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8
155
9
EMPLOYMENT
AND
UNEMPLOYMENT
IN A
DEPRESSED
LABOR
MARKET:
BRAZIL, IND.
THE LIBRARYOF THE
JUN 6
1940
UNIVERSITY
OF ILLINOIS
**USA
WORK
PROGRAM
WPA
WORK
PROJECTS
ADMINISTRATION
NATIONAL RESEARCH
PROJECT
WPA NATIONAL RESEARCH PROJECT
Reports issued to date
General
G-1 Unemploymentand IncreasingProductivity
(out of print)
G-2
The Research Program of the National Research Project
G-3 Summary of Findingsto Date, March1938
G-4 Effects of currentand Prospective
Technological
Developments
Upon Capital Formation
G-5 Industrial
Changeand Employment
Opportunity
- A Selected
Bibliography
(Author index available)
G-8 Surveyof Economic
Theoryon Technological
change
andEmployment
(inpress)
G-7 Unemploymentand Technological
change
SelectedReferenceson Practicesand Use of Laboron Farms
(outof print)
A-3
Studiesin Typesand Rates of Technological
Change
Manufacture
M-1
IndustrialInstrumentsand ChangingTechnology
M-2 Mechanization
in the BrickIndustry
M-3 Mechanizationin the CementIndustry
M-4
Industrial
Research
andChanging
Technology
M-5 Mechanization
in the LumberIndustry
B-2Mechanical
Changes
inthecotton-Textile
Industry,
1910to1936
(Sunuary
B-3 Mechanical
Changes
intheWoolen
andWorsted
Industries,
1910to1938
(Suana
B-5 Systems
ofShopManagement
inthecotton-Garment
Industry
(outof
print)
Mining
E-1
Technology
and theMineral
Industries
(outof print)
E-3 Mechanization
Trends
in Metal
andNonmetal
Mining
asIndicated
bySalesof
Underground Loading Equipment
E-5
FuelEfficiency
inCement
Manufacture,
1909-1935
(outofprint)
MineralTechnologyand output per Man Studies:
Grade of ore (out of print)
E-6
E-11 Rock Drilling
Agriculture
Changes in Farm Power and Equipment:
A-2 Mechanical Cotton Picker
A-9 Tractors,
Trucks,
and Automobiles
(outof print)
A-11 Field Implements
Studies
in Production,
Productivity,
andEmployment
Manufacture
S-1
Production, Employment,and Productivityin59 ManufacturingIndustries,
1919-36
Productivity
and Employmentin SelectedIndustries:
N-1
N-2
Beet Sugar
Brick and Tile
B -1
Laborproductivity
in theLeather
Industry
(Summary)
B -4
Effects
ofMechanization
incigar
Manufacture
(Summary)
of Labor
in the Cigar Manufacturing
Industry
and productivity
B-8Mechanization
Labor
productivity
intheBootand
Shoe
Industry(Summary)
f
Productivity
of Labor in the cotton-Garment
Industry
(List continuedon insidebackcover)
*Publishedas
Bull.No.860of theU.8. Bureauof LaborStatistics.
Published as Bull.No. 662 of the U. S. Bureauof LaborStatistics.
FEDERAL
WORK
WORKS
PROJECTS
AGENCY
ADMINISTRATION
F. C. HARRINGTON
Commissioner
CORRINGTON GILL
Assistant Commissioner
NATIONAL
RESEARCH
PROJECT
on
Reemployment
Opportunities
andRecent
Changes
in IndustrialTechniques
DAVID
WEINTRAUB
Director
THE LIBRARYOF THE
JUN 6
1940
UNIVERSITY
OF ILLINOIS
Studies of the Effects of Industrial Change on Labor Markets
EMPLOYMENT
AND
UNEMPLOYMENT
IN A DEPRESSED LABOR MARKET:
BRAZIL,
IND.
by
Miriam E. West
Edward J. Fitzgerald
and
George L. Bird
WORK PROJECTS ADMINISTRATION, NATIONAL RESEARCH PROJECT
Report No. 1-9
Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania
April1940
THE WPA NATIONAL
RESEARCH
PROJECT
ON REEMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES AND RECENT CHANGES
IN INDUSTRIAL TECHNIQUES
Under the authority grantedby the President in the Execu
tive Order which createdthe works ProgressAdministration,
Administrator
Harry L. Hopkinsauthorizedthe establishment
of a researchprogramforthepurposeof collectingand ana
lyzingdata bearingonproblemsof employment,unemployment,
and reliei.
Accordingly,the NationalResearchProgramwas
establishedin
October1935
underthe
supervisionof
Corrington
Gill, AssistantAdministrator
of the WPA, who appointedthe
directorsof the individualstudiesor projects.
The Project on ReemploymentOpportunities andRecent Changes
in Industrial Techniques was organizedin December1935 to
Inquire,withthe cooperationofindustry,labor,and govern
mentaland private agencies, intothe extentof recent changes
in industrialtechniquesandto evaluatethe effectsof these
changes on the volume of employment and unemployment. David
Weintraub
and IrvingKaplan,
membersof
the research stari
of the DivisionofResearch,Statistics,and Financeweread
pointed, respectively, Directorand Associate Directorof the
Project. The task set for them was to assemble and organize
the existing data which bear on the problem and to augment
these data by field surveys and analyses.
To this end, many governmental agencies whichare the col
lectorsand repositoriesof pertinent informationwereinvited
The cooperating agenciesof the United States
to cooperate.
Governmentincludethe Departmentof Agriculture,the Bureau
Of Mines 01 the Department
of the Interior, the Bureau of
Labor Statistics of the Department of Labor, the Railroad
Retirement Board, the Social Security Board, the Bureau of
Internal Revenue of the Department of the Treasury, the De
partment of Commerce, the Federal Trade Commission, and the
Tarifi
Commission .
The following private agencies joined with the National
Research Project in conducting special studies: the Indus
trial Research Departmentof the University of Pennsylvania,
the National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc., the Employ
ment Stabilization
Research
Institute
of
the University
of
Minnesota, and the Agricultural Economics Departmentsin the
Agricultural Experiment Stations of California, Illinois,
Iowa, and New York.
Since September 1, 1939, the Project has been sponsored
Planning Board, Executive orrice
Resources
by the National
of the President, Washington, D. C.
33%8
1215s
20.9
FEDERAL
WORK
WORKS
PROJECTS
1734 NEW
AGENCY
ADMINISTRATION
YORK
AVENUE
WASHINGTON,
NW.
D. C.
F. C. HARRINGTON
COMMISSIONER
OF WORK
PROJECTS
April 20, 1940
Colonel
F. C. Harrington
Commissioner of Work Projects
Sir:
The depressed community with closed mills, wide
spread unemployment, and heavy relief rolls is a
phenomenon of the American scene that has commanded
increasing attention in recent years. The present
report is designed, through an analysis of the labor
market of Brazil, Indiana, to cast light on the way in
which the unemploymentsituation developed in one such
community, the types of unemployment problems that
were created, and the reemployment problems that
con
tinued into a periodwhen other regionswere experi
encing at least some measure
of recovery.
During the 1920's, the history of the Brazil area
was
one of declining employment opportunities due to
declining
activity
in a number
of its industries.
Only clay-working activity had been expanding appre
ciably but with the beginning of the general depres
sion this industry also experienced a sharp decline.
Employment in the clay-products industry dropped from
an average of 1,565 workers in the peak year 1929,
when it was the most important single industry in the
city, to an average of 162 workers in 1933. Though
later years saw some recovery, in 1935 an average of
only 282 persons were employed in the clay-products
The long history of declining employment
opportunitythat had characterizedthe community, cou
pled with the depression problem of the clay-working
industry, had had importanteffects upon the nature as
plants .
2
well
as upon the extent of the unemploymentproblem
that existed
in 1936.
This report shows that during a recovery year
unemployment was widespread in the commu
nity of Brazil. More than a third of the employables
like
1936
were unemployed,
and almost
half of the households
with some employables had at least one member unem
ployed or employed only part time. This widespread
unemploymentand underemploymentcovered a variety of
situations, each of which presents different problems
for a relief
administration .
In the first place, the lack of employment op
portunities in the region had led to the creation of
a large,
untapped
reservoir
of labor
new
workers
who had never succeeded in finding even a first job.
These constituted 6 percent of the employables in the
community but accounted for almost a fifth of its un
employed.
Further, there was evident a tendency to
ward the emergenceof a sizablegroup of chronically
unemployed persons.
This
was
reflected
in the
high
proportion of the unemployed who had been out of work
for long periods.
of those previously employed in
the community who were unemployed in 1936, more than
three-quarters had been without jobs for a year OI
more .
A third had been continuously out of work for
5 years or more.
Many of these were older workers. A
large number of them were former clay workers who had
been unable to find other employment in a labor market
of restricted opportunity and large reserve forces,
and had not been recalled to the clay-products indus
try:
Others, from other industries, were workers whom
the decline of the community's industrial life had
gradually pushed into the unemployed group. The con
tinued low level of activity in their own industries
and their inability to find other work were transform
ing them into chronically unemployed persons.
In addition to these persons, there was
a
group
who remained attached to one industry, even one plant,
throughouttheir employmentand unemployment. Because
of an age, skill, or experience advantage these were
the ones who were recalled whenever activity in their
plant was resumed or expanded, but continued inactiv
ity in a number of the plants meant heavy records of
unemploymentfor many of the group.
Still another group in the community consisted of
those workers, mostly the young, who had succeeded in
entering actively into the labor market, but who had
not made permanent connections with any one industry.
Their youth enabled them to shift from one industry to
another, and, as a result , they constituted a
stantly fluctuating reserve for many industries.
con
The
continuedlow level of activity was, however, reducing
their chances of making any stable connection, and
many of their number were chronicallyunderemployed.
Finally,many workers,upon becomingunemployed,
turned to self-employment,mostly in agriculture,
small-scale mining, and trucking. The limited op
portunities for gaining more than a bare subsistence
by such attempts
meant that this recourse
to self
employment was for many workers a less than satisfac
tory adjustment.
In all, the situation that had developed in this
depressedcommunity- the widespreadunemployment
and
underemployment,the inability of the younger workers
to find places in the crowded labor market, and the
increasingchronic unemploymentof the older workers presented a wide variety of social problems. Short of
a tremendousexpansionof local industrialactivity,
these problems can be met only by a relief and public
work program calculated to care for the various types
of unemployment that cannot be handled by existing
security legislation.
Respectfully yours,
sier
>Canigten
Corrington
Gill
Assistant Commissioner
CONTENTS
Chapter
Page
PREFACE. .
I. THE
.
EMPLOYMENT
SITUATION
AND
ITS
DEVELOPMENT
.
.
Introduction
1
1
Industrial development of the Brazil area.
2
Population trends.
5
Labor supply and employment opportunities after
1920.
8
Purposeof the study
Samplingprocedure.
11
.
12
.
Plan of the study.
15
II. THE LABOR MARKET IN THE FALL OF 1936
16
Introduction
16
The gainful workers in Brazil and Carbon
.
The compositionof the population.
The industrial dependence of the population.
The status of the employable workers
The workers selected for more detailed study
Age.
Origins and industrial background.
Usual clay workers
.
Sometime clay workers.
Other
industrial
16
16
19
20
23
24
25
25
27
workers
.
Occupational
distributionof the clay workers
Employment status of the workers studied .
Age, place of residence,occupational
level,
and employmentstatus
.
Age and employment status.
Place of residence and employment status
28
29
29
32
32
34
Occupationallevel of clay workersand em
ployment status
35
.
Summary:
37
III. EMPLOYMENT EXPERIENCE, 1928-35, AND SELECTIVE
FACTORS
40
Employmentand unemployment,
1926-35
Time out of the labor market
Unemployment
.
Employment :
Full-time employment
Part-time employment
Self-employment.
..
Distribution of employment and unemployment.
The
usual
lay
workers
Employment .
Self-employment.
Unemployment
41
41
42
45
45
47
47
48
49
49
50
50
ix
CONTENTS
X
Chapter
Page
The
workers
52
Employment :
Self-employment.
Unemployment
The sometime clay workers.
other
industrial
53
54
52
.
56
56
Employment
Self-employment.
57
Unemployment
58
.
59
Age and employment experience.
Usual clay workers
The other industrial workers
The sometime clay workers.
61
82
63
.
Occupational
level and employmentexperienceof
clay workers.
.
Place of residence and employment experience
Summary
.
87
.
IV. INDUSTRIAL MOBILITY IN THE 10 YEARS, 1926–35
Employmentoutsidethe usual industry.
Job separationsand employerand industryshifts
The usual clay workers
V. SUMMARY
79
80
81
clay workers .
82
82
83
:
83
AND
CONCLUS
The industrial
IONS .
88
.
setting
88
The character of the labor market.
The
73
77
79
Employed workers
Self-employed workers.
Unemployed workers
Summary
71
71
77
workers
Employed workers
Self-employed workers.
Unemployed workers
The sometime
88
74
75
76
Employed workers
Self-employed workers.
Unemployed workers
The other industrial
65
industrial
87
88
workers
Employment experience and selective factors.
89
Conclusion
92
Appendix
A.
TABLES
B. SCHEDULES
96
AND
DEFINITIONS
OF TERMS
Occupational history schedule,
.
132
132
Community household schedule
133
Definitions
134
of terms
CONTENTS
xi
Appendix
Page
C. SAMPLING
D.
PROCEDURE
OCCUPATIONAL
137
GROUPS .
139
.
CHARTS
Figure
Age of employable males in the United States,
Brazil, and Carbon .
18
2.
Employment status August 1, 1938, by age
31
3.
Employment of usual clay workers, 1928-35.
4.
Employmentof sometimeclay workers,1926–35
Employmentof other industrialworkers,1928-35.
Numberof monthsof unemployment,
1928-35,of all
1.
5.
8.
industrial
7.
43
.
workers
Employmentand unemployment,
1926-35,by age
TEXT
.
43
44
51
80
TABLES
Table
1.
Average number of persons employed in the clay
productsmanufacturing
industry,Clay County,
Indiana, 1929-35 .
2 .
2
Employmentand production,
Clay County coal mines,
1895-1938.
3.
Distributionof
populationof Clay County,Indiana,
by residence, 1900-30.
4.
Number and acreage of farms, Clay County, Indiana,
1900-35.
5.
8
Distributionof personsin work-historysamples,
by residence
6.
7.
8.
6
14
Employment status of persons in Brazil and Carbon
households, fall of 1938 .
Usual industry and duration of unemployment since
last job of unemployed males in Brazil and
Carbon households, fall of 1936.
Employment status of households in Brazil and
17
22
Carbon,by numberof employablepersonsper
household, fall of 1936. .
APPENDIX
A-1.
23
TABLES
Age, sex, and employment status of persons in
Brazil and Carbonhouseholds,fall of 1938
A-2.
Households in Brazil and Carbon, by usual industry
of male members, fall of 1938.
.
A-3.
96
97
Usual industryand employmentstatus of employable
persons in Brazil and Carbon households, fall
of 1936.
97
xii
CONTENTS
APPENDIX
TABLES-Continued
Page
Table
A-4.
Place of birth and age
A-5.
Employmentstatus August1, 1938, by age
Usual industryand employmentstatus August1,
A-6.
98
.
1938, by age of other industrial workers
A-7.
A-8.
A-9.
99
100
.
Locationof firstjob and place of birth
Industryof firstjob, by usual industry
Numberof monthsin coal miningand agriculture,
1926-35,
and residence
.
100
102
103
A-10.
Occupational group ofclay workers, by residence.
104
A-11.
104
A-12.
Occupationalgroup of clay workers,by age
Durationof unemployment
since last job, by age of
workersunemployedon August1, 1938 .
A-13.
Employment status August 1, 1938, of usual clay
workers,
A-14.
A-15.
by residence
and age.
.
Employment status August 1, 1938, of sometime clay
workers, by residence and age.
Employmentstatus August1, 1938, of other indus
trial workers, by residence and age. ..
A-18.
Year of obtaininglast job of workersemployedby
others on August 1, 1936
A-17.
Occupationalgroup and employmentstatusAugust1,
1938, of clay workers.
A-18.
Distributionof man-monthsof usual clay workers,
1928-35. .
A-19.
Distribution
workers,
A-21.
1928-35 .
A-23.
of
man-months
of
other
108
108
109
110
industrial
112
1928-35 .
Employmentstatus August1, 1936, and numberof
Employment
statusAugust1, 1938,and numberof
monthsof self-employment,
1928-35
Employmentstatus August1, 1938, and numberof
months of unemployment, 1928-35.
A-24.
107
111
months of employment by others, 1928-35. .
A-22.
106
Distribution of man-months of sometime clay
workers,
A-20.
105
.
113
114
115
Number of months of employment by others, self
employment,
and unemployment,
1926-30and1931-35116
A-25.
Man-months of usual clay workers, 1928-35, by
period and age
Man-months of sometime clay workers, 1926-35, by
period and age .
.
A-28.
A-27.
Man-monthsof other industrialworkers,1928-35,
by period and age.
117
118
119
xiii
CONTENTS
APPENDIX TABLES -Continued
Page
Table
A-28.
Number of months of employment in clay, employment
in other than clay, and unemployment, 1926-35,
of usual clay workers, by occupational group
.
A-29.
A-30.
A-31.
Number of months of employmentin clay, employment
in other than clay, and unemployment, 1926-35,
of sometime clay workers, by occupational group
Man-months, 1928-35, by residence. .
Numberof monthsof employmentat usual industry
by usual
125
Number of job separations,employershifts,and
industry shifts,
1926-35, by age
.
A - 35 .
Number of job separations, 1926-35, 1926-30,
A-38.
Number of employer shifts, 1926-35, 1928-30,
A-37.
Number of industry shifts, 1926-35,
A-38.
Number of job separations, employer shifts, and
industry shifts, 1926-35, 1928-30, and 1931-35,
by employment status August 1, 1936, of usual
clay workers
126
and
1931-35.
127
and
1931-35.
127
1926–30,
and
1931-35.
A-39.
124
Numberof monthsof employmentat usual industry
and other than usual industry, 1928-35,
industry of other industrial workers .
A-34.
122
123
and other than usual industry, 1926-35, by usual
industry of sometime clay workers.
A-33.
121
Number of months of employment at usual industry,
other than usual industry, and of unemployment,
1926-35.
A-32.
120
128
129
Number of job separations, employer shifts, and
industry
shifts,
1928-35, 1926–30,
and 1931-35,
by employment status August 1, 1936, of some
time clay workers.
A -40.
130
Number of job separations, employer shifts, and
industry shifts, 1926-35, 1926–30, and 1931-35,
by employment status August 1, 1936, of other
industrial
workers
131
PREFACE
Theindustrial
activity
of Brazil,
Indiana,
andwhatprosperity
the com
munity
hasenjoyed
havecentered
about
theexploitation
ofa succession
of
natural
resources
inwhichtheregion
oncewasrich. Untilabout1890lum
beringwas
oneofitsmost
important
pursuits,
supplementing
theagricultural
activity
thathadalways
been
thebackbone
oftheregion.
Bytheturnofthe
centurythis lumberresourcewas exhausted.The area in the meantimehad
turned
totherapid
andintensive
exploitation
oftherichcoalresources
whichunderlay
thecounty.Thepeakof activity
in thisindustry,
thepeak
of population
in thearea,andprobably
thepeakof prosperity
forthecom
munity
wasreached
about1910. Thereafter,
as itscoalindustry
declined,
andwithitthemetalworking
industries
which
haddeveloped
around
it,the
community
camemoreandmoreto depend
forthemajorpartof itsindustrial
employment
upontheclay-products
industry
based
upon
therichclaydeposits
in whichtheregion
abounded.
Thegrowing
activity
in thisindustrymiti
gated
tosomeextent
thedownward
trends
in theothers.Butwithitsdecline
after1930,unemployment
in thecommunity
became
widespread,
thedemand
for
relief
mounted,
andthecommunity
tookon thecharacteristics
of a depressed
labor market.
Thisreport
isconcernedwith
thelabor-market
characteristics
ofthis
de
pressed
community
in a recovery
year,1936,andwiththeanalysis
ofthena
tureanddevelopment
oftheunemployment
problems
thatfacedthecommunity
at
thattime,problems
whichstillfaceit,according
to a report
on a recent
visit
to thecommunity
by oneof theauthors.
Thereport
wasprepared
byMiriam
E. West,Edward
J.Fitzgerald,
andGeorge
L. Bird. Mr.Birdcollected
thefielddataandprepared
information
on the
community's
background.
MissWestandMr.Fitzgerald
analyzed
thedataand
wrotethereport.Thestudywas
started
under
theadministrative
supervision
ofFrancis
M. Vreeland;
thefieldworkwascompleted
andpreliminary
tabula
tions
wereprepared
under
theadministrative
supervision
of H. PaulDouglass.
Themanuscript
wasedited
andprepared
forpublication
underthedirection
of
EdmundJ. Stone.
Acknowledgment
isgratefullymade
totheplant
officials
andnumerous
civic
leaders
of thecommunity
of Brazilwho
so generously
supplied
advice
and in
formation
essential
to thecompletion
of thereport.A particular
debtof
gratitude
is dueto allthepersons
in thecommunity
whosupplied
thedata
uponwhich
thereport
is based.Theusemadeofthematerial
andtheconclu
sionsdrawnaresolely
theresponsibility
of theNational
Research
Project.
DAVID WEINTRAUB
PHILADELPHIA
April
19,1940
XV
CHAPTER
THE
EMPLOYMENT
SITUATION
I
AND
ITS
DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
Brazil
is theindustrial
center
ofClayCounty,
Indiana.
In
the fall
of1936one-third
of itsemployable
population
wasunemployed
andlook
ingforwork.Manyofthese
persons
hadbeenunemployed
continuously
for
thepreceding
5 years
and,withtheir
families,
hadbeenonsomekind
ofemergency
relief.
Moreover,
inthe3 years
between
August
1933
and
November
18,1936,
almost
three-quarters
ofthepopulation
ofBrazil
Town
shiphadbeenondirect
orworkrelief
at onetimeor another,
andover
halfthepopulation
ofClayCounty
hadreceived
someformofrelief.1
Theproblems
reflected
by these
statistics
originated
to an appreci
able
extent
inthesharpcontraction
intheactivity
oftheclay-products
manufacturing
plants.At thetimethatthedepression
setin,these
plants
- manufacturing
building
tile,
facebrick,
andconduits
- werethe
important
industrial
enterprises
of thecommunity.
In1929theaverage
employment
in theclay-products
plants
in Brazil
andnearby
Carbon
was
1,565
persons.
Twoyears
later,
however,
thisnumber
haddropped
about
50 percent,
andby 1933theaverage
employment
wasonly162. Though
thesucceeding
years
sawsome
revival
ofclay-products
manufacturing
ac
tivity,
employment
in thefallof 1936wasstill60 percent
belowits
1929peak.?
It is thelabormarket
of thiscommunity,
andmoreparticularly
that
section
of itassociated
withtheclay-products
plants,
of whichanaly
sisis heremade,witha viewto throwing
somelighton thenature
of
theproblems
facing
thepersons
intheregion.
Theclay-products
indus
tryhadbeenthelatest
of a series
of industries
to offera relatively
large
volume
ofemployment
tothepopulation.
During
itsdevelopment
mostoftheother
industrial
pursuits
thathavebeenofimportance
earlier
Note..-
The authorswishtoacknowledge
the1rindebtedness
toFranklinW. McCurdy,3d,
who was in charge of the field editing of schedules and the preparation of pre
liminarytabulations;
MabelL. Lober,who assistedin the collectionof background
information;
LudsonWorsham,who assistedin statistical
work;and DavidN. Cohen,
who aided in the organization
and analysisof the data used, preparedthe final
tables,and assistedin the completion
of the manuscript.
1From
special
tabulations
made
bythestaff
oftheNational
Research
Project
in
November1938, from data in the files of the CountyOfficeof the Governoris
com
mission on Unemployment Relief and the Braz11 Township Trustee Oprice. According
to theirsurvey, the number of personsin familiesin Clay County receivingre
lief in one form or another at one time during the period August 1933 to November
1936 was equal to 51.7 percent of the 1930 population, and in the city of Brazil
the numberwas equalto 71.2 percentof the population.
ZEStimatedfrom pay-rolldata of clay-products
plantsduringNRP survey.
1
DEPRESSED
2
Table
1.-
AVERAGE
LABOR
NUMBER
IN THE CLAY-PRODUCTS
MARKET
OF PERSONS
MANUFACTURING
EXPLOYED
INDUSTRY,
CLAY COUNTY,INDIANA,1929-368
Number
Year
Establishments
1929
1931
1933
1935
of
Salaried
Wage earners
employees
10
8
n.a.
5
22
140
8
19
263
1,481
734
84
aDataare froma specialtabulation
prepared
forthe National
Research
Project
by the U. S. Dept. com., Bur. Census.
The drop in number of persons employed is
considerablyless than shown by these figures,as the averagereflectsboth the
numberof personsand the number of monthsof employment.During the depression
the plants that operated usually worked only a few months in any one year. Though
the figuresrefer to Clay Councy, investigation
has indicatedthat the plants
enumerated are those in Brazil and Carbon.
n.a. Data not available.
weredeclining
and leaving
a supplyof unemployed
laboron the market.
Along
withthedecline
in employment
in manufacturing
industries
other
thanclay,therehad beendeclining
employment
in bothminingandagri
culture,
accompanied
byadecrease
inthepopulation
bothinthetowns
and ruralareassurrounding
Brazil.Thuswhilethe natureof theclay
products
industry
andthefluctuations
in itsdemandfor laborhadtheir
effectsuponthe recentcharacter
and fortunes
of the community
labor
market,
the problems
of the community
alsohadtheirrootsin the past
situation. The natureof the industries
whichhad offeredemployment
played
a partindetermining
thechar
acteristics
of thelabor
supply
forclayproducts
andin providing
the
in the past
and their decline
setting
for the problems
thatarosewiththedepression.
INDUSTRIAL
DEVELOPMENT
OF THE
BRAZIL
AREA
TheBrazil
industrial
community
comprises
thecityof Brazil,
with
a population
in 1936of 8,662persons,
themanufacturing
areaon the
outskirts
of thecity,andthesurrounding
agricultural
regionlying
within
a half-dozen
miles
of thecityproper.Includedwithin
thisarea
isCarbon,
withtwobrick
andtileplants
andwitha 1936population
of
516persons,
andthesmallvillages
of Harmony
andKnightsville,
for
merlymining
centers
andnowdependent
chiefly
on Brazil
industries
for
employment.
Theentire
areais in theextreme
northern
partof ClayCounty,
and
is a regionthathasbeenrichin the natural
resources
of lumber,
coal,
andclay.It is separated
fromIllinois
onlyby VigoCounty.Brazil
INDUSTRIAL
SETTING
3
itselfis located
on the National
OldTrailsHighway
(U. S. Highway
Num
57
ber40)16 miles
eastofTerreHaute,
thenearest
metropolitan
city,and
52milesfromIndianapolis,
theStatecapital.
StateHighway
Number
59
passes
northandsouththrough
thecity,connecting
it withCarbon
on
the northern
edgeof thecountyandwithClayCityin thesouth.
The clay-products
industry
onlybeganto assumeitsrecentimportance
to theregion
anditslabormarket
withtheturnof thecentury.
Even
prior
to thattime,however,
theagricultural
activity
of thispredomi
nantly
ruralareahadbeensupplemented
by otherpursuits
- lumbering,
manufacturing,
andcoalmining.Eachof theseplayed
an important
role
in theeconomic
lifeof thearea,drawing
uponitsnatural
resources,
andsupplying
employment
to sections
of itspopulation
or drawing
new
population
intotheregion.Successively
eachof themdwindled
in im
portance,
either
leaving
groups
ofunemployedworkers
onthemarket
or
beingreplaced
by otheractivities
whichdrewon theaccumulated
labor
reserves.
The activities
of someof theseindustries,
coal miningin
particular,
continue
in someformintothepresent,
supplementing
the
employment
demand
of theclay-products
industry.
Lumbering
andcoal
mininghaveleftan additional
markon thecommunity
in theformof de
creased
opportunity
in agriculture
dueto thesoildepletion
whichfol
lowed
theirhasty
exploitation
ofthearea's
resources.
In a sense,agricultural
activityhas alwaysbeenthe backboneof
thecommunity's
life.Butthedepletion
of thefertility
of thesoil
through
imprudent
farming
methods,
anderosion
andthedestruction
of
arable
landby strip-mining
operations,
hasmeanta gradual
decline
in
theruralpopulation
anddecrease
in theacreage
of agricultural
lands
(see tables 3 and 4). In addition,
forlarge
sections
of theagricul
tural
population
intheregion,
theincome
to be derived
fromtheland
hashadtobesupplemented
byincome
fromother
sources.
The agricul
tural
population
hasthusformed
an important
source
of thelabor
supply
whichhasbeenavailable
to a succession
of industries
throughout
the
history
oftheregion.
Moreparticularly
thecoal-mining
industry
and
mostrecently
theclay-working
industry
havedrawn
either
uponerstwhile
farmersunableto maintain
theirholduponthe land,or uponpart-time
farmers
anxious
to supplement
a meager
income
fromtheland. On the
other
side,inperiods
of industrial
unemployment,
manypersons
whoear
lierhadleftfarming
foremployment
in theseindustries
haveturned
again
tothelandtosupplement
theiruncertain
industrial
earnings.
In the earlydaysof the community's
historythe fine hardwood
with
which
muchofthecountywas
heavily
timbered
ledtothedevelopment
of
DEPRESSED
LABOR
MARKET
a widespread
andprofitable
lumber
industry
whichdeveloped
alongside
farming
andcontinued
to offer
employment
upto thetimewhencoalmin
ingbecame
significant.
By 1890,however,
mostof thecounty's
mature
timber
wasgoneandtheindustries
centered
around
thisresource
had
disappeared.
Meanwhile,
coalmining
hadbeen
rising
inimportance.3
In 1852thefirstcoalwasshipped
outof thecounty
to Indianapolis
andtheindustrial
eraof theregion
really
began.Coalproduction
and
employment
mounted
steadily,
probably
absorbing
muchof thelaborno
longer
usedbythedeclining
lumber
industry,
drawing
uponthesurpluses
of farmlabor,and attracting
otherworkersfromoutside.It reached
itspeakemployment
by 1905. Subsequently,
withtheexception
of a
brief
spurtduring
thewarperiod
andshortly
after,
itdeclined
stead
ilyin importance
to thecommunity,
itsdemand
forlaborfalling
more
rapidly
thanitsproduction
(seetable
2). Accompanying
thisdecline
in
thepast20 yearshasbeena shiftfromunderground
mining
to strip
mining
operations.
In theprocess
of rapidly
exploiting
thisresource
muchof thecoalestimated
to underlie
thecounty
waswasted.Today,
though
mining
isstillcarried
on,there
arenolargemines
operating
in
the Brazilregion,and thereis littlelikelihood
thatthereeverwill
be.
Someof thestripminescontinue
to be workedbut thereare indi
cations
thatthepresent
scaleof strip-mining
operations
willshortly
exhaustthe potentialities
of the regionfor thiskindof miningand
Table 2.- EMPLOYMENT
Year
1895
1900
1905
1910
1915
1920
1925
Number
AND PRODUCTION,
1896-19388
of men
employed
3,319
2,780
3,328
1,727
991
1,633
Average number
of days worked
195
192
128
Tons
of
coal
produced
1,223,188
1,185,302
781,574
220
980,016
110
295,451
180
770
174
1930
752
1935
1936
729
178
188
166
886
CLAY COUNTY COAL VINES,
1,370,402
974,415
942,954
1,058,949
1,077,917
aDataarefromIssuesof Mineral
Resources
ofthe United
States(U.S.Dept.Int.,
Geol.Surveyand U. S. Dept.Com.,Bur.Mines)and MineralsYearbook(U.S. Dept.
Com. and Int., Bur. Mines).
3Data
usedinthis
andsucceeding
sections
ontheindustrial
history
ofClay
County prior to 1908 have, unless otherwise indicated, been based on the volume
by WilliamTravis,
A History
of ClayCounty,
Indiana
(NewYork: The
ing Co., 1909).
Lewis Publish
INDUSTRIAL
SETTING
5
thatmanyof thepersons
whonowfindemployment
in mining
willbeseek
ingemployment
in clayproducts
or whatotherindustries
maybe active
in theregion.
The ironand steelindustry
developed
in Brazilalongside
of mining
between
1867,
thedate
ofthefirst
blast
furnace
inIndiana,4
and1906,
theyearinwhich
thelastofBrazil's
10plants
closed
downpermanently.
Likethe lumberand coalindustries,
the ironand steelindustryuti
the
lizedresourcesfound in the area bogironoreandcoal. However,
-
native
oreswererelatively
unimportant,
thepresence
of thecoalbeing
therealdrawing
power.Employment
in thisindustry
roserapidly
to a
peakof about500 in the 1870'sand thereafter
declined
to its disap
pearance
point
shortly
after
theturnof thecentury.5
Thebeginning
oftheriseoftheclay-products
industry
attheturn
of thecentury
thuscoincided
withthepeakof coalproduction
andthe
virtual
disappearance
oflumbering
andsteelinthecommunity.
Although
twosmallplants
making
pottery
hadbeenopened
as earlyas 1859,
total
employment
in allplants
remained
fairly
constant
andwasunder
50 per
sons untilabout1890. Between1890and 1905it roseto 950.
In the
sameperiod
employment
in thecoalmineshadrisento over3,000men
(seetable
2). Thusduring
thisperiod
thetwoindustries
competed
in
the labormarket. Thereafter
employment
trendsin the two industries
tookopposite
directions,
thatincoalmining
declining
andthatinclay
rising
until1930.Meanwhile
theemployment
opportunities
inironand
steelandin lumbering
haddisappeared.
A metalworking
industry,
which
had grownup aboutthesametimeas the blastfurnaces,
came,briefly,
duringthe war period,
to employas manyas 450 men,but after1919it
toodeclined
andafter1920employment
remained
below100. Between1914
and1929
about
200menwereemployed
inawoodworking
industrywhich
had
beenestablished
in theregion,
butby1930it wasgiving
worktofewer
than 100 men.
POPULATION
TRENDS
Thepopulation
trends
inthecommunity
andthechanging
sizeandchar
acteristics
of thelabor
supply
reflect
thesetrends
in industrial
pro
duction
andinemployment
opportunity.
Thepeakofpopulation
wasreached
between
1900and1910,theperiod
of greatactivity
in thecoalmines
4E.T.Cox,FirstAnnual
Report
of theGeological
Survey
ofIndiana,
MadeDuring
the Year 1869 (Indianapolis, Ind.:
D. 72.
AlexanderH. Conner,State Printer,1869),
5varying
estimates
ofemployment
inIronandsteel
havebeenmade.In
1870
there
were in operationfive Iron and steel mills; by 1880 all but one of these had
closed.
For estimateson employmentsee Cox, loc. cit., Travis, loc.cit., and
various Biennial Reports of the Bureau of Statistics, State of Indiana.
DEPRESSED
6
LABOR
MARKET
andofrising
clay-products
employment.
Thereafter
each
census
showeda
decline
in thecountypopulation,
bothruralfarmandruralnonfarm.
Thenumber
of persons
in Brazil
itself
fellfrom9,340in1910to8,744
in 1930(seetable3). Thecomplete
house-to-house
population
count
taken
forthis
study
between
September
20andNovember
30,1936,
showed
a further
dropto 8,662.
Table 3.- DISTRIBUTION
OF POPULATION
OF CLAY COUNTY,
BY RESIDENCE,1900-308
INDIANA,
Rest of Clay County
Year
Total
Brazil
Total
Incor
porated
Unincor
porated
towns
and
rural
farm
1900
34,285
7,786
20,499
5,350
1910
1920
32,535
9,340
4,283
29,447
3,851
21,149
18,192
16,303
1930
28,479
9,293
8,744
23,195
20,154
17,735
3,370
14,385
-22.8
+12.3
Percentage
change,
1900-30
-33.1
-37.0
-32.1
a.
aData
for1900,
1910,
and1920fromFourteenth
Census
of theUnited
States:
1920,
"Population"
(U.S. Dept.
Com.,Bur.Census,
1921),
vol.I; for1930fromFifteenth
Census of the UnitedStates: 1930, "Population" (U. S. Dept. Com., Bur. Census,
1931), vol. I.
Therural
populationdeclined
evenmore
markedlyas
opportunity
inag
riculture
andmining
dwindled.
In 1900theruralinhabitants
ofClay
County
numbered
26,499;
in1910,
23,195;
in1920,
20,154;
andby1930,
only17,735.Thusin30 years
theruralpopulation
declined
bya third.
Theonlyindication
ofcounty
population
trends
after
1930is inthein
crease
in ruralfarmpopulation
shownby thecensus,
a riseof20 per
centfrom8,781in 1930to 10,553
in 1935,though
someof thisincrease
maybeduetodifferences
inthemethods
ofcollecting
data.8
LABOR
SUPPLY
AND
EMPLOYMENT
OPPORTUNITIES
AFTER
1920
Subsequent
to 1920theBrazil
region
waseconomically
dependent
prin
cipally
upontherelation
between
thesupply
oflabor
intheareaand
the demandfor labormadeby two industries
in particular the clay
working
industry,
whichcontinued
to expand
up to 1930,andthecoal
mining
industry,
which
hadalready
entered
upona period
ofdecline.
Thedependence
ofclay,
themore
important
ofthese
twoindustries,
upon
Bonited
States
Censusof Agriculture:
1935 (U. S. Dept.Com.,Bur. Census,1936),
vol. II, p. 141.
INDUSTRIAL
SETTING
7
national
activity
in thebuilding
industry
madethecommunity
extremely
susceptible
tofluctuations
inthegeneral
economy.
Thesupplyof laboravailable
in thecommunity
to meetthedemandsof
these
twoindustries
wasnaturally
large.During
thewarperiod
employ
mentin theregionhadbeenat itsheight.Coalmining
andironand
steelworking
hadstillbeenin operation,
andthesewiththerising
clay-products
industry
offered
someemployment,
so thatby1920,
withthe
cessation
oftheafter-the-war
boom,
there
wasanoversupply
ofworkers
inthefaceofa generally
declining
demand
forlabor.
Theoneindustry
inaddition
to clayandmining
whichmadeanysub
stantial
demand
upontheemployable
population
after1920waswoodwork
ing.Between
1916and1927,
shortly
after
which
itclosed
permanently,
a furniture
company
employed
an average
of about200persons.Also,
there
wasa wood
-products
plant
whichopened
in 1920andemployed
150.
Itwasremoved
to Marion,
Indiana,
whenthefactory
burned
downin1928.
Thusbytheonset
ofthegeneral
depression
thisindustrywas
nolonger
a source
ofemployment.
Thisbrief
expansion
ofwoodworking
after
the
warprobably
absorbed
someof themenleftwithout
jobsbecause
of the
decline
in theironandsteelshops.Later,
themoreskilled
workers
inthesewoodworking
factories
weresaidto havefollowed
theindustry
elsewhere,
but of the162workerson thelastpayrollof thefurniture
company
in1927,
104,or64percent,
werestill
living
inBrazil,
Har
mony,or Knightsville
in 1936. Someof thesewereabsorbed
intothe
clay-working
plants
intheyears
1927-30."
Themetalworking
industry,
which,
as hasbeennoted,
hadbeendeclin
ingevenbefore
thepost-war
period,
virtually
disappeared
as a factor
ofanyimportance
in thelabormarket
during
thetwenties.
Its decline
wasassociated
with,andreflects,
thedecline
in otherlocalindus
tries.Thefoundries
andmachine
shopshadsupplied
thelocalmarkets
withmachinery
andpumps
forthemines,
withmachinery
ofvarious
sorts
forthewoodworking
factories,
withbrick-cutting
machinery,
dies,and
screens
fortheclay-products
plants,
andwithrepair
services
forthe
various
industries.
Whenmining
began
todecline,
themarket
formine
machinerywas
closed
(repair
service
employed
sixmenin1936);
withthe
collapse
ofthewoodworking
industry
in1927-29,
thewoodworking
ma
chinery
shops,
employing
notmorethan25 persons
at anyonetime,
lost
their
markets;
withthediscontinuance
in 1921ofservice
ontheChicago
andEastIllinois
Railroad
dueto thedecline
in coalshipments,
thecar
repairshopswereremoved.
7Survey
madeby staffof National
Research
Project,
1936.
DEPRESSED
8
LABOR
MARKET
Agriculture
waslikewise
turning
extraworkers
intothelabor
market.
Between
1920and1925,
itistrue,
agricultural
production
continued
at
a relatively
highlevel,
so thatthere
wasnodecrease
in thenumber
of
farms
inClayCounty;
between
1925and1930,
however,
there
wasa de
crease
of460farms,
or18 percent,
andthepopulation
in theunincorpo
ratedand ruralareasdecreased
by nearly2,000personsor 12 percent,
in the1920-30
decade
(seetables
3 and 4). Doubtless
someof those
leaving
weredriven
outby theclosing
ofthemines,
butthemajorpor
tionwereprobably
thefamilies
offarmers.Thusagricultural
labor
alsowas seekinga marketfrom1925to 1930. While it is not likely
thatmuch,ifany,of thislabor
cameto Brazil,
sinceBrazil's
popula
tiondecreased
by over500between
1920and1930,nevertheless,
thefact
of itsleaving
thefarms
isindicative
oftheneedforjobopportunities
tosupplement
thedeclining
farm
income.
Here,
then,
wasanothersource
of laboravailable
for theshrinking
numberof jobs.
Table
4.
NUMBER AND ACREAGE
OF FARMS, CLAY COUNTY,
1900-388
Year
Number
of
farms
INDIANA,
Acreage in farms
1900
2,489
212,038
1910
2,586
212,461
1920
2,414
204,441
1925
2,539
202,483
1930
2,079
181,096
1935
2,510
202,036
aDatafor1900and1910fromThirteenth
Censusof theUnited
States:1910(U. S.
Dept. com., Bur. Census, 1913), vol. VI, D. 475; for 1920 and 1925 from United
StatesCensusof Agriculture:
1925 (U. S. Dept.Com.,Bur. Census,1927),Dt. I,
D. 413; for 1930 and 1935fromsame,1935 (1936),vol. I, p. 123.
After
1930there
wasan increase
inthenumber
offarmsalmost
equal
to thedecrease
of theprevious
5 years,
anda corresponding
increase
in theruralpopulation,
butmanyof themembers
ofthese
returning
farm
familieswereavailable
to the Brazillabormarketin the attemptto
supplement
theirfarmincomes.
Employment
in mining,
expanding
to meetthewardemands,
hadadded
642
workers
between
1915and1920(seetable2). As is well known, this
rapidgrowth
wascharacteristic
ofcoalmining
everywhere,
so thatwhen
thewardemand
ceased
thecountrywas
faced
withanoverexpanded
coal
industryand
severe
competitionset
inwhich
reduced
notonly
thenumber
of minerswho couldobtainemployment
but alsothe numberof daysthe
mines worked per year.
InClayCounty
theseconditions
brought
about
theclosing
of manyof thelargeunderground
minesbetween
1920and1925,
INDUSTRIAL
SETTING
9
theopening
ofsmallmines,
andthedevelopment
ofstripmining,
thenet
resultof whichwas the reduction
of mineemployment
by an averageof
some800to900men(seetable
2). Thesmallmines
andthestripmines
weresaidto be freenotonlyfromStateregulation,
butfromunionor
ganization
of theworkers.Moreimportantly,
the stripminesproduced
coalwithabout
one-third
thelabor
pertonusedinshaftmining.8
These
havebeenfactors
inenabling
thesmallminesandstripminesto meet
competition
through
lowerlaborcosts.
allthree
types
of mining
heldtheir
ownwithlittle
change,
butwiththefalling
offin thedemand
forcoalafter1929and
thesevere
competition,
thestripmines
andthesmallminespractically
From 1925 to 1929
displaced
thelarger
ones.During
thisperiod
over300miners
lost
theirjobsin thelargeminesand a somewhat
smallernumberof jobsbe
cameavailable
in theothertwotypesof mines.9Thisdoesnotmean,
however,
thatthedisplaced
miners
foundemployment
in theothertypes
of mines,
fortheywerein largepartunionmenandthenewjobswere
offering
nonunion
conditions
of payandwork. Moreover,
manyof the
small
mines
offered
opportunities
forself-employment
formenoutof
workin clayandagriculture
who hador couldgetlandwheresmall-scale
mining
waspracticable.
Inall,then,
while
theclay-products
industry
hadbrought
someNegro
laborfromoutside
during
theyears
1913-18,
after1920theexpanding
demand
forclayproducts
couldbe meteasily
withthelaboravailable
fromthe closingof thesteel-working
plantsand from mineswhichhad
closed
prior
to1925.Thesupply
available
fromthefarmpopulation
in
creased
markedly
between
1925and1930,afterwhichtheclay-products
industry
itself
offered
opportunities
foronly
a small
percentage
ofits
formerworkers.
The post-war
expansion
of Brazil's
clay-products
industry
wasdirectly
related
to thenational
expansion
of building
andconstruction
activity
inthetwenties.
Therestriction
of building
during
theWorldWarand
the growthof the automobile
industry
and the othernew industries
in
the twenties
laidthebasisfora building
boomwhichspeedily
developed
intheyears
after
thedepression
of1921.TheBrazil
clay-products
in
dustry
wasina particularly
advantageous
position
withrespect
to this
building
boom.Whilein general
thedemand
forclayproducts
as struc
turalbuilding
materials
hasbeendeclining
since1909,demand
fortwo
Bcr.
Statistical
Appendix
toMinerals
Yearbook,
1934
(U.S.Dept.
Int.,
Bur.
Mines,
1935).
Ocr.1930-31
issues
ofMineral
Resources
oftheUnited
States
(U.S.Dept.
com.,
Bur.Mines)and1932-35
issuesof Minerals
Yearbook
(U. S. Depts.Com.and Int.,
Bur. Mines).
DEPRESSED
10
LABOR
MARKET
of theseproducts
hadexpanded
phenomenally
during
thisperiod.These
werefacebrickandbuilding
tile,bothof whichcan be usedto advan
tagein the modernsteel-framed,
concrete-floored
structure.Brazil,
witha typeof claywhichproduces
a superior
building
tileandface
brick,withthe necessary
coalat handto burntheseproducts,
and with
good
railroad
facilities
east,
west,
north,
andsouth,
wasinaposition
to sellherproducts
intheexpanding
markets
brought
aboutby thena
tional
boominindustrial
andcitybuilding.
Oneof herplantswas owned
by thelargest
producer
of facebrickin theUnited
States
andanother
by a corporation
supplying
morethanone-fifth
ofthebuilding
tilecon
sumedin the UnitedStates,so thatBrazilwas not limitedto a small
localmarket.Anotherfavorable
factor
wastheextension
oftelephone
lineswhichrequire
largequantities
of clayconduits.
In factit was
largeorders
forthese
thatkepttheBrazil
plants
operating
wellinto
1930afterother
industries
haddeclined.
While
thepeakof employment
andproduction
in theclay-products
industries
generally
wasreached
around
1926,inBrazil
theproduction
of conduits
increased
until1929
andthuskeptthelevel
ofemployment
in thelocalindustry
rising.As
thedemand
forfacebrick
felloff,production
oftile,andespecially
conduits,
increased.
Between1920and 1929the industryadded600 workers,
probablyfrom
the miningandfarmingpopulation,
bringing
itsemployment
in the peak
yearof 1929to 1,800
or more,
whichcorresponds
roughly
to theaverage
of 1,565recorded
by thecensus
forthatyear(seetablei and foot
notea to thattable).By 1935,however,
employment
hadfallento an
average of 282.
Inaddition,
thetrucking
industry,
whichtended
to assume
importance
in the lateryearsof the twentiesand in the thirties
constituted
a
source
ofdemand
fora smallamount
of labor.In thefirstplace,
there
was localtrucking
ofcoalfromtheminesto industrial
anddomestic
consumers. A second
typeof trucking
whichincreased
wasthedelivery
of clayproducts
within
a radius
of several
hundred
miles.Whilemost
of thedelivery
seemsto havebeenby railroad,
especially
overlonger
distances,
shipments
of brick
andtilewentbytruck
to St.Louis,
Mil
waukee,
Indianapolis,
Gary,
andother
Indiana
cities.
A third
typeof
trucking
brings
intotheBrazil
areafromoutside
suchproducts
as agri
cultural
implements,
automobiles
andtrucks,
gasoline,
andthelike.In
addition,
onecompany
wasestablished
to deliver
trucks
to anypartof
theUnited
States.Therewasfurther
expectation
thatthehaulage
of
gasoline
bytruckswould
giveincreasing
employment
inthefuture.
INDUSTRIAL
SETTING
11
Itwasfound
froma survey
madeofsixtrucking
companies
operating
in and through
Brazilin 1936thattheywereemploying
145persons
from
Brazilandneighboring
towns mostly
drivers
between
25 and35 yearsof
andthatthe numberhad increased
fromabout23 personsin 1932.
age
Itwasestimated
bythemanager
of oneofthetrucking
companies
thatif
theclaycompanies
wereoperating
at capacity,
100moremenwouldbe
needed
forhauling
clay,coal,andthefinished
products.
In addition
to the hauling
doneby trucking
companies,
it wassaidthatmuchtruck
inginthelocality
wasdonebyprivate
individuals
whoowned
trucks
and
supplemented
their
other
income
byhauling
coalandclay.10
PURPOSE
OF THE
STUDY
Thecharacter
of theBrazil
industrial
community,
itslonghistory
of
fluctuating
employment
opportunity,
anditsmore
recent
dependence
upon
clayworking
provide
thesetting
of theunemployment
problem
whichin
1936facedso large
a proportion
of itsworkers.
Theonsetof thein
dustrial
depression
addedto thealready
developed
unemployment
in and
around
Brazil
theproblems
thatarosewitha sharpcontraction
of the
workopportunities
intheimportant
clay-products
industry.
Whereas
in
thepreceding
years
theincreasing
activity
of theclay-products
plants
had offsetto someextentthedeclining
demandforworkers
in otherin
dustries
andreduced
the unemployment
problem,
thedecline
in thedemand
forclayproducts
thataccompanied
thedepression
served
to intensify
the community's
unemployment
problem
in the 1930's.
In sucha depressed-employment
situation
interest
attaches
particu
larlyto thecharacteristics
andcomposition
of thelabormarket
in a
yearof general
recovery
like1936.Whatwasthenature
of the unem
ployment
problem?
Howhaditdeveloped?
Whatfactors
intheworkers'
equipment
or experience
wererelated
to differences
in their
employment
histories?
Whatdo theirworkhistories
tellof theirattempts
at ad
justment?
What,
inthelight
oftheanswers
to theabove,
is thenature
of thereemployment
problems?
Thisstudywas
designed
to answer
thesequestions
in as greatdetail
as possible
through
an analysis
firstof theemployment
characteristics
of the workers
of BrazilandCarbonin thefallof 1936,and thenof the
detailed
employment
andunemployment
records
for1926-36
ofworkers
as
sociated
either
withtheimportant
clay-products
industry
or withthe
community's
other
principal
manufacturing
andmining
industries.
10survey
madebystaff
ofNational
Research
Project,
1936.
12
DEPRESSED LABOR MARKET
SAMPLING PROCEDURE11
In gathering
thematerial
foranalysis
in thisstudyallthehouse
holds
in thecityof Brazil
andin thenearby
community
of Carbon
were
visitedby interviewers.
For everythirdBrazilhousehold
and for all
Carbonhouseholds
a schedulewas filledout with such information
as the
age,sex,employment
status,
andpresent
andusual
industry,
ofallmem
bers.In theremaining
Brazil
households
a briefer
schedule
wastaken,
designed
merely
tocomplete
thepopulation
count
andidentify
theindus
trialattachment
of theemployables.
In theselection
of workers
fora moredetailed
studyof theircharac
teristics
andemployment
experience
from1926to 1936,theattempt
was
madeto sampleall persons
stillin the Brazilareawho had beenreg
ularlyattached
to the clay-products
plants,allwho had at sometime
between
1926and 1936workedin oneof theclay-products
plantsbutwho
hadnotbeenusually
employed
in theindustry,
andallpersons
inBrazil
andCarbon
whowereor hadbeenregularly
attached
to manufacturing
in
dustries
otherthanclay,building
andconstruction,
coalmining,
or
motor
transportation.
Thesample
ofworkers
who,during
theperiod
1926–36,
wereregularly
oratonetimeassociated
withtheclay-products
industrywas
drawnprin
cipally
butnotexclusively
frompersons
resident
within
thetwocom
munities
of Brazil
andCarbon.On thebasisof thecomplete
household
inventory
mentioned
above,
everyperson
in these
communities
reported
to
haveworked
inclay-products
manufacturing
fora month
ormoreatany
timebetween
January
1, 1926,andthedateof enumeration,
orwhore
garded
clayworking
as hisusual
industry,
wasinterviewed
anda sched
uletaken
containing
questions
onsocial
andindustrial
characteristics,
onfirstjob,andondetailed
workexperience
between
January
1926and
thedateof enumeration.
Detailed
work-history
schedules
werethusse
curedfor 717 maleworkersin Braziland82 in Carbonwithwork experi
enceof a monthor moresubsequent
to 1925in theclay-products
plants
orwhoseusual
industrywas
clay.Thisgroup
comprised,
so farascould
bedetermined,
allsuchworkers
inthecommunities.12
Sincean important
proportion
of theworkers
attached
to theBrazil
andCarbon
clay-products
plants
aredrawn
fromtheagricultural
andmin
ingregions
surrounding
these
cities,
samples
werealsotaken,
though
on
a slightly
different
basis,
of theclayworkers
inhabiting
theregions
11for
For schedules, definitions of
terms, and a more detailed statement of sampling
procedure,see appendixes B and C.
12
Work historieswere also securedfrom 10 femaleworkersin Brazilwho had had
some employmentin the clay plants,but since these were so few and had worked
in a clerical capacity, analysis of their experience is not attempted here.
INDUSTRIAL
SETTING
13
immediately
surrounding
thecities.Frompay-roll
records
of 10 of the
clay-products
plants
inBrazil
andCarbon,
lists
weremadeofworkers
whohadbeenemployed
intheplants
atselected
timesduring
theyears
1926–36.Work-history
schedules
werethensecured
from63 workers,
or
allsuchon thelists
thenresident
inthenearby
communities
of Harmony
andKnightsville,
andfrom158,or a 50-percent
sample
of thoseon the
rural
freedelivery
routes
radiating
outfromBrazil.
Thereisevidence
thatworkers
werecommuting
to theBrazil
andCarbon
plants
fromareas
atagreater
distance
than
itwaspossible
tocover
inthis
enumeration.
Forexample,
22 percent
of thepersons
on the1936payrollsusedwere
notlocated
within
theenumerating
areadefined.Thereis,however,
littlereasonto supposethattheworkerswhosehistories
werenot se
curedwoulddifferin characteristics
or experience
fromthoseinter
viewed,
andthesample
of clayworkers
maytherefore
be presumed
to be
representative
of those
clayworkers
inandaround
thecities
of Brazil
andCarbonin 1936.
In ordertodistinguish
thoseworkers
forming
theregular
supply
and
reserve
of theclay-products
industry
fromthosewhowerepartof its
lessregular
reserve,
thesamples
ofclayworkers
werefurther
differ
entiatedas to whetheror not theyregarded
clayworkas theirusual
work. Differentiation
on sucha subjective
basiscannot,of course,be
exact.Naturally,
thereareprobably
a fewmembers
of eachgroup
whom
a different
methodof discrimination
wouldhavelocatedin the other
group.Nevertheless,
themethod
usedcorresponds
roughly
to thedis
tinction
desired.
The"usual
clayworkers",
comprising
680oftheclay
workersinterviewed,
are typicalof thosewho have,in general,
spent
morethanhalftheir
employed
timeinclay;actually,
morethan92 per
centof the usualclayworkers
fromBrazilandCarbonhadspent50 per
centor moreof theirworking
timein clay.
Thosewho did not regardclayas theirusualwork,the"sometime
clay
workers",
comprising
340of theclayworkers
interviewed,
include
some
forwhomclayworking
wassupplemented
by farming
orcoalmining,
some
whohadworked
inclayduring
thesummer
whilegetting
aneducation,
and
stillothers,
a smallgroup,
whohadbeenfrequently
in andoutofclay
working
while
hoping
tobecome
permanently
attached.
Thegreat
major
ityof these
sometime
clayworkers
hadbutonejobin theclay-products
plants
during
the10-year
period.
Ofthose
inthelabor
market
through
outtheperiod
73percent
hadonlyonejobinclay,
anadditional
17
percenthadtwo jobsin clay,6 percenthadthreejobs,and 4 percent,
or9 of the270persons,
hadfouror morejobsin clay.Inaddition,
of
themajority
of allsometime
clayworkers
(including
thosewhoentered
DEPRESSED
14
LABOR
MARKET
thelabormarket
after1925or leftbefore
1936),
85 percent
secured
theirfirstjobsin claypriorto 1930,and 7 percent
madetheirfirst
attachment
during
theyears
ofslight
revival
1934,
1935,
and1936.
The thirdsampleof workersherestudiedrepresents
thosepersons
resident
in Brazil
andCarbon
onlywhowereusually
or at thetimeof
enumeration
attached
to theother
industrial
pursuits
of thecommunity
nonclay
manufacturing,
building
andconstruction,
mining,
andmotor
transportation
- andwhohadnotbeenemployed
in claysubsequent
to
1925.Insecuring
this
material
allpersons
intheone-third
sample
of
Brazil's households and
all of Carbon's
ouseholds covered by
comprehensive
household
schedule
whoreported
theirusualindustry
to
be oneof the abovewereinterviewed
witha detailed
work-history
sched
ule.13 The sampleof theseworkersusedin the detailedanalysisof
workexperience
consists
of241maleworkers
in Brazil,
comprising
one
third
ofallmaleworkers
inthegiven
pursuits,
and38inCarbon,
in
cluding
allmaleworkers
inthegiven
pursuits.
Table 8.- DISTRIBUTION
OF PERSONS IN WORK-HISTORY
BY RESIDENCES
Usual
Residence
Total
clay
workers
Total
Brazil
Carbon
Knightsville
Rural
routes
and Harmony
Sometime
clay
workers
SAMPLES,
Other
industrial
workers
1,299
680
340
279
958
120
477
240
241
03
158
66
16
40
97
23
61
38
aseeappendixes
B andC fordefinitions
of termsanddescription
of sampling
pro
cedure.
Here and throughout the study the few women included in the original
samples have been excluded from the tabulations.
Thehistories
of theworkers
in thisthirdsample
canbe considered
representative
of thehistories
of allmaleworkers
resident
in thecom
munity
whowereattached
to industries
otherthanclay.Bothitsgeo
graphical
andindustrial
limitations
must,however,
be recognized.
It
doesnotcovertheveryimportant
groupof youngworkers
in theregion
whohadmadenoattachment
toanyindustry
by theendof 1936,
though
it
doesinclude
somewhoseattachment
wasmadeas lateas August
of that
year.
Itdoesnotcover
those
engaged
intrade
orservice
industries
northoseworkers
in themining
industry
andin agriculture
wholived
13
Althoughwork historiesin theseindustries
were securedfrom 49 womenin Brazil
and 4 in Carbon, they are not included in the subsequent analysis.
INDUSTRIAL
SETTING
15
outside
thetwocities
andwhohadbeen,under
somecircumstances,
im
portant
reserve
forcesforthecommunity's
industries.
PLAN
OF
THE
STUDY
Thefollowing
chapter
deals
withtheemployment
situation
andthechar
acterof thelabormarket
in thefallof 1936.Thisis supplemented
withan analysis
of thesocial
andoccupational
characteristics
of the
workers
in thethree
samples
selected
formoredetailed
study,
theirem
ployment
status
in thefallof 1936,
andtherelationship
between
their
status
andtheir
characteristics.
Chapter
IIIanalyses
the10-year
work
experience
of theworkers
studied,
theincidence
of their
employment
and
unemployment
according
to theirindustrial
attachment
andtheir
occupa
tional
differences.
Chapter
IV is concerned
withthemobility
of the
workers
within
theBrazil
labormarket,
andthefinal
chapter
sunmarizes
thefindings
of theanalysis.
CHAPTER
THE LABOR
MARKET
II
IN THE FALL
OF 1936
INTRODUCTION
An outstanding
characteristic
of theBrazil
labormarket
in thefall
of 1936was the extremeconcernwiththe widespread
unemployment
and
itslongcontinuation.
Allclasses
ofthepopulation
andvirtually
all
kindsof business
wereaffected.
At the timethatthisstudywas made5 of the 10 clay-products
plants
inBrazilwere
operating.
Theyemployed
about
500persons.
Both
Carbon
plants
wereoperating,
employing
100persons.
Coalmining
in theregion
was in thedoldrums
exceptforsomesmall-scale
andstripminingopera
shopsandfactories
offered
employment
to no
tions. Smallmanufacturing
more
than500menandwomen.1
One-third
ofthecommunity's
employables
were unemployed
(see table6). A fifth were on work relief. Almost
halfof thehouseholds
withemployables
hadat leastonemember
unem
ployedor employed
onlyparttime. In theseand in numerousother ways
discussed
inthefollowing
pages
thecommunity
exhibited
theresults
not
onlyof a prolonged
depression
situation
butalsoof a longhistory
of
fluctuating
employment
opportunity.
Household
schedules
incorporating
material
on therelevant
personal
characteristics
ofallmembers
andon thepresent
andusual
occupations
of alladultmembers
of the households
weretakenin a randomsample
of
one-third
of Brazil'shouseholds
and in all of Carbon'shouseholds.2
Analysis
ofthese
provides
a generalpicture
ofthecharacterand
status
ofthelabormarket
in these
cities.
Similar
material
onthepopulation
ofthenearby
townsof Harmony
andKnightsville,
or on theruralresi
dents
around
Brazil
andCarbon,
is notavailable.
Thefollowing
picture
is,therefore,
notof thetotallabormarkets
fromwhichBraziland Car
bondrewtheirlaborforces,butonlyof thatsectionof it immediately
withinthe citiesthemselves.
THE
GAINFUL
WORKERS
IN BRAZIL
AND
CARBON
The Composition of the population
Particularly
notable
inbothBrazil
andCarbonwas
thelarge
propor
tionof households
withno employables.
There was also a relatedde
1
These were the few remainingsmallmachineand repairshops;printshops;& cigar
factory; a tomato-canning factory open only a few months in the year; a varnish
concern;
a small concern making bus bodles; an ice-cream plant; and a soft-drinks
plant,
2
In the remainingtwo-thirdsof Brazil'shouseholdsa specialcountwas made of
In all of Braziltherewere 2,575 households
containing
2,232 chil
all persons .
dren under 10 years of age and 6,430 adults.
16
LABOR
MARKET
Table 6.- EMPLOYMENT
AT TIME
OF SURVEY
17
STATUS OF PERSONS IN BRAZIL
AND CARBON
HOUSEHOLDS,FALL OF 19388
Brazil
Employment
status
Total persons
Number
Carbon
Percent
Number
Percent
2,931
100.0
516
100.0
Not in labor market
1,789
80.4
323
62.6
In
1,182
39.8
193
37.4
26.5
23.8
164
31.8
30.0
1.8
5.6
labor
market
Employed
Full
Part
time
time
Unemployed
778
698
80
384
155
2.7
9
13.1
29
a.
Based on tableA-1.
ficiency
in thenumber
of employable
persons
as compared
to thetotal
population,
andan unusually
largenumber
of persons
of advanced
age
working
or seeking
work.
In thefallof 1936thecityof Brazil
contained
2,575households,
covering
a population
of8,662persons.
Of the households in the one
thirdsample
surveyed,
10 percent
contained
no employables.
Thisis
double
theproportion
foundby theNational
Research
Project
to have
hadno employables
inthecityof Philadelphia
wheresimilar
material
was collected
in thesame year. Thereonly5.2 percentof the house
holds
contained
no employables.3
Themajority
of Brazil's
households
(57percent)
reported
onlyoneemployable
person,
andlessthan10 per
centreported
threeor moreemployables.
Only40 percent
of the en
tire
population
ofthecitywas
reported
asemployable.
Therewere
over
2,200children
under16 yearsof ageand morethan3,000adultsnot in
the labor market.
Thisrelative
deficiency
inemployables
in thecommunity
andtheage
distribution
of thepopulation
reflect
theregion's
longhistory
ofdi
minishing
employment
opportunities
andtheemigration
of theyounger
employables.
Thisemigration
wasthesubject
of muchconcern
tothose
leftin thecommunity.
Asa result
of it,thepopulation,
froman em
ployment
point
ofview,
wasaged.4Almost
a fifth
were55 orover,
as
comparedwith
about
12 percent
of theUnited
States
population
in1930.
Fewerthana thirdwereunder20,as compared
with39 percent
of the
United
States
population.
(SeetableA-1.)
3
GladysL. Palmer,
Employment
andUnemployment
in Philadelphia
in 1936and1937,
Part I, "May 1936" (WPA NationalResearchProjectin cooperationwithIndustrial
ResearchDepartment,
UniversityofPennsylvania,
ReportNo. P-3, Part I, Aug. 1938),
table 2, D. 10.
1930,"Population"
(U.S. Dept.Com.,Bur.
4Pifteenth
Census
oftheUnited
States:
Census,1832),vol. III, pt. 1, table7, D. 9.
DEPRESSED
18
LABOR
MARKET
Figure 1.- AGE OF EMPLOYABLE MALES IN THE UNITED STATES,
BRAZIL,
PERCENT
10
O
T
AND CARBON
20
30
40
50
E
16-24
YEARS
25-44
YEARS
45
YEARS
OR OVER
UNITED
STATES
BASED ON TABLE A-I AND CENSUS OF POPULATION: 1930,V,114
BRAZIL
CARBON
WPA- NATIONAL RESEARCH PROJECT
L-58
The characteristics
of Carbon's1936population
reflected
somewhat
thesame influences.Againthereis notable
a relative
deficiency
in
employables.
Eleven
percent
ofits150households
contained
noemploy
ables;
over60 percent
contained
butoneemployable.
In termsof per
sons,onlyabouta third
werereported
as employable.
Only26 percent
of itspopulationwas
between
25 and44,as compared
withover29 per
centof theUnited
States
population.
Sincein thesucceeding
chapters
attention
willbe confined
to the
maleworkers
associated
withtheclay-working
andotherindustries
of
thecommunity,
particular
interest
hereattaches
to theagesofthemale
sector
of theemployable
population.
In November
of 1936theemploy
ablemalesinBrazil
numbered
approximately
2,700.Relatively
fewerof
these than in the UnitedStates as a whole were in the age groupsusu
allyconsidered
mostemployable.
Only43 percent
werebetween
25 and
44,whereas
47 percent
of theUnited
States
maleemployables
in 1930
werein thisagegroup.5Fortypercent
were45 yearsof ageor older,
21 percent55 or over,whereasin the UnitedStatesas a whole less than
5Fortheagedistribution
ofemployable
malesin theNation,
seeibid.,
vol.V
(1833),pp. 408-9.
LABOR
MARKET
AT TIME
OF SURVEY
19
a third
ofthe1930employable
males
were45 oroverandonly15 percent
55 or over(seefigure1).
Theemployable
males
inCarbon
included
an evenhigher
proportion
of
botholderand younger
workers
thandid thosein Brazil.A farsmaller
proportion
of itsemployable
malesthanwasusual
wasincluded
in the
age group25 to 44 38 percent
as compared
with43 percent
ofBrazil's
and47percent
oftheUnited
States'
1930employable
males.
The Industrial
Dependenceof the Population
Inthefallof1936,
as hasbeennoted,
a tenth
ofBrazil's
households
contained
noemployables.
Oftheremaining
households,
21percent
were
dependent
upontheclay-products
plants
fortheusual
employment
ofone
or moreof theirmalemembers,
and17 percent
weredependent
uponcoal
mining.(SeetableA-2.) Of alltheemployable
persons
in thecity
(maleandfemale),
14 percent
lookedto clayfortheirusualemployment,
10 percentto coalmining,16 percent
to trade,and 2 percentto agri
culture.
Sixpercent
werenewworkers
notas yetattached
toanyindus
try,andtheremaining
halfof theworkers
hadusualoccupations
in a
variety
ofmanufacturing
andother
pursuits.
(Seetable
A-3.)
Considering
theimportance
of clay-products
manufacturing
andcoal
miningas the community's
largestemployers
of labor,the proportion
reporting
theirusualattachment
to be to one of thesetwo industries
appears
smaller
thanmighthavebeenexpected.
Thisis duepartly
to
theinclusion
ofwomen,
ofwhomonlycomparatively
fewwereemployed
in
theclay-products
industry
- chiefly
inclerical
occupations.
More
over,the enumeration
of households
was takenafter5.yearsof wide
spread
inactivity
in theclay-products
industry,
whenmanyplants
had
beenentirely
shutdownand othershadbeenopenonlyfor shortinter
vals. Thusmanyof theworkerswho reported
theirusualattachment
to
be to someindustry
otherthanclaymightat an earlier
periodhavecon
sidered
themselves
usually
attached
totheclay-working
industry.
Coal
mining
hadsimilarly
beendeclining
andfora longer
period.
Carbonhouseholds
reported
a muchhigher
degree
ofdependence
upon
clayworking
forusual
employment.
Thismaybe attributed
to thefact
thatclayworking
was theonlyindustry
of anysizein thetownandthat
inthefallof1936bothofitsclay-working
plants
wereinoperation.
Eleven
percent
ofthehouseholds
contained
noemployables.
Ofthehouse
holds
withemployables,
44 percent
weredependent
uponclayworking
for
theusual
employment
of oneor moreoftheirmaleemployables.
Twenty
ninepercent
weredependent
oncoalmining,
and8 percent
hadsomemale
LABOR
MARKET
AT TIME
OF SURVEY
21
employables,
wasrepresented
amongtheunemployed
by only9 percent
of
the total.
Thefollowing
tabulation
summarizes
briefly
therelative
position
of
eachindustry
insupplying
usualemployment
to theworking
forcesof
Brazil,
andtheproportion
ofthe1936unemployment
accounted
forbythe
workersusually
attached
to eachindustry
(seetableA-3):
Percent
Usual industry
Total
Employables Unemployed
100.0
100.0
Clay
14.3
19.8
Manufacturing other than clay
Trade
Coal mining
11.5
18.4
9.6
10.3
40.7
0.7
13.5
27.9
8.1
18.5
Other
Not reported
New
workers
9.1
1.6
Fromthisit is clearthatthe bulkof Brazil's
1936unemployment
prob
lemarose
directly
fromthedecline
of itsmajorindustries,
clayand
coal,and fromthefailureof theseor any otherindustries
to absorb
the newworkers.
Carbonpresented,
at leasttemporarily,
a happier
picturein thefall
of 1936.Bothclay-products
plants
werein operation
at thetime,and
allbut
2 ofthecommunity's
66 usualclayworkers
wereemployed.
The
11workers
inthemarket
whohadnotsucceeded
ingetting
employment
in
anyindustry,
however,
raised
thelevelof unemployment
somewhat.
Of
the 24 unemployed
malesin Carbon,10 wereunder25 and9 wereover45.
Again,
though
within
thissmaller
community
relatively
fewerthanin
Brazilwereoutof work,thebruntof unemployment
was borneby theold
est and youngest
workers.(See tableA-1.)
Muchoftheunemployment
reported
inbothcommunities
hadbeenoflong
duration,
as wasreflected
in the heavyreliefloadof thearea. Of
the
previously
employed
maleswhowereunemployed
in thefallof 1936,over
three-quarters
hadbeencontinuously
unemployed
formorethana year,
anda third
formorethan5 years.Thislongunemployment
wasparticu
larlycharacteristic
ofworkers
whoregarded
coalmining
orclayworking
as theirusualindustry.
Almost
halfof theunemployed
whoreported
either
ofthese
as theirusual
industry
hadbeencontinuously
unemployed
formorethan5 years,
andoverthree-quarters
hadbeenunemployed
for
morethan2 years.(Seetable7).
22
DEPRESSED
Table
LABOR
USUAL INDUSTRY
7.SINCE
LAST
JOB
OF
MARKET
AND DURATION
UNEMPLOYED
AND CARBON HOUSEHOLDS,
Residence
usual
and
industry
OF UNEMPLOYMENT
MALES
IN BRAZIL
FALL OF 1936
Monthsof unemployment
since last job
Total
0-5
8-11
12-23 24-35 36-4748-59
60
or
over
Brazil
Totala
Clay
Coal mining
Other
218
38
83
48
107
4
24
a
Aol
24
27
17
2
7
4
4
4
18
7
9
22
79
5
12
3
30
21
13
8
7
28
4.
2
2
1
1
1
1
O
o
Carbon
Totalb
14
Clay
Coal mining
2
Other
9
1
3
OO
3
1
1
O
1
o
2
1
1
1
a
aExcludes
41 new workersand 58 personswho did not reportdurationof unemployment
since last job.
b
Excludes
sevennewworkers
andthreepersons
whodidnotreport
duration
or
unemployment
sincelastjob.
Ofthe14 unemployed
males
inCarbon
whohadbeenpreviously
employed
andwhoreported
theduration
of their
current
unemployment,
6 hadbeen
unemployed
formorethan2 years
andi formorethan5 years.
The household
incidence
of unemployment
in thetwocommunities
further
reveals
thewidespread
unemployment
thatcharacterized
theregion
inthe
fallof 1936. As hasbeennoted,
10 percent
of Brazil's
households
con
tained
noemployables.
Oftheremainder,
onlyslightly
morethan
50
percent
wereunaffected
by unemployment.
Overa quarter
(27percent)
of
thehouseholds
withanyemployables
hadno member
employed;
a third
had
no member
employed
fulltime;39 percent
hadat leastonemember
unem
ployed;
and47 percent
hadat leastonemember
unemployed
or employed
onlyparttime. InCarbon,
thesituation
wassomewhat
better,
although
7 percentof the households
containing
employables
had no memberwork
ing;9 percent
hadno member
employed
fulltime;19 percent
hadsome
member
unemployed;
anda quarter
hadsomemember
either
unemployed
or
employed
onlyparttime.(Seetable
8.)
In summary,then,thesemay be listedas the general
characteristics
ofthisdepressed
labor
market
inthefalloftherecovery
year1936.
Therewas a highpercentage
of households
withno employable
member.
Therewas a highproportion
of persons
in thelabormarketwho hadnever
foundevena firstjob. Olderworkers
madeupan unusually
large
part
LABOR
Table
EMPLOYMENT
8.
MARKET
AT TIME
OF SURVEY
STATUS OF HOUSEHOLDS
23
IN BRAZIL AND CARBON,
BY NUMBER OF EMPLOYABLE PERSONS PER HOUSEHOLD, FALL OF 1936
Employment status
of household
Total
Number ofemployable persons
house
holdsa
2
1
3
4-5
Brazil
Number
Percent
All members employed
Full
time
Full and part time
Part
time
Fewer than all members
employed
Full
time
777
489
100.0
100.0
61.0
53.4
14
100.0
87.3
54.8
37.9
42.9
43.7
38.4
35.8
3.0
10.1
1.5
7.1
4.8
7.0
1.0
28.9
11.8
9.4
0.9
Part
1.5
All members unemployed
86
100.0
60.3
o
Full and part time
time
208
100.0
21.1
o
5.8
o
43.8
37.9
8.0
50.0
28.6
21.4
O
OO
27.2
32.7
18.3
18.2
7.1
135
100.0
93
100.0
29
100.0
10
100.0
100.0
Carbon
Number
Percent
All members employed
Full time
Full and part time
Part
Fewer
time
than
all
Full
80.7
90.3
58.8
80.0
68.7
74.8
4.4
1.5
88.2
44.8
13.8
40.0
66.7
20.0
o
2.1
o
o
O
O
37.9
40.0
30.0
10.0
O
members
employed
11.9
time
Full and part time
Part time
All members unemployed
3
11.1
0.8
37.9
o
33.3
33.3
o
O
9.7
7.4
3.5
o
aexcludes
88 households
in Brazil
and18 in Carbon
whichhadno employable
persons.
of thelaborsupplyand therewas a highrateof unemployment
for a re
covery
year,
particularly
unemployment
oflongdurationwith
consequent
heavyreliefand WPA rolls.
THE
WORKERS
SELECTED
FOR
MORE
DETAILED
STUDY
Itisfromthisgeneral
labormarket,
heavily
burdened
withunemploy
mentandmoreparticularly
unemployment
oflongduration,
andcomprising
a groupof workers
olderthantheaverage
because
of thecommunity's
longhistory
ofdecline,
thatthreegroups
- usual
clayworkers,
some
timeclayworkers,
andotherindustrial
workers have been selectedfor
moredetailed
study.As hasbeenindicated
in thepreceding
chapter,
thesamples
of usual
clayworkers
andsometime
clayworkers
havebeen
DEPRESSED
24
LABOR
MARKET
augmented
bya selection
ofworkers
drawn
fromHarmony,
Knightsville,
and Brazil'srural routes.
Thestatusof thesethreegroups
of workers
and theirhistories
in the 10 yearsfrom 1926 to 1935will furtherre
vealthenature
of theproblem
thathaddeveloped
in thecommunity
and
itseffectuponthoseworkers
who hadfoundsomeplacefor themselves
in
the labor market.
Whatwerethecharacteristics
ofthepersons
constituting
thethree
groups
ofworkers
selected
forstudy?Howdidthesecompare
witheach
otherandwiththecharacteristics
of personsin the more generallabor
Whathadbeenthe industrial
background
of
market heretofore described
theseworkers?
Whatwastheirposition
in thefallof 1936?
Age
Asto age,theemployable
workers,
usualor sometime,
connected
with
theclay-products
industry
represented
a selected
groupdiffering
from
theaverage
employable
maleinBrazil
andCarbon.In general,
they
tended
to be theolderworkers
of themarket.Thegroupof otherin
dustrial
workers,
however,
moreclosely
approximated
in age themale
employables
inthetwocommunities.
Allthreesamples
include
a small
proportion
of persons
whohadleftthelabormarket;
themajoritywere
inthehigher
agegroups,
fewbeingunder
45andtwo-thirds
over65. In
thefollowing
agecomparisons
theseareexcluded.
Both
groups
ofworkers
associatedwith
theclay-products
industrywere
notably
deficient
inyoungerworkers,
evenfora community
generally
characterized
bysuchdeficiency.
Whereas
18percent
oftheemployable
malesin BrazilandCarbonwere under25, only6 percentof the usual
clayworkers
andlessthan5 percent
of thesometime
clayworkers
were
inthisyounger
agegroup.Themajority
of theclayworkers,
52 percent
of theusual
clayworkers
and55 percent
of thesometime
clayworkers,
were between 25 and 44. Thiscompares
withthe42 percent
of Brazil
andCarbonemployable
malesin thismiddlegroup.A somewhat
higher
proportion
oftheusual
clayworkers
thanofthecommunity
forces
were
45 or over,42 percent
ascompared
with39 percent.
Amongthesometime
clayworkers
thistendency
to include
a disproportionate
number
of older
workerswas notso marked;
40 percent
of theirnumberwere45 or over.
(See table A-5.)
Intheagedistribution
oftheclayworkers
isreflected
something
of
the historyof clayworkingin the community.Thereis evidenthere
the interrelation
between
thecommunity's
history
of decline,
determin
ingthe age characteristic
of the totalforcefromwhichworkershave
LABOR
MARKET
AT TIME
OF SURVEY
25
been
selected,
andthemore
recent
history
ofdeclining
clayactivity,
leading
to a higher
proportion
of olderworkers
in thesegroups
than
withinthesupplyof thecommunity
as a whole.awhole.
The relatively
highage
levelof theusual
clayworkers
in particular
reflects
thedecline
of
theindustry's
demandfor labor,and thevirtual
closing
of itsdoorsto
theyoungerworkerswho
have
beenentering
thelabor
market
since
1929.
Theseyoungerworkers
arenotto be foundin any numbers
evenamongthose
who,thoughnotusually
employed
there,
hadobtained
someemployment
intheclay-products
industry.
Rather
isthisgroup
ofsometime
clay
workers
mostheavilyweighted
withmoremature
workers.
Theageof theotherindustrial
workers
reflects
slightly
different
influences.Forty-three
percent
ofthemwere
45orover,
and16percent
wereunder25. The longhistory
in thecommunity
of mostof the indus
tries
inwhichtheyhadbeenengaged,
particularly
coalmining,
accounts
forthehighproportion
of older
workers.
Of those
whoreported
their
usualoccupation
as coalmining,
morethanhalfwereover45 andmore
thana thirdover55 (seetableA-6). At the same time,the more recent
shiftstostripmining
andtheopportunities
offered
by thenumerous
small
mines
opened
intheregion
provided
a chance
fora fewyounger
persons
tofindatleast
someemployment.
Theincrease
intrucking
ac
tivities
provided
similar
opportunities.
Origins and Industrial Background
Ingeneral,
allthreegroups
ofworkers
studied
werecomposed
predom
inantly
of local-born
persons
and of persons
whoseemployment
hadbeen
almost
exclusivelywithin
theregion.Whatever
importation
ofworkers
mayhaveoccurred
waseither
early
inthecommunity's
history
or hadbeen
offset
before
1936byanexodus
ofsuchworkers
whenactivity
declined.
UsualClay Workers.Lessthan20 percentof the usualclayworkers
had beenbornoutsideof Indiana,onlyslightlymorethan25 percent
outside
theareaimmediately
surrounding
ClayCounty.Yeteventhisdoes
notadequately
describe
thecloseidentification
of these
workers
with
employment
in the Brazilarea.
Almost half of those born outside the
region
hadcometoitfortheir
first
job.Ofalltheusual
clayworkers
reporting,
only17 percenthad obtained
theirfirstjobsoutsidethe
neighborhood.
(SeetableA-7.)
The evidence
furtherindicates
thatfor itssupplyof regular
workers
theclay-working
industry
hadplayed
little
partin drawing
eventhis
small
proportion
ofoutside
workers
intotheregion.
In thefirstplace,
itwasprimarily
theolderworkers
whohadbeenborn
outside
theregion.
š
I!
LABOR
MARKET
AT TIME
OF SURVEY
27
Thisreflects
thegreater
opportunities
offered
to thethennewworkers
by clay-products
manufacturing
in thisperiodof itsexpansion,
as con
trastedwith
thediminishing
opportunities
inagriculture
andmining.
Thusitwouldappear
thatthe1936labor
supply
of theclay-products
industry
consisted
ofa large
group
ofolderworkerswho
hadbeen
drawn
intothe industry
whentheemployment
opportunities
in coalminingand
agriculture
declined
andclaywasexpanding,
plusthoseyounger
workers
whoentered
thelabormarket
whenclayworking
wasa growing
industrial
activity
inthecommunity.
SometimeClay Workers.The somewhatyoungergroupof workerswho
maybe regarded
as constituting
thelaborreserve
uponwhichtheclay
products
industry
(andpresumably
thecommunity's
other
industries)
drew
to meetpeakdemands
for labor,wereto an evengreater
extentworkers
identified
withthecommunity
either
as their
place
of birth
oroffirst
employment.
Eighty-four
percent
wereborninIndiana,
and78 percent
in
ClayCountyor contiguous
counties.A somewhatlargerpercentage
of
thesesometimeclayworkersthanof the usualclayworkershad also
hadtheirfirstemployment
inClayCounty
or itsneighboring
counties.
Again,
thefactthatthesmallproportion
ofworkers
bornoutside
the
areatendedto clusterin the olderage groupspointsto the cessation
ofimmigration
intotheregion
thataccompanied
itsdeclining
activity.
(SeetableA-4.)
Coalmining
wastheprincipal
pursuit
of a largeproportion
ofthese
workers.
In1936,
42percent
ofthem
regarded
itastheir
usual
indus
try. Morethanhalftheworkers
35 andoverregarded
mining
as their
usual
industry,
whileonly16 percent
of thoseunder
35 didso. Of the
workers
resident
inBrazil
andCarbon,
39percent
hadspent
somepart
of
theyears1926-35
incoalmining,
andtheyaveraged
almost
3 years
in
thatindustry;
in Harmony
andKnightsville
a muchhigher
proportion,
64
percent,
reported
sometime
spent
inmining
buttheyaveraged
only2
years
perworker
in thispursuit.
In therural
areas42 percent
of the
workers
reported
sometimespentin mining,
atwhich
theylikewise
aver
agedabout2 yearsperworker.Because
of theweighting
of thesample
infavorof thecityresidents,
onlya smallproportion,
8 percent,
of
thetotal
group
reported
their
usual
occupation
to befarming.
Of those
workers
resident
onrural
routes,
48percent
reported
sometime
spent
in
farming
andtheyaveraged
over5 years
perworker.
(Seetable
A-9.)
Thus,inrespect
to theirgeographical
andindustrial
background,
the
persons
constituting
thereserve
whichhadbeentappedby theclay
products
industry
inpeakyears
andseasons
werelargely
similar
to the
DEPRESSED
28
LABOR
MARKET
group
constituting
theregular
supply
ofclayworkers.
Theyhadbeen
bornintheregion
and,to a largeextent,
hadspenttheirworking
life
there.Theyhadbeeninitially
orcharacteristically
attached
to other
manufacturing
industries,
tocoal
mining,
ortofarming.
Employment
in
coalmining
hadbeenscarce
andintermittent,
whiletheaverage
income
fromfarming
hadbeenlowanddeclining.
Manymanufacturing
industries
had eitherwithdrawn
fromthe regionor declined
in importance,
leaving
their workerson the labor market. It wasfromthisgroupthatthe re
serveas wellas the usualsupplyof clayworkerswas drawn. The re
servegroupdiffers
fromtheregular
supply
in thedegree
to whichit
included
persons
withattachment
to mining,
and in the greaterpropor
tionofpersons
wholived
intherural
regions
outside
Brazil.
Coal
miners
andfarmers
seeking
supplementary
employment
provided
a goodpart
of thereserve
available
to theclayindustry.
OtherIndustrial
Workers.The groupof workersof industries
Other
thanclaycontained
a slightly
higher
proportion
offoreign-born.
This
wasprobably
duetothefactthattheir
sample
included
onlycitydwell
ers as wellas to thefactthatit contained
moreolderworkers.Also,
a slightly
smaller
proportion,
79 percent,
thanintheclaygroups
had
hadtheirfirstjobsinClayCountyanditscontiguous
counties
(see
tableA-7).
In1936,
41and27percent,
respectively,
ofthese
workers
regarded
coalmining
andmanufacturing
otherthanclayas theirusual
industry.
Sincethesample
wasconfined
to workers
resident
inBrazil
andCarbon,
only4 ofthe279workers
reported
agriculture
astheir
usualpursuit.
Themajority
hadbegun
their
working
lifein mining
(30percent),
manu
facturing
other
than
clay
(27percent),
oragriculture
(12percent).
A
few hadbeenin trade,anda smallproportion
15 percent)
hadstarted
in
clayproducts
buthadnotbeenemployed
there
subsequent
to 1925.(See
table A-8.)
Themajority
of thosewhoregarded
mining
as theirusualoccupation
hadstarted
outin mining,
andan additional
12percent
of theseusual
miners
hadbegun
inagriculture.
Two-thirds
ofthosewhose
usual
indus
trywas
inmanufacturing
other
than
clayhadbegun
theirworking
life
in
oneof these
manufacturing
industries,
and7 of the27 usually
in build
ingandconstruction
workhadbegun
in thisindustry.
Fromthisevidence
itwouldappear
thatthelabor
supply
of theother
industries
oftheBrazil
region,
whileslightly
lessindigenous
tothe
region
thantheusual
clayworkers,
contained
a veryhighproportion
of
workers
whose
industry
of usual
attachment
wasthesameorcorresponded
30
DEPRESSED
LABOR
MARKET
regular
clayworkers,
thesometime
clayworkers,
andtheotherworkers,
reported
morethana thirdoftheirnumber
unemployed
on August
1, 1936.
Of thoseunemployed
at the timeof the interview,
many had beenunem
ployed
fora longduration.
Of those
regularly
orat sometimeinclay,
40 percent
oftheunemployed
hadbeenunemployed
for5 yearsormoreand
three-quarters
hadbeenunemployed
2 yearsor more.Of the unemployed
otherworkers,a quarterhad beenunemployed
for 5 yearsor moreand
two-thirds
hadbeenunemployed
2 yearsor more. (See table A-12.)
Thesometime
clayworkers
presented
theleast
fortunate
picture.
Three
percent
ofthemhaddropped
outof thelabormarket
andwerenolonger
seeking
work.Of theremainder,
39 percent
wereunemployed
andseeking
work.An additional
7 percent
wereemployed
on a part-time
basisand
12percent
were
self-employed.
Muchoftheself-employment
appears
to
havebeenan attempt
to adjust
tothesituation
onthepartof those
who
couldnotfindother
employment.
Thusonly42 percent
wereemployed
by
others on a full-time basis.
(SeetableA-14andfigure2.)
Fortypercent
ofthesometime
clayworkers
employed
by others
on August
1, 1936,hadonlysecured
thatemployment
in the7 months
between
Jan
uaryi and August1. Anadditional
17 percent
hadsecured
it in1935.
(Seetable
A-16.)Twenty-nine
percent
ofthejobswereintheclay
products
industry,
and21 percent
inmining,
mostofthemundoubtedly
in
thestrip-mining
operations
so rapidly
exhausting
thecoalresources
of
theregion.(SeetableA-5.)
Theregular
clayworkers
werein a somewhat
better
position.
Four
percent
haddropped
outof thelabormarket.Of theremainder,
35 per
centwerelooking
forwork,
6 percent
were
employed
onlyonapart-time
basis,
and4 percent
wereinsomeformofself-employment.
Thus55 per
centof those
stillinthelabormarket
weregetting
full-time
employ
ment from others. (See tableA-13.) Two-thirds
of thoseemployed
by
others
hadsecured
theiremployment
in theyearanda halfpreceding
August
1, 1936.(SeetableA-16.)Eighty-four
percent
of thosewho
wereemployed
by others,
or onlyhalfof alltheusualclayworkers,
wereemployed
inclay-products
plants.Theremaining
16 percent
ofthe
employed
hadfoundsomeplacein thecommunity's
otherindustries;
3
percent
wereincoalmining,
3 percent
in trade,
and1 percent
in agri
culture. (See tableA-5.)
Of the workersof otherindustries
a higherproportion,
8 percent,
haddropped
outof thelabormarket
andwereno longer
seeking
work.A
thirdof those
whowerestillavailable
foremployment
wereunemployed,
andan additional
9 percent
hadonlypart-time
employment.
(See table
A-15.)In general,
thosewhowereemployed
by others
tended
to have
Figure 2.- EMPLOYMENT STATUS AUGUST 1, 1936, BY AGE
PERCENT
OF STATUS
80
GROUP
USUAL
CLAY
WORKERS
60
40
20
O
4
3
6
1
4
4
5
3
4
5
5
4
R
E
5
R
V
5
O
4
3
6
1
4
4
5
3
4
5
5
4
R
E
R
5
V
5
O
4
3
6
1
4
4
5
3
4
5
5
4
R
E
5
R
V
5
O
4
3
6
1
4
4
5
3
4
5
5
4
R
E
R
V
5
5
O
4
3
6
1
4
4
5
3
4
5
5
4
R
E
R
V
5
5
O
80
SOMETIME
CLAY
WORKERS
60
40
20
80
OTHER
INDUSTRIAL
WORKERS
60
40
20
TOTAL
EMPLOYED
FULL
BASEDON TABLESA-13,A-14,A-15
TIME
he
EMPLOYED
PART
TIME
SELF
EMPLOYED
WPA
- NATIONAL
UNEMPLOYED
RESEARCH
PROJECT
L-59
32
DEPRESSED
LABOR
MARKET
been
inthat
status
fora longerperiod
thaneither
thesometime
orusual
clayworkers.
Two-thirds
of themhadsecured
thejobtheythenhadbe
foreJanuaryof 1936,halfof thembefore1935,a quarterbefore1930.
(SeetableA-16.)Ofworkers
employed
by others,
thelargest
group,
38
percent,
wereincoalmining;
a fewhadgoneintotrade.Theremainder
werescattered
through
a variety
of manufacturing
andotherindustries,
nooneofwhich
wasproviding
employment
to morethana smallpercentage
ofthegroup.In general,
thisindustrialdistribution
ofemployment
forthoseemployed
on August
1, 1936,
corresponds
to thatof theusual
industry
of themembers
of thegroup.(Seetables
A-5andA-8.)
Age,Place of Residence,Occupational
Level,and EmploymentStatus
Tosomeextent
theAugust
1,1936,
employment
status
of theworker
in
eachof thethreegroups
studied
appears
to havebeenrelated
to hisage
andto hisplaceof residence.
Inaddition,
amongtheclayworkers
at
least,
hisoccupational
level
appears
to havebeenan important
element
in his status.
AgeandEmployment
Status.Inallthreegroups
therewasevident
a
tendency
fortherestricted
number
of employment
opportunities
avail
ablein clayandtheothercommunity
industries
in thesummerof 1936to
bedistributed
amongtheyounger
workers
within
eachgroup.This,it
mustbe remembered,
doesnotreflect
an advantage
fortheyounger
work
ers in the labormarketas a whole,but ratheran advantage
for those
younger
workerswho hadsucceeded
in forming
someattachment
to indus
try,mostof thempriorto 1929. The difficulties
of thoseentering
the
labormarket,particularly
after1929,in makingan attachment
haveal
readybeenindicated
in thehighproportion
of community
unemployment
accountedfor by new workers.
Thedisadvantage
of theolderworker
at thistimewasparticularly
noticeable
among
theworkers
ofindustries
other
thanclay.Whereas
43
percent
of allnonclayworkers
stillin thelabor
market
were45orover,
55 percent
of theunemployed
wereinthisolder
agegroup
andmorethan
a third were 55 or over. By contrast
only36 percentof the employed
were45 or overanda fifth55 or over.Self-employment
andpart-time
employment
wereparticularly
characteristic
of alltheseother
workers
whowere
employed.
Again
inthislessfortunate
position?
theolder
workers
tended
to be moreheavily
represented
in proportion
to their
number
thantheyounger
workers.
A third
of thepersons
in thenonclay
7since
mostself-employment
reported
wasatsubsistence
farming
orinsmall-scale
independentcoal mines, it must be regarded, in general, as an attempt to tide over
periods of unemployment or to stave off dependence on the community, rather than as
a satisfactory adjustment.
LABOR
MARKET
AT TIME
OF SURVEY
33
group
wereself-employed
oremployed
parttime.Of those
whowereat
tempting
thistypeofadjustment,
57percent
were45orover,
whereas
but26 percent
ofthose
whohadfull-time
employment
by others
werethe
older workers.
(SeetableA-15.)
Amongthesometime
clayworkers
thesituation
forthe olderworker
was
similar.In various
waystheworkerover45 or evenover35 appeared
at
a disadvantage.
In general
itwastheyounger
worker
within
thegroup
whowasemployed.
Ifemployed,
theolderworker
wasmorelikely
than
theyounger
to haveonlypart-time
employment
or to havegoneintoself
employment.
Forty-five
percent
oftheunemployedcomparedwith
37per
cent of all the employedwere 45 or over. In addition,
32 percentof
theunemployed
compared
with27 percent
ofalltheemployed
werebetween
35and44. Theadvantage
ofyouth
andthedisadvantage
oftheworker
as
young
as 35showevenmoreclearly
whentheageoftheworkers
employed
fulltimeis considered.
Forty-onepercent
of thosewhowereemployed
fulltimewere under35, whereasof thosein the labormarketbut not
employed
fulltime,only26 percent
wereunder35. Looked at from a
slightly
different
point
ofview,
only35 percent
ofthose
ofthisgroup
whowerestillin thelabormarket
andwere45 or overwereemployed.
full
time,
whereas
47percent
ofthose
under
45and55percent
ofthose
under35 werereceiving
full-time
employment.
(SeetableA-14.)
Ashasbeennoted,
employment
intheclay-products
plants
accounted
for
little
ofwhatemployment
members
of thisgrouphadin August
of 1936.
Again
thiswasparticularly
trueoftheolder
workers.
Only25 percent
of thosewho were employedby othersand who were45 or overwere in
clayproducts,
compared
with31 percent
oftheemployed
under
45.
Amongtheworkers
usually
associated
withclaythose45 or overwere
again
represented
inhigher
proportions
among
theunemployed
than
among
theemployed.Approximately
halfof theunemployed
were45 or over,
whereas
only
37percent
oftheemployed
(other
thanself-employed)
fell
intothisoldergroup.Thedisadvantage
of theworker
between
35 and
44, notedamongthereserve
groupof sometime
clayworkers,
did not ex
tend
tothose
ofthis
agewhoregarded
clayworking
astheir
usual
occu
pation.
Twenty-six
percent
of thoseunemployed
and28 percent
of those
employed
werebetween
35 and44. Theadvantage
oftheyoungest
workers,
thoseunder25,wasas marked
formembers
of thisgroup
as amongother
groups.
Whereas
8percent
oftheemployedwere
under
25,only
3 percent
of theunemployed
werein thisyoungest
agegroup.(SeetableA-13.)
Again
it mustbe noted
thatthisadvantage
of theyoungest
workers
ap
pliesonlyto therelatively
smallproportion
of themwho hadsucceeded
in breaking
intothistightlabormarket.
DEPRESSED
34
LABOR
MARKET
Place
ofResidence
andEmployment
Status.The1936employment
status
of workers
in the threegroupstendedalsoto varywiththeirlocation.
Operation
of thetwoclayplants
in Carbongreatly
reduced
the unem
ployment
bothof thattown's
regular
clayworkers
andof itssometime
clayworkers,
whilethoseinBrazil
andin theruralandmining
regions
around
Brazil
weremoreheavily
burdened
withunemployment,
though
to
different
degrees.
Thegreater
recourse
to self-employment
amongthose
workerson the ruralroutesoutsidethe cities of Braziland Carbonalso
produced
differences
intheemployment
status
oftheresidential
groups.
Among
theusualclayworkers,
those
inCarbon
appeared
most
fortunate,
thoseinKnightsville
andHarmony
least
so. Only9 percent
ofCarbon's
usualclayworkers
wereunemployed.
By contrast,
morethanhalf,
55
percent,
of the Knightsville
andHarmony
workers
wereseeking
employ
ment.Fortypercent
of theBrazil
workers
and22 percent
of thoseon
ruralroutes
werecompletely
unemployed.
To someextent
thesmallvol
umeof unemployment
reported
bytheruralresidents
isadeceptive
fig
Almost
a thirdof thosereporting
employment
wereemployed
only
ure .
parttimeor hadturned
toself-employment
most of it on the farms
fromwhich
theseworkers
hadearlier
cometo theclayplants.
Thus,in
termsoffull-time
employment
by others,
only55 percent
wereso em
ployed,
46percent
intheclayplants.
Inthis
respect
their
status
is
similarto thatof Brazil's
usualclayworkersand betterthanthatof
the Knightsville
and Harmony
members
of thisgroup.
Among
thesometime
clayworkers
thoseinCarbon
againappear
to have
beenina favored
position.
Forty-four
percent
ofthemwere
getting
full-time
employment
intheclayplants.
Thiscontrasts
with11percent
of Brazil's
reserve
clayworkers,
13 percent
of thosein Knightsville
andHarmony,
and9 percent
ofthoseon theruralroutes.Four of Car
bon's16 sometimeclayworkerswere unemployed,
3 wereemployed
full
timein industries
otherthanclay,i was employed
parttime,and i was
self-employed.
On theruralroutes,
almosta thirdhadgoneintoself
employment,
andanother
14percent
wereemployed
parttime,
a fewinthe
clayplants.Thusonlyslightly
morethana quarter
reported
complete
unemployment,
butthis
figure
represents
a farless
satisfactory
adjust
mentfortheentire
groupthanthecomparable
figure
reported
by the
Carbongroup In Brazil,
45 percentof the sometime
clayworkers
were
employed
fulltimeby others;
another
13 percent
werealmost
evenly
di
videdintothose
employed
parttimeandthoseself-employed.
Forty-two
percent
werecompletely
unemployed.
In Knightsville
and Harmony
condi
Whilea higher
proportion,
39 percent,
thanofthe
ruralresidents
wereemployed
fulltime,a farsmaller
proportion
had
tions were
worst.
LABOR
MARKET
AT TIME
OF SURVEY
35
entered
self-employment,
13 percent
compared
with31 percent;
almost
halfofKnightsville
andHarmony's
sometime
clayworkers
werecompletely
unemployed.
Comparisons
fortheotherworkers
arepossible
onlybetween
those
of
Braziland thoseof Carbon. Thosein Brazilappearto havebeenmore
subject
tocomplete
unemployment
thanthose
inCarbon,
one-third
ofthose
in thelarger
city,
compared
withone-quarter
of those
inCarbon,
being
unemployed.
Butthisadvantage
maybemoreapparent
thanreal.A fifth
ofCarbon's
35employable
other
workers
hadonlypart-time
employment,
compared
withbut7 percent
ofBrazil's.
Fromthesecomparisons,
particularly
thoseof theclayworkers,
it
wouldappear
thatwhiletherestricted
number
of opportunities
in clay
workaffected
thesometime
workers
morethantheregular
workers,
the
geographic
location
oftheworker
tended
tosomeextent
tooffset
this
difference.
The factthatthesometime
clayworkers
in Carbonwereem
ployed
by theclayplants
in proportions
almost
as highor higher
than
theusual
clayworkers
inBrazil,
Harmony
andKnightsville,
andonthe
ruralroutes
points
firstto theprobability
thatattachment
to a par
ticularplantwas of moreimportance
thantherelation
to the clayin
dustry
in general.
Thereis theadditional
possibility
that,in the
period
of contracting
opportunity,
thedistinction
between
theusual
workers
andthereserve
of particular
clayplants
tended
to become
af
fectedby considerations
as to theworkers'
placeof residence.
The re
course
of workers
notfortunately
located
in thisrespect those
in
Harmony
andKnightsville
andtherural
regions
- toself-employment
or
part-time
employment,
while
itobscures
thetrueextent
oftheir
prob
lems,
cannot
beconsidered
torepresent
a satisfactory
adjustment.
Occupational
LevelofClayWorkers
andEmployment
Status.Perhaps
themostimportant
factor
in theemployment
status
of theusualclay
workers
wastheoccupational
levelof theirattachment
to theclayin
dustry.Theprobability
fortheusual
clayworker's
having
employment
inclayon August
1,1936,varied
morewithhisstatus
as a clerical
or
administrative
worker,
a skilled
or maintenance
worker,
an operative,
ora laborer,
thanwithhisage.Hisoccupational
level
inclayalso
haditseffect
upontheprobability
of hishaving
employment
in other
industries.
Fifty-ninepercent
of those
usual
clayworkers
whose
occupations
were
administrative
or clerical
and who werestillin thelabormarketwere
on theclay-products
payrollsof August
1,1936.Thiswastrueof54
percent
oftheskilled
or maintenence
workers,
andofonly49 percent
of
36
DEPRESSED
LABOR
MARKET
theoperatives
and50 percent
ofthelaborers.
(SeetableA-17.)Thus
itseemsclearthatproportionately
moreof theworkers
on thelower
occupational
levels
thanof thoseon higher
levels
hadbeen,by August
of 1936,laidoff and notrecalled
intoclay,whilemoreof theskilled
workmennecessary
to maintain
production
evenon a restricted
basishad
been
either
retained
orreemployed
with
theslight
riseoftherecovery
years.8
In viewof the previous
findingson the relationof age to occupa
tional
groupandto employment
status,
it alsoseemsclearthatwhere
theolderworkersucceeded
inmaintaining
orregaining
employment
inthe
clay-products
plants
thiswas
toanappreciable
extent
duetohisskill
orto hisposition
intheproduction
process.
Lacking
suchadvantages
hewaslesslikely
thantheyounger
worker
to maintain
or regainhis
place.
Interms
ofsecuring
other
employment,
theworkers
onthehigher
occu
pational
levels
alsoappear
tohave
beenina better
position.
Only6
of the15 clerical
and administrative
workersnot in claybut stillin
thelabormarketwereunemployed,
whereas
53 percent
of theskilledand
maintenance
workers,
68 percent
oftheoperatives,
and78 percent
of the
laborers
notin claywereunemployed
andlooking
forwork.
Theclayoccupation
appeared
lessrelated
to theclayemployment
of
thesametime
clayworkers
thanit did to thatof the usualclayworkers.
Though
noneof thesixadministrative
andclerical
workers
in thegroup
wereemployed
inclayproducts,
thelaborer
wasjustas likely
to have
employment
intheclay-products
plants
astheskilled
or maintenance
worker.Thisis dueto thefactthatthosewhowereon thepayroll
had,in general,
beenhiredatthetimeof theslight
recovery
inclay
activity
to replace
those
workers
oftheusual
group
whoseageorother
characteristics
militated
against
theirreemployment.
Thosewhowere
notemployed
inclay,on theotherhand,
hadin general
beenpreviously
employed
inclaybuthadbeenlaidoffwiththecontraction
of activ
ityafter
1930.Interest
intheemployment
status
of thesometime
clay
workers
according
to theirclayoccupation
attaches,
therefore,
prin
cipally
to their
employment
outside
theclayindustry.
In thisrespect
theclerical
and administrative
workers
werein the bestposition;
all
ofthemwereemployed.
Thiscompares
withone-third
of theskilled
and
maintenance
workersnot in clay,48 percentof the laborers,
and more
thanhalfthe operatives,
whowereoutof work.
8Itis,ofcourse,
DOSS10le
thata higher
proportion
ofskilled
thanof other
workersin the laborforceof earlieryearshad migratedfrom the area.
not at hand to test this poss1bility.
Data
are
LABOR MARKET AT TIME OF SURVEY
37
SUMMARY
TheBrazil
areainthefallof 1936washeavily
burdened
withunem
ployment.
Itspopulation
wasindustrially
aged,deficient
in employ
ables,
andcontained
manyageddependents.
Itsworking
forcehadmore
thanthe usualproportion
of workersover45 and fewerthan usualbe
tween
25 and44,theagegroupgenerally
regarded
as mostemployable.
Manyof the households
contained
no employables,
undoubtedly
as a result
oftheemigration
of younger
workers
during
theregion's
longhistory
of
restricted
anddeclining
opportunity.
Themajority
contained
butone
employable.
In Brazil
40 percent
ofthehouseholds
andinCarbon
about
80 percent
usually
depended
uponclayworking,
coalmining,
or agricul
turefortheemployment
ofoneormoreof their
employable
members.
The
restof theemployables
werein tradeor in othermanufacturing
indus
tries,
no oneof whichoffered
employment
to many.Themajorpartof
thecommunity's
unemployment
problem
in 1936thusarosefromthedecline
oftheimportant
clayandcoalindustries,
andfromthefailure
ofthese
orof anyotherindustries
toabsorb
thenewworkers.
Thelargenumber
of persons
who hadneverbeenableto findjobsin any industry
was par
ticularly
notable.
The workerswho regardedclay as theirusualindustrywere mostly
native-born
white
workers,
older
thantheaverage
employable
inthecam
munity,
andincluding
relatively
moreworkers
between
25 and44 thandid
thecommunity
at large.Mostof theworkers
hadapparently
beenre
cruited
fromotherindustries,
particularly
coalminingandagriculture,
astheseindustries
released
themintothelabormarket.
Somehadcome
initially
intoclay,entering
thelabormarket
in thetimeof thisin
fewwereyoung.Thema
dustry's
greatest
demand
forlabor.Relatively
joritywere
unskilled
orsemiskilled
laborers
whenemployed
inclay.
More
than
a third
ofthemwere
unemployed,
andmostofthese
hadhadun
employment
of longduration.
Unemployment
affected
particularly
the
older
andthelessskilled
oftheworkers.
Oncethefirstjobhadbeen
obtained,
theyounger
theywere,themorelikely
theywereto bestill,
oragain,
working
inclayor to havesecured
employment
inotherindus
tries.Ontheother
hand,
their
occupational
level
tended
tooffset
this in some cases. The more skilledworkeror the workernecessaryto
themaintenance
ofevenlowlevels
ofproduction
wasmorelikely
than
thelaborer
to be employed
inclayor in otherindustries.
Residence
alsoaffected
theemployment
status,
thoseinCarbon
beingmorelikely
inclaythantheothers.
Thisprobably
reflects
thevalue
to be employed
of association
witha particular
plant,
as distinct
fromassociation
38
DEPRESSED
LABOR
MARKET
withtheindustry
in general,
sinceboththeCarbon
plants
wereoperat
ing.Apart
fromthis,
residence
intherural
regions
provided
theop
portunity
foravoiding
unemployment
tosomeextent
through
permitting
resort
toself-employment
infarming
orsmall-scale
mining.
Theworkers
whohadsomeemployment
inclayduring
1926-36
were,like
theusual
clayworkers,
native-born
whites.Theywere,
however,
some
whatyounger
thantheusualclayworkers,
including
relatively
fewer
workers
over45 andmorebetween
theagesof25 and44. Theyalsodif
feredfromtheusual
clayworkers
in thatmoreof themhadbeenorigi
nally
oratsometime
attached
tocoalmining,
anda larger
proportion
ofthemcamefromtherural
regions
outside
Brazil
andCarbon.
Theywere
morelikelyto be unskilled
workersthanwerethe usualclayworkers
andmorelikely
to be unemployed
or employed
onlyparttimein August
of 1936. Of theemployed
themajority
hadsecured
theircurrent
em
ployment
during
theyearsof upturn,
1935and1936,andwereprobably
replacing
theusual
clayworkers
who hadnotbeenrehired.Thosewho
didhaveemployment
weremuchyounger
thanthose
whodidnot,younger
eventhanthecomparable
group
amongtheusual
clayworkers.
Theoccu
pational
level
of their
attachment
toclaymadelessdifference
in their
chances
of beingemployed
in clayat thistime. It did,however,
affect
tosomeextent
their
chances
ofobtaining
other
employment,
more
ofthe
skilled
thanofthelessskilled
tending
tobeemployed.
Again,
the
workers
inCarbon
weremorelikely
thantheothers
to haveclayemploy
rural
routes
to haveturned
toself-employment.
It is alsonotable
thatthereserve
groupof Carbon
clayworkers
were
almost
as likely
to beemployed
in clayas theusual
clayworkers
out
ment, and those on
side Carbon.
Theworkers
of otherindustries,
containing
moreolderworkers
than
the othertwo groups,alsocontained
moreworkersbornoutsideof the
Brazil
area,
evidently
workers
whohadcomeintoitduring
itsperiod
of
prosperity
toward
theendof thelastcentury.
Thegroup
alsohadmore
workers
under
25,whowereevidently
either
finding
places
in thenew
coal-stripping
operations
ortrucking
activity
oftheregion,
orreplac
ingthoseworkers
whohaddropped
outof thelabormarket
or been"re
leased"
intounemployment.
Unlike
theworkers
in thetwoclaygroups,
mostof theworkers
in thisgrouphadbeguntheirworking
lifein the
industry
whichtheystillregarded
as theirusualone. Insofaras they
wereolderworkerstheywouldappear,therefore,
to havebeenthe more
those
whohadbeenableto holdon to employment
intheindustry
inwhichtheyhadbegun
work.Thattheirunemployment
wasno higher
thanthatof theothergroups
wasdueto thefactthat
establishedworkers
LABOR
MARKET
AT TIME
OF SURVEY
39
many of the olderworkerswithdrewfrom the labor marketwhen they lost
their
jobs.Inaddition,
those
whowere
employedwere
morelikely
to
havebeenemployed
fora longtime,
indicating
thatthisgroupwas
less
susceptible
toshort-term
unemployment
thantheothers.Fromanother
pointof view,theseparation
intoemployed
andunemployed
seemedto
havemorepermanent
meaning
forthisgroupthanfortheothers.The
fact,to be noted
subsequently,
thatthose
employed
on August
1, 1936,
hadbeencharacteristically
thosewho hademployment
and the unemployed
hadbeenthosewithlargevolumes
of unemployment
alsomeansthat,once
unemployed,
a worker
of thisgrouphadbeenlesslikely
to regainem
ployment.
Agewastheonlymeasurable
factor
affecting
their
employment
status
in thefallof 1936.Theolder
workers
of thisgroup
wereat a
greater
disadvantage
relative
totheyounger
thantheolder
workers
in
eitherof theothergroups.More of the workersover than under45 were
unemployed;
moreof thoseover45 who wereemployed
had onlypart-time
employment;
andmorehadturned
tothedoubtful
adjustments
ofwhatever
self-employment
waspossible
intheregion.
1
I
CHAPTER
III
EMPLOYMENT EXPERIENCE, 1926-35,
AND SELECTIVE
FACTORS
Thewidespread
unemployment
thatcharacterized
thelabormarket
ofthe
Brazil
areainthefallof1936wasnot,aswe haveseen,a phenomenon
of
recent
development.
Theunemployment
ofsomeoftheworkers
extended
far
backintotheir
history.
Muchof itderived
fromthechronic
depression
intowhich
industries,
formerly
important
to thecommunity,
hadfallen.
Perhaps
thegreatest
partof it,however,
derived
fromthecollapse
of
clay-working
activities
intheearly1930's.Theretofore
thisindustry
hadabsorbed
a goodproportion
of thelaborforces
released
fromother
industries.
Itscollapse,
coming
on topof thedepressed
condition
of
theother
industries,
magnified
andintensified
theunemployment
problem,
precipitating
intothecommunity
poolof unemployed
largenumbers
ofclay
workers,
manyofwhomwere
stillunemployed
in1936.
Thestatus
oftheworkers
inthefallof1936andtherelation
ofcer
tainfactors
to thedistribution
ofwhatemployment
opportunities
then
existed
havebeenconsidered
inthepreceding
chapter.
Thechanging
for
tunes
oftheworkers
overthe10-year
period,
as these
reflected
andin
fluenced
the character
of the developing
unemployment
problem,
and the
selective
factors
thatmayberelated
to differences
in theexperiences
of theworkers,
aretheconcern
of thischapter.
Whathappened
to those
workers
whohadbeenlooking
to clayfortheir
usualemployment,
and to the reserve
who supplemented
the regular
clay
supply?Whatisrevealed
bytheemployment
records
ofthose
workers
who
stillclung
toindustries
other
thanclaydespite
progressivelydeclining
opportunity?
Howaredifferences
in theemployment
experience
of the
threegroupsrelated
to differences
in thecharacter
of theirsituations
at thetimeof theenumeration?
Whatrelation
didage,placeof resi
dence,
oroccupation
havetothedifferences
inemployment
experience?
Thefirstpartofthechapter
analyzes
thevolume
andcharacter
ofthe
employment
andunemployment
experienced
in the10 years,
1926-35,
accord
ing to the natureof the industrial
attachment
of theworkers
studied
thatis,whethertheywereusualclayworkers,
reserve
clayworkers,
or
other
industrialworkers.
There
follows
aconsideration
ofthedistribu
tionof employment
amongthepersons
ineachgroup,
andan analysis
of
therelation
of thisdistribution
to age,placeof residence,
and level
of occupation.
40
EMPLOYMENT
EMPLOYMENT
EXPERIENCE
AND UNEMPLOYMENT,
41
1926-38
Though
therecords
of allthreegroups
of workers
arealikein the
heavy
burdens
of unemployment
theyshow,
there
areparticular
differences
inthetypeofemployment
experience
andthevolume
of unemployment.
Of
their
employable
timeinthe10-year
period,
eachgroup
spentonlyabout
halfin full-time
employment
by others,
andapproximately
a quarter
of
their
timecompletely
unemployed
andseekingwork.
Year-by-year
compari
SONS, however,
showthe recordof the workersin industries
otherthan
clayto be oneof steadydeterioration,
as eachyearmoreof theirnumber
slipped
fromemployment
intounemployment.
Theregular
clayworkers,
on
theother
hand,
weresuddenly
precipitated
intotheunemployed
poolwith
thedepression.
Frombeing
thegroup
withtheleastunemployment
in the
years1926to 1929,theybecame
thegroupwiththemostunemployment
after
1930.Thereserve
group
ofsometime
clayworkers
falls
between
the
other two.
Priorto thedepression
yearstheyhad,as a group,moreun
employment
thantheusual
clayworkers
although
lessthantheother
work
ers.Thedepression
increased
thevolume
of unemployment
experienced
by
thegroup
butnotas markedly
as itdidthatoftheregular
clayworkers.
(SeetablesA-18,A-19,and A-20.)
Moredetailed
analysis
of theamountof timespentby membersof each
groupin employment
and unemployment
overthe10-yearperiodand of the
nature
of theemployment
andadjustments
to unemployment
willfurther
il
luminate
thesedifferences.
Time Out of the Labor Market
In each of the 10 yearsstudiedtherewere some workers in all three
groups
whoreported
themselves
as notseeking
workeither
partorallof
the time. Ina relatively
smallproportion
ofsuchcases,
absence
from
thelabor
market
wasa temporarywithdrawal
dueto illness
orlikecauses.
Thebulkof thetimespentoutof thelabormarketwas eithertimepre
ceding
entrance,
inwhich
theyounger
persons
wereat school
andhadnot
yetsought
employment,
ortimeafter
leaving,
inwhichtheolder
persons
hadgiven
upthehope,
orat least
thesearch,
forwork.
In all,the usualclayworkers
werenotin thelabormarket7 percent
of thetimestudied,
thesometime
clayworkers
6 percent,
andtheother
workers
18 percent.
Thatmuchofthistimewasthatof persons
whodid
notenterthelabormarket
until
afterthebeginning
of theperiod
for
whichmaterialwas
gathered
isreflected
in thefactthatin allthree
groups
moretimewasspent
outofthelabor
market
in theearlier
thanin
thelateryears.The markedly
higherproportion
of timeso reported
by
DEPRESSED
42
LABOR
MARKET
theworkersin industries
otherthanclayis due to thefactthatthis
group
includes
moreyounger
andolderworkers
thantheother
groups.
Although
itisprobable
that
someofthewithdrawals
fromthelabor
market
represent
notso muchvoluntary
retirement
as an enforced
accept
anceof standards
in thelabormarket
whichpreclude
thehopeof re
employment,
suchabsence
fromthelabormarket
mustbe presumed
to be
largely
voluntary
anddetailed
analysis
of thestatusneednotbe at
tempted
here.Inthesucceedingdiscussion
thetimespent
outofthela
bormarketis excluded,
andanalysis
is madeof thedistribution
of only
thatportion
ofthetimeinwhich
theworkers
regarded
themselves
asem
ployable.
Though
it mighthavebeendesirable
toexclude
onlythetime
whenworkerswere
definitely
notavailable
foremployment
andtoinclude
timewhen
theywere
notseeking
worksimply
because
theyknewtheywould
notgetit,sucha refinement
wasimpossible
andwould
notappreciably
alter
thegeneral
analysis
herepresented.
Unemployment
During
the10 years,
1926-35,
theusual
clayworkers
wereunemployed
andseeking
work31percent
oftheir
employable
time.1Thiscompares
with
28 percent
oftheemployable
timeofthesometime
clayworkers
and
24 percentof that of the otherworkers.
Theregular
clayworkers,
however,
incontrast
totheother
twogroups,
hadvery
little
unemployment
prior
totheonset
ofthedepression.
In
1926theywere
unemployed
but4 percent
oftheir
employable
time.This
increased
somewhat
evenbefore
therealdepression
period
setinandby
1929unemployment
accounted
for9 percent
of theiremployable
time. In
1930,
however,
itjumped
to22percent
andthereafter
their
employment
dropped
steadily
until,
in thelowyearof thedepression
- 1933,the
usual
clayworkers
wereunemployed
58percent
oftheir
employable
time.
Thereis some indication
thattheysharedto someextentin the subse
quent
recovery.
Theproportion
oftheir
time
reported
unemployeddropped
slightly
after1933,although
in 1935theywerestillunemployed
more
than half theiremployable
time. (SeetableA-18and figures3, 4,
and 5.)
Thehistory
ofthesametime
clayworkers
presents
a lessfavorable
pic
turein theearlier
years,
though
thedepression
years
didnotincrease
theirunemployment
as muchas itdidthatof theregular
clayworkers.
1Totaltime
minus
timereported
as"notinlabor
market"
isconsidered
employable
time, and will be so referred to hereafter.
Employable time thus includes time
spentin full-and part-time
employment,
self-employment,
andunemployment
while
seeking work.
otherwise
All subsequent distributions are of employable time, except where
stated.
Figure 3.- EMPLOYMENT
OF USUAL CLAY WORKERS, 1926-36
PERCENT
100
UNEMPLOYMENT
80
60
SELF -EMPLOYMENT
40
FULL-TIME
PART -TIME
CLAY
OTHER
PART -TIME CLAY
FULL -TIME OTHER
20
HS
o
1926
BASED
27
ON
TABLE
28
29
30
31
A-18
'32
WPA-
Figure 4.- EMPLOYMENT
134
'33
NATIONAL
RESEARCH
PROJECT
'35
L-60
OF SOMETIME CLAY WORKERS, 1926-35
PERCENT
100
UNEMPLOYMENT
80
P
C
T
A
R IM LA
T- E
Y
60
SELF-EMPLOYMENT
40
PART-TIME
20
FULL-TIME OTHER
FULL-TIME CLAY
0
1926
'27
BASED ON TABLE A-19
28
29
OTHER
30
"31
32
33
134
WPA - NATIONAL RESEARCH PROJECT
35
L-61
EMPLOYMENT
EXPERIENCE
45
continuing
intotherecovery
period,
distinguishes
themfromtheusual
andsometime
clayworkers.
It isobvious
thattheproblems
ofthisgroup
werenot,as werethose
oftheother
two,depression
problems
primarily.
Theywere
a group
whamdiminishing
opportunities
intheir
industries
were
inexorably
forcing
intothereserve
poolof unemployed,
possibly
unem
ployable.
Itis,however,
notable
thatthegroup
didnotsuffer
asmuch
as didtheothertwointhedepression
yearsin termsof thevolume
of
unemployment
reported.
Thisisaccounted
forinpartby thelarge
number
ofthegroupwhohadturned
tosomeformofself-employment,
in partby
thefactthattheearlier
decline
oftheirindustries
hadprobably
re
duced
forces
to thepointwherethose
stillemployed
werenecessary
if
activity
was to continue
at all,and in partby thefactthaton losing
employment
manyof the olderworkersreported
themselves
as no longer
seeking
work.While
thislatter
factor
reduced
theapparent
contribution
ofthegroup
to thecommunity's
unemployment
problem,
itis probable
that
manyoftheretired
continued
torepresent
a relief
problem.
(Seetable
A--19
andfigures
3, 4, and5.)
Employment
The employment
records
of thethreegroupsnaturally
complement
these
unemployment
records,
yetaccurate
evaluation
andcomparison
oftheirex
perience
require
that
certainsignificant
differences
inthecharacter
ofemployment
be takenintoaccount.
Someof theworkthateachgroup
hadwas
notfull-timebut
part-timework.
Someofitwasself-employment
which,
though
itmadeitpossible
fortheworkers
toavoid
complete
unem
ployment,
maybepresumed
torepresent
inmany
cases
a less
satisfactory
status
thandidfull-time
employment
by others.2
Full-time
Employment.Overthefull10 yearstheregular
clayworkers
hadthebestrecord
withrespect
tofull-time
employment,
56 percent
of
their
employable
timebeing
so occupied.
Thesometime
clayworkers
had
full-time
employment
for52 percent
oftheir
time,
andtheother
workers
for 50 percent.Mostof theadvantage
of the usualclayworkers
in this
respect
derives,
however,
fromtheirpredepression
experience.
In the
5 years,
1926–30,
theywereemployed
fulltimefor83 percent
of their
employable
time.By contrast,
theworkers
of otherindustries
wereem
ployed
fulltimeinthesameperiod
foronly59 percent
of theiremploy
abletime,
andthesometime
clayworkers
for72 percent.
In the5 years
after
1930,however,
theusual
clayworkers
hadfull-time
employment
for
only30 percent
oftheir
employable
time,
theworkers
of other
industries
2cc.p.32,itn.7 fornature
ofselfemployment
pursuits.
46
DEPRESSED
LABOR
MARKET
(See
for41 percent,
andthesometime
clayworkers
for33 percent.
A-18,A-19,and A-20.)
tables
Comparison
of theamount
offull-time
employment
in clayforthetwo
groupsof clayworkers
revealsinteresting
differences.
Up to 1930the
reservegroupof sometime
clayworkers
spentno morethan40 to 50 per
centof theiremployable
timeworking
fulltimein theclayindustry.
The usualclayworkers,
on theotherhand,spentabout80 percent
of
their
timeinfull-time
employment
inclay.After
1929full-time
employ
mentin clayfor bothgroupsdropped
markedly.In the5 years,1931-35,
the usualclayworkershadsuchemployment
in clayfor but23 percent
of
their
employable
time.Thelowpoint
wasreached
in1933whenitdropped
to only15 percent
of their
time.Thereafter
there
wassomepick-up
and
in1935they
spent
20percent
oftheir
employable
timeinfull-time
em
ployment
in theclayplants.
Forthesometime
clayworkers
therenever
wasapick-up.
Theamount
offull-time
employment
they
secured
inclay
dropped
rapidly
after1929andcontinued
to dropuntilin 1935it ac
counted
foronly3 percent
of their
employable
time.
That,inviewof this,
thefull-time
employment
record
of thesometime
clayworkers
wasnotworse
thanthatoftheusual
clayworkers
isdueto
thefactthattheysecured
employment
in thecommunity's
otherindus
tries.By 1929employment
inindustries
other
thanclayhadpractically
vanished
asa factor
intheusual
clayworkers'
employment
experience.
Inthat
year
full-timeemployment
inindustries
other
thanclay
accounted
foronly5 percent
ofthegroup's
employable
time.Itdeclined
evenfur
therinthefollowing
years
andthough
it picked
upslightly
during
the
recovery
period,
suchemployment
in1935still
accounted
fornomorethan
10 percent
of theiremployable
time.
Withthesometime
clayworkers,
on theotherhand,
full-time
employment
inindustries
other
than
claywas
always
anappreciable
factor.
In1930,
theyearwhentheyhadtheleast
suchother
employment,
theystill
spent
19percent
of their
employable
timeinfull-time
employment
inotherin
dustries. By 1935it rosetowhere
it occupied
32 percent
of their
em
ployable
time. It is interesting
thatin theveryyears,1930–33,
when
full-time
employment
inindustries
otherthanclaywasdeclining
forthe
group
of workers
inother
industries,
itwasincreasing
forthisreserve
group
ofsometime
clayworkers.
Thisisduetothefactthattheyounger
members
of thegroup
ofsometime
clayworkers
weresecuring
employment
in
theotherindustries,
whilemoreoftheolder
workers
in theother
group
weredropping
intounemployment.
Thesecomparisons
of thefull-time
employment
records
of thethree
groupsaddto thefindings
on unemployment
thefactthatthetendency
for
DEPRESSED
48
LABOR
MARKET
especially
fortherural
residents.
In thedepression
period
smallmin
ingalsoassumed
importance.
Aswillbeseen,thereis a considerable
partof theworkers
of in
dustries
other
thanclaywhohadbecome
moreorlesspermanently
self
employed.Thisaccounts
for therelatively
highproportion,
19 percent,
ofthetime
this
group
spent
inself-employment.
While
there
wasa de
clinefrom20 percent
in thefirst5 yearsto 18 percentin the second,
there
wassomeincrease
during
1931-33
over1930,
indicating
thattothe
groupof permanently
self-employed
wereaddedin thoseyearssomewhore
sorted
toself-employment
whenemployment
opportunities
became
evenmore
scarce
.
(SeetableA-20andfigures
3, 4, and5.)
Fortheusualclayworkers
self-employment
neverassumed
anylargepro
portions.Only
4 percent
oftheemployable
timeinthe10years
wasspent
inself-employment
- 2 percent
inthefirst
5 years
and6 percent
inthe
second
whena few of the usualclayworkerswereableto makeuse of
thisalternative
to unemployment,
primarily
inagriculture
or small
scale
mining.
Thegroup
ofsametime
clayworkers
wereself-employed
for12percent
of
theirtimeon thelabormarket,
theamount
decreasing
during
thefirst
4 years
oftheperiod
studied,
whentheir
employment
inclaywasincreas
ing,andassuming
greatest
proportions
in theyearswhenfull-time
em
ployment
wasdeclining.
DISTRIBUTIONOF EMPLOYMENTAND UNEMPLOYMENT3
Certain
additional
differences
maybe noted
in theexperiences
ofthe
three
groups
ofworkers
when
consideration
isgiven
nottothevolume
of
employment
orunemployment
experienced
byeachgroup
asawhole,
butto
itsdistributionamong
theindividual
members
ofthegroup that is, the
numberof personsexperiencing
eachstatusand the amountof timethey
spent in it.
Suchdistribution
naturally
tends
to reflect
theaggregate
experience
ofthegroup.
Thus
theusualclayworkers,
thegroupwith
the
most
unemployment
inthe10years,
wasalso
thegroup
inwhich
thegreat
estpercentage
of persons
reported
someunemployment.
(Seetable
A-23.)
Twocharacteristics,
however,
particularly
distinguish
thesometimeclay
workers.
Inthefirstplace,
although
a muchsmaller
percentage
ofthis
groupthanof thegroupof workers
of otherindustries
reported
long
3Thefollowinganalysis
isbased
upon
frequency
distributions
oftheexperiences
of
thoseworkerswho had enteredthe labor marketprior to 1928 and hadnot lert It
before August 1938. The others are excluded in order to insure comparability or
timespent in the labor market. All averages of number of months of employment,
unemployment,
or self-employment
relateonly to the numberin the specifiedgroup
who spent any time in the given status.
EMPLOYMENT
EXPERIENCE
49
records
ofself-employment,
there
isa sizable
proportion
ofthegroup
apparently
ableto alternate
readily
between
employment
by others
and
self-employment
andthusescape
actual
unemployment.
Withthecontinued
lowlevelofopportunity
foremployment
by others,
it is possible
that
thedepression
translated
manywhomightotherwise
havebeenin this
group
intomoreorlesspermanently
self-employed.
In thesecond
place,
it issignificant
thatthough
inthepredepression
period
theyhadas a
group
lessunemployment
thantheworkers
ofindustries
Other
than
clay,
farmoreof theirnumber
suffered
someunemployment,
though
it wasof
shorterduration.
(SeetablesA-19,A-20,and A-24.)Thiswouldappear
to be,in partat least,
a reflection
of theirreserve
status
andof
theirconsequently
greater
susceptibility
eveningoodtimes
totemporary
fluctuations
inthedemand
forlabor.Therelatively
short-term
unem
ployment
of thelargerproportion
of unemployed
in thisgroupcontrasts
withthelong-term
(possibly
permanent)
unemployment
of thesmallerpro
portion,
increasing
innumber,
among
theworkers
ofindustries
Other
than
clay.
A moredetailed
examination
of thefrequency
distributions
of thethree
groupsof workers,
and of the employed,
self-employed,
and unemployed
in eachgroupaccording
to thenumber
of months
of employment,
unem
ployment,
andself-employment,
presents
thebasis
infactfortheabove
observations.
The Usual Clay Workers
Employment.Practically
alltheusual
clayworkers
hadsomeemployment
by others
during
the10-year
period
buttheamount
ofsuchemployment
varied
widely.
Fewhadlessthan4 years
ofemployment;
nearly
halfhad
lessthan7 butmorethan4, and22 percent
spentmorethan9 of the10
years
employed
by others.Whentheemployment
theyhadduring
thefirst
5 yearsis compared
withthatduringthesecond,
it is foundthatwhile
intheformer
period
there
wereonly2 workers
whohadnoemployment
by
others,
inthelatter
therewere97,or 17percent
of thegroup.Fur
thermore,
theaverage
amount
ofemployment
byothers,
forthose
whohad
any,dropped
from50 outof the60 months
in thefirstperiod
to 29 out
of the60 inthesecond.While78 percent
hadhadbetween
4 and5 years
ofemployment
inthefirst
period,
only28
percent
hadasmuchduring
the
second.Thus,though
in thedepression
years
onlya little
morethana
quarter
of theworkers
wereableto maintain
a fairdegree
ofsecurity,
themajority
hadto supplement
theiremployment
by self-employment
or
faceunemployment.
(SeetablesA-21and A-24.)
50
DEPRESSED
LABOR
MARKET
Whenthegroupis broken
downaccording
to their
status
on August
1,
1936,andrecords
compared,
theexistence
of thegroupwhichhadbeen
favored
isevidenced
again.Ingeneral,
thoseworkers
whowere
in August
of1936employed
byothers
tended
to bethose
withthegreatest
amount
of
suchemployment
in thepreceding
10 years;
those
whowereunemployed
had
less,
andthose
whowereself-employed
hadtheleast.A thirdofthose
whowere thenemployedhad beenemployed
for all or nearlyall of the
10 years
thatis,from109to 120 months.An additional
thirdhadbeen
employed
forfrom6 to9 years,
andonly5 percent
hadbeenemployed
for
lessthan4 years.By contrast,
19 ofthe22self-employed
workers
had
hadlessthan6 yearsof employment
by others,
and 7 had hadlessthan
4 years.Morethanhalfof those
whowereunemployed
hadbeenemployed
by others
for5 yearsor less;almost
a quarter
for4 yearsor less.
Only
5 percent
hadbeenemployed
allornearly
allofthetime.(See
tableA-21.)
Self-Employment.As alreadynoted,the usualclayworkers
as a group
madevery
little
useofself-employment
tosupplement
thelackofemploy
Inthefull10 years
only16 percent
hadeverbeenself-employed;
ment.
two-thirds
of thesehad had lessthan3 yearsof self-employment,
and
halflessthan2 years.Only7 percent
hadhadsomeself-employment
prior
to 1931andof thesehalfhadhadnotmorethana yearat it. In
the5 yearsfrom1931on, however,
14 percenthadsomeself-employment
andmorethanhalfof thesehadmorethan2 years,
a fifthmorethan4 of
the 5 years. (Seetables
A-22andA-24.)
Whileall of thosewhowereself-employed
on August1, 1936(4 percent
of theusual
clayworkers),
hadbeenself-employed
forat least
1 month
duringthe 10 years,only12 percentof the employed
and 14 percentof
theunemployed
hadhadanyself-employment.
Moreover,
there
werenorec
ordsoflongself-employment
foranyineither
of these
twogroups.
Evi
dently
theirself-employment
hadbeenan unsatisfactory
or at leasta
temporary
expedient.
Themajority
of theworkers
whowere
self-employed
on August
1,1936,however,
hadhad4 years
or moreofself-employment.
Inallprobability
mostof thesehadundertaken
self-employment
either
justpriorto or duringthe periodof depressed
activity
in claywork,
andhadbeenunable
orunwilling
togetother
employment.
Therewould
seemto be little
likelihood
of theirgetting
backintoclay,in view
of thefact,to be discussed
later,thatmostof themwereolderworkers.
Unemployment.Morethanfour-fifths
of theusualclayworkers
hadsome
unemployment
duringthe10 years,andtwo-thirds
of thosewithany unem
ployment
hadspent
3 years
ormore
unemployed.
About
10percent
hadhad
52
DEPRESSED
LABOR
MARKET
morethan6 years
ofunemployment.
Comparison
oftheunemployment
expe
rienced
inthefirst
5 years
withthatexperienced
inthesecond
reveals
themarked
increase
bothinthenumberwho
hadunemployment
andtheaver
ageamount
of unemployment
experienced.
Priorto 1931morethanhalf,
55 percent,
had hadno unemployment,
and thosewho hadbeenout of work
averaged
approximately
a year
ofunemployment.
Inthe5 years
following
1930,
however,
only
a fifth
escaped
anyunemployment,
andtheremainder
hadan average
of morethan3 years
outof the5 unemployed,
38 percent
between
4 and5 years.
(Seetables
A-23,
A-24,
andfigure
6.)
The unemployed
groupof usualclayworkers
in thefallof 1936137per
centof thewhole)
hadhadanaverage
record
of54 months
of unemployment
during
the10 years
studied,
ascomparedwith
anaverage
of45 months
for
those
inthetotal
group
having
anyunemployment.
Therewere
relatively
fewwith
either
short
records,
that
is,under
3 years,
orwith
longrec
ords,
over7 years.Three-quarters
hadhadbetween
3 and7 years
of un
employment,
and40 percent
hadhadover5 years.In the othertwo groups
or
ofusual
clayworkers,
themajority
hadshortrecords
of unemployment
hadhadno unemployment.
Overa quarter
ofthose
whoin August
of1936
wereemployed
byothers,
andovera halfofthose
whowere
self-employed,
hadhadno unemployment.
In all,the evidenceof theseand the preceding
measures
appearsto
indicate
thatthedepressed
activity
inclaygaverisetoanunemployed
group
of usual
clayworkers
whose
chances
ofreemployment
werediminish
ingthrough
continued
unemployment.
Furthermore,
selfemployment
appears
to havebeena practicable
alternative
forbuta fewinthisgroup.The
factthatthosewhowereself-employed
in1936hadnotbeencharacter
istically
thegroupwithheavyunemployment
wouldappear
to meanthat
those
whowereabletowentintoself-employment
immediately
orshortly
after
becoming
unemployed.
Theresthadnotbeen
andprobablywould
not
beabletoturntoself-employment.
The Other Industrial
Workers
Employment.Fifteen
percent
oftheother
industrialworkers,
a larger
proportion
thanofeither
group
ofclayworkers,
hadnoemployment
by
others
inthe10-year
period.
Thiswasdueto thefactthatmanyof the
workers
hadturned
tosomeformofself-employment
prior
to1926andwere
eithercontinuously
self-employed
thereafter
or wentfromself-employment
to unemployment.
Ofthosewho
hadanyemployment
byothers
arelatively
4Fourof the30 persons
in thegroupwithno employment
by others
hadbecome
unem
ployed prior to 1928 and had never been reemployed, but still regarded themselves
as available for employment. Fifteen were self-employed the entire 10-year period,
and 11 had beeneitherself-employed
or unemployed
throughout
the period.
DEPRESSED
54
LABOR
MARKET
of hired
employment
caused
somepersons
toresort
toself-employment,
at
least
temporarily.
(Seetable
A-24.)
Thatthosewhowereself-employed
in August
of 1936werenormally
a
self-employed
group
isevident
froma comparison
oftheir
records
of
self-employment
withtherecords
ofthosewhowere
notso employed.
Dur
ingthe10years,
thisgroup
averaged
84months
ofself-employment
and
overhalf
ofthemhadbeencontinuously
self-employed.
Only11 per
centof thosewhowereemployed
by othersat thistimehad hadany self
employment
in the 10 years;5 of these10 personshad hadunder3 years
of self-employment,
and 3 had had morethan 4 years. A higherpro
portionof the unemployed,
28 percent,had had someself-employment.
Theaverage
forthe20 persons
inthispercentage
was73 months
of self
employment,
or morethan6 of the 10 years. Thesefactsindicate
that
thedecline
in theamount
ofself-employment
fromthefirstperiod
to
thesecond
wasduetosomeofthepeople's
falling
fromself-employment
to unemployment,
rather
thanto their
securing
other
employment.
(See
tableA-22.)
Unemployment.Theworkers
of otherindustries
whoescaped
anyunem
ployment
werea larger
group
thanamong
theother
two,comprising
39 per
centof thewhole. On the otherhand,5 percent
of the workers
who had
anyunemployment
wereunemployedalmost
continuously
- that
is,formore
than9 of the 10 years. In general,
theremainder
of theworkers
with
any unemployment
weredispersed
evenlythroughout
thefrequency
distribu
tion. (SeetableA-23.)
Theproportion
withunemployment
increased
froma thirdin theyears
priorto1931to morethanhalfintheyears
following,
andtheaverage
amount
of unemployment
thesepersons
experienced
increased
from2 to al
most3 years.Those
reporting
over4of the5years
unemployed
increased
fram12percent
to29percent.
Thus,
though
asmaller
proportion
ofthe
otherindustrial
workers
thanof theusualclayworkers
hadanyunem
ployment
ineither
period,
theaverage
amount
of unemployment
forthem
wasgreater
forthefirst
period
andless
forthesecond
period.
(See
tableA-24.)
Thatunemployment
hadtended
tobecome
permanent
fora group
ofthe
otherworkers
isevident
fromacomparison
oftherecords
ofthose
un
employed
onAugust
1,1936,
with
those
whohademployment
onthat
date.
Theunemployed
group
(37percent
oftheother
workers)
hadanaverage
of
51 months
of unemployment,
while
theself-employed
groupwho
hadhadany
unemployment
hadaveraged
only26 monthsof it,and thoseemployed
by
others,
34 months.Moreover,
55 percent
ofthose
employed
by others
had
DEPRESSED
58
LABOR
MARKET
permanent
formof adjustment
or a prelude
to unemployment.
Somecould
apparently
gofromself-employment
backintoemployment
again.Thiswas
lesstrueof eitherof the othertwo groups,who appearto havetended
moreto become
either
permanently
self-employed
or to sinkfromself
employment
intounemployment.
Unemployment.Three-quarters
of thesometime
clayworkers
spentsome
timeduring
the10yearsunemployed
andseeking
work.Thisproportion
issmaller
thanthatoftheusual
clayworkers,
larger
thanthatof the
other
workers.
Theaverage
amount
of unemployment
experienced
by those
withanywassimilar
tothatexperienced
bytheother
twogroups,
43
months,
though
thedistribution
waslesseventhanamongtheworkers
of
industries
other
thanclay.Liketheusual
clayworkers,
themajority
of
this
group
hadfrom3to7 years
ofunemployment.
(Seetable
A-23.)
In general,
thedistribution
oftheirunemployment
is morelikethatof
the usualclayworkers
thanof theotherworkers.However,
it is notable
thatevenbefore
1931a relatively
highproportion
ofthisgroup
reported
someunemployment:
53 percent,
ascompared
with45 percent
oftheusual
clayworkers
and35percent
oftheotherworkers.
Almost
halfof those
who hadsomeunemployment
during
thisperiod
hadbeenunemployed
more
than
a year.Therelatively
high
proportion
reporting
someunemployment
in thisperiod
is in parta reflection
of thefactthatthisreserve
group
feltthecontraction
ofclayemployment
earlier
thandidtheusual
clayworkers.It also,however,
indicates
a susceptibility
toshort
periods
ofunemployment
ingood
times
greater
than
thatofeither
ofthe
othertwo groups. ( SeetableA-24
.)
Inthesecond
5-year
period
72 percent
ofthesometime
clayworkers
had
some unemployment,
and the averageunemployment
for thesepersonswas
A proportion
similar
tothatoftheusual
clayworkers,
39per
cent,hadfrom4 to5 years
of unemployment,
buta farhigher
proportion,
3 years.
20percent
ascomparedwith
11percent
oftheusual
clayworkers,
hadun
der a year.
Thedifference
is probably
accounted
forby those
sometime
clayworkers
who,after
an interval
of unemployment
following
claycon
traction,
wentpermanently
intootherindustries.
Therecords
ofthose
whowereunemployed
andseeking
workon August
i
of 1936- 40 percent
of thewhole are verysimilarto thoseof the cor
responding
group
of usual
clayworkers.
Allbut2 percent
of themwere
unemployed
atsometimeduring
theperiod
1926–35
andtheyaveraged
55
monthsof unemployment,
as compared
withan average
of 32 monthsfor the
71 percent
oftheemployed
workers
whohadhadsomeunemployment.
Like
the unemployed
usualclayworkers,
the unemployed
of the reservegroup
Figure 7.- EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT, 1926-38, BY AGE
PERCENT
80
OF
AGE
GROUP
USUAL
CLAY
WORKERS
60
40
20
4
3
6
1
4
4
5
3
4
5
5
4
R
E
5
R
V
5
O
4
3
6
1
4
4
5
3
4
5
5
4
R
E
R
V
5
5
O
4
3
6
1
4
4
5
3
4
5
5
4
R
E
R
5
V
5
O
4
3
6
1
4
4
5
3
4
5
5
4
4
4
5
3
4
5
5
4
R
E
5
R
V
5
O
80
SOMETIME
CLAY
WORKERS
60
40
20
O
4
3
6
1
4
4
5
3
4
5
5
4
R
E
5
R
V
5
O
4
3
6
1
4
4
5
3
4
5
5
4
R
E
5
R
V
5
O
4
3
6
1
4
4
5
3
4
5
5
4
R
E
5
R
V
5
O
4
3
6
1
R
E
5
R
V
5
O
80
OTHER
INDUSTRIAL
WORKERS
09
40
20
CLAY
EMPLOYMENT
OTHER
EMPLOYMENT
BASED ON TABLES A-25, A-26, A-27
SELFEMPLOYMENT
H
NS
UNEMPLOYMENT
WPA- NATIONAL RESEARCH PROJECT
L-64
64
DEPRESSED
LABOR
MARKET
dependent
almost
entirely
uponemployment
in otherindustries
or upon
self-employment.
(SeetableA-26.)
Insecuring
or maintaining
employment
in industries
otherthanclay,
theyounger
workers
hada pronounced
advantage
bothin thepredepression
period
andinthedepression
years.Those
25 to34,accounting
foronly
a quarter
oftheemployable
timeofthegroup,
obtained
36 percent
ofthe
totalemployment
in industries
otherthanclaypriorto the depression
and40percent
oftheemployment
insuch
industries
between
1932and
1935.
Eachof the olderage groupsin turnhadlessof suchemployment
in both
periods,
and thediscrepancy
betweentheiravailable
timeand thetime
theyspentemployed
in claywasmoremarked.
Self-employment,
itisnotable,
wasnot,asamong
theworkers
inthe
othertwogroups,
primarily
confined
to olderpersons.Allagegroups
reported
roughly
comparable
proportions
of their
timeto havebeenspent
inself-employment,
though
in thedepression
years
thisproportion
in
creased
moremarkedly
fortheyoungerworkers
(upto 45)thanforthe
older ones. Thegreater
recourse
toself-employment
oftheyounger
work
ersin thisgroupwasprimarily
dueto thefactthatit included
rural
residents
whowere
self-employed
infarming
ormining
prior
to other
em
ployment
or turnedto thesein unemployment,
whereas
ruralresidents
were
notincluded
inthesample
of other
workers
andwererelatively
lessnu
merous
amongthe usualclayworkers.
Thus,comparing
therecords
of thedifferent
agegroups
in thethree
industrialsamples,
itisclear
that
thegeneral
industrial
situation
in
thecommunity
wastending
to produce
an unemployed
population
of older
persons
whose
chances
ofreemployment
wereprobably
diminishing
astime
Someofthemturned
toself-employment.
Themajoritywere
the
characteristically
unemployed
group.Whatever
jobscameon thelabor
market
in mining,
trucking,
ortheother
smaller
industries
of thecom
munity
wentprimarily
to theyoungerworkers.
Suchjobs,however,
were
fewandthenewentrant
intothelabormarket
in particular
hada dif
went on.
ficult
time
finding
place.
Thisisevidenced
notonlyby
thehighunem
ployment
records
of theyoungest
workers
in these
samples,
butbythe
highproportion
ofcammunity
unemployment
in August
of1936accounted
for
by workers
who wereneverableto getjobsandwhowere,therefore,
not
included
in thesesamples.
Contraction
of clay-working
opportunities
alsoaffected
primarily
theoldest
workers,
butconsideration
of factors
of experience
andskilloffsettosomeextentthedisadvantages
of agein
finding
employment.
Thiswillbeseenmoreclearly
in thefollowing
dis
cussion
of therelation
between
theoccupational
levelof theclaywork
ersand theiremployment
experience.
70
DEPRESSED
LABOR
MARKET
theclayindustry,
agebecame
a barrier
withrespect
to employment
in
clayonlyforthemucholder
worker,
theoneover55. Belowthatage,
experience
or other
considerations
appear
to outweigh
theagefactor
and
the olderworkerappearsto havehadthe preference.
In addition,
the
workers
on thehigher
occupational
levels
hadmoreemployment
thanthose
onlower
levels,
thelaborers
having
themostunemployment.
The differences
in the clayworkers'
recordsof clayemployment
ac
cording
totheir
residence
probably
reflect
primarilythe
advantage
of
attachment
toa particular
plant
overmoregeneral
experience
inthe
industry.
Butit isclearthatwiththedepression
contraction
ofclay
activity
moreof theemployment
tended
to go to thosewithin
thecit
iesofCarbon
andBrazil
andlessto thoseoutside.
These,
it is true,
hadgreater
opportunity
forself-employment,
buttheir
unemployment
was
stillsomewhat
higher
thanforthose
within
Brazil
andCarbon.In gen
eral,
self-employment
wastherecourse
oftheolderworker.
Thusthecomposite
picture
presented
bythelabor
histories
ofthese
threegroups
of workers
reflects
thedeclining
market
fortheirlabor,
thedecline
being
retarded
tosomeextent
prior
tothedepression
byan
increasing
demand
forlaborin theclay-products
plants,
butaccentu
atedduring
thedepression
bythesharp
contraction
of thatdemand.Ex
ceptas hisoccupational
level
intheclayindustry
protected
himto
someextent,
theolderworker
inthelabormarket
facedunemployment
of
a moreor lesschronic
character
or hadto resortto thedubiousalter
nativeof self-employment.
In addition
to thealreadynotedfailureof
thecommunity
toabsorb
itsnewworkers,
thecomplex
ofdevelopments
was
tending
to produce
inthiscommunity
a chronically
unemployed
population
olderand less skilledthan the average.
72
DEPRESSED
LABOR
MARKET
bothin theirusualindustry
andin the clayindustry.In addition,
a
goodproportion
of themhademployment
inindustries
otherthanclayor
their
usual.
Their
relatively
greater
mobility
reflects
their
reserve
status.
Fortheusual
clayworkers,
employment
outside
theusual
industry
was,
of course,
employment
outside
ofclay.It has,therefore,
beenconsid
eredin thepreceding
chapter.
Forpurposes
ofcomparison,
however,
the
numberof personswho securedemployment
outsideof theclayindustry
andtheamount
ofsuchother
employment
secured
maybesummarized
here.
Though
fewof theusual
clayworkers
escaped
atleastonelay-off
from
the clayplants,halfof themneverhadany employment
outside
theclay
industry.
A third
hadframi to3 years
of other
employment
and16 per
centhadmorethan3 years
ofemployment
in industries
otherthanclay.
In termsof time,
thegroup
spent
lessthana third
(30percent)
of the
timeitwasnotinclaybutstill
inthelabormarket,
employed
inother
industries.(SeetableA-31.)
Theworkers
of industries
otherthanclay,on theotherhand,
spent
somewhat
moreof their
employable
timeoutside
of theirusual
industry.
Fifty-four
percent
ofthemspent
sometimeinindustries
other
thantheir
usual,
and,in all,suchemployment
accounted
fora fifthof theirem
ployable
time,or approximately
halfof theiremployable
timenotem
ployed
in theusual
industry.
Employment
in industries
other
thantheir
usual
wasmostcharacteristic
ofthose
whowereusually
employed
inman
ufacturing,
leastso of thosewhowerein building
andconstruction;
56 percent
of theformer
group
and48 percent
of thelatter
hadsomeem
ployment
outside
theusual
industry.
Furthermore,
thebuilding
andcon
struction
workers
whodidhaveother
employment
averaged
only34 months
ofsuchother
employment,
while
themanufacturing
workers
withother
em
ployment
averaged
45 monthsin otherindustries.
(See tablesA-31 and
A-33.)
Interms
of theamount
of timetheyspent
employed
inindustries
other
thantheirusual,
thesometime
clayworkers
weretheleastpermanently
attached
of thelot. Onlya quarter
of their
employable
timewasspent
in employment
intheir usualindustry,
whereasthe usualclayworkers
and theotherworkers
spentmorethanhalfof theirsin theirusualin
dustries. About30 percent
of theiremployable
timewas spentin clay
work,
andabout16 percent
inworkinindustries
otherthantheirusual
or clay. In termsof persons,
almostthree-fifths
of themwereat some
timeor otherin industries
otherthantheirusualor clay,though
the
average
amount
of timespentin suchotheremployment
wasappreciably
lessthanthatspent
inemployment
inclayor intheir
usual
industries.
INDUSTRIAL
MOBILITY
73
Theworkers
usually
incoalmining
andagriculture
weremorelikely
than
theothers
to havealternated
onlybetween
their
usual
industry
andclay.
(SeetablesA-31and A-32.)
JOB
SEPARATIONS
AND
EMPLOYER
AND
INDUSTRY
SHIFTS
Thedegreeof mobility
of theworkmenis moreclearly
seenin the re
lation
between
thenumber
of jobseparations
experienced
andthenumber
oftimestheworkers
changed
industry
oremployer,
or both.There
were
someworkmenin eachgroupwho uponseparation
fromtheirjob remained
unemployed
eitherto the end of the periodstudiedor untilreabsorbed
into
theplant
which
theyhadleft.Theseworkers
plus
those
whowere
neverseparated
may be regarded
as theleastmobileof the lot. In ad
dition
thereweresomeworkers
within
eachgroup
whoshifted
intoan
otherindustry
after
a greater
orlesser
period
of unemployment.
These
are themoremobileworkers.Mostchanges
of industry
were,of course,
alsochanges
of employer,
butthereweresomeworkers
whochanged
em
ployers
though
remaining
attached
tothesameindustry.
Theseworkers,
though
lessmobile
thanthose
whochanged
their
industry,
aremore
so
thanthose
whoremained
attached
tooneemployer
consistently.
In general
amongallthreegroups
ofworkers
there
wasa highdegree
ofimmobility.
While
allbuta smallpercentage
of theworkers
ineach
group
experienced
atleast
onejobseparation
inthe10 years,
a high
proportion
remained
attached
to thesameindustry,
evento thesameem
ployer,
throughout
theperiod
and,ontheaverage,
those
whoshifteddid
so lessoftenthantheybecame
separated.
Theability
to shift,re
stricted
forallby therelative
inactivity
of themarket,
wasrelated
to theageoftheworkers,
theyounger
in allgroups
shifting
morethan
theolder.Itwasalsoa factor,
varying
insignificance,
intheamount
ofemployment
andunemployment
theworkers
secured
inthe10-year
period.
Thefollowing
analysis,
inaddition
tocomparing
themobility
ofthe
threeindustrial
groups
studied,
alsocompares
themobility
of those
whowereemployed
in thefallof 1936withthatof thosewho wereself
employed
andunemployed.
Thisclassification,
as hasbeenseen,con
veniently
approximates,
though
is notidenticalwith,
onebaseduponthe
typical
employment
experience
within
the10 years.Theemployed
of1936
18ince
a jobseparation
wasdefined
as anychange
ofstatus
(except
inhoursof
work) including a change in occupation, all job separations not involving changes
of employer or industry are not necessarily separations into unemployment. The
numberof such changesof occupation
withina plantwithoutinterveningunemploy
mentwas, however,small(lessthan2.5 percentof all job separations)
and for the
purposesof the analysispresentedhere may be disregarded.All job separations
may be regarded as separation from the plant of employment; however, since unem
ployment was not recorded unless it lasted 1 month or longer, Job separations were
not necessarily followed by unemployment even when the separation was involuntary
on the part of the worker.
74
DEPRESSED
LABOR
MARKET
were,
asa group,
thosewho
hadbeen
characteristically
employed,
the
unemployed
thosewhohadbeencharacteristically
unemployed,
andthe
self-employed
thosewhohadbeenor werebecoming
characteristically
self-employed.
Inviewoftheageandoccupational
characteristics
of
eachofthegroups
thecomparison
alsopermits
additional
inferences
re
garding
therelation
ofthese
factors
to their
mobility.
The Usual Clay Workers
Ingeneral,
theusual
clayworkers
were,
asa group,
attached
to their
jobs,theiremployers,
andconsequently
to theirindustry.
Whenlaid
offtheyappear
morelikely
tohaveremained
unemployed
thanto have
gained
employment
inanother
industry
orplant.Those
whocould
returned
to theirformer
employers
witha resumption
orexpansion
of activity.
Therewere,of course,
somewhoshifted
intotheclayindustry
during
theyears
ofactivity
intheplants
andsomewhoshifted
outintoother
industries
during
thelongperiod
ofdepression,
butthegreat
majority
madeeither no shift or at mostshiftedonly once.
Asmight
beexpected
inviewof
thepreviously
noted
factthatitwas
theyounger
rather
thantheolderworkerswho
hademployment
outside
of
clay,theseyounger
workers
werethemobile
group
withmorechanges
in
employers
andindustries
thantheolder
workers,
thoseunder
35 having
averaged
morethantwiceas manychanges
as those55 andover.(See
tableA-34.)
The moststablesectionof the usualclayworkers thosewithno job
separations
inthe10-year
period
-werea smallgroup,
comprising
only
8 percent
of thetotal.Thesewerethefortunate
fewwhohadcontinu
ousemployment
withoneemployer,
andincluded
twoworkers
whoreported
continuous
self-employment.
Approximately
a thirdof theworkers
re
portedonlyone jobseparation,
anotherfifthhad two,and 38 percent
Twopercent
had10 or morejobseparations
in the
period.Thustheaverage
forthegroup
as a wholewas2.6jobsepara
tionsperworker.(Seetable
A-34.)
had three or more.
Thatmanyofthese
separations
werefollowed
either
by longcontinuous
unemployment
or byreabsorption
aftera period
of unemployment
intothe
sameindustry,
evenintothesameplant,
rather
thanbya shiftintoan
otherindustry
isevident
in therelatively
fewchanges
in employer
or
industry
thatthemembers
of thegroup
made.Though
at onetimeor an
other
92 percent
ofthegroup
hadat least
onejobseparation,
42 percent
of the groupnevershiftedtheiremployer
and51 percentnevershifted
their
industry.
Furthermore,
whereas
two-thirds
ofthose
withjobsep
arations
hadtwoormoreseparations,
only58 percent
ofthosewith
INDUSTRIAL
MOBILITY
75
employer
shifts
changed
employers
twoor moretimes,
andonly54 percent
ofthose
withindustry
shifts
changed
industries
twoor moretimes.In
termsof averages
for the wholegroup,duringthe 10 yearsthe usual
clayworkers
hadonly130employer
shifts
and109industry
shifts
per
100workers.
Thiscompareswith261
jobseparations
experienced
per100
workers.
(Seetables
A-35,
A-36,
andA-37.)
Thetypical
usual
clayworker
maytherefore
besaidto be onewhohad
beenlaidofftwoor threetimesduring
the10 years,
buthadchanged
hisemployer
andindustry
onlyonce.Thatchanges
in employers
tended
to involve
alsochanges
in industry
is evident
in thefactthatthere
wereonly21 moreemployer
thanindustry
shiftsper100workers.
Roughly
similar
patterns
of behavior
areevident
forthetwoperi
ods1926-30
and1931-35.
Ineachperiod
about
one-third
oftheworkers
hadnojobseparations
andabout
two-thirds
hadnoemployer
or industry
shifts.
Theimmobility
ofthemarket
inthefirst
period
wasundoubt
edlyassociated
withrelative
stability
of employment,
andinaddition
manyof thesingle
shifts
reported
wereshifts
intotheclay-products
industry.
In thesecond
period
thelackof mobility
is unquestionably
associated
withunemployment.
Considering
averages,
the numberof job
separations
notassociated
withemployer
shifts
was52 per100workers
in thefirstperiod,
79 in thesecond.It is probable
thatin thefirst
period
manyseparations
weretemporary
lay-offs
followed
by reabsorp
tion,whilein thesecondmoreof themwerefollowed
by longcontinued
unemployment.
Insummary,
then,
themajority
oftheusual
clayworkers
wereeither
associated
onlywithclayduring
the10 years
orentered
clayfromsome
other
industry.
Theywere
laidoffonceor more,
whenactivity
in their
plantsdeclinedor the plantscloseddown,and theyeitherwent back
to thesameplantorremained
unemployed
at leasttillthecloseofthe
period
studied.
Theslight
differences
within
thegroup
withrespect
to mobility
canbebestseenbyexamining
separately
those
whowereem
ployed,
unemployed,
andselfemployed
inthefallof1936.
Employed
Workers.Theworkers
whowere
employed
byothers
onAugust
1,
1936,
included
nearly
allthose
inthegroup
as a whole
whohadnotsuf
fered
anyjobseparations.
Thisgroup,
comprising
13 percent
ofthe
employed
workers,
naturallyenhanced
thepicture
ofstabilitywhich
the
record
of theemployed
grouppresents.
In addition,
however,
a rela
tivelylargenumberof jobseparations
werenctassociated
withshifts
2Twooftheself-employed
workers
hadbeencontinuously
self-employed
throughout
the period studied.
DEPRESSED
76
LABOR
MARKET
either
of employer
or industry.
Rather,
therewasan appreciable
pro
portion
oftheemployed
group
who,though
theywerelaidoffoneormore
times
during
the10 years,
secured
noemployment
withother
employers
or
in other
industries
buthadtowaitto bereabsorbed
in theplants
from
whichtheyhadbeenlaidoff. Thiscanbeseenin a comparison
of the
number
ofjobseparations
experiencedwith
thenumber
ofemployer
shifts
or industry
shiftsmade. (SeetableA-38.)
Inaddition
to the13 percent
oftheemployed
workers
whohadbeenem
ployed
at onejobthroughout
the10 years,
47 percent
hadfromoneto
twoseparations
fromjobs,andtheremaining
40 percent
hadthreeor
more.
Inspiteof thefactthat87 percent
of thegroupthussuffered
at leastonejobseparation
and theaverage
for thegroupas a wholewas
2.6separations
perworker,
46 percent
of thegroupmadeno employer
shifts
and52 percent
madenoindustry
shifts.
Thirty-seven
percent
madeonlyoneortwoemployer
shifts,
andonly17 percent
madethree
or
more.
A thirdmadeoneor two industry
shifts,
and 15 percent
threeor
more.Thus,in termsofaverages,
whilethegrouphad260jobsepara
tionsper100 workers,
theymadelessthanhalfas manyemployer
or in
dustryshifts. (SeetableA-38.)
Onthewhole,
their
record
is oneofcomparative
stability
so faras
movement
fromindustry
to industry
or employer
to employer
is concerned.
Butonly
a small
part
ofthis
stability
isassociatedwith
a record
of
continuous
employment.
Muchof it reflects,
rather,
attachment
toa
particular
plantwhichpersisted
eventhroughnumerous
lay-offs.Some
foundalternate
employment
eitherof a temporary
natureor permanent,
butthetypical
employed
worker
remained
attached
to hisownindustry
eventhrough
periods
ofunemployment.
Self-Employed
Workers.Theself-employed
workers,
a smallgroup
com
prising
only4 percent
oftheusual
clayworkers,
werethemostmobile
ofthethree
groups.
Only2 ofthe24persons
represented
bytheabove
percentage
wereself-employed
throughout
the 10 yearsand theymadeno
shifts
in theindustry
of their
self-employment.
Seventeen
of there
maining
22workers
hadtwoormorejobseparations
intheperiod,
15 made
twoor moreemployer
shifts,
and13 madetwoor moreindustry
shifts.
Thegroup
averaged
3.3jobseparations
and2.5employer
shifts
andin
dustry
shifts.Partoftheirgreater
apparent
mobility
is unquestion
ablydue to theirshiftintoself-employment
fromotheremployment,
but
inaddition
a highproportion
ofthemappear
to havehadtwoormorejobs
in different
industries
before
theirfinalshiftintoself-employment.
Thisgreater
mobility
overtheother
twousual
claygroups
mayhavebeen
an important
factorin thelesseramountof unemployment
theysuffered.
INDUSTRIAL
MOBILITY
77
Unemployed
Workers.Theunemployed
usual
clayworkers
comprised
37
percentof the usualclayworkerson the labormarketin the fallof
1936.Theyresembled
theemployed
workers
in theirlackof mobility,
butlessof thisappears
to havebeenassociated
withhighemployment
records. Theexperience
of themajority
of workers
appears
to have
beenthattheychanged
employers
andindustries
onceor notat all,and
thenwerelaidoffto remain
unemployed
fortheduration
of the10-year
period.
Allof themhadbeenlaidofffromtheir
jobsat leastonce,a third
of themonlyonce,30 percent
twice,
andtheremainder
threetimesor
more.3
Only59percent
ofthegroup,
however,
succeeded
infinding
em
ployment
withanother
employer,
andhalfof thesehadexperience
with
butoneotheremployer
andwerelater
laidoffandremained
unemployed.
Theremaining
thirdmadetwoor moreshifts
in employer
before
falling
intotheunemployment
status
whichpersisted
until
thetimeof enumer
ation.
Whilefew employer
shiftswerenotalsoindustry
shifts,
theratioof
employer
shifts
to industry
shifts
wassomewhat
higher
forthisgroup
thanfortheemployed
group,
indicating
a somewhat
morerestricted
mo
bility
than
fortheemployed
group.
Inotherwords,
theunemployed
group
on August
1,1936,notonlyshifted
lesson thewholethantheemployed
group
buttheytended
alsonottoshiftoutoftheir
industry.
Forboth
theemployed
andtheunemployed
group,
however,
ahighdegree
of industrial
immobility
is evident.
In thiscontracted
labormarket
their
jobseparations
weremorelikely
to befollowed
bya period
of un
employment
thanby anychanging
of employer
or industry.
Forthemore
employable
workers
theperiod
of unemployment
mightbeshortened
by re
newed
activity
intheplant
ofprevious
employment.
Forthelessem
ployable
onesa jobseparation
resulted
inlongtermsof whatseemsto
be moreor lesspermanent
unemployment.
Fewin either
group
wereable
toshifttheir
employer
orindustry
as muchas wasnecessary,
ifatall.
Thefewintheself-employed
group
hadbeenmoremobile
thantheothers,
butthiswasin partdueto their
shifting
between
self-employment
and
employment
by others.
The Other Industrial
Workers
Itisnotpossible
tospeak
ofa typical
worker
ofindustries
other
thanclayin thesamesenseastospeakof a typical
usual
clayworker.
3since
somejob
separationsoccurred
before
August
of1936but
after
1935,
they
are
not counted in the tabulation of separations occurring within the 10-year period.
In general, however, it may be assumed that one of the separations reported by each
of the workerswas into the unemployment
statusreportedon August1, 1936.
DEPRESSED
78
LABOR
MARKET
In partthisis because
theother
worker
is notattached
to anysingle
industry but falls into a number of differentindustrialclassifica
tions;
in partit arises
fromthefactthatin thisgroupthereis a
fairlylarge
andrelatively
stable
group
ofself-employed
workers.
With
these
qualifications
inregard
totheaverages
which
areused
tomeasure
themobility
of thisgroup,
it is possible
tosaythatindustrially
the
otherworkertendedto be as immobile
as theusualclayworker,
butthis
seemsto be associated
withtheextreme
immobility
oftheself-employed
andunemployed
members
of thisgroupwhochanged
industries
lessthan
onceon theaverage
during
the10 years.(See tableA-40.) Thereis,
on theotherhand,
somewhat
lessattachment
to employers
thanamong
the
usualclayworkers,
whichis shownby moreshiftsof employers
within
theindustry
andfewer
jobseparations
unassociatedwith
employer
shifts.
(SeetablesA-35,A-36,and A-37.)
Slightly
overa sixthof theworkers
of industries
otherthanclay
wereneverlaidofffromtheirjobs,a thirdsuffered
onlyone lay-off
during
the10 years,
20 percent
hadtwo,andlessthan30 percent
had
three or more. Dueboth
to thehighproportion
whowerenever
separated
andto thefactthatrelatively
fewerof thisgroupthanof theusual
clayworkers
hada largenumber
oflay-offs,
theaverage
number
of sep
arations
forthegroup
waslessthanfortheusual
clayworkers,
223as
compared
with261 per100workers.(See tableA-35.)
Theymadeslightly
moreemployer
shifts
thantheusual
clayworkers.
Two-fifths
of themnever
shifted
their
employer,
but28 percent
of them
shifted
once,anda thirdofthemchanged
employers
twoor moretimes.
Thegroup
hadanaverage
of151employer
shiftsper
100men,
which
means
that72 jobseparations
werenotassociated
withemployer
shifts.
(See
table A-36.)
Industry
shifts,as withthe usualclayworkers,
werelessfrequent
than
employer
shifts.
Overhalf
never
shifted
their
industry.
Anaddi
tional
fifthshifted
industry
onlyonceandonly28 percent
shifted
two
or moretimes.Theaverage
wasapproximately
111industry
shifts
per
100menin thegroup,
or approximately
230per100menshifting.
(See
table A-37.)
During
thesecond
5 years
studied
there
wereconsiderably
fewer
changes
inemployers
andindustries,
aswellasfewer
jobseparations
on the
average,
thanduring
thefirst.Thisdiffers
fromthesituation
discov
eredamongthe usualclayworkers
andis undoubtedly
a reflection
of the
factthat
themarked
increase
before
1931
intheunemployed
group
ofthe
workers
of industries
other
thanclayincreased
thenumber
who,because
INDUSTRIAL
MOBILITY
79
ofcontinued
unemployment,
wereincapable
ofeither
employer
shifts
or
jobseparations.
It isalsonotable
thatthenumber
of jobseparations
unassociated
withemployer
or industry
shifts
increased
somewhat
in the
second
period
overthefirst.
Asamongtheusual
clayworkers,
theyounger
workers
werethemobile
group.Whilehalfoftheolderworkers,
those
55 andover,
hadnoshifts
inemployers,
onlyasixth
oftheyoungerworkers,
those
under
35,had
noshifts.
Theaverage
fortheolder
groupwas
0.85employer
shifts
and
fortheyounger
group
2.71forthe10-year
period.
Theyounger
group
accounted
for38 percent
of thetotalshifts
andtheoldergroupfor
only
19percent.
(Seetable
A-34.)
Unlikethe usualclayworkers,
thosein the employed
and unemployed
groups
of otherindustrialworkers
inthefallof1936showmarked
dif
ferences
in thedegreeof mobility
whichtheyevidenced.
Thosewhowere
employed
by others
include
moreofthemoremobile
workers,
though
this
group
contains
a large
group
ofimmobileworkers
aswell.Theself
employed
andunemployed,
on theotherhand,
arecomposed
in largepart
ofthelessmobile
members
of thenonclay
group.Anexamination
of the
threeclasses
willthrowfurther
lighton thispoint.
Employed
Workers.Theemployed
groupof other
workers
hadbeenmore
proneto change
industries
andemployers
thantheemployed
usual
clay
workers,
but lesssubjectto jobseparations.
A sixthof theemployed
otherworkers
hadneverbeenlaidoff,buthadhadcontinuous
employment
fromthe timeof securing
theirjob to the end of the period. An ad
ditional
thirdhadhadonlyonejobseparation
andhalfhadhadtwoor
more . Thegroup
averaged
245jobseparations
per100workers.
However,
43percent
oftheemployed
workers
hadmadenoshift
inindustry
and24
percentno changein employer.They,in otherwords,eitherremained
employed
or,onlosing
employment,
remained
unemployed
until
reabsorbed
intotheiroriginal
plant
orindustry.
Theyaveraged
198employer
shifts
and 138 industry
shiftsper 100 workers.Thusonly47 of the 245 job
separations
per100employedworkerswere
unassociated
evenwith
anem
ployer
shift,
as compared
with138of thejobseparations
per100 em
ployedusualclayworkers.In otherwords,the highemployment
records
of theemployed
otherworkers
wereassociated
withtheimmobility
of
those
whomaintained
employment
andtherelatively
highmobility
ofa
smallgroupof younger
workers
whowereableto shiftintootherlines.
(SeetableA-40.)
Self-Employed
Workers.Theself-employed
grouppresents
a striking
contrast
to theself-employed
amongtheusualclayandsometime
clay
DEPRESSED
80
LABOR
MARKET
workers.
Whilethose
self-employed
werethemostmobile
of theirre
spective
groups,
thenonclay
self-employedwere
notonlythemoststable
of the nonclay
groupbutthemoststableof allnineclassesof workers.
Thisisconnectedwith
themorepermanent
character
thatself-employment
hadalready
assumed
among
thisclassofworkers.
Of the33self-employed
workers
inthisgroup,
13 neverhada jobseparation,
16 never
shifted
employers,
and18 never
shifted
theirindustry.
Theaverage
forchanges
inindustry
was0.8perworker,
forchanges
inemployer
0.9,andforjob
separations
1.2.Eventhose
whohadchangeswere
lessmobile
thanthe
othertwogroups
ofself-employed
workers,
the17 persons
changing
em
ployers
makingbut31 shifts.Morethanhalfof theseare accounted
for
by theirlastshiftintoself-employment.
Thuseventhemoremobile
among
themhad,on theaverage,
onlytwoemployers
before
shifting
into
selfemployment.
Unemployed
Workers.Though
theunemployedworkers
ofindustries
Other
than
claywere
less
stable
thantheself-employed
group,
theywere
less
mobilethananyof theremaining
sevengroups,
and thisis truein prac
tically
allrespects.
Eightpercent
of themhadno jobseparations,
andmorethan
a third
ofthemhad
onejobseparation.4
Asawhole,
the
group
averaged
2.4jobseparations
inthe10 years.Theymade,
how
ever,only1.2employer
shifts
andlessthanoneindustry
shift,
onthe
Half
of
them
did
not
shift
employers
at
all
and
over
60
per
average.
centof themdidnotshifttheirindustry.It is evident
fromthisthat
thetypical
unemployed
worker
hadbutoneemployer
andsuffered
onepe
riod
oftemporaryunemployment
before
hewasdischarged
into
thepoolof
unemployed.
Comparison
ofthemobility
records
ofthese
threegroups
of other
in
dustrial
workers
permits
thefollowing
additional
inferences
abouttheir
characteristic
experiences:
thegroupthatwascharacteristically
em
ployedconsisted
of twoclassesof workers a mobilegroupof younger
workers
whosehighemployment
records
derived
fromtheir
ability
toshift
employer
andindustry
whenlaidoff,anda somewhat
smaller
groupof
older
workers
whosehighemployment
records
derived
fromthefactthat
theywere
notlaidoff.Theunemployedworkers,
ontheotherhand,
were
those
workers,
generally
older,
whoon beinglaidoffwerenotrehired
andwereunableto findemployment
withanotheremployer
or, evenless
probably,
in another
industry.
4The8 percent
whohadnojobseparationswere
separated
intounemployment
after
December1935;the one separationof the othergroupmentionedwas probablythe one
1nitiatingthe periodof unemployment
which pers18tedat least until the timeof
Interview.
INDUSTRIAL
MOBILITY
81
The sometime Clay Workers
Thesometime
clayworkers,
whoasa groupare
characteristically
the
reserve
forceof themarket,
werethemostmobile
ofthethreegroups.
Veryfew(1 percent
oftheworkers)
hadpermanent
connections
forthe10
years
withanyoneemployer,
uninterrupted
byseparations
fromemploy
ment.Morethana third
ofthemhadfouror moreseparations
fromjobs,
another
44 percent
hadtwoor threeseparations,
andonlya fifthhad
butoneseparation.
Theaverage
number
ofseparations
was357per100
workers
or one moreperworkerthanwas trueof the usualclayworkers.
(SeetableA-35.)
Only
13percent
ofthemnever
changed
their
employer,
incontrast
to
the markedimmobility
of theusualclayandotherworkers,
two-fifths
of
whomnever
hadconnection
withmorethanoneemployer.
Twenty-five
per
centof themchanged
employers
fouror moretimes.Thegroupaveraged
263changes
of employers
per100workers.Whilean appreciable
pro
portion
of theirseparations
areunconnected
withemployer
shifts,
the
ratio
ofemployer
shifts
tojobseparations
still
ishigher
than
among
theusual
clayandnonclay
workers,
evidence
of theirgreater
mobility.
(SeetableA-36.)
Bothin averages
andin distribution
thenumberof industry
shiftsac
complished
corresponds
veryclosely
to thenumber
of employer
shifts,
andseparate
analysis
neednotbeattempted.
Thefactthat
theratio
is
so high,
however,
indicates
thatlackof attachment
to an industry
was
farmorecharacteristic
of thisgroup
thanof theusual
clayor nonclay
workers.
The numberof shiftsin employers
and the numberof job separations
decreased
considerably
between
thefirst
5 years
andthesecond,
butthe
ratio
ofjobseparations
toemployer
shifts
remained
approximately
the
same.Thisis incontrast
totherecord
oftheusual
clayworkers
whose
jobseparations
increased
andwhosemobility
decreased
withthedepres
sion.
It furtherillustrates
the factthatthesometime
clayworkers
whowerelaidoffwerenotrehired
buttended
moreto findalternate
employment,
whilemoreoftheusual
clayworkers
either
remained
unem
ployed
orwererehired
whenever
activity
in theclayplants
wasresumed
or increased.
Theyounger
workers,
thoseunder
35,weremoreproneto change
their
employers
thantheolderworkers,
those
55andover.While
almost
all
of theyounger
workers
changed
employers
at leastonceduring
the10
years,
a fifthoftheolder
group
madenochange.Moreover,
theyounger
workers
hadtwiceas manychanges
perworker
as didtheolderworkers.
(See tableA-34.)
82
DEPRESSED
LABOR
MARKET
Thethree
groups
ofsometime
clayworkers,
classified
according
to
employment
statusin the fall of 1936,resemble
eachothermorethan
do thecorresponding
groups
amongtheusual
clayandnonclay
workers.
Thereare,however,
somecharacteristic
differences
between
them.The
unemployed
groupis theleastmobile
of thethreewithrespect
to all
measures
except
jobseparations,
whiletheemployed
groupis themost
mobile
of allwiththeexception
of thenumber
ofchanges
of industry.
Inthis
theyare
exceeded
bytheself-employed
group.
(Seetable
A-39.)
Employed
Workers.Almost
60 percent
of theemployed
workers
hadthree
or morejobseparations,
a quarter
ofthemhaving
fiveor more.Two had
asmanyas 16jobseparations,
eachtimechanging
employer
andindustry.
A smallgroup,
9 percent
ofallthose
employed,
madenoemployer
shifts,
but10 ofthe12 workers
included
inthissmallminority
hadoneormore
jobseparations
after
which
theyreturned
tothesameemployer.
A relatively
largegroup
changed
their
employers
andindustries
more
thantwice
inthe10 years,
49percent
having
three
or moreemployer
shifts
and44percent
three
ormoreindustry
shifts.
Ontheaverage,
each member
ofthegroup
waslikely
to havechanged
hisemployer
three
timesduringthe 10 yearsand hisindustry
2.7 times.Thustheytended
to changeindustry
almostas oftenas theydidemployer,
and had,on the
average,
70more
jobseparations
per100workers
thantheyhademployer
shifts,
indicating
greater
mobility
thantheemployed
usual
claywork
ers,somewhat
lessmobility
thanthesimilargroupof nonclayworkers.
Comparing
thethree
employed
groups,
itwould
appear
thatwhereas
the
highrecordof employment
of theemployed
usualclayworkerswas asso
ciated
withrelative
stability
ofemployment,
andthatof theemployed
otherworkerswas associated
withthe stability
of some of the older
workers
andthemobility
oftheyounger,
thatofthesometime
claywork
erswaslargely
a reflection
oftheir
greater
mobility.
Self-Employed
Workers.Theself-employed
grouphadthehighest
aver
agenumber
ofshifts
in industry
ofanyoftheninegroups.Theyaver
agedoverthreechanges
of industry
perworker,
allexcept
onehaving
changed
industry
at leastonce.Eventhenumber
of employer
shifts
wasalmost
as highasfortheemployed
workers,
andin general
theytoo
changed
industries
as oftenas theychanged
employers.
A fewof them
changed
industry
moreoftenthantheydidemployer,
andthiswasdue
tochanges
in theindustry
of their
self-employment.
Theaverage
num
berofjobseparationswas
3.5perworker.
Twofacts
- thehigh
number
ofemployer
shifts
andthehighratio
ofemployer
shifts
tojobsepara
tions
- substantiate
theimpression
previously
gleaned
fromtheir
records
INDUSTRIAL
MOBILITY
83
ofself-employment
thatmanyof theseworkers
usedself-employment
as
a supplement
to employment
andshifted
readily
fromoneto theother.
Unemployed
Workers.As hasbeenpointed
out,theunemployedwere
the
least mobile of the sometimeclay workers. All of them suffered at
leastone jobseparation,
and morethanhalfof themhadthreeor more.
Twenty-three
percent
of themhadfiveor more. A fifth of them, how
ever,madenochanges
in employer,
andabouthalfmademorethanone
change
inemployer.
A slightly
higher
proportion,
22percent,
madeno
industry
shifts,
andonlyabout46 percent
mademorethanonechange
in
industry.Thusmostemployer
changes
involved
alsoindustry
changes
and
therewerea fewchanges
of employer
withinan industry.
Intermsof averages
theunemployed
group
had345jobseparations
per
100workers
butmadeonly210changes
of employer
and188changes
of
industry.
Thedifference
of135between
jobseparations
andemployer
shifts
represents
roughly
thenumber
oftimes,
ontheaverage,
each100
workers
either
became
unemployed
fortheduration
of theperiod
orbe
cametemporarily
unemployed,
to besubsequently
reemployed
by thesame
employer.
SUMMARY
Thestatistical
description
of themobility
of thevarious
sections
of thelabormarket
providesmaterial,
additional
to thatpresented
in
thepreceding
chapter,
on theexperiences
of theworkers
in theBrazil
region
andthecharacter
of the1936labormarket
as a result
of those
experiences.
Thewholesale
decline
in theactivity
of mostof Brazil's
industries
hadtended
tofreeze
themarket
generally.
Thus,though
all
buta smallpercentage
of theworkers
inthethreegroups
studied
expe
rienced
at least
onejobseparation
during
the10 years,
a highpropor
tionofthese
separations
werenotfollowed
bythesecuring
ofworkwith
another
employer
or inanother
industry.
Moreoften
theywerefollowed
by unemployment,
whichwas cut shortforsome of the workerswhenre
newed
activity
reabsorbed
themintotheir
oldplants,
butwhich
formany
continued
to theday of enumeration.
A highdegree
ofimmobilitywas
particularly
characteristic
ofthe
usualclayworkers.Thetypical
worker
tended
to be attached
to one
plant
within
theclayindustry.
Hewaslaidoffwhenworkslackened
or
whenhis plantshutdown. Thereafter
he was morelikelyto remainun
employed
until
reabsorbed
thantofindemployment
inanother
industry
or
evenin another
plantin thesameindustry.
Someof theworkers
were
reabsorbed
either
temporarily
or morepermanently
withthepick-up
of
84
DEPRESSED
LABOR
MARKET
business. Itwasthepractice
ofclayplants,
confirmed
by interviews
withfactory
managers,
to keeplistsof previous
workers
andto call
these
backwithanyriseinactivity.
Butthepick-up
in business
was
notgreatenough
to reabsorb
morethana smallsection
of theworkers.
Theotherseitherhadto findemployment
in otherindustries
or faceun
employment.
Fewcould
getotheremployment.
Though
allbut20percent
of thegroup
wereunemployed
at onetimeor another,
halfnever
found
employment
out of clay. It was the younger
workerswho wereablemore
readilyto shifttheiremployer
or industry.It was the younger
also,
ashasbeennotedpreviously,
whotended
tobereabsorbed
intothe
clay
products
plants.Thustheolder
worker,
oncehe became
separated,
was
under
a twofold
disadvantage.
Hewasless
desirable
tohisownindustry
andunable
readily
toshiftintoanother.
Continued
unemployment
was
robbing
himofwhat
little
value
hisexperience
still
possessed
andhe
wassinking
intothepoolofchronically
unemployed.
Theworkers
of industries
otherthanclayconsist,
in contrast,
of two
groupsdistinguished
according
to theirmobility.Therewere,in the
firstplace,the younger
group,the moremobileworkers,
who appearto
havebeenabletoshiftemployer
andindustry
frequently
whenlaidoff.
Together
withthegroup
ofsometime
clayworkers
these
would
seemto be
partof thecommunity's
fluctuating
reserve
whose
records
showstretches
of intermittent
employment
withmanyemployers.Theyhad notmadeen
trance
into
theclayindustry,
butwhatever
jobsintheother
industries
came on the market went to them
Should
extensive
activity
intheclay
products
industry
beresumed,
someofthese
are,inallprobability,
the
workers
whowouldbe recruited.
The secondgroupwasof olderand less
morecloselythe usualclayworkersin
mobile workers. It resembled
thatit included,
ontheonehand,
a group
whoseimmobility
wasassoci
atedwith
relatively
highemployment
records
and,on theother,
onewith
highunemployment
records.
Theformer
group
tended
to maintain
onejob
connection
withbutoneemployer
throughout
theperiod
or to be self
employed
continuously.
Thelatter
groupalsohadonlyonejobconnec
tion,butit wasnotmaintained
throughout
theperiod;
theworker
sank
instead
intotheunemployed
pool.Thisimmobile
group,
as hasbeennoted
inchapter
III,wasundergoing
a continuous
shifting
as theunemployed
sector
received
annual
accretions
fromtheemployed
group.
Furthermore,
because
ofthegenerally
declining
demand
inthenonclay
industries
as
distinguished
fromthefluctuating
demand
in theclayindustry,
they
seemto havehadfewerjobseparations
accompanied
by rehiring
thanthe
usual clay group.
In allotherrespects,
however,
theywerelikethe
usualclay workers.
INDUSTRIAL
MOBILITY
85
Thesometimeclayworkerswerethe mostmobileof the lot,shifting
employer
andindustry
frequently
astheylostjobs.Thisisa reflec
tionof theirreserve
status,
but,liketheusual
clayworkers
andthe
stable
group
of otherworkers,
thislessattached
group
in thedeclining
market
furnished
their
contingents
of older
workers
to thechronically
unemployed.
CHAPTER
SUMMARY
THE
V
AND CONCLUSIONS
INDUSTRIAL
SETTING
ClayCounty,
Indiana,
was,in thefallof 1936,thesceneof wide
spread
unemployment
anda heavy
relief
load.One-third
ofthose
inthe
population
of thecityof Brazil
whowouldnormally
havebeenemployed
wereseeking
work,andmanyof thesehadbeenunemployed
for long peri
ods.In the3 years
preceding
thetimewhenthisstudywasmade,almost
three-quarters
of Brazil's
population
andhalfofClayCounty's
popula
tionhadbeenreceiving
someformof relief
atonetimeor another.
Theproblems
presented
by thissituation
wereonlypartly
ascribable
tothedepression.
Evenprior
totheonset
ofthegeneral
depression
thedemand
forlaborin thecommunity's
industries
hadbeengenerally
declining.
Someindustries
hadcompletely
disappeared.
Others
hadde
clined
almost
tothevanishing
point.A fewwere
continuing
ona reduced
basis.Notable
among
these
wascoalmining,
which
earlier
hadbeenthe
dominant
industry
of thecommunity
butwhichbeganto declinein impor
tanceabouttheturnof thecentury;
aftera briefspurtof activity
following
thewar,itdeclined
appreciably.
By thetwenties
themore
stable
formof operation
in shaftmineshadvirtually
disappeared
and
itsplace
wastaken
bythelessstable
strip-mining
andsmooth-scale
op
erations.Agriculture
hadalsocometo be a sourceof incomeand em
ployment
fora diminishing,
though
still
considerable,
proportion
of
those
workers
living
intherural
areas
surrounding
Brazil.A goodnum
berof those
resident
onfarmshadtosupplement
their
earnings
bywhat
everemployment
theycould
secure
in thecommunity's
industries.
Prior
to 1929theoneindustry
of anyimportance
in theareawhich
had
beenincreasing
inactivity
andemployment
wastheclay-products
indus
try. But its risewas brought
to an abrupthaltwiththe general
col
lapsein 1929and its employment
droppedto a fraction
of whatit had
been.
Intheyears
1934-35
itenjoyed
somemeasure
of recovery,
butem
ployment
wasstill
markedly
below
thepredepression
levels.
Thus,in itsindustrial
origins,
theunemployment
problem
of there
gionhada twofoldnature.In part,itstemmed
fromthelong-term
de
clinein activity
andemployment
opportunities
in a number
of fields
whichearlier
hadgiven
support
toan important
section
of the popula
tion.Imposed
uponthiswasthecollapse
oftheclay-working
industry
which,
prior
to thedepression,
hadcompensated
to someextent
forthe
86
SUMMARY
AND
CONCLUSIONS
87
decline
in otherindustries
andhadprovided
employment
forsomewho
werebeing
displaced.
Theobjectives
ofthisreport
ontheBrazil
industrial
labor
market
havebeen,first,to analyze
the natureof thelabormarketandits un
employment
problem
as it haddeveloped
in thisdepressed
situation,
and,
second,
tomeasure,
insofar
asit waspossible,
therelation
between
the
industrial
fortunes
of theworkers
in thelabormarketandsuchfactors
as their
age,workexperience,
occupational
level,
andgeographic
loca
tion,and,in thelightof thisanalysis,
to consider
thereemployment
problemthathadbeencreated.The questions
askedwere: What employ
mentopportunities
werethere,
whoreceivedwhat
employment
there
wasin
thelabormarket,
andwhatkindsof unemployment
aresubsumed
underthe
general
unemployment
"problem"?
THE
CHARACTER
OF THE
LABOR
MARKET
Thelonghistory
ofdiminishing
opportunity
inBrazil's
labormarket
hadhadmarked
effects
uponthecharacter
of thepopulation,
as well
as upontheemployment
situation
inthefallof 1936.Thepopulation
stillin the areawas largelya residual
group. Underthe pressure
of
diminishing
opportunitymany
ofthose
whohadbeen
ablehadmoved
onto
other
regions
insearch
ofemployment.
Thiswasparticularly
trueof
the younger
employables
in the market.It was reflectedin the decline
inpopulation
which
theregion
ingeneral,
andBrazil
in particular,
had
experienced;
in thehighproportion
of thepopulation
thatwasnotin
thelabormarket;
inthenumber
of households
withno employables;
and
in therelatively
advanced
ageof theemployables
thatwereleft.With
theemigration
of manyof theyounger
workers
thecommunity
wasleft
with
aworking
force
containing
aninordinately
large
proportion
ofper
sonswho,in a labormarketwherethe agedistribution
was morenormal,
wouldbe regarded
as unemployable
because
of theiradvanced
age.
The heavyburdenof unemployment
thatthe regioncarriedis shownby
thefactthatintherecovery
yearof 1936morethana third
ofBrazil's
employables
wereunemployed
andalmost
halfof thehouseholds
thatcon
tained
employables
hadsomemember
either
unemployed
or employed
only
parttime.Thechronic
nature
of theunemployment
problem
thathadde
veloped
is indicated
by thefactthatmorethanthree-quarters
of the
previously
employed
whowereunemployed
hadbeenoutofworkfora year
or moreanda thirdhadbeenunemployed
for5 yearsor more.
A further
andmostimportant
characteristic
of thesituation
in the
fallof 1936wasthehighproportion,
6 percent,
of Brazil
employables
whohadneverhadanywork.Thisgroup
accounted
foralmost
a fifth
of
88
DEPRESSED
LABOR
MARKET
thecommunity's
unemployed
at thattime,andis an indication
of the
difficulty
facing
theyoung
person
insuch
amarket.
THE
INDUSTRIAL
WORKERS
Theworkers
sampled
formoredetailed
studyof workhistories
were
those
males
still
intheregion
whohadmade
uptheusual
laborsupply
of theclay-products
industry,
thosewhohadbeenitsreserve
andhad
secured
someemployment
in it,andthose
whohadbeenorwereattached
to theothermanufacturing
industries
in the community
or to coalmin
ing,building
andconstruction,
ortrucking.
Asweretheworkers
inthe
community
generally,
theywerelargely
native-born
persons
indigenous
to theregion
or longresident
init. If anylargebodyof workers
had
comeintotheregion
during
thefairly
recent
expansion
of clayactiv
ity,it hadmoved
outagain
withclay's
decline.
Allthreegroups,
the usualclayworkers,
thesometime
clayworkers,
and the otherindustrial
workers,
weresomewhat
olderthantheaverage
employable
ofthearea,
a reflection
ofthedifficulty
younger
workers
hadhad in recentyearsin makingany attachment
to industry.Thiswas
somewhat
lesstrueof theworkers
in industries
otherthanclaythanof
thosein either
of thetwoclaygroups.
Thegroup
of workers
ofindus
triesotherthanclayincluded
proportionately
moreolderworkers
than
did the two clay groups. It also,however,
included
moreyounger
work
ers.
Theyounger
workers
wereinlargepartthose
whohadsecured
work
either
intrucking
orinthestrip
andsmall
mining
operations
which
manywereentering
as a solution
totherecent
problems
of unemployment.
Allbuta smallproportion
oftheworkers
inallthreegroups
hadse
curedtheirfirstjobsin theBrazil
region.The usualclayworkers
werelargely
a groupthathadbeeninitially
attached
to industries
other
than
claybuthadlater
shifted
intoclay.Onlya smallproportion
of
themhadstarted
theirworking
lifein clay.Of thereserve
group
of
clayworkers,
allwere,by definition,
usually
attached
to otherindus
tries.
Moreofthemthan
oftheusual
clayworkers
hadbeen
initially
orcharacteristically
attached
tocoalmining
ortoagriculture.
In
addition,
proportionately
moreofthemwere
resident
outside
ofBrazil
and Carbon.
In bothgroups
themajority
of workers
hadunskilled
occu
pations
in theclayplants,
butthiswasmoretrueof thereserve
group
than of the usual group. In otherwords,whatworkershad beentaken
on forbriefperiods
of workin theclayplants
hadbeentakenon to
perform
thelessskilled
operations
inwhich
training
andexperience
counted for less.
SUMMARY
AND CONCLUSIONS
89
Unlike
thetwogroups
ofclayworkers,
themajority
of theworkers
of
otherindustries
hadstarted
workin theindustry
whichin 1936they
stillregarded
as theirusual.Forallbuttheyoungest
of thegroup
thisundoubtedly
indicates
thattheyhad beenthe morestableor,from
another
point
of view,
thelessmobile
workers
in thecommunity.
EMPLOYMENT
EXPERIENCE
AND
SELECTIVE
FACTORS
Theemployment
experience
ofthethree
groups
ofworkers
overthe10
years
1926-35
naturally
reflected
thehistorical
developments
which
have
beenbrieflyoutlined.Theunemployment
of theworkers
of industries
otherthanclayincreased
throughout
theyears
studied.
Fortheusual
clayworkersand,to a lesserextent,for the sometimeclayworkers,
however,
therewassomeincrease
in employment
upto theonsetof the
general
depression.
Thereafter,
employment
dropped
precipitously
and
unemployment
increased.
For thesometime
clayworkers
thislattertend
encywasoffset
tosomeextent
by theability
oftheyounger
among
them
tosecure
workoutside
theclay-products
industry.
In thedistribution
of thegenerally
declining
volume
of employment
opportunity
whichthemembers
of allgroups
faced,
evidence
canbeseen
ofthenature
oftheselective
process
thatwasoperating
andof theway
in which
it affected
thecharacter
of the1936labor
supply.Asinany
similar
industrial
situation,
thelargeandincreasing
number
of unem
ployed
that
wasthecounterpart
ofthedeclining
demand
forlabor
per
mitted
theapplication
of morerigidstandards
of employability
than
mightotherwise
havebeenused.Themarket
wascrowded
withreserve
forces
thatcould,
under
theexisting
technical
levelof production,
be
called
uponto replace
at leastthelessskilled
of theworkmen.Asa
result,
certain
workers
whohadbeenlaidoffwhenactivity
declined
foundthemselves
at a disadvantage,
because
oftheirage,their
occupa
tional
level,
or their
lackofskill,
infinding
reemployment
evenwhen
somedegree
of activity
wasresumed.
Theylosttheirusual
employment,
haddifficulty
in regaining
it,and wereunableto secureotheremploy
mentbecause
of thegenerally
reduced
demand
forlabor.In time, the
factof continued
unemployment
itself
became
or wasbecoming
of impor
tance
indiminishing
their
employability.
Whatever
advantage
aprevious
skillor experience
mighthavehadtendedto becomedissipated
through
disuse.
In general,
among
allthree
groups
itwastheolder
rather
than
theyounger
worker,
andthelessskilled
rather
thanthemoreskilled,
whotended
to be at a disadvantage,
although
thegroups
differed
some
whatin thedegreeto whichthiswas true.
90
DEPRESSED
LABOR
MARKET
Theproportion
oftheir
employable
timeduring
which
theworkers
of
industries
otherthanclaywereemployed
diminished
steadily
from1926
on andtheirunemployment
increased.
Fourmajor
categories
ofworkers
within
thisgroup
canbedistinguished.
There
wasa stable
group
ofem
ployed,
comprising
17 percent
of the nonclay
workers.Theseneversuf
fered
anyseparations,
butworked
foroneemployer
orwereself-employed
totheendoftheperiod
surveyed.
Inaddition,
there
wasa large
group,
whichhadgrownin sizefromyearto year,of persons
wholosttheir
usualemployment
andremained
unemployed.
For somein thisgroupunem
ployment
hadalready
become
a chronic
state;
forothers
itwasbecoming
so. A third
group
ofthenonclay
workerswent
intoself-employment
upon
becoming
unemployed,
although
someof theselatergaveupthisattempt
andbecame
unemployed.
Theself-employment
characteristically
followed
by manyof thisgroup
canonlybe regarded
as a disguised
formof un
employment,
an attempt
to achieve
subsistence
andstaveoffor reduce
thenecessity
of applying
forrelief.Thusonlyto a smalldegree
can
thecondition
of thosewho wentintoself-employment
be saidto be bet
terthanthefortunes
of those
whohadalready
become
chronically
unem
ployed.
A fourth
group,
consisting
largely
ofworkers
under
35,shared
withthefirstgroup
theadvantage
ofrelatively
highemployment.
For
them,however,
it derivednotfromthe maintenance
of tenure,butfrom
thefactthattheymoreeasily
found
employment
in industries
other
than
theirusualwhentheylosttheirusualemployment.
Theirrecords
are
therefore
spotted
withshortperiods
of unemployment.
In general,
itwastheolder
workers
whoboretheheaviest
partofthe
unemployment
of thegroup.Overthe10-year
period
theolderworkers
workedlessof theiremployable
timethanthe others.Theywereless
likely
tobeemployed
inthefall
of1936
andtheyhadshown
appreciably
lessmobility
thanthosewho wereyounger.In otherwords,it was the
older
workers
whoweremaking
upthegroupof moreor lesschronically
unemployed
orcharacteristically
self-employed,
theyounger
whowere
maintaining
employment
withothers
or,whentheywere
laidoff,
finding
whatever
other
employment
themarket
provided.
Amongtheusualclayworkers
asimilar
differentiation
wasevident,
thoughit beganonlyafter1929. Priorto thattimeemployment
of these
workers
increased.
Thereafter
allbuta smallproportion
of themhad
someunemployment,
themajority
beinglaidoffin theearlyyearsof the
depression.
Onlyaverysmall
proportion
(8 percent)
escaped
anyjob
separations
during
the10years.
From
comparisons
ofthevolume
of
employment
andunemployment
experienced,
it wouldappearthatto an
SUMMARY
AND CONCLUSIONS
91
This was
appreciable
extent
theyounger
workers
again
hadtheadvantage.
certainly
trueinrespect
totheir
finding
other
employment
whenlaid
off.Toa large
extent,
whatmoves
weremade
intoother
industries
were
madeby the youngerworkers.
It wassomewhat
lesstruewithrespect
to
regaining
employment
intheclay-products
industry.
Therewas
atend
encytowardthe employment
of the younger
workersreflected
in the age
composition
of those
employed
inthefallof 1936,butthiswascompen
sated,
to a slight
extent
at least,
by thevaluethatwasattached
to
experience
inmostof theplants.
As a result,
aworkerwhowas nottoo
oldhadalmost
anaverage
chance
ofregaining
employment
intheclay
products
industry,
butthecontinued
restriction
in theamount
of clay
producing
activitymeant
thatthisaverage
chancewas
nottoogood.The
workers
onthehigher
occupational
levels
hadabetter
chance
thanthose
on thelower,
andthoseresident
inthecities,
particularly
inCarbon
whereclay-working
activity
hadmoredefinitely
picked
up,hadabetter
chance
thanthoseoutside
thecities,
though
thelatter
resorted
to a
greater
extentto selfemployment.
In summation,
a process
similarto thatevidentamongthe workers
of
industries
otherthanclaywas,it appears,
at workhere.Thecontrac
tionofclay-working
activity
produced
a differentiation
among
theusual
clayworkers
inwhich
theoldest
wereprojected
intothepoolof moreor
lesschronically
unemployed.
Those
slightly
younger
hadbetter
employ
mentrecords,
buttheir
fortunes
depended
in largepartuponthedegree
ofactivity
intheclay-products
plants.
Thecontinued
lowlevel
of ac
tivity
intheclay-products
industry
wastransforming
manyof theminto
chronically
unemployed.
Onlytheyoungest
wereableto shiftwithany
degree
ofeaseintoother
industries
andtosecure
whatjobswerecoming
on the marketeitherin clayor in otherindustries.
Like
the similar
group
of other
workers,
their
records
werespotted
withunemployment
and
their
employment
wasofa moreorlessintermittent
character
dueto the
declining
demand
forlabor.
Thegroupofsometime
clayworkers
wascharacteristically
moremobile
thantheothertwo,andlessattached
to a particular
industry.
This
wasin partaccounted
forbythefactthatwhatemployment
theyhadwas
divided
between
theirusualindustry
andtheclay-products
industry.
Butmanyof themmade
additional
changes.
Thiswas,ofcourse,
particu
larly
trueoftheyounger
section
ofthegroup.
Like
theother
twoin
dustrial
groups
studied,
thisgroup
alsocontributed
their
older
members
to thegrowing
poolof chronically
or characteristically
unemployed.
As a whole,the groupappearedin 1936 to havealreadytakenon the
92
DEPRESSED
LABOR
MARKET
characteristics
of a laborreserve
whichwerebecoming
increasingly
evidentin the recordsof the youngerof the usualclay workersand
workersof otherindustries.
CONCLUSION
Thevarious
typesof unemployment
problems
thatexisted
in Brazil's
1936labor
market
arenotcapable
ofexact
statistical
segregation.
Yet
themeasurable
differences
in thevolume
andcharacter
of unemployment
suffered
by different
workmen
withineachgroup,as wellas differences
inthedegree
of mobility
evidenced,
permit
theadducing
ofcertain
con
clusions
about
thetypes
ofunemployment
problems
thathaddeveloped
out
of thetrends
in industrial
activity
andtherelation
of theseto the
reemployment
prospects
of theworkmen
in themarket.
Fewworkers
in thelabormarket
escaped
anyunemployment,
butthe
character
of theirunemployment
problems
differed
widely.In thefirst
place,the restricted
activity
in the labormarketcreateda situation
in whicha virtually
untapped
reservoir
of unused
laborwas accumulat
ing. Theyoungpersons
on thefarmsandin Brazil
andCarbon
whowere
coming
of ageforworkwereentering
a labor
market
already
overcrowded
withworkmen
of experience
andskill.Theirinexperience
constituted
a
disadvantage
thatcouldonlybe overcome
to theextentthatactivity
expandedin the marketor thattheycouldreplaceotherworkers.In
Brazil
theunemployed
newworkers
constituted,
in1936,
6 percent
ofthe
employable
population
andaccounted
for18 percent
of thecommunity's
unemployed.
Attheopposite
endof theagescalewasthegrowing
groupofpersons
whohadbecome
or werebecoming
chronically
unemployed.
Atleasttwo
fifths
oftheunemployed
ofallthree
industrial
groups
surveyed
might
be saidto belong
to thiscategory.
By 1936thisproportion
oftheun
employed
in allthreegroupshadbeenunemployed
for morethan5 years.
Theworkers
of industries
otherthanclayhadbeengradually
falling
intochronic
unemployment
throughout
the10-year
period
or evenprior
to it,whileintheusualandsometime
claygroups
longperiods
of un
employment
thatwerebecoming
chronic
forsomebeganwiththecontrac
tionofclay-working
activity
intheearly
thirties.
Catapulted
into
unemployment,
theyneither
succeeded
in finding
otheremployment
nor
weretheyrecalled
totheplants
of theirprevious
attachment.
Since,
ingeneral,
theworkers
inthisgroup
oflong-term
unemployed
were
the
olderonesinthelabormarket,
thepossibilities
of theirreemployment
werelimited
bothbecause
of theirageandthelongduration
oftheir
unemployment.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
93
Between
these
twogroups
of unemployed
lietwoothers,
oneanimmobile
groupof workers
withattachment
to butoneindustry,
evenoneplant.
Thisgroup
iscomposed
primarily
ofworkers
fromthegroup
of usual
clay
workers.
Theywerenotyoung
enough,
inthefaceof theheavy
competi
tionin themarket,
to be ableto movereadily
intoanother
industry
whentheclaydemand
slackened.
Norhadtheyyetreached
theagewhere
theywerenotcalled
backtoclayemployment
whenconditions
permitted.
Their
records,
however,
showfairly
heavy
unemployment,
andwithadvanc
ingagetheir
susceptibility
tofluctuations
in thedemand
madebythis
oneindustry
upon
theiremployable
time
enhances
thepossibility
that
in
a crowded
labormarket
theywillslipintothecategory
of the perma
nentlyunemployed.
Thefourth
aspect
of theunemployment
problem
of Brazil
isreflected
principally
in therecords
of thesometime
clayworkers,
though
the
youngerof the usualclay and otherindustrial
workerswho losttheir
employment
alsofell
intothis
class.
Theyarethegroup
whose
employ
ment is notdependent
uponthe demandof one industry,
but who are a
fluctuating
reservefor manyindustries.
Whatjobscomeon the labor
market
go largely
to them,butwithdeclining
demand
forlaborgener
allythepossibilities
oftheir
securing
suchemployment
havenaturally
beenrestricted.
Furthermore,
manyof thejobsthatdo appearare not
characterized
by any stability
or security.Withthe continuation
of
depression
conditions
manyofthemareperforce
failing
to makeanyes
tablished
connection
withan industry,
and theirreservecharacter
is
thusbeing
perpetuated.
Somearepassing
beyond
theagewhere
their
youthfulness
permitted
themobility
thatheretofore
proved
an advantage.
Likethe othergroups,therefore,
thisone hasbeenaddingsomeof its
numberto theranksof thechronically
unemployed.
The trendin thislabormarkethasthusbeentowardincreasing
unem
ployment,
affecting
mostoftheemployable
population
and,fora consid
condition.
erable
section,
tending
to become
a moreor lesspermanent
In addition,
a marked
tendency
toward
self-employment
as analternative
to unemployment
isnotable,
particularly
infarming,
small
mines,
and
trucking
(largely
associated
withthemining
activities).
Thereis lit
tlereason
to believe
thatthese
canbesatisfactory
meansof gaining
a
livelihood
sinceconsideration
of farming
conditions
hasshowna very
lowaverage
farmincome
forClayCounty,
andsmall-scale
mining
cannot
usually
be morethansupplementary
to othersources
of income.Under
theseconditions,
muchof the increasing
self-employment
in the midstof
declining
natural
resources
andindustrial
activity
mustbeconsidered
DEPRESSED
94
LABOR
MARKET
anotheraspectof the community's
unemployment
problemratherthana
solution of it.
What,then,aretheindicated
prospects
of recovery
andreemployment
andhowwilltheyaffect
thelabor
supply
available?
Allindications
are thatagriculture,
mining,
andindustry
otherthanclaywillcontinue
to decline
or to remain
stagnant.
Unless
newindustries
should
comein
to takeadvantage
of theavailable
supplyof labor,onlyexpanded
activ
ity in theclay-products
industry
can retardthedownward
courseof em
ployment
and the mounting
reliefrolls. But even when it was near its
peak,
in1930,theclay-products
industry
supplied
lessthanone-fourth
of theusualjobsof thosehaving
gainful
occupations
outside
of agri
culture
inClayCounty.
Thusa return
ofthisindustry
tofuller
activ
itywouldaffect
butonesection
of thelabormarket
andwouldprobably
noteventouch
thegrowing
group
ofchronically
unemployed,
APPENDIXES
Appendix
A.
TABLES
B.
SCHEDULES
C. SAMPLING
D.
Page
96
AND
DEFINITIONS
PROCEDURE
OCCUPATIONAL
GROUPS.
OF TERMS
132
137
139
Note- Tables A-1, A-2, A -3, and A-4 are compiled from the household schedules
(NRP Form 1000).
The others are compiled from the work-history schedules (NRP
Form 120).
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APPENDIX
A
97
Tablo A-3.- HOUSEHOLDS IN BRAZIL AND CARBON, BY USUAL INDUSTRY
OF VALE MEMBERS, FALL OF 1936
one
or
more
Carbon
Brazil
Usual industry
of
males
Number
Percent
Number
Percent
777
100.0
135
100.0
Clay
Clay and coal mining
Clay and agriculture
153
39.3
9
19.7
1.2
53
4
0.5
Coal mining
117
Total households&
Coal mining and agriculture
Agriculture
Other
15.0
0.4
3. 2
60.O
3
25
486
3.7
0.7
1
24.5
0.7
33
1
6.7
24.4
9
33
&Exclude8
88 households
in Braziland 16 in Carbonwhichhad no employable
members.
Table
A-3.-
USUAL
PERSONS
INDUSTRY
IN BRAZIL
AND
EMPLOYMENT
STATUS
AND CARBON HOUSEHOLDS,
OF EMPLOYABLE
FALL OF 1936
Employed
Residence
Total
and usual industry
Total
Unemployed
Full Part
time time
Seek - Emer
Total
ing
gency
work
work
224
Brazil
Total
1, 162
778
698
80
384
160
clay
166
80
10
76
20
56
Manufacturingother than clay
Building and construction
134
97
85
12
37
18
19
38
23
20
3
15
7
8
Trade
191
12
35
17
18
Coal mining
120
156
68
3
52
17
35
28
30
4
18
Agriculture
23
Othera
Self-employment
315
65
8
234
3
74
60
23
14
2
2
O
257
96
Not reported
New workers
11
144
71
12
58
8
9
1
58
71
45
26
29 V
20
9
O
1
Carbon
Total
193
164
86
8
84
1
1
Trade
13
Coal mining
36
12
33
Clay
Manufacturingother than clay
Building and construction
Agriculture
Othera
Self-employment
New workers
fessional
and
Dersonal
in local, State,
services:
miscellaneous industries.
Not previously
employed.
and
9
64
10
28
1
12
9
8
1
3
34
33
1
4
8
7
and
one-fourth
7
1
oOO
1
O
OOO
1
3
38
11
8Adproximately
one-fourth
155
0
2
1
2
1
11
9
2
Federal governments; one-halr in pro
public utilities, and
in insurance,
9
8
DEPRESSED
LABOR
MARKET
Table A-4.- PLACE OF BIRTH AND AGE
Place of birth
Total
Under
35
35-54
55
or
over
Usual clay workers
Totalb
678
201
328
149
499
173
240
86
Brazil
152
33
65
21
70
Carbon
Rest of Clay County
197
56
Contiguous counties
117
31
Clay and contiguous counties
Rest of Indiana
Rest
of
United
52
States
Foreign
18
21
61
o
6
Sometime
Total
340
12
99
59
10
116
h
o
n
17
a
42
27
21
37
511
clay workers
103
177
60
266
88
142
38
Brazil
88
41
10
Carbon
7
2
127
44
32
13
37
5
78
24
21
41
12
12
O
Clay and contiguous counties
Rest of Clay County
Contiguous counties
Rest
of
Indiana
Rest
of
United
States
Foreign
O
19
7
13
18
4
3
5
11
8
Other industrial workers
Total
279
98
97
84
193
77
88
48
Brazil
71
35
26
10
Carbon
8
1
Rest of Clay County
10
57
21
Contiguous counties
55
19
15
20
1
17
20
Clay and contiguous counties
Rest
of
Indiana
of
United
States
Foreign
28
5
10Rest
11
48
16
19
13
12
O
O
12
Includes52 Negroes
(35usualclay workers,
12 sometime
clayworkers,
and
5 other industrialworkers).
DExcludes
oneperson
whodidnotreport
ageand one
Dort place of birth.
person
who
did
not
re
6
3
E
9
Y
G
,B
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Table A-10.- OCCUPATIONAL GROUP OF CLAY WORKERS,
Usual clay workers
Residence
and occupationalgroup
Total
Administrative
and clerical
Skilled
and maintenance
Sometime
RESIDENCE
clay
workers
Number
Percent
Number
Percent
680
100.0
340
100.0
38
5.6
6
1.8
84
12.3
44
12.9
15.9
69.4
Operatives
131
19.3
Laborers
427
82.8
54
236
477
100.0
240
34
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5
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58
11.7
31
12.9
40
16.7
68.3
Brazil
Administrative
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Skilled
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Operatives
101
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Laborers
286
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Carbon
Administrative and clerical
Skilled
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o
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Knightsville and Harmony
Administrative
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3
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1050
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23
100.0
maintenance
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routes
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T
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Operatives
97
Administrative
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Skilled
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100.0
O
clerical
Laborers
Rural
16
1.5
Laborers
100.0
164
100.0
Operatives
17.4
4
62.0
15
65.2
100.0
61
100.0
3.1
1
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12
12.4
6
9.8
Operatives
16
Laborers
66
16.5
68.0
Table
A - 11.
OCCUPATIONAL
3
GROUP
Adminis
Relation
to clay
and age
Total
trative
and
clerical
Usual clay workersa
16-24
25-34
35-44
45-54
55-64
65
BY
or
Median age
Sometime clay workers
11.5
77.1
WORKERS,
BY AGE
Skilled
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Laborers
tenance
37
84
131
41
1
0
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180
8
5
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106
13
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45
105
9
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22
91
4
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13
61
11
4
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679
179
150
102
over
OF CLAY
7
47
47
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42.3
52.5
44
302
42.0
340
8
16-24
15
1
25-34
35-44
45-54
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2
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1
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59
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38
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54
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13
16
85
46
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14
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3
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O
40.8
&Excludesone administrative
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7
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DEPRESSED
108
LABOR
MARKET
Table A-16.- EMPLOYMENT STATUS AUGUST 1, 1936, OF OTHER
INDUSTRIAL
WORKERS, BY RESIDENCE
In labor
Not
Residence
and age
Total
Total
279
16-24
25-34
35-44
45-54
55
or
in
labor
market
23
40
market
Employed
Total
O
O
58
over
AND AQE
Full
Part
tine
time
256
170
112
22
40
30
25
4
58
46
37
21
4
C
0
0
O
52
3
49
32
45
1
44
84
19
65
28
34
ployed
36
20
221
144
99
15
[30
0
27
20
18
2
25-34
35-44
51
0
51
40
34
2
50
3
47
31
21
45-54
41
1
40
26
16
0
55
72
16
58
27
10
5
4o
4
4
3
38
3
Carbon
35
26
13
10
17
16
w
a
io
vN
7V
O
O
O
77
7
11
16
14
29
8
9
1
3
1
17
16-24
13
25-34
7
35-44
2
2
1
1
45-54
4
4
2
20
9
7
55
or
Year
of obtaining
job
2
6
3
over
Table
OOOO
10
12
31
27
over
86
1
51
5
4
5
241
or
ployed
em
16-24
Brazil
Unen
Self
Total
1
312
3
2
YEAR OF OBTAINING LAST JOB OF WORKERS
EMPLOYED BY OTHERS ON AUGUST 1, 1936
A- 16.-
Usual clay workers
Number
3958
Sometime
clay workers
Percent
Number
Percent
Other
Number
industrial
workers
Percent
100.0
163
100.0
134
50.6
60
34.3
17.0
27
40.5
16.6
46
1935
200
67
21
15.7
1934
33
8.4
20
12.3
13
9.7
1933
22
5.6
14
8.6
8
6.0
8.8
811
4.5
3.0
Total
1936
1932
100.0
6
1.5
1.8
87
4.9
4
1930
7
1.8
9
5.5
4
3.0
1929
0
0
3
1.8
7
5.2
1.5
3
1.8
1931
1928
6
1927
2
1926
Before
3
1926
42
0.5
0.7
10.6
1
0.6
1
0.6
8Excludes
threepersonswho did not reportyear of obtaining
last job.
5
3.7
3
2.2
2
1.5
15
11.2
APPENDIX
A
109
Table A-17.- OCCUPATIONAL GROUP AND EMPLOYMENT STATUS
AUGUST 1, 1996, OF CLAY WORKERS
In
Relation
to clay
and occupational group
Not
Total
in
market
Employed
labor
market
labor
Total
Self
TotalClay
Other
en
Unem
ployed
ployed
Usual clay workers
Administrative
and clerical
Skilled and maintenance
080
26
654
425
334
65
38
1
37
31
22
5
84
6
78
59
42
13
26
229
4
19
6
452
Operatives
131
129
84
63
16
5
Laborers
427
410
251
207
31
1317
159
330
201
47
116
38
129
Sometime clay workers
Administrative and clerical
Skilled
and maintenance
Operatives
Laborers
340
8
10
O
44
54
238
8
6
5
1
O
43
31
18
7
121
3
51
27
15
6
24
8
230
137
78
24
93
110
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A-9,
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LABOR
116
Table
A -24.-
MARKETDEPRESSED
NUMBER OF MONTHS OF EMPLOYMENT
BY OTHERS,
SELF-EMPLOYMENT,
AND UNEMPLOYMENT,
1926-30 AND 1931-388
Relation to clay
and number
of months
b
Usual clay workers
Employment by
others
1928-30
567
2
None
1-12
5
13-24
11
25-38
37-48
49-60
23
86
Self- employment
1931-35 1926–30 1931-35 1926-301931-35
587
97
122
108
567
567
567
567
525
314
119
21
485
21
154
51
9
18
74
50
6
1664
17
3
9
5
74
103
3
18
3
170133
43
440
Mean number of months
Total workers
Unemployment
50.2
24.4
1.4
4.1
5.8
30. 2
50.4
29.4
18.6
28.3
13. 1
38.2
279
Workers reporting 1 or
more
months
Sometime
clayworkersb
279
279
279
3
58
217
200
131
13
65
24
23
13-24
14
38
7
25-36
28
28
14
50
15
9
10
4
31
171
75
8
27
2
78
45. 2
24. O
5.5
8.9
45.7
30.3
279
None
1-12
37-48
49-60
Mean number of months
Total workers
279
79
40
11
83
48
8
11
34
17
7.4
25.7
13.9
36.9
Workers reporting i or
more
months
b
Other industrialworkers
31.6
196
196
196
196
52
150
140
128
87
21
2
7
28
22
19
4
5
16
176
18
23
5
8
14
19
18
12
7
4
192
8
32
196
None
1-12
13-24
35
25-36
37-48
49-60
9
Mean number of months
Total workers
24.8
196
110
89
33
29
38.O
27.8
10.8
11.5
46.3
37.8
48.0
40.3
7.7
18.3
Workers reporting 1 or
more
months
22.1
32.9
asee table A-9, fin. a.
clay
DExcludes
eightusualclayworkers,
fivesometime
workers,
and
four
workers who did not report number of months of employment and unemployment.
other
industrial
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A-9,I
APPENDIX
A
125
Table A-33.- NUMBER OF MONTHS OF EMPLOYMENT AT USUAL INDUSTRY
AND OTHER THAN USUAL INDUSTRY, 1926-35, BY USUAL INDUSTRY
OF OTHER INDUSTRIAL WORKERS&
Usual industry
Number
Building
Total
of months
turing
and
con
struction
CoalManufac Other
mining
Employment at usual industry
168
Total
None
1 or
more
1-
12
1325-
24
38
3749-
48
60
50
20
4
148
46
2
10
21
78
1
O
20 O
12
T
15
4
11
4
1
4
1
15
9
85- 96
97-108
12
109-120
48
OQ
OO
8
7
2
7
3
16
5
4
61- 72
73–84
88
19
aWW
412
18
4
9
1
4
1
2
1
4
4
3
1
20
6
Employment at other than usual industry
Total
None
1
or
more
168
50
21
78
19
78
22
11
38
7
90
28
10
40
12
4
1-
12
13
1
8
13-
24
18
3
5
1
25-
36
1
37
2
37-
48
49-
60
81-
72
16
7
o
n
o
O
v
73- 84
85-98
O
3
5
3
W
1
2
1
O
3
H
5
2
97-108
1
109-120
8
&Excludes
56 personswho
in
the
labor
OOO
O
market
on
1
entered the labor market after January 1926, 23 Dersons not
August 1, 1936, 4 persons who did not report number of months
of employment,and 28 persons whose usual industrywas self-employment.
S
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APPENDIX
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APPENDIX B
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DATETEAVINGTIST
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IMAMORETHAN1
L
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P IKK
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133
T
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A-2
1.
APPENDIX
B
135
Theusualindustry
wasdefined
as theindustry
in
which
theperson
wasnormally
employed.
Thiswasvariously
interpreted
to be thatincluding
thelongest,
last,or bestworkexperience.
In
casesof doubtthelongest
wasused;if theexperiences
in two indus
Usual Industry:
trieswereof equallengththemorerecentwasentered.
Employment
Status:
Theemployment
status
oftheperson
or persons
ap
pearing
on theschedule
wasdetermined
by whether
theywereemployed
or
unemployed
on August
1, 1936.If a person
worked
on hisownaccount
he
wasconsidered
asself-employed.
Employable:
A person
wasconsidered
as employable
if hewas16 years
of ageor overandwas eitheremployed
(including
self-employed)
or un
employed
seeking
work(includes
those
onemergency
work).
Employment:
Continuous
full-time
or part-time
paidservice,
or self
employment,
for1 monthor moreconstituted
employment.
Unemployment:
Unemployment,
toberecorded,
hadtobelikewise
ofa
month's
duration
orlonger.Unemployment
periods
included
anytimedur
ingwhichtheindividual
wasonemergency
workor during
whichhe did
nothavea job butwas ableandwilling
to work.
workwasusedas an all-inclusive
termto
Emergency
Work: Emergency
cover
employment
onworkrelief,
Public
Works
Projects,
orWorks
Program
Projects,
whetherfinanced
by thecity,theState,theFederal
Emergency
Relief
Administration,
theNational
Recovery
Actof1933,
ortheEmer
gencyAppropriation
Actof 1935.Suchemployment
wasconsidered
as time
unemployed
seeking
work.
Timein LaborMarket:Timespentin thelabormarketincludes
allem
ployable
time,
whether
employed
orunemployed
seeking
work.Intervening
periods
whentheperson
wasunemployed
notseeking
workwerenotcounted
as time in the labor market.
Date of entry into the labor market was
counted
as thedatewhenthepersonfirstbeganto workor to seekwork;
unless
theperson
specifically
indicated
otherwise,
thedatewhenhe
leftschoolwas takento be the dateat whichhe beganhissearchfor
work.
TimeNotin LaborMarket:Timenotin thelabormarket
includes
pe
riodsof 1 monthor moreduringwhichtheindividual
was notseeking
work
because
of illness,
strike,
school
attendance,
retirement,
or personal
reasonssuch as household
duties.
Employer
Shift: An employer
shiftwas defined
as a changefroma firm
of onenameto oneof another,
whether
or nota period
without
workin
tervened.
A change
inthelocation
of theplant
alone
wasnotconsidered
APPENDIX
SAMPLING
C
PROCEDURE
Enumeration
ofworkers
in Brazil,
Carbon,
Knightsville,
Harmony,
and
surrounding
rural
routeswas
made
byastaff
ofinterviewers
between
Sep
tember28 andDecember
4, 1936. Theselection
of workers
and households
for interview
andsubsequent
studywas madein thefollowing
fashion:
Brazil:Enumerators
visited
everyhousehold
in everydwelling
in the
city.Ineverythirdhousehold
a comprehensive
interviewwas
conducted
andthematerial
gatheredwas
entered
ona household
schedule
(NRPForm
#1000;
seeappendix
B) incorporating
suchmaterial
as theage,sex,em
ployment
status,
andpresent
andusual
industry
ofallmembers.
Inall
otherhouseholds
a briefschedule
designed
to completethe population
countof thecityandto identify
industrial
workers
was filledout.
On the basisof all visitsa workhistory
(NRPForm#20;see appendix
B)wastakenofallpersons
in thecommunity
whoreported
theindustry
oftheirusual
employment
to havebeenclayorwhoreported
thatthey
hadbeenemployed
in theclayplants
for1 monthor moreafter1925.
These
constituted
theBrazil
section
of theclayworkers,
477menwhose
usualindustry
wasclayand240whoseusualindustrywas
otherthanclay
butwho had beenemployed
in clayfor at leasta monthbetweenJanuary
1, 1926,and the interviewdate.
In addition,
on thebasisof thereturns
on thehousehold
schedules
alone(i,e.,fortheworkers
in one-third
of thehouseholds),
work
history
schedules
weretakenof allworkersnot included
in theabove,
whoseusualor present
industry
wasbuilding
andconstruction,
motor
transportation,
coalmining,or manufacturing
otherthanclay. These,
numbering
241men,constitute
a one-third
sample
ofwhatarereferred
to
as Brazil'sotherindustrial
workers.
Carbon:
Household
schedules
weretakenforallof Carbon's
151house
holds
andthusa complete
population
count
wasobtained.
Work-history
schedules
for all threegroupsweretakenon thesamebasisas werethe
work histories
of the clayworkersin Brazil. EveryCarbonresident
whosepresent
or usual
industrywas
clay,whohadatsometimebeenin
clay,
orwhose
present
orusual
industry
wasoneofthose
enumerated
aboveis represented
in oneof thethree
samples.
Thustherewereob
tained
66schedules
of maleusual
clayworkers,
16 of malesometime
clay
workers,
and38 of malenonclay
workers.
137
138
DEPRESSED
LABOR
MARKET
Knightsville,
Harmony,
andRural
Routes:Names
ofallmenfromthese
areasappearing
on selected
peakpayrolls,
in theyears1926–36,
of
representative
clayplantswere
obtained.
Afterduplications
were
elim
inated,
allsuchpersons
foundto be living
in Knightsville
andHarmony
wereinterviewed
andwork-history
schedules
taken.Of thoseon theru
ralroutes
everyotheronewasvisited
to obtain
awork-history
sched
ule.Thescheduleswere
thenseparated,
according
totheusual
industry
reported,
into40 usualand23 sometime
clayworkers
in Harmony
and
Knightsville,
and97 usual
and61sometime
clayworkers
ontherural
routes.
Inaddition,
work-history
schedules
weresecured,
butnotused,
from
65 womenin BrazilandCarbon,14 of whomhadat sometimebeenin clay
and51 of whom had neverbeenin clay. Since women workersconstitute
so smalla partof thelabormarket
in Brazil
andCarbon,
analysis
of
theirhistories
was notattempted.
In summary,
thesampleof usualclayworkers
consists
of 680workers,
543of whomwereallsuchworkers
resident
at thetimein Brazil
and
Carbon,
40 ofwhomwere
allsuchworkers
whowereonselected
payrolls
andwere
resident
atthetime
inKnightsville
orHarmony,
and97ofwhom
werea 50-percent
sample
of allsuchworkers
whowereonselected
pay
rollsandwereresident
at thetimein theruralregion
outside
Brazil
andCarbon.Similarly,
thesampleof sometime
clayworkersaggregates
340workers,
ofwhom256
wereallsuchworkers
resident
inBrazil
and
Carbonat thetime,23 wereallsuchworkers
on selected
payrollsresi
dentinKnightsville
orHarmony
atthetime,
and61werea 50-percent
sample
of allsuchworkers
onselected
payrollsresident
in therural
regions
atthetime.Thesample
ofnonclayworkers
represents
only
those
resident in Brazil and Carbon
241,or a one-third
sample,of thosein
theformercityand38,or all,of thoseresident
in thelatter.
Becauseof thesmallness
of the groups.outside
the twocitiesit has
beenfounddesirable
inthisreport
to aggregate
eachindustrial
sam
ple. Whereverthiswouldtendto weightundulycertainfactorsthat
might
beassociatedwith
place
ofresidence
thegeographical
groups
have
been
analytically
segregated.
Where
dataarenotthus
separately
pre
sented,
investigation
hasindicated
thattheresidential
factor
wasnot
significant.
lanaggregate
of62dayrolls
from
11different
plants
wasused.
The
smallest
num
ber of day rolls obtained from a single plant was three, each in a different year.
The largestnumberwas 12, 11 of them in differentyearsfrom 1926 to 1836.
APPENDIX
D
OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS1
Administrative,
Operatives
Technical, and Clerical
Draftsman
Ceramic engineer
Official or manager
Accountant
General office worker
Pay-roll clerk
Shippingclerk
Storekeeper
Weigh boss
Salesman
Bookkeeper
Secretary
Cement mixer
Molder
Pugger
Pressman
Mold maker
Hand finisher
Form operator
Brick-machine worker
Former runner
Sorter and shader
Skilled
Timberman in clay mine
Gate-shed worker
Press feeder
Handler of green clay
Boiler fireman
Kiln firer
Coal digger
Mule driver
Trucker
Dry-pan operator
Transfer man
Coal hauler
Wire maker
Wheeler
Shaver
Off-bearer
Loader
Kiln drawer
Floor
and Maintenance
Laborers
worker
Press runner
Utility man
Tosser
Machine
Clay digger and miner
worker
Steam-shovel operator
Kiln clinkerer
Wet-pan operator
Electric-crane operator Clay grinding machine Roustabout
Hoister
Die
operator
Fitting brancher
maker
Kiln cleaner
Machine-room worker
Block carver
Drier in drying room
Locomotive engineer
Stationary engineer
Scrapman
Branch
Scrap worker
Foreman
Bricklayer
Kiln repairman
maker
Branch sticker
Screen brusher
Scrap-car cleaner
Wet-ware
Trimmer
Boxcar
worker
Boxcar
bracer
worker
Brick cutter
Carpenter
Electrician
Blacksmith
Spray man
Machinery repairman
Inspector
General machinist
Automobile mechanic
Finisher
General
handy man
Sample picker
Millwright
Pipe fitter
Brick drier
General
General truck driver
Kiln sealer
Crusher
maintenance
and repairman
Burner
Hacker
Track layer and trackman
Teamster
Setter
Stacker
Yard
worker
Bitten picker
Day worker
Electric-car operator Tunnel runner
Screen boy
Bricklayer's helper
Janitor
Oiler
1
Occupational
groupings
arebasedon information
contained
in MaxRatner,
"TheClay
ProductsIndustryin Ohiom (NationalYouthAdmin18trationin Ohio, Occupational
Study No. 2, mimeo.,Apr. 1938);PifteenthCensus of the UnitedStates: 1930,
"Population"
(U.S. Dept.com.,
Bur. ensus,
1933),vol.V, pp.446-8;
Alphabetical
Indexof Occupations,
By Industries
andSocial-economic
Groups,
1937(v.s.Dept.
Com., Bur.Census,1937);and descriptions
of jobsas described
by plantmanagers.
139
WPA NATIONAL RESEARCH PROJECT
Reports issued to date
(Continued
frominside
frontcover)
Studiesin Production,
Productivity,
andEmployment-Continued
E-2
E-4
E-7
E-8
Mining
Small-Scale
PlacerMinesasa sourceofGold,Employment,and Livelihoodin 1935
(out of print)
Employmentand RelatedStatisticsof Mines and Quarries,1935: Coal
Technology,
Employment,
and OutputperMan in Phosphate-Rock
Mining,1880-1937
Changesin Technology
and LaborRequirements
in theCrushed-Stone
Industry
E-9 Mechanization,
Employment,
andOutput
perManinBituminous-Coal
Mining
E-10Technology,
Employment,
andOutput
perManinPetroleum
andNatural
GasProduction
E-12 Technology,Employment,
and Outputper Man in CopperMining
Agriculture
Changesin Technologyand Labor Requirements
in Crop Production:
A- 1
Sugar Beets
A- 4
Potatoes
A-5
A-7
Corn
Cotton
A-10 Wheat and Oats
A-12 Vegetables
A-6
A-8
TrendsinsizeandProductionoftheAggregate
Farm Enterprise,1909-36(out of print)
Trends in Employmentin Agriculture,
1909-36
Studiesof Effectsof Industrial
Changeon LaborMarkets
P-1
RecentTrendsin Employment
and Unemployment
in Philadelphia
P-2
The Labor Force of the PhiladelphiaRadioIndustryin 1936
P-3 Employment
and Unemployment
in Philadelphia
in 1936and 1937(out of print)
of Philadelphia
Weavers
andLoomFixers
P-4 Ten Yearsof WorkExperience
Ten Yearsof WorkExperience
of Philadelphia
Machinists
P-5
Reemployment
of Philadelphia
Hosiery
WorkersAfterShut-downs
in 1933-34
P-6
TheSearchforWorkin Philadelphia,
1932-36
(outof print)
P-7
L-1
The Long-TermUnemployedin Philadelphiain 1936
CigarMakers- After the Lay-off
L-2
Decasualization of Longshore Work in San Francisco
P-8
L-3 EmploymentExperienceof PatersonBroad-SilkWorkers,1926-36
SelectiveFactorsin an ExpandingLabor Market: Lancaster, Pa.
L- 4
Laborand the Shut-downof the AmoskeagTextileMills
L-5
Manufacturing,
1931-36
in Minnesota
L-8 Changesin Machinery
andJob Requirements
L-7 Farm-CityMigrationand Industry'sLabor Reserve
Change
L-8 Trade-Union
Policyand Technological
Unemployment
in
a
DepressedLabor Market: Brazil, Ind.
L-9 Employmentand
Requestsfor copies of these reportsshould be addressedto:
PublicationsSection,Divisionof information
Administration
Work Project's
Washington, D. C.
@FedFRASER