 1, 1934. It
was expected that the advisory committee, consisting of employer
and labor representatives and a representative of the industrial com­
mission would, as a result of further study and administrative ex­
perience, prepare for consideration by the 1935 session of the legisla­
ture such further clarifying amendments as should be enacted before
benefits actually become payable.
In order to assure employers a fully adequate opportunity to sub­
mit voluntary plans under the quota which was first fixed at a cover­
age of 175,000 employees and later reduced to 139,000, the commis­
sion established in November 1933 but delayed until April 28, 1934,
the announcement of its official finding that a sufficient degree of
recovery had taken place to justify the enforcement of the act. The
publication of the findings on the latter date closed the employers’
opportunity, which had been held open for them for 2 years, to bring
about the purposes of the act without legal compulsion.
The delay by employers in establishing plans was occasioned by
the fact that the majority did not wish by their voluntary action to

2 Wisconsin Industrial Commission. Unemployment Compensation Department. History and Status
of Wisconsin’s Unemployment Compensation Act. Madison, 1934.




820

UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE AND RELIEF

exclude other employers from the provisions of the law, since, if the
prescribed quota had been reached, over half the employers subject
to the act would have escaped the obligation now imposed upon them
by the law to create unemployment-reserve funds for their employees.
As soon as it became known that the law would take compulsory
effect, hundreds of employers began to present their plans for “ ex­
emption” under the law itself. For the most part these plans fol­
lowed closely the various standard drafts prepared by the commission.
Exempted plans submitted by employers require specific approval by
the commission, but as such plans are drawn as long-term contracts
terminating April 28, 1939, many employers have chosen to adopt
exempted plans in the hope of thereby securing immunity from legis­
lative changes throughout the required term of these contracts. An
unemployment-compensation department was created in the com­
mission in the spring of 1934 to handle the correspondence and
analysis of proposed plans, to prepare the necessary reporting forms,
to assist employers in making their contributions, and to receive or
supervise their contribution payments.
The required contributions under the law are figured as a percent­
age of the pay roll of each employer, and because of this fact shorten­
ing hours to employ more men does not affect contributions. About
3,400 firms employing approximately 300,000 workers are subject to
the act. The 2-percent unemployment reserve contributions for all
employers combined were expected to average about $450,000 per
month. The benefits which became payable after July 1, 1935, are
based solely on employment and on unemployment occurring after
that date. Up to the end of November 1934, about 70 employers in
the State, employing about 3,000 workers, had secured exemption
from the law’s benefit provisions by establishing “ guaranteed em­
ployment” plans which are now in full operation and assure the
workers covered by the guaranty at least 42 weeks’ work out of 52,
for at least two-thirds of their full-time schedule of hours in each
such week.
Nearly two-thirds of the employers subject to the act had estab­
lished “ exempted” benefit plans by November 1934 and about 400
of these employers were allowed, in view of their financial strength,
to set up unemployment-reserve accounts on their books, subject to
such security as the commission might from time to time consider
necessary. In most cases the exempted employers create reserve
funds separate from other company assets, and in many cases the
employer deposits his unemployment-benefit fund with his local bank
in a special account having complete Federal deposit-insurance pro­
tection. The contribution payments made to the various depositories
are recorded and supervised by the industrial commission.
Since the entire administrative cost of the law is paid directly by
employers, no appropriation from general State funds will be required.
In addition to the payment of the costs of the direct administration
of the law by the employers, the assessment will cover their propor­
tionate share (about one-third) of the total cost of the State public
employment offices, the remaining two-thirds continuing to be fi­
nanced from local funds, general State funds, and Federal funds.
The unemployment-compensation act, therefore, will finance its fair
share of the expanded system of public employment exchanges which
will be essential to better job clearing and to the operation of the law.




UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE AND RELIEF

821

Report of Senate Committee on Unemployment
Insurance
RESOLUTION to investigate the subject of unemploymentinsurance systems in the United States and foreign countries was
adopted by the United States Senate, February 28, 1931. The
resolution provided for a general study of insurance systems in private
use in the United States and those in use by foreign governments,
with a view to determining the manner in which such systems were
instituted and were being operated; the cost involved and the results
achieved; the relief, if any, afforded by each such system during
the economic depression of 1930; the condition of each system on July
1, 1931, with particular reference to the effects upon it of the economic
depression of 1930; and the relative State, Federal, or private respon­
sibility in connection with any such system. The members of the
committee were the Hon. Felix Hebert (chairman), Hon. Otis F.
Glenn, and Hon. Robert F. Wagner. Numerous hearings were held
by the committee, at which witnesses representing the various trends
of thought on the subject appeared, and in addition the Bureau of
Labor Statistics made for the committee a study of the results of the
operations of the various systems in this country and in foreign
countries.
After summing up the evidence presented at the hearings the com­
mittee reached the conclusion—

A

That the subject of unemployment insurance is not within the sphere of con­
gressional action. * * * Any SyStem of Federal unemployment insurance,
even though it were found to be within the limitations of our fundamental law,
would be inadvisable, and would give rise to problems of far greater significance
in their implications than those we are endeavoring to solve.
While we have expressed the opinion that the several States may find com­
pelling reasons for requiring the maintenance of some system of unemployment
insurance by industry, here again, in our judgment, the States themselves, if
they should lend their credit to it, would be confronted with very much the same
problems as would be the Federal Government, though of a lesser degree, if they
shall at any time hereafter, without more experience than is now available, launch
out upon such an undertaking. We observe a fundamental difference between
unemployment reserves compulsorily maintained by individual plants in industry
and to which employees might contribute, and any system that might be estab­
lished by the States themselves and to which they might be expected to lend their
credit. In the .one instance the plan depends for its success upon the solution of
problems arising in each industrial plant or other individual activity. In the
other it is the sum total of all these which aggravates the situation and renders a
solution so difficult.
Individual systems will bring into play the forces of self-interest and self-help
and, it is natural to assume, some degree of cooperation. There will at least be
an incentive for lessening the need of contributions which in some measure would
affect the cost of production, whereas, in State-maintained sj^stems, experience
demonstrates there is or has been no such incentive. * * *
We * * * therefore recommend that the Federal Government contribute
to such systems of private unemployment reserves to the extent of permitting
employers who maintain them to deduct some portion, if not all, of the contri­
butions thereto out of their income for tax purposes.
The effect of the allowance of such credits will, in a measure, equalize the dif­
ference in the cost of maintaining such reserves among employers of labor in the
States which require them as against employers in those States where they may
not be obligatory.




822

UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE AND RELIEF

Report of Senator Wagner
T he views of M r. W agner, minority member of the committee, were
presented in a separate report and were summed up as follows:
1. The evil consequences of unemployment can, and should be, mitigated by the
establishment of unemployment insurance or wage reserves.
2. Unemployment insurance or wage reserves, to be successful, should be
inaugurated under compulsory State legislation and be supervised by State
authority.
3. The Federal Government should encourage State action by (a) cooperating
with the States in the establishment of a Nation-wide employment service, and
(b) by allowing employers to deduct from income tax a portion of their payments
into unemployment reserves or toward unemployment insurance.
4. Every system of unemployment insurance or reserves should be organized
to provide incentives to the stabilization of employment.
5. The insurance or wage reserve system should be built on a plan financially
and actuarially sound so that the premiums paid into the fund shall be sufficient to
meet the obligations of the fund.
6. Compulsory unemployment insurance eliminates the competitive advantage
of the employer who refuses to recognize his business responsibility for unemploy­
ment.
7. Compulsory unemployment insurance preserves the mobility of the worker
and his freedom of action in attempting to improve his economic position.
8. Unemployment insurance will beneficially affect not only the workers but
agriculture, industry, and trade; all alike profit from sustained purchasing power.
9. Sound business and good conscience both demand that in dealing with unem­
ployment we abandon the methods of poor relief, with its ballyhoo, its inadequacy,
inequality, and uncertainty, which are a drain on the sympathy of the giver and a
strain on the character of the taker. Let us, like civilized men and women,
organize intelligently to prepare today for the exigencies of the future.

Reports on Plans for State Unemployment Insurance
or Reserves
R e po rt of C a lifo rn ia State U n e m p lo y m e n t C o m m is s io n 3

H E final report of the Unemployment Commission of California,
which was appointed in August 1931, was made public in Novem­
ber 1932. The commission was directed to study the extent of unem­
ployment and methods of relief and also the nature and the causes of
unemployment, with a view to the recommendation of measures
designed to meet the problems connected with this and future
depressions.
The final report, in addition to recommending an appropriation for
emergency unemployment relief, advocated the enactment of an
emergency measure, to be effective until July 1, 1935, to provide for
spreading the available work by means of a 5-day week and 6-hour
day on all public works, whether done directly by the State or by
contract; also the adoption of the 5-day working week in the conduct
of all State business so far as practicable, in order that employment
might be given to as many persons as possible.

T

T h e p rin cip a l m ea su re a d v o c a te d b y th e co m m issio n , h o w e v e r , w as
th e e n a ctm e n t o f a la w p r o v id in g fo r a sy ste m o f c o m p u ls o r y u n e m ­
p lo y m e n t reserves a n d c o m p e n s a tio n , to b e a d m in istered b y th e S ta te ,
a n d to b e su p p o r te d b y c o n tr ib u tio n s fr o m e m p lo y e rs a n d e m p lo y e e s.
T h is m easu re r e c e iv e d th e m o s t w id e -sp re a d a p p r o v a l o f th e v a rio u s
3 California State Unemployment Commission. Report and recommendations. San Francisco, 1932.




REPORTS ON STATE PLANS

823

suggestions for dealing with the problem of unemployment which
were offered at the public hearings.
The law recommended was similar to the Wisconsin unemployment
insurance law, with the important exception that it provided for
contributions by employees, while the Wisconsin law provides for
contributions by the employers alone. The plan called for the estab­
lishment of an unemployment reserve by each employer for his own
plant for the payment of benefits to his own employees, although
provision was made for the voluntary pooling of the reserves of plants
in the same industry. It was the opinion of the commission that
the separate unemployment reserve plan furnishes a financial incen­
tive to employers to regularize employment within their own
establishments.
R eport of C o n n e c tic u t U n e m p lo y m e n t C o m m issio n
T h e unemployment commission appointed by the Connecticut
General Assembly to investigate unemployment, with a view to
discovering means for its alleviation, reported in 1932 in favor of the
establishment of a system for the payment of dismissal wages rather
than of one for the payment of unemployment benefits.4
The most important problem that confronted the commission was
believed to be the determination regarding the recommendation that
should be made concerning State action to require employing units
to set up reserves to pay unemployment benefits. After considering
the problem from all angles, the commission decided to recommend
that no legislative action be taken at the 1933 session of the State
legislature.
The commission decided, after considering the Wisconsin unem­
ployment-insurance law, the bill proposed in the New York Legisla­
ture, and the principles incorporated in the Interstate Report on
Unemployment Insurance, that an enforced dismissal-wage law
provided a much simpler method and therefore a sounder and more
practical approach to an undertaking entirely new to State control
than did an unemployment-insurance law. The essential difference
between the two plans was said to lie in the fact that the typical unem­
ployment-insurance plan involves the complicated machinery neces­
sary to determine when an employee finds other work, so that benefits
shall cease, and to determine what constitutes “ suitable” employ­
ment, whereas under a dismissal-wage plan the only employment
which would stop the payment of benefits would be the rehiring of the
employee by his former employer. It was said that it might seem
at first that the dismissal-wage plan would be the more costly of the
two, but the commission believed that actually this would not be the
case. To the actual cost of the unemployment benefits in an unem­
ployment-insurance plan would be added an elaborate administrative
system, including a comprehensive employment system, registration
of all employees, and the handling of disputed claims. The commis­
sion considered, therefore, that the payment of straight dismissal
wages would involve far less financial drain on both the State and the
employing units, even though in a certain proportion of the cases the
wage earner would be drawing his dismissal wage and earnings on
his subsequent job at the same time.

4 Connecticut Unemployment Commission. Measures to Alleviate Unemployment in Connecticut.
Hartford, 1932.



824

UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE AND RELIEF

Under the proposed plan each employee would be required to
contribute to his own termination savings fund in amounts equivalent
to the contributions by the employer. These savings, with interest,
would be payable to the employee or his heirs upon the termination of
his employment for any reason whatsoever.
The plan would be applicable only to employees earning less than
$2,000 per year.
R e co m m en d atio n for System of C o m p u ls o ry U n e m p lo y m e n t
Reserves in M assachusetts
T h e final report to the Massachusetts General Court of the Massa­
chusetts Special Commission on Stabilization of Employment made
in December 1932 recommended the establishment of State-compelled
unemployment reserves. The report dealt with methods for reducing
seasonal unemployment and with other phases of stabilization which
should be advanced through voluntary action, but stated that in
addition to such measures a certain degree of State guidance and State
compulsion was necessary. A bill was proposed, therefore, providing
for the establishment and administration of a system of compulsory
unemployment reserves.
In discussing unemployment conditions and the necessary remedies,
it was said in the report that the causes of unemployment are so
complex that no one measure can be expected to solve the problem
but that the combination of a number of measures can result in a
greater stability and that, primarily, a more stabilized employment
depends upon a more stabilized industrial order.
In general, much could be done toward the reduction of seasonal
unemployment by the action of individual employers in instituting
measures for the regularization of their industries. But even with
a return to normal business conditions, a very large proportion of the
unemployed could not be reemployed, aince, as a result of technologi­
cal changes, capacity production can be reached with fewer people
at work. In view of the large number displaced by machines, there­
fore, it was said that “ the only way out seems to be a general shorten­
ing of the number of hours people will work. In the past we have talked
about a 50-hour week or a 48-hour week as though they were ultimate
standards. It is conceivable that we should stop thinking in terms
of any set number of weekly hours.” As a factor in long-range
stabilization, this division of the man-hours necessary to turn out the
product among a greater number of people was said to have an
importance that could not be overestimated.
While recognizing the importance of voluntary action for the
reduction of unemployment by individual employers and industrial
groups, the commission was of the opinion that a certain degree of
State guidance and State compulsion was also required. In view of
the slow growth of the unemployment-insurance idea and the fact that
only a small fraction of the employees are today under any form of
unemployment insurance or reserves, the committee recommended
that the action on this matter be compulsory. A bill was proposed,
therefore, to be submitted to the next session of the legislature provid­
ing for the establishment and administration of an unemploymentinsurance system.




REPORTS ON STATE PLANS

825

M in ne so ta P lan for U n e m p lo y m e n t Reserves
A p l a n for the establishment of unemploymeat reserves in Minne­
sota was submitted to the Governor of the State, at his request, by
the Employment Stabilization Research Institute of the University
of Minnesota early in 1933.

The plan submitted was aimed directly at meeting serious and
prolonged periods of unemployment and therefore provided for a
long waiting period. It has been shown to be the case in sicknessinsurance policies that a short waiting period necessitates the payment
of smaller benefits and a higher premium, since most illnesses are of
short duration, but, if a long waiting period is required, benefits can
be paid throughout major illnesses at relatively slight cost. This
principle is applied to the unemployment-insurance plan, since in this
type of insurance only a limited amount of contributions can be
required in view of the interstate competition in manufactured prod­
ucts. The choice, then, it was considered, must be made between a
short waiting period, in which case the benefits would be exhausted
before unemployment would become really serious, and a long waiting
period, with a longer duration of benefits. In the latter case the
unemployment reserves are not dissipated in consequence of seasonal
and short-term employment but are conserved for periods of prolonged
unemployment.
The proposed plan provided for equal contributions by employers
and employees, amounting to 4 percent of the pay roll of eligible
employees, but no contributions would be made by the State. The
plan would exclude the self-employed, farm laborers, persons in
personal and domestic service, casual workers, employees of railroads
and other common carriers engaged in interstate commerce, and
public employees paid on a salary basis.
R eport of O h io C o m m issio n on U n e m p lo y m e n t In s u ra n c e 5
O n t h e basis of its findings through public hearings and individual
studies of the problems arising out of unemployment, the Ohio Com­
mission on Unemployment Insurance concluded in the first part of
its report issued in 1932, that unemployment insurance was feasible
and that the State should not face the job insecurity of the future
without providing a compulsory unemployment-insurance system.
In making this recommendation, the committee called attention to
the fact that corporations, railroads, insurance companies, and banks
have been forced to seek relief from the Reconstruction Finance
Corporation and that in view of the failure of these organizations to
provide against distress it was not to be expected that individual wage
earners could have provided sufficient savings through their own
efforts to meet their requirements in the present period of depression.

The committee commended the activities that had led to charitable
relief, but stated that it considered charity inadequate to meet the
distress of able and willing workers who had become unemployed
owing to general economic causes. It further stated that charity
could be more efficiently dispensed were the efforts in this direction
concentrated in order to serve those who were unemployed because
of physical, mental, and moral handicaps, this being the group for

5 Ohio Commission on Unemployment Insurance. Report, Pt. I: Conclusions and recommended bill.
Columbus, 1932.



826

UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE AND RELIEF

which charity was essential. For those able normally to support
themselves through their own labor, unemployment insurance was
considered the best means of meeting the workers’ need, the insurance
principle having been used successfully in meeting all kinds of indus­
trial risks. Recommended features of such a system are that:
(1) The system should be compulsory for all industries; (2) all funds
should be pooled, and the premiums should be graduated according
to the unemployment rate in the respective industiies after the plan
has been in operation for 3 years; (3) employers and employees should
both contribute, the original rate of the contribution to be 2 percent
of pay roll and 1 percent of earnings, respectively; and (4) the benefit
should amount to 50 percent of normal weekly earnings of the insured,
beginning after a waiting period of 3 weeks and payable for 16 weeks,
the maximum benefit per week not to exceed $15.
The committee was of the opinion that the expenditures, in times
of depression, of unemployment-insurance funds accumulated during
years of prosperity would make it possible to maintain greater sta­
bility in the business world during periods when purchasing power
was at a low ebb. While it was recognized that compulsory un­
employment insurance to cover all industries in all States would
reduce the competitive disadvantage in interstate commerce that
might arise should Ohio have such an insurance system and other
States be free from the costs of unemployment insurance, it was the
belief of the committee that the advantages of other social legislation
had more than compensated for the costs and that the additional
cost of unemployment insurance would not prove burdensome.
R eport of C o m m itte e on U n e m p lo y m e n t Reserves,
P ennsylvania 6
T h e committee appointed by Governor Gifford Pinchot to investi­
gate the question of the establishment of unemployment reserves in
the State of Pennsylvania *failed to agree upon the advisability of
such reserves, so that no joint report was possible.
The committee was made up of representatives of the public, of
employers, of employees, and of the legislature.
The employers’ group, the chairman, and one other member of
the group representing the public, in submitting their conclusions,
stated that they were opposed to the adoption of any plan of com­
pulsory unemployment insurance or reserves on the ground that such
measures could not relieve or prevent depressional unemployment.
This group recommended, therefore, that the distress arising from
unemployment should continue to be dealt with as an emergency,
and further that a careful study should be made of this form of relief
in the light of experience gained during the present emergency both
in this country and abroad.
The group representing the employees, together with two members
of the State legislature, was agreed that the problem of unemploy­
ment relief could be met more satisfactorily by compulsory unemploy­
ment insurance than by the present system of poor-relief assistance
which is backed by compulsory contribution through taxation. If
industrial management is unable to assist in solving the problem of

6 Pennsylvania State Committee on Unemployment Reserves, Report, Philadelphia, 236 Chestnut
Street. 1933,




STABILIZATION PLAN OF GENERAL ELECTRIC CO.

827

unemployment, the report says, it will eventually be obliged to
abdicate.
A separate statement was filed by one of the members of the group
representing the public, who favored a system of joint contributions
with State-wide pooled reserves and said that recognition of the
need for establishment of adequate organization and machinery of
administration, including the development of an effective public
employment service, was of great practical importance.
Two other members, who were in disagreement with all these
reports, were of the opinion that further study of the question was
needed, and recommended, therefore, the appointment of a legisla­
tive commission which should make a complete study of the whole
problem and report to the next regular session of the legislature.
R eport of V irg in ia A d viso ry C o m m issio n on U n e m p lo y m e n t
Insuran ce
T h e enactment of a State unemployment-insurance law in Virginia
was recommended in the report of a special commission appointed
by the Governor of that State to consider the problems arising from
insecurity of employment.7
For reasons of principle, administrative difficulties, or expediency,
the commission considered that certain workers could not be covered
in a State plan such as the one advocated. Such persons include
agricultural workers, domestic workers in establishments not operated
for profit, those engaged in interstate commerce, employees of the
State, persons without a certain employment record or who have
not been resident in the State for a certain period, persons ordinarily
self-employed, persons employed in an establishment having only
a small number of workers, and persons receiving more than a stipu­
lated amount in wages in a year.
The plan agreed upon by the commission, and offered in the form
of a tentative bill, recommended the establishment of a reserve fund
by employers to be administered by the Department of Labor and
Industry, with a separate account kept by the department for each
employer. In addition to the unemployment-reserve fund, the pro­
posed bill provided for an unemployment-insurance fund, to be formed
by the payment by each employer of one-half of 1 percent per annum
of his pay roll. This fund would be administered by the Common­
wealth to pay benefits to those eligible employees who, because of
the exhaustion of reserve accounts, were unable to collect their bene­
fits from such accounts.

Plan for Stabilization of Industry by President of
General Electric Co.

A

PLAN was proposed by Gerard Swope, president of the General
Electric Co., at the annual dinner of the National Electrical
Manufacturers’ Association in New York on September 16, 1931,

7 Virginia. Governor's Advisory Commission on Unemployment Insurance. Stabilization of employ­
ment in Virginia and building up of unemployment reserves. Richmond, 1934.




828

UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE AND RELIEF

which aimed at the stabilization of industry through the coordination
of production and consumption.
Trade associations would be established by all industrial and com­
mercial companies doing an interstate business, and having 50 or
more employees. These associations, under the plan, wduld be
empowered to establish trade practices and standard accounting and
cost practice and to collect and distribute information on volume of
business, simplification and standardization of products, price stabi­
lization and similar measures, and to promote stabilization of em­
ployment. Supervision of companies and trade associations would
be under a Federal supervisory body or bureau in order to protect
the public interests. Periodical statements as to the business and
earnings should be made by all companies with 25 or more stockholders
and at least once a year a complete balance sheet and earnings state­
ment should be sent to all stockholders. Immediate voluntary
acceptance of the plan by companies of the described character was
provided for with adoption of the provisions of the plan required
within 3 years.
In order to protect employees the plan provided for the adoption
by all of the companies of a workmen’s compensation act embodying
the best features of the different State laws; life and disability insur­
ance to be carried jointly by employers and employees with provision
for the continuation of the policies when employees change their
employment in the same or another trade association; old-age pen­
sions provided through contributions by the employers and employees
which should be placed in a pension trust organized by the trade
association to which the particular company belongs; and the estab­
lishment of unemployment-insurance funds likewise maintained
jointly by employers and employees.
The plan provided that the administration of the insurance features
in each trade association should be placed under a general board of
administration consisting of nine members, three each representing
the association, the employees, and the public.
Mr. Swope said that the plan outlined would tend to put all
domestic corporations of the class described on a parity for domestic
business, thereby removing the inequalities of the different laws in
the several States, providing for standard forms of financial reports
and their periodical issuance for the information of stockholders, and
placing on organized industry the obligation of coordinating pro­
duction and consumption and of a higher degree of stabilization.
In addition it was suggested, in order to place these domestic cor­
porations on a parity with foreign competition, that any company
engaged in export business should be entitled, after approval by the
Federal supervisory body, to deduct from its Federal income tax the
equivalent of a certain percentage of its export sales. By this
method American industry would be in a position to discharge its
obligation to its employees and, by holding its position in the markets
of the world, bring additional work to America.
The general principles underlying the plan advocated by Mr.
Swope were stated as follows:
1. Every effort should be made to stabilize industry and thereby stabilize
employment to give to the worker regularity and continuity of employment, and,
when this is impracticable, unemployment insurance should be provided.




SYSTEMS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES

829

2. Organized industry should take the lead, recognizing its responsibility to
its employees, to the public, and to its stockholders, rather than that democratic
society should act through its government. If the various States act, industry
will be confronted with different solutions, lacking uniformity and imposing
varying burdens, making competition on a national scale difficult. If either the
individual States or the Federal Government act, the power of taxation has no
economic restraints.
3. There should be standardized forms of reports so that stockholders may be
properly informed. As a result of the steady increase in number and size of
corporations and number of shareholders, there has been much discussion of the
uniformity, frequency, and regularity of reports of corporate activities, and con­
siderable criticism of the form of these reports; some too conservative, some not
sufficiently complete; while others are considered to be fair and complete, but
even so there is a lack of uniformity among the different companies.
4. Production and consumption should be coordinated on a broader and more
intelligent basis, thus tending to regularize employment and thereby removing
fear from the minds of the workers as to continuity of employment; as to their
surviving dependents in case of death; and as to old age. This should be done
preferably by the joint participation and joint administration of management
and employees. These things cannot be done by an individual unit— organized
industry must do them.
5. If organized industry is to undertake this work, every effort should be made
to preserve the benefits of individual originality, initiative, and enterprise,
and to see that the public is assured that its interests will be protected, and this
can be done most effectively by working through the agency of the Federal
Government.

The plan, Mr. Swope said, was offered as a means to correlate into
a comprehensive whole the undirected efforts of forward-looking
business enterprises toward stabilization; for the further develop­
ment of industry and commerce; for the protection of employees and
stockholders; for the best service to the public and in general the
best interests of society. Legislation would be required to make such
a plan possible, including the probable modification of some existing
laws.

Unemployment-Insurance Systems in Foreign
Countries, 1931-34 8
YST E M S of unemployment insurance had been established by
legislation and were in force in 18 foreign countries in 1934. In
addition an unemployment-insurance act was enacted in Luxemburg
in 1921, but has never been put into effect although it has been
used as a basis for handling unemployment relief. The systems
are designated as compulsory or voluntary, the compulsory systems
being those in which insurance is obligatory for certain designated
classes of workers under definite conditions prescribed by the law,
and the voluntary systems those in which private unemploymentinsurance systems are encouraged and subsidized by the State but
under which insurance is not required of any group. The countries
are fairly evenly divided between the 2 types of systems, the
legislation in 8 countries being compulsory in character and in 9
countries voluntary, while in Switzerland the cantonal legislation
is in some instances compulsory and in others voluntary. The

S

s TJ. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Serial No. R. 166: Operation of Unemployment-Insurance Systems
in the United States and Foreign Countries. Washington, 1934.




830

UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE AND RELIEF

distribution of the 18 countries on this point and the date of first
legislation on unemployment insurance in each country are as follows:
Compulsory system:
Austria___________________
Bulgaria__________________
Germany_________________
Great Britain and Northern
Ireland_________________
Irish Free State___________
Italy_____________________
Poland___________________
Queensland_______________
Mixed system:
Switzerland-

1920
1925
1927
1911
1920
1919
1924
1922

Voluntary system:
Belgium__________________
Czechoslovakia___________
Denmark_________________
Finland___________________
France___________________
Netherlands______________
Norway__________________
Spain_____________________
Sweden___________________

1920
1921
1927
1917
1905
1916
1915
1931
1934
1924

Two new unemployment-insurance laws were enacted in 1934—
one in Sweden which became effective January 1, 1935, and one in
Finland replacing the law passed in 1917 which had become in­
operative as a result of differences between the Government and the
trade unions, while an act was passed by the British Parliament
in June 1934, amending the unemployment-insurance acts, 1920
to 1933. The new British act provides for the lowering of the
minimum age for entry into unemployment insurance, restores the
benefit rates to the amounts in force before they were reduced in
1931, and establishes an unemployment-insurance statutory com­
mittee which is empowered to make recommendations and advise
with the Minister of Labor in regard to the operations of the act or
amendments thereto. An unemployment ‘assistance board was also
established which was empowered to take over the system of “ tran­
sitional payments” which had been paid to claimants who had
exhausted their right to standard benefit and to have general charge
of the transition from the former benefit and transitional payments
to the new provision of benefit and unemployment allowances.
With the exception of Great Britain no sweeping changes have been
made in the systems of unemployment insurance. In Austria the
measure providing for emergency relief for unemployed workers
dropped from regular benefits was extended to the end of 1934,
and the extension period for regular benefit reduced from 30 to 20
weeks. In France the State subsidies to unemployment funds were
increased, and special provision was made for the establishment
of funds for persons engaged in the plastic, graphic, dramatic, and
musical arts. There was a general tendency in Germany toward
simplification of the classification of workers and leveling the amounts
of insurance paid. Unemployed workers were more generally kept on
extended relief after exhausting their right to regular benefits instead
of passing them on to the welfare relief system supported by the
local and municipal governments, for which the burden had proved
to be too great. The “ means test” was, however, still very strictly
enforced. The financial position of the system for both ordinary and
extended insurance was said to be excellent. The Polish system of
insurance for salaried workers has undergone many changes as a result




DISMISSAL COMPENSATION

831

of the large number of persons receiving benefits and the reduced
number contributing to the fund; as a result assessments were
increased and benefits lowered. All Cantons in Switzerland have
adopted some form of unemployment-insurance legislation, and special
measures have been undertaken to assist particular industries in the
Cantons most severely affected by the depression.

Dismissal Compensation in American Industry 9
WO hundred and twelve companies in this country have been
reported as paying dismissal compensation at some time before
April 1934. These firms, together with their subsidiaries, normally
employed before the depression between 2){ and 2% million men.
Although most of the companies had not announced the number of
dismissed employees or the amount of compensation, reports from
60 firms definitely stated that they had compensated more than 80,000
men. On the basis of actual reports and a conservative estimate of
the amount of compensation in relation to the terms of the particular
plans, over 8% million dollars had been paid to these 80,000 employees
permanently laid off. Individual payments were sometimes as large
as 1 or 2 years' pay. A few factory workers received compensation
up to $3,000, while the amounts paid to salaried employees and
executives were at times even larger.

T

Number of Dismissal-Compensation Plans

A t l e a s t 212 companies had at some time before April 1934 paid
dismissal compensation to employees for permanently terminating
the employment relationship, primarily for reasons beyond the control
of the employee, the attempt having been made to eliminate all
subsidiary companies except where a real difference in plans existed.
Thus 16 subsidiary, affiliated, or merged companies were not included
in this list of 212 firms, although there has been some public discussion
of their experience.
These 212 companies have used 221 plans. This number does not
include changes in their procedure from time to time, but includes
only those cases in which a company operated two separate schemes
to meet different situations; for example, a general policy for salaried
employees and a special plan for all employees when closing a plant.
A classification of 182 plans last used by 175 firms, about which
complete information was available, shows that approximately 30 per­
cent of these plans provided for small payments, in lieu of notice,
ranging from only a few days' pay to 2 weeks' wages. Another 15
percent were informal plans without definite eligibility requirements
or scales of compensation. Over half the plans, however, can be
classified as formal plans, with rather definitely formulated rules,
which were designed to meet all contingencies. Over a fifth of the

9 Summary of an article, by Everett D. Hawkins, Princeton University, in the November 1934 Monthly
Labor Review. The information for the article was secured largely through interviews or correspond­
ence with officers of the firms which have paid dismissal compensation. Visits to 111 companies were
made during the summers of 1932 and 1933. Letters from 32 additional firms reported their plans. These
sources were supplemented by published statements and information gathered by the industrial relations
section of Princeton University. The Bureau of Labor Statistics aided in securing certain data incorporated
in this article. Joint trade-union plans are not included in this article.




832

UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE AND RELIEF

plans had been adopted as standard procedure for meeting all dismissal
contingencies.
Type and Size of Companies Paying Dismissal Compensation
T h e adoption of dismissal-compensation plans by companies in
this country has been concentrated in certain industries and usually
in the larger firms of these industries. Public utilities, department
stores, oil refiners, paper manufactures, and financial institutions
headed the list of industries having dismissal-compensation plans.
The companies in these industries dealt rather directly with the public
and so were especially desirous of maintaining good public relations
through progressive industrial relations. Food and meat packers,
textile, chemical and drug, and machinery manufacturers also stood
high in the total number of plans, but many of their schemes were
unconfirmed, informal, or offered only small payments, so that few
remained among the formal plans.
Dismissal compensation, like other industrial-relations practices,
was used comparatively infrequently in the great number of small
plants. The median number of employees in the 212 plants which
used some form of dismissal compensation was 2,563. The average
was 11,912 workers, but this figure was influenced largely by 9 large
corporations which employed over 50 percent of the total number of
employees. Only 16 firms with fewer than 250 employees and only
50 firms with between 251 and 1,000 employees used dismissal compen­
sation. The employees of these small firms formed only 1.5 percent
of the 2,372,697 workers in companies paying compensation. The
modal class included the companies with from 1 to 5,000 employees.

Coverage of Dismissal-Compensation Plans
N ot a l l the 2,300,000 employees normally employed by the 212
firms before the depression were eligible for compensation. Although
a degree of flexibility was sometimes allowed, most plans definitely
specified the factors—class of employment, the length of service, the
reason for termination, and possibly the age of the employee—which
were required in order to be eligible for compensation. Practically
all plans state or follow the rule that no payment shall be made in
case of voluntary quits, discharges for cause, or temporary lay-offs.
Employees receiving workmen’s compensation are usually excluded,
as are also those eligible for other employee-benefit plans.
Although a few of the older plans were broadened to include all
employees, and a fair proportion of the newer standard-procedure
plans included both factory and salaried workers, many firms paid
compensation only to office and salaried employees. The data for
182 plans, about which information was available, indicate that 60.4
percent of the plans included all employees in the company, 7.2 per­
cent covered only wage earners, and 32.4 percent only salaried em­
ployees. Of the 98 formal plans, 70.4 percent included all employees,
11.2 percent only wage earners, and 18.4 percent only salaried
employees.
Practically all the more definitely formulated plans required a
certain length of service in the employ of the firm before a worker
became eligible for dismissal compensation. A few companies,
however, starting with small payments, had no service requirement.




DISMISSAL COMPENSATION

833

In the case of informal plans, no rule was announced; but usually
only employees of some service, especially in the case of hourly paid
workers, were considered.
Service requirements tended to be considerably higher for wage
earners than for salaried employees. Over one-half of the plans for
salaried employees had service requirements of a year or less, while
less than one-third of those for wage earners had such a short period.
In the long-service group were found 38.4 percent of the plans for
wage earners and only 14 percent covering salaried workers.
These service and position requirements greatly limited the cover­
age of dismissal-compensation plans. Records from 60 companies,
however, showed that 81,434 employees had been paid dismissal
compensation up to 1934. The number compensated by the remain­
ing 152 firms would probably equal the number of announced pay­
ments.
Amount of Dismissal Compensation
M ost companies hesitated fc make any announcement about
o
the amount of money paid in dismissal compensation. Twenty
companies, however, which compensated 50,710 employees paid
$4,616,927.81. Although the average was $91.05 per person, this
figure is of little significance, since there was a tendency for payments
to be quite small or to amount, at the other extreme, to several
hundred dollars.
For 40 additional companies, information was available concern­
ing 30,724 dismissal payments. Using a conservative estimate of
the average payments given by each company in the light of the
terms of its plan, about $4,202,725 was paid in compensation by these
companies. This gave a higher average, $136.79, than the average
of the 20 plans above mentioned.
For all 60 companies the average payment to the 81,434 workers
who received $8,819,652.81 in compensation was $108.30. Since
some individual payments were well over a thousand dollars, prob­
ably more than half the dismissal payments in these 60 companies
were less than $100.
Use of an over-all average does not reveal the fact that in certain
companies as the depression deepened the average amount of com­
pensation increased because employees of longer service were dis­
placed. In other companies cuts were made in the scale of compen­
sation or weekly earnings were lowered to such an extent that the
average payments actually declined. The comparison of average
payments made by any two companies is not a satisfactory guide
of the relative effectiveness of their plans, since the averages may be
raised or lowered because of the service requirements. Thus under
a plan in which only long-service older workers are eligible to com­
pensation, fewer employees may be assisted than under one having
only a 1-year service requirement and a lower average compensation.
The eligibility requirements and scales of compensation are more
trustworthy measures for comparing plans.
In determining the amount of dismissal benefits, scales of compensa­
tion are used which consider, as a rule, earnings and length of service.
Age, type of position, reason for separation, and number of depend­
ents are sometimes used as factors in determining the amount of com­
pensation. Several ways have been developed to combine these
various factors.
19205— 36— — 54




834

UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE AND RELIEF

Method of Financing Dismissal Compensation
D is m is s a l compensation payments have been financed rather largely
on a pay-as-you-go basis. A few of the combined plans had savings
or profit-sharing funds which also served for dismissal payments in
case of permanent lay-off, but as yet such plans are the exception and
not the rule. The most common method of accounting is to include
the dismissal payments in the same account with the salary or wages
of the department or unit. In some companies other funds of the
department were charged with the dismissal payments. Over 70 per­
cent of the companies whose plans were studied debited the unit dis­
missing the employee, while the remaining companies charged the cost
to general operations or special company dismissal accounts or funds.
The reason for charging dismissal compensation to the operating unit
is to make the supervisors careful in keeping at a minimum the num­
ber of employees dismissed.

Method of Paying Dismissal Compensation
T h e most debated feature of dismissal compensation is the relative
advantage of granting benefits in a lump sum or in periodic pay­
ments. The major contention of those favoring the periodic method
is that payments should be spread over a period of time so that they
will really help carry the worker during the period between jobs.
The advocates of lump-sum payments emphasize the desirability of
definitely terminating the employment relationship; the employees
should know that their jobs are over and not be encouraged to stay
around the plant to collect weekly payments in the vain hope of secur­
ing work again.
A combination of the two methods, which recognizes certain
advantages of each, seemed to be growing. A study of 94 companies
which had plans with medium or large payments showed that 33.3
percent used both methods, 42.9 percent the lump-sum method, and
23.8 percent, periodic payments. The group using both methods was
divided into three almost equal parts: Those definitely utilizing
both methods, depending on the individual case and the size of
compensation; those usually giving lump sums, but using periodic
payments where the money might quickly be dissipated; and those
normally following the periodic method but allowing a lump sum if
an employee needs it. These plans which recognized differences in
individuals and circumstances better met the needs of employees.

Recent Changes in Dismissal-Compensation Plans
T h r o u g h 1929 the aim of most dismissal-compensation plans was
to assist those squeezed out by mergers, consolidations of offices and
plants, or changes in working rules. As the depression deepened,
various activities and units were decreased in size, or abandoned.
Forces had to be pared, including in many instances officials and
long-service workers. The depression greatly accelerated the growth
of plans. The largest number of new plans was adopted in 1931.
By 1933 the rate of growth had slackened, as employment and
pay-roll indexes began to move upward.




SPREAD-THE-WORK MOVEMENT

835

In addition to the great increase in the number of plans adopted
since the start of the depression, important changes were made in
dismissal-compensation plans. A number of informal schemes had
been converted into formal plans with definite requirements and
scales of compensation. Ten existing plans increased their coverage
to include hourly or wage workers, and a large share of the newly
adopted plans compensate all classes of employees. As a rule, the
newer plans have shorter service requirements. Although during
1931 and 1932 five plans raised short-service requirements from
6 months to 4 years, none of these plans wen* beyond 5 years in their
new requirements. All the new plans and 10 others raised their
scales of compensation during the depression because of greater
need. Three plans, none of which was definitely formulated, were
discontinued and two others changed from a formal to an informal
status. Fifteen companies, because of financial conditions, reduced
compensation for some or all classes of employees, while two reduced
the maximum benefit from 1 year to 6 months. Over half of these
reductions were made in informal plans.
The comparatively good record of dismissal compensation in rela­
tion to other industrial relations plans 1 during the depression can
0
be explained by their relative newness. Since many of the plans
were not started until the depression was well under way, they were
adopted after a careful examination of their cost in relation to the
financial condition of the company. The need for some or higher
payments became more apparent as the depression deepened and it
took longer for the worker to find a new position. Probably the
large size of the corporations paying dismissal compensation may
also have accounted for the continuance of payments in spite of
worsened business conditions.

Spread-the-Work Movement
S p re a d in g -W o rk P ro g ra m of President H oover’s Conference of
A u g u s t 1932

A

NATIO NAL conference of banking and industrial committees
of the 12 Federal Reserve districts, called by President Hoover
on August 14, met in Washington August 26, 1932, to draw up a
coordinated Nation-wide program of action against the economic
depression. The President announced that the conference would
deal “ with specific projects where definite accomplishments in
business, agriculture, and employment can be attained, and will
coordinate the mobilization of private and governmental instru­
mentalities to that end.” The chairman of the 12 committees
representing the Federal Reserve districts and certain officials of
the Government meeting on August 25, for the purpose of pre­
liminary preparation of the program and organization of the con­
ference, adopted a resolution favoring the appointment of a central
committee to act as a central point of contact in those matters

10 E. S. Cowdrick, in a paper on the Status and Trends in Industrial Relations, presented in September
1933 at the Third Conference Course in Industrial Relations at the Graduate College, Princeton, N. J.,
reported no company that had given up a dismissal-compensation plan (pp. 3-4) or was likely to discontinue
it (p. 12), but “lay-off allowance” headed the list of plans adopted since the beginning of the depression
(pp. 5-6).




836

UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE AND RELIEF

requiring cooperation between various public and semipublic agencies
and the various banking and industrial committees. It was also
recommended that subcommittees be formed to deal with the differ­
ent subjects, among them one on increased employment through the
sharing-work movement. The members of the conference included
the Secretaries of the Treasury, Agriculture, Commerce, and Labor,
and the various other officials of these departments, representatives
of the banking interests in the different districts, industrial leaders,
and others.
In his opening address President Hoover said, in regard to the
question of unemployment, that—
As a matter of national policy, the shortening of hours is necessary not alone
to meet the need of the moment but it may be necessary to take up the slack
in the future from the vast and sudden advance in labor-saving devices. As
the result of conferences similar to this nearly 3 years ago many industries
realined their operations by shorter hours to retain hundreds of thousands of
workers who would otherwise have been dismissed.
Nevertheless, the still further spreading of available work in industrial, com­
mercial, and service activities, especially with every recovery of employment,
would be a vital contribution. * * *
While I heartily favor the purpose of plans [to shorten hours], I agree with both
the employers and the leaders of labor whom I have consulted that its direction
is not properly the function of government, except as applied to the operation of
government service. Moreover, with all the various phases of employment and
operation to be met in private business, no general rule can be applied. Results
must be achieved through cooperation on the part of employers and employees
suited to each locality and industry.

In accordance with the recommendation of President Hoover and
the organizing committee, a subcommittee, with Walter C. Teagle,
president of the Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey, as chairman, was
appointed to promote increased employment through the sharingwork movement. It was proposed to urge all employers to take on
additional workers and to adjust the hours so that at the end of a
given period all workers would have been employed the same amount
of time.
As an example of the possibilities of success, Mr. Teagle cited the
case of his own company employing 23,000 persons, which by spread­
ing out employment through reduction of hours, had been able to
give employment to 3,000 more workers.
P lan of N a tio n a l C o m m itte e on In d u s tria l R e h a b ilita tio n
T h e National Committee on Industrial Rehabilitation, under the
chairmanship of A. W. Robertson, of Pittsburgh, was an outgrowth
of the conference. This committee developed plans for an intensive
equipment modernization movement throughout the country, which
was designed to put back on the pay roll 1,620,000 workers in factories
manufacturing machinery and plant equipment. The committee
was- to concentrate on getting manufacturers in all the principal
industrial centers to modernize their plants. Mr. Robertson stated:
The committee believes that if induistry will proceed now for reasons of sound
self-interest to put its house in order and to remedy through modernization the
run-down condition of its productive equipment, employment will be created
for hundreds of thousands of workers in the “ capital goods’ ’ industries. In
addition, it will bring back on pay rolls hundreds of thousands of workers in other
industries which furnish the parts, raw materials, and services bought by the
machinery and equipment manufacturers. This will release millions of dollars
in wages spent for individuals and family purchases, affecting business in every
community.



SPREAD-THE-WORK MOVEMENT

837

More than 50 percent of the equipment in American factories was said
to be obsolete at the time. Conditions were rendered more urgent by
the fact that in the 3 preceding years there had been more rapid improve­
ment in equipment design than in any other period, while replace­
ment had not kept up with this engineering advance. The objective
of the committee was to set in motion a succession of orders which
would extend, in their effect on employment and spending, from the
factory back to the farms, the forests, and the mines.
Survey of S p re a d -th e -W o rk M o ve m e n t, 1932
O n e o f the important measures advocated as a recovery measure
by President Hoover’s Organization on Unemployment was that of
spreading work, and from time to time the organization sought
information as to the extent to which such a policy was being used.
The most comprehensive survey on the subject was made in the
early part of 1932, under the direction of William J. Barrett. This
survey secured reports from 6,551 companies, employing 3,475,870
persons in 1929, at a weekly pay roll of $104,461,727. During the
pay-roll period ending nearest March 15, 1932, these companies
employed 2,547,901 persons at a weekly pay roll amounting to $60,626,129. This represented a decrease of 26.7 percent in employment
and of 42. 0 percent in pay roll.
On March 15, 1932, of those employed, 1,428,116 (or 56.1 percent)
were on part time. These part-time workers were employed, on the
average, 58.7 percent of full time.
Of the companies reporting, 1,673, or 25.5 percent, were working
full time, while 1,842 companies, or 28.1 percent, were working 5 or
more days per week.
The proportion part-time employees formed of all present employees
varied from 84.9 percent in the machinery and rubber groups to 20.4
percent in commercial establishments.
The proportion of companies operating at or near full time (5 days
or more per week) varied from 70.3 percent in the commercial group
to 13.5 percent in the machinery group.
“ Reduced days per week” was the method most commonly used
for spreading or increasing employment, and 3,857, or 58.8 percent,
of the 6,551 companies reported they were using this method.
An analysis of returns by industries revealed that some groups,
although severely affected by the drop in operations, endeavored to
spread available work over relatively large numbers of their employees.

The machinery group is a case in point; here the decrease in employment was
36.2 percent, .but the companies reporting had spread work so that 84.9 percent
of present employees were given part-time employment. In the case of some of
the other groups there are apparent possibilities for further spreading of employ­
ment.

The methods of spreading or increasing employment used by the
4,926 companies reporting their methods were distributed over 10




838

UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE AND RELIEF

major groupings. The statement below shows the number of com­
panies reporting the use of each method.
N u m b e r o f c o m p a n ie s

Method of spreading work:
r e p o r tin g u s e o f m e th o d i
Reduced days per week___________________________________ 3, 857
Reduced hours per day___________________________________ 2, 336
380
Shorter shifts in continuous operation_____________________
Alternating shifts or individuals___________________________ 1, 338
Rotation of days off______________________________________ 1, 170
Method of increasing employment:
Maintenance and repair___________________________________ 1, 290
278
Construction_____________________________________________
Production for stock______________________________________ 1, 177
Development of new markets_____________________________
959
Development of new products_____________________________ 1, 020

i The total number exceeds the total number of companies because many of the companies reported the
use of 2 or more methods for spreading or increasing employment.
New H a m p s h ire P lan for R e e m p lo ym e n t

A p l a n for the spreading of available work through combining a
shortened working week with a flexible arrangement which would
allow the absorption of the unemployed without placing an added
burden upon industry was advocated at a conference held in Boston,
July 20, 1932.12 The plan, called the “ New Hampshire plan for
reemployment” , was presented to a representative group of officials,
including the governors of five New England States, industrialists
and other business men, educators, economists and social workers, and
labor executives. The joint conference was held under the sponsor­
ship of thQ Massachusetts Commission on the Stabilization of Employ­
ment and the New Hampshire Unemployment Relief Committee,
and under the direction of a committee on arrangements of which
John G. Winant, then Governor of New Hampshire, was chairman.
The chief differences between the proposed plan and ordinary plans
for spreading work lay in the temporary nature of the usual spreadwork plans and the fact that they place the entire burden upon
labor, while under the proposed plan a flexible method of putting
men back to work permanently was provided, to be supported by
ownership and management as well as labor. The flexibility of the
plan was particularly stressed as a necessary part of such an attempt
to put men back to work.
The statement of Governor Winant in opening the conference,
which gives an outline of the proposed plan, was as follows:
The principle of the flexible work day and work week is effective because of
its very flexibility. If applied in any wide-spread manner it would be possible
immediately to increase the number of workers on pay rolls. This would be
done as follows:
First, by contributions from those still employed in a specific business, includ­
ing wage earners, salaried executives, and stockholders, the latter by a contribu­
tion from dividends if the business can pay dividends.
Second, without increasing the cost of running a business.
Third, without necessitating increased floor space or additional machinery or
equipment.
Fourth, without increasing production.
Fifth, with compensation to wage earners of shorter hours more than equiva­
lent to the contribution from their wages.
The principle is flexible as applied through plans for each type of business.
Technicians have proved the principle applicable to all varieties of conditions in
individual businesses.

I2 The New England Council. New England News Letter, Special supplement, Aug. 1, 1932. Statler
Building, Boston.



PUBLIC WORKS ADMINISTRATION

839

The principle would not apply to businesses where hours already have been
considerably shortened until these businesses are restored to greater productivity.
As present employees have their hours lengthened the plan would apply after a
certain maximum has been reached, beyond which new employees would be
hired rather than present employees stepped up to still longer hours.
The plan would remain operative until unemployment is eliminated, and could
again become operative by degrees if unemployment reoccurred.

A study was made of the offices in several different types of busi­
ness—insurance, textile, paper, soap, rubber, and optical goods-—and
on the basis of the seven offices studied it was found that contributions
of 4 to 5 percent of salaries of over $5,000, 3 to 4 percent on salaries
of $1,500 to $5,000, and 2 to 3 percent on salaries under $1,500 would
provide salaries of $780 to $1,000 per year for 10 percent more people,
while if a 5 percent contribution from profits or dividends was avail­
able the contributions from salaries could be reduced and the salaries
of the new employees increased. The hours of the extra people
would be used to shorten the hours of the regular force and a 2-shift
system of 5 hours each was advocated as it would secure the maximum
use of the floor space and equipment. Under this plan no work need
be done on Saturdays. Other variations of the flexible plan are:
A single shift in normal hours and a 5-day week, and uniform shorten­
ing of hours for everyone on either a 5- or a 5^-day week. In general
it was considered that the 2-shift plan is the economical practical
plan for Nation-wide adoption at the present time.

Purposes and Policies of Public Works Administration
HE Federal Emergency Administration of Public Works, better
known as the Public Works Administration, was created to pre­
pare a comprehensive program of public works, as part of the National
Recovery program. Its purpose was to increase the consumption of
industrial and agricultural products by increasing purchasing power,
to reduce and relieve unemployment, to improve standards of labor,
and otherwise to rehabilitate industry and conserve natural re­
sources.13

T

Labor Policy
T he policies enunciated with regard to labor include the equitable
distribution of jobs among unemployed, on the geographical basis,
preference being given to qualified workers; the prohibition of em­
ployment of convict labor; the 30-hour week as far as “ practicable
and feasible” ; just and reasonable wages, sufficient to provide “ a
standard of living in decency and comfort” ; weekly payment of
wages; public posting by the contractor of the rates of wages to be
paid. Labor required on public-works projects was recruited as far
as possible through the United States Employment Service, except
for such organized or highly skilled workers, as were obtained through
recognized trade-union locals.
Wage Rates
F or the purposes of setting up minimum wage rates the United
States was divided into three zones, and it was required that in these

18 For employment on public works, see p, 145.




840

UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE AND RELIEF

zones the wage rates per hour to be paid on construction projects
should be not less than the following:
Southern zone: 1
Skilled labor__________________________
$1. 00
Unskilled labor_____________________________
.4 0
Central zone: 2
Skilled labor________________________________
1. 10
Unskilled labor_____________________________
.4 5
Northern zone: 3
1. 20
Skilled labor________________________________
Unskilled labor_____________________________
. 50

1 South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Arkansas, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arizona, Oklahoma,
Texas, and New Mexico.
2 Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, Tennessee, Colorado, Utah, California, North Carolina, West Virginia,
Kentucky, Missouri, Kansas, Nevada, and District of Columbia.
3 Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New
Jersey, Indiana, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Nebraska, Wyoming, Oregon, South Dakota, Idaho, Pennsylva
nia, Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, Iowa, North Dakota, Montana, and Washington.
Accident Prevention
T h e contract form issued by the Public Works Administration
contains the following paragraph on accident prevention:
The contractor shall at all times exercise reasonable precautions for the safety
of employees on the work and shall comply with all applicable provisions of
Federal, State, and municipal safety laws and building and construction codes.
All machinery and equipment and other physical hazards shall be guarded in
accordance with safety codes approved by the American Standards Association,
unless such codes are incompatible with Federal, State, or municipal laws or
regulations. Nothing in this article shall be construed to permit the enforce­
ment of any laws, codes, or regulations herein specified by any except the con­
tracting officer.

Federal Emergency Relief Work
HE Relief Act of 1933 set up the Federal Emergency Relief
Administration and provided it with funds of $500,000,0Q0, of
which half was to be disbursed to the States on a basis of $1 of Federal
money for each $3 of public money from all sources spent for un­
employment relief in each State during the preceding 3 months. The
other half was to be used for grants to States whose relief needs were
so great and whose financial resources so depleted as to make neces­
sary some funds in addition to the matched allotments.
The new administration of relief began to function May 22, 1933,
and from May 23, 1933, to August 31, 1935, disbursed in grants to the
States the sum of $2,792,846,721. These grants were made for gen­
eral relief purposes, for educational programs, for the purchase and
distribution of surplus commodities, for the care of transients, and to
assist self-help groups of unemployed persons, The first grant for
self-help purposes was made in August 1933, the first grant for
transients in September 1933, and the first grant for educational work
in October 1933. The purchase of surplus commodities was under­
taken in November of the same year. Drought-relief activities began
in the summer of 1933, and continued until June 30, 1935.
Table 1 shows the average monthly grants for each purpose during
1933, and the amounts granted, by months, from January 1934 to
August 1935.

T




841

FEDERAL EMERGENCY RELIEF WORK
T able 1 . —

GRANTS FOR UNEMPLOYMENT RELIEF FROM FEDERAL FUNDS, JANUARY
1934 TO AUGUST 1935, BY MONTHS

Month
1933; Monthly av­
erage 1...................
1934
January____ ___
February________
March. _ _
April________
May_________
June___
July_______
August_________
Septem ber.___
October___
November. _ . .
December 4_____
1935
January...
February. _
March«_ _
April____
May___
June.......
July_______
August______

Total num­ Unemployment-relief grants from Federal fimds for—
ber of per­
sons given General
Commodi- Miscel­
laneous
purposes Transients Education
14,009,822 $13, 576, 563 $938,889
11,086,598
11,627,415
13, 494,282
16,840, 389
17, 277,497
16,949,606
17, 268, 283
18,169, 766
18,315, 559
18, 336, 713
18,908,681
20,023,077
20,655, 512
20, 518, 584
20,533,672
20,021,106
19, 256,580
17,939,314
16,128,163
15, 205, 288

Total

$573,934 $11,916, 750 a$52,669 $40,552,311

2 44,869,830
16,258,117
2 44,426,850
2 95,919, 501
92,026,155
108, 323,096
144,340,943
117,811,868
85, 621,935
148,676, 734
204,046,980
111, 793,032

2, 762, 227
744,000
2,098,831
2, 589.573
2, 256,100
3, 748,882
3,891,000
2,890,706
2,450, 279
4,581,315
6,828,870
3,890,899

2,051, 251
702,800
2, 616,302
9,659,185
7,207,191
2,754,807
863,725
1,692, 292
2, 203,083
3,656,066
4,912, 527
3,079,997

685,000
8,771,000
2, 270,000
9,185,000
2,735,000
2,800,000
2,275,000
3,926,000
16,470,000
3,050,000
16,425,000
8,965,000

346,320
3340, 610
3 30,000
396,125
3112, 764
3147,830
363, 721
3198,079
396,688
3125,957
326,436
337,316

50,414,628
26,816,527
51,441,983
117,449,384
104,337, 210
117,774,615
151,434,389
126,518,945
106,841,985
160,090,072
232, 239,813
127,766,244

69,987,069
155,769, 586
130,881,474
140,437, 111
199,410, 958
146,991, 463
19, 674, 695
118, 795,171

2,101,322
5,736, 590
4,323,658
4,391,411
7,303,831
1, 513,500
4, 622,416
5,830, 300

1,823,461
4,879, 584
2,685,937
3, 215, 344
5,192, 365
641, 786
1,882,156
2,729,134

7,342, 500
4,322, 500
4,450,000
12, 290,000
5, 710,000
633, 300
408,480

3 59, 207
3 45,122
1,483,964
921,921
2, 636,939
1,389,895
2,351,894
1,957,270

81,313, 559
170,753,382
157, 545,633
161,255,787
220,254,093
151,169,944
28,531,161
129, 720,355

2

1 Computed on basis of those months during which grants were made for purposes specified: General
purposes, June-December; transients, September-December; self-help groups, August-December; com­
modities, November and December; education, October-December; total, May-December.
2Includes also allotments matched by State funds.
3 Grants to self-help groups only.
4 Transfers affecting prior months have been made on the records reducing the cumulative total of tran­
sient relief $75,000 and increasing the educational program $44,400 and the general relief program $30,600.
5 Owing to a reclassification of special grants and regrouping of other grants, direct comparisons of data
for March and succeeding months cannot be made with earlier data.
The trend in relief rolls and disbursements in urban areas from
January 1934 to August 1935 is shown in table 2.
T able

2

,—TREND OF URBAN RELIEF, BY MONTHS, JANUARY 1934 TO AUGUST 1935
Month

Number
of persons Amount
receiving disbursed

Month

1934
1935
January______________ 1, 222, 233 $28,876, 203 January__ _________
February __________ 1,249,002 28,338,922 February_____________
March________ ... __ 1,439, 353 31,422,013 March....
. ____
1,922, 587 47,053,339
1,897, 254 53, 218,120
1,852, 742 50, 381, 384
July. ___________ _ __ 1,874, 302 52,541, 402 July . ______________
August_______________ 1,928,880 58,229, 503 August__ _____ ____
September____ _ ... _ 1,955,782 54,499,885
October______ ________ 2,014,986 60, 223, 395
November____________ 2,055,170 64, 789, 544
December____ ________ 2,158, 422 68, 622, 309

Number
of persons Amount
receiving disbursed
relief
2,233, 466 $76,756,947
2,212,903 69,712,195
2,207,301 71,454,834
2,180,613 70,454,363
2,145,915 69, 794,860
2,072,966 64,989,434
2,041,486 68,144,421
1, 953, 280 61,360, 506

Civil-Works and Work-Relief Programs
Civil works .—The Federal Civil Works Administration was created
November 9, 1933, to provide work for 4,000,000 persons. As the
greatest proportion of relief expenditures was going to employable




842

UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE AND RELIEF

persons, it was felt that if these people could be put to work at regular
wages there would be a great improvement in their morale. The
number of employable persons on relief November 15, 1933, was
estimated at 2,000,000. These and 2,000,000 others—persons thus
far self-sustaining but unemployed—were to be included in the civilworks program.
The program was carried out through State, county, and city civilworks administrations. On November 20 all persons on work-relief
rolls were transferred to the civil-works roll and the first work-relief
program was abolished, although some of the work-relief projects
were taken over by this new administration. By January 18, 1934,
there were 4,039,474 workers engaged on civil-works jobs and $345,357,616 had been disbursed in wages.
For this work a maximum 30-hour week and a maximum 8-hour
day were established for manual labor. For clerical, office, statistical,
survey, and professional work the current rate was paid, subject to a
minimum ranging from $12 a week for unskilled clerical workers in the
South to $24 to $45 a week for professional workers in the North.
Every effort was made to minimize risks and lessen accidents, but
employees injured in the course of their work received compensation
equal to that provided for under the United States Compensation
Act of 1916.
Emergency work program .—The Federal civil-works program was
discontinued early in 1934 and it was announced that a program of
work relief would be instituted, to be carried out through the State ad­
ministrations. This was planned to fall within six fields of activity,
as follows: (1) Planning projects; (2) improvements to public prop­
erty; (3) housing; (4) production and distribution of goods needed by
the unemployed; (5) public welfare, health, and recreation; and (6)
public education, the arts, and research.
It was announced that the new work program was to be carried on
in towns and cities having a population of more than 5,000.
This new program was inaugurated April 1, 1934. At the outset
of the program, the Federal Administrator of Emergency Relief set
30 cents an hour as the minimum rate to be paid on relief works
using Federal grants; if the local prevailing rate was higher, the local
rate was to be paid. The working hours were set at not to exceed
8 per day and 35 per week for physical labor, and not more than 8
per day and 40 per week for clerical work.
By order of June 29, 1934, the hours of labor were set at not less
than 6 nor more than 8 per day, nor more than 30 per week or 128 per
calendar month.
Another order, issued November 19, 1934, abolished the 30-cent
hourly minimum and provided that thereafter the rate to be paid
should be “ the prevailing rate in the community for the kind of
work performed.” This order had the effect, it was pointed out, of
placing the determination of the rate to be paid in the hands of
“ local committees representing labor, business, and the local relief
administr ation.’ }
Following the issuance of this order “ wide-spread rate reductions
occurred in most of the Southern States” , and hourly rates of as low
as 10 cents were reported. In South Carolina approximately one-




FEDERAL WORK-RELIEF ACT OF 1935

843

fourth of the common laborers were receiving this rate, and about
one-half were receiving 12 % cents or less per hour. The Federal Emer­
gency Relief Administration reported that “ in all, approximately onethird of the laborers on work-relief projects in these Southern States
were affected by these wage-rate reductions, while about two-thirds
continued at a rate of 30 cents or more per hour.”
“ In general, most of the reductions were made in the rural areas
and small towns while the rates of 30 cents an hour and over were
maintained in the larger cities. The bulk of the relief group is cen­
tered in these urban areas where the rates were unaffected.”
Federal Surplus Relief Corporation
T he Federal Surplus Relief Corporation was chartered under the
laws of Delaware, October 4, 1933. It is a nonprofit organization
with no capital stock, and its members are restricted to the Secretary
of Agriculture, the Federal Emergency Administrator of Public Works,
and the Federal Emergency Relief Administrator. Its purposes are
(1) to relieve the emergency through the purchase, processing, and
distribution for consumption of agricultural and other products as a
means of improving surpluses and improving prices, and (2) to
utilize surpluses of foodstuffs, clothing, fuel, etc., in the relief of the
unemployed.
The State relief administrations are required to render monthly
reports showing the number of families given commodity tickets for
each specified commodity and the total quantity represented by
these during the month.

Many millions of pounds of foodstuffs have been purchased by the
Federal Surplus Relief Corporation for distribution to the needy
unemployed. Other commodities have included grass seed (for use
in emergency work), blankets, coal, and feed grains. Large pur­
chases have also been made of toweling, cotton piece goods for sheets
and pillowcases, printed cotton goods and cheese cloth for comforters,
and ticking and cotton goods for bedding material. This material
was purchased to be used at work centers for unemployed women, thus
providing both employment and supplies for relief families.

Federal Work-Relief Act of 1935

F

UNDS “ to provide relief, work relief, and to increase employ­
ment by providing for useful projects” were made available by
the Federal Emergency Relief Act approved on April 8, 1935. The
act appropriated $4,000,000,000, together with $880,000,000 from
unexpended balances of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation and
Public Works Administration. The money was to be used in the
discretion of the President and under his direction, and was made
available until June 30, 1937, for the following classes of projects: (a)
Highways, grade-crossing elimination, etc., $8,000,000; (6) rural rehab­
ilitation and relief, water conservation, reclamation, etc., $500,000,000;
(c) rural electrification, $100,000,000; (d ) housing, $450,000,000;
«




844

UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE AND RELIEF

(e) assistance for educational, professional, and clerical persons,
$300,000,000; (/) Civilian Conservation Corps, $600,000,000; (g) loans
or grants, or both, for projects of States and other political s u b d i­
visions and for self-liquidating projects of public bodies, $900,000,000;
(h) sanitation, land and flood control, reforestation, etc., $350,000,000.
,
Any of the above amounts could be increased 20 percent. It was
specified that in grants to a State or subdivision for non-Federal
projects, not less than 25 percent must be expended for labor. No
part of the appropriation could be expended for munitions, but this
proviso was not to prevent the expenditure of money for the construc­
tion or improvement of military or naval reservations. The appor­
tionment of funds for the construction of highways must be through
the Secretary of Agriculture under the Federal Highway Act, although
no part of the funds need be matched by the State or Territory bene­
fited. Allocations to the States for grade-crossing elimination were to
be made on the following basis: One-half on the population as shown
by the latest decennial census, one-fourth on the mileage of the Federal
aid highway system, and one-fourth on the railroad mileage.
Funds could also be allotted for public-highway work in Alaska,
Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. Funds granted to relief agencies
could be used in the construction and repair of roads and streets.
In carrying out the provisions of the act, advantage must be taken
of the facilities of private enterprise wherever practicable, but where a
permanent Government department has jurisdiction over a similar
project, as rivers and harbors, such projects must be prosecuted by
the respective department.
There were special provisions affecting labor. The President was
authorized to fix wages for the various types of work. On permanent
construction of Federal buildings the provisions of the Davis-Bacon
Act relative to the paying of the prevailing wage rate must apply,
and the rates must be determined in advance of any bidding. The
President must also require the payment of such wages on the projects
financed by the Government as will “ not affect adversely or other­
wise tend to decrease the going rates of wages paid for work of a
similar nature.”
On all public highways and related projects, preference was to be
given to persons receiving relief, and the hours of work and the rates
of wages paid to skilled and unskilled labor on such projects must be
predetermined for each State.
Workmen’s compensation must be paid for injuries received by an
employee while engaged on any of the projects.
Provision was made for the acceptance of voluntary services as
well as for the use of Federal employees and necessary State employees.
Officers and employees could be appointed without regard to the
civil service or the classification law, but Congress reserved to itself
the right of confirming appointments of all State or regional admin­
istrators receiving an annual salary of $5,000 or more.
In addition to the projects already enumerated, the act provided
that money could be advanced (as loans) to farmers, farm tenants,
laborers, and croppers, for the purchase of farm lands and equipment.
For a period of 12 months from the effective date of the act, the funds
provided could also be used for the administration of the Agricultural
Adjustment Act. The Federal Emergency Relief Act was continued
until June 30, 1936, and the Federal Emergency Administration of




WORKS PROGRAM UNDER RELIEF ACT OF 1935

845

Public Works established under the National Industrial Recovery
Act was extended until June 30, 1937, by virtue of sections 10 and 12,
respectively, of the resolution, while the authority of the President
under the provisions of the act of March 31, 1933, providing for the
relief of unemployment through the performance of useful public
work, was continued until March 31, 1937.
In order that Congress may learn of the expenditures made and
the obligations incurred, a report was required to be submitted before
January 10 in each of the next three regular sessions of that body.

Works Program Under Relief Act of 1935
XERCISING the authority conferred upon him by the WorkRelief Act, the President, on May 6, 1935, issued an Executive
order setting up the machinery for carrying out the provisions of
that act.
This order directed that The Works Program be carried on by three
new Government agencies:
(1) The Division of Applications and Information (under the
general supervision of the Executive Director of the N ational Emer­
gency Council), whose duty it would be to receive all applications for
work projects, examine them, and transmit them to—
(2)
The Advisory Committee on Allotments (composed of 18
Government officials 17 and one representative each of the Business
Advisory Council, organized labor, farm organizations, the American
Bankers’ Association, and the United States Conference of Mayors)
charged with the duty of making recommendations to the President
for such projects as will constitute “ a coordinated and balanced
program of work.”
(3)
The Works Progress Administration (headed by the Federal
Emergency Relief Administrator), responsible for the execution of
the program so as to employ as many persons on relief as possible in
the shortest time possible.
The Works Progress Administrator announced that, like the works
programs which preceded it, the program would be carried out through
State administrators, and that among the objectives would be to
see that as many of the persons employed as was feasible should be
persons receiving relief.
An Executive order of June 8, 1935, established two classes of
persons eligible for employment under the new program: (1) Those
registered for employment at offices of the United States Employ­
ment Service, and (2) those receiving public relief in May 1935. As
various occupational classes in these groups became exhausted, how­
ever, other persons placed on the relief rolls after May 1935 and so
certified to the Employment Service by the State relief administration
could be added to the eligible list.

E

17 As follows: Secretary of the Interior (chairman), Secretary of Agriculture, Secretary of Labor, Execu­
tive Director of National Emergency Council, Administrator of Works Progress Administration, Director
of Procurement, Director of the Bureau of the Budget, Chief of Engineers CJ. S. Army, Commissioner of
Reclamation, Director of Soil Erosion, Chief of the Forest Service, Director of Emergency Conservation
Work, Chief of the Bureau of Public Roads, Administrator of the Resettlement Administration, Admin­
istrator of the Rural Electrification Administration, Federal Emergency Relief Administrator, Director
of the Housing Division, and Vice-Chairman of the National Resources Board.




846

U N E M P L O Y M E N T IN S U R A N C E A N D R E L IE F

The order also provided that eligibles should not lose their eligibility
through taking temporary employment in private industry or in
other public service, thus eliminating the complaint, in many places,
that persons were restrained from taking temporary jobs through
fear of loss of relief status.
Labor Policies

A n E x e c u t i v e order was issued on May 20, 1935, establishing
standard rates of pay, hours of labor, and working conditions.
Wages .—The following schedule of wages was set and it was pointed
out that they were monthly earnings “ in the nature of a salary” and
that no deduction^ were to be made for time lost due to temporary
interruptions beyond the control of the workers.

RATES TO BE PAID ON WORK PROJECTS
Regions

Monthly earnings in counties in which 1930 population of largest
municipality was—
Over 50,000- 25,000- 5,000- Under
50,000- 25,000- 5,000- Under
100,000 100,000 50,000 25,000 5,000 iooTooo 100,000 50,000 25,000 5,000
Unskilled work

Region I i ______________ _ $55
Region I I 2______^-----------45
Region III3_____ ________
35
Region IV 4______________
30

$52
42
33
27

$48
40
29
25

Intermediate work

$44
35
24
22

$40
32
21
19

85
72
68
68

75
66
62
58

70
60
56
50

$60
54
48
43

$55
50
43
38

$50
44
36
32

$45
38
30
27

Professional and technical work

Skilled work
Region I i ___________ ____
Region I I 2_______________
Region III3............................
Region IV 4______________

$65
58
52
49

63
52
48
42

55
44
38
35

91
79
75
75

83
73
68
64

77
66
62
55

69
57
53
46

61
48
42
39

1 Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode
Island, Vermont, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, Wisconsin, Arizona, California, Colorado,
Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Washington, Wyoming.
2 Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, Delaware, District of Columbia,
Maryland, West Virginia.
3 Arkansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Texas, Virginia.
* Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee.
The above schedule applied to all projects financed in whole or in
part from the Emergency Belief Appropriation Act of 1935, except
(1) Emergency Conservation work, (2) Public Works Administration
work, rates for which were to be determined in accordance with local
wage conditions, (3) highway work and grade-crossing elimination
under the supervision of the Bureau of Public Roads, (4) permanent
buildings for the Federal Government or the District of Columbia,
(5) projects exempted by the Works Progress Administrator, (6)
work of supervisory and administrative employees, and (7) uncom­
pleted work-relief projects under State and local administrations.
Hours of w o rk — The following schedule of hours was established
which were to apply except (1) in case of an emergency involving the
public welfare or the protection of work already done on a project,




847

SUBSISTENCE HOMESTEADS AT END OF 1934

(2) in special cases where the standard hours are not feasible, and
(3) for supervisory and administrative employees.
P e r day

Persons employed on a salary basis under the “ wages
schedule7
7__________________________________________
Projects under supervision of Public Works Admin­
istrator and of Bureau of Public Roads, and ex­
empted projects:
Manual labor_____________________________________
Nonmanual workers______________________________
Projects at remote or inaccessible places_______________

P e r w eek

8

40

1 130
40
40

1 Per month.

For persons employed on permanent buildings for the use of the
Federal or District of Columbia Governments, the rates applicable
under the Davis-Bacon Act were to apply, and for Emergency Con­
servation work and work relief under State and local administrations
existing rules were continued.
Conditions oj employment.—The order prohibited the employment
of persons under 16 and of those whose age or physical condition
made their employment dangerous or unhealthful to themselves or
others. It was expressly stated that this provision should not be con­
strued to operate against the employment of physically handicapped
persons otherwise employable, on work which they could safely be
assigned to perform.
Preference in employment was to be given to persons receiving
public relief. Except with the specific authorization of the Works
Progress Administration, at least 90 percent of all persons on any
project must be taken from the relief rolls. Only one person per
family group might be so employed.
Prison labor was prohibited on works projects.
The order specified that, except as otherwise provided in the order,
workers qualified by training and experience “ shall not be discrimi­
nated against on any grounds whatsoever.”
As regards safety and accidents, it was directed that all projects
should be conducted in accordance with safe working conditions, and
every effort made for the prevention of accidents.
No wages paid on works projects could be pledged or assigned.
Beginnings of Work Under the Act
O n M a y 25 it was announced by the Works Progress Administrator
that 307 works districts had been set up as the administrative and
operating units in the 48 States. These districts were mapped out,
it was explained, on the basis of the number of families on relief in the
area and with a view to quick and adequate transportation and com­
munication and to economy and efficiency of central headquarters.

Subsistence Homesteads for Industrial and Rural
Workers at the End of 1934
F E D E R A L program of subsistence homesteads was undertaken in
1933 by which it was hoped to demonstrate the value and feasi­
bility, for wage earners, of the combination of part-time industrial

A




848

UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE AND RELIEF

employment with home gardening on a scale large enough to furnish a
considerable proportion of the family food supply. Two agencies of
the Federal Government were interested in this program— the Sub­
sistence Homesteads Division of the Department of the Interior and
the Federal Emergency Relief Administration.19 The Subsistence
Homesteads Division was allotted $25,000,000 for the purpose, from
funds available under the National Industrial Recovery Act. The
Federal Emergency Relief Administration promoted subsistencehomesteads projects as part of its program of rural rehabilitation.
Thus the homesteads projects of the former were mainly for industrial
workers and those of the latter for rural and agricultural workers.
Up to the end of December 1934 the Subsistence Homesteads
Division had approved 62 projects (43 of which had been publicly
announced) and study was being made of about two dozen more.
The house-construction stage had been reached in some 20 projects,
and land-improvement work was under way in nearly all of the re­
mainder. In 8 projects the first group of houses had been completed,
and in 5 projects houses were occupied by their future owners.
As the program of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration was
begun later than that of the Interior Department, only three com­
munities had reached the actual construction stage. In each of
these, however, some families had taken possession of their new homes.
It soon became evident that one of the most difficult problems
would be the provision of part-time employment at equitable rates in
some industrial or other occupation which would yield a cash income,
and that the ability to solve this problem satisfactorily would in a
large measure determine the degree of success of the program. It
was planned that such employment would be furnished through
(1) self-help work on the project, paid for partly in cash and partly in
credit; (2) home crafts adapted to the skills and aptitudes of the
settlers; and (3) industrial enterprises which it was hoped to attract
to the community.
It was emphasized that these homesteads were intended to be not
merely a means of obtaining the family living but a new way of life.
They were regarded as an “ anchor of social security ” in that they
were intended to furnish both food and shelter, the two items most
important in the budget. The homestead life would also provide an
outlet, in many cases, for the creative instinct and skills of the settlers
through the development of handicrafts. Special emphasis was laid
upon the social and cultural aspects of community life.
Subsistence Homesteads for Industrial Workers

As o r i g i n a l l y undertaken, the program of the Subsistence Home­
steads Division was designed to include five major types of homesteads,
i. e., workers’ garden homesteads located near (1) small industrial cen­
ters or (2) large industrial centers, (3) projects for the rehabilitation
of stranded industrial groups, and rural projects for (4) reorganiza­
tion of rural communities, and for (5) farmers moved from submarginal
land. The last two types of projects were dropped from its program,
but were the main types covered in the program of the Federal
Emergency Relief Administration.
1
9
Early in 1935, the Division of Subsistence Homesteads and the Rural Rehabilitation Division of the
F. E. R. A . were transferred to the Resettlement Administration.




SUBSISTENCE HOMESTEADS AT END OF 1934

849

The projects took several different forms. In some cases the plan
involved the building of an entirely new community and the work
therefore included all the pioneering work inherent therein—clearing
the land, cutting roads, building water, sewerage, and lighting systems
and laying the mains therefor, and providing community recreational,
social, educational, and religious facilities, as well as facilities for the
supplying of the material needs which could not be met by cooperative
effort. In other cases the homestead project was near enough to a
city or small town to utilize the facilities of the town. In still other
instances the homesteads, in small groups, were part of the city
itself.
Of the projects approved by the Subsistence Homesteads Division
up to the end of 1934, 29 were for industrial workers, 3 were strictly
rural in character, and 4 were started in order to provide for stranded
groups. One project, having three units, was classified as a “ Negro
problem area” project. The Reedsville, W. Va., project, which was
the first to be undertaken, was classified as an “ experimental” com­
munity.
The projects were located in 23 States, covered 54,226 acres, and
provided for some 5,000 families. There were 19 other projects which
at the end of 1934 were still in the planning stage, and these were
expected to provide about 1,700 homesteads. Allotments to the first
group totaled $12,479,900 and to the second group $3,797,570.
Characteristics of the individual homesteads.—Each homestead con­
sisted of a dwelling situated on a plot of ground large enough to permit
the family to raise a considerable proportion of its food (vegetables,
berries, and small fruits) and to provide space for a few chickens,
perhaps a cow, pig, etc. The settlers had their choice of location and
style of house design.
The majority of houses consisted of 4 and 5 rooms, though there
were a few each of 3 and 6 rooms. The 3-room houses, however,
were not constructed unless they could be expanded with a minimum of
alteration. In planning the house, special consideration was given
to the needs of the family which would occupy it, and to the accom­
modation of the furniture.
The architecture was kept “ native” as far as possible. In the
southern regions the house plans generally followed the local traditions
and styles of building. Native building materials were also used
wherever available. This procedure, besides making the dwellings
attractive and adapted to their surroundings, was also a considerable
factor in keeping down the cost of construction.
The average cost varied from project to project, depending upon the
cost of the land, the size and type of dwelling, and the conveniences
provided; it was the purpose to keep the cost as low as possible con­
sistent with good housing practice. The estimated cost in the
projects announced during 1934 ranged from $1,500 to $5,571. This
included cost of house, land, improvements, seeds, and fertilizer for
the first year, essential farm and garden tools, a small flock of chickens,
pig, and in some cases a cow or horse. In some instances the “ selfhelp” method of construction was used, the homesteaders doing the
major portion of the actual construction work and being paid partly
in cash and partly in credits against the purchase price of their home­
stead.
19205— 36-------55




850

UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE AND RELIEF

Payments run over a period of 30 years, with interest rate at 3
percent. Title will pass to the purchaser when he has paid 75 per­
cent of the purchase price. In most cases no down payment was
required.
In the industrial, cooperative-industrial, and experimental types of
projects, the acreage was small, the largest homestead being 10 acres
and the majority averaging only from 1 to 3 acres each. The Negro
homesteads were considerably larger, because it was expected that
a larger proportion of the family living would come from the soil,
while the rural homesteads were, as would be expected, largest of all.
Selection of homestead fam ilies .—The homesteaders were selected
by a local committee of citizens chosen by the project manager. All
had to be American citizens, preferably with some farming experience.
No single persons were accepted and only married couples having at
least one child or of an age when children might be expected.
In the case of the communities for stranded groups, the home-'
steaders were for the most part without any employment and generally
receiving public relief. Usually, however, the attempt was made to
obtain persons with some employment and an income of from $600
to $1,200 per year.
Generally only persons between 21 and 45 years were accepted.
Because of the long period (30 years) during which payments must
be made on the homestead, it was decided that persons more than
45 years old must have in their families children capable of assisting
with the obligation, should the wage-earning parent die or become
disabled.
Employment provided .—While the primary purpose of the program
was to demonstrate the value of subsistence homesteads as a way of
increasing family security, considerable temporary employment
was furnished in the course of establishing the projects. The Division
of Subsistence Homesteads reported that during the 2 weeks ending
August 25, 1934, work on the projects furnished 167,200 man-hours'
employment. On some of the different projects the average daily
number of workers employed during the period was as follows:
A v er a g e n u m b er o f
m e n em p lo y e d
p e r day

Birmingham, Ala____________________________________ 341
Jasper, Ala________________________________________
58
Hattiesburg, Miss__________________________________ 15
McComb, Miss____________________________________
20
Tupelo, Miss______________________________________
41
Pender County, N. C ______________________________ 927
Westmoreland County, Pa_________________________ 113
Crossville, Tenn___________________________________ 113
Beaumont, T ex____________________________________
12
Houston, Tex______________________________________ 120
Three Rivers, Tex_________________________________
29
Wichita Falls, T ex_________________________________ 35
Reedsville, W. Va__________________________________ 158
Tygart Valley, W. Va_________________________
88

During the 4 weeks ending September 22, 1934, on the 19 projects
farthest advanced, 289,832 man-hours' employment was furnished,
the average number of men employed per project per day being about
130. The Chancellorsville (Jasper County), Ga,, project alone
accounted for 67,512 man-hours.




SUBSISTENCE HOMESTEADS AT END OF 1934

851

Employment was also provided indirectly by the stimulation of
private industry through the purchase of materials. From June 2 to
October 14, 1934, the Division of Subsistence Homesteads spent
$667,863 for materials bought from the lumber, brick, cement, steel,
plumbing-supplies, hardware, and electrical-fixture industries.
Rural Subsistence Homesteads
T h e subsistence communities of the F. E. R. A. were built as part
of the rural-rehabilitation program, inaugurated early in 1934, the
purpose of which was to make it possible for destitute persons living
m “ open country and towns having less than 5,000 population” and
eligible for relief to become self-supporting.
Three subsistence-homestead projects or “ rural industrial com­
munities” were built in Arkansas, Texas, and West Virginia and pre­
liminary surveys for 12 other communities had been made at the end
of 1934. The Texas community is situated in the pine-woods section
100 miles north of Houston, the Arkansas community on a rich tract
of land near Osceola, and the West Virginia village on a 2,200-acre
tract 27 miles west of Charleston.
The purpose of these communities, it was explained, is to demon­
strate that “ needy unemployed workers and their families can become
self-supporting in organized rural communities with a moderate
amount of supervision, and with a reasonable investment of relief
funds.”
The work in the Texas community was all done by the heads of the
families now living there, the men being allowed rations and 50 cents
per week. Their families, meanwhile, were being maintained on direct
relief in Houston. The Arkansas project provided work for about
1,500 men and the West Virginia project for some 450; among these
were some whose families were selected for settlement in the com­
munity. On these two projects the men worked 48 hours per week
at the local prevailing rate, but their week’s wages constituted a
month’s work relief. At the end of the week they were through for
the month, having earned their relief budget. Thus a new shift
came to the job each week. There was little loss in efficiency, how­
ever, for there was a full-time group of gang leaders skilled in the
various types of work to be done, and they gave the new men instruc­
tion in the standardized construction methods.
Homestead characteristics.—The size of the individual homesteads
ranged in the different communities from three-fourths of an acre to
40 acres.
In all of the communities the houses were of 3, 4, and 5 rooms and
were all equipped for electricity and running water.
The houses at Woodlake were built at an average cost of $1,490, of
which $670 represented the cost of the relief labor used. The cost
at Osceola ranged according to size of dwelling, from $900 to approxi­
mately $1,300. In both cases the costs were kept down by the fact
that timber was available on the site and was cut at a sawmill set up
for the purpose. At Red House the cost per homestead was greater
than in either of the others, ranging from $1,800 to $2,500 and averag­
ing $2,150. The cost of community utilities (roads, water, sewers,
community farm, and nonfarm tract), it was stated, “ will be either
prorated or placed on a self-liquidating basis.”




852

UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE AND RELIEF

The houses were to be rented to the settlers. At Woodlake the
rent was fixed at $180 per year, with a 3-year lease.
Population make-up, and employment possibilities .— The Texas
community was planned to provide for about 100 families, that in
Arkansas some 700, and that in West Virginia 150. The settlers
were chosen with a view to including in the community population
various types of skills and capabilities. The families selected all
had a record of successful earning capacity.
It was expected that the livelihood of the settlers would be obtained
through either farming or industrial employment. The industrial
workers, while raising part of their food in their gardens, were not
otherwise expected to do much farming. That, it was planned, would
be carried on by the farmer homesteaders operating the cooperative
farm enterprises.

Civilian Conservation Corps 2
0
H E Emergency Conservation Work organization was authorized
by the Reforestation and Relief Act approved March 31, 1933,21
and created April 5, 1933. The main purposes of the Reforestation
and Relief Act were the relief of acute distress through the employ­
ment of jobless men, the improvement of forests and parks, the re­
habilitation of young men whose health and morale had been under­
mined by the depression, and the lessening of State relief through cash
allowances to men whose dependents were in great need.
Out of the Emergency Conservation Work organization has grown
the Civilian Conservation Corps, conservation camps on Indian
reservations, and smaller contingents of forest-work camps in Hawaii,
Puerto Rico, and Alaska.
The Department of Labor was made responsible for the selection of
the men (except war veterans) to be enrolled in the Civilian Conserva­
tion Corps. It established general policies and standards and desig­
nated in each State an agency to select the men in that State. The
Veterans’ Administration acted in the same capacity in the selection
of veterans.
The War Department was made accountable for the enrollment of
the men of the Corps. It established and administered the forest
camps, transported the men, fed and clothed them, and looked out
for their welfare from the time of enrollment until discharge, except
when they were actually at work in the forests. The work of 28
companies of war veterans, engaged in flood-control work as part of
the Civilian Conservation Corps, was under the supervision of the
Chief of Engineers of the Department and the camps were adminis­
tered by the Army.
The selection of all camps on National, State, and private forest
lands and in Puerto Rico and Alaska was delegated to the Department
of Agriculture. The preparation of work programs and the super­
vision of the forestry work, including the purchase of the tools and
machinery needed, were also entrusted to that Department.

T

2
o
Data in this article are from United States Emergency Conservation Work, interim report by Robert
Fechner, Director, Apr. 5, 1933, to Dec. 31, 1933, Washington, 1934 (mimeographed), and Two Years of
Emergency Conservation Work (Civilian Conservation Corps), Apr. 15, 1933-Mar. 31, 1935, Washington
[1935].
2i For text of act, see Monthly Labor Review, M ay 1933, p. 1039.




CIVILIAN CONSERVATION CORPS

853

The Department of the Interior was charged with the selection of
all camps operated in the National and State parks and in Hawaii
and by the General Land Office, and with the supervision of all work
done in National and State parks. The Office of Indian Affairs
handled all phases of the Indian conservation program, and the Office
of Education prepared and recommended educational programs for
the Civilian Conservation Corps and cooperated with the Army in
putting into effect the Civilian Conservation Corps educational
program.
Members of the Civilian Conservation Corps were selected on a
population basis, each State being given a fixed quota, an exception
being made in the case of a few Western States with large forested
areas, where a small number of experienced woodsmen were added
to the quotas. When practicable. Civilian Conservation Corps men
were put to work on projects in their own States. The camps were or­
ganized as units with a maximum strength of 200 men each, desig­
nated as companies, and assigned to each company were 3 commis­
sioned line officers, 5 enlisted men, and from 8 to 10 supervisors or
foremen. The educational program called for an educational adviser
for each camp. In a few instances more than one company was
located at the same place.
During the summer the men lived in tents, but when winter came
the camps were shifted from the colder regions and wooden barracks
were built at 80 percent of the camps, outside labor being employed
in their construction. In the remainder of the camps tents were used.
A base cash allowance of $30 a month was paid to all men. Eight
percent of the men received $36, and 5 percent, called leaders, received
$45 a month. Nearly all of the young men and most of the veterans
allotted an average of $25 a month to their dependents.
For purposes of administration the forest-work program was
authorized for only 6 months at a time. The authorized strength of
the forest army for the first period—April 5 to September 30, 1933—
was 317,900: 301,975 for the Civilian Conservation Corps, 14,400
for the Indians, and 1,525 for Alaska and Puerto Rico.
From July 1, 1933, to March 31, 1935, the average strength of the
Civilian Conservation Corps was about 300,000. The total author­
ized strength on April 1, 1935, was approximately 370,000. Of this
number about 352,000 were grouped in 1,640 Civilian Conservation
Corps forest camps, the others being Indians, and in Alaska, Hawaii,
Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands.
W o rk of the C iv ilia n Conservation Corps, 1933-352
0
D u r in g the first 2 years of its operation (April 15, 1933, to March
31, 1935) approximately 1,070,000 men were given employment in
Emergency Conservation Work, including about 940,000 men in the
Civilian Conservation Corps camps. Other thousands of men were
employed for varying periods in supervisory, educational, and clerical
work, as mechanics, etc., and thus helped to support their families.
Altogether some 25,000 foresters, technical experts, and supervising
foremen directed the work of the enrolled men; 10,000 Army officers
2 Data in this article are from United States Emergency Conservation Work, interim report by Robert
0
Fechner, Director, Apr. 5, 1933, to Dec. 31, 1933, Washington, 1934 (mimeographed), and Two Years of
Emergency Conservation Work (Civilian Conservation Corps), Apr. 15, 1933-Mar. 31,1935, Washington
[1935].




854

UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE AND RELIEF

(mostly reserve officers) supervised and were responsible for the care
of the men when they were not working; 1,500 school teachers were
engaged in the camp educational program; and more than 50,000
skilled and unskilled mechanics and thousands of clerical and adminis­
trative workers were employed in the camp construction program.
Health of Civilian Conservation Corps Enrollees
A l m o st without exception, the camp life and wholesome food
benefited the men physically. An average gain in weight of over 7
pounds per man during a 6-month period of enrollment was shown
among 14,000 enrollees selected at random from all parts of the United
States, and in later tests an average gain of 8 to 12 pounds was shown.
The greatest number of cases of sickness among the men from com­
municable diseases was in the respiratory group. The following
table shows the number of cases of communicable diseases and the
rate per 1,000 per annum during the 6 months, April 1 to September
30, 1934.
D is e a s e s

Common respiratory____________
Measles_________________________
Common diarrhea_______________
Venereal diseases________________
Malaria_________________________
German measles________________
Influenza_______________________
Mumps_________________________
Vincents’ angina________________
Primary pneumonia_____________
Scabies_________________________
Dysentery______________________
Tuberculosis____________________
Scarlet fever____________________
Secondary pneumonia___________
Typhoid fever__________________
Meningitis (cerebrospinal)______
Diphtheria_____________________
Poliomyelitis___________________
Smallpox_______________________
Undulant fever_________________
Tularemia______________________
Paratyphoid fever______________

N u m ber
o f ca ses

26,
3,
3,
2,
2,
2,
2,
1,

602
705
327
777
699
544
217
981
647
398
397
176
170
146
59
39
34
29
13
4
2
1
1

R a te p e r
1,000 p e r
annum

171. 00
24. 69
22. 17
18. 51
17. 99
16. 95
14. 77
13. 20
4. 32
2. 65
2. 65
1. 17
1. 13
. 97
. 39
. 26
. 23
. 19
. 09
. 03
. 02
. 01
. 01

During this 6-month period there were 436 deaths among the
young men, 205 of which were due to disease and 231 to accidents.
Pneumonia caused 63 deaths, the largest number from any disease,
and automobiles and motor vehicles caused more than half of the
accidents resulting in death.
The annual death rate per 1,000 enrollees during the first 2 years of
operation of the Civilian Conservation Corps was 2.7, or about onethird of that among unselected men of a similar age group, according
to the American Experience Table of Mortality.
Beneficial Results
A m o n g the benefits resulting from the Emergency Conservation
Work program during the first 2 years of its operation, besides those
to the men themselves, were the following: Financial aid was given




CIVILIAN CONSERVATION CORPS

855

to the families of the men through their allotment of approximately
$160,000,000. Business and industry benefited by the expenditure
of approximately $567,000,000 for manufactured goods, foodstuffs,
automotive equipment, construction material, etc. A vast amount
of valuable constructive work was done in the forests and parks by
Civilian Conservation Corps units, among the outstanding projects
completed through January 31, 1935, being the following:
New telephone lines, 29,787 miles.
Telephone lines maintained, 43,234 miles.
Fighting forest fires, 1,697,555 man-days.
New fire breaks, 34,714 miles.
Roadside and trailside clean-up, fire prevention, 28,248 miles.
Fire hazards reduced, 1,038,373 acres.
Forest stand improvement, 1,643,575 acres.
New truck trails, 48,178 miles.
Truck trails maintained, 76,157 miles.
Trees planted, 266,467,000.
Rodent control, 10,769,204 acres.
Tree and plant disease control, 3,719,383 acres.
Insect pest control, 4,305,949 acres.
Erosion-control check dams, 1,025,741.
Public camp-ground facilities, 36,138.
Public camp-ground water systems, 777.
Public camp-ground waste disposal systems, 2,115.
Public camp-ground buildings, 2,383.
Reservoirs for livestock and wild life, 2,438.
Ponds for fish and birds, 3,148.
Recreational dams, 1,148.

E d u ca tio n a l P ro g ra m of the C iv ilia n Conservation C o r p s 2
2
T h e educational plan in operation in the Civilian Conservation
Corps was approved in December 1933. An educational director of
the Corps has general supervision, under the Commissioner of Edu­
cation in Washington, of the entire educational program. In each
of the nine Corps areas there is an educational supervisor or adviser,
appointed by the Office of Education, who has charge'of the educa­
tional work within the area.
In each of the camps there is a camp educational adviser, appointed
by the Office of Education, and answerable to the camp commander.
An assistant camp leader is chosen from the men for his ability to
help in the camp program. These two men devote all their time to
the educational work, and generally three military officers and several
members of the forestry and parks staff cooperate in the work in
each camp. The camp advisers were chosen from a list of suitable
candidates furnished by three public education officials in each State,
on the basis of their educational training and experience.
The camp advisers were given intensive training for their work in
conference sessions at various centers. As enrollment for study is
voluntary, anything the men want to study is taken up, and a great
variety of subjects is being taught.
The instruction is suited to the intelligence, aptitude, and receptibility of the men enrolled, varying in the different camps. Neces­
sarily, the study effort must in many cases be informal. Discussion
groups, classes, text books, magazines, newspapers, pamphlets, moving
22
From a paper by C. S. Marsh, educational director of the Civilian Conservation Corps, read before the
Research Section, Department of Secondary School Principals, National Education Association, Cleve­
land, Ohio, Feb. 28, 1934; United States Emergency Conservation Work, third report of the Director,
for the period Apr. 1,1934, to Sept. 30,1934, and Two Years of Emergency Conservation Work (Civilian
Conservation Corps), Apr. 5, 1933-Mar. 31, 1935, Washington.




856

UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE AND RELIEF

pictures, music, dramatics, debates, etc., are utilized. Cooperation
with nearby educational and social agencies and interested citizens
is sought and obtained.
As a result of the educational program carried on in the camps,
2,479 illiterates learned to read and write during the 6-month period
from April 1 to September 30, 1934. During this period 18,214
study courses were offered in the 1,468 camps, the average concurrent
courses per camp being 10, and the average attendance at each
meeting (twice a week) 14. In all there were 133,156 young men
engaged in voluntary systematic study. The subjects taught were
as follows:
P ercen t

Vocational subjects________________________________
Fundamental subjects (for illiterates and elementary
grades)__________________________________________
Academic subjects:
" High-school level______________________________
College level___________________________________
Self-expression subjects (dramatics, hobbies, etc.)_
_

31
20
30
7
12

There were 672,675 “ counseling” or personal interviews between
educational advisers and enrdllees, an average of 79 per camp per
month, and 1,427,977 books were circulated among the men. In
January 1935, there were 22,642 classes and discussion groups being
carried on and 167,003 men were participating therein.
Inquiry as to the previous schooling of 183,000 enrollees disclosed
that one-half of 1 percent had had no schooling; about 50 percent
had not gone beyond the grammar school; 46 percent had been in
high school (only 15 percent had graduated); and 3.2 percent had
been to college.
E m p lo y m e n t Sta tus of F o rm e r M em bers of C iv ilia n
C onservation C orps, 1933 and 1934
T h e r e were 106,218 young men and boys enrolled in the Civilian
Conservation Corps who left the Corps during or at the end of the
summer term of 1933, and nearly 150,000 who left during or at the
close of the winter term of 1933-34. Surveys as to the employment
status of these former members of the Corps, covering the periods
November 1933 to February 1934, and July to September 1934,2
3
were made by the Federal Emergency Relief Administration.

Summer-Term 1933 Enrollees
O f t h e summer-term enrollees who had left the Corps 92,311 were
traced and interviewed as to their employment status and it was
found that 17,926 were working, 71,495 were idle, and 2,890 were
otherwise engaged.
The number and percent of the former members of the C. C. C.
who were working, idle, or otherwise engaged at the time of the
survey, by geographic divisions, are given in table 1. *
Altogether, 17,926, or 19.4 percent, of these former C. C. C. mem­
bers were found to be employed. The percentages varied greatly,
2
3
Federal Emergency Relief Administration. Division of Research and Statistics. Report of the
findings in a survey of former members of the Civilian Conservation Corps, summer term 1933, and
Report of the findings in a survey of former members of the Civilian Conservation Corps, winter 1933-34
term. Washington, 1934. (Mimeographed.)




857

CIVILIAN CONSERVATION CORPS

however, in the different geographic divisions, the South Atlantic
States having a percentage two-fifths higher than that for the United
States, and the Middle Atlantic States a percentage one-fifth lower.
T a ble 1.—E M P L O Y M E N T STATUS OF T R A C E D F O R M E R CIVILIAN CO N SER VATIO N
CORPS M E M B E R S OF 1933 SU M M E R T E R M , B Y GEOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS
N u m b er
Left during term
Geographic division
Work­
ing

Idle

Left at end of term

Other­
wise Work­
en­
ing
gaged

Idle

T otal1

Other­
wise Work­
en­
ing
gaged

Idle

Other­
wise
en­
gaged
2,890

United States____ ______ __________

8,863 25,325

1,664

7,183 40,350

971 17,926 71,495

New England________ _____________
Middle Atlantic.......... __.....................
East North Central________________
West North Central....... .............. .......
South Atlantic______ ____ _________
East South Central__________ ____ _
West South Central________________
Mountain__________________________
Pacific_____________________________

1,233
1,883
1,888
336
1,719
679
855
270

2,350
6,817
6,381
1,345
3,580
2,099
2,272
481

146
309
243
43
256
234
331
102

668 2,615
1,841 13,551
1,540 11,852
389 1,809
1,159 3,798
488 2,705
813 3,312
285
708

208
338
130
45
97
42
80
31

1,901 4,965
3,724 20,368
3,428 18,233
1,766 5,834
2,878 7,378
1,167 4,804
1,910 6,342
704 1,837
448 1,734

354
647
373
210
353
276
453
157
67

P ercen t

United States_____________ ________

24.7

70.6

4.7

14.8

83.2

2.0

19.4

77.5

3.1

New England.,______ ________ _____
Middle Atlantic.............. .....................
East North Central________________
West North Central________________
South Atlantic_______ ___________
East South Central...... ............ ..........
West South Central......... ...................
Mountain...______ _________ ____ __
Pacific_____________________________

33.1
20.9
22.2
19.5
31.0
22.5
24.7
31.7

63.0
75.7
75.0
78.0
64.4
69.7
65.7
56.3

3.9
3.4
2.8
2.5
4.6
7.8
9.6
12.0

19.1
11.7
11.4
17.3
22.9
15.1
19.3
27.8

74.9
86.1
87.6
80.7
75.2
83.6
78.8
69.2

6.0
2.2
1.0
2.0
1.9
1.3
1.9
3.0

26.3
15.1
15.6
22.6
27.1
18.7
21.9
26.1
19.9

68.8
82.3
82.7
74.7
69.6
76.9
72.9
68.1
77.1

4.9
2.6
1.7
2.7
3.3
4.4
5.2
5.8
3.0

1 Includes for some divisions members unclassified because of inability to ascertain whether they left
prior to or at end of term.

In the following States 30 percent or more of the traced former
members had found employment: New Hampshire, South Carolina,
Arizona, Maine, Nebraska, North Carolina, and Connecticut. Less
than 15 percent of those in New York, Ohio, Illinois, New Jersey,
and Delaware were working at the time of the investigation.
In the country as a whole 71,495 boys, or 77.5 percent of the group
traced, were unemployed. This very high average was exceeded by
the East North Central (82.7) and Middle Atlantic (82.3) divisions.
Illinois, New York, Ohio, and Delaware had over 84 percent unem­
ployed. Vermont was the only State where less than one-half were
unemployed.
The 2,890 boys and men in the group classified as “ otherwise
engaged” , constituting 3.1 percent of the total number investigated,
were neither working nor looking for work. Some of them had died
and others were not a factor in the labor market, as they had reen­
rolled in the C. C. C., enlisted in military service, returned to school,
were ill in hospitals, or were in jail as the result of misdemeanors
committed by them.




858

UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE AND RELIEF

Winter Term 1933-34 Enrollees
F ormer members of the second period (winter 1933-34) of the
Civilian Conservation Corps found employment opportunities during
the spring and summer of 1934 much greater than did those of the
first period (summer 1933) during the preceding winter. The pro­
portion of employed men was twice as great among the secondperiod group as among the first-period group. In every State there
was a substantial increase of former C. C. C. members who were
employed, and indications were that this increase was not entirely
seasonal.
Of the men enrolled for the winter term of the C. C. C., who left
the Corps during the term or failed to reenroll at the end of the
term, more than 110,000 were traced and interviewed as to their
employment status, and it was found that 36.4 percent of them had
secured jobs. Virtually all of these were in private employment,
only a comparatively few being employed in governmental (State,
county, or local) activities.
A percentage comparison of the employment status of traced
former members of the first and second periods of the Civilian
Conservation Corps is presented in table 2.
T a ble 2 .—PERCENT OF TRACED FORMER MEMBERS OF FIRST AND SECOND PERIODS
OF CIVILIAN CONSERVATION CORPS WHO WERE EMPLOYED, UNEMPLOYED, OR
OTHERWISE ENGAGED, BY TIME OF DEPARTURE FROM CORPS
Left camp early
Employment status

Employed
-- -- __________
Unemployed________________ ___ ____
Otherwise engaged____________________
Unspecified
_______ - ___________

Completed period

Total

First
period 1

Second
period

First
period 1

Second
period

First
period 1

24.3
64.2

39.1
57.2
3.7

15.3
77.0
5.7

34.0
63. 2

18.8
71.9
7.0
2.3

9.0

2.5

2.0

2.8

Second
period
36.4
60.4
3.2

i Percentages based on final tabulations.

Of the 3,576 young men who were classified as “ otherwise engaged” ,
1,051 reenrolled in the C. C. C. Many others were unable to reenroll
because of the limit placed upon the time a man could serve therein.
There were 512 in the Army, Navy, and Marines, 284 were in school,
1,298 were sick or dead, and 431 were in jail.
The proportions of these former members who had found employ­
ment in the different geographic divisions differed greatly. For the
men of the second period, both the Mountain and Pacific divisions
had percentages about one-third higher than the country as a whole
and the Middle Atlantic division one-fifth lower.
In nine States more than one-half of the former members of the
winter term (in one of them nearly two-thirds) were employed at the
time of the survey. As six of these States are generally classified as
agricultural rather than industrial, the seasonal factor may have
entered into their high proportion of employment. In seven States,
including such industrial States as Illinois, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
and Rhode Island, as well as the less industrial States of Missouri,
New Mexico, and the District of Columbia, less than one-third of the
former C. C. C. members were employed.




UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE AND RELIEF

859

Company Loan Plans for Unemployed Workers
REPORT 24 published by the industrial relations section of
Princeton University in 1932 covered the relief measures which
have been developed among various companies to meet the need for
assistance among workers created by the depression.
In general the funds for company-loan plans are furnished by the
companies, but in some cases a joint fund is formed by contributions
from officers and employees still on the pay roll and an equal contri­
bution by the company. The relief-loan fund of the Southern Pacific
Co., for example, was raised by pay-roll deductions of 1 percent of
actual earnings of officers and employees for a period of from 4 to 5
months, supplemented by an equal amount paid by the company,
while a fund consisting of half of an extra dividend was set aside in
1931 by the General Tire & Rubber Co. for use in stabilizing employ­
ment and furnishing loans to unemployed workers
The loan funds are generally administered by the personnel manager
or other officers, but in s o l instances the employees are represented
in the management. Examples of joint management are found in
the International Harvester Co., where representatives of the works
council are members of the committee in charge of the relief and
loan fund at each plant of the company, and in the General Electric
Co. The unemployment-benefit plan of the latter company contains
a provision for loans to employees, the loan plan being administered
at each works by a board composed of representatives of the employees
and of the company. In still other cases the plans are handled in
cooperation with the mutual benefit association. Regardless of
whether the plans are administered by the employer alone or jointly
by employer and employees, it is essential in this as in other types of
money lending, that careful investigation of requests for loans should
be made. As the loans are granted on the basis of need, as well as
of the ability to repay, there has been a tendency to adopt something
of the technique of the social worker in determining the family needs.
Orders for groceries and other necessaries may take the place of money
loans, in which case their cost is considered the amount of the loan.
Usually there is a limit to the amounts which may be lent to an
individual, the maximum ranging, in general, from $50 to $200. It
is not thought well that too large loans should be made, since they
leave employees too seriously involved when normal conditions
return. Companies having unemployment-benefit plans make loans
only to workers who for some reason, such as lack of service, are not
eligible for unemployment benefits or who have exhausted their
right to such benefit. After the maximum loan has been allowed, the
only recourse left is to secure assistance from company or public
relief funds.
Usually no interest is charged on company loans, but in the few
cases in which it is charged, provision is made that the interest shall
be paid through a salary reduction after the loan itself has been entirely
repaid.
In summing up the study, the report stated that although emer­
gency loans have their limitations they are of very great value in
helping the class of employees it is hardest to reach; that is, the usually

A

24 Princeton University. Industrial Relations Section. Company Loans to Unemployed Workers.
Princeton, N. J., 1932.




860

UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE AND RELIEF

independent workers who are unaccustomed to charity. Such em­
ployees are the mainstay of an organization and the ones whom it is
most desirable to protect from the demoralizing effects of a long
period of unemployment, so that everything which can be done to
uphold their morale and help them keep their independence is well
worth while.
Although many plans provide for repayment, it is a question
whether a large proportion of the loans can be repaid. In many
cases it is evident that repayment will be practically impossible and
that the loans will have to be written off. However, in these cases
it is probable that the same amounts would have been advanced as
relief. In some instances employees may have relocated elsewhere
and it may be useless for the company to attempt to collect, while in
other cases a long period of unemployment will have piled up a heavy
burden of obligations which will have to be met when earnings start
again, so that even with the best intentions employees may be unable
to repay the loan for some time. On the other hand, the almost
inevitable loss of morale through unemployment may lead to more
or less indifference toward the obligation. A number of companies
having such plans, however, have found a general disposition among
those who could do so to meet their loan obligations, while some
companies state that the loan privilege has been abused in a few
cases, and suggest that the remedy lies in more careful investigation
and, if necessary, in withdrawal of further help.




VACATIONS W ITH PAY

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




861




Vacations With Pay
HE policy of giving vacations with pay to all employees, subject
to a reasonable service requirement, had been growing among
employers in the decade preceding the depression. Business condi­
tions subsequent to 1929 modified the practice, but that it was by
no means abandoned is shown by the following accounts of studies
of vacation policies made since the publication of the 1931 Handbook
of Labor Statistics (Bui. No. 541).

T

Vacation Policies in 1933
R E L E A SE by the American Management Association dated
May 22, 1933, gave the result of a questionnaire study of
company vacation policies under the depression.
Twenty-four companies replied to the inquiry. Of these companies
it was reported that during 1933, 11 would grant vacations with pay
to all employees meeting the specified service requirements; 4 com­
panies would grant vacations to salaried employees only; 7 would
give vacations to salesmen on commission, in addition to salaried
employees; and 1 company would give paid vacations to salaried
employees, salesmen on commission, and women classified as wage
earners on piece or hourly rates, provided certain requirements
regarding attendance were fulfilled. One company alone reported
that no vacations with pay would be given during the year. Various
service requirements were in force which determined the length of
the vacation period for each group of employees.
Fifteen of these companies reported that they would not require any
employees to take vacations without pay that year, while four others,
which were operating on short time, reported that this fact would not
affect their normal vacation policy. Two companies operating on
half time reported that they would require employees to take their
normal vacation periods but would pay for only half the period;
2 companies had definite yearly shut-downs during which employees
were not paid; and 1 company would require all of its salaried
employees to take at least 2 days off each month throughout the
calendar year with corresponding reductions in pay, although 14 of
these days might be accumulated and used as vacation without pay.
In 12 instances it was reported that the vacation policy had not
been changed during the depression, and two companies stated that
their vacation policy was the same as in 1929, changes made in the
intervening years no longer being in effect. Five companies reported
that the length of the vacation had been reduced in certain instances,
while six had abolished vacations entirely for certain classes of
employees, usually the employees on a wage basis

A




363

864

VACATIONS W ITH PAY

Vacation Practices and Policies in New York City in
1932
SU R V EY covering the vacation policies and the effect of recent
business conditions on past established policies of New York
City business concerns was made by the industrial bureau of the
Merchants’ Association of New York in 1932. The study covered
273 employing members of the association, and the data relate to
approximately 200,000 employees and workers, and cover 11 classified
business groups and a small group of miscellaneous industries.
The principal business groups are manufacturing; wholesale trade;
retail trade; printing and publishing; construction trades; transpor­
tation, warehousing, and forwarding companies; importers and
exporters; banking and investment houses; insurance companies and
agencies; professional offices; and chambers of commerce, trade
associations, and education and research agencies.
The policies with regard to vacations had been revised since 1929
by 74 of these companies, and in all but two cases the revisions were
said to be the direct result of the efforts of the employers to effect
economies or otherwise relieve the pressure of current business
conditions. Although the character of the revision varied according
to the conditions in the individual establishments, in 32 cases these
revisions were in the nature of direct reductions in pay-roll expense.
The most frequent methods by which this result was accomplished
were requiring employees to accept vacations at a fraction of their
scheduled salary rates, imposing additional vacations without pay, or
requiring that regular vacations be taken without pay. In order to
conserve time, because of the heavy burdens on present personnel as
the result of reductions in force, 20 companies had found it necessary
to take such measures as the shortening or the entire elimination of
vacations or the substitution of Saturday holidays for regular vaca­
tions.
Of the 273 companies responding to the inquiry, 265 reported that
salaried employees would receive a vacation, and of 115 reporting in
regard to hourly employees, 65 reported that some part of the hourly
workers would be given vacations in 1932. The usual vacation allow­
ance is 2 weeks for salaried employees and 1 week for hourly employees.
Of 271 employers reporting on the question of the length of the vaca­
tion to be given to salaried employees, 8 reported they were giving no
vacation; 11, less than 2 weeks; 176,2weeks; 6 each,3 and4 weeks; and
64 were giving somewhat indefinite vacations varying from 1 to 2
weeks to 4 to 6 weeks. Among the companies reporting regarding
hourly employees, 53 were giving no vacation, while 20 gave 1 week;
3 1 ,2 weeks; and the remainder different periods varying from 10 days
to 4 weeks.
Reports regarding the amount of salary payments during the vaca­
tion period were made by 262 companies. Of this number, 218 were
paying full salaries during vacations; 4, two-thirds;22, one-half; and 1,
one-third salary. In 1 case the pay was graduated, half pay being
given for service of from 6 months to 2 years, and full pay for 2 years
or more; and another company paid half the salary to employees
entitled to 2 weeks’ vacation, while 15 of these companies gave

A




WAGE EARNERS

865

vacations without pay. Among the hourly rated employees of 59
reporting companies, 36 stated that full wages would be paid; 1,
two-thirds; 11, one-half; and 1, half pay to employees entitled to 2
weeks’ vacation. Ten companies gave vacations without pay. In
16 of the companies paying a fraction of wages, either to salaried or
hourly rated employees, this fractional basis was reached by requiring
employees to extend vacations at their own expense. One hundred
and fifteen companies reported that extra leave without pay would be
allowed, 19 said this would be allowed in special cases only, and 111
stated, that it would not be granted. The amount of extra leave
allowed by those reporting ranged from 1 to 5 weeks, while in a
number of cases it was indefinite or optional with the employee. One
hundred and fifty-six companies reported that vacations must be
taken for continuous periods, but the majority of those reporting on
this point did not allow extra time for Sundays or holidays falling
within an employee’s vacation period.

Vacations with Pay for Wage Earners
N a study 1 made early in 1935 by the National Industrial Con­
ference Board, information was received concerning 274 companies,
which operated, or in the past had operated, plans for vacations with
pay for wage earners. Thirteen of these companies had established
their plans since 1932. A study made in 1931, covering 281 companies
having vacation plans, which was not published because declining
business activity and the need for financial retrenchment had resulted
in little demand for information on the subject, formed the basis for
the 1935 study.
Although vacations with pay have been general among office em­
ployees, the plan has been less generally applied to factory workers.
Various factors, such as the cost and loss of efficiency in plant opera­
tion, operated to retard its extension to the general factory force.
During the depression some companies were obliged to suspend their
vacation policies, but, with improvement in operating conditions,
interest in providing vacations with pay for wage earners revived.
In a number of instances one of the first requests presented to the
management by employee representatives was for the adoption of
such a policy.

I

Vacation Policy in 1931
T h e full effects of the depression had not been felt early in 1931
when the Conference Board’s first study of these plans was made.
Of the 281 companies scheduled at that time it was found about 70
percent kept their plants in operation throughout the vacation season,
more than a third of those which closed during the vacation period
being in the foundry and machine-shop products industry and the
chemicals-manufacturing industry. Plans providing a vacation of
fixed length for all eligible employees were in force in 115 companies,
13 percent of which required service of less than 1 year, 42 percent

i National Industrial Conference Board. Vacations with pay for wage earners. New York, 247 Park
Avenue, 1935.
19205— 36-— -5 6




866

VACATIONS W ITH PAY

1 year, 25 percent more than 1 year but not more than 5 years, 10
percent 10 years, while 2 companies required 15 years, 5 companies
20 years, and 4 companies 25 years. In about two-thirds of the
graduated plans the vacation varied from a minimum of 1 week to a
maximum of 2 weeks, while in the remainder the minimum was fixed
at 3 days or less. Only long-service .employees received more than
2 weeks, the shortest service record required to earn such a vacation
being 10 years and the longest, 50 years. Other considerations such
as attendance and punctuality were taken into account in 10 percent
of the plans, deductions being made from the maximum vacation for
unexcused absences and tardiness.
Full average wages for the vacation period were paid by all but 3
of the companies, 1 company paying 90 percent of the average wages
and 2 companies 50 percent. Advance payment of wages was made
by 57 percent of the companies, in 10 percent it was optional with the
employee whether he should receive his wages before or after vaca­
tion, while 22.8 percent of the companies paid after the vacation.
In other companies variations of the two main methods were used.
The question of allowing pay for holidays is related to the vacation
policy, in 181 cases no holidays being paid for while the others paid
for one or more holidays.
Effect of Depression on Vacation Plans
I n f o r m a t i o n was received from 274 companies in the 1935 survey.
Of these companies 136 had operated vacation plans throughout the
depression, although one company expected to discontinue the plan
in 1935; 28 companies had discontinued the plan but had reinstated
it; 87 companies had suspended the plan, 5 of which expected to
reinstate it in 1935; 10 companies had definitely discontinued the
plan, while there were 13 new plans which had been established since
1932. Altogether, therefore, 177 plans were in operation, these com­
panies employing in the aggregate nearly a million workers.
The following table shows the distribution of the plans in force and
those discontinued in different industries, 1931 and 1935.
COM PARISON OF V A C A T IO N PLANS IN FORCE IN D IF F E R E N T IN D U S T R IE S IN
1931 A N D 1935

1931
Industry
All industries___________________ ____-...................
Manufacturing_________________ _______________
Chemicals.........-........................-...............................
Food products........ -------------------------------------Metal trades____________________ ___________
Lumber and lumber products_________________
Paper and paper products____________________
Printing_________ __ ________ ________ _____
Rubber,.._____ _______ ___________________
Textiles____________________________________
Miscellaneous______ _______________________
Petroleum refining_____ -_______________________
Public utilities_________________________________
Jobbers and mail-order houses_________
_____




Plans discon­
tinued during
depression

1935

Num­ Percent Num­ Percent Num­ Percent
ber of total ber of total ber of total
281 100.0
231 82.2
37 13.2
24
8.5
83 29.5
7
2.5
17
6.0
22
7.8
5
1.8
11
3.9
25
8.9
1
1
3.9
29 10.3
3.6
10

177
128
27
18
42
8
14
5
5
9
15
25
9

100.0
72.3
15.3
10.2
23.7
4.5
7.9
2.8
2.8
5.1
8.5
14.1
5.1

97
94
5
3
47
6
8
6
1
7
11

100.0
96.9
5.2
3.1
48.5
6.2
8.2
6.2
1.0
7.2
11.3

2
1

2.1
1.0

WAGE EARNERS

867

The date at which the plan was adopted was reported for 143 com­
panies. Four of the plans were put in effect prior to 1900, 45 between
1900 and 1919, 75 from 1920 to 1929, and 19 from 1930 to 1935.
No significant changes in the provisions of the plans which affect
the eligibility of employees had been made in 104 of the 151 plans
for which full information was furnished. In 12 instances the pro­
visions of the plans had been liberalized, the amendments taking the
form of lowering the service requirements, increasing the length of
vacations, extension of the vacation privilege to additional classes of
employees, elimination of tardiness as a factor in reducing the length
of vacation, etc. In 35 companies the provisions of vacation plans
had been made less liberal.
The chief problem in connection with the adoption of a policy of
paid vacations for wage earners, apart from expense, the report
stated, is the maintenance of plant efficiency and service to customers
during the vacation period. There are certain drawbacks and certain
advantages to both the shut-down plan and the plan for staggering
vacations. In many industries, such as railroads and public utilities
and industries where regular deliveries of products are necessary, it
is manifestly impossible to suspend operations. In other industries
where there is a slackening in demand at a certain period there is a
quite obvious advantage in a shut-down when all vacations can be
taken at the same time. It was found that 93 of 130 manufacturing
companies gave staggered vacations, 35 gave shut-down vacations,
and 2 others gave both types of vacation, while 49 companies, includ­
ing ’petroleum refining, public utilities, and jobbers and mail-order
houses, gave staggered vacations. Companies that follow the prac­
tice of maintaining operation throughout the vacation period reported
that efficiency in plant operation may be maintained by careful
advance planning so that no department is seriously undermanned
at any time. It is customary to give preference in assignments on
the basis of seniority.
The uniform type of vacation was given by 79 companies to all
eligible employees, while 98 companies gave a vacation graduated
according to length of service, the minimum vacation ranging from
less than 1 day up to 3 days in 30 companies while in 68 companies
the minimum was 1 week.
In conclusion, it is stated in the report, that—
The number of vacation plans for wage earners is increasing at a time when
working hours in most industries have been considerably reduced from pre­
depression levels. Shortened work periods and increased wage rates may well
result in higher manufacturing costs and so disincline plant executives to burden
the company further by undertaking to pay for periods in which no work is per­
formed. Also, if the vacation is looked on only as a needed period of recupera­
tion after a year’s work, there seems to be less need for such a policy now than
a few years ago.
But, if the vacation policy is actuated by a desire to erase a distinction between
factory and office personnel, to provide an incentive for continued service, and to
make possible a period of complete freedom in which the employee may get away
from customary tasks and surroundings and secure a new point of view, as well
as relaxation and rest, there is fully as much reason for granting vacations with
pay today as in the past. Particularly at a time when more thought is being
given to maintaining cordial relations with employees, a vacation policy merits
consideration, since it is certain to arouse the spontaneous approval of employees.




868

VACATIONS W ITH PAY

Recent Trends in Vacation Policies
T h e status of vacations with pay early in 1935 among a group of
representative industries is shown by a study 2 by the industrial
relations section of Princeton University. The report, covering 100
manufacturing concerns for which information was secured in 1934
and 1935, stated that the policy of giving vacations with pay to wage
earners had increased markedly in favor and application during the
preceding year. Several large and important concerns were said to
have started new plans, while older plans had been made more liberal
or had been reestablished after having been discontinued during the
depression, and still other companies were planning to reestablish
their plans in the near future. Thus, by the spring of 1935 it seemed
evident that the tide had turned once more toward an increase in
the number and coverage of such plans.
While all of the companies covered in the report gave vacations to
their executive and white-collar workers, the report relates only to
provisions governing the granting of vacations with pay to wage
earners. Thirty-eight of the 100 companies scheduled gave vacations
to workers on hourly and piecework rates. The most liberal type
of plan, that which gives a vacation with pay after 1 year's continuous
service or less, was in effect in 17 instances. Under such a plan a
large percentage of the employees are included and the plan, instead
of operating as a reward for long and continued service, becomes
rather a matter of health and rest and preparation for the following
year. In the majority of the plans 1 week's vacation is given after
1 year's service, although in one instance a week was given to employ­
ees with 6 months' service and 2 weeks to those with a year, while in
another 2 weeks were given to all employees after 1 year's service and
8 companies added a second week at the end of 2, 3, or 5 years' service.
A large oil company which has had a vacation plan since 1925, pro­
viding for 1 week after 1 year and 2 weeks after 5 years' service,
reported that about 75 percent of the entire force receive vacations,
the salaried employees and about 40 percent of the timecard people
receiving 2 weeks and the remainder of the employees 1 week.
Of the 21 companies requiring more than 1 year's employment
with the company for eligibility for a vacation the required minimum
for 1 week's vacation was 2, 3, or 5 years, or in one case 15 years, while
for a 2 weeks' vacation the range was from 5 to 40 years. In two
cases a longer vacation was given for a longer service period. In a
few of these plans the unit of vacation was expressed in hours so that
employees might receive a short vacation before their service record
entitled them to a full week.
In addition to the 38 companies maintaining vacation plans, the
study showed that 21 companies had had plans which had been either
suspended or discontinued. Some of these companies expected to
reinstate their plans as soon as they felt sure of continued business
improvement but others felt that with recent decreases in the working
week vacations were no longer necessary, especially since operation
on the 8-hour day and 40-hour week gave employees a 2-day week-end.
As most plans specify that the required service period shall be
continuous, the report stated that when the period is long it is

* Princeton University. Industrial Relations Section. Recent Trends in Vacation Policies for Wage
Earners, by Eleanor Davis. Princeton, N. J., 1935.




WAGE EARNERS

869

important to know on what continuity depends and what types of
absence break the record. The most usual causes which break the
continuity record are dismissal for cause and voluntary separation
from the service. Persons separated from the service for such causes
lose their record for service and if rehired come back as new employ­
ees. This is not so serious a matter if the required period is only a
year or two, but if 10 or 15 years are required the chances of such an
employee receiving a vacation are practically destroyed. Although
various types of absence, such as for jury duty, military service,
sickness, lay-off due to lack of work, etc., frequently do not break
continuity of service, in some instances if they extend beyond a certain
number of weeks or months or if the service for the year has not
reached a stated number of weeks the continuity of service is destroyed.
On the other hand, some companies omit from a part or all of their
plans the requirement that service be continuous; thus, there may be a
provision, as in one instance, that all of the employees entering or
reentering the service prior to a certain date are entitled to a vacation
if it is expected at the time of their taking their vacation that they
will remain with the company for 6 months, or as in the graduated
plans, the requirement for continuous service may not be required
or the long-service employees.







WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




871




Wages and Hours of Labor
HIS section contains summaries of all the wage studies made by
the Bureau of. Labor Statistics since the publication of the 1931
Handbook, and also digests of wage studies made by other official
agencies for certain industries not covered by the Bureau investiga­
tions.

T

Wage Studies of the Bureau of Labor Statistics
HE Bureau of Labor Statistics devotes a large part of its resources
to compiling information on the subject of wages and hours of
labor. In the field of union wage scales a study has been made for
each year since 1907. In the more important manufacturing indus­
tries and in coal mining a wage study has been made about every
2 years.
The questionnaire method is satisfactory in some lines of inquiry,
but has not proven very successful in the collection of wage data.
Therefore, except in rare instances, the Bureau has followed the
method of sending special agents to compile the statistics from the
employers* pay rolls. In many industries a large proportion of the
employees are paid at piece rates and no record is kept of the time
worked by them. In such industries it is necessary to arrange with
the employers, and sometimes with the employees as well, to keep
a special record of the hours worked during the pay period studied.
A complete census of wages in all establishments in an industry is
so expensive that the Bureau in its wage studies has had to rely on the
sampling method. Selection is first made of representative plants
from which to request wage data. These must be selected with care,
so as to insure a geographical representation as well as a wage repre­
sentation for the locality. All employees are included in the report
obtained from a plant, except a very few large plants, where to cover
all employees would distort the representative character of the total
data collected in the locality. A sufficient number of plants is taken
to insure a fair cross-section of the country as a whole. In some
instances 20 percent of all wage earners in the industry in the country
were covered; in other instances as high as 60 percent, and in one
instance the coverage was 95 percent.
A summary of the industrial wage surveys of the Bureau of Labor
Statistics published since the 1931 edition of the Handbook is given
in the accompanying table. Data are presented regarding average
earnings and average hours of labor for each industry as a whole,
for the most recent year in which a survey was made, and compara­
tive data are shown, where available, for other years since or just
prior to the present depression. In this table separation of data is
made by sex, but not by occupation. For detailed occupational in­
formation see subsequent articles dealing with wages in particular
industries.1
1 Detailed data for a few industries listed in the table had not been published at the time of preparation of
this Handbook, and therefore are not included herein.

T




873

874

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

AVERAGE DAYS, HOURS, AND EARNINGS, IN SPECIFIED INDUSTRIES AND YEARS,
BY SEX

Industry and sex

Air transportation:
Pilots, m ale.......................
Copilots, male...................
Ground personnel:
Male_________ _____
Female........................
Males and females__
Bakery:
Bread:
M ales,--______ _
Females______
Males and females, __
Cake:
Males.................... .......
Females___________
Males and females. __
Bread and cake:
Males______________

Num­
Year ber of
wage
earners

Aver­
age
days
worked
in 1
week

2110.0 280.4
0)
2 109.0 285.3
20 ) 2170.0 (0
21.2
220.0 2 124.9 (0
6.0 48.5 49.5
6.0 49.7 49.8
6.0 48.0 48.0
6.0 47.0 46.8
6.0 48.5 49.4
6.0 49.7 49.7

73.1
78.3
( i)
0)
102.1
100.1
100.0
99.7
101.9
100.0

55.0
50.1
54.9
51.8
50.1
51.0

98.2
93.2
9&0
96.3
88.0
92.7

1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933

460
452
138
210
2,911
2,947
88
99
2,999
3, 046

1931
1931
1931
1931
1931
1931
6 1933
7 1933
8 1934
6 1933
? 1933
8 1934
e 1933
71933
8 1934
1928
1930
1932
1928
1930
1932
1928
1930
1932

27,856
591
28,447
1, 552
1, 240
2,792
14,585
16,609
18,348
1,895
2,173
2, 614
16,480
18, 782
20,962
28,312
31, 549
28,046
20,346
23,609
21, 620
48,658
55,158
49,666

1924
1931
1924
1931

23,715
24, 529
20,785
18,160

610.5
910.4
912.0
911.6

1929
1931
1933
All others, males_______ 1929
1931
1933
Cotton goods:
Males_________________ 1928
1930
1932
121933
is 1933
131934
1 Not available.

99,405
90,063
78,896
62,806
47,725
41,438
49,861
53, 243
48,168
22, 797
66,322
61,725

99.1
97.0
97.1
910.2
98.3
98.0
4.6
4.7
4.8

Females,.....................
Males and females,,.
Boot and shoe:
Males
___________
Females. _____________
Males and females______
Coal mining, anthracite:
Miners and miners’ labor­
ers, males......................
All others, males_______
Coal mining, bituminous:
Miners and loaders,
males________________

Hours
actually
Aver­ worked in
age
1 week
full­
time
hours Aver­ Perper age
week num­ of full
ber time

5.9
5.6
5.9
5.8
5.5
5.7
0)
0)
0)
0)
(0
0)
0)
0)
0)

6.6
5.4
5.2
5.5
5.3
5.3
5.5
5.4
5.3

0)
(0
0)

0)

(0
0)

0)
0)
0)
0)
0)

0)
49.0
48.8
48.9
49.2
48.9
48.9
49.1
48.9
48.9
C)
1

0)
0)
0)

54.0
46.7
53.8
49.9
44.1
47.3
51.1
46.7
44.3
42.8
39.7
37.5
50.2
45.9
43.5
45.1
42.7
40.0
44.4
42.0
40.8
44.8
42.4
40.4
1076.9
1079.7
6105.5
9100.1

( i)
( i)
0)

0)

0)
(0
0)
0)

92.0
87.5
81.8
90.0
85.9
83.4
91.0
86.7
82.6
(0
0)
0)
0)

1072.6 0 )
10 .6
56
1057.2 0 )
(0
»87.0 0 )
9 69.8 0 )
C)
1
9 67.1 0)
0)
53.9 42.8 79.4
63.7 43.9 81.8
53.7 45.5 84.7
47.6 0)
0)
36.3 (l)
0)
31.3 0)
0)
0)
0)
0)
0)

2 In month.
3 Flight-hour.
4 Flight-hour. Including earnings as copilot and acting pilot.
» In month. Including earnings as copilot and acting pilot.
« March.
7 September.
8 December.
6 In half month.
1 In half month at face or seam of coal, including time for lunch.
0
1 Based on time at face or seam of coal, including time for lunch.
1
12 July.
1 August.
3




(0

Aver­
age
earn­
ings
per
hour

Aver­
age
full­
age
time actual
earn­ earn­
ings ings in
per 1 week
week

3$7.084 2$779.19
37.361 2789. 81
41.341
0)
41.851
0)
.645 31.26
.613 30.47
.497 23.85
.457 21.48
.640 31.05
.608 30.25
.553
.298
.548
.486
.275
.399
.471
.524
.570
.307
.354
.379
.455
.507
.549
.625
.604
.493
.397
.382
.308
.530
.510
.412
n 1.063

30.42
14.93
30.09
25.17
13. 78
20.35
(0
( i)

(0
0)
(0
0)
0)

0)

0)

30.63
29. 48
24.11
19.53
18.68
15.06
26.02
24.94
20.15

11.924
.637
.660

0)
0)

n. 687

0)
0)
0)

11.599
n. 395
.605
.595
.439
.345
.346
.284
.254
.386
.396

( i)
0)

(1)

(1)
0)

18.60
18.58
15.25
0)
0)

0)

2$569.49
2628. 23
5227.89
5231.13
31.89
30.55
23.85
21.39
31.66
30.25
29.82
13.93
29.49
24.25
12.11
18.86
24.10
24.45
25.24
13.15
14.04
14.23
22.84
23.24
23.86
28.14
25.79
19.73
17.64
16.04
12.58
23.75
21.62
16. 62
»81.82
973. 57
867.23
966.02
949.85
933.82
922.59
952.57
»41.58
929.46
14.76
15.19
12.91
12.06
13.98
12.39

875

STUDIES OF BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

AVER AG E D AYS, HOURS, A N D E AR N IN G S, IN SPECIFIED IN D U ST R IE S A N D Y EAR S,
B Y S E X —Continued

Industry and sex

Year

Aver­
Num­
age
ber of
days
wage worked
in i
earners

week

Cotton goods—Continued.
Females...............................

1928
1930
1932
121933
131933
131934
1928
Males and females_______
1930
1932
121933
131933
131934
Dyeing and finishing of tex­
tiles:
1930
Males—...............................
1932
121933
131933
131934
Females.................. - .......... 1930
1932
121933
131933
131934
Males and females_______
1930
1932
121933
131933
131934
Foundry:
Males...................................
1929
1931
1933
Females_________________
1929
1931
1933
Males and females______
1929
1931
1933
Furniture:
Males.............................. .
1929
1931
Females_____ ___________
1929
1931
Males and females______
1929
1931
Gasoline filling stations:
Males......... .........................
1931
Glass:
Males................. .................. 1932
Females______ __________
1932
Males and females______
1932
Hosiery:
Males___________________
1928
1930
1932
Females_________________
1928
1930
1932
Males and females______
1928
1930
1932
Iron and steel:
Males..................................
1929
1931
1933
Leather:
Males__________ ________
1932
Females__________ _______ 1932
Males and females ____ 1 1932
i Not available.




38,145
36,810
28,462
15,114
40,072
37,677
88,006
90,053
76,630
37,911
106,394
99,402

4.5
4.6
4.8

(9

0)
0)

4.6
4.6
4.8

0)
(9
(9

Hours
actually
Aver­
worked in
age
1 week
full­
time
hours Aver­ Per­
per
age
week num­ cent
of full
ber
time

Aver­
age
earn­
ings
per
hour

$15.66
15.50
12.40

78.3
80.0
83.0
(0
0)
(9

$0,296
.293
.234
.199
.346
.354
.324
.325
.266
.233
.371
.381

76.6
77.3
79.6

(9
(9

40.5
40.9
42.2
43.8
34.1
28.8
41.8
42.7
44.3
46.0
35.5
30.3

52.9
52.9
53.0

(9
(9
(9

53.4
53.4
53.4
(9

Aver­
age
full­
time
earn­
ings
per
week

0)

h

0)

0)
0)
(0

17.30
17.36
14.20

0)
0)
0)

Aver­
age
actual
earn­
ings in
1 week

$11.99
11.98
9.87
8.72
11.77
10.20
13.56
13.88
11.78
10.73
13.17
11.56

17,739
16,205
5,321
20,170
19,720
3,743
3,041
1,472
4,696
3,801
21,482
19,246
6,793
24,866
23,521

5.2
5.2
5.4
4,6
4.4
5.0
5.2
5.4
4.5
4.3
5.2
5.2
5.4
4.6
4.4

51.0
51.4
52.4
40.5
40.3
50.5
51.2
49.9
40.0
39.6
50.9
51.3
5L9
40.4
40.2

50.7
51.1
51.9
36.6
33.9
42.4
43.5
43.2
33.7
31.8
49.3
49.9
50.0
36.0
33.6

99.4
99.4
99.0
90.4
84.1
84.0
85.0
86.6
84.3
80.3
96.9
97.3
96.3
89.1
83.6

.473
.418
.368
.481
.518
.335
.291
.277
.380
.405
.452
.400
.351
.463
.500

24.12
21.49
19.28
19.48
20.88
16.92
14.90
13.82
15.20
16.04
23.01
20.52
18.22
18.71
2fi 10

23.99
21.37
19.11
17.59
17.57
14.20
12.65
11.97
12.80
12.89
22.29
19.99
17.56
16.68
16.81

40,032
28,469
19,619
359
230
144
40,391
28, 669
19,763

5.4

3.6
5.1
3.9
3.9
6.4
4.0
3.6

51.0
50.3
49.4
49.7
48.7
48.3
51.0
50.3
49.4

48.8
33.5
29.4
42.3
29.4
30.2
48.7
33.5
29.6

95.7
66.6
59.9
85.1
60.4
62.5
95.5
66.6
59.9

.625
.601
.483
.451
.422
.314
.624
.600
.482

31.88
30.23
23.86
22.41
20.55
15.17
31.82
30.18
23.81

30.50
20.13
14.28
19.08
12.40
9.51
30.39
20.06
14.25

41,912
28,876
2,958
1,783
44,870
30,659

5.6
6.0
6.5
4.8
5.6
5.0

52.1
51.9
50.5
49.8
51.9
51.8

50.3
41.4
46.4
36.3
50.1
41.1

96.5
79.8
91.9
72.9
96.5
79.3

.499
.416
.345
.314
.490
.411

26.00
21.59
17.42
15.64
25.43
21.29

25.12
17. 22
16.03
11.40
24.52
16.88

4.0

2,960

6.5

60.0

59.5

99.2

.393

23.58

23.39

23,023
3,948
26,971

4.9
5.0
4.9

50.3
49.9
50.2

37.3
37.9
37.4

74.2
76.0
74.5

.490
.249
.454

24.65
12.43
22.79

18.30
9.45
17.01

9,401
12,137
12,908
19,044
21,688
20,319
28,445
33,825
33,227

5.5
6.1
5.0
5.4
4.9
4.9
5.4
5.0
5.0

52.4
52.4
52.2
51.9
52.1
51.7
52.1
52.2
51.9

50.1
45.0
44.1
45.7
40.1
39.6
47.1
41.9
41.3

95.6
85.9
84.5
88.1
77.0
76.6
90.4
80.3
79.6

.724
.707
.494
.360
.366
.292
.488
.497
.376

37.94
37.05
25.79
18.68
19.07
15.10
25. 42
25.94
19.51

36.28
31.85

54,6
52.4
51.5

0)

24.2

47.0

0)

.674
.663
.485

36.48
34.58
24.98

50.4
50.0
50.4

42.1
40.9
42.0

83.5
81.8
83.3

.493
.303
.471

24.85
15.15
23.74

71,009
66,865
53,365
18,755
2,644
21,399

(9
(9
(9
5.2
5.1
5.2

12 July.

0)
0)

is August.

21.80

16.46
14.66
11.54
23. 01
20.83
15.53

‘ 0)
0)

11.71

20.78
12.41
19.74

876

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

AVERAGE DAYS, HOURS, AND EARNINGS, IN SPECIFIED INDUSTRIES AND YEARS,
BY SEX—Continued

Industry and sex

Machine shop:
Males_______ _____

Num­
Year ber of
wage
earners

1929
1931
1933
Females_______________ 1929
1931
1933
Males and females______ 1929
1931
1933
Men’s clothing:
Males_________________ 1928
1930
1932
Females____ __________ 1928
1930
1932
Males and females______ 1928
1930
1932
Metalliferous mining:
Males_________________ 1924
1931
Motor-bus transportation
(intercity):
Males_______ ._________ 1933
Females___ __________ 1933
Males and females______ 1933
Motor-truck transportation
(intercity):
Males.................................. 1933
Females....... .......... ........... 1933
Males and females______ 1933
Motor vehicle:
Males_______________ _ 1928
1930
1932
161934
71934
Females___ __________ 1928
1930
1932
161934
7 1934
Males and females______ 1928
1930
1932
161934
7 1934
Motor-vehicle repair garages:
Males_________________ 1931
Petroleum:
Drilling and production:
Males and females__ 1934
Pipe lines:
Males and females__ 1934
Refineries:
Males and females__ 1934
Portland cement:
Males................................. 1929
1932
Females_______ _______- 1929
1932
Males and females______ 1929
1932

89,935
64,921
41,003
1,556
1,017
957
91,491
65,938
41,960
17,626
16,571
16,511
18,247
16,833
16,540
35,873
33,404
33,051
38,196
32,195

Aver­
age
days
worked
in 1^

Aver­
age
full­
time
hours
per
week

5.7
4.6
4.4
5.6
4.7
4.5
5.7
4.6
4.4
5.3
5.0
5.0
5.2
4.9
4.9
5.2
5.0
5.0
0)
5.0

50.3
49.8
48.5
49.3
49.2
47.4
50.3
49.8
48.5
44.1
44.3
44.3
43.9
44.2
44.5
44.0
44.3
44.4
53.0
51.6

Hours

actually
worked in
1 week
Aver­
age
num­
ber

Aver­
age
ings
Per­ per
cent hour
of full
time

50.4 100.2 $0.641
38.2 76.7 .637
34.6 71.3 .545
46.1 93.5 .399
38.8 78.9 .408
34.2 72.2 .351
5C.3 100.0 .638
38.2 76.7 .634
34.6 71.3 .540
41.7 95.0 .924
39.4 88.9 .885
38.6 87.1 .641
39.5 90.0 .534
36.2 81.9 .504
36.0 80.9 .361
40.6 92.0 .731
37.8 85.3 .701
37.3 84.0 .506
.559
0)
0)
41.6 80.6 .559

Aver­
age Aver­
full­
age
time actual
earn­ earn­
ings ings in
per 1 week
week
$32.24
31.72
26.43
19.67
20.07
16.64
32.09
31.57
26.19
40. 75
39. 21
28.40
23.44
22.28
16.06
32.16
31.05
22.47
29.63
28.84

$32.30
24.36
18.87
18.41
15.85
11.98
32.06
24.22
18.71
38.51
34.84
24.75
21. 07
18.24
13.01
29. 64
26.48
18.87
(0 25
23.

8,349
562
8,911

6.0 1454.3
6.1 45.4
6.0 1453.3

50.4 (0
45.4 100.0
50.1 0)

.541
.379
.533

0)
17.20
0)

27. 25
17. 20
26.72

6,729
400
7,129
149,828
130,433
109,799
108,704
72,042
4,134
4,479
4,443
6,551
4,349
153,962
134,912
114,242
115,313
76,381
6, 059

5.6 1552.1
5.9 45.0
5.6 1551.2
5.3 49.4
4.2 48.7
4.1 48.3
0)
0)
0)
0)
4.9 50.3
4.1 50.6
4.2 50.5
0)
0)
(0
0)
5.3 49.4
4.2 48.8
4.1 48.4

50.7
44.8
50.4
47.0
34.6
31.9
39.1
34.1
41.1
31.8
30.7
37.8
34.6
46.9
34.5
31.9
39.0
34.1
51.0

.457
.367
.452
.756
.733
.638
.726
.744
.487
.436
.361
.626
.505
.750
.724
.628
.721
.731
.579

0)
16.52
0)
37.35
35. 70
30.82
0)
0)
24.50
22.06
18.23

23.16
16.48
22.78
35.56
25.40
20.36
28.36
25.38
20.04
13.86
11.09
23.67
17.46
35.14
25.01
20.00
28.09
24.93
29. 56

38,372
12,295
• 45,167
20, 544
13,609
157
68
20,701
13, 677

(!)
(0

5.8

(0
0)

53.4

0)

0)

0)

0)

0)

5.9

5.5
5.5

3.6
5.9

5.5

0)

60.8
59.1
52.0
48.6
60.8
59.0

36.2
35.3
35.6
56.7
45.8
46.6
27.2
56.6
45.7

0)
99.6
0)
95.0
71.0
66.0
0)
0)
82.0
62.8
60.8
0)
0)

95.0
70.7
65.9
0)
(i)

95.5
0)
0)
0)

93.3
77.5
89.6
56.0
93.1
77.5

.779
.774
.750
.518
.401
.389
.386
.517
.401

0)

0)
37.05
35.33
30.40
0)
0)

30.92
0)
0)
(l)

31.49
23. 70
20. 23
18.76
31.43
23. 66

28.22
27.44
26.66
29. 33
18.39
18.12
10. 52
29. 25
18.35

1Not available.
7 September.
14 Average for 4,014 station, office, and maintenance employees. Data for 4,335 drivers not available.
15 Average for 2,677 terminal, office, and maintenance employees. Data for 4,052 drivers and helpers not
available.
16April.




877

STUDIES OF BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

AVE R A G E D AY S, HOURS, A N D EAR N IN G S, IN SPECIFIED IN D U STR IES A N D Y EAR S,
B Y SE X — Continued

Industry and sex

Pottery:
Semi vitreous:
Males...........................
Females___________
Males and females__
Vitreous:
Males_____________
Females-___ _____
Males and females__
Rayon and other synthetic
yarns:
Males____________ ____
Females______________
Males and females______
Sawmills:
Males________________

Num­
Year ber of
wage
earners

1925 6,666 17 9.2
1932 4,086 17 7.7
1925 3,657 17 8.9
1932 2,381 17 7.1
1925 10, 323 17 9.1
1932 6,467 17 7.5
1925 1, 619 17 10.2
1932 1,425 17 6.4
1925 1,065 1710.0
1932
994 17 5.6
1925 2,684 1710.1
1932 2, 419 17 6.1

1930
1932
1930
1932
1930
1932
1928
1930
1932
Silk and rayon goods:
Males________________ 1931
is 1933
131933
is 1934
Females,___ __________ 1931
161933
131933
131934
Males and females,.......... 1931
161933
1 1933
3
is 1934
Slaughtering and meat pack­
ing:
Males____________
1929
1931
Females_______________ 1929
1931
Males and females _____ 1929
1931
Tobacco:
Cigarettes:
Males_________
1930
6 1933
6 1935
Females___________ 1930'
6 1933
6 1935
Males and females__ 1930
6 1933
6 1935
Snuff:
Males___________ _ 6 1933
6 1935
Females_____ ___ e 1933
6 1935
Males and females... 6 1933
6 1935
Smoking and chewing:
Males_____________ 6 1933
6 1935
Females___________ 6 1933
6 1935
Males and females. _. 6 1933
6 1935
1 Not available.




Aver­
age
days
worked
in 1^

Hours
actually
Aver­ worked in
age
1 week
full­
time
hours
per age Perweek num­ of full
ber time
17 74. 4
C 17 69.0
1) 17 59.3
(l)
17 54. 6
0)
17 72. 5
0)
17 57. 6
0)
17 83. 5
0) 17 45.8
0)
C 17 40.6
1) 17 77. 4
0)
1781.1
0)
17 43. 7
0)

0)

C
1)
C
1)
0)
C
1)
0)
0)

0)
0)
0)
0)
0)
0)

Aver­
age
earn­
ings
per
hour

$0. 705
.535
.385
.292
.596
.450
.638
.546
.329
.264
.521
.438

Aver­
age Aver­
tun­
age
actual
earn­
ings ings in
per 1 week
week

0)
0)
0)

C
1)
(i)
0)

0)

C
1)
C
1)
0)
0)
0)

17 $52. 44
17 31.74
17 26. 54
1715.95
17 43.27
1725.93
17 53.25
17 25.03
17 25.47
1710.72
17 42. 23
1719.15

18, 743
14,869
13, 549
10,457
32, 292
25, 326
58,007
50,951
32,130
21,885
19, 500
10,685
13,437
27,151
22,213
13, 038
15, 522
49,036
41, 713
23, 723
28, 959

5.6 51.1
5.8 48.6
5.2 49.0
5.6 47.6
5.4 50.2
5.7 48.2
5.4 56.6
5.2 56.5
4.8 55.8
5.3 51.5
5.0 51.6
4.7 40.2
4.5 40.0
5.2 50.0
5.0 50.2
4.6 39.5
4.4 39.5
5.2 50.7
5.0 50.9
4.6 39.8
4.5 39.7

46.7
47.9
42.3
44.3
44.8
46.4
51.3
48.6
40.1
48.4
46.5
37.2
35.3
43.2
41. 8
35.4
32.5
45.5
44.0
36.2
33.8

91.4 .504 $25. 75
98.6 .408 19.83
86.3 .344 16.86
93.1 .283 13. 47
89.2 .441 22.14
96.3 .359 17.30
91.0 .371 21.00
86.0 .359 20.28
71.9 .256 14.28
94.0 .485 24.98
90.1 ‘ .319 16. 46
92.5 .464 18.65
88.3 .507 20. 28
86.4 .335 16. 75
83.3 .221 11.09
89.6 .372 14.69
82.3 .393 15. 52
89.7 .406 20. 58
86.4 ‘ .269 13. 69
91.0 .415 16. 51
85.1 .448 17.79

23. 53
19. 51
14.55
12. 55
19. 76
16. 64
19.03
17. 46
10. 25
23. 45
14.82
17.29
17.89
16.48
9.24
13.15
12. 78
16.47
11.85
15.01
15.15

52,796
45, 523
8,803
8, 032
61, 599
53, 555

5.7
5.5
5.6
5.4
5.7
5.5

49.3
49.2
48.9
48.9
49.2
49.2

48.5
45.9
44.9
42.4
48.0
45.4

98.4
93.3
91.8
86.7
97.6
92.3

.525
.470
.369
.321
.504
.449

25.88
23.12
18.04
15. 70
24.80
22.09

25.45
21. 57
16. 54
13. 61
24.18
20.38

5.3

49.9
49.9

5.2

49.9

.378
.369
.487
.268
.242
.378
.318
.307
.433
.457
.557
.333
.424
.395
.509
.382
.462
.261
.354
.313
.406

18.86

5.1

46.5 93.2
34.9 0)
34.6 0)
43.2 86.6
27.8
32.4 0)
0)
44.7 89.6
31.0 0)
33.5 0)
45.8 0)
39.4 0)
40.4 0)
35.2 0)
42.9
37.7 0)
0)
35.8 0)
35.8 (!)
36.4 0)
33.3
0)
36.2 0)
34.5 0)
i6 April.

17.60
12.90
16.84
11.58
6.74
12.27
14.19
9.51
14.49
20.94
21.94
13. 43
14. 94
16. 93
19.19
13. 69
16. 57
9.50
11.81
11.32
14.02

6,187
3,355
7,418
8, 079
4,100
7,850
14, 266
7,455
15, 268
245
798
281
517
526
1,315
2,104
3,348
2,745
3,874
4,849
7,222

8 March.

0)
0)

(0
0)
(0
(0

(0
0)
0)
0)
0)
(0

0)
0)

0)
0)
0)
(0

0)
(!)
0)
0)
0)
0)

0)
(0
(0
0)
0)
(0
0)
0)
0)
0)
(0
0)
1 August.
3

0)
0)

13. 37
0)

0)
15.87
0)
0)

0)
0)
0)
0)
0)
0)

0)
0)
0)
0)
0)
0)
I7 In 2 weeks.

878

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

AVER AG E D AY S, HOURS, A N D EAR NINGS, IN SPECIFIED IN D U STR IES A N D YE A R S,
B Y S E X —Continued

Industry and sex

Underwear, knitted:
Males ................................

Year

Hours
actually
Aver­ Aver­
worked in
age
1 week
Num­
age
full­
ber of
days
worked time
wage
hours Aver­ Per­
earners
in 1
per
cent
week
age
week num­ of full
ber
time

Aver­
age
earn­
ings
per
hour

Aver­
age
full­
time
earn­
ings
per
week

Aver­
age
actual
earn­
ings in
1 week

1928
1930
1932
1928
1930
1932
1928
1930
1932

2,805
2,910
2,174
12,251
12,245
9,564
15,056
15,155
11,738

5.5
5.2
5.0
5.2
4.9
4.6
5.2
5.0
4.7

50.6
50.9
51.1
49.8
50.2
50.6
50.0
50.3
50.7

48.0
45.1
43.4
42.3
39.5
36.8
43.4
40.6
38.0

94.9
88.6
84.9
84.9
78.7
72.7
86.8
80.7
75.0

$0.453
.458
.408
.329
.330
.260
.354
.357
.292

$22.92
23.31
20.85
16. 38
16. 57
13.16
17.70
17.96
14.80

$21.76
20.65
17.72
13.89
13.04
9.56
15.36
14.50
11. 08

Woolen and worsted goods:
M ales...... .......................... is 1928
is 1930
is 1932
2 1933
0
2 1934
0
Females........................... . is 1928
ie 1930
1 1932
9
201933
2 1934
0
Males and females_______ is 1928
ie 1930
ie 1932
2 1933
0
20 1934

21.049
21, 591
20,407
20,530
18,091
17,801
19,809
18,102
20,897
13,893
38,850
41,400
38,509
41,427
31,984

4.9
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.2
4.6
4.7
4.7
4.6
3.8
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.7
4.0

49.4
49.7
50.6
40.4
40.5
49.2
49.5
50.0
39.9
39.7
49.3
49.6
50.3
40.1
40.1

42.4
42.6
43.1
37.9
32.8
38.1
38.8
38.5
35.7
27.9
40.4
40.7
40.9
36.8
30.7

85.8
85.7
85.2
93.8
81.0
77.4
78.4
77.0
89.5
70.3
81.9
82.1
81.3
91.8
76.6

.568
.516
.447
.526
.535
.438
.392
.327
.410
.428
.514
.460
.394
.469
.493

28.06
25.65
22.62
21.25
21.67
21. 55
19.40
16.35
16.36
16.99
25. 34
22.82
19.82
18. 81
19. 77

23.33
21.97
19.26
19.93
17.58
15. 80
15.19
12. 59
14.65
11.94
19.88
18.73
16.13
17.27
15.13

Females.............................
Males and females______

is Not including any mills in Southern district,
is Including mills in Southern district.
2 August and including mills in Southern district.
0

Hours Per Week and Hourly Earnings, by Industries,
1932 to 1935
N CONNECTION with the Bureau of Labor Statistics monthly
surveys of trend of employment (see p. 129), data are secured (begin­
ning in January 1932) which make possible the compilation of average
hours of work per week and average hourly earnings in a large number
of manufacturing and nonmanufacturing industries. These data are
presented in the accompanying tables for the months of January 1932,
January and June 1933, January and June 1934, and January and
November 1935.
The averages presented are not based on data supplied by identical
establishments over the entire period and therefore are not strictly
comparable, but they may be considered as generally indicative of the
hours worked and average earnings in those industries in the months
shown. Information for several of the 90 manufacturing industries
for which monthly employment reports are secured are omitted from
these tables because of lack of adequate information regarding man­
hours worked. Man-hour data are available for only 15 of the 19
nonmanufacturing industries covered by the monthly employment
purvey. Data are not compiled for banks, brokerage, and insurance,
as practically all employees in these industries are paid on a salary

I




879

HOURLY EARNINGS BY INDUSTRIES

basis, and the collection of man-hour data from building construction
firms was not begun until January 1934.
The establishments supplying man-hour data in the latter part of
1935 in the manufacturing industries employ approximately 90 per­
cent of the total wage earners covered in the Bureau’s monthly em­
ployment survey of manufacturing industries.
T h e ta b u la tio n s are b a se d o n re p o rts s u p p ly in g a ctu a l m a n -h o u rs
w o rk e d an d d o n o t in clu d e n o m in a l m a n -h o u r to ta ls, o b ta in e d b y
m u ltip ly in g th e to ta l n u m b e r o f e m p lo y e e s in th e esta b lish m e n t b y th e
p la n t op era tin g tim e.

Table 1 shows the average hours worked per employee per week and
average hourly earnings in the manufacturing and nonmanufacturing
groups for which these data are available and for all groups combined.
The average hours per week and average hourly earnings for the com­
bined total of these groups are weighted averages, the average man­
hours and average hourly earnings in each industrial group having been
multiplied by the total number of employees in the group in the current
month, and the sum of these products divided by the total number of
employees in the combined 16 industrial groups. The average man­
hours and hourly earnings for all manufacturing industries combined
have been weighted in the same manner as the averages for all
industrial groups combined.
T a ble 1 — A V E R A G E H O U R S W O R K E D P E R W E E K P E R E M P L O Y E E A N D A V E R A G E
H O U R L Y E A R N IN G S I N 16 I N D U S T R I A L G R O U P S , J A N U A R Y 1932, J A N U A R Y A N D
J U N E 1933, J A N U A R Y A N D J U N E 1934, A N D J A N U A R Y A N D N O V E M B E R 1935
Average hourly earnings

Average hours per week
Industrial group

Manufacturing
........___
Coal mining:
Anthracite________
Bituminous_________
Metalliferous mining____
Quarrying and nonmetallic mining_____________
Crude-petroleum produc­
ing...................................
Public utilities:
Telephone and tele­
graph. —
Electric light and
power and manu­
factured gas.......... .
Electric-railroad and
motor-bus operation
and maintenance - - Trade:
Wholesale. ........... ......
Retail1........................
General merchan­
dising_________
Other than general
merchandising-.
Hotels (year round)..........
Laundries...........................
Dyeing and cleaning........
Average 1
_________
1
Weighted.




Jan. Nov.
Jan. Jan. June Jan. June Jan. Nov. Jan. Jan. June Jan.
1932 1933 1933 1934 1934 1935 1935 1932 1933 1933 1934 J1934 1935 1935

Ct.

Ct.

Ct.

Ct.

Ct.

Ct.

Ct.

38.4 37.5 42.6 33.7 34.9 35.2 37.8 50.6 42.6 41.8 53.3 55.0 56.4 56.7
29.1 28.1 31.2 39.5 31.7 33.0 22.3 82.7 83.6 81.7 85.0 82.3 82.1 80.5
27.0 29.0 28.5 30.3 26.2 27.6 27.3 56.8 48.1 45.6 58.9 71.3 70.7 82.2
35.4 39.4 40.0 38.7 37.4 36.0 39.7 53.2 45.5 47.0 53.5 55.5 60.6 58.2
34.9 34.6 40.9 30.8 35.8 30.5 35.6 48.4 40.4 37.6 45.6 48.0 46.9 48.1
52.0 44.6 42.6 36.5 34. 0 34.6 36.5 53.7 58.0 62.9 76.9 79.2 79.8 78.7
42.1 37.6 37.5 37.6 38.3 38.1 39.1 70.6 69.3 71.1 71.6 71.2 74.7 76.4
44.8 43.4 43.2 38.9 38.8 38.3 39.3 69.8 66.9 65.7 72.5 75.7 77.7 77.3
48.5 46.2 46.4 45.0 45.8 45.5 45.1 59.9 59.3 56.7 59.1 59.8 61.5 62.2
47.8 47.0 47.1 41.5 41.2 40.4 41.7 58.8 56.7 53.2 61.9 63.8 64.3 63.3
46.8 47.4 47.2 42.7 40.8 41.6 42.3 53.9 44.9 42.9 54.2 51.7 53.4 51.1
45.2 43.1 43.3 38.8 37.0 38.6 39.4 46.7 41.7 39.9 47.5 48.3 47.6 45.6
47.3
53.9
44.4
45.3

48.6
51.4
42.0
44.1

48.3
50.5
42.4
47.4

43.8
48.8
38.6
39.2

41.9
47.2
39.9
41.0

42.5
47.2
39.9
40.1

43.2
48.1
40.7
41.1

55.9
27.4
37.7
44.9

45.8
24.3
35.4
37.4

43.8
23.1
33.2
36.6

56.1
24.7
37.9
45.1

52.7
27.4
37.8
44.5

55.1
27.9
37.0
43.5

52.9
28.2
36.7
42.9

42.1 41.5 43.9 37.5 37.4 37.6 39.3 53.5 46.7 44.9 55.3 56.0 57.5 57.2

880

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

In presenting information for the separate manufacturing indus­
tries shown in table 2, data are published for only those industries in
which the available man-hour information covers 20 percent or more
of the total number of employees in the industry for the period shown.
T a ble 2 .—A V E R A G E HOURS W O R K E D PER W E E K PER E M P L O Y E E A N D A V E R A G E

H O U R L Y EA R N IN G S IN M A N U F A C T U R IN G IN D U ST R IES, J A N U A R Y 1932, J A N U A R Y
A N D JUNE 1933, JA N U A R Y A N D JUNE 1934, A N D JA N U A R Y A N D N O V E M B E R 1935
A v erage h o u rly earnings

A verage hours per w eek
In d u stry

Jan. Jan. June Jan. June Jan. N o v . Jan. Jan. June Jan. June Jan. N o v
1932 1933 1933 1934 1934 1935 1935 1932 1933 1933 1934 1934 1935 1935

Iron an d steel an d their
products, n o t in clu d­
ing m ach in ery:
B la st
furnaces,
steel
w orks,
an d
rolling
m ills ......................................
B o lts, n u ts, washers,
an d riv ets..........................
C ast-iron p ip e .....................
C u tle ry (n ot includ in g
silver and plated cu tlery) an d edge t o o ls ...
Forgings, iron and steel.
H ard w are...............................
P lu m b ers' su p p lies--------S team an d hot-w ater
heating apparatus and
steam fittings...................
S to v es.......................................
Structural and orna­
m en tal m etalw ork ____
T i n cans an d other tin ­
w are......................................
T o o ls (not including
edge tools, m achine
tools, files, and saw s)—
M a c h in e ry , n o t including
transportation eq u ip ­
m e n t:
A g r ic u ltu r a l im p le ­
m e n ts— .............................
C ash registers, ad ding
m ach in es, an d calcu­
latin g m ach in es..............
E lectrical
m ach in ery,
apparatus, an d su p ­
p lies.......................................
E n gines, turbines, trac­
tors, an d w ater w heels.
F o u n d ry an d m ach in eshop products..................
M a ch in e t o o l s - - ................
R a d io s a n d p h o n o ­
graphs..................................
T e xtile m ach in ery an d
p arts......................................
T y p ew riters an d p a r ts- T r a n s p o r t a t io n e q u i p ­
m e n t:
A ircraft....................................
A u to m o b ile s.........................
L o com otives______ _____ _
Sh ip bu ildin g.........................
R ailroad repair shops:
E lectric railroad.................
Steam railroad.....................
N onferrous m etals and
their products:
A l u m i n u m m a n u fa c ­
tures.....................................
B rass, bronze, an d cop­
per produ cts.....................
C lock s an d w atches,
an d
tim e-recording
d e v i c e s ..............................
Jew elry....................................
Silverw are an d plated
w are......................................

37.9

29.4

3 7 .2

3 2 .7

3 6 .4

a .
4 8 .4

a .
4 8 .2

a .
5 8 .5

a .
6 4.4

C t.

2 5.3

a .
5 6.6

a.

2 9 .0

65.1

6 6 .3

3 4 .8
3 6 .5

2 9 .2
2 5 .3

4 0 .7
3 1 .9

3 2 .6
3 0.7

3 5 .4
2 8.8

3 4 .8
2 9 .5

3 7 .9
3 2 .4

4 9 .2
4 5 .2

4 5 .6
4 8 .2

4 2 .6
3 8 .5

5 1.4
4 7 .2

5 5 .3
5 0 .2

56.1
4 9 .7

5 7 .0
4 9 .1

3 7 .9
2 9 .6
3 4 .8
2 8 .4

3 3 .8
30 .4
2 8 .2
27.3

4 2 .9
4 0 .0
3 8 .0
43.1

3 6 .2
34.7
33.1
26.8

3 5 .9
3 5 .7
3 1.5
3 3 .5

3 7 .5
37.4
3 5 .7
3 5 .8

4 0 .9
4 0 .2
4 1 .0
3 7 .4

5 4 .7
5 5 .4
5 1.5
5 5 .5

4 9 .2
4 8 .7
4 4 .9
4 5 .1

4 6 .0
4 6 .0
4 1 .1
4 3 .2

5 2 .7
5 6 .8
5 2 .9
5 0 .5

5 3 .3
6 0.4
5 3.7
5 1.7

5 4 .3
5 9 .8
4 9 .7
5 2 .9

5 2 .8
6 1 .5
5 5 .8
5 6 .0

2 9 .8
34.1

2 9 .2
2 8 .5

3 8 .0
3 9 .3

34.0
3 0 .5

3 5.1
3 5 .7

3 4 .9
3 4 .4

3 8 .9
3 8 .3

5 8 .9
5 2 .8

4 9 .8
4 7 .8

4 7 .6
4 4 .9

5 6.4
5 2 .2

5 9.7
53 .7

6 0 .2
5 4 .2

5 8 .1
5 7 .0

3 3 .8

2 8 .4

3 5 .2

3 1.1

3 4 .7

33 .9

3 6 .1

6 0 .6

4 5 .3

4 1 .6

5 5 .5

5 8 .4

5 8 .2

5 8 .6

4 0.1

3 9.5

(0

34.3

3 8 .0

3 7 .2 •37.2

4 7 .8

3 9 .8

0)

55.4

51 .8

5 3 .3

5 3 .7

3 0 .5

3 0 .6

3 8.6

3 5 .3

39.4

3 6 .9

4 2 .1

5 3.8

47.1

4 5 .0

5 0.9

4 9 .7

55.1

5 3 .7

3 4 .2

3 0 .5

3 6 .6

3 6 .4

36.1

3 8 .9

3 9 .0

4 5 .4

4 8 .8

4 5 .8

5 3 .1

55.5 60.1 61 8

33 .1

3 3 .9

4 0 .7

3 9 .2

3 8 .7

3 7 .8

3 8 .5

7 2 .8

6 7 .5

6 2 .0

6 5 .0

68.6

6 8 .9

3 7 .2

2 9 .4

3 7 .8

31.5

3 5 .0

3 4 .8

3 8 .6

5 6 .2

5 9 .6

5 3 .0

5 7 .0

6 0 .5

6 2 .2

60.6

3 2 .6

3 2 .2

3 7 .3

3 6 .2

3 8 .2

3 7 .5

3 8 .9

6 4 .7

5 7 .3

5 3 .9

6 0.1

6 2 .7

66.1

6 9 .5

3 1 .2

2 7.8

3 5 .9

3 3 .4

3 5 .6

3 5 .1

4 0 .0

5 8 .8

5 1 .6

4 9 .6

5 6 .8

5 8 .9

5 9 .7

5 9 .9

33.3 3 2 .5 3 6 .3 3 7 .0 3 8.8 3 8 .7 4 2 .6 6 5 .3 5 6 .6 5 3 .7 5 7 .9 6 1 .0 6 1 .4 6 3 .0
4 0 .9

3 2 .5

4 2 .1

3 0 .3

3 2 .6

3 2 .3

3 9 .0

5 3 .9

4 2 .3

3 7 .7

5 4 .1

5 5 .4

5 7 .5

5 2 .7

3 6 .8

22.8

2 9 .6
3 2 .1

4 2 .8
3 5 .1

3 8 .9
3 8.3

3 5 .6
3 7.4

3 6 .1
3 7.8

3 6 .7
4 0 .9

6 1 .6
7 0 .4

5 7 .4
4 7.1

5 2 .4
4 5 .0

6 1.7
5 0 .5

5 9 .8
5 5 .3

61 .7
5 7 .6

6 1 .5
5 7 .6

4 4 .9
3 2.9
3 2 .2
3 7.3

4 2 .5
3 5 .8
2 4 .9
2 9 .8

4 2 .0
4 0 .4
3 9 .9
3 1.5

3 9.5
3 2.4
32.1
30.1

4 1 .6
3 2 .3
3 5 .5
3 1.3

3 7 .9
3 5 .6
3 4 .3
3 1 .8

4 1 .6
4 0 .7
3 7 .0
3 2 .9

7 1 .3
6 9 .9
6 9 .5
6 7 .2

6 4 .9
5 5 .6
5 2 .9
5 9 .4

6 3 .4
57 .1
4 9 .6
5 5 .0

6 5 .4
63.1
6 0 .0
6 9 .6

5 9 .5
6 9 .9
6 2 .2
7 2 .2

6 4 .3
7 0 .9
6 2 .0
7 5 .0

6 5 .3
7 5 .0
6 2 .7
7 6 .7

4 5 .7
3 7 .4

4 3 .9
3 4 .5

4 3 .9
3 6 .7

4 3 .6
3 6 .3

4 4 .7
4 0 .3

4 4 .3
3 6 .7

4 3 .4
4 0 .4

68.2

6 2 .5

5 7 .4
6 2 .7

5 6 .3
6 2 .7

5 8 .2
6 1 .4

5 9 .3
6 1 .9

5 9 .9
6 4 .7

68.2

3 9 .2

6 1 .4

0)

43.1

3 1.5

3 7.1

3 5 .3

4 0.7

4 4 .9

<9

4 0 .2

4 8 .2

5 4 .2

5 4 .7

5 4 .7

3 5 .7

3 0 .8

4 1 .4

3 5 .4

3 6 .7

3 7.9

4 1 .2

5 3 .9

4 6 .5

4 6 .0

5 3 .5

5 6 .4

5 6 .7

5 7 .7

2 6.3
3 8 .0

3 2 .6
3 3 .6

4 1 .5
3 6 .5

3 5.8
3 1.5

3 5 .9
3 3 .8

3 4 .7
3 5 .0

4 5 .0
38.1

5 0 .0
5 0 .5

4 3 .9
4 7 .5

3 5 .6
4 4 .1

4 5 .8
5 2 .0

4 8 .0
5 3 .4

4 7 .9
5 4 .1

4 8 .3
5 2 .4

37.3 3 8 .2 3 6 .2 3 6.6 3 6 .4 3 4 .4 4 0 .9 5 3 .8 4 6 .5 4 4 .6 5 0 .3 5 4 .1 5 6 .3 , 5 6 .9

* Less than 20 percent of the tiotal.




6 9 .5

881

HOURLY EARNINGS B Y INDUSTRIES

T a ble 3.—AVERAGE HOURS WORKED PER W EEK PER EMPLOYEE AND AVERAGE
HOURLY EARNINGS IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES, JANUARY 1932, JANUARY
AND JUNE 1933, JANUARY AND JUNE m i , AND JANUARY AND NOVEMBER 1935-Con.
Average hourly earnings

Average hours per week
Industry

Jan. Jan. June Jan. June Jan. Nov. Jan. Jan. June Jan. June Jan. Nov.
1932 1933 1933 1934 1934 1935 1935 1932 1933 1933 1934 1934 1935 1935
Nonferrous metals—Con.
Smelting and refiping—
copper, lead, and zinc.
Stamped and enameled
ware...............................
Lumber and allied prod­
ucts:
Furniture.........................
Lumber:
Millwork.......................
Sawmills.......................
Stone, clay, and glass
products:
Brick, tile, and terra
cotta...............................
Cement................ - ..........
Glass..................................
Marble, granite, slate,
and other products.
Pottery..............................
Textiles and their prod­
ucts—Fabrics:
Carpets and rugs.........—
Cotton goods...................
Cotton small wares........
Dyeing and finishing
textiles.................. ........
Knit goods.......................
Silk and rayon goods—
Woolen and worsted
goods..............................
Leather and its manufac­
tures: Leather—..........
Food and kindred prod­
ucts:
Baking..............................
Beverages.........................
Canning and preserving.
Confectionery..............
Flour.................................
Ice cream..........................
Slaughtering and meat
packing......... .......... . .
Sugar, beet............ ..........
Sugar refining, cane____
Tobacco manufactures:
Chewing and smoking
tobacco and snuff___
Cigars and cigarettes----Paper and printing:
Boxes, paper.................. .
Paper and pulp------------Printing and publish­
ing:
Book and j o b .............
Newspapers and pe­
riodicals------- ---------Chemicals and allied
products:
Chemicals................. .......
Cottonseed—oil, cake,
and meal____________
Druggists’ preparations.
Explosives...................... .
Fertilizers.......................
Paints and varnishes___
Petroleum refining——
Rayon and allied prod­
ucts................................
Soap...................................
Rubber products:
Rubber goods, other
than boots, shoes,
tires, and inner tubes.
Rubber tires and inner
tubes---------- ---------------

ct. a.

Ct.

Ct.

Ct.

a.

36.4 36.1 41.6 33.7 36.0 35.2 40.7 46.9 38.2 38.5 48.1 50.1 51.5 51.1
34.9 30.4 39.7 30.3 34.6 35.1 40.5 42.3 34.5 32.2 44.6 44.8 44.5 44.8
36.8 35.5 43.3 32.7 34.2 34.1 40.9 43.2 34.2 82.6 44.0 44.3 44.2 45.9
33.6 33.1 43.0 31.8 34.1 33.4 38.9 36.8 29.0 27.6 42.3 43.6 42.3 46.5

31.0 28.9 36.8 30.7 33.1 30.3 39.0 44.2 35.4 31.9 42.4 44.2 46.8 45.1
44.1 30.8 38.7 31.4 35.6 29.2 34.8 43.9 44.6 40.6 55.7 56.4 69.3 57.2
37.7 34.7 42.1 33.8 33.5 33.2 36.9 50.7 43.6 44.0 62.3 55.0 57.4 59.0
33.3 32.2 35.7 29.8 32.1 28.6 32.9 71.3 55.2 60.2 60.3 66.1 63.4 64.7
35.1 34.5 35.0 33.7 31.4 32.9 38.7 47.9 39.4 40.0 47.8 49.7 51.0 51.4
34.5 34.5 44.4 32.3 34.5 34.0 34.5 53.3 40.1 38.2 49.7 55.9 55.9 55.4
44.7 45.0 49.1 34.1 28.8 36.2 36.0 26.8 22.4 22.6 37.4 38.1 37.7 36.9
41.5 39.6 46.3 34.8 33.6 37.2 37.7 42.1 34.7 33.4 45.0 46.3 45.1 45.3
46.6 45.2 50.8 33.3 29.6 36.8 35.1 45.1 38.6 37.0 52.5 52.2 55.2 52.7
42.2 41.3 47.0 27.9 33.6 34.4 37.2 33.6 30.4 29.4 46.3 45.8 48.6 47.8
38.7 39.8 42.0 31.0 32.9 34.4 35.2 39.1 29.4 30.3 44.2 44.2 45.1 43.7
42.5 45.2 48.3 33.8 32.1 36.9 36.3 43.0 34.2 34.3 49.1 50.0 49.3 48.8
42.8 41.8 46.6 37.1 37.6 37.7 38.9 45.3 39.3 41.0 52.3 52.6 56.5 56.0
47.1
41.2
41.7
42.2
46.7
50.1

46.4
39.4
40.6
40.6
48.1
48.8

46.7
47.7
42.6
38.0
46.9
53.1

40.8
37.2
32.9
37.2
38.7
40.9

41.7
40.0
30.8
36.3
38.8
46.0

40.3
37.4
33.5
34.8
37.4
42.5

41.0
38.4
33.8
37.6
41.0
45.6

49.2
62.1
41.4
38.1
48.9
60.5

43.2
61.0
34.0
33.1
43.0
51.0

42.2
60.1
31.2
34.3
42.0
46.3

50.8
74.5
40.2
40.7
50.5
62.9

52.0
73.8
38.7
41.0
53.6
55.3

53.0
74.6
38.4
44.0
55.9
55.1

53.9
78.0
38.6
4 2 .2

55.0
56.8

47.4 46.4 48.2 40.9 40.3 39.2 41.1 48.7 44.2 41.6 52.5 53.1 55.1 56.4
36.5 43.8 47.3 35.3 38.9 36.1 48.5 62.0 48.7 47.9 49.7 59.5 64.2 42.4
50.6 44.2 54.1 34.1 39.2 40.0 36.5 50.6 42.6 44.0 58.5 56.1 56.3 55.5
46.2 43.0 41.4 36.3 34.1 35.4 34.1 31.4 31.8 32.1 37.5 38.7 40.2 42.6
40.2 34.8 42.3 35.6 35.3 32.8 36.1 31.4 29.1 29.7 36.4 37.5 38.8 39.9
40.7 37.8 44.9 34.4 36.2 35.7 40.7 48.1 43.0 40.0 49.6 49.6 51.6 48.3
41.6 38.6 46.8 35.3 35.9 37.7 40.3 47.7 42.8 39.9 49.8 51.1 52.6 53.1
38.6 37.3 37.2 36.3 35.6 37.3 37.5 77.6 66.5 66.4 71.0 72.5 73.3 73.6
41.9 40.6 41.0 37.1 37.0 36.8 36.9 86.5 75.8 73.1 82.6 85.8

88.1

89.9

44.4 40.2 44.6 39.2 38.6 39.3 40.2 59.0 52.0 54.3 60.0 62.3 62.2 63.6
64.6
38.8
31.4
44.8
40.7
45.0

0)

43.8
35.3
43.1
38.3
39.9

58.9
40.3
36.5
45.1
47.6
39.6

41.8 40.9 40.3 47.9
37.3 38.2 38.4 37.3
34.1 33.6 34.3 37.3
33.3 31.8 34.4 34.9
37.8 39.4 38.6 40.4
35.5 34.7 34.2 34.5

21.4
49.3
63.0
33.1
59.7
61.6

0)

42.5
54.3
28.4
52.6
62.4

19.7
46.3
54.3
26.8
46.9
63.2

25.1
48.7
61.0
36.1
53.8
69.3

26.3
52.2
59.0
40.8
54.7
74.0

26.2
52.3
64.3
33.8
58.7
78.5

21.3
55.0
66.9
36.1
59.3
80.5

44.6 45.5 45.3 36.0 37.4 38.3 38.0 41.9 37.7 38.3 48.3 51.5 50.4 61.5
41.8 40.8 43.8 38.4 37.9 38.4 38.1 48.1 41.4 45.2 52.9 55.0 57.4 60.5

37.8 36.3 43.3 33.9 36.4 37.8 38.7 52.7 44.3 42.8 51.6 50.6 52.5 52. 3
35.3 28.7 42.0 30.3 30.3 33.3 33.5 64.4 58.3 57.9 71.9 77.4 81.1 81.8

* Less than 20 percent of the total.
19205— 36------- 57




Ct.

37.3 31.2 41.2 36.7 38.0 37.7 40.3 48.6 48.2 47.9 50.6 54.3 55.6 56.2

882

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

Per Capita Weekly Earnings, by Industries
N CONNECTION with the Bureau of Labor Statistics monthly
reports on trend of employment (see p. 129), per capita weekly
earnings are computed by a simple division of the total pay rolls in
the reporting establishments by the number of persons on the pay
rolls. As the number of persons on the pay rolls includes both fulland part-time employees, the resulting figure indicates average weekly
earnings of all employees in the reporting sample. The scope of the
survey is not confined to identical establishments over an extended
period and therefore the per capita earnings shown in the following
table are not strictly comparable. They may, however, be assumed
generally to indicate average weekly earnings during the period
shown. Per capita weekly earnings are presented each month, with
percentage comparisons with the preceding month and the same
month of the preceding year. Data for January 1932, 1933, 1934,
and 1935, and November 1935 for all manufacturing industries com­
bined and for 16 nonmanufacturing industries are shown in the
following table.
These earnings figures as shown are, of course, not the same as
full-time weekly rates of wages. Also, it is to be noted that these
per capita weekly earnings are not identical with the weekly earnings
which would be derived by multiplying the average hours of work
per week by the average hourly earnings, as given in the tables on
page 879, for the reason that the basic information from which the
latter tables are computed cover a smaller number of establishments.

I

PER CAPITA W E E K L Y EAR N IN G S IN SPECIFIED IN D U S T R IA L GROUPS, JAN U A R Y
1932, 1933, 1934, A N D 1935 A N D N O V E M B E R 1935
Janu­
ary
1932

Janu­
ary
1933

Janu­
ary
1934

Janu­ Novem­
ary
ber
1935
1935

Manufacturing________ , _____________________________________ $19.85
Trade:
Wholesale.............................. ............ ...........................................
28.95
Retail..................................... ............ ..........................................
22.43
General merchandising................... ....................................
21.07
Other than general merchandising...................................
25.53
Public utilities:
Telephone and telegraph.........................................................
28.99
Electric light and power and manufactured gas__________
31.17
Electric-railroad and motor-bus operation and main­
tenance________________________________________________
30.52
Mining:
Anthracite__________________ __________________ _ _ _ _ __ 23.44
Bituminous coal................................................. ......... ..............
15.05
Metalliferous_______________ __________________
18.66
Quarrying and nonmetallic__________________ _____ _____
16.64
Crude petroleum producing______________________________ 32.59
Services:
Hotels 1
_____________________________ ___________________
15.34
Laundries________ ______________________________________
17.42
Dyeing and cleaning.____ ______________________________
20.42
(3)
Banks____________________________________________ ____
(2)
Brokerage_______________________________________________
(2)
Insurance_______________ ________________________________
Building construction________________________________________
26.60

$16.62

$18.01

$19.99

$21.77

27.15
19.96
18.37
23.00

26.07
20.03
18.49
22.44

26.11
20.30
17.21

22.66

26.64
20.09
17.37
22.45

25.73
29.47

26.63
28.27

27.77
29.92

28.87
30.26

27.69

26.83

28.17

28.60

23.94
13.59
18.21
14.01
26.97

33.27
17.41
20.75
14.05
27.70

26.68
19.30
22.03
14.38
28.16

17.69
22.29
23.45
17.28
28.66

13.35
15.24
16.39
36.01
33.18
34.18
23.03

12.35
14.83
17.32
31.47
35.57
35.62
21.98

13.48
15.12
17.55
31.47
34.77
35.49
22.77

13.71
15.63
17.90
31.56
35.15
36.03
24.63

Industry

1 Cash payments only, value of board, room, and tips cannot be computed.
* Not available.




A IR TRANSPORTATION

883

Wages and Hours in Various Industries and Trades
A ir T ra n s p o rta tio n — H o u rs and E a rn in g s, 1933

STUD Y of the hours and earnings of commercial air transporta­
tion in the United States in July 1933 was made by the Bureau
of Labor Statistics in cooperation with the Federal Coordinator of
Transportation. Wage data were collected from 15 transportation
companies serving 156 cities in 43 States and the District of Columbia.
These companies employed 3,609 males and 207 females, or approxi­
mately 96 percent of the total number of workers employed in the in­
dustry during the month studied. A similar study was made in
October 1931. More detailed data for 1933 are given in the monthly
Labor Review for March 1934 (p. 647).
The studies were limited to pilots and copilots operating heavierthan-air machines on scheduled mail and passenger routes and to the
ground personnel employed at the various airports along the routes.
The ground personnel assisted pilots and copilots in the operation of
the machines and also repaired the machines. Employees engaged
in the operation of sightseeing, crop-dusting, mapping and surveying,
and flying-instruction machines, and those employed as supervisors
and office workers were not included.
Average hours and earnings for pilots are presented in table 1 by
geographic districts. The districts and the States included in each
are as follows:

A

North Atlantic District.— Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York,
New Jersey, and Pennsylvania.
East North Central District.— Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin.
West North Central District.— Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, North Dakota,
South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas.
South Atlantic District.— Maryland, District of Columbia, Virginia, North
Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida.
South Central District.— Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas,
Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas.
Western District.— Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, Mexico, Arizona,
Utah, Nevada, Washington, Oregon, and California.

It was found necessary to obtain wage figures for the flight personnel
(pilots and copilots) for a period of an entire month because of the
many interruptions to the maintenance of flight schedules.
Maximum full-time flight-hours of pilots are regulated by the United
States Department of Commerce. A pilot employed in interstate
passenger air-transport service may not be on flight duty more than
110 hours in any one month, nor more than 30 hours in any 7-day
period, nor more than 8 hours in any 24-hour period. He must also
be granted a rest period of at least 24 consecutive hours within each
7-day period. Certain exceptions, however, are allowed when neces­
sary to the maintenance of reasonable schedules.




884

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

T a ble 1 . —F U LL -T IM E A N D A C T U A L FLIGHT-HOURS OF PILOTS, M IL E A G E F LO W N ,
A N D EAR N IN G S PER FLIG H T-H O U R , PER M IL E , A N D PER M O N T H , B Y D IST R IC T
Fifteen commercial air transport companies, United States, October 1931 and July 1933
[All averages are weighted by number of local units]
Average hours
Actu­
ally

Average earnings
age
dis­ Percent
of ac­
tance,
tual
Actual
Per
mile­
Per
to full flightin 1
age
mile
time
month
hour
in 1
month

Full­
time
flighthours

in 1
month

1931
1933

110.0
109.0

80.4
85.3

0)
9,815

73.1
78.3

$7.084
7.361

0)
$0.064

$569.49
628.23

1931
1933
1931
1933
West North Central................................ 1931
1933
South Atlantic.......................................... 1931
1933
South Central........................................... 1931
1933
Western...................................................... 1931
1933

110.0
110.0
110.0
110.0
110.0
110.0
110.0
110.0
110.0
107.5
110.0
107.3

84.1
91.9
79.4
84.5
78.4
86.0
85.8
92.6
86.7
89.3
76.2
78.4

0)
10,394
0)
9,777
0)
9,854
0)
9,098
0)
9,746
0)
9,849

76.5
83.5
72.2
76.8
71.3
78.2
78.0
84.2
78.8
83.1
69.3
73.0

7.284
7.563
6.929
7.641
6.906
6.820
7.199
6.201
5.565
6.388
8.066
8.385

0)
.067
(l)
.066
0)
.060
0)
.063
0)
.059
0)
.067

612.87
695.24
550.22
645.70
541.47
586.66
617.84
574.27
482.45
570.55
614.86
657.00

District

All districts...............................................

Year

North Atlantic.........................................

East North Central.................................

i Not available.

Copilots hold a United States Department of Commerce license and
are qualified to operate the controls of the plane when called on to
relieve the pilot. On planes equipped with radio they must also have
a radio operator’s license permitting them to maintain communica­
tion by radio with ground stations. On long flights they often act
as stewards, when a stewardess or hostess is not part of the crew,
serving meals en route and providing for the comfort of the passengers.
Table 2 shows, for the copilots covered in each geographic district
and in all districts combined, average days and hours worked per
month and average earnings per month and per hour for the years
1931 and 1933. Average earnings shown are for their work both as
copilots and as acting pilots. Figures are not shown for the South
Atlantic District in 1931, as flying in that district was from base ports
in adjacent districts where data for them are shown.
T a ble 2 .—A V E R A G E D A Y S A N D HOURS W O R K E D B Y COPILOTS A N D E A R N IN G S FOR
R EG U LA R A N D A D D IT IO N A L W O R K , 1931 A N D 1933, B Y D IST R IC T
Average full time in 1 month

District

Days

1931

Hours

1933

1931

1933

Total earnings
Average in 1
month

Average per
hour

1931

1931

1933

1933

All districts.... .......................................

21.2

20.0

170.0

124.9 $227.89 $231.13

$1.341

$1,851

North Atlantic......................................
East North Central.............................
West North Central............................
South Atlantic......................................
South Central.......................................
Western................................................

19.8
20.3
21.3
0)
22.4
22.8

22.5
20.6
19.8
(2
)
(2
)
19.3

158.4
162.0
170.5
0)
179.1
182.7

159.3
128.3
129.8
(2
)
(2
)
114.1

256.01
210.29
198.16
0)
215.77
254.32

1.616
1.298
1.162
0)
1.205
1.392

1.653
1.790
1.523

i Data included in that for adjacent districts.
* Data included in totals but not given separately to avoid identification.




263. 31
229.78
197. 72
(2
)
(2
)
238.19

8
2.088

ANTHBACITE

885

m in in g

Table 3 shows average full-time and credited hours and earnings in
1 week, the percent of full time worked in the week, and average
earnings per hour, for each of the important occupations of the ground
personnel, and also for the groups designated as “ Other employees.”
The data in this table are for 1 week in October 1931 and for 1 week
in July 1933 and do not include figures for pilots and copilots. Figures
by occupation are for men only, because of the small number of
woman wage earners in any one occupation. Women were employed
as traffic agents, clerks, stenographers, dispatchers, and in the groups
of other employees, skilled and unskilled. For definitions of all occu­
pations see Bulletin No. 575 (p. 34).
T able 3 .—A V ER AG E HOURS A N D EAR N IN G S IN SPECIFIED OCCUPATIONS OF TH E
GR OUND PER SONNEL, 1931 A N D 1933

Occupation

Average
full-time
hours per
week

Hours credited in
1 week
Average
number

1931 1933 1931 1933

Percent of
full time
1931

1933

Average
earnings
per hour

1931

1933

Average
full-time
earnings per
week

Average
actual
earnings in
1 week

1931

1931

1933

1933

All
ground-personnel
employees:
Males.......................... 48.5 49.8 49.5 49.8 102.1 100.0 $0,645 $0.611 $31.26 $30.44 $31.89 $30.44
.457 23.85 21.48 23.85 21.39
Females...................... 48.0 47.0 48.0 46.8 100.0 99.7
.497
Males and females... 48.5 49.7 49.4 49.7 101.9 100.0
.606 31.05 30.15 31.66 30.15
.640
Agents, traffic, male.......
Chauffeurs, male.............
Clerks and stenograph­
ers, male.........................
Crew chiefs, male______
Dispatchers, male...........
Inspectors, male......... .
Janitors, male...................
Machinists and toolmakers, male................
Mechanics, airplane, li­
censed, male..................
Mechanics, engine, li­
censed, male..................
Mechanics, airplane and
engine, licensed, male.
Mechanics, airplane and
engine, not licensed,
male................................
Mechanics, chief, male..
Mechanics’ helpers, li­
censed, male..................
Mechanics’ helpers, not
licensed, male...............
Porters, male....................
Radio mechanics, male—
Radio operators, male—
Stock clerks, male...........
Other ground-personnel
employees, s k ille d ,

48.0 48.8 47.8 48.7 99.6
48.3 49.2 48.7 49.1 100.8
48.2
48.7
47.9
48.0
53.0

48.4
49.2
61.8
50.8
49.3

48.2
50.1
47.9
49.6
53.2

48.7
50.2
51.8
50.8
49.2

100.0
103.0
100.0
103.0
100.4

99.9
99.7

.629
.558

.571
.466

30.17
26.93

27.86
22.93

30.07 27.78
27.14 22.89

100.6
102.7
100.0
100.0
99.9

.551
.902
.592
.945
.362

.576
.780
.488
.719
.358

26.54
43.91
28.37
45.37
19.21

27.88
38.38
25.31
36.51
17.65

26.54
45.17
28.37
46.87
19.27

28.05
39.42
25.31
36.51
17.64

47.2 49.1 63.5 49.8 113.3 101.4

.754

.693

35.58

34.03

40.36 34.49

47.8 49.4 51.7 50.7 108.2 102.7

.734

.684

35.08

33.79

37.92 34.72

48.0 49.4 49.6 50.4 103.3 102.0

.742

.676

35.61

33.39

36.83 34.04

48.4 49.9 49.5 50.4 102.3 100.9

.747

.699

36.16

34.88

37.01 35.19

47.9 50.0 50.0 49.1 104.4 98.1
48.0 49.4 48.5 49.7 101.0 100.6

.641
1.069

.557
.991

30.68
51. 30

27.85
48.96

31.74 27. 33
51.86 49.20

47.7 48.9 49.6 49.0 104.0 100.2

.523

26.20

25.57

27.24 25.63

98.4
100.0
101.3
100.0
101.3

.441
.240
.688
.712
.557

.422
.230
.644
.645
.494

21.39
11.54
33.01
34.49
26.70

21.18
11.98
32.20
32.51
24.85

22.08
11.54
32.97
34.49
27.10

48.0 49.3 48.0 49.0 100.0
Other ground-personnel
employees, unskilled,
male................................

.649

103.1
100.0
99.8
100.0
101.5

99.5

.817

.776

39.19

38.26

39.19 38.05

51.3 49.4 52.0 49.7 101.4 100.7

.384

.374

19.72

18.48

19.98 18.60

48.5
48.2
48.0
48.4
47.9

50.2
52.0
50.0
50.4
50.3

50.0
48.2
47.9
48.4
48.6

49.4
52.0
50.6
50.4
50.9

20.82
11.98
32.60
32.51
25.14

A n th ra c ite M in in g — H o u rs and E a rn in g s, 1931
T h is article presents summary figures of average hours and earnings
in anthracite mining in Pennsylvania, as shown in the survey made
by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1931, with comparative data from
the preceding surveys made in 1922 and 1924. More detailed data
were published in the Monthly Labor Review for April 1932 (p. 896).




886

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

Table 1 shows the average working time and average earnings foi
all employees, and also for the inside and outside employees separately,
for each of the years 1922, 1924, and 1931. Inside work includes the
work of wage earners in all underground occupations and outside work
includes that of wage earners in all surface occupations.
T able 1.—A V E R A G E N U M B E R OF STARTS (D AYS), A N D A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E A R N ­
INGS OF A L L W A G E E A R N E R S CO VER ED A T A N T H R A C IT E M IN E S , 1922, 1924, A N D
1931, B Y CLASS OF W O R K

Aver­
age
Class of work

All occupations, inside and outside (including
miners and miners’ laborers, inside)................

Inside work—all occupations (including miners
and miners’ laborers)..........................................
Outside work—all occupations.......................... ..

Year

Average hours
worked

ber of
starts
(days)
worked In half
in half month
month

Per
start
or
day

Average earnings

In half
month

Per
start
or
day

Per
hour,
exclud­
ing
time for
lunch

1922
1924
1931

11.8
11.2
10.9

91.3
87.5
85.4

7.8
7.8
7.8

$68.71
75.01
70.36

$5.84
6.70
6.45

$0.753
.857
.824

1922
1924
1931
1922
1924
1931

11.4
10.9
10.7
13.0
12.3
12.1

84.4
80.7
80.7
115.0
109.4
106.7

7.4
7.4
7.6
8.9
8.9
8.8

70.74
77.95
71.47
61.69
65.45
65.28

6.20
7.18
6.71
4.75
5.32
5.41

.835
*.966
.888
.536
.598
.612

In the 1931 survey the basic data were secured from 47 collieries
for a half-monthly pay-roll period in the month of October. The
figures cover 42,689 employees, or 28.3 percent of the 150,804 mine
workers reported by the United States Bureau of Mines as engaged
in the mining of anthracite in Pennsylvania in 1930. Of these 42,689,
35,000, or 82 percent, were underground or “ inside” wage earners.
The remaining 7,689 were surface or “ outside” employees, though a
few of them may at times have worked underground.
The group of employees classified as miners and miners’ laborers
includes contract miners, consideration miners, company miners, and
their respective laborers. They mine the coal and load it into mine
cars or perform duties incident to mining and loading. Most of the
contract miners and their laborers are paid by the ton, while consid­
eration miners and company miners and their laborers are paid by
the hour, day, or week.
In number of employees, earnings, and actual performance, contract
mining forms the basic occupation in anthracite mining. The 12,294
employees in this occupation constituted a little less than 29 percent
of the 42,689 employees covered in 1931. Contract miners were
found in each of the 47 collieries.
The average time consumed per day in going from the shaft or
other opening of the mine to the place of work and return (obtained
for each colliery included in the study) ranged from 10 minutes to 1 %
hours. The weighted average travel time for the 19,980 contract
miners and contract miners’ laborers covered was 42 minutes per
day, or 21 minutes each way. In the collieries studied, the contract
miners and their laborers had no regular time for dinner or lunch but
ate while waiting for empty mine cars or while idle for any other reason.




887

ANTHRACITE MINING

The weighted average time taken for dinner or lunch, based upon
estimates by mine officials, was a fraction less than 30 minutes per
day.
From the foregoing explanation it may be seen that the hours of
contract miners and contract miners’ laborers, as reported by the
various collieries covered in the study, were not on a uniform basis.
In order to show average earnings per hour for all employees in
these occupations on a common basis, it was necessary to compute
for each employee of each colliery: (1) Time at the face, excluding
time for lunch, (2) time at face, including time for lunch, and (3) total
time in colliery.
Table 2 shows for the anthracite region in Pennsylvania as a whole,
for 1924 and 1931, average hours worked and average earnings made
by employees in each of the six classes which make up the group of
miners and miners’ laborers. For the employees in the four time­
work occupations shown—company and consideration miners and
their laborers—the rates per day and per week were reduped to an
hourly basis and the weighted average rates per hour, which are
rates for time actually worked, are also presented.
T a b le 3 .—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D EA R N IN G S OF M IN E R S A N D M IN E R S ’ L AB O R ER S,
1924 A N D 1931, B Y O CCUPATIO N
Average hours

Occupation

All miners and min­
ers’ laborers:
1924................. .
1931......................
Miners’ laborers:
Company:
1924........ — .
1931........— .
Consideration:
1924...............
1931________
Contract:
1924...............
1931________
Total:
1924........
1931........
Miners:
Company:
1924...............
1931________
Consideration:
1924...............
1931...............
Contract:
1924...............
1931...............
Total:
1924
1931........




Average earnings

Aver­
In half month,
Per start, based
Per hour, based
age
on—
on—
based on—
rate of
wages
per
Time at
Time at
Time at
hour
face
face
face
In half Per
at face
month start
ex­
(day)
Time
Tim e
T im e clud­
in
in
in
ing
Ex­
Ex­
Ex­
In­
In­
In­
mine clud­ clud­ mine lunch clud­ clud­ mine
clud­ clud­
ing
ing
ing
ing
ing
ing
lunch lunch
lunch lunch
lunch lunch

71.7
74.5

76.9
79.7

84.1
87.0

6.8
7.2

7.3
7.6

8.0
8.4

84.1
80.9

89.4
85.9

96.5
93.3

8.2
8.1

8.7
8.6

9.4 $0.686
9.3
.680

.696
.685

.655
.646

.607
.594

58.57
55.46

5. 72
5. 55

86.1
88.2

91.4 97.7
93.7 101.4

8.1
8.0

8.6
8.5

9.2
9.2

.767
.745

.722
.702

.676
.649

65.98
65.77

6. 21
5.95

67.3
71.4

72.4
76.3

79.1
82.8

6.7
7.3

7.2
7.8

7.8
8.4

.971
.833

.903
.779

.826
.718

65.39
59.48

6.47
6.05

71.9
74.0

77.1
79.0

83.8
85.7

7.1
7.4

7.6
7.9

8.2
8.6

.892
.803

.833
.752

.765
.693

64.17
59.43

6.31
5. 97

84.5
84.1

89.8
89.3

96.7
97.0

8.2
8.0

8.7
8.5

9.3
9.3

.757
.747

.795
.769

.747
.724

.694
.666

67.15
64.62

6.49
6.16

84.7
90.5

90.1 96.3
96.1 104.5

7.8
7.9

8.3
8.4

8.9
9.1

.861
.843

.933
.871

.876
.820

.820
.755

78.99
78.87

7.26
6.88

68.5
72.6

73.9
77.8

81.4
85.6

6.3
6.8

6.8
7.3

7.5
8.0

1.432
1.180

1. 327
1.101

1.204
1.000

98.07
85.62

9. 07
8.00

71.5
74.8

76.9
80.1

84.2'
87.9

6.6
7.0

7.1
7.5

7.8
8.2

1. 302
1.109

1.211
1.036

1.105
.944

93.10
82.97

8. 65
7.73

..........

.765
.745

$1.142 $1,063 $0,973 $81.82
.987
.924
.845 73.57

$7. 77
7.06

888

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

Table 3 shows for the anthracite region as a whole, for 1924 and
1931, the average number of starts (days) and hours worked, and av­
erage earnings of employees in each occupation inside and outside
the colliery, other than miners and miners’ laborers.
The inside workers include 13 occupations and a miscellaneous
group designated as “ other employees” , with a total of 10,471 em­
ployees in the 47 collieries covered in the 1931 study. The outside
workers include 18 occupations and the miscellaneous group of “ other
employees ” , with a total of 7,689 employees at the 47 collieries
covered in 1931, as compared with 10,464 at 56 collieries in 1924.
The decrease in number of outside workers from 1924 to 1931 was due
chiefly to the installation of improved preparation machinery and the
centralization of breakers. All occupations, inside and outside com­
bined, other than miners and miners’ laborers, comprise a total of
18,160 employees in the 47 collieries covered in 1931, as compared
with 20,785 in the 56 collieries in 1924.
T a b l e 3 .-A V E R A G E N U M B E R OF STAR TS (D A YS OR PARTS OF D AYS) A N D A V E R A G E
HOURS A N D EA R N IN G S OF A L L E M P LO Y E E S O T H ER T H A N M IN E R S A N D M IN E R S ’
LABORERS, 1924 A N D 1931, B Y O CCUPATION

All occupations, inside and
outside work----------------Inside work............... .........
Bratticemen_________
Car runners---------------Door tenders (boys).__
Drivers................... .......
Engineers------------------Headmen and foot­
men (shaft, slope,
and drift)__________
Laborers_____________
Masons______________
Motormen___________
Motor brakemen_____
Pumpmen____ _______
Timbermen__________
Trackmen......................
Other employees_____
Outside work............ .
Ashmen_____________
________
Blacksmiths 1
Carpenters____ ______
Car runners__________
Dumpers.................. .
Engineers............. .........
Firemen_____________
Headmen (shaft, slope,
and drift)____ _____
Jig runners____ _____—
Laborers............... .........
Loaders_____ ________
Machinists *__________
Oilers______ _________
Platemen......................
Repairmen.,-........ .......
Slaters (boys)...... .........
Timber cutters.........
Trackmen___________
Other employees_____

Average actual hours
worked—

1924 1931

Occupation

Average
number
of starts
(days)
worked
in half
month

1924

In half
month

1931

Per start
(day)

1924 1931

Average earnings—

In half
month

1924

1924

1931

Per hour at
face exclud­
ing lunch
1924

1931

12.0 11.6 105.5 100.1

8.8

8.6 $67.23 $66.02 $5.62 $5.70 $0.637 $0.660

11.6
11.5
11.5
11.4
11.3
12.7

11.2 101.6
11.8 97.2
10.6 100.6
10.6 93.5
11.0 97.8
11.6 112.5

95.2
98.8
91.0
86.6
91.3
98.3

8.8
8.4
8.7
8.2
8.6
8.8

8.5
8.3
8.6
8.1
8.3
8.5

69.03
68.87
65.25
35.64
61.83
77.93

66.57
71.01
57.87
33.06
58.84
67.41

5.95
5.99
5.66
3.13
5.46
6.13

5.94
6.00
5. 47
3.11
5.37
5.81

.679
.709
.649
.381
.632
.692

.700
.719
.636
.382
.645
.686

11.5
11.1
12.1
11.4
11.2
14.8
10.9
12.0
12.0
12.3
14.4
12.1
12.3
10.9
12.0
14.2
14.7

11.3
11.1
11.7
11.3
10.9
14.7
11.0
11.4
11.1
12.1
14.7
11.7
12.5
10.9
11.7
14.1
14.9

107.2
95.0
98.9
107.2
99.9
126.9
90.1
104.5
106.8
109.4
124.3
109.3
109.0
97.2
108.0
122.7
123.6

102.0
91.6
95.4
102.2
94.8
123.7
90.6
95.1
93.8
106.7
125.0
104.0
110.1
94.8
106.1
119.5
123.0

9.3
8.6
8.2
9.4
9.0
8.6
8.2
8.7
8.9
8.9
8.6
9.1
8.9
8.9
9.0
8.6
8.4

9.0
8.2
8.1
9.0
8.7
8.4
8.2
8.4
8.5
8.8
8.5
8.9
8.8
8.7
9.1
8.5
8.3

71.41
63.05
72.04
75. 32
63. 87
87. 52
69. 75
77.39
80.43
65. 45
73.73
82.11
78.53
56.75
63.24
87.71
80.66

67.96
60.47
67.31
71. 63
60. 71
85.89
67.13
70.38
72.52
65.28
73. 22
77.80
78.60
55.13
62. 35
87.92
81. 56

6.20
5.68
5.96
6. 60
5. 72
5. 90
6. 38
6. 47
6.70
5. 32
5.11
6.80
6. 40
5.19
5.28
6.17
5.50

5.99
5.44
5. 73
6. 33
5. 55
5.84
6.09
6.19
6.54
5.41
4.97
6.65
6.31
5.05
5.35
6.24
5.48

.666
.664
.728
.703
.639
.690
.774
.741
.753
.598
.593
.751
.720
.584
.586
.715
.653

.667
.660
.706
.701
.641
.694
.741
.740
.773
.612
.586
.748
.714
.582
.588
.735
.663

12.1
11.9
12.0
11.7
13.2
11.8
11.1
11.9
11.6
11.4
11.2
12.7

11.9
11.3
11.5
11.1
12.3
11.7
10.9
12.8
10.7
11.6
12.4
12.5

112.4
114.5
109.3
104.4
122.7
112.8
96.1
105.9
96.2
96.7
100.7
113.6

111.2
114.0
101.7
98.3
113.2
114.3
96.9
123.3
88.7
97.7
105.2

9.3 9.4
9.6 10.1
9.1 8.8
8.9 8.8
9.3 9.2
9.5 9.8
8.6 8.9
8.9 9.6
8.3 8.3
8.5 8.4
9.0 8.5
8.9 9.0

67.29
65.50
63.10
61.01
87.49
65.64
54. 37
66.86
35.68
58.47
61. 77
71.47

65.68
66.12
58.91
57.18
80.44
67.41
56.28
80.48
32.83
58.14
63.49
71.60

5. 57
5. 51
5.24
5.20
6.61
5.55
4.89
5. 61
3.08
5.15
5.49
5.63

5.52
5.87
5.11
5.14
6.51
5.77
6.18
6.27
3.06
5.02
5.12
5.74

.599
.672
.577
.584
.713
.582
.566
.631
.371
.605
.613
.629

.598
.581
.570
.589
.710
.592
.585
.653
.371
.594
.600
.631

112 .2

These employees frequently work underground, usually at same rate.




1931

Per start
(day)

889

W AGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

B a k in g In d u s try — E a rn in g s and H o u rs , 1933 and 1934
T h e Bureau of Labor Statistics made a survey of the baking
industry at the request of the National Recovery Administration, to
determine the character of the distribution of earnings in the in­
dustry and the effects of the N. R. A. code provisions, especially
with reference to weekly hours. The survey covered a pay-roll
period in March 1933, in September 1933, and in December 1934.
Reports were received from 250 establishments with 16,480 em­
ployees in the latter part of March 1933, taken as representative
of conditions at the lowest level in the depression; from 256 estab­
lishments with 18,782 employees in the latter half of September
1933, reflecting conditions after a month of operation under the
President’s Reemployment Agreement; and from 259 establishments
with 20,962 employees in December 1934, representative of conditions
during the operation of the bakery code, which became effective on
July 19, 1934. Detailed data were published in the December 1935
issue of the Monthly Labor Review.
Average Hourly Earnings
T h e average hourly earnings for March and September 1933 and
December 1934, as well as the percentages of change between these
months, by region, sex, and size of city, are shown in table 1.
T able 1 .—AVE R A G E H O U R L Y EAR N IN G S IN TH E B A K IN G IN D U S T R Y , B Y SIZE OF
C IT Y , REG IO N , A N D S E X , IN SEL EC T ED PERIODS
Average hourly earnings
Region, sex, and population of city
March
1933

Percentage change

March
Septem­ Decem­
to
ber
ber
September
1934
1933
1933

September
1933 to
December
1934

March
1933 to
December
1934

N o rth

Males:
260.000 population and over.................. $0,507
.425
60.000 and under 250,000 population __
Under 60,000 population........................
.403

$0,657
.466
.473

$0,608
.515
.500

+ 9 .9
+ 9 .6
+17.4

+ 9 .2
+10.6
+ 5 .7

+19.9
+21.2
+24.1
+ 20.2

T otal_.................................... .............

.491

.540

.590

+10.0

+ 9 .3

Females:
250.000 population and o v e r ................
50.000 and under 250,000 population . .
Under 50,000 population........................

.333
.278
(9

.374
.317
0)

.399
.364
0)

0)

+12.3
+14.0

+ 6 .7
+14.8
0)

Total......................................................

.321

.364

.392

+13.4

+ 7 .7

+22.1

Males:
250.000 population and over.................
50.000 and under 250,000 population . .
Under 50,000 population........................

.358
.365
.325

.433
.445
.395

.460
.472
.417

+20.9
+21.9
+21.5

+ 6 .2
+ 6 .1
+ 5 .6

+28.5
+29.3
+28.3

+19.8
+30.9

0)

South

Total. ...................................................

.360

.436

.462

+21.1

+ 6 .0

+28.3

Females:
250.000 population and over.................
50.000 and under 250,000 population ._
Under 50,000 population.......................

.259
.223
0)

.317
.304
0)

.338
.314
0)

+22.4
+36.3
0)

+ 6 .6
+ 3 .3
(0

+30.5
+40.8
0)

Total......................................................

.240

.311

.325

+29.6

+ 4 .5

+35.4

i Not enough workers to justify the computation of an average.




890

W AGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

Average Weekly Hours
A long with an increase in average hourly earnings there was a
pronounced reduction in average weekly hours in the industry be­
tween March 1933 and December 1934. This decline was 8.4 hours
for males in the North, 10.6 hours for males in the South, 5.4 hours
for females in the North, and 4.8 hours for females in the South.
The average weekly hours for March and September 1933 and
December 1934, together with the percentage changes between these
months, appear in table 2.
T ab le 3 .—A V E R A G E W E E K L Y HOURS IN T H E B A K IN G IN D U S T R Y , B Y R EG IO N A N D
S E X , IN SE L E C T E D PERIODS
Average weekly hours
Region and sex

Percentage of change

Sep­ Decem­ March to September March 1933
March
ber
September 1933 to De­ to Decem­
tember
1933
1934
1933
cember 1934 ber 1934
1933

North:
Males i—...................................................
Females.....................................................
South:
Males i......................................................
Females.....................................................

48.0
42.8

42.6
39.6

39.6
37.4

-1 1 .2
- 7 .5

- 7 .0
- 5 .6

-1 7 .6
-1 2 .6

60.5
43.0

43.2
40.0

39.9
38.2

-1 4 .5
- 7 .0

-7 .6
-4 .5

-2 1 .0
-1 1 .2

1 Excluding driver-salesmen.

Average Weekly Earnings

I n v ie w of the fact that reductions in average weekly hours ac­
companied increases in average hourly earnings, the average weekly
earnings per employee changed only slightly. Table 3 presents the
average weekly earnings for March and September 1933 and Decem­
ber 1934, as well as the percentages of change between these months.
T a b le 3 .—A V E R A G E W E E K L Y EA R N IN G S IN T H E B A K IN G IN D U S T R Y , B Y R EG IO N
A N D S E X , IN SE L E C T E D PERIODS
Average weekly earnings
Region and sex

Percentage of change

March to
Sep­
March tember Decem­ September September March 1933
ber
1933 to De­ to Decem­
1933
1933
1934
1933
cember 1934 ber 1934

North:
Males.........................................................
Females...................................................
South:
Males.........................................................
Females.....................................................

$24.88
13.75

$25.12
14.40

$26.03
14.66

+ 1 .0
+ 4 .7

+ 3 .6
+ 1 .8

+ 4 .6
+ 6 .6

19.29
10.32

20.74
12.44

20.92
12.38

+ 7 .5
+20.5

+ .9
-.5

+ 8 .4
+ 2 0 .0

Occupational Differentials
N e it h e r the President's Reemployment Agreement nor the code
contained any provision establishing or maintaining specific differen­
tials among the various occupations in the industry. However,
provision was made for the readjustment of the hourly rates above
the minimum, in order to compensate in the weekly earnings for the
reduction of hours, thus increasing the average hourly earnings of the
higher paid workers. The changes in the differentials in average




891

BAKING INDUSTRY

hourly earnings brought about, however, were so slight that changes
in the differentials in weekly earnings are to be accounted for chiefly
by changes in the differentials in hours.
The differentials in average weekly earnings which existed between
occupations, classified by skill, in March and September 1933 and
December 1934, can be determined from an analysis of the average
weekly earnings shown in table 4.
T able 4 .—A V ER AG E W E E K L Y EAR N IN G S IN BROAD O CC U PATIO N AL GROUPINGS IN
TH E B A K IN G IN D U S T R Y , B Y R EGION A N D SE X , IN SELECTED PERIODS
Average weekly earnings

Percentage of change

Septem­
ber 1933

Decem­
ber 1934

March
to Sep­
tember
1933

Septem­
ber 1933
to De­
cember
1934

$26.19
17.87
17.94

$25.35
17.87
17.88

$25.84
18.18
18.09

—3.2
.0
-.3

+ 1 .9
+ 1 .7
+ 1 .2

- 1 .3
+ 1 .7
+ .8

27.47
25.60

30.09
25.02

32.96
25.30

+ 9 .5
—2.3

+ 9 .5
+ 1 .1

+20.0
- 1 .2

10.96
15.13

11.95
15.81

12.53
16.16

+ 9 .0
+ 4 .5

+ 4 .9
+ 2 .2

+14.3
+ 6 .8

20.64
11.92
12.12

21.26
13.60
13.81

20.65
14.25
14.15

+ 3 .0
+14.1
+13.9

- 2 .9
+ 4 .8
+ 2 .5

+. 4
+19.5
+16.7

22.80
19.27

27.93
19.63

28.13
19.72

+22.5
+ 1 .9

+ .7
+ .5

+23.4
+ 2 .3

8.10
11.18

11.28
13.00

11.04
13.25

+39.3
+16.3

- 2 .1
+ 1 .9

+36.3
+18.5

Region, sex, and occupational group
March
1933

March
1933 to
Decem­
ber 1934

N o rth

Males:
Direct labor:
Skilled............. — ............................
Semiskilled............ ........... — .........
Unskilled................. ................... —
Indirect labor:
Driver-salesmen-------------------------Other...............................................
Females:
Direct labor, unskilled........ .................
Indirect labor........................................ _
Sou th

Males:
Direct labor:
Skilled................................................
Semiskilled.......................................
Unskilled...........................................
Indirect labor:
Driver-salesmen................ — .........
Other.................................................
Females:
Direct labor, unskilled..........................
Indirect labor..........................................

Handcraft, Semihandcraft, and Mechanical Shops
T h e substitute provision of the President’s Reemployment Agree­
ment relating to maximum hours provided for a 44-hour week in
mechanical shops and a 50-hour week in handcraft shops. The code
set up a maximum of 48 hours for “ handcraft” shops and 40 hours for
“ other than handcraft” shops. In view of the industry’s contention
that a new class, referred to as “ semihandcraft” shops, should be
established with a maximum week of 44 hours, it is important to see
what changes occurred in the average weekly hours for the three types
of shops during the period under consideration. These data, classified
by region, appear in table 5.




892

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

T a ble 5 .—A V E R A G E W E E K L Y HOURS OF M A L E S IN T H E B A K IN G IN D U S T R Y B Y
D E G R E E OF M E C H A N IZ A T IO N A N D R EG IO N , FOR S E L E C T E D PERIODS i
Average weekly hours
Region and degree of mechanization

North:
Handcraft......... ......................................
Semihandcraft..........................................
Mechanical__________________________
South:
Handcraft.................................................
Semihandcraft...........................— .........
Mechanical____________ _____________

Percentage of change

De­
March to
Sep­
March tember
cember September
1933
19341
1933
1933

September
1933 to
December
1934

March
1933 to
December
1934

50.7
47.2
46.5

48.4
43.3
41.0

44.9
40.8
37.4

- 4 .5
- 8 .3
-1 1 .8

-7 .2
- 5 .8

-1 1 .4
-1 3 .6
-1 9 .6

44.6
52.3
49.8

44.4
45.3
42.4

44.1
38.7
38.7

-.4
-1 3 .4
-1 4 .9

-14.6
-8 .7

-.7

-26.0
-22.3

-8 .8

- 1 .1

1 Includes only males engaged in direct labor. There were not enough females in northern handcraft
shops or in southern handcraft and semihandcraft shops to justify the computation of an average. For
this reason only the figures for males are given.
2 Of the 259 establishments in the December 1934 sample, 39 were handcraft shops, 43 conformed to the
proposed definition of semihandcraft shops, and 177 (with 19,132 of the 20,962 workers) were mechanical
shops. The large proportion of mechanical bakeries is due to the fact that most of the handcraft and semihandcraft shops are small units which are difficult to schedule because of lack of adequate records. The
baking industry is one in which the small unit still predominates, evidenced by the fact that in 1933 the
average number of employees per establishment was approximately 12 (Bureau of Census estimates, 1933).

Unionism in the Baking Industry
U nionism is an important factor in the baking industry, and the sam­
ple selected was chosen with a view to its being properly representative
of both union and nonunion establishments. An establishment was
classified as “ union” or “ nonunion” on the basis of whether or not it
had a contract with the Bakery and Confectionery Workers* Inter­
national Union of America. There were few union establishments
among those studied in the South, but in the North 59 of the 196
bakeries included in the sample had union contracts.
For all but unskilled workers, who are largely unorganized in both
types of shop, hours were shorter, and hourly and weekly earnings
were higher, in union than in nonunion shops. Table 6 gives the
average weekly earnings of male employees in the North by union
and nonunion shops and by degree of skill for the three pay-roll
periods.
T a ble 6.—A V E R A G E W E E K L Y E A R N IN G S OF M A L E S E N G A G E D IN D IR E C T LABO R IN

T H E B A K IN G IN D U S T R Y , IN U N IO N A N D N O N U N IO N SHOPS, B Y D E G R E E OF SKILL,
IN SEL ECT ED PERIODS
Average weekly
earnings

Percentage of change

Degree of skill
March to September March 1933
Sep­
March
tember Decem­ September 1933 to De­ to Decem­
ber 1934
1933
cember 1934 ber 1934
1933
1933
Union shops:
Skilled....................................................... $31.59
Semiskilled...............................................
18.97
17.79
Unskilled........ .........................................

$29.77
18.89
17.44

$29.98
19.65
17.75

- 5 .8
-.4
- 2 .0

+ 0 .7
+ 4 .0
+ 1 .8

- 5 .1
+ 3 .6
-.2

Total......................................................

25.89

24.69

24.96

- 4 .6

+ 1 .1

- 3 .6

Nonunion shops:
Skilled.......................................................
Semiskilled.......... - ..................................
Unskilled..................................................

23.81
17.51
18.04

23.51
17.60
18.01

24.02
17.78
18.19

- 1 .3
+ .5
-.2

+ 2 .2
+ 1 .0
+ 1 .0

+ .9
+ 1 .6
+ .8

Total......................................................

20.73

20.42

20.64

- 1 .5

+ 1 .1

-.4




WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

893

B itu m in o u s -C o a l M in in g — H o u rs a n d E a rn in g s , 1931 a n d 1933
S t u d ie s by the Bureau of Labor Statistics of wages and hours of
labor in the bituminous-coal mining industry in the United States
were made in 1931 and 1933, and summary figures for average days,
hours, and earnings shown therein are presented in this article. The
basic material was collected from representative coal mines in 11
States for a 2-week or half-monthly pay period in January or Febru­
ary, and covers 137,788 wage earners in 469 mines in 1931 and 120,334 wage earners in 444 mines in 1933. Detailed data of the 1933
study are published in Bulletin No. 601 of the Bureau.
The 1933 wage figures are for 26.7 percent of the 450,213 mine
workers reported by the United States Bureau of Mines as engaged
in the mining of bituminous coal in 1931; in the 11 States covered by
this study they represent 29.7 percent of those in the industry in 1931,
Of the 120,334 mine workers included in the report, 107,463 or 89.3
percent were underground or “ inside” employees. The remaining
12,871 are known as surface or “ outside” employees, though a few
of them may at times work underground.
The three basic occupations in bituminous-coal mining are those
of hand or pick miners, machine miners (and their helpers), and hand
loaders. They represent 63.7 percent of all wage earners covered in
the study of the industry in 1933. The wage earners in these occu­
pations are usually paid a rate per ton of 2,000 pounds, run of mine
(that is, of coal as mined, including “ slack” ).
Miners and loaders cut or dig and blast the coal from the seam and
load it into mine cars or onto moving conveyors. The conveyors
carry the coal from the face to mine cars for transfer from the mine.
The time taken for lunch was^ usually about 30 minutes, except in
some mechanized mines where it was estimated that the men con­
sumed 15 to 20 minutes for lunch while waiting for mine cars. The
round-trip travel time in the different mines ranged from 10 minutes
to 2 hours. The weighted average time of travel in the mine, from
the opening to the place of work and return, for the 78,896 miners
and loaders in the 444 mines covered in the 1933 study was 54 minutes
per day, or 27 minutes each way.
Table 1 shows for each State and for all States combined, for 1931
and 1933, the average number of days and hours worked and average
earnings made in a half month by employees in each of the seven
occupations of miners and loaders and by all miners and loaders.
For Kentucky, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia averages for 1933
are also shown by State subdivisions. In 1931 no separate tabula­
tion by State subdivisions was made. All averages are weighted
averages.




894

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

T a ble 1.—-AVERAGE N U M B E R OF STAR TS (DAYS) A N D A V E R A G E HOURS A N D
E A R N IN G S OF M IN E R S A N D LOADERS, 1931 A N D 1933, B Y O CCUPATION
[Data are for wage earners who are usually paid tonnage rates]
A v e r a g e h ou rs-

A v er­
age
O c c u p a t io n a n d S ta te

L o a d e r s , c o n t r a c t ( h a n d ) ____
A l a b a m a ..................................
K e n t u c k y _________ ________
P e n n s y lv a n ia _____________
T e n n e s s e e ............................
V i r g i n ia .....................................
W e s t V i r g i n ia ............ ...........
L o a d e r s , h a n d ..........- ...................
A l a b a m a ..................................
C o l o r a d o ..................................
I ll i n o i s .......................................
I n d i a n a ------------------- ---------K a n s a s .......................................
K e n t u c k y ................................
E a s t e r n ........ ...................
W e s t e r n ...........................
O h i o ......................— ...............
P e n n s y lv a n ia - .....................
C e n t r a l-----------------------W e s t e r n ______________
T e n n e s s e e .- ..........- ...............
V i r g i n ia ..........— - .................
W e s t V i r g i n ia .......................
N o r t h e r n _____________
.
S o u t h e r n _____________
L o a d e r s , m a c h i n e _____________
A l a b a m a .............. ...................
I ll i n o i s .......................................
I n d i a n a - - ................................
K e n t u c k y ................................
E a s t e r n - . .......................
W e s t e r n ...........................
O h i o ............................................
P e n n s y lv a n ia ...... .................
C e n t r a l.............................
W e s t e r n ...........................
V i r g i n ia ....................................
W e s t V i r g i n ia .......................

See footnotes at end of table.




Y ear

1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
i 1933
1931
2 1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
3 1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1933
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1933
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1933
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1933
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1933
1933
1931
1933
1931
>1933

I n h a lf
m on th
based on —

A v e r a g e e a r n in g s —

P e r sta rt
based on —

P er hour
based on —

starts
(d a y s )
T im e
i n h a lf T i m e
at
at
m o n th
fa c e , T i m e fa ce , T i m e
in ­
in
in
in ­
c l u d ­ m in e c l u d ­ m in e
in g
in g
lu n c h
lu n c h

7 .3
8 .7
6 .9
6 .6
7 .4
9 .5
1 0 .0
10 .0
7 .0
7 .3
11 .0
10.8
7 .5
1 0 .2
7 .0
7 .0
6 .1
5 .6
7 .5
6 .3
5 .6
5 .2
5 .2
7 .2
3 .9
8 .6
5 .7
7 .3
7 .0
8 .6
7 .2
8 .4
7 .8
7 .0
6 .7
7 .3
6 .0
6 .8
8 .9
8 .8
7 .4
7 .0
6 .2
7 .3
7 .4
6 .7
5 .1
3 .9
8 .2
7 .8
9 .5
9 .3
7 .2
7 .7

(<)
8 .8
4 .7
1 3 .0
6 .6
4 .8
4 .6
1 1 .8
8 .0
1 1 .5

10.1
8.4

6 2 .2
7 0 .7
6 0 .1
5 2 .1
5 8 .5
7 4 .3
9 4 .5
102.0
5 1 .9
6 2 .3
8 8 .3
9 1 .7
7 2 .0
8 3 .1
5 6 .0
5 5 .8
5 1 .2
4 8 .7
6 0 .3
4 7 .9
4 6 .2
4 3 .4
3 9 .7
5 9 .0
3 2 .5
6 0 .0
4 5 .1
5 9 .2
5 5 .8
7 0 .0
5 5 .9
6 3 .2
6 2 .0
5 6 .7
5 4 .5
5 8 .1
5 0 .0
5 4 .4
6 7 .2
72 .4
6 0 .3
5 5 .1
4 5 .0
5 8 .5
6 3 .2
5 6 .7
4 6 .2
3 8 .8
6 8 .5
6 6 .6
7 6 .5
7 6 .7
6 4 .6
6 5 .2

6 8 .5
7 8 .3
6 6 .8
5 8 .0
6 4 .2
8 3 .6
104.5
112.0
5 8 .9
6 7 .0
9 3 .8
9 7 .4
7 7 .0
9 1 .7
6 1 .5
6 1 .8
5 6 .7
5 3 .8
6 5 .2
5 1 .7
5 0 .3
4 7 .5
4 2 .9
6 4 .6
3 3 .8
6 5 .7
4 9 .6
6 4 .9
6 1 .5
7 5 .6
6 1 .3
7 1 .5
6 8 .4
6 2 .9
6 0 .6
6 4 .4
5 3 .9
5 9 .2
7 3 .2
8 0 .1
66 .1
61 .1
5 1 .3
6 4 .3
6 7 .7
6 1 .2
5 1 .3
4 1 .4
7 3 .5
7 2 .3
7 9 .8
8 2 .0
6 8 .6
7 0 .2

7 4 .4
4 3 .4
114.1
5 2 .1
3 8 .3
3 7 .3
9 6 .5
9 0 .3
110.8
112.5
8 1 .0

7 8 .8
4 8 .7
127.1
5 5 .9
4 1 .7
4 0 .5
108.3
9 9 .6
121.1
119.7
8 5 .4

(*)

(4
)

8 .6
8 .1
8 .7
7 .9
7 .9
7 .8
9 .5
1 0 .2
7 .4
8 .6
8 .0
8 .5
9 .5
8 .1
8 .0
8 .0
8 .4
8 .7
8 .0
7 .5
8 .2
8 .3
7 .6
8 .2
8 .4
7 .0
8 .0
8 .1
8 .0
8 .2
7 .2
7 .5
7 .9
8 .1
8 .2
8 .0
8 .3
8 .1
7 .6
8 .2
8 .2
7 .9
7 .2
8 .0
8 .5
8 .5
9 .0
10.0
8 .4
8 .5
8 .0
8 .3
9 .0
8 .5

(4
)

8 .5
9 .2
8 .8
8 .0
8 .0
8 .0
8 .2
11 .3
9 .6
1 1 .2
9 .6

9 .4
9 .0
9 .6
8 .8
8 .7
8 .8
1 0 .5
1 1 .2
8 .4
9 .2
8 .5
9 .0
1 0 .2
9 .0
8 .8
8 .8
9 .3
9 .7
8 .7
8 .1
8 .9
9 .1
8 .2
9 .0
8 .8
7 .6
8 .8
8 .8
8 .8
8 .8
7 .8
8 .5
8 .7
8 .9
9 .1
8 .8
8 .9
8 .8
8 .3
9 .1
9 .0
8 .7
8 .2
8 .8
9 .1
9 .1
1 0 .0
1 0 .6
9 .0
9 .3
8 .4
8 .8
9 .5
9 .2

(*)

9 .0
10 .3
9 .8
8 .5
8 .7
8 .7
9 .2
1 2 .4
1 0 .5
1 1 .9

10.1

T im e
a t fa ce,
i n c lu d ­
in g
lu n ch

$0.744
.5 1 9
.5 8 2
.4 3 5
1.001
.4 4 8
2 .0 4 5
.7 6 5
.4 6 3
.5 8 9
.6 7 8
.5 5 9
1.121
.6 2 4
.5 6 1
.3 6 9
.3 7 6
.2 4 5
.7 3 1
.5 6 7
.8 7 1
.6 1 1
.9 3 9
.6 3 1
.6 3 6
.3 2 7
.5 3 8
.3 4 8
.3 6 6
.3 0 2
.4 8 2
.3 3 1
.5 3 4
.3 2 9
.3 6 4
.3 0 6
.3 6 2
.3 0 0
.4 9 4
.2 9 2
.5 3 3
.3 6 2
.3 5 5
.3 6 3
.8 5 5
.6 5 6
.4 6 9
.2 4 1
1.177
.8 2 0
1.053
.8 1 7
.8 5 4
.3 1 5
W
.2 7 5
.6 9 0
.5 4 8
.6 7 9
.4 9 7
.4 9 9
.4 5 6
.6 2 1
.4 3 3
.5 9 9
.3 9 7

I n h a lf
m on th

Per
s ta r t
(d a y )

$0.676
.4 6 8
.5 2 4
.3 9 1
.9 1 1
.3 9 8
1.849
.6 9 7
.4 0 8
.5 4 8
.6 3 8
.5 2 7
1.049
.5 6 5
.5 1 1
.3 3 3
.3 4 0
.2 2 2
.6 7 6
.5 2 5
.8 0 0
.5 5 8
.8 6 9
.5 7 7
.6 1 2
.2 9 9
.4 8 9
.3 1 7
.3 3 2
.2 7 9
.4 4 0
.2 9 3
.4 8 5
.2 9 6
.3 2 8
.2 7 7
.3 3 5
.2 7 5
.4 5 4
.2 6 4
.4 8 6
.3 2 6
.3 1 2
.3 3 0
.7 9 8
.6 0 8
.4 2 2
.2 2 6
1.096
.7 5 6
1.010
.7 6 4
.8 0 4
.2 9 2

$ 4 6 .2 7
3 6 .6 6
3 5 .0 2
2 2 .6 7
58. 50
33. 27
193.21
78 .0 0
2 4 .04
3 6 .7 0
5 9 .8 7
5 1 .2 9
8 0 .7 4
5 1 .8 2
3 1 .4 0
2 0 .5 8
1 9 .28
11.93
4 4 .0 4
2 7 .1 2
4 0 .2 2
2 6 .5 0
3 7 .3 0
3 7 .2 8
2 0 .7 0
19.63
24. 26
2 0 .5 7
2 0 .4 0
21.11
26 .9 5
2 0 .9 3
3 3 .1 5
18. 63
19.86
17.81
18.06
16.29
3 3 .2 3
2 1 .1 2
3 2 .16
19.93
16.00
2 1 .2 5
5 4 .03
3 7 .2 0
2 1 .65
9 .3 5
8 0 .6 9
5 4 .66
8 0 .5 3
6 2 .6 7
5 5 .1 8
2 0 .53

$ 6 .3 7
4 .2 0
5 .0 5
3 .4 5
7 .9 3
3 .5 1
19.32
7 .8 0
3 .4 3
5 .0 5
5 .4 4
4 .7 4
10.70
5 .0 7
4 .4 9
2 .9 4
3 .1 7
2 .1 4
5 .8 6
4 .2 7
7 .1 2
5 .0 6
7 .1 5
5 .1 7
5 .3 7
2 .2 8
4 .2 8
2 .8 0
2 .9 3
2 .4 7
3. 75
2 .5 0
4 .2 3
2. 65
2 .9 8
2 .4 5
2 .9 9
2 .4 1
3. 75
2 .3 9
4 .3 6
2 .8 4
2. 57
2 .9 2
7. 27
5. 55
4. 21
2 .4 0
9 .8 5
7 .0 1
8 .4 3
6 .7 5
7 .6 6
2 .6 8

.2 6 0
.6 1 5
.4 9 2
.6 3 2
.4 5 7
.4 5 9
.4 0 6
.5 6 3
.3 9 6
.5 6 3
.3 7 6

2 0 .4 6
2 9 .9 5
6 2 .5 6
3 5 .3 8
19.04
18.61
4 3 .9 9
6 6 .0 6
4 7 .9 2
6 7 .3 8

2 .3 4
6 .3 4
4 .8 1
5 .4 0
3 .9 9
4 .0 0
3 .7 4
7 .0 1
4 .1 7

T im e
in
m in e

(*)

(*)

32.14

(*)

6.68
3.81

895

BITUMINOUS-COAL MINING
T a ble

1.—A V E R A G E N U M B E R OF STAR TS (DAYS) A N D A V E R A G E HOURS A N D
EAR NINGS OF M IN E R S A N D LOADERS, 1931 A N D 1933, B Y O O O U P A T IO N -C on .

[Data are for wage earners who are usually paid tonnage rates]
Average hours—

Occupation and State

Miners, gang........................ —
Colorado............................
Illinois................................
Indiana--..........................
Kentucky..........................
Eastern--...................
Western......................
Ohio................... ..............Pennsylvania---------------West Virginia____ _____
Miners, hand or pick----------Alabama............................
Colorado................. ..........
Illinois.........................—
Indiana - - ..........................
Kansas................. - .......... Kentucky..........................
Pennsylvania......... ..........
Central........................
Western------------------Tennessee........ - .......... .
Virginia____ ___________
West Virginia...................
Northern___________
Southern....................
Miners, machine (cutters)—.
Alabama............................
Colorado............................
Illinois................................
Indiana..............................
Kansas...............................
Kentucky..........................
Eastern.......................
Western......................
Ohio....................................
Pennsylvania....................
Central........................
Western......................
Tennessee..........................
Virginia..............................

See footnotes at end of table.




Year

1931
1933
1933
1931
1933
1933
1931
1933
1933
1933
1931
1933
1931
2 1933
5 1931
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
U933
1931
1933
1933
1933
1931
1933
6 1933
1931
1933
1933
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1933
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1933
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933

In half
month
Aver­ based on—
age
starts
(days)
in half Time
at
month
face, Time
in­
in
clud­ mine
ing
lunch
9.9 84.0 91.8
7.9 65.7 72.3
6.6 60.8 54.6
9.6 78.6 84.6
6.6 55.2 59.7
8.2 63.4 67.5
7.3 66.3 70.9
8.2 72.5 79.3
8.9 80.4 88.2
6.3 53.4 57.6
14.0 119.0 123.7
9.1 76.6 89.6
10.6 91.6 101.7
8.6 71.8 79.8
4.0 34.0 38.0
6.8 54.0 69.2
7.3 59.2 65.6
6.6 49.1 64.2
4.5 40.5 44.3
4.2 35.0 38.4
4.9 38.4 41.6
6.9 54.2 58.2
10.1 82.4 91.1
6.6 32.5 34.9
10.4 66.6 72.6
6.1 39.9 41.9
4.1 30.6 32.4
6.4 53.6 59.5
6.0 48.1 51.7
7.7 61.3 68.2
8.0 66.1 74.5
8.3 68.6 78.0
7.1 59.6 65.2
7.7 64.8 68.6
7.2 55.3 59.1
7.0 65.4 68.9
7.1 56.3 61.6
7.6 59.8 64.9
11.0 78.5 84.0
7.3 58.1 63.2
7.7 65.2 71.0
7.7 65.0 71.3
6.7 63.9 70.0
6.7 53.3 68.5
8.4 68.5 73.5
7.2 56.8 61.2
6.0 49.8 53.9
6.0 50.3 54.9
7.0 55.3 68.8
8.9 73.4 79.0
4.0 34.0 35.3
8.2 ,66.6 72.1
6.3 54.3 68.9
8.2 70.2 75.9
7.6 64.3 69.9
9.8 82.6 88.7
8.3 66.0 72.3
9.6 79.0 88.5
8.7 73.0 80.0
7.6 62.4 68.9
7.4 61.3 67.9
7.7 63.0 69.6
7.4 68.6 75.9
6.9 55.5 59.9
9.2 85.9 92.0
9.4 87.4 95.7

Per start
based on—

.

Average earnings—

Per hour
based on—

Time
Time
at
face, Time at face,
in­
in
includ­
ing
clud­ mine
lunch
ing
lunch

Time
in
mine

$0,774
.483
.597
.916
.668
.706
.584
.477
.502
.386
.960
.364
.643
.354
1.299
.589
.376
.463
.239
.664
.537
.705
.509
.856
.668
.615
.397
.541
.319
.560
.340
.346
.323
.368
.278
.210
.606
.364
.354
.365
.940
.626
.880
.500
1. I ll
.898
1.167
.808
1.200
.852
.808
.609
.873
.548
.599
.463
.704
.547
.918
.570
.546
.582
.539
.460
.733
.472

$0,709
.439
.556
.852
.618
.663
.546
.436
.458
.358
.923
.311
.678
.318
1.162
.537
.339
.419
.219
.607
.496
.656
.460
.798
.613
.586
.375
.488
.297
.503
.302
.304
.295
.348
.260
.200
.554
.335
.330
.335
.864
.571
.803
.456
1.034
.834
1.079
.741
1.129
.791
.777
.563
.805
.606
.551
.431
.642
.489
.837
.516
.493
.628
.487
.426
.684
.431

8.5
8.3
7.7
8.2
8.4
7.7
9.0
8.9
9.0
8.5
8.5
8.5
8.7
8.4
8.5
7.9
8.1
8.8
8.9
8.3
7.9
7.9
8.1
5.8
6.4
7.9
7.4
8.4
8.1
7.9
8.3
8.2
8.4
8.4
7.7
9.3
8.0
7.8
7.1
7.9
8.5
8.6
9.5
9.4
8.1
7.9
8.3
8.4
7.9
8.3
8.5
8.1
8.6
8.5
8.6
8.4
8.0
8.2
8.4
8.2
8.3
8.2
9.3
9.3
9.4
9.3

9.2
9.1
8.3
8.8
9.1
8.2
9.7
9.7
9.9
9.2
8.8
9.9
9.7
9.3
9.5
8.7
8.9
9.7
9.7
9.1
8.6
8.4
9.0
6.2
7.0
8.3
7.8
9.3
8.7
8.8
9.3
9.4
9.1
8.9
8.2
9.8
8.7
8.5
7.6
8.6
9.3
9.3
10.4
10.3
8.7
8.5
9.0
9.1
8.4
8.9
8.8
8.8
9.4
9.2
9.3
9.1
8.7
9.2
9.2
9.1
9.2
9.0
10.3
10.1
10.0
10.2

Per
In half start
month (day)

$65.05
31.76
30.33
72.04
36.92
44.78
38.66
34.59
40.35
20.60
114.20
27.89
58.84
25.40
44.15
31.83
22.25
22.71
9.68
23.27
20.64
38.17
41.90
27.84
44.49
24.54
12.15
29.00
15.36
34.30
22.50
23.72
19.23
23.87
15.38
13.77
34.12
21.74
27.76
21.20
61.32
40.68
56.24
26.65
76.02
50.99
58.16
40.68
66.37
62.48
27.46
40.58
47.38
38.41
38.50
38.21
46.45
43.26
67.01
35.55
33.49
36.68
36.96
25.52
62.92
41.25

$6.55
4.01
4.61
7.47
5.62
5.47
5.27
4.24
4.51
3.28
8.16
3.08
5.60
2.96
11.04
4.67
3.03
4.06
2.13
5.52
4.24
5.53
4.13
4.95
4.26
4.84
2.93
4.64
2.58
4.44
2.81
2.85
2.70
3.11
2.15
1.96
4.83
2.85
2.51
2.90
8.01
5.29
8.37
4.68
9.05
7.13
9.66
6.77
9.49
7.03
6.87
4.95
7.53
4.66
5.13
3.90
5.62
4.51
7.67
4.68
4.53
4.76
5.00
4.29
6.85
4.40

896

WAGES AND HOURS OP LABOR

T able 1.—A V E R A G E N U M B E R OF ST AR TS (D A YS) A N D A V E R A G E HOURS A N D
E A R N IN G S OF M IN E R S A N D L O A D E R S, 1931 A N D 1933, B Y O CCUPATION— Con.
[Data are for wage earners who are usually paid tonnage rates]

Average earnings—

Average hours-

.

In half
month
based on—

Occupation and State

Miners, machine (cutters)—
Continued.
West Virginia..................
Northern...................
Southern...................
Miners, machine (cutters)
helpers....................................
Alabama............................

Colorado..........................
Kansas.............................
Kentucky........................
Eastern.....................
Western.....................
Ohio.................................
Pennsylvania..................
Central......................
Western.....................
Tennessee........................
Virginia...........................
West Virginia........... ......
Northern...................
Southern...................
Total, miners and loaders_
_
Alabama______________
Colorado--------------------Illinois_____ ____ ______
Indiana...........................
Kansas............ ...............
Kentucky................. ......
Eastern.....................
Western....................
Ohio.......................... — Pennsylvania--------------Central......................
Western.......... - ........
Tennessee........................
Virginia...........................
West Virginia..................
Northern...................
Southern...................

Year

Per hour
Per start
based on—
based on—
Aver­
age
starts
Time
(days) Time
Time
at Time at
in half
face, Time at face, Time
month face,
in
in
in includ­
in­
in­
ing
clud­ mine
clud­
mine
lunch
ing
ing
lunch
lunch

1931
1933
1933
1933

8.4
7.9
6.9
8.4

76.3
69.9
56.2
75.6

82.8
76.6
62.8
82.2

1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1933
1933
«1931
1931
1933
1933
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1933
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1933
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1933
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1933
1933

6.7
7.6
6.7
6.4
6.1
6.9
3.7
8.4
6.7
8.6
8.2
9.1
5.4
6.1
6.7
5.6
8.4
6.5
6.5
8.5
8.9
7.4
6.6
7.8
6.5
7.0
7.1
6.0
5.4
6.2
5.8
6.1
6.0
5.6
8.1
5.0
5.1
5.8
7.3
6.9
8.7
7.3
8.5
7.9
7.3
7.3
7.3
6.7
6.9
8.9

62.8
66.8
61.9
61.1
50.0
56.2
31.5
67.5
59.0
76.8
77.0
76.7
45.9
55.7
53.3
43.7
67.0
61.3
59.9
89.8
92.8
76.4
57.6
49.0
58.1
56.5
57.2
51.8
47.5
50.3
44.4
49.4
49.3
39.9
63.6
39.4
37.1
47.0
59.6
56.1
71.5
56.9
64.9
62.5
59.1
59.6
58.7
56.0
56.0
69.1
73.4
61.2
56.5
46.7
69.5

68.3
72.8
68.5
66.8
56.1
60.5
32.7
73.1
64.2
83.8
84.3
83.3
48.6
61.6
59.5
50.0
73.0
65.7
65.1
94.9
99.1
82.5
62.3
64.7
62.2
61.9
63.2
57.3
62.3
54.5
47.9
53.6
54.0
42.8
69.1
41.3
39.7
51.6
65.2
61.6
77.2
62.3
73.3
69.0
65.8
66.8
64.9

8 .8

7.4
7.1
6.4
7.3

ea 0

69.5
75.1
81.0
67.0
62.4
53.0
65.4

Per
In half start
month (day)

9.9
9.6
9.1
9.8

$0,964
.631
.652
.625

$0,887
.577
.583
.575

$73.49
44.15
36.64
47.23

$8.78
5.55
5.32
5.63

9.3 10.1
9.7
8.9
9.3 10.3
9.6 10.5
9.2
8.2
8.1
8.7
8.5
8.8
8.0
8.7
8.8
9.6
8.9
9.7
9.4 10.3
8.4
9.2
9.0
8.5
9.1 10.1
7.9
8.8
8.9
7.8
8.7
8.0
9.4 10.1
9.3 10.1
10.6 11.2
10.4 11.1
10.3 11.1
8.8
9.5
6.3
8.3
9.0
9.6
8.0
8.8
8.0
8.9
8.6
9.5
8.8
9.7
8.1
8.8
7.7
8.3
8.1
8.8
9.1
8.3
7.1
7.6
7.8
8.5
7.9
8.3
7.3 i 7.8
8.1
8.9
8.1
8.9
8.1
8.9
8.2
8.9
7.8
8.6
7.6
8.6
8.0
8.8
8.1
9.0
8.2
9.2
8.0
8.9
8.4
9.0
8.6
8.0
7.8
8.5
9.2
8.3
8.2
9.0
7.9
8 .8
7.3
8.3

.608
.433
.555
.364
.866
.619
.743
.509
.614
.431
.419
.442
.529
.818
.485
.497
.473
.382
.319
.555
.404
.583
.446
1.107
.412
.599
.395
.431
.262
.740
.574
.869
.622
.956
.691
.617
.387
.569
.366
.381
.327
.506
.353
.567
.348
.367
.330
.372
.301
.515
.305
.572
.383

.559
.397
.501
.333
.773
.575
.715
.470
.563
.395
.383
.407
.500
.740
.434
.434
.434
.357
.294
.525
.379
.539
.412
.838
.385
.546
.357
.389
.238
.682
.531
.802
.568
.890
.636
.589
.362
.518
.334
.346
.303
.462
.313
.513
.313
.327
.298
.347
.279
.474
.277
.522
.347

38.17
28.89
34.34
22.22
43.35
34.76
23.35
34.39
36.20
33.12
32.27
33.90
24.30
45.57
25.84
21.72
31.69
23.43
19.11
49.84
37.56
44.53
25.68
54.22
23.92
33.82
22.59
22.32
12.45
37.19
25.46
42.94
30.68
38.12
43.95
24.33
14.37
26.74
21.80
21.34
23.37
28.79
22.93
35.45
20.58
21.89
19.36
20.82
16.56
35.59
22.42
34.96
21.66
17.87
22.84

5.66
3.84
5.16
3.48
7.09
5.00
6.31
4.08
5.40
3.83
3.95
3.74
4.50
7.48
3.83
3.89
3.78
3.60
2.95
5.87
4.21
6.00
3.91
6.92
3.69
4.82
3.18
3.69
2.31
6.00
4.41
7.05
5.15
6.77
5.41
4.88
2.83
4.60
2.97
3.08
2.69
3.96
2.69
4. 51
2.83
3.02
2.65
3.12
2.40
4.01
2.54
4.72
3.04
2. 79
3.11

9.1
8.8
8.1
9.0

8.1

8.9

.382
.384

.337

.349

i All wage earners in this occupation in this year were in eastern Kentucky; in 1931 no separate tabulation
was made by State subdivision.
1 All wage earners in this occupation in this year were in central Pennsylvania; in 1931 no separate tabu­
lation was made by State subdivision.
1 All wage earners in this occupation in this year were in southern West Virginia; in 1931 no separate
tabulation was made by State subdivision.
» No wage earners reported for this occupation in 1933.
* Data included in total.
6 No wage earners reported for this occupation in 1931.




897

BITUMINOUS-COAL MINING

Table 2 presents for 1931 and 1933 average days, hours, and earn­
ings for 9 of the important inside and 4 of the important outside occu­
pations in the industry, and also for 2 groups of other employees
in which the wage earners are usually paid time rates. Average days
and hours per half month were greater for engineers and pumpmen
than for any other occupation in the table because many of the wage
earners in these two occupations frequently work on Sunday and
may also work overtime during the week.
T a ble 2 .—A V ER AG E N U M B E R OF STARTS (DAYS OR PARTS OF D AYS) A N D A V E R A G E
HOURS A N D EA R N IN G S OF A L L W A G E E AR N ER S O T H ER T H A N M IN E R S A N D
LOADERS, 1931-33, B Y O CC UPATION
[Data are for wage earners who are usually paid time rates]
Average Average hours (exclud­
ing time for lunch)—
number
of starts
(days) in
In half
half
Per start
month
month
(day)

Occupation

1931 1933
All occupations, inside
and outside work............. 8.3

1931

1933

1931 1933

Average earnings—

In half
month
1931

1933

Per start
(day)
1931

1933

Per hour

1931

1933

8.0

69.8

67.1

8.4

8.4 $41.58 $29.46 $5.02 $3.68 $0.595 $0.439

7.8
7.3

67.4
62.6

64.5
61.1

8.3
8.5

8.3
8.4

41.58
36.05

29.67
25.74

5.18
4.89

3.81
3.55

.621
.576

.460
.421

Blacksmiths

8.1 7.5
8.6 8.1
7.4 7.8
7.3 7.0
7.9 7.6
11.1 10.7
8.2 8.0
6.6 7.7
9.2 8.4
8.8 8.5
9.3 8.9

65.6
74.7
59.8
59.9
68.3
96.7
66.9
53.3
77.0
76.1
80.8

60.2
70.7
62.1
56.8
64.9
95.7
64.2
61.0
70.5
72.8
75.5

8.1
8.7
8.1
8.2
8.6
8.7
8.2
8.1
8.4
8.7
8.6

8.0
8.7
8.0
8.1
8.5
9.0
8.0
7.9
8.4
8.5
8.5

41.10
49.89
36.02
32.60
42.59
51.17
40.65
17.88
55.92
4R 89
52.47

28.27
85.39
28.07
22.42
29.70
36.28
28.62
15.64
38.33
29.00
36.06

Carpenters and car re­
pairmen......... ............
Engineers.......................
Laborers........................
Other employees_____

5.08
5.79
4.86
4.43
5.37
4.62
4.97
2.71
6.11
4.65
5.61

3.77
4.35
3.60
3.20
3.89
3.31
3.59
2.04
4.67
3.40
4.05

.626
.668
.602
.542
.624
.529
.608
.335
.726
.538
.650

.470
.500
.452
.395
.457
.369
.446
.257
.544
.399
.478

9.2 8.4 77.6 69.9
12.8 11.5 109.5 100.4
7.7 7.5 66.7 63.9
9.9 9.5 86.5 81.9

8.5
8.5
8.7
8.7

8.3
8.7
8.5
8.6

45.04
76.13
31.53
49.13

29.88
51.30
21.97
34.80

4.91
5.94
4.09
4.96

3.55
4.45
2.93
3.65

.581
.695
.473
.668

.427
.511
.344
.425

Inside work................. .........
Brakemen_____ ______
Bratticemen and timbermen.......................
Gagers............................
Drivers..................... .
Laborers........................
Motormen.....................
Pumpmen...................
Trackmen.....................
Trappers (boys)...........
Other employees..........
Outside work.......................

8.1
7.4

Table 3 shows for 1931 and 1933 average days, hours, and earnings
for the wage earners covered in each State and in all States combined
in all occupations found in the industry except miners and loaders;
that is, for the same occupations for which averages are shown in
table 2. It also shows 1933 averages for certain subdivisions of Ken­
tucky, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia. No separate tabulation by
State subdivisions was made in 1931.

1 92 0 5 — 36--------58




898

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

T a b l e 3 .—AVERAGE NUMBER OF STARTS (DAYS OR PARTS OF DAYS), HOURS AND
EARNINGS OF WAGE EARNERS OTHER THAN MINERS AND LOADERS, 1931 AND
1933, BY STATE OR SUBDIVISION

State or subdivision

Average Average hours (exclud­
ing time for lunch)—
number
of starts
(days) in
In half
Per start
half
month
(day)
month
1931 1933 1931

In half
month
1931

1933

Per start
(day)
1931

1933

Per hour

1931

1933

8.0

69.8

67.1

8.4

8.4 $41.58 $29.46 $5.02 $3.68 $0.695 $0.439

7.5 6.7
7.5 7.6
8.0 7.3
8.8 10.4
6.8 7.7
6.9 8.6
0) 8.0
0) 10.2
8.8 10.0
9.1 8.0
0) 8.4
0) 7.6
8.2 8.6
8.7 9.3
8.5 7.9
0) 7.1
8.0
0

64.0
62.6
65.4
69.4
55.7
58.5
0)
0)
71.4
77.3
0)
(0
66.6
76.5
72.9
<
*)
0)

51.4
63.6
60.0
83.3
63.1
72.5
68.0
85.2
81.2
66.0
73.4
60.7
71.2
82.6
66.7
55.7
69.1

8.6
8.3
8.2
7.9
8.2
8.4
0)
0)
8.2
8.5
(0
0)
8.1
8.8
8.6
0)
0)

9.0
8.3
8.2
8.0
8.2
8.5
8.5
8.3
8.1
8.3
8.7
8.0
8.3
8.9
8.5
7.9
8.6

All States....... ................... 8.3
Alabama.............................
Colorado.............................
Illinois................................
Indiana...............................
Kansas................................
Kentucky...........................
Eastern........................
Western.......................
Ohio....................................
Pennsylvania.....................
Central........................
Western.......................
Tennessee...........................
Virginia...................... ........
West Virginia.....................
Northern......................
Southern......................

1933 1931 1933

Average earnings—

25.74
48.63
51.59
64.31
35.94
31.26
0)
0)
38.88
47.18
0)
0)
26.13
34.56
38.83
0)
0)

14.43
35.46
36.65
51.44
31.19
26.47
25.52
29.14
32.49
28.48
33.47
24.99
22.75
26.90
25.51
20.97
26.51

3.45
6.45
6.45
6.18
5.31
4.50
0)
0)
4.44
5.20
0)
0)
3.19
3.96
4.57

C
1)
0)

2.52
4.64
5.03
4.96
4.03
3.09
3.20
2.85
3.24
3.57
3.99
3.27
2.66
2.89
3.25
2.97
3.30

.402
.777
.789
.783
.646
.534
0)
0)
.544
.610
0)
0)
.393
.452
.532
0)
0)

.281
.657
.611
.617
.494
.365
.375
.342
.400
.432
.455
.412
.320
.326
.383
.377
.384

1 Averages for subdivisions not shown separately for 1931.

B o o t and Shoe In d u s try — H o u rs and E a rn in g s, 1932
W a g e surveys of the boot and shoe industry in the United States
have been made by the Bureau of Labor Statistics at intervals of not
more than 2 years since 1910. The survey for 1932 covered 28,046
males and 21,620 females in 164 representative factories in the 16
States. According to the 1929 Census of Manufactures, approxi­
mately 97 percent of the wage earners in the industry are employed
in these 16 States, and the 1932 survey covered approximately 25
percent of the wage earners in those States.
The factories included in the 1932 survey were engaged mainly in
the manufacture of shoes for men, women, misses and girls, boys and
youths, and children, by the Goodyear welt, McKay, turn, or cement
method. No data were taken from any establishment of which the
principal product was nailed, pegged, or stitch-down shoes, or special­
ties such as slippers, leggings, felt or rubber footwear, tennis or other
athletic shoes, nor were data included for company officials, the office




899

BOOT AND SHOE INDUSTRY

force, superintendents, nonworking foremen, power-house employees,
watchmen, guards, teamsters, or chauffeurs. Detailed data of the
results of the survey are presented in Bulletin No. 579 of the Bureau.
Summaries of average hours and earnings for each of the surveys
from 1910 to 1932, and index numbers of average full-time hours and
earnings and earnings per hour, with the 1913 average as the base or
100, are presented in table 1.
T a b l e 1 . —AVE R A G E HOURS A N D EA R N IN G S IN T H E BOOT A N D SHOE IN D U S T R Y
A N D IN D E X N U M B E R S T H E R E O F , 1910-32, B Y Y E A R

Year

Selected occupations only:
1910................... - .......................
1911............................................
1912............................................
1913....... ....................................
19141.__:....................................
All occupations:
1914 i..........................................
1916............................................
1918............................................
1920............................................
1922................. ..........................
1924...........................................
1926............................................
1928............................................
1930............ ..................- ...........
1932............................................

Aver­
age
full­
time
hours
per
week

66.6
56.3
55.5
55.0
54.6
54.7
54.6
52.3
48.6
48.7
49.0
49.0
49.1
48.9
48.9

Index numbers
Hours actually
worked in 1
(1913-* 100.0)
Aver­ Aver­
week
Aver­ age
age
full­
age
earn­ time actual
Full­
earn­
Aver­ Percent ings earn­ ings Full­ Earn­ time
time
per
ings
in 1 hours ings earn­
age
per
per
num­ of full hour week week
ings
per
time
per
ber
week hour week

to
(*)
(»)
(s)

(a)
(2)
(1)
(1)
(2)
(a)
45.5
44.8
42.4
40.4

(3
)
0)
<
*)

to

<
*)
m

to
to

92.9
91.2
86.7
82.6

$0,286 $16.07
.292 16.37
.288 15.91
.311 17.08
.314 17.11
.243
.259
.336
.559
.501
.616
.528
.530
.510
.412

(*)
(’)

(a)
13.26
14.11
(3
)
17.54
(a)
26.97
24.45
to
(2)
25.28
25.87 $24.04
26.02 23.75
24.94 21.62
20.15 16.62

102.7
102.4
100.9
100.0
99.3

92.0
93.9
92.6
100.0
101.0

94.1
95.8
93.2
100.0
100.2

99.1
94.9
88.2
88.4
88.9
88.9
89.2
88.8
88.8

107.5
139.7
232.0
207.9
214.1
219.1
220.3
212.0
171.2

106.6
132.5
203.7
184.7
190.9
195.4
196.6
188.5
152.3

1 2 sets of averages are shown for this year, one for selected occupations and the other for all occupations,
in the industry. The 1910 to 1914 averages for selected occupations are oomparable 1 year with another
as are those for all occupations 1 year with another from 1914 to 1932.

3 Data not available.

Table 2 shows 1930 and 1932 average hours and earnings and
the percent of full time actually worked in the week, by departments,
for the wage earners of each sex in each of the important occupations
of the industry, for a group of “ Other employees ” , and for all occupa­
tions in the industry.
The figures in the table cover 82 occupations and the group of other
employees, including 37 in which data are shown for males only, 7
for females only, and 38 for each sex. Figures are also shown for
each sex separately in the group of other employees.




900

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

T a b l e 3 .—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S IN T H E BOOT A N D SHOE IN D U S T R Y
1930 A N D 1932, B Y O CCUPATION A N D S E X

Average
full-time
hours per
Department, occupation,
week
and sex

Hours actually
worked in 1 week
Average
number

1930 1932 1930 1932

Percent of
full time

Average
earnings
per hour

Average
full-time
earnings
per week

Average
actual
earnings
in 1 week

1930

1932

48.9 42.0 40.3

86.2

82.4 $0.796 $0,634 $38.77 $31.00 $33.46 $25.59

49.2 42.5 37.8

86.0

76.8

49.9 35.4 42.5

10.9

49.4 41.2 39.8

84.3

1930

1932

1930

1932

1930

1932

G utting departm ent

Cutters,
vamp
and
whole shoe, hand, male. 48.7
Cutters,
vamp
and
whole shoe, machine,
male................................ 49.4
Cutters,
vamp
and
whole shoe, machine,
female..... ............ .......... 49.9
Cutters, trimmings,
hand, male............. — 48.9
Cutters, trimmings,
hand, female................. 49.0
Cutters, trimmings,
machine, male------------ 50.3
Cutters, trimmings,
machine, female........... 49.0
Skivers, upper, male----- 48.3
Skivers, upper, female... 48.8
Cutters, linings, hand,
male................................ 48.6
Cutters, linings, hand,
female------------------------- 0)
Cutters, linings, ma­
chine, male.................... 49.2
Cutters, linings, ma­
chine, female................. 49.7

32.75

.663

.563

85.2

.506

.448

25.25

22.36

17.92

19.01

80.6

.509

.420

24.89

20.75

20.99

16.74

27.70

28.19

21.29

49.9 40.7 37.9

83.1

76.0

.405

.291

19.85

14.52

16.49

11.04

48.6 44.2 38.6

87.9

79.4

.467

.407

23.49

19.78

20.62

15.70

49.7 37.5 40.8
48.4 44.1 41.5
48.9 40.8 39.7

76.5
91.3
83.6

82.1
85.7
81.?

.411
.651
.447

.316
.537
.354

20.14
31.44
21.81

15.71
25.99
17.31

15.43
28.73
18.22

12.88
22.31
14.06

48.5 40.7 40.1

83.7

82.7

.630

.514

30.62

24.93

25.62

20.63

0)

63.2

0)

.297

0)

14.70

0)

9.27

49.3 44.7 41.3

90.9

83.8

.481

.423

23.67

20.85

21.50

17.45

49.9 39.1 44.3

78.7

88.8

.394

.327

19.58

16.32

15.39

14.48

48.8 44.6 36.2
49.0 45.4 36.1

91.8
92.7

74.2
73.7

.744
.608

.668
.511

36.16
29.79

32.60
27.98

33.16
27.57

24.17
20.60

49.5

0)

31.3

Sole-leather departm ent

Cutters, outsole, m ale... 48.6
Cutters, insole, male----- 49.0
Rounders, outsole and
insole, male................. 49.3
Channeled, outsole and
insole, male................... 49.3
Cutters, top and heel
lifts, machine, m ale.— 48.8
Heel builders, hand,
male...... ......................... 48.3
Heel builders, hand,
female....... ..................... 48.8
Heel builders, machine,
male................................ 50.0
Heel builders, machine,
female....... ..................... 48.8

49.5 42.9 41.3

87.0

83.4

.622

.509

30.66

25.20

26.65

21.01

49.3 42.6 39.8

86.4

80.7

.686

.550

33.82

27.12

29.22

21.89

48.5 40.6 32.3

83.2

66.6

.554

.494

27.04

23.96

22. 52

15.97

50.6 47.2 42.4

97.7

83.8

.541

.321

26.13

16.24

25.53

13.61

49.3 40.7 39.5

83.4

80.1

.424

.348

20.69

17.16

17.26

13.73

49.2 43.8 33.0

87.6

67.1

.483

.469

24.15

23.07

21.16

15.51

48.6 40.4 33.0

82.8

67.9

.418

.393

20.40

19.10

16.87

12.96

F ittin g a n d stitching
departm ent

Stampers, linings or up­
pers, male......................
Stampers, linings or up­
pers, female...................
Cementers and doublers,
hand and machine,
male— ...........................
Cementers and doublers,
hand and machine,
female.............................
Folders, hand and ma­
chine, male__________
Folders, hand and ma­
chine, female.................
Perforators, male.............
Perforators, female___ _
Tip stitchers, male..........
Tip stitchers, female____
Closers or seamers, male.
Closers or seamers, fe­
male................................
Seam rubbers, hand and
machine, m a le ............

50.4 50.2 44.4 46.2

88.1

92.0

.352

.287

17.74

14.41

15.63

13.23

48.8 48.7 41.5 41.0

85.0

84.2

.382

.314

18.64

15.29

15.83

12.88

47.7 46.0 46.5 45.9

97.5

99.8

.537

.440

25.61

20.24

24.93

20.20

48.9 48.9 41.7 41.6

85.3 85.1

.335

.247

16.38

12.08

13.96

10.26

44.7 44.3 47.2 49.0 105.6 110.6

1.036

.683

46.31

30.26

48.83

33.42

.388
.616
.430
0)
.432
0)

.313
.469
.343
.442
.356
.527

18.86
29.44
21.11
21.04
0)

15.27
22.75
18.77
21.75
17.30
24.61

16.20
28.45
17.36
0)
18.60
0)

12.91
20.11
14.10
19.39
13.20
19.62

41.3
42.9
41.1
43.9
37.1
37.2

86.0
96.7
82.1
0)
88.3
(0

84.6
88.5
84.0
89.2
76.3
79.7

49.0 48.8 41.7 41.1

85.1

84.2

.404

.331

19.80

16.15

16.84

13.58

47.4 47.9 44.1 41.7

93.0

87.1

.409

.370

19.39

17.72

18.05

15.45

48.6
47.8
49.1
0)
48.7
0)

48.8
48.5
48.9
49.2
48.6
46.7

41.8
46.2
40.3
0)
43.0
0)

’ No data shown for this occupation and sex in 1930




0)

901

BOOT AND SHOE INDUSTRY

T a ble 2 .—A V ER AG E HOURS A N D EA R N IN G S IN T H E BOOT A N D SHOE IN D U S T R Y ,
1930 A N D 1932, B Y O CCUPATION A N D S E X — Continued

Average
full-time
hours per
Department, occupation,
week
and sex

Hours actually
worked in 1 week
Average
number

1930 1932 1930 1932

Percent of
full time
1930

1932

Average
earnings
per hour

1930

1932

Average
full-time
earnings
per week

1930

1932

Average
actual
earnings
in 1 week

1930

1932

F ittin g a n d stitch in g
dep artm en t— Contd.

Seam rubbers, hand and
machine, female........... 49.4
Lining makers, male----- 47.5
Lining makers, female.. 48.8
Closers on, female............ 49.9
Top stitchers, male------- 47.2
Top stitchers, female----- 49.1
Binders, male................... 46.9
Binders, female................ 48.9
Buttonhole makers, fe­
male................................ 49.4
Button fasteners, female. 48.7
Eyeleters, m a le .............. 48.7
Eyeleters, female............. 49.4
Vampers, male................. 48.2
Vampers, female_______ 49.1
Barrers, female................. 49.5
Tongue stitchers, female. 49.0
Fancy stitchers, male.— 46.7
Fancy stitchers, female.. 49.1
Back-stay stitchers, fe­
male................................ 49.1
Table workers, male------ (0
Table workers, female... 48.4
Lacers, before lasting,
male................................ (0
Lacers, before lasting,
female..... ....................... 49.1

48.8
47.3
48.9
49.8
47.2
49.0
46.4
49.0

43.1
44.9
40.4
41.6
44.2
41.5
44.6
42.5

42.1
43.1
39.1
41.0
41.3
40.5
43.7
43.3

87.2 86.3 $0,333 $0,284 $16.45 $13.86 $14.37 $11.97
94.5 91.1
.716
.436 34.01 20.62 32.16 18.76
.310 19.28 15.16 15.96 12.11
82.8 80.0
.395
83.4 82.3
.340 18.26 16.93 15.23 13.94
.366
93.6 187.5
.603 37.15 28.46 34.80 24.87
.787
84.5 182.7
.338 20.57 16.56 17.41 13.68
.419
95.1 94.2
.670 41.98 31.09 39.97 29.29
.895
.358 21.47 17.54 18.67 15.50
86.9 88.4
.439

50.2
48.5
48.8
49.1
48.2
49.0
49.4
49.0
46.9
48.9

43.7
43.2
44.3
41.9
42.1
41.7
43.6
41.2
45.3
41.5

45.5
42.7
39.2
39.9
41.6
39.2
40.1
38.4
42.7
41.8

88.5
88.7
91.0
84.8
87.3
84.9
88.1
84.1
97.0
84.5

90.6
88.0
80.3
81.3
86.3
80.0
81.2
78.4
91.0
85.5

.390
.334
.503
.408
.672
.465
.395
.371
.834
.400

.331
.325
.451
.333
.569
.355
.326
.297
.692
.301

19.27
16.27
24.50
20.16
32.39
22.83
19.55
18.18
38.95
19.64

16.62
15.76
22.01
16.35
27.43
17.40
16.10
14.55
27.76
14.72

17.03
14.43
22.28
17.10
28.28
19.42
17.22
15.26
37.84
16.62

15.06
13.89
17.69
13.30
23.68
13.91
13.06
11.38
25.30
12.59

49.0 41.6 38.8
47.3
0) 39.2
48.4 41.2 41.5

84.7
0)
85.1

79.2
82.9
85.7

.393
0)
.314

.326
.324
.248

19.30
0)
15.20

15.97
15.33
12.00

16.34
0)
12.94

12.64
12.70
10.29

0)

89.8

0)

.351

0)

16.85

0)

15.10

49.1 42.1 39.5

85.7

80.4

.355

.291

17.43

14.29

14.96

11. 52

49.0 49.0 43.5 42.6

88.8

86.9

.465

.403

22.79

19.75

20.19

17.16

49.0 49.1 39.8 38.4

81.2

78.2

.568

.471

27.83

23.13

22.61

18.09

49.4 48.9 45.1 41.4
49.3 49.7 39.3 41.6

91.3
79.7

84.7
83.7

.452
.683

.339
.570

22.33
33.67

16.58
28.33

20.37
26.83

14.05
23. 71

49.1 49.1 41.0 39.5
49.3 46.1 39.6 36.9

83.5
80.3

80.4
80.0

.715
.637

.576
.559

35.11
31.40

28.28
25.77

29.30
25.23

22.77
20.66

49.0 48.6 41.9 40.4

85.5

83.1

.663

.629

32.49

25.71

27.78

21.35

49.1 49.1 42.1 40.4

85.7

82.3

.657

.515

32.26

25.29

27.71

20.78

49.4 50.1 40.0 41.9
46.5 46.4 46.0 43.5

81.0
98.9

83.6
93.8

.673
.780

.546
.546

33.25
36.27

27.35
25.33

26.93
35.90

22.89
23.79

47.5 0) 34.3
46.8 44.8 34.6
49.2 41.0 38.6
49.2
0) 36.7

(0
93.3
83.7
0)

72.2
73.9
78.5
74.6

0)
1.058
.415
0)

.684
.750
.352
.286

0)
60.78
20.34
0)

32.49
35.10
17.32
14.07

0)
47.39
17.05
0)

23.46
25.94
13.57
10.52

49.0 48.9 40.1 35.7

81.8

73.0

.820

.668

40.18

32.67

32.88

23.87

49.1 49.1 40.6 36.6

82.7

74.6

.524

.404

25.73

19.84

21.27

14.76

49.3 49.4 41.7 40.5

84.6

82.0

.445

.356

21.94

17.59

18.56

14.45

36.2

0)

73.1

0)

.280

0)

13.86

0)

10.14

48.0

(0

43.1

L a s tin g departm ent

Last pickers or sorters,
male................................
Assemblers, for pullingover machine, male—
Assemblers, for pullingover machine, female..
Pullers over, hand, male.
Pullers over, machine,
male...............................
Side lasters, hand, male
Side lasters, machine,
male............- ..................
Bed-machine operators,
male................................
Hand-method la stin g machine
operators,
male................................
Turn lasters, hand, male
Turn lasters, machine,
male................................
Turn sewers, male..........
Tack pullers, male..........
Tack pullers, female___

0)
48.0
49.0
0)

B o tto m in g departm ent

Goodyear welters, male.
Welt beaters and slash­
ers, male_____________
Bottom fillers, hand and
machine, male..............
Bottom fillers, hand and
machine, female...........
Roughers for cement,
male................................
Roughers for cement,
female ...........................
Sole cementers, hand
and machine, male___

49.6

(0

(2
)

49.7

(2
)

44.2

(2
)

88.9

(’)

.400

(i)

19.88

(2
)

17.66

(’)

48.8

(’)

48.9

(’)

100.2

(’)

.235

(2
)

11.47

0)

11.49

85.6

80.6

.425

.321

20.91

15.83

17.90

12.75

0)

49.2 49.3 42.1 39.7

1No data shown for this occupation and sex in 1930.
’ Included with “ Other employees” ia 1930.




902

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

T a b l e 2 , —A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S IN T H E BOOT A N D SHOE IN D U S T R Y
1930 A N D 1932, B Y O CCUPATION A N D S E X — Continued

Average
full-time
hours per
Department, occupation,
week
and sex

Hours actually
worked in 1 week
Average
number

1930 1932 1930 1932

Percent of
full time
1930

1932

Average
earnings
per hour

1930

1932

Average
full-time
earnings
per week

1930

1932

Average
actual
earnings
in 1 week

1930

1932

B o tto m in g dep artm en t—

Continued
Sole cementers, hand
and machine, female.. 49.1
Sole layers, hand and
machine, m a le ............ 49.2
Rough rounders, male— 49.1
Channel openers and
closers, m a le ................ 48.9
Channel openers and
closers, female............... 48.9
Goodyear stitchers, male. 49.1
M cKay sewers, male— 49.6
Sole attachers, cement,
male................................ (2
)
Stitch separators, male.. 49.1
Levelers, m a le ............... 49.1
Heelers, leather, m ale.— 49.2
Heelers, wood, male........ 48.4
Heel trimmers or shav­
ers, male........................ 49.2
Heel breasters, male....... 48.2
Edge trimmers, male— 49.1
Sluggers, male..... ............ 48.8

49.0 42.2 42.1

85.9

85.9 $0.368 $0,276 $18.07 $13.52 $15.55 $11. 60

49.1 41.0 37.3
49.2 40.2 35.7

83.3
81.9

76.0
72.6

.594
.751

.492
.602

49.2 41.8 38.2

85.5

77.6

.506

48.8 41.5 36.2
49.0 41.2 36.6
49.4 42.8 43.6

84.9
83.9
86.3

74.2
74.7
88.3

.417
.727
.684

29.22
36.87

24.16
29.62

24.38
30.16

18.35
21.51

.369

24.74

18.15

21.14

14.11

.374
.585
.560

20.39
35.70
33.93

18.25
28.67
27.17

17.29
29.99
29.28

13.63
21.43
23.94

49.6
48.9
49.2
49.2
48.5

(2
)
42.2
42.3
41.5
41.7

46.8
36.7
40.3
38.1
41.5

(2
)
85.9
86.2
84.3
86.2

94.4
75.1
81.9
77.4
85.6

(2
)
.491
.686
.689
.746

.495
.413
.466
.670
.524

(2
)
24.11
28.77
33.90
36.11

24.65
20.20
22.93
28.04
25.41

(2
)
20.73
24.77
28.62
31.11

23.16
15.18
18.78
21.69
21.77

49.3
49.6
49.1
49.0

42.8
41.7
41.7
41.9

38.0
39.0
39.3
38.9

87.0
86.5
84.9
85.9

77.1
78.6
80.0
79.4

.670
.586
.722
.650

.556
.449
.572
.408

32.96
28.25
35.45
26.84

27.42
22.27
28.09
19.99

28.70
24.44
30.11
23.07

21.11
17.54
22.47
15.89

49.3 42.4 39.6

86.4

80.3

.620

.474

30.44

23.37

26.29

18.77

41.1
41.6
42.3
41.1
(2
)
(2
)
41.0
43.2
42.6
44.7
39.1
39.5
42.3
43.0
43.2
44.5
43.1
0)
43.5
43.6
41.7

40.7
39.3
38.2
38.6
38.6
41.6
40.4
43.5
39.8
37.6
40.2
42.6
40.5
42.5
39.3
39.5
43.3
46.7
40.7
45.1
41.2

84.2
84.9
86.0
83.4
(2
)
(2
)
84.0
87.3
87.1
91.0
80.3
80.6
86.0
87.6
88.9
92.3
87.6
0)
89.0
90.1
85.5

83.6
80.2
76.4
78.5
79.3
85.1
82.4
88.6
80.9
77.4
83.8
87.8
82.3
86.2
80.7
82.0
88.7
94.9
82.9
90.6
84.6

.695
.706
.567
.527
(2
)
(2
)
.576
.375
.436
.342
.441
.300
.501
.563
.380
.606
.383
0)
.355
.463
.374

.549
.651
.463
.416
.392
.291
.437
.326
.382
.269
.356
.247
.396
.433
.305
.524
.333
.390
.308
.333
.314

33.92
34.59
27.90
25.98
(2
)
(2
)
28.11
18.56
21.32
16.79
21.48
14.70
24.65
27.64
18.47
29.21
18.84
0)
17.36
22.41
18.25

26.74
27.00
23.15
20.47
19.09
14.23
21.41
16.01
18.79
13.07
17.09
11.95
19.48
21.35
14.85
25.26
16.25
19.19
15.12
16.58
15.29

28.55
29.35
23.95
21.66
(2
)
<2
)
23.69
16.20
18.68
15.28
17.25
11.85
21.18
24.23
16.42
27.01
16.50
(0
15.45
20.21
15.60

22.37
21.66
17.68
16.04
16.16
12.08
17.64
14.21
15.21
10.12
14.32
10.52
16.04
18.43
12.00
20.70
14.44
18.25
12.55
15.02
12.93

48.9 42.6 40.9
49.1 46.4 41.3
48.8 43.0 42.3

86.4
95.1
88.1

83.6
84.1
86.7

.331
.441
.379

.266
.459
.315

16.32
21.52
18.50

13.01
22.54
15.37

14.09
20.46
16.31

10.87
18.96
13.31

Other employees, m ale - 48.8 48.9 44.0 40.5
other employees, female 48.9 48.9 42.9 40.3

90.2
87.7

82.8
82.4

.500
.351

.437
.306

24.40
17.16

21.37
14.96

21.97
15.04

17.73
12.34

All occupations:
Males.......................... 48.8 48.9 42.7 40.0
T’fltnalAS
„ . „ 48.9 48.9 42.0 40.8
Males and females.. 48.9 48.9 42.4 40.4

87.5
86.9
86.7

81.8
83.4
82.6

.604
.382
.510

.493
.308
.412

29.48
18.68
24.94

24.11
15.06
20.15

25.79
16.04
21.62

19.73
12.68
16.62

F in is h in g departm ent

Buffers, m ale................... 49.1
Naumkeag operators,
male--------------------------- 48.8
Edge setters, male--------- 49.0
Heel scourers, male......... 49.2
Heel burnishers, m ale... 49.3
Bottom stainers, m ale... (2
)
Bottom stainers, female. (2
)
Bottom finishers, male— 48.8
Bottom finishers, female 49.5
Brushers, male................. 48.9
Brushers, female.............. 49.1
Shoe cleaners, male......... 48.7
Shoe cleaners, female----- 49.0
Last pullers, male............ 49.2
Treers, male------------------ 49.1
Treers, female................... 48.6
Repairers, male________ 48.2
Repairers, female........... . 49.2
Dressers, male.................. 0)
Dressers, female............... 48.9
Sock liners, male—.......... 48.4
Sock liners, female--------- 48.8
Lacers before packing,
female..... ....................... 49.3
Packers, male................... 48.8
Packers, female................ 48.8

48.7
49.0
50.0
49.2
48.7
48.9
49.0
49.1
49.2
48.6
48.0
48.4
49.2
49.3
48.7
48.2
48.8
49.2
49.1
49.8
48.7

A l l departm ents

l No data shown for this occupation and sex In 1930.
» Included with “ Other employees” in 1930.




903

BOOT AND SHOE INDUSTRY

Table 3 shows for males and females separately and for both sexes
combined, by States, average hours and earnings and the percent of
full time actually worked in 1930 and 1932.
T a b l e 3 —A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S IN T H E BOOT A N D SHOE IN D U S T R Y ,
1930 A N D 1932, B Y S E X A N D STATE

Sex and State

Average
full-time
hours per
week

Hours actually worked
in 1 week
Average
number

Percent of
full time

Average
earnings
per hour

Average
full-time
earnings
per week

Average
actual
earnings
in 1 week

1930

1932

47.1
47.4
46.3
43.4
41.2
37.3
44.1
38.7
37.4
32.2
37.6
40.2
37.8
37.9
36.8

87.7
94.5
91.1
74.6
85.1
91.9
90.0
89.1
82.7
92.6
92.2
70.2
85.9
90.7
89.3

96.1 $0.624 $0.427 $30.45 $20.92 $26. 73 $20.11
89.4
.434
.345 22.74 18.29 21.46 16- 32
87.5
.511
.447 27.03 23.65 24.65 20.69
88.8
.358 23.91 17.51 17.84 15.52
.490
85.3
.671
.557 32.34 26.90 27.48 22.96
75.4
.554
.501 27.48 24.80 25.25 18.68
88.4
.498
.417 24.90 20.81 22.40 18.37
79.0
.548
.473 26.85 23.18 25.03 18.29
77.3
.439 24.75 21.25 20.47 16.43
.505
70.0
.631 32.63 29.03 30.26 20.35
.711
79.0
.536 31.70 25.51 29.26 20.13
.666
83.6
.590
.485 28.44 23.33 20.85 19.48
73.7
.512
.408 26.16 20.93 22.47 15.44
76.7
.440
.385 22.79 19.02 20.68 14.61
73.7
.602
.481 29.92 24.00 26.72 17.72

Total, males______ 48.8 48.9 42.7 40.0

87.5

81.8

.604

.493

29.48

24.11

25.79

19.73

47.9
47.1
46.2
46.9
41.0
36.3
45.2
40.2
36.7
31.1
38.1
41.3
41.8
35.6
35.6

90.4
96.9
86.6
78.5
82.7
88.5
83.4
91.5
77.4
89.9
89.0
75.6
87.6
88.9
88.0

97.2
89.4
87.0
95.9
85.6
73.3
90.8
81.7
75.8
66.9
78.7
86.2
82.6
72.8
72.4

.376
.273
.360
.311
.446
.318
.321
.321
.349
.483
.411
.361
.331
.268
.409

.272
.216
.299
.218
.354
.299
.279
.273
.291
.421
.340
.292
.248
.249
.336

18.46
14.25
19.12
15.18
21.36
15.17
16.02
15.79
17.14
22.46
19.89
17.33
16.55
13.78
20.08

13.41
11.38
15.88
10.66
16.96
14.80
13.89
13.43
14.08
19.58
16.46
13.99
12.55
12.18
16.53

16.70
13.80
16.56
11.93
17.66
13.95
13.35
14.44
13.27
20.22
17.71
13.12
14.50
12.24
17.66

13.01
10.16
13.80
10.20
14.51
10.86
12.59
10.99
10.70
13.07
12.95
12.06
10.35
8.85
11.96

Total, females........ 48.9 48.9 42.0 40.8

85.9

83.4

.382

.308

18.68

15.06

16.04

12.68

47.5
47.2
46.3
44.8
41.1
36.9
44.6
39.3
37.1
31.8
37.8
40.7
39.2
46.4 36.8
43.8 36.2

89.0
95.6
89.1
76.0
84.0
90.6
87.0
92.5
80.4
91.8
91.0
74.4
86.6
89.9
88.7

96.5
89.4
87.4
91.6
85.4
74.5
89.4
80.0
76.7
68.8
78.9
84.8
76.9
74.8
73.1

.499
.353
.442
.418
.579
.456
.422
.451
.437
.628
.569
.477
.443
.359
.613

.342
.282
.380
.298
.470
.426
.354
.384
.372
.559
.457
.389
.346
.322
.412

24.45
18.46
23.43
20.40
27.85
22.62
21.06
22.14
21.41
28.95
27.26
22.94
22.46
18.52
25.34

16.83
14.89
20.14
14.57
22.61
21.09
17.66
18.85
18.00
25.83
21.89
18.67
17.65
15.84
20.39

21.75
17.66
20.85
15.54
23.40
20.44
18.32
20.47
17.19
26.58
24.83
17.08
19.44
16.67
22.51

16.26
13.33
17.59
13.36
19.35
16.70
15.79
15.12
13.81
17.79
17.28
15.85
13.57
11.87
14.91

Total, males and
females................. 48.9 48.9 42.4 40.4

86.7

82.6

.510

.412

24.94

20.15

21.62

16.62

1930 1932 1930 1932
M a le s

Illinois........................ .......
Kentucky.........................
Maine......................... —
Maryland and Virginia 1
Massachusetts..................
Michigan.......... - ..............
Minnesota.—...................
Missouri............................
New Hampshire..............
New Jersey................... .
New York.........................
Ohio................................. Pennsylvania................. Tennessee..........................
Wisconsin.........................

F e m a le s

Illinois...............................
Kentucky..........................
Maine. .............................
Maryland and Virginia L
Massachusetts--------------Michigan................... .......
Minnesota.........................
Missouri........................ .
New Hampshire..............
New Jersey.......................
New York.........................
Ohio................. - ..............
Pennsylvania...................
Tennessee---------------------Wisconsin.................. .......

48.8
52.4
52.9
48.8
48.2
49.6
50.0
49.0
49.0
45.9
47.6
48.2
51.1
51.8
49.7

49.1
52.2
53.1
48.8
47.9
49.6
49.9
49.2
49.1
46.6
48.4
48.0
50.0
51.4
49.1

49.0
53.0
52.9
48.9
48.3
49.5
49.9
49.0
48.4
46.0
47.6
48.1
51.3
49.4
49.9

49.3
52.7
53.1
48.9
47.9
49.5
49.8
49.2
48.4
46.5
48.4
47.9
50.6
48.9
49.2

42.8
49.5
48.2
36.4
41.0
45.6
45.0
45.7
40.5
42.5
43.9
35.3
43.9
47.0
44.4

44.4
50.6
46.0
38.3
39.6
43.9
41.6
45.0
38.0
41.8
43.1
36.3
43.8
45.7
43.2

1930

1932

1930

1932

1930

1932

M a le s a n d fe m a le s

Illinois................................ 49.0
Kentucky.......................... 52.3
Maine......................- ......... 53.0
Maryland and Virginia *_ 48.8
Massachusetts.................. 48.1
Michigan........................... 49.6
Minnesota.......... .............. 49.9
Missouri............................ 49.1
New Hampshire.............. 49.0
New Jersey....................... 46.1
New York......................... 47.9
Ohio................................... 48.1
Pennsylvania................... 50.7
Tennessee........................ . 51.6
Wisconsin.......................... 49.4

49.2
52.8
53.0
48.9
48.1
49.5
49.9
49.1
48.4
46.2
47.9
48.0
51.0
49.2
49.5

‘43.6
50.0
47.2
37.1
40.4
44.9
43.4
45.4
39.4
42.3
43.6
35.8
43.9

* Shown together to avoid presenting data for 1 establishment in 1 State.




904

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

B u ild in g C o n s tru c tio n — W age Rates on P. W . A . Projects,
N ovem ber 1934
D u r in g the month ending November 15, 1934, approximately
77,250 workers were employed on Federal and non-Federal buildingconstruction projects financed from the Public Works Administra­
tion fund. The total pay roll for these workers was over $5,200,000,
62.5 percent of which was paid to skilled workers, 14.1 percent to
semiskilled workers, and 23.4 percent to unskilled workers.
Federal construction projects are financed entirely by allotments
made by the Public Works Administration to the various depart­
ments and agencies of the Federal Government. This work is per­
formed either by commercial firms to which contracts have been
awarded or by day labor hired directly by the Federal agencies.
Non-Federal projects are financed from allotments made by the Pub­
lic Works Administration to a State or political subdivision thereof,
or in some cases to commercial firms. In the case of allotments to
States and their political subdivisions, the Public Works Adminis­
tration makes a direct grant of not more than 30 percent of the total
construction cost. The public agency to which the loan is made
finances the other 70 percent. No grants are made to commercial
firms. On loans of the Public Works Administration, interest is
charged and the term of the loan is specified.
Reports were received from contractors erecting such types of
buildings as schools, post offices, Federal courthouses, immigration
stations, city halls, municipal auditoriums, quarters for officers and
enlisted men in Army camps, subsistence homestead projects, etc.
Some of these buildings were located in large cities, some in small
towns, and some in rural areas.

Wage Rates
T h e average rate paid to skilled workers employed on these P. W.

A. projects in November 1934 was $1.22 per hour. In a number of
cases, however, wage rates as high as $1.50 per hour or even more
were paid. For example, in the New England States, ornamentaliron workers received $1.50 per hour; in the Middle Atlantic States,
hoist engineers were paid $1.58 and pile drivers $1.68 per hour; in
the East North Central States, glaziers averaged $1.54 per hour;
and in the South Atlantic States, elevator constructors received $1.58
per hour. In the West North Central, East South Central, West
South Central, Mountain, and Pacific States, no occupation averaged
so much as $1.50 per hour.
Except in the West South Central States, very few skilled occupa­
tions averaged less than $1.05 per hour. In the East South Central
States, practically all skilled occupations averaged between $1.05 and
$1.10. In the other geographic divisions, the following occupations
averaged $1.05 or less: In the South Atlantic States, pile drivers,
$1.00; in the East South Central States, painters and steam-shovel
operators, $1.05; and in the Mountain States, terazzo workers, $1.00,
and welders, $1.05.
Over 6,300 carpenters worked on these projects in November 1934,
and they were paid hourly rates ranging from $1.00 in the West South
Central States to $1.27 in the Middle Atlantic States. The wages of
the 3,600 bricklayers employed ranged from $1.07 in the West South
Central to $1.49 in the Middle Atlantic States.




905

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

The great majority of the workers employed in the construction of
P. W. A. buildings were paid by the hour, but in November 1934 there
were approximately 600 who were paid on a weekly basis. For the
most part, these were foremen of such crafts as carpenters, masons,
concrete workers, electrical workers, etc. Labor foremen were the
most numerous in all districts. Workers paid by the week averaged
$46.68. Structural-steel foremen had the highest weekly wage in all
districts. Labor foremen were paid less than $40 per week in each of
the 9 districts. There were more than 18,000 employees classed as
common laborers working on these jobs during November 1934.
In general, wages paid on Federal projects in November 1934 were
slightly lower than those on non-Federal projects. Workers on a
weekly basis on Federal projects drew $5 per week less than workers
on non-Federal projects; among the hourly employees, skilled workers
had a rate of nearly 2 cents per hour less, and unskilled workers nearly
3 cents per hour less. Semiskilled workers had the same rate on both
types of projects. Skilled workers on Federal projects averaged
$1.21 per hour, and on non-Federal projects $1.23.
The following table shows the average rates paid to skilled, semi­
skilled, and unskilled workers on building-construction projects
financed by the Public Works Administration during November 1934,
by geographic divisions:
T a ble 1.—AVE R A G E RATES PAID ON PUBLIC W O RK S BU ILD IN G -C O N STR U CTIO N
PROJECTS, N O V E M B E R 1934
A l l projects
Wage rates of employees paid on—
Geographic division

Weekly
basis,
skilled

Continental United States....................................._............
New E n g la n d , .
_____
_
__ _
Middle A t l a n t i c ____________ _________________________________
East North Central....................... ........................................
West North Central__________________________________
South Atlantic________________________________________
East South Central________ ___________________________
West South Central__________________________________
Mountain____________________________________________
Pacific................ ....................... ................ .............. ...............

Hourly basis
Skilled

Semi­
skilled

Unskilled

$ 4 6 .6 8

$ 1 ,2 2 0

$ 0 .722

$0 .5 0 7

4 6 .8 0
6 1 .8 9
6 0 .7 5
4 4 .8 0
4 1 .0 6
3 7 .8 8
41.81
5 2 .2 5
4 7 .8 8

1.224
1.3 4 7
1 .2 9 6
1.203
1 .1 7 0
1.0 9 1
.9 9 6
1.134
1 .159

.7 0 7
.8 3 5
.7 7 3
.7 0 4
.6 3 3
.6 0 7
.5 6 2
.7 0 6
.8 2 0

.5 4 3
.5 9 4
.5 7 4
.4 7 8
.4 4 6
.4 3 7
.4 0 3
.4 9 5
.5 6 2

$ 4 2 .12

$1 .2 0 6

$ 0 .722

$ 0 .486

3 9 .3 3
4 9 .7 9
3 4 .0 8
3 9 .1 7
3 8 .6 4

1.171
1 .3 4 2
1 .202
1 .128
1.239
1 .084
.9 8 4
1 .035
1 .170

.7 0 9
.8 3 7
.7 5 3
.6 7 7
.6 8 4
.6 1 5
.5 5 6
.5 6 0
.8 3 5

.5 0 8
.6 5 8
.5 2 7
.4 6 1
.4 5 2
.4 3 7
.3 9 9
.3 8 9
.5 6 9

$4 7 .3 0

$1.225

$ 0 .722

$0.515

4 7 .3 8
5 2 .07
5 2 .5 0
4 5 .1 4
4 1 .9 6
3 7 .8 8
4 0 .7 7
53.71
4 6 .7 4

1 .230
1 .348
1 .308
1.221
1.117
1 .095
1.000
1.169
1 .1 5 5

.7 0 7
.8 3 4
.7 7 5
.7 0 6
.6 2 0
.6 0 2
.5 6 3
.7 7 0
.8 1 6

.5 4 6
. 579
.5 8 2
.4 8 2
.4 4 1
.4 3 8
.4 0 4
.5 8 9
,6 5 9

Federal projects
Continental United States____________________________
New England________________________________________
Middle Atlantic______ ______- ............ .......... .....................
East North Central___________________________________
West North Central.... ..........................................................
South Atlantic____________________ __________ _______
East South Central___________________________________
West South Central__________________________________
Mountain____________________________________________
Pacific............................................... -..........................

5 2 .5 0
4 5 .0 0
5 5 .8 7

Non-Federal projects
Continental United States...................................................
New England________________________________________
Middle Atlantic______________________________________
East North Central___________________________________
West North Central...............................................................
S o u t h A t la n t ic
___ _...
_ _T
E a s t S o u t h C e n tr a l
_ _ ___
W e s t S m ith C e n tr a l
_

_____
_
_
...................

____

Mountain
.... .__ ___
Pacific.......................................................................................




906

W AG ES AND HOURS OF LABOR

Distribution of Hours and Wages
T a b l e 2 shows the percent of hours worked by and the percent
of the monthly wage bill paid to skilled, semiskilled, and unskilled
labor in November 1934 on building-construction projects financed
by the Public Works Administration fund.
Skilled labor drew 62.5 cents of each building-labor dollar, and
worked 43.9 percent of the total number of man-hours. In contrast,
unskilled labor was paid 23.4 cents per dollar expended for labor
and worked 39.4 percent of the total number of man-hours. Skilled
labor was paid more than 60 percent of the building dollar in all
divisions except the East South Central and the West South Central.
In one division, the Pacific, skilled labor worked more than 50 per­
cent of the total man-hours worked.
T a b l e 2 .—D IST R IB U T IO N OF T O T A L HOURS W O R K E D A N D W AG ES PAID ON PUBLIC
WORKS
LABOR

BU ILD IN G -C O N STR U C T IO N

PROJECTS, N O V E M B E R

1934, B Y

TYPE

OF

All projects
Percent of hours worked
by—

Percent of monthly wage
bill paid to—

Geographic division
All
Semi­ Un­
All
Semi­ Un­
classes Skilled skilled skilled classes Skilled skilled skilled
Continental United States................................ 100.0

43.9

16.7

39.4

100.0

62.5

14.1

23.4

New England...................................................__
Middle Atlantic..................................................
East North Central............................................
West North Central..............___.......................
South Atlantic-------------------------------- -----------East South Central_______ _________________
West South Central..... ......................................
M ountain,............................................. ............
Pacific______________ ______________________

44.2
46.5
48.7
42.9
40.5
39.8
36.8
43.1
50.1

20.8
15.5
16.7
17.6
16.5
15.2
12.8
15.6
18.2

35.0
38.0
34.6
39.5
43.0
45.0
50.4
41.3
31.7

100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0

61.5
63.8
65.8
62.2
61.4
59.8
57.1
60.9
63.9

16.8
13.2
13.5
15.0
13.6
12.8
11.2
13.7
16.4

21.7
23.0
20.7
22.8
25.0
27.4
31.7
25.4
19.7

44.9

12.1

43.0

10.4

25.0

25.1
15.2
14.7
7.9
8.9

32.8
33.8
41.7
44.9
47.2
46.3
54.7
55.1
31.0

100.0
100.0
100.0
1 0 .0
01
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0

64.6

42.1
51.0
43.6
47.2
43.9
41.5
36.5
31.4
53.3

58.8
66.3
61.2
67.2
66.5
61,9
57.4
52.9
67.0

21.3
12.3
13.0
6.7
7.4
10.3
7.8
12.3
14.1

19.9
21.4
25.8
26,1
26.1
27.8
34.8
34.8
18.9

100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
110.0
100.0
110.0
100.0

Federal projects
Continental United States________ _________
New England— , ................. - ______________
Middle Atlantic.......... ......................................
East North Central_____ ___________________
West North Central............................ .............
South Atlantic________ _____________________
East South Central........ ..................................
West South Central-._______ ______________
Mountain-..........................................................
Pacific.......................... - _____ _______ ________

100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0

12.2
8.8
13.5
15.7

Non-Federal projects
Continental United States_________________

100.0

43.6

18.1

38.3

100.0

61.9

15.2

22.9

New England______________________________
Middle Atlantic______________ _____________
East North Central............. ..... ........................
West North Central____ __________________
South Atlantic_____________________________
East South Central...... ............................ .........
West South Central_______________________
Mountain__________________ ______________
Pftfiifle
_
_
,
. ___

100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0

44.4
45.4
49.4
42.0
38.4
38.2
36.8
49.5
49.0

20.4
15.6
17.0
19.6
21.4
18.1
13.6
16.8
19.0

35.2
39.0
33.6
38.4
40.2
43.7
49.6
33.7
32.0

100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0

61.8
63.1
66.4
61.2
67.8
57.8
57.0
63.9
62.8

16.4
13.5
13.5
16.6
18.1
15.3
11.9
14.2
17.3

21.8
23.4
20.1
22.2
24.1
26.9
31.1
21.9
19.9




WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

907

C ig a r In d u s try — Wages a n d Costs in Y o r k C o u n ty , P a .,2
J u ly 1934
I m m e d i a t e l y following the adoption of the Code of Fair Competi­
tion for the Cigar Industry on July 2, 1934, the workers contended
that the manufacturers in York County, Pa., endeavored to employ
only the cigarmakers who could make the code minimum. In an
effort to settle the dispute, a bipartisan board, composed of a rep­
resentative of labor and a representative of the manufacturers, was
chosen by the code authority to investigate the cost of manufacturing
2-for-5-cent cigars. Attempts to establish wage rates on the basis of
the findings and recommendations of this board, however, were un­
successful. When no agreement could be reached, arbitration by the
National Labor Relations Board was agreed to by the employees and
employers.
Before attempting to settle the controversy, the National Labor
Relations Board requested the United States Bureau of Labor Sta­
tistics to make a study of the cost of manufacturing 5-cent and 3-for10-cent cigars and to obtain data on the hourly earnings of employees
engaged in the manufacture of these two types of cigars.
Coverage of survey .—The plants included in the study were selected
by representatives of labor and the cigar manufacturers of York
County in a conference with the agents of the Bureau of Labor Sta­
tistics. All of the factories selected produced cigars by what is known
as the “ hand method. ” The number of workers covered in the survey
included 728 employees making 5-cent cigars and 162 making 3-for-10cent cigars. The number of employees in the different plants varied
considerably, ranging from 26 to 164 on 5-cent cigars and from 25 to
74 on 3-for-10-cent cigars.
The 6 months ending June 30, 1934, was used in determining the
cost of manufacture. However, since the most active period of the
year in the cigar business is the Christmas holiday season, the results
cannot be accepted as representative of annual operations.
The wage data are based on records kept for 1 week from August 13,
1934, when work was resumed after the strike. Previously no record
was maintained of hours of work and, consequently, hourly earnings
could not be calculated.

Average Hourly Earnings
I n c o m p u t i n g average hourly earnings of employees, supplemen­
tary payments to meet code minimums and wages earned in the manu­
facture of cigars other than 5-cent and 3-for-10-cent cigars were
excluded. A few cellophaners and banders had their piecework
earnings supplemented by additional payments in order to bring their
wages up to the minimum rates prescribed by the code. Such
instances, however, were exceptional and because of the difficulty in
prorating these supplemental payments between the different types
of cigars produced they were omitted entirely.
Table 1 gives the average hourly earnings for the major occupations
in the manufacture of 5-cent cigars.
1 From an unpublished report prepared b y the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics for the National
Labor Relations Board.




908

WAGES AND fiOtJRS OE LABOR

T a b l e 1 .— AVE R A G E H O U R L Y EAR N IN G S OF W O R K ER S E M P L O Y E D IN T H E M A N
U FACTU RE OF 5-CENT CIGARS A T 9 FACTORIES IN Y O R K
OCCUPATION i

Occupation

Wrapper strippers, hand ___ __ Wrapper strippers, machine_____ _____
____
Binder strippers, hand _ __
Binder strippers, machine___ _____
Bunchers.................... - .............................Rollers........................................................
Packers.....................................................
Cellophaners, banders, and toilers,
hand and machine.................................

C O U N T Y , P A., B Y

Aver­
Fac­ Fac­ Fac­ Fac­ Fac­ Fac­
age, Fac­ Fac­ Fac­ tory tory tory tory tory tory
tory tory tory
9 fac­
no. 1 no. 2 no. 3 no. 4 no. 5 no. 6 no. 7 no. 8 no. 9
tories
Cents C ents Cents C ents Cents C ents C ents C ents C ents Cents

25.6
31.4
33.6
29.4
44.3
36.3
42.3
34.5

25.6

44.0

30.5

29.2
37.6
29.8
33.5

39.4
36.8
50.0

41.0
28.9
58.4

23.3
49.4
38.9
45.6

39.2
47.0
37.2
38.0

26.7

32.7

33.9

42.8

39.0

29.5

34.3

42.4
32.4
34.1

27.5
40.5
33.2
41.6

30.2

35.1

25.0

27.1

30.7
43.2
37.8
4».8

35.3

(2
)

33.0 "3671”

(2
)

47.0

41.0
32.9
32.8

1 Excludes supplementary payments made in order to meet code minimums and wages earned in the
manufacture of cigars other than the 5-cent type.
2 Work done at workers’ homes.

During the pay period covered by the survey approximately 98
percent of the bunchers employed by the factories included earned
30 cents or more per hour, while about 80 percent of the rollers earned
30 cents or more per hour. On the other hand, all of the hand wrapper
strippers and half of the machine wrapper strippers earned less than
30 cents per hour.
The average hourly earnings of workers engaged in the manu­
facture of 3-for-10-eent cigars are given in table 2. This table shows
that the average earnings in this branch of the industry ranged from
25 cents per hour for machine wrapper strippers at factory no. 3 to
43.6 cents per hour for bunchers at factory no. 2.
T a ble 3 .—A V E R A G E H O U R L Y E A R N IN G S OF W O R K E R S E M P L O Y E D IN T H E M A N U ­
F A C T U R E OF 3-FOR-lO-CENT CIGARS A T 3 FACTO RIES IN Y O R K C O U N T Y , PA., B Y
OCCUPATION

Wrapper strippers, hand_____________________________
Wrapper strippers, machine_________________________
Binder strippers, hand_______________________________
Binder strippers, machine________ _____ ____________
Bunchers_____________________________________________
Rollers ______________________________________________
Packers___________ - _________________________________
Cellophaners and banders, hand and machine________

Average of
3 factories

Factory
no. 1

Factory
no. 2

Factory
no. 3

C en ts

Occupation

C ents

C ents

Cents

25.7
30.6

25.7

30.8
36.6
32.9
33.7
33.4

34. 7
41.7
31.9
36.9
40.3

25.0

33.0
29.4
43.6
36.0
35.6
30.3

0)
30.9
29. 7
29.2
33.4

1 Work done at workers’ homes.

In the manufacture of 3-for-10-cent cigars the hourly earnings of
88 percent of the bunchers and 82 percent of the rollers amounted to
30 cents or more. The workers earning less than 30 cents per hour
included all of the hand wrapper strippers, 40 percent of the machine
wrapper strippers and 50 percent of the machine binder strippers.
C igarette, S m o k in g - and C h e w in g -T o b a c c o In d u strie s— Wages
and H o u rs in V irg in ia and N o rth C a ro lin a , J u ly 1934

A s t u d y made by the Bureau^ of Labor Statistics in July 1934
dealing with wages and hours in six occupations in the cigarette and




TOBACCO INDUSTRIES— VIRGINIA AND NORTH CAROLINA

909

smoking- and chewing-tobacco industries covered 14 establishments,
some of which manufacture more than one product. Data for the
cigarette industry were gathered from 5 establishments in Virginia
and 6 in North Carolina; for the smoking-tobacco industry from 2
establishments in Virginia and 4 in North Carolina; and for the
chewing-tobacco industry from 1 establishment in Virginia and 3 in
North Carolina. The data were for 2,061 employees engaged in the
6 occupations studied. A complete survey of the cigarette industry
in Virginia, North Carolina, and Kentucky was made by the Bureau
in 1930,3 and six of the occupations in that study included approxi­
mately 58 percent of the total employees. The 1934 study includes
the same 6 occupations and 6 similar occupations in the smoking- and
chewing-tobacco industries. Further details of the results of this
study are given in the Monthly Labor Review for October 1934
(p. 963).
Colored workers are employed predominantly in connection with
laboring jobs in the ordering, casing, and stemming departments,
while white workers are employed mainly in the making and packing
departments. In the stemmeries colored women are used almost
exclusively and they are found also in most of the other stemmery
occupations.
The substitute provision regulating hours of work in the tobacco
industry under the President’s Reemployment Agreement sets e
a
maximum of 40 hours per week. All the establishments covered in
this study were accordingly scheduled to work 8 hours Monday to
Friday, with no work on Saturday. Most of the employees in the
cigarette and smoking-tobacco industries actually worked under 40
hours during the week covered by the survey, and a majority in the
chewing-tobacco industry worked from 30 to 34.9 hours per week.
Classified actual hourly earnings in the different occupations are
shown in the following table. Some of the occupations were confined
to one or two of the three industries.
P E R C E N T OF E M P L O Y E E S CLASSIFIED A C C O R D IN Q TO H O U R L Y E AR N IN G S,
JULY 1934, B Y O CCUPATIO N
Cigarette in d u stry
Percent in each occupation earning classified wages per hour

Classified actual earnings
Stemming- Stemmers,
per hour during week covered macbine
hand (col­
feeders
ored, pre­
(colored, dominantly
females)
females)

Under 20 cents........ ..................
20 to 24.9 cents..................... ___
25 to 29,9 cents................. .........
30 to 34.9 cents........ .......... .......
35 to 39.9 cents_________ _____
40 to 44.9 cents_________ ____
45 to 49.9 cents..........................
50 to 54.9 cents______________
55 to 69.9 cents______________
60 to 64.9 cents______________
65 to 69.9 cents______________
Total................................

1
2
72
24

1
2
93
5
(*>

Cutter
feeders
(colored,
males)

100

100

100

Makingmachine
operators
(white,
predom­
inantly
males)

49
38
14

3
10
27
22
30
6
1
2

100

100

1

* Monthly Labor Review, October 1930 (p. 163).




10
16
37
24
9
3

Strip
searchers
(colored,
predom­
inantly
females)

Laborers
(predom­
inantly
colored,
males and
females)

20
57
19
4
1

100

910

W AGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

P E R C E N T OF E M P L O Y E E S CL ASSIF IED A C C O R D IN G TO H O U R L Y E A R N IN G S ,
JU L Y 1934, B Y O CC UPATIONS— Continued

Smoking-tobacco industry
StemmingStemmers,
machine
hand
feeders
Classified actual earnings
(colored,
predom­
per hour during week covered (colored,
predom­
inantly
inantly
females)
females)

Strip
searchers
(colored,
predom­
inantly
females)

85
15

2
18
46
26
7
2

97
3

100

100

100

Under 20 cents______________
20 to 24.9 cents.......... ................
25 to 29.9 cents_____ _________
30 to 34.9 cents................... .......
35 to 39.9 cents................... .......
40 to 44.9 cents______________
45 to 49.9 cents______________
50 to 54.9 cents................. .........
55 to 59.9 c e n ts____ _________
60 to 64.9 cents................. .........
65 to 69.9 cents______________
Total__________________

Cutter
feeders
(males,
predom­
inantly
colored)

Packingmachine
operators
(males,
predom­
inantly
white)

Laborers
(predom­
inantly
colored,
males)

25
25
13
13
13
13

6
3
24
12
12
30
9
3

72
14
11
1
1

100

100

100

Chewing-tobacco industry

Classified actual earnings
per hour during week covered

Under 20 cents______________
20 to 24.9 cents______________
25 to 29.9 cents______________
30 to 34.9 cents______________
35 to 39.9 cents______________
40 to 44.9 c e n t s _________________
45 to 49.9 cents______________
50 to 54.9 cents______________
55 to 59.9 cents____ ____ _____
60 to 64.9 cents................. .........
65 to 69.9 cents..........................
70 cents and over____________
Total.............. .................

Stemmers,
hand
(colored,
predom­
inantly
females)

Strip
searchers
(predom­
inantly
colored,
females)

8
36
39
14
3

89
6
6

0)

Lump
makers
(males,
predom­
inantly
colored)

10
7
23
30
20
3
3

Lump
wrappers
(predom­
inantly
colored,
males and
females)

Shape
hands
(colored,
males)

5
15
23
28
15
11
2

8
77
15

100

100

Laborers
(predom­
inantly
colored,
males)

3
76
18
3

3
100

100

100

100

i Less than 1 percent.

C it y School System s— Salaries, 1934-35

A c o n t i n u i n g decline in the salaries of most city school systems in
the United States as compared with such salaries of 2 and 4 years ago
is shown in the report of a biennial survey made by the National
Education Association in 1934-35, and published in the March 1935
issue of the Research Bulletin of the Association.
The 1,989 cities covered in the study constitute almost three-fifths
of all the cities, and practically every one of the larger cities in the
United States. Nearly 400,000 school employees are included.
According to the above-mentioned bulletin “ there is reason to
believe that teachers’ salaries have already reached their lowest point
and are now slowly returning to somewhat more normal levels.”
Table 1 discloses the usual tendency to pay higher salaries in the
larger cities. The differential between cities of over 100,000 popula­
tion and those of from 30,000 to 100,000 population is greater than




911

CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS

that between the cities of the last-mentioned group and cities of
10,000 to 30,000, or between the groups of cities having smaller popu­
lations. It will also be noted that the decrease percentages in salaries
are greater in the smaller cities.
T a b l e 1.—M E D IA N SALARIES OF T E A C H E R S IN SPECIFIED CLASSES OF SCHOOLS IN
T H E U N IT E D STATES, 1930-31, 1932-33, A N D 1934-35
Year

Percent of decrease

Reporting cities having a population of—
1930-31
Over 100,000:
Elementary schools.............................................
Junior high schools.............................................
High schools......................................................
30,000 to 100,000:
Elementary schools.............................................
Junior high schools.............................................
High schools............. ........................................
10,000 to 30,000:
Elementary schools1..........................................
Junior high schools.............................................
High schools.........................................................
5,000 to 10,000:
Elementary schools1
..........................................
Junior high schools.............................................
High schools.........................................................
2,500 to 5,000:
Elementary schools1
..........................................
Junior high schools.............................................
High schools.........................................................

1932-33

1934-35

1931 to 1935 1933 to 1935

$2,118
2,348
2,731

$1,947
2,204
2,479

$1,922
2,078
2,436

9.25
11.50
10.80

1.28
5.72
1.73

1,609
1,860
2,111

1,526
1,761
1,994

1,412
1,612
1,834

12.24
13.33
13.12

7.47
8.46
8.02

1,428
1,619
1,876

1,360
1,525
1,747

1,231
1,390
1,603

13.80
14.14
14.55

9 49
8.85
8.24

1,303
1,494
1,692

1,217
1,376
1,575

1,050
1,208
1,379

19.42
19.14
18.50

13.72
12.21
12.44

1,162
1,360
1,547

1,089
1,270
1,429

961
1,125
1,260

17.30
17.28
18.55

11.75
11.42
11.83

1 Includes kindergarten teachers.

In table 2 are given the median salaries of teachers and principals
in city school systems of five groups of cities classified by population.
In the group including the largest cities, the median salary of teachers
of part-time or continuation schools in 1934-35 was $2,693, or $257
more than that of the teachers in high schools, while the principals of
part-time or continuation schools received $4,125, or $127 less than
was paid to the principals of high schools.
T a b l e 2 — M E D IA N SALARIES IN C IT Y SCHOOL SY STEM S OF VARIOUS CITIES IN TH E
U N IT E D STATES, 1934-35

Reporting cities having a population of—
Occupation
Over
100,000
Teachers:
Kindergartens...................................
Atypical classes.................................
Elementary schools1.......................
Junior high schools............ ... ..........
High schools......................................
Part-time or continuation schools.
Principals:
Elementary schools:
Supervising...................... ..........
Teaching.....................................
Junior high schools..........................
High schools......................................
Part-time or continuation schools.
1

30,000 to 10,000 to 5,000 to 2,500 to
100,000
30,000
10,000
5,000

$1,926
1,996
1,922
2,078
2,436
2,693

$1,469
1,611
1,412
1, 612
1,834
1,902

$1,231
1,390
1,603
1,550

$1,050
1,208
1,379
838

$961
1,125
1,260
600

3,016
2,135
3,718
4,252
4,125

2,364
1,738
2,833
3,635
2,800

2,119
1,476
2,307
3,010
3,150

1,962
1,246
1,669
2,235

2,038
1,181
1,433
1,851

Includes kindergarten teachers, in cities having a population of from 2,500 to 30,000.




912

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

Table 3 records by States the median salaries of various groups of
teachers for 1934-35 in cities of 30,000 population or over.4 The
median salaries for high-school teachers m the class including the
largest cities (over 100,000 population) ranged from $1,071 in Florida
to $3,418 in New York State.
T a ble 3 .—M E D IA N SALARIES OF T E A C H E R S IN CITIES OVER 30,000 IN PO PU LATIO N
IN T H E U N IT E D STATES, 1934-35
[Class I, reporting cities of over 100,000 population; class II, reporting cities of 30,000 to 100,000 population]
Median salaries paid in city school systems to—

State

Kindergarten Elementaryschool
teachers
teachers
Class
I

Class
II

Class
I

Teachers of
atypical
classes

Class Class
II
I

Junior high- High-school
school
teachers2
teachers 1

Class Class Class Class Class
I
II
I
II
II

Part-time
school
teachers
Class
I

Class
II

United States______ $1,926 $1,469 $1,922 $1,412 $1,996 $1,611 $2,078 $1,612 $2,436 $1,834 $2,693 $1,902
Alabama....................
Arizona____________
Arkansas___________
California____ _____
Colorado.................._
Connecticut________
Delaware___________
District of Columbia.
Florida___________
_
Georgia____________
Illinois_____________
Indiana____ ________

1,350
2,050
1,858
1,800
1,400
2,046

1,823
1,400
1,558

1,300 -1 ,0 0 0
1,913 1,292
1,438 1,167
1,627 1,224
Kansas____ _________ 1,155 1,500
Kentucky__________ 1,330 1,333
Louisiana.... ..........
1,070
1,321
Maine______________
Maryland__________ 1,715
Massachusetts.......... 1, 635 1,619
M ichigan..________ 1,756 1,241
Minnesota_________ 1,538
Mississippi_________
Missouri___________ 2,269
Montana___________
Nebraska__________ 1,518 1,058
New Hampshire___
1,517
New Jersey________ 2,156 1,986
New York_________ 2,854 1,814
Ohio_______________ 1,607 1,900
Oklahoma__________ 1,405
Oregon_____________ 1,100
Pennsylvania______ 1,577 1,458
Rhode Island______ 1,828 1,350
South Carolina_____
South Dakota______
1,050
Tennessee..................
Texas______________ 1,228 1,125
Utah_______________ 1,250
Virginia___________
1,719 1,311
Washington________ 1,611
Wisconsin........... ....... 2,228 1,268

1,282 -1 ,0 0 0
1,378
-1 ,0 0 0
2,156 1,856
1,986 1,389
1,839 1,646
1,810
2,034
-1 ,0 0 0
1,377 1,129
1,932 1,328
1,549 1,265
1,515 1,228
1,418 1,608
1,249 1,444
1,402
1,346
1,669 1,096
1,834 1,551
1,844 1,328
1,577
-1,0 0 0
1,810 -1 ,0 0 0
1,401
1,530 1,128
1,540
1,912 1,975
2,818 1,822
1,624 1,193
1,454 -1,000
1,752
1,931 1,482
1,737 1,533
1,035
1,097
1,064
1,385 1,066
1,493 1,012
1,185 1,185
1,586 1,308
2,225 1,433

1,300
2,175
2,367
2,004
1,810
2,043
1,063
1,491
1,930
1, 577
1,471
1,463
1,450
1,436

1,031
1,545
1,209
1,880 2,396 2,140
1,425 2,318 1,600
1,675 2,106 1,505
1, 770
2,237
1,041
1,791 "I," 241
1,428 1,592 1,441
1,313 1,735 ,1,444
1,375 1,680 1,465
1,617 1,627 1,631
1,500 1,379 1, 544

1,342
1,465
1,906 1,181
1,641 2,007 1,726
1,461 2,460 1,534
1,825
1,004
1,739 -1 ,0 0 0 1,846 1,074

1,759
1,782
2,301
1,715

1,267
2,300
3,404
1,760
1,275
1,752
2,365
1,956

1,309
1, 713
1,675
2,235

1,227
1,609
2,239 2,076 2,336
1,919 3, 425 2,044
1,500 2,011 1,449
1,550 1,130
1,283
1,506 2, 434 1,624
1,617 2,092 1,631
1,083
1,067
1,106
1,302
1,532 1,181
1,624 1,339
1,175 1,656 1,222
1,340 1, 571 1,325
1, 458 2,200 1,659

1,653 1,275
2,000
1,417
2.470 2,407 2,471
2,349 1,700
2.470 2,052
1,957
2,645
-1,0 0 0
1, 071
1,797 1,553 1,475
2,796 1,802 3,412
1,991 1,617 1,350
1,863 1, 570
1,632 1,919
1,877 1,838
1,739
1,659
2, 278 1,319
2,351 2,000 2,144
2, 450 1, 693 2,512
2,062
1,055
2,448 1,315
1,672
1,824 1,278
2,030
2,731 2,516 2,550
3,418 2,225 3,420
2,043 1,702 2,100
1,825 1,244
-1 ,0 0 0
1,916
2,831 1,833 2,600
2,321 1, 905
1,366
1, 413
1,701
1,650
1,801 1,443 -1 ,0 0 0
1,776 1,575
1,800 1,482
1,830 1,615 1,875
2,464 1,773

2,367

1,825
1,583

2,093

1, 725

1,713

1 Includes teachers in prevocational schools.
2 Includes teachers in vocational schools.
* In some cases data were insufficient to make it worth while to compute medians for cities of a certain
size and for certain groups of employees. In these cases medians are omitted. When as many as 10 cities
of a given population group in a single State reported or when half or more of all cities of a given size in a
State reported, a median was computed, except that when less than 5 employees were reported, no median
was computed. When the use of a computed median makes the State median more than the maximum
salary actually paid to teachers in the cities within the State, the maximum rather than the calculated
median is reported.




913

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

C iv il Em ployees in Fie ld Service of N a vy D e p a rtm e n t and
M a rin e Corps— Wages, 1934
W a g e rates of civilian workers in the clothing service and in the
laborer, helper, and mechanical service of the Navy Department
and the Marine Corps, within continental United States, are shown
in the following tables compiled from data published by the Navy
Department. Substantially the same schedule was in effect from
1929 to 1934. The figures for all occupations in the tables are the
maximum; the minimum rate is 10 cents under the maximum and
there is an intermediate rate 5 cents under the maximum.
T a ble 1 . —RATES OF W AG ES PER HOUR IN T H E CLO TH IN G SERVICE
Rate per
hour

Occupation
N a v a l S u p p ly D epot, B r o o k ly n , N . Y .

Assistant custom cutters—........................
B asters________________________________
Bushelmen_____________ ____ __________
Canvas makers__________ _____________
Choppers
„ _
Cleaners______________________________
Cloth spongers_________________________
Clothing examiners _ _ „
Coat finishers........... ...................................
Coat makers
Coat operators .
Collar makers______ _
Custom cutters........ ....................... ...........
Cutting-machine operators.
Cutters and markers,_
Die-machine operators_________________
Double-needle operators___ ____ _______
Dress-coat makers_____________________
Embroiderers........ .......... ........... ...........
Finish pressers
Fitters........................ ....................................
Garment makers (bundle hands)
General tailors_________________________
Head custom cutters___________________
Hand buttonhole makers..........................
Operators (female)_____________________
Operators, sewing machine. , . ,_
Operators, special machine.......................
Pocket makers____ ______ _____________

Rate per
hour

Occupation
N a v a l S u p p ly D e p o t, B r o o k ly n , N . Y —

$0.85
.85
.80
.65
.75
.45
.75
.75
.55
.90
1.00
.90
1.25
.90
.85
.75
.70
.95
.55
.95
.85
(i)
.85
1. 35
.80
.55
.67
1.00

1.00

Continued
Spreaders...............
Trimmers________
Trouser finishers..
Trouser makers...
Trouser operators.
Underpressers___
Vest makers..........

$0.67
.55
,80
.90
.80
.75

M a r in e S u p p ly D epo t, P h ila d e lp h ia , P a .

B asters...........................................................
Cleaners.........................................................
Coat fitters...................................................
Coat makers.................................................
Coat operators..............................................
Custom cutters............................................
Cutters..........................................................
Cutters and markers...................................
Cutting-machine operators........................
Embroiderers................................................
Examiners, clothing....................................
Finishers......................................................
Operators (female).....................................
Head operators (female)................. ..........
Spongers.............. .
Tailors, first class.
Ticketers________
Trimmers_______

.73
.37
.83
.90
1.25
.83

.40
.51
.60
.51
.83
.48
.45

1 Compensation computed on a piecework schedule.

T able 2 — RATES OF W AG ES PER HOUR IN T H E L ABO R ER , H ELPER , A N D M E C H A N I­
CAL SERVICE

Occupation

Mare Puget Great
Bos­ New Phila­ Wash­ Nor­ Charles­
Is­
del­
ton
ton York phia ington folk
leans land Sound Lakes

N
oE

G ro u p 1

Attendants:
Battery.............. ............ .........
Building (Naval Academy)
Ironers, hand, laundry________
Laborers, common....... ................
Laundresses.......................... .........
Laundrymen.................................
Mangle hands, laundry..............
Press operators, laundry_______

$0.40
$0. 56 $0. 56
.53
.60
.40

.65

$0.57
.40
.40
1.53 $0.46
.35
.50
.34
.34

G ro u p I I

$0.25
.36 $0.36 $0.56

$0.56

$0.57

.40
.20
.20

Apprentices:
First class.......................... .
.60
.60
.60
.60
.60
.60
.60
.60
Second class...... .................
.50
.50
.50
.50
.50
.50
.50
Third class............. ...........
.40
.40
.40
.40
.40
.40
.40
Fourth class_____________
.30
.30
.30
.30
.30
.30
.30
Attendants, powder factory 2.
.80
Hammer runners:
Heavy..................................
.66
.66
.63
.60
.57
.66
Other...................................
.62
.52
.60
.55
.58
1 Rate for laborer, common, at Naval Powder Factory, Indianhead, M d ., and Naval Proving Ground,
Dahlgren, Va., 50 cents per hour.
* Intermediate rates, 75, 70, 65, and 60 cents per hour. Minimum rate, 55 cents per hour.

.61

19205— 36------ 59




914

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

T a ble 3 .—R ATES OF W A G E S PER HOUR IN T H E L ABO R ER , H E L P E R , A N D M E C H A N ­
IC A L SER VICE—Continued

Occupation
G r o u p / / —Continued
Helpers:
Blacksmiths’—
Heavy fires

Boilermakers’ ________________
Coppersmiths’
____
Electricians’.... ............................
Flange turners’
Forgers’, heavy
Generali____ 1............ ...............
Machinists’ ..................................
Metalsmiths’________ _________
Molders’ _________ __
_____
Pipe fitters’__________________
Riggers’ . —................................. .
Ropemakers’ __ -- 1
Shipfitters’ _________ _____„
Woodworkers’ _
Hod carriers____ _______________
Holders-on___________ ___________
Laborers, classified______ _________
Oilers,...................................... __
Rivet heaters.....................................
Sand blasters,............. .....................
Stable keepers________ ____________
Stevedores______________
Teamsters-............................. .........

New
Bos­ New Phila­ Wash­ Nor­ Charles­ Or­ Mare Puget Great
Is­ Sound Lakes
del­
ton
ton York phia ington folk
leans land

$0.64 $0.64 $0.62
.61
.57
.61
.61
.61
.57
.57
.61
.61
.63
.59
.63
.62
.64
.64
.64
.62
.64
.61
.61
.57
.57
.61
.61
.61
.63
.61
.61
.61
.61
.63
.67
.66
.74
.58
.72
.58
.67
.60

$0.62 $0.59
.54
.57
.57
.56
.54
.57
.56
.59
.59
.59
.54
.57
.56
.57

$0.68
$0.56
.64
.51
.63
.51
.63
.51
.63
.51 $0.51
.68
.56
.68
.56
.63
.51
.51
.51
.63
.51

$0.65
.61
.63
.63
.63
.68
.68
.63
.63

.62
.63
.63

.62
.63
.63

.63
.63
.63

.57

.93

.88

.63
.63
.61

.57
.59
.57

.57
.59
.57

.56
.55
.54

.51
.51
.51

.61
.61
.63
.64
.66
.56
.75
.60
.76
.58
.68
.63

.57
.57
.59

.57

.55
.55
.57
.56
.62
.46
.70
.45
.70

.51
.51
.51
.56
.59
.36
.35
.67

.60
.72

.53
.48

.53

.71
.62

.63
.63
.63
.65
.68
.56
.70
.60
.72
.58
.71
.62

.65
.53
.70
.56
.72
.56
.65
.56

.59
.62
3.53
.70
.72
.56
.56

.51
.51

.36

.68
.56

$0.61
.60
.60
.61
.60

.62

G ro u p I I I

Aircraft-fabric workers................
Aircraft mechanics:
General .......................................
Motor_____ ______
Angle smiths:
Heavy fires............. ............. .......
.96
.99
Other fires_____________ _______ .86
.89
Blacksmiths:
Heavy fires___________________
.98
.99
Other fires______________
.88
.89
Boat builders_____________________
.92
.90
Boilermakers................... ...................
.92
.88
Box makers____________ __________ .62
.65
Brakemen__________________
.76
.76
Buffers and polishers...................
.83
.83
Butchers........ ............................. .......
Calkers, wood_____ _____ ________
.84
.89
Calkers and chippers, iron________
.89
.86
Cement finishers, _________________ .92
.95
Cement workers__________________
.63
Chain makers_______ _____
.91
Chauffeurs________ ______________
.68
.71
Coffee roasters____________
.92
Conductors, railroad—.........
.82
Coopers____ ____ _____________
.76
.75
Coppersmiths.......... ................... .......
.93
.98
Cranemen, electric (under 20 tons) _ .72
.75
Crystal oscillator makers_________
Cupola tenders...... ................
.81
.78
Die sinkers_________ ______________ .98 1.02
Divers_________ ________ ____
1.90 1.90
Dredge operators ............. .......
Drillers........................................
.73
.76
Electricians..................... ...................
.95
.98
Electroplaters.....................................
.88
.93
Elevator mechanics_______________
1.10
Enginemen________ ______________
.87
.91
Locomotive.............. — ____ __ .88
.92
Locomotive, electric,.................
Hoisting and portable __ _
.92
.88
Firemen___________ ______________
.72
.75
Firemen, power p la n t_____ _____
Firemen, other fires_ ___________
_
Flange turners,_____ _________
.94
.89
Forgers:
Drop______________________ ,_
.84
.91
1.33 1.36
L ig h t-.......................................... 1.08 1.09
Foundry chippers
.64
.70
Frame benders....................................
.89
.94
1 Rate for laborers, classified, at Naval Powder
Dahlgren, Va., 60 cents per hour.




.57

.56

.88
.88

.88
.88

.93
.83

.93
.83

.89
.79

1.01
.91

1.01
.91

.93
.83
.87
.87
.60
.76
.83

.89
.79
.80

1.02
.92
.97
.93
.65
.81
.89

1.05
.91
.97
.92
.65
.81
.89

.80
.80
,84

.92
.91
.98
.63

.92
.91
.98
.63

.93

.60

.75

.75

.71

.85
.68

.-84

.84
.78
.98
.78

.84
.78
.98
.78

1.90
1.00
.68
.87

1.90

.83
1.03
1.90

.83
1.03
1.90

.90

.78
.99
.99

.78
.99
.99

.95

.81
.81

.80

.93

.93
.93

.88

.65

.79

.93
.77

.94

.94

.93
.83
.87
.87
.60
.76
.83
.84
.84
.90
.61

.93
.83
.87
.60
.76
.83
.73
.84

.82
.58
.76
.65

.90"
.61

.84
.84
.88
.51

.82
.88
.41

.65

.65

.62

.56

.82

.82

.92
.70

.92
.70
.82
.75
.98

.82
.68
.92
.75

.75
.98
1.90
.70
.93
.87
.84
.86
.86
.70
.87

.93
.87
.84
.86
.80
.86
.70
.87

. 75
.98
1.90
.70
.93
.87
.84
.86
.86
.70
.87

.66
.51
.86

.87
.63
.73

.74

.82
.82
.82
.90
.88
1.30
1.31
1.31 1.31
1.38
1.38
1.03 1.03
1.03
.99
1.12
1.15
.64
.64
.64
.65
.65
.87
.87
.85
.94
.94
Factory, Indianhead, M d., and Naval Proving Ground,

915

CIVIL EMPLOYEES— NAVY DEPARTMENT

T a ble 3 .—R ATES OF W A G E S PER H O U R IN TH E L A B O R E R , H EL PER , A N D M E G H A N IC A L SER VICE—Continued

Occupation

Phila­
New
Bos­ New del­ Wash­ Nor­ Charles­ Or­ Mare Puget Great
Is­ Sound Lakes
ton
ton York phia ington folk
leans land

G r o u p I I I — Continued

Furnace men:
Foundry_____________________
$0.70 $0.65
.70
.65
Heaters’
.80
.75
Heavy forge heaters__________ $0.75
othef forge,.
.65
.70
.65
.72
.67
Galvanizers.T____________________
.71
.63
.63
Gardeners.......................................... . .64
.74
.76
.79
Gas cutters or burners____________
Glass apparatus makers__________
.92
Instrument makers
___
.95
.91
Joiners................... ........... .................
.93
.90
.88
.64
Ladle men, foundry..........................
.70
.65
Lead humors 6
.72
.70
Leather workers__________________
.75
.94
.92
Letterers and grainers____________
.97
Linotype or monotype operators,
or nompnsitnrs
_
_ _
.90
Lnftsmen
_
.93
.94
.96
Machine operators
_ _
_ _
.71
.67
.68
.92
.88
Machinists...................... ..................
.88
Markers and sorters, laundry
Masons, brick or stone_____............ 1.14 1.14 1.14
Mechanics, bombsight____________
Melters_ ________ 7______________
_
.82
.77
.79
Electric______________________
1.05 1.10
Open hearth _ _
__
Metallic cartridge case makers___
"
_ . ...
Millmen___
.90
.93
.88
Model makers, wood_____________
M olders „
....... _
_ . _ _ .96 1.03
.98
Operators, gas plant
.
.84
.82
.80
Optical glass plate and gage makers.
Optical instrument finishers______
Optical instrument makers_______
Optical glass grinders and polishers.
Optical parts inspectors__________
Optical instrument assemblers____
Optical polish and wax mixers____
Ordnancemen____________________
.75
.75
.75
Packers
____
.68
.70
.65
Painters................................................
.92
.89
.88
Painters, coach______ _____ _______
Pattern makers________________ _. 1.02 1.06 1.04
Pipe coverers and insulators.
.88
.91
.88
Pipe fitters.......................... ................
.95
.98
.93
Plasterers............................................. 1.14 1.14 1.14
Plumbers............................. ................
.95
.98
.93
Printers, job_________________
.90
. 90
Punchers and shearers___________
.73
.64
. 65
Riggers..................................... ............
.92
.84
.90
Riggers, antennae__________ ____
Riveters______________________ . . .
.88
.86
.91
Rollers, brass and copper_________
Roofers___________ ________________ .95
.98
Ropemakers.......................... ..............
.77
Sailmakers______________ _________ .88
.84
.90
Saw filers___ ____ ______________
.97 1.04
.95
Sewers______________________
58
. 57
Sheet-metal workers............... ........... .95
.98
193
i 91
Ship fitters.........................................
.88
.87
Shipwrights_______________________
.93
.90
.88
Temperers________________________
Tile and plate setters........................
.88
.90
Toolmakers-.......................................
.93
.97
.93
Trackmen_______________________
.63
.63
.61
Typewriter repairmen..____ ______
Upholsterers______________________ .89
.92
.87
Watch and chronometer repairers 6
_
Water tenders ___ _ _ _
.76
.79
.73
Welders:
Fleetrifi
.88
.91
.86
Gas...............................................
.86
.89
.84
Wharf builders___________________
.90
.92
.88

$0.65 $0.65
.65
.65
.72
.72
.64
.64
.67
.63
.63
.74
.74
1.20
.91
.88
.88
.67
.58
1.07
.70
.68
.92
.92

$0.60
$0.75
.60
.70
.70
.75
.70
.60
.64
.83
.63 $0.63 4.73
.70
.76

$0.75
.70
.75
.70
.80
.73
.76

.97
.99

.97
.99
.70

.78
1.01

1.00

.90
.93
.67
.88

.95
.97
.76
.93

.95
.97
.76
.93

.90

1.17

1.17

1.14

.67
.88
.55
1.14
1.10
.77
1.05
1.15
.68
.88
1.03
.98
.80
.92
.84
.92
.82
.82
.74
.82
.75
.70
.88
.90
1.04
.88
.93
1.14
.93
.90

1.14

.85

.85

.87
.82
.30
1.14

.82
1.14

.99

.75
.65
.88

.75
.65
.81

1.04
.88
.93
1.14
.93
.90
.64
.84

.94
.85
.90
1.14
.90
.87
.60
.81

*.84

.80

.84
.95

.84
1.00

! 93
.87
.88
.90

! 93
.87
.88

.84
.95
46
.89
.82
.85

.93
. 61

.93
. 56

.83
.87
.56

.87
1.05
.73

.87
.73
.86
.84
.88

.83
.83
.85

.80
.77
.96

.80
.77
.96
1.10
.91
.99
1.17
.99
.97
.70
.94

.70

.86
.84
.88

i. oi
.84

1.13

.90
.78

.99

1. 02
.84

.87

.98
.80

.84

.81

.87
1.14
.89
.80

! 99
1.17
.99
.97
! 72
.94
1.04
.90

.72
.90

.94
1.12
.94
.85

.90

.76

! 99
.93
.99

.92
1.00
.57
.99
.91
.97

.98
. 63

.92
.98
.63

1.00

.95

.93
*90
.99

.93
.90
.99

.94
.83

.83
.80

4 Rate of 99 cents per hour for gardeners allowed at naval ammunition depot, Hawthorne, Nev.
5 For use at Naval Powder Factory, Indianhead, M d., only.
6 For use at Naval Observatory, Washington, D . 0 ., only.




.92

.83
1.05

.77
1.15
.88

$0.63

. 50
.94

.63

916

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

C o m m o n L a b o r— E n tra n c e Wage Rates, J u ly 1931 to J u ly 1934
T h e term “ common labor’*has many interpretations among differ­
ent industries and even among different localities or plants in the same
industry. Also, many employers make a practice of increasing the
rate of pay of a laborer after a stated length of service, provided a
sufficient degree of fitness for the job has been developed; otherwise
the employee is dropped. Owing to these difficulties in the way of
securing comparable data as to wage rates for common labor, the
Bureau of Labor Statistics has limited its study to entrance rates
alone; that is, the rates of pay per hour for unskilled adult male
common labor when first hired.
This survey has been confined to 13 important industries, in which
a considerable number of common laborers are employed. The
number of common laborers employed at entrance rates in the estab­
lishments reporting were 94,529 on July 1, 1931; 142,938 on July 1,
1932; 152,653 on.July 1, 1933; and 173,188 on July 2, 1934. The
industries included in the surveys were as follows:
Automobiles
Brick, tile, and terra cotta
Cement
Electrical machinery, apparatus, and
supplies
Foundry and machine-shop products
Iron and steel

Leather
Lumber (sawmills)
Paper and pulp
Petroleum refining
Slaughtering and meat packing
Public utilities
General contracting

The weighted average entrance rate per hour for each of the 13
industries, for their combined total, and for the total of these industries
omitting general contracting, for the years 1926-34, is shown in table 1.
T able 1 . —A V ER AG E H O U R L Y E N T R A N C E W A G E RATES FOR A D U L T M A L E C O M ­
M O N LABOR , JULY OF EACH Y E A R , 1926 TO 1934

Average hourly entrance rates (in cents) in—
Industry
1934

1926

1927

1928

1929

1930

1931

1932

1933

All industries____________ _________________ _ 42.8
All industries except general contracting_____ 40.9

42.6
40.4

44.9
44.1

43.7
42.1

43.1
41.6

41.2
40.7

38.1
37.6

35.0
34.2

43.0
42.3

Automobile_______ __________________________
Brick, tile, and terra cotta......... - ............ ..........
Cement.......................................... ................ ? ___
Electrical machinery, apparatus, and supplies.
Foundry and machine-shop products________
Iron and steel_____ _________________________
Leather_____________________________________
Lumber (sawmills)......... ....................................
Paper and p u lp ...______ ____________________
Petroleum refining__________________________
Slaughtering and meat packing_______ _______
Public utilities_______________ _______________
General contracting..................... ......................

46.3
42.2
39.2
44.2
37.8
43.2
41.4
32.2
42.5
44.0
41.7
39.8
48.2

57.2
39.4
37.2
46.0
38.4
42.5
42.3
31.7
44.3
45.4
42.2
42.9
47.4

49.9
37.8
37.8
45.9
39.8
42.5
42.2
32.0
44.0
45.7
42.0
42.8
48.3

48.2
38.0
37.9
44.8
39.0
42.1
41.9
31.6
43.2
48.1
41.8
44.6
47.0

57.7
33.9
37.2
42.9
38.2
41.8
39.1
27.7
37.2
47.5
41.7
44.6
42.6

62.0
28.9
30.6
39.6
34.8
31.8
32.9
21.5
35.6
42.1
34.6
41.5
39.9

46.5
24.7
29.5
37.1
31.8
33.6
31.6
20.8
32.6
40.7
32.3
38.7
38.3

54.9
36.9
44.7
43.5
40.1
43.2
39.3
33.1
40.3
52.6
43.9
41.8
45.5

46.1
40.7
40.1
43.1
37.1
42.7
40.9
33.6
42.8
47.9
41.5
42.0
47.1

The maximum, minimum, and average common labor entrance
rates per hour on July 1, 1931, 1932, 1933, and July 2, 1934, for each
of the 13 industries and for all industries combined, for each geo­
graphic division and for the United States as a whole, are shown in
table 2.




917

COMMON LABOR— ENTRANCE RATES

T a ble 3 .—H O U R L Y E N T R A N C E W A G E R ATES FOR C O M M O N LABO R , JULY 1,1931, 1932,
1933, A N D JULY 2, 1934, B Y IN D U S T R Y
Geographic division
United States
Industry

New England

Middle Atlantic

East North Central

1931 1932 1933 1934 1931 1932 1933 1934 1931 1932 1933 1934 1931 1932 1933 1934
All industries:
Low................
High...............
Average..........
Automobiles:
Low................
High...............
Average........Brick, tile, and
terra cotta:
Low....... ........
High...............
Average.........
Cement:
Low_________
High...............
Average.........
Electrical machinery, apparatus, and supplies:
Low.... ............
High...............
Average.........
Foundry and ma­
c h in e -s h o p
products:
Low_________
High...............
Average.........
Iron and steel:
Low................
High...............
Average.........
T iA n fh g l •
JJga t i io r *

Low.... ............
High...............
Average.........
Lum ber (saw­
mills):
L o w ..............
High...............
Average..........
Paper and pulp:
Low................
High............. .
Average.........
Petroleum refin­
ing:
Low_________
High...............
Average_____
Slaughtering and
meat packing:
L o w ..______
High __
Average.........
Public utilities:
L o w ..............
High...............
Average.........
General contract-

Ct.

C t.

C t.

C t.

Ct.

C t.

C t.

Ct.

C t.

Ct.

C t.

C t.

Ct.

Ct.

Ct.

Ct.

10.0 5.0 5.0 10.0 30.0 20.0 20.0 27.5 21.5 12.5 17.0 30.0 25.0 15.0 15.0 20.0
125.0 100.0 95.0 100.0 90.0 80.0 70.0 70.0 125.0 100.0 95.0 87.5 125.0 90.0 95.0 100.0
41.2 38.1 35.0 43.0 45.4 40.4 37.1 43.3 45.1 40.4 36.7 45.2 45.2 45.0 38.7 147.0
35.0 30.0 29.2 32.0
75.0 75.0 53.0 62.6
57.7 62.0 46.5 54.9

30.0 30.0 32.0 35.0 30.0 30.0 40.0 35.0 30.0 29.2 38.0
45.0 45.0 45.0 75.0 75.0 50.0 62.5 75.0 75.0 50.0 62.5
38.1 33.8 41.6 62.4 62.5 47.2 55.8 46.4 62.0 46.3 54.6

13.5 6.0 5.5 24.0 35.0 28.0 20.0 35.0 21.5 22.0 18.0 35.0 30.0 15.0 15.0 35.0
51.0 60.0 50.0 50.0 45.0 45.0 40.0 40.0 51.0 44.0 40.0 50.0 48.8 60.0 50.0 50.0
33.9 28.9 24.7 36.9 36.2 35.8 32.0 38.6 41.4 31.5 28.2 38.5 32.3 32.3 25.0 39.8
25.0 20.0 20.0 30.0
50.0 40.0 40.0 51.0
37.2 30.6 29.5 44.7

............ ............ ............ ...........

40.0 32.0 25.0 44.0 30.0 24.0 24.0 40.0
44.0 35.0 33.0 47.0 44.0 33.5 33.5 47.5
42.1 33.5 29.1 44.5 39.8 28.1 29.5 44.3

32.0 26.0 26.0 34.0 32.0 30.0 27.0 35.0 38.0 32.0 32.0 40.0 35.0 30.0 27.5 34.0
58.0 50.0 49.5 60.0 48.0 45.0 38.0 57.5 54.0 50.0 45.0 50.0 58.0 46.0 49.5 60.0
42.9 39.6 37.1 43.5 44.2 38.1 35.3 51.5 43.7 38.3 38.2 42.2 42.7 41.8 36.4 43.7

17.0 15.0 12.5 18.0 30.0 20.0 25.0 35.0 30.0 17.9 17.0 32.0 30.0 18.0 18.0 32.0
56.3 55.0 53.0 62.5 45.0 50.0 53.0 55.0 51.0 54.0 51.0 54.0 55.0 55.0 45.0 62.5
38.2 34.8 31.8 40.1 37.8 36.1 35.3 39.1 41.3 36.9 33.8 41.3 40.7 35.3 31.1 41.3
20.0 15.5 15.0 25.0 35.0 30.0 20.0 37.0 28.0 19.0 17.0 35.0 31.5 25.0 25.0 37.0
50.0 45.0 45.0 55.0 45.0 40.0 45.0 47.0 50.0 41.0 40.0 50.0 50.0 45.0 45.0 55.0
41.8 31.8 33.6 43.2 41.7 32.4 31.3 44.5 42.0 31.2 31.6 43.9 45.1 33.2 34.7 45.7
20.0 15.0 15.0 24.0 40.0 30.0 27.9 32.0 33.3 30.0 25.0 32.0 30.0 24.0 20.0 32.0
55.0 55.0 47.6 62.5 54.2 50.0 41.7 56.3 50.0 45.8 47.6 62.5 49.0 55.0 45.0 45.0
39.1 32.9 31.6 39.3 46.5 38.4 39.5 48.5 42.9 38.8 38.0 46.9 38.7 32.4 28.2 38.5
10.0 5.0 5.0 20.0 30.0 24.0 25.0 30.0 32.5 12.5 25.0 30.0 26.0 20.0 15.0 20.0
50.0 62.6 45.0 50.0 35.0 36.0 27.0 45.0 32.5 30.0 35.0 35.0 37.5 62.5 37.5 42.5
27.7 21.5 20.8 33.1 32.5 25.8 26.1 32.0 32.5 25.9 27.0 32.6 28.7 28.0 24.8 31.1
17.5 12.5 12.5 27.0 35.0 25.5 20.0 32.5 35.0 25.0 20.0 35.0 25.0 20.0 20.0 32.0
53.0 50.0 50.0 51.8 53.0 50.0 45.0 46.0 50.0 50.0 45.0 50.0 48.5 45.0 46.0 50.0
37.2 35.6 32.6 40.3 42.7 41.4 35.8 41.5 40.6 35.0 32.5 41.6 39.6 35.5 33.4 41.9
30.0 22.5 22.5 36.0
62.0 62.0 62.0 62.0
47.5 42.1 40.7 52.6

45.0 36.0 36.0 52.0 45.0 35.0 30.0 52.0
53.0 56.0 56.0 58.9 50.0 48.0 48.0 56.0
48.5 46.5 45.9 56.3 48.1 40.9 43.2 52.4

30.0 27.0 22.5 30.0 37.0 34.0 34.0
45.0 40.0 45.0 52.0 37.0 34.0 34.0
41.7 34.6 32.3 43.9 37.0 34.0 34.0

35.0 32.5 25.0 42.5 35.0 27.0 22.5 40.0
45.0 40.0 36.0 52.0 45.0 40.0 36.0 46.5
40.8 35.9 33.1 46.4 42.3 36.3 33.5 45.3

15.0 15.0 10.0 10.0 30.0 29.0 20.0 27.5 30.0 25.0 24.0 31.5 32.5 20.0 20.0 22.5
67.5 75.0 75.0 75.0 60.0 58.0 58.0 67.5 61.3 65.0 61.3 70.5 67.5 75.0 75.0 75.0
44.6 41.5 38.7 41.8 49.7 47.2 44.8 46.4 44.8 45.9 44.0 48.7 53.4 45.5 45.9 48.0

Low... ............ 15.0 7.5 5.0 20.0 35.0 25.0 25.0 40.0 25.0 25.0 20.0 30.0 30.0 20.0 20.0 30.0
High............... 125.0 100.0 95.0 100.0 90.0 80.0 70.0 70.0 125.0 100.0 95.0 87.5 125.0 90.0 95.0 100.0
Average......... 42.6 39.9 38.3 45.5 51.4 39.7 39.8 46.3 49.7 46.6 42.0 46.4 54.1 45.1 42.8 52.7




918
T

able

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR
2 f —H O U R L Y

E N T R A N C E W A G E RATES FOR C O M M O N LABO R , JULY 1, 1931, 1932,
1933, A N D JULY 2, 1934, B Y IN D U S T R Y —Continued
Geographic division

Industry

West North Central

South Atlantic

East South Central

1931
All industries:
L o w ,.__________ ______
High__________________
Average_________ ______

1932

1933

1934

1931

1932

1933

1934

1931

1932

1933

1934

C t.

Ct.

Ct.

Ct.

Ct.

C t.

C t.

C t.

5.0
50.0
25.3

10.0
51.8
33.6

15.0
40.0
25.2

5.0
75.0
21.0

6.5
50.0
25.7

C t.

6.0
50.0
23.4

75.0
75.0
75.0

50.0
50.0
50.0

15.0
37.5
20.6

8.0
26.5
17.2

7.0
30.0
19.6

24.0
39.0
30.8

25.0
36.0
29.9

20.0
33.0
23.2

20.0
25.0
21.3

34.0
35.0
34.8

Ct.

Ct.

Ct.

15. C 12.5
87.5 87.5
42.9 35.8

10.0
80.0
34.5

23.0
78.8
43.2

10.0
50.0
28.9

40.0
75.0
72.8

36.0
75.0
61.7

35.0
50.0
38.7

50.0
62.5
54.8

28.0
40.0
31.1

20.0
34.0
26.5

20.0
40.0
24.4

35.0
40.0
37.5

31.5
44.0
33.8

28.0
33.0
30.1

28.0
35.0
31.8

40.0
50.0
47.7

35.0
43.0
37.1

26.0
31.0
28.2

26.0
28.0
26.8

37.0
40.0
38.1

34.0
45.0
40.7

25.0
50.0
35.4

20.0
45.0
34.4

35.0
43.0
40.1

35.0
40.0
37.0

25.0
33.0
30.0

22.5
62.5
34.1

Automobiles:
High........ .........................
Average_______________
Brick, tile7 and terra cotta:
Low__________________
H ig h ..,,..........................
Average...........................
Cement:
High
Average___________ __ _
Electrical machinery, apparatus, and supplies:
Low_______
_ .
High.................................
Average _ _
Foundry and machine-shop
T n H /vI *
Y n n /O
plUUUbfc**
Low__________________
High.................................
Average............................
Iron and steel:
High_____ _______
Average________ _______
Leather:
Low_ ________________
_
High............. ...................
Average_____________ _
Lumber (sawmills) :
Low............ .....................
High____ ______ _______
Average________ _______
Paper and pulp:
Low.................................
High............. ...................
Average...........................
Petroleum refining:
Low__________________
H ig h ............ .................
Average...........................
Slaughtering and meat
packing:
High........... .....
....
Average___
Public utilities:
Low..................................
High.................................
Average............. .............
General contracting:
Low..................................
High.................................
Average......... ..................




13.5
30.0
21.5

6.0
40.0
17.8

5.5
45.0
17.1

24.0
44.0
33.0

35.0
38.0
37.0
17.0
43.8
27.7

15.0
40.0
25.0

15.0
40.0
22.2

25.0
44.0
29.6

27.5
40.0
31.8

15.0
35.0
23.0

12.5
35.0
19.0

25.9
40.0
32.8

30.0
30.0
30.0

20.0
44.0
36.1

15.5
33.0
30.1

15.0
40.0
35.8

25.0
44.0
40.0

23.5
31.0
25.4

16.0
31.5
24.3

15.5
31.5
24.6

27.5
47.5
32.7

20.0
20.0
20.0

20.0
20.0
20.0

20.0
40.0
34.0

15.0
35.0
23.4

15.0
30.0
27.2

24.0
40.0
31.0

20.0
33.0
32.9

28.5
28.5
28.5

15.0
20.0
18.3

26.0
40.0
39.6

30.0
30.0
30.0

12.5
30.0
25.0

10.0
27.5
24.2

23.0
40.0
35.8

10.0
32.5
14.1

6.5
31.0
14.6

5.0
25.0
13.3

23.0
28.5
24.8

15.0
25.0
16.4

5.0
25.0
14.3

6.5
20.0
11.7

24.0
28.5
25.1

31.5
45.0
38.5

25.0
38.0
33.3

25.0
35.0
33.5

33.5
45.0
40.8

25.0
42.0
36.5

16.0
40.0
25.5

14.3
40.0
24.2

30.0
51.8
34.1

17.5
30.0
23.5

12.5
29.0
19.1

12.5
26.0
16.9

30.0
36.0
32.4

50.0
50.0
50.0

32.5
45.0
36.9

32.5
45.0
37.4

43.0
55.0
51.0

30.0
50.0
39.9

29.0
50.0
40.0

29.0
50.0
39.2

36.0
50.0
47.0

35.0
35.0
35.0

37.5
43.0
42.2

29.0
40.0
33.7

25.0
38.0
31.7

30.2
45.0
43.2

40.0
40.0
40.0

35.0
35.0
35.0

30.0
35.0
32.5

30.0
40.0
34.0

20.0
55.0
39.5

20.0
50.0
35.1

25.0
50.0
37.7

15.0
45.0
36.9

15.0
50.0
30.8

10.0
45.0
29.0

10.0
50.0
34.0

25.0
40.0
31.9

15.0
40.0
27.9

15.0
40.0
24.9

22.5
45.0
33.1

15.0
87.5
38.1

15.0
87.5
36.8

12.5
80.0
36.7

35.0
78.8
44.2

15.0
50.0
28.7

10.0
50.0
23.0

5.0
40.0
21.9

20.0
50.0
36.7

15.0
35.0
25.1

15.0
37.5
22.7

10.0
50.0
21.1

30.0
50.0
37.2

30.0
30.0
30.0

919

COMMON LABOR— ENTRANCE RATES
T

able

2 .—H O U R L Y E N T R A N C E W A G E R AT ES FOR C O M M O N LABO R JU LY 1, 1931, 1932,
1933, A N D JU LY 2, 1934, B Y IN D U S T R Y — Continued
Geographic division
Industry

Pacific

1932

1933

1934

1931

1932

1933

1934

1931

1932

1933

1934

C t.

C t.

Ct.

Ct.

C t.

C t.

C t.

Ct.

Ct.

Ct.

10.0
50.0
23.4

18.0
62.5
32.7

22.5
62.5
43.1

16.5
65.6
39.3

15.5
59.4
42.3

22.5
65.0
46.4

22.0
75.0
43.5

C t.

7.5
75.0
23.7

18.8
75.0
40.2

18.0
68.8
38.0

25.0
87.5
46.9

75.0
75.0
75.0

50.0
50.0
50.0

50.0
55.0
54.0

45.0
55.0
52.2

45.0
53.0
50.7

45.0
50.0
47.2

22.5
25.0
23.9

12.5
22.3
15.5

10.0
20.0
11.8

24.0
30.0
25.7

37.0
50.0
42.9

30.0
45.0
36.0

25.0
42.5
34.2

35.0
50.0
41.5

25.0
28.0
27.4

22.5
26.0
24.4

24.0
26.0
25.5

30.0
38.0
34.0

34.0
50.0
40.9

36.0
40.0
38.6

36.0
40.0
38.3

50.0
51.0
50.8

22.5
30.0
25.5

17.5
36.0
28.5

15.0
40.0
24.2

18.0
45.0
34.5

1931
All industries:
Low..................................
High.................................
Average............................

Mountain

West South Central

C t.

15.0
50.0
29.9

Automobiles:
T,nw_

__

High__________________
Avftragft
Brick, tile,"and terra cotta:
Low__________________
High........................ .........
Average............................
Cement:
Low___________________
High.................................
A

- .

38.5
40.0
39.0

23.5
45.0
38.4

23.5
40.5
33.2

30.0
43.5
39.0

Electrical ''machinery, apparatus, and supplies:
High
Average. Foundry and machine-shop
n rU U U U w be
p V A H lIA to *

Low___________________
High________ _____ — Average— ____________
Iron and steel:
Low___________________
High__________________
Average_______________
Leather:
TTigh
______ ______
Average
. _ _
Lumber (sawmills):
Low..................................
High.................................
Average............................
Paper and pulp:
TTigh
____
Average_______________
Petroleum refining:
Low..................................
High.................................
Average............................
Slaughtering and meat
packing:
Low..................................
High.................................
Average...........................
Public utilities:
Low..................................
High.................................
Average...........................
General contracting:
Low..................................
High.................................
Average...........................




40.0
45.0
43.1

35.0
55.0
43.0

25.0
40.0
36.2

45.0
56.3
50.4

32.0
50.0
43.9

32.0
50.0
41.5

40.0
55.0
43.4

49.0
49.0
49.0

37.0
37.0
37.0

37.0
37.0
37.0

45.0
45.0
45.0

27.0
35.0
32.4

25.0
35.0
30.1

38.5
45.0
41.8

22.0
55.0
51.0

31.3
52.0
42.8

31.3
37.5
32.7

40.0
45.0
40.5

27.0
50.0
36.3

18.8
40.0
30.1

18.0
45.0
28.7

32.5
50.0
44.2

36.0
51.3
37.5

25.0
50.0
37.5

27.5
50.0
35.2

38.0
49.5
42.4

15.0
25.0
20.7

7.5
25.0
15.1

10.0
20.0
13.7

23.0
27.5
24.0

22.5
42.0
36.1

22.0
30.0
26.3

18.0
22.5
20.4

18.0
20.0
19.3

27.0
36.0
31.2

35.0
50.0
43.2

22.5
48.0
35.4

22.5
45.0
35.6

43.0
58.0
49.1

45.0
56.3
50.6

40.0
54.0
51.1

40.0
54.0
51.3

50.0
50.0
50.0

53.0
62.0
56.4

53.0
62.0
55.2

46.9
62.0
51.5

52.0
62.0
54.8

30.0
37.5
37.2

27.0
33.0
29.9

27.0
30.0
27.7

30.0
38.5
37.3

40.0
40.0
40.0

31.5
40.0
33.7

27.0
45.0
30.0

40.0
44.0
43.9

40.0
42.5
41.4

31.0
40.0
34.5

25.0
38.0
33.1

42.5
44.0
44.0

28.0
36.0
30.3

15.0
49.0
27.6

15.0
47.0
26.4

20.0
40.0
29.5

35.0
42.0
36.1

25.0
65.6
42.9

22.5
59.4
41.3

22.5
59.4
44.7

35.0
60.0
50.5

27.0
60.0
44.3

22.0
54.5
42.0

25.0
65.0
42.8

20.0
50.0
30.0

7.5
40.0
25.6

15.0
45.0
27.3

25.0
55.0
35.5

30.0
62.5
45.3

20.0
62.5
44.8

37.5
50.0
49.2

40.0
65.0
50.9

35.0
75.0
50.0

30.0
75.0
48.2

25.0
68.8
49.0

40.0
87.5
55.4

16.5
37.0
32.0

15.5
37.0
32.5

24.0
46.5
41.9

920

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

C o m m o n Street Laborers— Wages and H o u rs , 1932

A s u r v e y of the entrance wage rates and regular full-time hours
of common street laborers was made by the Bureau of Labor Statistics
in December 1932. Questionnaires were sent to all cities and towns
having a population of 2,500 or over according to the census of 1930.
Reports were received from 2,733 cities and towns, this number being
approximately 86 percent of the municipalities canvassed. Detailed
data obtained in the survey were published in the July 1933 issue
of the Monthly Labor Review. The rates shown are those paid to
workers employed directly by the cities in constructing, repairing,
and cleaning streets, and not those paid to workers hired by contrac­
tors doing work for the city. Only the regular standard entrance
rate was used in the Bureau compilation; usually higher rates were
paid after a period of service.
Owing to economic conditions at the time of the survey, street
work in a number of cities was very irregular, many workers being
given much less than full-time work. In some cities various plans
were adopted to spread the work among greater numbers, such as
a 6-hour day and double shifts, alternate weeks of employment, etc.
Other cities employed “ welfare labor” and men from the ranks of
the unemployed, usually at a lower rate and on shorter hours. Some
laborers were paid with food orders instead of with cash.
Table 1 shows the number of cities reporting as paying each
classified hourly rate of pay in December 1932 and in October 1928,
when a previous survey was made. The cumulative percentages
indicate the general decrease that took place in wage rates for this
class of labor during the 4-year period.
T

1.—N U M B E R A N D P E R C E N T OF CITIES P A Y IN G E A C H CLASSIFIED H O U R L Y
R AT E FOR U N SK IL LE D ST R E E T LABOR IN OCTOBER 1928 A N D D E C E M B E R 1932

able

Number of cities

Cumulative percent
of cities

Classified entrance rates per hour
December
1932

October
1928

Under 15 cents........................................................................
15 and under 20 cents...... ....................................... ..............
20 and under 25 cents...... ..................... ........................ .......
25 and under 30 cents............................................. ..............
30 and under 35 cents..................................................... .......
35 and under 4Q cents........_......................... .........................
40 and under 45 cents............................... _.......... ................
45 and under 50 cents............................................................
50 and under 55 cents----------------- --------------------------------55 and under 60 cents-------------------------------------------------60 and under 70 cents_______ _________________ _____ __
70 and under 80 cents-------- --------------------------------------80 and under 85 cents—-------- ---------------------------------------

166
128
123
246
366
389
485
195
406
90
125
13
1

4
64
119
195
201
313
593
198
553
154
194
35
3

Total..............................................................................

2,733

December
1932
6.1
10.8
15.3
24.3
37.7
51.9
69.6
76.8
91.6
94.9
99.5
100.0
100.0

October
1928
0.2
2.6
7.1
14.6
22.2
34.1
56.7
64.2
85.3
91.2
98.6
99.9
100.0

2,626

Table 2 shows the number of cities reporting as having each classi­
fied regular full-time working hours per week in December 1932 and
in October 1928. The tendency toward a reduction in regular full­
time hours is indicated in the cumulative percentages.




921

COTTON-TEXTILE INDUSTRY

T able 2 .—N U M B E R A N D P E R C E N T OF CITIES W IT H CLASSIFIED R EG U LA R FU LL­
T IM E W E E K L Y W O R K IN G HOURS FOR U N SK ILLED S T R E E T LABOR IN OCTOBER
1928 A N D D E C E M B E R 1932
Cumulative percent of
cities

Number of cities
Classified full-time hours per week

December
1932

Under 40....................................... .............................. ...........
40................................................................... .......... ...............
Over 40 and under 44...................................... ............ .........
44..............................................................................................
Over 44 and under 48-____ ______________________ ____
48____________ _________ _______________________ _____
Over 48 and under 64_____ _________ ________________
54......................................... .....................................................
55.........................................
Over 55 and under 60..........................................................
60...................................................... ..................... ....... ......
Over 60....... ............ ................................. .............................

43
138
7
421
155
1,121
227
265
128
34
188
6

Total.................... ........................ ............ ...................

2,733

October
1928

17
238
109
1,053
282
378
154
49
347
2

December
1932
1.6
6.6
6.9
22.3
28.0
69.0
77.3
87.0
91.7
92.9
99.8
100.0

October
1928

0.3
9.4
13.5
53.7
64.5
78.9
84.8
86.7
99.9
100.0

2,619

1 Under 44 hours.

C o tto n -T e x tile

In d u s try — W age Rates and W eekly E a rn in g s,
1933-34

T h e adoption of the industrial code for the cotton-textile industry
resulted in raising the hourly and weekly earnings in most of the
low-paid occupations. In the higher-paid groups the increase was
much less, resulting in reducing very considerably the differentials
based upon skill. An order issued by the N. R. A. in May 1934
which reduced the maximum weekly hours from 40 to 30, for a
period of 12 weeks, caused a marked loss of earnings during that
period. The result was that in August 1934 the averge money
earnings per week of males showed a decline, as compared with those
in August 1933, of about 8 percent in the North and about 18 percent
in the South. When, however, the purchasing power of those earn­
ings, as determined by the cost of living, was taken into consideration,
the “ real income ” was found to have fallen about 18 and 25 percent,
respectively.
This was revealed by a wage study made by the Bureau of Labor
Statistics at the order of the President, covering pay-roll records for
a week in August 1933 and August 1934 in 177 nulls under the cottontextile code, employing approximately 100,000 workers. A smaller,
but nevertheless representative, sample, covering 38,000 wage earners,
was taken for a week prior to the code in July 1933. In general the
sample included somewhat more than one-quarter of the persons
employed in the industry, though in certain States the sample was
larger.

Average Hourly Earnings

hourly earnings, by occupations and sex, are shown in
table 1 for the North and South, respectively. In August 1934 in
occupations subject entirely to the basic code minimum rate, average
hourly earnings in the South ranged from 30.3 cents per hour for
truckers to 60.7 cents for foremen. In the North the averages ranged
from 33.5 cents for female filling hands and trimmers and inspectors
to 68.6 cents per hour for foremen.
Minimum wages had not become the maximum for the industry in
the sense of a literal equality of average hourly earnings for all
occupations. There was, however, in many occupations a concenA verage




922

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

tration of earnings at the minimum. In some occupations it was
approximately true that the basic minimum wage was the maximum
which could be earned in that occupation.
T a ble 1.—A V E R A G E H O U R L Y EAR N IN G S, B Y OCCU PATIO N , IN C O T T O N -T E X T IL E
M IL LS, 1933-34

Northern mills
Average hourly earnings
(cents)
Sex

Occupation

July
1933

Working foremen
_
.
. . .
LoO T fixers
Ti
- r .
. ....
Second hands__ _________ ______________

M

q1a

60.3
46.3
44.2
34.1
Warp-tying machine tenders____________
34.0
Section hands___ ______________________
33.7
Fixers, machinery______________________
32.9
Smash hands___________________________
31.6
Drawers-in, hand
_ _
30.8
Slubber tenders__ _____________________
30.3
W eavers
__________________________________ ..d o ______
30.1
Speeder tenders_________________________ ...d o ______
29.6
dn
Card tenders and strippers_____________
28.4
Weavers...____ . . . . . . __________________ Female___
28.3
dn
Smash hands___. . . . . . . _____________________
27.9
Picker tenders .... .. . .
27.9
Female___
Warper tenders...........
27.8
Spinners, fram« . . . .
27.3
dn
Helpers, general, factory________________
26.8
T>offers . . . . .
r .
- __
26.4
dn_ _
Watchmen .
.T
26.2
dn
Drawing-frame tenders___ _____________
25.6
dn
25.3
Truckers, hand
Speeder tenders_________________ _______ Female___
24.7
__ do______
Doffers .
24.7
Laborers, white. ________________________
24.5
23.9
Spinners, frame_________________________ Female___
Oilers . _ ____________________________________
23.7
23.7
Drawing-frame tenders ____________________ Female___
Roving men____________________________
22.6
22.1
Spooler tenders_________________________ Female___
21.4
Cleaners, machinery____________________
Trimmers and inspectors_______________ Female___
20.9
Filling hands___________________________
20.5
20.5
Cleaners, machinery____________________ Female___
dn
Filling h p n d f t ________________________________
20.2
_ .do______
________ ________________Laborers, white 18.4
f -earners and appr^nti^AS _ __
_
17.0
11.5
D o ________________________________ Female—
dn
dn
..
. dn
__do______
dn
...d o ...........
dn
Female___

Percent of increase

July
July
August
1933
1933
1933
August August
to
to
to
1933
1934 August August August
1933
1934
1934
61.8
63.1
61.5
47.9
47.7
47.6
46.2
42.3
42.7
46.1
43.9
43.5
40.2
42.5
39.6
40.3
44.9
42.3
38.1
41.3
41.9
38.2
36.9
39.6
35.2
34.5
37.3
35.3
35.4
35.5
36.4
31.6
33.2
33.6
32.7
33.4
31.3
26.4
24.1

68.6
64.8
62.8
49.7
49.7
48.7
50.1
43.5
42.7
48.8
44.2
45.4
41.0
43.5
38.9
40.7
39.9
44.5
36.9
43.2
42.7
38.9
37.8
40.2
35.9
35.5
37.8
36.0
35.2
36.0
38.0
32.5
33.5
34.3
33.5
33.5
33.3
29.1
24.1

36
40
42
46
46
44
52
38
39
61
47
53
44
54
39
46
44
63
38
64
63
52
49
63
63
45
58
52
49
59
72
52
60
67
63
66
80
71
110

23
36
39
40
40
41
40
34
39
52
46
47
42
50
42
44
62
55
42
66
60
49
46
60
43
41
56
49
49
57
65
48
59
64
60
65
70
55
110

11
3
2
4
4
2
8
3
0
6
1
4
2
2
l2
1
1H
5
l3
5
2
2
2
2
2
3
1
2
ll
1
4
3
1
2
2
(2
)
6
10

57.2
53.6
49.9
45.5
44.0
42.4
40.3
36.6
39.5
38.3
35.9
36.5
38.4
37.2
34.3
34.6
34.4
32.4
34.0
32.8
32.1
33.3

60.7
53.9
60.7
45.0
44.3
43.6
40.8
37.3
40.1
38.8
36.2
36.8
38.2
37.4
33.8
35.3
34.9
32.5
33.3
33.8
33.2
33.4

51
51
66
66
62
71
62
54
71
67
62
71
77
75
72
80
79
72
72
77
75
79

43
50
54
57
61
66
61
61
68
65
61
70
79
75
74
77
76
67
75
72
69
78

6
1
2
i1
1
3
1
2
2
1
1
1
l1
1
i1
2
1

0

Southern mills
Working foremen..........................................
Second hands............................... - ................
Loom fixers......... ...........................................
Section hands................................................
Card grinders..................................- ............
Warp-tying machine tenders......................
Fixers, machinery.........................................
Warper tenders............................. ................
Weavers..........................................................
Drawers-in, hand..........................................
Smash hands............................ .....................
Speeder tenders........................
—
Weavers................. .......................................
Slubber tenders.............................................
Spinners, frame.............................................
Speeder tenders.............................................
D offers...........................................................
Carders and strippers..................................
Warper tenders....................................... —
Drawing-frame tenders.. ............................
Spooler tenders....................................... —
Smash hands_________________ _________




1

Decrease.

Male..
do...
.do..
-do..
.do..
— do____
— do____
— do____
...d o.......
FemaleMale___
.do..
FemaleMale___
.do_.
Female..
Male___
do..
Female..
Male___
— do____
Female-

40.1
35.7
32.4
28.9
27.3
25.5
25.1
24.2
23.5
23.2
22.3
21.5
21.5
21.3
19.7
19.6
19.5
19.4
19.4
19.1
19.0
18.7

* Less than H o f 1 percent.

(2
)

(2
)

i2
3
3

923

COTTON-TEXTILE INDUSTRY
T

able

1.—A V E R A G E H O U R L Y EAR N IN G S, B Y O CC U PATIO N , IN C O T T O N -T E X T IL E
M ILLS, 1933-34— Continued

Southern mills— Continued
Average hourly earnings
(cents)
Sex

Occupation

July
1933

Watchmen ________ _____ _____ _
Helpers, general, factory________ _______
Oilers..................... .........................................
Drawing-frame tenders...............................
Picker tenders_____ _
___________
Creelers___ ____________________________
Roving men____________________________
Truckers_______________________________
Filling hands_________ _________________
Spooler tenders.................... .......... ..............
Cleaners, machinery, ____ _____________
Spinners, frame........................_.........- .........
Creelers________________________________
Trimmers and inspectors_______________
Laborers, white
____________________
Cleaners, machinery________ ______- .........
Laborers, colored
__
_ _____
Laborers, white............................ ................
Filling hands___________________________
Learners and apprentices_______________
Do................................... ........................
Laborers, colored..........................................
i Decrease.

Male
__do______
__ do______
Female—
do
...d o
do
do_
Female—
Female___
_„d o ...........
do
Female___
Female___
_do
Female___
...d o ...........

2 Less than ^ of 1 percent.

August August
1933
1934

18.3
18.3
18.0
18.0
17.3
17.1
16.8
16.6
16.6
16.2
16.1
16.1
16.0
16.0
16.6
14.9
14.3
14.0
13.7
13.4
10.8
10.5

30.8
31.6
31.3
31.6
30.9
31.1
30.4
29.9
30.8
32.8
26.0
32.2
31.6
30.9
26.4
25.9
20.4
26.3
30.6
22.3
22.0
17.0

32.7
32.1
31.5
30.9
31.3
31.2
30.4
30.3
31.1
33.4
27.4
32.1
31.0
31.0
28.0
27.8
24.0
29.7
30.7
28.4
24.2
22.6

Percent of increase

July
July
August
1933
1933
1933
to
to
to
August August August
1934
1933
1934
79
75
75
72
81
82
81
82
89
106
70
99
94
94
79
87
67
112
124
112
124
115

68
73
74
75
79
82
81
80
87
102
61
100
97
93
69
74
43
88
123
66
104
62

2
1
12
(2)
o
1
1
2
6
(3
)
(2)

l2

(2)

6
7
18
13
27
10
33

3 Decrease of less than H o f 1 percent.

Median average hourly earnings are shown in table 2.
T

able

2 .—AVE R A G E

(M E D IA N ) H O U R L Y EA R N IN G S IN C O T T O N -T E X T IL E M ILLS,
1933-34
Percent of increase

Section and sex

July 1933

August
1933

North:
Males..........................................................
Females......................................................
South:
Males..........................................................
Females......................................................

C ents

C ents

August
1934

Cents

July 1933
to August
1934

August
1933 to
August
1934

28.3
23.1

40.9
36.1

42.1
37.3

48.8
61.3

2.9
3.1

19.9
16.1

33.2
32.0

33.9
32.1

70.0
100.0

2.0
.3

In table 3 the distribution of hourly earnings is shown in greater
detail.




924

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

T a ble 3 .—C U M U L A T IV E P E R C E N T A G E D IST R IB U T IO N OF A V E R A G E H O U R L Y
E A R N IN G S IN C O T T O N -T E X T IL E M ILLS

North

South

North

Average hourly earnings

August 1934

August 1933

July 1933

South

North

South

Fe­
Fe­
Fe­
Fe­
Fe­
Fe­
Males males Males males Males males Males males Males males Males males
P ercent

Less than 12.5 cents_____
Less than 17.5 cents_____
Less than 22.5 cents_____
Less than 27.5 cents..........
Less than 30.0 cents_____
Less than 32.5 cents..........
Less than 35.0 cents..........
Less than 40.0 cents..........
Less than 45.0 cents_____
Less than 50.0 cents_____
Less than 60.0 cents..........
Less than 70.0 cents_____

P er­
cent

P er­
cent

P er­
cent

P er­
cent

P er­
cent

P er­
cent

P er­
cent

P er­
cent

P er­
cent

P er­
cent

1.4
6.0
22.3
46.1
58.8
66.8
74.0
83.5
89.8
95.4
98.6
99.5

3.8
13.0
46.4
74.1
84.1
90.0
93.8
97.2
98.9
99.5
99.8
99.9

8.3
35.0
64.0
81.5
86.0
91.3
94.7
97.6
98.7
99.1
99.5
99.8

21.4
61.7
87.9
94.3
95.5
98.2
99.2
99.6
99.8
99.9
99.9
99.9

0.9
2.8
4.1
6.1
26.5
46.6
63.1
74.6
88.3
97.0

1.8
3.7
4.7
7.9
43.3
73.6
88.3
94.7
99.3
99.8

5.5
9.4
10.2
46.8
58.0
73.8
83.8
92.6
97.9
99.2

4.4
6.6
7.8
61.4
77.4
92.8
97.4
98.9
99.8
99.9

0.2
1.0
2.1
3.2
22.8
42.1
58.7
70.3
85.2
96.1

0.6
1.5
1.8
3.8
38.3
68.8
85.2
91.9
99.0
99.8

0.6
7.6
8.3
44.0
54.9
70.9
82.7
91.6
97.5
99.0

P er­
cent

0.5
3.5
4.0
58.1
75.4
91.1
96.7
98.6
99.7
99.9

Average Weekly Earnings
W e e k l y earnings of workers reflect, of course, both rates of pay per
hour and the number of hours worked. The characteristic conditions
governing comparisons in the three periods covered by this study are
the relatively low hourly earnings of July 1933 coupled with an unregu­
lated working week, and higher hourly earnings in August 1933 and
1934 coupled in August 1933 with a large volume of production within
a maximum week of 40 hours and in August 1934 with low volume of
production. Long hours and low pay in July 1933 yielded for many
classes of labor as high weekly earnings as did higher wages with cur­
tailed hours in August 1934.
The median weekly earnings—those earnings marking the upper
limit for half of the workers and which were exceeded by the earnings
of the other half of the workers— are shown in table 4.
T

able

4 .— AVERAGE

(M E D IA N ) W E E K L Y E A R N IN G S IN C O T T O N -T E X T IL E M IL LS,
1933-34
Weekly earnings

Percent of increase

Section and sex
July 1933

North:
Males____ ______________
Females_________ _______
South:
Males___________________
Females......... ..................
1 Decrease.




August
1933

August
1934

July 1933
to August
1934

July 1933 August 1933
to August to August
1933
1934

$14.32
10.80

$15. 75
13.42

$14.48
12.18

1.1
12.8

10.0
24.3

i 8.1
i 9.2

10.24
7.35

12.37
11.18

10.29
9.19

.5
25.0

20.8
51.1

i 16.8
i 17.8

925

DOMESTIC SERVICE— PHILADELPHIA

The distribution of weekly earnings in each of the three periods for
all workers in the industry is shown in table 5.
T

able

5 .—

C U M U L A TIV E PER C E N T A G E D IST R IB U T IO N OF W E E K L Y EA R N IN G S IN
C O T T O N -T E X T IL E M ILLS
July 1933
North

August 1933

South

North

August 1934

South

North

Weekly earnings

South

Fe­
Males males Males Fe­ Males Fe­ Males Fe­ Males Fe­ Males Fe­
males
males
males
males
males
P er­
cent

P er­
cent

Per­

P er-

P e r-

Less than $5------------------6.6
Less than $10....... ___........ 20.7
Less than $12____________ 34.4
Less than $13____________ 41.9
Less than $14------------------ 48.1
Less than $18___________ 72.5
Less than $23____________ 88.0

P er­
cent

P er­
cent

P er­
cent'

P er­
cent

P er­
cent

9.6
41.4
66.1
74.7
80.9
96.7
99.5

P er­
cent

il. 4
47.9
64.3
71.8
77.0
91.2
97.7

25.3
78.2
91.5
95.1
96.9
99.5
99.8

3.0
9.0
14.4
17.7
34.8
65.7
85.5

5.0
15.0
24.7
30.9
58.0
90.6
99.2

5.8
25.8
36.2
59.3
67.3
86.7
97.3

7.4
39.8
55.3
79.8
87.5
98.4
99.8

2.6
15.2
27.8
34.2
46.1
70.8
88.3

4.1
28.4
48.1
57.5
70.9
92.9
99.2

7.0
47.8
62.8
73.4
79.5
92.5
97.8

P er­
cent

10.1
68.9
83.8
91.5
94.5
98.9
99.8

D o m e stic Service— Wages and H o u rs in P h ilad elp hia, 1932
T h e results of a survey of household employment in Philadelphia
and vicinity was published by the United States Women’s Bureau in
1932, as Bulletin No. 93. The investigation was originated by the
women’s problem group of the social order committee of the Society
of Friends, and the questionnaires were sent out in 1928 by a committee
of that group.
The number of householders returning satisfactory questionnaires
on household employment was 954. Of the 2,833 employees reported
upon in these 954 schedules, 1,781 were full-time and 1,052 were
day workers; 2,062 were women and 709 were men. Replies were
received to only 76 of the questionnaires sent employees; of that
number, 2 were from male domestic workers.

Employers* Questionnaire
N e a r l y three-fourths of the 2,771 workers for whom the em­
ployers reported sex were women. Nearly one-third of the women
and slightly over one-eighth of the men were under 30 years of age.
Only 21.7 percent of the men were reported as single as compared
with 51 percent of the women. Nearly 70 percent of the women,
as compared with 55 percent of the men, were full-time workers.
Three-fifths of the women and approximately one-fifth of the men
lived where they were employed. Approximately four-fifths of the
women who lived in had a room alone and practically all of these had
access to a bath. Of the women for whom information was given as
to whether they had a room in which they might receive friends,
almost one-half had only the kitchen; the remainder had other rooms
or were permitted to use certain rooms that belonged to the family.
Only about one-tenth of the replying employers lived in apartments,
ranging in size from 1 room and bath to 15 rooms and 5 baths. The
size of the houses in which the remaining nine-tenths of these em­
ployers lived ranged from 5 rooms and a bath to 58 rooms and 11
baths.




926

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

H ours o j labor.—With regard to hours worked, the report states:
The over-all hours, from the beginning to the end o f the day’s work, were
long; nearly three-fifths o f the wom en had an over-all o f at least 12 hours. For
one-tenth the day was less than 8 hours; for less than one-third it was 8 and under
12 hours. Of the men for whom the time o f beginning and of ending work was
reported, less than one-third had an over-all as long as 12 hours; for less than onetwelfth, however, it was under 8 hours, and for three-fifths it was 8 and under 12.
The actual hours of work were tabulated for the wom en in five o f the principal
occupations only— chambermaids, children’s nurses, cooks, general house workers,
and waitresses— hour data being reported for about one-half of th e women in
these occupations. Of these 630 women, nearly three-fifths worked 10 hours or
more, about one-tw elfth working 12 hours or longer. The m ajority o f the
cooks whose hours were given on the questionnaire (58.3 percent) worked a day
of 10 and under 12 hours, and 43.4 percent of the general houseworkers had hours
as long as this.

Slightly over 11 percent of the 758 employers who reported on time
off allowed their domestic workers one-half day, and 42.7 percent, two
half days per week. The remaining 46.1 percent varied their practices
in this regard.
W ages.—The proportions of men and women paid by the month,
week, day, and hour were as follows:
D IST R IB U T IO N OF W O R K ER S, B Y PERIOD OF W A G E P A Y M E N T

Month_____________________ ________
Week_______________________________

Men

Women

P e rc e n t

Paid by—

P e rc e n t

45.1
30.1
8.0
16.8

12.7
61.2
24.7
1.4

Approximately one-tenth of the women and also one-tenth of the
men, paid by the month and living with their employers, received
under $60. Over two-fifths of the men who lived out were reported
as being paid under $60; since, with one exception, all were part-time
employees, they undoubtedly received pay from other employers.
Of those reported as living in and paid by the month, slightly less
than one-third of the women and slightly more than one-third of the
men were in the $80 to $109.99 wage group, while 56.6 percent of the
women were in the $60 to $79.99 wage group. The monthly wages
of 30 men, 7 of whom lived in, were $140 or more. No woman was
paid as much as this.
Em ployees paid by the week for whom a specified am ount was reported in­
cluded 1,147 women and 154 men. Living conditions of the women and men in
this group are in direct contrast, for while m ore than four-fifths of the women
lived in, about three-fourths of the men lived away from their place o f em ploy­
ment. Though nearly three-fourths of the wom en living in were paid from $14
to $20 a week, slightly less than three-eighths o f those living out received amounts
within this range. The largest proportion o f women living out in any group is
found in the $9-and-under-$ 14 class, while the largest proportion of men living
out received $20 and under $45 a week. M ore than tw o-fifths o f the men living
out— all but one o f whom were part-tim e workers— received less than $9.
The day wage paid m ost women— 84.2 percent of those doing d ay’s work—
was $3 and under $4, while the day rate for the largest proportion of men was
$5 and under $6.

Training fo r 'present jo b .—No question was asked concerning the
worker’s special vocational training for her job, but inquiry was made
as to her training at home or with a previous employer. Such infor-




DYEING AND FINISHING OF TEXTILES

927

mation was tabulated for 1,078 women, including cooks, general houseworkers, chambermaids, waitresses, and children’s nurses. Over
seven-tenths of these employees had had training from a previous
employer, almost one-eighth and nearly the same proportion had re­
ceived training both at home and from a previous employer.
Length of service.—More than two-fifths of the 1,103 women for
whom a report was made as to length of service with present employer
had been with such employers 2 years or more; approximately onethird between 6 months and 2 years; and about one-fourth for less
than 6 months.
Em ploym ent policies .—Of the 798 employers reporting in regard to
their policy as to references, only about 5 percent required none and
approximately the same percentage accepted the recommendation of
previous employers, friends, or neighbors. The remainder, 90.1 per­
cent, stated that they investigated references, by telephone, through
the employment bureau, or in person, or by a combination of two of
these methods.
Over three-fifths of the 814 employers who answered the inquiry
on their dismissal procedure reported that they gave notice only.
Of those who replied as to specified time, a very large proportion gave
a week’s notice. Less than 4 percent gave only wages in advance and
25 percent stated that they gave both wages and notice, the great
majority reporting 1 week as the specified time.
Of 785 employers who reported on the subject, 6 percent granted no
vacations. The length of vacations given varied from less than a week
to 3 months. Of 728 householders, about five-sixths paid wages to
their workers for the entire vacation period, while less than 7 percent
paid no wages at all during such holidays.
Employees’ Schedule
T h e employees’ schedule was returned by 76 workers, 2 of whom
were men. The median weekly wage of the 72 women was $14.80,
the median for those living out being $12.70 and for those living in,
$15.25. The median for the white women was $15.35, and for the
colored women, $14.50.
A bout tw o-thirds o f the wom en living in who reported the length of their
usual day worked as m uch as 12 hours. One Negro cook had a day 14% hours
in length. Of the wom en living out, tw o-fifths had a day o f 12 hours or more.
Tw o-fifths o f all reporting went on duty between 7 and 8 o'clock in the morning.
Nearly one-half of those b y whom the tim e of quitting work was given went off
duty between 7 and 8 o'clock in the evening.

D ye in g and F in is h in g of Textiles— H o u rs and E a rn in g s, 1930
and 1932
T h i s article presents summaries of the results of studies in 1930 and
1932 by the Bureau of Labor Statistics of wages and hours of labor of
wage earners in the dyeing and finishing of textiles in the United
States. The 1932 results were published in more detail in Bulletin
No. 588 of the Bureau.
The 1932 basic wage figures used in compiling this article were col­
lected from 93 representative dyeing and finishing plants in 8 States for
a pay period in January, February, or March, and covered 19,246
wage earners, including 16,215 males and 3,031 females. These wage




928

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

earners were in the dyeing and finishing department of 16 cotton mills
that produce, dye, and finish cotton goods and in 77 plants that do
nothing but the dyeing and finishing of textiles. The dyeing and
finishing done in a vast majority of the plants included in the study
consisted mainly of cotton textiles, but in a few plants was of cloth
made of mixtures of cotton and rayon.
Table 1 shows for each of the 42 important occupations in the dye­
ing and finishing of textiles, for a group designated as ‘ 1Other em­
ployees”, and for all occupations combined, average hours and earnings
in 1 week, average earnings per hour, and the percent of full time
worked in 1 week, in 1930 and 1932.
T able 1 .—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D EA R N IN G S IN T H E D Y E IN G A N D F IN ISH IN G OF
T E X T IL E S , 1930 A N D 1932, B Y O CC UPATIO N A N D S E X

Occupation and sex

Average
full-time
hours per
week

Hours actually worked
in 1 week
Average
number

1930 1932 1930 1932
All employees:
Males..........................
Females......................
Males and females, Ager tenders, male-------Back tenders, printing,
male.............................. Balers, male......................
Batchers (cloth winders), male......................
Batchers (cloth wind­
ers), female.............—
Bath mixers, male--------Calender tenders, male.,
Color mixers, male........ Die makers, male
___
Drier tenders, male_____
Drier tenders, female----Dyeing-machine tenders,
male................................
Engravers, hand, male—
Engravers, machine,
male................................
Etchers, male...................
Floormen, male...............
Folders, male...................
Folders, female................
Inspectors, male..............
Inspectors, female...........
Jackmen, printing, male,
Kettlemen, color mixing,
male................................
K ettlem en’ s helpers,
male................................
Kier boilers, male............
Knotters, female..............
Mangle tenders, male—Mangle tenders, female,,
Measurers, male..............
Measurers, female...........
Mercerizers, male............
Openers, male..................
Packers, male...................
Packers, female................
Filers, male.......................
Plaiters, male...................
Plaiters, female................
Polishers, metal, male—
Printing-machine tend­
ers, male........................
Roller turners, male........
Scutcher tenders, male—
Sewers, male.....................
Sewers, female..................
Singers, male....................
Soaper tenders, male___
Soap mixers, male______
gpnnkler tenders, male.
iNone reported in 1932.




51.0
50.5
50.9
51.4

Percent of
full time
1930

1932

Average ac­
Average earn­ Average full­ tual earnings
ings per hour time earnings
in 1 week
per week
1930

1932

.466
.362

.381
.331

49.9 50.8 48.3 51.5

96.8 101.4

.443

.377

25.7 80.5 52.2
53.3 99.4 102.7
49.8 98.6 95.6
57.6 106.1 109.7
89.7 0)
0)
53.6 100.8 103.9
31.4 90.3 65.0

.438
.473
.431
.489
1.240
.435
.299

.331
.394
.383
.387
(0
.375
.270

97.8
99.4

.465
1.235

.415
1.021

44.9 102.6 86.8
98.4 0)S
0)
47.8 103.8 94.8
49.2 91.8 95.2
38.9 86.0 76.0
48.0 93.8 95.2
44.5 79.5 85.2
56.7 112.3 111.2

1.247
.938
.466
.587
.368
.459
.295
.483

1.004
(9*.
.376
.498
.338
.408
.249
.395

49.2
51.9
52.1
52.5
(9
51.6
48.3

38.9
49.8
50.7
55.3
43.7
51.6
43.8

50.6 50.8 48.6 49.7 96.0
49.1 50.6 50.0 50.3 101.8
49.4
50.3
52.3
51.3
49.4
50.1
51.8
51.2

1932

1930

1932

51.4 50.7 51.1 99.4 99.4 $0.473 $0.418 $24.12 $21.49 $23.99 $21.37
.335
51.2 42.4 43.5 84.0 85.0
.290 16.92 14.90 14.20 12.65
.452
51.3 49.3 49.9 96.9 97.3
.400 23.01 20.52 22.29 19.99
.435
51.3 61.3 56.7 119.3 110.5
.378 22.36 19.39 26.67 21.43

51.3 51.4 56.8 52.9 110.7 102.9
51.7 51.4 44.9 46.0 86.8 89.5

48.3
50.1
51.4
52.1
48.7
51.2
48.5

1930

51.7
0)
50.4
51.7
51.2
50.4
52.2
51.0

50.7
49.5
54.3
47.1
42.5
47.0
41.2
57.5

23.91
18.72

19.58
17.01

26.44 20.15
16.24 15.24

22.11

19.15

21.41 19.42

21.16
23. 70
22.15
25.48
60.39
22.27
14.50

16.29
20.45
19.95
20.32
0)
19.35
13.04

17.02
23. 55
21.81
27.06
54.25
22.42
13.10

23. 53
60.64

21.08
51.66

22.62 20.61
61.70 51.37

61.60
47.18
24.37
30.11
18.18
23.00
15.28
24.73

51.91
0)
18.95
25.75
17.31
20.56
13.00
20.15

63.18
46.45
25.31
27.62
15.62
21.57
12.14
27.75

8.50
20.96
19.06
22.28
(0
20.09
8.50

45.07
0)
17.99
24.47
13.14
19.60
11.06
22.37

51.8 51.2 56.3 56.5 108.7 110.4

.485

.424

25.12

21.71

27.29 23.96

49.9
53.0
51.0
51.2
50.4
50.8
50.5
52.7
49.6
51.8
50.4
49.4
51.1
50.3
50.9

51.3
53.5
51.4
51.6
49.5
53.4
50.8
52.0
50.1
52.0
0)
61.4
51.8
49.5
49.8

49.6
56.9
41.2
50.9
49.9
43.2
43.1
50.2
47.1
49.1
41.3
43.1
46.8
42.2
52.9

50.8 99.4 99.0
58.4 107.4 109.2
45.4 80.8 88.3
51.5 99.4 99.8
34.6 99.0 69.9
53.1 85.0 99.4
46.9 85.3 92.3
56.0 95.3 107.7
47.6 95.0 95.0
51.4 94.8 98.8
81.9 0)
0)
46.5 87.2 90.5
51.1 91.6 98.6
34.5 83.9 69.7
48.7 103.9 97.8

.475
.433
.298
.424
.310
.457
.423
.434
.487
.423
.313
.337
.374
.281
.490

.320
.391
.267
.366
.241
.323
.356
.430
.394
.367
0)
.303
.308
.240
.425

23.70
22.95
15.20
21.71
15.62
23.22
21.36
22.87
24.16
21.91
15.78
16.65
19.11
14.13
24.94

16.42
2a 92
13.72
18.89
11.93
17.25
18.08
22.36
19.74
19.08
0)
15.57
15.95
11.88
21.17

23.60
24.66
12.31
21.60
15.45
19.73
18.22
21.79
22.94
20.77
12.95
14.49
17.51
11.88
25.91

16. 24
22.83
12.12
18.86
8.35
17.14
16.69
24.07
18.77
18.86
0)
14.10
15.71
8.28
20.71

51.5
50.5
50.6
51.2
51.4
50.7
51.2
51.1
51.4

50.8
51.7
51.8
51.0
51.4
51.6
51.8
50.6
52.4

54.7
51.1
50.9
54.2
41.4
46.4
58.9
59.0
52.7

55.2
44.6
54.8
52.2
46.0
51.1
55.0
57.7
51.0

61.85
28.79
20.70
19.92
16.04
21.04
20.99
21.92
19.48

51.77
20.58
15.75
16.93
14.24
18.89
18.13
20.39
17.71

65.66
29.11
20.81
21.07
12.93
19.23
24.15
25.26
20.00

56.23
17.73
16.64
17. 32
12.73
18. 71
19.23
23.24
17.26

106.2
101.2
100.6
105.9
80.5
91.5
115.0
115.5
102.5

108.7
86.3
105.8
102.4
89.5
99.0
106.2
114.0
97.3

1.201 1.019
.398
.570
.409
.304
.332
.389
.312
.277
.415
.366
.410
.350
.429
.403
.379 , .338 i

929

DYEING AND FINISHING OF TEXTILES

T a ble 1.—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S IN T H E D Y E IN G A N D F IN ISH IN G OF
T E X T IL E S , 1930 A N D 1932, B Y O CCUPATION A N D S E X —Continued

Average
full-time
hours per
week

Occupation and sex

Hours actually worked
in 1 week
Average
number

1930 1932 1930 1932
Steamer tenders, male__
Swing tenders, male____
Swing tenders, female—Tenter-frame tenders,
male................................
Tenter-frame tenders,
female.............................
Truckers, male.................
Tub washers, male..........
Washer tenders, male—
Yarn winders, male........
Yarn winders, female,. _
Other employees, male—
Other employees, female.

Percent of
full time
1930

1932

Average full­ Average ac­
Average earn- time earnings tual earnings
ings per hour
in 1 week
per week

1930

1932

1930

1932

1930

1932

48.8 49.4 52.4 51.4 107.4 104.0 $0.438 $0,345 $21.37 $17.04 $22.97 $17.72
50.6 52.0 50.8 51.4 100.4 98.8
.336 18.87 17.47 18.94 17.30
.373
49.2 53.7 35.5 40.6 72.2 75.6
.275 15.25 14.77 11.00 11.18
.310
51.0 51.5 51.2 53.3 100.4 103.5

.435

.385

22.19

19.83

50.4
50.6
52.9
51.3
56.2
51.9
51.0
50.1

.353
.405
.404
.447
.290
.350
.475
.336

.319
.344
.355
.378
.346
.262
.441
.298

17.79
20.49
21.37
22.93
16.30
18.17
24.23
16.83

16.11
17.58
18.03
19.43
19.48
13.99
22.62
15.08

50.5
51.2
50.8
51.4
56.3
53.4
51.3
50.6

49.9
51.5
56.7
48.3
35.5
39.6
51.1
43.1

43.8 99.0 86.7
51.2 101.8 100.0
55.3 107.2 108.9
51.8 94.2 100.8
32.1 63.2 57.0
39.3 76.3 73.6
50.7 100.2 98.8
44.4 86.0 87.7

22.26 20.55
17.62 13.95
17.58
19.62
19. 58
11.08
10.29
22.34
13.22

20.86
22.91
21.59
10.28
13.84
24.30
14.47

Table 2 shows for all of the males, for all of the females, and for all
males and females combined, who were included in the studies of
dyeing and finishing of textiles in each State in 1930 and 1932, average
hours and earnings per week, average earnings per hour, and the
percent of full time worked in the week.
T a ble 3 .—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D EA R N IN G S IN TH E D Y E IN G A N D FIN ISH IN G OF
T E X T IL E S , 1930 A N D 1932, B Y SE X A N D STATE

Sex and State

actually worked
Average Hoursin 1 week
Average full­
Average
full-time
Average earn­ time earnings actual e a r n ­
hours per
ings per hour
ings in 1 week
per week
week
Average
Percent of
number
full time
1930 1932 1930 1932

1930

1932

1930

1932

1930

1932

1930

1932

M a le s

Connecticut......................
Massachusetts..... ............
New Jersey— ...................
New Y ork..... ................—
North Carolina.............. .
Pennsylvania...................
Rhode I s la n d ................
South Carolina................
T o t a l . ....................

53.5
48.9
49.8
48.9
55.0
53.3
52.5
55.0
51.0

54.5
49.0
50.3
48.9
54.4
*52.2
52.9
55.2
51.4

54.2
52.7
48.0
45.3
47.1
51.4
54.9
58.6
50.7

54.0
52.1
49.8
45.7
48.3
53.4
50.8
61.2

101.3 99.1 $0.572 $0.487 $30.60 $26.54 $30.96 $26.32
.433
107.8 106.3
.379 21.17 18.57 22.80 19.76
96.4 99.0
.523
.476 26.05 23.94 25.09 23.69
92.6 93.5
.520
.417 25.43 20.39 23.58 19.07
85.6 88.8
.320
.296 17.60 16.10 15.05 14.29
96.4 102.3
.546
.497 29.10 25.94 28.09 26.56
104.6 96.0
.511
.453 26.83 23.96 28.03 23.03
.332
106.5 110.9
.278 18.26 15.35 19.45 17.01
.473
.418 24.12 21.49 23.99 21.37
51.1 99.4 99.4

53.4
48.0
48.6
48.5
54.0
51.7
52.5
55.0
50.5

54.1
48.0
48.7
48.7
54.5
51.7
52.9
55.0
51.2

49.7
41.3
40.5
40.6
42.0
43.8
47.2
54.4
42.4

48.1
43.2
40.6
38.4
43.7
44.6
44.2
58.5
43.5

53.4
48.8
49.6
48.8
54.7
53.0
52.5
55.0

54.41 53.7* 53.3 100.6 98.01
48.91 50.81 50.8 ‘j 104.1$ 103.9 i
50.1 i 46.8 ' 48.71/ 94.4 97.2 !
48.9 44.7! 44.8 , 91.61 91.6 j
54.4) 45.4 ! 46.8 ! 83.0 1 86.0
52.1 49.9 ' 51.7 94.2 99.2 ;
52.9 53.91; 50.0 102.7 94.5 ’
55.1 58.2* 60.9 105.8 110.5 ,

F e m a le s

Connecticut......................
Massachusetts_________
N ew Jersey..... ..................
New Y ork __________ _
North Carolina................
Pennsylvania...................
Rhode Island...................
South Carolina................
T otal.......................

93.1 88.9
86.0 90.0
83.3 83.4
83.7 78.9
77.8 80.2
84.7 86.3
89.9 83.6
98.9 106.4
84.0 85.0

.386
.313
.377
.343
.288
.352
.377
.223
.335

.347
.286
.352
.285
.232
.338
.316
.210
.291

20.61
15.02
18.32
16.64
15.55
18.20
19.79
12.27
16.92

18.77
13.73
17.14
13.88
12.64
17.47
16.72
11.55

19.20
12.90
15.27
13.93
12.10
15.42
17.78
12.13

14.90

14.20

16.67
12.34
14.28
10.95
10.15
15.07
13.99
12.28
12.65

.554 8
.417
.502
.497
.310
.512
1.497 i
.321 1

.472
.367
.463
.403
.276
.471
.439
.270
.400

29.58
20.35
24.90
24.25
16.96
27.14
26.09
17.66

25.68
17.95
23.20
19.71
15.01
24.54
23.22
14.88

29.73
21.15
23.48
22.20
14.09
25.66
26.78
18.71

25.20
18.62
22.53
18.04
12.92
24.37
21.94
16.45

23.01

20.52

22.29

19.99

M a le s a n d fem a les

Connecticut......................
Massachusetts..... ............
N ew Jersey.......................
N ew Y ork .........................
North Carolina. .............
Pennsylvania...................
Rhode Island...................
South Carolina.................
T otal.......................

50.9 51.3 49.3 49.9

19205— 36------60




96.9

97.3

.452

930

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

E le c tric -R a ilw a y W o rke rs: E a rn in g s in 1932
T he quinquennial census of electrical industries, covering the year
1932,5 indicated a very drastic decline in the number of workers em­
ployed on electric railroads. Indeed, according to that census fewer
workers looked to the electric railways for their livelihood in 1932
than in 1907.
Although the number of workers employed by the electric railways
was sharply reduced between 1927 and 1932, the earnings of the
workers fortunate enough to retain their jobs were better maintained
than those of workers in many other branches of industry. For all
employees of the electric railways, the average earnings in 1932 were
$1,547. This represents a decrease of only 6.5 percent when com­
pared with the average of $1,655 in 1927 and is slightly higher than the
average for 1922. (See table 1.)
T a ble 1 —COM PARISON OF A V E R A G E A N N U A L E A R N IN G S ON E L E C T R IC R A IL W A Y S
A N D M O TO R BUSSES IN 1922, 1927, A N D 1932, B Y O CC U PATIO N AL CLASSES
Average earnings

Percent of change

Occupational class
1927 to
1932

1922 to
1932

1932

1927

1922

Average, all employees.....................................................

$1,547

$1,655

$1,483

- 6 .5

+ 4 .3

Salaried employees, average............................................

1,982
4,914
3,206
1,587
1,493
1,591
11,523
1,445

2,034
5,090
3,096
1,663
1,610
1,736
81,737
1,492

1,901
4.436
3,098
1,534
1.436
1,576
81,568
1,310

- 2 .6
- 3 .5
+ 3 .6
- 4 .6
- 7 .3
- 8 .4
-1 2 .3
- 3 .2

+ 4 .3
+10.8
+ 3 .5
+ 3 .5
+ 4 .0
+ 1 .0
- 2 .9
+10.3

Officials.

Managers and superintendents..... .........................
Clerks, stenographers, and others..........................
Wage earners, average....................................................

Conductors,
Motormen ,

_ _

Other wage earners....................................................
i Includes 1-man car and trolley-bus operators.

8 Includes 1-man car and motor-bus operators.

Earnings of electric-railway employees vary widely between occu­
pational groups as well as within the same occupational group, while
sharp geographical differentials in their earnings are also apparent
(table 2).
T a ble 2 .—GEOGRAPHIC VA R IA T IO N S IN A V E R A G E E A R N IN G S OF E L E C T R IC -R A IL
W A Y E M P L O Y E E S IN 1932, B Y O C C U PATIO N AL CLASSES
Salaried employees

Geographic division

Aver­
age, all
em­ All sala­
ployees ried em­
ployees

Offi­
cials

Wage earners

Man­
agers Clerks,
All
stenog­ wage
Con­ Motor- Other
and
wage
super­ raphers, earners ductors men i earners
intend­
etc.
ents

United States........................

$1,547

$1,982

$4,914

$3,206

$1,587

$1,493

$1,591

$1,523

$1,445

New England . „„ _
Middle Atlantic___________
East North Central_______
West North Central_______
South Atlantic
East South Central
West South Central _

1,617
1,656
1,527
1,393
1,409
1,308
1,251
1,321
1,549

1,853
2,241
1,815
1,980
1,958
1,753
1,674
1,810
1,893

4,075
6,565
4,496
4,427
4,254
3,270
3,302
3,372
5,544

3,178
3,627
2,995
2,943
2,793
2,393
3,117
2,834
3,087

1,473
1,734
1,443
1,619
1,660
1,440
1,301
1,382

1,597
1,591
1,491
1,306
1,328
1,252
1,166
1,232
1,501

1,863
1,585
1,701
1,281
1,503
1,521
1,261
1,085
1,542

1,656
1,625
1,579
1,344
1,369
1,367
1,237
1,235
1,490

1,527
1,576
1,319
1,276
1,230
1,035
1,049
1,250
1,489

Mountain _ _ ___________
Pacific_____ ___

________

1,666

1 Includes 1-man car and trolley-bus operators.
• United States Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. Census of Electrical Industries
1932: Electric Railways and Motor Bus Operations of Affiliates and Successors. Washington, 1934.




931

FARM LABOR

F a c to ry W orkers— E a rn in g s in N ew Y o r k State, 1914 to 1935
A v e r a g e weekly earnings of office and shop employees in represen­
tative factories in New York State from June 1914 to December 1935
are shown, by months, in the following table reproduced from the
January 1936 issue of the Industrial Bulletin of the State depart­
ment of labor.
AVE R A G E W E E K L Y EA R N IN G S IN R E P R E SE N T A T IV E N E W Y O R K ST A TE FACTO RIES
[Includes all employees in both office and shop. The average weekly earnings are obtained by dividing
the total weekly pay roll by the total number of employees on the pay roll for the given week. Reports
cover the week including the 15th of the month]

Year

1914..1915...
1916—
1917—
1918...
1919...
1920...
1921—
1922...
1923—
1924...
1925...
1926—
1927—
1928—
1929...
1930—
1931_
_
_
1932_
1933_
_
1934...
1935—

Aver­
age for Jan.
year

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

M ay

$12.85 $12.44 $12.41 $12.65 $12.54 $12.74
14.43 13.53 13.77 13.96 14.15 14.24
16.37 15.28 15.31 15.79 15.50 16.08
20.35 16.81 17.66 18.71 19.25 19.91
23. 50 23.03 22.07 22.20 22.11 22.23
28.15 26. 52 26.47 27.87 27.80 28.45
25.72 27.61 26.77 26.97 26.20 25.86
25.04 24.43 24.17 24. 57 24.15 24.59
27.24 26. 21 25.87 26. 92 27.00 27.63
27.68 27 81 27.73 28.16 27.70 27.56
28.26 28. 30 27.96 28.45 27.67 28.07
29.02 29.05 28.61 29.04 28.85 28.69
29.30 29. 52 29. 39 29.78 29.17 29.18
29.44 29. 21 29.16 29.64 28.79 29.19
29.99 29.71 29.99 30.35 30.07 30.03
28.81 29.80 29.46 29.90 29.44 29.10
26.42 27.01 27.44 27.96 27.35 26.96
22. 73 24.35 24.02 24.14 23.36 22.59
21.83 20.96 20.95 20.73 21.02 21.49
23.19 22.79 22.76 23.39 23.34 23.38
24.36 23.92 24.11 24.62 24.36 24.05

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

$12.70 $12.54 $12.53 $12.48 $12.26 $12.32 $12.56
12.81 12.66 12.89 12.86 13.30 13.45 13.49
14.41 14.11 14.44 14.87 14.95 15.16 15. 51
16.20 16.17 16.44 16.97 17.33 17.69 17.71
20.44 20.78 21.23 22.31 22.34 21.60 23.18
22.51 23.10 23.85 24.83 24.41 25.37 26.32
28.77 28.49 28. 71 28.73 28.93 28.70 28. 35
25.71 25.26 25.43 25.07 24.53 24.32 24.91
24.91 24.77 25.10 25. 71 25.61 26.04 26.39
27.87 27.54 27.12 27.41 27.72 27.64 27.98
27.21 27.06 27.40 28.05 27.53 27.66 28.25
27.94 27.98 28.16 28.33 28.57 28.67 29.05
28.99 28.81 28.86 29.31 29.35 29.15 29.47
29.17 28.95 29.29 29. 57 29.28 28.75 29.57
29.48 29.15 29.38 29.72 29.78 29.62 30.12
30.02 29.80 30.09 30.47 30.08 29.54 29. 75
28.96 28.50 28.59 28.94 28.03 27.42 27.52
26.34 26.39 26.33 26.16 25.34 24.99 24.74
22.20 21.82 21.92 22.50 22.55 21.74 21. 62
21.95 22.34 22.48 22.87 22.52 22.25 22.43
23. 24 23.12 23.43 23.24 23.02 22. 92 23. 63
24.04 23.93 24.52 24.83 24.68 24.24 25.02

F a r m L a b o r— Wages, 1910 to 1936
A v e r a g e wage rates of hired farm labor in the United States are
compiled and published quarterly by the United States Department
of Agriculture in the form of a mimeographed press release and later
in the printed periodical Crops and Markets. The compilations show
both daily and monthly rates, with and without board, as well as
index numbers.
Table 1 gives average farm wage rates and index numbers thereof,
by years from 1910 to 1935, and for the months of January, April,
July, and October of each year, 1929 to 1935 and for January 1936.




932

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

T able 1 .—F A R M W A G E R ATES A N D IN D E X N U M B E R S, 1910 TO JAN U A R Y 1936
Average farm wage *
—

Year

Per month
With
board

1910........................... ............ ..................... - ................1911........................... ................................. - ....................
1912..................... — - .......... - .........................................
1913...............- ---------- ----------------------------- ---------------1914...................................... ............ - ............ — ............
1915.................... - ..................... — - ..............- ..........
1916...................................................... - .........- ..........
1917---------------------------------------------- ------------- - ..........
1918......... - ------------- ------------------------------------ ---------1919...............- ____________________________________
1920.— _____ _________________________ ____ _____
1921----------------------------------------------- ------------- -------1922........... ......................................... ..............................
1923_____ _________________________________ ____ 1924_____ ________________________________________
1925_____ ______ _________________________ _______
1926_________________ ___________ ________ _______
1927__________ _______________________ ___________
1928.................. - ------- ------------------------------------ --------1929...................... ............. - ...........- ________________
1930........... - ......................................................... - .........
1931........... ............................................................... .
1933...............- ............................................ - .......... —
1934.................. ...............................................................
1935................................................. ......... - .............. .
1929—January- ............... ................. ............ ................
April------- ---------------------------------------------------July-------- --------------------------------------------------October......................... ......................................
1930—January---------------------------------- ------- -----------April................. .................................. ..................
July------------- ------------------------ ------- --------------October____________________________________
1931—January___________________________________
April------- ------------- ------------------------------- ----July.......... ....................................... ....................
October____________________________________
1932—January- ---------------------------------------------------April_________________ ________ ________ _
July............................................................... .......
October............................................................... .
1933—January______________________________ ____
April------------------------------- ----------- --------------July_____ _______________________ _________
October_______________ _________ ______ —
1934r-January................................................................
April------------------------------------- ---------- ------- July_____ _________________________________
October------------------------ -------- --------------------1935—January- .............................. .......... ...................
April............— ....................- ............................
July_______________________________________
October------------ --------------- ------------- -------- 1930—January_____________________________ _____

$19.58
19.86
20.46
21.27
20.90
21.08
23.04
28.64
35.12
40.14
47.24
30.25
29.31
33.09
33.34
33.88
34.86
34.58
34.66
34.74
31.14
23.60
17.53
15.86
17.89
19.66
33.04
34.68
36.08
35.90
32.29
33.83
33.47
31.23
26.03
25.99
25.35
23.31
19.77
19.19
18.00
17.29
14.77
14.67
15.84
17.19
15.73
17.70
18.18
18.63
17.04
19.11
20.41
20.57
18.54

Without
board
$28.04
28.33
29.14
30.21
29.72
29.97
32.58
40.19
49.13
56.77
65.05
43.58
42.09
46.74
47.22
47.80
48.86
48.63
48.65
49.08
44.59
35.03
26.67
24.51
27.17
29.48
47.24
49.00
50.53
50.00
46.80
47.81
47.24
44.28
39.04
38.37
37.00
34.22
30.53
29.13
27.10
26.36
23.62
22.98
24.27
25.89
24.90
26.88
27.29
27.83
26.69
28.82
30.08
30.38
28.63

Per day
With
board
$1.07
1.07
1.12
1.15
1.11
1.12
1.24
1.56
2.05
2.44
2.84
1.66
1.64
1.91
1.88
1.89
1.91
1.90
1.88
1.88
1.65
1.22
.88
.86
.98
1.06
1.78
1.79
1.89
1.92
1.73
1.72
1.72
1.61
1.38
1.33
1.29
1.18
1.02
.97
.89
.87
.76
.75
.82
.91
.87
.93
.97
1.00
.92
.97
1.05
1.11
1.00

Without
board
$1.40
1.40
1.44
1.48
1.44
1.45
1.60
2.00
2.61
3.10
3.56
2.17
2.14
2.45
2.44
2.46
2.48
2.46
2.43
2.42
2.16
1.65
1.21
1.18
1.31
1.43
2.34
2.34
2.43
2.46
2.27
2.27
2.23
2.12
1.87
1.80
1.73
1.59
1.40
1.35
1.23
1.19
1.06
1.05
1.12
1.25
1. 21
1.27
1.30
1.34
1.26
1.34
1.41
1.47
1.37

Index
numbers of
farm wages
(191014=100)

97
97
101
104
101
102
112
140
176
206
239
150
146
166
166
168
171
170
169
170
152
116
86
80
90
.98
162
167
173
174
159
162
160
150
129
127
123
113
98
94
87
84
74
73
78
86
81
88
90
93
86
94
99
102
94

1 Yearly averages are from reports by crop reporters, giving average wages for the year in their localities,
except for 1927-32, when the wage rates per month are a straight average of quarterly rates, April, July,
October of the current year, and January of the following year, and the wage rates per day are weighted
averages of quarterly rates.

The average rates paid to hired farm labor in the different States
and geographic divisions on October 1, 1935, are shown in table 2.




933

FARM WORKERS— HARVESTING CROPS

T a ble 2.—A V E R A G E F A R M W A G E RATES ON OCTOBER 1, 1935, B Y ST ATE A N D G EO­
GRAPHIC DIVISION

Per month

Per day

Geographic division and State
With
board

United States..........................................................*..............
New England.........................................................................
Maine................................................................................
New Hampshire..............................................................
Vermont............................................................................
Massachusetts.................................................................
Rhode Island...................................................................
Connecticut......................................................................
Middle Atlantic.....................................................................
New York........................................................................
New Jersey...................................................... ...............
Pennsylvania. . ..........................................................._
East North Central..... .........................................................
O hio--...............................................................................
Indiana,..........................................................................
Illinois...............................................................................
Michigan..........................................................................
Wisconsin.........................................................................
West North Central..............................................................
Minnesota..... ...................................................................
Iowa...................................................................................
M issouri......................................................*..................
North Dakota..................................................................
South Dakota..................................................................
Nebraska..........................................................................
Kansas...............................................................................
South Atlantic................... ...................................................
Delaware..........................................................................
Maryland..............- ..........................................................
Virginia.............................................................................
West Virginia..................................... ............................
North Carolina................................................................
South Carolina................................................................
Georgia..............................................................................
Florida— . t ......................................................................
East South Central...............................................................
Kentucky.........................................................................
Tennessee.........................................................................
Alabama...........................................................................
Mississippi........................................................................
West South Central...............................................................
Arkansas...........................................................................
Louisiana..........................................................................
Oklahoma.........................................................................
Texas.................................................................................
Mountain........................................................... .....................
Montana...........................................................................
Idaho--.............................................................................
Wyoming..........................................................................
Colorado............................................................................
New Mexico..... ...............................................................
Arizona..............................................................................
Utah...................................................................................
N e vad a............................................................................
Pacific..... .................................................................................
Washington......................................................................
Oregon..............................................................................
California..........................................................................

$20.57
27.44
27.50
27.75
26.00
25.75
40.00
28.60
24.38
25.25
27.00
22.50
23.46
21.25
22.50
25.25
22.50
25.00
23.61
26.00
26.75
19.00
25.75
24.75
23.00
21.75
14.82
22.25
22.75
19.00
20.00
16.00
10.50
11.00
14.00
13.96
17.00
15.50
11.75
11.75
17.33
13.76
14.00
19.00
19.50
32.23
34.25
36.50
32.50
26.50
25.00
37.25
39.00
38.50
35.76
27.50
30.60
39.00

Without
board

$30.38
49.94
43.75
48.00
45.00
54.75
66.25
53.50
38.79
39.25
46.25
36.00
33.58
31.75
32.75
34.25
33.75
35.25
33.08
37.00
34.75
27.00
38.00
34.50
32.25
32.25
21.95
34.25
33.50
27.00
30.00
24.25
15.50
16.00
23.00
20.03
24.00
22.25
17.25
16. 75
24.70
20.50
19. 75
27.00
27.50
46.85
51.75
50.25
47.25
41.75
36.75
50.75
55.00
54.25
57.27
47.50
47.00
62.00

With
board

$1.11
1.66
1.60
1.50
1.40
1.90
1.96
1.70
1.47
1.60
1.60
1.40
1.33
1.35
1.25
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.65
1.50
.95
1.50
1.50
1.30
1. 25
.78
1.50
1.25
.95
1.00
.85
.55
.60
.75
.71
.85
.75
.65
.60
.87
.70
.70
1.05
.95
1.54
1.65
1.75
1.55
1. 35
1.20.
1.60
1.85
1.80
1.70
1.70
1.70
1.70

With­
out
board
$1.47
2.31
2.10
2.40
2.10
2.50
2.45
2.45
2.01
2.10
2.20
1.85
1. 75
1.80
1.60
1.75
1.80
1.80
1.81
2.20
1.95
1.22
2.00
1.55
2.80
1.65
1.03
1.65
1.70
1.25
1.40
1.10
.70
.80
1.05
.92
1.10
.95
.85
.80
1.11
.90
.95
1.30
1.20
2.05
2.40
2.35
2.20
1.90
1. 55
1.95
2.20
2.45
2.42
2.30
2.20
2.50

F a rm W orkers— P iece-Rate Wages in H arve stin g of C rops, 1934
W a g e s paid to workers hired at piece rates in connection with crops
other than cotton were collected for the first time by the United
States Department of Agriculture in F e b r u a r y 1935, the data apply­
ing to the 1934 crop season and covering chiefly harvesting opera­
tions. The collection of this information was inaugurated in response
to a growing demand for wage rates on specific tasks. Cotton-picking
rates have been gathered annually by the Department of Agriculture
since 1924.




934

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

Table 1 shows by State and geographic division, average piece-wage
rates of workers hired for the harvesting of potatoes, corn, and several
varieties of fruit. The data are from Crops and Markets, a monthly
periodical published by the Department of Agriculture, for March 1935.
T a ble 1 —PIECE R ATES OF W O R K E R S H IR E D FOR H A R V E S T IN G OF SPECIFIED
CROPS, 1934

Rate for—

Geographic division and State

Cutting
and
shock­
ing
corn,
per
acre

From
From
stand­ shock,
per
ing
stalk, bushel,
ear
per
bushel
corn

$0,049

$1. 460

$0. 038

$0.043

2. 300
1.820
1.850
1. 900
1.800
1. 660
1.850
1.700
1. 550
1.500
1.600
1.520
1. 600
1.550
1.200

.050
.041
.050
.040
.040
.039
.041
.038
.038
.039
.040
.038
• .043
.037
.034

.056
.044
.053
.051
.042
.048
.051
.051
.044
.044
.047
.044
.052
.041
.045

1.300
1.250
1.250
1.330
1.900
1.900
1.500
1.500
1.250
1.000
1.100
1. 350
1.210
1.300
1.250
1.100
1.150
1.130
.950
1.150
1.250
1.150
1.660

.046
.040
.043
.040
.033
.033
.041
.045
.043
.039
.038
.045
.034
.035
.034
.035
.032
.038
.035
.035
.040
.040
.045

.044
.051
.047
.043
.046
.038
.049
.045
.042
.041
.043
.045
.037
.037
.040
.041
. 030
.036
.035
.035
.034
.037
.044

1.800

.043

.040

1.650
1.550

.048
.040

.047
.040

2.250

.047

.038

1.950
2.400

.040
.050

.033
.040

United States................ .......................

$0.042

New England______________________

.064
.066
.065
.060
.067
.067
.058
.049
.051
.047
.048
.048
.049
.051
.048
.045
.055
.046
.050
.047
.044

New Hampshire_______________
Verm ont--____________________
M assachusetts_________________
Rhode Island_______ ______ ____
Middle Atlantic___________________
New York_____________________
New Jersey..........—.......... ..........
Pennsylvania__________________
East North Central________________
Ohio.............................................
Indiana...................— ....................
Illinois........................- ...................
Michigan............. .............. ............
Wisconsin
_______________
West North Central_______________
M innesota.___________________
Iowa......... ..................... .................
Missouri.................... .....................
North Dakota_________________
South Dakota__________________
Nebraska---------------------------------Kansas.............................. ..............
South Atlantic____________________
Delaware............... . .....................
Maryland................................ .......
Virginia................................ ..........
West Virginia__________________
North Carolina________________
South Carolina_______ ____ ___
Georgia-.................................. .......
Florida.................................... .......
East South Central........... ..................
Kentucky--------------- -----------------Tennessee_________ ___________
Alabama..........................................
Mississippi____________________
West South Central............ ................
Arkansas---------------- -----------------Louisiana______________________
Oklahoma________________ _____
Texas...............................................
Mountain............................ ..................
Montana.........................................
Idaho...............................................
Wyoming______________________
Colorado
__ ...
New Mexico___________________
Arizona__________ ______________

Utah..........................................
Nevada___ ____ ____________

Pacific.....................................................
W ashington..................................
Oregon.............................................
California........... ............................




Husking corn

Pick­
Pick­
Pick­
Pick­
Pick­
ing up
ing
ing
ing
ing
pota­
apples, peaches, pears, grapes, toes,
per 100
per
per
per
per
bushel bushel bushel pounds bushel

.050
.045
.044
.044
.044
.042
.043
.047
.050
.047
.044
.042
.044
.047
.047
.044
.041
.052
.052
.041
.050
.040
.040
.040
.040
.050
.034
.032
.034
.044

$0.050

$0.125

.060

.047
.059
.046
.046
.051
.055
.054
.049
.049

.060
.060
.060
.049
.051
.050
.045
.048
.060
.051
.043
.046

. 170
.170
.170
.170
.170
.141
.160
.130
.180
.130

.048

.046

.170

.057
.049

.048
.049

.170
.170

.040
.036
.040
.048
.043
.046
.050
.039
.046
.038
.055
.056
.050
.061
.054
.050
.044
.040
.050
.049
.045
.045

.050
.038
.046
.045
.042
.050
.054
.044
.048
.043
.052
.046
.033
.049
.045
.050
.051
.048
.045
.060
.050
.041

.170
.170
.154
.160
.160
.150
.170
.150
.150
.150
. 150
.163
.170
.170
.160

.041

.039

.180

.038
.038
.055
.060
.055
.055
.044
.050
.056

.041
.038
.050
.038
.050
.049
.037
.038
.057

.158
.160
.160
.150
.156

.150
.150
.150
.120
.170
.160
.120

$0.031
.026
.024
.033
.034
.036
.035
.036
.032
.032
.032
.033
.028
.035
.038
.043
.026
.024
.035
.035
.031
.030
.040
.038
.035
.041
.035
.035
.037
.034
.033
.035
.035
.036
.037
.040
.046
.040
.035
.030
.041
.044
.041
.043
.036
.030
.031
.027
.037
.036
.042
.045
.042
.045
.029
.028
.028
.030

935

FARM WORKERS— OHIO ONION FIELDS

Average wage rates for picking 100 pounds of seed cotton in the
different cotton-growing States are shown in table 2 for each year
from 1924 to 1934, inclusive, the figures being from Crops and
Markets for November 1934.
T a ble 3 .—A V E R A G E W A G E R A T E FOR P IC K IN G 100 POUNDS OF SEED CO T T O N
State

1924

1925

1926

1927

1928

1929

1930

1931

1932

1933

United States......... - ............ ......... $1.25 $1. 27 $1.11 $1.12 $1.10 $1.06 $0. 63 $0.41 $0.42 $0. 53
Virginia............................ .............. 1.30
North Carolina______ ____ _____ 1.24
South Carolina____ ___________
.95
Georgia...................... .....................
.85
Florida...................... .......... .......... .94
Illinois________________________ 1.19
Missouri_________ _____________ 1.32
Kansas_ __- ___ __
_
_____
Kentucky_______________
__
Tennessee_____________________ 1.11
Alabama________________ _____
.95
Mississippi___________ ________ 1.00
Louisiana---------------------------------- 1.02
Texas---------------------------------------- 1.48
Oklahoma_____________________ 1.48
Arkansas-------- --------------- ------1.06
New Mexico___________________ 1. 40
Arizona--- ------- -------------------------- 1.60
California______________________ 1.55

1.13
1.17
.86
.94
1.13

1.00
1.03
.82
.90
1.12

l"38*
1.54
1.48
1.41
1.08
1.35
1. 25
1. 33
1.60
1. 27
1.40
1.75
1.65

T l2 "
i. 16
1.05
1.03
.16
1.12
1. 20
1.28
1.06
1.15
1.45
1.55

1.12
1.07
.78
.88
.95
1.20
1.14
1.50
1.20
1.08
.96
1.08
1.03
1.24
1.40
1.05
1.30
1. 53
1.47

1.23
1.07
.83
.85
1.02
1.20
1.14
1.40
1.20
1.04
.95
1.02
1.03
1. 21
1.28
1.03
1.22
1.50
1.46

1.15
1.01
.81
.90
1.07
1.15
1.12
1.30
1.18
1.34
.92
1.08
1.01
1.11
1.22
1.06
1.25
1.50
1.45

.75
.58
.52
.57
.76
.71
.71
.75
.70
.63
.65
.56
.61
.71
.73
.56
.68
.89
.89

.45
.36
.36
.35
.41
.50
.49
.45
.49
.43
.34
.39
.41
.44
.45
.40
.43
.58
.50

.34
.38
.36
.33
.39
.40
.52
.48
.50
.47
.36
.40
.39
.45
.48
.44
.44
.50
.45

.45
.48
.45
.45
.48
.65
.67
.65
.60
.54
.45
.49
.48
.55
.65
.62
.55
.67
.65

1934
$0.60
.65
.65
.50
.50
.55
.75
.80
. 75
.80
.65
.55
.55
.55
.60
.75
.60
.65
.90
.90

F a r m W orkers— Wage Rates and A n n u a l E a rn in g s in th e O n io n
Fields of O h io , 1934 6

I n t h e summer of 1934 Nation-wide attention was attracted to
the onion field area of Ohio by the serious labor disturbances which
occurred there. As a result of the strike, the Secretary of Agriculture,
the Secretary of Labor, and the Federal Emergency Relief Adminis­
trator on August 29,1934, appointed a committee to make a thorough
investigation of labor conditions in the onion fields of Hardin County,
Ohio.
The results of this investigation show that before the strike the
customary hourly wage rate was 12% cents and some adult workers
were employed for only 10 cents an hour. Moreover, during the
year ending August 31, 1934, the cash income from all sources of 53
percent of the 177 families was less than $250, and 83 percent of the
families had incomes of less than $500. Only 3 percent of the families
canvassed had incomes of $1,000 or more.
Wage Rates
T h e Interdepartmental Committee found that the grievances of
the agricultural workers were concerned chiefly with hourly wage
rates, scarcity of work, employment of children, and the difficulty
of marketing at a fair price the onions grown on a crop-sharing basis.
The work in the onion fields is done both by workers who depend
on day labor alone and those who plant some acreage on a crop­
sharing basis in addition to doing day labor. Of the 195 families
included in this study, 109 were share-croppers; 36 of these families
had less than 3 acres of land, 38 families between 3 and 5 acres, 18
families between 5 and 10 acres, and only 17 families 10 acres or
• Summary of report published in the Monthly Labor Review for February 1935 (p. 324).




936

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

more. A landowner who needs day labor on the land he is farming
has first claim on the time of the share-cropper who rents from him.
Onions are the chief crop grown by share-croppers. They were
raised by 104 of the 109 families of share-croppers included in the
survey and were the only product raised by 84 of these families.
Under the arrangement between the landowner and the share­
cropper, the landowner prepares the soil and sows the seed, usually
making a charge to the share-cropper for this service. In the 1934
season this “ fitting cost” ranged from $3.50 to $12.50 an acre. In
some cases the share-cropper is unaware of the amount of the “ fitting
cost” until the end of the harvest. The harvested onions are divided
on a 50-50 basis. The share-croppers claim that, even if the seed
were “ blown out” by spring windstorms, they sometimes are re­
quired to pay the “ fitting” bill, although they had no crop as a
source of income with which to meet the charge.
According to both workers and growers, the wage rate of workers
in the onion fields 15 years ago was 35 cents an hour and as recently
as 1930 the prevailing rate was 25 cents an hour. In 1934, however,
the usual wage rate was 12% cents an hour before the strike, and some
adult workers received as low as 10 cents an hour. After the strike
the majority of the workers were paid 15 cents an hour.
* The table below indicates the level of wage rates during the 1934
season. The figures were based on the replies of 202 persons who
had worked at weeding before the strike and of 149 who had weeded
subsequent to the strike.
T a ble 1 —D IST R IB U T IO N OF W A G E R ATES B EF O R E A N D A F T E R ST R IK E
Number receiving
specified rate
Hourly wage rate
Before
strike

After
strike

Number of workers reporting.,.................

202

149

Under 10 cents. ...................... ....................
10 and under 1 2 H cents......... ....................
12^» and under 15 cents_________________
15 and under 20 cents----------------------------20 and under 25 cents___________________
25 and under 30 cents----------- -----------------30 and under 35 ce n ts._________ ________
35 cents and over__________________ ____

6
37
148
10

2
3
14
98
23
3
2
4

1

Most of the workers who received 25 cents an hour or more after
the strike were those working for growers who had made arrange­
ments with the union. The rates of less than 10 cents were received
by children under 14 years of age.
Annual Earnings
F o u r sources were included in considering the total income of
families of workers in the marsh: (1) Cash earnings from agricultural
work, (2) cash income from all other work, (3) income in kind, and
(4) income from relief.




FARM WORKERS— OHIO ONION FIELDS

937

Cash earnings from agricultural work.—The income from agricul­
tural work during the 1934 season was affected by the scarcity of
work, the shortage of share-crop land, and the decrease in the hourly
rates of pay. The annual earnings from agricultural work reported
by 179 families for the year September 1, 1933, to August 31, 1934,
amounted to less than $250 for 60 percent of the families, 26 percent
earned between $250 and $500, and only 14 percent earned $500 or
more. When the families which had no work since June 20 because
of the strike were eliminated the situation was only slightly improved;
77 of the 140 reporting families not on strike earned less than $250,
while 39 earned between $250 and $500, and the earnings of only 24
families were $500 or more.
The families depending on day labor alone had lower incomes than
those working land on the crop-sharing basis. More than threefourths of the families of day laborers earned less than $250 from
agricultural work during the year and 98 percent less than $500.
Even in the group of 98 share-croppers 46 percent earned less than
$250 and 77 percent less than $500.
These figures represent the earnings from farm work of all members
of the families. In 130 of the 195 families interviewed more than
1 person was working. The earnings of families did not rise greatly
as number of workers in the family increased. Of the 107 families
with earnings of less than $250, 63 had 2 or more persons working.
Although 10 of the 12 families on strike which had only 1 worker
reported earnings of less than $250, 12 of the 15 families with 2 work­
ers were also in this earnings group. Much the same condition
existed among families not on strike. Of the 51 families not on
strike having 1 worker, 34 earned less than $250, while 27 of the 42
families having 2 workers likewise earned less than $250. Only 4
families in the entire group earned $1,000 or more, and in every case
there were 3 or more workers in the family. All 4 of the families
with earnings of $1,000 or more were nonstrikers.
Cash income from all sources other than relief.—When the income
from all sources except relief is added to agricultural earnings the
picture is not materially altered. Fifty-three percent of all reporting
families had annual incomes of less than $250 and 83 percent less
than $500. Moreover, 8 percent of the families had incomes of less
than $50 for the year and 29 percent less than $150. Only 3 percent
of the entire group earned $1,000 or more. Even when families not
on strike are considered separately, the proportion in the income
group is practically the same; 48 percent received less than $250 and
79 percent less than $500. Table 2 shows the annual cash incomes
from all sources exclusive of relief.




938

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

T ab le 3 .—A N N U A L IN C O M E FRO M A L L SOURCES, E X C L U SIV E OF R E L IE F , OF
FAM ILIES W IT H W O R K E R S IN OHIO ONION FIELDS, Y E A R E N D IN G AU G . 31, 1934
Number of families canvassed, having workers in onion fields
Share-croppers and day
labor

Day labor only

Total
Annual family income

Num­
Total
Total
Num­
Num­ Num­
ber
ber
ber
Num­ Per­
ber
not
not
on
on
ber cent Num­ Per­
on Num­ Per­ strike on
strike
strike
strike ber cent
ber cent
29

All families covered___________________

195

Families reporting whose income was
specified amount---------- --------------------

86

177

100

79

100

Under $250..................... .....................
Under $50____________________
$50 and under $150-----------------$150 and under $250....... ...........
$250 and under $500......... _..........
$500 and under $750___________ ____
$750 and under $1,000_____________
$1,000 and over___________________

94
12
37
45
53
16
9
5

53
8
21
25
30
9
5
3

52
8
20
24
24
1
1
1

' 66
10
25
31
31
1
1
1

Families not reporting income-.-..........

18

7

57

25

54

98

19
4
11
4
6

33
4
9
20
18
1
1
1

42
4
17
21
29
15
8
4

3

11

14

95

100

13

85

43
4
17
21
30
15
8
4

8
1
4
3
4

34
3
13
18
25
15
7
4

109

4

1
1

10

Income in kin d .—The cash income of families was supplemented
in part by income in kind. There were wide variations, between
families, in the value of the payments received in kind. Reports
on tenure of homes were secured from 194 of the 195 families and on
food supplies from all families. Houses were furnished by the growers
to 109 families, 7 families had free homes from other sources, 41
families rented homes, and 37 owned their homes.
Farm laborers in the area were able to supplement their income
through raising a part of their food, provided they could make the
necessary investment. Twelve of the 195 families interviewed, how­
ever, had no supplementary food supply; only 16 had a garden, a cow,
chickens, and pigs; the other families had varying combinations of
these sources of food. A garden was the most frequent source of
supplementary food supply; 170 families grew a part of their food at
home and usually canned a few vegetables for winter use. The
drought of 1934 resulted in poorer returns than usual from garden
produce, with the result that food supplies for summer and winter
were not adequate. Cows were owned by 70 of the 195 families.

F ire D e pa rtm e n ts of P rin cip a l Cities— Salaries and H o u rs , 1934
T h e Bureau of Labor Statistics made a survey of the salaries and
hours on duty in 1934 of fire-department employees of all cities in the
United States with a population of 25,000 or over. A summary of
the findings of this survey is given in the Monthly Labor Review for
November 1935 (p. 1159).
Reports were received from 379 cities, and the number of employees
covered totaled 62,479. Table 1 shows the average annual salaries
and the average number of hours on duty per day of these fire-depart­
ment employees in 1934, classified by size of city.




939

FIRE DEPARTMENTS OF PRINCIPAL CITIES

T a ble 1 .— AVE R A G E A N N U A L SALARIES A N D D A IL Y HOURS ON D U T Y OF F IR E -D E ­
P A R T M E N T EM PLO Y EES IN 1934, B Y SIZE OF C IT Y

Cities of 1,000,000
or more

All cities

Cities of 500,000
and under
1, 000,000

Rank or occupation
Average
annual
salary

Average
hours
on duty
per day

Average
annual
salary

Average
hours
on duty
per day

$3,023
2,886
2,217
2,233
2,062
1,796
1,735
2,724
2,209
1,903
2,388
2,119
2,329
2,004
2,291
1,976
1,882
1,953
1,587
1,947
1,804
1,975

i 18.8
i 17.4
16.7
15.9
16.6
16.4
15.5
1 13.6
9.6
19.1
i 10.8
19.4
11.3
1 10.5
i 11.3
11.1
8.9
19.3
9.3
19.8
8.1
1 16.7

$7,900
4,380
3,330
3,119
2,610

17.8
20.6
18.5
14.9
17.5

2,574
4,048
2,507
2,353
3,811
2,902

12.0
21.0
10.1
8.0
8.3
8.0

2,486
3,929
2,400
2,744
2,527
1,845
3,962
1,948
2,485

8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
7.8
8.0
19.8

Chief of fire department—........................
Assistant or deputy chiefs........................
Captains...................................................
Lieutenants..................................................
Engineers, fire engine................................
Assistant engineers.....................................
Chauffeurs or drivers................................ .
Fire marshals or wardens—.....................
Assistant marshals or wardens_________
Fire inspectors............................................
Superintendents of machinery_________
Assistant superintendents of machinery.
Master mechanics............................... .......
Mechanics or machinists................... .......
Superintendents of fire alarm...................
Assistant superintendents of fire alarm..
Fire-alarm operators....................... ..........
Fire-alarm linemen or electricians______
Telephone operators......... ............. ..........
Secretaries or chief clerks_____ _________
Clerical workers________ _______________
Privates........................................................

Cities of
250,000 and
under 500,000

Rank or occupation

Chief of fire department _______ __________
Assistant or deputy chiefs....... .......................
Captains........................... ...........................
Lieutenants_________________ ______
Engineers, fire engine.,______ ______________
Assistant engineers______________________
Chauffeurs or drivers______ _______________
Fire marshals or wardens______ ____________
Assistant marshals or wardens_____________
Fire inspectors....................................... ...........
Superintendents of machinery______________
Assistant superintendents of machinery
Master mechanics__________________________
Mechanics or machinists___________________
Superintendents of fire alarm_______________
Assistant superintendents of fire alarm
Fire-alarm operators..........................................
Fire-alarm linemen or electricians__________
Telephone operators..................... ....................
Secretaries or chief clerks___________________
Clerical workers____________________________
Privates____________________ ______________

Cities of
100,000 and
under 250,000

Average
annual
salary

Average
hours
on duty
per day

$5,434
3,172
2,284
2,147
2,031
1,888
2,123
3,429
2,118
1,944
3,442
2,475
2,988
1,706
3,456
2,659
2,059
1,697
1,711
2,711
1,725
1,912

Cities of
50,000 and
under 100,000

22.1
15.9
15.6
16.9
16.6
16.3
14.6
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
10.7
11.2
8.0
8.1
9.0
8.1
8.0
14.3

Cities of
25,000 and
under 50,000

Aver­
Aver­
Aver­
Aver­
age
age
age
age
Aver­
Aver­
Aver­
hours
hours Aver­ hours
hours
age
age
age
age
on
on
on
on
annual duty annual
duty annual duty annual duty
salary
salary
per salary
per
per salary per
day
day
day
day
$4,344
2,802
2,103
2,001
1,971
1,644
1,705
2,537
1,937
1,868
2,580
2,109
2,574
1,988
2,922
2,187
1,880
1,911
1,604
2,205
1,661
1,863

i 19.4 $3,546
16.0 2,451
15.9 2,005
15.9 1,960
16.6 1,827
20.4 1,818
16.1 1, 636
9.8 2,352
8.3 1,980
8.1 1,852
9.1 2,278
8.4 2,036
9.0 2,305
9.4 1,917
10.8 2,441
11.4 2,065
8.9 1,696
9.6 1,838
8.1 1,479
8.6 1,878
8.1 1,674
15.4 1, 762

i 19.0 $3,041
15.6 2,277
16.7 1,960
14.5 1,819
16.8 1,823
14.5 1,687
13.3 1, 657
18.9 2,061
8.4 2,085
9.7 1,816
i 10.4 2,113
i 9.9 1,951
8.8 2,092
11.7 1,910
i 9.8 2,237
10.0 1,811
8.2 1,615
9.0 1,800
9.0 1,412
8.7 1,811
8.8 1,349
i 15.7 1,751

i 18.8 $2,431
18.2 1,908
16.9 1,775
17.9 1,733
14.0 1,601
15.6 1,431
17.8 1, 554
15.8 1,596
20.0
600
i 9.3 1,641
11.4 2,054
9.6 1,864
12.7 2,047
11.6 1,731
i 11.6 1,865
12.3 1,755
9.6 1,559
10.9 1,696
8.7 1,465
i 11.4 1,546
9.3
970
16.6 1,656

i 18.5
i 17.6
16.3
16.4
17.0
23.3
15.9
8.1
12.0
1 12.1
13.8
12.5
24.0
i 14.1
i 12.4
10.8
10.6
i 10.7
13.3
10.7
8.0
16.1

1 For all men in this group except a very few for whom data were not reported.

Table 2 shows, by size of cities, the number of days on duty per
week for privates. In this connection it should be noted that many
cities have adopted the double-platoon system, by means of which
half of the fire-fighting force is alternately on and off duty 84 hours.




940

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

T a ble 2 .—N U M B E R OP D A Y S ON D U T Y PER W E E K FOR PR IVATES IN FIRE
D E P A R T M E N T S OF 379 CITIES IN 1934, B Y SIZE OF CITIES
Number of
employees

Size of city

Number of days on duty per week
Low

High

Average

All cities......................................................................

41,489

3.0

7.0

i 5.4

Cities of 1,000,000 or more-........................... ....................
Cities of 500,000 and under 1,000,000......... .........................
Cities of 250,000 and under 500,000--........... ....................
Cities of 100,000 and under 250,000 .....................................
Cities of 50,000 and under 100,000--........ ..........................
Cities of 25,000 and under 50,000- .......................................

10,786
5,996
6,805
7,413
5,783
4,706

3.5
3.5
3.3
3.5
3.0
3.5

6.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
7.0

4.4
6.9
5.7
15.8
5.7
5.8

1 For all except a very few for whom data were not reported.

Annual vacations with pay are now granted by most cities to
employees in the fire departments. The practice is general in all
the most important cities, and even in the smallest cities the great
majority of those covered by the survey had adopted the policy of
annual vacations with pay. For most of the cities the customary
vacation was 2 weeks (14 days), but in some cities the annual vaca­
tions were considerably longer. The maximum for the rank and
file was 21 days, but in a number of cities chiefs and assistant chiefs
were allowed 30 days annually.
Fo u n d rie s and M a ch in e Shops— H o u rs and E a rn in g s, 1933

Bureau of Labor Statistics made a study in 1933 of hours and
earnings in foundries and machine shops covering 19,763 wage earners
of 364 representative foundries and 41 ,9 6 0 wage earners of 492
machine shops in the United States, the data collected being mainly
for a representative pay-roll period in April, May, or June. The
results of that study were published in the Monthly Labor Review
for December 1933 (p. 145 9 ). A few minor revisions of original
figures are shown in this report. Table 1 presents summary data for
1933, together with similar data for each of the other years in which
studies of these industries have been made by the Bureau. It also
shows index numbers of average full-time hours per week, average
earnings per hour, and average full-time earnings per week, with the
1923 average as the base, or 100.
T he

T a ble 1 .—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S IN FOUN D RIES A N D M A C H IN E SHOPS
1923 TO 1933, A N D IN D E X N U M B E R S T H E R E O F , B Y IN D U S T R Y A N D Y E A R

Industry and year

Foundries:
1923____ __________________ _____
1925— ______ __________________
1927............... .......... .........................
1929.................... ..............................
1931............... .......... .........................
1933______ _________ _____ _____
Machine shops:
1923..........— .................................. .
1925...................................................
1927-................................................
1929________ ..................... ..............
1931— ____ _____________________
1933............... ...............................
i Data not available.




Aver­
age
full­
time
hours
per
week

Hours actu­
ally worked
in 1 week

Aver­
age
num­
ber

(9
(9

52.4
51.5
51.1
51.0
50.3
49.5

46.6
48.7
33.5
29.6

50.8
50.4
50.1
50.3
49.8
48.5

48.2
50.3
38.2
34.6

(9
(9

Per
of
full
time

(9
(9

91.2
95.5
66.6
59.8

(9
(9

96.2
100.0
76.7
71.3

Aver­
age
earn­
ings
per
hour

Index numbers
(1923=100.0)
Aver­ Aver­
age
age
Aver­
full­ actual Aver­
Aver­
age
time
age
earn­ earn­
full­
age
ings
full­
earn­ time
ings
in 1
time
earn­
per
ings
week week hours
per
ings
per
per
week hour week

$0.558 $29.24
(9
.610 31.42
(9
.624 31.89 $29.04
.624 31.82 30.39
.600 30.18 20.06
.482 23.86 14.25
.559
.602
.625
.638
.634
.541

28.40
30.34
31. 31
32.09
31.57
26.24

(9
(9

30.15
32.06
24. 22
18.72

100.0
98.3
97.5
97.3
96.0
94.3

100.0
109.3
111.8
111.8
107.5
86.4

100.0
107.5
109.1
108.8
103.2
81.4

100.0
99.2
98.6
99.0
98.0
95.5

100.0
107.7
111.8
114.1
113.4
96.6

100.0
106.8
110.2
113.0
111.2
92. 2

941

FOUNDRIES AND MACHINE SHOPS

Table 2 shows average hours and earnings in 1 week, average
earnings per hour, and the percent of full time actually worked in a
representative week in 1931 and 1933. The averages are for all wage
earners of each sex found in each of the important occupations in the
foundries and in the machine shops covered in the study and also for
the group designated as “ Other employees” . Averages are shown
for males in all and for females in 3 of the 12 important occupations
in foundries, and for males in all and for females in 16 of the 27
important occupations in machine shops, and also for the group of
“ Other employees” of each sex in each industry.
T a ble 3 .—A V ER AG E HOURS A N D EAR N IN G S IN FOUN D RIES A N D M A C H IN E SHOPS.
1931 A N D 1933, B Y IN D U ST R Y , OCCUPATIO N , A N D SEX

Foundries

Occupation and sex

Average
full-time
hours
per week

Hours actually worked
in 1 week
Average
number

1931 1933 1931 1933

A ll occupations:
M ales...................... ..
Females............ ...........
M ales and females. .
Chippers and rough
grinders, male................
Chippers and rough
grinders, female.........—
Coremakers, male_______
Coremakers, female_____
Crane operators, male—Cupola tenders, m a le .. .
Laborers, m a le ---.........—
Laborers, female......... ..
Molders (hand), bench,
male...................................
Molders (hand), floor,
male....................... ............
Molders (machine), male
Molders* helpers, floor,
male................... ............. Patternmakers, male___
Rough carpenters, male.
Sand blasters, male_____
Other employees, m ale-Other employees, female.

50.3 49.5 33.5 29.6
48.7 48.3 29.4 30.2
50.3 49.5 33.5 29.6

Percent of
full time

1931

Average full­
Average earntime earnings
ings per hour
per week

1933

1931

1933

1931

1933

Average
actual earn­
ings in 1
week

1931

1933

66.6
60.4
66.6

59.8 $0.601 $0,483 $30.23 $23.91 $20.13 $14. 28
62.5
.422
.314
20.55
9. 51
15.17
12.40
.600
.482
59.8
30.18
23.86
20.06 14.25

50.6 49.4 33.1

29.8

65.4

60.3

.509

.396

25. 76

19.56

16.86

11.78

50.0
50.0
48.6
50.8
50.8
50.8
47.8

0)
29.8
31.5
30.5
28.9
27.8
16.9

43.0
62.4
64.2
74.0
67.9
66.1
43.5

0)
60.8
65.5
61.6
57.9
55.6
33.4

.496
.706
.430
.552
.597
.460
.377

0)
.550
.324
.440
.470
.378
.296

24.80
35.30
20.90
28.04
30.33
23.37
18.02

0)
26.95
15.58
21.78
23.45
18.90
14.98

10.65
22.05
13.42
20.74
20.59
15.43
7.83

0)
16.41
10. 22
13.40
13.60
10. 51
5.00

50.2 49.4 30.2 27.2

60.2

55.1

.727

.550

36.50

27.17

21.96 14.98

50.0 48.9 29.6 25.7
50.0 49.2 30.4 28.5

59.2
60.8

52.6
57.9

.782
.661

.612
.508

39.10
33.05

29.92
24.99

23.14 15.70
20.06 14.50

29.8
38.9
31.0
30.9
34.0
36.4

67.2
80.7
74.4
69.0
76.4
49.2

61.2
79.1
63.0
61.8
68.3
77.9

.492
.834
.599
.559
.600
.345

.382
.652
.466
.413
.496
.228

24.60
41.12
30.13
28.12
30.30
17.11

18.60
32.08
22.93
20.65
24.70
10.65

16.50
33.19
22.40
19.41
23.16

50.0
49.3
50.3
50.3

0)
49.0
48.1
49.5
49.9
50.0
50.6

48.7
49.2
49.2
50.0
50.5 49.8
49.6 46.7

21.5
31.2
31.2
37.6
34.5
33.6
20.8

33.6
39.8
37.4
34.7
38.6
24.4

11.40
25.36
14.47
12.76
16.87
8.44 8.30

Machine shops
All occupations:
Males.......................... 49.8 48.5 38.2 34.6
Females...................... 49.2 47.4 38.8 34.2
Males and females. . 49.8 48.5 38.2 34.6

76.7
78.9
76.7

71.3 $0.637 $0,545 $31.72 $26.43 $24.36 $18.87
72.2
.408
.351 20.07 16.64 15.85 11.98
.634
.541 31.57 26.24 24.22 18.72
71. a

49.9 •48.3 37.9 34.0
50.7 47.6 37.6 31.9
50.5 49.0 36.5 30.0

76.0
74.2
72.3

70.4
67.0
61.2

49.8 48.8 36.5 30.4

73.3

50.0 49.1 37.4 33.5
50.4 49.8 39.7 35.0
47.5 0)
46.0 0)

74.8
78.8
96.8

50.1 48.6 39.1 35.0

78.0

72.0

49.7 47.8 34.1 37.9

68.6

79.3

male.............................

49.8 48.5 36.0 33.7

72.3

69.5

Drill-press
operators,
female............................

49.3 46.4 36.1 38.2

73.2

82.3

Assemblers, male.............
Assemblers, female_____
Blacksmiths, male..........
Blacksmiths’ helpers,
male.......................... .
Boring-mill operators,
male-------- -----------------Crane operators, male—.
Crane operators, female,
Craters and packers,
male............................ —
Craters and packers,

female..........................

Drill-press

operators,

i None reported in 1933.




32.73
21.60
36.76

25.99
17.09
29.45

24.84 18. 31
16.01 11.48
26.57 18.02

.656
.426
.728

.538
.359
.601

62.3

.533

.433

26.54

21.13

19.47 13.16

68.2
70.3
0)

.733
.537
.422

.596
.444
0)

36.65
27.06
20.05

29.26

22.11
0)

27.39 19.98
21.35 15.52
19.38 0)

.540

.437

27.05

21.24

21.10 15.31

.343

.281

17.05

13.43

11.71 10.66

.612

,514

30.48

24.93

22.06 17.30

.446

.419

21.99

19.44

16.09 15.99

942

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

T able 2 .—AVE R A G E HOURS A N D EAR N IN G S IN FOUN D RIES A N D M A C H IN E SHOPS ,
1931 AN D 1933, B Y IN D U S T R Y , OCCUPATION , A N D S E X — Continued

M achine shops— Continued

Occupation and sex

Average
full-time
hours
per week

Hours actually worked
in 1 week
Average
number

1931 1983 1931 1933
Fitters and bench hands,
male..................... .........
Fitters and bench hands,
female.........................—
Grinding-machine oper­
ators, male—- ...........
Grinding-machine oper­
ators, female.......... .......
Hammersmiths, male.—
Helpers, not otherwise
specified, male............ Laborers, male_________
Laborers, female.......... —
Lathe operators, engine,
male____ ____ - ............
Lathe operators, engine,
female.............................
Lathe operators, turret,
male............................ —
Lathe operators, turret,
female.............................
Machinists, male...........Machinists' and toolmakers’ helpers, male.
Milling-machine opera­
tors, male......................
Milling-machine opera­
tors, female...................
Patternmakers, male___
Planer operators, male—
Polishers and buffers,
male...............................
Polishers and buffers,
female......................... —
Punch-press operators,
male................................
Punch-press operators,
female.............................
Screw machine opera­
tors (automatic), male.
Screw machine opera­
tors (hand), male____
Screw machine opera­
tors (hand), female___
Screw machine opera­
tors (semi-automatic),
male...............................
Screw machine opera­
tors (semi-automatic),
female............................
Toolmakers, male...........
Other precision machine
operators, male_______
Other precision machine
operators, female------Other skilled employ­
ees, male................. .......
Other skilled employ­
ees, female.....................
Other employees, male—
Other employees, female

Percent of
full time
1931

1933

Average full­
Average earn­ time earnings
ings per hour
per week

1931

1933

1931

1933

Average
actual earn­
ings in 1
week

1931

1933

49.5 48.5 38.0 33.7

76.8

69.5 $0,666 $0,562 $32.97 $27.26 $25.28 $18. 96

50.4 48.0 37.1 32.9

73.6

68.5

.411

.326

20.71

15.65

15.23 10.72

50.2 47.9 36.9 34.2

73.5

71.4

.669

.557

33.58

26.68

24.69 19.04

48.0 46.3 39.3 30.1
49.4 49.2 29.6 29.3

81.9
59.9

65.0
59.6

.443
.776

.519
.614

21.26
38.33

24.03
30.21

17.43 15.60
22.94 18.00

50.6 48.8 37.1 35.0 73.3
50.3 48.8 38.6 33.0 76.7
49.5 49.1 56.3 39.3 113.7

71.7
67.6
80.0

.481
.455
.391

.399
.379
.309

24 .34
22.89
19.35

19.47
18.50
15.17

22.00

25.97 19.33

17.84 13.94
17.56 12.52
12.13

50.0 48.8 36.8 33.5

73.6

68.6

.706

.578

35.30

28.21

50.0 46.0 13.0 33.3

26.0

72.4

.516

.523

25.80

24.06

6.71 17.44

49.8 48.5 35.6 33.3

71.5

68.7

.672

.559

33.47

27.11

23.92 18.63

50.0 45.0 16.2 33.8
49.0 48.3 40.4 36.7

32.4
82.4

75.1
76.0

.527
.733

.541
.606

26.35
35.92

24.35
29.27

8.52 18.32
29.62 22.27

49.3 48.2 38.9 35.3

78.9

73.2

.513

.393

25.29

18.94

19.98 13.87

49.3 47.9 37.8 33.7

76.6

70.4

.685

.576

33.77

27.59

25.85 19.43

4 8 .9
50.1
50.1

7 7 .9
8 1 .6
7 4 .5

7 6 .7
6 9 .0
6 8 .0

.4 9 2
.8 1 2
.7 3 8

.4 4 6
.6 7 2
.6 0 8

2 4 .0 6
4 0 .6 8
3 6 .97

21.05
3 2 .5 2
29.61

18.74
3 3 .22
2 7 .53

4 7 .2
4 8 .4
4 8 .7

38.1
4 0 .9
3 7 .3

3 6 .2
3 3 .4
33.1

1 6 .1 2
22.42
2 0 .1 5

4 9 .4

4 7 .7

3 3 .5

3 4 .3

6 7 .8

7 1 .9

.6 5 6

.4 8 3

32.41

23.04

21.96

16.60

50.1

4 8 .5

3 4 .7

3 5 .2

6 9 .3

7 2 .6

.3 7 7

.4 0 0

18.89

19.40

13.08

1*. 07

5 0 .2

4 8 .6

3 6 .8

3 4 .1

73 .3

7 0 .2

.6 1 9

.5 0 5

3 1 .0 7

24.54

2 2 .79

17.21

4 9 .0

4 8 .8

3 7 .3

3 5 .5

76 .1

7 2 .7

.3 8 6

.3 5 8

18.91

17.47

14.39

12. 72

4 9 .5

4 7 .6

37.1

3 6 .3

7 4 .9

7 6 .3

.6 9 4

.5 7 6

3 4 .35

27 .4 2

25.76

2 0 .9 0

49 .9

4 8 .0

3 6 .4

3 5 .6

72 .9

7 4 .2

.6 5 4

.4 9 3

3 2 .63

23. 66

23.79

17.61

4 9 .5

4 6 .8

4 0 .9

4 3 .0

8 2 .6

9 1 .9

.3 5 6

.2 0 4

1 7 .62

9. 55

14.57

8. 79

4 8 .5

4 8 .5

3 9 .5

3 5 .6

8 1 .4

7 3 .4

.7 0 5

.5 2 3

3 4 .19

2 5 .37

27.87

18. 58

4 9 .5
4 9 .4

0)
4 8 .6

4 3 .2
4 1 .9

0)
3 6 .8

8 7 .3
8 4 .8

0)
7 5 .7

.3 2 6
.7 5 8

0)
.6 4 3

16.14
37.45

3 1 .25

14.10
3 1 .78

0)
23. 62
17.69

(0

5 0 .0

4 9 .0

3 5 .7

3 3 .1

7 1 .4

6 7 .6

.6 5 7

.5 3 4

3 2 .8 5

2 6 .1 7

2 3 .46

4 8 .5

4 6 .8

3 8 .6

3 1 .0

7 9 .6

6 6 .2

.3 9 9

.3 4 1

19.35

15.96

15. 37

10.58

4 9 .9

4 8 .5

3 9 .8

3 5 .6

7 9 .8

7 3 .4

.6 9 5

.5 7 8

3 4 .6 8

2 8 .03

27. 63

20. 60

4 9 .3
50 .1
4 7 .9

4 7 .1
4 8 .5
4 7 .5

4 0 .5
3 9 .2
3 9 .0

3 3 .9
3 6 .4
3 3 .7

8 2 .2
7 8 .2
8 1 .4

7 2 .0
75.1
7 0 .9

.3 9 1
.5 0 6
.4 3 9

.3 3 7
.5 5 0
.3 8 4

1 9 .2 8
25 .3 5
2 1 .0 3

15.87
2 6 .68
18.24

15.84
19.82
17.13

11.43
2 0 .0 5
12. 96

1 None reported in 1933.

Table 3 shows average hours and earnings, and the percent of full
time worked in 1 week. The averages are, by States, for the wage
earners of each sex and of both sexes combined who were included in
the study of foundries and of machine shops in 1931 and 1933.




943

FOUNDRIES AND MACHINE SHOPS

T able 3 .—A V E R A G E HOURS, EAR N IN G S, A N D P E R C E N T OF FU LL T IM E W O R K E D
1931 A N D 1933, B Y IN D U S T R Y , S E X , A N D STATE

Foundries

Sex and State

Average fulltime hours
per week

Hours actually worked
in 1 week
Average
number

Average earn­ Average full­ Average ac­
time earnings tual earnings
ings per
per week
in 1 week
hour
Percent of
full time
1933

1931

1933

1933

1931

1933

1931

1933

53.8
45.4
48.0
50.7
50.9
49.6
51.1
53.6
56.0
51.2
52.4
48.3
49.9
47.2
52.1
51.2
51.9
50.7
48.9
49.2
51.0
47.2
51.1
50.4
49.0
49.0
47.9
51.5

50.0
43.7
48.0
51.4
51.5
47.8
51.7
50.7
55.2
51.2
48.4
52.2
48.0
46.7
50.4
46.4
51.8
47.1
49.2
49.2
51.3
39.1
48.8
50.7
49.5
49.6
48.0
50.5

43.2
34.7
45.6
28.5
36.0
30.9
29.7
35.0
37.1
30.3
35.8
41.4
40.6
33.8
33.3
32.9
35.3
37.8
35.1
33.2
34.7
36.5
32.5
31.7
33.4
36.7
37.8
35.1

46.9
35.4
30.5
19.3
30.8
32.1
25.4
35.6
36.8
37.6
27.9
35.3
28.1
30.1
30.0
28.4
33.0
22.1
29.9
30.3
30.6
29.3
28.9
33.1
31.8
27.7
28.6
24.4

80.3
76.4
95.0
56.2
70.7
62.3
58.1
65.3
66.3
59.2
68.3
85.7
81.4
71.6
63.9
64.3
68.0
74.6
71.8
67.5
68.0
77.3
63.6
62.9
68.2
74.9
78.9
68.2

93.8 $0,423 $0,322 $22.76 $16.10 $18.28 $15.08
.623 33.73 27.23 25.81 22.07
.743
81.0
63.5
.600
.500 28.80 24.00 27.33 15.25
.589
.462 29.86 23.75 16.77
8.93
37.5
.341 20.51 17.56 14.52 10.48
.403
59.8
.492 32.09 23.52 19.96 15.79
67.2
.647
.422 28.56 21.82 16.62 10.72
49.1
.559
70.2
.600
.506 32.16 25.65 20.86 18.03
.455
.379 25.48 20.92 16.86 13.95
66.7
.521
.374 26.68 19.15 15.76 14.03
73.4
.371 21.01 17.96 14.35 10.35
57.6
.401
.414 26.95 21.61 23.08 14.58
67.6
.558
.543
.462 27.10 22.18 22.06 12.98
58.5
64.5
.690
.617 32.57 28.81 23.31 18.59
.582
59.5
.446 30.32 22.48 19.37 13.40
61.2
.589
.519 30.16 24.08 19.38 14.77
.577
.445 29.95 23.05 20.36 14.67
63.7
46.9
.567
.526 28.75 24.77 21.43 11.62
.472 29.73 23.22 21.30 14.11
.608
60.8
.502 29.47 24.70 19.87 15.24
.599
61.6
.459 31.11 23.55 21.19 14.05
59.6
.610
.675
.595 31.86 23.26 24.63 17.41
74.9
59.2
.606
.494 30.97 24.11 19.70 14.31
.557 30.09 28.24 18.93 18.43
65.3
.597
.454 23.08 22.47 15.74 14.42
64.2
.471
.402 25.24 19.94 18.94 11.15
.515
55.8
.551 33.43 26.45 26.43 15.76
59.6
.698
.472 30.08 23.84 20.49 11.50
.584
48.3

Total m ales... 50.3

49.5

33.5

29.6

66.6

59.8

.601

.483

30.23

23.91

20.13

14.28

0)
24.7
22.7
0
0
0
20.9
25.7
38.0
30.5
29.3
32.3
48.3
32.3

0)
27.8
21.4
45.0
0
37.7
39.2
34.7
32.4
34.6
28.3
0)
0)
27.1

0
O
49.1 59.9
45.7 42.0
100.0
0
0
0
81.1
0
40.7 74.1
53.3 71.1
81.0 69.5
68.5 64.1
58.3 59.0
63.5
0)
96.6
0
66.3 60.8

0
.409
.472

51.4
48.2
46.9
44.5
50.3
50.9
50.0
48.7

(l)
46.4
50.9
45.0
0)
46.5
52.9
48.8
46.6
54.0
48.0
0)
0
44.6

.448
.380
.403
.438
.447
.460
.318
.430

0
.348
.296
.314
0
.424
.290
.271
.334
.275
.344
0
0
.330

0)
20.57
23.46
0
0
0
23.03
18.32
18.90
19.49
22.48
23.41
15.90
20.94

0)
16.15
15.07
14.14
0
19.72
15.34
13.22
15.56
14.85
16.51
0
14.72

0
10.09
10.70
0
0
0
9.39
9.81
15.33
13.34
13.08
14.85
15.38
13.88

0
9.69
6.35
14.14
0
15.96
11.38
9.40
10.83
9.50
9.75
0
0
8.93

Total females. 48.7

48.3

29.4

30.2

60.4

62.5

.422

.314

20.55

15.17

12.40

9.51

50.0
43.7
48.0
51.4
51.5
47.8
51.6
50.8
55.2
51.2
48.4
52.2
48.0
46.7
50.4
46.4
51.8

43.2
34.7
45.6
28.5
36.0
30.8
29.5
35.0
37.1
30.4
35.8
41.4
40.6
33.8
33.2
32.9
35.3

46.9
35.4
30.5
19.3
30.8
32.1
25.3
35.8
36.8
37.5
27.9
35.3
28.1
30.2
30.1
28.4
33.0

80.3
76.4
95.0
56.3
70.7
62.1
57.7
65.3
66.3
59.5
68.3
85.7
81.4
71.6
63.7
64.3
68.0

93.8
81.0
63.5
37.5
59.8
67.2
49.0
70.5
■66.7
73.2
57.6
67.6
58.5
64.7
59.7
61.2
63.7

.423
.743
.600
.589
.403
.646
.557
.600
.455
.519
.401
.558
.543
.690
.581
.589
.577

.322
.623
.500
.462
.341
.492
.420
.503
.379
.373
.371
.414
.462
.616
.445
.619
.445

22.76
33.73
28.80
29.80
20.51
32.04
28.46
32.16
25.48
26.52
21.01
26.95
27.10
32.57
30.27
30.16
29.95

16.10
27.23
24.00
23.75
17.56
23.52
21.67
25.55
20.92
19.10
17.96
21. 61
22.18
28.77
22.43
24.08
23.06

18.28
25.81
27.33
16.78
14.52
19.91
16.45
20.86
16.86
15.76
14.35
23.08
22.06
23.31
19.27
19.38
20.36

15.08
22.07
15.25
8.93
10.48
15.76
10.62
17.97
13.95
13.99
10.35
14.58
12.98
18.58
13.39
14.77
14.67

1931

1933

1931

1931
M a le s

Alabama...................
California..................
Colorado............. .......
Connecticut......... .
Georgia.............. .......
Illinois........................
Indiana......................
Iowa................. ..........
Kansas_____________
Kentucky_____ _____
Louisiana........ ..........
Maine.........................
Maryland_____ ____
Massachusetts ______
Michigan_____ ____
Minnesota.................
Missouri....................
New Hampshire.......
New Jersey................
New York..................
Ohio............................
Oregon........................
Pennsylvania______
Rhode Island............
Tennessee— .............
Texas.........................
Washington...............
Wisconsin......... .........

F e m a le s

Connecticut— ..........
Illinois........................
Indiana____________
Iowa............. ..............
Kentucky............. .
Massachusetts_____
Michigan. .................
New Jersey................
New York_________
Ohio_______________
Pennsylvania.____
Rhode Island______
Tennessee_____ _____
Wisconsin....... ..........

0
50.3
49.7

0

M a le s a n d fem ales

Alabama....................
California...................
Colorado....................
Connecticut________
Georgia____________
Illinois-------- -----------Indiana......................
Iowa............................
Kansas_____________
Kentucky...................
Louisiana...................
Maine_____ ________
Maryland..................
Massachusetts_____
Michigan...................
Minnesota.................
Missouri...... ..............

53.8
45.4
48.0
50.6
50.9
49.6
51.1
53.6
56.0
51.1
52.4
48.3
49.9
47.2
52.1
51.2
51.9

See footnotes at end of table.




944

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

T able 3 .—AV E R A G E HOURS, E AR N IN G S, A N D P E R C E N T OF F U LL T IM E W O R K E D ,
1931 A N D 1933, B Y IN D U S T R Y , S E X , A N D S T A T E —Continued

Foundries— Continued

Sex and State

Average full­
time hours
per week

Hours actually worked
in 1 week
Average
number

Percent of
full time

Average earn- Average full­ Average ac­
ings per
time earnings tual earnings
per week
in 1 week
hour

1931

1933

1931

1933

1931

1933

1931

1933

1931

1933

1931

1933

New Hampshire____
New Jersey................
New York........ .........
Ohio............................
Oregon........................
Pennsylvania............
Rhode Island............
Tennessee...................
Texas.............. ..........
Washington...............
Wisconsin____ ______

50.7
48.9
49.2
50.9
47.2
51.1
50.4
49.0
49.0
47.9
51.5

47.1
49.2
49.2
51.3
39.1
48.8
50.7
49.5
49.6
48.0
50.4

37.8
34.9
33.3
34.7
36.5
32.5
31.7
33.6
36.7
37.8
35.1

22.1
30.0
30.4
30.7
29.3
28.9
33.1
31.8
27.7
28.6
24.4

74.6
71.4
67.7
68.2
77.3
63.6
62.9
68.6
74.9
78.9
68.2

46.9 $0.567 $0,526 $28.75 $24.77 $21.43 $11.62
.604
61.0
.466 29.54 22.93 21.09 14.00
.594
.499 29.22 24.55 19.78 15.16
61.8
59.8
.610
.458 31.05 23.50 21.16 14.04
.675
74.9
.595 31.86 23.26 24.63 17.41
59.2
.605
.494 30.92 24.11 19.65 14.28
65.3
.597
.556 30.09 28.19 18.91 18.40
64.2
.469
.452 22.98 22.37 15.74 14.37
.515
.402 25.24 19.94 18.94 11.15
55.8
.698
.551 33.43 26.45 26.43 15.76
59.6
48.4
.583
.471 30.02 23.74 20.44 11.48

Total males and
females_____

50.3

49.5

33.5

29.6

66.6

59.8

M a le s a n d fem a les —

Continued

.600

.482

30.18

23.86

20.06

14.25

Machine shops
M a le s

Alabama.....................
California...................
Colorado-...................
Connecticut...............
Georgia____________
Illinois........................
Indiana,.....................
Iowa...........................
Kansas________ *___
Kentucky—...............
Louisiana__________
Maine.........................
Maryland-............. .
Massachusetts..........
Michigan...................
Minnesota.................
Missouri...... ..............
New Hampshire___
New Jersey................
New York.................
Ohio............................
Oregon........................
Pennsylvania...........
Rhode Island............
Tennessee..................
Texas..........................
Washington— ..........
Wisconsin..................

54.0
45.1
48.0
49.3
51.2
49.5
51.1
52.2
52.9
48.9
51.4
48.1
48.4
48.2
51.5
49.2
51.3
48.8
49.4
49.2
49.9
46.2
51.2
50.4
49.0
48.0
47.6
51.2

50.1
44.3
47.7
48.0
51.8
48.3
50.8
49.5
49.9
49.7
48.7
48.8
47.5
46.4
48.1
48.8
50.4
48.6
48.9
48.1
49.0
47.1
49.3
50.6
48.7
45.1
45.0
50.4

40.1
39.2
36.5
37.0
42.6
37.6
35.8
34.3
47.6
36.7
43.2
39.4
41.3
41.8
38.5
37.6
39.4
40.7
40.7
40.3
37.4
41.2
35.9
34.9
35.2
39.1
42.8
36.3

41.3
40.7
32.0
30.1
40.8
34.7
27.8
38.4
45.4
36.9
38.5
34.4
37.7
37.2
36.4
38.9
40.6
32.0
36.3
31.4
34.8
36.0
34.0
36.5
37.1
34.9
38.3
29.5

74.3
86.9
76.0
75.1
83.4
76.0
70.1
65.7
90.0
75.1
84.0
81.9
85.3
86.7
74.8
76.4
76.8
83.4
82.4
81.9
74.9
89.2
70.1
69.2
71.8
81.5
89.9
70.9

82.4 $0.596 $0,401 $32.18 $20.09 $23.88 $16.55
91.9
.753
.643 33.96 28.48 29.47 26.20
.647
67.1
.550 31.06 26.24 23.63 17.64
.659
62.7
.608 32.49 29.18 24.34 18.30
.462
78.8
.352 23.65 18.23 19.66 14.35
71.8
.657
.549 32.52 26.52 24.72 19.03
.543
54.7
.477 27.75 24.23 19.44 13.28
.569
77.6
.440 29.70 21.78 19.50 16.88
.543
.467 28.72 23.30 25.81 21.20
91.0
74.2
.551
.439 26.94 21.82 20.23 16.18
.524
.464 26.93 22.60 22.66 17.86
79.1
70.5
.550
.420 26.46 20.50 21.69 14.44
79.4
.658
.593 31.85 28.17 27.17 22.37
80.2
.646
.563 31.14 26.12 27.01 20.95
.645
75.7
.533 33.22 25.64 24.84 19.42
79.7
.601
.570 29.57 27.82 22.57 22.15
.562
80.6
.481 28.83 24.24 22.17 19.50
65.8
.600
.605 29.28 29.40 24.37 19.37
74.2
.679
.568 33.54 27.78 27.65 20.63
.612 33.46 29.44 27.37 19.22
65.3
.680
.628
71.0
.526 31.34 25.77 23.50 18.29
.724
76.4
.650 33.45 30.62 29.82 23.43
.616
.531 31.54 26.18 22.08 18.02
69.0
72.1
.595
.525 29.99 26.57 20.74 19.16
76.2
.568
.460 27.83 22.40 20.00 17.10
77.4
.603
.527 28.94 23. 77 23.59 18.41
.729
85.1
.636 34.70 28.62 31.16 24.39
58.5
.617
.530 31.59 26.71 22.43 15.65

Total males. . .

49.8

48.5

38.2

34.6

76.7

71.3

.637

.545

31.72

26.43

24.36

18.87

0)
50.9
50.0
50.0
47.7
52.3
48.0
50.0
48.1
49.4
46.4
50.8

0)
50.9
50.0
50.0
45.5
45.2
48.0
48.5
48.0
48.6
46.7
51.4

0)
34.7
27.2
27.0
38.7
41.9
31.6
39.0
38.6
41.4
35.6
36.2

0)
35.8
17.4
28.1
31.8
41.1
23.3
43.0
35.4
37.6
25.9
41.8

0)
68.2
54.4
54.0
81.1
80.1
65.8
78.0
80.2
83.8
76.7
71.3

0)
70.3
34.8
66.2
69.9
90.9
48.5
88.7
73.8
77.4
55.5
81.3

0)
.373
.471
.380
.448
.398
.431
.423
.473
.347
.397
.453

0)
.299
.371
.270
.399
.374
.328
.263
.383
.255
.389
.366

0)
18.99
23.55
19.00
21.37
20.82
20.69
21.15
22.75
17.14
18,42
23.01

0)
15.22
18.55
13.60
18.15
16.90
15.74
12.76
18.38
12.39
18.17
18.81

0)
12.95
12.80
10.26
17.35
16.66
13.63
16.49
18.23
14.38
14.13
16.40

0)
10.68
6.45
7.60
12.69
15.41
7.63
11.30
13.57
9.60
10.07
15.30

F e m a le s

Connecticut...............
I llin o is

Indiana,.....................
Maine______________
Massachusetts........ .
Michigan...................
New Hampshire—, ,
New Jersey................
New York..................
Ohio...... .....................
Pennsylvania............
Rhode Island............

See footnotes at encl of tatile.




945

FOUNDRIES— STOVE HOLDERS AND MOUNTERS

T able 3 .—AVERAGES HOURS, EAR N IN G S, A N D P E R C E N T OF FU LL T IM E W O R K E D ,
1931 A N D 1933, B Y IN D U ST R Y , SE X , A N D S T A T E —Continued

M achine shops— Continued

Sex and State

Average full­
time hours
per week

Hours actually worked
in 1 week
Average
number

Percent of
full time

Average earn­ Average full­ Average ac­
ings per
time earnings tual earnings
hour
per week
in 1 week

1931

1933

1931

1933

1931

1933

0)
45.5

(3
)
44.9

(l)
38.8

(3
)
23.7

0)
85.3

(3
)
(»)
0)
0)
(3
)
0)
52.8 $0,378 $0.291 $17.20 $13.07 $14.66

(3
)
$6.89

Total females- 49.2

47.4

38.8

34.2

78.9

72.2

.408

.351

20.07

16.64

15.85

11.98

1931

1933

1931

1933

1931

1933

F e m a le s — C o n t d .

Tennessee..................
Wisconsin..................

M a le s a n d fem a les

Alabama....................
California...................
Colorado....................
Connecticut...............
Georgia.......................
Illinois........................
Indiana......................
Iowa—........................
Kansas........................
Kentucky..................
Louisiana...................
M a in e ..-...................
Maryland..................
Massachusetts..........
Michigan...................
Minnesota.................
Missouri.....................
New Hampshire___
New Jersey................
New York.................
Ohio............................
Oregon........................
Pennsylvania............
Rhode Island............
Tennessee— .............
Texas..........................
Washington...............
Wisconsin..................

54.0
45.1
48.0
49.3
51.2
49.6
51.0
52.2
52.9
48.9
51.4
48.1
48.4
48.2
51.5
49.2
51.3
48.7
49.4
49.2
49.9
46.2
51.1
50.4
49.0
48.0
47.6
51.1

50.1
44.3
47.7
48.0
51.8
48.3
50.8
49.5
49.9
49.7
48.7
48.8
47.5
46.4
47.9
48.8
50.4
48.6
48.9
48.1
49.0
47.1
49.3
50.6
48.7
45.1
45.0
50.4

40.1
39.2
36.5
37.0
42.6
37.6
35.7
34.3
47.6
36.7
43.2
39.2
41.3
41.8
38.7
37.6
39.4
40.2
40.7
40.3
37.5
41.2
35.9
34.9
35.3
39.1
42.8
36.4

41.3
40.7
32.0
30.1
40.8
34.7
27.2
38.4
45.4
36.9
38.5
34.3
37.7
37.1
36.8
38.9
40.6
31.1
36.3
31.6
34.8
36.0
33.9
36.6
37.1
34.9
38.3
29.5

74.3
86.9
76.0
75.1
83.2
75.8
70.0
65.7
90.0
75.1
84.0
81.5
85.3
86.7
75.1
76.4
76.8
82.5
82.4
81.9
75.2
89.2
70.3
69.2
72.0
81.5
89.9
71.2

82.4
91.9
87.1
62.7
78.8
71.8
53.5
77.6
91.0
74.2
79.1
70.3
79.4
80.0
76.8
79.7
80.6
64.0
74.2
65.7
71.0
76.4
68.8
72.3
76.2
77.4
85.1
58.5

.596
.753
.647
.659
.462
.655
.543
.569
.543
.551
.524
.548
.658
.644
.631
.601
.562
.594
.677
.674
.622
.724
.614
.591
.567
.603
.729
.615

.401
.643
.550
.608
.352
.547
.473
.440
.467
.439
.464
.418
.593
.561
.519
.570
.481
.584
.568
.599
.518
.650
.529
.521
.460
.527
.636
.528

32.18
33.96
31.06
32.49
23.65
32.49
27.69
29.70
28.72
26.94
26.93
26.36
31.85
31.04
32.50
29.57
28.83
28.93
33.44
33.16
31.04
33.45
31.38
29.79
27.78
28.94
34.70
31.43

20.09
28.48
26.24
29.18
18.23
26.42
24.03
21.78
23.30
21.82
22.60
20.40
28.17
26.03
24.86
27.82
24.24
28.38
27.78
28.81
25.38
30.62
26.08
26.36
22.40
23.77
28.62
26.61

23.88
29.47
23.63
24.34
19.66
24.63
19.37
19.50
25.81
20.23
22.66
21.51
27.17
26.88
24.40
22.57
22.17
23.83
27.55
27.13
23.32
29.82
22.00
20.63
19.99
23.59
31.16
22.36

16.65
26.20
17.64
18.30
14.35
18.96
12.89
16.88
21.20
16.18
17.86
14.31
22.37
20.81
19.10
22.15
19.50
18.18
20.62
18.94
18.04
23.43
17.94
19.08
17.10
18.41
24.39
15.55

Total males and
females.........

49.8

48.5

38.2

34.6

76.7

71.3

.634

.541

31.57

26.24

24.22

18.72

1 Fewer than 3 employees; data included only in total.
1 None reported in 1931.
* None reported in 1933.

Fou n drie s— H o u rs and E a rn in g s of Stove M olders and M o u n te rs,
1934
I n r e s p o n s e to a request of the Atlanta Regional Labor Board for
information pertaining to the earnings of molders and mounters in
stove foundries, the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics ob­
tained pay-roll records from 11 stove foundries in Alabama, Georgia,
and Tennessee for 1 pay period ending in September 1934.
The data showed that the molders, 744 in all, had average earnings
of $20.08 per week of 36.1 hours. This was an average of 55.6 cents per
hour, or $4.44 per 8-hour day. Four percent of the molders earned
less than $2.50 per day and 8 percent earned $6 and over per day.
The 209 mounters had average earnings of $14.08 per week of 32.1
hours, or 43.9 cents per hour and $3.51 per 8-hour day. Of the mount­
ers, 9 percent earned less than $2.50 per day and 1 percent earned
$7 and over per day.
19205— 36------ 61




946

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

F u rn it u r e In d u s try — H o u rs and E a rn in g s, 1931
S u m m a r ie s of average hours and earnings of wage earners in the
furniture industry in the United States, computed by the Bureau of
Labor Statistics from wage figures collected by the Bureau in 1931,
are presented in table 1 together with similar averages for each year
1910 to 1913, 1915, and 1929. Index numbers, with the 1913 average
as the base or 100, are also shown.
The 1931 averages and index numbers are for a total of 30,659 wage
earners of 299 representative furniture factories in 17 States. These
factories are the same as those covered in 1929, except for a few sub­
stituted for those closed since 1929. The same States were included
in both years. Each State included is of material importance in
number of wage earners in the industry, according to reports of the
Bureau of the Census. The wage figures used in computing the
1931 averages, except for a very few factories, were taken directly from
the pay rolls and are for a representative pay period in July, August,
September, or October. Detailed figures of the 1931 study were pub­
lished in Bulletin No. 571 of the Bureau.
T able 1.—AVE R A G E HOURS A N D EAR N IN G S IN TH E FU R N ITU R E IN D U S T R Y , A N D
IN D E X N U M B E R S T H ER EO F , 1910-31, B Y Y E A R
Hours actu­
ally worked
in 1 week

Year

Selected occupations only:
1910........................................... — „
1911...................................................
1912.......................... ............. ..........
1913................................... ...............
1915 8 ............................- ............
—
All occupations:
1915 2_ _ _ _ ................................................................
1929_________________ ________
1931__............... ........................ .

Aver­
age
full­
time
hours Aver­ Per­
age
cent
per
week num­ of full
ber
time

58.2
58.4
58.2
57.4
57.1

0)
0)
0)
0)
0)

0)
0)
0)
0)
0)

57.4
51.9
51.8

(i)
50.1
41.1

0)
96.5
79.3

Aver­
age
earn­
ings
per
hour

Index numbers
(1913=100.0)
Aver­ Aver­
age
age
full­
time actual Aver­ Aver­ Aver­
earn­
age
age
earn­
ings
age
full­
ings
full­
in 1
time
per
time earn­ earn­
week
week
hours ings
per
ings
hour
per
P6k
week

$0. 217 $12. 56
.216 12.50
.214 12.41
.220 12.58
.227 12.88
.214
.490
.411

0)
0)
0)
0)
0)

12.24
0)
25.43 $24. 52
21.29 16.88

101.4
101.7
101.4
100.0
99.5

98.6
98.2
97.3
100.0
103.2

99.8
99.4
98.6
100.0
102.4

89.9
89.8

236.3
198.2

212.8
178.1

1 Data not available.
8
2 sets of averages are shown for this year, 1 for selected occupations and the other for all occupations in
the industry. The 1910 to 1915 figures for selected occupations are comparable one year with another, as
are those for all occupations one year with another from 1915 to 1931.

Table 2 shows for 1929 and for 1931 average hours and earnings
for each of 19 specified occupations, and also for a group of “ other
employees.” Averages are shown in the table for males in each of
the 19 specified occupations and for females in all except 4—hand
carvers, machine carvers, gluers of rough stock, and laborers.




947

FURNITURE INDUSTRY

T able 2 .—AVE R A G E HOURS A N D EAR N IN G S IN T H E FU R N ITU R E IN D U S T R Y , 1929
A N D 1931, B Y OCCUPATION A N D S E X

Occupation and sex

Average
full-time
hours per
week

Hours actually worked
in 1 week
Average
number

1929 1931 1929 1931
All occupations:
Males..........................
Females......................
Males and females..
Assemblers and cabinet­
makers, male..... ..........
Assemblers and cabinet­
makers, female.............
Carvers, hand, male____
Carvers, machine, male.
Craters and packers,
male................................
Craters and packers,
female.............. ........... .
Cushion and pad mak­
ers, male....................
Cushion and pad mak­
ers, female-........... .......
Cutters,
upholstering
materials, male_______
Cutters,
upholstering
materials, female..........
Finishers, male............ .
Finishers, female............
Gluers, rough stock, male.
Helpers, male...................
Helpers, female..... ..........
Laborers, male.................
Machine hands, m ale...
Machine hands, female—
Polishers and rubbers,
male...............................
Polishers and rubbers,
female.................. ..........
Sanders, hand, male____
Sanders, hand, female...
Sewers, male.....................
Sewers, female.................
Sprayers, m a le ...............
Sprayers, female............ .
Spring setters, male____
Spring setters, female___
Trimmers, male— ..........
Trimmers, female............
Upholsterers, male..........
Upholsterers, female___
Veneerers, male________
Veneerers, female............
Other employees, male—
Other employees female.

Percent of
full time
1929

1931

Average ac­
Average earn­ Average full­ tual earnings
time earn­
ings per hour ings per week
in 1 week

1929

1931

1929

1931

1929

1931

52.1 51.9 50.3 41.4
50.5 49.8 46.4 36.3
51.9 51.8 50.1 41.1

96.5
91.9
96.5

79.8 $0.499 $0.416 $26.00 $21. 59 $25.12 $17.22
.314 17.42 15. 64 16.03 11.40
72.9
.345
.411 25.43 21.29 24.52 16.88
79.3
.490

52.1 51.9 50.8 42.0

97.5

80.9

.560

.445

29.18

23.10

28.44 18.68

50.7 49.7 47.5 37.2 93.7
48.6 49.7 44.6 38.0 91.8
51.1 51.7 51.3 44.1 100.4

74.8
76.5
85.3

.317
.956
.765

.283
.745
.576

16.07
46. 46
39.09

14.07
37.03
29.78

15.05 10.53
42.66 28.33
39.22 25.40

52.8 52.4 51.3 42.3

97.2

80.7

.435

.365

22.97

19.13

22.34 15.44

50.3 50.6 43.7 35.8

86.9

70.8

.331

.252

16. 65

12. 75

14.43

50.0 49.8 48.3 40.7

96.6

81.7

.571

.514

28. 55

25. 60

27.62 20.93

50.6 49.1 49.4 32.0

97.6

65.2

.353

.334

17.86

16.40

17.53 10.70

50.0 50.3 49.6 38.2

99.2

75.9

.647

.566

32. 35

28.47

32.09 21. 64

36.8
41.7
38.3
42.3
42.5
40.7
41.4
41.5
37.2

98.2
96.2
93.1
98.1
94.8
88.8
96.2
98.1
86.9

74.2
80.8
76.3
80.9
80.8
79.5
79.3
79.7
71.0

.409
.505
.371
.460
.304
.224
.378
.512
.293

.383
.414
.319
.379
.231
.195
.317
.428
.310

20.49
26. 26
18.74
24.15
15.93
11. 65
19.73
26.83
14.97

19.00
21. 36
16.01
19.82
12.15
9.98
16.55
22.30
16.24

20.10
25.28
17.45
23.67
15.13
10. 37
18.97
26.30
13.01

52.7 52.8 49.4 40.2

93.7

76.1

.507

.403

26. 72

21.28

25.01 16.21

36.7 92.6
42.4 94.3
38.3 90.1
38.8 100.4
35.6 93.1
43.0 99.2
39.9 84.2
34.0 90.2
32.9 89.5
40.6 98.7
29.1 90.4
34.5 92.8
36.4 83.5
43.4 100.4
37.0 95.1
44.2 98.3
32.0 93.6

72.1
80.3
76.4
76.8
72.7
82.1
82.8
67.7
65.7
78.2
55.9
68.6
69.7
82.7
73.4
85.8
63.9

.300
.419
.268
.670
.408
.527
.386
.507
.475
.506
.314
.724
.403
.454
.290
.516
.343

.259
.331
.226
.578
.374
.445
.324
.444
.405
.432
.205
.538
.296
.376
.296
.489
.297

15.75
22.00
13.83
33.03
20.16
27.83
20.07
25. 35
23. 61
26.41
15.98
36.27
20.27
23.84
14.94
26. 63
17.25

13.18
17.48
11.32
29.19
18.33
23.32
15.62
22.29
20.29
22.42
10.68
27.06
15.45
19.74
14.92
25.18
14.88

14.59
20.77
12.47
33.19
18.79
27.63
16.92
22.86
21.13
26.07
14.46
33.61
16.93
23.93
14. 21
26.18
16.17

50.1
52.0
50.5
52.5
52.4
52.0
52.2
52.4
51.1

52.5
52.5
51.6
49.3
49.4
52.8
52.0
50.0
49.7
52.2
50.9
50.1
50.3
52.5
51.5
51.6
50.3

49.6
51.6
50.2
52.3
52.6
51.2
52.2
52.1
52.4

50.9
52.8
50.1
50.5
49.0
52.4
48.2
50.2
50.1
51.9
52.1
50.3
52.2
52.5
50.4
51.5
50.1

49.2
50.0
47.0
51.5
49.7
46.2
50.2
51.4
44.4

48.6
49.5
46.5
49.5
46.0
52.4
43.8
45.1
44.5
51.5
46.0
46.5
42.0
52.7
49.0
50.7

47A

9.01

14.10
17. 26
12.22
16.02
9.82
7.93
13.13
17. 77
11. 53

9.53
14.03
8.67
22.40
13.32
19.12
12.92
15.11
13. 34
17. 52
5.96
18. 53
10.78
16. 32
10.93
21. 57
9.51

Table 3 shows average hours and earnings for the wage earners
included in the studies of the industry in 1929 and 1931. The
averages are for males and females separately in each State and in
all States combined.




948

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

T a ble 3.—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D EAR N IN G S IN T H E F U R N ITU R E IN D U S T R Y , 192)9 A N D
1931, B Y SE X A N D STATE

Sex and State

Average
full-time
hours per
week

Hours actually worked
in 1 week
Average
number

1929 1931 1929 1931

Percent of
full time
1929

1931

Average
earnings
per hour

1929

1931

Average
full-time
earnings
per week

1929

1931

Average ac­
tual earnings
in 1 week

1929

1931

M a le s

California..........................
Georgia..............................
Illinois................................
Indiana..............................
Kentucky..........................
Maryland..........................
Massachusetts..................
Michigan............ - ............
Missouri............................
New Jersey.......................
New York.........................
North Carolina................
Ohio...................................
Pennsylvania...................
Tennessee..........................
Virginia.............................
Wisconsin..........................

47.0
55.1
50.0
52.6
56.9
51.1
48.3
51.2
51.9
49.0
51.4
55.0
53.6
53.2
54.4
55.0
53.7

47.4
55.0
50.1
51.6
54.3
49.5
48.6
51.0
50.8
49.0
51.3
54.2
53.8
53.3
52.7
55.0
53.6

45.9
49.6
49.7
50.5
45.1
50.1
47.3
50.1
47.9
47.2
50.4
52.9
50.8
49.7
63.3
52.8
54.1

42.5 97.7
42.4 90.0
34.5 99.4
39.2 $6.0
43.4 79.3
42.6 98.0
41.3 97.9
39.9 97.9
40.5 92.3
35.4 96.3
39.1 98.1
48.1 96.2
41.9 94.8
46.4 93.4
45.8 98.0
50.9 96.0
37.7 100.7

Total males............ 52.1 51.9 50.3 41.4

89,7 $0.59$ $0,525 $28.15 $24.89 $27.48 $22.33
77.1
.244 15.198 13.42 14.40 10.34
.290
68.9
.608
.498 30.40 24.95 30.21 17.18
76.0
.443
.399 23.30 20.59 22.33 15.65
79.9
.453
.389 25.78 21.12 20.44 16.90
86.1
.516
.482 26.37 23.86 25.84 20.55
85.0
.594 31.20 28.87 30.53 24.56
.646
78.2
.555
.461 28.42 23.51 27.78 18.43
79.7
.432 24.76 21.95 22.82 17.48
.477
72.2
.619
.589 30.33 28.86 29.25 20.83
76.2
.566
.475 29.09 24.37 28.49 18.56
.333
88.7
.288 18.32 15.61 17.61 13.85
77.9
.493
.435 26.42 23.40 25.04 18.23
87.1
.474
.418 25.22 22.28 23.54 19.36
86.9
.348
.289 18.93 15.23 18.56 13.23
92.5
.298
.236 16.39 12.98 15.75 11.98
70.3
.459
.430 24.65 23.05 24.80 16.19

96.5

79.8

.499

.416

26.00

21.59

25.12 17.22

38.4
32.7
31.9
32.1
37.3
40.3
38.9
37.2
37.2
37.2
34.0
46.3
41.5
46.9
38.8
(2
)
33.6

92.3
0)
99.2
87.1
0)
95.4
92.0
89.7
85.2
92.0
93.0
96.2
92.6
85.4
96.0
92.7
87.6

85.7
59.5
63.7
62.8
70.5
82.2
83.8
71.8
74.7
81.8
70.0
93.7
83.5
92.7
76.5
(2
)
67.2

.492
0)
.427
.272
0)
.387
.356
.340
.319
.404
.389
.189
.374
.363
.161
.145
.315

.470
.208
.375
.233
.232
.350
.436
.295
.277
.434
.336
.176
.314
.241
.141
(2
)
.297

22.34
0)
21.35
14.39
0)
19.35
16.98
17.48
15.95
18.66
18.98
10.40
18. 63
18.44
8.86
7.98
15.75

21.06
11.44
18.79
11.91
12.27
17.15
20.23
15.28
13.79
19.75
16.33
8.69
15.61
12.19
7.15
(2
)
14.85

20.58
(0
21.17
12.53
0)
18.45
15.63
15.67
13.57
17.18
17.66
10.00
17.25
15.73
8.53
7.39
13.83

Total females......... 50.5 49.8 46.4 36.3

91.9

72.9

.345

.314

17.42

15.64

16.03 11.40

42.2
41.6
34.2
39.0
43.1
42.4
41.1
39.7
40.3
35.5
38.9
48.0
41.9
46.4
44.6
50.9
37.3

97.2
90.2
99.4
95.4
79.1
97.8
97.3
97.1
91.7
96.3
97.9
96.2
94.6
93.2
97.6
95.8
99.2

89.4
75.6
68.3
75.7
79.5
85.7
84.9
77.8
79.3
72.7
76.0
88.7
78.1
87.2
85.3
92.5
70.0

.591
.289
.593
.434
.453
.505
.620
.535
.467
.615
.558
.331
.485
.471
.313
.296
.445

.521
.241
.488
.394
.383
.471
.581
.449
.425
.580
.469
.286
.425
.413
.266
.236
.420

27.72
15.92
29.65
22.83
25.82
25.76
29.88
27.39
24.19
30.07
28.57
18.21
25.85
25.01
17.06
16.28
23.72

24.59
13.26
24.45
20.29
20.76
23.31
28.12
22.90
21.59
28.30
24.01
15.47
22.74
21.97
13.91
12.98
22.39

26.95
14.36
29.44
21.83
20.42
25.22
29.11
26.59
22.17
29.00
27.97
17.50
24.46
23.29
16.68
15.59
23.53

51.9 51.8 50.1 41.1

96.5

79.3

.490

.411

25.43

21.29

24*52 16.88

F e m a le s

California..........................
Georgia..............................
Illinois...............................
Indiana..............................
Kentucky..........................
Maryland..........................
Massachusetts..................
Michigan______________
Missouri...... .....................
New Jersey.......................
New York.........................
North Carolina. _............
Ohio...................................
Pennsylvania........ ..........
Tennessee........... .............
Virginia.............................
Wisconsin..........................

45.4
(*)
50.0
52.9
0)
50.0
47.7
51.4
50.0
46.2
48.8
55.0
49.8
50.8
55.0
55.0
50.0

44.8
55.0
50.1
51.1
52.9
49.0
46.4
51.8
49.8
45.5
48.6
49.4
49.7
50.6
50.7
(2
)
50.0

41.9
0)
49.6
46.1
0)
47.7
43.9
46.1
42.6
42.5
45.4
52.9
46.1
43.4
52.8
51.0
43.8

18.04
6.79
11.95
7.47
8.66
14.08
16.97
10.95
10.28
16.15
11.42
8.16
13.05
11.30
5.46
(2
)

9.98

M a le s a n d fem a les

California..........................
Georgia..............................
Illinois................. ..............
Indiana.............................
Kentucky.... .....................
Maryland..........................
Massachusetts..................
Michigan...........................
Missouri............................
New Jersey................... .
New York.........................
North Carolina-.............
Ohio...................................
Pennsylvania...................
Tennessee..........................
Virginia.............................
Wisconsin..........................
Total males and
females................

46.9
55.1
50.0
52.6
57.0
51.0
48.2
51.2
51.8
48.9
51.2
55.0
53.3
53.1
54.5
55.0
53.3

47.2
55.0
50.1
51.5
54.2
49.5
48.4
51.0
50.8
48.8
51.2
54.1
53.5
53.2
52.3
55.0
53.3

45.6
49.7
49.7
50.2
45.1
49.9
46.9
49.7
47.5
47.1
50.1
52.9
50.4
49.5
53.2
52.7
52.9

1 Data included in total.




* No females reported in 1931.

22.01
10.04
16.72
15.34
16.53
19.99
23.87
17.82
17.12
20.59
18.23
13.76
17.82
19.13
11.88
11.98
15.66

949

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

G asoline F illin g Stations— H o u rs and E a rn in g s, 1931

A s t u d y made by the Bureau of Labor Statistics during the months
of April to July in 1931 covered 2,960 employees of 736 gasoline
filling stations in 43 representative cities. More detailed information
is published in Bulletin No. 578 of the Bureau.
Average hours and earnings are shown in table 1 for eight of the
most important occupations in the industry and for a group desig­
nated as “ Other employees.” The averages are for males only; but
8 females were employed at the 736 stations included in the study.
There were 198 Negroes employed mostly by stations in cities in
Southern States and working principally as car washers, greasers, or
tire men. Operators and operators’ helpers were the most important
occupations m point of numbers employed, forming approximately
75 percent of the total number of employees.
The study included filling-station employees in 2 cities in each of
8 States and in 1 city in each of 26 States and in the District of
Columbia. In 1 city data were obtained for 9 filling stations; in
each of 4 cities, 14 stations; in each of 2 cities, 15 stations; in each
of 11 cities, 16 stations; in 1 city, 17 stations; in each of 16 cities,
18 stations; and in each of 8 cities, 20 stations. A greater number of
stations and employees was covered in large than in small cities.
The principal business of a filling station is the selling of gasoline
and lubricating oil. Tire service, the washing and greasing of cars,
the sale of accessories and supplies, and the minor adjustment or
repair of cars are generally incidental. In selecting stations for
inclusion in the study the effort was made to include only typical
filling stations in each city. Some of the 736 stations included were
privately owned and operated; some belonged to small companies
with a group of stations in one city; and others were those of large
refining companies operating stations in practically all the large
cities in the United States. The stations of 239 different companies
are represented.
T a ble 1.—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S OF GASOLINE F IL LIN G -STATIO N E M ­
PLOYEES IN 1931, B Y OCCUPATIO N

Occupation

Hours actually
Aver­
Aver­
worked in 1
Aver­ age full­
age full­
week
age
time
time
earn­
earn­
hours
Aver­ Percent ings per ings per
per
hour
age
of full
week
week
number time

Averactual
earn­
ings in
1 week

All occupations______________________________________

60.0

59.5

99.2

$0.393

$23.58

$23.39

Car washers..____ ___________________________________
Greasers_____________________________________________
Managers___________________________________________
Operators___________________________________________
Operators’ helpers___________________________________
Porters______________________________________________
Relief men__________________________________________
Tire men................................................................ ...............
Other employees__________________________________ _

66.9
59.9
57.3
61.0
57.7
65.1
48.3
67.9
60.0

61.9
59.6
57.2
61.3
57.2
65.7
46.6
67.8
58.5

92. 5
99.5
99.8
100.5
99.1
100.9
96.5
99.9
97.5

.248
.393
.631
.441
.362
.193
.409
.300
.404

16.59
23.54
36.16
26.90
20.89
12.56
19.75
20.37
24.24

15.36
23.41
36.09
27.01
20.71
12.65
19.07
20.36
23.65




950

WAGES AND HOTJRS OF LABOR

Table 2 shows, for each of 43 cities, the average hours and earnings
of the 2,960 male employees included in the study. The number of
stations covered ranged from 9 in Burlington, Vt., to 20 each in
Philadelphia, Baltimore, Boston, Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit, St.
Louis, and New York. The number of employees ranged from 23 in
Burlington to 151 in Chicago.
T a b l e 2 .—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D EA R N IN G S OF F IL LIN G -ST A T IO N E M P L O Y E E S IN
1931, B Y C IT Y

City

Hours actually
worked in 1
Aver­
Aver­
week
Aver­
age full­
age full­
age
time
time
earn­
earn­
hours
Aver­ Percent ings per ings per
per
hour
age
week
of full
week
num­
time
ber

Aver­
age
actual
earn­
ings in
1 week

All cities................................... ............... ............................

60.0

59.5

99.2

$0,393

$23.58

$23.39

Altoona, Pa _
Atlanta, Ga__________________ _______ _____ ________
Austin, Tex..........................................................................
Baltimore, M d.... .................................................................
Birmingham, Ala.................................................................
Boston, Mass........................................................................
Burlington, V t........ .............................................................
Charleston, S. C ........................................................... .......
Charlotte, k . C.................... . . . . . I ....................................
Chicago, 111............................................................. .............
Cleveland, Ohio _
Danville, 111......... ................................................................
Des Moines, Iowa
Detroit, Mieh
Hamilton, Ohio—................................................................
Hartford, Conn....................................................................
Holyoke, Mass...... ........................................................... .
Houston, Tex__......................................................... ..........
Huntington, W . Va.............................................................
Indianapolis, Ind............................................. ................
Jacksonville, Fla_____________ ________________ _____
Joplin, M o___________________ _______ ______________
Kansas City, Kans..............................................................
Lincoln, Nebr.......................................................................
Little Rock, Ark..................................................................
Louisville, K y .....................................................................
Manchester, N . H ..............................................................
Memphis, Tenn.................................... .............. ................
Meridian, Miss.......... ................................ .........................
Milwaukee, W is....................................... ..........................
Minneapolis, Minn___ __________________________
New Orleans, La_______ _____________ ______________
New York, N . Y ..................................................................
Oklahoma City, Okla____ - ..................... ......................
Philadelphia, Pa..................................................................
Portland, Maine................................... ..............................
Providence, R. I .......................................... ......................
Richmond, Va................. .................................. .................
Rochester, N . Y ........................................... ..................
St. Louis, M o_______________________________________
Superior, W is.................................... .................................
Trenton, N . J________ ________________________
Washington, D . C __________________________________

53.7
64.6
62.3
56.4
64.4
55.3
65.1
62.4
68.4
54.6
57.9
63.7
63.2
57.8
56.6
53.0
59.9
57.3
64.2
60.2
72.7
64.1
60.5
64.0
61.7
57.0
56. 7
67.0
70.0
61.1
58.8
60.9
59.9
65.7
53.9
58.4
54.3
62.8
52.0
62.5
68.0
51.8
60.6

53.5
60.7
62.7
56.4
64.4
55.2
64.9
62.4
67.5
51.3
57.2
63.2
63.3
57.7
56.6
53.1
60.8
57.3
63.7
60.7
72.7
64.4
60.0
65.2
62.1
56.4
56.3
66.8
70.0
60.7
59.5
60.9
59.8
65.8
53.2
58.7
54.4
62.5
52.3
62.3
66.6
52.8
57.8

99.6
94.0
100.6
100.0
100.0
99.8
99.7
100.0
98.7
94.0
98.8
99.2
100.2
99.8
100.0
100.2
101.5
100.0
99.2
100.8
100.0
100.5
99.2
101.9
100.6
98.9
99.3
99.7
100.0
99.3
101.2
100.0
99.8
100.2
98.7
100.5
100.2
99.5
100.6
99.7
97.9
101.9
95.4

.388
.285
.335
.438
.284
.491
.315
.354
.296
.603
.470
.392
.371
.469
.413
.494
.457
.351
.319
.412
.254
.303
.371
.329
.337
.332
.405
.304
.226
.399
.380
.348
.503
.352
.418
.432
.443
.354
.484
.396
.365
.439
.449

20.84
18.41
20.87
24.70
18.29
27.15
20.51
22.09
20.25
32.92
27.21
24.97
23.45
27.11
23.38
26.18
27.37
20.11
20.48
24.80
18.47
19.42
22.45
21.06
20.79
18.92
22.96
20.37
15.82
24.38
22.34
21.19
30.13
23.13
22.53
25.23
24.05
22.23
25.17
24. 75
24.82
22.74
27.21

20.74
17.30
21.02
24.70
18.29
27.11
20.45
22.09
20.01
30.94
26.91
24.75
23.47
27.07
23.38
26.25
27.77
20.11
20.30
25.01
18.47
19.54
22.26
21.48
20.92
18.75
22.80
20.32
15.82
24.20
22.63
21.19
30.05
23.19
22.27
25.35
24.08
22.15
25.31
24.65
24.31
23.19
25.94

Glass In d u s try — H o u rs a nd E a rn in g s , 1932
L a t e i n 1932 the Bureau of Labor Statistics made a study of
wages and hours of labor in the glass industry in the United States,
covering four distinct departments of the industry—pressed and
blown ware (not including plants the principal product of which was
tubing), bottles and food containers, plate glass, and window glass.
A summary of the results of the study is here presented, by principal
occupations (table 1) and by States (table 2), for each department of




951

GLASS INDUSTRY

the industry and for all departments combined. More detailed
data were published in the Monthly Labor Review for October 1933
(p. 917).
The data collected covered 120 representative plants in 10 States
and 26,971 wage earners and were for a representative pay-roll
period in 1932. Of these workers, 49 percent were employed in the
pressed and blown-ware department, 32 percent in bottles and foodcontainer department, 11 percent in the plate-glass department, and
8 percent in the window-glass department.
Table 1 shows average hours and earnings and the percent of full
time worked in 1 week in each department, for each of the principal
occupations and also for a group of “ Other employees.”
T

1 . — A V E R A G E HOURS A N D EAR N IN G S IN TH E GLASS IN D U S T R Y , 1932, B Y K IN D
OF GLASS M A N U F A C T U R E D , A N D B Y O CCUPATIO N A N D S E X OF W O R K ER S

able

Kind of glass manufactured, and occupation and
sex of workers

All employees, all departments:
Males_______________________________ _________
Females____________________________________ ____
Males and females_____________________ ________

Hours actually
Aver­
Aver­
worked in 1
Aver­ age full­ Aver­
age
week
age full­
age
time
actual
time
earn­
earn­
hours
ings per ings per ings in
Aver­ Percent hour
per
week 1 week
week
age
of full
number time

50.3
49.9
50.2

37.3
37.9
37.4

74.2
76.0
74.5

$0,490
.249
.454

$24.65
12.43
22.79

$18.30
9.45
17.01

49.3
49.7
49.4

34.8
38.8
35.6

70.6
78.1
72.1

.497
.247
.443

24. 50
12.28
21.88

17.30
9.60
15.80

49.0
50.1
48.3
51.5
50.4
50.7
59.4
53.4
62.2
56.8
46.3
47.4
46.5
51.9
49.8
46.4
45.4
45.8
54.2
46.4
48.4
47.2
46.5
46.6
47. 2
48.0
50.5
52.1
48.0
51.9
50.5
50.5
49. 3
55.6
52.3
53.9
50.1
50.1
49.6
48.1
49.5
50.5

45.2
42.6
44.6
48.1
44.7
48.2
54.8
48.1
57.9
48.6
28.0
31.8
30.2
45.1
36.0
25.6
21. 2
28.4
39.7
27.5
30.6
26.7
31.0
29.6
26.5
26. 2
43. 5
36.3
41.6
41.0
37. 3
38.3
39. 2
47.0
40.5
35.5
34. 2
38.9
38.2
33.7
38.9
35.0

92.2
85.0
92.3
93.4
88.7
95.1
92.3
90.1
93.1
85.6
60.5
67.1
64.9
86.9
72.3
55.2
46.7
62.0
73.2
59.3
63.2
56.6
66.7
63.5
56.1
54.6
86.1
69.7
86.7
79.0
73.9
75.8
79.5
84.5
77.4
65.9
68.3
77. 6
77.0
70.1
78. 6
69.3

.731
.402
.743
.395
.212
.424
.437
.439
.449
.397
.719
.349
.916
.538
.958
. .369
1.160
.896
. 685
.338
.372
.331
.592
.854
.311
.300
.389
.338
.233
.363
.317
.412
.247
.440
.259
.458
.249
.440
.263
.348
.201
.365

35.82
20.14
35.89
20.34
10.68
21.50
25.96
23.44
27.93
22.55
33.29
16.54
42.59
27.92
47.71
17.12
52.66
41.04
37.13
15.68
18.00
15.62
27.53
39.80
14.68
14.40
19.64
17.61
11.18
18.84
16.01
20.81
12.18
24.46
13. 55
24.69
12.47
22.04
13.04
16.74
9.95
18.43

33.03
17.09
33.12
18.99
9.48
20.41
23.96
21.12
26.03
19.31
20.13
11.09
27.66
24.24
34. 51
9.46
24. 55
25.49
27.19
9. 28
11.38
8.84
18.35
25. 25
8.24
7.86
16.89
12.24
9.69
14.87
11.85
15.78
9.68
20.69
10.47
16. 28
8. 51
17.14
10.06
11.72
7.80
12.77

P re s se d a n d b lo w n w a re

All occupations:
Males.................... ......................................... ............. .
Females_______________ ________
_______
Males and females___ ______________ ___________
Mold makers, male....................................... .................
Mold makers’ helpers, male.............................................
Mold finishers, bench, male.................................... .........
Mold cleaners and polishers, hand, male.................
Mold cleaners and polishers, hand, female.......... .........
Mold polishers, machine, male........ .............. .................
Gas makers, male_________________________ _ __
Batch mixers, male_______________________
__ ____
Furnace or tank tenders, male____________________
Furnace or tank tenders’ helpers, male ____________
Gatherers, male,____ _________________ _____________
Bit gatherers, male______________ _____ _____________
Pressers, hand, male________________________________
Pressers, automatic, male___ ____ __________________
Pressers, semiautomatic, male________________ _____ _
Ball boys__________________ ____ __________________
Blockers, male............................ .....................................
Blowers, hand, male................. ....................... ..................
Blowing-machine tenders, automatic, male________
Mold boys____ _____ ________________ ______________
Take-out boys______________________________________
Warming-in boys................................................................
Finishers, male____ ____________________
_____
Foot casters and finishers, male________________ _ __
Breakers-off, male__________________ ____________ _
_______
Carriers-in, male_____________________
Leer tenders___________________________ __________
Leer takers-off, male________________ ______ ________
Leer takers-off, female_____
_ ___ __ _____ _____
Carton assemblers, male___ ______
_____ _______
Carton assemblers, female........... .......................... ..........
Selectors, male__________ ____ _ ____________________
Selectors, female_______________________ ___________
Inspectors, male___________ ________________________
Inspectors, female_______________ _______________ __
Crackers-off, male________ ____ _____________________
Crackers-off, female._____ __________________ ____
Grinders, m ale__________ _________________ ____
Grinders, female____________________________________
Washers, male________________________ _____________
W a sh firs, ffimalfi

Glazers, male.......................................................................




952

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

T able 1.—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D EAR N IN G S IN T H E GLASS IN D U S T R Y , 1932, B Y K IN D
OF GLASS M A N U F A C T U R E D , A N D B Y OCCUPATION A N D S E X OF W O R K E R S —Con.

Kind of glass manufactured, and occupation and
sex of workers

Hours actually
Aver­
Aver­
Aver­
worked in 1
Aver­ age full­
age
week
age full­
age
actual
time
time
earn­
earn­
hours
Aver­ Percent ings per ings per ings in
per
hour
week 1 week
of full
week
age
number time

P re s s e d a n d b lo w n w a re —Continued

49.6
53.1
48.2
48.8
46.3
50.4
49.8

31.5
34.6
41.5
35.1
33.4
35.3
29.1

63.5
65.2
86.1
71.9
72.1
70.0
58.4

$0.220
.302
.211
.493
.205
.424
.237

$10.91
16.04
10.17
24.06
9.49
21. 37
11.80

$6.91
10.47
8.74
17. 32
6.86
14.97
6.90

50.1
52.1
50.7
55.0
49.4
53.1
51.9
49.8
51.9
51.9
52.0
52.1
52.2
51.1
49.0

34.3
40.7
42.8
44.5
37.8
35.7
41.5
38.8
48.9
53.7
41.7
41.0
40.1
45.3
40.0

68.5
78.1
84.4
80.9
76.5
67.2
80.0
77.9
94.2
103.5
80.2
78.7
76.8
88.6
81.6

.221
.449
.293
.425
.619
.333
.426
.263
.675
.455
.374
.415
.354
.496
.234

11.07
23. 39
14.86
23.38
30.58
17.68
22.11
13.10
35.03
23. 61
19.45
21.62
18.48
25. 35
11.47

7.59
18. 25
12.52
18.91
23.43
11.99
17.64
10. 20
32.99
24.43
15. 59
17.01
14. 22
22.46
9. 37

All occupations:
Males.............................................................. ...............
Females..........................................................................
Males and females................................................ .......

50.6
50.4
50.6

41.3
36.4
40.5

81.6
72.2
80.0

.469
.254
.440

23.73
12.80
22.26

19.38
9.24
17.83

Mold makers, male_________________________________
Mold makers’ helpers, male______ ____ _______ _____
Mold finishers, bench, male................................. ...........
Mold cleaners and polishers, hand, m ale................ .
Mold cleaners and polishers, hand, female................
Mold polishers, machine, male............................ ............
Gas makers, male................................................................
Batch mixers, male.............................................................
Tank tenders, male............................................................
Tank tenders’ helpers, male.............................................
Blowing-machine tenders, automatic, male...................
Carriers-in, male..................................................................
C arriers-in, female. ................................................. ..........
Leer tenders, male...............................................................
Carton assemblers, male..................................... ..............
Carton assemblers, female....................................... ........
Selectors, male.....................................................................
Selectors, female. ..................................................... .........
Inspectors, male..................................................................
Inspectors, female.......................................................... .
Packers and shippers, male...............................................
Packers and shippers, female...........................................
Machinists, m ale.............................................................
Machinists’ helpers, male___ _______________________
Truckers, hand, male.........................................................
Truckers, electric, male................................ .....................
Laborers, male........................................................... ..........
Other employees, male.......................................................
Other employees, female.......... ............................... ........

47.1
48.3
47.1
48.5
50.3
48.2
56.2
54.1
56.1
54.8
51.2
51.3
51.0
54.1
50.0
48.5
50.3
51.3
51.4
48.9
50.5
49.9
48.2
48.6
53.1
51.0
51.0
50.2
48.6

42.5
42.8
41.2
43.2
37.1
43.9
45.6
50.5
48.7
39.0
40.2
34.8
37.0
51.4
34.5
38.1
39.1
36.2
47.0
43.4
41.1
36.8
45.4
43.7
40.0
38.4
40.7
43.5
33.2

90.2
88.6
87.5
89.1
73.8
91.1
81.1
93.3
86.8
71.2
78.5
67.8
72.5
95.0
69.0
78.6
77.7
70.6
91.4
88.8
81.4
73.7
94.2
89.9
75.3
75.3
79.8
86.7
68.3

.684
.412
.691
.357
.215
.416
.442
.441
.461
.363
.620
.352
.250
.445
.342
.265
.418
.256
.459
.285
.386
.256
.647
.462
.329
.374
.352
.514
.221

32.22
19.90
32.55
17.31
10.81
20.05
24.84
23.86
25.86
19.89
31.74
18.06
12.75
24.07
17.10
12.85
21.03
13.13
23.59
13.94
19.49
12.77
31.19
22.45
17.47
19.07
17.95
25.80
10.74

29.08
17.63
28.45
15.44
7.98
18.27
20.16
22.24
22.45
14.16
24.92
12.24
9. 26
22.90
11.81
10.11
16.34
9.28
21. 57
12.36
15.87
9.42
29.38
20.20
13.15
14.39
14.34
22.36
7.33

All occupations:
Males...................... ................................. ............ .........
Females____ ___ ________________________________
Males and females......................................................

51.1
48.0
51.1

32.5
25.0
32.4

63.6
52.1
63.4

.485
.262
.482

24.78
12.58
24.63

15.72
6.54
15.61

Batch mixers, male..............................................................
Mud-up men.........................................................................
Furnace or tank tenders, male.........................................
Furnace or tank tenders’ helpers, male..........................
Skimmers, male................................................................ .
Pot-wagon men.....................................................................

51.5
50.7
56.0
54.8
54.9
51.0

30.0
26.0
48.3
25.4
49.7
23.3

58.3
51.3
86.3
46.4
90.5

.478
.442
.558
.455
.433
.506

24.62
22.41
31.25
24.93
23.77
25.81

14.31
11.47
26.99
11.54
21. 55
11.81

Qlazers, female....... .................................................. - ........
Glasers’ helpers, male.....................................................
Glasers’ helpers, female.....................................................
Polishers, male.......................................................... ..........
Polishers, female..................................................................
Printers, male.......................................................... ............
Printers, female...................................................................
Ware decorators:
Transferrers, female.....................................................
Hand brush, male................................................. .......
Hand brush, female........................................... ........
Decorating leer tenders, male................ ............. ..........Cutters (decorative), male...............................................
Cutters (decorative), female............................................
Packers and shippers, male....... .................................. .
Packers and shippers, female----------------- ------------------Machinists, male........................................................ .........
Machinists’ helpers, male----- ---------- -------- ---------------Truckers, hand, male.............................................. ..........
Truckers, electric, male..................................... ................
Laborers, male.......................................................... ..........
Other employees, male...................................... ................
Other employees, female..................................................
Bo ttles a n d food containers

P la te glass




4 6 .7

953

GLASS INDUSTRY
T

1 .—AVE R A G E HOURS A N D EAR N IN G S IN TH E GLASS IN D U S T R Y , 1932, B Y K IN D
OF GLASS M A N U F A C T U R E D , A N D B Y O CCUPATION A N D S E X OF W O R K E R S— Con.

able

Kind of glass manufactured, and occupation and
sex of workers

Hours actually
Aver­
worked in 1
Aver­
Aver­
week
age full­
age age full­
time
time
hours
earn­
per
Aver­ Percent ings per ings per
hour
week
age
of full
week
number time

Aver­
age
actual
earn­
ings in
1 week

P la te glass — Continued

Teemers, male......................................................................
Casters, male.......... .............................................................
Roll tenders, male............ ..................................................
Leer tenders, male........ _....................... ..........__..............
Examiners, rough plate, male.......... __............................
Cutters, rough, male____________ __________- ................
Trimmers, male_______ ____________ ____ __________
Rough platp carriers, male____________ _____________
Crane operators, male______ __________ _____________
Plaster mixers, male...........................................................
Layer men.......................... .................................................
Stop drivers, male..................... ................... .....................
Sand graders, male.................... .........................................
Controller operators, male....... ........................................
Grinder operators, male....................... .............................
Jointers, male........................ ..............................................
Polisher operators, male.....................................................
Transfer-car operators, male............. ................................
Strippers, male_________ _____________________________
Runner repairmen____ _____________________________
Block felters, male.____ ____________________________
Block scrapers, male____ ___________________________
Washers, hand, male__________ _____________________
Washers, hand, female_________ _____________ _______
Washer operators, male__________________ __________
Examiners, finish (inspectors),
.
Cutters, finish, male____ ____________________ ______
Cutters, finish, female_______________________ ______
Cutters’, finish, helpers, male_____________ ________
Examiners, final (stock), male_________________ ______
Repolishers, hand, male................... ............. .................
Repolishers, machine, male............ ............ ....................
Packers and shippers, male......... ................... .................
Carloaders, male----------- ------- ------- --------------- ------------Machinists, male--------- ------------------- ------------- ----------Machinists’ helpers, male________________ __________
Truckers, hand, male_____ __________________________
Truckers, electric, male____ ________________ ________
Laborers, male____ ____________________________ ____
Other employees, male......... ...........................................

39.8
37.7
58.7
67.4
47.6
46.7
89.0
53.3
69.6
57.1
70.5
64.9
72.1
68.5
72.7
72.0
56.5

54.0
52.8
53.3
54.3
52.5
52.3
62.0
52.5
50.3
53.4
52.5
53.0
52.7
52.0
52.4
52.2
54.0
53.2
54.4
51.6
54.6
56.0
54.3
48.0
52.2
48.0
48.0
48.0
48.0
48.0
48.0
48.0
48.0
51.8
48.1
48.0
48.0
49.5
49.9
51.7

21.5
19.9
31.3
36.6
25.0
24.4
46.3
28.0
35.0
30.5
37.0
34.4
38.0
35.6
38.1
37.6
30.5
36.6
33.4
22.6
39.6
20.5
27.3
17.9
52.1
35.0
25.2
39.2
22.7
24.8
27.8
29.3
24.0
33.8
41.4
45.6
23.2
31.7
32.0
36.5

All occupations, male___________________ ____________

52.5

43.2

82.3

Batch mixers, male------ ------------------- -------------------------Teasers or tank tenders, male------- ----------------------------Teasers or tank tenders’ helpers, male_______________
Skimmers, male_____ _______ _____________________
Machine operators, male_________ __________________
Machine operators’ helpers, male____________________
_______
Peepers or watchers, male______________
Platform men_____ ____________________ _____________
Cutters, finish, male_____________ _______ __________
Cutters, rough, male_________ ______________________
Breakers, male................................. ....................................
Labelers, male_______ ______________________________
Inspectors, male____________________________________
Packers, male.......................................................................
Snappers, male------------------ --------------- ------------ -----------Stackers, male_________________ ___________ _______ _
Loaders, m a le .....................................................................
Machinists, male.................................................................
Truckers, hand, male........................................................
Truckers, electric, male......................................................
Laborers, male......................... .......... ................................
Other employees, male.......................................................

58.6
62.3
56.0
63.4
56.0
56.0
56.0
55.1
45.9
56.0
56.0
51.4
51.5
51.9
52.1
54.1
53.2
61.6
50.8
56.3
55.3
56.1

52.7
60.5
47.6
60.1
45.5
42.5
47.8
44.6
36.2
43.4
44.6
38.7
45.1
44.1
42.5
51.0
49.3
61.9
46.2
41.2
41.0
50.2

89.9
97.1
85.0
94.8
81.3
75.9
85.4
80.9
78.9
77.5
79.6
75.3
87.6
85.0
81.6
94.3
92.7
100.5
90.9
73.2
74.1
89.5

male........... ...............

68.8

61.4
43.8
72.5
36.6
50.3
37.3
99.8
72.9
52.5
81.7
47.3
51.7
57.9
61.0
50.0
65.3
86.1
95.0
48.3
64.0
64.1
70.6

$0,589
.487
.510
.518
.518
.559
.328
.455
.495
.466
.521
.465
.584
.480
.486
.536
.491
.491
.502
.537
.442
.451
.419
.244
.435
.532
.530
.278
.413
.563
.498
.436
.444
.410
.558
.448
.385
.436
.364
.506

$31.81
25. 71
27.18
28.13
27.20
29.24
17.06
23.89
24.90
24.88
27.35
24.65
30.78
24.96
25.47
27.98
26.51
26.12
27.31
27.71
24.13
25.26
22.75
11. 71
22.71
25.54
25.44
13.34
19. 82
27.02
23.90
20.93
21.31
21.24
26.84
21. 50
18.48
21.58
18.16
26.16

$12.69
9.68
15.97
18.97
12.96
13.66
15.18
12.76
17.30
14.20
19.27
15.98
22.22
17.10
18.50
20.14
14.96
17.95
16.76
12.14
17.51
9.26
11.43
4.37
22.66
18.61
13.35
10.90
9.36
13. 99
13. 86
12. 77
10. 66
13.84
23.10
20.42
8.94
13. 85
11. 62
18.49

.540

28.35

23. 35

.358
.517
.353
.280
.475
.397
.355
.410
.968
.429
.383
.257
.732
.454
.362
.387
.356
.509
.363
.404
.291
.423

20.98
32.21
19. 77
17. 55
26.60
22.23
19.88
22.59
44.43
24.02
21. 45
13. 21
37.70
23. 56
18.86
20.94
18.94
31.35
18.44
22.75
16.09
23.73

18.88
31.32
16.78
16.85
21.60
16.89
16.96
18.30
35. 07
18.60
17.09
9.95
33.05
20.02
15.41
19.74
17. 55
31.47
16.78
16.63
11.92
21.20

W in d o w glass




954

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

Table 2 shows average hours and earnings, and the percent of full
time worked in 1 week, by sex and State, for the wage earners covered
in each department of the industry in 1932 and for all departments
combined.
T

able

2 .—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D EAR N IN G S IN T H E GLASS IN D U S T R Y , 1932, B Y K IN D

OF GLASS M A N U F A C T U R E D , SE X OF W O R K ER S, A N D STATE

Kind of glass manufactured, sex of workers, and
State

Aver­
age
full­
time
hours
per
week

Hours actually
worked in 1
week

Aver­
age

Aver­
age
num­
ber

Per­
cent of
full
time

ings
per
hour

Aver­
age
full­
time
earn­
ings
per
week

Aver­
age
actual
earn­
ings
in 1
week

A l l departm ents

Males:
California........................................- ...........................Illinois............................................ ............................. Indiana..................................... .....................................
Maryland..................................................................... New Jersey....................................................................
New York......................................................................
Ohio.........................................- ....................... - ............
Oklahoma..... ................................................ ...............
Pennsylvania-----------------------------------------------------West Virginia_______ ________________ __________

47.4
50.8
51.5
48.9
47.7
48.4
51.5
50.5
50.9
49.6

42.7
41.1
37.2
41.8
35.6
38.5
38.3
41.0
36.3
35.3

90.1
80.9
72.2
85.5
74.6
79.5
74.4
81.2
71.3
71.2

$0.567
.463
.435
.483
.455
.543
.469
.486
.496
.511

$26.88
* 23.52
22.40
23. 62
21. 70
26.28
24.15
24.54
25.25
25.35

$24.20
19.05
16.20
20.20
16.21
20.90
17.99
19.90
18.02
18.04

Total males............... _.............. - -------------------------

50.3

37.3

74.2

.490

24.65

18.30

Females:
California.................................................................... .
Illinois.......................................- ..................... - ............
Indiana................................... ...................................
Maryland............................... ......................................
New Jersey......................................................... ..........
New York.....................................................................
Ohio...................................... ............................... ........
Oklahoma......................................................................
Pennsylvania----------------------------------------------------West Virginia................. ........................ ................. __

47.2
54.4
50.9
48.1
47.4
48.0
49.5
50.4
48.5
51.2

41.3
36.9
39.7
34.0
35.7
41.5
38.8
34.2
39.9
34.6

87.5
67.8
78.0
70.7
75.3
86.5
78.4
67.9
82.3
67.6

.361
.257
.210
.202
.258
.257
.285
.237
.229
.240

17.04
13.98
10.69
9.72
12.23
12.34
14.11
11.94
11.11
12.29

14.91
9.50
8.35
6.87
9.22
10.68
11.06
8.10
9.15
8.31

Total females................................................. ..........

49.9

37.9

76.0

.249

12.43

9.45

Males and females:
California............. - ................................. ....................
Illinois....................................................... - .................
Indiana................................... .......... .............. ...........
Maryland.......................................................................
New Jersey................................ ................................ .
New York....................................... .............................
Ohio.........................................- .......... ..........................
Oklahoma......................................................................
Pennsylvania................................................................
West Virginia................................................................

47.4
51.4
51.4
48.8
47.7
48.4
51.2
50.5
50.6
49.8

42.6
40.5
37.6
40.8
35.7
38.9
38.4
40.4
36.8
35.2

89.9
78.8
73.2
83.6
74.8
80.4
75.0
80.0
72.7
70.7

.555
.432
.399
.452
.419
.501
.435
.469
.459
.472

26.31
22.20
20.51
22.06
19.99
24.25
22. 27
23.68
23.23
23. 51

23.67
17.49
15. 01
18.44
14.93
19.49
16. 72
18.96
16.87
16.64

Total males and females........................................ .

50.2

37.4

74.5

.454

22.79

17.01

Males:
California.....................................................................
Indiana................. ......................................... ..............
New Jersey_______ _____________________________
New York............................................... ............. .......
Ohio.......................... ....................... ............................
Oklahoma..... ................................ ........................ .......
Pennsylvania........................................................ .......
West Virginia..................................................... ..........

45.3
49.9
47.2
48.2
51.6
46.3
49.5
48.1

27.3
35.4
32.1
37.5
39.0
34.5
33.4
31.8

60.3
70.9
68.0
77.8
75.6
74.5
67.5
66.1

.614
.466
.498
.549
.471
.436
.512
.503

27.81
23.25
23. 51
26.46
24.30
20.19
25.34
24.19

16.75
16.50
16. 01
20. 55
18. 33
15.04
17.13
15.98

Total males............................ - ................................ .

49.3

34.8

70.6

.497

24.50

17.30

Females:
California.......................................................................
Indiana. ..................................................................... .
New Jersey................................ ...................................
New York......................................................................
Ohio...............................................................................
Oklahoma..... .................................................................
Pennsylvania................................................................
West Virginia................................................................

44.0
53.0
47.3
48.0
49.5
51.7
49.6
50.0

36.9
46.1
41.9
41.0
38.8
35.5
39.8
34.7

83.9
87.0
88.6
85.4
78.4
68.7
80.2
69.4

.320
.194
.255
.265
.285
.202
.210
.240

14.08
10.28
12.06
12.72
14.11
10.44
10.42
12.00

11.79
8.93
10.68
10.86
11.06
7.19
8.35
8.33

49.7

38.8

78.1

.247

12.28

9.60

P re sse d a n d b lo w n w a re

Total females...........................................................




955

GLASS INDUSTRY

TABLE 2 .—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E AR N IN G S IN T H E GLASS IN D U S T R Y , 1932, B Y K IN D

OF GLASS M A N U F A C T U R E D , S E X OF W O R K ER S, A N D ST ATE—Continued

Kind, of glass manufactured, sex of workers, and
State

Aver­
age
fulltime
hours
per
week

Hours actually
worked in 1
week

Aver­
age
ings
per
hour

Aver­
age
full­
time
earn­
ings
per
week

Aver­
age
actual
earn­
ings
in 1
week

Aver­
age
num­
ber

Per­
cent of
full
time

45.2
50.4
47.2
48.2
51.1
47.1
49.5
48.4

28.0
37.1
34.4
38.1
38.9
34.6
34.7
32.3

61.9
73.6
72.9
79.0
76.1
73.5
70.1
66.7

$0,586
.411
.430
.495
.426
.401
.441
.457

$26.49
20.71
20.30
23.86
21.77
18.89
21.83
22.12

$16.39
15.28
14.79
18.86
16.56
13.88
15.33
14. 75

49.4

35.6

72.1

.443

21.88

15.80

Males:
California................................. ............ ........................
Illinois........................ ......................... .........................
Indiana------------------------- -------------------------------------Maryland.......................................................................
New Jersey_________ ___________________________
New York.............................. ......................................
Ohio,_______________ ______________________ ____
Oklahoma______________________________________
Pennsylvania---------- ------------- ---------- ------------------W est Virginia______ ______ _____________________

47.8
50.8
52.8
48.9
47.9
48.9
54.4
50.9
51.0
51.9

45.8
41.1
38.6
41.8
37.2
40.5
48.0
46.4
44.4
39.4

95.8
80.9
73.1
85.5
77.7
82.8
88.2
91.2
87.1
75.9

.561
.463
.413
.483
.438
.533
.477
.426
.483
.453

26.82
23. 52
21.81
23.62
20.98
26.06
25.95
21.68
24.63
23. 51

25.69
19.05
15.97
20.20
16.30
21.59
22.89
19. 76
21.45
17.86

Total m ales..____ _____________ _____ ________

P ressed a n d b lo w n ware—Continued

Males and females:
California................. - ............................................ .......
Indiana__________________ ______ ___ ___________
New Jersey........................................... .........................
New York------------------------- ------------- - .......... ..........
Ohio.......................... .......................................... ..........
Oklahoma______________________ _______________
Pennsylvania------------- ----------------------------------------West Virginia---------------------- ------- -----------------------Total males and females______ ________________
Bo ttles an d food containers

50.6

41.3

81.6

.469

23.73

19.38

Females:
California............................ .................... .....................
Illinois............... ............... ............................... ............
Indiana---------------------------------------- ---------------------Maryland.------------------------------------------------- --------New Jersey------- ---------------- ------- ------------------------New York------------- ------------------ ---------___________
Oklahoma________ _____________________________
Pennsylvania_____________ _____________________
West Virginia___________________________________

48.0
54.4
49.1
48.1
47.5
48.0
48.0
46.0
53.3

42.5
36.9
34.0
34.0
31.4
44.9
31.7
42.2
34.4

88.5
67.8
69.2
70.7

.371
.257
.230

.202
.261
.212

91.7
64.5

.312
.271
.241

17.81
13.98
11.29
9.72
12.40
10.18
14.98
12.47
12.85

15.74
9.50
7.83
6.87
8.19
9. 53
9.88
11.46
8.28

Total females----------------------------------------------------

50.4

36.4

72.2

.254

12.80

9.24

Males and females:
California..----------- --------------------------------------------Illinois-------------- -------------------------------------------------Indiana_____________ - - - ---------------------------------Maryland............................. ....................... .......... . . .
New Jersey_____________________________________
New York________ _______ _____________________
Ohio------------- ---------------- -------------------------------------Oklahoma________________________________ _____
Pennsylvania_____________ _____________________
West Virginia---------------------- ------------------------ -------

47.8
51.4
52.3
48.8
47.9
48.9
54.4
50.5
50.2
52.3

45.6
40.5
38.0
40.8
36.3
40.7
48.0
44.5
44.1
38.2

95.4
78.8
72.7
83.6
75.8
83.2

26.34

87.8
73.0

.551
.432
.390
.452
.413
.512
.477
.415
.449
.408

20.40
22.06
19.78
25.04
25.95
20.96
22.54
21.34

25.14
17.49
14.80
18.44
15.00
20.87
22.89
18.48
19.78
15. 57

50.6

40.5

80.0

.440

22.26

17.83

Males: Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia_____
Females: Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia___

51.1
48.0

32.5
25.0

63.6
52.1

.485
.262

24.78
12.58

15.72
6.54

Total males and females— ____ _____ _________

51.1

32.4

63.4

.482

24.63

15.61

Males:
Oklahoma..... ......................................... .......................
Pennsylvania....................... ....................................
West Virginia_____________ _____ _______________

53.3
55.8
50.9

43.3
50.0
40.4

81.2
89.6
79.4

.541
.469
.576

28.84
26.17
29.32

23.41
23.47
23.28

Total males____ _____________ ____ ___________

52.5

43.2

82.3

.540

28.35

23. 35

Total males and females____ ______ ___________

66.1
66.0

93.5

88.2
88.1

22.20

P la te glass

W in d o w glass




956

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

H osiery and U n d e rw e a r Ind u strie s— H o u rs and E a rn in g s, 1930
and 1932j
T h is article presents briefly the results of a study of wages and
hours of labor of wage earners in the hosiery and underwear industries
in the United States, made by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1932,
*
and also comparative figures for certain specified years from 1926 to
1932 in which studies have been made by the Bureau. The 1932
figures cover 33,227 wage earners in 123 representative hosiery mills
in 18 States, and 11,738 wage earners in 76 representative underwear
mills in 16 States. The results of the 1932 study are published in
greater detail in Bulletin No. 591 of the Bureau.
Table 1 shows average hours and earnings of wage earners in all
occupations in the two industries for each even year from 1926 to
1932.
T able 1.—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S IN T H E H O SIER Y A N D U N D E R W E A R
IN D U STR IES, 1928-32, B Y S E X A N D Y E A R

Hosiery industry

Aver­
age
full­
time
hours
per
week

Sex and year

Males:
1926................................................................. ...............
1928.......................................— .................................. .
1930__________ ___________________________________
1932....................................................... .....................
Females:
1926............................... ..................................................
1928-------------- ------------------------------------ ------- ---------1930___________ __________________________________
1932_______________ _______________________ ______
Males and females:
1926............................ - ____________________________
1928..................................................................................
1930................................................ ............ .....................
1932.......................... .......................................................

Hours actually
worked in 1
week

Aver­
age
earn­
ings
per
hour

Aver­
age
full­
time
earn­
ings
per
week

Aver­
age
actual
earn­
ings
in 1
week

Aver­
age
num­
ber

Per­
cent of
full
time

52.6
52.4
52.4
52.2

50.5
50.1
45.0
44.1

96.0
95.6
85.9
84.5

$0.675
.724
.707
.494

$35.51
37.94
37.05
25.79

$34.13
36.28
31.85
21.80

51.5
51.9
52.1
51.7

45.6
45.7
40.1
39.6

88.5
88.1
77.0
76.6

.358
.360
.366
.292

18.44
18.68
19.07
15.10

16. 32
16.46
14.66
11.54

51.9
52.1
52.2
51.9

47.2
47.1
41.9
41.3

90.9
90.4
80.3
79.6

.472
.488
.497
.376

24.50
25.42
25.94
19.51

22.30
23.01
20.83
15.53

51.0
50.6
50.9
51.1

49.4
48.0
45.1
43.4

96.9
94.9
88.6
84.9

$0,477
.453
.458
.408

$24.33
22.92
23.31
20.85

$23.56
21.76
20.65
17.72

50.1
49.8
50.2
50.6

42.7
42.3
39.5
36.8

85.2
84.9
78.7
72.7

.352
.329
.330
.260

17.64
16.38
16.57
13.16

15.01
13.89
13.04
9.56

50.3
50.0
50.3
50.7

44.0
43.4
40.6
38.0

87.5
86.8
80.7
75.0

.378
.354
. 357
.292

19. 01
17.70
17.96
14.80

16.63
15.36
14.50
11.08

Underwear industry
Males:
1926..................................................................................
1928............... .............. ............ ............... ......................
1930.............................................. .......... .........................
1932-______ _____________________________________
Females:
1926............... - ......................... .......................................
1928..................................................................................
1930........................ ......................................... .............
1932.................................................................... .............
Males and females:
1926........................ ...................................................
1928..................................................................................
1930..............................................................................
1932..................................................................................




957

HOSIERY AND UNDERWEAR INDUSTRIES

Table 2 shows, for 1930 and 1932, average hours and earnings in
each of the important occupations in the hosiery industry and in the
underwear industry, and for a group in each industry designated in
the table as “ Other employees.”
T able 2 .—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D EAR N IN G S IN T H E H O SIER Y A N D U N D E R W E A R
IN D U ST R IES, 1930 A N D 1932, B Y OCC U PATIO N A N D S E X

Hosiery industry

Occupation and sex

Average
full-time
hours per
week

Hours actually worked
in 1 week
Average
number

1930 1932 1930 1932

Percent of
full time
1930

1932

Average
earnings
per hour

1930

1932

Average
full-time
earnings
per week

1930

1932

Average
actual
earnings
in 1 week

1930

1932

All occupations:
Males.......................... 52.4 52.2 45.0 44.1
Females...................... 52.1 51.7 40.1 39.6
Males and females... 52.2 51.9 41.9 41.3

85.9
77.0
80.3

84.5 $0,707 $0,494 $37.05 $25.79 $31.85 $21.80
76.6
.292 19.07 15.10 14.66 11.54
.366
79.6
.497
.376 25.94 19.51 20.83 15.53

Boarders, male................. 53.7 53.3 40.2
Boarders, female............. 49.9 49.7 36.5
Folders, female................ 52.3 52.0 40.3
Inspectors, female........... 52.8 52.3 41.2

38.8
33.1
41.0
40.8

74.9
73.1
77.1
78.0

72.8
66.6
78.8
78.0

.488
.498
.356
.307

.380
.416
.278
.257

26.21
24.85
18. 62
16.21

20.25
20.68
14.46
13.44

19.60
18.17
14.36
12.66

50.7 50.6 43.7 42.3
50.6 51.3 44.7 44.2

86.2
88.3

83.6
86.2

1.451
1. 212

.763
.638

73.57
61.33

38.61
32.73

63.44 32.29
54.12 28.16

Total knitters, full
fashioned............. 50.7 51.1 44.4 43.7

87.6

85.5

1.277

.669

64.74

34.19

56.71 29.22

44.8
37.0
44.0
41.1
42.5
41.4

85.6
87.5
90.7
77.6
81.0
74.5

82.1
71.6
80.7
78.9
78.7
77.1

.392
.312
.399
.325
.292
.273

.306
.257
.340
.235
.196
.205

21.76
16.47
21.43
17.00
16.00
14.66

16. 71
13.29
18. 53
12.24
10.58
11.01

18.63 13. 71
14.40 9.51
19.44 14.94
13.22 9.63
12.97 8.32
10.93 8.48

55.0 54.4 46.9 44.1
53.5 53.4 41.3 40.7

85.3
77.2

81.1
76.2

.369
.283

.287
.213

20.30
15.14

15.61
11.37

17.31 12.69
11.67 8.65

83.6
70.9
94.4
79.3

82.9
69.6
92.3
83.6

.340
.386
.775
.362

.259
.289
.656
.301

17.61
20.46
41.54
18.72

13.44
15.20
34.96
15.44

14.70
14.49
39.25
14.84

52.1 51.7 41.4 38.6

79.5

74.7

.363

.299

18.91

15.46

15.02 11.56

50.2 50.8 40.0 40.0
53.8 53.8 34.5 37.1

79.7
64.1

78.7
69.0

.497
.277

.347
.224

24.95
14.90

17.63
12.05

19.87 13.87
9.57 8.31

82.7

93.2

.484

.322

24.88

16.55

20.59 15.42

83.6
70.8
82.3
78.8
88.7
78.1

80.0
73.0
89.1
77.8
87.7
79.4

.546
.270
.269
.323
.393
.280

.369
.224
.288
.303
.379
.233

27.63
14.50
14.15
16.47
21.00
14.56

18.49
11.94
15.00
15.39
20.09
12.09

23.02
10.25
11.65
12.98
18.56
11.39

Knitters, full-fashioned,
male:
Footers...................
Loggers.......................

Knitters, seamless:
Automatic, male----Automatic, female. _
Rib, male...................
Rib, female............ .
Transfer, male.........
Transfer, female.......
T otal knitters,
seamless:
Males________
Females...........
Knitters' helpers, fullfashioned, male............
Loopers, female________
Machine fixers, male___
Menders, female..............
Pairers or maters, fe­
male........ ...................
Seamers, full-fashioned,
female.............................
Seamers, mock, female. .
Toppers, full-fashioned,
male.......................... .
Toppers, full-fashioned,
female.............................
W elters, female................
Winders, male..................
Winders, female..............
Other employees, male..
Other employees, female.




55.5
52.8
53.7
52.3
54.8
53.7

51.8
53.0
53.6
51.7

54.6
51.7
54.5
52.1
54.0
53.7

51.9
52.6
53.3
51.3

47.5
46.2
48.7
40.6
44.4
40.0

43.3
37.6
50.6
41.0

43.0
36.6
49.2
42.9

51.4 51.4 42.5 47.9
50.6
53.7
52.6
51.0
53.3
52.0

50.1
53.3
52.1
50.8
53.0
51.9

42.2
38.0
43.3
40.2
47.3
40.6

40.1
38.9
46.4
39.5
46.5
41.2

14.73
13.76
11.38
10.48
'

11.16
10.58
32.32
12.89

14.79
8.73
13.36
11.97
17.66
9.60

958

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

-T able 2 ,—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S IN T H E H O SIER Y A N D U N D E R W E A R
IN D U ST R IES, 1930 A N D 1932, B Y OCC U PATIO N A N D S E X —Continued

Underwear industry

Occupation and sex

Average
full-time
hours per
week

Hours actually worked
in 1 week
Average
number

Percent of
full time

1930 1932 1930 1932 1930
All occupations:
Males.......................... 50.9 51.1 45.1 43.4
Females...................... 50.2 50.6 39.5 36.8
Males and females— 50.3 50.7 40.6 38.0

1932

Average
earnings
per hour

1930

1932

Average
full-time
earnings
per week

1930

1932

Average
actual
earnings
in 1 week

1930

1932

88.6
78.7
80.7

84.9 $0.458 $0.408 $23.31 $20.85 $20.65 $17.72
72.7
.260 16.57 13.16 13.04 9.56
.330
.292 17.96 14.80 14.50 11.08
75.0
.357

50.3 50.9 38.1 34.6
50.5 51.2 37.9 35.3

75.7
75.0

68.0
68.9

.330
.306

50.9 51.0 41.0 40.2

80.6

78.8

50.4 50.2 40.2 37.8
50.9 51.0 45.1 42.5
50.9 48.9 46.2 36.4

79.8
88.6
90.8

75.3
83.3
74.4

36.7
34.5
37.5
38.0

79.1
77.7
80.4
75.6

Total, finishers___

50.5 50.8 39.4 36.9

Folders, female.................
Hemmers, female_______
Inspectors, female............
Knitters, cuff and an­
klet, male—...................
Knitters, cuff and an­
klet, female................. .
Knitters, web, or tube,
male........ ..................... Knitters, web or tube,
female...................... .
Machine fixers, male___
Menders, female______ _
Pressers, male............. —
Pressers, female------------Press hands, male______
Press hands, female____
Seamers, female— ..........
Winders, male____ _____
Winders, female..............
Other employees, m aleother employees, female.

50.3 50.9 41.3 36.7
49.4 50.3 40.7 36.6
49.9 50.4 39.4 38.0

Buttonhole makers, fe­
male........ ............. .........
Button sewers, female—
Cutters, hand, layers-up
and markers, male___
Cutters, hand, layers-up
and markers, female—
Cutters, power, male___
Cutters, power, female—
Finishers, female:
Edge............................
Face............................
Neck.................. .........
Miscellaneous______

50.6
50.3
50.6
50.5

50.8
50.9
51.2
50.4

40.0
39.1
40.7
38.2

.258
.230

16.60
15.45

.452

.385

.364
* .531
.393

.286
.424
.326

72.2
67.8
73.2
75.4

.339
.353
.357
.331

78.0

72.6

82.1
82.4
79.0

72.1
72.8
75.4

13.13
11.78

12.55
11.59

23.01

19.64

18.53 15.46

18.35
27.03
20.00

14.36
21.62
15.94

14.66 10.82
23.92 17.99
18.15 11.85

.253
.252
.279
.262

17.15
17.25
18.06
16.72

12.85
12.83
14.28
13.20

13.55 9.29
13.40 8.70
14.54 10.44
12.65 9.96

.341

.262

17.22

13.31

13.41

9. 67

.322
.343
.270

.269
.266
.219

16.20
16.94
13.47

13.69
13.38
11.04

13.27
13.96
10.65

9.89
9. 71
8.29

8.93
8.11

50.4 51.5 42.4 40.4

84.1

78.4

.536

.428

27.01

22.04

22.75 17.30

50.7 50.0 45.4 38.8

89.5

77.6

.455

.367

23.07

18.35

20.65 14.24

51.9 52.3 42.8 43.1

82.5

82.4

.515

.390

26.73

20.40

22.01 16.80

86.7
94.5
83.9
88.6
76.8
68.3
86.8
76.6
77.9
81.6
92.1
79.6

83.9
96.4
79.6
80.0
72.0
97.6
68.0
70.0
90.6
70.2
85.3
75.0

.406
.704
.305
.436
.357
.431
.348
.354
.424
.357
.400
.287

.322
.620
.240
.364
.257
.401
.286
.274
.332
.300
.381
.245

20.10
35.69
15.37
22.96
18.14
21.33
16.91
17.71
21.33
17.42
20.24
14.49

16.16
31.37
12.26
18.42
13.03
20.37
13.93
13.86
17.33
14.82
19.39
12.37

17.42
33.74
12.88
19.66
13.92
14.54
14.70
13.58
16.62
14.22
18.61
11.54

49.5
60.7
50.4
50.9
50.8
49.5
48.6
50.0
50.3
48.8
50.6
50.5

50.2
50.6
51.1
50.6
50.7
50.8
48.7
50.6
52.2
49.4
50.9
50.5

42.9
47.9
42.3
45.1
39.0
33.8
42.2
38.3
39.2
39.8
46.6
40.2

42.1
48.8
40.7
40.5
36.5
49.6
33.1
35.4
47.3
34.7
43.4
37.9

13.55
30.23
9.76
14.74
9.40
19.89
9.48
9.71
15.69
10.43
16.55
9.30

Table 3 shows average hours and earnings and the percent of full
time worked by wage earners in each of the two industries covered
inj!930 and 1932, by sex and State.




959

HOSIERY AND UNDERWEAR INDUSTRIES

T able 3 .—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D EAR N IN G S IN T H E H O SIER Y A N D U N D E R W E A R
IN D U STR IES, 1930 A N D 1932, B Y S E X A N D STATE

Hosiery industry

Sex and State

Average
full-time
hours
per week

Hours actually worked
in 1 week
Average
number

1930 1932 1930 1932

Percent
of
full time

Average
earnings
per hour

Average
actual
earnings
in
1 week

1930

1932

40.8
47.0
39.5
42.7

89.9
85.6
84.7
92.1

73.6 $0,339 $0,209 $18.85 $11.58 $16.97
84.8
.301 20.04 16.68 17.15
.369
.422
.427 23.21 22.12 19.67
76.3
.644 47.03 31.81 43.37
86.4
.950

$8.52
14.14
16.85
27.50

55.4 44.2 43.7
48.6 39.2 44.5
51.1 48.7 42.4

80.2
80.0
95.3

78.9
91.6
83.0

.351
.852
.656

.341
.643
.536

19.34
41.75
33.52

18.89
31.25
27.39

15.52
33.40
31.99

14.90
28.61
22.69

42.7 94.8
41.9 85.5
44.3 101.0
44.3 84.3
44.3 82.6
42.0 88.5
43.4 82.2
42.9 84.2
48.7 86.2
(4)
<)
•
54.7 93.4
45.0 44.1 85.9

85.1
81.7
92.9
91.7
80.4
87.1
80.1
82.3
90.2
(8
)
98.6
84.5

.793
.466
1. 217
1.116
.450
1.066
.710
.841
.419
(4)
.337
.707

.518
.464
.654
.767
.378
.621
.486
.533
.380
(5
)
.330
.494

39.41
24.05
58.05
55.47
25.11
51.81
38.20
43.65
23.09
(4)
17.76
37.05

26.00
23.80
31.20
37.05
20.83
29.93
26.34
27.77
20.52
(5
)
18.32
25.79

37.38
20.56
58.69
46.83
20.75
45.79
31.40
36.77
19.90
(4
)
16.55
31.85

22.09
19.41
29.00
33.96
16.75
26.09
21.09
22.86
18.48
(6)
18.05
21.80

42.5
40.8
33.5
40.4

86.2
76.4
73.9
92.2

77.8
73.6
66.1
81.3

.194
.205
.246
.452

.138
.181
.259
.379

10.69
11.19
13.48
22.46

7.53
10.03
13.13
18.84

9.20
8.52
9.97
20.68

5.87
7.38
8.66
15.31

54.5 37.4 40.0
48.0 33.4 42.2
50.7 39.1 40.4

68.0
69.6
76.7

73.4
87.9
79.7

.286
.392
.379

.237
.348
.272

15.73
18.82
19.33

12.92
16.70
13.79

10.70
13.07
14.84

9.50
14.69
10.99

49.2
49.5
47.7
48.1
55.0
48.3
53.1
61.2
53.5
(f)
i
54.1
51.7

42.6
38.4
41.5
35.8
42.9
36.9
39.1
38.1
40.7
(4
)
42.2
40.1

37.8
39.3
39.3
36.9
39.9
38.6
39.2
38.9
40.8
(•)
46.4
39.6

86.1
77.6
86.8
72.0
76.9
76.1
73.6
74.7
74.4
(4
)
81.0
77.0

76.8
79.4
82.4
76.7
72.5
79.9
73.8
76.0
76.3
(=)
85.8
76.6

.411
.330
.530
.516
.295
.510
.413
.456
.248
(4
)
.234
.366

.320
.268
.380
.377
.238
.373
.299
.327
.228
(8
)
.209
.292

20.34
16.34
25.33
25.65
16.46
24.74
21.93
23.26
13.57
(4
)
12.19
19.07

15.74
13.27
18.13
18.13
13.09
18.02
15.88
16.74
12.20
(5
)
11. 31
15.10

17.53
12.68
21.99
18.47
12.67
18.84
16.14
17.36
10.11
(4
)
9.90
14.66

12.10
10.55
14.94
13.90
9.50
14.37
11.71
12.75
9.30
(8
)
9.70
11. 54

54.8
55.4
51.0
49.6

48.2
43.3
42.0
45.7

42.1
42.9
35.2
41.4

87.2
79.4
76.5
92.1

76.8
77.4
69.0
83.5

.237
.265
.292
.624

.155
.225
.313
.501

13.11
14.44
16.03
30.95

8.49
12.47
15.96
24.85

11.42
11.46
12. 27
28.53

6.54
9.68
11.01
20.75

54.8 39.5 41.2
48.2 35.7 43.1
50.8 40.8 41.0

71.8
73.8
80.0

75.2
89.4
80.7

.309
.594
.439

.273
.476
.361

17.00
28.75
22.39

14.96
22.94
18.34

12.17
21.23
17.90

11.26
20.55
14.82

39.7
40.0
41.2
39.3
41.7
39.9
41.0
40.6
43.6
(8
)
49.5

88.7
79.6
92.5
76.5
79.2
80.6
77.3
78.8
77.7
(4
)
84.3

80.0
80.0
86.4
81.7
75.8
82.8
76.5
78.7
81.3
(6
)
90.7

.542
.369
.831
.748
.359
.729
.552
.624
.302
(4)
.264

.402
.326
.403
.518
.297
.476
.385
.419
.287
(»)
.259

26.88
18.49
39.72
37.18
20.03
35.36
29.48
32.01
16.55
(4
)
13.78

19.94
16.30
23.52
24.92
16.34
22.94
20.64
21.62
15.38
(5
)
14.14

23.85
14.75
36.76
28.38
15.85
28.49
22.80
25.20
12.87
(4)
11.63

15.96
13.04
20.32
20.33
12.38
19.01
15.78
17.00
12.50
(8
)
12.79

51.9 41.9 41.3

80.3

79.6

.497

.376

25.94

19.51

20.83

15.53

1930

1932

Average
full-time
earnings
per week

1930

1932

1930

1932

M a le s

Alabama and Louisiana. 55.6
Georgia.............................. 54.3
Illinois................................ 55.0
Indiana........ ..................... 49.5
M aryland and W est
Virginia1
____________ 55.1
Massachusetts.................. 49.0
Michigan.......................... 51.1
Minnesota and W is­
consin i______________ 49.7
New Hampshire________ 51.6
New Jersey____________ 47.7
New York............ ........... 49.7
North Carolina_________ 55.8
Philadelphia, Pa_______ 48.6
Eastern Pennsylvania 2_ 53.8
Do *............................ 51.9
Tennessee.......................... 55.1
Vermont........ ...............
(4
)
Virginia............................. 52.7
Total males______ 52.4

55.4
55.4
51.8
49.4

50.0
46.5
46.6
45.6

50.2
51.3
47.7
48.3
55.1
48.2
54.2
52.1
54.0
(6
)
55.5
52.2

47.1
44.1
48.2
41.9
46.1
43.0
44.2
43.7
47.5
(4)
49.2

54.6
55.4
50.7
49.7

47.5
41.7
40.5
45.8

F e m a le s

Alabama and Louisiana. 55.1
Georgia.............................. 54.6
Illinois...... ......................... 54.8
Indiana.............................. 49.7
Maryland and W est
....................... 55.0
Virginia 2
Massachusetts.................. 48.0
Michigan.......................... 51.0
Minnesota and W is­
consin 1.......................... 49.5
New Hampshire.............. 49.5
New Jersey_____________ 47.8
New York........................ 49.7
North Carolina................ 55.8
Philadelphia, Pa_______ 48.5
Eastern Pennsylvania 2_ 53.1
Do *............................ 51.0
Tennessee.......................... 54.7
Vermont...... ..................... (4
)
Virginia............................. 52.1
Total females......... 52.1
M a le s a n d fe m a le s

Alabama and Louisiana K 55.3
Georgia........ ..................... 54.5
Illinois...... ......................... 54.9
Indiana........ ..................... 49.6
Maryland and W est
Virginia 1
_____________ 55.0
Massachusetts................. 48.4
Michigan............ .............. 51.0
Minnesota and W is­
consin
........... ........... 49.6
New Hampshire_______ 50.1
New Jersey_____________ 47.8
New York........................ 49.7
North Carolina_________ 55.8
Philadelphia, Pa............. 48.5
Eastern Pennsylvania 2_ 53.4
Do*...................i ......... 51.3
Tennessee.... .................... 54.8
Vermont...... ..................... (4
)
Virginia............................. 52.2
Total males and
females_________ 52.2
i

49.6
50.0
47.7
48.1
55.0
48.2
53.6
51.6
53.6
(8
)
54.6

44.0
39.9
44.2
38.0
44.2
39.1
41.3
40.4
42.6
(4
)
44.0

Shown together to avoid presenting data for 1 mill in any State.
2 Excluding Philadelphia.
* Including Philadelphia.
4 Data included in total.
1 None reported in 1932.




960

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

T a ble 3 .—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D EAR N IN G S IN T H E H O SIER Y A N D U N D E R W E A R
IN D U STR IES, 1930 A N D 1932, B Y S E X A N D ST A TE — Continued

Underwear industry

Sex and State

Average
full-time
hours
per week

Hours actually worked
in 1 week
Average
number

1930 1932 1930 1932

Percent
of
full time
1930

1932

Average
earnings
per hour

1930

1932

Average
full-time
earnings
per week

1930

1932

Average
actual
earnings
in
1 week

1930

1932

M a le s

50.8
(6
)
48.1
48.0
48.2
51.2
48.0

50.1
56.2
(*)
48.7
48.6
50.5
48.3

50.5
(6)
45.8
44.6
42.7
49.3
47.8

35.1
53.3
(<)
40.1
42.4
43.1
40.4

99.4
(«)
95.2
92.9
88.6
96.3
99.6

70.1 $0,519 $0,500 $26.37 $25.05 $26.19 $17.52
10.62
94.8
.199
11.18
(6
)
(6
)
(6
)
.615
29.58
28.14
(4
)
(4
)
(4
)
0)
82.3
.604
.464 28.99 22.60 26.92 18.59
87.2
.518 27.14 25.17 24.04 21.96
.563
85.3
.425 26.16 21.46 25.17 18.32
.511
83.6
.590
.567 28.32 27.39 28.17 22.88

49.6
49.2
53.4
53.9
51.2
55.1
52.1
49.8

49.9
49.8
52.9
53.5
51.6
54.9
50.0
50.0

43.8
44.3
44.5
50.4
50.6
44.1
44.7
43.4

40.3
41.4
50.5
49.8
49.7
39.4
47.0
45.1

88.3
90.0
83.3
93.5
98.8
80.0
85.8
87.1

80.8
83.1
95.5
93.1
96.3
71.8
94.0
90.2

.533
.466
.326
.456
.498
.352
.464
.537

.478
.427
.268
.411
.468
.287
.366
.562

26.44
22.93
17.41
24.58
25.50
19.40
24.17
26.74

23.85
21.26
14.18
21.99
24.15
15.76
18.30
28.10

23.31
20.62
14.49
22.98
25.19
15.53
20.73
23.29

19.25
17.68
13.54
20.47
23.29
11,33
17.20
25.35

Total males______ 50.9 51.1 45.1 43.4

88.6

84.9

.458

.408

23.31

20.85

20.65

17.72

Connecticut......................
Georgia..................... .........
Illinois—............................
Indiana..............................
Massachusetts_________
Michigan............ .............
Minnesota............ ............
New Hampshire and
Vermont i......................
New York_____________
North Carolina_________
Pennsylvania__________
Rhode Island.......... ........
Tennessee___ ____ ______
Virginia......... ..................
Wisconsin______________

F e m a le i

50.5
(6
)
47.4
46.7
48.0
51.9
48.0

50.0
55.9
(<)
47.8
48.0
52.1
48.0

44.9
(6
)
33.1
35.8
40.0
43.8
41.6

31.7
52.3
0)
29.2
32.2
42.3
34.5

88.9
(6
)
69.8
76.7
83.3
84.4
86.7

63.4
93.6
(4
)
61.1
67.1
81.2
71.9

.372
(6
)
.459
.406
.379
.292
.431

.345
.168
(4
)
.266
.329
.237
.380

18.79
(6
)
21.76
18.96
18.19
15.15
20.69

17.25
9.39
(4
)
12. 71
15.79
12.35
18.24

16.72
(8)
15.16
14.54
15.15
12.80
17.91

10.91
8.82
(*)
7.78
10.58
10.03
13.09

49.4
48.6
53.4
52.7
51.1
54.9
52.4
49.6

49.5
49.1
53.4
52.4
51.0
54.8
49.6
49.9

45.1
35.9
46.3
40.6
45.4
38.0
44.0
39.7

32.6
34.6
44.4
40.8
43.0
32.0
35.9
38.9

91.3
73.9
86.7
77.0
88.8
69.2
84.0
80.0

65.9
70.5
83.1
77.9
84.3
58.4
72.4
78.0

.383
.305
.241
.333
.345
.274
.262
.382

.253
.257
.181
.269
.270
.201
.207
.272

18.92
14.82
12.87
17.55
17.63
15.04
13.73
18.95

12.52
12.62
9.67
14.10
13.77
11.01
10.27
13.57

17.25
10.95
11.14
13.52
15.66
10.41
11.52
15.19

8.24
8.89
8.04
10.96
11.62
6.43
7.44
10.61

Total females......... 50.2 50.6 39.5 36.8

78.7

72.7

.330

.260

16.57

13.16

13.04

9.56

Connecticut____________
Georgia......................... .
Illinois................. ..............
Indiana______ ____ ____
Massachusetts_________
Michigan______________
Minnesota, ..................., ,
New Hampshire and
Vermont»................ .
New York_____________
North Carolina....... ........
Pennsylvania__________
Rhode Island.......... ........
Tennessee........... ..............
Virginia______ ____ _____
Wisconsin______________

M a le s a n d fem a les

50.5
(6
)
47.5
46.9
48.0
51.9
48.0

50.0
56.0
0)
48.0
48.1
51.9
48.0

46.1
(6
)
34.9
36.8
40.4
44.3
41.8

32.4
52.5
(<)
31.1
33.6
42.4
35.1

91.3
(6
)
73.5
78.5
84.2
85.4
87.1

64.8
93.8
(4
)
64.8
69.9
81.7
73.1

.406
09
.488
.433
.404
.313
.439

.382
.174
(4
)
.311
.363
.255
.402

20.50
(6
)
23.18
20.31
19.39
16.24
21.07

19.10
9.74
(4
)
14.93
17.46
13.23
19.30

18.73
(8)
17.03
15.95
16.32
13.85
18.38

12.38
9.14
(8)
9.68
12.21
10.80
14.11

49.4
48.7
53.4
52.9
51.1
55.0
52.4
49.6

49.6
49.2
53.3
52.6
51.1
54.8
49.7
49.9

44.8
37.9
45.7
42.2
45.9
39.5
44.1
40.0

34.2
36.2
45.9
42.1
43.9
33.7
38.3
39.7

90.7
77.8
85.6
79.8
89.8
71.8
84.2
80.6

69.0
73.6
86.1
80.0
85.9
61.5
77.1
79.6

.417
.351
.264
.357
.364
.294
.288
.392

.309
.301
.205
.294
.300
.224
.250
.316

20.60
17.09
14.10
18.89
18.60
16.17
15.09
19.44

15.33
14.81
10.93
15.46
15.33
12.28
12.43
15.77

18.67
13.31
12.09
15.06
16.71
11.61
12.68
15.68

10.58
10.90
9.39
12.39
13.19
7.54
9.59
12.55

Total males and
females_________ 50.3 50.7 40.6 38.0

80.7

75.0

.357

.292

17.96

14.80

14.60

11.08

Connecticut......................
Georgia........ ............ .........
Illinois...... .........................
Indiana, ............................
Massachusetts.................
Michigan..........................
Minnesota_____ _______
New Hampshire and
Vermont1
______ _____
New York.......... ..............
North Carolina....... ........
Pennsylvania— ....... .......
Rhode Island...................
Tennessee..........................
Virginia.............................
Wisconsin.........................

1 Shown together to avoid presenting data for 1 mill in any State.
4 Data included in total.
6 None reported in 1930.




IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY

961

H osiery In d u s try — H o u rs and?Earnings in th e M a n u fa c tu re of
Boys’ G o lf Hose, 1934

A s t u d y of the wages and hours of labor in the manufacture of boys’
golf hose was made by the Bureau of Labor Statistics at the request of
the Atlanta Regional Labor Board. Data were obtained for a pay
period ending in August 1934, for eight establishments in Tennessee,
North Carolina, and Virginia.
The 1,128 employees oi these establishments had average earnings of
$10.09 for an average work weiek of 29.6 hours; this was an average of
34 cents per hour. In the various occupations the earnings ranged
from 30.2 cents per hour for transfer knitters (women) to 55.9 cents
for machine fixers (men).
Of the 716 pieceworkers, 42.4 percent earnedpess than the minimum
allowable under the hosiery code for the Southern States—30 cents
per hour. For these workers, therefore, the companies had to make
supplementary payments to bring the pay up to the required minimum.
Iro n and Steel In d u s try — H o u rs and E a rn in g s, 1933

A s u m m a r y of the results of the 1933 survey of hours and earnings
in the 10 major departments of the iron and steel industry, together
with comparative figures taken from former studies made by the
Bureau of Labor Statistics for certain years between 1913 and 1933,
is given in this article. The pay-roll period selected for the 1933 study
covered the last half of March. It covered 53,365 wage earners in
200 plants located in various sections of the country as far west as
Colorado. The number of wage earners covered equals 19.2 percent
of all blast-furnace, steel-works, and rolling-mill employees shown by
the 1931 Census of Manufactures and, it is estimated, nearly 30 per­
cent of all employees working in the 10 departments at the time of the
study. More detailed figures of the results of the study were published
in the Monthly Labor Review for September 1933 (p. 651).
Table 1 shows average earnings per hour and average full-time
hours and earnings per week, with index numbers for the industry as
a whole and for each department, for the years covered by the Bureau’s
studies. In one instance, puddling mills, the index number starts with
1914, as no figures for this department are available for 1913. In
1913 data were collected for the principal occupations only, but since
1913 data have been collected for all occupations in the years appearing
in the table.
19205— 36------- 62




962

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

T able 1.—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S A N D IN D E X N U M B E R S T H E R E O F FOR
10 MAJOR D E P A R T M E N T S OF T H E IR O N A N D ST EEL IN D U S T R Y , 1913-33, B Y Y E A R

Department and year

All departments:
1913...................- .......... .................................................1914............................ ............ ........................................
1915..................................................................................
1920,...................................... — ....................................
1922...................................................................................
1924............................... .........................- .......................
1926..........- ..................... - ......................................... —
1929— ..........— - .........- ..................- ................- ........ 1931— ............................ - ..................- .........................
1933-..........- .......... - .............. ............................... .........
Blast furnaces:
1913____________________ ________________________
1914-------------- -----------------------------------------------------1915............. - ---------- ---------------------------------------------1920_____________________ _______________________
1922-— — ................................... — ............................
1924............- ................................ — ......................... —
1926................. - .............................................................
1929................................- ...........- ..................................
1931.............................................. .......... .........................
1933.........................................- ........................................
Steel-works division:
Bessemer converters:
1913-....................................................— - ..............
1914-____ ___________________________________
1915— ........................ - ..................... — - ..............
1920............. ..................- .........- .........- ..................
1922.................... ............ ............ - .........- ............ .
1924................................... - ...................................
1926........ .................... .......... ............ - ............ —
1929_________________________________________
1931-....................................................... ..................
1933_________________ _______________________
Open-hearth furnaces:
1913_________________ ________________________
1914......................................................................—
1915................... — __________________________
1920______ __________________________________
1922....................................................... ...................
1924__________________________ ______________
1926........................ ..................................................
1929____ ____________________________________
1931-_______ ________________________________
1933— _______ _____________________- ............ .
Rolling-mills division:
Puddling mills:
1914..................................... - .................................. .
1915,.......................... ..........................................—
1920........ .............. - .......... - ..................- ..................
1922............... — ......................................................
1924_________ _____________________________—
1926____ ____________________________________
1929................................................- .......................
1931_________ ________________________________
1933___________________________________ ______
Blooming mills:
1913— - ______ ______________________________
1914_________________________ _____________—
1915______________ __________________________
1920........................ ....................... .............. ............
1922........ ........... ......................................................
1924._____ ___________________________________
1926................. ..........- .............. — .........- .........—
1929........ ................................ - ...................- ..........
1931-.......................- .................................... - ..........
1933— - ........................................ ...........................
Plate mills:
1913................... ............................................... ........
1914....................................................- .....................
1915...........................................................................
1920............................................................................
i Except for puddling mills for which 1914=100.




Aver­
Aver­
agefull­ age
earn­
time
ings
hours
per
per
week
hour

Index numbers
(1913=100)1
Aver­
agefull­
time
Full­
weekly Full­
Earn­
time
time
earn­
ings
hours
weekly
ings
per
per
earn­
hour
week
ings

66.1
64.9
65.5
63.1
63.2
55.2
54.4
54.6
52.4
51.5

$0.301
.301
.297
.745
.513
.644
.637
.674
.663
.485

$18.89
18.60
18.65
45.65
31.67
35.22
34.41
36.48
34.58
24.98

100.0
98.2
99.1
95.5
95.6
83.5
82.3
82.6
79.3
77.9

100.0
100.0
98.7
247.5
170.4
214.0
211.6
223.9
220.3
161.1

100.0
98.5
98.7
241.7
167.7
186.4
182.2
193.1
183.1
132.2

76.9
74.8
74.9
72.1
72.3
59.7
59.8
60.7
57.2
55.1

.205
.206
.207
.571
.398
.520
.517
.528
.551
.444

, 15.76
15.41
15. 50
41.17
28. 78
31.04
30.92
32.05
31.52
24.46

100.0
97.3
97.4
93.8
94.0
77.6
77.8
78.9
74.4
71.7

100.0
100.5
101.0
278.5
194.1
253.7
252.2
257.6
268.8
216.6

100.0
97.8
98.4
261.2
182.6
197.0
196.2
203,4
200.0
155.2

70.0
68.4
68.7
70.3
68.7
52.3
52.6
53.7
53.3
52.7

.284
.255
.264
.677
.470
.624
.641
.643
.664
.490

19.88
17.44
18.14
47. 59
32.29
32.64
33.72
34.53
35.39
25.82

100.0
97.7
98.1
100.4
98.1
74.7
75.1
76.7
76.1
75.3

100.0
89.8
93.0
238.4
165.5
219.7
225.7
226.4
233.8
172.5

100.0
87.7
91.2
239.4
162.4
164.2
169.6
173.7
178.0
129.9

76.7
74.5
74.4
68.7
70.8
58.0
57.1
57.7
53.8
53.3

.237
.237
.246
.671
.480
.635
.677
.714
.703
.513

18.18
17.66
18.30
46.10
33.98
36.83
38.66
41.20
37. 82
27.34

100.0
97.1
97.0
89.6
92.3
75.6
74.4
75.2
70.1
69.5

100.0
100.0
103.8
283.1
202.5
267.9
285.7
301.3
296.6
216.5

100.0
97.1
100.7
253.6
186.9
202.6
212.7
226.6
208.0
150.4

53.2
52.2
53.9
52.1
55.7
52.1
50.3
53.0
52.8

.328
.315
.885
.496
.721
.657
.686
.592
.474

17.45
16.44
47.70
25.84
40.16
34.23
34. 51
31.38
25.03

ioo.o
98.1
101.3
97.9
104.7
97.9
94.5
99.6
99.2

100.0
96.0
269.8
151.2
219.8
200.3
209.1
180.5
144.5

100.0
94.2
273.4
148.1
230.1
196.2
197.8
179.8
143.4

73.0
70.5
71.0
67.5
68.0
54.6
54.2
55.0
52.6
52.5

.265
.269
.268
.659
.472
.613
.627
.666
.664
.488

19. 35
18.96
19.03
44.48
32.10
33.47
33.98
36. 63
34.93
25.62

100.0
96.6
97.3
92.5
9?. 2
74.8
74.2
75.3
72.1
71.9

100.0
101.5
101.1
248.7
178.1
231.3
236.6
251.3
250.6
184.2

100.0
98.0
98.3
229.9
165.9
173.0
175.6
189.3
180.5
132.4

69.9
69.0
69.8
68.8

.255
.258
.270
.671

17.82
17.80
18.58
46.16

100.0
98.7
99.9
98.4 1

100.0
101.2
105.9
263.1

100.0
99.9
104.3
259.0

963

IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY

T a ble 1 . —A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S A N D IN D E X N U M B E R S T H E R E O F FOR
10 M AJOR D E P A R T M E N T S OF T H E
Y E A R —Continued

IR O N A N D

Department and year

Rolling-mills division—Continued.
Plate mills—Continued.
1922........................ ............................... ............ .
1924_____ _________________ _________________
1926_____ ___________________________________
1929_______ _________________________________
1931-.1______ __________________________ ____
1933__________ ________________ _____ ________
Standard rail mills:
1913...................... ..................... ..............................
1914_______ _____________________ ____________
1915.______ _________________________________
1920_____ ___________________________________
1922...______________ _______________________
1924_____ __________________________________
1926_____ _________________________________ _
1929_________ ________________________________
1931_____ ____________________________________
1933_____ ___________________________________
Bar mills:
1913______ ________ __________________________
1914_____ ____ _______________________________
1915____ ___________________: _________________
1920_____ ___________________________________
1922........................... ............... .......... ...................
1924................. ............ ...........................................
1926_____ ___________________________________
1929................. .............. ..........'__________ _______
1931______________ __________________________
1933__________ ______________________________
Sheet mills:
1913___________ _____________________________
1914........................ ......................................... .........
1915.......................... ...................... .......... ............ .
1920.............................. ............. ............................
1922............................................. ............................
1924_________ ________________________________
1926______ ________________j___________ _____
1929.____ ___________________ _______________
1931_______ __________________________________
1933— — ____ ______________________________
Tin-plate mills:
1913_______ __________________________________
1914.______ __________________________________
1915______ ___________________________________
1920_____ ____________________________________
1922_______ __________________________________
1924_____ ____________________________________
1926_______ __________________________________
1929— ____ _________________________________
1931_________________ ________________________
1933— __________ ________________________ _

ST E E L IN D U S T R Y , 1913-33, B Y

Aver­ Averagefull­
earntime
ings
hours
per
per
week
hour

Index numbers
(1913=100)
Average full­
time
Full­
weekly Full­
Earn­
time
time
earn­
ings
hours
weekly
ings
per
per
earn­
hour
week
ings

66.2
57.2
55.8
58.0
56.7
53.5

$0.476
.562
.606
.639
.627
.449

$31.51
32.15
33.81
37.06
35. 55
24.02

94.7
81.8
79.8
83.0
81.1
76.5

186.7
220.4
237.6
250.6
245.9
176.1

176.8
180.4
189.7
208.0
199.5
134.8

70.9
70.1
70.9
61.2
61.5
57.4
55.5
56.0
54.9
53.2

.254
.252
.246
.632
.470
.573
.595
.628
.613
.523

18. 01
17.67
17.44
38. 68
28.91
32.89
33.02
35.17
33.65
27.82

100.0
98.9
100.0
86.3
86.7
81.0
78.3
79.0
77.4
75.0

100.0
99.2
96.9
248.8
185.0
225.6
234.3
247.2
241.3
205.9

100.0
98.1
96.8
214.8
160. 5
182.6
183.3
195.3
186.8
154.5

61.5
61.7
61.4
61.8
61.2
55.6
54.7
55.6
55.0
54.1

.288
.278
.266
.713
.486
.585
.591
.625
.588
.425

17.71
17.15
16.33
44.06
29. 74
32. 53
32.33
34. 75
32. 34
22.99

100.0
100.3
99.8
100.5
99.5
90.4
88.9
90.4
89.4
88.0

100.0
96.5
92.4
247.6
168.8
203.1
205.2
217.0
204.2
147.6

100.0
96.8
92.2
248.8
167.9
183.7
182.6
196.2
182.6
129.8

52.3
52.3
52.5
50.3
51.1
50.2
48.9
48.9
47.8
46.9

.483
.488
.450
1. 039
.694
.809
.759
.793
.747
.473

25. 26
25.52
23.63
52.26
35.46
40.61
37.12
38.78
35.71
22.18

100.0
100.0
100.4
96.2
97.7
96.0
93.5
93.5
91.4
89.7

100.0
101.0
93.2
215.1
143.7
167.5
157.1
164.2
154.7
97.9

100.0
101.0
93.5
206.9
140.4
160.8
147.0
153.5
141.4
87.8

46.1
46.0
50.4
50.6
49.9
48.8
48.1
47.4
47.0
46.9

.417
.425
.428
.949
.650
.795
.704
.732
.714
.517

19.22
19. 55
21. 57
48.02
32.44
38.80
33.86
34.70
33.56
24. 25

100.0
99.8
109.3
109.8
108.2
105.9
104.3
102.8
102.0
101.7

100.0
101.9
102.6
227.6
155.9
190.6
168.8
175.5
171.2
124.0

100.0
101.7
112.2
249.8
168.8
201.9
176.2
180.5
174.6
126.2

Table 2 shows average hours and earnings in 10 major departments
in 1933, by department and geographic district, as well as for all
departments and districts combined.
Operations in the steel industry were very low during the early
part of 1933. As Companies were endeavoring to provide some work
for all of their employees, the number of hours available to each
worker was limited. This is shown by the fact that, for all depart­
ments combined, the average actual hours worked per employee in 1
week were 24.2 as compared with normal full time of 51.5 hours.
In making comparisons of average hourly earnings it must be borne
in mind that neither the eastern nor the southern district is repre-




964

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

sented by the higher-wage departments such as Bessemer converters,
sheet and tin-plate mills, and also that there is no information cover­
ing standard rail mills in the southern district. This report of the
Bureau for 1923 is the first in which employees in sheet mills whose
product is mechanically produced have been included.
T a b l e 2 .—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D EAR N IN G S IN 10 M AJOR D E P A R T M E N T S OF T H E

IR O N A N D ST E E L IN D U S T R Y , 1933, B Y D IST R IC T

Average
full-time
hours
per week

Department and district

Great Lakes and Middle West districtSouthern district. . .
--

................
- __________ __

Blast furnaces.—- - - - - - - __ - - - _______________________________
Eastern district_ _______________________ ____. . . . ____
Pittsburgh district_____- ______________________________ - _
Great Lakes and "Middle "West district
____________________________________
Southern district. _
Steel-works division:
Bessemer converters_________ ________________________ - _
Pittsburgh district________________________ ___________
Great Lakes and Middle West district___________- ___
Open-hearth furnaces__ _ _______________________________
_
Eastern district___ __________ ______________________
_
Pittsburgh district___________________________________
Great Lakes and M i d d l e W e s t d is t r ic t
Southern district_____________________________________
Rolling-mills division:
Puddling m ills i ____________ ______________________________________
Blooming mills_____ _____________________________________
Eastern district____ _____________________ . . . _________
Pittsburgh district- __________________________________
Great Lakes and Middle West district________________
Southern district_____________________________________
Plate mills_______________________________________________
Eastern district______________________________________
Pittsburgh district____________________________________
Great Lafres a n d M i d d l e W e s t district. Standard rail m ills 1___ _______________________________________ ___
Bar m il l s _________________________________________________
Eastern district_______________________________________
Pittsburgh district____________________________________
Great Lakes and Middle West district............................
Southern district_____________________________________
Sheet m il l s _________________________________________________________
Pittsburgh district____________________________________
Great Lakes and Middle West district________________
Tin-plate m ills 1.............................................. ............................ ...................

Average
hours
Average Average
actual
actually earnings
worked per hour earnings
in 1 week
in 1 week

51.5
56.5
49.0
52.6
56.4

24.2
25.1
25.0
21.2
33.1

$0,485
.430
.501
.499
.398

$11.71
10.77
12.55
10.60
13.19

55.1
55.6
54.0
55.2
57.3

28.7
29.1
24.8
28.1
38.5

.444
.403
.471
.481
.371

12.77
11.75
11. 66
13. 50
14.41

52.7
51.3
53.7
53.3
55.2
50.2
55.8
56.0

22.0
19.9
23.6
22.2
22.7
20.9
21.1
36.6

.490
.473
.502
.513
.475
.509
.543
.476

10.79
9.40
11.84
11.39
10.74
10. 62
11.48
17.67

52.8
52.5
54.5
49.3
54.6
56.8
53.5
60.5
50.7
51.8
53.2
54.1
55.7
52.4
53.7
57.0
46.9
45.2
48.9
46.9

30.5
22.7
25.3
21.8
20.9
35.3
15.3
25.3

.474
.488
.379
.506
.505
.455
.449
.385
.502
.487
.523
.425
.404
.475
.467
.316
.473
.468
.480
.517

14.46
11.09
9.56
11.03
10.55
16.18
6.88
9.74
5.61
6.32
8.47.

11.1

13.0
16.3
17.0
20.1
14.0
15.5
24.2
23.7
25.5
21.5
34.4

7 .2 2

8.14
6.69
7.23
7.64
11.22
11.94
10.33
17.84

i Not reported by district but included in district totals for all departments.

Table 3 presents average hours and earnings of employees in the
principal occupations in the iron and steel industry, 1931 and 1933,
by department. In the iron and steel industry many employees may
work at operations other than their regular occupations during a
given pay period. For example, a keeper may also have worked part
time as a keeper’s first helper and also as a cinderman. In order to
meet this condition, data for the various occupations were tabulated
so as to show the average hours and earnings (1) in the primary
occupation only and (2) in all jobs at which the employee worked
during the pay period studied.




965

IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY

T able 3 .—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S OF E M P L O Y E E S IN 10 D E P A R T M E N T
OF T H E IR O N A N D ST E E L IN D U S T R Y , 1931 A N D 1933, B Y OCCUPATION

Blast furnaces
All occupations (in­
cluding primary)

Primary occupation only

Primary occupation

Ore bridge operators................
Stockers.....................................
Larrymen...................................
Larrymen's helpers--------------Skip operators...........................
Blowers......................................
Stove tenders.......... - ............ .
Blowing engineers....................
Blowing engineers’ assistants.
Keepers................................... Keepers’ helpers.....................
Iron handlers and loaders—
Pig-machine men.....................
Cindermen (at dump)............
Laborers................................... .

Year

1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933

Aver­ Aver­
age
age
hours earn­
actually ings
worked per
hours
in 1
per
hour
week week

Aver­
age
full-

54.9
57.2
55.4
55.3
54.5
54.9
55.3
56.2
55.6
55.8
54.8
55.0
54.4
55.7
54.2
54.2
53.0
55.2
54.2
56.2
53.9
59.5
59.1
57.1
54.5
57.6
55.7
59.5
57.2

25.4 $0.539
37.8
.485
.374
19.6
36.5
.563
22.9
.430
.482
35.5
18.5
.355
.532
41.7
29.4
.417
48.4
.929
42.3
.727
40.2
.560
.441
28.7
45.4
.706
32.9
.563
.626
35.5
.482
26.6
.573
39.3
24.0
.439
.492
36.7
21.2
.382
33.9
.360
22.7
.289
40.6
.486
.384
29.9
44.6
.483
24.9
.359
.384
33.6
.289
20.3

Aver­ Aver­
Aver­ Aver­ Aver­
age
age
age
full­
age
age
time actual hours earn­ actual
earn­ worked
earn­
earn­
ings
ings
ings
ings
in 1
per
in 1
in 1
per
week
hour
week
week
$29.59
27.74
20.72
31.13
23.44
26.46
19.63
29.90
23.19
51.84
39.84
30.80
23.99
39.32
30.51
33.93
25.55
31.63
23.79
27.65
20.59
21.42
17.08
27.75
20.93
27.82
20.00
22.85
16. 53

$13.67
18.34
7.34
20,56
9.84
17.12
6.57
22.18
12.26
44.93
30.73
22.52
12. 63
32.08
18. 50
22. 21
12.82
22. 50
10.52
18.05
8.09
12.18
6.56
19.73
11.49
21. 51
8.97
12.87
| 5.86

25.9 $0,538 $13.93
39.7
.483
19.20
20.4
.373
7.63
38.3
.560
21.43
24.5
.425
10.42
39.1
.485
18.99
20.4
.357
7.29
43.0
.532
22.88
31.5
.413
13.00
50.6
.922
46.66
44.3
.719
31.81
42.7
.558
23.86
30.8
.438
13.51
47.3
.704
13.31
34.2
.560
19.16
38.3
.623
23.84
27.4
.482
13.22
40.2
.572
23.00
26.0
.433
11.26
38.7
.492
19.06
22.7
.382
8.66
37.6
.363
13.64
22.7
.289
6.56
42.4
.487
20.64
31.6
.386
12.17
46.4
.484
22.44
25.2
.359
9.06
35.7
.388
13.84
21.5
.294
6.33

Bessemer converters
Stockers......................... ...................
Iron pourers (troughmen)........ .........
Blowers............................. ............... .
Regulators, first...................................
Regulators, second.......................... .
Blowing engineers...............................
Vesselmen....................... ..................
Vesselmen’s helpers...... .................. .
Cinder pitmen................... .................
Bottom makers_____ ______________
Bottom makers’ helpers....................
Ladle liners---------------- -------------------Ladle liners’ helpers....... ........... .......
Stopper makers................. ..................
Stopper setters.................... ................
Steel pourers............. .......... ................
Mold cappers.......................................
Ingot strippers.....................................
Laborers..................................... ..........




1931
1933
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933

50.5
49.5
49.7
50.5
49.1
51.5
50.3
49.3
51.1
49.3
51.1
50.7
51.0
51.2
51.5
51.2
52.8
53.3
54.5
54.6
51.5
51.7
50.7
51.2
56.4
55.2
50.5
50.8
50.1
50.7
49.8
49.2
50.6
49.9
57.9
58.1

26.7 $0. 622 $31.41 $16. 61
7. 70
17.6
.436 21. 58
20.1
.501 24.90 10.09
46.4 1.291 65.20 59.90
24.5
.986 48.41 24.12
34.4
.966 49.75 33.18
27.6
639 32.14 17.60
.902 44.47 29.87
33.1
16.5
.683 34.90 11.31
27.6
.547 26.97 15.11
33.5 1.126 57.54 37.72
18.1
.822 41.68 14.89
36.0
.857 43.71 30.86
17.8
.631 32.31 11.22
30.3
.566 29.15 17.15
.434 22.22
16.3
7.08
31.4
.825 43.56 25.88
19.6
.579 30.86 11.36
32.6
.636 34. 66 20.72
22.4
.443 24.19
9.93
36.5
.901 46.40 32.87
18.1
.618 31.95 11.16
.664 33.66 21.77
32.8
.452 23.14
16.5
7.49
35.0
.569 32.09 19.91
28.0
.400 22.08 11.23
28.3
.998 50.40 28.23
16.3
.709 36.02 11.55
27.9 1.135 56.86 31.65
17.5
.785 39.80 13.76
31.6
.752 37.45 23.80
.532 26.17
17.9
9.51
33.8
.809 40.94 27.33
24.5
.538 26.85 13.20
30.2
.452 26.17 13.66
19.1
.335 19.46
6.40

29.9 $0,612 $18.30
18.8
.438
8.22
22.3
.490
10.94
46.7 1.289
60.23
27.2
.930
25.25
38.7
.948
36.65
33.4
.628
21.01
36.9
.869
32.02
19.8
.656
12.97
28.8
.543
15.67
35.2 1.101
38.74
21.0
.775
16.28
37.9
.844
31.99
20.6
.620
12.79
33.3
.563
18.76
18.5
.430
7.96
34.5
.805
27.74
21.1
.562
11.86
35.5
.623
22.15
24.0
.438
10.54
37.3
.891
33.29
21.2
.593
12.55
36.3
.651
23.67
20.4
.461
9. 39
36.4
.565
20.53
31.8
.404
11.86
31.0
.967
29.97
19.9
.643
12.78
29.9 1.099
32.81
20.2
.728
14.71
35.3
.747
26.38
20.8
.507
10.55
35.8
.796
28.49
25.3
.536
13.55
34.5
.464
16.01
22.2
.350
7.78

966

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

T a b le 3 —A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S OF E M P L O Y E E S IN 10 D E P A R T M E N T S
OF T H E IR O N A N D ST E E L IN D U S T R Y , 1931 A N D 1933, B Y O CC U PATIO N — Contd.

Open-hearth furnaces
Primary occupation only

Primary occupation

Year

Stockers.................................................

1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933

Stock cranemen................. - ................
Charging-machine operators.............
Door operators....................................
Charging-floor cranemen— .............
Metiers’ helpers, first........................
Melters’ helpers, second....................
M e t e s ’ helpers, third.......................
Stopper setters....................................
Steel pourers.........................................
Ladle cranemen...................................
Ingot strippers.....................................
Engineers, locomotive........................
Switchmen-..........................................
Laborers...............................................

All occupations (in­
cluding primary)

Aver­ Aver­
Aver­ Aver­
Aver­
Aver­ Aver­ Aver­
age
age
age
age
age
age
full­
age
age
hours earn­
full­
time actual hours earn­ actual
earn­
earn­ worked ings
time actually ings
earn­
ings
ings
hours worked per
per
in 1
ings
in 1
in 1
in 1
per
hour
per
hour week
week
week week
week
54.5
54.3
54.2
53.1
53.2
52.4
53.3
51.6
53.0
53.2
53.1
52.4
53.1
52.2
52.9
52.1
53.0
52.3
53.5
53.1
53.2
52.4
54.5
52.6
53.3
52.5
53.4
52.4
57.5
54.9

39.1 $0.527 $28.72 $20.60
.376 20.42
8.37
22.3
38.2
.663 35.93 25.36
.467 24.80 10.10
21.6
.879 46.76 33.04
37.6
22.9
.629 32.96 14.44
35.1
.436 23.24 15.30
15.9
.356 18.37
5.67
.760 40.28 26.33
34.7
.537 28.57 10.52
19.6
35.5 1.239 65.79 43.97
.867 45.43 17.04
19.7
34.6
.877 46.57 30.30
.624 32.57 11.72
18.8
34.1
.668 35.34 22.81
.462 24.07
16.9
7.82
.798 42.29 26.70
33.5
22.8
.560 29.29 12.76
38.1
.851 45.53 32.39
24.6
.575 30.53 14.13
37.7
.846 45.01 31.92
20.5
.566 29.66 11.62
37.5
.747 40.71 28.02
24.5
.507 26. 67 12.43
.843 44.93 26.04
30.9
20.5
.502 26.36 10.27
37.1
.606 32.36 22.50
9.22
21.6
.426 22.32
.436 25.07 13.80
31.7
.330 18.12
15.7
5.19

39.8 $0.526
22.9
.409
39.6
.660
22.3
.466
38.3
.877
.624
23.8
37.1
.442
16.3
.357
37.1
.758
21.3
.538
36.4 1.233
20.6
.854
35.9
.875
.619
19.5
36.3
.666
17.6
.464
.786
38.7
24.9
.553
40.9
.843
26.1
.576
.842
39.0
.563
21.3
.741
39.3
25.0
.508
31.5
.839
20.9
.500
38.1
.607
22.2
.426
33.5
.441
16.3
.334

$20.95
8.65
26.18
10.38
33.60
14.86
16.38
5.83
28.14
11.44
44.84
17.56
31.39
12.07
24.20
8.14
30.41
13.80
34.44
15.03
32.88
11.97
29.14
12.69
26.45
10.45
23.12
9.46
14.78
5.43

27.0 $0.544
29.9
.401
38.4
.790
31.7
.629
.692
24.7
.542
34.9
36.2
.542
29.6
.424
24.9
.475
17.9
.345
51.6
.469
40.0
.399
33.6
.956
30.1
.836
.615
33.7
25.8
.451
33.5
.604
.532
33.7
35.0
.496
31.2
.396
29.5
.459
34.4
.399
36.7
.597
28.9
.391
27.5
.511
30.1
.327
26.8
.389
28.1
.289

$14.68
12.01
30.35
19.94
17.06
18.91
19.62
12.54
11.82
6.17
24.22
15.98
32.16
25.12
20.71
11.66
20.21
17.91
17.38
12.35
13.52
13.73
21.92
11.31
14.05
9.85
10.44
8.13

Puddling mills
1931
1933
1931
1933
Puddlers, level-handed.................... 1931
1933
Puddlers’ helpers................................ 1931
1933
Bloom boys.......................................... 1931
1933
Roll engineers...................................... 1931
1933
Rollers................................................... 1931
1933
Roughers.............. ............................... 1931
1933
Catchers................................................ 1931
1933
Hook-ups.............................................. 1931
1933
Hotbed men........................................ 1931
1933
Shearmen.............................................. 1931
1933
Shearmen’s helpers....... ..................... 1931
1933
Laborers............... ............................... 1931
1933
Stockers....... ............ ............. .............

Puddlers................................................




51.4
55.9
54.3
52.6
49.2
52.4
54.3
52.7
50.7
53.7
65.6
60.1
50.5
50.2
51.1
48.7
51.4
52.1
51.0
52.9
50.9
50.3
52.9
53.5
51.0
53.2
54.3
53.5

26.4 $0,547 $28.12 $14.47
29.2
.403 22.53 11.75
.793 43.06 29.72
37.5
30.4
.634 33.35 19.30
23.4
.691 34.00 16.16
33.7
.543 28.45 18.30
35.4
.540 29.32 19.11
29.1
.423 22.29 12.31
23.9
.439 22.26 10.50
17.6
.336 18.04
5.91
51.6
.469 30.77 24.22
40.0
.399 23.98 15.98
33.6
.956 48.28 32.16
30.1
.836 41.97 25.12
33.7
.615 31.43 20.71
25.8
.451 21.96 11.66
33.5
.604 31.05 20.21
30.7
.550 28.66 16.90
.484 24.68 16.74
34.6
29.8
.388 20.53 11.56
29.5
.459 23.36 13.52
34.1
.400 20.12 13.64
35.9
.603 31.90 21.64
28.9
.391 20.92 11.31
27.5
.511 26.06 14.04
.332 17.66
28.0
9.30
26.2
.386 20.96 10.12
27.1
.286 15.30
7.74

967

IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY
T

3 . — A V E R A G E H OURS A N D E A R N IN G S OF E M P L O Y E E S IN 10 D E P A R T M E N T S
OF T H E IR O N A N D ST E E L IN D U S T R Y , 1931 A N D 1933, B Y O CC U PATIO N — Contd.

able

B lo o m in g m ills

Primary occupation only

Primary occupation

Year

1931
1933
1931
1933
Heaters’ helpers................................... 1931
1933
Bottom makers.................................... 1931
1933
Bottom makers’ helpers..................... 1931
1933
Roll engineers...................................... 1931
1933
Rollers................................................... 1931
1933
Manipulators....................................... 1931
1933
Table men............................................ 1931
1933
Shearmen.............................................. 1931
1933
Shearmen’s helpers............................. 1931
1933
Laborers................................................ 1931
1933
Pit cranemen.......................................

Heaters..................................................

All occupations (in­
cluding primary)

Aver­ Aver­ Aver­ Aver­ Aver­ Aver­ Aver­
age
age
age
age
age
full­
age
age
age
full­
hours
earn­ time actual hours earn­ actual
time actually ings
earn­ worked ings
earn­
earn­
ings
ings
hours worked per
in 1
per
ings
per
in 1
in 1
in i
week
per
hour
hour
week week
week
week
week
52.2
52.1
52.5
52.2
54.7
51.4
51.3
51.0
52.8
52.6
53.7
52.8
52.4
52.3
52.5
52.4
51.4
50.4
51.6
51.5
52.1
51.7
55.6
53.8

35.1 $0,845 $44.11 $29.64
26.2
.576 30.01 15.12
39.1 1.234 64.79 48.28
.802 41.86 23.21
28.9
.783 42.83 28.61
36.6
.628 32.28 18.73
29.8
.855 43.86 28.05
32.8
.625 31.88 13. 73
22.0
32.0
.625 33.00 20.02
.454 23.88
9.87
21.7
.952 51.12 30.80
32.4
24.2
.702 37.07 16.98
35.0 1.438 75. 35 50.29
25.2
.993 51.93 24.96
29.9 1.028 53.97 30.72
22.1
.673 35. 27 14.87
.745 38.29 20.62
27.7
.444 22.38 10.86
24.5
.820 42.31 25.34
30.9
.532 27.40 11.00
20.7
.594 30.95 17.16
28.9
.394 20.37
7.66
19.5
.460 25.58 14.54
31.6
16.4
.343 18.45
5.62

35.6 $0,840
26.8
.571
39.8 1.228
29.3
.800
39.8
.780
.631
31.9
35.7
.843
23.1
.618
35.0
.623
.452
23.1
33.6
.954
25.0
.697
35.8 1.421
26.9
.962
31.9 1.019
23.1
.681
30.9
.746
25.6
.438
32.5
.807
.531
21.6
30.6
.590
20.2
.396
34.6
.467
17.3
.344

$29.94
15.32
48.84
23.42
31.09
20.13
30.07
14. 26
21.83
10.43
32.07
17.40
50.92
25.90
32.52
15.76
23.07
11.24
26.23
11.50
18.09
7.98
16.14
5.95

36.4 $0.717
17.0
.503
38.2 1.135
15.9
.744
36.4
.624
16.8
.405
38.1
.647
20.3
.465
41.9 1.548
19.4
.890
38.2 1.027
17.2
.628
36.0
.790
13.0
.556
37.0
.754
13.4
.478
34.0
.748
15.6
.418
41.3 1.174
20.1
.816
40.2
.836
19.2
.594
32.4
.647
25.0
.410
37.8
.534
18.3
.442
37.9
.821
15.2
.527
34.0
.575
13.8
.398
26.8
.438
12.5
.318

$26.07
8.57
43.40
11.87
22.70
6.82
24.64
9.44
64.91
17.29
39.26
10.83
28.40
7.21
27.88
6.39
25.44
6.51
48.46
16.41
33.60
11.38
20.94
10.27
20.19
8.08
31.10
7.98
19.54
5. 51
11.73
3.98

P la te m ills
Charging-crane and charging-ma­
chine operators........... ....................

1931
1933
Heaters.......... ............... .............. ......... 1931
1933
Heaters’ helpers................................... 1931
1933
Roll engineers...................................... 1931
1933
Rollers, sheared plate mills............... 1931
1933
Screw men, sheared plate mills........ 1931
1933
Table operators, sheared plate mills. 1931
1933
Hook men, sheared plate mills........ 1931
1933
Roll hands, other, sheared plate 1931
mills.
1933
Rollers, universal mills...................... 1931
1933
Screw men, main rolls, universal 1931
mills.
1933
Screw men, side rolls, universal 1931
mills.
1933
Roll hands, other, universal mills. . 1931
1933
Shearmen.............................................. 1931
1933
Shearmen’s helpers............................. 1931
1933
Laborers................................................ 1931
1933




56.9
54.0
55.8
52.7
61.8
57.9
62.5
59.2
57.4
54.6
57.8
53.7
57.4
55.3
56.4
53.4
60.5
56.2
58.8
55.0
58.8
55.8
63.2
64.9
60.2
55.0
57.2
53.4
58.3
55.0
55.5
54.8

35.4 $0.722 $41.08 $25.56
16.4
8.34
.509 27.49
37.8 1.140 63.61 43.13
15.6
.751 39.58 11.74
35.5
.629 38.87 22.32
16.4
6.65
.406 23.51
35.3
.664 41.50 23.45
9.44
20.3
.465 27.53
41.6 1. 554 89.20 64.71
16.7
.960 52.42 16.00
36.5 1.025 59.25 37.43
16.6
.633 33.99 10.53
34.4
.788 45.23 27.09
.552 30. 53
12.6
6.95
.755 42. 58 26.83
35.6
6. 23
.478 25.53
13:0
31.3
.737 44.59 23.05
14.1
.424 23.83
5.98
41.3 1.174 69.03 48.46
.832 45.76 16.27
19.6
.834 49.04 33.29
39.9
17.1
.623 34.76 10.67
.639 40.38 18.20
28.5
24.1
.410 26.61
9.86
36.9
.531 31.97 19.61
18.0
.444 24.42
7.97
37.3
.822 47.02 30.64
14.6
.533 28.46
7.77
33.1
.577 33.64 19.09
.398 21.89
5.45
13.7
25.3
.433 24.03 10.96
.312 17.10
12.0
3.74

968
T

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

3 . — A V E R A G E HOURS AN D E A R N IN G S OF E M P L O Y E E S IN 10 D E P A R T M E N T S
OF T H E IR O N A N D STEEL IN D U S T R Y , 1931 A N D 1933, B Y O CC U PATIO N — Contd.

able

R a il m ills

Primary occupation only

Primary occupation

Year

1931
1933
Reheaters................. .......................... 1931
1933
Reheaters’ helpers_________________ 1931
1933
Roll engineers_______ _____________ 1931
1933
Rollers____ _______________________ 1931
1933
Assistant rollers_____ _____ ________ 1931
1933
Table levermen.......................... ......... 1931
1933
Guide setters_______ _______________ 1931
1933
Hotsaw men.............................. .......... 1931
1933
Hotsaw men’s helpers_____________ 1931
1933
Hotbed levermen_________________ 1931
1933
Hotbed m e n ... ,- ,............. ............... 1931
1933
Straighteners, gag press___________ 1931
1933
Straighteners’ helpers_______ ______ 1931
1933
Chippers__________________________ 1931
1933
Drillers and punchers_____________ 1931
1933
Cold-saw men_____________________ 1931
1933
Cold-saw helpers................................ 1931
1933
Inspectors................ ........................
1931
1933
Laborers_______ ___________ ______ 1931
1933
Charging-machine operators_______

All occupations (in­
cluding primary)

Aver­
Aver­
Aver­
Aver­
age
Aver­ Aver­ Aver­
age
age
age
age
age
full­
age
age
full­
hours
actual hours earn­ actual
time actually earn­ time earn­
earn­
earn­
worked ings
hours worked ings
ings
ings
ings
per
in 1
per
per
in ^
in 1
in 1
hour
per
week
hour week
week
week week
64.6
51.0
50.5
49.5
52.9
50.6
51.1
48.0
53.7
50.4
55.6
53.5
52.2
50.4
55.5
53.4
54.0
51.9
53.1
50.4
54.0
52.6
52.1
51.6
52.7
52.3
53.5
52.4
54.3
53.4
55.1
53.9
57.1
53.9
53.4
49.4
55.7
54.6
58.0
57.9

37.8 $0.637 $34.78 $24.08
19.2
.534 27.23 10.23
37.5 1.117 56.41 41.83
20.4
.949 46.98 19.37
29.5
.633 33.49 18.66
.556 28.13 10.06
18.1
.922 47.11 30.13
32.7
.684 32.83 10. 27
15.0
43.2 1.596 85.71 68.89
24.6 1.355 68.29 33.27
.954 53.04 43.77
45.9
.732 39.16 10.96
15.0
34.4
.816 42.60 28.06
.696 35.08 11.93
17.1
40.6
.816 45.29 33.11
15.1
.760 40.58 11.48
.653 35.26 24.08
36.9
18.7
.581 30.15 10.88
.496 26.34 14.77
29.8
12.7
.420 21.17
5.34
36.1
.565 30. 51 20.42
14.8
.438 23.04
6.48
31.5
.525 27.35 16. 55
12.8
.395 20.38
5.06
32.0 1.131 59.60 36.19
13.4
.931 48.69 12.47
33.3
.625 33.44 20.80
12.0
.538 28.19
6.44
.655 35.57 23. 49
35.8
10.4
.585 31.24
6.10
34.5
.649 35. 76 22.40
12.5
.589 31. 75
7.35
38.2
.489 27.92 18.68
15.4
.376 20. 27
5.79
24.5
.472 25.20 11.56
10.1
.372 18. 38
3.74
42.1
.587 32.70 24.71
.462 25.23
14.7
6.78
31.8
.406 23.55 12.90
12.3
.324 18. 76
3.97

39.4 $0,627
19.7
.530
37.7 1,113
20.6
.948
.645
31.7
.553
19.1
.915
33.9
.684
15.0
43.2 1.596
25.6 1.321
65.4
.936
17.4
.719
36.0
.809
17.5
.693
42.5
.811
16.2
.751
.652
37.8
.580
18.8
.491
34.7
15.0
.431
38.9
.561
15.3
.436
.524
33.7
.392
13.6
32.8 1.122
15.0
.876
35.3
.625
12.9
.528
38.5
.650
11.4
.575
36.1
.645
13.2
.579
.484
44.0
17.6
.379
28.5
.476
11.4
.375
44.2
.581
15.5
.458
35.7
.416
13.2
.336

$24.68
10.41
41.93
19.57
20.45
10.58
31.01
10.27
68.89
33.80
51.85
12.47
29.16
12.11
34.48
12.13
24.66
10.90
17.04
6.48
21.86
6.65
17.64
5.34
36. 76
13.11
22.05
6. 79
25.03
6.54
23.30
7.66
21.28
6.68
13.59
4.28
25.70
7.11
14.85
4.45

32.9 $0.455
.326
16.0
33.7
.901
18.4
.639
33.0
.618
17.0
.404
32.6
.564
16.9
.357
26.8
.543
15.9
.404
36.3
.535
20.3
.403
38.2 1.533
24.4
.956
33.7
.787
18.4
.535
32.0
.775
18.6
.527
34.1
.693
17.8
.459
34.0
.842
19.3
.497

$14.95
5.20
30.39
11.77
20.42
6.87
18.34
6.02
14.59
6.43
19.42
8.16
58.61
23.31
26.56
9.86
24.77
9.83
23.65
8.15
28.65
9.61

B a r m ills
Stockers------ --------------------------------- - 1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
Heaters’ helpers........... ........... .
1933
Chargers and helpers.—........... ......... 1931
1933
Drag downs____________ ____ ______ 1931
1933
Roll engineers...................................... 1931
1933
Rollers_____ _______________________ 1931
1933
Roughers............................................... 1931
1933
Catchers............- .......... ...................... 1931
1933
Stranders............................................ 1931
1933
Finishers............................................... 1931
1933
Heaters----------- ------------------------------




54.2
52.2
57.4
55.6
56.5
55.3
54.5
54.2
56.5
56.8
59.3
57.6
55.4
54.5
56.7
55.8
56.1
55.2
55.8
54.8
54.4
55.0

31.7 $0,455 $24.66 $14.44
15.8
.326 17.02
5.16
33.4
.902 51. 77 30.18
17.7
.650 36.14 11.52
31.4
.621 35.09 19. 51
.402 22.23
15.7
6.33
31.4
.567 30.90 17.81
15.9
.357 19.35
5.69
26.0
.548 30.96 14.26
15.2
.406 23.06
6.16
35.3
.534 31. 67 18.85
19.8
.401 23.10
7.96
37.8 1. 542 85. 43 58. 27
23.8
.965 52. 59 23.02
32.8
.791 44.85 25. 92
17.9
.536 29.91
9.59
30.9
.781 43.81 24.15
.532 29.37
18.0
9.58
32.4
.701 39.12 22.68
16.9
.458 25.10
7.73
31.5
.864 47.00 27.24
17.7
.500 27.50
8.85

969

IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY
T

3 . — A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S OF E M P L O Y E E S IN 10 D E P A R T M E N T S
OF T H E IRON A N D ST E E L IN D U S T R Y , 1931 A N D 1933, B Y O CC U PATIO N — Contd. ,

able

B a r m ills
All occupations (in­
cluding primary)

Primary occupation only

Primary occupation

Year

Hook-ups..............................................

1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933

Roll hands, other. .............................
Hotbed men____ _________________
Shearmen................. .................... .......
Shearmen’s helpers___________ ____
Bundlers...____ __________________
Laborers_______ ___________________

Aver­ Aver­ Aver­
age
age
age
hours
full­
earn­
time actually ings
hours worked per
per
in 1
week week week

55.2
56.1
55.1
54.9
54.1
55.5
53.5
54.3
54.3
54.1
54.3
53.1
54.2
53.7

Aver­ Aver­
Aver­ Aver­ Aver­
age
age
age
age
full­ actual
age
time earn­ hours earn­ actual
earn­
earn­
ings worked ings
ings
ings
per
in 1
in 1
in i
week
per
hour
week
week
week

25.3 $0.645 $35.60 $16.35
14.1
.381 21.37
5.35
.712 39.23 22.07
31.0
16.7
.471 25.86
7.85
.578 31. 27 16.14
27.9
15.2
.349 19.37
5.30
.594 31.78 18.71
31.5
.412 22. 37
16.0
6.60
26.1
.529 28. 72 13.82
12.3
.348 18.83
4. 27
30.4
.513 27.86 15.57
14.5
.347 18.43
5.03
.394 21.35 11.06
28.1
14.6
.305 16.38
4.47

26.5 $0.640
14.8
.386
32.5
.708
17.2
.469
29.9
.572
16.3
.346
33.7
.582
17.1
.409
28.1
.525
13.0
.346
32.6
.509
15.4
.349
30.2
.399
15.3
.304

$16.95
5.73
23.01
8.06
17.11
5.64
19.59
7.00
14.76
4.50
16.60
5.38
12.05
4.67

$21.11
10.32
44.20
22.44
31.32
23.24

Sheet m ills
Pair heaters............................ ............
Rollers, hand mills___________ _____
Rollers, level handed, hand mills—
Rollers’ helpers and finishers, hand
mills........................ ............. ...........
Rollers, mechanical mills..................
Assistant rollers, mechanical mills. _
Spannermen.....................................
Roughers.-........................ ..................
Catchers________________ _______ . .
Matchers_________ _______________
Doublers__________ _______________
Sheet heaters.......................... ...........
Sheet heaters, level handed-----------Sheet heaters’ helpers_____________

1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933

43.5
42.4
43.5
42.3
42.8
41.6

23.8 $0.870 $37.85 $20.75
.626 26.54
15.6
9.77
24.1 1.811 78.78 43.68
18.1 1.209 51.14 21.82
30.9
.971 41.56 29.97
18.4
.962 40.02 17. 71

24.4 $0,866
17.0
.608
24.7 1.790
19.1 1.174
32.3
.969
22.1 1.053

1931
1933
1933
1933
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933
1931
1933

43.2
42.4
41.5
40.9
39.6
43.6
40.5
43.5
40.5
43.5
40.7
43.6
41.7
43.5
43.4
43.5
43.4
43.1
43.3

25.0
16.2
25.4
25.8
11.9
23.5
16.0
24.2
15.0
22.9
15.1
22.8
17.1
24.6
16.9
23.3
17.0
24.7
15.5

.773
.583
1.016
.651
.647
.952
.744
.915
.665
.772
.526
.764
.516
1.287
.828
.822
.601
.758
.527

33.39
24. 72
42.16
26. 63
25. 62
41. 51
30.13
39.80
26.93
33.58
21. 41
33.31
21. 52
55.98
35.94
35.76
26.08
32.67
22.82

19.32
9.45
25. 75
16.83
7.66
22.37
11.88
22.18
10.01
17. 67
7.92
17.39
8.81
31.64
14.02
19.15
10.23
18. 70
8.17

25.8
17.6
26.4
29.2
13.1
24.3
17.7
25.4
16.3
24.0
16.2
24.2
18.1
25.0
18.0
25.0
20.6
25.5
16.8

.779
.576
.998
.641
.647
.953
.723
.907
.649
.770
.519
.763
.513
1.279
.809
.830
.634
.765
.521

20.07
10.17
26.35
18.72
8.49
23.18
12.77
23.01
10.60
18.44
8.38
18.48
9.30
31.96
14.58
20.73
13.03
19.49
8.77

37.6
43.5
41.9
43.7
41.9
43.8
38.4
43.3
43.5
50.6
48.4
46.4
48.6
53.3
51.3
53.0
51.5
57.7
54.2

19.4
26.3
20.8
25.6
20.1
20.0
16.2
23.2
21.1
31.9
30.5
34.8
24.1
33.8
29.3
31.1
25.8
31.0
23.8

.392
1.052
.702
.627
.429
.659
.442
.544
.418
.712
.384
.750
.410
.759
.463
.663
.399
.428
.330

14.74
45. 76
29.41
27.40
17.98
28.86
16.97
23. 56
18.18
36.03
18.59
34.80
19.93
40.45
23.75
35.14
20.55
24. 70
17.89

7.60
27.61
14.57
16.07
8.63
13.20
7.17
12.61
8.84
22. 71
11.69
26.13
9.90
25.62
13.58
20.60
10.31
13.25
7.87

20.5
27.5
21.6
26.9
21.2
20.8
16.8
25.8
21.9
33.5
33.2
36.6
26.3
35.7
31.7
33.0
28.6
33.3
26.2

.393
1.032
.692
.629
.433
.658
.443
.548
.417
.701
.387
.739
.407
.747
.457
.659
.397
.437
.339

8.05
28.39
14.93
16.88
9.16
13.69
7.47
14.13
9.13
23.50
12.83
27.06
10.71
26.65
14.47
21.76
11.35
14.53
8.89

Chargers, pack furnaces (mechan­
ical)..................................................... 1933
Shearmen_____ ____________________ 1931
1933
Shearmen’s helpers___________ ____ 1931
1933
Openers__________ _________________ 1931
1933
Openers, level handed_____________ 1931
1933
Picklers____ _________________ ____ 1931
1933
Feeders............................ .................... 1931
1933
Cold-roll rollers................................ . 1931
1933
Cold-roll catchers................................ 1931
1933
Laborers............................................... 1931
1933




970

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

T a b l e 3 .—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S OF E M P L O Y E E S IN 10 D E P A R T M E N T S

OF T H E IR O N A N D ST E E L IN D U S T R Y , 1931 A N D 1933, B Y O C C U PATIO N — Contd.
T in -p la te m ills

Primary occupation only

Primary occupation

Year

1931
1933
Heaters, level handed..............- ......... 1931
1933
Heaters’ helpers.......................... ......... 1931
1933
Pair heaters.......................................... 1931
1933
Rollers.................................................... 1931
1933
Rollers, level handed.......................... 1931
1933
Roughers............................................... 1931
1933
Catchers..........- .................................... 1931
1933
Screw boys........................................... 1931
1933
Single boys............................................ 1931
1933
Doublers, hand.................................... 1931
1933
Doublers, mechanical......................... 1931
1933
Doublers, level handed, hand........ _ 1931
1933
Doublers’ helpers, hand..................... 1931
1933
Shearmen-............................................ 1931
1933
Shearmen’s helpers......... - .................. 1931
1933
Openers................................................. 1931
1933
Tinners, hand...................................... 1931
1933
Tinners, machine________ ________ 1931
1933
Branners............... - .........- __________ 1931
1933
Assorters, female...... ........................... 1931
1933
Laborers................. .............................. 1931
1933
Heaters..................... - ...........................

All occupations (in­
cluding primary)

Aver­ Aver­
Aver­
Aver­ Aver­
Aver­
Aver­ Aver­
age
age
age
age
age
age
age
age actual
full­ actual
full­
hours
earn­ time earn­ hours earn­ earn­
time actually ings
earn­
ings worked ings
hours worked
ings
per
ings
per
in 1
per
in 1
in 1
in 1
per
week
week
hour
week week
week
week week
42.7
42.6
42.7
42.6
42.7
42.6
42.7
42.6
42.7
42.6
42.7
42.7
42.7
42.6
42.7
42.6
42.7
42.6
42.7
42.6
42.7
42.6
42.7
42.6
42.7
42.7
42.7
42.7
43.6
43.6
46.1
45.8
47.5
51.7
42.7
43.8
42.7
42.9
44.7
45.3
45.5
45.2
55.4
55.4

32.3 $1.102 $47.06 $35.63
27.1
.771 32.84 20.88
35.4
.942 40.22 33.37
.721 30.71 22.25
30.9
32.7
.798 34.07 26.10
26.0
.557 23.73 14.49
34.4
.744 31.77 25.59
28.3
.533 22.71 15.09
34.4 1.737 74.17 59.71
28.6 1.250 53.25 35.78
28.2
.930 39.71 26.19
26.7
.679 28.99 18.15
32.4
.989 42.23 31.99
28.8
.709 30.20 20.41
.902 38.52 28.52
31.6
.654 27.86 17.63
27.0
.682 29.12 21.16
31.0
27.1
.489 20.83 13.23
.737 31.47 24.86
33.8
27.0
.531 22.62 14.36
23.4
.883 37.70 20.70
30.2
.776 33.06 23.40
.749 31.98 25.99
34.7
27.2
.544 23.17 14.79
16.4
.760 32.45 12.44
.684 29.21 25.82
37.8
.622 26.56 24.20
38.9
35.4
.507 21.65 17.98
32.1
.983 42.86 31.55
28.8
.528 23.02 15.20
34.3
.551 25.40 18.90
25.8
.430 19.69 11.10
.748 35.53 26.94
36.0
.516 26.68 10.82
21.0
33.9
.899 38.39 30.50
34.1
.654 28. 65 22.31
31.9
.834 35.61 26.57
29.5
.587 25.18 17.32
35.7
.577 25.79 20.58
36.6
.415 18.80 15.21
38.1
.380 17.29 14.47
38.9
.295 13.33 11.46
40.2
.419 23.21 16.82
.332 18.39 11.29
34.0

36.0 $1,064
30.3
.738
36.6
.936
34.5
.698
35.2
.788
29.4
.542
.721
37.1
.504
31.9
36.5 1.689
31.0 1.205
35.8 1.088
30.8
.744
36.7
.956
32.1
.680
35.8
.854
30.7
.615
34.1
.659
30.0
.470
38.3
.698
30.8
.502
24.3
.871
32.6
.758
38.2
.717
30.3
.518
16.6
.756
39.1
.677
.624
40.3
36.4
.503
.974
32.9
28.8
.528
35.7
.558
25.8
.430
.737
37.5
22.1
.509
34.3
.899
34.8
.648
.821
33.3
30.8
.578
37.3
.576
38.2
.415
38.1
.380
39.0
.295
42.9
.425
35.1
.335

$38.34
22.36
34.25
24.06
27.74
15.95
26.76
16.09
61. 63
37.36
38.96
22.88
35.05
21.80
30.62
18.92
22.47
14.10
26.76
15.46
21.13
24.69
27.42
15.68
12.52
26.45
25.14
18.29
32. 01
15.20
19.92
11.10
27.59
11.25
30.84
22.56
27.34
17.81
21.51
15.85
14.49
11.50
18.25
11.73

Le athe r In d u s try — H o u rs and E a rn in g s, 1932

Bureau of Labor Statistics made a study of hours of labor and
earnings of workers in the leather industry in the United States in
1932. The study was limited to tanneries engaged primarily in the
manufacture of one or more of such leathers as sole, belting, side
upper, kid, patent, or upholstery leather, made from cattle hides
and calf, sheep, and goat skins.
Data were collected from 114 representative tanneries in 15 States
and covered 21,399 wage earners, or approximately 43 percent of the
total number of wage earners engaged in the manufacture of all
kinds of leather in the United States, as shown by the 1929 Census of
Manufactures. Except for a few tanneries the wage figures were
collected for a pay period in March, April, or May. More detailed
data were published in Bulletin No. 589 of the Bureau.
T he




971

LEATHER INDUSTRY

Table 1 shows average hours and earnings in 1932 for the industry
as a whole and for the wage earners in each of the important occu­
pations in the hide house, beam house, tan house, finishing, sorting,
shipping, and maintenance departments, and also for a group of
“ other employees” in each department.
Hides are received at tanneries in various conditions, known in the
industry as “ market” , i. e., tanned without previous cure; “ green
salted” , preserved by piling down in salt; “ dry salted” , salted and
then allowed to dry; and “ flint hides” , dried without previous salting.
The hides are classified according to weight (as heavy, medium, or
light) and are graded by sorters and counters according to number
and size of scores and cuts made in skinning or dressing animals, holes
made by grubs, etc.
Wage earners in the finishing department represented about 65
percent of those covered by the study. They are divided into three
groups—those working on patent leather, those working on sole and
belting, and those working on other kinds of leather.
T

able

1 .—

A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S IN T H E L E A T H E R IN D U S T R Y , 1932, B Y
D E P A R T M E N T , O CCUPATION, A N D S E X

Department, occupation, and sex

All departments, all occupations:
Males............................................ .................................
Females............................................... ............ ..............
Males and females.......................................................

Aver­
age
full­
time
hours
per
week

Hours actually
worked in 1
week

Aver­
age

Aver­
age
full­
time
earn­
ings
per
week

Aver­
age
actual
earn­
ings in
1 week

Aver­
age
num­
ber

Per­
cent of
fun

50.4
50.0
50.4

42.1
40.9
42.0

83.5
81.8
83.3

$0.493
.303
.471

$24.85
15.15
23. 74

50.0
50.1
50.2

43.8
44.1
46.3

87.6
88.0
92.2

.473
.410
.597

23. 65
20. 54
29.97

20. 70*
18. 07
27. 63

50.9
49.7
51.1
50.8
51.0
50.5
50.6
49.6
50.8
50.2

42.8
42.0
43.0
42.5
39.5
40.1
42.1
41.3
42.4
47.2

84.1
84.5
84.1
83.7
77.5
79.4
83.2
83.3
83.5
94.0

.461
.597
.490
.492
.492
.534
.449
.431
.424
.564

23.46
29.67
25. 04
24.99
25.09
26.97
22. 72
21. 38
21.54
28.31

19. 72
25.09
21. 07
20.90
19. 46
21. 40
18.90
17. 81
17.98
26. 59

50.7
50.8
51.4
52.5
50.6

45.9
40.7
39.5
49.5
44.5

90.5
80.1
76.8
94.3
87.9

.462
.436
.382
.326
.577

23.42
22.15
19.63
17.12
29.20

21.24
17.76
15.11
16.13
25.68

52.7
52.5

39.5
39.9

75.0
76.0

.398
.419

20.97
22.00

15. 71
16.73

51.5
52.0
51.3
51.3

38.8
39.2
39.2
40.8

75.3
75.4
76.4
79.5

.432
.391
.390
.474

22.25
20.33
20.01
24.32

16. 73
15.31
15.28
19.37

49.8
49.1
49.1
47.2
50.5
47.7
48.0
49.7

31.8
35.4
43.3
40.9
49.9
43.8
49.5
41.5

63.9
72.1
88.2
86.7
98.8
91.8
103.1
83.5

.638
.572
.526
.653
.273
.663
.258
.490

31.77
28.09
25.83
30.82
13.79
31.63
12.38
24.35

20.31
20. 23
22.78
26.74
13.60
29.06
12. 78
20.32

ings
per
hour

$20. 78
12.41
19.74

H id e house

Sorters and counters, male....................... .........................
Laborers and truckers, male........................................ .
Other hide house employees, male....... ................... .......
B e a m house

Haulers, male........................................................................
Splitting-machine operators, male__________________
Unhairing-machine operators, male__________________
Fleshing-machine operators, male_________ __________
Beamsters or scudders, hand, male______ ____________
Beamsters or scudders, machine, male_____ __________
Trimmers, male................................... .............. ..................
Machine helpers, male.................................. ..................._
Laborers and truckers, male_________________________
Other beam-house employees, male....... ........................
T a n house

Liquor men..................................... .....................................
Haulers, male.................................................. .....................
Laborers and truckers, male_______________ __________
Laborers and truckers, female...................... .......... .........
Other tan house employees, male............................ .......
F in is h in g departm en t

Sole and belting:
Bleachers, male.............................................................
Extractors, temperers, and oilers, male...................
Wringing and setting-out machine operators,
male..............................................................................
Dry-loft men..................................................................
Spongers and stuffers, male........................................
Rolling-machine operators, male__________ ______
Patent leather:
Buffing-wheel operators, male.............................. .
Togglers and tackers, male.........................................
Oil and dope mixers, male.........................................
Daubers, male................................................................
Daubers, female............................................................
Pumicers, male..............................................................
Pumicers, female...........................................................
Trimmers, male...........................................................




972
T

able

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR
1 .— AVERAG E

HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S IN T H E L E A T H E R IN D U S T R Y , 1932, B Y
D E P A R T M E N T , OCCUPATION, A N D S E X —Continued

Department, occupation, and sex

Aver­
age
full­
time
hours
per
week

Hours actually
worked in 1
week

Aver­
age

Aver­
age
full­
time
earn­
ings
per
week

Aver­
age
actua
earn­
ings in
1 week

Aver­
age
num­
ber

Per­
cent of
full
time

ings
per
hour

50.2
50.6
50.4
50.4
49.4
51.0
50.2
49.7
50.0
50.2
49.7
49.6
50.4
49.8
50.6
49.3
49.8
48.5
49.1
49.9
48.1
49.2
49.0
50.4
50.7
50.3
49.1
49.5
50.1
49.8
49.4
50.3
50.2
49.7
50.6
50.7
50.0
48.3
50.2
49.4
49.3
49.8
50.9
50.0

41.3
33.4
38.5
44.1
43.2
39.6
45.7
48.3
38.9
49.5
43.2
38.7
41.0
36.3
45.4
44.4
41.4
36.4
36.3
38.2
34.1
37.6
41.4
41.3
42.7
44.2
41.9
39.8
40.1
43.9
40.8
43.0
42.8
40.4
38.1
39.5
50.0
42.0
43.6
40.2
40.5
42.3
41.2
40.9

82.3
66.0
76.4
87.5
87.4
77.6
91.0
97.2
77.8
98.6
86.9
78.0
81.3
72.9
89.7
90.1
83.1
75.1
73.9
76.6
70.9
76.4
84.5
81.9
84.2
87.9
85.3
80.4
80.0
88.2
82.6
85.5
85.3
81.3
75.3
77.9
100.0
87.0
86.9
81.4
82.2
84.9
80.9
81.8

$0.449
.232
.456
.378
.266
.669
.508
.248
.623
.495
.474
.327
.419
.288
.372
.257
.560
.305
.606
.551
.341
.442
.322
.543
.235
.381
.272
.443
.290
.421
.291
.500
.306
.603
.372
.517
.311
.530
.496
.275
.465
.286
.421
.261

$22.54
11.74
22.98
19.05
13.14
34.12
25. 50
12.33
31.15
24.85
23.56
16. 22
21.12
14.34
18.82
12. 67
27.89
14. 79
29. 75
27.49
16.40
21. 75
15.78
27.37
11.91
19.16
13. 36
21. 93
14. 53
20. 97
14. 38
25.15
15.36
29.97
18. 82
26. 21
15. 54
25. 60
24.90
13. 59
22.92
14.24
21.43
13.05

$18. 55
7. 75
17. 56
16. 67
11.47
26. 51
23.23
11.96
24. 26
24.47
20.48
12. 65
17.16
10.44
16.88
11. 40
23.14
11.09
22.01
21.05
11. 62
16. 61
13.34
22. 43
10.04
16. 84
11.39
17.61
11.61
18.46
11.89
21.51
13. 09
24. 39
14.16
20.41
15. 54
22. 27
21.63
11.05
18.81
12.12
17.35
10. 65

50.6
50.9
50.6
50.4

43.9
45.5
43.8
39.2

86.8
89.4
86.6
77.8

.378
.279
.541
.287

19.13
14. 20
27.37
14.46

16. 63
12.69
23.68
11. 25

50.0
49.6
48.7
49.8
49.9
49.9
50.4
49.7
50.3
50.0

44.5
41.9
44.3
44.1
44.6
45.4
44.8
44.3
42.0
36.2

89.0
84.5
91.0
88.6
89.4
91.0
88.9
89.1
83.5
72.4

.440
.301
.351
.274
.577
.305
.427
.284
.382
.390

22.00
14.93
17.09
13. 65
28. 79
15. 22
21.52
14.11
19. 21
19. 50

19. 58
12.63
15. 53
12.10
25. 73
13. 84
19.12
12.60
16.03
14.11

F in is h in g dep artm en t— Continued

Other than sole or patent leather:
Setters-out, machine, male........................................
Setters-out, machine, female_____________ ________
Setters-out, hand, male.............- ............ ...................
Driers, male.............. - ..................................................
Driers, female—.................... ........... - .........................
Splitting-machine operators, male...... ............. .......
Sorters, blue and crust, male----------------------- ------Sorters, blue and crust, female................... ..............
Shaving-machine operators, male------------------------Color, fat liquor, and seasoning mixers, male------Colorers and fat liquorers, male---------- ---------------Colorers and fat liquorers, female.--------- ------------Oiling-off machine operators, male----------------------Oiling-off machine operators, female--------- ------Dampeners or sawdusters, m a le ............................Dampeners or sawdusters, female........ ...................
Stakers, machine, male.................. ..................... .......
Stakers, machine, female......................... ..................
Stakers, hand, male.------------------------------------------Tackers, togglers, and pasters, male-------- -----------Tackers, togglers, and pasters, female.....................
Rolling-machine operators, male..............................
Rolling-machine operators, female--------- ------------Buffing-wheel operators, male...............................
Buffing-wheel operators, female............ ....................
Brushing-machine operators, male.............. ...........
Brushing-machine operators, female........................
Trimmers, male............................................................
Trimmers, female................. ............. ............ ............
Finishers or seasoners, machine, male.....................
Finishers or seasoners, machine, female__________
Finishers or seasoners, hand, male........... ................
Finishers or seasoners, hand, female........................
Glazing-machine operators, male...... .......................
Glazing-machine operators, female---------- -----------Boarders or grainers, hand, male_____ ___________
Boarders or grainers, hand, female....... ....................
Boarders or grainers, machine, male_____________
Embossing or plating-press operators, male...........
Embossing or plating-press operators, female........
Ironers, hand or machine, male................................
Ironers, hand or machine, female. ............................
Machine helpers, male............................ ...................
Machine helpers, female.............................................
All leather:
Laborers and truckers, male________ ____________
Laborers and truckers, female. .................... ............
Other finishing-department employees, male........
Other finishing-department employees, female___
So rtin g a n d sh ip p in g departm en t

Measuring-machine operators, male_________________
Measuring-machine operators, female............................
Measuring-machine operators’ helpers, male....... .........
Measuring-machine operators’ helpers, female----------Sorters, male..................................................................... .
Sorters, female________________ ______________________
Packers and shippers, male......... ....................................
Packers and shippers, female.................... ..................... .
Laborers and truckers, male..____ _________________
Laborers and truckers, female..........................................
Other sorting and shipping department employees,
male......................................................—......................... .
Other sorting and shipping department employees,
female..................................................................................

50.2

47.0

93.6

.556

27.91

26.15

49.4

41.8

84.6

.323

15.96

13. 51

52.3
51.4
50.6

46.7
42.0
47.2

89.3
81.7
93.3

.576
.357
.525

30.12
18.35
26.57

26.93
14.98
24.78

M a in te n a n ce departm ent

Machine fixers, male........................................................ .
Laborers and truckers, male.............. ..............................
Other maintenance-department employees, male........




973

LEATHER INDUSTRY

Table 2 shows, for males and females separately and for both sexes
combined, in each State or group of States in 1932, average hours and
earnings and the percent of full time actually worked in 1 week.
T a b l e 3.—AVE R A G E HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S IN T H E L E A T H E R IN D U S T R Y , 1932, B Y
SE X A N D STATE

Sex and State

M a le s

Hours actually
Average
worked in 1
Average
full­
week
Average full­
time
earntime
hours
ingsper earn­
per
Percent hour ings per
week
week Average of full­
number time

Average
actual
earn­
ings in
1 week

50.4
49.9
49.6
48.6
54.0
50.5
49.8
54.1
50.8
51.0
50.9
52.1

39.7
40.2
41.4
43.0
45.1
44.5
42.5
29.0
45.0
44.9
33.1
39.9

78.8
80.6
83.5
88.5
83.5
88.1
85.3
53.6
88.6
88.0
65.0
76.6

$0,467
.499
.382
.553
.369
.559
.533
.309
.501
.478
.372
.425

$23.54
24.90
18.95
26.88
19.93
28.23
26.54
16.72
25.45
24.38
18.93
22.14

$18. 57
20.07
15.80
23.77
16.65
24.88
22.65
8.97
22.52
21.45
12.29
16.96

50.4

42.1

83.5

.493

24.85

20.78

Delaware...................................................... ............ .........
Illinois and Missouri1
_______________________________
Massachusetts and New Hampshire1_______________
Michigan............... ..............................................................
New Jersey............................ ........... .............................
New York................... .........................................................
Ohio............................................................. ........... ...........
Pennsylvania................. ............. ......................................
Wisconsin......................... ...................... ............. ..............

51.1
49.3
48.0
54.0
51.7
48.0
50.0
49.9
50.8

39.9
37.5
41.6
43.8
43.7
44.1
45.9
41.1
41.1

78.1
76.1
86.7
81.1
84.5
91.9
91.8
82.4
80.9

.280
.278
.319
.250
.330
.342
.305
.342
.289

14.31
13.71
15.31
13.50
17.06
16.42
15.25
17.07
14.68

11.19
10.42
13. 28
10.92
14.41.
15.08
14. 01
14. 06
11.88

Total females.......... .............................. ........ ..........

50.0

40.9

81.8

.303

15.15

12.41

50.7
49.8
49.6
48.6
54. 0
50.7
49.8
54.1
50.7
50.9
50.9
51.9

39.8
39.7
41.4
42.8
45. 0
44.4
42.5
29.0
45.1
44.6
33.1
40.0

78.5
79.7
83.5
88.1
83.3
87.6
85.3
53.6
89. 0
87.6
65.0
77.1

.401
.464
.382
.523
.359
.524
. 529
.309
.477
.468

20.33
23.11
18.95
25.42
19.39
26.57

'.A ll

24.18
23.82
18.93
21.33

15.94
18.45
15.80
22.38
16.16
23.25
22.48
8.97
21.51
20.89
12.29
16.45

50.4

42.0

83.3

.471

23.74

19.74

Delaware............................................... .......... ........ .........
Illinois and Missouri1
_______________________________
Kentucky and Tennessee1 _______ _________ _______
Massachusetts and New Hampshire1 ______________
Michigan........ ............. ......................................................
New Jersey___________ ________ _____________ _____ _
New York.................................................. ........... .............
North Carolina............................ .......................................
Ohio........................................ ......... ........... .................... .
Pennsylvania_________ __________ ____ _________ ____
West Virginia...:_______ ________________ _______
W isconsin....... .................... ............. ............ .............. .......
Total males........ ............ .................... ............ ........
F em a les

M a le s a n d fem a les

Delaware....................... ............. .................... ............ .......
Illinois and Missouri1
_______________________________
Kentucky and Tennessee 1 ________________ ________
Massachusetts and New Hampshire 1_____ __________
M ichigan__________________________ _____ ________
New Jersey..................... .....................................................
New York......................................................................... .
North Carolina.................................. ................... .............
Ohio........................................... ........................................
Pennsylvania..................... ........................ ........................
West Virginia______ ________ _____________ __________
Wisconsin_____ _____ ___________ _______________ ____
Total males and females_________________ _____

1 Shown together to avoid presenting data for 1 tannery in any State.




1 6 .7 2

974

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

M e n ’s C lo th in g In d u s try — H o u rs and E a rn in g s, 1932
T his article presents the results of a study of wages and hours of
labor in the men’s clothing industry in the United States, made by the
Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1932, and also comparative figures for
the years from 1911 to 1932 in which studies were made by the
Bureau. The 1932 data are published in greater detail in Bulletin
No. 594 of the Bureau.
The 1932 data cover a representative weekly pay-roll period in one
of the months from July to November, and were obtained from 243
representative establishments in 12 large cities and in two groups of
small cities, one group in northeastern New Jersey outside Newark
and the other in eastern Pennsylvania outside Philadelphia. The
33,051 wage earners covered represent 22.1 percent of the total
number in the industry in the United States in 1929.
A summary of the 1932 average hours and earnings, with index
numbers thereof, is shown in table 1 in comparison with like figures
for specified years from 1911 to 1930.
T a b l e 1.—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D EAR N IN G S, IN T H E M E N ’S C LO TH IN G IN D U S T R Y

A N D IN D E X N U M B E R S T H E R E O F , 1911 TO 1932, B Y Y E A R

Year

Selected occupations, males
and females:
1911.... .......... ..................
1912...................................
1913,.................................
1914 2_____ ____ ________
All occupations, males and
females:
1914 2
........... .....................
1919......... ...................... .
1922........................ .........
1924........ ................... .......
1926..................................
1928................................ .
1930..................................
1932............................ .......

Hours actually
worked in 1
week
Average
Average
full­
Average full­
time
time
earn­
ings per earn­
hours
per
Percent hour ings per
week
week Average of full­
number
time

54.4
54.7
52.0
51.6

0)
0)
0)
0)

0)
0)
0)
0)

51.3
47.9
44.1
44.1
44.3
44.0
44.3
44.4

(i)
0)
(9
0)
(9
40.6
37.8
37.3

(!)
(9
0)
(9
0)
92.0
85.3
84.0

Index numbers (1913=
100)
Average
actual
earn­
ings in Full­
time
1 week hours
per
week

Full­
time
Earn­
ings per earn­
hour ings per
week

$0,229
.231
.264
.263

$12.30
12.49
13.63
13.47

<9
(9
(9
(9

104.6
105.2
100.0
99.2

86.7
87.5
100.0
99.6

90.2
91.6
100.0
98.8

.256
.446
.728
.760
.750
.731
.701
.506

13.06
21.08
31.91
33.52
33.23
32.16
31.05
22.47

(i)
(9
(9
(9
(9
$29.64
26.48
18.87

92.7
85.3
85.3
85.7
85.1
85.7
85.8

173.5
283.2
295.7
291.8
284.4
272.7
196.9

159.5
241.4
253.6
251.4
243.2
234.8
170.0

1 No data available.
2 2 sets of averages are shown for 1914 for the industry, 1 for selected occupations and the other for all
occupations in the industry. The averages for 1911 to 1914 for selected occupations are comparable one year
with another, as are those for all occupations one year with another from 1914 to 1932.

Average hours and earnings and the percent of full time worked in 1
week for each occupation and for all occupations combined are shown
in table 2 for 1930 and 1932.




975

M EN'S CLOTHING INDUSTRY

T able 3.—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S A N D P E R C E N T OF F U LL T IM E W O R K E D
IN 1 W E E K IN T H E M E N ’S C L O T H IN G IN D U S T R Y , 1930 A N D 1932, B Y O CCU PATIO N
AND SEX

O c c u p a t io n a n d sex

A v era g e
fu ll-t im e
hours per
w eek

H o u r s a c t u a lly w o r k e d
in 1 w e e k
A v era g e earn ­
in g s p e r h o u r
A v era g e

P ercen t o f
f u ll t im e

1930

1932

1930

1932

A l l o c c u p a t io n s :
M a in s _
...
F e m a le s ...........................
M a le s a n d f e m a le s ..

4 4 .3
4 4 .2
4 4 .3

4 4 .3
4 4 .5
4 4 .4

3 9 .4
3 6 .2
3 7 .8

3 8 .6
3 6 .0
3 7 .3

8 8 .9
8 1 .9
8 5 .3

B a s te r s ,
B a s te r s ,
B a s te r s ,
B a s te r s ,

c o a t , m a l e ______
c o a t , fe m a le ____
p a n ts , fe m a le ...
v e s t , fe m a le ____

4 4 .3
4 4 .5
4 4 .1
4 3 .9

44. 2 3 9 .8
4 4 .5 3 8 .7
4 4 .5 2 7 .7
4 4 .0 3 4 .8

3 9 .1
3 7 .7
22 4
3 3 .3

T ota l b a s t e r s ,
fe m a le —__________

4 4 .4

4 4 .5

3 7 .8

3 6 .9

4 4 .2

4 4 .3

4 0 .6

3 7 .8

9 1 .9

4 4 .8

4 4 .3

4 2 .5

3 7 .3

9 4 .9

4 4 .0

4 4 .2

3 8 .5

3 6 .3

8 7 .5

0)

4 4 .2

0)

3 8 .7

4 4 .4

4 4 .5

4 2 .2

4 4 .0

4 4 .5

4 4 .4

4 4 .2

B u s h e le r s a n d t a ilo r s ,
m a l e .......................................
B u s h e le r s a n d ta ilo r s , fem a l e .......................................
C u t t e r s , c lo t h , h a n d a n d
m a c h in e , m a l e ________
C u t t e r s , l in in g a n d t r im m in g , m a in . . .
E x a m in e r s , g a r m e n t s
(s h o p a n d s t o c k r o o m ) ,
m a l e .......................................
E x a m in e r s , g a r m e n ts
(s h o p a n d s t o c k r o o m ),
fe m a le ___________________
F it t e r s o r t r i m m e r s ,
c o a t , m a le ______________
F it t e r s o r t r i m m e r s ,
c o a t , f e m a le .......................

1930

1932

A v e r a g e f u ll­
t im e e a r n in g s
per w eek

A v e ra g e ac­
t u a l e a r n in g s
in 1 w e e k

1930

1932

1930

1932

8 7 .1
8 0 .9
8 4 .0

$0.885
.5 0 4
.7 0 1

$0,641
.3 6 1
.5 0 6

$39 .21
2 2 .2 8
3 1 .0 5

$ 2 8 .40
16.06
2 2 .47

8 9 .8
8 7 .0
6 2 .8
7 9 .3

8 8 .5
8 4 .7
5 0 .3
7 5 .7

.8 3 4
.5 2 2
.5 9 0
.6 2 1

.5 6 1
.3 5 7
.3 2 2
.4 2 5

3 6 .9 5
2 3 .23
2 6 .0 2
2 7 .2 6

2 4 .8 0
15.89
14.33
18.70

3 3 .2 0
20.21
16.34
21 .6 1

2 1 .9 5
1 3 .48
7 .2 0
1 4 .1 5

8 5 .1

8 2 .9

.5 3 4

.3 6 2

23.71

16.11

2 0 .1 9

13.35

8 5 .3

.8 2 4

.6 2 7

3 6 .4 2

2 7 .7 8

3 3 .5 0

2 3 .7 0

8 4 .2

.5 5 8

.4 5 4

2 5 .0 0

20.11

23.73

16.94

8 2 .1

1.139

.9 2 0

5 0 .1 2

4 0 .6 6

4 3 .8 8

3 3 .4 5

(l)

8 7 .6

0)

.7 7 9

4 2 .0

9 5 .0

9 4 .4

.7 9 5

.6 4 6

3 9 .7

4 0 .1

9 0 .2

9 0 .1

.3 9 7

.3 3 3

1 7 .47

14 .8 2

1 5 .78

1 3 .37

4 0 .5

3 9 .5

9 1 .2

8 9 .4

.9 8 8

.8 0 8

4 3 .8 7

35.71

40.01

3 1 .9 5

.3 6 5

17.66

16.13

13.87

1 3 .1 2

.5 9 1

3 9 .1 6

2 6 .06

3 4 .9 5

2 5 .2 2
1 2 .8 0

(0
3 5 .3 0

3 4 .4 3

2 8 .7 5

1930

1932

$34 .84 $24 .75
18.24 13.01
2 6 .48 1 8 .87

0)
3 3 .6 0

3 0 .1 9

2 7 .1 7

H a n d s e w e r s , v e s t , fe ­
m a l e _____________________
T o t a l h a n d sew ers,
fe m a le

4 3 .4

4 4 .2

3 4 .1

3 5 .9

7 8 .6

8 1 .2

.4 0 7

4 4 .1

4 4 .1

3 9 .4

4 2 .7

8 9 .3

9 6 .8

.8 8 8

4 4 .2

4 4 .4

3 7 .6

3 7 .1

8 5 .1

8 3 .6

.4 9 6

.3 4 5

2 1 .9 2

15.32

18.63

4 4 .4

H a n d sew ers, co a t, m a le .
H a n d s e w e r s , c o a t , fe ­
m a l e ..................... .................
H a n d s e w e r s , p a n t s , fe-

4 4 .4

3 3 .2

3 1 .0

7 4 .8

6 9 .8

.4 5 2

.3 0 0

2 0 .0 7

1 3 .32

15 .0 0

9 .2 9

4 4 .2

4 4 .5

3 5 .8

3 5 .2

8 1 .0

7 9 .1

.4 9 4

.3 3 7

21.83

1 5 .00

17.67

11.85

4 4 .2

4 4 .4

3 6 .7

3 6 .2

8 3 .0

8 1 .5

.4 9 0

.3 4 0

21. 66

1 5 .10

17.97

1 2 .32

c o a t , m a le ___
c o a t , f e m a le . .
p a n ts , m a l e ..
p a n t s , fe m a le .
v e s t , m a le ___
v e s t fe m a le _
_

4 4 .3
4 3 .8
4 4 .4
4 4 .7
4 4 .1
4 3 .8

4 4 .2
4 4 .5
4 4 .2
4 4 .9
4 4 .4
4 4 .6

4 0 .3
3 5 .2
3 8 .4
3 4 .3
3 6 .5
3 3 .9

4 0 .4
3 7 .3
3 9 .2
3 2 .6
3 7 .3
3 3 .7

9 1 .0
8 0 .4
8 6 .5
7 6 .7
8 2 .8
7 7 .4

9 1 .4
8 3 .8
8 8 .7
7 2 .6
8 4 .0
7 5 .6

.9 5 8
.5 7 0
.8 5 9
.5 2 9
.9 6 5
.5 8 5

.6 8 7
.4 0 7
.5 9 4
.3 9 6
.6 9 1
396

4 2 .4 4
2 4 .9 7
3 8 .1 4
23. 65
42. 56
2 5 .62

3 0 .3 7
18.11
2 6 .25
17.78
3 0 .68
17. 66

38. 61
2 0 .06
3 2 .9 9
18.16
35. 21
19.81

2 7 .7 3
15.18
2 3 .2 8
12.88
2 5 .78
13.35

T ota l
op era tors,
m a l e . . ...................
T ota l
op era tors,
fe m a le ......................

4 4 .3

4 4 .2

3 9 .3

3 9 .7

8 8 .7

8 9 .8

.9 3 0

.6 6 2

4 1 .2 0

2 9 .26

3 6 .5 5

2 6 .2 7

4 4 .1

4 4 .7

3 4 .6

3 5 .0

7 8 .5

78 .3

.5 5 8

.4 0 1

24.61

17.92

19.31

14.03

c o a t , m a l e ..........
c o a t , fe m a le ___
p a n t s , m a le ____
p a n ts , fe m a le ..
v e s t , m a l e _____
v e s t , fe m a le ___

4 4 .2
4 4 .1
4 4 .7
4 4 .0
4 4 .1
4 4 .0

4 4 .3
44.1
4 4 .6
4 4 .0
4 4 .6
4 4 .0

3 9 .1
4 0 .4
3 6 .2
3 5 .9
3 6 .5
3 5 .6

3 7 .8
4 3 .3
3 4 .9
3 8 .8
3 4 .4
37.1

8 8 .5
9 1 .6
8 1 .0
8 1 .6
8 2 .8
8 0 .9

8 5 .3
9 8 .2
78.3
8 8 .2
77.1
8 4 .3

.8 6 7
.4 8 6
.8 0 5
.5 3 4
.8 8 9
.5 2 2

.6 0 8
.3 2 5
.5 5 4
.4 3 6
.5 8 5
.3 9 0

38. 32
21.43
3 5 .98
23. 50
3 9 .2 0
2 2 .97

26 .9 3
14.33
24. 71
19.18
2 6 .0 9
17.16

33.93
1 9 .64
2 9 .17
19.17
3 2 .4 6
18. 61

2 2 .9 7
14.08
1 9 .3 0
16. 94
2 0 .1 3
1 4 ,47

T o ta l p ressers,
m a l e ______________
T o ta l pressers,
fe m a le ....................

4 4 .3

4 4 .4

3 8 .4

3 7 .0

8 6 .7

8 3 .3

.8 5 9

.5 9 8

3 8 .05

26. 55

3 3 .0 0

2 2 .13

4 4 .0

4 4 .0

3 8 .4

4 0 .7

8 7 .3

9 2 .5

.5 0 3

.3 6 2

2 2 .13

15.93

19.28

14. 75

S h a p e r s , c o a t , m a l e ___
S h a p e r s , c o a t , fe m a le .......
O t h e r e m p lo y e e s , m a l e . .
O th e r e m p lo y e e s , fe m a le .

4 4 .0
4 4 .6
4 4 .5
4 4 .4

44. 2
4 4 .4
4 4 .5
4 4 .6

3 8 .4
3 7 .4
4 1 .1
3 7 .3

39.1
4 4 .9
3 9 .9
3 7 .0

8 7 .3
8 3 .9
9 2 .4
8 4 .0

8 8 .5
101.1
8 9 .7
8 3 .0

1. 012
.4 5 5
.7 1 5
.4 0 8

. 684
.3 1 4
.5 1 3
.3 0 0

44. 53
2 0 .29
31. 82
1 8 .12

3 0 .2 3
13. 94
2 2 .83
13. 38

38 88
17.03
29.35
15.18

26. 70
1 4 .10
20. 50
1 1 .12

O p era tors,
O p era tors,
O p era tors,
O p era tors,
O p era tors,
O p era tors,

P re s s e rs ,
Pressers,
P ressers,
P re s s e rs ,
P re s s e rs ,
Pressers,

1Included with “ Other employees” in 1930.




976

W AGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

Table 3 shows, for males and females separately and for both sexes
combined, in each city or district in 1930 and 1932, average hours
and earnings and the percent of full time worked.
T a b l e 3 . — A V E R A G E HOURS A N D EA R N IN G S IN T H E M E N ’S C L O T H IN G IN D U S T R Y ,

1930 A N D 1932, B Y S E X A N D C IT Y OR D IS T R IC T

Sex and city or district

Average
full-time
hours per
week

Hours actually worked
in 1 week

Average

1930 1932 1930 1932

Average full­ Average ac­
Average earn­ time earnings tual earnings
ings per hour
per week
in 1 week

Percent of
full time
1930

1932

1930

1932

1930

1932

1930

1932

M a le s

44.3
44.0
44.0
44.0
42.1
44.0
45.1
44.0

44.0
44.0
44.3
44.0
44.1
44.2
45.0
44.2

38.4
39.5
40.8
37.1
25.5
35.0
40.6
44.8

37.7 86.7
39.4 89.8
40.2 92.7
32.8 84.3
33.7 60.6
36.1 79.5
35.7 90.0
41.4 101.8

85.7 $0,681 $0.461 $30.17 $20.28 $26.12 $17.38
89.5
.616 38.19 27.10 34.29 24.31
.868
90.7
.801
.507 35.24 22.40 32.72 20.36
74.5 1.029
.758 45.28 33.35 38.16 24.82
76.4
.641 38.31 28.27 23.19 21.61
.910
.734
81.7
.516 32.30 22.81 25.66 18.63
.515 34.32 23.18 30.93 18.37
79.3
.761
.934
.579 41.10 25.59 41.88 23.96
93.7

46.4
44.3
44.2
51.8
44.0
44.3

44.5
44.2
44.1
52.0
44.0
44.3

45.5
41.6
41.7
50.6
33.3
38.3

43.9
43.5
40.4
41.0
24.4
42.7

98.1
93.9
94.3
97.7
75.7
86.5

98.7
98.4
91.6
78.8
55.5
96.4

.661
.926
.792
.432
.915
.676

.540
.670
.602
.293
.713
.486

30.67
41.02
35.01
22.38
40.26
29.95

24.03
29.61
26.55
15.24
31.37
21.53

30.07
38.55
33.04
21.83
30.46
25.88

Total males............ 44.3 44.3 39.4 38.6

88.9

87.1

.885

.641

39.21

28.40

34.84 24,75.

Baltimore..........................
Boston................................
Buffalo...............................
Chicago..............................
Cincinnati.........................
Cleveland....... - ................
Milwaukee........................
Newark............................
Northeastern New Jersey 1................................
New York.........................
Philadelphia.....................
Eastern Pennsylvania 2
~
Rochester...................... .
St. Louis...........................

23.72
29.17
24.34
12.03
17.38
20. 75

F e m a le s

Baltimore..........................
Boston............. - ................
Buffalo................ - ..........
Chicago________________
Cincinnati........................
Cleveland..........................
Milwaukee........................
Newark...................... .......
Northeastern New Jer­
sey 1............................
New York______ _______
Philadelphia.....................
Eastern Pennsylvania 2
~
Rochester........ .................
St. Louis...........................
Total females........

44.3
44.0
44.0
44.0
39.5
44.0
45.2
44.0

44.3
44.1
44.1
44.0
44.0
44.0
46.0
44.2

39.7
37.7
40.0
33.7
21.3
32.0
37.6
43.4

41.6
38.4
37.4
31.2
30.7
36.1
34.1
41.1

89.6
85.7
90.9
76.6
53.9
72.7
83.2
98.6

93.9
87.1
84.8
70.9
69.8
82.0
74.1
93.0

.362
.486
.531
.736
.588
.523
.532
.521

.248
.320
.314
.531
.397
.377
.357
.343

16.04
21.38
23.36
32.38
23.23
23.01
24.05
22.92

10.99
14.11
13.85
23.36
17.47
16.59
16.42
15.16

14.38
18.33
21.26
24.79
12.54
16.71
19.99
22. 61

10.32
12.28
11. 75
16.60
12.19
13. 65
12.20
14.10

47.0
44.6
44.1
50.7
44.0
44.3

44.6
44.6
44.0
51.6
44.0
44.1

44.5
41.0
40.1
46.8
31.3
36.2

41.4
42.6
39.3
37.6
25.1
43.1

94.7
91.9
90.9
92.3
71.1
81.7

92.8
95.5
89.3
72.9
57.0
97.7

.345
.485
.434
.275
.580
.419

.302
.356
.346
.165
.431
.303

16.22
21.63
19.14
13.94
25. 52
18.56

13.47
15.88
15.22
8.51
18.96
13. 36

15.36
19.86
17.44
12.88
18.13
15.17

12.49
15.18
13.60
6.20
10.81
13.05

44.2 44.5 36.2 36.0

81.9

80.9

.504

.361

22.28

16.06

18.24 13.01

M a le s a n d fem a les

Baltimore..........................
Boston........................ .......
Buffalo...............................
Chicago.............................
Cincinnati................. —
Cleveland..........................
Milwaukee........................
Newark.............................
Northeastern New Jer­
sey 1.............. .................
New York.........................
Philadelphia.,,...............
Eastern Pennsylvania2—
Rochester.........................
St. Louis......... ........... .

44.3
44.0
44.0
44.0
40.4
44.0
45.2
44.0

44.2
44.1
44.1
44.0
44.0
44.1
45.7
44.2

39.3
38.7
40.3
35.5
22.8
32.7
38.6
44.3

40.7 88.7
38.9 88.0
38.3 91.6
32.0 80.7
31.8 56.4
36.1 74.3
34.6 85.4
41.3 100.7

92.1
88.2
86.8
72.7
72.3
81.9
75.7
93.4

.454
.695
.612
.900
.712
.575
.607
.786

.295
.480
.378
.649
.486
.410
.406
.488

20.11
30.58
26.93
39.60
28. 76
25.30
27.44
34.58

13.04
21.17
16. 67
28.66
21.38
18.08
18.55
21.57

17.82
26.91
24.64
31.93
16. 21
18.79
23.41
34.83

11.99
18.67
14.49
20.76
15.44
14.82
14.06
20.13

46.8
44.4
44.1
51.0
44.0
44.3

44.6
44.3
44.0
51.7
44.0
44.1

44.9
41.4
41.0
48.0
32.0
36.8

42.5
43.3
39.9
38.8
24.8
43.0

95.9
93.2
93.0
94.1
72.7
83.1

95.3
97.7
90.7
75.0
56.4
97.5

.484
.799
.632
.327
.711
.495

.411
.583
.490
.210
.546
.349

22.65
35.48
27.87
16.68
31.28
21.93

18.33
25.83
21.56
10.86
24.02
15.39

21.77
33.08
25.89
15.68
22.79
18.19

17.50
25.26
19.58
8.14
13. 53
15.03

Total males and
females................. 44.3 44.4 37.8 37.3

85.3

84.0

.701

.506

31.05

22.47

26.48 18.87

i Excluding Newark.




2 Excluding Philadelphia.

977

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

M etallifero us M in in g — H o u rs and E a rn in g s, 1931
T h i s article is a summary of the results of studies by the Bureau of
Labor Statistics of wages and hours of labor in the metalliferousmining industry in the United States in 1924 and 1931. A more
detailed report of the 1931 survey was published in Bulletin No. 573
of the Bureau. The 1924 study covered 137 mines and 38,196 wage
earners and the 1931 study 139 mines and 32,195 wage earners. The
137 mines covered in the 1924 survey included 117 underground and
20 open-pit mines; the same number of underground mines were
studied in 1931, but 2 open-pit mines were added. The basic wage
data used in compiling this article were, except for a few mines, for a
representative pay period in August, September, or October 1924,
and June, July, August, September, or October 1931. The mines
studied produced copper, gold, iron, lead, silver, zinc, and minor
metals.
Table 1 shows average hours and earnings in 1924 and 1931, in the
mixed-ore mines of Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana,
Nevada, New Mexico, South Dakota, and Utah; the Michigan copper
mines; the northern (Michigan and Minnesota) iron mines; the
Alabama iron mines; and the Tri-State (Kansas, Missouri, and Okla­
homa) lead and zinc mines; and also for all these districts combined.
These averages are for males only; females were not employed in any
of the mines.
T a b l e 1.—AVE R A G E HOURS A N D EA R N IN G S OF E M P LO Y E E S IN M E T A L L IF E R O U S

M IN E S, 1924 A N D 1931, B Y K IN D OF M IN E A N D D IST R IC T OR ST ATE
Average
full-time
hours per
week

Hours actu­
Average full­
ally worked Average earn­ time earnings
ings per hour
in 1 week
per week

1924

1931

Aver­
age
num­
ber,
1931

of full
time,
1931

1931

Aver­
age
actual
earn­
ings
in 1
week,
1931

All districts........ - __________ ____________ 53.0

51.6

41.6

80.6 $0.559 $0. 559 $29.63 $28.84

$23.25

Western mixed ores:
Arizona............... ..................................
California____ _____ ________________
Colorado_________ __________________
Idaho____________ __________________
Montana............................. ....................
Nevada____________________________
New Mexico_____ __________________
South Dakota................... ....................
Utah_______________________________

43.8
48.4
48.4
44.0
46.0
49.9
50.8
46.9
47.8

89.8
96.4
93.6
92.6
95.4
89.7
94.2
83.8
91.0

.595
.594
.592
.693
.666
.636
.459

56.0

48.8
50.2
51.7
47.5
48.2
55.6
53.9
56.0
52.5

29.76
28.74
28.86
25.59
31. 33
31.18
23. 35
31.60
24.60

Kind of mine and district or State

52.4
51.7
52.8
54.4
52.7
56.5
54.2
0

)

Per
1924

1931

1924

31.18
30.71
31.26
37.70
35.10
35.93
24.88

.560

.679
.593
.597
.581
.681
.625
.459
.674
.515

31. 36

33.14
29. 77
30.86
27. 60
32.82
34. 75
24.74
37.74
27.04

0

)

0

)

Total_____________________________ 53.8

50.7

46.6

91.9

.599

.608

32.23

30.83

28. 38

Michigan copper_______ ________________ 49.6

49.4

33.7

68.2

.498

.443

24. 70

21.88

14.94

Northern iron:
Michigan....................... ............ ..........
Minnesota______ __________________

50.3
55.5

50.8
56.0

28.3
39.6

55.7
70.7

.566
.570

.602
.545

28.47
31.64

30.58
30.52

17.04
21.57

Total____________________________

52.8

54.3

35.9

66.1

.568

.560

29.99

30.41

20.08

Alabama iron................................................ 60.6
Tri-State lead and zinc................................ 48.6

58.4
48.2

32.0
43.3

54.8
89.9

.393
.552

.372
.477

23.82
26.83

21.72
22.99

11.92
20.25

1State not included in 1924 survey.
19205— 36-------63




978

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

Table 2 shows the average hours and earnings q£ surface workers,
underground workers, and those doing both underground and sur­
face work.
For the underground mines data are shown for 22 important occupa­
tions in underground work; 11 occupations in surface work; and 12
other occupations the workers in which worked underground in some
m in es, on the surface in other mines, and in still other mines spent
part of their working time underground and part on the surface.
For the open-pit mines data are shown for each of 28 occupations.
T a b l e 2 . — A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E AR N IN G S OF E M P LO Y E E S IN M E T A L L IF E R O U S

M IN IN G , 1924 A N D 1931, B Y K IN D OF W O R K A N D O CC U PATIO N
Average
full-time
hours per
week
Kind of work and occupation
1924

All employees................................................

Hours actu­ Average earn­ Average full­
ally worked ings per hour time earnings Aver­
in 1 week
per week
age
actual
earn­
ings
Aver­ Per
in 1
age cent
week,
num­ of full 1924
1931
1931
1924
1931
1931
ber, time,
1931 1931

53.0

51.6

41.6

80.6 $0.559 $0.559 $29.63 $28.84

51.6
49.1

60.1
50.5

45.7
38.5

91.2
76.2

.627
.538

.570
.563

32.35
26.42

28.56
28.43

26.05
21.69

51.4
48.6
52.1
51.5
53.7
51.4
50.9
52.7
51.9
52.1
56.5
52.3
50.8
51.1
51.5
52.8
49.4
55.3
50.9
50.8

49.5
49.1
51.2
48.4
51.0
50.6
49.6
50.2
48.8
50.1
52.8
48.2
49.8
52.5
48.7
50.6
49.1
56.6
48.9
49.9

44.5
34.2
34.4
43.7
43.3
40.4
40.2
40.6
43.1
42.4
46.8
37.8
41.1
37.5
37.6
39.8
40.5
30.9
45.7
39.7

89.9
69.7
67.2
90.3
84.9
79.8
81.0
80.9
88.3
84.6
88.6
78.4
82.5
71.4
77.2
78.7
82.5
54.7
93.5
79.6

.594
.729
.447
.474
.593
.588
.575
.554
.496
.573
.526
.553
.572
.569
.604
.551
.542
.420
.550
.517

.646
.694
.403
.500
.538
.616
.574
.505
.537
.510
.530
.470
.563
.566
.602
.512
.529
.410
.524
.537

30.53
35.43
23.29
24.41
31.84
30. 22
29. 27
29.20
25.74
29.85
29. 72
28.92
29.06
29.08
31.11
29.09
26.77
23.23
28.00
26.26

31.98
34.08
20.63
24.20
27.44
31.17
28.47
25.35
26. 21
25. 55
27.98
22.65
28.04
29.72
29.32
25.91
25.97
23.17
25. 62
26.80

28.76
23.75
13.87
21.89
23.29
24.87
23.06
20.51
23.14
21.65
24.79
17.78
23.15
21. 25
22.64
20.34
21.42
12.69
23.96
21.30

57.3
58.9
55.5
57.5
60.5
56.4
55.6
53.8
55.3
55.1
64.8

57.2
55.2
65.3
53.2
50.6
53.4
54.4
51.8
54.9
54.5
58.2

39.5
44.1
34.2
43.6
38.1
48.3
40.3
41.7
40.2
46.1
50.8

69.1
79.9
61.8
82.0
75.3
90.4
74.1
80.5
73.2
84.6
87.3

.406
.410
.508
.515
.455
.560
.536
.584
.428
.514
.452

.369
.404
.458
.579
.441
.586
.532
.553
.400
.484
.464

23.26
24.15
28.19
29.61
27. 53
31. 58
29.80
31.42
23.67
28. 32
29.29

22.30
25.33
30.80
22.31
31.29
28.94
28.65
21. 96
26. 38
27.00

21.11

14.66
17.83
15.65
25.23
16.82
28.28
21.45
23.08
16.09
22. 30
23.60

54.4
54.5
54.9
56.4
59.9
54.7
53.5
54.2
54.1
54.7
52.7
52.0
53.1

53.8
53.3
54.2
56.6
52.9
53.1
53.8
52.4
53.5
52.6
49.2
51.7
51.5

43.1
41.7
41.7
31.2
44.5
45.2
43.4
45.4
44.4
40.8
43.1
42.9
42.8

80.1
78.2
76.9
55.1
84.1
85.1
80.7

.593
.462
.571
.426
.556
.622
.521
.600
.479
.445
< .528
.562
.590

.563
.463
.557
.430
.527
.629
.512
.604
.493
.443
.482
.559
.587

32.26
25.18
31.35
24.03
33. 30
34.02
27.87
32.52
25.91
24. 34
27.83
29.22
31.33

30.29
24.68
30.19
24. 34
27.88
33.40
27.55
31.65
26. 38
23. 30
23. 71
28.90
30.23

24.26
19. 30
23.19
13.42
23.46
28.44
22.18
27.42
21.91
18.05
20.76
23.99
25.14

$23.25

U n d erg ro u n d m in es

Underground work:
Gagers......................................................
Chute loaders.........................................
Drilling-machine operators, com­
pany.....................................................
Drilling-machine operators, contract.
Drilling-machine operators’ helpers..
Drivers, mule.........................................
Hoistmen...... ........................................
Loading-machine operators_________
Motormen_________________________
Muckers..................................................
Nippers______________ _____________
Powdermen............................................
Pumpmen_____ _____ ______________
Roof trimmers..................... .................
Skippers............... .............. .............. ___
Stationmen..... ......................... ..............
Timbermen........ .................... ..............
Timbermen’s helpers...........................
Trackmen.............................................
Trackmen’s helpers..................... .........
Trammers.............. ...............................
Trip riders___________ ______________
Surface work:
Drivers................. ........................ .........
Dryhousemen........................................
Dumpers............ ..................... .............
Engineers, stationary...........................
Firemen, stationary............... .............
Hoistmen..................................... .........
Timber framers.......... ............... ..........
Tool dressers................. ........................
T op m en .......................... ....................
Truck operators...................................
Watchmen.......................... .................
Surface and underground work:
Blacksmiths________________________
Blacksmiths’ helpers. ____ ________
Carpenters______ _______ ___________
Carpenters’ helpers_ _______ _______
Compressormen......................... ..........
Electricians............................ ................
Electricians’ helpers______ _________
Machinists.............................................
Machinists’ helpers................... ..........
Oilers................................. .....................
Ore sorters__________ ______________
Pipemen........................................ .........
Other employees____ _________ _____




86.6

83.0
77.6
87.6
83.0
83.1

MOTOR-BUS AND TRUCK TRANSPORTATION
T

979

2 —A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S OF E M P L O Y E E S IN M E T A L L IF E R O U S
M IN IN G , 1924 A N D 1931, B Y K IN D OF W O R K A N D O C C U PATIO N — Continued

able

Average
full-time
hours per

Hours actu­
Average full­
ally worked Average earn­ time earnings Aver­
in 1 week ings per hour
per week
age
actual
earn­
ings
Aver­ Per
in 1
age cent
week,
1931 num­ of full 1924
1931
1924
1931
1931
ber, time,
1931 1931

Kind of work and occupation
1924

O pen -pit m in es

Blacksmiths - - ..............................................
Blacksmiths’ helpers...................................
Carpenters....................................................
Carpenters’ helpers......................................
Drillers, hand............... ...............................
Drilling-machine operators........ ................
Drilling-machine operators’ helpers.........
Dumpers..... .......... ..................... ............. .
Electricians................. .................................
Laborers. ....................................................
Locomotive engineers........ ............... .........
Locomotive firemen____________________
Machinists—.................................................
Machinists’ helpers____________________
Oilers______ ____ ____ __________________
Pipemen.—__________ _________________
Pitmen______________ __________________
Pumpmen____________ ______________
Repairmen................ .............. ....................
Shot firers______________ ________________
Shovel cranemen_______ _______ ________
Shovel engineers____________ __________
Shovel firemen_________________________
Switchmen........................ ............. ...........
Trackmen_______________ ______________
Trip riders.____________ ________________
Truck operators____ ____________________
Watchmen........................ .......... .................
Other employees_______ ______ ________

57.7
57.4
58.7
57.8
(i)
58.5
58.0
58.2
0)
58.1
58.3
58.7
57.7
57.7
(i)
(9
58.4
0)
0)
59.7
58.0
58.2
60.2
57.6
57. 9]
58, 2
0)
63.7
58.9

58.5
57.1
58.5
56.4
60.0
58.3
57.3
59.8
58.2
57.4
58.7
57.8
58.1
57.1
60.3
57.7
58.7
59.2
57.7
57.8
58.1
59.0
62.2
56.7
58.4
58.5
[57.7
64.3
58.5

45.9
49.7
49.8
50.9
54.4
52.2
47.9
47.0
50.0
46.0
52.2
47.8
45.7
48.9
48.0
53.5
46.5
52.5
43.7
53.5
49.8
51.2
46.6
47.4
45.4
48.4
48.6
53.1
51.1

78.5 $0.619 $0. 603 $35.72 $35.28
.475 28. 59 27.12
87.0
.498
85.1
.587 33. 46 34.34
.570
90.2
.547 27.17 30.85
.470
.464
27.84
90.7
(i)
(i)
.526 31.82 30.67
89.5
.544
83.6
.507 29.46 29.05
.508
78.6
.400 22.41 23.92
.385
.641
37.31
85.9
(i)
(1)
.379 20.45 21.75
80.1
.352
88.9
.671 39. 35 39.39
.675
.488 30.23 28. 21
82.7
.515
.628 34. 85 36.49
78.7
.604
.511 28. 79 29.18
85.6
.499
.478
28.82
79.6
(i)
0)
.539
31.10
92.7
0)
0)
79.2
.425 24.88 24.95
.426
31.73
.536
88.7
0)
0)
.507
29.25
75.7
0)
0)
.475
92.6
.607 28.36 29.30
.666
.680 38.63 39.51
85.7
.917
.945 53.37 55.76
86.8
.504
.464 30.34 28.86
74.9
.446
.452 25.69 25.63
83.6
.393
77.7
.397 22.75 23.18
.509 29 68 29.78
82.7
.510
27.64
84.2
.479
0)
0)
.451
.444 28.73 28.55
82.6
.514
87.4
.550 30.27 32.18

$27.70
23.57
29.23
27.87
25.26
27.47
24. 26
18.81
32.06
17.43
35.04
23.34
28. 71
24.96
22.92
28. 83
19.76
28.16
22.15
27.11
33.86
48.38
21. 63
21.46
18.05
24.64
23.28
23.58
28.07

1 Included in “ Other employees” in this year.

M o to r B us and T r u c k Tra n s p o rta tio n (In te rc ity ) Ind u strie s—
H o u rs and E a rn in g s, J u l y 1933
D a t a on hours and earnings in the intercity motor-bus and motor­
truck transportation industries in July 1933 were obtained in a study
by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in cooperation with the Federal
Coordinator of Transportation. The information was secured from
223 bus firms operating 957 local offices and branches in 612 cities
and towns and employing 9,417 wage earners, and from 312 truck
firms operating 664 local offices and branches in 342 cities and towns
and employing 7,129 wage earners. The data reflect conditions in
the two industries before the N. R. A. went into operation. More
detailed data than appears in this article are given in the Monthly
Labor Review for June 1934 (p. 1415).
As the number of companies and employees covered in the various
States did not in all cases represent the correct proportion of the
State's business to that for the entire country, the figures used in
obtaining averages for each occupation and for the industry as a
whole have been weighted to give each State its correct representation.
Table 1 shows summary wage and hours figures for motor-bus
employees by occupation. Information is not shown in the table for
porters traveling on the busses, “ red-cap” porters at the bus stations,




980

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

and a few scattered female employees. The average time en route
shown for crew members includes all stops en route of less than 1
hour, as well as any delays on the road due to mechanical trouble or
breakdown.
T

able

1.—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S OF E M P L O Y E E S IN T H E IN T E R C IT Y
M OTOR-BUS T R A N S P O R T A T IO N IN D U ST R Y , JULY 1933, B Y O C C U PATIO N

Occupation

Average number
of hours—
Average
Average
earnings
full-time
per hour
hours
per week On duty En route on duty
in 1
in 1
week
week
$0,583
.506
.379
.483

$27.82
27.09
17.20
26.13

50.4
45.4

.541
.379

27.25
17.20

50.1

.533

26.72

.584
.595

29.82
26.67
17.34

.515
.245

28.46
13.96
19.60
24.33
17.91
21.75
16.99
30.18
13.61
31.50
40.87
23.13
16.55
30.39
17.67

All crew members, male...........................
All station and office employees, male—
All station and office employees, female.
All maintenance employees, male...........

53.9
45.4
54.5

47.7
53.6
45.4
54.1

All employees, male..................... .
All employees, female............... ......

i 54.3
45.4

All employees, male and female.-

153.3

Bus crews:
Drivers, regular, male.........................
Drivers, relief, male...................... ..........
Drivers, extra, male............................. .
Bus station and office employees:
Agents, male...................................... ......
Agents, female........................ - .............. .
Baggage-room attendants, male______
Bookkeepers, male.................................
Bookkeepers, female........ ......................
Clerks, male................. ...........................
Clerks, female..................... - ............ ......
Dispatchers, male------ ----------------------Janitors, male....... ...................................
Solicitors, male................. - .............. ......
Superintendents, male................. .........
Ticket sellers, m ale,......... —_.........—
Ticket sellers, female.................... ..........
Other employees, male...........................
Other employees, female____ ________
Bus maintenance employees:
Auto mechanics, general, male_______
Mechanics, specialized,2 male...............
Body workers and upholsterers, male.
Car washers and cleaners, male______
Foremen................ ..................................
Greasers and service men..................... .
Helpers, mechanics’, m ale--............... .
Painters, male............... ..................... .
Porters and janitors, male.....................
Stock clerks and stock keepers, male..
Other employees, male..........................

51.1
44.9
30.4
55.3
56.9
58.6
44.1
43.4
45.9
42.6
58.2
51.8
49.7
59.5
57.8
48.7
49.5
45.9
54.5
51.4
52.0
58.2
54.0
51.7
56.2
52.9
57.3

Average
actual
earnings
in 1
week

56.9
58.6
42.6
43.2
45.7
42.3
58.1
51.6
49.7
59.3
57.2
48.9
49.5
45.9
54.9
50.9
51.6
54.9
55.5
56.8
51.7
50.5
55.1
52.4
55.4

41.4

44.4
38.1
26.4

.572
.415
.476
.402
.519
.264
.634

.614
.385
.528
.611
.537
.325
.364
.530
.303
.462

28.97
31.06
27.73
17.84
38.67
19.31
18.83
26.74
16.68
24.53
25.63

1 Average is for station, office, and maintenance employees, or all except “ crew members.”
2 Includes brakemen, carburetor men, ignition men, battery men, radiator men, blacksmiths,
machinists, and welders.

Table 2 shows average hours and earnings in the intercity motor­
truck transportation industry. The average time en route shown
for crew members includes all time from the beginning to the termina­
tion of a run, except scheduled stops or layovers of 1 hour or more.
A large number of intercity drivers and helpers also do work other
than driving, which accounts for the wide variation between hours
on duty and en route.




981

MOTOR-VEHICLE INDUSTRY
T

2 ,—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D EAR N IN G S OF E M P LO Y E E S IN T H E IN T E R C IT Y
M O T O R -T R U C K T R A N SP O R T A T IO N IN D U S T R Y IN JULY 1933, B Y O CCU PATIO N

able

Occupation

All crew members, male_______ ________
All terminal and office employees, male_.
AU terminal and office employees, female.
All maintenance employees, male............-

Average number
of hours—
Average
Average
full-time
earnings
hours
per hour
per week On duty En route on duty
in 1
in 1
week
week

51.8
45.0
53.1

All employees, male..
All employees, female.

2 52.1

All employees, male and female.

50.7
49.9

i 37.1

$22. 65
23.28
16.48
25.84

53! 3

$0. 447
.467
.367
.485

50. 7
44.8

. 457
. 367

23.16
16. 48

.452

22.78

472
450
480
391
364

24.68
18. 47
24.56
20.15
16.03

2 51.2

Truck crews:
Intercity drivers, regular, male__________
Intercity drivers, extra, male____________
Drivers, local cartage, male_____________
Drivers, local pick-up-and-delivery, male.
Helpers, drivers’ , male__________________
Truck terminal and office employees:
Agents and cashiers, male.______________
Agents and cashiers, female_____________
Bookkeepers, male........................................
Bookkeepers, female_______ _____________
Clerks, m ale................................................
Clerks, female____________ ______________
Foremen________________________________
Freight handlers, male_____ _____________
Solicitors, male________ ________________Other employees, male__________________
Other employees, female________________
Truck maintenance employees:
Auto mechanics, general, male........... .......
Mechanics, specialized,<male___________
Car washers and service men___________
Foremen________________________________
Helpers, mechanics’, male................. .........
Other employees, male____ _____- ..............

45.0

Average
actual
earnings
in 1
week

52.3
40.9
51.1
51.6
44.0

38.6
29.2
3 29.0

53.3
45.8
48.6
44.2
49.2
45.0
55.1
53.1
49.2
53.2
45.7

53.3
45.9
48.3
44.1
49.3
44.4
55.0
47.6
49.2
52.6
45.7

,545
379
439
390
433
318
496
362
642
531
369

29.04
17. 39
21.22
17.21
21.34
14.09
27. 29
17. 21
31.63
27.94
16.88

52.5
54.0
52.8
55.6
52.3
54.7

52.6
56.4
52.6
55.3

529
492
360
662
360
408

27.77
27.71
18.94
36. 62
19.59
22.03

54! 0

1 Average is for intercity drivers and helpers, or all except those who worked locally.
* Average is for terminal and office, and maintenance employees, or all except “ crew members.”
3 Average is for intercity helpers, or all except those who worked locally.
4

Includes ignition men, blacksmiths, machinists, welders, body workers, upholsterers, and painters.
M o to r-V e h ic le In d u s try — H o u rs and E a rn in g s, 1932

H o u r s and earnings in 1932 in the motor-vehicle industry in the
United States are shown in table 1. The basic data therefor were
collected by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and are mainly for a
representative pay period in June, July, August, or September.
Index numbers, with the 1925 average as the base or 100, are also
given in the table.
The 93 establishments covered in the study are in 8 States which,
according to the 1929 United States Census of Manufactures, account
for approximately 89 percent of the wage earners in the industry,
and the study covers 28.8 percent of the wage earners in those States.
The data do not include officials, executives, office force, superin­
tendents and nonworking foremen, power-house employees, watch­
men and guards, drivers delivering cars to agencies, chauffeurs
operating between plant and freight depots, building-construction
gangs, nor employees in engineering, drafting, or experimental
departments. Pay rolls of more than a week’s duration were so
taken as to show data for 1 week. More detailed data are given in
Bulletin No. 578 of the Bureau.




982
T

able

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR
1 .— V E R A G E HOURS A N D EAR N IN G S IN TH E M O TO R -VEH IC L E IN D U S T R Y ,
A
A N D IN D E X N U M B E R S TH E R E O F , 1922-32, B Y Y E A R
Index numbers (1925=
100.0)

Hours actually worked
in 1 week
Aver­
age
full­
time
hours
per
week

Year

1922..........................................
1925..........................................
1928..........................................
1930-.........................................
1932..........................................

50.1
50.3
49.4
48.8
48.4

Aver­
age
num­
ber

Aver­
Aver­
age
full­
age
earn­
time
Per­
earn­
cent of ings per ings per
hour
full
week
time

(9
0)
0)

34.5
31.9

(9
(9
(9

70.7
65.9

$0.657
.723
.750
.724
.628

Aver­
age
actual
earn­
ings in
1 week

Full­
time
hours
per
week

<9
(9
(9

$32.92
36. 37
37.05
35.33
30.40

Full­
Earn­
time
ings per earn­
hour ings per
week

99.6
100.0
98.2
97.0
96.2

25.01
20.00

90.9
100.0
103.7
100.1
86.9

90.5
100.0
101.9
97.1
83.6

1 Data not available.

Table 2 shows, for 1930 and 1932, hours and earnings for the wage
earners of each sex found in each of 56 important occupations in the
industry, for those in the groups designated as ( Other skilled occupa­
l‘
tions” and “ Other employees” , and also for the wage earners in all
occupations combined. Males only were found in 25 and both
sexes in 31 of the important occupations and in the two specified
groups of employees.
T

able

2 . — AVE R A G E

Occupation and sex

HOURS A N D EAR N IN G S IN T H E M O TO R -VEH IC L E IN D U S T R Y ,
1930 A N D 1932, B Y O CC UPATION A N D S E X

Average
full-time
hours
per week

Hours actually worked
in 1 week
Average
number

1930 1932 1930 1932
All occupations:
Males—...................... 48.7 48.3 34.6 31.9
Females..... ................ 50.6 50.5 31.8 30.7
Males and females— 48.8 48.4 34.5 31.9
Apprentices, male...........
Assemblers, axle, male—
Assemblers, axle, female.
Assembleis, body frame,
male_______ __________
Assemblers, body frame,
fem ale,.........................
Assemblers, chassis and
final, male.....................
Assemblers, chassis and
final, female..................
Assemblers, c h a s s i s
frame, male...................
Assemblers, motor, male.
Assemblers, motor, fe­
male, ..............................
Automatic
operators,
lathe and screw ma­
chine, m ale..................
Automatic
operators,
lathe and screw ma­
chine, female.................
Balancers, male...............
Bench hands, machine
shop, male.....................
Bench hands, machine
shop, female--..............
i None reported in 1930.




46.2 43.5 35.8 36.6
50.1 49.0 34.5 2.3.3
44.1 50.0 24.2 21.7

Percent of
full time
1930

1932

Average
earnings
per hour

1930

1932

Average
full-time
earnings
per week

1930

1932

Average
actual
earnings
in 1 week

1930

1932

71.0
62.8
70.7

66.0 $0,733 $0,638 $35.70 $30.82 $25.40 $20.36
60.8
.361 22.06 18.23 13.86 11.09
.436
65.9
.724
.628 35.33 30.40 25.01 20.00

77.5
68.9
54.9

84.1
47.6
43.4

.571
.717
.333

.565
.602
.412

26.38
35.92
14.69

24.58
29.50
20.60

20. 41 20. 65
24. 75 14.03
8.07 8.92
23.74 18.29

50.0 49.5 33.6 30.8

67.2

62.2

.707

.594

35.35

29.40

(9

(9

42.0

(9

.361

(9

19.42

(9

67.9

54.9

.681

.570

32.69

27.93

22.19 15.31

49.4 49.1 28.6 20.9

57.9

42.6

.456

.349

22.53

17.14

13.03

48.7 48.2 28.1 25.4
48.8 48.4 31.8 29.3

57.7
65.2

52.7
60.5

.708
.725

.574
.632

34.48
35.38

27.67
30.59

19.94 14.58
23.05 18.50

50.0 49.2 25.7 23.1

51.4

47.0

.478

.425

23.90

20.91

12.27

47.8 47.5 35.1 31.0

73.4

65.3

.764

.651

36.52

30.92

26.78 20.20

44.4 49.1 27.3 10.9
50.4 48.0 33.3 27.9

61.5
66.1

22.2
58.1

.356
.767

.355
.674

15.81
38.66

17.43
32.35

9.74 3.86
25.53 18.78

49.8 48.7 34.7 29.8

69.7

61.2

.686

.661

34.16

32.19

23.85 19.70

49.3 50.0 33.5 13.6

68.0

27.2

.410

.348

20.21

17.40

13.72

53.8

(9

22.6

48.0 49.0 32.6 26.9

8.17

7.30

9.79

4.73

983

MOTOR-VEHICLE INDUSTRY
T

able

2 .—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S IN T H E M O T O R -V E H IC L E IN D U S T R Y ,

1930 A N D 1932, B Y OCCU PATIO N A N D S E X — Continued

Occupation and sex

Average
full-time
hours
per week

Hours actually worked
in 1 week
Average
number

1930 1932 1930 1932
Boring - mill operators,
male................................
Boring - mill operators,
female.............................
Bumpers, male.................
Bumpers, female—..........
Crane operators, male. -.
Cutters,
cloth
and
leather, male.................
Cutters,
cloth
and
leather, female.............
Die setters,male________
Ding men, male...............
Door hangers, male____
Drill - press operators,
male................................
Drill - press operators,
female-..........................
Forge shop:
Hammermen, male—
Other forge*shop em­
ployees, male.........
Gear - cutter operators,
male................................
Grinding-machine oper­
ators, male.....................
Grinding-machine oper­
ators, female.............
Hardeners and anneal­
ers, male........................
Helpers (except forge
shop), male...................
Helpers (except forge
shop), female..............
Inspectors, male.......... .
Inspectors, female........—
Laborers, male.................
Laborers, female...........
Lacquer rubbers, male—_
Lacquer rubbers, female.
Lathe operators (non­
automatic), male.........
Lathe operators (non­
automatic), female___
Letterers, stripers, and
final touchers up,
hand, male.................. .
Letterers, stripers, and
final touchers up,
hand, female.................
Machinists, male_______
Metal finishers, male___
Metal panelers, male___
Milling-machine opera­
tors, male......................
Milling-machine opera­
tors, female.-.............
Millwrights, male...........
Molders, belt, drip, etc.,
male...............................
Painters, general, male—
Painters, general, female.
Paint sprayers, m le.......
Paint sprayers, female—
Pattern makers, male___
Planer and shaper opera­
tors, male.......................
Platers, male.................__
Polishers and buffers,
male................................
Punch and press opera­
tors, male......................
1None reported in 1930.




Percent of
full time
1930

1932

Average
earnings
per hour

1930

1932

Average
full-time
earnings
per week

1930

1932

Average
actual
earnings
in 1 week

1930

1932

46.3 45.5 31.2 34.4

67.4

75.6 $0,806 $0.714 $37.32 $32.49 $25.16 $24.54

44.0 0)
40.0
49.0 50.6 30.4 25.0
)
0) 42.5 (J 14.4
49.2 47.0 38.3 35.6

(0

0)

77.8

90.9
49.4
33.9
75.7

51.6 51.3 34.2 38.9

66.3

75.8

m

50.0 0)
22.9
46.0 44.9 35.4 38.5
49.7 49.6 34.7 36.2
49.9 49.7 31.8 35.7

0)

13.33
36.89
11.69
30.93

12.13
0)
27.63 18.23
3.97
0)
25.77 23.46

41.18

36.37

27.27 27.60

0)

37.67
48.46
35.83

25.00
33.27
40.32
29.07

11.45
0)
28.96 28.53
33.80 29.48
22.83 20.88

.625

33.83

30.38

23.35 18.24

.347

20.15

17.49

13.82

1.005

.800

47.94

38.24

28.77 20.80

.673

.303
.729
.275
.658

33.11

.798

.709

77.0
69.8
63.7

45.8
85.7
73.0
71.8

0)

.819
.975
.718

.500
.741
.813
.585

48.6 48.6 33.6 29.2

69.1

60.1

.696

49.5 50.4 34.0 17.5

68.7

34.7

.407

47.7 47.8 28.6 26.0

60.0

54.4

0)

62.0

0)

.910

0)

0)

44.59

0)

6.07

48.6 49.3 27.5 25.6

56.6

51.9

.782

.679

38.01

33.47

21.50 17.35

48.3 48.7 34.8 36.0

72.0

73.9

.740

.623

35.74

30.34

25.77 22.42

47.6 47.7 33.3 31.7

70.0

66.5

.780

.669

37.13

31.91

25.95 21.19

50.0 47.0 36.5 19.2

73.0

40.9

.428

.317

21.40

14.90

15.60

52.9 50.5 37.3 36.9

70.5

73.1

.720

.618

38.09

31.21

26.87 22.80
21.34 19.91

48.4 48.0 33.8 35.6

(0

48.3
49.6
48.4
51.2
48.7
50.1

52.7
47.7
49.7
46.9
50.5
48.3
50.5

(0

69.8

74.2

.632

.560

30.59

26.88

0)

69.8
69.8
50.3
73.6
61.8

0)

.324
.664
.361
.575
.364
.603
.378

(0

36.18
18.50
28.51
19.56
36.33
17.03

17.07
31.67
17.94
26.97
18.38

0)

11.90
22.12
9.04
19. 81
11.36
17.70
6.55

74.2
58.4
66.3
71.3

60.9
34.5

.749
.373
.589
.382
.746
.340

19.09

26.12
12.25
21.17
11.42
24.07
12.13

47.9 48.9 33.6 27.7

70.1

56.6

.756

.636

36.21

31.10

25.40 17.61

50.8 48.8 36.3 28.3

71.5

58.0

.449

.278

22.81

13.57

16.26

49.8 49.2 36.4 34.4

73.1

69.9

.878

.662

43.72

32.57

31.98 22.80

50.0
46.9
50.4
49.6

72.4
78.0
67.1
64.9

51.5
80.0
60.9
63.5

.517
.851
.738
.721

.366
.703
.633
.580

25.85
39.91
37.20
35. 76

18.26
33.67
31.71
29.12

18.71 9.41
31.17 26.92
24.90 19.30
23.23 18.51

49.9
47.9
50.1
50.2

34.9
32.8
35.9
29.9

36.8
33.3
25.0
34.5
31.2
29.4
17.4

6.08

32.3
35.7

36.2
36.6
33.8
32.2

25.7
38.3
30.5
31.9

72.3

66.1

29.12

7.87

48.7 48.2 33.9 29.3

69.6

60.8

.722

.639

35.16

30.80

24. 51 18.76

50.5 48.6 34.6 9.9
48.9 46.8 40.5 40.1

68.5
82.8

20.4
85.7

.353
.753

.337

.688

17.83
36.82

16.38
32.20

12.23 3.35
30.48 27.61

49.7
49.5
51.0
49.1
49.9
50.9

59.8
72.3
76.9
71.9
62.3

.704
.694
.385
.733
.457
.887

.490
.561
.384
.615
.260
.860

34.99
34.35
19.64
35.99
22.80
45.15

24.99
27.15
19.55
30.07
11.18
40.16

20.92
24.82
15.07
25.85
14.18
40.03

32.92
31.34

29.87 25.94
25. 26 20.21

51.0
48.4
50.9
48.9
43.0
46.7

29.7
35.8
39.2
35.3
31.1
45.1

17.95
18.25
13.19
18. 76
3.94
36.96

36.6
32,5
34.4
30.5
15. 2
43.0

88.6

71.8
67.1
67.6
62.4
35.3
92.1

46.4 46.9 36.3 37.0
49.1 47.7 34.9 30.8

78.2
71.1

78.9
64.6

.822
.724

.702
.657

38.14
35.55

48.0 48.2 31.7 25.9

66.0

53.7

.851

.722

40.85

34.80

26.98 18.72

48.0 47.6 33.2 30.8

69.2

64.7

.717

.646

34.42

30.75

23. 77 19.89

984
T

able

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR
2 . — A V ER AG E

HOURS A N D EAR NINGS IN TH E M O TO R -V E H IC L E IN D U S T R Y ,
1930 A N D 1932, B Y OCCUPATION A N D S E X —Continued

Occupation and sex

Average
full-time
hours per
week

Hours actually worked
in 1 week
Average earn­
ings per hour
Average
number

1930 1932 1930 1932
Punch and press opera­
tors, female__________
Sand blasters, male____
Sand blasters, female___
Sanders and rough-stuff
rubbers, male________
Sanders and rough-stuff
rubbers, female_ ____
_
Sewing-machine operators, male____________
Sewing-machine operators, female__________
Sheet - metal workers,
male_____ ___________
Sheet - metal workers,
female_______________
Straighteners, male____
Stripers,
mechanical,
male................. ..............
Stripers, mechanical, fe­
male........................ .......
Testers, final, male_____
Testers,
motor
and
transmission, male___
Tool and die makers,
male_________________
Top builders and trim­
mers, male___________
Top builders and trim­
mers, female_________
Trim bench hands, male.
Trim bench hands, fe­
male_________________
Varnish rubbers, male_..
Varnish rubbers, female.
Welders and braziers,
hand, male___________
Welders and braziers,
hand, female_________
Welders, machine, male.
Welders, machine, fe­
male_________________
Woodworking - machine
operators, male_______
Other skilled occupa­
tions, male___________
Ocher skilled occupa­
tions, female_________
Other employees, male..
Other employees, female.

54.0 52.4 32.3 32.3
49.8 ■*8.0 35.3 28.4
48.3 (2
14.9 (2
)
)

Percent of
full time
1930

59.8
70.9
30.8

1932

1930

1932

Average full­ Average ac­
time earn­
tual earnings
in 1 week
ings per week

1930

1932

1930

1932

61.6 $0.401 $0.332 $21.65 $17.40 $12.92 $10. 75
59.2
.628
.610 31.27 29.28 22.18 17.35
.343
16. 57
5.10 (2
(2
)
(2
)
(2
)
)
22.59 16.69

49.3 48.8 32.2 28.2

65.3

57.8

.702

.591

34. 61

28.84

48.8 50.0 37.5 22.6

76.8

45.2

.434

.413

21.18

20. 65

16.28

47.1 49.8 33.9 31.9

72.0

64.1

.664

.443

31.27

22.06

22.50 14.15

9.32

51.2 51.3 31.2 34.4

60.9

67.1

.461

.366

23.60

18. 78

14.40 12. 60

50.0 49.3 33.1 27.7

66.2

56.2

.711

.574

35. 55

28. 30

23.50 15.91

51.9 46.1 28.5 16.8
48.7 48.7 32.8 28.0

54.9
67.4

36.4
57.5

.423
.763

.317
.636

21.95
37.16

14. 61
30.97

12.04 1 5.33
24.98 17.81

49.3 50.8 35.6 27.3

72.2

53.7

.771

.627

38.01

31.85

27.45 17.13

49.5 50.1 29.8 24.8
50.3 48.9 37.4 36.6

60.2
74.4

49.5
74.8

.522
.686

.422
.604

25.84
34.51

21.14
29.54

15.56 10. 47
25.66 22.10

49.9 49.9 36.2 29.5

72.5

59.1

.727

.612

36.28

30.54

26. 31 18.08

49.9 47.0 42.9 39.4

86.0

83.8

.887

.785

44.26

36.90

38.03 30.92

50.0 49.0 31.8 33.0

63.6

67.3

.751

.603

37.55

29.55

23.85 19.88

50.7 49.7 36.3 28.4
47.6 51.0 29.5 35.7

71.6
62.0

57.1
70.0

.416
.751

.361
.518

21.09
35. 75

17.94
26.42

15.11 10.25
22.13 18. 52

50.2 50.8 32.0 34.1
50.0 49.9 28.0 52.7
49.5 0)
30.3
0)

63.7 67.1
56.0 105.6
61.2
0)

.451
.754
0)

.354
.471
.443

22.64
37.70
0)

17.98
23. 50
21.93

14. 41 12. 08
21.09 24.80
13. 39
0)

37. 77

31. 96

26.91 19.82

20.13
30.23

8.96
0)
22.33 18.78

49.9 48.5 35.5 30.1

71.1

62.1

.757

.659

23.4
52.7 0)
48.6 30.4 30.2

0)
62.0

44.4
62.1

0)
.735

.382
.622

0)

36.02

53.8 51.8 17.8 27.9

33.1

53.9

.421

.314

22. 65

16. 27

50.0 49.7 35.4 30.4

70.8

61.2

.691

.589

34. 55

29. 27

24.43 17.90

48.7 47.9 41.0 37.5

84.2

78.3

.793

.704

38.62

33. 72

32.49 26.41

51.0 50.0 33.9 26.2
48.0 48.2 38.1 36.0
51.4 50.6 32.6 34.5

66.5
79.4
63.4

52.4
74.7
68.2

.487
.743
.447

.295
.668
.364

24.84
35. 66
22,98

14. 75
32.20
18.42

16. 50 7.74
28.30 24.04
14.56 12.55

1 None reported in 1930.

7. 51

8. 77

2 Data included in total.

Table 3 shows for males and for females separately, and for both
sexes combined, in each State in 1930 and 1932, average hours and
earnings and the percent of full time actually worked in the week.




985

MOTOR-VEHICLE REPAIR GARAGES
T

able

3

—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D EAR N IN G S IN T H E M O TO R -VEH IC L E IN D U S T R Y ,
1930 A N D 1932, B Y SE X A N D ST ATE

Sex and State

Average
full-time
hours per
week

Hours actually worked
in 1 week
Average
number

1930 1932 1930 1932

Percent of
full time
1930

1932

Average earn­ Average full­
ings per
time earnings
per week

1930

1932

1930

1932

Average
actual earn­
ings in 1
week

1930

1932

M a le s

Illinois...............................
Indiana.......................... .
Michigan.........................
New Jersey____ _______
New York.........................
Ohio...................................
Pennsylvania...................
Wisconsin.................. .......
Total males______

22.9
32.7
32.1
31.6
31.1
34.3
33.4
27.5

60.3
72.8
71.3
66.6
86.2
73.2
64.7
60.2

52.8 $0.740 $0. 663 $34.48 $28.71 $20.82 $15.22
64.1
.614
.493 30.95 25.14 22.54 16.12
67.3
.684 37.30 32.63 26.55 21.96
.777
73.1
.824
.678 36.50 29.29 24.26 21.41
65.8
.693
.591 35.27 27.95 30.41 18.38
69.4
.701
.575 34.00 28.41 24.87 19. 71
.624
.484 33.20 25.41 21.44 16.18
63.6
54.5
.629
.557 31.95 28.13 19.26 15.31

48.7 48.3 34.6 31.9

71.0

66.0

.733

.638

35.70

30.82

25.40 20.36

25.0
31.3
31.2
32.5
26.7
28.5
29.2
30.2

47.6
61.1
64.5
62.2
79.6
55.5
46.6
54.0

56.8
61.5
61.2
65.0
56.4
58.6
56.4
60.4

.378
.412
.437
.443
.451
.447
.471
.414

.320
.276
.366
.320
.388
.410
.317
.324

20.64
20.76
22.42
19.94
23.00
21.28
24.87
20.33

14.08
14.05
18. 67
16.00
18.35
19.93.
16.42
16.20

9.84
12.69
14.47
12.41
18.31
11.80
11.60
10.97

50.6 50.5 31.8 30.7

62.8

60.8

.436

.361

22.06

18.23

13.86 11.09

23.0
32.7
32.1
31.6
31.0
34.0
33.4
27.6

60.2
72.4
70.9
66.6
85.9
72.5
64.6
60.2

53.0
64.1
67.2
73.1
65.5
69.0
63.6
54.7

.737
.608
.765
.823
.686
.693
.623
.624

.659
.485
.670
.677
.585
.569
.482
.550

34. 42
30.64
36.80
36.46
34.92
33.54
33.08
31.64

28. 60
24.74
32.03
29.25
27.67
28.05
25.31
27.78

20.74
22.17
26.13
24.24
30.02
24.30
21.36
19.02

48.8 48.4 34.5 31.9

70.7

65.9

.724

.628

35.33

30.40

25.01 20.00

46.6
50.4
48.0
44.3
50.9
48.5
53.2
50.8

43.4
51.0
47.7
43.2
47.3
49.4
52.5
50.5

28.1
36.7
34.2
29.5
43.9
35.5
34.4
30.6

F em a les

Illinois........................ .......
Indiana............... .............
Michigan........................
New Jersey........ _............
New York........................
Ohio...................................
Pennsylvania...................
Wisconsin.......................
Total females.........

54.6
50.4
51.3
45.0
51.0
47.6
52.8
49.1

44.0
50.9
51.0
50.0
47.3
48.6
51.8
50.0

26.0
30.8
33.1
28.0
40.6
26.4
24.6
26.5

8.00
8.63
11.43
10.41
10.34
11.68
9. 26
9.79

M a le s a n d fem a les

Illinois...............................
Indiana...................... .......
Michigan..........................
New Jersey.......................
New York..................... .
Ohio...................................
Pennsylvania...................
Wisconsin— .....................
Total males and
females......... .......

46.7
50.4
48.1
44.3
50.9
48.4
53.1
50.7

43.4
51.0
47.8
43.2
47.3
49.3
52.5
50.5

28.1
36.5
34.1
29.5
43.7
35.1
34.3
30.5

15.14
15.84
21.50
21.39
18.13
19.38
16.09
15.16

M o to r-V e h ic le R epair Garages— H o u rs and E a rn in g s, 1931
T h is article is a summary of the results of a study by the Bureau of
Labor Statistics in 1931 of hours and earnings of 6,059 employees of
344 garages in 43 representative cities in 34 States and in the District
of Columbia. The study included employees of 8 garages in 2 cities
in each of 8 States and in 1 city in each of 26 States and in the Dis­
trict of Columbia. The basic wage figures were collected for a pay
period in April, May, June, or July.
The principal business of the garages covered is the general repair
of motor vehicles. In a considerable number of garages, washing,
greasing, and storing of cars and the sale of gasoline, oil, and auto
supplies are also carried on, but this is incidental to the main business.
The results of the study are shown in more detail in Bulletin No. 578
of the Bureau.




986

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

Table 1 shows average hours and earnings for each of the important
occupations found in the garages studied and for the group of “ Other
employees.” Averages are shown for each of two or more occupations
separately, and also for a combination of such occupations. Thus,
averages are shown for “ batterymen” and for “ radiatormen”
separately, and also for both combmed. Six garages employed both
batterymen and radiatormen.
T

able

1 .— AVERAG E

HOURS A N D E AR N IN G S IN M O TO R -V E H IC L E R EPAIR GARAG ES,
1931, B Y OCCUPATION

Occupation

Hours actu­
Aver­ ally worked
in 1 week
agefulltime
hours Aver­ Per­
per
age
cent
week num­ of full
ber
time

Aver­
age
earn­
ings
per
hour

Aver­
age
full­
time
earn­
ings
per
week

Aver­
age
actual
earn­
ings in
1 week

All occupations............................................................................

53.4

51.0

95.5 $0.579

$30.92

$29.56

Auto mechanics, general............................................................
Auto mechanics, specialized 8
...................................................

52.9
52.7

49.2
48.8

93.0
92.6

.638
.685

33.75
36.10

31.35
33.46

Batterymen..................................................................................
Radiatormen................................................... - ...........................

55.7
53.4

55.1
48.2

98.9
90.3

.531
.567

29. 58
30.28

29.25
27.29

Battery and radiatormen................................................

55.3

53.9

97.5

.536

29.64

28.90

Blacksmiths.................................................................................
Machinists................................................- ..................................
Welders.......................................- .........- ......................................

50.6
49.8
52.4

45.7
47.5
48.9

90.3
95.4
93.3

.867
.788
.793

43.87
39.24
41.55

39.60
37.46
38.77

Blacksmiths, machinists, and welders.........................

50.3

47.1

93.6

.811

40.79

38.22

Body workers, metal..................................................................
Body workers, wood...................................................................
Body workers, metal and wood------ --------------------- --------Upholsterers.............................................................................. .

51.9
51.3
52.7
50.8

48.2
43.0
48.8
44.2

92.9
83.8
92.6
87.0

.763
.789
.665
.786

39.60
40.48
35.05
39.93

36.79
33.90
32.44
34.73

Body workers and upholsterers..................................

51.7

46.6

90.1

.755

39.03

35.17

Car washers.............................................................................. .
Polishers........................................................................................

54.8
51.6

53.3
48.7

97.3
94.4

.381
.452

20.88
23.32

20. 32
22.05

Car washers and polishers..............................................

64.4

52.7

96.9

.390

21.22

20.54

Chasers_____________________ ___________________________
Foremen, working.................. ...................................................
Greasers....... ................... .............................. ...........................
Helpers, mechanics’ .................................................................. ..

54.8
53.2
53.3
53.2

55.6
53.6
50.9
50.8

101.5
100.8
95.5
95.5

.373
.798
.440
.347

20.44
42.45
23.45
18.46

20.72
42.81
22.41
17.63

Inspectors...................... ..............................................................
Diagnosticians..............................................................................

52.3
53.4

53.4
52.7

102.1
98.7

.737
.852

38.55
45.50

39.35
44.93

Inspectors and diagnosticians...................... ..................

52.6

53.2

101.1

.768

40.40

40.84

Painters.......................................... ............................................... 152.1

48.4

193.3

.682

i 35.53

33.05

Porters........................................ ..................................................
Janitors..........................................................................................

54.4
57.1

53.8
57.7

98.9
101.1

.363
.390

19.75
22.27

19.54
22.49

Porters and janitors.........................................................

55.1

54.9

99.6

.371

20.44

20.36

Service men..................................................................................
Stock clerks.................................................................................
Stock keepers............................ ..................................................
Other employees.........................................................................

55.4
52.3
53.5
58.5

54.3
52.6
53.3
58.8

98.0
100.6
99.6
100.5

.660
.458
.658
.434

36.56
23.95
35.20
25.39

35.86
24.13
35.08
25.53

1 Not including 1 employee whose full-time hours were not reported.
8 Includes brakemen, carburetor men, ignition men, and trouble shooters.

Table 2 shows average hours and earnings in 1 week for the em­
ployees covered in each of the 43 cities. The same number (8) of
garages were covered in each city, but the number of employees ranged
from 38 in Danville, 111., to 430 in Boston, Mass.




987

NEWSPAPER EDITORIAL EMPLOYEES
T

able

3 .—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D EAR N IN G S IN M O TO R -VEH IC L E R EPAIR GARAG ES,
1931, B Y C IT Y
Hours actu­
ally worked
in 1 week

City

Aver­
age
full­
time
hours
per
week

All cities...........................................................................................

53.4

51.0

Altoona, Pa________________________ _____________________
53. 5
51.1
Atlanta, Ga_______________________________________________
Austin, Tex.......................................... .............................. ...........
54.0
Baltimore, M d______________________ ___ ___ ___ ___
54.0
Birmingham, Ala_________________________________________
57.2
Boston,"Mass___________________ ______________________ _
_
51.2
54.1
Burlington, Vt............. .............. .............................- .....................
Charleston, S. C ....................... .................................................... 53.8
Charlotte, N. C........................................................ _.............. .....
57.0
Chicago, 111........ ..........................................................................
52.4
Cleveland, Ohio..... ............................._.............................. _......... 52.9
Danville, 111..... ......................... - ............ .......................................
55.9
Des Moines, Iowa_____________ ___ ______ __ __________
57. 7
Detroit, Mich.................... .............................................................
54.2
Hamilton, Ohio_______________ ___ _ _ __________ _____
56.0
Hartford, Conn___________________________________________
52.4
Holyoke, Mass____________________________________________
50.4
Houston, Tex.__________ ______________________ __________
50.8
Huntington, W . Va..................................................... .................
57.5
Indianapolis, Ind_________________________________________
53.7
Jacksonville, F la ..-_________ ______________________________ 54.2
Joplin, M o____________________ __________________________
61. 2
Kansas City, Kans........... .......... ..................... ............................
57.1
Lincoln, Nebr_____________________________________________
54.8
Little Rock, Ark............................................................................ 53.9
Louisville, K y ________________
_
_
56. 7
Manchester, N. H ____________
___ _____________________
53.5
Memphis, Tenn__________________________________________
54.1
Meridian, Miss___________________________________________
59.3
Milwaukee, W is__________________________________________
54.3
Minneapolis, Minn_______________________________________
55.1
New Orleans, La__________________________________________
49. 5
New York, N. Y ................................. ............. ............................
49.7
Oklahoma City, Okla....................................................................
54.5
Philadelphia, Pa.......................... .................... ............................ 50.8
Portland, Maine__________________________________________
54.7
Providence, R. I __________________ _______________________
52.3
53.3
Richmond, Va...... .................................. ............................ ..........
Rochester, N . Y __________________________________________
51.0
St. Louis, M o___________________ _______ _________________ l 49.9
Superior, W is______________________ _______ _____ ___ ___
56.1
Trenton, N. J____________ ______________________ _________
53.6
Washington, D. C ....................................... ..................................
54.3

52.9
50.2
53.1
52.9
55.2
48.4
53.1
53.1
55.7
48.3
45.4
52.4
52.2
49.9
54.0
51.3
49.9
49.6
56.8
48.5
53.0
56.4
55.3
53.3
52.1
52. 4
53. 6
46.4
57.3
48.7
50.5
48.0
50.2
50.4
50.8
52. 7
51.1
53.3
49.8
48. 3
54. 4
51.9
51.1

Aver­
age
earn­
ings
Per­
Aver­ cent of per
age
hour
full­
hours time

Aver­
Aver­
age
age
full­
actual
time
earn­
earn­
ings
ings
in 1
per
week
week

95.5 $0,579 $30.92

$29.56

.552 29.53
.551 28.16
.510 27.54
.546 29.48
.482 27.57
.607 31.08
.544 29.43
.465 25.02
.485 27.65
.732 38.36
.648 34.28
.540 30.19
.570 32.89
.681 36.91
.555 31.08
.646 33.85
.581 29.28
.552 28.04
.482 27.72
.552 29.64
.508 27.53
.428 26.19
.493 28.15
.507 27.78
.476 25. 66
.483 27. 39
.531 28.41
.520 28.13
.327 19.39
.604 32.80
.631 34.77
.497 24.60
.697 34.64
.598 32.59
.618 31.39
.535 29.26
.599 31.33
.575 30.65
.663 33.81
.659 l 32.88
.570 31.98
584 31.30
. 593 32.20

29.18
27.65
27.05
28.86
26.58
29.39
28.87
24.71
27.05
35.35
29.43
28.30
29. 77
33.94
29.98
33.10
29.02
27.39
27.34
26.79
26.92
24.17
27.26
27.01
24.79
25. 35
28.48
24.13
18.72
29.41
31.85
23.85
34.97
30.19
31.39
28.20
30.61
30.65
33.02
31.85
31.03
30.33
30.32

98.9
98.2
98.3
98.0
96.5
94.5
98.2
98.7
97.7
92.2
85.8
93.7
90.5
92.1
96.4
97.9
99.0
97.6
98.8
90. 3
97.8
92. 2
96.8
97.3
96.7
92.4
100.2
85.8
96.6
89.7
91.7
97.0
101.0
92.5
100.0
96.3
97.7
100.0
97.6
l 97.2
97.0
96. 8
94.1

1 Not including 1 employee whose full-time hours were not reported.

Newspapers— Salaries and W o rk in g T im e of E d ito ria l Em ployees,
1934 7
N e w s p a p e r editorial employees, along with workers in nearly all
other occupations, have felt the pressure of hard times during the
past few years. In the early fall of 1934 nearly 17 percent of the
editorial workers employed by a typical group of daily newspapers
were earning less than $20 a week and 28 percent were earning $50
or more. By contrast, in April 1930 the weekly salaries of only 13
percent of the editorial employees of the same newspapers were less
than $20, while 41 percent received salaries of $50 or more. Only
3.4 percent of the total number of employees in the fall of 1934 re­
ceived salaries of $100 a week or more, as against 5.7 percent in
April 1930.
These statistics are based on a survey made by the Bureau of Labor
Statistics at the request of the National Recovery Administration,
covering 31 daily newspapers in 20 cities and 18 States. The States
i

Summary of article published in Monthly Labor Review, May 1935 (p. 1137),




988

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

from which the sample was drawn were Alabama, Arkansas, Cali­
fornia, Colorado, Connecticut, Kansas, Louisiana, Maine, Massa­
chusetts, Missouri, Montana, New Hampshire, Ohio, Oklahoma,
Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Texas, and Wyoming.
Of the 31 newspapers, 6 were in cities with a population of 750,000
or more, 11 were in cities with a population of 250,000 and less than
500.000, 8 were in cities having a population of 50,000 and less than
250.000, and 6 were in cities with a population of less than 50,000. All
except 3 of the newspapers included had a circulation of 10,000 or over.
Four pay periods—April 1930, April 1933, April 1934, and September-October 1934—were covered by the survey. The number of
editorial workers employed in these periods by the 31 newspapers
canvassed ranged from 1,348 in April 1933 to 1,506 in April 1930.
The average for all 4 of the periods covered was approximately 1,450.
This number excludes part-time employees and space writers, whose
earnings cannot be compared with those of full-time workers. In the
four pay periods covered, the number of part-time employees and
space writers employed by the newspapers that made up the sample
ranged from 49 in April 1930 to 95 in September-October 1934. The
average weekly earnings of the part-time workers and space writers
ranged from $11.55 in April 1930 to $16.03 in April 1934.
Average Weekly Salaries

of the daily newspaper editorial workers covered in the
survey, including those in executive positions, the average weekly
salary in September-October 1934 was $41.81. Compared with the
average salary earned in April 1933—$40.85— this represented an
increase of slightly more than 2 percent, but was 12 percent less than
April 1930. Earnings in the early fall of 1934 were also somewhat
less than in April 1934, when the average was $42.01. The decrease,
however, was not evenly distributed and some workers were much
more seriously affected than others. These differences are brought
out clearly in table 1.
F or a l l

T

able

1 . — A V ER AG E

W E E K L Y SALARIES OF E D IT O R IA L E M P LO Y E E S OF 31 D A IL Y
NEW SPAPER S, 1930-34
Weekly salaries

Occupational class

April
1930

April
1933

April
1934

Average, all employees-----------------. .
Executives1. . . _________ ________
Deskmen 2
...................................... .......
Reporters 3---------- ------- -------- ---------Photographers---------------------- ------Artists_________ ___________________
Copy, office, and errand boys______
Clerks and stenographers__________

$47.53
100.06
59.34
43.58
40.03
51. 76
11. 57
31. 32

$40.85
90.05
49.81
37.14
33.78
45. 55
10.48
28. 53

$42.01
90. 26
50. 66
38.93
35.14
47.80
12.67
28.01

Percent of change
SeptemberOctober
1934

April
1930
to

$41.81

-1 4 .1

89.98
51. 32
38. 26
34.79
47.80
13.23
27. 88

-1 0 .0
-1 6 .1
-1 4 .8
-1 5 .6
-1 2 .0
- 9 .4
- 8 .9

1933

April
1933
to
April
1934
+ 2 .8
+ .2
+ 1 .7
+ 4 .8
+ 4 .0
+ 4 .9
+20.9
- 1 .8

1934
1930
to Sep- to September- temberOctoOctober 1934 ber 1934
-1 2 .0
-1 0 .1
-1 3 .5
-1 2 .2
-1 3 .1
- 7 .7
+14.3
-1 1 .0

- 0 .5
-.3
+ 1 .3
- 1 .7
- 1 .0
0)
+ 4 .4
-.5

1 Includes chief editors, chief editorial writers, city editors, editors, managing editors, general news
editors, and night city editors.
2 Includes art critics, assistants to chief editorial writers, assistant city editors, assistant editorial writers,
assistant managing editors, associate editors, book reviewers, copy readers, children’s page editors, column­
ists, copy deskmen, dramatic editors, fashion editors, financial editors, food editors, make-up editors, news
editors, rotogravure editors, society editors, sports editors, State editors, Sunday editors, telegraph editors,
women’s page editors, editorial writers, movie editors, music editors, promotion managers, rewrite men,
rim men, slot men, subeditors, and weekly editors.
3 Includes apprentices, assistant dramatic editors, assistant society editors, bureau correspondents, busi­
ness editors, church editors, civil court reporters, contributors, correspondents, county editors, criminal
courts reporters, cub reporters, farm editors, marine editors, mining editors, oil editors, political editors,
radio editors, feature writers, financial writers, police reporters, political editors, special writers, and sports
writers.
* No change.




989

NEW SPAPER EDITORIAL EMPLOYEES

Not only did the salaries of newspaper editorial employees vary
widely between occupational groups, but there were also sharp
differences in the earnings of workers within the same occupational
group. In September-October 1934, for example, the average earn­
ings of all the desk workers covered in the survey was $51.32 per week,
but 2.3 percent of the employees in this group were earning less than
$20 and 14.5 percent received less than $32 a week. Indeed, it was
the earnings of less than half of the desk workers (46.1 percent) that
lifted the average above the $50 a week mark. In table 2, variations
almost as pronounced are shown for several of the other occupations.
T a b l e 3 .—PER C E N T A G E D IST R IBU T IO N OF E D IT O R IAL EM P LO Y E E S OF 31 D A IL Y

N EW SPAPER S, B Y CLASSIFIED W E E K L Y SALARIES A N D OCCUPATIONS, SE P T E M ­
B E R -O C T O B E R 1934
Percent receiving classified weekly salary

Classified weekly salary
Execu­
tives

Under $10................................................
$10 and under $12...............................
$12 and under $14___________ _____
$14 and under $16_________ __________
$16 and under $18................................
$18 and under $20_........ ..................... .....

Desk-

Report­ Photog­
ers
raphers

0.3
.3
.3
.3
.7
.4

0.5
.5
.9
5.0
4.7

1.8

1.8
1.8
1.8

Total,____ _______ ____________

2.3

13.4

$20 and under $24___________________
$24 and under $28____________ _____
$28 and under $32___________________

5.0

10.5

Artists

5.3

Copy,
office,
and
errand
boys

Clerks

1.4
1.5

7.0
33.9
7.8
31.3
14.8
1.7

11.1

10.7

4.3

96.5

26.9

8.8

3.5

3.5

1.4

9.3
6.5

&6

10.1
6.9

5.4
5.4

4.3
11.7
1.4

12.2

27.5

19.6

17.4

14.5
5.3
8.7

20.3
4.3
11.7
7.2

3.7

3.6

Total............................... ................
$32 and under $36_____________ _______
______ ____
$36 and under $40______
$40 and under $45_________ __________
$45 and under $50....................... ............

4.2
8.5
8.4

9.6
5.4
11.7
12.7

10.1

21.4
16.1
16.1
5.4

13.9

22.1
13.0
49.0
7.4
.9

2.8

Total...............................................

21.1

39.4

38.6

59.0

43.5

14.8

$50 and under $60..................... ..............
$60 and under $75_______ __________
$75 and under $100..................................
$100 and over________________________

16.9
15.5
22.5
24.0

18.1
15.0
9.6
3.4

7.9
6.9
3.7

5.4
5.3

13.1

4.6
4.7

2.0

Total____ ______________________

78.9

46.1

20.5

10.7

34.8

Grand total____________________

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

10.2
4.3
7.2

9.3

100.0

100.0

Working Time
T a b l e 3 shows the working time of employees in the editorial
departments of the 31 newspapers included in the survey, in each of
the pay periods covered. In April 1930, the working time of 51.4
percent of the employees for which information was available was
from 45.1 to 50 hours a week, 18.7 percent worked from 40.1 to 45
hours, and 13.8 percent not over 40 hours a week. Only 10.5 percent
of the employees worked more than 50 hours a week. Between
April 1930 and April 1933, there was no material change in working
time. During the following year, however, hours were scaled down
sharply, and by September-October 1934 the working time of more
than two-thirds of the employees did not exceed 40 hours a week,
while only 4.6 percent of the employees worked more than 50 hours.




990

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

T able 3 .—D IST R IB U T IO N OF E D IT O R IA L EM P LO Y E E S OF 31 D A IL Y N EW SPAPER S B Y
CLASSIFIED W E E K L Y HOURS, 1930-34
Percent of total

Number of employees
Classified weekly hours

SeptemberOctober
1934

April
1934

April
1933

35 hours and under..............................
35.1 to 40 hours........ .............................
40.1 to 45 hours.....................................
45.1 to 50 hours.....................................
50.1 to 60 hours........ .............................
Over 60 h ours---............... - ................
Not reported.........................................

8
200
281
774
156
2
85

5
174
261
705
116
2
85

14
898
131
286
81
1
48

13
971
88
277
65
1
45

0.5
13.3
18.7
51.4
10.4
.1
5.6

0.4
12.9
19.4
52.3
8.6
.1
6.3

1.0
61.4
9.0
19.6
5.6
.1
3.3.

0.9
66.4
6.0
19.0
4.5
.1
3.1

Total............. - .............................

1,506

1,348

1,459

1,460

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

April
1930

April
1933

April
1934

SeptemberOctober
1934

April
1930

Office W orkers— E a rn in g s in New Y o r k State Factories,
O cto b e r 1934
A n n u a l surveys of the earnings of workers in factory offices in New
York State have been made by the department of labor of that State
in October of each year since 1914. The workers covered include
such employees as office clerks, stenographers, bookkeepers, account­
ants, cashiers, stock clerks, office managers, and superintendents.
The establishments represented are the manufacturing plants which
submit regular monthly reports for the labor-market analysis of the
New York Department of Labor.
The earnings of the workers covered by the survey in October 1934
averaged $32.45, a decrease of 13.4 percent from the peak reached in
October 1930, when the average was $37.48. Earnings were lower in
1934 than in 1933 in a number of industry groups, but the decreases
were more than offset by gains in other groups. Table 1, taken from
the report of the 1934 survey published in the Industrial Bulletin of
the New York Department of Labor for November 1934, shows the
average weekly earnings in October of each year from 1925 to 1934.
The labor department cautions the reader against comparing average
wage levels in one industry group with those in another, because of
the uneven distribution of the higher-salaried supervisory and tech­
nical staff and the lower-paid clerical force in different industries.
T a b l e 1.—A V E R A G E W E E K L Y EAR N IN G S OF OFFICE E M P L O Y E E S IN R E P R E S E N T A ­

T IV E N E W Y O R K STATE FACTORIES IN OCTOBER OF E A C H Y E A R , 1925-34
Average weekly earnings in October—

industry group
1925

1926

1927

1928

1929

1930

1931

1932

1933

All industries........................... $34.49 $35.38 $35.88 $36.37 $36.94 $37.48 $35.49 $31.86 $31.85
Stone, clay, and glass.............
Metals and machinery______
Wood manufactures...............
Furs, leather and rubber
goods.......................................
Chemicals, oils, paints, etc-_.
Pulp and paper.....................
Printing and paper goods___
Textiles--.................................
Clothing and millinery_____
Food and tobacco..................Water, light, and power____

$32.45

32.78
35.75
36.94

34.06
36.31
39.19

34.40
36.88
39.52

35.10
37.63
37.22

34.70
37.72
37.56

35.52
38.29
36.74

34.35
35.06
38.07

31.48
31.27
32.04

28.83
32.39
30.31

27.74
34.29
30.59

28.75
29.45
0)
38.90
29.36
30.92
34.86
32.78

29.64
31.10
0)
39.91
29.95
31.41
35.86
32.53

29.62
32.64
0)
40.49
29.85
31.45
35.86
31.79

29.82
33.38
0)
41.37
30.81
31.82
35.03
31.60

29.34
34.07
0)
42.68
30.87
33.30
36.04
30.77

30.58
34.74
0)
43.94
33.47
32.60
36.49
33.01

28.75
32.87
0)
41.85
33.46
31.27
35.10
30.64

24.73
29.93
0)
37.25
29.35
27.63
33.10
31.59

24.72
30.64
0)
36.44
31.76
26.24
31.90
30.24

23.72
31.00

1 Separate earnings not computed because of small number of employees.




1934

0

36.71
29.97
25.38
31.86
34.10

991

OFFICE WORKERS— NEW YORK STATE FACTORIES

A comparison of the earnings of men and women in factory offices
in New York State in October 1934 is given in table 2. The figures in
this table are not based on a fixed list of concerns as are those in
table 1, as separate data for men and women are not obtainable from
all the firms or from identical firms each year.
T

able

3 .—A V E R A G E W E E K L Y EAR N IN G S OF M E N A N D W O M E N IN F A C T O R Y OFFICES
IN N E W Y O R K ST A TE , OCTO BER 1934
Average weekly earnings of—
Men

Women

Industry group
Total
State

All industries............................ _....................
Stone, clay, and glass.............. .....................
Metals and machinery-,..............................
Wood manufactures......... ............................
Furs, leather and rubber goods—...............
Chemicals, oils, paints, etc..........................
Pulp and paper,...........................................
Printing and paper goods ................. ..........
Textiles................. ..........................................
Clothing and millinery.................................
Food and tobacco........ ................—.............
Water, light, and power.............................

$42.71

0)

41.76
40. 27
32. 72
43.42
0)
49.04
40.48
38.84
39.90
0)

New
York
City
$44.03
C)
1
38.53
35.47
34.45
35.17
0)
53. 41
38.43
40.95
43.26
0)

New
York
City

Total
State

Up-State

$41.80

$21.15

0)

0)

42.82
42.28
31.28
46.95
0)
39.03
41.02
32.82
35.62
0)

20.39
19.06
19.89
19.67
0)
22.38
21.60
21.18
22.32
0)

Up-State

$22. 76

0)

22.29
21.14
22.57
20.53
0)
23.68
22.03
22.17
23.32
0)

$19.92

0)

19.77
18.44
17.41
19.35
0)
19.70
21. 43
18.23
21.56
0)

1 Separate earnings not computed because of small number of employees.

Table 3 shows the number of employees and the total amount of
pay roll in the different industry groups in October 1934, with the
percent of change from October 1933.
T

able

3 — EM PLOYM ENT

A N D P A Y ROLLS IN F A C T O R Y OFFICES IN N E W Y O R K
STATE, OCTOBER 1934 CO M PAR ED W IT H OCTO BER 1933
Employment

Industry group

Percent
Number of of change,
employees,
October
October 1933 to Octo­
1934
ber 1934

Pay roll

Amount,
October
1934

Percent
of change,
October
1933 to Octo­
ber 1934

All industries_________________________ ________________

37,182

+ 5 .3

$1,206,406

+ 7 .3

Stone, clay, and glass............. ... ..................... .....................
Metals and machinery..........................................................
Wood manufactures............... ...............................................
Furs, leather and rubber goods...........................................
Chemicals, oils, paints, etc,.............................. - ................
Pulp and paper_______________________________________
Printing and paper goods....................................................
Textiles________ ____ _______________________ ____ ____
Clothing and millinery______________________ ________
Food and tobacco____________________________________
Water, light, and power______________________________

655
11,669
1,137
2, 285
3, 637
276
7,855
2,066
2,919
3,204
1,479

+ 7 .0
+ 7 .7
- 1 .6
+ 1 .5
+12.4
- 9 .8
+ 2 .1
+ 9 .9
- 1 .2
+ 5 .3
+ 9 .7

18,169
400,096
34,785
54,210
112,739
9,548
288,341
61,912
74,096
102,075
50,435

+ 3 .0
+14.0
-.6
-2 .6
+13.7
-1 2 .0
+ 2 .9
+ 3 .7
-4 .4
+ 5 .2
+23.7

New York is the only State for which the United States Bureau of
Labor Statistics has data on office workers’ earnings over a long
period.




992

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

Office W orkers— Salaries in V ario us Ind u strie s in New Y o rk
State, 1935
A v e r a g e weekly salaries paid to clerical workers in 13 occupation
groups, by 98 companies in various industries in New York State,
in July 1935, ranged from a low of $21.63 for typists to a high of
$52.10 for accountants, according to a survey made by the Industrial
Bureau of the Merchants' Association of New York. The salaries
paid in the occupations and industries covered are shown in table 1,
compiled from a statement issued by the Industrial Bureau in Novem­
ber 1935.
table

1.—A V E R A G E W E E K L Y SALARIES PAID CL E R IC A L W O R K E R S , B Y 98 CO M PANIES, IN SPECIFIED IN D U ST R IE S IN N E W Y O R K S T A TE , JU LY 1935

Occupation

Accountants......................................
Auditors,...................... ...................
Bookkeepers (machine operators).
Bookkeepers (nonmachine opera­
tors).................................................
Stenographers and secretaries,
male__________________________
Stenographers and secretaries, fe­
male..................................... ..........
Typists..............................................
Dictaphone operators.....................
Telephone operators........................
Office-machine operators................
Chief and supervisory clerks____
File clerks,...................... ..................
All other clerical occupations........

Rail­
roads
All
indus­ and
rail­
tries
ways

Food
prod­
ucts

Tex­
tiles,
dry
Bank­ goods,
ing apparel,
and
allied
lines

$52.10 $44.15 $49.42 $44.69
48.53 44.08 38.97 45.37
24.18 24.14
24.03

$66.20
50.47
21.84

Chem­
icals,
drugs,
soaps,
clean­
ers, etc.

Insur­
ance, Print­
ing
adver­
Mis­
tising,
and
cella­
and
pub­ neous
profes­ lishing
sional

$61.19
50.00
29.74

$60.83 $56.18
45.41 57.00
23.93 26.04

30.76

33.34

32.08

29.90

33.96

26.58

34.56

29.51

33.09

37.57

34.08

39.00

28.49
21.63
23.32
22. 52
23.47
48.44
21. 75
26.39

23.53
23.10
27.66
22.16
27. 52
42.97
27.48
29.98

29.98
20. 96
21. 55
23.13
21.55
49.47
21.04
23.02

28.06
22.21
25.09
24.88
22.99
52.48
22.47
31.85

25.36
18.22
23.17
23.15
21.39
48.10
17.76
19.99

30.28
22.17
24.05
21.33
27.78
32.13
21.12
25.70

$62.22
58.60
24.58

30.14
24.79
20.94
23.21
23.33
41.45
17.61
20.04

24.25

30.66

39.37

31.05

36.84

28.87
17.96
21.60
20.54
22.79
60.19
19.14
21.08

29.37
21.28
25.27
21.39
24.13
50.10
24.91
27.60

A comparison of the lowest, highest, and average weekly salaries
paid to clerical workers in New York State by identical firms in 1932
and 1935, with the percent of increase or decrease between the two
dates, is given in table 2, compiled from figures published by the
Merchants' Association of New York.8 It will be noted that only
four groups— accountants, auditors, file clerks, and a miscellaneous
group—showed increases in rates paid, these increases ranging from
0.68 to 9.94 percent; the other groups showed decreases ranging from
1.41 to 5.86 percent. The rates shown in table 2 differ from those for
the same occupations in table 1, because of the fact that the figures in
table 1 show averages for 98 firms and those in table 2 for only the
92 firms that furnished information for both 1932 and 1935.
s Greater New York (New York City) Oct. 31,1935 (p. 4): Comparison of Clerical Salaries Paid in 1932
and 1935.




993

PAPER MILLS— MICHIGAN
T

a b l e 2 .— COM PARISON OF W E E K L Y SALARIES PAID C L E R IC A L W O R K E R S
B Y 92
ID E N T IC A L COM PAN IES IN VARIOUS IN D U STR IES IN N E W Y O R K S T A T E , 1932
A N D 1935

Per­
cent
of in­
Weekly salary
Weekly salary
crease
NumNum­
(+ ) or
ber
panies ber
de­
of
of
re­
A v­ crease
port­ em­ Low High Av­
Low High erage
(-),
erage ploying ploy­
1932
ees
ees
to 1935
1932

1935

Num­
ber of

Occupation

Accountants........................................
Auditors...............................................
Bookkeepers (machine operators) ~
Bookkeepers (nonmachine opera­
tors)................ ..................................
Stenographers and secretaries, male.
Stenographers and secretaries, fe­
male...................................................
Typists.................. — .......................
Dictaphone operators.......................
Telephone operators___ ____ ______
Office-machine operators..................
Chief and supervisory clerks...........
File clerks...................... .....................
All other clerical positions........ .......

54
30
45

286 $25.00 $144.00 $52.75
173 14.00 115.63 42.94
246 16.15 37.00 24.79

300 $20.00 $144.00 $53.11
203 16.15 125.00 47.68
277 15.00 40.50 23.44

+0.68
+9.94
-5 .4 4

59
26

354 16.00
78 15.30

355 15.00 88.00 30.66
88 15.58 100.00 33.47

-5 .8 6
-1 .4 1

58.00 32. 57
97.77 33.95

87 1,470 8.00 86. 53 29. 72 1,451
702 9.00 29.50 21.47
57
677
144 9.92 36.00 23.17
26
153
74
268 12.74 46.61 23.07
319
445 10.00 38.00 23.63
48
463
725 18.00 125.00 47. 65
64
842
65
378 11.53 55.30 21.13
374
69 3,540 6.00 77.00 25.78 3,647

15.00 86.53 28. 53
11.54 39.00 20.82
13.85 35.00 22.46
15.00 48.65 22.36
13.85 38.00 22.89
17.00 154.00 46.93
13. 53 51.92 21.42
9.23 87.00 27.28

-4 .0 0
-3 .0 2
-3 .0 6
-3 .0 7
-3 .1 3
- 1 . 51
+1.35
+5.59

Paper M ills — Wages and H o u rs in M ic h ig a n , 1934

A s u r v e y of hourly wage rates, average hours per week, and average
weekly earnings in the paper mills of Michigan, was made by the
department of labor of that State as of the pay-roll period ending
nearest to September 15, 1934. The results for the State as a whole
are shown, by occupations, in the following table.
The average hourly rate for all occupations was 48 cents, the highest
rate—77.2 cents per hour—being for the occupation of machine
tender, and the lowest—35.2 cents—being for sorters and counters.
Average hours per week averaged 37.4, the occupational range being
from 24 to 41.2.
A V E R A G E R ATES PER HOUR, HOURS PER W E E K , A N D W E E K L Y E A R N IN G S OF
P A P E R -M IL L W O R K E R S IN M IC H IG A N , S E P T E M B E R 1934

Occupation

Aver­ Aver­ Aver­
age
age
age
hourly hours weekly
earn­
rates
ings

Occupation

Aver­ Aver­ Aver­
age
age
age
hourly hours weekly
earn­
per
rates week
ings
Cents

Average for industry........... ci s ! o

37.4

$17.95

Acid makers..........................
Acid makers’ helpers..........
Assistant cooks.....................
Beatermen............................
Bleach makers......................
Bleachermen.........................
Blowpit men........................
Boiler repairmen..................
Back tenders.........................
Coal passers..........................
Cooks.....................................
Cuttermen............................
Digestermen.........................
E m b o s s in g -m a c h in e
operators............................
Firemen.................................
First beater helpers............
Fourth hands.......................
General mill oilers...............
Fourth beater helpers.........
Handymen............................
Janitors.................................
Laborers.......... .....................
Loaders..................................
Log handlers.........................

54.1
48.3
51.0
48.2
71.4
59.1
51.9
56.3
57.0
45.3
59.7
45.6
41.0

36.2
39.7
32.9
34.0
37.1
39.7
39.8
39.6
34.7
40.3
34.7
36.4
38.0

19.58
19.17
16.78
16.39
26.49
23.46
20.66
22.29
19.78
18.25
20.71
16.60
15.58

46.0
54.9
49.2
44.9
49.5
38.0
48.3
45.4
41.8
44.8
48.6

32.0
39.1
33.7
34.6
39.0
24.0
40.2
40.0
39.6
39.1
39.2

14.72
21.46
16.58
15.53
19.30
9.12
19.42
18.16
16.55
17.52
19.05

19205— 36-------64



Machine tenders..................
T T hinists
V ftfV
Millwrights______________
Paper testers.......................
Painters........................... .
Packers.............................. .
Rag-room helpers....... .........
Repairmen............................
Rewindermen_______ ____
Sawmill hands.....................
Screen men............................
Second beater helpers_____
Supercalender runners........
Supercalender helpers........
Sorters and counters...........
Store clerks...........................
Storekeepers...................... .
Steamfitters..........................
Stock lifters...........................
Third hands..........................
Third beater helpers...........
Trimmermen........................
Truckers................................
Washermen..........................
Watchmen............................
Wet-machine runners.........
Yard men..............................

77.2
61.3
62.1
47.2
53.8
43.0
38.0
50.4
49.5
50.3
45.8
43.9
46.0
38.0
35.2
51.3
43.6
58.7
44.8
51.0
39.0
53.5
59.7
42.5
43.0
46.5
44.7

33.4
39.4
39.1
38.4
40.0
36.0
24.0
40.9
38.3
39.1
36.2
36.0
32.0
24.0
26.0
39.4
39.5
40.0
32.7
34.6
24.0
39.0
40.2
30.9
41.2
39.7
37.5

$25.78
24.15
24.28
18.12
21.52
15.48
9.12
20.61
18.96
19.67
16.58
15.80
14.72
9.12
9.15
20.21
17.22
23.48
14.65
17.65
9.36
20.86
24.00
13.13
17.72
18.46
16.76

994

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

P e tro le u m In d u s try — Wages and H o u rs , 1933-34

A c o m p r e h e n s i v e survey of the petroleum industry in 1933 and
1934 was made by the Bureau of Labor Statistics for the Petroleum
Labor Policy Board at the request of the Petroleum Administration,
with the object of determining the changes in the industry after the
adoption of the petroleum code in August 1933. In order to compare
conditions prior and subsequent to the adoption of the code, data
were secured for May 1929, May and November 1933, and May and
July 1934. The survey covered both clerical and other employees,
except clerical forces in central offices, professional employees, and
executives and supervisors receiving more than $35 per week. Data
were obtained from practically every large and medium-size plant
and from a representative sample of small plants. Detailed data
obtained in the survey were published in the July, September,
October, and November 1935 issues of the Monthly Labor Review.
Changes in Total Man-Hours and in Average Weekly Hours
Employees other than clerical.—Between May 1933 and November
1933 the total man-hours worked by employees other than clerical
workers increased 3.5 percent in drilling and production and decreased
7.5 percent on pipe lines and 1.8 percent in refining. The average
hours per employee per week declined 27.2 percent in drilling and
production, 28.9 percent on pipe lines, and 15.8 percent in refining,
due largely to the labor provisions in the code, which limited the
normal hours of work per week.
Between November 1933 and July 1934 there were increases in
total man-hours and in average weekly hours. During July 1934
weekly hours averaged 34 in drilling and production and 35 on both
pipe lines and refining, being very close to the 36-hour average
maximum under the code. Between May 1929 and July 1934 there
was a reduction in total man-hours and average weekly hours,
respectively, of 45.5 and 33.5 percent in drilling and production, 44.7
and 30.2 percent on pipe lines, and 36.9 and 28.1 percent in refining.
Clerical employees.—The total man-hours worked by clerical
employees decreased in each of the three branches of the industry
between May 1929 and May 1933—in drilling and production, 37.2
percent, on pipe lines 24.8 percent, and in refining 22.6 percent.
During the remainder of 1933 and also in the two periods of 1934,
man-hours showed a continual increase in each of the branches.
These increases were not sufficient to overcome the reductions between
Ma y 1929 and May 1933, and as a result the total man-hours in
drilling and production in July 1934 were 26.4 percent below what
they were in May 1929, on pipe lines 6.3 percent below, and in
refining 12.5 percent below.
Average hours worked per week declined in each industry branch
during the first two periods reported. From November 1933 to July
1934 the working time per week was 39 hours on pipe lines and 38
hours in refining. After a rise of 3.8 percent in drilling and produc­
tion in May 1934, weekly hours declined to 40 in July 1934, the same
as in November 1933.
Total man-hours and average weekly hours in the selected periods,
for clerical and for other workers, are presented in table 1.




995

PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
T

able

1 .—CH ANGES IN E M P L O Y M E N T A N D HOURS W O R K E D IN T H E P E T R O LE U M
IN D U S T R Y , IN SEL ECT ED PERIODS

[Percentages of change from period to period computed from reports of identical plants for which man­
hour data were available]
E m p lo y e e s other than clerical
Employment

B ranch of industry and period

Drilling and production:
May 1929..............................
M ay 1933...........................November 1933....................
M ay 1934.............. ...............
July 1934...............................
Pipe lines:
M ay 1929....................... .......
M ay 1933_______ ________
November 1933______ ____
May 1934___________ _____
July 1934. ........... ...........
Refining:
M ay 1929______ ______ _
M ay 1933.......... ............ .......
November 1933....................
M ay 1934.......... ...................
July 1934..............................

Num­
ber of
em­
ploy­
ees 1

Percent
of
change Index
from
num­
preced­ bers
ing
period

Man-hours worked

Hours per week

Percent
Percent
of
of
Aver­
change Index age change Index
Total per
num­
from
week 1
num­ from num­
preced­ bers ber 1 preced­ bers
ing
ing
period
period

81,000
41,000
59,000
63,000
66,000

-4 9 .2
+42.1
+ 8 .2
+ 4 .6

100.0
50.8
72.2
78.1
81.8

4,146,000
1,849,000
1,911,000
2,102,000
2,259,000

-5 5 .4
+ 3 .5
+ 9 .8
+ 7 .5

100.0
44.6
46.1
50.7
54.5

51.0
45.0
33.0
33.0
34.0

-1 2 .4
-2 7 .2
+ 1 .5
+ 2 .7

100.0
87.6
63.8
64.8
66.5

25,000
15,000
19,000
18,000
20,000

-4 1 .0
+20.8
- 2 .3
+ 5 .6

100.0
59.0
76.6
74.8
79.0

1,237,000
657,000
608,000
615,000
684,000

-4 6 .9
- 7 .5
+ 1 .2
+11.2

100.0
53.1
49.1
49.7
55.3

50.0
45.0
32.0
33.0
35.0

-1 0 .0
-2 8 .9
+ 3 .7
+ 5 .1

100.0
90.0
64.0
66.4
69.8

87,000
62,000
73,000
75,000
76,000

-2 8 .1
+16.6
+ 2 .7
+ 2 .2

100.0
71.9
83.8
86.1
88.0

4, 265,000
2, 567,000
2,520,000
2,595,000
2,691,000

-3 9 .8
- 1 .8
+ 3 .0
+ 3 .7

100.0
60.2
59.1
60.9
63.1

49.0
41.0
35.0
35.0
35.0

-1 6 .4
-1 5 .8
+ .3
+ 1 .7

100.0
83.6
70.4
70.7
71.9

C lerical em p lo ye es
Drilling and production:
M ay 1929-............................
M ay 1933..............................
November 1933....... ............
M ay 1934---............. - .........
July 1934..............................
Pipe lines:
M ay 1929________________
M ay 1933..............................
November 1933___________
M ay 1934-------------------------July 1934...............................
Refining:
M ay 1929
M ay 1933______ _________
November 1933— ........ .......
M ay 1934-.....................— .
July 1934-_____ _________

2,700
1,800
2,100
2,200
2,400

-3 3 .3
+16.5
+ 7 .6
+ 5 .4

100.0
66.7
77.7
83.6
88.1

128,000
80,000
83,000
93,000
94,000

-3 7 .2
+ 3 .1
+11.7
+ 1 .6

100.0
62.8
64.8
72.4
73.6

48.0
45.0
40.0
41.0
40.0

- 5 .8
-1 1 .4
+ 3 .8
- 3 .6

100.0
94.2
83.4
86* 6
83.5

750
600
750
800
850

-1 4 .4
+22.9
+ 3 .8
+ 4 .9

100.0
85.6
105.2
109.2
114.6

35,000
26,000
30,000
31,000
33,000

-2 4 .8
+ 13.2
+ 4 .1
+ 5 .7

100.0
75.2
85.2
88.7
93.7

48.0
42.0
39.0
39.0
39.0

-1 2 .2
- 8 .6
+ .5
+ .5

100.0
87.8
80.3
80.7
81.1

4,100
3,500
3,800
4,000
4,100

-1 5 .5
+ 9 .2
+ 3 .4
+ 4 .3

100.0
84.5
92.3
95.4
99.5

180,000
140,000
145,000
150,000
158,000

-2 2 .6
+ 3 .5
+ 4 .0
+ 4 .9

100.0
77.4
80.2
83.4
87.5

44.0
40.0
38.0
38.0
38.0

- 8 .3
- 5 .3
+ .5
+ .5

100.0
91.7
86.8
87.3
87.7

i The number of employees in the 2 months of 1934 are the actual figures rounded off to the nearest thou­
sand, as reported by 552 identical establishments in drilling and production, 65 on pipe lines, and 212 in
refining. The figures for the three previous periods, however, are the number of employees these same
firms would presumably have employed had their employment followed the trend as revealed by the
index numbers. The man-hours worked and hours per week were similarly computed.




996

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

Changes in Per-Capita Weekly Earnings and Average Hourly Earnings
Employees other than clerical.—Compared to May 1929, the percapita weekly earnings in July 1934 of employees other than clerical
workers showed a reduction of 21.1 percent in drilling and production,
a gain of 1 percent on pipe lines, and a decrease of 15.2 percent in
refining. During approximately the same period (June 1929 to June
1934) the cost of living declined 20 percent. This would indicate an
increase in purchasing power between 1929 and 1934 of about 26 and
6 percent, respectively, for the average workers employed on pipe
lines and in refining, but a decrease of approximately 1.4 percent for
employees in drilling and production.
Increases in average hourly earnings of employees other than
clerical workers in July 1934 as compared with May 1929 amounted
to 18.3 percent in drilling and production and in refining, and 44.1
percent on pipe lines.
Clerical employees.—From May 1929 to July 1934 clerical workers
were not subject to fluctuations in wages to the same extent as the
other workers. In the drilling and production branches of the industry
there were three small reductions between May 1929 and May 1934
which amounted to 6.3 percent. An increase of 6.7 percent between
May 1934 and July 1934 raised the per-capita weekly earnings to the
same level as in May 1929. On pipe lines per-capita earnings dropped
10.9 percent between May 1929 and November 1933. By July 1934
they had recovered somewhat, being 6.7 below their May 1929 average.
In refining, per-capita weekly earnings followed the same general
trend as on pipe lines, and the July average was 3.9 percent under
that of May 1929.
Average hourly earnings of clerical employees increased materially
from 1929 to 1934. In July 1934 the hourly earnings of drilling and
production clerical employees were 19.8 percent above the May
1929 level, and those of pipe-line and refining employees were 13.4
and 9.4 percent, respectively, above that level.
The changes in per-capita weekly earnings and in hourly earnings
for employees other than clerical workers and for clerical employees
are shown in table 2.




997

POLICE DEPARTMENTS IN PRINCIPAL CITIES
T

able

2 ,—CH A N G E S IN A M O U N T

OF P A Y ROLLS A N D IN EAR N IN G S
PET R O LE U M IN D U S T R Y , IN SEL ECT ED PERIODS

IN

TH E

[Percentages of change from period to period computed from reports of identical plants for which man­
hour data were available]
E m p lo y e e s other than clerical
Per capita weekly
earnings

Pay rolls

Branch of industry, and
period

Drilling and production:
M ay i929_______ ______
May 1933 ........................
November 1933...............
M ay 1934........ ................
July 1934......... ................
Pipe lines:
M ay 1929 ____________
M ay 1933_____________
November 1933________
M ay 1934____ ____ ____
July 1934.................. .
Refining:
M ay 1929........ ................
M ay 1933_____________
November 1933..............
M ay 1934__-...................
July 1934....................

Earnings per hour

Per­
Per­
Per­
cent of
cent of
cent of
change
change Index
change Index
Amount
Index
from
num­ Aver­
from num­
num­ Amount1 from
per week1
age i
preced­
preced­ bers
preced­ bers
bers
ing
ing
ing
period
period
period
$2,753,000
1,032,000
1,407,000
1,614,000
1,776,000

-6 2 .5
+36.2
+14.7
+10.0

100.0
37.5
51.1
58.6
64.5

$34.00
25.00
24.00
25.00
27.00

-2 6 .2
- 4 .2
+ 6 .1
+ 5 .1

100.0 $0,660
73.8
.560
70.7
.740
75.0
.770
78.9
.790

-1 6 .0
+31.6
+ 4 .5
+ 2 .3

100.0
84.0
110.6
115.6
118.3

669,000
362,000
449,000
460,000
534,000

-4 5 .9
+23.9
+ 2 .5
+16.1

100.0
54.1
67.1
68.7
79.8

27.00
25.00
24.00
25.00
27.00

- 8 .2
- 4 .5
+ 4 .9
+ 9 .9

100.0
91.8
87.6
91.9
101.0

.540
.550
.740
.750
.780

+ 2 .0
+33.9
+ 1 .2
+ 4 .3

100.0
102.0
136.5
138.2
144.1

2,711,000
1,540,000
1,773,000
1,909,000
2,022,000

-4 3 .2
+15.2
+ 7 .7
+ 5 .9

100.0
56.8
65.4
70.4
74.6

31.00
25.00
24.00
26.00
27.00

-2 1 .0
- 1 .2
+ 4 .8
+ 3 .7

100.0
79.0
78.0
81.8
84.8

.640
.600
.700
.740
.750

- 5 .7
+17.3
+ 4 .5
+ 2 .3

100.0
94.3
110.6
115.7
118.3

+ 2 .5
+10.1
- 4 .1
+10.7

100.0
102.5
112.8
108.2
119.8

C lerical em p lo yees
Drilling and production:
M ay 1929_____________
M ay 1933---- ------- --------November 1933...............
M ay 1934,............- .........
July 1934____ _________
Pipe lines:
M ay 1929_____________
May 1933. - ____ _____
November 1933...............
M ay 1934-.-...................
July 1934........—.............
Refining:
M ay 1929_____________
M ay 1933_____________
November 1833_______
M ay 1934_____________
July 1934............. ............

$88,000
57,000
64,000
69,000
78,000

-3 5 .6
+13.5
+ 7 .2
+12.4

100.0
64.4
73.1
78.4
88.1

$33.00
32.00
31.00
31.00
33.00

- 3 .4
- 2 .5
-.4
+ 6 .7

100.0 $0,690
96.6
.710
94.1
.780
93.7
.750
100.0
.830

26,000
20,000
24,000
25,000
27,000

-2 2 .5
+21.1
+ 3 .9
+ 9 .2

100.0
77.5
93.8
97.4
106.4

35.00
32.00
31.00
32.00
33.00

- 9 .5
- 1 .5
+ .6
+ 4 .1

100.0
90.5
89.1
89.7
93.3

.740
.760
.810
.810
.840

+ 3 .1
+ 6 .8
-.2
+ 3 .2

100.0
103.1
110.1
109.8
113.4

138,000
105,000
114,000
119,000
132,000

-2 3 .6
+ 8 .1
+ 4 .8
+10.3

100.0
76.4
82.6
86.6
95.6

33.00
30.00
30.00
30.00
32.00

- 9 .6
- 1.0
+ 1 .4
+ 5 .8

100.0
90.4
89.5
90.8
96.1

.760
.750
.790
.790
.840

- 1 .3
+ 4 .5
+• 8
+ 5 .2

100.0
98.7
103.1
103.9
109.4

1 Computed by method described in table 1.

Police D e p a rtm e n ts in P rin cip a l C ities— Salaries and H o u rs ,
1934
B e c a u s e of the growing importance of law administration as a
gainful occupation, the Bureau of Labor Statistics has in recent years
made occasional surveys of the salaries of police-department employees
in the principal cities. The 1934 survey was more comprehensive
than the preceding studies,9 all cities with a population of 25,000 or
over being canvassed. Reports were received from 377 cities, and the
number of employees covered totaled 88,985. A summary of the
survey is printed in the October 1935 issue of the Monthly Labor
Review (p. 857).
The following table gives the average annual salaries and daily hours
on duty of police-department employees, classified by size of cities.
8
For results of previous studies see Monthly Labor Review, October 1919 (p. 147), October 1924 (pp.
68-77), January 1930 (pp. 118-138), and M ay 1933 (pp. 1116-1150).




998

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

A V E R A G E A N N U A L SALARIES A N D D A IL Y HOURS ON D U T Y OF P O L IC E -D E P A R T ­
M E N T E M P LO Y E E S IN 1934, B Y SIZE OF CITIES

All cities

Cities of 1,000,000
or more

Cities of 500,000
and under
1,000,000

Rank or occupation
Average
Average Average Average hours on Average Average
annual hours on annual
annual hours on
duty per
salary
salary duty per salary duty per
day
day
day
Chiefs or superintendents of police.......................
Assistant or deputy chiefs,.............................—
Chiefs of detectives...................................................
Inspectors............. .....................................................
Captains of detectives,............................................
Captains of police....................................................
Lieutenants of detectives............................. .........
Lieutenants of police,.............................................
Sergeants of detectives..................................... .......
Sergeants of police....... ...................... ....................
Detectives..................... .......... ................................ .
Patrolmen....................... ..........................................
Policewomen.................. ___................................. .
Matrons.................................. ....................................
Identification chiefs..................................................
Identification clerks..................................................
Fingerprint operators................. ............................
Superintendents of telephone or radio.................
Electricians or linemen........... ..............................
Telephone operators.................................................
Machinists or mechanics.........................................
Secretaries................... ................................... ..........
Assistant secretaries.................................................
Chief clerks........................ ...................... ................
Clerical (stenographers, typists, bookkeepers,
etc.).........................................................................

$3,107
2,991
2,558
3,027
2,591
2,806
2,603
2,729
2,192
2,393
2,256
2,175
2,113
1,293
2,136
1,637
1,832
2,041
2,249
i 1,505
1,968
1,902
2,284
1,991

19.4
18.6
18.7
18.2
18.8
18.4
18.3
18.1
18.2
18.1
18.4
18.1
18.0
18.6
18.4
8.0
i 8.5
18.6
18.0
8.0
8.1
18.1
7.9
8.1

$7,563
5,707
5,273
4,370
3,611
3.849
2,973
3,441
2,688
2,851
3,005
2,509
2,481
1,721
3,859
2,700
1,946
4,680
2,872
1,608
2,331
3,286
2,400
2,803

18.0
i 8.0
18.0
18.0
18.0
18.0
18.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
18.0
8.0
8.0
18.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
7.3

$5,788
4,255
3,877
2,718
2,931
3,132
2,664
2,433
2,391
2,337
2,152
2,045
1,829
1,333
2,754
1,938
2,525
2,535
1,962
1,431
1,882
3,380
2,265
2,876

i8 .0
8.0
18.0
18.0
8.0
18.0
9.0
8.0
8.3
8.0
8.5
8.0
8.0
8.8
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0

1,673

17.9

1,840

7.9

1,687

8.0

Cities of
Cities of
Cities of
50,000 and
250,000 and
100,000 and
under 500,000 under 250,000 under 100,000

Rank or occupation

Chiefs or superintendents of police_________
Assistant or deputy chiefs....................... .........
Chiefs of detectives..................... ............... .......
Inspectors..........................................................
Captains of detectives.............. ...................... .
Captains of police...............................................
Lieutenants of detectives---------------- -----------Lieutenants of police_______ _______________
Sergeants of detectives................. ............. .......
Sergeants of police-------------------- -----------------Detectives.............................. .......... .......... .......
Patrolmen........................ ............... ...................
Policewomen.............................. ........................
Matrons................................................................
Identification chiefs........... ...............................
Identification clerks.................. ........................
Fingerprint operators................................ .......
Superintendents of telephone or radio______
Electricians or linemen......................................
Telephone operators................. .........................
Machinists or mechanics______ _____________
Secretaries.............................................. .............
Assistant secretaries_______________________
Chief clerks........................... ............... ............
Clerical (stenographers, typists, book­
keepers, etc.)...................................................

Aver­
Aver­
Aver­
Aver­
Aver­
Aver­
age
Aver­
age
age
Aver­ a g e
hours
age
hours
age
age
hours
age
on
an­
on
an­
on
an­
an­
on
duty
nual
duty
nual
duty
nual
nual
duty
per salary
salary
salary per
salary
per
per
day
day
day
day
$4,598
3,693
3,300
3,144
2,630
2,835
2,387
2,633
2,067
2,195
2,146
1,989
2,011
1,422
2,588
1, 576
1,867
2,307
2,193
11,649
1,785
2,391
2,263
2,605
1,598

18.4 $3,653
18.1 3,019
8.2 2,586
18.1 2.448
8.2 2.449
i 8.2 2,440
8.5 2,181
i 8.2 2,318
8.1 2,040
18.2 2,049
18.2 1,872
18.1 1,829
8.0 1,604
8.1 1,191
18.4 2,003
8.0 1,619
18.4 2,098
18.4 1,927
18.0 2,005
8.0 1,333
8.1 1,735
8.0 1,825
7.3
8.2 2,095
8.0

1,430

18.4 $3,082
18.0 2,409
18.3 2,099
8.0 2,168
8.6 2,243
8.2 2,264
8.1 2,345
8.1 2,174
8.1 2,109
8.1 2,010
1 8.6 1,792
8.0 1,775
7.9 1,583
18.2 1,106
8.0 2,042
8.1 1,661
8.0 1,803
8.0 1,764
8.0 1,789
7.7 1,541
8.1 2,056
18.0 1,602

19.5 $2,521
18.4 1,949
18.5 1,884
8.6 1,973
10.2 2, 220
8.6 1,973
18.4 2,268
8.4 2,081
18.6 1,945
8.2 1,806
18.7 1,676
18.2 1, 702
18.0 1,418
1 10.7
973
8.6 1,814
7.9 1,617
8.5 1,552
9.3 1,581
8.2 1,757
8.0 1,460
8.3 1,561
8.2 1,449

i 9.9
i 9.5
i 9.8
8.7
9.0
9.1
i 9.1
18.3
i 8.8
18.6
19.0
8.6
18.0
17.7
8.9
8.0
18.9
19.4
8.5
8.1
8.7
8.2

7.8

1,684

8i 2

1,613

8.2

7.9

1,522

8.0

1,162

18.0

For all men in this group except a very few for whom data were notreported,




Cities of
25,000 and .
under 50,000

PORTLAND CEMENT INDUSTRY

999

For all cities the highest average number of hours and days worked
per week was reported for police chiefs (or superintendents), who
averaged 6.6 days and 61.9 hours per week. Assistant secretaries
and clerical workers, with an average of 6, worked the least number of
days per week, and assistant secretaries the lowest weekly hours (47.7).
In cities of 1,000,000 or over, the general practice was a 6-day week
of 48 working hours. In only one instance was the average number
of days worked per week greater than 6.3 and no occupation had more
than 54.9 hours per week. As the size of the city declined, a marked
increase was shown in the working time. In cities of 25,000 and under
50.000, the working time for patrolmen averaged 6.5 days (55.5 hours)
per week, as compared with 6.1 days (49.1 hours) in cities of 1,000,000
or over. Chiefs or superintendents of police in cities of 25,000 and
under 50,000 averaged 65.8 hours per week, as contrasted with 48
hours in cities of 1,000,000 or over.
Nearly all cities reported a .policy of granting annual vacations
with pay. For all cities, the longest average annual leave was 16.7
days given to lieutenants of police, and the shortest was 10.6 days,
given to patrolmen. In cities of 1,000,000 or over, annual vacations
of superintendents or chiefs of police ranged from 14 to 30 days, and
of patrolmen from 14 to 20 days. In cities of 500,000 and under
1.000. 000, superintendents or chiefs were granted annual leave
ranging from 12 to 30 days.
P o rtla n d C e m e n t In d u s try — H o u rs and E a rn in g s , 1932
T h is article summarizes the results of a study of wages and hours
of labor of wage earners in the Portland cement industry in the United
States, made by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1932, and also
comparative figures for 1929. Details of the 1932 study appear in
the Monthly Labor Review for March 1933 (p. 595).
The 1932 data are for 103 representative Portland cement plants in
28 States and cover 13,609 males and 68 females, or a total of 13,677
wage earners in the industry. The data for 66 percent of the 103
establishments were for a pay period in August, September, or
October.
Table 1 shows, for 1929 and 1932, average hours and earnings of
males and females in each of the important occupations in the various
departments, for a group of miscellaneous wage earners designated
as “ Other employees” , for each department as a whole, and also for
all wage earners in the plants covered.




1000
T

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

1 . — A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S A N D P E R C E N T OF FU LL T IM E W O R K E D
IN 1 W E E K , IN TH E PO R TL A N D C E M E N T IN D U S T R Y , 1929 A N D 1932, B Y D E P A R T M E N T ,
O CCUPATION, A N D SE X

able

Department, occupa­
tion, and sex

Average
full-time
hours per
week

Hours actually worked
in 1 week
Average
number

1929 1932 1929 1932
All departments, all
occupations:
Males.......................... 60.8 59.1 56.7 45.8
Females...................... 52.0 48.6 46.6 27.2
Males and females 60.8 59.0 56.6 45.7

Percent of
full time

Average
earnings
per hour

Average ac­
tual earnings
in 1 week

1929

1932

93.3
89.6
93.1

77.5 $0.518 $0.401 $31.49 $23.70 $29.33 $18.39
.389
.386 20.23 18.76 18.12 10.52
56.0
77.5
.517
.401 31.43 23.66 29.25 18.35

1929

1932

Average
full-time
earnings
per week

1929

1932

1929

1932

Q uarry

Drillers, male...................
Blasters, male..................
Shovel operators, m ale...
Shovel cranemen, male. _
Shovel firemen, male___
Locomotive operators,
male................................
Locomotive
firemen,
male................................
Laborers, male.................
Other employees, male..

56.9
55.9
57.5
57.1
58.7

55.3
54.6
56.3
55.6
58.9

54.0
54.2
55.8
54.5
59.4

43.8 94.9
44.2 89.1
45.2 97.0
43.5 95.4
45.6 101.2

79.2
81/0
80.3
78.2
77.4

.525
.534
.730
.595
.461

.396
.431
.551
.432
.361

29.87
29.85
41.98
33.97
27.06

21.90
23. 53
31.02
24.02
21.26

28.38
28.97
40.74
32.41
27.42

17.36
19.06
24.91
18.78
16.44

57.3 55.8 56.3 43.8

98.3

78.5

.532

.411

30.48

22.93

29.96

17.99

57.5 58.5 56.4 44.4
57.4 55.9 51.1 41.6
58.2 56.5 55.7 42.2

98.1
89.0
95.7

75.9
74.4
74.7

.471
.395
.499

.365
.291
.398

27.08
22.67
29.04

21. 35
16.27
22.49

26.57
20.17
27.81

16.21
12.09
16.81

Total, quarry........ 57.6 56.0 54.2 43.0

94.1

76.8

.492

.389

28.34

21.78

26.67

16.74

61.7 56.2 60.4 46.8
56.9 58.6 55.8 49.0

97.9
98.1

83.3
83.6

.506
.503

.394
.362

31.22
28.62

22.14
21.21

30.59
28.05

18.46
17.72

66.8 64.0 63.8 50.2
66.1 65.1 62.3 51.5
66.3 63.6 61.2 47.4

95.5
94.3
92.3

78.4
79.1
74.5

.428
.479
.454

.323
.340
.355

28.59
31.66
30.10

20.67
22.13
22.58

27.28
29.84
27.78

16. 21
17.48
16.85

52.4
50.0
51.8
51.5
46.1
50.1

93.0
92.4
92.9
93.0
94.4
98.5

81.2
82.1
81.3
81.0
76.5
78.6

.503
.505
.504
.406
.405
.500

.395
.386
.393
.348
.318
.382

33.60
32.77
33. 26
27.85
25.39
32.30

25.48
23. 51
25.03
22.13
19.18
24.33

31.21
30.31
30.86
25.90
24.01
30.19

20.69
19.27
20. 35
17.94
14.63
19.11

Total, raw.............. 64.5 62.5 60.7 49.7

94.1

79.5

.464

.360

29.93

22.50

28.17

17.90

44.9
50.5
54.2
54.4
46.3

92.9
94.6
96.2
89.0
94.1

78.0
76.6
82.4
80.2
75.7

.423
.461
.519
.363
.459

.352
.355
.399
.285
.379

29.78
30.66
35.45
25.85
31.03

20.28
23.39
26.25
19.32
23.19

27.69
29.00
34.12
23.02
29.21

15.78
17.90
21.65
15.52
17. 56

Total, coal mill___ 68.5 64.8 64.2 51.4

93.7

79.3

.457

.366

31.30

23.72

29.35

18.82

99.7
94.6

87.4
79.1

.628
.534

.495
.409

40.32
34.87

30.74
25.19

40.16
33.03

26.84
19.91

Raw

Unloaders, mechanical,
male________ _________
Crusher operators, male.
Conveyor men and ele­
vator men,.....................
Raw-mixer tenders, male.
Drier men............ ............
Raw millers, male:
Primary.....................
Secondary..................
Total raw millers..
Oilers, male......................
Laborers, male.................
Other employees, male..

66.8
64.9
66.0
68.6
62.7
64.6

64.5
60.9
63.7
63.6
60.3
63.7

62.1
60.0
61.3
63.8
59.2
60.4

C oal m ill

Conveyor men and ele­
vator men......................
Drier men.........................
Coal millers, male...........
Laborers, male.................
Other employees, male..

70.4
66.5
68.3
71.2
67.6

57.6
65.9
65.8
67.8
61.2

65.4
62.9
65.7
63.4
63.6

C lin k er

Burners, male:
First............................ 64.2 62.1 64.0 54.3
Second........................ 65.3 61.6 61.8 48.7
Total burners........ 64.6 62.1 63.1 53.4

97.7

86.0

.591

.482

38.18

29.93

37.27

25.70

69.3 68.0 65.7 55.6
65.7 65.8 62.7 50.6

94.8
95.4

81.8
76.9

.456
.456

.347
.346

31.60
29.96

23.60
22.77

29.95
28.58

19.27
17.50

69.4
66.3
69.4
67.2
67.7

51.7
53.5
53.0
46.8
51.3

92.2
93.4
96.7
87.1
95.3

80.0
81.1
81.4
74.4
80.4

.437
.498
.449
.422
.497

.338
.380
.355
.307
.391

30.33
33.02
31.16
28.36
33.65

21.83
25.08
23.11
19.31
24.95

27.96
30.82
30.16
24.66
32.05

17.45
20.34
18.82
14.39
20.05

Total, clinker_____ 67.1 64.2 63.3 52.1

94.3

81.2

.495

.389

33.21

24.97

31.32

20. 27

Cooler tenders, male____
Gypsum mixers, male..
Conveyor men and ele­
vator men......................
Clinker millers, male___
Oilers, male......................
Laborers, male_________
Other employees, male..




64.6
66.0
65.1
62.9
63.8

64.0
61.9
67.1
58.5
64.5

1001

PORTLAND CEMENT INDUSTRY
T

A V E R A G E HOURS A N D EA R N IN G S A N D P E R C E N T OF FU LL T IM E W O R K E D
IN W E E K , IN T H E P O R TL A N D C E M E N T IN D U S T R Y , 1929 A N D 1932,B Y D E P A R T M E N T ,
O C C U PATIO N , AN D S E X — Continued

able 1 —

Average
full-time
hours per
week

Department, occupa­
tion, and sex

Hours actually worked
in 1 week
Average
number

1929 1932 1929 1932

Percent of
full time

Average
earnings
per hour

Average
full-time
earnings
per week

Average ac­
tual earnings
in 1 week

1929

1932

44.6
29.1
29.3
40.3
21.5
41.0
0)
36.1
26.9
51.1
38.2
43.0
31.6

94.1
79.9
68.5
90.9
85.7
88.5
86.8
85.3
95.3
93.8
87.3
96.3
91.3

79.9 $0.437
52.4
.870
53.0
.560
73.8
.411
44.8
.328
77.5
.425
.425
0)
66.5
.495
54.1
.493
92.7
.466
.415
70.6
77.9
.554
65.0
.401

Total, cement:
Males............... 56.6 55.1 48.6 34.8
Females........... 52.0 48.6 46.6 27.2

85.9
89.6

63.2
56.0

.612
.389

.418
.386

34.64
20.23

23.03
18.76

29.76
18.12

14.56
10. 52

49.5
49.4
57.9
56.3
57.1
50.2
50.4

96.0
97.8
99.2
97.4
95.5
91.1
93.6

80.0
81.5
90.3
88.4
80.5
80.7
81.0

.523
.589
.582
.450
.461
.395
.557

.404
.480
.476
.389
.339
.313
.431

32. 37
35. 52
37.66
31.19
32.50
24.96
37.37

25.01
29.09
30.51
24.78
24.04
19.47
26.81

31.05
34.74
37.37
30.37
31.03
22.72
35.03

19.96
23. 72
27. 55
21.90
19.34
15. 75
21.69

Total, power.......... 65.8 62.9 62.3 51.4

94.7

81.7

.541

.418

35.60

26.29

33.68

21.51

41.7
48.8
45.2
46.5

93.4
97.4
91.0
95.8

74.6
83.7
79.7
83.3

.651
.572
.371
.562

.529
.444
.301
.468

36.46
35.06
21.78
32.26

29. 57
25.89
17.07
26.11

34.03
34.17
19.77
30.95

22.05
21.70
13. 60
21.78

Total, [shops and
miscellaneous___ 58.5 56.7 55.6 46.5

95.0

82.0

.531

.433

31.06

24. 55

29. 51

20.11

1929

1932

1929

1932

1929

1932

Cem ent

Conveyor men and elevator men......................
Packers (sackers), male..
Loaders, male...................
Sack sorters, male...........
Sack sorters, female........
Sack cleaners, male.........
Sack cleaners, female___
Sack tiers, male...............
Sack tiers, female............
Oilers, male......................
Laborers, male.................
Other employees, male..
Other employees, female.

57.9
56.1
57.2
57.1
53.8
54.7
51.4
55.2
48.9
56.9
57.3
57.0
51.5

55.8
55.5
55.3
54.6
48.0
52.9
0)
54.3
49.7
55.1
54.1
55.2
48.6

54.5
44.8
39.2
51.9
46.1
48.4
44.6
47.1
46.6
53.4
50.0
54.9
47.0

$. 363 $25.30 $20.26 $23.80 $16.18
.518 48.81 28.75 38.97 15.10
.410 32.03 22.67 21.95 12.01
.335 23.47 18.29 21.31 13. 52
.411 17.65 19.73 15.12
8.85
.364 23. 25 19.26 20. 58 14.91
21.85
18.93
0)
(i)
0)
.383 27.32 20.80 23.32 13.83
.391 24.11 19.43 22.98 10.54
.390 26.52 21.49 24.89 19. 93
.326 23.78 17.64 20.75 12.45
.408 31.58 22.52 30.43 17.54
.372 20. 65 18.08 18.86 11.74

Pow er

Firemen............................
Engineers, male...............
Turbine operators, male.
Pumpmen.........................
Oilers, male......................
Laborers, m ale...............
Other employees, male..

61.9
60.3
64.7
69.3
70.5
63.2
67.1

61.9
60.6
64.1
63.7
70.9
62.2
62.2

59.4
59.0
64.2
67.5
67.3
57.6
62.8

S h o p s a n d m iscellan eo u s

Machinists, male
Repairmen........................
Laborers, male.................
Other employees, male..

56.0
61.3
58.7
57.4

55.9
58.3
56.7
55.8

52.3
59.7
53.4
55.0

1 None reported in 1932.

Average hours and earnings and the percent of full time worked by
wage earners of each sex and of both sexes combined, are shown in
table 2 for each of 12 geographic districts. The districts are those
shown by the Bureau of Mines in Portland Cement Industry in 1931,
except that no data are shown in this table for Maine in district 2,
for Louisiana in district 6, for Minnesota and South Dakota in dis-




1002

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

trict 7, for Arkansas in district 8, nor for Idaho and Wyoming in
district 10. The districts are as follows:
D istrict
D istrict
D istrict
D istrict
D istrict
D istrict
D istrict
D istrict
D istrict
D istrict
D istrict
D istrict
T

1.— M aryland, New Jersey, and eastern Pennsylvania.
2 .— New York.
8 .— Ohio, western

Pennsylvania, and W est Virginia.
4-— Michigan.
5 . — Illinois, Indiana, K entucky, and Wisconsin.
6 . — Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Tennessee, and Virginia.
7 .— Iow a and eastern Missouri.
8 . — Kansas, western Missouri, Nebraska, and Oklahoma.
9 . — Texas.
1 0 . — Colorado, M ontana, and Utah.
1 1 . — California.
1 2 . — Oregon and Washington.

a b l e 2 .— A V E R A G E HOURS A N D EA R N IN G S A N D P E R C E N T OF F U LL T IM E W O R K E D
IN 1 W E E K IN T H E P O R T L A N D C E M E N T IN D U S T R Y , 1929 A N D 1932, B Y S E X A N D DIS­
T R IC T

Sex and district

Average
full-time
hours per
week

Hours actilally worked
in 1 week
Average
number

Percent of
full time

Average
earnings
per hour

Average
full-time
earnings
per week

Average
actual
earnings
in 1 week

1929 1932 1929 1932

1929

1932

39.4
41.9
45.0
59.1
43.9
52.4
58.7
49.3
50.0
53.4
49.4
44.2

93.6
91.9
95.1
91.5
91.7
86.7
95.8
95.7
91.9
95.2
98.4
92.9

65.3 $0.554 $0. 416 $33.90 $25. 08 $31.74 $16.39
.551
72.2
.415 33.45 24.07 30.71 17.39
.412 34.32 24.06 32.64 18.54
77.1
.564
.369 35.02 24.90 32.00 21.82
87.6
.495
.408 29. 80 22. 07 27.30 17.93
81.1
82.1
.427
.314 27.33 20.03 23.73 16.43
.479
84.6
.355 29. 51 24.64 28. 22 20.83
.446
.358 26.76 20.66 25.60 17.66
85.4
.373
.348 25.33 21. 54 23. 31 17.39
80.8
.526
98.0
.466 29.88 25.40 28. 45 24.86
.587
91.0
.491 32.40 26.66 31.88 24.23
86.2
.609
.566 32.83 29.04 30.54 25.03

Total males______ 60.8 59.1 56.7 45.8

93.3

77.5

.518

.401

31.49

23. 70

29.33

18.39

(2
) 77.2
96.7
0)
(2
) 78.2
42.7 86.2
21.4 86.8
93.8
0)
16.6 93.3
36.2
(0
86.1
0)
47.9 100.0
32.1
(0

(2
)
0)
(2
)
89.0
43.9
(0
34.6
71.8
(»)
99.8
66.9

.356
.412
.448
.348
.370
.331
.399
(0
.416
.528
0)

(2
)
(0
(2
)
.263
.379
0)
.335
.255
0)
.564
.375

19.08
18. 58
22.58
19.73
19.13
18. 07
23.06
0)
20.30
25.24
0)

(2
)
0)
(2
)
12. 62
18.46
0)
16.08
12.85
0)
27.07
18.00

14.74
17.96
17. 65
17.04
16.63
16.95
21.54
(i)
17.43
25.24
0)

(2
)
0)
(2
)
11. 22
8.11
0)
5. 55
9. 23
0)
27.01
12.03

89.6

56.0

.389

.386

20.23

18.76

18.12

10.52

39.4
41.8
45.0
59.0
43.5
52.4
58.6
49.1
49.9
53.4
49.4
44.0

93.6
91.9
95.1
91.5
91.4
86.7
95.6
95.7
91.8
95.1
98.4
92.9

65.3
72.1
77.1
87.7
80.6
82.1
84.4
85.1
80.7
98.0
91.0
85.8

.553
.550
.558
.562
.494
.427
.476
.446
.373
.525
.586
.608

.416
.415
.412
.369
.408
.314
.355
.358
.348
.465
.491
.564

33.79
33. 33
34. 26
34.84
29. 74
27.33
29. 27
26. 76
25.29
29. 77
32.29
32. 77

25.08
24.07
24.06
24. 83
22.03
20.03
24. 64
20.66
21. 51
25.34
26. 66
28.93

31.70
30.60
32. 57
31.88
27.18
23. 73
27.99
25. 58
23. 25
28.28
31.78
30.48

16.39
17.38
18.54
21.74
17.75
16.43
20.80
17.58
17.33
24.85
24. 25
24.85

Total males and
females_________ 60.8 59.0 56.6 45.7

93.1

77.5

.517

.401

31.43

23.66

29. 25

18. 35

1929

1932

1929

1932

1929

1932

M a le s

61.2
60.7
61.5
63.1
60.2
64.0
61.6
60.0
67.9
56.8
55.2
53.9

60.3
58.0
58.4
67.5
54.1
63.8
69.4
57.7
61.9
54.5
54.3
51.3

57.3
55.8
58.5
56.8
55.2
55.6
59.0
57.4
62.4
54.1
54.3
50.1

S

District 1---------------- -----District 2— ....................
District 3__........ .............
District 4__......................
District 5_______________
District 6----------------------District 7...........................
District 8_______________
District 9......................... .
District 10. ..................... .
District 11______________
District 12.........................

F e m a le s

District 1..........................
District 2_„.........., ..........
District 3........ ..................
District 4_______________
District 5------------- --------District 7__......................
District 8______ ________
District 9..........................
District 10--------------------District 11_______ ______
District 12______ _______

53.6
45.1
50.4
56.7
51.7
54.6
57.8
(i)
48.8
47.8
0)

(2
)
0)
(2
)
48.0
48.7
0)
48.0
50.4
0)
48.0
48.0

41.4
43.6
39.4
48.9
44.9
51.2
53.9
(0
42.0
47.8
(0

Total females____ 52.0 48.6 46.6 27.2
M a le s a n d fe m a le s

District 1.......... ................
District 2_______________
District 3__------------------District 4............ .............
District 5__......................
District 6__......................
District 7.......... ................
District 8----------------------District 9--------------------District 10--------------------District 11______________
District 12.......... .............

61.1
60.6
61.4
62.0
60.2
64.0
61.5
60.0
67.8
56.7
55.1
53.9

60.3
58.0
58.4
67.3
54.0
63.8
69.4
57.7
61.8
54.5
54.3
51.3

57.3
55.7
58.4
56.7
55.0
55.6
58.8
57.4
62.3
53.9
54.2
50.1

1 Data included in total.




i None reported in 1932.

1003

PORTLAND CEMENT INDUSTRY

Table 3 shows for the wage earners of each sex and of both sexes
combined in each State, or groups of two States, average hours and
earnings and the percent of full time worked in 1 week in 1932.
T

3 . — A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S OF W A G E E A R N E R S A N D P E R C E N T OF
F U LL T IM E W O R K E D IN 1 W E E K , IN T H E P O R T L A N D C E M E N T IN D U S T R Y , 1932,
B Y S E X A N D ST ATE

able

Sex and State

Aver­
age
full­
time
hours
per
week

Hours actually
worked in 1
week

Aver­
age
earn­
ings
per
hour

Aver­
age
fulltime
earn­
ings
per
week

Aver­
age
num­
ber

Per­
cent of
full
time

66.0
54.3
54.0
65.2
51.4
54.5
73.9
57.8
57. 7
68.3
66.1
54. 7
69.9
58.0
53.2
52.4
52.6
58.5
60.0
61.9
55.4
62.4
50.6
59.1

51.3
49.4
52.3
61.3
44.4
42.8
63. 7
43.8
38.1
58.3
57.8
53.9
46.8
41.9
45.6
46.9
46.8
38.8
47.4
50.0
55.7
48.0
42.9
45.8

77.7
91.0
96.9
94.0
86.4
78.5
86.2
75.8
66.0
85.4
87.4
98.5
67.0
72.2
85.7
89.5
89.0
66.3
79.0
80.8
100.5
76.9
84.8
77.5

$0.344
.491
.467
.242
.405
.411
.331
.350
.401
.374
.380
.335
.387
.415
.433
.385
.523
.423
.334
.348
.463
.359
.591
.401

$22.70
26.66
25.22
15.78
20.82
22.40
24.46
20.23
23.14
25.64
25.12
18.32
27.05
24.07
23.04
20.17
27.51
24.75
20.04
21.54
25.65
22.40
29.90
23.70

$17.61
24.23
24.41
14.80
17.99
17.60
21.08
15.32
15.30
21.81
21.96
18. 07
18.12
17.39
19.75
18.05
24.44
16.41
15.83
17.39
25. 78
17. 26
25.35
18.39

48.0
48. 0
48.8
(2
)
48.0
(2
)
48.0
48.0
50.4
(2
)
48.0
48.6

47.9
46.9
15.3
(2
)
42.7
(2
)
16.6
25. 2
36.2
(2
)
37.3
27.2

99.8
97.7
31.4
(2
)
89.0
(2
)
34. 6
52. 5
71.8
(2
)
77.7
56.0

.564
.342
.406
(2
)
.263
(2
)
.335
.379
. 255
(2
)
.373
.386

27.07
16.42
19.81
(2
)
12.62
(2
)
16. 08
18.19
12.85
(2
)
17.90
18. 76

27. 01
16. 01
6. 21
(2
)
11.22
(2
)

66. 0
54.3
54.0
65. 2
51.3
54.4
73.8
57.8
57.7
68.2
66.1
64. 7
69.9
58.0
53. 2
52.3
52.5
58.5
60.0
61.8
55.4
62.4
50.6
59.0

51.3
77. 7
49. 4
91. 0
52.3
96.9
61.3
94.0
44.4
86.5
42.1
77.4
86. 0
63.5
75.8
43.8
38.1
66.0
58.2
85.3
57. 8
87.4
53.9
98.5
46.8
67.0
41.8
72.1
85. 7
45.6
46.1
88.1
46.4
88.4
38.8
66.3
47.4
79.0
49.9
80.7
100.5
55.7
48.0
76.9
42.8
84.6
45.7 1 77.5 1

.344
.491
.467
.242
.404
.411
.331
.350
.401
.373
.380
.335
.387
.415
. 433
.384
.521
.423
.334
.348
.462
.359
.589
.401

22.70
26.66
25. 22
15. 78
20. 73
22.36
24.43
20.23
23.14
25.44
25.12
18. 32
27.05
24.07
23.04
20.08
27.35
24.75
20.04
21. 51
25.59
22.40
29.80
23. 66

17.61
24. 25
24.41
14.80
17. 97
17.31
21. 03
15.32
15.30
21.74
21. 96
18.07
18.12
17.38
19.75
17. 73
24.18
16.41
15.83
17.33
25.72
17.26
25.21
18.35

M a le s

Alabama.................................
_
_ __
California..........- ................................. _.............................
Colorado and Montana L _ .......................................... .
Georgia and Florida1......................................... .........- -Illinois...... .........- ..........................................
.............
Indiana and Kentucky 1
____________________________
Iowa________________ I_........
......
........
Kansas....................................... ................. .........................
Maryland and West Virginia 1 ______ _______________
Michigan and Wisconsin^.
_____
_
____
Missouri_______________ _____________________________
Nebraska___ ___________
_
New Jersey________________
_________
____ __
New Y o rk .................................... ............ .....................
Ohio................................................. ................................
Oklahoma. __________________________________________
Oregon.............................................................................
Pennsylvania________________ _______________________
Tennessee___________________
____
_____ .
Texas....................................................... ........................... .
Utah.....................................................................................
Virginia......... .................................................................
Washington__________ ______________________________
Total males______ ____ ________________________
F e m a le s

California_____________________________ _____________
Illinois___ ___________________________________________
Indiana and Kentucky i_____________________________
Michigan and Wisconsin 1___________________________
New Y ork .________ _____ ___________________________
Oklahoma__________________________________________
Oregon_____________________
. . .
.
.
Texas_______ ___________________
Utah................................. ............. .......................................
Washington_________________________________________
Total females. _________________________________
M a le s a n d fe m a le s

Alabama_________________________________
_____
California__________________
_
_____
Colorado and Montana 1___________ ________________
Georgia and Florida1__________
_________ ________
Illinois_____________________________ ______________
Indiana and Kentucky i.............. ........................... ..........
Kansas................................................. .......... ......................
Maryland and West Virginia 1________ ______________
Michigan and Wisconsin 1
______ ____________________
Missouri__ ___________________ ___ ____
Nebraska__________________ __ ______ _ _______
New Jersey____________ ____________________________
New York_______________________________ ____ ______
Ohio.... .............................. ............................................. .
Oklahoma___________________________________________
Oregon______________ . _________ ________________
Pennsylvania____ ___________________________________
Tennessee_______________ _______________ __________
Texas________ _______________________________________
Utah........................................ .............. ............................
Virginia____________________________ ____ ___________
W ashington...._____________________________________
Total males and females................ ....................... .

1 Shown together to avoid presenting data for 1 establishment in any State.

* Data included in totals.




Aver­
age
actual
earn­
ings
in 1
week

9. 23
*
(2
)
13.89
10.52

1004

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

P o tte ry In d u s try — H o u rs and E a rn in g s, 1932
T h is article presents the results of a study made by the Bureau of
Labor Statistics of wages and hours of labor in the general-ware pot­
tery industry in 1932, together with comparable data for 1925. The
data are presented, by occupation and sex, for each of two kinds of
pottery ware, semivitreous and vitreous, and for all occupations com­
bined in each of these two divisions of the industry. The details of
the 1932 study were published in the Monthly Labor Review for
April 1933 (p. 853). Each study covered a representative pay period
of 2 weeks in the summer and the early fall.
The Bureau collected wage figures for 6,666 males and 3,657 fe­
males from 46 representative semivitreous-ware potteries in 8 States
and 1,619 males and 1,065 females in 7 vitreous-ware potteries
in 4 States in 1925; and for 4,086 males and 2,381 females of 27
semivitreous-ware potteries in 9 States and 1,429 males and 990
females of 12 vitreous potteries in 4 States in 1932. Many of the
semivitreous potteries that were included in 1925 were out of business
or not in operation in 1932. The semivitreous-ware wage figures for
1925 are for 31 potteries in Ohio, 7 in West Virginia, 3 in New
Jersey, 2 in Pennsylvania, and 1 each in Maryland, Tennessee,
and Virginia; and for 1932 are for 11 in Ohio, 8 in West Virginia, 2
in New Jersey, and 1 each in Pennsylvania, Maryland Tennessee,
Virginia, Illinois, and Indiana. The vitreous-ware figures in 1925
are for 3 potteries in New York, 2 in Pennsylvania, and 1 each
in New Jersey and West Virginia, and in 1932 are for 4 in New
York, 3 in Pennsylvania, 3 in West Virginia, and 2 in Ohio.
Table 1 shows for the wage earners covered in each of the more
important occupations in semivitreous-ware and in vitreous-ware
potteries in 1925 and in 1932 and also for a miscellaneous group desig­
nated as “ Other employees” average hours worked in 2 weeks and
per day, and average earnings in 2 weeks, per day, and per hour.
T

able

1.—AVE R A G E HOURS A N D EAR N IN G S IN T H E P O T T E R Y IN D U S T R Y , 1925 A N D
1932, B Y K IN D OF W A R E , O CCUPATIO N , A N D S E X
Average hours
worked—

Kind of ware, occupation,
and sex

In 2 weeks

Average earnings-

Per day

1925

1932

1925 1932

All occupations:
Males....................................... ....... 74.4
Females.......................................... 69.0
Males and females_____ ________ 72.5

59.3
54.6
57.6

8.1
7.8
8.0

Slip makers, male.......... ................. __
Laborers, slip house, male............___
Mold makers, male............. ...............
Clay carriers, male..................... .........
Batters-out, male............................
Cup bailers, male................................
Jiggermen..............................................
Mold runners, male............................
Finishers, male............... - ....................
Finishers, female..................................
Dish makers, male...............................
Dish makers’ helpers, male................
Dish makers’ helpers, female............
Turners, male................... —................
Turners’ spongers, male___________
Turners’ spongers, female__________

70.9
66.6
56.9
69.0
57.7
54.7
59.0
58.9
57.4
61.0
74.7
64.5
38.5
47.8
41.5
91.1

9.0 ~iTo
8.6 7.9
8.2 8.3
8.7 8.6
8.1 7.8
7.7 7.4
8.1 7.7
7.9 7.8
7.6 7.7
7.4 7.7
8.8 8.6
8.5 8.1
4.3
0)
7.9 6.5
8.2 6.1
7.9 7.6

In 2 weeks
1925

Per day

1932

1925

7.7 $52.44 $31.74
7.7 26.54 15.95
7.7 43.27 25.93

$5.70
2.99
4.76

1932

Per hour
1925

1932

Sem ivitreo u s

See footnotes at end of table.




83.7
76.9
85.8
75.3
65.7
62.8
69.3
64.7
65.7
59.5
78.3
78.2
0)
67.0
69.4
61.4

62.50
44.22
91.28
46.19
37.14
21.35
62.54
30.47
35.75
31.19
63.66
41.56
0)
63.10
24.52
19.44

36.82
30.42
45.79
29.74
25.46
16.51
39.87
20.54
22.38
23.99
52.08
28.85
13.50
37.44
11.80
18.43

6.74
4.96
8.75
5.37
4.59
2.62
7.27
3.73
4.12
3.89
7.18
4.54
0)
7.48
2.89
2.49

$4.13 $0.705 $0.535
2.25
.385
.292
3.47
.596
.450
4.14
3.61
6.66
3.70
3.45
2.24
5.20
2.71
2.98
3.05
6.01
3.62
1.50
5.06
1.73
1.54

.746
.575
1.064
.614
.565
.340
.902
.471
.544
.524
.813
.532
0)
.942
.354
.317

.519
.457
.805
.431
.441
.302
.676
.348
.390
.394
.697
.447
.351
.783
.284
.202

1005

POTTERY INDUSTRY

T ab le 1 . - A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S IN TH E P O T T E R Y IN D U S T R Y , 1925 A N D
1932, B Y K IN D OF W A R E , O CC U P A TIO N , A N D SEX-Continued
Average hours
worked—
Kind of ware, occupation,
and sex

In 2 weeks
1925

S em ivitreo u s —Continued
Handlers, male.....................................
Handle casters and finishers, male..
Handle casters and finishers, female.
Stickers-up, male...............................
Casters, male........................................
Pressers, male.......................................
Laborers, sagger shop, male............. .
Sagger makers, hand, male............
Sagger makers’ helpers, hand, male.
Sagger makers, machine, male........ .
Kiln placers, bisque, male............ .
Kiln placers, boss, bisque, male____
Firemen, bisque and glost.................
Kiln drawers, bisque and glost, male.
Kiln drawers, boss, bisque, and
glost, male..........................................
Laborers, kiln shed, male...................
Drawers (in warehouse), bisque and
glost, male..........................................
Drawers (in warehouse), bisque and
glost, female.......................................
Brushers, male......................................
Brushers, female............................ .
Stampers, bisque, female.............. .
Glaze mixers, male..............................
Glaze mixers’ helpers, male________
Ware boys........................................ .
Dippers, male............................ ..........
Dippers’ helpers, male............. ..........
Dippers’ helpers, female
Kiln placers, glost, male___________
Kiln placers, boss, glost, male.........
Pin boys.................................................
Dressers (grinders), male....................
Dressers, female................................ .
Dressers, forelady..............................
W arehousemen.....................................
Selectors, male.....................................
Selectors, female................................. .
Ware carriers, male—______ _______
Dusters, female....................................
Stampers, gold, female.................. .
Gilders and liners, male................ .
Gilders and liners, female—............. .
Cutters, decalcomania, female_____
Transferrers, decalcomania and
print, female..................................
Printers, male.............................. .........
Kiln placers, and drawers, decorat­
ing, male.............................................
Firemen, decorating..................... .......
Burnishers, female...............................
Wrappers, female............................. .
Straw boys. ..........................................
Packers, male.................................. .
Packers, strawless, male. ............... .
Packers, strawless, female..................
Packers, head, male.............................
Packers, head, female_____ _________
Other employees, male.......................
Other employees, female___________

1932

Average earnings-

Per day
1925 1932

In 2 weeks
1932

1925

56.7 8.2
60.4 8.2
96.0 8.8
77.4 9.1
71.6 9.0
50.0 8.8
51.2 8.7
56.1 8.3
43.4 8.1
61.4 8.5
46.2 6.6
53.0 6.6
91.6 11.2
40.3 6.0

7.3 $68.10 $43.22
7.4 39.27 23.66
8.0 25. 32 28.33
7.6 42.23 28.72
8.6 72.29 43.10
8.3 52.62 61.00
7.5 44.56 19.62
7.4 68.27 39.70
6.8 53. 65 23.64
8.0 46.49 33.36
6.6 62.82 35.63
6.8 79.84 49.04
9.3 68.51 42.87
6.6 33.89 20.61

$7.85
4.35
3.25
5.41
8.08
5.74
4.75
8.01
6.39
5.38
6.96
8.40
5.96
4.29

54.3
92.0

54.1
76.5

7.3
8.3

O

71.3
74.4
68.9
71.2
80.1
81.1
81.3
71.0
67.7
73.9
59.7
62.7
129.1
47.2

6.0
9.2

1925

Per day

44.92
46.43

32.04
29.74

5.00
4. 66

1932

Per hour
1925

1932

$5.60 $0,955 $0.763
2.88
.392
.528
2.36
.367
.295
2.82
.593
.371
5.18
.903
.602
10.17
.649 1.220
2.87
.548
.383
5.23
.961
.708
3.71
.793
.545
4.34
.629
.543
5.12 1.052
.771
6.29 1.273
.926
4.36
.531
.468
3.39
.718
.511
4.34
3.22

.827
.505

.592
.389

99.5

0)

8.3

0)

19.42

(9

1.62

0)

.195

48.1 46.9
0) 101. 5
66.3 54.6
71.5 60.4
92.2 77.7
86.1 63.3
65.9 58.6
60.8 50.9
74.0 66.4
54.8 48.7
62.2 50.6
65.9 56.3
67.3 46.9
61.8
0)
68.0 48.4
80.6 58.3
89.1 56.6
71.6
0)
48.3
0)
87.1 59.8
82.8 50.2
67.1 62.2
76.9 52.2
71.2 52.1
84.0 63.2

6.0
0)
7.7
7.7
9.0
8.7
7.3
6.6
7.3
6.7
6.8
6.8
6.9
0)
7.8
8.3
8.8
0)
0)
8.5
8.5
7.8
8.0
7.5
8.5

6.9
8.5
7.8
7.7
8.7
8.6
7.6
6.7
7.6
7.0
7.2
7.3
6.4
8.0
7.7
8.1
7.9
8.5
8.2
8.0
8.2
7.0
6.8
6.9
8.2

22.07
0)
21. 21
23. 55
48.38
43.02
33.43
75.02
27. 26
21.03
64.85
82.16
39. 51
0)
23.67
39.35
52.11
(0
0)
28.44
20.49
26.95
58.37
37.56
29.25

14. 65
13.96
13.03
14.71
32.05
26.89
21.21
41.36
16.89
13. 66
38. 26
50.51
21.47
20.12
13.68
25.73
26.43
27.48
11.73
20. 51
11.50
15.79
30.66
20.15
19.08

2.76
0)
2.46
2.55
4.72
4.35
3.70
8.20
2. 70
2.56
7.10
8.53
4.08
0)
2.73
4.07
5.12
0)
0)
2. 79
2.11
3.13
6.05
3.95
2.95

2.15
1.16
1.86
1.88
3.60
3.65
2.74
5.43
1.93
1.95
5.48
6.58
2.94
2.61
2.18
3.58
3.71
3.26
1.98
2.76
1.87
1.78
4.01
2.68
2.48

.459
0)
.320
.330
.525
.500
.508
1.233
.368
.384
1.042
1.247
.587
0)
.348
.488
.585
0)
0)
.326
.248
.402
.759
.528
.348

.313
.138
.239
.244
.413
.425
.362
.813
.254
.280
.756
.897
.457
.325
.283
.441
.467
.384
.243
.343
.229
.254
.588
.387
.302

76.4
70.4

56.6
67.1

8.2
7.8

8.0
7.4

28.63
48.20

16.35
37.93

3.09
5.36

2.33
4.16

.375
.685

.289
.565

75.6
99.6
60.2
76.7
68.3
70.4
(0
0)
83.5
0)
88.7
72.5

53.9
62.5
(2
)
52.1
69.2
57.8
31.7
62.9
78.6
71.8
76.8
74.1

7.9
9.9
6.3
8.4
7.5
7.2
0)
0)
8.0
(0
8.8
8.3

8.0
8.6
(2
)
7.2
7.9
6.8
6.1
7.9
7.5
7.2
8.8
8.4

58. 37
88.66
15.29
21.59
22.17
59.95
0)
0)
80.25
0)
45. 05
23.83

27.32
38.92
(2
)
11.30
17.95
32.76
6.76
14.63
54.33
20.33
30. 62
16.14

6.08
8.82
1.61
2.36
2.45
6.17
0)
0)
7. 67
4.45
2.72

4.05
5.38
(2
)
1.57
2.04
3.87
1.30
1.84
5. 22
2.03
3.52
1.84

.772
.890
.254
.281
.325
.851
0)
0)
.962
0)
.508
.329

.507
.623
(2
)
.217
.259
.567
.213
.233
.691
.283
.399
.218

All occupations:
Males.................................. ........... 83.5
Females........................................... 77.4
Males and females................ .
81.1

45.8
40.6
43.7

8.2
7.7
8.0

7.2
7.2
7.2

53.25
25.47
42.23

25.03
10. 72
19.15

5.25
2. 55
4.19

3.94
1.90
3.16

.638
.329
.521

.546
.264
.438

Slip makers, male................................
Laborers, slip house, male.................
Mold makers, male..............................
Clay carriers, male...............................
Batters-out, male.................................
Cup bailers, male.................................

66.4
44.8
47.6
44.4
37.1
34.8

9.2
8.9
8.0
8.3
8.4
0)

8.1
7.6
8.1
7.7
6.6
7.2

77.16
44.59
82.39
40.23
32.42
0)

39.65
19.86
36. 51
17.33
15.91
14.06

6.71
4.52
8.12
3.86
3.46
0)

4.81
3.36
6.18
3.00
2.82
2.90

.727
.506
1.014
.463
.414
(0

.597
.444
.766
.391
.429
.404

0)

V itreo us

See footnotes at end of table.




106.1
88.1
81.2
86.9
78.4
0)

1006
T

able

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

1 .— A VER AG E

HOURS A N D EAR N IN G S IN T H E P O T T E R Y IN D U S T R Y , 1925 A N D
1932, B Y K IN D OF W A R E , OCC U PATIO N , A N D S E X — Continued
Average hours
worked—

Kind of ware, occupation,
and sex

In 2 weeks
1925

V itreo u s — Continued
Jiggermen.............................................. 82.1
Mold runners, male............................. 71.2
Finishers, male..................................... 77.9
Finishers, female................................. 77.2
Dish makers, male.............................. 89.7
0)
Dish makers’ helpers, male________
Dish makers’ helpers) female............
m
Turners, male....................................... 77.5
Turners’ spongers, male..................... 84.4
Turners’ spongers, female.................. 63.3
Handlers, male..................................... 89.2
Handlers, female.................................. 0)
Handle casters and finishers, male— 80.2
Handle casters and finishers, female. 84.2
Stickers-up, male.................................
0)
Casters, male........................................ 89.5
Casters, female................................... . (i)
Pressers, male....................................... 91.5
Laborers, sagger shop, male............... 90.0
Sagger makers, hand, male................ 65.2
Sagger makers’ helpers, hand, male. 89.5
Sagger makers, machine, male.......... 83.4
Kiln placers, bisque, male.............
62.9
Kiln placers, boss, bisque, male....... '66.5
Firemen, bisque and glost_________ 128.2
Kiln drawers, bisque and glost,
male.................................................... 72.6
Kiln drawers, boss, bisque and
glost, male.......................................... 65.0
Laborers, kiln shed, male.................. 84.7
Drawers (in warehouse), bisque
and glost, female............................. 73.6
Ware cleaners (sand blasters and
tumblers), male................................
(!)
Brushers, females 3.......................... . 79.7
Ware cleaners (brushers and sand­
blasters), female................................ 0)
Stampers, bisque, female................... 76.2
Glaze mixers, male.............................. 95.8
Glaze mixers* helpers, male............... 97.8
Ware boys.............................................. 77.6
Dippers, male_____________ _______ 79.6
Dippers’ helpers, male........................ 75.6
Dippers’ helpers, female..................... 79.6
Kiln placers, glost, male.................... 71.3
Kiln placers, boss, glost, male______ 78.1
Pin boys........................................... .
0)
Dressers, male...................................... 89.9
Dressers (grinders), male............... .
0)
Dressers, female................................. . 70.8
Dressers, forelady.................... .......... (0
Warehousemen...... ................... .......... 94.7
Selectors, male..................... ............. . 0)
Selectors, female...................................
0)
Ware carriers, m ale.......................... . 91.0
Ware cleaners (washers), male_____
0)
Ware cleaners (dusters and wash­
ers), female................................. ....... 0)
Stampers, gold, female_____________ 74.6
Gilders and liners, male..................... 83.1
Gilders and liners, female................... 71.4
Cutters, decalcomania, female_____ 83.3
Transferrers, decalcomania and
print, female...................................... 77.7
Printers, male..................................... . 79.7
Kiln placers and drawers, deco­
rating, male....................................... 86.4
Firemen, decorating............................ 118.5
Burnishers, female....... ....................... 71.7
Wrappers, female................................. 84.7
Straw boys............................................ 73.9
Packers, male....................................... 86.4
Packers, strawless, female.................
0)
Packers, head, male............................ 94.4
Other employees, male....................... 89.0
Other employees, female.................... 80.4

i None reported in 1925.




1932

Average earnings-

Per day
1925 1932

38.1 8.3
32.6 7.7
45.4 8.6
39.8 7.9
39.5 8.5
(i)
14.8
37.3
0)
44.4 8.0
43.4 8.3
27.5 7.9
47.6 8.4
20.5
0)
52.1 8.1
24.5 7.8
10.0
0)
51.4 8.9
42.3
0)
8.9
(2
)
42.4 8.6
44.0 7.8
20.3 9.0
45.3 7.4
34.3 6.6
40.6 6.4
82.7 10.7

In 2 weeks

Per day

Per hour
1925

1932

1932

1925

1932

7.3 $73.70 $27.56
6.6 28.31 11.80
7.1 37.22 20.15
7.0 30.49 12.47
7.0 73.67 37.20
(i)
7.15
3.7
15.85
6.8
0)
7.2 66.38 31. 28
6.8 24.60 12.84
6.91
7.4 17.26
6.4 82.24 34.44
8.80
7.8
(0
7.0 29.29 18.00
7.96
6.5 33.41
3.3
3.18
0)
7.8 72.94 30.87
15.98
7.1
0)
81.10
(2
)
(2
)
6.9 43.34 16.68
7.6 65.85 26.91
9.21
7.6 60.97
6.5 77.98 25.06
5.9 63.07 27.22
6.1 83.05 38.02
9.7 80.39 41. 61

$7.41
3.08
4.09
3.14
8.95
0)
0)
6.84
2.41
2.16
7.75
0)
2.96
3.09
0)
7.23
0)
7.91
4.12
7.86
6.10
6.93
6.57
7.97
6.73

$5.29 $0,898 $0.724
.362
2.38
.398
.444
3.15
.478
.313
2.18
.395
.821
.943
6.56
.485
1.79
0)
.426
2.88
0)
.705
.857
5.10
.292
.296
2.01
.251
.273
1.87
.724
4.63
.922
.429
3.34
0)
.346
2.41
.365
.325
2.11
.397
.318
1.06
0)
.601
4.69
.815
.378
2. 66
0)
.887
(2
)
(2
)
.394
2.73
.481
.612
4.68 1.010
.453
3.45
.681
.553
.935
3.58
.794
4. 72 1.002
.937
5.72 1.249
.503
4.90
.627

1925

29.6

6.9

6.8

49.26

15. 21

4.65

3.49

.678

.513

40.7
45.8

6.5
8.8

6.3
7.0

52.63
40.85

21.89
17.31

5.26
4.24

3.40
2. 65

.810
.482

.538
.378

41.6

6.9

7.3

22.04

11.05

2.05

1.93

.300

.266

39.4
(2
)

0)
7.8

7.3
(2
)

0)
22.70

15.38
(2
)

0)
2.24

2.85
(2
)

0)
.285

.390
(2
)

46.0
56.3
68.5
36.0
52.8
48.1
53.1
44.9
38.6
39.6
19.0
(2
)
38.8
46.0
65.0
45.0
39.2
57.6
62.1
51.3

0)
7.9
8.6
8.5
7.8
7.5
7.8
8.0
7.0
7.3
0)
8.1
0)
7.6
0)
8.7
0)
0)
8.7
0)

7.0
8.0
7.6
6.0
6.6
6.5
7.1
5.9
6.0
6.2
6.3
(2
)
7.2
7.3
8.7
7.4
7.4
6.9
7.6
7.3

0)
20.75
52.76
46.48
36.64
72.97
27.93
26. 30
68.73
84.18
0)
45.23
(l)
18. 66
(0
50. 30
(0
(0
32.20
0)

11.47
12.72
30.29
14.58’
16.98
32.57
14. 54
11.80
27.73
34.12
11.25
(2
)
17.49
10.91
26.95
21. 22
16.78
15.30
23. 54
17.19

0)
2.16
4. 72
4.04
3. 66
6.88
2.89
2.63
6.73
7.86
0)
4.06
0)
2.01
0)
4. 62
0)
(0
3.07
0)

1.75
1.82
3.37
2.43
2.13
4.40
1.94
1. 55
4.29
5.31
3. 75
(2
)
3.25
1.73
3. 59
3. 47
3.16
1.84
2.89
2.46

0)
.272
.551
.475
.472
.917
.369
.330
.964
1.078
(0
.503
(0
.263
0)
.531
0)
(!)
.354
0)

.249
.226
.442
.405
.322
.677
.274
.263
.718
.862
.592
(2
)
.451
.237
.415
.471
.428
.266
.379
.335

34.0
56.9
40.9
48.1
32.7

0)
7.6
7.8
7.6
7.5

6.9
7.7
6.4
7.4
7.9

0)
17.53
74.25
45.28
21.92

7.54
14. 57
27.55
16.35
8.07

0)
1.79
6.94
4.80
1.97

1. 53
1. 97
4.32
2.52
1.95

0)
.235
.893
.634
.263

.222
.256
.674
.340
.247

36.8
47.1

7.8
7.9

7.3
7.5

25.77
61.10

8.85
28.20

2. 59
6.07

1.75
4.52

.332
.766

.240
,599

23.45
5.03
44.83
5.74
11.39
2.97
18. 72
1.90
13.84
2.91
31.58
5.41
11.96
0)
44.88 ’ 9.39
29.14
4. 50
9. 51
2.20

3.17
4.08
1.80
1.97
2.31
4.49
1.79
4.49
3.91
1.75

.619
.553
.448
.238
.354
.654
0)
1.144
.517
.283

.485.
.550
.248
.260
.330
.638
.240
.587
.482
.248

48.3 8.1
81.5 10.4
45.9 6.6
72.0 8.0
41.9 8.2
49.5 8.3
49.8
0)
76.4 8.2
60.4 8.7
38.4 7.8

6.5 53. 52
7.4 65.47
7.2 32.08
7.6 20.18
7.0 26.15
7.0 56.45
7.5
0)
7.6 107.99
8.1 45.98
7.0 22.73

* None reported in 1932.

» Called ware cleaners in 1932 study.

1007

PUBLIC LIBRARIES

Table 2 shows average hours and earnings for the wage earners
covered in semivitreous potteries in 1925 and 1932 and in vitreous
potteries in 1932. The averages are for each sex separately and for
both sexes combined, and are shown by groups instead of by individual
States, as for many of the major industries, to avoid presenting figures
for one pottery alone.
The geographical groups for semivitreous potteries are:
G ro u p 1 .— Potteries in East Liverpool, Ohio, and nearby potteries in West
Virginia directly across the Ohio River from East Liverpool.
G ro u p 2 .— Potteries in Ohio outside East Liverpool, and in Pennsylvania,
Illinois, and Indiana.
G ro u p 3 .— Potteries in Maryland, Tennessee, and Virginia.
G ro u p 4-— Potteries in West Virginia other than those near East Liverpool,
and those in New Jersey.

The groups for vitreous potteries are:
G ro u p 1 .— New York.
G ro u p 2 . — Pennsylvania.
G ro u p 8 .— Ohio and West

Virginia.

T a b l e 3 —A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S IN T H E P O T T E R Y IN D U S T R Y , 1925 A N D

1932, B Y K IN D OF W A R E , S E X , A N D G EO G R APH ICAL GROUP
Average hours worked—
Kind of ware, sex, and geographical
group

In 2 weeks

Per day

Average earnings—
In 2 weeks

Per day

Per hour

1925

1932

1925

M ales.................................. .................. 74.4

59.3

8.1

7.7 $52.44 $31.74 $5.70 $4.13 $0.705 $0,535

71.0
76.6
90.5
65.1

56.3
53.0
88.2
68.4

8.0
8.1
8.3
8.1

8.0
6.9
8.4
8.1

52.27
53. 62
50.89
43.36

Females.................................... ............

69.0

54.6

7.8

7.7

Group 1_______________________
Group 2____ ___________________
Group 3-----------------------------------Group 4_______________________

68.5
68.1
83.6
66.1

52.3
49.8
78.6
67.0

7.8
7.7
8.1
8.0

8.1
7.2
7.8
7.9

Sem ivitreou s

Group 1..........................................
Grotip 2______ _________________
Group 3............- -----------------------Group 4 ._ ----------------------- --------

1932

1925

1932

1925

32.00
27.18
40.98
36. 71

5. 89
5.68
4.68
5. 40

26. 54

15.95

28.31
25.07
25.94
24.89

16. 30
14.10
19. 71
18. 88

1932

1925

1932

4.57
3.56
3.89
4.37

.736
.700
.562
.666

.569
.513
.465
.537

2.99

2.25

.385

.292

3.24
2.82
2.53
3.03

2. 52
2.04
1.96
2.22

.414
.368
.310
.377

.312
.283
.251
.282

Males and females_________________

72.5

57.6

8.0

7.7

43.27

25. 93

4.76

3.47

.596

.450

Group 1_______ ________________
Group 2_______________________
Group 3-------- --------------------------Group 4_____________ . ______
V itreo us 1
Males_________________
_________

70.2
73.3
88.3
65.5

54.8
51.7
85.5
67.9

8.0
8.0
8.3
8.1

8.0
7.0
8.2
8.1

44.29
42.71
42.95
36. 95

26. 35
21. 90
35.14
30.51

5.03
4.63
4.02
4.57

3.87
2.98
3.38
3.62

.631
.582
.486
.565

.481
.423
.411
.449

Group 1______________________
Group 2______________ ________
Group 3_________ ___________ .
Females_________________________

1
2__________________

Group ____________________
Group
Group 3__________ __________
Males and females_____________

_

1
2______

__

Group _____ _______________
Group
____________
Group 3____________ _________
_

45.8

7. 2

25.03

3.94

.546

42.8

7. 5

22. 99

4.04

.537

44. 3
51. 7
40. 6
33.4
39. 6
52.6
43. 7
39.4
41.9
52. r

7.4
6.8
7. 2
7.0
7.4
7.3
7.2
7.4
7.4
7.0

24.09
28.90
10. 72
9.18
11.00
12.97
19.15
17.96
17.16
22.94

4.00
3. 79
1.90
1.92
1.99
1.79
3.16
3. 35
3. 01
3. 07

.544
. 559
.264
. 275
. 271
.246
.438
.456
.410
.441

1No 1925 averages shown for this ware because only 4 of such potteries were included in report in that year.

P u b lic Libraries— Salaries, Decem ber 1934

for various positions in public libraries serving popula­
tions of 200,000 or more show an upward trend, according to an
article in the April 1935 number of the Bulletin of the American
S a l a r ie s




1008

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

Library Association. Only eight libraries in this class, however,
reported general salary advances in the current fiscal year. One
library in the same class reported a general salary reduction. The
increases ranged from 2 to 10 percent. Many salary advances were
merely restorations in whole or in part of the former compensation.
The following table, taken from a more extensive one published in
the above-mentioned bulletin, shows the salaries paid in specified
occupations in libraries in various cities in December 1934.
SALARIES PAID FOR SPECIFIED OCCUPATIONS IN PUBLIC L IBR AR IES IN CITIES OF
OVER 200,000 PO PULATION, D E C E M B E R 1934
Department heads

Chief

Branch and sub­
branch librarians

Catalogers

City
rian

Num- Mini­ Maxi­ Num­ Mini­ Maxi­ Num­ Mini­ Maxi­
ber mum mum ber mum mum ber mum mum

Akron, Ohio__________________ $4,200
3,240
Atlanta, Ga__-...........................
6,580
Baltimore, M d__........................
Birmingham, Ala.2. ................... 3,008
9,140
Brooklyn, N . Y ...... .............. .
5,000
Buffalo, N . Y ..............................
Chicago, 111------------------ ---------Cincinnati, Ohio 2------------------Cleveland, Ohio................. ......... 8,000
3,000
Dallas, Tex------ -------- ------------5, 250
Dayton, Ohio..............................
6,000
Denver, Colo------ ------------------7,457
Detroit, Mich................. ............
3,600
Houston, Tex__---------------------Indianapolis, Ind............. .»------5,378
Jersey City, N . J........................ 5,100
5,160
Los Angeles (city)------------------4,295
Los Angeles (county)3------------6,000
Louisville, Ky. 2.............. ..........
4,500
Memphis, Tenn.2_____________
7,000
Milwaukee, Wis.2. . ...................
5,100
Minneapolis, Minn___________
7,340
New York circulation...............
7,267
Newark, N. J-------------------------6,000
Oakland, Calif-..........................
2,904
Omaha, Nebr— ..------------------Philadelphia2..............................
Pittsburgh, Pa. (old city)------- 4 5,400
3,750
Pittsburgh, Pa. (Allegheny).. .
Queens, Jamaica, N. Y ----------- 10,840
5,400
Rochester, N. Y ..........................
8,500
St. Louis, M o . . . ............. ..........
San Antonio, Tex_____________ 2,052
4,320
San Francisco, Calif.2
-------------3,000
Seattle, Wash..............................
4,500
Syracuse, N . Y ...... .......... ..........
Toledo, Ohio........ ..................... . 5,400
7,600
Washington, D. C__...................
Youngstown, Ohio 2. . . ...........
6, 600

5
6
0)
11
10
11
13
13
11
5
11
13
13
4
12
8
18
7
7
5
11
12
9
12
5
8
20
9
5
8
2
16
3
12
4

im
5
5
3

$2,140 $2, 244
1,350 1,890
1,940 3,008
1,023 2, 256
2,175 3, 600
2,100 2,900
2,042 3,947
1,960 3,000
2,610 3, 870
1,380 1,800
1,785 2,677
1,560 2,500
1,930 3,130
1,410 1,950
1,644 2,412
1,973 2,100
2,124 2,761
1,854 2,291
1,953 1,953
1,500 1,560
2,400 4,500
1,800 2,640
2,195 4,075
1,085 2,684
2,100 2,100
1,344 2,004
1,700 3,000
2,430 3,600
1, 600 2,200
2,140 3,360
2,880 2,880
1, 674 3, 240
1,296 1,620
1,995 2,775
1,800 2,213
1,350 2,250
2,160 2,430
3,040 3,230
2,500 2,820

7
7
0)
10
33
14
44
28
32
4
5
11
18
3
19
16
39
8
7
19
17
22
49
8
18
4
32
13
1
13

$1,275 $1,700
1,200 1,512
1,260 1,571
694 1,354
2,000 2,640
1,600 1,840
1,316 2,586
1,000 1,880
1,800 2,970
1,080 1,380
1,680 2,152
1,200 1,560
1,826 2,191
1,200 1,410
1,116 2,352
1,377 1,560
1,802 1,911
1,036 1,582
1,512 1,602
720 1,650
1,560 2,220
1,560 2,200
2,080 3,965
1,085 2,600
1,560 1,800
1,232 1,568
1,350 1,700
1,458 1,944
1,800
2,195 2,640

14
3
17
10
5
13
8
5

1,593
864
1,513
1,344
1,350
1,440
1,710
1,320

1

1,555

1,971
1, 242
1,995
1,836
2,250
1,980
3,135
2, 280

2
4
0)
1
12
11
5
12
13
3
4
4
13
1
5
7
12
8

$1,275
1,296
972
877
1,440
1,260
1,770
900
1,350
1,200
1,732
840
1,460
1,200
852
1,560
1,256
1,254

$1,615
1,350
1,200

3
5
1
10
3
2
2
3
5
1
5

1,140
1,800
1,620
1,380
1,356
1,380
1,120
1,200
1,242
1,490
1,980

1,560
2,220

14
1
3
i
7
6
1

1,026
960
1,824
1,344
1,365
990
1,482
1,500

1

1,507

u

m

2,000
2,210
2,178
1,800
2,250
1,380
1,995
1,560
1,878
1,644
1,560
1,747
1,636

2,360
1,752
1,800
1,120
1,600
1,800
2,025
1,890
1,824
1,980
2,090

C anad a

Vancouver, B. C .........................

3,442

1 No distribution given.
2 Library also serves county.

5

1,800

1,944

3 As of June 20, 1934.
4 Plus $2,000 as director of library school.

The article in which the above information is published gives
similar data for assistant librarians, division heads, first assistants,
children’s librarians, and professional and nonprofessional assistants.
It also includes information as to vacations, special holdiays, full­
time hours per week, and compensation for work on Sunday and
holidays.
R ayon and O th e r S y n th e tic Y a r n M a n u fa c tu rin g — H o u rs and
E a rn in g s, 1932
S t u d ie s by the Bureau of Labor Statistics of the rayon and other
synthetic yarn industry are for a total of 32,292 wage earners of 21




EATON AND OTHER SYNTHETIC YARN MANUFACTURING

1009

establishments in 1930 and of 25,326 wage earners of 20 establish­
ments in 1932. These figures were computed from wage data col­
lected by the Bureau from establishments for a representative week
in February, March, April, or May 1930, and in October, November,
or December 1932. The data for 1932 are summary figures from
Bulletin No. 587 of the Bureau which also gives more detailed data.
Table 1 shows average hours and earnings for each of the more
important occupations in the industry, and for a group of miscella­
neous wage earners designated “ Other employees.”
T

1 . — A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S A N D P E R C E N T OF FU LL T IM E W O R K E D
IN 1 W E E K IN R A Y O N A N D O TH ER SY N T H E T IC Y A R N M A N U F A C T U R IN G , 1930 A N D
1932, B Y O CCUPATION A N D SE X

able

Occupation and sex

Average
full-time
hours per
week

Hours actually
worked in 1 week
Average
number

1930 1932 1930 1932
All employees:
Males............. - .......... 51.1 48.6 46.7 47.9
Females..................... 49.0 47.6 42.3 44.3
Males and females.. 50.2 48.2 44.8 46.4
C h e m ic a l-b u ild in g
workers, male...............
Spinning-bath
men,
male................................
Spinners, male.................
Spinners, female. ............
Machine cleaners, male..
Spinneret cleaners, male.
Spinneret cleaners, fe­
male................................
Filter cleaners, male........
Filter cleaners, female...
Bobbin washers, male—
Cake washers, male........
Cake wringers, male-----Bobbin driers, male........
Cake driers, male............
Cake inspectors, male—
Cake inspectors, female. _
Pump testers, male.........
Spoolers, male--------------Spoolers, female...............
Twisters and throwers,
male................................
Twisters and throwers,
female-..........................
Reelers and lacers, fe­
male................................
Winders, cone, quill, cop
or bobbin, male............
Winders, cone, quill, cop
or bobbin, female------Skein
washers
and
bleachers, male............
Skein driers, male............
Skein driers, female........
Skein inspectors, male.. .
Skein inspectors, female.
Cone inspectors, male—
Cone inspectors, female.
Wrappers and packers,
male................................
Wrappers and packers,
female..... .......................
Truckers and handlers,
male................................
Truckers and handlers,
female.............................
Laborers, male.................
Laborers, female..............
Other employees, m aleother employees, female.

53.6 50.0 48.3 50.8

1930

91.4
86.3
89.2

1932

1930

1932

Average
full-time
earnings
per week
1930

1932

Average
actual
earnings
in 1 week
1930

1932

98.6 $0,504 $0,408 $25.75 $19.83 $23.53 $19.51
93.1
.344
.283 16.86 13.47 14.55 12.55
.441
.359 22.14 17.30 19.76 16.64
96.3

90.1 101.6

.527

.406

28.25

20.30

25.48 20.58

50.7
49.9
48.0
51.5
51.4

51.5
49.5
0)
47.2
49.6

47.2
42.4
47.8
48.0
49.6

51.6
49.6
0)
45.9
49.9

93.1 100.2
85.0 100.2
99.6 0)
93.2 97.2
96.5 100.6

.588
.564
.310
.458
.555

.402
.457
0)
.352
.404

29.81
28.14
14.88
23.69
28.53

20.70
22.62
0)
16.61
20.04

27.72
23.95
14.81
21.99
27.53

20.73
22.64
0)
16.17
20.16

50.9
52.9
51.7
50.0
54.0
55.6
52.2
55.3
55.3
49.8
52.9
(2
)
45.6

48.4
48.5
49.0
51.4
50.2
0)
50.1
43.2
47.0
0)
47.6
46.7
46.2

50.0
50.1
48.1
49.2
52.9
52.4
50.2
50.2
51.8
45.1
51.7
(2
)
39.2

48.8
50.6
49.6
48.3
43.4
(0
50.4
41.6
42.8
0)
47.8
44.4
37.4

98.2
94.7
93.0
98.4
98.0
94.2
96.2
90.8
93.7
90.6
97.7
(2
)
86.0

100.8
104.3
101.2
94.0
86.5
0)
100.6
96.3
91.1
0)
100.4
95.1
81.0

.298
.457
.313
.463
.487
.449
.452
.490
.526
.346
.501
(2
)
.508

.268
.356
.266
.336
.376
0)
.330
.383
.481
0)
.396
.300
.281

15.17
24.18
16.18
23.15
26.30
24.96
23.59
27.10
29.09
17.23
26. 50
(2
)
23.16

12.97
17.27
13.03
17.27
18.88
(*)
16.53
16.55
22.61
0)
18.85
14.01
12.98

14.87
22.93
15.06
22.77
25.77
23.53
22.69
24.64
27.26
15.61
25.89
(2
)
19.95

13.10
18.03
13.17
16.24
16.32
0)
16.63
15.94
20.58
0)
18.93
13.31
10.54

49.7 47.7 46.1 46.4

92.8

97.3

.385

.294

19.13

14.02

17.73 13.63

49.7 50.8 45.5 48.6

91.5

95.7

.319

.269

15.85

13.67

14.54 13.08

49.5 46.9 40.2 44.9

81.2

95.7

.351

.293

17.37

13.74

14.10 13.15

50.0 45.0 42.7 40.9

85.4

90.9

.354

.305

17.70

13.73

15.11 12.46

48.2 47.8 44.5 43.4

92.3

90.8

.332

.269

16.00

12.86

14.78 11.68

51.5
49.4
48.7
(2
)
48.9
(2
)
48.3

90.7 100.8
92.7 97.5
77.0 100.8
76.0
(2
)
84.0 93.6
100.8
(2
)
96.5 93.8

.488
.453
.359
(2
)
.342
(2
)
.346

.406
.380
.283
.300
.300
.391
.268

25.13
22.38
17.48
(2
)
16.72
<)
2
16.71

19.45
18.39
14.01
14.40
14.04
19.55
12.89

22.79
20.74
13.45
(2
)
14.06
(2
)
16.13

47.9
48.4
49.5
48.0
46.8
50.0
48.1

46.7
45.8
37.5
(2
)
41.1
(2
)
46.6

48.3
47.2
49.9
36.5
43.8
50.4
45.1

19.62
17.93
14.13
10.94
13.15
19.71
12.06

50.3 47.4 47.5 44.8

94.4

94.6

.494

.383

24.85

18.15

23.44 17.14

49.1 48.7 40.5 46.3

82.5

95.1

.338

.269

16.60

13.10

13.72 12.45

50.5 48.3 46.3 49.3

91.7 102.1

.369

.301

18.63

14.54

17.11 14.83

51.4
51.6
(2
)
51.3
50.0

92.2 97.6
93.8 95.5
101.3
(2
)
95.7 97.1
92.6 95.2!

.244
.394
(2
)
.550
.325

.266
.307
.232
.470
.295

12.54
20.33
(2
)
28.22
16. 25

13.25
14.95
11.14
22. 65
14.22

11.57
19.10
(2
)
27.00
15.03

49.8
48.7
48.0
48.2
48.2

47.4
48.4
(2
)
49.1
46.3

1 None reported in 1932.

19205— 30----- 65




Percent of
full time

Average
earnings
per hour

48.6
46.6
48.6
46.8
45.9

* None reported in 1930.

12.94
14.27
11.26
22.02
13.57

1010

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

Table 2 shows average hours and earnings, and the percent of full
time actually worked in 1 week, for the wage earners covered in each
district in 1930 and 1932. The averages are for each sex separately
and for both sexes combined, and are shown by districts instead of
by States so as to avoid presenting figures for 1 establishment alone.
The districts are as follows:
D istric t 1 .— 1 plant in Connecticut, 1 in Massachusetts, 1 in New Hampshire,
and 1 in Rhode Island.
D istrict 2 .— 1 plant in Delaware, 2 in New York, 2 in Ohio, and 1 in Penn­
sylvania.
D istrict 8 .— 1 plant in Georgia, 1 in Maryland, 1 in North Carolina, 3 in
Tennessee, and 4 in Virginia.
T a b l e 2 .—AVE R A G E HOURS A N D

EAR N IN G S IN R A Y O N A N D O TH ER S Y N T H E T IC
Y A R N M A N U F A C T U R IN G , 1930 AN D 1932, B Y S E X A N D D IST R IC T

Sex and district

Average
full-time
hours per
week

Hours actually
worked in 1 week
Average
number

1930 1932 1930 1932

Percent of
full time
1930

1932

Average
earnings
per hour

1930

1932

Average
full-time
earnings
per week

1930

1932

Average
actual
earnings
in 1 week

1930

1932

M a le s

District 1
........................... 50.7 50.3 51.7 51.4 102.0 102.2 $0,508 $0,401 $25.76 $20.17 $26.26 $20.63
.657
.503 32.78 25.30 30.75 23.68
District 2__....................... 49.9 50.3 46.8 47.1 93.8 93.6
.382 23.33 18.37 20.99 18.31
.453
District 3__........ ............. 51.5 48.1 46.3 47.9 89.9 99.6
91.4

98.6

.504

.408

25.75

19.83

23.53

19.51

District 1__............. ......... 50.8 50.3 45.0 48.1
District 2--------------- ------- 47.5 47.3 39.4 43.6
District 3.......... ................ 49.4 47.4 43.2 44.3

88.6
82.9
87.4

95.6
92.2
93.5

.357
.447
.307

.264
.319
.275

18.14
21.23
15.17

13.28
15.09
13.04

16.04
17.62
13.26

12.69
13.88
12.17

Total females------- 49.0 47.6 42.3 44.3

86.3

93.1

.344

.283

16.86

13.47

14.55

12.55

District 1 _ ._ ..................... 50.7 50.3 48.4 49.8
District 2..... ..................... 48.9 49.1 43.5 45.6
District 3— ..................... 50.6 47.8 45.0 46.4

95.5
89.0
88.9

99.0
92.9
97.1

.439
.573
.396

.335
.430
.341

22.26
28.02
20.04

16.85
21.11
16.30

21.22
24.96
17.84

16.69
19.61
15.81

Total males and
females................ 50.2 48.2 44.8 46.4

89.2

96.3

.441

.359

22.14

17.30

19.76

16.64

Total males. ......... 61.1 48.6 46.7 47.9
F e m a le s

M a le s a n d fem a les

R etail Stores— E a rn in g s, 1933 1
0
R e t a i l distribution was seriously curtailed by the depression.
Between 1929 and 1933 thousands of stores went out of business and
the volume of retail sales in the United States dropped from $49,114,653,000 to $25,037,225,000, a decrease of 49 percent.
A large part of this decline was due to the general lowering of the
price level. A part, however, represented the toll extracted through
unemployment and the diminution in purchasing power of workers,
who, although fortunate enough to retain their jobs, had their earn­
ings drastically reduced.
Annual earnings of full-time employees, which in 1929 averaged
$1,312, were reduced after 4 years of depression to $986 in 1933, a
decrease of 25 percent.
i° Summary of article published in Monthly Labor Review, April 1935 (p. 995).




1011

RETAIL STORES

Earnings in Different Branches of the Trade
O f t h e major retail groups the most drastic reduction during the
4-year interval was shown for the automotive group. In 1929 the
average annual earnings of all workers employed in automotive
retail establishments was $1,461, while the average for 1933 was
$1,011, a decrease of 31 percent. Reductions amounting to more
than the average for all retailing were also reported for the lumber,
building, and hardware group; the furniture and household group;
and the restaurants and eating places. On the other hand, the
earnings of workers in the food group in 1933 were within 16 percent
of the 1929 level. Earnings of workers employed by the generalmerchandise group and by the farmers’ supply and country general
stores group were also relatively well sustained.
T

able

1 .—EAR N IN G S OF F U LL -T IM E W O R K E R S E M P L O Y E D IN R E T A IL T R A D E IN
1933 C O M PAR ED W IT H 1929, B Y T Y P E OF BUSINESS

Kind of business

Average annual earn­
ings of full-time em­
ployees
1933

Percent of
change

1929

United States................................. ..............................................................

$986

$1,312

-2 5

Food group................. .......................................... ............................... .......
Grocery stores................................ ..................................... ............. .
Combination stores.......... ........................ ..........................................
Meat markets............................. ..................... .....................................
Candy and confectionery stores........ .................................... ..........
Dairy-products stores, including milk dealers. ............. ........... .
Bottled-beer and liquor stores...... .......... ...................................... .
Other food stores........................................ ...........................................
Restaurants and eating places.......................... ........................ .............
Eating places.........................................................................................
Drinking places........................................................ ..........................
Farmers’ supplies and country general stores............. ............ ..............
Country general stores____ _____ ______________ _____ ________
Farmers’ supply stores.......................................... ............................
General-merchandise group........................................... .......... .......... .
Department stores, including mail order.......................... .............
Dry-goods stores____ _______________ _______________ _________
Variety stores, 5-and-10 and to-a-dollar stores__________________
Other general merchandise stores___ _______ _______ __________
Apparel group............ ............ ..................................................................
Men’s stores____________________________ __________
____
Women’s ready-to-wear specialty stores_______________________
Family clothing stores______________________ _______ _________
Shoe stores...................... .......................................................................
Accessories and other apparel stores___________________________
Automotive group ........................................................................................
Motor-vehicle dealers__________ ______________________________
Accessories, tire, battery dealers.................... ....................................
Filling stations_____ ____ _________ _________________ _________
Garages and repair shops............. .............. .............. ..........................
Other automotive stores................................. ................. ..................
Furniture and household group___ ____ _______ _____ ____________
Furniture stores............................... ....................................................
Household and appliance stores_____________________
___
Radio stores................ .......... .......... .......... ........................................
Other furniture and household stores.............................. ...............
Lumber, building, and hardware group_______ __________ _______ _
Lumber dealers_____________ ______ __________________________
Hardware stores, including farm implements . . .
.
__
Heating and plumbing stores___________________ _____
___
Other building (paint, glass, and electrical) stores__________ _
Cigar stores_________ ______________ ______________ ______
___
Coal and wood yards...................... .............. .......... ...................................
Drug stores................................................ ....................................................
Jewelry stores................................................................................................
N ewsdealers___________ ______________ _____________________ _____
Other retail stores............... ..........................................................................
Second-hand stores____________________________ _______ _
_

1,074
1,019
1,035
1,133
748
1,478
984
944
673
669
781
846
788
978
935
990
883
760
894
1,105
1,291
991
1,141
1,188
998
1,011
1,041
1,113
990
936
1,070
1,159
1, 223
1,065
1,107
1.166
1,143
1,196
1,068
1,125
1,156
878
1,130
985
1,376
678
1,200
896

1,284
1,197
1,250
1.440
895
1,804

—16
—15
—17
—21
—16
-1 8

1,189
909
909

—21
—26
-2 6

1,089
1,025
1, 235
1,126
1,243
1,078
706
1,092
1,480
1,769
1,293
1, 450
1, 595
1.408
1, 461
1,585
1,471
1,208
1,354
1.408
1,593
1,631
1, 526
1, 559
1,613
1,579
1,623
1,430
1,696
1,570
1,181
1,463
1,260
1,783
842
1,562
1, 303

—22
—23
—21
—17
—20
—18
+8
—18
—25
—27
—23
—21
—26
—29
—31
—34
—24
—18
—31
—24
—27
—25
—30
—29
—28
-2 8
—26
—25
—34
—26
—26
—23
—22
—23
—19
—23
-3 1




1012

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

The lowest average earnings in 1933 were reported for workers
employed in eating places, who averaged only $669 during the year.
Earnings of workers employed by newsdealers, candy and confection­
ery stores, drinking places, country general stores, and variety stores
were also exceptionally low. The workers employed by the variety
stores, however, were the only group of workers whose earnings
were higher in 1933 than in 1929. In 1933 their earnings averaged
$760 as against $706 in 1929, a gain of 8 percent.
In 1933 the highest annual earnings in the retail trade were reported
for workers employed by dairy-products stores, who averaged $1,478.
The workers in this group also had the highest earnings in 1929 when
they averaged $1,804.
Earnings by States and Geographic Divisions
T h e average decline of approximately 25 percent in the earnings
of retail workers between 1929 and 1933 was far from uniform through­
out the country. In 27 States and the District of Columbia the
average earnings were reduced less than the national average, while
in 3 States the reduction was the same; and in 18 States the cut in
earnings was greater than 25 percent (table 2 ).
T a b l e 2 — EAR N IN G S OF F U LL -T IM E W O R K ER S E M P L O Y E D IN R E T A IL T R A D E IN

1933 CO M PAR ED W IT H 1929, B Y STATE A N D G EOGRAPHIC D IVISIO N

Geographic division and
State

Average annual
earnings of full­
time employees
1933

Per­
cent of
change

United States.................. .

$986

$1,312

-2 5

1,063
1,106
963
1,080
982
1,028
946
1,092
1,156
1,153
958
1,030
1,009
889
945
974
968
903
858
846
953
929
883
894
846
889
1,016

1,313
1,429
1,174
1,315
1,177
1,281
1,197
1,420
1,483
1,506
1, 257
1, 377
1,438
1 2Q6
,
1,459
1,341
1,311
1,193
1,164
1,165
1,228

-1 9
-2 3
-1 8
-1 8
-1 7

847

1,121

1,200

1,193
1,203
1,181
1,144
1,218
1,373

Average annual
earnings of full­
time employees
1933

1929

New England....................
Connecticut.......... .
Maine________ ______
Massachusetts............
New Hampshire........
Rhode Island— ........
Vermont______ ______
Middle Atlantic________
New Jersey.................
New York...................
Pennsylvania_______
East North Central.........
Illinois______________
Indiana........................
Michigan....................
Ohio........................—
Wisconsin...................
West North Central........
Iowa—......................
Kansas.........................
Minnesota...................
Missouri......................
Nebraska....................
North Dakota............
South Dakota............
South Atlantic........... .......
Delaware___________
District of ColumbiaFlorida.........................

1,120

Geographic division and
State

-20
-21
-2 3
-22

-2 3
-2 4
-2 5
-3 0
-2 6
-3 5
-2 7
-2 6
-2 4
-2 6
-2 7

-22

-2 3
-2 6
-2 6
-2 8

-22
-1 7
-1 8
-2 4

South Atlantic—Contd.
Georgia........ ..............
Maryland..................
North Carolina_____
South Carolina.........
Virginia.................... _
West Virginia---------East South Central........
Alabama___________
Kentucky__________
Mississippi-...............
Tennessee__________
West South Central____
Arkansas................ .
Louisiana...................
Oklahoma..................
Texas..........................
Mountain—............... .......
Arizona........ ..........—
Colorado.....................
Idaho..........................
Montana....... ............
Nevada...... ................
New Mexico..............
Utah............................
Wyoming...................
Pacific____ ____ _______
California...................
Oregon________ _____
Washington...............

1929

$778
967
817
762
901
902
790
727
845
722
823
826
761
775
831
852
997
1,027
971
991
1,045
1,231
919
950
1,063
1,079
1,110
969
1,003

$1,020
1,170
1,116
1,019
1,136
1,259
1,037
1,071
1,103
1,017
1,078
1,140
1,073
1,022
1,212
1,161
1,301
1,341
1,249
1,309
1,398
1,593
1,160
1,272
1,400
1,425
1,455
1, 308
1,369

Per­
cent of
change

-2 4
-1 7
-2 7
-2 5
-2 1
-2 8
-2 6
-3 2
-2 3
-2 9
-2 4
-2 8
-2 4
-2 4
-3 1
-2 7
-2 3
-2 3
-2 2
-2 4
-2 5
-2 3
-2 1
-2 5
-2 4
-2 4
-2 4
-2 6
-2 7

Earnings of Part-Time Employees
T h e a v era g e a n n u a l earn in gs o f p a r t-tim e e m p lo y e e s in th e reta il
tra d e in 1933 a m o u n te d to $337, o r 34.2 p e r c e n t o f th e a v e ra g e a n n u a l
earnings o f fu ll-tim e e m p lo y e e s .
T h is in d ica te s th a t th e a v e ra g e




RETAIL STORES

1013

part-time employee worked about one-third of the normal working
hours or days of a full-time employee. On the same basis, the aver­
age part-time employee in 1929 worked 21.6 percent of the number
of hours or days of the full-time employee in that year. The increased
importance of part-time employment is a new factor in the retail
field.
R etail Stores— C o m p a ra tive Wages in C h a in and Ind e pe n de n t
Stores, 1929 and 1931
I n J u l y 1933 the Federal Trade Commission sent to the United
States Senate the eighteenth of its reports on the chain-store investi­
gation which it was then conducting, and accompanied it with a letter
in which some of the data concerning wages were summarized. The
following data are taken from this letter. The chain-store companies,
it is explained, were first asked to report the method of compensation,
the number and the average weekly compensation of (a) store em­
ployees, (6) store managers, and (c) supervisors, as of the date nearest
March 30, 1929, for which the information was available. In a
supplementary schedule similar data were requested as of the date
nearest January 10, 1931, for which information was available.
Reports known to include part-time employees in either period were
not used by the Commission, but the data covering all ether employ­
ees, both selling and nonselling, were included for both periods.
Comparable data on chain store and “ independent” dealer wages for full­
time store selling employees are available for the following eight kinds of busi­
ness: Grocery, grocery and meat, drug, tobacco, ready-to-wear, shoes, hardware,
and combined dry goods, dry goods and apparel, and general merchandise. The
weighted average weekly wage of 3,933 independent-store selling employees in
these eight kinds of business for the week ending January 10,' 1931, was $28.48,
as compared with $21.61 for 107,035 chain-store selling employees. A simple
average of the eight lines of business shows a narrower spread between the
two figures ($28.10 for independents and $23.82 for chains, respectively), but
leaves the same distinct conclusion, namely, that, for the period studied, the
independents paid their store employees more than did the chains.
In addition, 15 independent department stores reporting accounted for 4,688
store-selling employees, or over 750 more independent-store selling employees
than did all the other 1,549 independent stores combined. Because of the
heavy weighting, the chain and independent department stores figures have not
been included in the foregoing comparison.
When department-store selling employees are included, the weighted average
wages of all independent-store employees are reduced from $28.48 to $23.45
while the figure for chains falls from $21.61 to $21.22. The simple averages,
however, which, of course, do not give weight to the large number of independent
department-store employees, are $27.12 for independents and $23.37 for chains.
Even including department-store employees, the average wages of independents
were higher than those of chains.
Independent-store wages in each of the eight kinds of business furnishing com­
parable data were higher than those reported for chains— the difference varying
from $6.92 for grocery and meat to only 65 cents for hardware. The employees
of department-store chains averaged 56 cents per week higher than did those of
independent department stores, both, however, being considerably below the
averages of most of the other eight kinds of business.
The indicated tendency for independents to pay higher wages than chains is
substantiated by information obtained in the study of the general social effect
of chain stores in 30 selected smaller towns and cities with populations ranging
from 1,737 to 5,106. Comparable data are available for the following 10 lines
of business: Grocery, grocery and meat, drug, variety, shoe, furniture, hardware,




1014

WAGES AND HOtJRS OF LABOR

ready-to-wear, dry goods and apparel, and department store. No data were
reported for chain general-merchandise stores. With the exception of the
furniture group, independent wages were higher than those reported for chains.
The number of selling employees in independent variety and chain drug stores,
however, is very small, as is also the number for both independent and chain
shoe, ready-to-wear, department, furniture, and hardware stores.
The full-time selling employees of both grocery and grocery and meat inde­
pendents averaged higher weekly wages by slightly over $3 than did those of
the chains. The combined ready-to-wear, dry goods and apparel, department
store, and general merchandise group shows the independents paying their store
employees $1.70 more per week, on the average, than did the chains.

The sex of employees seems to have a bearing upon the wage level
in chain stores. The data for the week ending January 10, 1931,
which covered 146,123 store people, were given by sex, and it was
found that of the total men formed 44 and women 56 percent. The
chains which reported relatively low weekly wages reported also a
larger proportion of women among their employees than was the
case with those reporting relatively high wages.
The four classes of chains reporting the lowest store employee average wages
in 1931 (confectionery and the three types of variety chains), all report that
more than 75 percent of their store employees are women. At the other extreme,
women comprise less than 25 percent of the employees in 8 of the 10 kinds of
chains reporting the highest average weekly wages.

The class of goods handled also seems to affect the wage level, the
stores which handle “ convenience ” goods (merchandise which usually
is available at convenient locations) paying on the whole lower wages
than those which deal in shopping merchandise (goods which generally
are available only in stores in shopping centers). The average sales
per store employee have a certain relation to wages paid, but so many
other factors are concerned that this relation is somewhat obscure.
Geographic location and the size of the chain concerned also have a
bearing upon the matter, but in the latter case the correspondence
is not invariable.
S a w m ills— H o u rs and E a rn in g s, 1932

A s t u d y of wages and hours of labor in the sawmill industry in the
United States was made by the Bureau of Labor Statistics during the
summer of 1932. A summary of the results of this study is shown in
table 1, in comparison with like figures for each of the other years
from 1910 to 1930 in which the Bureau has made studies of the
industry.
Index numbers, on the 1913 base, are also shown for the purpose
of making comparisons of the increases or decreases in hours and
earnings from one year to another over the entire period from 1910 to
1932 for those items for which data are available over the entire
period.
In making the study the Bureau collected individual wage data
from 32,130 wage earners of 259 representative sawmills in 21 States
for a representative pay-roll period (except for a few mills) in May,
June, and July. Data were also collected for wage earners of logging
camps, but figures for them are not given in this article. Detailed
figures for both sawmills and logging camps are shown in Bulletin No.
586 of the Bureau.




1015

SAWMILLS
T

able

1 . — AVE R A G E

HOURS A N D E AR N IN G S, W IT H IN D E X N U M B E R S TH E R E O F , IN
SAW M ILL S, 1910-32, B Y Y E A R

Aver­
age
full­
time
hours
per
week

Year

Selected occupations:
1910...................................................
1911................................. .................
1912...................................................
1913..................................... .............
1915............................................ .
1919............................................ .
19213
.................................................
All occupations:
19213.................................................
1923...................................................
1925...................................................
1928...................................................
1930...................................................
1932...................................................

Hours actually
worked in
1 week
Aver­
age
earn­
Aver­ Per­
ings
age
per
cent
num­ of full hour
ber
time

61.3
61.4
61.5
61.1
61.1
56.1
57.2

0)
0)
(i)
0)
0)
0)
0)

0)
(0
0)
0)

58. 0
58.1
58.1
56.6
56.5
55.8

(0
0)
0)
51.3
48.6
40.1

(i)
0)
0)
91.0
86.0
71.9

Index numbers
Aver­
(1913=100.0)
age
Aver­
full­
age
Full­
time actual Full­
earn­ earn­ time Earn­ time
earn­
ings ings in hours ings
ings
1 week
per
per
per
per
week
week hour week

$0,180 $10.99
.176 10.76
.178 10.89
.185 11.26
.169 10.30
.360 20.13
.308 17.62
.334
.362
.357
.371
.359
.256

0)
(i)
(l)
0)
0)
0)
0)

(i)
19.37
21.03
0)
20. 74
0)
21.00 $19.03
20.28 17.46
14.28 10.25

100.3
100.5
100.7
100.0
100.0
91.8
93.6

97.3
95.1
96.2
100.0
91.4
194.6
166.5

97.6
95.6
96.7
100.0
91.5
178.8
156.5

93.8
93.8
91.3
91.2
90.0

180.5
178.0
184.9
179.0
127.6

169.9
167.6
169.7
163.9
115.4

i No data.
3
Two sets of averages are shown for 1921 for the industry, one for selected occupations and the other for
all occupations in the industry. The 1910 to 1921 averages for selected occupations are comparable one year
with another, as are those for all occupations from 1921 to 1932.

Table 2 shows average hours and earnings and the percent of full
time worked in 1930 and 1932 for the wage earners in each of the
important occupations in the industry, and for a group designated in
the table as “ Other employees.” The figures are for males only, as
no females were found employed in the industry.
T

able

2 .—A VE R A G E HOURS A N D EAR N IN G S IN SAW M ILLS, 1930 A N D 1932, B Y OCCU­
PATION

Occupation

Average
full-time
hours per
week

Hours actually worked
in 1 week
Average
number

1930 1932 1930 1932
All occupations................
Pondmen...........................
Yardmen, log...................
Sawyers, head, band___
Sawyers, head, circular..
Doggers..............................
Setters...............................
Saw tailers on head saws.
Sawyers, gang..................
Sawyers, resaw.................
Edgermen.........................
Edger tailers.....................
Transfermen___________
Trimmer loaders_______
Trimmer operators.........
Off bearers, gang or
resaw................... ..........
Graders______ __________
Sorters.............. .............
Truckers, hand 1.............
Truckers, power3...........
Stackers, hand...............
Machine feeders, plan­
ing m ill.,........................
Sawyers, small saws____
Tallymen..........................
Millwrights......................
Laborers............................
Other employees..............

1930

1932

1930

1932

Average
full-time
earnings
per week
1930

1932

Average
actual
earnings
in 1 week
1930

1932

56.5
56.9
58.4
55.9
58.0
57.9
56.5
56.2
56.4
55.7
56.4
56.5
55.2
55.8
55.8

55.8
55.9
58.2
55.6
58.5
56.9
55.8
55.7
54.7
53.8
55.7
55.9
54.9
54.3
55.1

48.6 40.1
50.8 42.1
49.8 42.1
49.7 40.0
51.0 45.6
48.2 39.3
48.8 40.5
49.2 39.9
52.6 41.6
50.7 40.9
49.4 40.9
48.2 39.3
49.7 39.9
48.1 39.2
50.1 40.1

86.0
89.3
85.3
88.9
87.9
83.2
86.4
87.5
93.3
91.0
87.6
85.3
90.0
86.2
89.8

71.9 $0. 359 $0. 256 $20.28 $14 28 $17.46 $10. 25
.344
75.3
.235 19.57 13.14 17.51 9.91
.242
.154 14.13
8.96 12.05 6. 50
72.3
.886
.652 49. 53 36. 25 44.07 26.12
71.9
.666
77.9
.430 38.63 25.16 33.96 19. 62
.306
69.1
.212 17.72 12.06 14.77 8.32
.451
72.6
.319 25.48 17.80 22.03 12.92
.336
71.6
.231 18.88 12.87 16. 54 9. 21
.506
.369 28. 54 20.18 26. 64 15. 33
76.1
.341 25. 62 18. 35 23.36 13. 94
76.0
.460
.324 26.00 18.05 22.78 13.24
73.4
.461
70.3
.301
.202 17.01 11.29 14. 52 7.92
.344
72.7
.217 18.99 11.91 17.09 8. 66
72.2
.366
.266 20.42 14.44 17.58 10.43
.283 22. 21 15.59 19.93 11. 36
72.8
.398

55.8
55.2
65.3
56.8
(2
)
57.2

54.8
54.7
54.7
58.3
53.1
56.8

48.1
49.7
47.3
49.2
(3)
47.2

40.2
40.0
38.7
41.7
39.9
40.0

86.2
90.0
85.5
86.6
(2
)
82.5

73.4
73.1
70.7
71.5
75.1
70.4

.315
.474
.344
.307
(2
)
.364

.224
.331
.242
.178
.308
.233

17. 58
26.16
19.02
17.44
(2
)
20.82

12.28
18.11
13.24
10. 38
16. 35
13.23

15.18 9.01
23.56 13. 27
16.29 9.38
15.13 7.44
12.28
(2
)
17.18 9.33

55.5
56.8
55.0
55.6
56.6
57.0

55.4
56.6
54.3
54.6
56.0
56.2

58.1
47.9
51.3
56.5
46.8
52.0

39.9 86.7
38.5 84.3
43.2 93.3
51.0 101.6
38.0 82.7
44.5 91.2

72.0
68.0
79.6
93.4
67.9
79.2

.365
.314
.447
.593
.291
.418

.254
.211
.315
.425
.205
.325

20.26
17.84
24.59
32.97
16. 47
23.83

14.07
11.94
17.10
23.21
11.48
18. 27

17.54
15.06
22.95
33.55
13.63
21.72

1 1930 figures include “ Truckers, power.




Percent of
full time

Average
earnings
per hour

3 Included in “ Truckers, hand” , in 1930.

10.13
8.14
13.60
21.67
7. 78
14.46

1016

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

Table 3 shows average hours and earnings for the wage earners
covered in each State in 1930 and 1932. Except in one State, aver­
age hours actually worked in 1 week were less in 1932 than in 1930,
and average earnings per hour and actual earnings in 1 week for each
State were less in 1932 than in 1930.
T

able

3 .—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S IN SAW M ILL S, 1930 A N D 1932, B Y STATE

State

Average
full-time
hours per
week

Hours actilally worked
in 1 week
Average
number

1930 1932 1930 1932
All States-.......................

56.5 55.8 48.6 40.1

Alabama.......................... .
Arkansas......................... .
California.........................
Florida................ .............
Georgia..............................
Idaho.................................
Kentucky..........................
Louisiana........................ .
Maine__________ _______
Michigan..........................
Mississippi................ .......
Montana................ ..........
North Carolina................
Oregon......... ....................
South Carolina................
Tennessee..........................
Texas..................................
Virginia.............................
Washington......................
West Virginia...................
Wisconsin.........................

60.8
58.5
53.7
61.3
58.0
48.1
57.3
60.0
59.2
58.3
59.7
52.0
59.0
48.6
60.1
56.8
58.7
59.9
48.1
59.0
59.1

60.3
59.3
52.2
59.8
58.9
49.0
58.1
59.4
59.0
57.8
59.2
51.9
58.6
48.0
60.0
58.5
59 8
59.4
48.0
59.4
58.5

48.5
51.6
51.1
50.9
49.2
45.6
48.7
50.4
54.4
51.2
45.2
47.6
51.2
44.8
50.7
44.5
44.5

50.0
45.3
50.3
53.0

47.7
37.7
39.7
41.4
42.5
38.7
41.5
36.6
49.5
37.2
45.9
31.4
42.5
39.9
46.7
38.8
36.4
43.1
35.0
43.1
40.3

Percent of
full time
1930

1932

Average
earnings
per hour

1930

1932

Average
full-time
earnings
per week

1930

1932

Average
actual
earnings
in 1 week

1930

1932

86.0

71.9 $0.359 $0. 256 $20.28 $14.28 $17.46 $10.25

79.8
88.2
95.2
83.0
84.8
94.8
85.0
84.0
91.9
87.8
75.7
91.5
86.8
92.2
84.4
78.3
75.8
83.5
94.2
85.3
89.7

79.1
63.6
76.1
69.2
72.2
79.0
71.4
61.6
83.9
64.4
77.5
60.5
72.5
83.1
77.8
66.3
60.9
72.6
72.9
72.6
68.9

.218
.301
.542
.236
.218
.575
.341
.2^7
.352
.380
.282
.504
.222
.573
.225
.315
.296
.259
.549
.430
.362

.136
.193
.410
.174
.134
.427
.268
.197
.272
.296
.152
.444
.160
.412
.133
.217
.221
.167
.376
.325
.300

13.25
17.61
29.11
14.47
12.64
27.66
19.54
17.22
20.84
22.15
16.84
26.21
13.10
27.85
13.52
17.89
17.38
15.51
26.41
25.37
21.39

8.20
11.44
21.40
10.41
7.89
20.92
15.57
11.70
16.05
17.11
9.00
23.04
9.38
19.78
7.98
12.69
13.22
9.92
18.05
19.31
17.55

10.56
15.51
27.68
12. 02
10.75
26.21
16.57
14.44
19.18
19.46
12.75
23.98
11. 38
25.69
11.42
14.04
13.16
12.96
24.89
21.63
19.18

6.49
7.26
16.29
7.22
5.67
16.54
11.15
7.20
13.47
10.99
6.99
13.97
6.81
16.40
6.21
8.42
8.03
7.18
13.14
13.99
12.08

Seam en— Wages, 1934
I n f o r m a t io n regarding the wages paid on American merchant
ships is published annually by the Bureau of Navigation and Steam­
boat Inspection of the United States Department of Commerce in
its Merchant Marine Statistics. Table 1, compiled from that publi­
cation, gives average monthly wages of seamen on American steam
and motor cargo vessels of 5,000 gross tons and over, on January 1
of 1929, 1931, 1932, 1933, and 1934. The figures represent averages
taken from reports of the shipping commissioners.




1017

SEAMEN

T able 1 .—A V E R A G E M O N T H L Y W AG ES OF SE A M E N ON A M E R IC A N ST E A M A N D
M O TO R CARGO VESSELS OF 5,000 GROSS TONS A N D OVER ON JA N U A R Y 1, 1929, 1931,
1932, 1933, 1934
Private
1929
Deck department:
First mates......................................... $182
Second mates....... ..............................
160
Third mates........................................
143
Fourth mates....... ..............................
121
Boatswains......... _.................... .........
74
Carpenters_______ _______________
68
Seamen, able......................... . . .........
64
Seamen, ordinary________________
45
Engineer department:
Chief engineers..................._ ........... . 280
First assistant engineers___ ______
183
Second assistant engineers...............
161
Third assistant engineers.................
145
Firemen.............................................
63
Oilers......................................... ..........
71
Water tenders............................... .
71
Coal passers or wipers____________
55
Radio operators (class I):
Grade I _________________________
Steward department:
122
Chief stewards.............. .....................
Second stewards— _____ __________
103
Cooks................................................... 100
Second cooks.......................................
81
Mess stewards....... ............................
49
Mess boys............................................
42

United States Shipping Board

1931

1932

1933

1934

1929

1931

1932

1933

$180
158
143
120
74
77
60
45

$174
150
134
110
69
73
56
41

$164
144
127
98
64
66
52
38

$163
143
128
96
65
69
52
38

$185
165
150
128
75
80
62
47

$185
165
150
127
74
79
63
47

$185
162
147
128
74
76
61
46

$172
154
140
105
68
72
58
43

$169
151
137
105
67
73
56
42

280
183
161
145
63
70
71
53

262
175
151
137
59
67
66
49

256
165
144
128
54
61
59
45

251
165
144
129
55
61
61
45

261
187
168
152
65
72
72
58

277
188
168
154
66
72
72
59

261
185
164
149
65
72
72
55

250
173
155
140
60
67
65
53

246
170
151
137
57
62
62
50

105

103

94

90

121
100
100
80
51
43

120
95
95
80
47
43

120
97
99
79
46
41

116
88
111
73
43
39

118

100

96

91

89

120
97
99
77
48
43

116
94
95
72
43
39

111
86
92
69
40
36

112
90
93
69
40
35

1934

90
76
42
38

Average monthly wages paid on American merchant vessels of 500
gross tons and over in 1934 are shown in table 2, by destination of
vessel.
T able 3 .—AVE R A G E M O N T H L Y W A G E S PAID ON A M E R IC A N M E R C H A N T VESSELS OF
500 GROSS TONS A N D OVER IN 1934, B Y D E S T IN A T IO N OF VESSEL
Destination of vessel
West
Indies, Atlan­
Conti­ South Mexico, tic and
Great
Gulf
and
Britain nental Amer­
ica
Central coast­
Europe
ing
Amer­ trade
ica

Occupation

Steam vessels:
Able seamen...................
Boatswains.....................
Carpenters.____ ______
First mates......................
Second mates..................
Firemen...........................
Trimmers........................
Chief engineers...............
First assistant engineers.
Chief radio operators...
Second radio operators.
Sailing vessels:
A hi a KAnmAn
B oatsw ains

First mates

Africa

$50
64
67
166
143
51
46
257
167
91
80

$56
67
72
152
130
54
48
208
150
87
72

$45
55
60
150
128
45
40
234
150
85
75

$55
64
73
168
147
56
47
236
153
87
60

$51
63
76
164
142
52
43
235
163
90
75

$51
63
76
164
122
53
46
235
161
90
80

$52
63
69
162
142
54
44
222
157
88
73

30

30

30
40
60
60

30
55
60
60

31

68

60

130
98

_______




Pacific
coast­
ing
trade

$54
66
70
165
146
57
50
230
161
91
80

_ _

Second m ates

Asia
and
Aus­
tralia

60

72

Atlan­
tic to
Pacific
ports
and
vice
versa

$49
61
63
157
137
50
44
230
155
86
77

1018

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

S h ir t In d u s t ry — H o u rs and E a rn in g s , 1933
I n J u n e 1933 the United States Department of Labor,1 actively
1
assisted by the State departments of labor in the States visited, made
a field survey of the shirt industry,1 covering approximately 20,000
2
workers in 129 establishments in 9 of the principal shirt-manufactur­
ing States (Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Indiana, and Missouri). Twentyone percent of the shirt factories in these States, constituting 17 per­
cent of those in the entire industry, were visited. These employed
43 percent of the wage earners in the shirt industry in these States
and 34 percent of the 58,000 wage earners in the entire industry,
according to the 1931 Census of Manufactures.

A summary of the results of the survey is presented in this article.
A more detailed report is given in the Monthly Labor Review for
September 1933 (p. 499).
Hours and Hourly Earnings of Female Wage Earners
W h at were reported to be the regular hours of work in the plants
included in the survey ranged from 40 to 55 per week. Over half
the plants, employing about 14,000 women, or 77 percent of the total
number, operated 48 hours or more a week. The majority in New
York and Massachusetts ran 48 hours; in New Jersey and Connecticut
most of the plants ran 48 to 50 hours; in Pennsylvania schedules in all
but three plants were 50 hours or longer. Information as to actual
hours worked by each employee during the pay-roll period studied was
obtained for workers in only 31 plants-—about one-fourth of those
visited—in seven States. The number of female wage earners
employed in the 31 establishments are shown in table 1:
T a b l e 1.—N U M B E R OF F E M A L E W A G E EAR N E R S E M P L O Y E D IN 31 SHIRT FACTO RIES

R E P O R T IN G A C T U A L W E E K L Y HOURS OF W O R K IN 7 STATES
Female wage earners having actual weekly hours of work of—

Stage

Under 40

40 and
under 44

44 and
under 48

48 and
under 50

50 and
over

Total Hours
re­ not re­ Grand
ported ported total
Num­ Per­ Num­ Per­ Num­ Per­ Num­ Per­ Num­ Per­
ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent

Total 7 States.......... . 1,369
Massachusetts...........
Connecticut...............
New York...................
New Jersey.................
Pennsylvania.............
Indiana___________
Missouri......................

171
107
595
48
97
186
165

19 1,121
28
13
28
9
19
11
19

78
112
464
46
88
190
143

16 2,097

29 1,441

20 1,179

13
13
22
9
17
11
17

25
38
38
7
19
22
35

34
30
11
64
10
6
29

148
325
813
38
97
373
303

203
256
242
337
53
103
247

2
51
1
56
188
881

16

7,207

422

7,629

0)
6
0)
11
36
51

602
851
2,115
525
523
1,733
858

2
9
355
1
22
3
30

604
860
2,470
626
545
1,736
888

iLess than 1 percent.
n The following bureaus of the Department cooperated in the survey: Children's Bureau, Bureau of Labor
Statistics, Women's Bureau, and the Conciliation Service.
iaThe study covered plants in which shirts had comprised 60 percent or more of the output during the year.




1019

SHIRT INDUSTRY

The extent to which broken time and undertime exist in the shirt
industry is indicated by a comparison of the regular scheduled hours
and the actual hours worked by 7,207 women in these 31 plants.
None of the scheduled hours in these plants fell below 44 a week, yet
35 percent of the women worked less than these hours, and 19 percent
worked less than 40 hours. Sixty percent were employed in plants
whose scheduled hours were 48 but less than 50, yet only 20 percent
actually worked this amount of time. Twenty-one percent of the
woman workers were in establishments scheduled to work 50 hours a
week or over, but the actual hours worked came up to this schedule
for only 16 percent of the female employees.
Hourly earnings have been computed for the woman workers for
whom actual hours in the pay-roll period were reported. For all
these workers median hourly earnings were 19 cents. New York
had the highest median earnings, 23 cents an hour, and Pennsylvania
the lowest, 15 cents. The median earnings in the various States and
the number and percent of the female wage earners receiving specified
amounts per hour are shown in table 2.
T

2 .—M E D IA N H O U R L Y EA R N IN G S OF F E M A L E W A G E EAR N ER S A N D N U M B E R
R E C E IV IN G SPECIFIED A M O U N T S PER H OUR IN 31 SHIRT FACTO RIES IN 7 STATES

able

Female wage earners receiving specified amounts per hour1

State

Median
hourly
earn­
ings

Under 5
cents

5 and under 10 and under 15 and under 20 and under
10 cents
15 cents
20 cents
25 cents

Num­ Per­ Num­ Per­
ber cent
ber cent

Num­ Per­
cent
ber

Num­
ber

Per­
cent

Num­
ber

Per­
cent

Total, 7 States......................

$0.19

36

(2
)

452

6

1,747

24

1 909
#

26

1,490

21

Massachusetts.......................
Connecticut...........................
New York________________
New Jersey_______________
Pennsylvania....................
Indiana— ..............................
Missouri.................................

.20
.17
.23
. 19
.15
.16
. 17

1
5

(2
)
1

6
16
8

1
1
1

5
51
63
11
67
190
65

1
6
3
2
13
11
8

86
271
253
129
188
577
243

14
32
12
25
36
33
28

221
265
423
143
132
494
231

37
31
20
27
25
29
27

172
151
503
137
81
258
188

29
18
24
26
15
15
22

Female wage earners receiving specified amounts per hour 1

State

25 and under
30 cents
Num­
ber

Per­
cent

30 and under
35 cents
Num­
ber

Per­
cent

35 cents and

Num­
ber

Per­
cent

Total
reported

Amount
not re­
ported

Grand
total

Total, 7 States____ _______

950

13

398

6

225

3

7,207

422

7,629

Massachusetts........ ...........
Connecticut..........................
New York.............................
New Jersey..........................
Pennsylvania.......................
Indiana.............._..................
Missouri............... _..............

69
72
467
71
31
150
90

11
8
22
14
6
l
10

35
28
239
22
13
43
18

6
3
11
4
2
2
2

13
8
167
12
5
5
15

2
1
8
2
1
(2 '
)
2

602
851
2,115
525
523
1,733
858

2
9
355
1
22
3
30

604
860
2,470
526
645
1,736
,888

fl

i Hourly earnings for each worker were obtained by dividing the total amount received for the pay period
by the actual number of hours worked.
* Less than 1 percent.

About 7 percent of the woman workers for whom hour records were
obtained earned below 10 cents an hour, 31 percent less than 15 cents,



1020

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

and 57 percent less than 20 cents. The earnings of almost four-fifths
fell below 25 cents an hour. In Pennsylvania 50 percent and in
Connecticut 39 percent earned less than 15 cents an hour, compared
to 15 percent in both New York and Massachusetts. The proportion
earning 35 cents and over was small in every State, varying from 8
percent in New York to less than half of 1 percent in Indiana.
Weekly Earnings

I n t a b l e 3 the median weekly earnings of the women in all the
shirt factories studied and the percent receiving each classified weekly
earnings are set forth. Half of the 18,378 women earned less than
$7.30 in the week for which pay rolls were copied. In general the
medians for female workers were about 10 cents lower than the
medians for all workers. The highest median earnings ($8.70) were
found in New York, and the lowest, $5.40, in Delaware. Fourteen
percent of all the women received less than $4 a week; 35 percent less
than $6, and 77 percent less than $10. The proportion receiving less
than $4 a week varied from 6 percent in Massachusetts to 29 percent
in Maryland; the proportion receiving less than $10 varied from 94
percent in Delaware to 64 percent in New York. Only in New York
did as many as 5 percent earn $15 or more.
Although New York shows both the highest median earnings and
the largest proportions in the higher wage groups, the earnings dis­
closed by this survey are lower than they were almost 50 years ago.
In 1886, when a strike and lockout tied up 10,000 workers in the shirt
and collar factories of Troy, N. Y., the State board of arbitration
found that wages of the women and young girls employed ranged from
$6 to $18 a week, with an average of $10. Even at that time the
settlement called for wage increases of as high as 25 percent.
T

3 . — M E D IA N W E E K L Y E A R N IN G S A N D P E R C E N T OF F E M A L E W A G E E AR N ER S
R E C E IV IN G CLASSIFIED W E E K L Y E A R N IN G S IN 129 SHIRT F ACT O R IES IN 9 STATES

able

State

Percent of female wage earners receiving weekly earnings of—
Medi­
an
weekly
$12
$10
earn­ Under $2 and $4 and $6 and $8 and and
under under under under under and $15 or
$2
ings
under more
$6
$8
$10
$4
$12
$15

Total, 9 S ta tes..................................... $7.30

4

10

21

24

18

13

8

3

7.90
7.70
8.70
7.70
6.00
6.40
6.60
7.10
6.40

1
3
2
2
8
9
7
3
5

5
6
6
9
16
19
22
10
13

17
19
13
19
26
30
28
23
26

28
26
21
23
25
23
22
25
24

24
20
22
21
15
13
11
20
17

16
13
17
14
6
4
6
14
9

7
9
13
9
3
2
3
5
4

2
4
5
4
1

Massachusetts— ...................................
Connecticut............................................
New York— ..........................................
New Jersey.............................................
Pennsylvania.........................................
Delaware___________________________
Maryland................................................
Indiana____________________________
Missouri..................................................

1
1

R ural and urban shirt factories .—In general, weekly earnings varied
directly with the size of the community in which the factories were
located. In 7 of the 9 States the factory with the lowest median
earnings was located either in a rural district or in a community with
a population of less than 10,000.
In shirt factories in rural communities, that is, towns of less than
2.500 population and country districts, half of the women earned less




SILK AND RAYON INDUSTRY

1021

than $4.30 a week; in those in communities with a population between
2,500 and 10,000 the median was slightly higher—$5.60; in towns
and cities with a population between 10,000 and 50,000 the median
was $7.50; and in cities of 50,000 or more the median—$8.20—was
almost twice what it was in the rural factories.
While many rural factories were small, some employed several
hundred workers; the automobile has made it possible for the rural
factory to tap the labor supply of remote farms and villages.
Contracting and m anufacturing establishments.—Weekly earnings of
female shirt workers were found to be higher in manufacturing than
in contracting establishments. Half the female workers in all
contract establishments combined earned less than $6.40 a week.
In all manufacturing establishments combined the median for woman
and girl workers was $7.60. Thirteen firms in four States did both
contracting and direct manufacturing, and the median for these
establishments was $7.40. In each State in which both types of
manufacture were found13 median weekly earnings were higher in the
manufacturing establishments, the difference varying from 40 cents
in New Jersey to more than a dollar in several States.
S ilk and R a yo n In d u s try — Wages and E a rn in g s, 1933 and 19341
4
A v e r a g e hourly earnings of all types of labor in the silk and rayon
goods industry increased sharply under the President’s Reemploy­
ment Agreement and somewhat more under the silk code. In
August 1933 the median earnings for the workers covered in the
industry were 37X cents an hour, and by August 1934 had increased
to 40K cents an hour. The arithmetic average for the coverage was
41.5 cents in 1933 and 44.8 cents in 1934. The greatest hourly wage
increases were made to workers in the lower-paid occupations. The
earnings of the lowest-paid quarter of the workers advanced 74 per­
cent from April 1933 to August 1934. A fourth of all workers in the
industry received more than 38K cents an hour in April 1933 and 59
or more cents in August 1934, an increase of 53 percent. Moreover,
full-time weekly earnings of workers in all of the leading occupations
for the industry as a whole were greater in August 1934 than they
had been for the longer maximum workweek prevailing in April 1933.
The smallest increase in average full-time weekly earnings was 12
percent, in the case of loom fixers, the most highly skilled group of
workers. The least skilled occupations, separately analyzed, showed
an increase in full-time weekly earnings of approximately 40 percent.
These are a few of the outstanding findings of the investigation of
wages and hours of labor in silk and rayon goods industry by the
Bureau of Labor Statistics at the order of the President.15

Extent of Survey
T h is report is based on two studies of the silk and rayon industry.
The data presented cover three pay-roll periods—April 1933, prior to
the National Recovery Administration; August 1933, when the
i* No contractors were visited in Massachusetts or Missouri.
Summary of article published in the Monthly Labor Review, June 1935 (p. 1432).
» Executive Order No. 6858 (Sept. 26, 1934), creating the Textile Labor Relations Board. Sec. 8 of
this order reads: “ The Bureau of Labor Statistics shall prepare a comprehensive report on the actual hours
of employment, earnings, and working conditions in the textile industry. The Bureau shall also make an
investigation upon and a report of the different types of work performed by the various types of labor in
such industries, the actual wage rates paid for various classifications of work, and the extent to which differ­
ential wage rates apply to the different skills.”
m




1022

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

industry operated under the President’s Reemployment Agreement;
and August 1934, when the industry was operating under National
Recovery Administration codes.
In the first half of 1933 the Bureau of Labor Statistics made a
survey of wages and earnings in 291 establishments with 41,713 wage
earners. The average earnings figures shown may be accepted as
representative of conditions in April and May 1933.
The second study of the industry was undertaken in October 1934.
It covered wages, hours, and weekly earnings in two periods: (1) A
week in the middle of August 1933 and (2) a week in the middle of
August 1934. For August 1934 the sample included 141 mills and
28,959 workers. The sample for August 1933 is smaller, covering 96
mills with 23,723 workers.
Average Hourly Earnings
U n d e r the President’s Reemployment Agreement and the silk
code, adopted in October 1933, minimum wages of 30 cents an hour
in the South and 32% cents an hour in the North were provided. A
further condition of the President’s Reemployment Agreement was
that weekly wages should be as great for a workweek of 40 hours as
thay had been for the longer week prevailing prior to the code. In
the silk code as it was finally adopted, this provision was changed so
as to require the maintenance of wage differentials between occupa­
tions. If the minimum-wage requirement of the code necessitated
the raising of wages for certain low-paid groups, the differential
provision required an equal increase in the weekly earnings of the
more skilled occupations. These provisions required a marked in­
crease in the average hourly earnings of workers in the silk and rayon
industry.
Table 1 shows the distribution of the workers covered, on the basis
of average hourly earnings, in April 1933, prior to the National
Recovery Act; in August 1933, when the industry was operating under
the President’s Reemployment Agreement; and in August 1934, when
the industry was operating under the codes.
T a b l e 1.— C U M U L A T IV E P E R C E N T A G E D IST R IB U T IO N OF W O R K E R S , W IT H CLASSI­

FIED H O U R L Y E A R N IN G S, IN T H E SILK A N D R A Y O N IN D U S T R Y , 1933 A N D 1934
Cumulative percentage distribution of workers in classified earnings
groups
Males

Hourly earnings
April
1933

Less than 12H cents...........................
Less than 17H cents............... ............
Less than 22H cents____ ___________
Less than 27M cents________________
Less than 30 cents__________________
Less than 32K cents............................_
Less than 35 cents----------- ------- -------Less than 40 cents.................................
Less than 45 cents____________ _____
Less than 50 cents.................................
Less than 60 cents.................................
Less than 70 cents—................. _..........




Au­
gust
1933

2.5
11.0 1 4.8
24.8
43.9
50.8
8.2
12.1
58.9
65.7
26.0
75.6
38.5
83.6
53.2
88.5
64.7
94.8
80.8
97.7
90.8

Total

Females
Au­
gust
1934

April
1933

f
0.3 <
l
1.8
2.2
5.2
17.2
29.6
43.6
57.5
74.3
86.1

Au­
gust
1933

5.5
27.1 1 4.8
54.8
79.4 ' 8.4
84.8
9.5
13.4
89.7
92.6
52.8
73.1
96.1
98.0
83.3
99.0
90.0
99.6
96.7
99.8
99.1

Au­
gust
1934

April
1933

f
0.2 <
l
1.2
1. 5
6.0
42.6
66.2
79.2
87.2
95.2
98.7

Au­
gust
1933

4.1
19.6 1 4.8
40.8
62.8 ' , 8
68.9
8.9
75.3
12.8
80.0
40.7
86.6
57.5
91.2
69.8
94.1
78.6
97.4
89.6
98.8
95.4

Au­
gust
1934

0.3
1.5
1.8
5.6
30.8
49.3
62.7
73.4
85.5
' 92.8

1023

SILK AND RAYON INDUSTRY

There can be no question that the provisions of the silk code in­
creased the hourly earnings of workers in the industry materially.
It is noteworthy, however, that the silk code operated, as did the
cotton code, to bring about a congestion of wages around the mini­
mum provided in the code. This is not to say that for the industry
as a whole the minimum wage became the maximum. Indeed, threefourths of the workers received more than the minimum. The whole
frequency distribution of earnings was pushed up, but wages in the
lower brackets were advanced more rapidly than wages in the upper
brackets. Thus from April 1933 to August 1933 the hourly wages of
the lowest-paid quarter of the workers were advanced 68 percent.
The average or median hourly wage advanced 53 percent, while the
wage for the upper fourth of the workers was advanced by only 43
percent. This congestion around the minimum continued to exist
in August 1934, by which time the earnings of the lowest-paid quarter
of the workers had advanced 74 percent over April 1933 and the
wages of the highest-paid quarter of the workers had advanced by
53 percent. During the year from August 1933 to August 1934 this
concentration of earnings in the lower brackets was somewhat re­
duced. The hourly wage for the lowest quarter of the workers ad­
vanced only from 32% cents to 33% cents an hour, whereas the level
for the highest-paid quarter of the workers advanced from 55 cents
to 59 cents.
Average hourly earnings in nine occupations in the industry, for the
United States as a whole, are given in table 2. These nine occupa­
tions in August 1934 employed 19,700 of the 29,000 workers in the
sample covered.
T

able

3 . — N U M B E R OF EM P LO Y E E S A N D A V E R A G E H O U R L Y E AR N IN G S IN SPECI­
F IED OCCUPATIONS IN T H E SILK A N D R A Y O N IN D U S T R Y , 1933 A N D 1934

Hourly earnings

Occupation and sex

April
1933

C en ts

Loom fixers, male..................... ...........................
Warpers, male......................... .......... .............. .
Warpers, female....................................................
Weavers, male..... .................................................
Weavers, female...................... ............................
Spinners, m a le ,......................- ...........................
Spinners, female........................ - .............. ..........
Winders, female................... ...............................
Quillers, female......... ..........................................
Pickers, female....................................................
Redrawers, female............................................ .
Bobbin b oys._............. .......................................

53.4
39.6
32.1
28.7
25.4
25.1
21.1
20.6
19.2
19.4
17.7
17.8

Per­
centage
in­
crease,
August August April
1933 to
1934
1933
August
1934
C en ts

72.4
51.4
47.4
44.7
41.0
44.2
35.1
34.4
35.3
35.7
33.9
28.8

C76?5
62.0
49.9
48.2
43.3
45.6
35.6
35.6
35.7
34.6
35.3
33.7

43
56
55
68
70
81
69
73
86
78
99
89

Number of employees

April
1933

1,236
844
1, 343
8,604
3,829
2,074
2,208
5,816
1,608
725
2,499
760

August August
1933
1934

760
303
869
4,421
2,981
828
1,138
2, 237
872
382
674
389

995
410
949
5,393
3,468
1,008
1,326
2, 794
1,316
574
955
530

Regional com parison .—In the study of regional differentials four
regions were distinguished: The South; the Middle Atlantic region,
excepting Paterson and New York City; Paterson; and New Eng­
land, including New York City. It was believed that each region was
more or less homogeneous as regarded wage conditions but that the
separate regions were distinctive. The basic data for two pay-roll
periods, August 1933 and August 1934, are shown in table 3.




1024
T

able

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR
3 .— N U M BER

OF W O R K ER S R E C E IV IN G CLASSIFIED H O U R L Y E A R N IN G S IN
T H E SILK A N D R A Y O N IN D U ST R Y , B Y REGIONS, 1933 A N D 1934
Number of workers in classified earnings group in—
August 1933

Hourly earnings

Middle
Atlantic

South

New England

Paterson

Males

Fe­
males

Males

Fe­
males

Males

Fe­
males

Males

All workers............................................

1,512

1,170

5,128

6,671

1,030

986

3,015

4,211

Less than 22>i cents-----------------------22H and less than 27X cents..............
A
27M and less than 30 cents.................
30 and less than 32^ cents..................
32>£ and less than 35 cents____ _____
35 and less than 40 cents.....................
40 and less than 45 cents.....................
45 and less than 50 cents.....................
50 and less than 60 cents.....................
60 and less than 70 cents.....................
70 cents and over..................................

100
46
31
239
98
184
232
187
214
137
44

141
85
34
296
143
216
127
70
48
9
1

333
132
59
128
891
602
883
501
766
469
364

336
269
65
131
3,424
1,338
522
225
230
100
31

28
25
6
18
78
113
115
188
199
95
165

40
33
7
20
466
158
96
60
76
23
7

51
46
21
35
417
438
339
345
545
365
413

107
81
44
52
1,108
936
585
515
528
179
76

Fe­
males

August 1934
All workers.............................................

1,551

1,285

7,158

9,404

1,082

970

3,646

3,863

Less than 2 2 H cents.............................
22H and less than 27Y% cents..............
27Y% and less than 30 cents..................
30 and less than 32M cents..................
32H and less than 35 cents..................
35 and less than 40 cents.....................
40 and less than 45 cents.....................
45 and less than 50 cents____________
50 and less than 60 cents.....................
60 and less than 70 cents.....................
70 cents and over........._............ ..........

6
21
37
299
65
226
224
198
247
162
66

2
25
7
599
132
169
149
67
101
29
5

32
147
30
41
1,084
848
1,055
1,071
1,143
800
907

20
86
26
58
4,385
2,236
1,088
645
534
238
88

2
13
5
16
70
91
134
173
233
124
221

8
21
5
20
267
272
114
88
122
34
19

4
22
5
17
391
519
459
429
622
501
677

3
23
11
20
891
995
660
444
481
241
94

Average Weekly Earnings
F u l l - t im e earnings—the amounts a man might have earned had
he been able to work full time—are shown in table 4 for 9 occupations
in April 1933 and August 1934.
T

able

4 . — AVE R A G E

F U LL -T IM E W E E K L Y E AR N IN G S IN T H E SILK A N D R A Y O N
IN D U S T R Y , B Y OCCUPATIONS, AP R IL 1933 A N D AU G U ST 1934
Increase
Occupation and sex

April
1933

August
1934
Amount

Loom fixers, male___ ________________. _______________
Warpers, male___________ _______________________
Warpers, female.____ ________________________________
Weavers, male----------------------------------- ---------------------Weavers, female_________________ ____________________
Spinners, male----------------------------------------------------------- .
Spinners, female------ ---------------- ------------------ ---------- -----Winders, female........ ....................................... .......... ..........
Quillers, female......................................................................
Pickers, female.................................... .................................
Redrawers, female....... .........................................................
Bobbin boys.............. .......................... .................................




$27. 34
20.47
16. 21
14.55
12.60
13.96
10.55
10.38
9. 70
9.80
8.96
9.20

$30. 60
24.80
19. 96
19.28
17. 32
18.24
14.24
14. 24
14.28
13.84
14.12
13.48

$3.26
4.33
3.75
3.73
4. 72
4.28
3.69
3.86
4.58
4.04
5.16
4.28

Percent
12
21
23
32
37
31
35
37
47
41
58
47

1025

SILK AND RAYON WEAVERS

The amounts actually received per week are of greater significance
than changes in hypothetical full-time earnings. Despite the shorten­
ing of hours under the National Recovery Administration, the average
actual weekly earnings for the silk and rayon workers of the country in
each of the occupations shown above were greater both in August
1933 and August 1934 than they were in Aprfi 1933.
T a ble 5 . —AVE R A G E A C T U A L W E E K L Y EAR N IN G S IN T H E SILK A N D R A Y O N
IN D U S T R Y , B Y OCCUPATIONS, 1933 A N D 1934

Occupation and sex
Loom fixers, male _______________________________________________
Warpers, male________ _________________________ ________________
Warpers, female— ___ ___________________________________________
Weavers, male___ ________________________________________________
Weavers, female__________________________________________________
Spinners, male________________________ ______________________ - ___
Spinners, female________ __________________________________ _______
Winders, female__ _____________________________________________
Quillers, female___________________________________________________
Pickers, female— _________________________________________________
Redrawers, female. - _____________________________________________
Bobbin boys______________________________________________________

April 1933 August 1933 August 1934
$26.63
17.66
12.94
13.34
11.39
12.06
9.01
8. 25
8.16
7.78
7.39
8.09

$28.15
18.53
16. 63
16.70
15.23
13.45
12.09
11.89
12.45
13.40
11. 32
10.72

$28.17
21.23
14.85
16.74
15.31
14.99
11. 25
10.73
11.89
11. 25
10.49
11. 65

S ilk and R a yo n Weavers— Rates of Pay, A p r il 1934
T h is article shows average rates of pay in the silk and rayon goods
industry obtained by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in response to a
request in March 1934 by the Industrial Relations Board of Paterson,
N. J. The Bureau’s survey covered the rates of pay of weavers in
silk and rayon .mills in Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island. According to the 1931 Census of
Manufactures, about 80 percent of the wage earners in the industry
in the United States are employed in these States.
The survey was limited to mills manufacturing broad silk and
broad rayon goods, in which all or part of the looms were operated
on the basis of 4 looms per weaver on standards of weave known to
the industry as “ silk 50/64” , “ silk 55/72” , “ rayon 90/52” , and to
mills in which the largest group of 4-loom weavers worked on some
other standard. Mills in which no looms were operated on the 4loom basis and those producing other than broad goods were not
included.
The rates of pay in mills visited by representatives of the Bureau
covered the pay-roll period nearest to April 30, 1934. Satisfactory
data were obtained for 6,416 looms in 60 mills. Rates were also
secured by questionnaire for 3,040 looms in 29 mills not visited by
agents of the Bureau. The prevailing rate of pay was the rate per
100,000 picks; the unit of pay per yard reported for a few mills has
been converted to the rate per 100,000 picks.
The following table presents rates of pay of silk or rayon weavers
working on a basis of 4 looms per weaver, in April 1934, by cities or
groups of cities.

19206— 36----- 66




1026

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

RATES OF P A Y OF W EA V E R S OF BROAD SILK A N D B R O AD R A Y O N GOODS
OPER ATIN G ON A BASIS OF 4 LOOMS PER W E A V E R , AP R IL 1934, B Y CITIES OR
GROUPS OF CITIES
Average rate per 100,000 picks for standard of—

City and State

Silk
50/64

Silk
55/72

Rayon
90/52

Other i

Total

All mills covered
All cities covered...............................- ..............................
New England:
Willimantic and Mystic, Conn..............................
Fall River, Mass........................................................
New Bedford, Mass______________________- _____
Westerly, R. I _________________________________
Central Falls, R. I_____________________________
Pawtucket, R. I _______________________________
Total________ ____ __________________________
Allentown, Pa_____________________________________
Easton, Pa_________________________________________
East Stroudsburg, Pa______________________________
Bethlehem, Pa——_________________________________
Phillipsburg, N . J_________________________________
Total__________________________ _____________
All cities except Paterson, N . J......................................
Paterson, N . J_______________________________ _____

$1.873

$1.834

1.850

$2.093

1.850

$1.898

1.900
(2
)
2.250

8

1.906
1.967

1.883
(2
)
(2
)
(2
)
1.954
1.938

(2
)
1.900
1.900

$1,907

1.900

1.853

1.882

2.250

1.890

1.891

1.831
1.519
1.750
00
(2
)

1.817
1.350
1.750

2.000

1.929
1.764
1.872
(2
)
(2
)

1.916
1.692
1.806
(2
)
(2
)

(2
)

1.762

1.726

2.000

1.898

1.868

1.808
1.952

1.808
1.940

2.131
2.040

1.894
1.964

1.878
1.961

Mills visited by agents only
All cities...............................................................................

$1,854

$1,888

New England:
Willimantic, Conn., Fall River, Mass., New
Bedford, Mass., and Westerly, R. I_____ _____
Central Falls, R. I_____________________________
Pawtucket, R. I ____________ __________________

1.700
1.900
1.900

1.900
1.900

Total.... ....................... ............ ................................

1.757

Allentown, Pa_______________________ _____________
Easton, Pa_________________________________________
East Stroudsburg, Pa______________________________
Bethlehem, Pa., and Phillipsburg, N. J,............... .

1.845
1.519
1.700
1.711

All cities except Paterson, N . J—........................... .......
Paterson, N . J_____________________________________

1.728
1.967

$1.901

$1.897

1.816
1.906
1.958

1.700

Total.........................................................................

$2,000

1.808
1.906
1.948

1.866

1.860

2.000

1.912
1.764
1.894
1.903

1.912
1.724
1.894
1.843

1.700

2.000

1.895

1.881

1.821
1.940

2.000

1.883
2.017

1.873
1.994

Mills covered by questionnaire only
All cities____________ ____________________________ 1_

$1,886

$1,814

$2.129

$1.932

$1.901

New England:
Pawtucket, R. I ____ _____ _____________________
Other New England cities,.....................................

1.900
1.859

1.900
1.850

2.250

1.982
2.000

1.931
1.956

2.250

Total.........................................................................

1.883

1.878

1.991

1.943

Allentown, Pa_____________________________________
Phillipsburg, N . .J., and cities in Pennsylvania
(except Allentown)_______________ ____ _________

1.826

1.817

2.056

1.934

1.750

1.692

1.562

1.674

Total_________________ _________________ ____

1.801

1.730

1.922

1.823

All cities except Paterson, N . J— .................................
Paterson, N . J_____________________________________

1.848
1.940

1.806
1.940

1.962
1.878

1.891
1.922

2.250
2.040

1 This includes only those standards where more looms were operated than on any of the 3 selected
standards.
* Data included in the total but not shown separately to avoid identification.




1027

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

S la u g h te rin g and M e a t-P a c k in g In d u s try — H o u rs and
E a rn in g s, 1931
L a t e in 1931 the Bureau of Labor Statistics made a study of
earnings and hours of labor of wage earners in the slaughtering and
meat-packing industry in the United States, summary data for which
are here given. More detailed information was published in Bulletin
No. 576 of the Bureau. Wage figures covering 53,555 wage earners
of 90 representative meat-packing establishments in 26 States were
collected by the Bureau for a weekly pay period in October, November,
or December. Averages are presented in table 1, together with aver­
ages for 1917 and each odd year from 1921 to 1931, for the wage
earners of each sex separately and for both sexes combined, in 13 of
the more important departments in the industry, i. e., cattle killing,
hog killing, sheep and calf killing, offal (other than hides and casings),
hide, casing, fresh-beef cutting, fresh-pork cutting, lard and oleo-oil,
sausage, cured-meat, canning, and maintenance and repair depart­
ments. The number of wage earners covered in 1931 is 43.7 percent
of the 122,505 reported in the industry in the United States by the
Census of Manufactures in 1929.
T

1 — A V E R A G E HOURS A N D EAR N IN G S, IN T H E SL A U G H T E R IN G A N D M E A T ­
P A C K IN G IN D U ST R Y , W IT H IN D E X N U M B ER S TH E R E O F , 1917 TO 1931, B Y S E X
AND YEAR

able

Hours actually
worked in 1 week

Sex and year

Average
full-time
hours
per week

All occupations,
male:
1917...................
1921...................
1923_____ ____
1925...................
1927...................
1929...................
1931...................
All occupations,
female:
1917...................
1921____ ______
1923..................
1925........ ..........
1927...................
1929........ ..........
1931__________
All occupations,
male and fe­
male:
1917— .............
1921__________
1923— ............
1925...................
1927...................
1929...................
1931...................

Index numbers
(1921=100.0)
Average Average
Average full-time actual
earnings
Full­
earnings earnings
Percent per hour per week in 1 week
Average Average
time
Average of full
hours earnings full-time
per week per hour earnings
time
per week
time

(i)
48.4
52.2
50.2
49.5
49.3
49.2

54.3
43.2
49.1
• 48.2
47.7
48.5
45.9

(i)
89.3
94.1
96.0
96.4
98.4
93.3

$0.271
.511
.499
.507
.517
.525
.470

(i)
$24.73
26.05
25.45
25.59
25.88
23.12

$14.73
22.10
24.55
24.45
24.68
25.45
21.57

100.0
107.9
103.7
102.3
101.9
101.7

53.0
100.0
97.7
99.2
101.2
102.7
92.0

100.0
105.3
102.9
103.5
104.7
93.5

(i)
48.3
52.8
49.4
49.1
48.9
48.9

53.4
44.3
45.1
44.7
44.5
44.9
42.4

(i)
91.7
85.4
90.5
90.6
91.8
86.7

. 178
.365
.361
.359
.363
.369
.321

(l)
17.63
19.06
17. 73
17.82
18.04
15.70

8.60
15.57
16.28
16.04
16.16
16.54
13.61

100.0
109.3
102.3
101.7
101.2
101.2

48.8
100.0
98.9
98.4
99.5
101.1
87.9

100.0
108.1
100.6
101.1
102.3
89.1

(i)
48.4
52.3
50.1
49.4
49.2
49.2

44.2
43.1
48.7
47.8
47.3
48.0
45.4

(l)
89.0
93.1
95.4
95.7
97.6
92.3

.262
.497
.484
.492
.499
.504
.449

(l)
24.05
25.31
24.65
24.65
24.80
22.09

14.07
21.45
23. 55
23.52
23.62
24.18
20.38

100.0
108.1
103.5
102.1
101.7
101.7

52.7
100.0
97.4
99.0
100.4
101.4
90.3

100.0
105.2
102.5
102.5
103.1
91.9

1 Data not available.

Table 2 shows average hours and earnings and percent of full time
worked in 1 week, in 1929 and 1931, by department and sex, for the
wage earners in all occupations combined (except a few in each of the
13 major departments of the industry), for the miscellaneous group
of “ Other employees, all departments”, and for the industry as a
whole so far as covered in this report.



1028
T

able

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

3 .— AVERAGE

HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S IN TH E SL A U G H T E R IN G A N D M E A T
P A C K IN G IN D U S T R Y , 1929 A N D 1931, B Y D E P A R T M E N T A N D S E X

Department and sex

Average
full-time
hours per
week

Hours actually worked
in 1 week
Average
number

1929 1931 1929 1931
All departments:
Males.............
49.3 49.2 48.5 45.9
Females.........
48.9 48.9 44.9 42.4
Males and females.,_ 49.2 49.2 48.0 45.4

Percent of
full time
1929

1931

Average
earnings per
hour

1929

1931

Average
full-time
earnings
per week

Average
actual earn­
ings in 1
week

1929

1929

1931

98.4
91.8
97.6

93.3
86.7
92.3

48.8 48.9 44.1 41.8
50.0 48.8 42.2 29.7
48.8 48.9 44.0 41.8

90.4
84.4
90.2

85.5
60.9
85.5

.599
.406
.598

.532
.283
.531

29.23
20.30
29.18

26.01
13.81
25.97

26.38 22. 24
17.12 8.42
26.33 22.17

49.9 50.0 46.7 44.9
49.5 48.6 43.6 43.2
49.9 50.0 46.7 44.9

93.6
88.1
93.6

89.8
88.9
89.8

.529
.357
.527

.478
.296
.475

26.40
17. 67
26.30

23.90
14. 39
23.75

24.71 21.46
15.56 12.78
24.59 21.33

48.4 48.7 43.4 43.2

89.7

.580

.489

28.07

23.81

25.14 21.13

49.2
49.2
49.2
48.4

44.9
41.0
44.4
38.9

94.5
85.0
93.3
87.6

91.1
83.7
90.1
79.9

.510
.363
.491
.502

.452
.314

25.09
17.86
24.16
24.

22.28
15.39
21.49
21.09

23.73
15.16
22.51
21.29

49.1 49.3 46.8 45.3
Females.
48.7 48.7 45.6 43.4
Males and females... 49.0 49.2 46.5 44.9
Cutting or fresh beef
department:
Males.......................... 48.9 49.0 50.1 46.5
Females.
47.2 48.4 41.2 39.0
Males and females.. . 48.9 49.0 50.0 46.5
Cutting or fresh pork
department:
Males.......................... 49.8 49.5 47.6 46.7
Females...................... 49.3 48.9 42.5 40.1
Males and females... 49.7 49.4 46.6 45.5
Lard and oleo-oil de­
partment:
Males.......................... 49.2 49.4 51.0 48.8
Females...................... 49.4 49.3 45.4 44.6
Males and females... 49.2 49.4 50.4 48.2
Sausage department:
Males.......................... 49.5 49.7 52.2 47.8
Females...................... 48.8 49.0 46.0 43.4
Males and females... 49.2 49.4 49.3 45.7
Cured-meat department:
Males......................... 49.9 49.5 49.9 47.5
Females...................... 49.4 49.0 46.1 42.2
Males and females... 49.9 49.5 49.6 47.1
Canning department:
Males.......................... 48.3 48.9 49.6 47.0
Females........... .......... 48.4 48.9 45.0 42.5
Males and females.. . 48.4 48.9 46.8 43.8
Maintenance and repair
department: Males___ 49.0 48.7 49.0 45.4
Other employees, all
departments:
49.4 49.2 52.1 48.8
51.2 48.9 45.2 42.5
Females........... .—
49.4 49.1 51.9 48.3
Males and females..

95.3
93.6
94.9

91.9
89.1
91.3

.524
.386
.496

.464
.435

25.73
18.80
24.30

22.88
15.05
21.40

24. 51 21.02
17.59 13.43
23.07 19.53

102.5
87.3
102.2

94.9
80.6
94.9

.537
.328
.535

.473
.295
.472

26.26
15.48
26.16

23.18
14.28
23.13

26.88 22.00
13.52 11.50
26.75 21.93

95.6
86.2
93.8

94.3
82.0
92.1

.514
.395
.494

.466
.349
.447

25.
19.47
24.55

23.07
17.07
22.08

24.47 21.76
16.78 14.02
23.02 20. 33

103.7
91.9
102.4

98.8
90.5
97.6

.486
.345
.474

.442
.295
.423

23.91
17.04
23.32

21.83
14.54
20.90

24.79 21.54
15.68 13.16
23.88 20.38

105.5
94.3
100.2

96.2
88.6
92.5

.507

.458
.319
.395

25.10
17.86
21.94

22.76
15.63
19. 51

26.47 21.90
16.83 13.83
21.98 18.06

100.0
93.3
99.4

96.0
86.1
95.2

.477
.352
.468

.432
.304
.424

23.81
17.39
23.35

21.38
14.90
20.99

23.81 20. 52
16.23 12.84
23.23 19.97

102.7
93.0
96.7

96.1
86.9
89.6

.478
.360
.409

.433
.322
.358

23.09
17.42
19.80

21.17
15. 75
17.51

23.68 20. 32
16.21 13.67
19.12 15.69

100.0

93.2

.583

.535

28.59

26.05

28.59 24.29

105.5
88.3
105.1

99.2
86.9
98.4

.471
.378

.412
.318
.405

23.27
19.35
23.17

20.27
15. 55
19.89

24.50 20.11
17.07 13.51
24.33 19.55

Cattle-killing depart­
ment:
Males........................
Females....................
Males and females..
Hog-killing department:
Males..........................
Females......................
Males and females—.
Sheep and calf-killing
department: Males—
Offal department (other
than hides and cas­
ings):
Males..........................
Females......................
Males and females.. .
Hide department: Males.
Casini

49.3
49.0
49.3
48.7

46.5
41.8
45.9
42.4

$25. 88 $23.12 $25.45
18.04 15.70 16.14
24.80 22.09 24.58

.433

20.29
12.87
19.39
16.84

Average hours and earnings in 1929 and 1931 and the percent that
average hours actually worked in 1 week was of average full-time
hours per week are shown in table 3 for each of the various occupa­
tions in the cattle-killing, hog-killing, casing, sausage, and canning
departments of the industry.




1029

SLAUGHTERING AND MEAT-PACKING INDUSTRY
T

3 . — A V E R A G E HOURS A N D EAR N IN G S IN FIVE D E P A R T M E N T S OF T H E
SL A U G H T E R IN G A N D M E A T -P A C K IN G IN D U S T R Y , 1929 A N D 1931, B Y S E X A N D
OCCUPATION

able

Cattle-hilling department

Sex and occupation

Average
full-time
hours per
week

Hours actually worked
in 1 week
Average
number

1929 1931 1929 1931

Percent of
full time
1929

1931

Average
earnings
per hour

1929

1931

Average
full-time
earnings
per week

1929

1931

Average
actual
earnings in
1 week

1929

1931

M a le s

Drivers and penners___
Knockers...........................
Shacklers or slingers____
Headholders.....................
Stickers.............................
Headers.............................
Droppers and pritchersFoot skinners...................
Leg breakers.....................
Rippers-open....................
Gullet raisers....................
Caul pullers......................
Floormen or siders..........
Breast or brisket break­
ers and sawyers............
Crotch breakers...............
Hoisters.............................
Tail rippers and pullers.
Bumpers...........................
Fell cutters.......................
Fell pullers and beaters.
B ackers..............................
Gutters and bung drop­
pers.................................
Shank skinners................
Hide droppers..................
Tail sawyers.....................
Splitters.,........................
Chuck splitters................
Scribers.............................
Trimmers of bruises,
rounds, necks, skirts,
and tails.........................
Utilitymen i______ _____
Washers and wipers........
Butchers, general3..........
Tonguers...........................
Laborers 3
..........................
Truckers...... .....................

49.5
49.0
48.4
49.3
48.8
48.8

49.0
48.9
49.1
49.3
49.4
49.1

47.8
45.0
43.3
35.7
43.7
44.8

49.5
43.6
39.4
35.3
43.9
41.9

96.6 101.0 $0,528 $0,465 $26.14 $22.79 $25.26 $23.01
.568
.496 27.83 24.25 25.57 21.63
91.8 89.2
.557
.479 26.96 23.52 24.14 18.90
89.5 80.2
.753
.601 37.12 29.63 26.87 21.21
72.4 71.6
.670
.542 32.70 26.77 29.28 23.80
89.5 88.9
.644
.592 31.43 29.07 28.89 24.83
91.8 85.3

48.4
48.4
48.7
49.9
48.5
48.9
48.7

48.7
48.6
48.7
48.9
49.3
48.6
48.9

42.4
44.6
43.1
48.3
44.1
42.3
44.1

39.5
40.4
40.7
46.2
39.7
43.9
41.2

87.6
92.1
88.5
96.8
90.9
86.5
90.6

81.1
83.1
83.6
94.5
80.5
90.3
84.3

.532
.568
.580
.582
.506
.574
.882

.461
.479
.512
.533
.412
.470
.800

25.75
27.49
28.25
29.04
24.54
28.07
42.95

22.45
23.28
24.93
26.06
20.31
22.84
39.12

22.57
25.32
24.98
28.14
22.32
24.26
38.87

18.24
19.34
20.85
24.65
16.38
20.60
32.98

49.2
48.1
48.8
49.1
49.1
48.1
48.6
48.7

48.9
48.2
49.2
48.9
49.1
48.8
48.9
48.9

46.4
41.3
41.6
43.7
44.9
43.2
42.3
43.1

39.0
41.7
40.0
37.1
41.8
41.5
41.5
40.7

94.3
85.9
85.2
89.0
91.4
89.8
87.0
88.5

79.8
86.5
81.3
75.9
85.1
85.0
84.9
83.2

.544
.536
.538
.553
.755
.690
.526
.789

.499
.488
.450
.494
.684
.594
.469
.710

26.76
25.78
26.25
27.15
37.07
33.19
25.56
38.42

24.40
23.52
22.14
24.16
33.58
28.99
22.93
34.72

25.27
22.15
22.40
24.15
33.87
29.84
22.26
34.03

19.47
20.34
17.99
18.30
28.58
24.61
19.45
28.88

48.9
49.2
48.9
49.0
48.7
49.0
48.5

49.1
49.0
48.9
48.5
48.9
48.4
49.5

44.6
44.6
43.4
43.6
45.8
46.8
44.6

41.4
39.3
41.2
41.9
42.1
42.9
42.4

91.2
90.7
88.8
89.0
94.0
95.5
92.0

84.3
80.2
84.3
86.4
86.1
88.6
85.7

.598
.595
.708
.595
.879
.626
.555

.517
.516
.617
.533
.780
.571
.451

29.24
29.27
34.62
29.16
42.81
30.67
26.92

25.38
25.28
30.17
25.85
38.14
27.64
22.32

26.72
26.56
30.71
25.97
40.25
29.25
24.76

21.40
20.24
25.43
22.31
32.85
24.50
19.15

48.3
49.7
48.8
(3
)
49.3
48.6
49.5

48.6
48.6
48.6
50.4
48.3
49.0
49.6

43.6
47.4
43.8
(2
)
46.5
42.9
43.2

42.0
43.5
41.0
47.3
40.3
42.3
42.2

90.3
95.4
89.8
(a
)
94.3
88.3
87.3

86.4
89.5
84.4
93.8
83.4
86.3
85.1

.537
.693
.476
(2
)
.552
.466
.483

.452
.634
.408
.676
.440
.408
.417

25.94
34.44
23.23
(2
)
27.21
22.65
23.91

21.97
30.81
19.83
34.07
21.25
19.99
20.68

23.40
32.84
20.81
(2
)
25.70
20.00
20.86

19. 02
27.60
16.73
32.02
17.74
17.24
17.58

50.0 48.8 42.2 29.7

84.4

60.9

.406

.283

20.30

13.81

17.12

8. 42

F e m a le s

Carcass wipers, bruise
and tail trimmers,
neck rag inserters, and
laborers..........................

Hog-killing department
M a le s

Laborers *..........................
Shacklers...........................
Stickers..............................
Scalders3...........................
Hookers-on 8.....................
Shavers and scrapers___
Headers.............................
Gutters, bung droppers
and rippers-open..........
Ham facers.......................
1
3
1

44.8
46.3
44.8
46.4
43.7
43.1
45.8

93.2
90.3
96.4
95.0
91.8
90.6
93.0

90.3 $0,443 $0,400 $22.06 $19.84 $20.56 $17.90
.493 28.38 25.00 25.62 22. 82
91.3
.571
89.6
.645
.565 32.25 28.25 31.08 25.31
92.1
.516
.475 25.90 23.94 24.63 22. 07
87.4
.500
.444 25.10 22.20 23.08 19. 38
.528
.480 26.35 24.05 23.89 20.68
86.0
91.4
.598
.538 29.78 26.95 27.69 24.62

50.0 50.3 47.7 45.6
49.9 50.1 45.6 44.7

95.4
91.4

90.7
89.2

49.8
49.7
50.0
50.2
50.2
49.9
49.8

49.6
50.7
50.0
50.4
50.0
50.1
50.1

46.4
44.9
48.2
47.7
46.1
45.2
46.3

.602
.580

.527
.533

30.10
28.94

26.51
26.70

Included general butchers in 1929.
Included as utility men in 1929.
Includes floor cleaners, mark heads, spread cattle, tie guts, laundry men, taggers, etc.
* Includes drivers, penners, steamers, singers, washers, aitchbone breakers, and toe pullers.
1 Includes ^tubmen, droppers, gamb cutters, polemen, and duckers.
6 Includes’hookers-off, hangers-ofl, straighteners, and chain feeders.




28.71 24. 03
26.43 23. 81

1030

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

3 .—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D EA R N IN G S IN FIVE D E P A R T M E N T S OF T H E
SL A U G H T E R IN G A N D M E A T -P A C K IN G IN D U S T R Y , 1929 A N D 1931, B Y S E X A N D
OCCUPATION—Continued

T able

Hog-killing department— C ontinued

Sex and occupation

Average
full-time
hours per
week

Hours actually worked
in 1 week
Average
number

1929 1931 1929 1931
M a le s —Continued
Splitters............ ................ 49.9 49.8
Leaf-lard pullers,............ 49.7 50.0
Leaf-lard scrapers............ 49.6 49.7
Bruise trimmers, head
removers, and kidney
pullers................. ......... 60.4 50.5
Utility men...................... 49.8 49.2
Truckers........................... 51.0 50.4

Percent of
full time
1929

50.1 46.5 100.4
45.4 45.6 91.3
44.3 41.6 89.3
46.2 44.4
49.4 47.2
47.4 45.9

Average
earnings
per hour

1931

1929

1931

Average
full-time
earnings
per week
1929

1931

Average
actual
earnings in
1 week
1929

1931

93.4 $0.654 $0,583 $32.63 $29.03 $32. 75 $27.10
91.2
.525
.470 26.09 23.50 23.83 21.47
.412 23.21 20.48 20.73 17.14
83.7
.468

91.7 87.9
99.2 ' 95.9
92.9 91.1

.521
.615
.453

.472
.557
.399

26.26
30.63
23.10

23.84
27.40
20.11

24.06 20.95
30.38 26.28
21.46 18. 31

88.9

.357

.296

17. 67

14.39

15.56 12.78

F e m a le s

Kidney pullers, shavers,
singers, neck brushers,
and spreaders...............

49.5 48.6 43.6 43.2

88.1

Casing department
M a le s

Casing pullers or run­
ners.................................
Strippers............................
Fatters and slimers.........
Turners.............................
Blowers, graders, and
inspectors,.....................
Measurers and bunchers.
Salters and packers.......
Trimmers of casings____
Blowers and tiers of
bladders and weasands..............................
General workers...............
Laborers 7
---------------Cleaners and washers of
bladders, weasands,
and chitterlings............
Truckers............................

49.2
49.3
48.9
48.5

49.6
49.1
49.1
48.8

46.8
47.3
46.0
45.4

44.5
45.7
44.3
43.5

95.1
95.9
94.1
93.6

48.9
48.8
48.8
49.6

49.3
50.2
48.9
49.0

46.9
47.9
48.7
46.7

46.1
47.5
49.1
44.9

95.9 93.5
98.2 94.6
99.8 100.4
94.2 91.6

.517
.512
.529
.538

.463
.440
.474
.469

25.28
24.99
25.82
26.68

22.83
22.09
23.18
22.98

24.26
24.48
25.74
25.11

48.3 48.4 48.3 44.8 100.0 92.6
49.3 49.2 50.5 50.9 102.4 103.5
49.1 49.3 46.0 43.3 93.7 87.8

.537
.597
.442

.456
.568
.394

25.97
29.43
21. 70

22.07
27.95
19.42

25.97 20.41
30.13 28.92
20.30 17.09

49.5 49.7 45.7 45.2
49.0 50.4 43.1 46.5

92.3
88.0

90.9
92.3

.492
.446

.412
.404

24.35
21.85

20.48
20.36

22. 51 18.61
19.20 18.78

50.0 48.6 43.9 39.7
48.8 49.1 48.0 42.1
48.2 48.2 43.6 43.7

87.8
98.4
90.5

81.7
85.7
90.7

.397
.412
.347

*312
.303
.311

19.85
20.11
16.73

15.16
14.88
14.99

17.43 12.37
19.74 12.75
15.13 13.58

48.6
48.5
48.6
48.4

94.4
99.6
98.8
96.3

92.2
95.7
94.3
88.5

.384
.394
.410
.419

.318
.320
.299
.296

18.66
19.11
19.93
20.28

15.49
15.49
14. 26
14.39

17.62
19.01
19.70
19.54

48.0 49.5 47.6 49.5
48.3 48.7 45.6 40.8

99.2 100.0
94.4 83.8

.412
.411

.332
.276

19.78
19.85

16.43
13.44

19.60 16.43
18.70 11.25

48.9 48.7 44.0 37.8

90.0

.357

.285

17.46

13.88

15.70 10.78

89.7 $0.532 $0,476 $26.17 $23.61 $24.89 $21.16
93.1
.429 24. 55 21.06 23.56 19.58
.498
90.2
.548
.486 26.80 23.86 25.25 21.53
89.1
.518
.441 25.12 21.52 23.53 19.19
21.36
20.92
23.24
21.04

F e m a le s

Casing pullers or run­
ners,................................
Strippers— ....................
Turners_____ ....................
Blowers, graders, and
inspectors______ ______
Measurers and bunchers,
Salters and packers,.......
Trimmers of casings____
Blowers and tiers of
bladders and weasands.
General workers 8............
Cleaners and washers of
bladders, weasands,
and chitterlings............

48.7
48.4
47.7
48.6

45.9
48.3
48.0
46.6

44.9
46.3
45.0
43.0

77.6

14.27
14.84
13.45
12.74

Sausage department
M a le s

Truckers and forkers___
Machine tenders 9
______
Casing workers 1 _______
0
Staffers........ .....................
Linkers, twisters, tiers,
and hangers,,............. .

49.2
50.0
49.6
49.8

49.6
49.4
49.2
49.6

50.2
52.9
52.1
52.0

46.1
47.8
45.3
46.1

102.0
105.8
105.0
104.4

48.8 49.1 48.7 45.7

99.8

92.9 $0,452 $0,416 $22.24 $20.63 $22.72 $19.19
96.8
.531
.476 26.55 23.51 28.05 22. 77
92.1
.475
.421 23. 56 20.71 24.72 19.08
92.9
.578
.522 28.78 25.89 30.03 24.02
93.1

.500

.447

24.40

7 Includes carriers, roustabouts, passers to fatters, barrel rollers, etc.
8 Includes fatters, slimers, and laborers.
9 Includes cutters, choppers, grinders, mixers, curers, feeders, spicers, and rockers.
1 Includes washers, turners, re-turners, measurers, cutters, tiers, and fatters.
0




21.95

24.38 20.44

1031

SLAUGHTERING AND MEAT-PACKING INDUSTRY
T

3 . —A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S IN FIVE D E P A R T M E N T S OF T H E
SL A U G H T E R IN G A N D M E A T -P A C K IN G IN D U S T R Y , 1929 A N D 1931, B Y S E X A N D
O CC U PATIO N — Continued

able

Sausage department— Continued

Sex and occupation

Average Hours actually worked
in 1 week
full-time
hours per Average
Percent of
week
number
full time
1931

Average
earnings
per hour
1929

1931

Average
full-time
earnings
per week
1929

1931

Average ac­
tual earnings
in 1 week

1929 1931 1929 1931

1929

51.3
49.2
49.6
50.1

110.7 95.2 $0,602 $0,472 $30.88 $23.60 $34.16 $22.44
104.3 94.6
.456
.400 22.44 19.88 23.42 18.77
111.9 102.6
.515
.468 25.54 23.31 28.59 23.91
114.8 100.6
.493 27.05 25.73 31.02 25.89
.540

1929

1931

M a le s —Continued

Ropers (wrappers and
tiers)...............................
Laborers1 ........................
1
Cooks.................................
Smokers................ - ..........
Inspectors, packers, seal­
ers, shippers, nailers,
and box makers............
Utility men, assistant
foremen, straw bosses,
subforemen,
handy
men, small-order men,
and all-around men___

50.0
49.7
49.8
52.2

56.8
51.3
55.5
57.5

47.6
47.0
51.1
52.5

97.2

.485

.441

23. 77

21.74

25.16 21.11

50.2 49.9 52.9 50.5 105.4 101.2

.603

.542

30.27

27.05

31.85 27.39

48.6 47.9 47.8 44.3
48.7 49.1 45.5 42.3
48.7 50.7 45.5 41.0

98.4
93.4
93.4

92.5
86.2
80.9

.354
.372
.378

.306
.320
.361

17.20
18.12
18.41

14.66
15.71
18.30

16.91 13.58
16.92 13.53
17.24 14.81

49.0 49.0 46.6 42.8

95.1

87.3

.377

.327

18.47

16.02

17.56 14.00

95.1
92.0
93.4
93.0

84.4
83.8
93.9
91.1

.383
.345
.342
.351

.343
.281
.299
.296

18. 61
16.91
16.69
16. 95

16.98
14.08
14. 59
14. 33

17.73
15.57
15.60
15.78

49.0 49.3 51.9 47.9 105.9

F e m a le s

Machine tenders 8
...........
Casing workers 1 .............
0
Staffers..............................
Linkers, twisters, tiers,
and hangers...................
Ropers (wrappers and
tiers)...............................
Cooks.................................
Packers 1 ..........................
2
General workers 1 ...........
3

48.6
49.0
48.8
48.3

49.5
50.1
48.8
48.4

46.2
45.1
45.6
44.9

41.8
42.0
45.8
44.1

14.34
11.80
13.71
13.03

Canning department
M a le s

Cooks.................................
Steam tenders, process
men and retort m en ...
Passers and pilers, cans.
Trimmers, meat (by
hand)..............................
Machine tenders (pre­
paring and stuffing
meat into cans)............
Staffers (meat into cans
by hand)_____________
Packers and nailers_____
Cappers.............................
Machine tenders, wash­
ing and painting..........
General workers...............
Inspectors..........................
Truckers and forkers___
Laborers ........................

48.4 47.8 57.4 44.3 118.6

92.7 $0.512 $0,461 $24.78 $22.04 $29.40 $20.41

48.4 48.7 52.0 50.1 107.4 102.9
48.4 48.6 47.3 48.6 97.7 100.0

.479
.471

.455
.425

23.18
22.80

22.16
20.64

24.95 22.80
22.27 20.64

49.7 49.0 56.4 27.7 113.5

56.5

.500

.452

24.85

22.15

28.20 12.53

49.0 49.6 51.0 49.7 104.1 100.2

.502

.430

24.60

21.33

25. 61 21.37

51. 0 49.9 51.3 45.7 100.6
48.8 49.4 48.6 46.4 99.6
49.0 49.1 50.6 41.3 103.3

91.6
93.9
84.1

.450
.461
.484

.449
.426
.444

22.95
22.50
23.72

22.41
21.04
21.80

23.11 20.51
22.42 19.75
24. 50 18.35

46.6 91.0 100.7
51.0 109.4 104.5
47.4 109.4 99.0
46.0 94.4 96.6
48.5 103.1 98.8

.456
.522
.500
.465
.453

.423
.502
.477
.410
.398

21.20
24.43
24. 55
22.41
21.79

19.58
24.50
22.85
19.52
19.54

19.28
26.74
26.86
21.14
22.48

46.5
46.8
49.1
48.2
48.1

46.3
48.8
47.9
47.6
49.1

42.3
51.2
53.7
45.5
49.6

19.72
25.58
22.61
18.89
19.29

F e m a le s

Passers and pilers, cans.
Trimmers, meat (by
hand).............................
Machine tenders (pre­
paring and stuffing
meat into cans)............
Staffers (meat into cans
by hand)........................
Packers (sliced bacon
and chipped dried beef
in cans, glass jars, or
cartons, by hand)........
Weighers (filled cans)—
Wipers (filled cans).........
Cappers.............................
Labelers and wrappers..
General workers w______

48.4 46.9 44.0 33.5

90.9

71.4

.363

.329

17.57

15.43

16.00 11.01

47.2 49.4 45.2 41.6

95.8

84.1

.392

.306

18.50

15.12

17.71 12.74

49.0 47.5 46.2 39.8

94.3

83.8

.360

.325

17.64

15.44

16.63 12.92

47.3 49.2 44.8 39.4

94.7

80.1

.375

.316

17.74

15.55

16.80 12.45

48.8
48.9
49.5
48.0
48.0
47.1

91.8
94.9
80.0
92.3
94.0
95.8

88.1
88.0
71.5
92.1
85.2
89.6

.354
.358
.349
.325
.381
.374

.325
.314
.362
.339
.309
.342

17.28
17.51
17.28
15.60
18.29
17.62

15.89
15.45
17.77
16.78
14.99
16.72

15.87
16.60
13.81
14.42
17.21
16.84

48.9
49.2
49.1
49.5
48.5
48.9

44.8
46.4
39.6
44.3
45.1
45.1

43.1
43.3
35.1
45.6
41.3
43.8

13.98
13.58
12.71
15.45
12.76
14.98

6 Includes cutters, choppers, grinders, mixers, curers, feeders, spicers, and rockers.
1 Includes washers, turners, re-turners, measurers, cutters, tiers, and fatters.
0
u Includes roustabouts, ham cylinder washers, cleaners-up, ham pressers, hangers, cook’s helpers, smok­
ers’ helpers, truckers of cages or bikes, etc.
i* Includes wrappers, inspectors, taggers, tiers, and packers’ helpers,
u Includes labelers, laborers, box makers, sorters, and utility women.
MIncludes roustabouts, clean-up men, cooler men, cooks’ helpers, shovers, and washing machine helpers.
m Includes cooks, inspectors, and laborers.




1032

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

Table 4 shows, for the wage earners of each sex and of both sexes
combined, in each State or group of two States, average hours and
earnings, and the percent of full time worked in 1 week in 1929 and
1931.
T a b l e 4 . -A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E AR N IN G S IN T H E S L A U G H T E R IN G A N D M E A T -

P A C K IN G IN D U S T R Y , 1929 A N D 1931, B Y S E X A N D STATE

Sex and State

Average
full-time
hours per
week

Hours actually worked
in 1 week
Average
number

1929 1931 1929 1931

Percent of
full time
1929

1931

Average full­
Average earn­ time earnings
ings per hour
per week

1929

1931

1929

1931

Average
actual earn­
ings in 1
week

1929

1931

M a le s

California................. ........
Colorado............................
Connecticut and Massa­
chusetts 1
.......................
Florida and Georgia
.
Illinois.................. - .........
Indiana..............................
Iowa...................................
Kansas...............................
Maryland..........................
Michigan...........................
Minnesota and South
Dakota i........................
Missouri.......................... Nebraska................. .........
New Jersey and New
York i________________
Ohio and West Virginia K
Oklahoma.........................
Oregon and Washing­
ton i-------------------------Pennsylvania__________
Texas............... - ................
Wisconsin.........................

47.9 47.8 47.0 50.3 98.1 105.2 $0.553 $0.498 $26.49 $23.80 $25.98 $25.08
.525 27.66 25.36 28.02 26.05
51.5 48.3 52.1 49.6 101.2 102.7 *. 537
52.5
55.4
48.0
48.0
52.0
48.0
54.6
80.0

54.0
55.5
48.8
47.8
49.1
48.1
53.8
58.0

51.6
48.3
49.3
46.3
47.3
47.3
55.9
55.1

47.2 98.3
43.9 87.2
47.5 102.7
39.5 96.5
45.7 91.0
44.3 98.5
52.9 102.4
47.6 91.8

87.4
79.1
97.3
82.6
93.1
92.1
98.3
82.1

.535
.325
.553
.459
.463
.518
.478
.537

.496
.286
.488
.392
.438
.448
.489
.465

28.09
18.01
26.54
22.03
24.08
24.86
26.10
32.22

26.78
15.87
23.81
18. 74
21. 51
21.55
26.31
26.97

27.62
15.72
27.27
21.24
21.94
24.54
26.72
29.61

23.44
12.56
23.19
15. 50
20.01
19.82
25.90
22.15

48.0 49.8 46.9 46.2
48.1 49.0 47.7 47.2
48.0 48.0 46.0 42.1

97.7
99.2
95.8

92.8
96.3
87.7

.517
.517
.533

.475
.471
.456

24.82
24.87
25.58

23.66
23.08
21.89

24.26
24.64
24. 55

21.98
22.19
19.22

49.4 52.3 46.3 43.8
53.9 51.2 50.6 49.3
48.1 46.2 47.9 42.0

93.7
93.9
99.6

83.7
96.3
90 9

.588
.509
.479

.519
.494
.416

29.05
27.44
23.04

27.14
25.29
19.22

27.20
25.75
22.93

22.72
24.34
17.48

47.0 101.0 96.1
53.7 98.3 102.7
41.9 99.0 87.1
49.7 104.1 103.3

.583
.556
.481
.566

.498
.473
.444
.498

28.63
30.08
23.62
29.21

24.35
24.74
21.36
23.95

28.94
29.58
23.39
30.39

23.41
25.36
18.63
24.71

49.1
54.1
49.1
51.6

48.9
52.3
48.1
48.1

49.6
53.2
48.6
53.7

Total males............ 49.3 49.2 48.5 45.9

98.4

93.3

.525

.470

25.88

23.12

25.47

21.57

94.4
90.2

96.9
83.1

.373
.328

.372
.332

17.83
15.78

17 74
15.94

16.82
14.22

17.16
13.25

83.9 82.5
76.5 77.6
97.1 88.8
90.8 76.6
86.3 89.5
91.9 86.9
96.2 104.4
81.0 82.8

.339
.214
.405
.275
.319
.395
.290
.329

.319
.161
.359
.257
.293
.318
.286
.293

16.68
11.94
19.32
13.20
16. 78
18.96
15.95
17.86

15.66
9.00
17.56
12.31
14. 56
15.26
13.67
15.82

14.01
9.14
18.73
12.00
14.51
17.40
15.34
14.49

12.93
6.99
15.60
9.44
13.05
13.24
14. 30
13.11

48.0 49.4 44.3 40.8
48.0 49.2 44.8 42.8
48.0 48.0 43.5 39.1

92.3
93.3
90.6

82.6
87.0
81.5

.365
.395
.374

.307
.331
.314

17.52
18.96
17.95

15.17
16.29
15.07

16.18
17.67
16.28

12.54
14.18
12.28

47.7 50.3 41.7 40.3
49.6 49.1 46.0 43.3
48.0 46.3 44.3 40.1

87.4
92.7
92.3

80.1
88.2
86.6

.375
.338
.302

.309
.310
.258

17.89
16.76
14.50

15. 54
15. 22
11.95

15.63
15.58
13.38

12.46
13.44
10.36

39.8
46.5
40.3
45.4

90.2
81.3
91.9
90.7

85.4
93.0
83.4
94.6

.371
.386
.322
.404

.335
.292
.277
.325

17.77
19.99
15.58
19.96

15.61
14.60
13.38
15.60

16.04
16.24
14.32
18.10

13.34
13.56
11.18
14.76

Total females......... 48.9 48.9 44.9 42.4

91.8

86.7

.369

.321

18.04

15.70

16.54

13.61

California........ ................. 47.9 47.7 46.7 49.6 97.5 104.0
.527
.476
Colorado........ ................... 50.9 48.2 50.8 48.0 99.8 99.6
.509
.497
Connecticut and Massa­
.507
.467
chusetts i . .......... .......... 52.0 53.1 49.8 46.0 95.8 86.6
i Shown together to avoid presenting data for 1 establishment in 1 State.

25.24
25.91

22. 71
23.96

24.58
25.87

23.57
23.84

26.36

24.80

25.27

21. 50

F e m a le s

California..........................
Colorado................. .........
Connecticut and Massa­
chusetts 1
.......................
Florida and Georgia i . . .
Illinois........................ .......
Indiana.................. ........
Iowa..................................
Kansas..........................
Maryland..........................
Michigan..........................
Minnesota and South
Dakota1........................
Missouri................. ..........
Nebraska..........................
New Jersey and New
Y ork 1.............................
Ohio and West Virginia
Oklahoma.........................
Oregon and Washing­
ton i................................
Pennsylvania...................
Texas.................................
Wisconsin...................... .

47.8 47.7 45.1 46.2
48.1 48.0 43.4 39.9
49.2
55.8
47.7
48.0
52.6
48.0
55.0
54.3

47.9
51.8
48.4
49.4

49.1
55.9
48.9
47.9
49.7
48.0
47.8
54.0

46.6
50.0
48.3
48.0

41.3
42.7
46.3
43.6
45.4
44.1
52.9
44.0

43.2
42.1
44.5
44.8

40.5
43.4
43.4
36.7
44.5
41.7
49.9
44.7

M a le s a n d fe m a le s




1033

STEAM RAILROAD EMPLOYEES

T a ble 4.—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D E A R N IN G S IN T H E SL A U G H T E R IN G A N D M E A T ­
P A C K IN G IN D U S T R Y , 1929 A N D 1931, B Y S E X A N D S T A T E —Continued

Sex and State

Average
full-time
hours per
week

Hours actually worked
in 1 week
Average
number

1929 1931 1929 1931

Percent of
full time
1929

1931

Average full­
Average earn­
ings per hour time earnings
per week

1929

1931

1929

1931

Average
actual earn­
ings in 1
week

1929

1931

M a le s a n d fem a les— Con.

Florida and Georgia i__.
Illinois...............................
Indiana.............................
Iowa...................................
Kansas...............................
Maryland.................. .......
Michigan___ ____ _____
Minnesota and South
Dakota 1._ .....................
Missouri................. ..........
Nebraska...........................
New Jersey and New
York i............................
Ohio and West Virginia K
Oklahoma........................
Oregon and Washing­
ton 1.......... ..................
Pennsylvania...................
Texas___ _______________
Wisconsin______________

55.5
48.0
48.0
52.1
48.0
54.7
58.6

55.5
48.8
47.8
49.2
48.1
52.7
57.0

47.8
48.9
45.9
47.1
46.9
55.3
52.4

43.8 86.1
46.8 101.9
39.0 95.6
45.5 90.4
43.9 97.7
52.4 101.1
46.9 89.4

78.9 $0.316 $0.273 $17.54 $15.15 $15.10 $11.96
95.9
.532
.468 25.54 22.84 25.98 21.94
81.6
.431
.370 20.69 17.69 19.77 14.46
92.5
.445
.416 23.18 20.47 20.92 18.93
91.3
.502
.428 24.10 20.59 23.52 18.77
99.4
.454 24.45 23.93 24.74 23.76
.447
82.3
.494
.425 28.95 24.23 25.87 19.94

48.0 49.7 46.6 45.5
48.1 49.0 47.4 46.8
48.0 48.0 45.7 41.7

97.1
98.5
95,2

91.5
95.5
86.9

.498
.507
.513

.456
.460
.439

23.90
24.39
24.62

22.66
22.54
21.07

23.19
24.03
23.47

20.75
21. 53
18.32

49.2 52.1 45.7 43.4
53.2 50.9 49.9 48.3
48.1 46.2 47.5 41.7

92.0
93.8
98.8

83.3
94.9
90.3

.564
.485
.459

.494
.468
.394

27.75
25.80
22.08

25. 74
23.82
18.20

25.81
24.22
21.78

21.45
22.63
16.45

46.3 99.8 95.3
52.3 96.5 101.0
41.7 98.0 86.7
49.1 102.0 102.1

.561
.541
.459
.543

.484
.443
.423
.475

27.49
29.16
22.49
27.80

23. 52
22.95
20.35
22.85

27.43
28.09
22.02
28.36

22.38
23.16
17.64
23.33

.504

.449

24.80

22.09

24.18

20.38

49.0
53.9
49.0
51.2

48.6
51.8
48.1
48.1

48.9
52.0
48.0
52.2

Total males and
females................ 49.2 49.2 48.0 45.4

97.6

92.3

1 Shown together to avoid presenting data for 1 establishment in 1 State.

S te am R a ilro ad Em ployees— E a rn in g s , 1931 to 1934
T h e Interstate Commerce Commission at the end of each calendar
year summarizes the wage statistics of class I steam railroads in the
United States, including switching and terminal companies. The
summary shows, by occupation, the average number of employees,
the regular hours (straight time) and overtime worked, and the total
compensation. The aggregate time is shown in days for a few occupa­
tions and in hours for other occupations. The great mass of the
employees fall in the latter group.
The summary for 1931 covered an average of 1,278,175 employees
(including switching and terminal companies); that for 1932,1,048,568
employees; that for 1933, 986,573 employees; and that for 1934,
1,137,933 employees.16 The average time worked and average earn­
ings for each year shown in the table following (drawn from such
summaries) are obtained by dividing the total compensation for each
occupation by the aggregate time worked by the employees therein,
and are comparable with figures for previous years given in earlier
editions of the Handbook.
is These averages were computed from the average number of employees at the middle of each month,
and consequently the average for 1934 differs from the sum of those shown in the table following, which are
the average number of employees who received pay during month.




1034

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR
E A R N IN G S OF S T E A M R AIL R O AD E M P L O Y E E S , 1931-34
1934

Occupation

Average
number
of em­
ployees
who received
pay dur­
ing
month

All employees, including switching
and terminal companies:
Daily basis______________________
90,807
Hourly basis............................... ....... 1,047,126
All employees, except switching and
terminal companies:
Daily basis______________________
89,078
Hourly basis............................... ....... 1,030,600

1933

Average time
worked per em­
ployee during
year

Unit

Time

1932

1931

Average
earnings

Per
year

Aver­ Aver­ Aver­
age
age
age
earn­ earn­ earn­
ings
ings
ings
per
per
per
Per day or day or day or
day or hour hour hour
hour

Day____
Hour___

306 $2,363 $7.723 $7.62 $7.80
2,071 1,270
.613
.605
.611

Day____
Hour___

306
2,072

2,369
1,269

7.745
.613

7.64
.605

7.82
.610

$8.67
.664
8.68
.663

E xecu tives, officials, a n d s ta ff a ssistants

Executives, general officers, and
assistants.
Division officers, assistants, and staff
assistants.
Total........................ ......................

Day____

307

6,460 21.07

21. 06

21. 72

24.26

6,164 ...d o ____

315

3,738 11.86

11. 65

11. 82

13.12

12,114 — do____

311

5,078 16.33

16.36

16.74

18.38

5,960

P ro fessio n a l, clerical, a n d general

Professional and subprofessional assistants.
Supervisory or chief clerks (major
departments).
Chief clerks (minor departments) and
assistant chief clerks and supervis­
ing cashiers.
Clerks and clerical specialists (A) __
Clerks (B and C).....................................
Mechanical device operators (office). .
Stenographers and secretaries (A)------Stenographers and typists (B )_______
Storekeepers, sales agents, and buyers.
Ticket agents and assistant ticket
agents.
Traveling auditors or accountants____
Telephone switchboard operators and
office assistants.
Messenger end offine boys
Elevator operators and other office
attendants.
Lieutenants and sergeants of police___
Patrolmen and watchmen____________
Traffic and various other agents, in­
spectors, and investigators.
Claim agents or investigators................
Freight claim agents or investigators __
Chief claim agents or investigators----Miscellaneous trade workers (other
than plumbers).
Motor-vehicle and motor-car opera­
tors.
Teamsters and stablemen............... .......
Janitors and cleaners___ ____________
Total:
Daily basis, ______ ________
Hourly basis____ ___________

6,938 — do.......

294

2,257

7.69

7. 71

8.50

9.50

3,681 ...d o ____

304

2,747

9.02

8.80

8.91

9.86

9,891 ...d o ____

300

2,119 J . 07

6.93

6.99

7.74

9,606
81,201
5,848
2,935
12,864
2,081
1,138

...d o ____
— do.......
...d o ____
...d o ____
— do-----— do____

2,293
2,223
2,079
2,362
2,218
2,434
2,512

1,922
1,434
1,230
1,798
1,360
1,957
1,977

.838
.645
.592
.761
.613
.804
.787

.819
.633
.580
.746
.604
.793
.769

.820
.635
.582
.750
.607
.801
.783

.897
.691
.636
.828
.667
.878
.862

1,288
4,182

Day.......
Hour—

297
2,011

2,472
798

8.333
.397

8.13
.393

8.24
.398

9.04
.436

4,148
1,029

Day___
Hour___

271
2,307

592
866

2.186
.375

2.14
.370

2.19
.374

2.39
.414

1,870
5,961
9,417

Day.......
Hour___
Day.......

333
2,848
303

1,918
1,352
2, 604

5. 753
.475
8.604

5.61
.471
8.45

5.66
.477
0)

6.30
.521
0)

883 — do____
352 — do-----103 Day-----526 Hour___

300
294
299
2,063

2, 549 8.498 8.39
2,214 7.525 7.42
3,468 11.59< 11.07
.693
.708
1,460

0)
0)
0)
.704

0)
0)
0)
.780

2,168 — do.......

2,154

1,055

.490

.481

.493

.543

56 — do____
5,412 — do------

1,137
2,169

564
747

.496
.344

.456
.338

.477
.343

.557
.381

Day
Hour___

298
2,247

2,172
1,412

7.283
.628

7.14
.617

7.19
.620

7.87
.677

8.36

8.46

9.44

37, 571
135,007

M a in te n a n ce o f w a y a n d structures

Roadmasters, general foremen, and
assistants.
Maintenance of way and scale inspec­
tors.
Bridge and building gang foremen
(skilled labor).
Bridge and building carpenters............
* Data not comparable with 1933.




2,732

314

2,676

8. 511

2,380

1,985

.834

.843

.838

.937

3,145 — do.......

2,270

1,764

.777

.768

.776

.851

11,655 ...d o .......

1,955

1,133

.580

.569

.577

.637

925

Day.......
Hour—

1035

STEAM RAILROAD EMPLOYEES
E A R N IN G S OF S T E A M R AIL R O AD E M P L O Y E E S , 1931-34—Continued
1933

1934

Occupation

Average
number
of em­
ployees
who re­
ceived
pay dur­
ing
month

Average time
worked per em­
ployee during
year

Unit

Time

Average
earnings

Per
year

1932

Aver­
age
earn­
ings
ings
per
per
Per
day or day or
day or hour hour
hour
age

1931

Aver­
age
earn­
ings
per
day or
hour

M a in te n a n ce o f w a y a n d structures —

Continued
Bridge and building ironworkers.........
Bridge and building painters_________
Masons, bricklayers, plasterers, and
plumbers.
Maintenance of way and structures
helpers and apprentices.
Portable steam equipment operators __
Portable steam equipment operator
helpers.
Pumping equipment operators.............
Gang foremen (extra gang and worktrain laborers).
Gang foremen (bridge and building,
signal and telegraph laborers).
Gang or section foremen.......................
Extra gang men....... ................................
Section men....................................... .......
Maintenance-of-way laborers (other
than track and roadway) and gar­
deners and farmers.
General and assistant general foremen,
and inspectors (signal, telegraph,
and electrical transmission).
Gang foremen (signal and telegraph
skilled-trades labor).
Signalmen and signal maintainers.......
Linemen and groundmen____________
Assistant signalmen and assistant sig­
nal maintainers.
Signalmen and signal-maintainer
helpers.
Total:
Daily basis..............................
Hourly basis...........................

952 Hour—
1,462 ...d o -----1,478 ...d o ____

1.940 $1,341 $0. 691 $0.690 $0.691
1,779 1,054
.592
.583
.578
2,053 1,458
.710
.702
.702

$0. 783
.646
.771

7,079 ...d o .......

1,885

875

.464

.456

.459

.507

2,374 ...d o ____
566 ...d o ____

2,112
1,898

1,340
843

.635
.444

.631
.431

.640
.444

.711
.489

2,409 — do____
1, 834 — do____

2,649
2,227

835
1,373

.315
.616

.308
.612

.313
.623

.347
.676

337 — do.......

2,377

1, 776

.747

.764

.774

.859

27, 510
30, 707
130, 693
7,410

...d o .......
...d o ____
— do.......
— do.......

2,363
1, 518
1, 711
1,840

1, 379
478
563
645

.583
.315
.329
.351

.577
.298
.322
.330

.579
.325
.327
.341

.636
.361
.362
.378

1,038

Day.......

309

2, 528

8.181

1, 023

8.25

8.28

9.29

Hour___

2,324

2,106

.906

.878

.888

.987

7,432 . —do.......
2,157 — do.......
1,303 — do.......

2,171
2,167
1,972

1,635
1, 583
1, 287

.753
.730
.652

.743
.711
.645

.749
.715
.651

.822
.768
.698

2, 733 ...d o .......

1,939

1, 014

.523

.513

.519

.568

3, 770
245,184

Day.......
Hour___

313
1,836

2,635
790

8.422
.430

8. 34
.420

8.42
.430

9.40
.469

7, 723

9. 70

M a in te n a n ce o f equ ip m en t a n d stores

General, assistant general, and de­
partment foremen.
General and assistant general foremen
(stores).
Equipment, shop, electrical, material,
and supplies inspectors.
Gang foremen and gang leaders
(skilled labor).
Blacksmiths.............................................
Boilermakers............................ ................
Carmen (A and B )___________________
Carmen (C and D ).................................
Electrical workers (A )............................
Electrical workers (B )............................
Electrical workers (C ).......................... .
Machinists....................................... .........
Holders.......... .........................................
Sheet-metal workers_________________
Skilled-trades helpers (M . of E. and
stores).
Helper apprentices (M . of E. and
stores).
Regular apprentices (M . of E. and
stores).
Coach cleaners........................... ..............
Gang foremen (shops, engine houses,
and power plants).
Gang foremen (stores and ice, recla­
mation, and timber-treating plants).
i

Data not comparable with 1933.




Day.......

323

2,788

8. 621

8.37

8.62

307 . —do.......

301

2,013

6.678

6.51

6. 53

7.17

1,709 . —do.......

285

2,038

7.157

7.01

7.16

8.07

2,517

2,189

.870

.839

.862

.968

...d o ____ 1,831
...d o ____ 1,854
— do____ 1,922
...d o ....... 1,971
— do....... 2,084
...d o ....... 2, 074
, —do....... 2,368
. —do....... 1,919
_—do____ 1, 521
— do....... 1,902
— do____ 1,909

1,397
1,451
1,439
1,366
1, 585
1,460
1, 597
1,469
1,177
1,457
1,031

.763
.782
.749
.693
.760
.704
.674
.765
.774
.766
.540

.755
.773
.738
.684
.749
.688
.649
.756
.776
.755
.532

.761
.780
.746
.692
.757
.696
.652
.764
.782
.762
.539

.840
.862
.826
.764
.834
.762
.724
.843
.848
.842
.597
.633

6,063
5,116
11, 542
15, 353
47, 273
6, 401
2,423
234
41, 541
662
8,179
66,306

Hour—

1,094 — do____

1, 798

1,020

.567

.569

.577

4,906 — do.......

1,767

742

.420

.443

.452

.484

8, 679 — do.......
1,064 — do.......

2, 209
2,570

829
1,384

.375
.539

.369
.528

.379
(0

.418
0)

1, 018 ...d o ____

2,270

1,384

.610

.604

0)

0)

1036

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR
E A R N IN G S OF S T E A M R AIL R O AD E M P L O Y E E S , 1931-34—Continued
1933

1934

Occupation

Average
number
of em­
ployees
who re­
ceived
pay dur­
ing
month

Average time
worked per em­
ployee during
year

Unit

Time

1932

1931

Average
earnings

Per
year

Aver­ Aver­ Aver­
age
age
age
earn­ -earn earn­
ings
ings
ings
per
per
per
Per day or day or day or
day or hour hour hour
hour

M a in te n a n ce o f eq u ip m en t a n d stores —

Continued
Classified laborers (shops, engine
houses, and power plants).
General laborers (shops, engine houses,
and power plants).
General laborers (stores and ice, recla­
mation, and timber-treating plants).
Stationary engineers (steam)...... ..........
Stationary firemen, oilers, coal passers,
and water tenders.
Total:
Daily basis...............................
Hourly basis............................

$813 $0.371 $0.365 $0,371

$0,413

Hour___

2,189

20,415 — do------

1,934

660

.341

.335

0)

0)

13,098 _„_do____

1,934

785

.406

.405

0)

(0

1,943 — do.......
3,726 — do____

2,437
2,375

1,611
1,216

.661
.512

.650
.506

.654
.511

.719
.564

Day.......
Hour___

316
1,980

2,632
1,188

8.331
.600

8.13
.589

8.36
.595

9.36
.656

749 — do____
2,996 — do.......
183 — do____
2,253 Day.......

2,805
2,197
2,195
322

3,402
2, 575
1,941
2, 755

1.213
1.172
.884
8. 565

1.188
1.153
.872
8.39

0)
0)

6, 756

24,015

9,739
291,051

T ra n sp o rta tio n (other than tra in , en g in e,
a n d y ard )

Chief train dispatchers...........................
Train dispatchers.....................................
Train directors..........................................
Station agents (supervisory, major
stations, nontelegraphers).
Station agents (smaller stations,
nontelegraphers).
Station agents (telegraphers and tele­
phones).
Chief telegraphers and telephoners, or
wire chiefs.
Clerk-telegraphers an d clerk-telephoners.
Telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen.
Station masters and assistants_______
Supervising baggage agents...................
Baggage agents and assistants— ........
Baggage, parcel room, and station at­
tendants.
General foremen (freight stations,
warehouses, grain elevators, and
docks).
Assistant general foremen (freight
stations, warehouses, grain eleva­
tors, and docks).
Gang foremen (freight station, ware­
house, grain elevator, and dock
labor).
Callers, loaders, scalers, sealers, and
perishable-freight inspectors.
Truckers (stations, warehouses, and
platforms).
Laborers (coal and ore docks, and grain
elevators).
Common laborers (stations, ware­
houses, platforms, and grain eleva­
tors).
Stewards, restaurant and lodginghouse managers, and dining-car
supervisors.
Chefs and cooks (restaurants or dining
cars).
Waiters, camp cooks, kitchen helpers,
etc.
Officers, workers, and attendants on
barges, launches, fenyboats, tow­
ing vessels, steamers, and shore
workers.
i

Data not comparable with 1933.




0)

8.54

0)

1

0)
9. 51

Hour___

2,380

1,514

.636

.618

.644

.725

16,059 — do.......

2,434

1,504

.618

.607

.613

.670

838 — do____

2,584

2,112

.818

.803

.816

.900

8,878 — do____

2,397

1,466

.611

.602

.608

.664

16,794 — do____

2,291

1,460

.637

.628

.634

.694

325
360 Day____
87 — do.......
318
411 Hour___ 2,529
5,518 ...d o ____ 2,275

2,253
2,019
1,399
1,024

6.939
6.353
.553
.450

6.80
6.10
.543
.439

6.93
6.20
.555
.445

7. 55
6.95
.615
.487

366 ...d o ____ 2,525

2,073

.821

.798

.805

.897

170 --.d o ____

2,506

1,818

.725

.711

.719

.812

2,246 — do_ —

2,446

1,557

.637

.624

.628

.696
.530

8,160 ---d o ------

1,912

917

.480

.465

.476

23,630 ...d o ____

1,682

706

.420

.410

.419

.463

1,217 ...d o ____

1,493

747

.500

.491

.493

.535

4,219 — do—

1,859

681

.366

.360

.372

.413

1,039 — do_ —

2,762

1,702

.616

.607

.610

.666

2,971 — do____ 2,590

1,105

.427

.423

.433

.468

7,238 -,-d o ____ 2,322

609

.262

.257

.258

.284

7,079 ...d o ____ 2,397

1,437

.600

.593

.591

.638

1037

STEAM RAILROAD EMPLOYEES
E A R N IN G S OF ST E A M R AILR O AD E M P LO Y E E S , 1931-34—Continued
1933

1934

Average
number
of em­
ployees
who re­
ceived
pay dur­
ing
month

Occupation

Average time
worked per em­
ployee during
year

Unit

Time

1932

1931

Average
earnings

Per
year

Aver­ Aver­ Aver­
age
age
age
earn­ earn­ earn­
ings
ings
ings
per
per
per
Per day or day or day or
day or hour hour hour
hour

T ra n sp o rta tio n — Continued

Transportation and dining-service inspectors.
Parlor- and sleeping-car conductors___
Train attendants_________ _________
Bridge operators and helpers_________
Crossing and bridge flagmen and gatemen.
Foremen (laundry) and laundry
workers.

516

Day.......

309 $2,172 $7.033 $7.09

19 Hour___ 2,110
2,156 - .do____ 2,288
1,110 — do____ 2,713
18,625 Day.......
308

$7.29

$8.19

1,532
958
1,135
724

.736
.419
.418
2.351

.692
.416
.412
2.35

.692
.419
.423
2.38

.744
.462
.471
2.63

308

Hour___

2,065

783

.379

.380

.387

.419

21,841
121,110

Day
Hour___

310
2,185

998
1,208

3. 222
.553

3.17
.548

3. 21
.555

3.58
.599

Yardmasters_________________________
Assistant yardmasters................. ..........
Switch tenders........... ....................... .......
Outside hostlers____ ________________
Inside hostlers........... __...........................
Outside hostler helpers_______________

2,682
1,361
3,500
1,516
4,437
1,273

Day . .
— do____
Hour___
—.do____
— do____
— do____

312
308
2,080
2,332
2,166
2,131

2,685
2,460
1,236
1,716
1,426
1,251

8.612
7.979
.594
.736
.658
.587

8.41
7.82
.586
.726
.649
.579

0)
.598
.735
.656
.587

Total:
Daily basis________________
Hourly basis......... - ................

4,043
10, 726

Day ..
Hour___

311
2,157

2,610
1,384

8.400
.642

8.22
.633

8.36
.640

9.32
.702

7, 257 -..d o ____ 3,020
1,071 ...d o ____ 2,841

2,665
1,977

.882
.696

.871
.681

.877
.687

.966
.762

9,062 — do____ 2,719

2,193

.807

.795

.805

.890

6,831 -..d o ____ 2,944

2,589

.879

.866

.873

.968

4,160 ...d o ____ 2,905
9,704 -__do____ 2,632

1,925
1,646

.663
.625

.652
.616

.659
.619

.725
.680

Total:
Daily basis________________
Hourly basis...........................

(

,

T r a n sp o rta tio n ya rd m a sters sw itch
ten d ers, an d h ostlers)

T ra n sp o rta tio n {tra in and en g in e

(i)

0)

.655
.808
.722
.644

)

Road passenger conductors..... ..............
Assistant road passenger conductors
and ticket collectors.
Road freight conductors (through
freight).
Road freight conductors (local and
way freight).
Road passenger baggagemen.................
Road passenger brakemen and flag­
men.
Road freight brakemen and flagmen
(through freight).
Road freight brakemen and flagmen
(local and way freight).
Yard conductors and yard foremen.__
Yard brakemen and yard helpers____
Road passenger engineers and motorRoad freight engineers and motormen
(through freight).
Road freight engineers and motormen
(local and way freight).
Yard engineers and motormen_______
Road passenger firemen and helpers. _
Road freight firemen and helpers
(through freight).
Road freight firemen and helpers
(local and way freight).
Yard firemen and helpers............... .......
T o tal,.____ ___________________
i Data not comparable with 1933.




(i)

2,110

1,352

.641

.632

.639

.706

18,118 ...d o ____ 2,412

1,683

.698

.687

.693

.767

13,398 — do____ 2,501
39,492 ...d o ------ 1,848
9,425 -..d o ____ 2,369

2,086
1,418
2,788

.834
.768
1.177

.822
.757
1.158

.828
.763
1.164

.911
.839
1.277

13,167 -..d o ____ 2,396

2,397

1.001

.986

.998

1.101

7,328 ...d o ____ 2,764

2,895

1.047

1.032

1.039

1.149

13,105 ...d o ____ 2,433
9,157 -.-d o ____ 2,023
16,566 -..d o ____ 1,905

2,151
1,898
1,447

.884
.938
.760

.871
.921
.750

.879
.926
.756

.965
1.013
.835

8,844 --_do____ 2,263

1,785

.789

.777

.782

.865

15,934 -..d o ____ 1,961

1,349

.688

.678

.684

.751

1,833

.806

.795

.802

.882

24,903 -..d o ____

227,522 ---d o ____

2,274

1038

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

Ta x ica b D rivers— E a rn in g s in O h io , 1934
I n f o r m a t i o n on earnings of taxicab drivers in Ohio early in 1934 >
here given, was obtained in a survey made under the direction of the
Ohio State University Bureau of Business Research. The data cov­
ered both drivers renting their cabs and those employed on a com­
mission basis. The earnings from fares in the case of drivers paid on
a commission basis were taken from pay-roll records. The earnings
of the rental drivers were obtained from estimates of drivers and oper­
ators and from observations of investigators.
In O h io, as in other parts of the cou n try, the taxicab in d u stry has
undergone considerable change in recent years.
T h e in trodu ction of
the ligh t pleasure car in the taxicab field has been the m o st im p o rta n t
single factor contribu tin g to the change. A m o n g the m o st obviou s
effects of the adop tion o f cars of this ty p e h ave been increasingly
sharp com petition and drastically reduced rate schedules.
In con­
sequence, traditional m eth od s o f operation h av e been m aterially
altered during the p ast 6 or 7 years.
T h ese changes h ave likewise
h ad a m arked influence on the earnings o f the taxicab drivers.
B o th fares and tips contribute to the drivers’ earnings.
Since few
drivers keep accurate records of the a m o u n t received in tips, reliable
statistics of to ta l earnings o f taxicab drivers were difficult to obtain .
M o re o v e r, in the case of rental drivers, it w as often im possible to
obtain tru stw orth y figures of earnings from fares, as the a m o u n t re­
ceived in rent w as the on ly accurate incom e record available from the
rental-driver operators.
A lth o u g h uncertain in am ou n t, tips constitute a substan tial pro­
portion o f the taxicab drivers’ total earnings.
D rivers paid on a com m ission basis turn in each d ay the am ou n t
o f the fares collected as indicated b y the taxim eter record. T h e tips
are sim ply pocketed and ordinarily no record is k ept of the total
am oun t received.
R en ta l drivers, how ever, m ake no distinction
between fares and tips. T h eir first concern is to m eet their fixed
rental and expenses. A ll in excess of their fixed charges represents
their n et earnings for the day, regardless o f the source.
E stim a tes o f the am oun t of tips received b y both types o f drivers
could n ot be verified b y records, b u t the m arked u n an im ity o f the
am ounts reported seem ed to indicate th at th ey were som ething m ore
than approxim ations.
T h e estim ate m o st frequen tly m ad e in all
parts o f the S tate w as th at tips averaged abou t $1 per 12-h ou r d ay .
I t is obvious, how ever, th a t the am oun t of tips varies in direct ratio
w ith the v olu m e of business.
Earnings under the rental system.— T h e unsatisfactory character of
the data relating to earnings o f drivers under the rental system
jrom pted an intensive 10-d a y survey of earnings o f drivers in C o u m bu s, where all cabs are operated on a driver-rental basis. T h e
findings of this survey are sum m arized in table 1.

{




1039

TAXICAB DRIVERS— OHIO

T a b l e 1.—AVE R A G E D A IL Y R E V E N U E , E X P E N SE S, A N D N E T IN C O M E OF T A X IC A B

D R IVER S IN COLUM BUS, OHIO, FEB. 22 TO M A R . 3, 1934
Expenses

Revenue

Total

Net in­
come
per day

line

Other

$3.00
3.07

$1.61
1.67

$0.02
.01

$4.62
4.72

$2.53
3.33

4.67

2.94

Company and shift
Fares

Tips

Total

Rent

All companies:
Day shifts,....................................
Night shift......................................

$6.58
7.35

$0.57
.74

$7.16
8.09

Gaso­

Average-.....................................

6.97

.66

7.63

3.03

1.64

Company no. 1:
Day shift...... .................................
Night shift____________________

6.89
7.04

.57
.95

7.46
7.99

3.17
3.23

1.70
1.80

4.87
5.03

2.58
2.95

4.95

2.77

.013

Average - ...................... .............

6.97

.76

7.78

3.20

1.76

Company no. 2: i
Day shift.......................................
Night shift................ .....................

7.85
7.75

.84
.92

8.69
8.68

3.25
3.25

2.36
2.36

.05
.15

5.65
5.76

3.04
2.92

.11

5.71

2.98

Average.......................................

7. 82

.87

8.69

3.25

2.35

Company no. 3:
Day shift....................................... .
Night shift..... .......... ....................

6. 63
6. 72

.57

.66

7. 20
7.37

3.22
3.25

1.80
1.88

4.99
5.13

2.20
2.24

Average........ ..............................

6.67

.62

7.28

3.24

1.84

5.07

2.22

Company no. 4:
Day shift........ .................... .........
Night sh ift..................... - ............

5.28
6.01

.42
.60

5.70
6.61

2.60
2.65

1. 39
1.46

3.99
4.11

1.72
2.50

Average - - ...................- ..............

5.65

.51

6.16

2.63

1.43

4. 05

2.11

Company no. 5:
Day shift___ _____________ _____
Night shift_____________ _______

6.09
7.69

.22
.29

6.30
7.98

2.76
2.96

1.34
1.40

4.10
4. 25

2.20
3.55

Average............................ ..........

6.93

.26

7.14

2.87

1.37

4.18

2.88

no. 6:
shift______________________
Night shift.......................... ..........

6.98
7.88

.80
1.01

7.78
8.89

3.15
3.15

1.55
1.69

.04

4.74
4.85

3.05
4.04

Average......................................

7.43

.91

8.34

3.15

1.62

.02

4.79

3.56

Company
Day

1 Covers a 6-day period only.

It should be noted that the segregation of revenue into fares and
tips was particularly difficult. Prior to the survey the drivers had
no reason to make a distinction between these items, as they are
entitled to the balance remaining after rent and expenses are de­
ducted from the gross revenue. For this reason, it is probable that
the drivers’ estimates of the amount received as tips were not entirely
accurate. First-hand observations made by the investigators indi­
cated that tips averaged about $1 a day. Assuming this to be true,
the estimated fares should be reduced accordingly.
In considering the average daily earnings shown for drivers in
Columbus it should be noted that the week during which the survey
was made happened to be what many competent observers considered
the best “ taxicab weather” in 15 years. During the week the city
was in the grip of an intense cold wave which was accompanied by
heavy snow and ice. This fact should be kept in mind when com­
paring the earnings of these rental drivers with the earnings of drivers
in other cities.
Earnings of drivers employed on commission basis .—The data relating
to earnings of drivers employed on a commission basis were secured
from the records of commissions paid by representative operating com-




1040

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

panies in Cleveland, Cincinnati, and Toledo. The period covered
included weeks in January and February 1934, when business was
active but not exceptionally favorable, as when the survey for Co­
lumbus was made. For this reason the figures for these three cities
are not exactly comparable with those for Columbus.
T a b le 2 sum m arizes the data collected for C levelan d , C incin n ati,
and T o led o .
F o r C levelan d and C incin n ati the in form ation w as
available for b oth d a y and night drivers, b u t this break -d ow n could
n o t be m ade for the drivers in T o led o . T h e estim ate o f tips at 66
cents per d ay obtained from the C olu m b u s su rvey w as used through­
o u t in order to m ak e the data com parable, alth ough, as previously
indicated, this figure is considered low .
T a ble 2 .—A V E R A G E D A IL Y EA R N IN G S OF T A X IC A B D R IVER S E M P L O Y E D ON A
COM M ISSION BASIS IN C L E V E L A N D , C IN C IN N A T I, A N D TO LED O , JA N U A R Y A N D
F E B R U A R Y 1934

City

All three cities:
Day shift____________________________
Night shift................................................
Day and night shift_________________
Cincinnati:
Day shift___________________________
Night shift................................................

Day and night, shift

Number
of
drivers

43
57
144

Average
Total
daily
Driver- commis­
earnings
days
from
sions paid
fares

Esti­
mated
tips per
day

$2.09
2.79
2.47

$0.66
.66
.66

$2.75
3.45
3.13

946 $1,978.59
1,148 3,207.15
2,463 6,072.99

Total
daily
earnings

34
35
93

814
841
1,793

1,784.39
2,643.65
4,746.64

2.19
3.14
2.65

.66
.66
.66

2.85
3.80
3.31

9
22
31

132
307
439

194.20
563.50
757.70

1.47
1.84
1.73

.66
.66
.66

2.13
2. 50
2.39

20

231

568.65

2.46

.66

3.12

Cleveland:

_ __
Day shift__
Night shift _ ___ ___

Day and night shift___ ______________
Toledo:
Average day and night shift_________

The significant feature of table 2 is that the average earnings of
drivers in both Cincinnati and Toledo were substantially higher than
in Columbus, in spite of the more favorable weather condition pre­
vailing at the time of the Columbus survey. The average earnings of
the Cleveland drivers, on the other hand, were somewhat lower, being
$2.39 per day as against $2.94.
In Toledo and Cincinnati, less than 30 percent of the drivers received
less than $12 per week exclusive of tips. About 7 percent of the
Cincinnati drivers received between $12 and $13 per week, while
about 26 percent of the Toledo drivers fell in this wage group. This
is significant because in Toledo the drivers are guaranteed $12 per
6-day week. About 52 percent of the Toledo drivers earned the
minimum guaranteed, and the earnings of the remainder were above
the minimum. About 25 percent of the Cincinnati drivers received
more than $18 per week, while only 5 percent of the Toledo drivers
exceeded this figure. The maximum earned by the Cleveland
drivers, exclusive of tips, was $15 per week and about 85 percent
earned less than $12 per week.
The data collected led to the conclusion that $18 a week for taxicab
drivers in Ohio was a high average. The earnings of drivers working
12 hours a day and 6 days a week ranged from $12 to $18 a week and
only under exceptionally favorable conditions did the earnings
exceed the maximum. Weather conditions were largely responsible




TAXICAB DRIVERS— WASHINGTON, D. C.

1041

for the variations in these amounts, although many other factors such
as initiative, ability, and type of company management were also
important factors influencing drivers’ earnings.
Ta x ica b Drivers— E a rn in g s in W a sh in g to n , D . C ., 1931-331
7
T a x ic a b drivers in Washington, D. C., worked long hours for a very
moderate return, according to data collected by the Engineer Bureau
of the Public Utilities Commission for varying periods during
1931-33.
The data indicated that an alert, energetic, expert taxicab driver
cruising in search of patrons, could make from 2 to 2.5 revenue-trips
per hour actually worked. At the prevailing rates of fares he would
average about 23 cents per trip, plus 6 or 7 cents in tips, or a total of
29 to 30 cents per trip. His gross earnings would thus range from 60 to
75 cents per hour out of which he had to pay expenses of 25 to 35 cents
per hour, leaving him about 35 cents per hour net. B y working
65 to 70 hours per week (9.5 to 10 hours per day, 7 days per week) he
could earn about $25 per week. Less expert and diligent drivers would
usually work longer hours and earn less than the foregoing example,
which may be taken as about the maximum possible earnings. A
good industrious cruising driver, but not of exceptional ability and
energy would work 75 to 80 hours a week and net $20 to $22. The
ordinary run of drivers would work 65 to 70 hours a week and net $12
to $15. Below them are those who could not regularly earn even the
rental charges on the cab.

General Conditions in the Taxicab Industry in Washington

I n t h e spring of 1930 many cars in the lighter models appeared as
taxicabs on the streets of Washington. They were operated on zone
rates which undercut the taximeter rates of the older-established
operators. A taxicab war developed, and conditions for a time
became so chaotic that certain operators were willing to render service
for whatever remuneration or gratuity the patron chose to pay.
As unemployment increased, the ranks of the drivers became aug­
mented by men of all sorts of occupations, such as plumbers, me­
chanics, carpenters, masons, steel workers, architects, engineers,
lawyers, real-estate salesmen, chauffeurs, and laborers.
After a time the meter-rate cabs were driven off the streets by the
intensity of the competition, and the rental system became general.
Under the meter system the owner can require each driver to render
a daily report showing every trip made while the cab is out, but under
a zone system he has no meter by which to check the report. The
rental system was therefore adopted to meet the situation. Under
this scheme the owner rents the cab to the driver for a stipulated
amount per day, and the driver pockets all earnings in excess of the
rental charge. The rental charge in Washington varied from $2.50
to $4 per 24-hour shift, and from $1.50 to $2.50 per 12-hour shift, the
driver paying for the gasoline required.
T h e rental sy stem has been w idely used b y the owners as a m eans o f
dodgin g liab ility for accidents.
In order to do this th ey sell the cab
to the driver on a conditional bill o f sale, the d aily rental charge
it Abstract of article by Walter H. Dunlap, engineer, Public Utilities Commission, in Monthly Labor
Review, March 1934.

19205— 36------ 67




1042

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

constituting the daily installment due under the purchase plan.
This scheme enables the real owner to title the cab in the name of an
irresponsible driver and to escape responsibility himself.
In the fall of 1931 the Public Utilities Commission held exhaustive
public hearings and later ordered that taximeters be installed in all
taxicabs and that rates of fare should be 25 cents for the first 2 miles
and 5 cents for each additional one-third mile. However, the Com­
mission had been prevented by law from enforcing this order, and the
zone rates had continued in effect. Various rates were in use, but
until October 1933 the majority of the cabs charged 20 cents for the
first zone, 40 cents for the second, and 60 cents for the third. The
first zone included the business section and extended well into the resi­
dential section, the diameter of the zone being 4 to 5 miles. The
second zone averaged a little over a mile in width and the third
about 2 miles. In October 1933 most of the operators added a subzone
to the first zone and charged 20, 30, 50, and 70 cents, respectively, for
the resulting four zones.
Up to January 23, 1934, over 3,400 cabs had received the 1934
registration plates. Of this number, 730 cars were operated by
independent drivers, not in fleets; 2,294 were in some 23 fleets of asso­
ciated owners; and 421 were in 6 fleets owned by corporations. There
were approximately 2,000 “ companies” (owners) offering taxicab
service to the public.
This excessive number of cabs represented the necessity of the unem­
ployed rather than the needs and best interests of the community.
The Public Utilities Commission had no legislative authority by which
it could limit the number of cabs or owners. The public streets
became congested with large numbers of cabs cruising in search of
patrons, and the life of the street railways, an essential industry,
was seriously threatened. It was a common practice for taxicab
operators to make standing agreements to drive a group of from 4 to
6 patrons to work every morning for 25 cents per trip. The street
railway companies pay 51 cents per. hour to conductors and motormen, in competition with net earnings of 16 to 38 cents per hour made
by taxicab drivers.
Hours and Earnings of Taxicab Drivers
D e t a il e d data as to hours and earnings were obtained for varying
periods from three taxicab drivers. Also, beginning with January
1932, the taxicab clerk of the Public Utilities Commission was
directed to ask each driver who came in how many hours he had
worked and how much money he had taken in on the last day he had
worked. In September 1933 the questionnaire was made more
definite and extensive. The information thus collected is shown
in table 1, together with averages computed therefrom. The data
obtained by the taxicab clerk are believed to be not so reliable as those
from the three individual drivers, but may be accepted as fairly
representative of existing conditions.




1043

TAXICAB DRIVERS— WASHINGTON, D. C.

T a b l e 1 .— S U M M A R Y AN AL YSIS OF T A X IC A B D R IV E R S’ EA R N IN G S IN W A S H IN G T O N ,

D. C., 1931-33

Item

Mr. F.:
500 trips,
April to
May
1933

Number of driver-days-.................
Hours worked______ ________
Miles run 2
........................... .
Trips made_______ _________

21
197
2,451
500

Gross revenue:
Fares...........................................
Tips............................................

$116.60
33.30

Total.............................. ........

Public U t i l i t i e s
Mr. M .:
Mr. S.
Commission taxi­
10
cab clerk
months,
Novem­
ber 1932
2 years,
to Au­ 1 month, 7 months, Last 4
April
1931 and months 1932 and
gust 1933
1932
1932
of 1933
1933
266
1 3.192
8 20,000
(4
)
(4
)
(4
)

30.0
367.6
3,983.0
716.0

202.0
2,478.6
25,140.0
(4
)

349
3,103
28,012
6,007

$160,00 $1,148.85 $1,363.75
242.60
38.80297.70

4,236
41,365
(4
)
(4
)
(4
)
(4
)

149.90 $1,425.40

198.80

1,446.55

Expenses:
Cab............................................
Gasoline and oil........... ............
Repairs................. ................. .
Dues and other expenses........

$50.81
23.36

$250.00
206.98
351.28
99.75

$52.00
36.46
3.65

$434.00
235.06
76.54
18.78

$670.34
351.06

Total.......................................

74.17

908.01

92.11

764.38

1,024.93

(4
)

Net revenue....... ..................

$75.73

$517.39

$106.69

$682.17

$581.42

(4
)

9.37
117
23.8
$7.14
$3.53
$3.61

12
75
0)
$5.36
$3.41
$1.95

12.25
133
23.9
$6.63
$3.07 ,
$3.56

12.25
124.5
(4)
$7.16
$3.78
$3.38

8.9
80
17.2
$4.61
$2.94
$1.67

9.75
(4
)
(4
)
$4.95
(4
)
(4
)

2. 54
76.10
37.60
38.50

(4
)
44.70
28.50
16. 20

1.95
54.10
25.10
29.00

(4
)
58.40
30.90
27.50

1.94
51.80
33.00
18.80

(4
)
50.50
(4
)
(4
)

Averages per mile:
Gross revenue........................... —do___

6.12

7.13

4.98

5.75

5.74

(4
)

Expenses:
Cab........ ............................
Gasoline...... ....................... - d o —
Repairs_____ ___________ _do___
Dues and other expenses, —do___

2.07
.96

1.25
1.03
1. 76
.50

1.31
.91
.09

1.73
.94
.30
.07

2.40
1.25

(4
)
(4
)
(4)
(4
)

Total expenses-............. --do___

3.03

4.54

2. 31

3.04

3.66

(4
)

Net revenue__________ - d o , —

3.09

2.59

2.67

2.71

2.08

(4
)

Averages per trip:
Gross miles................................
Revenue from:
Fares............................ ......
Tips.................................... ..d o ___

4.90

(4
)

5.57

(4
)

4.67

(4
)

23.30
6.78

(4
)
(4
)

22.40
5.40

(4
)
(4
)

22.70
4.10

(4
)
(4
)

T o ta l-.,......................... --do___
Total expenses.......................... —do-----

30.00
14.80

(4
)
(4
)

27.80
12.90

(4
)
(4
)

26.80
17.10

(4
)
(4
)

Net revenue.............................. —do-----

15.20

(4
)

14.90

(4
)

9.70

(4
)

Averages per day:
Hours worked...........................
Gross miles................................
Number of trips.......................
Gross revenue...........................
Expenses....................................
Net revenue....... ......................
Averages per hour:
Number of trips.......................
Gross revenue......... ................. .cents—
Expenses,................................ - d o —
Net revenue.............................. - d o —

1,606.35 $20,936.40

3.53

.01

(4
)
(4
)
(4)
(4
)

1 Estimated on the basis of 12 hours per day.
2 Includes miles run while “ cruising.”
1 The exact figure is not known, but was a little over 20,000 miles.
4 No data.

There is considerable seasonal variation in the earnings of taxicab
drivers in Washington, July and August being the dull months and the
Christmas season the busy period. This is reflected to some extent
in the figures collected by the taxicab clerk, shown in table 2. As
already stated, this information was obtained by asking the drivers
regarding the results of their last day’s work. “ Gross revenue ”
includes fares plus tips. Out of it the driver had to pay the rent for




1044

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

his cab and the cost of gasoline, which together cost from $3 to $3.75
per day.
T a b l e 2 ,—GROSS R E V E N U E OF T A X IC A B D R IVER S IN W A S H IN G T O N , D . C., 1932 A N D

1933

Year and month

1932:
January February__________________________
March * _.
April______________________________

Number
of drivers Number
working of hours
1 day
worked
each

Gross revenue
Total
amount

Average
number
of hours
worked
per day

Average
per day

Average
per hour

$5.71
5.95
6.10
5.94
5.39
5.06
4.54
4.24
4.48
4.62
4.78
5.42

$0,572
.567
.555
.577
.554
.493
.443
.429
.467
.495
.510
.560

9.99
10.48
10.88
10.29
9.73
10.26
10.25
9.88
9.60
9.33
9.37
9.68

Total_____
1933:
January___________________________
February__________________________
March____________________________

July________ ______________________
August____________________________
September________________________
October___________________________
November_________________________
December
_ _

1,101
2,032
674
2,124
1,772
2,551
6,702
1,092
1,382
1,872
2,551
2,408

$629.66
1,152.37
378.28
1,226.70
980.57
1,258.45
2,966.52
468.97
645.32
927.15
1,300.79
1,349.06

2,633

July........................................................
August____________________________
September________________________
October
_. _
November________________________
December_________________________

110
194
62
206
182
249
654
110
144
201
272
249

26,261

13,283.84

5.05

.505

9.97

156
231
203
150
129
119
143
123
125
61
86
77

1,413
2,215
1,943
1,455
1,252
1,238
1,350
1,135
1,124
505
806
668

775.04
1,128.83
942.63
754.61
667.05
566.25
643.63
568.17
551.00
244.45
416.85
394.05

4.98
4.88
4.65
5.02
5.17
4.76
4.51
4.55
4.41
4.01
4.85
5.12

.549
.510
.485
.518
.532
.457
.477
.500
.490
.484
.518
.590

9.08
9.57
9.59
9.69
9.71
10.40
9.44
9.22
9.03
8.28
9.37
8.68

.

Total___________________________

1,603

15,104

7,652.56

4.78

.507

9.42

Grand total____________________ _

4,236

41,365

20,936.40

4.95

.505

9.75

U n io n Scales of Wages and H o u rs of La b o r, 1933
U n io n scales of wages and hours have been the subject of annual
surveys by the Bureau of Labor Statistics for over 25 years. In 1933
the survey covered nearly a half million organized workers in time­
work trades in 67 important industrial cities. A summary of the 1933
data is given in this article. The data in much greater detail appear
in Bulletin No. 600 of the Bureau. Summary data for 1933 and
1934, compiled too late for inclusion herein, are given in the April
1936 Monthly Labor Review.

Trend of Union Wage Rates and Hours, 1907 to 1933

To s h o w the extent of the changes that have taken place in average
union wage rates and hours during the years for which the Bureau
has collected such data, index numbers of average wage rates and
hours have been computed for each year from 1907 to 1933, with the
1913 average as the base, or 100, and are presented in table 1. These
indexes indude all the time-work trades in all the cities covered in
preceding years, but the number of trades and cities included in the
data has varied some during the period.




1045

UNION SCALES IN 1933

With the exception of 1922 wage rates steadily increased and hours
steadily decreased from year to year up to 1931. Between 1931 and
1932 average rates per hour decreased from an index of 273.0 to 241.8,
or 11.4 percent, and between 1932 and 1933 decreased 4.5 percent.
The 1933 index of average rates per hour (231.0) is nearly two and
one-third times the 1913 average, and that of average rates per full­
time week (202.8) is slightly more than twice the 1913 average. The
smaller increase in the index for average rates per full-time week as
compared with that for average rates per hour is due to the change
from year to year in average full-time hours per week. The 1933
index of average full-time hours per week (88.0) is approximately oneeighth less than the 1913 index.
T a b l e 1 .— IN D E X N U M B E R S OF U N IO N W A G E R ATES A N D HOURS OF LABO R IN TH E

U N IT E D STATES AS OF M A Y E A C H Y E A R , 1907-33
[1913=100.0]
Index numbers

Index numbers

Rate of
wages
per hour

Hours
per full­
time
week

Rate of
wages
per full­
time
week

89.7
91.0
91.9
94.4
96.0
97.6
100.0
101.9
102.8
107.2
114.2
132.7
154.5
199.0

Year

102.6
102.1
101.9
101.1
100.7
100.3
100.0
99.6
99.4
98.8
98.4
97.0
94.7
93.8

91.5
92.5
93.3
95.2
96.5
97.7
100.0
101.6
102.3
106.2
112.4
129.6
147.8
188.5

1907.
1908.
1909.
1910.
1911.
1912.
1913.
1914.
1915.
1916.
1917.
1918.
1919.
1920.

Year

1921...........................
1922...........................
1923...........................
1924...........................
1925...........................
1926...........................
1927...........................
1928...........................
1929...........................
1930...........................
1931...........................
1932...........................
1933...........................

Rate of
wages
per hour

Hours
per full­
time
week

205.3
193.1
210.6
228.1
237.9
250.3
259.5
260.6
262.1
272.1
273.0
241.8
231.0

93.9
94.4
94.3
93.9
93.0
92.8
92.4
91.9
91.5
89.8
89.2
87.7
88.0

Rate of
wages
per full­
time
week
193.3
183.0
198.6
214.3
222.3
233.4
240.8
240.6
240.7
243.8
242.9
212.2
202.8

Because of the wide interest in building operations and the many
inquiries to the Bureau for wage changes in building trades as a group,
index numbers of wage rates per hour for these trades are given below.
In d e x n u m bers o f u n io n wage rates p er hour i n the building trades
In d ex
n u m ber

1913
1914
1915
1916
1917.
1918.
1919.
1920.
1921.
1922.
1923.




100. 0

101. 9
102. 8
106. 2

112. 8

125. 2
145. 4
196. 8
200. 3
187.5
207. 3

In d ex
n u m ber

1924
1925
1926
1927
1928.
1929.
1930.
1931.
1932.
1933.

224. 0
232. 7
248. 0
256. 7
258. 1
261. 6
272. 8
276. 3
235. 3
232.2

1046

WAGES AND fiOUMfe OF SLABOR

Wage Rates and Hours, 1933
T a b l e 2 shows a percentage distribution, by wage rates per hour,
as of May 15, 1933, of the number of members reported in each trade
group and in all trades combined. The wage rates of over half (55
percent) of the total membership were under $1.12% per hour and the
rates of nearly three-fourths (74.4 percent) thereof fell within the
range of 75 cents and under $1.50 per hour.
In the building trades the rates of only 17.4 percent of the mem­
bers were under $1 per hour, the majority (69.6 percent) having rates
between $1 and $1.50. Over three-fourths of those in the printing
and publishing trades (78.5 percent in the bodk and job section and
87.8 in the newspaper section) were between 75 cents and $1.37%
per hour.
All of the laundry workers and almost three-fourths (74.6 percent)
of the chauffeurs and teamsters and drivers had wage rates under 75
cents per hour.
2 .—P E R C E N T OF T R A D E -U N IO N M E M B E R S W HO SE A V E R A G E R ATES IN
CENTS PER HOUR FALL W IT H IN EAC H SPECIFIED R ATE IN T E R V A L , M A Y 15, 1933,
B Y T R A D E GROUPS

T able

Percent of members whose rates (in cents) per hour were—
Trade group

50
75
87K
100 112M 125 137M 150 162M
Un­ and 62M
der under and and and and and and and and and
under under under under under under under under under
50
175
75
100 112M 125 137H 150 162K
87K
62K

175

All trade groups_________

2.1

6.3

8.7

11.6

11.6

14.7

8.4

11.1

17.0

5.3

2.9

0.4

Bakery_________________
Building trades, ----------Chauffeurs and teamsters
and drivers____________
Granite and stone trades.
Laundry workers_______
Linemen________________
Longshoremen__________
Printing and publishing:
Book and job_______
Newspaper................

2.3
.2

14.1
1.5

28.2
2.6

19.8
5.6

20.7
7.5

7.4
19.1

5.5
10.4

2.1
12.9

27.2

7.5

4.9

.5

29.5
.1
65."6~ 21.7
.4
.5
.3

37.9

17.1
2.8

7.6
.7

.3
25.0

.1
9.4

.1
34.1

1.4

26.6

13^3"
1.7 11.4
6.3 55.7

19.6
33.7

51.9
.4

2.2
.2

2.8

9.1
0)

1.0
2.8

6.1
.1

4.2
.7

21.8
20.4

15.6
20.1

8.6
20.7

18.9
21.3

4.5
6.7

2.3
2.6

7.2

4.4

13.6
5.3

0)
1.4

1 Less than Ho of 1 percent.
Table 3 shows for 1933 the average hours per full-time week and
the percent of members in each trade group having specified working
hours. The hours stated represent the regular full time per week.
No data are available as to broken time or overtime that may have
been worked.
Approximately three-fifths (59.1 percent) of the total membership
had a regular work week of 40 hours or less and 89.9 percent a work
week of 48 hours or less. Of the separate trade groups, the building
trades with an average of 40.4 hours had the shortest full-time work
week. To a large extent this short week is occasioned by the rather
general adoption of a 5-day week within this group. The normal
change in this regard, however, was slightly interfered with in 1932
and 1933 by the adoption of short-time work for the purpose of
spreading employment among the members. In some cases mem­
bers in individual local unions are limited by agreement to less than
5 days' work each week. The chauffeurs and teamsters and drivers
with an average of 53 hours per week had the longest full-time week;
68.5 percent of them had a full-time week of more than 48 hours.




1047

UNION SCALES D* 1933

T ab le 3 .—A VE R A G E HOURS PER W E E K A N D P E R C E N T OF T R A D E -U N IO N M E M B E R S ,
B Y T R A D E GROUPS, W O R K IN G EACH CLASSIFIED N U M B E R OF HOURS PER W E E K ,
M A Y 15, 1933
Percent of members whose hours per week were—

AverTrade groups

hours

per

full­
time
week

All trade groups...

47.6
40.4

Over
40
and
under
44

1.5
.9

3.2
88.1

53.0
40.9
48.0
43.4
44.5
42.0
43.8

38. 0

10.8

31.7
6.3

13.4

Over
44
and
under
48

48

48
and
under
54

3.2

8.4

1.2

.3 ..........
. . . . 10.4

1.2

.5
78.3
6.2

44

18.5

40

43.1

Bakers.................................
Building trades.................
Chauffeurs and teamsters
and drivers. ...................
Granite and stone trades.
Laundry workers........... .
Linemen..............................
Longshoremen.......... ........
Printing and publishing:
Book and j o b ............
Newspaper..................

Un­
der
40

7.2
.2

54

Over
54
and
under
60

60

4.3

2.4

1.7

0.5

16.6

12.0

3.2

Over
60

3.6
0)

5.4

24.0

7.6

.2

100.0
33.1
9.4

2.6
1.4

21.7
1. 0 19. 0
____ 88.9

.2

11.3

53.6

11.1

.1

37.6

.3

3.6
20.3

1 Less than Ho of 1 percent.

Table 4 shows average union wage rates per hour, average full-time
hours per week, the number of quotations on which 1933 averages are
based, and index numbers of hourly rates for the years 1928 to 1933.
Index numbers for the years back to 1907 may be found in Bulletin
No. 482 of this Bureau.
In computing the average rates shown, the various rates quoted
were weighted by the number of union members receiving such rates.
This information is furnished the Bureau for this purpose alone and
is held strictly confidential. The rates for a city may enter into an
average one year because the trade has an effective wage scale, but
may drop out the next year because the trade cannot enforce its
scale or because the union has disbanded. Also, membership fluc­
tuations in high- or low-rate cities have an important bearing on this
weighted average rate. The average rate for each of the trades in a
city may possibly vary from year to year to a greater extent than
the average rate for a combination of all of the trades in the city.
The individual rates may show no change, or some increases or de­
creases, while the average for all of them may show a decrease. In
1932 and 1933 the fluctuations in rates and membership were unusu­
ally severe, which factors were productive of anomalous or paradoxical
average rates for several occupations and group averages. The index
numbers are computed from these averages, and are, of course,
affected by these same influences.
In table 4 hourly rates only are considered. Equivalent weekly
rates do not exactly parallel hourly rates because of changes in
working hours.




1048

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

4.—
NUMBER OF QUOTATIONS IN 1933, AVERAGE WAGE RATES PER HOUR, 1932
AND 1933, AVERAGE FULL-TIME HOURS PER WEEK, 1933, AND INDEX NUMBERS OF
HOURLY RATES FOR SPECIFIED YEARS

T a ble

Trade

All trades, average........ .
B a k e r y trades

Bakers........................ .

Num­
ber of
quo­
ta­
tions,
May
1933

Average rate
of wages per
hour

Index numbers of rates of wages per Aver­
age
hour (1913=100.0)
hours
per
week,
May May May May May May May May May
1932 1933 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1933

4,408 $1. Ill $1,061 260.6 262.1 272.1 273.0 241.8 231.0 43.1
201

.951

42
63
8
5
3
39
38
9
6
7
34
2
7
1
1
1
9
54
3
1
5
75
68
1
09
34
70
1
9
7
3
5
1
22
40
65
1
8
46
62
66
50
20
82
40
5
3
85
47
5
4
2
3
1,772

1.237
1.465
1.522
.762
.883
.910
.883
1.166
1.108
1.184
1.109
1.153
1.245
1.182
.730
1.409
1.004
1.511
1.211
1.437
1.276
1.385
1.432
.931
1.356
1.228
1.051
1.393
1.423
1.302
1.234
1.401
1.283
.953
1.449
1.339
1.332
1.350
.923
1.216

Chauffeurs.............................................
Teamsters and drivers..........................

484
82

Average, chauffeurs, etc...........

566

.711
.785
.722

.799 285.9 293.4 289.2 279.9 285.0 239.5 47.6

B u ild in g trades

Asbestos workers...................................
Bricklayers:
Building...........................................
Sewer, tunnel, and caisson...........
Building labor group:
Building laborers............................
Hod carriers................................... .
Plasterers’ laborers........................
Plumbers’ laborers.........................
Carpenter group:
General carpenters__.....................
Millwrights (carpenters)...............
Parquetry-floor layers (carpen­
ters)...............................................
Ship carpenters.................... _.........
Wharf and bridge carpenters____
Cement finishers....................................
Composition roofers..............................
Composition roofers’ helpers...............
Elevator constructors...........................
Elevator constructors’ helpers............
Engineers, portable and hoisting____
Glaziers....................................................
Inside wiremen......................................
Inside wiremen, fixture hangers.........
Lathers.....................................................
Marble setters.... ....................................
Marble setters’ helpers_____________
Mosaic and terrazzo workers________
Painter group:
Building painters........... ...............
Fresco painters................................
Sign painters...................................
Plasterers-..............................................
Plumbers and gas fitters....................
Sheet-metal workers.............................
Slate and tile roofers.............................
Steam and sprinkler fitters.................
Steam and sprinkler fitters’ helpers..
Stonemasons...........................................
Structural-iron workers........................
Structural-iron workers, finishers___
Tile layers...............................................
Tile layers’ helpers................................
Average, building trades...........

1.222
1.435
1.604
.761
.754
.838
.908
1.106
1.047
1.004
1.021
1.228
1.228
1.207
.682
1.295
.936
1.321
1.222
1.320
1.002
1.309
1.398
.938
1.238
1.243
1.070
1.338
1.360
1.300
1.200
1.375
1.266
.926
1.369
1.323
1.346
1.307
.831
1.200

0)
233.9
214.2
27 0
5 .J
280.7
264.1
0)
247.5
0)
236.1
0)
0)
234.6
0)
0)
0)
0)
233.5
0)
257.2
235.8
251.0
218.0
248.0
0)
270.8
226.7
247.5
241.6
232.1
247.4
0)
239.5
309.2
259.3
235.7
230.2
221.8
278.5

0)
239.6
199.5
258.2
293.0
265.0
(0
252.0
0)
241.9
0)
0)
234.6
0)
0)
0)
0)
232.5
0)
268.2
241.8
249.0
233.4
262.8
0)
270.2
230.9
249.9
238.6
233.8
256.9
0)
241.0
305.0
266.5
236.0
240.0
224.2
274.3

(0
245.1
199.1
275.3
302.3
282.3
0)
261.6
0)
259.5
0)
(9
256.4
0)
0)
0)
0)
259.0
0)
271.1
258.2
259.4
234.5
259.1
0)
289.5
253.4
249.6
250.3
240.0
268.5
(9
252.2
340.5
266.4
248.1
257.2
234.9
300.8

(9
245.9
212.2
267.5
297.3
274.3
(9
263.5
(9
262.8
(9
(9
253.3
(9
(9
(9
(9
261.4
(9
275.1
257.7
262.6
235.5
254.1
(9
292.4
267.3
248.3
253.0
244.2
273.2
(9
254.5
346.6
269.0
251.6
257.1
237.2
291.8

(9
211.9
158.4
228.3
241.3
221.3
(9
219.4
(0
208.3
(9
(9
213.8
(9
(9
(9
(9
245.7
(9
262.5
246.3
232.4
214.6
230.6
(9
242.3
192.9
219.9
210.6
210.0
234.0
(9
214.2
304.7
237.4
215.4
214.3
206.1
257.3

(9
207.5
166.9
228.0
206.1
203.7
(9
208.1
(9
176.6
(9
(9
210.9
(9
(9
(9
(9
214.8
(9
241.1
193.4
219.6
209.5
232.3
(9
245.3
196.4
211.2
201.3
209.7
227.5
(9
211.3
296.1
224.3
212.8
216.5
199.5
231.6

40.0
40.1
41.2
41.4
40.4
40.2
40.1
40.3
40.5
39.5
40.8
40.3
41.8
40.9
41.6
40.7
40.6
41.4
40.8
40.1
39.9
40.0
40.4
40.5
40.2
40.1
41.2
40.9
40.1
40.6
40.3
40.6
40.0
40.1
40.1
40.6
40.4
40.5
41.5
40.4

C h a u ffeu rs a n d team sters a n d drivers

.664 243.2 244.2 249.4 253.9 244.9 228.7 52.8
.654 277.1 279.8 292.0 287.8 299.2 249.3 54.1
.663

53.0

G ran ite a n d stone trades

Granite cutters....................................
Stone cutters___________ ___________
Average, granite and stone
trades...... .................................

40 1.199 1.170 245.3 249.8 262.3 262.5 234.1 228.5 40.7
52 1.380 1.294 242.2 253.6 256.0 262.6 237.7 222.9 41.1
92 1.293 1.234

40.9

M isc e lla n e o u s trades

Laundry workers____________ ____
Linemen________ ____ ______ ______
Longshoremen................ .......... ............

1No data for 1913.




38 .487 .435 0)
48.0
0)
(9
0)
(9
(9
4 1.091 1.034 0)
1
43.4
(9
(9
(9
0)
<9
39 .868 .837 248.6 250.1 253.5 251.5 251.5 242.5 44.5

1049

UNION SCALES IN 1933

T able 4 .—N U M B E R OF QUOTATIONS IN 1933, A V ER AG E W A G E RATES PER HOUR, 1932
A N D 1933, A V E R A G E FU LL -T IM E HOURS PER W E E K , 1933, A N D IN D E X N U M B E R S OF
H O U R L Y R ATES FOR SPECIFIED YEAR S—Continued
Num­ Average rate
ber of of wages per
hour
quo­
tations,
May May May
1932
1933
1933

Trade

Aver­
age
hours
per
week,
May May May May May May May
1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1933
Index numbers of rates of wages per
hour (1913=100)

P r in t in g a n d p u b lish in g — book a n d jo b

Bindery women...................................
Bookbinders........... ............................
Compositors (hand).............................
E lectrotypersl____ ...............................
Machine operators......... .......................
Machine tenders (machinists)............
Photoengravers..................................
Press assistants and feeders.................
Pressmen, cylinder...............................
Pressmen, platen...................................

45 $0.515 $0,509 0)
(0
0)
0)
(>)
0)
.988
.968 244.8 247.5 250.7 252.7 244.0 239.1
88
68 1.162 1.063 250.1 251.5 259.3 260.2 259.3 237.2
52 1.307 1.216 257.1 263.2 269.9 274.5 272.8 253.9
69 1.251 1.137 224.6 228.0 238.0 228.8 240.1 218.3
32 1.279 1.191 216.8 219.9 233.2 224.2 235.4 219.2
48 1.371 1.321 0)
0)
0)
0)
0)
(0
.852
.796 287.0 289.7 294.8 299.9 290.4 271.3
137
141 1.147 1.088 232.7 236.8 240.1 239.1 236.2 224.1
.911
.879 253.9 257.8 259.9 260.2 250.1 241.3
108

Average, book and job...............

44.6
44.4
42.5
42. 2
41.9
41.8
40.6
40.7
40.7
42.0

788

1.084

1.006

42.0

80
69

1.164
1.283

1.114 206.6 211.3 212.5 212.5 204.5 195.7
1. 222 203.0 205.3 203.6 203.0 198.7 189.2

43.5
43.3

8
78

2.149
1.206

2.129 138.5 124.1 130.4 132.2 134.0 116.0
1.110 213.8 217.4 216.7 220.0 214.2 197.1

42.5
43.6

7
68

2.167
1.335

2.158 108.1 103.2 109.5 117.2 117.2 110.9
1. 219 205.9 207.5 207.0 207.9 207.3 189.3

42.3
43.3

69
63

1.233
1.380

1.094 198.4 201.7 205.1 204.7 209.7 186.0
1.211 190.8 196.6 191.9 195.5 202.5 177.7

43.5
43.4

40
38

1. 347
1. 652

1.263
1. 478

124
112

1.122
1. 306

1.028 224.9 228.1 229.3 231.2 235.0 215.3
1.240 215.7 216.1 218.7 222.1 224.5 213.1

46.4
41.9

60
55

1.075
1. 227

1.004 191.0 200.1 201.8 201.6 203.9 190.4
1.160 188.6 198.3 202.8 204.9 202.6 191.5

46.0
42.4

871

1.231

1.149

43.8

P r in t in g a n d p u b lish in g — n e w s p a p er

Compositors (hand):
Daywork..........................................
Nightwork......................................
Machine operators, daywork:
Piecework...... ................. ...............
Timework..._____ _______ _____
Machine operators, nightwork:
Piecework________ _______ _____
Timework................. ............. .......
Machine tenders (machinists):
Daywork................ ........................
Nightwork.......................................
Photoengravers:
Daywork_______ ____ _____ ____
Nightwork_____________ _______
Pressmen, web presses:
Daywork,
_ ____ _
Nightwork.......................................
Stereotypers:
Daywork_______________________
Nightwork_____________________
Average, newspaper
i No data for 1913.

(i)
(i)

(i)
(i)

(i)
(i)

(i)
(i)

(i)
(i)

0)
0)

44.0
41.9

2 Per 1,000 ems.

Table 5 shows the percent of change in weekly wage rates in 1933
as compared with specified years. The average rates per full-time
week in 1933 were generally lower than the rates in 1925 and in a few
occupations were lower than in 1921.
T able 5.—P E R C E N T OF CH AN G E IN R ATES OF W AG ES PER F U LL -T IM E W E E K IN
1933 AS C O M PAR ED W IT H SPECIFIED YE A R S
Percent of increase (+ ) or decrease (—) in rates of wages per full-time
week in 1933 as compared with—
Trade and occupation
1907
B a k e r y trades

1913

1917

Bakers.................................................. +153.9 +116.0 +89.2

1921

1925

1928

1929

1930

1931

1932

-1 3 .1 -1 7 .4 -1 5 .1 -1 7 .0 -1 6 .0 -1 3 .9 -1 5 .7

B u ild in g trades

+88.6 + 7.1 - 4 .7 -1 5 .5
Asbestos workers................................
0)
0)
Bricklayers:
Building. ..................................... +93.1 +86.5 +75.4 + 9.3 -1 1 .4 -1 8 .8
+56.9 +51.8 + 2 .5 -1 6 .1 -2 6 .6
Sewer, tunnel, and caisson........
(l)
Building labor group:
- 7 .3 - 8 .7 -1 8 .0
Building laborers........................ +107.9 +94.3 +74.1
Hod carriers................................. +92.8 +87.3 +60.5 -2 0 .6 -2 4 .9 -3 2 .8

1Not reported.




-1 8 .6 -1 9 .3 -1 8 .5

- 2 .3

-1 8 .4 -1 8 .4 -1 7 .3
-2 0 .3 -1 6 .9 -2 3 .0

-.7
+ 6 .4

-1 8 .4 -2 1 .7 -1 8 .3 - 2 .2
-3 1 .5 -3 3 .3 -3 2 .1 -1 4 .6

1050

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

T a ble 5 .—P E R C E N T OF CH AN G E IN RATES OF W A G E S PER F U LL -T IM E W E E K IN
1933 AS C O M PAR ED W IT H SPECIFIED Y E A R S —Continued

Percent of increase (+ ) or decrease (—) in rates of wages per full-time
week in 1933 as compared with—
Trade and occupation
1907

1913

1917

1921

1925

1928

1929

1930

1931

1932

B u ild in g trades—Continued

Building labor group—Continued.
Plasterers’ laborers..................... +100.9
Plumbers’ laborers.....................
0)
Carpenter group:
General carpenters. ................... +105.0
Millwrights (carpenters)--------(0
Parquetry-floor layers (carpenters)............................................
0)
Ship carpenters............... - .........
Wharf and bridge carpenters— 0)
Cement finishers. - ............... - .......... +105.8
Composition roofers.......................—
0)
Composition roofers’ helpers............
0)
Elevator constructors......................
Elevator constructors’ helpers........
Engineers, portable and hoisting—
Glaziers................................................
(‘ )
Inside wiremen................................... +137.5
Inside wiremen, fixture hangers—
(')
Lathers--............................................
0)
Marble setters..................................... +107.9
Marble setters’ helpers............ .........
0)
Mosaic and terrazzo workers--------0)
Painter group:
Building painters........................ +151.8
Fresco painters................. ..........
0)
Sign painters................................
0)
Plasterers-................................. ......... +88.4
Plumbers and gas fitters---------------- +110.0
Sheet-metal workers.......................... +132.4
Slate and tile roofers.................... .
0)
Steam and sprinkler fitters------------ +113.9
Steam and sprinkler fitters’ helpers. +212.5
Stonemasons..................................... +113.2
Structural-iron workers.- ........ ......... +115.2
Structural-iron workers, finishers . .
0)
Tile layers............................................
0)
Tile layers’ helpers............................
0)

+84.1 +65.7
0)
0)

-1 4 .7 -2 3 .1 -2 6 .5 -2 6 .8 -2 8 .9 -2 7 .0 - 9 .2
- 3 .0 -1 4 .1 -1 4 .2 -2 0 .7 -1 3 .9 -1 3 .5 + 2 .8

+88.1 +64.0 - 3 .4 -1 4 .6 -2 2 .6 -2 4 .0 -2 4 .3 -2 3 .6
+44.5 -1 3 .2 -1 7 .2 -2 3 .6 -1 9 .8 -2 3 .3 -2 6 .1
0)

- 5 .7
-7 .2

+49.8
0)
0)
+90.9
0)
0)
0)
0)
+90.3
(*)
+113.1
+69.2
+95.9
+90.1
+113.0
0)

+28.6
+53.6
+95.4
+79.6
+106.4
+55.6
+77.3
+99.2
+79.4
0)
+90.5
+48.1
+80.1
+86.1
+99.4
+95.4

-2 7 .6
+ 2 .8
+14.1
+ 5 .4
+11.3
- 8 .3
+ 6 .3
+ 6 .6
+11.5
+14.6
+ 8 .9
-1 2 .9
+ 4 .3
+19.3
- 1 .0
+14.9

-2 5 .7
+ 6 .3
- 4 .4
- 6 .4
- 3 .8
-1 5 .6
- 8 .9
- 7 .4
- 2 .9
- 7 .5
- 5 .3
-2 0 .3
-1 4 .7
+ .9
- 4 .2
- 7 .1

-3 2 .1
+ 5 .1
-1 3 .8
-1 4 .3
-1 5 .8
-2 0 .2
-1 7 .4
-1 8 .1
-1 5 .0
-1 5 .6
-1 4 .0
-2 4 .8
-1 9 .1
-1 2 .0
-1 4 .0
-1 6 .2

-3 4 .0
-1 5 .1
-1 3 .0
-1 4 .4
-1 6 .9
-1 8 .5
-1 7 .3
-1 7 .0
-1 4 .9
-1 6 .1
-1 5 .3
-2 6 .3
-1 8 .0
-1 7 .9
-1 8 .9
-2 0 .2

-3 3 .9
-2 8 .5
-1 3 .0
-1 8 .3
-1 4 .9
-1 8 .5
-1 8 .3
-1 7 .6
-2 0 .2
-1 6 .2
-1 4 .3
-2 6 .1
-1 6 .5
-1 3 .4
-1 3 .6
-1 8 .7

-3 4 .1
-2 5 .6
-1 3 .4
-1 7 .0
-1 6 .5
-1 2 .6
-1 7 .1
-1 6 .7
-2 0 .1
-1 5 .9
-1 4 .7
-2 6 .7
-1 7 .0
-1 2 .4
-1 0 .0
-1 8 .0

+119.6
+84.2
+92.6
+81.2
+90.1
+102.7
0)
+87.0
+164.7
+101.7
+93.7
+98.9
+84.2
+114.6

+89.5
+58.9
+81.6
+71.4
+80.3
+83.3
+93.8
+71.9
+135.6
+84.6
+77.6
+83.4
+73.7
+98.5

+ 8 .4
- 3 .5
-.5
+ 2 .9
+ 7 .0
+ 2 .8
+10.0
+12.2
+22.6
+ 5 .6
+ 6 .6
+ 8 .4
+16.0
-4 .4

- 5 .8
-1 0 .0
-1 5 .9
-1 5 .9
- 6 .2
- 9 .3
-1 0 .8
- 9 .5
- 1 .4
-1 1 .0
- 4 .1
+ 1 .1
- 7 .2
-1 1 .7

-1 1 .9
-1 3 .5
-1 8 .0
-1 9 .9
-1 6 .4
-1 5 .5
-1 7 .7
-1 9 .6
-1 2 .5
-2 1 .2
—16.8
-1 3 .7
-1 5 .2
-2 1 .0

-1 1 .5
-1 5 .2
-1 7 .4
-1 8 .3
-1 6 .2
-1 8 .5
-1 7 .7
-1 9 .7
-1 1 .2
-2 0 .7
- 16.5
-1 7 .0
-1 5 .9
-1 9 .5

-1 6 .3
-2 1 .5
-1 6 .9
-2 0 .5
-1 4 .1
-1 8 .7
-1 5 .7
-1 9 .7
-1 3 .4
-1 8 .2
-1 7 .8
-1 8 .8
-1 5 .2
-2 2 .2

-1 6 .6 + .9
-2 5 .3 + 1 .2
-1 5 .6 - 4 .7
-2 0 .8 - 2 .9
-1 4 .6
+. 5
-1 9 .0 - 2 .9
-1 3 .1 - 2 . 0
-1 9 .8 - 1 .8
-1 4 .8 - 2 .9
-1 7 .4 - 5 .9
-1 7 .9 - 1 .5
-1 8 .1
+ .8
-1 4 .9 -2 .1
-1 9 .8 - 6 .5

+83.7 +68.3
+116.5 + 92.7

+ 5 .3
+ 8 .5

- 4 .6 - 8 . 7 - 7 .8 - 8 .0 - 9 .9 - 6 .7
- 2 .9 -1 2 .4 -1 2 .5 -1 6 .5 -1 7 .6 -1 6 .0

Granite cutters................................... +128.3 +110.2 +92.9
Stone cutters....................................... +112.2 +104.3 +85.4

+ 1 .1
+ 9 .1

- 2 .8 -1 4 .1 -1 5 .4 -1 5 .0 -1 4 .2
- 7 .0 -1 4 .6 -1 8 .3 -1 6 .3 -1 6 .6

-1 7 .3
- 9 .0
+ 5 .5
+. 1
+ 3 .7
- 6 .1
- 9 .4
-8 .0
-1 2 .4
+ .9
- 7 .9
-2 3 .2
- 6 .8
- 2 .8
+ .6
- 7 .5

C h a u ffeu rs a n d team sters and drivers

Chauffeurs..............- ...........................
Teamsters and drivers............... .......

0)
0)

G ran ite an d stone trades

-4 .3
- 6 .7

M isc ella n eo u s

Laundry workers...............................
Linemen..............................................
Longshoremen ....................... ...........

0)
0)
(0

+73.8
(0
0)
0)
+83.2 +54.0

+ 4 .7 -2 .0
+ 3 .4 + 2 .9
+ 1 .2 - 1 .8

- 2 .7
- 2 .7
- 2 .9

- 5 .0 - 9 .2 - 9 .5 -1 0 .7
- 5 .0 -1 1 .2 -1 0 .9 - 5 .4
- 3 .5 - 4 .7 - 4 .3 - 3 .8

P rin tin g a n d p u b lish in g — book a n d
jo b

Bindery women.................................
Bookbinders--...................................
Compositors (hand)..........................
Electrotypers......................................
Machine operators.............................
Machine tenders (machinists)........
Photoengravers..................................
Press assistants and feeders.............
Pressmen, cylinder............................
Pressmen, platen................................
i N ot

reported.




0)
+136.4
+135.7
+152.7
+107.8
0)
0)
+155.1
+113.8
+128.9

+109.1
- 2 .0 - 3 .9 - 4 .6
+103.8 + 6 .2 + . 1 - 3 .4
+95.1
+ 1 .5 - 3 .9 - 8 .8
+101.0 + 5 .6 - 6 .0 - 8 .7
+83.2 + 3 .1 - 2 .3 - 7 .7
+83.8 4 4 .1 - 1 .6 - 4 .4
+98.1 +18.7 + 6 .1 - 7 .3
+128.5 +107.4
- . 5 -1 1 .0 -1 3 .4
+ 8 8 . 8 +78.4
- 2 . 2 - 9 .3 -1 1 .8
+109.7 +92.0 - 3 .9 - 7 .6 -1 0 .5

0)
+120.6
+109.4
+127.4
+91.0
+90.4

- 5 .3
- 4 .3
- 9 .3
-1 0 .6
- 9 .1
- 5 .8
- 8 .6
-1 4 .2
-1 3 .2
-1 2 .6

- 7 .9
-5 .6
-1 2 .2
-1 1 .9
-1 2 .9
-1 1 .2
- 8 .7
-1 5 .7
-1 4 .5
-1 2 .0

-7 .2

- 6 .1
-1 2 .3
-1 2 .9
- 9 .3
- 7 .9
- 8 .3
-1 7 .1
-1 4 .2
-1 2 .7

- 2 .5
- 2 .5
-1 1 .7
-1 2 .4
-1 3 .6
-1 1 .9
- 6 .4
-1 .1

- 3 .7
- 6 .4

W OOLEN
T

abus

AND

W ORSTED

GOODS

M A N U F A C T U R IN G

1051

5 .—P E R C E N T OF -C H AN G E IN R ATES OF W AG ES PER F U L L -T IM E W E E K IN
1933 AS C O M P A R E D W IT H SPECIFIED Y E A R S — Continued
Percent of increase (+ ) or decrease (—) in rates of wages per full-time
week in 1933 as compared with—

Trade and occupation
5907

1931

1932

+105.4 +84.3 +76.2 + 5.7
+93.9 +80.7 +74.6 +5.4

- 4 .6 - 9 .7 -1 1 .2 -1 1 .9 -1 2 .0
- 3 .6 -1 0 .3 -1 1 .0 -1 0 .8 -1 0 .5

- 6 .6
- 5 .2

+105.0 +87.4 +78.6 + 7 .6
+94.0 +81.8 +74.3 + 7 .0

- 4 .4 -1 0 .8 -1 2 .2 -1 1 .8 -1 3 .5
- 3 .8 -1 1 .2 -1 2 .0 -1 1 .8 -1 2 .2

-8 .6
- 6 .6

- 5 .2 -1 1 . < 2 .1 -1 3 .1 -1 3 .2
7-1
- 5 . 6, -1 1 .5 -1 3 .6 -1 1 .2 -1 2 .5

- 8 .9
- 6 .5

1913

1917

1921

1925

1928

1929

1930

P r in t in g a n d pu b lis h in g — n e w s p a p e r

Compositors (hand):
Daywork,____ ________________
Nightwork____ _______________
Machine operators:
Daywork
Nightwork------- ---------- -----------Machine tenders (machinists):
Daywork_____ ________________
Nightwork...................................
Photoengravers:
Daywork............... .......................
Nightwork........ ..................... .
JBrossmen, web presses:
Daywork______________ _______
Nightwork........ .......... ................
'Stereotypers:
Daywork ________ _________
Nightwork_________ __________

(0
0)

+76.1 +71.9
+68.7 +65.5

- 1 .1
- 1 .2

+96.2 +19.4 + 7 .2
+101.7, +20.-9 + 6.9

- 5 .6
- 5 .7

- 6 .3
- 6 .6

-5 .7
- 8 .9

- 6 .3 - 6 .1
- 9 .6 -1 0 .1

+137.1 +111.2 +102.4 +14.7 + 1 .9
+129.1 +118.1 +111.4 +19.1 + 5 .5

- 5 .5
- 2 .4

- 6 .6
- 3 .0

- 7 .1
- 4 .0

- 7 .8
- 5 .4

- 7 .5
- 4 .3

+ .4
+ 1.9

- 2 .9
-.9

- 6 .2
-5 .2

- 7 .1
- 6 .3

-7 .1
- 6 .7

- 7 .5
- 6 .3

0)
0)

0)
0)

+110. 3 +84.2 +75.7
+105.4 +87.1' +79.3

+ 8 .6
+ 9 .5

1 Not reported.

Other Trades
T h e Bureau of Labor Statistics has from time to time collected
information concerning union wage rates and hours of labor of various
trades which, though not included in the annual compilation of union
wage scales, are of general or special interest. The results of these
independent studies, made generally through questionnaires sent to
the local unions of the trades covered have been published in the
Monthly Labor Review. The trades covered and the issues of the
Review in which these studies are published are as follows: Barbers,
July 1932 (p. 156); blacksmiths, August 1933 (p. 355); cereal beverage
workers, February 1933 (p. 360); hotel and restaurant employees,
August 1933 (p. 350); metal trades, June 1933 (p. 1375); pulp, sulphite,
:and paper mill workers, October 1933 (p. 941); quarry workers, April
1933 (p. 862); stage employees and motion-picture machine operators,
May 1933 (p. 1 1 1 1 ) ; upholsterers and carpet and linoleum mechanics,
September 1933 (p. 674); and woodworking industry, September
1933 (p. 675).

W oolen and W orsted G oods M a n u fa c tu rin g — W age Rates and
W eekly E a rn in g s, 1932-34 1
8
A v e r a g e hourly earnings of workers in the woolen and worsted
goods industry in August 1934, a year after the wool textile code
became effective, were 5 percent higher than in August 1933, 74
percent above the lowest level—May 1933—but 7 or 8 percent below
the relatively high level of the year 1924. Hourly earnings of lowpaid workers, and especially of female employees, were raised most
as a result of the code. Since skilled workers did not have their
hourly earnings increased in proportion to those of the unskilled
there was a concentration of workers close to the minimum rate per
hour. This concentration was not so great as in the cotton or silk
and rayon industries, and it was decreased somewhat during the first
is Summary of article published in Monthly Labor Review, June 1935 (p. 1448).




1052

W AGES

AND

HOURS

OF

LABOR

year of operation of the code. Average weekly earnings for workers
as a whole rose to a peak of about $17.50 immediately after the code
became effective, but declined after September 1933 because of the
continued decrease in available working time. The actual hours
worked per week decreased from 36.8 in August 1933 to 30.7 in August
1934, at which time the average earnings of all the workers were
$15.13 a week or about $1 less than during the first quarter of 1932.
The average decrease in weekly earnings from August 1933 to August
1934 was smaller in the case of the higher-paid workers than of the
less well paid, and greater for female than for male workers, due to
the more severe cut in the hours of females. Though workers in this
industry continued to receive more than other textile workers, 18.6
percent of the males and 38.6 percent of the females for whom infor­
mation was obtained by the Bureau earned less than $10 a week in
August 1934.
The movement of average earnings between August 1933 and 1934
varied with occupations and regions. Although hourly earnings
increased 5 percent on the average, some occupations suffered actual
decreases. The fall in weekly earnings was especially sharp in north­
ern New England. In contrast, the average actually rose in the
South, due to the relative stability of hours in that section.
Extent of Survey
T h i s report on wages and hours in the woolen and worsted goods
industry is the third of a series made under Executive Order No. 6858
of September 26, 1934, and is based chiefly on 2 field studies by the
Bureau19 covering 3 pay-roll periods—January to March 1932,
August 1933, and August 1934. As the National Recovery Adminis­
tration code for woolen goods manufacturing became effective on
August 14, 1933, these studies give information for periods a year
and a half before the code, the first week of code operation, and a
year after the code. From one-fourth to one-third of the wage
earners in the industry were covered in these surveys. All important
producing regions were represented and the regional distribution
followed very closely that of the Census of Manufactures.

Trend of Wages, Hours, and Employment
T h e number of workers employed by the industry declined from
194,500 in the year 1923 to 110,200 in August 1934. The low point
for employment occurred in June 1932, when 75,500 workers were
employed. In March 1933, just before the National Recovery Ad­
ministration codes were contemplated, 86,300 workers were employed,
and in August 1933, just after the code became effective, there were
163,000 workers. During the first year of operation under the code
there was a decrease of 52,800 in the number of workers from the level
of August 1933. This displacement of labor is rooted in causes which
lie deeper than the current depression. There are indications of an
increase in output per worker, while per capita consumption of wool
textiles has been decreasing. The increased production per worker
may have been due, in part, to a shift to lower-quality goods.
The first of these was reported in Bui. No. 584 of the Bureau, and the second was a special study made
in October 1934. The report for the cotton-textile industry is given on p. 921 and the report for silk and
rayon manufacturing is given on p. 1021.




W OOLEN

AND

W ORSTED

GOODS

M A N U F A C T U R IN G

1053

Hourly earnings in the industry reached an average of 53.3 cents
in 1924. The trend was slightly downward before the depression.
Hourly earnings fell slowly during 1930, but thereafter sank to a low
point of 28.4 cents in May 1933.
Hours of work were increasing gradually before the National
Recovery Administration code was put into effect. The full-time
working week increased from 48.3 hours in 1920 to 50.3 hours in 1932.
The actual hours of work averaged 40.2 per week during the first
quarter of 1932.
Actual weekly earnings declined slightly before the depression, the
average for all workers in 1928 being $19.88 per week. The low point
for weekly earnings occurred in March 1933, when the average for all
workers was estimated to have been approximately $13 per week.
Average Hourly Earnings
T h e woolen code, which became effective August 14, 1933, pro­
vided for minimum hourly rates of 32% cents in the South and 35
cents in the North—2% cents higher in both regions than that required
for cotton, silk, or rayon workers. The rates for workers previously
receiving more than the minimum were required to yield, for a full­
time week of 40 hours, not less than the prevailing wage for the longer
working week prior to the code.
As in the cases of cotton, and silk and rayon, there was a sharp in­
crease in average hourly earnings in woolen and worsted goods manu­
facturing when the code took effect. For the workers as a whole, the
average rose to 46.9 cents in August 1933, just after the code became
effective. Further small increases continued in succeeding months,
the average in August 1934 being 49.3 cents or 5 percent higher than
the year before. The latter earnings are estimated to have been 74
percent above the lowest level of May 1933 and 7 or 8 percent below
the highest level of the year 1924.
The whole wage structure of the industry was altered by the increase
in hourly earnings which took place after the code became effective.
In table 1 the number of workers recorded in the surveys by the
Bureau in 1932,1933, and 1934 are classified according to their average
hourly earnings in those years.
T a b l e 1 .— D IST R IB U T IO N OF A V E R A G E H O U R L Y E A R N IN G S IN T H E W O O L E N A N D

W O R S TE D GOODS IN D U S T R Y , 1932, 1933, A N D 1934
January to March
1932

Average hourly earnings

Males
Total number of employees covered..........
Under 25.0 cents_________________________
25.0 and u nd er 27.5 rants

27.5 and under 30.0 cents________________
30.0 and u n d er 32.5 rants
32.5 and u nd er 35.0 rants

_

_

_

35.0 and under 37.5 cents..............................
37.5 and under 40.0 cents________________
40.0 and under 42.5 cents__________ _____
42.5 and under 45.0 cents________________
45.0 and under 47.6 cents..............................
47.5 and under 50.0 cents_________ ____ __
50.0 and under 55.0 cents___________ ____
55.0 and under 60.0 cents.............................
60.0
65.0
70.0
75.0
80.0

and u n d er 65.0
and u n d er 70.0
and u n d er 75.0
and u nd er 80.0
rants and over

rants
cents
rants
cents




__

_

___

20,407
858
671
620
1,378
1,443
2,073
2,191
1,529
956
1,253
860
1,827
1,467
1,307
916
532
241
285

Females
18,102
3,741
1,855
2,119
1,861
2,260
1,682
1,165
1,048
561
410
294
546
264
160
54
25
19
38

August 1933
Males
20,530
22
17
28
51
602
3,116
1,835
1,987
1,215
1,226
974
1,926
1,371
1,312
1,258
1,064
904
1,622

Females
20,897
6
22
30
56
560
9,280
3,160
1,919
1,447
1,287
601
948
648
316
333
148
78
58

August 1934
Males
18,091
13
14
13
27
418
2,099
1,737
1,810
989
1,162
931
1,901
1,376
1,324
1,191
1,047
680
1,359

Females
13,893
5
7
2
19
367
4,560
2,304
1,478
1,197
897
564
852
577
393
241
174
102
154

1054

W AGES

AND

HOURS

OF

LABOR

Regional comparison .—Although there are discernible differences
between the wage scales in different regions, they are of less moment to
the woolen and worsted industry than to those who manufacture
cotton, and silk and rayon. This is partly because regional wage dif­
ferentials are not great except between the North and South, but
chiefly because woolen-textile manufacture is highly concentrated in
a few contiguous States.
The hourly earnings of the workers covered by the Bureau in August
1933 and 1934, by regions, are shown in table 2.
T

able

2 .—H O U R L Y E A R N IN G S IN T H E W O O LE N A N D W O R S TE D IN D U S T R Y , B Y
R EG IO N A N D SE X , 1933 A N D 1934
August 1933

Amount

Northern New
England

Southern New
England

Middle Atlantic
and Middle
Western

South

Fe­
males

Males

All workers.................................
Less than 22.5 cents..................
22.5 and less than 27.5 cents.. .
27.5 and less than 30.0 cents.. .
30.0 and less than 32.5 cents. . .
32.5 and less than 35.0 cents. —
35.0 and less than 40.0 cents...
40.0 and less than 45.0 cents. —
45.0 and less than 50.0 cents...
50.0 and less than 60.0 cents. . .
60.0 and less than 70.0 cents...
70.0 cents and over....................

Females

Males

Females

Males

2,643

2,709

11,892

10,495

4,973

7,145

1,022

548

6
10
8
10
12
888
520
266
375
311
237

0
4
2
2
19
1,854
492
145
130
46
15

2
6
11
15
44
2,923
1,973
1,185
1,684
1,574
2,475

0
6
6
20
90
6,067
1,561
1,142
1,039
364
200

4
2
3
6
20
967
592
665
1,182
676
856

1
14
10
19
17
4,467
1,294
593
423
239
68

3
6
6
20
526
173
117
84
56
9
22

0
3
12
15
434
52
19
8
4
0
1

Females

Males

August 1934
All workers........... .....................
Less than 22.5 cents................
22.5 and less than 27.5 cents...
27.5 and less than 30.0 cents...
30.0 and less than 32.5 cents...
32.5 and less than 35.0 cents...
35.0 and less than 40.0 cents.—
40.0 and less than 45.0 cents.._
45.0 and less than 50.0 cents...
50.0 and less than 60.0 cents...
60.0 and less than 70.0 cents.. .
70.0 cents and over....................

2,828

1,914

9,752

6,794

4,559

4,731

952

454

3
6
5
4
8
759
542
362
539
385
215

0
0
0
1
8
1,007
405
187
186
79
41

4
6
4
8
22
2,112
1,501
1,039
1,515
1,480
2,061

2
1
1
8
57
3,422
1,114
775
770
354
290

1
1
1
2
12
759
653
614
1,124
610
782

1
5
0
2
17
2,352
1,105
483
467
201
98

2
4
3
13
376
206
103
78
99
40
28

1
2
1
8
285
83
51
16
6
0
1

Occupational comparison .—The hourly earnings of every occupation
in the industry were advanced when the code became effective, but the
less skilled occupations generally received larger increases than the
more skilled. Table 3 presents the results for selected important
occupations, arranged in the order of their average hourly earnings in
the first quarter of 1932. The list of occupations is limited to cases in
which similar wage changes took place in each region.




W OOLEN
T

able

AND

W ORSTED

GOODS

1055

M A N U F A C T U R IN G

3 . — AVER AG E

H O U R LY EAR NINGS IN SELECTED OCCUPATIONS OF T H E
W O O LEN A N D W O R STE D IN D U ST R Y , 1932 TO 1934
Average hourly earnings
(cents)

Occupation

Sex

Perchers_____ _____________________ ____ Male
Weavers________________________________ Female___
Drawers-in, hand_______________________ ...d o ..........
Menders________________ ______________ ...d o ______
Picker tenders__________________________
Truckers........................ ................... ........... ...d o ______
Gill-box tenders________________________ ...d o ...........
Spinners, frame.- ............. ........................ . Female___
Winders, yarn__________________________ ...d o ______
Drawing-frame tenders_________________ __ do______
Spooler tenders_________________________ ...d o ______
Binders_________________________________ ...d o ...........
Gill-box tenders________________________ __ do______
Doffers
1 do

Janu­
ary to
March
1932
46.0
44.0
42.3
37.1
35.9
35.1
34.8
34.0
31.0
30.8
30.4
29.4
28.8
24.8

Aug­
ust
1933

53.2
49.2
49.7
47.9
41.3
41.1
39.7
41.6
39.9
37.5
38.9
39.8
37.1
36.0

Aug­
ust
1934

62.4
51.5
63.0
47.9
40.1
42.0
38.9
41.2
40.5
37.8
40.2
41.6
37.5
36.3

Percent of increase

1932
to
1934

14
17
25
29
12
20
12
21
31
23
32
42
30
46

1932
to
1933

16
12
18
29
15
17
14
22
29
22
28
36
28
45

1933
to
1934

11
5
7
0
l3
2
l2
il
2
1
3
5
1
1

1 Decrease.

Average Weekly Earnings
A v e r a g e weekly earnings in the woolen and worsted goods industry
rose to a peak of about $17.50 during August and September 1933.
Before the code weekly earnings were increased by the lengthening of
the working week, and after the code the weekly earnings were sus­
tained by the increase in hourly rates. After September 1933 weekly
earnings declined, due to the continued decrease in available working
time. Between August 1933 and August 1934 actual hours per week
decreased from 36.8 to 30.7. In August 1934 workers as a whole
averaged $15.13 a week, or about $1 a week less than during the first
quarter of 1932.
As a general rule, weekly earnings were slightly; higher in August
1933 than in the first quarter of 1932 and individual occupational
groups show this general upward tendency, with some variation.
Large percentage increases (as high as 36 percent) for the low-paid
occupations of females stand in contrast to the small advances or
slight declines in the weekly earnings of the skilled occupations. After
a year of the code, every important occupation in the industry had
suffered a decrease in weekly earnings. Table 4 shows average weekly
earnings of 22 occupational groups for the 3 pay-roll periods.
The list of occupational groups is limited to those for which the samples
are sufficiently large and stable to be representative.




1056

W AGES

AND

HOURS

OF

LABOR

STABLE 4 .—A V E R A G E W E E K L Y EAR N IN G S OF SEL E C T E D OCCU PATIO N S IN TH E
W O O LE N A N D W O R STED IN D U S T R Y , 1932, 1933, A N D 1934
Average weekly earn­
ings
Occupation

Sex

Janu­
ary to
March
1932

Loom fixers^ ..
$30.72
Male
W flavors
......
_ „ ....................
dn
21.38
20.97
Spinners, mule_________________________ __ do______
W e a v e r s ....
..... .
Female_
_
19.12
Parnhers _
18.96
(la rd strippers
_
_
__ do______
17. 21
Spinners, fram e.
__
..
.
dn _
17.17
D raw ers-in, hand
16.06
Female_
_
15.09
Card tenders___________________ _______
Pinker te n d e r s . . ... ___
. dn
.
14.69
Trackers______________________ ________ __ dn
14.51
Spinners, fram e
Female.. .
13.80
13.65
Drawing-frame tenders_________________
13.57
_
Menders________________________________ Female_
dn.
12.44
Winders, yarn__________________________
11.88
Twister tenders_________________________ __ do______
11.85
Drawing-frame tenders_________________ _„_do...........
11.28
Gill-box tenders.. _____________________
11.14
_
Do............................................................. Female_
B nrlers
_
. . .
dn.
10.82
Spnnler tenders
dn
10.52
Dnffars
. _ . ___
_
__
dn_.
9.03

Percent of change

August August 1932 to
1934
1933
1934

1932 to
1933

$27.12
18.53
19.07
16.80
16.25
15.92
16.64
16. 22
13.56
13.45
11.73
11.61
10.18
13.64
10.28
9.97
9.56
10.96
10.08
11.73
11.37
7.68

-2.3
-2 .7
4-7.4
-2 .0
+ 5 .6
+ 5 .8

$30.00
20.81
22.52
18.75
20.02
18. 20
19.42
17. 01
15.96
15.22
15.21
14.68
14.44
17.81
13.74
14.12
13.11
13.74
12.32
14.74
13.74
11.89

—11.7
—13.3
—9.1
-1 2 .2
—14.3
—7.5
—3.1
+ 1 .0
—10.1
—8.4
-1 9 . 2
—15.9
—25.4
+ .5
-1 7 .4
—16.1
—19.3
—2.8
- 9 .5
+ 8 .4
+ 8 .1
-1 5 .0

4-13.1

-5.9
-5.8
-3.6
-4.8
-6.4
-5.8
+ 3 1.2
+10.5
+18.9
+10.6
+21.8
+10.6
+ 36.2
+30.6
4-31.7

1933 to
1934

—9.6
—11.0
—15.3
—10.3
—18.8
—12.5
—14.3
—4.6
—15.0
—11.6
—22.9
—20.9
—29.5
-2 3 .4
—25. 2
—29.4
—27.1
—20.2
—18.2
—20.4
—17.2
-3 5 .4

General Wage Changes
Index N u m b e rs of Wages per H o u r, 1840 to 1934

EN ER A L index
wages or earnings per hour for each
1934, for the wage earners of
as a whole,
A G1840oftoagriculturalofwage earners, withthe countryearningsyear,
exclusive
the 1913
per

hour as the base or 100, is presented in the table following. The
index is a composite of all satisfactory data available. Agriculture
was excluded because of the seasonal character of that industry
and the wide variety of the perquisites so often forming part of the
compensation of farm hands.
The figures in the table are for average wage rates or earnings per
hour for wage earners actually at work. They cannot be taken as
reflecting earnings per day or per week.
The table shows that the general trend of hourly earnings has been
upward. There was a sevenfold increase in the 80 years from 1840
to 1920, the peak year, the index rising from 33 to 234 in that time.
Unusual increases were made during each of the two great wars.
After the Civil War there was an increase each year to 1872, when
rates or earnings per hour were 72 percent higher than in 1861.
From 1914 to 1919, or during the World War, the increase was from
an index of 102 to 184 or 80 percent. In 1920 the wage level was
129 percent higher than in 1914 and 134 percent higher than in 1913.




AVERAGE W AGE

P A Y M E N T S IN

1057

O H IO

IN D E X N U M B E R S OF W AG ES PER H OUR, 1840 TO 1934 (E XC LU SIV E OF A G R IC U L T U R E
[On currency basis during Civil War period.

Year

Index
number

1840.....................
1841.....................
1842.....................
1843.....................
1844.....................
1R4A
1R46

1847.....................
1848.....................
1849.....................
I860.....................
1851.....................
1852.....................
1853.....................
1854.....................
1855.....................
1856.....................
1R
JS7

1858.....................
1859.....................
1860.....................
1861.....................
1862.....................
1863.....................

33
34
33
33
32
33
34
34
35
36
35
34
35
35
37
38
39
40
39
39
39
40
41
44

Index
number

Year

1864 ...................
1865.....................

IRfifi

1867.....................

IRfiR
IRAQ

1870.....................
1871.....................
1872.....................
1873.....................
1874.....................
1875.....................
1876.....................
1877.....................
1R7R
1R70
IRRft
1RR1

1882.....................
1RR3
1RR4

1885.....................
1886.....................
1RR7

_____

50
58
61
63
65
66
67
68
69
69
67
67
64
61
60
59
60
62
63
64
64
64
64
67

Year

1888.....................
1889.....................
1890.....................
1891.....................
1RQ2

1893.....................
1894.....................
1895.....................
1896.....................
1897.....................
1898.....................
1899...... ..............
1900.....................
1901.....................
1902.....................
1903.....................
1004

1905.....................
1906.....................
1907.....................
1908.....................
1909.....................
1910.....................
1911.....................

1913=100]

M

Index
number
67
68
69
69
69
69
67
68
69
69
69
70
73
74
77
80
80
82
85
89
89
90
93
95

Year

1912.....................
1913.....................

1014

1915.....................
1916.....................
1917.....................
1918.....................

1010

1920.....................
1921.....................
1922.....................
1923.....................
1924.....................
1925.....................
102fi

1927.....................
1928.....................
1929.....................
1930.....................
1031
1032
1033 ______
1034_______

Index
number
97
100
102
103
111
128
162
184
234
218
208
217
223
226
229
231
232
233
229
217
186
178
l 200

i Subject to revision.

The year 1921 was one of depression, unemployment, and wagerate decreases. The general level of wage rates or earnings per
hour in that year was 7 percent, and in 1922 was 11 percent, less
than in 1920. From 1922 there was an increase each year to 1929.
The depression began late in that year and continued through
1930 to 1934 and into 1935. The level for 1929 was but a fraction
of 1 percent lower than in 1920. The level for 1930 was 1.7 percent
lower than in 1929; for 1931 it was 6.9 percent lower; for 1932 it was
20.2 percent lower; and for 1933 it was 23.6 percent less than in 1929.
The index for 1934 was 12.4 percent higher than in 1933.

. Average Wage and Salary Payments in Ohio, 1918
to 1933 2
0

R

EPORTS from practically all establishments in Ohio employing
three or more persons and falling within the general industry
groups of manufactures, wholesale and retail trade, service, trans­
portation and public utilities, construction, agriculture, and fisheries
show an average wage and salary payment of $1,480 in 1929, $1,048
in 1932, and $997 in 1933.
For the occupation group, “ wage earners” , the reports show an
average wage and salary payment of $1,457 in 1929, $978 in 1932,
and $938 in 1933. For the group, “ bookkeepers, stenographers,
and office clerks” , the average was $1,677 in 1929, $1,390 in 1932,
and $1,336 in 1933. The group “ salespeople (not traveling)” ,
averaged $1,374 for 1929, $1,014 in 1932, and $917 in 1933.
The following table shows average wage and salary payments
for each year of the period, 1918 to 1933, computed by dividing total
wage and salary payments, as reported to and compiled by the
» Abstract of articles in Monthly Labor Review, January 1934 and April 1935 by Fred C. Croxton,
Columbus, Ohio, and Frederick E. Croxton, Columbia University.

19205— 36----- 68




1058

W AGES

AND

HOURS

OF

LABOR

Division of Labor Statistics of the Department of Industrial Rela­
tions of Ohio, by the average number of employees within the same
group.
Considering all industries combined, and all employees, the highest
average wage and salary payment was in 1920, with the second highest
in 1929. The lowest average was in 1933, with a drop in 4 years
of $483, or 32.6 percent.
A V E R A G E W A G E A N D SA L A R Y P A Y M E N T S EA C H Y E A R 1918 TO 1933, B Y IN D U S T R Y
A N D G E N E R A L O CCUPATION GROUPS
All industries

Estab- All employlishees
ments

Wage
earners

Agriculture

Bookkeep- Sales­
ers, stenog- people
raphers,
(not
and office travel­
clerks
ing)

Estab­ All em­ Wage
lish­
ploy­
earn­
ments
ees
ers

1918............ 22,709
1919.......... - 23,652
1920............ 27,241
1921............ 23,562
1922.......... - 3 24,025
25,904
1923........ -

$1,098
1,245
1,524
1,284
1,304
1,425

$1,109
1,246
1,543
1,252
1,250
1,422

$1,086
1,314
1,495
1,480
1,707
1,492

$894
1,039
a 1,250
1,271
1,216
1,332

520
552
586
504
*524
548

$750
834
1,055
923
912
4 981

$744
823
1,043
905
895
972

1924............ 30,439
1925______ 33,443
1926............ 36,004
1927______ 38,509
1928______ 39,979
1929............ 42,216
1930............ 43,348
1931______ 42,095
1932______ 39,109
1933............ 37, 578

1,419
1,445
1,436
1,455
1,469
1,480
1, 388
1,245
1,048
997

1,406
1,435
1,418
1,431
1,448
1,457
1,343
1,187
978
938

1,554
1,546
1,577
1,620
1,634
1,677
1,676
1, 564
1,390
1,336

1,316
1,367
1,395
1,417
1,407
1,374
1,249
1,161
1,014
917

732
910
1,052
1,199
1,329
1,444
1,639
1, 777
1,736
1,683

1,015
1,021
970
982
986
971
949
819
661
583

Bookkeep­ Sales­
ers, stenog­ people
raphers,
(not
and office travel­
clerks
ing)

1,006
1,010
954
965
969
957
937
804
650
674

Construction

(n

0)
0)
0)

0)

0)
0)
p)
0)

0)
(0
0)
0)

0)

0)

(*)
0)
0)
0)
0)
p)
(0
0)
0)

(0
0)

Manufactures

(0

4,273
4,747
5,382
4,890
1921______
1922.......... . 3 5,007
5,883
1923............

$1,094
1,414
1,698
1,400
1,373
1,929

$1,094
1,415
1,703
1,382
1,361
1,946

$1,073
1, 279
1, 576
1,602
1,485
1, 593

$2,077
1,953
1,795
1,829
1,989

8,858
9,011
9,652
8, 632
*8, 330
8,701

$1,162
1,304
1,602
1, 293
1,350
1,449

$1,159
1,185
1,598
1,252
1, 270
1,428

$1,165
1,460
1,616
1,547
2,064
1,604

$1,496
1,688
1,981
1,971
1,796
2,037

7,364
8,407
9,145
9, 724
9,942
10,183
9,672
8,272
6,456
5,586

1,642
1,656
1,622
1,630
1, 637
1, 676
1, 568
1,352
1,026
861

1,637
1, 651
1,611
1,618
1,624
1,668
1,545
1,328
982
821

1,646
1,649
1, 694
1, 720
1, 751
1,685
1, 760
1,607
1,351
1,186

1,960
2,064
2,091
2,109
2,014
1,966
2,196
1,453
1, 295
997

9,125
9,502
9,704
9.880
9,937
10,035
10,011
9,683
9,102
8,755

1,456
1,497
1,479
1, 502
1,528
1, 535
1,424
1,248
1,032
1,005

1,429
1,467
1,448
1,464
1,496
1,499
1,365
1,185
956
950

1,644
1,704
1,702
1, 774
1,758
1,792
1,825
1,679
1,513
1,428

1,980
2,226
2,092
2,129
2,163
2,171
2,078
1,787
1,737
1,463

1918______
1919______

m o ...........
1924______
1925______
1926...........
1927............
1928............
1929............
1930............
1931............
1932............
1933............

i Not computed owing to small number involved.
a This amount is undoubtedly an error, but original schedules and work sheets have been destroyed and
definite correction, therefore, cannot be made.
a The number of establishments reporting employees was: Total, 24,124; agriculture, 619; construction,
5,005; fisheries, 27; manufactures, 8,403; service, 3,032; trade, wholesale and retail, 6,067; and transportation
and public utilities, 1,071.
* Wage and salary payments to salespeople (not traveling) not included in this average, as number of
such employees could not be determined.
« Combined with “ industries not otherwise classified” in detailed tabulation by Division of Labor
Statistics; number does not exceed 60.




AVERAGE W AGE

P A Y M E N T S IN

1059

O H IO

A V E R A G E W A G E A N D SA L A R Y P A Y M E N T S EA C H Y E A R 1918 TO 1933, B Y IN D U S T R Y
A N D G E N E R A L O CC UPATION GROUPS— Continued
Trade, wholesale and retail

Service

Estab- All em- Wage
lishployearnments
ees
ers

Bookkeep- Sales­
ers, stenog- people
raphers,
(not
and office travel­
clerks
ing)

Estab­
lish­
ments

All em­ Wage
earn­
ploy­
ees
ers

Bookkeep­ Sales­
ers, stenog­ people
raphers,
(not
and office travel­
clerks
ing)

1918........ 2,556
1919............
2,563
1920............
3,847
1921______
2,823
1922............ 3 3,034
3,341
1923............

$806
903
1,134
1,177
1,112
1,165

$720
1*809
1,030
1,054
1,026
1,049

$1,083
1,171
1,360
1, 510
1,325
1,400

$1,309
1,408
1,881
1,695
1,599
2,072

5,330
5,657
6,589
5,638
3 6,031
6,276

$854
1,000
1,212
1,243
1,167
1,248

$870
1,015
1,230
1,264
1,152
1,248

$940
1,101
1,344
1,359
1, 291
1,356

$779
914
1,092
1,135
1,097
1,171

1924............
4,233
1925............ 6 5,971
1926............
6,761
1927............
7,598
1928............
8,210
1929............
9,335
1930............ 10,241
1931............ 10,452
1932............ 10,357
1933______ 10,215

1,191
« 1,287
1,299
1,343
1, 306
1, 384
1, 306
1,236
1,074
1,001

1,106
« 1,174
1,153
1, 210
1,120
1,180
1,123
1,066
939
797

1,349
e 1,416
1, 512
1,555
1, 619
1,732
1,637
1,561
1,365
1,376

1,845 . 7,689
6 1, 982 6 7, 277
7,867
1,955
1,980
8, 526
1,916
8,916
9, 524
2,027
1,582 10,022
1,394 10, 111
1,045
9,716
9,647
1,078

1,280
e 1,224
1,258
1, 273
1,268
1,237
1, 231
1,166
1,014
920

1,296
6 1, 264
1,280
1, 276
1, 293
1, 281
1,259
1,217
1,064
970

1,422
« 1, 295
1,355
1,350
1,327
1,332
1,405
1,282
1,122
1,021

1,165
« 1,151
1,194
1,238
1,220
1,164
1,132
1,076
930
845

Transportation and public utilities
1,134
1918............
1919............
1,081
1920............
1,146
1,048
1921............
1922............ 3 1,072
1,129
1923............
1924............
1925............
1926______
1927........ .
1928............
1929............
1930,..........
1931........ .
1932.......... .
1933............

1,271
1,353
1,453
1,561
1,625
1, 674
1,741
1, 776
1,742
1,692

$959
1,124
3 1, 385
1,318
1,281
1,316

$969
1,144
1,401
1,318
1, 252
1,316

$879
971
1,183
1,309
1,444
1,298

(i)
(0
(!)
(1)
(1)
(1)

1,417
1,359
1, 397
1,388
1,438
1,429
1,420
1, 377
1,241
1,189

1,350
1,341
1, 385
1,374
1,413
1,406
1,402
1,343
1,199
1,149

1,800
1,436
1,424
1,423
1, 526
1,485
1,461
1,479
1, 363
1, 303

(1)
(1)
$2, 203
2,243
2, 210
2,199
1,997
1,909
1,868
1,864

1 Not computed owing to small number involved.
3
This amount is undoubtedly an error, but original schedules and work sheets have been destroyed and
definite correction, therefore, cannot be made.
3 The number of establishments reporting employees was: Total, 24,124; agriculture, 519; construction,
5,005; fisheries, 27; manufactures, 8,403; service, 3,032; trade, wholesale and retail, 6,067; and transportation
and public utilities, 1,071.
6 Tabulations of the Division of Labor Statistics change the classification of offices from “ trade” to
“ service” beginning in 1925.

Individual Industries
S t u d ie s of average wage and salary payments in individual
industries which enter into the total averages presented in this
article have been published in the Monthly Labor Review, as follows:
Construction industry, February 1934 (p. 253); manufactures, March
1934 (p. 627) and May 1935 (p. 1288); iron and steel and their
products, April 1934 (p. 898); wholesale and retail trade, May 1934
(p. 1032); food and kindred products, June 1934 (p. 1441); lumber
and lumber products, August 1934 (p. 423); chemicals and allied
products, September 1934 (p. 716); “ service” industries, October
1934 (p. 970); manufacture of paper and printing, rubber products,




1060

W AGES

AND

HOURS

OF

LABOR

stone, clay, and glass products, vehicles, and transportation and
public utilities, November 1934 (p. 1198); leather and leather prod­
ucts, liquors and beverages, and metals and metal products other
than iron and steel, December 1934 (p. 1457); textiles, manufacture
of tobacco, and miscellaneous manufactures, January 1935 (p. 147).

Employment and Earnings of Heads of Families in
Denver, 1929 and 1933
N D EN V ER , COLO., a house-to-house canvass in December 1933
disclosed several significant facts on employment and earnings of
heads of families. In November 1933 only 67.6 percent of the male
and female heads of families had full-time employment as contrasted
with 86.7 percent in November 1929. At both periods the employ­
ment record was in general best for those who in November 1933 were
from 30 to 39 years of age. The median monthly earnings of heads
of families at the earlier date were $116.08 and in November 1933,
$95.04, a reduction of $21.04 or 18.1 percent. The value of college
training in connection with full-time employment was brought out.
The survey was made, at the request of the Denver committee of
the Federal Civil Works Administration, by the Bureau of Business
and Social Research of the University of Denver as a project for the
utilization of the services of the “ white-collar” unemployed. The
results of this investigation were published in the September 1934
issue of the University of Denver Reports.
Employment records were obtained for 60,018 heads of families
(approximately an 80-percent sample), and records of earnings were
secured in 55,262 cases. In most instances data on age and scholastic
training were also reported.
The number of persons for whom information was available was
larger for recent than for earlier periods: (1) Because some had re­
cently assumed family responsibilities, and (2) because many could
not remember their employment status or earnings over a period of
years. However, according to the report, the doubtful group con­
tributed both to “ the employment and the unemployment record,
and for that reason is not considered important in its effect upon the
record as compiled.”
Table 1 shows the percent of male and female heads of families
employed full time November 1929 and November 1933, by age groups
and scholastic training. It will be noted that on the whole in both
years the employment record is best for those who were from 30 to 39
years of age in November 1933.

I




1061

HEADS OF FAMILIES IN DENVER

T ab le 1.—P E R C E N T OF M A L E A N D F E M A L E H EA D S OF F AM ILIES IN D E N V E R
E M P L O Y E D F U LL T IM E IN N O V E M B E R 1929 A N D N O V E M B E R 1933, B Y A G E A N D
SCHOLASTIC T R A IN IN G i
Percent employed full time, by age groups
Scholastic training group and year

70
years
and
over

20-29
years

30-39
years

40-49
years

50-59
years

60-69
years

All groups...........................................................................

87.7

89.6

89.2

86.5

80.8

64.2

86.7

Group I. Not beyond the sixth grade..........................
Group II. Beyond the sixth grade but not the ninth.
Group III. Beyond the ninth grade but not beyond
high school......................................................................
Group IV. College without graduation.......................
Group V. College graduates..........................................
All others1.........................................................................

74.3
85.7

79.8
87.6

78.3
88.4

78.6
85.6

72.0
80.1

55.8
63.2

75.9
85.3

90.1
92.0
90.1
80.3

91.2
93.2
96.2
83.8

92.1
93.2
95.3
87.6

89.2
91.4
93.5
84.7

85.9
84.7
89.4
77.6

73.0
68.4
73.4
56.7

90.0
91.5
93.4
80.7

72.8
44.7
65.4

73.3
47.2
68.7

70.0
52.0
67.0

65.3
49.8
62.3

56.4
42.1
53.0

36.3
24.8
33.4

67.6
46.7
63.3

77.0
83.1
87.5
66.7

77.4
80.6
88.7
69.2

75.1
77.8
85.6
63.7

70.5
74.5
83.2
63.1

65.8
61.8
76.8
51.9

43.1
46.2
56.4
36.4

73.9
77.6
84.4
59.6

N o vem ber 1929

N o vem ber 19SS

All groups...........................................................................
Group I. Not beyond the sixth grade..........................
Group II. Beyond the sixth grade but not the ninth.
Group III. Beyond the ninth grade but not beyond
high school......................................................................
Group IV. College without graduation.......................
Group V. College graduates...........................................
All others1.........................................................................

All
ages

i Age and scholastic training classifications as of November 1933.

1Includes foreign educated and unknown.

In table 2 the median monthly earnings of full-time employees are
given for November 1929 and November 1933, by age groups and
scholastic training. As noted above, the decline between these two
periods was 18.1 percent. At both of these dates for all scholastic­
training groups combined earnings were higher among those in the
40 to 49 age group.
T ab le 2 .—M E D IA N M O N T H L Y EAR N IN G S OF M A L E A N D F E M A L E H EADS OF F A M I­
LIES IN D E N V E R (FU L L -TIM E EM PLO YEES) CLASSIFIED B Y AG E A N D T R A IN IN G ,
N O V E M B E R 1929 A N D N O V E M B E R 1933 i
Earnings by age groups
Scholastic training group and year

N ovem ber 19 29

All groups...........................................................................

20-29
years

30-39
years

40-49
years

50-59
years

60-69
years

70
years
and
over

All
ages

$94.19 $122.99 $126.20 $121.37 $105.39 $91.61 $116.08

Group I. Not beyond the sixth grade..........................
65.33 79.57
Group II. Beyond the sixth grade but not the ninth. 86.98 108.95
Group III. Beyond the ninth grade but not beyond
97.85 131.40
high school......................................................................
Group IV. College without graduation....................... 113.78 142.16
Group V. College graduates........................................... 128.75 171.22

87.17 86.56 82.13
116.36 113.38 100.24

75.80 82.24
90.11 106.61

140. 28 139.77 126.44 114.29 126.70
149.52 142.19 136.81 80.00 137.70
198.00 191.60 164.63 146.43 175.63

N o vem ber 19SS

All groups...........................................................................
Group I. Not beyond the sixth grade..........................
Group II. Beyond the sixth grade but not the ninth.
Group III. Beyond the ninth grade but not beyond
high school...... ..............................................................
Group IV . College without graduation......................
Group V. College graduates..........................................

80.12
51.99
70.25

99.47 103.71 100.46
66.10 72.05 70.78
87.21 93.00 93.09

80.02

95.04

68.18
85.59

69.44
71.80

67.66
86.51

81.11 106.55 118.18 118.86 113.39 97.16 100.27
91.36 120.49 132.78 128.13 109.38 72.50 113.99
113.85 146.11 169.82 170.52 141.07 122.92 145.93

i Age and scholastic training classification as of November 1933.




91.11

1062

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

Movement Toward the Shorter Workweek Prior to
the National Industrial Recovery Act
COMBINATION of forces led to rather widespread adoption
of the 5-day week in industry in the years just preceding the
passage of the National Industrial Recovery Act. A large con­
tributing factor to this trend was the general depression reflected
in steadily shrinking markets beginning with 1929. Although the
shorter workweek introduced in the depression would not ordinarily
indicate a normal tendency, the increases in productivity that occurred
under the reduced working time and the steady progress of techno­
logical change argued for the continuance of the 5-day week by indi­
vidual establishments and trades, even before the enactment of the
recovery legislation placed national emphasis on shorter hours.
Below are given certain examples of this earlier experience with
shorter hours of labor.

A

E x te n t of 5 -D a y W eek in A m e ric a n In d u s try in 1932

Two inquiries were made in 1932 by the Bureau of Labor Statistics
regarding the extent to which the 5-day week had been permanently
adopted in American industry. One inquiry was in the form of a
questionnaire addressed to employers, covering the principal indus­
tries of the country, with the exception of the building trades and
railroad transportation. The second was part of the regular annual
survey of union scales of wages and hours of labor and deals with the
5-day-week as adopted in collective agreements between employers
and organized labor. The building trades were covered in the tradeunion survey. Except for the printing trades, there was very little,
if any, overlapping in the results of the two inquiries.
General Survey of the 5-Day Week
I n t h e general survey questionnaires were sent to the various
establishments which cooperated with the Bureau by furnishing
monthly reports on employment and pay rolls. These question­
naires were answered by 44,025 establishments, having 3,848,349
employees, and representing 102 industries or industry groups. As
a similar survey had been made by the Bureau about a year earlier,
covering substantially the same establishments, information was
made available for a comparison of conditions in 1931 and 1932.
The number of establishments and employees covered in both of
these surveys was believed to be sufficiently large to be fairly repre­
sentative, with the exceptions above noted, of American industry as
a whole.
The 1931 survey showed that 2.4 percent of the establishments
reporting had permanently adopted the 5-day week for all or a part
of their employees, and that 5.6 percent of the employees of the
establishments had been placed on this 5-day-week schedule as com­
pared with 5.4 percent and 8.4 percent, respectively, in 1932.
For the manufacturing industries, the proportions of establish­
ments and of employees on a 5-day week were considerably higher
than for all industries combined. Thus, in 1932, 7.8 percent of the
manufacturing establishments reporting had adopted the 5-day week




SHORTER WORKWEEK PRIOR TO N. R. A.

1063

for all or part of their working force, and 12.3 percent of the em­
ployees of the establishments were employed on a 5-day-week basis.
It is to be emphasized that in both of the surveys referred to,
establishments were listed as having the 5-day week only when such
a working schedule had been adopted as a permanent policy. Estab­
lishments temporarily operating on a 5-day or shorter working week
as a result of business conditions, but not as a permanent policy or
with uncertainty as to their future policy, were not included in the
5-day-week classification. Also, it is to be noted that this classifica­
tion included only persons working not more than 5 days per week
and did not include many cases of shortened hours of labor, as, for
instance, when plants operating continuously had adopted a system
of four 6-hour shifts, thus greatly reducing the weekly hours, although
still operating on a 6- or even 7-day basis.
The detailed report of the survey (published in the Monthly Labor
Review for November 1932) showed that the automobile industry
had in 1932 the greatest percentage of employees on the 5-day week,
namely 67.2 percent. The chewing- and smoking-tobacco and snuff
industry, with 40 percent of its employees on the 5-day week, was
second, followed by the druggists’ preparations industry, with 39.9
percent, and the electrical machinery, apparatus, and supplies indus­
try, with 38.6 percent.
The 5-Day Week Among Trade Unions
As a p a r t of the study of the annual survey of union wage' rates
and hours of labor in the time-work trades in 67 cities, made by the
Bureau of Labor Statistics as of May 1932 and covering union
membership of 595,367, data were collected relative to the regular
working days per week provided in the agreements under which the
membership was working. The agreement for a permanent basic
5-day week was found widespread in the building trades and to
quite an extent in several of the other trades canvassed. Of the full
membership reported, 56 percent had a recognized working week of
5 days or less, a small fraction of 1 percent had a 5-day week or less
for one-half of a year but less than a full year, and 3.1 percent had a
5-day week for some part of the year less than one-half. In a number
of trades, such as bricklayers, inside wiremen, lathers, plasterers, stone
masons, more than 90 percent of the members were on a working
schedule of 5 days per week or less.
In a few instances the agreement was that the provision for a week
of 5 days, or even less, was temporary in character, running for a
fixed period or indefinitely until further agreement. Some of the
curtailments of working hours reported, especially those for less than
5 days a week, were made to spread work among the members.
Experience of M a n u fa c tu rin g C o m p a n y W ith 5 -D a y W eek

A n in c r e a s e of 10 percent in production and a decrease in pro­
duction cost, over a ,6-month period in 1929, was the result of the
adoption of the 5-day week by the Snow King Baking Powder Co,,
of Cincinnati, according to an account given in the magazine Manage­
ment (Chicago) for February 1931.




1064

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

The 2 years’ experience of the company with the 5-day week
developed the following advantages:
(1) It is much easier to get a better class of employees when they know we
work on the 5-day plan.
(2) It reduces labor turnover to a minimum.
(3) A saving in light, heat, and power is effected by not operating on Saturday.
(4) Workers throughout the plant show an increase in efficiency.
(5) Basing the monthly quota on our best previous record has materially
increased production while reducing the cost.
(6) Should it become necessary to increase production in any one week, this
can easily be done on Saturday without increasing the cost of production.

Prior to the adoption of the 5-day week the factory employees
worked 48% hours per week and the office employees 41 hours. With
the change to the shorter workweek in November 1928 the working
hours of the factory employees were reduced to 47% for the male
workers and to 45 for the female workers. The office employees’
hours were reduced to 40. There was no change in wage rates, but
a production quota, based on the best single month’s production of
1928, was established, and if this quota was not reached the employees
were required to work on Saturday, without extra pay, to make it up.
To reduce absenteeism the wages of the factory employees were
based on a 50-hour week instead of the shorter workweek adopted.
Thus, if an employee worked full time he was paid for full-time work,
but if he worked less than the full 5 days he was paid only for as
many hours as he actually worked. This plan is said to have re­
duced absenteeism to a minimum.
F o r t y -H o u r W eek Established b y S ta n d a rd O il C o . of
N e w Jersey, 1932

A n o r m a l 40-hour week, consisting of a maximum of 5 working
days or its equivalent, was established for its entire domestic opera­
tions by the Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey, to become effective
July 1, 1932, in order to give the personnel “ all practicable assurance
of continued employment and to effect further economies in operation. ”
This plan, as announced to the employees, provided for a normal
working week of 5 days for all salaried and wage-earning employees
of the company in this country. However, each of the subsidiary
companies was to determine for its various departments whether this
reduction in working time should be taken off currently each week or
in one or more periods over the year. Hourly wage earners were to
continue to be paid on the basis of time actually worked, but salaried
employees, including salaried wage earners, on a 5%-day schedule
prior to July 1, were to go on a 5-day basis with a reduction in
pay of one-eleventh.
O p e ra tio n of 6 -H o u r D a y in P lan ts of th e K e llogg C o .
T h e Kellogg Co., of Battle Creek, Mich., manufacturers of cereal
foods, adopted the 6-hour day December 1, 1930, primarily to help
relieve unemployment.
A description of operations under the plan was given in a press
statement by Lewis J. Brown, president of the company, under date
of April 14, 1931. This statement, in part, follows.




SHORTER WORKWEEK PRIOR TO N. R. A.

1065

The Kellogg Co. adopted the 6-hour day as an emergency expedient
to relieve the unemployment situation in Battle Creek, where the
main plant is located. It proved so satisfactory that it was expected
to adopt the 6-hour day as a permanent operating policy.
The reduction of the working day from 8 hours to 6 hours seemed
to be the most practical method of adjustment to the needs of the
current situation, and at the same time of working toward a perma­
nent adjustment to economic trends. Also, it promised to iron out
some inequalities and eliminate some petty evils which had grown up
over a period of years.
Where the jobs outside of mechanical and maintenance are mostly
repetitious, the work tends to become monotonous. Toward the end
of an 8-hour shift, the employees formerly grew somewhat careless
and waste increased. Speed of our processes and machines had to
be adjusted to this human factor. In a shorter working day the
workers are much more alert and efficient, knowing that the work­
ing time is short, and that it “ won’t be long now” until the whistle
will blow. Because of this there was a slight increase in the rate of
production fines that multiplied itself into a substantial increase in
total eproduction and gave a greater return on investment and
machinery.
Advantages to Employees
W h il e the chief advantages to the worker, under the 6-hour day,
are fairly obvious in the actual operation, others have been discovered.
An enumeration of these advantages may prove interesting:
More leisure time for recreation (embracing both rest and play).
Opportunity to cultivate farms or gardens, especially by those
living on the outskirts of the city, affording them both wholesome
exercise and a supply of fruits and flowers, vegetables, and dairy
products for their tables.
Time to pursue educational courses, music, or other cultural studies.
Increased incentive to prepare for managerial jobs, as the change
from 3 to 4 shifts makes necessary an additional full staff of
managers, foremen, foreladies, etc.
Less fatigue due to smaller number of hours of work daily, and
longer periods of rest between, resulting in a more healthy, ambitious,
alert, and aggressive working force.
Opportunity for mothers who must support children to earn a
living and yet have ample time at home to care for their families.
Less waste time, due to concentration of work in a single period.
Decreased cost of living, on account of being able to have all meals
at home.
Greater assurance of a steady job due to the fact that the increase
in the number of workers employed absorbs more of the city’s working
people, makes them earners and consumers, and stabilizes the local
industrial situation.
Advantages to the Business
T h e fist of advantages to the company is almost as impressive.
It includes:
Increased daily production from the plant as an operating unit,
due to increased production at every station or task, slight in itself
but considerable m the aggregate.




1066

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

Elimination of meal periods, with their waste, and the expense of
a large cafeteria.
Increased return from the capital invested in plant and machinery,
owing to the increased rate of plant operation.
Opportunity for reorganizing the working force to rectify inequali­
ties and fit all “ pegs” in appropriate “ holes.”
Decreased overhead due to the fact that the factory produces more
packages of cereals per dollar of overhead than under the 8-hour
shift. In this plant, where the overhead in proportion to direct labor
is approximately two and one-half times, an increase in efficiency,
thereby decreasing the cost per package of cereal, results in the over­
head dropping two and one-half times more than the direct labor
cost per package. Or, in other words, a saving of 10 cents per hun­
dred pounds of production on direct labor saves 25 cents additional
on overhead. As the majority of foremen and foreladies also work
on production, the increased supervisory force does not have any
material effect on the pay roll, and it is offset by the increased effi­
ciency obtained from the plant as an operation machine.
Wage Adjustment
I n r e d u c i n g the number of working hours a day, under the 6-hourday plan, there was naturally a reduction in the day wages for the
higher-paid employees, In fact, there were 2 hours less work, or
25 percent less actual working time.
It was found that if the base rate of the employees was increased
12% percent, their purchasing power would be, when operating 6
hours a day, 6 days a week, approximately the same as it was in 1928.
An investigation was also made of the minimum daily wage a male
employee should have, in order to provide himself and family with a
proper living. As a result, it was decided that the minimum wage for
a male employee should be $4 per day, this being the same rate paid
when operating on the 8-hour basis— a minimum wage of 50 cents an
hour, or $4 for an 8-hour day. Thus, in working on a 6-hour-day
basis, the base rate for the minimum wage of an employee was in­
creased 33 Y percent, while those receiving a higher wage received
z
a 12% percent increase in base rate.
In determining the increase in hourly wages it was necessary that
this figure be so established as to be sufficient for the employees to
continue to live at the same scale as on the 8-hour shift, and it was
also necessary to keep in mind the pay-roll cost so as not materially
to affect the cost of production. Therefore, the cost of living was
considered in connection with this preliminary study, and in announc­
ing the new plan to the employees the results of this investigation
were given.
Workers are not changed from one shift to another. They are hired
for a particular shift, and ordinarily they stay on this shift. One
great advantage of the 6-hour day is that each shift is in one unbroken
unit, and that unit is not a long enough period to be a hardship to
anyone, day or night.
The 6-hour day was not extended to the office, but was confined to
the production, mechanical, and maintenance departments.




SHORTER WORKWEEK PRIOR TO N. R. A.

1067

S ix -H o u r S h ifts of In d ia T ir e & R u b b e r C o ., 1932

A n a c c o u n t of the facts and circumstances incidental to the adop­
tion of the 6-hour shift system by the India Tire & Rubber Co. was
furnished to the Bureau of Labor Statistics by the company in 1932.
Although the establishment of the 6-hour shift system in this plant
developed from conditions of manufacturing peculiar to certain
operations in the industry, it proved so satisfactory from the stand­
points of improved production, reduced labor costs, and reduction
in absenteeism that it was gradually extended to other departments
of the plant.
The plan was first applied in the curing or vulcanizing department
of the plant, commonly called the “ pit” , in the summer of 1931. In
this department the work is hot and humid and considerable skill is
required. Tire demand is naturally highest in the hot season and
full 7-day (24 hours) mold operation is commonly necessary in this
department. The attempt to keep the men at work for 8 hours per
day 7 days in the week had not proved satisfactory over a period of
several years from the standpoint of production and of operating costs.
The experiment of introducing one more shift of curing men was
therefore tried, with the following results: (1) One-third more work­
men were given employment; (2) loss of production was reduced so
that at no time did it exceed 5 percent, with many days showing a
perfect score; (3) absences, which had been an appreciable factor on
the 8-hour basis, declined almost to the vanishing point; (4) the labor
cost per unit cured declined 8.2 percent.
The reduction in labor cost was computed by comparing 2 months
in which conditions were identical with the exception that in 1 month
the work was on a 3-shift basis, and in the other on a 4-shift basis.
After watching this installation for a few months, covering both
the busy and slack seasons, it was decided to begin extension of the
4-shift system to other departments of the plant. At the time the
report was furnished most of the workmen were on the 6-hour basis,
but it had not been applied to salaried employees, although it was
said that eventually it would be extended to include everyone.
The direct savings as a result of the extension of the plan are less
easy to compute than those of the vulcanizing department because
of general rate reductions that had taken place in the preceding 12
months throughout the industry, but it was considered that the sav­
ings were at least equal to those secured in the first instance. No
upward adjustment of rates was made when the 6-hour shift was
installed.
In conclusion it was stated—
We have not attempted to outline the sociological advantages incident to
shortened working periods and the employment of men who otherwise would
have no work. All of these have been pointed out in other articles. Our experi­
ence bears out all of these advantages and the plan, in general, seems entirely
sound and workable.

S ix -H o u r S h ifts in P lan ts of O w e n s -Illin o is Glass C o ., 1932
A c c o r d i n g to a press announcement confirmed by a letter from an
official of the company, the Owens-Illinois Glass Co. in 1932 changed
its daily operating schedule from three 8-hour shifts to four 6-hour
shifts per day, in order to provide employment for a larger number of




1068

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

workers. The hours of salaried workers in plant offices and in the
general office remained the same, averaging about 8 hours per day.
Several reductions were made in the salaries of these workers, and the
hourly employees who were on a wage and production bonus plan
had their compensation reduced to correspond to the reduction in
the number of hours.
The secretary of the company stated that the change was working
out very satisfactorily in that it accomplished what it was intended
to do; that is, provided employment for additional workers.
T h e 5 -D a y W eek in th e G o v e rn m e n t P rin tin g Office

A n a c c o u n t of the results of the adoption of the 5-day week in the
Government Printing Office is given in the annual report of the Public
Printer for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1932, and the last half of
the calendar year 1932.
As authorized by the Economy Act, the 5-day week was put into
effect in the Government Printing Office July 2, 1932. From that
time until the reconvening of Congress on December 5 the entire
office was closed on Saturdays, but with Congress in session it became
necessary to rotate the time off for night employees so that an ade­
quate force would be on duty every night except Sunday, and also
to maintain a small day force on Saturdays by the same method.
The employees in each work group, therefore, were rotated alpha­
betically for the Saturday work periods during the period that Con­
gress is in session.
As regards the results of the change upon productivity, the report
said—
The production records since the 5-day week was put into effect July 2, 1932
show that in 4 months the production of ems per day per employee on actual
composition increased approximately 5 percent; that proof-room output of galleys
increased about 4 percent per employee; that output of platemaking divisions
increased about 10 percent per employee; that the ordinary run of presswork
increased about 10 percent per employee; and that in binding division the machine
gathering of signatures increased about 7 percent per employee.
Prior to this year the 4-hour work period on Saturday was low in production,
while now the 5-full-day week is giving more per 8 hours of work than did the
former 5^-day week give per 8 hours of work. It is difficult to prove this exactly,
but our best reading of the records generally seems to show a better output when
work period is composed entirely of full days.

R eport on Proposed 6 -H o u r D a y fo r R a ilroad Em ployees

I n p u r s u a n c e of a joint resolution (No. 13) of the Seventy-second
Congress dated March 15, 1932, the Interstate Commerce Commis­
sion on December 6, 1932, published the results of its hearings to
determine what would be the effect upon operation, service, and
expenses of applying the principle of a 6-hour day in the employment
of railway employees.21
The Commission construed the term “ railway employees” to include
not only employees of steam railroads but also those of electric rail­
ways, express companies, and sleeping-car companies. Separate
reports and statistics were made for each of these agencies.
In construing the “ principle of a 6-hour day” , the Commission
stated that this expression did not mean limiting each day’s actual
a Interstate Commerce Commission.
i
Dec. 6, 1932. (Mimeographed.)




Ex Parte No. 106: Six-Hour Day Investigation.

Washington,

SHORTER WORKWEEK PRIOR TO N. R. A.

1069

employment to 6 hours, but that “ the number of hours worked per
week or per month shall equal the product of the number of work days
in the period times six.”
In the opinion of the Commission a workweek might represent a
total time of 36 hours, divided into 6 days of 6 hours each, or it might
be a week of 5 days of 7 hours and 12 minutes each, or any other
arrangement mutually satisfactory to both employer and employee.
It was, however, stressed by both parties at the hearings that an
actual 6-hour day would be impracticable. The employees were
agreed that, in order to avoid losses to the carriers from unproductive
time, a week of varying time would be consistent with the principle
of a 6-hour day.
The question also was presented whether the Commission would
assume a 6-hour day at the existing 8-hour or other basic pay or a
6-hour day at a pro-rata pay. The carriers were convinced that a
6-hour day at the existing basic pay was intended by the resolution.
The employees were of the same opinion, believing that the purpose
of the short day was to create more employment and to stabilize
compensation and hence not lower the standard of living of those now
employed. The Commission was of the opinion that the resolution
contemplated the establishment of a 6-hour day at the present basic
pay; its findings, however, were calculated on both assumptions.
As to the operation and service of the several carriers, the Commis­
sion found that the principle of a 6-hour day could be applied, so far
as physical conditions are concerned, without any material effect.
The Commission was of the opinion that the adoption of the
principle of a 6-hour day in a year of abnormal economic conditions
would result in the employment of 60,000 to 100,000 additional em­
ployees. In a year such as 1930 it was estimated that between 300,000
and 350,090 additional employees would be required in the event a
shorter workweek was adopted.
The extent of the increased expenditure may be best observed by
following the findings of the Commission on this item.
(a) Assuming the same volume of traffic and operations as in 1930, and assum­
ing no reduction in the then existing compensation for an 8-hour or other basic
day’s work, the initial effect would be to increase operating expenses of the
carriers collectively, including the express and sleeping-car companies, at the rate
of approximately $630,000,000 per year, or about 14.6 percent of the operating
expenses, and approximately 22.2 percent of the pay-roll expenses in 1930. How­
ever, the compensation of steam railway, express, and sleeping-car employees was
on February 1, 1932, reduced 10 percent by an agreement which expires on Janu­
ary 31, 1933. Various reductions in wages of electric-railway employees have also
been made. If the wage reductions are continued, the above estimate of $630,000,000 would be reduced to something less than $570,000,000 per year.
(b) Assuming the same volume of traffic and operations as in 1930, and a reduc­
tion in the then existing compensation pro rata to the reduction in the basic day’s
work, and excluding road train and engine service from consideration, for reasons
stated in the report, the initial effect would be to decrease operating expenses of
the carriers collectively, including the express and sleeping-car companies, at the
rate of approximately $26,000,000 per year, or about 0.6 percent of the operating
expenses, and approximately 0.9 percent of the pay-roll expenses in 1930. Allow­
ing for the wage reductions above mentioned, this estimate would be reduced to
something less than $24,500,000 per year.
(c) Using the same percentages of operating expense, and assuming the same
volume of traffic and operations as in the 12 months ended with September 1932,
the initial effect would be an increase at the rate of approximately $414,000,000
per year under the first assumption with reference to wages and a decrease at the
rate of approximately $20,000,000 per year under the second assumption. The




1070

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

estimates of $414,000,000 andf$20,000,000 above given are probably both some­
what too high, if wage reductions are to be continued.
(d)
The increase in expenses at the outset under the first wage assumption
would gradually be lessened and the decrease in expenses at the outset under the
second wage assumption would gradually be increased as the result of experience
with the proposed new arrangement and by technological developments.

The report also pointed out the sharp decline in the number of rail­
road employees since 1930. Class I railroads 22 decreased the average
number of their employees from 1,487,839 in 1930 to 1,031,014 in
June 1932, and 2 months later a further decline to 980,627 employees
was reported. This reduction, it was pointed out, was due partly to
the business depression and partly to conditions resulting from in­
creased operating efficiency, technological developments, etc.
The following table from the report shows by years the average
number of employees, the revenue ton-miles carried, and the passenger
train car-miles.
N U M B E R OF E M P LO Y E E S A N D BUSINESS OF CLASS I R AILR O AD S IN T H E U N IT E D
STATES, 1920-31

Year

Average
number
of em­
ployees

Revenue tonmiles

1920..
1921..
1922..
1923..
1924..
1925..

2,022,832
_
.
1,659,513
.
1,626,834
1,857, 674
.
.
1,751,362
1,744,311
.

410.306.210.000
306.840.204.000
339.285.348.000
412.727.228.000
388.415.312.000
413.814.261.000

Passenger
train carmiles

3,583,449,540
3,469,062,198
3,414,344,834
3,585,263,479
3,646,362,908
3,746,426,910

Year

Average
number
of em­
ployees

1926... 1,779,275
1927... 1,735,105
1928... 1,656,411
1929... 1,660,850
1930... 1,487,839
1931... 1,258,719

Revenue tonmiles

443,746,487,000
428,736,962,000
432,915,185,000
447,321,561,000
383,449,588,000
309,224,879,000

Passenger
train carmiles

3,836,787,642
3,830,557,011
3,798,733,331
3,857,133,049
3,680,136,295
3,265,923,496

Legal Restrictions on Hours of Labor of Men in the
United States, as of January 1, 1936 1
V E R Y State in the United States has legislation regulating the
hours of labor of employees. The most general and accepted is
that limiting the working time of minors, although laws relating to
hours of labor of women are also now quite general throughout the
Union. The regulation of the working hours of men has been slower
of development and acceptance because of being subject to constitu­
tional limitations.
The present article shows existing legislation regulating the hours
of labor of men and gives a review of the decisions of the United States
Supreme Court on the constitutionality of such legislation.
Legislation regulating the hours of labor of men falls into several
classifications:
1. Laws declaring the policy of the State as to the number of hours
that shall constitute a day’s work in the absence of contractual agree­
ment between the parties to the employment contract. As a rule, no
penalty is provided. It is doubtful whether penalties, if any, are
enforced or damages collected for overtime work.
2. Laws fixing a maximum number of hours for men. These laws
are generally not limited to men, but include also women and minors
unless they are otherwise provided for by law. These laws usually

E

22

Having annual operating revenues of $1,000,000 or more.




LEGAL RESTRICTIONS ON HOURS OF MEN

1071

have penalty and enforcement provisions. They may be divided into
several groups:
(а) Legislation limiting the hours of labor of workmen employed
on public works.
(б) Legislation for the protection of the safety and health of the
general public, as, for instance, acts covering railroad- and railwayoperating employees (including bus, etc., drivers), seamen, and drug
clerks.
(c) Legislation limiting the hours of labor of employees in obviously
dangerous or unhealthful employments, as in mines, smelters, tunnels,
and in certain types of mills.
(d) Legislation limiting the hours of labor in employments less
obviously dangerous than in mines, smelters, etc., but in which in­
vestigation proves that there is direct correlation between the hours
worked and the safety and health of the employees and that the safety
and health hazard can be considerably reduced by a limitation in the
hours of labor worked.
3.
Laws requiring rest periods. These laws may be divided into
two classes:
(а) Those prohibiting the employment of men for more than a fixed
number of hours within a given period, such as legislation forbidding
the employment of railroad- or railway-operating employees more
than 10 hours per day in 12 consecutive hours, or 16 consecutive
hours in 24, insuring a proper interval for rest, and making it certain
that the hour legislation cannot be violated in principle though
complied with technically.
(б) Those requiring the hours of labor, usually of females and minors,
to be so arranged that a sufficient period or interval be allowed during
the course of the 8 hours, or other set period, to enable the employees
to eat or rest, or both. This provision is quite common in the laws
relating to hours of labor of women.
Constitutionality
on hours of labor was upheld as a valid exercise of
the legislative power to protect the lives, health, and morals of citizens,
as early as 1898. Though there was some question of the validity of
this legislation following a decision in 1905 holding invalid an hour
law for bakeries, the courts now uphold the constitutionality of
reasonable hours-of-labor legislation, based upon the theory that the
physical well-being of the population is an object of public interest.
The first important decision of the United States Supreme Court
involving the constitutionality of such legislation was that of Holden
v. H ardy (169 U. S. 366), decided in 1898. The opinion of the Court,
recognizing the power in the legislature to fix the maximum hours of
labor of persons in underground mines or in smelters and ore refineries
at 8 hours, has been a landmark in the decisions of the Court and has
been freely quoted by the Court in later decisions sustaining legisla­
tion furthering the protection of the health, safety, and morals of
employees and of the public.
Seven years later, in 1905, the United States Supreme Court was
asked to pass on the constitutionality of the New York statute pro­
viding that no employees shall be required or permitted to work in
L e g is l a t io n




1072

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

bakeries more than 60 hours a week or more than 10 hours a day.
The court held that—
The limitation of the hours of labor as provided for in this section of the stat ute, * * * has no such direct relation to and no such substantial effect upon
the health of the employee, as to justify us in regarding the section as really a
health law;

that—
it seems to us that the real object and purpose were simply to regulate the hours
of labor between the master and his employees (aU being men sui juris) in a
private business, not dangerous in any degree to morals or in any real and sub­
stantial degree, to the health of the employees;

and that—
under such circumstances the freedom of master and employee to contract with
each other in relation to their employment, and in defining the same, cannot
be prohibited or interfered with, without violating the Federal Constitution.

Four of the nine Justices taking part in this decision dissented and
two dissenting opinions were written. (Lochner v. New York, 198
.
U. S. 45, 64, 65, 74 (1905).)
In 1917 a statute of Oregon limiting the hours of labor of any per­
son, whether man or woman, working in any mill, factory, or manu­
facturing establishment, to 10 hours a day, with a proviso as to over­
time, was upheld as constitutional by the United States Supreme
Court. Because of the overtime provisions it was contended that the
law was a wage law, but the Court upheld it as a regulation of hours
of labor. The Court said that—
It is enough for our decision if the legislation under review was passed in the
exercise of an admitted power of Government; and that it is not as complete as it
might be, not as rigid in its prohibitions as it might be, gives perhaps evasion too
much play, is lighter in its penalties than it might be, is no impeachment of its
legality. This may be a blemish, giving opportunity for criticism and difference
in characterization, but the constitutional validity of legislation cannot be de­
termined by the degree of exactness of its provisions or remedies. New policies
are usually tentative in their beginnings, advance in firmness as they advance in
acceptance. They do not at a particular moment of time spring full-perfect in
extent or means from the legislative brain. Time may be necessary to fashion
them to precedent customs and conditions and as they justify themselves or
otherwise they pass from militancy to triumph or from question to repeal.
Our judgment of it is, that it does not transcend constitutional limits. ( B u n t­
in g v. O reg on , 243 U. S. 426, 438 (1917).)

Three of the nine Justices dissented. Mr. Justice Brandeis took no
part in the decision of the case.
The opinion in the Bunting case did not mention the Lochner case.
Mr. Chief Justice Taft, in Adkins v. Children’s Hospital (261 U. S.
525, 564 (1923)), states that—
No one can suggest any constitutional distinction between employment in a
bakery and one in any other kind of a manufacturing establishment which should
make a limit of hours in the one invalid, and the same limit in the other permis­
sible.

and—
It is impossible for me to reconcile the B u n tin g case and the L o ch n er case and I
have always supposed that the L och n er case was thus overruled sub silentio.

Mr. Justice Holmes, in the Adkins case, said that he had supposed
that the Lochner case “ would be allowed a deserved repose.”
Various State laws regulating the hours of labor in private employ
ments have been challenged in the State and Federal courts. Some




LEGAL RESTRICTIONS ON HOURS OF MEN

1073

decisions have followed the decision in the Bunting case and others
have been based upon the Lochner case. (See M eyer v. Nebraska,
262 U. S. 390; Adair v. United States, 208 U. S. 161; Adkins v. Chil­
dren's Hospital, 261 U. S. 525; Miller v. W ilson , 236 U. S. 373;
State v. H enry , 25 Pac. (2d) (204).)
Legislation regulating hours of labor of railroad employees has been
passed in several States but has not been included in this study, as
Congress has passed legislation regulating the hours of labor of
certain railroad employees. In Erie Railroad Co. v. New York (233
U. S. 671 (1914)) the United States Supreme Court held a State law
of this kind unconstitutional bcause it conflicted with the Federal
law. The Supreme Court said that “ where there is a conflict the
State legislation must give way” , and “ when Congress acts in such a
way as to manifest its purpose to exercise its constitutional authority
the regulating power of the State ceases to exist.” (See also Northern
Pacific Railway v. Washington, 222 U. S. 370 (1912).)
Public Works
T h e State and the Federal Government may fix the hours of labor
of persons employed by them. Early attempts to pass 8-hour laws
for public employees were looked upon as in the nature of a direction
from a principal to his agent that 8 hours be deemed to be a proper
length of time for a day’s work, and that contracts should be based
upon that theory, but that the law did not necessarily provide that
the employer and the laborer may not agree with each other as to
what time should constitute a day’s work independent of the statute.
This attitude was taken in the case of United States v. Martin , 94
U. S. 400 (1876). This decision made it evident that, to be effective,
the statutes must be mandatory and provide penalties for violations.
Such statutes were passed and extended to include contractors and
subcontractors engaged in the construction of public works for the
State or one of its governmental subdivisions. The constitutional
power of the States to pass such statutes was immediately questioned
in the courts. A test case arose in Kansas which went to the Supreme
Court of the United States, where the statute was upheld, in the year
1903, as a constitutional exercise of power. The court said that it
could “ imagine no possible ground to dispute the power of the State
to declare that no one undertaking work for it or for one of its munici­
pal agencies should permit or require an employee on such work to
labor in excess of 8 hours each day, and to inflict punishment upon
those who are embraced by such regulations and yet disregard them.
It cannot be deemed a part of the liberty of any contractor that he
be allowed to do public work in any mode he may choose to adopt,
without regard to the wishes of the State. On the contrary, it belongs
to the State, as the guardian and trustee for its people, and having
control of its affairs, to prescribe the conditions upon which it will
permit public work to be done on its behalf, or on behalf of its munic­
ipalities.” The court rested its decision “ upon the broad ground
that the work being of a public character, absolutely under the
control of the State and its municipal agents acting by its authority,
it is for the State to prescribe the conditions under which it will
permit work of that kind to be done.” (.Atkin v. Kansas, 191 U. S.
207, 222, 224 (1903).) This decision removed all doubts regarding the
19 2 0 5 — 36-------69




1074

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

constitutionality of laws regulating the hours of labor in public
employment.
The 30-hour week, “ so far as practicable and feasible” , was required
in the Emergency Relief and Construction Act of 1932, and in title 2
of the National Industrial Recovery Act in an attempt to relieve the
unemployment situation. These laws are cited as a part of U. S.
Code, 1934, but under the provisions of section 6 of the Emergency
Relief Appropriation Act of 1935 (Public Res. No. 11, of the 74th
Congress) the President prescribes rules and regulations to carry out
the resolution. In actual practice the hours vary on different projects
but they may not exceed 8 per day or 140 per month.
H o u r s o f labor on p u blic w ork s as o f J a n u a r y ,

1, 1936 .

Alaska.— Comp. L. 1933, sec. 2134.
Arizona.— Rev. Code 1928, sec. 1350 (reenacted 1933, ch. 12).
California.— Penal Code 1931, sec. 653C-1 (as amended 1933, ch. 632); also
Deering’s Pol. Code 1931, sec. 3245.
Colorado.— Comp. L. 1921, sec. 4175.
Delaware.— (City of Wilmington) Rev. Codes 1915, secs. 2159 and 2160.
District of Columbia.— U. S. Code 1934, title 40, sec. 321.
Hawaii.— Rev. L. 1935, sec. 89.
Idaho.— Code 1932, sec. 43-701.
Illinois.— Code 1931, ch. 48, sec. 39a, Acts of 1933, p. 221, sec. 2.
Indiana.— Burn’s Stats. 1926, secs. 9366, 9367.
Kansas.— Rev. Stats. 1923, sec. 44-203; Supp. (1931) to Rev. Stats., sec. 44-201.
Kentucky.— Carroll’s Stats. 1930, sec. 2290b-l.
Louisiana.— Dart’s Gen. Stats., 1932, sec. 5666.
Maryland.— (Baltimore City) Code Pub. Loc. L. 1930, art. 4, sec. 516. (City
of Cumberland) art. 1A, secs. 102, 102A (as amended 1933, ex. sess., ch. 54;
1935, ch. 19).
Massachusetts.— Gen. L. 1932, ch. 149, secs. 30, 31.
Minnesota.— Mason’s Stats. 1927, secs. 4088, 4089.
Missouri.— Rev. Stats. 1929, sec. 6712.
Montana.— Rev. Code 1921, secs. 1962, 3079 (as amended 1929, ch. 116), 5512.
Nevada.— Comp. L. 1929, secs. 6170 (as amended 1935, ch. 32), 10460.
New Jersey.— Cum. Supp. (1911-24) to Comp. Stats. 1910, secs. 107-78a,
107-78d (as amended i932, ch. 230); Acts of 1935, ch. 243.
New Mexico.— Acts of 1933, ch. 145.
New York.— Cahill’s Consol. L. 1930, ch. 32, sec. 220 (as amended 1931, ch. 785;
1933, ch. 20; 1934, ch. 37; 1935, chs. 14, 15, and 684); sec. 225 (as amended
1935, ch. 728).
Ohio.— Code 1932, secs. 17-1 (see supp. in back of Code).
Oklahoma.— Stats. 1931, secs. 10872, 10873.
Oregon.— Code 1930, sec. 49-704 (as amended 1931, ch. 330; 1935, ch. 206).
Pennsylvania.— Stats. 1920, sec. 18270.
Puerto Rico.— Rev. Stats. 1911, sec. 1657; also Acts 1913, ch. 140; U. S. Code
1926, title 48, sec. 737.
Texas.— Rev. Stats. 1925, art. 5165.
Utah.— Rev. Stats. 1933, sec. 49-3-1; Acts of 1933, chs. 23 (2d ex. sess.), 39.
Washington.— Rem. Rev. Stats. 1931, secs. 7642, 9044.
West Virginia.— Code 1931, ch. 21, art. 4, sec. 2.
Wisconsin.— Stats. 1931, sec. 103.41.
Wyoming.— Rev. Stats. 1931, sec. 63-101.
United States— U. S. Code 1934, title 40, secs. 321 and 406; title 15, sec. 605 b (6).

Private Employment
The legal restrictions on. the hours of labor of men in private
employment, as of January 1 . 1936, are presented in table 1 . No
attempt has been made to include either the rules and regulations
of State labor departments, which in some States have the force and
effect of law, or the legislation limiting the hours of bus and truck
drivers, the latter subject being covered in table 2.




LEGAL RESTRICTIONS ON HOURS OF MEN

1075

T a ble 1 .—8 T A T E A N D T E R R IT O R IA L R ESTRICTIONS ON HOURS OF LABOR OF M E N
IN P R IVAT E E M P L O Y M E N T

Maximum
hours
Jurisdiction

Citation

Occupations or industries covered
Daily

Week­
ly

Alaska-

8 ............ Underground mines......................................

Arizona.

8 ............ Certain employees in mines and smelters.

8

Mines, smelters, reduction works, stamp mills,
concentrating mills, chlorinating processes,
cyanide processes, cement works, rolling mills,
rod mills, coke ovens, blast furnaces.
Certain employees in electric light and power
plants.
Laundry employees................................ ...................
Certain railroad employees1..................................
Railroad telegraph and telephone operators____

8
8
16
Arkansas.

8
10

California.

Sawmills and planing mills.

8 ---------- Underground workings, mines, smelters, etc.
9

(*)

16

Drug clerks.
Certain railway employees.

3 13

Telegraph or telephone dispatchers of trains____

12

Employees on street c m ..........................................

Colorado

8

Connecticut.

8
8

Underground workings and mines, smelters,
reduction works, stamp mills, concentrating
mills, chlorination processes, cyanide proc­
esses, and coke ovens.
Cement and plaster manufacturing plants______
Railway telegraph or telephone operators and
train dispatchers.
Employees operating trains....................................

Florida.........

13

Georgia____

10

13

60

Cotton and woolen manufacture, except engi­
neers, firemen, watchmen, mechanics, team­
sters, yard employees, clerical forces, cleaners,
repairmen.
Certain railroad employees............. ............ ..........
Underground workings and mines, smelters, orereduction works, Stamp mills,
and other ore-refining establishments.

Idaho.-

8

Indiana.

16

Certain railroad employees................................—

Io w a ...
Kansas.

16
8

Railroad employees____ _______________
Lead and zinc mines........ ..............

concentrators,
—
—

Comp. L., 1933, sec.
2132.
Rev. Code, 1928, sec.
1354.
Idem, sec. 1356.

Idem, sec. 1357.
Idem, sec. 1358.
Idem, sec. 4707.
Digest, 1921, sec.
7080.
Idem, secs. 7082,
7083, 7084.
Deering’s Gen. L.
1931, Act. No.
4933, sec. 1.
Idem, Act No. 5887,
secs. 1 and 2.
Idem, Act No. 6479,
Idem, Act No. 6479,
sec. 1.
Deering’s Pol. Code,
1931, sec. 3246.
Comp. L., 1921, sec.
4173.
Acts of 1927, ch. 87.
Gen. Stat., 1930, sec.
3748.
Comp. Gen. L.,
1927, sec. 6595.
Code, 1933, sec. 54-

Idem, sec. 18-106.
Code, 1932, secs. 43704 (as amended
1935, ch. 74) to
43-706.
Burn’s Ann. Stat.,
1926, sec. 13061.
Code, 1931, sec. 7984.
Rev. Stat., 1923,
secs. 49-282, 49-

Dart’s Gen. Stat.,
1932, sec. 8173.
Acts of 1934, no. 71.
Acts of 1931, ch. 164.
Ann. Code, 1924,
art. 23, sec. 260.
Cotton and woolen mills........ .............. ........... ....... Idem, art. 100, sec 1.
Employees in tobacco warehouses in Baltimore6. _ Idem, art. 48, sec. 15.
Employees in mines of Allegany and Garrett Public Local Laws
of Md.,1930 (Gar­
Counties.
rett County), sec.
390, p. 2821.
Certain street- or elevated-railway employees___ Gen. L., 1932, ch.
161, sec. 103.

Louisiana.

<10

Employees of street railroads.............................. .

Maine___
Maryland.

»8
38
8

Compressed air__................................ ........... ........
____do--------------------------- -------- --------------------------Railway telegraph or telephone operators..........

10
10
10

Massachusetts... 79 in ll

1 It is declared to be a misdemeanor to require a railroad employee who has worked 16 consecutive hours
to go on duty again before he has had at least 9 hours’ rest.
2 108 hours in any 2 consecutive weeks; employee must have 1 complete day’s rest in 1 of such weeks and
2 half-day rest periods in the other week.
2 In towers operated only during day; maximum, 9 hours in towers operated night and day.
* To fall within 12 consecutive hours.
< Schedule prescribed, limiting hours in ratio to air pressure.
• Hours are limited to from 7 a. m. until noon and from 1 p. m. until 6 p. m.
TConsecutive hours.




1076

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

T a ble 1.—ST A TE A N D T E R R IT O R IA L R ESTRICTIO N S ON HOURS OF LABO R OF M E N
IN P R IV A T E E M P L O Y M E N T — Continued

Jurisdiction
Michigan______

Maximum
hours
Daily Week­
ly
710 in 12

Minnesota_____

7 16

(8
)

Occupations or industries covered

Citation

Operators of steam, surface, and elevated rail­
roads.
Motormen or conductors of street cars..................
Certain railway employees......................................

Comp. L., 1929, sec.
8492.
Idem, sec. 8495.
Mason’s Stat., 1927,
sec. 4092.
Idem, sec. 4091.
Code, 1930, sec. 4646.

Mississippi_____
Missouri_______

14
10

Montana______

9
8

Operators in interlocking towers...........................
Hoisting engineers, underground mines or tun­
nels, stamp mills, concentrators or smelters
for treatment of ores.

9

16 in 24
8

Telephone switchboards in cities with popula­
tion of 3,000 or over.
Certain railroad employees_____ _____ _________
Strip mining_____________ ________________ ____

8
8
8
16

Cement plants, quarries, and hydroelectric dams.
Sugar refineries_______________ ________________
Retail stores_____________ _______ _____________
Certain common carriers_______________________

60

8

Nebraska______

7
3 13

Locomotive engineers and firemen..................... ..
Mill, cannery, workshop, factory, or manufac­
turing establishment.
Mining, mechanical, chemical, manufacturing or
smelting, plate-glass manufacturing.

7 12

Telegraph or telephone dispatchers of trains___
Underground mines or workings of any kind; all
workmen working around surface of such
mines, in smelters, open mines, plaster and
cement works.
Employees of common carriers...............................
Telephone or telegraph operators and all other
persons dispatching trains.
Certain street-railway employees_______________

*8

Nevada______

Compressed air..................... ........................ ............

16

Certain railroad employees___ _______ _________

68

Compressed air____ ___________________________

8

7 16
8

New Jersey.,New Mexico___
New York_____

9 70
10

Apprentices or employees in pharmacies or drag
stores.
Brickyards...................................................................

10

Street surface or elevated railroads_____________

7 16

Steam or other railroads____ ____ ______ ________

8

Signalmen on railroads.................. ...........................

North Carolina-

16

Certain employees of common carriers..................

North Dakota—.

3 13
7 16

Telegraph or telephone train dispatchers..............
Any railroad corporation or common carrier........

8

Coal mines or open-pit mines___________ _______

Ohio.....................

8

Mechanical, manufacturing, or mining business.

Oklahoma_____

15
8

Certain railway or street-railway employees........
In or about all coal mines.........................................

Rev. Stat., 1929,
secs. 13206, 13208,
13622.
Idem, sec. 4851.
Rev. Code, 1921,
secs. 3068, 3071,
3072, 3073
(as
amended by Acts
of 1929, ch. 116).
Idem, sec. 3074.
Idem, sec. 3081.
Acts of 1933, ch. 76,
sec. 2.
Idem, ch. 77, sec. 1.
Idem, ch. 90, sec. 1.
Acts of 1933-34. ch.8.
Comp. Stat., 1929,
sec. 74-902.
Idem, sec. 74-902.
Comp. L., 1929, secs.
2794, 10238, 10240,
10242.
Idem, sec. 6335.
Idem, sec. 6338.
Comp. Stat., 1910,
p. 5008, sec. 57.
Comp. Stat. Supp.,
1911-24, sec. 107140A (10).
Stat., 1929, sec. 116724.
Cahill’s Consol. L.,
1930, ch. 32, sec.
430.
Idem, ch. 15, sec.
1357.
Idem, ch. 32, sec.
163.
Idem, ch. 32, sec.
164.
Idem, ch. 32, sec.
165.
Idem, ch. 32, sec.
166.
Consol. Stat., 1924,
p. 7, sec. 6565.
Do.
Comp. L., 1913, sec.
4668.
Sup|p. (1 9 2 5 ) to
Comp. L.. 1913
sec. 3084.88
Page’s Gen. Code,
1932, sec. 6241.
Idem, sec. 9007.
Stat.,
1931, sec.
11112.

3 In towers operated only during day; maximum, 9 hours in towers operated night and day.
5 Schedule prescribed, limiting hours in ratio to air pressure.
7 Consecutive hours.
8 Prohibits working more than 6 days in any consecutive 7 days of 24 hours each.
9 Hours to be so arranged that employee shall receive 1 afternoon and evening off in each week, and also
1 full day off in 2 consecutive weeks.




LEGAL RESTRICTIONS ON HOURS OF MEN
T

able

1 .—

1077

S T A T E A N D T E R R IT O R IA L R EST R ICT IO N S ON HOURS OF LABO R OF M E N
IN PR IV A T E E M P L O Y M E N T — Continued
Maximum
hours
Occupations or industries covered
Daily

Oregon.

8

48

8
7 14

10 9

7 10
68

Puerto Rico.

12

Rhode Island—

10
10
12
10
716

Utah.............

55

8

'Washington.

10

8
10
West Virginia-- .

8

Wyoming______

8

United States. __

8
ii 16
3 13
18
2
19
3
1 12
4
i*9
i*8

Idem. sec. 49-604.
Idem, sec. 62-1602.
Code, 1930, sec. 621605.
West’s Stat., 1920,
Idem, sec. 6215.
Idem, sec. 15251.
Rev. Stat., 1911, sec.

Employees in commercial, industrial, or agricul­
tural establishments.
Certain street-railway employees................. ..........

8

Texas______

Sawmills, planing mills, shingle mills, and log­
ging camps.
Underground mines...................................................
C ommon-carrier ......................................... ...............
Telegraph operators or train dispatchers respon­
sible for train movements.
Conductor, engineer, fireman, brakeman, or flag­
man on steam railroad.
Compressed air__................................. .....................
Certain street-railway employees.
Mine hoisting engineers..............
Certain railroad employees---------

12
8

South Carolina..

Code, 1930, sec. 49602.
Idem, sec. 49-601.

Week­
ly

10

Pennsylvania—

Citation

Mill, factory, or manufacturing establishments..

Jurisdiction

Acts of 1935 (spec.
sess.), no. 49.
Gen. L., 1923, sec.

Cotton and woolen mills................... ...................... Code, 1932, sec. 1466.
Certain street-railway employees_______________ Idem, sec. 1479.
Interurban railway employees.------------------------- Idem, sec. 1480.
Certain railroad employees............................... ....... Rev. Civil Stat.,
1925, art. 6390.
Underground workings and mines, smelters and Rev. Stats. 1933, sec.
other institutions for the reduction of ores.
49-3-2.
Certain street-railway employees............................ Rem. Rev. Stat.,
1931, sec. 7648.
Coal mines......... ........................................................ Idem, sec. 7654.
Those employed in transporting men in and out Idem, sec. 7656.
of mines.
Telephone or telegraph operators on railroads___ Code, 1931, ch. 21,
art. 4, sec. 1.
Underground mines, smelters, stamp mills, Rev. Stat., 1931,
secs. 63-103, 63sampling works, concentration plants and all
other plants for reduction or refining of ores and
metals.
Underground workers on leased mineral lands U. S. Code, 1934,
title 30, sec. 187.
of the United States.
Persons engaged in or connected with the opera­ Idem, title 45, sec.
62.
tion of trains in the District of Columbia or in
interstate commerce.
Telegraph operators and train dispatchers.......... 'Idem, title 45, sec.
Railroad operating employees.

\
/-

Deck officers on vessels.

)
y

Seam en................ ........

is 12 J

title 45, sec.
65.
/Idem, title 46, sec.
i 235.
/Idem, title 46, sec.
X 673.

3 In towers operated only during day; maximum, 9 hours in towers operated night and day.
8 Schedule prescribed, limiting hours in ratio to air pressure.
7 Consecutive hours.
i° In a 24-hour period, in towers, etc., operated only in the daytime. In an emergency, may work 4 addi­
tional hours 3 days per week.
n Maximum hours permitted. After 16 consecutive hours of work, 10 consecutive hours off is required,
but after 16 hours of work in an aggregate of 24 hours, then 8 consecutive hours off duty.
i> 8 hours is used as a standard in computing the wages of the employee.
I While in port.
®
h While at sea; immediately after leaving port no duty, unless officer had 6 hours off duty within the 12
hours immediately preceding time of sailing.
i# While in safe harbor, no seaman shall be required to do any unnecessary work on Sunday or on certain
legal holidays. While at sea, sailors shall be divided into 2 watches, and firemen, oilers, and water tenders
into 3 watches.




1078

W AGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

Motorbus drivers .—Table 2 shows the maximum hours of labor
(continuous and noncontinuous) permitted for drivers, and the num­
ber of hours of rest required before an operator may resume his
duties. It shows also the regulatory agency in each State which has a
law or regulation limiting the hours of labor of motorbus, etc., drivers,
and whether it is limited to the transportation of persons or property
or both.
T a b l e 2 — R ESTR ICTIO N S ON HOURS OF LABOR OF M O TO R BU S, E T C ., O PER ATO R S,

M A D E B Y L A W OR R E G U L A T IO N
Continuous
labor

State

Ala______
Ariz.........
Ark_........
Calif........

Hours
Maxi­ of rest
mum before
resum­
hours
ing
duty
8
10
12

8
8
8

10
12

8
8

12

8

Del.3____
10
D .C ........
12
4 12
Fla...........
Ga............
10
8
Idaho___
111— ........
10
Ind_____
8
Iowa____ 12 in 24

8
8
8
10

Colo____
Conn___

Noncontinuous
labor

Maxi­
mum
hours

Re­
quired
hours
of rest

8 in 12
10 in 24

8
8

10inl5
10 in 15
12 in 15
10 in 24
16 in 24

9
8
8
8
2 10

10 in 24

8

14 in 24 _______
10 in 24 .............
10 in 16
8
°16in24 _______
8
10 12 in 24
8

Regulation covers trans­
portation of—

Passengers and property. .
____ do____________________
____ do____________________
____ do.1___________________
Passengers__________ _____
Property----------- --------------Passengers and property
------ do-------------------------------

Regulating agency

Public service commission.
Corporation commission.
Railroad commission.
Do.

Public utilities commission.
Commissioner of motor vehi­
cles.
-------do_______________ _____ State highway department.
Passengers______ _________ Public utilities commission.
Passengers and property
Railroad commission.
____ do____________________ Public service commission.
____ do____________________ Public utilities commission.
Do.
------ do------------------------------____ do____________________ Public service commission.
____ do____________________ Board of railroad commission-

Kans____ 12 in 24
12
K y...........

514 in 24
8 e 16 in 24

10 ____ do____________________

12
12
10 in 16
Mich____
14
12

8 616 in 24
8 716 in 24

10
10

Maine_
_
Mass____

10

Miss "
12 in 24
M o______

Nebr____
Nev_____ 12 in 24
N . H ____
12
N . J_____ 12 in 16
N. Mex _ _
10
N. Y ____
10
N .C ____
7
N . D a k .. 10 in 24

14 in 24
16 in 24
10 in 20
Sin 24

8
8
8
8
8
1
10

10 in 24
12 in 24
12 in 15
16 in 24

Do.
Commission of motor trans­
portation.
Property__________ _______ Public utilities commission.
-------do....... ......................... . Department of public utilities.
Passengers................. ..........
Do.
Public utilities commission.
Passengers and property
Property—..........- ................ Railroad and warehouse com­
mission.
Passengers and property __ Railroad commission.
Public service commission.
Passengers............................ Board of railroad commission­
ers.
Passengers and property
Do.
-------do----------------------- ------- Railway commission.
------ do..................................... Public service commission.
Property______ ___________
Do.
Passengers and property. _
Property—............. .............. State corporation commission.
Passengers and property.. Public service commission.
-------do................................. . Corporation commission.
-------do..................................... Board of railroad commission­
ers.
-------do------ ------------------------

8

(8
)

12
8

8
2 10
(2
)

16 in 24

(0

14 in 24
10 in 24

(9
)

10

* Where passenger vehicles are operated in cities of the State, or suburban areas of the same, the
aggregate hours shall not exceed 8 ^ in any 24-hour period.
1 Any motor vehicles transporting persons or property as a common carrier.
2 Periods of release from duty must be at such places and under such circumstances that rest and relaxa­
tion from the strain of the duties of employment may be obtained.
3 Drivers who have driven more than the given hours are liable to suspension of license because believed
to be incompetent or physically disabled drivers.
4 Period of not less than 4 consecutive hours off duty during any 12-hour period shall not be counted as a
part of any such 12-hour period.
8 A rest period of 2 hours during such period required.
6 Periods off duty must be for at least 3 consecutive hours to break continuity of service.
7 Periods of release from duty must be at such places and under such circumstances that rest and relaxa­
tion from the strain of the duties of employment may be obtained; periods off duty must be for at least 3
consecutive hours to break continuity of service.
8 Permitted to have at least 4 days off duty each month.
• Rest period of not less than 9 hours required at end of two 7-hour or fraction thereof periods on duty, with
1-hour rest period intervening.




COLLECTION OF WAGE CLAIMS

1079

T ab le 3 —RESTRICTIO N S ON HOURS OF LABOR OF M O TO R B U S, ET C ., O PER ATO RS,
M A D E B Y L A W OR R E G U L A T IO N — Continued
Continuous
labor

State

Hours
of rest
before
hours resum­
ing
duty

Maxi­

Noncontinuous
labor

Maxi­
mum
hours

14
Ohio.8 14 in 24
14
10
Okla____
12
Oreg------10 12 in 24
12
R.
I __________ 8 16 in 24
S. C _
_
U10in24
S. D a k - 12
12 12 in 24
Term..
Tex____
Utah___
Va_____
W a sh ...
Wis........
W yo— .

1211 in 24
14

8
10

12
10

8

14 in 24
isiOin 24

8

10 in 24
12 in 24
14 in 24

10

8

8

Re­
quired
hours
of rest

io $

Regulation covers trans­
portation of—

Regulating agency

Property......................... .
------ do...................................
____do______________ ______
Passengers................. ..........
Passengers and property
------ do.................. ..........—

Public utilities commission.
Corporation commission.
Public utilities commission.
Do.
Railroad commission.
Board of railroad commission­
ers.
8 Passengers............................ Railroad and public utilities
commission.
8 Property............................... Railroad commission.
Passengers and property. - Public utilities commission.
10 in 24 ....... do..................................... State corporation commission.
8 ....... do........... ............. .......... Department of public works.
8 ____do.................................... Public service commission.
Do.
10 ____do........... - ..................... 10
10
8 in 24
78

7
Periods of release from duty must be at such places and under such circumstances that rest and relaxa­
tion from the strain of the duties of employment may be obtained; periods off duty must be for at least3
consecutive hours to break continuity of service.
i° Operating a bus more than 250 miles in a 24-hour period or more than 1,500 miles in 1 week, without
adequate rest stops, is forbidden.
1 Also limited to 55 hours in any 7 consecutive days.
1
1 Or 63 driving hours in any 7-day period.
2
1 May be spread over a total of 15 hours in any one 24-hour period, where time between runs is sufficient
3
to permit of relaxation.

Collection of Wage Claims by State Labor Offices

T

HE collection of wage claims by State labor offices was investi­
gated by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1920,
1926, 1929, and 1932. Twenty States (including Philippine Islands
and Puerto Rico) reported handling 69,921 claims in 1932, and the
total amount collected was $1,445,544. California, which has a very
effective law, settled the largest number of claims (16,517) and col­
lected the largest amount of money ($775,254), and New York
came next with 7,332 cases settled and collections amounting to
$202,638.
The claims handled and settled and the amounts collected in 1932
and the previous years for which the Bureau has data are shown in
the following table.




1080
W AGE

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR
C LAIM S SE T T L E D A N D AM O U N TS C O L L E C T E D , 1920, 1926, 1929, A N D
R E P O R TE D B Y STATE LABOR OFFICES

1932,

Number of wage claims
1920

1926

1932 2

1929 1

State labor office of—
Claims
sub­
mitted
or
handled
Arizona____________
Arkansas__________
California__________
Colorado....... ............
Massachusetts..........
Minnesota_________
Nevada-------- ---------New Jersey------------New York____ _____
Oklahoma.................
Oregon.......... ...........
Puerto Rico..........
Texas______________
Utah.................. .........
Washington-----------Wisconsin.................
Wyoming............. .

Claims
settled

(3
)

(3
)

7,603
1,300
733

5,362
915
344

77
7
251
1,326
1,440
217

60
6
221
1,193
572
77

1,590

1,401

467

373

Claims
sub­
mitted
or
handled

Claims
settled

Claims
sub­
mitted
or
handled

Claims
settled

236
297
27,813
961
1,947

110
146
16,121
525
1,947

642
404
28,419
827
2,501

276
208
17,966
471
1,688

201
590
1,796
188
1,049
542
73
245
2,122

76
350
1,005
: 32
436
222
18
245
1,170

224
1,783
2,860
239
1,466
1,373

192
1,160
2,242

617
3,731

488
842
405
286
1,410

174

219

157

Claims
sub­
mitted
or
handled

Claims
settled

2,450
322
35,400
1,116
4 2,405
6 256
833
2,805
9,591
203
1,334
2,195
1,071
606
1,973
8 2,197
00

1,127
158
16,517
541
8 1,675
8 102
488
8 753
7,332
762
1,260
782
280
974
944
00

Amounts collected
1920

1926

19291

1932 2

State labor office of—
Total

Arizona............... .......
00
Arkansas............ .......
California__________ $206,389
Colorado___________
33, 642
Massachusetts..........
5,749
Minnesota_________
Nevada-------- ---------7,500
New Jersey...... .........
90
New York.................
24,850
Oklahoma_________
Oregon_____________
23, 781
1,254
Puerto Rico________
Texas______________
Utah— ..................
Washington..............
87,873
Wisconsin_________
Wyoming__________
15,204

Average
per claim
settled

Total

Average
per claim
settled

Total

$1,866
(3
)
4,021
$38.49 io 976,368
13,896
36.77
16.71
28,705

$16.96
$14,096
27.54
4,829
io 60.57 1,051,925
10,821
26.47
14.74
64,629

125.00
15.00
20.83
41.58
16.29

12,784
10,863
31,169
7 3,120
20,147
12,052

168.21
H 31.04
31.01
7 97.49
46.16
22.24

67.72

12,377
73,584

40. 76

8,594

Average
per claim
settled
$51.07
23.22
58.55
22.97
32.36
61.18
20.91
25.86

50.52
62.89

11,746
24,252
57,969
10,490
16,392
14,459
32, 257
13,206
67, 290

49.39

5,748

36.61

33.59
17.17
79.65
46.17
47.72

Total

$56,516
3,578
775,254
12,063
49,768
1,380
26,947
29,458
202,638
1,839
24, 293
16,569
90,202
18,014
45,244
35, 276
(9
)

Average
per claim
settled
$50.15
22.66
46.94
22.30
“ 29.71
13.53
55.22
ii 39.12
27.63
(12)
31.88
13.15
115.35
64.34
46.45
37.37
00

1 Fiscal or calendar year. Arkansas, Maine, and Puerto Rico, however, reported for fiscal year 1929-30
and Utah for 1927-28.
2 Fiscal or calendar year, the latter in the majority of cases. Nevada report covers 18 months. Texas
figure is an average based on biennial record.
3 No department of labor in 1920.
4 Claims investigated.
8 Claims paid.
8 Claims of women and minor males, exclusive of claims under minimum wage law.
7 Not including cases handled by telephone.
8 Includes some claims other than those for wages.
9 Not known.
1 Includes also amounts collected in part payment of claims still pending.
0
1 Based on claims paid.
1
1 Not reported.
2




COLLECTION OF WAGE CLAIMS

1081

In addition to the statistics in the preceding table the following
data for 1932 were furnished by the labor offices indicated. The Con­
necticut Department of Labor handled 393 cases involving claims
amounting to $32,488. The labor department of the Kansas Indus­
trial Commission handled 94 claims and collected $3,736. The num­
ber of claims submitted to the Michigan Department of Labor and
Industry was 3,758 and the amount of wages collected $32,308. The
New Mexico State Labor and Industrial Commission collected
$13,03223 in wages, but did not report on the number of claims
handled or settled. The Philippine Bureau of Labor reported, for the
calendar year 1932, 919 wage claims handled of which 368 were
settled in favor of the workers, the amount collected being 14,858
pesos ($7,429).
The Department of Labor of Illinois reported that wage claims
coming to its attention are referred to private legal aid associations.
The Iowa Bureau of Labor stated that it has no authority for the
collection of wage claims but has made a practice of advising claim­
ants, and daily directs cases to the Des Moines municipal court, which
functions as a small claims court; in cases outside the city each
claimant is instructed as to his rights and the methods to follow. The
Louisiana Department of Labor and Industrial Statistics appeals to
employers to adjust claims and when unsuccessful refers cases to
some attorney or member of the legal aid society or lets the claimant
select his oxm lawyer. The Nebraska Department of Labor uses
moral suasion to get employers to meet obligations to their workers.
Wage claims are sometimes collected by the Department of Labor
of Tennessee, but no data were supplied as to work done along this
line in 1932.
The replies from the labor offices of the following States indicated
that no wage claims were handled by them in the fiscal or calendar
year 1932: Florida, Georgia, Indiana, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland,
Mississippi, Montana, New Hampshire, North Carolina, North
Dakota, Ohio, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Vermont,
Virginia, and West Virginia. While some wage claims were formerly
handled by the Maine Department of Labor and Industry, the attorney
general has ruled that wages cannot be collected under the law pro­
viding for the weekly payment of wages. For the past 3 years the
Montana Department of Agriculture, Labor, and Industry has
received hundreds of wage claims, all of which it was compelled to
turn aside because under the State labor laws it was powerless to
render any assistance whatsoever.
The Labor and Industrial Inspection Department of Missouri was
not able to report on the subject as that office was in process of reor­
ganization under a new administration. The Labor Commission of
Delaware did not answer the inquiry of the United States Bureau of
Labor Statistics, but the duties of that commission have to do mainly
with the protection of woman and child workers.
While no direct report was received from the Pennsylvania Depart­
ment of Labor and Industry, in the November 1932 issue of Labor
and Industry, monthly bulletin of that department, it is stated that
workers who had not been paid wages due them had been deluging
the department with complaints. “ In the first part of 1932 these
claims were at the rate of $114,600 a year. In the latter part of this
8 Not clear whether 1932 was the year covered.
3




1082

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

year they are coming in at the rate of $300,000 a year.” According
to the same source, the only effective procedure for unpaid workers in
Pennsylvania is to enter civil suit; in most of the cases submitted to
the department, however, the wage claimants have not enough money
to do this.
No questionnaire was sent to Alabama, Alaska, Hawaii, and Idaho,
as the character or status of their present State offices indicates that
they are not engaged in the special activity covered by the study.

Establishment of Wage-Collection Division in New
Jersey Department of Labor

B

Y TH E provisions of chapter 91, Acts of 1934, New Jersey
established a wage-collection division in the department of
labor. Prior to the enactment of this law the New Jersey Depart­
ment of Labor had somewhat limited authority to assist wage earners
in the collection of their claims, by an act of 1899 (ch. 38), subse­
quently amended by chapter 249, Acts of 1932. The new law extends
greater power to the labor department to hear and determine con­
troversies pertaining to wages. In the investigation of any claims
for wages the commissioner of labor may summon the offending
employer in all cases involving $200 or less, and he may subpena
witnesses, administer oaths, take testimony, and after a hearing,
must make known his decision. Upon filing a certified copy of the
award with the court of common pleas in the county in which the
defendant resides, the award shall become a judgment and have the
same effect as judgments in suits heard and determined by courts of
competent jurisdiction.
Any employee to whom wages are due and unpaid may file a claim
in the wage-collection division of the State department of labor.
The same is entered on a wage-collection docket maintained by the
department, and thereupon this department must issue a summons
to the defendant informing him of the time, place, etc., of the hearing,
which shall be conducted by the commissioner of labor in a summary
manner. Legal process of the wage-collection division is operative in
every section of the State and may be served by either a constable or
a process server of the department of labor. Either party may
appeal from a judgment of the department to the county court of
common pleas within £0 days, but such appeal is granted at the
pleasure of the department of labor only upon certain terms.
In the appeals court new evidence may be adduced and the hearing
shall be conducted in a summary manner without a jury* A claim­
ant, howevef, may bring an action in a law court and stand trial by
jury upon payment of the required jury fees. No other fees are
permitted under the law, except however, that certain taxed costs
of service, etc., according to the table of court costs, may be charged.

Wage-Payment Plans in Connecticut Factories

A

STU D Y of methods of wage payment in use in Connecticut
factories was made in December 1929, by members of the
-economics department of Yale University. The results of the study




1083

W AGE-PAYM ENT PLANS IN CONNECTICUT

were given in an article in Factory and Industrial Management
(Chicago) for March 1931.
The survey disclosed a definite trend toward the basing of wages
on output. Data furnished by 132 firms employing over 88,000
workers, or more than one-fourth of the total number of industrially
employed persons in the State, showed that 52 percent of these workers
were paid on some kind of an output basis. Of the total, 37.5 per­
cent were paid piece rates and 14.5 percent were working under some
form of incentive system, the remainder (48 percent) being on day
rates. Straight time was the exclusive basis of payment in only 13
plants. Of 104 plants replying to the question as to the use of
incentive plans, 25 reported an increase in number of workers under
such plans; 4, a decrease; and 75, no change. A large percentage of
the reporting plants used some method of time study or job analysis
in setting wage rates.
Table 1 shows the number and percent of employees who were
working on piece or day rates or under incentive systems in the
industries represented by the 132 firms mentioned above.
T a ble L —N U M B E R A N D P E R C E N T OF E M P LO Y E E S IN EA C H IN D U S T R Y W O R K IN G
ON PIECE OR D A Y R ATES OR U N D E R IN C E N T IV E SY STEM S

Percent of employees working on—
Industry

Number of Number of
establish­
workers
ments

Piece rates

Bonus or
other
incentive
systems

Day rates

All industries__________ _________ ________

88,500

132

37.5

14.5

48.0

Light metal_____________________________
Textiles_____ __________________________
Foundry....................___.................................
Machinery________________ ______________
Rubber................ .............. _ ____________
Paper................................................................
Tobacco......... ................... ..............................
Hats__
__
_
_
_ _

65,400
9,000
2,400
4,000
4,200
2,400
200
900

80
20
6
9
3
7
2
5

36.2
46.0
20.1
24.2
73.6
7.7
22.2
70.6

16.8
9.0
13.7
9.6

47.0
45.0
66.2
66.2
26.4
85.8
24.4
29.4

6.5
53.4

The number and percent of employees and the number of plants
working under specified incentive systems are given in table 2.
T a b l e 2 .—N U M B E R

A N D P E R C E N T OF E M P LO Y E E S A N D N U M B E R
W O R K IN G U N D E R SPECIFIED IN C E N T IV E SYSTEM S

OF P L A N T -

Employees
System of payment
Number

Percent
of total

Number of
plants

All systems_________________________________________ ____ - ..............

12,806

100.0

i 49

Bedeaux point. _ ________________ ______________ _____ ______ _____
Emerson bonus__________________________________ _____ ______ __
Task and bonus (details not given)_______________ _ _ ____ ____
Time premium, _ ______________________________ ______________
Group systems_________________________________ ________________
C. L. Stevens point.
______________ ____ ____
_ ___________
Parkhurst differential bonus___ __
_ ___
_ ___ ______
Keys-Weaver system____________
________________ ______
Sherman Co, system______ _______ _ _
_______
______ ____
General Electric Co_____ ______
_
_____ _
George S. M ay___________ __________
_______________ ________
Miscellaneous____________ ____ __
_ ______________ ______ __

3,431
2,931
2,230
2,278
236
418
385
248
142
134
93
280

26.8
22.9
17.4
17.8
1.8
3.3
3.0
2.0
1.1
1.0
.7
2.2

9
3
14
7
5
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

i Not the sum of the items, but as given in article under review.




1084

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

Share of Labor in the National Income, 1929-34
Statistics of N a tio n a l In c o m e , 1929-32

N EW series of basic estimates of the national income was sub­
mitted to the United States Senate in response to Senate
Resolution No. 220, Seventy-second Congress, by the Bureau of
Foreign and Domestic Commerce in January 1934. The study,
entitled “ National Income 1929-32” , required over a year of research
and was prepared with the active cooperation of the National Bureau
of Economic Research, Inc. From the standpoint of labor, this study
is of particular significance, as it analyzes in a series of tables the share
of labor in the national income. A few of these tables are reproduced
below.
The results of the study, as a whole, show a reduction in total
national income produced from $83,032,000,000 to $39,365,000,000
between 1929 and 1932. During this period income paid out fell
from $81,136,000,000 to $48,894,000,000. The income items for
each of the years 1929 to 1932, with percentage comparisons of the
changes in national income with changes in cost of living and whole­
sale prices, are shown in table 1. These figures have subsequently
been revised, as shown in the table on page 1089, but there has been
little change in the percentage relationships of different kinds of
income.

A

T a b l e 1.—N A T IO N A L IN C O M E , PAID OUT A N D P R O D U CED , 1929 TQ 1932

Amount (millions of dollars)

Percent of 1929

Item
1929

1930

1931

1932

Income paid out...................................._....................... 81,136 75,410 63,247 48,894
1,896 -5,065 -8 ,6 0 4 -9 ,5 2 9
Business savings__________________________________
Income produced---------------------- --------------------------- 83,032 70,345 54,643 39,365
Bureau of Labor Statistics cost-of-living index______
Bureau of Labor Statistics wholesale-price index___

1930

1931

1932

92.9

78.0

60.3

84.7
97.4
90.7

65.8
88.9
76.6

47.4
80.4
68.0

The participation of labor in the national income, both in wages
and salaries, and comparisons with the income received in the form of
dividends, interest, rents, and profits, are shown in table 2. The total
wage income, it will be noted, dropped from $17,179,000,000 in 1929
to $6,840,000,000 in 1932, or to 39.8 percent of the 1929 level, thus
representing a much more rapid decline than occurred in the other
types of income recipients. Moreover, wages, which formed 21.2
percent of the total paid-out income in 1929, was only 14.0 percent
in 1932.




1085

SHARE OF LABOR IN NATIONAL INCOME

T a b l e 2 .—N A T IO N A L IN C O M E PAID OUT, 1929-32, B Y T Y P E OF P A Y M E N T i

Amount (millions of dollars)

Percent of total income
paid out

Percent of 1929

Type of payment
1929

1930

1931

1932

1930

1931 1932 1929

1930

1931

1932

Total income paid out.............. 81,136 75,410 63,247 48,894

92.9 78.0 60.3 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Total labor income2_________
Salaries (selected indus­
tries) 3...............................
Wages (selected indus­
tries) 3
................................
Salaries or wages (all other
industries)...................... .
Total property income4
...........
Dividends............................
Interest.................................
Total entrepreneurial income—
Net rents and royalties. __
Entrepreneurial w i t h ­
drawals..............................

92.0 77.5 59.7

65.1

64.4

64.7

4,738

3,383

99.3 83.1 59.3

7.0

7.5

7.5

6.9

17,179 14,210 10,542

6,840

82.7 61.4 39.8

21.2

18.8

16.7

14.0

29,052 27,794 24,622 20,302 95.7 84.8 6919
12,206 12,226 10,498 8,472 100.2 86.0 69.4
5,964 5,795 4,313 2,588 97.2 72.3 43.4
5,677 5,815 5,649 5,491 102.4 99.5 96.7
16,136 14,602 11,853 8,890 90.5 73.5 55.1
4,116 3,475 2,752 1,865 84.4 66.9 45.3

35.8
15.0
7.4
7.0
19.9
5.1

36.9
16.2
7.7
7.7
19.4
4.6

38.9
16.6
6.8
8.9
18.7
4.4

41.5
17.3
5.3
11.2
18.2
3.8

92.6 75.7 58.4

14.8

14.8

14.4

14.4

52,793 48,582 40,896 31,533
5,702

5,661

12,020 11,127

9,102

7,024

64.5

1 The grand totals in this and the following tables were obtained by an addition of the totals for each in­
dustrial field. The income subtotals by industrial fields are primarily in thousands of dollars, while the
subtotals of gainfully engaged are usually in actual numbers. But the subtotals entered in tables 2 to 6
are either in millions of dollars (for income) or in thousands of persons (for numbers engaged). These
subtotals do not, therefore, add up exactly to the grand totals given.
2 Includes also employees’ pensions and compensation for injury.
3 Includes mining, manufacturing, construction, steam railroads, Pullman, railway express, and water
transportation.
4 Includes also net balance of international flow of property incomes.

The reduction between 1929 and 1932 in the proportion of wage
earners employed was also far more severe than that of salaried
employees. The details are shown in table 3, which gives estimates
of the number of persons actually engaged, in several principal groups,
for each of the 4 years covered by the study.
T a b l e 3 . -N U M B E R OF PEOPLE E N G A G E D , 1929-321

Number (thousands)

Percent of 1929

Item
1930

1931

1932

1930

1931

All gainfully employed---------------- -------------------------- 44,225

41,809

38,053

34,131

94.5

86.0

77.2

All employees...............................................................— 35, 205
Salaried employees (selected industries)2---------- 2,221
Wage earners (selected industries)2............. ....... 12,219
Salaried employees or wage earners (all other
industries)....................... ................- ..................- 20,765
Entrepreneurs...................- ............................................. 9,020

32,921
2,187
10,677

29,349
1,915
8,890

25,453
1,556
7,131

93.5
98.4
87.4

83.4
86.2
72.8

72.3
70.0
58.4

20,057
8,889

18,544
8,704

16,767
8,677

96.6
98.5

89.3
96.5

80.7
96.2

1929

1932

1 In this table and all subsequent tables relating to number of people employed or engaged, the annual
estimates are averages for the calendar year. The numbers represent in some industries a full-time equiva­
lent.
2 Includes mining, manufacturing, construction, steam railroads, Pullman, railway express, and water
transportation.




1086

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

Table 4 presents estimates of the number of persons engaged in
each of 12 major industrial divisions for each of the years 1929 to
1932. These figures indicate that the ratio of agricultural and
Government workers to all workers rose perceptibly during the
4-year period considered, and that severe declines characterized the
percentages of the total represented by mining, manufacturing, and
construction. Electric light and power, and gas, communication,
trade, finance, and the service trades, maintained their respective
shares of the reduced volume of employment.
T a b l e 4 —N U M B E R

OF PEOPLE E N G A G E D , 1929-32, B Y IN D U S T R IA L DIVISIO N

Number (thousands)

Percent of total number
engaged

Percent of 1929

Industrial division
1929

1930

1931

1932

1930

1931

1932

1929

1930

1931

1932

All industries............................

44,225 41,809 38,053 34,131

94.5

86.0

77.2

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Agriculture................................
Mining............- .........................
Electric light and power, and
gas.................................. .........
Manufacturing........................
Construction------- ---------------Transportation_____________
Communication_ __________
_
Trade— ____ _______________
Finance_____________________
Government............. ...............
Service....................... _.......... .
Miscellaneous................... .......

7,592
1,068

7,511
980

7,448
819

7,288
644

98.9
91.7

98.1
76.6

96.0
60.3

17.2
2.4

18.0
2.3

19.6
2.2

21.3
1.9

336
10,023
1,528
3,073
533
7,163
1,422
3,003
5,535
2,948

344
8,860
1,378
2,846
520
6,785
1,388
3,156
6,276
2,766

322
7,566
1,054
2,493
449
6,177
1,275
3,127
4,810
2,515

283 102.3 95.7 84.0
6,257 88.4 75.5 62.4
673 90.2 69.0 44.1
2,140 92.6 81.1 69.6
402 97.5 84.2 75.5
5,619 94.7 86.2 78.4
1,135 97.6 89.7 79.8
3,122 105.1 104.1 104.0
4,283 95.3 86.8 77.3
2,285 93.8 85.3 77.5

.8
22.7
3.5
6.9
1.2
16.2
3.2
6.8
12.5
6.7

.8
21.2
3.3
6.8
1.2
16.2
3.3
7.5
12.6
6.6

.8
19.9
2.8
6.5
1.2
16.2
3.4
8.2
12.6
6.6

.8
18.3
2,0
6.3
1.2
16.5
3.3
9.1
12.6
6.7

In table 5, labor income paid out is given by industrial divisions.
Here again construction stands out as the industry most affected
by the depression, the 1932 figure of $2,867,000,000 representing
26.3 percent of the total income paid out in 1929, or $4,970,000,000.
T a b l e 5 .—L ABOR IN C O M E PAID OUT, 1929-32, B Y IN D U S T R IA L D IVISIO N

Amount (millions of dollars)

Percent of 1929

Industrial division
1929

1930

1931

1932

1930

1931

All industries-------- ---------- -------------------------------------

52,793

48,582

40,896

31,533

92.0

77.5

59.7

Agriculture______________________________________
Mining_________________________ ________________
Electric light and power, and gas_________ _____
Manufacturing---------- ------------------------------------------Construction____________________________________
Transportation______ __ _ __ ___ ...................... ...
Communication_____ _________________ ________
Trade___________________________________________
Finance L ____ ___________________________________
Government______ _______________________________
Service________________________ _________________
M iscellaneous___________________________________

1,313
1,639
531
14,984
2,620
4,970
713
8,209
3,246
4,984
5,932
3,652

1,112

807
1,024
515
10,113
1,535
3,788
649
6,837
2,798
5,352
4.700
2,778

523 84.7 61.5
677 86.2 62.5
384 103.7 97.1
6,961 86.5 67.5
689 87.5 58.6
2,867 91.0 76.2
542 101
.3 91.0
5,597 93.6 83.3
2,223 97.6 86.2
5,277 105.9 107.4
3,713 93.1 79.2
2,079 91.6 76.1

39.8
41.3
72.3
46.5
26.3
57.7
76.1

1,413
550
12,969
2,291
4,521
722
7,687
3,167
5,280
5,524
3,345

1932

68.2

68.5
105.9
62.6
56.9

i Includes compensation of insurance agents.

Salaries and wages paid in selected industries (table 6) indicate
' the relatively favored position of salaried workers as opposed to
wage workers.




1087

SHARE OF LABOR IN NATIONAL INCOME

T able 6 .—SALARIES A N D W AG ES PAID, 1929-32, B Y SE L E C T E D IN D U S T R IA L D IVISIO N
Amount (millions of dollars)

Percent of 1929

Item
1929
Total salaries_______________ _____________________
Total wages________ _________
„ ______________

1930

1931

1932

1930

1931

5,702
17,179

5,661
14,210

4, 738
10,542

3,383
6,840

99.3
82.7

83.1
61.4

59.3
39.8

243
1,146

216
788

150
511

98.3
83,9

87.4
57.7

60.8
37.4

4,030
8,866

3,378
6,669

2,429 100.4
4,474 81.3

84.2
61.2

60.5
41.1

451
1,806

321
1,181

167
498

99.2
84.7

70.7
55.4

36.7
23.3

937
2,391

824
1,903

637
1,357

94.8
86.0

83.4
68.5

64.5
48.8

Mining:
Salaries______________________ _______________
247
Wages___________________________________ _____ 1,367
Manufacturing:
4,013
Salaries-,,-_______________________ __________
Wages________________________________________ 10,899
Construction:
455
Salaries_______________________________________
Wages________ ________________ ____________
2,134
Transportation: i
Salaries___________ __________________________
988
Wages_____________ ________________________
2,781

1932

1 Includes only steam railroads, Pullman, railway express, and water transportation.

Table 7 shows that per capita annual income of all employees fell
from $1,475 in 1929 to $1,199 in 1932. The percentage that 1932 in­
come bears to 1929 income is 84.7 for salaried employees (actual figures
$2,567 in 1929 and $2,175 in 1932) and 68.2 for wage earners (actual
figures $1,406 in 1929 and $959 in 1932).
T a b l e 7 .—PER CAPITA IN C O M E OF E M P LO Y E E S A N D T H E COST OF L IVIN G , 1929-32

Amount

Percent of 1929

Item
1929
Salaried employees (selected industries)1...... .......... $2,567
Wage earners (selected industries)1
_______________
1,406
Salaried employees or wage earners (all other in­
1,399
dustries).................................................................. —
1,475
All employees__________ __________ _______________
Bureau of Labor Statistics cost-of-living index____

1930

1931

$2,589
1,331

$2,474
1,186

1,386
1,448

1,328
1,360

1932

1930

1931

$2,175 100.9
959 94.7

96.4
84.4

84.7
68.2

99.1
98.2
97.4

94.9
92.2
88.9

86.6
81.3
80.4

1,211
1,199

1932

1 Includes mining, manufacturing, construction, steam railroads, Pullman, railway express, and water
transportation.

Per capita annual income for various industries is shown in table 8.
The highest per capita income in all years was in the group listed as
“ finance” , while the lowest per capita was in agriculture.
T a b l e 8 .—PER C APITA IN C O M E OF E M P LO Y E E S, 1929-32, B Y IN D U S T R IA L DIVISION

Amount

Percent of 1929

Industrial division
1929
Agriculture.......................................... ............................
Mining—................................. ............... ........................
Electric light and power, and gas__________________
Manufacturing_______________ _ ________________
Construction_____________________________________
Transportation________ _____________ ______ _____
Communication........... ................................... _ ___
Trade.............................................................. .................
Finance 1
............. ............................................................
Government....... ........................ ............ ............ .........*
_
Service...............................................................................
Miscellaneous............................ —............ .....................
All industries............................................. ....................
Bureau of Labor Statistics cost of living index........
i Includes insurance agents.




1930

1931

1932

$648
1,531
1,561
1,508
1,904
1,681
1,319
1,474
2,282
1,466
1,216
1,615
1,475

$588
1,438
1,581
1,474
1,866
1,658
1,369
1,435
2,282
1,473
1,196
1,605
1,448

$462
1,248
1,580
1,344
1,695
1,596
1,419
1,375
2,193
1,483
1,126
1,507
1,360

$352
1,049
1, 339
1,115
1,315
1,409
1,320
1,245
1,958
1,448
1,015
1,285
1,199

1930

1931

90.7 71.3
93.9 81.5
101.3 101.2
97.7 89.1
98.0 89.0
98.6 94.9
103.8 107.6
97.4 93.3
100.0 96.1
100.5 101.2
98.4 92.6
99.4 93.3
98.2 92.2
97.4 88.9

1932
54.3
68.5
85.8
73.9
69.1
83.8
100.1
84.5
85.8
98.8
83.5
79.6
81.3
80.4

1088

WAQES AND HOURS OF LABOR

Table 9 presents per-capita salaries and wages in selected industrial
divisions. In mining and manufacturing the 1932 annual per-capita
wages shown were $909 and $876, respectively. The average wage in­
come in all the industries covered amounted to $959. The trans­
portation average of $1,319 is $543 above the average in manufactur­
ing industries.
T a b l e 9 —PER C APITA SALARIES A N D W AQ ES IN SELECTED IN D U S T R IA L DIVISIONS,

1929-32

Percent of 1929

Amount
Item
1929
Mining:
Salary............... ........... ........................ - .......... ....... $2,504
1,430
Wage................ ........................................................
Manufacturing:
2,669
Salary----------------------------------- ------- -----------------1,300
Wage.................... ............................ - ............ ..........
Construction:
Salary................................................... .......... - ......... 2,937
1,771
Wage.................................................... .......... .........Transportation:1
2,126
Salary........................ ...................... .........................
Wage.................... .............. ........................................ 1,663
Above industries:
Salary-------------------------------------------------------------- 2,567
1,406
Wage.................... ..................... ...............................

1930

1931

1932

$2,474
1,321

$2,571
1,094

$2,210
909

2,703
1,221

2,556
1,084

2,879
1,715

V ,695
2
1,540

2,127
1,598
2, 589
1,331

1930

1931

98.8 102.7
92.4 76.5

1932

88.3
63.6

2,241 101.3
876 93.9

95.8
83.4

84.0
67.4

2,297
1,151

98.0
96.8

91.8
87.0

78.2
65.0

2,108
1,523

1,924 100.0
1,319 96.1

99.2
91.6

2,474
1,186

2,175 100.9
959 94.7

96.4
84.4

90
79.5
.3
84.7
68.2

i Includes only steam railroads, Pullman, railway express, and water transportation.

Sta tistics of N a tio n a l In c o m e , 1933 and 1934
T h e figures representing national income in the United States in
1934 (and revised figures for earlier years) show that total income paid
out increased over 1933 by 11.7 percent. The statistics of income
issued by the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce 24 are shown
in the accompanying table.
2 U. S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. The National
4
Income Produced 1929-34, by Robert R. Nathan. (Reprint from Survey of Current Business, November
1935.)




1089

SHARE OF LABOR IN NATIONAL INCOME

N A T IO N A L IN C O M E PAID OUT IN T H E U N IT E D STATES, 1929 TO 1934, B Y T Y P E OF
PAYMENT
Amount (in millions of dollars)
Type of payment
1929

1930

1931

1932

1933

1934

Total income paid out......................................... - ............

78,632

72,932

61,704

48,362

44,940

50,189

Total labor income............................... .............................
Salaries (selected industries)1
............... - ...................
Wages (selected industries)1............................... —
Salaries and wages (all other industries)................
Work relief wages3
______________________________
Other labor income________ _____________________
Total dividends and interest3_______ __________ ____
Dividends____ ____ - ....................................................
Interest.................... ..................................... ..............
Entrepreneurial withdrawals...........................................
Net rents and royalties.................. ............ .......................

51,487
5,664
17,197
27,690

47,198
5,548
14,251
26,409

39,758
4,606
10,608
23,461

30,920
3,387
7,017
19,417

937
11,218
5,964
5,104
12,503
3,424

990
11,302
5,795
5,305
11,666
2,766

1,083
9,764
4,312
6,169
10,086
2,096

1,099
7,980
2,754
4,975
7,992
1,470

29,420
3,048
7,189
17,591
619
973
6,969
2,208
4,592
7,306
1,245

33,528
3,250
8,944
19,046
1,389
899
7,227
2,549
4,584
8,052
1,382

Index numbers
Total income paid out......................................... - ............

100.0

92.8

78.5

61.5

57.2

63.8

Total labor income............................- ................................
Salaries (selected industries)1
............... - .......... .........
Wages (selected industries)1-------- -----------------------Salaries and wages (all other industries).................
Other labor income................................ ............ ........
Total dividends and interest3----------------------------------Dividends_________________ ____________________
Interest...... ..................................................................
Entrepreneurial withdrawals...............- ______________
Net rente and royalties------------ ------- ---------- ---------------

100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0

91.7
98.0
82.9
95.4
105.7
100.7
97.2
103.9
93.3
80.8

77.2
81.3
61.7
84.7
115.6
87.0
72.3
101.3
80.7
61.2

60.1
59.8
40.8
70.1
117.3
71.1
46.2
97.5
63.9
42.9

57.1
53.8
41.8
63.5
103.8
62.1
37.0
90.0
58.4
36.4

65.1
57.4
52.0
68.8
95.9
64.4
42.7
89.5
64.4
40.4

1 Includes mining, manufacturing, construction, steam railroads, Pullman, railway express, and water
transportation.
* Includes pay rolls and maintenance of Civilian Conservation Corps enrollees and pay rolls of Civil
Works Administration and Federal Emergency Relief Administration work projects plus administrative
pay rolls outside of Washington.
3 Includes also net balance of international flow of property incomes.

In co m e Reported fo r In c o m e -T a x Purposes for Y e a r 1934
N e t income reported for income-tax purposes increased by 14.9
percent for the year 1934 as compared with 1933, and the number
of income-tax returns filed increased 9 percent, it was announced
by the United States Treasury Department.25 These increases are
shown by a preliminary count of returns filed up to August 31, 1935.
The returns were the first filed under the provisions of the Revenue
Act of 1934, and reflect the new normal and surtax rates, the altered
credits allowable, the new definition of capital assets, and the new
limits on gains and losses from sales or exchange of such assets. The
statement of the Treasury Department adds that the statistics for
1934 are not strictly comparable with those of the previous year
because of the variation in proportion of the total number of returns
filed up to a given date in each year. It is added, however, that
final reports in previous years indicate that such changes are of minor
importance.
m U.

S. Treasury Department.

19205— 36 ------70
,




Press Service No. 6-34, Dec. 6, 1935.

1090

WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR

The total number of returns filed at the end of August 1935 was
3,988,269, of which 1,750,843 were taxable and 2,237,426 nontaxable.
Net income reported for 1934 amounted to $12,456,262,000; the tax
liability on this sum amounts to $506,481,000. In the table follow­
ing summary statistics of number of returns made, net income, and
amount of tax liability are shown by income classes.
N U M B E R OF R ETUR N S, N E T IN C O M E , AN D T A X L IA B IL IT Y , B Y IN C O M E CLASS,
BASED ON R ETUR N S FOR Y E A R S 1933 A N D 1934 FILED TO AU G . 31 OF EACH Y E A R
Number of
individual returns

Net income

Tax liability

Net income class
1933
All income classes—........ .

3,660,105

Under $5,000............- .......... 3,339,602
$5,000 and under $10,000-219,735
$10,000 and under $25,000-74,626
$25,000 and under $50,000-18,168
5,927
$50,000 and under $100,000.
1,085
$100,000 and under $150,000.
693
$150,000 and under $300,000$300,000 and under $500,000139
$500,000 a n d u n d e r
84
$1,000,000.............- ............
$1,000,000 and over.......... .
46

1934

1933

1934

1933

1934

3,988,269 $10,845,654,000 $12,456,262,000 $372,968,000 $506,481,000
3, 568,788
288,178
102,488
20,851
6,073
973
684
116

6,792,000,000
1,477,828,000
1,096,874,000
621,182,000
394,766,000
129, 276,000
138,870,000
53,788,000

7,485,000,000
1,936,921,000
1,507,617,000
705,788,000
404, 548,000
116,693,000
139,749,000
43,832,000

39,700,000
34,120,000
54,256,000
51,598,000
56,562,000
30,450,000
40,474,000
17, 580,000

32,500,000
42,819,000
83,609,000
84, 559,000
84,474,000
37,827,000
57,489,000
20,854,000

86
32

59,511,000
81,559,000

59,455,000
56,659,000

22,371,000
25,848,000

30,739,000
31, 611,000

Family Allowances
H E term 4
family allowances” refers to the practice in various
European countries of supplementing the basic wages by special
allowances in the case of married workers, thus providing for the
greater need of those having dependents. In industry, such allow­
ances are usually paid either directly by the employer or from an
equalization fund maintained by a group of employers in an industry
or in various industries in a particular district or region. In some
countries, however, allowances to families with more than a certain
number of children are made directly by the State out of public funds.
In such cases the system might more properly be referred to as child
endowment.
In 1926 the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics published
Bulletin No. 401, Family Allowances in Foreign Countries, which
embodied the results of a survey made by this office. In general, the
study covered conditions existing in 1924 but included also develop­
ments in 1925 in a few cases where authoritative data were available
at the time the bulletin was prepared.
Since Bulletin No. 401 of the Bureau of Labor Statistics was issued,
considerable material on family allowances has been carried in the
Monthly Labor Review.

T




W OMEN IN INDUSTRY

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




1091




Woman Workers During the Depression
N TH E main the depression affected women much as it did men,
although, in one or two particulars sex made a difference. Wage
rates moved downward, and part-time work and complete unemploy­
ment became prevalent. In the early years of the depression, unem­
ployment was not as extensive, comparatively, among women as among
men. At one time there was a distinct effort to develop a drive
against married women in industry, which in this country met with
only limited success. The growth of sweatshop conditions in some
of the industries employing large numbers of women attracted
attention, and under the N. E. A. codes steps were taken to secure
reasonable wages and hours and, wherever practicable, the abolition
of home work. Since these codes were temporary, some States tried
to insure the permanence of good conditions by enacting minimumwage laws, so framed as to avoid the constitutional limitations which
had made earlier laws of the kind invalid. An analysis of this legis­
lation is given in the article on p. 481, entitled “ Status of MinimumWage Legislation and Administration/7

I

U n e m p lo y m e n t A m o n g W o m e n in th e E a rly Years of the
Depression
I n t h e tremendous demand made upon the resources of organized
society by the effects of the depression, the special needs of the gain­
fully employed women were at first rather overshadowed by the more
spectacular features of mass unemployment. Private agencies real­
ized clearly the acuteness of the situation for the unattached women
living in large cities who found their jobs gone and their savings
exhausted, and the public was shocked when later it became known
that women and girls, as well as men and boys, had taken to the road;
but there was a rather widespread, tacit acceptance of the idea that
such things were exceptional; that, in general, women's responsibilities
were not as heavy as men's; and that on the whole they were probably
getting along not too badly. Some facts contained in a bulletin issued
in 19331 by the United States Women's Bureau dealing with unemploy­
ment and fluctuations of employment among women during the period
1928 to 1931 make it appear that the average woman worker, however,
was not in a good position to meet the impact of the depression, and
that even in its early years she suffered severely. The facts presented
show that even in the relatively prosperous times before the crash of
1929 there was much irregularity of employment for women, that this
irregularity increased as the depression grew, that unemployment
developed early, and that it was more pronounced in certain industries
and among certain groups than in the industrial population generally.

i U. S. Department of Labor. Women’s Bureau. Bulletin No. 113: Employment Fluctuations and
Unemployment of Women: Certain Indications from Various Sources, 1628-31, by Mary Elizabeth
Pidgeon. Washington, 1933.




1093

1094

WOMEN IN INDUSTRY

The discussion of unemployment among women is based on census
material and on 21 special studies made by the Women’s Bureau and by
various other agencies, covering,.usually, particular localities or indus­
tries. The census material deals with the situation in April 1930 and
in January 1931, and groups the unemployed in various classes, of
which the most important are (A) persons out of work, able to work
and seeking to work; and (B) persons laid off. Other classes included
those unable to work, persons not wishing to work, those on vacations,
and the like. This discussion deals only with classes A and B com­
bined, “ since they are likely to include most of those for whom jobless­
ness caused wholly or mainly by economic or business situations is the
primary problem.” The figures given do not, however, include those
who are working part time, no matter how grave may be the reduction
in hours and consequently in earnings. It is stated that the numbers
working only part time approximate and sometimes exceed those wholly
unemployed, so that the seriousness of the problem is greater than the
unemployment figures, taken alone, indicate.
The unemployment census of January 1931 covered 19 large cities
containing nearly one-fourth (23.6 percent) of the women normally
engaged in gainful occupations in the whole country, so that its find­
ings may be considered fairly indicative of the general situation.
Extent and Location of Unemployment Among Women
T he census of 1930 reported 668,661 women unemployed in all classes combined
and 501,502 in classes A and B combined. That of January 1931 reported 479,283
women out of work (A and B combined) in 19 cities. Since this represented 18.9
percent of the women normally gainfully occupied in these localities, if this propor­
tion be applied to all employed women in the United States, the total number of
women unemployed in January 1931 must have approximated at least 2,000,000.
In two of these same cities other agencies made studies of special samples in 1931,
affording some information on extent of industrial unemployment among women.
In these the proportion of women reported unemployed were fairly similar in the
census and in the special sample studied; Buffalo, special sample 21.6 percent,
census 18 percent; Philadelphia, special sample 23.7 percent, census 24.3 percent.

The number of women gainfully employed in each of these 19 cities,
and the number and proportion unemployed in January 1931, are
shown in table 1:
T a b l e 1 .— N U M B E R A N D P E R C E N T OF W O M E N U N E M P L O Y E D IN CLASSES A A N D B

C O M B IN E D IN 19 SEL EC T ED CITIES, J A N U A R Y 1931
Unemployed

City

Normally
gainfully
employed Num­
ber

Percent
of num­
ber nor­
mally
gainful­
ly em­
ployed

Total, 19 cities............... 2,533,762 479,283

18.9

737,996 117,408
319,899 45,836
280,773 48,657
137,324 23,015
406,760 96,264
246,136 59,865
163,385 23,135
140,879 33,382
108,416 19,661
106,583 21,735

15.9
14.3
17.3
16.8
23.7
24.3
14.2
23.7
18.0
20.4

New York i-------- -------Manhattan_______
Brooklyn.,.............
Bronx.......................
Chicago^-.___ „
Philadelphia..................
Los Angeles...................

Detroit........................

Boston............................
St. Louis........................

Unemployed

City

Cleveland.......................

R on "R'ran

ton

Pittsburgh.....................
Minneapolis.................New Orleans____ _____
Buffalo.......................... Seattle-......................... Denver...........................
Houston............. ............
Birmingham.......... .
Dayton......_...................
Duluth............................

Percent
Normally
of num­
gainfully
ber nor­
employed Num­ mally
ber gainful­
ly em­
ployed
98,968
84,362
69,925
64,437
61,108
58,249
45,366
37,704
37,689
32,199
22,862
10,759

21,159
7,936
13,542
7,830
14,561
10,461
5,312
4,423
9,786
7,616
3,869
1,460

21.4
9.4
19.4
12.2
23.8
18.0
11.7
11.7
26.0
23.6
16.9
13.5

i Figures are shown for 3 boroughs only, but these contain over 85 percent of the gainfully employed
women in the city.




1095

DURING THE DEPRESSION

The proportion of women unemployed ranged from 9.4 percent in
San Francisco to 26.0 percent in Houston, the average for the 19 cities
being 18.9 percent. Generally speaking, in these cities the proportion
unemployed was greater among men than among women, the only
exceptions being New Orleans where the proportions were identical
(23.8 percent), and Houston, where 26.0 percent of the women and
22.4 percent of the men were unemployed.
For five cities each employing over 20,000 women a comparison is
given in table 2 of the unemployment shown by the two census reports.
T able 3 . —U N E M P L O Y M E N T A M O N G W O M E N IN FIVE
1930 A N D J A N U A R Y 1931

SEL E C T E D

CITIES, APR IL

Unemployed in classes A and B
Census of April 1930

City

Number
New Y ork1................... ...................................................___
Manhattan__________ ____ _______________________
Brooklyn_________________ ______________________
Buffalo.................. .......... .......................... ............................
Chicago__________________ __________________________
Cleveland_____________ _______________________________
Dayton_____________________________________________

Percent

42, 578

Census of January 1931
Number

Percent

5.8

117,408

15.9

15,227
8,966

5.7
5.4
6.5

46,836
48,557
23,015

14.3
17.3
16.8

2,946
26,869
6,575
1,315

5.0
6.6
6.6
5.7

10,461
96,264
21,159
3,859

23. 7
21.4
16.9

18,385

18. 0

1 Figures are shown for 3 boroughs only, but these contain over 85 percent of the gainfully employed
women in the city.

The rapidity with which unemployment among women increased
in 1930 is the most striking feature of this table. In April 1930 not
1 of these 5 cities showed unemployment amounting to one-twelfth
of the gainfully occupied women, while in January of the following
year there was only 1 in which the amount of unemployment fell
below one-sixth.
Unemployment by Occupational Groups
T a b l e 3, b a s e d o n th e c e n s u s o f 1931, s h o w s th e p e r c e n t a g e o f
w o m e n u n e m p lo y e d in e a c h o f th e m a in o c c u p a t io n a l g r o u p s :
T

able

3 .— PERCENTAGE

OF W O M E N U N E M P L O Y E D JAN U A R Y 1931, B Y
OCC U PATIO N AL GROUPS

Normally
gainfully
employed

Industry

Percent of
those un­
employed
January 1981

___________ _________________

i 2, 533,762

18.9

Domestic and personal service
- _
__ ________________________________
Clerical occupations_________________ ________ ________________________ _ _
Manufacturing and mechanical.... ................................. .........................................
Professional service ___________ _ _
_____
_______ ______________________
Trade________ ______________________________________________________________
Transportation and communication ___________ ____________________________

721,568
686,661
467,003
310,867
258,923
83,811

24.2
13.0
30.3
4.8
19.4

All industries_____ _________________________

i Total exceeds details because several less important groups are omitted.




10.1

1096

WOMEN IN INDUSTRY

While the highest percentage of unemployment appears among those
in manufacturing and mechanical industries, the next highest is shown
in the traditional field of women, domestic and personal service,
where practically one-fourth were unemployed. The extent of unem­
ployment in the individual occupational groups varied from place to
place. For manufacturing and mechanical pursuits the range was
from 15.9 percent in Denver to 37.9 percent in Chicago, for trans­
portation and communication from 5.5 percent in San Francisco to
16.9 percent in Buffalo, for trade from 10.5 percent in Manhattan to
26.6 percent in Pittsburgh, for professional pursuits from 3.0 percent
in Dayton to 7.7 percent in Los Angeles, for domestic and personal
service from 11.2 percent in the Bronx to 40.0 percent in Houston,
and for clerical pursuits from 7.8 percent in San Francisco to 16.1 per­
cent in Chicago.
In every city over 10 percent were unemployed in domestic and personal
service, in manufacturing, and in trade. From 30 to 40 percent were unemployed
in domestic and personal service in 8 cities, from 30 to 37.9 percent in manufac­
turing in 5 cities. The proportions unemployed formed over 10 percent of those
in clerical occupations in 15 cities and in transportation and communication in
' 7 cities. In every case the smallest proportion unemployed was in professional
service.

Duration of Unemployment and Age of Unemployed
T a b l e 4 s h o w s t h e p r o p o r t io n w h o h a d
s p e c ifie d p e r io d s a t th e t w o c e n s u s p e r io d s .

been

u n e m p lo y e d

fo r

T a b l e 4 .—PERIOD OF IDLENESS OF W O M E N U N E M P L O Y E D IN CLASSES A A N D B

C O M B IN E D , JA N U A R Y 1931, B Y C IT Y
Unemployed for—
City

27 weeks or longer
Number

Birmingham_______________________________ ____ _____
Boston------------------------------------------------------------------------Buffalo--------------------------------------------------- ------------------Chicago----------------------------------------------------------------------Cleveland____________________________________________
Dayton----------------------------------- --------------------------------Denver------ --------------------------- -----------------------------------Detroit----------- -------------------------- ---------------- -------------Duluth-----------------------------------------------------------------------Houston---------------------------------------------------------------------Los Angeles----------------------------------------------------------------Minneapolis----------------------------------------------------------------New Orleans______________________________________
New York i__________________________________________
Bronx_____________ ______________________ _____ __
Brooklyn______ _______________________ _____
Manhattan_______________________________________
Philadelphia_________________________________________
Pittsburgh------------------------------------------------------------------San Francisco___________________ ___________________
Seattle_______________________________________________
St. Louis_____________ ___________________________ . .

1,643
4,186
2,342
28,017
5,797
887
585
12,307
285
1, 201
4,034
1,475
3, 594
24,389
5,129
10,765
8,495
11,974
3,119
1,432
894
5,180

Percent
21.6
21.4
22.4
29.1
27.4
23.0
13.2
36.9
19.7
12.3
17.4
18.8
24.7
20.8
22.3
22.2
18.5
20.0
23.0
18.0
16.8
23.8

53 weeks or longer
Number
256
975
428
5,696
1,148
117
74
2,673
42
141
663
306
597
4,505
880
2,013
1,612
2,158
697
242
209
770

Percent
3.4
5.0
4.1
5.9
5.4
3.0
1.7
8.0
2.9
1.4
2.9
3.9
4.1
3.8
3.8
4.1
3.5
3.6
5.1
3.0
3.9
3.5

i Figures are for 3 boroughs only, but they contain over 85 percent of the gainfully employed women
in the city.

In 11 cities, as well as in 2 boroughs of New York City, at least 20
percent of the women reported as unemployed had been out of work
over 6 months, the proportion running up to 36.9 percent in Detroit.
In 5 cities from 5 to 8 percent had been out of work for over a year.




1097

DURING THE DEPRESSION

Attention is called to the fact that these figures were collected in
1931 and that later inquiries would be apt to show larger proportions
out of work for long periods than appear in the earlier surveys.
In respect to age, the youngest workers seemed to fare worse.
In every city those under 20 had the largest proportions unemployed. The
range in the various age groups was from 17.8 percent to 36.6 percent, with
more than 30 percent of the girl workers in 7 cities out of a job, and between
20 and 30 percent in 8 cities and the 3 boroughs of New York. Of the women
20 and under 24, over 20 percent were out of work in 8 cities. Ordinarily women
50 and over had the smallest proportions of unemployed.

Nativity and Color of Unemployed Women

F or each of the 19 cities covered by the 1931 census inquiry
table 5 shows the number of native-born white, of foreign-born white,
and of colored women unemployed (classes A and B) at the time the
census was taken, and the percentage these formed of the number
who were normally in gainful employment.
T a b l e 5 —N U M B E R A N D P E R C E N T OF W O M E N U N E M P L O Y E D IN 19 CITIES, JAN U AR Y

1931, B Y N A T IV IT Y A N D COLOR

Native white

Foreign-born
white

Colored

City
Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent
Birmingham___ ____________________ _________
Boston________________________________________
Buffalo______________________________________
Chicago_________ ____________________________
Cleveland_____________________________________
Dayton_______________________________________
Denver_____________________________________ _
Detroit_______________________________________
Duluth__________
______
_ _____
Houston_____ ________________________________
Los Angeles___________________________________
Minneapolis - _ _________________ ____________
New Orleans. _ ________________________________
New York i ___ __ _______ __
_ _______
Bronx_____________________________________
Brooklyn_______________ _ _____________ .
Manhattan________________________________
Philadelphia. ________________________________
Pittsburgh-------------------------------------------------------San Francisco_________________________________
Seattle_________ _____________________________
St. Louis______________________________________

2,075
14,425
8,853
58, 256
12, 276
2,665
3,668
17,894
1,205
2,943
16,817
7,008
4,967
67,728
15,425
33,678
18,625
37,506
9, 244
6,343
4,478
12,842

15.1
19.4
18.9
20.4
17.9
13.8
11.2
19.0
13.5
13.7
13.5
12.4
15.5
15.6
16.9
17.6
12.3
22.2
16.9
9.9
12.3
15.5

11
3,913
927
11,873
2,841
94
177
3,933
234
71
1,749
633
53
28,575
7,158
10,936
10,481
4,819
781
1,273
700
539

2.8
13.0
9.6
15.5
14.8
9.3
5.8
12.6
13.2
6.8
8.0
8.5
3.6
12.5
16.4
14.4
9.6
14.2
9.5
7.3
8.8
9.0

5,529
1,222
681
25,990
6,040
1,100
492
11,531

30.6
30.3
42.0
58.5
55.1
43.0
30.6
75.0

6,645
3,234
186
9,536
21,058
431
3,937
16,690
17,537
3,516
157
115
8,344

46.2
38.3
30.0
34.6
28.2
18.5
28.5
28.5
41.0
50.8
20.3
23.6
47.9

i Figures are for 3 boroughs only, but they contain over 85 percent of the gainfully employed women
in the city.

In every case the foreign-born white women showed the smallest
proportion unemployed, their percentages ranging from 2.8 in Bir­
mingham to 16.4 percent in the Bronx; the native-born white women
came next, with a proportion of unemployment ranging from 9.9
percent in San Francisco to 22.2 percent in Philadelphia, while the
colored women showed the highest proportions, their percentage of
unemployment only once falling below 20 (18.5 in the Bronx) and
rising to 75.0 percent in Detroit, while in 5 separate cities it was be­
tween 40 and 50, and in 4 cities it passed 50. Ordinarily they formed
a larger proportion of the unemployed than of those engaged in gain­
ful pursuits.




1098

WOMEN IN INDUSTRY

Reference to the census figures on gainful occupations show that in each of
the 19 cities the place of the foreign-born women in unemployment was less
than their place among women normally gainfully employed, and that of nativewhite women usually was so (except in Boston, Buffalo, Duluth, San Francisco,
and Seattle, and the Bronx and Brooklyn boroughs). For Negro women the
opposite was the case— in every city they formed a larger proportion in the
unemployed group than they did of the women normally in gainful work—
except in Birmingham and New Orleans, which have large populations of Negro
women at work.

W o m a n W o rkers in 1932
D ur in g the summer of 1932 the Bryn Mawr School for Women
Workers was attended by 109 women, 4 of whom came from foreign
countries and 105 from 17 different States of the Union. Occupa­
tionally as well as geographically they were widely distributed: 57
were in some form of garment making or millinery; 18 were in tex­
tiles; 15 in miscellaneous manufacturing industries; 15 in trade,
transportation, and clerical work; and 4 in domestic service. During
the summer these workers themselves proposed making a study of
their experiences during the depression period as a step toward under­
standing the predicament into which they had been forced by the
economic organization in which they lived and worked. The events
of the year ending June 1 , 1932, just prior to the school term, were
still vividly in mind, and the facts as to unemployment and changes
in living and working arrangements could be easily recalled. The
study was made, and its results were published by the Federal
Women’s Bureau (Bui. No. 103) in 1933.
Employment Status During the Year
O n l y 10 had been employed steadily throughout the year, this
group including 7 workers in American industry, and 3 of the 4 foreign
workers, among them a Swedish worker in a clothing factory, a
German trade-union official, and a Lancashire cotton weaver. Of
the others, 20 had had a job throughout the whole year, but had
had periods of short weeks, 23 had had times of being without a job
but when employed had worked full time, and 56 had been both
wholly and partially unemployed at different times throughout the
year. Only 39, apart from the 10 who were steadily employed, had
had as much as 26 weeks of full employment.
The periods of employment of the majority of the workers (82) were in con­
nection with a single job, 19 held 2 jobs during the year, 5 held 3 jobs, and 1 held
4. Two workers were without any job during the entire year.

Effect on Earnings
T h e actual earnings during the year ending June 1, 1932, of the
109 women studied were as follows:
N u m ber of
w orkers

No earnings________________________________________
Less than $200_____________________________________
$200 and less than $400____________________________
$400 and less than $600____________________________
$600 and less than $800____________________________
$800 and less than $1,000__________________________
$1,000 and less than $1,200_________________________
$1,200 and less than $1,400_________________________
Unknown__________________________________________




2
15
27
24
25
7
4
2
3

1099

DURING THE DEPRESSION

Low earnings were general throughout the different industries.
There was no single occupational group in which half of the workers
earned as much as $600, and the actual median of the earnings of
the whole body was $480. In the clothing group half earned under
$400, “ yet this group contained many highly skilled and experienced
women, whose earnings only a few years ago, in spite of a highly
seasonal industry, were sufficient to yield a very comfortable living.”
A comparison with the earnings of earlier years brings out clearly
the shrinkage due to unemployment as well as to lower wage rates.
A bulletin (No. 89) of the Women’s Bureau published in 1931 con­
tains a study of the earnings of 609 woman workers who had attended
four summer schools (Bryn Mawr, Barnard, Wisconsin, and the
Southern School) in the summers of 1928, 1929, and 1930. The
workers were drawn in about the same proportion from the industries
represented in the present study. The medians of the earnings and of
the full-time weekly rates for the years covered are shown in table 1:
T able 1.—M E D IA N E A R N IN G S A N D FU LL -T IM E W E E K L Y RATES OF W O R K E R S IN
S U M M E R SCHOOLS

Year and schools covered

1928 (4 schools)_____________________
1929 (4 schools)________________ _____
1930 (4 schools)_____________________
1931 (Bryn Mawr)______ _ _________
1932 (Bryn Mawr)__________________

Median
earnings

$861
887
793
696
480

Median
full-time
weekly
rates
$21.66
23.15
20.15
14.50

The effect upon earnings of the fall in weekly rates was intensified
by the amount of short-time work. Only 10, it will be remembered,
had had a full year’s work, and the others had lost time heavily.
The short weeks were very short indeed, many consisting of only 2 or 3 days.
This fact accounts for the small total even in the case of workers employed the
greater part of the year. The weeks counted include all those in which payment
was received for any work, no matter how small the amount.
* * * A worker employed by a large electrical-supply company possessed
ability and experience that enabled her to earn as much as $15 a week; but she
totaled only $360 during the year, although employed 52 weeks, an average of
$6.92. During the greatest number of weeks her pay envelop contained $4.

Effect of Unemployment on Standard of Living
F o u r elements that go to make up the standard of living—food,
clothing, housing, and medical care—were considered, and the 79
workers who had been without jobs during the year thus summarized
the effect upon these items:
T able 2 .—S T A N D A R D OF L IV IN G A N D U N E M P L O Y M E N T




Lower standard in respect of—

Unemployed workers
with lowered standarus
Number

Food_______________________________
Clothing................ .................................
Housing________ ____________________
Medical care......................... .................

Percent

32
39
46
48

41
49
58
61

1100

WOMEN IN INDUSTRY

The food standard was considered lower if the worker concerned had
less nourishing food than when in work. The test for a lower standard
of clothing was the absence from the wardrobe of some important
article formerly considered necessary, such as good shoes or a winter
coat. Housing was held to be of lower standard if the family had
moved to secure lower rent, if lodgers had been taken without any
increase in the number of rooms occupied, if a mortgage had been
increased upon a house owned, or if the family had fallen more than
2 months behind in rent or mortgage payments. The postponement
of medical care when it was urgently needed was considered to indicate
a lowered health standard.
Savings, of course, had been used when they existed. “ Only 17 of
the 109 workers reported that they had accumulated any savings that
had not dwindled away by the end of the year.” All of these had had
32 weeks of work, or more. Thirty-four workers had been forced to
borrow, the amounts ranging from less than $50 in 7 cases to over
$1,000 in 2. Nearly all of these amounts were still owing at the end of
the year.
Prospects for the Future
T h e c la s s ific a tio n o f th e s e 109 w o r k e r s a c c o r d in g t o t h e ir e m p lo y ­
m e n t p r o s p e c t s in July 1932 w a s as fo llo w s :
N u m b e r of
w o rk e rs

No job in prospect_____________________________________
Indefinite prospect, “ when work begins” ------ ----------------Indefinite job promised_________________________________
No report______________________________________________

40
30
38
1

Influence of Depression on Exp e nd itu re s of Business W o m e n
T h e income and expenditures in 1931 and 1932 of a group of girls
who kept accurate accounts of what they earned and spent during the
autumn months of both years are analyzed in an article in the Decem­
ber 1933 issue of the Woman’s Press, organ of the Young Women’s
Christian Association.

In the fall of 1931 (in September, October, and November, to be exact), 313
girls kept accurate records of their daily spendings, and in the same months of the
fall of 1932, 147 of these 313 did exactly the same thing. * * *
They were a mixed group; they came from all over the United States of America,
they were engaged in all manner of clerical occupations, the bulk of them being
stenographers, but secretaries also were included, bookkeepers, file clerks, and girls
who called themselves clerical workers. They came from large cities and small
cities, big towns and little; they lived at home and they lived away from home.
In fact, they were a cross section of those nearly 2,000,000 business women re­
ported by the last census. A few teachers, librarians, and doctors’ assistants also
took part in the study.

Earnings
T h e i r weekly earnings ranged from a little under $10 up to over $40.
The following table shows the number and proportion in each wage
group for each year.




1101

DURING THE DEPRESSION

CLASSIFIED EAR N IN G S OF A GROUP OF BUSINESS GIRLS IN 1931 A N D 1932
Girls receiving specified earnings in—
1932

1931

Weekly earnings
Number

Percent

Number

Percent

All earnings groups.................................. .............. ..............

313

100.0

147

100.0

$5 to $9.99................. ............ ..................__............................
$10 to $14.99................. ................................ ............. ..........
$15 to $19.99.......... ....................................... ........... ..............
$20 to $24.99____ ______________ ______ _______________
$25 to $29.99_________ _____________ _________ _____ _
$30 to $ 3 4 .9 9 ....__________ __________ ________________
$35 to $39.99________ ____ ____________________________
$40 to $44.99.............................................................

2
17
83
93
56
29
26
7

.6
5.4
26.5
29.7
17.9
9.3
8.3
2.2

6
13
42
47
22
14
3

4.1
8.8
28.6
32.0
15.0
9.5
2.0

The increased proportion in the lower-earnings groups in 1932 is at
once apparent. As not all of the 1931 group reported in 1932, it is
not possible to say just what this downward movement means in
terms of individual earnings. For 128, however, complete details
were received, and 65 percent of these were receiving lower wages in
1932 than in 1931.
* * * The largest actual number receiving a reduction was in the $15 to
$19.99 group, of whom over 63 percent received 27 percent lower wages. But the
most distressing group was perhaps the $10 to $14.99, of which 83 percent had
received an average of 62 percent decrease in wages. All the girls in the very
lowest group in 1932 had received cuts amounting to an average of 37 percent.
The higher the wage the smaller was the number of persons receiving cuts. The
smaller the present rate of wages the greater was the rate of reduction on an earlier
wage. The insecurity of the low-wage group is again borne witness to.

A separate study of the budgets of 150 business girls in Denver,
Colo., showed the same general situation as to the incidence of wage
cuts. Of these, 57 percent had had salary cuts amounting to 16.5 per­
cent on an average, ranging from an average of 4.8 percent in the
highest-paid group to 23 percent in the lowest-paid group.
Although the study here reviewed does not take up the situation
in 1933, it is known that wage cuts, many of them drastic, have taken
place since the fall of 1932.
Disposition of Earnings
C o m p r e h e n s i v e budgets of expenditures are not given, so that it
is not possible to trace fully the changes caused by the reduction in
incomes. Even in 1931 it was evident that in many cases the amount
earned was not adequate for healthful support.

Careful and exact budgeting in this group of 313, of whom 195 earned less than
$25 a week, exposes some of the inadequacies of the income and of the amounts
which it is possible to set aside for emergencies, health, recreation, and education.
There is practically no margin, and whereas in the case of the $10 to $14.99 group
there was an average of $1.76 savings per week with only $5.08 spent on room,
board, and lunches, it is obvious that subsidization is taking place somewhere.




1102

WOMEN IN INDUSTRY

The girl is not earning enough to keep herself, and either her parents or her
friends are making up the inadequacy of the wage she receives from her employer,
or she is impairing her strength and her future health by poor and insufficient
food, inattention to teeth and general health.

In 1932, either the process of subsidization had been carried farther,
or the girls were meeting the situation by cutting down on neces­
saries. Four girls are cited who in 1931 earned an average of $15.60
a week, but whose wages had been so cut that in 1932 they were
earning a weekly average of $9.25.
* * * Before, where they had spent $8 on room, board, and lunches, now
in 1932 they reduced this to $5; $2.50 had been spent on clothing, and this went
down to $1.83. They had managed somehow to have $2.34 in 1931 to carry
over in their pocketbooks from pay day to pay day, and this had now fallen to
18 cents a week.

The study of the 1932 expenditures brought out three features of
importance: (1) In 5 out of the 7 earnings groups the amount spent
on education and advancement increased in 1932, and in 2 of these
groups the increase was very substantial—it is suggested that this
may be because the business girl feels “ more and more insecurity
and wants the slight assurance and hope which a second skill may
give her” ; (2) while the earnings of the girls had decreased in 1932,
the proportion of those accepting responsibility for the support of
others had increased, and this was true in the case of the girls living
independently as well as among those forming part of a family group;
(3) it was apparent that in 1932 the girls were trying desperately to
build up some protection, however slight, against the future.
* * * In spite of cut wages, in spite of increased dependents, altered
habits, and changed standards of living, savings in 5 out of the 7 wage groups
increased in 1932 and increased considerably. In fact even the $20- to $25-aweek group, where there were girls who had had cuts amounting to 12 percent of
their wages, managed to save an average of $4.71 a week in 1932 as against $3.14
in 1931. The fall of 1932 was a very serious time for business girls and they held
tight onto their money, spending it as wisely as they knew how, apparently
going without the things they badly needed to save against a worse time which
they saw coming. What happened to those savings, we do not know. We do
know what happened to savings in general.

Marital Condition of Gainfully Occupied Women
in 1930
APPR O XIM ATELY one-fourth (24.8 percent) of the women 15

J \ ^ years of age and over in the United States were gainfully em­

ployed in 1930, as compared to 18.9 percent over 42 years ago. In
1890, married women constituted only 13.9 percent of the women
with gainful occupations; in 1930 they formed 28.9 percent, as shown
in the following table, taken from a press release of the United States
Bureau of the Census for October 12, 1932.




1103

TREND OF WAGES IN N EW YORK

N U M B E R A N D PROPORTION OF W O M E N 15 Y EAR S OLD A N D OVER G AIN F U L LY OCCU­
PIED, B Y M A R IT A L C O N D IT IO N , 1890-1930
Women 15 years old and over
Gainfully occupied
Census year and marital condition
Total
number
Number

Percent
of total

Percent
distri­
bution

1890: Total_______________ _______________________

19,602,178

3,712,144

18.9

100.0

Single and unknown_________________________
Married-______ _________ ____________________
Widowed and divorced_______________________

6,250,912
11,124,785
2,226,481

2,531,398
515,260
665,486

40.5
4.6
29.9

68.2
13.9
17.9

1900: Total_____________ _________________________

24,249,191

4,997,415

20.6

100.0

Single and unknown__________________________
Married_____________________________ . _______
Widowed and divorced_______________________

7,606,772
13,810,057
2,832,362

3,307,497
769,477
920,441

43.5
5.6
32.5

66.2
15.4
18.4

1910: Total................................................................____

30,047. 325

7, 639,828

25.4

100.0

Single and unknown__________________________
M arried--*_________ ___________
_______
Widowed and divorced_______ _____________

9,001,342
17,684,687
3,361, 296

4,602,102
1,890,661
1,147,065

51.1
10.7
34.1

60.2
24.7
15.0

1920: Total________ ____________ _________________

35,177,515

8,346, 796

23.7

100.0

Single, widowed, divorced, and unknown 1___
Married____ _________________________________

13,858,582
21,318,933

6,426,515
1,920,281

46.4
9.0

77.0
23.0

1930: Total__________ ____________________________

42,837,149

10,632,227

24.8

100.0

11,359, 038
26,170, 756
5,307,355

5, 734,825
3,071, 302
1,826,100

50.5
11.7
34.4

53.9
28.9
17.2

Single and unknown__________________________
Married-________ ______ _ __________________
Widowed and divorced___ __ _____________
1This group was not subdivided in 1920.

It is believed by the Bureau of the Census that too many women
were scheduled as agricultural laborers in 1910 and too few in 1920;
that, consequently, the increase from 1900 to 1910 in the percentage
of women 15 years of age and over in gainful occupations is too great
and that the decline from 1910 to 1920 shown in the corresponding
percentage may be only an apparent decline.

L a b o r C o n d itio n s in C o n n e c tic u t Needle Tra d e s

(See section on ‘ 1 National Recovery Administration—Labor
Aspects. ” )

Trend of Women’s Wages in New York, 1929-31
N TH E earlier stages of the depression there was a strong desire to
maintain wage levels in the hope that the trouble was only tem­
porary and could best be met by keeping things as they were. Early
in 1931 the division of women in industry of the New York State
Department of Labor published the results of a study of the changes
from October 1929 in women's wages in New York City, and in July
1931 made a similar study in an up-State industrial city with a popu­
lation of between 25,000 and 50,000. From both it was apparent

I




1104

WOMEN IN INDUSTRY

th a t the effort to m ain tain w ages h ad n o t been successful, since w ages
show ed in stead a distin ct dow nw ard ten den cy, m ore clearly seen in
N e w Y o r k C it y th an in the sm aller c o m m u n ity .
T h e m u ch w ider
scope o f the first stu d y w ould p ro b a b ly be entirely sufficient to accou n t
for this difference.
O n the other h an d , in the sm aller city the stu d y
show ed a falling off in the n u m b er em p lo yed , a feature w hich h ad n o t
been taken in to accou n t in the first in qu iry.

Situation in New York City
D a t a as to w ages offered in N e w Y o r k C ity for various kin ds o f
w o m en 's w ork in the fall o f 1929 and for the sam e period o f 1930, were
gathered from the M a n h a tta n , B ron x , and B r o o k ly n branches o f the
S ta te em p lo ym en t bureau, from a large com m ercial agen cy specializ­
ing in office h elp, and from the classified advertisem en ts in the N e w
Y o r k W o r ld .
T h ese show ed a fall in the w age rates for workers o f all
kinds, w hich w as p articularly m arked in respect to clerical w orkers.
Before the crash in the stock market and the decline of business generally,
clerks' wages ranged from $10 to $22 a week, with the general average between
$15 and $18. In February 1931, clerks were offered $8 to $18 a week, and much
higher educational standards were required. Wages for typists dropped from a
range of $15 to $22 to one of $12 to $21, with the $12 offer being the more usual.
Stenographers have fared even worse, their rates dropping from $15 for a beginner
and $35 for an expert to $9 and $20, respectively. In two instances wages for the
identical position were secured for the two periods; one position previously paid
$20 and now offers $15, while the other was $25 and now is $18 a week. In like
manner bookkeepers were offered $23 to $25 a week and now the orders come in
for $15.
Specialized workers, such as those in b an k s, insurance com pan ies,
and brokerage houses h ad m u ch the sam e experience, as show n in
table 1:
T

able

1 .— RANGE

OF W O M E N 'S SALARIES IN SPECIFIED POSITIONS, 1929 A N D 1930
Range of weekly salaries

Kind of business and of position
October 1929 October 1930
Insurance business:
Clerk................. ...........
Typist...............................
Stenographer...................
Bookkeeper......................
Office machine operator.

$18-$35
23- 25
16- 35
20- 35
30- 35

$18-$30
20- 25
12- 30
18- 30
25- 30

Range of yearly salaries
Bank or brokerage position:
Statistical clerk,........................ .
General financial stenographer.
Senior bookkeeper................. .
Assistant bookkeeper.................
Office machine operator.........

$1,000-$1,800
1,000- 1,600
2,600
1,100- 1,800
1,100- 1,800

$1,000-$1,600
900- 1,800
1,600- 2,000
1,100- 1,500
1,100- 1,600

Permanent full-time saleswomen seemed in most cases able to hold
or even to improve their position, the weekly salaries offered being
$12 to $30, as against $13 to $25 in 1929. Part-time workers and
extras suffered, the part-time workers having been reduced from $15
to $12 a week, and the extras from $3 and $4 to $2 and $3 a day.




1105

TREND OF WAGES IN N E W YORK

Among restaurant workers, cashiers, who were being offered $18 a
week as against $23 previously, seem to have been almost the only
class affected. One case was reported, however, of a large chain of
lunch rooms which had formerly paid its waitresses $10 a week and
had lowered this to $6.
Wages for domestic servants showed a greater reduction than for
any other class. For servants who were to live in the homes of their
employers the wages formerly offered ran from $40 to $70 a month;
these had sunk to a range of from $15 to $55, the most usual figure
being $40.
A record was secured of a placement made in February 1931 of an experienced
domestic at $5 a week with room and board. The woman was 52 years of age,
Protestant, American born, and had been out of work for 8 months. Many
times employers try to secure domestic help without paying any wages, but merely
offering a home and food. No record has been found of any worker accepting
such an offer but such offers continue to come to all the employment offices.

Domestics who do not live in the home, laundry workers, and fac­
tory workers, all showed reductions varying in degree. Among fac­
tory workers it was harder to trace the reductions because payment
on a piece-rate basis was increasingly replacing a flat weekly rate in
many unskilled operations. Formerly it was a common practice to
take on a beginner at $12 a week, with an agreement either to increase
the wage or to put the learner on piece rates when she became pro­
ficient. “ Nowadays the beginner is taken on at piecework immedi­
ately and she has to learn the work at her own expense.” Some of
the factory operations which were still paid for at a weekly rate showed
a reduction in their starting wages of from $1 to $3, $4, or $5 a week.
T a b le 2 show s the result o f such practices upon the earnings of
w om an factory workers:
T a b l e 2 .—W E E K L Y EAR N IN G S OF W O M A N F A C T O R Y W O R K ER S IN N E W Y O R K C IT Y ,

J A N U A R Y 1929 A N D J A N U A R Y 1931
Weekly earnings
Increase or
decrease

Industry group
January 1929 January 1931
Stone, clay, and glass,................_.............................. ........... .........
Metals and machinery____________ _________________________
Wood manufacture. ________ ___________________ ________
Furs, leather, and rubber goods_____________________________
Chemicals, oils, paints, etc________ __________________ _____
Printing and paper goods_______________________________ ___
Textiles_____ __________ _________________ __________________
Clothing and millinery___________________________ ___________
Food and tobacco........ .......................... ... .......... . ........................
Total.......... .........................................................................

$14.52
17.58
17. 28
22.90
16. 20
19. 70
18. 71
23.57
18.90
21. 64

$15.23
15.34
16.01
18.57
15.79
18.22
17.50
21.82
18.57
20.18

+ $ 0 .71
—2.24
- 1 . 27
-4 .3 3
- .4 1
-1 .4 8
- 1 . 21
-1 .7 5
- .3 3
-1 .4 6

Basing conclusions on the figures herewith presented, there can be no doubt
that the wage levels for woman workers in the city of New York have declined
sharply. This has been shown to be true for all large industrial groups and for
many smaller occupational classifications in the clerical, mercantile, restaurant,
and domestic lines of work. In view of the fact that many firms have main­
tained their former wage levels, in some cases with the announced purpose of
helping to maintain community purchasing power, it still remains a question as
to whether the reductions in salary noted were an economic necessity or whether
they were caused by a desire on the part of employers to take advantage of the
present oversupply of labor.
19205— 36--------71




1106

WOMEN IN INDUSTRY

Inquiry in Small Up-State City
T h is inquiry, much more restricted in scope than that in New York
City, was made during the period July 8 to 11, 1931. From the files
of the bureau of factory inspection a list was secured of 23 plants
employing the largest number of women, together with their inspection
figures as of 1930 and 1931. Pay-roll data were secured for 11 of these
plants, which in 1931 employed 698 women, from the largest depart­
ment store in the city, employing 163 women, and from a chain store
with 58 woman employees. The pay-roll data consisted of a list of
all the women working in a selected week in June or July 1931, to­
gether with the operations which they performed, their rate of pay
and weekly earnings, and the hours worked that week. For purposes
of comparison, the same information was then secured for the corre­
sponding week in 1930.
Comparative figures for the 2 weeks are given in table 3:
T

able

3 .—

AVERAGE WEEKLY HOURS AND EARNINGS, 1930 AND
NEW YORK UP-STATE CITY
Number of wom­
en on pay roll

Average weekly
earnings

1931,

OF WOMEN IN A

Weekly hours of majority of
women

Type of establishment
1930
Cigars________________________
Department store. . . . ___ __ _
Men’s clothing________________
N eckw ear.._____ _____
Chain store_
_ ...
. . . ... _
Dresses_____ ____ _______ . . .
L aundry.____ ____________ ..
Cleaning and dyeing.. ________
Printing _ __ ______________
Paper boxes-----------------------------Laundry . . . . _ __________
Beverages_____ _____________
1
2
3
4
5
6

1931

316
169

0)

110
59

(2
)

(5
)

37
31
16
12

9

1930

281
163
139
117
58
52
33
32
13
12
10

9

1931

$17. 57
17. 51
i 15.64
11.84
12.12
3 14.61
15.09
13.09
11.02
12.46
(5
)
6 20.00

$16. 59
16.84
12.34
14.91
11.41
3 12. 21
16.46
14.19
12.16
14. 08
10. 33

621. 25

1930

1931

Piecework
Piecework
48
48
40
44/
41
441/2
47%
48H
Piecework
Piecework
49/
49/
No report
No report
44
40
3 36
4 41
49/
(5
)

Piecework

Piecework

Pay-roll figures for 1930 include only 130 women, who were still employed in 1931.
Total number of women missing; records for 34 operators only.
Comparison based on pay roll for operators only; 37 operators in 1931, 34 operators in 1930.
All the women employed worked the same hours.
Figures for 1930 missing.
Not an average; all women earned the same amount.

The * * * table shows that there were fewer women employed in 1931
than in 1930 in both of the mercantile establishments, the cigar factory, a laundry,
and a printing establishment. On the other hand there were more women on
the 1931 pay roll of the neckwear plant and the cleaning and dyeing establish­
ment. The number employed in the beverage plant and the box factory re­
mained the same both years. Although the trend in number of women em­
ployed seems to be downward, the average weekly earnings rose in 1931 in six
of the plants and went down in only four. In one case where the earnings went
higher, the rise was definitely due to increased output. Unfortunately, the plants
where the average earnings dropped were among the largest in the city, being
the cigar factory, both mercantile establishments, and the dress factory. In all,
these plants employed 554 women.




1107

WOMEN IN INDUSTRY

Wages of Women and Minors in Laundries in New
Hampshire, 1933
H E Minimum Wage Board of New Hampshire, in accordance with
the provisions of the minimum-wage law enacted by the legisla­
ture of that State in 1933, made an inquiry as to the wages of women
and minors under 21 years of age employed in laundries in New
Hampshire. The study was made in the fall of 1933, and as the tem­
porary code of the laundry industry was then in effect, it was thought
advisable, as a means of estimating the resultant changes in rates,
earnings, and hours of employment, to take pay-roll records for 2
weeks— 1 before and 1 after the temporary code became operative.
The term “ code” as used throughout the report refers to the tem­
porary laundry code, also described as the “ President’s Reemploy­
ment Agreement.”
Altogether the study included 64 laundries employing 431 women
and minors for the first week in June prior to the temporary code,
and 67 laundries employing 581 women and minors for the first week
in September after the temporary code had gone into effect. An
attempt was made to obtain data as to weekly hours worked, hourly
wage rates, and weekly earnings; in some cases, however, the records
available did not include information on all of these points. Where
information regarding hours made it possible, potential earnings for
full-time employment were also computed. The information secured
is presented in the following tables.
Practically all employees in the laundries in New Hampshire are
paid on a time-rate basis. Of the 581 women and minors for whom
records were secured in the fall of 1933, 571, or 98.2 percent, were on
time rates. A very few, 10 in all, received a combined time and
piece rate.

T

T a b l e 1 .— A V ER AG E EAR N IN G S OF W O M E N A N D M INORS IN LAU N D RIES IN N E W

H AM PSH IR E FOR 1 W E E K BEFORE A N D FOR 1 W E E K A F T E R T E M P O R A R Y CODE,
1933, B Y SIZE OF E ST A B L ISH M E N T

Before temporary code1 After temporary code 2
Number of employees
Less than 5_____________ __________ - _ _________
5 and less than 10________________________________
10 and less than 15__ _______ ___ _ ____ _______
15 and less than 20_____ ______ __ ________ _____
20 and over— ______ _______________________ ____

Number of Average Number of Average
laundries earnings laundries earnings
25
19

1
1
4
2

$8.28
9.12
9.71
11.81
11.90

1 418 employees in 61 laundries; records not available for 47 employees in 6 laundries.
2577 employees in 66 laundries; records not available for 4 employees in 1 laundry.




23
17
14

6
6

$8.70
10.26
10.87
10.66
12. 07

1108

WOMEN IN INDUSTRY

T a b l e 3 .—A V E R A G E HOURS A N D EAR N IN G S OF W O M E N A N D M IN O R S IN LAU N D R IES

OF N E W H A M PSH IR E FOR 1 W E E K BEFORE A N D 1 W E E K A F T E R T E M P O R A R Y CO D E,
1933, B Y T Y P E OF L A U N D R Y

Type of laundry

Commercial. ________________________ ____________
General___ _______
__________ _____ ________
Wet wash and rough dry____ _________________
Miscellaneous (including hand and home laun­
dries)_______________________________________
Institutional (including hospitals, schools, and en­
dowed homes)__________ _________________________

Average
Average
Average
weekly hours1 hourly rates2 weekly earn­ Poten­
ings 2
tial
weekly
earn­
ings
Before After Before After Before After
tempo­ tempo­ tempo­ tempo­ tempo­ tempo­ for full
rary time 4
rary
rary
rary
rary
rary
code
code
code
code
code
code
$8.93 $10.20
9.54 10. 72
7.93
9.15

$11.41

34
35
29

35 $0.262 $0.273
37
.26
.287
.314
29
.285

26

25

.23

.244

6.41

6.30

7.66

42

42

.233

.219

9.33

8.99

8.99

12.10
9.30

1Covers 375 employees in 52 laundries before the code and 558 employees in 66 laundries after the code;
records not available for 90 employees and for 15 laundries before the code and for 23 workers, including
all employees in 1 laundry, after the code.
2Covers 394 employees in 56 laundries before the code and 579 employees in 67 laundries after the code;
records not available for 71 employees and 11 laundries before the code and for 2 employees after the code.
3Covers 418 employees in 61 laundries before the code and 577 employees in 61 laundries after the code;
records not available for 47 employees and 6 laundries before the code and for 4 employees in 1 laundry
after the code.
4Full time represents the regular running schedule of the laundry; records of earnings not available for
1 laundry with 4 employees.

Employability of Destitute Women in Philadelphia,
1933
ESTITUTIO N and dependency among unemployed women liv­
ing alone in Philadelphia are to a great extent social problems
arising out of old age and chronic illness rather than an economic
problem of unemployment, according to a survey covering 1,654
dependent Philadelphia women living alone under the care of various
relief organizations made in 1933 by the Joint Committee on Research
of the Community Council of Philadelphia and the Pennsylvania
School of Social Work. Two representatives of the Women’s Bureau
of the United States Department of Labor assisted in the field work.
The report was published by the committee under the title, “ Women
without work.”
These 1,654 women comprise probably “ the majority of those
receiving unemployment relief in Philadelphia and may be considered
to represent adequately the problem as a whole.” Native-born white
women constituted 605 of the group, while 281 were foreign-born white
and 749 were colored.2 More than one-fourth were native-born Phila­
delphians and most of the rest were long-time residents of the city,
only a handful having been there less than 5 years. Over 70 percent
had been married, and more than half the group had been widows for
many years. Somewhat less than half of those with work histories
had been domestic servants when they were employed, and 20 percent
had been factory workers. Nearly 30 percent had not been employed
in recent years—some had never worked at all and others not since
marriage.

D

2

Birthplace of 19 white women not reported.




EMPLOYABILITY OF DESTITUTE WOMEN IN PHILADELPHIA

1109

Occupational Status
T h e study was undertaken largely to determine whether these lone
women, dependent at the time upon relief for their livelihood, were
employable, and special care was used in examining them because of
the element of doubt upon that point.

About one-fourth had never been wage earners at all “ and probably
never would be.” Nearly half of the 1,187 women whose work histories were obtained had been in domestic service, and those who had
been in related personal-service occupations—office cleaning, restau­
rant work, etc.—brought the total to more than half. This* type of
work was reported by more than 75 percent of the colored women.
Clerical work, factory work, and retail trade, in the order of their
importance, had furnished employment to just half the white women.
The number of whites in domestic service, however, exceeded the
number in retail trade. Among other occupations reported for all
women are nursing (48), teaching (11), and independent business (35).
Data on length of service indicate that the wage-earning women on
the whole had worked for a long time in their regular jobs. Many of
them probably gave the interviewer information covering the best
jobs they ever had; others probably never had more than one job. In
any event, the length of service reported would indicate that they
were not unsatisfactory workers, as “ no employer would have kept
them for so long had they not been making good” , at least within the
standards of low-wage occupations.
It is on this point that the true industrial status of these women
comes to light. If they were long-service workers on their regular
jobs, it is also true that they had been out of those jobs for a long time.
Some women had been dropped in prosperous times many years ago,
as in the cases of the white teachers, who averaged 8 years and 7
months of unemployment, or the clerical secretaries, who averaged
5 years and 7 months. But by far the most prevalent averages were
from 2 y2 to 3% years, which means that the overwhelming majority of
the women were laid off in the early days of the depression. The
figures are so uniform on this point that it was fairly safe to establish
two conclusions: (1) The bulk of these women were employed when
the depression began in the summer of 1929, and (2) they were among
the first to be laid off by the employers when curtailment became
necessary. In other words, they were the marginal workers. By the
same sign, it is safe to say they they will probably be the last to be
taken on, if they are ever taken on at all (as many will not be).
Employability

To d e t e r m i n e as definitely as possible the employability of the
group, the representatives of the United States Women’s Bureau in­
terviewed a selected sample of 277 women under 60 years of age who
had been wage earners. Results were tabulated thus: Definitely em­
ployable, 37.1 percent of the whites, 56.0 percent of the colored; em­
ployable with limitations, 24.7 percent of the whites, 5.5 percent of
the colored; employability doubtful, 14.5 percent of the whites, 9.9
percent of the colored; and definitely unemployable, 23.7 percent of
the whites, 28.6 percent of the colored.




1110

WOMEN IN INDUSTRY

Those diagnosed as being “ employable within limitations” had
handicaps of age or mental or physical disabilities which, while not
sufficient to prevent them from obtaining work, still limited their
possibilities. “ Perhaps the best way to put it” , the report suggests,
“ would be to say that each of these women probably could hold a
job if she could find an opportunity to do so under favorable circum­
stances.”
The group whose employability was regarded as doubtful included
women suffering from serious physical disabilities and, especially
among the native-born white women, mental instability. These
women “ might, under the most favorable circumstances, succeed in
holding some sort of job, but even then they would have to be treated
with special consideration.”
Age was considered less a deterrent to reemployment for colored
workers than for the white women, because in the common occupa­
tion of the colored—domestic service—age does not constitute a hand­
icap to the same extent as in clerical work or manufacture.
Applying to the entire group of 1,654 the percentages developed by
the sample and revising them to allow for the inclusion of those over
60 years of age (who were eliminated from the sample), the employability status thus becomes: Definitely employable, 27.5 percent of
the white women, 47.3 percent of the colored; employable with limi­
tations, 18.3 percent of the whites, 4.6 percent of the colored; and
doubtfully or definitely not employable, 54.2 percent of the whites,
48.1 percent of the colored.

Employment of Women in Clerical Work, 1931-32

C

LE R IC A L work as an occupation for women was shown by the
census of 1930 as ranking second in importance, exceeded only
by domestic and personal service. By 1930 it had also become an
occupation in which women predominate. Approximately 4,000,000
clerical workers were enumerated in the census of that year, of whom
51.5 percent were women.
Recognizing the increasing importance of office work as a field of
employment for women, and the need of more definite information
concerning it, the Women's Bureau of the Department of Labor dur­
ing 1931 and the first 3 months of 1932 made a survey of woman
office workers in 7 cities.3
The cities selected were New York, Hartford, Philadelphia, Atlanta,
Chicago, Des Moines, and St. Louis. The study was limited to office
workers engaged in advertising, banking, insurance, investment, mail
order, and publishing companies, and in public utilities. The total
number of offices covered by the survey was 314, considerably more
than half of which (185) were those of banks, insurance companies,
and public utilities. Records were secured for nearly 43,000 women.
In the large offices, a representative sample of all occupations was
selected; in others the entire female staff was included. The report
points out that job terminology for office occupations is indefinite and
not comparable from office to office, but about four-fifths of the
3U. S. Department of Labor.
Offices. Washington, 1934.




Women’s Bureau.

Bulletin No. 120: The Employment of Women in

EMPLOYMENT IN CLERICAL W ORK

1111

women in the survey are in occupations classed by the Women’s
Bureau as the stenographic group, machine operators, and general
clerks.
The data collected came primarily from three sources:
1. Personnel records showing occupation, experience, education, age, and mari­
tal status of women workers.
2. Salary records.
3. General interviews with the management on numbers of men and women
employed, policies and practices as to hours of work, overtime, vacations, pro­
motions, and welfare activities, restrictions based on age or marital status, kinds
of office machines used, and effect of mechanization on employment in the pre­
ceding 5-year period.

Age and Marital Status
F or t h e entire group—over 41,000 women—for whom age was
reported, the average (median) age was 25 years. In advertising,
banking, and investment companies, and in public utilities, the aver­
age age was 26 or 27; in insurance and publishing offices, 25; and in
the mail-order group, 21 years. Almost two-thirds of the women
were between 20 and 30.
Apparently there has been more prejudice against women’s employ­
ment in office work after marriage than in other general lines of work.
Occupational statistics of the 1930 census showed that of the women
employed in trade, 35.3 percent were married; in domestic service,
35 percent; in manufacturing and mechanical industries, 32.4 per­
cent; but in clerical work, only 18.3 percent.
In this study 84.8 percent of the women were single, 11.8 percent
were married, and 3.4 percent were widowed, separated, or divorced.
The below-average proportion reported as married may be due partly
to failure to notify employers of a change in marital status in firms
where there are restrictions against the retention of married women.
Also, many of the offices included in the study are large, and gener­
ally these had the most definite and drastic policies barring married
women.

Earnings
T h e report gives earnings in terms of monthly salary rates. Where
weekly rates were recorded these were converted to their monthly
equivalents. As the office workers in this survey rarely suffered de­
ductions for lost time or short absences due to illness or unavoidable
emergency needs, salary rates were considered as representative of
earnings for the vast majority of the women.
Size of office and policies of management have a direct bearing on
salary schedules. Specialization and division of work are not so great
in small offices, and the proportions of secretaries and stenographers
are relatively high, with fewer routine clerks, which condition tends
to raise the median. For example, the largest publishers, with the
greatest proportion of clerks on routine jobs, were in New York and
Philadelphia, and the median for this type of offices in these cities—
$81 in both cases—was the lowest in any city for any type of office
except mail-order houses. In Chicago, a significant proportion of the
publishers included were branch offices of eastern publishing houses,




1112

WOMEN IN INDUSTRY

and. as they were smaller offices and much of their activity was of a
sales-correspondence nature, salaries were much better than those
paid ih the home offices. The same was true of publishers in Atlanta.
Similarly, home offices in the insurance field paid less than branch
offices, and in this survey home offices predominated.
A distribution of salaries at $25 intervals shows that about onefifth of the women (19.4 percent) earned less than $75 a month. In
advertising and investment firms there were fewer than 2% percent
with salaries as low as this, but in mail-order houses more than onehalf (54.7 percent) were massed here.
Distribution of salaries by occupation is given in table 1, while
salary ranges for the 4 principal occupations in 3 types of office are
shown in table 2.
Experience and length of service had a marked effect upon earn­
ings. Relatively few women (25.3 percent) who had been employed
5 years or more were paid less than $100 a month. Of the women
whose services with their present employers ranged from 10 to 14
years, seven-eighths were earning $100 or more, and well over a
fourth were on salaries of $150 or more. Of those with 15 years'
service or over, about one-half were receiving at least $150. Approxi­
mately 900 women in the survey had salary rates of at least $200,
and of these about seven-tenths had worked 10 years or more with
their present employers.
T a b l e 1.—P E R C E N T A G E D IST R IBU T IO N OF SALARIES OF W O M A N OFFICE W O R K E R S,

B Y OCCUPATION

Occupation

Percent of women with monthly
salaries of—
Median
Number monthly
of
salary
$75
$100
$125
women
$150
Under and
and
and
rate
and
$75
under under under over
$100
$150
$125

All occupations.____ ______________________ ____

42,127

$99

19.4

31.6

25.5

13.4

10.1

Secretary___ ____________ __________________ ___
Stenographer. ____________________________ ____ _
Typist_______________ _______ _________ ______
Clerk-typist____ ____________________________
Dictating-machine transcriber______ ____ _
Other____ __________ ______________________
Correspondent_______________________ _____ ___
File clerk—_____ ______ _______ ________________
Hand bookkeeper______________________________
Cashier, t e l l e r . _____ _____________ ___________
General clerk______________________ ___________
Machine operator_______________________ ______
Bookkeeping or billing______ ______________
Calculating____________ __________ _______
Tabulating or key punch____ ______________
Addressing_________ ______________ _______
Duplicating_____ ____________ ______ ______
Other.......... ..................... .................................
Telephone operator___ __________ ______________
Messenger___________ ____ _____________________
Supervisor_______ _____________________________
Other i________ _______ _____________ ___________

1,893
6,146
6,453
674
924
4,855
398
2,569
983
444
14,614
5,166
2,110
1,440
637
609
182
138
967
372
1,543
275

156
114
93
95
103
90
105
81
111
123
90
98
104
94
89
94
93
102
109
56
153
166

.3
6.0
19.4
13.6
8.4
22.3
14.8
36.5
7.6
7.9
27.3
14.1
8.9
11.9
22.9
23.5
23.6
18.8
5.0
94.1
2.1
2.2

4.2
26.1
41.3
44.2
35.5
42.0
30.7
39.9
23.6
18.9
34.9
38.2
30.8
47.8
46.4
34.3
39.6
26.1
26.1
5.4
6.8
6.5

12.5
31.3
29.3
28.3
35.9
28.2
21.1
18.5
31.3
26.1
22.2
35.0
41.1
31.4
26.3
33.0
24.2
43.5
42.0
.5
14.5
11.6

24.9
24.3
8.4
10.5
18.0
6.3
16.6
3.9
24.1
21.4
10.2
10.8
16.9
6.5
3.8
7.6
11.5
8.7
20.3

58.0
12.4
1.5
3.3
2.2
1.2
16.8
1.2
13.3
25.7
5.4
2.0
2.3
2.4
.6
1.6
1.1
2.9
6.6

23.0
17.1

53.6
62.5

364

61

83.8

12.1

1.9

.8

1.4

Merchandising (mail order)___________ ________

1 This small group is composed of professional and semiprofessional women such as personnel directors,
underwriters, etc.




1113

EMPLOYMENT IN CLERICAL W ORK

T a b l e 2 .—SA L A R Y R ANGES OF SPECIFIED OCCUPATIONS IN C LER ICA L E M P L O Y ­

M E N T IN 7 SEL ECT ED CITIES, B Y T Y P E OF OFFICE
Usual salary range
City
Banks

ance
compa­
nies

Public
util ties

Stenographers:
New York_______ $100-$165 $85-$160 $95-$160
Hartford....... ........
75- 140
Philadelphia____
75- 145 75- 135 90- 160
Atlanta.................
90- 150 75- 140 85- 155
Chicago_________
95- 155 75- 140 80- 155
75- 130
Des Moines
St. Louis________
85- 145 65- 120 75- 125
Typists:
New York_______
90- 135 75- 125 75- 130
Hartford___ ____
65- 115
Philadelphia____
75- 120 65- 110 70- 120
Atlanta__________
55- 110
Chicago_________
80- 125 70- 120 75- 140
65- 115
Des Moines_____
St. Louis,............
60- 110 60- 100

Usual salary range
City
Banks

Insur­
ance
Public
compa­ utilities
nies

General clerks:
New York_______ $80-$160 $70-$135 $75-$145
65- 125
Hartford
___
70- 135 65- 130 75- 140
Philadelphia........
65- 130 55- 130 70- 140
Atlanta...............
Chicago_________
85- 155 65- 130 65- 145
Des Moines
70- 130
St. Louis________
60- 130 60- 115 60- 115
Machine operators:
New York---------90- 135 80- 125 80- 130
Hartford________
65- 110
Philadelphia......... 80- 115 75- 115 75- 120
Atlanta_________
80- 130
Chicago_________
80- 130 80- 135 75- 125
Des Moines._____
70- 125
St. Louis________
60- 125 65- 110 80- 115

Salaries of those who had been with the office less than a year
indicate to some extent beginning rates, though of course these are
not exclusively inexperienced women. In advertising in New York
early in 1931, women with service of less than a year showed a
median of $ 113 ; in Chicago, surveyed 9 or 10 months later, the
median was $107. In banks, $101 in New York, $103 in Chicago,
and $82 in Philadelphia were the medians for the beginning group.
In insurance offices, $65 in Hartford to $77 in Chicago was the range
in medians for the first-year group. In investment houses the
medians for so little experience were $104 in New York and $105 in
Chicago. Publishing houses in Philadelphia showed a median of
$64, in New York $69, and in Chicago $88. In public utilities the
medians for the first year were $76 for Chicago, $78 for Philadelphia,
$79 for Atlanta, and $89 for New York. Mail-order offices showed
medians of $43 in Atlanta and $66 in Chicago.
Negyo Woman Office Workers
E ffo r t was made in both Chicago and Atlanta to secure informa­
tion for Negro women employed in the types of offices studied. The
2 races were not employed together in any office visited, but 5 insurance
companies and 1 publisher in Chicago and 2 insurance offices in
Atlanta, all controlled and managed by Negro ownership, were found
to employ Negroes. In both cities several banks and other types of
offices employing Negroes were visited, but they had too few woman
employees to form a representative group.
In the 6 Chicago offices 101 colored women, 90 in insurance and
11 in publishing, were included. In insurance their median monthly
salary was $80 as compared to $94 for white women. In Atlanta
insurance offices the median monthly salary for the colored women
was $55 in contrast to $94 for white women. About one-third of
the Negro women (including 11 in publishing) in Chicago and about
seven-eighths in Atlanta were on salaries of less than $75 a month.




1114

WOMEN IN INDUSTRY

Four-fifths in Chicago and 98 percent in Atlanta were on salaries of
less than $100.
The groups were too small to lend themselves to occupational
distribution. As was true of all small offices, the proportion on
stenographic jobs was high and the others tended to be in the general
clerical group.
The amount of general schooling and the attendance at business
schools among these colored workers were higher than for the study
as a whole. Of 100 women in Chicago who reported education, 50
had completed high school and 34 more had some advanced training.
Of 56 in Atlanta, 16 were high-school graduates and 23 more had
some advanced training.
The colored women were somewhat older than the white women.
The median age for the white women was 25 in both Atlanta and
Chicago, but for the colored women the median was 31 in Atlanta
and 28 in Chicago. Larger proportions of the colored than of the
white women were married. The chief finding seemed to be the
much lower salaries paid, with the interesting fact that this was true
even though the employers were Negroes.




W ORKM EN’S COMPENSATION

Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 616
Handbook of Labor Statistics: 1936 edition




1115




Workmen’s Compensation in the United States, as of
January 1, 1936
N D E R the A m erican system o f govern m en t each S ta te is a field
for experim entation in m eetin g social p roblem s, and extrem ely
wide experim entation h as been m ad e on the su bject o f com pensation
for industrial injuries.
T h e law s differ n o t on ly in the p rim ary fa c­
tors o f the scope o f coverage and the am ou n t o f com pensation payab le,
b u t also in such m a tters as m a k in g the law com pulsory or v o lu n ta ry ,
the securing or n o t securing the p ay m en ts o f the benefits, and the
m eth ods o f adm inistration.

U

The following analysis of the workmen’s compensation systems in
effect in the United States is based on the laws and practices as they
were on January 1, 1936. A brief account of the development of
workmen’s compensation in the United States was given in the 1931
Handbook of Labor Statistics (Bui. No. 541).
Forty-six States of the Union have enacted workmen’s compensa­
tion laws, leaving only Arkansas and Mississippi with no legislation
on this subject. In addition to the State laws, Territorial acts have
established workmen’s compensation in Alaska, Hawaii, Philippine
Islands, and Puerto Rico. The Federal Congress has enacted a law
covering the District of Columbia; and Federal acts have also been
made applicable to all United States civil employees and to long­
shoremen and harbor workers. For the sake of convenience these 53
acts will be referred to as “ State” acts, although they include those
applying to the Territories and to subject matter not within the con­
trol of the States.
Insurance
W o r k m en ’ s compensation is based upon the principle that injury
to employees is an insurable risk. Therefore the insurance of work­
men’s compensation risks has become a fixed policy among practically
all of the States, although Alaska makes no provision regarding insur­
ance and under the Alabama law insurance is optional.
The laws provide for three general schemes for insuring the risk of
liability based on industrial accidents: (a) State insurance fund, (6)
private insurance companies, and (c) self-insurance. Approximately
41 State laws permit the employer to be a self-insurer. It is usually
required that an employer must be able to satisfy the compensation
board that he is financially able to carry his own risks before he is
allowed to carry his own insurance.
A ll S tates except N e v a d a , N o r th D a k o t a , O h io, O regon, W a sh in g ­
ton , W e s t V irgin ia, and W y o m in g allow the em ployer to insure
through p rivate insurance com panies.
In these S tates an exclusive
S ta te fu nd is m ain tained and em ployers com in g under the coverage
o f the com pen sation a ct are required to insure their risk in the S ta te
fu n d , alth ough in Ohio and W e s t V irginia self-insurance is perm itted
under certain circum stances.




1117

1118

WORKMEN’S COMPENSATION

Other States maintain competitive State funds in which the em­
ployers may insure their risks, although insurance therein is not
compulsory.
Table 1 presents an analysis by States of the provisions in the com­
pensation laws regarding insurance methods and also shows for each
compensation State whether the law is compulsory or elective. The
table relates only to private employments, as public employees are
covered in most States and compulsorily in some where the law is
elective as to private employments.
T a b l e 1 .— COM PENSATION A N D IN SU R AN CE SYSTEM S (IN PR IVATE E M P L O Y M E N T S )

Insurance required in—
State

Alabama ______ ______ _________________
A laska______ _____ . _ ______ __________
Arizona_________ _____
______________
California__________ ____ ____________
Colorado______ ________________________
Connecticut_________ __ ____________
Delaware____
___
- _______ ___ ____
District of Columbia _ ______ ________ _
Elorida_____________ ______________________
Georgia.. ___________ ____________________
Hawaii _ _ ________ __________ _ ______
Illinois_________ . ________ - _________
Indiana ___ _______ _ _______________
Kansas_________ ____ _____________________
Kentucky___ _________________ __________
Louisiana. _ __________________ ________ .
Maine_____ ________________________ _____
Maryland__ __ _______________. _ ._ ______
_
Massachusetts.
_
___ __
____
Michigan_______ ___________ ______ ______
Minnesota____
__ _. _________________
M issouri__ _
__ ________ _______
Montana____
__
______. . .
_____
Nebraska ___
._ __ _______
____
Nevada_______
__ _______ __ _______
New Hampshire __
_______ _ _____ __
New Jersey_____
_ _________ ___
New Mexico____ __
___________ ________
New York_____ ______ _______________ __
North Carolina_____ ______________________
North Dakota________________________ . . .
O h io ._________ ____________________ __
Oklahoma___________________________ ___
__________________
Oregon______ ________
Pennsylvania. _ ______________________ _
Philippine Islands _ _ . _ ___________ __ .
Puerto Rico_________
Rhode Island ______________ ___________
South Carolina____________________________
South D akota__________ __________ ______
Tennessee. _________________________
Texas_______________ ______________ _____
Utah ____ ______ _______________________
Verm ont_______________ _________________
Virginia___________________ ______________
Washington______________ ____________ _.
West Virginia.____ ________ _________ __
W isconsin__________________________________
W y o m in g ..___ ______________ __________
United States: Longshoremen’s Act_______

Compensation
compulsory or
elective

Elective__________
____ d o ___________
Compulsory 2_,___

State fund:
Exclusive or
competitive

Competitive___
__ do _____ __
Elective__________ ____ do__________
__ do___________
___ do_____________
Compulsory.__ _
Elective _________
....d o ____________
Compulsory______
___ do_____________ Competitive___
. . d o . . . _____
Elective 3_ _____
____ do 3___________
_ . do____________
___ do____________
__ _ do__________ _
____ do_____ _____Compulsory __ _. Competitive___
Elective
. _____
__ do______ ______ Competitive___
__ do___ _______
: ___ do____________
_ do____________ Competitive___
__ do___ ______ __
___ d o _____ ______
Exclusive
___ do — ________
___ do .. ________
____ do____________
Compulsory______ Competitive___
Elective__________
Compulsory______ Exclusive _ _
____ do____ _______ ____ do.
_
_
___ do......... .......... .
Competitive___
Elective ................ Exclusive _ __
___ do_____________ Competitive___
Compulsory ____
Exclusive
do
___
Elective__________
. . . do . . . _______
___ do__________ _.
____ do____________
___ do.®___________
Compulsory __ ._ Competitive___
Elective_________
____ do____________
Compulsory _. ._ Exclusive
Elective. __ _____ __ do____ ____
Compulsory .. .
___ d o ____________ Exclusive
-------do----------------- -

Private companies or
by self-insurance

Either.
(i)
Either.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do,
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Private companies.
Either.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Self-insurance.
Either.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Self-insurance.4
Either.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Private companies.
Either.
Do.
Do,
Self-insurance.4
Either.
Do.

1 No security is required, but in case beneficiary files notice of death claim employer may deposit $9,000
with clerk of district court or give bond for that amount. In other cases claimant may have a writ of attach­
ment issued unless employer files an undertaking in an amount double that sued for.
2 As to employers.
3 Compulsory as to public employees and coal mining.
4 Employers accepting the act must furnish proof of solvency or give bond; no other provision as to
insurance.
» Compulsory as to motor-bus companies.




1119

UNITED STATES, AS OF JANUARY 1, 1936

Of the 52 compensation acts listed in table 1 (the United States
Civil Employee’s Act is not listed) 18 are compulsory and 34 are
elective. A State insurance system exists in 19 of the States listed.
Eight of these funds are monopolistic and 11 are operated on a com­
petitive basis. The provisions of the Idaho statute seem to con­
template an exclusive State fund, but with an option for self-insurance
and the deposit of a surety bond or guaranty contract as one means
of satisfying the industrial accident board as to the security of pay­
ment. The reports of the board indicate however that the system
is competitive in practice and that approved private companies are
admitted to do business in the State. The laws of Ohio and West
Virginia also provide for self-insurance as well as for the State fujid,
but those States are listed as having monopolistic State funds, as no
other means of insurance is provided.
Scope of Coverage
I n n o case does a State compensation law cover all employments
in the State. Certain employees are exempt specifically by the act
or because the State has no jurisdiction over them. Employees
engaged in interstate commerce are not covered by State workmen’s
compensation laws because such employees are engaged in work
which comes under the jurisdiction of the Federal Congress even
though the Federal law creates liability but does not provide for
compensation. Certain types of employees are not covered by the
various laws, as for instance some laws cover only employees engaged
in hazardous work. Casual employees are usually exempt, and those
engaged in certain occupations, such as agriculture and domestic
service, are also excluded from the benefits of most workmen’s com­
pensation legislation. Each of these exemptions is covered below.
Numerical exemptions.—The workmen’s compensation laws of 27
States provide that employers of less than a stipulated number of
employees are exempt from the operation of the acts. Such employers
may under most of the laws voluntarily elect to come within the
coverage of the acts, as is also the case in regard to employments not
classed as hazardous when the law covers only hazardous occupations.
Table 2 lists the States in which the number of employees determines
the coverage.
T a b l e 2 .—STATES M A K IN G

N U M E R IC A L E X E M P T IO N S , B Y M IN IM U M
M ENTS

R EQ U IR E­

Employers are exempt who have less than—
2 employ­
ees
Oklahoma.

3 employ­ 4 employees 5 employees 6 employees
ees
Arizona.
Colorado.
Florida.1 New Mex­
Kentucky.
ico.
New
Ohio.
York .2
Texas.
Puerto
Utah.
Rico.
Wiscon­
sin.

Alaska.
ConnectiDelaware.
Kansas.
New
Hamp­
shire.
North
Caro­
lina.3
Tennessee.

Maine.
Rhode
Island.

10 em­
ployees

11 em­
ployees

15 em­
ployees

16 employ­
ees

South
Georgia. Mis­
souri.2
Caro­
Vermont.
lina.
Virginia.

Alabama.

i Sawmills (other than tractor sawmills) employing 10 or less are excluded.
7 Numerical exemption applies only in case of non hazardous employments.
3 Sawmill operators with less than 15 employees are excluded,




1120

W ORKM EN'S COMPENSATION

Agriculture and domestic service.—Agricultural employees are either
expressly or impliedly excluded from the operation of all workmen’s
compensation laws except in Hawaii, New Jersey, Ohio, and Puerto
Rico. Domestic servants are also excluded in all laws except in New
Jersey. Voluntary election to come within the coverage of the com­
pensation law in these occupations is provided for quite generally,
although in some States it appears that their exclusion is intended
to be absolute. Employees engaged in threshing grain, etc., are spe­
cifically included in Kentucky, Minnesota, and South Dakota (by a
separate act) and the law of the Philippine Islands specifically covers
employees engaged in the operation of mechanical implements in
agriculture.
Hazardous employments.—Twelve State laws apply only to hazard­
ous employments. In these States (Illinois, Kansas, Louisiana,
Maryland, Missouri (where there are less than 10 employees), Mon­
tana, New Hampshire, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Oregon, Washington,
and Wyoming) the industries covered are enumerated, but the list is
not complete in several States and in some a blanket clause is used,
while in others the administrative agency may make additions. The
list may be further extended in some States by court decisions. In
the State laws which list the hazardous employments the principal
industrial employments are uniformly included, with the one excep­
tion of interstate transportation.
Public employments.—The provisions in regard to public employees
also lack uniformity. Employees in the service of the State and its
subdivisions and municipalities are included generally in the following
33 States:
Arizona (if receiving not Montana.
Nebraska.
over $2,400).
Nevada.
California.
New Jersey.
Colorado.
New York.
Connecticut.
North Carolina.
District of Columbia.
North Dakota.
Florida.
Hawaii.
Ohio.
Oregon.
Idaho.
Pennsylvania.
Illinois.
Philippine Islands (if re­
Indiana.
ceiving not over 2,000
Louisiana.
pesos).
Maine.
Michigan.
Puerto Rico.

Rhode Island.
South Carolina.
South Dakota.
Utah.
Vermont (if receiving not
over $2,000).
Virginia.
West Virginia.
Wisconsin.
United States: Federal
employees.

Public employees are partially included in the laws of 13 additional
States:
Aabama.
Delaware.
Georgia.
Iowa.
Kansas.

Kentucky.
Maryland.
Massachusetts.
Minnesota.
New Mexico.

Oklahoma.
Washington.
Wyoming.

In the laws of Alaska, Missouri, New Hampshire, Tennessee, and
Texas public employees are excluded, although in Missouri and
Tennessee the law authorizes an affirmative acceptance of its pro­
vision by the State, counties, etc.
Other exclusions.—The compensation laws have various other
exclusions not included among those listed above. Employees
whose employment is casual and not in the usual course of the em-




UNITED STATES, AS OF JANUARY 1, 1936

1121

ployer’s trade or business are quite generally excluded, and out­
workers are specifically excluded in a few of the laws. In some
States employees receiving above a designated wage or salary are
also excluded. Clerical and certain other occupations considered
nonhazardous are excluded in several States. Questions involving
the coverage of loaned employees, casual employees, and independent
contractors have been the basis for much dispute and have been
settled in various ways by decisions under each compensation law.
The common-law rules determining the master-servant relation or
the question of agency have been followed in most instances.
Election
E l e c t i o n is presumed in the absence of active rejection, this
presumption affecting both employer and employee, in 25 of the
35 elective States. These 25 States are:

Alabama.
Alaska.
Colorado.
Connecticut.
Delaware.
Florida.
Georgia.
Indiana.1
Iowa.

Kansas.
Louisiana.
Minnesota.
Missouri.
Nebraska.
New Jersey.
New Mexico.
North Carolina.
Oregon.

Pennsylvania.
South Carolina.
South Dakota.
Tennessee.
Vermont.
Virginia.
Wisconsin.2

In the 10 other elective States the employer must take positive
action, but if he acts the employee’s acceptance is presumed, except
in Kentucky, where he must sign an acceptance. In 7 of these 10
States (Kentucky, Maine, Michigan, Montana, Nevada, New Halmpshire, and Rhode Island) the acceptances are filed with designated
State authorities, and in the other 3 States (Massachusetts, Texas,3
and West Virginia 4) the act of securing insurance signifies election.
As an inducement to election, an employer who has rejected the
law is, in any suit brought against him by an employee to recover
damages for injury or death, deprived of the common-law defenses
of negligence of fellow servant, assumption of risk, and contributory
negligence. The employer who has accepted the act is not deprived
of these defenses where a rejecting employee brings suit for damages.
Extraterritorial Effect of the Law
I n 15 o f the States, the workmen’s compensation law contains
no statement as to whether it applies to accidents happening out­
side the State, but the courts of 10 of these States have interpreted
the law as being applicable to such accidents. In about two-thirds
of the States, however, the law is clearly applicable to accidents
happening without the particular State. Generally the law specifies
that the contract of hire shall have been made within the State, and
either that the employee be a resident of the State or that the em­
ployer’s place of business be within the State.
The different States have various other provisions, presumably
enacted in an effort to limit the extraterritorial application of the
1 Compulsory as to coal mining and public employers.
2 Compulsory as to all State, county, etc., and private employments (except farming, domestic service,
and work not in the course of the trade, business, etc., of employer) in which 3 or more are employed.
3 Compulsory as to motorbus companies.
4 Notice must be posted in place of business.
19205— 36--------72




1122

W O R K M E N ’S

C O M P E N S A T IO N

law, but one State declares the law applies to accidental injury
occurring in another State or in a foreign country. Among interest­
ing special provisions are the following: Hawaii provides that juris­
diction of the several boards extends to injuries occurring on vessels
operated by residents of the Territory ; Maryland holds the law applic­
able to miners working in parts of mines extending underground into
another State; Pennsylvania makes the law applicable to employees
temporarily outside the State for not more than 90 days, performing
service for an employer whose place of business is within the Common­
wealth; while the Utah law, after stating that the law applies to injuries
received outside the State if the workman was hired in the State,
also declares that if a workman hired outside the State is entitled to
compensation under the laws of the State in which hired, he shall
be entitled to enforce his rights against his employer in the courts of
Utah.
Suits for Damages
S u it s for damages are generally forbidden where both parties have
accepted the act, but in New Hampshire (an elective State) the
employee may, after injury, choose whether he will proceed under
the workmen’s compensation act or sue for damages at common law.
In most of the States having an elective law if the employer has
accepted the act, a rejecting employee may sue, with the employer
retaining the common-law defenses.
Upon failure of the employer to secure payment of compensation,
or to provide the insurance required by the act, or to pay the pre­
miums, the employee may bring action for damages, with the commonlaw defenses removed, in the 33 following States:
Arizona.
California.
Colorado.
Connecticut.
Delaware.
District of Columbia.
Florida.
Indiana*
Iowa.
Kentucky.
Maryland.
Michigan.

Missouri.
Montana.
Nebraska.
Nevada.
New York.
North Carolina.
North Dakota.5
Ohio.
Oklahoma.
Oregon.
Puerto Rico.

Rhode Island.
South Dakota.
Tennessee.
Texas.
Utah.
Virginia.
Washington.
West Virginia.
Wyoming.
United
States:
Long­
shoremen’s Act.

Suit may be brought in 10 States if there is “ intent” to injure on
the part of the employer, or if the injury is due to his gross negli­
gence or willful misconduct:
Arizona.
Kentucky.5
Maryland.
New Hampshire.6

Oregon.
Puerto Rico.
Texas.
Utah.

Washington.
West Virginia.

No suits are permitted after both employer and employee have
accepted the provisions of the compensation act, in 18 States:
Alabama.
Alaska.
Georgia.
Hawaii.
Idaho.
Illinois.5

Kansas.
Louisiana.
Maine.
Massachusetts.
Minnesota.
New Jersey.5

New Mexico.
Pennsylvania.
Philippine Islands.
South Carolina.
Vermont,
Wisconsin.

6 Illegally employed minor may elect after injury.
e Employee has option after injury to sue at law or to collect compensation under the act.




UNITED STATES, AS OF JANUARY 1, 1936

1123

Waiting Time
M ost of the States7 specify that compensation shall not be paid
for a period of time immediately following the injury. This waiting
time varies from a minimum of 3 days to a maximum of 14 days in
the various States, with the majority requiring a 7-day waiting
period, This period for which no compensation is required to be
paid has no relation to the requirement to provide medical and
hospital care, as the employee is entitled to these immediately.
Nearly all of the States provide, however, that if the disability con­
tinues a certain number of weeks, the payment of compensation shall
be retroactive to the date of injury. This provision eliminates the
danger of hardship being worked upon workmen who are permanently
or totally disabled. Table 3 shows the number of days of waiting
required by each State, and in the last column gives the number of
weeks’ disability required for the payment of compensation from the
date of injury.

3 —WAITING TIME REQUIRED BY EACH STATE, AND TERM REQUIRED
FOR FULL PAYMENT
Compensation paid for wait­
No waiting
10 or 14 days
ing period if disability
3 or 5 days
7 days
time
lasts specified time
Alaska.
Alabama (14).
Alaska (8 weeks).
Oregon.
Maryland (3).
Arizona.
Colorado (10).
Arizona (2 weeks).
Missouri (3).
Connecticut (4 weeks).
California.
Florida (14).
Oklahoma (5),
Connecticut.
Iowa (14).i
Delaware (4 weeks).
Utah (3).
Washington (3). Delaware.
District of Columbia (7
Montana (14) J
Wisconsin (3).
District of Colum­ South Dakota (10).3 weeks).
bia.
Florida (4 weeks).
United States:
Idaho (4 weeks).*
Civil employees Georgia.
Hawaii.8
Illinois (30 days).«
(3).
Iowa. 7
Idaho.
Illinois.
Louisiana (6 weeks).
Massachusetts (4 weeks).
Indiana.
Michigan (6 weeks).
Kansas.
Kentucky.
Minnesota (4 weeks).
Missouri (4 weeks).
Louisiana.
Maine.
Montana (6 weeks).
Massachusetts.
Nebraska (6 weeks).
Nevada (1 week).
Michigan.
Minnesota.
New Hampshire (1 week).
New Jersey (7 weeks).
Nebraska.
Nevada.
New York (5 weeks).
North Carolina (4 weeks).
New Hampshire.
North Dakota (1 week).
New Jersey.
New Mexico.
Rhode Island (4 weeks).
New York.
South Carolina (4 weeks).
North Carolina.
South Dakota (6 weeks).
North Dakota.
Tennessee (6 weeks).
Ohio.
Texas (4 weeks).
Pennsylvania.8
Virginia (6 weeks).
Philippine Is­
West Virginia (3 weeks).
Wisconsin (10 days).
lands.5
Puerto Rico.
Wyoming (3 weeks).
Rhode Island.
United States:
South Carolina.
Longshoremen (7 weeks).
Tennessee.
Texas.
Vermont.
Virginia.
West Virginia.
Wyoming.
United States:
Longshoremen.
1 Compensation begins on date of injury in case of permanent partial disability.
2 Nonresident beneficiary. If a resident beneficiary, waiting period 1 week, but if disability continues
for 3 weeks, compensation payable from date of injury. 3 Unless employer’s physician certifies otherwise.
* If disability period exceeds 4 weeks, waiting period is to be reduced by 4 days, and by 1 additional day
for each week the total disability exceeds 4 weeks.
fi Total disability, but compensation payable from first day of disability in case of partial disability.
6 Applies only to temporary total incapacity.
7 If compensation extends beyond such number of weeks after injury, compensation for 5th, 6th, and
7th weeks is increased by two-thirds.
a No compensation to injured “work-relief employees” during first 26 weeks of disability, except in cases
of permanent injuries in specific schedule or death.
7 Oregon requires no waiting time.
T able




1124

WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION

Provisions Regarding “ Second Injuries”
S p e c if ic provisions regarding the payment of compensation in
second-injury cases are included in all the compensation laws except
those of Alaska, Hawaii, Louisiana, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania,8
Philippine Islands, Puerto Rico, and Vermont.
The provisions regarding second injuries involve the employment
of physically defective workmen. An employee who has lost an arm
or leg is at a disadvantage in obtaining industrial employment.
Among the factors which contribute to this discrimination is the fear
among employers that the hiring of a handicapped person will lead
to a large number of accidents and increase the cost of accident
insurance.
When an employee has sustained an accident causing the loss of a
member of the body, and subsequently loses another in a second ac­
cident, he becomes permanently and totally disabled, increasing the
amount to be paid in the form of workmen's compensation. The
States have enacted certain second-injury provisions to cope with
this situation. About half of the State laws provide that compensa­
tion shall be apportioned according to the disability resulting from
injury, the last employer paying only that amount which is based upon
the second injury, while other States provide that in determining com­
pensation for the second injury the decreased earning power (because
of the first injury) shall be used as a basis in rendering the award.
The laws of Delaware, Idaho, Indiana, and Massachusetts provide for
payment of compensation for second injuries as if no previous accident
had occurred.
Several of the States (California, District of Columbia, Idaho,
Illinois, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New Jersey, New York, North
Carolina, South Carolina, Utah, and Wisconsin) have provided for
the creation of a special “ second-injuries fund" so that in the case
where a second accident occurs the employer will have to pay only
for the second injury, yet the employee is compensated for the injury
resulting from the combined injuries, the balance of the award being
paid from the second-injury fund.
The method of raising revenue to sustain the second-injury fund
differs in the several States. One method which appears popular and
satisfactory is to place in the fund the amounts awarded in fatal cases
in which it has been determined that there is no person under the
law entitled to compensation.
Employers who hire a physically disabled employee are in some
States protected against the insurance companies charging a higher
premium rate. Self-insured employers, however, are not covered by
such provisions, and because of the direct relationship between
accidents and costs, the self-insured employer might more readily be
guilty of discrimination against the injured employee than the
privately insured employer.

3 The Supreme Court of Pennsylvania, however, in the case of L e n te v. L u c c i (275 Pa. 217,119 Atl. 132)
has held that where a claimant lost one of his eyes before he entered a subsequent employment he was
not entitled to compensation for total disability upon the loss of a second eye.




UNITED STATES, AS OF JANUARY 1, 1936

1125

Compensation Scale
T h e amounts actually payable under the various compensation
acts are determined by three factors—the rate, usually a percentage
of the wages; the term or period of payment; and in most States a
fixed maximum weekly or total payment. The amount and method
of payment also differ according to the type of injury. The acts
prescribe certain payments in case of death and in case of permanent
total disability, and also have specific provisions covering permanent
partial disability and temporary total disability.
Percent of wages.—Washington and Wyoming are the only two
States which do not base the amount of compensation on the wage
received by the injured worker. A few States, however, provide fixed
lump sums or pensions for certain injuries, but apply the percentage
system to all others. A few States have varying percentages for
different types of injuries and in some the percentage varies with con­
jugal condition and number of children, but, in most cases the
prescribed percentage remains uniform for all injuries.
M axim um term and amount.—Only a few of the laws prescribe no
maximum term or amount payable in the form of compensation. In
the great majority of the laws definite maximums are established.
It is obvious that the reduction of a workman’s income by one-half
or even one-third leaves a large proportion of his loss uncompensated.
The burden on the employer is restricted further (and transferred
necessarily to the injured employee and his family), since the term of
payment is not fixed in most States by the period of disability but
by an arbitrary maximum; death benefits likewise rarely continue
for the period of their probable need as only about 8 or 10 States
provide for payment of benefits during widowhood or minority of
children.
Table 4 shows for the various States the percent of wages paid,
the maximum number of weeks during which benefits are paid, and
the limitation of payments as to weeldy and total amounts. This
information is given in tabular form for injuries causing death, per­
manent total disability, permanent partial disability, and temporary
total disability. The limitations are in many cases more restrictive
for temporary total disability than for permanent total disability,
though, where the latter is compensated for life, the former is as a
rule compensated during its continuance. In a few cases the rates
for temporary disability are higher than for permanent disability.




1126

WORKMEN’S COMPENSATION
T a b l e 4.—MINIMUM AND M AXIM UM BENEFITS UNDER W ORKM EN’S

[Compiled as
Death

Permanent total disability

Limit of payments
State

30-66%
66%
30-66%
66%
10- 66%
(19)

35-60
15-60
15-66%
60
10- 66%

Minimum

Maxi­
mum

2 $5. 00

25-65
15-66%
65
50
50
15-60
15-66%
35-60
42%
25-60
10-55
50-65
55
60
60
65
32%-65
66%
66%

Per week

$18.00

(5
)

312
312
285
(5
)

4.17
5.00
5.00
6.00
2 8.00

24.00
3.40
3.00
7. 50

12.00
20.00

2 8 .80
6.00
6.00

16. 50
15.00
18.00

335
300
300
416
500
300
300
300
400
325

5.00
23.00

12.00
20.00

2 6.00

6.00
2 8.00

18. 00
18.00

8.00
6.00
8.00
2 6. 00

20.00
20.00
21.00

500 210.00
300

20.00

4.00 H 10.00
18.00
7.00

’

(5
)

4.000
5.000
6.400
5.400
7.500
6.000

8.400
4,875
4, 500

55-65
65
65
50
50
50
66%
50-60
50
60
55-60
50-65
55
60
60
65
65
66%
66%
66%
66%
66%
66%
50-66%
66%
60
50
66%
55
66%
60
66%
66%
66%

Maxi­
mum

500 2$5.00 3$18. 00
( 6)

240
( 6)

520
475
( 4)

356
350
312
400
416
500
400
416
416
400
500
(<)
( 4)

500
300
300
500
300
( 6)

4.17
5.00
5.00
2 5.00
28.00
2 4.00
2 4.00
5.00
8.00
14.00
2 8.80
2 6.00
6.00
5.00
2 3.00
6.00
*8.00
29 .0 0

7.00
28 .00
6.00
8. 00
2 6.0 0
6.92
7.00

25.00
14.00
21.00
15.00
25.00
18.00
15.00
20.00
16.00
20.00
16.50
15.00
18.00
15.00
20.00
18.00
20.00
18.00
18.00
20.00
20.00
21.00
15. 00
13.85
15.00
20.00
15.00
25.00
18.00
20.00
18. 75
18.00

Total
maxi­
mum 1

$9,000
9,000
9
5,000
10,920
4,000
7,500
5,000
5,000
5,000
“ 6,400
12 4,000
5,000
6,000
7,488
6,000
8,000
6,000
5,000
9,000
10,000
1 6,000
6
10, 500
(1 )
7
(18)

20.00

6.00

14.00
19. 50

6,000

7, 500

66%
66%

(5
)
2 300
4
208

22 3.46

50
50

300
350

6.00

50
60
60
15-45
55

400
360
312
260
300

2 5.00

25

(24)

18.00
23.08

5,400

18. 75

15,000
6,500

18.00
20. 00

6,000

(23)

15. 00
1.80
C4
)
5
4 . 00 2 30.00 2 3,000
5
5.00

22 8. 08
22 7.00

13. 00
(34)

15-66%

6.000

Mini­
mum

3.000
4.200
5.500
3.000
5.000
7.200
5.000
3.500
5.000

7. 00
3. 60

(5
)

(5
)

5.000
4,375
6,552
5,130
7.500
5.000
3,825
5.000
4,800
5.500
5.000
4.500
4.000
4.000

Per week

7. 00

350
(«)

(5
)

15.00
18.46

$5, 400
9,000

Percent Maxi­
of
mum
wages weeks

4,500
300
20 8,000
400 210 .0 0
8,250
550 2 8.00
215. 00
( 6)
7.00
6,000
400
2 6. 00
15,000
( 4)
2 5.00
(«)
9,000
500 2 8 .00
(23)
6.92
( 4)
65
15.00
6, 500
500 2 7.00
5
5
5
60
208 2 4 . 00 2 18. 00 2 3,000
50
3.00
3,000
10.00
340
50
7.00
5,000
500
16.00
50
5. 00
25.00
500
5,500
2 7.50
55
15.00
3,000
( 4)
50
550
5.00 3 16.00
5,000
60
7.00
20.00
8,020
401
7.00
60
16.00 26 4 ,16 0
260
50
15.00
260 2 6.00
4,000
55
6.00
14. 00
500
5,600
(28)
8.08
8.00
66% (6
16.00
)
70 .1,000 14. 00
21.00

25-65
25-60

10- 66%

18.00
25.00
18.00
12.75
21.60

350
300
312
400
275
300
300

416

65

25.00
14.00
21.00

Total
maxi­
mum i

13. 46
28.00

14. 00
25. 00
16.00
16.00
(27)
(30)

(35)

26. 92
25.00

3,600

(36)

( 4)
( 4)

2 13. 46

28.00

(37)

26. 92
25.00

11

Alabama_____ _____
Alaska_____________
Arizona____________
California__________
Colorado___________
Connecticut________
Delaware___________
District of Columbia,.
Florida____________
Georgia............. ...........
Hawaii-------------------Idaho______________
Illinois_____________
Indiana____________
Iowa_______________
Kansas_____________
Kentucky__________
Louisiana__________
Maine_____________
Maryland__________
Massachusetts______
Michigan___________
Minnesota__________
Missouri___________
Montana___________
Nebraska----------------Nevada------------------New Hampshire____
New Jersey_________
New Mexico________
New York__________
North Carolina_____
North Dakota______
Ohio_______________
Oklahoma__________
Oregon_____________
Pennsylvania----------Philippine Islands__
Puerto Rico________
Rhode Island..............
South Carolina_____
South Dakota.............
Tennessee__________
Texas______________
Utah____________ _
Vermont----------------Virginia,____ ______
Washington________
West Virginia_______
Wisconsin 32................
Wyoming__________
United States:
Civil employees..
Longshoremen__

Percent Maxi­
mum
of
wages weeks

Limit of payments

17,500

Total maximum payments computed by Bureau of Labor Statistics, where not stipulated by law.
2 Or actual wages, if less than minimum amount listed.
3 $5 after 400 weeks.
4 During period of disability.
* During widowhood or specified minority age of children.
6 Life.
7 In addition to compensation for temporary total disability.
8 Plus $10 per month for dependents.
9 Plus 40 percent of wages thereafter for life.
10 Plus life pension of 1 to 40 percent for over 60 percent disability.
11 Plus $6 per week thereafter.
12 Plus life pension of from 8 to 12 percent of total previous payments.
13 Plus 66% percent of wage loss for maximum of 300 weeks.
14 If widow alone, $10 per week, $2 additional for each child for maximum of 400 weeks.
15 Includes healing and rehabilitation periods of 25 weeks each.
16 Plus 25 percent of wages thereafter for life.
17 Plus 45 percent of wages thereafter, subject to a minimum of $4.50 or actual wages, if less than minimum,
and maximum of $10.
18 Plus $6.92 per week for constant attendant, if necessary.
19 150 times the average weekly earnings, not to exceed $4,500.
2 Plus reduced compensation during rehabilitation period following.
0
21 Plus maximum of $2,500 for disfigurement, if any.
22 Or 50 percent of previous average monthly support.
1




U N IT E D

STATES, AS

OF

JAN U A RY

1127

1, 1936

CO M PEN SAT IO N LAW S B Y E X T E N T OF D ISA B IL IT Y A N D B Y STATES
of Jan. 1, 1936]
Permanent partial disability

Temporary total disability
Limit of payments

Limit of payments
Percent Maxi­
mum
of
wages weeks

55-65

240
240
208
225
194
288
350
200
312
237
289
500
225
210
335
400
150
200
75
66% 200
66% is 450
66% 400
50-66% 500
66% 225
260
50
300
50
230
66;
150
55
66% 312
200
60
66% 450
66% 215
66% 250
215
208
300
300
200
200 '
400
300
200
170
200

66% 33 340

70
(40)

Mini-

400 2$5.00

55
65
50
50
50
66%
50-60
50
50
55
50-65
55
60
60
65
65
66%
66%

65"
50
50
50
50
55
50

Per week

3 500
3
(4
)
288

4.17
5.00
5.00
25.00
28.00
24.00
24.00
25.00
14.00
2 8. 80
2 6.00
5.00
2 3.00
6.00
28.00
7.00
2 8. 00
6.00
8.00
26.00
6. 92
7. 00
210.00
28.00
2 8.00
7. 00
6.00
2 5.00
2 8.00
2 7. 00
1.50
4. 00
5.00
2 7. 50
2 5.00
7. 00
2 6. 00
6. 00
8.00
7.35
(36)

2 8,00

Total

Percent
of
wage's weeks

mim'

Maxi­
mum
$18.00
25.00
14.00
21.00
15.00
25.00
18.00
15.00
12.00
16.00
20.00
16. 50
15.00
18. 00
12.00
20.00
18. 00
18.00
10.00
18. 00
20.00
20.00
21.00
15.00
13.85
15.00
20. 00
15.00
25.00
18.00
20.00
18. 75
18.00
11. 54
15.00
2 10. 00
8
10.00
10.00
25.00
15.00
16.00
20. 00
16.00
15.00
14. 00

State
Per week

$7,200
7,200
(10)

7 4,140
7 4, 725
2,910
7 7, 500
5,000
7 5,000
5,000
7 3,792
7 5,780
5,000
3, 375
3, 780
4,000
8,000
(13)

7 750
3,
7 750
3,600
9,000
8,000
10, 500
7 3, 375
7 3, 600
4, 500
7 4, 600
7 3,000
7 6, 240
2 3, 600
i
9, 000
7 4, 000
4, 500
7 2,400
3, 225
2 3,000
8
2,000
7 4, 200
5, 500
7 3,000
6, 400
6,000
7 5, 000
7 2, 550
5, 600
3,000

55-65
65
65
65
50
50
50
66%
50-60
50
60
55-60
50-65
55
60
60
65
65
66%
66%
66%
66%
66%
66%
50-66%
66%
60
50
66%
55
66%
60
66%
66%
66%
40-66%
65
60
50
50
50
55
50
60
60
50
55

300
401
312
260
500

2$5.00

$18.00

66%
70

26. 92
25. 00

66%
66%

78
(9
(9
(4
)
(4
)

$5,400

25.00
4.17
6,000
14. 00
5.00
21.00 10,920
5.00
15.00
4,000
25.00
25.00
7, 500
28.00
18.00
5,000
2 4.00
15.00
2 4.00
5,000
20.00
2 5.00
5,000
16.00 ii 6,400
8.00
20.00
4,000
7.50
16. 50
2 8.80
5,000
15.00
2 6.00
4, 500
18.00
7,488
6.00
15. 00
6,000
5.00
20.00
6,000
2 3.00
6.00
18. 00
6,000
20.00
3, 750
2 8.00
18.00
4, 500
29. 00
7.00
18.00
9,000
20.00
6,000
2 8.00
20.00
8,000
6.00
21.00
8.00
6, 300
(17)
15.00
2 6.00
16. 62 8 7, 200
6. 92
15.00
4, 500
7.00
20.00
6,000
210. 00
15.00
8,250
2 8.00
25.00
5,000
2 8.00
18.00
6,000
7.00
20.00
2 6.00
3,750
18. 75
2 5.00
18.00
2 8.00
5,400
22. 38
2 6. 92
15.00
2 7.00
6,500
8
3,000
2 4.00 2 18. 00
8
10.00
1,040
1.50
16.00
5, 000
7.00
5.00
25.00
5, 500
3,000
2 5.00
16.00
4,800
7.00
20.00
8, 020
2 7.00
16.00
5,000
2 6.00
15.00
3,900
14. 00
5,600
6. 00
(49)

( 4)

16. 00
3
21.00 3 10, 500
(38)
7 2, 000
7 7, 500

300
(4
)
400
240
(4
)
520
475
(4
)
350
350
312
400
(4
)
500
300
416
416
300
500
312
500
500
300
400
300
300
433
300
300
550
(4
)
400
(9
312
300
(4
)
500
208
104
500
500

Maxi­
mum

Total
maxi­
mum 1

8.00
7. 35
(36)

213. 46
2 8.00

16. 00
21.00
(39)

26. 92
25. 00

1, 248
6,000
8,000
7,500

Alabama.
Alaska.
Arizona.
California.
Colorado.
Connecticut.
Delaware.
District of Columbia.
Florida.
Georgia.
Hawaii.
Idaho.
Illinois.
Indiana.
Iowa.
Kansas.
Kentucky.
Louisiana.
Maine.
Maryland.
Massachusetts.
Michigan.
Minnesota.
Missouri.
Montana.
Nebraska.
Nevada.
New Hampshire.
New Jersey.
New Mexico.
New York.
North Carolina.
North Dakota.
Ohio.
Oklahoma.
Oregon.
Pennsylvania.
Philippine Islands.
Puerto Rico.
Rhode Island.
South Carolina.
South Dakota.
Tennessee.
Texas.
Utah.
Vermont.
Virginia.
Washington.
West Virginia.
Wisconsin.
Wyoming.
United States:
Civil employees.
Longshoremen.

2 $30 per month for widow or wife, plus $8 per month for each dependent child.
3
2 Continued until all dependents attain age of 16 years.
4
2 Pesos.
5
2 Plus 45 percent of wages thereafter for life.
6
2 $60 per month to widow with 2 children, plus $5 for each additional child.
7
2 $60 per month, if wife and 3 children, plus $5 for each additional child, plus $25 for constant attendant
8
if necessary.
2 Same as for permanent disability (see footnote2 ), except $5 per month additional during first 6 months.
9
8
3 $30 per month to widow, plus $5 for each child.
0
3 Payment for life if disability is over 85 percent.
1
3 Increased or decreased up to 15 percent for employers or employees violating safety regulations—treble
2
compensation for minors illegally employed.
3 Plus 70 percent of earnings for healing period.
3
3 $120 per year to 1 child.
4
3 $45 per month for widow, total $2,000. Plus $120 per year for each child, total $3,600.
8
3 $50 per month.
8
3 $60 per month, plus $120 per year for each child.
7
2 $60 per month.
8
3 $90 per month,
5
4 66% percent of wage loss.
0




1128

W O RK M EN’S COMPENSATION

Death benefits .— As table 4 clearly shows, the methods provided for
determining compensation for death vary considerably and do not in
all cases depend upon the fact that the deceased was an actual financial
benefit to his dependents. Most of the States have not been very
liberal in prescribing the amount of compensation to be paid depend­
ents, although several of the laws have been amended in recent years
to increase the amount. In Arizona, Nevada, New York, Oregon,
Washington, West Virginia, and United States (Civil Employees
Act), the law provides for the payment of benefits to a widow for
life or until remarriage, and in the case of children until a specified
age is reached. Three other laws (Minnesota, North Dakota, and
the Longshoremen’s Act) have a similar provision, but limit the total
amount payable. In Utah the industrial commission is given au­
thority to pay benefits indefinitely in meritorious cases. Oklahoma
pays no death benefits, as to do so would be in violation of the State
constitution. A few States limit the death benefits to monthly
payments payable for a specified period; others set a total maximum
ranging from $3,000 to $15,000. The experience of the State com­
pensation commissions as contained in many reports, etc., indicates
that a life benefit to the widow, with additional amounts for each
child under the age of 18, is the most rational system to adopt in
rendering assistance to the dependents following the death of a
workman in an industrial accident.
The remarriage of the widow terminates the benefits in about half
of the States, although in a few States a lump sum is payable upon
remarriage.
Funeral benefits are provided in practically all the laws, but the
Puerto Rico and Oklahoma laws make no provision for funeral
expenses.
D isability benefits .— Compensation is paid in four designated classes
of disability, i. e., permanent total, permanent partial, temporary
total, and temporary partial. The term disability has been defined
in varying ways by the courts in interpreting State compensation laws.
Some hold that it means inability to earn wages, or full wages, at the
work in which the employee was working at the time of the injury,
other courts hold it means inability to perform any kind of work which
may be obtained, and some few courts have interpreted it to mean
inability to secure work.
Table 4 shows that there is an apparent tendency to recognize the
greater economic loss in case of permanent total disability than in the
case of death. Death benefits continue under 10 laws for life or until
remarriage of the widow, while under 20 State law s9 life benefits are
paid for permanent total disability. This provision is qualified in a
few States by a limitation on the total amount payable, as $3,000 in
9
Arizona, California, Colorado, District of Columbia, Idaho, Illinois, Maryland, Minnesota, Missouri,
Nebraska, Nevada, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, West Virginia, and
United States (Civil Employees’ and Longshoremen’s Acts).




UNITED STATES, AS OF JANUARY 1, 1936

1129

South Dakota or $5,000 in Maryland. The District of Columbia and
the Longshoremen’s Act have a maximum of $7,500. The $10,000
fixed in Minnesota would be exhausted in 500 weeks at the maximum
allowed rate of $20 per week. A comparative liberality in term of
payment is affected by the maximum amount payable.
Fixed Periods for Permanent Partial Disability Payments
I n r e n d e r i n g awards of compensation for injuries causing perma­
nent partial disability the awards are made in two ways— one by pay­
ing a percentage of the wage loss, the other by payments for fixed
periods for specified injuries. These two methods exist side by side
in most States, all the laws but that of New Hampshire and the
Federal civil employees statute having schedules covering certain
specified injuries, while those not included therein are compensated
on a percentage basis. In Alaska, Washington, and Wyoming the
payments are fixed sums, but in all other States the schedule payments
are weekly amounts based on the wages.
The schedule provisions in some States provide for payments in
addition to the period of total disability (healing period) or they may
cover the entire allowance for injury other than medical aid. Such
payments are exclusive in 29 States 1 and are in addition to the
0
healing period in 22 States.1 In Maine the payment prescribed in
1
the schedule is in lieu of temporary total disability payments but
subsequent partial disability is compensated for not more than 300
weeks from the date of the injury. Under the Massachusetts law
compensation is paid for the term of total disability, and also for par­
tial disability after the schedule period; the same is true in Rhode
Island, subject to a maximum term of 300 weeks. Schedule payments
are normally in lieu of all other payments under the New York and Dis­
trict of Columbia laws and also the Longshoremen’s Act, but if the
period of temporary total disability is protracted beyond designated
periods the schedule period is extended correspondingly. In Georgia
a uniform period of 10 weeks is allowed as healing time. The num­
ber of weeks provided by law, during which compensation is payable
for specified injuries under the compensation laws of the several
States, are shown in table 5.
1 Alabama, Alaska, California, Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Ken­
0
tucky, Louisiana, Maine, Michigan, Missouri, Montana, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota,
Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Philippines, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, West Virginia,
Washington, Wisconsin, United States Longshoremen’s Act.
1 Arizona, Colorado, Connecticut, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minne­
1
sota, Nebraska, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, Ohio, Oregon, Puerto Rico, Rhode Island, South
Dakota, Utah, Vermont, and Wyoming.




1130
T

able

WORKMEN’S COMPENSATION
5 .—N U M B E R OF W E E K S FOR W H IC H COM PEN SATIO N IS PAY ABL E FOR
SPECIFIED INJURIES IN T H E SEVER AL STATES
Loss of—

State

Arm
(at
shoul­ Hand
der)

200
______
Ala.1
260
Ariz.2-Calif.1____ 3 246
Colo.2____
208
Conn.2____
225

150
217
3186
104
175

Del.1_____
D. C.<____
Fla.1
_____ Ga.2______
Hawaii 2___
Idaho 5___

194
280
200
200
312
240

158
212
150
150
244
200

111.2_______
Ind.1_____
Iowa 1____
Kans.1- . - ,
K y.1
______

225
250
225
210
200

La.L ____
Maine 6
___
M d.2
______
Mass.7, __

Thumb

In­ Mid­
Lit­
dex dle Ring tle
fin­ fin­ fin­ fin­
ger
ger ger ger

60 45
65 39
3 42 334
35 18
60 38

30
30
3 25
13
30

20
22
325
7
25

15
17
316
9
20

60
51
60
30
60
40

35
28
35
35
46
35

30
18
30
30
30
30

20
17
20
20
25
20

15
7
15
15
15
15

170
200
150
150
150

70
60
40
60
60

40
40
30
37
45

35
35
25
30
30

25
30
20
20
20

200
150
200
8 50
200

150
125
150
8 50
150

50
50
50
40
60

30
30
30
20
35

20
25
25
12
30

Minn.2____
M o.1
______
Mont.1____
Nebr.2____
Nev.2_____

200
232
200
225
260

175
175
150
175
217

60
60
30
60
65

35
45
20
35
39

N . J.2_____
N . Mex.2__
N . Y.4____
N . C.1____
N. Dak.1- ,
Ohio 2 ___

230
150
312
200
234
215

175
110
244
150
195
165

65
30
•75
60
45
60

Okla.1 ___
Oreg.2Pa.1. - ___
P. I.1_____
P. R.2____
R. 1.8_____
S. C .1
_____

250
416
215
208
300
100
200

200
329
175
160
200
80
150

S. Dak.2___
Tenn.1
____
Tex.1 _ __
Utah 2
____
Vt.2_______
Va.1______

200
200
200
200
170
200

150
150
150
150
140
150

W . Va.2--_
Wis.2_____

240
500

200
333 H

U. S.»_____

280

212

Leg
(at
hip)

Foot

Great Other
toe
toe

Sight Hear­ Hear­
of
ing,
ing,
1
both
1
eye
ears

175 125
217 173
3 246 3166
208 104
208 156

30
30
3 34
18
38

10
11
38
4
13

100
108
3125
104
208

194
248
175
175
288
180

135
173
125
125
205
125

30
26
30
30
38
15

10
8
10
10
16
6

113
140
100
100
128
120

20
20
15
15
15

190
200
200
200
200

135
150
125
125
125

35
60
25
30
30

12
20
15
10
10

120
150
100
110
100

50
25

125
200
150
100

20
18
20
12
20

20
15
15
12
15

175
150
175
50
175

125
125
150
50
125

20
25
25
12
30

10
10
10
12
10

100
100
100
50
100

50

100

30
35
15
30
30

20
35
12
20
22

15
22
9
15
17

200
207
200
215
217

150
150
125
150
173

30
40
15
30
30

10
14
6
10
11

100
108
100
125
108

52
44
20
50
87

156
168
120
100
260

40
20
46
35
29H
35

30
15
30
30
30

20
10
25
20
15%
20

15
12
15
15
13*6
15

175
140
288
175
234
190

125
100
205
125
136*6
140

30
15
38
30
19*6
30

10
8
16
10
7*6
10

100
100
160
100
100
125

40
35
60
70
29%

160
135
150
150
156

60
104
60
40
25
25
60

35
69
35
30
25
18
35

30
39
30
25
20
13
30

20
35
20
20
20
10
20

15
26
15
10
10
9
15

175
381
215
190
250
100
175

150
277
150
130
160
70
125

30
43

10
17

25
25
15
30

10
10
5
10

100
173
125
100
125
80
100

50
60
60
30
40
60

35
35
45
20
25
35

30
30
30
15
20
30

20
20
21
12
15
20

15
15
15
9
10
15

160
175
200
180
170
175

125
125
125
125
120
125

30
30
30
15
20
30

10
10
10
6
8
10

100
100
100
100
100
100

80
100

40
35

28
25

20
15

20
16

180
500

140
250

40
25

16
8

. 132
250

50

333 *6

51

28

18

17

7

248

173

26

8

140

52

200

2m

3

87
42
35
52
52
40
60
35
50

150
260
3166
139
156
200
150
150
312
115

156

416

40
25

208
200

70

150
150
150

42 *6 170
50

1 Payments under this schedule are exclusive of or in lieu of all other payments.
2 Payments under this schedule are in addition to payments for temporary total disability during the
healing period.
3 Compensation varies with occupation and age. Figures given are for laborer, 45 years of age.
* In lieu of other payments unless period of temporary total disability exceeds fixed periods for each class
of injury.
s Payments under this schedule are in addition to payments for temporary total disability during the
healing period. 99 percent of specific schedule to be paid employee. Employer must pay 2 percent addi­
tional to specific indemnity fund.
6 Payments cover total disability. Partial disability based upon wage loss may be compensated at end
of periods given for not over 300 weeks in all.
7 Payments under this schedule are in addition to payments for temporary total and permanent partial
disability.
s Right hand, 75 weeks.
9
Longshoremen. In lieu of other payments unless period of temporary total disability exceeds fixed
period for each class of injury.




UNITED STATES, AS OF JANUARY

1131

1, 1936

Medical Benefits
A l l S t a t e com pensation laws provide for m edical aid to in ju red
em ployees.
A s table 6 indicates, in 14 S ta te law s neither the a m o u n t
nor the tim e during w hich aid shall be rendered is lim ite d ; 10 S ta te s
place a lim itation on the a m ou n t b u t set no lim it on the tim e, w h ile
13 S tates lim it the tim e b u t place no restrictions on the a m o u n t ;
and in 15 S tates b oth the a m ou n t and tim e are lim ited .
T able

6 - STATES LIMITING TIME AND AMOUNT OF MEDICAL BENEFITS

Neither time nor amount
limited

California.
Connecticut.
District of Columbia.
Hawaii.
Idaho.
Illinois.
Minnesota.
Nebraska.
New York.
North Dakota.
Philippines.
Puerto Rico.
Washington.
United States.

No limitation on amount No limitation on time Both amount and time
limited
Alaska.
Arizona.
Indiana.
Massachusetts.
Michigan.
Nevada.
New Hampshire.
North Carolina.
Oklahoma.
South Carolina.1
Texas.
Virginia.
Wisconsin.

Florida.
Louisiana.
Maryland.
New Jersey.
New Mexico.
Ohio.
Oregon.
Utah.
West Virginia.
Wyoming.

Alabama.
Colorado.
Delaware.1
Georgia.1
Iowa.1
Kansas.1
Kentucky.1
Maine.1
Missouri.1
Montana.
Pennsylvania.1
Rhode Island.
South Dakota.
Tennessee.
Vermont.

1 Additional services in special cases or in discretion of commission.
I n the great m a jo r ity o f S ta te com pensation system s m edical
benefits are w ith ou t cost to the w orkm en, b u t to m ain tain a m edical
fu nd the em ployer m a y dedu ct from the em p lo yee's w ages $ 2 .5 0 per
m o n th in A lask a , on e-h alf the cost b u t n o t over $1 per m o n th in
A rizon a and N e v a d a , and on e-h alf the cost in W a sh in g to n .
T a b le 7
presents the facts regarding m edical benefits in m ore detail:
T able

7 . - MAXIMUM PERIODS AND AMOUNTS OF MEDICAL SERVICE UNDER
VARIOUS COMPENSATION LAWS
Maximum
period

State

A labam a________
Alaska__
A rizona.___ ______
California_________
Colorado__________
Connecticut_______
Delaware _ ______
District of Colum­
bia.
Florida. _________
Georgia________ _
Hawaii___________
Illinois.............. .....
Indiana___________
Kansas__ _
____
Kentucky_________
Louisiana_______
Maine_____ ______
Maryland ________
Massachusetts___
Michigan. _______
Minnesota
Missouri__________
Montana..............
Nebraska. _______
Nevada. . _ _____

90 days... _ _

Maximum
amount

OO^days 1 _ __
_
Unlimited___
4 months___
Unlimited____
30 days 1
___ _
Unlimited____

$200
2 Unlimited
2 Unlimited
Unlimited
500
Unlimited
1 150
Unlimited

.. ..d o _______
30 days 1 „ __
.
Unlimited___
___ do_________
_ _ d o ____
30 days1 . ___
.
4 weeks_____
60 days___ ____
90 days 1_____
Unlimited____
30 days U _ __
Unlimited____
2 weeks 1 ____
90 days_______
Unlimited____
90 days 1
_____
6 months____
Unlimited_ «
_ _
6 months 1___

250
100
Unlimited
Unlimited
Unlimited
Unlimited
1 100
1 100
1 100
250
1 100
500
Unlimited
Unlimited
Unlimited
750
500
Unlimited
2 Unlimited

State

Maximum
period

New Hampshire_
_
New Jersey________
New Mexico.______
New York. _______
North Carolina___
North Dakota_____
Ohio______________
Oklahoma________
Oregon___ _______
Pennsylvania._____
Philippines ______
Puerto Rico..
__
Rhode Island_____
South Carolina____
South Dakota___ _
Tennessee___ _____

30 days__ ____
Unlimited____
____ do________
.do________
10 weeks 1 _. _
Unlimited____
__ do_____ _
60 days 1
_____
Unlimited____
30 days.. . _ _.
Unlimited____
do_
_ . _
8 weeks____ __
10 weeks. _ _.
12 w e e k s .___
30 days____ __ _
4 weeks 1 __
Unlimited____
2 weeks_ ____
_
60 days 4 _ _
__
Unlimited 2___
do.
90 days L
_
Unlimited____

Utah___________ . . .
Vermont__________
Virginia_______ ___
Washington_______
West Virginia
Wisconsin_____ . . .
Wyoming..
United States:
Civil employees. ____ do___ _____
Longshoremen__ ___ do____ _____

1 Additional service in special cases or at discretion of commission.
3 Also hospital first 30 days, maximum, $150.
4 Extended in unusual cases. Not to exceed 180 days.




Maximum
amount
Unlimited
i $100
350
Unlimited
Unlimited
Unlimited
1 200
Unlimited
1 250
1 100
Unlimited
Unlimited
150
Unlimited
200
100
Unlimited
1 500
3 50
Unlimited
Unlimited
800
Unlimited
300
Unlimited
Unlimited

2 Employees contribute.

1132

WORKMEN’S COMPENSATION

Administration and Settlement of Claims
T h e r e are two general methods used in administering the work­
men’s compensation laws— (1) by an administrative commission or
board created for the purpose of enforcing the provisions of the law
and (2) by the courts of the State. When administration is left to
the courts it is usually because no other machinery for administration
has been created and this law, like other laws, is enforced in the various
State and county courts.
The desirability of an administrative agency charged specifically
with the supervision of the compensation laws is recognized by all but
seven States (Alabama, Alaska, Louisiana, New Hampshire, New Mex­
ico, Tennessee, and Wyoming). However in Alabama there is a
limited supervision by the compensation commissioner, and in Wyo­
ming the workmen’s compensation fund is under the supervision of
the State treasurer. In these seven States the agreement between
the parties may be without supervision or there may be provision for
approval by the court. Summary procedure is generally directed,
but a jury trial may be demanded in certain cases. The major diffi­
culties of court administration have been summed up as (1) delay of
court procedure, (2) the cost of court procedure, and (3) the unfitness
of the courts for the settlement of compensation. A complete under­
standing of industrial conditions is essential in a successful adminis­
tration of the laws. The vital factors in successful administration are
the giving of prompt, honest, and full compensation and immediate
medical aid, as required by the law. To achieve these purposes an
administrative board or commission is almost essential.
Where the law is administered by a commission or board, appeals
to courts are usually limited to questions of law, the determination of
facts being left to the exclusive jurisdiction of the commission.

Accident Reporting and Prevention
O n l y 26 State acts12 require that reports be made of all industrial
accidents. In addition 13 acts 13 require reports of accidents which
cause disability of 1 day or more, while Pennsylvania requires reports
on all accidents causing disability for more than 2 days, North Caro­
lina and South Carolina on accidents causing disability for more than
3 days, Georgia,14 Rhode Island, and Tennessee when disability is for
1 week, Illinois when disability is for more than 1 week, and Alabama
when the disability is for more than 2 weeks. In Nebraska, New
Hampshire, West Virginia, and Wisconsin, accident reports are sub­
mitted in the manner and at the times required by the administrative
authorities. There is no provision in the workmen’s compensation
laws of Alaska and Louisiana, but by separate act Alaska provides
for the reporting of accidents in coal mines, and in Louisiana reports of
records kept on accidents are submitted as required by the commission.
These provisions of the State compensation laws clearly illustrate
the lack of uniformity on the subject of accident reporting. The
importance of complete reports showing causes, nature, severity, and
1
2
Arizona, Colorado, Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts; Michi­
gan, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon,
Puerto Rico, South Dakota, Utah, Virginia, Washington, Wyoming, and the United States (Civil Employ­
ees and Longshoremen’s Acts).
131 day: California, Connecticut, Hawaii, Idaho, Minnesota, Philippine Islands, and Vermont. More
than 1 day: Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, New York, and Texas.
1 Or accident requiring medical aid.
4




UNITED STATES, AS OF JANUARY 1, 1936

1133

costs has been too little recognized, even among those charged with
the administration of the laws, while the employer has been too prone
to minimize or disregard the occurrence of accidents except as an un­
fortunate incident, involving some form of liability.
Existing deficiencies in the compensation laws in regard to accident
reporting and prevention are offset to some extent by the fact that
most industrial States have inspection agencies which are charged
with the duties of prevention, chiefly by way of enforcing safety
statutes although some agencies also prescribe standards. Some de­
velopment has been made in the direction of combining compensation
administration with the enforcement of labor laws generally, although
the majority of the States distribute the responsibility between several
agencies. However in 19 15 States the agency administering the
compensation law is also given certain additional powers as to safety
devices, inspection, etc.
Cost of Compensation
U n d e r the great majority of the laws the cost of compensation falls
entirely upon the employer, although in the States having a State
fund some small part of the cost is shifted to the public. Those States
having laws which allow contributions by the employees are: Oregon,
in which deductions of 1 per cent from wages are made to cover cost of
compensation; Alaska, Arizona, Nevada, and Washington, where
employees contribute to the medical benefit fund; and Colorado,
Idaho, Montana, and Oregon, in which States the employees may
contribute toward cooperative hospitals, etc.

Nonresident Alien Dependents
W h il e none of the compensation acts make distinction between
resident aliens and resident citizens, the question of discriminatory
treatment of alien nonresident dependents came with the enactment
of compensation laws. Under the liability system, the rule had be­
come almost universal that they should have the same status as resi­
dents or citizens of the States; but of the 22 State compensation laws
on the statute books at the close of the year 1913 nearly one-third (7)
made discriminations unfavorable to such claimants, while in 1916, of
35 States, nearly one-half effected discriminations. At the present
time, of 53 laws analyzed, 35 have provisions more or less discrimina­
tory, so that an increasing tendency in the direction of less favorable
treatment is recognizable. This may be by way of exclusion, reduced
benefits, permitting commutations to lump sums in reduced amounts,
restricting possible beneficiaries to persons of designated relationship
(a provision that may exist alone or in connection with reduced bene­
fits), not extending the presumption of dependency to aliens who are
nonresidents, or excluding payments to beneficiaries in countries with
which the United States does not maintain diplomatic relations.
In 6 States nonresident aliens are placed on the same footing as
residents, while in 10 they are not mentioned. In 4 of the latter (Indi­
ana, Massachusetts, North Dakota, and Rhode Island) they have been
included by administrative or court action, as is the case with the
Federal employees’ statute.
1
5
Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida, Hawaii, Idaho, Maryland, Massachusetts, Montana, New
York, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Puerto Rico, Utah, Vermont, Washington, and West
Virginia.




1134

WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION

A number of States except residents of Canada from their discrimi­
natory provisions, or declare such provisions subject to conflicting
terms of any treaty, or deny all benefits to aliens whose national laws
would exclude citizens of the United States in like circumstances.
Table 8 analyzes the provisions regarding nonresident alien de­
pendents.
T a b l e 8 —STATES H A V IN G D ISC R IM IN A T O R Y PROVISIONS R E G A R D IN G

N O N R E SID E N T A L IE N D E P E N D E N T S i

Exclusion

Reduced
benefits

Alabama.
Hawaii.
New Mexico.
Philippines.
South D a ­
kota.

Alaska.
Arizona.
Colorado.
Delaware.
Florida.
Georgia.
Idaho.
Illinois.
Iowa.2
Kansas.
Kentucky.
Maine.
Michigan.
Montana.
Nevada.
Oregon.
Pennsyl­
vania.
Utah.
Virginia.
Washington.
Wyoming.

Permitting
commu­
tations
to lump
sums in
reduced
amounts

District of
Colum­
bia.
Kentucky.
Maryland.
Nebraska.
New York.
Oklahoma.
Penns ylSouth Car­
olina.
United
States.3

Restricting
possible
beneficiaries

Delaware.
District of
Columbia.
Florida.
Illinois.
Kentucky.
Maryland.
Montana.
Nebraska.
New York.
North Caro­
lina.
Oregon.
Pennsyl­
vania.
South Caro­
lina.
Texas.
Washington.
West Vir-

Pre­
sump­
tion of
depen­
dency
destroy­
ed

Excluding
payments
to depend­
ents in
countries
not main­
taining
diplomatic
relations
with
United
States

Califor­
nia.

Washing­
ton.

Placed on
same foot­
ing as resi­ No provision
dent de­
pendents

Connecti­
cut. 4
Minnesota.
Ohio.
Tennessee.
Wiscon­
sin. 8
United
States.6

Indiana.
Louisiana.
Massachu­
setts.
Missouri.
New Hamp­
shire.
New Jersey.
North Dako­
ta.
Puerto Rico.
Rhode
Island.
Vermont.

Wyoming.
United
States.3

1The provisions are subject to change by treaties between the United States and foreign countries.
2If foreign government excludes payment to United States citizens, then payments are excluded under
State law.
2Longshoremen’s Act.
4 If dependents as defined under the law are nonresidents and there are residents who are dependents in
fact, compensation may be apportioned between them.
8 If parents not wholly dependent, only those residing in United States have a right to definite death
benefits.
6Civil employees.




INDEX
Page
Accident insurance, industrial, group plans, at end of 1933............................... ..................................... 377-379
Accident prevention:
Building-construction costs as affected by accidents___ _____________ _______________________ 305-306
P. W . A. contract form, provisions in_________________________________________________________
840
Reporting accidents, requirement of workmen’s compensation laws________________________ 1132-1133
Safety. Manufacturing industries, minimum requirements under N . R. A. codes______ _____ 309-312
------Mercantile establishments, minimum requirements under N . R. A. codes_____ ___________ 312-314
Safety codes. National, developed by scientific, engineering, and industrial organizations___ 308-309
------Published as bulletins of United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, footnote_________
308
------Recommendations of second National Conference on Labor Legislation, October 1935...........
444
Safety codes and standard safe practices_________ _______________ ___________________________ 306-309
Accident statistics:
Air transportation, 1933, experience in aircraft operation...... ............ ............................ .................... 280-281
Building-construction industry, New York City, 1929-31, by trade group____ ________________ 285-286
California, industrial accidents to employed minors, 1932______________________________________ 49-53
Coke ovens, 1916-32, by States and extent of injury_________________ _______ ________________ 283-284
Compilation and dissemination of. Federal and State agencies______ _______________________ 273-274
------National Safety Council service___________________________________________________________
275
------Nongovernmental agencies_______________
275
Federal employees, 1921-32, by branch of service______ _____________________________________ 286-289
Iron and steel industry, 1907-33, by department and cause___________________________________ 290-294
Manufacturing industries (wage earners only), 1926-33, by extent of disability and industry
group__________________ ______ _____ _______ ______________ ______________________________ 275-278
Metallurgical works, 1931 and 1932, by industrial group__________ ________ ________ ________ 296-297
Mining industry. Coal, fatalities, employment, etc., 1932 and earlier years_____ ___________ 281-283
------Metals and minerals (except coal), 1930-32, by type of mine_____________________________ 295-296
National Safety Council, report for 1934, by industry___ __________________ _________________ 279-280
Petroleum industry, 1932, by department_____ _____________________________________________ 297-298
Portland cement manufacturing industry, 1928-32, by cause and nature of injury____________ 298-299
Quarry industry, 1923-32, by cause,_______ _____________ __________________ ________________ 299-301
Railroads, steam, 1931 and 1932, by type and cause,_____ ___________________________________ 301-302
Sources of information and statistical data,,...........________ __________________________________ 273-275
Telegraph messengers, 1931, study of lost-time accidents_____________________________________ 303-305
Age limit for employment:
Maximum hiring age, American factories, survey (1932) by industry___________________________
456
(See also Older worker in industry.)
Agreements, collective. (S ee Collective agreements.)
Agriculture:
Child labor, employment of, White House Conference report on, 1932_________________________
40
Employment opportunities, farm people in rural factory industries, study of, 1931___________ 191-193
Farm labor. Employment average per farm, 1929-35___________________ ____ _________________
162
------Supply and demand, 1929-35______ ___________ ______ ____ _______________________________
162
Farm population and migration to and from farms, 1920-35__________________________________ 591-592
Negroes in, at beginning of depression____ _____ ________ ___________________________________ 567-568
Productivity of labor, mechanization, and labor displacement_______ ____ __________________ 710-713
Wages. (See Wages and hours.)
Air transportation:
_
Accident experience, 1933, in aircraft operation_ ____ ______________________________________ 280-281
Hours and earnings, 1931 and 1933_________ _________ ____________________________________ 874, 883-5
American Federation of Labor. (S ee Labor organizations.)
Amusement industry, technological changes and labor displacement_____________________________ 713-714
Anthracite mining. (S ee Mining industry—Anthracite.)
Anthrax, industrial, cases 1929-33, by State______________________________________________________ 774-776
Anti-injunction legislation, Federal and State___________________________________________________ 428-431
Antiunion contracts, legislation, Federal and State______________________________________________ 431-333
Apartment-house construction. (S ee Building-construction industry.)
Apprenticeship:
Federal Committee on Apprentice Training, (organized June 1934) composition and duties of_„ 5,526
N. R. A. codes, analysis of provisions____________ ____ _________________________________ 525-526,531
Oregon, State system of training, act of 1931_____________________ ____ ________________________
8
Training program, national, inaugurated by Secretary of Labor, June 1934_____________________
5-6
Wisconsin, State system of training, operation, 1912-31___ ____________________________________
6-8
Arbitration. (See Conciliation and arbitration.)
Automobile industry:
Labor conditions, N . R. A. survey of.___________ ___________________________________________ 551-552
Labor turn-over, yearly and monthly rates, 1931-35__________________________________________
806
(See also Wages and hours— Motor-vehicle industry.)
Automobile Labor Board, formation, 1934, and activities____ __________ __________________________ 16-18
Baking industry, wages and hours, 1931 and 1933-34........................................................... ............ 874,889-892
Banks, labor (cooperative). (S e e Cooperation.)
Bargaining, collective. (S ee Collective bargaining.)
Benefits and benefit plans:
Industrial pension plans in the depression_____ ___________ ___________ ______________________ 379-881
Labor organizations. Benefit payments, 1929-34, by type of benefit-----------------------------------------392
------Medical care provided by Union Labor Benefit League, Los Angeles................. .................... 474-475




1135

1136

INDEX

Benefits and benefit plans— Continued.
■ e
Pa°
Los Angeles, health clinic maintained by employees of city department of water and power___
475
Mutual benefit associations. Employees’, work of, study, 1931------ --------------------------------------- 382-385
------Industrial, status in 1931------- ---------- ---------- ------------- ------- ------------------------------------------------- 385-386
Old-age pensions paid by labor organizations, 1933 and 1934____________________________________
616
Truck drivers’ and chauffeurs’ union, Chicago, medical insurance plan________________________
477
Types of—State, establishment, and trade-union_____ ________________ ________________________
365
Unemployment—trade-union, company, and joint-agreement plans, history_________________ 815-818
(S ee also u n d e r various types o f in su ra n ce a n d p en sio n s.)

Blind, assistance to:
Social Security Act, Federal, provisions under_____________________________. _________________ 786-787
State legislation in regard to Federal Social Security Act, status as of January 1, 1936---------------789
Blind pensions:
Experience under State acts in 1934__________________________________________________________ 366-371
Public provision for. Federal Social Security Act, 1935________________________________________
375
------State legislation as of August 1, 1935_____ _______________________________________________ 371-375
Boots and shoes, labor turn-over, yearly and monthly rates, 1931-35_______________________________
807
Brick industry, labor turn-over, yearly and monthly rates, 1931-35________________________________
807
Budgets, cost of living:
Business women, expenditures of, influence of depression on, 1931 and 1932________________ 1100-1102
Dependent family, sample budget for, San Francisco, November 1934_________________________
106
Families of executive, clerk, and wage earner, San Francisco, November 1934________________ 104-105
Self-supporting family, Chicago, March 1932 (estimated by Chicago Council of Social Agencies)
106
Street-car men’s families, San Francisco, incomes and expenditures, 1925____________________ 101-104
Building and loan associations. (S ee Cooperation.)
Building-construction industry:
Accident statistics, New York City, 1929-31, by trade group________________________________ 285-286
Apartment house, employment in construction of, daily totals and by classes of work, 1931-32._ 229,234
Costs. As affected by accidents______________________ ______________ ___________ ______ ____ 305-306
------Average, new dwellings per family, 1921-34________________________________________________
215
------Percentage distribution, by class of work, 1931-32--------------------------222-224
------Relative, of material and labor, by city, 1931-32___________
220-222
Elapsed time, and cancelations of building permits, 1929 and 1931, study of__________________ 216-220
Employment and pay-roll statistics, by locality, April 1935, percentage change from March 1935, 141-143
Expenditures (estimated). Building operations, by year, 1921-34_________ _________________ 212-213
------Index numbers, 1929-35, principal cities of United States________________________________ 207-209
Fluctuations in, seasonal, causes and possibilities for stabilization______ ____ ________________ 224-228
P. W . A. projects, wage rates, November 1934_____ __________________ _____ ________________ 904KX)6
Time lapses during process of construction, 1929 and 1931, study of__________________________ 216-220
Building materials, wholesale prices, indexes, by year, 1921-34_____________________________________
215
Canneries, Alaska, fishing industry, wages, 1930-32______________________________________________
405
Cement manufacturing industry:
Accident statistics, 1928-32, by cause and nature of injury___________________________________ 298-299
Wages and hours, 1929 and 1932____ _________________ _____ ___________________________ 876,999-1003
Chain stores compared with independent retail stores as to wages paid, 1929 and 1931__________ 1013-1014
Child labor:
Accidents, industrial, to employed minors in California, 1932__________________________________ 49-53
Amendment to Federal Constitution, status, June 30, 1935____ ______________________________
38-39
Cotton-garment industry, Pennsylvania, effect of adoption of minimum wage under N . R. A ._ .
554
Education of children going to work, 1933.......... ................. ...................................... ............. ........... .
35
Laundries, New Hampshire, wages of minors, 1933________________________________________ 1107-1108
Minors illegally employed, California, injuries to, 1932________________________________________
53
N. R. A. codes, analysis of provisions____ ____ __________________________________ _____ _______
524
Newspaper and magazine distributing, study of, 1934 (U. S. Children’s Bureau and N . R. A .). 45-49
Recommendations of second National Conference on Labor Legislation, October 1935-................
444
Sugar-beet fields, working and living conditions, wages............................. ....................... ................... 44-45
Sweatshops, working conditions during depression.__________________________ _______________ 203-204
Telegraph messengers, accident experience, 1931, study of____________________________________ 303-305
Transient boys (under 21) in the United States, 1932, survey of conditions____________________ 42-44
United States, 1933 and 1934, analysis of employment-certificate statistics____ _________________ 31-38
White House Conference report on, 1932______ _____ __________________ _______________________ 39-42
Child welfare:
Crippled children, provisions under Federal Social Security Act_____________________________ 785-786
Dependent children, aid to, under Federal Social Security Act_________________________ _______
785
Services under Federal Social Security Act____________________________________________________
786
Cigar industry. (See Tobacco industry.)
Cigarette industry. (S ee Tobacco industry.)
Civil service. (See Public service.)
Civil Works Administration:
Creation, November 9, 1933, and program of______ ________ ________ _________________ _______ 841-843
Employment and pay-roll statistics, 1933-34________________________________ ________________ 152-153
Projects, survey of housing conditions in 64 cities, 1933-34___________________________________ 240-242
Civilian Conservation Corps:
Educational program_______________________________________________________________________ 855-856
Employment status, former members, 1933 and 1934__________ _____ ______ _________________ 856-858
Organization, program, and operations (1933-35)_____________________________________________ 852-855
Clerical workers. (See Office workers.)
Clothing industry:
Connecticut, garment-making industry, “ runaway shops” , sweatshop conditions, 1929-32_____
203
Cotton-garment. N. R. A. investigation and recommendation as to changes in hours and wages. 552-553
------Pennsylvania, study of degree of compliance with N . R. A. codes_________________ ______ 553-557
------Prison labor, N . R. A. committee report on competition with___________________________ 702-704
Dress industry, Connecticut, woman workers, labor conditions under N . R. A ______________ 557-559
Hours and earnings. (See Wages and hours.)
Men’s, labor turn-over, yearly and monthly rates, 1931-35____________________________ _________
810
Shirt industry, Connecticut, woman workers, labor conditions under N. R .A ________________ 559-561
Coal-mining industry. (S ee Mining industry.)
Coal, retail prices. (See Retail prices.)




INDEX

1137

Codes, industrial. (S ee National Recovery Administration.)
Codes, safety. (See Accident prevention.)
irage
Coke ovens, accident statistics, 1916-32, by States and extent of injury................................................. 283-284
Collective agreements:
Bituminous-coal industry, under N . R. A ., with force of codes.........................................................
506
Construction industry, under N . R. A., with force of codes.............................................................. 506-609
Five-day week, trade-union provisions...................................................................................................... 1063
Labor organizations, records of, 1931-34, where found.............................................................................
426
Collective bargaining:
Houde Engineering Corporation, decision, National Labor Relations Board............................... 533-534
National Industrial Recovery Act, experience under................................. ...................................... 532-534
Common labor, entrance wage rates, 1931-34, by industry and geographic division............................916-919
Community life, Norris, Tenn., workers on Tennessee Valley Authority project.............................. 797-798
Company loan plans, unemployed workers (study, 1932) ................................................... .................. 859-860
Company stores, N . R. A. special committee, study and recommendations........................................ 561-562
Conciliation and arbitration:
Anthracite industry, report of board of reference, wage dispute United Mine Workers of America
and operators, 1932-33............................................ .................................................................................. 27-28
Colorado, State industrial commission (1915) for arbitration of labor disputes, powers of, etc----26.
Labor boards or adjustment agencies under the N . I. R. A .................................................................. 11-18
Labor Relations Board, National, 1935, functions, membership, etc.............................. ................... 18-20
Puerto Rico, work of Mediation and Conciliation Commission, 1938-34------------ ------------------- 418-419
Railroads, United States Board of Mediation and emergency boards, work of, 1926-34..............
20-26
Work of United States Department of Labor, 1931-35............................................ .......................... 26-27
Conferences. (See Conventions, meetings, etc.)
Construction industry:
Fluctuations in, seasonal, causes, and possibilities for stabilization.............................................. 224-228
Projects financed by various governmental agencies, employment and pay-roll statistics to year
1935................................. ......................................................................................................................... . 145-153
Projects financed from Federal funds, value of contracts awarded, 1933-35, by type of construc­
tion.............................................................................................................. .................... .................... . 215-216
(See also Building-construction industry.)
Consumers’ Division, N . R. A., transferred to United States Department of Labor.........................
536
Contracts, antiunion, Federal and State legislation_____ ________________________ _____— .............. 431-433
Conventions (agreements), International Labor Organization, ratifications, to end of 1933________ 398-402
Conventions, meetings, etc.:
Labor Legislation. Eastern Interstate Conference on, Harrisburg, June 1931—................... 438,439-440
------Eastern States Conference on, Boston, January 1933— ................
438,440-441
------First National Conference on, Washington, D. C., February 1934..................... ............. 438,441-442
------ Second National Conference on, Asheville, N. C., January 1935.......
439,444-445
------Southeastern Interstate Conference on, Atlanta, Ga., December 1933____________________ 438,441
Labor Legislation and Economic Security, Southern Regional Conference on, Nashville, Tenn.,
January 1935...................... ........................ .......... ............ ............................................................... 439,443-444
Labor Standards, Conference on, Washington, D. C., December 1934...____ ________________ 439,442
Michigan Labor Legislation Institute, Lansing, March 1934........................................... ................ 438,442
Negro, economic status of, Washington, May 1933— ........................................................................ 568-570
Social Legislation, Southeastern Interstate Conference on, Atlanta, Ga., December 1933.......... 438,441
Unemployment, Governors’ Conference on, Albany, N. Y . , January 1931_________ _________ 438-439
Convalescents, institutional care for, wage-earning and lower-salaried classes..................................... 472-473
Convict-made goods. (See Prison labor.)
Cooperation:
Building and loan associations. Development of movement, 1920-34................................................
68
------ Investment in, by industrial employees........................................................................ ................ 390-392
------Status, 1933 and 1934............................... ............................... ........................ ........ .......... ........... .
67-68
58-62
Consumers’ societies, operations, 1925, 1929, 1933____________________________________ _________
Credit societies (“credit unions’’), development of movement, 1925-33............... ...........................
63
Development of movement in United States, 1933............................................ ........................ ........... 57-64
Housing societies, operations in 1933................ .......... ......................................................... ...................
61
Industrial codes, status of societies under................................................................................................ 64-66
Insurance societies, operations in 1933......................................................................... ............................61-62
Labor banks. Condition of, June 30, 1935........................................................................ .......................
66
— - Development of, 1920-35, United States....................................................... .................... ..............66-67
Tennessee Valley Associated Cooperatives, Inc., activities of..................................... ........................
799
Wisconsin, act providing for teaching of, in public schools............................................ ...................... 68-69
Wholesale societies, development of, 1929 and 1933....................... .............. .......................... ...............
62
Workers’ productive societies, development, 1925, 1929, and 1933...................................... .................
64
Cooperative self-help among unemployed, by States, 1931-35................................................ .................. . 73-75
Cost of living:
Amalgamated Housing Corporation dwellings, families in, standard of living, 1930....... .............. 99-101
Budgets. (See Budgets, cost-of-living.)
Changes. Compared with earnings and production, January 1933 to January 1935, summary.. 544-551
------ Specified cities, United States, 1915 and 1919 to 1935........................................................................ 81-85
------United States, 1913-35........................
79-86
------United States and 23 foreign countries, index numbers, 1932-35...................
86-89
European cities, International Labor Office study, 1930-31 (at request of Ford Motor Co.)..........95-97
Executive, clerk, and wage earner, San Francisco, typical family budgets, November 1934___ 104-105
Expenditures, wage earners and lower-salaried clerical workers, new Bureau of Labor Statistics
study begun, 1934........ ...............................................................................................................................94-95
Federal Employees, Washington, D. C. Economy Act, Mar. 20, 1933, authorizing salary re­
ductions according to cost-of-living changes.......................................................................... ...............
90
• Incomes and average disbursements, year ending June 30, 1933........................
----90-92
------Indexes, March and December 1933, June 1934.________________ __________________ ________
93
Food, comparative costs in various countries, October 1932............... .................... ............................ 98-99
Ford Motor Co. workers, Detroit and various European cities, 1930-31, comparison...............
95-97
Philippine Islands (Manila), 192&-33..................................................... ................................................410-411
Puerto Rico, 1927 and 1934.......... .................................................................... .......................................417-418
Rents (32 cities), indexes, by years, 1921-34_________________________ __________________________
215
Streetcar men’s families, San Francisco, 1925 (Heller Committee stu d y ).................................... 101-104

19205—36-----73




1138

INDEX

Cost of living—Continued.
Page
Wage earners and low-salaried workers. 1913-35, index numbers......................................... _______
81
------October 15, 1935, index numbers, by city_______ ______________ ____________________________
86
Wage-earning women, Richmond, Va., income and expenditures, 1931.................... ..................... 107-111
Costs. (See u n d er sp ecific subjects.)
Cotton-garment industry. (See Clothing industry.)
Cotton-manufacturing industry, labor turn-over, yearly and monthly rates, 1931-35............................
808
Cotton-textile industry:
Strike called September 3, 1934, Board of Inquiry recommendations........ ...................................... 323-325
Wage rates and weekly earnings, 1933-34....................................... .............................. ....................... . 921-925
Court decisions. (See Decisions of courts.)
Credit unions. (See Cooperation.)
Crippled children. (See Child welfare.)
Crops, harvesting of, wages. (See Wages and hours.)

Death benefits. (See Benefits and benefit plans; Workmen’s compensation—Benefits.)
Deaths. (See Vital statistics.)
Decisions of courts:
Antiunion contracts, United States Supreme Court____________________________________ 431-432
Hours of labor, men, laws regulating, constitutionality of, United States Supreme Court... 1071-1073
Injunctions, United States Supreme Court___________________________________________ 428-430
National Industrial Recovery Act, United States Supreme Court (Schechter v. U. S . ) ______ 563-564
Railroad Employees’ Retirement Act of 1934. Constitutionality of, United States Supreme
Court______________________________________ _____________ _____________________ 610
------Majority opinion, United States Supreme Court......................................................... .............611-614
-----Minority opinion, United States Supreme Court___________________________________614-615
Department stores, employment of older workers, Springfield, Mass., study of, 1932..................... 619-624
Dependent children. (S ee Mothers’ pensions.)
Deportations, aliens, from United States under warrant proceedings, fiscal years 1916-34__________ 263
Disability benefits, workmen’s compensation laws, as of December 1,1935______ ____________1126-1129
Disabled persons, vocational rehabilitation for, under Federal Social Security Act............................... 786
Diseases. (See Health and hygiene: Industrial diseases and poisons; Sickness statistics.)
Dismissal wage:
Connecticut Unemployment Commission, recommendation concerning........ ................................. 823
Manufacturing plants paying, survey (1932), by industry group.................. ................................ 458-459
Payment of, in American industry, study, 1932 and 1933................................................................ 831-835
Dollar, purchasing power of. (S ee Purchasing power of dollar.)
Domestic employees:
Labor standards (survey, U. S. Women’s Bureau)........................................................................... 448-449
Philadelphia, wages and hours, 1932.................................................................................................. 925-927
Dress industry. (See Clothing industry.)
Dusts, industrial:
Rock drilling, dust eliminator, test of, New York City...................................................................... 361
(See also Health and hygiene; Industrial diseases and poisons.)
Dyeing and finishing of textiles, hours and earnings. (S ee Wages and hours.)
Earnings. ( S e e Wages and hours.)
Economic conditions. ( S e e Labor and industrial conditions; Negro in industry; Women in indus­
try.)
Economic security:
779
Committee on, creation, June 1934, personnel, duties, etc............. ............ ...........................................
( S e e a l s o Social security.)
Editorial employees, newspapers, salaries and working time, 1934 and earlier years.......................... 987-990
Educational program, Civilian Conservation Corps................. .......... .......... .......................................... 855-856
Efficiency:
Influence of nonmechanical factors.......................................... ........................................................
734- 736
Relative, of Negro and white workers------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ---------- 576-578
Electric-lamp industry, productivity of labor, 1920, 1929, 1931, and technological changes------------- 719-720
Electric-light and power industry, productivity of labor and technological changes...........................719-720
Electric-railway workers, earnings in 1932_____________________________ __________________________
930
Electricity, retail prices. ( S e e Retail Prices.)
151
Emergency Conservation Work (C. C. C.), employment and pay-roll statistics, 1933-35............s -----Emergency Relief Act, Federal, 1935............ ................................................................................................. 843-845
Emergency Relief Administration, Federal:
Census of unemployment relief, October 1933, analysis of................................................................. 173-175
Relief work under, May 23, 1933, to August 31, 1935.................................................. —..................... 840-843
Rural-rehabilitation program-------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------- 235-236
Emergency Work Program, employment and pay-roll statistics, 1934-35............................................ . 151-152
Emigration:
269
Mexican alien emigration from United States, July 1930 to June 1932................................................
United States citizens departed to foreign seaports, calendar year 1934.............................................
264
( S e e a l s o Immigration.)
Employees’ suggestion systems, analysis of (Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. study)....................... 460-461
Employer-employee relations, Tennessee Valley Authority.........................................................................
796
Employment agencies:
Clearance of labor between States, under United States Employment Service................................
121
Fee-charging agencies, regulation of....................................... ............................... - ..................................
125
Junior placement service under United States Employment Service............................ .................120-121
National Reemployment Service, established 1933, functions........................................................... 116-117
Placements by public offices, California and Wisconsin..................................................................... 125-126
Plant employment offices, extent of use, by industries..................................................................... 453-454
Public, State unemployment insurance paid through.............................................................................
819
116
States operating, affiliated with United States Employment Service........................... .....................
United States Employment Service. Operations, July 1, 1933, to June 30, 1935.......................... 117-124
------Organization o f ......................................................... ..........................................................................115-116
Veterans’ Placement Service (under United States Employment Service), operations 1934-35. 121-122
Employment, finding of, for employees laid off, manufacturing plants, policies..................................
459
Employment offices. ( S e e Employment agencies.)
Employment opportunities:
Concentration of industry in certain localities, effect on....................................... ............................193-194
Farm labor in rural factory industries, study of, 1931....................................................................... 191-193




INDEX

1139

Employment statistics:
Page
Agriculture. Farm labor supply and demand, 1929-35.........................................................................
162
------Number of laborers per farm, 1929-35.................. - ................ . ............................................................
162
Alaska. Fisheries, commercial, number of employees, by nationality, in 1933................................
405
— Mining industry, 1932................................. ........... ............ ............................................................. 405-406
Apartment house, employment in construction of* daily totals and by classes of work, 1931-32. 229-234
Building-construction industry, employment, pay rolls, etc., by locality, April 1935.................. 140-143
Changes. 1929 to January 1935, summary (with hours, earnings, and production).................... 548-551
------January 1933 to January 1935, by industry group, summary (with hours, earnings, and pro­
duction)...... ............................................................................... ............. .............................................. 536-548
Civil Works Administration projects, employment and pay rolls, 1933-34..................................... 152-153
Construction projects. P.W .A . employment and pay rolls, 1933-35.......... ................................... 145-146
------Reconstruction Finance Corporation, employment and pay rolls, 1934-35................................
149
------Regular governmental appropriations, employment and pay rolls, 1934-35............................ 148-149
------Works Program, employment and pay rolls, July to October 1935.............................
147-148
Coverage and methods of compiling, Bureau of Labor Statistics.......................... ...........................129-131
Emergency Conservation Work (C. C. C. work), employment and pay rolls, 1933-35.................
151
Emergency Work Program projects, employment and pay rolls, 1934-35.........
151-152
Federal service, employment and pay rolls, 1934 and 1935, by months................................ .......... .
144
Hawaiian plantations (38), by race, sex, citizenship, etc., 1934..................................................... .......
408
Heads of families, Denver, 1929 and 1933........................ ..........................................................
1060-1061
Homework, industrial, New York State, 1911-30, compared with factory employment............. 197-198
Manufacturing industries. 1933 compared with earlier census years................ ............. ............. 153-155
------Indexes, employment and pay rolls, 1919-35, by months...................
131-132
------Indexes, employment and pay rolls, 1929-34, by industry group____________
133-135
National income and estimates of persons actually employed, 1929-32____________ ________ _ 1085-1086
Nonmanufacturing industries. Indexes, employment and pay rolls, 1929-35, by industry group
and month—........................... ....................... ........................ ................................................................ 136-140
------Sample covered, April 1935, by Bureau of Labor Statistics...........................................
135-136
Office workers, factories, New York State, October 1933........................... ...................................... .
991
Ohio, fluctuations, by sex, general occupation group, and general industry group, 1914-34........ 155-161
Public roads, Federal, non-Federal, and State, 1933-35..........................................................................
150
Puerto Rico, 1930, by general occupational divisions and sex................................................................
414
Railroads, class I. 1920-31................................. .......... ............................................................................... 1070
------Indexes, by month, 1923 to 1935.................................................................
144
Rural factory industries as employers of farm labor, study of, 1931................................................ 191-193
Subsistence Homesteads, Division of, employment provided on projects, August 25, 1934........ 850-851
Tennessee Valley Authority......... ........... ..................................................................................................
794
Unemployment. ( S e e Unemployment.)
Urban families on public relief, employment status, May 1934.—................................................... 175-178
Work created through material orders placed by Federal agencies, to October 15,1935.............. 150-151
Employment status, former members of Civilian Conservation Corps, 1933 and 1934........................ 856-858
Employment services. ( S e e Employment agencies.)
Factory workers, weekly earnings, New York State, 1914-35..4................................................................
931
Family allowances, European countries, reference to Bureau of Labor Statistics surveys..................... 1090
Family budgets. (See Budgets, cost of living.)
Farm labor. (S ee Agriculture.)
Federal Committee on Apprentice Training, composition, and duties of (organized June 1934).......... 5,526
Federal Emergency Relief Administration. (S ee Emergency Relief Administration.)
Federal employees. (S ee Public service.)
Federal Trade Commission authorized to approve trade-practice agreements in conformity with
N . I. R. A ........................ - .................................. - ...........................- ............................................................. 535-536
Filling stations, gasoline, hours and earnings of employees, 1931. ................................................... 875,949-950
Fire-department employees. (S ee Public service.)
Fishing industry, Alaska, employment statistics by nationality, 1933, and wages paid in canneries,
1930-32.................................................................................................................... - .............................................
405
Five-day week. (See Shorter working time.)
Food, retail prices. (S ee Retail prices.)
Forced labor, importation of goods made by, prohibited, Tariff Act of 1930................... ........................
706
Ford Motor Co.:
Cost-of-living inquiry, international, 1930-31, request for and findings. ......................................... 95-97
Minimum wage rates in Detroit and in European cities, August 1931.............................................. 97-98
Foundries and machine shops:
Hours and earnings. (S ee Wages and hours.)
Labor turn-over, yearly and monthly rates, 1931 to 1935....................................................- ..................
808
Furniture industry:
_
Hours and earnings, 1929 and 1931.................................................................................................. 875,946-948
Labor turn-over, yearly and monthly rates, 1931 to 1935........................................................................
809
Garages, motor-vehicle repair, hours and earnings, 1931—................................................................ 876,985-987
Gas, retail prices. (See Retail prices.)
Gasoline filling stations, hours and earnings of employees, 1931........................................................ 875,949-950
Glass industry, hours and earnings, 1932...................................................................................................... 950-955
Group insurance, industrial, in 1933............................................................................................................... 377-379

workers:
_ XT ™
.
A. codes, provisions for employment under.............................. .................................
Vocational rehabilitation under Federal Social Security Act, provisions for.................... .
(See also Sheltered workshops.)
Harvesting of crops, wages. (S ee Wages and hours—Agriculture.)
Health and hygiene:
Adult wage earners, prevalence of disease among..................................................................
Civilian Conservation Camp enrollees, April 1-September 30, 1934. ................................
Dusty trades, health of workers, and oo3Upational hazards, study of— .....................- - - Economic depression, effect of, upon health, 1933 (U. S. Public Health Service study).
Federal and State agencies concerned with workers’ health and working conditions---Housing and health, relation between, study (U. S. Public Health Service)...................
Illness, causes of, in 9,000 families, 1928-31, study..................................................................

Handicapped

Cotton-garment industry, Pennsylvania, conditions under N. R. A. codes....... ............. .
N . R.




556
527
786

760-763
..
854
357-358
763-766
329-331
242-344
751-753

1140

INDEX

Health and hygiene—Continued.
Page
Improvement of conditions through work of employees’ mutual benefit associations................. 382-385
Industrial diseases and poisons, studies of. (S ee Industrial diseases and poisons.)
Insured wage earners, mortality records, Metropolitan Life Insurance Co., 1934_....................... 758^-760
Los Angeles, clinic maintained by employees of city department of water and power...................
475
Manufacturing industries, minimum requirements under N. R. A. codes..................................... 309-312
Massachusetts, occupational health council established, 1932........................................................... 475-476
Mercantile establishments, minimum standards Under N . R. A. codes. ............................... .......312-314
Negro factory workers, physical impairment, study of....................................................................... 568-570
New York City, Union Health Center, work of........................................................... .................... 476-477
Public health services, State assistance under Federal Social Security Act..................... .................
786
Recommendations of second National Conference on Labor Legislation, October 1935__________
444
Temperatures and air conditions, effects of, on health and efficiency.............................................. 358-361
Tennessee Valley Authority, measures taken by..................................................................................
795
(See also Industrial diseases and poisons; Medical and hospital service; Sickness statistics.)
Health insurance, group plans, industrial, at end of 1933......... ...................... .......................................... 377-379
Hiring and separation methods, manufacturing establishments, survey (1932), by industry group. 453-460
Home ownership:
Chicago, attitudes toward home ownership and tenancy, study. ................................................... 248-250
Negroes, West Virginia, in 1930................ . .................................................................................. .............
573
(See also Housing.)
Homesteads, subsistence. (S ee Subsistence homesteads.)
Homework, industrial:
Industrial depressions, relation to, study of (New York State), 1911-30... ............................. .......197-198
N . R. A. codes, provisions concerning............................................................... ........................... 527-528, 531
198
N . R. A. order, permitting under specified conditions....................................... ........................ ..........
New York State, employment, 1911-30, compared with factory employment...............................197-198
Puerto Rico, needle trades, study of, winter of 1933-34.......................................................................416-417
Recommendations of second National Conference on Labor Legislation, October 1935................ .
444
Study of conditions under N. R. A., findings............. ......................................................................... 198-202
Hosiery industry, hours and earnings. (See Wages and hours.)
Hospitalization. (S ee Medical and hospital service.)
Houde Engineering Corporation, decision re collective-bargaining agency............................................ 533-534
Hours of labor:
Men. Private employment, legal restrictions upon, as of January 1, 1936............................... 1074-1077
------Public works, legal restrictions upon, as of January 1, 1936_____________ _t....................... 1073-1074
Motorbus drivers, legal restrictions upon, by State, as of January 1, 1936................................. 1078-1079
N . R. A. codes, analysis of provisions............ ......................................................... ..............................517-522
(See also Wages and hours.)
Housing:
Amalgamated Housing Corporation dwellings, standard of living, tenant families, 1930............. 99-101
American cities, conditions revealed by C. W . A. survey, 1933-34.................... ................... .......... 240-242
Buildings constructed, number and estimated cost, by kind of building, 1931-34........................ 209-211
Chicago, home ownership and tenancy, study of attitudes toward......................................... ....... 248-250
Costs. (See Building-construction industry—Costs.)
Families provided for. In 1921-34, by kind of dwellings........................................................211-212,213
------Index numbers, 1929-35 and expenditures for building------------------------- ---------------------------- 208-209
Federal relief and recovery measures granting funds for, 1932-35........ ............................................ 234-236
Health, relation to, study (U. S. Public Health Service)------------------------------------------- ------------- 242-244
Home Loan Bank Act, 1932, and Home Owners’ Loan Act, 1933, activities under____ ________ 236-238
Inadequacy of, in 64 American cities, 1933-34___ ______ ________ ______ ____ _________________ 241-242
National Housing Act, 1934, activities under--------------------------------------------- ------- ----------------- 238-239
New York City, tax exemption plan and effects of------------------------------------------ ------- --------------- 244-2^6
New York State Board of Housing, projects completed, 1934......................... .....................................
239
Overcrowded conditions, effect upon death rates and spread of disease— .................................... 242-244
Philadelphia, situation, spring of 1934 (public-works project survey)________ _____ __________ 246-247
Puerto Rico, homestead division of department of labor, duties of___________ ____ ______ _____
420
Recommendations of second National Conference on Labor Legislation, October 1935................ .
445
Tennessee Valley Authority, workers at Muscle Shoals, Wheeler and Norris Dams............. .
796-798
Housing Administration, Federal, program and operations to December 1935............................. ....... 238-239
Illness. (See Health and hygiene; Industrial diseases and poisons; Sickness statistics.)
Immigration:
Administration of laws, United States Immigration and Naturalization Service_______________
253
Admissions under Quota Act of 1924, fiscal years 1925-34_____________________________________ 261-263
Aliens admitted. By country of last permanent residence, fiscal years 1932-34________________
256
------By State of intended future residence, occupation, group, age group, sex, and marital con­
dition, fiscal years 1931-34_______ _________ _____ ___________ _______________________________
257
Aliens departed. By country of intended future residence, fiscal years 1932-34________________
256
------By State of last permanent residence, by occupation group, age group, sex, and marital con­
dition, fiscal years, 1931-34.................................................. ....................................................................
257
Deportations under warrant proceedings, fiscal years, 1916-34............................................................
263
1820 to 1934, by geographic division and country............................................................................... 258-261
Inward and outward passenger movement by months, July 1930 to March 1935........... ............. 253-255
Mexicans to United States, 1920-30__________ ______________ ______ _______ _________________ 267-268
Population increase or decrease (net), through permanent immigration and emigration, 1934 and
earlier years............................. ................................................................. .......... ................................ . 256,261
Sources of, principal, 1820-1930, by decades, and peak year, 1820-1934, by country....................... .
260
Incentive systems, Connecticut, factories December 1929, study......................................................... 1082-1083
Income:
Federal employees, average disbursements, year ending June 30, 1933............................................. 90-92
National. Distribution of, 1929-34, by types of payment____ _____ ____________ __________ 1084-1089
------Labor income paid out, 1929-34, by industrial division_____________ _______________ 1086-1087,1089
------Per capita income, 1929-34, by industrial division_______________________________ ______ 1087-1088
------Taxes, income reported, 1933-34, for tax purposes by net income class............. .................... 1089-1090
Onion field workers, Ohio, other than agricultural earnings, 1934................................................ 937-938
Industrial accidents. (S ee Accident prevention; Accident statistics.)
Industrial Appeals Board, N . R. A ., activities.............................................. .................... .........................
535




INDEX

1141

Industrial diseases and poisons:
Pfcge
Anthrax, cases of, 1929-33, by State......... . ........................................................................................... 774-776
Asbestosis, pulmonary, study of clinical, pathological, etc., features of-......................................... 340-342
Cadmium poisoning, study of history and uses of calcium and its pathologic effects.................. 331-332
Carbon tetrachloride, health hazards resulting from use of........................... ................................... 332-333
Dermatitis, Brazilian walnut wood, cabinetmaking plant, 1931.......................... ............................ 360-351
Dial painters, radium, New Jersey, study of poisoning cases (Martland)...................................... 342-345
Dust hazard in rock excavation, test of eliminator, New York City.................................... - ______
361
Dusty trades. Health of workers in__..................................................................... ........................ . 357-358
------Occupational hazards........................................................................................ ................................. .
763
Ethylene oxide—effects of exposure to vapors, study (U. S. Bureau of Mines)_____ - ................ 333-334
Hydrocyanic-acid-gas absorption through the skin................................................ ........................ 334-335
Miners’ nystagmus, Great Britain, report for 1932, study of symptoms, etc................................. 335-337
Nitrocellulose lacquers, composition of, and relative hazards............................................................ 337-338
Occupational diseases. Legislation in United States............................................ ...............................
362
------Massachusetts, cases (including fatalities), 1930.....................
755-756
------Ohio, cases, 1928-34........
757
756
Occupational poisons and diseases, New York, cases terminated in 1934...........................................
Osmium tetroxide (osmic acid) hazards........................ .......................................... ............................ 338-339
Pellagra, decline in mortality among wage earners, 1930 and 1931.................................................... 757-758
Pneumoconiosis, danger of delayed development........ ....................... ............................................. 339-340
Radioactive substances as a cause of malignant growths, study of (Martland)............................ 342-345
Silicosis. Acute cases, manufacture of scouring soap or powder, study of (Chapman) ............ 346-347
------Granite and foundry industries of Massachusetts ................................................................. . 347-349
------Hazard among underground miners, prevention of, engineering problem...............
345-346
------Miners, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Missouri, prevalence of tuberculosis and__........................ 349-350
Skin disease from Brazilian walnut wood, cabinetmaking plant, 1931............... ........................... 350-351
Sulphur dioxide, effects of prolonged exposure.............................................................................. ....... 351-352
Vitreous enameling, hazards in stove industry........................................................ ............................ 353-354
Wood industry, occupational diseases from exposure to dusts.......................................................... 354-356
Industrial disputes:
Adjustment agencies under the N. I. R. A ..............................................................................................11-18
Alaska, strike, shipping employees and longshoremen, June-July 1934_________ _____ _________
406
Cotton-textile industry, strike called September 3, 1934, board of inquiry recommendations— 323-325
Philippine Islands, 1929-33........ ..............................................................................................................412-413
Puerto Rico, 1933-34.................... ........... ........................ . . ....................................................................418-419
Sheltered workshops doing contract work for manufacturers involved in labor disputes,.............
531
Strikes and lockouts. Duration and results, 1927-33..... .................................................................... 322-323
------Duration and results, 1933, by States and industry or occupation. .. ..................
321-322
------Statistical analysis, 1927-33................................................................................................. 318-320,322-323
------United States, 1916-34........
317
See also Arbitration and conciliation.
Industrial health. (See Health and hygiene; Industrial diseases and poisons.)
Injunctions, anti-injunction legislation. Federal and State, history of,................................................ 428-431
International Labor Office:
Composition and functions o f ,.................... .................................................. ........................ 395-396,397-398
Cost-of-living inquiry, international 1930-31 (at request of Ford Motor C o .),.......................... .......95-97
International Labor Organization:
Accomplishments of 1935 conference........ ................... ..............................................................................
397
Conventions (agreements or treaties) adopted to end of 1933.......................................................... 398-402
Purpose of.................................................................. ......... ....................................................................... 395-396
United States. Affiliation with...... ................... ................................................................................. 395-396
------Representation at 1935 conference......................................................................................................
396
Interstate compacts:
Labor and industrial (report of New Hampshire commission)_______________________________ 445-447
Prison labor, regulation of working time, price control, etc_______________________ ______ - .........
529
Intelligence, aptitude, and efficiency tests, manufacturing plants requiring, by industry group------455
Investment plans. (See Savings and investment plans; Stock ownership plans, employee.)
Iron and steel industry:
Accident statistics, 1907-33, by department and cause,..................................................................... 290-294
Hours and earnings. (See Wages and hours.)
Labor Relations Board, Steel, formation, 1934, and activities..................................... ........................ 13,16
Labor turn-over, yearly and monthly rates, 1931-35.............. .................................................................
809
Productivity of labor, study of man-hours required, 1935. .......................................... ............. ....... 720-722
Sheet department, productivity of labor, 1925 and 1929.........................................................................
722
Labor and industrial conditions:
Alaska, wages and labor conditions, 1930-34...................................................................
Hawaii, labor conditions, 1934......................... .................. ............ ..................................
N . R. A . code provisions supersede less favorable union conditions............................
Philippine Islands, labor conditions, 1929-33....................................................................
Puerto Rico, labor conditions, 1930-34........................... ...................................................
Labor displacement:
Agriculture, study of increased farm mechanization and its effects.............................
Amusement industry, effects of technological changes. .................................................
Cigar industry, technological changes in making long-filler cigars...............................
Leather industry, 1923-31................................................ ................................................... .
Slaughtering and meat-packing industry, study, 1932.................................................. .
Telegraph industry, Morse operators in various branches of, study, 1931..................
Telephone industry, installation of dial system, study of, 1930........................ ...........
Tire industry, 1922-31........ ............................. ........... - ..................................................... .
Labor disputes. (See Arbitration and conciliation; Industrial disputes.)
Labor organizations:
American Federation of Labor, industrial-union movement in...................................
Baking industry, unionism in, 1933 and 1934. .......................... .....................................
Benefits paid, national and international trade-unions, 1929-34, by type of benefit.
Collective agreements, record of, 1931-34, where found.................................................
Independent industrial organizations.....................................................- .........................




405-407
407529-530
408-413
414-420
712713-714
.. 718
722-723
725-726
729-732
728-729
.. 733
.. 425
.. 892
.. 392
.. 426
424-425

408
713

1142

INDEX

Labor organizations—Continued.
Page
616
Old-age pensions paid, 1933 and 1934......................................... ............... _...............................................
Philippine Islands, number and membership, 1929-33............................ .............................................
413
Policies and forms of organization, changes in...................................................................................... 424-425
Trade-union membership and organization, 1931-35............................................................................ 423-426
Trade-Union Unity League, organized in 19529, policies. .................................................................. 425-426
Truck drivers’ and chauffeurs’ union, Chicago, medical service plan.................................................
477
Union Health Center, New York City, work of................................................................................ 476-477
Union label, legislation regarding........................................... ................................................................ 426-428
Union Labor Benefit League, Los Angeles, medical care for trade-unionists................................ 474-475
“ White-collar” organizations (1935 survey of trade-unions)..................................................................
426
Labor policies, Tennessee Valley Authority.......................................... ............. ........................ ............. 794-796
Labor relations boards. (See Arbitration and conciliation; also u n d er n am e o f board.)
Labor, share of, in the national income, 1929-34....................................................................................... 1084r-1089
Labor standards:
Conferences on, to establish uniform standards................................................................................... 438-445
Division of Labor Standards, United States Department of Labor............................... ................. 437-438
Domestic employees (survey, U. S. Women’s Bureau) .......................................... ......................... 448-449
Interstate compacts affecting......................... .................... ............................... ................................... 445-447
Labor turn-over:
Factories, representative American, yearly and monthly rates, 1931-35......................... ............... S05-811
Manufacturing plants, 1930, by length of service and cause of separation.................................... 459-460
Selected industries, references to special studies in Monthly Labor Review.....................................
811
Specified industries (10), yearly and monthly rates, 1931-35.................. ......................................
806-811
Standard procedure for computing ................................................................ .......... .............................. 803-805
Laws and legislation:
Antiunion contracts. Federal. ....................................... ............ .............................................................
431
------State, citations (end of 1935)...................
433
Anti-injunction legislation. Federal (Norris-LaGuardia Act)_________________________ _______
428
------State, citations (end of 1935)..........
430-431
Blind pensions. Federal Social Security Act, 1935. __________ _______________ ________________
376
------State legislation, as of August 1,1935...........
371-375
California compensation law, provisions concerning injuries to minors______________ ___________ 49-50 *
Child-labor amendment to Federal Constitution, status, June 30, 1935............. ................................38-39
Collective bargaining, right guaranteed under National Industrial Recovery Act, section 7 (a)..
532’
Conferences on labor legislation. (S ee Conventions, meetings, etc.)
Convict-made goods, Tariff Act of 1930 prohibiting importation of............. ......................................
706
Cooperation, agricultural and consumers’, required to be taught in schools, Wisconsin................ 68-69
Court decisions. (S ee Decisions of courts.)
Economy Act, March 20,1933, authorizing reduction of Federal employees’ salaries. ...................
90
Emergency Relief and Construction Act of 1932................... ................... ...............................................
234
Employment, Ohio, law requiring employers of three or more persons to furnish annual
reports................................... .................................... .......... .................................................................. 155-156
Federal Emergency Relief Act. 1933................................................................................... ........... . 235-236
------ 1935, provisions of. ..............
843-845
Home Loan Bank Act, 1932 ______________ _______ ________ _________ ____ _________ __________
236
Home Owners’ Loan Act, 1933____________________________________________________ _______ 236-237
Hours of labor. Men, public and private employment, as of January 1, 1936.____ _________ 1070-1079
------Motorbus drivers, legal restrictions, by State, as of January 1, 1936____________________ 1078-1079
Housing. National Housing Act, 1934.______ ________________ ____ _________ ____ ______ ____
238
------National Industrial Recovery Act, 1933,agencies concerned with________________________ 234-236
------New York, State law of 1926 and cityordinance of 1927, taxexemptions............. .......
244
------State laws enacted in recent years____________________________ _____ ___________ __________
239
Interstate compacts affecting labor and industries. Federal and State______________________ 445-447
Minimum wage. California, analysis of law_____ ______________ ____ _______ ________________
484
------Colorado, analysis of law______ _________
484
------Connecticut, analysis of law____________ _____________ _______________ ______ ___________ 484-486
------History of legislation and administration of laws(to July 1, 1935)_____
481-483
------Minnesota, analysis of law......................... .......................... ............ ............ ......................................
486
------North Dakota, analysis of law______ ____________________________________________________ 485-486
------Oregon, analysis of law_______ _______________
486
------South Dakota, analysis of law ........................................................ ........ ............... .........................
486
------Utah, analysis of la w .............................................................................. _r.......................................
486
------Washington, analysis of la w .......................................................... ......................... ..........................
487
------Wisconsin, analysis of law......................................... ................................. ............ .............................
487
National Industrial Recovery Act. 1933, text of title I...... ............ .............. »_________ _________ 491-496
------Extension of, Public Resolution No. 26, Seventy-fourth Congress (S. J. Res. 113).........
499
------System for adjustment of labor disputes under..........................
11—
18
National Labor Relations Act, 1935, provisions.._______ __________ __________ ______ __________18-19
Naturalization Act of June 29, 1906, provision, re language and handwriting__________ ______ 264
Norris-LaGuardia Act, 1932, provisions (anti-injunction)______________________________________
428
Old-age pensions. Federal grants to States with assistance plans (Social Security Act, 1935)___
596
------State legislation re Federal Social Security Act, status as of January 1, 1936..........
788
------State provisions, as of December 1, 1935, (tabular analysis by States)..................
596-600
Occupational diseases, compensation for_____ ________ _____ ______________________ ___________
362
Prison labor, Federal and State............................................................................................................... 704-706
Puerto Rico. Department of labor created....... .......... ................................................. .................... 419,420
------Vocational education and civilian rehabilitation...................
419
Railroads. Employees’ retirement law of 1934, principal features of......... ............. ..................... 610-611
------Mediation boards, Railway Labor Act of 1926.----------------- ---------------- --------------------------------- 20,21
------National Mediation Board created June 1934 and duties of (Public Act No. 442, 73d Cong.)__
21
Relief Act of 1933.............................................................................................................................................
84o
Relief Act of 1935, appropriation for housing to June 30, 1937. ..............................................................
236
Social Security Act, Federal. Principal features summarized............................ ............................ 779-787
------State Legislation re, status of, January 1, 1936..............
787-789
Tennessee Valley Authority, Federal act authorizing, May 18, 1933.................... .............................
79a
Union label, legislation of various States concerning use of................................................................ 426-428
Unemployment insurance or reserves, State laws providing for................................... .................818-819
Unemployment Reserves and Compensation Act, Wisconsin......................................................... 819-829




IN D E X

1143

Laws and legislation—Continued.
Page
Wage-collection division, New Jersey Department of Labor, act establishing............................... 1082
Wagner-Peyser Act, 1933 (Public Act No. 30) creating United States Employment Service........
115
Workmen’s compensation, analysis of systems in effect, as of December 1, 1935...................... 1117-1134
Learners, cotton-garment industry, Pennsylvania, conditions under N. R. A. code..............................
557
Leather industry:
Labor displacement, 1923 to 1931............................................................................................................. 722-723
Wages and hours, 1932, by department and occupation..................................................................... 970-973
Legal decisions. (See Decisions of courts.)
Leisure time, utilization of:
Activities in 1933, and desires, study of................................................................................................. 746-747
739
Community plans, need fo r .......................... ................................................... ........................................
Public schools, important factor in community recreation systems................................................. 744-746
(S ee also Recreation.)
Libraries, public, salaries of employees, December 1934.................... ................................................... 1007-1008
Life expectancy, effects of economic depression upon, industrial policy-holders, 1929-33.................. 766-768
Life insurance:
Amount of in United States, 1932............................................................................................................ 375-377
Group plans, industrial, at end of 1933................................ ........... .................................................... 377-379
Organized labor, Union Labor Life Insurance Co., report for 1933......................... ............................
377
Statistics upon health, mortality, etc. (See Sickness statistics; Vital statistics.)
Limited-dividend corporations:
Formation authorized, and State regulation.............................................................................................
239
Housing projects, loans for, from Federal agencies............................................................................. 234,235
New York City, amount and kind of housing supplied..................................................................... 244-245
Loans:
Company plans, unemployed workers, study, 1932........................................................ ................... 859-860
Housing construction, Federal agencies fo r ......................................................................................... 234-239
Lock-outs. ( S e e Industrial disputes.)
Longshoremen’s Board, National, formation 1934, activities................................................................... 12,15-16
Lumber industry, productivity of labor, man-hour rates, 1929...................................................................
723
M achine shops, hours and earnings. (S ee Wages and hours.)
“ Made work” , Philadelphia, persons employed on, study of, 1931......................................................... 181-183
Management, personnel:
Employees’ suggestion system (Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. study)...................................... 460-461
Hiring and separation methods in American factories, survey (1932) by industry group........... 453-460
Selling by employees not on regular sales force, development and outcome of plans........ .......... 461-463
Manufacturing industries:
Employment and pay-roll statistics, 1919-35 by months, and 1929-34, by industry group--------131-135
Employment, wages, material costs, and production, 1933 compared with earlier census years. 153-155
Location of, tendency to follow population trends, effect on employment opportunities______ 193-194
Marine Corps, field service, wages paid civilian employees 1934— ........................................ .............. 913-915
Marital status, women in industry. (S ee Women in industry.)
Maternal and child health services, Federal Social Security Act, provisions under..............................
785
Mechanization. (S ee Technological changes.)
Mediation:
Railroads. (See Railroads.)
(See also Conciliation and arbitration.)
Medical and hospital service:
Convalescents. Institutional care for, wage-earning and lower-salaried classes............................ 472-474
Costs. Family expenditures (study, Committee on Costs of Medical Care)______ __________ 470-471
------Physicians’ services and hospitalization (review of article by Dr. Michael M . Davis)_____ 468-470
------Report (1932), Committee on Costs of Medical Care.................................................................. 467-468
Freedom in choice of physician, mutual benefit association plan, year’s experience___________ 473-474
Los Angeles. Health clinic, employees of city department of water and power...............................
475
------Trade-union members and families_____ _________ ________________________ ______ ______ 474-475
Truck Drivers’ and Chauffeurs’ Union, Chicago, plan of_________________ ______ _____________
477
Union Health Center, New York City, work of.......................... ........................................................ 476-477
Metallurgical works, accident record, 1931 and 1932, by industrial group............. ................................ 296-297
Migration:
Farms, movements to and from, 1920 to 1935....... ......................................... ........................ ............. 591-592
Philippine laborers, to and from Hawaii, 1929-33. ............................................................................
413
Minimum wage:
Child labor, cotton-garment industry, Pennsylvania, effect of N . R. A. upon............. ................. ..
554
Laundries, New Hampshire board, inquiry into wages paid women and minors, 1933........... 1107-1108
Legislation and administration, status, as of July 1, 1935— ____ ____________________________ 481-487
N. R. A. codes, analysis of provisions................. ....................... ...........................................................514-515
Recommendation of second National Conference on Labor Legislation, October 1935........ ..........
444
Mining industry:
Alaska, employment, 1932, and wages, 1930-31— .................................... ................................... ....... 405-406
Anthracite. Mortality rates and diseases causing deaths, 1906-25 and 1915-23, study_________ 771-773
------Wage controversy between United Mine Workers of America and operators, board of
reference on, 1932-33....................................................................................................................................27-28
Bituminous coal. Mortality rates and diseases causing deaths, 1906-25 and 1915-23, study___ 773-774
------Productivity of labor, technological changes, and labor displacement..................................... 714-718
Coal. Fatalities, employment, etc., 1932 and earlier years................................................................ 281-283
------Wages and hours. (S e e Wages and hours.)
Metalliferous, wages and hours, 1924 and 1931...................................................................................... 977-979
Metals and minerals (except coal), accident statistics, 1930-32, by type of mine.......................... 295-296
Minors. (S ee Child labor.)
Morbidity rates. (S ee Sickness statistics.)
Mortality rates. (S e e Vital statistics.)
Mothers’ pensions:
Dependent children, aid to, under Federal Social Security Act...........................................................
785
789
State legislation in regard to Federal Social Security Act, status as of January 1,1936...................
Motorbus and motortruck transportation industries (intercity), hours and earnings, 1933............... 979-981
Motorbus drivers, hours of labor, legal restrictions upon, by State, as of January 1, 1936............... 1078-1079




1144

INDEX

Motor-vehicle industry, hours and earnings. (See Wages and hours.)
Page
Mutual benefit associations:
Employees, work of, study, 1931.............................................................................................................. 382-385
Freedom in choice of physician, year’s experience under plan (Spaulding Bakeries, Inc.).......... 473-474
Industrial, status in 1931.......................................................................................................................385-386
Muscle Shoals. (See Tennessee Valley Authority.)
National income. (See Income—National.)
National Industrial Recovery Act:
Agreements (voluntary) fixing labor conditions in connection with trade-practice agreements, 535-536
Approved, June 16, 1933, te x t,,............................................................................................................... 491-496
Collective bargaining under................................................................................ ..................................... 532-534
Extension of, June 14, 1935,..........................................................................................................................
499
Housing activities of various agencies under.......................................................................................... 234-235
Industrial coverage of title I..................................... ............................................................................. 496-499
Labor-controversy adjustments, agencies for, under............. .. ............................................................... 11-18
United States Supreme Court decision on__........................ ................................................. ............. 563-564
National Labor Board, created August 5, 1933, under N . I. R. A., personnel, functions, activities___ 11-12
National Labor Relations Board:
Created June 29, 1934, under N. I. R. A., formation, activities........................................................... 12-15
Decision, Houde Engineering Corporation case (recognition of automobile workers’ union as
collective-bargaining agency)...... .......................................................................................................... 533-534
Re-creation in 1935 under National Labor Relations Act...................................................................... 18-20
National Recovery Administration:
Automobile industry, labor conditions in, survey.,........................................................................... 551-552
Codes. Analysis of labor provisions, by subject...................................... ........................................... 512-529
------ Extent of codification.......... .........
512-513
------Jurisdiction over, ................................................................................................................................ 497-498
------Labor conditions under, studies of, specified industries,-..........................
551-561
------Making of, and administration, procedure for....... ..........................................................
505
------ Orders and regulations relating to.................................................................................................... 529-530
------Penalties imposed for noncompliance........................................................................................
505-506
------Retail and service trade exemptions from..........................................................................................
525
Collective agreements approved, with force of codes.,........................................................................ 506-509
Consumers’ Division transferred to United States Department of Labor.,...........- .........................
536
Control and exemptions of miscellaneous labor groups.,............... ............... .................................. 524-529
Cotton-garment industry, special committee investigation of hours and wages............................ 552-553
Industrial Appeals Board, activities............................. ............................................................................
535
Insular possessions, application of codes t o ,.......................................................................................... 498-499
Organization and reorganization, history of........................................................................... ............. 503-505
President’s Reemployment Agreement. (See Reemployment Agreement, President’s.)
Prison labor, provisions to place on a fair competitive basis..................................................................
529
Prison-made goods, manufacture and use of, State compact..................................................................
705
Safety and health provisions in codes, minimum standards....................................................... ....... 309-314
Scrip payment of wages and company stores, survey_ ________________________ _____________ 561-562
_
531
Sheltered workshops, agreement concerning.................................................................................. ..........
Termination of............................................................................................................................................. .
536
Textile industry, special machinery for.................... ............ ................................................................. 509-510
United States Supreme Court decision on National Industrial Recovery Act________________ 563-564
Wage restitutions secured............... ........................................................ ....................................... ............
562
National Reemployment Service, organization, fimctions......................................................................... 116-117
National Safety Council, accident statistics. (Sec Accident statistics.)
Naturalization:
Administration of laws, United States Immigration and Naturalization Service. ..........................
253
Certificates issued to aliens. By nationality and sex, years ending June 30, 1929-34......................
265
------ By States, years ending June 30, 1929-34.......................................................................... ..............
266
Denials to issue certificates, by cause and by year, 1924-34....................................................... ..........
267
Navy Department, field service. Wages paid civilian employees, 1934 ...........................................913-915
Needle trades. (S e e Clothing industry.)
Negro in industry:
Conditions at beginning of depression agriculture and industry....................................................... 567-568
District of Columbia, survey of employment, 1931............................................................................... 574-576
Economic status of the Negro in 1933..................................................................................................... 568-570
Efficiency, relative, Negro and white workers...................................................................................... 576-578
Pellagra, prevalence among Negroes______________ _____ ________ _____ _______________________
758
Physical impairment among Negro factory workers. ......................................................................... 570-572
West Virginia, 1932, general review of position of Negro.- ................................................................ 572-574
Woman clerical workers, survey (7 cities), 1931-32........................... ............................................ 1113-1114
Newspaper and magazine distributing, child labor in, study of, 1934 (United States Children’s Bu­
reau and N. R. A.)............................................... .............................................................................................45-49
Newspapers, editorial employees, salaries and working time, 1934 and earlier years.......................... 987-990
Nonmanufacturing industries, employment and pay-roll statistics, 1929-35.......................................... 135-140
Norris Dam. (See Tennessee Valley Authority.)
Occupation statistics:
Changes since 1850, by occupation............................................................................................................ 581-585
Gainfully employed, distribution of, 1930, by industry or occupation group and sex................ . 585-588
Immigrant and emigrant aliens, occupation groups, years ending June 30, 1931-34...................... £ s 257
Negroes, West Virginia, 1932..................................... ..................................................................................
572
“ White-collar workers.” 1870-1930, by sex.................................................... .........................................
591
------ 1930, by occupation and sex...................... ............................................................ ....................... 588-590
Occupational diseases and poisons. (S e e Industrial diseases and poisons.)
Office workers:
Clerical workers, women, survey of (7 cities), 1931-32............... .................................................... 1110-1114
Earnings. (See Wages and hours.)
Old-age pensions and retirement:
Annuity system under Federal Social Security Act................................................................ .
779,781-782
Experience under State old-age pension acts in 1934........................................................................... 601-609
Federal civil-service retirement and disability fund, operations, 1934------------- * ------- --------------- 609-610
_
Labor organizations, 1933 and 1934, by organization................................................................................
616
Legislation. (See Laws and legislation.)




INDEX

1145

Old-age pensions and retirement—Continued.
Page
Old-age assistance plans, grants to States under Federal Social Security Act........................ 779,780-781
Public old-age pension movement, United States................................................................................ 595,603
Railroad employees’ retirement law of 1934 declared unconstitutional............................................ 610-615
Recommendation of second National Conference on Labor Legislation. October 1935...................
444
Teachers’ retirement systems, effects of depression on operations and organization of_________ 381-382
Older worker in industry:
Age as related to unemployment, study of, report, January 1933, New York State...................- 624-627
Age distribution of gainfully occupied persons in United States, 1930................ ........................ 587-588
Department stores, Springfield, Mass., study of employment, 1932................................................. 619-624
New York State Joint Legislative Committee on Unemployment, report, 1933...................... .......
624
Onion fields, Ohio, wage rates and annual earnings of workers 1934........................... .......................... 935-938
Output. (S ee Production and productivity.)
Overcrowding, housing and health, relation between, study (U. S. Public Health Service)............. 242-244
Overtime pay, N. R. A. codes, analysis of provisions...................................................................._..............
523
795
Overtime, Tennessee Valley Authority project........................................................ ................. ..................
Paper-mills, Michigan, wages and hours, 1934, by occupation,..............................................................
993
Park systems, United States, recreational facilities provided by.............................................................. 739-743
Pay rolls, trend of. (See Employment statistics.)
Pellagra, decline in mortality from, among wage earners, 1930 and 1931................... ............................ 757-758
Pensions:
Blind. (S ee Blind pensions.)
Industrial. Plans of various industries in the depression, 1929-32,................................................. 379-381
Old-age and retirement. (S ee Old-age pensions and retirement.)
Per capita earnings. (S e e Wages and hours.)
Personnel management. (S e e Management, personnel.)
Petroleum industry:
Accident statistics, 1932, by department............................................. .................................................. 297-298
Wages and hours, 1929, 1933, and 1934, by branch of industry........... ...................................... 876,994-997
Petroleum Labor Policy Board, formation, 1933, and activities..................................................................
18
Petroleum-refining industry, productivity of labor, 1929, by type of plants......................................... 723-724
Philippine laborers, migration to and from Hawaii, 1929-33.........................................................................
413
Physical examination of employees, manufacturing plants requiring, survey (1932), by industry
group......................................... ............. ....................................................................................................... 454-455
Poisons. (S ee Industrial diseases and poisons.)
Police-department employees. (S e e Public service.)
Population:
Farm population and migration to and from farms, 1920-35........................... ................................. 591-592
Increase or decrease (net) through permanent immigration and emigration of aliens, 1934 and
earlier years.............................................................................................................................................. 256,261
Mexican, in United States, increase in, 1920-30.......... ......................................................................... 267-269
Portland cement industry. (S ee Cement manufacturing industry.)
Postal Service. United States, productivity of labor, study, 1931................ ............ ................... .......... 733-734
Pottery manufacturing industry, wages and hours, 1925 and 1932, by kind of ware................. 877,1004-1007
President’s Reemployment Agreement. (S ee Reemployment Agreement, President’s (Roosevelt).)
Prices. (See Retail prices; Wholesale prices.)
Prison labor:
Cotton-garment industry, N. R. A. committee report on competition with................................. 702-704
Importation of convict-made goods prohibited, Tariff Act of 1930..............................- ..................706
Laws relating to, Federal and State.................................................................................................. . . . 704-705
Provisions under N. R. A ............................................................................................................................
529
State compact, under N. R. A., on manufacture and use of prison-made goods........................... .
705
United States. County and city prisons, extent and character of, Bureau survey, 1932........... 701-702
------ Federal and State prisons, extent and character of, Bureau survey, 1932............................ 697-701
Prison-made goods. (S ee Prison labor.)
Production and productivity:
Agriculture, farm mechanization and its effects............................................... ...................................710-713
Apartment-house construction, output per man-hour, by class of work_____ _____ __________ 231-232
Changes in. 1929 to January 1935, summary (with employment, hours, and earnings)_______ 548-551
------January 1933 to January 1935 by industry group, summary (with employment, hours, and
earnings)............... ........................................ ................................ ........................................ ................. 536-548
Electric-lamp industry, 1920, 1929, and 1931— ..................... __................................................ .......... 718-719
Electric light and power industry........................... .............___........................................................... 719-720
Influence of nonmechanical factors.........................................___..............__................... ..................... 734-736
Iron and steel industry. Sheet department, 1925 and 1929.................. _..............................................
722
------Study of man-hours required, 1935......................................................................................... 720-722
Leather industry, increased through improved management-............................. - .............. ........... 722-723
Lumber industry, man-hour rates, 1929_______________________________________________ ______ _
723
Manufacturing industries, 1933 compared with earlier census years................................
153-155
Mining. Bituminous-coal output per man per day........ ..........................
714-718
------Coal, 1911 to 1932, per year and per man...................... .....................................................................
282
News transmission, labor displacement through installation of teletype, study, 1931.....................
731
Petroleum-refining industry, 1929, by type of plants........... ...................................... ...................... 723-724
Postal Service, United States, study, 1931........................................................................................... 733-734
Railroad (steam) transportation, 1922-32, man-hour indexes, etc...................... ............................. 726-728
Railroad telegraphy, labor displacement through technological changes, study, 1931................. 731-732
BiBd-building industry, Illinois, 1919, 1925, and. 1931................... .......... ........................................... 724^725
Slaughtering and meat-packing industry, study, 1932...................................................................... 725-726
Steel manufacture, effect of rate of operation on man-hours required.........................
721-722
Street-rebuilding, Washington, D. C., study of operations, etc......... ................................................
725
Studies by Bureau of Labor Statistics..................................... - ........................................................... 709-710
Telegraphy, commercial, labor displacement through installation of teletype, study, 1931____ 729-730
Telephone industry, 1921 and 1930, study of........ ............. ........................................ .......... .............. 728-729
Ticker telegraphy, labor displacement through installation of high-speed ticker, teletype, and
teleregister, study, 1931........................................................................................................................... 730-731
Tire industry, actual output and technological labor displacement, 1922-31.................................. 732-733




1146

INDEX

Public service:
Federal employees. Cost of living. (S ee Cost of living.)
ra g &
------Retirement and disability fund, operations, 1934.....................................................................— 609-610
------Salaries reduced under Economy Act of March 20,1933................................................................
90
Federal service. Accident record, 1921-32, by branch of service.................................................... . 286-289
------Employment and pay rolls, statistics, 1934 and 1935, by months............................ .................
144
Fire-department employees, salaries and hours on duty, 1934........................................................... 938-940
Police-department employees, salaries and hours, principal cities, 1934,-------------------------- ------- 997-999
Teachers. Retirement systems, effects of depression on operations and organization of........... 381-382
------Salaries, city school systems, 1934-35.............. ........................ ............. ..................- ................ — 910-912
Public Works Administration:
Construction projects, employment and pay-roll statistics, 1933 to 1935......................................... 145-146
Housing activities under..................... ........... . . .......... . . . ...................- ................................................. 234-235
Purposes and policies as to jobs for unemployed....................... ...................... .................... ............ 839-849
Wage rates paid in building-construction industry, November 1934................................. ............. 904-906
Public works, hours of labor of men, legal restrictions, as of January 1,1936----------- -------------------- 1073-1074
Purchasing power of dollar, wholesale prices, by commodity groups, years 1913-34, months 1931-35. 687-688

Quarry industry, accident statistics, 1923-32, by cause.................................................. ....................... 299-301
Radium, cases of poisoning, New Jersey, study of (Martiand).......................................................... 342-345
Railroads:
Accident statistics, 1931 and 1932, by type and cause------- ------------------------------------------------------- 301-302
Emergency Boards (Presidential), reports on disputes. Delaware & Hudson R. R., March 31,
1934___________ _______ ______________ ________ __________ ____ ____________________ _______
21-22
------Denver & Rio Grande Western R. R., February 28, 1934....................
22
------Kansas City Southern Ry------- -------22-23
------Louisiana & Arkansas R y., May 5, 1931___________________
23
------Louisiana, Arkansas & Texas Ry. Co. of Texas, August 26, 1933------------------------24
------Louisiana & Arkansas, and Louisiana Arkansas &Texas Rys., March 29, 1932------------------- 24-25
------Mobile & Ohio R. R., December 9, 1933...............
25
------Southern Pacific Lines in Texas and Louisiana.....................
25-26
Employees’ retirement law of 1934 declared unconstitutional................................................. .........610-615
Employment and business (class I roads), 1920-31 _________ ____________ ___________ _________ 1070
Employment indexes (class I roads), by month, 1923-35_____ ________ ________ _________ ______
144
Mediation Board, National, superseded United States Board of Mediation, 1934 (Public Act No.
442, 73d Cong.)....................................... ................... .............................................................................21
Mediation, United States Board of, work of, 1926-34......... ..................... ..................................... .........
20
Productivity of labor, 1922-32, man-hour indexes, etc_____ __________ ____ __________________ 726-728
Six-hour day, report on principle of (Interstate Commerce Commission)------ ----------------------- 1068-1070
Time worked and earnings of employees, 1931-34........ ................................................... ................ 1033-1037
Railways:
Electric, earnings of workers, 1932............................................................... ...................................... .......
930
Steam. (S ee Railroads.)
Rayon, etc., industries, earnings. (S ee Wages and hours.)
Reconstruction Finance Corporation:
Construction projects financed by, employment and pay-roll statistics, 1934-35________________
149
Loan to private limited-dividend corporation for housing project______________________________
234
Recovery program. (S ee National Industrial Recovery Act; National Recovery Administration.)
Recreation:
Community recreation facilities and activities, 1933........................................................................... 743-744
Need for recreation increased by pievalenee of unemployment______ ______________ ____________
740
Norris, Tenn. (T. V. A. project), facilities provided__________ _______________ _________________
797
Park systems in the United States, facilities provided by____ ________ ______________________ 739-743
(See also Leisure time, utilization of.)
Recruitment of labor, manufacturing firms, use of public and private emplojment agencies.............
454
Reemployment Agreement, President’s (Roosevelt):
Definitions—“ manager” and “ executive” ___________________________________ _________ ________
502
Hours limitation, factory workers, Executive order modifying.......................................... ................
501
Initiation of, preceding codification of industries, July 1933______________________ _______ ______
499
Modifications o f ...____ __________________________________________________ _________________ _ 501-502
Small establishments and small towns. Modification affecting.......... .......................................... 501-502
Text of__________ ______ ___________________________________________ ________ _______________ 500-501
Reemployment Service, National, organization and functions____________________ ______________ 116-117
Rehabilitation:
Industrial, National Committee on....... ................................................................................................. 836-837
Rural. (See Rural-rehabilitation program.)
Vocational, physically disabled, under Federal Social Security A c t...................................................
786
Relief:
Homeworkers, industrial, on public relief rolls.........................................................................................
202
Unemployment. (See Unemployment relief.)
(See also Emergency Relief Administration, Federal.)
Resettlement Administration. Division of Subsistence Homesteads (U. S. Department of the
Interior) and rural industrial settlement work (under F. E. R. A.) absorbed by, 1935—............... 235-236
Retail prices:
Coal. Average and relative prices, specified dates, 1913-35, by kind of coal........................ ......... 650-651
------Average prices, specified dates 1931-34, by city and kind of coal............................................... 652-656
Electricity. Net prices per kilowatt-hour, specified dates, 1931-34 by city................................. ^62-665
------Total and unit net monthly prices, October 15, 1935, by city........................
666-667
Food. Cereals, meats, and dairy products, index numbers, 1913-30 by year, 1931-34 specified
dates______________________________ _____ __________________ ________________________________
649
------Cereals, meats, and dairy products, prices, 1935, specified dates........... .....................
635
------Coverage of Bureau of Labor Statistics retail price reporting service............ ..............
631-632
------Percent of change, 1913 and 1931-34, by city and months......................................................... 645-648
------Prices and index numbers, specified dates, 1913 and 1931-34, by item..........................
635-645
------Revised indexes (1913 and 1923-25 base), specified dates, 1919-35.........
633-634
------United States and 23 specified foreign countries. Indexes by month 1933-35, by year 19263 4 ........................................ ...................................................... .............................................................. 669-671
Gas. Net price per 1,000 cubic feet, specified dates, 1913 and 1929-34, by city............................. 657-658
------Total monthly bill and prices per 1,000 cubic feet and per therm, October 1935, by city_ 659-661
_




IN D E X

1147

Retail prices—Continued.
PagePhilippine Islands (Manila), 1929-33....................... .............................................................................. 410-411
Puerto Rico, food, 1934........................................................................................ ........................................
418
Retail stores:
Comparison between chain and independent stores, as to wages paid, 1029 and 1931...............1013-1014
Earnings of employees, 1929 and 1933, by kind of business.................................................... .......1010-1013525Retail trade, N. R. A. codes, exemptions from................................................................................................
Retirement. (S ee Old-age pensions and retirement.)
Road-building industry, productivity of labor and efficiency, Illinois, 1919, 1925, and 1931....... ....... 724-725
Roads, public, construction financed by various Federal appropriations, or by State funds, employ­
ment statistics, 1933-35........ ........................................ ........................ .........................................................
150*
Rubber industry, Hartford and New Haven, Conn., readjustment of workers after plant shut­
downs....................................................... ............................................................................................. ..........187-191
Rural factory industries, employment opportunities for farm people, study of, 1931............... _......... 191-193*
Rural industrial settlements, begun by F. E. R. A ., taken over by Resettlement Administration- 235-236
Rural-rehabilitation program:
Emergency Relief Administration, Federal.... ...................................................................................... 851-852
Housing projects under........................................... ................................................................................. 235-236Safety and safety codes. (See Accident prevention.)
Salaries. (See Income; Wages and hours.)
Savings and investment plans:
Building and loan associations, investment in, by industrial employees........................................ 390-392
Employees of industrial establishments, study of, 1932...................................................................... 388-390'
Sawmill industry:
Labor turn-over, yearly and monthly rates, 1931-35..... ........ ................................................................
819
Wages and hours, 1930 and 1932, by occupation and State............................................................. 1014-1016Schools, public:
Leisure time, utilization of, factor in______________ ____ ____ ________ __________ ___________ 744-746
Salaries paid teachers, city systems, 1934-35.......................................................................................... 910-912
Scrip payment of wages:
Company stores, study and recommendations, N. R. A. special committee................................. 561-562523
N. R. A. codes, provisions concerning............... .................................................................................... .
Seamen, wages paid, 1929 to 1934, by p o s itio n -,-........ .......................................... ............................. 1016-1017
Security, economic, social. (S ee Social security.)
Self-help among unemployed, cooperative, movement, by States, 1931-35_________________________ 73-75*
Selling by employees not on regular sales force, development and outcome of plans (Metropolitan
Life Insurance Co. study)......................................................... .................................. .............. ................ 461-463
Sheltered workshops, agreement between National Sheltered Workshops Committeeand N. R. A .
531
‘
Shift systems, N. R. A. codes, provisions re machine-hour limitations and plant workingtime..........
522
Shirt industry. (See Clothing industry.)
Shorter working time:
Five-day week. Extent of, in American industry, 1932................................................................. 1062-1063------Government Printing Office, 1932.........................................................................................
1068*
------Snow King Baking Powder Co., experience................................................................ .............. 1063-1064------Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey, 1932......................
1064
------Trade unions, provisions in collective agreements.--................................
1063Six-hour day. Kellogg Co., Battle Creek, Mich., operation of_________ ______ ____________ 1064-1066
------Railroad employees, report on principle of (Interstate Commerce Commission)............... 1068-1070
Six-hour shifts. India Tire and Rubber Co., 1932.................................................. ............................. 1067
------Owens-Illinois Glass Co., 1932_________________
1067-1068
Shut-downs, plant, readjustment of workers displaced by, rubber industry, Connecticut________ 187-191
Sickness statistics:
Adult wage earners, incidence of illness, study................................................................................. . 760-763
Causes of illness in 9,000 families (18 States), 1928-31____________ ____________________________ 751-753
Civilian Conservation Corps enrollees, April 1-September 30, 1934_____ _______________________
854
Dusty trades, frequency of respiratory diseases.................... .................................................................
763
Income as related to illness rates, 1932_____________ _______ _______ _____________________ ___ 765-766
Silicosis. (See Industrial diseases and poisons.)
Silk and rayon industry, earnings, hourly and weekly, 1933 and 1934................................................ 1021-1025
Six-hour day. (See Shorter working time.)
Six-hour shifts. (See Shorter working time.)
Slaughtering and meat-packing industry:
Labor turn-over, yearly and monthly rates, 1931-35........................................................ ....................
811
Productivity of labor, study, 1932........................................................................................................... 725-726
Wages and hours, 1931 and earlier years............................................................................................ 1027-1033
Social security:
Committee on Economic Security, personnel, duties, etc......................................................................
779
(See also Social Security Act, Federal.)
Social Security Act, Federal:
Administration of.............................................................................. ............................................................
787
Annuities, old-age, provisions........ .......................................................... ........................................ 779,781-782’
Blind, provisions regarding aid to......................................... .................................................. ....... ..........
786
Dependent children, aid to, provisions regarding........... ............ ......................... ................................
785Maternal and child-welfare services, provisions regarding...................................................... .......... 785-786
Old-age assistance plans, grants to States under.................................................................. ......... 779,781-782
786*
Public health work, provisions regarding____ ____________ ______________________ __________ _
Stele legislation in regard to, status as of January 1, 1936--------------------------- ----------------------------- 787-789State participation under provisions regarding------------ -------- --------------------------------- ---------------- 779-787
Taxes on wages, provisions regarding-------------- --------------------------------------- --------------- ---------- 782,783-784
Unemployment compensation administration and unemployment trust fund, provisions regard­
ing................................................................................................. ............................................................ 782-783*
Vocational rehabilitation of physically disabled, provisions regarding...............................................
786
Social Security Board, membership of, initial appointments, August 14, 1935........ ...............................
787
Spread-the-work movement. (S ee Unemployment relief.)
Stabilization of industry, General Electric Co., plan proposed by Gerard Swope, president---------- 827-829*
Standard of living:
Puerto Rico, investigation in 1927, results of..................................................................- --------------------417
(See also Cost of living.)
Standard safe practices. (S ee Accident prevention—Safety.)




1148

INDEX

^Standards, labor. (See Labor standards.)
Page
."Steel Labor Relations Board, formation, 1934, and activities...................................................................... 13,16
Stock ownership plans, employee, effect of depression on, study of plans, up to 1933......................... 386-388
945
Stove molders and mounters, hours and earnings, 1934,............................................................... ................
Street laborers, unskilled, wages and hours, 1928 and 1932,............ .......................................................... 920-921
Street rebuilding, productivity of labor, study of operations, etc........................................ - .....................
725
Strikes. (See Industrial disputes.)
■Subsistence homesteads:
Industrial workers, projects at end of 1934.........................................................- .................................. 848-851
Rural rehabilitation projects, at end of 1934........................................................................................... 851-852
Subsistence Homesteads, Division of:
Experimental homestead projects, allotments for setting up.................................................................
235
Program and projects, end of 1934........ ............ ............................ ................... .......... ........................... 847-851
Work transferred to Resettlement Division, 1935................................. - .................................................
235
Sugar-beet industry:
Child labor in.................. ............ ..................................................................................................................45
Organization of, and labor conditions_______________ _______________- .................................................44-45
843
^Surplus Relief Corporation, Federal, work of, for relief of unemployment................................. - ............
Sweatshops, growth of, during the depression........................................_.........- .........- ............................ . 202-204
Taxes:
Housing, New York City, tax exemption on model tenements......... ..........- ...................- .......... 244-246
Income. Income reported for tax purposes, 1933 and 1934............................................................. 1089-1090
Taxicab drivers, earnings. (S ee Wages and hours.)
'Teachers. (See Public service.)
'Technological changes:
Agriculture, mechanization of, economic and social effects._ ...........................................................710-713
Amusement industry, extent of displacement, study of.....................................................................713-714
Cigar industry (long-filler cigars), causing displacement of labor-------- ---------- ---------- -----------------718
Electric-lamp industry.................................................................................... ....................... ............ .
718-719
Electric light and power industry------------------------------- ------- ------- -------------------------------------------- 719-720
Mining, bituminous-coal, loading equipment, increased use of------ ----------- ---------- ------------------ 716-717
Postal Service, United States, study, 1931................... ......................................................................... 733-734
Railroads, in equipment and operation___________________________ _______________ ___________ 726-728
Road-building industry, Illinois, 1919, 1925, and 1931_____________________ ___________________ 724-725
Telegraph industry, various branches of, study of labor displacement, 1931__________ ________ 729-732
Telephone industry, installation of dial system, effects on employment opportunities............... 728-729
Tire industry, productivity and labor displacement, 1922-31......... ........................ ............................
733
Telegraph service:
Messengers, lost-time accidents to, 1931, study of_________________ _______ ___________________ 303-305
Productivity of labor, technological changes, and labor displacement, study, 1932...................... 729-732
Telephone industry:
Dial system installed, effect on employment opportunities, productivity, study, 1930------------- 728-729
Private-wire systems, study of labor productivity, etc., 1930...................................... .........................
729
Temperature and air conditions, effects on health and efficiency of workers......................................... 358-361
Tenancy, Chicago, attitudes toward home ownership and tenancy, study........ ........................ ......... 248-250
Tennessee Valley Authority:
Creation and objectives_______________________________________________________________________
793
Employment and labor policies_____________________________________________________________ 794-796
Housing and community life_____ _______
796-798
Tennessee Valley, characteristics of____________________________ ______ _______________________
793
Textile industries:
Planning committee, as organized under N. R. A ............ ............. ........................................................
509
Work assignment boards, cotton, silk, and wool___________________ _____ ___________________ 509-510
Textile Labor Relations Board, formation, 1934, and activities_________ ____________________________ 13,16
Tire industry, productivity of labor, technological changes, and labor displacement, 1922-31_____ 732-733
Tobacco industries:
Cigarettes, wages and hours, Virginia and North Carolina, July 1934................. .......................... 908-910
Cigars. Hourly wages paid, York County (Pa.), July 1934--------------------- ------------------------------ 907-908
------Technological changes and displacement of labor, making long-filler cigars_________ _______
718
Smoking and chewing. Wages and hours, Virginia and North Carolina, July 1934__________ 908-910
Trade-practice agreements, in conformity with N . I. R. A ., authority given Federal Trade Commis­
sion to approve________________________________ ______________ ________________________________ 535-536
Trade unions. (See Labor organizations.)
Transient boys (under 21) in the United States, 1932, survey of conditions............................................ 42-44
Turn-over, labor. (See Labor turn-over.)
U n e m p lo y m e n t:
Age and its relation to. Report, 1933 (New York Joint Legislative Committee on Unemploy
ment)....................................................................................... ................................................................. 624-627
Alaska, 1931-34____ ____________________________________________ _____________________________ 406-407
Amalgamated Housing Corporation dwellings, chief wage earners, during 1930...............................
100
Bridgeport, Conn., family groups, survey (Bureau of Labor Statistics) first quarter 1934.............
171
Buffalo, N. Y ., family groups, survey November 1931................................. ..................................... 170-171
Casual laborers, Duluth, analysis of, spring of 1931................. ............................................................ 178-181
Estimates, official and unofficial, various agencies making_________________ ____ — ....................
166
Family unemployment, surveys of, specified localities........... ........................................................... 169-173
Governors’ Conference on, Albany, January 23-25, 1931......................... .......................................... 438,439
Philadelphia. Conditions in families of unemployed, survey, May 1932......................................184-186
-------Labor history and financial resources, persons employed on “ made work” , 1931—.......
181-183
Philippine Islands, 1931 and 1933..____ ______________________________ _______________________411-412
Plant shut-downs, rubber industry, readjustment of workers displaced by (Connecticut)____ 187-191
■Statistics. Character of, and agencies for obtaining............... .........................................................163-166
------April 1930, by industry group, age, reason, and family status..................
167-169
•Surveys. Federal, April 1930 (Bureau of the Census), summary statistics..................................167-169
------ State and local, extent of, 1933 and 1934.........................................
169
.Syracuse, N. Y ., family groups, survey, November 1931..................................... ...................... .......172-173
Trade-union members, reports on................................................................................................................
165
Women. Early years of the depression.............................................................................................. 1093-1098
-------Effects on living standards, etc., study, 1932 (Bryn Mawr School for Women Workers).. 1098-1100
-------Survey of, Philadelphia, 1933...............................................................................
1108-1110




INDEX

114»

Unemployment insurance and benefits:
PageAdministration of compensation laws, grants to States, under Federal Social Security Act_____
782.
California Unemployment Commission, report and recommendations for plan.... ....................... 822-823
Connecticut Unemployment Commission, report and recommendations foe p la n ..................... 823-824
Foreign countries, operation of systems, 1931-34.................................................................................. 829-831
General Electric Co., plan proposed by Gerard Swope, president.................................................... 827-829
Investigations suggested by Governors’ Conference on Unemployment, January 1931............... 438,439
Massachusetts, recommendations for compulsory unemployment reserves.,...................................
824
Minnesota, recommendations for unemployment reserves..................................................................
825
Ohio Commission on Unemployment Insurance, report and recommendations for plan............ 825-826Pennsylvania Committee on Unemployment Reserves, report and recommendations for plan,. 826-827
State laws providing for insurance or reserves, up to December 1935.............................................. 818-819*
State legislation in regard to Federal Social Security Act, status as of Jan. 1, 1936..........................
788
Trade-union, company, and joint-agreement plans, history, brief review of..................................815-818
Trust fund, under Federal Social Security Act.......... .......... ............................................................... 782-783
United States Senate committee, report on investigation of insurance systems............................ 821-822
Virginia Advisory Commission, report and recommendations for plan..............................................
827
Wisconsin, operation of Unemployment Reserves and Compensation Act....................................819-820
Unemployment relief:
Alaska, 1931-34,........................................................................................................................................... 406-407
Civil Works Administration, Federal, work provided under............................................................ 841-843
Civilian Conservation Corps, work of, 1933-35............. ....................................................................... 853-858
Company loan plans for unemployed workers (study, 1932).............................................................. 859-860
Cooperative self-help among the unemployed, 1931-35..................................................... ...................... 73-75Emergency Relief Act, 1935, Federal, provisions oL..................................... ........................... .......... 843-845
Emergency Relief Administration, Federal, work of, May 23, 1933, to August 31, 1935.............. 840-843
Employment status of members of relief households, specified cities, May 1934..........................175-178
Persons on relief in October 1933, analysis of................................................. .................................... 173-175
Public Works Administration, purposes and policies of.............................................. ............ ......... 839-840*
Spread-the-work movement. National Committee on Industrial Rehabilitation, plan of,....... 836-837
------New Hampshire plan for re-employment,.................
838-839
------President Hoover’s Conference of August 1932, program of........................................................ 835-836
------Survey, 1932, and report...................................
837-838
Subsistence homesteads for industrial and rural workers at end of 1934.......................................... 847-852
Surplus Relief Corporation, Federal, work of..........................................................................................
848
The Works Program, under RelM Act of 1935.................................................................................... 845-847
( See also Dismissal wage; Unemployment insurance and benefits.)
Underwear industry, hours and earnings. ( See Wages and hours.)
Union label, legislation regarding................................................................................................................ 426-428
Union scales of wages and hours of labor, 1933............................... ......................................................... 1044-1051
Unions. (See Labor organizations.)
United States Government, work of, by department, bureau, etc. (S ee u n d er n a m e o f specific agency.)
Unskilled labor, entrance wage rates, by industry and geographic division, 1931-34.......................... 916-919
Vacations with pay:
Effect of depression on plans................................. .................................................................................. 866-867
New York City, practices and policies in 1932...................................................................................... 864-865
Policies in 1933...... .................................................................................. ................... .......... .......... ..,..........
868
Wage earners, plans in force in 1935 (National Industrial Conference Board study).......... ......... 865-869
Vitftl statistics *
Coal miners, mortality rates, 1906-25 and 1915-23, study................................................. ................. 771-774
Economic depression. Effect upon health, 1933 (U. S. Public Health Service study)............... 763-766------Effect on life expectancy of industrial policyholders, 1929-33..................................................
766-768
Infants, death rates in cities as related to housing conditions............................................................ 242-243
Metropolitan Life Insurance Co., mortality records, 1934__________ _______ ______ __________ 758-760Negro, mortality rates, factory workers_______________________________________________________
571
Occupational death rates, 1930, by age, social-economic class, and cause---------------------------------- 768-771
757-758
Pellagra, decline in mortality among wage earners, 1930 and 1931................... ...........................
Typographical Union, International, mortality experience, 1925-32................................................ 753-755
Vocational training:
Tennessee Valley Authority, Norris and Wheeler Dams, opportunities for.................................. 798-799
{S e e also Apprenticeship; Rehabilitation.)
W age changes, general, index numbers, 1840-1934.................................................................................. 1056-105T
Wage claims:
Collection of, by State labor offices, 1932 and earlier years....................... ........... ........................ 1079-1082
New Jersey, establishment of wage-collection division in department of labor................................. 1082
Philippine Islands, adjustment of, 1929-33, by bureau of labor............. ..............................................
412
Puerto Rico, adjustment, 1933-34.................. ............. ............................................................................
418
Recommendations of second National Conference on Labor Legislation, October 1935..................
445
Wage, dismissal. (See Dismissal wage.)
Wage payment, Connecticut factories, study of plans in December 1929................... ....................... 1082-1083
Wage restitutions secured by National Recovery Administration..........................................................
562
Wages and hours:
Agriculture. Farm labor, average wage rates, 1935, by State........................................................... 932-938
------Farm labor, wage rates and indexes, 1910-36.__________
931-932
------Harvesting of crops (other than cotton), piece-rate wages, 1934................................................. 933-934
— — Harvesting of crops (picking 100 pounds seed cotton), average wage rates, 1924-34_________
935
— - Onion fields, Ohio, wage rates and annual earnings, 1934...............
935-938
Air transportation, 1931 ana 1933......................................................................................... ........... 874,883-885
Alaska. Fishing industry (cannery), 1930-32, by sex (wages only)--------------------------- ---------- -----405
------Mining industry, 1930-31, by occupation...........................................................
405-406
Automobiles. ( See u n d er Motor-vehicle industry.)
Baking industry, 1931, 1933, and 1934___________ _____ _____ ________ _______ __________ _ 874,889-892
Blast furnaces, hours and earnings, 1913-33; by occupation, 1931 and 1933............................. 962,964-965
Boot and Shoe industry. By occupation and sex, 1930 and 1932.............................................. 874,898-903
------Summary figures, 1910 to 1932................................................................
899
Building construction industry. By locality, April 1935, and percentage change from March
1935............................................................................ .......................................................................... — 141-143
------P. W . A . projects, wage rates, November 1934...................................
904-906




1150

INDEX

Wages and hours— Continued.
Page
Building construction industry. Union labor, hourly rates, indexes, by year, 1921-34.................
215
Bureau of Labor Statistics studies, summaries, by industry, year, and sex,................................. 873-878
Changes in. 1929 to January 1935, summary (with employment and production)..... ........ ....... 548-551
------January 1933 to January 1935, by industry group, summary (with employment and produc­
tion)______________________________________________________________________________________ 536-548
Cigarettes. (See u n d e r Tobacco industry.)
Civilian employees, Navy Department and marine field service, hourly wages 1934................... 913-915
Clothing industry, cotton-garment. Changes under N . R.A . . . ........................
552-553
------Pennsylvania, conditions under N. R. A. codes (October 1932 and February 1934)............. 555-556
Clothing industry, men’s. By occupation, 1930 and 1932............................................................ .
974-976
------Summary figures, specified years, 1911-32.............
876,974
Common labor, entrance wage rates, 1931-34, by industry and geographic division................... 916-919
Cotton-garment industry. (S ee u n d er Clothing industry.)
Cotton-goods manufacturing, summary figures, 1928, 1930, and 1932-34, by sex________ ______ 874-875
'Cotton-textile industry, hourly and weekly earnings, 1933-34......................................................... 921-925
Domestic service, Philadelphia, 1932------------------------------- -------------------------- --------------------------- 925-927
Dyeing and finishing of textiles. By occupation 1930 and 1932__________ ___________________ 927-929
------ Summary figures 1930 and 1932-34, by sex_____ __________________
875
Editorial employees, newspapers, 1934 and earlier years.......................... ........................................ 987-990
Electric-railway workers, earnings in 1932.................................................................^-----------------------930
Factory workers, New York State, weekly earnings 1914-35.___________ ______________________
931
Farm labor. (See u n d er Agriculture.)
Fire-department employees, salaries and hours, 1934_____________ ___________________________ 938-940
Ford Motor Co. workers, Detroit and various European cities, August 1931...... ............................
98
Foundries. By occupation, sex, and State, 1931 and 1933________________________________ 641,943-944
------ Stove, molders and mounters, 1934—_____________________
945
------ Summary figures, specified years, 1923-33...............................
875,940
Furniture industry, 1929 and 1931______________ ______ ______________ ______ ________ _
875,946-948
Garages, motor-vehicle repair, 1931, by occupation and city................................................. . 876,985-987
Gasoline filling-station employees, 1931...... .......................... ........ .................................. ............ 875,949-950
Glass industry, 1932, by kind of glass, occupation, etc......... ...................................... .............. 875,950-955
Heads of families, Denver, earnings, 1929 and 1933_______ ____ _________ __________________ 1060-1061
Homework, industrial, under N. R. A., study o f .............................................. ....................... ......... 200-202
961
Hosiery industry. Boys’ golf hose, 1934.................................................................. ................................
------ By occupation, sex, and State, 1930 and 1932.....................................
957,959
------ By sex and year, 1926-32..............
875,956
Hours per week and hourly earnings, by industries, 1932-35........................................................... 878-881
Index numbers, wages per hour, 1840-1934._____________ ______________________ ________ _
1056-1057
Iron and steel industry, by department and occupation, 1933 and earlier years___ ____ _______ 961-970
Laundries, women, New Hampshire, 1933.................... ............................ ....................................... 1107-1108
Leather industry, 1932, by department and occupation............................................................. 875,970-973
Libraries, public, December 1934, by c it y ................................ ..................................................... 1007-1008
Machine shops. By occupation, sex, and State, 1931 and 1933______ ________________ 941-942,944-945
------Summary figures, specified years, 1923-33__________
876,940
Male employees, white and Negro, earnings as affected by Bedeaux premium wage payment. 577-578
Marine Corps and Navy Department field service, civilian employees, hourly wages, 1934___ 913-915
Mining industry. Anthracite, 1924 and 1931.......................................................... ..................... 874,885-888
------ Bituminous-coal, 1929, 1931, and 1933.......................................................... ......................... 874,893-898
------ Metalliferous, 1924 and 1931_________________________________________________________ 876,977-979
Motorbus and motortruck transportation (intercity) industries, July 1933_________ _____ 876,979-981
Motor-vehicle industry. By occupation and sex, 1930 and 1932..................................................... 981-985
------ Summary figures, specified years, 1922-34...................................
876,982
Motor-vehicle repair garages, 1931, by occupation and city________ _____________ ________ 876,985-987
"Navy Department and Marine Corps field service, civilian employees, hourly wages, 1934___ 913-915
Negroes. District of Columbia, 1931........................ ........................................................................... 574-576
------ Woman clerical workers, salaries, 1931-32..............
1113-1114
Newspapers, editorial employees, 1934 and earlier years.................................... ........... .'................. 987-990
N . R. A. codes. Analysis of provisions.......... ................................................................... ........ ........ 513-523
------ Orders and rulings relating to__________________
530-531
Office workers. Factories, New York State, weekly earnings, October 1925-34............... .......... 990-991
------Various industries, New York State, July 1935.........
992-993
Ohio, average wage and salary payments, 1918-33, by industry and general occupation group. 1057-1060
Onion fields, Ohio, annual earnings and wage rates, 1934.................................................... ............. 935-938
Paper mills, Michigan, 1934, by occupation......... ................................................ ............. .....................
993
882
Per capita weekly earnings, by industries, 1932-35.. ............................ ............. .............. ............ .
Petroleum industry, 1929, 1933, and 1934, by branch of industry.............................................. 876,994-997
Petroleum-refining industry, relation of productivity to wages....................................................... 723-724
Philippine Islands. By occupation and sex, 1933.................. ............................................................. 408-410
------ Civil service, salaries, 1928-32..........
410
Police-department employees, 1934, by cities__________ ____________ _________________ ______ 997-999
Portland cement manufacturing industry, 1929 and 1932......................................................... 876,999-1003
Pottery manufacturing industry, 1925 and 1932, by kind of ware.................. ...................... 877,1004-1007
Public service. Fire-department employees, 1934.............................................................................. 938-940
------ Police-department employees, 1934, by cities............................................................................ 997-999
------ Teachers, city school systems, salaries, 1934-35..........
910-912
Puerto Rico, by industry and sex, 1933-34. ...................................................... .......................................
415
P . W . A. projects. Wage rates prescribed for....................... .............................................................. 839-840
Railroads, steam, earnings and time worked, 1931-34, by occupation.................................... .
1033-1037
Rayon and other synthetic yarn manufacturing industries, 1930 and 1932......................... 877,1008-1010
Rayon and silk. (S ee u n d er Silk and rayon.)
Retail stores. Chain and independent, compared as to wages paid, 1929 and 1931..................1013-1014
------ Earnings, 1929 and 1933, by kind of business................................................................................ 1010-1013
Rolling mills, iron and steel industry, 1913-33...................................................................................... 962-964
------ By department and occupation, 1931 and 1933............. ............................. .................................. 966-970
Sawmill industry. By occupation and State, 1930 and 1932........................................................ 1014-1016
------ Summary figures, specified years, 1910-32........................................................... ........................ 877,1015
School systems, city, salaries paid, 1934-35................................................................................... .........910-912
Seamen, 1929 to 1934, by position.................... .................................................................................... 1016-1017
Shirt industry, 1933 (nine States).........................................................................................................1018-1021




IN D E X

1151

Wages and hours—Continued.
Page
Shoe industry. (S ee u n d e r Boot and shoe industry.)
Shorter workweek, movement toward, prior to N . R. A ................................................................ 1062-1070
Silk and rayon industry. Hourly and weekly earnings, 1933 and 1934............................... 877,1021-1025
------Weavers, rates of pay, April 1934........................ *..................... ................................................. 1025-1026
Slaughtering and meat-packing industry. By department, 1929 and 1931................................. 1027-1033
------Summary figures, specified years, 1917-31..................................................................................... •
877,1027
Snuff. (See u n d e r Tobacco industry.)
Steel works, iron and steel industry, 1913-33; by department and occupation, 1931 and 1933. 962,964-966
Stove foundries, molders and mounters, 1934..........................................................................................
945
Street laborers, common, 1928 and 1932.......................................... ............ ........................................... 920-921
Studies, Bureau of Labor Statistics, summaries, by industry, year, and sex................................ 873-878
Sugar-beet industry, Colorado, and country as a whole............................. .........................................
45
Taxicab drivers. Ohio, 1934....................................................................... ......................................... 1038-1041
------Washington, D. C., 1931-33................... ............................................. ........................................ 1041-1044
Tennessee Valley Authority, Norris and Wheeler Dams..................................... ....................... .
794-795
Tobacco industry. Cigarettes, summary figures, 1930,1933, and 1935, by sex..................... ..........
877
------Cigarettes, Virginia and North Carolina,July 1934................
908-910
------Cigars, York County, Pa., hourly earnings, July 1934— ..........................
907-908
:----- Smoking and chewing, summary figures, 1933 and 1935, by sex......................
877
------Smoking and chewing, Virginia and North Carolina, July 1934.....
908-910
------Snuff, summary figures, 1933 and 1935, by sex.........................
877
Truck and motor-bus transportation industries (intercity), July 1933.................................... 876,979-981
Underwear industry. By occupation, sex, and State, 1930 and 1932............ ................................. 958,960
------By sex and year, 1926-32........................ ....................................................................................... 878,956
Union scales. By trade groups, 1933________ _ ______________ ______ _______________ 1044,1046-1049
------Index numbers, 1907 to 1933, and percent of change................. ............ .................. 1044-1045,1049-1051
Women. Clerical workers, salaries, 1931-32.______ _________________________ ______ _______ 1111-1114
------Laundries, New Hampshire, 1933..................
1107-1108
------Needle trades, Connecticut, 1934, comparative earnings................................
558-560
------New York City, trend of wages, 1929-31 __________________
1103-1105
------New York State (small city), trend of wages, 1930 and 1931............
1106
------Richmond, Va., earnings and income, 1931________________________
108-109
Woolen and worsted goods industry. Hourly and weekly earnings, 1932-34________________ 1051-1056
------Summary figures, specified years, 1928-32.............................
878
Works Program, Executive order of May 20,1935, establishing schedules..................................... 846-847
Wheeler Dam. (See Tennessee Valley Authority.)
“ White-collar workers.” (See Occupation statistics.)
Wholesale prices:
215
Building materials, indexes, by year, 1921-34........................ ...................................... ..........................
Coverage and method of computing index numbers. Bureau of Labor Statistics...... ...................
672
Index numbers. 1801 to 1935...................................................................................... ................................
673
------By commodity groups, 1890-1935...........
674
------By commodity groups, by week, 1932-35..........................
684-668
— - By commodity groups and subgroups (by year), 1913-35 and (by month) 1931-35. 675-683,688-690
Purchasing power of the dollar, by years 1913-34 and by months 1931-35..................................... 687-688
United States and 25 specified foreign countries, indexes by year 1926-34, by month 1933-35... 691-693
Women in industry:
Clerical workers, survey of (seven cities), 1931-32........................................ ............... ................... 1110-1114
Clothing industry, Connecticut, improvement in working conditions under N. R. A. codes.. 557-561
Depression. Influence of, on expenditures of business women, 1931 and 1932.......... ............... 1100-1102
------Unemployment in early years of____________
1093-1098
Employment status. Destitute women in Philadelphia, 1933________ ____________________ 1108-1110
------Effect on earnings and living standards, study, 1932 (Bryn Mawr School for Women Work­
ers)____ ____________ _________________ ________ ______ ________ _______ ____ _____ ______ 1098-1100
1107-1108
Laundries, New Hampshire, wages, 1933............... .............................. ..................................... .
Marital status. Clerical workers, 1931-32______ ____ ________________ ___________ ____________
1111
------Gainfully, occupied women. 1930 and earlier census years......................
1102-1103
New York City, trend of wages, 1929-31.................................... ............ ............ ............................. 1103-1105
New York State (small city), trend of hours and earnings, 1930 and 1931— .................................... 1106
Richmond, Va., cost of living, year ending March 1931_______________ ____________ ________ _ 107-111
Unemployment in early years of the depression............ ............................... ......... ............. ........ 1093-1098
Woolen and worsted goods industry, wages and hours, 1932-34____________________ _______ 878,1051 -1056
Working conditions, N. R. A. code provisions supersede less favorable union conditions................. 529-530
Workmen’s compensation:
Benefits, scale of payments, by extent of disability and by States, as of December 1, 1935. _. 1125-1129
Claims, administration and settlement of..................................... .......... ............. ........................... .
1132
Cost of........................................................ ..................................... ................... ........................................... 1133
Coverage, analysis of State laws, as of December 1, 1935.......................... .................................... 1119-1121
Damage suits, State provisions concerning, as of December 1,1935................................................... 1122
Election, State provisions concerning, as of December 1, 1935.............................................................. 1121
Extraterritorial effect of State laws, as of December 1,1935................... ........ ............................ . 1121-1122
Insurance methods, analysis of State laws regarding, as of December 1,1935............................ 1117-1119
Medical benefits under, analysis of State laws, as of December 1, 1935.............................................. 1131
Nonresident alien dependents, provisions concerning, by States, as of December 1,1935___ 1133-1134
Occupational-disease legislation in the United States............... ............................ ........... ...................
362
Permanent partial disability payments, fixed periods for, by State, as of December 1, 1935.. 1129-1130
Scale of amounts payable, by States, as of December 1,1935________ ______________________ 1125-1129
Second injuries, State provisions regarding, as of December 1, 1935__________ _________________
1124
Waiting time required, analysis of State laws, as of December 1,1935-------------- ------- -------- --------- 1123
Works Program, The:
Agencies (3) created to administer........................................................................................... .................
845
Construction projects, employment and pay-roll statistics, July to October 1935_____________ 147-148
Labor policies established by Executive order of May 20, 1935.................................................... 846-847







L is t of B u lle tin s of the B u re a u of L a b o r S ta tistics
The following is a list of all bulletins of the Bureau of Labor Statistics published since
July 1912, except that in the case of bulletins giving the results of periodic surveys of the
Bureau only the latest bulletin on any one subject is here listed.
A complete list of the reports and bulletins issued prior to July 1912, as well as thejbulletins published since that date, will be furnished on application. Publications indicated by
an asterisk, which are not available for free distribution, can in some cases be obtained by
purchase from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington,
D. C.; all can be consulted at libraries which are Government repositories.
Collective agreements.

*No.
•No.
No.
•No.
*No.

191.
198.
341.
402.
468.

Collective bargaining in the anthracite coal industry. [1916.]
Collective agreements in the men’s clothing industry. [1916.]
Trade agreement in the silk-ribbon industry of New York City.
Collective bargaining by actors. [1926.]
Trade agreements, 1927.

[1923.]

Conciliation and arbitration (including strikes and lockouts).

•No. 124. Conciliation and arbitration in the building trades of Greater New York. [1913.]
•No. 133. Report of the industrial council of the British Board of Trade on its inquiry into industrial
agreements. [1913.]
•No. 139. Michigan copper district strike. [1914.]
•No. 144. Industrial court of the cloak, suit, and skirt industry of New York City. [1914.]
•No. 145. Conciliation, arbitration, and sanitation in the dress and waist industry of New York City.
[1914.]
No. 233. Operation of the Industrial Disputes Investigation Act of Canada. [1918.]
•No. 255. Joint industrial councils in Great Britain. [1919.]
•No. 283. History of the Shipbuilding Labor Adjustment Board, 1917 to 1919.
•No. 287. National War Labor Board: History of its formation and activities, etc. [1921.]
•No. 303. Use of Federal power in settlement of railway labor disputes. [1922.]
•No. 481. Joint industrial control in the book and job printing industry. [1928.]
Cooperation.

•No.
•No.
•No.
•No.
No.

313.
314.
437.
531.
598.

Consumers’ cooperative societies in the United States in 1920.
Cooperative credit societies (credit unions) in America and in foreign countries. [1922.]
Cooperative movement in the United States in 1925 (other than agricultural).
Consumers’, credit, and productive cooperative societies, 1929.
Organization and management of consumers’ cooperative associations and clubs (with model
bylaws). [1934.]
No. 606. Organization and management of cooperative gasoline and oil associations (with model
bylaws). [1934.]
No. 608. Organization and management of cooperative housing associations (with model bylaws).
[1934.]
No. 612. Consumers’, credit, and productive cooperation in 1933.

Employment and unemployment.

•No.
•No.
•No.
•No.
•No.

109.
172.
183.
195.
196.

•No. 202.
•No. 206.
•No. .227.
•No. 235.
•No. 241.
•No. 247.
•No. 310.
•No. 409.
No. 542.
•No. 544.
No.
•No.
No.
No.

553.
555.
610.
611.

No. 613.

Statistics of unemployment and the work of employment offices in the United States]. [1913.]
Unemployment in New York City, N. Y . [1915.]
Regularity of employment in the women’s ready-to-wear garment industries. [1915.]
Unemployment in the United States. [1916.]
Proceedings oP Employment Managers’ Conference, held at Minneapolis, Minn., January
19 and 20, 1916.
Proceedings of the conference of Employment Managers’ Association of Boston, Mass.,
held M ay 10, 1916.
The British system of labor exchanges. [1916.]
Proceedings of Employment Managers’ Conference, Philadelphia, Pa., April 2 and 3, 1917.
Employment system of the Lake Carriers* Association. v[1918.]
Public employment offices in the United States. [1918.]
Proceedings of Employment Managers’ Conference, Rochester, N . Y ., M ay 9-11,1918.
Industrial unemployment: A statistical study of its extent and causes. [1922.]
Unemployment in Columbus, Ohio, 1921 to 1925.
Report of the Advisory Committee on Employment Statistics. [1931.]
Unemployment-benefit plans in the United States and unemployment insurance in foreign
countries. [1931.]
Fluctuation in employment in Ohio, 1914 to 1929.
Social and economic character of unemployment in Philadelphia, April 1930.
Revised indexes of factory employment and pay rolls, 1919 to 1933.
Unemployment insurance and reserves in the United States: A selected list of recent refer­
ences. [1935.]
Average annual wage and salary payments in Ohio, 1916 to 1932.

Housing.

•No.
No.
No.
No.
•No.

158.
263.
295.
545.
608.

Government aid to home owning and housing of working people in foreign countries. [1914.]
Housing by employers in the United States. [1920.]
Building operations in representative cities, 1920.
Building permits in the principal cities of the United States [1921] to 1930.
Organization and management of cooperative housing associations (with model bylaws).
[1934.]

19205—36------74




[i]

Industrial accidents and hygiene (including occupational diseases and poisons).

♦No. 104. Lead poisoning in potteries, tile works, and porcelain-enameled sanitary-ware factories.
[1912.]
No. 120. Hygiene of the painters’ trade. [1913.]
♦No. 127. Dangers to workers from dusts and fumes, and methods of protection. [1913.]
♦No. 141. Lead poisoning in the smelting and refining of lead. [1914.]
♦No. 157. Industrial accident statistics. [1915.]
♦No. 165. Lead poisoning in the manufacture of storage batteries. [1914.]
♦No. 179. Industrial poisons used in the rubber industry. [1915.]
♦No. 188. Report of British departmental committee on the danger in the use of lead in the painting of
buildings. [1916.]
♦No. 201. Report of the committee on statistics and compensation insurance costs of the International
Association of Industrial Accident Boards and Commissions. [1916.]
♦No. 209. Hygiene of the printing trades. [1917.]
♦No. 219. Industrial poisons used or produced in the manufacture of explosives. [1917.]
♦No. 221. Hours, fatigue, and health in British munition factories. [1917.]
♦No. 230. Industrial efficiency and fatigue in British munition factories. [1917.]
♦No. 231. Mortality from respiratory diseases in dusty trades (inorganic dusts). [1918.]
♦No. 234. The safety movement in the iron and steel industry, 1907 to 1917.
No. 236. Effects of the air hammer on the hands of stonecutters. [1918.]
♦No. 249. Industrial health and efficiency. Final report of British Health of Munition Workers’
Committee. [1919.]
♦No. 251. Preventable death in the cotton-manufacturing industry. [1919.1
♦No. 256. Accidents and accident prevention in machine building. [1919.J
No. 267. Anthrax as an occupational disease. [1920.]
No. 276. Standardization of industrial-accident statistics. [1920.]
♦No. 280. Industrial poisoning in making coal-tar dyes and dye intermediates. [1921.]
♦No. 291. Carbon-monoxide poisoning. [1921.]
No. 293. The problem of dust phthisis in the granite stone industry. [1922.]
No. 298. Causes and prevention of accidents in the iron and steel industry, 1910-1919.
No. 392. Survey of hygienic conditions in the printing trades. [1925.]
No. 405. Phosphorus necrosis in the manufacture of fireworks and in the preparation of phosphorus.
[1926.]
No. 427. Health survey of the printing trades, 1922 to 1925.
No. 428. Proceedings of the Industrial Accident Prevention Conference held at Washington, D. C.,
July 14-16, 1926.
No. 460. A new test for industrial lead poisoning. [1928.]
No. 466. Settlement for accidents to American seamen. [1928.]
No. 488. Deaths from lead poisoning, 1925-1927.
♦No. 490. Statistics of industrial accidents in the United States to the end of 1927.
♦No. 507. Causes of death, by occupation. [1930 ]
No. 582. Occupation hazards and diagnostic signs: A guide to impairments to be looked for in hazard­
ous occupations. (Revision of Bui. No. 306.) [1933.]
♦No. 602. Discussions of industrial accidents and diseases at the 1933 meeting of the International Asso­
ciation of Industrial Accident Boards and Commissions, Chicago, HI.
Industrial relations and labor conditions.

♦No.
♦No.
♦No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.

237.
340.
349.
361.
380.
383.
384.
399.
483.
634.

Industrial unrest in Great Britain. [1917.]
Chinese migrations, with special reference to labor conditions. [1923.]
Industrial relations in the West Coast lumber industry. [1923.]
Labor relations in the Fairmont (W . Va.) bituminous-coal field. [1924.]
Postwar labor conditions in Germany. [1925.]
Works council movement in Germany. [1925.]
Labor conditions in the shoe industry in Massachusetts, 1920-1924.
Labor relations in the lace and lace-curtain industries in the United States.
Conditions in the shoe industry in Haverhill, Mass., 1928.
Labor conditions in the Territory of Hawaii, 1929-1930.

[1925.]

Labor laws o f the United States (including decisions o f courts relating to labor).

♦No.
♦No.
♦No.
♦No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
♦No.
No.

211.
229.
285.
321.
322.
343.
370.
408.
581.
583.

No.
No.
No.
♦No.

590.
592.
596.
603.

♦No. 609.

laws and their administration in the Pacific States. [1917.]
1
-payment legislation in the United States. [1917.]
1
[1921.]
1 ___ num-wage laws of the United States: Construction and ope
Labor laws that have been declared unconstitutional. [1922.]
1
Kansas Court of Industrial Relations. [1923.]
1
providing for bureaus of labor statistics, etc. [1923.]
]
Labor laws of the United States, with decisions of courts relating thereto, [1925.]
]
relating to payment of wages. [1926.]
]
]
]
February 14 and 15,1934.
1,abor legislation, 1931 and 1932.
Decisions of courts and opinions affecting labor, 1931 and 1932.
1
Laws relating to prison labor in the United States, as of July 1,1933.
]
Comparative digest of labor legislation for the States of Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South
<
Carolina, Tennessee. [1933.]
Discussions of labor laws and their administration at the 1933 convention of the Association
]
of Governmental Officials in Industry of the United States and Canada, Chicago, 111.

Labor laws o f

♦No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
N o.

142.
494.
510.
529.
549.
554.
559.
569.

.
:
:
'
:
:
:




[1914.]

' o-JLivi i c i v v v i j r

y. [1929.]
a. [1930]
gislation of t
)la. [1931.]
y. [1931.]
r . [1931.]
[1932.]

[1930.]

Labor organizations.

♦No.
No.
♦No.
♦No.

342.
461.
465.
506.

International Seamen’s Union of America: A study of its history and problems.
Labor organizations in Chile. [1928.]
Beneficial activities of American trade unions. [1928.]
Handbook of American trade unions: 1929 edition.

[1923.]

Minimum wage.

♦No.
♦No.
♦No.
♦No.

167.
176.
285.
467.

Minimum-wage legislation in the United States and foreign countries. [1915.]
Effect of minimum-wage determinations in Oregon. [1915.]
Minimum-wage laws of the United States: Construction and operation. [1921.]
Minimum-wage legislation in various countries. [1928.]

Old-age care, pensions, and insurance.

♦No.
•No.
No.
•No.
No.
No.

386.
465.
477.
489.
505.
561.

Cost of American almshouses. [1925,]
Beneficial activities of American trade unions. [1928.]
Public-service retirement systems, United States, Canada, and Europe. [1929.]
Care of aged persons in the United States. [1929.]
Directory of homes for the aged in the United States. [1929.]
Public old-age pensions and insurance in the United States and in foreign countries.

[1932.]

Prison labor.

No. 372. Convict labor in 1923.
No. 595. Prison labor in the United States, 1932.
No. 596. Laws relating to prison labor in the United States, as of July 1, 1933,
Proceedings o f annual conventions o f the International Association o f Government Labor Officials.

♦No.
No.
♦No.
♦No.
♦No.
♦No.
♦No.
♦No.
♦No.
No.
♦No.
♦No.
♦No.

266.
307.
323.
352.
389.
411.
429.
455.
480.
508.
530.
563.
609.

Seventh, Seattle, Wash., July 12-15.1920.
Eighth, New Orleans, La., May 2-6,1921.
Ninth, Harrisburg, Pa., May 22-26, 1922.
Tenth, Richmond, Va., May 1-4, 1923.
Eleventh, Chicago, 111., May 19-23, 1924.
Twelfth, Salt Lake City, Utah, August 13-15, 1925.
Thirteenth, Columbus, Ohio, June 7-10, 1926.
Fourteenth, Paterson, N . J., May 31 to June 3,11927.
Fifteenth, New Orleans, La., May 21-24,1928.
Sixteenth, Toronto, Canada, June 4-7, 1929.
Seventeenth, Louisville, K y., May 20-23, 1930.
Eighteenth, Boston, Mass., May 18-22, 1931.
Nineteenth, Chicago. 111., September 14-15, 1933.

Proceedings o f annual meetings o f the International Association o f Industrial Accident Boards and
Commissions.

No.
♦No.
No.
♦No.
No.
No.
No.
♦No.
No.
♦No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
♦No.

210.
24§.
264.
273.
281.
304.
333.
359.
385.
395.
406.
432.
456.
485.
511.
536.
564.
577.
602.

Third, Columbus, Ohio, April 25-28, 1916.
Fourth, Boston, Mass., August 21-25, 1917.
Fifth, Madison, Wis., September 24-27, 1918.
Sixth, Toronto, Canada, September 23-26, 1919.
Seventh, San Francisco, Calif., September 20-24, 1920.
Eighth, Chicago, 111., September 19-23, 1921.
Ninth, Baltimore. M d., October 9-13, 1922.
Tenth, St. Paul, Minn., September 24-26, 1923.
Eleventh, Halifax, Nova Scotia, August 26-28, 1924.
Index to proceedings, 1914-1924.
Twelfth, Salt Lake City, Utah, August 17-20, 1925.
Thirteenth, Hartford, Conn., September 14-17, 1926.
Fourteenth, Atlanta, Ga., September 27-29, 1927.
Fifteenth, Paterson, N. J., September 11-14, 1928.
Sixteenth, Buffalo, N. Y ., October 8-11, 1929.
Seventeenth, Wilmington, Del., September 22-26, 1930.
Eighteenth, Richmond, Va., October 5-S, 1931.
Nineteenth, Columbus, Ohio, September 26-29, 1932.
Twentieth, Chicago, 111., September 11-14, 1933.

Proceedings o f annual meetings o f the International Association o f Public Employment Services.

♦No. 192. First, Chicago, December 19 and 20, 1913; second, Indianapolis, September 24 and 25, 1914;
third, Detroit, July 1 and 2, 1915.
♦No. 220. Fourth, Buffalo, N. Y ., July 20 and 21, 1916.
No. 311. Ninth, Buffalo, N. Y ., September 7-9, 1921.
♦No. 337. Tenth, Washington, D. C., September 11-13, 1922.
No. 355. Eleventh, Toronto, Canada, September 4-7, 1923.
♦No. 400. Twelfth, Chicago, 111., May 19-23, 1924.
No. 414. Thirteenth, Rochester, N. Y ., September 15-17, 1925.
No. 478. Fifteenth, Detroit, Mich., October 25-28, 1927.
♦No. 501. Sixteenth, Cleveland, Ohio, September 18-21, 1928.
No. 538. Seventeenth, Philadelphia, Pa., September 24-27, 1929; eighteenth, Toronto, Canada, Sep­
tember 9-12, 1930.
Productivity o f labor and technological unemployment.

♦No. 356. Productivity costs in the common-brick industry. [1924.]
No. 360. Time and labor costs in manufacturing 100 pairs of shoes, 1923.
No. 407. Labor cost of production and wages and hours of labor in the paper box-board industry.
[1926.]
♦No. 412. Wages, hours, and productivity in the pottery industry, 1925.
No. 441. Productivity of labor in the glass industry. [1927.]
No. 474. Productivity of labor in merchant blast furnaces. [1928.]
No. 475. Productivity of labor in newspaper printing. [1929.]
No. 550. Cargo handling and longshore labor conditions. [1932.]
No. 574. Technological changes and employment in the United States Postal Service. [1932.]
♦No. 585. Labor productivity in the automobile-tire industry. [1933.]
No. 593. Technological changes and employment in the electric-lamp industry. [1933.]




Ini)

Retail prices and cost o f living.

*No.
*No.
♦No.
*No.
♦No.
No.
♦No.

121.
130.
164.
170.
357.
369.
495.

Sugar prices, from refiner to consumer. [1913.]
Wheat and flour prices, frofii farmer to consumer. [1913. J
Butter prices, from producer to consumer. [1914.]
Foreign food prices as affected by the war. [1915.]
Cost of living in the United States. [1924.]
The use of cost-of-living figures in wage adjustments. [1925.]
Retail prices, 1890 to 1928.

Safety codes.

♦No.
♦No.
♦No.
♦No.
No.
. No.
*No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.

336.
350.
351.
375.
382.
410.
430.
447.
451.
463.
509.
512.
519.
527.
556.
562.

Safety code for the protection of industrial workers in foundries.
Rules governing the approval of headlighting devices for motor vehicles.
Safety code for the construction, care, and use of ladders.
Safety code for laundry machinery and operations.
Code of lighting school buildings.
Safety code for paper and pulp mills.
Safety code for power presses and foot and hand presses.
Safety code for rubber mills and calenders.
Safety code for forging and hot-metal stamping.
Safety code for mechanical power-transmission apparatus—first revision.
Textile safety code.
Code for identification of gas-mask canisters.
Safety code for woodworking plants, as revised 1930.
Safety code for the use, care, and protection of abrasive wheels, as revised 1930.
Code of lighting: Factories, mills, and other workplaces. (Revision of 1930.)
Safety codes for the prevention of dust explosions.

Vocational and workers* education.

♦No.
♦No.
♦No.
♦No.
No.

159.
162.
199.
271.
459.

Short-unit courses for wage earners, and a factory school experiment. [1915.]
Vocational education survey of Richmond, Va. [1915.]
Vocational education survey of Minneapolis, Minn. [1917.]
Adult working-class education in Great Britain and the United States. [1920.]
Apprenticeship in building construction. [1928.]

W ages and hours o f labor.

♦No. 146. Wages and regularity of employment and standardization of piece rates in the dress and
waist industry of New York City. [1914.]
147. Wages and regularity of employment in the cloak, suit, and skirt industry. [1914.]
161. Wages and hours of labor in the clothing and cigar industries, 1911 to 1913.
163. Wages and hours of labor in the building and repairing of steam railroad cars, 1907 to 1913.
190. Wages and hours of labor in the cotton, woolen, and silk industries, 1907 to 1914.
204. Street-railway employment in the United States. [1917.]
225. Wages and hours of labor in the lumber, millwork, and furniture industries, 1915.
265. Industrial survey in selected industries in the United States, 1919.
297. Wages and hours of labor in the petroleum industry, 1920.
356. Productivity costs in the common-brick industry. [1924 ]
358. Wages and hours of labor in the automobile-tire industry, 1923.
360. Time and labor costs in manufacturing 100 pairs of shoes, 1923.
365. Wages and hours of labor in the paper and pulp industry, 1923.
407. Labor cost of production and wages and hours of labor in the paper box-board industry.
[1926.]
♦No. 412. Wages, hours, and productivity in the pottery industry, 1925.
♦No. 416. Hours and earnings in anthracite and bituminous-coal mining, 1922 and 1924.
No. 484. Wages and hours of labor of common street laborers, 1928.
♦No. 502. Wages and hours of labor in the motor-vehicle industry, 1928.
No. 514. Pennsylvania Railroad wage data. From Report of Joint Fact Finding Committee in
wage negotiations in 1927.
No. 523. Wages and hours in the manufacture of airplanes and aircraft engines, 1929.
No. 525. Wages and hours of labor in the Portland cement industry, 1929.
No. 532. Wages and hours of labor in the cigarette-manufacturing industry, 1930.
No. 534. Labor conditions in the Territory of Hawaii, 1929-30.
No. 539. Wages and hours of labor in cotton-goods manufacturing, 1910 to 1930.
No. 547. Wages and hours of labor in the cane-sugar refining industry, 1930.
No. 567. Wages and hours of labor in the iron and steel industry, 1931.
No. 568. Wages and hours of labor in the manufacture of silk and rayon goods, 1931.
No. 570. Wages and hours of labor in foundries and machine shops, 1931.
No. 571. Wages and hours of labor in the furniture industry, 1910 to 1931.
No. 573. Wages and hours of labor in metalliferous mining, 1924 to 1931.
No. 575. Wages and hours of labor in air transportation, 1931.
No. 576. Wages and hours of labor in the slaughtering and meat-packing industry, 1931.
No. 578. Wages and hours of labor in gasoline-filling stations and motor-vehicle repair garages, 1931.
No. 579. Wages and hours of labor in the boot and shoe industry, 1910 to 1932.
No. 580. Wages and hours of labor in the baking industry—bread and cake departments, 1931.
No. 584. Wages and hours of labor in woolen and worsted goods manufacturing, 1932.
No. 586. Wages and hours of labor in the lumber industry, 1932.
No. 587. Wages and hours of labor in the rayon and other synthetic yarn manufacturing, 1932.
No. 588. Wages and hours of labor in the dyeing and finishing of textiles, 1932.
No. 589. Wages and hours of labor in the leather industry, 1932.
No. 591. Wages and hours of labor in the hosiery and underwear industry, 1932.
No. 594. Wages and hours of labor in the men’s clothing industry, 1932.
♦No. 600. Union scales of wages and hours of labor, May 15, 1933.
No. 601. Wages and hours of labor in bituminous-coal mining, 1933.
No. 604. History of wages in the United States from colonial times to 1928. Revision of Bulletin
No. 499, with supplement, 1929-33.
No. 613. Average annual wage and salary payments in Ohio, 1916 to 1932.
♦No.
♦No.
♦No.
♦No.
♦No.
♦No.
♦No.
♦No.
♦No.
♦No.
No.
No.
No.




[IV ]

W elfare work.

*No,
*No.
♦No.
No.
No.

123.
222.
250.
458.
565.

Employers’ welfare work. [1913.]
Welfare work in British munition factories. [1917.]
Welfare work for employees in industrial establishments in the United States.
Health and recreation activities in industrial establishments, 1926.
Park recreation areas in the United States, 1930.

[1919.]

W h o le s a le p r ic e s .

♦No. 284. Index numbers of wholesale prices in the United States and foreign countries.
♦No. 453. Revised index numbers of wholesale prices, 1923 to July 1927.
No. 572. Wholesale prices, 1931.

[1921.]

W om en and children in industry.

♦No. 116. Hours, earnings, and duration of employment of wage-eatning women in selected industries
in the District of Columbia. [1913.]
♦No. 117. Prohibition of night work of young persons. [1913.]
♦No. 118. Ten-hour maximum working-day for women and young persons. [1913.]
♦No. 119. Working hours of women in the pea canneries of Wisconsin. [1913.]
♦No. 122. Employment of women in power laundries in Milwaukee. [1913.]
♦No. 160. Hours, earnings, and conditions of labor of women in Indiana mercantile establishments
and garment factories. [1914.]
♦No. 175. Summary of the report on condition of woman and child wage earners in the United States.
[1915.]
♦No. 176. Effect of minimum-wage determinations in Oregon. [1915.]
♦No. 180. The boot and shoe industry in Massachusetts as a vocation for women. [1915.]
♦No. 182. Unemployment among women in department and other retail stores of Boston, Mass.
[1916.]
♦No. 193. Dressmaking as a trade for women in Massachusetts. [1916.]
♦No. 215. Industrial experience of trade-school girls in Massachusetts. [1917.]
♦No. 217. Effect of workmen’s compensation laws in diminishing the necessity of industrial employ­
ment of women and children. [1917.]
♦No. 223. Employment of women and juveniles in Great Britain during the war. [1917.]
No. 253. Women in the lead industries. [1919.]
♦No. 467. Minimum-wage legislation in various countries. [1928.]
No. 558. Labor conditions of women and children in Japan. [1931.]
Work o f Federal and State departments o f labor.

No. 319. The Bureau of Labor Statistics: Its history, activities, and organization. [1922.]
♦No. 326. Methods of procuring and computing statistical information of the Bureau of Labor Sta­
tistics. [1923.]
♦No. 479. Activities and functions of a State department of labor. [1928.]
♦No. 599. What are labor statistics for? [1933.]
No. 614. Bulletins and articles published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics: A selected list of refer­
ences. [1935.]
Workmen’s insurance and compensation (including laws relating thereto).

♦No.
♦No.
♦No.
♦No.
♦No.
♦No.

101.
102.
103.
107.
155.
212.

♦No. 243.
♦No.
No.
♦No.
♦No.
♦No.

301.
312.
379.
423.
496.

No. 529.

Care of tuberculous wage earners in Germany. [1912.]
British National Insurance Act, 1911.
Sickness and accident insurance law of Switzerland. [1912.]
Law relating to insurance of salaried employees in Germany. [1913.]
Compensation for accidents to employees of the United States. [1914.]
Proceedings of the conference on social insurance called by the International Association of
Industrial Accident Boards and Commissions, Washington, D . C., December 5-9, 1916.
Workmen’s compensation 1egislation in the United States and foreign countries, 1917 and
1918.
Comparison of workmen’s compensation insurance and administration. [1922.]
National health insurance in Great Britain, 1911 to 1921.
Comparison of workmen’s compensation laws of the United States, as of January 1, 1925.
Workmen’s compensation legislation of the United States and Canada, as of July 1, 1926.
Workmen’s compensation legislation of the United States and Canada, as of January 1, 1929.
(With text of legislation enacted in 1927 and 1928.)
Workmen’s compensation legislation of the Latin American countries. [1930.]

Miscellaneous series.

♦No. 174. Subject index of the publications of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics up to
May 1, 1915.
208. Profit sharing in the United States. [1916.]
242. Food situation in central Europe, 1917.
254. International labor legislation and the society of nations. [1919.]
268. Historical survey of international action affecting labor. [1920.]
282. Mutual relief associations among Government employees in Washington, D . C. [1921.]
346. Humanity in government. [1923.]
401. Family allowances in foreign countries. [1926.]
518. Personnel research agencies: 1930 edition.
541. Handbook of labor statistics: 1931 edition.
599. What are labor statistics for? [1933.]
605. Labor through the century, 1833-1933. (Revised.)
607. Growth of legal-aid work in the United States. Revised edition. [1936.]
615. The Massachusetts system of savings-bank life insurance. [1935.]

♦No.
♦No.
♦No.
♦No.
♦No.
♦No.
No.
No.
♦No.
♦No.
No.
No.
No.




[V]

O