The full text on this page is automatically extracted from the file linked above and may contain errors and inconsistencies.
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
JAMES J. DAVIS, Secretary
BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS
ETHELBERT STEW ART, C om m issioner
BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES!
XT
BU REAU OF LABO R S T A T IS T IC S /.....................llO e
MISCELLANEOUS
JA1
4511
SERIES
HANDBOOK OF
LABOR STATISTICS
1929 EDITION
AUGUST, 1923
UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON : 1929
For sale b y th e S uperintendent o f D ocum ents, W ashington, D. C.
Price $1.00
Contents
Page
Introduction________________________________________________________
1
Apprenticeship:
Apprenticeship in building construction___________________________ 5-12
Arbitration and conciliation:
Work of the United States Railroad Board of Mediation___________
15
Railroad arbitration awards, 1927 and 1928_______________________ 16-31
Clerks and station employees________________________________
16
Boston & Maine Railroad Co____ _______________________
16
16
Chicago & North Western Railway Co___________________
Great Northern Railway________________________________ 16, 17
Illinois Central Railroad Co____________ ________________
17
New York Central and Grand Central Terminal__________ 17, 18
St. Louis-San Francisco Railway Co_____________________ 18,19
Southern Railway______________________________________
19
Wabash Railway Co__________________________________ _ 19, 20
Engine and train service____________________________________ 20-26
Engineers and firemen—Boston & Maine Railroad________ 20, 21
Firemen—Eastern district_______________________________
21
Engineers and firemen, conductors, trainmen and switch
men—Pere Marquette Railway--_____________________ 21, 22
Engineers—Southeastern railroads______________________ 22, 23
Firemen—Southeastern territory________________________
23
Firemen— Western railroads_____________________________23, 24
Trainmen— Western railroads___________________________ 24, 25
Ferryboat men—California Railway Lines________________25, 26
Maintenance-of-way employees______________________________ 26, 27
Chicago & North Western Railway Co___________________ 26, 27
Louisville & Nashville Railroad__________________________
27
Shop crafts— Chesapeake & Ohio Railway_________________ ___
27
Signalmen_________________________________________________
28
Louisville & Nashville Railroad__________________________
28
Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis Railway_____________
28
Teamsters, chauffeurs, etc. (express workers)— St. Louis_______ 28, 29
Telegraphers_______________________________________________ 29-31
29
Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Co__________________________
Grand Central Terminal________________________________
30
Midland Valley Railroad Co. and Kansas, Oklahoma & Gulf
Railway Co___________________________________ ______
30
Northern Pacific Railway Co____________________________30, 31
Washington Terminal Co_______________________________
31
Industrial arbitration awards, 1927 and 1928______________________ 31-37
Bricklayers and plasterers___________________________________ 31, 32
Mailers—St. Louis__________________________________________
32
Printers— Denver, Colo_____________________________________ 32, 33
Printers— Omaha___________________________________________
33
33
Printing pressmen— Portland, Oreg---------------------------------------Stereotypers— Buffalo, N. Y _________________________________34, 35
Street railways— Chicago____________________________________ 35, 36
Street railways— Mitten management-------------- ---------------------- 36, 37
h i
IV
CONTENTS
Arbitration and conciliation—Continued.
Page
Emergency boards appointed under railroad labor act______________37-39
Orient Railroad case________________________________________
38
Trainmen on western railroads_______________________________38, 39
Conciliation work of the United States Department of Labor_______39, 40
Child labor:
Work of the Federal Children's Bureau___________________________ 43, 44
Employment certificates granted in various States and cities_______ 44-47
Children in street trades________________________________________ 47, 48
Farm work of children in Illinois and in Colorado_________________ 49-52
Illinois study _______________________________________________ 49, 50
Children on Colorado farms_________________________________ 50-52
Accidents and accident compensation to employed minors__________52-56
Industrial accidents to minors in Ohio________________________52, 53
Compensated accidents to working children in Pennsylvania___ 54, 55
Compensation for industrial injuries to minors in Wisconsin____55, 56
Cooperation:
Development of cooperative stores in 1927 and 1928_______________59-64
Educational bodies_________________________________________ 59, 60
Progress of wholesale cooperation____________________________ 60-62
Local retail cooperation_____________________________________ 62, 63
Cooperative purchase of gasoline and motor oils_______________63, 64
Development of postal credit union movement____________________ 64, 65
Development of building and loan associations, 1926-27----------------- 65, 66
Condition of labor banks, June 30, 1928__________________________ 66, 67
Housing societies_______________________________________________
67
Housing activities of labor groups________________________________ 68-75
Amalgamated Clothing Workers' buildings___________________ 68-72
United Workers' buildings___________________________________72-74
74
Locomotive engineers' project________________ ______________
Home-finance companies of trade-unions_____________________ 74, 75
Reasons why workers borrow____________________________________ 75-79
Agricultural cooperative associations in the United States--------------80
Cooperative camps______________________________________________80, 81
Federal Trade Commission report on cooperative marketing------------ 81, 82
Use of contracts in cooperative marketing________________________ 82-85
Development in consumers' cooperation in foreign countries------------ 85-87
Cost of living:
Trend of cost of living in the United States----------------------------------- 91-94
Cost of living in the United States and in foreign countries------------- 94^-96
Use of cost-of-living figures in wage adjustments-------------------------- 97-100
Cost of medical service_________________________________________100-104
Cost of medical care, hospitalization, and funerals----------------------- 105-108
Ability to pay for medical care------------------------------------------- 105, 106
Cost of hospitalization____________________________________ 106, 107
Funeral costs____________________________________________ 107,108
Living expenses of farmers____________________________________ 108-110
Income and living standards of unskilled laborers in Chicago------- 110, 111
Changes in consumption of certain articles of diet----------------------- 111-113
Meat____________________________________________________ 111, 112
Milk____________________________________________________ 112,113
Bread and flour____________________________________________
113
Changes in cost of the Canadian family budget, 1921 to 1928---------114
CONTENTS
Y
Economic changes:
Page
Economic changes____________________________________________ 117-131
Indexes of the economic progress of the United States, 1922
to 1928................ - __________ ___________________________ 117, 118
Growth of manufactures in the United States, 1899 to 1925___ 118-122
Migration of United States industry_______________________ 122-124
Changing importance of various industries in the United States
and other countries_____________________________________ 124r-127
Changes in standards of living_______________________________
127
Migration of population to and from farms_________________ 128,129
Estimated income of the people of the United States________ 129-131
Employment statistics:
Present status of employment statistics in the United States and
foreign countries___________________________________________ 135-143
Statistics for the United States____________________________ 135-141
Statistics for foreign countries___________ __________________ 141-143
Employment statistics compiled by the Bureau of Labor Statistics-143
Trend of employment in manufacturing industries---------------------- 143-152
Trend of employment on steam railroads_______________________ 152-154
State employment records_____________________________________ 155-157
Unemployment of organized building-trades workers in Massachu
setts, April, 1927, to December, 1928________________________ 157,158
Trend of employment in boot and shoe and cotton goods manufac
turing_________________________ ____________________________ 159-163
Boot and shoe industry___________________________________ 159-161
Cotton-goods mills_______________________________________ 161-163
Unemployment in the United States in 1928: Report of Secretary of
Labor_____________________________________________________ 163—168
Report of Commissioner of Labor Statistics________________ 164-168
Survey of unemployment in Baltimore, February, 1928__________ 168-171
Employment conditions in New York State, 1928_______________ 171-173
Factory employment_______________________________________
172
Falling off of building activities______________________________
172
Employment conditions in New York City_________________ 172, 173
Situation in other cities_____________________________________
173
Stability of employment in various industries___________________ 173-183
Index of employment stability_____________________________173,174
Stability of employment in the iron and steel industry_______174, 175
Stability of employment in the men’s clothing industry______175-177
Stability of employment in the automobile industry_________ 177-179
Stability of railroad employment__________________________ 179-183
Unemployment conditions in Europe in 1928______________________
184
Housing:
Building permits in principal cities of the United States in 1928__ 187-205
Average construction cost of dwellings in various cities_________ 206-209
Apartment house living in American cities, 1927________________ 209-219
Relative cost of material and labor in building construction--------- 219-225
Financing the home___________________________________________ 225, 226
Tax exemption for housing corporations in New York City-------------226
Immigration and emigration:
Immigration movement in 1928________________________________ 229-239
Immigration legislation_______________________________________ 240, 241
National origin act_________________________________________
240
Other recent legislation___________________________________ 240, 241
VI
CONTENTS
Immigration and emigration—Continued.
Page
Immigration into United States, 1820 to 1928___________________ 241-244
Changes in occupational character of immigration since the war__ 244r-247
Naturalization of aliens, 1907 to 1928__________________________ 247, 248
Industrial accidents:
Present status of accident statistics____________________________ 251-254
Accident record by industry___________________________________ 254-272
Building construction_______________________________________
254
Chemical industry__________________________________ _______
255
Coal mines_______________________________________________ 255-257
Coke ovens______________________________________________ 257, 258
Iron and steel industry___________________________________ 258-262
Metal mines_______________________________________________
263
Metallurgical works______________________________________ 263, 264
Paper and pulp mills_____________________________________ 264, 265
Petroleum industry_________________________________________
265
Portland cement industry_________________________________ 265, 266
Quarries___________________________________________________
266
267
Railways, electric__________________________________________
Railways, steam__________________________________________ 267-271
Rubber industry_________________________________________ 271, 272
Textile industry____________________________________________
272
Accident hazards in window cleaning___________________________ 272, 273
Accidents in the Federal Government service___________________ 273-275
Comparative accident experience of a large group of plants in 1925 and
___________________________
276
1926________________________
Safety codes____________________________________________________
277
American Engineering Council's report on safety and production-_ 277-279
Cost of infections in industry____________________________________
279
Penalties for violation of safety orders____________________________
280
Eye conservation through compulsory use of goggles in workshops 280, 281
Carbon dioxide a safe substitute for explosives in mining coal___ 281, 282
Dust explosions in industrial plants____________________________ 282-284
Safety codes for prevention of dust explosions_________________
284
Accidents in small plants______________________________________ 284, 285
Cost of accidents in the home___________________________________
285
Industrial health:
Federal agencies concerned with problems of industrial health____ 289-291
United States Bureau of Labor Statistics___________________ 289, 290
United States Public Health Service_______________ ;__________
290
United States Bureau of Mines____________________________ 290, 291
Recent studies of industrial diseases and poisons________________ 291-354
Abrasive industry__________________________________________
291
Anemia____________________________________________________
291
Agriculture: Occupational diseases of agricultural laborers___ 291, 292
Anthrax: Extent of anthrax hazard in Pennsylvania_________ 293, 294
Arsenic trichloride__________________________________________
294
Asthma: Caused by castor-bean dust______________________ 294, 295
Asthma____________________________________________________
295
Benzol poisoning: Hazard from the industrial use of b e n z o l . 295, 296
Benzol poisoning: Chronic benzol poisoning among women__ 297-299
Benzol poisoning___________________________________________
299
Brass foundries_____________________________________________
299
Cancer: Mule-spinner’s cancer_____________________________ 299, 300
CONTENTS
vn
Industrial Health—Continued.
Recent studies of industrial diseases and poisons—Continued.
Page
Carbon monoxide: A common peril--------------------------- --------- 300, 301
Carbon monoxide: Hazard in commercial garages and automobile
repair shops------------------------------------------------------------------ 301, 302
Carbon monoxide: Hazard of automobile gas in streets and repair
shops of large cities_____________________________________ 302, 303
Carbon-monoxide poisoning--------------------------------------------------303
Carbon paper: Poisoning--------------------------------------------------- 303, 304
Castor-bean dust_________________________________________
304
Cement industry: Dust hazard----------------------------------------- - 304-306
Chemical poisoning_______________________________________
306
Chromium plating: Health hazards------------------------------------- 306-308
Chromium plating: Poisoning from chromium compounds___ 308, 309
Cosmetic manufacturing: Sickness among workers---------------- 309, 310
Dermatitis: Linseed oil dermatitis-------------------------------------- 310, 311
Dusts_____________________________________________________
311
Dye industry_______________________________________________
311
Ethylene dibromide: Toxic effects--------------------------------------311, 312
Eye diseases_______________________________________________
312
Fireworks manufacture-------------------------------------------------------312
Fur cutting and felt-hat manufacture------------------------------------312
Gases and fumes__________________________________________ _
312
Hatter’s furriers trade: Effect of noise and dust upon the health
of women employees------------------------------------------------------313, 314
Heart disease______________________________________________
314
Heat and humidity--------------------------------------------------------------314
Hydrofluoric acid___________________________________________
314
Hydrogen sulphide gas______________________________________
314
Infections: Moisture as a caustive factor----------------------------- 314,315
Infective jaundice among Scotch coal miners------------------------315, 316
Irritant gases____________________________________________
316
Lacquer solvents: Effects of inhalation_____________________316, 317
Lead: A new test for industrial lead poisoning________________
318
Lead: Poisoning in an enameling plant_____________________319, 320
Lead poisoning_____________________________________________
320
Malaria: Infection among Mexican cotton pickers in Mississippi- 321, 322
Manganese poisoning-----------------------------------------------------------322
Mercury poisoning_________________________________________
322
Mercury vapor: New method of determining amount in the air322
323
Mining industry___________ ________________________________
Nickel refining_____________________________________________
323
Occupation neurosis: Telegrapher's cramp in Great Britain__ 323, 324
Pellagra: Endemic pellagra in cotton-mill villages of South
Carolina_______________________________________________ 324, 325
Phosphorus necrosis: Cases reported by Johns Hopkins Hos
pital____________________________________________________
326
Phosphorus necrosis________________________________________
326
Photo-engraving industry___________________________________
327
Pneumonia: High death rate among iron-foundry workers___ 327, 328
Pneumonoconiosis: A case caused by asbestos dust____________
328
Printing trades_____________________________________________
328
Radioactive substances: Industrial poisoning cases among
watch-dial painters_____________________________________ 328, 329
VIII
CONTENTS
Industrial health—Continued.
Recent studies of industrial diseases and poisons—Continued.
Page
Radioactive substances: Anemia occurring among workers han
dling radioactive substances_____________________________ 329-331
Radioactive substances: French experience regarding occupa
tional diseases caused by X rays and radioactive substances. _ 331, 332
Radium poisoning: Death of industrial chemist_______________
332
Radium poisoning__________________________________________
333
333
Respiratory diseases________________________________________
Silicosis and tuberculosis: Cases among granite workers in
Barre, Vt_____________________ ________________________ 333, 334
Silicosis and tuberculosis: Pulmonary conditions among mine
employees, Western Australia____________________________ 335, 336
Silicosis: Cause and extent in South African gold mines_____ 336-338
Silicosis: Incidence in the pottery industry in Great Britain.. 338-341
British report on silicosis in the pottery industry________ 340, 341
Skin diseases_______________________________________________
341
Spray painting: Study of hazards of spray coating__________ 341-346
Spray painting: Results of two studies of spray-painting haz
ards___________________________________________________ 346—351
Storage-battery industry: Working conditions and health haz
ards____ _____ __________________________ ______________ 351-353
Tanning industry___________________________________________
353
Tetraethyl lead gasoline_____________________________________
353
Woodworking industries: Health hazards in Australian wood
working industries______________________________________ 353, 354
Morbidity and mortality statistics_____________________________ 354-380
Sickness studies showing effect of low income upon health___ 354-356
A historical retrospect on expectation of life________________ 357-359
A health study of 10,000 male industrial workers____________ 360-362
Health of office workers___________________________________ 362-364
Health of working boys in New York City_________________ 365-367
Special aspects of the declining tuberculosis death rate in the
United States__________________________________________ 367-370
Respiratory diseases as a cause of industrial disability_______ 370, 371
Acute respiratory diseases among office workers_____________ 371, 372
Sick leave among employees in the Department of Commerce
during 1926_____________________________________ ______ 372, 373
Mortality experience of International Typographical Union,
1927_____ ________ __________________ _____ ____________ 373,374
Occupational disease claims in Ohio, 1921 to 1926___________ 374, 375
Health record of American and Canadian industrial populations in
1927............. ——___________ ___________________________ 375-377
Effect of artificial humidification upon sickness rates in the cottonweaving industry------ -------------- -------------------------------------- 377,378
Industrial diseases and poisoning in British factories, 1927___ 378, 379
Occupational fertility and infant mortality in England and Wales.
380
Legislation___________________________________________________ 380-388
Labor laws as a means of preventing diseases of occupation__ 380-382
Physical examination for occupational diseases in the United
States___________________________________________________
382
Great Britain: Lead paint act----------------------------------------------383
Poland: Prohibition of the use of white lead________________ 383, 384
France: Application of law relating to occupational diseases.. 384, 385
CONTENTS
IX
Industrial health.— Continued.
Legislation—Continued.
Page
Italy: Compulsory insurance against tuberculosis___ ._______ 385, 386
Ontario, Canada: Silicosis, pneumonoconiosis, and caisson disease
made compensable_____________________________________ 386, 387
Ontario, Canada: Legislation as to physical examinations for
occupational diseases___________________________________ 387, 388
Health and working conditions_________________________________ 388-405
Health promotion by employees' benefit associations_________ 388-390
Lunch rooms in industrial establishments_______________ ___ 390-393
Family damage when a wage earner dies_____________________
394
Economic losses due to physical and mental impairments____ 394-396
Campaign for the prevention of blindness among industrial
workers________________________________________________ 396, 397
Effect of eyestrain on output in the hosiery industry__________
397
Relation of illumination to efficiency on fine work_____________
398
Physical and mental effects of n oise.-_____________________ 398-400
The toll of industrial noise________________________________ 401, 402
Industrial posture and seating_____________________________ 402, 403
Physique of women in industry____________________________ 403-405
Industrial home work:
Survey of industrial home work in the United States..__________ 409-433
Recommended minimum standards for the regulation of indus
trial home work________________________________________ 409, 410
Summary of information on home work obtained by the com
mittee_________________________________________________ 410-433
Home work in the men’s clothing industry of New York_________ 433-435
Regulation of industrial home work in Pennsylvania_____________ 435-437
Insurance and benefit plans:
Types of insurance and benefit plans___________________________ 441, 442
Establishment funds for the benefit of disabled workers_________ _ 442-446
National conference on mutual benefit associations______________ 446-448
Trade-union benefits and insurance____________________________ 448-455
General trade-union benefits_______________________________ 448-453
Trade-union insurance for members________________________ 454, 455
Sick and death benefits by collective agreement_________________ 455, 456
Industrial group insurance plans_______________________________ 456-458
A survey of industrial group insurance_____________________ 457, 458
Legal status of issuance of group life insurance policies to labor
unions____________________________________________________ 458-461
Sickness insurance in various countries_________________________ 461-468
Labor organizations:
Membership in American trade-unions____________________________
471
Trade agreements____________________________________________ 471-480
Reporting-time and minimum pay in building-trade agreements—_ 480, 481
Labor-management cooperation:
General results of labor-management cooperation----------------------- 485-491
Improvement in operating efficiency------------------------------------ 485-487
Shop sanitation and safety________________________________ 487, 488
Production and quality of work____________________________ 488, 489
Increasing workers’ trade knowledge and efficiency____________
489
Increasing the sale of product_______________________________
490
Handling of grievances and disputes_______________________ 490, 491
Baltimore & Ohio plan of cooperation--------------------------------------- 491-494
X
CONTENTS
Medical and general health service:
Page
Medical and hospital service for industrial employees----- ------------ 497-506
General health work of labor organizations_____________________ 506-513
Value of physical examinations in industry_____________________513-515
W ork ed attitude toward physical examinations---------------------515
Minimum wage:
Minimum wage laws in the United States---------------------------------- 519-526
Origin and extent of minimum-wage activity--------------------------519
History of legislation in the United States__________________ 519-522
Distinction between flexible and inflexible types of laws_____ 522, 523
Procedure and problems involved in setting rates under the
flexible laws___________________________________________ 523, 524
Length of time that flexible laws have been functioning___ 524-526
Old-age pensions and relief:
Care of the aged in the United States__________________________ 529, 530
Public pensions for aged dependent citizens_____________________ 530-533
Old-age pension laws in operation__________________________ 531, 532
Criticisms of old-age pension systems now in force____________
532
Appraisal of pension system by counties____________________ 532, 533
Trade-union pensions and homes for the aged___________________ 534-542
Old-age and disability pensions____________________________ 534^538
Homes for the aged and disabled__________________________ 538-542
Public service retirement systems in the United States___________ 542-549
State and municipal retirement systems____________________ 542-547
Federal employees’ retirement system________________________
547
Retirement system of the Territory of Hawaii______________ 548, 549
Philippine Islands—Labor conditions:
General survey of labor conditions in the Philippine islands______ 553-559
Labor statistics for the Philippine Islands, 1927_________________ 559-566
Wages in Manila_________________________________________ 559-562
Hours of labor___________________________________________ 562, 563
Cost of living______________________________________________
563
Adjustment of wage claims, 1923 to 1927___________________ 563, 564
Free employment agencies__________________________________
564
Industrial accidents, 1923 to 1927____________________________
564
Industrial disputes, 1923 to 1927___________________________ 564, 565
Labor organizations________________________________________
565
Migration of Philippine labor to and from Hawaii, 1923 to 1927-_
565
Agricultural cooperative associations________________ ______ 565, 566
Porto Rico— Labor conditions:
Labor conditions in Porto Rico________________________________ 569-572
Wages___________________________________________________ 569, 570
Cost of living______________________________________________
571
Housing of laborers-------------------------------------------------------------571
Unemployment_____________________________________________
571
Child Labor________________________________________________
572
Wage claims_______________________________________________
572
Prices—wholesale and retail:
Retail prices in the United States______________________________ 575-594
Retail prices of food in 1928_______________________________ 575-577
Trend of retail prices of food, 1890 to 1928_________________ 577-586
Retail prices of coal______________________________________ 586-588
Retail prices of gas_______________________________________ 588-590
Retail prices of electricity_________________________________ 591-594
CONTENTS
XI
Prices—wholesale and retail—Continued.
Page
Wholesale prices in the United States---------------------------------------- 596-612
Wholesale prices in 1928______________________________ ____ 595, 596
Wholesale prices, 1913 to 1928_____________________________ 597-603
Wholesale prices of farm products and nonagricultural commod
ities___________________________________________________ 604, 605
Wholesale prices of raw materials, semimanufactured articles,
and finished products___________________________________ 605-608
Method of computing index numbers______________________ 608-612
Wholesale prices in the United States and in foreign countries, 1923
to 1928.................. .............................. ....... ......... ............................ 613-616
Productivity of labor:
Significance of labor productivity____________________________ ____
619
Increase in labor productivity, 1898 to 1927____________________ 619-623
Output per employee in manufacturing industries, 1919 to 1925__ 623-626
Growth in use of power equipment in the United States, 1849 to 1923_ 626-628
Productivity of labor in merchant blast furnaces, 1912-1926_____ 628-631
Blast-furnace productivity in the United States, 1850 to 1926____ 631, 632
Productivity of labor in the glass industry______________________ 632-636
Productivity in newspaper printing, 1916 and 1926______________ 636-638
Time and labor cost of production in the woolen and worsted industry:
United States, England, France, Germany____________________ 638-640
Mechanical loading in bituminous coal mines___________________ 640-642
The use of machinery in cotton harvesting______________________ 642-644
Productivity of coal-mine labor, by States______________________ 644, 645
Labor productivity in copper refining__________________________ 645, 646
Increased labor productivity in a large steel plant between 1902 and
1926_______________________
__________________
646
Labor requirements for principal farm crops____________________ 646-648
Recreation facilities for industrial workers:
Recreational opportunities provided by city park systems________ 651-656
Community recreation in the United States in 1927_____________ 656, 657
Recreational activities for industrial employees__________________ 657-668
Indoor recreation_________________________________________ 658-664
Outdoor recreation_______________________________________ 664-668
Recreational activities of labor organizations____________________ 668-674
Strikes and lockouts:
Strikes and lockouts in the United States, 1916 to 1928---------- 677-681
Principal strikes and lockouts in 1927 and 1928-------------------- 679-681
Turnover of labor:
Labor turnover in American factories___________________________ 685, 686
Comparative stability of male and female employees------------------- 687, 688
Problem of labor turnover in hospitals_________________________ 688-690
The “ Exit” interview________________________________________ 690, 691
Unemployment insurance and relief:
Unemployment insurance and relief---------------------------------------------695
Activites of United States Employment Service-------------------------- 695-697
Junior division______________________ ______ ________________
696
Industrial employment information division------------------------- 696, 697
Farm labor division________________________________________
697
State and municipal employment offices---------------------------------------698
Establishment insurance and guaranty plans------------------------------ 698-700
Guaranteed time in the meat-packing industry______________ 698, 699
Unemployment fund of a manufacturing company__________ 699, 700
XII
CONTENTS
Unemployment insurance and relief—Continued.
Page
Insurance plans and guaranteed employment through collective
agreements_________________________________________________ 701-703
Men's clothing industry_____________________________________
701
Women's garment industry--------------------------------------------------702
Fur industry_______________________________________________
702
Cloth hat and cap industry_______________________________ 702, 703
Felt-hat industry________________________________ __________
703
Wall-paper industry________________________________________
703
Trade-union measures relating to unemployment________________ 703-709
Measures for the prevention of unemployment______________ 705-707
Measures for the relief of unemployment___________________ 707-709
The work of public labor exchanges in Europe__________________ 709-717
Administrative machinery_________________________________ 709-711
Placing methods_________________________________________ 711, 712
Training of the unemployed----------------------------------------------- 712-714
Compulsory registration__________________________________ 714-715
Fees------------- --------- -----------------------------------------------------------715
Conciliation of disputes_____________________________________
716
Outfitting the unemployed for a job__________________________
716
Office location and furnishings_____________________________ 716, 717
Employability of the unemployed______________________________ 717-719
Unemployment insurance in foreign countries___________________ 719-729
Australia (Queensland)_____________________________________
719
Austria____________________________________________________
720
Belgium--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 720, 721
Bulgaria----------------------------------------------------------------------------721
Czechoslovakia_____________________________________________
721
Denmark__________________________________________________
722
Finland____________________________________________________
722
France_________________________________________________ „ 722,723
Germany------------------------------------------------------------------------- 723, 724
Great Britain____________________________________________ 724, 725
Irish Free State____________________________________________
725
Italy____________________________________________________ 725,726
Luxemburg------------------------------------------------------------------------726
Netherlands--------------------------------------------------------------------- 726, 727
Norway-----------------------------------------------------------------------------727
Poland____________________________________________________
727
Russia_____________________________________________________
728
Spain---------------------------------------------------------------------------------728
Switzerland________________________________________________
729
Abolishing a definite age limit in employment___________________ 729, 730
United States Department of Labor:
733
The work of the United States Department of Labor______________
Statistical and research work of the United States Bureau of Labor
Statistics___________________________________ SSK:__________ 733-745
Vacations with pay:
Vacations with pay as result of trade agreements________________ 749-751
Vacations with pay for industrial workers in various countries______
752
Vacation practices for salaried workers in New York City_ _________
753
CONTENTS
XIII
Wages and hours of labor:
Page
Wage studies of the Bureau of Labor Statistics________ l________ 757-759
760, 761
General index of hourly wages, 1840 to 1926______ __________ _
Farm wage index, 1866-1928________________________________
761
Aluminum, brass, and copper utensils and wares, manufacture of:
Wages and hours of labor, 1927______________________________ 761-763
Anthracite mining______________________________________ _______
763
Batteries and small motors, manufacture of: Hours and earnings,
1927_______________________________ ____________ _________ 763-769
Dry-cell batteries____________________________ ____________ 764, 765
Storage batteries_______________________ ___________ --------- 765-767
Fractional-horsepower motors_____________________________ 767-769
Bituminous coal mining: Hours and earnings, 1924-1926.-______ 769-776
Boot and shoe industry: Wages and hours, 1928_____ ___________ 776-782
Brass and copper sheet, rod, tube, wire, and shape mills: Wages and
hours of labor, 1927______________________ _____________ _— 783,784
Common labor: Entrance rates, July 1, 1928------------------------------ 784-787
Common labor: Earnings_____________________________________ 787, 788
Cotton gins, cotton compresses, and cottonseed-oil mills: Wages and
hours of labor, 1927________________________________________ 788-793
Cotton gins______________________________________________ 788-790
Cotton compresses________________________________________ 790-792
Cottonseed-oil mills_______________________________________ 792, 793
Cotton-goods industry: Wages and hours of labor, 1928-------------- 794-797
Factory workers: Average weekly earnings in New York State, 1914
to 1928___ ______ __________________________ _________ ________
797
Farm wages, 1923 to 1928_____________________________________ 798, 799
Foundries and machine shops: Wages and hours of labor, 1927___ 800-805
Hosiery and underwear industry_________________________________
805
805
Iron and steel industry_______ __________________________________
Men’s clothing industry: Hours and earnings, 1928______________ 805-811
Motor vehicle industry__________________________________________
811
Office workers: Earnings in New York State factories___________ 811, 812
Paper box-board industry_______________________________________
812
Pottery industry________________________________________________
812
Radio receiving sets, speakers, and tubes, manufacture o f: Wages and
hours of labor, 1927________________________________________ 813-818
Receiving sets______-_____________________________________ 813-815
Speakers_________________________________________________815, 816
Tubes___________________________________________________ 816-818
Sawmills: Wages and hours of labor, 1928______________________ 818-821
Seamen: Wages, 1927_________________________________________ 821-823
Slaughtering and meat-packing industry: Wages and hours of labor,
1927____________________________________________ _________ 823-830
Steam railroad employees: Earnings, 1927 and 1928_____________ 830-833
Teachers: Salaries in higher educational institutions_____________ 833-835
Teachers: Salaries paid in public schools, 1926-27_______________ 835-838
Union scales of wages for time workers, 1928____________________ 839-845
Woolen and worsted goods industry: Wages and hours of labor, 1928_ 845-850
International comparison of real wages, October, 1928___________ 850, 851
Collection of wage claims by State labor offices__________________ 851-854
XIV
CONTENTS
Women in industry:
Page
Work of the United States Women's Bureau____________________ 857, 858
Hours, wages, and working conditions of women industrially employed
in Delaware, Mississippi, and Tennessee_____________________ 858-863
Earnings, hours, and working conditions of women in Delaware
industries______________________________________________ 859, 860
Hours, wages, and working conditions of women in Mississippi
industries__________________________ ___________________ 861, 862
Hours, wages, and working conditions of women in Tennessee. 862, 863
Married women in industry in Binghamton, New York_________ 863-865
Industrial accidents to women in New Jersey, Ohio, and Wisconsin. 865-868
Industrial night work of women________________________________ 869, 870
Effects of labor legislation on employment opportunities for women. 870-880
Workmen's compensation:
Workmen's compensation in the United States as of January 1,1929- 883-902
Settlements for accidents to American seamen__________________ 902-906
Index____________________________________________________________ 907-
BULLETIN OF THE
U. S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS
n o . 491
WASHINGTON
a u g u s t , 1929
HANDBOOK OF LABOR STATISTICS: 1929 EDITION
Introduction
T
HIS is the second handbook of labor statistics to be published
by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. The first handbook (Bui.
No. 439), issued in 1927, sought to bring together in convenient form
for reference purposes digests of the material published by the bureau
prior to the year 1927. The present handbook supplements the former
one by presenting similar digests of the material published by the
bureau in the years 1927 and 1928.
There are necessarily repetitions of subject titles and some repeti
tion of data but there is no repetition of articles for which no important
later information is available. When a subject is one for which later
information has developed than that published.in the former hand
book—such as cost of living—the article in the present handbook
supersedes the former article. When, as in the case of wages in the
iron and steel industry, no later survey has been made than that
digested in the former handbook, reference to the former article is
given but the material itself is not repeated. Thus, the two hand
books, used together, constitute a convenient abbreviation of prac
tically all the published work of the Bureau of Labor Statistics of
sufficiently recent date to be of present-day interest.
As explained in the introduction to the former handbook, the mate
rial presented in these handbooks represents in large part the original
work of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, but this is by no means entirely
the case. For instance, the Bureau of Labor Statistics does not at
tempt to cover certain fields of interest to labor which are already
adequately covered by other official agencies. Thus, the Children's
Bureau of the United States Department of Labor reports on child
labor as well as on other phases of child welfare. The Women's
Bureau of the same department makes comprehensive investigations
of various phases of the general subject of women in industry.
Since the creation of the women's and children's bureaus, the Bureau
of Labor Statistics has made no special studies in the fields assigned
to those bureaus. Also, other governmental agencies, outside the
Department of Labor, make studies and investigations of very direct
interest to labor. For example, the Bureau of Mines of the Depart
ment of Commerce regularly reports on mine accidents, and the
Interstate Commerce Commission makes similar compilations of
railroad accidents. The Bureau of Labor Statistics makes no at
tempt to do original research on these subjects. It does attempt,
however, in its Monthly Labor Review to follow such of the activi
ties of these other agencies as have a labor interest, and in the prepa
ration of this volume it has drawn upon their work.
1
APPRENTICESHIP
Apprenticeship in Building Construction
N INVESTIGATION of the subject of apprenticeship in the
building industry was completed by the Bureau of Labor Statis
tics in 1928.1 The purpose of the study which covered 19 cities, was
to determine to what extent apprenticeship is a factor in the building
industry and what effect the growing agitation for a revival of the
apprenticeship system is having.
The bureau limited its study to actual apprenticeship, that is, actual
contract, or some equivalent obligation extending over a stipulated
period of years, by which a boy is to learn and his employer is to
teach one of the building crafts.
The accompanying table shows the crafts and the cities covered in
the investigation, and the number of apprentices formally indentured,
registered with the unions, or bound in some manner, for each city
and each craft. The letter E signifies that evening-school work is
provided and, theoretically at least, required. The letters PT mean
that part-time school training is an integral part of the apprenticeship.
The expression “ part time” in all cases signifies compulsory dayschool work on paid-for time.
A
i For foil report see U . S. Bureau of &abor Statistics Bui. N o. 459.
5
N U M B E R O F A P P R E N T I C E S R E P O R T E D , A N D SC H O O L W O R K R E Q U I R E D I N C O N N E C T I O N W I T H T R A I N I N G , B Y T R A D E A N D B Y C IT Y
[E = Evening school attendance required.
City
Atlan ta..............
Baltimore_____
Birmingham __
B o sto n ..............
Buffalo...............
Chicago.............
Cleveland.........
Detroit________
M em phis..........
M ilw aukee___
M inneapolis...
Newark, N . J_
N ew O rleans..
N ew Y o rk ........
Niagara F alls..
Philadelphia. _
Pittsburgh____
St. Louis...........
Total..
A s
bestos
work
E
60
Brick,
stone, and
marble
masonry
E
E
PT
PT
Carpentry
143
2
150
8 52
300
900
227
176
28
PT
PT
38
50
425
24
600
218
88
PT
10
120
PT
48
MOO
P T = Part-time day school attendance required and paid for]
Electrical
work
Lath
ing
Painting
and deco Plastering
rating
(?)
22
650
109
243
75
4
26
38
P T 12
P T 260
PT
86
PT
"880
8 200
91,300
11 4,8
E « 1,400
E ,P T 25
200
E
* 1,600
210
PT
PT
PT
PT
12
30
100
i: 4 1,690
E , P T 16
230
PT
190
E
180
12
23
22
225
45
600
143
<80
60
204
PT
E
90
24
400
61
65
PT
PT
PT
PT
Plumbing
100
8
PT
24
110
P T 25
12
160
<150
12
90
12 4,452
133,503
213
1 Includes also plasterers and tile setters.
8 Included under “ Brick, stone, and marble masonry.”
8 Includes also tile setters.
• N ot indentured.
®Including 98 not indentured.
• Minneapolis and St. Paul.
7 Includes also plasterers. Night-school students not indentured.
8 Night-school students not indentured.
• Including 4,690 not indentured.
PT
46
24
(2)
40
577
E ,P T 13
PT
80
150
62
1,655
PT
E
E
E
275
30
94
27
PT
E
145
125
8
1* 2,110
Roof
ing
26
6
Sheetmetal
work
50
12
58
18
75
75
PT
PT
Steam
fitting
8
E
E
E
PT
E
32
Total
57
291
178
1,141
231
4,067
966
* 622
204
423
82
8 2,370
170
8 6,127
114
614
904
10 855
(2)
(2)
21
P T “ 425~ .............45"
P T 4 18
27
PT
Tile
setting
24
28
2
17
•10
115
300
25
30
60
60
i«902
10 Including 150 not indentured.
11 Including 2,090 not indentured.
12 Including 2,700 not indentured.
18 Including 1,950 not indentured.
m Including 80 not indentured.
« Including 355 not indentured,
w Including 115 not indentured,
if'Including 18 not indentured.
m Including 7,308 not indentured.
40
12
16
17 470
191
18
19,416
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
7
The primary purpose of the investigation was to find out what
is the present trend in producing new mechanics for the building
industry, what machinery for training apprentices exists, ^and how
it functions. Systematic school training was encountered in several
localities, but the bureau did not attempt a detailed study of school
work.
The apprentice problem is a local one, and the methods of meet
ing it vary widely not only as between cities but also as between
different crafts in the same city. Even in cities where the problem
is treated from the standpoint of the industry as a whole, as in
Cleveland, certain crafts in the industry may be acting independ
ently of the general plan or may be doing nothing whatever. Any
attempt to generalize must be complicated with exceptions and
variations. Each city covered in the bureau’s survey has its own
problems and its own ways of meeting them, or, perhaps, of letting
them alone, and is therefore treated separately in the bulletin.
Organized Systems in Operation
W h i l e apprenticeship by formal indenture between employer
and boy is not widely practiced, there is coming into use a system
which amounts to the same thing. That is the joint apprenticeship
committee system. These committees are composed of representa
tives of employers and of journeymen and, in some cases, of the
city school boards. Apprentices are under agreement with the com
mittee to serve their full time and to abide by the laws of the com
mittee, which on its part takes the responsibility of seeing that the
boy has employment and proper opportunities for training through
out his apprenticeship.
Where joint committees do not operate, the union may serve
the same purpose, the apprentice being in effect indenturea to the
local union and governed by the terms of the working agreement
between the union and the employers, with the union acting as
placement agent to keep the boy employed.
Apprentice training has more vitality, is more closely organized,
and is affecting the building situation more definitely in those cen
ters in which the division of vocational education of the local school
board, usually acting under the Smith-Hughes law, is cooperating
than in the cities in which the contractors or the unions are trying
to work out the problem alone.
Apprenticeship systems designed and organized to encompass the
entire building industry are found only in four cities: Cleveland,
Detroit, New York City, and Niagara Falls. In none of them
does the plan actually include all of the building crafts, but the
organization is such that it can be expanded to cover any additional
craft when the craft itself takes the necessary steps. Joint apprentice
committees for individual trades are effective agents in several cities,
where they operate successfully without any centralized machinery.
Cleveland is the outstanding instance of successful operation under
the former plan, while Chicago illustrates the method of uncorre
lated craft actions.
Because the Cleveland method contains all the elements of system
atic apprentice training which the bureau’s investigation has found
in any city visited, it will, for purposes of analysis and comparison,
8
APPRENTICESHIP
be treated as a standard, deviations from which in other cities will
be pointed out. As already noted, Cleveland has a system structur
ally so devised as to cover the building industry, but the founda
tion of the system is the separate crafts, each functioning through a
joint committee of organized workers and organized employers. Co
operating with these committees, but not actually members of them,
are the trade teachers and officials of the division of vocational educa
tion of the Cleveland public-school system. These joint apprentice
committees are active working bodies, which meet regularly, monthly
or oftener, and which are the controlling agency of their respective
crafts in all matters pertaining to apprenticeship.
Upon action by the committee a formal indenture is made which
binds employer and apprentice for the full term of apprenticeship.
After the expiration of a probationary period an employer may not
discharge an apprentice and a boy may not change employers with
out the consent of the committee after a hearing.
One of the fundamental doctrines of the system is continuous
employment throughout the apprentice period., in order to keep
the boy in the trade. If the contractor to whom a boy is indentured
runs so short of work that he can not keep him busy, a transfer to
another contractor is effected through the trade committee until such
time as the original employer can resume his obligation. Respon
sibility for carrying the boy through his apprenticeship remains
with the original employer.
All apprentices in the trades coming under the Cleveland system
must attend school four hours one day a week, or one day of eight
hours every other week, at the time set by the division of vocational
education. While the division of vocational education is only one
component element in the organized apprentice-training system in
Cleveland, it enforces certain regulations which are in fact the prin
cipal cohesive factor in holding the entire scheme together.
Niagara Falls and Detroit are the only other cities covered which
show the same correlation between the public schools and the in
dustry in the training of apprentices. In each of these cities the
director of vocational education is a member of each trade committee
and is in effect the head of the apprentice system. The plan used
in Niagara Falls is very much the same as Cleveland’s, the only im
portant difference, besides the one just mentioned, being the amount
of time spent in school. First and second year boys must attend
school eight hours a week—four hours in evening school on their
own time and four hours Saturday morning on the employer’s time;
but pay for day-school work is contingent upon night-school attend
ance. Third and fourth year boys must attend night school four
hours a week.
The system in both Cleveland and Niagara Falls depends for suc
cessful operation upon the cooperation of unions and employers and
upon the active participation of the joint apprentice committees.
In Detroit the trade committees are neither so active nor so inter
ested, and formal indenture is made in only a few trades.
Apprenticeship in the building trades in Chicago depends solely
on the initiative and diligence of the craft committees representing
organized workers and organized employers. The school system is a
receptive, not an active, agent in apprentice training. Contact be
tween the apprentice classes and the trade is chiefly through coor
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
9
dinators employed by the committees and through the trade teachers.
Formal indenture is practiced in all cases and in most trades control
and regulation of apprenticeship through joint committees are
provided for in the joint working agreements and include compul
sory part-time school work. In most trades uniform control is assured
by the provision that only those contractors who are members of
their trade associations, and hence parties to the joint agreements,
may have apprentices. This is not true of carpentry, in which
trade there is neither a trade agreement nor a joint apprentice
committee. In the plastering trade a once active apprentice com
mittee has become moribund and part-time school training for
plasterer apprentices has been discontinued because of general lack
of interest.
Under the systems thus far discussed, when a craft participates at
all it does so wholly. That is to say, all the apprentices in a given
trade, with possibly an occasional exception in an open shop, are
included in and regulated by whatever system is followed by that
trade. Only a small percentage of the contractors may be involved,
but such apprenticeship as exists comes under the unified control
of the organized agency.
This situation does not exist in New York City, in which an
apprenticeship commission, founded and fostered by the New York
Building Congress, is the medium for promoting apprenticeship in
the industry. The commission is composed of representatives of the
Building Congress, the Building Trades Employers’ Association, and
those building trades unions which are identified with it. Participa
tion in the work of the commission on the part of the unions is deter
mined by each local union of each craft. No craft in the city is
identified with the commission plan to the extent of having all its
local unions cooperating.
Structurally the New York Apprenticeship Commission is com
posed of apprentice committees of the component trades. Function
ally the trade committees are weak and inactive, and the vital agency
is not the craft organization but the superstructure representing the
industry. The commission has no power and the trade committees
exercise none. There is no formal indenture erxcept in painting, no
provision for continuous employment and no machinery for assuring
it, and no part-time school training. The commission is the point of
contact between the school system and those apprentices coming
under the jurisdiction of the commission who are attending the nightschool classes provided, either voluntarily or because of whatever
pressure may be brought to bear upon them. Further than that, and
its efforts to promote and encourage apprenticeship, the organized
machinery in New York does not go.
One craft which is not a part of the apprenticeship commission has
a joint apprenticeship committee composed of two representatives of
the union and two of the contractors' association and exercises com
plete control over apprenticeship in the trade, that of sheet-metal
work. Apprentices are formally indentured, continuous employment
is assured, and attendance at night school four hours a week is
compulsory.
The New York Apprenticeship Commission system furnished the
pattern on which the Boston Building Congress built its joint
apprenticeship commission in 1923. As in New York, the sheet
10
APPRENTICESHIP
metal trade remained outside and regulated its own apprentice sys
tem through its joint trade committee under its working agreement.
The Boston commission depended upon craft committees for all
activities relating to apprentice regulations and control, including
the enforcement of school attendance, while it undertook to secure
continuity of employment and school training. Indenture was not
stressed.^ The tendency of the craft committees, however, was to
become increasingly less active and to place more and more of the
burden of carrying out the program on the officers of the com
mission. Founded as it was on craft Support, when the craft sup
port was completely withdrawn the superstructure collapsed and the
Boston Apprenticeship Commission passed out of existence four
years after its establishment. Apprentice classes in the city trade
school have since been discontinued for want of pupils, since no
compulsion has ever been exercised.
Joint apprentice committees composed of representatives of organ
ized employers and organized journeymen are effectively controlling
apprenticeship in some trades in cities in which real apprentice
ship is perhaps not followed in any other trade. The steam-fitting
trade in Memphis, Tenn., is a case in point. The plumbing trade
in Pittsburgh is another illustration of successful prosecution of an
apprentice system by a committee composed not alone of employers
and journeymen but also of materialmen and the school board.
Apprenticeship in Milwaukee is controlled by law and regulated
by the apprentice department of the Wisconsin Industrial Commis
sion. Newark, N. J., has an educational movement under the SmithHughes law which involves trade training but which is not actual
apprenticeship in an industrial sense. It seems, nevertheless, to be
working out to essentially the same ends, although it is extremely
doubtful if the large number of boys reported by the various crafts
as being in training both on the job and in school will complete
their training and be absorbed into the industry.
Elsewhere in the field covered by the bureau nothing was found
which could be considered a definite organization working toward a
definite end.
Supply of Trainees
T he assertion that “ boys won’t go into the trades” is not verified
by the investigation. On the contrary, it is quite apparent that
the dearth of apprentices in the building trades is not due to a dearth
of boys interested in entering those trades. The unions everywhere
reported long waiting lists of applicants for apprenticeships, and
joint committees agree that the problem does not lie in finding ma
terial to train.
Because of the limited opportunities for placing boys with con
tractors as apprentices, some unions, where they are sufficiently in
control, make a practice of confining apprenticeships to the sons
and other relatives of the men in the trade. This is especially true
in bricklaying and plastering. It is frequently asserted that a boy
has no chance to become a bricklayer unless his father is in the
trade either as contractor or journeyman, and in a number of cases
that is quite true. It has been true also in plumbing in some local
ities. The Chicago master plumbers have broken up the practice,
followed there for years, of granting apprenticeships only to sons
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION'
11
of the men in the trade. ^In Pittsburgh the working agreement
in the electrical trade provides that the employer shall select the
apprentice one year and the union the next year, and it is tacitly
understood that the union may select only sons of journeymen if it
chooses to do so.
The building trades-unions in St. Louis have a very definite policy
of “ keeping the trade in the family” and enforce it to such an extent
that one contractor declared that “ a boy has as good a chance to
get into West Point as into the building trades unless his father or
his uncle is a building craftsman.”
Apprentice Quotas
I n p r a c t i c a l application, union regulations governing the ratio
of apprentices to journeymen prove to be far less a deterring factor
in apprentice training than is commonly assumed. Where the
highly developed systems prevail union regulations are apt to be
abrogated entirely and the whole question of quota is handled by
the joint committee on the basis of the number of apprentices the
trade can support in continuous employment.
Where the method is more desultory the union quota is not an
issue for the reason that relatively few contractors have any appren
tices at all, and certainly have no disposition to take on more than
the union agreement permits.
If union regulations were in fact responsible for restricting oppor
tunities for apprentices, one would expect to find greater development
in open-shop centers. Actually, however, it is much harder to find
an apprentice in an open than in a closed shop. Only three openshop contractors were encountered in the course of the investigation
who had more apprentices than they would have been granted under
union agreement.
Attitude of Contractors
T h o s e most closely in touch with the situation—school authorities,
members of apprenticeship committees, and contractors who are
cooperating in the effort to the limit of their ability—do not hesitate
to declare that the individual contractor is chiefly responsible for the
shortage of apprentices and the absence of a training system. Short
sightedness, indifference, and selfishness are the charges brought
against their colleagues by the contractors who are carrying the load
of apprentice training for the industry.
It is conceded that the provision for continuous employment, the
one element which is vitally necessary to keep the boy, is the greatest
stumblingblock in the path of the contractor doing a small, or even
a moderately large, business. Accordingly it is the opinion of some
of the men in the industry that the problim of seasonal building will
have to be met before an effective apprentice system can be evolved.
Attitude of Unions
As A r u l e trade organizations, both of employers and of journey
men, have at least an appreciation of the needs of their respec
tive trades in regard to apprentice training, even though they may
be doing nothing constructive to promote it. And while there are
12
APPRENTICESHIP
exceptions, taken as a whole it is where union organization is strong
est that apprentice systems function most effectively. Local unions
were found here and there which definitely oppose apprenticeship,
but more instances occur in which the unions are doing all that is
being done to provide new mechanics. In one “ closed-shop” center,
on the other hand, not only strict limitations as to the number of
apprentices, but dictation as to who may become apprenticed are
enforced by unions strong enough to impose them upon employers.
Instances of wage scales so high that few contractors can afford
to pay them to learners suggest restriction by a method more in
direct and probably more effective than the ratio system.
Speaking of the attitude of both contractors and unions on the
question, a prominent architect of New York who was instrumental
in establishing the apprenticeship commission of the New York
Building Congress, said:
Recriminations flew thick and fast between the contractors and the labor
men when we first tried to get together on a program, each side blaming the
other for conditions. But that isn't going to solve the apprentice problem,
and so far as I can see into the situation, both sides are tarred with the same
stick.
Training on the Job
W h i l e it is generally admitted that an apprentice is at best a
financial liability for the first year, and often longer than that,
it is not that phase of the problem which is objected to so much as it
is the added difficulties on the job when an apprentice is taken on.
The expression most frequently used by contractors is that they
“ can't be bothered with boys.” Rapid building makes training on
the job not only unprofitable but well-nigh impossible. Employers
and journeymen agree that it is simply not possible to carry out any
real program of teaching on the job. To this school authorities
and lay opinion, equally mterested but not so directly involved, add
that whether possible or not, there certainly is no training on the
job. The boy merely “ rubs off” what he can while he is working
with journeymen, and where school work is part of his training the
school is expected to supply, in a few hours a week, the technical and
mechanical knowledge which the job can not, or at any rate does
not, provide. One authority made the unequivocal declaration that
“ there simply is no such thing as traimng apprentices on the
building.”
National Programs
As a l r e a d y stated, apprentice problems and methods of deal
ing with them vary widely in different localities and crafts, and in
the various crafts in the same locality. At the same time a few
craft organizations have definite national programs which are of fairly
wide application, notably the tile setters, the marble setters, the
plumbers, the bricklayers, the electrical workers, and the sheetmetal workers.
ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION
13
Work of the United States Railroad Board of Mediation
T
HE United States Board of Mediation was constituted under the
terms of the railroad labor act of 1926, to handle cases of dispute
which the carriers and employees have been unable to settle in con
ference. When disputes between carriers and their employees can not
be settled through mediation proceedings, the law directs that the
Board of Mediation shall endeavor to induce the parties to submit
their controversy to arbitration.
The arbitration board shall be
composed of three or of six members, as the parties may determine,
one-third of whom shall represent the carriers, one-third the em
ployees, and one-third shall be neutral. If the representatives of the
carriers and employees fail to name the neutral member or members
of the board, it becomes the duty of the Board of Mediation to
appoint such member or members.
The board began operations in July, 1926. During the two years
ending June 30, 1928, the board received 363 requests for its services
in the adjustment of differences concerning rates of pay, rules, or
working conditions, involving 63 railroad organizations and 384 car
riers. The board has disposed of 256 of the cases received, as follows:
N U M B E R O F O A S E S D IS P O S E D O F , B Y M E T H O D O F S E T T L E M E N T , 1926-27 A N D
1927-28
1926-27
1927-28
Mediation agreement...............
Arbitration agreement.............
Mediation withdrawal............
Withdrawn voluntarily..........
Board action. ............................
57
27
15
9
3
84
14
37
8
2
141
41
52
17
5
Total....................................
111
145
256
Settled by—
Total
In five of the cases reported as having been disposed of during the
year 1926-27 through arbitration, the agreements to arbitrate were
subsequently canceled; two of these cases were later settled by
mediation and three by withdrawal. Of the 107 cases remaining
unsettled, 58 had been assigned for mediation and were awaiting the
arrangement of mediation conferences. The remaining 49 cases had
not been accepted for mediation.
In addition to the foregoing cases relating to rates of pay, rules, or
working conditions, the board received dunng the two years applica
tions for its services in the adjustment of 120 other cases which were,
for the most part, grievances involving the interest of employees
as affected by the application of rules or of discipline. Of the total
of 120 grievance cases 3 have been disposed of—2 by voluntary with
drawal and 1 through mediation.
The board states that the consideration of grievance matters by
the board as provided in the railroad labor act contemplates the
creation of adjustment boards. Such adjustment boards have not
been generally created, and the board has therefore been hampered
in its efforts to render services in such cases.
15
16
ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION
Railroad Arbitration Awards, 1927 and 1928
UMMARIES are given below of the principal awards resulting
from railroad labor arbitrations held during 1927 and 1928,
other than the American Express Co. case, which was settled in the
early part of 1927 and was noted in the former handbook (Bui. No.
439).
Clerks and Station Employees
S
Boston & Maine Railroad Co.
A b o a r d of arbitration consisting of Victor S. Clark appointed
by the United States Board of Mediation, Benjamin Thomas, selected
by the carrier, and P. J. Clair selected by the employees rendered a
decision in a controversy concerning wages between the Boston &
Maine Railroad Co. and the Brotherhood of Railroad Station Em
ployees, April 25,1927. The award was as follows:
1. Add to the rates of pay in effect on April 1, 1927, an increase of 2 cents per
hour for all classes of labor coming within the scope of the agreement to arbitrate
as set forth in paragraph 4 of said agreement.
2. The increase in the rates of pay herein provided for shall be effective as of
April 22, 1927, and shall continue in force for one year, and thereafter until ter
minated upon 30 days’ notice by either party to the award.
Benjamin Thomas representing the carrier filed a dissenting opinion.
Chicago & North Western Railway Co.
A w a g e dispute between the Brotherhood of Railway and Steam
ship Clerks, Freight Handlers, and Station Employees and the
Chicago & North Western Railway Co. was settled by an award
made by a board consisting of William Walliser, C. H. Westbrook,
George M. Harrison, George W. Eastty, Victor S. Clark, and Ralph
E. Heilman, November 4, 1927. The award was as follows:
1. Add to the rates of pay in effect October 31, 1927, an increase of 7 per cent
of the existing rates for all classes of labor coming within groups 8, 9, 10, 11, 14,
83, 103, and 104 of the Interstate Commerce Commission classification.
2. Add to the rates of pay in effect October 31, 1927, an increase of 4 per cent
of existing rates for all classes of labor coming within groups 31, 101, 105, and 106
of the Interstate Commerce Commission classification.
3. The increase of rates of pay herein provided for shall be effective as of
November 1, 1927.
4. The sum of the increases granted the employees by this award may be
distributed by a joint action and agreement of the parties to this arbitration in
such manner as to bring about an adjustment of the inequalities in rates of em
ployees covered by this award, provided, that in the event of the parties to this
arbitration failing to agree as to said distribution within a period of 30 days from
this award, the award shall be applied as though this paragraph were not a part
thereof.
The first named two members of the board, representing the
carrier, filed a dissenting opinion.
Great Northern Railway
A p r i l 4, 1928, an arbitration award in a dispute between the
Brotherhood of Railway and Steamship Clerks, Freight Handlers,
Express and Station Employees and the Great Northern Railway Co.
was made by a board consisting of John A . Cochrane, representing
RAILROAD ARBITRATION AW ARDS
17
the carrier, John H. Sylvester, representing the union, and John F. D.
Meighen, appointed by the United States Board of Mediation. A
majority of the board rendered the following decision:
This award shall be effective August 1, 1927, and the increases in rates of pay
granted herein shall be added to the rates in effect July 31, 1927.
S e c t i o n 1. Storekeepers, assistant storekeepers, chief clerks, foremen, subfore
men, and other clerical supervisory forces—add 4 cents per hour, per position.
Sec. 2A. Clerks with experience of two or more years in railroad clerical work
or clerical work of a similar nature in other industries, or where their cumulative
experience in such clerical work is not less than two years—add 4 cents per hour,
per position.
Sec. 2B. Clerks with an experience of one year and less than two years in rail
road clerical work or clerical work of a similar nature in other industries, or where
their cumulative experience in such clerical work is not less than one year—add
3 cents per hour, per position.
Sec . 3A. Clerks whose experience as above defined is less than one year and
more than six months—add 2 cents per hour, per position.
Sec. 4. Train and engine crew callers, assistant station masters, train an
nouncers, gatemen, and baggage and parcel room employees, other than clerks—
add 4 cents per hour, per position.
(Sections 5 and
no increase.)
Sec. 7. Station, platform, warehouse, transfer, dock, pier, storeroom, and
team-track freight handlers or truckers, and others similarly employed— add 4
cents per hour, per position.
Sec. 8. The existing differential shall be maintained between the truckers'
rate, as above established in section 7, and the classes named below under A
and B.
A. Sealers, scalers, and fruit and perishable inspectors.
B. Storers or stevedores, callers, or loaders, locators, and coopers.
Sec. 9. All common laborers in and about stations, storehouses, and ware
houses not otherwise provided for—add 4 cents per hour, per position.
(Sections 10 and 11—no increase.)
John A. Cochrane, the representative of the carrier, filed a dis
senting opinion.
Illinois Central Railroad Co.
A r t h u r M. M i l l a r d , Phil E. Ziegler, Richard P. Dee, with William
Rogers Clay as chairman, constituting a majority of a board of arbi
tration, rendered a decision, August 23, 1927, in regard to demands
made by the Brotherhood of Steamship Clerks, Freight Handlers,
Express and Station Employees, employed by the Illinois Central and
Yazoo & Mississippi Valley Railroads, increasing the wage rates of the
employees by 5 per cent.
G. J. Bunting and Edward C. Craig, representing the carrier, dis
sented from the award on the ground that an increase in the rates was
not justified by the evidence.
New York Central and Grand Central Terminal
T h e m e m b e r s of the Brotherhood of Railway and Steamship Clerks,
Freight Handlers, Express and Station Employees employed by the
New York Central Railroad and Grand Central Terminal asked for an
increase of wages, which was considered by an arbitration board con
sisting of Daniel W. Dinan, appointed by the company, William B.
Wilson, appointed by the employees, and Victor S. Clark, appointed
by the United States Board of Mediation. This board was created
under the provisions of the railway labor act and a written agreement
18
ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION
of October 11, 1926. The award as made by the arbitrators March
26,1927, is as follows:
1. Add to the rates of pay in effect March 15, 1927, an increase of 6 per cent
of existing rates, for all classes of labor coming within the scope of the agreement
to arbitrate as set forth in paragraph 4 of said agreement.
2. The increase in the rates of pay herein provided for shall be effective as of
March 16, 1927.
3. The sum of the increases granted to the employees by this award may be
distributed by joint action and agreement of the parties to this arbitration in
such manner as to bring about an adjustment of the inequalities in the rates of
the employees covered by this award: Provided, That in the event of the parties
to this arbitration failing to agree as to the said distribution within a period of
90 days from the date of this award, the award shall be applied as though this
paragraph was not a part thereof.
St. Louis-San Francisco Railway Co.
A b o a r d of arbitration, consisting M. M. Sisson and J. L. McCor
mack, selected by the carrier; J. H. Sylvester and J. R. Moll, selected
by the brotherhood; and John L. Kennedy and Fred L. Williams,
selected by the United States Board of Mediation, rendered a decision
in a controversy concerning wages between the St. Louis-San Fran
cisco Railway Co. and other railroad companies and the Brotherhood
of Railway and Steamship Clerks, Freight Handlers, Express and
Station Employees, August 2, 1928, made effective the preceding day
reading as follows:
S ection 1. Storekeepers, assistant storekeepers, chief clerks, foremen, sub
foremen, and other clerical supervisory forces, add an increase of 3% cents per
hour.
Sec. 2. (a) Clerks with an experience of one or more years in railroad clerical
work or clerical work of a similar nature in other industries, or where their
cumulative experience in such clerical work is not less than one year, add an
increase of 3% cents per hour.
(6)
Clerks with an experience of less than one year in railroad clerical work
or clerical work of a similar nature in other industries or where their cumulative
experience in such clerical work is less than one year who are now in the service
or may hereafter enter the service are to be paid 34 cents per day less than the
full established rate of pay for the position occupied.
N ote .— After employees covered by this section have accumulated one year's
experience as herein defined they shall be rated and paid the full rate of the
position occupied in accordance with the provisions of section 2 (o ).
Sec . 3. Telephone switchboard operators, assistant station masters, train
announcers, and gatemen, other than clerks, add an increase of 1 cent per hour.
Sec . 4. Janitors, elevator operators, office and station and warehouse watch
men, and employees engaged in assorting waybills and tickets, operating appli
ances or machines for perforating, addressing envelopes, numbering claims and
other papers, gathering and distributing mail, adjusting dictaphone cylinders,
and other similar work, add an increase of 1 cent per hour.
Sec. 5. Office boys, messengers, chore boys, and other employees filling
similar positions, add an increase of 1 cent per hour.
Sec. 6. Station, platform, warehouse, transfer, dock, pier, storeroom, stock
room, and team track freight handlers or truckers and other similarly employed
including stockyard laborers, add an increase of 2% cents per hour.
Sec. 7. The following differentials shall be established and maintained between
truckers and the classes named below:
(a) Sealers, scalers, and fruit and perishable inspectors, 2 cents per hour
above tru ck ed rates as established under section 6. This not to decrease any
existing higher differentials.
(b) Stowers or stevedores, callers or loaders, store helpers, pickers or locators,
and coopers, 4 cents per hour above trucker’s rates as established under section 6.
This not to decrease any existing higher differentials.
Sec. 8. All laborers in and around stations, storehouses, and warehouses,
chauffeurs, electro-mobile operators, and others similarly employed, add an
increase of 2% cents per hour.
RAILROAD ARBITRATION AWARDS
19
Sec. 9. Baggage and parcel room employees, and station helpers, add an
increase of 2% cents per hour.
Sec. 10. Train and engine crew callers, add an increase of 2 cents per hour.
Southern Railway
An i n c r e a s e of 2% cents per hour was awarded July 14, 1927,
by a board consisting of A. H. Plant, selected by the carrier and
Walter C. Clephane, appointed by the United States Board of Media
tion, effective July 15, 1927, in the case of a request for an increase of
6 cents per hour made by the railway clerks of the lines included in
the Southern Railway System.
The third member of the board, C. R. Briceland, selected by the
employees, filed a dissenting opinion from which the following extracts
are taken:
The evidence as presented in the hearing of this case warrants a greater increase
than that as provided for in the award. From the time the last wage adjustment
was made until the time conference between the carrier and the employees was
held the cost of living had advanced
per cent, while the purchasing power of
the dollar had dropped from $1,247 to $1,193. This evidence is given in the
carriers, own exhibit but is entirely disregarded, and the American standard of
living is ignored.
Including the highest rates of the most experienced and skilled clerical em
ployees, the average monthly rate is only $121.60. Many of those so included—
approximately 30 per cent—receive from $3.11 to $4.15 per day, and to those the
award can be but a jest.
The unusual prosperity of the carrier as shown by the evidence is apparently
forgotten and the employees by this award are bluntly but firmly warned that
they can not participate nor have any share in the marked increased net income of
the carrier although their loyalty and efficiency is neither questioned nor chal
lenged. The award places the dividends of the carrier above the welfare and the
happiness of the employees.
The award penalizes the employees for their peaceful and patient procedure,
encouraging militancy, and discounts saneness.
In the light of the evidence submitted the undersigned can neither remain
silent nor concur in the decisions of the majority, and therefore must dissent
therefrom.
Wabash Railway Co.
A u g u s t 17, 1927, a decision in the dispute between the Brother
hood of Railway and Steamship Clerks, Freight Handlers, Express
and Station Employees and the Wabash Railway Co. was made by a
board of arbitration consisting of S. E. Cotter, appointed by the
carrier, George M. Harrison selected by the brotherhood, and Fred
L. Williams, appointed by the United States Board of Mediation.
The award was as follows:
This award shall be made effective as of August 16, 1927, and the increases
in rates of pay granted herein shall be added to the rates in effect August 15,
1927.
S e c t i o n 1. All clerks, etc., designated in rule 1, section 1, of the schedule
effective May 1, 1924, 3J^ cents per hour.
S e c . 2. All employees in rule 1, sections 2 and 3, of the schedule effective May
1, 1924, commonly known as station employees, including such as baggage room
employees, callers, watchmen, janitors, etc., 2 cents per hour.
Sec. 3. All employees in rule 1, sections 2 and 3, of the schedule effective
May 1, 1924, such as messengers, chore boys, and those engaged in assorting
waybills, etc., not requiring clerical ability, 2 cents per hour.
Sec. 4. Employees without previous clerical experience as a clerical worker
hereafter entering the service and filling positions of clerk or machine operator
shall be paid as follows: First six months $2.35 per day, second six months $3.19}4
per day, and thereafter shall be paid the established full rate of pay for the
position occupied.
39142°—29------ 3
20
ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION
Sec. 5. Freight handlers as generally designated in rule 1, schedule for freight
handlers, effective May 1, 1924, 2J4 cents per hour.
Sec . 6. The following differentials shall be maintained between freight handlers
and the classes named below:
(a) Sealers, scalers, and fruit and perishable inspectors, 3 cents per hour above
the rates for truckers.
(b) Stowers, stevedores, callers, etc., 4 cents per hour above the rates for
truckers.
Later a controversy arose between the parties as to the meaning
and application of section 4 of the award. The board therefore
reconvened November 21, 1927, stated that it was not its intention
in the award to discriminate against similar employees in the employ
of the carrier prior thereto, and after a hearing rewrote section 4,
as follows:
Employees filling positions of clerks or machine operators who, prior to their
employment by the Wabash were without previous clerical experience as a
clerical worker and who shall not have served one whole year prior to the effective
date of this award—to wit, August 16, 1927—shall after the end of one year's
service in such position or positions be paid for future services the established
full rate of pay for the position occupied; and for any unexpired portion of any
said first year remaining after the going into effect of this award, shall be paid
as follows: For any remaining portion of the first six months of said employ
ment occurring after August 16, 1927, shall be paid at the rate of $2.35 per day;
for any remaining portion or whole of the second six months of their employ
ment occurring after August 16, 1927, shall be paid at the rate of $3.19)4 per
day; and all such employees entering the service and filling such positions after
August 16, 1927, shall be paid as follows: $2.35 per day for the first six months
and $3.19)4 per day for the second six months, and thereafter the established
full rate of pay for the position occupied.
S. E. Cotter, representing the carrier, declined to concur in the
new decision, holding that the section as written “ is plain and con
clusive and not subject to interpretation, as would be clearly appar
ent if the majority had inserted the original section 4 in the so-called
interpretation thereof, and that the board, or a majority thereof,
is without authority to make an amended award establishing con
ditions which change or vary from the original award, as a majority
of the board have attempted to do.”
Engine and Train Service
Engineers and Firemen—Boston & Maine Railroad
T h e Boston & Maine Railroad and its engineers and firemen sub
mitted to a board of arbitrators, consisting of D. S. Brigham, S. H.
Huff, and James Jackson, the following question:
Since July, 1900, the engineers and firemen employed on the FitchburgBerkshire division have been operating between Boston and Greenfield, Mass.,
and between Greenfield, Mass., and Troy, N. Y. The management proposes,
effective November 29, 1926, to run these engineers and firemen from Boston,
Mass., over the Fitchburg-Berkshire division to Troy, N. Y., a distance of 192
miles, which method of operation has been strenuously opposed by the engineers
and firemen.
The decision of the board in part was as follows:
The board agreed that this question should be decided on the merits of the
testimony offered and that no research of any character would be required.
In the opinion of the majority of the board, the point at issue has resolved
itself to one question:
“ Do the runs instituted by the management of the Boston & Maine Railroad
between Boston, Mass., and Troy, N. Y., cause an excessive strain or unreasonable
hardship on the engineers and firemen on those runs? ”
RAILROAD ARBITRATION AWARDS
21
The chairman of the board, in order to get some first-hand information, per
sonally took the trip on the slow mail train leaving Boston at 3 a. m. and arriving
at Troy at 11.40 a. m. and returned the same day on the Minute Man, the fastest
express train on this line, due to leave Troy at 2.35 p. m., arriving Boston at 7.25
p. m.
The board has sat in executive session and weighed the evidence offered on
this particular case, and a majority of the board renders its award in favor of
the Boston & Maine Railroad, effective March 18, 1927.
Firemen—Eastern District
T h e m e d i a t i o n agreement between the Brotherhood of Locomotive
Firemen and Enginemen and certain eastern railroads was signed
February 5, 1927.
In the fall of 1925, a vote was taken by the union, which showed
that an overwhelming majority of the members favored the inau
guration of a concerted movement for an increase in wages. The
matter was delayed during the spring of 1926 in order to enable the
Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers to join with them. It was
then decided that each union should work separately, and the
firemen made a demand on the general manager of each road for an
increase in wages. In every case the demand was refused, whereupon
the union requested that the roads join in authorizing the appoint
ment of a conference committee. This was agreed to, and on Jan
uary 8, 1927, representatives of the two bodies met and the firemen
submitted their demands.
On January 21 the question was submitted to mediation under
the provisions of the railway labor act, and on February 5 an agree
ment was signed by representatives of the two sides. The agreement
increased the wages about 73^ per cent.
Engineers and Firemen, Conductors/Trainmen, and Switchmen—Pere
Marquette Railway
A d i s p u t e between the Pere Marquette Railway Co. and its
locomotive engineers and firemen, conductors, trainmen, and switch
men was ended by a somewhat lengthy decision filed January 10,
1928, by a board of arbitration consisting of Alfred J. Murphy,
apponted by the United States Board of Mediation, A. L. Grandy
representing the carriers, and C. S. Montooth representing the
various brotherhoods interested.
The sole issue between the parties was “ the determination of an
effective date for the establishment of wage increases agreed to
between the parties.”
The facts were as follows: Twenty-one carriers operating in the
same territory as the Pere Marquette had in pursuance of an award,
granted their conductors, trainmen, and switchmen, a 7J^ per cent
increase in wages December 1, 1926, and 19 carriers had granted their
firemen the same increase February 1, 1927. The Pere Marquette,
with several other carriers, was not a party to either agreement.
But the Pere Marquette of its own volition, April 8, 1927, granted the
same increase in wages to similar employees on its own lines, effective
April 16, 1927.
The organizations representing the employees on the Pere Mar
quette contended that this increase should start from December 1,
1926, and February 1, 1927, respectively, the dates that the increases
took effect upon the other lines, since employees working in the same
22
ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION
geographical district should receive a rate of increase at the same
time, and common carriers operating in the same field should be
subjected to the same costs of operation, and because the carrier
was dilatory in dealing with their requests, closing with the state
ment “ that a fair consideration of all the equities arising requires the
retroactive payment requested.”
The carrier on the other hand charged the employees with delay
in dealing with its grievance, that not being a party to the arbitra
tion of December 1, 1926, or the mediation of February 1, 1927, it
should not be compelled to accept the results of those proceedings,
“ and that to grant the requests for back pay would be to penalize it
for installing a wage increase which was not compulsory, but which
it voluntarily granted.”
The award of the board is that the increases made by the Pere
Marquette Railway, effective as of April 16, 1927, should not be
retroactive.
Engineers—Southeastern Railroads
A d e c i s i o n by a board of arbitration consisting of J. J. Pelley and
W. J. Jenks representing the carriers, A. Johnston and S. H. Huff
representing the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, and Leslie
M. Shaw and W. P. Stacey appointed by the United States Board of
Mediation, handed down a decision February 4, 1928, relative to a
controversy between the members of the Brotherhood of Locomotive
Engineers and their employers, The Atlantic Coast Line Railroad Co.,
Central of Georgia Railway Co., Charleston & West Carolina Railway
Co., Chesapeake & Ohio Railway Co., Clinchfield Railroad Co.,
Florida East Coast Railway Co., Georgia Railroad Co., Louisville &
Nashville Railroad Co., Louisville, Henderson & St. Louis Railway
Co., Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis Railway Co., Norfolk
Southern Railroad Co. (steam service only), Norfolk & Western Rail
way Co., Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac Railroad Co.,
Winston-Salem Southbound Railway Co., and Jacksonville Terminal
Co.
The men had made four demands upon the carriers as follows:
1. A request for an increase of 15 per cent in all classes of service including
differentials, arbitraries and special allowances, and that the present minimum
guaranty in passenger service be increased 15 per cent.
2. A request for Mallet rate for 3-cylinder steam and electric locomotives.
3. A request that there be added to the freight locomotive classification the
following: Mallet engines and engines carrying MallSt rates of over 275,000
pounds on drivers, a differential of 25 cents for each additional 50,000 pounds on
drivers and on other engines a differential of 25 cents for each 50,000 pounds over
350,000 pounds on drivers.
4. A request that when boosters are attached to tenders, the weight of the
tender be added to the weight on drivers of locomotives and the total weight so
produced shall fix the rate for the respective classes of service.
The board awarded the men an increase of 6 ^ per cent, disallowed
the second and third demands, and spoke as follows relative to the
fourth:
Fourth: With respect to the request that when boosters are attached to tenders
the weight of the tender be added to the weight on drivers, it is adjudged that
when a locomotive leaves a terminal with booster in condition to operate, the
weight on drivers shall be determined by adding the tractive effort of the booster
to the tractive effort of the locomotive, and establish new weight on drivers pro
portionate to the increased tractive effort.
R a il r o a d
a r b it r a t io n
aw ards
23
Example: Locomotive without booster weighs 224,000 pounds on drivers, with
tractive effort of 47,500 pounds. Tractive effort equals 21.2 per cent of weight
on drivers. Booster adds 10,000 pounds to the tractive effort, making total
tractive effort 57,500 pounds; 57,500 pounds is 21.2 per cent of 271,000 pounds,
the new weight on drivers.
The representatives of the men did not sign the above award but
signed a dissenting opinion.
Firemen—Southeastern Territory
C. J. G o f f , W. J. Jenks; and Grafton Green as arbitrators rendered
a decision June 16, 1927, m a dispute between the locomotive firemen
and enginemen and certain railroads in the southeastern territory.
The requests of the employees were seven in number, as follows:
1. Except as otherwise provided herein, existing rates of pay for firemen,
helpers, hostlers, and outside hostler helpers shall be increased $1 per day.
2. In freight service on steam, electric, or other power weighing 250,000 pounds
and over on drivers and on Mallet engines, existing rates of pay shall be increased
$1.25 per day.
3. Gradations of locomotives, according to weights on drivers, to be extended
to 550,000 pounds and over in freight service, with an additional increase of
25 cents per day to be applied for each 50,000 pounds above 250,000 pounds on
drivers.
4. It is understood that the weight on all other power-driven wheels will be
added to the weight on drivers of locomotives that are equipped with boosters,
and the weights produced by such increased weights shall fix the rates for the
respective classes of service.
5. In all passenger service, the earnings from mileage, overtime or other rules
applicable, for each day service is performed shall be not less than $6.25 for
firemen.
6. Existing rates of pay, in excess of standard rates, shall be increased the
same amount as proposed for the standard rates.
7. Note: All arbitraries and special allowances to be increased proportionately.
The arbitrators decided in regard to the first and second requests
“ that the rates of pay of firemen engaged in all road service except
passenger service shall be increased 40 cents per basic day and that
the fate of pay of all other employees involved shall be increased 35
cents per basic day.” In regard to the fifth request the minimum
rate was placed at $5.60. The third request was denied, the fourth,
sixth, and seventh were granted.
C. J. Goff presented a dissenting opinion, arguing that the increase
granted was insufficient.
Firemen—Western Railroads
T h e Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen and Enginemen made
a claim for increase of wages on the managements of the various
western railroads, June 25, 1926, which was denied by the carriers
July 8, 1927. As both sides invoked the services of the United
States Board of Mediation, mediation proceedings followed. These,
however, were without result, and by agreement, August 6, 1927,
both sides left the question to an arbitration board consisting of
Albert Phillips and S. A. Boone, representing the brotherhood;
R. Y. Fletcher and John W. Higgins, representing the carriers; and
Judge Haslett P. Burke and Paul A. Sinsheimer, appointed by the
United States Board of Mediation.
The arbitration hearings began September 29 and ended November
11, 1927. The board agreed that a decision should be made by
24
ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION
December 20, met in executive session from November 28 to Decem
ber 5, and then issued a statement that it was unable to agree upon
an award. At the suggestion of the United States Board of Media
tion, Judge Burke caned the members of the arbitration board to
meet December 17, and was later notified that, acting on advice
from the Department of Justice, the United States Board of Media
tion suggested that if a majority of the board appeared December 17,
those present make an award according to the arbitration agreement.
Following a protest of the chairman of the conference committee of
managers of western railroads against convening the board, the
arbitrators representing the railroads declined to attend the meeting.
Four of the six members of the board met and rendered a decision,
of which the following is a part:
Demand 1: Except as otherwise provided herein existing rates of pay for
firemen, helpers, hostlers, and outside hostler helpers shall be increased $1 per
day.
On this demand the board decides that the rates of pay for firemen in road
passenger service shall be increased 30 cents per day and the rates of pay of all
other employees involved shall be increased 35 cents per day.
Demand 2: In freight service on steam, electric, or other power weighing
250,000 pounds and over on drivers and on Mallet engines, existing rates of pay
shall be increased $1.25 per day.
This demand the board denies, except to the extent granted in No. 1, above.
Demand 3: Gradations on locomotives, according to weights on drivers, to be
extended to 550,000 pounds and over in freight service, with an additional in
crease of 25 cents per day to be applied for each 50,000 pounds above 250,000
pounds on drivers.
This demand the board denies.
Demand 4: The weight of all other power-driven wheels will be added to the
weight on drivers of locomotives that are equipped with boosters, and the weights
produced by such increased weights shall fix the rates for the respective classes
of service.
This demand the board grants.
Demand 5: In all passenger service the earnings from mileage, overtime, or
other rules applicable for each day service is performed shall be not less than
$6.25 for firemen.
This demand the board grants to the extent of $5.55; otherwise denies.
T ra in m en — W estern R ailroads
T h e d e c i s i o n of the arbitrators in the dispute between the Order
of Railway Conductors and Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen and
certain western railroads was given June 25, 1927. The railroads
selected as arbitrators, W. J. Jackson and J. W. Higgins; the employ
ees, E. P. Curtis and J. A. Farquharson; the United States Board of
Mediation, Everett C. Brown and W. M. W. Splawn.
The new day rates requested by the men were: Conductors, $7.75;
assistant conductors and ticket collectors, $6.84; baggagemen hand
ling express, dynamo, and Government mail, $7.18; baggagemen
handling dynamo and Government mail, or express and Government
mail, or dynamo and express, $6.84; baggagemen handling either
dynamo, express, or Government mail, $6.50; baggagemen, $6.16;
flagmen and brakemen, $6. For service paid local or way freight
rates under schedules now in effect—conductors, $7.74; brakemen,
$6.24. For service paid through freight rates under schedules now
in effect—conductors, $7.34; brakemen, $5.84. Yard service—car
retarder operators, $8.44; foremen, $7.64; helpers $7.16; switch
tenders, $5.72.
RAILROAD ARBITRATION AWARDS
The award was signed by all six of the arbitrators.
the award, follow:
25
Extracts from
The standard rates of pay per mile, per day, and per month for conductors,
assistant conductors and ticket collectors, train baggagemen, train flagmen and
brakemen, in passenger service, for conductors and brakemen in local or way
freight service, for conductors and brakemen in through freight service, and for
all classes of trainmen parties to this arbitration shall remain the same as estab
lished by agreement in 1924 and shall not be increased over the rates in effect
on February 28, 1927.
The standard rates of pay shall be increased 7J£ per cent for yardmen who are
parties to this arbitration, effective March 1, 1927. The rates of pay in yard
service shall be as follows: Car retarder operators, per day, $7.94; foremen, per
day, $7.14; helpers, per day, $6.62; switch tenders, per day, $5.07.
On roads where trainmen legislate for yardmasters and assistant yardmasters,
the same increases will be added to the present rates as awarded to yard foremen.
Ferryboat men— California Railway Lines
A w a g e dispute between the Ferryboatmen's Union of California
and various railroad lines centering at San Francisco—viz, the Atchi
son, Topeka & Santa Fe, Northwestern Pacific, Southern Pacific,
and Western Pacific Railroad Cos., was settled by an award of a
board of arbitration consisting of Charles D. Marx, W. R. K. Young,
Louis Bloch, James L. Dunn, F. L. Burckhalter, and J. A. Christie*
October 31, 1927, and reads as follows:
R ule 2. Passenger and car ferries and tugs towing car floats: Firemen, $146.35
per month; deck hands, $139.40 per month; cabin watchmen, $139.40 per month;
night watchmen, $120 per month; matrons $85 per month.
Fire boats: Firemen, $97.57 per month; deck hands, $92.94 per month.
R ule 6. Assigned crews will work on the basis of 8 hours or less on watch each
day for six consecutive days.
Exceptions:
(1) On boats with two crews, watches may be separated by an interval of time.
(2) Extra crews may be used on any day it is found necessary to operate one
or two crewed boats beyond assigned hours of regular crews.
(3) Where three crews are used, watches may be as long as 8 hours and 40
minutes, provided the combined watches do not exceed 16 hours and no crew
works over 48 hours in six consecutive days.
(4) Where two crews are used, watches may be as long as 8 hours and 40
minutes, provided the combined watches do not exceed 16 hours and no crew
works over 48 hours in six consecutive days.
(5) On boats operating out of Vallejo Junction crews may be assigned 12 hours
per day and not to exceed 48 hours per week.
(6) On one and two crewed tugs towing car floats crews may be worked not to
exceed 9 hours and 20 minutes per watch.
(7) On 3-crewed tugs towing car floats and car ferries, except on Carquinez
•Straits, crews may be assigned 12 hours on watch with 24 hours off watch, pro
vided such assigned watches average 48 hours per week within the time required
to bring it about.
(8) On fire boats crews will work 24 hours on and then 24 hours off without
pay for time off.
(9) Limit anywhere provided on length of watches does not apply in emer
gency or when necessary to make extra trips to handle heavy volume of traffic
which can not be handled on schedule trips.
(10) Watches on 3-crewed boats shall not begin or terminate between 1 a. m.
and 6 a. m.
(11) Employees required to operate boats to and from yard shall be paid regular
run rates.
(12) Night watchmen may be assigned on 12-hour watches four days per week.
R ule 8. The monthly salary now paid the employees covered by this agree
ment shall cover the present recognized straight-time assignment. All service
hourage in excess of the present recognized straight-time assignment shall be paid
or in addition to the monthly salary at the pro rata rate.
26
ARBITRATION
a n d c o n c il ia t io n
A dissenting opinion was filed by the last-named two arbitrators,
representing the railroad.
Maintenance-of-Way Employees
Chicago & North Western Railway Co*
A n a r b i t r a t i o n award in a dispute between the maintenance-ofway employees and their employers, the Chicago & North Western
Railway Co., was made by a board of arbitration, consisting of William
Walliser and C. H. Westbrook appointed by the carrier, J. J. Farnan
and E. E. Milliman named by the employees, and E. C. Davies and
Homer B. Dibell named by the United States Board of Mediation,
August 15, 1927.
The brotherhood asked a uniform rate of increase of 5 cents per
hour. The carrier asked a decrease in the wages of some of the
employees and asked that no change be made in others.
The employees are divided into 22 groups, the wages awarded to
the various groups being as follows:
Bridge building—painter, construction, mason, and concrete
foremen: Rate of $172.50 per month unchanged.
Assistant, bridge building—painter, construction, mason, and con
crete foremen: Rate of $160 per month changed to 5 cents per hour
in excess of the maximum rate paid in the gang supervised.
Carpenters and painters and leaders: Old rate, 57 cents to 69 cents
per hour. Those receiving 57, 58^6, and 59% cents increased to 58
60, and 61 cents, respectively. Those receiving 61%, 62, 63, and 64%
cents were unchanged. Those receiving 69 cents are given 58 cents
with varying differentials.
Carpenter and painter helpers: Old rates of 48H to 67 cents per
hour increased one-half cent per hour. The 67-cent rate is abolished,
the one employee receiving it being given the minimum rate with a
differential.
Masons and mason leaders: Old rates 59% to 68}/£ cents per hour;
the minimum rate is increased to 61 cents; other rates unchanged.
Mason helpers: Old rates, 483^ and 5 1 cents per hour, increased
one-half cent.
Scale and bridge inspectors: Rate of 66 cets per hour unchanged.
Pile driver, ditching and hoisting engineers: Rates of $139.08 and
$159.08 per month unchanged.
Pile-driver firemen: Rate of $90.92 per month unchanged.
Track and section foremen and maintenance foremen: Rates $115
to $145 per month, increased $5 per month.
Assistant track and section foremen and assistant maintenance
foremen: Rates of 43, 45, and 49 cents per hour increased 1 cent per
hour.
Extra gang foremen: Rate of $140 per month increased $5 per
month.
Coal-chute foremen and coal-wharf and fence-gang foremen: Rate
of $110 per month unchanged.
Track and section laborers: Old rate, 38 cents per hour. New
rate, 37 cents to those employed less than one year; 39 cents for one
to two years' service; 41 cents for those who have served over two
years.
RAILROAD ARBITRATION AWARDS
27
Extra gang laborers: Rate of 38 cents per hour changed to 35 cents.
Laborers other than track and roadway, maintenance of way, and
shop: Rate of 38 cents per hour unchanged.
Laborers, shops, engine houses, and power plants, coal-chute
laborers: Rate of 38 cents per hour unchanged.
Common laborers, shops, engine houses, power plants, and stores:
Rate of 38 cents per hour unchanged.
Lampmen: Old rates of $47.95 to $93.25 per month increased $1 per
month.
Pumpers: Rates of $57.12 to $98.88 per month unchanged.
Drawbridge tenders and assistants: Rates of $70.92 to $85.92 un
changed.
Crossing watchmen and flagmen: Rates of $40 to $135 per month
unchanged except that the minimum is $55.
Louisville & Nashville Railroad
A d i s p u t e between the Louisville & Nashville Railroad and its
maintenance-of-way employees was settled June 9, 1927, by a decision
of three arbitrators, Col. L. L. Morton selected by the carrier, T. C.
Carroll selected by the employees, and Judge Charles Kerr appointed
by the United States Board of Mediation. The employees demanded
an increase of 5 cents per hour. The board made the following in
crease, effective June 1, 1927:
B.
and B. foremen and assistants, B. and B. gang foremen and
section foremen, $6 per month; B. and B. carpenters, painters, and
apprentices, and engineers (except steam shovel), firemen, and labor
foremen in shops, 3 cents per hour. Several other classes of employees
received increases ranging from 1 to 2 cents per hour.
Col. L. L. Morton representing the carrier dissented from the
findings of the majority of the board.
Shop Crafts
Chesapeake & Ohio Railway
A n a r b i t r a t i o n award was made April 14, 1928, in a dispute
between the Chesapeake and Ohio System Federation No. 41, railway
employees department, American Federation of Labor, and the
Chesapeake & Ohio Railway Co., by a board consisting of A. O
Wharton and F. H. Knight, appointed by the employees, J. B. Parrish
and C. B. Hitch, appointed by the carrier, and Thomas Walker Page
and Wm. Rogers Clay, appointed by the United States Board of
Mediation.
The employees had requested an upward adjustment of $1.50 per
basic day for all journeymen mechanics, their apprentices and helpers,
except freight-car mechanics for whom an adjustment of $1.66 per
basic day was requested, and for coach cleaners a basic daily wage of
$4.70. The award of the majority of the board was as follows:
The request of the shop-craft employees for adjustment of existing wage rates
is denied, and it is ordered that existing wage rates shall remain unchanged.
The representatives of the employees filed a dissenting opinion.
28
ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION
Signalmen
Louisville & Nashville Railroad
A n a r b i t r a t i o n board consisting of Perry B. Miller, L. W. Givan,
and L. L. Morton handed down a decision, November 12, 1927, in a
wage dispute between the Brotherhood of Railway Signalmen of
America and the Louisville & Nashville Railroad. The old and the
new rates for the various workers are as follows:
Old rate
Signal construction foremen________________ per month_$200. 61
Signal maintenance foremen_____________________ do____ 185. 20
Assistant signal foremen_____________________ per hour__
.84
Leading signalmen, leading maintainers___________do____
.79
Signalmen, signal maintainers___________________ do____
.74
Signal linemen_________________________________ do____
.70
Signal groundmen_______________________________do____
. 64
Signal helpers__________________________________ do____
. 49
New rate
$215. 61
195. 20
.88
.83
.78
.74
66
. 52
Rates of signal laborers were increased 2 cents per hour.
Assistant signalmen and assistant maintainers start at 54 cents
per hour, instead of 51 cents, as before, receiving an increase of 2
cents per hour every six months for four years.
L. L. Morton, representing the carrier filed a dissenting opinion.
Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis Railway
A c o n t r o v e r s y relative to an increase in pay of signalmen on the
Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis Railway and the Nashville
Terminals was settled June 21, 1928, by a board of arbitrators con
sisting of H. H. Cartwright representing the carrier, L. W. Givan
representing the union, and Grafton Green, selected by them and
confirmed by the United States Board of Mediation.
The signalmen requested an increase of 6 cents per hour for each
of the classes at the time receiving the following hourly rates: Lead
ing signalmen and leading signal maintainers, 79 cents; signalmen
and signal maintainers, 74 cents; assistant signalmen and assistant
signal maintainers, starting at 51 cents and increasing 2 cents per
hour each six months through four years (maximum, 65 cents);
signal helpers, 49 cents; relay repairmen to be classified as leading
signalmen.
The board increased the rate of signalmen and leading signalmen
by 4 cents per hour and the others by 3 cents, but refused to classify
relay repairmen as leading signalmen. The decision was made effec
tive as of March 29, 1928.
Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Etc. (Express Workers)—St. Louis
A d e c i s i o n by Edwin W. Lee, J. G. Marston, and L. A. Mooney,
acting as a board of arbitration in the dispute between the employees
of the American Railway Express Co., connected with Local Union
No. 658, International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Stable
men, and Helpers of America at St. Louis was made January 18,
1927. The questions referred to the board were—
(a) Are the employees of the American Railway Express Co. in vehicle service
in the city of St. Louis, Mo., receiving rates of wages that are just and reasonable?
(b) If the board decides they are not receiving just and reasonable wages,
what shall their wages be?
RAILROAD ARBITRATION AW ARDS
29
Answering these questions the board found as follows:
The board finds that the employees in the vehicle department are classified as
follows: Chauffeurs, drivers, helpers, money deliverymen, supervisors, dis
patchers, and assistant dispatchers.
The board having heard and carefully considered the evidence presented,
observing:
First. The scale of wages paid for similar kinds of work in other industries in
the city of St. Louis.
Second. The training and skill required.
Third. The degree of responsibility.
Fourth. The character and regularity of the employment; the board reaches
the conclusion that the present rates of wages are not just and reasonable. The
board hereby decides that the rate of increases set out below constitute for the
positions specified a just and reasonable wage.
For each of the hereinafter-named classes, add the following amounts per
month to the rates of pay in effect December 31, 1926: Chauffeurs, $10; drivers,
$7.46; helpers, $2.46; money deliverymen, $7.46; supervisors, $7.46; dispatchers
$7.46; assistant dispatchers, $7.46.
It is understood and agreed to by both parties that any award granted by any
other board of arbitration subsequent to December 16, 1926, and prior to the
date of this decision involving express employees, shall not be applied to the
employees affected by this decision.
The increase in wages hereby established shall be effective as of January 1,
1927, and are to be paid to all who were then in the carrier’s service and remain
therein or who have since come into such service and remain therein.
This decision to remain in full force and effect for a period of one year from
January 1, 1927, and thereafter until 30 days’written notice shall be given by
either party to the other.
Telegraphers
Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Co.
T h e Q u e s t io n of relief and vacation with pay for telegraphers
on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad was decided June 6, 1928, by a
board of arbitration consisting of E. W. Scheer, representing the
railroad; J. F. Miller, representing the telegraphers; andF. H. Kreismann, appointed by the Board of Mediation.
Employees requested an increase of 6 cents per hour for hourly
rated employees and an increase of 10 per cent for monthly rated
employees; also the establishment of a rule reading:
(a) All regular assigned employees working seven days per week will be
assigned one regular day off duty every two weeks, without loss of compensation,
and if such employees are required to work on their regular relief day, they will
be compensated for an additional day at the rate of time and one-half.
(b) All regular assigned employees who have been in the service one year,
working an assignment of 6 days per week, shall have 15 days’ annual leave with
pay, or in lieu thereof 15 days’ additional pay.
After conducting hearings on the subject, the board denied the
requests made by the telegraphers in paragraphs (a) and (&) and
granted an increase in pay of about half what was asked for, as
follows:
(1) The rates of pay shall be increased an amount equivalent to 3.25 cents per
hour per position for hourly rated employees and 5 per cent for monthly rated
employees, which shall be distributed to the various employees in such manner as
may be agreed upon between the management and representatives of the
employees.
In case the management of the railroad and the representatives of the em
ployees are unable to agree on the apportionment of the increases, the items in
dispute shall be referred to this board or to a subcommittee of this board, as
provided in the railway labor act.
Mr. Miller, representing the telegraphers, filed a dissenting opinion.
30
ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION
Grand Central Terminal
A n a r b i t r a t i o n board, consisting of Daniel W.Dinan, representing
the company; L. P. Clifton, representing the Railroad Telegraphers;
and Walter C. Clephane appointed by the United States Board of
Mediation, rendered a decision, March 9, 1928, in a dispute between
the Order of Railroad Telegraphers and the Grand Central Terminal.
The questions submitted to the board were two in number, as
follows:
1. That the present hourly rates be increased 12 cents per hour.
2. That article 4 of the agreement (identified on the record as the agreement
between the Grand Central Terminal and the Order of Railroad Telegraphers),
effective as to rates of pay January 16, 1924, and as to the rules as of April 2, 1924
(which is filed herewith as a part of the record and marked “ Joint Exhibit No.l ” ),
be changed to read: 11Employees will be granted 66 days off each year with pay.’
The board denied the first and granted the second, Mr. Dinan
voting against the award. The board recommended rewriting
article 4 of the agreement to make the award consistent with the rest
of the article.
Midland Valley Railroad Co. and Kansas, Oklahoma, & Gulf Railway Co.
A n a r b i t r a t i o n award dated September 27, 1928, was handed
down by a board consisting of L. M. Eddy, appointed by the Order
of Railroad Telegraphers; T. H. Niles, appointed by the carriers;
and R. L. Williams, United States district judge, acting as chairman.
In the course of an opinion signed by a majority of the board the
following statements were made:
All three of the arbitrators have agreed that the burden is on the applicants to
show that the existing wages are too low and that they should be increased.
The existing rates of pay were established by the United States Railroad Labor
Board in a decision issued June 1, 1921, effective July 1, 1921.
No contention is made that the cost of living is now greater than it was in 1921,
when the present wages were established. * * * In addition it is in evidence
that the carriers have provided means of group life insurance and group health
and accident insurance, of some value to its employees.
It is further in evidence that increases in wages have been granted by other
roads or carriers, but such roads are not comparable as to mileage, location, or
condition. The evidence discloses as to roads in the southwestern region that are
comparable in mileage, location, and condition, wages paid for the same character
of work are below the present existing scale paid by the herein carriers.
We have carefully examined into the income and the earnings and the financial
condition of the carriers and do not believe that it would justify an increase, but
at the suggestion of the chairman of this board of arbitration the representative
of the carriers has consented to an increase of 1 cent per hour to be applied to
each position on the two roads involved herein, and that will be the award in this
case.
The new rates of pay for employees provided by this award shall become effec
tive September 1, 1928, and continue in force for the period of one year from such
effective date, and thereafter subject to 30 days* notice by or to the carriers.
The representative of the employees filed a dissenting opinion.
Northern Pacific Railway Co.
T h e r a i l r o a d telegraphers employed by the Northern Pacific
Railway Co. requested an increase of 8 cents per hour per position,
the amount of increase to be distributed as mutually agreed between
the management of the railway company and a committee represent
ing the employees, which was refused by the carrier.
INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION AWARDS
31
An arbitration board, composed ofE. E. Dildine, selected b^ the
carrier; B. G. Lewis, selected by the employees; and Homer B. Dibell,
appointed by the United States Board of Mediation, made the follow
ing award on April 22, 1927:
The board awards an increase of 3 cents per hour per position.
E. E. Dildine, representing the carrier, filed a dissenting opinion.
Washington Terminal Co
A n a r b i t r a t i o n board, consisting of F. E. Blaser, represent
ing the Washington Terminal Co.; B. C. Lewis, representing the
Railroad Telegraphers; and Leslie M. Shaw, appointed by the United
States Board of Mediation, rendered a decision October 1, 1927,
relative to certain demands of the telegraphers in the employ of the
company. The arbitrators denied the request of the employees for
an annual vacation, but granted one day of relief each two weeks
without loss of pay, or overtime instead of the relief day, to all
employees “ filling positions necessary to the continuous operation of
the carrier.,, The board also increased the pay of employees 2 cents
per hour per position, to be apportioned as the parties might mutually
agree.
Industrial Arbitration Awards, 1927 and 1928
UMMARIES are given below of such important arbitration
awards in various industries in 1927 and 1928 as have come to
the attention of the bureau. (Railroad arbitration awards are covered
in the preceding article.)
S
Bricklayers and Plasterers
On t h e 28th of January, 1927, a unanimous decision relative to a
controversy between the bricklayers’ and plasterers' unions was
made by a board of arbitration consisting of Elihu Root, as chairman,
George T. Thornton, first vice president of the bricklayers' union, and
Hugh Frayne, an organizer of the American Federation of Labor,
representing the plasterers' union. The decision is here given practi
cally in full. Accompanying the decision was a long opinion by the
chairman analyzing the testimony, but it was not printed as a part
of the decision.
The arbitral tribunal created under the agreement entered into at Atlantic
City, N. J., on October 2, 1925, between the Bricklayers, Masons, and Plasterers'
International Union and the Operative Plasterers and Cement Finishers’ Inter
national Association, containing the following provisions:
1‘ The following questions shall be submitted to a tribunal created under the
terms of this agreement, the decision of which shall be accepted and complied
with by all parties to this agreement.
“ Was the Operative Plasterers and Cement Finishers' International Associa
tion justified in considering the 1911 agreement abrogated after being notified by
the Bricklayers, Masons and Plasterers' International Union that they had abro
gated the two agreements governing artificial stone and the plastering of walls
to receive tile, and would refer these two questions to the National Board for
Jurisdictional Awards?
“ After being notified by the Bricklayers, Masons, and Plasterers' International
Union that the agreements governing artificial stone and the plastering of walls
to receive tile were considered abrogated and no longer in effect by the Brick
32
ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION
layers, Masons, and Plasterers’ International Union, was the action.of the Opera
tive Plasterers and Cement Finishers' International Association in establishing
locals in the cities and towns in contention in the State of Florida, justified or
not?”
Has received and considered all the evidence and arguments produced by the
respective parties upon the questions above stated.
Upon the first question submitted the tribunal decides:
That the Operative Plasterers and Cement Finishers’ International Association
was not justified in considering the 1911 agreement abrogated after being notified
by the Bricklayers, Masons, and Plasterers’ International Union that they had
abrogated the two agreements governing artificial stone and the plastering of
walls to receive tile and would refer these two questions to the National Board
for Jurisdictional Awards.
Upon the second question submitted the tribunal decides:
That after being notified by the Bricklayers, Mason, and Plasterers’ Inter
national Union that the agreements governing artificial stone and the plastering
of walls to receive tile were considered abrogated and no longer in effect by the
Bricklayers, Masons, and Plasterers’ International Union, the action of the Opera
tive Plasterers and Cement Finishers’ International Association in establishing
locals in the cities and towns in contention in the State of Florida was not justified.
Mailers—St. Louis
A n a r b i t r a t i o n award was rendered February 9, 1928, by a local
board of arbitration consisting of Munro Roberts and Joseph P.
Jud representing St. Louis Mailers’ Union No. 3, W. C. Houser and
M. J. Lowenstein representing the St. Louis Newspaper Publishers’
Association, with Judge Henry S. Caulfield as chairman.
The wage section of the agreement between the two parties had
expired November 15,1927, with the mailers asking for an increase of
$7.08 per week for the journeymen and an increase for the apprentices.
The publishers were asking for a decrease of $3.20 a week for journey
men and a proportionate decrease for apprentices. The representa
tives of the two parties met and failed to settle the question and
Judge Caulfield was called in, thus forming an arbitration board,
after several hearings and a discussion of the questions involved,
Judge Caulfield rendered an opinion with the following conclusion:
“ That the demand of the mailers for an increase should be denied.
The reduction demanded by the publishers should also be denied.”
Printers—Denver, Colo.
A d e c i s i o n of the International Joint Board of the American
Newspaper Publishers’ Association and the International Typo
graphical Union, Paul H. Douglas, chairman, was recently made in a
case between the Denver newspaper publishers and Typographical
Union No. 49. Both parties wanted a readjustment of wages. The
union asked for an increase from $46.50 a week to $54 for daywork
and from $49.50 to $60 for nightwork, while the employers asked for
decreases to $42 and $45, respectively. The union wanted a reduction
of hours from 45 to 42 per week and the employers asked for an
increase to 48 hours. The union asked that men who work a day
and a night shift getting out a Sunday paper be paid $2.50 in addition
to the regular night scale. The employers asked that the $1.50 rate
paid for this service be removed. Finally the men asked for a weekly
scale of $66 for the lobster shift.
The board made the following award: The day scale $48 per week
and the night scale $51.50 per week. Those working successively
a day and a night shift getting out a Sunday paper to be paid $2
INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION AWARDS
33
in addition to the night scale. The working hours to remain at
45 hours per week. The award became effective December 1, 1926.
Printers—Omaha
A n a w a r d by Dr. H. Yon W. Schulte in the arbitration between
Omaha Typographical Union, No. 190, and three newspapers published
in Omaha was made February 17, 1927. Since September 15, 1923,
the scale had been $43.50 per week for daywork and $46.50 for nightwork. At the expiration of the contract, September 15, 1926, the
union had demanded $50 for daywork and $55 for nightwork, and
the matter had later gone to arbitration, both sides filing extended
briefs in the case. The award of the chairman was as follows:
“ The weekly straight-time wages exclusive of overtime, shall be
$46.50; night work, $49.50.”
Printing Pressmen—Portland, Oreg.
T h e International Board of Arbitration, Paul H . Douglas, chair
man, for the American Newspaper Published Association and the
International Printing Pressmen and Assistants' Union, sustained
a decision on appeal by the Portland Web Pressmen’s Union No. 17,
against an award by a local arbitrator, continuing the existing wage
scale for pressmen at $7.50 for day workers and $7.75 for night
workers with $8.25 and $8.50 for the pressmen in charge of presses in
the day and night shifts, respectively, lowering the former scale for
apprentices by 25 cents a day, and providing that if during the life of
the contract the cost of living in Portland changed appreciably the
basic wages were to be readjusted according to whether the United
States Bureau of Labor Statistics index for Portland rose or fell by
a given number of points. The local union declared that an increase
in wages was needed for five reasons:
(1)
To provide the pressmen with an adequate standard of life; (2) to enable
them to maintain the position as regards wages which they formerly enjoyed in
respect to other crafts; (3) to provide differentials over certain other crafts which
will be adequate to compensate the pressmen for the greater skill which, it is
alleged, they must possess, and for the greater dangers of illness and accidents
which, it is declared, they must endure; (4) to raise wages in Portland nearer the
level of the other major Pacific coast cities; and (5) to enable the pressmen to share
in what are alleged to be the considerable and indeed increasing profits of the local
newspaper industry.
After considering the claim of the pressmen the chairman of the
board commented m part as follows:
The evidence which has been presented has not been sufficient to lead me to
believe that the decision of the local arbitrator should be overruled. When an
injustice has been done the international board should feel free to overrule a local
decision. But if the machinery is to function effectively both parties should
be willing to abide by the local ruling, save in cases where they believe they have
been wrongfully injured. In the present case the Portland pressmen receive
more than a living wage and have a comfortable differential over even the major
ity of skilled workers. I do not feel justified, therefore, in reversing the local
decision in order to raise Portland wages to an equality with those of Seattle and
San Francisco, particularly so, since it is not certain whether these differentials
over the rest of the country will continue permanently to endure,
34
ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION
Stereotypers—Buffalo, N. Y.
On t h e expiration of a 3-year agreement between Stereotyped
Local Union No. 25 and the Buffalo newspaper publishers the union
demanded an increase in wages of 66% cents per day for journeymen,
75 cents for assistant foremen, $1 for foremen and for crews who get
out seven daily editions of a paper each week. The controversy was
laid before Judge Philip Laing as arbitrator, December 6, 1926.
After examining the newspaper plants and hearing and reading the
briefs presented by each side the arbitrator delivered his written
opinion on the 28th of the same month. He considered the various
propositions under different heads, discussing and disposing of them
separately. The only argument to which he gave much attention
was the increase in the cost of living argument. Extracts from his
statement on this subject follow:
In a large and growing city like this there is ever something additional to
pay out, if one is to keep up with the procession. Things unknown two years
ago are necessities to-day, and necessities which cost money. This statement
applies to the whole family and to each member of the family.' Irrespective of
any changes in the cost of food, clothing, rents, or heat, I am of opinion that the
ordinary man in the city of Buffalo will not be able to get through the year 1927
with the same money that he got through the year of 1923. If that statement
is correct, some provision ought to be made in this controversy providing to
some extent for the cost of better living which the stereotypers must meet as
time goes on. I am aware that any allowance made for the reasons now under
consideration must be conservative. I am also aware that extravagant people
crave every new thing that comes along and call every such thing a necessity.
I think, however, it is a fact that the most conservative and economical indi
viduals must, if they keep up with the times, continually incur some additional
expense for better living and better living conditions.
What additional allowance should be made to the stereotypers to meet better
living conditions? The publishers make answer to this question by saying that
the cost of living is not what it was a few years ago, and that that cost is now
going back, and for these reasons the stereotypers are in a better position than
they were three years ago when the existing scale became effective.
In the monthly bulletin issued by the United States Department of Labor in
September, 1926, * * * is a table showing the average retail prices of 42
articles of food in the United States from July 15, 1913, to July 15, 1926, and the
percentage each July 15, compared with July 15, 1913, the percentage for July
15, 1913, being arbitrarily fixed at 100, according to this table, the average retail
prices for these 42 articles of food * * * on July 15, 1923, [were] 47.8
per cent [more than in 1913]; on July 15, 1924, 43.9 per cent; on July 15, 1925,
60.5 per cent; on July 15, 1926, 57.7 per cent. It thus appears that in 1924
the percentage was less than in 1923, but in 1925 and 1926 the percentage was
quite a little more than it was in 1923. The chart contained in the same bulletin
at page 153 bears out the foregoing facts.
I am of opinion, however, that during the next two or three years the stereo
typers may expect to get some benefit from decreased cost of living, and that
that prospect ought to be taken into consideration in connection with the allow
ance for increased cost of better living.
I comeback to the question, *1What allowance should be made to the stereo
typers for the increased cost of better living?” and I add to that question the
other question, “ What offset should be made because of the prospect of a de
crease in prices of things that make up the necessities of life?” The figures I
am about to present are, in a sense, arbitrarily made, but they represent my
judgment.
I am of opinion that the stereotypers should be allowed for the increased cost
of better living 1J^ per cent per year for the last three years, making 4J£ per
cent, and that there should be deducted from that amount 1 per cent to repre
sent the decreased cost and prospective decreased cost of the things that make
up the necessities of life. These figures mean that there should be added to
the scale of wages provided for in the existing contract, excepting the foremen,
z y 2 per cent.
INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION AWARDS
35
I am of opinion that the foremen should get $9.50 instead of $9; the assistant
foremen, days, now getting $7.75, with a
per cent increase would get $8.02;
the assistant foremen, nights, now getting $8.25, with a 3J^ per cent increase
would get $8.54; the journeymen, days, now getting $7.50, with a 3J^ per cent
increase, would get $7.76; the journeymen, nights, now getting $8 with a 3J^> per
cent increase, would get $8.28.
Street Railways—Chicago
A n a w a r d affecting 21,000 employees of the street-railway com
panies of Chicago connected with Division 241 of the Amalgamated
Association of Street and Electric Railway Employees of America
was signed January 21, 1928, by a board consisting of Alderman
Oscar F. Nelson, representing the employees, and Guy A. Richard
son, representing the company. It was approved by Federal Judge
James H. Wilkerson January 23, 1928, and made part of the court
record, since 60 per cent of the surface lines is under the control of
the Federal court.
The award continues until May 31, 1930, the agreement which
by its terms was to expire May 31, 1927, but increases the wages of all
employees 1 cent per hour from June 1, 1928, through May 31, 1929,
and another cent from June 1, 1929, through August 31, 1930.
In addition the following provisions relative to health and accident
insurance were added, similar in character to those added by arbi
trators to the agreement between the members of Division 308 of the
Street and Electric Railway Employees' Union and the elevated
roads of Chicago, and printed in the Labor Review, November,
1926, pages 207, 208.
Sec . 2. Chicago surface lines shall pay to all members of Division 241 in
the service of Chicago surface lines on February 1, 1928:
(a) Thirty-five dollars to those who were in such service on June 1, 1927, in
lieu of life, sick, and accident insurance; and (b) $12 to those who entered such
service between June 1, 1927, and November 1, 1927, in lieu of life insurance.
This item of the award is made because of the pratical impossibility of making
insurance retroactive. Therefore, the arbitrators have computed the approxi
mate amount of money it would have cost the Chicago surface lines in case such
insurance had been in effect since June 1, 1927.
S e c . 3. For the period beginning February 1, 1928, and thereafter until and
including May 31, 1930, the Chicago surface lines shall bear and pay the cost
and expense of group life insurance to the amount of $1,000 upon the life of each
employee covered by this agreement who has been in the employ of the Chicago
surface lines for three months, while continuing in the service of the Chicago
surface lines, subject to the acceptance by the insurance company writing such
insurance, of any new employee as a risk.
Chicago surface lines shall also, from February 1, 1928, and thereafter until
and including May 31, 1930, bear and pay the cost and expense of a group health
policy covering each employee covered by this agreement, who has been in the
service of the Chicago surface lines for more than one year, for $20 per week
against becoming, while insured under said policy, wholly and continuously
disabled and prevented from performing any and every duty of his or her accusa
tion by sickness contracted or injuries sustained, provided that no indemnity
shall be payable for the first seven days of incapacity nor for more than 26 weeks
thereafter. Such group health policy shall not cover the following:
(1) Any period of incapacity for which the employee is not treated by a
licensed practicing physician.
(2) Any period of incapacity for which the employee is entitled to indemnity
or compensation under any workmen’s compensation act, except to the extent
of the difference between such compensation allowance and the $20 per week
provided by such health insurance.
(3) Sickness contracted or suffered or injury sustained outside of the con
tinental limits of the United States, in North America or Canada, or in any part
of either, north of the sixtieth degree of north latitude; nor sickness or injury
39142°—29------ 4
36
ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION
caused directly or indirectly by war or riot, or while participating in, or in con
sequence of haying participated in, aeronautics; nor intentionally self-inflicted
injury, while sane or insane.
Said health insurance shall continue only while the employee remains in the
employ of the company.
Reasonable rules and regulations shall be promulgated by Chicago surface
lines to make effective the intent and purpose of the insurance provisions of this
award.
Sec. 4. During the first year in which the insurance hereby awarded is effec
tive, the same shall be provided by policy or policies, written by reputable
insurance company or companies; but at the expiration of said first year, Chicago
surface lines shall have the right, if they so elect, to provide for the carrying
out and performance by their own insurance department of the obligations and
undertakings which will give to the employees the protection and benefits hereby
awarded.
Sec. 5. In conformity with paragraph (6), section 1, of the arbitration agree
ment, dated July 18, 1927, which provides that cost of insurance benefits shall
be considered as wages, this board of arbitration estimates the cost of health,
accident, and life insurance at $650,000 per annum, which is approximately
13^2 cents per hour-wage rate per employee.
The Chicago Rapid Transit Co. signed an agreement December
14, 1927, with the members of Division 308, employees on the ele
vated lines, to accept this award also.
Street Railways—Mitten Management
A f t e r more than 20 years of conflict an agreement was reached
between the Amalgamated Association of Street and Electric Rail
way Employees ana the Mitten Management. The Mitten Manage
ment operates at present the street-railway systems of Philadelphia
and Buffalo, and, according to press reports, may take over the op
eration of the systems in other cities. The text of the agreement,
signed March 25, 1928, is as follows:
Memorandum of TJnion-Management Agreement
Mitten Management reiterates its desire to deal with organized labor whenever
and wherever any union organization will undertake to cooperate for increased
economic efficiency and where two-thirds of the employees, by secret ballot, may
so elect.
Mahon and associates, speaking for the Amalgamated Association of Street
and Electric Railway Employees of America, being also desirous of cooperating
in economic accomplishment and of aiding their membership to a 50-50 partici
pation in the rewards rightfully paid to men and management, in addition to
the present wages paid, have now come to an understanding with Mitten Man
agement (Inc.) by which the following procedure will hereafter govern both
parties:
The Philadelphia Rapid Transit cooperative plan of 1926 shall be made
effective with the union covering such system, or departments of a system, as
the union may designate, after two-thirds of such employees shall have so de
termined by secret ballot, it being fully understood that the right to organize is
a fundamental right of labor which should not and can not be permanently
abridged or denied, but it is now understood and agreed that the activities of the
Amalgamated in this respect shall be restricted to properties that are to be
acquired or operated by Mitten Management in the future.
So far as Philadelphia and Buffalo are concerned, conditions there are to re
main as at present in so far as organization activities are concerned, it being
desirable that the situation on these properties shall remain as at present in
order that the standard of economic excellence of these companies now being
operated by Mitten Management be the standard by which union performance
in cooperating with Mitten Management on other properties shall be measured.
When cooperation between the Amalgamated and Mitten Management has
developed to a point where the results are equal to those obtained on these
EMERGENCY BOARDS— RAILROAD LABOR ACT
37
properties, the matter of union-management agreements on these properties
may be discussed and be made the basis of further agreement.
Working agreements, including standards of work and compensation, to be
matter of local arrangement ana ratification. Collective consideration to be
upon the basis of group representation through branch, departmental, and general
committees, with recourse to arbitration in case of failure of agreement. Before
arbitration shall be resorted to, however, the matter under discussion shall be
submitted to two representatives of the International Association and two
representatives of Mitten Management for review and attempted settlement.
Failing agreement one arbitrator for employee and one arbitrator for employer
shall be chosen, these to select a third. If these two arbitrators are unable to
agree upon the third arbitrator then the public service commission shall act as
the third arbitrator.
Contract shall run during delivery of cooperative effectiveness, which is under
stood to mean that degree of assistance in securing the result on the property
in question as secured by Mitten Management on the properties operated by
them at this date. Nonperformance by either party to be settled through arbi
tration. Contract may be terminated by vote—secret ballot— of two-thirds of
the employees represented by the organization. Operating company and union
to each supply, at their own cost, their representatives on the 50-50 collective
consideration committees, also each their own secretary. Operating company
and union to share equally in the office and operating expenses as mutually de
cided. Operating company where two-thirds of the employees so vote to collect
by check-off system and pay to organization such amounts as the organization
may, from time to time decide. All the employees of the departments involved
to be so assessed. Funeral, disability, old age, and all other benefits to be under
taken by the union, for which operating company will pay union $1 per month,
per man.
In addition to the usual results of collective consideration, it is the further
object of this arrangement to secure for all interested parties, the advantages
of collective effort and accomplishment. To the owners this will mean a fair
return on their property; to the public an adequate and efficient system of trans
portation; and to employees, in addition to wages sufficient for the necessities
of life, comfort, and savings, an opportunity to participate in increased earnings
made possible by their increased effort and productive efficiencies. Mitten
Management and Amalgamated Association are agreed that the same 50-50
participation shall be effective between “ management and union” as now exists
between “ management and men” and the sense of this agreement is that both
shall supply the same degree of cooperation and both similarly shall participate
in the results secured therefrom.
Emergency Boards Appointed Under Railroad Labor
Act
HE FEDERAL railroad labor act of 1926 provides that an
emergency board may be established by the President if a rail
road labor dispute can not be settled in accordance with the other
provisions of the law and if, in the judgment of the mediation board,
such dispute threatens “ to interrupt interstate commerce to a degree
such as to deprive any section of the country of essential transporta
tion service.” The findings of this board are not compulsory, but the
act provides that after the creation of the board and for 30 days after
its report has been made “ no change, except by agreement, shall be
made by the parties to the controversy in the conditions out of which
the dispute arose.”
Up to the end of 1928 this “ emergency” clause had been availed of
only on two occasions since the passage of the act. Both of these
arose from long drawn out controversies culminating in 1928. The
first concerned the Kansas City, Mexico & Orient Railroad Co. and
four labor organizations; the second concerned the conductors and
trainmen on the western railroads.
T
38
ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION
Orient Railroad Case
A n e m e r g e n c y board was appointed April 28, 1928, by the Presi
dent, to investigate and report upon a dispute between the Kansas
City, Mexico & Orient Railway System and its train and yard service
employees, members of the Order of Railway Conductors, Brother
hood of Locomotive Engineers, Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen
and Enginemen, and Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen. This
board, composed of James R. Garfield, of Cleveland; Carl Williams,
of Oklahoma City; Arthur Thatcher, of St. Louis; Davis R. Dewey,
of Cambridge, Mass., and Homer B. Dibell, of Duluth, met at Wichita,
Kans., May 11 to 17, 1928, heard representatives of the parties in
dispute, and reported its findings the latter part of May.
The findings were, in brief, as follows:
(1) The financial condition of the Kansas City, Mexico & Orient
Railway does not justify its paying at present, to its employees who
are members of the four transportation labor organizations involved
in the dispute, higher wage rates than the carrier has now proposed
to pay, “ having due regard to the maintenance of the road and the
equitable compensation of employees in other branches of the service.”
(2) Under existing circumstances the brotherhoods concerned in
the dispute are not justified in putting their strike order into effect
and should either accept the increases offered by the carrier or should
arbitrate their wage controversy under the railroad labor act.
(3) The company is not warranted in declining to become a member
of the southwestern board of adjustment and should forthwith be
come a member. Such board would take care of the eight pending
grievances of individual members of the railroad brotherhoods, ;the
determination of the merits of individual cases not coming within
the province of the emergency board.
Trainmen on Western Railroads
On S e p t e m b e r 29, 1928, the President of the United States issued
a proclamation creating an Emergency Board to investigate the
wage dispute between 47 western railroads and their conductors and
trainmen. Its membership was as follows:
James R. Garfield, of Cleveland, Ohio, Secretary of the Interior
in the Roosevelt administration; Walter F. Stacy, of Raleigh, N.
C., Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of North Carolina; Prof.
Davis R. Dewey, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, Mass.; Chester R. Howell, of Berkeley, Calif.; and
George T. Baker, of Davenport, Iowa.
The report of the board made public on October 30, suggested
that the following proposals and counterproposals be submitted to
the vote of the employees and that the carriers abide by the result:
1. Six and one-half per cent increase without change of rules.
2. Seven and one-half per cent increase and the elimination of the doubleheader and tonnage limitation rules.
Each of the above includes the continuation of existing differentials for moun
tain and other special service, and the addition of the requested increase to bag
gagemen for mail, express, and dynamo service.
3. The Washington agreement providing for an increase of 7 ^ per cent on
the standard rates for conductors and trainmen, and a procedure, including arbi
tration under the railway labor act, under which the double-header, helper dis
trict, car limit, and tonnage limit rules might be taken up by each earner in
CONCILIATION W ORK OF THE DEPARTMENT
39
special cases where a carrier claimed such rules produce burdensome or objec
tionable conditions.
4. That whatever proposal is accepted should be made effective May 1, 1928.
According to press reports the employees affected agreed to accept
the first of the above alternatives regarding wages, namely, a wage
increase of 6% per cent without change of rules, the wage increase
to be retroactive to May 1, 1928, and effective to May 1, 1929.
The dispute grew out of the refusal of the western railroads to
consider the demands of their conductors and trainmen, February 27,
1927, for a 73^ per cent increase in wages. A similiar increase had
been granted by the eastern railroads in 1926 and by the southeastern
railroads in 1927 to the same class of employees.
On November 1, 1927, they renewed their demands for an increase
in wages to become effective March 1, 1928, and in addition they
demanded a change in the pick-up and drop rule. In July, 1928,
conferences were held between employees and the carriers, during
which the carriers asked for certain changes in the rules, among which
were the elimination of the double-header rule and the rules restricting
tonnage and car limits. The employees contended that the doubleheader rule makes for safety of the employees, while the carriers
contended that it only hampers efficient and economical operation
and could be eliminated without hazard to the men engaged in train
and engine service.
These conferences proved fruitless and on July 19, the carriers
applied to the United States Board of Mediation for its services in
mediation; and, if this failed, suggested that matters in dispute be
submitted to arbitration. Mediation was not successful and the
employees declined to accept arbitration.
Conciliation Work of the United States Department
of Labor
HE WORK of the Conciliation Service of the United States
Department of Labor is, as its title indicates, that of mediation
in labor disputes.
The intention of Congress in creating the Department of Labor
tvas clearly to the end that such a mediatory policy should be the
basis of the conciliation work. The language of that part of the
organic act pertaining to this service simply provides that “ The
Secretary of Labor is authorized^ to act as mediator, or to appoint
commissioners of conciliation in industrial disputes whenever in his
judgment the interests of industrial peace may require it to be done.”
In carrying out the intention of Congress it has been the general
policy to respond promptly to any calls for the good offices of the
representatives of the Conciliation Service from either employers,
employees, or from the public affected by any industrial dispute.
In the handling of trade disputes representatives of the service
cooperate freely with State or local agencies or committees. In
many cases Federal commissioners assigned to a trade dispute have
found local committees or agencies using their good offices in an
effort to terminate the controversy. In such instances the commis
sioners of conciliation have cooperated with the local agencies. No
T
40
ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION
set method can be outlined to guide mediators in their work. They
are constantly confronted with varying conditions and diverse views
in practically every individual case. Each situation must be handled
as a case peculiar to itself. It often happens that a conciliator
must use different methods in handling trade disputes arising in the
same industry and in the same locality in order to accomplish the
desired result of bringing the disputants into conference and there
after striving to bring about a meeting of minds that will result in a
satisfactory agreement being reached.
During the fiscal year ended June 30, 1928, conciliators were
assigned to 478 industrial disputes; of this number 307 were settled
directly by the commissioners, 53 cases were pending at the end of
the fiscal year, 57 cases were recorded as “ unable to adjust,” and 61
cases are carried as “ unclassified.” The latter designation implies
that settlement was immediately effected by the parties directly
interested; the commissioner arrived after agreement was reached.;
or the case referred for conciliation did not warrant services of repre
sentative. In some cases plants were permanently closed, or the
workers had gone elsewhere, and so on. In addition to the cases
arising during the time covered by this report, 13 cases coming over
from previous years were also adjusted.
The following table gives a summary of the number of cases handled,
and their disposition, for each of the fiscal years 1920 to 1928:
N U M B E R A N D D IS P O S IT IO N O F C A S E S H A N D L E D B Y U N I T E D S T A T E S C O N C I L I A
T I O N S E R V IC E , 1920-1928
1920
1921
1922
N u m b er.______________ ___________________
802
457
370
534
544
Adjusted................................... ....................... ...............
Unable to adjust___ _____________________________
Pending............................................ ...............................
U nclassi fied................... ............... .................................
596
96
9
101
338
48
24
47
266
41
31
32
428
27
60
19
346
62
67
69
Cases
1923
1924
1925
1928
1926
1927
559
551
545
478
392
64
42
61
377
61
43
70
395
57
24
69
307
57
53
61
CHILD LABOR
41
Work of the Federal Children’s Bureau
T
HE ACT creating the United States Children's Bureau, which
was passed in 1912, contains the following statement as to the
scope of its work:
The said bureau shall investigate and report to said department upon all
matters pertaining to the welfare of children and child life among all classes of
our people, and shall especially investigate the questions of infant mortality,
the birth rate, orphanage, juvenile courts, desertion, dangerous occupations,
accidents and diseases of children, employment, legislation affecting children in
the several States and Territories.
Under this authorization the bureau began its work with various
studies of infant mortality, and of prenatal and infant care. Studies
of defective, dependent and delinquent children, studies of child
labor legislation in the United States and of the administration of
child labor laws, of child welfare in rural communities, and of a
number of miscellaneous subjects related to various aspects of the
care and welfare of children followed. In 1917 the administration of
the Federal child labor law was entrusted to the bureau and, until
the law was finally declared unconstitutional, formed an important
part of its activities,
The Federal maternity and infancy act, which was passed in 1921,
authorized an annual appropriation of $1,240,000 for a five-year
period, to be used by the children's bureau in cooperation with the
States in promoting the hygiene of maternity and infancy, thus at
once largely increasing the bureau's activities. In 1927 the appro
priation was extended for two years, with the proviso that the act
itself, which was permanent legislation, should be after June 30, 1929,
of no force and effect. During the year ending June 30, 1928, work
was carried on under this act in 2,070 counties; 45 States and the
Territory of Hawaii were cooperating with the bureau under its terms;
prenatal and child health conferences were carried on in every cooperat
ing State; and an extensive program of visits, demonstrations and
consultations was carried out by means of the combined State and
Federal funds.
The gainful employment of children has from the first absorbed
much of the bureau's attention, and studies have been made of children
in agricultural occupations in various States, children employed in
seasonal industries, such as the cultivation of sugar beets, berry
picking, fruit, vegetable and fish canning, and the like. Data are
collected each year as to employment certificates issued to children,
so that current information may be available as to the trends in
child labor, as well as in regard to significant facts about the age
and education of children beginning work. Studies are made of
43
44
CHILD LABOR
children employed in specified industries, of laws affecting the employ
ment of minors, of children in industrial home work, children engaged
in street trades, work histories of minors attending continuation
schools, and similar subjects.
Another field of activity is concerned with juvenile delinquency in
various States, methods of preventing and of handling it, the kinds of
courts before which children are brought, and the like. Similarly,
studies are made of defective and dependent children, methods of
caring for them, State and county child welfare agencies, and of
child welfare legislation. Usually these studies are made at the
request of the local units concerned.
The organization of the bureau is thus described in the annual
report of its chief for the year ending June 30, 1927.
The Children’s Bureau has seven major divisions, as follows: Maternity and
infant hygiene, child hygiene, industrial, social service, statistical, editorial, and
general administrative. The maternity and infant hygiene division administers
the maternity and infancy act; the child hygiene division is in charge of the
bureau’s research in the field of child health and assists the other divisions in
the preparation of reports in which child health is a factor. The social service
division has for its field dependency, delinquency, and neglect of children, and
the industrial division is responsible for studies relating to the employment of
children, protective legislation for working children, and vocational guidance.
The statistical, editorial, and general administrative divisions serve the other
divisions of the bureau, the statistical division undertaking also some independent
pieces of research.
Employment Certificates Granted in Various States
and Cities
HE annual report of the Federal Children's Bureau for the
fiscal year 1927-28 contains statistics as to the number of em
ployment certificates issued during the calendar year 1927 to children
in the District of Columbia, in 16 States, and in 69 cities in 18 other
States. This is a considerable increase over 1926 in the number of
States and cities reporting. Special attention was paid to the children
receiving their first employment certificates during the year.
T
From this group of States and cities reports were received for 106,441 children
14 and 15 years of age and 47,067 children 16 and 17 years of age who obtained
their first working certificates in 1927. In addition to this group 954 children in
cities of less than 50,000 population were reported as receiving their first working
certificates in 1927. Of the 154,462 certificates issued, 18,667 were issued to
children in cities or towns where regular certificates are issued for vacation and
after-school work and no separate record is kept of such certificates. Except
for these, all the permits reported were for full-time regular employment.
^ The bureau possesses comparable data, covering a period of three
years, for 10 States and for 19 cities in 10 other States and for the
District of Columbia, concerning the number of first certificates
issued. The following table shows for each reporting city the number
of first certificates issued during 1927, and, for the cities for which the
comparable data are on file, the number issued in 1926, with the rela
tive increase or decrease, as compared with the preceding year.
EMPLOYMENT CERTIFICATES
45
N U M B E R O F C H I L D R E N 14 A N D 15 Y E A R S O F A G E R E C E I V I N G R E G U L A R E M P L O Y
M E N T C E R T I F I C A T E S F O R T H E F IR S T T I M E I N 1926 A N D 1927 A N D P E R C E N T O F
IN C R E A S E O R D E C R E A S E , A S C O M P A R E D W I T H T H E P R E V IO U S Y E A R . I N S T A T E S
A N D I N C IT IE S O F 50,000 P O P U L A T IO N A N D O V E R R E P O R T I N G i
State and city
States reporting:
Alabama . ___ _
_____ _ __ ________
.
Birmingham........................................ ............... ...........................
Mobile.......... ............................................................. ........... ...........
Arkansas
. . . . . .
Connecticut...... ............................................... ................... ...................
Bridgeport................................................. ................................... .
Hartford...................................................................................... .....
N ew Britain____________________ : ________________________
New Haven____________________________________________ _
W ater bury_____________________________________________
District of Columbia^ „
. _
, ...... .
Indiana
___
____
Fort W ayne...... ............................................................ : .............
Gary________________________ __________ ___________________
TnrjiaTippolis
South Bend________________________________________
Iowa___________________________________________________________
Davenport_____________ ____ ______ _______________________
Des Moines____________________________________ __ _
Sioux C ity_____________________________________
TTa/nsftR________________________________________________________
Kansas C ity _____________________________________________
Topeka_________________________________________________
Wichita...................................... - ...............................................
Kentucky_____________________________________________________
Covington________________________________________________
Louisville____________________________________ ____________
M aine_________________________________________________________
Portland____________________________________________
M aryland___________________________________________________
Baltimore__________________________ _______ ______ _______
Minnesota__________________________________________________
Minneapolis_________________________________________ _
St. Paul............ ......................................... — _____ ____________
N ew Jersey___________________________________ _________ ______
Jersey C ity_________________________________________ .
Newark_________________________________________________
Trenton. ________
Oklahoma_________________________________________ _____ _____
Oregon___________________________________________________ _____
Vermont______________________________________________________
Washington________________ ______ ____________________________
Wisconsin
__ ____________________________________________
Milwaukee___ ____________________________________________
Cities in States not reporting:
California—
Los Angeles_______________________________________________
Oakland__________________________________________________
Sacramento_______________________________________________
San Diego________________________________________________
San Francisco_____________________________________________
C olorado— Denver____________________________________________
Delaware— W ilmington______________________________________
Georgia—Atlanta_____________________________________________
Illinois—
Chicago___________________________________________________
East St. Louis................................................................. ...............
P eoria____________________________________________________
Springfield___ ____________________________________________
Louisiana— New Orleans.....................................................................
1926
Per cent
ofincrease
( + ) or
decrease
( - ) as
compared
with
1925a
960
240
89
-4 .5
+ 3 4 .1
+ 4 8 .3
7,574
878
645
391
1,057
571
220
1,103
58
- .4
+ 1 1 .8
- 4 .6
- 1 8 .2
+ 1 4 .0
-9 .9
+ 6 4 .2
+ 1 4 .2
+ 3 .6
348
88
+ 3 5 .7
-1 0 .2
121
75
23
8
969
56
638
< 256
4 21
4,449
4,229
404
171
160
«18,429
« 1,638
* 2,494
*906
+ 7 2 .9
- 1 1 .1
+ 3 .4
+ 2 .4
+ 1 1 .5
-1 .5
377
96
-8 .0
+ 5 .5
3,018
6 2,007
« - 1 9 .1
+ 9 .0
-2 6 .3
+ 1 6 .6
-5 .9
+7.~7~
+ 7 .1
744
163
-3 9 .0
252
132
« 5,281
6 + 3 .0
2,563
+ 2 .3
1927
700
185
79
190
6,318
581
629
246
982
478
186
847
38
4
233
84
765
92
169
62
124
72
16
19
3 780
47
507
^205
* 21
3,817
3,567
310
123
144
«18,081
«1,560
« 2,345
«867
848
352
49
463
2,599
1,736
836
78
40
147
156
209
286
52
4,186
123
66
135
1,743
Per cent
ofincrease
( + ) or
decrease
(-)a s
compared
with
19261
- 2 7 .1
- 2 2 .9
- 1 1 .2
- 1 6 .6
- 3 3 .8
-2 .5
- 3 7 .1
-7 .1
- 1 6 .3
-1 5 .5
- 2 3 .2
- 3 4 .5
—32.7
-4 .5
+ 2 .5
- 4 .0
-1 9 .5
- 1 6 .1
- 2 0 .5
-1 9 .9
—14.2
- 1 5 .7
- 2 3 .3
- 2 8 .1
-1 0 .0
-1 .9
-4 .8
-6 .0
-4 .3
—6.6
-4 9 .0
—13.9
—13.5
+ 1 2 .4
- 4 .3
+ 1 3 .5
—60.6
-2 0 .7
-3 2 .0
1 Population according to census of 1920. Figures from State or local official sources.
* N ot shown where base is less than 50 nor where figures for previous year are not available.
8 Excludes 5 reported too late for tabulation.
< Number of 15-year-old children receiving certificates; law does not permit the issuance of regular cer
tificates to children under 15.
‘ Includes children to whom regular certificates were issued for work outside school hours, no certificates
for such work being issued.
6 Revised figures supplied by State.
46
CHILD LABOIfc
N U M B E R O F C H I L D R E N 14 A N D 15 Y E A R S O F A G E R E C E I V I N G R E G U L A R E M P L O Y M E N T C E R T I F I C A T E S F O R T H E F I R S T T I M E I N 1926 A N D 1927 A N D P E R C E N T O F
IN C R E A S E OR D E C R E A S E , AS C O M P A R E D W IT H T H E P R E V IO U S Y E A R , IN S T A T E S
A N D I N C IT IE S O F 50,000 P O P U L A T IO N A N D O V E R R E P O R T I N G — Continued
State and city
Cities in States not reporting—Continued
Massachusetts—
Lawrence..... ..................... ...............................................................
Lowell............. ...................................................................................
Lynn
.... _ ______________
. .................... ............. .....
Somerville ................... ................................. ......... ........... .............
Springfield.................................................................. ............. .......
Michigan—
Detroit........................................... ..................... ................... .........
Grand Rapids______________ _______ ______________________
Saginaw_____________________ __________ __________________
Missouri—
Kansas C ity ________________
_ _
_
_ _
St. Joseph______ _______ _______ ___________ ______ ________
St. Louis___________ __
_
_
_
___
Nebraska—
Lincoln. ........................................................................................
Omaha_____________
N ew Hampshire— Manchester........................................... .............
N ew York—
Buffalo. ......................... ................. .............................................
N ew Y o rk _______________________________
. . .
. . . .
Niagara Falls___________________ ________
Rochester.............................................. ................................. ..
_
Syracuse............................................................................................
Yonkers________________ ________ _____________
. . .
Ohio—
Cincinnati_____________________________ ________________
Springfield. __________ ____ _______ _________________________
T o le d o ..___________ _______________________________ _____
Pennsylvania—
Erie______ __________________ __
Harrisburg________________________ ______ _________________
Philadelphia______________________________________________
Pittsburgh.___________________ __________________________
Scranton______ _______ ____________________ ________________
Wilkes-Barre________________ _______ _________ ___________
Rhode Island— Providence_______________ ______ _____ _____
Tennessee—
Chattanooga.____________________________ _______________
Knoxville__________ _______________________ ________ ______
Nashville____________________ _____ _______________ ________
Utah— Salt Lake C i t y ._____ _________________________________
1926
Per cent
ofincrease
( + ) or
decrease
( —) as
compared
with
1925
1927
Per cent
of increase
( + ) or
decrease
( - ) as
compared
with
1926
405
233
268
275
391
* 635
+ 5 3 .9
<687
* 177
<267
+ 8 .2
-3 3 .7
4137
3,407
-3 .4
5
136
-1 5 .5
8 2,654
35,484
252
1,841
427
525
+ 8 .1
+ 4 1 .6
+ .4
—4.5
+ 3 6 .7
178
114
2,048
—39.9
10
117
7 244
-1 4 .0
2,599
35,717
172
1,604
375
490
—2.1
+ .7
—31.7
—12.9
—12.2
- 6 .7
»14
o 11
»15
154
11,194
6 1,677
845
< 1,633
+ 1 .3
+ 8 .2
«+ 3 .1
-1 1 .0
267
121
9,932
1,381
697
924
4 1,563
—21.4
—11.3
—17.7
-1 7 .5
- 4 .3
76
161
250
97
< Num ber of 15-year-old children receiving certificates; law does not permit the issuance of regular certifi
cates to children under 15.
6 Revised figures supplied b y State.
7 Includes 97 regular certificates issued for “ after school” work.
8 Num ber reported for year ended November 30.
• Certificates issued to children under 16 adjudged incapable of profiting substantially b y further instruc
tion.
Five States and 22 cities in 8 other States, which either under the
law or by administrative practice require minors 16 or 17 years of age,
or both, to obtain employment certificates, supplied the bureau with
reports for 1927. Most of these showed decreases in numbers of cer
tificates issued in 1927 as compared with 1926.
Taking the figures as a whole, in those States and cities for which
comparable data are available, the number of first regular certificates
issued increased 5 per cent in 1926 as compared with 1925 and de
creased 8 per cent in 1927 as compared with 1926.
It is generally believed that unemployment during 1927 is largely responsible
for the decreases, although in periods of unemployment children who would other
CHILDREN IN STREET TRADES
47
wise be kept in school are often compelled to seek employment and are sometimes
able to obtain work when their parents can not do so.
In general, boys received work certificates more numerously than
girls. Taking the whole group for which sex was shown, boys con
stituted 56 per cent of the 14 and 15 year group, and 57 per cent of the
16 and 17 year group. In a few places, girls led, but even in these they
were not much more numerous than boys.
More than half of the 14 and 15 year old children entering employ
ment in 1927 for whom reports as to school grade completed were
received had finished the eighth or a higher grade—58 per cent as
against 56 per cent in 1926—while 25 per cent in 1927 as compared
with 28 per cent in 1926 had completed only the sixth or a lower grade.
The educational requirement of the child labor laws is probably the most influ
ential factor in the educational attainment of children leaving school for work.
Among the States reporting the grades completed by chUdren going to work
Minnesota requires completion of the eighth grade with no exceptions, and Ind
iana and Kansas, the eighth grade with occasional exceptions under administra
tive policy, for both 14 and 15 year old children. In Minnesota all children re
ceiving work permits had completed the eighth grade, in Indiana two had received
permits by court order on less than the eighth grade standard, and in Kansas 8
per cent of the certificates had been issued on exceptions to the grade requirements,
all in Kansas City.
The evidence of age upon which certificates are issued is a matter of
much importance. The birth certificate is the most satisfactory
evidence, but though birth registration is far more generally practiced
than was the case 15 years ago, it is still not possible to secure this
evidence in all cases. Nevertheless, official birth certificates or bap
tismal records were the evidence upon which 84 per cent of the cer
tificates reporting as to type of evidence were issued, and in some of
the States and cities reported, this proof was received for between 90
and 100 per cent of the certificates issued. Where birth certificates
and baptismal records were few the predominating type of evidence was
the school record of age, except in Arkansas and Chattanooga where a
considerable number of certificates were issued on such evidence as
Bible record, passport, insurance policy, or on a physician’s evidence
of age with or without school records or other corroborative evidence.
Children in Street Trades
1928 the Children’s Bureau published the results of an investiga
tion into the employment of children in street trades, covering
INeight
cities: Atlanta, Ga.; Columbus, Ohio; Omaha, Nebr.; WilkesBarre, Pa.; Newark and Paterson,N. J.; Troy, N. Y.; and Washington,
D. C. The studies in the first four cities were made in the winter and
spring of 1922-23, but the cities were revisited in 1926 or 1927 to see
whether the situation had changed. In the remaining cities the
study was made somewhat later. Upward of 7,000 children were
included in the survey; information concerning them was secured
through personal interviews, through the school authorities, through
juvenile court and family agency records, visits to the parents, and
the like.
In each city newspaper sellers and carriers formed the largest
group, child peddlers coining next; bootblacks were not numerous
48
CHILD LABOR
except in Newark. One reason for the popularity of newspaper
work was that it did not necessitate absence from school, and another
was that although some of the cities had laws prohibiting children
under a certain age from entering it, there never seemed much
difficulty about evading this provision, so that it could be under
taken by even the youngest. One striking fact brought out in the
study is that although the age at which children enter most occupa
tions is gradually rising, no such tendency is at work in connection
with newspaper selling.
In each of the cities of the survey, children of 6 and 7 sold papers
(in one city, two boys of 5). From 11 to 21 per cent of the newspaper
sellers were under 10 years of age.
The findings of the survey in general confirm those of earlier
studies. The moral influences surrounding the work of newsboys
and other street traders are discussed, as well as the effect of the
irregular hours, which are sometimes very long, the physical exposure
involved, the interference with proper time for sleep, the diminished
energy left for school work, the separation from the normal life of
the family, and the tendency to develop a taste for the excitements
of street life.
While it could not be said that the boys were absolutely forced
into the life by poverty, it was evident that the economic factor
played a considerable part.
Newsboys, speaking generally, come from poor families, not destitute, except
in rare instances, nor even so poor that they will acknowledge that they could
not exist without the earnings of their children of school age, but in circum
stances often so far below any reasonable standard of comfort that the tempta
tion for the boys to earn what they can is irresistible. It is not a question of
widowhood or of desertion or incapacity of fathers— almost as many newsboys
as other children have fathers supporting their families—but so many fathers
earn so little that without the help of mothers or of children or of both the family
is always hard pressed.
The similarity between the findings of this and earlier studies
indicates that conditions are not growing better with any noticeable
rapidity. As a means for improving them it is suggested that
newspaper selling by children should be as carefully regulated by
law as other forms of child labor. The legal control of street work,
it is pointed out, has difficulties peculiar to itself, and except in a few
places little has been done toward working out and putting into
effect adequate methods of administration and enforcement, even
where the laws themselves were satisfactory.
Certain legal provisions were shown to be essential to even moderately suc
cessful control of the street-trades problem. The first of these is a specific law
or regulation applying to the street worker, for school authorities and labor
officials have found that most street work can not be regulated by a general child
labor law,the word “ employ” in the latter type of law being almost invariably
construed to mean the purchasing of the services of one person by another.
Satisfactory regulations included a badge system; the placing of responsibility
for enforcement definitely upon a single official; and the control of the issuance
of badges and the street inspections by the same agency.
Bootblacking and peddling as occupations for children, it is recom
mended, should be definitely prohibited, as they have many of the dis
advantages of newspaper selling without any compensating advantage.
CHILD LABOR
49
Farm Work of Children in Illinois and in Colorado
INCE the publication of the former handbook (Bui. No. 439),
two studies of the employment of children in farm work have
appeared, one issued by the United States Children’s Bureau
(publication No. 168), dealing with conditions in Illinois, and one
published by the National Child Labor Committee, describing the
work of children on farms in certain sections of the western slope of
Colorado.
Illinois Study
S
T h e s t u d y in Illinois by the United States Children’s Bureau,
covered 501 children under 16 employed on truck farms in Cook
County and 737 between 7 and 16 years of age employed in general
farming in Livingston, Shelby, and Marion Counties. The study of
the truck farms was made in the summer of 1924 and of the general
farms in the period April to July, 1923. The Cook County study was
confined to the vicinity of Chicago and covered 119 farms, “ 26 farms
within the city limits, 39 south of the city, and 54 in the northern
section of the county.”
Children Employed in Truck Farming
O f t h e 501 children studied in Cook County, only 86, or 17.2 per
cent, lived on the farms where they worked. The majority (77.8
per cent) were day laborers, coming to their work from Chicago or
from towns or villages in the vicinity. Most of them were the chil
dren of industrial workers, nearly four-fifths being native bom of
foreign parents. In practically all cases, the parents had been in
this country for 10 years or more, spoke English, and in the main
were literate.
There were 404 boys and 97 girls among these child workers. More children
found working in the fields were 12 years of age and under 14 than in any other
age group, but those under 12 years of age constituted one-fourth (24.8 per cent)
of the whole group. The age distribution was practically the same among
boys and girls.
For the most part the children were employed only in the summer,
although there is a certain amount of employment on truck farms
throughout the year.
The work done was mainly weeding, twisting onions, cutting asparagus, pulling beets and carrots, and picking beans. None of it
appeared to be beyond the children’s strength, but the hours were
sometimes unduly long; 20.8 per cent worked 10 or more hours and
42.6 per cent worked 8 or more hours on their last day of work. The
work was apparently not allowed to interfere with school attend
ance, and the children made fair progress. Among those attending
the Chicago schools, the percentage of retardation was less than the
average for city children, and among those attending schools in
smaller places the percentage of retardation was much less than
was found in other studies of children engaged in farm work. Never
theless, the work presented some undesirable features.
50
CHILD LABOR
The problem of child labor on truck farms near Chicago is the problem of the
child working away from home at an early age, working long hours, going long
distances over complicated routes at hours too early in the morning and too late
in the evening, to places of employment unknown to his parents, and, in some
sections, with no certainty of finding work after the effort has been made. Illinois
has prescribed in its child labor law the number of hours in a day and in a week
that a child may work at any gainful occupation; and in order that the child
up to the age of 14 years at least, may benefit from the educational facilities
provided by the people, the State has decreed that he may not work for compen
sation during the school year. The provisions of this law have not been applied
to the work of children on farms, and little thought has been given to the need
for protecting child workers in agriculture from work either at too early an age
or for too long hours.
Children in General Farm Work
T h e m a j o r i t y of the 737 children studied who worked at general
farming were employed on the places on which they lived, working
in the fields with the older member^ of their families, “ but 301
(about two-fifths of the child workers) assisted neighboring farmers
in addition to their work at home, and 25 children (including 4 girls)
worked exclusively as hired laborers.” A trifle over three-fifths
(62 per cent) were 12 years of age or older; 13 per cent were under 10.
Most were of native American parentage.
The findings of the study are thus summarized:
Compared with truck, cotton, or tobacco farms, with beet or onion culture,
or with hop growing, the general farm offers comparatively little work within the
strength of girls or young children. The girls and the children under 12 years
of age included in the study usually did the easier kinds of work, such as hoeing,
cultivating, raking hay, and husking corn, but many of them harrowed, which is
hard work, though not heavy in the sense that it requires great physical strength.
Some of the boys 12 years of age and over did a great deal of field work, some of
it involving the use of heavy machinery and necessitating the handling of heavy
teams of horses. The majority of the children worked in the fields less than
two months, but about one-sixth worked at least three months during the farm
season.
The working-day was usually long for the younger as well as the older children.
It was seldom less than 8 hours and more often was 9 or 10 hours. The longest
working-days were reported for the spring, when plowing and other work in
preparation for seeding had to be done; fully one-half the children worked 10
or more hours a day at this time. The shortest working-days were those of the
harvest season, but even at that time two-thirds of the children who had worked
reported a working-day of at least 8 hours.
Farm work does not interfere with the school attendance of the children in
this section to the same extent as in most rural communities surveyed by the
Children’s Bureau, though some children lose a considerable part of their school
ing on account of their work. Almost one-half of the workers for whom school
records were obtained and who reported the reasons for their absences had been
absent from school for farm work during the year preceding the inquiry. Usually
this absence was for less than 10 days, but 71 children had lost from 1 to 5 months
of school attendance because of their farm work. Much of this absence for farm
work comes at the beginning or the close of the school year, when it is likely to
be particularly disastrous to the child’s progress in school.
Children on Colorado Farms
T h e s t u d y in Colorado, by the National Child Labor Committee,
included sections of Mesa, Montrose, and Delta Counties, on the
western slope of the State. The field work covered the period June
20 to November 20, 1924. A total of 330 families was studied,
classified by tenure as 147 owner families, 103 renter, 57 contract,
and 23 wage. In the families were 276 children 5 years old or younger,
FARM WORK OF CHILDREN
51
838 aged 6 to 15 inclusive, and 258 aged 16 or over. Of the children
from 6 to 15 inclusive, 650 did some farm work; 24 per cent of these
were 9 years old or younger, and 76 per cent were from 10 to 15
inclusive.
Here, as in Illinois, it was found that the children worked long
hours, the average day for all being 9.5 hours. This varied according
to the status of the parents, the children of owners having an average
day of 8.9 hours; those of renters, 9.6; those of wage workers, 9.2;
and those of contract workers, 10.3 hours. The number of days
worked during the season showed a similar variation, the average for
children of owners being 39, and for children of contract workers, 62.1.
Children were employed in the cultivation of beets, hay, onions,
fruit, potatoes, beans, corn, and grain. Of these, beets were more
important, from the standpoint of child labor, than any other.
“ Nearly 45 per cent of the children worked in this crop; 45 per cent
of the total time worked was in beets; and relatively more of the
younger children worked in beets than in any other crop.”
School Attendance and Grade Standing
T h e m e d i a n number of days during which the various schools had
been in session was, at the time the study closed, 46.7. Nearly
three-fifths of the children had been out of school because of their
work, the proportion varying according to the status of the parents.
More than nine-tenths of the contract and three-fifths of the renter, less than
half of the owner, and slightly more than one-fourth of the wage children missed
school for work. Nearly three-fifths of the contract children had not been in
school a single day; and there were 13 renter, 10 owner, and 2 wage children
that missed every day.
Of all the children, 3.4 per cent were, according to their age, ahead
of their grades, not quite half were at the age of their grades, and
nearly half were behind in their school work. By tenure, the per
centages of the retarded were: Owners, 35; renters, 50; wage, 56;
and contract, 81.
More than one-third of the retarded children were behind three years or more.
The degree of retardation was lowest among owner and highest among contract
children. Of the retarded children, 18 per cent of the owner, 34 per cent of the
renter, 40 per cent of the wage, and 61 per cent of the contract children were
behind three years or more.
Practically without exception, the contract families were Mexican
or of direct Mexican descent. The poor showing which they make in
all respects is partly due to their low economic status, with its accom
panying lack of opportunities for advancement, and partly to the
strong racial feeling in the communities in which they work.
The situation was well put by one man who said, “ The Mexican is a necessary
nuisance/’ meaning that he was necessary because the culture of beets demanded
him, a nuisance because he was a Mexican. The Mexican is looked upon,
spoken of, and acted toward as though he belonged to a different race or color.
He is in the community upon the suffrance of the local people. He is wanted
because of his work, and that only. * * *
Contract children are not expected either by their own parents or the resident
people in the community to go to school until after the beets are cut. In fact
the local school districts in which these families are living while working the beets
are assuming practically no responsibility for the schooling of the Mexican
children; they simply do not want them in their schools. Ostensibly their
39142°— 29------ 5
52
CHILD LABOR
reason for not wanting them is thatjas soon as beets are over the families will
move, and therefore to force them in would disorganize the school. This argu
ment has some merits but its validity is weakened by a knowledge that the
children are not wanted on the ground that they are Mexican.
Accidents and Accident Compensation to Employed
Minors
HE SUBJECTS of industrial accidents to minors, of the extent
to which such accidents are compensated, and of the effectiveness
of increased compensation as a preventive of the illegal employment
of minors, have received considerable attention in the larger indus
trial States during the past few years. From Ohio comes a study
of the accidents occurring to minors under 18, from Pennsylvania
a study of compensated accidents to minors, and from Wisconsin
some data concerning increased compensation in cases of accidents
occurring to minors who are illegally employed.
T
Industrial Acxidents to Minors in Ohio
I n 1927 the Consumers’ League of Ohio issued a study of industria
accidents to employed minors under 18 occurring in that State
during the first nine months of 1926. During that time 2,763 such
accidents were reported, of which 1,031 were sufficiently serious to
involve some loss of time from work. Of these 533 caused disability
lasting over 7 days, 27 caused permanent disability, and 3 were
fatal. The number of days lost through these accidents was 36,942,
the average number being 13.4 days per accident. Manufacturing
industries account for much the largest group of injuries, 1,889, and
for the greatest loss of time, 27,415 days.
The lack of data as to the occupational distribution of employed
minors makes it difficult to calculate the relative hazard of different
industries, but taking the figures of the 1920 census as to where minors
are employed, their accident rate per 1,000 employed was in agri
culture, 1.2; in manufacturing and mechanical industries, 49.5; in
extraction of minerals, 15.1; in trade, 40.3; and in professional and
clerical service, 1.6.
Machinery and handling objects seemed equally responsible for
injuries, the first accounting for 618 and the second for 632 cases.
Metal-working machinery made the worst showing, accounting for
366, or 59.2 per cent of the machine accidents. Textile machines
came next with 72, and paper and printing machinery followed
with 60 accidents. No other kind of machinery was responsible
for as many as 40 accidents. The average number of days lost
through machine accidents was 233^, but there was much variation
in this respect.
Although the metal-working machines show the largest group of machine
accidents, the average number of days lost from accidents on machines of the
metal industry is 6J4 days less than the average for all machines (although this
includes 10 permanent disabilities—52.6 per cent of the total). Paper and wood
working machines, on the other hand, although the number of accidents is com
paratively few, rank at the top with almost three times the average for number
of days lost. Leather, clay, glass, and stone, and even food manufacturing
machines, fall well above the average.
ACCIDENTS TO EMPLOYED MINORS
53
The league made a special investigation of compensable injuries to
minors. Of 378 cases for which it was possible to gain information
about the work certificate required for minors under 18, in 171 (45.2
per cent) no certificate was on file, and in 37 (9.8 per cent) the certifi
cate on file authorized the minor’s employment at a different job from
that in which he was injured. Other illegalities were found.
Even more serious, of course, than the lack of a certificate is the employment of
children at prohibited occupations. Of the 496 cases of injuries lasting over 7
days on which we had data, 37, or 7.4 per cent, were found to have occurred in
occupations definitely prohibited by the child labor law.
In 14 of these cases of injury in prohibited occupations, the sufferers
were operating emory or polishing or buffing wheels, in 6 cases they
were running elevators, in 5 they were operating lifts or hoisting
machinery, in 3 they were working during prohibited hours, in 2 they
were engaged in track repairing, and the others were scattered through
different occupations expressly forbidden as too hazardous for workers
under 18.
An effort was made to find out how far the accident had affected the
child's industrial life. Of 293 who had been injured, only 80, or 27.3
per cent, were working on the job they held at the time of the acci
dent. Of the 97 who were on different jobs, 41 said they had changed
because they wanted different work, 20 had been laid off from their
former work, 26 had been incapacitated for it, and for 10 no reason
was obtained.
A study of the amounts received under the workmen’s compensa
tion law leads to the conclusion that compensation for injuries to
minors is inadequate. The law calls for a payment of two-thirds of
the wage received at the time of the accident, but owing to the so-called
“ waiting period,” the compensation actually received does not come
up to this amount. For 414 cases in which full wage data could be
obtained, it was found that the median wage at the time of the acci
dent was $16 a week.
Let us look closely at what happens to the child receiving the median wage of
$16 who suffers an industrial injury. Suppose he is disabled for three weeks; he
receives nothing for the first week; for each of the other two weeks, his compensa
tion is two-thirds of $16, or $10.66. The total compensation for the three weeks’
disablement is thus $21.32, or $7.11 for each week of actual time lost.
A study of the actual compensation per week received by 410
children suffering from temporary disablement, all of whom had been
in full-time employment, showed that the median compensation per
week was $6.64. “ This is only 41 per cent of the median wage of $16
instead of 66^ per cent. The difference is, of course, due to the seven
days' waiting period before compensation begins.”
Two recommendations are made as to desirable changes in the law
regarding compensation for children injured in industrial accidents.
The minimum compensation for such children might well be raised.
The figures on compensation actually received by child workers would indicate
that a real hardship falls upon the child and his family by reason of the small
amount of compensation. This could be remedied in large measure by an in
creased minimum compensation.
The second recommendation is that when a child is injured while
illegally employed, he should be entitled to double or triple compensa
tion. Several States already have such a provision, which is especially
effective in discouraging the employment of children in prohibited
occupations or under illegal conditions.
54
CHILD LABOE
Compensated Accidents to Working Children in Pennsylvania
A r a t h e r exhaustive and detailed analysis of compensated acci
dents to minors (under the age of 21) in Fermsylvania during the
year 1924 was issued by the State department of labor and industry
as its Special Bulletin No. 17. The report includes only accidents
which were compensated in that year under the Pennsylvania law,
amounting to about 40.5 per cent of the reported accidents and about
one-eighth of the compensated accidents, and only those resulting
in disabilities extending beyond the 10-day waiting period. Although
the tabular matter in the report is extensive and covers age and sex
of minors injured, extent of disability, industries in which employed,
causes of the injuries, compensation paid, etc., only a brief summary
of these points can be included here.
The report notes the cases of 9,197 boys and 773 girls, of whom
270 were under the age of 16 years. An indication of the severity
of the accidents sustained by these children is the fact that the aver
age time lost in cases of temporary duration was 35.2 days, as com
pared with an average of 42.7 days lost by adults. There were 117
death claims, 2 permanent total disability claims, 425 permanent
partial disability claims, and 9,426 temporary injury claims. Acci
dents to these minors resulted in about the same degree of impair
ment as those to adults. Thus, of 68,804 compensated claims of
adults during 1924, the percentages were: Death, 2.7; permanent
disability, 4.2; temporary disability, 93.1; while the percentages of
minors in these classes were, respectively, 1.2, 4.3, and 94.5.
Most of the minors suffered injuries to hands, arms, and fingers,
comprising 55.8 per cent of the permanent disability claims and affect
ing 54.2 per cent of the boys and 75.4 per cent of the girls. Of the
624 cases (6.3 per cent of all cases) of blood poisoning developing,
84.9 per cent were boys, and cuts and lacerations were responsible
for 43.6 per cent of these cases. Crushes and bruises and cuts and
lacerations were the kinds of injury in three-fifths of all cases (63
per cent). Crushes and bruises caused 35.1 per cent of the deaths, and
amputations resulted in 49.2 per cent of the permanent disabilities.
As may be expected, the largest number of minors were injured in
manufacturing industries, and the next largest number in mining and
quarrying, 49.3 per cent in the former and 29.1 per cent in the latter.
Eighty and five-tenths per cent of the girls and 46.6 per cent of the
boys were injured in the manufacturing branches of industry and
31.6 per cent of the boys were injured in mines and quarries. How
ever, when degree of disability is considered, we find that mines and
quarries caused 53 per cent of the deaths and manufacturing 29.1
per cent; that manufacturing caused 69.6 per cent of the permanent
disabilities and mines and quarries caused 18.8 per cent; and that
manufacturing caused 48.6 per cent of the temporary disabilities
and mines and quarries caused 29.3 per cent. The .percentage in
each of these cases is far above the percentage in other industries.
In all instances where manufacturing* industries figured, metals and
metal products stand highest, with 12.8 per cent of the deaths, 39.4
per cent of the permanent injuries, and 24.8 per cent of the temporary
cases.
Vehicles (mostly in coal mining) caused the greatest number of
accidents to boys (23.8 per cent) and machinery the greatest number
ACCIDENTS TO EMPLOYED MINORS
55
to girls (53 per cent). These figures may be compared with 21.4 per
cent in the handling-objects group, in which group occurred the
greatest number of accidents to adults. Vehicles were responsible
for 33.3 per cent of the deaths, and falling objects for 23.1 per cent,
while 63.5 per cent of the permanent disabilities were due to ma
chinery. The temporary disabilities were largely due to vehicles
(22.4 per cent), to handling objects (20.6 per cent), and to machinery
(20.2 per cent).
It appears that the median average weekly wage of minors injured
was $10.56 for those 14 and 15 years of age, $17.89 for those 16 and
17 years of age, and $24.70 for those 18, 19, and 20 years of age.
This is significant in view of the fact that compensation is payable
up to 60 per cent of the average weekly wage, with a maximum of $12
and a minimum of $6, unless the employee was receiving less than $6
at the time of injury, in which case an amount equal to the full wages
is paid. Most of the injured (7,118, or 71.4 per cent) were in the
highest age group, of whom 5,186, or 72.9 per cent, received earnings
of more than $20 a week, the compensation therefore being limited
to the maximum of $12. There being also 36.7 per cent of the age
group 16 and 17 years receiving earnings of over $20 a week, it will
be seen that more than half (61.6 per cent) of the injured children
received less than 60 per cent of their wages in compensation. Only
4.3 per cent received more than 60 per cent of their wages in com
pensation, showing that comparatively few (414, or 4.2 per cent)
were, before their injury, receiving less than $10 a week and conse
quently were awarded the minimum of $6 per week, or their actual
wages if less than $6.
The average compensation awarded to minors was $1,496.04 in
death claims, $635.58 in permanent disability claims, and $40.04 in
temporary disabilit}^ claims, or an average of $82.63 for all cases.
This compares with an average of $177.35 awarded to adults. The
total compensation awarded was $823,831, apportioned as follows:
Death, $175,037; permanent disability, $271,392; temporary disa
bility, $377,402.
Compensation for Industrial Injuries to Minors in Wisconsin
I n A p r i l , 1928, the Industrial Commission of Wisconsin published
a discussion of the use of increased compensation in cases of industrial
accidents to children illegally employed. Under the Wisconsin Law
no child under 17 years of age may be employed unless the employer
first has on file a labor permit authorizing his employment, issued by
the commission or by some person designated by it. The State also
has a list of employments which, because of their hazardous character,
are prohibited to minors of different ages, irrespective of whether or
not they have labor permits. If a minor of permit age suffers an indus
trial injury while employed without a permit, he is entitled to double
compensation; if the injury occurs while he is employed in a place
for which permits may not be issued, or if, whether or not of permit
age, he is injured while employed in a prohibited occupation, he is
entitled to treble compensation. The employer must pay the extra
compensation, which in special cases may run up to approximately
$36,000, and he can not insure against this risk.
CHILD LABOR
56
The principle of treble liability in prohibited employment cases is that the
child shall receive approximately full compensatory indemnity for the loss
incurred; such liability results from the individual employer’s violation of laws
governing the employment of children, and hence it is not an insurable liability
to be distributed upon other employers.
Statistics are presented showing that since the beginning of 1923
there have been 324 cases involving increased compensation because
of violations of the child labor law. In 265 cases, the minors, being
under 17, were employed without a permit first having been secured,
and in 59 cases the accident occurred while the minor was engaged
in a prohibited occupation; in 20 of these latter cases the ages were
17 and over. In 1927 two-thirds (30) of the cases were of employ
ment without permit, involving double liability, and the remainder
(15 cases) were of employment at a prohibited occupation or employ
ment, involving treble liability. The amount of increased compensa
tion paid by employers varied from $10 or less in one case to between
$3,000 and $4,000. “ The severity of accidents is capricious. One
prohibited employment case cost the employer less than $20, another
case cost the employer nearly $5,800.” The number of cases, with
the normal indemnity and the amount of indemnity paid for acci
dents occurring in illegal employment, for the last five years, are as
follows:
IN C R E A S E D C O M P E N S A T IO N E N D E M N I T Y IN C U R R E D B Y E M P L O Y E R S IN C A SE S
I N V O L V I N G V I O L A T I O N O F C H IL D L A B O R L A W S , 1923 T O 1927
Year
1923.....................................
1924__................................
1925____________________
1926__................................
1927.....................................
Number
of cases
69
87
57
66
45
Total amount
of normal
indemnity
$9,782
15,214
5,806
12,839
11, 111
Total
indemnity
paid
$29,422
55,819
17,402
35,273
27,223
COOPERATION
Development of Cooperative Stores in 1927 and 1928
ITH a few outstanding exceptions the past two years have
been a period of quiet progress by the consumers’ cooperative
retail societies. Strikes have been the chief factor militating against
these societies. The coal strike, especially, has had an adverse effect
upon societies in the coal fields. Unfavorable conditions are also
reported in certain textile centers. With these exceptions, the move
ment continues a slow stabilization and expansion.
Greater stress is being laid upon correct business practice and
accounting methods in cooperative stores. All the central organiza
tions—both educational and wholesaling—regard this as one of their
chief functions. The value of this educational work and practical
service toward stabilizing and assuring the solvency of cooperative
stores can hardly be estimated.
One of the noteworthy developments in the attempt to raise the
general level of excellence in the cooperative movement was the
decision of the board of directors of the Cooperative League to issue
each year a certificate of merit to those of its affiliated societies which
attain a set standard of cooperative practice and business procedure.
The requirements to be met are as follows:
W
1. That the fundamental principles of Rochdale cooperation be observed.
2. That every member society render at least semiannually a financial report
to office of national or district league.
3. That every member society shall have an audit made at least once a year
by an accountant acceptable to the directors of the league.
4. That every society carry on educational activities satisfactory to the
directors of the league.
5. That every society in a territory where a cooperative wholesale exists shall
give preference to such wholesale in its purchases.
It is planned that eventually societies will be required to meet
these requirements in order to retain their membership in the league.
The established cooperative wholesales have pretty well recovered
from the hard times of 1921 and 1922, and a movement toward
expansion of their number has taken place.
Educational Bodies
T h e y e a r 1928 was marked by the congress of the societies affiliated
to the central cooperative union, The Cooperative League of the
United States of America. At this congress, which was held October
29-31, at Waukegan, 111., it was reported that the league at the end
of 1927 had in affiliation 155 societies having a combined membership
of 77,826. There were also 722 individual members of the league
and 13 fraternal members. Excluding credit, insurance and banking
organizations, these societies did a business of $13,765 444 during
the year.
59
60
COOPERATION
There are three district educational bodies—for the Northern
States, the Central States, and the Eastern States. In sections
where a district league exists the local societies affiliate with the
national league through the district organization, but where there
is no such district organization, the local societies affiliate directly
with the national league.
Northern States Cooperative League.—The territory of the league
includes the States of Minnesota, North and South Dakota, Wis
consin, and Michigan.
During 1926-27 several of the newly affiliated societies failed. One
of these was a promoted society in which many working people of
Minneapolis had invested money. Its failure led to much adverse
feeling against the society and cooperation in general, which militated
against the league. In spite of this, however, it was able to report
an increase from 1927 to 1928 in number of affiliated societies from
82 to 96. The membership of the affiliated societies increased from
52,828 to 54,824 and their sales from $9,821,878 in 1926 to $10,421,784
in 1927.
Central States Cooperative League.—This league’s territory covers
the States of Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. Its way has been a most
difficult one. It was organized shortly after the dissolution of the
Central States Cooperative Wholesale and had to contend with the
ill will engendered by that failure. Also the economic condition of the
coal fields where most of the societies of the State are located has hin
dered its development. By 1926 only about 25 cooperative societies
were left in existence in the State. Fourteen of these are members of
the league; they range in size from 33 to 1,400 members and the annual
business done by them ranges from $1,600 to $750,000.
Lack of funds and the continuance of the coal strike has prevented
organization work by the league in Indiana and Ohio.
The league maintains for its members an addressograph and multigraph service, poster service, and speakers’ bureau. It has been
carrying on a campaign for greater educational work by local societies
and against credit trading. Some joint buying is being carried on in
such staples as coffee, tea, condiments, etc., under the cooperative
label.
Eastern States Cooperative League.—The Eastern States Cooperative
League has for its field the States of Massachusetts, Connecticut, New
York, and New Jersey. From 1927 to 1928 the number of societies
affiliated to it increased from 15 to 29 societies with some 16,000 mem
bers.
The league is engaged mainly in educational work, having held a
training school and several week-end conferences. It is working on a
course of lectures on cooperation which it is offering to schools and
colleges, and has been considering the holding of an evening coopera
tive training school.
Progress of Wholesale Cooperation
T h e Cooperative Central Exchange, at Superior, Wis., is the whole
sale society of a group of local societies in Michigan, Minnesota, and
Wisconsin. It has been in operation since 1917. Always handi
capped by lack of adequate capital, it has nevertheless made steady
DEVELOPMENT OF COOPERATIVE STORES
61
progress. In 1926 its sales passed the million mark ($1,048,293), and
it had 74 local societies in membership. By 1927 its membership had
increased to 76, and its sales rose to $1,255,676. This wholesale's cost
of operation in 1926 was 10.6 per cent of sales and in 1928 only 9.6
per cent of sales.. The table below shows the development of this
wholesale society which alone of the purely consumers' wholesales
weathered the hard times of 1921 and 1922:
D E V E L O P M E N T O F C O O P E R A T I V E C E N T R A L E X C H A N G E , 1917 to 1928, B Y Y E A R S
Year
1917
_________________
1918
___________________
1919______________________
1920__________ ______ _____
1921______________________
1922______________________
1923______________________
1924______________________
1925__________ __________ _
1926______________________
1927_________________ _____
1928.........................................
Number
of mem
ber socie
ties
Number
of cus
tomer so
cieties
15
25
40
48
56
56
56
60
65
74
76
84
15
50
83
100
103
112
108
99
93
99
105
114
Sales
.
$25,574
132,423
313,664
409, 591
312, 347
337,567
504,177
613,215
835,532
1,048,293
1,255,676
1,517,813
N et
gain
$268
2,063
7,330
6,798
3,499
1,183
5,181
5,973
8,869
11,648
18,335
23,894
Share
capital
$480
4,020
6,940
10,890
15,389
16,292
17,993
21,501
27,279
37,249
48,865
65,733
Surplus
$1,165
4,223
4,460
4,704
5,077
5,897
6,850
8,501
10,603
12,565
Net
worth
$748
6,351
15,436
21,911
23,348
22,280
28,250
33,370
42,998
57,398
77,803
102,193
The Grange Cooperative Wholesale, at Seattle, Wash., was organ
ized in 1919 to serve the Grange cooperative societies in that State,
and in 1922 it took over the Cooperative Foods Products Association,
a consumers' organization. Some 35 of the Grange stores own stock
in the wholesale. The sales of the organization in 1927 amounted
to $105,880; the net earnings for the year were $1,785, which was
applied to a previous deficit of $5,837, leaving the deficit of $4,052
still remaining. The course of the sales of the wholesale since 1920
are shown below:
192
192
192
192
0
1
2
3
$53, 570
44, 254
156, 122
135,161
192
192
192
192
4
5
7
8
_________ $246,096
102, 677
105, 880
223, 290
This wholesale, serving the farmers' societies as it does, naturally
handles not only consumers' goods but also farm supplies. It owns
and operates a feed mill whose capacity is 100 carloads per month
and buys the whole output of a soap factory to supply its customers.
One of its most important services is an accounting and auditing
service for the affiliated stores.
The Kansas Union Jobbing Association is, like the Grange whole
sale, an organization serving farmers' societies, in the State of Kansas.
During the first nine months of 1928 the net gain on its operations
was $37,392. This was applied to wipe out a previous deficit, leaving
a surplus of $2,976 at the end of September, 1928.
The Farmers' Union State Exchange, at Omaha, Nebr., handles
at wholesale nearly everything used on the farm, besides operating 10
branch retail stores and acting as purchasing agent for the federated
oil associations of the State. Following heavy losses in 1920 and 1921
the wholesale has made a steady recovery. Its profits in 1926
62
COOPERATION
amounted to $34,222, in 1927 to $49,096, and in 1928, $37,930.
course of its business since 1920 is shown below:
The
Sales
1920.................... ...............$2,387,972
1 9 2 1 .._________________ 1,468,133
192 2
1, 148, 133
192 3
_______ _
1,335,662
........................ 1,347,605
192 4
192 5
--------- $1,521,312
192 6
----------- 1, 512, 024
192 7
1, 618, 288
1928. ______ ____________ 2,146,860
Among the developments of the past two years have been the calling
of a conference early in 1928 to consider the formation of a cooperative
wholesale for the northern Pacific Coast States and the establishment
of the Eastern Cooperative Wholesale, with headquarters in New
York City. The latter was the outgrowth of the scheme of collective
purchasing which has been carried on for several years by the societies
of the Eastern States Cooperative League. Business is reported
to have begim in January, 1929.
Local Retail Cooperation
S o c i e t i e s of the North Central States have continued to progress
during the past two years, showing an increase in membership and
in sales. This district contains the largest local consumers’ society
in the United States, the Franklin Cooperative Creamery Association
of Minneapolis, with 4,632 shareholders, and sales for 1928 amounting
to $3,410,397. Its net gain for the year was $95,529.
This society has a male chorus and band, formed among the em
ployees, and a baseball team. During the 1928 a motion-picture film
was made, showing the processes and working of the plant, to be used
in the work of the organization in familiarizing the people of the city
with what it is doing.
An interesting development in this section was the formation of the
Mesaba Range Cooperative Federation, by 17 stores in the iron
district of Minnesota, to function as an educational body and to act
as purchasing agent for them.
In certain other sections of the country the consumers’ societies
have not been so successful. This is especially true of the associations
in the mining districts of Illinois, Ohio, and Pennsylvania.
The prolonged cessation of work at the mines in these districts has
had its effect upon the cooperative societies, of which the miners
are the mainstay. With no income except what was received in
relief or in strike benefits the purchasing power^ of the members
almost disappeared. The cooperative stores, which of course are
dependent upon the patronage of their members, can not hope to keep
on indefinitely when that patronage is gone. The result has been
that a number of societies have been forced to discontinue business.
Others, however, are still in operation. The Central States Coopera
tive League states in this connection: “ The membership of 15 of our
oldest and best cooperative societies is made up almost entirely of
coal miners and these societies are fighting desperately to keep their
cooperative enterprises, which they have so patiently and laboriously
built up, from being destroyed by the curse of unemployment.”
Pacific coast.—Consumers’ cooperation on the southern Pacific
coast has never recovered entirely from the losses sustained at the
time of the failure of the Pacific Cooperative League. Individual
DEVELOPMENT OF COOPERATIVE STORES
63
societies are prospering, but there is no organized cooperative move
ment in that section. On the northern Pacific coast, however, al
though many of the societies were lost as the result of the failure of the
National Cooperative Association, some of the ground has been
recovered, largely through the efforts of the Grange Cooperative
Wholesale at Seattle, and, as stated, steps have been taken by the
cooperative societies in the Astoria, Oreg., district, looking toward the
formation of a central purchasing organization.
Eastern States.—No general report is available concerning the
condition of the movement in the Northeastern States, but the data
at hand indicate a fairly satisfactory state of things, especially
among the societies affiliated to the Eastern States Cooperative
League. These societies have their own auditing service. Beginning
in 1925, with the joint purchase of several carloads of flour for two
bakery associations which were members of the league, the pooling
of purchases by the affiliated societies has been gradually extended,
and, as already mentioned, a cooperative wholesale society has been
started to serve them.
The conditions in the textile industry of New England have
adversely affected some of the cooperative societies of the section.
The manager of the United Cooperative Society of Fitchburg, Mass.,
reported that upon the sale and subsequent moving away of one of the
textile mills of the town, the store lost some 300 of its members who
had been employed in the mill but had to leave town to seek work
elsewhere. Thus within a year the membership of the society drop
ped from 800 to about 500.
Cooperative Purchase of Gasoline ^nd Motor Oils
D e v e l o p m e n t of the cooperative gasoline stations continues,
mainly in the rural districts of Minnesota, Nebraska, and Illinois.
Illinois.—An article in the January 21, 1928, issue of Agricultural
Cooperation states that in the past two years 19 farmers' cooperative
oil stations have been set up in Illinois. In most cases each of these
stations serves a whole county; they do not as a rule have servicepump stations but make deliveries direct to the farm by truck.
Two kinds of stock are issued—common stock of no par value,
issued to farm bureau members only, ownership of which carries
with it the right to vote in the organization and to participate in the
distribution of patronage dividends, and preferred stock, ranging in
the various organizations from $25 to $100, carrying the right to
vote and to a dividend of from 6 to 8 per cent but no right of par
ticipation in patronage dividends.
Fourteen of these local associations have their own central purchas
ing organization, the Illinois Farm Supply Co., which began business
April 1, 1927. It also issues common and preferred stock, like the
local organizations, but adds a third class, preferred stock of $1 par
value, the whole issue of 2,500 shares being held by the Illinois
Agricultural Association.
The central company is managed by a board of nine directors elected
by delegates from the county organizations.
Its sales up to December 1, 1927, consisted of 261 carloads of gaso
line, 138 carloads of kerosene, 373^ carloads of lubricating oils,
48,236 pounds of grease, and 2,471 gallons of denatured alcohol.
COOPERATION
64
Nebraska.—In Nebraska the growth of this new phase of coopera
tion is being fostered by the farmers' union, and at the end of 1928
there were some 45 associations in the State. A state-wide central
purchasing organization has been formed, the actual buying agent
being the Farmers' Union State Exchange at Omaha. Fourteen local
organizations are making all their purchases through the State asso
ciation. Some of these are not members of the association, however,
because they do not meet the requirement that 60 per cent of their
shareholders be members of the farmers' union.
Minnesota.1—Most of the 61 cooperative oil associations in operation
in Minnesota are in the southern part of the State. Of these, 19
furnished membership figures, the average being 360 members per
association. The paid-in share capital averages $9,611 per association.
According to the State oil inspector's report, 43 of the associations
sold 10,782,000 gallons of gasoline and 3,273,000 gallons of kerosene
during 1927. These associations have had a remarkable success.
Thirty-eight of them handled more than 50 per cent of the gasoline,
kerosene, and distillate shipped into the towns where they were
operating, and 21 handled more than 75 per cent.
In 1927 eight associations earned an average of 123 per cent on
their capital stock and 40 an average of 68.2 per cent. “ This showing
will not be equaled in 1928 as there have been severe price wars in
cooperative oil territory, but the purpose of the cooperative organ
izations will be attained nevertheless."
It is interesting to note that practically all of the price cuts have been in
cooperative oil territory and have been brought about by competitors. The
strength of the cooperative lies in the fact that the consumers get the profits
regardless of the price. The cooperatives do not cut price but follow their com
petitors. In one case where the competition put the price of gasoline several
cents below cost, the cooperative closed its doors for a few weeks until the price
came back to normal. In this case there was no difficulty in getting the trade
back, and they had enjoyed buying their gasoline below cost.
Development of Postal Credit Union Movement
HE credit union movement is a fast-growing one. Realizing
the value of the credit union as a means of monetary assistance
for members in times of stress, and shocked by revelations of the
usurious rates of interest demanded by loan sharks, various tradeunions axe encouraging the formation of credit unions by their locals.
The Brotherhood of Railway Clerks' local lodges have been very
active, and the Railway Clerk for April, 1928(, states that up to the
time of its issue some 41 lodges had formed credit unions. Among
the earliest labor groups to adopt this form of organization were the
postal employees, being encouraged in this by the service relations
council of the Postal Service. The first postal credit union was
formed in the Brockton (Mass.) post office in 1923, with eight charter
members and “ assets of less than $20." Credit unions have devel
oped steadily in the Postal Service since then, and Bulletin No. 8,
issued by the service relations council, shows that on April 1, 1928,
there were among the post-office employees 168 credit unions, with
T
JData from Northern States Cooperative Yearbook for 1928,
BUILDING AND LOAN ASSOCIATIONS
65
19,098 members and resources of $1,265,548. The table below,
compiled from the above-mentioned report and previous bulletins
of the service relations council, shows the development of these
credit unions since the inception of the movement five years ago.
DEVELOPM ENT
Date
Jan. 5, 1923 ___________ ________ End of 1923---------------------------------Dec. 31,1924_____________________
Apr. 1, 1925______________________
Oct. 1, 1925_________________ _____
Apr. 1, 1926............. ......................... Oct. 1, 1926_______________ _______
Apr. 1, 1927_____ _____ ___________
Oct. 1, 1927___________ ______ _____
Apr. 1, 1928______ ________ _______
Number
of
societies
1
7
25
36
44
48
63
75
83
168
OF P O S T A L C R E D I T U N IO N S
Number
of
members
8
0)
0)
5,087
7,320
9,726
11,429
13,993
16,257
19,098
Paid-in
share
capital
$20
0)
0)
157,848
250,209
422, 686
530,381
. 731,773
926,857
1,179,293
Deposits
0)
0
$8,542
7,734
16,837
32,808
50,366
74,678
86,255'
Total
loans
granted
0)
0
$283,634
590,919
1,054,303
1, 599,465
2,310,633
3,183,890
4,160,262
Loans
out
standing
0)
$162,764
257,702
385,176
583,309
723,243
981,805
1,201,023
N ot reported.
Development of Building and Loan Associations,
1926-27
HE REPORT of the secretary of the United States League of
Local Building and Loan Associations, made to the thirty-sixth
annual meeting of that body, held in Dallas, Tex., in May, 1928,
contains data showing the development of these associations during
1927. Comparison with the previous year’s report shows that from
June 30, 1926, to June 30, 1927, the number of associations increased
by 274, the membership by 670,556, and the total resources by
$844,458,644. There were 21 failures during the year, as compared
with 12 the year before. These involved a loss to the stockholders
estimated at $1,013,000.
As to conditions during the year, the report states as follows:
T
The past year has been notably one of easy money and declining interest rates.
Associations generally have experienced a keener competition for loans. Money
has been pouring into the building and loan associations in greater volume than
has ever been experienced heretofore, with the result that in the larger cities
particularly there has accumulated a surplus of funds, which it has been a
problem to keep safely and profitably employed. While the efforts of building
associations have heretofore been directed toward getting investing members,
they have had to readjust themselves and go after the borrowing class. This
has been a new experience. In their loaning field they now find the insurance
companies, the mortgage investment companies, and the various financial insti
tutions, including the national banks, contending with them for business which
in the past came to them practically without any effort. They now have to
convince the borrower of the superior service which they can and do render and
must demonstrate the more attractive loaning proposition which they have to
offer their prospects. In other words, building and loan associations now have
to employ salesmanship in disposing of their commodity—mortgage loans for
home owning or home buying purposes.
The table below shows the number of associations, the total mem
bership, and the total assets, by States.
66
COOPERATION
D E V E L O P M E N T O F B U I L D I N G A N D L O A N A S S O C IA T IO N S I N T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S ,
1926-27
State
N um
ber of Member
ship
associ
ations
Total assets
54,700
4,400
58,729
261,232
119,631
44,504
17,750
$43,600,944
1,942,019
35,830,037
241,796,747
42,476,646
20,614,415
10,212,369
63,768
28.500
6,500
4,700
861,000
404,521
53,049
194,200
141,900
190,650
29,180
330,000
497,220
206,774
80,956
21,800
229,305
41.500
57,191,666
40,840,280
2,500,000
2,738,752
388,097,831
274,240,104
43,497,008
117,979,508
85,509,918
174,818,227
19,549,005
A labam a.................
Arizona....................
Arkansas.................
73
California................
191
Colorado..................
62
Connecticut...........
38
Delaware............... .
42
District of Colum
22
b ia ..................—
115
Florida___________
Georgia1_________
30
12
Idaho_____________
910
Illinois____________
404
Indiana___________
Iowa____________
74
Kansas___________ \ 152
K entucky.........._.J
151
Louisiana_________ !
105
38
M aine____________ 1
Maryland i_ _ .........' 1, 210
Massachusetts____1 221
M ic h ig a n ...............1
78
Minnesota...............'
84
M ississippi............
36
Missouri__________
251
M ontana....... ..........
30
,
210 000,000
478,005,147
126,799,126
32,422,622
15,417,900
159,773,547
16,337,508
* Figures estimated.
State
N um
ber of Member
ship
associ
ations
N e b ra s k a ...............
N evada....................
N ew Hampshire. _
28
N ew Jersey. .......... 1,536
18
N ew Mexico...........
N ew Y o rk ...............
313
N orth Carolina___
235
19
North Dakota____
827
O hio.....................
89
Oklahoma_____
40
Oregon_________
4,427
Pennsylvania - .
7
Rhode Island. .
South Carolina
150
24
South D akota..
32
Tennessee_____
143
T e x a s ............
24
U t a h ..............
10
Vermont_______
87
Virginia-----------72
Washington___
60
W est Virginia. .
182
W isconsin_____
14
W yom ing______
1
235,581
900
16,444
1,166,980
7,150
555,242
102,000
16,800
2,282,693
184,810
44,700
1,776,104
34,437
28,000
7,705
14,775
145,380
92,921
4,458
56,300
268,404
60,200
261,685
26,123
Total assets
$155,213,561
523,714
10,397,431
886,167,505
3,833,490
349,533,632
91.000.000
8,859,341
1,035,429,317
116,318,814
21,913,657
1,245,987,953
22,635,780
23.000.000
5,497,015
9,127,109
92,632,277
37,251,861
2,817,009
50,149,670
101,252,277
36,128,266
217,563,993
13,137,453
Total_______ -°12,900.11,336,261 7,178,562,451
* A s shown in report; items given add to 12,804.
Condition of Labor Banks, June 30, 1928
following data, showing the resources of the 28 labor banks on ►
June 30, 1928, were furnished by the industrial relations section
T HE
of Princeton University:
C O N D I T I O N OF L A B O R B A N K S AS OF JU N E 30, 1928
Nam e of bank, and location
Federation Bank & Trust Co., N ew Y o rk ___
Capital
$750,000
,
Engineers National Bank of Cleveland........... . 1 000,000
Amalgamated Bank of N ew Y o rk ..................... .
650.000
Telegraphers’ National Bank of St. Louis____
Labor Cooperative National Bank of Pater
son, N . J............... ............................................. .......
Brotherhood of Railway Clerks National
Bank, Cincinnati____________ __________ ____
M t . Vernon Savings Bank, Washington, D . C.
Labor National Bank of New ark....... ............... .
500.000
300.000
200.000
400.000
250.000
Surplus
and un
divided
profits
ri $750,000
L2 297,278
359,956
1 350,000
. 2 85,470
224,303
r 1150,000
L 235,782
r 150,000
L 2 43,794
151,822
148,886
r 1
5 0 ,0 0 0
Total resources
Deposits
1927
[$19,036,393 $19,417,237 $21,168,585
16,780,115
23,788,824
20,154,680
\ 9,837,679
9,396,381
11,209,688
6,755,030
7,384,032
7,718,383
\ 5,031,616
5,015,004
5,675,320
\ 4,507,582
4,768,627
5,274,641
3,730,431
3,626,281
3,919,840
3,248,177
4,374,575
4,064,412
Engineers National Bank of Boston................. .
500.000
► 2,833,020
4,298,866
3,732,132
Amalgamated Trust & Savings Bank, Chi
cago............................................................................ .
200.000 L 2 42,175 r 3,129,408
3,449,195
3,493,885
Brotherhoods Cooperative National Bank of
Spokane.................................. ........... .......................
Brotherhood Cooperative National Bank,
Tacoma, W a s h . . . ................................ ............. ..
Brotherhood Cooperative National Bank,
P o r tla n d ................................................... .............
Transportation Brotherhoods National Bank,
Minneapolis______________________ _____ ______
i Surplus.
l 2 22,095
moo,ooo
200,000
89,097
2,687,913
3,249,073
3,195,679
200,000
45,164
2,677,757
3,163,717
3,122,879
200,000
70,722
2,287,024
2,921,997
2,763,149
200,000
61,540
2,396,009
2,697,637
2,743,204
2 Undivided profits.
HOUSING SOCIETIES
67
C O N D I T I O N O F L A B O R B A N K S A S O F J U N E 30, 1928— Continued
Nam e of bank, and location
Labor National Bank of Jersey C ity____
Brotherhood National Bank of San Francisco .
People’s Cooperative State Bank, Hammond,
Ind.............................................................................. .
Deposits
1928
$200,000
600,000
} 100,000
American Bank, Toledo......................................... .
200,000
Brotherhood Bank & Trust Co., Seattle..........
Farmers’ & Workingmen's Savings Bank,
Jackson, M ic h ....................................................... .
Nottingham Savings & Banking Co., Cleve
land............................................................................ .
Hawkins County Bank,3 Rogersville, T e n n ...
260,000
Labor National Bank of Great Falls, M o n t ...
100,000
United Labor Bank & Trust Co., Indianapolis.
112,500
Gary Labor Bank, Gary, I n d ...............................
60.000
Labor Bank & Trust Co., Houston....................
100,000
Labor National Bank of Three Forks, M o n t ..
25.000
100,000
75.000
50.000
55,793
130.000
}
215,412
150.000
}
2 4,241
40,000
16,300
1 15.000
53,804
1 10.500
2 8,786
122.500
211,142
}
i 10,000
Brotherhood State Bank,4 Spokane.........
25.000
2,643
13.000
2 951
15.000
2 5,704
15.000
21,745
Total (28 banks)...................................
7,437,500
3,606,614
1 Surplus.
2 Undivided profits.
Total resources
Surplus
and un
divided
profits
Capital
2
$2,105,277
1,669,123
$2,040,548
2,331,773
1,705,643
1,871,319
1,933,634
1,203,683
998,032
1,588,667
$2,709,095
2,433,328
911,954
1,372,969
1,201,964
971,087
1,003,810
1,095,938
798,717
891,508
895,693
722,261
670,104
826,065
699,892
677,376
822,178
658,222
1,221,227
810,144
759,892
627,130
606,132
423,878
518,339
528,888
192,818
209,798
228,522
159,891
237,431
192,563
98,165,834 111,368,973 114,717,673
3 Statement as of Apr. 24,1928.
* Statement as of Feb. 28, 1928.
Housing Societies
HE YEAR 1928 has seen the further development or completion
of several cooperative housing projects in New York City. Un
doubtedly the largest of these is the cooperative community of the
United Workers’ Cooperative Association, with its group of apartment
buildings providing living quarters for 1,185 families. The next
largest project is that of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers, which
has provided housing accommodations for 303 families, and has
begun work on buildings which will house 192 additional families.
These projects are described on pages 68 to 74.
Another colony is that of the Jewish Cooperative Homes Associa
tion, which has provided homes for some 250 families. These tenants
have established a cooperative store society and are providing them
selves with groceries, meats, dairy products, fruit and vegetables,
drugs, and stationery, to the amount of between $12,000 and $15,000
per month.
A fourth group is that of the Jewish National Workers’ Cooperative
Homes Association, whose colony includes 125 families. Cooperative
purchasing is also being done by these tenants.
The Consumers’ Cooperative Services, which started a small cafe
teria in downtown New York in 1920, and has since expanded its
business from year to year until its business now embraces a number
of cafeterias, food shops, lending libraries, and a credit union, has
created a department to consider the question of cooperative housing.
It is understood, however, that so far the price of land has stood in the
way of immediate action.
T
39142°— 29------ 6
COOPERATION
68
Housing Activities of Labor Groups 2
LTHOUGH the provision of housing accommodations for tradeunionists has thus far received comparatively little attention
from labor organizations, there are a number of organizations pro
moted by trade-unions for financing the construction of homes by
their members.
One organization has been in existence since 1920, one since 1922,
one since 1924, two since 1926, one since 1927, and one was organized
in 1928. Six of these building and loan associations have financed the
construction of more than 400 dwellings.
So far as the bureau has been able to determine, only two unions
have undertaken the actual construction of dwellings. These are
the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers and the Amalgamated
Clothing Workers.3 The operations of the former have been in the
development of a town in Florida, constructing detached dwellings,
mainly. Those of the latter have been in the construction of apart
ment buildings in the city of New York. In neither instance, how
ever, is the purchase of dwellings confined to members of the union
which has undertaken the work.
In addition to these union undertakings, a housing project in New
York City is being carried on by a group of trade-unionists from a
number of trades.
Having provided themselves with quarters through their organiza
tion, the tenants of these union-constructed apartment houses in New
York City have gone farther and are filling their other needs coopera
tively, buying milk, ice, electricity, groceries, meats, etc., collectively,
and providing such other features as library, kindergarten, nursery,
medical and dental care, gymnasium, playgrounds, etc., thus forming
a more or less self-contained community of apartment dwellers.
A
Amalgamated Clothing Workers’ Buildings
T h e i d e a of the actual provision of dwellings for its members by
the Amalgamated Clothing Workers was first broached at the 1924
convention. In 1925 a group of union members imbued with the
cooperative idea formed the Amalgamated Clothing Workers Corpo
ration for the purpose of purchasing ice and coal for the members of
the Amalgamated Credit Union. The purchase of coal was in due
time begun and is still being conducted.
This corporation which had been formed for the purchase of ice
and coal was utilized in the housing project. Through it, purchase
was made in April, 1925, of a plot of ground costing $315,000, and
this organization has directed the entire housing project. Ground
was broken on Thanksgiving Day, 1926; the first two buildings were
ready for occupancy November 1, 1927, the third December 1, and the
fourth December 15, 1927. A celebration of the formal opening of
the first five buildings was held December 25. The sixth building
was ready for occupancy in March, 1928. On January 13, 1929,
2 For a more detailed discussion see Bureau of Labor Statistics Bui. N o. 465: Beneficial Activities of
American Trade-Unions, Ch. V II.
3 The Cloth, Hat, Cap and Millinery Workers’ International Union has for some time been interested in
the provision of housing accommodations for its members, but so far circumstances have prevented action
in this field by the union.
HOUSING ACTIVITIES OF LABOR GROUPS
69
ground was broken for a seventh building which will house 192 fam
ilies and will cost about $1,500,000.
The union in undertaking this project was actuated by the desire
to show that low-rental housing was possible if undertaken by a
group. Care was taken to secure a site which would give the advan
tages of the suburbs while at the same time easily accessible to the
downtown district.
Location of Buildings
T h e g r o u n d acquired for the project is in the Bronx on Mosholu
Parkway opposite Van Cortlandt Park. As the corporation owns
two blocks of land—some 50 lots, in all—the plans were drawn so
that each apartment is an outside apartment facing on a street on at
least one side. There are no rear apartments, and no apartment is
more than two rooms deep.
The group of buildings has parks on three sides, and those families
occupying the upper floors of the apartments have a view from their
windows of Van Courtlandt Park, the waters of the city reservoir, and
the Palisades of the Hudson. The proximity of the parks means
access to the tennis courts, ice skating, and other outdoor recreation
and exercise made available by the park facilities.
The houses are so situated as to be reached by five minutes’ walk
from two subways. These give quick transportation to the clothing
center in the downtown district where many of the tenants are
employed.
Description of Apartments
As o n e of the predominant ideas was the provision of plenty of
light and air, as well as play space for the children where they would
be safe, the buildings are, roughly, in the form of a hollow rectangle.
Only 47 per cent of the ground is occupied by the buildings; the
remainder is in lawns and playground space in an inner court 556
feet long which extends the full length of the property and varies in
width from 51 to 100 feet.
They are 5-story, walk-up apartments, the elevator being the only
modem feature not installed. This was omitted in order to keep down
maintenance and operating charges and to make low rentals possible.
The building now under construction will, however, contain this
feature.
The whole group of buildings contains 1,185 rooms in 303 apart
ments of from 2 to 7 rooms each, apartments of 3 and 4 rooms
predominating. Each dining alcove is counted as a half-room, and
a kitchen is counted as one room, but kitchenettes (there are only
three of these in the whole block of buildings) and the bathrooms do not
count as rooms. Some 14,000 square feet of floor space have been
allotted for communal purposes.
There are 29 staircases in the six buildings. In most cases, in
order to insure privacy, there are only two dwellings on each landing,
and in no case more than three.
The rooms are large, the average size of the living rooms being
12 by 17 feet, that of the bedrooms 11 by 15 feet, and that of the
kitchens 8 by 12 feet. Each apartment is equipped with gas range,
refrigerator, dumb-waiter, shower bath, and electricity. All floors
are of hardwood. The buildings are heated by a central oil-burning
70
COOPERATION
furnace, which can, with slight changes, be converted to the use of
coal. Incinerators are also installed throughout the buildings for
the disposal of garbage and refuse.
Financing
C o n s i d e r a b l e time elapsed between the time of purchase of the
land and the beginning of building operations. It is pointed out,
however, that the delay was beneficial, for in the interval a State
housing law was passed, receiving the governor's signature May 10,
1926. This law was intended to facilitate the construction of lowrental housing, offering exemption from taxes and certain other
advantages as inducements.4
The project was financed from the down payments of the tenant
owners, by mortgages and loans from various Amalgamated sub
sidiaries, and from a large insurance company.
It was estimated that the 6-building group would cost about
$1,825,000—$315,000 for land and $1,510,000 for construction—or
about $1,500 a room and approximately 40 cents per cubic foot.
This average included the rooms built for communal purposes.
Savings were possible in various ways. In the first place, the land
was purchased at about $2 per square foot. Also, lower rates were
obtained on the actual building operations because of the fact that
the contractors, knowing that the work was a cash job, did not add
the usual amount for financing. Competition between builders,
because of this cash feature and the size of the project, also was a
factor in reducing costs. The loan from the insurance company
was obtained at a rate of 5 instead of the 5 per cent customary
for loans of this sort. This saving is estimated at $97,865 for the
whole period of the loan (at $5,000 per year). All of the usual record
ing fees, revenue stamps, etc., were waived by the authorities and by
the insurance company.
But the most considerable of all sources of saving was the exemp
tion of the buildings (not the land) from taxes, under the State
housing law. The actual saving to the corporation due to this
exemption amounts to approximately $30,000 a year, or $2.11 per
room per month.
Conditions of Ownership and Management
T h e p u r c h a s e of dwellings in these cooperative apartment
houses was not confined to members of the Amalgamated Clothing
Workers, but was open to any trade-unionist in New York City.
Amalgamated members were, however, given preference over workers
in other trades.
Each prospective tenant must pay $500 per room, of which onehalf must be paid at time of purchase. For this he receives stock in
the Amalgamated Clothing Workers Corporation equal to the amount
of his purchase. Thus if he buys a 3-room apartment he receives
stock to the amount of $1,500, if a 4-room apartment, stock to the
amount of $2,000, etc.; and a perpetual lease to the apartment of his
choice.
4 For the terms of this law sco Labor Review, July, 1928, p. 77.
HOUSING ACTIVITIES OF LABOR GROUPS
71
In addition to this he has been paying “rent" of $11 per room pei
month. From the amount paid in in rents each month, a certain sum
is put away to pay off the mortgages, other amounts to cover expend
iture for repairs, renovations, etc. It was stated at the outset that
as the mortgages were paid off the rents would be reduced. Early
in 1929 it was reported that as a result of the unusually favorable
results of the previous year's operation, rents on the upper floors will
be reduced to $9.50 per room.
In many cases the prospective purchaser was unable to gather
together the $250 per room required as a down payment. In such
cases, assistance was extended in the way of loans through the
Amalgamated Bank, or the Amalgamated Clothing Workers Credit
Union. The Jewish daily, Forward, also assisted materially by
advancing an amount of $100,000, from which loans were extended
to would-be purchasers.
In order to prevent speculation, a tenant who wishes to withdraw
from membership in the corporation must sell his stock back to the
corporation, which will allow him its book value at the time of with
drawal. Subleasing of apartments is prohibited.
Prospective tenants must be accepted by the stockholders' member
ship committee before being admitted to ownership in the apartments.
The affairs of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers' Corporation
are administered by a board of directors representing the tenant
owners and including a representative of the State housing board.
The various activities within the buildings are managed by com
mittees of five, elected by the tenants. There are three of these
committees: The house committee, which looks after the operation
and maintenance of the buildings; the business committee, whose
duty it is to see to the buying of ice and milk, the running of the
stores, the maintenance of the bus, etc.; and the social and educational
committee, which arranges the social affairs, has supervision over
the library, play rooms, etc. In order to coordinate the activities
of these committees, the house committee has representatives on
the other two.
Cooperative and Communal Activities
T h e t e n a n t s have organized themselves for cooperative action
along various lines. Milk, ice, and electricity are purchased collec
tively, and there are a grocery store, meat market, and vegetable
store operated by a cooperative association of the members. Other
cooperative activities include a tea room, a library, an orchestra
composed of children of the tenants, and a bus which carries the
children of the colony to and from school.
The land on which the fifth building stands drops 19 feet from one
street to the other, and advantage has been taken of this for the
construction of an auditorium seating about 500 people and having
a large stage. Here movies will be shown, and lectures, plays, and
entertainments of various sorts will be given. There is a kitchen
nearby for the preparation of refreshments, a check room, and a rest
room and lavatory for the women as well as one for the men.
There is also to be a music room, and a cooperative nursery under
the care of a competent nurse. In another building there will be
an indoor playground under a trained supervisor; a small outdoor
playground is in course of construction.
72
COOPERATION
After-school classes in Jewish history and in Yiddish are conducted
for the grammar-school children of the colony under the auspices
of the Workmen's Circle (to which about 80 per cent of the residents
belong). This organization pays a rental for the use of the room
where the classes are held and supplies the teacher.
Attitude of the Union
T h e s e buildings give the tenants access to housing conditions
that would ordinarily (because of expense) be closed to them, at
rents which they can afford to pay. Of the membership now in the
buildings, about one-third have come from the lower East Side,
about 35 per cent were already living in the Bronx, and the remain
der have come from other parts of the city and from Brooklyn.
About one-third are members of the Amalgamated Clothing
Workers, one-third are members of the International Ladies' Gar
ment Workers' Union, and the remaining third are workers from
other unions.
The union took the position that slums are not an unavoidable
evil of city housing, and actuated by the desire to bring its members,
so far as possible, out of the slums into light, airy, sunny dwellings,
has demonstrated what collective effort can do. The step was not
taken without opposition within the organization. President Hill
man points out:
Our organization, like all groups of human beings, includes two types of
people. On the one hand, there are those who believe that we should leave well
enough alone, limit our usefulness to the spheres where everything has been
tried and is certain; they fear anything new, not realizing that what is accepted
to-day was new and uncertain at some earlier time. The others are impatient
for new things, anxious to fly even before they have learned to walk. It, is the
good fortune of our organization that the great bulk of its people have stead
fastly adhered to a policy of careful, if at times slow, forging ahead. Through
this policy some of our dreams of yesterday are part of our actual life to-day.
The soundness of this state of mind and attitude of the largest group in the
organization is proved by our achievements, both the volume of them and their
character. The Amalgamated has always laid stress on results as soon as it
was certain of what it wanted. We have always pursued that course regardless
of criticism and no matter from where it came.
United Worked Buildings
A n u m b e r of years ago a small group of workers leased one floor
in a house in New York, on a cooperative basis. As the group in
creased, the whole house was taken over, and certain social features
were added and a summer camp was started. These proved so
popular that the field of activities has been broadened until to-day
the United Workers' Cooperative Association is perhaps the largest
and most active cooperative group in New York City.
Early in 1925 the association purchased an entire city block facing
Bronx Park. Since that time additional land has been bought, until
now the organization owns six blocks of land, on two of which coop
erative apartments have been built.
The first group of apartment buildings contains four units sur
rounding a large central garden. These four units contain 339 apart
ments, totaling 963 rooms. The individual apartments range from
two to five rooms, the majority being those of three rooms.
HOUSING ACTIVITIES OF LABOR GROUPS
73
The second block is built in the form of an E and contains 354
apartments (1,054 rooms), while the third and fourth units will
contain 494 apartments (1,450 rooms).
These are 5-story, walk-up apartments. As no wing is more than
two rooms deep, this means that every room looks out either upon a
street or upon the interior garden. Special care has been taken in
the arrangement of the rooms so as to secure cross ventilation in
every apartment. In no case do the buildings occupy as much as
50 per cent of the ground space.
The living rooms average 12 by 16 or 12 by 17 feet, and the bed
rooms are 11 by 15 feet in size. Each kitchen is equipped with gas
range, refrigerator, and dumb-waiter, and the* bathroom with a
shower.
One section of the first group of buildings contains the “ bachelors’
quarters,” that is, single furnished rooms. Each three of these are
provided with a bathroom, and there is a common kitchen for every
12 rooms.
The buildings are heated by oil from a central plant in each block.
In the first building four incinerators were installed, one for each
unit, the garbage being collected from the various apartments and
burned here. In the second building each hall has a chute connecting
directly with the incinerator, thus saving the process of collection.
Conditions of Ownership
As a l r e a d y stated, each prospective tenant must pay in $250 per
room, and a monthly rent of $14 or $14.50 per room. Each tenant
is required to be a member of the union of his trade, unless excused
by insurmountable obstacles.
Unlike the ordinary cooperative procedure, the member purchaser
in one of the United Workers’ cooperative apartments receives no
stock in the enterprise; he gets a receipt for the amount paid in and
a 2-year lease to the dwelling. At the end of two years, if he is still
acceptable to the other tenants, his lease is renewed; if not, he must
leave, in which case his principal is returned, without interest, minus
his proportional share of the cost of redecorating the apartment for
a new tenant. Subleasing is not allowed; a tenant leaving for any
reason before his lease expires must turn his apartment back to the
association.
There is a board of 25 unpaid directors which manages the affairs
of the association, and these directors also serve on various committees
having to do with the community. Subcommittees are appointed
by these committees from among the membership and much of the
actual work of the conduct of the buildings and the various com
munity projects is done by these subcommittees. The association
encourages as many residents as possible to serve on the various
subcommittees; this is done on the assumption that the more work
done by the individual the greater his interest and pride in the whole
project mil be.
Cooperative and Communal Features
T h e r e are in this colony also a number of community activities.
These include a kindergarten and day nursery, classes for children
and adults, a young people’s cooperative society, library, assembly
74
COOPERATION
hall, gymnasium, health clinic, playground, and seven cooperative
stores, besides the collective purchase of gas, electricity, ice, and milk.
Labor Policy
T h i s group of cooperators has a well-defined labor policy. As
already stated, all members must be trade-unionists, and thijs require
ment is carried out wherever possible in the business dealings of the
association, only union firms being dealt with. All the construction
work on the buildings must be done by organized labor and the mate
rials must be supplied by union firms. The association has insisted
that even the common laborers employed must be union men.
The employees in the cooperative stores, restaurant, and laundry
are all members of their respective unions, as are also the teachers
in the kindergarten. In one instance the association has been respon
sible for the unionization of a formerly open-shop business. A milk
dealer who desired the patronage of the colony accorded recognition
to the union of his employees, upon the demand of the cooperative.
Locomotive Engineers5 Project
H o u s i n g and land development on a large scale have been undertaken in Florida by the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers. The
brotherhood several years ago purchased several parcels of land
totaling more than 50,000 acres. Here land was cleared and the
foundation of a planned city laid out, the sendees of a city planner
being engaged for the purpose. A small town has been built there,
which is surrounded by an agricultural area laid out in farms of 5
and 10 acres each. The Motherhood has erected three hotels for the
accommodation of tourists and visitors and has two model farms;
also, it has constructed a 9-hole golf course with clubhouse. Its total
investment there is understood to aggregate some $16,000,000.
No detailed data are available as to the methods in use in the
building and sale of the houses.
Home-Finance Companies of Trade-Unions
A l t h o u g h the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers and the
Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America are thus far the only
labor organizations which have undertaken the direct task of pro
viding homes for their members, in certain other instances labor
unions are giving encouragement to home ownership by their members.
This they are doing by making construction loans. There are at
present eight such home-loan companies of whose existence the
Bureau of Labor Statistics is aware, and the bureau has some data
for seven of these.6 Summary data concerning these seven are shown
in the table following:
5 The Illinois Federation Corporation (Chicago),'Union Building and Loan Association (Minneapolis),
Federation, Savings & Loan Co., (Cleveland), American Home Builders (Cleveland), Trades-Union and
Loan Association (Cincinnati'' Union Building and Loan Association (Houston), and a Florida associa
tion (name not reported).
REASONS W H Y WORKERS BORROW
75
O P E R A T IO N S OF U N I O N H O M E -I ,O A N A S S O C IA T IO N S
Num
ber of
organzations
N um
ber re
porting
Num oer
of share
holders
Florida__________________________
Illinois___________________________
Minnesota_______________________
Ohio.....................................................
Texas____________________________
1
1
2
3
1
1
1
1
3
1
(i)
0)
1,100
2 2,461
571
(»)
$800,000
211,000
1,432,410
23,755
0)
$12,000
713
4,800
340
Total...................................... ..
8
7
« 4,132
5 2,467,165
«17,853
State
1 N ot reported.
2 2 associations only.
3 1 association only.
44 associations only.
Paid-in
share
capital
Surplus
and
undivided
profits
Number of homes
financed
Last
year
18
Since
organzation
0)
31
3 15
13
40
150
2 220
13
<77
M23
(*)
5 6 associations only.
«5 associations only.
Reasons Why Workers Borrow
A
N ANALYSIS was made by the Women’s Educational and
L Industrial Union of Boston6 of 4,000 loans made by the credit
unions of Massachusetts. The study was undertaken “in order to
discover something of the financial backgrounds [of the borrowers],
their family responsibilities, and the crisis in life for which they are
forced to borrow.”
The eight credit unions making the loans had 13,700 members,
the majority of whom had belonged to their respective organizations
three years or more.
Of the 4,000 borrowers, 3,048 were men and 952 were women; 1,543
were single and 2,457 were married. The great majority were
American born, largely of Irish, English, and Russian-Jewish stock.
Most of the men who borrowed were between 25 and 40 years old.
They were at the prime of life when their family responsibilities
were heaviest but when their earning power should have been greatest.
The women fell into two divisions: The younger ones under 25 who
might in a short time leave their jobs to marry, and the older ones,
also in the prime of life, who found it necessary to borrow for their
dependents and to make provision for themselves in old age. In
one credit union composed of civil-service employees, who have long
tenure of service, there were more older men borrowing than any
where else.
The occupations of the men fell into four main classifications :
The skilled artisans, the clerical workers, firemen, and the unskilled
laborei’s. The largest single group was that of the firemen. In both
municipal credit unions they formed the majority of borrowers.
Men in the skilled trades formed one-third, clerical workers one-fifth,
and unskilled laborers one-thirteenth of the total number of borrowers.
There were in the two general credit unions a number of men who
had independent businesses—small stores and shops of various
kinds—and many of the artisans were self-employed, particularly
the tailors and painters. There was a noticeable lack of professional
men among those who were granted loans, even in the general credit
unions to which they have access. This may be accounted for in
three ways: They do not know any thing about credit unions, they
• For a detailed report of this study see Labor Keview, July, 1927, pp. 7-16.
COOPERATION
76
have no need to use them, or they are too proud to do so. The last
reason is perhaps the most important, for it was found that many
men in comfortable circumstances had an idea that credit unions
were semicharitable institutions and therefore reserved for the use
of the “ poor working men.”
Forty-five per cent of the women in the sample group were employed
as telephone operators and 29 per cent as clerical workers. The
group in professional pursuits, mainly school-teachers and nurses,
is small, but three times greater in proportion than among the men
studied. There was also a group of women who had embarked on
enterprises of their own and needed help to tide them over dull
periods. Housewives, whose cherished ambitions may be new side
boards or rugs, also belong to credit unions. Although they have
no earnings, most of them save enough out of their housekeeping
allowances to pay up their loans, and there were almost no cases of
the husband's having to pay a defaulted loan.
The weekly earnings of the borrowers, by sex, are shown in the
table below:
T a b l e 1 .— W E E K L Y E A R N I N G S OF B O R R O W E R S F R O M S I X C R E D I T U N IO N S , B Y S E X
Number earning each classified amount
Classified weekly earnings
M en
W om en
Both sexes
Number Per cent Num ber Per cent Num ber Percent
$20 or under_______________________________________
$21 to $25___ ______ _______ ________________________
$26 to $30 ................ ...................... - _____ __________
$31 to $35 _______________________________________
$36 to $40
...........- ......... - ______ ___________________
$41 to $ 4 5 ___________________________ ______________
$46 to $ 5 0 _______________ - ................. —_____ _______
$51 to $55
_______ _____ ______ _________________
$56 to $ 6 0 ............ ......... ......... ....................................... .
$61 to $65
................................ ................................. $66 to $ 7 0 ...... ............... —................................................
$71 to $75.......... ................. — ...........................................
Over $75__________ ____________ ___________________
H ou sew ives______________________________________
N o data___________________________________________
11
70
314
444
G31
479
202
84
115
34
27
53
52
0.4
2.7
12.1
17.1
24.2
18.4
10.1
3.2
4.4
1.3
1.0
2.0
?, 0
27
1.0
T o ta l................. ..................................... .................
2,603
100.0
276
290
129
33
19
10
4
1
2
1
30.8
32.3
14.4
3.7
2.1
1.1
.4
.1
.2
.1
1
.1
131
14.6
897
100.0
287
360
443
477
650
489
266
85
117
35
27
54
52
131
27
8. 2
10.3
12.7
13.6
18.6
14.0
7.6
2.4
3.3
1.0
.8
1.5
1.5
3.7
.8
3,500
100.0
M odal earnings only (piecework) were available for two credit unions. In these, those of skilled men
lay between $35 and $40, of unskilled men between $25 and $30, and of women between $20 and $22.50.
Of 1,702 male borrowers, 483, or 28 per cent, owned some property,
as did also 80, or 21 per cent of the 298 female applicants.
Eighty-five per cent had dependents whom they were supporting.
Purposes and Amounts of Loans
T h e p u r p o s e s for which people borrow reveal dramatically the
crises which come into their lives and the need of the average worker
for some source of credit at such times. These purposes are shown
in Table 2.
REASONS W H Y WORKERS BORROW
77
T a b l e 3 .— P U R P O S E S F O R W H I C H L O A N S W E R E G R A N T E D
Loans granted for each purpose to—
Purpose of loan
M en
*^
Both sexes
W omen
Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent
Medical____________________________________________
Coal....... ....................... .......................................................
Family expenses__________________________________
Various bills___________ ______ ____ ________________
Clothing_________ _________________________________
Taxes______________________________________________
I n s u r a n c e .__________ ____________________________
Furniture^ _______ ________________________________
House repairs and payments______ _______________
Investment________________________ _____________
Education________________________________________
Vacation_________ _________________________________
Automobiles______ ________ ____ ___________________
R a d io s ..._______ ________ ______ ___________________
Renewals__________________________________________
T o pay notes_____ ______
__
_____________
D e a t h ...__________ _________ _____ _________________
All other____________ ______________________________
N o data______________ _______ _______ _______ ______
577
540
389
296
152
168
45
71
263
262
47
33
39
3
56
19
20
60
8
18.9
17.7
12.8
9.7
5.0
5.5
1.5
2.3
8.6
8.6
1.5
1.1
1.3
.1
1.8
.6
.7
2.0
.3
352
78
62
26
189
40
12
19
39
61
12
24
37.0
8.2
6.5
2.7
19.9
4.2
1.3
2.0
4.1
6.4
1.3
2.5
5
.5
33
3.5
T otal......................................... ..............................
3, C48
100.0
952
100.0
929
618
451
322
341
208
57
90
302
323
59
57
39
3
61
19
20
93
8
23.2
15.5
11.3
8.1
8.5
5.2
1.4
2.3
7.6
8.1
L5
1.4
1.0
.1
1.5
.5
.5
2.3
.2
4,000
100.0
The most common reason for borrowing is to meet expenses incurred
during illness—18.9 per cent in the case of the men, and 37 per cent
for the women. The term “ medical” also includes dental bills, of
which there were a great number. In one credit union 47 per cent of
the women and 20 per cent of the men listed under “ medical” bor
rowed specifically to pay dentists’ bills. Even though the reason
given may not always have been the real reason, yet these numerous
loans to maintain health would appear to be one of the best arguments
for health insurance. Although no effort is made to appeal for sym
pathy, for those who pass on the application are members of their own
group who know what their needs are, the circumstances are sometimes
pitiful. One girl of 22 had borrowed, and repaid over a period of
several years, nearly $600 for surgical and hospital care for her crippled
brother. In other cases, the birth of children necessitated borrowing,
for, in addition to the medical care, household expenses increased
during the mother’s absence from her tasks. Although many of the
men were entitled to sick benefits from various sources, they found
the sums paid inadequate, and were forced to borrow if they were out
of work for any length of time. Education in preventive medicine is
very directly related to credit-union borrowing, for many loans were
granted “ to have my boy’s teeth straightened” or tonsils removed.
Coal was the need second in importance for which borrowing was
necessary. Many men could not raise the money needed to meet
their coal bills, and the coal merchants were not so willing to extend
credit as is often supposed. It is costly and unsatisfactory to buy coal
in small quantities, and one man remarked that he would rather pay
6 per cent interest than be dunned all winter. Taxes and insurance,
like coal, must be paid for at stated times, and so again men must
borrow.
“ Family expenses” may mean anything from a new kitchen stove,
around which so much of the family life in these homes revolves,
to new tires for the Ford. One man, when asked what he meant by
family expense, grinned as he recited, “ The butcher, the baker,
the candlestick maker.” He went on to explain that he had been
78
COOPERATION
laid off for several weeks and that although the income had stopped
the bills piled up and the rent came due.
The reason “ various bills" indicates a kind of despair. A man
may have a number of bills outstanding which he can not pay, and
for which he is constantly being dunned—-he may even have his
wages attached—and so he groups them and borrows the entire
amount, preferring to pay the credit union in weekly installments.
People whose margins are so small find it impossible to escape situa
tions like these, for no matter how carefully they plan, emergencies
will arise.
Clothing did not play such an important part for the men as it did
for the women, and when the men did borrow it was usually to buy
clothing for their families, not for themselves.
Loans for medical expenses, coal, family expenses, “ various bills,"
and clothing formed four-fifths of the total number of loans granted.
They were made to satisfy current and emergency needs—to enable
the borrowers to keep their heads above water. There was, how
ever, a second group of loans which were made for progressive pur
poses. These loans comprised only one-fifth of the total number
granted, but even this was an increase over former years, and thus
a hopeful sign.
Paying for their homes, improving, and repairing them were
among the most important purposes of this second group. Many
people were buying their homes through cooperative banks (building
and loan associations) and would need to borrow occasionally to
make their payments. The same was true of interest payments on
mortgages privately held. Often a man needed several hundred
dollars to complete the down payment on a house he wanted to buy.
Such loans do not mean improvidence, but that because of illness or
some other cause these persons were forced to use the money they
had planned to set aside. After they had acquired their homes,
they wished to keep them in good condition and improve them.
Many loans were granted to put in furnaces, bathrooms, and other
modern equipment. One man had borrowed each year for five
years, first to buy additional property, then to build a garage. The
next year he added a sun porch, then repaired the roof, and finally
bought an oil burner. His loans never exceeded $250, and were
always promptly repaid. His willingness to carry this continuous
burden of debt for the benefit of his family entitled him to the help
the credit union could give.
“ Investment" as used here covers loans to small business men
who needed help to tide them over a dull period or to expand when
their business seemed to warrant it. Many of the shopkeepers also
borrowed in order to make cash payments on stock when they could
buy it more cheaply that wav. The most extensive borrowing for
investment occurred in the two general credit unions to which these
small business men could belong. However, some money was
loaned to buy securities, as at the telephone workers' credit union,
whose members borrowed in order to buy company stock.
Vacations, automobiles, and radios came in for their small shares,
but to borrow for such purposes a man must have a very good record
and indorsers. However, because radios and automobiles are sold
so largely on the installment plan, there was not a large demand for
loans of this kind.
REASONS W HY WORKERS BORROW
79
Education formed but a small part of the total loans made. Five
per cent of the men and 1 per cent of the women borrowed to improve
their own education or to provide it for others. One man earning
$40 a week paid his daughter's college tuition, and another—a
Jewish immigrant—borrowed to send his son to the Harvard School
of Business Administration. Younger men borrowed to take tech
nical training which would help them advance in their work. The
women borrowed chiefly for their own education.
The amounts loaned differed with the policies of the credit unions,
with the records and characters of the applicants, and with the
purposes for which they needed the loans, as is shown in Table 3.
The last named was probably the most important factor, and, since
four-fifths of the borrowing was to satisfy current and emergency
needs, men rarely borrowed more than was absolutely necessary.
Most of the loans ranged between $51 and $100, with the latter
figure the most common. Those who borrowed for home payment
and investment were granted larger sums, also those whose need for
other purposes was urgent, but even these rarely borrowed more
than $500.
T a b l e 3 .— S IZ E O F L O A N S T O B O R R O W E R S F R O M S I X C R E D I T U N IO N S
Number of loans of spec
ified amounts to—
M en
$50 and under.
$51 to $100. . . .
$101 to $150
$151 to $200.
$201 to $250 _
$251 to $300.
$301 to $350 _ ..
$351 to $400_..
Num ber of loans of spec
ified amounts to—
Am ount of loan
Am ount of loan
179
778
348
647
193
219
17
49
W om en
M en
Total
W om en
Total
$401 to $450...........................
$451 to $500- ........................
$501 to $600...........................
$601 to $700............. ..............
Over $700...............................
13
86
17
21
36
6
29
4
1
10
19
115
21
22
46
T o t a l - - .......................
2,603
897
3,500
Often a member's account is not touched for several years, but the
members know that if any emergency arises they can demand and
receive help. On the other hand, many members in the organizations
studied borrowed continuously; as soon as one loan was paid up
they applied for others. In one credit union where a record was
kept of the number of times members had been granted loans, it
was#found that 390 out of 600 had borrowed once a year or oftener
since joining. One man had borrowed sixteen times during nine
years. It would seem at first to be a habit—a rather bad one too—
but the loans meant a college education for his son, a new roof on
his house, and medical attention for his wife. Some one will say
that he should have accumulated the money before he spent it and
saved the interest. The only answer to that is that on $35 a week
it does not seem to be within the power of human nature to save
without some pressure, and the fact that he owed the credit union
supplied that pressure. It is not the accepted way of saving, but
it is better than not saving at all.
80
COOPERATION
Agricultural Cooperative Associations in the United
States
HE United States Bureau of Agricultural Economics estimates
that there are nearly 69,000 agricultural organizations in the
United States, of which about 5,000 are educational associations
(fairs, exhibits, etc.), 6,000 are productive associations, 5,065 are
credit associations, 2,049 are mutual insurance companies, 40,000
are farmers’ telephone, light, and power companies, and 10,803 are
marketing and purchasing associations. The membership of the
marketing and purchasing associations alone is estimated at 2,700000, and their annual business at $2,400,000,000. About 50 per cent
of the associations are engaged also in the purchase of farm supplies.
The Secretary of Agriculture in his report for 1928 sums up the
condition of the farmers’ cooperative movement as follows:
T
Cooperative organization among the farmers of the United States, as is well
known, has developed greatly in recent years. Naturally its progress has not
been uniform. Setbacks as well as advances have been recorded. But there
remains a remarkable net gain, the value of which can not be estimated wholly
in terms of business done, membership gained, or savings effected. It includes
also such important, if not easily measurable, results as a widespread realization
among farmers that success in agriculture requires efficient selling as well as
efficient production. Hereafter this realization 'will play an increasing part in
the adjustment of output to market requirements, which must play a large part
in any rational program for the solution of the surplus problem.
Agricultural cooperation is sometimes charged with responsibilities that do
not belong to it. When markets are depressed by overproduction it is difficult
even for the most efficient cooperative organization to obtain satisfactory prices.
This difficulty is sometimes considered evidence that cooperation does not work.
But such an attitude is unjustified. Cooperation can not correct all the basic
difficulties of agriculture and is not designed to do so. It may influence the
volume of production. But the control of conditions such as exist in the Cali
fornia dried-fruit industry and in the marketing of potatoes this year does not
fall directly within the sphere of cooperative responsibilities. The remedy for
the surplus problem will necessarily transcend the powers of the cooperative
associations. For the present our cooperative organizations must be judged
as marketing concerns operating sometimes under favorable, and sometimes
under unfavorable, conditions. Cooperative marketing aims to give the farmer
an efficient and economical marketing system, while at the same time promoting
the adjustment of production to market needs. It emphasizes quality output,
and is perhaps the chief influence in the standardization, handling, packing, and
processing of farm commodities. It sometimes favorably modifies the purchas
ing practices of commercial agencies. These and similar activities are the true
standards by which cooperative marketing should be judged.
Cooperative Camps
HERE are a number of cooperative vacation camps. One of
these, the Unity Cooperative Camp, is situated in the White
Mountain region near Wingdale, N. Y., where the association owns
some 245 acres. The camp now has, it is reported,7 a dining hall
seating 1,200 persons, a general store, comfort stations with hot
and cold showers, a casino, and a board walk. During the summer
of 1928 more than 4,600 workers visited the camp.
Among the features was a series of lectures, discussions, and enter
tainments of an educational character, a daily bulletin, and a weekly
paper. The entertainments include musical programs and dramatics.
T
7 The Cooperative Pyramid Builder, July, 1928.
COOPERATIVE MARKETING
81
A cooperative league formed in the Marquette district of Michigan
has been especially active along recreational lines, having arranged a
summer festival in 1926 and another in 1928 and having been instru
mental in the launching of a summer resort association. This latter
association will be restricted to societies only, no individual members
will be accepted. Land on the shore of one of the numerous lakes
has been purchased, containing 13 acres and a shore line of half a
mile, which will be used for recreational purposes.
Other vacation resorts, owned on a collective basis by trade-union
and workers’ groups, are described on page 668.
Federal Trade Commission Report on Cooperative
Marketing
OF THE events in the agricultural cooperative movement
during the past year was the publication of the results of a study
ONE
made by the Federal Trade Commission in response to a Senate
resolution.
The report took up in turn large-scale organizations handling
specified commodities and showed that some of these were playing
no mean part in the distribution of the product, in some cases hand
ling as much as 70 or 75 per cent of the total product of the State.
One of the questions which the commission was directed to study
was whether and to what extent cooperative organizations are hin
dered by the interference of private distributors. It found that on
the whole, independent buyers and dealers were fair, their opposition
being merely that of keen competition. In some instances, however,
“ rivalry has gone too far, resulting in the using of unfair tactics to
injure cooperative associations.”
Of 3,994 cooperative associations from which reports on this point
were received, more than 68 per cent reported no interference or
opposition, 20 per cent reported that the annoyances were trivial,
“ mere competition,” and “ nothing to complain about.” About 12
per cent stated that the interference experienced by them was suffi
cient to cause them concern and sometimes embarrassment; of those
making such reports, some 70 per cent were engaged in the market
ing of livestock, grain, or dairy products.
Some of the unfair methods resorted to were unfair price competi
tion, manipulation of grades of quality in order to induce members to
violate their contracts, circulation of reports to injure the reputation
of the association, boycotts to keep the association from buying
supplies, etc.
The most serious hindrance to the success of the associations, in
the opinion of the commission, is that arising from internal dissension
in the organization itself.
Value of Cooperative Organization
C e r t a in outstanding organizations are cited as proof that “ a
cooperative organization can operate at as low expense per unit as
can noncooperative distributors, provided it has sufficient volume and
provided that the managers keep close watch upon unit expenses at
all points and promptly check all tendencies toward waste.” Other
COOPERATION
82
necessary factors are qualities of leadership, knowledge of market
conditions, adequate capital, and ability to keep going until the organ
ization has overcome the initial handicap of lack of experience.
This section of the report concludes in part as follows:
In formulating any opinion or drawing any conclusions as to the relative merits
of the cooperative-marketing system as compared with other types of marketers
and distributors of farm products it must be remembered that the results obtained
in the comparative studies in this report are colored by the varying conditions
and circumstances under which the organizations may have operated. The
studies as presented show that in some instances the economic benefits accruing
to the producer are greater through cooperative marketing than through other
types of distributors and vice versa. These results might be used as argument both
for and against the application of the cooperative principle as applied to the
marketing of farm products. The report as a whole, however, no doubt presents
a true cross-section picture of the economic advantages of the cooperativemarketing movement in its present state of development in this country as com
pared with other types marketing farm products. * * *
In some cases the distributive process may be so efficiently effected that gains
from cooperative effort may be insignificant; in others the entrance of coopera
tive-marketing organizations may awaken a slumbering trade resistance and
create a competitive situation which in the final analysis shows very little or no
advantage for the cooperative-marketing association over other types of distrib
utors, the creation and maintenance of such a condition, however, being due to
the existence of the cooperative. * * *
The study indicates, from the experience of those cooperative associations that
have been operating over a period of years, that it is possible through the applica
tion of the cooperative principle to the marketing of some farm products to operate
as economically and make as good or better return to producers for their product
by this method as through the older-established types of marketing. The relative
merits of the cooperative principle in the marketing of every farm product as
compared with other types of distributors is not yet definitely determined because
of the fact that it is largely in its infancy in the handling of some products.
With reference to the entire movement it might be said that producers are
endeavoring to develop a system of marketing whereby they can improve their
economic condition by securing a better return for their product. This inquiry
seems to indicate that the progress made and the degree of success attained in
handling of any commodity seems to have been largely in proportion to the length
of time the principle has been in actual practice, together with the support received
from the producers themselves. Th6 reason for this seems to be that it takes time
to educate producers as to the value and benefits of cooperation and to develop
an efficient marketing organization. A cooperative organization, like any other
type of business if it is to succeed in competition with others, must be efficiently
managed and operated and also must have the support of a sufficient number of
producers supplying a sufficient volume of business to enable it to operate
economically.
Use of Contracts in Cooperative Marketing
agricultural branch of the cooperative movement, the use of
contract between member and association, to insure a continuous
INanda THE
sufficient supply of business to the association, has been wide
spread. Such contracts generally bind the member of the cooperative
marketing association to deliver to it all of his crops of the sort handled
by the association, and may also provide for damages in case of non
performance. These contracts have been tested in a great number of
the State courts and have there been almost universally upheld. The
provisions whose constitutionality has been most often questioned have
been those providing for damages and specific performance of the
contract, and exempting agricultural marketing associations from
the charge of restraint of trade.
CONTRACTS IN COOPERATIVE MARKETING
83
Not until 1928, however, did such a contract come to the United
States Supreme Court for decision. The case came up from the Court
of Appeals of Kentucky, the constitutionality of two sections of the
State act being questioned. The first of these provided that it should
be a misdemeanor for anyone knowingly to induce breach of contract
with a cooperative marketing association, and the second declared
that warehousemen who knowingly permitted or encouraged the
violation of such a contract should be liable to the association for
$500 as well as fees and costs.
It appeared that Mike Kielman joined the cooperative association
and signed its contract, binding himself to deliver to it all tobacco
raised by him. Notwithstanding, he delivered 2,000 pounds of his
crop to the Liberty Warehouse Co. Before the warehouse company
could dispose of it, the association notified the company of the cir
cumstances, requested it not to sell the tobacco, and called attention
to the penalties prescribed in the law. The company ignored this
warning and proceeded to sell the produce at auction, whereupon the
cooperative association brought suit, in which it was sustained by
the lower court and by the court of appeals, the association being
awarded judgment for $500 and $100 attorneys' fees.
As to the company's contention in regard to sections 26 and 27
that they abridged the company's privileges as a citizen, conflicted
with the fourteenth amendment, deprived it of property without
due process of law, and denied it equal protection of the laws, the
Supreme Court pointed out that a corporation does not possess the
same rights as a citizen. It denied that mere authorization by the
State of the formation of marketing associations impaired any right
of a warehouse company. “ This also is true of the declaration that
such associations shall not be deemed monopolies, combinations, or
conspiracies in restraint of trade, and that contracts with members
shall not be illegal. The State may declare its own policy as to such
matters."
The court declared that the company had no substantial basis upon
which to invoke the equal protection clause, since the act did not
prescribe any more rigorous penalties for warehousemen than for
other offenders. ^As to the company's contention that the act abridges
the company's right to do business with anyone who seeks its services,
the court said:
Undoubtedly the statute does prohibit and penalize action not theretofore
so restricted and to that extent interferes with freedom. But this is done to
protect certain contracts which the legislature deemed of great importance to
the public and peculiarly subject to invasion. We need not determine whether
the liberty protected by the Constitution includes the right to induce a breach
of contract between others for the aggrandizement of the intermeddler—to
violate the nice sense of right which honorable traders ought to observe.
The court pointed out that similar statutes have been enacted in
42 States and by Congress, and that, with a single exception, no
court has condemned any essential feature of such an act, and con
cluded as follows:
The opinion generally accepted—and upon reasonable grounds we think—
is that the cooperative-marketing statutes promote the common interest. The
provisions for protecting the fundamental contracts against interference by
outsiders are essential to the plan. This court has recognized as permissible
some discrimination intended to encourage agriculture. [Cases cited,] And in
39142°—29------ 7
84
COOPERATION
many cases it has affirmed the general power of the States so to legislate as to
meet a definitely threatened evil. [Cases cited.] Viewing all the circumstances,
it is impossible for us to say that the Legislature of Kentucky could not treat
marketing contracts between the association and its members as of a separate
class, provide against probable interference therewith, and to that extent limit
the sometime action of warehousemen.
The liberty of contract guaranteed by the Constitution is freedom from arbi
trary restraint— not immunity from reasonable regulation to safeguard the
public interest. The question is whether the restrictions of the statute have
reasonable relation to a proper purpose. [Citing cases.] A provision for a penalty
to be received by the aggrieved party as punishment for the violation of[a statute
does not invalidate it. [Citing cases.]
The decision of the lower court was affirmed. (Liberty Warehouse
Co. v. Burley Tobacco Growers' Cooperative Marketing Association,
48 Supreme Court 291.)
New Trend in Contracts
T h e r e has been a question, however, whether taking such cases
to court has not resulted in the association's losing, in the ill will so
engendered, more than it gained by the verdict of the court. In
this connection a new trend in such contracts recently pointed out
by Mr. Robin Hood, editor of the Cooperative Marketing Journal,
in a report submitted to the National Association of Marketing
Officials, is of interest. He sees a tendency toward the liberalization
of marketing contracts. Grain associations are abandoning com
pulsory seasonal settlements for optional immediate settlements.
Other associations have included in the contracts the right of the
member to withdraw from the association. The longest step toward
liberalization has been taken by the cotton associations.
“ They have abandoned law courts and threats of legal compulsion
as a means of getting deliveries from members, and have adopted
contracts that set forth services fitted to the credit needs and settle
ment preferences of their members.
“ During the past year numerous associations have incorporated
a clause in their contracts by which members are given the right to
withdraw and cancel their marketing contracts by giving notice
in advance. Most of the cotton associations, several wheat pools,
one tobacco cooperative, and a number of scattered organizations
have been added to the list of those from whom members may with
draw, while a number of the older associations have operated with
a withdrawal clause prior to the present year.
“ The withdrawal clause has been a mooted question in cooperative
circles. Its disadvantage lies in the fact that a year of adversity
may result in such a number of withdrawals as-to endanger an associa
tion's existence. There are plenty of legal and financial reasons
why an organization should deny its members the right of withdrawal
if it wants to, but when considered from the standpoint of members’
morale, most cooperative officials are inclined to the view that there
is only one satisfactory way to handle the dissatisfied member, and
that is to let him out as quick as he will get out—even to encourage
him to get out.
“ The thing I like best about the optional settlement and withdrawal
provisions is that they eliminate every semblance of compulsion and
make cooperation less a legal affair and more a mutual service affair.
CONSUMERS* COOPERATION— FOREIGN COUNTRIES
85
In other words, they emphasize the spirit of cooperation and make its
success dependent more directly upon rendering a service year in and
year out. The withdrawal right checks back responsibility squarely
and promptly to the executives. Their service must be satisfactory
or a heavy withdrawal will undermine their standing and compel
their retirement. I believe the liberal features of the new contracts
place greater demands upon cooperative executives for business
efficiency and releases demands upon them for political strategy.”
Development in Consumers’ Cooperation in Foreign
Countries
HE YEARS 1927 and 1928 were comparatively uneventful, in
the main, as far as the cooperative movement in foreign countries
is concerned. Nearly everywhere definite progress is reported and
the movement has quite generally recovered from the difficult postwar
years, though inadequacies of share capital are still evident.
The year 1927 was marked by the holding of the Twelfth Inter
national Cooperative Congress, at which 28 countries were represented.
This congress emphasized the necessity for the accumulation of
resources within the movement to the end of making it independent
of private capital; urged closer relations between the consumers’
and agricultural branches of the movement; and the establishment
of cooperative banks. The next congress will be held in Vienna .in
1930.
A few of the events of the past two years in certain countries are
shown below:
Canada.—The past two years have seen several new developments
in cooperation in Canada. Following the cooperative congress of
1927, steps were taken toward the formation of cooperative whole
sale societies in Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Manitoba. The Mani
toba Cooperative Wholesale Society was formed and began business
in twine, flour, coal, oil, gasoline, cement, salt, barbed wire, lumber,
and clothing, in February, 1928. It is confining its operations for
the present to the purchase of car-lot quantities for member societies.
The Alberta Cooperative Wholesale Association has just gone
into operation, commencing business in January, 1929.
The question of a national cooperative wholesale for Canada was
taken up at the 1928 cooperative congress, and after a good deal of
discussion a resolution was adopted stating it to be the sense of the
convention that the time has arrived for the establishment of a
national Canadian cooperative wholesale society. Since the wisdom
and practicability of a central wholesale at this time was doubted by
a considerable portion of the delegates because of the sparse develop
ment of societies in Canada and the long railroad hauls necessary in
transporting goods from wholesale to local societies, a supplementary
resolution was adopted calling for the appointment of a committee on
wholesale cooperation to investigate the practicability (1) of one
wholesale society for the whole of Canada; (2) one society for the
three prairie Provinces; (3) separate provincial wholesale societies,
with a central buying agency centrally owned; (4) development of
T
86
COOPERATION
group buying by district societies, and placing the same through a
national or provincial wholesale society; (5) the best and most
economical means of promoting trade with the wholesale societies of
Great Britain.
The International Cooperative Alliance has recently made a grant
of £500 ($2,433) to the Cooperative Union of Canada, to be used for
the furtherance of cooperation in Canada.
Great Britain.—Considerable progress was made in Great Britain in
1927, the latest year for which data are available. The consumers7
societies gained 391,000 new members, and despite falling prices a gain
of nearly $70,000,000 was recorded in the volume of sales. Some of
the individual societies are enormous, the London society alone having
177,339 members and two others having more than 100,000 members
each. (Retail consumers’ societies in the United States average fewer
than 300 members each.)
In 1927 the cooperative laundries of Manchester and district united
to form the largest cooperative laundry in the world.
The members of consumers’ cooperative societies now form from 45
to 50 per cent of the population in Scotland and in Great Britain from
40 to 45 per cent.
Italy.—When the Fascist regime came into power in Italy, the old
Italian cooperative movement with its 20,000 societies (i921) was
suppressed and its place was taken by a Fascist movement, part of and
directed by the State. A national body, called the Ente Nazionale
Cooperativo, was set up to act as the central organization of the four
thousand and odd Fascist cooperative societies. The International
Cooperative Alliance, however (as it had previously in the case of
Russia, when the movement there was taken over by the Soviet
Government), refused to recognize this new movement. Italy’s place
on the council of the alliance is still held by the secretary of the former
Italian Cooperative League.
In 1928, however, the Fascist movement succeeded in obtaining
recognition by the Hungarian movement, which addressed a letter to
the alliance asking for the readmission of Italy to the alliance. So
far, this request has not been acceded to.
A national cooperative exposition was held in Italy on the occasion
of a visit by Albert Thomas of the International Labor Office, at which,
it is claimed, 8,849 societies with some 2,000,000 members were
represented.
At the opening of this exposition, Mussolini is reported to have
emphasized the Fascist character of cooperation in Italy and to have
concluded:
This principle being accepted, it goes without saying that the residue and wreck
age of the former regime must be eliminated without pity. It is thus that Italian
cooperative societies, under the invincible protection of the lash of the lictors,
will constitute a forcc for the members, for the Government, and for the country.
Russia.—More than 6,000,000 new members joined the consumers’
cooperative movement in Russia during the year ending October 1,
1928. A report from the Russian Central Union of Consumers’ Socie
ties (Centrosoyus), dated January 1, 1929, states that the Soviet
cooperatives have already become the most4important factor in the
supply of commodities to the consumer. More than 53 per cent of
the whole retail business of the country is done by these societies, and
their wholesale society does appproximately one-third of the wholesale
CONSUMERS* COOPERATION— FOREIGN COUNTRIES
87
business of the country. The wholesale and retail sales of the con
sumers’ societies during the past two years were as follows:
1926-27 «
Retail____________________ $2, 747, 964, 000
Wholesale_________________ 2, 474,196, 800
1927-28 8
$3, 653, 660, 000
3, 835, 313, 800
Some 424,000 workers are employed in cooperative distribution,
besides about 110,000 employed in the manufacturing and industrial
enterprises owned by the movement.
Much educational and propaganda work is done by the cooperative
societies, and the sale of cooperative literature in Russia far exceeds
that in any other country. In this connection extensive use is made
of motion pictures. The report states that 700 portable motion-picture machines are owned by the movement and the purchase of 700
more is planned for next year, in addition to 80 stationary machines.
Plans are also being made to purchase 750 radios with loud speakers,
for use in rural districts.
Spain.—Spain is a backward country from the cooperative point of
view, having only some 250 consumers’ societies, with about 80,000
members. There are several central organizations, however, each
with a small group of societies. Early in 1928 representatives of
these central organizations met in Madrid and formed the National
Federation of Spanish Cooperative Societies. It will unite societies
of various types, not confining its membership solely to consumers’
societies. One of its principles is that it “ will not engage in political
or religious activities” ; it will represent the affiliated organizations
before the governmental authorities, establish friendly relations with
the movement in other countries, and will apply for membership in
the International Cooperative Alliance.
8 Conversions on basis of rouble=51.46 cents.
COST OF LIVING
89
Trend of Cost of Living in the United States
OST OF LIVING data are secured from 32 cities in the United
States by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics in June
and December of each year. The changes in the cost of living in the
32 cities and in the United States as a whole as shown by the indesx
numbers compiled from such data, are published immediately in
pamphlet form and afterwards in the succeeding issue of the Labor
Review.
The original price information used in compiling the cost-of-living
figures is secured from merchants and other dealers in each of the 32
cities. The prices of food and of fuel and light (which include coal,
wood, gas, electricity, and kerosene) are furnished the bureau by
correspondence in accordance with previous arrangements made with
establishments through personal visits of the bureau’s agents. In
each city food prices are secured from 15 to 30 merchants and dealers
and fuel and light prices from 10 to 15 firms, including public utilities.
All other data are secured by representatives of the bureau, who
visit the various merchants, dealers, and agents and secure the
figures in person. Four quotations are secured in each city (except
in Greater New York, where five are obtained) on each of a large
number of articles of clothing, furniture, and miscellaneous items.
Rental figures are secured from 400 to 2,300 houses and apartments
in each city, according to its population.
The average price of each article and item is weighted according
to its importance in the average family budget.
The various groups forming the components of the cost of living
are then weighted according to their relative importance. These
“ weights” are derived from the comprehensive cost-of-living and
budgetary survey made by the bureau in 1918-19. This survey cov
ered 12,096 families in 92 localities. The results of this 1918-19
survey were published in detail in Bulletin No. 357. Tables showing
the sources and amounts of family incomes for one year, by income
groups, as determined by this survey, are given in the former
handbook (Bui. No. 439). It is extremely desirable that a new
budget survey should be made, as there probably have been im
portant changes in the character of family expenditures since 1918-19;
but the very heavy expense involved has thus far prevented the
bureau from undertaking this task.
C
Changes for Country as a Whole, 1913 to 1928
As a l r e a d y noted, the bureau’s studies of changes in cost of living
cover 32 cities. In the case of 19 of these cities the studies began in
December, 1914, and for the 13 other cities, in December, 1917.
From the figures for these 32 cities a combined index number has
been computed, and this combination is assumed to be fairly repre
sentative for the United States as a whole. It should be noted that
91
COST OF LIVING
92
this index number for the United States has been based on the year
1913, inasmuch as that year has been used as the basis for many of the
bureau’s index numbers. To bridge the gap between 1913 and
December, 1914, use has been made of the data regarding retail prices
of certain articles and the wholesale prices of other articles. As the
price changes during this period were relatively small, the results
are believed to be substantially accurate.
Table 1 gives the index numbers for changes in the cost of living
for the United States as a whole, for all of the periods for which
surveys are made by the bureau.
T able 1 .— I N D E X N U M B E R S O F C O S T O F L I V I N G I N T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S F R O M 1913
T O D E C E M B E R , 1928
M onth and year
1913 average.......................................
December, 1914................................
December, 1915................................
December, 1916................................
December, 1917................................
December, 1918................................
June, 1919...........................................
December, 1919................................
June, 1920...........................................
December, 1920.................................
M a y , 1921...........................................
September, 1921...............................
December, 1921................................
March, 1922.......................................
June, 1922...........................................
September, 1922...............................
December, 1922.................................
March, 1923.......................................
June, 1923....... ...................................
September, 1923...............................
December, 1923_________________
March, 1924__________ __________
June, 1924...........................................
September, 1924...............................
December, 1924................................
June, 1925...........................................
December, 1925................................
June, 1926...........................................
December, 1926.................................
June, 1927...........................................
December, 1927.................................
June, 1928...........................................
December, 1928................................
Food
100.0
105.0
105.0
126.0
157.0
187.0
184.0
197.0
219.0
178.0
144.7
153.1
149.9
138.7
140.7
139.7
146.6
141.9
144.3
149.3
150.3
143.7
142.4
146.8
151.5
155.0
165.5
159.7
161.8
158.5
155.9
152.6
155.8
Clothing
100.0
101.0
104.7
120.0
149.1
205.3
214.5
268.7
287.5
258.5
222.6
192.1
184.4
175.5
172.3
171.3
171.5
174.4
174.9
176.5
176.3
175.8
174.2
172.3
171.3
170.6
169.4
168.2
166.7
164.9
162.9
162.6
161.9
Rent
100.0
100.0
101.5
102.3
100.1
109.2
114.2
125.3
134.9
151.1
159.0
160.0
161.4
160.9
160.9
161.1
161.9
162.4
163.4
164.4
166.5
167.0
168.0
168.0
168.2
167.4
167.1
165.4
164.2
162.1
160.2
157.6
155.'9
Fuel-and
light
100.0
101.0
101.0
108.4
124.1
147.9
145.6
156.8
171.9
194.9
181.6
180.9
181.1
175.8
174.2
183.6
186.4
186.2
180.6
181.3
184.0
182.2
177.3
179.1
180.5
176.5
186.9
180.7
188.3
180.8
183.2
177.2
181.3
House
furnish
ing goods
100.0
104.0
110.6
127.8
150.6
213.6
225.1
263.5
292.7
285.4
247.7
224.7
218.0
206.2
202.9
202.9
208.2
217.6
222.2
222.4
222.4
221.3
216.0
214.9
216.0
214.3
214.3
210.4
207.7
205.2
204.6
201.1
199.7
Miscel
laneous
A ll items
100.0
103.0
107.4
113.3
140.5
165.8
173.2
190.2
201.4
208.2
208.8
207.8
206.8
203.3
201.5
201.1
200.5
200.3
200.3
201.1
201.7
201.1
201.1
201.1
201.7
202.7
203.5
203.3
203.9
204.5
205.1
205.5
207.1
100.0
103.0
105.1
118.3
142.4
174.4
177.3
199.3
216.5
' 200.4
180.4
177.3
174.3
166.9
166.4
166.3
169.5
168.8
169.7
172.1
173.2
170.4
169.1
170.6
172.5
173.5
177.9
174.8
175.6
173.4
172.0
170.0
171.3
Changes in Individual Cities
T a b l e 2 shows index numbers for changes in the cost of living
as a whole (i. e., all items combined), for 19 cities, from December,
1914, to December, 1928. The figures are given for December of
each year up to 1919, and thereafter semiannually. The index
numbers are computed on December, 1914, as the base or 100.
93
TREND IN UNITED STATES
T a b le
2.—INDEX NUMBERS OF COST OF LIVING IN 19 CITIES FROM DECEMBER, 1914,
TO DECEMBER, 1928
M onth and year
Balti
more,
M d.
December, 1914_____
December, 1915.........
December, 1916.........
December, 1917.........
December, 1918........
June, 1919....................
December, 1919.........
June, 1920.....................
December, 1920_____
M ay, 1921_...........
December, 1921.........
June, 1922...................
December, 1922_____
June, 1923____.............
December. 1923_____
June, 1924.. ................
December, 1924_____
June 1925.....................
December, 1925.........
June. 1926.....................
December, 1926_____
June, 1927.....................
December, 1927.........
June, 1928.....................
December, 1928.........
100.0
98.6
118.5
151.3
184.7
184.0
198.4
214.3
196.8
177.4
173.2
167.6
170.9
172.0
174.8
171.9
174.8
177.3
181.2
178.4
178.6
175.3
174.5
173.7
173.9
Boston, Buffa Chica
Mass. lo,N . Y go, Dl.
100.0
101.6
115.7
138.1
170.6
172.8
192.3
210.7
197.4
174.4
170.2
159.6
165.1
163.5
169.4
163.2
167.3
165.8
174.7
169.4
171.9
168.1
169.5
164.8
168.2
100.0
103.5
124.4
151.1
180.9
184.2
202.7
221.5
201.7
180.3
176.8
168.6
173.9
174.1
178.6
173.9
177.8
179.7
184.8
182.8
183.6
179.8
180.2
178.7
179.6
100.0
103.0
119.5
141.8
172.2
174.5
200.6
214.6
193.3
178.4
172.3
165.0
168.0
169.6
183.7
172.6
175.3
177.1
180.6
177.8
179.0
177.1
174.3
171.5
173.1
Jack
Cleve
Los
Hous
Detroit,
ton, sonville, Angeles M obile,
land,
Mich.
Ala.
Tex.
Calif.
Fla.
Ohio
100.0
101.4
119.1
142.9
171.4
177.2
198.2
220.3
207.3
187.5
178.8
168.9
172.9
177.1
179.6
175.9
m i
180.4
182.7
181.9
181.5
180.2
179.0
176.3
175.4
100.0
103.5
122.3
149.9
178.0
184.4
207.9
236.0
218.6
193.3
182.4
175.3
178.2
181.7
184.7
182.8
182.2
184.5
187.8
184.7
184.1
182.7
179.0
176.4
177.4
M onth and year
New
York,
N .Y .
Nor
folk,
Va.
Phila
del
phia,
Pa.
Port
land,
M e.
'Port
land,
Oreg.
San
Fran
cisco,
and
Oak
land,
Calif.
December, 1914.........
December, 1915.........
December, 1916.........
December, 1917.........
December, 1918.........
June, 1919.....................
December, 1919.........
June, 1920.....................
December, 1920.........
M ay, 1 9 2 1 .................
December, 1921.........
June, 1922.....................
December, 1922.........
June, 1923....................
December, 1923.........
June, 1924....................
December, 1924.........
June, 1925....................
December, 1925.........
June, 1926....................
December, 1926..........
June, 1927....................
December, 1927. . . . .
June, 1928.....................
December, 1928.........
100.0
102.0
114.9
144.7
177.3
179.2
203.8
219.2
201.4
181.7
179.3
170.7
174.2
172.6
177.3
172.5
176.5
175.8
183.2
178.6
180.0
177.8
179.1
174.4
176.3
100.0
100.6
114.7
145.2
180.7
187.1
207.0
222.2
209.0
188.1
179.2
169.5
169.9
171.1
172.4
168.4
172.1
171.9
176.4
173.1
174.6
173.9
173.4
171.5
174.1
100.0
101.2
114.7
143.8
173.9
176.2
196.5
213.5
200.7
179.8
174.3
168.2
170.7
172.1
174.7
171.5
176.1
177.6
182.6
180.6
182.3
178.0
178.3
175.3
174.5
100.0
99.6
113.8
138.0
172.2
174.3
191.6
207.6
193.1
172.1
169.6
159.7
164.1
163.3
166.9
162.4
166.0
165.3
170.3
167.3
169.2
166.8
167.0
163.8
166.6
100.0
96.9
106.1
131.2
164.2
169.2
183.7
200.4
180.3
162.2
158.3
152.1
156.1
154.6
157.8
152.8
155.8
155.8
156.9
154.6
155.1
153.7
152.8
150.5
152.4
100.0
98.3
108.3
128.6
157.8
165.6
187.8
196.0
185.1
166.7
163.6
156.8
158.8
157.6
162.1
157.3
160.1
162.2
164.7
160.7
161 7
160.5
160.7
158.8
161.7
i For April, 1919.
100.0
99.7
116.4
144.9
175.7
180.2
201.7
212.2
204.0
179.7
173.6
165.9
168.4
167.2
170.6
165.0
170.5
171.1
174.3
169.2
170.6
166.3
167.9
164.1
166.4
100.0
101.3
114.7
141.6
171.5
177.5
201.5
216.5
206.2
185.8
175.1
165.7
167.8
167.7
171.9
167.3
170.4
170.9
181.7
181.8
181.3
175.7
173.0
168.3
169.1
100.0
98.1
107.7
128.9
158.0
165.1
185.3
201.7
196.7
178.7
176.4
172.5
174.5
175.1
178.8
175.1
175.4
176.9
177.4
171.2
172.2
171.5
170.6
167.4
171.0
100.0
99.6
113.8
143.2
171.4
176.6
194.5
207.0
193.3
170.8
163.6
155.3
158.8
158.6
162.6
158.0
163.9
163.9
168.5
166.2
168.1
165.2
165.5
163.5
165.7
Savan
Wash
Seattle
nah,
Wash. ington,
Ga.
D . C.
100.0
99.8
114.6
142.5
175.0
179.8
198.7
209.4
198.7
177.6
166.2
156.8
159.2
157.9
158.2
154.8
156.3
157.9
162.9
160.6
160.5
158.3
158.1
156.6
159.1
100.0
99.0
107.4
131.1
169.9
176.9
197.7
210.5
194.1
180.2
171.5
167.0
166.7
166.4
168.5
166.7
167.8
170.5
171.7
169.4
169.1
169.4
166.9
165.8
167.1
100.0
101.0
114.6
147.3
173.8
1 171.2
* 187.6
201.3
187.8
167.1
163.0
157.6
159.5
160.9
163.2
159.2
163.1
164.0
167.3
165.5
166.0
160.5
160.8
159.7
160.2
* For November, 1919.
Table 3 gives similar information for the 13 cities for which reports
were begun in December, 1917, this date, therefore, being used as
the base, or 100, in computing the index numbers.
COST OF LIVING
94
T able 3.—INDEX NUMBERS OF COST OF LIVING IN 13 CITIES FROM DECEMBER, 1917,
TO DECEMBER, 1928
M onth and year
December, 1917__________________
Decmber, 1918___ ____ -. ................
.Tiitip., 1919
_ ____
December, 1919................................
.Time, 1920
December, 1920............................ ..
M a y , 1921............. .............................
December, 1921............................ ..
•Tune, 1922
_ ____ __ _ _
December, 1922...............................
.Trines, 1923 , ,
December, 1923................................
.Trmfi, 1924
December, 1924................................
.Tnnp.. 192/s
December, 1925.................................
June, 1926,
_ __ _ _ _ _ _
December, 1926. ................ .............
June, 1927.................. ................... ..
December, 1927...............................
June, 1928...........................................
December, 1928.................................
M onth and year
December, 1917__________________
December, 1918.................................
June, 1919....................................... ..
December, 1919................................
June, 1920............... ...........................
December, 1920................................
M a y , 1921...........................................
December, 1921................................
June, 1922..................................... ..
December, 1922................................
June, 1923........... ......................... .
December, 1923_________________
June, 1924__......................................
December, 1924................................
June, 1925. .......................... .»______
December, 1925................................
June, 1926................ ........................
December, 1926................................
June, 1927............... ...........................
December, 1927................................
June, 1928. ........................................
December, 1928.................................
Atlanta, Birming Cincin Denver,
Ga.
ham, Ala. nati, Ohio
Colo.
100.0
119.7
123.3
137.9
146.7
138.5
125.2
118.7
113.7
115.1
114.2
116.0
113.6
114.9
116.2
119.0
117.3
117.4
116.2
114.3
113. 9
115.6
Minne
apolis,
M inn.
100.0
115.8
118.8
132.7
143.4
135.7
123.7
120.7
117.3
118.0
117.4
118.8
116.2
117.3
117.6
120.3
119.6
118.2
117.2
115.4
115.8
115.2
100.0
117.0
119.8
134.3
141.9
133.3
122.1
116.2
110.7
113.2
113.6
116.0
113.1
116.8
116.9
119.2
117.5
117.8
114.8
115.7
113.7
114.2
New
Orleans,
La.
100.0
117.9
120.7
133.9
141.9
136.7
123.8
122.7
118.9
118.6
117.7
120.2
116.8
120.6
120.2
122.7
120.1
121.7
120.3
119.9
118.2
119.5
100.0
117.3
121.1
135.2
147.1
134.7
121.7
115.3
112.7
113.8
115.5
117.7
116.3
117.6
122.1
123.0
122.6
123.8
123. 3
121.3
121.0
121.2
Pitts
burgh,
Pa.
100.0
119.8
121.8
136.2
149.1
139.3
127.7
122.8
117.8
120.1
121.3
122.9
122.4
124.9
126.0
128.5
126.2
127.2
125.4
124.8
122.3
124.4
100.0
120.7
125.3
138.2
150.3
138.7
126.9
124.5
118.8
121.6
119.9
122.1
117.8
120.2
121.1
122.5
119.7
120.4
118.4
116.6
114.9
116.3
Rich
mond,
Va.
100.0
117.9
120.6
132.0
143.8
133.3
120.2
118.3
113.2
114.4
114.9
117.1
113.5
116.5
116.7
120.8
119.7
119.3
117.4
116.4
115.3
115.7
Indian
apolis,
Ind.
100.0
119.1
121.1
136.5
150.2
137.6
123.9
119.3
116.4
118.8
119.4
120.6
119.3
121.4
121.5
124.2
121.9
122.3
121.4
119.2
118.2
118.5
Kansas
City,
M o.
100.0
119.6
120.6
138.2
151.0
139.5
127.3
122.5
115.0
116.2
115.3
117.2
114.3
115.3
116.3
118.0
116.6
115.2
114.0
111.9
111.2
111.3
Memphis,
Tenn.
100.0
118.3
123.3
135.2
146.4
139.3
126.7
123.2
118.2
118.6
119.9
121.0
118.2
120.4
120.5
122.0
119.9
119.9
118.1
117.3
116.4
117.5
St. Louis, Scranton,
Pa.
M o.
100.0
116.7
117.9
134.2
148.9
135.4
123.1
118.5
115.1
117.0
117.7
120.6
118.8
120.7
122.4
125.0
124.1
124.5
123.2
121.4
119.9
120.4
100.0
121.9
125.0
137.1
151.5
139.1
128.2
126.3
120.9
122.4
122.4
125.8
122.4
125.8
127.0
132.0
129.0
129.8
128.2
128.5
126.9
127.8
Cost of Living in the United States and in Foreign
Countries
HE TREND of cost of living in the United States and in various
foreign countries since 1913 is shown by the index numbers
in the following tables, in so far as data are available from official
sources for the several countries. Only those countries are presented
for which the index numbers include all or most of the items usually
combined under the term “ Cost of living.” Details for the items
of food, clothing, fuel and light, and rent in most of the countries
were published in the Labor Review for February, 1929.
Caution should be observed in the use of these figures, since not
only are there differences in the base periods and in the number and
kind of articles included and the number of markets represented,
but also there are radical differences of method in the construction
of the index numbers. Moreover, monetary inflations in certain coun
tries seriously affect, of course, the index numbers.
T
UNITED STATES AND FOREIGN COUNTRIES
95
I N D E X N U M B E R S OF CO ST OF L IV IN G IN T H E U N IT E D S T A T E S A N D IN F O R E IG N
C O U N T R IE S , 1913 T O D E C E M B E R , 1928
C o u n try ..
United
States
Num ber of
localities.
32
Commod
ities in
c lu d ed ..
Czecho
Canada Belgium
slovakia
Den
mark
Finland
France
Ger
m any
Ireland
Italy
59
200
21
Paris
:71
200
M ilan
i 60
Food,
Food,
Food,
Food,
Food,
Food,
Food,
Food,
Food,
clothing, Food,
clothing,
fuel and clothing, clothing, clothing, fuel and clothing, clothing, clothing, clothing, clothing,
fuel,
fuel and fuel and fuel and fuel and
light,
fuel and fuel and fuel and
light,
light,
light,
rent,
light,
light,
light,
light,
light,
rent,
rent,
rent,
rent,
rent,
rent,
rent,
rent,
taxes,
rent,
house
taxes,
furnish sundries sundries sundries
etc.
sundries sundries sundries sundries
etc.
ings, ere.
Bureau Depart
C o m p u t
of Labor ment of
ing agen
Statis
Labor
c y ______
tics
Base pe
riod.........
Prague
1913
1913
M in
Depart Central
istry of Office of
ment of Statis
Labor
Statis
tical
Statis
and
tics
Office
tics
Industry
1921
July,
1914
July,
1914
Com
Depart
mission Federal ment of Munici
pal
for
Statis Industry
and
Study of
Adm in
tical
Com
Cost of Bureau
istration
Living
merce
January- JanuaryJune
June,
1913-14
1914
1914
July,
1914
JanuaryJune,
1914
Year and
month
1913............
1914 ...........
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
1921
1922
1923............
1924 .........
Dec__
1925
Dec__
1926 .........
Jan
Feb
M ar
Apr
M ay
Ju ne..
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
N ov
Dec__
1927 ...........
Jan
Feb
M ar
Apr
M ay
June...
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
N ov
Dec
1928:
Jan
Feb
M ar
Apr
M ay
J u n e..
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
N ov.. _
D e c ...
100
i 103
1105
1 118
i 142
1174
1 199
l 200
1174
1170
1 173
100
1 103
i 107
1 124
1 143
1 102
l 176
1 190
l 161
l 157
1159
173
156
178
160
i December.
* July.
100
290
2 109
2125
137
2133
143
690
692
707
721
703
157
139
140
137
110
147
155
174
182
179
188
196
199
707
699
687
685
692
693
718
723
723
726
734
735
158
157
157
155
155
155
155
155
155
156
156
157
202
204
200
199
197
210
204
201
204
207
207
207
741
740
738
740
750
755
747
733
730
727
729
734
157
156
156
156
155
155
155
157
157
158
158
158 !
209
206
203
204
202
204
205
206
209
212
217
216
734
732
730
734
736
734
746
754
749
726
721
725
159
175
157
156
176
173
172
170
171
2 100
2 100
2 116
2 136
2 155
2 182
2 211
2 262
2 237
2 199
2 204
2 214
2219
194
184
181
178
176
176
176
176
176
172
3 100
1 1172
1 1157
1147
1170
1217
1212
1197
1183
1166
1175
1172
1163
1159
1175
1183
1213
1203
1197
1193
1197
1207
1187
1189
1183
1173
1166
1184
1203
1237
1230
1237
1251
1243
1216
1206
1214
1212
1207
1219
1236
1258
1249
1254
1262
1260
3 January-June.
4 October, 1913; January, April, and June, 1914.
3100
«100
2 100
3 238
8 341
s 307
5 302
5 334
1 142
2185
2 180
6 377
135
2183
8 421
141
2188
140
139
138
140
140
141
142
143
142
142
144
144
188
145
145
145
146
147
148
150
147
147
150
151
151
182
6 451
®485
«539
6 545
6 524
6 525
6 507
6 498
6 507
6 519
6 519
6 531
151
151
151
151
151
151
153
154
152
152
152
153
180
182
189
171
171
175
177
170
173
176
6 April-June.
6 Quarter ending with month.
3 100
114
146
197
285
327
442
541
501
494
527
573
611
649
654
665
661
647
642
652
650
649
652
647
672
657
657
655
667
663
651
612
586
548
543
537
536
536
531
532
533
531
531
526
530
526
522
526
528
534
538
COST OF LIVING
96
INDEX NUMBERS OF COST OF LIVING IN THE UNITED STATES AND IN FOREIGN
COUNTRIES, 1913 TO DECEMBER, 1928—Continued
Country. _
N um ber
of locali
ties_____
Nether
Norway
lands
The
Hague
30
Poland
Sweden
Swit
zerland
United
King
dom
South
Africa
India
Warsaw
49
33
630
9
Bombay
Food,
Food,
Food,
Food,
Food,
Food,
clothing, clothing, clothing, Food, clothing,
clothing,
clothing,
fuel,
Commod
fuel,
All com
fuel,
fuel,
fuel,
light,
fuel,
fuel,
ities in
light,
light,
light,
light,
modities
rent,
light,
light,
cluded. _
and rent, and rent, and rent,
and rent,
sundries and rent
and rent
sundries sundries sundries
sundries
M unic
C o m p u t
ipal ad
ing agen
minis
c y ............ tration
Base pe
riod_____
1913 ...........
1914_______
1915.............
1916_______
1917._
__
1918_______
1919_______
1920_______
1921_______
100
1922............
1 83
1923_______
l 82
1924............
Dec___
84
1925............
D ec__.
82
1926_______
Jan
Feb
M a r ..
80
Apr
M ay
Ju n e..
82
July
Aug
Sept__
79
Oct
N ov
D e c ...
80
1927_...........
Jan
Feb
M ar_ _
80
Apr
M ay
Ju n e..
80
July
Aug
Sept__
80
Oct
N ov
D e c ...
82
1928:
Jan
Feb
M ar__
83
Apr
M ay
Ju n e..
82
July
Aug
Sept__
81
Oct
N o v _ _ !______
D ec—
80
i
Central
Statis
tical
Office
July,
1914
7 100
7117
7146
7 190
7 253
7 275
7 302
7 302
7 255
7 239
Central
Board
Statis
of Social
tical
Welfare
Office
January,
1914
100
July,
1914
2 100
Federal
Labor
Office
M inis
try of
Labor
Office of
Census
and Sta
tistics
Labor
Office
June,
1914
July,
1914
1914
July,
1914
2 100
i 139
2 219
2 257
2 270
2 235
2 190
2 174
2 171
204
222
224
200
164
164
169
267
236
217(5
174
216
121
114
111
95
87
98
102
104
109
111
114
115
213
211
208
206
205
204
206
205
199
199
198
197
117
117
116
118
119
119
115
116
117
119
122
121
171
197
197
196
196
196
195
196
195
187
186
185
184
120
118
119
121
121
122
123
122
122
123
125
125
227
221
221
2 July.
173
172
171
170
169
172
171
171
173
172
2 100
2 100
2 125
2 148
2 180
2 203
2 208
2 252
2 219
2 184
2 169
2 170
1S1
100
105
112
122
131
145
179
162
135
131
133
133
177
131
154
175
183
173
164
154
157
160
155
155
168
1(37
162
166
164
163
162
162
162
162
161.
161
161
161
161
160
160
160
159
158
160
160
160
160
161
161
162
162
175
173
172
168
167
168
170
170
172
174
179
179
131
131
131
131
132
131
130
130
130
131
131
129
155
154
155
153
153
155
157
155
155
155
154
156
175
172
171
165
164
163
166
164
165
167
169
169
130
130
131
131
132
132
132
131
131
132
132
132
156
155
155
153
152
154
156
157
1.54
151
150
151
161
161
160
160
160
161
161
161
161
162
162
162
168
166
164
164
164
165
165
165
165
166
167
168
132
131
132
133
133
132
131
131
131
131
131
131
154
148
145
144
147
146
147
146
145
146
147
148
6 Quarter ending with month.
New
Austra
lia
Zealand
30
25
Food,
gro
ceries,
rent
Food,
clothing,
fuel,
light,
and rent,
sundries
Bureau
Census
of
and Sta
Census
tistics
and Sta
Office
tistics
1911
108
111
126
130
129
134
148
175
167
156
168
166
6 165
170
e 172
176
July,
1914
2 100
107
116
129
143
157
178
177
160
158
160
162
6 164
163
162
e 175
163
6 180
163
6 176
163
e 174
174
162
162
6 174
162
6 172
161
6 175
161
6 177
161
6 175
162
6 175
161
162
COST OF LIVING
97
Use of Cost-of-Living Figures in Wage Adjustments
of the use of cost-of-living figures in wage adjustments
was published by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics
A inSTUDY
1925 (Bui. No. 369). The following abstract from that bulletin
shows the widespread use of cost-of-living figures in wage adjust
ments, not only during the war but also during the subsequent years:
The cost of living has entered as a factor into practically every award made
by Government arbitration boards. It also has been considered by State and
municipal agencies, and by State arbitration boards, and has been the controlling
factor in the fixing of wages by minimum wage boards in 13 States and the
District of Columbia. In the last 10 years it has entered into practically every
industrial case which was voluntarily arbitrated. During the war, plans involv
ing the use of cost-of-living figures were adopted by a great many private em
ployers, and while some of these have been abandoned others are still in effect.
Since the war many other firms have adopted definite plans for the payment
of wages, all of which provide for the consideration of figures showing changes
in the cost of living. * * *
Altogether, the number of employees affected directly by specific wage adjust
ments is very great; those industries alone where the approximate number is
known employ over five and one-half million workers. It should also be borne
in mind that in many instances an even greater number of employees is affected
indirectly, for often other employers engaged in the same character of work
voluntarily make changes in wages to conform to those fixed by an adjustment
agency or granted by other employers. Therefore practically ail labor has been
affected either directly or indirectly by adjustments which were based ia some
measure upon the cost of living.
Since the beginning of 1924, the date of the preparation of Bulletin
No. 369, the bureau has made no survey of the subject, but enough
information is at hand to show that the use of cost-of-living data in
wage adjustments by governmental boards, arbitration boards, and
private contract has continued to the present time. The past two
or three years, however, have been years of relatively few wage con
troversies of sufficient intensity to bring them to the attention of
the public.
The following represent, therefore, only such examples of the
recent use of cost-of-living figures in wage adjustments as have come
to the attention of the bureau without special inquiry or research.
Railroad Arbitrations under the Federal Act of 1926
D u r in g its life of six years from 1920 to 1926, the Railroad Labor
Board used the cost-of-living indexes of the Bureau of Labor Statistics
in all its wage decisions, the law providing that it should consider,
among other factors, “ the relation between wages and the cost of
living.”
The mediation and arbitration boards established under the rail
way labor act of 1926 have no definite rules of procedure established
by law, but a review of the hearings and awards in the numerous
arbitration cases held under the act shows that data regarding changes
in the cost of living have been given constant consideration by the
parties concerned. The awards so made have involved more than
200,000 men. In a great many other instances, also, voluntary
settlements were made between the men and the carriers on the basis
of awards made by such boards.
98
COST OF LIVING
Colorado Industrial Commission
T h e i n d u s t r i a l relations act of Colorado, effective August 1, 1915,
which created the Colorado Industrial Commission, requires employers
and employees to give 30 days’ notice of an intended change affecting
wages and hours; gives the commission power to mediate and investi
gate and hold hearings on controversies or demands; and prohibits
any change or stoppage of work during the 30-day period, or while
the commission is holding its hearings or investigation. The findings
of the commission become final if the parties accept the commission
as arbitrator; otherwise they are merely recommendatory.
Up to December 1,1924, the commission had handled 1,157 contro
versies, involving approximately 150,000 workers.1 In the findings of
the commission various factors were recognized, but changes in the cost
of living seem to have been of most importance. The former chair
man of the commission, Hiram E, Hilts, has stated that “ all wage
changes are based primarily on the cost of living.” 2
Minimum Wage Boards
P r i o r to the decisions of the United States Supreme Court adversely
affecting the constitutionality of mandatory minimum wage laws
for women, such laws were in operation in 13 States and the District
of Columbia. Most of the minimum wage commissions or boards con
nected therewith formulated budgets which were considered equivalent
to a minimum cost of living for the workers concerned or applied to
budgets already accepted the per cent of change in the cost of living.3
In 1919 at a joint conference of representatives of the California,
Oregon, and Washington commissions, it was recommended that the
figures of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics should be used
by the wage conferences in all States.4
While the decisions of the United States Supreme Court have no
doubt affected the operation of mandatory wage laws as regards
women, they are apparently unaffected as regards minors. Under
the Massachusetts law, which is nonmandatory, wage boards have
continued to adopt budgets and to revise previous budgets after the
consideration of the changes in the cost of living.5 At the close of
1926 wage boards had been called in Massachusetts for 21 occupational
groups, employing probably 85,000 females.6
State and Municipal Agencies
O f t h e various State and municipal agencies which used cost-ofliving figures in the adjustment of salaries during or immediately
after the war, at least one—St. Paul, Minn.—made this principle a
permanent feature. For the other jurisdictions the bureau has no
recent information.
Cost-of-living figures were first used in St. Paul in the adjustment
of wages in 1918. In October, 1922, a plan was approved by the
1 See Journal of Political Economy, October, 1927.
2 U . S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bui. N o . 369, p. 132.
3 Idem, pp. 156-158.
4 Idem, p. 158.
s Massachusetts. Department of Labor and Industries. Annual reports, 1925, pp. 26, 27, and 1926, pp.
28, 29.
* National Industrial Conference Board. M inim um Wage Legislation in Massachusetts. New Y ork,
1927, p. 197.
TJSE OF COST-OF-LIVING FIGURES
99
city council whereby all city employees, with the exception of teachers,
were grouped into three services—graded, ungraded, and common
labor—and standard basic salaries established for the different grades
under these classifications, which have been adjusted annually since
that time according to the change in the cost of living, as determined
by the United Bureau of Labor Statistics.7 The number of employees
subject to these periodic wage adjustments was approximately 2,330
in 1925.8
Agreements Between Employers and Employees
M a n y collective agreements between employers and their employees
provide for arbitration in case a new agreement can not be negotiated
at the expiration of the old one, and in the resulting arbitrations costof-living figures play an important part. Others provide specifically
for revision of the agreed wage rates to meet any important change in
the cost of living, and accurate and authoritative current statistics
of changes in cost of living are therefore necessary. An agreement
of the latter type is that between the International Ladies’ Garment
Workers' union and employers of Cleveland, Ohio, of January 1, 1924.
Industrial Arbitration Boards
A r b i t r a t i o n as a means of settling disputes is frequently resorted
to in all types of industries, and in almost every arbitration case cost
of living is necessarily one of the important factors which must be
considered. A large number of these cases, however, probably do
not come to the attention of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
In certain industries, such as printing and electrical construction,
permanent arbitration machinery on a national scale has been vol
untarily established. Cases which can not be adjusted by the parties
are ordered to local boards of arbitration and, failing adjustment there,
to a national board. Local arbitration boards have also been estab
lished in other industries, such as the building industry in San Fran
cisco, the cloth hat and cap industry in New York and Chicago, the
clothing industry in Baltimore, Chicago, Cleveland, and Rochester,
and in the silk ribbon, fancy leather goods, shirt, and boys’ waist in
dustries in New York. In practically all cases voluntarily referred to
arbitration the cost of living is considered as a factor, though one of
varying weight. In the decisions of some of the arbitration boards
the cost of living has had controlling influence, and some decisions
have been based entirely upon this ground.
Street-railway industry.—The principle of arbitration in wage dis
putes has long been accepted in the street-railway industry, and cost
of living has been prominent in the findings of the arbitrators. Recent
cases in which data on the changes in the cost of living have figured
prominently include those between the following companies and their
employees: Worcester Consolidated Street Railway Co., Boston
Elevated Railway Co., Shreveport (La.) Railways Co., United Elec
tric Railways Co. (Providence, R. I.), Northern Ohio Traction &
Light Co., street railway companies of East St. Louis, Alton, Granite,
etc., traction companies of San Francisco and Oakland, and the Con
necticut Co.
7 Letter from St. Paul Civil Service Bureau. Dec. 27,1927.
* St. Paul. Civil Service Bureau, Twelfth Annual Report, 1926.
39142°—29------ 8
100
COST OF LIVING
Printing trades.—The printing trades, especially in the newspaper
branch, rival the street-railway industry in their adoption of arbitra
tion, and in nearly all cases of arbitration the cost of living holds an
important place. Quite generally, the Bureau of Labor Statistics
cost-of-living data are used, not only by the parties concerned but by
the arbitration board itself. In the arbitration case between the
Washington Newspaper Publishers’ Association and Typographical
Union No. 101, the figures of the bureau were stated to be “ undoubt
edly the best statistics available.”
Individual Companies
I n 1921-22 the Bureau of Labor Statistics sent out questionnaires
to 7,000 employers, asking them if they used cost-of-living figures in
the adjustment of wages of their employees. Of the 2,311 replies
received, 1,370, or about 60 per cent, stated that they did make use
of such figures when making wage changes, something over 1,500,000
employees being affected. In some cases the employers computed
their own cost-of-living data, but in most cases use was made of the
figures compiled by existing agencies such as the United States Bureau
of Labor Statistics. Details regarding these plans are given in Bul
letin No. 369.
The bureau has not been able to keep in touch with these establish
ments to determine to what extent these plants have continued to use
cost-of-living figures. There is no reason to suppose that the practice
is not still a common one, and this is indicated by recent correspond
ence received by the bureau.
Employers’ Association
T h e National Industrial Conference Board, an association of a
large number of important employers’ organizations, issues a monthly
index of cost of living primarily for the use of its own members. This
index number is based partly upon original investigations by the
board, but for retail food prices, the largest item in the workers’ budget,
it uses the data of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, and
also depends upon the bureau for the weighting system used in com
piling cost-of-living index numbers. The board is therefore much
interested in the accuracy of the weighting system, and in a recent
communication to the bureau expresses the hope that the bureau will
be able to make a new budgetary study for this purpose.
Cost of Medical Service
STUDY of the cost of medical service was made by the Bureau
of Labor Statistics from information secured in the first week of
April, 1928, from its personnel of 117 persons, other than the com
missioner, assistant commissioner, and agents in the field. One
hundred and fourteen satisfactory schedules were secured.
A
COST OF MEDICAL SERVICE
101
The term “ cost of medical service,” as used in this study, covers
all direct expenditures for health purposes, including the care of the
teeth and eyes, medicines, hospital and nursing charges, surgical
appliances, etc., as well as the services of physicians and surgeons.
The principal points developed from the study are as follows:
The average annual expenditures per employee for medical services
were $98.92 for the group earning less than $2,000 per year; $146.13
for the salary group $2,000 to $3,000; and $190.63 for the salary
group $3,000 and over. The average medical costs for all salary
groups was $122.72, the average salary being $1,992.63. Expressed
in terms of percentages, medical costs represented 6.2 per cent of
salary in the lower salary group; 6.3 per cent in the middle group;
and 5.5 per cent in the upper group.
Medical costs, reduced to an annual basis, were in excess of $500 in a
number of instances. Nineteen persons spent over 10 per cent of their
salaries for medical care, the costs ranging from 10.4 to 33.9 per cent.
Because of the large number of unmarried employees in the bureau,
the average number of persons per schedule (i. e., the reporting em
ployees and their dependents) was only 1.9, the average ranging
from 1.8 persons in the lowest salary group to 2.2 in the upper group.
Thus the average per capita expenditures for medical services were
$54.96 for the lowest salary group, $69.59 for the middle group,
$86.65 for the upper group, and $64.59 for all three groups combined.
The study did not show, of course, the exact sums which on the
average, should be spent for medical services. Many employees,
particularly those with the lower salaries and those with the larger
families, neglect or postpone such medical treatment as is not abso
lutely imperative. This was shown in numerous statements made
by employees replying to the present questionnaire. On the whole,
however, it may be assumed that the members of the group earning
$3,000 and over were expending approximately enough for all the
major requirements of health, without being in a position to spend
wastefully for services of this nature. It is probable, therefore, that
the average per capita expenditure in this group represents the aver
age minimum amount per individual necessary for the maintenance
of health. The average per capita expenditure of the group is $86.65.
On this basis the average annual cost of adequate medical services
would be approximately $350 for a family of four and approximately
$430 for a family of five.
The cost of medical service to employees of the Bureau of Labor
Statistics is considerably reduced by reason of the fact that the
Department of Labor maintains a free dispensary service open to all
employees of the department. Visits to the dispensary average about
10 per year per employee and thus represent an average money saving
of at least $20 a year.
The summarized statistical findings of the study are shown in
Table 1.
102
COST OF LIVING
T a b le
1.— A V E R A G E
A N N U A L M E D I C A L E X P E N S E S OF 114 G O V E R N M E N T E M P L O Y
E E S , C L A S S IF IE D A C C O R D I N G T O S A L A R Y
Salary class
Aver
age
Num
num
Num
ber of
ber
of
ber of
em
persons
persons
ployees
cov
cov
ered
re
ered
porting
per •
sched
ule
$3,000 and o v e r .................................................
$2,000 and under $3,000...... .............................
Under $2,000.............................. ........... .............
Total..........................................................
Annual medical expenses
Average
salary
Average
per em
ployee
Per
cent
of
salary
Aver
age
per
capita
9
40
65
20
85
115
2.2
2.1
1.8
$3,466.67
2,316.00
1,589.54
$190.63
146.13
98.92
5.5
6.3
6.2
$86.65
69.59
54.96
114
220
1.9
1,992.63
122.72
6.2
64. 59
1
As noted above, the medical costs covered by this study include
only direct costs. Indirect costs—such as loss of salary from illness
and convalescence—are not included. Nor are funeral expenses
included. As regards loss of salary, the regulations of the Depart
ment of Labor permit of a maximum sick leave of 30 days within any
one calendar year, proper certification by a physician being required.
As a maximum of 30 days of annual leave within a calendar year may
also be allowed under the departmental regulations, an employee
suffering a severe illness may be paid, at the most, for a period of 60
days without service during a calendar year. Beyond this period the
salary ceases. Neither sick leave nor annual leave is cumulative.
Furthermore, it should be noted that the medical costs reported
in this inquiry were in many, and probably most, cases less than the
actual amounts spent. Most of the employees replying had not
kept complete records of all medical expenditures—especially for
family medicines usually bought for cash—and as a result there was
an evident tendency to understate the totals.
The results of the present study can not of course be accepted as
conclusive for other than the personnel of the particular bureau to
which they relate. On the other hand, the fact that the personnel
of the Bureau of Labor Statistics has such a wide range of duties
(from messengers to expert statisticians) and of salaries (from $1,020
to $4,400 per year) indicates that the results may be regarded as
fairly representative of the other classes of salary and wage earners
of similar income groups.
Individual Reports
T h e d e t a i l e d data for each of the 114 schedules obtained are given
in Table 2. The schedules used requested information back to
January 1, 1927, in the case of normal medical services, and to January
1,1926, in the case of special medical services. This was done in order
to cover the more extended cases of illness. In tabulating the sched
ules, however, all data were reduced to an annual basis, and the cost
figures here presented represent in all cases average annual expendi
tures.
In the schedule and in the following tabulation distinction is made
between “ normal services” and “ special services.” By “ normal
services” is meant the ordinary and more or less routine services of
COST OF MEDICAL SERVICE
103
the dentist, oculist, and family physician. By “ special services” is
meant those incident to the more serious illnesses requiring expendi
tures for surgeons, hospital, nursing, etc. Such a distinction is
necessarily rather rough but permits of useful comparisons.
T able S .— N O R M A L A N D S P E C IA L M E D I C A L E X P E N S E S O F 114 G O V E R N M E N T E M
P L O Y E E S A N D PE R C E N T OF S A L A R Y TH U S SP E N T, B Y S A L A R Y GROUPS
Average annual expenditures for—
Salary classification and em
ployees’ number
$3,000’ and over:
Employee N o.
Employee N o.
Employee N o.
Employee N o.
Employee N o.
Employee N o.
Employee N o.
Employee N o.
Employee N o.
1_.
2_.
3..
4_.
5_.
6_.
7_.
8..
9_.
T o t a l .................
Average............
No.
N o.
No.
N o.
N o.
N o.
N o.
N o.
N o.
N o.
N o.
N o.
N o.
N o.
N o.
No.
N o.
No.
N o.
No.
N o.
N o.
No.
N o.
N o.
N o.
N o.
N o.
No.
N o.
N o.
No.
No.
N o.
N o.
N o.
N o.
N o.
N o.
N o.
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
Total____
Average-
N um
ber of
per
sons
cover
ed
Salary
Normal medical
services
Special medical
services
Total
1
Per
Per
Per
Amount cent of Amount cent of Am ount cent of
salary
salary
salary
3 $3,000.00
3 3,100.00
2 4,400.00
1 3, 000.00
2 3,000.00
2 3,300.00
1 4,000.00
4 4,400.00
2 3,000.00
$84.00
28.80
244.80
40.00
11.20
56.36
20.00
154.40
113.60
2.8
.9
5.6
1.3
.4
1.7
.5
3.5
3.8
753.16
S3.68
2.4
20
2.2
3,466.67
1
6
3
1
6
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
3
1
2
2
1
4
4
1
1
2
5
2
1
4
1
2
2
5
1
3
1
1
1
4
2
1
2
1
2,900.00
2,600.00
2,100.00
2,000.00
2,600.00
2,600.00
2,000.00
2,000.00
2,400.00
2,600.00
2,300.00
2,200.00
2,600.00
2,000.00
2,200.00
2,200.00
2,040.00
2,600.00
2,600.00
2,300.00
2,300.00
2,500.00
2,100.00
2,800.00
2,100.00
2,100.00
2,000.00
2,000.00
2,000.00
2,200.00
2,100.00
2,300.00
2,400.00
2,600.00
2,600.00
2,000.00
2,600.00
2,600.00
2,200.00
2,300.00
275.20
65.60
88.00
113.40
131.20
81.20
28.00
3.20
87.20
85.60
1.60
1.60
185.20
78.80
70.40
112.80
39.20
171.00
114.66
9.5
2.5
4.2
5.7
5.0
3.1
1.4
.2
3.6
3.3
.1
.1
7.1
3.9
3.2
5.1
1.9
6.6
4.4
55.20
189.60
81.04
140.32
52.80
453.88
88.00
56.00
64.00
32.00
80.00
64.80
46.80
24.80
225.60
284.00
35.08
31.20
71.60
25.60
2.4
7.6
3.9
5.0
2.5
21.6
4.4
2.8
3.2
1.5
3.8
2.8
2.0
1.0
8.7
14.2
1.4
1.2
3.3
1.1
85
2.1
2,316.00
3,836.18
95.90
4.1
$33.33
105.78
210.67
1.1
3.4
4,8
6.67
171.84
33.33
400.89
.2
5.2
.8
9.1
902.51
106.95
3.1
96.44
3.3
14.44
.7
.89
19.56
167.78
.03
.8
8.4
195.33
7.5
60.00
4.44
121.78
2.7
.2
6.0
22.00
.8
11.56
309.33
4Q.67
136.54
4.44
355.56
.5
12.4
2.2
4.9
.2
16.9
8.89
28.89
.4
1.3
108.6*6
218.67
4.5
8.4
3.11
4.89
14.22
22.22
33.33
2,008.98
50.23
$117.33
134.58
455.47
40.00
17.87
228.20
53.33
555.29
113.60
3.9
4.3
10.4
1.3
.6
6.9
1.3
12.6
3.8
1,715.67
190.63
5.5
371. 64
65.60
102.44
113.40
132.09
100.76
195.78
3.20
87.20
85.60
1.60
1.60
380.53
78.80
130.40
117.24
160.98
171.00
136.66
12.8
2.5
4.9
5.7
5.1
3.9
9.8
.2
3.6
3.3
.1
.1
14.6
3.9
5.9
5.3
7.9
6.6
5.3
.2
.2
.5
1.0
1.4
66.76
498.93
127 71
276.86
57.24
809.44
88.00
56.00
72. $
60.89
80.00
64.80
154.80
243.47
225.60
287.11
39.97
45.42
93.82
58.93
2.9
20.0
6.1
9.9
2.7
38.5
4.4
2.8
3.6
2.8
3.8
2.8
6.5
9.4
8.7
14.4
1.5
1.7
4.3
2.6
2.2
5,845.16
146.13
6.3
COST OF LIVING
104
T able 2 .— N O R M A L A N D S P E C I A L M E D I C A L E X P E N S E S O F 114 G O V E R N M E N T E M
P L O Y E E S A N D P E R C E N T O F S A L A R Y T H U S S P E N T , B Y S A L A R Y G R O U P S — Contd
Average annual expenditures for—
Salary classification and em
ployees’ number
N um
ber of
per
sons
cover-
Salary
Normal medical
services
Special medical
services
Total
Per
Per
Per
Amount cent of Am ount cent of Amount cent of
salary
salary
Under $2,000:
..
Employee N o. 5 0
Employee No. 5 1
Employee No. 5 2
Employee No. 5 3
Employee No. 5 4
Employee No. 5 5
Employee No. 50___________
Employee N o. 57___________
Employee N o.
Employee N o. KoIIIIIIIIII
Employee No. 60___________
Employee No. 61___________
Employee N o. 62___________
Employee No. 6 3
Employee No. 6 4
Employee No. 6 5
Employee No. 6 6
Employee N o. 6 7
____
Employee No. 6 8
Employee N o. 6 9
Employee No. 7 0
Employee No. 7 1
Employee No. 7 2
Employee No. 7 3 _ - _ :______
Employee No. 74___________
Employee No.
Employee N o.
Employee No.
Employee No.
Employee No.
Employee No.
Employee No.
Employee No.
Employee N o.
Employee No.
Employee N o.
Employee No.
Employee No.
Employee No.
Employee N o.
Employee No.
Employee No.
Employee N o.
Employee N o.
Employee N o.
Employee No.
Employee No.
Employee N o.
Employee N o.
Employee N o.
Employee No. 100.
Employee No. 101Employee N o. 102.
Employee N o. 103.
Employee N o. 104Employee N o. 105Employee N o. 106Employee N o. 107Employee No. 108.
Employee N o. 109.
Employee No. 110.
Employee N o. 1 1 1 .
Employee N o. 112.
Employee N o. 113.
Employee N o. 114.
$1,620.00
1,620.00
1.320.00
1.650.00
1.920.00
1.680.00
1.440.00
1.320.00
1,8(H).00
1.800.00
1,860.00
1,3:0.00
1.440.00
1.740.00
1.740.00
1.320.00
1.800.00
1,800.00
1.140.00
1.320.00
1.320.00
1.680.00
1,860.00
1.500.00
1.140.00
1.800.00
1,920 00
1,620.00
1.380.00
1.860.00
1,680.00
1,620.00
1,620.00
1,860.00
1.920.00
1.320.00
1.620.00
1.920.00
1.620.00
1.740.00
1.320.00
1.740.00
1.740.00
1.560.00
1.680.00
1,680.00
1.500.00
1,8f:0.00
1.020.00
1.740.00
1.380.00
1.380.00
1.320.00
1.320.00
1.500.00
Grand total....................
Average_______________
220.
1.8
1.9
106.80
58.40
40.60
12.23
40.40
156.00
7.4
4.4
29.33
2.2
"13.33
20.00
72.20
171.20
55. 20
49. fO
24. 80
44.00
112.00
7.20
88.16
73. CO
158.40
36.00
84.20
144.00
29.60
2.40
196.00
7.5.60
45.60
38.40
75.20
28.00
12.00
87.20
108.00
20.00
28. 2S
50.00
1.1
3.6
2.5
2.5
20.00
.4
7.3
1.0
2.0
$128.89
17.60
52.93
164.71
68.00
136.13
58.40
53.93
12.23
104.84
156.00
108.89
85.53
171.20
55.20
49.60
24.80
64.44
"§.'5
88.89
13.33
6.2
.8
2.8
1.4
3.9
8.5
.5
5.2
4.0
24.00
17.78
377.44
226.67
2.1
68.00
1.3
329.78
7.20
465.60
300.27
158.40
36.00
84.20
160.44
68.71
25.51
220.44
92.49
45.60
65.07
75.20
248.00
34.22
238.31
22.5
12.2
10.6
3.2
4.7
7.5
1.8
.2
10.5
4.5
2.8
2.4
4.0
1.5
.9
5.4
5.6
1.2
1.6
16.44
39.11
23.11
24.44
16.89
26.67
"m o o "
22. 22
151.11
2.22
.9
2.4
1.7
1.3
1.0
1.6
"11."5
1.7
9.3
.1
110.22
20.00
4.1
10.12
.6
1.0
3.8
1.9
3.8
.2
1.1
2.0
160.00
9.5
150.67
12.00
4.89
22.22
8.1
.7
.3
1.6
26.67
33.33
147.56
33.33
2.1
1.140.00
1.680.00
1,620.00
1,920.00
116.00
9.20
18.40
50.40
10.2
1,589.54
3,534.03
54. 37
1,992. e
8,123.38
71.26
2.8
1.8
9.1
2.0
.5
1.1
2.6
3.4
9.5
4.4
2.9
.7
5.6
11.3
7.6
4.9
9.8
4.2
2.8
1.4
6.0
9.8
.5
27.7
16.1
10.6
3.2
4.7
8.4
4.2
1.8
11.9
5.5
2.8
4.0
4.0
12.9
2.6
14.7
5.7
1.2
64.00
176.80
64.00
28.00
221.87
14.80
15.01
37.42
28.00
2.40
4.1
10.5
3.8
1.9
11.9
112. 27
s 153.17
202.36
114.13
43.82
102.80
7.5
9.8
12.5
116.00
22.53
57.51
650.44
10.2
2.22
.1
13.33
39.11
600.04
2.4
31.3
2,895.71
44.55
2.8
5,867.20
51.47
13,990.58
122.72
2.6
7.4
9.8
3.5
2.5
4.2
.2
5.7
7.7
3.4
4.8
8.0
1.1
4.0
43.84
56.00
'”"15.”56*
4,2
64.00
16.80
64.00
28.00
71.20
2.80
15. 20
28.00
2.40
5.33
123.11
.7
2.2
11.3
1.4
4.1
9.8
4.2
85.60
119.84
54.80
80.80
41.60
102.80
1.020.00
115
2.5
1.620.00
1,680.00
1.500.00
1.380.00
i, m . oo
Total____
Average..
$40.00
17.60
47.60
41.60
48.00
i,
2.7
2.0
6.8
2.9
7.4
1.3
3.6
33.9
429. 71
98.-02
6.2
”
6.”2
COST OF LIVING
105
Cost of Medical Care, Hospitalization, and Funerals
UCH INTEREST is being manifested at the present time in
the problem which the wage earner is obliged to meet when
confronted with serious sickness either of himself or of members of his
family, the belief seeming to be quite general that the costs of medi
cal and hospital care and even funeral expenses are excessive and
present an unfair burden on the person of average means. In con
sequence of this belief studies have been made as to the ability of
patients to pay for medical care, the cost of hospitalization, and
funeral •expenses.
M
Ability to Pay for Medical Care
A r e p o r t presented at the annual meeting of the American Hos
pital Association in San Francisco in August, 1928, reported in
Modern Hospital, October, 1928, describes the methods in use in
five clinics which have devoted special attention to the basis for
determining the ability of the patient to pay for medical care and
the best methods to be followed by the out-patient clinics in fixing
a fair rate of payment.
In the Lakeside Hospital, Cleveland, the applicant for treatment
is interviewed as to his income, the size of his family, and his responsi
bilities, and from these data the margin available for medical care
is computed after comparison of the income or expenditures with a
standard budget, which is adjusted to cover single persons and
families of different sizes, and is based on a budget for families of
small income compiled by the associated charities of the city and a
study of the rents reported by 100 patients accepted for clinic care.
Allowance is made for the age of children, two sets of figures covering
different age groups being given. Other conditions which would
affect the ability of the patient to pay are also taken into considera
tion, such as number of dependents other than children, rent stand
ards, educational standards, debts, previous illnesses, and degree of
thrift and competence shown in managing the income. These de
termine whether the larger or the smaller budget or a modification
of either will be used in determining the patient's financial classifica
tion.
In the Michael Reese Hospital, Chicago the economic eligibility of
patients applying for medical care is estimated from data secured as
to the occupation, wages, and regularity of employment of the head
of the household, the earnings of other members of the family and
their contribution to the household budget, and other possible sources
of income, such as membership in a lodge or insurance company from
which they can obtain benefit. After the income and the responsi
bilities are determined, taking into consideration all these varying
factors, the results are compared with budgets estimated for a nor
mal self-supporting family, a single self-supporting woman, and a
single self-supporting man. These budgets are based on the mini
mum financial requirements of families in their respective groupings,
the amount of the budget being fixed at $87.70 per month for a man
and wife; $97.88 when there is a child aged 3; $115.87, with a girl
aged 5 and a boy aged 3; and $142.23 with a girl aged 12, one aged 5,
and a boy aged 3, There are three grades for admission to the
106
COST OF LIVING
clinic—A, with an admission fee of $50; B, $25; and C, free—and
patients are classified as A, B, and C according to their conformity to
budget figures and are required to pay the corresponding admitting
fee or are admitted without charge. The budgets were based on a
study of the expenditures of reliable families maintaining a standard
of living conforming to that adopted as.representative by the com
mittee. The budget allowed a family a minimum of medical service
and no provision for special needs.
In the Cornell Clinic, three principles guide in determining the
eligibility of applicants—the resources of the patient, including the
extent to which he could draw on the family for his personal medical
needs; his responsibilities; and the usual cost, at private rates, of the
kind of medical care required in the individual case.
Patients considered eligible for treatment are single individuals
with incomes from $1,100 to $1,800; families of two members with
incomes from $1,600 to $2,200; of three members with incomes of
$1,850 to $2,500; of four members with incomes of $2,050 to $2,750;
and of five members with incomes of $2,200 to $3,000.
The Boston Dispensary, in determining eligibility for clinic treat
ment, uses an income schedule for single persons and families ranging
from man and wife only to families with seven children, and in addition,
the following facts are taken into consideration: Unemployment,
length of illness, previous cost to patient, and the probable duration
of the disability and the cost of treatment.
In the Harper Hospital, Detroit, information is secured as to the
type and probable duration of illness, the occupation, wages, and
length of employment of each member of the family, and income from
roomers, boarders, and children, savings, insurance, and lodge.
Automobile ownership, rent, payments on home, and debts are also
considered. The income and responsibilities are considered in relation
to minimum standard budgets varying from $81.27 for a man and
his wife to $129.92 for a family of five. The clinic has a system of
admission fees amounting to 25 cents, 50 cents, and $1, or no fee at
all is charged.
Cost of Hospitalization
O f t h e 120,000,000 people in the United States it is estimated
that 10,000,000 pass through the hospitals each year, so that the
average citizen may expect to visit the hospital once in 12 years;
if he is the head of a family he may expect to have a hospital bill
for some one of the family on an average every three years. The
average hospital cost, including the physician's fee and special
nurse, it is estimated, is $300, so that the allowance for sickness
in the annual budget would be only $100 a year.
In order to ascertain whether costs are actually too high, figures
were secured from a number of large hospitals as to the operating
costs and the charges to the patients in 1913 and 1926.9 Costs were
obtained from four hospitals in Chicago, all of which do a large amount
of free work, while none of them receive grants from the municipality,
State, or Government, and in all of them the executives are paid
adequate salaries. In 1913 the average per capita cost per day in
these four hospitals was $2.83, which had risen in 1926 to $6.65, an
9 Modern Hospital, June, 1928: Correct Those Wrong Ideas, b y John A . McNamara.
MEDICAL CARE, HOSPITALIZATION, FUNERALS
107
increase of 135 per cent. One of these hospitals charged $2 per day
for its ward beds in 1913 and $4 in 1926, an increase of 100 per cent,
and the charge for private rooms had increased from a range of $4
to $8 per day in 1913 to a range of $6 to $10 in 1926, or only 33 per
cent. The average increase for both types of service amounted,
therefore, to only 66 per cent as compared with an increase of 135
per cent in the cost of operating the four hospitals. The average
length of stay per patient had been reduced, moreover, from 15 days
in 1913 to 12 days in 1926, with the result that a patient using the
highest-priced room in 1913 would have paid $120 for his 15-day stay,
while in 1926 a patient using the same room at $10 a day would have
paid exactly the same amount, $120, for a stay of 12 days. These
figures do not include charges for special treatments, but investi*
gation has shown that these special services do not add on an average
more than $50 to the hospital bill. Summing up these figures, the
writer says:
Costs have increased 135 per cent; charges have increased a maximum of $50
or approximately 42 per cent due to special charges; patients have been returned
to society three daj7s earlier than previously, thereby causing an economic saving
to industry of approximately $15 represented by the average earning power per
man. If this can be logically deducted from the increased cost, the increase is
but 29 per cent.
A further study of costs in seven hospitals in different parts of
Pennsylvania confirmed the results of the Chicago study.
In the Modern Hospital, June, 1928 (pp. 61, 62), an account is
given of the plans of a hospital in Grand Rapids, Mich., for standard
izing and reducing costs. Laboratory and X-ray work are playing
an increasingly important part in the diagnosis of disease, and since
all these facilities are available in a hospital, physicians frequently
have their patients go to a hospital for a short time for observation
and examination. As the amount of laboratory and other work
varies with the case, it is impossible to determine beforehand the
cost to the patient, and this uncertainty undoubtedly keeps many
patients from availing themselves of this service. To meet this
situation, therefore, the board of trustees of the hospital established
a flat rate of $25 for a two days' stay if the patient is in a ward and
$35 if he occupies a private room, this rate covering all services in
connection with the diagnosis asked for by the physician. The
desirability of making the benefits of hospitalization in maternity
cases available to a larger number has also been recognized by the
management, and flat rates covering all expenses during the average
10-day stay in the hospital for this class of cases have been fixed for
ward patients and those in semiprivate or private rooms.
Funeral Costs
A s u r v e y of funeral costs and the burial industry, financed by the
Metropolitan Life Insurance Co., was made by an independent com
mittee representative of various social and religious interests and the
industry itself.10 The study covered actual funeral expenditures
among various income groups, including the funeral bills secured
from 2,830 decedents' estates in four large cities; those for 8,828
Advisory Committee on Burial Survey.
Gebhart. New York [1928?].
The Reasons for Present-day Funeral Costs, b y Johii C .
108
COST OF LIVING
holders of industrial policies from various sections of the United
States; 3,123 claims for burial expenses filed with the United States
Veterans’ Bureau; and the bills filed by 319 widows applying for
pensions to the New York Board of Child Welfare.
In a summary of the results of the survey it is shown that excessive
funeral expenditures entail the most suffering in families of limited
means who have minor children to support. The excessive expendi
tures may be accounted for partly by the desire on the part of the
family for an elaborate funeral, either as a token of respect and affec
tion for the departed or to comply with the demands made by the
conventions or the social and religious traditions of the group, and
partly by the disorganization and waste in the industry itself, the
number of undertakers having increased roughly 25 times as fast as
the volume of business.
The expenses of the industrial policyholders group may be con
sidered a fair index of funeral expenses of wage-earning families in
various parts of the country. While the figures given are averages
and do not show the range of expenditures, these averages are suffi
ciently high to indicate the excessive amounts spent for this purpose.
In general, charges were highest in the East, lowest in the South, with
the Midwest and Central States (with one exception) falling between
these extremes. Thus the average for New Jersey, the highest was
$484, and for North Carolina, the lowest, $194. In Ohio, the highest
of the States in the Middle West, the average expenditure was $415.
In general, expenditures were considerably higher in the cities than
in the rural districts.
From the records of 319 widows in New York now receiving pensions
for the support of their children, grouped by nationality, it was
found that the average funeral expenditure among the Irish was
$452, which consumed 44 per cent of the net assets; among the Italians
the average bill was $421, absorbing 50 per cent of the net assets;
while among the Jews, owing to their simpler funeral customs, the
average bill was only $247. For the industrial policyholders in New
York City the average expenditure was $432.
Living Expenses of Farmers
A
STUDY of the living expenses of 2,886 farm families in selected
localities of 11 States was made by the United States Department
of Agriculture and published in its Bulletin No. 1466. The data were
gathered by means of personal visits, the period of study ranging
from 1922 to 1924. Typical farm homes within the localities chosen
were visited, the selection of households of any one size or level of
living being avoided.
Average living expenses per family in the different States represented
in the investigation varied as follows: Connecticut, $1,559; Massa
chusetts, $1,948; New Hampshire, $1,839; Vermont, $1,553; Alabama,
$1,615; Kentucky, $1,493; South Carolina, $1,482; Iowa, $1,669;
Kansas, $1,492; Missouri, $1,897; and Ohio, $1,541.
The average annual living expenses, per family, of all families in
cluded in the study were found to be $1,598. This figure included
food, house rent, and fuel furnished by the farm for family living
LIVING EXPENSES OF FARMERS
109
purposes, valued at conservative prices. The average size of the
family was 4.4 persons. More than two-fifths of the general average
of $1,598 was covered by goods furnished by the farm. The value
of food furnished by the farm was almost twice the value of house
rent and fuel furnished.
The various items included in the $1,598 were found to be appor
tioned as follows:
Am ount
Per cent
$659
235
200
40
213
61
41
105
41
3
41.2
14. 7
12. 5
2. 5
13. 3
3. 8
2. 6
6. 6
2.6
.2
Total_______________________________ 1,598
100.0
Food- - ___________________________________
Clothing__________________________________
House rent________________________________
Furniture and equipment__________________
Operation goods___________________________
Maintenance of health_____________________
Life and health insurance__________________
Advancement_____________________________
Personal goods____________________________
Unclassified_______________________________
Husbands and wives had about the same expenses for clothing per
year, $59 each. Daughters of the age groups over 24 years, 19 to 24
years, 15 to 18 years, and 12 to 14 years generally are clothed at a
higher average cost than are sons of corresponding age groups. The
average cost of clothing for both sons and daughters over 24 years,
19 to 24 years, and 15 to 18 years is considerably above the averages
for male and female heads of families. Relatively, the average costs
for sons of these age groups are 1.26, 1.54, and 1.24 times as high as
the average costs for male heads of families. Similarly, the average
costs for daughters are 1.42, 1.67, and 1.36 times as high as the average
costs for female heads of families.
In the groups of expenditures directly concerned with health, the
average amount spent on life and health insurance was $40.80 per
family, more than half of the families reporting no expenditure for
this item. The expenditure for the maintenance of health—that is,
for medicines and the services of doctors or nurses, or for hospital
care—averaged $61.60 per family, or 3.8 per cent of all expenditures.
The average was highest in the North Central States, $72.10 per
family; in the New England States the cost averaged $61.30, and in
the Southern States, $48.50.
Three hundred and three families, or more than one-tenth of the
families studied, reported no expenditures for the maintenance of
health. The average expenditure for this purpose does not represent,
therefore, the extent of serious or minor sickness prevailing in the
families studied; while many families reported that no money was
spent for medicines, or for doctors', dentists', or nurses' services, a
number reported extremely heavy expenditures for major operations
or for doctors' or nurses' care either at home or in a hospital.
The average length of the workday (excluding Sundays) of the
farm operator was found to be 11.3 hours and of the home-maker
11.4 hours, not including time spent at meals and in reading or resting.
Little or no relation was found between the average length of the
workday and the average value of goods used in a year.
Formal schooling of both the operator and the home maker was
found to be significantly related to expenses for family living purposes.
This relation appears to be slightly more noticeable with home
110
COST OF LIVING
makers than with operators. The average number of years the
operator has been a farm owner is closely associated with expenses.
Mortgage indebtedness on the farm considered generally, however,
seems to have no bearing 011 the expenses.
Income and Living Standards of Unskilled Laborers in
Chicago 11
O
F THE 467 families of able-bodied unskilled laborers covered by
a survey in Chicago under the auspices of the local community
research committee of the University of Chicago, the Chicago Council
of Social Agencies, and several large employers of labor, only slightly
over 50 per cent were able to maintain a standard equivalent to the
budget (1925 revision) proposed for the use of the charitable organiza
tions of that city.
This budget had been carefully adapted to varying family circum
stances; for example, the food cost (1924 prices) for a man at hard
muscular work in a family where bread is bought is estimated at $14.30
per month and for a woman under the same conditions at $11.30 per
month. Additional allowances are provided when members of the
family need special diets. An increased estimate for clothing is
considered necessary when the man's work “ involves unusual ex
posure. ” A reduction of 10 to 25 per cent is made in the clothing
costs for younger children when wearing apparel is handed down to
them.
As the line of demarcation between “ unskilled” and “ semiskilled”
was found to be hazy, both classes were included in the survey. The
earnings in both groups ranged from about $800 to $2,200 per annum,
the majority being under $1,500. A comparison of the earnings of
the chief breadwinner and the estimates of the budget showed that
in over two-thirds of the families such earnings were not sufficient
for a standard of living equivalent to that contemplated in the Chicago
budget. The group of wage earners covered, the investigators point
out, was unusually well situated, having had regular employment
throughout the year 1924, and most of them had been with their
employers for several years.
Of the 467 families, 355 had other sources of income, which included
earnings of wives and children, returns from keeping lodgers and
boarders, property income, benefits, gifts from relatives and friends,
and “ borrowed money.” The fact that in 108 families the mothers felt
necessary to work and their jobs were especially arduous, undoubtedly
meant “ a lowering of the standard of living in those families and the
consequent sacrifice of the welfare of the dependent children.” Also
the boarders and roomers in 100 families and the consequent over
crowding contributed to lower the standard of both physical and moral
well-being in such families.
During 1924, 134 of these families had to avail themselves of the
free services which the social agencies provide. As these services are
rendered principally by medical agencies, the importance of such aid
to both these families and the community as a whole can readily be
h Houghteling, Leila: The Income and Standard of Living of Unskilled Laborers in Chicago. Chicago,
1927.
CHANGES IN CONSUMPTION OF ARTICLES OF DIET
111
seen. Without this assistance the general standard of living would
drop “ to an extremely low level.”
The number and per cent of the families having dependent children
were as follows
Number
Number of dependent children: 12
of families
None 13___________________________________
2
1
77
2
112
3
103
4
79
5
41
6 ______________________________________ 34
7 or more_________________________________ 19
Total_______________________________ 467
Per cent
of total
0. 4
16. 5
24.0
22.0
16. 9
8. 8
7.3
4. 1
100.0
Changes in Consumption of Certain Articles of Diet
Meat
D
ATA published by the Bureau of Animal Industry of the United
States Department of Agriculture on the per capita consumption
of meat, by kinds, from 1900 to 1927, show certain changes in the Amer
ican habits of meat consumption. This is brought out in the following
table, which gives the average per capita meat consumption, by kind,
for the 5-year periods, 1900 to 1904, 1915 to 1919, and 1923 to 1927:
AVERAGE
A N N U A L P E R C A P I T A C O N S U M P T IO N OF D R E S S E D M E A T S
U N I T E D S T A T E S , B Y S E L E C T E D 5 -Y E A R P E R IO D S
Kind of meat
IN T H E
1900-1904
1915-1919
1923-1927
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Beef_______________________ _____ _________ ________ ______ ______ ______
Veal_______________ _____ __________________________________ _______ _____
Lam b and m utton_____________________________________________________
Pork (excluding lard)_____________ ___________________________________
70.98
4.32
6.94
61.52
58.92
6.24
5.50
55.70
61.26
8.04
5.30
70.24
Total___ _________ _______________________________________________
143.76
1 126.54
144.84
i Includes 0.18 pound goat meat.
Comparing the earliest period with the latest, it is evident that
there was no important increase in the per capita consumption of
meat, the average being 143.76 pounds in the earliest period as
compared with 144.84 in the latest period. There was, however,
a decline in per capita beef consumption from 70.98 to 61.26 pounds
and a counterbalancing increase in pork consumption from 61.52
to 70.24 pounds. The consumption of veal increased notably—from
4.32 pounds per capita to 8.04 pounds. The per capita consumption
of lamb and mutton, however, decreased from 6.94 to 5.30 pounds.
The data for the 5-year period 1915 to 1919 are of significance only
as showing the great decline in domestic meat consumption during
the war period.
12 N o age limit was set, and 40 children of 16 years or over were included because they were not contribut
ing to the family exchequer. Also includes 35 children who contributed very small amounts.
13 The children in these families are dependent nieces and nephews and therefore were not in this table
classified with the other dependent children.
COST OF LIVING
112
PorTc.—Investigations by the United States Department of Agri
culture continue to show the popularity of pork in the American
diet. This country, though possessing only about 6 per cent of the
population of the world, has contained in recent years about 20 per
cent of the world’s swine.
An increasing control of hog cholera, swine parasites, and other
loss factors has made the production of swine a much safer enterprise
than formerly. A report issued by the Bureau of Animal Industry of
that department shows an increase of more than 2,200,000 hogs
slaughtered under Federal inspection during 1926-27 as compared
with the previous year. The total number of federally inspected hogs
slaughtered exceeded 42,500,000 out of a total of approximately
70.000.000 food animals.
The large and efficient production of pork in the country has
made it possible for this food to reach the market at comparatively
low prices. Its economy, combined with high food value, depart
ment officials believe, helps to explain the very liberal use of pork
products in the American diet.
Milk
P e r c a p i t a consumption of milk and cream in the United States
continues to increase, according to the Bureau of Agricultural Eco
nomics of the United State Department of Agriculture,14which places
per capita consumption at 55.3 gallons for 1926, as against 54.75
gallons in 1925 and 43 gallons in 1920.
The figures are based upon a survey of 373 cities with a total
population of about 39,000,000, supplemented by reports from many
of the large milk distributors and from cooperative milk produced
associations. Increased consumption was reported from each of
these sources, although a few firms reported a slight decrease.
Total consumption of milk and cream in 1926 is placed at
56.417.000.000 pounds, against 54,325,776,000 pounds in 1925.
Practically all the large cities in the country show increased per
capita consumption of milk and cream, the large dealers reporting
an increase in sales of about 8.5 per cent over sales in 1925.
The report shows the daily per capita consumption of milk and
cream on farms was 1.47 pints in 1926, and in cities the consump
tion was 0.967 pint per capita. Daily per capita consumption of
milk and cream in cities in 1925 was 0.951 pint.
The following shows the average daily per capita consumption of
milk and cream by State groups in 1925 and 1926.
1925
(pints)
11
12
14
11
1926
(pints)
Atlantic States and District of Columbia. _ 1. 0504
Central States________________________ _ . 9388
. 6184
Southern S ta tes._______ _______________
Western S tates---------------------------- --------- 1. 0114
0. 9889
1. 0389
. 6113
.9767
. 9510
. 9670
United States___
______ __ _______
14 Press release of Bureau of Agricultural Economics of U . S. Department of Agriculture, dated M a y 4,
1927.
CHANGES IN CONSUMPTION OF ARTICLES OF DIET
113
The annual per capita consumption of milk and cream in the United
States since 1920 has been as follows:
Gallons
1920_
1921 _
1922 _
1923 _
1924.
1925 _
1926 _
43. 0
49. 0
50. 0
53.0
54. 75
54.75
55. 3
The survey was made in cooperation with municipal boards of
health of the cities, State officials, cooperative associations, and the
National Dairy Council.
Bread and Flour
T h a t b r e a d is ranked third among the most important foods,
being surpassed only by meats and vegetables, and followed by milk,
was disclosed by a survey made in Philadelphia, Wilkes-Barre, and
Sunbury, Pa., by the Pennsylvania Bureau of Markets, the Penn
sylvania Bakers' Association, the Philadelphia Bakers' Club, and
the United States Bureau of Agricultural Economics. Sixty per
cent of the housewives interviewed in the three cities were of the
opinion that no change had taken place in the amount of bread
consumed per family during the past two years; 30 per cent reported
an increase in their per family consumption of from 12J^ to 25 per
cent, and 10 per cent reported a similar decrease. Little or no
seasonal variation was reported. White bread was given a prefer
ence and is reported to constitute 90 per cent of the entire bread
consumption. The proportion of white bread eaten is highest among
the poor classes; while the well to do are consuming a relatively
larger proportion of whole wheat and graham bread. The per
capita consumption of all bread in the three cities is slightly more
than 2J4 loaves per week. Five per cent of the bread used in Sun
bury, about 7 per cent in Philadelphia, and about 33 per cent of that
used in Wilkes-Barre is baked at home. Approximately one-half
the housewives in Philadelphia, three-fourths in Wilkes-Barre, and
practically all in Sunbury bake pies and cakes at home.
Philadelphia, Wilkes-Barre, and Sunbury were selected for the
survey as they represent three distinct types of economic and social
communities. The chief industry of Sunbury is railroading, and
the majority of the inhabitants are native-born Americans. The
principal industry of Wilkes-Barre is, of course, anthracite coal
mining, and a large part of the population is of foreign birth. In
Philadelphia the textile industry is probably the greatest employer
of labor but the city may be classed as a general industrial and com
mercial city. The population is predominantly American, although
some parts of the city are inhabited by large numbers of foreign born.
COST OF LIVING
114
Changes in Cost of the Canadian Family Budget, 1921
to 192815
T
HE COST per week, in specified months from 1921 to 1928, of
the family budget in terms of average retail prices of certain
classes of commodities in 60 Canadian cities, is shown in the following
table:
COST PER W E E K
O F F A M I L Y B U D G E T I N C A N A D A I N S P E C IF IE D M O N T H S , 1921
T O 1928°
All foods
Year and month
1921: January________________________________
J u l y ____________________________________
1922: January________________________________
July
_________________________________
1923: January________________________________
July
__________________________________
1924: January________________________________
J u ly ______________ _______ ______________
1925: January__________ _____ ________________
J u ly ______________ _______ ________ _____
1926: January______________ _________________
July_____________________________________
1927: January_________________________ ______
July______________ ________________ ______
1928: January................ ....................... .............. .
J u ly ..................................................... .............
Au gust.......................... ....................... ...........
September______________________________
October_______________________________
November__________________ ______ _____
$14.48
10.96
11.03
10.27
10.52
10.17
10.78
9.91
10. 77
10.49
11.63
11.07
11.37
10.92
11.19
10.80
11.08
11.15
11.28
11.28
Starch,
laundry
$0,049
.044
.042
.040
.040
.040
.041
.041
.041
.041
.041
.042
.041
.041
.041
.041
.041
.041
.041
.041
Rent
Fuel and
lighting
{l/i month)
$4.17
3.70
3.53
3.41
3.61
3.48
3.49
3.37
3.37
3.28
3.43
3.32
3.33
3.28
3.28
3.26
3.26
3.27
3.26
3.26
$6.60
6.83
6.92
6.95
6.96
6.97
6.92
6.98
6.91
6.89
6.86
6.87
6.85
6.86
6.89
6.91
6.93
6.93
6.95
6.94
Total
$25.30
21.53
21.52
20.67
21.13
20.65
21.23
20.30
21.09
20.70
21.96
21.30
21.59
21.10
21.41
21.01
21.31
21.38
21. 52
21.52
®This budget is intended to show the changes in the cost of items included, not to show the minimum
cost for an average family.
15 Canada.
Department of Labor.
Labor Gazette, February and August to November, 1928.
ECONOMIC CHANGES
39142°—29------ 9
115
Economic Changes
ARIOUS studies have been made to determine the extent and
character of the great economic changes which have taken place
in recent years and are still taking place, and which have seriously
affected the employment, the living conditions, and the living stand
ards of the working people of this and other countries. Summaries
of a few of the recent studies of this character are given below.
V
Indexes of the Economic Progress of the United States, 1922 to
1928
S e v e r a l of the major economic indexes for the United States for
the past seven fiscal years are contained in the following table taken
from the annual report of the Secretary of Commerce for the fiscal
year ending June 30, 1928:
I N D E X N U M B E R S OF E C O N O M IC P R O G R ESS
[Based upon calendar years 1923-1925=100]
Year ended June 30—
Item
Volume of business (quantities not value):
Manufacturing production_______________ ________
Mineral production...... ..................... ..................... .......
Forest products, production....... ............... .................
Freight, railroad,1 ton-miles_______________________
Electric-power production________________________
Building contracts let, square feet.............................
Value of sales:
Department stores............ ................. ..................... .......
5-and-10-cent stores..........................................................
Mail-order houses_________________________________
Wholesale trade..................................................... ...........
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
75
69
80
79
72
74
98
93
96
96
88
91
97
101
100
97
95
93
99
98
99
98
102
95
107
99
103
105
116
122
108
114
93
111
129
108
106
103
93
104
138
116
85
69
67
85
94
81
85
97
99
93
94
99
100
104
102
99
104
118
114
101
106
131
116
96
107
144
123
94
1923
1 Revenue freight.
The Secretary of Commerce comments upon these figures as
follows:
It will be seen that of the 10 indicators presented only 4 show an average for
1927-28 lower than for the preceding fiscal year. The general index of manu
facturing production, perhaps the most comprehensive measure of business con
ditions, averaged 2 per cent lower than the year before and 1 per cent lower than
in 1926. It was, however, higher than in any fiscal year before 1926. The rela
tively slight degree to which industrial activity had been temporarily cut down
is indicated by the fact that the index of production of manufactured goods in
November, at the lowest point reached, was only 2 per cent below the average
for the three years 1923 to 1925. By January, 1928, the index had already been
restored to its normal and progressing level, output being 9 per cent greater than
in November. Indeed, the first half of the calendar year 1928, taken as a whole,
showed greater production in our factories than any corresponding period
theretofore.
Mineral production in 1926-27 was abnormally great, partly because of the
demand for coal, caused by the British mining strike, and partly by reason of an
unduly rapid expansion of petroleum output which was generally considered
contrary to the public interest. The falling off in aggregate mineral production
during the fiscal year just closed was therefore entirely to be expected; output,
117
ECONOMIC CHANGES
118
nevertheless, remained greater than in any year before 1926-27. The decline
in railway traffic last year was in considerable part due to this smaller movement
of coal.
The indexes of electric-power production, of building construction, and of the
sales of department stores, chain stores, and mail-order houses all showed in
creases in the last fiscal year as compared with that preceding and most of them
were the highest ever recorded.
Growth of Manufactures in the United States, 1899 to 1925
I n d u s t r i a l , production in the United States increased 175 per cent
during the 26-year period 1899 to 1925, according to a recent mono
graph of the United States Bureau of the Census.1 The population
increase during this time was 54 per cent. Primary horsepower
installed increased over 250 per cent and the average number of
wage earners employed, 80 per cent.
Table 1 gives the percentages of growth in different industries by
5-year census periods, and for the 24-year period, 1899 to 1923, as
measured by physical volume of production, average number of wage
earners, and primary horsepower. It is stated that these three factors
are the only ones which can be “ made to serve effectively in the
measurement of general industrial expansion,” since the information
on these points is expressed in physical terms and is not directly
affected by changes in the value of money. The data for 1925 were
not available when the main part of the report was prepared, hence
they were presented separately.
T a ble 1 .— G R O W T H O F M A N U F A C T U R E S , 1899 T O 1923, B Y I N D U S T R I A L G R O U P S »
Per cent of change
Intercensal period
Industrial group
All groups:
Physical volume of production...................................
Average number of wage earners.......................... ..
Primary horsepower.......................................................
Iron and steel and their products:
Physical volume of production..................................
Average number of wage earners.......................... ..
Primary horsepower......................... .............................
Nonferrous metals and their products:
Physical volume of production................................
Average number of wage earners............. .................
Primary horsepower......... ................. ...........................
Chemicals and allied products:
Physical volume of production.................................
Average number of wage earners....... .......................
Primary horsepower.......................................................
Stone, clay, and glass products:
Physical volume of production..................................
Average number of wage earners.......................... ..
Primary horsepower.......................................................
Lumber and its remanufactures:
Physical volume of production...................................
Average number of wage earners_______ _______
Primary horsepower........................................................
24-year
period,
1899-1923
18991904
19041909
19091914
19141919
19191923
+ 2 2 .2
+1G.0
+ 3 3 .6
+30. 3
+ 2 1 .0
+ 3 8 .5
+ 6 .4
+ 6 .4
+ 2 0 .1
+ 2 6 .1
+ 2 9 .3
+ 3 1 .5
+ 2 2 .0
-2 .5
+ 1 2 .8
+1 6 0 .7
+ 8 8 .2
+ 2 2 9 .6
+ 1 9 .9
+ 1 6 .6
+ 5 2 .0
+ 4 5 .4
+ 1 8 .2
+ 3 7 .1
- 5 .6
+ 3 .4
+ 2 1 .4
+ 4 0 .6
+ 4 9 .4
+ 4 6 .0
+ 3 1 .2
—3. 6
+ 1 0 .7
+ 2 0 3 .7
+105.1
+ 308.8
+ 4 1 .7
+ 2 3 .0
+ 3 5 .5
+ 3 6 .2
+ 2 5 .7
+ 5 9 .2
+ 7 .1
+ 5 .0
+ 2 4 .2
+ 5 4 .1
+ 29. 5
+ 7 1 .9
+ 2 5 .7
-3 .2
+ 2 3 .2
+ 300.3
+ 103.5
+467. &
+ 4 2 .1
+ 1 5 .7
+ 5 8 .3
+ 3 7 .1
+ 1 7 .6
+ 4 0 .6
+ 2 0 .2
+ 1 2 .1
+ 4 3 .1
+ 4 1 .4
+ 4 2 .5
+ 3 9 .2
+ 2 5 .1
-5 . 0
+ 3 2 .5
+ 3 1 4 .2
+ 106.4
+487.6.
+ 1 7 .2
+ 2 3 .1
+ 5 2 .1
+ 3 2 .2
+ 2 0 .1
+ 6 0 .0
+ 8 .8
- 2 .4
+ 2 0 .2
-1 1 .9
-1 0 .7
+ 5 .3
+ 5 5 .6
+ 1 0 .6
+ 2 1 .6
+131 .2
+50.3:
+274. a
- 2 .3
+ 9 .3
+ 4 .9
+ 3 2 .0
+ 2 4 .2
+ 4 6 .5
-1 9 .4
-8 .6
-2 .0
-9 .6
+ .7
+ 7 .3
+ 1 0 .1
+ 8 .5
- 2 .2
+ 3 .5
+ 3 5 .5
+ 5 8 .1
« The figures in this table are given for the purpose of showing growth of manufactures as a whole and b y
groups, as indicated by different means of measurement. The three sets of data for individual groups should
not be used as an indication of changes in output per worker, because in some cases the group index is based
upon data for industries which are not entirely representative of the group as a whole, whereas the figures for
wage earners and horsepower are totals for the entire group. This is particularly true of the lumber group
and to a less degree of food products and paper and printing.
1 United States. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. Census Monograph V I I I : Th e
Growth of Manufactures, 1899 to 1923. A Study of Indexes of Increase in the Volume of Manufactured
Products, b y Edm und E . D ay and Woodlief Thomas. Washington, 1928.
GROWTH OP MANUFACTURES
119
T able 1.—QRO W TH OP MANUFACTURES, 1899 TO 1923, BY INDUSTRIAL GROUPS—Con.
Per cent of change
Intercensal period
Industrial group
Paper and printing:
Physical volume of production............................... ..
Average number of wage earners........................... _
Primary horsepower.....................................................
Textiles and their products:
Physical volume of production...........................
Average number of wage earners.................. ..........
Primary horsepower.....................................................
Leather and its finished products:
Physical volume of production........................... ..
Average number of wage earners________________
Primary horsepower............................................ ..
Food and kindred products:
Physical volume of production.............................. . .
Average number of wage earners_____ ___________
Primary horsepower. ...................................... ............
Liquors and beverages:
Physical volume of production.................................
Average number of wage earners................. .............
Primary horsepower..................................................... .
Tobacco manufactures:
Physical volume of production..................................
Average number of wage earners_______ _________
Primary horsepower. ........................ ............... ...........
Vehicles for land transportation and railroad repair
shops:
Physical volume of production...................... .............
Average number of wage earners......... .....................
Primary horsepower............................................... .......
Miscellaneous products:
Average number of wage earners....... ............. .........
Primary horsepower. ...................... ........... ..............
18991904
19041909
19091914
19141919
19191923
+ 4 1 .8
+ 1 7 .7
+ 4 3 .2
+ 3 4 .5
+ 1 8 .3
+ 2 8 .0
+ 8 .9
12.6
+22.6 +
+ 1 4 .5
+ 2 5 .4
+ 1 4 .3
+ 3 7 .1
+ 4 .9
+ 1 6 .9
+ 1 8 .5
+ 1 3 .1
+ 2 5 .0
+ 2 7 .8
+ 2 4 .3
+ 3 1 .1
+ 5 .3
+ 4 .3
+ 2 0 .3
+ 3 .3
+ 6 .9
+ 1 9 .0
+ 2 2 .9
+ 6 .7
+ 1 6 .4
+ 1 6 .8
+ 6 .4
+ 2 7 .4
+ 7 .6
+ 1 7 .1
+ 3 8 .1
-.3
-.9
+ 1 3 .1
+ 1 4 .4
+ 1 3 .8
+ 2 2 .4
+22.8
+ 1 4 .9
+ 1 6 .2
+8.0
+20.6
+ 2 3 .8
+ 3 8 .0
+ 2 8 .9
+ 5 .6
24-year
period
1899-1923
+ 274.6
+ 7 9 .1
+ 200.7
+102.5
+ 6 7 .1
+ 173.0
1 .2
+ 5 1 .3
+ 3 8 .8
+ 163.0
- 8.2
+ 3 .0
+ 108.2
+ 123.9
-
+8.0
+11.6
+110.6
+ 1 7 .3
+ 1 8 .8
+22.8
+ 1 5 .6
+ 3 2 .5
+ 2 4 .0
+ 3 6 .6
+ 1 5 .3
+ 1 3 .9
+ 2 8 .4
+ 1 8 .3
+ 1 3 .3
+ 1 7 .8
-5 6 .9
- 3 7 .1
-21.0
-4 2 .5
-4 0 .1
-4 2 .2
- 2 .3
+ 2 4 .8
+ 2 0 .3
+ 1 0 .4
+ 1 5 .2
+ 4 .6
+ 1 5 .9
+ 1 4 .7
+ 7 .2
+ 2 2 .5
+ 3 0 .9
- 12.2
+ 2 4 .2
+ 9 .8
-5 .6
+ 137.1
+ 1 1 .9
+ 9 5 .2
+ 8 6 .4
+ 2 2 .4
+ 4 4 .6
+ 9 0 .0 + 130.8 +1 7 7 .8
+ 2 4 .0
+ 6 0 .8
+ 3 1 .9
+ 8 1 .8
+ 4 2 .3
+ 6 3 .7
+ 9 9 .5
+8.2
+ 4 ,4 3 4 .0
+ 248.3
+ 759.2
+ 2 5 .2
+ 7 4 .3
+ 1 8 .0
+ 3 9 .7
+ 2 1 .5
+ 5 1 .9
+10.3
- 3 0 .4
+ 154.5
+ 636.5
+ 109.5
+ 8 0 .6
+.3
+ 4 0 .4
The principal points brought out by the figures compiled for the
individual industries are summed up as follows in the report:
The net resultant for the entire period 1919-1923 was substantial growth for
industry as a whole, characterized by almost amazing increases in automobiles
and related industries—rubber tires and petroleum refining— by the largest out
put of building materials since before the war, and by moderate increases in the
production of iron and steel, nonferrous metals, textiles, and paper. With the
exception of shipbuilding and liquors and beverages, which decreased under the
influence of special circumstances, leather, food products, and tobacco showed the
smallest increases for the period.
When the growth of manufactures by industrial groups for the 24-year period
from 1899 to 1923, taken as a whole, is considered, it is evident that the expansion
of industries manufacturing vehicles for land transportation stands at the top of
the list, with the miscellaneous group second, and chemicals and metals next.
The increase for paper and printing follows in order. Tobacco (as measured by
increases in physical output, although not in wage earners or horsepower), food
products, and stone, clay, and glass products are close to the center of the list.
Textiles and leather stand fairly close together, well below the average for all
industries. Growth of the lumber industry has been very small, and liquors
and beverages have shown net decreases since the beginning of the century.
Viewing these figures as a whole, a number of conclusions may be drawn regard
ing relative rates of growth in different lines of manufacture since 1899. The
phenomenal increase in the output of automobiles is a fact too commonly recog
nized to call for further comment. The high increase in the output of miscel
laneous products reflects in part the exceptionally rapid expansion of production
of such articles as phonographs, photographic equipment and supplies, rubber
products, and electrical appliances and machinery. The fact that the metals
and chemicals groups stand well above the average for all groups combined
bespeaks the increasing industrialization of modern economic life. Products
most closely related to the consumer—food and tobacco on the one hand and
ECONOMIC CHANGES
120
clothing and footwear on the other—show increases which vary widely but in
general are clearly well above the rate of increase of population, which for this
24-year period was nearly 50 per cent.
The growth of manufactures by geographic divisions for the census
periods from 1899 to 1923, and for the 24-year period as a whole, is
shown in Table 2. It was not feasible to compute index numbers of
the physical volume of production by States or by larger geographic
divisions. Therefore, the changes m industrial production in the
different geographic divisions is indicated by percentage increases
or decreases in average member of wage earners employed and in
primary horsepower installed and by the combination of these two sets
of percentages. While it was recognized that changes in the number
of wage earners and in installed horsepower “ do not accurately
represent changes in the physical volume of production, they do serve
to show relative rates of expansion or contraction of production among
broad groups of manufacturing enterprise.”
T a bl e 2 — G R O W T H O F M A N U F A C T U R E S , 1899 T O 1923, B Y G E O G R A P H IC D IV IS IO N S
Per cent of change
Intercensal period
Geographic division
Jnited States:
W age earners and horsepower combined___________
Average number of wage earners...................................
Primary horsepower. ........................................................
New England:
W age earners and horsepower combined_____ _____
Average number of wage earners................... ................
Primary horsepower- ........................................................
M iddle Atlantic:
W age earners and horsepower combined....................
Average number of wage earners............... ...................
Primary horsepower..........................................................
East North Central:
W age earners and horsepower combined___________
Average number of wage earners................... ...............
Primary horsepower________ _______________________
W est N orth Central:
W age earners and horsepower combined_____ _____
Average number of wage earners...................................
Primary horsepower. ................................ .......................
South Atlantic:
W age earners and horsepower combined................ ..
Average number of wage earners................... ...............
Primary horsepower. ........................................................
East South Central:
Wage earners and horsepower combined....................
Average number of wage earners....... ............................
Primary horsepower. ................................................ .......
W e st South Central:
W age earners and horsepower combined...................
Average number of wage earners....... ...........................
Primary horsepower. ............................................
M ountain:
W age earners and horsepower combined- .................
Average number of wage earners...................................
Primary horsepower...........................................................
Pacific:
W age earners and horsepower co m b in e d .................
Average number of wage earners...................................
Primary horsepower...........................................................
24-year
period,
18991923
18991904
19041909
19091914
19141919
19191923
+ 2 0 .2
+ 1 6 .0
+ 3 3 .6
+ 2 5 .1
+ 2 1 .0
+ 3 8 .5
+ 9 .7
+ 6 .4
+ 2 0 .1
+ 2 9 .8
+ 2 9 .3
+ 3 1 .5
+ 1 .1
-2 .5
+ 1 2 .8
+ 1 1 6 .5
+ 8 8 .2
+ 2 2 9 .6
+ 1 2 .4
+ 1 0 .4
+ 1 8 .6
+ 1 9 .7
+ 1 7 .1
+ 2 7 .7
+ 6 .3
+ 3 .5
+ 1 5 .1
+ 1 9 .2
+ 1 8 .5
+ 2 1 .5
- 3 .0
—G. 9
+ 9 .9
+ 6 5 .5
+ 4 7 .7
+ 1 3 2 .8
+ 2 1 .9
+ 1 7 .6
+ 3 5 .6
+ 2 0 .1
+ 1 7 .0
+ 3 0 .0
+ 1 0 .1
+ 6 .7
+ 2 1 .1
+ 2 3 .3
+ 2 1 .9
+ 2 7 .4
-1 .4
-5 .9
+ 1 3 .3
+ 9 5 .9
+ 6 8 .4
+ 2 0 8 .2
+ 1 7 .9
+ 1 4 .1
+ 2 9 .9
+ 2 7 .6
+ 2 3 .6
+ 4 0 .4
+ 1 4 .0
+ 1 1 .0
+ 2 3 .7
+ 4 2 .6
+ 4 2 .6
+ 4 2 .7
+ 4 .1
-.1
+ 1 7 .9
+15<1.8
+ 123.1
+ 2 7 9 .8
+ 1 9 .2
+ 1 7 .4
+ 2 4 .6
+ 2 5 .9
+ 1 9 .8
+ 4 6 .2
+ 4 .4
+ 1 .9
+ 1 2 .4
+ 3 0 .4
+ 3 0 .9
+ 2 8 .7
- 1 .7
- 5 .0
+ 8 .7
+ 1 0 0 .8
+ 7 8 .4
+1 8 6 .3
+ 2 0 .8
+ 1 4 .0
+ 4 3 .5
+ 3 2 .2
+ 2 6 .9
+ 5 0 .0
+ 8 .2
+ 3 .4
+ 2 4 .2
+ 2 0 .2
+ 1 9 .3
+ 2 2 .9
+ 5 .3
+ 2 .9
+ 1 2 .9
+ 1 1 8 .8
+ 8 3 .5
+ 2 7 0 .8
+ 3 0 .0
+ 2 4 .8
+ 4 6 .8
+ 2 2 .8
+ 1 8 .3
+ 3 7 .5
+ 3 .6
+ 1 .0
+ 1 1 .7
+ 2 4 .0
+ 2 4 .5
+ 2 2 .3
+ 6 .1
+ 6 .9
+ 3 .6
+ 1 1 7 .5
+ 9 8 .6
+ 1 8 5 .6
+ 2 9 .7
+ 2 6 .5
+ 3 9 .8
+ 4 6 .1
+ 4 2 .6
+ 5 7 .2
+ 5 .3
+ 3 .6
+ 1 0 .6
+ 3 1 .5
+ 3 4 .6
+ 2 2 .8
-2 .2
-5 .4
+ 8 .0
+ 1 5 6 .3
+ 1 3 8 .0
+ 2 2 2 .3
+ 3 4 .6
+ 1 8 .6
+ 9 6 .6
+ 4 8 .3
+ 4 2 .9
+ 6 5 .7
+ 9 .3
+ 7 .5
+ 1 4 .8
+ 3 8 .1
+ 3 4 .6
+ 4 9 .2
+ 2 .2
- 1 .6
+ 1 4 .5
+ 2 0 8 .0
+ 1 4 1 .5
+ 5 3 9 .0
+ 4 1 .1
+ 3 3 .2
+ 6 7 .6
+ 3 9 .8
+ 2 9 .9
+ 7 4 .3
+ 1 6 .5
+ 1 0 .5
+ 3 6 .5
+ 7 8 .4
+ 8 4 .8
+ 6 0 .6
-.0 4
-2 .7
+ 8 .4
+ 4 0 9 .7
+2 4 3 .7
+ 5 9 4 .0
N o te .— T he percentages shown for wage earners and horsepower combined are weighted geometric
averages of the individual percentages for wage earners and for horsepower, with wage earners weighted
3 and horsepower 1.
121
GROWTH OF MANUFACTURES
Table 3 shows for the different geographic divisions their relative
positions as to volume of production in the 5-year census periods,
1899 to 1923:
T a bl e 3 .— R A N K
OP
G E O G R A P H IC
D IV IS IO N S
A C C O R D IN G
TO
W E IG H T E D
A V E R A G E O F IN C R E A S E S I N N U M B E R O F W A G E E A R N E R S A N D I N P R I M A R Y
H O R S E P O W E R , F O R C E N S U S P E R IO D S 1899 T O 1923
Geographic division
Pacific. _ ________________________________________________
M ountain________________________________________________
East North Central....................................................................
W est South Central......................................................... .........
South A tlan tic................................. ....................... ............. ..
East South Central_____________________________________
M iddle Atlantic........ ...................................................................
W est North Central........ ...........................................................
N ew England____________________________________________
18991904
1
2
8
4
6
3
5
7
9
19041909
3
1
5
2
4
7
8
6
9
190$1914
1
4
2
7
5
9
3
8
6
19141919
1
3
2
4
8
6
7
5
9
19191923
5
4
3
8
2
1
6
7
9
Total
rank
score
11
14
20
25
25
26
29
33
42
The following paragraphs from the report summarize the changes
in manufacturing development in the different sections of the country
from 1899 to 1923:
Certain features of the rank lists are striking. One is the rise of the East
North Central division from a relatively low position in the first intercensal
period to near the top of the list in the period from 1909 to 1923. The rather
radical changes in ranking in the latest period, 1919-1923, are especially notable.
The Pacific and Mountain divisions which in earlier years were consistently near
the top in rate of growth were moved down to the middle of the list, while the
East South Central and South Atlantic divisions which were near the bottom
from 1909 to 1919 rose to first and second places. The tendency of the New
England, West North Central, and Middle Atlantic divisions to occupy positions
toward the foot of the rank list is also to be noted; two of these are old estab
lished manufacturing sections which passed through their stages of rapid expan
sion several decades ago, and the third is largely dominated by agricultural
States, most of which have had little manufacturing development.
The changes in the years since 1899 may be effectively summarized by con
sidering the combined increases in the average number of wage earners and
primary horsepower for the full 24-year period 1899-1923. * * * Despite
certain irregularities from one intercensal period to another, it is clear that the
most rapid growth of manufacture has been in the Pacific, the Mountain, the
West South Central, and the East North Central divisions. The South Atlantic
and East South Central divisions, owing to rapid growth between 1919 and 1923,
also show, for the full 24-year period, slightly larger increases than the average
for the country as a whole. Expansion in the West North Central, Middle
Atlantic, and New England States has been below the nation-wide average.
New England has shown by far the smallest increase for the full 24-year period
and also ranked lowest in rate of increase in every intercensal period shown
except one.
Figures obtained in #the 1925 biennial census of manufactures
showed that the quantity of goods manufactured increased^ 5.3 per
cent from 1923 to 1925 and the amount of primary horsepower installed
increased 8.2 per cent. The number of wage earners employed, how
ever, decreased 4.4 per cent. The report comments that “ the
increases in quantity of goods produced and in horsepower, in con
trast to the further decrease in number of wage earners, indicate a
continuation of the tendency, noted in earlier periods, particularly
between 1919 and 1923, toward greater use of machinery in produc
tion and illustrate the limitations of employment statistics as a
measure of industrial growth.”
By industries and major industrial groups, the most rapid expansion between
1923 and 1925 occurred in the production of motor vehicles and allied products—
122
ECONOMIC CHANGES
rubber tires and gasoline. The large building activity of 1925 was reflected in
the increased output of building materials, especially cement. The printing
industry continued to expand, and growth was also shown in the canning and
preserving, ice cream, and cigarette industries. Two comparatively new indus
tries which increased considerably in the two years were those manufacturing
radio apparatus and rayon. The manufacture of engines and of machine tools
also showed some increase. There were decreases, however, during the period
in most of the textile industries (silk being the most notable exception), in meat
packing and flour milling, in the manufacture of leather and its products, in
the railway-equipment industries, and in the production of musical instruments.
By geographic divisions and States, the East South Central and the South
Atlantic States appeared to have had the largest expansion between 1923 and
1925, with development of the Pacific Coast and East North Central States
continuing at a more rapid rate than that for the country as a whole. Growth
was smallest in the New England and Middle Atlantic States, and the Mountain
States showed relatively less expansion than in any previous period.
Migration of United States Industry
T h e g e o g r a p h i c a l shifting in American industry from 1904 to
1925 is analyzed in an article by Sidney G. Koon in the Iron Age
(New York) of January 5, 1928. The article is based on the reports
of the United States Bureau of the Census, the reports of the American
Iron and Steel Institute, and the compilations on iron and steel
production in the Iron Age.
Shift of the Center of Manufacturing
D i s r e g a r d i n g separate districts and taking into consideration
“ the movement of the center of activity of the country as a whole,”
calculations based on the 1904 United States Census of Manufactures
showed the center of such manufacture to be approximately 91 miles
to the eastward and almost 19 miles to the northward of Columbus,
Ohio.
The shift of the manufacturing center from 1904 to 1925 was as
follows:
Year
Miles east of Miles north of
Columbus
1904___________________________________________ 91
1909___________________________________________ 74
1914___________________________________________ 71
1919___________________________________________ 23
1921___________________________________________ 34
1923___________________________________________ 17
1925___________________________________________ 3J^
Columbus
19
16
17
18
13
13
8
Production of Rolled Iron and Steel
I n s t u d y i n g rolled iron and steel production in the United States
from 1911 to the present a well-defined movement into Indiana,
Michigan, and Ohio, as a group, is shown. This movement is from
both the East and the West but not from the South, which also shows
a steady expansion in production.
In 1911 and 1914 Pennsylvania’s output was approximately 49
per cent of the country’s total. The percentage of this State is now
under 39. In the meantime Indiana’s proportion of the total output
has advanced from 6 to 13 per cent and Ohio’s has risen from 18 to
approximately 22 per cent. As a consequence, even though the per
centage in Illinois has experienced a decline comparable with that in
Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois as a group in 1926 produced
42 per cent of the total output of the United States, while in 1911 their
combined contribution was only 34 per cent.
MIGRATION OF INDUSTRY
123
The territory south of the Ohio River, exclusive of the two Virginias,
shows a rise from less than 3 per cent of the total in 1911 to nearly
5 per cent of the total in 1926. The expansion in the Birmingham
district was a very important factor in this increase in the South’s
share in production.
The Manufacturing Movement in General
In t h e course of the study special attention was given to that
section of the United States west of New England, east of the Mis
souri River, and north of the Ohio River, which includes 11 States,
constituting “ the most intensive large manufacturing area in the
country.” While these States cover only 18 per cent of the Nation’s
territory “ they contain 49 per cent of its inhabitants and produce 67
per cent of its manufactured products.”
In 1904, 1909, and 1914 the “ Empire group” (New York, New
Jersey, and Pennsylvania) contained 34 per cent of the total wage
earners in the country; in 1919 and 1921, approximately 32 per
cent; and in 1923 and 1925 some 30 per cent. In the same period
the proportion of wage earners in Ohio and Michigan increased from
10 per cent in 1904 and 1909 to approximately 14 per cent in 1923
and 1925.
From 1904 to 1914, inclusive, Indiana and Illinois together had
10 per cent of the total employment, which percentage in recent
years has risen to 10^.
Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, and Wisconsin as a group held for
years practically the same proportion of the total wage earners of
the country—734 per cent.
Without taking into consideration New England, the South, and
the Far West, the Ohio-Michigan group was found to have gained
in industrial expansion at the expense mainly of the Empire group.
“ This study does not show, in the same way as with the rollingmill study, a movement from both west and east into the middle
section. It does show, however, that that middle section is growing
faster than the sections surrounding it and to the (relative) loss of
some of them.”
Study of 68 Cities
A s t u d y o f the changing v olu m e o f production in 68 principal
m anufacturing cities in six sections o f the country show ed in certain
respects results sim ilar to those yielded b y the preceding analyses.
There has been a slight falling off in the territory covered by New York, New
Jersey, and eastern Pennsylvania, in which 14 of these cities are located. There
has been a slight falling off in the section around Chicago, including 11 cities,
in that area from Louisville and Kansas City on the south up to Minneapolis
on the north. There has been a decided gain, as shown by the other studies
in the area comprised by Michigan, Ohio, and western Pennsylvania, represented
by 10 cities.
New England’s proportion has declined steadily, as shown by records of its
11 cities. The South has shown a moderate gain, represented by figures from
10 cities, while the Far West and the Southwest have shown a consistent gain,
considerably exceeding that of the South. This western area, which contains
12 of the cities, has almost reached the New England percentage of the total,
although in 1914 it was only six-tenths as great as New England.
The movement recorded in the foregoing paragraphs may probably
be attributed to the enormous growth of the automobile industry.
The chief seat of that industry and also of its principal auxiliary
124
ECONOMIC CHANGES
services of supply is located in the Michigan-Ohio-Indiana group.
“ And it is precisely into that area that we have found industry
going from contiguous areas on either side.” Attention is called in
the article under review to the industrial recession in these three
States in 1921 and to the correspondingly heavy decline in the same
year in automobile production. “ Only 41 per cent as many cars
were produced in 1921 as in 1923, whereas for manufacturing as a
whole the ratio was 72 per cent.” The “ tie-up” between the auto
mobile industry “ and the relative movement of manufacturing
activity into the area dominated by that industry is striking.”
Changing Importance of Various Industries in the United
States and Other Countries
T h e m a r k e d change which has taken place since pre-war times in
the relative industrial importance of European countries, on the one
hand, and of America, Japan, India, Australia, and other Pacific
countries, on the other, is analyzed in a document (C. E. I. No. 19)
prepared by the League of Nations for the use of the International
Economic Conference held in May, 1927. This change “ has affected
the equilibrium of the whole commerce of the world.” Industries
have increased in importance in certain countries and fallen in magni
tude in others, and this rise and fall of importance has also had an
appreciable effect upon the condition of the wage earners in the
industries.
Thus there has been almost a world-wide depression in the ship
building industry, varying only in degree in the different countries. In
the United States, where the increase of capacity was greatest in this
industry, the production has diminished the most. Germany, how
ever, has been able to regain some of the ground lost in that country.
The electrical engineering, silk, and artificial silk industries, however,
have shown an almost universal expansion, and the production of
sugar is about 40 per cent higher than before the war. “ In many
countries the industries producing for the local markets are more
prosperous than those dependent on exports.”
Changes in Output and Trade
T h e r e p o r t points out that conditions which obtain in various parts
of the globe are widely different. In North America, Japan, China,
India, Australia, and South Africa, and in a lesser degree in certain
South American countries, industry has made substantial progress
since 1914. European countries, however, are still suffering from
the effects of war. Industry, especially in Europe, is hampered by a
“ maldistribution of fixed capital” and surplus plant acquired for
various reasons:
(1) The necessity on the part of belligerents of increasing output
of war-time essentials during the war and on the part of neutrals of
supplying their own wants for goods not obtainable from other
countries;
(2) The development of new tariff-protected industries in countries
pursuing a “ policy of industrial nationalism” ;
(3) Extension of plant to provide occupation for the increasing
working population in certain of the more prolific nations;
(4) “ Finally, inflation produces a change in the relative strength
of the demand for different commodities and services which does not
CHANGING IMPORTANCE OF INDUSTRIES
125
continue to operate, once stable currency conditions have been
restored.”
These causes have also worked in combination. Thus—
The development of shipbuilding yards in certain countries, though mainly a
necessity of war, was not unaffected by ideas of economic nationalism. The
threatened oversupply of sugar is due at once to the development of the cane
industry in America and Asia, and of the beet industry in neutral Europe and
to the restoration of the beet crop since the war in other European countries
toward its pre-war level by means of protective import duties. Similarly, the
dye industry which was created during the war in France, England, Italy, and
elsewhere is now supported by protective duties or other forms of Government
assistance.
The cotton textile industry of China, Japan, British India, and
Brazil has increased enormously, while that of Europe has remained
stationary. Before the war Germany produced about four-fifths of
the world supply of coal-tar dyes; in 1924 her output had fallen to
less than half of the world production. The production of coal in
Great Britain has fallen to less than 91 per cent of the pre-war output
and that of Poland to less than 81 per cent. In the electro-technical
industry world production is nearly double the pre-war figure; the
share of the United States has risen from one-third to nearly a half;
production has also increased greatly in France, Italy, and Great
Britain; but Germany’s share in the world output has fallen from
about one-third to less than one-fourth.
As regards the mill consumption of raw cotton, that of Japan and
the United States together is nearly 2,000,000 bales more than before
the war and that of Europe nearly the same amount less. The report
points out, however, that “ while the United Kingdom has been
particularly affected by the development in the Far East and central
European .countries, not only by irregularity of trade resulting from
currency instability but also by tariff barriers, and to some extent
in certain districts by the reduced purchasing power of the masses,
the fact must not be overlooked that both for piece goods and for
hosiery, cotton has to some extent been replaced by artificial silk.
Cotton conditions must in no sense be taken as representative of the
textile industry as a whole.” The most serious falling off in the
woolen-goods industry has occurred in Russia. In the production
of chemicals the share of the United States has risen from about a
third of the world output to nearly one-half, while that of Germany
has fallen from one-fourth to about one-sixth.
France has become the greatest exporter in the world of the products
of the heavy-metals industry, Australia the largest importer of elec
trical goods, and Italy the largest exporter of artificial silk. The
“ essential characteristic of the world trade in raw silk is the great
expansion of American demand and nearly equivalent growth of
Japanese exports.” In 1925 the United States consumed over 60
per cent of the world silk production and 78 per cent of this came
from Japan.
Causes of Shifting Trade
T h e c a u s e s of these shifts of trade the report analyzes as follows:
(1) The general impoverishment of European countries imme
diately after the war reduced the margin of income left after satisfy
ing primary requirements, and the demand was for immediately
consumable goods, resulting in prosperity for the industries produc
ing these. The currency inflation also aided in the demand for goods
126
ECONOMIC CHANGES
immediately consumable. The report states that “ with stable
monetary conditions and the regrowth of confidence, it may well be
that the demand for the products of those industries mainly producing
goods not intended for immediate consumption will greatly increase.”
(2) The war reinforced the tendency to treat raw materials in the
country of production instead of shipping them to Europe for treat
ment and importing them later as finished goods.
(3) Recent scientific discoveries have in some cases changed the
type of raw materials used and hence the location of the industry.
(4) The development outside of Europe of industries competing
with those of that continent is inevitable.
(5) The demand for certain products (such as coal, pig iron, etc.)
has fallen off because of competition of an alternative article (hydro
electric power, scrap iron, etc.) at a lower price.
(6) Tariffs are higher and “ security is reduced and trade hampered”
by the frequency with which rates are modified, by the short terms of
commercial treaties, and by discriminatory customs classifications, etc.
(7) Trade is hampered by restrictions on the passage of business
representatives from one country to another; by restrictions on the
rights of foreigners to establish businesses in other countries, etc.
(8) The tendency is to develop industry in countries with surplus
population and low economic and wage conditions.
(9) Fluctuations in prices and cost of production due to unstable
monetary conditions have “ constituted the worst form of trade
barriers.”
Of these various causes which have been considered, some are no longer opera
tive though their effects may live after them, while others are still vital. The
danger of great immediate additions to equipment in industries where plant is
already excessive is slight; the will to save is being revived and the supply of
capital grows steadily; the number of countries in which currency stabilization
has not yet been achieved is now relatively restricted, though among that number
are certain States of world economic importance. On the other hand, the deeplying economic tendencies— the growth of industries in countries with important
supplies of raw materials, the substitution of one commodity for another, etc.,
continue in being and are only within restricted limits subject to direction. The
causes resulting from Government action, the control of the free movement of
goods or persons, etc., are of course always operative and always possible of
deliberate modification.
Moreover, the tendencies considered, as was stated at the beginning of this
section, have affected certain countries much more adversely than others. At
the particular stage which has now been reached, the industrialization of Asia,
Oceania, etc., is directly competitive with several of the major European indus
tries— more especially the British— and has brought about a serious reduction
in demand. Asiatic countries are tending to trade more inter se, more with the
United States of America, more with Oceania and less with Europe.
Partly owing to monetary factors, partly owing to the degree of industrial
specialization, largely in the case of the United Kingdom to the particular reac
tions of the drop in the Asiatic demand, that country and Germany have been
particularly adversely affected by the postwar economic forces, while Belgium,
France, and Italy have countered them with a considerable measure of success.
The establishment of new industries in certain European countries (coal-tar
dyes, various textiles, superphosphates, etc.), generally with some form of govern
ment protection, has reduced the selling power of the older producers and lessened
the trade in these commodities, both absolutely and relatively to production.
The growth in the demand for certain products such, for instance, as paper
and pulp has benefited the countries from which they are mainly derived. But
all countries have suffered by the instability of currencies, of prices, of tariffs,
and from the irregularity of the demand for goods which this instability has
entailed.
#Various proposals have been put forward for meeting these condi
tions, such as the conclusion of long-term commercial treaties,
CHANGES IN LIVING STANDARDS
127
horizontal combination between the same industries all over the
world and vertical “ rationalization” within each industry by stand
ardization and classification of products and raw materials, marketing
agreements, international stabilization of production, reorganization
of the industries so as to eliminate inefficient factories, an adequate
intelligence service, etc.
Changes in Standards of Living
S t a n d a r d s of living are not, in their entirety, measurable in
statistical form. However, many factors contributing to the increased
material welfare of the people are measurable numerically, and some
of the leading measures are presented in the following table taken
from the annual report of the Secretary of Commerce for the fiscal
year ending June 30, 1928.
IN D I C A T O R S O F M A T E R I A L P R O G R E S S
Item
1914
Hum an factors:
97,928
Population (thousands)....................................................
Number of families (thousands)....................................
122,401
Students in elementary and secondary schools
(thousands)....................... ............................................. .
Students in high schools (thousands)..........................
Students in colleges (thousands)...................................
Financial factors:
8.712.000
Savings deposits, all banks (thousand dollars)------Building and loan associations—
1.358.000
Assets (thousand dollars).............................................
3,104
Members (thousands)....................................................
Life insuranceOrdinary in force, value (thousand dollars).......... ‘ 18,349,000
Ordinary in force, number of policies (thousands)
< 9,890
4 4,435,000
Industrial in force, value (thousand dollars)........
* 33,142
Industrial in force, number of policies (thousands)
Check payments—
140 cities, excluding N ew York (thousand dollars)
New York C ity (thousand dollars) ........................
Production:
Agriculture (general index number of output)------7,268
Value of crops (million dollars).................................
4,249
Value of livestock products (million dollars)-----Mining (general index number of output)............... .
422,704
Coal, bituminous (thousand short tons)___.........
Manufacturing (general index number of output) " ”23,050
Pig iron (thousand tons)...............................................
22,824
Steel ingots and castings (thousand long t o n s )...
699,242
Copper, smelter (tons)...................................................
Lumber, 10 leading varieties (million feet)---------25,230
Buildings (36 States)—
Residential (thousand dollars)................................
Commercial (thousand dollars)..............................
Industrial (thousand dollars)...................................
Bathtubs (shipments)...................................................
Automobiles—
543,679
Passenger (number)____________ __________ _____
25,375
Trucks (number).........................................................
44
Washing machines in use (thousands).....................
Electric refrigerators, sales (thousands)__...............
Radios, sales (thousands)......... ...................................
122
Vacuum cleaners in use (thousands)........................
Aeroplanes and parts (thousand dollars)................
790
Power:
In public utility plants (million kilowatt-hours)—
22,264
In factories (thousand horsepower).............................
Developed water power (thousand horsepow er)...
5,790
Transportation:
Railroads— Class I—
Revenue freight carried (million ton-miles)...........
7 284,924
7 34,567
Passengers carried 1 mile (millions)..........................
Automobile registration—
Trucks (thousands).........................................................
1,711
Passenger cars (thousands)..........................................
10,046
Telephones in use (thousands).......................................
3 Year 1926.
* Year 1915.
1921
1927
105,003
124,028
108,445
124,816
118,623
1 27,146
2 23,359
2 2,413
3 27,259
3 4,053
3 1,037
13,040,000
16,501,000
26,091,000
2,127,000
4,289
2,891,000
5,810
l 7,200,000
1 11,500
35,092,000
2 16,695
2 7,190,000
2 49,805
3 64,457,000
3 25,501
3 14,035,000
3 76,404
101.941.000
207.095.000
282.345.000
391.558.000
2
211.175.000
244.119.000
0)
1 Approximate.
2 Year 1920.
1919
5 Insignificant.
• Year 1925.
100
16,561
8,275
7,759
5,589
465,860
415,922
100
100
115
9,266
7,300
138
519,804
130
36,232
43,398
968,657
27,993
3
3
30,582
33,695
751,572
24,834
16,544
19,224
287,250
21,147
929,580
466,584
600,612
415,496
961,668
381,636
202,716
498,117
2,489,592
897,172
475,614
1,657,652
275,943
999
1,453, 111
143,712
1,696
14,373
3,196
7,431
2,939,191
455,194
5,681
365
1,800
8,498
20,784
38,921
29,298
7,590
“ 8,"050'
80,205
« 35,773
12,296
306,840
37,313
429,044
33,655
980
9,483
13,875
2,897
20,230
18,523
(5)
40,975
364,293
46,358
7,565
1,888
(6)
12,668
* Fiscal year 1914.
1,101,000
128
ECONOMIC CHANGES
Migration of Population to and from Farms
T h e B u r e a u of Agricultural Economics of the United States
Department of Agriculture issued in 1927 a report entitled “ Analysis
of Migration of Population To and From Farms.” The study was
conducted in the summers of 1926 and 1927 by means of circular
letters and covered 2,745 farm operators who migrated from farms
to city, town, or village and 1,167 persons who left city, town, or
village for the farm.
Migration from Farms
T h e 2,745 former farm operators were scattered through every
State in the Union, and included 2,307 farm owners and 438 tenants,
hired men being excluded. It is not claimed that this particular
sample of farmers is typical of all those who have given up farming,
but “ there seems no reason to disregard or even to minimize the
facts revealed in this investigation as types of causes and conditions
playing a part in the general recent movement of farmers off the land.”
Of the reasons given for leaving the farm, 37.8 per cent were of
an economic character, as, for example, high prices, high taxes, and
not being able to make ends meet. The next most prevalent set of
reasons (25.2 per cent) included physical disability, old age, and
inability to obtain enough help to carry on the farm and household
work; 12 per cent of the owners’ reasons and 5.6 per cent of the
tenants’ reasons were the lack of opportunity for schooling their
children; 1.8 per cent left the farm to allow a son or son-in-law to
occupy it; 2.5 per cent (76 owners and 3 tenants) had obtained a
competency which permitted them to “ lead an easier life” and to
obtain those things which “ the family has long craved but has not
had opportunity to obtain.”
The new occupations of these former farmers covered a wide
range: 25.3 per cent were working at day labor or at trades, etc.;
others were salesmen (6.9 per cent), public servants (6 per cent),
merchants or grocers (4.9 per cent), employees of garages or service
stations (2.6 per cent), teachers, preachers, etc. (2.2 percent),
dealers in feed, coal, etc. (2.1 per cent), and real estate agents (1.1
per cent), other occupations accounting for 25.6 per cent, while 23.3
per cent reported no present occupation.
Not all of those leaving their farms disposed of them, and 22 per
cent reported that 70 per cent or more of their present income was
derived from farms they still owned, 9.3 per cent were receiving from
50 to 59 per cent of their income from their farms, and 7.8 per cent
were receiving from 20 to 29 per cent.
Migration to Farms
C i r c u l a r letters were sent to 10,000 persons who had recently
moved from cities, towns, or villages to farms but only 1,167 replies
were received. Every State, with the exception of Arizona, Delaware,
and New Mexico, was represented in the replies.
The purpose of the inquiry was to throw some light upon the
character of the constant stream of migration from urban areas to
farming communities. The outstanding reasons given by migrants
who became farm owners and tenants were “ health,” “ better living
INCOME OF PEOPLE OF UNITED STATES
129
conditions,” “ better place to bring up children,” and “ love of nature
and country life.” The reasons given by those who became hired
men included the high cost of living in cities and better opportunity
for making money on farms, although some of them were influenced
by the same motives that actuated those who became farm owners
and tenants. Many of the migrants had tired of city life and others
(6.6 per cent) wanted to live more independently.
The total number of those included in this part of the study who
became owners of farms was 776; whereas 344 became tenants, and 47,
hired men. Out of 1,166 persons who answered the question as to
their previous experience on farms, only 155 had never worked on
farms. More than one-third of those reporting previous farm
experience had owned farms and one-third had been tenants.
The majority of the migrants said that they liked farming better
than city work and considered it a good occupation; 54.3 per cent of a
total of 1,098 reported that they made a better living on the farm
than they had in the city. Of the farm owners, 47.4 per cent re
ported a better living on the farm; of the tenants, 66.9 per cent;
and of the hired men, 73.3 per cent. The incomes of 6.3 per cent
were about the same as in the city, 4.3 per cent had not been on the
farm long enough to answer this question, and 2.1 per cent reported
that the farms were not yet on a good paying basis but they expected
to make them pay. About 3 per cent were not dependent upon the
farms for a living.
Estimated Income of the People of the United States
T h e N a t i o n a l Bureau of Economic Research (Inc.) issued, in
1927, a statement of the estimated “ current income” of the people
of the United States, by years, from 1922 to 1926, inclusive, thus
supplementing its earlier estimates for the years 1909 to 1921.
Subject to the reservations made below, these figures indicate
that the total current income of the people of the United States in
1926 was approximately $90,000,000,000, or 40 per cent higher than
in 1921, and that the per capita income in 1926 was approximately
$770, or 33 per cent greater than in 1921. These increases between
1921 and 1926, moreover, must have represented real increases in
income, as prices were not higher in 1926 than they were in 1921.
In using these estimates the National Bureau of Economic Research
makes the following cautionary statements regarding the possibility
of error in the figures for the years 1921 to 1926:
The income estimates for the years 1909 to 1921, already published by the
National Bureau, are composed of several thousand separate items and are arrived
at by means of complicated and laborious computations. Because of the limited
number of workers available for this study and the amount of work involved,
it has proved impracticable to complete the estimates until a considerable period
has elapsed after the publication by the United States Bureau of Internal Revenue
of the volume entitled “ Statistics of Income,” and this volume does not appear
until many months after the income tax schedules are filed.
The necessary result has been that the careful income estimates of the National
Bureau have appeared several years late, and it is this retardation which has
given rise to the demand for current estimates.
The preliminary figures which are here presented for years since 1921 are
based upon a limited number of indicators consisting of such items as wage
rates, numbers of employees, dividend and interest payments, and volume of
trade. For the years 1922, 1923, and 1924, the income tax reports are available
and the figures in those have been utilized as fully as possible. It is by no means
130
ECONOMIC CHANGES
certain that these indices constitute reliable gauges of the variations in income.
It is possible, therefore, that the figures presented for the year 1926 may be as
much as 10 per cent in error, but the probabilities are that the error is not as
great as that. The chances of error increase with the distance from the year
1921. All users of the figures here presented should keep in mind the necessary
shortcomings of preliminary estimates of this type.
Total Current Income
T h e estimates of current income for each of the years 1909 to 1926
are given in Table 1, the second column showing the estimated
actual money income and the third column showing the computed
purchasing value of such income in terms of the 1913 dollar. The
estimated amounts in terms of the purchasing power of 1913 were
obtained by dividing the current income figures by index numbers
representing the average prices of goods purchased by consumers—
in other words, they represent the total amount of direct or consump
tion goods which the people could have purchased for their entire
current income if they had spent it all for such commodities or
services. The term “ current income” is defined “ the excess of cash
receipts over business expenses, plus the money value of income
received in the form of commodities.” It is estimated by adding
(1) wages, salaries, and pensions, (2) profits withdrawn from business,
(3) dividends, interest, and rent received by individuals, (4) the
rental value of homes occupied by their owners, (5) interest upon the
sums invested in household furnishings, clothing, and the like, and
(6) the value of commodities which families produce for their own
consumption. Attention is called to the fact that the term “ current
income” as thus interpreted “ does not include the savings of business
enterprises. It may well be, therefore, that the figures for total income
would run materially higher throughout.”
T a b l e 1 .— T O T A L C U R R E N T I N C O M E OF P E O P L E O F T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S , 1909-1926
Year
1909.
1910.
1911.
1912.
1913.
1914.
1915.
1916.
1917.
Current dollars
27.100.000.000
28.400.000.000
29.000.000.000
30.600.000.000
32.000.000.000
31.600.000.000
32.700.000.000
39.200.000.000
48.500.000.000
1913 dollars
Year
Current dollars
28,200,000,000
29.100.000.000
29.300.000.000
30.800.000.000
32.000.000.000
31.300.000.000
32.000.000.000
35.500.000.000
37.300.000.000
191 8
191 9
1920_.......................
1921.........................
1922_.......................
192 3
192 4
192 5
192 6
56.000.000.000
67.254.000.000
74.158.000.000
62.736.000.000
1 65,567,000,000
176.769.000.000
179.365.000.000
186.461.000.000
189.682.000.000
1913 dollars
35.500.000.000
37.600.000.000
36.300.000.000
36.200.000.000
140.400.000.000
146.900.000.000
148.400.000.000
i 51,100,000,000
i 52,900,000,000
Per Capita Income
T a b l e 2 reduces the total income figures to a per capita basis. In
commenting on this table the statement of the National Bureau of
Economic Research says:
The figures become much more significant when they are reduced to a per
capita basis. It appears that, in 1926, the average inhabitant of the United
States had an income of $770, or one-third more than in 1921. When this per
capita income is expressed in dollars having the purchasing power which they
possessed in 1913, we find that the increase has been about 36 per cent. It
appears, then, that from the economic point of view the condition of the average
inhabitant has been improving at a rate of about 7 per cent per annum.
INCOME OP PEOPLE OF UNITED STATES
131
The startling nature of this change is indicated by the fact that the annual
increase since 1921 has been as great as the entire increase during the 12 years
from 1909 to 1921. The fact should be noted, however, that the difference in
slope is partially accounted for by the fact that 1921 was a year of depression,
while 1926 has been one of unusual prosperity. A fairer comparison may be
made by dividing the entire period into two parts— 1909 to 1917 and 1917 to 1926.
During the first period of eight years the per capita income, in terms of 1913
dollars, increased 15 per cent, while during the last nine years it increased 26
per cent. If the preliminary estimates are correct, there has, then, been a sharp
upward turn in the trend of economic welfare in the United States.
T a b l e 2 . - - -E S T I M A T E D
Current
dollars
Year
299
307
309
321
329
320
326
385
470
1909 ...................................................
191 0 ...................................................
1911 .................................................
1912 ................................................
............................................
1913
1914 .................................................
1915 ................................................
1 9 1 6 ...................................................
1 917.................................... .............
C U R R E N T IN C O M E
1913
dollars
312
315
312
323
329
316
319
349
361
PE R C A P IT A
Year
Current
dollars
1918.....................................................
1919.....................................................
1920...................................................
1921....................................................
1922...................................................
1923__.................................................
1924....................................................
1925....................................................
1926_______________________ _____
537
640
697
579
i 597
i 689
i 700
i 752
1770
1913
dollars
340
358
341
334
i 369
i 421
1426
i 445
1455
i Preliminary estimate.
Income per Person Gainfully Employed
T a b l e 3 reduces the total income data to the basis of income per
person gainfully employed. It is estimated that in 1926 there
were some 44,600,000 inhabitants of the United States “ gainfully
employed” as the term is employed by the United States Bureau of
the Census—i. e., employers, employees, and those working on their
own account. Housewives and women and children helping the
head of the family on the home farm are not included.
Commenting on this table, the statement says:
For every person gainfully occupied in 1926 there appears to have been an
income of slightly over $2,000. When reduced to terms of 1913 purchasing
power, we find that the average person working for a money income received
about one-quarter more for his services than he obtained in 1917, and about
44 per cent more than he could have secured in 1909. The indications are, then,
that despite the constantly growing population and the relatively inelastic nature
of the supply of natural resources, new inventions and greater skill and organiza
tion are still enabling the average inhabitant to progress steadily upward on the
scale of economic welfare.
T a b l e 3 .— I N C O M E P E R P E R S O N G A I N F U L L Y O C C U P IE D
Year
Current
dollars
1909 ...................................................
1910 ................................................
1911
...........................................
1912
...........................
1913
— _________
.................... ........1914
1915
..................... —
1916
...........
1917
_ ...................
i Preliminary estimate.
39142°—29------ 10
791
809
812
844
864
836
861
1,014
1,232
1913
dollars
823
829
821
850
864
828
843
919
947
Year
1918............................................ .......
1919.................................... ................
1920........................................ ............
1921 ................ .................................
1922...................................................
1923............................................. ..
1924....................................................
1925___________ _____ ___________
1926....................................................
Current
dollars
1,386
1,669
1,851
1,537
1 1,586
11,821
1 1,840
1 1,971
l 2,010
1913
dollars
879
934
907
887
1979
1 1,113
1 1,121
1 1,165
1 1,186
EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS
133
Present Status of Employment Statistics in
United States and Foreign Countries
the
ITH the growing intensity of interest in the problems of
unemployment there has naturally developed a great demand
for basic statistics regarding the number of the unemployed. What
is wanted, first of all, is a knowledge of just how many people are
out of work, and this information, unfortunately, is not yet available
for the United States as a whole.
To obtain this information at all accurately requires a canvass or
census of the population, and such an undertaking is so difficult
and costly that it is rarely attempted in any country and never has
it been attempted at frequent intervals.
In the absence of complete census surveys other sources have to be
relied on for information regarding the number of persons out of
work. The best of these other sources is undoubtedly the records
developed under national unemployment insurance systems such as
exist in Great Britain and Germany. To the extent that such systems
are comprehensive in their coverage, the number of persons in receipt
of unemployment insurance benefits measures with fair accuracy the
number of idle workers. As a matter of fact, however, none of the
systems existing is completely comprehensive, i. e., none of them
covers all groups of workers and none of them pays benefits indefi
nitely. Moreover, no such insurance system is in operation in any
part of the United States.
Details regarding the scope and character of employment statistics
in the United States and various foreign countries are given below:
W
Statistics for the United States
Unemployment Surveys
Enumeration oj the unemployed by canvass.—No nation-wide
enumeration of the unemployed has been undertaken recently in
in this country. At three of the United States censuses of population
(1880, 1890, 1900) efforts were made to carry out such an enumer
ation as part of the regular canvass, but these experiments have not
been repeated in recent years, partly because of the expense involved
and partly because of lack of confidence in the results on the part
even of those who planned and organized the investigation. Local
enumerations of this character have been made occasionally, as, for
instance, the canvas made by the municipal authorities of Baltimore
City in 1928 (see p. 168) and the surveys made by the United States
Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1915 (Bui. No. 172), by the department
of economics of Ohio State University, covering the City of Columbus,
for the years 1921 to 1925 (Bui. No. 409), and by the Metropolitan
Life Insurance Co. In the studies made by the Metropolitan Life
Insurance Co. the families of industrial policy-holders of the company
were canvassed, first in New York and later in certain other cities,
135
136
EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS
on the assumption (which appears to have been correct) that they
constituted representative portions of the wage-earning; population
in the cities studied. In the two studies made by the United States
Bureau of Labor Statistics in New York City in 1915 a complete
canvass was made of the population of representative city blocks.
The police department of New York City cooperated in the first of
these by making a count of the unemployed among the homeless
who were found in various temporary lodgings on one night in Jan
uary, 1915. In the more recent Columbus study a complete canvass
was made of carefully selected sections of the city.
Registration of the unemployed—Another method of obtaining data
on unemployment has been the voluntary registration of unem
ployed persons. Such registration has been attempted in several
cities, but nowhere has experience proved the method one to be
recommended. Without a compelling motive for persons out of work
to register, and without adequate means of preventing fraudulent
registration if the incentive is expectation of relief, data so obtained
are certain to be grossly inaccurate.
The unemployment statistics of Great Britain, although derived
from actual registration of the unemployed, are of quite different
quality. They are obtained through the administration of the law
that provides compulsory unemployment insurance in most of the
divisions of industry. In that case the insurance benefit provides the
incentive for registration; and the labor exchange machinery, estab
lished to prevent the fraudulent receipt of benefits, largely excludes
from the count persons who are not actually unemployed. In the
United States, of course, no such data are available, because emploj^ment exchanges lack the kind of machinery for registration 'upon
which such figures depend.
Estimates of numbers of unemployed.—Serious attempts to determine
the number of unemployed persons have sometimes been made by
responsible authorities from estimates collected at large from social
workers, clergymen, poor-relief administrators, employers, labor
leaders, and others. As an example, the two special inquiries made
by the United States Employment Service in 1921 through its cor
respondents in numerous cities of the United States may be cited.
Data gathered in this way have a certain significance and value,
particularly when no other method is possible, but the results must
necessarily be of only limited accuracy.
The Employment Service of the United States Department of
Labor publishes each month, in addition to the monthly report of
activities of State and municipal employment services, an industrial
employment information bulletin in which industrial conditions in
different localities are summed up so as to give a picture of the em
ployment situation throughout the entire country. For the purposes
of this report the country is divided into nine districts with a director
in charge of each zone. These directors establish contacts within
their districts with chambers of commerce, labor union officials,
employment offices, industrial leaders, business men and other
sources of information and transmit their report each month to the
United States Employment Service. In the bulletin the industrial
conditions in the principal industrial centers and the principal in
dustries are reported upon by each director for his particular district
STATISTICS FOR UNITED STATES
137
and there is a general summary showing the industrial employment
situation in the country as a whole.
Trade-union statistics.—Unemployment statistics obtained from
trade-union sources are monthly or sometimes quarterly figures,
commonly reported by the secretaries of various local unions, and
usually espressed in the form of “ percentage of members unem
ployed.” In this country New York and Massachusetts are the only
States which have had extended experience with trade-union reports
of unemployment. In both New York and Massachusetts their
collection was discontinued soon after the current collection of
employment statistics from representative manufacturing establish
ments was begun. In Massachusetts, the monthly publication of
such statistics was resumed in 1927 by the State department of
labor for the building trades, but not for other organized trades.
These monthly statistics are very complete, and, in presentation,
are analyzed by trades, cities, and causes of unemployment
During the fall of 1927 the American Federation of Labor under
took the collection of data regarding unemployment covering the
membership of the constituent unions. The results are published
in the form of “ percentage of membership unemployed/7 The data
are given separately for the larger cities and also separately for
building trades and other trades. The basic figures regarding total
membership reporting are not published.
For industries and for communities where labor is strongly organ
ized, trade-union statistics regarding unemployment are represent
ative. A weakness is, of course, that many trades—particularly
unskilled laborers and clerical workers—are not well organized.
Another weakness is the difficulty of getting prompt and accurate,
reports from the various local unions. In the past this latter diffi
culty has been a serious one and has caused the results in many cases
to be of dubious value.
Statistics of Employment Offices
W h i l e the statistical methods followed in the compilation of
employment office statistics in the different States and localities are
not uniform and are, therefore, not always strictly comparable,
practically all public employment offices in the States are now coop
erating with the United States Employment Service which assembles
and publishes monthly statistics of their operations. There are
numerous other agencies concerned in the placement of workers, such
as large employing corporations which have their own employment
bureaus, the local branches of the trade-unions, bureaus which deal
only with professional workers, and private employment agencies
dealing with all kinds of labor, the number and variety of these
agencies making it practically impossible to secure returns from any
large proportion of them at any given time.
In addition to the practical difficulties in coordinating the reports
from such a wide variety of agencies the incompleteness of the returns
must also be taken into consideration. The number of persons who
are out of work and who are seeking employment varies from day to
day and such persons can be located only when they apply to some
agency for assistance in securing work. It is probable, however, that
a large proportion of the people who really desire work if they can
138
EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS
get just what they want never apply to any employment agency and,
on the other hand, many persons who register at an employment
agency are not unemployed but are simply trying to get another or
a better job; there is also the question of duplication, since many
persons when seeking a job register at several agencies. It is evident
therefore, that the chief value of the returns from these bureaus as
an index of unemployment lies in the trend shown by their figures,
giving, as they do, a fairly trustworthy basis for an estimate of the
extent of unemployment and adding to the value of the figures when
they are correlated with the statistics of employment secured from
the pay rolls of a large number of industries.
The Federal Employment Service publishes a monthly report of
the activities of State and municipal employment services which
cooperate with it. There are 41 States and the District of Columbia
which report on the number of requests for help wanted, and the
number of persons registered, referred, and placed in employment in
one or more principal cities of the State each month. The regis
trants in these offices are largely unskilled or semiskilled workers.
The probable inadequacy of these figures as a source of unemploy
ment data is shown by the fact that the total number of persons
registered during a recent month was 208,742 and that during that
month there were 173,688 calls for help from employers, 169,517
workers were referred to positions, and 146,266 workers were placed
in employment. In spite of the comparatively small number of
workers covered, however, these figures do show to a certain extent
the demand for labor and the supply of workers and thus reflect the
activity of business and the intensity of changes in opportunities for
employment.
Employment Statistics from Pay Rolls
(E v e r y pay roll contains at least some mark of identification of
each employee of the concern, and the wages received by him within
a specified pay period. It is a timely and accurate record, available
in almost every industrial organization of appreciable size. The
required figures of total number employed and total wages paid can
be transcribed to a report form with very little effort and with com
paratively small chance of clerical error. It is practicable, there
fore, to obtain these data at frequent intervals and by means of in
quiries sent through the mail.
In some instances the bureaus now collecting pay-roll statistics
obtain only the number of persons employed. More frequently both
the number of employees and the total amount of wages shown on
the pay roll are recorded, and the statistics are thus commonly re
ferred to as statistics of employment and earnings. The figures for
total earnings are valuable as a check on those showing the number
employed. They are valuable also for what they show directly con
cerning purchasing power, and when divided by the total number of
persons at work they give average earnings per employee, a figure
which is worth obtaining for rough indication of changes in the rate
of wages.
Development of pay-roll employment statistics.—Although the current
publication of employment figures from pay rolls is a development of
the last 13 years only, statistics of this sort are not new. The United
States Bureau of the Census has obtained statistics of the numbers
STATISTICS FOR UNITED STATES
139
employed monthly in manufacturing establishments for the years in
which the national census of manufactures have been taken—every
five years from 1899 to 1919, and subsequently every two years. In
Massachusetts, in 1886, the office which was then known as the Bureau
of Statistics of Labor inaugurated an annual census of manufactures,
in which similar monthly employment figures were collected. This
State census of manufactures has been continued each year since,
thus giving Massachusetts the longest record of employment fluctua
tion which is anywhere available. Monthly employment figures were
also gathered in an annual census of manufactures in New Jersey from
1893 to 1918. In Ohio monthly figures for employment in manu
facturing industries were assembled each year from 1892 to 1906,
and since 1914 a comprehensive canvass of employment and wages
by months has been made annually, covering agriculture, construc
tion, service, trade, transportation, and public utilities, as well as
manufacturing.1 In all of these records, however, the monthly data
for each year were compiled after the completion of the calendar year
to which they referred, and were tabulated and made public only after
an interval ranging from several months to a year or more.
The earliest current collection of such data in this country was
made by the New York State Department of Labor. The reporting
establishments were selected to represent the manufacturing industry
as a whole. The first data were collected in June, 1915, but during
the first year employers were requested to furnish figures for both
the current month and the corresponding month in the preceding
year; thus, in effect, the New York series of pay-roll statistics for
manufacturing industries dates from June, 1914.
The .United States Bureau of Labor Statistics began to collect
pay-roll statistics shortly after the New York bureau, but confined
itself to fewer industries. Beginning with October, 1915, reports
were obtained from employers in four industries—boots and shoes,
cotton, cotton finishing, and hosiery and underwear. The list was
extended, however, so that by the end of 1916, 13 manufacturing
industries had been included. Several of these series were carried
back to December, 1914. In July, 1922, the scope of the inquiry was
enlarged to include 42 manufacturing industries, and additional
industries have been added since, so that the latest published report
(December, 1928) covers 54 leading manufacturing industries. In
July, 1928, the Bureau of Labor Statistics began to enlarge further
the scope of its employment survey to include other important fields
of industry. The August, 1928, report included the trend of employ
ment and earnings in wholesale and retail trade establishments;
the September, 1928, report began the current publication of
employment data for public utilities; the October report included
for the first time figures relative to anthracite and bituminous coal
mining; the November, 1928, report added data on hotel employment
and metalliferous mining. All these industries will be carried cur
rently hereafter. The number of reporting establishments, especially
in these fields in which the bureau has recently started its survey,
will be constantly increased until the desired proportion of employees
in the several industries has been secured.
i W hile these later data have been collected and tabulated annually, they have been published only
for the years 1914,1915, and 1923. The U. S. W om en’s Bureau, however, is now making a study of employ
ment fluctuations as it has affected woman workers in Ohio industries, and this report will contain full
series of Ohio data since 1914 for the more important industries.
140
EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS
Number and activities of existing agencies.—The accompanying
table gives a list of the Federal and State agencies in the United
States which publish current monthly pay-roll statistics, and indicates
the general scope and character of the information collected. It
shows that pay-roll statistics are now being collected from month
to month in the United States by 2 Federal bureaus and by 10 State
bureaus.
In addition, employment statistics are being collected by some of
the Federal reserve banks and privately by a number of employers'
associations.
The United States Bureau of Labor Statistics covers the widest
field. In December, 1928, its current figures covered 21,494 establish
ments in the following industrial groups: Manufacturing industries
(54), wholesale trade, retail trade, public utilities, anthracite mining,
bituminous coal mining, metalliferous mining, and hotels. These
establishments in December had 4,209,264 employees whose com
bined earnings in one week were $114,453,170.
The reports received from 11,752 establishments in the 54 manu
facturing industries in December, 1928, covered 3,245,412 employees.
These employees represent one-half of the employees in these manu
facturing industries and nearly 40 per cent of the employees in all
manufacturing industries in the United States. In collecting these
figures the Bureau of Labor Statistics cooperates with the State labor
departments in seven States, thus avoiding duplication of work.
The Federal bureau's figures are now published in a special section
of the Labor Review, which is also issued as an advance pamphlet,
news releases being sent out earlier as data are available. The data
for the 54 manufacturing industries are given for the main industrial
groups and their subdivisions, and a recapitulation by the nine geo
graphical divisions used by the United States Census Bureau is also
given. The data for the nonmanufacturing industries and public
utilities are published by geographic divisions only. It has not yet
proved feasible for the Federal bureau to publish the data for each
State, or for Federal reserve districts, which, it has been suggested,
would make the data directly useful to the 12 Federal reserve banks.
All the cooperating State bureaus, however, now publish their own
data currently for local use.
Summary figures for the railroads furnished by the Interstate
Commerce Commission, are included in the monthly report issued by
the Bureau of Labor Statistics, but they are for earlier dates than the
manufacturing statistics. The Department of Agriculture has con
tinued experiments begun by the Wisconsin Industrial Commission
on the difficult problem of collecting employment figures for farms,
but the statistics are not yet currently available. Data on employ
ment in wholesale and retail trade are being obtained by certain
State bureaus, including Wisconsin and Illinois, and by the Federal
Reserve Bank of Philadelphia, as well as the United States Bureau of
Labor Statistics.
Despite encouraging progress, the great majority of States have no
information regarding employment within their own boundaries,
although manufacturing plants therein may contribute to the data
collected by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics for the
country as a whole.
STATISTICS F o r FOREIGN
c o u n t r ie s
141
F E D E R A L A N D S T A T E A G E N C I E S W H I C H P U B L IS H C U R R E N T M O N T H L Y P A Y -R O L L
S T A T IS T IC S O F E M P L O Y M E N T
Agency
Industries covered
Federal bureaus:
U . S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.................................... Manufacturing, mining, public utilities, trade,
and hotels.
Interstate Commerce Commission
Railroads.
State bureaus:
California. Department of Industrial R elation s... Manufacturing; water, light, and power.
Illinois. Department of L a b o r ..................................... Manufacturing; coal mining; public utilities, in
cluding street railways; construction; trade;
hotels.
Iowa. Bureau of Labor..................................................... Manufacturing, trade.
M aryland. Commissioner of Labor and Statistics. Manufacturing, trade, public utilities.
Massachusetts. Department of Labor. .................... Manufacturing.
N ew York. Department of Labor................................ Manufacturing; water, light, and powor.
Oklahoma. Department of Labor................................ Manufacturing, mining, oil, public utilities.
Pennsylvania. Department of Labor and Indus Manufacturing, construction.
try.
Wisconsin. Industrial C o m m issio n .......................... Manufacturing, mining, quarrying, transporta
tion, hotels and restaurants, construction,
trade, logging, agriculture, certain professional
services.
Manufacturing.
Now Jersey. Department of Labor.
Statistics for Foreign Countries
E x a m i n a t i o n of European publications shows that 19 countries
publish current unemployment statistics in some form. This section
of the present article summarizes the unemployment statistics of
these 19 European countries and of Canada.
Unemployment surveys.—General surveys of the unemployed have
been made occasionally by certain countries and communities. Two
of the most recent have been by the Swedish Government and by
the city of Amsterdam. The Swedish investigation was made in
1927, and a summary of the report was published in the Monthly
Labor Review for November, 1928. The Amsterdam study was
made in 1926, a summary of the report being published in the Monthly
Labor Review for June, 1928.
Unemployment insurance reports.—Many of the statistical reports
on unemployment published abroad are collected by groups organ
ized primarily to administer financial assistance to the unemployed
or to aid them in securing work. By carrying unemployment insur
ance, which may be maintained by contributions of either wage earn
ers alone, or with the financial help of the Government or employer, or
both, workers obtain weekly allowances when unemployed, in lieu of
wages. These insurance systems provide financially for a large per
centage of unemployed persons in certain countries and on the basis
of the number of applications for and payments of benefit a statis
tical record is developed. Sixteen of the twenty countries here
considered have unemployment insurance systems; 6 nations have
compulsory systems that are State administered; 10 have unionadministered plans that are either subsidized and supervised by the
State or administered entirely under local union rulings. Sweden
expends considerable sums annually for unemployment relief but
maintains no insurance system.
Existing insurance systems provide primarily for industrial workers,
both manual and nonmanual, and persons employed in transpor
tation and mining who earn less than a stated sum. Exclusion of
agricultural and forestry workers, domestic servants, and casual
labors from participation is general. Only a limited number of
142
EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS
countries allow benefit to agricultural workers and domestic servants;
the British law covers the casual laborer. To enjoy benefits the
wage earner insured under a national law must have attained a
minimum age. This minimum is lowest in Italy (15 years). In
certain European countries social legislation provides pensions for
aged workers, the pensionable age varying between ages 60 and 65
according to the law of the country. When an unemployed beneficiary
under the insurance system becomes eligible for a pension he ceases
to draw insurance benefit and is no longer counted as unemployed.
Statistics based on insurance returns, reported by the majority
of countries, show total number of persons registered as unemployed
on insurance books. It is understood that this live register of unem
ployed includes persons serving waiting time before they become
eligible for benefit payment but excludes those persons who have
been dropped from registers for any reason. Belgium and Switzer
land tabulate totally and partially unemployed persons separately;
Great Britain reports temporary and complete stoppages. A second
group of countries (Czechoslovalda, Finland, Germany, and Hungary)
publishes totals showing only those persons in receipt of benefit.
German figures are grouped by type of benefit and period of unem
ployment of recipients. Czechoslovalda publishes a monthly index
of total unemployment reported under the insurance system, January,
1921, being used as the base, or 100, while Hungary shows a per
centage of unemployment based on the relationship of total unem
ployed recorded under the insurance system to the total membership
of the unions providing insurance.
In most instances figures are published monthly. Recapitulations
and additional data are prepared quarterly, semiannually, or annually.
Totals shown represent either volume of unemployment on a given
date, or an average for a specified period.
Public employment exchange records.—With few exceptions State
statistical offices show records of unemployment based on returns
furnished by public employment exchanges. Registration of persons
seeking work through such exchanges is voluntary except in Italy where
it was made compulsory in March, 1928. Voluntary registration in
employment exchanges is augmented, in countries where unemploy
ment insurance is compulsory, by automatic registration with ex
changes of all applicants for benefit under the insurance law. This
double registration is facilitated where insurance branches are housed
in labor exchanges. In countries where insurance is privately ad
ministered and voluntary not all insured unemployed are necessarily
included in labor exchange records. In many countries the free
labor exchange, open to all classes of labor, competes with privately
run exchanges, for which no records are available.
Basic tables covering employment exchange returns show applica
tions for work and help and number of unsatisfied applications at the
end of a given period. This method is general. In addition detailed
tables show number of applicants, (1) by geographical areas and (2)
by industries, classified according to sex, occupation, or even by de
grees of skill. Reports are usually published weekly or monthly.
Figures showing average number of vacancies per 100 applications
or number of applications per 100 vacancies are not unusual. The
ratio of applications to vacancies over long periods of time reflects
business conditions. In times of business expansion the number of
TREND IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
143
applications per 100 vacancies decreases sharply. In depression the
increase In applications per 100 vacancies is likewise marked/
Trade-union statistics.—Many unions report unemployment on the
basis of insurance records. In Canada and Sweden, where there are
no general insurance systems in force, trade-union statistics are col
lected irrespective of whether or not members are insured. These
records cover large percentages of union membership and are impor
tant sources of unemployment statistics in these two countries.
Canadian unions exclude from reports on unemployment in unions
persons who are employed on work outside their trade and persons
not working owing to illness.
Employers’ reports.—Monthly employers’ reports, showing number
of persons on the pay roll (volume of employment), indicate trend of
unemployment. But it may not be assumed that all persons dropped
from pay rolls are out of work, as the figures cover only certain trades
and workers may have found work in other trades. Seven countries
show volume of employment covering from 200,000 to 1,500,000
employees in selected industries.
Other specialized statistics that have a bearing on unemployment
are those on employment of agricultural workers and seamen in
Sweden and in relief work in several other countries.
Employment Statistics Compiled by the Bureau of
Labor Statistics
A
S EXPLAINED in the preceding article the Bureau of Labor
Statistics has compiled, for a number of years, monthly data
regarding the volume of employment in manufacturing industries.
Beginning in the latter part of 1928, this work was extended to cover
other industries—mines, public utilities, etc.—but the reports for these
added industries cover too short a period to justify their presentation
in this Handbook. The following presentation is limited, therefore,
to the employment statistics for manufacturing industries.
Trend of Employment in Manufacturing Industries
T
HE United States Bureau of Labor Statistics’ indexes of em
ployment and pay-roll totals in manufacturing industries are
based on monthly returns from approximately 12,000 establishments
in 54 of the principal manufacturing industries of the United States.
These 54 industries normally employ about 77 per cent of the wage
earners in all manufacturing industries of the United States; the
12,000 reporting establishments normally employ over 3,250,000 wage
earners or more than 50 per cent of the total number employed in the
54 selected industries, and nearly 40 per cent of the employees in all
manufacturing industries.
Trend of Employment in 1928
T h e g e n e r a l trend of employment in manufacturing industries in
1928, month by month, followed the general trend of employment in
1927, but while 1927 kept on a fairly high level for the first three months
EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS
144
and then fell off quite consistently throughout the remainder of the
year, 1928 followed an opposite course. The net change in employ
ment from January to December in 1927 was —4.8 per cent, while the
net change in the same period of 1928 was 4- 4.3 per cent. The vari
ation in the indexes for January was —5.9 per cent for 1928. Begin
ning in March, the magnitude of the variations decreased consistently
until in September, 1928, the variation was —0.8 only and in October
had become + 0.6; in December, 1928, the index of employment was
3.1 per cent higher than in December, 1927.
Employment in 1927 reached its highest level in March and was at
its lowest point in December, while in 1928 the highest level was
attained in October and the lowest in January. Pay-roll totals each
month except May followed the same general trend as employment,
although the variations, both increases and decreases, usually were
greater in pay-roll totals than in number employed; in May a slight
decrease in employment was accompanied by a slight increase in pay
roll total.
On the whole, although the levels of employment may and do vary
considerably, the seasonal trend of employment is much the same from
year to year. This fact is illustrated by Table 1 and Chart 1. In
each of the last three years there was a pronounced recovery in Feb
ruary from the regular January depression, caused by inventories and
repairs, and a smaller increase in March; from April to July the curve
was downward, but from July the course curved sharply upward to and
including October both in 1926 and 1928, while in 1927, after slight
increases in August and September, the downward course which con
tinued to the end of the year began in October; beginning with Novem
ber, the curve of employment in 1926 also fell off to a marked degree,
but 1928 showed much greater stability by curving downward only
One-half of 1 per cent in November and actually moving slightly up
ward in December.
Table 1 shows by months the general index of employment in manu
facturing industries and the general index of pay-roll totals from
January, 1923, to December, 1928:
T able 1 .— G E N E R A L I N D E X E S O F E M P L O Y M E N T A N D P A Y -R O L L T O T A L S I N M A N U F A C T U R I N G IN D U S T R I E S , J A N U A R Y , 1923, T O D E C E M B E R , 1928
[M onthly average, 1926=100]
Employment
Pay-roll totals
M onth
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
January................
February..............
M arch...................
April......................
M a y .......................
J u n e .....................
J u ly ......................
August..................
September...........
October.................
N ovem ber......... ..
December............
106.6
108.4
110.8
110.8
110.8
110.9
109.2
108.5
108.6
108.1
107.4
105.4
103.8
105.1
104.9
102.8
98.8
95.6
92.3
92.5
94.3
95.6
95.5
97.3
97.9
99.7
100.4
100.2
98.9
98.0
97.2
97.8
98.9
100.4
100.7
100.8
100.4
101.5
102.0
101.0
99.8
99.3
97.7
98.7
100.3
100.7
99.5
98.9
97.3
99.0
99.5
98.6
97.6
97.0
95.0
95.1
95.8
95.3
93.5
92.6
91.6
93.0
93.7
93.3
93.0
93.1
92.2
93.6
95.0
95.9
95.4
95.5
95.8
99.4
104.7
105.7
109.4
109.3
104.3
103.7
104.4
106.8
105.4
103.2
98.6
103.8
103.3
101.1
96.5
90.8
84.3
87.2
89.8
92.4
91.4
95.7
93.9
99.3
100.8
98.3
98.5
95.7
93.5
95.4
94.4
100.4
100.4
101.6
98.0
102.2
103.4
101.5
99.8
99.7
95.2
98.7
99.3
102.9
99.6
99.8
94.9
100.6
102.0
100.8
99.8
97.4
93.0
95.0
94.1
95.2
91.6
93.2
89.6
93.9
95.2
93.8
94.1
94.2
91.2
94.2
95.4
99.0
96.1
97.7
Average. .
108.8
98.9
99.%
100.0
96.4
93.8
104.3
94.6
97.7
100.0
96.5
94.5
1928
Chart 1, made from the index numbers of Table 1 shows clearly
the trend of employment and pay-roll totals during the period Jan
uary, 1926, to December, 1928.
TREND IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
145
Employment by Industries, 1927 and 1928
I n T a b l e 2 are shown for the years 1927 and 1928 the general
index, the group indexes, and the indexes for each of the 54 com
ponent industries.
The weights used in combining the various relatives for individ
ual industries into the 12 group indexes and the final general index
are representative of the importance of the several industries.
EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS
146
T able 2 .— I N D E X E S O F E M P L O Y M E N T A N D P A Y -R O L L T O T A L S I N M A N U F A C T U R
I N G I N D U S T R I E S — 1927 A N D 1928
[M onthly average, 1926=100]
Employment
Pay-roll totals
Industry
1927
General index.
Food and kindred products...........
Slaughtering and meat packing. _
Confectionery......................................
Ice cream...............................................
Flour....... ...............................................
Baking...................................................
Sugar refining, cane...........................
1928
1927
1928
96.4
93.8
96.5
94.5
99.4
98.4
190.0
99.5
96.5
94.0
99.3
101.4
98.8
99.5
93.0
92.4
99.9
97.9
93.4
99.4
101.0
100.0
100.9
91.1
102.2
99.8
93.3
93.1
102.1
101.6
94.9
Textiles and their products___
101.3
96.3
103.0
95.6
Cotton goods.................................
Hosiery and knit goods_______
Silk goods...................................... .
Woolen and worsted goods___
Carpets and rugs........................
Dyeing and finishing textiles..
Clothing, m en's.......................... .
Shirts and collars....................... .
Clothing, women’s . ................... .
Millinery and lace goods_____
105.0
99.0
98.4
99.7
102.5
95.2
94.7
96.9
95.0
108.5
102.2
91.7
97.3
99.2
100.2
101.0
104.1
102.8
97.8
95.0
105.4
95.6
9y. 5
92.2
92.2
105.4
93.5
ias.7
100.6
97.3
96.3
107.4
94.4
95.9
101-0
89.0
89.9
105.2
92.7
Iron and steel and their products. ------------- ------------------------
93.2
91.5
91.9
92.8
Iron and ste e l............................................................................ ...........
Cast-iron pipe.......... ........................................... ....................... ...........
Structural ironwork..............................................................................
Foundry and machine-shop products-------------------------- --------Hardware......................................................................................... .......
Machine tools...... ...................................................................................
Steam fittings and steam and hot-water heating apparatus.
92.9
89.8
94.9
93.8
92.2
92.8
92.5
91.2
90.9
80.1
95.0
92.3
88.9
91.4
92.7
75.9
97.9
92.8
88.4
107.5
81.9
84.7
100.8
82.2
87.6
88.1
95.0
92.4
90.9
92.2
91.9
90.4
L um ber and its products _
91.9
87.8
93.1
Lumber, saw m ills.............
Lumber, mill work_______
Furniture...............................
91.0
89.2
96.1
86.7
85.5
92.5
92.4
89.2
98.2
Leather and its products.
97.9
89.7
98.4
97.7
93.8
95.4
91.9
97.4
L e a th e r ..............................
Boots and shoes..............
97.2
97.6
88.0
99.2
101.2
101.5
Paper and printing______
Paper and pulp...............
Paper boxes......................
Printing, book and job..
Printing, newspapers. _
Chemicals and allied products..
Chemicals...... ............................. ..
Fertilizers........................................ .
Petroleum refining.......................
100.1
88.8
88.0
85.6
93.2
93.7
97.5
96.8
100.3
103.4
94.4
94.0
99.2
105.2
102.1
101.6
104.6
107.4
96.6
100.0
93.4
99.1
95.9
99.3
95.4
84.8
103.7
94.0
95.6
103.3
.97.1
87.2
91.2
94.6
96.6
99.0
94.9
99.4
S to n e , clay, a n d glass p ro d u c ts --------------------------^Cement---------------------------------------------------------------Brick, tile, and terra cotta---------------------------------Pottery............................. - ..................- ............... ...........
G la s s .— ..........................................................................
94.5
89.7
94. %
89.6
95.8
94.3
94.5
94.2
87.7
84.9
95.3
92.9
96.5
94.1
94.2
93.4
88.3
82.8
93.4
94.3
M e t a l p ro d u cts, o th e r t h a n iron a n d steel____
Stamped and enameled ware........................ ...........
Brass, bronze, and copper products.......................
93.9
92.8
88.8
91.6
96.1
88.9
94.5
90.6
92.0
90.4
98.0
T o b a c c o p ro d u c ts..............................................................
Chewing and smoking tobacco and snuff______
Cigars and cigarettes....................................................
98.1
96.0
97.1
93.5
97.7
98.1
95.2
96.0
97.7
97.0
94.1
93.4
Vehicles fo r la n d tr a n s p o rta tio n ........................ ..
Automobiles...............................................................
Carriages and wagons.............................................. ..
Car building and repairing, electric-railroad___
Car building and repairing, steam-railroad.........
90.8
95.8
91.6
98.3
91.2
78.7
100.9
90.3
111.3
76.7
94.9
83.5
90.3
83.6
114.4
82.1
96.2
85.4
99.5
91.6
100.9
91.9
95.1
90.4
103.3
97.3
104.8
106.8
93.9
77.1
92.2
95.7
87.4
107.7
98.2
195.8
M iscella neou s in d u strie s..............................................
Agricultural implements............................... .............
Electrical machinery, apparatus, and supplies..
Pianos and organs.........................................................
Rubber boots and shoes............................................
Automobile tires............................................................
Shipbuilding...................................................................
94.4
101.1
103.3
82.8
101.1
92.3
91.9
111.8
95.9
74.3
101.0
105.7
83.0
TREND IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
147
Proportion of Time Worked and Force Employed
T h e Bureau of Labor Statistics has collected data as to operating
time in factories, in connection with employment statistics, since
July, 1922. The earliest published report, made in January, 1923,
was based on returns from about 3,000 establishments and showed 81
per cent of the establishments operating on a full-time schedule, 17
per cent on a part-time schedule, and 2 per cent idle. The December,
1928, report, based on returns from over 9,000 establishments or
three times as many as in the first report, showed 85 per cent operating
on a full-time schedule, 15 per cent on a part-time schedule, and 1 per
cent idle.
The first tabulation of the average per cent of full time worked by the
operating establishments was in March, 1924, when the average for
5,000 establishments stood at 94 per cent. During the last 5 months
of 1928 the average stood at either 97 or 98, from 9,000 to 9,500
establishments having been concerned in the reports for these months.
Since March, 1924, the average per cent of normal full force
employed by operating establishments has also been computed and
published. Starting with 82 in March, 1924, for 5,000 establishments,
the average fell to 75 in July, 1924. The highest average appearing
was 90, reached in both September and October, 1928. During the
last two months of 1928, however, the average fell to 89.
While no direct comparison of these averages is made between
months, the monthly computations are very largely made on reports
from identical plants, the number varying from month to month, so
that with such a large number of establishments it is likely the monthly
returns are quite fairly comparable.
These reports are made for each of the 54 industries separately, and
for the same industries combined in 12 groups.
These data as to time worked and force employed form an impor
tant addition to the regular presentation of statistics of employment
and pay-roll totals and aid in their interpretation.
Employment by Geographic Divisions
T h e g e n e r a l trend of employment and the fluctuations from
month to month, differ widely between the several geographic divi
sions of the United States. To illustrate these differences a chart is
presented showing for each of the nine divisions the course of employ
ment during the years 1927 and 1928. The chart is based on index
numbers computed for each division, using the monthly average for
1926 as 100. These index numbers are presented in Table 3.
39142°—29------ 11
EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS
148
T able 3 .—I N D E X E S OP E M P L O Y M E N T I N M A N U F A C T U R I N G I N D U S T R I E S I N E A C H
G E O G R A P H IC D IV IS IO N I N 1927 A N D 1928, B Y M O N T H S
[M onthly average, 1926=100]
Geographic division
M onth and year
New
M iddle
England Atlantic
East
North
Central
W est
South
North
Atlantic
Central
East
South
Central
W est
South
Central
M oun
tain
Pacific
1927
January.........................
February......................
M arch.... .......................
April..............................
M a y _______ _________
June...... ........... .............
July................................
August.........................
September...... .............
October. ............. .........
November....................
December.....................
98.0
99.8
99.4
98.0
96.8
95.3
94.0
93.4
95.5
95.2
93.8
92.0
96.8
97.8
97.8
96.1
94.6
94.0
92.5
92.5
93.6
93.4
91.8
90.6
93.1
97.4
99.0
99.1
98.9
97.7
94.4
95.7
94.5
93.8
90.7
91.5
96.3
96.8
96.6
96.5
97.3
99.5
98.6
98.9
98.9
98.2
94.9
93.3
100.6
102.1
102.9
103.1
101.5
100.9
99.8
99.3
101.8
101.5
100.8
99.9
94.9
95.9
95.4
94.7
93.3
93.0
91.2
92.4
92.6
93.2
91.9
92.0
97.9
98.6
97.4
96.3
94.8
94.9
93.1
93.9
95.3
93.6
92.2
90.8
97.5
94.2
93.0
94.3
97.3
99.0
100.7
99.3
98.2
96.6
97.5
93.4
94.1
94.3
97.0
98.2
99.9
101.7
100.7
101.0
100.7
100.3
97.7
94.6
1938
January.........................
February......................
March__........................
April..............................
M a y ................................
June........ .......................
July................................
August..........................
September.... ...............
October.........................
November....................
December........... .........
91.4
92.1
90.9
89.4
86.8
85.8
85.8
86.0
88.0
90.7
91.3
91.6
88.7
89.2
89.4
88.4
88.2
88.3
87.4
87.9
89.4
91.0
91.1
91.1
93.3
97.8
100.1
100.4
102.4
102.7
102.1
105.8
107.5
107.5
104.1
104.2
92.6
95.5
96.0
95.5
96.2
98.7
97.4
97.2
97.1
97.6
95.9
96.1
98.2
98.5
100.0
98.4
96.6
96.5
94.2
96.8
98.2
98.7
99.7
99.0
90.9
92.0
91.8
92.0
90.4
90.0
86.8
89.9
90.8
90.3
91.3
91.3
89.2
89.4
89.6
89.3
88.8
89.0
90.0
90.9
92.1
91.9
92.3
90.2
88.5
89.2
90.0
91.2
94.1
97.2
97.9
97.0
97.6
98.0
97.0
95.3
90.4
91.1
93. S
97.1
98.6
99.3
97.8
99.7
101.5
100.4
97.9
95.5
Industries Covered
T h e 54 industries surveyed by the Bureau of Labor Statistics
include very nearly all of the most important manufacturing indus
tries of the United States. The industries included are the oldestablished industries, and a large part of the reporting establish
ments are likewise old-established ones.
In this connection, however, it should be borne in mind that a
new industry is not of necessity maintained entirely as a separate
and distinct affair. Invariably when a new industry or product
comes into prominence old-established concerns, engaged in turning
out a kindred article—either near or remote—the value or sale of
which may be affected by the newer production, are likely to turn
over a part of their plant to the making of the new product. This
may be a experimental plan only, although not infrequently the
policy of the concern may be changed, at least in part, by the success
of the new industry; for example, phonograph cabinets are made to
a considerable extent by furniture manufacturers; rayon goods are
reported as a product of cotton goods, silk goods, and hosiery and
knit goods plants; and a large amount of radio equipment is turned
out by establishments classified under electrical machinery, apparatus
and supplies, and still largely engaged in such production. Thus
it is clear that while the 54 industries selected by the bureau for these
employment statistics are per se old-established industries it must
not be inferred that the indexes of employment are altogether un
affected by the influence of the spectacular newer industries of to-day.
As this study is designed primarily to show conditions in the more
important manufacturing lines in the United States as a whole, some
industries of considerable weight to their respective local communi-
TREND IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
149
TREND OF EMPLOYMENT.
GEOGRAPHIC DIVI5I0I15.
( j 9 52.6 = IO O )
MIDDLE ATLANTIC.
100
'i f z T '
90
T9Z8 '
80
E. NORTH C EN TRAL.
W. NORTH C E N T R A L .
110
1928
100
A
" I92TN-------- *
v-
Jfzr
~H3Z8
90
E. SOUTH C E N TR A L.
110
100
J927
90
isze^
^
—
60
U S O U T H CENTRAL.
iszr"
M OUNTAIN.
too
\
^,
1926
oa.n
✓ X
\
1928
-4
<
ibzi
90
t-*
o
ou
o
S
<r
P A C IF IC .
I9ZJ^^
!S^9B v
(00
z<r
r
<
a
HO
90
SO
of
0.
<
-4
O
=
>
->
110
100
N
U
Ul
o
90
o
u
a
150
EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS
ties may, in the aggregate of employment, fall too far below the total
which warrants giving them a place in this compilation.
The magnitude of the bureau’s report on “ Employment in selected
manufacturing industries” is shown in Table 4, in which the data
for December, 1928, are presented, to illustrate the distribution of
establishments, employees, and pay-roll totals among the various
industries and classified groups of industries, with a recapitulation
by geographic divisions:
T able 4 .— E M P L O Y M E N T
A N D P A Y -R O L L T O T A L S , B Y
G E O G R A P H IC D IV IS IO N S
Industry
F o od a n d kin d red p ro d u c ts...........................................................
Slaughtering and meat packing.......................... .......................
Confectionery................................................................ ...................
Ice cream............................................................ .......... ....................
Flour................................................................... ............... .................
B a k in g ...................................................... ......... ............. .................
Sugar refining, cane____ _______________________ ___________
Textiles a n d their p ro d u c ts...........................................................
Cotton goods_________ _______ _____________________ ______
Hosiery and knit goods_______________________ ____ ________
Silk goods__________________________ __________ _______ _____
W oolen and worsted goods________________________________
Carpets and rugs___________ ______ ___________________ _____
Dyeing and finishing textiles.______ _______ ______ ________
Clothing, m en's........... .......................... ....... ........... .....................
Shirts and collars__________ _________ ______ ________ _______
Clothing, women’s __________ ________ _____________________
Millinery and lace goods____ _______ ______________________
IN D U S T R IE S
Estab
lish
ments
Number
Amount
on pay-roll of pay-roll
(one week) (one week)
December, December,
1828
1028
$5,899,418
1,627
194
294
274
327
523
15
2,105
473
338
280
188
31
107
301
120
197
70
AND
90,483
35,718
9,962
15,929
65,586
10,555
2,412,507
663,023
339,389
417, 295
1.743.165
324,132
22a044
93, 748
64,684
64,951
25,082
33, 5
26
60,944
22,830
22,489
10,049
618,347
12,326,513
3,559,051
1,807,814
1,387,943
1,486,376
655.972
859,851
1,438,645
369,798
529,446
231,752
Ir o n a n d steel a n d their p ro d u c ts..............................................
Iron and steel______________________________________________
Cast-iron pipe__________________ ______ ____________________
Structural ironwork____________________ _____ ______________
Foundry and machine-shop product;;___________ ______ _
H ardw are._________ ____________________________________ _
Machine tools........................ ............................. ....... ......... ...........
Steam fittings and steam and hot-water heating apparaii.
Stoves...................................................... ......... ............... ............... ..
1,799
681,733
20,968,695
38
165
960
70
145
109
273,810
11,265
27,354
250,084
32,279
36,739
30,545
19,657
8,679,099
267,33a
824,596
7,647,979
848.973
1,259,334
882,614
558,765
L u m b e r a n d its p ro d u c ts................................................ ...............
Lumber, sawmills_________ ________________________________
Lumber, millwork_______________________________________ _
Furniture____________________ ______________________________
1,331
230,401
5,119,048
626
317
388
133,731
32,703
63,967
2.748.166
790,383
1,580,499
364
118,109
2,583,203
132
232
26.129
91,980
654,197
1,929,006
198,522
6,703,651
55,762
20,14*4
44,839
77,777
1,529,399
462,167
1,587,503
3,124,582
347
92,905
2,753,561
144
147
56
37,639
9,131
46,135
1,057,493
177,063
1,519,005
L e ath er a n d its p r o d u c ts. ..............................................................
Leather............ ............................... ......................... ...........................
Boots and shoes______________ ___________________ _________
Paper a n d p rin tin g ..............................................................................
Paper and pulp................................................................. ............. ..
Paper boxes................................. ......... ................. ......... ............. ..
Printing, book and job __........... ................. ............... .................
Printing, newspapers._________ ____________ ______ ________
C h em icals a n d allied p r o d u c ts ....................................................
Chemicals................................. ...................... .................................
Fertilizers.............................................................. ............... .............
Petroleum refining...........................................................................
202
111
1,120
211
182
314
413
921
121,399
3,169,223
104
566
123
128
23,599
38,247
20,825
38,728
675,876
962,983
509,771
1,020,593
M e ta l p ro d u c ts, oth e r t h a n iron a n d steel........... ...............
Stamped and enameled ware______________________________
Brass, bronze, and copper products.............. ...........................
218
52,012
1,458,067
73
145
19,882
32.130
495,072
962,995
T o b a cco p r o d u c ts......... ............. ................... .....................................
Chewing and smoking tobacco and snuff................................
Cigars and cigarettes.......................................................................
246
64,101
1,111,548
30
216
8,943
55,158
143,547
968,001
S to n e , clay, a n d glass p r o d u c ts ............................................ ..
C em en t.................................. ........... ................. ...............................
Brick, tile, and terra cotta________________________ ________
Pottery............................................ ................... ............... ...............
Glass.......................................... ................................. .........................
TREND IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
T a bl e 4 .— E M P L O Y M E N T A N D P A Y -R O L L T O T A L S , B Y
G E O G R A P H IC D IV IS IO N S — Continued
Industry
Vehicles for land transportation.....................
Automobiles-.................................................... ........
Carriages and wagons............................................
Car building and repairing, electric-railroad.
Car building and repairing, steam-railroad-
Miscellaneous industries. .................................
Agricultural implements...... ............... ...............
Electric machinery, apparatus, and supplies.
Pianos and organs..................................................
Rubber boots and shoes.......................................
Automobile tires......................................................
Shipbuilding.............................................................
All industries................................................
151
IN D U S T R IE S
AND
Number
Amount
Estab on pay-roll of pay-roll
lish
(one week) (one week)
ments December, December,
1928
1928
1,208
207
51
393
557
557,490
393, 759
1,475
25, 317
136,939
$17,815,473
12,827,558
32,879
796,512
4,158,524
466
80
180
73
12
39
82
382,160
28,939
140,686
9,870
18,870
52,851
30,944
8,430,611
874,724
4,210,803
311,231
466,083
1,628,240
939,530
11,753
3,245,413
88,339,315
R e c a p it u l a t io n b y G e o g r a p h ic D iv is io n s
GEOGRAPHIC DIVISION
N ew England 1............. .
M iddle A tlan tic2..........
East North Central 3__
W est North Central 4_.
South Atlantic 8_______
East South Central 6_.
W est South Central 7_.
M ou n tain 8......................
Pacific9............................
1,442
2,759
2,953
1,040
1,493
607
495
207
756
400.409
861,124
1,116,880
163, 545
336,107
120, 766
86,642
31,002
128,937
$10,126,319
24,954,208
33, 755,199
4,092,809
6,648,474
2,368,027
1,937,069
859,522
3,597,498
All divisions___
11,753
3,345,413
88,339,315
1 Connecticut, M aine, Massachusetts, N ew Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont.
2 New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania.
8 Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Wisconsin.
4 Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota.
8 Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Vir
ginia, W est Virginia.
6 Alabama, Kentucky, Mississippi, Tennessee.
7 Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Texas.
8 Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, N ew Mexico, Nevada, Utah, Wyoming.
9 California, Oregon, Washington.
Method of Computing Employment Index Numbers
^T h e b a s i c material for these indexes is obtained from reports fur
nished by manufacturers in every State of the Union, the great
majority of the reports coming direct to the bureau, although seven
States collect employment data for their own use and furnish the
bureau with the data in detail for each establishment.
Questionnaires are mailed to each establishment on the 15th of
each month requesting information as to the pay-roll period ending
nearest the 15th day of the month. The questionnaire asks for an
enumeration of the concern’s principal products, the date of the ending
of the pay roll, the period covered (one week, two weeks, half-month,
month), the amount of the pay roll, and the total number of persons
who worked any part of the period. Also, for verification purposes,
a request is made for the reason for any marked increase or decrease
in total pay roll or number of employees, and for a statement showing
current operating time, and any change made in rates of wages.
Each report is inspected upon its arrival, and if the pay-roll total is
for a period longer than one week the equivalent pay roll for one week
152
EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS
is computed. Where necessary, reports are returned to the senders
for correction or amendment.
The bureau’s aim has been to secure in each industry a sufficiently
large number of reporting establishments to guarantee for each
report approximately 40 per cent of the employees in the industry in
each State, as recorded by the Census of Manufactures. The con
summation of this design brings the geographical distribution of
employees in the several industries reported to an equitable basis.
In selecting establishments to represent each industry great care
has been exercised to secure in each geographic division a proportion
ate number of concerns with large, small, and medium numbers of
employees, and if there are two or more branches of an industry,
the same care has been exercised to maintain the ratio of representa
tion from each branch.
The number of employees and the pay-roll total for each estab
lishment are entered on a separate record card which has space for
the 12 months of each of three years. From these record cards totals
for each industry are made of the employees and the pay-roll amounts
in all establishments for both the current month and the month im
mediately preceding. Percentages of change between the totals for
the two months are then computed, and with the per cent of change
the link chain index for each industry for the current month is built
up from the index of the previous month. The index for each of the
12 classified groups of industries and for all industries combined is
reached by weighting the relatives for each industry according to the
importance of the industry.
Percentages of change in the separate industries and groups between
a current month and the same month of the previous year are arrived
at by comparing the monthly indexes of the two years.
Changes in per capita earnings are computed and tabulated by
industries, comparisons being made between the current month and
the preceding month and between the current month and the corres
ponding month of the previous year; wage changes also are brought
together and tabulated by industries.
From the current operating time reported, and the normal working
time which we have on file, the per cent of full-time operation is
computed for each concern, together with an average of these per
centages for each industry, for each group, and for all industries
combined; percentages of normal full force are computed on the
same plan.
The monthly reports are presented with the industries arranged in
12 groups: Food; textiles; iron and steel; lumber; leather; paper;
chemicals; stone, clay, and glass; metal, other than iron and steel;
tobacco; vehicles; and miscellaneous industries. Index numbers
for each industry are computed monthly, and from these relatives
group indexes are constructed, as well as a general index, which is a
weighted average of relatives for the 54 separate industries.
Trend of Employment on Steam Railroads
ONTHLY statistics as to the employment on Class I railroads—
that is, all roads having operating revenues of $1,000,000 or
over—are published by the Interstate Commerce Commission and
presented in summarized form in the Labor Review. Table 1 and
M
TREND ON STEAM RAILROADS
153
the accompanying chart show the movement of employment for all
classes of employees over the year 1928, in comparison with the two
preceding years, the year 1926 being taken as a base or 100. Table 2
gives these data, by principal occupational groups and by months, for
the year 1928. In these tabulations the data for the occupational
group reported by the Interstate Commerce Commission as “ execu
tives, officials, and staff assistants” are omitted.
T able 1 .-+ I N D E X OP E M P L O Y M E N T O N C L A S S I S T E A M R A I L R O A D S I N T H E U N I T E D
S T A T E S , J A N U A R Y , 1923 T O 1928
[M onthly average 1926=100.01
M onth
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
January_____________________________________
February___________________________________
M arch______________________________________
April________________________ - __. . . . . . . _____
M a y _______________________ . . . . . . . . . . . . ____
June ______ _____________________ . . . . . . _____
July________ _____________________ . . . . ______
August__________________________ . . . . . ______
September__________________________________
October_____________________________________
November____________________ . . . . . ________
December__________________ . . . . . . . . _______
98.3
98.6
100.5
102.0
105.0
107.1
108.2
109.4
107.8
107.3
105.2
99.4
96.9
97.0
97.4
98.9
99.2
98.0
98.1
99.0
99.7
100.8
99.0
96.0
95.6
95.4
95.2
96.6
97.8
98.6
99.4
99.7
99.9
100.7
99.1
97.1
95.8
96.0
96.7
98.9
100.2
101.6
102.9
102.7
102.8
103.4
101.2
98.2
95.5
95.3
95.8
97.4
99.4
100.9
101.0
99.5
99.1
98.9
95.7
91.9
89.3
89.0
89.9
91.7
94.5
95.9
95.6
95.7
95.3
95.3
92.9
89.7
Average___________________ ____ ___
104.1
98.3
97.9
100.0
97.5
92.9
CLASS I STEAM RAILROADS.
MOUTHLY INDEXES. 1926-1928^
M ONTHLY
JAN.
FEB. MAR. APR. MAY
AVERAGE,
JUN. JUL.
I 9 J > 6 * IO O .
AUG. SEP.
OCT.
NOV. DEC.
_________________________________________________________________________ *
T able 2,—EMPLOYMENT ON CLASS I STEAM RAILROADS IN THE UNITED STATES, BY MONTHS. 1028
[From monthly reports of Interstate Commerce Commission, as data for only the more important occupations are shown separately, the group totals are not the sum o f the items
under the respective groups]
Number of employees at middle of month
Occupation
January
Febru
ary
March
April
M ay
June
July
August
Septem
ber
October
N ovem
ber
Decem
ber
371,818
371,583
370,957
371,169
371,403
373,316
371,959
371,510
371,639
370,693
368,973
156,743
24,790
155,933
24,699
155,740
24,741
155,333
24,659
155,456
24,655
155,101
24,758
155,707
24,644
155,528
24.663
155,676
24,588
155,876
24,617
154,975
24,673
153,455
24,621
M a in te n a n c e o f w a y a n d s tru c tu re s.........................
Laborers, extra gang and work train..........................
Laborers, track and roadway section.........................
333,969
339,453
344,063
388,649
434,304
456,396
453,733
453,338
438,817
438,803
393,553
350,413
38,390
171,153
38,277
168,998
44,272
176,687
58,557
203,898
74.063
228,096
82,351
237,899
81,820
234,519
80,445
234,461
74,849
227,883
69,543
222,863
57,615
202,393
45,563
177,235
M a in te n a n c e o f e q u ip m e n t a n d stores...................
Carmen..................................................................................
Machinists............................................................................
Skilled trades helpers.......................................................
Laborers (shops, engine houses, power plants,
and stores)...................................................................... .
Common laborers (shops, engine houses, power
plants, and stores)........................................................ .
468,198
466,490
466,613
461,876
461,986
464,037
457,943
456,807
456,193
459,513
459,415
456,344
99,667
56,800
102,514
99,018
56,906
101,747
99,905
56,714
101,843
99,220
56,251
101,030
99,663
56,169
101,072
100,967
56,022
101,858
99,266
55,314
100,602
99,453
55,119
100,221
100,056
54,902
100,131
101,313
55,255
100,844
100,880
55,153
101,175
99,530
54,896
100,432
39,764
39,320
39,151
38,159
37,966
37,919
38,118
37,361
37,352
37,700
37,626
37,369
52,338
52,905
53,241
52,978
52,303
52,784
53,191
52,024
52,536
51,981
52,450
52,449
194,697
195,613
196,547
195,574
196,593
198,304
198,808
198,643
300,433
301,641
197,899
194,953
30,125
23,746
32,068
21,477
30,04o
23,475
33,195
21,455
29,978
23,378
34,343
21,347
29,941
23,328
33,707
21,314
29,914
23,310
33,878
21,368
29,897
23,400
33,995
21,394
29,904
23,462
33,652
21,400
29,868
23,449
33,851
21,284
29,779
23,461
35,424
21,132
29,729
23,472
36,920
20,995
29,663
23,235
35,773
20,852
29,541
23,066
34,432
20,860
33,530
33,444
33,375
33,135
33,151
33,030
33,133
33,053
33,073
33,100
31,861
31,834
333,903
330,188
313,533
36,661
73,157
53,797
43,595
44,056
35,990
71,648
54,120
42,794
43,506
35,202
69,753
52,782
41,660
42,659
T o ta l n u m b e r o f em p lo y ees................................ 1,597,358 1,591,401 1,609,443 1,641,809 1,693,834 1,718,863 1,711,833 1,713,905 1,705,990 1,707,596 1,663,608
1,605,038
T r a n sp o r ta tio n , o th e r t h a n tra in , e n g in e a n d
y a rd ........................................................................................... .
Station agents.................................................................... .
Telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen...............
Truckers (stations, warehouses, and platform s). .
Crossing and bridge flagmen and gatemen..............
T r a n sp o rta tio n (y a rd m a sters, sw itc h ten d ers,
a n d h o stle rs).........................................................................
T r a n s p o r ta tio n , tra in a n d e n g in e ............................. .
Road conductors................................................................
Road brakemen and flagmen........................................
Yard brakemen and yard helpers...............................
Road engineers and motormen.....................................
Road firemen and helpers..............................................
306,133
305,584
308,370
303,618
306,631
306,893
308,003
313,105
316,967
34,636
69,409
50,779
41,405
42,689
34,353
68,511
51,306
40,946
41,967
34,778
69,205
51,656
41,346
42,152
34,436
68,601
50,269
40,840
41,745
34,945
69,396
50,862
41,276
42,042
35,169
69,504
50,860
41,380
42,271
35,472
70,060
50,433
41,768
42,836
35,676
70,645
51,297
42,268
42,884
36,260
72,081
51,994
42,860
43,522
STATISTICS
373,741
EMPLOYMENT
P rofessio n al, clerical, a n d gen eral................................
Clerks.................................................................................... .
Stenographers and typists..............................................
EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS
155
State Employment Records
T
HE States listed below compile current statistics of volume of
employment and total pay rolls from establishments within their
respective jurisdictions. The industries covered vary to some ex
tent among the several States. Also, the methods of presenting the
data vary, although the usual practice is to show the changes (ex
pressed in percentages or in index numbers) during the month pre
ceding and during the year preceding. These reports, in so far as they
are received by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, are published in the
Labor Review each month, in summarized form. The following table,
compiled from the State reports, shows the general character of
these reports and the changes in employment and pay roll reported
in the latter part of 1928 as compared with the corresponding periods
of 1927.
P E R C E N T O F C H A N G E S I N E M P L O Y M E N T A N D P A Y R O L L S I N S P E C IF IE D S T A T E S
Monthly 'period
Per cent of change,
N o v e m b e r to
December, 1928
State, and industry group
State, and industry group
Em ploy
ment
A ll industries..
Paper and printing...............
Chemicals and allied products
Stone, clay, and glass prod
ucts..............................................
M etal products, other than
iron and steel............................
Tobacco products.......................
* Annual figures not available.
P a y roll
M aryland— Continued
+5.4
0.0
Machinery (not including
transportation equipment).
Musical instruments.................
Transportation equipment___
Car building and rep airin g...
Miscellaneous.........................
+ 4 .4
- 1 .7
+.1
-f.8
-.8
+ 3 .0
-3 .0
+ .6
+ 8 .5
+ 3 .3
+ 1 0 .3
- 2 .1
+ 1 .4
-.3
+ 1 .6
+ 1 .7
A ll industries..
-3 .2
- 9 .3
0.0
October to
November, 1928
-1 5 .7
+ 4 .7
New Jersey1
-.4
M a ry la n d 1
Food products.............................
Textiles...........................................
Iron and steel and their prod
ucts...............................................
Lumber and its products'___
Leather and its products.........
Rubber tires.................................
Em ploy
ment
Pay roll
Io w a 1
Food and kindred products...
Textiles......................................... .
Iron and steel works................ .
Lumber products...................... .
Leather products........................
Paper products, printing and
publishing.................................
Patent medicines, chemicals,
and compounds.......................
Stone and clay products..........
Tobacco and cigars....................
Railway car shops......................
Various industries......................
Per cent of change,
N o v e m b e r to
December, 1928
+ .8
+ 1 .2
+ 2 .4
+ 3 .2
+ 4 .3
- .3
-.5
-1 5 .6
+ 1 5 .0
+ 2 .5
+ 1 2 .7
-3 3 .9
-.2
- 1 .1
+ .8
+ 5 .9
+ .6
+ 7 .1
+ .6
- 9 .5
+ 2 .0
+ 1 .8
Food and kindred products..
Textiles and their products. __
Iron and steel and their prod
ucts............................................. .
Lumber and its products____
Leather and its products_____
Tobacco products.......................
Paper and printing.....................
Chemicals and allied products
Stone, clay, and glass prod
ucts............................................. .
M etal products other than
iron and steel.......................... .
Vehicles for land transporta
tion............................................. .
Miscellaneous............................. .
A ll industries,.— . . ___
+ 1 4 .3
+ 1 .7
+ 9 .3
+ 1 .0
+ 1 .6
+ 2 .3
-2 .8
-1 .5
+ 3 .7
+ .5
+. 1
+ 3 .4
-3 .2
- 2 .7
+ 7 .0
+ 2 .2
-.8
- 2 .4
+ 2 .9
+ 1 .9
+ 9 .6
+ 1 .2
+ 8 .7
-.8
+ 2 .3
+ 1 .6
EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS
156
PER
CENT
OF
CHANGES
IN
EM PLOYM ENT AND
S T A T E S — Continued
PAY
ROLLS
IN
S P E C IF IE D
Yearly period
Percent of change,
November, 1927,
to
November,
State, and industry group
1928
Em ploy
ment
State, and industry group
A ll industries-------
Decem
Decem
ber, 1927 ber, 1928
Pay roll
California
Stone, clay, and glass prod
ucts..............................................
M etals, machinery, and con
veyances.....................................
W ood manufactures..................
Leather and rubber goods—
Chemicals, oils, paints, etc—
Printing and paper goods—
Textiles
- _
Clothing, millinery, and laun
dering.......................................Foods, beverages, and tobacco
W ater, light, and power.
Miscellaneous...................
Em ploym ent—
index numbers
M assachusetts— Contd.
-2 .2
- 4 .4
+11.6
-4 .9
+31.7
+25.1
- .8
-4 .9
+13.1
- 6 .8
+23.6
+27.2
- 1 .2
+ 4 .4
- 1 .1
+ 4 .9
- 6 .4
-7 .2
+ 5 .8
- 1 .1
-.7
- 6 .9
-1 3 .4
Paper and wood pulp.............. .
Printing and publishing_____
Rubber footwear......... ...............
Rubber goods, tires, and
tubes............................................
Silk goods..................................... .
Textile machinery and parts.
Woolen and worsted goods.
A ll industries...................
N ovem
ber, 1927
Novem
ber, 1928
96.3
119.7
97.1
89.5
111.1
113.9
120.4
113.8
64.7
93.6
111.6
79.3
100.5
122.5
117.8
102.6
57.8
91.6
Trade, wholesale and r e t a ilpublic utilities ...........................
Coal m ining,..............................
Building and contracting____
91.8
78.6
136.3
68.4
122.2
A ll industries...................
99.1
96.4
70.5
139.2
60.9
140.7
102.5
Employment—
index numbers
(1919-1923=100)
Decem
Decem
ber, 1927 ber, 1928
Massachusetts
Boots and shoes...........................
Bread and other bakery prod
ucts...............................................
Cars and general shop con
struction and repairs, steam
railroads......................................
Clothing, men's and women’s.
Confectionery. ...........................
Cotton goods................................
Dyeing and finishing textiles.
Electrical machinery, appa
ratus, and supplies...............
Foundry and machine-shop
products..............................
Furniture. ....................................
Hosiery and knit goods............
Jewelry............................................
Leather, tanned, curried, and
finished.......... .............................
82.6
102.3
50.1
82.2
Em ploy
ment
62.8
64.4
98.7
104.1
74.8
96.0
100.7
67.4
103.5
70.2
92.1
87.6
57.5
105.9
107.3
104.2
64.8
111.2
87.6
106.1
68.1
109.4
71.5
108.3
88.6
75.8
Stone, clay, and glass................
Metals and machinery............ .
W ood manufactures..................
Furs, leather, and rubber
goods............................................
Chemicals oils, paints, etc____
Paper.........................................
Printing and paper goods—
Textiles......................................
Clothing and millinery____
Food and tobacco..................
Water, light, and pow er.. _
A ll industries...............
78.9
Pay roll
+ 0 .3
+ 3 .4
-7 .5
+ 2 .4
+ 1 0 .2
- 4 .9
+ .6
-2 .2
- .9
- .5
- 3 .3
-3 .1
-1 .0
-.1
—.9
+ .8
- 3 .1
-3 .6
+ .7
-8 .4
+ 2 .9
( 3)
-7 .6
- .1
Per cent of change,
December, 1927,
to December, 1928
O klahom a
Cottonseed-oil m ills. ..............
Food production:
Bakeries..................................
Confections.......................... .
Creameries and dairies....
Flour mills........................... .
Ice and ice cream................
M eat and poultry............. .
Lead and zinc:
Mines and m ills................. .
Smelters..................................
M etals and machinery:
Auto repairs, etc...... ...........
Machine shops and foun
dries.................................... .
Tank construction and
erection...............................
Oil industry:
Producing and gasoline
manufacture......................
Refineries...............................
Printing: Job work....................
Public utilities:
Steam-railway shops..........
Street railways................... .
W ater, light, and power..
Stone, clay, and glass:
Brick and t i le .................... .
Cementfand plaster.......... .
Crushed stone.................... .
Glass manufacture............ .
* Also publishes m onthly per cent of change in employment and pay roll,
s Less than 0.05 per cent change.
99.2
113.6
66.3
88.1
83.0
New Y ork
Illinois2
A ll manufacturing in
dustries...........................
92.2
109.1
101.3
1928
+ 5 .9
(1922=100)
T93.0
105.3
107.2
Per cent of change,
November, 1927,
to
Novem ber,
Employment—
index numbers
Stone, clay, and glass................
M etal, machinery, and con
veyances.....................................
W ood products............................
Furs and leather goods. ..........
Chemicals, oils, and paints.
Printing and paper goods------Textiles...........................................
Clothing and millinery---------Food, beverages, and tobacco.
(1919-1923=100)
-1 7 .1
- 1 7 .6
+ 18.9
- 6 4 .2
-1 .2
+ 37.6
+ 28.4
+ 7 .5
+23.1
-6 7 .0
+ 7 .2
+36.4
+219.3
+ 3 .1
- 1 1 .2
+ 1 .3
-1 6 .9
- 4 .4
+245.4
+80.7
+ 33.0
+27.9
+35.0
+ 48.2
+26.9
-.1
+17.7
+30.6
+ 9 .8
+44.5
- 1 2 .0
+24.8
+217.3
-8 .4
+10.8
+279.6
+54.7
+22.4
+22.3
+12.1
-6 4 .5
+27.5
+39.7
+18.1
BUILDING-TRADES WORKERS— MASSACHUSETTS
PER
CENT
OF
CHANGES
IN
EM PLOYM ENT AND
S T A T E S — Continued
PAY
ROLLS
157
IN
S P E C IF IE D
Yearly period —Continued
Per cent of change,
December, 1927,
to December, 1928
State, and industry group
State, and industry group
Em ploy
ment
+ 4 3 8 .8
+ 1 8 .3
+ 4 9 8 .6
+ 3 0 .4
All industries................
+ 2 2 .3
+ 3 1 .0
+22.2
+ 2 8 .7
+ 4 4 .6
+ 4 3 .1
Employment—
index numbers
(1923-1915=100)
Decem
ber, 1927
Decem
ber, 1928
Pennsylvania
A ll industries...............
91.6
86.7
67.5
98.8
95.5
85.4
82.1
95.2
100.7
99.1
81.5
76.5
98.1
95.4
92.6
82.7
102.6
87.7
18.3
Pay roll
M etal products________ ______ _
Transportation equipment. . .
Textile products........................
Foods and tobacco.....................
Stone, clay, and glass prod
ucts_____ _______ ____________
Lumber products____ ________
Chemical products_____ _____ _
Leather and rubber products.
Paper and printing....................
A ll industries.................. .
Pay roll
W isco n sin
Textiles and cleaning:
Textile manufacture___
Laundries, etc..................
Woodworking:
Sawmills.............................
M ill work, etc....................
Metal products______________
Transportation equipment. .
Textile products........................
Foods and tobacco....................
Stone, clay, and glass produ c ts._ ....................................
Lumber products..................
Chemical products___________
Leather and rubber products
Paper and printing...............
Em ploy
ment
Pay roll
Oklahom a— Continued
Per cent of change,
November, 1927,
to N o v e m b e r ,
1928.
80.7
84.2
113.4
94.6
93.0
67.7
108.8
99.2
78.7
82.5
103.1
103.7
109.8
80.2
81.3
105.4
98.2
105.9
Manual
Logging.....................................
M ining.......................................
Stone crushing and quarrying.
Manufacturing:
Stone and allied indus
tries......................................
M e t a l......................................
W ood.......................................
Rubber....................................
Leather....................................
Paper.......................................
Textiles...................................
Foods.......................................
Light and power..................
Printing and publishing __
Laundering, cleaning, and
dyeing.................................
Chemical (including soap,
glue, and explosives)
All manufacturing____
Construction:
Building.................................
Highway.................................
R ailro ad ................. - ...........
Marine dredging, sewer
d ig g in g --...........................
Communication:
Steam railways.....................
Electric railways.................
Express, telephone, and
telegraph.............................
Wholesale trade....... ...........
Hotels and restaurants. . .
+ 2 6 .1
- 3 9 .0
-2 6 .3
- 1 3 .2
- 4 4 .7
-4 0 .2
- 9 .7
+ 1 6 .2
+ 2 .7
+ .7
- 4 .3
-.2
- 1 2 .1
+ 2 .9
+ 8 .9
+ 8 .5
- 8 .3
+ 3 3 .1
- 2 .0
- 3 .8
- 7 .2
+ 1 .8
- 1 1 .9
+ 5 .3
+ 2 2 .3
+ .1
+ 2 .5
+ .9
-2 0 .6
- 1 8 .7
+ 5 .2
+ 1 1 .3
-1 4 .8
- 4 .6
+ 1 2 .6
-7 .9
+ 3 .7
+ 9 .0
-3 7 .3
- 2 3 .5
- 7 .1
- 8 .9
+ 4 .9
- 7 .3
+ 1 1 .8
+ 9 .0
+ 3 .1
+ 1 3 .5
+ 2 .8
-.6
-7 .7
+ 7 .5
+ 1 1 .9
- 6 .3
+ 2 .3
- 5 .8
+ 7 .1
+ 7 .8
- 8 .7
+ 5 .1
- 1 2 .1
+ 6 .8
Nonmanual
Manufacturing, mines and
quarries.......................................
Construction............................. .
Communication..........................
Wholesale trade....... ...................
Retail trade—sales force only.
Miscellaneous
professional
services— ................................
Hotels and restaurants..............
92. £
Unemployment of Organized Building-Trades Workers
in Massachusetts, April, 1927, to December, 1928
T
HE extent of unemployment of organized building-trades workers
in Massachusetts from April 1, 1927, to December 3, 1928, by
cause and by occupation, is shown in the accompanying tables.
The figures have been compiled from press releases issued by the
Massachusetts Department of Labor and Industries, which began
publishing the data monthly as of April 1, 1927.
EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS
158
T able l . - P E R ( ’ E N T O F O R G A N I Z E D B U I L D I N G -T R A D E S W O R K E R S U N E M P L O Y E D
O N S P E C IF IE D D A T E S , B Y C A U S E , A P R IL , 1927, T O D E C E M B E R , 1928
Cause of unemployment
Date
Lack of
Sickness, Unfavor
Strike or
able
work or
accident,
lockout
materials
or old age weather
1927:
Apr. 1
_______________________________
M ay 2
_ ____________________________
June 1____ ______________________________
July 1 ............................................ ...............
Aug. 1
_ ____________________________
Sept. 1 Oct. 3_..............................................................
Dec. 1..........—.................................................
1928:
Jan. 3___________________________________
Feb. 1............................................................. .. 1
Mar. 1__________________________________
Apr. 2 __________________________________
M a y 1 _________________________________
June 1 _________________________________
Julv 2................................................................
Aug. 1
_____ __________________________
Sept. 4__________________________________
Oct. 1................................................................
N ov. 1_ _ _______________________________
Doc. 3 __________________________________
24.7
17.8
15.6
15.3
12.4
12.8
11.4
12.0
16.2
20.8
27.4
28.9
26.9
22.2
16.9
12.8
11.3
14.1
15.3
17.8
21.6
0.1
.1
.9
.3
.1
.1
.3
.1
1.7
1.8
1.7
1.4
1.9
1.7
1.7
1.5
2.0
0.3
.1
.3
.2
.2
.6
.1
.1
.6
.8
.1
.2
.2
.2
4.0
.1
.2
.1
2.1
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.4
1.6
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.8
1.9
1.9
3.4
.2
3.4
.1
.1
.3
.2
.1
(0
(0
.1
(0
(0
Other
reasons
0.6
(0
(?
CO
CO
(0
(0
.3
o
(0 *~
(0
(0
.2
.1
.1
(0
(0
.1
.1
.2
.2
(0
All
causes
27.4
19.9
18.4
17.2
14.7
15.3
13.5
13.7
19.1
27.3
29.4
34.1
28.9
24.1
22.9
14.6
13.2
15.8
17.2
20.1
23.7
i Less than one-tcnth of 1 per cent.
T abl e 2 .— P E R C E N T O F O R G A N I Z E D B U I L D I N G -T R A D E S W O R K E R S U N E M P L O Y E D
O N S P E C IF IE D D A T E S , B Y O C C U P A T IO N , A P R IL , 1927, T O D E C E M B E R ,1928
Date
1927:
Apr. 1 _____ _____
M a y 2__________
June 1....................
July 1___________
Aug. 1 __ ...............
Sept. 1__________
Oct. 3_...................
N ov. 1__________
Dec. 1....................
1928:
Jan. 3.....................
F e b .1 . .................
M ar. 1...................
Apr. 2 ....................
M a y 1 __ ...............
June 1...................
July 2.....................
Aug. I . .................
Sept. 4...................
Oct. 1_...................
N ov. 1...................
Dec. 3 ....................
Brick
Hod
layers,
carriers
Elec
masons, Car
Lath
and
trical
and
penters
build
ers
workers
plas
ing
terers
laborers
Paint
ers,
deco
rators,
and
paper
hangers
Plumb
ers, gas
Sheet- Other
All
fitters,
metal occupa occupa
and
workers tions
tions
steam
fitters
30.2
15.8
16.6
12.2
10.8
11.6
10.0
9.5
15.4
27.7
16.8
15.4
13.5
15.1
17.3
12.2
12.7
15.7
16.1
11.4
12.5
12.5
15.4
13.0
9.0
6.8
10.8
30.5
31.7
28.1
27.7
16.8
19.1
19.9
20.9
35.3
22.0
19.4
13.8
10.5
8.6
11.8
6.3
7.8
16.9
23.7
17.7
16.9
24.4
13.2
12.3
20.9
21.9
30.7
31.5
26.9
27.8
21.3
15.2
10.8
6.0
5.9
11.0
18.3
11.6
16.9
19.6
19.5
5.2
4.2
4.1
6.2
26.5
19.7
14.5
13.0
14.0
13.0
13.7
11.3
5.7
27.4
19.9
18.4
17.2
14.7
15.3
13.5
13.7
19.1
23.1
31.8
35.0
29.4
17.9
17.1
9.2
11.0
11.9
14.1
16.8
23.0
25.8
27.4
31.6
24.4
20.8
20.0
17.1
16.8
16.8
16.8
17.6
22.8
15.7
20.3
22.5
24.5
17.9
12.7
7.0
5.0
9.8
6.1
8.9
10.2
37.6
33.5
38.1
34.9
38.5
35.1
8.3
10.9
20.7
30.2
37.7
32.6
24.4
27.6
26.6
24.7
17.7
14.3
11.9
13.1
15.8
18.4
18.8
18.6
42.4
46.9
48.6
36.4
23.0
17.7
21.4
14.1
18.0
17.4
20.9
27.6
17.1
21.6
30.7
37.5
30.6
29.0
23.8
16.3
13.1
8.1
8.3
11.2
15.9
12.3
12.7
16.5
15.3
10.2
8.7
5.5
10.1
7.8
7.3
10.7
17.1
20.0
28.1
20.4
17.3
30.9
8.6
3.3
7.2
10.0
16.0
28.3
27.2
29.4
34.1
28.9
24.1
22.9
14.6
13.2
15.8
17.2
20.1
23.7
EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS
159
Trend of Employment in Boot and Shoe and Cotton
Goods Manufacturing
I
N ADDITION to the regular monthly reports on trend of employ
ment in various industries, the Bureau of Labor Statistics made,
during 1928, special reports on employment and pay rolls in the boot
and shoe industry and in cotton goods mills. In both of these indus
tries there have been interesting geographical shifts in production,
and the purpose of these special reports was to study these geograph
ical changes.
Boot and Shoe Industry
T h e t r e n d of employment and pay-roll totals from January, 1923,
to August, 1928, in the three principal boot-making districts of the
United States—New England, Middle Atlantic, and North Central—
is shown in the accompanying table and chart.
I N D E X E S O F E M P L O Y M E N T A N D P A Y -R O L L T O T A L S I N B O O T A N D S H O E
F A C T O R I E S , B Y D IS T R I C T S
[M onthly average, 1923=100]
New England States:
Connecticut, M aine , Massachusetts,
Rhode Island , and Vermont
Employment
New
Hampshire,
Pay-roll totals
M onth
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
106.9
109.2
107.3
102.9
99.8
90.9
94.3
100.5
100.5
98.2
97.9
91.4
96.1
97.2
96.4
91.0
86.3
75.2
78.5
85.4
88.1
88.9
85.0
82.4
89.5
91.7
90.9
84.0
80.5
70.9
78.0
85.3
86.2
86.2
82.1
74.9
79.2
85.2
84.4
77.9
77.0
75.0
79.3
84.3
85.7
85.4
83.1
76.5
79.3
80.5
80.8
75.6
72.2
68.5
74.6
78.6
78.1
75.8
70.7
62.6
68.9
72.1
72.6
67.4
64.8
60.3
68.6
73.2
107.5
110.9
108.1
99.7
98.3
84.7
90.6
104.9
103.7
97.0
101.2
93.5
99.3
102.9
102.4
87.9
82.7
69.6
73.5
87.2
92.2
90.7
76.6
72.8
84.4
89.6
88.5
76.0
71.5
61.8
72.9
85.1
80.2
81.7
70.6
63.0
71.1
79.9
84.1
69.9
69.3
69.3
74.8
85.1
84.1
81.0
73.6
63.9
68.2
58.9
76.0
68.0
76.3
68.2
68.0
54.4
64.9
50.0
59.5
47.9
69.6
58.2
79.3
68.8
76.1 _______
65.5
56.8
47.5
Average.. 100.0
87.6
83.4
81.1
74.8
168.5
100.0
86.5
77.1
75.5
67.3
January...............
February---------M arch.................
April___________
M a y ___________
Time....................
Ju ly___...............
A u gust. .............
September.........
October________
Novem ber_____
December..........
1923
159.3
Middle Atlantic States: New Jersey , New York , and Pennsylvania
97.9
98.5
99.8
98.2
100.1
101.8
102.4
103.7
101.3
99.4
98.7
98.3
96.8
96.6
98.0
94.3
90.1
86.4
86.2
90.3
91.2
91.6
90.1
92.9
94.4
96.6
97.9
95.6
94.9
93.6
94.2
96.3
100.4
99.0
94.6
98.2
97.8
97.4
95.3
91.6
89.5
88.9
91.9
93.8
94.0
94.7
93.9
94.7
94.7
94.7
95.4
93.0
93.6
94.6
96.9
99.0
99.8
97.6
93.2
93.3
94.0
94.8
93.7
91.3
87.6
91.1
94.1
93.7
99.1
98.1
102.6
99.3
102.8
107.4
105.8
103.8
99.6
95.4
87.4
98.8
95.8
97.3
97.1
91.6
89.2
86.9
89.5
96.3
101.8
100.1
86.1
104.1
06.7
109.8
112.0
104.8
106.6
106.4
107.1
113.3
107.4
102.4
94.2
104.5
103.7
105.7
100.4
93.6
80.8
94.4
101.7
103.7
106.2
107.6
100.7
104.4
102.8
106.0
105.0
101.4
98.8
105.9
108.9
113.1
112.6
106.0
92.2
96.1
95.0
104.1
98.8
90.1
84.8
97.4
102. 5
191.3
Average.. 100.0
92.0
96.3
93.6
95.5
*92.5
100.0
94.7
106.3
100.2
104.1
197.1
January..............
February______
March.................
April....................
M a y ....................
June.....................
July— ...............
August................
September_____
October...............
Novem ber.........
December..........
1 Average for 8 months.
160
EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS
I N D E X E S O F E M P L O Y M E N T A N D P A Y -R O L L T O T A L S I N B O O T A N D S H O E
F A C T O R I E S , B Y D I S T R I C T S — Continued
North Central States:
Illinois , Indiana , Iow a , Michigan, M innesota , M issou ri
Ohio , and TFiscormn
Employment
Pay-roll totals
M onth
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
107.2 102.2
106.2 102.5
105.1 100.5
94.8
99.0
92.4
98.5
95.7
100.8
103.4
99.0
98.9
107.9
107.7
105.0
95.0
98.5 .............
102.4
103.6
108.8
105.7
99.7
98.8
90.7
97.3
98.8
101.5
96.0
96.3
98.0
96.8
92.5
85.2
79.4
83.1
78.7
92.3
98.2
98.6
96.3
94.5
93.4
98.2
98.8
94.1
94.3
93.8
97.7
109.9
104.3
105.3
95.5
93.2
96.7
98.2
90.2
82.0
84.0
91.6
98.7
108.0
104.7
104.7
96.5
97.6
01.2
108.4
101.4
94.5
94.0
96.5
103.1
111.5
106.8
101.1
78.9
89.1
97.0
95.8
94.4
76.7
76.0
84.7
94.4
96.9
102.9
100.0
91.1
98.2
96.1
98.9
189.5
1924
1925
1926
1927
January.............. 101.7
February---------- 102.7
M arch................. 103.5
April.................... 102.0
M a y ..................... 99.7
J u ne.................
97.5
J u l y - . ...............
97.5
A u g u s t .............. 100.8
September_____ 100.5
October
__
99.4
N ovem ber_____
98.3
December..........
96.8
102.7
102.1
101.5
94.8
91.2
91.8
91.5
94.1
99.4
101.7
104.9
101.1
103.2
104.5
104.2
101 9
100.3
101.6
105.1
110.8
111.3
110.3
106.8
102.4
103.9
101.4
98.5
93.5
92.6
96.6
100.5
106.8
109.6
107.8
105.2
105.9
Average..
98.1
105.2
101.9
1923
100.0
1928
198.3
1928
1 Average for 8 months.
TREND OF EMPLOYMENT & PAY-ROLL TOTALS
IM BOOT & SHOE FACTORIES BY DISTRICTS.
vMj
QMTHLY
AVERAGt
1923 ® 100*
The information collected is presented in the form of index numbers
which show relatively the movement of employment and pay-roll
totals from month to month—January, 1923, to August, 1928. In
computing these index numbers the monthly average for 1923 is used
EM PLOYM ENT IN COTTON-GOODS MILLS
161
as a base, or 100. The data for 68 months are linked together by
means of a chain index, the per cent of change from one month to the
succeeding month being obtained by comparmg reports from identical
establishments for the two months. The number of establishments
reporting has varied from month to month, and the average number
in 1928 is greater than in 1923, but even in the earlier year so large a
number of employees was represented in each district as to render the
information representative of the industry as a whole in the respec
tive districts.
In August, 1928, the representation from each district was as
follows: New England, 107 establishments, 29,979 employees, and
$721,437 weekly pay-roll total; Middle Atlantic, 27 establishments,
23,029 employees, and $617,498 weekly pay-roll total; North Central,
59 establishments, 30,273 employees, and $666,068 weekly pay-roll
total. The range of employment has been greatest in New England
States, the index standing at 109.2 in February, 1923, at 60.3 in June,
1928, and 73.2 in August, 1928; in the Middle Atlantic States the
index of employment stood at 103.7 in August, 1923, at 86.2 in July,
1924, and 93.7 in August, 1928; and in the North Central States the
index of employment stood at 91.2 in May, 1924, at 107.9 in August,
1927, and 98.9 in August, 1928.
The average indexes of employment for the first eight months of
1928 and for the first eight months of 1927 are:
Qeographic division
N ew England..............................
M iddle Atlantic.............. ...........
North Central________________
1927
76.3
95.2
103.5
1928
68.5
92.5
98.3
Cotton-Goods Mills
T h e a c c o m p a n y i n g table and chart show the trend of employment
and pay rolls in the three principal cotton manufacturing districts of
the United States—New England, Middle Atlantic, and Southern—
from January, 1923, to September, 1928.
The information collected is presented in the form of index numbers
which show relatively the movement of employment and pay-roll
totals, from month to month, from January, 1923, to September, 1928.
In computing these index numbers the monthly average for 1923 is
used as the base, or 100. The data for 69 months are linked together
by means of a chain index, the per cent of change from month to
month being obtained by comparing reports from identical establish
ments for each two consecutive months. The number of establish
ments reporting has varied from month to month, and the average
number in 1928 is considerably greater than in 1923, but even in the
earlier year so large a number of employees was represented in each
district as to render the information representative of the industry as
a whole in the respective districts.
In September, 1928, the representation from each district was as
follows: New England, 102 establishments, 64,344 employees, and
$1,219,617 pay-roll total; Middle Atlantic, 25 establishments, 11,250
employees, and $239,011 pay-roll total; Southern, 323 establishments,
122,246 employees, and $1,535,029 pay-roll total.
The range of employment has been greatest in the Middle Atlantic
States, the index standing at 118.4 for February, 1923, and at 38.6
EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS
162
for August, 1925; for September, 1928, the index is 59.9. The New
England States’ employment index has ranged from 106.7 for March,
1923, to 58.3 for August, 1928. The Southern States’ employment
index has ranged from 106 for December, 1927, to 82.1 for July, 1924;
for September, 1928, the index is 97.5.
The monthly average index for 1927 was slightly higher than the
average index for 1926 in both the New England and Middle Atlantic
districts, while in the Southern States the 1927 average was cofm^ra&fo/
higher than in 1926.
The average monthly indexes in the New England and Middle
Atlantic geographic divisions were considerably lower in each year
from 1924 to 1927, inclusive, than in 1923, while in the Southern
States the average, although lower in 1924, 1925, and 1926, than in
1923, was 4.1 higher in 1927 than in the base year.
TREND OF EMPLOYMENT&PAY- ROLL TOTALS
IN COTTON-GOODS MILLS.
MONTHLY AVERAGE. I9Z3* 100.
em ploym ent .
SOUTHE.RH 11ILLS
\
> V \
I
/ " " P V / T l i s r ^ t K M,Li s
\
v/
>1
" \
MIDDL : atlaht \ i^
-----mu
•LS
JO o
-------
/
\f
I
V
...
V
.
__ j
.
.
-------
PAY-ROLL TOTALS.
425
SOUT <ERN H I L L S ^
V
100
T5
j K
IW^EMQtAMO
A
MIDDLCv^ATLA m t m ilia /
V
50
25
,
C
£
492.3
c{
r
£
c1 <
►E
19Z+
r
3
n
m s
-!j
XI
---------------- y —
v. 5
U1 <
O £
r
3
.... w
c
M
u> C
19ZT
is z e
1SZ%:
Comparative employment conditions in the three districts are
further exemplified by the following tabular statement, which shows
the average monthly index for each district for the first 9 months of
each year, 1923 to 1928, inclusive. This statement shows that, while
average monthly employment in the New England States was 36
per cent lower in the first 9 months of 1928 than in the same period of
1923 and 41 per cent lower in the Middle Atlantic States, there was
no change in the Southern States in 1928 as compared with 1923.
Average index of employment for first 9 months
of—
District
1923
N ew England..........................
M iddle Atlantic......................
Southern______ _____________
102.0
102.1
99.6
1924
82.5
72.6
91.5
1925
83.2
67.1
93.1
1926
77.6
64.9
95.9
1927
1928
79.4
67.1
103.6
65.1
60.1
99.6
UNEMPLOYMENT IN UNITED STATES
T a b l e 9 .— I N D E X E S O F E M P L O Y M E N T A N D P A Y -R O L L T O T A L S I N
M I L L S , B Y D IS T R IC T S
163
C O T T O N -Q O O D S
[M onthly average, 1923=100j
New England States: Connecticut, M aine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode
Island , and Vermont
Employment
Pay-roll totals
M onth
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
73.4
79.1
80.9
74.0
71.8
81.1
80.3
69.7
79.9
61.1
79.6
60.2
58.8
78.4
76.8
58.3
78.9
58.9
79.6
78.5
74.6 .............
100.7
100.4
103.1
104.4
116.2
111.3
92.9
96.6
99.1
88.0
87.5
99.6
95.8
94.0
87.2
81.5
76.2
68.9
59.9
63.0
66.1
70.6
68.0
81.9
82.3
83.2
83.1
82.7
80.5
75.1
66.7
69.4
58.4
71.8
72.8
75.2
74.9
76.7
78.9
77.4
70.8
68.8
55.8
60.1
66.1
69.9
69.7
74.1
74.2
77.3
78.6
76.6
77.0
76.1
73.7
73.4
75.7
75.7
71.4
69.5
.......
79.0
100.0
76.1
75.1
70.3
74.9
156.9
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
104.5
104.3
106.7
105.8
106.1
104.6
90.2
98.6
97.3
91.1
92.7
98.3
94.8
94.1
91.1
85.9
82.2
80.8
70.1
71.6
72.0
76.6
74.9
85.0
87.0
88.1
88.7
89.2
87.5
85.2
74.6
77.5
70.8
80.4
82.1
80.5
81.3
82.8
84.1
84.0
80.3
77.4
66.5
68.4
74.0
77.7
77.5
79.2
Average. _ 100.0
81.6
82.6
77.8
January..............
February............
M arch.................
April....................
M a y .....................
June.....................
J u l y . . . ...............
A u g u s t .-- .........
September.........
October...............
Novem ber.........
December..........
1928
___
____
1 65.1
1928
65.1
65.0
62.3
60.2
53.5
52.3
51.1
50.3
52.3
Middle Atlantic States: New Jersey , New York , and Pennsylvania
January..............
February______
M arch _________
April....................
M a y .....................
June.....................
July— ............. ...
A u g u s t . .. .........
September.........
October...............
N ovem ber.........
December..........
115.9
118.4
118.2
115.0
110.8
103.5
76.5
69.1
91.8
92.3
95.5
92.9
94.1
89.7
66.8
70.9
69.7
67.2
63.1
63.9
68.2
69.3
70.7
71.6
73.3
72.9
74.1
73.0
73.4
71.1
62.5
38.6
64.6
65.4
65.5
67.3
68.6
70.0
69.2
69.6
68.9
66.8
62.6
43.4
64.8
66.7
66.5
66.7
67.0
64.5
58.5
68.0
66.9
67.7
64.0
68.2
61.6
66.5
67.2
60.9
59.8
66.3
66.1
44.4
66.6
59.9
66.1
66.0
65.0 .............
Average..
100.0
72.1
66.8
65.3
66.7
___
____
160.1
114.8
116.1
118.0
117.2
114.9
104.6
76.8
68.5
90.0
93.3
91.6
94.2
91.3
79.0
72.9
69.6
67.0
64.6
52.0
53.3
66.6
66.8
60.5
72.9
71.5
69.2
76.1
75.6
73.5
63.1
60.1
40.9
60.1
66.7
63.7
71.9
72.2
69.3
73.1
73.5
68.0
65.1
58.0
46.8
65.8
68.6
71.7
71.5
66.0
71.6
74.2
71.2
67.4
65.9
58.7
64.6
66.5
70.0
68.5
68.4
64.1
61.2
65.4
58.6
59.4
57.7
57.6
45.2
58.9
100.0
68.0
66.0
67.0
67.8
158.7
Southern States: Delaware, Florida , Georgia, Maryland , North Carolina, South
Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia, Alabama, Kentucky, M ississippi, Tennessee,
Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas
January..............
February______
M arch.................
April....................
M a y .....................
June................. ..
J u l y . . . ...............
August................
September.........
October...............
Novem ber.........
December..........
99.4
100.7
101.2
99.7
99.4
98.8
98.6
98.2
100.1
100.4
102.3
101.0
99.6
99.8
,97.3
94.2
91.1
88.0
82.1
84.2
87.1
90.9
92.6
94.7
96.0
97.1
95.4
95.2
93.5
92.4
88.6
89.4
90.1
94.2
96.8
99.4
98.9
97.9
98.7
96.8
95.5
93.8
92.5
93.6
95.4
96.8
98.7
100.2
A v erage-
100.0
91.8
94.0
96.6
101.5 104.7
102.3 103.2
103.3 101.4
103.6
99.3
103.4
98.7
104.3
98.3
104.6
96.5
104.8
97.0
104.6
97.5
105.0
105.9
106.0 .............
93.8
95.5
96.4
103.3
103.3
102.2
100.8
99.1
101.0
99.6
101.7
103.8
101.3
99.9
91.5
87.2
80.8
75.7
68.6
74.0
76.5
85.6
87.5
93.1
92.9
94.4
94.8
93.4
91.5
87.0
82.9
83.1
80.3
89.7
95.3
99.6
99.3
99.8
98.4
96.7
90.7
87.9
85.6
88.8
93.2
96.6
99.2
102.6
104.1
100.0
85.1
90.4
94.9
199.6
102.2
102.7
104.4
99.8
105.6
97.4
106.1
93.4
105.6
94.5
106.7
92.6
105.7
92.4
106.3
92.0
106.0
94.2
108.3 .............
108.7
109.6 .............
106.2
195.4
lAverage for 9 months.
Unemployment in the United States in 1928: Report
of Secretary of Labor
N RESPONSE to a Senate resolution the Secretary of Labor on
March 24,1928, transmitted to the Senate a report regarding the
Iunemployment
situation in the United States. The report explained
that complete information was not available as regards the total
39142°— 29------ 12
164
EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS
number of persons out of work, and that no accurate information of
this character could be obtained except by a very comprehensive
census. From existing data, however, the Commissioner of Labor
Statistics estimated that between 1925 and January, 1928, there was
a shrinkage of 1,874,050 in the number of employed wage and salary
workers. No attempt was made to estimate the number of unem
ployed in the base year, 1925, but it was pointed out that 1925 was a
year in which there was no noticeable unemployment question.
The report of the Secretary included a statistical report on the
unemployment situation, prepared by the United States Commis
sioner of Labor Statistics. Extracts from this report follow:
Report of Commissioner of Labor Statistics
On M a r c h 6,1928, the United States Senate passed Resolution 147,
which contains the following language:
Resolved, That the Secretary of Labor is hereby directed (1) to investigate and
compute the extent of unemployment and part-time employment in the United
States and make report thereon to the Senate, and together therewith to report
the methods and devices whereby the investigation and computation shall have
been made; (2) to investigate the method whereby frequent periodic report of
the number of unemployed and part-time employed in the United States and
permanent statistics thereof may hereafter be had and made available, and make
report thereon to the Senate.
Responding to the requirements of the first part of the resolution
quoted, the best estimate that can be made from all sources of infor
mation available at this time is that the shrinkage in the volume of
wage earners, including manufacturing, transportation, mining,
agriculture, trade, clerical, and domestic groups, figuring on a basis
of those employed in 1925, is revealed to be 7.43 per cent. Applying
this percentage to the total number of employees as of 1925 gives a
shrinkage between the average of 1925 and January, 1928, of 1,874,050
persons.
#
^ ‘
The method of calculation employed in arriving at this figure is
as follows: First, the census of 1925 is taken as a base, because the
census of 1920 represents a boom year, and while there was a tre
mendous slump between that and the census of 1923, nevertheless
between these periods there had been a recovery and the year 1923
brought an up-swing, which from the present point of view may be
considered by some at least an incipient boom. Employment dropped
again in 1924, advanced slightly in 1925, a little more in 1926, and
dropped again through 1927. The year 1925 may therefore be
accented as an average recent year from which to take measurement,
and it is herein made the base from which employment shrinkage
has been computed. In making 1925 the base or 100, it is under
stood that whatever there may have been of unemployment in that
year is ignored, and it is assumed that those who were let out of
mdustry between 1923 and 1924 had by 1925 readjusted themselves.
It may be said that 1925 was a year in which there was no notice
able unemployment question. It is also used as a base because it
was a year in which the Census of Manufactures was taken.
The foundation of the estimate here submitted is the known
figures for 1925 for (1) manufacturing wage earners, and (2) railroad
employees. These, with the estimates as of January, 1928, are as
follows:
UNEMPLOYMENT IN UNITED STATES
Employed
in 1925
Industry
165
Estimated
employed
January,
1928
Estimated
shrinkage
8,383,781
643,974
Manufacturing____________________________________________________
7,739,907
Railroads___________________________________________________________
1,752,689
1 1,643,356
109,233
Total________________________ ______________________________
i December, 1927.
10,136,370
9,383,263
* 753,107
* Decrease of 7.43 per cent.
No figures are available for the groups—agriculture, mining, clerical
workers, domestic service and trade—and it can only be assumed that
they have been affected in like degree.
The change in manufacturing employment is determined from the
change in the Bureau of Labor Statistics* index of employment in
manufacturing industries. The railroad figures are exact for Class I
railroads, omitting general and division officials. The number of
employees in 1925 is estimated from the population census taken as
of January, 1920, as recast in the July, 1923, issue of the Monthly
Labor Review, and from the percentage of change in employment as
known for manufacturing and railroads.
The number of employees in 1925 used in this calculation—that is,
persons working for wages or salaries for others—is estimated at
25,222,742. This figure does not include any person operating his
own business or profession. The calculated number of employees
as of January, 1928, upon the same basis, was 23,348,692, leaving a
shrinkage between the two periods as indicated above of 1,874,050.
The figures of percentage of change in employment show a great
variation in geographical districts, which the Bureau of Labor
Statistics interprets to mean that unemployment is not universal
nor in all places or industries is it acute, but that it is spotted by
geographical sections and by industries, and that in actual numbers
it is not more than one-third of the magnitude of the labor depres
sion of 1921, which caused a shrinkage in the number on the pay roll
according to the estimates of this bureau of 5,735,000, from the
peak of 1920 to July, 1921.
The spottedness of the unemployment situation is brought out by
a list showing the percentage of change in employment between a
given month in 1928 and the same month in 1927, except in the
case of Wisconsin where December is used. These ranges in per
centage are shown in the following table:
Y E A R L Y C H A N G ES IN E M P L O Y M E N T
State
Period
Per cent
of change
in employ
ment
January, 1927-January, 1928___________
—5.8
Oklahoma
________________________________ February, 1927-February, 1928__ _____
Wisconsin (factory workers)__________________________ December, 1920-December, 1927______
Illinois
__ ___________________________________________ February, 1927-February, 1928........... ..
California______________________________________________ January, 1927-January, 1928.....................
N ew York
_____ ___________________________________ _____do_________________ ________ _______ _
Maryland
_________________________________________ .........do................................................................
Massachusetts________________- _____ __________________ February, 1927-February, 1928________
—19.7
- 3 .9
-6 .5
-7 .8
-5 .8
-7 .8
- 9 .7
U . S. Bureau of Labor Statistics_____ _________
166
EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS
As further indication of such spottedness, the employment report
from the State of California indicates that the average of employ
ment in all industries carried was 7.8 per cent lower in January, 1928,
than in January, 1927. The details show the same spotted conditions
there that have been noted elsewhere. For instance, canning and
packing of fish has dropped off 67.8 per cent while other food prod
ucts showed an increase of 19.3 per cent. Men's clothing dropped
11.3 per cent while millinery advanced 11.6 per cent. Iron foundries
and machine shops fell off 16.6 per cent while glass advanced 18.7
per cent. Sugar fell off 21.6 per cent while agricultural implements
advanced 30.1 per cent.
Part-Time Employment
In t h e pamphlet on Employment in Selected Manufacturing In
dustries for January, 1928, percentage figures were given as to the
number of establishments operating full time or part time and
establishments idle. Such figures were based on the reports of estab
lishments, without taking into consideration the size of the several
establishments.
These percentage figures have since been recomputed and weighted
by the number of employees. In other words, due weight has been
given to the size of the establishment in computing the average per cent.
Reports on percentage of full-time employment were received
from but 9,095 of the 10,772 establishments reporting other facts to
the bureau in the pay period ending nearest January 15, 1928. Of
these 78.8 per cent were working full time, 20.2 per cent were work
ing part time and 1.1 per cent were working overtime.
Of the total number of employees reported, 1,876,367 employees
(78.7 per cent) were working in establishments operating full time;
482,354 employees (20.2 per cent) were employed in establishments
working part time; and 25,598 employees (1.1 per cent) were em
ployed in establishments working above normal full time.
In the establishments reporting part time operation, the weighted
time worked by the 482,354 employees was 80.7 per cent of full
time. The weighted average per cent of time worked by the 25,598
employees in those plants operating in excess of normal full time
was 111.3 per cent of full time.
The following table shows a classification of the employees by
groups, according to per cent of normal full time worked.
N U M B E R A N D P E R C E N T OF E M P L O Y E E S IN E S T A B L IS H M E N T S W O R K IN G
E A C H S P E C IF IE D P E R C E N T O F R E G U L A R F U L L W O R K I N G T I M E
Persons in group
Per cent of employment
Per cent of employment
Number
25,598
Over 100 per cent (overtime).
100 per cent (regular full time). 1,876,367
56,291
99 to 93 per cent.....................
88,956
92 per cent................................
31,697
91 per cent................................
90 to 84 per cent.....................
31,742
83 percent................................
47,509
54,833
82 per cent................................
81 to 74 per cent.....................
46,724
* Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent.
Persons in group
Per
cent
1.1
78.7
2.4
3.7
1.3
1.3
2.0
Num ber
Per
cent
73 per cent..........
72 to 61 per cent.
60 per cent..........
59 to 51 per cent.
50 per cent_____
49 to 25 per cent
24 to 9 per cent.
33,534
37,102
23,371
10,692
12,744
6,731
428
1.4
1.5
1.0
.4
.5
.3
i.O
Total...........
2,384,319
1C0.0
2.3
2.0
UNEMPLOYMENT IN UNITED STATES
167
This tabulation shows that 79.8 per cent of all employees were in
establishments that worked full time or over and that 87.2 per cent
of all employees were in establishments that worked more than 90
per cent of full time, while less than 1 per cent of the employees were
in establishments working half time or less.
In the great majority of establishments six days constitute a full
week. In some departments of the iron and steel industry con
tinuous operation is obligatory, and in a few instances seven days
constitute a full week, although usually employees are granted relief
at various stated intervals, such as one day in seven, fourteen, nine
teen, etc., as the case may be. Five and one-half days make a full
week in a few establishments and five days in some others.
Employees working less than their regular full time may be roughly
grouped as follows:
Idle over one-half day and under one day, 1.3 per cent.
Idle one day, 5.3 per cent.
Idle over one day and including one and one-half days, 3.4 per cent.
Idle over one and one-half days and xmder three days, 2.9 per cent.
Idle three days or more, 0.8 per cent.
In addition to the 9,095 establishments in operation that reported
their per cent of full-time employment, 108 establishments definitely
reported that they had recently become temporarily idle. These
establishments were smaller than the average and several of them
were in their slack season. When last operating they employed
14,126 persons. Thus, about six-tenths of 1 per cent of manufac
turing industry employees became temporarily idle because of recent
shutdown of plants in which employed.
In this statement of part-time employment the bureau confines
its report strictly to the data in hand and does not apply the per
centage obtained therefrom to manufacturing industries as a whole,
for the reason that there is no information at hand upon which to
base an opinion as to whether the same percentage found to exist in
the establishments reporting to this bureau, winch are admittedly
larger than the average establishment, could fairly be applied to
manufacturing industries as a whole. There is no material available
upon which to base an opinion as to whether averages from the
selected industries now reporting to the Bureau of Labor Statistics
should be applied to clerical and domestic labor, or to any of those
classes which are not covered in these reports.
It may not be out of place here to call attention to the fact that
unemployment as it at present exists is composed of two entirely
different elements, first, those who are temporarily out of work at
their regular occupation and in their regular industry and, second,
those who have been displaced by the changes in industrial and
commercial methods—or as one might say, the suspended and the
displaced. What proportion of those at present entirely idle applies
to each one of these classes it is impossible to tell. The man who
has been entirely displaced by a new method of doing work or a new
machine must seek new contacts, it may be change his occupation
and his industry entirely. In other words, in one class a man is
waiting for his old job with reasonable assurance that the plant which
is now idle will resume operation and he will be restored to his em
ployment. In the other class the job is gone. The work formerly
done by human energy is now performed by mechanical devices.
168
EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS
The chances are that not only in the establishment from which he
was dropped but in all other similar establishments he will face the
same situation—that he must start anew. It is not unreasonable,
as has been estimated by a writer in the Annalist, that one-half of
the employment shrinkage shown in this report is due to new machines
and new mechanical devices. All that is definitely known is that
taking it for all in all the total displaced labor is largely of the unskilled
type. The conveyor, the motor hoist truck, changes in placement
of machines so that the process is continuous and the material goes
from machine to machine by the force of gravity, are schemes that
have displaced much labor, and this labor is mostly unskilled and
common labor.
Survey of Unemployment in Baltimore, February, 1928
A
SURVEY of the volume of unemployment in the city of Balti
more was made in February, 1928, by the Commissioner of
Labor and Statistics of Maryland. Extracts from this report are
given below:
A study and survey of the facts obtained show that in Baltimore
City there are at the present time [February, 1928] approximately
15,500 unemployed persons who usually are engaged in some gainful
occupation. These figures are based on information secured by *a
house-to-house canvass conducted by the members of the city police
force, through the courtesy of their commissioner, upon the request
of the commissioner of labor and statistics.
While this total number is smaller than any of the various and scat
tered estimates of the amount of unemployment in Baltimore, several
factors must be taken into consideration before arriving at a conclu
sion of its general effect. In making the canvass, consideration was
given only to those who usually work for wages or on their own
account in some business and who are now entirely without gainful
employment of any kind. No effort was made to secure information
for the apparently large number of persons who are employed for
only part time. This is a separate and distinct study in itself and
must be approached, we believe, from a different angle and by a
different method. In addition, every precaution was made to elimi
nate those men and women who either could not or would not work
if employment were available for them. To have included either or
both of these groups would have clouded our problem, and would,
perhaps, have greatly increased our figures.
Thus, then, if we may legitimately assume that the number of
those usually engaged in gainful occupations in Baltimore City has
increased at the same rate as the estimated population, we find
approximately 4 per cent of these men and women, who can work
and who want to work, unable to secure employment at the present
time. Of the 15,473 persons found unemployed, by far the larger
group, 13,468 in fact, is composed of men. Only 2,005 women, of
whom 1,279 are white and 726 are colored, are included. More
than 10,000 of these unemployed are white.
While more than 25 per cent of these men and women have worked
in connection with the various manufacturing industries, the indi
vidual industry in which the survey shows unemployment to be the
UNEMPLOYMENT IN BALTIMORE
169
most severe is building. Here alone we find about one-sixth of the
total number of persons. The textile industry, involving mostly
clothing, is the most outstanding of the manufacturing industries,
with food products and iron and steel competing for second place.
In considering the regular occupations of those unemployed, we
find that the largest single group is composed of unskilled labor.
The second largest number are found in the semiskilled operatives
and factory workers, but of the individual building and hand trades
carpenters lead in actual numbers.
The individual reports submitted by the police department indi
cate that, through the unemployment of these 15,473 men and
women, almost 13,000 of an approximate number of 175,000 families
are involved, and that at least 64,000 individuals are either directly
or indirectly affected, a situation the seriousness of which is not to be
minimized.
The existence of a group of almost 15,500 totally unemployed per
sons who are usually gainfully employed in a city of Baltimore’s
size is in itself a serious problem. The situation in this city, however,
has become acute in that a large proportion of these individuals have
been without employment for relatively long periods of time. Gen
erally speaking, the findings show periods of unemployment, not in
days or weeks as we might have reasonably expected, but rather in
months. According to the results of the survey, less than 2,000 of
the total number have been without employment of any kmd for
less than one month and almost two-thirds have been unemployed
for periods varying between one and five months.
The total number of families in which one or more cases of unem
ployment were found, was 12,739; number of private families, 12,217;
number of boarding houses, 289; number of lodging houses, 170;
number of unclassified families, 63. The total number of persons
included in the 12,739 families was 64,306. The total number of
persons who usually are engaged in gainful occupations in these
12,739 families, was 29,099.
N U M B E R OF R E G U L A R L Y E N G A G E D PE R SO N S IN B A L T IM O R E W H O L L Y U N E M
P L O Y E D , C L A S S IF IE D B Y S E X , C O L O R , A N D R E G U L A R O C C U P A T I O N
Males
Regular occupation
Apprentices in building and hand trades...... ........... ..
Blacksmiths...........................................................................
Boilermakers. _.................................... ............. ...................
Brick and stone masons........................... .........................
Building industry________ _____________________ _
Other industries......................... ................... .............
Contractors______________________________________
Carpenters............................... ....................... .......................
Building industry_____________________ _____ ____
Other industries............................................................
Contractors.............................................................. .
Electricians................ ........... .................................................
Building industry............... .........................................
Other industries................................................ ...........
Contractors...................................................................
Engineers (stationary) and cranemen______________
Building industry______________ _______ ________
Other industries___________________ ______________
Contractors______________________________________
Factory workers (not otherwise classified)......... .......
Food and kindred products.......... ............... ...........
Textiles and their products...................... .............
Iron and steel, not including machinery..............
Females
Total
unem
ployed
White Colored Total White Colored Total
132
39
5G
209
135
5
69
852
588
59
205
131
25
24
82
101
19
37
45
826
122
47
165
22
1
9
5
4
24
17
1
6
5
1
4
671
93
17
87
154
40
56
218
140
5
73
876
605
60
211
131
25
24
82
106
20
37
49
1,597
215
64
252
117
33
11
22
13
3
2
1
130
36
13
23
154
40
56
218
140
5
73
876
605
60
211
131
25
24
82
106
20
37
49
1,727
251
77
275
170
EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS
N U M B E R OF R E G U L A R L Y E N G A G E D P E R SO N S IN B A L T IM O R E W H O L L Y U N E M
P L O Y E D , C L A S S IF IE D B Y S E X , C O L O R , A N D R E G U L A R O C C U P A T IO N — Continued
Males
Females
W hite Colored Total
W hite Colored Total
Total
unem
ployed
Regular occupation
Factory workers (not otherwise classified)— Con.
Lumber and allied products________ ___________
Leather and its manufactures__________________
Rubber products________________________________
Paper and printing............ .
................................
Chemicals and allied products................................
Stone, clay, and glass products...............................
M etal and metal products, other than iron
and steel_______________________________________
Tobacco manufactures.................................... .. .......
Machinery, not including transportation
equipment_____________________________________
Musical instruments____________________________
Transportation equipment.......... _........ . . . . ..
Railroad repair shops______________________ _____
Other industries_________________________________
Firemen (not locomotive or fire department)______
Laborers (not otherwise classified)____________ _____
Building industry_____________________ _________
Other laborers___________________________________
Machinists_______________________ . . . . _______________
Mechanics (not otherwise classified)______ _____ ____
Painters____________________________________ _______
Building industry .............. ...... ...... .............. ..
Other industries_________________________________
Contractors______________ _____ _____ _______ ____
Paper hangers_______________________________________
Building industry_____________________ _______
Contractors__________________________ _________
Plasterers and cement finishers_____ _____ __________
Building industry_________ _____ _____ __________
Contractors__________________ __________ ________
Plumbers, gas fitters, and steam fitters._ ...................
Building industry....... ....................... .........................
Other industries................. ......... ........... .....................
Contractors______________ _____ ____ __________
Semiskilled operatives (not otherwise classified)___
Food and kindred products____________ ________
Textiles and their products......................................
Iron and steel and their products (not including
machinery)________ ______ ________________ _____
Lumber and allied products..... ................... .........
Lumber and its manufactures__________________
Rubber products____________ ________ _____ _____
Paper and printing______________________________
Chemicals and allied products__________________
Stone, clay and glass products. ..............................
M etal and metal products, other than iron and
steel____________________________________________
Tobacco manufactures__________________________
Machinery, not including transportation equip
m ent__________________________ ________________
Musical instruments...................................................
Transportation equipment________ _______ _____
Railroad repair shops.............................................. ..
Other industries...........................................................
Other manufacturing and mechanical occupations..
Total, manufacturing and mechanical_______
1
3
7
111
81
126
18
4
19
158
118
42
4
42
2
84
6
95
4
09
20
177
67
1,501
204
1,297
237
89
451
229
22
200
78
16
62
145
84
61
305
71
48
186
934
135
222
35
130
4
97
25
277
89
4,095
1,086
3,009
240
98
484
236
34
214
86
18
68
161
93
68
312
71
48
7
193
68 1,002
16
151
22
244
70
11
4
12
47
37
56
7
28
5
100
22
2,594
882
1,712
3
9
33
7
12
14
8
2
6
16
9
7
7
135
76
27
4
118
9
33
8
1
3
32
19
1
13
6
33
6
66
618
6,871
W ater transportation1______________ _____ __________
Sailors and deck hands_________ _________ ______
Stevedores________________ ______________________
Others______________ _______ _______ _____ ________
Road and street transportation_____________________
Chauffeurs___________________ ___________ _______
Draymen, teamsters....................................................
Others___________________________ _______ ________
Railroad transportation_____________________________
Brakemen___________________ _____ _______________
Others___________________________________________
Express, post, telegraph and telephone_____________
Telephone operators........... ......................... ...............
Others___________________________ ________________
136
111
7
18
506
426
73
7
82
35
47
15
4
11
Total, public utilities.............................................
739
1
2
5
1
3
1
7
1
127
21
4
20
165
119
2
3
2
3
86
9
1
1
1
7
1
33
6
39
341
36
186
36
2
22
377
38
208
131
4
97
25
316
89
4,095
1,086
3,009
240
98
484
236
34
214
86
18
68
161
93
68
312
71
48
193
1,379
189
452
166
87
34
5
137
12
42
143
77
30
4
119
11
38
23
10
4
1
18
1
2
2
23
10
4
1
18
1
4
33
19
1
37
6
1
43
34
62
13
6
35
6
73
647
22
61
4
15
26
76
13
6
35
6
99
723
3,521 10,392
519
64
583
10,975
2
7
29
173
14
59
1
1
1
209
125
66
18
795
665
120
10
86
35
51
16
5
12
367
1,106
289
239
47
3
4
4
1
1
1
1
36
36
36
36
37
37
209
125
66
18
796
666
120
10
86
35
51
52
41
12
1,143
i Including 89 occupants of two seamen’s lodging houses who m ay or m ay not be usual residents of Balti
more.
CONDITIONS IN N E W
YORK STATE
171
N U M B E R OF R E G U L A R L Y E N G A G E D PER SO N S IN B A L T IM O R E W H O L L Y U N E M
P L O Y E D , C L A S S IF IE D B Y S E X , C O L O R , A N D R E G U L A R O C C U P A T I O N — Continued
Males
Females
W hite Colored Total
W hite Colored Total
Total
unem
ployed
Regular occupation
Retail dealers________________ ______________
Salesmen..................................................................
Others.......................................................................
44
484
81
50
497
85
229
30
632
Total, trade.................................................
233
50
730
117
265
897
Public service (policemen and firemen)___
Professional service..............................................
59
Servants..... .............................................................
Other domestic and personal service............
25
150
64
112
137
24
50
247
534
Total, domestic and personal service.
Bookkeepers, cashiers, accountants...............
Clerks (office)....... .................................................
Stenographers and typists___..........................
Other clerical occupations.................................
51
240
52
Total, clerical occupations....................
459
Clerks, unclassified 2...........................................
Other occupations................................................
165
Total, other occupations........................
231
251
36
A ll occupations..........................................
9,152
4,316 13,468
1,279
11
12
%
140
537
649
768
1,302
37
110
112
111
90
354
126
770
173
114
27
21
480
290
20
185
157
/oo
578
71
200
66
200
726
38
289
2,005
15,473
2 Unclassified as to whether sales or office clerks.
The statement below classifies the unemployed according to the
length of time during which they have been entirely without em
ployment of any kind:
Less than 1 month__________________________________________ 1, 981
1 month and under 2 months_______________________________ 2, 373
2 and under 3 months_______________________________________ 3, 041
3 and under 4 months------------------------------------------------------------2, 643
4 and under 5 months_______________________________________ 1, 657
5 and under 6 months___________________________ ___________
901
6 and under 7 months_______________________________________ 1, 229
7 and under 8 months_______________________________________
275
8 and under 9 months_______________________________________
320
9 and under 10 months_____________________________________
122
46
10 and under 11 months____________________________________
11 and under 12 months____________________________________
26
12 months and over_________________________________________
778
Time not reported___________________________________________
81
Total_________________________________________________ 15, 473
Employment Conditions in New York State, 1928
I N KESPONSE to a request from the Governor of New York the
State industrial commissioner submitted on February 14, 1928, a
report on employment conditions in New York State and New
York City,2 including statistics of factory employment, returns from
building departments in various cities, records of the State employ
ment service, and private welfare agencies, and other data secured
from reliable sources from various cities.
2 New York. Department of Labor. Report to Hon. Alfred E . Smith, Governor of the State of New
York, on unemployment conditions in New York State, by James A , Hamilton, industrial commissioner,
February, 1928. Albany, 1928.
172
EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS
The report states that “ the evidence at hand indicates an extensive
amount of unemployment and that serious distress has been caused.”
Factory Employment
A p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 employees, or from 3 5 to 4 0 per cent of
all the factory workers in New York State, are included in the monthly
reports made to the State department of labor. These reports show
that “ since the spring of 1926 the general level of factory employ
ment has declined, and in December, 1 9 2 7 , the index of such employ
ment was below that of December, 1 9 2 1 . In January, 1 9 2 8 , there
was a further decrease of 2 per Cent, bringing the index below that
of January, 1 9 2 1 .”
Falling Off of Building Activities
T h e returns on the issuance of building permits in 2 3 cities of
New York State indicated a decline in 1 9 27 of 13 per cent in the
estimated cost of such building work as compared with the previous
year.
Employment Conditions in New York City
A c c o r d i n g to detailed reports of the employment service of the
New York State Department of Labor for its Manhattan, Brooklyn,
and Bronx offices and the Harlem office for negroes, the combined
registration for adults and juveniles for December, 1 9 2 7 , was 1 3 .6 per
cent below the registrations for the corresponding period in 1 9 2 6 , while
the adult registrations alone were 2 3 .2 per cent less in December,
1 9 2 7 . The decrease in placements of both adults and juveniles was
even more striking, being in December, 1 9 2 7 , 3 6 .6 per cent below
the December, 1 9 2 6 , record.
The decline in registrants may be explained by the fact that in times of serious
unemployment men flock into the office and when they hear jobs are not avail
able turn away without registering. When there is a fair condition of the market
with some jobs available a larger proportion of the men who call make formal
registration. The largest percentage of registrants is obtained when many jobs
are open since the workmen become eager to move on to better positions. In
addition, space in one of the offices is limited and when it becomes congested
many turn away immediately, thus reducing still further the number registering.
Of 3 0 voluntary employment agencies making returns, 2 2 reported
a larger number of applicants for work in December, 1 9 2 7 , than in
the corresponding period in 1 9 2 6 , and 8 reported fewer applicants
in December, 1 9 2 7 . For the whole group of reporting voluntary
agencies the placements in December, 1 9 2 7 , were 5 ,5 4 7 , or 6 3 8 more
than in December, 19 26 .
Of the 15 family service agencies reporting, 13 together had 2 3 ,3 3 0
active cases in December, 1 9 2 7 , or 1 ,9 5 0 in excess of December, 1 9 2 6 .
With one exception the 10 seamen’s agencies stated that they had
increased calls for service in December, 1927.
Of the four agencies concerned with homeless men, three together
served 2 ,9 2 2 persons in December, 1 9 2 7 , or 4 2 3 more than in Decem
ber of the previous year. The fourth agency had very many more
applicants in December, 1 9 2 7 , than in December, 1 9 2 6 , but the
number of those served in the later period was less because of the
dearth of jobs, which necessitated the men’s remaining in the institu
tion for a longer period.
EMPLOYMENT STABILITY IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES
173
Admission to the municipal lodging house numbered 17,220
December, 1927, or 7,053 above the December, 1926, record.
in
Situation in Other Cities
A m o n g the cities for which estim ates as to the n u m ber o f u n em
p loy ed are given in the report are the follow in g:
Population
Unemployed
Buffalo___________________________ 538, 016
Rochester________________________ 316, 786
Syracuse_________________________ 182,003
35, 000 to 40, 000
10, 000
5,000 to 7,000
Stability of Employment in Various Industries
D
URING recent months the Bureau of Labor Statistics has been
carrying on a series of studies for leading industries to deter
mine the degree of regularity of employment and to ascertain whether
there has been any improvement in this respect during the past several
years. The industries for which results have so far been published
are: The iron and steel industry, the men’s clotiling industry, the
automobile industry, and railroad transportation.
In the case of the railroads, the basic data are derived from the
reports of the railroad companies to the Interstate Commerce Com
mission. In the case of the manufacturing industries, the basic data
are from the monthly reports on employment furnished the Bureau
of Labor Statistics by various manufacturing establishments. It is,
of course, highly desirable that the data should be by occupations
and not merely by establishments. Such occupational separation is
available for the railroads, but, unfortunately, is not available for
the manufacturing establishments.
In considering the results of these studies, it is important to bear
in mind that regularity of employment is an entirely different matter
from volume of employment. Thus, the total number of employees
in a plant may steadily decline from year to year with improving
productive efficiency, while within each year the fluctuations in
the number of employees, whether due to seasonal or other causes,
may progressively diminish, with the result that the employees, though
fewer in number, may have more steady work.
Also, it is to be noted that the periods covered are not identical for
the industries here studied, the statistical work having been done at
various dates, and the results are here presented just as they were
originally published.
Index of Employment Stability
T h e m e t h o d of measuring employment stability used in these
studies is that of the relationship of average monthly employment
during the year to the number of employees in the month of maximum
employment. Thus, if during 1927 a particular establishment or
occupation had a monthly average of 90 employees and the maxi
mum number in any month was 100, then the stability of employment
may be fairly said to be 90 per cent. In other words, if the 100 men
needed to fill the positions at the busiest season had no other oppor
tunity for work, then each man would have an opportunity of 90
174
EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS
per cent of full-time employment. Of course, this is rarely quite true
but it is often substantially true; and, in any case, the method offers,
a fairly accurate measure of the degree in which a particular establish
ment has attained a condition of stable employment. On the other
hand, failure of an establishment to obtain a good level of stability in
one or all occupations must not necessarily be attributed to faulty
management. Many factors over which the management has little
or no control may affect the stability of employment. Nevertheless,
an employment stability of or very near to 100 per cent is the desirable
£°alThe method of measuring employment stability just described has
been used in this study because it is simple and clear. Somewhat
more accurate measures of a mathematical character could be
employed, but what they gain in accuracy is more than overbalanced
by complexity in computation and explanation.
Stability of Employment in the Iron and Steel Industry
T h e p e r c e n t a g e of full-time employment, computed as described
above, has been worked out for 32 iron and steel plants for each
of the years 1923 to 1927 and for the 12-month period ending August,
1928, the results being presented in the accompanying table. These
32 plants represent all reporting plants with sufficiently large per
sonnel to make yearly comparisons of value. Collectively they
employ about 40 per cent of all wage earners in the industry. The
plants are arranged in the table in descending order according to the
favorableness of their showing in 1928.
Examination of the employment indexes for the several plants listed
in Table 1 shows some very interesting facts:
1. For the 32 plants as a whole regularity of employment showed a
marked improvement over the years covered. Thus, the average per
cent of full-time employment rose from 88 and a fraction in 1923 and
1924 to 91.2 in 1925 and has ranged around 94 during the past three
years.
,
Still more striking as measuring the improved conditions of em
ployment are the figures at the bottom of the table, showing the great
increase in the number of plants with high records of employment
regularity during the period of almost six years. Thus in 1923 only
6.7 per cent of all the plants showed an average of 95 per cent full
time employment, whereas by 1928 this percentage had increased to
53.2. Also, in 1923 more than half the plant averages were less than
90 per cent of full-time employment. In 1927 less than one-tenth
were below 90.
2. For several individual plants the showing is extraordinarily
favorable. Thus for the 12 months ending August, 1928, plants 1
and 2 had a record of more than 98 per cent stability.
Other plants, with not quite so good a record in 1928, showed a
strikingly consistent improvement over the 6-year period. Thus in
plant 14, the per cent of full-time employment rose from 83.2 in 1923
to 96.2 in 1928 in an almost unbroken line.
Also, it should be noted that six plants (2, 3, 4, 18, 25, and 26) had
the excellent record of more than 90 per cent full-time employment
for each of the years studied.
EMPLOYMENT STABILITY IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES
175
T a b l e 1 .— P E R C E N T O F F U L L -T I M E E M P L O Y M E N T I N T H E I R O N A N D S T E E L
IN D U S T R Y
Plant N o.
1923
l _ ................................................................................
2.............................................................................. ..
3_................................................................................
4................................ .................................................
5.................................................................................
91.7
91.8
89.5
92.4
6.................................. ..................... .........................
7_____________ ________________________ _____ _
8.................................................................. ...............
9__________ __________________________________
10______________ ____ _______ _________________
1924
1925
1926
1927
12 months
ending
August,
1928
82.9
97.9
93.6
93.4
79.6
93.1
96.8
95.3
94.9
88.3
95.2
96.9
95.4
97.2
91.9
89.5
93.9
96.5
93.4
97.7
98.3
98.1
97.8
97.2
96.9
89.6
85.4
91.6
90.1
87.9
81.3
88.1
81.4
89.4
82.3
94.4
82.8
97.0
92 0
94.6
94.6
89.8
95.8
94.4
95.6
96.5
91.9
97.9
96.7
96.6
96.5
96.5
96.4
11...................................................... .........................
12
.
.
.
.
_
_____
13...............................................................................
14.................... ............. ............................................
15.............................. .................................................
83.9
89.5
84.9
83.2
94.8
95.0
84.2
93.6
89.3
96.5
96.5
90.1
96.8
88.3
96.2
95.5
94.7
91.9
96.6
96.3
90.1
87.4
93.5
92.4
89.0
96.4
96.4
96.3
96.2
95.7
16................................................................................
17.................................... ...........................................
18___________________________________________
19.......................................... ............. .......................
20____________________________ _______________
87.6
81.7
91.1
88.6
88.6
88.6
84.2
93.7
88.5
92.0
78.6
92.3
95.0
93.7
95.3
91.2
94.3
96.1
96.9
97.5
90.3
93.3
96.1
94.9
93.9
95.4
95.3
94.9
94.5
94.4
21_________________________ _____ _____ _______
22
23_____________ ______________________ _______
24____________ __________ _____ _________ _____
25
82.0
94.0
82.7
88.5
94.7
92.7
83.3
80.4
89.6
90.0
90.0
92.6
81.3
92.3
94.8
98.6
93.7
90.1
94.8
96.8
96.0
93.8
93.1
95.6
96.0
93.0
92.7
92.3
91.9
91.8
26—.............................................................. .............
27.............................................. ........... ........... .........
28—...................................... .....................................
29..............................................................................
30...................................................... .........................
96.1
90.0
91.1
94.5
91.6
98.0
80.9
80.2
88.4
92.2
98.0
87.8
86.2
90.9
92.1
97.5
94.9
90.1
93.1
95.3
94.1
91.3
94.5
92.5
95.7
91.7
91.5
91.3
90.2
89.8
31.................................................... ....... ...................
32
95.4
73.1
84.2
83.5
91.7
84.5
89.8
90.0
92.9
91.5
88.1
83.0
A verage____________________________________
Highest_____________________________________
Lowest______________________________________
88.9
96 1
73.1
88.3
98.0
79.6
91.2
98.0
78.6
94.3
98.6
89.8
93.6
97.9
87.4
94.2
98.3
83.0
Per cent of plants with employment sta
bility of—
95 per cent and over ___________________
90 to 94.9 per cent_______________________
85 to 89.9 per cen t..
__ _______________
80 to 84.9 per cent_______________________
Under 80 per cent_______________________
6.7
40.0
30.0
20.0
3.3
12.5
28.1
21.9
34.4
3.1
28.1
40.7
15.6
12.5
3.1
46.9
46.9
6.2
31.2
59.4
9.4
53.2
37.5
6.2
3.1
86.5
Stability of Employment in the Men’s Clothing Industry
T h e p e r c e n t a g e s of full-time employment, computed as described
above, have been worked out for 64 men’s clothing establishments
for each of the years 1923 to 1927 and for the 12-month period ending
October, 1928, the results being presented in the accompanying table.
These 64 establishments represent all establishments engaged in
making men’s outer clothing for which data are available. Special
ized products—such as caps, overalls, etc.—have been omitted, in
order that#those included might be fairly comparable as regards work
ing conditions and as regards market influences.
The establishments are arranged in the table in descending order
according to the favorableness of their showing in 1928.
A few of the interesting facts developed by an examination of the
employment indexes in the table are cited below:
EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS
176
1. Judged by the averages, stability of employment in the men’s
clothing industry is bad and conditions have shown no improvement
in the six years covered by the table. Thus the average stability for
the plants reporting was only 87.9 per cent in 1923 and in no sub
sequent year was the percentage ever that high. Also, as shown by
the last section of the table, this continuous low average over the
6-year period was the resultant of an increasing number of plants
with improving records and a corresponding increase in the number
of plants with records which'were growing worse. Thus in 1923 the
per cent of plants with employment stability rates of 95 per cent or
over, was only 10.9 per cent as against 28.1 and 15.6 per cent in
1927 and 1928, respectively. On the other hand, the number of
plants with stability rates of less than 80 per cent also increased
from 15.6 per cent in 1923 to 21.9 in 1927 and to 23.4 in 1928.
2. While the general conditions of employment stability in the
industry were bad and did not improve over the 6-year period, a
number of establishments nevertheless had excellent records. Thus
establishments 4 and 6 had an average of more than 96 per cent of
full-time employment for each of the six years, and several establish
ments show averages of more than 98 per cent in individual years.
T a bl e 2 .— P E R C E N T O F F U L L -T I M E E M P L O Y M E N T I N T H E M E N ’ S C L O T H I N G
IN D U S T R Y
Plant
N o.
Location
Cleveland, O h io..
Boston, M ass____
Chicago, 111............
New York, N . Y _
Rochester, N . Y__
Boston, M ass____
0)................
Boston, M ass___
Rochester, N . Y_
Boston, M ass___
0)................
New York, N . Y .
Chicago, 111............
Rochester, N . Y__
0)................
Cleveland, O hio..
Buffalo, N . Y _ —
Chicago, 111............
Philadelphia, Pa_
Chicago, 111............
Cincinnati, OhioN ew York, N . Y .
Cincinnati, Ohio.
Pittsburgh, P a . . .
Cincinnati, Ohio.
Pittsburgh, P a . . .
Philadelphia, P a .
Buffalo, N . Y — New York, N . Y .
. . . . d o .......................
Cincinnati, O hio.
Baltimore, M d . . .
Chicago, 111............
1923
92.5
61.9
93.7
97.9
86.0
97.1
92.1
69.1
91.4
94.7
93.2
84.8
89.2
94.9
96.3
78.2
93.2
89.7
95.0
97.3
90.3
89.4
86.2
73.0
86.2
88.0
86.9
92.3
87.0
89.4
93.0
88.0
88.9
86.9
92.4
87.1
87.3
77.7
90.0
83.8
94.7
85.6
79.2
1924
88.9
96.3
86.6
96.6
95.2
97.1
97.2
74.3
90.0
92.6
89.1
89.0
92.1
88.1
95.1
75.9
94.9
79.9
91.9
88.9
94.5
82.2
85.3
93.3
84.7
83.3
80.0
89.3
82.8
81.7
90.0
79.5
85.2
89.1
78.7
89.9
90.5
84.9
91.7
73.3
82.9
73.8
70.4
1925
93.8
93.0
89.8
97.4
91.2
97.1
97.8
77.2
82.7
88.2
93.3
99.0
95.8
89.7
95.7
86.5
93.8
89.4
92.6
86.5
90.8
79.0
88.4
73.5
84.1
90.5
91.9
91.5
73.0
89.1
92.5
94.4
82.8
86.8
85.3
90.0
91.2
93.0
91.7
89.0
91.4
79.9
66.3
i Location omitted in order to prevent possible identification of establishment.
1926
81.6
96.5
88.1
97.3
96.8
97.2
97.8
83.3
81.4
90.2
93.2
92.7
95.6
94.3
93.3
82.7
92.7
93.7
96.4
88.8
98.7
88.0
90.3
94.1
86.8
93.1
82.9
91.6
85.3
77.5
97.6
95.2
79.3
90.3
73.2
92.0
88.5
84.2
92.8
89.0
88.6
82.8
75.6
1927
96.8
96.4
96.1
97.9
95.6
98.6
98.4
76.0
76.5
93.3
96.1
95.8
96.5
91.7
96.3
90.0
89.2
94.9
93.8
73.3
95.0
87.2
95.2
90.6
88.9
89.0
92.8
85.2
75.3
89.8
95.6
97.4
69.2
93.2
93.6
93.3
88.7
91.7
59.9
90.3
91.6
88.2
74.6
12 months
ending
October,
1923
98.6
98.5
98.3
97.7
97.5
97.2
96.3
96.0
95.7
95.5
94.8
94.8
94.7
94.4
93.4
93.0
93.0
92.6
92.1
92.1
91.7
91.0
90.9
90.8
90.6
90.4
90.2
89.4
89.1
88.9
88.5
88.2
87.9
87.8
87.6
87.6
87.3
87.2
86.3
85.5
84.7
84.6
83.8
EMPLOYMENT STABILITY IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES
T a b le
2.—PER
C E N T OF F U LL -T IM E E M P L O Y M E N T IN T H E M E N ’ S CLO TH IN G
IN D U ST R Y —Continued ^
Plant
No.
Location
0)..........................................
(i).........................................
Rochester, N . Y ......................................................
Cincinnati, O h i o ..................................................
0)................................. -.......
0).........................................
1923
91.7
94.7
92.4
85.0
95.5
88.2
88.0
1924
1925
1927
93.4
94.6
96.4
95.1
80.0
76.8
80.8
43.6
87.0
92.9
94.7
92.1
83.9
93.8
83.3
84.3
85.5
95.4
77.8
84.5
85.6
85.9
76.7
95.4
95.0
64.2
81.2
67.5
73.1
81.4
94.1
95.3
88.0
72.1
90.9
80.6
70.7
92.3
89.9
80.0
88.3
56.0
84.9
12 months
ending
October,
1928
85.1
82.1
48.2
94.4
91.4
90.2
82.8
82.8
72.1
76.8
88.6
95.3
90.1
90.6
78.8
68.3
88.5
90.8
81.6
80.8
83.3
84.8
84.0
79.2
84.7
61.5
95.3
82.9
88.4
60.7
72.2
64.4
83.7
83.6
82.3
81.9
81.8
81.5
78.5
77.8
77.8
77.2
76.2
75.2
73.7
72.6
72.0
71.4
69.2
57.9
55.4
49.1
34.7
86.8
96.3
88.8
75.7
8a 9
75.9
93.9
84.5
Baltimore, M d ....................................................... .
St* Louis, M o ......................................................... .
89.1
89.3
84.8
92.5
85.4
73.6
77.3
88.5
96.1
67.2
78.1
93.8
88.4
83.0
Average..........................................................
H ig h e s t ........................................................
Lowest............................................................
87.9
97.9
61.9
85.1
97.2
43.6
85.8
99.0
64.2
87.8
98.7
48.2
87.0
98.6
59.9
85.1
98.6
34.7
Per cent of plants with employment
stability of—
95 per cent and over—..................................
90 to 94.9 per cent...........................................
85 to 89.9 per cent...........................................
80 to 84.9 per cent...........................................
Under 80 per cent......................................... .
10.9
29.7
37.5
6.3
15.6
14.1
20.3
23.4
20.3
21.9
14.1
32.8
21.9
14.1
17.2
17.2
31.3
20.3
17.2
14.1
28.1
23.4
15.6
10.9
21.9
15.6
26.6
20.3
14.1
26.4
N ew York, N . Y ................................................... .
Rochester, N . Y ......................................................
N ew York, N . Y ...................................................
Philadelphia, P a _ _ ................................................
N ew York, N . Y ................................................... .
____ do......................................................................... .
____ do......................................................................... .
____ do......................................................................... .
____ do......................................................................... .
0).........................................
0)..... -..................................
64
177
66.1
i Location omitted in order to prevent the identification of establishment.
Stability of Employment in the Automobile Industry
T he p e r c e n t a g e s of full-time employment, computed as described
above, have been worked out for 78 automobile establishments for
each of the years 1923 to 1927 and for the 12-month period ending
November, 1928, the results being presented in the accompanying
table.
These 78 establishments represent all establishments engaged in
the manufacture of automobiles, trucks, busses, bodies, or some sub
stantial part of an automobile for which data are available. Auto
mobile accessories and specialties have been omitted in order that
the establishments which are included might be fairly comparable as
regards working conditions arid market influences.
The establishments are arranged in the table in descending order
according to the favorableness of their showing in 1928.
A few of the interesting facts developed by an examination of the
employment indexes in the table are cited below.
The annual averages show consistently low percentages with little
or no improvement apparent. In fact, with the exception of 1926
each year showed a lower average than 1923.
The industry as a whole did not vary much from year to year, but
the individual establishments fluctuated widely and inconsistently
with one another.
For every year since 1923, except 1926, the stability index for more
than one-half the plants was under 85. Although the per cent of
178
EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS
plants with an index of 90 or more is lower for 1927 and 1928 than in
preceding years, a slight improvement is shown in 1928 over 1927.
Only two plants (Nos. 3 and 4) had a record as good as 90 per cent
for each of the six years.
T a ble 3 .— P E R C E N T O F F U L L -T I M E E M P L O Y M E N T I N T H E A U T O M O B I L E I N D U S T R Y
m
Plant
No.
Location *
Cleveland, O h io ...
Buffalo, N . Y .........
Cincinnati, O h io..
New York C ity __
Bridgeport, ConnNew Y o rk ________
Chicago, 111.............
Detroit, M ich ------____ do........................
N ew Jersey.............
Ohio...........................
N ew York C ity—
........ d o........................
Detroit, M ich ------California_________
Philadelphia, P a ...
Detroit, M ich -------do.
Pontiac, M ic h .
New Y o rk .........
Toledo, O h io ..
Detroit, M ic h ..
Wisconsin..........
(2)
N ew York C ity.............
Chicago, 111.....................
Detroit, M ich ................
Buffalo, N . Y .................
Illinois...............................
Pennsylvania.................
Michigan.........................
New Jersey......... ............
M ichigan______________
Lansing, M ich ...............
Indianapolis, In d --------Ohio..................................
Philadelphia, Pa...........
Detroit, M ic h -------------Chicago, 111.....................
California.........................
Wisconsin........................
Chicago, i n .....................
Highland Park, M ich .
N ew Y o rk _____________
.d o .
Chicago, i n ___
New Y o rk____
Buffalo, N . Y _
Pennsylvania.
N ew Y o rk ____
____ do................
____ do................................
Indiana....................- —
Highland Park, M ich..
Detroit, M ich -------------Indianapolis, In d--------Cleveland, Ohio---------.d o .
Chicago, 111.......................
Indiana..............................
M ichigan ..........................
Cincinnati, Ohio.............
Highland Park, M ic h ..
O hio...................................
Wisconsin.........................
Cleveland, Ohio_______
Indiana..............................
____ do..................................
Product
1923
1924
1926
1926
1927
Automobiles.
Parts________
Automobiles.
.d o .
do.
____ d o..............
Parts..............
Automobiles.
____ do_______
Parts................
Bodies.............
Automobiles .
. . . . . d o _______
------ do..............
.do.
Bodies.............
Automobiles.
P a rts..............
Automobiles.
Parts .
.d o .
Automobiles.
.do.
,.d o .
do.
Parts................
Bodies.............
Automobiles.
____ do_______
.d o .
.d o .
-d o .
Parts................
Automobiles.
____ do.
— .d o _______
Bodies.............
Parts................
Automobiles.
.d o _______
Parts .
Bodies_______
Automobiles.
____ do_______
do .
do.
P a rts.,
.do.
Automobiles.
Parts................
do.
Bodies.............
Parts. .............
Automobiles.
____ do_______
. . . . d o ..............
____ do..............
Parts................
Automobiles.
do.
Bodies.............
Automobiles.
____ do..............
do .
------ d o ._
____ d o ._
____ d o ._
____ d o ._
B odies..
81.8
83.6
94.9
91.7
54.5
91.2
81.3
80.1
83.0
87.6
72.1
87.8
95 3
83.8
73.7
98.8
96.2
73.4
54.3
85.9
90.4
67.7
86.1
90.2
94.1
88.5
96.4
95.7
82.7
86.9
77.3
91.0
90.0
77.2
80.2
82.4
88.9
85.5
85.2
70.0
80.9
82.9
95.3
83.8
63.7
87.4
88.0
68.9
91.1
75.0
85.2
85.6
93 5
96.6
88.3
85.8
83.2
79.0
89.9
88.5
88.7
85.4
65.3
66.2
79.1
88.8
88.5
83.8
78.5
97.5
73.5
91.2
93.8
94.3
81.3
82.2
81.3
91.3
88.7
87.7
94.1
71.3
80.2
72.0
64.6
70.2
68.3
76.4
91.6
83.8
80.0
71.7
83.7
62.3
94.6
81.5
52.3
92.0
86.1
82.8
83.4
96.2
78.2
70.1
63.3
73.2
78.6
49.7
67.4
83.8
80.9
85.2
92.9
95.2
69.7
76.0
79.8
85.3
91.9
95.2
93.1
96.4
61.0
57.5
84.3
78.5
62.9
84.2
79.1
74.5
89.8
91.1
90.6
96.8
66.2
67.6
94.4
93.4
71.2
51.1
98.7
53.8
85.9
79.1
66.2
61.2
82.9
84.3
80.6
90.5
86.1
77.1
62.8
63.2
92.2
68.6
58.5
68.6
96.4
97.2
89.6
79.4
92.8
85.3
85.7
86.3
73.5
89.8
83.9
83.6
76.0
74.2
75.9
77.1
59.0
87.9
86.5
88.0
86.4
84.6
97.2
84.8
78.0
88.1
76.8
95.4
76.5
88.0
88.9
85.2
79.5
84.0
74.3
79.0
91.3
78.4
89.1
77.6
92.4
79.9
95.1
85.6
73.9
91.5
97.8
81.8
72.3
89.9
90.5
51.7
77.8
86.9
77.5
83.3
93.1
73.6
75.3
90.1
80.4
78.4
66.0
88.8
67.0
64.5
70.5
86.8
86.9
86.7
85.2
75.8
68.9
85.2
83.9
88.7
67.9
65.8
90.4
90.7
62.0
86.5
74.3
87.1
85.1
88.0
97.4
86.7
86.8
81.5
84.3
86.3
85.9
84.7
85.7
81.9
68.9
90.9
72.9
93.1
91.7
86.6
81.9
97.4
83.0
95.7
96.7
85.2
66.1
90.8
81.4
88.3
81.9
89.4
84.5
83.6
64.7
84.3
87.1
85.7
86.9
76.0
77.8
92.8
88.7
74.7
77.8
92.3
87.7
69.7
64.9
1 In cases where the name of the city would identify the plant, only the State is given.
2 Location omitted in order to prevent possible identification of establishment.
88.1
90.9
81.8
80.2
91.3
54.0
84.4
83.1
87.5
90.7
86.3
91.2
80.8
91.5
85.4
89.2
87.6
86.4
78.3
77.0
71.0
78.3
77.3
83.8
88.7
80.4
72.2
12 months
ending
Novem
ber, 1928
97.1
95.8
94.4
94.3
92.1
91.0
90.9
90.5
90.4
90.4
90.3
90.3
89.9
89.6
89.4
89.2
89.1
89.0
88.8
88.7
87.2
87.0
87.0
86.5
86.4
86.3
86.2
86.2
86.1
86.0
94.6
82.3
87.4
81.2
91.5
80.0
87.1
71.5
82.9
84.4
88.5
69.7
78.9
81.3
85.0
78.7
76.5
73.5
87.4
87.1
76.2
54.3
88.7
67.0
85.9
85.6
85.5
84.7
84.7
84.4
84.3
84.3
84.2
83.5
83.4
83.3
82.1
81.5
81.2
80.9
80.7
80.3
79.7
79.4
78.8
78.5
77.5
76.7
76.4
74.8
74.8
74.5
74.2
73.8
73.3
73.0
72.1
71.8
70.0
69.6
69.0
50.2
67.0
88.1
88.1
68.2
EMPLOYMENT STABILITY IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES
179
T able 3 .— P E R C E N T OP P U L L -T I M E E M P L O Y M E N T I N T H E A U T O M O B I L E I N D U S
T R Y — Continued
Plant
No.
Location
Pennsylvania____
Detroit, M ic h ____
Philadelphia, Pa_.
N ew Jersey........... .
N ew Y o rk ............. .
Pontiac, M ich ____
N ew Y o rk ............. .
Detroit, M ich ____
Buffalo, N . Y ____
Product
1923
Bodies.______
AutomobilesParts................
Bodies.............
Parts................
Automobiles.
.do.
Bodies.............
Automobiles.
86.9
79.0
72.7
Average.
H ighest..
Lowest
Per cent of plants with employment stability of—
95 and over...................................................................
90 to 94.9.........................................................................
85 to 89.9........... .............................................................
80 to 84.9.........................................................................
Under 80.........................................................................
12 months
ending
Novem
ber, 1928
1925
1926
1927
90.3
64.8
94.0
95.4
80.1
78.5
85.0
74.1
58.3
86.7
55.0
88.6
64.9
82.1
63.2
85.9
85.7
78.5
95.4
73.8
65.3
81.2
62.4
84.2
80.8
74.0
82.9
89.6
60.0
83.3
93.4
82.3
68.7
83.9
75.6
78.3
79.6
48.5
65.4
65.2
64.8
63.8
50.8
48.3
82.3
97.5
52.3
78.7
98.8
49.7
82.0.
97.8
51.7
83.3
97.4
62.0
80. (
95.3
48.5
80.8
97.1
48.3
3.8
16.7
26.9
23.1
29.5
10.3
14.1
10.3
16.7
48.7
9.0
10.3
26J
11.5
42.3
9.0
14.1
32.1
19.2
25.6
1.3
11.5
29.5
23.1
34.6
26.9
.1
1924
68.1
68.8
66.1
66.7
2.6
12.8
Stability of Railroad Employment
E v e r y operating railroad furnishes the Interstate Commerce Com
mission a monthly statement giving for each occupational classifica
tion the average number of employees during the month and also
(except for the train and engine crews) the number of equivalent full
time positions. Reports of this character have been made since
July, 1921. The resulting material is so voluminous that for the
purpose of the present study it was necessary to select a limited
number of occupations and railroads. The occupations selected were
clerks (Class B), section laborers, machinists, telegraphers, road
freight firemen, and yard brakemen, it being felt that these six occu
pations are fairly representative of the major classes of railroad labor.
The choice of railroads was dependent to some extent upon the com
pleteness and uniformity of their reports, but on the whole the 10 roads
selected are probably as representative as 10 roads can be of the
different conditions of climate, traffic density, and operating manage
ment existing in the United States. Except for machinists, the
period studied covers the six years from 1922 (the earliest full calendar
year reported on in the present detail) to 1927. In the case of machin
ists the data for 1922 are omitted, as the shopmens' strike of that
year seriously affected the employment of machinists on most of the
roads included here.
Employment Conditions in 1927
T a b l e 4 shows the percentage of full-time employment in 1927
for each of the 6 selected occupations on each of the 10 selected
railroads. The average percentages shown in the table indicate
that the clerks and telegraphers, with an average percentage of 95.7
had the best opportunity for employment, closely followed by the
machinists with an average percentage of 95.1. The next best show
ing is for yard brakemen (91.4 per cent), while the road freight
firemen drop to 86.4 per cent and the section laborers to the low figure
of 81.8 per cent.
39142°—29-----13
EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS
180
T able 4 .— P E R C E N T O F F U L L -T I M E E M P L O Y M E N T IN 6 S P E C IF IE D O C C U P A T IO N S
O N 10 S P E C IF IE D R A IL R O A D S , 1927
District and railroad
Northeastern district:
N ew York Central__________________________________
Pennsylvania________________________________________
Baltimore & Ohio___________________________________
Southeastern district:
Southern , ..... .
-- Louisville & Nashville______________________________
Northwestern district:
Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul............ .......................
Great Northern_____________________________________
Chicago, Burlington & Q u in cy.....................................
Southwestern district:
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe.................................. ......
Southern Pacific____________ ________ _______________
Average, all 10 roads______________________________
Clerks
Teleg
raphers
Road
Yard
Section
M a
freight brakelabor
chinists
firemen men
ers
87.3
93.8
97.8
98.3
93.2
97.5
83.4
84.7
82.9
91.9
87.8
94.2
83.3
85.7
92.7
94.9
90.2
94.9
98.1
98.5
97.3
95.7
91.3
92.6
95.8
97.2
91.1
92.5
94.3
92.4
96.3
93.6
97.5
96.7
89.1
97.4
68.5
66.8
77.6
95.6
98.4
96.8
90.5
72.9
88.5
96.3
77.9
91.4
98.7
95.8
97.3
94.6
82.3
87.5
98.2
95.5
78.8
88.3
92.9
89.3
95.7
95.7
81.8
95.1
86.4
91.4
When individual roads are examined, certain striking contrasts
appear. The Southern and Louisville & Nashville stand out with
employment percentages of over 90 in all occupations. Also it might
be noted that the Baltimore & Ohio and the Chicago, Milwaukee &
St. Paul show percentages of over 90 in all occupations except section
men.
Similar striking contrasts appear when the individual occupations
are examined. The clerks and telegraphers show generally high
percentages, but in one case the clerks’ percentage drops to 87.3 and
the telegraphers’ to 89.1. Section laborers, on the other hand, have
very low percentages on some roads, the lowest being 66.8. On the
Louisville & Nashville, however, section laborers show an employ
ment percentage of over 92. Generally speaking, the roads in the
same geographical and climatic territory have similar employment
trends, but this is by no means an invariable occurrence. Thus the
percentage for road freight firemen on the Chicago, Milwaukee &
St. Paul is 90.5, while for those on the Great Northern it is only 72.9.
Trend of Employment, by Years
T u r n in g to the second part of the inquiry, namely the trend of
employment over the period 1922 to 1927 inclusive, the best method
of procedure is to consider each occupation separately.
Clerks.—Table 5 shows for clerks the percentage of full-time
employment by roads and by years, 1922 to 1927. Viewed as a
whole, it appears that such employment among clerks noticeably
improved over the period shown. Thus there were only 2 of the 10
roads which had an employment percentage of 97.5 or over in 1922;
there were 3 in 1923 and 2 in 1924, whereas this number increased to
5 in 1925, 6 in 1926, and 5 in 1927.
EMPLOYMENT STABILITY IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES
181
T able 5 .— P E R C E N T O F F U L L -T I M E E M P L O Y M E N T F O R C L E R K S , B Y R O A D S A N D
YEARS
District and railroad
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
N um
ber of
years
with
97.5 per
cent or
over
90.0
94.9
93.2
95.8
97.9
94.8
95.6
95.6
97.0
97.1
95.9
97.5
97.5
98.7
97.4
87.3
93.8
97.8
1
2
2
98.8
97.5
98.5
96.7
99.2
96.4
98.9
97.9
99.5
99.3
98.1
98.5
6
4
95.9
93.2
96.1
98.3
95.9
97.0
95.3
95.6
96.0
97.1
96.0
97.6
97.1
95.4
98.0
96.3
93.6
97.5
1
0
3
96.3
92.8
95.7
93.7
98.2
96.6
98.4
96.0
97.4
97.7
98.7
95.8
3
1
2
3
2
5
6
5
Northeastern district:
New York Central..... ....................................................
Pennsylvania.......................... - .....................................
Baltimore & O h io ........................................ - ...............
Southeastern district:
Southern............................................................ ..............
Louisville & Nashville........................ .........................
Northwestern district:
Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul...............................
Great Northern..... ....................................................... ..
Chicago, Burlington & Q uincy. ..............................
Southwestern district:
Atchison, Topeka & Santa F e ___.............................
Southern Pacific...............................................................
N um ber of roads with 97.5 per cent or o v e r.. _
Machinists.—On the whole, there was a very marked improvement
in the regularity of employment among machinists during the period
1923 to 1927. As shown in Table 6 the number of roads having
an employment stability of 95 or over dropped from 4 in 1923 to 1
in 1924, but thereafter steadily increased—to 4 in 1925, 6 in 1926,
and 7 in 1927.
T able 6 .— P E R C E N T OF F U L L -T I M E E M P L O Y M E N T F O R M A C H IN I S T S , B Y R O A D S
AN D YEARS
District and railroad
Northeastern district:
N ew York Central...............................................................
Pennsylvania.........................................................................
Baltimore & Ohio................................................................
Southeastern district:
Southern..................................................................................
Louisville & Nashville.......................................................
Northwestern district:
Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul— ...............................
Great Northern.....................................................................
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy.......................................
Southwestern district:
Atchison, Topeka & Santa F e ._.....................................
Southern Pacific............................................................. .
N um ber of roads with 95 per cent or over..............
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
N um
ber of
years
with 95
percent
or over
91.5
95.3
92.7
86.8
88.3
90.1
93.4
93.0
96.8
95.9
93.4
92.8
91.9
87.8
94.2
1
1
1
95.4
96.3
90.6
90.0
93.6
98.3
98.4
98.5
95.8
97.2
3
4
87.9
87.7
88.9
91.6
96.9
82.3
95.4
97.2
88.5
95.5
98.5
96.9
95.6
98.4
96.8
3
4
2
96.4
91.7
92.4
82.3
90.0
93.8
94.6
92.8
98.2
95.5
2
1
4
1
4
6
7
Telegraphers.—The occupation of telegraphers, as indicated in
Table 7, showed no continued improvement in regularity of employ
ment over the period 1922 to 1927. The number of railroads with
an average percentage of full-time employment of 97.5 or over for
telegraphers rose irregularly from 1 in 1922 to 6 in 1926, but dropped
to 2 in 1927.
182
em ploym ent
s t a t is t ic s
T able 7 .— P E R C E N T O F F U L L -T I M E E M P L O Y M E N T F O R T E L E G R A P H E R S , B Y R O A D S
AN D YEARS
Number of roads with 97.5 per cent or over___
1923
1924
1925
94.0
94.0
96.3
98.9
97.7
92.0
95.7
97.8
98.1
96.5
96.3
98.6
99.2
98.9
99.1
98.3
93.2
97.5
3
3
4
97.7
96.1
93.3
94.0
99.1
90.9
98.1
94.3
97.7
95.3
97.3
95.7
4
0
95.7
97.6
92.2
98.0
96.1
88.4
96.8
98.5
91.8
95.3
98.6
90.4
99.0
96.7
89.1
97.4
3
0
2
94.7
91.4
95.0
94.2
95.8
91.2
96.5
94.3
95.4
95.1
97.3
94.6
0
0
1
4
3
3
6
2
>W C5
Northeastern district:
New York Central.........................................................
Pennsylvania____________________________________
Baltimore & Ohio________________________________
Southeastern district:
Southern__________________________________________
Louisville & Nashville___________________________
Northwestern district:
Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul_________________
Great Northern. ________________________________
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy__________________
Southwestern district:
Atchison, Topeka & Santa F e___________________
Southern Pacific_______________ _____ ____________
1922
■ ©
District and railroad
1926
N um
ber of
years
with
97.5
percent
or over
1927
1 Original reports not clear.
Section laborers.—As shown in Table 8, not only was there low sta
bility of employment among section laborers in all the years covered
but no important improvement took place between 1922 and 1927.
In 1922 only 2 roads had a percentage of 90 or over and in 1923 only
1 road. In 1924 and 1925 this number was increased to 4, but in
1926 and 1927 there was a drop to the level of 1922.
As regards individual roads, however, there are striking contrasts,
The Louisville & Nashville had the excellent record of more than
90 per cent full-time employment in 5 of the 6 years, closely followed
by the Southern and the Southern Pacific, each with a record of 90 per
cent or over in 4 of the 6 years. The Pennsylvania shows 2 out of
6 years with more than 90 per cent employment, but none of the
remaining 6 roads reached this level in any of the 6 years.
T able 8 .— P E R C E N T O F F U L L -T I M E E M P L O Y M E N T F O R S E C T I O N L A B O R E R S , B Y
ROADS AN D YEAR S
District and railroad
Northeastern district:
N ew York Central.........................................................
Pennsylvania....................................................................
Baltimore & Ohio...........................................................
Southeastern district:
Southern.............................................................................
Louisville & Nashville..................................................
Northwestern district:
Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul...............................
Great Northern..............................................................
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy.................................
Southwestern district:
Atchison, Topeka & Santa F e............. .....................
Southern Pacific...................................... ......................
Number of roads with 90 per cent or over_____
N um
ber of
years
with
90 per
cent or
over
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
77.2
88.3
67.8
85.0
85.2
73.0
80.7
90.0
83.0
83.3
94.5
83.1
82.9
88.3
77.3
83.4
84.7
82.9
0
2
0
89.0
94.5
88.1
88.3
91.4
90.5
93.5
95.3
93.9
95.4
91.3
92.6
4
66.9
71.4
64.6
66.5
61.8
68.8
74.8
74.5
71.1
69.5
68.3
75.8
74.2
64.2
75.2
68.5
66.8
77.6
0
0
0
86.0
91.7
83.8
90.4
80.3
92.0
84.6
90.7
84.1
89.4
82.3
87.5
0
4
2
1
4
4
2
2
5
EMPLOYMENT STABILITY IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES
183
Road freight firemen.—Regularity of employment among road
freight firemen as shown in Table 9 improved markedly over the
6-year period. The number of roads having an employment stability
percentage of 90 or over rose steadily from 1 in 1922 to 5 in 1926 and
dropped only to 4 in 1927.
T a bl e 9 . —P E B C E N T O F F U L L -T I M E E M P L O Y M E N T F O R R O A D F R E I G H T F I R E M E N
B Y ROADS AN D YEARS
District and railroad
Northeastern district:
N ew York Central.........................................................
Pennsylvania....................................................................
Baltimore & Ohio...........................................................
Southeastern district:
Southern.. ........................................................................
Louisivlle & Nashville...... ...........................................
Northwestern district:
Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul...............................
Great Northern........ ......................................... .............
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy.................................
Southwestern district:
Atchison, Topeka & Santa F e...................................
Southern Pacific..............................................................
N umber of roads with 90 per cent or over..... _
N um
ber of
years
with
90 per
cent or
over
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
65.8
84.2
80.8
86.7
96.2
92.7
89.5
90.1
85.1
82.7
91.5
88.9
91.2
89.9
90.4
83.3
85.7
92.7
1
3
3
79.8
89.2
89.9
87.5
94.1
85.0
92.3
88.5
93.2
89.3
91.1
92.5
4
1
93.4
76.1
78.6
89.4
84.9
89.8
91.1
77.2
83.8
91.0
80.0
85.4
90.7
79.8
90.1
90.5
72.9
88.5
5
0
1
73.5
83.5
89.5
86.9
82.4
87.9
76.5
80.1
77.0
85.2
78.8
88.3
0
0
1
2
3
3
5
4
Yard brakemen.—Among yard brakemen, regularity of employment
showed no great improvement over the period reviewed, but on the
whole conditions were somewhat better in the later years. Thus, as
shown in Table 10, no road had a full-time employment percentage of
92.5 or over for this occupation in 1922. In 1923 the number of roads
in this class jumped to 6, declined to 3 and 1, respectively, in 1924 and
1925, and then rose to 6 and 5, respectively, in 1926 and 1927.
T able 1 0 .— P E R C E N T
O F F U L L -T I M E E M P L O Y M E N T
ROADS AND YEARS
District and railroad
Northeastern district:
New York Central_______________________________
Pennsylvania______________ .______________________
Baltimore & Ohio________________________________
Southeastern district:
Southern__________________________________________
Louisville & Nashville___ ______ _________________
Northwestern district:
Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul_________________
Great Northern............ ................. ................... .............
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy__________________
Southwestern district:
Atchison, Topeka & Santa F e___________________
Southern Pacific................................ ................. ...........
Number of roads with 92.5 per cent or over___
FOR
YARD BRAKEM EN, BY
N um
ber of
years
with
92.5
per
cent or
over
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
76.9
86.2
81.2
92.7
96.8
94.1
92.3
93.7
87.4
90.1
94.8
91.5
94.0
94.2
93.8
94.9
90.2
94.9
3
4
3
78.5
91.6
97.1
92.1
94.5
93.0
91.4
89.9
94.5
96.0
94.3
92.4
4
2
85.4
80.6
85.0
93.9
91.1
90.1
90.3
81.5
89.0
92.3
82.5
86.3
93.4
79.1
91.9
96.3
77.9
91.4
3
0
0
83.3
86.2
95.9
90.1
91.5
91.9
92.1
89.6
88.2
90.7
92.9
89.3
2
0
0
6
3
1
6
5
EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS
184
Unemployment Conditions in Europe in 1928
T
HE unemployment conditions in various European countries in
the latter part of 1928 in comparison with 1927 conditions are
shown in the table below, the source being the official statistics of the
several countries.
U N E M P L O Y M E N T I N E U R O P E I N L A T E S U M M E R O F 1927 A N D 1928
[Except where otherwise indicated, data are for August of each year]
1927
1928
Country, and class of unemployed
Number
Austria (persons in receipt of benefit)________________________________
135,938
Belgium (members of unemployment insurance societies)....................
7,542
Czechoslovakia (persons in receipt of benefit)...........................................
211,845
Denmark (workers covered b y trade-union and employment
exchange statistics)__________________________________________________
45,300
Estonia (persons registered)...................... ........... ...........................................
809
Finland (persons registered)__________________________________________
1,221
France (persons in receipt of benefit)...........................................................
14,825
Germany:
Trade-unionists___________________________________________________
194,635
Persons in receipt of benefit______________________ ________________
403,851
Unemployed in receipt of emergency relief______________________
Hungary (trade-unionists)____________________________________________
11,247
Irish Free State (compulsorily insured persons)............. .........................
22,122
Italy (persons registered as totally unemployed)................................... ..
291,821
Latvia (persons registered).................................................... ............. .............
944
Netherlands (members of unemployment insurance societies)............
19,525
Norway:
Trade-unionists..............................................................................................
Persons registered..........................................................................................
15,727
Poland (persons registered)...............................................................................
159,365
Sweden (trade-unionists).............. ............................... .....................................
Switzerland (persons registered) ________ ____________________________
8,854
UnitedKingdom (compulsorily insured persons)®........... ....................... 61,126,267
Per
cent
Num ber
1.2
1143,447
3,376
2 13,627
16.3
5.0
9.0
6.6
2 17.3
0.5
35,599
467
857
904
13.1
288,375
574,475
3 80,214
13,355
22,843
248,100
965
* 14,728
6.5
2 2,208
15,817
88,593
7.8
« 9.3
Per
cent
9.3
4 5.0
2 13.0
7.1
6,523
61,355,011
6 11.5
i T o make this figure comparable with that for 1927, old-age pensioners have been included, athough
under an act effective Oct. 1, 1927, such pensioners were separated from persons receiving unemployment
benefits. This figure can be considered only as an approximation, since the number of old-age pensioners
still actively employed could not be ascertained.
3 July.
8 The German unemployment insurance act which came into force Oct. 1, 1927, provides that after the
expiration of 26 weeks’ payment of benefits unemployed persons are to be transferred to the emergency
relief roll. (Labor Review, October, 1927, p. 68.)
* Provisional figures for Aug. 20 to 25.
8 Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Includes those temporarily stopped.
# September.
HOUSING
Building Permits in Principal Cities of the United
States in 1928 1
Introduction and Summary
T
HIS article presents a summaiy of a study of building permits
issued in cities of the United States having a population of
25,000 and over. According to the estimate of the Census Bureau
as of July 1, 1928, there were 319 cities in the United States in this
population group.
On January 1 of this year schedule forms were mailed by the bureau
to all of these cities except those in States where local bureaus are
collecting like information. In these States the information is
collected by the State and mailed to the Federal bureau. Schedules
were received from 310 cities and data for these cities are shown
herein. The States of Illinois, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New
York, and Pennsylvania are now cooperating with the bureau in this
work.
The city building officials are also heartily cooperating with the
work of the bureau. In 1922 it was necessary to send agents to 33
per cent of the cities from which data were collected. In 1927 only
73^2 per cent of the cities were visited by the bureau’s agents and in
collecting the 1928 information it was necessary to send to only 6.1
per cent of the cities.
The costs shown in the following tables refer to the cost of the
building only, land costs not being included. The costs are estimated
by the builder at the time of applying for his permit to build and are
recorded on the application. There is probably a tendency in many
cases to underestimate. Some cities are stricter than others in
making applicants state a true cost.
Table 1 shows the total number of new buildings and the estimated
cost of each of the different kinds of new buildings for which permits
were issued in the 310 cities from which schedules were received for
the year 1928, the per cent that each kind forms of the total number,
the per cent that the cost of each kind forms of the total cost, and the
average cost per building.
i EarHer reports concerning building permits issued in the United States are published in Bulletins
Nos. 295, 318, 347, 363, 397, 424, 449, and 469 of the Bureau of Labor Statistics; also in issues of the Labor
Review for July, 1921; April, 1922; July and October, 1923; June and October, 1924; June, September, and
October, 1925; June, July, and October, 1926; M a y , June, July, October, and November, 1927; M a y , June,
October, and November, 1928.
187
HOUSING
188
T a b l e 1 .— N U M B E R A N D C O S T O F N E W B U I L D I N G S A S S T A T E D B Y P E R M I T S IS S U E D
I N 310 C IT IE S D U R I N G C A L E N D A R Y E A R 1928, B Y K I N D O F B U I L D I N G
New buildings for which permits were issued
Estimated cost
K in d of buildings
Number
of
buildings
Per
cent of
total
1-family dwellings.........................................................
2-family dwellings.........................................................
1-family and 2-family dwellings with stores
combined......................................................................
Multifamily dwellings................................................
Multifamily dwellings with stores combined__
Hotels____________________________ _______________
Lodging houses..............................................................
A ll others____ - ........... ...................................................
145,322
19,963
37.7
5.2
$715,317,535
153,157,386
23.1
4 .9
$4,922
7,672
2,625
12,070
1,528
235
37
209
.7
3.1
.4
.1
0)
.1
26,702,412
776,520,458
90,754,524
114,928,650
780,576
35,559,169
.9
25.1
2.9
3.7
10,172
64,335
59,394
489,058
21,097
170,140
To ta L .....................................................................
181,989
47.2
1,913,720,710
61.8
10,516
950
1,009
3,973
3,839
156,457
4,520
304
1,353
243
517
852
11,787
367
13, 111
4,158
.2
.3
1.0
1.0
40.6
1.2
84,914,600
49,059,444
152,649,534
70,690,699
55,140,483
14,913,812
65,080,263
256,101,159
29,378,349
38,690,950
143,519,854
4,895,029
583,553
211,890,765
7,710,836
2.7
1.6
4.9
2.3
1.8
.5
2.1
8.3
.9
1.2
4.6
.2
0)
6.8
.2
89,384
48,622
38,422
18,414
352
3,300
214,080
189,284
120,899
74,837
168,451
415
1,590
16,161
1,854
Am ount
Per
cent of
total
Average
per
building
Residential buildings
(L
Nonresidential buildings
Amusement buildings.................................................
Churches_______ _______ __________________________
Factories and workshops............................................
Public garages.................................................................
Private garages...............................................................
Service stations..............................................................
Institutions......................................................................
Office buildings.............. ...............................................
Public buildings............................................................
Public works and utilities..........................................
Schools and libraries....................................................
Sheds____________________________________________
Stables and bam s..........................................................
Stores and warehouses.................................................
A ll others________________________________________
3! 1
3! 4
1.1
T o ta L .....................................................................
203,440
52.8
1,185,219,330
38.2
5,826
Grand total..........................................................
385,429
100.0
3,098,940,040
100.0
8,040
* Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent.
In the 310 cities for which reports were received for the year 1928
permits were issued for 385,429 buildings. Of this number, 181,989
buildings, or 47.2 per cent, were for residential purposes and 203,440,
or 52.8 per cent, for nonresidential use.
Of the residential buildings 145,322 were 1-family dwellings; this
is 37.7 per cent of the total number of new buildings for which per
mits were issued or 79.8 per cent of the total number of residential
buildings. Two-family dwellings, the next most numerous group of
residential buildings, comprised only 5.2 per cent of the total number
of buildings. With the exception of private garages no other kind
of building in either the residential or nonresidential group consti
tuted as much as 5 per cent of the total number of buildings for which
permits were issued.
In the nonresidential group private garages were far the most
numerous kind of building. Of all buildings for which permits were
issued in these 310 cities during the calendar year 1928, over 40 per
cent were private garages, over 7 per cent more private garages being
erected than 1-family dwellings.
Stores and warehouses ranked next after private garages in the
nonresidential group and formed only 3.4 per cent of the total number
of new buildings.
It will be seen from the above that out of every 100 buildings for
which permits were issued in cities having a population of 25,000
or over, 78 were either 1-family dwellings or private garages.
BUILDING PERMITS IN UNITED STATES— 1928
189
The total estimated expenditure for new buildings in these 310
cities was $3,098,940,040 of which $1,913,720,710, or 61.8 per cent,
was for residential buildings and $1,185,219,330, or 38.2 per cent,
for nonresidential buildings.
The Bureau of Labor Statistics has been collecting figures concern
ing building permits issued for every year since 1920, and in each
of these years up to 1928, 1-family dwellings accounted for the greatest
expenditure of any kind of buildmgs. In 1928, however, the permits
issued for multifamily dwellings (apartment houses) show a larger
estimated expenditure than those issued for 1-family dwellings.
The estimated cost of apartment houses for which permits were
issued in these 310 cities during 1928 was $776,520,458, or 25.1 per
cent of the expenditure for all new buildings, as compared with
$715,317,535, or 23.1 per cent, for 1-family dwellings.
If we group apartment houses and apartment Houses with stores
we find that the expenditure for both kinds of apartment houses
equaled the expenditure for 1-family dwellings and 2-family dwell
ings combined. Each combination comprised approximately 28 per
cent of the total estimated expenditure for all buildings.
In the nonresidential group, office buildings accounted for the
largest expenditure of money, $256,101,159 being expended for this
class of structure. Stores and warehouses rated next in expenditures
in this group, followed by factories, and schools and libraries in order.
Private garages which comprise 40.6 per cent of the number of new
buildings account for only 1.8 per cent of the cost.
The average cost per building of all new buildings in these 310 cities
was $8,040. In residential buildings the average cost was $10,516 and
in nonresidential buildings, $5,826. The average cost of nonresidential
buildings, however, is “ pulled down” by the inclusion of a large num
ber of private garages and sheds. If we exclude these two classes of
buildings the average cost of the remaining nonresidential buildings is
$13,992 per building.
Families Provided For
T a b l e 2 show s the n u m ber and per cent o f fam ilies provided fo r b y
each o f the different kinds o f dwellings fo r w hich perm its were issued
in 302 identical cities during the calendar years 1927 and 1928, b y kind
o f dwelling.
T able S.— N U M B E R A N D P E R C E N T O F F A M I L I E S T O B E H O U S E D I N N E W D W E L L I N G S
F O R W H I C H P E R M I T S W E R E IS S U E D I N 302 I D E N T I C A L C IT I E S D U R I N G T H E C A L
E N D A R Y E A R S 1927 A N D 1928, B Y K I N D O F D W E L L I N G
Kind of dwelling
Number of new
buildings for which
permits were issued
Families provided for
Number
Percent
1927
1928
1927
1-family dwellings........................................................
2-family dwellings........................................................
1-family and 2-family dwellings with stores
combined.....................................................................
M ultifamily dwellings...............................................
Multifamily dwellings with stores combined. - .
164,268
25,227
143,889
19,956
164,268
50,454
143,889
39,912
39.2
12.0
36.1
10.0
3,329
13,663
1,768
2,620
12,063
1,528
5,399
179,177
19,580
4,276
190,282
19,780
1.3
42.8
4.7
1.1
47.8
5.0
Total......................................................................
208,255
180,056
418,878
398,139
100.0
100.0
1928
1927
1928
HOUSING
190
Data were received from 302 cities for both 1927 and 1928. In
these 302 cities 398,139 families were provided with dwellings in new
buildings in 1928, as compared with 418,878 in 1927, a decrease of
20,739 dwelling units or 5.0 per cent in 1928 as compared with 1927.
There were 164,268 families accommodated in the new 1-family
dwellings for which permits were issued in 1927 in these 302 cities.
This is 39.2 per cent of the total number of families provided for
during that year. In 1928, 1-family dwellings provided for 143,889
families, which was 36.1 per cent of the total number of families
supplied with new dwelling places. In contrast, the number of
families provided for in apartment houses increased from 179,177 in
1927 to 190,282 in 1928. In 1927, 42.8 per cent of the total number
of family dwelling places for which permits were issued were in apart
ment houses, while in 1928 this percentage had risen to 47.8. The
percentage of families supplied with residences in new 2-family dwell
ings decreased from 12 in 1927 to 10 in 1928.
Table 3 shows the number and percentage distribution of families
provided for in the different kinds of dwellings in the 257 identical
cities from which reports were received each year from 1921 to 1928,
inclusive.
T a b l e 3 .— N U M B E R A N D P E R C E N T O F F A M I L I E S P R O V I D E D F O R I N T H E D I F F E R E N T
K I N D S O F D W E L L I N G S I N 257 I D E N T I C A L C IT IE S , 1921 T O 1928, IN C L U S I V E
N um ber of families provided for in—
Year
1-family
dwellings
1921..........................
1922............................
1923............................
1924............................
1925............................
1926............................
1927-.........................
1928............................
130,873
179,364
207,632
210,818
226,159
188,074
155,512
136,907
2-family
dwellings 1
38,858
80,252
96,344
95,019
86,145
64,298
54,320
43,098
M ulti
All classes
family
of dwellings
dwellings2
54,814
117,689
149,697
137,082
178,918
209,842
196,263
208,673
224,545
377,305
453,673
442,919
491,222
462,214
406,095
388,678
Per cent of families provided for in—
1-family
dwellings
58.3
47.5
45.8
47.6
46.0
40.7
38.3
35.2
2-family
dwellings1
17.3
21.3
21.2
21.5
17.5
13.9
13.4
11.1
M ulti
family
dwellings *
24.4
31.2
33.0
30.9
36.4
45.4
48.3
53.7
1 Includes 1-family and 2-family dwellings with stores combined.
1Includes multifamily dwellings with stores combined.
The trend toward apartment-house dwelling continues in full
swing. This fact is amply shown by the above table. In 1921 accom
modations were provided for 224,545 families in the new buildings
for which permits were issued during that year. Of this number
58.3 per cent were sheltered in 1-family dwellings, 17.3 per cent in
2-family dwellings, and 24.4 per cent in apartment houses.
Seven years later, in 1928, it is found that 53.7 per cent of the
388,678 new family dwelling units were in apartment houses and only
35.2 per cent in 1-family dwellings and 11.1 per cent in 2-family
dwellings.
The total number of families provided for in 1928 increased 73.1
per cent in 1928 over 1921. One-family dwellings, however, increased
only 4.6 per cent in number in 1928 over 1921, while the family units
provided in apartment houses in 1928 increased 280.7 per cent over
those provided during 1921.
BUILDING PEKMITS IN UNITED STATES— 1928
191
The per cent of families housed in 1-family dwellings has decreased
each year from that of the preceding year, except that 1924 showed a
slight increase over 1923. Apartment units have shown exactly the
opposite trend; 1924 was the only year that the percentage of families
housed in apartment houses was less than that of the preceding year.
The percentage of families housed in 2-family dwellings reached a peak
in 1924; since that year there has been a steady decline in the per
centage of families housed in this class of dwelling.
Building Trend 1927 and 1928
T a b l e 4 shows^ the n u m ber and cost o f the different kinds o f bu ild
ings fo r th e 302 identical cities fro m w hich reports were received in
1927 and 1928 and the per cent o f increase or decrease in the nu m ber
and in the co st in 1928 as com pared w ith 1927.
T able 4 .— N U M B E R A N D C O S T O F N E W B U I L D I N G S F O R W H I C H P E R M I T S W E R E
IS S U E D I N 302 I D E N T I C A L C IT IE S D U R I N G T H E C A L E N D A R Y E A R S 1927 A N D 1928,
B Y K IN D OF B U IL D IN G
N ew buildings for which permits were issued
K ind of building
1928
1927
Ter cent of
increase ( + ) or
decrease (—) in
1928 compared
with 1927
Number
Cost
Number
Cost
Number
164,268
25,227
$789,382,883
208,578,118
143,889
19,956
$710,900,837
153,128,386
-1 2 .4
-2 0 .9
- 9 .9
3,329
13,663
34,978,625
736,830,499
2,620
12,063
26,678,912
776,419,458
-2 1 .3
-1 1 .7
-2 3 .7
+ 5 .4
1,783
79
213
90,666,916
69,393,263
1,305,302
30, 763,923
1, 528
234
37
207
90,754,524
114,289,650
780,576
35,369, 533
-1 4 .3
4-16.4
- 5 3 .2
- 2 .8
+ 6 4 .7
- 4 0 .2
+ 1 5 .0
208,763
1,961,899,529
180,534
1,908,321,876
-1 3 .5
- 2 .7
943
1,118
4,181
4,192
181,859
4,919
332
1,271
339
593
837
13,608
358
13,280
4,283
128,208,773
58,890,438
141,307,499
74,395,804
65,449,178
15,022,065
75,132,340
242,853,223
47,450,619
45,389,033
155,542,100
5,091,261
823,018
215,747,108
7,239,146
947
3,932
3,836
155,478
4,462
303
1,352
243
516
843
11,658
356
12,925
4,127
94,676,800
48,852,444
152,410,564
70,656,199
54,921,052
14,768,932
65,001,863
255,801,159
29,378,349
38,670,950
142,154,423
4,869,737
581,478
210,305,687
7,703,679
Cost
Residential buildings
1-family dwellings.................................... .
2-family dwellings.................................... .
1-family and 2-family dwellings with
stores combined.................................... .
M ultifamily dwellings. ........................ .
Multifamily dwellings with stores
combined..................................................
Hotels........................................................... .
Lodging houses. ...................................... .
Other.............................................................
Total.................................................
201
+. 1
Nonresidential buildings
Amusement buildings.............................
Churches.....................................................
Factories and workshops.......................
Public garages............................................
Private garages..........................................
Service stations. .......................................
Institutions.................................................
Office buildings. . .....................................
Public buildings.......................................
Public works and utilities......................
Schools and libraries............................... .
Sheds..............................................................
Stables and barns..................................... .
Stores and warehouses.........................
All other........................................................
1,002
+.4
-6.0
- 1 0 .4
- 8 .5
-1 4 .5
-9 .3
- 8 .7
+ 6 .4
-2 8 .3
- 1 3 .0
+.7
-3 4 .0
-1 7 .0
+ 7 .9
- 5 .0
- 1 6 .1
- 1 .7
- 1 3 .5
+ 5 .3
- 3 8 .1
- 1 4 .8
-8.6
- 1 4 .3
- .6
- 2 .7
- 4 .4
- 2 9 .3
- 2 .5
+ 6 .4
T o ta l. .............................................. .
232,113
1,278,541,605
201,980
1,180,753,316
-1 3 .0
- 7 .6
Grand t o t a l ..................................
440,876
3,240,441,134
382,514
3,089,075,192
- 1 3 .2
- 4 .7
In the 302 cities from which reports were received for both 1927
and 1928 permits were issued for 382,514 new buildings during the
calendar year 1928 as compared with 440,876 during the calendar
year 1927. This is a decrease, in the number of buildings, of 13,2
192
HOUSING
per cent. The estimated amount spent for the erection of the build
ings for which permits were issued in 1928 was $3,089,075,192, a
decrease of 4.7 per cent from the $3,240,441,134 spent during 1927.
Residential buildings decreased more in number^ but less in esti
mated expenditure than nonresidential buildings in 1928 as com
pared with 1927. The decrease in the number of residential buildings
for which permits were issued during 1928, in these 302 cities, being
13.5 per cent over 1927, while nonresidential buildings decreased
in number 13.0 per cent. In estimated costs, however, the decrease
in residential buildings was only 2.7 per cent as compared with 7.6
per cent in nonresidential buildings.
All classes of residential buildings except hotels showed a decrease
in the number of buildings, comparing 1928 with 1927. Hotels
increased 16.4 per cent in number. The greatest decrease was in
1-family and 2-family dwellings with stores where there was a falling
off of 21.3 per cent.
In estimated expenditure four classes of structures in the residential
group showed a decrease and four showed an increase. ^ The decreases
ranged from 9.9 per cent in the case of 1-family dwellings to 40.2 per
cent in lodging houses. The increases in estimated expenditure in
this group ranged from one-tenth of 1 per cent for multifamily
dwellings with stores combined to 64.7 per cent for hotels.
In the nonresidential group all classes #of buildings showed a
decrease in number except amusement buildings, office buildings, and
schools and libraries, office buildings showing the largest increase
with a gain of 6.4 per cent over 1927. The decreases ranged, from
six-tenths of 1 per cent for stables and bams to 28.3 per cent in the
case of public buildings.
In amounts expended factory buildings, office buildings, and
miscellaneous buildings showed an increase in 1928 as compared
with 1927. All other nonresidential buildings showed a decrease in
expenditures rangingfrom 1.7 per cent for service stations to 38.1 per
cent for public buildings.
Per Capita Expenditure for Buildings
T a b l e 5 shows the total and the per capita expenditures for new
buildings, new housekeeping dwellings, repairs and additions, and for
all kinds of buildings in each of the 310 cities for which reports were
received for the calendar year 1928; the total number of families
provided for and the ratio of families provided for to each 10,000 of
population in these 310 cities; and the total expenditure for all
classes of buildings in 302 cities in 1927.
In the 310 cities which reported for 1928 there was an expenditure
of $3,423,584,461 for building operations of all kinds. Of this amount,
$3,098,940,040 was for new buildings and $324,644,421 for repairs to
old buildings. Of the amount spent for new buildings, $1,762,452,315
was for housekeeping dwellings. The expenditure for all buildings
for the 302 cities which reported for 1927 was $3,593,839,405.
The per capita expenditure for the cities from which reports were
received for 1928 was $76.18 for all building operations, divided as
follows: $68.96 for new buildings and $7.22 for repairs; $39.22 of
BUILDING PERMITS IN UNITED STATES— 1928
193
the amount expended for new buildings was for housekeeping dwell
ings. The population of these 310 cities, as estimated by the Bureau
of the Census for July 1,#1928, was 44,940,049.
The five leading cities in per capita expenditure were White Plains,
N. Y., $440.15; Yonkers, N. Y., $293.64; Evanston, 111., $276.85;
Mount Vernon, N. Y., $260.74; and New Rochelle, N. Y., $230.19.
All of these cities are suburban cities, four being suburbs of New
York and one of Chicago. *In all of these cities residential buildings
accounted for the large per capita expenditure.
Following is a list of the five leading cities in total expenditure
for the years 1920 to 1928, inclusive. It will be noted that the cities
of New York, Chicago, Detroit, Los Angeles, and Philadelphia make
up this list each year except for 1920 and 1921 when Cleveland was
included and Philadelphia slumped below the leading five.
1920
* 1924— Continued
Los Angeles___________$150,147, 516
New Y ork-____ ______ $277,695,337
Chicago______________
84, 602, 650 Philadelphia__________
141 402,655
Detroit_______________
77, 737, 215
Cleveland____________
64,198, 600
1925
Los Angeles___________
60, 023, 600 New York____________ 1,020,604,713
Chicago______________
373, 803, 571
1921
Detroit_______________ 180,132, 528
442, 285, 248 Philadelphia__________
171, 034, 280
New York._
133, 027, 910 Los Angeles___________ 152, 646, 436
Chicago____
86, 680, 023
Cleveland - -.
82, 761, 386
Los Angeles1926
58, 086, 053 New York____________ 1,039,670,572
Detroit____
376, 808, 480
Chicago______________
1922
Detroit_______________
183, 721, 443
140, 093, 075
645,176, 481 Philadelphia__________
New Y ork--.
229, 853, 125 Los Angeles---------------123, 006, 215
Chicago____
121, 206, 787
Los Angeles..
114, 190, 525
Philadelphia1927
93, 614, 593 New York__
Detroit_____
880, 333, 455
Chicago____
365, 065, 042
1923
Detroit_____
145, 555, 647
789, 265, 335 Los Angeles—
123, 027,139
New York__
334, 164, 404 Philadelphia.
Chicago____
117, 590, 650
200,133, 181
Los Angeles—
129, 719, 831
Detroit_____
1928
Philadelphia.
128, 227, 405 New York__
916, 671, 855
Chicago____
323, 509,048
1924
Detroit_____
129, 260, 285
836, 043, 604 Philadelphia112, 225, 865
New York308, 911, 159 Los Angeles—
Chicago—
101, 678, 768
160, 547, 723
Detroit-----
During 1928 accommodations were provided in the new dwellings
for which permits were issued for 399,657 families, or at the rate of
88.9 families to each 10,000 of population in these 310 cities.
Following is a list of the five leading cities in the building of homes
for each year since 1921. This list shows the number of families
provided with homes in new buildings for each 10,000 of the city’s
population. Four of the five for 1928 are contiguous to the great
metropolitan center of New York City.
194
1921
Long Beach________________
Los Angeles________________
Pasadena__________________
Shreveport_________________
Lakewood_________________
HOUSING
631. 9
320. 9
251. 7
249. 8
191. 3
1925
Miami1___________________ 1, 342. 0
San Diego_________________ __ 392. 0
Tampa____ _______________ __ 379. 3
Irvington____________- _____ ___374. 6
Los Angeles 2------ -------------------- 331, 0
1922
Long Beach________________ 1, 081. 0
Los Angeles________________
441. 6
Lakewood_________________
358. 9
268. 1
Miami_____________________
East Cleveland_____________
267. 6
1926
St. Petersburg______________
Mount Vernon.
Irvington__________________
White Plains.
San Diego_________________
700. 3
644.7
398. 6
367.2
339. 5
1923
Long Beach________________
Los Angeles________________
Miami_____________________
Irvington__________________
Lakewood_________________
1927
Irvington__________________
White Plains_______________
Mount Vernon_____________
Yonkers___________________
East Orange_______________
740. 5
419. 5
414. 8
349. 0
338.1
1924
1928
Miami1___________________ 2, 248. 9 Yonkers__________________
Irvington--________________
501. 2 Mount Vernon____________
Los Angeles 2_______________
448. 3 White Plains______________
San Diego_________________
378. 0 Long Beach________________
Long Beach._______________
347. 6 Irvington__________________
347.6
299. 1
298.3
297. 4
295. 4
1, 038. 1
657. 4
611. 1
432. 1
381. 5
* The ratio of families provided for in M iam i in 1924 was based on the population as estimated b y the
Census Bureau for that year. In the light of the actual census taken b y State enumeration in 1925, it would
seem that the estimate for 1924 was below the actual population for that year, hence the ratio here shown
for 1924 is probably higher than the actual population in that year would warrant.
3 Population not estimated in 1924 or 1925; 1923 estimate used.
HOUSING
196
T
able
5.—TOTAL AND PER CAPITA EXPENDITURES FOR NEW BUILDINGS AND FOR
Total expenditures
Expenditure
for new
housekeeping
dwellings
only,
1928
Expenditure
for new
buildings,
1928
Expenditure
for repairs
and addi
tions,
1928
Akron, Ohio..................................
Alameda, Calif.............................
Albany, N . Y ...............................
Allentown, Pa..............................
Altoona, P a...................................
Amsterdam, N . Y .......................
Alton, 111.........................................
Anderson, Ind..............................
Asheville, N . C ............................
Ashtabula, Ohio..........................
Atlanta, G a......................... .........
Atlantic C ity, N . J_...................
Auburn, N . Y ...............................
Augusta, G a..................................
Aurora, 111......................................
$17,837,500
1,994,724
12,503,715
5,484,715
2,898,276
677,675
816,115
2,169,014
2,832,362
395,093
25,119,931
5,786,810
356,870
1,165,846
2,650,700
$1,647,596
136,672
2,389,810
450,325
462,631
6,000
228,340
283,819
262,748
118,779
2,274,848
1,624,032
158,726
385,098
299,772
$19,485,096
2,131,396
14,893,525
5,935,040
3,360,907
683,675
1,044,455
2,452,833
3,095,110
513,872
27,394,779
7,410,842
515,596
1,550,944
2,950,472
$20,196,088
1,536,930
16,188,743
6,588,169
3,041,304
607,530
(8)
2,213,382
5,987,153
496,780
11,860,907
5,822,864
843,194
1,459,090
2,791,528
$12,164,148
1,429,224
7,460,200
3,165,000
930,090
242,600
567,724
881,550
1,749,300
150,250
9,968,489
259,265
159,125
815,644
1,561,549
Baltimore, M d .............................
Bangor, M e ...................................
Battle Creek, M ich....................
B ay C ity, M ich...........................
Bayonne, N . J..............................
Beaumont, Tex............................
Belleville, HI.................................
Bellingham, W ash ...... ...............
Berkeley, Calif.............................
Bethlehem, P a.............................
Binghamton, N . Y ................
Birmingham, Ala........................
Bloomfield, N . J..........................
Bloomington, 111..........................
Boston, M ass................................
Bridgeport, Conn........................
Brockton, M ass...........................
Brookline, M ass...........................
Buffalo, N . Y ............................
Burlington, Iowa........................
Butler, Pa......................................
Butte, M o n t.................................
26,478,200
469,260
2,686,505
1,490,201
1,807,300
3,615,913
1,014,881
1,608,105
5,517,950
3,479,390
2,762,317
12,820,664
3,932,100
1,319, 300
47,961,432
3,070,524
1,448,908
5,738,345
23,279, 259
402,871
302, 740
215,050
7,467,150
156,350
184,807
354,695
188,065
710,856
6,740
264,213
558,676
363,616
694,076
1,403,913
608,500
63,500
7,737,125
456,098
276,950
553,077
1,122,724
40,900
86,096
151,390
33,945,350
625,610
2,871,312
1,844,896
1,995,365
4,326,769
1,021,621
1,872,318
6,076,626
3,843,006
3,456,393
14,224,577
4,540,600
1,382,800
55,698,557
3,526,622
1,725,858
6,291,422
24,401,983
443,771
388,836
366,440
28,437,790
851,355
4,751,866
775,209
1,949,950
1,787,110
6,683,068
2,476,621
4,290,909
21,786,696
6,880,077
924,200
60,987,468
5,186,712
1,433,359
5,902,440
33,073,453
721,140
(3)
68,249
12,660,000
136,550
752,750
229,200
968,500
1,486,841
666,000
674,000
4,107,551
1,421,000
1,264,421
7,130,335
3,370,000
601,000
26,867,550
1,945,000
732,950
5,065,100
10,750,950
178,100
258,300
11,500
Cambridge, M ass........................
Camden, N . J ...............................
Canton, Ohio................................
Cedar Rapids, Iowa...................
Central Falls, R . I ......................
Charleston, S. C ..........................
Charleston, W . V a......................
Charlotte, N . C ...........................
Chattanooga, Tenn....................
Chelsea, M ass...............................
Chester, Pa....................................
Chicago, 111....................................
Chicopee, M ass............................
Cicero, 111.......................................
Cincinnati, O h io ........................
Clarksburg, W . V a .....................
Cleveland, Ohio...........................
Clifton, N . J..................................
Colorado Springs, Colo.............
Columbia, S. C ............................
Columbus, G a..............................
Columbus, Ohio..........................
Council Bluffs, Iowa..................
Covington, K y .............................
Cranston, R . I ..............................
Cumberland, M d ........................
7,146,113
6,762,090
3,083,147
1,856,631
230,345
383,228
2,613,790
7,048,994
3,978,069
898, 540
1,537,867
315,208,908
1,161,265
3,560,114
30,679,990
1,075,450
47,017,150
3,437,510
614,466
1,347,695
984,848
14,857,790
701,450
1,299,400
3,607,224
924,421
937,610
665,965
579,171
581,599
73,000
177,407
259,390
409,270
725,417
265,175
208,675
8,300,140
114,300
299,966
4,778,740
113,935
9,141,375
104,545
198,029
262,080
169,154
1,379,460
108,800
292,350
103,025
75,127
8,083,723
7,428,055
3,662,318
2,438,230
303,345
560,635
2,873,180
7,458,264
4,703,486
1,163,715
1,746,542
323,509,048
1,275,565
3,860,080
35,458,730
1,189,385
56,158,525
3,542,055
812,495
1,609,775
1,154,002
16,237,250
810,250
1,591,750
3,710,249
999,548
9,557,469
5,330,327
4,156,020
2,602,622
798,730
586,099
2,038,709
5,554,884
4,874,201
866,060
2,396,265
365,065,042
1,117,110
4,635,829
30,570,299
1,007,635
45,480,550
3,388,565
577,398
1,533,375
1,539,749
23,282,600
930,250
1,722,310
2,669,634
942,465
3,581,300
1,164,950
2,180,850
688,940
92,000
160,300
860,000
4,432,020
1,862,875
573,000
1,000,000
174,749,900
368,300
2,537,600
21,628,235
357,235
16,247,100
2,539,650
340,440
1,108,000
700,724
11,533,300
261,400
953,200
2,775,200
284,010
Dallas, Tex....................................
Danville, 111...................................
Davenport, Iow a.........................
D ayton, Ohio................................
6,360,840
752,159
1,000,362
9,010,900
1,728,159
163,189
289,379
1,347,478
8,088,999
915,348
1,349,741
10,358,378
9,773,523
1,036,791
2,053,351
10,332,026
3,187,924
599,086
635,650
2,703,488
C ity and State
i N ot estimated b y Census Bureau
1928
1927
8
a Estimate as of July 1,1926.
BUILDING PERMITS IN UNITED STATES— 1928
197
R E P A I R S , A N D F A M I L I E S P R O V I D E D F O R , I N 310 C IT I E S I N T H E C A L E N D A R Y E A R 1928
Families provided
for
C ity and State
Estimated
population,
July 1,1928
Number
Akron, O h io. _
Alameda, Calif—.......................
Albany, N . Y .............................
Allentown, P a...........................
Altoona, Pa.................................
Amsterdam, N . Y ...................
Alton, 111......................................
Anderson, In d ..................... —
Asheville, N . C __.....................
Ashtabula, Ohio....... ...............
Atlanta, Ga__.............................
Atlantic City, N . J__________
Auburn, N . Y _ _ ......... .............
Augusta, G a...............................
Aurora, I1L__............. ..............
0)
* 32,400
120,400
99,400
69,100
36,200
4 26,797
3 34,600
2 32,000
2 25,500
255,100
54,700
* 35,677
56,700
47,100
2,557
504
615
556
155
42
167
268
370
20
3,170
57
31
318
301
Baltimore, M d ..........................
Bangor, M e .................................
Battle Creek, M ich___...........
B ay C ity, M ic h __....... ...........
Bayonne, N . J . . . .............
Beaumont, T ex.........................
Belleville, HI..............................
Bellingham, W ash ...................
Berkeley, Calif..........................
Bethlehem, Pa...........................
Binghamton, N . Y ...................
Birmingham, A la .....................
Bloomfield, N . J____________
Bloomington, 111.......................
Boston, M ass.............................
Bridgeport, Conn.....................
Brockton, M ass........................
Brookline, M a s s . . ...................
Buffalo, N . Y ............................
Burlington, Iowa...... ..............
Butler, P a ..................................
B utte, M o n t..............................
830,400
2 26,800
47,200
49,600
95,300
56,300
* 26,969
2 26,300
71,000
67,600
74,800
222,400
0)
2 30,700
799,200
<143,535
* 65,343
45,700
555,800
2 27,100
« 25,230
43,600
Cambridge, M ass.....................
Camden, N . J .—. . ...................
Canton, Ohio.............................
Cedar Rapids, Iowa................
Central Falls, R . I ---------------Charleston, S. C .......................
Charleston, W . V a __________
Charlotte, N . C .........................
Chattanooga, T e n n ....... .........
Chelsea, M ass............................
Chester, P a.................................
Chicago, 111................. ...............
Chicopee, M ass.........................
Cicero, HI.....................................
Cincinnati, Ohio.......................
Clarksburg, W . V a..................
Cleveland, Ohio........................
Clifton, N . J ...............................
Colorado Springs, Colo_____
Columbia, S. C .........................
Columbus, G a ...........................
Columbus, Ohio.......................
Council Bluffs, Iowa...............
Covington, K y ..........................
Cranston, R . I ...........................
Cumberland, M d ......... ..........
Dallas, T ex.................................
Danville, HI................................
Davenport, Iow a......................
Dayton, Ohio.............................
Fornew For re
build pairs and
ings
additions
155.6
51.1
55.9
22.4
11.6
62.3
77.5
115.6
7.8
124.3
10.4
8.7
56.1
63.9
$61.57
103.85
55.18
41.94
18.72
30.46
62.69
88.51
15.49
98.47
105.79
10.00
20.56
56.28
$4.22
19.85
4.53
6.70
.17
8.52
8.20
8.21
4.66
8.92
29.69
4.45
6.79
6.36
$65.78
123.70
59.71
48.64
18.89
38.98
70.89
96.72
20.15
107.39
135.48
14.45
27.35
62.64
78
22
93
136
258
171
66
40
254
27
20
272
223
88
$44,11
61.96
31.84
13.46
6.70
21.19
25.48
54.67
5.89
39.08
4.74
4.46
14.39
33.15
2,884
38
177
57
436
540
136
264
1,330
223
306
2,589
675
90
6,805
388
141
556
3,181
55
40
7
34.7
14.2
37.5
11.5
45.8
95.9
50.4
100.4
187.3
33.0
40.9
116.4
31.89
17.51
56.92
30.04
18.96
64.23
37.63
61.14
77.72
51.47
36.93
57.65
8.99
5.83
3.92
7.15
1.97
12.63
.25
10.05
7.87
5.38
9.28
6.31
40.88
23.34
60.83
37.20
20.94
76.85
37.88
71.19
85.59
56.85
46.21
63.96
160
243
91
180
250
53
178
64
47
101
145
87
15.25
5.10
15.95
4.62
10.16
26.41
24.70
25.63
57.85
21.02
16.90
32.06
29.3
85.1
27.0
21.6
121.7
57.2
20.3
15.9
1.6
42.97
60.01
21.39
22.17
125.57
41.88
14.87
12.00
4.93
2.07
9.68
3.18
4.24
12.10
2.02
1.51
3.41
3.47
45.04
69.69
24.57
26.41
137.67
43.90
16.38
15.41
8.40
148
67
237
229
19
149
266
267
288
19.58
33.62
13.55
11.22
110.83
19.34
6.57
10*24
.2 »
125,800
135,400
116,800
58,200
2 95,700
75,900
55,200
82,100
73,500
49,800
74,200
3,157,400
45,400
71,600
413,700
2 30,900
1,010,300
2 36,200
0)
50,600
46,600
299,000
42,300
59,000
37,500
2 34,400
863
350
374
157
44
46
258
1,237
611
142
243
34,447
102
464
3,559
98
3,167
547
95
272
321
2,477
94
314
559
67
68.6
25.8
32.0
27.0
17.1
6.1
46.7
150.7
83.1
28.5
32.7
109.1
22.5
64.8
86.0
31.7
31.3
151.1
56.81
49.94
26.40
31.90
8.96
5.05
47.35
85.86
54.12
18.04
20.73
99.83
25.58
49.72
74.16
34.80
46.54
94.96
7.45
4.92
4.96
9.99
2.84
2.34
4.70
4.99
9.87
5.32
2.81
2.63
2.52
4.19
11.55
3.69
9.05
2.89
64.26
54.86
31.36
41.89
11.80
7.39
52.05
90.84
63.99
23.37
23.54
102.46
28.10
53.91
85.71
38.49
55.59
97.85
83
111
210
157
282
289
124
43
86
242
240
32
221
116
46
174
107
36
28.47
8.60
18.67
11.84
3.58
2.11
15.58
53.98
25.35
11.51
13.48
55.35
8.11
35.44
52.28
11.56
16.08
70.16
53.8
68.9
82.8
22.2
53.2
149.1
19.5
26.63
21.13
49.69
16.58
22.02
96.19
26.87
5.18
3.63
4.61
2.57
4.96
2.75
2.18
31.81
24.76
54.31
19.15
26.98
98.94
29.06
208
236
114
255
228
35
218
21.90
15.04
38.57
6.18
217,800
38,800
<52,469
184,500
1,199
164
140
732
55.1
42.3
26.7
39.7
29.20
19.39
20.21
48.84
7.93
4.21
5.52
7.30
37.14
23.59
25.72
56.14
181
239
233
102
14.64
15.44
12.11
14.65
aData nc>t collected.
Ratio
per
10,000
Per capita
expendi
ture for
house
Rank keeping
Total
of
dwellings
city only, 1928
Ter capita expenditure, 1928
MState cen sus Jan. 1, 1925.
mm
74.01
8.26
HOUSING
198
T able 5.—TOTAL AND PER CAPITA EXPENDITURES FOR NEW BUILDINGS AND FOR
Total expenditures
Expenditure
for new
housekeeping
dwellings
only,
1928
Expenditure
for new
buildings,
1928
Expenditure
for repairs
and addi
tions,
1928
Decatur, 111....................................
Denver, Colo................................
D es Moines, Iowa.......................
Detroit, M ich ...............................
Dubuque, Io w a ..........................
D uluth, M in n ..............................
Durham , N . C .............................
$3,906,710
15,113,000
4,154,173
117,458,340
764,425
2,283,368
9,672,888
$262,635
1,657,750
355,807
11,801,945
112,961
1,006,036
232,950
$4,169,345
16,770,750
4,509,980
129,280,285
877,386
3,289,404
9,905,838
$5,790,415
15,754,600
2,876,131
145,555,647
1,288,207
4,431,435
2,587,754
$1,967,500
8,249,200
1,675,328
66,448,106
269,500
947,650
1,582,935
East Chicago, In d.......................
East Cleveland, Ohio................
Easton, P a.....................................
East Orange, N . J .......................
East Providence, R . I ...............
East St. Louis, 111.......................
Elgin, 111.........................................
Elizabeth, N . J.............................
Elkhart, In d .................................
Elmira, N . Y ................................
E l Paso, T e x.................................
Erie, Pa...........................................
Evanston, 111.................................
Evansville, Ind............................
Everett, M ass...............................
Everett, W ash ..............................
3,126,499
1,678,961
426,339
7,266,012
2,972,117
2,490,326
2,013,075
5,473,100
832,616
1,668,121
1,836,814
3,846,534
12,306,175
4,780,090
1,521,858
677,590
355,405
110,291
306,669
366,373
117,984
216,608
356,571
30,500
231,273
237,596
307,411
917,154
872,050
330,724
238,901
509,000
3,481,904
1,789,252
733,008
7,632,385
3,090,101
2,706,934
2,369,646
5,503,600
1,063,889
1,905,717
2,144,225
4,763,688
13,178,225
5,110,814
1,760,759
1,186,590
4,304,366
1,220,620
1,299,670
12,313,092
2,389,700
5,562,971
1,891,883
10,922,877
2,660,566
1,311,783
1,792,561
5,393,056
15,917,225
3,415,998
2,097,830
09
950,850
186,000
202,425
4,631,150
1,478,025
1,843,880
1,055,570
3,451,000
590,261
631,100
900,426
2,104,500
7,714,000
1,488,250
977,600
262,300
Fall River, M ass.........................
Fitchburg, Mass..........................
Flint, M ic h ...................................
Fond du Lac, W is......................
Fort Smith, A rk..........................
Fort W ayn e, In d.........................
Fort W ayne, Tex........................
Fresno, Calif.................................
2,546,384
570,115
13,112,152
493,631
1,004,184
4,284,436
10,083,937
1,205,652
289,260
252,235
1,310,577
85,499
604,518
726,688
1,459,850
455,913
2,835,644
822,350
14,422,729
579,130
1,608,702
5,011,124
11,543,787
1,661,565
1,840,768
637,975
22,087,451
1,000,179
(3)
6,002,498
28,483,764
2,690,578
469,020
110,500
8,495,144
203,000
184,488
2,128,815
6,402,445
480,645
Galveston, Tex.............................
Gary, In d .......................................
Grand Rapids, M ich .................
Great Falls, M o n t......................
Green B ay, W is ...........................
Greensboro, N . C ........................
Greenville, S. C ...........................
Greenwich, Conn........................
2,308, 562
5,240,875
6,435,245
2,525,652
1,831,861
4,520,144
1,197,452
5,736, 745
368,246
800,275
1,751, 510
133,830
160,000
528,151
242,691
867,635
2,676,808
6,041,150
8,186,755
2,659,482
1,991,861
5,048,295
1,440,143
6,604,380
2,974,415
15,016,529
12,319,420
1,163,119
2,508,898
4,837,830
1, 111, 182
5,700,062
1,146,686
3,701,575
3,584,100
789,830
834,180
2, C30,865
729,547
4,559,300
Hagerstown, M d .........................
Hamilton, Ohio...........................
Ham m ond, In d ............................
Hamtramck, M ich___________
Harrisburg, P a .............................
Hartford, Conn............................
Haverhill, M ass...........................
Hazelton, Pa.................................
Highland Park, M ich ...............
Hoboken, N . J..............................
Holyoke, M ass.............................
Houston, Tex................................
Huntington, W . V a ...................
Hutchinson, Kans.......................
462,200
1,920,934
6,057,980
1,056,930
4,713,635
9,394,186
444,190
1,011,988
1,675,167
320,790
913,700
34,598,940
929,600
1,067,390
215,034
142,099
469,300
288,045
881,140
1,884,257
109,875
183,022
928,110
244,173
347,400
710,563
52,000
201,722
677,234
2,063,033
6,527,280
1,344,975
5,594,775
11,278,443
554,065
1,195,010
2,603,277
564,963
1,261,100
35,309,503
981,600
1,269,112
1,558,205
1,782,749
6,431,200
1,545,815
3,569,365
17,529,941
909,625
2,072,504
2,654,960
1,519,599
2,044,200
27,326,475
1,547,150
(3)
300,510
1,538,487
2,759,700
404,200
1,214,500
4,650,269
271,400
343,264
364,500
70,500
492,800
17,806,385
467,900
467,270
Indianapolis, Ind.............. ..—
Irvington, N . J.............................
19,354,573
6,556,253
2,612,813
83,041
21,967,386
6,639,294
23,682,316
12,960,227
10,224,100
5,021,800
Jackson, M ich ..............................
Jacksonville, Fla..........................
Jamestown, N . Y ........................
Jersey C ity, N . J.........................
Johnstown, P a.............................
Joliet, 111.......................................
Joplin, M o .....................................
1,550,690
6,818,590
1,554,990
12,943,194
961,341
2,773,828
1,231,393
546,396
841,569
291,880
933,050
133,753
307,792
172,346
2,097,086
7,660,159
1,846,870
13,876,244
1,095,094
3,081,620
1,403,739
2,575,644
12,768,386
2,745,835
13,851,780
1,386,183
2,793,700
1,355,533
1,107,450
5,263,115
855,000
7,649,000
345,150
1,412,900
591,200
C ity and State
i Not estimated by Census Bureau.
1928
JEstimate as of July 1,1926.
1927
* Data not collected.
BUILDING PERMITS IN UNITED STATES— 1928
199
R E P A I R S , A N D F A M I L I E S P R O V I D E D F O R , E T C ., I N T H E C A L E N D A R Y E A R 1928— Con.
Families provided
for
C ity and State
Number
Decatur, HI..............
Denver, Colo...........
Des Moines, Iowa..
Detroit, M ich..........
Dubuque, Iowa___
D uluth, M in n .........
Durham, N . C ____
Per capita expenditure, 1928
Estimated
population,
Ratio
per
10,000
For new For re
build pairs and
ings
additions
Total
Per capita
expendi-
house
Rank keeping
of
dwellings
city only, 1928
57.100
294.200
151,900
1,378,900
42.300
110,800
47.600
339
1,869
406
15,929
67
196
464
59.4
63.5
26.7
115.5
15.8
16.8
97.5
$68.42
51.37
27.35
85.18
18.07
19.55
203.21
$4.60
5.63
2.34
8.56
2.67
8.61
4.89
$73.02
57.00
29.69
93.74
20.74
28.16
208.11
59
100
216
42
253
220
8
$34.49
28.06
11.04
48.13
6.37
8.11
33.25
50.800
3 39,400
38.400
65.000
3 27,100
74.000
36.000
40.2
34.5
6.3
148.9
100.0
67.7
57.5
61.55
42.61
11.10
111. 78
109.67
33.65
55.92
7.00
2.80
7.99
5.64
4.35
2.93
9.90
68.54
45.41
19.09
117.42
114.03
36.58
65.82
69
147
257
24
26
186
77
18.72
4.72
5.27
71.25
54.54
24.92
29.32
24.0
26.3
33.36
15.59
4.75
2.61
38.11
18.20
177
260
12.62
7.64
198.5
42.8
65.4
42.0
258.53
48.73
35.15
23.12
18.32
3.37
5.52
17.37
276.85
52.10
40.66
40.49
3
123
162
164
162.06
15.17
22.58
8.95
East Chicago, In d _____
East Cleveland, O hio..
Easton, Pa...................... .
East Orange, N . J.........
East Providence, R . I_.
East St. Louis, 111..........
Elgin, HI.......................... .
Elizabeth, N . J ...............
Elkhart, Ind....................
Elmira, N . Y ...................
El Paso, Tex....................
Erie, Pa.............................
Evanston, 111...................
Evansville, Ind...............
Everett, M ass.................
Everett, W ash................
98.100
43.300
4 29,303
204
136
24
968
271
501
207
1,002
155
120
310
397
945
420
283
123
Fall River, M ass__
Fitchburg, M a s s .—
Flint, M ich ...............
Fond du Lac, W is .
Fort Smith, Ark___
Fort W ayne, I n d ...
Fort W orth, T e x ...
Fresno, C alif............
134.300
45.200
148.800
3 26,500
< 31,643
105.300
170.600
64.000
110
25
2,221
59
61
407
1,758
146
8.2
5.5
149.3
22.3
19.3
38.7
103.0
22.8
18.96
12.61
88.12
18.63
31.73
40.69
59.11
18.84
2.15
5.58
8.81
3.23
19.10
6.90
8.56
7.12
21.11
18.19
96.93
21.85
50.84
47.59
67.67
25.96
249
261
39
244
128
139
72
232
3.49
2.44
57.09
7.66
5.83
20.22
37.53
7.51
Galveston, Tex__..........
Gary, Ind........................
Grand Rapids, M ich..
Great Falls, M o n t____
Green Bay, W is............
Greensboro, N . C ........
Greenville, S. C ............
Greenwich, Conn.........
50.600
89.100
164.200
3 30,900
36.100
51.900
3 28,100
369
890
895
260
186
446
193
344
72.9
99.9
54.5
84.1
51.5
85.9
68.7
45.62
58.82
39.19
81.74
50.74
87.09
42.61
7.28
8.98
10.67
4.33
4.43
10.18
8.64
52.90
67.80
49.86
86.07
55.18
97.27
51.25
121
71
133
45
109
38
125
22.66
41.54
21.83
25.56
23.11
39.13
25.96
Hagerstown, M d ............
Hamilton, Ohio..............
H am m ond, In d ..............
Hamtramck, M ich ____
Harrisburg, Pa................
Hartford, C onn............. .
Haverhill, M ass............ .
Hazleton, Pa.................. .
Highland Park, M ich ..
Hoboken, N . J................
Holyoke, M ass.............. .
Houston, T e x................. .
Huntington, W . V a ___
Hutchinson, K ans_____
3 32,000
44.200
56.000
99.800
86.900
172.300
* 49,232
38.300
86.400
82
410
698
89
206
1,363
68
57
117
5
86
4,463
87
146
25.6
92.8
124.6
8.9
23.7
79.1
13.8
14.9
13.5
14.44
43.46
108.18
10.59
54.24
54.52
9.02
26.42
19.39
6.72
3.21
8.38
2.89
10.14
10.94
2.23
4.78
10.74
21.16
46.67
116.56
13.48
64.38
65.46
11.25
31.20
30.13
248
143
25
277
82
79
283
212
215
9.39
34.81
49.28
4.05
13.98
26.99
5.51
8.96
4.22
14.2
270.6
12.7
15.13
209.75
13.55
5.75
4.31
.76
20.88
214.06
14.31
251
6
274
8.16
107.95
6.82
8
50.000
117.800
0)
47.600
0)
0)
60.400
« 164,954
68.600
(9
Indianapolis, In d .
Irvington, N . J___
382,100
3 34,600
2,511
1,022
65.7
295.4
50.65
189.49
6.84
2.40
57.49
191.89
98
10
26.76
145.14
Jackson, M ich ____
Jacksonville, F la ..
Jamestown, N . Y .
Jersey C ity, N . J—
Johnstown, Pa____
Joliet, HI...................
Joplin, M o ...............
63.700
140.700
46.000
324.700
73.700
41.900
250
1,658
169
2,155
73
180
151
39.2
117.8
36.7
66.4
9.9
43.0
24.34
48.46
33.80
39.86
13.04
66.20
8.58
5.98
6.35
2.87
1.81
7.35
32.92
54.44
40.15
42.74
14.86
73.55
204
112
165
152
271
57
17.39
37.41
18.59
23.56
4.68
33.72
0)
<State census, Jan. 1,1925.
* Estimate as of July 1,1925.
HOUSING
200
T
able
5.—TOTAL AND PER CAPITA EXPENDITURES FOR NEW BUILDINGS AND FOR
Total expenditures
Expenditure
for new
housekeeping
dwellings
only,
1928
Expenditure
for new
buildings,
1928
Expenditure
for repairs
and addi
tions,
1928
Kalamazoo, M i c h ...
Kansas C ity, K an s.
Kansas C ity, M o . . .
Kearny, N . J ............
Kenosha, W is ............
Kingston, N . Y _____
Knoxville, Tenn____
Kokomo, Ind_______
$1,559,478
1,562,452
14,739,275
6,115,160
3,291,659
1,020,006
6,784,741
459,013
$475,386
88,825
802,000
136,430
434, 745
716,784
329,796
67,653
$2,034,864
1,651,277
15,541,275
6,251,590
3,726,404
1,736,790
7,114,537
526,666
$2,223,046
I,586,790
14,822,336
5,795,875
4,468,453
2.140.093
5,699,417
480,095
$640,525
648,620
7.629.200
2,945,000
2,484,518
683.050
3,187, 541
350,262
Lakewood, O h io ...
Lancaster, P a ..........
Lansing, M ic h ____
Lawrence, M ass___
Lebanon, P a............
Lewiston, M e -------Lexington, K y _____
Lim a, Ohio..............
Lincoln, N ebr_____
Little Rock, A r k ...
Long Beach, Calif..
Lorain, Ohio_______
Los Angeles, Calif.
Louisville, K y .........
Lowell, Mass...........
Lynchburg, V a____
Lynn, M ass_______
4,512,046
1,528,895
4,919,662
427,500
403.000
985.000
1,448,119
295, 217
3,450,854
3,804, 523
15,607, 585
1,079,714
91,279,946
15,462,120
630,805
916, 244
2,841,269
110,050
860,180
284,685
175,135
257,325
5,000
169,299
159,217
192,495
455,585
700,240
97,660
10,398,822
2,657,955
310,945
176,839
945,535
4,622,096
2,389,075
5,204,347
602,635
660,325
990,000
I,617,418
454,434
3,643,349
4,260,108
16,307,825
1.177.374
101,678,768
18,120,075
941,750
1,093,083
3,786,804
3,516,399
3,004,838
7,330,420
913,134
604,500
469,100
2,350,985
707,313
4,398,540
2,993,636
13,639,425
1,300,534
123,027,139
23,340,610
971,115
1,528, 729
3.877.775
2.172.400
839.050
2,004,800
104.200
1,801,712
2,079,137
8,631,515
815,140
60,977,127
8.250.300
170,600
499,710
1,898,500
845,076
997,240
1,767
>,847
827,360
668,055
243,660
106,345
324, 637
223,414
008,926
262,488
764,594
057,560
158,310
458,440
119,035
981,098
650,885
422,019
533,007
530,330
339,909
352,449
769,347
197,097
231,359
140.819
63,500
33,940
190,196
2,059,625
259,795
683,575
3,641,787
3,200,165
187,508
201,335
524,233
307.820
611,564
452,129
277,328
35,255
2,184,985
2,349,689
7,630,114
2,892,944
1,058,719
1,808,874
1,307,160
1,140,285
4,514,833
14,283, 039
1,268,721
1,946,063
35,406,381
23,257,725
3,345,818
1,659,775
4,643,268
3,288,918
14,262,449
2,874,148
1,810,335
565,585
2,356,119
2,886,116
4.461.813
3.800.093
1,940,074
1,779,555
521,560
557,793
4,370,512
12,402,920
1,316,177
9,540,937
37,747,895
22,429,620
2,146,241
1,170,010
5,446,164
2,531,347
16,775,452
3.038.813
1,078,668
842,567
980,535
1,248,170
4.646.200
2,307,250
339,625
663.000
382.000
439,900
3.689.450
6,100,030
678.200
592,855
19,159,269
8,377,920
1,690,456
553,084
3,673,324
1,023,355
10,991,935
1,134,885
318,010
314,350
4,893,949
29,391,765
1,038,316
808,753
2,889,608
1,757,670
989,275
1,358,740
7,779,394
1,919,465
9,858,184
259,810
564,520
600,111
10,386,272
10,094,405
849,902,931
4,270,153
3,347,903
981,025
4,225,963
670,694
5,564,643
34,285,153
1,066,916
1.095.375
3,532,117
2,184,065
1,237,967
1,466,240
8,798,394
2,188,652
12,627,678
426,950
680,065
819,305
II,233,318
10,8u2,078
916,671,855
4,869,478
3,839,743
1,294,965
4,781,703
7,078,073
51,451,630
653,822
2,166,627
4,103,884
2,839,066
1,517,651
3,037,495
II,741,379
1,801,715
15.896.775
439,225
906,330
548,015
9,735,614
10,138,606
880,333,455
4,791,480
3,346,826
3,826,101
3,592,009
1,916,074
16,655,563
338.300
281,100
1,762,950
807,925
429,800
938,825
2.227.300
1.453.400
5,305,913
185.300
309.300
347,203
8.639.450
8,986,720
526,470,604
2,447,278
1,984,650
574.000
2,371,683
C ity and State
McKeesport, P a............
Macon, G a ......................
Madison, W is ................
Malden, M ass................
Manchester, N . H ........
Mansfield, Ohio............
Marion, Ind....................
Marion, Ohio.................
Medford, M ass________
M em phis, Tenn............
Meriden, Conn..............
M iam i, Fla......................
Milwaukee, W is............
Minneapolis, M in n ___
M obile, A la .....................
M oline, 111.......................
Montclair, N . J.............
Montgomery, A la .........
M ount Vernon, N . Y ..
Muncie, Ind....................
Muskegon, M ich ..........
Muskogee, Okla............
Nashville, T enn..............
Newark, N . J ...................
Newark, Ohio..................
New Bedford, M ass___
N ew Britain, Conn____
New Brunswick, N . J ..
Newburgh, N . Y ........... .
New Castle, P a _.............
New Haven, Conn____
New London, Conn___
New Orleans, L a ........... .
Newport, K y ....................
Newport, R . I ..................
Newport News, V a ____
N ew Rochelle, N . Y . _ .
Newton, M a s s . . ........... .
N ew York C ity, N . Y_.
Niagara Falls, N . Y ___
Norfolk, V a .......................
Norristown, Pa.............. .
Norwalk, C o n n ........... .
28,600
286,622
642,509
426,395
248,692
107,500
1,019,000
269,187
2,769,494
167,140
115,545
219,194
847,046
707,673
66,708,924
599,325
491,840
313,940
555,740
1 Not estimated by Census Bureau.
1928
1927
2 Estimate as of July 1,1926,
101,000
118,000
573,400
86,100
BUILDING PERMITS IN UNITED STATES— 1928
201
E E P A I E S , A N D F A M I L I E S P R O V I D E D F O E , E T C ., I N T H E C A L E N D A R Y E A R 1928— Con.
Families provided
for
C ity and State
Estimated
population,
J u ly l, 1928
Number
Ratio
per
10,000
Per capita
expendi
ture for
house
Rank keeping
of
dwellings
city only, 1928
Per capita expenditure, 1928
Fornew For re
build pairs and
ings
additions
Total
Kalamazoo, M ich .....................
Kansas C ity, Kans..................
Kansas C ity, M o .....................
Kearny, N . J..............................
Kenosha, W is ............................
Kingston, N . Y .........................
Knoxville, Tenn.......................
Kokomo, In d .............................
56,400
118,300
391,000
* 32,100
56,500
2 28,400
105,400
40,400
165
321
1,969
857
295
126
940
82
29.3
27.1
50.4
267.0
52.2
44.4
89.2
20.3
$27.65
13.21
37.70
190.50
58.26
35.92
64.37
11.36
$8.43
.75
2.05
4.25
7.69
25.24
3.13
1.67
$36.08
13.96
39.75
194. 75
65.95
61.15
67.50
13.04
188
275
169
9
76
90
73
279
$11.36
5.48
19.51
91.74
43.97
24.05
30.24
8.67
Lakewood, Ohio.......................
Lancaster, P a.............................
Lansing, M ich ...........................
Lawrence, M ass........................
Lebanon, Pa...............................
Lewiston, M e ............................
Lexington, K y ...........................
Lima, Ohio.................................
Lincoln, Nebr............................
Little Rock, A rk.......................
Long Beach, C alif...................
Lorain, Ohio...............................
Los Angeles, Calif___________
Louisville, K y ...........................
Lowell, M ass............................
Lynchburg, V a ..........................
Lynn, M ass................................
65,000
58,300
79,600
2 93,500
2 25,300
36,600
48,700
49,700
71,100
79,200
« 104,200
44,900
0)
329,400
* 110,296
38,600
105,500
537
154
443
32
19
77
104
19
497
527
3,099
227
21,081
1,542
50
114
501
82.6
26.4
55.7
3.4
7.5
21.0
21.4
3.8
69.9
66.5
297.4
50.6
69.42
26.22
61.80
4.57
15.93
26.91
29.74
5.94
48.54
48.04
149.78
24.05
1.69
14.75
3.58
1.87
10.17
.14
3.48
3.20
2.71
5.75
6.72
2.18
71.11
40.98
65.38
6.45
26.10
27.05
33.21
9.14
51.24
53.79
156.51
26.22
65
159
80
290
231
227
201
286
126
117
14
230
33.42
14.39
25.19
1.11
3.99
4.04
11.77
1.73
25.34
26.25
82.84
18.15
46.8
4.5
29.5
47.5
46.94
5.72
23.74
26.93
8.07
2.82
4.58
8.96
55.01
8.54
28.32
35.89
no
287
219
189
25.05
1.55
12.95
18.00
McKeesport, P a.......................
Macon, G a..................................
Madison, W is ............................
Malden, M ass............................
Manchester, N . H ....................
Mansfield, Ohio........................
Marion, Ind...............................
Marion, Ohio.............................
Medford, M ass..........................
Memphis, Tenn._....................
Meriden, Conn..........................
M iam i, F l a .. .............................
Milwaukee, W is .......................
Minneapolis, M i n n ................
Mobile, A la--------------------------Moline, 111_ ................................
Montclair, N . J .........................
Montgomery, A la.....................
M ount Vernon, N . Y .............
Muncie, I n d . . ...........................
Muskegon, M ic h .....................
Muskogee, O kla. .....................
50,400
61,200
50,500
53,400
85,700
2 32,500
0)
2 33,400
52,900
190,200
37,100
156,700
544,200
455,900
69,600
35,600
2 33,700
63,100
54,700
46,800
46,600
33,200
203
321
542
718
116
127
158
172
745
1,887
137
124
4,965
2,240
638
109
323
726
1,636
371
104
116
40.3
52.5
107.3
134.5
13.5
39.1
36.61
32.63
135.86
50.48
9.65
51.32
6.74
5.76
15.23
3.69
2.70
4.33
43.35
38.39
151.09
54.17
12.35
55.66
151
175
16
115
281
105
19.46
20.39
92.00
43.21
3.96
20.40
51.5
140.8
99.2
36.9
7.9
91.2
49.1
91.7
30.6
95.8
115.1
299.1
79.3
22.3
34.9
33.12
81.75
64.27
27.19
8.06
58.37
44.00
45.38
40.97
122.23
47.24
249.56
51.75
32.90
15.97
1.02
3.60
10.83
7.00
4.36
6.69
7.02
2.69
5.66
15.56
4.88
11.18
9.66
5.95
1.06
34.14
85.35
75.09
34.20
12.42
65.06
51.01
48.07
46.62
137.78
52.12
260.74
61.41
38.85
17.04
199
48
54
197
280
81
127
138
144
18
122
4
89
172
265
13.17
69.74
32.07
18.28
3.78
35.21
18.38
24.29
15.54
109.00
16.22
200.95
24.25
6.82
9.47
Nashville, Tenn..... ..................
Newark, N . J .............................
Newark, Ohio............................
N ew Bedford, M a s s ...............
N ew Britain, Conn.................
N ew Brunswick, N . J ............
Newburgh, N . Y ......................
N ew Castle, P a .........................
£Tew Haven, Conn...................
N ew London, Conn................
N ew Orleans, L a ......................
Newport, K y ________________
Newport, R . I . .........................
Newport News, V a .................
N ew Rochelle, N . Y ...............
Newton, M ass...........................
N ew York C ity, N . Y
Niagara Falls, N . Y ................
Norfolk, V a ................................
Norristown, P a.........................
Norwalk, Conn.........................
139,600
473,600
2 30,600
*119,539
72,800
40,800
30,400
52,500
187,900
2 29,700
429,400
0)
* 27,757
53,300
48,800
57,300
6,017,500
68,300
184,200
36,200
2 30,100
753
3,288
108
42
327
210
74
143
546
218
2,107
43
61
101
1,205
939
109,523
506
634
96
358
53.9
69.4
35.3
3.5
44.9
51.5
24.3
27.2
29.1
73.4
49.1
35.06
62.06
33.93
6.77
39.69
43.08
32.54
25.88
41.40
64.63
22.96
4.80
10.33
.93
2.40
8.83
10.45
8.18
2.05
5.42
9.06
6.45
39.86
72.39
34.87
9.16
48.52
53.53
40.72
27.93
46.82
73.69
29.41
168
61
191
285
137
120
161
222
141
56
224
13.73
35.17
11.06
2,35
24.22
19.80
14.14
17.88
11.85
48.94
12.36
22.0
18.9
246.9
163.9
182.0
74.1
34.4
26.5
118.9
20.34
11.26
212.83
176.17
141.25
62.52
18.18
27.10
140.40
4.16
4.11
17.36
12.35
11.09
8.77
2.67
8.67
18.46
24.50
15.37
230.19
188.52
152.33
71.30
20.85
35.77
158.86
238
268
5
11
15
62
252
190
13
11.14
6.51
177.04
156.84
87.49
35.83
10.77
15.86
78.79
* State censris, Jan. 1,19215.
e Estimat e as of Jul:i 1, 1927.
202
HOUSING
T able 5.—TOTAL AND PER CAPITA EXPENDITURES FOR NEW BUILDINGS AND FOR
Total expenditures
Expenditure
for new
housekeeping
dwellings
only,
1928
Expenditure
for new
buildings,
1928
Expenditure
for repairs
and addi
tions,
1928
$17,824,002
9,074,251
1,202,325
12,267,630
227,615
8,422,073
2,708,090
686,924
328,450
$1,713,163
216.244
145,900
1,254,368
25,350
628.337
398.409
165,922
65,325
$19,537,165
9,290,495
1,348,225
13,521,998
252,965
9,050,410
3,106,499
852,846
393,775
$20,518,417
9,080,676
1,498,260
12,682,293
262,150
4,567,218
5,581,523
1,494,076
579,900
$8,107,443
5,265,455
476.300
8,709,509
45.550
2,257,950
1.306.400
539,066
204,800
527,590
056,253
573,057
214,664
430,159
411,295
910,022
416,767
023,155
604,161
35, 223,329
1, 657,915
3, 058,148
637,246
646,320
429,450
218,792
18, 407,440
145, 200
534,945
1, 460,119
13, 172,494
1, 170,983
81,015
893,300
488,461
1,142,027
392,430
539,965
457.337
151,861
12,202,710
372,501
4,150,203
155,215
406,623
477,980
234,916
31,725
520,094
2,868,530
101,885
153,586
204,701
2,831,025
295,829
5,949,553
3,061,518
7,356,691
2,822,589
3,951,260
1,367,359
568,628
112,225,865
5,976,662
39,373,532
1,813,130
3,464,771
13,115,226
1,881,236
461,175
2,738,886
21,275,970
1,247,085
688,531
1,664,820
16,003,519
1,466,812
356,000
8,965,720
5,603,448
6,369,917
3,586,765
3,409,575
1.671.872
279,466
117,590,650
5,645,124
37,111,332
1,650,690
5,046,011
17,558,296
1,731,380
839,065
2.326.783
28,973,455
1,585,007
463,385
1,147,667
23,132,819
1,625,382
202,735
3,347,929
1.766.650
2,580,513
1,923,850
2.182.500
432,082
187,650
51,432,580
2,146,922
13,270,969
1,117,200
2,066,779
5,801,365
457,877
190.550
1.046.350
9,907,285
615,350
242,055
691.550
7.190.600
911,825
1,096,736
6,505,572
180,221
364,440
1,276,957
6,870,012
1,073,321
5.231.872
529,775
3.695.600
Racine, W is ..........
Reading, Pa..........
Revere, M ass____
Richmond, In d ~ .
Richmond, V a — .
Roanoke, V a ____
Rochester, N . Y_.
Rockford, 111_____
Rock Island, H I..
4,134,138
2,809,366
1,118,897
703,017
7,579,286
3,108,331
15,683,912
4,281,725
503,515
283,351
998,954
108.245
237,706
1,265,595
171,092
1,936,886
1,454,917
1,079,729
4,417,489
3,808,320
1,227,142
940,723
8,844,881
3,279,423
17,620,798
5,736,642
1,583,244
6,391,171
4,614,067
1,602,120
1,826,139
15,216,203
2,583,996
22,589,418
6,553,423
1,999,890
3,109,193
1.507.650
942,545
598,342
3,625,166
1,369,582
7,960,709
2.721.500
453,500
Sacramento, Calif.........
Saginaw, M ich ..............
St. Joseph, M o ..............
St. Louis, M o .................
St. Paul, M inn..............
St. Petersburg, F la___
Salem, M ass....................
Salt Lake C ity, Utah..
San Antonio, Tex_____
San Diego, Calif...........
San Francisco, C a lif...
San Jose, Calif...............
Savannah, G a................
Schenectady, N . Y ___
Scranton, P a...................
Seattle, W ash .................
Sheboygan, W is........... .
Shreveport, L a ________
Sioux C ity, Iow a......... .
Sioux Falls, S. D ak___
Somerville, M ass..........
South B end, In d ...........
4,674,424
3,871,672
1,878,643
38,215,329
7,026,558
1,540,000
1,323,125
3,930,626
16,732,750
11,310,940
33,822,280
2,233,010
2.010.069
2.962.070
3,597,993
30,540,015
1,596,165
4,039,341
1,966,060
1,843,540
1,203,945
6,032,415
849,908
477,913
125,975
4,613,166
1,672,955
306,100
396,560
1,346,778
1,567,609
839,198
3,682,158
308,290
127,065
466.410
1,034,250
4,266,960
512,554
807,084
204,380
161,185
220,252
330,770
5,524,332
4,349,585
2,004,618
42,828,495
8,699,513
1,846,100
1,719,685
5,277,404
18,300,359
12,150,138
37,504,438
2,541,300
2,137,134
3,428,480
4,632,243
34,806,975
2,108,719
4,846,425
2,170,440
2,004,725
1,424,197
6,363,185
8,814,211
3.610.783
3,302,972
1,469,116
374,200
19,228,980
4,529,238
828,100
707,000
2,297,410
8,661,556
7,247,101
19,944,664
1,301,010
1,429,665
1.669.500
1,632,495
15,833,350
1.037.400
2,039,914
1,058,750
858,920
861.300
2.951.350
C ity and State
Oakland, Calif.......................
Oak Park, 111...........................
Ogden, U ta h ...........................
Oklahoma C ity, O kla..........
Okmulgee, Okla.....................
Omaha, N ebr..........................
Orange, N . J............................
Oshkosh, W is ..........................
Ottumwa, Iow a.....................
Paducah, K y ...............
Pasadena, Calif..........
Passaic, N . J ...............
Paterson, N . J............
Pawtucket, R . I .........
Peoria, 111.....................
Perth Am b oy, N . J ~
Petersburg, V a ...........
Philadelphia, P a ____
Phoenix, Ariz..............
Pittsburgh, P a ...........
Pittsfield, M ass..........
Plainfield, N . J...........
Pontiac, M ich .............
Port Arthur, Tex-----Port Huron, M ich__
Portland, M e ..............
Portland, Oreg...........
Portsmouth, O h i o ...
Portsmouth, V a ........
Poughkeepsie, N . Y .
Providence, R . I ____
Pueblo, Colo...............
Quincy, HI____
Quincy, M a ss.
100,
5,
12,
1,
2,
1,
]Not estimated by Census Bureau.
1927
41,417,221
10,071,216
2,907,500
2,73?, 080
4,855,845
12,190,280
13,877,153
46,448,676
3,554,430
2,180,050
4,318,270
5,707,115
29,070,080
2,171,940
3,946,370
1,867,575
2,042,505
3,385,850
4 , .............
1 Estimate as of July 1, 1926.
BUILDING PERMITS IN UNITED STATES---- 1928
203
R E P A I R S , A N D F A M I L I E S P R O V I D E D F O R , E T C ., I N T H E C A L E N D A R Y E A R 1928— Con.
Families provided
for
C ity and State
Estimated
population,
July 1,1928
N um ber
Ratio
per
10,000
Per capita
expendi
ture for
house
Rank keeping
of
Total
dwellings
city only, 1928
Per capita expenditure, 1928
Fornew For re
build pairs and
ings
additions
Oakland. Calif...........................
Oak Park, 111........... .................
Ogden, U tah...............................
Oklahoma C ity, Okla.............
Okmulgee, Okla_____________
Omaha, N ebr.............................
Orange, N . J...............................
Oshkosh, W is.............................
Ottumwa, Iowa.........................
274,100
57,700
39,100
7,104,080
0)
222,800
36,500
33,200
2 27,400
2,430
745
157
2,637
15
412
281
155
38
88.7
129.1
40.2
253.4
$65.03
157.27
30.75
117.87
$6.25
3.75
3.73
12.05
$71.28
161.01
34.48
129.92
63
12
196
21
$29.58
91.26
12.18
83.68
18.5
77.0
46.7
13.9
37.80
74.19
20.69
11.99
2.82
10.92
5.00
2.38
40.62
85.11
25.69
14.37
163
49
234
273
10.13
35.79
16.24
7.47
Paducah, K y .............................
Pasadena, Calif.........................
Passaic, N . J...............................
Paterson, N . J...........................
Pawtucket, R . I .......................
Peoria, 111.....................................
Perth Am b oy, N . J .................
Petersburg, V a ..........................
Philadelphia, P a.......................
Phoenix, Ariz.............................
Pittsburgh, Pa...........................
Pittsfield, M ass.........................
Plainfield, N . J .........................
Pontiac, M ich ...........................
Port Arthur, T e x .....................
Port Huron, M ich ...................
Portland, M e .............................
Portland, Oreg______________
Portsmouth, Ohio....................
Portsmouth, V a ........................
Poughkeepsie, N . Y ................
Providence, R . I .......................
Pueblo, Colo...............................
2 26,100
62,100
71,800
144,900
73,100
84,500
50,100
37,800
2,064,200
a 42,100
673,800
50,000
3 32,500
61,500
3 33,000
a 30,700
78,600
0)
41,200
61,600
39,100
286,300
44,200
94
600
351
748
455
437
104
48
10,576
748
2,544
211
311
1,735
210
71
261
2,321
169
85
96
1,134
372
36.0
96.6
48.9
51.6
62.2
51.7
20.8
12.7
51.2
177.7
37.8
42.2
95.7
282.1
63.6
23.1
33.2
20.21
81.42
35.84
42.89
33.24
40.37
18.16
11.03
48.46
133.12
52.28
33.16
94.10
205.48
49.89
13.99
28.23
3.10
14.38
6.80
7.88
5.37
6.39
9.13
4.02
5.91
8.85
6.16
3.10
12.51
7.77
7.12
1.03
6.62
23.32
95.80
42.64
50.77
38.61
46.76
27.29
15.04
54.37
141.96
58.44
36.26
106.61
213.26
57.01
15.02
34.85
241
41
153
129
173
142
225
269
113
17
96
187
30
7
99
270
192
7.77
53.91
24.61
17.81
26.32
25.83
8.62
4.96
24.92
51.00
19.70
22.34
63.59
94.36
13.88
6.21
13/31
41.0
13.8
24.6
39.6
84.2
27.80
8.68
37.34
46.01
26.49
2.47
2.49
5.24
9.89
6.69
30.27
11.18
42.58
55.90
33.19
214
284
154
103
202
14.94
3.93
17.69
25.12
20.63
Quincy, 111..................................
Quincy, M ass.............................
39,800
67,600
133
977
33.4
144.5
27.56
96.24
4.53
5.39
32.08
101.63
205
33
13.31
54.67
Racine, W is................................
Reading, Pa...............................
Revere, M ass.............................
Richmond, In d .........................
Richmond, V a ...........................
Roanoke, Va__...........................
Rochester, N . Y .......................
Rockford, 111...............................
Rock Island, 111........................
74,400
115,400
36,000
3 31,000
194,400
64,600
328,200
82,800
42,700
681
263
247
153
764
364
1,862
779
146
91.5
22.8
68.6
49.4
39.3
56.3
56.7
94.1
34.2
55.57
24.34
31.08
22.68
38.99
48.12
47.79
51.71
11.79
3.81
8.66
3.01
7.67
6.51
2.65
5.90
17.57
25.29
59.37
33.00
34.09
30.35
45.50
50.77
53.69
69.28
37.08
95
203
200
213
146
130
118
68
182
41.79
13.06
26.14
19.30
18.65
21.20
24.26
32.87
10.62
Sacramento, Calif.....................
Saginaw, Mich__................. ..
St. Joseph, M o ..........................
St. Louis, M o .............................
St. Paul, M inn........ .................
St. Petersburg, Fla..................
Salem, M ass...............................
Salt Lake C ity, Utah..............
San Antonio, T e x.....................
San Diego, Calif.......................
San Francisco, Calif...............
San Jose, Calif...........................
Savannah, Ga............................
Schenectady, N . Y — ...........
Scranton, Pa...............................
Seattle, W a sh ............................
Sheboygan, W is........................
Shreveport, L a..........................
Sioux, C ity, Iow a.....................
Sioux Falls, S. D a k ....... .........
Somerville, M ass......................
South Bend, Ind......................
75,700
75,600
78,500
848,100
« 250,100
53,300
43,000
138,000
218,100
119,700
585,300
45,500
99,900
93,300
144,700
383,200
35,100
81,300
80,000
3 31,200
102,700
86,100
917
577
98
7,190
773
172
120
731
2,784
2,146
6,084
370
430
269
292
4,658
188
713
282
211
199
579
121.1
76.3
12.5
84.8
30.9
32.3
27.9
53.0
127.6
179.3
103.9
81.3
43.0
28.8
20.2
121.6
53.6
87.7
35.3
67.6
19.4
67.2
61.75
51.21
23.93
45.06
28.09
28.89
30.77
28.48
76.72
94.49
57.79
49.08
20.12
31.75
24.87
79.70
45.47
49.68
24.58
59.09
11.72
70.06
11.23
6.32
1.60
5.44
6.69
5.74
9.22
9.76
7.19
7.01
6.29
6.78
1.27
5.00
7.15
11.14
14.60
9.93
2.55
5.17
2.14
3.84
72.98
57.53
25.54
50.50
34. 78
34.64
39.99
38.24
83.91
101.50
64.08
55.85
21.39
36.75
32.01
90.83
60.08
59.61
27.13
64.25
13.87
73.90
60
97
235
131
194
195
166
176
50
34
85
104
246
183
206
44
92
94
226
84
276
55
43.63
19.43
4.77
22.67
18.11
15.54
16.44
16.65
39.71
60.54
34.08
28.59
14.31
17.89
11.28
41.32
29.56
25.09
13.23
27.53
8.39
34.28
• Estimate of July 1,1927.
204
HOUSING
T able 5.—TOTAL AND PER CAPITA EXPENDITURES FOR NEW BUILDINGS AND FOR
Total expenditures
Expenditure
for new
housekeeping
dwellings
only,
1928
Expenditure
for new
buildings,
1928
Expenditure
for repairs
and addi
tions,
1928
Spokane, W ash............................
Springfield, 111..............................
Springfield, M ass........................
Springfield, M o ............................
Springfield, Ohio.........................
Stamford, C onn...........................
Steubenville, Ohio......................
Stockton, Calif.............................
Superior, W is ................................
Syracuse, N . Y .............................
$4,879,063
3,319,125
4,956,324
1,366,035
1,407,564
4,009,610
1,151,595
1,411,142
1,665,705
11,861,603
$857,715
420,028
1,020,475
249,620
149,203
1,185,668
41,815
363,724
186,447
1,358,826
$5,736,778
3,739,153
5,976,799
1,615,655
1,556,767
5,195,278
1,193,410
1,774,866
1,852,152
13,220,429
$3,656,500
3,770,303
8,905,819
(3)
1,693,927
6,042,716
1,856,435
2,803,347
1,277,019
21,990,371
$2,244,025
1,929,900
2,776,050
677,275
987,550
2,244,550
708,000
809,210
551,850
8,000,200
Tacoma, W ash.............................
Tam pa, F la ...................................
Taunton, M ass.............................
Terre Haute, Ind.........................
Toledo, Ohio.................................
Topeka, K ans...............................
Trenton, N . J ...............................
Troy, N . Y ....................................
Tucson, Ariz.................................
Tulsa, Okla....................................
4,026,470
3,042,030
768,247
605,195
14,463,296
1,832,950
3,314,867
1,061,600
2,726,395
12,697,207
633,945
575,024
114,250
368,292
2,882,899
158,564
791,054
262,064
168,996
713,844
4,660,415
3,617,054
882,497
973,487
17,346,195
1,991,514
4,105,921
1,323,664
2,895,391
13,411,051
4,764,728
6,145,201
1,055,999
1,212,771
15,513,710
2,222,196
4,539,632
3,206,057
2,322,550
14,791,854
2,546,000
1,620,260
215,300
336,050
6,658,125
1,187,550
1,172,100
786,750
1,102,972
7,613,800
Union C ity, N . J.........................
Utica, N . Y ...................................
749,085
3,475,465
371,671
441,505
1,120,756
3,916,970
3,409,526
3,381,105
326,300
2,140,100
C ity and State
1928
1927
Vallejo, Calif.................................
372,488
69,359
441,847
492,898
182,950
Waco, Tex_ ...................................
Waltham , M a s s .........................
Warren, Ohio...............................
Washington, D . C ......................
Waterbury. Conn.......................
Waterloo, Iowa.............................
Watertown, M ass....... ...............
Watertown, N . Y .......................
W est N ew York, N . J ..............
Wheeling, W . V a ........................
W hite Plains, N . Y ....................
Wichita, K a n s ............................
Wichita Falls, T e x __.................
Wilkes-Barre, Pa.........................
Wilkinsburg, Pa..........................
Williamsport, Pa.....................—
Wilmington, D el.........................
Wilmington, N . C ......................
Winston-Salem, N . C _________
Woonsocket, R . I ........................
Worcester, M ass..........................
1,997,020
2,285,970
1,667,940
50,284,426
2,944,450
2,460,584
2,729,425
931,030
1,272,875
1,331,806
12,093,064
7,323,978
1,315,400
3,233,464
1,810,556
1,733,765
4,447,657
592,500
8,001,722
464,470
5,772,236
294,319
191,085
143,680
3,690,553
543,850
261,610
94,670
221,419
355,510
635,682
539,142
650,243
596,012
662,881
105,005
347,175
1,129,452
156,000
529,306
454,073
1,488,084
2,291,339
2,477,055
1,811,620
53,974,979
3,488,300
2,722,194
2,824,095
1,152,449
1,628,385
1,967,488
12,632,206
7,974,221
1,911,412
3,896,345
1,915,561
2,080,940
5,577,109
748,500
8,531,028
918,543
7,260,320
1,573,641
2,217,925
1,425,474
39,263,477
5,015,638
1,151,981
4,281,230
756,204
1,685,293
3,014,131
10,125,792
5,848,942
4,050,687
4,934,339
1,932,390
2,732,695
6,805,900
552,125
6,539,187
1,360,179
8,814,669
631,003
1,744,300
1,084,830
29,601,350
1,963,500
848,700
2,246,800
278,800
577,000
641,280
6,365,600
3,976,615
900,788
753,540
1,009,095
730,090
2,307,463
222,000
3,597,360
271,300
2,509,535
Yonkers, N . Y . ...........................
York, P a.........................................
Youngstown, O hio__........... ..
34,373,299
1,347,932
8,108,260
1,245,525
717,117
529,415
35,618,824
2,065,049
8,637,675
32,585,888
1,588,854
9,007,160
29,553,210
575,300
5,043,935
475,276
72,788
548,064
1,021,100
372,785
Total.................................— 3,098,940,040
324,644,421
3,423,584,461
3,593,839,405
1,762,452,315
Zanesville, Ohio....................
1 N o t estimated b y Census Bureau.
1 Estimated as of July 1,1926.
BUILDING PERMITS IN UNITED STATES— 1928
205
R E P A I R S , A N D F A M I L I E S P R O V I D E D F O R , E T C ., I N T H E C A L E N D A R Y E A R 1928— Con.
Families provided
for
C ity and State
Estimated
population,
July 1,1928
Number
Ratio
per
10,000
$7.86
6.25
6.81
4.83
2.04
27.07
1.28
7.13
78.3
59.52
6.82
74.4
57.1
14.8
15.4
54.2
48.4
16.0
21.7
122.2
128.3
36.44
26.83
18.92
8.23
46.18
29.19
23.85
14.68
99.14
74.47
5.74
5.07
2.81
5.01
9.20
2.52
5.69
3.62
6.15
4.19
13.0
32.8
11.63
33.35
5.77
4.24
38.0
97.6
84.8
78.0
42.85
61.62
46.20
91.09
72.8
172.0
15.7
41.5
119
106
167
211
247
23
185
193
$20.57
28.72
18.53
13.10
13.53
51.25
21.72
15.87
66.33
75
40.14
42.18
31.90
21.74
13.24
55.38
31.71
29.54
18.31
105.29
78.66
156
207
245
278
108
209
217
259
31
52
23.04
14.29
5.30
4.57
21.26
18.91
8.43
10.88
40.11
44.66
17.40
37.59
263
179
5.07
20.54
6.32
5.15
3.98
6.69
49.17
66.77
50.18
97.78
135
74
132
37
13.54
47.02
30.05
53.63
66.32
103.39
27.63
31.05
7.05
3.59
6.57
8.67
73.37
106.97
34.20
39.72
58
28
198
170
22.88
85.11
8.27
14.07
29a 3
121.6
421.36
73.76
18.79
6.55
440.15
80.30
i
51
221.80
40.05
18.9
32.1
38.4
28.4
16.4
120.6
14.8
24.0
35.18
64.66
39.40
34.61
15.15
100.02
8.70
29.21
7.21
3.75
7.89
8.79
3.99
6.62
8.50
7.53
42.40
68.41
47.29
43.40
19.14
106.64
17.20
36.74
155
70
140
150
256
29
264
184
8.20
36.04
16.59
17.96
5.68
44.97
5.08
12.70
283.37
27.01
46.55
10.27
14.37
3.04
293.64
41.38
49.58
2
158
134
243.64
11.53
28.95
262
$109,100
67,200
149,800
51,700
73,000
43,800
2 32,600
51,000
(i)
199,300
574
352
647
305
315
331
191
226
136
1,561
52.6
52.4
43.2
59.0
43.2
75.6
58.6
44.3
Tacoma, W ash..........................
Tam pa, Fla................................
Taunton, M ass..........................
Terre Haute, Ind......................
Toledo, Ohio..............................
Topeka, Kans............................
Trenton, N . J.............................
Troy, N . Y .................................
Tucson, Ariz..............................
Tulsa, Okla.............................
110,500
113,400
40,600
73,500
313,200
62,800
139,000
72,300
3 27,500
170,500
822
647
60
113
1,698
304
223
157
336
2,187
Union C ity, N . J......................
Utica, N . Y .......................I . . . .
64,400
104,200
84
342
(i)
For new For re
build pairs and Total
ings
additions
$44.72
49.39
33.09
26.42
19.28
91.54
35.33
27.67
Spokane, W ash______________
Springfield, 111________ ______
Springfield, M ass...... ...............
Springfield, M o .........................
Springfield, Ohio......................
Stamford, Conn........................
Steubenville, Ohio...................
Stockton, Calif..........................
Superior, W is _______________
Syracuse, N . Y ..........................
Vftllftjn, Hftlif
$52.58
55.64
39.90
31.25
21.33
118.61
36.61
34.80
43
Waco, T e x ...................................
W altham , M ass........................
Warren, Ohio.............................
W ashington, D . C _ _ _.............
Wfttfirhnrjr f!r>nn
Waterloo, Iow a. .................... ..
Watertown, M ass....................
Watertown, N . Y ....................
W est N ew York, N . J—.........
Wheeling, W . Va _
___
W hite Plains, N . Y .................
W ichita K a n s .........................
Wichita Falls, Tex _
Wilkes-Barre, Pa_ ...................
Wilkinsburg, P a .......................
Williamsport, P a _ .......... .......
Wilmington, Del__...................
Wilmington, N . C ...................
vVinston-Salem, N . C ...........
Woonsocket, R . I .....................
Worcester, M ass.......................
46,600
37,100
3 36,100
552,000
(9
37,100
2 26,400
33,700
2 41,000
0)
2 28,700
99,300
0)
91,900
3 28,000
44,000
128,500
39,100
80,000
53,400
197,600
177
362
306
4,305
504
270
454
53
170
125
856
1,207
222
174
90
169
365
64
965
79
474
Yonkers, N . Y ...........................
York, P a _ _ .................................
Youngstown, Ohio...................
121,300
49,900
174,200
4,216
144
929
347.6
28.9
53.3
Zanesville, Ohio........................
2 30,600
138
45.1
15.53
2.38
17.91
Total— ............................. 44,940,049
399,657
88.9
68.96
7.22
76.18
8Data not collected.
Per capita
expendi
ture for
house
Rank keeping
of
dwellings
city only, 1928
Per capita expenditure, 1928
12.18
39.22
206
HOUSING
Average Construction Cost of Dwellings in Various
Cities
D
ATA for this article are derived from the building-permit
survey of the Bureau of Labor Statistics for the first half
of 1928.
The figures regarding construction costs here presented show the
cost per family of the different classes of dwellings as stated by the
prospective builder at the time of application for his permit to build
and do not include the cost of the land. There may be a profit or
loss between the cost to the builder and the price paid by the home
purchaser. The figures should not be interpreted as showing the
cost of a dwelling built on identical plans and specifications in each
city, for in some cities much cheaper dwellings are built than in
others.
Table 1 shows the number of families provided for in the first half
of 1928 and the average cost of dwelling accommodations per family
in the different kinds of dwellings in each of the 14 cities of the
United States haying a population of 500,000 or over.
Multifamily dwellings as shown in this table include a few multi
family dwellings combined with stores. It might be thought that
the cost per family would be higher in the apartment buildings with
stores included than in those without stores. As a matter of fact,
taking the cities as a whole, the cost per family was less in the
apartments with stores than in those without stores. Individual
cities, however, might show different results.
In these 14 cities permits were issued for 30,323 one-family dwell
ings, the average cost of these dwellings, as stated in the permits,
being $5,169. The city of Washington built the most costly single
dwellings, as $8,534 per dwelling was spent in the capital city for the
erection of this type of dwelling. In St. Louis permits were issued
for 934 one-family dwellings and their average cost was only $3,619.
The average cost in Baltimore (some 40 miles from Washington)
was $4,001. In other words, the average single-family dwelling for
which permits were issued during the first half of 1928 cost over 100
per cent more in Washington than in St. Louis or Baltimore.
Whether this means that Washingtonians are building 100 per cent
better houses than St. Louisians or Baltimoreans, or are paying more
for construction, could be determined only by an exhaustive compari
son of plans and specifications in these cities.
There is also quite a contrast between the cost figures as shown for
the two Pennsylvania cities listed, the average cost of the 1-family
dwellings for which permits were issued in Philadelphia being $4,373,
while in Pittsburgh it was $6,190. The average cost of New York's
1-family dwellings was $5,782, while those of Chicago cost $6,395.
The average cost per family for 2-family dwellings was $4,356,
the range in the different cities being from $2,279 in Buffalo to $5,974
in Chicago. Only 14,312 families were housed in this class of dwelling
in these 14 cities,
CONSTRUCTION COST OF DWELLINGS
207
T a bl e 1 .— A V E R A G E C O S T OF D W E L L I N G A C C O M M O D A T I O N S P E R F A M I L Y I N
C IT IE S H A V I N G A P O P U L A T IO N OF 500,000 O R O V E R , B Y K I N D O F D W E L L I N G S :
P E R M I T S F O R F I R S T 6 M O N T H S O F 1928
N um
ber of
families
pro
vided
for
Average
cost per
family
St. Louis...............................
Los Angeles..........................
Baltimore..............................
Philadelphia........................
Borough of Richmond 1_.
San Francisco......................
B u f f a lo ...............................
Detroit...................................
Borough of Queens1.........
N ew York (all boroughs)
Boston....................................
Cleveland..............................
M ilw a u k e e .......................
Pittsburgh............................
Chicago..................................
Borough of B rooklyn1. . .
Borough of the B ronx i...
Washington..........................
934
3,657
1,707
4,733
648
1,320
401
3,526
5,328
8,351
320
807
535
891
2,396
1,632
742
745
$3,619
3,847
4,001
4,373
4,416
4,445
4,542
5,291
5,455
5,782
5,856
5,967
6,094
6,190
6,395
6,865
6,939
8,534
Total (14 cities)___
30,323
5,169
City
City
Num
ber of
families
pro
vided
for
Average
cost per
family
Multifamily dwellings *
1-family dwellings
St. Louis................................ .
Los Angeles...........................
San Francisco.......................
Milwaukee.............................
Buffalo................................... .
Pittsburgh.............................
D e t r o i t ---..............................
Boston.................................... .
Borough of Queens 1______
Borough of Richmond
Borough of Brooklyn 1___
Cleveland.............................. .
Baltimore.............................. .
Borough of the Bronx 1___
N ew York (all boroughs) _
Chicago.................................. .
Philadelphia..........................
Washington.......................... .
Borough of Manhattan i -.
Total (14 cities)...........
2-family dwellings*
2,264
7,049
2,097
1,190
488
86
2,998
2,198
10,976
446
13,036
695
276
21,709
54,698
16,105
1,855
1,369
8,531
$2,063
2,180
2,403
2,735
3,048
3,140
3,344
3,449
3,499
3,590
3,804
3,883
4,112
4,218
4,406
5,167
5,597
7,014
93,368
4,214
4,095
11,730
1,580
3,613
2,263
3,682
1,983
1,247
9,257
18,016
16,986
23,237
6,723
1,966
19,885
1,078
2,126
8,536
2,691
2,823
3,091
3,246
3,873
3,900
4,016
4,106
4,127
4,168
4,303
4,346
4,619
4,680
4,934
5,371
5,800
6,610
7,019
138,003
4,438
All classes of dwellings
691
B u f f a lo .--............................
Washington..........................
St. Louis................................
Detroit...................................
Los Angeles..........................
Milwaukee...........................
San Francisco-....................
Boston...................................
Borough of Richmond 1_.
Borough of Queens 1.........
Pittsburgh............................
Cleveland..............................
N ew York (all boroughs)
Borough of Brooklyn 1_ _.
Borough of the Bronx 1...
Philadelphia........................
Chicago..................................
464
4,973
2,318
786
135
1,384
2,279
2,792
3,309
3,486
3,591
4,184
4,195
4,213
4,296
4,447
4,625
4,710
5,010
5,302
5,440
5,624
5,974
Total (14 cities).—
.14,312
4,356
12
897
2,733
1,024
538
196
1,164
153
1,712
101
St. Louis................................ .
Los Angeles..........................
Buffalo...................................
San Francisco.......................
M ilwaukee............................
Boston......................................
Baltimore.............................. .
Borough of Richmond l._.
Detroit................................... .
Borough of Queens 1______
Borough of Brooklyn 1___
Borough of the Bronx 1___
N ew York (all boroughs) _
Philadelphia..........................
Cleveland.............................. .
Chicago.................................. .
Pittsburgh..............................
Washington.......................... .
Borough of Manhattan 1_.
Total (14 cities)...................
68,022
*A borough of “ Greater N ew York.”
* Includes 1-family and 2-family dwellings with stores, the number and cost of which are shown sep
arately in the October Labor Review.
* Includes multifamily dwellings with stores, the number and cost of which are shown separately in the
October Labor Review.
Permits were issued during the first six months of 1928 for multi
family dwellings to house 93,368 families, which is over three times
as many families as provided for in 1-family dwellings in these 14
cities. The average cost per family of the multifamily dwellings
was $4,214, the greatest cost per family being found in the Borough
of Manhattan where it cost $7,014 per family to house the 8,531
families domiciled in apartment houses. New York City as a whole
housed 54,698 families in apartment houses during this period and the
average cost per family was $4,406. The average cost per family
was $2,063 in St. Louis and $5,597 in Washington.
There were 138,003 families provided for in all classes of dwellings
for which permits were issued in these 14 cities during the first half
of 1928, the average cost per dwelling unit being $4,438. The most
HOUSING
208
expensive dwellings were built in the Borough of Manhattan where
it cost $7,019 per family. Considering each city as a whole, however,
Washington paid more per family unit than any of the other cities.
It cost $6,610 per family to care for the 2,126 families provided for in
Washington during the first half in 1928.
Table 2 shows the number of families provided for during the first
half of 1928 and the average cost of dwelling accommodations per
family in the different kinds of dwellings in each of the 22 cities of
the United States which have a population of between 200,000 and
500,000.
2 .— A V E R A G E C O S T O F D W E L L I N G A C C O M M O D A T I O N S P E R F A M I L Y I N C IT IE S
H A V I N G A P O P U L A T IO N B E T W E E N 200,000 A N D 500,000, B Y K I N D O F D W E L L I N G :
P E R M I T S F O R F IR S T 6 M O N T H S O F 1928
table
City
N um
ber of
families
pro
vided
for
Average
cost per
family
City
1-family dwellings
Dallas, T e x .................
Birmingham, A l a . . .
Seattle, W ash .............
San Antonio, T e x .. .
N ew Orleans, L a___
Oakland, Calif...........
Toledo, Ohio________
Minneapolis, M in n .
Atlanta, G a_________
Portland, Oreg______
Kansas City, M o . . .
Indianapolis, In d___
Columbus, Ohio____
Denver, C olo __.........
Louisville, K y ______
Rochester, N . Y ____
Omaha, N e b r ............
St. Paul, M in n _____
Jersey City, N . J___
. Cincinnati, Ohio___
Providence, R . I ___
Newark, N . J ............
1,021
507
719
964
683
499
445
168
308
5
980
247
30
$2,671
3,003
3,452
3,763
3,886
3,903
4,178
4,184
4,216
4,320
4,672
4,699
5,056
5,119
5,273
5,573
5,627
5,837
6,500
7.840
9,612
9.841
San Antonio, T e x ...
Birmingham, A l a . . .
Atlanta, G a ...............
Oakland, Calif...........
Minneapolis, M in n .
Rochester, N . Y ____
Dallas, T e x .................
Seattle, W ash.............
Kansas City, M o . . .
Denver, C olo__.........
Indianapolis, In d—
N ew Orleans, L a —
Toledo, Ohio........ .
Providence, R . I ___
Jersey City, N . J—
Omaha, N ebr.............
Cincinnati, Ohio____
Columbus, Ohio____
Portland, Oreg______
St. Paul, M in n _____
Newark, N . J .............
Louisville, K y ...........
Total (22 cities)_____
4,601
2-family dwellings1
Total (22 cities) _
500
534
484
649
469
625
82
1,900
634
453
517
70
70
182
807
25
801
484
240
38
1,758
253
$1,134
2,041
2,191
2,499
2,739
2,826
3,015
3,034
3,138
3,243
3,277
3,316
3,429
3,788
3,791
3,800
3,856
3,907
4,373
4,737
5,023
8,301
11,575
3,457
1,177
1,624
665
1,728
1,224
1,480
3,319
1,260
1,185
1,414
933
1,151
868
1,329
1,170
1,647
2,076
201
374
1,987
823
654
2,491
2,692
2,769
2,988
3,135
3,200
3,210
3,557
3,849
3,889
3,938
3,989
4,059
4,313
4,353
4,605
5,244
5,574
5,678
5,948
6,067
6,534
28,289
4,012
All classes of dwellings
249
178
27
172
14
144
71
34
68
199
7
81
44
121
206
28
225
2,037
2,114
2,395
2,826
2,887
2,968
3,401
3,480
3,607
3,686
3,750
4.000
4,119
4,129
4,265
4,614
4,814
5,078
5,207
5,376
6,116
10.000
3,206
New Orleans, L a—
Birmingham, A l a . . .
Dallas, T e x . . . ...........
San Antonio, T e x ...
Oakland, Calif...........
Atlanta, Ga................
Seattle, W ash .............
Minneapolis, M in n .
Kansas City, M o . . .
Indianapolis, In d___
Jersey City, N . J___
Rochester, N . Y ____
Toledo, Ohio..............
Portland, Oreg...........
Denver, C olo__.........
Columbus, Ohio____
Newark, N . J .............
Omaha, N ebr.............
St. Paul, M in n ..........
Cincinnati, Ohio____
Louisville, K y ...........
Providence, R . I ___
3,533
* Includes 1-family and 2-family dwellings with stores.
* Includes multifamily dwellings with stores.
Average
cost per
family
Multifamily dwellings *
411
1,083
1,405
1,140
241
548
710
647
747
Total (22 cities)........
N ew Orleans, L a___
Atlanta, G a ..............
Indianapolis, In d ___
Oakland, C a lif ..____
Dallas, T e x ............... ..
Seattle, W ash _______
Minneapolis, M in n .
San Antonio, Tex___
Toledo, O h io .............
Louisville, K y ...........
Denver, C olo.............
Portland, Oreg_____
Columbus, Ohio____
Birmingham, A l a . . .
Rochester, N . Y ____
Kansas C ity, M o ___
Jersey C ity, N . J___
Cincinnati, Ohio___
St. Paul, M in n _____
Providence, R . I ____
Newark, N . J.............
Omaha, N eb r.............
N um
ber of
families
pro
vided
for
Total (22 cities) _
APARTMENT HOUSE LIVING
209
In contrast to the larger cities, it will be seen that these 22 cities
provided for more families in 1-family dwellings than in apartment
houses. In the 14 cities having a population of 500,000 or over, 67.7
per cent of the families provided for were cared for in apartment
houses and only 22 per cent in 1-family dwellings. In the 22 cities
having a population of from 200,000 to 500,000, 1-family dwellings
housed 47.8 per cent of the total number of families provided for,
while multifamily dwellings housed but 40.9 per cent.
The average cost of 1-family dwellings in these 22 cities was $4,601.
The cost range of this class of structure was from $2,671 in Dallas,
Tex., to $9,841 in Newark, N. J.
The average cost of 2-family dwellings was $3,533 per family,
ranging from $2,037 in New Orleans to $10,000 in Omaha.
Multifamily dwellings averaged only $1,134 per family in San An
tonio, but $8,301 in Louisville, the average cost in the 22 cities being
$3,457 per family.
The average cost of all dwelling units in these 22 cities was $4,012
per family. Providence, R. I., provided for 654 families at a cost of
$6,534 per family, while New Orleans provided for 1,177 families at a
cost of only $2,491 per family.
The average cost per family in the cities of 500,000 and over was
more for each class of dwelling than in the cities in the lower popula
tion group. The cost of 1-family dwellings averaged 12.3 per cent
more in the larger cities than in the cities having a population of
less than 500,000; the cost of 2-family dwellings averaged 23.3 per
cent higher; that of multifamily dwellings, 21.9 per cent higher; and
of all dwelling units, 10.6 per cent higher.
Because of lack of space, data are not shown separately for cities
having a population of between 100,000 and 200,000. In the 49
cities in this population group permits were issued during the first
half of 1928 for 16,030 one-family dwellings at an average cost of
$4,502. Two-family dwellings cost $3,805 per family for the 3,146
families cared for, while multifamily dwellings provided for 9,739
families at an average cost of $3,801. The total number of families
provided for in dwelling houses of all types in these 49 cities was
28,914 and the average cost per family of the dwellings provided
was $4,190.
Apartment House Living in American Cities, 1927
UILDING permits issued in cities of the United States and
compiled by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics clearly
show that the proportion of families housed in multifamily dwellings
is steadily increasing. A multifamily dwelling is one designed to
accommodate three or more families. The term is equivalent to the
less definite term “ apartment house” or “ tenement house.”
Records from 257 identical cities from 1921 to 1927 are shown
below in Table 1. In 1921 only 24.4 per cent of the families housed
in new buildings were accommodated in multifamily dwellings com
pared with 58.3 per cent housed in 1-family dwellings. By 1926
the percentage housed in multifamily dwellings had risen to 45.4 and
that housed in 1-family dwellings had fallen to 40.7. Permits issued
for new buildings during 1927 reveal another decrease in the percent
B
210
HOUSING
age housed in 1-family dwellings and a corresponding increase in
those housed in apartment houses. Only 38.3 per cent of the families
provided for in new buildings were housed in 1-family dwellings,
according to permits issued in these 257 cities during 1927, compared
with 48.3 per cent housed in apartment houses. Two-family dwell
ings housed 13.4 per cent of the families provided for in 1927, a
decrease as compared with the six preceding years.
T a b l e 1 .— P E R C E N T O P F A M I L I E S P R O V I D E D F O R I N T H E D I F F E R E N T K I N D S O F
D W E L L I N G S I N 257 I D E N T I C A L C IT IE S , 1921 T O 1927 I N C L U S I V E
Year
1921.....................
1922.....................
1923.....................
1924.....................
1925.....................
1926.....................
1927.....................
Number of
families
provided
for in all
classes of
dwellings
224,545
377,305
453,673
442,919
491,222
462,214
406,095
Per cent of families provided
for in—
1-family
dwell
ings
2-family
dwell
ings 1
58.3
47.5
45.8
47.6
46.0
40.7
38.3
17.3
21.3
21.2
21.5
17.5
13.9
13.4
M ulti
family
dwell
ings 3
24.4
31.2
33.0
30.9
36.4
45.4
48.3
i Includes 1-family and 2-family dwellings with stores combined.
* Includes multifamily dwellings with stores combined.
In the past most American cities have largely housed their inhabit
ants in single-family dwellings. However, while there are no details
available of the percentage of families now living in apartment houses
compared with those housed in 1-family dwellings, it is evident that
if new family accommodations continue to be provided in the apart
ments at the increasing ratios that have been shown recently it will not
be a great number of years until in many cities the majority of the
population will be housed in this class of structure.
Aside from the question of the effect of this change upon home life
and home ownership, the wage earners as a class are affected by the
resulting change in the demand for labor. The erection of one-family
dwellings gives employment for the most part to carpenters and brick
layers. A given amount of money spent in the erection of large
apartment houses will give employment to fewer carpenters if not to
fewer bricklayers. Further, the erection of apartment houses gives
employment to many trades seldom if ever used in the building of
1-family dwellings. Among these are structural-iron workers, con
crete workers, marble and stone cutters, terra cotta workers, etc.
Comparison of Conditions in Cities of over 500,000
T h e p r o p o r t io n of families housed in apartment houses is much
greater in the large cities than in the 257 cities as a whole. In the 14
cities of the United States which have a popualtion of 500,000 or
over only 25.8 per cent of the families housed in new buildings in
1927 were cared for in 1-family dwellings, while 60.8 per cent were
housed in apartment houses.
APARTMENT HOUSE LIVING
211
In 1921 only 34 per cent of new housing units were in apartment
houses, while 44.2 per cent were in 1-family dwellings. In 1926 there
were 281,172 families provided for in these 14 cities and 58 per cent
were housed in apartment houses. Thus, it will be seen that the per
centage of families housed in apartment houses was 3 points higher in
1927 than in 1926. The total number of families housed in 1927,
however, fell to 236,113.
While the percentage of families housed in apartment houses was
greater in 1927 than in 1926 in the 14 cities taken as a whole, an in
crease did not occur in each city. Six cities showed a decrease in
the percentage of families housed in apartment houses and eight an
increase.
The largest increase in the percentage of families housed in apart
ment houses was shown in Milwaukee, where in 1926 only 19.5 per
cent of the families provided for that year were housed in apartment
houses, while in 1927 this percentage had increased to 42.4 per cent.
This was not due to any slackening of residential building in Mil
waukee, for 4,252 families were provided for in 1927 compared with
3,629 in 1926.
In Los Angeles practically the same number of families were
provided for in 1927 as in 1926, and the percentage housed in apart
ment houses increased from 39.8 per cent in 1926 to 51.8 per cent in
1927. Boston, Buffalo, and Chicago also provided for a much larger
percentage of its families housed during 1927 in apartment houses
than in 1926.
In contrast, Pittsburgh and Washington both showed fair gains in
the percentage of families housed in 1-family dwellings in 1927 as
compared with 1926 and a corresponding loss in the percentage
housed in apartment houses. In Washington, however, this gain
may be accounted for by the fact that residential building as a whole
slumped greatly during 1927 as compared with 1926. In 1926 new
homes were provided for 7,911 families, and of this number 43.3 per
cent were accommodated in 1-family dwellings and 56.3 per cent
in apartment houses. In 1927 the percentage of families housed in
apartment houses fell to 52.2 and those housed in 1-family dwellings
rose to 47.3. In 1927, however, dwelling accommodations were
provided for only 3,938 families.
Baltimore continues to be the leading single-family dwelling city
in the country. In 1926 this type of residence provided for 92.4
per cent of the new housing units, and in 1927 there was a still further
increase in single residences to 94.4 per cent.
Figures are available for 1922 to 1925 in earlier publications but
are omitted to economize space,
39142°— 29------ 15
212
HOUSING
T a b l e 2 .— P E R C E N T O F F A M I L I E S P R O V I D E D F O R B Y T H E D I F F E R E N T T Y P E S O F
D W E L L I N G S I N C IT I E S H A V I N G A P O P U L A T IO N O F 500,000 O R O V E R I N 1921, 1926,
A N D 1927
C ity, State, and year
Per cent of
families provided
Total
for in—
num
ber of
fam
M ulilies
12tifam- fam- fampro
vided
ily
ily
iiy
for
dwell dwell
dwell
ings ings1
ings2
Baltimore, M d .:
1921..............................
2,176
5,135
192 6
3,546
192 7
Boston, M ass.:
1921..............................
878
3,882
192 6
192 7
5,316
Buffalo, N . Y . :
1921..............................
2,405
3,286
192 6
3,373
192 7
Chicago, 111.:
12,252
1921.......................
41,416
192 6
—
41,201
192 7
Cleveland, Ohio:
4,084
1921..............................
5,406
192 6
3,631
192 7
...............
Detroit, M ich.:
1921.............................
6,743
192 6
. 26,421
192 7
. 15,614
Los Angeles, Calif.:
1921.............................. 19,572
192 5
. 20,017
1927.............................. 20,801
Milwaukee, W is.:
1921.............................
2,212
1926__.........................
3,629
4,252
1927..............................
N ew York C ity, N . Y .:
1921............................. 51,360
192 6
133,126
.................... 105,519
192 7
B r o o k ly n 1921.................. .. 16,636
192 6
. . . . 45,663
192 7
33,172
Bronx—
1921..................... 14,037
192 6
42,309
30,025
192 7
C ity, State, and year
N ew York City, N .
Y .— Continued.
Q u een s1921....................
192 6
.
192 7
............
Manhattan—
1921.....................
192 6
192 7
.
R ic h m o n d 1921___________
192 6
.
192 7
Philadelphia, Pa.:
1921...........................
85.0
92.4
94.4
4.5
0.7
0.2
10.5
6.8
5.4
15.5
16.2
10.3
30.5
41.4
32.2
54.0
42.6
57.5
51.6
47.5
34.2
48.0
33.0
36.7
0.4
19.5
29.1
37.9
17.6
13.6
17.6
13.1
10.2
44.6
69.3
76.2
35.5
36.2
43.9
40.5
35.0
30.7
46.9
39.6
35.9
17.9
2.1.4
2G.6
68.0
50.0
39.5
16.9
10.3
8.7
44.9
50.4
30.9
38.2
30.1
26.7
31.6
16.2
15.9
24.2
12.2
13.3
24.1
12.9
11.6
44.0
15.2
17.5
24.0
10 2 7 ..........................
Pittsburgh, Pa.:
23.9
1621.............................
25. 5 j
192 6
35.2 :
...............
192 7
3a. 0 ! St. Louis, M o .:
37.5 |
1921............................
.
192 6
15. 2
192 7
30.8
San Francisco, Calif.:
1921.............................
51.8
192 6
192 7
..............
16.9
19.5
Washington, D . C .:
42.4
192 6
44.2
192 7
71.6
70.9
Total (14 cities):
1921.................
1926.................
31.9
71.9
1927_________
71.0
11.7
3.3
* 4 .0
11.9
8.2
8.5
76.4
88.5
87.5
Per cent of
families provided
Total
for m —
num- „
ber of
fam
M ulilies
tifam- fampro
famvided
ily
ily
ily
for
dwell dwell
ings ings1 dwell
ings2
1-
2-
13,256
31,431
31,205
60.0
41.2
33.4
24.4
17.8
17.1
15.6
41.0
49.5
4,837
11,910
9,502
0.7
3.7
95.5
99.9
2,594
1.813
1,615
0.1 0.1
(8) (3)
100.0
71.7 14.5
77.9 20.6
13.8
1.5
2,406
11,603
12,197
74.4
71.2
4 .7
3.3
6.7
20.9
25.5
1,335
2,781
2,588
59.3
73.8
68.0
26.8
7.7
7.6
13.9
24.3
18.7
8,020
5,463
49.0
23.7
29.1
24.1
17.8
16.8
58.4
54.1
2,683
8,539
8,674
37.6
39.8
31.1
17.0
6.9
9.5
45.4
53.3
59.3
2,195
7,911
3,938
75.4
43.3
47.3
0 .4
0 .5
24.6
56.3
52.2
112,373
281,172
236,113
44.2
28.2
25.8
21.7
13.8
13.4
34.0
58.0
60.8
2,072
1 Includes 1-family and 2-family dwellings with stores combined.
2 Includes multifamily dwellings with stores combined*
* Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent.
Comparisons of Conditions in Cities under 500,000
I n T a b l e 3 are shown cities having a population of 25,000 and
under 500,000 which provided dwelling accommodations for 200
or more families in either 1925 or 1926. The table shows figures for
1921,1926, and 1927 where data are available for these three years.
When the information is not available for 1921 it is shown for the
earliest year for which such data were collected. A few of the
smaller cities, which have reached a population of 25,000 since 1920,
are shown for 1926 and 1927 only.
APARTMENT HOUSE LIVING
213
That the apartment-house idea has spread rapidly to the suburban
cities is illustrated by the fact that Highland Park, a town on the
outskirts of Detroit, provided for 97 per cent of its new families in
apartment houses in 1926 and 97.8 per cent in 1927. This city had
an estimated population in July, 1927, of 81,700. Evanston and
Oak Park, which are located on the outskirts of Chicago, provided
for 65.1 per cent and 69.5 per cent, respectively, in apartment houses
in 1926 and for 70.5 per cent and 77 per cent in apartment houses in
1927. White Plains, N. Y., provided for 66.8 per cent of its new
family units in apartment houses in 1926 and for 73.7 per cent in this
class of building in 1927. Mount Vernon, N. Y., during 1926 made
provision for 88.5 per cent of the families provided for in apartment
houses. In 1927 the percentage fell to 83.7.
Also smaller cities not near big cities in some cases are building
quite a number of apartment houses. Allentown, Pa., which in
1926 provided for only 5.8 per cent of the families provided for that
year in apartment houses, in 1927 provided for 23.1 per cent in these
multifamily structures. The percentage increased from 11.6 per
cent in 1926 to 23 per cent in 1927 in Charleston, W. Va., and from
10.2 per cent to 28.5 per cent in Asheville, N. C.
The smaller and medium sized cities of the Middle West and the
South are as a rule builders of 1-family residences, while the New
England cities build a much larger percentage of 2-family dwellings
than the other sections of the country.
T a ble 3 . — P E R C E N T O F F A M I L I E S P R O V ID E D F O R B Y T H E D I F F E R E N T K I N D S O F
D W E L L I N G S I N C IT IE S H A V I N G A P O P U L A T IO N O F F R O M 25,000 T O 500,000
C ity, State, and year
Akron, Ohio:
1921...........
1927........... ..........
Alameda, Calif:
1921..................... .
192 6
.
192 7
.
Albany, N . Y .:
1921_____ ______ _
192 6
.
192 7
..
Allentown, Pa.:
1921_____ _____
1 9 2 6 ...................
1927..................... .
Altoona, Pa.:
1921....... ............. .
192 6
.......
192 7
.
Amsterdam, N . Y .:
1921..................... .
192 6
..
192 7
..
Per cent of
families provided
Total
for in—
num
ber of
fam
M ul12ilies
tifam- fampro
famvided
ily
ily
ily
dwell
dwell
for
dwell
ings ings 1
ings 2
City, State, and year
1-
Anderson, Ind.:
234 100.0
1,968 95.5
2,521 83.9
3.4
4.5
12.7
1921......................
192 6
192 7
37
229
456
100.0
152
322
239
88.2
86.0
81.2
11.8
3.7
5.4
10.3
13.4
302
808
558
59.3
44.8
48.9
39.7
26.4
44.6
1.0
28.8
6.5
814
681
90.2
93.2
74.9
2.0
1.0
1.9
7.8
5.8
23.1
91
316
282
93.4
79.4
92.6
6.6
5.1
.4
15.5
7.1
1921......................
192 6
192 7 ...............
3.0
1.5
374
979
449
97.1
89.4
70.4
2.1 .8
.4
10.2
1.1 28.5
1,614
2,173
2,563
78.1
55.9
54.1
3.3
22.3
20.6
18.6
21.9
25.3
363
248
51.9
17.9
25.8
27.9
13.2
33.9
68.9
40.3
96.8
85.7
1.7
1.9
1.5
12.4
92.1
89.5
91.8
3.0
5.2
Atlanta, G a.:
102
1921............. ........
192 6 ...............
192 7 .................
Atlantic C ity, N . J.:
1921......................
192 6
.............
192 7
Aurora, 111.:
1921..................
192 6
_____
192 7
____
126
526
418
100.0
Battle Creek, M ich.:
70
90
67
71.4
40.0
41.8
28.6 --------60.0
58.2 ______
1921...... ...............
1 9 2 6 ...................
1927......................
2-
81.2
72.4
Asheville, N . C .:
Includes 1-family and 2-family dwellings with stores combined.
Includes multifamily dwellings with stores combined.
Per cent of
families provided
Total
for m—
num
ber of
fam
M u lilies
tipro
fam- fam
famvided
ily
ily
ily
for
dwell dwell
ings ings dwell
ings 2
127
266
268
1.6
15.8
26.1
20.2
6.3
7.5
3.0
HOUSING
214
T abie 3.—PER CENT OF FAMILIES PROVIDED FOR BY THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF
DWELLINGS IN CITIES HAVING A POPULATION OF FROM 25,000 TO 500,000—Con.
C ity, State, and year
Bayonne, N . J.:
1921...........................
192 6
192 7
.................
Bellingham, W ash.:
192 6
192 7
Berkeley, Calif.:
1921...........................
192 6
192 7
Bethlehem, Pa.:
1921...........................
192 6
192 7
Binghamton, N . Y .:
1921...........................
192 6
192 7
.
Birmingham, Ala.:
1921...........................
1927...........................
Bridgeport, Conn.:
1921........................ .
192 6
..........
192 7
............... .
Brookline, M ass.:
1921......................... .
1926........................
1927.........................
Cambridge, M ass.:
1921.--------- ---------192 6
192 7
Camden, N . J.:
1921..........................
192 6
192 7
Canton, Ohio:
1921.........................
1926
192 7
Cedar Rapids, Iowa:
1921.........................
192 6
192 7
Central Falls, R . I.:
1926.........................
1927..........................
Charleston, W . V a .:
1921..........................
192 6
192 7
Charlotte, N . C .:
1921.........................
1926.........................
1927.........................
Chattanooga, Tenn.:
1921.........................
192 6
192 7
Chester, Pa.:
1921.........................
1926........................
1927.........................
Chicopee, M ass.:
1921..........................
192 6
192 7
Per cent of
families provided
Total
for in—
num
ber of
fam
M u lilies
tifam- fam
pro
famvided
ily
ily
ily
dwell dwell
for
dwell
ings ings
ings
1-
2-
274
772
344
56.9
3.0
2.3
28.1
26.8
39.5
3S2
348
77.7
90.8
706
1,434
8G7
77.6
0.3.2
65.6
1.7
14.2
8.1
26.3
82
229
230
96.3
47.2
35.7
3.7
35.8
46.1
17.0
18.3
£27
379
310
55.7
34.6
31.6
30.6
26.9
32.3
13.8
38.5
36.1
1,059
3,319
3,019
93.7
83.0
78.2
.5
1.0
1.3
5.7
15.9
20.4
404
£23
497
35.6
42.1
41.6
32.7
32.9
31.4
31.7
25.0
27.0
118
259
472
22.0
28.6
22.0
54.2
40.9
28.0
23.7
30.5
50.0
43
CSS
636
7.0
5.4
5.5
93.0
30.8
33.7
G3.8
60.9
145 100.0
673 89.3
559 85.3
7.1
5.2
3.6
9.5
86.1
94.9
90.0
1.0
1.1
2.2
12.9
4.0
7.8
403
702
512
15.0
70.2
58.1
22.3
9.2
1.2
331 96.7
.6
170 97.6
145 100.0 ...........
20.7
22.6
2.1
1.8
230
74
.9
4.1
49.6
41.9
49.6
54.1
712
225
269
77.7
76.0
73.2
6.0
12.4
3.7
23.0
322
738
1,052
93.2
68.0
48.1
3.1
3.3
13.3
3.7
28.7
38.6
226
902
596
65.9
56.8
56.9
5.8
28.5
8.7
28.3
14.7
34.4
47
301
361
91.5
88.0
82.3
9.4
238
247
110
42.0
45.3
65.5
27.7
38.1
34.5
8.5
16.4
11.6
12.0
30.3
16.6
City, State, and year
Cicero, HI.:
1921____
192 7
Cincinnati, Ohio:
1921.............................
192 8
1927.............................
Clifton, N . J.:
1921.............................
1926.............................
1 9 2 7 ... .
Colorado S p r i n g s ,
Colo.:
1921.............................
192 6
192 7
Columbus, G a.:
1921.............................
192 6
192 7
.
Columbus, Ohio:
1921........................... .
192 6
.
192 7
.
Council Bluffs, Iowa:
1921........................... .
192 6
.
192 7
.
Covington, K y .:
1921......................... ..
.
192 6
192 7
.
Cranston, R . I.:
1921........................... .
192 6
.
192 7
Dallas, Tex.:
1921...........................
192 6
192 7
Davenport, Iowa:
1921...........................
192 6
.
192 7
Dayton, Ohio:
1921............................
192 6
192 7
Decatur, HI.:
1921............................
192 6
192 7
Denver, Colo.:
1921...........................
1 92 6 ......................... .
1927...........................
Des Moines, Iowa:
1921...........................
192 6
192 7
Duluth, M in n .:
1921............................
192 6
192 7
Durham, N . C .:
192 6
192 7
Per cent of
families provided
Total
for m—
num
ber of
fam
M u lilies
tipro
fam- famfamvided
ily
ily
for
dwell dwell dwell
ings ings
ings
1-
2ily
453
591
559
57.8
34.9
28.3
40.8
31.3
27.0
1.3
33.8
46.7
1 ,1C1
2,530
3,212
92.9
58.4
52.3
1.3
19.3
18.0
22.3
29.7
510
578
£07
39.8
50.2
58.9
58.2
28.7
23.8
2.0
21.1
17.3
116 100.0
124 100.0
C7 100.0
68.2
8.0
31.8
226
325
92.0
92.6
1,317
3,192
2,430
65.8
62.3
60.5
31.7
33.6
19.7
2.5
4.2
19.8
423
227
136
84.2
81.1
74.3
6.4
7.9
2.9
11.0
22.8
198
379
34G
95.5
90.0
81.5
2.5
2.0
13.9
4.6
154
437
452
72.7
78.3
79.2
27.3
18.5
18.8
3.2
50.3
67.1
5.6
16.1
27.0
13.6
33.6
5.9
4.2
18.7
2,846
3,104
192 77.1
109 100.0
125 95.2
546
813
1,201
8.2
1.6
86.0 2.2
59.9
43.8
~~7~4
9.5
1.8
2.0
3.2
1.8
21.9
37.3
18.2
18.9
13.7
3.6
1.9
3.9
7.4
38.5
24.4
335
568
613
98.1
1,624
2,530
1,847
87.8
56.9
72.4
4.8
4.6
3.2
758
502
360
87.1
90.4
86.7
7.1
637
489
303
96.4
95.3
95.0
2.2
2.0
422
508
75.8
81.1
£6.1
2.2
5.8
9.6
11.1
1.7
1.9
2.5
3.0
11.8
12.3
9.8
9.1
215
APARTMENT HOUSE LIVING
T able 3 .—PER CENT OF FAMILIES PROVIDED FOR BY THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF
DWELLINGS IN CITIES HAVING A POPULATION OF FROM 25,000 TO 500,000—Con.
C ity, State, and year
Per cent of
families provided
Total
for in—
num
ber of
fam
M u lilies
12tifam- fampro
famvided
ily
ily
for
dwell dwell ily
dwell
ings ings
ings
East Chicago, Ind.:
1921.............................
192 6
.
192 7
.
East Cleveland, Ohio:
1921.............................
192 6
.
192 7
.
East Orange, N . J.:
1921.............................
192 6
...................
192 7
.
East Providence, R . I.:
192 6
.
192 7
.
East St. Louis, HI.:
1921........................... .
192 6
.
192 7
.
Elgin, HI.:
1921........................... .
192 6
.
192 7
.
Elizabeth, N . J.:
1921.............................
192 6
.
192 7
.
Erie, Pa.:
1921........................... .
192 6
192 7
Evanston, 111.:
1921.............................
192 6
192 7
Evansville, Ind.:
1921.............................
192 6
192 7
Everett, M ass.:
1921.............................
192 6
192 7
Fall River, M ass.:
1921.............................
192 6
192 7
Fitchburg, M ass.:
1921.............................
192 6
192 7
Flint, M ich.:
1921.............................
192 6
192 7
Fort W ayne, Ind.:
1921.............................
192 6
192 7
Fort Worth, Tex.:
1921.............................
192 6
192 7
Galveston, Tex.:
1921.............................
192 6
192 7
Gary, Ind .:
1921.............................
192 6
192 7
168
443
406
57.1
34.1
40.9
31.0
43.8
32.5
11.9
22.1
26.6
472
332
258
13.1
5.4
4.7
39.8
7.8
9.3
47.0
86.7
86.0
376
1,140
2,140
26.6
14.9
4.2
38.6
10.2
6.8
34.8
74.9
89.0
247
249
74.5
79.9
24.3
17.7
1.2
2.4
260
708
585
93.8
60.9
66.8
16.5
12.3
6.2
22.6
20.9
67
348
262
52.2
83.9
93.5
20.9
.6
2.3
26.9
15.5
4.2
514
1,751
1,650
28.0
17.4
12.4
66.4
31.1
13.4
5.6
51.5
74.2
518
547
444
62.5
76.8
74.5
37.5
22.7
24.5
.5
.9
415
1,271
1,423
74.0
25.6
22.6
5.8
9.3
6.9
20.2
65.1
70.5
509
615
420
84.3
t>7.9
93.8
2.4
2.1
4.8
13.4
” 1.4
15
425
440
46.7
10.8
13.9
53.3
73.9
69.1
15.3
17.0
.
141
232
251
47.5
48.7
54.6
22.7
37.1
29.5
29.8
14.2
15.8
119
147
67
51.3
63.9
77.6
38.7
25.9
17.9
10.1
10.2
4.5
348
2,171
3,559
61.8
93.7
92.2
33.0
1.6
4.9
5.2
4.7
2.9
586
972
485
81.4
98.9
98.4
14.2
.3
1.6
4.4
.8
909
1,923
3,160
96.7
89.1
55.5
1.9
22.0
103
52
571
96.1
53.8
96.7
494
2,024
1,675
59.1
61.8
32.8
3.3
9.0
22.5
3.9
46.2
3.3
.4
13.4
29.9
40.5
24.9
37.3
City, State, and year
Grand Rapids, M ich.:
1921.............................
1926..............................
1927.............................
Hamilton, Ohio:
1921..............................
1926.............................
1927..............................
H ammond, Ind.:
1921.............................
1926..............................
1927..............................
Hamtramck, M ich.:
1921.............................
1926..............................
1927.............................
Harrisburg, Pa.:
1921..............................
1926..............................
1927..............................
Hartford, Conn.:
1921..............................
1926..............................
1927..............................
Hazelton, Pa.:
1921..............................
1926.............................
100*7
'Highland Park, M ich.:
1921..............................
1926..............................
1927..............................
Holyoke, M ass.:
1921.............................
1926..............................
1927.............................
Houston, Tex.:
1921.............................
1926.............................
1927.............................
Huntington, W . V a .:
1921.............................
1926.............................
1927.............................
Indianapolis, Ind.:
1921.............................
1926.............................
1927.............................
Irvington, N . J.:
1921.............................
1926.............................
1927.............................
Jackson, M ich.:
1921..............................
1926..............................
1927............................
Jacksonville, Fla.:
1 9 2 1 --........................
1926............................
1927..............................
Jamestown, N . Y .:
1GOO.............................
IvZZ
I92g
1927............................
Jersey City, N . J.:
1921.
1926....................
1927Johnstown, Pa.:
1 9 2 1 .--.......................
1926.............................
1927________________
Per cent of
families provided
Total
for in—
num
ber of
iamM u lilies
tifam- fampro
famvided
ily
ily
for
dwell dwell ily
dwell
ings ings
ings.
630
1,955
1,709
1-
2-
94.9
93.7
95.2
2.5
5.7
3.3
2.5
.7
1.4
192 100.0
453 100.0
100.0
288
905
1,141
87.8
77.1
60.5
12.2
6.0
6.7
33.6
276
205
70
53.6
57.1
35.7
39.5
24.9
58.6
6.9
18.0
5.7
179
501
319
48.6
77.8
98.7
44.7
2.4
1.3
6.7
19.8
717
2,676
1,270
7.8
11.0
39.9
17.9
21.7
52.3
75.3
67.2
200
31.6
33.0
33.3
31.6
61.0
66.7
36.8
250
564
366
13.2
15.2
71.6
97.0
97.8
197
275
53.5
33.5
14.2
46.5
22.3
11.6
44.2
74.2
2,572
3,815
4,536
88.9
64.2
59.9
3.4
11.4
20.3
7.7
24.4
19.8
777
337
194
95.2
75.7
69.6
1.4
13.4
7.7
22.7
2,565
2,424
2,400
56.1
63.8
58.5
21.2
19.1
22.5
15.0
22.4
1,379
2,562
38.8
35.5
4.5
39.3
37.7
23.1
21.9
26.8
72.4
108
286
206
87.0
94.4
87.4
3.7
2.1
12.6
9.3
3.5
747
2,373
2,098
75.8
69.9
59.5
9.9
17.2
25.5
14.3
12.9
15.1
161
252
225
94.4
71.8
77.8
3.7
14.3
8.9
1.9
13.9
13.3
970
2,601
1,287
4.4
1.9
46.3
27.3
25.8
49.3
70.9
72.3
46.4
77.9
72.7
40.1
15.0
24.2
13.5
7.0
3 .1
38
126
213
128
6.8
16.1
1.2 1.8
1.6
.5
1.8
21.4
6.0
3.3
11.0
HOUSING
216
T able 3.—PER CENT OF FAMILIES PROVIDED FOR B Y THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF
DWELLINGS IN CITIES HAVING A POPULATION OF FROM 25,000 TO 500,000—Con.
C ity, State, and year
Kansas City, Kans.:
1 9 2 1 .. .
1926...........................
1927.__....................
Kansas City, M o .:
1921..........................
192 6
192 7
Kearney, N . J.:
1921..........................
192 6
192 7
Kenosha, W is.:
1921..........................
192 6
192 7
Knoxville, Tenn.:
1921..........................
19 2 6 -. 1 9 2 7 .. Lakewood, Ohio:
1921. .
1926. .
1927....................
Lancaster, Pa.:
1921..........................
1926 .
..........
1927. ......................
Lansing, M ich.:
1921........................
1926 .
..........
1927.........................
Lawrence, M ass.:
1921. .
1926. .
1927..........................
Lexington, K y .:
1921..........................
1926. .
1927 .
..........
Lim a, Ohio.:
1921........................
1926........................
1 9 2 7 .. .
Lincoln, Nebr.:
1921.__...................
192 6
1 9 2 7 .. Little Rock, Ark.:
1921........................
1926. .
192 7
Long Beach, Calif.:
1921. — ...................
1 9 2 6 .-- ...................
1927-_ ..
Lorain, Ohio:
1 9 2 1 .-- ...................
1 9 2 6 .-.....................
1927..........................
Louisville, K y .:
1921..........................
192 6
1 9 2 7 -.-...................
Lowell, Mass.:
1921........................
1926 .
..........
1927 .
..........
Lynn, M ass.:
1 9 2 1 -.- ...................
1926. .......................
192 7
Per cent of
families provided
Total
for in—
num
ber of
fam
M ulilies
tipro
fain- famfamvided
ily
ily
for
dwell dwell ily
dwell
ings ings
ings
1-
395
736
387
2-
100.0
mo
10.1
2,578
3,728
3,104
70.1
51.7
33.1
1.7
4.6
2.3
28.2
43.7
64.6
205
541
52.7
29.0
31.5
35.6
37.0
35.3
11.7
34.0
33.2
128
174
303
82.8
41.4
77.9
14.1
56.3
14.5
3.1
2.3
7.6
489
641
818
98.8
95.8
83.9
1.7
0.9
2.5
15.2
877
586
582
26.3
23.9
72.3
33.4
18.9
42.7
59.1
73
204
247
76.7
79.4
97.6
19.2
4.1
492
542
420
93.7
89.1
87.1
7.6
1.9
11.0
307
141
43
16.3
17.0
27.9
63.2
22.7
27.9
20.5
60.3
44.2
22.0
1.2
1.4
20.6
2.4
2.4
3.3
127 100.0
164 100.0
160 100.0
155
69
35
67.7
65.2
91.4
241
378
388
97.5
94.7
80.7
749
772
514
96.0
79.0
83.9
3,882
978
1,479
33.2
67.2
57.6
146
317
237
87.7
65.6
99.6
17.4
0.4
677
2,581
1,574
68.7
70.0
17.6
7.5
13.7
22.5
259
145
79
66.4
74.5
92.4
24.3
23.4
7.6
9.3
140
608
528
57.1
33.4
24.4
12.9
21.7
30.0
44.9
53.6
32.3
2.9
31.9
8.6
2.5
5.3
19.3
1.3
0.4
7.3
9.3
10.6
2.7
20.9
15.8
59.5
23.5
31.8
5.5
17.0
11.1
22.0
2.1
City, State, and year
McKeesport, Pa.:
1 9 2 1 .--...................
1926..........................
1 9 2 7 .--...................
Macon, Ga.:
1 9 2 1 ---...................
1926-- .
1927-- Madison, W is.:
1921..........................
1926..........................
1927— .....................
Malden, M ass.:
1921..........................
192 6
192 7
Manchester, N . H .:
1921..........................
1926..........................
1927........................
Mansfield, Ohio:
1921..........................
1926..........................
1927. ..................... .
Medford, M ass.:
1921..........................
192 6
192 7
______
Memphis, Tenn.:
1 9 2 1 ---...................
1026 --_...................
1927______________
Meriden, Conn.:
1921 .
..........
1926..........................
1927-__...................
Miami, Fla.:
192 2 .- 192 6
_____
1927.__............
Minneapolis, M inn.:
1921..........................
1926. ................ ..
1927. ......................
Montclair, N . J.:
1921........................
1 9 2 6 ---...................
1 9 2 7 .-.....................
Mount Vernon, N . Y .:
1 9 2 1 .-.....................
1926._ _
1927.. ...................... .
Muncie, Ind.:
1921. ........................
1926. .......................
1927. .......................
Nashville, Tenn.:
1921........................ .
1926-........................
192 7
.
Newark, N . J.:
1921_ ........................
1926. .......................
1927. .......................
New Bedford, M ass.:
1921________ _____ _
1926______________
1927_____ ________
New Britain, Conn.:
1921_........................
192 6
............. .
192 7
...............
Per cent of
families provided
Total
for in—
num
ber of
fam
M u lilies
tipro
fam- fam
famvided
ily
ily
ily
for
dwell dwell
ings ings dwell
ings
1-
2-
11.0
6.2
127
274
246
89.0
93.8
90.7
162
258
352
95.1
96.9
89.2
283
465
73.5
89.7
79.8
12.7
13.8
3.9
16.4
94
419
415
40.4
30.5
36.9
27.7
68.5
55.9
31.9
210
74.8
73.7
81.8
12.4
19.2
14.5
12.9
7.0
3.6
72 100.0
254 76.8
157 96.2
13.8
9.4
3.8
213
165
256
4.1
0.6
8.2
5.3
4.9
3.1
10.2
2.2
1.0
7.2
628
46.1
36.4
53.7
48.0
59.0
42.8
5.9
4.6
3.5
1,245
2,066
1,865
75.3
51.6
47.1
2.4
22. 5
17.9
25.9
35.0
71
26.7
66.7
82.0
43.7
22.9
5.2
868
201
211
3,902
85.9
65.4
83.2
3,574
2,760
2,189
75.9
75.9
65.2
276
422
334
65.9
61.1
51.8
7.2
5.7
5.2
7.9
11.8
9.4
22.2
10.4
12.8
14.1
27.4
11.0
18.9
16.2
23.0
32.6
24.7
17.8
15.6
16.3
5.3
5.4
17.4
88.5
83.7
12.5
.7
12.5
21.1
246
3,346
66.3
2,211
10.9
64
270
317
75.0
99.3
94.6
470
674
654
89.8
88.3
82.7
2.7
1.5
9.0
15.7
1,393
3,060
5,144
19.1
13.7
3.5
49.1
34.2
16.2
31.8
52.1
80.3
522
135
151
42.5
61.5
76.8
52.9
34.1
4.6
4.4
215
410
537
20.0
38.1
42.9
30.2
6.2
33.9
28.7
5.4
10.2
21.2
2.0
41.9
23.2
41.2
APARTMENT HOUSE LIVING
217
T able 3.—PER CENT OF FAMILIES PROVIDED FOR BY THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF
DWELLINGS IN CITIES HAVING A POPULATION OF FROM 25,000 TO 500,000—Con.
C ity, State, and year
Per cent of
families provided
Total
for in—
num
ber of
fam
M u lilies
12tifam- fampro
famvided
ily
ily
iiy
dwell dwell
for
dwell
ings ings
ings
New Brunswick, N . J
1921______ ________
192 6
192 7
New Castle, Pa.:
1926..........................
1927_.........................
N ew Haven, Conn.:
1921...........................
1926..........................
1927-.........................
N ew Orleans, La.:
1921..........................
1926 .
1927. ...................
N ew Rochelle, N . Y .:
1921..........................
1926 .
............
1927-.........................
Newton, M ass.:
1921...........................
1926_ .........................
1927 .
Niagara Falls, N . Y .:
1921 ...........................
1926..........................
1927...........................
Norfolk, V a .:
1921............................
1926. .........................
1927-.........................
Norristown, Pa.:
1921 ...........................
1926 .
1927 .
Norwalk, Conn.:
1921..................... ..
1926_ .....................
1927..........................
Oakland, Calif.:
1921...........................
1926 .
............
1927..........................
Oak Park, 111.:
1921..........................
1926_.........................
1927. ........................
Ogden, Utah:
1921..........................
1926_.........................
1927______ .................
Oklahoma C ity, Okla.
1921_______________
192 6
192 7
............. —
Omaha, Nebr.:
1921_.........................
1926 .
............
1 9 2 7 - - ........... .........
Orange, N . J.:
1921_................... ..
1926-......... ...............
1927_______ _______
Oshkosh, W is.:
1921...........................
1926„ .........................
1927 .
Pasadena, Calif.:
1921...........................
192 6
192 7
129
244
195
25.6
46.7
36.9
71.3
33.6
46.2
227
182
90.3
80.2
2.6
7.0
19.8 ______
444
1,458
497
21.2
12.8
24.3
40.1
7.7
7.2
38.7
79.5
68.4
2,335
2,038
2,077
41.8
24.7
24.6
47.2
56.2
64.7
11.0
19.1
10.8
247
672
1,049
74 9
40.9
26.1
17.8
9.4
5.2
7.3
49.7
68.6
249
692
734
83.5
58.4
68.4
15.3
41.6
31.6
1.2
286
550
397
56.3
43.5
68.3
37.1
42.5
26.4
6.6
14.0
5.3
419
437
496
69.2
72.3
63.9
17.2
7.6
2.0
13.6
20.1
34.1
31
89
66
83.9
89.9 ” 2. 2”
84.8 15.2
3.1
19.7
16.9
16.1
7.9
72
263
285
83.3
76.4
77.5
16.7
21.3
10.5
2.3
11.9
2,681
4,519
2,694
77.9
66.4
57.1
4.3
6.4
4.1
17.8
27.2
38.8
720
744
918
70.3
29.7
22.7
4.7
.8
.3
25.0
69.5
77.0
477
245
200
91.2
82.4
89.5
3.3
8.8
14.3
10.5
1,724
1,173
1,752
83.8
71.9
66.4
2.2
15.4
15.1
13.9
12.7
18.4
1,298
794
477
76.1
92.7
70.9
.6
5.8
2.9
23.3
1.5
26.2
55
304
722
25.5
24.0
6.8
52.7
17.8
6.4
21.8
58.2
86.8
64 64.1
168 97.0
162 100.0
17.2
1.2
18.8
1.8
1,262
839
790
85.9
80.0
57.8
2.2
11.9
4.4
15.6
5.3 1 36.8
C ity, State, and year
Passaic, N . J.:
1921............................
1926-...........................
1927............................
Paterson, N . J.:
1921_..........................
1926...........................
1927............................
Pawtucket, R . I.:
1921............................
1926............................
1927_..........................
Peoria, 111.:
1921_...........................
1926.............................
1927............................
Phoenix, Ariz.:
1 92 1 ...........................
1926............................
1927.— .....................
Pittsfield, M ass.:
1921_...........................
1926_...........................
1927_..........................
Plainfield, N . J.:
1921.............................
1926..............................
1927............................
Pontiac, M ich.:
1921.............................
1 9 2 6 .- .......................
1927-..........................
Port Arthur, Tex.:
1926-...........................
1927-.................. .......
Portland, M e .:
1921_ .........................
1926.............................
1927............................
Portland, Oreg.:
1921_...........................
1926-...........................
1927-...........................
Portsmouth, Ohio:
1921 .............................
1926..............................
1927............................
Poughkeepsie, N . Y .:
1921 ...........................
192G..................... ....
1927..................... .......
Providence, R . I.:
1921.............................
1926......................
1927.......................
Pueblo, Calif.:
1921................. ...........
1926________________
1927..................... .
Quincy, 111.:
1921................... .........
1926.................... ....
1927________________
Quincy, M ass.:
1921______ _________
1926..................... ..
1927...........................
Racine, W is.:
1921.............................
1926.............................
1927..............................
Per cent of
families provided
Total
for in—
num
ber of
fam
M u lilies
tipro
fam- famfamvided
ily
ily
ily
for
dwell dwell
dwell
ings ings
ings
1-
2-
426
354
467
16.4
13.0
11.6
60.1
37.0
15.0
23.5
50.0
73.4
587
762
1,167
39.2
24.1
19.2
54.5
57.3
19.6
6.3
18.5
61.2
277
700
581
45.8
29.3
46.3
32.5
58.6
47.8
21.7
300
362
82.0
91.2
93.1
12.7
1.9
1.7
5.3
6.9
5.2
407
531
614
73.9
68.4
66.0
26.0
26.7
26.1
5.6
7.3
77
118
95.3
57.1
61.0
4.7
37.7
29.7
5.2
9.3
135 100.0
627 39.9
507 49.3
8.9
30.3
41.8
96.7
68.7
55.2
12.0
27.9
32.8
21.3
15.1
28.2
1,069
3.3
3.4
12.1
5.8
203 100.0
508 100.0
207
186
216
78.3
77.4
68.1
.5
7.5
3.7
3,136
5,125
3,166
91.4
62.0
71.0
4.4
3.2
113
257
224
91.2
91.0
95.1
.9
4.7
3.6
60
351
87
28.3
14.8
41.4
50.0
15.1
25.3
21.7
70.1
33.3
1,205
1,188
33.9
37.0
37.4
51.2
40.2
37.3
14.8
22.7
25.3
288
270
401
98.6
93.7
89.3
5.2
10.7
20
2.6
6.1
33.7
25.9
8.0
4.3
1.3
1.4
1.1
90.0
99.5
97.8
10.0
190
181
404
971
926
57.2
59.4
52.8
34.4
24.3
16.6
8.4
16.3
77.5
15.4
8.9
19.0
7.1
4.2
18.2
471
86.8
62.7
.5
2.2
HOUSING
218
T able 3.—PER CENT OP FAMILIES PROVIDED FOR BY THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF
DWELLINGS IN CITIES HAVING A POPULATION OF FROM 25,000 TO 500,000—Con.
City, State, and year
Reading, Pa.:
1922.............................
192 6
.
192 7
Revere, M ass.:
1921.............................
192 6
.
192 7
.
Richmond, Ind.:
1921.............................
1927..................
Richmond, V a .:
1921..................
1927...............
Roanoke, V a .:
1921...............
1927............................
Rochester, N . Y . :
1921............................
192 6
..
192 7
Rockford, 111.:
11921............................
192 6
192 7
Sacramento, Calif.:
1921........................
192 6
192 7
Saginaw, M ich.:
1921............................
192 6
192 7
St. Joseph, M o .:
1921............................
192 6
..
192 7
St. Paul, M inn.:
1921............................
192 6
192 7
St. Petersburg, Fla.:
192 6
192 7
Salt Lake C ity, Utah:
1921............................
192 6
192 7
San Antonio, Tex.:
1921............................
192 6
192 7
San Diego, Calif.:
1921............................
192 6
192 7
San Joso, Calif.:
1921...........................
192 6
192 7
Savannah, G a.:
1921...........................
192 6
.
192 7
Schenectady, N . Y .:
1921...........................
192 6
192 7
Per cent of
families provided
Total
for m —
num
ber of
fam
M ulilies
tifam- fampro
famvided
ily
ily
ily
for
dwell dwell
dwell
ings ings
ings
1-
2-
333
290
233
56.2
94.8
82.4
27.0
3.1
3.4
152
1264
241
69.7
33.7
50.2
30.3
37.5
38.2
41 58.5
205
228 100.0
41.5
100.0
741
1,224
1,774
78.1
76.1
44.9
351 100.0
652 92.0
395 90.9
1,319
2,304
2,448
72.1
58.8
50.4
351
880
926
68.7
65.8
55.7
737
1,198
959
84.0
86.6
82.7
6.2
9.4
6.1
17.1
10.7
8.1
1G.8
2.1
14.2
23.8
11.6
21.9
17.7
45.7
1.9
9.1
10.8
30.5
41.5
16.5
13.9
14.8
20.3
4.6
4.0
5.0
11.4
9.4
12.3
22.2
1.6
1.8 "1.2
251 96.8
351 100.0
347
7 100.0
161
107 100.0
i.3
22.0
1.6
2.5
2,194
2,188
1,148
78.6
61.7
72.0
4.6
16.8
30.1
7.0
21.0
2,766
442
52.0
84.2
20.5
7.0
27.5
826
912
850
90.0
58.3
56.1
3.8
6.4
1,718
1,964
2,171
95.5
82.8
79.6
8.1
8.8
8.0
35.3
35.9
3.7
4.5
13.2
16.7
11.1
1,450
3,734
2,613
88.6
87.7
76.8
.3
5.3
7.6
300
683
385
83.7
85.8
73.0
3.6
3.7
10.4
12.7
10.5
16.6
347
331
401
81.0
75.5
72.6
13.0
15.0
19.0
11.5
12.5
193
289
^ 349
70.0
77.1
71.3
30.0
20.4
9.7
2.4
18.9
7.0
15.6
C ity, State, and year
Scranton, P a.:
1921...........................
1925...........................
1927...........................
Seattle, W ash.:
1921...........................
1028...........................
1927...........................
Sheboygan, W is.:
1921...........................
1925...........................
1927...........................
Shreveport, La.:
1921...........................
1925...........................
1927...........................
Sioux City, Iowa:
1921...........................
1023...........................
1927...........................
Sioux Falls, S. D ak.:
1921...........................
192 5
1927...........................
Somerville, M ass.:
1921...........................
192 6
192 7
South Bend, Ind.:
..
1921. .
192 8
1927...........................
Spokane, W ash.:
1921...........................
192 6
.................
192 7
Springfield, 111.:
1921...........................
192 6
192 7
Springfield, M ass.:
1921...........................
192 6
192 7
Springfield, Ohio:
1921...........................
192 6
.................
192 7
Stamford, Conn.:
1921...........................
192 6
192 7
Steubenville, Ohio:
1924...........................
1928.........................
1927.........................
Stockton, Calif.:
192 1
...........
1926.........................
1927....................
Syracuse, N . Y .:
1921.........................
1926 .
...........
1927 .
...........
Tacoma, W ash.:
1921. .
1926 .
.
1927. .......................
Tampa, Fla:
192 2
.
192 6
.
192 7
Total
num
ber of
fam
ilies
pro
vided
for
Per cent of
families provided
for in—
1-
2-
75
217
280
81.3
56.2
57.1
18.7
25.8
42.9
1,961
5,342
4,505
90.5
62.5
61.0
90
334
204
95.6
80.2
4.4
18.9
88.2
11.8
M u ltifam- fam- family
ily
ily
dwell- dwell
dwell
ings
ings
9.5
37.5
39.0
1,157 100.0
597 100.0
185 66.5
638
359
257
90.4
87.2
72.7
303 100.0
212 94.3
151 84.8
18.0
.9
18.4
5.0
3.3
4.5
9.5
27.3
5.7
7.3
7.9
19.1
44.6
44.9
204
352
5.4
75.5
53.4
54.1
665
1,036
540
78.0
96.8
96.3
13.8
2.7
438
652
595
98.7
99.1
85.2
210
431
354
76.7
80.0
92.7
6.7
2.3
3.1
16.6
17.6
4.2
827
1,329
1,240
59.9
40.8
36.5
30.0
27.5
18.2
31.7
45.2
253
274
285
90.9
89.1
84.9
9.1
10.9
15.1
190
581
559
50.5
36.5
30.6
34.7
84
89.3
41.9
73.7
21.0
171
11.1
10.7
37.1
15.2
624
332
412
76.2
70.9
4.8
2.9
33.2
19.0
26.2
627
1,251
1,838
55.5
64.7
53.0
19.4
16.5
5.7
15.8
30.5
843
1,790
769
93.1
80.3
80.5
422
2,623
826
89.3
80.3
94.8
210
2.0
1.0
2.6
8.1
.5
1.1
1.3
.9
14.3
22.8
21.8
10.2
14.7
40.6
47.6
6.9
19.7
19.5
5.2
.7
1.1
5.5
19.0
4.1
RELATIVE COST OF MATERIAL AND LABOR
T
219
3.—PER CENT OF FAMILIES PROVIDED FOR BY THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF
DWELLINGS IN CITIES HAVING A POPULATION OF FROM 25,000 TO 500,000—Con.
able
C ity, State, and year
Per cent of
families provided
Total
for in—
num
ber of
fam
M ulilies
tipro
fam- famfamvided
ily
ily
ily
for
dwell dwell
dwell
ings ings
ings
Terre Haute, Ind.:
1921.............................
1926..............................
1927.............................
Toledo, Ohio:
1921.............................
1926............................
1927............................
Topeka, Kans.:
1921............................
1 9 2 6 ..........................
1927.............................
Trenton, N . J.:
1921.............................
1926.............................
1927-...........................
Tucson, Ariz.:
1926.............................
1927............................
Tulsa, Okla.:
1921............. ...............
1926.............................
1927-..........................
Union City, N . J.:
1921...........................
1926...........................
1927.............................
Utica, N . Y .:
1921.............................
1926.............................
1927...........................
Waco, Tex.:
1921...........................
1926.............................
1927...........................
W altham , M ass.:
1921...........................
1 9 2 6 ...........................
1927...........................
Warren, Ohio:
1921 .............................
1926-..........................
1927............................
Waterbury, Conn.:
1921 .............................
1926...........................
1927...........................
Watertown, M ass.:
1926.............................
1 927 -._.......................
1-
2-
758 100.0
128 87.5
184 98.9
12.5
1.1
4.0
13.9
600
1,545
1,749
80.3
78.9
81.0
15.7
7.2
8.3
188
361
320
84.0
87.5
87.5
12.5
317
437
316
89.3
95.9
96.2
400
535
78.0
54.2
1,138
862
1,434
77.5
66.7
68.1
13.9
17.4
21.7
18.1
56
352
255
33.9
.3
14.3
9.9
12.5
51.8
89.8
87.5
478
443
259
43.3
78.6
83.4
56.7
20.5
16.6
.9
443
187
171
97.7
97.3
98.8
.5
.5
137
321
285
92.7
44.0
49.1
4.4
23.0
30.5
2.9
33.0
20.4
171
453
321
94.7
75.3
95.3
5.3
12.4
4.7
12.4
271
691
675
43.2
42.1
54.4
22.9
21.9
20.7
33.9
36.0
24.9
844
759
25.1
14.1
74.9
85.9
10.6
16.0
"12.5
1.4
1.9
10.7
2.7
1.9
22.0
7.5
5.1
11.6
1.2
1.8
2.1
C ity, State, and year
W est N ew York, N . J.:
1921........................... .
192 6
.
192 7
.
Wheeling, W . V a.:
1921........................... .
192 6
.
192 7
.
White Plains, N . Y .
1926........................... .
1927— ......................
Wichita, Kans.:
1921........................... .
1926........................... .
1927. .
.
Wichita Falls, Tex.:
1926.............................
1927. ........................ .
Wilkes-Barre, Pa.:
1921 ............................
192 6
.
192 7
.
Wilkinsburg, Pa.:
1926.............................
1927. ........................ .
Wilmington, D el.:
1921........................... .
192 6
.
192 7
.
Winston-Salem, N . C .:
1921........................... .
192 6
.
192 7
.
Woonsocket, R . I.:
1921.............................
1926. .
.
1927...........................
W orcester, M ass.:
1921. ........................ .
1926.......................... .
1927_ ........................ .
Yonkers, N . Y .:
1921...........................
1926. ....................... .
1927 .
.
Youngstown, Ohio:
1921.......................... .
192 6
.
192 7
.
Per cent of
families provided
Total
for in—
num
ber of
fam
M u l1ilies
2tifam- fam
pro
famvided
ily
ily
ily
for
dwell dwell
dwell
ings ings
ings
269
419
283
6.3
3.6
8.5
62.5
14.3
3.5
31.2
82.1
88.0
261
131
182
44.0
72.5
80.8
39.9
10.7
10.4
16.1
16.8
8.S
1,054
1,204
29.9
22.5
3.3
3.8
66.8
73.7
1,336
977
988
93.2
74.3
77.7
2.8
5.5
4.9
4.0
20.2
17.4
1,537
548
77.9
90.5
18.5
5.8
3.6
3.7
82
322
230
91.5
50.0
64.8
4.9
18.3
25.2
3.6
31.7
10.0
242
166
76.0
68.7
18.6
12.7
5.4
18.7
66
359
366
71.2
92.8
83.1
7.6
1,7
.5
21.2
5.5
16.4
356
566
923
94.1
78.6
74.8
.6
9.9
2.6
5.3
11.5
22.6
369
365
154
25.7
18.4
46.1
26.6
36.2
26.0
47.7
45.4
27.9
715
1,465
795
67.0
44.8
59.0
17.8
13.6
18.6
15.2
41.6
22.4
433
2,706
4,146
76.0
18.0
14.3
"7 .7 "
6.7
24.0
74.3
79.1
724
1,089
1,148
62.2
83.2
80.8
20.7
8.6
11.8
17.1
8.2
7.3
Relative Cost of Material and Labor in Building
Construction
A
STUDY of the relative cost of material and labor in the building
industry, and of the relative cost of each class of work, was made
by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in the early part of 1928. The
study covered the cities of Washington, D. C., Cincinnati, Ohio, and
Decatur, 111., these being selected as being fairly representative of
the different types of urban communities. It is to be emphasized,
however, that the results obtained apply to these three cities only
and should not be interpreted as reflecting the exact situation for
the United States as a whole.
HOUSING
220
The cost figures stated in the present article are the net cost figures,
representing only the actual cost of the building from the time exca
vation started. They do not include overhead expenses, profits, cost
of land, or finance charges.
The cost of the material is its actual cost as delivered to the job,
including freight and hauling. The labor costs are costs of labor on
the job, and do not include any shop labor such as the making up of
millwork or the cutting of stone at the quarries.
The buildings selected for the study were chosen from the types
usually built in the city, and the number selected from each type was
roughly in proportion to the number built in the city.
Relative Cost of Material and Labor in New Buildings
T a b l e 1 shows the percentage of labor and m aterial cost in the con
struction o f residential and nonresidential buildings in each o f the
three cities from w hich d ata were obtained and the w eighted to ta l o f
all buildings in each o f these cities and for the three com bin ed.
t a b l e I t- P E R C E N T O F C O S T OF C O N S T R U C T I O N O F B U I L D I N G S C H A R G E A B L E
L A B O R A N D M A T E R I A L S I N T H R E E S P E C I F I E D C IT IE S
Cincinnati,
Ohio
Decatur, 111.
Washington,
D . C.
TO
Total
T ype of building
M ate
rial
Labor
M ate
rial
Labor
M ate
rial
Labor
M ate
rial
Labor
Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent
Residential____________________________
N onresidential________________________
Weighted total_______________
55.6
62.4
44.4
37.6
62.8
61.0
37.2
39.0
52.6
59.3
47.4
40.7
54.0
61.7
46.0
38.3
60.2
39.8
61.3
38.7
54.3
45.7
58.1
41.8
In the three cities taken as a whole, material accounted for 54 per
cent of the total cost of residential building and 61.7 per cent of
nonresidential building, while labor accounted for 46 per cent of the
cost of residential building and 38.3 per cent of the cost of nonresi
dential building. If each class of building is weighted by the propor
tion it formed of all building in the year 1927 it is found that of the
total cost of all building 58.1 per cent is for material and 41.8 per cent
is for labor.
It was found that the proportion of costs did not differ greatly in
the different cities, but as regards the individual buildings for which
data were obtained there was a moderate range in the proportion of
material to labor. In Cincinnati the lowest material cost on any one
residential building was 48.4 per cent and the highest 56.9 per cent,
while the lowest labor cost was 43.1 per cent and the highest 51.6 per
cent. In Decatur the range of material cost of residential buildings
was from 60.7 to 66.1 per cent and of labor 33.9 to 39.3 per cent. In
Washington the cost of material formed 49.7 per cent of the cost of
the residential building where material cost was lowest and 56 per
cent of the cost of the one where the material cost was highest.
Of nonresidential buildings in Cincinnati the building where mate
rial formed the highest portion of the total cost showed a ratio of
material to labor of 65.1 to 34.9 per cent. On the building where
labor formed the highest proportion of the total cost labor was only
RELATIVE COST OF MATERIAL AND LABOR
221
46.6 per cent of the total cost, and material 53.4 per cent. In Decatur
the difference in the proportion of material to labor in nonresidential
buildings ranged from 56.4 per cent for material and 43.6 per cent
for labor to 65.3 per cent for material and 34.7 per cent for labor.
In Washington this range was from 55.2 per cent for material and
44.8 per cent for labor to 61 per cent for material and 39 per cent
for labor.
It was impossible to determine whether this range in material and
labor cost is caused by more efficient labor on one building than on
another or whether more costly materials were used in the construc
tion of some buildings than others
Relative Material and Labor Costs in Each Item of Building
T a b l e 2 shows the percentage of m aterial cost and lab or cost o f
the different item s in the erection o f residential buildings in each o f
the cities from which data were received and in the three cities
com bined.
T a b l e 2 . - P E R C E N T O F C O S T O F S P E C IF IE D
C H A R G E A B L E TO L A B O R A N D M A T E R IA L
B U IL D IN G S
Cincinnati
CLASS OF C O N S T R U C T IO N W O R K
I N T H R E E C IT IE S — R E S I D E N T I A L
Decatur
Washington
Total
Class of work
M ate
rial
Labor
M ate
rial
Labor
Mate
rial
Labor
M ate
rial
Labor
Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent
Excavating and grading..........................
Brickwork------ ------------------------------------Carpenter work (builders’ hardware,
lumber, and millwork).......................
Tile work____________________*________
Concrete work_____ _____ _____ _____
Electric wiring and fixtures ............... .
P lu m b in g,...................................................
Heating...................................................
Painting......... ..................... .........................
Papering........................................................
Plastering— .................................................
Roofing. ......................................................
Miscel taneous........................................ .
10.0
54.6
90.0
45.4
45.9
100.0
54.1
53.6
52.8
43.4
61.7
68.9
71.0
40.3
22.3
45.8
48.4
87.2
41.4
47.2
56.6
38.3
31.1
29.0
59.7
77.7
54.2
51.6
12.8
69.3
61.8
65.6
72.0
77.9
78.5
49.4
31.5
45.0
67.8
95.8
30.7
38.2
34.4
28.0
22.1
21.5
50.6
68.5
55.0
32.2
4.2
52.8”
54.5
57.7
58.8
68.9
60.8
72.8
25.3
33.2
37.8
56.4
63.0
100.0
47.2
4.3
53.2
95.7
46.8
45.5
42.3
41.2
31.1
39.2
27.2
74.7
66.8
62.2
43.6
37.0
56.5
55.2
51.9
65.5
64.8
72.2
33.4
26.6
38.3
54.8
74.8
43.5
44.8
48.1
34.5
35.2
27.8
66.6
73.4
61.7
45.2
25.2
Similar data for nonesidential buildings are shown in Table 3.
T a b l e 3 .— P E R C E N T O F C O S T O F S P E C IF IE D C L A S S O F C O N S T R U C T I O N W O R K
C H A R G E A B L E T O L A B O R A N D M A T E R I A L I N T H R E E C IT IE S — N O N R E S I D E N T I A L
B U IL D IN G S
Cincinnati
Class of work
M ate
rial
Labor
Decatur
M ate
rial
Labor
Washington
M ate
rial
Labor
Total
M ate
rial
Labor
Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent
Excavating and grading...........................
Brickwork.....................................................
Carpenter work (builders’ hardware,
lumber, and millwork)........... .............
Tile work.......................................................
Concrete work.............................................
Structural steel............................................
Electric wiring and fixtures...................
Heating and ventilating..........................
Plumbing.......................................... ...........
Plastering......................................................
Painting.........................................................
Roofing...........................................................
Glass and glazing........................................
Miscellaneous..............................................
11.6
57.4
88.4
42.6
59.3
74.9
69.5
49.1
49.2
61.7
67.7
74.5
48.3
32.6
68.0
82.0
84.4
25.1
30.5
50.9
50.8
38.3
32.3
25.5
51.7
67.4
32.0
18.0
15.6
62.2
40.7
58.4
79.9
63.1
78.8
74.3
36.6
32.9
74.8
57.3
73.5
100.0
4 0 .7 '
37.8
59.3
41.6
20.1
36.9
21.2
25.7
63.4
67.1
25.2
42.7
26.5
1.9
58.6
98.1
41; 4
7.4
57.9
92.6
42.1
50.5
73.7
55.9
76.9
68.6
72.8
59.6
29.1
30.9
49.0
91.7
75.0
49.5
26.3
44.1
23.1
31.4
27.2
40.4
70.9
69.1
51.0
8.3
25.0
68.7
69.9
51.5
56.7
62.9
69.4
72.5
45. r
32.3
64.2
80.1
83.0
31.3
30.1
48.5
43.3
37.1
30.6
27.5
54.9
67.7
35.8
19.9
17.0
222
HOUSING
How the Building Dollar Goes
T a b l e 4 shows the percentage that the cost of each process in
building forms of the total cost of residential building in each of
the cities and for all three combined. These figures include both
labor and materials.
T a b l e 4 .— P E R C E N T A G E T H A T C O S T O F E A C H C LA SS O F W O R K F O R M S O F T O T A L
C O S T O F R E S I D E N T I A L B U I L D I N G S I N T H R E E C IT IE S
Per cent of total cost chargeable to specified class
of work i n Classof work
Cincinnati,
Ohio
Decatur,
111.
Washing
ton, D . C.
Total
Excavating and grading......................................................
Bride work........................................................... ...................
Carpenter work......................................................................
Tile work...................................................................... ...........
Concrete w ork. ____________ _______________________
Electric wiring and fixtures__________________________
Heating----------------------------------------------------------------------Plumbing_______________ _________ ___________________
Plastering and lathing----------------------------------------------Painting.----------------------------- --------------------------------------Papering---------------------------------------------------------------------Roofing------- --------------------- -----------------------------------------M iscellaneous..____________ ______ ______ ____________
2.3
12.7
31.4
2.8
11.3
3.6
5.6
11.0
9.0
2.8
.8
1.6
5.1
2.0
11.8
45.0
1.0
7.1
2.5
6.4
7.8
5.9
5.5
.7
4.2
.1
1.9
18.4
33.0
1.6
8.4
2.3
5.3
8.3
8.4
5.4
1.0
2.5
3.5
2.0
18.1
32.7
2.1
9.5
2.8
5.5
9.3
8.6
4.4
.9
2.2
4.0
T o t a l .. .......................................................... ...............
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Similar data for nonresidential buildings are shown in Table 5.
T a bl e 5 .— P E R C E N T A G E T H A T C O S T OF E A C H C L A S S O F W O R K F O R M S O F T O T A L
C O S T O F N O N R E S I D E N T I A L B U I L D I N G S I N T H R E E C IT IE S
Per cent of total cost chargeable to specified class
of work i n Class of work
Cincinnati,
Ohio
Decatur,
HI.
W ashing
ton, D . C.
Total
Excavating and grading________________________ _____
Brick work___________________________________________
Carpenter work______________________________________
Tile work_____________________________________________
Concrete work_______________________________________
Structural steel____ _____ _____________________ _____
Electric wiring and fixtures_________ ______ _________
Heating and ven tilating..,__________________________
Plumbing. _________________________________________
Plastering and lathing_______________________________
Painting..... ......... ........... ................... ............. .......................
Roofing................................ ......................... ......... .................
Glass and glazing.
________________________________
Miscellaneous...................... ........... ............................. .........
1.2
11.1
12.9
7.3
18.3
9.3
3.7
7.2
5.7
7.3
1.6
.3
1.6
12.6
2.2
12.8
15.8
.9
32.0
6.7
6.4
6.2
5,9
2.3
2.7
2.4
2.3
1.4
2.3
22.3
14.8
6.9
11.9
10.0
3.2
5.7
4.2
5.4
2.3
1.3
1.4
8.4
1.5
13.3
13.5
6.6
18.5
9 .2
3.8
6.8
5.4
6.4
1.8
.8
1.6
10.7
Total..............................................................................
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
RELATIVE COST OP M ATERIAL AND LABOR
PERCENTOF c o st or
LABOR AND MATERIALS
111 THREE SPECIFIED CITIES.
Labe*
RESIDENTIAL
BUILDINGS.
Material^ I
I
NO N-R ESIDENTIAL
BU ILD IN G S.
C IN C IN N A T I,© .
DE C A TU R , I L L .
WASH IN G TO N , D.C.
T O T A L OF T H R E E C ITIES.
223
HOUSING
224
PERCENT THAT COST OF EACH CLASS
OF WORK FORMS OF TOTAL COST OF
BUILDING IN THREE
SELECTED
CITIES.
1/ / / 1
1
Labor.
R E S ID E N T IA L
Ma t e r ia l s
MOM -RESIDENTIAL
FINANCING THE HOME
225
There are a few slight differences in the processes involved in the
erection of residential and nonresidential buildings. In residential
building papering is included; there is no papering in nonresidential
building. Glass and glazing is a separate item in nonresidential
building, while in residential building the millwork ordinarily comes
already glazed and this item is, therefore, included under carpenter
work in this class of building. The cost of ventilating systems is
included with heating in nonresidential buildings. No such item was
found in residential building.
Financing the Home
UNDREDS of thousands of families who set out to own their
homes each year find financing the most trying problem they
have to surmount, according to the division of building and housing
of the United States Bureau of Standards which issued a booklet in
1928 entitled “ Present Home Financing Methods.” This booklet,
which was prepared with the cooperation of leading home-financing
agencies, was written to assist home buyers and home builders who
have to borrow, and also for persons and organizations who are
interested in improving local home-financing facilities.
Choosing a helpful home-financing agency and a good plan of
financing may save a family from much unnecessary expense, or even
determine the success of the undertaking. In order to avoid costly
mistakes a family, particularly if it has to borrow more than can be
obtained on a first mortgage, needs to know something about the
sources of home loans, and the types of services furnished by the
agencies supplying them. The report under review describes the
services rendered by building and loan associations, life insurance
companies, savings banks, trust companies, and other agencies which
lend to home seekers, and also takes up the question of second and
third mortgages and the land-contract method of purchase. It
points out various pitfalls to be avoided, and gives much practical
information, such as suggestions for use in applying for loans.
The discussion of the second mortgage, a subject of vital interest to
thousands of homeseekers, deals with the methods and practices of
second-mortgage lenders, and the effect of discounts and commissions
on the interest rate paid by the borrower. Since the borrower is
usually required to curtail the loan periodically, and therefore, does
not have the use of the whole amount for the entire loan period, the
discount rates of 4 to 10 per cent a year, which are common in many
localities, are in reality considerably higher. In fact, under the usual
regularly amortized loan the real discount rate is approximately double
the nominal rate. On a typical second-mortgage loan, for example,
running for three years on the monthly payment plan, and at a 7 per
cent nominal interest rate and with a 15 per cent discount (5 per cent
annually, so called) the actual rate of interest paid by the borrower
on his outstanding balances is approximately 18 per cent a year.
The appendix of the booklet explains in simple terms how answers
to similar problems may be found by prospective borrowers who wish
to compare different loan plans available to them.
In many communities the high rates charged for second mortgage
funds have tended to discourage home building, but instances are
H
226
HOUSING
given of successful efforts by public-spirited local groups to improve
such conditions.
Tax Exemption for Housing Corporations in New York
City1
ARLY in June, 1927, the New York municipal assembly passed
an ordinance exempting from local taxes for a period of 20
years all model tenements which limited-dividend corporations
may build, either on land now occupied or formerly occupied by
old-law tenements or undesirable buildings. Under the State law,
passed in May, 1926, such corporations are exempted from the pay
ment of any and all franchise, organization, income, mortgage record
ing, and other taxes to the State and its officers, and their bonds and
mortgages, with the interest thereon and their dividends, are also
freed from State taxation. The State could not remit local taxes on
buildings and improvements, but it authorized municipalities to do
so, and provided that whenever a municipality took advantage of
this permission, the buildings and improvements should be to the
same extent freed from State taxes.
Public limited-dividend housing corporations are required to
furnish, through the actual sale of stock for cash, one-third of the
capital required for any project undertaken, the remainder being
secured through bonds bearing 5 per cent on first mortgage and
per cent on debenture bonds. All projects must be approved by the
housing board, and rent must not exceed $12.50 per room per month
in New York proper, the bathroom not being counted as a room.
Dividends are limited to 6 per cent. Should returns reach a figure
which, allowing for cost of maintenance, depreciation, and the like,
would justify a higher return, rents are to be lowered proportionately.
It is definitely expected that this action will lead to the substitution
of new and improved housing for the old-law tenements which have
been one of the dark spots in New York’s housing problem. A
survey of the most congested parts of the city, made in the latter part
of 1926, showed some 950 assessment blocks suitable for housing of
the kind contemplated, on which, allowing for all costs of condemna
tion proceedings, compensation, etc., it would be possible to build
model tenements of the kind desired to rent within the limits set.2
The housing board, whose approval must be secured before any
building may be erected, has decided upon various types of housing
which it will sanction. All require the three forms of economy which
the large semiphilanthropic corporations have found practicable—
cheap land, cheap capital, and efficient large-scale construction. The
land in the blocks covered by the survey referred to ranged from
$6 to $14 a square foot, the rates which may be paid for capital are
strictly limited, and examples of efficient large-scale construction are
not wanting. It is intended that not more than 50 per cent of the
land shall be occupied by the building, leaving a large amount for
court and playground space, air, and light. According to the New
York Record and Guide (June 11, p. 5), it is estimated that $25,000,000 is needed to make a satisfactory beginning of the movement,
and it is hoped that this will be raised without delay.
E
i N ew York Times, June 12,1927.
3 See Labor Review, March, 1927, p. 178.
IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION
39142°—29------ 16
227
Immigration Movement in 1928
HE IMMIGRATION laws of the United States are adminis
tered by the Bureau of Immigration of the United States Depart
ment of Labor. Data regarding the immigration movement are
compiled monthly by the Bureau of Immigration and published,
currently in the Labor Review of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
The annual reports of the Commissioner General of Immigration
give similar data in more expanded form and for a period of years.
The figures and text in this section are taken from the above-men
tioned sources and also from the annual reports of the Secretary of
Labor for 1927 and 1928.
In the fiscal year ended June 30, 1928, a total of 500,631 aliens
were admitted to the United States, as compared with a total of
538,001 aliens for the previous year. During the fiscal year 274,356
aliens departed, as compared with 253,508 departures during 1927.
Therefore, for the past fiscal year there was a net gain of 226,275 as
compared with a net gain of 284,493 aliens for the year 1927. Of
the 500,631 aliens admitted, 307,255 were immigrants or newcomers
for permanent residence in this country and 193,376 were either
returning from a temporary trip abroad or coming here for a visit.
Of the 274,356 aliens who departed from the United States during
the past year, 196,899 were aliens who had been here for a short stay
or who intended to return to the United States after visiting a foreign
country. The remaining 77,457 departed without expressing an in
tention to return. About three-fourths of the present-day immigrant
aliens are in the prime of life, 16 to 44 years of age, which percentage
runs about the same as in the previous fiscal year. Of the immigrants
admitted during the year, 230,832 were from 16 to 44 years of age,
49,680 were under 16 years of age and the remaining 26,743 were 45
years of age or over. During the previous fiscal year the male immi
grants outnumbered the female immigrants, 194,163 males and 141,012
females being admitted in that year. Again, during the fiscal year
1928 the males outnumbered the females, 165,977 males and 141,278
females being admitted. However, a number of countries sent more
females than males. For instance, Greece sent 410 males and 1,918
females and Italy sent 6,075 males and 11,653 females. Statistics
show that most of the countries sending an excess of females over
males are located in southern Europe where the quotas are small.
The excess of females over males is due largely to the fact that many
of these females are wives of American citizens and as such are
exempt from the quota provisions of the immigration act of 1924.
As in the previous fiscal year, countries in the Western Hemi
sphere furnished almost half the immigrants admitted, due to the fact
that quota restrictions do not apply to most countries in this hemi
sphere. Immigrants to the number of 73,154 were admitted from
Canada and 59,016 from Mexico. These two figures constitute 43 per
cent of the total number of immigrants for the year. Europe sent
158,513 immigrants during this year, Germany leading with 45,778,
T
229
230
IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION
being followed by the Irish Free State with 24,544 and Great Britain
with 19,958. Italy sent 17,728 and the combined Scandinavian coun
tries (Denmark, Norway, and Sweden) 16,184.
A study of the following figures will show what a tremendous effect
the present restrictive immigration laws have. In a single year prior
to the war, and of course prior to the first quota law, which was passed
in 1921, immigration exceeded the million mark. A larger number
of aliens arrived during individual years in that period from single
countries in Europe than now come from the entire Continent of
Europe. As an example, in the year 1913 the Russian Empire, as it
was then known, contributed 291,040 immigrants to this country,
Italy 265,542, and former Austria-Hungary 254,825, whereas in the
fiscal year just passed only 158,513 alien immigrants were admitted
from all European countries.
Immigration from Mexico
T h e n u m b e r of Mexican aliens admitted to the United States dur
ing the fiscal year 1927-28 was 61,622—57,765 immigrant and 3,857
nonimmigrant—a decline of 19,017 from the previous year, when
80,639 aliens of this race entered the country. The number of Mex
ican immigrants dropped from 66,766 in the year 1927 to 57,765 in
1928, a decrease of 13.5 per cent; 47,686 were over 16 years, of age
and 10,079 were children under 16 years of age; 37,965 were males
and 19,800 females. The single immigrants numbered 32,209, married
22,882, widowed 2,637, and divorced 37. Unskilled workers contin
ued to predominate; 19,964 Mexicans admitted last year gave their
occupation as that of common laborer, 4,989 were farm laborers, and
2,065 were servants. The professional class numbered 1,013, skilled
workers 5,725, commercial and miscellaneous classes 1,715, and 22,294
were listed as having no occupation.
In the past fiscal year a total of 62,374 aliens (61,622 of whom were
Mexicans) were recorded in immigration statistics as entering the
United States by way of the Mexican border. Hundreds of thousands
of aliens and citizens residing on either side of the boundary, mainly
in towns contiguous thereto, cross and recross daily or periodically
upon social or business errands. Treating each entry of these
“ crossers” as a separate transaction, and adding thereto all other
transactions, the total volume of entrants is estimated to have been
approximately 27,000,000 for the past year. As on the Canadian
border, the examinations of these regular “ crossers” is greatly facili
tated by the use of identification cards.
While Mexican immigrants generally give one of the several border
States as their destination, a large proportion of these newcomers
eventually find their way into the interior of the country, where their
labor is in demand by industries and agricultural interests. In short,
the border States are to a very large extent mere stepping-stones.
The vacancies thus created are being continually filled by newcomers.
The drop in Mexican immigration during the past year was contrary
to all expectations. A substantial increase had been confidently ex
pected. Various causes contributed to the decrease. Agricultural
prosperity along the west coast of Mexico, with its resultant demand
for labor at good wages, kept many Mexicans at home in that region.
The lumber industry in the northwestern part of the United States is
IMMIGRATION MOVEMENT IN 1928
231
reported to have released a great many workers. These in turn were
absorbed by other industries and by agriculture to such an extent that
the demand for Mexican labor was substantially curtailed. The
sugar-beet sections of the North and Northwest are reported to have
curtailed largely their acreage, with resultant lessening of the demand
for Mexican labor. The usual seasonal demand for labor on the part
of railroads in the Southwest did not materialize. At El Paso,
notably, many immigrants, upon arriving at the border and learning
the true conditions of affairs, returned to their homes in the interior.
Many of them had to be assisted by the Mexican Government. In
view of these adverse conditions the curtailment of Mexican immi
gration was, as hereinabove indicated, surprisingly small.
Immigration from Canada
I m m ig r a t io n from Canada has decreased from year to year since
the present quota law became effective July 1, 1924, requiring visas
of all immigrants seeking admission to the United States. In 1925
immigration through Canadian border land ports was 102,496; in
1926, 91,786; in 1927, 81,982; and in 1928, 73,605. The successive
decreases were 98,338, 10,710, 9,804, and 8,377, a total drop in immi
gration during the four years of 127,229. In 1924, the peak year of
immigration from Canada, 200,834 immigrants came in over the
northern land border.
During the fiscal year covered by this report 73,154 immigrants,
who gave Canada as their last permanent residence, were admitted to
the United States, mainly at the land-border stations, comparatively
few newcomers from that country entering at our seaports. Of this
number 62,229, or 85.1 per cent, were of the English, French, Irish,
and Scotch races.^
In the same period 72,616, or 98.6 per cent of the 73,605 immigrants
coming in via the Canadian border, gave Canada as their last per
manent residence; and 99.3 per cent of the immigrants giving Canada
as their last permanent residence came in over the northern land
border. Therefore it may be stated that, with few exceptions, all the
immigrants admitted from Canada came in via the Canadian border,
and all the immigrants coming in that way gave Canada as their last
permanent residence.
As in the case of the Mexican border, hundreds of thousands of
aliens and citizens residing on either side of the boundary, mainly in
towns contiguous thereto, cross and recross daily or periodically on
social or business errands. Treating each entry of these regular
“ crossers” as a separate transaction, and adding thereto all other
transactions, the total volume of entrants during the past year is
estimated at approximately 26,000,000. The examination of these
regular “ crossers” is greatly facilitated by the use of identification
cards.
About one out of every seven immigrants admitted along the
Canadian border was a child; 11,009, or 15 per cent of the total for
the past year, being under 16 years of age, while 17,045 ranged in
age from 16 to 21 years, 21,181 from 22 to 29 years, 10,111 from 30
to 37 years, 5,450 from 38 to 44 years, and 8,809 from 45 to 55 years
and over. The male immigrant aliens numbered 39,397, and the
female 34,208; the single males, 25,283; single females, 20,069;
232
IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION
married males, 13,309; married females, 12,196; widowers, 740;
widows, 1,813; male divorced, 65, and female divorced, 130. Among
these immigrants 18,730 gave skilled occupations, 6,510 were common
laborers, 2,838 were farm laborers, 4,127 servants, 3,181 farmers, and
5,072 were of the mercantile and miscellaneous classes. The number
listed as having no occupation, largely women and children, was
29,263. Only 3,884 gave a professional occupation.
About four-fifths of the newcomers entering from Canada settled
in States along the border. Michigan received the largest number,.
18,294; New York State, 14,096; Massachusetts, 10,830; Washing
ton, 3,716; Maine, 3,453; Connecticut, 1,637; New Hampshire,
1,371; Vermont, 1,415; Minnesota, 969; and North Dakota, 379.
About four-fifths of the immigrant aliens admitted at Canadian
border-land stations during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1928, were
bom in Canada. The major portion of the remainder were found
to be natives of European countries, principally Great Britain and
Ireland.
Chinese Immigration
T h e n u m b e r of Chinese admitted during the fiscal year 1927-28
was 7,996, of which number 931 were immigrants and 7,065 were
nonimmigrants. Of this latter number 4,653 were passing in transit
through the United States and 398 were entering as temporary visi
tors. In the previous fiscal year 8,305 were admitted, 1,051 being
immigrants and 7,254 being nonimmigrants. It will be seen there
fore that the number of Chinese aliens who came to the United States
during the past year was slightly lower than during the preceding
year. Chinese numbering 9,357 departed during the past year as
compared with 9,881 the previous year. During the fiscal year 1928
the departures of Chinese exceeded the arrivals by 1,361, as com
pared with 1,576 more departures than arrivals for the fiscal year
1927. Statistics show that in recent years the number of Chinese
coming to the United States is decreasing. During 1928, 462 aliens
of the Chinese race were refused admission as compared with 598
refusals for the year before.
The act of 1924 operates in such a manner that the coming of
Chinese aliens, except for temporary stay or more extended but not
permanent residence, is practically a thing of the past.
The main problem in connection with Chinese immigration has to
do, not with alien Chinese, but with Chinese who claim American
citizenship. While a considerable number of alleged citizens claim
ing birth in the United States apply for readmission, for the most
part citizen applicants are those who claim to be citizens by reason
of the birth of their alleged fathers in this country. During the
fiscal year 1928 there applied for admission 3,276 Chinese who claimed
citizenship as against 3,176 of this class who applied for admission
during the fiscal year 1927. It has become increasingly difficult to
combat successfully the fraudulent claims which are constantly pre
sented by such applicants by reason of the attitude assumed by both the
district and appellate courts in some jurisdictions when after rejection
the applicants apply for writs of habeas corpus. On the theory that
the disagreements in such testimony are on matters not in direct
issue—that is, on home life and association rather than in direct
statements of relationship—these courts have held there is no substan
IMMIGRATION MOVEMENT IN 1928
233
tial reason for denying the claimed relationship, and have in a number
of cases pronounced the hearing unfair and discharged the petitioners.
The question of whether the courts have the right to assume their
present attitude in view of the decision of the Supreme Court in the
case of Chin Yow v. United States (208 U. S. 8) has not been presented
to the Supreme Court but no doubt in the near future a test case will
be brought before that body.
Chinese immigration within the past few years has reached the
stage in point of time when the grandchildren of Chinese who were
bom in the United States are applying for admission in considerable
numbers. The department took the position that the son of the son
of a person bom in the United States was not a citizen thereof if at
the time of the birth of such grandson of a native-born citizen his
father had never resided in the United States. The matter was car
ried to the Supreme Court in the case of Chin Yow v. United States,
and a few days before the beginning of the fiscal year 1928 the
Supreme Court upheld the department’s position and held that such
persons were not citizens. The effect of this decision is to prevent the
immigration of a vast army of Chinese who otherwise would have
been eligible for admission regardless of any law governing the
admission of aliens.
Aliens Ineligible to Citizenship
A l ie n s ineligible to citizenship entering the country during the
fiscal year 1927-28 numbered 15,983. Of the total number admitted,
7,996 were Chinese, 193 East Indians, 7,712 Japanese, 70 Koreans,
and 12 Pacific Islanders; 837 entered a?s Government officials, their
families, attendants, servants, and employees; 1,909 ate visitors for
business or pleasure; 6,732 as returning residents; 424 as students;
and 85 as ministers or professors and their wives and children;
5,132 as transits; and 864 to carry on trade under existing treaties.
Immigration and Emigration, by Months
T a b l e 1 shows the inward and outward passenger movement for
the fiscal year ended June 30, 1928, and also for the last six months
°f 1928.
In considering this and later tables it is important to note the dis
tinction between the terms “ immigrant” and ‘‘ nonimmigrant”
and similarly between “ emigrant” and “ nonemigrant.” In general
the term immigrant refers to persons who come to the United States
with the declared intention of staying here a year or more. When
such persons later leave the United States without having become
naturalized citizens they are classed as “ emigrant” aliens departed.
The terms “nonimmigrant” and “ nonemigrant” refer to persons who
come to the United States for business, eduction, or other purposes,
but who do not intend becoming permanent residents. Practically
all discussion of immigration as a “ problem” and of restrictive legis
lation on the subject, is concerned with the “ immigrant” alien.
(See former handbook (Bui. No. 439), p. 199.)
234
T
able
IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION
1.—INWARD AND OUTWARD PASSENGER MOVEMENT FROM JULY 1, 1927, TO
DECEMBER 31,1928
Inward
Outward
Aliens admitted
Period
Non
Immi
immi
grant
grant
1927
July...................
August.............
September—
October............
Novem ber___
December........
1928
January............
February.........
M a r c h ...........
April.................
M a y ..................
June..................
23,420
28,418
31,000
31, 719
27,758
22,350
18,146
15,973
19,011
25,619
21, 578
13,841
10,452
United
States
citi
zens
ar
Total
rived
39,393
47,429
56,619
53,297
41,599
32,802
29,935
57, 701 105.130
75, 557 132,176
50,254 103,551
24,325 65,924
18,922 51,724
8,579 26,725 19,909
20,888 10,393 31, 281 31,941
26,270
30,709
26,158
20,419
14,348
17,982
17,814
17, 786
40,618
48,691
43,972
38, 205
Total
34,217
32,586
28,407
27,201
46,634
63,222
74, 835
81, 277
72,379
65,406
Aliens
de
Aliens departed
barred
from
enter
in g ! Em i Non
emi
Total
grant
grant
2,002
United
States
citi
Total
zens
de
parted
Aliens
de
ported
after
land
in g 3
9,230
6,322
7,625
6.402
5,871
9,085
18,509
17,014
16.885
16,424
16.886
21,418
27,739
23,336
24.510
22,826
22,757
30,503
39.748
24,396
22,612
25,209
93,425
66,375
64,258
47,222
45,369
55,712
700
1,346
901
932
1,030
999
1,348 5,;
4,708
4,931
1,346 4,515
1,601 6,240
1,440 7,205
15,632
10,070
12,242
12,553
19,272
19,994
20,955
14,778
17,173
17,068
25,512
27,199
27,126
34*810
29,422
29,506
34.993
53.028
48,081
49,588
46,595
46,574
60,505
80,227
950
951
766
1,309
1,574
1,600
1,567
1,
1,679
i,r1,
Total, fiscal
year 1927-,
)28................ 307,255 193,376 500,631 430,955 931,586 18,839 77,457 196,899 274,356 429,575 703.931 11,625
1928
July...................
August.............
September___
October............
N ovem ber___
December____
20,682 15,976
18,620
29,317 26,397
29,917 24.797
24,805 14,480
18,357 10,213
43,249
55, 714
54,714
39,285
28,570
32,974 69, 632
63,191 106,440
80,233 135,947
49,831 104,545
23,198
18,911 47,481
T otal........... . 147,707 110,483 258,190
526,528
1,286
1,412
1,364
1,798
1,694
1,551
7,804
6,488
8,093
7,479
6,549
8,264
20,249
15.960
17,231
16,693
14,611
96,516
72.771
67,429
58,815
43,540
53,439
768
1,180
915
807
927
1,054
9,105 44,677 104,746 149,423 243,087 392,510
5,651
20,002
28,053
22,448
25,324
24,172
21.160
28,266
68,463
50,323
42,105
34.643
22,380
25,173
1 These aliens are not included among arrivals, as they were not permitted to enter the United States.
2 These aliens are included among aliens departed, they having entered the United States, legally or
illegally, and later being deported.
Country of Birth, Race, Sex, and Age of Immigrants and Emigrants, 1928
T a b l e 2 gives the net increase or decrease of population by ad
mission and departure of aliens, for the fiscal year 1927-28 according
to country of last residence in the case of immigrants and of future
residence in the case of emigrants. Table 3 gives similar information,
by race or people, sex, and age periods.
235
IMMIGRATION MOVEMENT IN 1928
T a b l e 2 .— N E T I N C R E A S E O R D E C R E A S E OF P O P U L A T IO N , B Y A D M I S S IO N A N D D E
P A R T U R E O F A L I E N S , F IS C A L Y E A R S E N D E D J U N E 30,1928, B Y C O U N T R IE S
Aliens departed
Aliens admitted
Country of last or intended future
permanent residence1
Em i
grant
Nonemi
grant
Increase
( + ) or
decrease
(-)
Im m i
grant
Nonim
migrant
Albania............................................................
Austria.............................................................
Belgium..........................................................
Bulgaria..........................................................
Czechoslovakia. ..........................................
Danzig, Free City of..................................
Denmark........................................................
Estonia............................................................
Finland...........................................................
France, including Corsica........................
Germany........................................................
Great Britain and Northern Ireland:
England........ .........................................
Northern Ireland.................................
Scotland..................................................
W ales.......................................................
Greece..............................................................
Hungary.........................................................
Irish Free S tate..........................................
Italy, including Sicily and Sardinia...
Latvia..............................................................
Lithuania.......................................................
Luxemburg....................................................
Netherlands..................................................
Norway...........................................................
Poland.............................................................
Portugal, including Azores, Cape
Verde, and Madeira Islands...............
Rumania........................................................
Russia.............................................................
Spain, including Canary and Bale
aric Islands............................................
Sweden............................................................
Switzerland...................................................
Turkey in Europe.......................................
Yugoslavia.....................................................
Other Europe2.............................................
263
1,277
698
158
3,571
224
2,473
136
473
4,438
45,778
7
565
673
46
428
12
803
32
230
4,096
6,488
270
1,842
1,371
204
3,999
236
3,276
168
703
8,534
52,266
90
580
485
no
2,070
1
540
11
585
2,030
6,645
8
403
529
41
501
25
621
13
402
3,493
5,692
98
983
1,014
151
2,571
26
1,161
24
987
5,523
12,337
+172
+859
+ 357
+53
+ 1,4 28
+210
+2,115
+144
—284
+3,011
+39,929
7,338
724
11,085
1,535
2,328
857
24,544
17,728
258
531
106
1,843
5,660
8,755
15,681
179
2,430
430
313
832
738
2,703
74
63
13
1,121
1,562
450
23,019
903
13,515
1,965
2,641
1,689
25,282
20,431
332
594
119
2,964
7,222
9,205
6,039
185
1,498
39
2,461
920
1,115
17.324
55
319
18
514
1,686
3,071
15,208
51
1,652
72
352
577
1,062
2,689
24
47
19
1,186
965
350
21,247
236
3,150
111
2,813
1,497
2,177
20,013
79
366
37
1,700
2,651
3,421
+ 1,7 72
+667
+10,365
+1,8 54
-1 7 2
+192
+23,105
+418
+253
+228
+82
+ 1,2 64
+4,571
+ 5,7 84
584
1,376
1,254
149
220
312
733
1,596
1,566
1,358
1,002
426
524
223
260
1,882
1,225
686
-1 ,1 4 9
+371
+880
455
8,051
1,994
242
1,386
390
806
884
946
82
74
35
1,261
8,935
2,940
324
1,460
425
1,933
1,282
726
38
1,941
38
912
1,019
700
20
190
19
2,895
2,301
1,426
58
2,131
57
-1 ,6 3 4
+ 6,6 34
+ 1,514
+266
-6 7 1
+368
Total, Europe...................................
158,513
43,477
201,990
57,185
39,849
97,034
+104,956
Armenia..........................................................
China...............................................................
India................................................................
Japan...............................................................
Palestine.........................................................
Persia...............................................................
Syria_______ _______ ____________________
Turkey in Asia.............................................
Other A s ia 3...................................................
21
1,320
102
550
554
50
504
59
220
3
3,458
450
2,425
152
12
89
17
180
24
4,778
552
2,975
706
62
593
76
400
18
4,364
156
1,085
77
23
245
61
44
3
3,384
209
2,009
97
14
85
23
93
21
7,748
365
3,094
174
37
330
84
137
+3
-2 ,9 7 0
+187
-1 1 9
+532
+25
+263
-8
+263
Total
Total
Total, Asia.........................................
3,380
6,786
10,166
6,073
5,917
11,990
-1 ,8 2 4
Canada............................................................
Newfoundland.............................................
Mexico....... ..................... ............... ...............
Cuba................................................................
Other W est Indies......................................
British Honduras........................................
Other Central America.............................
Brazil...............................................................
Other South America................................
United States *.............................................
Other Am erica5..........................................
73,154
2,127
59,016
3,012
1,046
31
1,720
1,213
2,953
87,500
2,696
64,506
12,416
6,380
166
4,210
1,817
6,568
95,338
19
2,529
532
3,957
1,953
2,291
19
739
139
1,461
9
14,346
569
5,490
9,404
5,334
135
2,490
604
3,615
95,338
10
29,426
688
7,660
9,911
5,111
124
2,281
226
3,600
87,353
11
31,955
1,220
11,617
11,864
7,402
143
3,020
365
5,061
87,353
11
+55,545
+ 1,4 76
+52,889
+552
-1 ,0 2 2
+23
+1,1 90
+ 1,4 52
+ 1,5 07
+ 7,9 85
+8
Total, America.................................
144,281
137,335
281,616
13,620
146,391
160,011
+121,605
E gypt..............................................................
Other Africa..................................................
Australia and appertaining islands___
New Zealand and appertaining islands.
Other Pacific islands6...............................
215
260
385
193
28
142
596
3,675
1,191
174
357
856
4,060
1,384
202
19
122
325
100
13
67
306
3,218
1,022
129
86
428
3,543
1,122
142
+271
+428
+517
+262
+60
Total, all countries.........................
307,255
193,376
500,631
77,457
196,899
274,356
+226,275
1 Residence of a year or more is regarded as permanent residence.
2 Comprises Andorra, Gibraltar, Iceland, Liechtenstein, M alta, Monaco, and San Marino.
* Includes Afghanistan, Arabia, Bhutan, Iraq (Mesopotamia), Muscat, Nepal, Siam, Siberia, and “ Asia,
not specified.”
* “ United States” under nonimmigrants covers aliens returning to this country to resume residence
therein after a temporary stay abroad; and under nonemigrants covers aliens departing for a visit abroad
with the intention of returning within 1 year to renew permanent residence in this country.
• Comprises Greenland and the islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon.
• Comprises Nauru, N ew Guinea, Samoa, Yap, and “ Pacific islands, not specified.”
IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION
236
T a b l e 3 .— N E T I N C R E A S E O R D E C R E A S E O F P O P U L A T IO N B Y A D M I S S IO N A N D D E
P A R T U R E O F A L I E N S , F IS C A L Y E A R E N D E D J U N E 30, 1928, B Y R A C E O R P E O P L E ,
S E X , A N D A G E P E R IO D S
Aliens admitted
Aliens departed
Race or people
Im m i
grant
Nonim
migrant
Total
Em i
grant
Nonemi
grant
Total
Increase
( + ) or
decrease
(-)
956
1,062
1,248
531
931
938
2,058
2,698
253
1,109
664
7,065
909
6,533
3,654
1,315
2,357
1,195
7,996
1,847
8,591
789
47
1,327
1,396
4,300
534
1,282
1,556
107
1,884
832
5,057
441
7,006
2,345
154
3,211
2,228
9,357
975
8,288
+ 1,3 09
+ 1,1 61
-8 5 4
- 1 ,0 3 3
-1 ,3 6 1
+872
+303
95
2,880
38
33,597
544
17,963
54,157
2,848
11,639
38,193
2,653
16,087
522
22
326
1,112
57,765
2
4,238
844
443
1,249
411
180
3,723
155
41,500
1,350
8,380
22,188
2,919
3, 737
7,107
5,160
17,588
7,190
48
341
2,051
3,857
10
2,308
2,398
562
1,265
91
275
6,603
193
75,097
1,894
26,343
76,345
5,767
15,376
45,300
7,813
33,675
7,712
70
667
3,163
61,622
12
6,546
3,242
1,005
2,514
502
361
1,084
106
8,780
647
1,915
8,086
2,525
253
1,649
1,626
15,834
1,055
39
351
1,024
3,873
3
3,046
1,430
908
642
59
764
3,896
107
49,660
2,113
8,615
20,272
1,829
1,698
7,476
3,158
14,600
9,614
64
403
1,521
9,198
9
2,762
1,977
928
1,121
90
1,125
4,980
213
58,440
2,760
10,530
28,358
4,354
1,951
9,125
4,784
30,434
10,669
103
754
2,545
13,071
12
5,808
3,407
1,836
1,763
149
-8 5 0
+ 1,6 23
—20
+16,657
-8 6 6
+15,813
+47,987
+ 1,4 13
+13,425
+36,175
+ 3 ,0 2 9
+ 3,241
-2 ,9 5 7
-3 3
-8 7
+618
+ 48,551
18,664
23,177
2,197
1,018
3,490
613
143
1,723
394
484
11,359
11,513
1,294
6,635
4,691
660
186
942
2,104
653
30,023
34,690
3,491
7,653
8,181
1,273
329
2,665
2,498
1,137
3,767
2,268
746
2,578
1,720
232
116
85
785
189
12,170
10,053
711
6,385
4,854
457
135
518
2,132
726
15,937
12,321
1,457
8,963
6,574
689
251
603
2,917
915
+14,086
+ 22,369
+ 2 ,0 3 4
-1 ,3 1 0
+1 ,6 0 7
+584
+78
+ 2 ,0 6 2
-4 1 9
+222
T otal..................................................... 307,255
193,376
500,631
77,457
196,899
274,356
+226,275
115,973
77,403
281,950
218,681
54,786
22,671
118,678
78,221
173,464
100,892
+108,486
+117,789
10,172
10,508
44,4f>3
47,735
32, 301
48, 207
59,852
83,600
140,180
90,377
51,672
74,950
3,500
3,176
16,977
20,841
15,124
17,839
10,201
10,835
45,308
48,685
33,552
48,318
13,701
14,011
62,285
69,526
48,676
66,157
+46,151
+ 69,589
+77,895
+20,851
+ 2 ,9 9 6
+ 8 ,7 9 3
African (black).............................................
Armenian. ....................................................
Bohemian and Moravian (Czech)-----Bulgarian, Serbian, and Montenegrin.
Chinese............................................... ............
Croatian and S love n ian .........................
C u b a n ............................................................
Dalmatian, Bosnian, and Herzego
vinian..........................................................
D utch and Flemish— .............................
East Indian...................................................
English............................................................
Finnish...........................................................
French.............................................................
German...........................................................
Greek...............................................................
Hebrew...........................................................
Irish.................................................. ...............
Italian (north)...... .......................................
Italian (south)..............................................
Japanese..........................................................
Korean............................................................
L ith u a n ia n .................................................
M agyar................... .......................................
M exican .........................................................
Pacific Islander.............................................
Polish...............................................................
Portuguese................................. ...................
Rumanian— ...............................................
Russian. ........................................ ...............
Ruthenian (Russniak)...... .......................
Scandinavian (Norwegians, Danes,
and Swedes).................... .........................
Scotch................ ............... ...........................
Slovak.......... ...................................................
Spanish------ --------------------------- --------------Spanish American....................................
Syrian.......................... ............. ......................
Turkish................................. .........................
W elsh............................................................
W est Indian (except C uban)..................
Other peoples................................................
+738
—165
-8 3 1
+751
+353
SEX
M ale................................................................. 165,977
Female............................................................. 141,278
AGE
Under 16 years..............................................
16 to 21 years_____ ______ ______ ________
22 to 29 years.................................................
30 to 37 years........... .....................................
38 to 44 years.................................................
45 years and over.........................................
49,680
73,092
95,727
42,642
19,371
26, 743
IMMIGRATION MOVEMENT IN 1928
237
Occupations of Immigrants and Emigrants, 1928
T a b l e 4 gives in detail the occupations of aliens a d m itted and
departed in the fiscal year 1 9 2 7 -2 8 :
T a b l e 4 .— O C C U P A T IO N S
OF A L IE N S A D M I T T E D A N D D E P A R T E D , F IS C A L
E N D E D J U N E 30, 1928, B Y C L A S S E S
Adm itted
YEAR
Departed
Occupation
Im m i
grant
Actors..................... .................................................
Architects....................... .....................................
Clergy.......................................................................
Editors.....................................................................
Electricians............. ...................................... ........
Engineers (professional).....................................
Lawyers......................... ......................... ................
Literary and scientific persons.............. ..........
M usicians.,_______________ ______ ____
Officials (Government)
___________ ______ _____ Physicians
___ _____
Sculptors and artists ......
Teachers.......................... ........................... ...........
Other professional
___
Total professional
__
Bakers.............................................. ........................
Barbers and hairdressers___________________
Blacksmiths - .....
. . . ...............,
Bookbinders________________________ _____ _
Brewers_____________________________________
Butchers____________________________________
Cabinetmakers_____________________________
Carpenters and joiners_____________________
Cigarette makers........................................ ..........
Cigar makers_____________ __________________
Cigar packers_______________________________
Clerks and accountants____________________
Engineers (locomotive, marine, and sta
tionary)___________________________________
Furriers and fur workers___________________
Gardeners.... ............................. ................... .........
H at and cap makers________________________
Iron and steel workers______________________
Jewelers.......................... .........................................
Locksmiths _______________________________
Machinists__________________________________
Mariners____________________________________
Masons______________
____________________
Mechanics (not specified)__________________
M etal workers (other than iron, steel, and
tin)......... ............... ............................................. ..
Millers......................................................................
Milliners____________________________________
Miners__________ _____ _________________ _____
Painters and glaziers_______________________
Pattern makers_____________________________
Photographers______________________________
Plasterers___________________________________
Plumbers___________________________________
Printers______________
___________________
Saddlers and harness makers______________
Seamstresses........... ........... ........................... .......
Shoemakers_________________________________
Stokers............................................. .......................
Stonecutters_______ ______ ______ ____________
Tailors.............................................. .......................
Tanners and curriers.______________________
Textile workers (not specified)............. ..........
Tinners.....................................- ............... - ......... i
Tobacco workers___________________________
U pholsterers_________ _____ _____ ____________
W atch and clock makers___________________
Weavers and spinners__________________
Wheelwrights___________ ___________________
Woodworkers (not specified)______________
Other skilled_________ _______ _______________
Total skilled............................... ...............
196
237
1,130
30
1,327
1,655
131
346
627
478
454
132
2,391
1,797
Nonim
migrant
Em i
grant
Nonem i
grant
Total
1,533
797
3,107
215
1,725
5,326
1,145
1,790
1,603
3,740
1,794
844
5,619
3,678
280
75
376
14
160
668
80
159
177
245
207
76
564
563
1,265
444
1,483
157
411
3,201
779
913
868
2,173
1,454
358
2,829
2,051
1,545
519
1,859
171
571
3,869
859
1,072
1,045
2,418
1,661
434
3,393
2,614
32,916
3,644
18,386
22,030
724
682
1,489
2,213
292
1,128
711
1,839
249
559
242
839
1,097
258
86
24
75
99
10
20
1
10
10
20
10
181
362
1,066
402
1,468
254
168
99
267
128
2,532
4,615
2,636
7,251
1,159
11
15
2
13
6
634
146
321
433
488
41
23
16
39
6
8,776
7,377
22,499
15,122
2,238
1,437
692
649
2,129
219
Dressmakers________________________________
974
80S
328
30
11
543
382
3,691
21
754
47
11,014
868
10,931
1,337.
560
1,977
185
398
3,671
1,014
1,444
976
3,262
1,340
712
3,228
1,881
Total
21,985
810
119
735
75
1,857
270
1,935
2,032
1,093
1,377
3,888
1,122
162
459
42
597
186
248
965
2,495
1,101
1,317
1,932
281
1,194
117
2,454
456
2,233
2,997
3,588
2,478
5,205
60
62
176
3
326
52
13
632
706
255
511
571
175
831
34
616
220
118
1,414
1,808
624
1,374
631
237
1,007
37
942
272
131
2,046
2,514
879
1,885
517
211
318
1,830
1,681
80
206
249
557
631
163
1,328
1,190
264
168
1,695
82
195
298
12
159
218
689
19
149
5,649
153
64
164
860
808
37
120
97
204
307
45
312
695
259
96
813
49
77
53
31
55
93
300
5
47
1,416
670
275
482
2,690
2,489
117
326
346
761
938
208
1,640
1,885
523
264
2,508
131
272
351
43
214
311
989
24
196
7,065
153
103
23
573
232
14
32
74
82
57
3
46
255
11
28
361
9
16
34
2
23
12
182
2
54
451
358
107
116
986
668
43
101
234
212
171
12
153
360
60
57
732
21
59
69
24
70
44
588
4
113
1,043
511
210
139
1,559
900
57
133
308
294
228
15
199
615
71
85
1,093
30
75
103
26
93
56
770
6
167
1,494
58,928
29,293
88,221
10,524
28,765
39,289
IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION
238
T a bl e 4 .— O C C U P A T IO N S O F A L I E N S A D M I T T E D A N D D E P A R T E D , F I S C A L Y E A H
E N D E D J U N E 30, 1928, B Y C L A S S E S — Continued
Admitted
Occupation
Im m i
grant
Nonimmigrant
1,222
Departed
Total
E m i
grant
Nonemi
grant
Total
Agents.................................................................... .
Bankers...................................................................
Draymen, hackmen, and teamsters............ .
Farmers..................................... ........... ............... .
Farm laborers..................................................... .
Fishermen......... ................................................... .
Hotel keepers........................................................
Laborers................................................................ .
Manufacturers.................................................... .
Merchants and dealers......................................
Servants_____________ ________ __________ _
Other miscellaneous.......................................... .
107
767
8,773
24,161
951
93
36,218
165
3,378
28,751
7,718
4,012
1,313
196
3,881
5,407
514
555
17,825
1,472
18,083
15,226
8,842
5,234
1,420
963
12,654
29,568
1,465
648
54,043
1,637
21,461
43,977
16,560
160
143
26
1,523
241
114
169
29,396
126
2,284
4,253
2,798
2,031
1,473
189
4,261
1,052
468
446
27,260
1,317
17,121
12,542
9,953
2,191
1,616
215
5,784
1,293
582
615
56,656
1,443
19,405
16,795
12,751
Total miscellaneous............................... .
112,304
77,326
189,630
41,233
78,113
119,346
N o occupation (including women and
children)............................................................ .
125,092
64,772
189,864
22,056
71,635
93,691
A ll occupations...................................... .
307,255
193,376
500,631
77,457
196,899
274,356
Aliens Admitted under Quota Act of 1924, as amended
U n d e r the immigration act of 1924, the total immigration of
aliens from quota countries is limited to 164,667 (see former hand
book (Bui. No. 439), p. 204). Table 5 shows the quota allotments by
individual countries and also the number admitted from each country
in the fiscal year ended June 30, 1928:
T able 5 .— A L I E N S A D M I T T E D T O T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S U N D E R T H E I M M I G R A T I O N
A C T O F 1924 (AS A M E N D E D ) , F IS C A L Y E A R E N D E D J U N E 30, 1928, B Y P R I N C I P A L
C L A S S A N D B Y C O U N T R Y O R A R E A OF B IR T H , A S S P E C IF IE D
[Quota immigrant aliens are charged to the quota; nonimmigrant and nonquota aliens are not charged to
the quota]
Adm itted
Country or area of birth
Albania. ..................................................................
Andorra_____________________________________
Austria______________________________________
Belgium_____________________________________
Bulgaria............................................ .......................
Czechoslovakia_________ _____ _______________
Danzig, Free City of........ ........... ............... .......
Denmark____________________________________
Estonia______________________________________
Finland............................... .....................................
France_________________ ______ _______________
Germany____________________________________
Great Britain and Northern Ireland:
England...................... ....... .............................
Northern Irelan d .......................................
Scotland________________________________
W ales................................... ........... .................
Greece______________________________________
Hungary................................... .......................... ..
Ic e la n d .......................................... ..................... ..
Irish Free State...... ......................... ......... ...........
Italy___________________ ________ ____ _______
Latvia.
Liechtenstein ____
_______ ___ ______ ____
Lithuania.................................................................
Luxemburg__________________________________
M onaco_______________________ _______ ______
Netherlands_______________________ _________
N orw ay....... ................... .........................................
Poland........................................... ...........................
P o rtu gal.................................................................
R u m a n ia ................................................................
R ussia............................................. .............. .........
San M arino........ ....................... .............................
Spain.................................... ...................................
Sweden___ ______ ____________________________
Switzerland..............................................................
- _
Annual
quota
100
100
785
512
100
3,073
228
2,789
124
471
3,954
51,227
34,007
100
473
100
28,567
3,845
142
100
344
100
100
1,648
6,453
5,982
503
603
2,248
100
131
9,561
2,081
Quota im
migrant
N onim
migrant
Nonquota
immigrant
108
4
849
558
88
2,939
211
2,557
122
485
3,548
47,576
672
714
55
636
25
1,041
40
441
3,192
7,129
8
12,102
1,998
14,622
1,747
194
507
50
27,093
4,020
148
15
386
93
9
1,543
5,944
6,129
498
846
2,060
61
167
8,605
1,874
18,012
358
4,117
710
433
971
17
1,405
3,657
110
2
165
29
8
1,353
1,808
1,202
212
450
1,379
6
2,840
1,145
1,193
Total
588
11
1,113
853
156
3,575
22
1,295
64
1.255
3.256
10,697
704
15
2,634
2,125
299
7,150
258
4,893
226
2,181
9,996
65,402
9,196
346
5,744
490
3,633
1,389
14
4,157
31,696
147
39,310
2,702
24,483
2,947
4,260
2,867
81
32,655
39,373
405
17
1,082
183
26
3,893
10,194
13,718
2,954
2,719
5,025
69
5,997
13,132
4,417
531
61
9
997
2,442
6,387
2,244
1,423
1,586
2
2,990
3,382
1,350
IN 1928
IMMIGRATION MOVEMENT
T able 5 .— A L IE N S A D M I T T E D T O T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S U N D E R T H E I M M I G R A T I O N
A C T O P 1924 (A S A M E N D E D ) , F IS C A L Y E A R E N D E D J U N E 30, 1928, B Y P R I N C I P A L
C L A S S A N D B Y C O U N T R Y O R A R E A O F B IR T H , A S S P E C I F I E D — Continued.
Adm itted
Country or area of birth
Turkey in E u ro p e ..............................................
Yugoslavia......... ................. ............... ......... .........
__________________ _______ _____
Total Europe—.........................................
A fgh?vnistan
Arabia............
.
....
Armenia...... ...............
............
-- Bhutan _.............
China_________________ _____ ______ ______ ____
India________________________________________
Iraq (Mesopotamia)________________________
Japan_____________________________ ________ _
Muscat______________________________________
Nepal............................. ..........................................
Palestine____________________________________
Persia............................... ..................................... ..
Siam...........................................
.................... .
Syria__________________ _______ _____________ _
Turkey in Asia..
.....
Total Asia.....................................................
Cameroon (British)_________________________
Cameroon (French)
........ . ......................
E gypt.............................................................. .........
Ethiopia........ ...........................................................
Liberia______________ _______ ________________
M o rocco................................... ............... ........... ..
TR-nfi/nda a^d TTrundi
South Africa.... ......... ................. ....................... ..
South West Africa_______________ _______
Tanganyika.
__ _______ __________
Togoland (British)____________________ _ _
Togoland (French) __ ______________
_ _
Other Africa_______________ _________________
Total A frica................................................
Australia____________________________________
Nauru _ ____________________________ ____
N ew Zealand.................................................. .......
________________________________
Samoa_______________________________________
Y a p _________________________________________
Other Pacific.................................................... ......
Total Pacific................................................
Annual
quota
83
100
665
671
291
Other
Europe
0)
150,795
161,422
100
100
124
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
0)
Other
0) Asia
1,424
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
(0
1,200
121
100
100
New Guinea
100
100
100
(!)
621
Canada...... ........................... ............................. ..
N ewfoundland__________________ _____ ______
M exico................................................ ................. ..
Cuba_________ _____ __________________________
Dominican Republic......... ......................... ........
H aiti..........................................................................
British W est Indies2............................................
Dutch W est Indies2________________________
French W est Indies2________________________
British Honduras2__________________________
Canal Zone—........................ ............... ..................
Other Central America. _________ __________
Brazil________________________________________
British G uiana2............... ........................... ..........
Dutch G uiana2________________ __________
French G uiana2_____________________________
Other South America...................................... ..
Greenland 2______________________ ___________
Miquelon and St. Pierre2______ ______ _____
Nonquota
immigrant
Total
575
2,331
124
817
3,147
447
55,877
106,131
312,803
5
5
26
1
6
87
6
46
204
148
103
102
17
5,723
439
20
2,801
1
2,159
164
14
5,026
8,030
706
136
7,844
1
186
100
1
131
71
168
175
19
12
366
129
85
185
54
3
474
969
73
546
173
16
971
1,169
326
1,153
9,806
9,215
20,174
108
2
3
129
3
26
21
1
1
47
3
4
284
3
37
73
349
5
1
85
2
174
35
91
9
40
116
2
12
1
550
7
1
1
68
66
40
341
605
191
1,137
154
3,223
310
3,687
113
II
948
3
28
7
76
107
2
7
3
28
1,168
5
38
10
115
281
4,285
457
5,023
56,236
3,539
59,149
3,928
400
125
2,287
32
37
17
94
1,735
1,061
80
14
1
11
9 ,542
573
3,500
5,822
844
134
3,035
164
27
90
35
1,953
367
133
10
3
2,808
1
18
65.778
4,112
62,649
9,750
1,244
259
5,844
201
98
134
129
3,688
1,428
271
27
3
5,828
2
49
661
29.059
131.774
161,494
2153,231
99,632
247,768
500,631
3
58
3
164,667
Nonim
migrant
159
151
32
522
5
34
27
Total America— .......................................
All countries__________________________
Quota im
migrant
3,020
20
i Annual quota for colonies, dependencies, or protectorates in other Europe, other Asia, other Africa,
other Pacific, and in America, is included with the annual quota for the European country to which they
belong. Quota for Turkey in Asia is included with that for Turkey in Europe.
2Also includes aliens to whom visas were issued during the latter part of the fiscal year ended June 30,
1927, and charged to the quota for that year. Nationality for quota purposes does not always coincide with
actual nationality. (See sec. 12 of the immigration act of 1924.)
240
IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION
Immigration Legislation
National Origin Act
ECTION 11 (a) of the immigration act of 1924, known as the
quota act, provides that the annual quota of any nationality shall
be 2 per cent of the number of foreign-born individuals of such
nationality resident in continental United States as determined by
the United States census of 1890, but the minimum quota of any
nationality shall be 100.
In the same section of the same act, paragraph b, there is a pro
vision that the annual quota of any nationality for the fiscal year
beginning July 1, 1927, and for each fiscal year thereafter, shall
be a number which bears the same ratio to 150,000 as the number of
inhabitants in continental United States in 1920 having that national
origin (ascertained as provided for in the section) bears to the number
of inhabitants in continental United States in 1920; but the minimum
quota of any nationality shall be 100. This is known as the nationalorigin plan. It did not go into effect on July 1,1927. The operative
date of this plan was postponed to July 1, 1929. (See 45 Stat. 400.)
S
Other Recent Legislation
D uring the fiscal year 1926-27 no new immigration legislation of
any particular importance was passed and the Bureau of Immigration
continued to administer the selective immigration act (partial) of
February 5, 1917, and the numerical restrictive act, known as the
immigration act of 1924, frequently referred to as the quota act of 1924.
The 1917 act provides for the exclusion and deportation from the
United States of certain classes of undesirable aliens, including physi
cally and mentally disabled persons, anarchists, criminals, immoral
persons, and the like, and the 1924 act limits the number of aliens of
each nationality that may annually be admitted to the United States.
During the fiscal year 1927-28 three laws were passed having an
important bearing on immigration, which laws, of course, are en
forced in addition to all other immigration laws, principally the
immigration act of February 5, 1917, frequently referred to as the
general immigration law, and the immigration act of May 26, 1924,
as amended, referred to as the quota or numerical restrictive act.
On March 31, 1928, an act was passed postponing the adoption of
the national-origins quota plan until 1929 and keeping in effect the
present quota plan which is based on 2 per cent of the number of
foreign-born individuals of each nationality resident in continental
United States as determined by the United States census of 1890, but
placing a minimum quota of 100 for any nationality.
On April 2, 1928, an act was passed to the effect that the provision
of law in the immigration act of May 26, 1924, excluding, with cer
tain exceptions, aliens ineligible to citizenship, should have no appli
cation to the right of American Indians born in Canada to cross the
borders of the United States. This act does not extend to persons
whose membership in Indian tribes or families was created by adop
tion.
On May 29, 1928, an act was passed changing, to some degree, the
nonquota classes and the preference class under the quota as specified
IMMIGRATION INTO UNITED STATES— 1820 TO 1928
241
in the act of 1924. The purpose of this act is to enable, as far as
possible, foreign resident members of families of United States
citizens to be reunited; also to shorten the time within which foreign
resident members of families of aliens lawfully admitted to the
United States for permanent residence will have to wait before they
may secure quota visas. In other words, the purpose of this legis
lation was to unite, with the least possible delay, families of citizens
and aliens lawfully resident in the United States. As an example
of the way in which this policy is to work out, the act of May 29,
1928, increased from 18 to 21 the age of unmarried children of citi
zens of the United States who may secure nonquota visas because of
relationship; permitted the husband of a citizen of the United States
by marriage occurring prior to June 1, 1928, to come as a nonquota
immigrant; and made a nonquota immigrant of a woman who was a
citizen of the United States and who prior to September 22, 1922,
lost her citizenship by reason of her marriage to an alien, but who
at the time of filing her application for an immigration visa, is un
married. As to the classes of aliens who are entitled to preference
in securing immigration quota visas, the act provided that wives
and unmarried children under 21 years of age of alien residents of
the United States who have been lawfully admitted for permanent
residence, may secure preference under the quota in applying for
immigration visas. It likewise increased from 16 to 18 years the
age of dependent children of skilled agriculturists who are entitled
to preference.
A redraft of the quota act is favored. Some of the desired amend
ments have already been embodied in Senate bill 3019 of the last
Congress, among them—
1. The provision fixing an exact number of immigrants who may enter the
United States annually from all sources, instead of from certain countries only, as
under our present system.
2. The provision under which a considerable part of our immigration could
be selected with a view to meeting the needs of agriculture, industry, and other
activities in the United States.
Other proposed provisions indorsed by the Secretary of Labor in
his 1928 report include immigration visas to families as units and a
nonquota status for “ the unmarried child under 18 years of age, or
the wife of an alien who was legally admitted to the United States
for permanent residence prior to July 1,1924, and who has continued
to reside therein.”
The Secretary also holds that “ the protection of our labor will not
be complete until quota restrictions in some form are applied to the
countries of the Western Hemisphere.” (For discussion of proposed
immigration legislation, see annual report of Secretary of Labor for
fiscal year ended June 30, 1928.)
Immigration into United States, 1820 to 1928
ECORDS of immigration into the United States began with the
year 1820. Table 1 shows the immigration by periods, from
1820 to 1928, and by certain important geographical divisions and
countries. Over the whole period of 109 years the total immigration
was 37,240,634, of which over 18,000,000 came from northern and
R
242
IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION
western Europe. The great influx from southern and eastern Europe
came in the years 1901 and 1921, since which time the immigration
from southern and eastern Europe has been greatly reduced.
Table 1, just referred to, deals solely with immigration. Corre
sponding data for emigration and net increase of population is not
available for years earlier than 1908. Table 2 gives this information,
by years, from 1908 to 1928.
T able 1 .— I M M I G R A T I O N T O T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S F R O M N O R T H E R N A N D W E S T E R N
E U R O P E , S O U T H E R N A N D E A S T E R N E U R O P E , A S IA , C A N A D A , A N D N E W F O U N D
L A N D , M E X I C O , W E S T I N D I E S , A N D O T H E R C O U N T R IE S , B Y S P E C I F I E D P E R IO D S \
Number from—
Period or year
Total
number
of im m i
grants
Europe
Northern
and
western 2
Southern
and
eastern2
Asia
Total
Canada
and New
Mexico
found
land 3
W est
Indies
Other
coun
tries 4
1820-1830........... ..
1831-1840.............
1841-1850.............
1851-1860.............
1861-1870.............
1871-1880.............
151,824
599,125
1,713,251
2,598,214
2,314,824
2,812,191
103,119
489,739
1,592,062
2,431,336
2,031,642
2,070,373
3,389
5,949
5,439
21,324
33,628
201,889
106.508
15
495,688
48
1,597,501
82
2,452,660 41,455
2,065,270 64,630
2,272,262 123,823
2,486
13,624
41,723
59,309
153,878
383,640
3,998
12,301
13,528
10,660
9,046
13,957
33,999
70,865
57,146
31,052
19,809
13,347
1881-1890..............
1891-1900.............
1901-1910.............
1911-1920.............
1921-1928..............
5,246,613
3,687,564
8,795,386
5,735,811
3,585,831
3,778,633
1,643,492
1,910,035
997,438
1,072,436
958,413
1,915,486
6,225,981
3,379,126
1,099,381
4,737,046 68,380
3,558,978 71,236
8,136,016 243,567
4,376,564 192,559
2,171,817 89,107
393,304
1,913 29,042
3,311
971 33,066
179,226 49,642 107,548
742,185 219,004 123,424
792,810 406,430 65,368
16,928
20,002
79,387
82,075
60, 299
878,587
1911.......................
838,172
1912........................
1913______ ______ 1,197,892
1914....................... 1,218,480
326,700
1915........................
202,391
161,290
182,886
164,133
79,200
562,366
557,585
872,969
894,258
118,719
764,757
718,875
1, C55,855
1,058,391
197,919
4,818
6,399
3,271
3,078
2,191
5,162
17,428
21,449
35,358
34,273
15,211
56,830
55,990
73,802
86,139
82,215
19,889
23,238
li, 926
14,614
12,340
13,403
12,467
12,458
14,451
11,598
6,280
6,153
8,493
10,612
7,417
3,795,797 123,719
Total......... 4,459,831
789,900
3,005,897
354,976
82,007
6*1,377
38,955
1916.......................
1917........................
1918........................
1919........................
1920........................
298,826
295,403
110,618
141,132
430,001
51,055
38,500
12,946
18,039
86,998
94,644
94,583
18,117
6,588
159,297
145,699
133,083
31,063
24,627
246,295
13,204
12,756
32,701
12,674
17,505
101,551
105,399
32,452
57,782
90,025
18,425
17,869
18. 524
29,818
52,361
12,027
15,507
8,879
8,826
13,808
7,920
10,789
6,999
7,405
10,007
Total_____
1,275,980
207,538
373,229
580,767
68,840
387,209 136,997
59,047
43,120
1921.......................
1922........................
1923.......................
1924.......................
1925.......................
805,228
309,556
522,919
706,896
294,314
138,551
79,437
156,429
203,346
125,248
513,813
136,948
151,491
160,993
23,118
652,364
216,385
307,920
364,339
148,366
25,034
14,263
13,705
22,065
3,578
72,317
46,810
117,011
200,690
102,753
30,758
19,551
63,768
89,336
32,964
13,774
7,449
13,181
17,559
2,106
10,981
5,098
7,334
12,907
4,547
2,638,913
703,011
986,363
1,689,374
78,645
539,581 236,377
54,069
40,867
304,488
335,175
307,255
126,437
126,721
116,267
29,125
41,647
42,246
155,562
168,368
158,513
3,413
3,669
3,380
3,222
4,019
4,058
5,607
6,818
7,007
Total
1926.......................
1927.......................
1928.......................
93,368
84,580
75,281
43,316
67,721
59,016
Grand
total___ 37,240,634 18,120,305 13,850,005 31,970,310 894,902 2,765,496 703,079 421,938 484,909
1 N o official records were made of the influx of foreign population to this country prior to 1820. Although
the number of immigrants arrived in the United States from the close of the Revolutionary W ar up to 1820
is not accurately known, it is estimated by good authorities at 250,000. For 1820 to 1867 the figures are for
alien passengers arriving; for 1868 to 1903, for immigrants arriving; for 1904 to 1906, for aliens admitted;
and for 1907 to 1928, for immigrant aliens admitted. The years from 1820 to 1831 and 1844 to 1849, inclusive,
are those ending September 30; from 1833 to 1843 and 1851 to 1867 those ending December 31; and 1869 to
1927 those ending June 30. The other periods cover 15 months ending December 31,1832; 9 months ending
December 31,1843; 15 months ending December 31,1850; and 6 months ending June 30,1868.
8 Northern and western Europe comprises Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Luxemburg (in 1926,
1926,1927, and 1928), Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, and England, Ireland, Scotland, Wales,
United Kingdom not specified. Southern and eastern Europe comprises the other countries on that con
tinent.
* From 1820 to 1898 includes all British North American possessions.
4 Includes Central and South America, Africa, Australia, Pacific islands, and countries not specified.
IMMIGRATION INTO UNITED STATES— 1820 TO 1928
243
T a b l e 1 .— I M M I G R A T I O N T O T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S F R O M N O R T H E R N A N D W E S T E R N
E U R O P E , S O U T H E R N A N D E A S T E R N E U R O P E , A S IA , C A N A D A , A N D N E W F O U N D
L A N D , M E X I C O , W E S T I N D I E S , A N D O T H E R C O U N T R IE S , B Y S P E C I F I E D P E R IO D S —
Continued
Per cent from—
Europe
Period of year
North
ern and
western
South
ern and
eastern
1820-1830.........................
1831-1840.........................
1841-1850.........................
1851-1860.........................
1861-1870.........................
1871-1880.........................
68.0
81.8
93.0
93.6
87.8
73.6
2.2
1.0
.3
.8
1.4
7.2
70.2
82.8
93.3
94.4
89.2
80.8
1881-1890.........................
1891-1900.........................
1901-1910.........................
1911-1920.........................
1921-1928.........................
72.0
44.6
21.7
17.4
29.9
18.3
51.9
70.8
58.9
30.7
1911...................................
1912..................................
1913..................................
1914..................................
1915...................................
28.0
19.2
15.3
13.4
24.2
64.0
66.5
72.9
73.4
36.3
Canada
and New
found
land
Asia
Total
Mexico
W est
Indies
Other
coun
tries
1.6
2.8
4.4
1.6
2.2
2.4
2.3
6.6
13.6
3.2
1.1
.2
.1
.1
.2
2.6
2.1
.8
.4
.4
.5
22.4
11.8
3.3
1.2
.9
.5
90.3
96.5
92.5
76.3
60.6
1.3
1.9
2.8
3.4
. 2.5
7.5
.1
2.0
12.9
22.1
.6
3.8
11.3
.6
.9
1.2
2.2
1.8
.3
.6
.9
1.4
1.7
87.0
85.7
88.2
86.8
60.5
2.0
2.6
3.0
2.8
4.7
6.5
6.7
6.1
7.1
25.2
2.3
2.8
1.0
1.2
3.8
1.5
1.5
1.0
1.2
3.5
.7
.7
.7
.9
2.3
T o ta l...................
17.7
67.4
85.1
2.8
8.0
1.8
1.4
.9
1916..................................
1917...................................
1918...................................
1919..................................
1920..................................
17.1
13.0
11.7
12.8
20.2
31.7
32.0
16.4
4.7
37.1
48.8
45.0
28.1
17.5
57.3
4.4
4.3
11.5
9 .0
4.1
33.9
35.7
29.3
40.9
20.9
6.2
6.0
16.8
21.1
12.2
4.0
5.3
8.0
6.3
3.2
2.7
3.7
6.3
5.2
2.3
T otal...................
16.3
29.3
45.6
5.4 |
30.3
10.7
4.6
3.4
1921...................................
1922..................................
1923..................................
1924— ............................
1925..................................
17.2
25.7
29.9
28,8
42.6
63.8
44.2
29.0
22.8
7.9
81.0
69.9
58.9
51.6
50.5
3.1
4.6
2.6
3.1
1.2
9.0
15.1
22.4
28.4
34.9
3.8
6.3
12.2
12.6
11.2
1.7
2.4
2.5
2.5
.7
1.4
1.7
1.4
1.8
1.5
Total...................
26.6
37.4
64.0
3 .0
20.5
8.9
2.1
1.5
1926..................................
1927.........— .............. 1928..................................
41.5
37.8
37.9
9.6
12.4
13.7
51.1
50.2
51.6
1.1
1.1
1.1
30.7
25.3
24.5
14.2
20.2
19.2
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.8
2.0
2.3
Grand total___
48.7
37.2
85.9
2.4 |
7.4
1.9
1.1
1.3
T able 2 .— N E T I N C R E A S E O F P O P U L A T IO N , B Y A D M I S S I O N A N D D E P A R T U R E OF
A L I E N S , F IS C A L Y E A R S E N D E D J U N E 30, 1908 T O 1928
Departed
Adm itted
Period or year
Increase
Immigrant
Nonim
migrant
Total
Emigrant
Nonemi
grant
Total
190 8
.......................
190 9
- ..........- .............
1910— - ...............................
782,870
751,786
1,041,570
141,825
192,449
156,467
924,695
944,235
1,198,037
395,073
225,802
202,436
319,755
174,590
177,982
714,828
400,392
380,418
209,867
543,843
817,619
191 1
.........................
191 2
- ........... - .........
191 3
191 4
191 5
_______
191 6
...........
191 7
191 8
191 9
1920.......................................
878,587
838,172
1,197,892
1,218,480
326,700
298,826
295,403
110,618
141,132
430,001
151,713
178,983
229,335
184,601
107,544
67,922
67,474
101,235
95,889
191,575
1,030,300
1,017,155
1,427,227
1,403,081
434,244
366,748
362,877
211,853
237,021
621,576
295,666
333,262
308,190
303,338
204,074
129,765
66,277
94,585
123,522
288,315
222,549
282,030
303,734
330,467
180,100
111,042
80,102
98,683
92,709
139,747
518,215
615,292
611,924
633,805
384,174
240,807
146,379
193,268
216,231
428,062
512,085
401,863
815,306
769,273
50,070
125,941
216,498
18,585
20,790
193,514
5,735,811
1,376,271
7,112,082
2,146,994
1,841,163
3,988,157
3,123,925
Total, 1911-1920—
39142°— 29------- 17
IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION
244
T a b l e 3 .— N E T I N C R E A S E O F P O P U L A T IO N , B Y A D M lo 'S I O N A N D D E P A R T U R E
A L I E N S , F I S C A L Y E A R S E N D E D J U N E 30, 1908 T O 1928— Continued
Admitted
OF
Departed
Period or year
Increase
Immigrant
Nonim
migrant
Total
Emigrant
Nonemi
grant
Total
1921.......................................
1922. .
_______ _______
192 3
192 4
_______ ______
1926.. .
.................
805,228
309,556
522,919
706,896
294,314
172,935
122,949
150,487
172,406
164,121
978,163
432,505
673,406
879,302
458,435
247,718
198,712
81,450
76,789
92,728
178,313
146,672
119,136
139,956
132,762
426,031
345,384
200,586
216,745
225,490
552,132
87,121
472,820
662,557
232,945
Total, 1921-1925—
2,638,913
782,898
3,421,811
697,397
716,839
1,414,236
2,007,575
1926 —
1927 —
1928........................................
304,488
335,175
307,255
191,618
202,826
193,376
496,106
538,001
500,631
76,992
73,366
77,457
150,763
180,142
196,899
227,755
253,508
274,356
268,351
284,493
226,275
Grand total............
11,897,868
3,237,730
15,135,598
3,895,517
3,758,133
7,653,650
7,481,948
Changes in Occupational Character of Immigration
Since the War
IS a matter of general knowledge that since the war, and more
since the passage of the “ quota” immigration acts
ITofparticularly
1921 and 1924, there has been not only a great reduction in the
immigration of aliens into the United States but also a marked change
in the racial composition of such immigration. An equally signifi
cant although less observed change has occurred in the occupational
character of the immigration. This was clearly developed by a study
made by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in the early part of 1927.
The following is a summary of the results of that study. Broadly
speaking, the tendency has been toward a sharp decrease in the pro
portion of unskilled laborers and a very sharp increase in the pro
portion of those with skilled trades, professions, or business training.
This appears in striking manner when comparison is made between the
four pre-war years, 1911 to 1914, and the two most recent years, 1925
and 1926, the years referred to being here, as elsewhere in this article,
the fiscal years ending June 30 of the year named. Thus, during the
pre-war period, 1911 to 1914, the average annual immigration of
skilled laborers (154,317) was only about one-third as great as that
of the unskilled (426,859), whereas in the period—1925, 1926—the
average number of the skilled (55,673) was substantially as great as
that of the unskilled (55,870).
Again, it may be pointed out that in the pre-war immigration the
unskilled laborers outnumbered more than 2 to 1 the total number of
skilled mechanics, professional, and business people and farmers,
whereas in the past two years this condition has been reversed, the
immigrants with trades and professions greatly outnumbering the
unskilled laborers. The average annual number of immigrant
farmers, indeed, was actually larger in the past two years (11,798)
than in the pre-war period (11,249).
Moreover, it should be noted that the above comparisons are based
on the figures of gross immigration. As a matter of fact, a continuous
emigration of aliens from the United States is going on, and since the
war this emigration has been proportionately very much larger
among the unskilled workers than among those with trades, profes
OCCUPATIONAL CHARACTER OF IMMIGRANTS
245
sions, and business training. As a result, if attention is limited
solely to net immigration, that is to say, the actual increase of immi
grant population, the decrease in the importance of the unskilled
immigrant becomes still more striking. Thus, in the pre-war period,
1911 to 1914, the average annual net immigration into the United
States was 723,169, of which 234,427, or 32.4 per cent, were rated as
unskilled; only 141,779, or 19.6 per cent, being in the skilled groups
(mechanics, professional and business people, and farmers). On the
other hand, in the two years ending in 1926, the average annual net
immigration was 214,541, of which only 14,227, or 6.6 per cent, were
rated as unskilled laborers, whereas 68,681, or 32 per cent, were in
the skilled groups of mechanics, professional and business people, and
farmers.
The detailed data on which the above summary statements are
based are presented in an article in the Labor Review for February
1927, from which the following tables have been taken.
Quota Acts
I t w i l l be recalled that the act approved May 19, 1921,Restricted
the number of aliens of any nationality admissible under the immi
gration laws to the United States in any fiscal year to “ 3 per cent of
the number of foreign-born persons of such nationality resident in
the United States as determined by the United States census of 1910.,,
There were of course exceptions which need not be taken up at this
time. This was the first strictly immigration act that provided
for actually limiting the number of aliens other than Asiatics who
may be admitted to the United States.
The immigration act of 1924 (Pub. No. 139, 68th Cong.) provides
“ that the annual quota of anjr nationality shall be 2 per cent of the
number of foreign-born individuals of such nationality resident in
continental United States as determined by the United States census
of 1890.”
Occupation Trends in Immigration After Passage of Quota Acts
T a b l e 1 gives the average immigration, emigration, and net
immigration by occupational groups for the four fiscal years immedi
ately preceding the World War (1911-1914), for the three fiscal
years following the approval of the quota act of 1921 (1922-1924),
and for the two fiscal years after the quota law of 1924 went into
effect (1925-26); the per cent that each group forms of the total; and
also the percentage changes in the volume of annual average immigra
tion, emigration, and net immigration in 1922-1924 and 1925, 1926
as compared with the pre-war period.
i See Labor Review, July, 1921, pp. 222-226.
IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION
246
T able 1.— P E R C E N T E A C H O C C U P A T I O N A L G R O U P F O R M E D O F A V E R A G E A N N U A L
IM M IG R A T IO N , E M IG R A T IO N , A N D N E T IM M IG R A T IO N OF A L IE N S , IN S P E C IF IE D
P E R IO D S , 1911 T O 1926, A N D P E R C E N T O F C H A N G E I N V O L U M E F R O M 1911-1914
Annual average
Per cent of
Per cent occupational
change from
group formed of total 1911-1914 to—
Occupational group
19221924
19111914
1925,
1926
Immigration:
28,699
16,531
27,943
Profession*!
busin ess.. ............
55,673
Skilled labor __ _ _
_ ______ 154,317 105,811
11,798
13,500
11,249.
Farmers____________________________
96,068
55,870
Unskilled labor____________________ 426,859
28,756
49,478
Servants___________________________ 127,077
19,386
13,949
M iscellaneous______________________
12,215
200.181 116,826
________ . ___________ 273,624
N o occupation
T otal__________________ __________ 1,033,284
19221924
1925,
1926
2.7
14.9
1.1
41.3
12.3
1.2
26.5
5.6
2a 6
2.6
18.7
9.6
3.8
39.0
5.5
18.6
3.9
18.7
9.6
4.7
39.0
+ 2 .7
-3 1 .4
+ 2 0 .0
- 7 7 .5
- 6 1 .1
+ 5 8 .7
-2 6 .8
—40.8
-6 3 .9
+ 4 .9
—86.9
- 7 7 .4
+ 1 4 .2
-5 7 .3
100.0
100.0
-5 0 .3
-7 1 .0
5.2
5.2
11.1
100.0
6,205
11,269
4,434
9,459
1,428
41,643
3,699
3,126
21,073
2.9
11.1
2,772
58,040
3,793
3,767
33,137
118,983
310,115
723,169
1925,
1926
299,403
9.5
2.3
48.8
3.2
3.2
27.9
1.7
49.1
4.4
3.7
24.8
-3 1 .7
- 6 7 .3
- 6 6 .3
-6 9 .8
-7 3 .4
-2 .2
-3 0 .7
—51.2
2.7
62.1
4.6
1.2
15.4
84,862 100.0
100.0
100.0
-6 1 .6
-7 2 .6
Net immigration:
22,494
18,862
Professional and business_________
12,097
94,542
46,214
Skilled labor........................................... 119,890
10,728
3,027
10,370
Farmers____________________________
Unskilled labor........................... ......... 234,427
38,028
14,227
45,685
25,057
Servants____________________________ 112.799
10,823
15,619
Miscellaneous______________________
8,365
167,044
95,753
_____________________ 225.799
N o occupation
T otal.....................................................
19221924
513,123
Emigration:
Professional and business_________
9,081
Skilled labor. _......................................
34,427
Farmers____________________________
8,222
Unskilled labor____________________ 192,432
Servants____________________________
14,278
Miscellaneous______________________
3,850
N o occupation1_________________ ___ 47,825
T o ta l- ................................ .................
19111914
394,140
214,541
2 .6
16.6
.4
32.4
15.6
1.2
31.2
5.7
24.0
2.7
9.6
11.6
4.0
42.4
100.0
100.0
—72.5
-8 2 .6
-7 8 .4
—74.1
—18.8
-5 5 .9
+ 1 9 .3
—35.9
5.6
- 2 1 .1
—61.5
21.5
4.8 + 254.4 + 2 4 2 .6
6.6
—83.8 —93.9
11.7
- 5 9 .5
-7 7 .8
+ 2 9 .4
5.0 + 8 6 .7
44.6
-5 7 .6
-2 6 .0
100.0
-4 5 .5
- 7 0 .3
1 Includes some unknown occupations.
Immigration and Emigration Compared
T he p e r c e n t a g e relation of annual average emigration to immigra
tion within the occupational groups for-the three periods under
discussion is shown in Table 2:
T able 2 .— P E R C E N T A G E R E L A T I O N O F A V E R A G E A N N U A L E M I G R A T I O N T O A V E R
A G E A N N U A L IM M IG R A T IO N
Period
Occupation
1911-1914 1922-1924 1925, 1926
Professional and business____________________________________________________
Skilled labor______________ ______________________ _____________________________
Farmers_______________________________________________________________________
U nskilled labor_______________________________________________________________
Servants______________________________________________________________________
M iscellaneous________________________________________________________________
N o occupation.....................................................................................................................
T o ta l._________________________________________
______ _________________
Per cent
Per cent
32.5
22.3
73.1
45.1
11.2
31.5
17.5
21.6
10.6
20.5
60.4
7.6
19.4
16.6
26.8
17.0
12.1
74.5
12.9
22.4
18.0
30.0
23.2
28.3
Per cent
NATURALIZATION OF ALIENS
247
While, as indicated by the above figures, the percentage of average
annual emigration to immigration was 30.0 in 1911-1914 and only
23.2 in 1922-1924, it rose in 1925, 1926 to 28.3. The emigration,
however, of the unskilled was equivalent to 45.1 per cent of the aver
age annual number of immigrant aliens admitted in 1911-1914, 60.4
per cent of the number of immigrant aliens admitted in 1922-1924
and 74.5 per cent in 1925, 1926. In these two later periods as com
pared with 1911-1914, appreciably smaller percentages of aliens in
business professions and skilled trades emigrated from this country
as based on the numbers in similar occupational groups coming in.
The emigration of farmers as contrasted with their immigration
shows a substantial reduction for the 1922-1924 and 1925,1926 periods,
the percentages for such periods being only 20.5 and 12.1 as compared
to 73.1 per cent in the pre-war period (1911-1914).
It is beyond the scope of the present analysis to attempt to trace
the influences of the individual provisions and regulations of the two
quota acts upon these various occupational trends or to evaluate the
complex factors of any other direct, contributory, or potential causes
of such trends.
Naturalization of Aliens, 1907 to 1928
T
HE ANNUAL report of the Commissioner of Naturalization
for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1928, gives the following data
regarding the naturalization of aliens in the United States:
T able 1 — D E C L A R A T I O N S A N D P E T I T IO N S F I L E D A N D C E R T I F I C A T E S O F C I T I Z E N
S H IP IS S U E D F O R F I S C A L Y E A R S 1907 T O 1928 I N C L U S I V E
Petitions
Year
Certificates
Declara
tions
Civilian
1907.................
1908..............
190 9
191 0
191 1
191 2
1913— ...........
1914................
1915..............
1916................
.
1917 .
1918._ _
1919. .
.
1920..............
1921_________
1 9 2 2 .. .
1923................
1924..............
1925................
1926..............
192 7
192 8
73,658
127,571
145,745
169,348
189,249
171,133
182,095
214,104
247,958
209,204
440,651
342,283
391,156
299,076
303,904
273,511
296,636
424,540
277,218
277,539
258,295
254,588
21,113
44,032
43,141
55,750
74,740
95,661
95,380
124,475
106,399
108,767
130,865
105,514
128,523
166,760
177,898
153,170
158,059
166,947
162,258
172,107
235,298
235,328
Total-
5,579,462
2,762,185
M ilitary
Total
Civilian
125
5,041
4,993
21,113
44,032
43,141
55,750
74,740
95,661
95,380
124,475
106,399
108,767
130,865
169,507
256,858
218,732
195,534
162,638
165,168
177,117
162,258
172,232
240,339
240,321
7,941
25,975
38,374
39,448
56,683
70,310
83,561
104,145
91,848
87,831
88,104
87,456
89,023
125,711
163,656
160,979
137,975
140,340
152,457
146,239
195,493
228,006
298,842
3,061,027
2,321,555
63,993
128,335
51,972
17,636
9,468
7,109
10,170
M ilitary
Total
92
4,311
5,149
7,941
25,975
38,374
39.448
56,683
70,310
83,561
104,145
91,848
87,831
88,104
151.449
217; 358
177,683
181,292
170,447
145,084
150,510
152,457
146,331
199,804
233,155
298,235
2,619,790
63,993
128,335
51,972
17,636
9,468
7,109
10,170>
IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION
248
T able 2.—A L IE N S (C IV IL IA N A N D M IL IT A R Y ) A D M IT T E D TO C IT IZ E N SH IP
DURING
T H E FISCAL Y E A R 1928, A R R A N G E D B Y N A T IO N A L IT IE S (E X C L U SIV E OF ALASKA,
'HAW AII, PORTO RICO, A N D V IR G IN ISL A N D S)
Country
Italy_____________________ _________________
Poland
British Empire:
Ireland_____ ______ ________
13,183
England____ ______ ________
9,127
7,712
Canada____________________
Scotland________ ________
4,486
W ales______________________
404
Australia__________________
163
Others_____
_ __.............
2,975
Total British Emnire
Russia____________________ ________ ____
Germany______________________ __________
Czechoslovakia................................. ................
Greece._______ ____________________ •_...........
Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes......................
Hungary............................ ..................... ...........
Sweden
Turkey....... ......... ...............................................
Rumania_________________________________
Number
53,206
35,293
38,053
17,931
9,380
10,553
9,005
6,669
5,979
4,584
5,022
6,386
Country
Number
Austria___________________________________
Norway............ ..................... ............. ................
Holland............ ...................................................
Finland.............................................................. .
Switzerland______________ _______ ________
France__________ _____ ____________________
Belgium________________________
_____
Spain............... ................... ............ ............... ..
Portugal________________________ _______
Central and South America____
Bulgaria
Luxemburg..... ............. ...................... .............
Mexico______________ ______ _______________
Denmark______ ___________________________
Lithuania____________ ____________________
Syria and Leban o n ., ___________________
Repatriated Americans__________________
Miscellaneous. .................... ............... .............
4,237
2,498
2,011
1,506
1,987
1,294
1,356
784
994
386
350
132
120
1,856
3,767
1,334
3,747
2,266
T otal..................................... ...................
232,686
INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS
249
Present Status of Accident Statistics
HE United States Bureau of Labor Statistics has issued four
bulletins bringing together as far as possible the important records
of industrial accidents on a national scale.1 A fifth bulletin, covering
the period up to the end of 1927, is now in press.
For convenience of reference the following account of the present
status of accident statistics, including a description of the method
of computing frequency and severity rates, is reproduced from the
former handbook (Bui. No. 439).
In the introduction to the second bulletin on accidents, issued by
the Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1915, it was noted: “ At the present
time there are no entirely complete and trustworthy industrial acci
dent statistics for even a single important industry in the United
States. The most reliable data are those for the iron and steel
industry, mining, and railways.” As time has gone on the three
Federal agencies concerning themselves with accident statistics,
namely, the Interstate Commerce Commission, the Bureau of Mines,
and the Bureau of Labor Statistics, have so improved their methods
of collecting and handling accident data that what they offer may
fairly claim to be “ trustworthy,” though in the nature of the case
it would be beyond reasonable expectation that they should be
“ entirely complete.”
As compensation legislation spread rapidly over the several States
there rose necessarily a new and insistent demand for accident
statistics which would shed light on the various problems of com
pensation administration. In response to this demand there has
been immense accumulation of the raw material of statistics. It
would appear to be a rather simple matter to combine the records
of the several States and so produce a national compilation of much
interest and utility. Unfortunately the States have adopted pro
cedures sufficiently different to make it difficult and in many cases
impossible to combine these records in a general exhibit. The
primary reason for this is that the State agencies have found them
selves so involved in the multiplied problems of compensation that
they have been quite unable to give adequate attention to the really
more important problems of accident prevention. Ultimately it will
be necessary for all States to do what some have already done,
namely, to grapple with the matter of accident prevention.
In addition to the above-mentioned public agencies, a number of
private agencies have also concerned themselves with the work of
accident prevention and accident reporting. Among these the
National Safety Council occupies an outstanding place, having been
active in fostering all kinds of safety work over a period of years
and assembling and publishing accident records of very great value.
T
Importance of Accident Rates
T h e p u r p o s e of accident statistics is the very practical one of find
ing out where and why accidents occur, and whether they are increas
ing or decreasing. To do this, the statistics must show clearly
not only the number but also the rate of accidents. Present-day prac
tice is to show two kinds of rates—frequency rates and severity
* U . S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Buis. Nos. 78, 157, 339, and 425.
251
252
INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS
rates. The steps by which such rates are determined, as well as
certain other factors which it is essential to know about accidents in
order to make accident statistics of practical value, are briefly
described below:2
(1) Exposure to hazard.—A very large part of the statistical effort
regarding accidents has been devoted to the mere sorting and record
ing of cases. That this gives little information which can be utilized
for the purpose now under consideration may be established by a
few illustrations. When the accidents for a 6-year period in Penn
sylvania are grouped by industries it appears that coal mining has
300,524 accidents while metals and metal products have 343,163.
A hasty inference from this result would be that the production of
metals and metal products is more dangerous than coal mining. A
little reflection will show the inaccuracy of that conclusion. While
metals and metal products have more accident cases it may be that
there are many more people employed therein than in coal mining.
In other words, exposure to hazard in metals and metal products
may be much greater both because more people are employed and
because they work longer hours. Clearly, to understand the rela
tion of these two groups something more is necessary than merely
to know the number of accidents occurring in each.
This raises the question of an appropriate method of expressing
this element of exposure to hazard. The Germans were the first to
attack the problem. Their solution was to note the number of days
during which each workman was employed. The sum of the days
worked by all the workmen was then divided by 300 on the suppo
sition that the usual working year was one of 300 days of 10 hours
each. The quotient thus derived gave the number of 300-day or
full-year workers. The number of accidents was then divided by
this base and the quotient multiplied by 1,000 to avoid small decimals.
The use of this theoretical 300-day worker as a base for calculating
accident rates was adopted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics when
it began its accident studies.
There were, however, troublesome difficulties in the use of this
base and the International Association of Industrial Accident Boards
and Commissions finally determined, at the instance of its committee
on statistics and accident insurance cost, to cut loose from the idea
of the number of workers and use instead the hours of employment.
It was agreed that accident frequency rates should be expressed as
number of cases per 1,000,000 hours of exposure while accident
severity rates should be expressed as number of days lost per 1,000
hours of exposure. The method of determining severity rates and
days lost is discussed in a succeeding paragraph.
The importance of exposure as an element in the study of industrial
accidents has become more and more recognized with the passage of
time. The Bureau of Labor Statistics was the first to utilize it on
an extended scale. For some years now the Bureau of Mines and
the Interstate Commerce Commission have presented their facts on
this basis and many sections of the National Safety Council develop
their accident data in this way.
(2) Number oj accidents.—Having secured information regarding
exposure to hazard the next step is to secure a record of the number
2 For full account of standard method of computing frequency and severity rates, see U . S. Bureau of
Labor Statistics Bui. N o. 276, p. 68.
PRESENT STATUS OF STATISTICS
253
of cases of injury. A serious difficulty presents itself at once in the
fact that the definition of an accident varies in the different States.
The most widely used definition is that of a “ tabulatable accident.”
This definition is “ an accident causing death, permanent disability,
or temporary disability beyond the day or turn in which the accident
occurred.” The differences between the State definitions arise in
respect to temporary disabilities. Some States exclude cases of one
day’s duration, others of two days’ duration, still others of seven
days’ duration. This lack of uniformity impairs the value of the
record as an index of the changes taking place. It is not greatly
important what definition is used, but until a uniform definition is
established it will remain impossible to compile satisfactory national
statistics from the State records.
(3) Severity of accident.—When items 1 and 2 (exposure and
number of accidents) are known, it is possible to compute accurate
frequency rates; i. e., the number of accidents per 1,000,000 hours of
exposure. It is evident, however, that in frequency rates a death
influences the accident rate to the same extent as does temporary
disability for one day, and thus a true and complete picture of con
ditions is not presented.
The first effort to meet this difficulty was the separation of the
accidents into three groups, according to their results, namely,
death, permanent disability, and temporary disability. This did
make possible a separate comparison of fatalities in different indus
tries but still did not afford comparability of the permanent and the
temporary disabilities with each other and with the fatalities. What
was needed was to translate the different casualties into common
terms. This was accomplished by means of a schedule of fixed time
allowances 3 for death and for permanent disabilities, beginning with
6,000 days for death, the loss of an arm being given 4,000 days, the
loss of an eye 1,800 days, and so on through the list. The application
of these constants gives for each sort of casualty a value in terms of
days somewhat proportional to its economic importance. The tem
porary disabilities are evaluated bv the actual days of recorded
disability.
The value of the severity rate is evident. In considering frequency
rates alone it is hardly possible to avoid the impression that the
numerically larger figure of temporary disability is important in
proportion to its size. As a corrective to this impression we need
the severity rates in which all injuries, including death, are weighted
according to their severity. The frequency rate fails to tell the whole
story, because in it units are combined which are not comparable.
The severity rate corrects this condition through the use of a pro
cedure which reduces these units to approximately common terms.
(4) Classification by industries.—In order to have information use
ful for accident prevention the classification of the injuries must
extend to industries and if possible to departments and occupations.
Departmental and occupational rates, however, present a difficulty
in that such detailed analysis is hkely to render the numbers in the
groups so small that they lose statistical significance.
(5) Causes of accident.—An industrial classification indicates
where remedial effort is called for but does not suggest what needs to
3 See U . S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bui. N o. 276, p. 77,
INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS
254
be done. This information must come, so far as statistical treatment
can give it, from a study of accident causes. Here, as in the case of
occupations, there is constant danger of subdividing the material
until the portions are too small to have any meaning. This, however,
is a risk well worth taking, since here, if anywhere, the statistician
can be of real service to the cause of safety.
In addition to the five items listed above as essential, a certain
value attaches to information regarding nature of injury and location
of injury, though these items are of much less practical importance
than are accident causes.
Accident Record by Industry
Building Construction
ABLE 1 presents several interesting phases of hazard in build
ing construction. The rates for Group A illustrate the effect
of accident-prevention effort directed primarily toward, severe acci
dents. In this group there was marked improvement in the sever
ity rates while frequency rates were practically at a standstill. The
rates for Group B show what can be accomplished by intensive effort
applied to the reduction of both frequency and severity of accidents.
Data for Groups Cl and C2 illustrate the fluctuating and very high
rates which thus far have appeared in every record of experience in
fabrication and erection.
The figures for Group D represent the experience of building con
struction firms belonging to the construction section of the National
Safety Council. While accident frequency declined from 1926 to
1927, accident severity increased.
T
T able
1 .— N U M B E R O F F U L L -Y E A R W O R K E R S , N U M B E R O F A C C I D E N T S , A N D
A C C I D E N T R A T E S I N B U I L D I N G C O N S T R U C T I O N , 1919 T O 1927, B Y Y E A R S
Year
Group A (general contractors):
1919....................................................................
1920...................................................................
1921..................... - .............................................
1922 i...................................................................
1923 2..................................................................
1924 3...................................................................
Group B (general contractors):4
1919-...................................................................
1920.....................................................................
Group C l (fabricators and erectors):
1922 1....... ...........................................................
1923 2..................................................................
Group C2 (fabricators and erectors):5
1923— ................................................................
1924.....................................................................
1925...................... .............................................
Group D : 6
1926....................................................................
1927....................................................................
Hours of
exposure
(thou
sands)
Full-year
workers
Num ber
of acci
dents
Fre
quency
rates (per
1,000,000
hours’ ex
posure)
Severity
rates
(per 1,000
hours’ ex
posure)'
4,140
7,635
3,695
17,527
22,633
19,009
1,380
2,545
1,232
5,842
7,544
6,337
216
300
184
1,268
1,226
1,118
52.2
39.3
49.8
72.4
54.2
58.8
6.1
10.1
3.4
5.8
4.8
4.6
14,788
11,362
4,929
3,787
247
177
16.7
15.6
3.1
1.2
3,949
533
1,316
178
564
122
142.8
228.9
5.4
65.6
2,043
2,546
2,592
681
849
864
213
251
196
104.0
97.0
76.0
8.3
22.6
10.0
43,710
38,973
14,570
12,991
3,079
2,652
70.45
68.05
5.54
8.92
1 National Safety News, July, 1923, p. 48.
2 Idem, July, 1924, p. 42.
» Idem, July, 1925, p. 40.
* Idem, August, 1921, p. 23.
* Idem , M a y , 1926, p. 10.
1 National Safety Council. Industrial Experiencejof Members of National Safety Council, 1927, Chicago,
1928, p. 9. Reproduced through courtesy of National Safety Council.
ACCIDENT RECORD B Y INDUSTRY
255
Chemical Industry
T h e e x p e r i e n c e from 1908 to 1920 of a large company engaged in
the manufacture of explosives, dyes, and chemicals is presented in
the first part of Table 2. The second part of the table covers the
experience from 1923 to 1927 of companies which are members of the
chemical section of the National Safety Council. The figures show
a very decided declining tendency both in frequency and severity.
T able 2 .— N U M B E R O P F U L L -Y E A R W O R K E R S , N U M B E R O F A C C I D E N T S , A N D A C C I
D E N T R A T E S I N T H E M A N U F A C T U R E O F C H E M IC A L S , 1908 T O 1927, B Y Y E A R S i
Frequency rates (per 1,000,000 hours’
exposure)
Year
1908 .......................................................................
1909.........................................................................
1910.........................................................................
1911. ............ .........................................................
1912....... ................. - ..................................... .......
1913..... ................................................... ..............
1914......... ........... ...................................................
1915......... ..................................................... .........
............... \
1916
1917_______ ........... ...............................................
1918......... ............. ......... .......................................
1919....... ..................... ...........................................
1920_......................................................................
Year
Hours Of
exposure
9,963,000
12.129.000
14.070.000
14.184.000
13.719.000
12.873.000
12.399.000
160.398.000
112.581.000
119.202.000
195.405.000
51.624.000
48.396.000
Hours of
exposure
Full-year
workers
Fatal
accidents
Nonfatal
accidents
3,321
4,043
4,690
4,728
4,573
4,291
4> 133
53,466
37,527
39,734
65,135
17,208
16,132
3.50
2.06
2.20
1.20
.80
1.71
.57
.59
1.07
.43
.46
.41
.50
25.87
36.05
35.33
25.69
18.22
16.30
Full-year
workers
Number
of
accidents
Frequency
rates (per
1,000,000
hours’
exposure)
Total
26.46
37.12
35.76
26.15
18.63
16.80
Severity
rates
(per 1,000
hours’
exposure)
1910......................... ...............................................
1920....... ............. ..................................................
14.070.000
48.396.000
4,690
16,132
430
813
30.57
16.80
14.43
3.67
1923 2___.................. .............................................
1924 2......................................................................
1925*......................................................................
19262.................................................. ...................
1927 2_______ _____________________ ________ ______
18.044.000
48.450.000
124.148.000
196.332.000
254.045.000
6,015
16,150
41,383
65,444
84,681
443
1,266
2,597
3,584
4,364
24.55
26.13
20.91
18.26
17.18
4.78
3.07
2.71
2.28
1.90
i National Safety News, Feb. 21, 1921, p. 4.
3 National Safety Council. Industrial Experience of Members of National Safety Council, 1927.
cago, 1928, p. 6. Reproduced through the courtesy of the National Safety Council.
Chi
Coal Mines
T h e d a t a presented here for accidents in coal mines are derived
from the publications of the United States Bureau of Mines. The
rates in the tables are given in terms of 1,000,000 hours' exposure.
This is an approximation, since it was impossible from the data avail
able to determine exactly the number of hours worked. The relations
of these rates among themselves are correct, but they are not per
fectly comparable with similar rates found in other portions of this
handbook.
It will be noticed that in Table 3 there are two methods of pre
senting the facts; namely, the rate per 1,000,000 hours’ exposure
and the rate per 1,000,000 tons mined. It is desirable to consider
both of these rates. That based on hours of exposure gives a meas
ure of the hazard of fatal injury encountered by the men. The rate
INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS
256
by quantity mined measures the cost of coal in terms of fatal acci
dents. It may be regarded as a satisfactory condition when both
of these rates are declining with reasonable rapidity.
From 1907 to 1927 fatalities per 1,000,000 hours' exposure declined
28.8 per cent, while fatalities per 1,000,000 tons mined declined 45
per cent. This more rapid decline of cost as compared with hazard
is largely due to the introduction of machinery and improved methods.
While a more rapid decline might fairly be expected, it is gratifying
that the movement is in the right direction.
T a b l e 3 .— M E N E M P L O Y E D , A V E R A G E P R O D U C T I O N P E R M A N , M E N K I L L E D , A N D
F A T A L I T Y R A T E S I N C O A L M I N E S , 1907 T O 1927, B Y Y E A R S
M en employed
tYear
1907......................... ..
190 8
______
190 9
_____
1910........... ...............
1911............. ..............
1912........... ...............
1913......... ..................
1914_________ _____
1915_________ _____
1916_________ _____
1 9 1 7 .. .. ...................
1918....................... .
1919____________ ._
1920......... ..................
1 9 2 1 ........................
1922_________ _____
1923_______________
1924_________ _____
1925_________ _____
1926...........................
1 9 2 7 . . . . . . . .............
Tons mined
(short tons)
477,892,536
409,309,857
460,807,263
501,596,378
496,371,126
534,466,580
570,048,125
513,525,477
531,619,487
590,098,175
651,402,374
678,211,904
553,952,259
658,264,932
506,395,401
476,951,121
657,903,671
571,613,400
581,869,890
657,804,437
597,858,916
Average
production
per man
(tons)
Actual Full-year
number workers
Per
year
Per
day
519,452
441,267
708
603
691
692
682
740
762
673
724
818
860
890
713
839
615
565
764
733
777
867
788
3.07
3.09
674,613
678,873
666,535
725,030
728,348
722,662
747,644
763,185
734,008
720,971
757,317
762,426
776,569
784,621
823,253
848,932
860,560
779,613
748,805
759,033
759,177
531,689
534,122
541,997
593,131
526,598
511,598
565,766
634,666
654,973
542,217
601,283
474,529
405,056
560,000
499,894
480,227
559,426
503,065
3.14
3.10
3.29
3.20
3.25
3.46
3.48
3.42
3.45
3.41
3.65
3.56
3.92
3.91
3.81
4.04
3.92
3.96
M en
killed
3,242
2,445
2,642
2,821
2,656
2,419
2,785
2,454
2,269
2,226
2,696
2,580
2,317
2,271
1,987
1,979
2,458
2,381
2,230
2,518
2,231
Fatality
rate per
1,000,000
hours’
exposure
Produc
tion per
death
(short
tons)
2.08
1.85
147,407
167,407
174,416
177,808
186,887
220,945
204,685
209,261
234,297
265,094
241,618
262,873
239,082
289,857
254,854
233,576
267,492
240,072
260,461
261,241
267,978
1.77
1.66
1.49
1.57
1.55
1.48
1.31
1.42
1.31
1.42
1.26
1.40
1.63
1.46
1.59
1.55
1.50
1.48
Fatali
ties per
1,000,000
tons
mined
6.78
5.97
5.73
5.62
5.35
4.53
4.89
4.78
4.27
3.77
4.14
3.80
4.18
3.45
3.92
4.15
3.74
4.17
3.84
3.83
3.73
Table 4 summarizes the facts regarding the place of occurrence
and the cause of fatal accidents in coal mines from 1916 to 1927. The
underground occupations have much the larger share of fatalities,
and fully half of the underground fatalities result from falls of material
from roof or face. Attention has perhaps been too much directed to
those startling “ major casualties” in which by explosion of gas or
dust many hundreds of lives may be suddenly brought to a close.
Inspection of the rates in Table 4 will show that such explosions stand
third in order of importance, except in 1924 when they were in second
place.
It would be advantageous if the underground and surface exposure
could be separated. The underground rates would doubtless be
higher and surface rates lower than those of the table, which are based
upon the entire exposure, it not being possible from the data at hand
to make this separation.
ACCIDENT RECORD BY INDUSTRY
257
T able 4 . — F A T A L I T I E S I N C O A L M I N E S , 1916 T O 1927, B Y Y E A R S , P L A C E O F
O C C U R R E N C E , A N D CAUSES
Place and cause
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
Num ber of fatalities
Underground:
Falls of roof of of face—
Cars and locom otives..
Explosions, gas or dust.
Explosives....................... .
Electricity............. .......
Miscellaneous—..............
962 1,218 1,294 1,100 1,132 1,024
390
482
506
381
408
341
170
362
129
191
164
116
146
111
135
206
128
152
90
88
80
69
79
76
112
269
127
118
129
130
905 1,162 1,062 1,078 1,214
341
415
350
433
360
311
372
536
345
422
92
114
100
102
96
74
75
81
84
96
77
117
100
100
104
1,149
355
247
no
100
119
Total underground— 2,027 2,379 2,281 2,077 2,020 1,831 1,800 2,255 2,229 2,069 2,365
2,080
Shaft...........................................
49
52
52
53
56
36
41
46
29
34
35
29
Surface:
Haulage...... ..................... .
Machinery........................
Miscellaneous..................
75
26
49
114
51
100
118
47
82
93
28
66
78
29
88
45
17
58
54
23
61
59
26
72
70
8
60
40
9
78
50
9
59
46
10
66
Total surface................
150
265
247
187
195
120
138
157
138
127
118
122
Grand total— .............. 2,226 2,696 2,580 2,317 2,271 1,987 1,979 2,458 2,396 2,230 2,518
2,231
Fatality rates (per 1,000,000 hours’ exposure)
Underground:
Falls of roof or of face__
Cars and locom otives..
Explosions, gas or dust.
Explosives. ......................
Electricity........................
Miscellaneous..................
0.57
.23
.10
.09
.05
.16
0.64
.25
.19
.06
.04
.07
0.66
.26
.07
.07
.04
.06
0.68
.23
.12
.13
.04
.08
0.63
.23
.09
.07
.04
.06
0.72
.24
.08
.11
.06
.08
0.74
.28
.26
.08
.06
.06
0.69
.25
.22
.07
.04
.07
0.70
.23
.36
.07
.05
.07
0.75
.25
.24
.07
.06
.07
0.72
.26
.25
.06
.06
.06
0.76
.24
.16
.07
.07
.08
Total underground—
1.19
1.25
1.16
1.28
1.12
1.29
1.48
1.34
1.48
1.44
1.41
1.38
Shaft...........................................
.03
.03
.03
.03
.03
.03
.03
.03
.02
.02
.02
.02
Surface:
Haulage.............................
Machinery.......................
Miscellaneous..................
.05
.02
.03
.06
.03
.05
.06
.02
.04
.06
.02
.04
.04
.02
.05
.03
.01
.04
.05
.02
.05
.04
.01
.04
.05
.01
.03
.03
.01
.05
.03
.01
.03
.03
.01
.04
Total surface................
.09
.14
.12
.11
.11
.08
.12
.09
.09
.09
.07
.0 8
Grand total..................
1.31
1.42
1.31
1.42
1.26
1.40
1.63
1.46
1.59
1.55
1.50
1.48
Coke Ovens
A c c i d e n t r a t e s for coke ovens, compiled from data published by
the United States Bureau of Mines, are shown in Table 5. A strik
ing feature is the very great falling off in the number employed in the
beehive ovens, the number employed in 1927 amounting to only 21
per cent of the number of employees in 1916. This represents the
discarding of a wasteful and inefficient process. The larger use of
machinery in by-product ovens has not resulted, as might be antici
pated, in higher accident rates, but in material decreases in both
fatality and injury rates. The fatality rate for coke ovens as a group
has declined from an average of 0.60 for the 5-year period 1916 to
1920 to 0.47 for the 5-year period ending with 1925 and to 0.36 for
the year 1927.
INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS
258
T able 5 .— N U M B E R O F M E N E M P L O Y E D A N D A C C I D E N T S A N D A C C I D E N T R A T E S
I N B E E H I V E A N D B Y -P R O D U C T C O K E O V E N S , 1916 T O 1927, B Y Y E A R S
M en employed
Men
M en
killed
Year
Frequency r a t e s
(per 1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0
hours* exposure)
injured
Actual Full-year
number workers
M en
killed
M en
injured
Beehive ovens:
1916.....................................................................
1917.....................................................................
1918....................................................................
1919....................................................................
1920.....................................................................
18,570
18,820
16,442
13,333
10,955
18,591
19,295
16,436
10,829
10,094
24
25
19
10
11
1,866
1,822
2,155
1,364
1,035
0.43
.43
.39
.31
.36
33.46
31.48
43.70
41.99
34.18
Average, 5 years........................................
15,624
15,049
18
1,649
.40
33.53
1921.....................................................................
1922_..................................................................
1923...................................................................
1924....................................................................
1925....................................................................
6,011
7,871
8,515
6,450
7,246
2,835
4,823
7,144
4,025
5,140
5
8
12
3
4
336
474
, 875
457
498
.59
.55
.56
.25
.26
39.51
32.76
40.83
37.85
32.30
Average, 5 years........................................
7,219
4,793
7
528
.49
36.70
1926....................................................................
1927.....................................................................
6,605
3,976
4,847
3,071
6
2
645
287
.41
.22
44.36
31.15
By-product ovens:
1916...................................................................
1917....................................................................
1918....................................................................
1919....................................................................
1920....................................................................
13,033
13,597
15,947
15,408
17,184
15,528
16,300
19,040
16,845
19,827
21
51
54
43
38
3,371
4,891
5,637
2,667
2,380
.45
1.04
.95
.85
.64
72.36
100.02
98.69
52.78
40.01
Average, 5 years........................................
15,034
17,508
41
3,789
.78
72.14
1921....................................................................
1922....................................................................
1923-..................................................................
1924....................................................................
1925....................................................................
10,193
11,407
15,214
14,001
16,008
11,033
13,413
18,483
16,656
18,914
12
21
33
21
24
1,517
1,236
1,718
1,188
1,198
.36
.52
.60
.42
.42
45.83
30.72
30.98
23.78
21.11
Average, 5 years.................. .....................
13,365
15,700
22
1,371
.47
29.11
1926...................................................................
1927.....................................................................
16,510
16,691
19,441
20,152
45
23
1,277
998
.77
.38
21.90
16.51
All coke ovens:
1916....................................................................
1917...................................................................
1918.....................................................................
1919....................................................................
1920.....................................................................
31,603
32,417
32,389
28,741
28,139
34,119
35,595
35,476
27,674
29,921
45
76
73
53
49
5,237
6,713
7,792
4,031
3,415
.44
.71
.69
.64
.55
51.16
62.86
73.21
48.55
38.04
Average, 5 years........................................
30,658
32,557
59
5,438
.60
55.68
1921....................................................................
1922....................................................................
1923...................................................................
1924....................................................................
1925....................................................................
16,204
19,278
23,729
20,451
23,254
13,868
18,236
25,627
20,681
24,054
17
29
45
24
28
1,853
1,710
2,593
1,645
1,696
.41
.53
.59
.39
.39
44.54
31.26
33.73
26.51
23.50
Average, 5 years........ ...............................
20,583
20,493
29
1,899
.47
30.89
1926....................................................................
1927....................................................................
23,115
20,667
24,288
23,227
51
25
1,922
1,285
.70
.36
26.38
18.44
Iron and Steel Industry
A c c i d e n t s in the iron and steel industry in the year 1926 showed a
decrease as compared with 1925, according to the Bureau of Labor
Statistics’ annual study of such accidents. This decline has been
almost constant during the whole period that the bureau has been
compiling such statistics. There is a great difference, however,
between the experience of plants in which energetic and continuous
safety work has been carried on and plants in which safety work has
259
ACCIDENT RECORD B Y INDUSTRY
not been given such prominence. In the former group the reduction
in accident frequency since 1913 has been approximately 89 per cent,
while in the group in which safety work has not been so stressed the
reduction has been only about 15 per cent.
The Bureau of Labor Statistics now has records covering the ex
perience of the iron and steel industry from 1910 to the present.
To illustrate what has happened during this period and also to show
the results obtained by intensive accident-prevention effort, Tables
6 and 7 are presented.
Table 6 shows the accident experience of a group of plants in the
iron and steel industry which produce approximately 50 per cent of
the output, and which were not only among the first to undertake
accident prevention, but have continued a safety campaign with
great energy and persistence. Table 7 shows the accident experience
of all the plants covered by the study, including the plants of Table
6 as well as another group in which safety work has been less em
phasized.
The two tables are not identical in form but in a general way they
are comparable. Table 6 is on an annual basis, whSe Table 7 is for
periods of five years.
T able 6*—A C C I D E N T F R E Q U E N C Y R A T E S (P E R 1,000,000 H O U R S ’ E X P O S U R E ) F O R A
S E L E C T E D G R O U P O F I R O N A N D S T E E L P L A N T S , 1913 T O 1926, B Y P R O D U C T S A N D
B Y YEARS
Miscellaneous steel
Fabri
cated
products
Year
100.3
59.0
53.5
52.1
51.3
38.2
32.8
35.3
28.4
33.8
32.6
33.4
27.4
24.3
1913.
1914.
1915.
1916.
1917.
1918.
1919.
1920.
1921.
1922.
1923.
1924.
1925.
1926.
Wire and
products
61.6
47.2
37.3
34.0
33.9
25.9
25.8
22.7
17.5
16.9
17.2
10.3
11.4
9.4
59.3
46.2
52.4
48.2
32.5
18.8
12.5
12.0
7.5
7.9
7.9
6.2
4.2
Tubes
27.2
12.5
10.8
12.4
10.2
9.1
9.1
8.9
6.1
7.1
7.0
5.1
4.0
3.6
Total
Group A
Group B
70.9
50.7
51.9
67.6
51.3
42.0
39.7
35.3
15.8
14.5
13.9
41.3
27.6
23.0
28.2
20.5
31.4
23.0
11.8
9.8
6.6
1
&6
12.1
10.8
9.8
7.9
3.7
3.8
60.3
43.5
41.5
44.4
34.5
28.8
26.1
22.9
13.2
13.0
12.7
10.2
8.2
6.8
If the rates in the total column of Table 6 for the year 1913, be
compared with the rates for all departments in Table 7 for the 5-year
period ending with 1913 it will be noted that the frequency rates
are 60.3 for Table 6 and 62.1 for Table 7. That is to say, up to the
time indicated the results in the section represented by the selected
plants in Table 6 were but slightly more satisfactory than in the
industry at large, including those special plants. Computing the
rate for that half of the industry not included in Table 6 it is found to
be 63.9. This compared with 60.3, the rate for plants grouped in
Table 6, gives an idea of the progress made at that time by concerns
most actively engaged in accident prevention as compared with those
which had more recently, and in some cases not yet, undertaken an
effort for safety.
If the figures for the year 1925 and for the 5-year period ending with
1925 are compared it will be found that Table 6 shows a frequency of
39142°— 29-
-18
INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS
260
8.2 while a computation for the portion not included in Table 6
gives a frequency of 54.4. In other words, the portion of the industry
which has devoted most attention to accident prevention has made
an 86 per cent reduction while the portion of the industry not in
cluded in Table 6 has made a 15 per cent reduction.
The fact that one table is on an annual and the other on a 5-year
basis makes this comparison somewhat unfair to the plants shown
only on the 5-year basis. It is safe to say, however, that in the
companies which have undertaken the task of accident prevention
most seriously the results have been the most striking. The impor
tant thing is that a similar result is possible to any plant which is
willing to make a corresponding effort.
T abl e 7 .— A C C I D E N T
Period
B A T E S IN T H E IR O N A N D S T E E L IN D U S T R Y , B Y
M E N T S A N D B Y 5 -Y E A R P E R IO D S
All
depart
ments
Blast
furnaces
Open
Bessemer
hearth
convert
ers
furnaces
Foun
dries
Heavy
rolling
mills
DEPART
Plate
mills
Sheet
mills
Frequency rates (per 1,000,000 hours' exposure)
1907 to
1908 to
1909 to
1910 to
1911 to
1912 to
1913 to
1914 to
1915 to
1916 to
1917 to
1918 to
1919 to
1920 to
1921 to
1922 to
1911....................
1912....................
1913...................
1914_____ _____
1915___________
1916_____ _____
1917.................. .
1918_____ _____
1919_____ _____
1920........ ...........
1921_____ _____
1922..................
1923..................
1924____ _____ _
1925....................
1926....................
69.2
65.1
62.1
59.2
53.3
51.3
48.2
43.6
41.6
41.1
39.5
36.5
34.9
33.6
31.3
29.9
76.1
67.7
62.4
62.3
50.3
47.8
41.4
40.5
39.0
38.0
36.3
34.0
32.9
30.7
29.0
28.7
101.5
79.5
92.3
89.8
65.0
76.1
68.3
60.7
57.7
53.1
47.0
39.9
30.5
24.9
17.0
16.7
84.2
79.5
78.6
75.0
67.6
64.8
58.4
53.5
50.5
50.2
44.8
41.3
33.0
32.9
29.9
28.3
60.1
61.5
65.1
63.6
59.3
57.8
60.4
57.0
61.0
61.0
63.1
60.4
61.7
62.7
63.1
62.8
61.0
57.0
51.7
46.1
39.4
37.3
32.1
31.1
32.4
31.4
29.9
27.6
23.8
21.2
18.1
16.6
69.4
60.8
55.9
49.9
44.7
41.5
36.6
39.8
39.2
38.4
37.6
36.7
31.4
29.4
26.8
25.6
44.1
47.9
49.1
51.1
48.1
47.4
41.3
35.8
32.7
33.7
33.4
35.2
37.2
35.1
33.2
30.6
5.1
4.1
3.8
3.9
3.1
2.8
2.6
2.6
2.5
2.6
2.5
2.5
2.4
2.4
2.6
2.6
3.1
2 .8
3.0
2.6
2.2
2.3
2.1
1.8
1.5
1.8
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.1
1.9
1.8
Severity rates (per 1,000 hours' exposure)
1907 to
1908 to
1909 to
1910 to
1911 to
1912 to
1913 to
1914 to
1915 to
1916 to
1917 to
1918 to
1919 to
1920 to
1921 to
1922 to
1911....................
1912...................
1913....................
1914........ ...........
1915....................
1916___________
1 9 1 7 .................
1918— . .............
1919___________
1920....................
1921...................
1922...... .............
1923..................
1924....................
1925....................
1926........ ...........
5.0
4.3
4.4
4.1
3.6
3.7
3.7
3.5
3.6
3.5
3.4
3.1
3.0
2.8
2.7
2.8
10.6
8.8
8.3
7.0
6.2
5.8
5.6
5.4
5.8
5.7
5.7
5.5
5.0
4.5
4.6
4.7
7.6
7.4
6.7
6.4
5.3
6.1
7.1
7.3
6.9
6.3
5.4
4.2
3.2
2.6
3.2
4.0
7.5
6.6
6.8
6.6
5.8
5.5
5.1
5.8
6.5
6.3
5.8
5.3
4.2
4.2
4.0
4.6
2.7
3.1
3.5
3.6
3.3
3.1
3.3
3.2
3.4
3.2
3.2
2.7
2.7
2.8
3.1
3.2
4.4
4.2
4.0
3.6
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.4
3.9
3.5
3.3
2.9
2.4
2.3
2.6
2.6
Table 8 is derived from information regarding the group of iron
and steel plants included in Table 6 and gives accident frequency
rates (per 1,000,000 hours’ exposure), by causes, from 1913 to 1926.
There is not a single case in which the rate for 1926 is not lower
than that for 1913, and usually very much lower. The important
r61e still played by machinery in accident experience is indicated by
the first line of the table. In every such compilation the frequency
of accidents due to handling is in excess of that from any other
cause. The decreases from 1913 to 1926 for the main groups of the
ACCIDENT RECORD BY INDUSTRY
261
cause classification are as follows: Machinery, 79 per cent; vehicles,
87 per cent; hot substances, 90 per cent; falls of persons, 78 per
cent; handling, 89 per cent; unclassified, 97 per cent.
T able 8 .— A C C I D E N T F R E Q U E N C Y R A T E S (P E R 1,000,000 H O U R S ' E X P O S U R E ) I N A
P O R T I O N O F T H E IR O N A N D S T E E L I N D U S T R Y , 1913 T O 1926, B Y Y E A R S A N D C A U S E S
Accident cause
M ach in ery-...................................
Working machines_______
Caught in.......................
Breakage.........................
M oving material in___
Cranes, etc.............................
Overhead........................
Locomotive....................
Other hoisting appa
ratus. ...........................
Vehicles...........................................
Hot substances.............................
Electricity..............................
Ilot metal...............................
Hot water, etc......................
Falls of persons............................
From ladders........................
From scaffolds.....................
Into openings........................
Due to insecure footing.
Falling material, not other
wise specified............................
Handling........................................
Dropped in handling.........
Caught between...................
Trucks.....................................
Lifting......................................
Flying from tools.................
Sharp points and edges.. .
Tools........................................
Miscellaneous...............................
Asphyxiating gas.................
Flying, not striking e y e . .
Flying, striking eye______
H e a t . . . ...................................
Other. .....................................
1913
1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 to
1926
7.3
3.8
2.5
.1
1.2
3.5
2.8
.3
.4
2.3
5.4
.5
3.6
1.3
4.5
.3
.2
.2
3.8
&.0
2.7
1.8
.1
.8
2.3
1.9
.2
4.9
2.6
1.7
.1
.8
2.3
2.0
.2
5.4
2.6
1.7
.1
.8
2.8
2.5
.2
4.5
2.0
1.2
.1
.7
2.5
2.2
.2
4.0
1.8
1.1
.1
.6
2.2
1.9
.2
3.3
1.4
.9
.1
.4
1.9
1.6
.2
3.4 1.8 2.2
1.5 .8 1.1
.8
1.0 .6
.1
.1
.1
.4
.1
.3
1.9 1.0 1.2
1.5 .8 1.0
.2
.2
.1
.2
1.9
3.6
.4
2.1
1.1
4.1
.1
.2
.1
3.7
.1
1.6
3.7
.2
2.3
1.2
3.5
.1
.2
.1
3.1
.1
1.7
4.5
.4
3 .0
1.1
3.7
.1
.2
.3
3.1
.1
1.7
3.6
.3
2.5
.8
3.2
.1
.3
.2
2.6
.1
1.3
3.0
.3
2.1
.6
2.8
.2
.2
.1
2.3
.1
1.2
2.8
.2
2.0
.6
2.8
.1
.2
.1
2.3
.2
.1
2.5
.3
1.8
.4
2.5
.1
.2
.1
2.1
1.2
.4
.7
.7
.6
.4
.3
26.7 19.4 20.6 21.5 15.7 12.8 11.7
11. 2 7.3 7.6 8.4 6.1 5.5 5.0
3.4 2.6 2.6 3.1 2.1
1.7 1.7
1.9 1.0 1.4 1.4 1.2
.9
.7
2.5 2.3 2.5 2.5 2.0 1.4 1.4
.2
.2
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
3.8 3.4 3.8 3.1
2.2 1.5 1.3
3.7 2.6 2.6 2.9 2.0 1.7 1.4
12.9 8.8 6.5 7.0 5.4 4.6 4.1
.3
.2
.1
.1
.1
.1
.2
.8
.6
.6
.4
.5
.3
.5
2.9 2.1
1.7 1.9 1.6 1.6 1.3
.4
.9
.8
.1
.2
.4
.1
8.0 5.1 3.7 4.1 3.2 2.2 2.2
2.3 2.0 1.6 1.5
.7
1.0 .8
.7
.6 .5
.5
.7
) 0) 0) 0)
.2
.2 .2
.2
.9
1.3 1.2 .9
1.1 .9
.7
.7
.1
.1
.1
.1
3.4
1.6
1.1
.1
.5
1.8
1.5
.2
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
.3
.3
.5
.6
.5 .4
.5
1.2 1.1 1.2 .9 .6
.1
.1
.1
0)
0) .1
.4 .4
.6
.8
.7 .9
.2 .1 i .1
.3
.2
.2
1.7 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.1 1.0
.1
.1
.1
! .1
0) .1
.1
.1 .1
.1
1 - 1 .1
.1
0) (0 0)
1 .1
o
1.3 1.1 1.1 .9 .8
I1*4
.1
1.0
2.4
.2
1.6
.6
2.4
.1
.2
.1
2.0
0
.1
.1
.1
6.5 5.8 5.5
4.4 2.6 2.6 2.3
.7
.7
1.3 .7
.4
.4
.6 .5
.8
.5
1.1 .8
.1
.1
.1
.1
.6
1.5 1.1 .6
.8
1.4 .8 .7
3.1 1.3 1.9 1.8
.1
.5 0) .1
.1
.2
.3
.3
.4
.2
1.1 .5
.1
.1
.1
0)
1.5 .6 1.3 1.1
io .T
.1
.1
.1
.3
3.9 3.4 2.9 11.4
1.9 1.5 1.2 4.7
.5 .4
.3
1.4
.2 .2 .2
.8
.3
.3
.3
1.3
.1
)
)
.4 .4
.3
1.6
.6
.5 .5
1.5
1.6 1.1 .4 3.9
.1
0) 0) 0)
.2 .1
.1
.3
.1
.3 .2
1.1
.1
.2
0) 0)
.2
2.2
1.0 .8
0 0 (0
Grand total. _ ................... 60.3 43.5 41.5 44.4 34.5 28.8 26.3 22.0 13.3 13.0 12.8 10.2 8.2 6.8 24.8
1
i Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent.
The causes of accidents in the iron and steel industry for three
selected departments, by years, are shown in Table 9, on the basis of
both frequency rates and severity rates.
In both frequency and severity rates there are examples of remark
able declines over the period shown. The severity rates are rather
irregular, as should be expected, since the exposure is not large enough
to smooth out these irregularities.
T able 9 . — A C C I D E N T R A T E S I N S E L E C T E D D E P A R T M E N T S I N T H E I R O N A N D S T E E L
I N D U S T R Y , 1910 T O 1914 A N D 1920 T O 1924, B Y Y E A R S A N D A C C I D E N T C A U S E S
Blast furnaces
1911
Accident cause
1910
1912
Machinery......................................
Vehicles..............- ...........................
H ot substances..............................
Falls of persons.............................
Falling objects...............................
Handling.........................................
Unclassified....................................
21.6
19.7
113.2
78.7
143.0
108.3
138.0
38.3
2.3
132.7
33.7
55.3
94.3
65.0
23.0
6.0
89.3
53.0
66.7
74.3
103.0
Total.....................................
622.5
421.6
415.3
1913
1914
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
Accident frequency rates (per 10,000,000 hours’ exposure)
28.0
8.7
4.0
86.6 " 5 7 .4 "
26.0
43.0
62.3
31.7
56.3
43.0
40.3
65.7
303.5
249.5
17.6
13.7
50.0
23.1
21.9
61.2
41.7
7.2
8.7
30.2
17.9
14.3
41.4
26.5
10.1
8.1
32.6
12.7
16.6
27.9
27.9
12.2
9.1
34.5
14.7
15.6
37.1
20.9
15.2
6.8
30.2
15.8
18.7
35.3
20.5
229.2
146.2
135.9
144.1
142.5
INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS
262
T a b l e 9 .— A C C I D E N T R A T E S I N S E L E C T E D D E P A R T M E N T S I N T H E I R O N A N D S T E E L
I N D U S T R Y , 1910 T O 1914 A N D 1920 T O 1924, B Y Y E A R S A N D A C C I D E N T C A U S E S — Con.
Blast furnaces— Continued
Accident cause
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
Accident severity rates (per 10,000 hours* exposure)
1.3
5.3
0.6
Machinery.........
Vehicles..............
Hot substances.
Falls of persons
Falling objects.
Handling...........
Unclassified___
2.0
16.0
20.3
34.3
1.7
3.3
20.3
.7
1.3
16.7
Total____
68.2
56.6
1.0
2.0
1.10
14.0
0.3
3.31
4.6
18.08
13.38
.7
2.3
39.0
11.87
.31
1.08
1.56
3.00
.11
.7
.7
1.3
14.3
4.3
14.0
.3
2.3
14.0
7.11
4.55
9.41
2.80
.37
.83
2.81
7.60
7.14
4.76
3.79
.43
1.14
7.01
8.04
2.05
19.73
2.32
4.35
2.82
7.76
19.6
48.9
47.9
23.25
19.51
27.88
31.87
47.07
2.12
1.0
Open hearth furnaces
Accident frequency rates (per 10,000,000 hours* exposure)
86.0
Machinery_______ _____________
28.0
Vehicles________________________
H ot substances________________ 122.0
Falls of persons________________
0)
Falling objects_________________
(0
H andling-_____________________ 111.0
Unclassified____________________ 292.0
70.0
27.0
133.0
0)
(0
82.0
198.0
61.0
42.0
127.0
0)
(0
84.0
209.0
44.0
49.0
110.0
(0
0)
77.0
225.0
47.0
8.0
83.0
0)
0)
75.0
169.0
49.6
28.0
72.1
27.8
41.0
99.0
51.7
26.0
15.0
50.2
28.1
42.7
87.9
43.2
25.9
13.3
39.8
21.4
37.5
57.8
30.5
33.5
13.6
47.1
21.7
29.7
47.6
26.7
23.2
10.1
43.4
23.2
33.1
59.8
21.4
Total____________________
510.0
523.0
505.0
382.0
369.2
293.1
226.2
219.9
214.2
639.0
Accident severity rates (per 10,000 hours ’ exposure)
8
3.0
13.7
10.0
10.0
3.0
0)
0)
1.0
3.0
2.0
12.0
9.0
0)
0)
1.0
10.0
50.0
27.0
34.0
Machinery_____________________
Vehicles_______________________
H ot substances________________
Falls of persons________________
Falling objects_________________
Handling______________________
Unclassified____________________
19.3
11.0
3.0
T otal____________________
8
1.0
44.0
1.0
4.0
23.0
0)
(0
2.0
3.0
15.37
11.15
8.62
1.75
5.66
3.76
3.55
3.40
2.90
5.62
.50
.73
5.43
5.11
6.62
2.41
7.56
.38
2.59
1.30
.90
13.28
11.08
9.49
5.03
4.07
2.21
3.89
10.87
5.24
6.48
4.59
2.63
3.05
.26
81.0
33.0
49.86
23.69
21.76
49.05
33.12
1.0
17.0
18.0
Plate mills
Accident frequency rates (per 10,000,000 hours' exposure)
Machinery.........
Vehicles..............
H ot substances.
Falls of persons
Falling objects.
Handling...........
Unclassified___
164.0
18.0
53.0
0)
0)
0)
491.0
T o t a l ... .
726.0
0)
450.0
135.0
18.0
55.0
0)
(0
0)
552.0
93.0
17.0
55.0
0)
0)
(0
434.0
49.0
2.0
24.0
(*)
(9
0)
220.0
49.3
1.6
23.0
16.1
40.8
101.0
68.4
31.9
2.2
15.4
11.0
27.5
87.6
39.5
35.4
1.6
24.4
15.0
53.5
62.1
40.1
629.0
760.0
599.0
295.0
300.2
215.1
232.1
120.0
12.0
47.0
h
27.5
3.4
11.0 " ’
8.9
33.7
41.2
9.6
135.3
32.0
" i i 'o
17.6
38.4
34.4
28.8
163.2
Accident severity rates (per 10,000 hours* exposure)
Machinery.................................
Vehicles.....................................
H ot substances..............................
Falls of persons.......................
Falling objects.........................
Handling...................................
Unclassified..............................
T o ta l...............................
2.0
1.0 1.0
0)
0) 10.7
0j
1 1 .0
34.0
15.0
61.0
14.0
1.3
.01
.21
31.0
38.0
7.0
1.52
.02
1.66
.20
5.35
.16
8,08
3.77
.19
.54
.20
.56
2.36
.44
4.72
.64
3.58
.23
.42
5.57
2.49
3.76
6.82
3.77
.70
28.26
13.13
6.35
14.88
17.63
1.12
» N o t separately shown; included in “ Unclassified.”
18.83
.11
ACCIDENT RECORD BY INDUSTRY
263
Metal Mines
A c c i d e n t r a t e s for all metal mines from 1911 to 1927, as published
by the United States Bureau of Mines, are shown in Table 10. The
rate for injuries had a rising tendency up to 1925, but in 1925 and in
1926 the rate declined. The rising tendency was due in considerable
measure to better reporting rather than to increased hazard. Fatality
rates for underground workers declined from 1.83 in 1911 to 1.36 in
1927 (26 per cent). Since fatalities are always more completely
reported than are minor injuries, this change may fairly be taken as
an index of the shift in hazard during this period. Inspection of the
items of the table will convince that there has been a real downward
tendency in fatality frequency.
T a b l e 1 0 .— N U M B E R O F F U L L -Y E A R W O R K E R S A N D A C C I D E N T F R E Q U E N C Y R A T E S
F O R M E T A L M I N E S , 1911 T O 1927, B Y Y E A R S
Accident frequencv rates (per 1,000,000 hours’
exposure)
Full-vear workers
M en killed
Y ear
1911 .......................1912 _____________
1913.........................
1914...........................
1915...........................
1916.........................
1917................... ........
1 9 1 8 --......................
1919-........................
1920-.........................
1921.........................
1922...........................
1923.........................
1924-........................
1925..........................
1926-.........................
1927...........................
Under
ground
Surface
98,389
105,153
121,293
91,659
89,821
125,601
126,815
113,441
85,769
80,215
45,199
59,454
73,669
72,631
78,784
78,985
71,307
57,700
56,509
62,300
50,960
52,176
66,854
65,270
67,565
50,513
54,325
29,311
37,684
48,197
46,482
45,124
44,885
42,140
Total
156,089
161,662
183,593
142,619
141,997
192,455
192,085
181,006
136.282
134,540
74,510
97,138
121,866
119,113
123,908
123,870
113,447
Under
ground
Surface
1.83
1.65
1.51
1.70
1.67
1.52
1.91
1.51
1.51
1.39
1.34
1.67
1.31
1.62
1.32
1.48
1.36
0.88
.82
.72
.61
.65
.61
.64
.66
.53
.56
.55
.41
.54
.46
.94
.54
.49
M en injured
Total
1.48
1.36
1.24
1.31
1.30
1.21
1.48
1.19
1.14
1.05
1.03
1.18
1.00
1.17
1.00
1.16
1.03
Under
ground
Surface
72.43
78.81
70.15
87.27
106.62
102.04
96.61
96.87
96.39
103.66
104.28
116.24
120.85
122.27
121.65
102.86
95.59
30.03
34.65
39.84
40.68
41.95
48.80
48.67
49.08
44.25
46.73
50.76
47.30
47.40
46.43
46.85
45.00
37.23
Total
56.76
63.37
59.86
70.62
82.85
83.55
80.32
79.03
77.06
80,67
83.23
89.49
91.80
92.68
94.51
81.67
73.85
Metallurgical Works
T h e a c c i d e n t experience in metallurgical plants from 1913 to
1927, as compiled by the United States Bureau of Mines, is recorded
in Table 11. Neither fatal nor nonfatal accident rates show any
regular trend. In smelting plants the fatality rates declined from
0.64 to 0.27 during the period and injury rates declined from §8.24
to 28.56, a drop of 51 per cent.
INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS
264
T a b l e 1 1 .— A C C I D E N T S A N D A C C I D E N T R A T E S I N M E T A L L U R G I C A L P L A N T S , 1913
T O 1927, B Y Y E A R S
M en employed
M en
killed
Kind of plant and year
Actual
number
Ore-dressing plants:
1913
1914................................ .................. ..
191 5
_____
1916 i_______________________________
19171_______________________________
19181 ________ ________ _____________
1919 i____ ___________________________
19201____________________________ —
19211_______________________________
19221 ______________________________
1923 i_______________________________
1924 i_________________ _____________
1925 i_______________________________
19261— - _______ ____________________
19271 ____ _____ ____________________
Smelting p lan ts:2
1913________________________________
1914_________________________________
1915
1916 i_____ _________________________
1917 i_____ __________________________
1918 i_______________________________
1919 i_____ __________________________
1920 i_______________________________
19211_______________________________
19221_______________________________
1923 i________________________________
19241_____ _ .....__________ __________
1925 i_______________________________
19261-_____ __________ ______ _______
19271..___________ ____________ _____
Auxiliary works:
1913,1914,1915 3____ ___________
1916 — - ........................................ .........
191 7
1918_________________________________
1919
_ _
_______ ____ __ __
1920_____________________ _____ ______
1922I IIZ IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
1923
_- _ _
1924_________________________________
1925_________________________________
1926_________________________________
1927_________ ______ _________________
M en
injured
Full-year
workers
Frequency
rates
(per
1,000,000
hours’ exposure)
M en
killed
14,985
15,128
18,564
22,470
24, 111
21,809
17,262
16,827
10,047
11,676
14,899
15,735
16,945
16,685
15,328
16,154
15,225
19,107
23,470
24,372
22,517
16,862
16,813
8,037
11,052
14,782
16,093
17,082
17,385
15,643
16
23
30
33
47
35
25
21
4
12
24
20
17
13
17
20,564
27,879
31,327
43,829
44,376
39,899
28,777
26,099
14,621
19,495
22,439
24,941
25,144
24,399
22,696
24,309
32,336
36; 262
49,363
50,659
45,439
31,324
30,411
14,204
20,887
26,677
29,231
29,658
29,049
26,693
14,007
15,555
18,044
15,081
16,306
8,762
12,829
16,533
15,520
16,846
16,642
15,453
15,763
17,014
20,111
16,172
18,363
8,308
14,069
18,040
17,624
19,480
19,253
17,955
M en
injured
1,977
1,434
2,095
3,184
2,952
3,142
2,057
2,624
1,214
1,984
2,549
2,511
2,232
2,294
1,801
0.33
.50
.52
.47
.64
.52
.49
.42
.17
.36
.54
.41
.33
.25
.36
40.79
31.40
36.55
45.22
40.37
46.51
40.74
52.02
50.35
59.84
57.48
52.01
43.55
43.92
39.38
47
33
38
36
53
42
34
20
14
16
17
16
19
20
22
4,247
5,673
5,718
9,656
7,745
6,743
4,431
4,147
2,129
3,002
3,487
3,293
3,376
3,181
2,287
.64
.34
.35
.24
.35
.31
.36
.22
.33
.26
.21
.18
.21
.23
.27
58.24
58.48
52.56
65.20
50.96
49.47
47,15
45.46
49.96
47.90
43.57
37.55
37.94
36.50
28.56
14
16
17
5
20
9
17
17
19
8
15
15
2,240
2,881
2,808
1,638
2,092
1,151
1,692
2,388
2,422
2,103
1,804
1,653
.30
.31
.28
.10
,36
.36
.40
.31
.36
.14
.26
.28
47.37
56.44
46.54
33.76
37.97
46.18
40.09
44.12
45.81
35.99
31.23
30.69
•
1 N ot including auxiliary works, such as shops, yards, etc.
2 N ot including iron blast furnaces.
3 Included under ore dressing and smelting plants.
Paper and Pulp Mills
T h e , f i g u r e s in Table 12 show the experience of the firms that are
members of the paper and pulp section of the National Safety Council.
In the interval from 1920 to 1927 frequency declined from 46.34 to
27.42, or 41 per cent, and severity from 2.60 to 1.57, or 40 per cent.
ACCIDENT RECCED BY INDUSTRY"
265
T a bl e 1 3 .— N U M B E R O F F U L L -Y E A R W O R K E R S , N U M B E R OF A C C I D E N T S ,
A C C I D E N T R A T E S I N P A P E R A N D P U L P M I L L S , 1920 T O 1927, B Y Y E A R S
Hours of
exposure
(thousands)
Year
1920x— .................................................................. ..
19211........... ................. .................................. .........
19221........... ................ ......................................... .
1923 i______________________ ___________ ______
1924 i.........................................................................
1925 2________________________________________
1926 2________________________________ _______ _
19272_________________________ _____ _________
79,574
81,196
106,830
115,902
100,300
104,623
126,706
185,370
Full-year
workers
Number of
accidents
26,525
27,065
35,610
38,634
33,433
34,874
42,235
61,790
3,684
3,380
5,106
5,042
4,171
4,021
4,659
5,084
Frequency
rates (per
1,000,000
hours’
exposure)
46.34
41.68
47.77
43.50
41.58
38.43
36.77
27.42
AND
Severity
rates
(per 1,000
hours’
exposure)
2.60
2.83
2.36
2.73
2.07
2.15
1.95
1.57
1 National Safety News, June, 1925, p. 30.
2 National Safety Council. Industrial Experience of Members of National Safety Council, 1927. Chicago,
1928, p. 22. Reproduced through courtesy of National Safety Council.
Petroleum Industry
T he a c c i d e n t data given in Table 13 are taken from the experience
of the members of the petroleum section of the National Safety
Council. While in the period from 1921 to 1927 the accident fre
quency rates declined from 36.16 to 31.15, severity rates increased
from 1.86 to 2.65.
T able 1 3 .— N U M B E R O F
A C C ID E N T R A T E S IN
1927, B Y Y E A R S i
F U L L -Y E A R W O R K E R S , N U M B E R O F A C C I D E N T S , A N D
T H E P E T R O L E U M I N D U S T R Y , 1921 T O 1923 A N D 3925 TO
Hours of
exposure
(thousands)
Year
1921.............................................................................
1922.............................................................................
1923___ ____________________________________
1925_ ........................................................ .................
1926.............................................................................
1927_______________________________ __________
27,010
72,815
131,090
214,055
250,802
221,430
Full-year
workers
9,003
24,272
43,697
71,352
83,601
73,810
Num ber of
accidents
841
2,617
4,442
5,855
7,332
6,897
Frequency
rates (per
1,000,000
hours’
exposure)
36.16
35.94
34.14
27.35
29.23
31.15
Severity
rates
(per 1,000
hours’
exposure)
1.86
1.86
2.58
2.33
2.47
2.65
i National Safety Council. Industrial Experience of Members, 1927. Chicago, 1928. Reproduced through
the courtesy of the National Safety Council.
Portland Cement Industry
T he a c c i d e n t data for the Portland cement industry set forth in
Table 14 are taken from the annual statistical number of the Accident
Prevention Magazine (May-June, 1928) issued by the Portland
Cement Association. This organization was among the first to com
pile statistics on a satisfactory basis and its annual studies are
models of statistical presentation. According to the report, a pro
duction increase of more than 200 per cent in the nine years from 1919
to 1927 has been accompanied by a steady decrease in the accident
frequency rate (except in 1920), this decrease amounting to 67.8 per
cent, and there has also been a decrease in the accident severity
rate of 55 per cent.
266
INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS
T a b l e 1 4 .— N U M B E R O F F U L L -Y E A R W O R K E R S , N U M B E R O F A C C I D E N T S , A N D A C C I
D E N T R A T E S I N T H E M A N U F A C T U R E O F P O R T L A N D C E M E N T , 1919 T O 1927. B Y
YEARS
Year
1919....................................................
1920— ..............................................
1921....................................................
1922...................................................
1923....................................................
1924....................................................
1925_____________ _______________
1926-...................... ......... ......... .......
1927.....................................................
Hours of
exposure
(thousands)
48,743
59,586
62,247
63,527
76,641
87,767
97,415
97,381
93,871
Full-year
workers
Number
of accidents
16,248
19,862
20,749
21,176
25,547
29,256
32,472
32,460
31,290
Number
of deaths
2,119
2,615
2,646
2,592
3,197
3,058
2,548
2,172
1,340
Frequency
rates (per
1,000,000
hours’
exposure)
Severity
rates (per
1,000 hours’
exposure)
43.5
43.8
42.4
41.7
41.6
35.3
27.0
22.0
14.0
6 .7
7.3
6 .2
6.5
5.4
5.9
5.0
4.0
3.0
38
53
44
52
45
60
61
45
30
Quarries
T h e f a c t s regarding quarry accidents, as published by the United
States Bureau of Mines, are shown in Table 15. The fatality rate for
the first 5-year period is slightly higher than that for the second period,
and in the last period there has been a further pronounced drop.
The exposure during the interval has been singularly uniform. The
declining death rate, which reaches its lowest point in 1927, reflects
the improvement in equipment and in method.
T a b l e 1 5 .— N U M B E R O F M E N E M P L O Y E D , N U M B E R O F A C C I D E N T S , A N D A C C I D E N T
. F R E Q U E N C Y R A T E S F O R Q U A R R IE S I N T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S , 1911 T O 1927, B Y Y E A R S ,
“ A N D B Y 6 -Y E A R P E R IO D S
M en employed
M en
killed
Year
Actual
number
M en
injured
Full-year
workers
Frequency
rates
(per
1,000,000
hours’ exposure)
M en
killed
1915....................................................................
110,954
113,105
106,278
87,936
100,740
84,417
93,837
87,141
68,187
82,447
188
213
183
180
148
5,390
6,552
7,739
7,836
9,671
0.74
.76
.70
.88
.60
M en
injured
21.28
23.67
29.60
38.31
39.10
Average, 5 years--------------------------
103,803
83,206
182
7,437
.73
29.80
1916.................................- .................................
1917....................................................................
1918....................................................................
1 9 1 9 .......................... ................ .....................
1920............................................................ .
90,707
82,290
68,332
75.505
86,488
76,457
71,525
59,285
63,794
77,089
173
131
125
123
178
13,427
13,242
8,719
9,199
11,217
.75
.61
.70
.64
.77
58.54
61.71
49.02
48.07
48.50
Average, 5 years--------------- -----------
80,682
69,630
146
11,161
.70
53.43
Average, 10 years..............................
92,243
76,418
164
9,299
.72
40.56
1921...................................................................
1922....................................................................
1923...................................................................
1924_.............................................. ..................
1925....................................................................
77,185
79,081
92,455
94,242
91,872
59,958
68,861
85,153
84,246
83,487
120
132
143
138
149
10,465
11,839
14,990
14,777
14,165
.64
.56
.54
.59
58.18
57.31
58.68
58.34
56.56
Average, 5 years_________________
86,967
76,377
136
13,247
.59
57.81
1926...................................................................
1927...................................................................
91,146
91,517
82,361
82,609
154
135
13,201
13,459
.62
.54
53.43
54.31
ACCIDENT RECORD BY INDUSTRY
267
Railways, Electric
T h e a c c i d e n t experience of the electric railways, as published by
the Interstate Commerce Commission, is rather limited, and acci
dent rates on the basis of man-hours exposure are not available.
Table 16 presents the latest and most significant data reported,
taken from figures published by the American Electric Railway
Association. There were 105 companies which reported fully on the
items included in the inquiry.
It will be noted that in nearly every comparison possible to make,
the year 1924 was more satisfactory than 1923. This is particularly
true in cases of injury per 1,000,000 passengers carried, the figures
being 6.48 for 1923 and 5.53 for 1924.
T a b l e 1 6 .— A C C I D E N T E X P E R I E N C E O F 105 A M E R I C A N E L E C T R I C R A I L W A Y S I N
1923 A N D 1924
Item
1924
1923
Item
448,489,978
445,200,730
Car-miles operated ___
Passengers carried.......... 3,051,621,122 3,239,039,582
1923
1924
Accidents per 1,000,000
car-miles— Continued.
B y collision with cars.
9.65
8.08
T o employees...............
T o passengers...............
T o other persons.........
10.87
44.11
21.61
10.39
40.29
21.91
Number of accidents
to—
Employees.................
Passengers.................
Other persons...........
4,875
19,784
9,691
4,627
17,935
9,758
T o t a l- - ...................
34,350
32,320
Total...........................
76.59
72.59
Number of fatalities___
337
338
Accidents to passengers
per 1,000,000 passengers
carried.................................
6.48
5.53
Accidents per 1,000,000
car-miles:
B y collision with
motor vehicles___
195.87
194.35
Railways, Steam
A c c i d e n t d a t a for American railways which are available cover a
longer period and are more comprehensive than those of any other
industry. The data in the tables which follow are derived from the
accident bulletins of the Interstate Commerce Commission, which
contain very detailed information.
Table 17 presents summary figures showing the number killed and
injured during the period from 1888 to 1927. The greatly lessened
hazard is shown very conclusively by the figures for passenger
casualty. The peak of passenger fatality was in 1907 when 610 were
killed. The high year for passenger injuries was 1913 with 15,130
cases. From this point there has been an irregular decline until
1927 when 88 passengers were killed and 3,893 injured.
The data for employees show the peak of fatality (4,534) also in
1907, the peak of injury (176,923) being in 1916. By 1925 fatalities
had declined to 1,569 and injuries to 88,223.
INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS
268
T a b l e 1 7 .— N U M B E R O F P A S S E N G E R S , E M P L O Y E E S , A N D O T H E R P E R S O N S K IL L E D
OR IN J U R E D I N R E P O R T A B L E S T E A M R A I L W A Y A C C I D E N T S O F A L L K IN D S , 1888
T O 1927, B Y Y E A R S »
Passengers
Employees
Other persons
Total
Year ending—
Killed
June 30, 1888_________
June 30, 1889-------------June 30, 1890......... .......
June 30, 1891_________
June 30,1892-------------June 30, 1893_________
June 30,1894_________
June 30, 1895-------------June 3 0 ,1 8 % _________
June 30,1897_________
June 30,1898_________
June 30, 1899-------------June 30,1900-------------June 30,1901_________
June 30,1902.................
June 30,1903....... .........
June 30, 190 4 ...............
June 30, 1905_________
June 30, 1906_________
June 30, 1907_________
June 30,1908_________
June 30, 1909_________
June 3 0 ,1 9 1 0 .._...........
June 30, 1911.................
June 30,1912.................
June 30,1913....... ..........
June 30,1914_________
June 30,1915_________
June 30,1916.................
Dec. 31,1916_________
Dec. 31, 1917_________
Dec. 31,1918....... .........
Dec. 31,1919_________
Dec. 31,1920_________
Dec. 31,1921_________
Dec. 31,1922_________
Dec. 31, 1923.................
Dec. 3 1 ,1 9 2 4 ..............
Dec. 31, 1925_________
Dec. 31,1926_________
Dec. 31, 1927_________
315
310
286
293
276
299
324
170
181
222
221
239
249
282
345
355
441
537
359
610
381
253
324
299
283
350
232
199
239
246
301
471
273
229
205
200
138
149
171
152
88
Injured
2,138
2,146
2,425
2,972
3,227
3,229
3,034
2,375
2,873
2,795
2,945
3,442
4,128
4,988
6,683
8,231
9,111
10,457
10,764
13,041
11,556
10,311
12,451
12,042
14,938
15,130
13,887
10,914
7,488
7,152
7,582
7,316
7,456
7,591
5,584
6,153
5,847
5,354
4,952
4,461
3,893
Killed
2,070
1,972
2,451
2,660
2,554
2,727
1,823
1,811
1,861
1,693
1,958
2,210
2,550
2,675
2,969
3,606
3,632
3,361
3,929
4,534
3,405
2,610
3,382
3,602
3,635
3,715
3,259
2,152
2,687
2,941
3,199
3,419
2,138
2,578
1,446
1,657
2,026
1,543
1,599
1,672
1,569
Injured
20,148
20,028
22,396
26,140
28,267
31,729
23,422
25,696
29,969
27,667
31,761
34,923
39,643
41,142
50,524
60,481
67,067
66,833
76,701
87,644
82,487
75,006
95, 671
126,039
142,442
171,417
165,212
138,092
160,663
176,923
174,247
156,113
131,018
149,414
104,530
117,197
152,678
125,319
119,224
111,903
88,223
Killed
2,897
3,541
3,598
4,076
4,217
4,320
4,300
4,155
4,406
4, 522
4,680
4,674
5,066
5,498
5,274
5,879
5,973
5,805
6,330
6,695
6,402
5,859
5,976
6,495
6,667
6,899
6,811
6,270
6,438
6,814
6,587
5,396
4,567
4,151
4,345
4,468
5,221
4,925
4,996
5,266
5, 335
Injured
3,602
4,135
4,206
4,769
5,158
5,435
5,433
5,677
5,845
6,269
6,176
6,255
6,549
7,209
7,455
7,841
7,977
8,718
10,241
10,331
10.187
10,309
11,385
12,078
12,158
13,761
13,563
13,034
12,224
12,647
12,976
11,246
10,579
11,304
10,571
11,521
13,187
13,066
13,259
13,871
12,701
Killed
5,282
6,823
6,335
7,029
7,147
7,346
6,447
6,136
6,448
6,437
6,859
7,123
7,865
8,455
8,588
9,840
10,046
9,703
10,618
11,839
10,188
8,722
9,682
10,396
10,585
10,964
10,302
8,621
9,364
10,001
10,087
9,286
6,978
6,958
5,996
6,325
7,385
6,617
6,766
7,090
6,992
Injured
25,888
26,309
29,027
33,881
36,652
40,393
31,889
33,748
38,687
36,731
40,882
44,620
50,320
53,339
64,662
76,553
81,155
86,008
97,706
111,016
104,230
95,626
119,507
150,159
169,538
200,308
192,662
162,040
180,375
196,722
194,805
174,575
149,053
168,309
120,685
134,871
171,712
143,739
137,435
130,235
104,817
1 Figures for years 1911 to 1915 include industrial and other nontrain accidents to employees only; and
for years 1908 to 1910 do not cover switching and terminal roads; otherwise, thetstatement covers all reportable accidents.
Table 18 (as is Table 17) is drawn from Accident Bulletin No. 96 of
the Interstate Commerce Commission (p. 106) and relates solely to
trainmen on Class I roads (i. e., roads whose annual operating reve
nues are above $1,000,000). The figures in the table have been re
arranged to permit comparisons which are somewhat difficult to
make in the original form. The rates have also been recalculated
on the basis of 1,000,000 hours’ exposure rather than of 1,000 men
employed. This renders them fairly comparable with rates com
puted for other industries. It is an important step toward general
comparability that the Interstate Commerce Commission has in re
cent years required exposure to be reported in terms of man-hours.
The table is of particular interest in view of recent discussion of
the question, “ Are accidents increasing?” In the course of such
discussion it has become quite evident that our accident statistics
are as yet neither sufficiently extended nor sufficiently precise to
make possible a general answer to this question. There is a strong
tendency to draw conclusions from current experiences, and if the
ACCIDENT RECORD BY INDUSTRY
269
present year shows higher rates or greater cost than the preceding
year to suspect that this is an indication of a general tendency.
The showing of the railway accident statistics is accordingly im
portant because records have been kept long enough and are of such
a degree of accuracy as to justify regarding their indications as
dependable. They afford an opportunity for testing the immediate
impression by the trend disclosed by a longer interval.
In this case, as always, the really informative figures are those of
rates for fatality and for injury. If the number of trainmen, of
fatalities, and of injuries be considered separately it will be difficult,
if not impossible, to see clearly what the figures indicate. It is only
when it is possible to unite the exposure with the number of cases or
with the loss of time expressed in days and so to produce frequency
or severity rates that the significance becomes evident. In this
railway group it is not possible to determine severity rates.
The following observations regarding accident frequency on the
railroads are suggested by inspection of the tables:
1. There is a marked downward tendency in the period 1916 to
1927.
2. There are two years during the period (1920 and 1923) in each
of which there is a decided upward tendency as compared with the
preceding years.
.3. In fatalities the lowest rates are found in 1924, while the lowest
rates for injuries are in 1927.
These figures are quite conclusive that whatever may be true of
other industries, American railways have maintained a successful
fight against conditions which tend toward increased accident rates.
T a b l e 1 8 .— F A T A L I T IE S A N D IN J U R IE S A N D F R E Q U E N C Y R A T E S T H E R E F O R A M O N G
R A I L R O A D T R A I N M E N , 1916 T O 1927, B Y Y E A R S A N D O C C U P A T IO N S
Number o f trainmen
Occupation
1916
1918
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
Yard service:
Engineers.............
Firemen................
Conductors.........
Brakemen______
15,878
16,190
15,362
40,175
21,310
21,979
20,823
53,790
21,363
21,549
20,236
50,799
16,929
17,343
16,745
42,721
18,703
19,249
18,639
46,953
22,142
22,664
22,002
55,301
20,593
21,106
20,545
51,775
21,349
21,804
21,170
52,952
22,253
22,727
22,066
55,334
21,562
22,100
21,437
53,653
93,738 103,544 122,109 114,019 117,275 122,380
118,752
T otal.................
Road freight service:
Engineers.............
Firemen......... ..
Conductors_____
Brakemen............
87,605 117,902 113,947
33,594
35,756
27,297
67,127
28.317
30.317
22,598
56,620
29,372
31,507
23,254
57,746
34,137
36,504
26,901
65,750
31,563
33,544
25,733
61,576
30,521
32,315
24,821
59,384
T otal................. 154,027 169,819 163,774 137,852 141,879 163,292 149,764 148,267 152,416
147,041
31,675
33,637
25,430
63,285
34,990
38,102
27,679
69,048
31,015
33,346
24,864
60,539
1927
30,653
32,714
24,919
59,981
Road passenger serv
ice:
Engineers_______
Firemen...............
Conductors_____
Brakemen........ .
Baggagemen------
13,429
13,131
10,633
14,800
5,618
12,709
12,419
10,444
14,423
5,371
12,930
12,630
10,788
15,849
5,661
12,924
12,768
10,546
15,315
5,751
12,710
12,491
11,380
14,350
5,729
13,042
12,754
11,756
14,558
5,871
12,977
12,674
11,730
14,369
5,846
12,930
12,561
11,726
14,218
5,801
13,027
12,946
11,710
14,072
5,768
Total.................
57,611
55,366
57,858
57,304
56,660
57,981
57,596
57,236
57,073
56,527
A ll trainmen.. 299,243 343,087 335,579 288,894 302,083 343,382 321,379 322,778 331,869
322,320
12,971
12,254
11,652
13,938
5,712
INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS
270
T a b l e 1 8 .— F A T A L I T I E S A N D IN J U R IE S A N D F R E Q U E N C Y R A T E S T H E R E F O R A M O N G
R A I L R O A D T R A I N M E N , 1916 T O 1927, B Y Y E A R S A N D O C C U P A T I O N S — Continued
Fatalities
Occupation
1916
1918
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
Number
Yard service:
Engineers_____
Firemen________
Conductors.........
Brakemen
11
22
71
341
U
27
73
397
9
18
67
363
11
7
39
169
12
5
43
202
12
17
59
263
7
5
45
195
12
9
44
238
9
4
53
222
3
6
49
208
T o ta l................
445
503
457
226
262
351
252
303
288
266
Road freight service:
Engineers_______
Firemen
Conductors.........
Brakemen______
.
70
107
72
432
84
132
104
527
63
84
62
396
32
36
48
186
46
44
37
201
55
59
60
262
37
43
47
168
34
30
40
188
25
30
59
197
37
46
43
172
T o ta l. ...............
681
847
605
302
328
436
295
292
311
298
Road passenger serv
ice:
Engineers_______
Firemen________
Conductors.........
Brakemen,
Baggagemen------
45
52
6
8
2
59
50
11
25
5
69
52
6
16
4
37
36
9
10
2
40
39
3
9
6
44
45
7
10
3
32
31
4
13
1
44
36
5
7
4
39
37
5
8
3
34
30
5
2
4
Total_________
A ll trainmen __
113
150
147
94
97
109
81
96
92
75
1,239
1,505
1,209
622
687
896
628 I
691
691
639
Frequency rates (per 1,000,000 hours’ exposure)
Yard service:
Engineers_______
Firemen________
Conductors.........
Brakemen.... .......
0.23
.45
1.54
2.83
0.17
.41
1.17
2.46
0.14
.23
1.10
2.38
0.22
.13
.73
1.32
0.21
.09
.77
1.43
0.18
.25
.89
1.59
0.11
.08
.73
1.26
0.19
.14
.69
1.50
0.13
.06
.80
1.34
0.05
.09
.76
1.29
T otal_________
1. C9
1.44
1.34
.80
.84
.96
.74
.86
.78
.75
Road freight servico:
Engineers_______
Firemen________
Conductors.........
Brakemen______
.74
1.03
.94
2.23
.80
1.15
1.25
2.54
.63
.73
.76
1.97
.38
.40
.71
1.09
.52
.47
.53
1.16
.54
.54
.74
1.33
.40
.43
.63
.93
.37
.31
.54
1.04
.26
.30
.76
1.07
.40
.47
.58
.97
Total_________
1.47
1.66 |
1.23
.73
.77
.89
.66
.66
.68
.68
Road passenger serv
ice:
Engineers_______
Firemen________
Conductors.........
Brakemen______
Baggagemen____
1.12
1.32
.19
.18
.12
1.55
1.34
.35
.58
.31
1.78
1.37
.19
.34
.24
.95
.94
.23
.22
.12
1.05
1.04
.09
.21
.35
1.12
1.18
.20
.23
.17
.82
.82
.11
.30
.06
1.13
.96
.14
.16
.23
1.00
.99
.14
.19
.17
.87
.82
.14
.15
.23
T otal.................
.65
.85
.55
.57
.63
.47
.56
.54
.44
A ll trainm en..
1.38
1.20
.72
.76
.87
.65
.71
.69
.6 6
.90 |
1.46
ACCIDENT RECORD BY INDUSTRY
271
T a b l e 1 8 .— F A T A L I T I E S A N D IN J U R IE S A N D F R E Q U E N C Y R A T E S T H E R E F O R A M O N G
R A I L R O A D T R A I N M E N , 1916 T O 1927, B Y Y E A R S A N D O C C U P A T I O N S — Continued
Injuries
Occupation
1916
1918
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
Number
Yard service:
Engineers
Firemen
Conductors.........
"Brakemen...........
1,078
1,644
1,993
12,209
908
1,708
1,440
10,472
1,023
1,691
1,607
11,666
546
854
1,094
6,711
746
1,082
1,414
7,562
835
1,561
1,630
10,223
727
1,104
1,498
8,328
654
1,123
1,595
8,663
721
1,117
1,739
9,369
566
866
1,416
7,552
,
T otal_________
16,924
14,528
15,987
9,205
10,804
14,249
11,657
12,035
12,946
10,400
Road freight service:
Engineers_______
Firemen________
Conductors.........
Brakemen,.
2,360
5,145
3,051
13,115
2,547
5,706
2,832
11,938
2,130
5,085
2,593
11,439
1,404
2,791
1,921
7,012
1,649
3,274
2,227
7,613
1,832
4,036
2,501
9,409
1,370
2,747
2,209
7,629
1,271
2,584
2,223
7,632
1,343
2,645
2,378
7,904
959
2,016
2,118
6,758
Total_________
23,671
23,023
21,347
13,128
14,763
17,778
13,955
13,710
14,270
11,851
714
1,245
298
718
361
777
1,253
304
674
283
804
1,535
274
688
344
602
997
209
570
269
715
1,144
282
570
308
761
1,295
304
639
316
617
1,017
302
587
303
532
943
241
533
303
582
957
274
572
263
445
792
251
468
255
Road passenger serv
ice:
Engineers_______
Firemen________
Conductors.........
Brakemen............
Baggagemen-----T otal_________
3,336
3,291
3,645
2,647
3,019
3,315
2,826
2,552
2,648
2,211
A ll trainm en.. 43,921
40,842
40,979
24,980
28,586
35,342
28,438
28,297
29,864
24,462
Frequency rates (per 1,000,000 hours’ exposure)
Yard service:
Engineers_______ 22.63
Firemen________
33.85
Conductors.........
43.25
Brakemen______ 101.90
14.20
25.90
23.05
64.89
15.96
26.16
26.47
76.55
10.75
13.41
21.78
52.36
13.30
18.74
25.29
53.68
12.57
22.97
24.69
61.62
11.77
17.44
24.30
53.61
10.21
17.17
25.11
54.53
10.80
16.38
26.27
56 44
8.75
13.06
22.02
46.92
Total..................
64.40
41.07
46.77
32.73
34.78
38.90
34.08
34.21
35.26
29.19
Road freight service:
Engineers_______
Firemen________
Conductors.........
Brakemen______
24.83
50.99
39.99
69.08
24.26
49.91
34.10
57.63
21.13
47.40
32.89
56.80
16.53
30.69
28.34
41.28
18.71
34.64
31.82
43.95
17.90
36.85
20.99
47.70
14.72
27.46
29.61
42.01
13.82
26.33
29.74
42.41
14.18
26.28
30.83
42.79
10.47
20.80
28.44
37.93
Total..................
51.23
45.19
43.45
31.74
34.68
36.29
31.06
30.82
31.21
26.87
Road passenger serv
ice:
Engineers.............
firem en________
Conductors.........
Brakemen_____
Baggagemen____
17.72
31.60
9.34
16.17
21.42
20.38
33.63
9.70
15.58
17.56
20.73
40.51
8.47
14.47
20.26
15.53
26.03
6.61
12.41
15.56
18.75
30.53
8.26
13.24
17.92
19.45
33.87
8.62
14.63
17.94
15.85
26.75
8.58.
13.62
17.28
13.71
25.02
6.85
12.50
17.41
14.89
25.53
7.80
13.55
15.20
11.44
21.54
7.18
11.19
14.88
Total..................
19.30
19.81
21.00
15.40
17.43
19.06
16.36
14.86
15.47
13.04
A ll trainm en..
48.94
39.68
40.70
28.82
31.54
34.31
29.50
29.22
30.30
25.30
Rubber Industry
T h e r u b b e r section of the National Safety Council has maintained
a very carefully worked out statistical presentation of its experiences
for the past seven years. The rates are somewhat irregular, with no
definite trend.
272
INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS
T a b l e 1 9 .— N U M B E R O F F U L L -Y E A R W O R K E R S , N U M B E R O F A C C I D E N T S , A N D A C C I
D E N T R A T E S I N R U B B E R I N D U S T R Y , 1921 T O 1927,» B Y Y E A R S
Year
1921...........................................................................
1922............................... ............. ..
......................
1923________ _______ __________________________
1924____________________ __________ ________ __
1925______________________ ______ ________ ____
1926_________________ _____ ________ __________
1927______________________________ ___________
Hours of
exposure
(thousands)
Full-year
workers
Number of
accidents
83,101
123,152
134,272
125,594
173,438
176,698
151,239
27,700
41,051
44,757
41,865
57,813
58,899
50,413
2,196
4,431
4,182
3,449
5,054
5,313
5,809
Frequency
Severity
rates (per
rates (per
1,000,000
1,000 hours*
hours' ex
exposure)
posure)
26.42
35.97
31.15
27.46
29.15
30.09
38.41
0.94
.87
1.32
1.00
1.11
1.17
1.00
1 National Safety News, March, 1923, p. 15; August, 1923, p. 39; November, 1923, p. 40; and Industrial
Accident Experience of Members of National Safety Council, 1927 (data reproduced through the courtesy
of the National Safety Council).
Textile Industry
T h e e x p e r i e n c e of the members of the textile section of the
National Safety Council from 1923 to 1927 shows no decided trend
in accident frequency and severity, though the rates for 1927 are
somelowerthan those for 1923. While the textile industry is relatively
of low hazard, the fact that accident frequency in such mills is greater
than that in some of the best steel mills makes it obvious that there
is opportunity for improvement.
Table 20 records the experience of the five-year period 1923 to 1927:
T a b l e 3 0 .— N U M B E R O F F U L L -Y E A R W O R K E R S , N U M B E R O F A C C I D E N T S , A N D A C C I
D E N T R A T E S I N T H E T E X T I L E I N D U S T R Y , 1923 T O 1927, B Y Y E A R S i
Year
1923_______________________ - ...............................
1924________________________________ ______ _
1925- _______________________________________
1926__________________________________________
1927- ____________________________ _______ _
Hours of
exposure
(thousands)
46,343
53,196
77,925
110,483
140,213
Full-year
workers
Number of
accidents
15,448
17,732
25,975
36,828
46,738
604
601
1,061
1,449
1,749
Frequency
Severity
rates (per
rates (per
1,000,000
1,000 hours'
hours' ex
exposure)
posure)
13.03
11.29
13.61
13.13
12.47
1 National Safety Council. Industrial Experience of Members of National Safety Council, 1927.
cago, 1928. Reproduced through courtesy of National Safety Council.
0.67
.89
.45
.64
.53
Chi
Accident Hazards in Window Cleaning
STUDY conducted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics during
1928,
which revealed a condition somewhat at variance with the
generally accepted ideas on the subject, was one covering an investi
gation of the window-washing industry, including accident hazards
to which these workers are exposed and a comparison of the work
men’s compensation experience as applied to the industry in the
various States. Unfortunately, the data obtained were meager
because of the small number of window washers, even in the large
cities, the fact that they are not generally organized, and the fact
that in the making of compensation insurance rates they are not
always considered as a separate industry, the workers being class
A
ACCIDENTS IN TJ. S. GOVERNMENT SERVICE
273
ified instead in the building-service group with which the accident
experience of window washers is so closely interwoven as to render
it almost impossible to present such data without being affected by
considerations and conditions which are alien to it. Thus the avail
able data regarding this industry are incomplete and their value as
a basis for definite conclusions somewhat impaired.
An outstanding conclusion of the investigation appears to be the
fact that insurance rates in the States which provide separate rates
for this industry are unnecessarily high and should be revised on the
basis of the experience at hand, even though inadequate and incom
plete. It is difficult to escape the conclusion that these rates have
been made on the theory that window washing is the most hazardous
of occupations, in which practically every accident means a death.
The bureau found that this theory is not correct. The records of 12
States, which are the only ones out of 33 reports received that could
be used, covering periods during the interval from November 1, 1923,
to November 12, 1926, show that of 202 reported accidents to window
cleaners, only 6.9 per cent resulted in death, while the New York
State Industrial Commission reported that during the year ended
June 30, 1926, 7 deaths and 102 nonfatal injuries were reported to
the authorities as occurring to those engaged in “ cleaning—vacuum
and window.” This is a fatality per cent of 6.4. An insurance
company, said to write a majority of these risks, reported that of 122
cases filed, during 1924, only 5, or 4.1 per cent, resulted in death, but
that, covering a 6-year period, 47 injuries were reported by New
York City alone, of which 23, or 48.9 per cent, resulted in death. The
difference between these percentages may be accounted for only by
incomplete reporting. Many of the minor accidents are doubtless
not reported at all, or they are buried in some other classification, as,
for instance, the building-service group which includes janitors, etc.
The general assumption that fatalities in window washing are due
to falls seems to be borne out by the data obtained. Thus, of 25
fatalities reported by nine States and one insurance company during
1924, 1925, and 1926, 24 resulted from falls. Of the nonfatal injuries,
about 60 per cent resulted from falls, and 11.8 per cent were due to
falling objects striking cleaners. In New York State, for the year
ended June 30, 1925, all of the three fatalities reported resulted from
falls.
Accidents in the Federal Government Service
ACCIDENT frequency rates in the various departments of the
X X Federal Government are shown in the table following. The
tabulation was made from figures compiled by the United States
Employees’ Compensation Commission and covers civilian em
ployees only.
INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS
274
N U M B E R OF A C C ID E N T S A N D A C C ID E N T F R E Q U E N C Y R A T E S IN T H E G O V E R N
M E N T S E R V I C E , 1921 T O 1927, B Y D E P A R T M E N T S A N D Y E A R S
[Based on number of employees shown b y the Civil Service Commission's yearly reports and on number
of accidents reported to the United States Employees’ Compensation Commission]
Frequency rates (per 1,000,000
hours’ exposure)
Num ber of accidents
Num ber of
employees
Year
Fatal
Nonfatal
Fatal
Nonfatal
accidents accidents
Total
Total
A ll Government services
192
192
192
192
192
192
192
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Total.
560,673
535,185
535,781
546,981
538,290
536,426
525,843
362
353
279
278
314
318
357
18,042
17,905
17,713
20,260
20,374
19,209
20,190
18,404
18,258
17,992
20,538
20,688
19,527
20,547
0.25
.26
.20
.20
.23
.25
.28
12.88
13.38
13.22
14.82
15.14
15.08
15.99
13.13
13.64
13.43
15.02
15.37
15.33
16.27
3,779,179
2,261
133,693
135,954
.25
14.75
.15.00
Department of Agriculture
1921- .......................................
.....................................
..................................
1923.
...............................
1924.
1925.
..........................
1926.
r
...................................................
1927.
Total
____________
18,722
19,773
20,078
20,385
20,098
20,688
21,518
10
11
17
25
26
34
27
638
919
971
1,287
1,291
1,652
1,760
648
930
988
1,312
1,317
1,686
1,787
0.22
.22
.34
.49
.5 2
.68
.52
13.63
18.59
19.34
25.25
25.69
33.27
34.08
13.85
18.82
19.68
25.74
26.21
33.95
34.60
141,262
150
8,518
8,668
.44
25.12
25.56
Department of Commerce
L ....................... ...............
19211922.
1923.
[ .....................................
j ......................... ...............
.............................
f
Total
.........................
11,748
11,267
11,199
12,119
14,631
14,682
14,950
9
15
11
8
11
11
11
246
272
332
319
348
433
414
255
287
343
327
359
444
425
0.31
.53
.40
.26
.30
.30
.31
8.38
9.66
11.86
10.52
9.52
12.28
11.54
8.69
10.19
12.25
10.79
9.82
12.58
11.85
90,596
76
2,364
2,440
.35
10.87
11.22
8.09
6.26
4.21
4.13
2.71
3.95
4.29
8.27
6.36
4.21
4.13
2.71
4.05
4.29
Government Printing Office
2
1
_______________
................
4,403
4,024
3,989
4,269
3,984
4,109
4,078
Total—........................
28,856
4
L .................................................... .............
1921.
I .....................................
1922.
;
.........
1923.
[
.................
.
j
j
1
89
63
42
44
27
39
42
91
64
42
44
27
40
42
0.18
.10
346
350
.06
4.98
5.04
.10
Department of the Interior
[
................................
1921.
! ......................................
1922I
....................................
1923[............................................
19241925i............................................
1926..
1927..
19,735
17,834
17,092
16,679
13,125
13,468
14,960
14
18
16
19
11
8
9
957
1,041
1,415
1,676
1,019
609
676
971
1,059
1,431
1,695
1,030
617
685
0.29
.41
.37
.46
.34
.25
.25
19.39
23.35
33.12
40.20
31.06
18.84
18.83
19.68
23.75
33.49
40.64
31.39
19.09
19.08
Total.............................
112,893
95
7,393
7,488
.35
27.29
27.64
ACCIDENTS IN TJ. S. GOVERNMENT SERVICE
275
N U M B E R OF A C C ID E N T S A N D A C C ID E N T F R E Q U E N C Y R A T E S I N T H E G O V E R N
M E N T S E R V I C E , 1921 T O 1927, B Y D E P A R T M E N T S A N D Y E A R S — Continued
Frequency rates (per 1,000,000
hours’ exposure)
Num ber of accidents
Year
Number of
employees
Nonfatal
Fatal
Total
Fatal
Nonfatal
accidents accidents
Total
Department of Labor
1921...........................................
1922............................................
1923............................................
1924............................................
1925............................................
1926............................................
1927............................................
3,768
3,744
3,821
3,876
3,614
4,011
4,050
1
2
113
102
112
112
112
92
76
0.11
.22
1
5
2
2
112
100
112
111
107
90
74
Total.............................
26,884
13
706
719
.11
.55
.21
.21
11.89
10.68
11.72
11.46
11.84
9.45
7.82
11.99
10.90
11.72
11.56
12.40
9.66
8.03
.20
10.94
11.14
Department of the N avy
60,653
42,515
40,557
42,686
42,842
42,973
43,198
36
27
30
28
24
39
27
2,918
1,516
1,423
1,882
1,662
1,778
1,696
2,954
1,543
1,453
1,910
1,686
1,817
1,723
0.24
.25
.30
.26
.23
.38
.26
19.25
14.27
14.04
17.64
15.52
17.24
16.36
19.48
14.52
14.33
17.90
15.74
17.62
16.62
Total............................
315,424
211
12,875
13,086
.28
17.01
17.29
1921............................................
1922............................................
1923...........................................
1924............................................
1925...........................................
1926...........................................
1927............................................
281,658
284,207
294,226
301,000
304,092
289,980
278,637
62
64
50
42
47
56
54
2,033,800
375
1921............................................
1922............................................
1923............................................
1924...........................................
1925............................................
1926............................................
1927............................................
Post Office Department
Total............................
5,218
6,196
6,559
7,395
7,488
7,896
8,862
5,280
6,260
6,609
7,437
7,535
7,952
8,916
0.08
.10
.07
.06
.06
.08
.08
7.42
8.72
8.92
9.83
9.85
11.35
13,25
7.50
8.81
8.99
9.89
9.91
11.43
13.33
49,614
49,989
.08
10.17
10.24
Department of the Treasury
1921............................................
1922............................................
1923............................................
1924........ ...................................
1925............................................
1926............................................
1927............................................
68,648
56,392
53,604
53,121
52,607
51,569
51,741
30
44
17
16
22
19
22
1,157
1,203
938
1,013
1,037
864
983
1,187
1,247
955
1,029
1,059
883
1,005
0.18
.31
.13
.12
.17
.11
.18
6.74
8.53
7.00
7.63
7.88
4.93
7.92
6.91
8.84
7.13
7.75
8.05
5.04
8.10
Total............................
387,682
170
7,195
7,365
.18
7.70
7.88
1921...........................................
1922...........................................
1923............................................
1924...........................................
1925...........................................
1926...........................................
1927................................. ..........
53,553
46,840
44,842
45,906
38,975
45,285
42,771
124
104
96
102
115
63
124
6,125
5,648
4,913
5,295
5,793
4,700
4,496
6,249
5,752
5,009
5,397
5,908
4,763
4,620
0.92
.89
.85
.89
1.18
.58
1.21
45.74
48.23
43.82
46.14
59.45
43.24
43.80
46.68
49.12
44.68
47.03
60.64
43.82
45.01
Total.............................
318,172
728
36,970
37,698
.95
48.42
49.37
1921............................................
1922............................................
1923............................................
1924............................................
1925............................................
1926............................................
1927............................................
37,785
48,589
46,373
46,940
44,322
49,661
49,940
74
67
42
37
53
85
81
582
947
1,008
1,238
1,602
1,148
1,187
656
1,014
1,050
1,275
1,655
1,233
1,268
0.78
.55
.36
.31
.48
.71
.68
6.16
7.80
8.70
10.55
14.46
9.63
9.90
6.95
8.34
9.06
10.86
14.94
10.34
10.58
Total.............................
323,610
439
7,712
8,151
.57
9.93
10.50
Department of W ar
A ll other Government services
39142°—29-------- 19
INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS
276
Comparative Accident Experience of a Large Group of
Plants in 1925 and 1926
THE former handbook (Bui. No. 439, p. 251) the accident
experience of American industry in 1925, as computed by the
INNational
Safety Council from reports of 1,231 industrial plants hold
ing membership therein, is given. Similar figures for 1926 repre
senting 1,725 plants, are set forth in the Safety News for September,
1927. This represents an increase of 494 (40 per cent) over the
number of plants reporting in 1925. The accident frequency rate
(per 1,000,000 hours’ exposure) of all plants reporting is 31.87 as
compared with 30.6 in 1925, while the severity rate (days lost per
1,000 hours’ exposure) was 2.50 and 2.02, respectively. One out of
every 13 workers suffered a lost-time injury, and the average time
lost per injury was 78 days.
The experience of 687 plants reporting both in 1925 and 1926
shows a reduction in frequency and severity rates, the former being
lowered more than 13 per cent and the latter about 11 per cent.
The following table gives the data for these 687 plants, classified
by industrial group, for 1925 and 1926:
A C C I D E N T E X P E R I E N C E O F 687 P L A N T S B E L O N G I N G T O T H E N A T I O N A L S A F E T Y
C O U N C IL , 1925 A N D 1926
Industry group
Total hours worked
Num
ber of
plants
Autom otive. .............
Cement-------------------Chem ical..................
Construction_______
M etals______________
Packers and tanners
Paper and pulp------Petroleum__________
Power press________
Quarry_____________
Textile..................... ..
Woodworking---------
56
114
52
30
172
9
79
14
Total.........___.
687
1925
292,250,161
91,246,572
63,908,310
26,810,713
420,892,130
10,244,703
91,511,224
216,977,595
158,204,457
9,590, 566
62,875,420
37,260,639
2,480
1,763
1,549
14,282
279
2,957
5,230
3,743
472
832
1,589
1,860
14,479
694
2,926
5,554
3,335
467
836
1,418
1,284,589,469
1,481,772,490
41,188
i 41,126
66
11
24
1925
Accident fre
quency rates
(per 1,000,000
hours' expo
sure)
1926
1925
1926
5,789
2,079
1,688
Accident sever
ity rates (per
1,000 hours’
exposure)
1925
1926
305,578
486,385
206,667
165,840
797,838
12,039
158,246
445,494
172,539
66,289
26,106
88,647
329,953
349,856
204,524
187,962
862,537
29,180
180,105
455,865
204,229
71,916
33,011
103,619
31.1
26.0
26.9
68.2
38.9
27.1
35.4
25.8
27.8
51.6
13.3
41.7
19.8
22.8
26.4
69.4
34.4
67.8
32.0
25.6
21.1
48.7
13.3
38.1
1.58
5.11
3.15
7.31
2.17
1.17
1.90
2.20
1.28
7.25
.42
2.42
1.13
3.83
3.20
7.01
2.05
2.85
1.97
2.10
1.29
7.50
.53
2.78
i 2,923,368
3,012,757
32.1
27.7
2.28
2.03
i This is not the sum of the items but is as appears in the original.
6,012
1926
193,170,392
95,164,043
65,660,528
22,707,156
366,980,532
10,297,413
83.444.770
202, 568,652
134,925,769
9,140,291
62,459,152
38.070.771
Industry group
T o t a l , . __________________________
1925
1926
D ays lost
Automotive............................................................
Cement------------ -------------------------------------------Chemical___________________________________
Construction_________________ ____________
M etals............................ ....................................... ..
Packers and tanners. _ ___________________
Paper and p u lp .. ------------------------------------Petroleum---------------------------------- -------------- Power press........................................ ................. .
Quarry— ............................ ............................. ..
Textile................................................................... .
Woodworking........................................................
Lost-time accidents
SAFETY AND PRODUCTION
277
Safety Codes
United States Bureau of Labor Statistics is represented on a
considerable number of the sectional committees which are en
T HE
gaged in the formulation of national safety codes under the procedure
of the American Standards Association. The Department of Labor
delegates to the bureau the responsibility of providing representatives
of the workers on the committees for the preparation of safety codes.
The Commissioner of Labor Statistics is the authorized representa
tive of the department on the Standards Council. The development
of the safety-code program is described in the former handbook (Bui.
No. 439).
The safety codes thus far projected are some 40 in number. Of
these 30 have been completed and approved. The bureau has pub
lished 14 of these codes for extended distribution to State industrial
boards and industrial concerns. A list of the codes published by the
bureau follows:
B ui. N o.
331.
336.
350.
351.
375.
378.
382.
410.
430.
433.
436.
447.
451.
463.
Code of lighting factories, mills, and other work places.
Safety code for foundries.
Laboratory tests for electric headlighting devices for motor vehicles.
Safety code for ladders.
Safety code for laundries.
Safety code for woodworking plants.
Code of lighting school buildings.
Safety code for paper and pulp mills.
Safety code for power presses and foot and hand presses.
Safety codes for prevention of dust explosions.
Safety code for abrasive wheels.
Safety code for rubber mills and calenders.
Safety code for forging and hot-metal stamping.
Safety code for mechanical power transmission.
American Engineering Council’s Report on Safety
and Production4
A S THE result of the serious increase in the last few years in the
Jl \. cost of accidents—for example, the premiums received by the
companies reporting to the State of New York from 1923 to 1926
were $44,000,000 less than their compensation losses-—the American
Engineering Council was asked by the National Bureau of Casualty
and Surety Underwriters to make a survey of the situation.
This increase in cost of accidents was found to be coincident with a
consistent and even spectacular decline in accident rates in the larger
and more thoroughly organized industries and a remarkable increase
in the product of industry.
Apparently the increased seriousness of accidents during the last few years has
been the direct result of the increased intensity of industrial activity during that
period. Increased activity requires the employment of new, inexperienced men
and the shifting of old men to new jobs. Periods of rising accident rates have,
in general, corresponded to periods of heightened industrial activity. * * *
This, then, is the modern problem which definitely underlies this present study:
How can accidents be controlled under modern conditions, conditions which are
becoming continuously more difficult? * * * Can they be controlled?
* American Engineering Council.
Safety and Production.
N ew Y ork, 1928.
INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS
278
Findings of the Committee
T he i n f o r m a t i o n obtained upon which the com m ittee based its
findings and conclusions embraced 13,898 companies, 2,464,413 em
ployees, and 54,430,707,000 man-hours. A comparison of the 1925
experience w ith that of 1922 showed that productivity had increased
14.4 per cent, accident frequency had decreased 10.4 per cent, and
accident severity had increased 2.5 per cent.
The detail findings of the committee were as follows:
1. Industrial accidents can be controlled under modern conditions
of highly efficient productivity.
2. The experience of a large group of companies shows that material
reductions in accident rates can be obtained together with an increas
ing production rate.
3. Major industrial executives have as much responsibility to
initiate accident prevention as to initiate improvements in pro
ductivity.
4. Efforts to improve safety performance do not interfere with
production.
5. Maximum productivity is ordinarily secured only when accident
occurrence is tending downward.
6. The production and the accident performance of the best plants
in each industry clearly show that the majority of plants can achieve
notable further improvement.
7. The incidental cost of industrial accidents is an economic loss
which should not be neglected.
8. Organized safety work is being carried on in a relatively small
percentage of industrial plants.
9. A large number of industrial establishm ents keep no accident
records and make no attem pt to analyze their experience as a first
step in decreasing accidents.
Recommendations of the Committee
T he
c o m m itte e
made the following recommendations:
1. That the same executive direction and control be given to decreasing indus
trial accidents as is given to increasing productivity.
2. That those agencies which collect and disseminate accident statistics
adopt uniform terminology and standardized records so that all data will be
compiled on a nationally comparable basis.
3. That the executives of those plants having high accident frequency and
accident severity rates initiate, direct, and control ways and means of lowering
such rates. * * *
4. That industrial trade associations, engineering societies, and other agencies
concerned with the improvement of industrial operation bring to the attention
of their members the necessity of improvement in safety performance as a vital
step in the strengthening of their industrial position.
5. That industrial trade associations secure, compile, and analyze accident
statistics for the purpose of determining the lowest accident rate possible of
attainment for their respective industries.
6. That industrial trade associations endeavor to secure such action on the
part of executives of their industries as will result in each plant having the
lowest accident rates obtainable.
Other Findings of the Report
Experiences oj particular industries.—Eighty per cent of the indus
trial groups showed an increasing production rate, 52 per cent had a
declining frequency rate, and 68 per cent had a declining severity
rate.
COST OF INFECTIONS IN INDUSTRY
270
Levels of performance.—To determine the level of performance of
the plants, grouped according to experience, a classification of the
changes in accident and production rates from year to year was made,
and designated as follows: A, increase in production rate and
decrease in accident frequency rate; B, increase in production rate
and increase in accident frequency rate; C, decrease in production
rate and decrease in accident-frequency rate; D, decrease in pro
duction rate and increase in accident-frequency rate.
There were 330 plants which gave an experience record of four
years or more, and for this group the percentages of the total changes
in accident and production rates during this experience which fell
in the different classes were as follows: Class A, 30.6; class B, 30.3;
class C, 22.4; class D, 16.7. Of these 330 plants, 81, whose record
showed that 60 per cent or more of the production-rate changes were
increases and 60 per cent or more of the accident frequency rate
changes were decreases, constituted the high level of performance
group. For this group the percentages were as follows: Class A, 54.6;
class B, 21.5; class C, 17.5; class D, 6.3.
Increased productivity and reduction of accidents.—Comparing 1925
with 1922, 26 industries show increasing production and 10 industries
decreased production; accident frequency rates decreased in 23
industries and increased in 16, and accident severity rates decreased
in 22 industries and increased in 15.
Accidents in terms of production.—In relation to production 19
industries had an annual average declining accident frequency and 3
had increasing accident frequency, while there was decreasing accident
severity in 17 industries and increasing accident severity in 5
industries.
The report also presents the showing of the individual industries
as to the relation of frequency and severity to production, and
devotes a section to illustrative special cases.
Cost of Infections in Industry
N INDICATION of the cost of infections is given in the January,
b 1928, issue of the Industrial Bulletin, published by the New
York Industrial Commissioner. In 4,355 cases of infection resulting
from handling sharp and rough objects during 1926-27 a total of
$820,020 in compensation was involved, or an average of $188 per
case, whereas the average cost of 2,010 cases of injury so caused but
not infected was only $93, the total compensation being $187,793.
The causes given indicate the little things which may produce most
serious results—slivers of wood, nails, wires, and metal straps, slivers
of metal, sheet metal, glass, and bones. The first named heads the
list, with 24.4 per cent of all infected cases. Infections occur mostly
in simple injuries from the most ordinary causes, to which all workers
are constantly exposed and which have had comparatively little
attention in accident prevention.
A
The 13,304 cases of infection for which awards were made in 1926-27 included
2,180 permanent partial disabilities and 94 deaths or permanent total disabili
ties. The awards in all these cases amounted to about $3,000,000. Assuming
that infection approximately doubles the cost of injuries, $1,500,000 in compensa
tion could have been saved if the infection could have been prevented.
INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS
280
Penalties for Violation of Safety Orders
HE LAW of Wisconsin provides for a penalty of 15 per cent of
the compensation in the case of violation of safety rules or
orders by employer or employee. That there are frequent violations
of such orders by both employers and employees appears in a report
of the Industrial Commission of Wisconsin in the July 1,1927, issue
of Wisconsin Labor Statistics.
Out of the total of 22,177 cases closed during 1926 there were
539 cases in which employers paid the increased benefits. Recovery
of increased benefits was most frequent from violations of safety
orders governing power presses (118), circular saws (96), solid scaf
folds (46), and gears (40). These comprised approximately threefifths of the total number of violations. The amount of normal
compensation paid in these cases was $315,479.71, and the increased
compensation incurred amounted to $47,851.03.
During the same period there were only 12 employees whose com
pensation was reduced for violation of safety orders or rules, 6 of
these being for failure to use guards on machinery and 6 for intoxi
cation at the time of injury. The amount of normal indemnity in
these cases was reduced from $4,568.34 to $3,891.79.
The frequency of the violations in the two classes is in the pro
portion of 45 to 1, which is quite a contrast when it is considered
that the employees outnumber the employers many times.
T
Eye Conservation Through Compulsory Use of Goggles
in Workshops
Y THE compulsory use of goggles in all the repair shops and yards
of the Pullman Co. the eyes of approximately a thousand of their
men have been saved from serious injury or destruction during the
past five years, only one eye having been lost among these workers
during that time, according to Harry Guilbert, director of safety of
that company, in an address at a conference on the prevention of
blindness held in Chicago in October, 1927, by the National Safety
Council and the National Committee for the Prevention of Blindness.5
In the opinion of Mr. Guilbert, nothing short of compelling the
men to wear the goggles will serve, as every effort was made to get
them to wear them prior to issuing the order, through spectacular
bulletins, horrible examples, pleading and threatening, all with
very little success, and he believes that the elimination of eye acci
dents will never be attained until every industrial employee is
required to wear goggles at work on penalty of dismissal. This rule
is rigidly enforced in every repair shop of the Pullman Co. and applies
not only to the employees, but to officials of the company and to
visitors.
As reasons for such drastic measures to prevent industrial eye
accidents the experience of Pennsylvania and New York in recent
years was cited. In Pennsylvania up to October, 1927, the sight of
6,842 eyes had been completely destroyed in industrial accidents since
1916, while from January 1, 1927, 383 eyes had been made sightless
B
5 National Committee for the Prevention of Blindness.
Press release dated October 14, 1927.
SUBSTITUTE FOR EXPLOSIVES IN COAL MINES
281
in industries of that State, the industries in which these accidents
occurred ranging from coal mines to restaurants. In one year more
than $800,000 was paid in compensation, representing an estimated
total economic loss of $5,000,000. In New York the loss was even
greater, as the compensation for eye accidents amounted to $1,700,000
last year. According to the National Safety Council's estimate that
the total cost of industrial accidents is five times the amount of the
compensation payments, this class of accidents cost the workers, the
employers, and the public more than $8,000,000 in the single year.
All safety engineers recognize the difficulty of getting the work
men to protect their most valuable asset—their sight—and it is said
that the Pullman shops are the only shops where goggles are worn
by all, from president down to office boys and even by visitors who
may come into the plant for only a few minutes. It is useless to expect
workmen to use goggles and other protective devices if managers,
foremen, and safety engineers do not set a good example by protect
ing their own eyes.
An examination of the eyes of 4,000 men in the Pullman shops
showed that only 1,139, or 28 per cent, had normal vision without
glasses; 1,539, or 38 per cent, had normal vision in both eyes when
they wore glasses, while the remaining 1,322, or 33 per cent, had
defective vision. Seventeen per cent of the total number examined
had only 5 per cent of normal vision, in many cases as the result of
early eye injuries.
Carbon Dioxide a Safe Substitute for Explosives in
Mining Coal7
NEW METHOD of bringmg down coal at the face which
avoids the hazards present in the use of the ordinary explosives
was tested in at least six different mines in Indiana and Illinois a year
or so ago. The tests were carried out on three different types of faces
and in coal seams varying from 39 inches to 8J^ feet in thickness.
Liquid carbon dioxide compressed within a steel cylinder or bomb
4 inches in diameter and approximately 37 inches long is used in
bringing down the coal. A heating element or priming charge com
posed of certain chemicals, which will evolve heat quickly under the
action of a powerful electric current, is placed in the bomb, and the
bomb is so constructed that under the action from the force within
the gas is liberated against the coal at four points. The detonation
of the gas is not in any sense an explosion nor even a chemical process,
but its action is entirely physical, exerting a true heave on the coal.
In order to be successful the transformation of the liquid to gas must
be in an extremely brief interval, about one-twentieth of a second,
otherwise it will give inefficient results or will fail to bring down the
coal at all.
The amount of carbon dioxide in the bombs ranges from 2 to 5
pounds and the amount of heating element required to gasify
exactly the liquid charge can be calculated within close limits. Each
day’s supply of bombs or cartridges can be taken into the mine at
any time, as they are comparatively inert. It takes from 150 to 250
A
7 Coal Age, M a y 12,1927, pp. 688, 689: Carbon Dioxide Furnishes Safe Means of Bringing Down Coal
at Face, by Frank H . Kneeland.
282
INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS
amperes of current at 80 volts or more to start the reaction in the
heating element, and stray currents within the mines are entirely
too small to start this reaction as, so far, the maximum stray current
discovered in any American coal mine is approximately 15 amperes at
30 volts. The bombs can also be used in extremely gassy places,
as the maximum gas temperature developed is less than one-half
the temperature required to ignite the most explosive mixture of air
and methane.
The bombs are placed in holes driven in the face in much the same
manner as the ordinary explosive, and after connection to the lead
wires is made, the bomb is discharged by the momentary closing of a
switch. It is not necessary for the workmen to retire to any great
distance, but it is desirable that they should not stand in line with
the bore hole, as the bomb is occasionally blown out of the hole. In
practice, however, the new method has been developed to the point
where it is at least 98 per cent reliable and misfires or “ duds” are
rare. If it does fail to go off, there is no danger in approaching the
hole at once, as in that event the liquid will gasify so slowly as to
have no effect. The effect of the bomb on the coal face resembles the
dumping of a carload of coal and there is practically no vitiation of the
atmosphere, the increase in carbon dioxide content of the air seldom
exceeding 0.5 per cent.
The bombs are strongly constructed and, while they are fairly
expensive at first, they can be used indefinitely. There is also no
hazard connected with their transportation when loaded, as dropping
or crushing, and short circuiting them with electric current has no
effect. Although the actual expense involved in the use of this
material has so far been slightly greater than when explosives are
used, it is believed that this expense will eventually be appreciably
decreased; and those using the carbon dioxide agree that the advan
tages secured, such as greater safety and a better quality of output,
far more than offset the comparatively slight increase in expense.
Dust Explosions in Industrial Plants
NLY in recent years has direct attention been given to the causes
of dust explosions in industrial plants and to the measures
O
undertaken for the control of this hazard. Large losses of life, prop
erty, and foodstuffs are occurring annually from such explosions, many
of them in lines of industry in which they have not previously taken
place. The expansion of manufacturing operations and the utiliza
tion of by-products and waste materials, resulting in the accumula
tion of large quantities of explosive dusts, have greatly increased the
hazard. At least 28,000 plants, employing over 1,324,000 persons and
manufacturing products valued at over $10,000,000,000 annually, are
subject to the hazard of dust explosions.
Industries in Which Explosive Dusts are Found
S p e c i a l engineering and chemical research investigations to deter
mine causes of dust explosions in manufacturing establishments and
to develop methods of control and prevention have been conducted
frtTSl? EXPLOSIONS IN INDUSTRIAL PLANTS
283
for a number of years by the Bureau of Chemistry of the United
States Department of Agriculture, in cooperation with other Govern
ment departments, State industrial commissions, fire prevention and
insurance associations, and other national and State bodies interested
in dust explosion and fire prevention. At first, investigation was
confined to handling or milling of grain, but it soon became apparent
that explosions were occurring in other types of industrial plants.
Practically all types of dusts created during manufacturing opera
tions are explosive and when mixed with air in proper proportions
can be readily ignited by various external sources. The only exceptions
would seem to be the inert dusts, such as shale, limestone, gypsum,
and the like.
In addition to grain plants, explosions have occurred in starch
factories, chocolate-manufacturing plants, oilcloth factories, cork
plants, cotton mills, fertilizer plants, powdered-milk factories, paper
mills, woodworking plants, phonograph factories, sulphur-grinding
plants, tanneries, spice mills, shoddy mills, in celluloid-manufac
turing, and rubber-reclaiming plants, and in fur-cleaning establish
ments. Explosions of aluminum dust, magnesium dust, zinc dust,
and similar types of metallic dusts have also been reported.
A temperature as low as 540° C. (1004° F.), which is considerably
below dull red heat, will ignite some dusts, while for some of the more
explosive dusts an explosive mixture is formed by 7 milligrams of
dust in a liter of air. There is no record of a spontaneous dust explo
sion, a spark, flame, or othercause being necessary to ignite the dust.
Cost of Dust Explosions
R e c o r d s of dust explosions compiled in the Bureau of Chemistry
indicate that they occurred as far back as 1860. Most of the early
explosions seem to have occurred in flour mills, many of them probably
being chronicled simply as fires. Up to 1880 those actually on record
cost 18 lives and $1,000,000 in property. Between 1880 and 1890
explosions in breweries and malt houses, woodworking plants, con
fectionery houses, and fur-cleaning establishments were reported.
During the next 10 years the loss of life and property remained
approximately the same. Flour mills suffered heavily, a sugar
refinery, a Soapine plant, and a lumber mill had explosions and the
first grain-elevator explosion occurred. During the following decade,
1900-1910, explosions were reported in a number of new lines of in
dustry, including starch factories, cork-handling plants, cotton mills,
and fertilizer plants. Twenty-eight lives were lost and the property
damage amounted to $3,700,000. From 1910 to 1920 the losses from
this cause showed a big increase—194 persons killed, 332 injured,
and property damage of more than $19,000,000. In grain elevators
alone 30 catastrophies occurred, resulting in the death of 34 persons
and injury to 47, and property loss of $7,500,000; in the 17 explosions
in feed and cereal mills 58 persons were killed, 122 injured, and prop
erty valued at more than $3,600,000 was lost; starch plants had 10
disasters, with 64 killed, 79 injured, and $3,200,000 property damage.
A variety of other industries also suffered from this cause.8
8 Factory, the Magazine of Management, Chicago, August, 1926, p. 222.
284
in d u s t r ia l
a c c id e n t s
Up to July, 1926, at least 281 dust explosions had been reported to
the Department of Agriculture. In 70 of them 459 persons were
killed and in 92 of them 760 were injured. The property loss in 144
cases amounted to more than $33,529,350, an average of more than
$230,000 for each explosion. These statistics do not, of course, take
into consideration the interruption to production, loss of time, and
general disturbance of manufacturing operations as a result of explo
sions and fires of this character.
Safety Codes for Prevention of Dust Explosions
S a f e t y c o d e s for the prevention of dust explosions in industrial
establishments have been issued by the United States Bureau of
Labor Statistics as Bulletin No. 433, the plants covered being starch
factories, flour and feed mills, terminal grain elevators, and sugar,
cocoa, and fuel-pulverizing plants. The codes represent the joint
work of the United States Bureau of Chemistry and the National
Fire Protection Association.
Generally speaking, the problem of preventing dust explosions falls
into two great classes: (1) Industries in which dust or powder, such
as starch, flour, sugar, etc., is the product, and (2) industries where
dust is merely a by-product or incident to the factory operations.
If the explosive dust is a by-product, the problem is to prevent dust
clouds from forming and to eliminate sources of ignition. If the
product itself is a dusty material, different methods must be adopted
to eliminate the hazard. Attention should be given to construction
and arrangement of plants and equipment, process of manufacturing,
packing of the product, removal of dust, and prevention of ignition.
The safety codes published cover these points.
Accidents in Small Plants
HAT the accident rates in small plants are higher than those
in large plants is shown in a report on accident prevention in 299
small plants in Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Ohio, and
Rhode Island, prepared for the executive committee of the National
Safety Council. The following unfavorable facts, revealed by the
reports from these plants, emphasize the importance of keeping and
analyzing accident records:
1. No one in the average small plant keeps any record of accidents except
T
the records made out for the State and insurance companies. The average small
plant executive says and believes that he has no accidents in his plant.
2. These executives are often the financiers, managers, sales managers, and
shop superintendents of their plants, and thus do not have or take sufficient
time to pay any attention whatever to accident prevention.
3. Small plants pay their compensation insurance premiums, and after com
plying with the demands of the State and the insurance company, think they
have no further responsibility in accident prevention. They do not realize that
accidents cost them approximately four times as much as they cost the insurance
carriers.
The following analysis of figures taken at random from the sectional statistics
of the National Safety Council indicates that the small plants have more accidents
than the large plants; that, for instance, a group of 10 plants with a total of
1,000 workers has a worse accident record than 1 plant with the same number
of workers.
COST OF ACCIDENTS IN THE HOME
A C C ID E N T F R E Q U E N C Y A N D S E V E R IT Y R A T E S IN O N E
SE VE R A L SM A LL PLAN TS
Machine
shops with
foundry
Gray-iron
foundries
Item
Machinery
and ma
chine-tool
manufac
turing
285
LARGE
Sawmills
and logging
PLANT
Paper mills
AND
IN
Auto and
motor manu
facturing
1
1
11
1
11
9
8
1
10
1
11
1
small large small large small large small large small large small large
plants plant plants plant plants plant plants plant plants plant plants plant
Number of employees
792
761
Accident frequency
r a t e s .......................... 21.10 20.51
Accident s e v e r i t y
rates.............................
1.76 1.00
599
1,255 1,250
1,853 1,850
659
633
633
644
80.49 82.71
34.15 12.80
79.94 47.60
63.18
4.82
36.21
0.40
10.90
.26
21.40
.19
586
.52
.43
.81
.16
7.07
.57
Cost of Accidents in the Home 9
HE NUMBER of fatal accidents occurring annually in the home
(17,000) is nearly equal to the number due to automobiles. The
automobile casualties have naturally attracted a great deal of attention
and much effort has been directed at their control, but because the
facts regarding home injuries have not been brought to public atten
tion there has been no organized effort toward their control. This class
of hazards is of sufficient size and importance to deserve serious con
sideration.
More than one-third of the accidental deaths occurring in the
home involve children under 15 years of age, while one-fourth in
volve persons over 65 years of age who are to a considerable degree
infirm and helpless. The records of the Metropolitan Life Insur
ance Co. for 1925 indicate that of the domestic accidents one-tenth are
due to falls, one-tenth to bums, and one-tenth to drowning. The onetenth due to bums arise from the gas and electric supply, the heat
ing apparatus, and cooking and other devices requiring heat. The
careless householder will occasionally fill a wooden box with hot ashes
from the furnace or go exploring for a gas leak with a lighted match.
It is rather surprising that drowning in bathtubs and other water
containers is as serious a menace as are objects dangerous on account
of heat. Also a very considerable proportion of the cases of fatal
injury are due to accidental discharge of firearms, indicating the
need of much more rigorous restriction of the sale and possession
of such weapons.
I
The hazard of the family medicine closet is not inconsiderable.
Adults are sometimes reckless in the use of poisonous substances,
but nearly one-half the fatalities from poisonous substances were of
children under 15. Winding and narrow stairways present another
source of danger.
Much of the gas dispensed in American cities contains a consider
able proportion of carbon monoxide, and constant vigilance 16 keep
the gas apparatus in proper order is the only safeguard against
casualty. We are, from time to time, reminded of the deadly charac
ter of carbon monoxide gas by the death of the citizen who starts
his automobile engine in a closed garage.
Practically everyone is exposed to these domestic dangers. As a
beginning in combating them, a vigorous educational effort is neces
sary to acquaint the public with their seriousness.
T
• National Safety News, February, 1927, p. 11: Cost of Accidents in the Home, by E . W . Kopf.
INDUSTRIAL HEALTH
Federal Agencies Concerned with Problems of Indus
trial Health
HE PRINCIPAL divisions of the Federal Government con
cerned with the problem of health among industrial workers
are the Public Health Service, the Bureau of Mines, and the Bureau
of Labor Statistics. Each of these has made extensive inquiries,
and issued numerous reports concerning various phases of indus
trial health, with particular reference to methods of protection and
prevention.
T
United States Bureau of Labor Statistics
T he Bureau of Labor Statistics was one of the pioneer organizations
in this country in the study of occupational hazards and diseases
and through its work it has been an active force in the movement
toward reducing the casualties among workmen resulting from the
use of hazardous processes and substances. In the furtherance
of this work many investigations of special hazards in different
industries have been made while active steps have been taken in a
number of instances to effect the desired reforms in the processes
employed or the materials used. Notable work has been done,
therefore, by the bureau in exposing the dangers of various types of
employment with the result that conditions in regard to the safe
guarding of the workers have been much improved. To mention
only one example, the investigations of the hazards of lead in many
industries were of the utmost value in furthering the knowledge
of the effects of this mineral and its various compounds and pro
viding for the institution of measures for the prevention of lead
poisoning. As new industrial processes develop and new chemical
combinations are used, hazards which are not understood or fore
seen are certain to arise so that it is necessary to be continually on
guard against the development of these dangers.
Among the special studies published in the industrial accidents
and hygiene series are included the various bulletins on lead poison
ing in different industries, and studies of the poisons used in the
rubber industry, in the manufacture of explosives, and in the manu
facture of coal-tar dyes and dye intermediates as well as studies of
the hazards from dust and fumes, from phosphorus in the manu
facture of fireworks, from the anthrax bacillus, etc. These and
other bulletins have formed the contribution of the bureau to existing
knowledge in regard to the specific hazards of industry and to the
safeguarding of workers who are exposed in the course of their em
ployment to contact with these dangerous substances.
The most recent bulletin in this series published by the bureau is
a report of a simple laboratory method for the detection of early
absorption of lead by workers exposed to lead in its various forms.
This bulletin by Dr. Carey P. McCord is entitled “A New Test for
Lead Poisoning” (Bui. No. 460). Other studies now nearing com
289
290
INDUSTRIAL HEALTH
pletion are a study of the hazards of radioactive substances in the
painting of watch and clock dials with luminous paint and a study of
the hazards of spray painting.
United States Public Health Service
A ctivities of the office of industrial hygiene and sanitation of
the United States Public Health Service include investigation of
occupational health hazards, studies of the effects of industrial
poisons, and statistical studies of causes of sickness and absenteeism
in industry together with certain special studies carried out in coopera
tion with other Government departments and with industrial
and other agencies.
Among recent investigations made either by this office alone or in
conjunction with other investigative agencies may be cited the studies
of tetra-ethyl lead gasoline and the extent of occupational exposure to
lead in commercial garages; investigation of the effects of municipal
dust and of dust in the cement, granite-cutting, metal-polishing,
anthracite and soft-coal mining, and cotton-manufacturing industries;
investigation of the problems of ventilation and of the effect of
varying conditions of illumination upon vision and production;
the loss of light due to smoke in New York City; and the carbon
monoxide hazard from automobiles, streets, and shops. In addition
to the investigation of special hazards such as these which are taken
up from time to time as the need arises, a general study of industrial
morbidity among large groups of workers is continued from year to
year, monthly reports being received of sickness causing a disability
of one week or longer among a large number of employees who are
members of sick benefit associations. Analyses of these figures are
published periodically and show the frequency and severity of
disabilities, by sex, and according to the type of sickness, season of
the year, etc., for this representative sample of the industrial popu
lation.
United States Bureau of Mines
T he health work of the Bureau of Mines is carried on by the health
and safety branch. The eighteenth annual report of the director
states that there is probably no industry in which greater care is
required to safeguard the health of workmen than mining since miners
usually work in remote places underground where adequate venti
lation is difficult to obtain and where there is likely to be exposure
to poisonous gases, unwholesome dusts, and unhealthful conditions
of temperature and humidity.
The health division working in cooperation with the United
States Public Health Service, investigates the health and sanitation
problems, therefore, of the mining industry with a view to improving
working conditions. Among the investigations carried on by the
bureau are exhaustive studies of toxic mine gases with special refer
ence to methods of detection, the physiological effects of these gases
on the workmen, and the provision of protective devices. Special
attention has been given by the bureau to carbon monoxide, some
times called the universal poison gas, since almost everyone is at times
exposed to its insidious attacks and as an outgrowth of the bureau’s
intensive studies of this and other noxious mine gases it is frequently
STUDIES OF INDUSTRIAL DISEASES AND POISONS
291
called upon to help to solve problems due to the presence of danger
ous gases in other places than mines. The health division investi
gates sanitary conditions in mining communities, and studies the
physiological effects of exposure to the various types of rock dust in
mines; and studies are made also of the causes of death among miners
as well as of the extent of the silicosis and tuberculosis problem.
While the work of this branch of the bureau is specially directed
toward mining problems many of the researches have a wider appli
cation and have been of benefit, therefore, to other branches of
industry.
Recent Studies of Industrial Diseases and Poisons
ADDITION to the original studies of industrial poisons and dis
eases carried out by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the office
INfollows
developments in the field of industrial hygiene through the
medium of the Monthly Labor Review, digests appearing in this publi
cation each month of investigations by scientific organizations and of
articles appearing in the various medical and scientific journals.
As the bureau receives many requests for information on these
subjects summaries are given below of the more important articles
and bulletins which have been published during the past two years
together with references to the articles published in the former hand
book (Bui. No. 439).
Abrasive Industry
See Abrasive industry: dust hazard in the manufacture of artificial
abrasive wheels. Former handbook (Bui. No. 439), pages 261-263.
Anemia
See Radioactive substances: anemia occurring among workers
handling radioactive substances.
Agriculture: Occupational Diseases of Agricultural Laborers1
A s t u d y of occupational diseases among agricultural workers
forms the subject of a brochure issued by the International Labor
Office as part of the Encyclopedia of Hygiene, Pathology, and Social
Welfare.
The report points out that conditions among agricultural workers
vary greatly not only between different countries but also between
different districts in the same country, and that as a result of these
differences in hving conditions, education, etc., as well as the existence
of overpopulation or underpopulation, there is great variation in
the hygiene and pathology of these workers. It is generally consid
ered that agriculture has no specific occupational diseases, but that
long hours and fatigue due to carrying heavy loads are the principal
causes of those diseases due to the occupation. It is true that agri
culture presents certain advantages over industrial employment, such
as work in the open air and in the sunlight, but on the other hand
there is a variety of hazards, including exposure to rapid changes of
i International Labor Office. Occupation and Health Brochure N o. 73: Occupational Diseases of Agri
cultural Laborers. Geneva, 1927. 7 pp.
39142°— 29------- 20
292
INDUSTRIAL HEALTH
weather and temperature, to diseases connected with the work in
various crops and those contracted as the result of tending stock, and
to accidents from farm machinery in wood cutting, etc.
Among the operations which are particularly fatiguing are mowing,
harvesting, digging, and threshing. The occupations frequently cause
acute morbid symtoms, the result of fatigue, such as fever, headache,
pains in the joints, intense thirst, and drowsiness. Such attacks are
of short duration, lasting usually for one or two days. Acute inflam
mation of the tendon sheaths of the flexor muscles of the hand is
frequently found among young workers. This condition is caused
by fatigue and is quickly cured by rest. An inflammatory condition
of the muscles of the back resembling sciatica is often the result of
work which puts an undue amount of strain on the muscles in the
lumbar region.
Agricultural workers who tend stock are subject to the risk of
accidents and to infectious diseases: Anthrax, tetanus, glanders,
foot and mouth disease, actinomycosis, the bacillus of abortion, etc.
Various mites and animal parasites are transmissible to workers
and cause different forms of dermatitis. There is a variety of condi
tions which cause irritation and disease of the eyes. These include
conjunctivitis due to dust raised during threshing operations; hay
fever caused by the pollen of flowers and by the extremely fine hairs
found on the surface of leaves and fruits, while the dust of certain
bulbs such as hyacinths and crocuses, also sets up conjunctival
inflammation. Severe retinitis results from exposure, without pro
tection, to the sun’s rays in summer. A specific disease, vibrio
gangrene, is found among workers who carry and spread manure.
This disease is a serious one in which there is the formation of ulcers
on the eyelids which rapidly pass into a moist gangrene and which is
accompanied with swelling of the face, chest, and neck and a high
fever. This disease always results in serious deformity of the eyelids.
One authority considers this disease characteristic of southern coun
tries while another thinks it can also occur in colder climates. Ocular
accidents, the result of injury or of foreign bodies penetrating the
conjunctival mucous membrane, are frequent. Workers about stables
are often the victims of typhoid fever, of intestinal affections due to
the Bacillus coli, and of vaccines. Diseases of the circulatory organs,
including heart disease, arteriosclerosis, etc.; of the digestive system;
and of the peripheral nervous system (neuritis, especially of muscles
fatigued from work such as potato digging, milking, etc.) are common,
while deformities of the spine and of the leg are frequently seen.
In general much needs to be done in a legislative way to correct the
unfavorable conditions among agricultural workers in nearly all
countries. Measures advocated by the International Labor Con
ference for ratification by the different countries include measures
for the prevention of unemployment; protection of women before
and after childbirth; prohibition of the work of children under 14
years of age; regulation of the night work of women; vocational
training for children; improvement in technical education in agri
culture; improved housing; recognition of the rights of association
and combination; compensation for accidents; and social insurance.
STUDIES OF INDUSTRIAL DISEASES AND POISONS
293
Anthrax: Extent of Anthrax Hazard in Pennsylvania 2
S t u d ie s of the occurrence of anthrax in the horsehair-dressing
industry and the tanning industry, made by the Pennsylvania Depart
ment of Labor and Industry in 1920 and 1921, showed that there was
a definite anthrax hazard, especially in the tanning industry. In
view of this fact a study was made which included all cases, both
industrial and nonindustrial, reported to the department over the
5-year period 1922-1926. During this time there were reported 7
fatal and 75 nonfatal cases of an industrial and 9 of a nonindustrial
origin. By far the largest number of cases have occurred in the tan
ning industry. In the latest study half of the 80 cases were in this
industry, 20 in the woolen and worsted industry, 12 in the hair
industiy, 6 in the transportation industry, and 2 cases which were
not strictly industrial were classified as miscellaneous. One of these
cases was a veterinary surgeon and the other a medical student
handling anthrax cultures in a laboratory. Of the nonindustrial cases,
three were the result of shaving-brush infection, and in the other
cases the source of infection could not be definitely fixed. The majority
of the industrial cases occurred in the age group between 20 and 39
years—the years of the most active industrial employment.
General statistics show that the anthrax lesions occur most fre
quently on the exposed portions of the body and the present study
confirms this observation. There are several factors which account
for this fact. The face, neck, and forearm are often the sites of
pimples or other small breaks in the skin, and the neck and shoulders
are often scratched by the sharp edges of materials carried on the
shoulder. Such breaks may be infected either by coming in contact
with the infected material or through the medium of the hands. It
would appear that the hands would be the most frequent site of
infection, since they most frequently come in contact with the
infected material, but as a matter of fact the lesions seldom appear
on the hands, only two of the cases reported having occurred in this
location. The reason for this failure to develop the infection in the
hands is considered to lie in the fact that they are washed more fre
quently and more thoroughly than other parts of the body, and the
organism has less opportunity, therefore, to gain a foothold.
The data show that early treatment of the disease is of great
importance, and the report states that there is no reason why a case
of anthrax, if it is promptly recognized and properly treated, should
not make a speedy and uneventful recovery. The study also brings
out the fact that cases occurring in an industry in which the hazard
is recognized have a better chance for recovery than cases of a
nonindustrial origin, since in the latter case the condition is frequently
undiagnosed until the chance for recovery is past.
Analysis of the data relating to the length of disability shows that
the average disability is shorter in those cases receiving the earliest
treatment. In the tanning industry the average number of days lost
per nonfatal case was 47.7; in the woolen and worsted industry
57.4 days; in the hair industry, 59.1 days; and in the transportation
industry, 58.5 days.
* Pennsylvania. Department of Labor and Industry. Labor and Industry, Harrisburg, June, 1927,
pp. 5-16; Pennsylvania’s 5-year Experience W ith Anthrax, by Elizabeth B. Bricker, M. D.
294
INDUSTRIAL HEALTH
In the control of a disease of this kind it is important to know
the countries from which the infected materials come. It is ex
tremely difficult, however, to trace the source of infection since ma
terials from several countries are usually handled at the same time.
At the present time, although the United States Department of Ag
riculture through the Bureau of Animal Industry has certain reg
ulations in effect designed to control and prevent the spread of
anthrax among livestock in this country, these regulations do not
sufficiently protect the workers in industries handling foreign hides
and wool. Under the present system part of the material is not dis
infected until it reaches its destination, giving opportunities for the
infection of persons handling the material at various points along
the way. It is suggested in the report that the situation might be
dealt with either by establishing disinfecting stations at shipping
points in foreign countries or by the establishment of disinfecting
stations by the Federal Government at the several ports in the United
States where such material is received.
In the absence of such regulations, however, it is advocated, in
order to minimize the danger in manufacturing plants, that adequate
washing facilities should be provided and their use required; dust
removal systems should be installed in dusty processes, and vacuum
cleaning or thorough wetting of floors before sweeping should be
substituted for dry sweeping; there should be proper medical care
of employees, including prompt dressing of all breaks in the skin
and subsequent daily inspection of such injuries until they are healed;
and all workers should be instructed as to the danger of infection
and the necessity for immediate medical attention for all affections
of the skin. The value of colored posters which show the different
stages of the cutaneous form of anthrax has been demonstrated in
a number of instances. In two of the cases reported in this study,
where the patients were familiar with such posters, the diagnosis was
suggested to the attending physician by the patient himself.
Arsenic Trichloride
See Arsenic trichloride: effects of exposure on workers.
handbook (Bui. No. 439), pages 263-265.
Former
Asthma: Caused by Castor-Bean Dust
A r e p o r t of outbreaks of asthma occurring over a period of years
in a certain section of Toledo, Ohio, was given in the Journal of the
American Medical Association,3 January 14, 1928.
The existence of an “ asthma colony ” in East Toledo had been
known to physicians of the city for some years, but although a
linseed-oil mill in the district had been suspected of being the cause
of the trouble, investigation by the city health department and the
State department of health had failed to show the relationship be
tween the mill and the asthmatic attacks occurring among the
residents in the vicinity.
The mill in question manufactures both linseed oil and castor oil,
and the residue after the oil is extracted from the castor bean is
8 Journal of the American Medical Association, Jan. 14, 1928: Endemic Asthm a D ue to Castor-bean
D ust, by Karl D . Figley, M , D ,, and Robert H . Elrod, M , D ,
STUDIES OF INDUSTRIAL DISEASES AND POISONS
295
made into a fertilizer known as castor-bean pomace. In making
the pomace the “ cake” which is formed after the oil is pressed out is
round, and during this process there is considerable fine dust prouced, which does not fall through the screen of the grinding mill
but is carried out at the roof through pipes. When the mill was in
operation, a fine cloud of this very fine and light dust could be seen
issuing from these pipes.
The patients had always asserted that their attacks coincided with
the odor of linseed oil from the mill when the wind was in the right
direction, and because of this fact all the investigations had been
directed to the Unseed oil as the causative agent. The writers
found, however, that after the oil was expressed from the flaxseed
there was still about 9 per cent of oil in the seed, making it too heavy
to be carried by the wind. As the castor-bean dust, which was
present in quantities, is practically odorless as compared with the
linseed oil fumes, it had been entirely overlooked as a possible cause
of the trouble.
The persons who had developed an asthmatic condition included
numerous pupils in a school across the street from the oil mill and
residents of the district within a radius of a mile from the mill. Of
32 individuals who reported for examination, 30 were found to have
asthma at all times of the year. Their histories were quite similar,
as none had had asthma before moving to the district and the attacks
occurred at night among men who worked during the day at a dis
tance from their homes and during either day or night among those
who remained in the vicinity all the time. The attacks were most
frequent during the spring and fall months, when the wind attained
its greatest velocity, and the patients were most free from attacks
during June, July, and August, when the mill was not run at night.
Sensitization tests showed that all of the persons examined reacted
to castor-bean dust, while five gave cutaneous reactions to flaxseed,
although in a lesser degree. An account of eight illustrative cases
bringing out the factor of exposure to the dust at different times of
the day or night and under different conditions includes one employee
of the mill whose attacks became so frequent and severe that he
had to give up his employment and find work at a safe distance
from the mill.
Asthma
f
See also Woodworking industries: health hazards in Australian
woodworking industries.
Benzol Poisoning: Hazard from the Industrial Use of Benzol
T he hazard connected with the industrial use of benzol has been
the subject of numerous studies. The exhaustive study by a com
mittee appointed by the National Safety Council which issued its
final report in May, 1926, showed that chronic benzol poisoning is
most liable to occur in the group of industries in which benzol is used
as a solvent and is evaporated into the air of the workroom resulting
in the continuous or repeated exposure of employees to the fumes.
It was found as the result of the physical examination of a group of
workers exposed to the fumes, many of whom gave evidence of chronic
poisoning, that a concentration of benzol of 100 parts per million
presented a distinct hazard and it was also shown that there were few
296
INDUSTRIAL HEALTH
exhaust ventilation systems capable of keeping the concentration
below that figure. It was recommended, therefore, that closed
systems should be used wherever possible and that in other cases
there should be effective local exhaust ventilation. Physical exam
ination upon employment and once a month thereafter was advised
together with removal from exposure of any worker who showed a
decrease of more than 25 per cent in either white or red blood cells or
hemoglobin below 70 per cent.
While the hazard in certain industries such as the rubber industry
and the manufacture of paints and lacquers is well recognized, there
fore, and in most cases more or less effectively guarded against there
are undoubtedly numerous instances where adequate precautions
are not taken in the use of benzol. It was recently brought to the
attention of the United States Public Health Service that benzol is
used to a considerable extent in chemical laboratories, particularly
in those where tests are conducted in connection with rubber, paint,
varnish, and oil products to determine the solubility of compounds in
various solvents such as benzol, carbon disulphide, and acetone.
Several such laboratories were accordingly investigated 4 in order
to determine whether or not the benzol was used in quantities or in
such a manner as to create a health hazard. It was foimd that from
3 to 5 gallons of benzol were used each week in these laboratories, and
that in certain tests the material was centrifuged with benzol, a
process which liberated considerable benzol in the air. The amount
of benzol in the atmosphere of these places was shown by air analyses
to vary from 28 parts per million in one room to 223 parts per mil
lion in another, in the latter room two centrifuges being used inter
mittently for the tests.
In addition to the use of benzol for testing materials it was found
that the workers in the laboratories were also using the solvent for
cleaning apparatus and for washing off stains on their hands and
arms. Its use in this way was very common, as many of the materials
tested contained such substances as asphalt, coal tar, and varnishes
which are difficult to remove, both from utensils and from the skin.
In one laboratory as much as 3 gallons of benzol per week was used
for this purpose. This practice, it is evident, releases additional
benzol vapor in the air of the laboratory, and some less toxic solvent
such as xylol should, therefore, be used for this purpose, even though
the use of benzol for experimental purposes may be justified in certain
instances.
The earliest and most characteristic symptom in chronic benzol
poisoning is a reduction in the number of white blood cells, and the
blood examinations of these workers showed that in three cases the
cell count, while not definitely abnormal, indicated a departure in
the relationship between the various types of white blood cells which,
coupled with a definite exposure to benzol, was indicative of benzol
absolution.
It is recommended, therefore, as a result of the investigation that
such solvents as toluol, xylol, or highflash naphtha should be sub
stituted for benzol in chemical laboratories where possible, or if the
use of benzol is continued it should be limited to the testing of mater
ials only and should not be used as a cleansing agent.
< U . S. Public Health Service. Public Health Reports, July 20, 1928: Benzol Poisoning as a Possibly
Hazard in Chemical Laboratories, by J, J. Bloomfield.
STUDIES OF INDUSTRIAL DISEASES AND POISONS
297
Benzol Poisoning: Chronic Benzol Poisoning Among Women6
I n v iew of the seriousness of the benzol hazard and because more
information as to the early effect of benzol upon women was needed,
a study was made during the summer and fall of 1926 by the New
York Bureau of Women in Industry to secure data relative to the
prevalence of unrecognized chronic benzol poisoning among woman
workers and to the earliest symptoms of such poisoning.
In the chemical industries, including the manufacture of dyes
and paints, and in the blending of motor fuels benzol is handled
in closed systems so that there is comparatively little danger of
the development of chronic poisoning through the inhalation of
fumes, but in processes in which it is used as a solvent there is con
stant risk of poisoning. Benzol has a direct destructive action on
the blood and on the blood-forming centers. It attacks and destroys
the white blood cells causing the condition known as leucopenia and
secondarily destroys the red blood cells, resulting in a corresponding
decrease in hemoglobin. The anemia resulting from the action of
the benzol is called “ aplastic anemia” as there is little effort on the
part of the blood-forming organs to produce new cells. It also
destroys the parent cells of the blood platelets, causing a tendency to
hemorrhage because of the interference with the normal clotting
mechanism. This is the most serious symptom in the advanced cases.
The effects upon the blood do not give rise to symptoms usually
until considerable damage has been done, and the condition may
remain practically stationary in a mild chronic form for some time.
The development of serious symptoms comes suddenly and the
disease then tends to progress even with withdrawal from exposure to
the poison. It appears that susceptibility varies in individuals, as
the length of exposure before symptoms developed in various recorded
cases ranged from less than a week to several years.
The characteristic sign of benzol poisoning, if there is a history of
exposure to benzol fumes, is the presence of leucopenia, and it is
necessary, therefore, in all suspected cases to examine the blood.
In early cases it is often enough to remove the patient from ex
posure to the fumes, but if there is anemia, rest, fresh air, sunlight, a
nourishing diet, and proper medical care are required, though even
with proper care recovery is usually slow. If serious symptoms such
as purpuric spots and bleeding from the mucous membranes have
occurred, hospital care is necessary and blood transfusions offer the
best hope of recovery.
The study was carried out in six factories in New York State
located in large industrial centers. The industries investigated
included three factories in which sanitary tin cans were manufac
tured and one each manufacturing tires and rubber goods, cameras,
and shoes. Seventy-nine women who in the course of their work were
exposed to the fumes of benzol from the cements or lacquers used
were given physical examinations. Forty-four were exposed directly
to the fumes, through actual use or handling objects to which the
substance had been applied and 35 were indirectly exposed through
working in the same room where it was used. Of the first group 17,
8 N ew York. Department of Labor. Bureau of W om en in Industry. Special Bulletin N o. 150: Chronic
Benaol Poisoning Among W om en Industrial Workers. Albany, 1927.
298
INDUSTRIAL HEALTH
or 38.6 per cent, and of the second, 8, or 22.8 per cent, showed evidence
of poisoning. In addition there were five suspected cases.
The shortest length of exposure among the women showing positive
or suspicious signs of poisoning was 2 months, while one woman
who was one of the suspected cases had been exposed for 11 years.
Practically all of the women exposed had a look of fatigue and in
the majority there was a striking degree of pallor. There were no
cases with purpuric spots or bleeding from the mucous membranes,
but less serious symptoms, such as headache, nausea, excessive
fatigue, etc., were present in practically all of the women even when
there was no positive sign of poisoning. The blood changes in the
30 cases showed unmistakably that the blood was seriously affected
and the hemoglobin was moderately reduced in all but four cases.
The severe anemia seems to develop only in the later stages after
bleeding has commenced.
The conclusions reached as a result of the study were as follows:
Benzol as used in the industries investigated results in chronic poi
soning of practically one out of every three women; exposure to the
fumes in the workroom even for those not working directly with
the benzol is accompanied by risk; more than one-third of those who
did not show definite signs of poisoning had symptoms which were
probably caused by exposure to benzol; there did not seem to be
any difference in the susceptibility to benzol poisoning between
Soung and older workers; the most frequent symptoms accompanying
lood changes which show early chronic poisoning are headache,
excessive fatigue, dizziness, nausea, loss of appetite, nervousness,
and disturbances of sensation such as numbness and tingling in the
extremities; and the blood changes in addition to the leucopenia,
the#most characteristic sign of chronic benzol poisoning, include
various other changes in different blood cells.
As a result of the study it is recommended that there should be a
franker attitude on the part of employers toward the risk involved
in its use and that workers should be warned of the possible danger
to their health; that benzol should be used only in connection with
efficient systems of local exhaust ventilation; that whenever possible
substitutes for benzol, should be used; and that exposed workers
should be under thorough and persistent medical supervision.
In connection with this report an account of a fatal case of benzol
poisoning reported in the Boston Medical and Surgical Journal,
September 29, 1927 (pp. 521-524), is of interest. The patient, who
was treated in the Massachusetts General Hospital, was a Canadian
girl 20 years old, who had been employed for eight months cementing
rubber heels in a rubber-shoe factory. For four months before
admission to the hospital she had felt very exhausted. She had also
had dizziness and had felt nauseated by the smell of the cement.
For two months before admission there had been bleeding from
mucous membranes. The immediate cause of admission to the hospi
tal was profuse hemorrhage from the nose. Hemorrhages from
various membranes, for which she was given eight blood transfusions,
occurred at intervals during the 20 days which elapsed before her
death. She had other symptoms of benzol poisoning, such as pur
puric spots, and the blood tests showed changes in the various cells
characteristic of this form of poisoning. The case was diagnosed
by the different physicians concerned in the treatment as benzo
STUDIES OF INDUSTRIAL DISEASES AND POISONS
299
poisoning. It was learned that the cement used by this patient in
her work contained 80 per cent of benzol and also that there had
been seven almost exactly similar cases
@FedFRASER